>f California
Regional
Facility
SCIENTIFIC TRACTS,
DESIGNED FOR
INSTRUCTION AND ENTERTAINMENT,
AND ADAPTED TO
SCHOOLS, LYCEUMS, AND FAMILIES.
CONDUCTED BY
JOSIAH HOLBROOK, AND OTHERS.
VOL. I.
BOSTON.
PUBLISHED BY CARTER, HENDEE, AND BABCOCK.
Corner of Washington and School Streets.
1831.
DISTRICT OF MASSACHUSETTS, TO WIT:
District Clerk's Office.
BE IT BEMEMBERED, That on the seventeenth day of May, A. D. 1830, and
in the fiftyfourth year of the Independence of the United States of America,
Carter and Hendee, of the said district, have deposited in this office the title of
a book, the right whereof they claim as proprietors, in the words following, to
' SCIENTIFIC TRACTS, designed for Instruction and Entertainment, and adapted
to Schools, Lyceums, and Families. Conducted by Josiah Holbrook, and others.'
In conformity to the act of the Congress of the United States, entitlefl, "An
Act for the encouragement of learning, by securing the copies of maps, charts and
books to the authors and proprietors of such copies during the times therein men-
tioned ;" and also to an act, entitled, " An Act supplementary to an act, entitled,
' An Act for the encouragement of learning, by securing the copies of maps, charts
and books to the authors and proprietors of such copies during the times therein
mentioned,' and extending the benefits thereof to the arts of designing, engrav-
ing and etching historical and other prints."
JNO. W. DAVIS,
Clerk tfthe District of Massachusetts.
i
SCIENTIFIC TRACTS.
V. /
NUMBER I.
THE ATMOSPHERE.
FEW subjects are more important, or less under-
stood, than the atmosphere we breathe. As it surrounds
the earth, and presses with great weight upon its surface,
it comes in contact with everything, and bears a most
interesting relation to every animal that walks upon the
earth, swims in the sea, flies in the air, or creeps in the
dust to every plant that is pleasant to the sight, or good
for food and to every mineral that glitters in its bed,
adorns a cabinet, or is used in the arts.
It moves our lungs, circulates in our veins, warms us
in our fires, enlivens the midnight lamp, and makes it an
agreeable substitute for the light of day, fans us in the
breeze, terrifies us in the tornado, conducts sound, now
in the soft whisper, the voice of intelligent conversation,
the flashes of the orator, or enchanting music, now in
the roar of the cannon, the groans of the dying, or ter-
rific thunder ; it wafts the ship, heaves the placid ocean
into billows, takes the heat of the equator and carries it
to the poles, and exchanges it for a cooling breeze, which
it kindly returns to temper the scorching rays of the
torrid sun ; or, using the language of an elegant French
writer, ' In the use of the atmosphere, man is the only
being who gives it all the modulations of which it is
susceptible. With his voice alone, he imitates the
hissing, the cries, and the melody of all animals, while
he enjoys the gift of speech denied to every other. To
air he also sometimes communicates sensibility ; he
makes it sigh in the pipe, lament in the flute, threaten
in the trumpet, and animates to the tone of his passions,
even the solid brass, the boxtree, and the reed. In a
word, he harnesses it to his car, and obliges it to waft
him over the stormy billows of the ocean.'
THE ATMOSPHERE.
This faithful servant and constant friend is still neg-
lected. Few appreciate its importance, none understand
all its uses. While every breath furnishes us with fresh
and living proof, that the atmosphere is faithful to its
trust, we seldom inquire what agent is constantly moving
our lungs, or by whom it was provided and fitted for its
office.
How then can we employ an hour more rationally or
pleasantly, than in devoting it to this constant companion,
and faithful, but neglected friend.
Before we can understand, or at all appreciate the
importance and infinitely varied relations of -this sub-
stance which envelopes our globe, we must learn some-
thing of its properties and operations what are its in-
gredients, and how it acts.
All the properties and operations of the atmosphere
may be classed in two divisions, viz. chemical and me-
chanical. Weight and elasticity are the properties by
which nearly all the mechanical operations are con-
ducted ; and although these operations are literally innu-
merable and highly interesting, they must give place on
the present occasion, to its not less numerous or interest-
ing uses and phenomena conducted by chemical agen-
cies.
Among the infinite, and infinitely varied chemical
operations, constantly carried on in the processes of
nature and the arts, scarcely one can be found, with
which the atmosphere has not some connexion and some
agency. It must be understood, however, that in much
the greatest number of cases, in which the atmosphere
acts as a chemical agent, but one portion of it takes any
considerable part. And although this portion consti-
tutes but about one fifth of the whole, it fills a greater
variety of offices, is more active and more efficient in
giving power to other agents, in moving and calming
the elements, in preserving order and promoting health
and happiness, than almost any other ingredient hitherto
discovered in the material universe.
The name of this most efficient and useful part of the
atmosphere, this almost universal agent in nature and the
arts, this mover and regulator of other agents, and friend
of man, is Oxigen.
THE ATMOSPHERE.
No substance, unless it is heat, is so universally diffu-
sed through the material creation; none so extensive
and varied in ks forms and combinations ; none to which
artists are obliged to make such constant application for
aid, or so often to consult, or, if not consulted, disap-
points them with defeat, as this same oxigen, of which
we are speaking. It constitutes not only the most inter-
esting portion of the atmosphere, but more than seven
eighths of water, nearly one half of the whole vegetable
kingdom, a considerable part of soils and mountains,
whatever the ingredients or the strata of rocks which
compose them, enters extensively and largely into the
ores of metals, and into the rare and precious minerals.
But our subject is the atmosphere, and not water,
vegetables, soils, mountains, metals, or rare minerals,
however interesting, or worthy of attention. Oxigen,
acting in the atmosphere, is the agent whose character
we are HOW examining, the constant companion we are
now conversing with, the neglected friend we are now
consuhing. We must of course inquire what powers this
agent possesses, what part it acts in the great theatre of
nature ; how it gives success to the industry of the artist,
and defeats his most unwearied attempts to go counter
to its dictates.
To explain fully all the operations carried on by the
agency of oxigen, would require volumes instead of a
small tract. A few of the most important can therefore
be mentioned, which are the following.
I. Oxigen supports life by aiding the lungs in the
process of respiration.
The lungs inhale air twentysix or twenty-seven times
in a minute, taking in, at each inspiration, about forty
cubic inches, which is something over one hundred hogs-
heads a day. A chemical action is constantly carried on
by the atmosphere and lungs, which the Creator of both
has so wisely and wonderfully fitted to each other. By
this action, nine or ten gallons of oxigen are consumed
in an hour, or taken up by the blood to form another
kind of an entirely different character, to be mentioned
and explained in another place.
Not only the human race, but the whole animal king-
VOL. i. NO. i. 1 *
T1IE ATMOSPHERE.
dom, are constantly using and constantly consuming this
vital part of the atmosphere. Fishes can no better live
without air, or oxigeu, than animals upon land. This
oxigen they obtain from air, which is always contained
in water in sufficient quantities for their purposes. If
air is entirely removed from water by distilling, or the air
pump, fishes will live in it but little longer than land ani-
mals when shut from the atmosphere. Not only fishes,
but insects, and the humblest reptiles creeping in the
dust, need a portion of oxigen, which they are constantly
consuming.
If any animal be confined in a vessel or tight room,
from which the atmosphere is entirely excluded, he may
live until the oxigen is so far consumed as to be unfit for
respiration, when he will die. Many persons have lost
their lives from the want of a supply of this vital air.
The most remarkable instance, of such a disaster on rec-
ord, occurred at Calcutta, in a prison called the ' black
hole.' One hundred and fortysix English prisoners were
forced into a room eighteen feet square, from which fresh
air was almost wholly excluded. Very soon after they
entered, a profuse perspiration commenced, followed by
a high fever and raging delirium, with cries, ' air, air,
water, water,' throwing out insults to their merciless cap-
tors, that they might be provoked to put them out of their
wretched existence.
They entered this prison of death at eight o'clock in
the evening, and at six in the morning, but twentythree
from the whole number retained the vestiges of life.
Although oxigen is essential to the support of life,
in a pure state it will soon destroy it, by the sudden and
powerful excitement it produces in the system. A few in-
halations of pure oxigen will increase the pulse from sev-
enty or eighty, to one hundred and twenty, or one hun-
dred and thirty, beats a minute.
Inhaling air with a very little more than the common
proportion of oxigen, produces a sudden and remarkable
eflect on the system. The substance known by the
aame of exhilarating gas, which has a similar eflect upon
the feelings with ardent spirits, or more like the vapor
of spirits, or of ether, differs from the common atmosphere,
THE ATMOSPHERE.
only in containing thirtyseven per cent, of oxigen, instead
of twentyone per cent.
Aqua-fortis, or nitric acid, is composed of the same
ingredients with the atmosphere, and owes its great pow-
er in corroding almost every thing it touches, to the seven-
tyfive per cent, of oxigen it contains.
A few drops of this acid would certainly and suddenly
destroy life, while the atmosphere is essential to sup-
port it.
II. Oxigen supports combustion. Every child knows
that fire will not burn without air. But some kinds of
air will instantly extinguish it. Whenever we see com-
bustion going on, whether in a candle, a common fire, or
in the burning of a city, we may know that oxigen is
present, and is the principal agent in producing the light,
the heat, or the terror. If a burning body be confined
in a small portion of atmosphere, it will continue to burn
until the oxigen is consumed, when it will go out. Any
one may prove this by a simple and useful experiment.
Place the small portion of a candle upon a piece of cork
or other light body, and let them float upon water in a
basin. While the candle is burning, invert a pint or
quart glass, so as to enclose it, and entirely exclude the
atmosphere. The flame will continue until the oxigen is
consumed, when it will be extinguished, and the water
rise so as to occupy about one fifth part of the glass, or the
portion which was before occupied by oxigen. This ex-
periment illustrates two principles ; first, that oxigen is
essential to the existence of combustion ; and second,
that it constitutes about one fifth of the atmosphere.
It is to supply the fire with a greater quantity of oxigen,
that the bellows is used. It is to exclude oxigen from
burning coals, that they are covered with ashes, to pre-
serve them alive when left. While enough air is admit-
ted to continue the coals in a state of ignition, the quanti-
ty is not sufficient to carry on the combustion with any
rapidity; consequently the fire is not extinguished, nor
the Coals consumed.
If pure oxigen be thrown upon a burning body, it in-
stantly increases the power of the combustion. If a can-
dle, just extinguished, be immersed in a vessel containing
THE ATMOSPHERE.
this gas unmixed with any other substance, it will be in-
stantly relighted. Many substances will burn in this air
in a pure state, which will not in common air. If iron be
heated and immersed in pure oxigen, it will instantly
melt and burn, throwing its particles in every direction,
with an intense and brilliant light. Consequently, if the
oxigen of the atmosphere were not diluted or weakened
by another kind of air, stoves, andirons, and numerous
other instruments made of iron, would melt and be con-
sumed the instant they were raised to a high heat. Al-
most everything would be combustible, and the earth
would soon present one great and general conflagration.
How wise and how good, then, is the Creator of the atmos-
phere, not only in furnishing it with oxigen to support
life and combustion, but in diluting it with another sub-
stance, to prevent its destroying every living being upon
the earth, and the earth itself!
III. Oxigen carries on fermentation. Without it,
neither cider, beer, wine, or even yeast, or light bread,
could be formed. Almost all animal and vegetable sub-
stances are liable to ferment, and, consequently, to waste
with decay.
Wherever we witness this process, we may know that
the same agent is present and employed, as conducts res-
piration and combustion.
Numerous substances undergo four evident and distinct
changes by the power of this agent. These four changes,
to which nearly all animal and vegetable matter is liable,
may be familiarly and clearly represented and illustrated
by one instance of common occurrence, and known to
every person. A little reflection will bring to mind four
changes the apple undergoes, all of which are produced
by oxigen.
The first is giving it a sweet taste, or forming in it a"
quantity of sugar. This change takes place when apples
are bruised, or ground to pomace, for the making of cider.
A single apple, if broken into pieces, and exposed to the
air, will show this fact. It will soon become sweet, es-
pecially if the weather is warm, whatever may be its nat-
ural taste. The juice of the apple, when running from
the cider press, is always sweet, and contains sugar. This
THE ATMOSPHERE. 9
sugar is formed by the oxigen of the air combining with
the substance of. the apple.
During this change, no spirit or alcohol is formed, and
the liquid is of course useless to the distiller, and can do
no injury by spreading intemperance. But if it be expos-
ed to the air until a second portion of oxigen is added,
the sugar is destroyed and alcohol formed.
Alcohol, or spirits, whenever it exists, whether in beer,
cider, wine, gin, brandy, rum, or any other intoxicating
liquor, is formed from sugar.
In the second change, or stage of fermentation, then,
sugar is destroyed and alcohol formed. This change is
frequently rapid and violent, especially if the liquor be
moderately warm, and freely exposed to the atmosphere.
When a cask of cider, recently from the press, is placed
in a warm situation, and more if it be shaken, so as to
bring a great number of particles in contact with the air,
a commotion, sometimes violent, arises in the liquid,
which is produced wholly by the action of oxigen upon
it. If casks be filled with the juice of the apple as soon
as it is expressed, and immersed wholly under water, or
placed in any other situation so as entirely to exclude the
air, the second change will be prevented, and no alcohol
formed.
A third portion of oxigen destroys the alcohol, and
forms an acid. This change is always more gradual than
the second, and sometimes produced with difficulty ;
though it partially takes place, whenever cider, beer, or
wine, is exposed for any length of time to a warm atmo-
sphere. The change may be wholly produced in the
liquids just named, or in alcohol, in almost any other
form, if a large surface be exposed to the air, frequent
motion given, and yeast or some other fermenter added.
Not only common vinegar, but most of the stronger
acids, are formed by the agency of oxigen. It has al-
ready been observed, that it constitutes about three fourths
of nitric acid. Sulphuric acid, or oil of vitriol, is formed
by burning sulphur in oxigen, or with saltpetre, which
contains it in large quantities. Phosphoric acid is formed
by burning phosphorus in a similar way.
For a long time it was supposed, that all acids were
10 THE ATMOSPHERE.
formed by this agent, and hence its name, which signifies
the former of acids.
The fourth and last change, frequently witnessed in
the substance of the apple, is putrefaction. If vinegar
be freely exposed for a long time to a warm atmosphere,
it becomes putrid. The ultimate or final effect of fer-
mentation, upon all animal and vegetable matter, is, decay,
or an entire decomposition.
Notwithstanding every species of matter in the whole
animal and vegetable kingdoms, is liable to undergo the
four changes above described, certain circumstances will
entirely prevent either. These circumstances are, seclu-
sion from the air or moisture, and more than a moderate
degree of heat or cold.
By confining the flesh of quadrupeds, of fowls, or of
fishes, in tin canisters, perfectly air tight, it is kept for
years in a fresh state, without injury.
Fresh animal food has been frequently preserved in this
way during a three years' voyage at sea. Any animal or
vegetable substance, if made perfectly dry, will undergo
no fermentation and no decay. The same is true if kept
in a frozen state, or frequently raised to a temperature
near boiling heat.
IV. Oxigen acts upon all the metals. By this action
the rust of iron, the dross of lead, the corrosion of cop-
per, brass, and silver, and the most beautiful paints, such
as red and white lead, chrome, yellow and blue vitriol, is
produced.
Some of the metals combine with oxigen rapidly, others
gradually, or even with difficulty. Iron, for example, is
very liable to rust, or oxidate, as chemists say ; while
gold utterly refuses to combine with oxigen, as it does
with most other substances, except by an indirect pro-
cess. If lead be kept in a melted state for a short time,
it absorbs so much oxigen as to be changed wholly into
dross, which is an oxide lead. But gold may be kept in
a state of fusion and motion for months, or years, and
never admit a particle of oxigen into its connexion ; so
proud a substance as gold, may, however, by an indirect
process, be led to combine with oxigen, and after that
with many other substances, When oxigen once gets
THE ATMOSPHERE. 11
in possession of this metal, it readily transfers it to the
surfaces of numerous substances, and extends it over a
greater space than can be done by beating or any other
process. By the aid of this agent, then, numerous uten-
sils, and even cloth, cords, and thread, are gilded at a
most trifling expense.
Not only paints, but dyes are prepared, and attached
to the surfaces or fabrics to which they are to be applied
by this general agent. Without its aid in giving perma-
nency to colors, most dyes are mere stains, and entirely
removed at the first washing. Some colors it heightens
or deepens after they are applied. Ink of a good quality,
is sometimes pale, when first applied to paper, but after a
few days, it becomes of a deep and permanent black.
Indigo, when first formed from the plant, is green, as it
is when first applied to cloth ; but by a short exposure to
the air, or to oxigen, it becomes the beautiful and perma-
nent blue so extensively witnessed in woollen, silk, and
cotton goods. Oxigen is not only the most active and
general agent in preparing colors and fixing them to their
fabrics, but it is more generally and successfully employ-
ed than any other, for destroying them. The important
process of bleaching is conducted by it, whether by the
old method of exposing cloth alternately to moisture and
the sun, or by the modern and improved method of im-
mersing it in chlorine.
It seems, then, that this remarkable character not only
fills numerous and important offices, but those of almost
an opposite nature, and that it possesses properties, which
are not only distinct, but opposite.
Though oxigen is by far the most active and general
agent in conducting the innumerable chemical operations
of the atmosphere, another ingredient is the most abun-
dant. It has already been observed, that only one fifth,
or, more exactly, twenty one per cent., of the atmosphere
is oxigen. The other essential ingredient is nitrogen,
which constitutes seventynine parts in a hundred. This
ingredient, though abundant, is almost wholly inactive.
Its properties appear to be entirely of a negative character.
It neither sustains nor destroys life nor combustion. It
neither carries on, nor retards, fermentation in any of
12 THE ATMOSPHERE.
its stages. It does not act upon metals, nor interrupt the
action of its associate upon them. It takes no part in
the preparation or the application of paints or dyes, nor
in destroying them when formed. It neither aids the
chemist, the mechanic, the housekeeper, nor the farmer,
nor interferes with any of their operations. It has no
agency in forming sugar, wine, cider, beer, bread, or
acids, nor in corroding metals, or spreading intemperance
by intoxicating liquors.
Although the properties of nitrogen are almost wholly
negative, and it appears to be little more than an idle
spectator to the endless variety of phenomena produced
by the atmosphere, it is still an essential, as well as the
most abundant portion of it. Without it, the air which
surrounds our globe, could not conduct those innumera-
ble, constant, but silent operations, with the sole design
of promoting the health and happiness of the innumerable
living and active beings it envelopes.
The most important office which nitrogen fills in the
great theatre in which it moves, appears to be occupying
the space which might otherwise be occupied by its more
powerful colleague ; to dilute or weaken oxigen, which,
if it occupied the whole region of the atmosphere, would
possess so much power as to defeat the numerous objects
so wisely designed by its creation to accomplish.
While it never interferes with the vital action of oxi-
gen upon the lungs, it occupies the greatest part of their
contents, and by that means prevents the violence and
consequent destruction which must be produced, if the
large contents of those organs were wholly occupied by
the more powerful ingredient in the atmosphere. While
it never interrupts the beautiful and useful phenomenon
of combustion in its gentler forms, as in the useful and
domestic arts, it prevents the vast heap of ruins the earth
must soon present, by a general conflagration, if it was
enveloped in an atmosphere of pure oxigen.
Not only in the extensive and constant operations of
respiration and combustion, but in fermentation, the ox-
idation of metals, and the minor offices of the atmosphere,
it appears to be the use of nitrogen, to prevent violence,
and to render the innumerable and endless movements in
THE ATMOSPHERE. 13
this vast theatre of nature, gentle, uniform, and constant,
at the same time, that it does not destroy or impair the
power of the agent which conducts them.
This abundant and harmless portion of the atmo-
sphere does not, like its more enterprising neighbor,
infuse itself into nearly every mass of matter in the three
great kingdoms of nature, but, besides forming more
than four fifths of the aerial ocean which surrounds the
earth, it constitutes a considerable part of all animal
substances, though less than oxigen.
It is not found, in any quantities, either in the vegeta-
ble or mineral kingdom, of both of which oxigen constitutes
a large part.
Chemists have generally considered the two substances
already spoken of, as the essential ingredients of the at-
mosphere. Several others are, however, always found in
it, and if they are not concerned in its more important
operations, they fill many minor offices in contributing to
the endless and constant wants of the innumerable beings
living and acting upon the earth.
Such is carbonic acid, or fixed air. This gas, which
is nearly twice as heavy as common air, is found to exist,
at all times, in every region of the atmosphere, from the
lowest ravine or cave, to the top of the highest mountain.
Except in caves, wells, and some other low places, where
carbonic acid settles from its great weight, it is never
found in the atmosphere except in small quantities, some
say a hundredth part, some a thousandth, but probably
variable, existing in larger quantities, at some times, and
in some places, than others.
Although this substance is fortunately never found in
the atmosphere except in small quantities, it frequently
takes an important part in promoting the happiness, and
producing the disasters of mankind. It is supposed to
be an important agent in the process of vegetation ; veg-
etables having the power of extracting it from the air
and converting it to their own sustenance and growth.
While the whole animal kingdom are constantly inhaling
or consuming oxigen, and at the same time throwing off
carbonic acid, the vegetable kingdom are inhaling or
absorbing carbonic acid, and, a part of the time at least.
VOL. i. NO. r. 2
14 THE ATMOSPHERE.
are throwing off oxigen. So that these two great king-
doms of nature are mutually and constantly performing
these kind offices to promote the growth and prosperity
of each, while they prevent the destruction of both, and
of every living existence which animates, enriches, and
dignifies this lower creation. For carbonic acid is not
only essential to the growth of vegetables, but is certainly
and instantly fatal to animals, one full inhalation of which
produces death, unless a supply of oxigen is instantly
provided. The moment a person enters an atmosphere
of this gas, as has frequently occurred in wells, and the
fermenting vats of breweries and distilleries, he drops
lifeless, and past recovering, except the supply of vital air
is immediate.
Carbonic acid is no less fatal to combustion than to
animal life. If a burning candle or coal be immersed
in it, every appearance of combustion is instantly de-
stroyed ; but it may be again relighted, by letting it into
a vessel filled with pure oxigen.
The sparkling appearance and agreeable taste of the
best cider, beer, wine, and soda water, are produced by
this active substance. By the loss of it, they become
dead, as we say, and are not only unpleasant to the taste,
but injurious to health. So that the same substance
which is distressing and fatal if taken into the lungs,
gratifies the taste and promotes health when received by
the stomach.
By three classes of operations in nature and the arts,
carbonic acid is constantly formed, and oxigen destroyed.
These are respiration, combustion, and fermentation.
It has already been remarked, that the whole animal
kingdom are constantly consuming oxigen ; they are also
forming carbonic acid. The same double result is pro-
duced in most instances of combustion, and in every
instance of fermentation, in all its stages. It seems, then,
that the vital principle of the atmosphere is constantly
destroyed in vast quantities, and that a substance in-
stantly fatal, both to life and combustion, is constantly
forming, and yet the atmosphere continues to answer this
great purpose for which it was designed, and without a
sensible change in its character.
THE ATMOSPHERE. 15
Chemists have not yet discovered any other process,
by which this uniform and healthful state of the atmo-
sphere is preserved, but the reciprocal and mutual
action of the animal and vegetable kingdoms ; the
former, as has already been observed, by constantly con-
suming oxigen and producing carbonic acid, the latter
by taking up this substance so fatal to life, and giving in
exchange the ingredient which supports it.
What a striking instance is this, of economy displayed
by the great Architect of the universe, in the work of
his material creation, and how much more striking and
wonderful is its fitness to answer the purposes to pro-
mote the ceaseless advancement of his intellectual and
moral creation, which constitutes the worth, the dignity,
and happiness of his boundless dominions.
Carbonic acid is not only found in small quantities in
every part of the atmosphere, but is extensively diffused
through the mineral kingdom, especially in quarries and
mountains of limestone, every particle of which contains
a portion of it safely laid up for the use of the chemist
and artist, whenever he needs its use, or wishes to prove
its existence.
Besides the air last mentioned as existing in the at-
mosphere at all times and in all places, several others
are occasionally found, and in some places they are con-
stantly forming in great abundance, among which is one
resembling the gas used for lighting cities.
This gas is produced in large quantities in marshes,
masses of stagnant water, and in large cities, where a
due regard to cleanliness is not observed ; and is the
cause of sickness, and perhaps of malignant fevers. By
moving the earth in the bed of any pond, and even in
most streams of water, bubbles will be disengaged, and
rise to the surface, where they may be collected in bottles,
and by applying a lighted candle, they will be found to
be combustible.
It is much lighter than common air, and consequently
rises into the higher regions of the atmosphere, where
it is frequently exploded by electricity, and is perhaps
the cause of shooting stars sometimes observed in the
heavens.
16 THE ATMOSPHERE.
The properties and operations of the atmosphere al-
ready mentioned, belong more to the several ingredients
which compose it, than to the whole substance as a mass.
It however possesses some properties, and performs many
great and important operations, in which it is to be
viewed as one body. For example, every particle of the
atmosphere, even in the dryest places and seasons, con-
tains a portion of moisture. By the power of absorbing
and retaining this substance, it performs a most extensive
and important service, in producing action, and pre-
serving order, health, and life, in moving and living
beings. It is constantly relieving the earth, and the
numerous bodies upon its surface, from their superfluous
moisture. It raises from the ocean, by the silent process
of evaporation, as much water as flows into it, by the
Amazon, the Mississippi, the Danube, the Ganges, the
Nile, and all other rivers which it receives into its bosom.
Experiments have proved that during twelve hours of a
summer's day, about twenty-five hogsheads are evaporated
from an acre, or sixteen thousand hogsheads from a square
mile. The water thus taken from the earth, and diffused
through the atmosphere, is again collected in clouds, and
when the air can no longer sustain their weight, they
fall in the form of rain, hail, or snow, and after enliven-
ing the face of nature, or passing into the ocean, the
same vehicle which before conducted it through this
round of services, again takes it up to repeat the process.
Not only in relieving the earth from its superfluous
moisture, and in preparing materials for refreshing
showers, as well as the raging storm, but evaporation is a
most important and essential process for the chemist in
forming his salts and powders, for the farmer in preserv-
ing his hay, and for the mechanic and housekeeper in
their endless and nameless operations, for preparing the
comforts and the luxuries of civilized and refined society.
Besides going this round of ceremonies with water, in
taking it from the earth, in diffusing it far and wide, and
again collecting it in clouds, and returning it to refresh
the living creation, and to replenish rivers and the ocean ;
the atmosphere transports it, while in clouds or vapor,
from continent to continent, that it may give to the in-
THE ATMOSPHERE. 17
habitants living upon the four quarters of the globe, a
portion of its genial influence.
Every particle of the atmosphere contains a portion of
heat as well as moisture. To this substance, no less than
to water, it is the general and all powerful vehicle. It
is constantly transporting heat from the equator to the
poles, from land to sea, and from sea to land, from the
valley to the mountain, and from hill to hill. By this
office, performed by the air in these great operations
of nature, the heat upon the earth is in a measure
equalized. The deficiency in one country is supplied
from the excess of another. The intense cold of one
climate is softened by tempering the scorching heat of
another ; and by the equilibrium thus produced, both are
rendered productive of more life and more happiness.
The connexion of the atmosphere with heat is the
source of every current and motion it receives, from the
gentle breeze to the raging hurricane. The theory and
the different kinds of winds, all of which are nothing
more nor less than the atmosphere in motion, and aJl
produced by the same cause, might seem to deserve a
full explanation in this place. But from the space
allotted to the present number, this subject must be de-
ferred to another. It is difficult in this connexion, how-
ever, to avoid the remark, that the expansibility of the at-
mosphere by heat, and its compressibility by cold and
pressure, are among its most remarkable and important
features, and distinguishes this and other airs from mat-
ter of every kind, either in a solid or liquid state. Air of
every kind appears to be capable of expansion and com-
pression to an indefinite degree. This property belongs
to each gas separate, and to several combined.
In the manufactory of soda water, one hundred and
thirty gallons of carbonic acid is forced, by the means
of a condensing pump, into a cask, of the contents of ten
gallons, six of which are occupied by water. In the
fine syringe, the atmosphere is suddenly compressed into
so small a space, as to cause the oxigen it contains to
ignite a piece of cotton, previously prepared by moisten-
ing it with water highly charged with saltpetre, and then
thoroughly dried. When ninetynine hundredths of the
VOL. i. NO. i. 2 *
18 THE ATMOSPHERE.
air contained in a receiver, is removed by an air pump,
the remaining one hundredth is immediately expanded so
as to occupy the space which was before occupied by the
whole. If a common Florence flask, while containing
nothing but air, be heated to a high degree, and then the
mouth immersed in water while it is suffered to cool, the
water will rise to occupy almost the whole contents of the
flask.
Familiar examples might be adduced, almost without
number, to show the great capability airs possess, of being
expanded and compressed to an unlimited degree.
And every kind of air possesses this property at all
temperatures. In this respect, gas differs from vapor,
which in other respects resemble each other. All vapors,
whether produced from liquids or solids, are, like air,
highly elastic, and capable of great expansion and com-
pression. But by lowering the temperature to which
they are exposed, the vapor again becomes a liquid, or
solid, when it loses its elasticity, and its compressibility.
While air retains both at all temperatures, and in all sit-
uations.
This peculiar and highly interesting property of all
gases, gives to the atmosphere some of its most important
powers and uses. It is evidently essential to the exist-
ence of winds, and to every motion of the air, unless it
may be in a slight degree. It is from this property, that
the atmosphere so readily gives place to all other sub-
stances passing through it. Were it not for this, we
should be met with a powerful resistance, whenever we
attempted to move from place to place. This is the ori-
gin of the trade winds, occupying about sixty degrees of
the equatorial regions of the earth, blowing constantly
from east to west, of the monsoons blowing six months
of the year in one direction, and the other six months
directly opposite, of the deadly simoom, of land and sea
breezes, of the most variable and shortest currents of
air, of the gentle breeze, the brisk gale, the raging tem-
pest, the sweeping hurricane, the water spout, and the
tornado. It is by the great expansion and compression
of air, that ships are constantly moving from continent
THE ATMOSPHERE. 19
to continent, that the noxious vapors of cities are removed
to give place to an atmosphere more fresh and pure, and
that it constantly preserves, amidst all the contaminating
influences to which it is exposed, its salubrious and vital
energies.
In a general view of the properties, powers, and uses
of the atmosphere, of the essential ingredients which
compose it, and the various other substances it absorbs
and wafts in its currents, the numerous odors constantly
meeting us, ought not to be overlooked. This class of
bodies is almost infinite in variety, which are divided into
atoms so minute, that the fragrance of a flower diffuses
its agreeable odor into every particle of atmosphere, to a
great extent around it, and by this, adds to the beauty and
sprightfulness, the sweetness of spring.
Such is the power of the atmosphere, and the great
divisibility of matter, that it sometimes takes up, and
carries from place to place, substances of the greatest
density. Even the heaviest metals, such as gold and
platina, are capable of being reduced to so fine a powder,
as to be supported in the atmosphere, and inhaled by the
lungs.
The limits to which we are confined in our view of a
subject so vast and so various in its applications and uses,
as the ocean of air which envelopes our globe, have re-
quired us to be brief. In many cases we have been per-
mitted merely to hint at a subject, whose importance
seemed to require a large expansion. In none have we
been able to make that full, minute, and varied application
to practical and common concerns, and especially to the
moral developement, which give to science its greatest
utility, interest, and sublimity. Partially to answer these
important purposes, to which every science and every
kind of knowledge ought to be applied, this tract will be
closed by a few questions relating to the subjects present-
ed in the preceding pages.
1. Has the atmosphere received greater or less atten-
tion in systems of instruction than its importance de-
serves ?
2. Has a knowledge of the ingredients and properties
THE ATMOSPHERE.
of the atmosphere, or has it not, a relation to life and
health ?
3. What vital process in the animal kingdom is con-
ducted by the atmosphere 1
4. How many times do persons commonly respire in a
minute ?
5. About how much air is received into the lungs at
each inhalation 1
6. Which ingredient in the atmosphere is most abun-
dant, oxigen or nitrogen ?
7. Which of the two essential ingredients in common
air is most active ?
8. If a person be deprived of oxigen, how will he be
affected ?
9. Which substance is essential to combustion, oxigen,
or nitrogen ?
10. Does carbonic acid promote or destroy combus-
tion ?
11. Why does the bellows hasten combustion ?
12. Why is fire preserved by covering it with ashes ?
13. Which ingredient in the atmosphere conducts the
process of fermentation?
14. How many changes does vegetable matter undergo
by the process of fermentation ?
15. What substance is produced by the first change,
acid or sugar ?
16. During which change is alcohol formed, the second
or fourth?
17. In what does fermentation, if continued, always
result ?
18. Which change is most rapid, the second or third 1
19. How should liquids undergoing the second change
be treated, excluded from the air, or exposed to it ?
20. When a liquid is undergoing the third change, or
forming into vinegar, does the fermentation need retard-
ing or hastening ? should it be excluded from the air or
exposed to it ? frequently moved or remain at rest 1
21. Which portion of the air has the agency in cor-
roding metals, and producing rust, also paints, oxigen,
or nitrogen ?
22. Which metal most readily combines with oxigen,
gold or iron ?
THE ATMOSPHERE. 21
23. What is the chemical name of the rust of iron ?
also of the dross of lead 1
24. Why does covering the surface of metals, such as
iron or brass, with varnish or oil, prevent their corroding?
25. Of what substance upon the surface of the earth,
except air, does oxigen constitute a part 1
26. Which is most abundant in the vegetable kingdom,
oxigen or nitrogen 1
27. Where is nitrogen most abundant, in animal or
vegetable matter ?
28. If the atmosphere were pure oxigen, would it be
more or less favorable to respiration and combustion ?
29. What appears to be the principal use of nitrogen
in the atmosphere 1
30. How is the animal system affected by inhaling pure
oxigen ?
31. How is animal life affected, if full inhalations of
carbonic acid be taken into the lungs ?
32. Do the lungs throw off more or less oxigen than
they receive ?
33. Do they throw off more or less carbonic acid than
they receive 1
34. What other operations in nature, except respira-
tion, produce carbonic acid ?
35. What substance which is fatal to life, is thrown off
by burning charcoal ?
36. Is the carbonic acid in cider, beer, and soda water,
favorable, or unfavorable to health ?
37. What natural agents are employed in evaporation 1
38. What finally becomes of the moisture taken up and
carried off by the atmosphere ?
39. What becomes of the water which falls into the
ocean, through the medium of rivers, rain, &c.
40. Which is most compressible, air or water ?
41. Does heat expand, or contract air 1
42. What is the most powerful vehicle in nature, foi
transporting heat and moisture ?
43. What is the cause of winds, and all motions of the
atmosphere ?
44. In what part of the earth, and over how great a
space, does the wind blow in one direction through the
year ?
THE ATMOSPHERE.
45. Is the action of the atmosphere upon combustion,
a chemical or mechanical process ?
46. Is the oxidation of metals a chemical or mechani-
cal operation ?
47. Is the weight of the atmosphere a chemical or me-
chanical property ?
48. In how many divisions may all the properties and
operations of the atmosphere be classed 1
49. Is the elasticity of air a chemical or mechanical
property ?
50. What is the principal agent in the process of
bleaching ?
51. What acid is composed of three parts of oxigen,
and one of nitrogen, nitric, or sulphuric ?
52. If sulphur be burned in oxigen gas, what acid is
the result, sulphuric, or muriatic ?
53. How is phosphoric acid formed ?
54. What part of the vegetable kingdom is oxigen 1
55. Of what minerals does oxigen constitute a part ?
56. Is any substance more universally diffused through
the -material creation than oxigen, and what ?
THIS pamphlet is the first number of a series of ' tracts,'
designed as instruments for operating in the great and
common cause of Popular Education. They are in-
tended to be brought within the comprehension, and to
meet the wants of the great mass of the community ;
especially of the industrious classes, who have neither
timo nor opportunities to devote their lives to intellectual
pursuits. It is hoped they will prove to be worthy and
agreeable companions in every family circle, and that they
will take some part in their conversation, and if so, that
they will enliven, extend, and ennoble, this seat and
source of individual and national character and happi-
ness.
Endeavors will be made to render these sheets welcome
visitors to schools, by carrying to them useful and enter-
taining knowledge, and in a measure to relieve those
THE ATMOSPHERE. 23
active, sprightly, intellectual, little beings, which com-
pose them, from the dull monotony of common school
exercises.
They are also intended to furnish profitable subjects
for the exercises of Lyceums, which may be introduced,
explained, and enlarged upon, in a familiar way, by those
who may undertake to instruct and entertain these social
assemblies.
It is hoped they may be found agreeable companions,
at public places of resort, such as public houses, steam-
boats, reading rooms, &c.
To answer the objects above proposed, it will be the
earnest desire of those who conduct them, to give them
the following features.
1. To have them contain useful knowledge, in the
strictest sense of the word. They will deal more with
facts than theories ; more with settled principles, than
doubtful speculations ; more with common than rare
things ; more with objects around us, than those which
may or may not exist in distant parts of creation ; more
with the application of the well known properties of the
materials our Creator has put into our hands, and the
principles he has established to fit them for our use, than
to establish some favorite doctrine in a system of meta-
physics.
2. They will be familiar. Technicalities and labored
verbiage will as far as possible be avoided. Attempts
will be made to present things, properties, principles,
applications, in the simplicity of nature, and not through
labyrinths of terms, and mazes of declarations.
3. They will be practical. Whatever may be the sub-
jects introduced, whether the physical sciences, natural
history, mathematics, political economy, agriculture, the
mechanic arts, biography, or history, they will have a
practical bearing upon common life and common in-
terests.
4. They will be moral. It will be the constant aim to
awaken and elevate moral sentiment, and to present every-
thing as the gift, or under the direction of a great and
wise Creator, and a constant and boundless Benefactor.
APPARATUS
FOR
SCHOOLS, LYCEUMS AND ACADEMIES.
The economy, no less than the general utility, of visible illus-
trations, is no\v universally acknowledged. It has had the
unanimous assent, so for as known, in not less than fifty con-
ventions of teachers, *t which were present more than ten
thousand persons. Apparatus is more economical than books,
because one instrument is sufficient for a school, instead of an
individual because it is more durable because impressions
received through the eye, especially by young minds, are more
clear, more rapid, more permanent, more agreeable, and, of
course, more efficient, man those through the ear.
The change already effected in Schools, by the geometrical
diagrams and solids, is unparalleled. By them the simple
elements of Geometry, from an abstruse study in a collegiate
course, have liecome the most agreeable, as well as the most
useful branch in Infant Schools, and to a great extent in Com-
mon Schools.
A manual, and three sheets of diagrams, one of which
contains the manuscript letters, can be used without the solids,
either in Schools or families. The price of the four articles
is $0,50 ; that of the whole of the geometricals is $4. A set
of common-school apparatus, embracing the geometricals, one
or two instruments for Arithmetic, several for Geography, and
a few for Astronomy, is $10. For Lyceums and Academies,
philosophical are $15; orrery, $6; tide dial, $4; seasons, $2;
whole 'of the asWtoomicals. $15: a convenient chemical
set, $2r,.
As some counterfeit apparatus has been made, of a defec- ,
tive elmrarter, and offered for sale under Mr. Holbrook's name,c
and a few individuals imposed upon, purchasers will do well
to lie minions of whom- they procure it. None but that made
under Mr. Holbrook's direction can be used with books which
are prepared and preparing to illustrate and apply it.
CARTER, HENDEE AND BABCOCK have the appa-
ratus above-named for sale, with a large assortment of Books
designed for INFANT and PRIMARY SCHOOLS, for LYCEUMS,
ACADEMIES and elementary and practical instruction generally.
SCIENTIFIC TRACTS.
NUMBER II.
GEOLOGY.
GEOLOGY is a modern science. It is but little more
than a quarter of a century since it received its exist-
ence, especially in our own country. Before that, it
was neither understood, nor mentioned in our highest
institutions of learning. Our most learned professors
possessed no practical knowledge of this subject, nor
did our country contain any source from which it could
be obtained. They were unable to recognise or name
the most common mineral in the streets. Indeed, most
of the knowledge in Europe upon this subject, was
drawn from conjecture, rather than facts.
Within a few years past, however, Geology has made
greater progress than was ever made by any other science
in the same length of time. From being wholly unknown
in our colleges, it has become a familiar and delightful
subject in Infant Schools. Thousands of children under
ten years of age, are now better practical Geologists,
than any individual who could be found in the country
thirty years ago. They have not collected their know-
ledge from their school-rooms or their books, but from
actual observation, and examination. They are ac-
quainted with a certain rock or mineral from seeing it,
and know its situation, by breaking it from the mass to
which it was attached. Their school-rooms and their
parlors bear infallible testimony both of their knowledge
and their industry. Their countenances testify that
their collections are the price of blows upon the rocks,
rather than upon their backs. Stripes did not compel
them to obtain their knowledge, but their knowledge
VOL. 1. NO. II. 3
26 GEOLOGY.
induced them to put on the stripes. Their exercises
to obtain it were permitted, not compelled. Their sub-
ject is understood rather than committed, known rather
than imagined.
The progress' of this subject has not only been un-
paralleled as a science, but its application to Agricul-
ture, to Civil Engineering, and to many of the arts, has
already added to the wealth of our country, to a vast
amount. It has brought to view some of the finest
specimens of marble upon the earth, which had been
used by farmers for common enclosures for one hundred
and fifty years without being known. It has discovered
valuable quarries of building materials, within a few
rods of walls which were brought from a distance of as
many miles. It has discovered the material from which
coperas is made, and led to the art of manufacturing it
in such perfection, and at so cheap a rate, as to put an
end to the importation of that article so indispensable,
and so extensively used in the arts. It has brought to
view inexhaustible deposits of the material for the
manufactory of the beautiful pigment under the name
of chrome yellow, and has reduced the price of that
useful substance, from sixteen dollars to fifty cents a
pound. It has led to the establishment of a manufactory
of epsom salts, where seven or eight hundred tons are
made in a year, and of a better quality than can be
procured from any establishment across the Atlantic.
The numerous and abundant sources of industry and
of wealth which it has opened to our country, have in-
creased the treasures of wealth, no less than those of
knowledge; the lovers of science and of filthy lucre,
have in one instance been gratified by drinking at the
same fountain.
If there are yet those who need to ask what is the
object of this practical, interesting and sublime science,
they can be informed that it means a descriptiojytf the
earth; and is hence nearly allied to geography. Both v
sciences have not however the same province. They
do not describe the earth in the same points. Geogra-
phy, not only describes the great divisions and natural
features of the earth, but the political and civil divisions,
GEOLOGY. I 27
together with the changes and improvements made upon
its surface by the hands of men. It not only gives an
account of oceans, continents, islands and mountains,
but of towns, republics, kingdoms and empires.
It is not the object of Geology to give the number,
names or situation of continents, islands, or mountains,
but of the ingredients of which they are composed, and
of the position and arrangement in which they are placed.
It takes no notice of the changes which have been pro-
duced upon the earth by the industry or the ravages of
men, but describes the more sublime changes it has
suffered, by the agency of earthquakes and volcanoes;
and by the gradual but irresistible hand of time.
The object of Geology is to give us a history, not of
the inhabitants which have risen and fallen upon the
earth, but of the earth itself. It describes its original
formation and present structure, with the gradual and
tremendous changes it has undergone, since it came from
the hand of its Maker.
It must be acknowledged that our means of nforma-
tion upon this subject are comparatively scanty. Neither
history, nor the present appearance of the earth, informs
us with any degree of minuteness, what was its state,
when * it was without form and void,' or how great or
general were its changes, when the ' windows of heaven
opened, and the fountains of the great deep broken up.'
Nor can we penetrate beyond a few feet into the bowels
of the earth, to ascertain what are its hidden treasures,
or the order in which they are stored. Neither the
ledges of mountains, the channels of rivers, ravines,
caves, wells or any other excavation, either natural or
artificial, give us any opportunity to examine the mate-
rials, structure or arrangement of our globe, but a few
feet below its surface.
Although most of the incidents in the history of our
planet, which curiosity, ever upon the alert, would fain
unfold, are surrounded and deeply buried in the gloom
of ignorance, a few of these incidents are still within our
reach, and are too interesting and too important to be
withheld from any one who has a heart to feel, or a mind
to perceive. A few facts, which can be well established,
28 GEOLOGY.
upon a subject so important as the creation and history
of a planet, and of that on which we ourselves are
placed, though but a speck in creation, can hardly fail
to light up the curiosity of any mind, which has a spark
remaining. To state these facts, as they are learned
from history and observation, is the principal object of
the present number.
CHAOTIC OCEAN.
The first well established fact worthy of notice re-
specting the history of our planet, is that there was a
time when it was one vast ocean; without a continent,
an island, a mountain, a rock, a metal, or a particle of
solid matter upon its surface. It contained, indeed, the
elements of all solid substances, which now appear so
beautiful, so rich, and so various upon its surface; but
they were in a liquid state they were dissolved by
heat or water, or more probably by both.
Whatever might have been the agent or agents, which
dissolved and held in solution the rocks, islands, moun-
tains and continents, now so firm and so lofty upon our
globe, the fact is denied or doubted by no one, who has
resorted for information to either of the two great vol-
umes, the book of nature, or the book of revelation.
The sublime and interesting account found in the first
chapter of Genesis of the creation of our earth, is
grounded upon the fact, that it was once a vast and gen-
eral ocean. Such it must have been when it was without
form and void, and darkness was upon the face of the
deep, and the spirit of God moved upon the face of the
waters, and commanded dry land to appear. These
statements imply, with a clearness little short of a direct
declaration, that there was a time, v/hen our earth was a
vast deep one great body of water when dryland
had not appeared.
This interesting fact, so clearly implied in the book
of revelation, is fully corroborated in the older volume,
the book of nature. The ocean now holding in solution
many, perhaps most of the ingredients which constitute
the solid and rocky masses volcanoes which dissolve
the body of mountains and pour them from their
GEOLOGY. 29
heights in a liquid form, so as to lay in ruins the fairest
plains and cities below, ledges beautifully studded
with crystals, and mountains intersected by seams of
copper, tin, silver and gold, bear constant and infallible
testimony, not merely to the possibility, but the certainty,
that the most solid substances were once in a state of
solution, and that our planet has been shaken to its
centre by the war of its elements.
CONSTANT CHANGES.
History of the past, and observation of the present,
unite their testimony to the fact, that the changes the
earth has undergone since it came from the hand of its
Maker, have been constant, and to a great extent
gradual. Whatever construction shall be put upon the
word day, as used in the only history we have of the
creation of our earth, or however great might have
been the changes it suffered during the six days there
mentioned, no one can deny or doubt, that great and
constant changes have taken place upon its surface
since the period there referred to. The changes to
which it is daily subject at the present time, must be
visible to the most careless observer. The gradual but
powerful and irresistible hand of time, even in the short
space of ' threescore years and ten,' sometimes gives
to extensive districts a new aspect and a new character.
In many situations, rocks are constantly forming, in
others they are in a state of decomposition; in one case
the land is daily encroaching upon the sea, in another,
it is carried into the ocean, and gives place to a bay or
harbor. Volcanoes are pouring forth from the depths of
mountains melted lava, which by a sluggish but a pow-
erful and awful momentum, carry destruction in their
course, and bury flourishing cities in ruins, giving no
warning to their inhabitants to flee from their danger.
While in one case mountains are throwing from their
summits their own contents into the valleys beneath, in
another the ocean is throwing up islands from its depths.
In some instances, islands have arisen out of the sea in
a night.
VOL. i. NO. n. 3*
30
ORDER OF CREATION.
The general order of time in which the earth with its
furniture and its inhabitants came to its present form, is
sufficiently manifest from the only authentic history we
have of its creation, from reason, and from observation.
The first step which was taken to change the original
chaos into a convenient dwelling-place for living, acting,
and intelligent beings, was the formation of dry land.
That was necessary to provide for the accommodation
of animal and vegetable life. When provision was
made for the existence and support of the vegetable
kingdom, ( the earth brought forth grass and herb
yielding seed after their kind, and the tree yielding
fruit after his kind, whose seed was in itself after his
kind.'
The creation, and continued production of the vege-
table kingdom, made provision for the animal. Then
the earth brought forth cattle that walk upon the earth,
fowls that fly in the firmament of heaven, reptiles that
creep in the dust, and fishes that move in the waters i
and each after his kind.
But the tenant for whom the earth, with all its pro-
ductions of animal and vegetable life, and so richly
provided with furniture of a thousand kinds, was not
yet created. His creation was to close this august work
of the great Architect of the universe. Man was not
formed and placed upon the earth, until the earth was
fitted for his reception, his convenience, and his happi-
ness until two great lights were formed, one to rule
the day, and the other to rule the night, and the stars
also until the waters which were under the firmament
were divided from those above the firmament, and
gathered together in one place, and dry land appeared
until grass, herbs, and trees yielded seed and fruit
after their kind, and cattle, the fowls of heaven, every
creeping tiling, and every living creature which moves
in the waters, were, formed, and made to produce others
after their kind, ajid put in subjection to the lord of this
lower creation.
Such is the general order in the work of creation, as
GEOI.OGT, 31
learned from the Bible, from reason and from observa-
tion; and yet we have the strongest evidence, that this
order was not strictly and minutely pursued through the
whole process of bringing the earth into the state in
which it is now presented to our view. The whole of
the mineral kingdom, all rocks and metals, soils and
mountains, were not completed before the creation of
the vegetable and animal kingdoms were commenced.
So far from it, rocks, soils, and metals, are daily form-
ing at the present time. In many instances, vegeta-
bles and animals are deposited in solid rocks far below
the surface of the earth. Nay, whole mountains of a
great height, and hundreds of miles in extent, are com-
posed of little else than the relics of animals. The
greater part of these animals were evidently different
kinds of shell fish. But fishes, of the kind that swim,
are also found inclosed in solid rocks. In one instance,
the relics of one fish were found in the mouth of another,
apparently in the act of struggling for his freedom, when
both captive and captor were suddenly arrested, and
confined, where they closed their struggles and their
lives together; and were afterwards converted into stone.
In another instance, one hundred and sixteen different
kinds offish were foond petrified within a short distance.
It has been remarked, that fishes had probably met in
general assembly, and were taken when in the act of
legislating.
In excavating the section of the Erie canal at Lock-
port, after descending twenty feet into solid rock, several
rattlesnakes were found with the whole form, though in
the state of stone, almost precisely retained. At the same
place and nearly the same depth, a toad was taken from
the solid rock, which when found was in a torpid state,
which he had retained perhaps for thousands of years,
but when exposed to air and heat soon gave indications
of life, and after a short time gained strength enough to
hop, but after a few hops closed his existence forever.
Not many years since, in the vicinity of Paris, there
was found imbedded in solid rock, and forty feet below
its surface, a board several feet long and eight or nine
inches wide. At the same place a hammer was found,
92 GEOLOGY.
the handle of which, with the board was petrified, but
the hammer being of iron, retained its natural state.
These are a few instances, among thousands, which
might be mentioned, to prove that the changes our earth
has undergone, have been gradual and constant, and that
minerals, rocks and soils, and even mountains have been
formed since the creation both of the vegetable and
animal kingdoms commenced, and even after man was
formed, and had made some advances in the arts of
civilization. Indeed no one can doubt for a moment,
who has paid the least attention to the subject, that our
globe has been subject to constant and important
changes from the time that the materials of which it is
composed were formed out of nothing, until the present
moment. And these changes which come within our
knowledge are so great, as to afford strong evidence
that the earth could not have existed for a much longer
period than that assigned by Moses.
AGES OF ROCKS.
From views and facts already presented, it must be
concluded that rocks and mountains have different ages.
Some have existed for six thousand years, while others
are at this moment in a process of formation. And there
is good reason to believe, that every moment during the
whole of this period, these formations have been going on.
We not only know that rocks have different ages, but
we know which are oldest. All geologists unite in the
opinion, that granite was the first solid substance formed
from the great chaotic ocean ; and that the coarsest
masses of this rock are older than those of a finer
texture.
Next in age to granite, is gneiss, consisting of the
same ingredients, but of a finer texture and a more
slaty character.
Mica slate is considered by most geologists as the
third rock in age.
Lime has be^n forming in all ages of the world.
Some deposits of limestone are older than the most re-
cent granite, while others are forming at the present
moment. The oldest specimens are coarse and of a
33
crystaline structure; the most recent is fine or com-
pact in its texture, and destitute of every appearance
of crystalization. A bed of the most ancient limestone
is found in Bolton, Massachusetts. In the western part
of New York, deposits of the same rock arc constantly
forming at the present time.
ELEMENTS OF ROCKS.
Notwithstanding the rich and endless variety in the
external appearance of rocks, their elements are few
and simple; and this apparent and beautiful variety is
owing more to the proportion and arrangement of the
ingredients which compose them, than to their number
or variety.
Nine simple minerals have been supposed, by many
geologists, to be the elementary substances of which
all rocks are composed. And it is well known, that
four or five of these, constitute by far the greatest part
of rocky and mountain masses, and that more than half
both of rocks and soils, are formed from two of them.
The names of these simple minerals, sometimes called
the geological alphabet, are quartz, felspar, mica, horn-
blende, lime, argillite, (common slate,) gypsum, talc,
and chlorite. The two first are the most common and
most abundant materials which compose the solid mass
of our earth. Of the highest and most extensive moun-
tains upon our globe, they are the principal, and to some
extent, the only ingredients. They are also, the essen-
tial elements of soils, and upon the proper mixture of
quartz and felspar, or of silex and alumine, (sand and
clay,) the ultimate principles found in these two mine-
rals, the fertility of soils depends.
These two abundant and important minerals in many
instances, very nearly resemble each other, tfiough a
little experience will enable any one to distinguish them.
Quartz is harder than felspar, and much more various in
its appearance. It is of every shade of color from
nearly black to milk white. The white pebbles so
common in the streets and by tUft; way-side, frequently
known by the name of flint-stone>, ate a common species
of quartz. Gun-flint is another. Sometimes it is
34 GEOLOGY.
transparent and perfectly crystalized, when it is im-
properly called diamond. Diamond rocks and hills are
known in many towns in almost every section of our
country. The diamond is found but in two or three
places upon the earth.
Crystalized quartz is sometimes of a purple color,
when it is called amethyst. Jasper, carneleon, calcedony ,
opal, and several other precious stones, are ranked in
the family of quartz.
Felspar is generally white or of a light color, some-
times yellowish, light red, or green, seldom of a dark
color. Its fracture differs from that of quartz, as it
breaks in small even surfaces or plates, somewhat re-
sembling steps. A strong light thrown upon a recent
fracture, gives it a peculiar indescribable lustre, by
which it can always be distinguished from quartz.
The two minerals are not only useful as constituting
the greater part of soils, rocks, and mountains, but for
an important purpose to which each is applied in the
arts. Quartz is the essential, and almost only ingredi-
ent used in the manufactory of glass, whether for win-
dows, decanters, tumblers, bottles, or any other purpose.
Felspar is always used in the manufactory of porcelain
or china ware. The substance known by the name of
kaolin, or porcelain clay, used both in China and this
country in the manufactory of porcelain, is decomposed
felspar.
Mica, frequently but improperly called isinglass, is
extensively associated with the two simple minerals
already described in the structure of rocks. This min-
eral is sometimes found in plates two feet in diameter,
but much more commonly in fine scales but little larger
than the head of a pin. It is commonly white, but
sometimes black, and always more or less transparent.
In some places, especially in Muscovy, mica is used
for the windows of houses, and is hence called Muscovy
glass. It is also used for lanterns, and some purposes
aboard of ships, where glass would be liable to break.
STRATA OF ROCKS.
Into the oldest and most common rocks upon the
earth, no other minerals enter in considerable quantities
GEOLOGY.
but the three just described. They are the essential,
and almost only ingredients in granite, gneiss, and mica
slate. In the oldest specimens of granite, usually of a
coarse texture, the three ingredients being in large
masses, the felspar is most abundant. The mica, fre-
quently in large plates, is dispersed through the mass
in every possible direction. As the process of forma-
tion continued, the felspar became less abundant, and
the mica more regular in its arrangement. The rock
hence passed from coarse to fine granite, and from fine
granite into gneiss. The last is slaty granite. Both
contain the same ingredients, and their principal differ-
ence is in the proportion, arrangement, and texture of
their ingredients. As the formation of gneiss con-
tinued, the felspar still continued to diminish, until it
wholly disappeared. When the rock is formed, it is com-
posed of quartz and mica finely mixed, and of a slaty
structure, and bears the name of mica slate.
This rock differs from gneiss, not only in being desti-
tute of felspar, but in possessing a finer 'texture, and a
smooth, but frequently an undulating surface.
As these three strata of rocks are more common than
any other upon the surface of the earth, they are used
for a greater variety of common purposes, ly practical
men. They are extensively used by farmers for en-
closing their fields, and by civil engineers in the con-
struction of roads, bridges, wharves, dams, canals,
railways, the walls of buildings, Sec, &c.
Nearly allied to granite, and frequently associated
with it is sienite. In this rock, hornblende takes the
place of mica in granite ; the mass is of course com-
posed of quartz, felspar, and hornblende. The simple
mineral last named, sometimes resembles black mica in
its external appearance, but is much harder and can be
readily distinguished from it, by its resisting the point
of a knife, while mica is readily separated into thin
scales, by the application of any pointed instrument.
Sienite is found in great abundance in the vicinity of
Boston, where it is at present the most common mate-
rial for the walls of houses and other purposes in
architecture. In Quincy, and two or three other towns
36 fiF.OLOGV.
in the same vicinity, are deposits of this useful and
beautiful rock, in sufficient quantities for building a
thousand cities of the size of Boston.
In these deposits, the sienite uniformly consists of
three ingredients, though in others, it is formed of two,
the quartz being wanting. The three ingredients in
this useful material, will be readily seen by a glance at
the front of the Tremont House, where three colors are
distinctly visible at the distance of several rods. The
red and most abundant ingredient is felspar; the white,
quartz; and the black and least abundant is hornblende.
They are equally distinct in numerous other buildings
in almost every part of the city of Boston.
Greenstone, or trap rock, is composed of hornblende
and felspar. The former always predominates, and
commonly constitutes almost the whole mass.
This rock contains a large portion of iron, and is
hence heavy, hard, and more difficult to break than any
other stratum. It is, however, intersected by numerous
scams, by which it is separated into convenient masses
for erecting the walls of houses, for which it is exten-
sively used in New Haven, Edinburgh, and many other
places, where it is found in abundance.
Two extensive ranges of mountains in New England,
commence with the East and West Rocks, about two
miles from the city of New Haven, both of which are
greenstone. One continues in the eastern range as far
as Greenfield, a part of which are Mount Holyoke and
Mount Tom. The other range passes farther west, and
extends to the Green Mountains in Vermont.
The Giant's Causeway is a hornblende rock, called
basalt.
Sandstone js associated with greenstone, and is always
placed beneath it, when they occur together.
This rock, as its name denotes, is composed of sand,
or grains of quartz and felspar, with fine scales of mica
sometimes dispersed through the mass, and cemented
with clay and the oxide of iron.
Many thousand tons of this rock have been car-
ried to Boston from Chatham, opposite to Middletown,
on the Connecticut river, and more or less is transported
GEOLOGT. 37
from the same place into every seaport from New Or-
leans to Eastport. It is used for the underpinning of
houses, door steps, hearths, jambs, &c, &c.
Graywacke, in some of its deposits, resembles sand-
stone. But besides embracing recks composed of
grains, it extends to those consisting of large pebbles,
sometimes a foot in diameter, and frequently so loosely
cemented, as to fall to pieces from the effects of the
weather, and other gradual operations of time.
An extensive and most singular deposit of graywacke
is found nearly the whole distance from Boston to Provi-
dence. A circumstance respecting this deposit of
graywacke coincides with that in another on the heights
of Catskill mountains. The circumstance is, that the
highest points of elevation in both cases, consist of the
coarsest pebbles. In the descent, both rocks become
finer and more compact in their texture, until they
finally pass into slate.
Another most singular and unaccountable fact, which
is particularly striking in the New England deposit is,
that ledges are intersected by numerous seams, which
cut, not only the largest pebbles, but the finest grains,
leaving a surface almost as smooth as if it were polished.
This fact may be witnessed in the numerous walls built
of this material in Dorchester and Roxbury, which by
the aid of these seams present an even surface in front,
notwithstanding the general fracture of the rock is un-
commonly ragged and uneven.
The fact is stated merely, any may explain it who
are able.
Some of the finest slates, and even the material of
which hones are composed, are classed by geologists
under the stratum of graywacke.
Argillite, or common slate, used in schools and for
the roofs of houses, is an abundant rock, but less com-
mon than most of those already described. Extensive
ranges of it exist in Vermont, which furnished during
the last war, large quantities of a good quality for the
roofs of houses. But as it is less expensive transporting
it across the Atlantic, than down the Connecticut, the
VOL. i. NO. ii. 4
38 GEOLOGT.
greater part now used both for schools and roofs, is
r ought from Wales.
This rock is composed principally of clay, and hence
soils, where it abounds, are of the same character. If
argillite is put in a road where it will be finely pulve-
rized by wheels, it forms a mass differing but little from
a bed of clay.
This rock is neither the most ancient, nor the most
recent. It was evidently formed after the primitive
limestone, but previously to the secondary deposits of
the same rock.
Lime has already been mentioned, both as an ancient
and a modern rock. A few ancient deposits are found
in New England. Numerous and almost boundless
deposits of modern or secondary limestone, are found in
New York, and States still more west and south. The
masses found in New England are generally of a coarse
crystalline structure, those at the west and south, more
compact, and they frequently contain relics of animals
and vegetables ; indeed, in some instances, the whole
mass of a mountain appears to be little else than an
aggregation of animal relics.
Of no rock is there probably a greater variety than
of limestone. It is said there are nearly two hundred
varieties of marble, all of which are limestone. The
deposits which do not bear the name of marble, probably
present an equal variety. Chalk is, strictly speaking,
limestone, as it is composed of the same ingredients,
and in the same proportion with the quarries wrought
for marble, and for the more common purposes of lime.
The Housatonic range of limestone is perhaps the
most extensive in New England. It commences in
Milford, near the mouth of the river, and extends with
some intermissions quite to its head, and even beyond
to the St Lawrence river, if not into Canada. The
Stockbridge and Middlebury marble, are in this range.
In Bolton, and Boxborough, the town north, are da-
posits of moderate extent. In Smithfield, Rhode Island,
is a quarry, from which lime of the finest quality is pro-
cured in great quantities. In Stoneham, twelve miles
north of Boston, is a small deposit. This resembles
GEOLOtiY. 39
the statuary marble. From Thomastown, Maine, both
marble and common lime are procured for Boston mar-
ket in abundance. In the western part of New Eng-
land, and the eastern part of New York, is an extensive
range, less ancient, than those already mentioned, and
less recent than that which constitutes the principal
rock in the western part of New York, and the country
between that and the Mississippi.
Gypsum, (plaster of Paris,) is one of those rocks
which are found in great abundance in a few places
upon the earth, but are not common. Nova Scotia,
the western part of New York, the vicinity of Paris,
France, and a few other places, contain inexhaustible
deposits of it. None of consequence has yet been
discovered in New England.
Several varieties of this rock are found in abundance,
some of which are transparent, crystallized, and beauti-
ful. A common and abundant variety of crystallized
gypsum is called selenite, which is in transparent plates
or laminae, and resembles mica, and with that has been
called isinglass. Their resemblance, however, is mere-
ly in their external appearance, their elements being
entirely different. Mica is also highly elastic, while
selenite is not so, and cannot be bent without breaking.
Gypsum has numerous uses, the most important of
which is in agriculture. It has the power of entirely
changing the character of some soils, and rendering the
most barren, gravelly plains highly fertile. It is more
favorable to the growth of clover than any other plant,
but promotes the growth of potatoes, Indian corn, and
on some soils, of winter grain. It is also used for vari-
ous ornamental purposes as a plaster.
The ingredients of which gypsum is composed, are
lime, sulphuric acid, and water.
Soapstone is composed of talc, with a small mixture of
quartz. Both talc, and the rock which it composes are
soft, and easily wrought into any shape required by
their numerous uses. This rock is hewn into blocks by
an axe, separated into slabs by a common saw-mill, or a
hand-saw, turned into cylinders or other circular forms
by a lathe, and smoothed by a plane.
40 GEOLOGY.
The ease with which soapstone is wrought, the hand-
some polish it is capable of receiving, and its power of
resisting the effects of heat upon most other rocks, ren-
der it extensively useful in the arts. Besides its vari-
ous uses in connexion with heat, it is preferable to any
other material yet discovered for cylinders, used in
manufactories for dressing yarn to fit it for the loom.
The powder of this stone when mixed with oil, has
recently been applied to great advantage to the gudgeons
of wheels, axletrees of carriages, and to various other
purposes of a similar kind.
Vermont and New Hampshire furnish soapstone in
great abundance, and of various qualities. A quarry
in Francestown, in the southern part of New Hamp-
ahire, has furnished more for Boston market and the
various manufactories in New England, than any other
deposit. Orford, New Hampshire, contains a beautiful
variety. Several towns in Vermont, near the Connecti-
cut river, contain it in great abundance, and of a good
quality.
When a rock of a homogeneous base has crystals of
a certain character dispersed through the mass, it is
called poi'phyry. The base is more commonly some
variety of hornblende rock, but sometimes .<jlay-slate,
compact felspar, or graywacke.
The crystals usually consist of felspar and quartz,
the former in prisms, the latter in pyramids, or small
nadules.
The color of porphyry depends upon the base, and
the quantity of crystals dispersed through it. Some-
times the base is dark green, and even black, and the
imbedded crystals small. Other specimens are com-
posed of a lighter base and more numerous and larger
crystals.
Some varieties of porphyry receive a beautiful polish,
when it furnishes a valuable material for tables, mantel-
pieces, and many smaller ornaments, such as butter
plates, snuff-boxes, kc.
Vast deposits of this rock are found at Nahant,
Lynn, Maiden, Marblehead, Salem, Canton, and
several other places in the vicinity of Boston. In
GEOLOGY. 41
these localities, there is a great variety, and some spe-
cimens receive a beautiful polish, but have not yet been
wrought to any extent. Many of the paving stones in
the streets of Boston are porphyry, which are quite
distinct after a rain. A part of the Andes mountains
are said to consist of porphyry, but the rock is not
common.
Amygdaloid somewhat resembles porphyry, as it con-
sists of a homogeneous base, and imbedded crystals.
But the base is less various, and usually softer, than that
of porphyry, and the imbedded minerals of an oval or
spheroidal form, somewhat resembling almonds in shape,
and hence the name of the rock.
This, like the rock last mentioned, is sometimes used
for ornamental purposes, as some varieties are capable
of a good polish, when they exhibit a beautiful com-
plexion and surface.
In Brighton and Hingham, in the vicinity of Boston,
this rock is found in large quantities, and in small quan-
tities in the vicinity of New Haven, and a few other
places. It is, however, less common and less abundant
than the rock last mentioned.
The strata of rocks above mentioned and briefly de-
scribed, are the principal materials which constitute the
mountain masses, and loose fragments or bowlders upon
our globe, from which soils are supposed to be formed,
and of whose character they certainly partake. Another
occasion may admit of a fuller and more accurate de-
scription.
At present we can only add a few reasons why geolo-
gy should be universally introduced as a branch of
common education. The substance has already been
published in the Journal of Education.
1. It is nearly allied to geography. The connexion
and distinct provinces of these two sciences, have
already been pointed out in the introductory remarks of
this number. From that view it is believed, many will
be ready to acknowledge that the claims of this science
to becoming a subject of common school instruction,
are equally strong with those of geography, and in
some points superior.
VOL. i. NO. ii. 4*
42 GEOLOGY.
2. ,It is an interesting science. It opens to our view
a new world, and presents us with numerous objects of
beauty and of interest, before unnoticed. The most
barren ledges, the commonest rocks and walls by the
wayside, destitute of anything to admire or notice, show
to groups of young explorers, that these have not
merited the long neglect they have suffered ; that they
contain much that is rich and beautiful, not merely
when arranged on the shelves and cases of a cabinet,
but when placed on the mantelpiece of the parlor or
drawing-room, and furnishing instruction and delight to
the most elevated minds.
3. It is among the grandest of sciences. It leads us
to view, with increased admiration, the towering moun-
tain and awful precipice, and induces and enables us to
examine with greater ardor and more exalted delight,
those features of the earth, which never fail to excite
ideas of sublimity even in the rudest mind. We learn
from it, that amid the lofty aspect, the terrific grandeur,
and the wild confusion of the Alps and Andes, there is
order and regularity, which evince the skill of a wise
and all-powerful architect. Arrangement amidst appa-
rent disorder, a vast storehouse of riches overhung by
forms of terror, objects of the highest beauty grouped
beneath the awfully sublime, afford to the passing geolo-
gist a moral as well as an intellectual banquet.
4. It gives new interest and increased utility to our
journeys and our walks. A person, with the slightest
knowledge of geology, never passes from one country
or place to another, without finding much to admire,
and much to increase his store of knowledge. If he
find no thriving village, no field covered with the fruits
of the farmer's industry, no fertile tract groaning under
its load of stately forest trees, or smiling beneath its
dress of beautiful verdure, he still finds in the barren
plain or the broken ledge, much that is beautiful, rich,
and instructive.
5. It furnishes a healthful and instructive amusemeni
to the young. Wherever it has been introduced into
schools, the pupils have taken more or less of their
pastime in examining and collecting specimens of min-
GEOLOGT. 43
erals within their reach. A geological excursion is
uniformly preferred by them to their ordinary sports,
too often calculated to dissipate their minds, and unfit
them for patient and successful application, when they
return to their school rooms or their books.
6. It teaches children to be observing. A thousand
objects before unnoticed, press upon their view; their
imagination and taste are awakened, and called into
vigorous and healthful exercise, in discriminating the
aspect of objects. Their minds once put upon the
search to discover what is beautiful and rich in the
mineral kingdom, are led to examine other parts of this
wide creation; and wherever they go, or whatever they
see, they find something to admire, and to convey to
their minds entertainment and instruction.
7. It leads to useful discoveries. Wherever the
science of geology has been introduced into schools, or
to the attention of other young people, valuable discov-
eries have been made to enrich the treasures of science,
or to furnish new sources of industry and of wealth,
both to individuals and the nation. If once introduced
into all our schools, the whole country would be put
under the most minute and rigid examination, and com-
pelled to yield up its treasures, now buried beneath the
surface of the earth. In New England, alone, from
one to t\vo hundred thousand young, but ardent and
efficient surveyors might be induced to afford their
gratuitous and cheerful services, to explore our re-
sources in the mineral kingdom; and while they amused
and instructed themselves, they would make important
accessions to the public treasures of science and of
wealth.
8. As the adoption of geology as a branch of common
eduWlion, uniformly leads to a thorough examination of
the natural features of the country, it would prepare
the way for obtaining maps of all the towns where it
should be introduced. Considering the trifling expense
at which lithographic prints of town maps can be pro-
cured, and the important vehicles they would be to
convey a minute and accurate knowledge of the charac-
ter and resources of our country to the minds of its
44 GEOLOGY.
inhabitants, few subjects better deserve the immediate
attention of every town.
9. No science is more practical. It acquaints far-
mers with the nature of their soils, and the best methods
of improving them: civil engineers with the materials
for constructing roads, canals, railways, wharves, dams,
&.c, and the proper method of combining them: artists
with the origin and nature of paints, and other sub-
stances in common use; and the miner when and how
to extend his researches, pointing him to a reward for
his labors, and guarding him against abortive attempts.
Agriculture, internal improvements, manufactures,
and the various useful arts, occupy, at present, so large
a place in public attention, as to render every method
which can be adopted to advance them worthy of public
and private patronage.
1 0. The introduction of geology into schools, would
tend to promote moral improvement among the young.
Perhaps there are not two more unfortunate circum-
stances attending our system of popular education, than
that the exercises of children in the school room are
irksome, and those for recreation are dissipating to the
mind. If schoolhouses could be rendered places of
pleasant resort, and amusements sources of useful in-
struction, the great work of reform in cultivating
intellectual and moral taste would be fairly begun.
The more innocent and useful amusements are scattered
around the young, the less time and disposition they
will have to pursue those which are pernicious or use-
less. No subject, perhaps, is better fitted to answer
the double purpose of amusement and instruction, than
geology. And few are better fitted to show the power
and wisdom of Him, who weighed the mountains in
scales, and the hills in a balance.'
11. It is easily acquired. The features of this sci-
ence are not only striking and grand, but they are few
and simple, and exactly fitted to entertain and expand
the juvenile mind. By the aid of specimens, with
appropriate descriptions, its general principles are mor
easily and readily understood, than those of any other
science which is taught. Nothing is more easy than to
GEOLOGY. 45
introduce it into every district and private school in the
country, and to acquaint every child with the names,
ingredients and uses of the rocks he daily observes in
his walks, and with the prominent geological features
of our country.
12. It is necessary. Without it, gazetteers and jour-
nals of travels cannot be understood. In some places,
a knowledge of the great geological features of the
earth is as common and familiar, as of the continents
and oceans; and consequently without this knowledge,
a person is liable to find himself ignorant of the mosl
common and familiar topics of conversation, in the soci-
ety he will frequently meet. To be destitute of a branch
of science so important and accessible, is to be unpro-
vided with a great source of mental occupation and en-
tertainment for early life, and in the case of teachers,
the want of it is the want of a powerful and happy
means of influencing the youthful mind.
If it should be asked how this science can be moat
readily introduced into schools, it is answered from nu-
merous experiments, that fifty or a hundred labelled
specimens, with some small manual to describe them,
explaining their ingredients, uses, &c, are sufficient to
make a beginning, which if once made, seldom if ever
fails to be extended to a general knowledge of the
subject.
QUESTIONS.
What two sciences give a description of the earth ?
Which gives the names, situation, and number of
continents, islands, mountains, &c, Geography or Ge-
ology ?
Which gives a description of cities, kingdoms, and
empires?
Which acquaints us with the ingredients and struc-
ture of mountains, islands, and continents, Geography
oj* Geology?
Which informs us of the original structure of the
earth, and the various changes it has undergone by
earthquakes, volcanoes, and the gradual hand of time ?
46 GEOLOGY.
Are our means of information respecting the original
state and numerous changes of the earth, abundant or
scanty ?
Is the history of our earth which is contained in the
first chapter of Genesis, corroborated or annulled by
its present state, as learned by Geologists?
What was the state of the earth when ' it was without
form and void,' a liquid or solid ?
What was probably the solvent power, heat or water,
or both?
Have the changes the earth has undergone in coming
to its present state, been confined to a few periods, or
have they been constant?
In the order of creation, which was formed first, the
mineral or vegetable kingdom? the vegetable or animal?
What solid substance was first formed from the gene-
ral chaotic ocean?
Of how many ingredients is granite composed, and
what their names ?
Which is coarsest, the most ancient, or most recent
granite ?
In what kind of granite is felspar the most abundant,
old or recent ?
For what useful purpose in the arts, is quartz used ?
Of what is porcelain made ?
Which ingredient in granite has been used as a sub-
stitute for glass ?
What is the origin of porcelain clay, or kaolin ?
Which is coarsest, gneiss or granite ?
Which is most of the character of slate ?
How many ingredients in mica slate ? and are they
fine or coarse?
Is mica slate usually even or undulating in its sur-
face ?
When granite or gneiss passes into sienite, what sub-
stance takes the place of mica?
Is hornblende harder or less hard than mica ? which
most easily divided into scales?
Is hornblende of a dark or light color?
In sienite, is it more or less abundant than felspar?
In what part of the country does sienite abound? For
what purpose is it used ?
47
Which is most common, granite or sienite ?
What other rocks except granite, are more common
than sienite?
What are the ingredients in greenstone? and which
predominates ?
Where are extensive deposits of greenstone ? Is it a
heavy or light rock? hard or soft? easy or difficult to
break?
What rock composes Mount Holyoke and Mount
Tom?
What rock abounds at New Haven, Connecticut, and
in Edinburgh, Scotland?
When sandstone is found in connexion with green-
stone, is it placed above or below it?
Of what is sandstone composed?
What place has furnished sandstone, sometimes called
freestone, as a building material for most of the cities
and large towns in the Union?
What rock besides sandstone, is composed of grains
and pebbles cemented?
In deposits of graywacke, which is coarsest, the
highest or lowest part of the mass ?
What rock abounds between Boston and Providence?
What is the common name for argillite, and to what
uses is it applied?
From what place is it obtained?
Has it been wrought from quarries in this country ?
and where?
Is limestone an ancient or modern rock, or both?
Which is coarsest, the most ancient or most recent ?
Are the varieties of limestone few or numerous?
To what stratum of rocks do marbles belong, lime or
porphyry ?
To what does chalk belong ?
Where is gypsum found ?
What is the name of that variety of gypsum which
resembles mica?
Which is most elastic, mica or selenite ?
What is the most important use of gypsum?
What plant is most benefited by it as a manure?
For what purposes in the arts except agriculture, is
gypsum used ?
48 OEOLOGT.
What is the principal ingredient in soapstone ?
Is it easy or difficult to work?
Does it endure or yield to heat?
Which of the New England States furnishes it m
abundance?
When greenstone contains imbedded crystals of fel-
spar and quartz, what is the rock called?
Are the crystals dispersed through porphyry, felspar,
ox quartz, or both?
For what purposes is porphyry used?
Where is it found?
What rock resembles porphyry?
What is the shape of the imbedded minerals in amyg-
daloid?
Where is amygdaloid found?
How many letters in the geological alphabet, and
what their names?
How many and what the names of these letters in the
geological alphabet, which form the greatest part of the
rocky and mountain masses upon the earth ?
Of what rocks are the highest mountains upon the
earth composed ?
Of what ingredients are soils composed?
In regions where the rocks are argillite, does clay or
sand predominate in the soil?
What are some of the reasons, why Geology should
become a branch of common school education ?
SCIENTIFIC TRACTS.
NUMBER III.
THE ATMOSPHERE.
THE first thing which arrests our attention in looking
into the atmosphere, is the blue color of the sky. Philoso-
phy has called upon the science of Optics for an ex-
planation of this effect, and learns that it is caused by
the resistance presented by the air to the different rays
of light. It is easily shown that the light which comes
from the sun, is composed of seven distinct colors,
whose blended effect is the whiteness with which we
are familiar. These colors consist of red, orange, yel-
low, green, blue, indigo and violet. The blue ray is
supposed to be one of the most difficult of transmission,
and is the most readily absorbed by the atmosphere.
The red rays, on the contrary, readily pass through the
air, while the blue are almost lost. To this absorption
of the latter, we are indebted for the bright azure which
tinges distant mountains.
As we ascend into the atmosphere, the deepness of
its color diminishes, and to the traveller on the Alps or
the Andes, the sky appears quite black.
It is to I he ready passage of the red ray, that the
diver is indebted for his vision in deep water. The red
rays penetrate the sea, while the blue are reflected
from its surface. From the reflective power of the at-
mosphere, we derive the delightful twilight before the
sun rises, and after he has passed from our view.
The word Pneumatics is derived from the Greek
word pneuma, which signifies spirit, that being one of
the names by which the air was called by the ancients.
This term is applied to that branch of natural philoso-
phy which treats of the mechanical properties of the
50 THE ATMOSPHERE.
atmosphere, in contradistinction to the chemical quali-
ties of which our first number treated.
The first inquiry into the mechanical properties of
the air, was made in Italy about the year 1640. And
we may conclude, that the brilliant display this science
now makes, had its origin in the experiments of Torri-
cclli, which were caused by the failure of the mechan-
ics of the Duke of Florence, to raise water in a pump
above thirty feet.
That we may fully understand this substance as a
mechanical agent, we must examine it a little in detail,
and observe its relations to common matter.
It has been already stated that the atmosphere * con-
sists of two distinct gases or airs, in the proportion of
79 parts of nitrogen to 21 of oxygen, and a small quan-
tity of carbonic acid.
All substances in nature considered mechanically,
are divided into solids and fluids. By a solid, we are
to understand that body or substance whose particles
are so related to one another, as not to admit of motion
among each other, when any force disturbs the inertia
or rest of the whole.
As a fluid we recognise that substance whose parti-
cles have a less cohesive attraction, and are easily set
in motion among each other by a slight disturbing cause.
Besides, when at rest, its surface is uniformly level.
This forms a peculiar character of a fluid; while a solid
is disposed to continue in that position which followed
the impulse.
The philosophical difference of these two conditions
of matter, depends on the quantity of heat which each
possesses. A familiar illustration is exhibited of the
various conditions of the same material, in ice, water,
and vapor. Ice at 32 Fahrenheit requires many degrees
of heat to liquify it, and when melted, the thermometer
shows no evidence of the addition. Water requires
many degrees to convert it into vapor, yet this vapor
in passing off, exhibits no greater heat than the water
from which it is escaping.
* The word aim. sphere is derived from t : ,e Greek, and signifies
cplierc of vapor.
THE ATMOSPHERE.
51
The air is therefore to be considered as a fluid, com-
posed of certain particles, separated by the heat dif-
fused among them. An interesting illustration of the
separation and repulsion of these particles by heat, is
shown in the explosion v of gunpowder. This article is
composed of nitre, charcoal and sulphur, in definite
proportions. Each one of these materials has certain
constituents, condensed in the form of a solid. When
sufficient heat is applied to overcome their cohesive
attraction, these constituents are separated by the par-
ticles of heat which enter between them, and which,
causing them suddenly to diverge, produce their repul-
sive power.
The atmosphere extends to nearly fifty miles from the
surface of the earth, and bears a similar proportion in its
height to the diameter of the earth, as a covering of one
tenth of an inch in thickness to a sphere of twelve inches.
By the consideration of the great height of the air,
and the materials of which it is formed, we are prepar-
ed to commence an examination of its weight. Though
its particles are invisible, yet they are attracted to the
earth by the same principle as larger perceptible bodies.
And consequently, they must exert a specific pressure
upon everything on which they rest. No one will
deny that a rock or a house has a definite weight.
Though these are visible, yet the effect is the same
from the pressure of more subtle materials. No one
would doubt that the ocean presses with a definite force
upon its base. Yet to the eye of the fish, the water is
as invisible as the air is to us, and he depends upon his
other senses, like ourselves, for evidences of its exis-
tence.
Although the atmosphere extends to nearly fifty miles
from the earth, we must not suppose that its density is
uniform throughout, any more than we would think a
pile of cotton of the same height, as dense in the cen-
tre as at the base. The density diminishes as we as-
cend, in certain proportions. For on Mont Blanc, which
is about three miles and a half above the level of the sea,
the pressure is diminished to one half; proving that one half
THE ATMOSPHERE.
of the whole weight exists within four miles of the sur-
face of the earth.
Experiment has proved this weight to be about fifteen
pounds on every square inch. If the human body pre-
sent a surface of eleven square feet, it must sustain a
pressure of upwards of eleven tons. And the pressure
upon the whole earth, which exposes about 5,575,680,-
000,000,000 square feet, is equal to about 1,164,201,-
840,000,000,000 pounds. This seems almost incredi-
ble, but we hope to render the fact less startling as we
proceed with our illustrations. It may be asked why
we are not more sensible of this vast weight. We are
so constituted as to require this provision of nature, and
from the effect of habit we are insensible to its power.
Those who ascend Mont Blanc very sensibly experi-
ence a change. They complain of great fulness and
distention of the vessels, which arises from the inequa-
lity of the external and internal pressures On the
surface of the earth, the forces of the internal fluids are
counterbalanced by the atmosphere. And it is owing
to the equality of these forces that we are insensible to
the existence of either. This is further exemplified in
the fish, who is sometimes caught at a depth of 2560 feet,
where he is compressed by a force equivalent to eighty
atmospheres; yet he is not injured, nor are his motions
impeded. The internal pressure of his body resists
that from without, and therefore he is perfectly protect-
ed. Besides, the pressure he supports, acting in all
directions, neutralizes itself by promoting as much as
it retards his motions.
Another evidence of the pressure of fluids, is exhib-
ited in the following instance. If we place a weight of
any kind upon a thin plate of glass, resting by its ex-
treme edge, it will be instantly broken through, be-
cause all the weight is from above. But if the glass
be laid on a flat surface, and the weight then gently
placed on it, it will not be broken, because the resis-
tance from below is equal to the force from above. If
the glass plate were made the bottom of a vessel, and
water were poured upon it, it would be destroyed as in
the first case But if it were placed in a vessel at any
THE ATMOSPHERE.
53
depth, so that the fluid were on both sides of it, the
pouring in of the water would not injure the glass. If
it were even placed several feet below the surface, and
were so thin that a few grains would break it in the
atmosphere, it would be safe in the fluid, although it
might endure the pressure of several hundred weight.
These peculiarities depend on the uniform pressure of
fluids, which is equal upwards, downwards and in all
directions.
RESISTANCE OF THE AIR.
The efforts to prove the mechanical properties of the
air, were looked upon with contempt by many who pro-
fessed a great regard for science. How could it pos-
sess mechanical peculiarities, when it appeared to offer
no resistance to their motions, permitted the bird to
soar to the loftiest heights, and the rain to fall in gentle
drops on the tender plant? But the science now ex-
hibits the fallacy of such reasoning, and explains the
means by which all these purposes are effected. It
tells us man cannot live above a certain distance from
the sea; the bird cannot soar beyond a certain height;
and that the gentleness of the rain is caused by the re-
sistance the air offers to its fall. Were it not for this
cause birds could not rise in the atmosphere. Their
flight depends on the resistance the air opposes to their
wings. Those birds which fly a long while and far,
generally have small bodies and large wings. While
those of shorter or less frequent flight, commonly have
larger bodies and smaller wings in proportion. These
have to beat their wings more frequently in flying, to
preserve their velocity and height, and are consequently
more easily fatigued.
The velocity of falling bodies is much resisted by the
air ; and the distance to which projectiles are thrown,
is materially affected by this principle. One of the
most beautiful illustrations of this resistance is shown
in the ascent of the sky-rocket.
The common sky-rocket consists of a simple cylinder
of paper filled with gunpowder, or some other explosive
material, about six inches long, and about one and a
VOL. i. NO. in. 5*
54 THE ATMOSPHERE.
half in diameter. This is connected with one end of a
stick about four feet long, for the purpose of preserving
its direction. It will now be recollected what takes
place, when fire is applied to the material through the
ftisee at the lower end of the cylinder. Remembering our
description of the inflammation of gunpowder, we per-
ceive that the only exit for this newly formed air, is down-
ward, and consequently, as it rushes out, it meets with
the atmosphere, by which its escape is resisted. Hence
it must ascend if its weight be not greater than the
resistance, and continue its flight until its power is
consumed.
fi?
PRESSURE OF THE AIR.
We are quite insensible to what principles of philoso-
we are indebted for our comforts, and how much
las been made subservient to our use by the great
artificer of nature. The first act performed by a human
being, the process by which the vital current from his
mother's breast is made to supply his wants, depends
on the pressure of the air. How few have any idea of
philosophical aid in what appears to be so simple. But the
same may be remarked of innumerable circumstances,
which appear to be produced with as little design.
Since the attention of philosophers has been directed
to these mechanical peculiarities, several phenomena
have been explained, which had depended for their so-
lution solely on conjecture. The awful thunder found
an explanation in the theory that the lightning in leap-
ing from cloud to cloud, or from a cloud to the earth,
drove back the air which opposed its progress, while the
atmosphere, rushing in from behind to fill the vacancy,
produced the sound which always succeeds the flash.
To Sir Everard Home we are obliged for the expla-
nation of the cause by which flies are enabled to walk
on the lower side of a horizontal plane, or the perpen-
dicular surface of glass. He ascertained that their
feet have flat skins or flaps, like the feet of web-footed
animals, and that they have the power of drawing down
this web so closely upon the surface whereon they walk,
as effectually to exclude the air. The consequence of
THE ATMOSPHERE. 55
which is, their feet are pressed down upon that surface
by the external atmosphere. On this principle, other
insects possess the power of locomotion on similar situ-
ations. The same law applies to the sea-horse, who is
thus enabled to climb perpendicular hills of ice ; and to
some kinds of lizard, who ascend vertical walls at plea-
sure. Many sea-shells depend on this law for their
tenacity to rocks. The animal has the power of expel-
ling the air between himself and the rock, whereby he
is pressed there with a force proportioned to his size.
Cupping, whether affected by a syringe, or by the re-
moval of the air by burning anything in the cup, be-
longs to the same law. And until within a very few
years, the steam-engine, the mightiest of all the inven-
tions of man, depended for its power on the pressure of
the air.
Another evidence of the effect of this pressure is
shown in the process of boiling. We know by the
thermometer, that water boils at the surface of the earth
at 212, and that other liquids require a certain quan-
tity of heat to be absorbed, before they exhibit the
phenomenon of boiling. But we find that in proportion
as we rise from the level of the sea, these substances
do not require the absorption of so much heat, to exhibit
the same peculiarities. Water, for instance, boils on
Mont Blanc at 180 Fahrenheit; and ether, which boils
at the level of the sea at 98, cannot be retained there in
any form, if there be the slightest communication with
the atmosphere. This is produced by the diminished
pressure of the air ; and in fact, the boiling of water at
different heights, if properly attended to, would be one
means of ascertaining the height of mountains.
A beautiful illustration of the removal of pressure
from the surface of water, may be exhibited by boiling
it in a common oil flask, and corking it tightly during
the ebullition. The glass being removed from the
fire, shows the continuance of the commotion, which
may be immediately checked by holding it near the fire
or dipping it into hot water. This very curious experi-
ment may be easily explained. The addition of heat
checks the commotion by expanding the vapor on the
66 THE ATMOSPHERE.
surface, and thereby increasing its pressure. The ap-
plication of cold condenses the vapor ; and as the air
has been previously driven out by boiling, the pressure
is so much diminished, as to offer but little resistance
to the escape of vapor from the bottom of the fluid in the
form of bubbles.
THE BAROMETER.
The first instrument we shall describe illustrative of
the pressure of the air, is the Barometer. This name
is derived from the Greek, and signifies a measurer of
weight. With this instrument, the famous experi-
ment of Torricelli was made, which he communicated to
his friend Viviani, who repeated it in 1643.
The barometer consists of a glass tube about thirty-
four inches long, sealed at one end, which, being filled
with quicksilver, is inverted in a vessel or cup of the
same material. The tube being now held perpendicu-
larly, the fluid will subside from the top, and stand at that
height by which it is balanced by a column of atmo-
sphere extending from the surface of the earth to its
utmost height. The average height of the quicksilver
is about thirty inches at the level of the sea. It is main-
tained at a certain elevation by the pressure of the air
on the surrounding fluid, while that portion over which
the tube stands has been relieved from the weight. If
water were substituted for quicksilver, it would be sup-
ported at the height of thirtytwo feet, because the quick-
silver is about fourteen times heavier.
The barometer is commonly used as a weather-glass,
and as such, it gives evidence of the changes that are
about to take place. The plate connected with the upper
part of the tube, is divided into inches and tenths. A
movable point, called a vernier, subdividing this division
into tenths and hundredths, moves through the centre of
this plate perpendicularly. By placing the vernier at
the exact height of the quicksilver, we have the height
in inches, tenths, and hundredths. The words marked
on the plate are not so much to be regarded as the mo-
tion of the fluid ; for a deviation from the highest point
may be followed by rain, although the quicksilver may
THE ATMOSPHERE. 5?
not have sunk below the point marked Fair; and the
same may be noticed with regard to its rise.
By this instrument we detect an error very common
among mankind, respecting the weight of the air. It
is generally supposed that air is heaviest when the atmo-
sphere is cloudy and filled with moisture, and that the
languor we then experience is produced by the increased
weight upon our bodies. But the reverse is the fact.
When the atmosphere is heavy, clouds do not linger
near the earth, smoke rises almost perpendicularly, and
we experience a peculiar elasticity and energy. When
it is light, on the contrary, clouds come very near the
earth, smoke falls immediately to the ground, and the
animal system feels languid and oppressed. The baro-
meter proves that the weight has been diminished; for
the quicksilver, not being counterbalanced by so heavy a
column of air, .necessarily sinks. Therefore, we find
that when the atmosphere is heaviest, our sensations
are most agreeable, and when it is lightest, the internal
pressure, not being fully resisted, produces the feelings
of languor and oppression.
There are four forms of the barometer in use, each
of which presents certain advantages.
1st. The portable, or parlor barometer.
2d. The wheel barometer.
3d. The marine barometer.
4th. The mountain barometer.
All these are modifications of the same principle.
The first is the simplest, and was described in explain-
ing the peculiarities of the instrument. It acquires the
name of portable from the screw which is connected
with the cup at the bottom, whereby the fluid can be
pressed up the whole length of the tube, to prevent ac-
cidents in its transportation.
The second differs very much in appearance ; the
tube being concealed, and a face somewhat resem-
bling that of a clock, exhibiting the changes by the mo-
tion of a hand.
The third differs from the first in having the bore of
the tube of unequal diameters, to guard against the
accidents by motion of the vessel.
58 THE ATMOSPHERE.
The fourth is so accurately divided as to exhibit the
minutest difference in elevation ; and is used for mea-
suring the height of mountains.
Among these the marine barometer presents the most
interesting beauties. Its use, however, is not so com-
mon as its merits deserve. To those who wander over
trackless seas, and along unknown coasts, the ability to
discover a threatened change would be invaluable.
Several romantic stories are connected with the his-
tory of this instrument ; and all who have experienced
its benefits, have snme incident to relate illustrating its
value. Arnott states that he f was one of a numerous
crew, who probably owed their preservation to its almost
miraculous warning. It was in a southern latitude.
The sun had just set with placid appearance, closing a
beautiful afternoon, and the usual mirth of the evening
watch was proceeding, when the captain's order came
to prepare with all haste for a storm. As yet, the old-
est sailors had not perceived even a threatening in the
sky, and were surprised at the extent and hurry of the
preparations. But the required measures were not
completed, when a more awful hurricane burst upon them
than the most experienced had ever braved. Nothing
could withstand it: the sails, already furled, and closely
bound to the yards, were riven away in tatters: even
the bare yards and masts were in great part disabled ;
and at one time the whole rigging had nearly fallen
by the board. Such, for a few hours, was the mingled
roar of the hurricane above, of the waves around, and
of the incessant peals of thunder, that no human voice
could be heard ; and amidst the general consternation,
even the trumpet sounded in vain.
' In that awful night, but for the little tube of mercury
which had given the warning, by having fallen with
great rapidity, neither the strength of the noble ship,
nor the skill and energies of the commander, could have
saved one man to tell the tale.'
The barometer is also used for determining the height
of mountains. It was the experiment of Pascal with
this instrument, that satisfactorily proved the difference
THE ATMOSPHERE. 59
in the weight of the air at various heights, and which
established its pressure.
If the atmosphere support a column of quicksilver at
thirty inches at the level of the sea, we must infer that
the height of the fluid will diminish as we ascend. We
accordingly find, by a rough calculation, that an ascent of
a thousand feet causes the quicksilver to sink one inch.
On Mont Blanc it falls to about fifteen inches, show-
ing an elevation of fifteen thousand feet. And in De
Luc's famous balloon ascent, it sunk to twelve inches,
proving an altitude of twentyone thousand feet, the
greatest height to which man has ever risen.
THE SYPHON.
The name of this instrument is also derived from the
Greek, and signifies simply a tube. The syphon is
a crooked tube, one leg or branch of which is longer
than the other. It is used for raising fluids, emptying
vessels, and various hydrostatical experiments.
The principle of the formation of the syphon, forbids
a greater height than thirtytwo feet, when the two ex-
tremities rest on a horizontal plane. If now the lesser
limb be immersed in water, and the air be removed from
the tube, the pressure of the air on the surrounding
water will force it to pass off through this instrument.
From small syphons, the air may be removed in three
ways. 1st. By drawing it out by the mouth ; 2d. By
a small pump connected with the tube; and 3d. By in-
verting it, and filling both limbs with the fluid. Then,
on immersing the extremity of the short limb, as just de-
scribed, its purpose will be effected. The explanation
of the effect may be understood, by recollecting that
each extremity is equally pressed by the surrounding
atmosphere ; ' but the air not being able to sustain all
the water in the longer leg, and being more than able
to sustain that in the shorter leg ; Avith the excess of
force, therefore, it will raise new water into the shorter
leg ; and this new water cannot make its way but by
protruding the tirst before it ; by this means is the water
continually driven out at the longer leg, as it is con-
tinually raised by the shorter.'
60 THE ATMOSPHERE.
This instrument is very useful for drawing off liquids
without disturbing their sediment. And it may be em-
floyed for emptying vessels of any size, or even a lake,
t would be an invaluable means of removing water
from certain lands which could not otherwise be im-
proved. A tube formed of bored logs, may be laid from
the place to be drained, even over a hill, if it do not
exceed thirtytwo feet in height, and down its side so far
as to make that the longer limb. Both ends must then
be plugged, that the syphon may be filled with water,
when the plugs may be removed, and the pressure of
the air will force out all the water reached by the end
of the log.
The syphon will continue to act until all the fluid
has been consumed, or that discharged shall have at-
tained a height equal to that from which it came.
There is a pretty toy made on this principle, called
the cup of Tantalus, from the mythological fable of the
being who was condemned to stand in water up to his
neck, and yet to die of thirst. The glass exhibits the
figure of a human being standing in the centre. When
water is poured into it, it rises until it reaches the neck
of the image, and immediately begins to pass off through
a concealed syphon, and continues till the whole is
discharged.
This instrument also explains the cause of intermitting
springs, or those which run for a time and suddenly
stop, and then resume their discharge after a certain
period. They are produced by the channels through
which the water flows, being formed like syphons.
In some places there are springs which run freely in
summer or in dry weather, but discharge no water in
the winter, or in wet weather. This is caused by a
hollow in the hill being fed by runners, but having, be-
side the vent through which the spring flows, a waste-
pipe like a syphon, which carries off the fluid another
way, as soon as it is sufficiently high.
Superstitious circumstances are often associated with
such springs, but by understanding the principle of the
syphon, their marvellous character is easily explained.
THE ATMOSPHERE. 61
ELASTICITY OF THE AIR.
We say that body or material is elastic, whose parti-
cles admit of condensation or compression, and an im-
mediate return to their primitive condition, when the
compressing power is removed. All aeriform bodies
are perfectly elastic, and admit of compression and
condensation in the fullest degree. There is no quali-
ty of the air so important to the arts as its elasticity.
To it belongs the principle of the airpump, the fire-
engine, the airgun, the match syringe and the diving
bell.
There is no spring worthy of comparison with the
elastic power of the air. Load it as heavily as we may,
it will sink beneath the weight, but it cannot be broken.
Confine it for centuries to the same labor, it is there
still, faithful and unworn, ever ready to perform its
task. And though the being who confines it for his
operations, realizes the value of its power, and sinks
down to the grave, it still remains the willing slave of
his descendants, until the barriers that confine it, conr
sumed by the accumulated rust of years, refuse to re-
tain the servant longer.
The instrument by which most of the experiments
illustrating the pressure of the atmosphere are shown,
is called an airpump. Its object is to remove the air
from one side or surface of a vessel, that the natural
pressure on the opposite side may not be resisted by
the pressure from below. We are apt to associate ideas
of great complexity with the name of an airpump, when
in fact it is among the most simple instruments of phi-
losophy. Any one who has noticed the structure of a
common water pump, has seen the whole of the materi-
als used in the other; therefore we will first speak
of the water pump, which properly belongs to the pres-
sure of the air, but is introduced here for facility of de-
scription, and then show how nearly they resemble each
other.
THE ATMOSPHERE.
COMMON PUMP.
A pump may be considered as a simple cylinder,
with a box or valve fixed at one end, and another, mov-
able by a piston, connected with a handle at the upper
end of the cylinder. The first elevation of the handle
causes the upper valve to descend, and when it is de-
pressed, the valve is made to rise. The result of
this action, when the pump is prepared for uso, is to
lift the air on the first depression of the handle, and
cause a partial vacancy between the lower box and the
one that has been raised. The air not being allowed
to enter from above through the valve, is removed from
the place it had occupied, while that resting on the sur-
face of the water, surrounding the pump, forces it up to
supply the deficiency. The piston being again de-
pressed, meets with the water that has passed through
the lower valve, which readily lifts the upper box, and
passing through it, is easily raised when the handle is
again pressed down. A continuance of this action soon
produces a regular stream from the spout of the pump.
An effect precisely similar to this, is produced in the
elevation and depression of the piston of the airpump.
The air passes through its valves in the same manner
as the air and water have passed through those of the
common pump. The barrel of the airpump is connect-
ed by a tube to a flat plate of glass or metal, on which the
glass or receiver, as it is called, has been placed to
have its air taken away. The principle of the airpump
depends on the repulsion or elasticity of the air in ex-
panding by the removal of pressure. At each eleva-
tion of the piston a portion of air escapes, whose place
is immediately occupied by the expansion of that which
remains. This expansion continues until the repulsive
powers of the air are no longer able to expel those
particles which rest at the bottom of the piston.
The result of the removal of air from a vessel is
called a vacuum. This must be produced in all vessels
intended to exhibit the pressure of the air. It exists in
the barometer between the fluid and the top of the tube,
and is called the Torricellian vacuum, which is the most
perfect that art can produce.
THE ATMOSPHERE. 63
The first vacuum obtained by mechanical means,
was that of Otto de Guericke, a burgomaster of Mag-
deburg, who, in the year 1654, removed the air from two
hemispheres, by the use of a syringe. The experi-
ment he wished to exhibit was the pressure of the air.
In this he succeeded, for the continued efforts of twelve
horses, pulling in opposite directions, could not overcome
the power by which the hemispheres were pressed to-
gether.
If we place an inverted tumbler, whose edge has
been ground, upon the plate of the pump, and exhaust
the air, it will be so firmly fixed as to be difficult of re-
moval. The power required to raise the tumbler, will
be equal to the number of square inches it covers, mul-
tiplied by fifteen pounds.
The airpurnp and barometer reciprocally prove each
other. The barometer, showing when the air has been
removed from a vessel, by the entire fall of the quick-
silver; and the airpump proving the fluid is supported
by the air, by this operation.
A great number of experiments may be exhibited by
the airpump, which the limits of our number will not
allow us to describe. Besides it is our object rather to
explain principles than to dwell on particulars.
The cause by which water is generally supposed to
be raised in a pump is called suction. But there is
not a single instance where it is supposed to prevail,
which cannot be explained by the pressure of the air.
The term suction is too vague and indefinite for any
philosophical purpose, and blinds us to those beauties
which nature has presented. The effect from which this
appellation will be the most difficult of removal, is that
produced by the mouth. Sucking poisoned wounds is
coeval with the remotest antiquity, and although the
term conveys to our minds a certain operation, yet it
does not reveal to us its real features. The applica-
tion of this word to the process of drinking, would be
considered highly vulgar, yet it is performed on pre-
cisely the same principle, and in a manner similar to
64 THE ATMOSPHERE.
sucking the poison from a wound. When the lips are
applied to a wound, the effort is to remove the pressure
of the air from its surface, that the internal pressure
may predominate, and force out the exposed fluids,
thereby carrying off the poison that may have been
mixed with them.
FIRE-ENGINE.
The greatest improvement ever made in this machine,
was in the addition of the airchamber. No additional
force is gained by its use, nor is its mechanical efficacy
increased; for the force requisite to compel the water
to enter this chamber, is exactly equal to the elasticity
of the compressed air. It is to be considered as a mag-
azine or storehouse of power, which acts uniformly upon-
the fluid, and forces it out in a continued stream. Be-
sides this, there is an absolute saving of the fluid; for
in every depression of the piston of the common force
pump, the water being thrown by jerks, a consider-
able quantity must fall short of the intended object. la
the oldfashioned engine, the water could only be thrown
by jerks, as the piston was forced down upon the fluid.
It is on this principle of compressed air, that the
water is raised from the Schuylkill, to supply the city
of Philadelphia. It is directed by the power of ma-
dhinery into the airchamber, whence it is forced upward
to a great height on the hill, and empties into the ba-
sins, from which it is led to the city.
There are numerous applications of this property of
the atmosphere to various artificial fountains. Some of
them are so formed as to contain all the air naturally
required for their operation. Others depend upon a
suitable quantity being first injected by a condensing
syringe.
The difference between this syringe and an airpump
consists merely in the inversion of both valves, whereby
the action of the instrument is reversed. Each valve
opening downward, it is easily perceived when the pistou
is raised, that the air must pass downward through the
valve, and when it is depressed, this air not beinff
able to escape upwards, must he forced down through
THE ATMOSPHERE. 65
the lower valve into any vessel connected with the end
of the cylinder.
This instrument is called a condenser, and is used
in all cases where we wish to force more air into a vessel
than it naturally contains. An experiment fully exhib-
iting this effect, may be shown by connecting with
the end of the condenser, a vessel whose only opening
has been covered with gum elastic or India rubber.
The first depression of the piston will cause this cov-
ering to protrude, and a repetition will increase the
distention.
AIRGUN.
The most wonderful effect of condensed air is exhibited
by the airgun. This instrument differs from a common
gun, in having a receptacle for air, which may either be
a hollow ball screwed to the lower end of the barrel at
its under part, or a cavity in the breech. These cham-
bers, when opened, communicate with the barrel, and
when the condensed air is suffered to escape, it rushes
into the barrel and drives out the ball with surprising
velocity.
It is a curious fact, that, although the airpump is com-
paratively a modern invention, the airgun, so nearly
allied to it in the construction of its valves, should have
existed long antecedent to it. For it is recorded that
an airgun was made for Henry IV. by Marin, of
Lisieux, in Normandy, in 1408 ; and another was pre-
served in the armory of Schmetau, bearing date 1474.
That in present use is, however, very different in effect
from those originally made, which discharged but one
bullet after a tedious process of condensation. While
the present one may be made to discharge thirty or
forty with effect, with the same charge of air.
The airchamber is charged by screwing it to the end
of the condenser, and forcing it down suddenly upon
the piston, which is securely held by the feet resting on
its handle. The air resting on the piston, is thus forced
into the chamber through the opening, which is covered
by a valve opening inwards. At each depression of
the chamber upon the piston, the air is driven up-
wards, whence it cannot return on account of the valve.
VOL. i. NO. in. 6*
66 THE ATMOSPHERE.
When sufficient air has been condensed, this chamber
is to be removed and attached to the gun, which is then
ready to receive the ball. This is placed in the mouth
of the barrel, and is made to fit closely by first laying it
on a small piece of linen, which, when forced down by
the rod, perfectly fills the bore.
In discharging the gun, the force of the lock is di-
rected by a small steel piston, moving through a collar,
ngainst the valve of the chamber. The air instantly
escapes by its side, and rushing into the barrel, drives
out the ball. It is necessary to observe, that the action
of the lock being instantaneous, the power of the piston
is lost after its projection, and it immediately recedes,
while the elasticity of the air forces the valve to its
place, thereby preventing the escape of more than was
intended. The discharges may be continued until the
resistance of the condensed air is reduced to its ordinary
pressure.
There were two other applications of this principle,
recently exhibited in this city, in the model of a cannon
and in a common walking-cane, the workmanship of Mr
Adam Stewart, an accomplished mechanician. The im-
provements in his use of the principle, evince great
skill and ingenuity in their projector.
The estimates offeree possessed by the airgun, when
fully charged, have been very Various. Even in its
earliest days there existed wonderful stories of its power.
By many, the expansive force of the air in the cham-
ber, has been compared with that of gunpowder. But
the only opinions worthy of attention are those founded
on experiment. The smallest result of the force of gun-
powder that we have met with, is that given by Mr
Robins. His calculation was, that the elastic force of
the fluid produced by ignited gunpowder, is at least one
thousand times greater than the ordinary pressure of
the air. And if we consider that pressure to be fifteen
pounds to the square inch, we have a result of fifteen
thousand pounds to every square inch of the surface
which confines it.
The ordinary charge of airguns, has been equal to
between forty and fifty atmospheres, or between six
THE ATMOSPHERE. 67
hundred and seven hundred and fifty pounds to the
square inch. But in the instruments of Mr Stewart,
this pressure has been very much exceeded. And we
believe he has produced greater condensation in the
chamber than any who has preceded him.
The experiments of Bernoulli and Count Rumford,
resulted in their belief that the force of ignited powder
was at least ten thousand times greater than that of the
ordinary pressure of the atmosphere.
According to the smallest calculation, we perceive
before these forces can be equal, a pressure of at least
fifteen thousand pounds to the square inch must be
produced by compressed air.
MATCH SYRINGE.
The match syringe consists of a simple hollow cylin-
der, closed at one end, and a solid piston movable its
whole length. Its object is suddenly to compress the
air contained in the cylinder, and render its heat sensi-
ble. The assertion that much heat exists in the atmos-
phere is proved by this condensation. For by com-
pressing the air to a very small space, the particles of
heat are brought into so close contact, as to set fire to
an inflammable substance fixed in the bottom of the
piston. The material generally employed, is a piece of
dry lint which has been previously dipped into a solution
of saltpetre. The piston, armed with this, being sud-
denly driven to the base of the barrel, is immediately
thrown back by the elasticity of the air, and exhibits the
intended effect.
A singular result of this compression is continually
shown in the ordinary changes of the atmosphere. Some
might suppose that the wind which comes down from a
snow-covered mountain, would excite the sensation of
great cold. But they must recollect that the density of
the air on the earth and on the mountain, is very differ-
ent. A cubic foot of air on the ground, contains twice
as much heat as a cubic foot at three miles and a half
from the earth. And consequently, the air which de-
scends is gradually increasing in density, and becomes
of a similar temperature by mechanical compression.
68 THE ATMOSPHERE.
Hence, we perceive, it may be the same air which
waves the flowers by a warm breeze, drinks the mois-
ture that broods over the lake, and rising with it to the
mountain top, deposits it in crystals on its summit.
DIVING BELL.
This is an inverted vessel, perfectly tight at the top
and sides, and open at the bottom, intended to carry
men down under water, to perform various occupations.
Weights are arranged around its lower part to increase
its gravity, and cause it to descend perpendicularly.
Its principle may be illustrated by inverting a tumbler
in water, and pressing it down to some distance. The
inside will remain perfectly dry, proving that the resis-
tance of the air has prevented the water from entering.
The water cannot enter without displacing the air, any
more than we can place one body in the spot occupied
by another, without first removing the original occupant.
The only opening in the bell is at the bottom, and the
air being lighter than the water, cannot descend to
escape ; hence it must be condensed by the pressure
from below.
A beautiful experiment, illustrative of the value of the
diving bell, and of a continual supply of fresh air, may
be shown by inverting a large tumbler over a floating
lighted taper, and pressing it down to the bottom of the
vessel. The taper will continue to float, although sent
down the whole depth of the water, and may again be
brought to the surface, still burning, if the experiment
be quickly performed. If this be not attended to, the
flame will be extinguished by the destruction of the
oxygen of the air, the place of which will be supplied
by the rising water.
The flame may be considered analagous to an indi-
vidual, as he requires the same oxygen for his preser-
vation which nourishes the flame. And if he be not
supplied with fresh air by artificial means, he must soon
fall a victim to his temerity.
The invention of the diving bell is universally assigned
to the 16th century. Our first information of its use in
Europe is that of Taisnier. He relates, that ' at Toledo,
THE ATMOSPHERE.
in Spain, in the year 1538, he saw, in the presence of
the Emperor Charles V. and about ten thousand speo
tators, two Greeks let themselves down under vrater, ifc
a large inverted kettle, with a burning light, and rigo
up again without being wet.'
After this time it became more known, and is spoken
of in the works of Lord Bacon, who describes its effects,
emd commends its value in facilitating submarine labor.
Among the greatest results of the use of this machine,
may be considered those of William Phipps, a native of
this country, who, in the year 1683, under leave of
Charles II., formed a project for searching for a rich
Spanish ship sunk on the coast of Hispaniola. After
many trials, he succeeded in bringing up from the depth
of six or seven fathoms, treasures to the value of
,200,000 sterling. He afterwards received the honor
of knighthood, and died in London in 1693.
Diving bells are made of different forms and materials.
When made of wood, they are generally about five feet
high, four feet broad at the top, and six feet at the bot-
tom. When made of iron they are sometimes of this
form, but more frequently are made to resemble the
lower half of a cone. The one used at Hov.'th, neat
Dublin, is an oblong iron chest, six feet long, four broad,
and five high, and weighs about four tons. It has two
Seats capable of holding four persons.
Their descent in water depends on the law of Hydro-
statics, that l a body immersed in a fluid, displaces
exactly its own bulk of it.' And consequently, that it
may be sunk, it must be made heavier than a bulk of
water equal to itself in size. Therefore, in calculating
the weight requisite to sink a bell, we first ascertain
the number of cubic feet it contains, and knowing the
average weight of a cubic foot of water to be about
sixtytwo and a half pounds, we multiply the bulk by the
weight of the water, and the quotient will be the power
requisite to balance the upward pressure. An excess
of weight is then added to facilitate its descent.
We are particularly indebted to Dr Halley for the
improvements in this machine, and for the means where-
by individuals are enabled to continue a long time under
70 THE ATMOSPHERE.
water. He substituted glasses in the top of the bell
for the lamp that had been used, and suggested the use
of airbarrels, which were sent down by weights, to
supply the change of air requisite for respiration.
Before his time many inconveniences were suffered
by submarine laborers. The bell was obliged to be
frequently raised to let out the contaminated air, and
though there have been many suggestions offered since
his improvements, yet the bells now made are generally
similar to the one he describes.
The machine is supplied with air in two ways, de-
pending on its depth. In the ordinary labors about
docks and shallow streams, a force pump, or condensing
syringe is connected with a tube which leads to the top
of the bell. By this, air may be driven down into it,
and the water kept entirely from rising one inch. But
when the depth is great, the power requisite to work
the pump is greatly increased. For at the depth of
thirtyfour feet the pressure from below is equal to fif-
teen pounds to the inch, and so on in proportion as it
descends.
This was remedied by the suggestion of Dr Halley,
who sent down barrels of air to an individual, whose
duty it was to direct this air into the bell.
The means of communication from those below is
effected through cords. Two lines pass from the in-
side of the machine under the bottom, upward to the
hand of a person whose duty is -to observe the signals.
In the bell, as well as above, is a signal board, whereon
those signals are marked. To make this more easily
understood, we will subjoin a copy of one of these signal
boards, which was used in this city, a few years ago,
in building the Marine Railway.
1 Pull, To the right.
S I-ulh, To the left.
3 Pulls, Forward.
4 Pulls, Outward.
1 Pull, In trouble.
2 Pulls, Hoist the bell.
3 Pulls, Cant tho bell.
iPull, Stop lowering.
2 Pulls, Lower away.
3 Pulls, Hoist a little.
4 Pulls, Stop hoisting.
When the bell is made of cast iron, the signals may
be given in this way or by sounds. A stroke on the
bell with a hammer is easily heard above, and a list of
THE ATMOSPHERE. 71
signals so arranged, is used in the manner thus de-
scribed.
The diving bell has been applied to many useful pur-
poses, as the construction of marine works, the eleva-
tion of sunken vessels, and the recovery of treasures
from the bottom of rivers.
But one of its most singular applications, has been in
blasting rocks at a considerable distance under water.
At Howth, in Ireland, persons descended, and drilled
and charged the rock, and carried up a tin tube to the
surface, through which the fire was to be applied. This
was done by dropping a piece of red hot iron down upon
the powder.
CONCLUSION.
There is no subject of natural philosophy more inter-
esting than the one we have just considered. It presents
so many beauties, and so great a variety, that we are
surprised that a substance with which we are so familiar
can possess such features.
Until Philosophy began her researches mankind knew
nothing of the subtile fluid which surrounds the earth,
and which extends so far from its surface. They had
no idea of the effect of respiration ; why a flame was
enkindled by forcing a current of air through a dull fire,
and why fermentation was facilitated by an exposition
to the atmosphere. They enjoyed the delightful breeze
which gathered the night-dew from the flower, and
passed along laden with its fragrance ; but the power
of the air was only known to them in the wind, which in
its fury lashed the ocean into foaming billows, and swept
down the trees of the forest and the habitations of men.
They knew nothing of the air but by its effects, as the
child observes the motion of the hand of the clock, with' 1
out comprehending its cause.
There is something peculiarly interesting in the dis-
covery of causes. Effects with which we are familiar
soon cease to excite attention, even when the subject is
stupendous ; but when we have traced anything, how-
ever simple, to its first cause, we experience delight
72 THE ATMOSPHERE.
and satisfaction. How interesting, for instance, is the
knowledge of the composition of light, for by an exami^
nation of its constituents, we are enabled to account for
the color of the sky. How curious is the fact that
ohemistry exhibits in the composition of the atmosphere,
whereby certain proportions of oxygen and nitrogen r&-
sult in a compound of qualities so useful. In other
proportions they form the nitrous oxide or exhilarating
gas, and again, in others, nitric acid, or aqua fortis.
The science of chemistry is filled with this variety of
combinations of the same materials resulting in different
compounds, and by the aid of analysis, the chemist is
able to separate the constituents, and explain the cause
of the result. He shows us that the difference between
the air we breathe, exhilarating gas, and aqua fortis,
merely depends on the quantity of oxygen employed;
and that the only philosophical difference of ice, water,
and vapor, consists in their relative proportions of heal.
By experiment, also, Philosophy has ascertained the
weight of the atmosphere, and informs us of its precise
pressure on the whole surface of the earth. It tells us
that the motion of a fly on the perpendicular plane of
glass, the process of drinking, and the power of the old
Steam engine, are effected by the pressure of the air.
By the aid of a very few instruments, all these facts
have been discovered, which prove to us that nature
develops more curious circumstances than fancy can
conceive, and at the same time assures us that her most
sublime operations may be explained on the simple prin-
ciples of philosophy.
SCIENTIFIC TRACTS
NUMBER IV.
GRAVITATION.
INTRODUCTORY REMARKS.
PERHAPS the reader, on seeing the title of this tract,
will be disposed to doubt whether the subject is a use-
ful or interesting one. We all know, it may be said,
that bodies fall towards the earth, and what can philoso-
phers teach us in addition to this simple knowledge of
the fact, than merely to give to the generalojaw, the
learned name of Gravitation? Giving a name* is no ex-
planation, i.
Let us attend one "moment to what is meant by an ex-
planation. A savage sees,; a sailor, who has landed on
his shores, point his gun towards the wild animal, bound-
ing through the forest. A flash and an explosion suc-
ceed, and the animal stops* suddenly in his progress,
falls bleeding to the ground, and dies. If the aston-
ished native ask- an explanation, he is told that the in-
strument which produced the/effect is hollow; that it
contained an explosive powder and a heavy ball ; that
the gunner's finger, by a motion too small' for him to per-
ceive, produced a collision of ftint and st'eel, and that,
by the resulting spark, the charge is inflamed, and the
ball is forced through the air, with a rapidity which his
eye cannot follow, and which is fatal to the object of its
aim.
This is one kind of explanation. It consists, as every
one will easily see, of bringing to view circumstances
which intervene between the cause and the effect.; and
which, before, were hidden. The pointing of the p~un is
the cause, the death of the animal the effect, and the
collision of the flint and steel, the explosion ofthepow-
VOL. i NO. iv. 7
74 GRAVITATION.
der, and the flight of the ball, are the circumstances
intervening, which were unknown to the inquirer until
the explanation brought them to light.
Now take another case. A child sees a bar of steel,
balanced upon a pivot, in a peculiar case with a glass
top. He finds upon moving the case that the bar turns
upon its pivot, so as to point in all cases in one direction.
He too asks an explanation, and is told, that a certain
kind of steel bars, when freely suspended, always arrange
themselves in a North and South direction.
This is another kind of explanation. It will be per-
ceived that it is totally different from the other. It men-
tions no intervening circumstances between the cause
and the effect. It merely points out other phenomena of
the same kind; shows what is essential in the arrange-
ment which produces this effect, and which will insure
its repetition, and thus, in fine, describes in general
terms the class of phenomena to which this belongs.
JNfow it will be evident, by a moment's reflection, that
such an explanation as this is nearly if not quite as vaj li-
able as the other. Without it the inquirer might be led
into a great many errors. He might suppose that the
glass, - the shape of the room, the form of the bar,
the skill of the operator, were concerned in the result.
The explanation has dispelled all these, pointed out
to him what is really essential, and given him all the
knowledge which can be of any practical benefit. There
are many phenomena which admit of no other kind of
explanation than this; for this simple reason that in re-
gard to them, we know of no links connecting the cause
and effect, and we must therefore only ascertain what
are the circumstances essential for the production of the
effect, and give to all the phenomena of the same class
one general name. This is what we design to do with
the subject before us.
Sir Isaac Newton was the individual whose discoveries
brought to view and established the law of gravitation.
When first led to think of the subject by seeing an apple
fall to the ground, he did not attempt to find an explana-
tion of the kind like the first mentioned above ; i. c. to
discover something intervening between the earth and
GRAVITATION. 75
the apple, which should bring the latter down. His ob-
ject was to learn what other facts were analogous to this,
and what other phenomena were produced in the same
way, expecting, when all these should be ascertained,
that he would be able to express the whole in general
terms, and deduce from them a general law. His in-
quiries were completely successful. He obtained the
following general law :
All material objects, have, under all circumstances, a
tendency to approach each other.
That this is a universal law, or in other words, that it
is universally true, has been proved by observation in a
great variety of particulars. These we shall proceed to
describe.
1. GRAVITATION BETWEEN THE HEAVENLY BODIES.
For a long time the motions of the heavenly bodies
defied all attempts at accurate calculation. The various
theories advanced would not account for the facts. The
variations from circular orbits, the occasional slight ir-
regularities in some cases returning at regular intervals,
and sometimes entirely unexpected, received no solution.
But the supposition that every material body has a ten-
dency to move towards every other, perfectly explains the
whole. Not only are the great regular motions of the
various primary and secondary planets about their cen-
tres fully explained, but all the exact forms of the curves
in which they move, and every irregularity in the motion
is fully accounted for by this simple supposition.
The manner in which the revolutions of the planets
about their centres is produced, may be thus illustrated.
Suspend by a string from the wall, a small leaden
weight. If left to itself, it hangs perpendicularly, and is
at rest. If now it is drawn up from the centre, it tends
to return to the centre, and will, if liberated, swing to
and fro like a pendulum. If, however, instead of simply
letting it fall, it is thrown off upon one side, it will pass
round in an eliptical or circular orbit. It will be very
GRAVITATIOX.
evident that this motion will be produced by the united
influence of the force with which the weight was thrown
off by the hand, and the tendency down towards the cen-
tre. This last represents gravitation. And although
the motion of the weight in this experiment is in many
respects different from that of a planet, yet the illustra-
tion is good in this respect ; viz. it shows how the con-
stant operation of a tendency towards the centre, may
cause a body to revolve about that centre in a circular or
eliptical orbit.
It will, however, be justly said, that if the tendency of
one body to another is universal, it will be apparent not
only between a planet and the sun, but between one planet
and another. This is the fact. In the adjoining dia-
gram, let S rep-
resent the sun, M
Mars, and J Jupi-
ter. Whenever
the two planets,
in their regular
revolutions, pass
near each other,
each is drawn out
of its regular path.
Instead ofpassing
in the curves of
their orbits, they
approach each
other and move
in the paths rep-
resented by the dotted lines in the figure. When Mars,
which revolves more rapidly than Jupiter, passes beyond
the influence of the latter, both return to their original
paths.
There are many other disturbances in the planetary
motions, which no ingenuity could explain before the
simple principle of gravitation was discovered. They
are so numerous, and correspond so exactly with the the-
ory, as to leave not the slightest room to doubt, that
among all the heavenly bodies, sufficiently near us to
have their motions observed, there is this uniform ten-
dency to move towards each other.
GRAVITATION. 77
These disturbances are, however, though great in num-
ber, much less in amount than we should suppose by
looking at astronomical diagrams. The reason is, that
the relative magnitudes and distances of these bodies are
very incorrectly represented in these diagrams. If the
sun is represented by a ball 75 feet in diameter, the earth
would be at the distance of a mile and a half, and would
be about the size of a man's head, and the next planet
beyond the earth would be three quarters of a mile far-
ther, and about half as large. It is impossible to repre-
sent these proportions on paper of a moderate size, and
accordingly, in all diagrams the sun and planets are
brought much nearer to each other in proportion to their
size, than they are in reality. It will be evident, from a
slight consideration of the true proportions, that the influ-
ence of the planets upon each other must be very incon-
siderable compared with that which is exerted upon them by
the immense body which occupies the centre of the system.
2. GRAVITATION BETWEEN ONE HEAVENLY BODY AND
THE PARTS OP ANOTHEIl.
If the facts stated under the preceding head were all
which had been observed, gravitation would not be pioved
to be a universal laic of matter. It would be doubtful
whether the attraction which causes two heavenly bodies
to approach, was a property belonging to every particle
of which each was composed, or whether it pertained
exclusively to some substance which each contained, but
which formed only a part of each. It might not have
been an improbable supposition that some central mass in
each might alone possess the attracting power, and cause
the bodies to which they respectively belonged, to ap-
proach each other. This supposition is, however, pre-
vented by the following facts.
The Parts of the earth gravitate towards the heavenly,
bodies. The waters of the ocean and the atmosphere,
the only bodies connected with the earth which are ca>
pable of separate motion, have a motion separate from
that of the whole body of the earth. These waters, and
this atmosphere rise towards the sun and the moon on
VOL. I NO. IV. 7*
78 GRAVITATION.
those parts of the earth which are towards those bodies.
This conclusively proves that the gravitation of the earth
towards the sun and moon is not simply the gravitation
of the earth as a whole or of some nucleus in the centre,
but of the various parts of the earth, as separate and dis-
tinct portions of matter.
There is another phenomenon, which was observed
long before it was understood, and which is decisive
proof of the same point. The earth is not exactly spheri-
cal but is fuller in its shape around the equator. Now
if the attraction of the earth to the sun is owing to some
peculiar substance in its centre, it is plain that this sur-
plus about the equatorial regions will have no effect upon
its motions. If, however, this surplus gravitates towards
the sun, as all the rest of the matter of which the earth
is composed, it is plain that in some peculiar circumstan-
ces it may cause a modification of its motions. This last
is found to be the fact ; and it proves that the solid parts
of the earth as well as the liquid and gaseous, have sepa-
rately a tendency towards other material bodies which
come into their vicinity.
3. GRAVITATION BETWEEN THE EARTH AND THE LOOSE
MASSES UPON ITS SURFACE.
It is scarcely necessary to remark that gravitation is
manifested in this case by the falling of bodies, and by
their weight. That there is no one downward direction,
into which all bodies tend, is evident from the fact that
upon different sides of the earth, bodies fall in different
directions towards it. A stone in America, and another
in Asia, falling to the ground, will move directly towards
each other. All these motions are evidently the result
of a tendency of all bodies to move towards the great
mass of matter constituting the earth.
The air gravitates ; that is, is attracted by the earth, and
rests with weight upon it. That portion of the air which
is near the surface is loaded with the burden of all that is
above, and is compressed by it in a much smaller space
than it would naturally occupy. This pressure produces
GRAVITATION. 79
a great many curious effects.* If a vacancy is anywhere
produced, the surrounding air is forced by this pressure
violently into it. If the air is removed from a bladder,
the sides are forced together, and no effort can separate
them so as to leave within an empty space. When the
piston or box of a pump rises, it brings up with it the air
within the pump ; the load of air upon the water around
it forces the liquid up into the space thus left. When
the air is exhausted by a suitable apparatus from a thin
glass vessel, its sides will often be crushed inwards by
the pressure of the surrounding air.
It was well known that the atmosphere would rush
with violence into any vacant space long before the facts
were referred to the right cause, and there was a long
and obstinate controversy among the philosophers, wheth-
er the phenomena in question were really owing to the
weight and pressure of the air, or to What one party called
Nature's abhorrence of a vacuum. This controversy was
at last settled by experiments made upon a certain moun-
tain in the south of France, by which it appeared that
the tendency of the air to rush into the vacant space was
decidedly less upon the elevation, than at the ordinary
level of the ground. Now, as in ascending an eminence,
we pass above a considerable portion of the atmosphere,
it was natural that what remained above the summit,
should press less heavily than the whole. The difference
of the effects was therefore very easily accounted for, on
the supposition that they were both owing to the pressure
of the air ; and as it was absurd to suppose that Nature's
abhorrence ef a vacuum would be less upon a mountain,
than in a valley, the advocates of this latter theory gave
up the point.f
The gravitation of the air may also be proved, as it often
has been, by a very simple experiment. A vessel, filled
as usual with air, is weighed. The air is then removed
by an air pump, and the vessel, now empty, is weighed
again. The difference, which is very sensible, shows
the weight of the air which had been removed.
It may be at first imagined that there are some excep-
* See No. II., p. 54. t See No. III., p. 41.
GRAVITATION
tions to the remark that all bodies on or near the surface
of the earth, tend to move towards it. Smoke ascends ;
vapors rise ; clouds float gently in the sky ; and bal-
loons, filled with peculiar gases, soar into the air, bear-
ing with them heavy burdens. These, however, far from
being exceptions to the rule, are only instances of its
perfect operation. A block of wood, though it has in
itself a tendency to fall, will rise to the surface of the
water, into which it is plunged. The water having a
stronger tendency to move towards the earth, presses
down under it, and it rises by the very power of gravita-
tion itself. The gravitating air, in the same manner,
forces up the vapor, the smoke and the balloon, all of
which would fall with the rapidity of a stone, if nothing
resisted their motion.
4. GRAVITATION BETWEEN SMALL BODIES AND PARTS
OP THE EARTH.
The facts which have been mentioned under the pre-
ceding heads, show the existence and the power of grav-
itation in cases so numerous and diversified as to render
it highly probable that this force is a universal property
of matter. There remains, however, much to be added
to the evidence ; and one very interesting class of exper-
iments are those which show the attracting power of
mountains. It was suggested by Newton, that if the
law which he discovered were a universal law, a plumb
line suspended by the side of a mountain, would deviate
from a perpendicular by the attraction of the mountain.
The experiment has since been made in two instances,
and with complete success. It was first tried in South
America, by the side of the celebrated Mountain, Chim-
borazo, by some French Mathematicians. It was ascer-
tained by very accurate experiments that a plumb line
suspended near the mountain was drawn out of its per-
pendicular towards the mountain eight seconds. This, it
will be perceived, is a very small angle, and the deviation
would be expected to be small, if we consider how small
is the mountain compared with the whole bulk of the
earth. There is every reason to place confidence in the
correctness of the result.
GRAVITATION. 81
Not many years after, a similar experiment was tried in
Scotland, upon Mt. Schehallien, with a similar result ; and
the influence of the mountain in drawing the weight from
a true perpendicular was established beyond a doubt.*
The particular object of the experiment with Schehal-
lien, was not to prove the reality of the attraction exert-
ed by the mountain, for this was considered as previously
settled, but, to prove from the amount of the attraction
accurately ascertained, the iveigkt of the, earth. The
size of the mountain was ascertained, and also its at-
tracting force, and these were compared with thxxse of
the earth, and the result showed that the earth attracted
more in proportion to its size than the mountain. The
philosophers inferred from this that it was composed of
heavier, i. e. denser materials, in the proportion of about
two to one.
5. GRAVITATION OF SMALL BODIES ON THE EARTH'S
SURFACE TOWARDS EACH OTHER.
The preceding facts and statements, going as far as
they do towards establishing the fact that every portion
of matter attracts and is attracted by a',1 other matter,
will very naturally suggest the inquiry whether this
power is perceptible between small bodies on the earth's
surface. It will be said that if this tendency of matter
to approach matter is universal, two balls placed upon a
level table would have a tendency to roll together. This
tendency might exist, and yet not be easily manifested ;
for an attractive power, which, in so large a mass as the
earth, might have power to move rocks and avalanches
* The reader may perhaps have the curiosity to inquire how the
deviation of the plumb line from the perpendicular, and particularly
its exact amount could be sustained. A telescope was fixed in a
perpendicular position by a plumb line, and then moved from
its position until it pointed towards a certain fixed star. The dis-
tance to which it was moved was noted. The apparatus was then
taken to the opposite side of the mountain, and the observation re-
peated. It was found that the distance to which the telescope was
moved, was different at the two stations. This would not have been
the fact, if the plumb lines had been parallel. For the fixed star is
at so great a distance that its apparent direction would be in both
cases the same.
82 GRAVITATION.
with prodigious violence, might exist in bodies so small,
as the balls upon the table, and yet not be sufficient to
overcome the difficulties which impede their motion. The
little inequalities of the table, too small to be perceived
by the senses ; the resistance of the air which must be
removed from between them if they come together, and
the want of perfect regularity in their form, would, per-
haps, be sufficient to prevent the motion taking place,
when there was a real tendency to it. If the two balls
are suspended by strings, and are brought nearly into
contact, the obstruction to motion would be less than
before ; still the balls in moving towards each other must
evidently rise slightly, on account of the nature of their
suspension. Consequently their tendency to come to-
gether must be sufficient partially to lift them, or its ef-
fects would not be visible.
Various ingenious plans have been devised for sus-
pending bodies in such a manner as to render sensible
their gravitation towards each other. An instrument
called, from the name of its maker, Cavendish's machine,
accomplished the object. Two leaden balls suspended
by an apparatus so contrived as to diminish as much as
possible resistance and friction, gravitated sensibly to-
wards each other. The method adopted was very similar
in principle to that employed by Mr Coulomb, for render-
ing sensible other weak attractions. This method, very
simple and easily imitated, he applied not only to demon-
strating gravitation between small bodies, but also to ren-
dering sensible, and to measuring very many other weak
forces. His instrument was substantially a bar connecting
two heavy leaden balls, a and 6,
and suspended by the string d,
c, attached to the centre of the
bar. If now a heavy mass be
brought near the ball b, the lat-
ter may move towards it with-
out being lifted at all, for it
may move round horizontally
only twisting the string cd. If
it move but little, the twist or (~~\_
slight force, and as"this is all
torsion of the string is a very
O
GRAVITATION. 83
which is to be overcome, the whole apparatus is called
the torsion balance. When a similar contrivance is re-
sorted to to detect and measure weak forces in Electri-
city or Magnetism, little circles of paper in the former,
and small magnetic bars in the latter case, are substitut-
ed for the leaden balls. For these purposes, a single
silk worm's thread, is generally used for the line to which
the bar is suspended.*
By these and similar experiments, the last remaining
link is furnished to that beautiful chain of inductive rea-
soning, by which universal gravitation is established;
and the whole series is abundantly sufficient to satisfy
any mind by which it is attentively considered, that the
great Creator has made it an unvarying and universal
law, that every particle of matter draws towards itself
every other, and is itself reciprocally and equally drawn.
How simple is the principle; how immense the variety
and greatness of its effects ! If this single principle, con-
sidered in connexion with the unconceivable multiplicity
of useful effects which result from it, were the only proofs
of design which the creation afforded, the Atheist would
be compelled as he is now, to abandon reason and argu-
ment, and rest his cause on the bad passions and propen-
sities of the human heart.
THE CAUSE OF GRAVITATION.
The question has very often arisen, what is the nature
of the connexion between one particle of matter and
another by which this tendency to approach is produced ?
Jupiter and Saturn go out of their respective paths to
approach each other. Why do they do it 1 How is the
effect produced ? When the stem decays, the apple
rapidly goes to the earth. Is there any intervening sub-
stance which communicates an effect from one to the
other? Can an explanation of the kind like the first
described in the introductory remarks, be given of this
* The writer has a torsion halance, constructed to be used as an
electrometer, in which the line suspending the bar of shelleac, is
of glass, a very attennuatcd thread, spun from window glass by a
blow pipe and a lamp.
84 GRAVITATION.
phenomenon 1 No explanation ever has been, probably
none can be given, none is needed. The true state
of the case is in all probability this : The Creator has
determined that any two portions of matter placed at
any distance from each other, shall tend to approach ;
and by his own direct agency he carries continually this
determination into effect. This is all. Not only nothing
more has been discovered, but probably there is nothing
more to discover. In regard to gravitation, we probably
know the whole. It is one of the few cases when the
human mind has finished its work. It has reduced the
various and complicated phenomena to one single and
most simple principle, and the operation it is most philo-
sophical to refer to the Being ' who upholdeth all things
by the word of his power.'*
LAWS OP GRAVITATION.
It remains to point out some simple particulars of the
manner in which the principle of gravitation operates,
and one who has not much considered the ultimate sim-
plicity which reigns in nature will be surprised at their
statement.
The gravitating influence, then, which any portion of
matter exerts, may be considered in the following par-
ticulars :
1. It cannot be interrupted or changed.
2. It is the same upon every species of matter.
3. It is the same at every distance.
It may seem singular to present seriously and formally
such propositions as these, which only state the unchange-
* We use the word probable, frequently in these remarks, because
it would be rash to say positively that no intervening link can be
discovered between the cause and the effect in this case. But
when we consider that if such a link could be discovered, its own
connexions must be sustained by the agency of the Supreme, and
when we consider the simplicity and uniformity of the operation of
this law, we may, until clear evidence to the contrary is presented,
safely consider ourselves as having in this instance arrived at
Primordial Law of JYature.
GRAVITATION. 85
ableness of this principle in its operation. Some very
important consequences however result from them, and
all the effects produced by gravitation depend upon them.
They consequently deserve, each, a separate considera-
tion.
1, It cannot be interrupted or changed.
A stone falls towards the earth as rapidly when some
substance is below it, intervening between it and the
earth, as without such intervention. In other words,
nothing can cut off the communication between one body
and another, so as to interrupt the gravitating force which
tends to bring them together. If, in the case of the tor-
sion balance, a plate of brass, or of any other substance,
is brought between the two bodies with which the experi-
ment is tried, it will not in the least degree interfere with
their action. It may perhaps at first view, appear that
no one would have expected such an interference. We
should naturally have supposed, it may be said, that the
interposition of a foreign substance would not cut off the
communication. But this impression results from long
familiarity with the fact. Young persons are always
surprised to see a penknife attracting a magnetic needle
through the glass or the wood of the case ; and an ex-
cited electric causing the leaves of the electrometer to
diverge, when the instrument is enclosed in an air-tight
glass case, is often exhibited to a class in Philosophy as a
wonderful phenomenon. No reason can be assigned,
why the attraction of gravitation should act through an
intervening substance, more than that of electricity and
magnetism, or why the mind, which is surprised at it in
the former case, should consider it a matter of course in
the latter.*
As the gravitating power of matter cannot be cut off,
* The attraction of magnetism is cut off by the interposition of au
iron plate. A curious subject, of a moment's reverie, may be fur-
nished by reflecting on the complete revolution in the arts and the
business of life, which would be produced by the discovery of a sub-
stance, which would in the same manner interrupt gravitation, an4
thus enable man to destroy weight at his pleasure.
VOL. I. NO. IV. 8
86 GRAVITATION.
so it cannot be changed or taken away. Heat a mag-
netic needle, and it loses its power. Touch an excited
electric, and it will attract no longer. But a bullet or a
stone can by no human skill be deprived of its weight.
The Creator has made this principle the inseparable and
immutable property of every material object which he has
formed.
2. It is the same witJi every species of matter.
This may at the first sight appear untrue. For it will
at once occur to the reader, that since gravitation is the
cause of weight, and some bodies are much more heavy
than others of the same magnitude, there must be a dif-
ference in the gravitating power. For example, since a
ball of lead falls much more rapidly and with much
greater force than a ball of cork, it might be inferred
that the gravitation of the former is much greater than
that of the latter.
But there is another way to account for the rapidity and
force with which lead descends; i.e. by supposing that there
is more lead than cork in balls of equal size. The struc-
ture of the cork may be such that the particles are not
compact together, so that they may be three times as
many particles of lead in the same space. If this were
true, the whole mass of lead would fall with three times
the force, if every particle, whether of lead or of cork,
were attracted alike. Now as the force with which the
ball of cork would fall, must be less than that of the lead,
its velocity must be less too, for it has the same quantity
of air to remove from its path, and less power with which
to remove it. It would therefore be more retarded.
If now the atmosphere is removed, and the two bodies
are allowed to fall through empty space, they will fall
together, if both kinds of matter are attracted equally.
For if each is drawn in proportion to the quantity in
each, it is plain that they will be equally affected. This
experiment has often been tried ; it is called the guinea
and feather, experiment, because a guinea and a feather
have been often used as the light and heavy bodies.
A tall glass vessel is fitted to the air pump, with the
GRAVITATION.
87
guinea and feather so fixed at the top, that they can be
dropped by touching a wire. They go exactly together
to the bottom; which shows that the air is the only
cause why the feather usually falls more slowly.
It will be very evident that the constitution of nature
might easily have been such, that some species of matter
would have been more strongly attracted than others. It
may be a subject of interesting reflection, to consider,
what would have been the effects of such an arrangement,
and by what phenomena such a fact would be made
manifest.
3. It is the same at every distance.
This statement will excite surprise also until it is ex-
plained. Let A be
any body of matter, ^-"""*
and cde, and fgh,
represent concentric
spheres around it.
Now, what we mean
to say is, that the
force of attraction
which A exerts, at
the distance cde,
in every direction
from A, that is, in
the whole sphere, will
be tho same which
it will exert in the whole sphere at fgh. In other words,
the whole amount offeree exerted in every direction, by a
body, at any distance, is the same with the whole amount
in every direction, at any other distance.
It will be evident from this principle, that, since the
whole amount is at every distance the same, and as the
sphere of influence increases the farther we go from the
body, the force at any one point must beless. In other
words, as the power of gravitation extends in every
direction, the farther we go from the body, it is, as it
were, diffused over a greater space, and consequently will
be, in any one point, weakened by this diffusion. For
88 GRAVITATION.
example, let A be
the attracting body,
and b another body
which it attracts; ^
now from what was f==
stated before, it will
readily appear, that the force of gravitation exerted by a,
between the points c and d, is the same with that between
b and e. But at d, the body is under the influence of
only half this force, for all that part which is between c
and e does not act upon the body, whereas at be it feels
the whole. It would appear therefore from this diagram,
that if we double the distance of any attracted body, we
diminish the amount of force which acts upon it by one
half. This however is not strictly true, for the preced.
ing diagram represents only a part of the increase of
space, in receding from a
point. In the adjoining fig-
ure, where c represents the
centre, and oc, od, &,c, lines
diverging from it, and 6 and
a corresponding spaces at dif-
ferent distances, it will be seen that b is more than twice
as large as a, for it doubles in length, and also in breadth;
it is consequently four times as large. If b were three
times as far from o, as a is, it would accordingly be nine
times as large. Consequently the force of gravitation, in
order to be equal at every distance, must be diffused, as
it were, in proportion to the square of the distance ; and
as the power over any particular body will be inversely
as the diffusion of the force at the distance of the body,
it follows that this power will be inversely as the square
of the distance. This result, it is necessary for the reader
fully to understand, and to fix in his memory. It is
considered a fundamental law. Expressed in general
terms it is as follows :
The force of gravitation exerted by one body upon
another, is inversely as the square of the distance of the
bodies*
* This is usually stated at once as the fundamental law of gravi-
tation, and iiot deduced, as we have done, from the simpler state-
GRAVITATION.
This will be easily understood and remembered, if the
reader is careful to notice the distinction which is made
between the whole force exerted in every direction, by any
central mass, which whole amount is, at every distance,
the same, and that particular part of this force, which
operates upon an attracted body, when placed at differ-
ent distances ; this particular part being inversely as the
square of the distance.
How simple and beautiful are these laws. They are
not exceptions to the general principle, nor even modifi-
cations. They are, on the contrary, simple assertions of
its unvarying uniformity. From these, however few, and
simple, and negative in character as they are, every one
of the complicated and powerful effects of this principle
can be mathematically deduced. The motions of the
heavenly bodies in their orbits, the exact curves which
they describe, every deviation from their regular
paths ; the tides, both aqueous and aerial, with all their
fluctuations; the path of every cannon ball; the ve-
locity of every falling stone, and the rapidity of the vi-
brations of every pendulum, can all be accurately cal-
culated and ascertained, from this simple principle of an
attractive power, exerted by every particle, which, under
all circumstances, and at every distance, remains invari-
ably the same.
EFFECTS PRODUCED BY GRAVITATION.
It is not possible to consider within the limits of the
present number, the various and complicated effects pro-
duced by gravitation. Their variety and complication
arise from the operation of this principle in combination
with others. Strictly speaking, gravitation never pro-
duces but one effect, and that is a tendency of one body
to approach another, in the inverse ratio of the square of
the distance. This simple effect is, however, modified
ment, that gravitation is the same at every distance. When it is so
stated, the young scholar is often surprised that Providence should
have adopted that exact mathematical ratio of decrease. This sur-
prise is removed by considering the subject in the light in which
we have presented it.
VOL. I. NO. IV. 8*
GRAVITATION.
by the presence, and contemporaneous action of various
other principles.
There is only one class of these effects, which proper-
ly comes within the scope of our present design ; and
that is the case of bodies falling freely. This subject we
shall proceed briefly to investigate. The result to which
we shall come, and which is called the general law of
falling bodies is this
The spaces passed over by falling bodies are as the
squares of the times.
That is, if one body is falling one minute, and another
two minutes, the spaces which they will respectively de-
scribe, will be as the squares of those numbers, so that the
second will not fall simply twice as far as the first, but
four times as far. For as the square of 1 is 1, and of 2,
4, the spaces will be as 1 to 4. In the same manner, if
one body fall 2 seconds, and another 3, the number of
feet of the respective descents will be as 4 to 9, for 4 is
the square of 2, and 9 of 3.
We cannot here give the mathematical demonstration
of this principle, but to illustrate it a little, let the reader
imagine a mass of rock loosed from the edge of an over-
hanging cliff. No one doubts that the impetuosity of its
descent will be increased by the distance it has to fall,
but every one has not a distinct idea of the nature and
cause of this acceleration. In order to understand this,
let us think of its condition after it has fallen through the
first ten feet of its descent. Suppose that, at this point,
the force of gravitation should suddenly cease, would the
rock stop in its descent 1 By no means ; it would go for-
ward with the velocity which it had previously acquired,
precisely as the cannon ball continues to move swiftly
through the air, after the explosive force of gunpowder
ceases to operate upon it. The impulse given in this
latter case is over in an instant, but the motion continues
until the resistance of the air extinguishes it. In the
same manner, if the force of gravity were to cease at the
end of the first ten feet of the fall of the rock, the mass
would move on, with the velocity which it had already
acquired, to the earth, excepting that it might lose a little
by the resistance of the air. But gravitation does not
GRAVITATION. 91
cease. It gives new impulses every moment, which
come in to increase the last acquired velocity. Now it is
this constant and regular acceleration, which gives to the
motion of falling bodies their chief peculiarity, and from
this it results, that at the end of 1, 2, 3 and 4 seconds,
the spaces through which the body will fall, will be as .1,
4, 9 and 16, which are the squares of the numbers repre-
senting the time.
It has been found by experiment, that a body falling
freely, passes through 16 feet and 1 inch in one second ;
in 2 seconds it will pass through 4 times that distance ;
in 3 seconds 9 times, and so on. From this, a little
arithmetical ingenuity will easily calculate the distance,
through which a heavy body will fall, in any number of
seconds. The height of a precipice, or the depth of a
well may be, by the assistance of a stop watch, measured
on this principle, though the result may not be very ac-
curate.
DISCOVERY OF THE PRINCIPLE OP GRAVITATION : SIB
ISAAC NEWTON.
The subject of gravitation suggests to the mind of
every reader, the name of the great English Philosopher,
Sir Isaac Newton. We cannot more appropriately close
this treatise, than by describing some of the leading in-
cidents in his life.
He was born about three hundred years ago, in Lin-
colnshire, England, at a place called Woolsthorpe. He
was so small, and feeble in his early infancy, that little
hope was entertained of his life. This has been the case
with many individuals, who afterwards attained to high
intellectual eminence. His father died before his birth,
but his mother did all in her power to provide for him
the means of education. At one of his schools, he dis-
played a very singular capacity for mechanical contri-
vances. ' By means of little saws, hatchets, hammers, and
all sorts of tools, he made models of wood, when his com-
panions were at play ; and such was his dexterity, that he
constructed a wooden clock, and a good model of a
windmill, which was erected about that time in his neigh'
borhood. Into this model he sometimes put a mouse,
GRAVITATION.
which he called his miller, and by means of whose action
he could turn the mill round when he chose. He exe-
cuted also a water clock, about four feet high, with a
dial plate at the top for indicating the hours. The index
was turned by a piece of wood, which either rose or fell
by the dropping of water. The passion for these me-
chanical occupations, often withdrew his attention from
his regular studies ; and in consequence of this, the other
boys gained places above him, till he was roused to
outstrip them all by a little extraordinary exertion. The
intermission of his mechanical pursuits, which was thus
rendered necessary, rather increased than abated his
ardor for them. He introduced the use of paper kites
among his school-fellows. He made paper lanterns, by
the light of which he went to school in the winter morn-
ings; and he frightened the country people by tying
them to the tails of his kites, in a dark night. He
watched too the motions of the sun with great diligence ;
and by means of pegs placed in the wall of the house
where he lived, and marks for the hours and half hours,
the time of the day was shown to every person, on what
went by the name of Isaac's dial. He had also a great
turn for drawing; and, according to the account of Mrs
Vincent, who was niece to the wife of Sir Isaac's land-
lord, at Grentham, he frequently made little tables and
cupboards for her and her play-fellows. She mentions
also his having made a cart with four wheels, in which
he could drive himself by turning a windlass.'
Young Newton was, before a long time, recalled from
school, to assist his mother in managing the farm. But
he did not succeed very well in this employment. His
taste for mechanical employments continued, and he felt
very little interest in the labors of the plough and the
hoe. Sometimes he went, with another person who was
employed upon the farm, to a neighboring town to mar-
ket, to sell their produce. In such cases he frequently
left his charge, and spent his time at an apothecary's,
where he found books which interested him, leaving his
business in the hands of his attendant. He was not al-
ways faithful to his duties at home. ' The study of a
book, the execution of a model, or the superintendence
GRAVITATION. 03
of a water-wheel of his own construction, often occupied
his attention when the sheep were astray, and the corn
was treading down by the cattle.' This was wrong. No
interest in science, or desire for intellectual improve*
ment, can excuse neglect of duty, and especially any un-
faithfulness to a trust reposed by a parent.
Not long after this, Newton, at the age of eighteen, en-
tered the University at Cambridge. Here he soon became
distinguished for his interest and progress in mathematical
science, and soon after receiving his degree, he turned
his attention to some experiments upon light and colors^
which, however, we must not stop to describe. The
plague soon after broke out at Cambridge, and to avoid
it, he retired to his former home. Here he spent two
years, and during this period of retirement and seclusion,
he made the discoveries in regard to gravitation, which
have immortalized his name. One day, when he wa
seated alone in a garden, the fall of an apple arrest-
ed his attention. Why should it go towards the earth?
was the question. A common mind would have been
satisfied with saying, that the support of the stem was
removed, and that it fell of course. This, however, did
not satisfy our philosopher. He reflected on the subject
long. It was not that the fall of the apple appeared new
to him. It was only the occasion, which led his mind to
reflect on this universal tendency towards the earth, with
which, as a fact, he had long been familiar. He consid-
ered, that this tendency towards the earth, was the same
in all parts of the earth, and at all places. It was not
sensibly increased or diminished, in deep valleys or on
lofty mountains. It occurred to him that the power
might perhaps extend far from the earth, into the regions
of the air. It might possibly affect the moon, and if so,
if it should prove that the moon was constaatly under
the influence of an attraction towards the earth, the
nature of her motion in an orbit would be at once explain-
ed, and all, the cumbrous perplexities of former philoso-
phers, to account for the celestial revolutions would be
ended at once. ' I will make the calculation,' thought
he, ' and ascertain whether the motions of the moon cor-
respond with such a supposition.'
94 GRAVITATION.
* Now, although the force of gravity might not be sen-
sibly less, at the tops of the highest mountains, than at
the ordinary level of the earth's surface, he conceived it
to be very possible, that at so great a distance as that of
the moon, it might be considerably different. To make
an estimate of what might be the degree of diminution,
he considered that, if the moon be retained in her orbit
by the force of gravity, no doubt the primary planets are
carried round the sun by a like power ; and by compar-
ing the periods of the several planets with their distances
from the sun, he found that if any power like gravity kept
them in their orbits, its strength must decrease inj>ro-
portion as the squares of the distances increase.'
Supposing therefore, that the force of gravity decreas-
ed, i. c. so far as its operation upon particular bodies is
concerned, in the above named ratio, he proceeded with
the laborious calculation. The result disappointed him.
It did not correspond with the fact. The hopes which
he had cherished of throwing new light on this subject
were blasted, and he gave up the consideration of it.
The reason of this failure was, however, an error gen-
erally prevalent at that time in regard to the size of the
earth. He supposed it smaller than it really was. This
affected the calculation so as to produce the wrong result
which had discouraged him ; and it was not until several
years afterwards that he discovered this cause of error.
When he did discover it, he resumed the calculation. As
his work, on this second attempt drew towards the close,
he foresaw the successful result. The joy of attaining
success after a previous failure, the magnificence of
the expected discovery the changes, which he could
easily foresee would be produced in the opinions of man-
kind on this subject, the rapid advances which astron-
omy might now be expected to make, all burst upon his
mind, bringing with them so many agitating emotions,
that he could not complete his work. He was obliged
to call in the assistance of a friend by whom the result
was obtained.
We cannot follow this great philosopher through the
remaining incidents of his life. He pursued with much
diligence and success his mathematical and philosophical
GRAVITATION. 95
studies, arid became sometimes involved in controversies
in defence of his opinions. These he much regretted,
for he was of a mild and peaceable disposition. His
character was marked with almost all that is excellent.
There were no eccentricities cherished, no singulari-
ties in manners or opinions ; he was kind to others,
modest and unassuming in regard to himself ; he de-
pended on patient, persevering effort for his success in all
his efforts, and by his constant fidelity, in the discharge
of the duties of social life and religion, he seemed to aim
more at happiness, than at fame.
QUESTIONS.
What is the law of gravitation 1
Is the truth of this to be proved by theoretical reason-
ing, or by the observation of facts ?
What is the first class of facts named 1
Has it always been known that the revolutions of the
planets were caused by the attraction of the central body ?
Is there any other evidence of attraction between ce-
lestial bodies, besides the attraction of the sun for the
planets 1
What effect is produced by the attraction of the plan-
ets for each other 1
Are these disturbances of the regular motions nume-
rous ? Are they great?
What is the second case in which the operation of
gravitation is pointed out?
What parts of the earth are capable of a separate mo-
tion towards the sun and moon 1
What is the third class of facts named 1
How is the attractive force of a mountain made evi-
dent?
Upon what mountain was the experiment first tried ?
Was the effect perceptible?
Upon what other mountain has the experiment been
made!
Were the effects produced very great? How much
did the plumb line deviate?
Is there any other way in which gravitation has been
made apparent?
96 GRAVITATION.
Can you name any of the general laws of gravitation ?
What is the general character of these laws ?
Can the force of gravitation be in any way intercept-
ed 1 Can it be weakened 1
Is the whole amount of attractive force exerted by any
body the same on different distances 1
Is that part which is exerted at different distances,
upon the same body, the same 1
Can any reason be given why bodies should attract
each other 1
Mention some of the leading particulars in Newton'3
Life?
ADVERTISEMENT.
CARTER, HENDEE & BABCOCK,
BOSTON,
HAVE LATELT PUBLISHED
AN ELEMENTARY TREATISE' ON
GEOMETRY, simplified for beginners not versed in Algebra.
Part 1, containing PLANE GEOMETRY, with its application to the
Solution of Problems. By Francis J. Grund. Second Edition.
Extracts from the Preface.
Popular Education and the increased study of Mathematics, as
the proper foundation of all useful knowledge, seem to call espe-
cially for elementary treatises on Geometry, as has been evinced in
the favorable reception of the first edition of this work wirhin a few
months of the date of its publication. A few changes have been
made in the present edition, which, it is hoped, will contribute to
the usefulness of the work as a book of elementary instruction.
'As regards the use of it in schools and seminaries, the teacher
will find sufficient directions in the remarks inserted in the body of
the work.
At a late meeting of the School Committee of the city of Boston,
Mr Grund's Geometry was recommended as a suitable book to be
used in the Public Schools. Similar testimonials of the merits and
usefulness of the work have been received from Teachers and
School Committees, in various parts of New England.
C. H. & B. have in press and will publish in a few weeks, ' A
Treatise on Solid Geometry, by Francis J. Grund : intended as a Se-
quel to the ' First Lessons in Plane Geometry.' Apparatus has
been prepared by Mr Josiah Holbrook, calculated to illustrate the
Problems contained in the abore work.
SCIENTIFIC TRACTS.
NUMBER V.
ANIMAL MECHANISM.
THE EYE.
BY JEROME V. C. SMITH, M. D.
A VARIETY of professional works are already before the
public on the anatomy of the eye, but it is questionable
whether any of them are sufficiently divested of technical
language, to be of utility to that class of readers who are
only interested in the beauties of science.
Without making pretensions to originality, the writer
of the following pages will endeavor to simplify a subject,
too generally considered abstruse, that it may be under-
stood by those who have neither patience, time, nor in-
clination to pursue it under the guidance of a public
instructer.
Well acquainted, as anatomists are, with the minute
organization of the eye, no one has been able to explain
how or why we see. Although the visual organs are
constructed with such exact reference'to the laws of light,
that telescopes and microscopes, made upon truly philo-
sophical principles, are but imitations or modifications of
the apparatus of the human eye, there is still a differ-
ence between the animate and inanimate, the most
wonderful and astonishing. The first is a. perceiving in-
strument ; the second, a receiving.
The eye can only perform its destined functions, in
connexion with a living system, regulated bj an existing
harmony of all its complex machinety, consisting of
nerves, blood vessels and brain, However perfect in its
several tunics the eye may be, or* transparent in its fluids,
VOL. i. NO. v. 9
93 ANIMAL MECHANISM.
if the sensorium become disordered by disease, it no
longer recognises the images or impressions transmitted
to it through the visual nerve. Thus it will be under-
stood, that the eye may labor, receive, and transmit a
miniature picture of all it perceives to the soul ; but, if there
is a derangement of that mass of mysteriously constructed
matter, filling the whole skull, which all experience de-
monstrates to be the seat of thought, no idea is excited.
On the other hand, when individuals suddenly lose their
sight, without materially injuring the optic nerve, they
sometimes dream of seeing. In this case, imagination
excites the nerve in such a peculiar and inexplicable
manner, as to call up the idea of vision. This nerve
being formed with exclusive reference to that function, in
the economy of animal life, any impression upon it will
excite a corresponding impression in the brain, and no
other.
All creatures, from man downward, living on land,
have their eyes very similar in structure. The same
quantity of light that enables a man to see distinctly, will
also answer for a horse, an ox, and, indeed, most of the
domestic and graminivorous animals. A natural inference
would be, then, were it not otherwise known by dissection,
that all the parts entering into the composition of their
eyes, in order to produce the same effect as in man, were
of the same materials.
In carnivorous animals, the original principle of vision
is preserved, but most curiously modified, according to
their habits and characters. Those that feed on herbage,
are commonly of social dispositions, feeding in companies
through the day, and quietly ruminating or sleeping
through the night.
Those, on the contrary, that live by violence, preying
on'those they have slain, are generally solitary: they lie
in ambush, alone, watching for their victim ; and it is so
ordered, by the immutable laws of nature, that they slay
such as are more timid and helpless than themselves. In
order to accomplish this, with the greatest certainty,
carnivorous animals have the power of seeing in the
dark.
Fishes, by a further modification of the original appa-
ANIMAL MECHANISM. 99
ratus, common to all others, probably see with peculiar
distinctness, in the darkest night, at unfathomable depths
of the ocean.
With another alteration, not unlike changing the
distances between the lenses of a spy-glass, another fami-
ly of animals, as seals, &,c, see alternately in two elements.
Still further, ou the descending scale of creation, insects
are provided with motionless eyes, giving them the fa-
culty of seeing in every possible direction. And, lastly,
in snails and some kinds of worms, the eyes are fixed at
the extremity of a moveable feeler, adapting them to dif-
ferent focal distances, or they can be drawn entirely
within the head, for safe keeping, when not in use, pre-
cisely on the same principle of care that we draw out the
slides of an opera glass, and close them up again, when
no longer needed.
Were we desirous of describing the nice variations in
the mechanism of the eyes of the several species of ani-
mals adverted to in this preliminary, however interesting
it might be to some, would, perhaps, appear tedious to
others. Confining ourselves, now, to the exclusive con-
sideration of the human eye, we shall proceed with an
orderly description of its several parts, hoping that the
few scientific terms which must necessarily be retained,
will not prove to be a serious embarrassment.
THE SOCKET IN WHICH THE EYE ROLLS.
Several thin pieces of bone assist in the formation of the
orbit, which, in a dry skull, is shaped much like a pear,
with its large end turned outward. The upper plate of
bone is arched, slightly resembling an arch of a bridge,
having the brain resting on it above, and the eye ball
moving under it below. Externally, the eyes are at con-
siderable distance, but the inner termination of the coni-
cal orbits, answering to the small end of the fruit, are
quite near together. At their points, is a ragged hole,
in each, through which the nerve of vision enters the
brain. A large quantity of fat is deposited in this socket,
between the bones and eye-ball, that the latter may always
move with perfect freedom, and without friction, in all
directions. After a long sickness, this cushion of fat is
100 ANIMAL MECHANISM.
absorbed, with that deposited in the bones, to sustain the
system, which accounts for the sinking in of the eye : aa
the person recovers, the stomach resumes the task of
taking care of the body, the fat is deposited again, and
the eye becomes prominent as before.
GLOBE OF THE EYE.
When detached from the surrounding parts, the eye-
ball does not appear exactly round : it is, in outline, more
than two thirds of a large sphere, with a portion of a
lesser glebe laid upon it.
The use of this arrangement is obvious. If the ball
had been actually round, the compass of vision would
have been very limited : as it is, the smaller portion, by
its short curve, protrudes so far beyond the socket, where
the globe is lodged for safely, that the sphere of vision is
very much enlarged.
MUSCLES OF THE EYE.
To move the ball, cords, called muscles, were neces-
sary ; otherwise, animals would have been obliged to turn
their bodies as often as an object was to be seen. Of
these, four are straight, going from the sides of the ball,
to be fastened jiear the hole, at the termination of the
bony cavity : their office is to hold the eye firmly, in a
fixed position, as in steadily contemplating a painting.
Two others are given, making six in the whole, to ex-
press, principally, the passions of the mind : they are
denominated the oblique, in consequence of their oblique
movement of the eye. One rolls it downward and out-
ward, as in viewing the shoulder ; the other, going through
a loop, which is so purely mechanical, that it has been
the theme of admiration with philosophers in all ages,
carries it upward and inward. The last action can be
shown by looking at a button, held on a line with the
nose, midway of the forehead. Although these oblique
muscles exist in monkeys and nearly all tribes of quadru-
peds, they are imperfectly developed ; showing most
conclusively that they were designed for expressing the
feelings and passions of man an ineffable language,
ANIMAL MECHANISM. 101
which all the brute creation have the sagacity to under-
stand. When one of the four straight muscles is shorter
than its fellow on the opposite side, it produces the cross-
eye, or squinting.
FIG. 1.
Explanation of Figure 1.
This plan, from a careful dissection of the right eye, exhibits the
muscles, viewed obliquely from its upper and outer side.
a The eye-ball.
5 Part of the upper eye-lid,
c Tunica Conjunctiva, or inclination of the common skin of the
forehead, which turns over the edges of the lids, anil is finally
carried over the front of the globe, but is perfectly transparent
at this point.
d The integuments of the right side of the nose.
ee The optic nerve.
/ The four straight muscles, with the levator, or raising muscle
of the upper eye-lid, together with the superior oblique muscle,
embracing the optic nerve where it enters the orbit.
g The levator of the lid drawn aside.
VOL. i. NO. v. 9*
102 ANIMAL MECHANISM.
h Levator occuli, or superior straight muscle, to roll the ball
upward.
i ibductor occuli, rolls the ball outward.
k Adductor occuli, rolls it towards the nose.
/ Depressor occuli, rolls the ball downward, towards the cheek.
m The superior oblique muscle, passing through a loop at n.
n Called the trochlea, or pully, but, in fact, a simple loop.
o Insertion of the superior oblique muscle in the eye-ball.
p The inferior oblique muscle, taking its rise from a bone.
q The insertion of the tendon of the inferior oblique muscle in the
first coat of the ball.
COATS OP THE EYE.
Such is the mechanical arrangement of the different
coats or coverings of the eye, answering in use, to the
brass tubes of a spy-glass, that one is fitted within the
other, like a nest of boxes : they are three in number.
Anatomists, however, make minute subdivisions of these,
of no practical benefit to themselves or others.
Explanation of Figure 2. FlG - 2 -
This is a plan of the coats, or
as they are termed in anatomical
works, tunics.
Reference should be made to
this after reading the text. The
natural figure of the eye, in out-
line, is preserved.
a The Sclerotic, or first hard
tunic.
b The Choroid, or fleecy tunic.
c The Retina, or third and in-
most tunic, which is an expan-
sion of the optic nerve g the certain seat of vision.
d The Cornea, or prominent, transparent circle, over which the
lids close, in winking, hereafter to be described.
e The Crystalline lens, or little magnifying glass of the eye,
about a quarter of an inch in diameter.
/Is the space filled by one of the fluids of the eye, and
called the anterior chamber.
g The stump of the optic nerve, which is prolonged into the sub-
stance of the brain.
ANIMAL MECHANISM. 103
1st. The first is the Sclerotic* coat, thick, firm and
possessing but little sensibility. Its hardness gives secu-
rity to the delicate membranes beyond ; affords attach-
ment for the muscles ; and by its elasticity, equally distends
the ball, that none of the humors may suffer from pres-
sure. Happily the hard coat is very rarely diseased.
Fishes have a sclerotic coat strictly hard, being either
cartilaginous or firm bone, graduated in this respect ac-
cording to the depth to which they descend in search
of food. Without this compensation, the great weight of
the water above would crush in their eyes instantaneously.
Through this coat, in what is called the white of the eye,
the occulist plunges a needle to cure some kinds of blind-
ness.
2d. Ckoroidi- is the name of the second coat, having
a dark red color, and apparently slightly connected with
the first. By carefully cutting off the sclerotic from a
bullock's eye, with scissors, the choroid will be beautifully
exhibited, sustaining the humors. Minute dissection,
under a microscope, shows this tunic is a complete web
of arteries and veins ; hence its reddish hue. Between
this and the sclerotic, fine silvery threads are seen, which
hold a control over the iris, yet to be described, deter-
mining by their influence how much or how little light
may safely be admitted into the eye. Fungous tumors
have their origin in this coat, growing so rapidly as to
burst the sclerotica, pushing their way out of their orbit
down upon the cheek, incorporating the whole ball in one
prodigious mass of disease. The inside of this membrane
resembles closely woven wailed cloth, having a fleecy
nap, similar to velvet, called tapetum.^. This tapetum is
particularly interesting in a philosophical point of view,
as on its shade of color, in a great measure, as will be
more fully explained in the sequel, depends the power of
seeing in the dark.
3d. Retina,^ so called from its resemblance to a net,
completes the number, being the innermost and last. Its
* Sclerotic, from a Greek word meaning hard.
t Choroides, like a lamb-skin, fleecy.
t Tapetum resembling cloth, called tapestry.
Retina a net.
104 ANIMAL MECHANISM.
color is that of gum arable, or ground glass : nothing can
be more delicate, being too tender to bear its own weight.
In fact, it is the expansion of the optic nerve, the imme-
diate seat of vision. To see it well, an eye should be
taken to pieces in a tumbler of water.
Explanation of Figure 3, FIG. 3.
from dissection of a human eye,
the organ being represented of the
proper size.
a The optic nerve.
bb The Sclerotic coat cut and
turned outward,
c A circular portion of the Scle-
rotica, being a rim of the white
of the eye, cut, and turned up-
ward, having in its embrace the
cornea.
d The cornea,
ee One half the iris, in its place,
the other half being removed.
/The Pupil, soon to be described, with the crystalline lens in its
place.
g The Ciliary circle, or second vertical partition, within the eye,
behind the iris.
h h Choroid coat,
i The Ciliary processes, or ruffle like plaits of the ciliary circle, yet
to be explained. A small portion of the iris is cut away to show
them
A- A portion of the ins cut and turned back.
I The floating points of the ciliary processes, also turned back.
m The middle smooth part of the retina, seen by cutting a hole
through the choroid coat.
n The roots of the ciliary processes, to which the black paint,
secreted by the tapetum or inner surface of the choroides, adheres.
o The ciliary processes inserted into the capsule, or sack which
contains the crystalline lens.
THE CORNEA.
Anteriorly, that clear, shining wall, resembling a watch
crystal, which finishes the membranous box, is called
the cornea. Simple as this thin crystal appears, it is
infinitely curious in structure. It is made of thin, pelliv-
cid plates, one over another, held together by a spongy
elastic substance. By maceration in water, a few hours,
the sponge will absorb it, to such a degree, that the plate?
ANIMAL MECHANISM. 105
may be distinctly felt to slide upon each other, between
the thumb and finger.
Little glands, like bags of oil, only to be seen by the
most powerful microscope, are lodged under the first
plate, which are continually oozing out their contents
upon the surface, which gives the sparkling brilliancy t^
this part of the eye. As death approaches, this flu-
forms a pellicle, like a dark cloud, over the lower portion
of the cornea. This formation is taken to be a sure indi-
cation of approaching dissolution. Many diseases are
peculiar to the cornea ; such, for example, as a milky
colored effusion of matter under the external plate, pre-
venting a free transmission of light to the interior. See
fig. 2, letter d, and fig. 3, letters c and d, for representa-
tions of the cornea.
By looking into a person's eye, there seems to be a
vertical partition, either black, blue, or hazle, as the case
may be, which prevents us from looking into the concealed
regions beyond, having a round hole in its centre.
Scientifically, this partition is called the iris, while its
central orifice is denominated the pupil How the diam-
eter of this hole is enlarged or diminished, anatomists
have never been fortunate enough to explain, satisfac-
torily, the apparatus is so minute, that they cannot decide
upon its true character. One fact, however, is certain,
that the pupil is large or small, according to the quantity
of light that may be necessary to the formation of a dis-
tinct picture of the object seen, and this change is
effected without our being conscious of the action.
Resembling other delicate membranes, in many respects,
we are unwilling to confuse the subject with a descrip-
tion that would distract the mind of a new beginner.
From the reflection of such rays as are not admitted
through the pupil, or central hole, we account for much
of the lively brilliancy of the iris. On its back side it is
rather fleecy, like the tapetum, but dissimilar in other
respects. Over this is spread a black, blue, hazle, or tea-
colored paint, which gives a permanent color to the eye
It has been often remarked, that the eyes and hair ordi-
106 ANIMAL MECHANISM.
narily correspond ,in color. Whenever the iris acts, as
for instance, il does, in going from a dark, into a light
room, the pupil is made smaller, acting uniformly in its
fibres, to keep it circular. On returning to the dark
apartment, the pupil enlarges again. A knowledge of
this fact, will explain the reason of a painful sensation in
\^'ie eye, caused by a strong and sudden light. As soon
as the iris has had time to diminish the size of its pupil,
we can endure the same luminous object with perfect
comfort. When we leave a well lighted room, on first
going into a dark street, everything appears lurid and
indistinct. The iris soon begins to enlarge the pupil, to
admit more light, and when that has been accomplished,
although in comparative darkness, we recognise objects
without an effort. Acting independently of the will, its
duties are like those of a faithful sentinel, always con-
sulting the safety of the splendid optical instrument con-
fided to its care, with reference to its subserviency to the
being for whose use it was exclusively constructed. Were
it otherwise, were it left to our own care, how often it
would be neglected, and indeed, totally ruined, solely for
the want of undivided attention. All that complex system
of machinery, on which life and existence are constantly
depending, (the vital organs,) are wisely placed beyond
the reach of the laws of volition. If the pulsation of the
heart, the function of the lungs, or the circulation of
blood in the brain, depended upon our attention, our
recollection of the fact, that they must be kept in motion,
or we could not live, we should be in great danger of
forgetting it, and therefore die in our first slumber !
Parrots have a voluntary control over the pupil, opening
and closing it at pleasure. How this is done, or why, in
the constitution of that bird, it is neces'sary, we cannot
determine. Cats, also, appear to have a similar power of
moderating or graduating the quantity of light, admitted
into their eyes, as it suits their own convenience.
In carnivorous quadrupeds, the pupil is commonly oval,
and oblique, permitting them to look from the bottom to
the top of a tree, without much elevation of their heads.
Graminivorous quadrupeds have an oblong pupil, placed
horizontally, with respect to the natural position of the
ANIMAL MECHANISM. 107
body. This form gives them the faculty of surveying the
expanse of a field, at once. Farmers are familiar with
the circumstance that the ox, without being obliged to
undergo the fatigue of circuitous inarches, walks directly
to the best feed in the whole lot, provided the enclosure
be a plain. See fig. 3, letters ee, and k. Fig. 4, let-
ters c c.
CILIARY PROCESSES.
Ciliary Processes. Directly behind the iris, is a second
curtain, having a central hole through it, corresponding
with that through the first curtain, but nearly as large as
the whole diameter of the lens. All the luminous rays
which are converged by the convexity of the cornea, which
is, in effect, a plane convex lense, cannot enter through
the pupil ; many of them strike the plane of the iris, and
are reflected back, as on a looking-glass, without pene-
trating its substance. If an) rays were to get through,
by such an irregular process, it would produce great con-
fusion, by destroying the outline and vividness of the
image previously made on the visual nerve, through the
natural opening. To prevent such mishaps, the paint on
the back of the iris is to absorb such rays as are not
reflected, and have a tendency therefore to pass onward.
Nature, as though fearful that circumstances might so
alter the condition of the pigment,* as that some light,
notwithstanding this precaution, might penetrate, has
interposed this second veil, solely it is supposed to stop
all wandering rays. This ciliary curtain presents three
thicknesses, and lastly has a thick coat of black paint on
its back. In order to give it treble security, as it regards
thickness, it is plaited like the folds of a ruffle. There
are seventy folds in the human eye, of equal width, nicely
laid, one over the other. A part so highly important,
cannot be overlooked in studying the philosophy of vision.
* Pigment paint.
108 ANIMAL MECHANISM.
FIG. 4.
Explanation of Figure 4.
This plan presents a longitudinal section of the left eye and bony
orbit.
a The upper eye-lid, shut
b The cornea.
cc The cut edges of the iris.
d The pupil or round hole through the centre of the iris, which, in
the living eye, resembles a black, highly polished dot.
te The cut edges of the sclerotic and choroid tunics, with the
retina, before exhibited in the preceding drawings.
f The crystalline Zens, as it is lodged, with reference to other parts. -
gg The Ciliary processes continued from the choroid coat. The
plaits are here distinctly seen. In other designs accompanying
this article, they will be noticed in a front view.
h The optic nerve running from the brain, through the bones, to
the globe of the eye, apparently closely embraced by the recti,
or straight muscles.
The levator, or muscle that raises the upper eye-lid.
k The upper straight muscle of the eye, called levator occult.
I Inferior straight muscles, its antagonist, on the under side of the
ball, called depressor occuli.
m A section of the infeiior oblique muscle, called obliquus infe-
rior, used in rolling the eye upward and inward, as in looking ai
a button laid above the root of the nose. The superior oblique,
passing through a loop, carries the eye downward and outward, as
in looking at the top of the shoulder. These two muscles,
by old writers, were termed rotatores and amatores, in allusion to
their office of rolling the ball and expressing passions.
nn A section of the blood vessels and nerves, with a large quan-
tity of fat, surrounding the optic nerve. This fat lies between the
muscles and betwixt the socket and globe.
ANIMAL MECHANISM. 109
HUMORS OF THE EYE.
By humors, medical writers mean the fluids which dis-
tend the eye-ball. They are three in number, pos-
sessing different densities, and varying much in quality,
quantity and use. Beside fulfilling the first intention,
viz., distension, they are so purely transparent, as to offer
no obstruction to the free passage of light. Too much
care cannot be bestowed on the anatomy of these fluids
by surgeons, as they are the seats of many remarkable
diseases. Those only interested in this description, as
general philosophers, by close examination, will have a
perfect idea of them, and will consequently understand
the real nature of some of the many" causes that weaken
the power of vision, or ultimately produce a total blind-
ness. The gratification afforded by the examination of a
bullock's eye, tracing the several parts by this paper,
will be an ample compensation for the labor, because it
will forever fix on the mind interesting discoveries, and
lead the reader, insensibly, to a course of reflections,
productive of much intellectual enjoyment.
AQUEOUS HUMOR.*
The aqueous humor is the first in the order of demon-
stration, lying directly back of the cornea, so clear,
that one unacquainted with the existence of it, would not
suspect a fluid there. In volume, it is far less than the
others : it keeps the cornea prominent, always at the
same distance from the iris, in the early periods of life.
The space occupied by the aqueous humor, is called the
anterior chamber of the eye. (See fig. 2, letter/.) Pass-
ing freely through the pupil, it also fills an exceedingly
thin apartment, the circumference of the iris, called the
posterior chamber. Thus it will be comprehended, that
the iris, or in familiar language, first curtain, is actually
suspended and floating in a liquor. Were it not for such
a contrivance, the iris would soon become dry and shriv-
elled, by the intensity of the sun, and therefore rendered
totally unfit to perform its appropriate office of opening
* Aqueous like water.
VOL. I. NO. V. 10
110 ANIMAL MECHANISM.
and closing the pupil. An opinion is current, founded
undoubtedly in truth, that the aqueous humor is never
suffered to remain long at a time, but, on the contrary, is
constantly poured in and again drawn off by an infinite
number of invisible ducts. By being stationary, it would
become speedily turbid, and finally lose its transparency.
A knowledge of the rapidity of the secretion, has been
the means of encouraging occulists to undertake novel
methods of extracting cataracts, a kind of dark mote,
through the cornea, as the most certain mode of restoring
sight. Twentyfour hours after drawing off the aqueous
humor, by a puncture, the anterior chamber will be full
again.
Old age, characterized by a gradual decay in the vigor
of all the individual organs, shows also its insidious ap-
proach in the eye. Vessels that have toiled with untiring
diligence to the meridian of life, begin to show a loss
of energy. Those which have carried the new, pure
liquid, forward a less quantity in a given time than for-
merly, while those whose task it was to convey away
the old stock, are dilatory in the performance of their
work. Hence, from being kept too long in the reservoir,
in consequence of a tendency to become more turbid,
does not allow the light to pass with former facility to the
nerve : elderly persons, therefore, have indistinct vision
from this cause, similar to looking through a smoky at-
mosphere. The writer has a favorite Newfoundland dog,
whose eyesight is impaired in this way. Fishes have no
aqueous humor at all, as it could be of no service in the
element in which they swim : the water surrounding
them is the aqueous humor to their organs. Kept, as the
humor is, in its own capsule, gives other advantages to
the apparatus of vision : it is a concavo-convex glass, ab-
solutely and indispensably requisite in an instrument that
will produce an image by the same laws that govern the
human eye. A sensible diminution in the quantity of
this fluid, is very apparent in people advanced in years :
the cornea becomes flatter ; the segment of the transpa-
rent cornea is so altered, that rays of light are no longer
converged as in younger days. This, together with cor-
responding derangements within the globe, constitutes
ANIMAL MECHANISM. Ill
the long-sightedness of old age, mechanically overcome
by wearing convex spectacles. So gradually are the
changes wrought by aye, that glasses of different focal
distances are sought from time to time, to keep pace with
the progress of decay.
The ingenuity of man is nowhere more curiously dis-
played, than in thus availing himself of his discovery of
the laws of refraction, in producing artificial lenses to
gratify his eye, a never failing source of enjoyment, long
after nature has begun to draw the blind that will ulti-
mately close between him and the world forever.
CRYSTALLINE LENS.*
As magnifying glasses of different refractive pow-
ers give perfection to optical apparatus, so it is with re-
spect to the lenses within the ball. The coats of the eye
are equivalent to the tubes of such ingenious instruments.
By crystalline lens, is simply meant a body like a button,
resembling pure flint glass, somewhat of the shape of a
common sun glass, convex on both sides. Its posterior
convexity is greater than its anterior, thereby bringing
the rays to a point a little distance behind it. Careful
investigation shows that this lens is made of a series of
plates, applied to each other like the coats of an onion :
the centre is firmer than the edges or space between the
nucleus and margin.
As a whole, it possesses a highly refractive property,
but in different degrees, according to the thickness of the
lens, receding from the centre to the circumference.
Over the whole, to keep it from sliding in any direction,
that the centre may not get without the axis of vision,
is an envelope, having connexion with all the coats, where
they are united on the borders of the cornea, and where
it joins the white part of the eye. Being equally trans-
parent with the lens itself, it cannot be conveniently ex-
hibited. One of its properties is elasticity, though not to
the extent we should at first view be led to imagine from
the following remarks.
Cataracts, the most frequent cause of blindness, origi-
* Crystalline lens, resembling crystal or glass.
1 12 ANIMAL MECHANISM.
nate in the lens ; sometimes half way between the centre
and margin, but ordinarily in the centre. They are either
a peculiar deposition of opaque or milky matter, entirely
preventing the ingress of light, or an opacity of some of
the internal layers of plates, equally destructive to vision.
Nothing short of the actual introduction of the couching
needle within the globe, or a knife, promises any hope of
recovery. Many children are born with this affection ;
at all ages, they are liable to form : perhaps the habit of
gazing habitually on a strongly reflecting surface, may
have a tendency to generate the disease. To remove ca-
taracts by extraction, the operator slides a sharp, thin knife,
resembling a lancet, through the cornea, from one side
to the other, cutting one half from its natural attachment
leaving it, when the knife comes out, in the form of a
flap, thus : FIG. 5.
Explanation of Figure 5.
This plan represents an eye, surrounded by its natural appen-
dages with a knife passing through the anterior chamber of the eye.
A dotted line indicates the lower edge of the flap, made by cutting
oflfjust one half the cornea from its attachment with the sclerotica, in
ordei 1 to allow the crystalline lens to escape, whenever the knife is
withdrawn.
As a matter of course, the aqueous humor escapes in a
twinkling, at the same moment, the capsule of the lens,
previously ruptured, ^designedly, by the point of the knife,
as it slides along, spasmodically acts upon the lens by spon-
taneous contraction, and protrudes it through the wound.
Undoubtedly, the grasp which the straight muscles have on
the ball, accelerates its escape.
Thus, in taking away the obstruction to sight, the
whole lens is extracted. Perhaps the question may arise
ANIMAL MECHANISM. 113
how the eye is to answer its original design with the
loss of one of its important glasses ?
To couch, an operation often mentioned, and often per-
formed, is to thrust a delicate needle through the white
of the eye, just on its border, till the point reaches the
lens, which is then depressed into the lower part of the
eye, below the optic axis, so that light may, by entering
the pupil, arrive at the nerve. In this last operation, fears
are always entertained, that the lens may rise again to its
former position, rendering a repetition of the operation
indispensable. Secondary cataracts sometimes form, after
couching or extraction, and arise in consequence of a thick-
ening and opacity of the capsule, which is left behind.
Such cases are more alarming in their progress than a
disease of the lens, as no surgeon is warranted in promis-
ing even a partial relief. If he attempted to tear away
the membrane, he might also rend every other within the
globe.
A few facts of this kind which have a. practical bearing,
more or less interesting to every person, may lead to cor-
rect views, in relation to some of the diseases which are
common to this curious, wonder-working organ.
FIG. G.
Explanation of Figure 6.
This is a scheme showing how
a bad operator, by introducing
the couching needle too near the
cornea, may rupture the ciliary
processes, and actually divide
the lens in two pieces, without
moving it from the optic axis.
A The vitreous humor,
B The lens.
CC Ciliary processes, torn by
the lower part of the need's,
thereby doing great violence
and a permanent injury to the
organ.
DD The iris.
E The anterior chamber of the aqueous humor.
VOL. I. NO. V.
10*
114 ANIMAL MECHANISM.
Explanation of Figure 1.
This figure represents
the mode, and, in fact,
the place into which the
cotiching needle is in-
troduced, in the opera-
tion of couching.
A The pupil is seen
through the transpa-
rent cornea.
B Thezm.
C The needle, with
the handle elevated so as to depress the point.
D The lens and point of the needle in outline: this precisely
represents the position of the lens after couching. To complete
the operation, it must be carried a little back before withdrawing
the needle.
VITREOUS HUMOR.
Beyond the two humors we have been describing, is
the third, differing essentially from either of them. In
the first place, in volume it far exceeds the others, qp-
cupying more than two thirds of the whole interior and
posterior of the ball. Its consistence is that of the white
of an egg, but kept in its place by its own appropriate
capsule ; it presents many interesting phenomena. When
the sack is punctured with a pin, it flows out slowly, in
consequence of its adhesiveness. Like the preceding
humors, it is transparent, allowing the free passage of
light through its substance, and also possesses the addi-
tional quality of allowing the rays to separate again, as
they leave the point at which they were converged, just
back of the lens. Observation proves that the vitreous
humor is kept in place by being lodged in cells. Per-
haps a piece of sponge might give a tolerable idea of the
cellular structure, admitting it to be as transparent as the
water which it absorbs. On its fore part, it has a depres-
sion, in which the posterior convexity of the lens is
lodged, as represented in this diagram. Concave,
therefore, in front, and convex behind, gives another kind
of optical glass, known as the meniscus, the crescent,
faintly resembling the first quarter of the new moon. If
ANIMAL MECHANISM. 115
by accident, or a want of skill, the operator suffer this
humor to escape, in any of his operations, the globe at
once diminishes in size, and all hope of the restoration of
a diseased eye is lost. The small mistake of pricking
the sack containing the vitreous humor, will decide
whether the patient is to live in never ending night.
FIG. 8.
Explanation of Figure 8.
One dotted line, indicates, in
this diagram, the aqueous hu-
mor ; another the iris, and a
third the lens, and the fourth
the vitreous humor. Let it be
remembered that all the space
between the back side of the lens
and optic nerve, is filled com-
pletely, with the glairy, vitreous
humor, the third fluid, and in-
most of the eye.
OPTIC NERVE.
Any person possessing an ordinary share of curiosity,
can examine the optic nerve, or nerve of 'sight, at leis-
ure, in slaughter houses, fish markets, and in fowls. In
the human eye, perhaps, to be clearly understood, out-
side the eye, as it extends to meet the brain, it is like a
cotton cord, larger than a wheat straw, of a rnealy white-
ness, not far from three quarters of an inch in length.
Arising from the substance of the brain, it traverses the
bony canal till it reaches the back of the eye-ball ; as
soon as it arrives in contact, as it were, it is suddenly
divided into innumerable filaments, which wend their
way into the globe, through very minute holes. From a
fanciful resemblance to a sieve, this spot on the scleroti-
ca, is called the cribriform plate. When the threads
have emerged within, they assume another form, by ex-
panding into a web, constituting a third or inmost box.
Some believe the nerve is spread on a thin, unseen mem-
brane, in the form of a highly organized nervous paste.
Here, on this pulp, having considerable range of surface,
is the sole seat of vision. A vulgar opinion presupposes
pome exceedingly acute nervous point, the exquisite
116 ANIMAL MECHANISM.
point of vision. Nothing, however, is more absurd;
vision includes considerable surface. In the centre of
the substance of the nerve, an artery penetrates the eye,
accompanying the Jilaments, to nourish the humors.
When the cornea has been cut away, and the iris detach-
ed, this vessel may be distinguished, of a bright scarlet,
spreading its hair-like branches about, like the limbs of
a tree. The nerves which give sensation to the eye,
connecting it with the system, may be noticed, as previ-
ously remarked, lying between the two first coats. The
optic nerve conveys to the mind the sensation of the ex-
istence of things, as perceived by the eye, while the
commands of the same mind are conveyed to it by these
little threads of nerves, so insignificant, as to be often
overlooked in a dissection made purposely for them.
FIG. 9.
Explanation of Figure 9.
In this figure, the cornea is cut away, and the sclerotic dissected
back. This is a beautiful and easily accomplished dissection. In a
bullock's eye all these delicate nerves can be readily displayed. A
pair of sharp pointed scissors and a few pins, to hold parts to a board,
are the proper instruments. Even in schools, ladies could exhibit
most of this beautiful optical apparatus.
ANIMAL MECHANISM. 1 17
a The optic nerve.
b The sclerotic coat turned back, so as to show the vessels of the
choroid coat.
ce The ciliary nerves, seen piercing the sclerotic coat, and pass-
ing forward to be distributed to the iris. The iris, so highly
organized, is not supplied by any nervous influence from the optic,
but by the hair-Jike nerves, here displayed, creeping to its map-
gin between the two exterior coats.
d A small nerve passing from the same source to the same termi-
nation, but giving off no visible branches.
ee Two vena vorticosce, or whirling veins, so denominated, because
they seem to fall into shapes, resembling falling jets of water ;
these return the blood from the eye, sent in by its central and
other arteries.
/ A point of the sclerotic^ through which the trunk of one of the
veins has passed.
A lesser vein.
The point, or circular point of union, where all the coats of the
eye, together with the cornea and iris, seem to be glued firmly
together.
t The iris.
A; The straight fibres of the iris.
I A circle of fibres or vessels, which divide the iris into the larger
circle /,: and the lesser one m.
m This letter points to the lesser circle of the iris,
n The fibres of the lesser circle,
G The pupil.
PIGMENTUM NIGRUM.*
Lastly, to complete the internal structure, and fit it for
the performance of its destined office, the inside surface
of the second coat, choroides, is thoroughly painted black.
In the order of explanation, thjs paint is just behind the
retina. When the humors have been taken out the pig-
ment is readily examined. The use of it is very obvious;
viz., to absorb any aberrating or unnecessary rays of
light, which confuse the vision ; or destroy the intensity
of the impression on the nervous expansion of the retina,
and indeed, to suffocate them entirely.
JUNICA CONJUNCTIVA.
Posteriorly, the eye, by its long cord of optic nerve,
seems to rest on one extremity of an axle ; the opposite
in front, being the skin, passing over the eye, as it conies
*Pigmentum Nigrum black paint
118 ANIMAL MECHANISM.
down from the forehead, to join the cheek. To compre-
hend, clearly, the manner in which the eye is fastened,
before, observe how the skin turns over the edge
of the lid, going about three quarters of an inch back,
striking the ball to which it is made fast, then folded back
upon itself, adhering to the whole anterior surface of the
cornea, dipping down and finally mounting over the
margin of the lower lid, and ultimately losing itself on
the face. As we cannot recognise this, on a living eye,
it will at once lead one to suppose it is as clear as glass,
which is the case. Streaks of blood, when the eye is
inflamed, lie covered over by the tunica conjunctiva.
Now if particles of sand, or other irritating substances
get under either eye-lid, they cannot possibly enter but
little way, before reaching the duplication of this trans-
parent skin ; there is no danger, therefore ; the offending
matter cannot get so far between the socket and ball,
backward, as to abridge the free motion of the organ, or
do a permanent injury to the parts. This partition, or
doubling over of the conjunctiva, is a curious provision,
as we are thereby enabled to reach the source of irrita-
tion. The principle of introducing eye-stones, to extract
foreign matter, is this, and not owing, as vulgarly sup-
posed, to the crawling about of a smooth piece of sulphate
of lime, on some forty or fifty feet. The stone is so
much larger than the extraneous body, already there,
that it excites a proportionably larger quantity of tears, to
wash it away : in essence, therefore, we submit to a
greater temporary evil, to get rid of a lesser one. Pre-
cisely on this principle, a person chewing tobacco, is
constantly spitting : the vile weed is so offensive to the
nerves about the region of the throat and tongue, a
stimulant so unnatural and uncongenial to the constitu-
tion of the body, that the saliva is poured out, with in-
creasing copiousness, to wash it from the mouth.
Serpents annually shed their skins, which, unaccount-
able as it at first appears, are whole over the holes where
the eyes were. That thin sheet, so very clear and fine
in texture, is the conjunctiva, showing its origin, hence
a similar origin may safely be inferred over other eyes.
ANIMAL MECHANISM. 119
Every species of animal with which naturalists are con-
versant, possess this defensive transparent membrane.
MEMBRANA NICTITANS.
A third eye-lid is given such animals as are destitute
of hands, or are incapacitated, by the arrangement of their
limbs, from reaching their eyes. This is called mem-
brana nictitans, and a more striking piece of mechan-
ism, there is not in existence. It slides from one angle
of the eye to the opposite one, under the first pair of lids,
and that, too, whether the others are open or shut,
being totally independent of them in muscular action.
Its use cannot be mistaken : it is on purpose for clearing
away matter that may be irritating to the eye. Any ex-
traneous substance is brushed from the cornea in an
instant, by the broad sweep of the night lid. Birds that
seek their food in the night, as owls, defend their irrita-
ble organs, through the glare of daylight, by drawing over
this singular curtain. Dogs, cats, foxes, wolves, bears,
lions, tigers, &c, can each of them, by this brush, remove
the minutest mote from the cornea, more expeditiously
than any occulist on the globe.
Perfection is everywhere observed in animal mechanics.
The eye would soon become a useless instrument, not-
withstanding the nice adjustment of its several parts,
were it not for the external apparatus of eye-lids, glands
and tears, whose combined action keeps it always in a
condition to be useful. Were not the cornea frequently
moistened, it would become dry and shrivelled. To ob-
viate this, a sack of fluid is fixed just under the edge of
the orbit, above the eye-ball, which is continually pouring
out its contents by the pressure and rolling of the eye.
Flowing through numberless apertures, it washes the
crystal, and finally passing into grooves, on the inner
margin of both eye-lids, runs to their terminations in a
small pin like orifice, at the inner angles. To keep them
open, a hoop is set in the mouth of this lachrymal duct.
This, too, can be shown by turning the lid outward by
the finger. Finally, the tears are conveyed into the nose
120
ANIMAL MECHANISM.
FIG. 10.
through a bony tube, answering the double purpose of
softening and keeping moist the living membrane, on
which the sense of smell depends. On both eye-lids,
at the roots of the eye-lashes, are in each, a row of glands,
equivalent to bags, smaller than pin heads, which ooze
out an oily secretion, to prevent the adhesion of them to-
gether, as is sometimes the case when the eyes , are
much inflamed. Surely such manifest provision for
contingencies, and for the preservation of this one
piece of mechanism, indicates Super-human contrivance.
Explanation of Figure 10.
This plan exhibits the na-
tural size of the passages of
the t<ears.
a Is the lacrymal gland, or
in other words, the organ
that secretes the tears;
showing its natural situa-
tion, with respect to the
eye-lids.
bb The eye-lids, widely
opened.
c The situation of the
puncta lacrymalia, or the
holes, at the inner angles
of the lids, through which
the tears flow, to get into
the tube which finally con-
veys the fluid to the nose.
dd The ducts continued from the puncta lacrymalia.
ee The angles which the ducts form after leaving the puncta.
/ The termination of the lacrymal ducts in gg.
fg The lacrymal sac.
The nasal duct, continued from the lacrymal sac.
ON SEEING AT A DISTANCE.
When we speak of the distance to which vision extends,
we can understand either the sphere of distinct vision, or
of seeing in general. The latter has a much larger
semi-diameter than the former ; and the series for the one
is in animals different from that of the other. The extent
of distinct vision, is pretty nearly in relation with the
distance of the lens from the retina in the axis of the eye.
But the power of seeing at a distance, depends, in gene-
ANIMAL MECHANISM.
121
ral, in land animals, on the absolute magnitude of the
semi-diameter of the external surface of the cornea. The
larger this is, the greater is the number of rays that reach
from distant objects through the cornea to the interior of
the eye; and the more easily are such objects rendered
visible. But this applies to land animals only. The
cornea has no such value in aquatic animals, in arresting
the rays of light, as that the limits of vision can be de-
termined by it. If we arrange land animals and birds ac-
cording to the measure of their power of seeing in the
distance, we obtain the following series :
32
28
27
27
25
25
23
22
22
20
19
17
15
11
20
19
19
18
14
12
4
9
In this table the larger animals, in general, are those
that see farthest. But there are exceptions to this rule.
It is worthy of remark, that birds which, in the distinct
vision of a point, precede quadrupeds of similar magni-
tude, are inferior to them in distant vision, and that man
agrees with birds in this respect. Thus the great owl,
(Striee, Bubo,) ostrich, and golden eagle, excel in the
VOL. I. NO. T. 11
Horse -
73
Rough-legged Falon
Ox - - - -
66
Buzzard -
Asiatic Elephant -
65
Night-Heron - -
Antelope Rupicapra
64
Short-eared Owl
Lynx -
55
Psittacus Aracanga
Kangaroo - - -
50
Turkey - - -
Wolf ....
45
Tame Swan - -
Fox - - - -
38
Ardea stellaris - -
Man
34
Carrion Crow
Simia Inuus
30
Tarrock -
Hystrix cristata -
30
Green Woodpecker
Marmot -
28
Corvus glandarius -
Brown Bear - - -
27
Yellow Oriole - -
Otter - - - -
26
Psittacus rufirostris
Ursus Lotor - -
25
Virginian Opossum
Simia Capucina
24
Common Squirrel -
Beaver -
23
Badger - -
Polecat
23
Cavia Cobaya -
Horned Owl - -
56
Water Rat - -
Ostrich - ~ -
50
Hamster -
Golden Eagle
40
Long-eared Bat -
Stork ....
33
Crossbill - - -
122 ANIMAL MECHANISM.
first point ; in the latter are inferior to the ox, elephant,
&-c. The chamoi and the Lynx, and many other ani-
mals, have a wider power of vision than man, in which
the radius of the sphere of distinct vision is much smaller
than in him.
This conclusion is contrary to the -generally received
opinion on the subject. Birds, and particularly rapacious
birds, are considered as having a much greater power of
distant vision than most quadrupeds ; and many will be
disposed to challenge the fact, that the ox possesses this
power in an equally high, or even higher degree. But
when we consider fairly the experience on this subject,
we shall find that it is not in opposition to what has just
been stated. Mayer found in his experiments on the
acuteness of vision, that, in seeing, it depends not only
on the illumination of the object, and its distance from
the eye, but also on the relation of the object and the eye
to the neighborhood. But it is quite otherwise with birds
which look from above, downwards, or with quadrupeds,
whose vision is directed upwards or forwards. No one
has measured the great distance at which a far-seeing bird
perceives its prey ; and indeed it will always be difficult
to do this with accuracy. But Treviranus remarks, ' I
doubt not, if we possessed certain observation on this
point, that the greatest distance would not exceed that of
a far-seeing man.
When, for example, Faber, in proof of the sharpness
of the sight of birds, remarks, ' the high flying eagle or the
kite perceive the motions of small animals on the ground ;
the solan sees a very small fish from a considerable
height ; and gulls, terns, rapacious gulls, '(Lcftri,) and
petrels, fly from all sides to a particular point, where
an object is seen floating on water ; he presents us with
data which are far from being satisfactory. When, on
the contrary, Ross affirms, in his voyage to Baffin's Bay,
that he obtained certain data, proving that the power of
vision of man over the surface of the sea extended to 150
English miles, it is conceivable that the farthest seeing
bird could not exceed this. But experience would seem to
show, that birds, although in general their power of distant
vision is not very great, that they possess a very sharp sight
ANIMAL MECHANISM. 123
in a greater distance than most quadrupeds. There are
many curious observations illustrative of what we have just
said. He says, he threw, at a considerable distance from
a throstle or mavis ( Turdus musicus) a few small beetles,
of a pale gray color, which the unassisted human eye
could not discover, yet the throstle observed them imme-
diately, and devoured them. The long tail titmouse
(Parus Cordatus) flits with great quickness among the
branches of trees, and finds on the very smooth bark its
particular food. When we examine the spots where it
stops for food, nothing is perceived by the naked eye,
although minute insects are visible by means of the
magnifying glass. A very tame redbreast (Sylvia rebecula)
discovered from the height of the branch where it usually
sat, at the distance of eighteen feet, small crumbs of
bread spread out on the ground, the instant they were
thrown down ; and this, by bending its head to one side,
and therefore using only one eye. A quail, at the same
distance, discovered, by the use of only one eye, some
poppy seeds.
A REASON WHY PERSONS IN ADVANCED LIFE, REQUIRE
CONVEX GLASSES.
Age gradually relaxes the tension of the whole system ;
the eye, therefore, suffers in a corresponding ratio. The
cornea becomes less prominent : the convexity of the
lens is also diminished, and the rays of light are conse-
quently less convergent than formerly. The picture of
the object is faint, because the rays have a tendency, by
their divergency, to impinge at a supposable plane, be-
yond the retina.
FIG. 11.
Explanation of Figure 11.
In this figure is represented the effect of old age on the
humors: without the intervention of the glass A, the rays have
124 ANIMAL MECHANISM.
a direction which would form the image at some distance beyond
the retina, as at B. But, by the convex glass A, which, for
example, is the spectacle worn by aged people, the direction of
the rays of light is so corrected, that the image falls accurately on
the bottom of the ye, or retina.
When the convex lens is interposed between the eye
and object, as represented in the above diagram, the rays
are made more converging, so that the picture strikes
exactly and distinctly on the nerve. People slide their
spectacles on the nose unconsciously till the true focus is
procured.
A REASON WHY NEAR-SIGHTED PERSONS SER INDIS-
TINCTLY.
Either the crystalline lens, but more generally the
cornea, is too prominent converging the light too sud-
denly ; that is, converging the luminous rays at an un-
natural place within the vitreous humor. An indistinct
outline of the object is the effect of their great divergency,
after decussating before they arrive at the retina. The
following diagrams will illustrate the subject far better
than a whole volume of written explanations.
FIG. 12.
Explanation of Figure 12.
In this figure, the convexity of the cornea, or the focal powers of
the lens, being too great for the length of the axis of the eye, the
image is formed at A, before the rays reach the surface of the retina t
or inner box, illustrated in Fig. 2, letter c; and after coming accu-
rately to the point, they again begin to diverge ; which diverging
rays, striking the surface of the retina, give the indistinct vision of
the near-sighted individual. But as this indistinctness of vision
Sroceeds from no opacity, but only the disproportion of the convex-
;y of the eye to the diameter, the defect is corrected by a concave
glass, represented in the next figure.
Concave glasses are the restoratives of the near-sighted
eye, by separating the rays, and carrying the image so
ANIMAL MECHANISM. 125
far back as to place it on the retina. Old age, the de-
struction of the first eye, eventually restores the near-
sighted, by the gradual flattening of the cornea, till at
threescore and ten, such persons can see clearly and
distinctly without artificial aid. Many near-sighted
people totally ruin the organ by prematurely wearing
glasses, as a focus is established which neither glasses can
keep pace with in age, nor age thoroughly overcome.
FIG. 13
Explanation of Figure 13.
The effect of this glass being exactly the reverse of the convex,
it causes the rays to fall upon the surface of the eye, so far di-
verging from the perpendicular line, as to correct the too great con-
vergence, caused by the convexity of the humors. When a near-
sighted person has brought the object near enough to the eye to see
it distinctly, he sees more minutely and consequently more clearly ;
because he sees the object, says Mr Bell, larger, and as a person
with a common eye does, when assisted with a magnifying glass.
A near-sighted person sees distant objects indistinctly , and, as the
eye, in consequence, rests, says the same observing writer, with
less accuracy upon surrounding objects, the piercing look of the
eye is very much diminished ; and it has, moreover, a dulness and
heaviness of aspect. Again, the near-sighted person knits his eye-
brows, and half closes the eye-lids ; this he does unconsciously, to
change the direction of the rays, and to correct the inaccuracy of
the image. Near-sighted people have but little expression ; the
countenance loses all its majesty, by habitually wearing glasses.
THE IMAGE OF AN OBJECT IN THE EYE, IS INVERTED.
Rays of light going from the upper and lower points of
an object, are refracted towards the perpendicular ; that is,
bent out of the course which they have a tendency to
run, by the crystalline lens behind, where they unite in
a point, and, then crossing, diverge again. Here then,
the image is bottom upward, as will be noticed in the
preceding diagrams by the arrow, and its image on the
retina. Decussation is indispensable to the vision of
things. An object could not be represented on a point ;
VOL. I. NO. V. 11*
126 ANIMAL MECHANISM.
there must be surface to create an image on, and by the
laws of optics, the representation of the object, without an
additional glass within the eye, must necessarily be as
HOW THE OBJECT APPEARS IN ITS TRUE POSITION, THE
IMAGE BEING INVERTED.
Habit is supposed to be the cause of seeing objects as
they really exist, in relation to surrounding bodies.* A
few philosophers conceive that the mind contemplates
the object only, without reference to its representative
on the retina, which is made there as a natural result.
Certain it is, that without the image, there is no vision.
How the brain is operated upon by the light that defines
the object, will probably never be known. The minute-
ness of the miniature traced on the retina, precisely like
the object in every minute particular, is truly astonishing.
By cutting off the coats of a bullock's eye, and holding
a clean white paper near, this beautiful exhibition can be
leisurely observed. If a sheet of white cotton cloth, six
feet square, is elevated '24,000 feet in the air, the eye
being supposed one inch in diameter, the miniature of
the sail on the retina will be only one eight thousandth
part of an inch square ; which is equivalent to the 666th
part of a line, being only the 6(ith part of the width
of a common hair ! Leaving this point to philosophers,
we proceed to such facts as are susceptible of positive
demonstration.
HOW, WITH BOTH EYES, ONLY ONE OBJECT IS SEEN.
At one side of the centre of each eye, there is a sur-
face more susceptible of visual impressions than any
other. These points correspond in both eyes being
precisely on the two retinas alike. An impression there-
fore on one, provided the light strikes them equally, pro-
duces precisely the same effect on both. This, instead
* A Dr Reed, of Cork, has recently attempted to demonstrate
that the cornea is the true seat of vision, and that we see by means
of erect and reflected, and not by refracted and inverted images.
ANIMAL MECHANISM. 1127
of making vexation, gives strength or greater vividness,
as the images are on surfaces of the same structure,
transmitting, through the two optic nerves, the same
idea, or that indescribable something that creates an idea.
The optic axes, spoken of in the books, by this explana-
tion, will be understood. If one eye is distorted,
pushed by the finger one side, when we are in the act of
contemplating an object, it will appear double, but less
distinct in the one so distorted. The rationale is this;
viz. the visual surface on which the image is made, so
exactly alike in both eyes, as to call up but one idea, be-
ing forced out of the optic axis, the rays still make the
picture, but on a surface, less highly organized, that
does not correspond with the surface on that retina which
has not been disturbed. The two images have now dif-
ferent localities. No course of experiments are more
within the reach of those who have the desire to experi-
ment, than these.*
* Generally the eyes of insects are of two kinds ; viz. simple and
compound, having the appearance of two crescents, making the larg-
est part of the head, and containing an infinite number of little hex-
agonal protuberances, convex, and placed in lines. The number of
lenses in one eye, vary in different insects. Hooke computed those
in the eye of the tabanns or horse-fly, to amount to nearly 7000.
Loewenhoek found in that of the libelltda, (dragon-fly) 12,544 ; and
17,325 have been counted in a common butterfly ; the picture of an
object, impinged on their retinas, must be millions and millions of
times smaller than in the human eye. Some insects have a still
more curious apparatus of vision ; three small spherical protube-
rances rise from the top of the head, and are eyes, in addition to the or-
dinary ones on the side of the head. They are solely for seeing distant
objects; the first, for near ones. Loewenhoek looked through the
eye of a dragon-fly with a microscope, as a telescope, and viewed
the steeple of a church, which was 299 feet high and 750 feet dis-
tant. He plainly saw the steeple, though it did not appear larger
than the point of a very fine needle. He also viewed a house and
could distinguish the front, discern the doors and windows, and
moreover, perceive whether they were open or shut. The writer
has recently seen the light strongly reflected from the eye of the
bee-moth, which precisely resembled the ground faces of a stone
in a Cratch seal. This, therefore, was a multiplying eye. Several
insects present the same structure, hut nature's object is not under-
stood by entomologists.
128
ANIMAL MECHANISM.
FlQ. 14.
Explanation of Figure 14.
In this figure, B, B, the eyes,
having their axes directed to A,
will see the object C, double,
somewhere near the outline D, D.
Because the line of the direction
of the rays from C, do not strike
the retina in the same relation to
the axis A, B, in both eyes. If a
candle is placed at the distance of
ten feet, and 1 hold my finger at
arm's length, between the eye
and the candle, when I look at the
candle, my finger appears double,
and when I look at the finger, the
candle is double.
Explanation of Figure 15.
A is exactly in the centre of
the axes of both eyes ; consequent-
ly it is distinctly seen, and it also
appears single,' because the form
of it strikes upon the points of the
retina, opposite to the pupils in
both eyes. Those points, as before
remarked, have a correspondence,
and the object, instead of appear
ing double, is only strengthened in
the liveliness of the image. Again,
the object B will be seen fainter,
but single and correct. It will
appear fainter, because there is
only one spot in each eye, which
possesses the degree of sensibility
necessary to perfect vision : thus,
it will be understood, the object will appear single, as the rays of
light proceeding from it have exactly the same relation to the
centre of the retinas, in both eyes.
THE REASONS WHY CROSS-EYED PERSONS SEE ONLY WITH
ONE EYE.
With such as have a permanent squint, (cross-eye,)
only one eye is attended to, though they may not be ap-
prehensive of the fact. From continued neglect, the
distorted organ wanders farther and farther from the axis
ANIMAL MECHANISM. 129
of vision, till it finally becomes totally useless : hence one
is doubtful, at times, which way the cross-eyed person is
4 looking, from a want of parallelism in the motions of the
eyes. When the wandering eye is exclusively attended
to, the vision appears unimpaired. The image is well
painted in the natural one, but weak in the other, solely
because the place of the image does not correspond with
the place of the image in the first. The mind, instinct-
ively, therefore, is devoted to the eye that gives the live-
liest impression, to the entire neglect of its aberrating
fellow.
THE REASON WHY THE PUPILS OF AN ALBINo's EYES
ARE RED.
If a person is born without the pigment um nigrum,
heretofore defined to be a paint to suffocate all unneces-
sary light, as it goes through the retina, after the image
is formed, the blood vessels of which the tunica choroides
or second coat is made, are not hidden. Consequently,
they show through the transparent humors, like a spark-
ling red gem, the size of the diameter of the pupil. If
a delicate brush could be inserted to give it a black coat
of paint, the eye would appear as others do. Such per-
sons can see better in a weak light than in broad day,
because the brightness of the sun's light dazzles, and
produces a tremulous motion in the whole organ. As an
evidence that this redness is caused by the blood in the
vessels, after death, when it coagulates, the redness, in a
great measure, disappears. White rabbits, white mice,
brought in cages from China, besides a vast variety of
birds, have no pigment on the choroides } and are there-
fore distinguished for red pupils. The existence of the
pigmentum nigrum, is a concomitant of a. day-seeing eye.
In man, the want of it, constituting the albino, is an
anomaly.
A morbid action of the absorbents sometimes removes
the paint, and the pupil, to the surprise of observers, be-
comes scarlet. A partial absorption of it is often the
cause of a diminution of the original powers of vision :
under such circumstances, the pupil assumes a bronze
hue, accompanied by a debility and tremor of the globe
under the influence of a moderate degree of light,
130 ANIMAL MECHANISM.
The writer remembers an accomplished female albino,
who publicly exhibited herself in Boston, several years
since. An exact wax figure of the lady with the 'red
eyes,' belongs to a group, now in exhibition at the New
England Museum. About the same period, the writer
also recollects of seeing a white negress, who was an al-
bino. Her father and mother were of the jet black color,
though she had a pale, deadly white complexion. The
hair of both these albinos was silky and milk white.
THE REASON WHY MANY ANIMALS SEE IN THE DARK.
Owls, fishes, cats, bats, &c, instead of the pigmentum
nigrum, have a silvery paint of a metallic lustre, where
others have the black paint, which operates like a mirror,
in reflecting the light from point to point, within the eye,
illuminating it till its concentration excites the retina to
perceive. When viewing a cat's eyes in the remote part
of a dark room, there are certain positions, in which they
are seen by the observer, by the reflected light within
themselves, as though they were phosphorescent : their
brilliancy is very peculiar. Upon the principle of a look-
ing-glass behind the retina, all the night-prowling animals
are qualified for seeing with those few rays of light,
which the constitution of their eyes is formed for collect-
ing in the dark. By daylight, they perceive objects,
as man does in the dark, viz. indistinctly. Nature is
remarkably economical in the use of matter which enters
into the composition of animal bodies. If a man be kept
a long time in a perfectly dark room, the pigmentum
nigrum is taken away; but a compensation is given him,
for he can then see as perfectly in the dark, as he could
before in the light. On the other hand, the paint. is de-
posited again when he is restored to the light of day.
This point has been decided in the persons of state pris-
oners kept in the dungeons of European despots.
Is there any arrangement in the eye, and what is it, by
which animals that see in the dark are enabled to make
up for the want of external light ? When we consider
the metallic lustre of the tapetum, which in many animals
occupies a great part of trie choroid coat, or even its
whole surface ; farther, its resemblance to a concave
mirror, and its relation to the light that penetrates into
ANIMAL MECHANISM. 131
the interior of the eye, we cannot help considering it as
the means employed for this purpose, by its collecting
the light and illuminating, by its reflection, objects lying
in the axis of the eye. Prevost objects to this explana-
tion, that there are many animals whose eyes have no
tapetum, although they conduct themselves as if they saw
in the dark. This is actually the case. The tapetum
occurs in carnivora, ruminantia, pachydermata, cetacea,
owls, crocodiles, snakes, rays and sharks : it is wanting
in apes, glires, chiroptera, hedgehogs and moles ; in birds,
with the exception of owls, and in osseous fishes. But the
gnawers or glires, bats, the hedgehog and mole, are ani-
mals that obtain their food more by night than during the
day ; and many of them conduct themselves in the deep-
est darkness, as if they were directed by the sense of
sight. But this objection may be obviated", by remarking,
that it is probably some other sense than that of vision,
which procures for many of these animals sensations of
external objects in the dark. We have in favor of this
opinion, not only the experiments of Spallanzani on bats,
from which it appears that, after these creatures were
deprived of the use of their eyes, they conducted them-
selves as if they still possessed the power of vision, but
also the examples of species of that family, in which the
eyes are so imperfectly developed, or lie so much concealed
behind the outer skin, that they are of little or no use to the
animal. The genera that see in the dark, have undoubt-
edly so irritable a retina, that they can only see during a
very feeble light ; whereas in those animals whose eyes
are organized equally for daylight and nocturnal dark-
ness, the retina possesses less irritability. Hence,
although these are without a tapetum, it does not follow
that this organic part does not afford a mean for seeing
during a feeble light.
The tapetum is either spread over the whole choroid,
or only over the upper half of it. The first is the case
with the cetacea, owls, and. witlfthose amphibia and
fishes which are provided with this shining envelope ; the
second occurs in carnivorous and ruminating animals, it
is more extended in the ruminating than in the carnivo-
rous tribes. But it always extends so far as to encompass
the posterior extremity of the internal occular axis. All
ANIMAL MECHANISM.
the rays of light from external objects which reach it, are
united on it, through the transparent part of the eye, and
it again reflects back the whole united rays towards
the lens. This latter unites them into a single cone,
which has the occular axis as its axis, and its point is
directed outwards. The very convergent rays of this
cone become more divergent by their passage from the
lens into the aqueous fluid, and from this into air or
water. Finally, the apex of this cone falls into the point
of most distinct vision ; for in this point is situated the
focus of all the rays that reach from the interior of the
eye to the posterior surface of the lens. The cone is
complete when the tapetum is spread over the whole of
the choroid ; but the upper half of it is wanting, when
it occupies only the upper hemisphere of the coat. The
tapetum is confined to the upper half of the choroid in all
animals, whose residence and manner of life are of such
a nature, that the under half of the retina is immediately
struck by bright daylight, and for this simple reason,
because the animal must have been dazzled by the
reflection of the bright light from the under half of the
latter. It covers the whole posterior portion of the inter-
nal eye in the cetacea and owls, many amphibia, rays,
and sharks, because these animals live constantly in the
water, or in a feebly luminous medium, or have their
place of residence in dark corners, or go in quest of food
during the night. The experiments and observations of
Prevost and Esser, detailed in 1826 and 1827, show that
the reflection of light from the tapetum is the cause of
the luminou?ness of the eyes, observed under certain cir-
cumstances in the twilight, in cats, dogs, sheep, and in
general in all the animals having a tapetum. But whether
or not a phosphoric light sometimes proceeds from the
retina or choroid, has not as yet been fully ascertained.
There are many examples of a luminousness in the dark
having been observed in the human eye.
THE REASON WHY FISHES CANNOT SEE IN AIR AS WELL AS
IN WATER.
When the rays of light pass from a rarer to a denser
medium, as from air into the aqueous humor of the eye,
they are refracted towards the perpendicular. Now the
ANIMAL MECHANISM. 133
fish has but a drop, as it were, of aqueous humor, and,
moreover, the light arrives at its eyes through the whole
body of water above. The light is refracted only in a
small degree in entering its eye, because the humor is of
the same density of the fluid through which the light is
transmitted. The cornea is quite flat ; if it were promi-
nent, like the human eye, the sphere of vision would be
too circumscribed ; but by giving a prominence to the
whole, and placing the crystalline lens in the fore part
of the eye, they have a long diameter, and with the
provision of a large pupil, are completely fitted to see in
the element in which they are destined to live. With
an eye of this description, they must necessarily see in
air, as other animals see in water.
Those animals whose eyes are organized for seeing in
water, see but indifferently in air. Hence, in those cases
where the habits of the animal require it to see in both
media, it is provided with two sets of eyes, or with eyes
accommodated for seeing in each element. Thus the
Gyrinus natator, an insect which generally swims on the
surface of water, but half submerged, is provided on each
side with two eyes, one pair situated on the crown of the
head, for seeing in the air, and another pair under the
head, for seeing in the water. It is also probable that
the fish named Cobitis anableps, which has in each eye
an upper and under cornea of different curvatures, and
for each cornea a particular anterior surface of the lens,
is capable of seeing in water with the one half of the eye,
and in air with the other half. Thus Scemmering found
in this fish, the semi-diameter of the upper cornea 1,0;
the under 1 ,2 ; the two curvatures of the upper part of
the lens 0,5 ; and the two curvatures of the under part
of it 0,2 Paris lines. It cannot be denied, that, in
general, land animals can see under water, and aquatic
animals in air ; even man sees under water, although the
contrary has been maintained. It is not, however, pos-
sible, that the same eye is ever so organized as to see
equally well in both elements. Land animals always see
indifferently in water, and aquatic animals imperfectly in
air. The one is long-sighted in water, and the other
short-sighted in air. An animal in which the eye is
VOL. i NO v. 12
134 ANIMAL MECHANISM.
adapted for seeing equally well in air and water, can have
but imperfect vision in either. These conclusions are in
conformity with what is known of the power of vision in
those animals that live partly on the land and partly in
the water. The seal (phoca) is one of those animals that
live in both elements. But the seal has but imperfect
vision in the air. Rosenthal in his memoir on the organs
of the senses of seals, says, ' we have convinced ourselves
by careful observation with living seals, of the species
Phoca Grypus of Faber, that the animal is always short-
sighted in the air ; for when we held before it fish and
other bodies, as pieces of wood or stones, it did not dis-
tinguish them accurately, until they were brought so
near, that the organ of smell could be called into activity.
I have the most satisfactory evidence of the short-sighted-
ness of seals, from a series of experiments and observa-
tions, made in Boston harbor. My duties requiring me
to be floating in a boat, from vessel to vessel, many
months of the year, I have been so often accompanied by
seals, alongside and astern, as to establish the fact, that
they can see but a few yards in the air, and then very
obscurely. Scoresby remarks, ' Whales are observed to
discover one another, in clear water, when under the
surface, at an amazing distance. When at the surface,
however, they do not see far.' Scoresby' 1 s Arctic Regions,
vol. i. p. 456. Faber, in his very interesting work on
the habits and manners of birds that inhabit high north-
ern latitudes, remarks that Divers (Colymbus) do not see
so well above water as Grebes (Podiceps,) but better
under water, because it is there they obtain their food.
It also appears, that birds which see well in one ele-
ment, do not see so welt in the other. Faber proposes
the question, ' Is it the case that divers, when under
water, draw their nictitating membrane over the eye, as
they do when looking towards the sun, in order to pre-
vent the contact of the water ?' It would appear, from
the observations of Treviranus, from whose excellent
work, the observations on vision we are now detailing
are principally extracted, that, by drawing the nictitating
membrane over the eye, divers, and all other land animals
which seek their food under water, are enabled, not only
ANIMAL MECHANISM. 135
to prevent the immediate action of the water on the eye,
but also to discover their prey. But as the light loses
more of its power on passing through water, than in
passing through air, and is still more weakened in its
progress through the nictitating membrane, it follows
that owing to this membrane, vision must be less distinct
under the water than in the air.
THE REASON WHY MAN CANNOT SEE UNDER WATER.
A man under water, sees objects as a very aged person
sees through a concave glass, placed close to the eye.
The fish is long-sighted under water and man is short-
sighted. If he uses spectacles, whose convexity is just
double the convexity or equal in convexity on both
sides to the cornea of his own eye, he will see under
water. The necessity of this is obvious ; the aqueous
humor is of the same density with the water, and there
cannot, therefore, be any refraction of the rays in passing
from the water into the land-seeing eye.
Euclid and other distinguished ancients, contended,
and, indeed, supposed that vision was occasioned by the
emission of rays from the eye to the object. He thought
it more natural to suppose that an animate substance
gave an emination, than that the inanimate body did. In
1560, the opinion that the rays entered the eye, was
established. Kepler, in 1600, snowed, geometrically, how
the rays were refracted through all the humors, so as to
form a distinct picture on the retina ; and he also demon-
strated the effect of glasses on the eyes.
IN WHAT MANNER DOES THE EYE ADAPT ITSELF TO THE
DISTANCE OP OBJECTS 1
No one has satisfactorily answered this question. One
philosopher supposes the eye is at rest, when we examine
a distant object, as a mountain, the spire of a church, or
a landscape, but, that in the act of seeing near objects,
there is an effort. It has been supposed that this effort
is the action of the straight or recti muscles, exhibited in
the first plan of the cordage of the eye, compressing the
globe, so equally, as to elongate the eye, and lengthen
the axis, so much, as to favor the union of the pencils of
136 ANIMAL MECHANISM.
rays on the sensible retina. This could not take place in
many aquatic anmials, in whose eyes the sclerotica is
perfect bone. Another opinion is, that the eye is at rest
in looking at near objects, and laboring, when viewing
things at a distance. One writer is of the opinion that
the iris contracts, and so draws the circular margin of
the cornea, towards the pupil, as to make it more* or less
convex, according to circumstances. A great variety of
experiments have been instituted, to determine, accu-
rately, whether there really is any change made in the
length of the axis of the eyeball or not, but none of them
can be certainly relied upon. A favorite .theory has had
its advocates, that the crystalline lens has an inherent
power of altering its degree of convexity, and thus ac-
commodates the eye to all distances. Of all the absurd
hypotheses on the subject under consideration, this is de-
cidedly tha most objectionable, in the estimation of an
anatomist. The truth is, an action takes place in the
eye, in adapting itself to near and distant objects, which
depends on that vital property of a living system which
no theory can reach, and which the deductions of human
philosophy can never with certainty explain.
Having now completed this very brief and imperfect
'sketch, of the mechanism and philosophy of the eye,
condensed from manuscript observations, which from the
peculiar nature of my studies, have been continually
accumulating, I leave it with regret, conscious of its
defects, although a hope is entertained that it will
serve to excite an additional interest in this department
of science, and thus accomplish one of the principal
designs of the series to which it belongs.
BOSTON:
PUBLISHED BY CARTER, HENDEE & BABCOCK,
Corner of Washington and School Streets.
BOSTON CLASSIC PRESS 1
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SCIENTIFIC TRA.CTS.
NUMBER VI.
HEAT.
INTRODUCTION.
IF the indispensable utility of any branch of science,
constitutes a sufficient reason for its universal dissemina-
tion among the great mass of our people, a knowledge of
the nature and effects of heat, would seem to claim a pre-
eminence over all the various branches, which in the phi-
lanthropic spirit of the day, it is deemed highly necessary
to disseminate among our farmers, mechanics, and la-
borers, as essential to their comfort, happiness and suc-
cess in their various callings.
Heat animates, vivifies, and adorns the animal part of
creation ; it brings forth, embellishes, and matures the
vegetable world ; it contributes in a very great degree to
the domestic comforts of man but few of the arts and
trades are carried on without the aid of this important
agent. It is by the agency of heat, that stone and brick
are prepared for the builder's hand ; the ship cannot be
built without its assistance ; and whether she perform her
distant journeys by the aid of steam or wind, both are pro-
duced by the same cause. In fine, there is no occupation
of man, in which the laws of heat may not enlighten and
aid him in the prosecution of his labors.
All mankind receive heat and light from the sun, all
feel the genial influence of these blessings ; and yet how
few understand the peculiar laws by which the effects are
produced. The laws and effects of heat are less studied
than many other more difficult branches of science ; and
yet what wonderful effects have been produced on the
civilization of the human race by the elucidation and
application of its laws. The steam engine is a proud
monument of the triumph of learning and research over
VOL, i, NO. vi. 13
138 BEAT.
^
ignorance. The invention of this highly useful ad-
dition to the power of man, is owing entirely to the eluci-
dation of the laws and effects of this principle.
Most men are familiar with some of the_most common
effects of heat, as they are exhibited in the course of every
day life; and yet there is but a small number who ex-
tend their inquiries beyond this and a still less number
who inquire into the why and wherefore, of these appa-
rently simple effects. Believing, therefore, that it is high-
ly useful to men to understand and comprehend what they
have learned by experience ; knowing that such knowledge
is highly pleasing, particularly to such as are conscious
of possessing the rich gift of an inquiring mind, we
propose to explain in a concise and elementary manner,
the effects and properties of heat, together with some of
its most important applications in the arts of life.
EFFECTS OF HEAT.
One of the first, and most common effects of heat upon
all bodies, whether solids, fluids or airs, is to expand
them, which may be shown by the following
Experiment. Fit a rod of iron to a hole in some
metallic plate ; if it exactly fits when cold, when heated
it will be so enlarged as not to enter it.
The same will be found to be the case with almost all
solid bodies. But all solids do not expand equally by the
same heat. Lead expands more than any other solid,
while glass expands the least. Numerous experiments
have been made by different philosophers, on the expan-
sion of solid bodies by heat, from which the following
conclusions are derived.
A metal that has been condensed by hammering or
wire-drawing, expands more than when in a looser state ;
and those metals which melt the easiest, generally expand
the most.
Advantage is taken of this property of solids, in many
of the arts and trades. Wheels are tired with iron which,
when cold, is a little smaller than the wheel ; and by being
heated it expands, and is thus placed upon the wheel,
after which it contracts by cooling, and thus binds all the
parts of the wheel firmly together. Large casks and
butts for brewers, &c., are rendered tight and secure by
placing hot iron or copper hoops upon them which, by
HEAT. 139
contraction on cooling, bind the staves together. Ad-
vantage is also taken of this property, in the construction
of nice clocks and watches. As the pendulums of clocks
and the balance-wheels of watches, are made of metal
which expands by heat, and contracts by cold, the length
of them is altered by heat, and this of course alters the
rate of going: if a pendulum rod which vibrates seconds
be lengthened one hundredth part of an inch, the clock
will lose ten seconds in twentyfour hours, and if it be
shortened, it will cause the clock to go proportionably
faster. Several ingenious contrivances have been found
out for remedying these defects. The most common of
which is, what is called the gridiron pendulum, which is
formed of five bars, three of steel and two of a compound
of zinc and silver ; these are so arranged that the expan-
sion of the steel is counteracted by the expansion of the
zinc and silver, by which the pendulum is always of the
same length. The balance-wheels of watches are con-
structed upon the same principles.
The great force with which metals expand when heat-
ed, was applied some years since in a singular and novel
manner at Paris. The two side walls of a building, which
were of stone, having been pressed out by the weight of
the floors and roof, several holes were made in the walls
opposite to each other ; through these, strong bars of iron
were placed, their ends projecting outside of the walls,
large plates of iron were screwed on to them. The bars
were then heated, which of course lengthened them, by
which the large plates could be advanced, and when
the bars cooled, the walls were drawn together. The
same process being repeated several times, the walls were
drawn to their original position.
Liquids are expanded more by heat than solids, and
airs more than liquids. The expansion of liquids by
heat, is easily shown by experiment. Place a quantity of
water in a common Florence oil flask, sufficient to fill it
to the neck ; mark the point at which it stands when
cold, then apply heat; in a short time it will be seen that
the water is above the mark. The same will apply to
almost all liquids.
Those liquids expand most by the addition of a cer-
tain quantity of heat, which boil with the least heat.
Thus mercury (quicksilver,) expands less than water, by
140 HEAT.
equal additions of heat ; and water boils with less heat
than mercury ; and for the same reason, alcohol (spirits
of wine) expands more than water.
The nearer a liquid is to boiling, the more it expands,
and of course, the further it is from boiling, the less it
expands by the addition' of a certain quantity of heat.
The expansion of liquids therefore, does not depend on
their density, but upon the quantity of heal necessary to
make them boil ; and no reason can be given why differ-
ent liquids require different degrees of heat to make them
boil.
The expansion of liquids by heat, and contraction by
cold, has furnished us with the means of measuring the
relative heat or temperature of all other bodies. This
is done with an instrument called a Thermometer. It is
almost unnecessary for us to describe a Thermometer. It
consists essentially of a glass tube, with a bulb or hollow
ball at one end, which is filled with mercury which, after
the air has been expelled by making the mercury boil, is
sealed up air tight. When this instrument is exposed to
heat, the mercury expands, and of course, rises in the
tube ; and when exposed to cold, the contrary takes place.
To this tube a scale is attached for the purpose of com-
parison ; this scale is graduated and marked, by plunging
the tube and bulb into melting ice ; the point at which
the mercury then stands, is called the freezing point of
water. It is then plunged into boiling water, the point
at which the mercury stands is called the boiling point
of water. However often we perform these operations
we shall find that the mercury will always stand at the
same point ; hence we learn, that snow or ice always be-
gins to melt at the same temperature, and that water boils
always at the same degree of heat. Mercury is used for
thermometers, because it expands more equally than any
other liquid, owing to the great distance between its freez-
ing and boiling points ; quicksilver boils at 660 of
Fahrenheit, and freezes at 40 below zero ; so that there
is 700 between the two points.
Theie are many kinds of thermometers, which derive
their names from their inventors. Thus Fahrenheit's*
thermometer, which is used in Britain and her posses-
Wherever, the degrees of heat are mentioned in this tract, it
is intended to refer to Fahrenheit's scale.
HEAT 141
sions, Holland, and the United States, has its zero placed
at 32 below the freezing point of water, and the boiling
point of water at 212 ; of course, the distance between
the freezing and boiling points, is divided into 180 parts.
Celsius' thermometer, otherwise called the Centigrade
thermometer, is used in Sweden and France ; and the
space between the freezing and boiling points is divided
into 100 ; the freezing point of water is marked 0.
Reaumer's, or in truth, Deluc's thermometer, which was
formerly used in France, has its freezing point marked 0,
and boiling point 80 . De Lisle's thermometer is used
in Russia, and has its space between the freezing and
boiling points divided into 150 parts, the zero being
placed at the boiling point, and 150 at the freezing point.
All gaseous bodies are expanded by heat, as air, car-
bonic acid gas, (fixed air, dead air,) which may be slioun
by the following
Experiment. Take a glass tube with a bulb at one
end and open at the other, plunge the open end into
water, then apply the heat of a lamp to the bulb ; bubbles
will be produced from the end under the water, which
is owing to the escape of air from the tube ; of course
the air has been expanded by the heat.
The expansion of gaseous bodies differs essentially
from that of solids or liquids, as they all undergo the
same expansion by the same additions of heat. The
steam of water expands just as much as air, when the
same addition of heat is made. Air by being heated
from 32 to 212 , increases more than one third in bulk.
This difference in the expansion of different bodies,
arises from the difference in the cohesive force by which
their particles are bound together in solids the force
of cohesion is great in liquids it is less, and in gaseous
bodies it is nothing. Therefore, in the expansion of
bodies by heat, there is more force to be overcome in
solids than in liquids ; more in water than in air ; con-
sequently air expands more than any solid or liquid body.
The expansive force of steam is applied to the use of
man, in. that magnificent production of human ingenuity,
the Steam Engine, a description of which would be
out of place in this treatise.
We have already stated, that there are a few excep-
VOL. I. NO. VI. 13*
142 HEAT.
tions to the expansion of bodies by heat ; a few bodies
expand when at a certain temperature, either by an
increase or decrease of heat.
Water is the most singular and important instance of
this effect : this liquid decreases in bulk until it has cool-
ed to a certain point, and then increases just as if heat
were applied. The temperature at which water has the
greatest density, is at about 40 of Fahrenheit, at which
point it expands either by heat or cold.
The expansive force of water in the act of freezing, is
practically known to almost every person in our climate.
Water left in earthen or glass vessels, during cold wea-
ther, expands in freezing, and breaks the vessel. Pipes
for conducting water are often burst, by water freezing
in them. The pavement stones of our streets are often
observed during fall and winter to be raised out of their
places, which is caused by the freezing of the water be-
neath them. The earth around rocks and stones is often
observed to be separated from them, which is frequently
supposed to arise from the rocks and stones sinking,
which, in truth, is caused by the water in the earth, which
freezes and expands, while the rock does not expand,
but diminishes in a small degree only. Rocks are rent
asunder, trees are split by this property of water. This
agency of water is a striking instance of the Divine good-
ness, in causing rocks and soils to moulder to powder,
thereby fitting them well for the purposes of the hus-
bandman.
If it were not for this property of water, our rivers and
brooks would in the course of our winters, become en-
tirely solid, which of course, would destroy their innu-
merable inhabitants ; the seas and oceans of the polar re-
gions of the earth woukl become one entire mass of ice,
because the ice as soon as formed on the surface, would
sink to the bottom, and another layer would be formed,
and sink also ; in this way the whole would be frozen.
The writer of this tract has burst an iron bomb shell,
7 inches in diameter and nearly 1 inch thick, by the
freezing of water. Some Venetian philosophers burst a
brass globe one inch in diameter by freezing water in it,
which it was calculated, was equal to a force of 27,720
pounds.
The expansion of water in the act of freezing, is sup-
HEAT. 143
posed to be owing to the tendency which water has in
becoming solid, to arrange its particles in one determinate
manner, so as to form prismatic crystals.
Some of the metals have the property, when in a liquid
or melted state, of expanding when they become solid ;
these are cast-iron, bismuth, and antimony. Hence
the use of cast-iron in making castings of a perfect
shape, because the iron in the act of cooling, expands
and completely fills the mould. Hence likewise, the use
of antimony in the composition of types. It should, be
remembered however, that these bodies do not constitute
an exception to the law of expansion by heat, because
the expansion in the above metals is owing to the change
of state, from a liquid to a solid, that is, to crystallization.
All bodies do not, however, expand.; on changing their
state from a liquid to a solid. When liquids become sol-
ids they either form crystals or an irregular mass, in
which there is no regular arrangement. In the former
case, expansion takes place, in the latter contraction.
Water and the different kinds of salts are instances of
the former ; oils and tallow are examples of the latter.
Nearly all solid bodies may, by heat, be converted into
liquids, and all liquids may be converted into solids by a
sufficient degree of cold. Again, all liquids may be con-
verted into vapor or elastic fluids, by heat ; and a great
number of elastic fluids may, by cold, be condensed into
liquids : hence the state of a body depends essentially
upon the temperature in which it is placed.
The following table exhibits the temperature at which
a number of bodies melt.
Cast Iron
- 20577 of Fahrenheit.
Plate Glass - -
- 17197
Fine Gold - -
5237
Fine Silver - -
4717
Lead
594
Bees' Wax - -
142
Spermaceti - -
133
Tallow - -
92
Water freezes at 32
ular process, be cooled
, yet it may by care and a partic-
down to 22, without becoming
144 HEAT.
ice. When water is thus cooled down, the least agita-
tion causes it to become ice instantaneously.
Any kind of salt dissolved in water, lowers its freezing
point. Hence, sea water does not freeze so soon as fresh
water.
OF THE CAUSE OP HEAT.
There are many natural agencies, the causes of
which remain unknown at the present day, and probably
always will. Learned men have been unremiting in
their investigations for ages, to discover the hidden
causes of natural phenomena, but in many cases
without effect, among which is the cause of heat.
Philosophers and learned men have, as yet, been unable
to determine whether heat is caused by a peculiar subtile
fluid which enters into, and is expelled from bodies, and
thus produces the sensation of heat or cold ; or whether
the cause is owing to a motion of the particles of the
body, vibratory or rotatory. There have been numerous
arguments adduced in support of both suppositions, all
of which, however, are inconclusive ; and as our object is
rather to explain the laws and effects of heat, than to deal
with ingenious theories, we shall omit any detailed account
of the arguments and experiments in favor of either.
OF THE MOTION OF HEAT.
When we hold our hand near a piece of hot iron we
feel the sensation of heat, which is caused by the heat of
the iron flying off in all directions, in the same manner
as sparks fly from heated iron when hammered upon the
anvil. This peculiar motion of heat is called radiation.
When we hold a piece of iron with one end of it in the
fire, and the other in the hand, that part of the iron which
is in the hand will in time become hot ; which is in
consequence of the heat being conducted through the
iron, from one end to the other : this property of heat is
called conduction.
Radiation. Every person must have observed that
when a hot body is exposed to the air, that it cools in a
short time, and that bodies do not cool in the same time ;
now is this difference owing to the form or dimensions of
the body ? or the nature or color of its surface 1 the
answers to these questions lead to some highly important
practical results.
HEAT. 145
Experiment. Take two tin or Brittania tumblers, and
cover the outside of one of them with lamp-black, fill
them both with boiling hot water, and place a thermome-
ter in each ; it will be seen that the water in the coated
tumbler will cool to the temperature of the room in about
one half of the time required to cool that in the bright
one. The same effect will be observed whatever be the
nature of the metallic bodies, whether the tumblers be
iron or silver, provided their surfaces have the same polish
as the tin, and coated in the same manner.
The metals radiate heat less than any other substances.
Glass radiates 7^ times more heat than polished tin.
Mr Leslie found that the surface of a body produced
the greatest effect upon radiation when the air was still ;
and that in a strong wind the polished and coated
vessels filled with hot water cooled in nearly the same
time. This proves that the lamp-black does not conduct
the heat off, but radiates it. The shape of a vessel has
no effect upon the radiating power of a body, except that
the greater the surface with the same solid contents, the
greater the radiation.
The color has but a slight effect upon radiation. If
instead of coating the tumbler with lamp-black, we cover
it with white paper, nearly the same effect is produced
it therefore depends mainly upon the nature of the surface.
The following substances radiate heat in the order in
which they are placed. Lamp-black writing paper
glass tarnished lead bright lead polished iron tin
plate silver gold copper polished brass.
Bright metallic bodies cool the slowest ; culinary uten-
sils, therefore, which are required to keep whatever is in
them hot, should be of metal, with bright clean surfaces.
For the same reason, pipes, which are used to conduct
heat from a furnace to an apartment, should be made of
bright metal. Stove pipes and others, which are used
to heat apartments by distributing the heat, should be
covered with lamp-black, or some other similar substance,
which will cause them to radiate more heat. And for
the same reasons, such vessels as are intended to receive
heat, should be black, as they heat much sooner than
they would if bright; of course, such culinary vessels
should not be scoured on the outside, where the beat
comes to them. Heat is reflected in the same manner as
146
light, having the angle of incidence equal to the angle
of reflection; that is, if heat strike a surface, it flies off
from it at the same inclination with which it struck it.
Experiment. Take two common metallic lamp reflec-
tors, place them a short distance apart, with a hot iron
ball in the focus of one, and a thermometer in the focus
of the other ; the thermometer will immediately begin to
rise, in consequence of the heat from the ball being
radiated to its reflector, from whence it is thrown to the
other reflector, and from thence it is reflected to its focus,
in which the thermometer is placed.
If a pane of glass be held between the reflectors, the
thermometer does not rise ; this proves that the heat
does not proceed directly from the ball to the thermometer,
which is further shown by removing the reflector nearest
to the ball, as the thermometer will then fall.
From numerous experiments, it has been shown,
that those surfaces which radiate heat best, are the
worst reflectors ; while those which radiate least, are
the best reflectors ; metals, consequently, are the best
reflectors, and when polished better than when tar-
nished. This is the reason that brass andirons, which
are very near the fire, are but little heated ; because brass
is one of the poorest radiators, and one of the best reflec-
tors. Advantage is taken of this property, in the culinary
operation of roasting with a tin kitchen, where the heat is
reflected upon the spit.
Radiation and reflection do not take place under
water. Radiation is considerably retarded by interposing
a screen before the hot body; a piece of pine board, one
inch thick, is not so effectual in stopping radiating heat
as apiece of gold leaf -^fam part of an inch thick. Those
substances which radiate best, intercept the least of
it, and vice versa. Hence, those substances which
absorb the least heat, are the best interceptors of it.
Therefore, ladies' screens should not be made of paper, or
similar substances, but of some bright metallic substance.
Fine wire, polished, and woven fine, would stop heat
more effectually than paper.
Conduction. If we take several pieces of different
substances, such as silver, copper, iron, lead, and glass,
<jfjthe same size, and place a coat of wax upon one end
ofeach, then place the other ends in the same heat, it
HEAT. 147
will be perceived that the wax does not begin to melt on
them all at the same time. That on the silver will
melt first, and that on the glass last. Therefore, some
bodies heat sooner than others. When bodies become
hot in this manner, it is said to be conducted through
them.
All solid bodies are conductors of heat. The metals
are the best conductors, next come stony substances.
When a solid is sufficiently heated to change its state, it
is no longer a conductor. Ice will conduct heat at any
temperature below the freezing point of water, but at 32
it is no longer a conductor ; because any addition of heat
changes it to water.
In solids, the heat moves from particle to particle,
but not in liquids and gaseous bodies ; because their
particles move freely among themselves. As we have
explained in a former chapter, bodies are increased in
bulk by heat, and are of course lighter ; therefore, when
heat is applied to a liquid, it heats a stratum of it next
the source of heat, and it becomes lighter, and if below
another, it will rise, while another takes its place, and in
this way, the whole becomes heated : of course, it makes
a great difference to what part of a liquid we apply the
heat. If we apply it to the top, it can make its way
downward but slowly, in the same way solids are heated ;
but if it be applied at the bottom, it makes its way up-
ward, in consequence of the movement of the particles,
independent of any conducting power. Liquids then,
have the power of carrying heat.
Experiment. If we mix some light substance, of the
same specific gravity of water, with a portion of this
liquid in a glass tube, or oil flask, and heat be applied to
it, the particles will be seen in motion ; in the middle of
the tube they will be seen to ascend, and near the sides
to descend. These motions are caused by the heated
particles going to the sides and giving out heat, thus
becoming heavier, they fall to the bottom, and push up
lighter ones, which, in their turn, lose a part of their
heat, and fall also. Upon this experiment, and similar
ones, Count Rumford founded this general rule: the
more the internal motions of a liquid are impeded, the
longer time does it require to heat them to any given
temperature.
148 HEAT.
Liquors are but slight conductors of heat.
As before mentioned, the metals are the best conduc-
tors of heat ; next come stony substances ; some of
which are, however, better conductors than others. Bricks
are worse conductors of heat than stones, except some
varieties of sand stone; brick houses, therefore, are warmer
in winter, and cooler in summer, than stone houses.
Glass is a bad conductor of heat; this causes it to
break when suddenly heated, in consequence of one
surface being expanded before the other can become
heated so as to expand also. Cold, of course, produces
the same effect by contracting one surface before the
other can have parted with its heat. Glass tumblers
which have thick sides and bottoms, are very liable to
break when hot liquids are poured into them, for the
same reason. The purer the glass the less liable it is to
break, because it is more compact, and therefore expands
more equally. For the same reason crockeryware is
liable to be broken. Hence also, the practice of glass
manufacturers, who place the ware after it is blown and
shaped, in a hot oven to cool gradually. This is called
annealing.
Dried woods and charcoal are very bad conductors of
heat ; hence the use of the latter in making instruments
for keeping provisions, &/c, in hot weather, called refri-
gerators. Dried bass-wood has only about four times as
much conducting power as water. Pitch-pine, and
spruce are better conductors than white pine.
Count Rumford made numerous experiments on the
conducting power of the different substances which are
used for clothing. He found that the worst conductors
were hare's fur, and eider down. Next came beaver,
raw silk, ravellings of manufactured silk, wool, cotton,
and linen lint, and the more open the texture of the
substance, the worse conductor it was. For this reason
blankets are warmer than fulled cloth of the same fine-
ness ; eider down comfortables, than those made of cotton
or wool. The warmest clothing is such as has the finest
texture and the longest nap. All of these substances
have a large quantity of air combined with them, and air
being a bad conductor, the more air they contain among
their parts the warmer they are.
There are numerous instances in the arts, where
HEAT. 149
advantage is taken of the property of bodies in conducting
heat, or, what is the same thing, in confining heat.
The brick-maker covers his kilns of unburnt bricks with
a coating of burnt bricks, plastered over with clay and
sand to keep the heat in, these substances being bad
conductors. Furnaces are coated with the same mate-
rial, or with charcoal, which is much better. Double
windows are to be seen in Boston during the winter
season, the use of which is founded upon the same prin-
ciples the air which is confined between them being a
bad conductor of heat, prevents the warm air of the room
from being cooled from without.
Upon the same principles we may explain several phe-
nomena which, although of daily occurrence, are but
seldom understood. If we apply our hand in cold
weather to wood, iron, or stone, the iron feels colder than
the wood, and yet they have both been exposed to
the same temperature, and of course if exposed to the
thermometer, would both show the same degree of heat.
The iron feels the coldest because, being the best con-
ductor, it carries off the heat of the hand much faster than
the- wood, which is a bad conductor. For the same
reason when iron and wood are heated to the same tem-
perature before a fire or otherwise, the iron to the hand will
feel much the hottest. Workmen who are exposed to
great heat or cold, should always wear flannel, as it is a
slow conductor of heat, and in cold weather will keep the
heat of the body in, and in warm weather will keep the
external heat out. For the same reason, woollen or
worsted mittens, or gloves, are much warmer in winter
and cooler in summer, than leather.
OF THE DISTRIBUTION OF HEAT.
Every person knows by experience the common law of
heat, that a warm body cannot remain long near a colder
one, without being deprived of a part of its heat, which
passing to the colder one makes it warmer.
Experiment. If we mix a quantity of water at 212,
with the same quantity at 32 , the mixture will be found
to be 122, which is the exact mean of the two; of
course the hot water has lost 90 of its heat, while the
cold water has gained 90 .
VOL. I. NO. VI. 14
150 HEAT.
If any number of bodies at different temperatures be
carried into a room, in a short time the air of the room
and the different bodies will all be found to have the
same temperature.
Sir Isaac Newton suggested the following law as to the
heat lost, ' that in given small spaces of time the heat
lost is always proportional to the heat remaining in the
body ; ' by which he calculated several temperatures
above the scale of thermometers. This, however, has
since been found strictly true only for temperatures
below 212; for all above, it is only an approximation.
The heat which is lost by a body in cooling is partly con-
ducted away by the air, some of it is carried off by cur-
rents produced in the air surrounding the body, and
some by radiation.
A hot body will of course heat that portion of the air
which immediately surrounds it, which becoming light
will rise while another portion of cold air takes
its place, and in this way a current will be pro-
duced, which much accelerates the cooling of the body.
It is evident that this current will be the stronger the
higher the temperature of the body.
If these currents be artificially increased, of course the
rate of cooling will be increased. Hence the effect of
winds in cooling bodies. The rate of cooling is always
proportional to the velocity of the current, or, if the body
move, proportional to its velocity. Hence red hot balls
which are fired from cannon, should not be fired with
great velocities, or at great ranges.
OF FLUIDITY.
Dr Black was the first who explained in a satisfactory
manner the cause of fluidity. He found that when a
solid body was converted into a liquid, a certain quantity
of heat combined with it, without sensibly increasing its
temperature ; and that this portion of heat is !he cause of
fluidity. When a fluid is converted into a solid, a certain
quantity of heat leaves it without sensibly diminishing its
temperature.
Experiment. Take a pound of new fallen snow, and
add to it a pound of water at 172, the snow will be
melted and the whole will be found to have a temperature
HEAT. 151
of 32 . Here, 140 of heat has left the water and com-
bined with the snow, and thus caused it to melt; yet the
water resulting from this melted snow has the same tem-
perature as the snow. Therefore a pound of snow
requires 140 of heat to melt it.
Water after being cooled down to 32 cannot freeze
until it has parted with 140 of heat, and ice after being
heated to 32 will not melt until it has absorbed 140 o
heat ; hence the slowness with which these operations are
performed.
To the quantity of heat which thus combines with a
body and causes fluidity, Dr Black gave the name of
latent heat.
The fluidity of all bodies is owing to the same cause,
and it may be considered as a general law, that whenever
a solid is converted into a liquid, it combines with heat.
Metals owe their ductility and malleability to the latent
heat which they contain. Hence, we have the reason
why they become hot and brittle by being hammered,
OF STEAM AND EVAPORATION.
Nearly every liquid body when raised to a certain
temperature is gradually converted into an elastic fluid,
which like air is invisible. Water when heated suffi-
ciently is converted into an elastic fluid, called steam,
which is invisible, and has the same mechanical pro-
perties as air. One cubic inch of water will make 1800
cubic inches of steam.
When a vessel of water is placed over a fire, the water
gradually heats until it reaches 2 12, after which its
temperature will not increase ; yet, heat must be gradually
and constantly combining with it, and as it does not
become hotter, it must combine with the steam which is
constantly flying off; but the steam isonly at 21(2, of
course the heat must become latent, and we must con-
clude that the change of water into steam is owing to this
latent heat.
Steam is water combined with about 1000 of heat,
therefore, as has been before shown, a given quantity of
steam at 212 , will heat a great deal more water than an
equal weight of water at 212, because it contains a
great deal more heat, which is given out by changing the
steam into water.
152 HEAT.
The bubbling of water when boiling, is owing to the
formation of steam, which rises continually from the
bottom to the top of the vessel. At the common pressure
of the air, near the level of the sea, water boils at 2 12 .
The higher we carry water up the side of a mountain,
the less heat is required to make it boil ; because a part
of the pressure of the atmosphere is removed. A differ-
ence of 1 in the boiling point of water corresponds to
a difference in elevation of nearly 520 feet. The heavier
the air is, the greater the pressure, and of course the
more heat is required to make water boil. By increasing
the pressure sufficiently, water may be heated to 400
without ebullition. The effect of pressure on the boiling of
water, may be shown by this experiment. Take a com-
mon olive oil flask, fit a good cork to it, put about half a gill
of water into it, and place it over a lamp until it boils.
Permit the boiling to continue a short time, and then
place the cork in the neck tight, and remove it from the
lamp ; the water will continue to boil a short time after.
On plunging the flask into cold water, the boiling will
again commence with violence. Remove the flask into
hot water and the boiling will cease ; and if it is again
plunged into cold water, it will again boil.
The boiling of the water in this experiment, before the
cork is placed in it, expels the air in the bottle, and
steam takes its place ; and the flask when removed from
the lamp, becomes a little cooled, which condenses a
portion of the steam, which removes some of the pressure,
and thus causes the water still to boil. When the flask
is plunged into cold water, more of the steam is con-
densed, and more of the pressure removed, which causes
it to boil violently ; and when the bottle is placed in
warm water, a portion of steam is again formed, thereby
increasing the pressure, and thus prevents the boiling
which pressure is again removed by plunging the Mask
into cold water, and thus causes the water again to boil.
Steam imparts its great heat so easily to bodies which
are colder than itself, as to fit it peculiarly for many useful
practical purposes in the arts and in domestic life. The
heat produced by means of steam, for many purposes is
preferable to the heat of fire. Dyers' and brewers' vats
are much better heated by steam than in any other way.
HEAT. 153
Many colors are better and more economically prepared
by steam than by fire. Vegetable extracts for medi-
cinal purposes are best prepared by the heat of steam.
For heating baths, steam is far cheaper than fire. Large
or small apartments may be warmed by steam with clean-
liness andj great safety. All the culinary operations of
boiling are better performed by steam than in any other
way. In order to heat a liquid by steam, the vessel con-
taining the liquid, should be placed in a larger one,
making the open space between them steam tight, and the
steam admitted into this space will raise 20 gallons of
water at 5'2, to 212 in eleven minutes.
One gallon of water made into steam will heat six
gallons at 50 to the boiling point, or eighteen gallons
from 50 to 100.
It has been found that in warming large buildings, such
as manufactories, one cubic foot of the boiler will heat 2000
cubic feet of space to 70 or 80 ; and that one square
foot of surface of a steam pipe, will heat two hundred
cubic feet of space. Cast-iron pipes are considered the
best for heating apartments by steam, and should be
covered with lampblack and placed near the floor, as the
coldest air is always lowest.
Animal food is considered more nutritious and easier
to digest, when prepared with steam, than when cooked in
the usual method.
Evaporation. When a liquid gradually assumes the
form of an elastic vapor at all temperatures, it is said to
evaporate ; and as the temperature is increased, the eva-
poration is also increased. Likewise, as the pressure is
diminished, the evaporation is increased.
The reason of evaporation is beautifully explained by
the doctrine of latent heat. We have explained how
liquids, in order to be converted into steam or vapor,
require a large quantity of heat, which combines with
them and becomes latent, and taking away this heat pro-
duces cold.
Experiment. Place a watch glass with a small quantity
of ether in it, in another glass containing a small quantity of
water, and place them both under the receiver of an
air-pump. Exhaust the receiver, and in a short time the
ether will have disappeared, and the water will be frozen.
, TOL. i. NO. vi. 14*
154 HEAT.
Here, removing the pressure, the ether evaporated, and
deprived the water of its heat and it became frozen. Of
course evaporation always produces cold.
It is owing to the evaporation of water, that showers in
summer cool and refresh the earth, by the evaporation of
the rain which is spread over its surface.
Many practical uses are made of this property. The
natives of India wear moist cloths about their heads to
keep them cool, which is done by the evaporation of the
water. The same people preserve their apartments cool
during the night, by hanging them with wet cloths.
Wine-cockers produce their effect entirely by evaporation.
Caravans which cross the hot deserts of Asia and Africa,
carry earthen bottles filled with water, which is pre-
served cool by having the bottles wrapped around with
wet cloths.
The effect of evaporation is of the greatest importance
to man, in preserving the human body at a liealthy tempe-
rature. The natural heat of the body is about 90.
Active exercise or exposure to great heat, raises the
temperature of the body, which is unhealthy ; but perspi-
ration, brings a watery fluid to the surface, which
by being evaporated, soon reduces the heat of the body
to its healthy state.
Distillation. Some liquids are more easily converted
into vapor than others. If two liquids, which boil at dif-
ferent temperatures be mixed together, they may be again
separated by exposing them to such a heat as will cause
that which boils at the lowest temperature, to assume the
state of vapor, which by being collected and condensed
by cold, will form the original liquid, while the other is
left in the vessel. This is the process in the distillation
of all substances.
If the pressure of the atmosphere is removed from the
substances to be distilled, the operation for some pur-
poses' is much better performed. Vinegar distilled in
this way is perfectly pellucid and of an agreeable flavor,
which it has not when distilled in the usual way.
OF COLD.
We have already explained, that when a body passes
from a solid to a liquid state, it must absorb a large
} }
HEAT. 155
quantity of heat, which produces cold. By applying this
principle to the conversion of certain salts into liquids, an
intense degree of cold may be produced. Thus by mix-
ing two parts of snow with one part of muriate of soda,
(common salt), a degree of cold 5 below zero may be
produced. Dry potash, (carbonate of potash,) mixed with
snow will produce cold 53 below zero.
The following table shows the proportions of different
ingredients, and the degree of cold produced by mixing
them together, In all cases the effect is produced by the
sudden conversion of the solid salts into liquids.
Cold mixtures, produced without snow or ice.
Mixtures. Parts. Thermometer sinks.
From 50 to 4 c .
Sulphate of Soda (Glauber's Salt) 3 ) 50 to 10
Diluted Nitric Acid (AquaFortis) 2 ) below zero.
Sulphate of Soda 8 \
Muriatic Acid (Spirit of Salt > " 50 to zero.
or Marine Acid) 5 )
Phosphate of Soda 9 ) o o
Nitrate of Ammonia 6 >
Diluted Nitric Acid 4$ below zero.
Cold mixtures with snow and ice.
mixtures. Parts. Thermometer sinks.
Snow or pounded ice 3 \
Diluted Sulphuric acid, } From 32 to 23 below 0.
(oil of Vitriol,) 2 j
" l40- bdw 0.
Snow 2 \
Crystallized muriate of > " 32 to 50 below 0.
lime 3 )
If these materials are cooled down before they are
mixed, by exposure to frigorific mixtures, a much greater
degree of cold may be produced in some cases thus, in
the last mixture, in the above table, if the snow and
muriate of lime be cooled down to 40 below zero, and
then mixed, a cold of 73 below zero will be produced.
The greatest degree of cold ever produced by artificial
means, was 93 below zero.
156 HEAT.
Artificial cold is used in the preparation of some arti-
cles of luxury for the palate, and is often employed in
philosophical experiments, as in freezing mercury, &-c.
OP THE SOURCES OF HEAT.
The two principal sources of heat are, the sun, and
combustion ; there are others, but we shall confine our
remarks to these. Heat is constantly radiating from the
sun, and evolved or given out during the combustion or
burning of bodies.
The vital part of our solar system is the sun, from this
source we receive all the heat necessary for producing
the fruits and flowers of our earth, which are matured
and perfected by the light from the same body. We may
behold the wisdom of that Power, that balanced the sun
and planets in the heavens, displayed in an equal degree
in the distribution of the animals and plants of our little
planet, according to their respective natures, as far as
respects heat and light. Those animals which are placed
in the arctic regions, are all protected from the cold by a
covering of fine fur, exactly adapted to keeping out the
cold ; while those of the tropics have a covering adapted
to their climate like the elephant, who has scarcely any
covering.
It is not our purpose at present, to inquire into the
cause of the immense quantity of heat and light which
we constantly receive from the sun. Dr Herschel sup-
poses it to be owing to luminous clouds, which float in
the atmosphere of the sun, and as these clouds are subject
to various changes, both in quantity and lustre, he ac-
counts for the difference in the heat of different years.
When a piece of glass is exposed to the rays of the
sun, it is not soon heated ; but if a piece of iron, of the
same thickness be exposed during the same time, it will
soon become heated ; in the same manner, all transparent
bodies stop but few of the solar heating rays, while opaque
bodies intercept more or less of them ; and the darker the
color of the opaque body, the more heat is intercepted.
Hence, arises Dr Franklin's rules for the color of cloth-
ing. Black or dark colors during winter, and white or
light colors for summer. But it is to be questioned
whether these conclusions are correct. By a reference to
HEAT. 157
what we have said upon radiation, it will be seen, that
dark colors radiate more heat than light ones : therefore,
dark clothing carries off more of the heat of the body,
than light colored would.
The heat, produced by the direct rays of the sun upon
a body, seldom exceeds 120, but by a peculiar contri-
vance to prevent the heat from being carried off by the
surrounding bodies 220 or 230 may be produced.
When the rays of the sun are concentrated, they pro-
duce a much greater effect, as with a burning glass
bodies may be set on fire at a considerable distance ; they
must be diret-ted, however, upon a body that will absorb
or retain them, if they are directed upon apiece of glass,
it will not be heated, nor will any transparent body, such
as air, or water. In these cases, the heating power of the
sun's rays, is not augmented by concentrating them ; the
effect is owing entirely to the great number of rays which
are brought upon one point.
Combustion. Among all the natural phenomena which
daily take place around us, there is none more wonderful
than combustion, and there is none less understood ; and
yet its vast utility seems to demand that all should know
its cause, and the relative powers of the various combusti-
ble bodies which are used in the arts and trades, as well
as for domestic purposes.
If a piece of iron, and one of wood, of the same
size be exposed to the same heat until the iron is red hot,
quite different effects will be produced upon them. The
iron continues to acquire heat, up to a certain point,
where it will remain, while the wood will heat to a certain
point, and then suddenly become much hotter of itself;
affording at the same time abundance of heat and light.
After a short time this heat and light will diminish, and
finally cease, although still exposed to the same heat as
at the beginning. If the two bodies be now withdrawn
from the heat and permitted to cool, the iron will be
found to have undergone no change, while what was
wood is quite another thing, having lost its shape, weight
and color, and is no longer capable of being set on fire as
before. Again, if charcoal be heated to about 800, it
takes fire and becomes intensely hot, which after a time
diminishes, and finally ceases, when it will be found
158 HEAT.
that it has entirely disappeared, except a very small
quantity of ashes. What has become of it 1 It has been
almost entirely converted into a peculiar kind of air
or gas, called carbonic acid gas, (dead air), which has
escaped, unless the experiment was conducted in proper
vessels for collecting it. If collected, it will be found to
greatly exceed in weight the charcoal first heated.
In order that a body may burn, oxygen gas is ne-
cessary. And as the air we breathe is a mixture of this
gas and another called azote, or nitrogen, common air is
said to be necessary in order to enable a body to burn, or
in other words to undergo combustion. In every case of
combustion, heat and light are produced, and there is a
total change in the nature of the body burnt. The im-
mortal Lavoiser was the first who explained the phe-
nomenon of burning in a satisfactory manner. He sup-
posed that oxygen is combined with heat and light ; and
when therefore a body is burnt, the oxygen gas of the air
is decomposed, heat and light are set free, while the re-
mainder of the gas, or its base, combines with the body
burnt, and forms the product, ashes, carbonic acid gas,
&-c. The products will not burn, of course, because
they are already combined with as much oxygen as
possible.
We may now explain the cause why the products of the
charcoal mentioned above, weigh more that the coal
first used. The oxygen has weight, and having combined
with a part of the coal, forming the dead air ; of course,
the products weigh more than the coal alone.
The quantity of heat evolved during combustion is not
only highly important as an object of economy, but
interesting in a philosophical point of view. Several phi-
losophers have investigated the subject, and no one with
more success than our countryman, Count Rumford. He
found how many pounds of ice were melted by the burn-
ing of one pound of the body tried. The following table
shows some of his results.
Ibs. Ibs.
Olive Oil 93,07 Tallow 111,53
Rape-sr-ed Oil 124,09 Alcohol 07,47
Wax (Bees') 120,24
The following table exhibits the results of a set of simi-
159
lar experiments conducted in the same manner as the
above, on some of the common combustibles which are
used in New England, as determined by the writer of this
tract.
Ibs. oz.
Oak (white), (Quercus alba) dry - - 39 4
do. do green - - 32 1
Oak (yellow) (Quercus castanea) dry - - 41 7
do. do. green - - 35 5
Hickory (Gary a squmosa) dry - - 43 3
do. do. green - - 40
Maple (rock) (Acer saccharinum) dry - - 43 1
do. do. green - - 41 10
Maple (white) (Acer dasycarpum) dry - - 39
Pine (white) (Pinus strobus) dry - 29 12
do. do. green - - 22
Pine (pitch) (Pinus rigida) dry - - 33 9
do. do green - - 29 2
Liverpool Coal - 80
Lehigh Coal - - 89 4
Rhode Island - 89 12
Charcoal (oak) - - 97 1
do. (pi ne ) - - 70
The heating power of all the above woods s found to
be considerably augmented by drying them in a hot
oven. The wood, when burnt, was in the state of small
shavings.
Heat is likewise produced by percussion, friction, and
the mixture o certain substances ; also by electricity, &c,
all of which with propriety we shall defer to another op-
portunity, and conclude this essay with the advice of a
great and good man. ' Tf.you would discover the hidden
causes of nature's grand operations, you must first learn
and elucidate those which are simple and of every day oc-
currence before your eyes. It is from small causes that
great effects are produced.'
AGENTR
FOB THE
SCIENTIFIC TRACTS.
MAINE.
Norwich, Thomas Kooinson.
Portland, Samuel CoZmo-
Middletown, Kdwin Hunt.
Ilallowell, C. Spaulding.
NEW YORK.
Augusta, P. Ji. Brinsmade.
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Albany, Z,i/ $ C7n m in.r.
Belfast, JV. P. Hawes.
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Troy, W. S. Parktr.
Utica, G S. Wilson.
Norway, Asa Barton,
Rochester, E. Pfct $ Co.
NEW HAMPSHIRE.
NEW JERSEY.
n ( Eli French,
Trenton, D. Fcnion.
Dover, ,| g c S( *
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Hanover, Thomas Mann.
Concord, Horatio ISll 4- Co.
Philadelphia, j &^J5?* -P '
Keene, Georg-e 7'jWen.
MARYLAND." '
Portsmouth, Jvhn W. Foster.
VERMONT.
Baltimore, CAorf<-. Carfer.
DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA.
Burlington, C. Goodrich.
Brattleboro', Geo. 11. Ptek.
Washington, Thompson f{ Homans.
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Windsor, Simeon Jde.
VIRGINIA.
Montpelier, J. S. Walton.
Bellows Falls, James I. Cutler * Co.
Rutland, Win. Fay.
Middleburv, Jonathan Hagm:
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OHIO.
Cincinnati, j Mffl^jJ.^ J.U
Castleton, B. Burt, 2rf.
Columbus, .7. .V. U'/iitinrr.
St Albans, L. L. Dutcher.
MISSISSIPPI.
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Natches, F. Bruwi.ont.
SOUTH CAROLINA.
Salem, Wltipple 4- Lawrence.
Newburvport, diaries H'hipjile.
Charleston, Kbenc-.er Ttayer.
NORTH CAROLINA.
Northampton, S. Butler 4- Son.
Andover, .V. j?cinna*.
Raleigh, Turner 4r Jluahes.
GEORGIA.
Amherst, .7. S. 4' C. Jluam*.
Worcester, Dowr 4- 1 Intel ml.
Savannah, TAowia* jV. Driseolt.
ALABAMA.
Springfield, Thomas nickn,*n.
New Bedford, ji.Shear,mn,Jr.^Co.
Mobile, 0</iore 4- Swu'tA.
LOUISIANA.
Methuen, J. W. Carlton tf Co
New Orleans, Mara Carroll.
Brookficld, r.. S( G. .Verrium.
MICHIGAN TERRITORY.
RHODE ISLAND. .
Prrtwi'lonpo ^ Corey 4" BTOWI^
Detroit, Georne, L. Whitney.
CANADA.
IrovUence, j ^ s> OtekvioL
Montreal, 7/. If. Cunningham.
. . CONNECTICUT.
auebcc, JVeilson (f Cowan.
Hartford, /^fr F. J. TTaiititinton
New Haven, 4- # Maltby.
ENGLAND.
London, John Mardtn.
.; JT ROSTON:
PUBLISHED BY CARTER, HENDEE & BABCOCK,
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SCIENTIFIC TRACTS.
NUMBER VII.
ENTOMOLOGY.
AMONG the different sciences which of late years have
been zealously studied in this portion of our country,
none, perhaps, have received more attention than several
branches of Natural History.
A taste for these pursuits is rapidly increasing, as the
pleasure and instruction received from them are pointed
out by those who have diligently and faithfully investiga-
ted them. But while peculiar circumstances have ren-
dered some of these branches more popular than others,
a few have been neglected almost altogether. Thus while
the objects of some may have been eagerly sought after at
much labor and pecuniary expense, and those of others
have been carefully examined and accurately arranged,
several have been permitted to remain unheeded and
unsought for.
Mineralogy, indebted for much of its popularity as a
science among us within a few years, to the brilliancy of
a star in the East, has become not only a delightful
pursuit for the student at our Universities, but an amuse-
ment for the man of leisure, and a fashionable recreation
among the most wealthy.
The variety and beauty of our plants the pleasing
associations at all times recalled by reverting to the days
of our childhood, when we so joyously plucked them
and the unusual facilities offered for their study, have
rendered them the objects of general admiration. Few
are there among us who have not some slight acquaint-
ance with this fascinating branch ; who cannot describe
the parts which compose a flower, and distinguish many
of our frequently observed species. Here we have great
inducements to proceed, being furnished with many in-
valuable aids. Dictionaries and manuals, written in the
VOL- i. NO. vn. 15
162 ENTOMOLOGY.
most simple and attractive" manner, freed from all the
useless terms with which the older writers had em-
barrassed the subject, and pointing out its pleasures and
advantages, have been afforded us by those who were
well qualified for the arduous duty. An impetus was
long since given ; and the establishment of Professor-
ships at our colleges, and the introduction of elementary
works on this subject, not only into seminaries devoted
to the education of our young ladies, but also into the
schools of children, prove how desirable the possession of
this branch of knowledge is considered. This taste,
enthusiastic, as it may almost be called, is yearly in-
creasing by means of the spirited efforts of our horti-
culturists, who, not content to cultivate the natives of
our own soil alone, are continually introducing many
varieties of rare and choice exotics.
Zoology has not been extensively studied with us.
Comparatively few, very few, have devoted themselves to
an examination of the animal world, although in each of
its departments, individuals have distinguished themselves
by their industry and talents ; and invaluable papers
relating to objects in most of these departments are trea-
sured up in our scientific periodicals.
Our birds have been minutely and correctly described,
and splendidly figured by Wilson, and Bonaparte, and
Audubon ; and we are soon to be gratified with a work
on these animals from the pen of Nuttall, whose name is
a sure pledge of the accuracy -and perfection of the great
undertaking.
Conchology, the study of shells, has been more at-
tended to, than either of the other branches of this great
division. The objects of this class are generally trea-
sured up for their beauty; and on this account it is a fa-
vorite branch with our young ladies. Cabinets formed
by them are often met with, showing a taste, and per-
severance, and knowledge, of which they may well be
proud
But while these branches are pursued with such una-
bating zeal, the same individual oftentimes takes but a
cursory view of the most delightful branch of the works
of nature the Insect creation. To procure the humblest
ENTOMOLOGY.
163
moss, he will toil up the rugged mountain with eagerness,
regardless alike of fatigue and exposure, and feel richly
repaid by the possession of his undescribed treasure.
For a beautiful shell, with cheerfulness will he part
with his last dollar, and proudly add it to hrs finely
polished and carefully arranged cabinet. But why, it
may be asked, is the study of insects less cultivated than
either of the other branches ? Why have they each en-
thusiastic disciples wherever we may look, while those
who devote themselves to this branch, are comparatively so
few ? Would the bver of nature, he who delights to re-
tire from the scenes of a busy woild, and amid the har-
mony about him, forget the bitterness of his daily cup,
cherish a fond delight for the vegetable kingdom, or
listen enraptured to the free and delicious notes of the
joyous songsters, and not even capture the splendid
object before him, or bestow upon it a passing moment,
if from it he could reap either pleasure or advantage ? I
would endeavor to answer such questions, to remove
the objections which may exist to the study of entomo-
logy, and offer such motives as may appear why it should
be cultivated with equal devotion as the other depart-
ments of Natural History.
OBJECTIONS.
Many an individual has in childhood imbibed an
aversion for insects, from the circumstance of having met
with them in his articles of food ; or having observed
them in situations, little to be desired either for their
cleanliness or comfort ; an aversion, which, like other
early impressions, is extremely difficult to be removed ;
increasing, unless an effort be made to destroy it, in pro-
portion to the frequency of the exposure. Who does not,
if in his boyish days he has often noticed an insect hover-
ing over a stagnant pool, or glutting itself with putre-
fying matter, particularly if he has seized that insect and
found it not only overrun with parasites, but emitting a
most offensive odour, even more unpleasant than that
arising from its repast who does not remember, that
the mere presence of that insect, preserved perhaps by
some zealous companion, did for a time recall the preju-
dices which were so early formed, and all the trifling
164 ENTOMOLOGY.
circumstances which existed to fix them ? This disgust,
occasioned by an individual, involuntarily leads many to
avoid the whole class.
The inconveniences suffered from insects, and the
injuries produced by them, cause many superficial ob-
servers to turn from these to other objects, more worthy
their interest. The musquitto, and flea, and bug, leave im-
pressions not easily to be effaced. The acute sufferings
of a night are not forgotten for years. But when, in addi-
tion to these annoyances, our clothes, and furniture, and
books, the dearly collected specimens of the naturalist,
and the cheaply purchased works of art are all ruined by
various species of this class, no slight degree of philoso-
phy is required, to revert to these animals without
awakening unpleasant associations. And if beside these,
we perceive the merciless destroyers blasting our forest
and fruit trees, our most valuable vegetables and choicest
plants, depriving us of our grain when it is carefully
gathered into store-houses, and thus adding to the distresses
of the poor, when they are least able to bear them, it is not
surprising that a feeling of uneasiness should often A>e
awakened ; nor that the mind which dwells upon the
clouds only in the horizon, should forget that they are
sometimes 'dispelled. The entomologist, even, cannot
read the histories of some particular species, without agi-
tation. The locust, for example, must ever excite a
degree of terror in the minds of the most enthusiastic.
Although Arabia appears to be the favorite resort of these
dreaded intruders they have visited the other countries
of Asia ; and not only these, but Africa and Europe also
have felt their unrelenting havbc. From the earliest times
we have been taught to shudder at their devastations.
And removed as far as we may be from the countries of
this genus, we cannot carefully read of the ruin produced
by them, without a sensation of horror. Not only do
they destroy every part of plants, and trees, and grasses,
the root, trunk, leaf, bud, fruit, with merciless voracity,
but every green thing is swept'off without distinction ;
thus depopulating nations, and carrying more dread with
them than the most powerful armies. Nothing but deso-
lation can be connected with a host of these, extending
five hundred miles, and so dense that when on wing, like
ENTOMOLOGY. 165
an eclipse, they completely hide the sun. But this is not all.
These immense multitudes, when they have destroyed
everything about them, die ; and their decomposing car-
cases often produce the plague. One hundred thousand
men have been swept off in Africa in one season, and
nearly a million of men and beasts in Italy, by this cause.
The insignificance of the animals belonging to this
class, prevents many from engaging in the study. A
senseless worm, say some, is unworthy the attention of
man. Other objects should occupy his thoughts. Nobler
pursuits should claim his precious time.
Others, alive to sensibility, at once shrink from a pur-
suit which to them appears cruel in the extreme, and thus
suppress an inclination which might prompt them to be-
come benefactors to their fellow-men.
MOTIVES TO THE STUDY OF THE SCIENCE.
Ought we not to remember with gratitude, such
animals as are hourly removing from around us, the causes
of uneasiness or the elements of disease 1 Should we
avoid the medicinal plant, satisfied as we may be of its
value, on account of its fetid, nauseating smell, one of its
principal characteristics, which renders it discoverable by
all ? Should we not rather regard it the more for disclo-
sing its nature to us, at our first meeting, while as yet we,
are strangers'?
I have said that the inconveniences suffered from these
animals deter many from examining them. What stronger
argument, I would ask, can possibly be offered, why our
attention should be directed to any subject than this
that by our ignorance of it, we are made to suffer ; and
that in proportion to our knowledge, are not only our in-
conveniences lessened, but our pleasures increased t
This very circumstance, which is urged as an objection,
prompts many a cultivator of the soil to become an ento-
mologist ; and thus he is enabled, not only to prevent the
injuries which would have occurred to his own harvest>
but also to render an essential service to thousands, who
had previously suffered with him. If our persons are the
objects of attack, additional motives exist. Not only will,
our ill-founded fears, as to the increase and ravages of any
VOL i. NO. vn. 15*
166 ENTOMOLOGY.
particular species be removed, but we shall be able
to lessen the degree of temporary inconvenience suffered
from them, and also to ward off several loathsome
diseases.
The minuteness, and apparently imperfect formation of
these animals, undoubtedly deter many from becoming
interested in their history. With no elevated mind could
these circumstances be regarded as objections to their
examination. They would rather present themselves,
as strong reasons why this science should be pursued
as the defects here would be the mere absence of organs
or powers possessed by others, destined for different pur-
poses, and would most forcibly prove the existence of a
plan in which can be traced consummate skill, creating
at one moment the most complicated of living beings,
then leaving us to admire and wonder at the construction
of objects, the simplicity of whose formation renders them
more accessible to the comprehension of man. But if the
absence of something, which is essential for the perform-
ance of necessary operations be alone a defect, then no
imperfection can be pointed at, as a characteristic of the
animals whose history it is delightful to study. Furnished
with faculties for the execution of all the purposes of their
existence, no one can direct his attention to them unpre-
judiced, without finding -himself involuntarily interested
in their study : and when he discovers them possessed of
all the senses he is blessed with, and observes, besides
their perfect beauty and curious external formation, a
something which lie at times almost believes cannot be
mere instinct when he reflects upon operations, the
magnitude of whose design can scarcely be realized, and
whose completion can hardly be credited, he is compelled
to exclaim like a distinguished Roman philosopher, when
examining these same objects, ' the nature of things is
never more complete than in the least things.'
From an erroneous idea that much cruelty must neces-
sarily be exercised in the pursuit of this science, many
are -deterred from attending to it. If the individuals be-
longing fcb this class were as susceptible of suffering as
those 'oftome other classes, and were it absolutely ne-
ENTOMOLOGY. 167
cessary that many individuals of the same family should
be destroyed in order to become acquainted with their
histories, then might this be offered as an objection. But
although all the senses are possessed, they do not exist
with the same power as in other classes. It is not an un-
common circumstance for an insect to leave a leg in the
hands of the entomologist, and not only fly off apparently
as joyous as ever, but in a moment to alight and partake
of its accustomed food. Kirby remarks, ' I have seen
the common cockchaffer walk about with apparent in-
difference after some bird had nearly emptied its body of
its viscera. An humble-bee will eat honey with greediness,
thougli deprived of its abdomen. And I myself lately
saw an ant, which had been brought out of the nest
by its comrades, walk when deprived of its ,head. The
head of a wasp will attempt to bite after it is separated
from the rest of the body ; and the abdomen under simi-
lar circumstances, if the finger be moved to it, will
attempt to sting.' M. Riboud speaks of a beetle which
survived fourteen days with a pin passed through it,
as thick as its thigh. Dalyell relates that a butterfly
lived a month after being stuck through with a pin, and
after he thought it had been destroyed by sulphur. And
our own Say tells us, that he observed a butterfly feeding
with eagerness after it had escaped from him, impaled with
a pin. Leuwerihoek had a mite which lived eleven weeks,
stuck on the point of a needle, under his microscope.
Vaillant, the African traveller, endeavoring to preserve a
locust, took out the intestines, and filled the abdomen
with cotton, and then fixed it down by a pin through the
thorax : yet after five months the animal still moved its
feet and antennae. But if these remarks do not prove this
objection to be ill-founded, I will change the argument.
If suffering should be borne, if a confined insect should
be made to endure agonizing struggles, if by its capti-
vity any useful purpose can be gained, the entomologist
cannot be called cruel. Cruelty implies the ' unnecessary
infliction of suffering,' to gratify depraved feelings; the
disposition to inflict pain, when no possible benefit can be
derived from such an act. But it is not shown by pur-
suing any department of natural history, when the feel-
168 ENTOMOLOGY.
ings which prompt us to study them are the most gene-
rous and elevated of our natures.
Having dwelt upon such objections as would most
probably be offered to the cultivation of this science, by
those who oppose it, and having endeavored to show their
futility, a few inducements shall be offered to its study.
We are so prone to avoid whatever at first sight is dis-
pleasing, so willing to lend a ready ear to whatever les-
sens the value of any object, so liable to l>e more impressed
by the remembrance of an injury than the possession of a
blessing, that most of mankind pass by this noble, eleva-
ting study, as if it were useless ; and forgetting the utility
of many of this class of creation, see in it nothing which
should employ the rational mind. These incorrect views
are removed solely by observation and reflection. No
one department of the works of nature exhibits more
powerful motives for its successful cultivation than this,
if the number, variety, beauty, or perfection of its subjects
be considered. At all seasons, and in almost every
situation, individuals may be observed belonging to this
class. The lovers of other branches may make but com-
Jut the entomologist, even if he should be confined to
the close and less pure air of a city, and allowed to travel
over paved streets only, and this too, while in the per-
formance of his necessary duties, has frequent opportuni-
ties of noticing species with which previously he had
been unacquainted. And to the naturalist, what can be
more grateful, than to find, wherever he may go, some
new object to admire, some fresh incentive to the pursuit
of his favorite study. To the lover of nature, the argu-
ment just offered will appear weighty. But I am well
aware many will require stronger reasons, than that faci-
lities exist for the cultivation of a science, and that much
gratification of feeling is to be derived from attending to
it, ere they think it worthy their consideration.
For such, other reasons can be offered, strong enough
to convince any one of its advantages. As the agricul-
turist, by a minute acquaintance with the habits of this
order of beings, is enabled to prevent in a great degree
the injuries he would otherwise inevitably be compelled
ENTOMOLOGY. 169
to suffer, so is he restrained from much useless labor, and
no little voluntary suffering. He neither amuses us by
burying in the earth, with the intention of destroying
them, immense quantities of caterpillars which spend a
part of their lives there ; nor by cutting down valuable'
trees, to spare others, because the insects which inhabit
both, appear to him as belonging to the same species. He
is enabled also to discover that some of our most common
insects are of much value to him, in checking the increase
of others, which would be injurious to his crgps. An
'acquaintance with this subject will also remove many er-
roneous ideas which had been formed respecting the
characters of these individuals, and the purposes for
which they were created. The ticking of the death-
watch will no longer be listened to with silent shuddering ;
nor will the protuberance on the oak leaf be examined
with fearful forebodings, but the foetal larva will be
allowed quietly to go on to perfection, whether it foretels
war, pestilence, or famine ; and the minutest and most
neglected insect, when the purposes of its existence are
well known, will prove how injurious oftentimes are pre-
conceived opinions.
IMMEDIATE ADVANTAGES DEUIVED FROM INSECTS.
Another reason should be dwelt upon. The direct benefits
derived from the individuals belonging to this class, should
claim for them a greater share of attention. Well do 1 know,
that all other arguments which can be offered, are slight in
comparison with this. We are ever ready to engage in a
pursuit, when it affords a prospect of remuneration, which
before hardly claimed a thought; and often become from
this cause zealous enthusiasts, where previously we had
studiously avoided engaging our feelings. And here,
I would refer particularly to the immense profits which
may be received from insects, as articles of commerce.
None, save those who have particularly attended to this
subject, can for a moment conceive the extent of this
traffic. Not only are various species used in the arts,
but in some countries as articles of food, many have an
extensive circulation. A few examples only shall be of-
fered at the present time. To entomology must we look
for several of our most beautiful and valuable dyes. A
170 ENTOMOLOGY.
perfect scarlet is obtained from the same insect whose se-
cretion, under the name of Lac, is applied to so many
useful purposes ; and with the crimson dye of the Cochi-
neal insect, all are familiar. This insect, the Coccus
Cacti, is a native of South America, and is particularly
cultivated in Mexico. When the female, which is alone
valuable, has arrived at its perfect state, it fixes itself to
thn surface of the leaf, and encloses itself in a white cottony
matter which it secretes. When it has deposited all its eggs,
it shrivels and dies ; but as its colouring qualities are thus
destroyed, those who raise them are careful to kill them
before this time, which they do by brushing them off the
plants, and applying the fumes of hot vinegar, or throw-
ing them into boiling water ; they are then dried and im-
ported into Europe. The cultivation of the cochineal
insect requires much attention, and the gathering of
them also. But the time of those thus occupied is well
employed, this insect furnishing the most valuable dye ob-
tained from this class of animals. Humboldt tells us, that
the quantity annually exported from South America, is
there worth upwards of five hundred thousand pounds ster-
ling; and it has been said that the Spanish government
is yearly more enriched by this article, than by the
produce of all its gold mines. The directors of the East
India Company offered a reward of six thousand pounds
to any one who should introduce it into India. In com-
merce, this article is almost always adulterated, different
substances being mixed with it, and colored by it ; and Dr
Paris, in his Pharmacologia, remarks, that a very consi-
derable number of women and children get a support in
London, by forming in moulds made for that purpose,
particles of dough, and coloring them with cochineal.
The Lac insect referred to above, another species of
Coccus, lives upon a species of Ilhamnus. It is nourish-
ed by the tree, and there deposits its eggs, -which it
defends by this secretion, which also serves as a habita-
tion for the perfect insect, and answers for food to the
larva. This lac is formed into cells, finished with much
regularity and art. The flies are invited to deposit their
eggs on the branches of the tree, by besmearing them
with some of the fresh lac steeped in water, which attracts
ENTOMOLOGY. 171
them, and thus gives a larger crop. When purified which
is done by first removing the twfgs, leaves, and all the
foreign substances, then breaking it into small pieces,
placing them in a canvas bag, which is applied to the
fire until the liquid lac passes through its pores, when it
is taken off the fire and pressed it is used for making
sealing-wax, beads, rings, and various ornaments.
The Bee also furnishes an article of much importance ;
honey, the juice of plants, changed in its properties
while in the stomach of the bee, is no small source of re-
venue to many individuals. Although most of the honey
consumed is obtained from the hive-bee, great quantities
are in various countries collected from different species
of wild bees. Thus, in South America, much is obtained
from nests in the trunks of trees. The beautiful rock-
honey is also the produce of wild bees, which form their
nests to rocks. Large quantities of hives of a bee differ-
ing from our common bee, are carried to different situa-
tions on the Nile, as the food of the bees at different
places, fails them. The French have learned a lesson from
this, and been profited. As the flowers decrease at any
particular spot, compelling the bees to go far from their
hives, the proprietors of the hives place them on a barge
well covered, and they pass down the rivers, collecting the
honey on the banks. In Spain the number of bee-hives
is very great : Mills relates that a single priest was
known to possess five thousand hives.
Wax, a substance which is secreted from honey, and
transpires through the pores of the skin of the bee, and
the article of which the bee forms its comb, is to some
countries a source of great revenue. Thus we are told,
that upwards of eightythree thousand pounds' value are
annually sent from Cuba to New Spain ; and that "the whole
quantity exported from the same island, has been worth
upwards of one hundred and thirty thousand pounds in a
year. By those who are never satisfied of the expediency
of any object, who would prefer to receive everything of
others, rather than make the slightest effort themselves,
objections have been advanced as to the probability of our
succeeding in rearing bees in New England. Our mild
weather continues so short a time, say they, that the
172 ENTOMOLOGY.
bees have time enough only to provide a sufficiency for
their own wants during the remainder of the year. We
ought not to be surprised at the misrepresentations of
foreigners respecting our climate, while we have so many
traducers at home; nor feel irritated at the insinuations
which would imply the degeneracy of all created things
in a traveller, while those who should repel are so ready
to give such errors circulation. That much may be done
has already been proved in many of our States. And if
at any particular spots it is desirable to establish hives,
previous to the growth of such seed as may be sown, they
might be moved as in Egypt and France, to points where
food may be found in great abundance, and afterwards
restored to the appointed place. But even if this should
be impracticable, and if the quantity of honey produced
by the bees were but little besides what would be neces-
sary for them, if they should be allowed to feed continu-
ally and to the extent of their appetites, much might be
gained by placing the hives, after all the honey was col-
lected, in situations where the temperature should be so
low as to render the bees inactive, and consequently re-
quiring but little to nourish them, until the returning
spring.
* The product of another insect, the caterpillar of a
motk, whether it be looked upon as an article of
commerce, or an object of domestic employment, is well
worthy the attention of our country. The raising of
silk- worms engaged the attention of an emperor of China,
so long ago as twentyseven hundred years before the
Christian era ; and an empress first attended to the man-
ufacture of silk. This occupation for a long time was
confined to ladies of the most elevated standing ; but gra-
dually became an employment for females generally.
After the quantity of silk manufactured was sufficient to
clothe all classes in China, it was used as an article of
exportation, and was carried from the northern parts of
the Chinese dominions to every part of Asia. In 555,
two monks brought from China in their hollow staves,
* The following remarks upon the silk worm have been previously
inserted in a number of the Ladies' Magazine.
ENTOMOLOGY. 173
silk- worms' eggs to Constantinople ; and thus Europe
first became possessed of the power of raising silk. In
Greece, as in China, females of the first families com-
menced the care of silk-worms. Next to Greece, Italy
attended to the rearing of these insects. About the year
1600, Henry IV. introduced the raising of silk-worms
into France, which now derives from their labors
23,560,000 francs annually. Although in 1180, silk was
imported into England from China, which was earlier
than it had been received in France, still nothing of im-
portance was done towards the introduction of the cater-
pillar into England, until within the last eleven years,
two hundred years after France had set the example.
Although two preceding attempts had failed to render the
cultivation of silk important in Germany, during the
past twelve years great efforts have been made there, ori-
ginating with the Agricultural Society of Bavaria. Prus-
sia and Sweden also, have not been idle ; and in the for-
mer of these, it has been proved, that ' silk equal to that
of Italy may be produced, affording greater profit than
any other branch of rural industry ; ' while that raised in
the latter country would show ' that the silk raised near
the polar circle, is equal in strength and firmness to any
species cultivated in more temperate climates.'
The cultivation of the silk-worm in this country, is
becoming an object of so much importance, that during
the year 1828, the Senate of the United States, ordered
2000 copies of a letter from the Secretary of the Treasury,
transmitting all the information which could be collected
respecting the cultivation of silk in the Union, to be
printed for the use of its members. In Virginia, Georgia
and South Carolina, the silk-worm has been reared for
many years. In 1760, silk was first raised in Connecti-
cut. Since then in New Hampshire, Vermont, Massa-
chusetts arid very lately in Maine, this subject has at-
tracted the attention of economists. Connecticut has
been eminently successful in her efforts: in 1825, in
the town of Mansfield alone, in that State, the silk man-
ufactured was three hundred pounds valued atjifteen
thousand dollars : in 1826, the County of Windham
manufactured silk to the amount of fiftyfour thousand
VOL. i. NO. vii. 16
174 ENTOMOLOGY.
dollars. It is estimated that five thousand dollars' worth
of silk is annually sold in one County, (Orange County)
in New York ; and the whole sale of this article in
that State, is calculated at fifteen thousand dollars.
When it is consideied that the greater part of the
labor may be accomplished by females and children,
and that it is not only a healthful exercise, but an agree-
able amusement, it will be thought not a little surprising,
that we are so willing and ready to import silk from
abroad.
A GENERAL VIEW OP THE INJURIES AND BENEFITS PRO-
DUCED BY EACH ORDER OP INSECTS.
But perhaps many might be persuaded to engage in
the study of entomology, if the benefits derived from,
and the injuries produced by each order of insects, were
exhibited in a general manner, that they might be readily
compared.
The first order is called Coleoptera, from the Greek
words koleos, a sheath and pier on, a wing referring to
the strong elytra or external wings, which protect the
true wings. Among the genera of this order which are
most common, are the beetle, stag-beetle, carrion-bug,
weevil, lady-bird, blistering-fly, water-beetle, &c, &c.
From the ravages of the first order of insects, man
suffers extremely: although our persons are incom-
moded as little perhaps by the animals belonging to
this order, as either of the other orders, still the ob-
jects by which we are surrounded, those necessary to
our subsistence, as well as articles of luxury and ease, are
all subject to their depredations.
But if the many are not useful, the few are of infinite
value. Decomposing substances, while they are removed
from our view, are carried by these animals |into the
earth, and thereby tend to enrich vegetation. Noxious
generlt are held in detestation by others, which offer us
no molestation, while some species afford subsistence to
others. Thus the Aphides, the small flies, or (as they
are generally called) lice, so common upon many of our
plants, are in some seasons devoured in immense quanti-
ties by our beautiful lady-birds ; and the females of the
cockchaffer, one of the most infurious of the tribe to the
ENTOMOLOGY. 1 75
agriculturist, are destroyed at the moment they are
most to be dreaded, by the genus of Ground-beetles. Nor
do these afford sustenance to animals of the same scien-
tific class alone. Our native birds, those which follow on
wherever cultivation is, whose delightful notes meet
the ear at the rising of the sun, whose melody cheers
the husbandman fatigued at noonday, and by whose
evening concerts the pure heart is elevated and enrap-
tured, which teach us a glorious lesson of confidence,
by rearing and educating their young at our very doors
these also are provided for by the existence of noxious
insects : and little does he study his own interest,
whose selfishness causes their destruction. Other ani-
mals also feed upon insects. I am not compelled to go
back to the Romans, to speak of their larvae fattened to
glut the appetites of epicures ; nor to point to the Afri-
can greedily devouring his roasted caterpillar, while the
larvae of one of the largest species of beetle, is at the
present day an article of luxury with many in South
America, and is served up at the tables of some of the
most wealthy inhabitants of the West India islands. But
from no insect belonging to this order, I might almost
have said this class, do we derive so much benefit as
from the genus Melre, in which is found the blistering-
fly. The blistering, or as it is called in commerce, the
Spanish-fly, is found in large quantities in the South of
Europe ; and is particularly abundant in Spain. They
are collected from the leaves of different trees in summer,
and are afterwards destroyed by the fumes of vinegar,
and dried in the sun ; when applied externally to the
human body, they act as a powerful vesicatory ; when
given internally, as a stimulant of great efficacy. In
many derangements of the system, they are, in the hands
of the judicious practitioner, the means of preserving many
of our race. When exhibited by the ignorant empiric,
they are not unfrequently productive of the most severe
sufferings and lamentable deaths. Our common potato-fly
is one of this genus of insects, and while it possesses all
the virtues of the Spanish-fly, it does not produce the bad
symptoms, which often attend the employment of that
remedy : and Professor Barton of Philadelphia, after
176 ENTOMOLOGY
employing both for a long time in his practice, gave the
preference to our native fly. It however cannot be col-
lected here in sufficient quantities to supply the demand,
and consequently is not so much used as the foreign in-
sect. The active virtues of the Blistering-fly, depend
upon the existence of a principle, which has obtained the
name of Canlharidin.
The second order, is named Ifcmiptera, from emisu,
the half, and pteron, a wing. Tiie outer wings of this
order, are semicoriaceous : they are not so strong as those
of the first order, but more so than the remaining orders.
This includes the cockroach, locust, lantern-fly, wa-
ter-scorpion, bug-plant, louse, &c, &.c. The 1st genus,
as arranged by Linnaeus, is the cockroach : this is an
extremely troublesome animal, not only destroying our
articles of food, but in many cases, our garments and
books. By the ravages of the Aphis, or plant-louse,
whole crops are often destroyed ; our esculents arid valu-
able plants; our fruit trees, as well as those of our woods,
are all injured by this insect : by suction, it abstracts
from the tender shoot its nutriment, and blasts the leaf
by its peculiar secretion. This secretion is sometimes
enormous ; and not only by its quantity completely encases
the plant, but by its saccharine nature, affords a resting
place for noxious insects. The cocci also, which look
like protuberances upon the stalks of plants, do consid-
erable injury by drawing off the sap, and thus destroying
life. To refer to any more genera of this order, would
be needless. It is time to turn to those of this order
which are of value to us. In speaking of the advan-
tages derived from many insects of the preceding
order, I referred to some which kept other species in
check, by subsisting upon them. In this order we find
the Mantis tribe ; those whose peculiar appearance has
given the idea of sanctity, one of the most ferocious tribes
of insects, even carrying there animosities so far as to
destroy each other. But to the coccus are we to look,
as the most valuable genus of this order, By a species
of this genus, is produced the Pe-la, or white wax of
China. The Chinese cherish these insects by stocking
some species of trees with them. This secretion begins
ENTOMOLOGY. 177
to appear about the commencement of summer, and is col-
lected in the autumn. This wax is used by the nobility,
and also by public speakers, to excite them. To the Lac,
and also to the Cochineal Coccus, I have referred above.
Besides the dying property of the Cochineal Coccus,
while many unhesitatingly deny it any medicinal virtues,
it is still employed by numerous physicians of experience
and eminence, as a stimulant medicine.
Like the larva? of the preceding order, some of the
individuals belonging to this, are used as articles of food.
That genus which has often produced such extensive
suffering, the locust, has in many countries had its
devourers. At Mecca, in times of famine, they have
been ground up and mixed with flour for cakes : in
Greece, and the Barbary powers, they have been an ar-
ticle of merchandize ; and the Hottentots, although their
vegetation may be ruined, joyously fatten themselves upon
cooked locusts.
The third order is composed of such insects as have
their wings covered with scales. This is called Lepi-
doptera, from lepis, a scale. Three genera only are in-
cluded in this order. The butterfly, hawkmoth and
moth. The individuals of this order are the most beau-
tiful of the class, and often claim the admiration of those
who would absurdly cherish for others an inexplicable
disgust. Few as are the genera belonging to this order,
their ravages are far from being slight ; their advantages
are far from unimportant although the caterpillars of the
1st genus, Papilio, the butterfly, are sometimes slightly
pernicious, to the other genera, the moth and hawk-
moth, we are to look principally for the causes of our
injuries. A species of moth does incredible mischief in
some seasons to grass. We are told that about half a
century since, the fields of Sweden were rendered quite
dry by these, as if a fire had passed over them. A
small species of moth destroys our grain ; our vege-
tables also suffer from their inroads ; while others
destroy the bark, and leaves, and blossoms of our
fruit trees. Many forests also, in our country, have thus
been seriously injured. The foliage being removed when
the heat was very great, the unsheltered trunks have
VOL. i. NO. vn. 16*
178 ENTOMOLOGY.
yielded up their lives. The vine, too, is often entirely
destroyed by a caterpillar of this genus, on the borders of
the Black Sea : as soon as the buds open, they eat them
off, especially the fruit buds, and devour the germ of
the grape : two or three of these caterpillars will so injure
a vine, by passing from one germ to another, that it will
bear no fruit the next year. But their depredations are
. not confined to the vegetable kingdom. The larvae of
several species of moths do much injury to the hive bee ;
inclosing themselves in tubes of wax, they dwell there,
unmindful of the bees. Our farmers have been almost
discouraged some seasons, by the depredations of a moth,
which utterly ruins their hives, and which has obtained
the name generally, of the bee-moth. As however, it is
ascertained that the perfect insect deposits its eggs only
in clear dry spots, it is thought the evil may, in a great
measure, be removed, by placing the hives upon the
ground, or strewing earth to the depth of several inches
upon their floors. Experiments lead us to hope much
will be gained by this method of hiving. Nor are in-
sects the only animals affected man himself is not
wholly exempt from their attacks. We are told by Azara,
that in South America, there is a large brown moth,
which deposits its eggs in a kind of saliva, upon the flesh
of persons sleeping naked ; introducing themselves under
the skin without being perceived, they occasion swelling,
accompanied by much pain and inflammation. Although
the caterpillars of this order are, among the Chinese, and
the inhabitants of New Holland, an article of food, and
are considered by the Moors one of their greatest deli-
cacies, our chief advantage is derived from individuals
of the third genus, Phalena the moth and from that
species particularly, which subsists upon the white mul-
berry tree, and supplies us with silk.
Insects having four membranaceous, naked wings,
reticulated with veins, or in which the membranes look
like net work, make up the fourth order, which is called
Ncuroptcra, from neuron a nerve. The dragon-fly, may-
fly, and spring-fly, are among the genera of this order.
Although the benefits received from this order are of less
magnitude than those derived from several others, the
ENTOMOLOGY. 171)
injuries suffered from its subjects are unimportant, arid
I might say, unknown. The voracious and tyrannical
dragon-fly, may perhaps destroy in its fury many species
of insects, which are of value to the husbandman ; but as
its instinct prom [its it to feed upon many noxious species,
it ought perhaps to be regarded as a blessing, rather than
a curse. The next genus, Ephemera, the spring-fly, al-
though its existence is continued but a day, affords a
valuable substitute to many farmers in Europe for manure.
Scopoli, the historian of the insects of Carniola, remarks
that the peasants in his neighborhood are dissatisfied, un-
less they can individually, collect at the times of their
appearance, at least twenty cart loads, to strew over
their grounds. The Hemerobius, or golden-eye, in its
larvae state, is of great value also, in the destruction of the
Aphides, or plant-lice.
The fifth order has four membranaceous, naked wings,
and is called Hymeno/itera, from wnen, a membrane. This
order has been ranked at the head of the class by some
naturalists, on account of their admirable economy. The
gall-fly, saw-fly, ichneumon-fly, wasp, bee and ant,
are arranged by Linnaeus, in this order of insects. Some
genera are extremely injurious, while others are of im-
mense value.
The Cynips, or gall-fly, when its larvae are deposited
in unusual numbers upon a leaf, must detract largely from
its nourishment : consequently, whole trees may, in some
seasons, suffer from their presence. The second genus,
Tenthredo, commonly called saw-fly, is the most dreaded
insect of this order its vulgar name is derived from the
instrument by which it makes an incision, in a leaf; this
instrument, is a double saw, which in using, the insect
first throws out one, then the other alternately, until a
sufficient incision is made; when they are both retracted,
and the egg is deposited from between them. Although
the larvae of this genus generally feed on the rose, and
the willow tree, our grain, vegetables and fruit trees, have
been at times, seriously injured. One species of these
larvae, which has received the name of slug-worm, and
which has been admirably described, its changes and its
injuries, by the late Professor Peck, in a volume of the
180 ENTOMOLOGY.
papers of the Massachusetts Agricaltural Society, caused
serious alarm in this country, about thirty years since. At
that time, some of our most valuable trees were com-
pletely stripped of their leaves, and the crops of the suc-
ceeding years blasted by their ravages. I will not speak
of the stings of the bee, nor the wasp, nor the Ichneumon-
fly, for although I, with others, may have suffered from
their venom, the suffering was deserved, and I am in-
clined to believe, that in almost every case, in which
injuries are produced by these insects, they act on the
defensive.
This order of insects is extremely important. If the
injuries produced by them have been minutely detailed,
obligations for benefits received shall be as readily ac-
knowledged. And here, as strongly, perhaps, as in any
order of nature, do we observe the necessity of under-
standing perfectly the character of an individual before
we decide upon merits of reflecting upon the ends of
actions, before we think of them as worse than useless.
Thus the protuberances upon our leaves, produced by
the gall-fly, while they disfigure them, and in some in-
stances greatly injure the tree, thus causing vexation to
the possessors, not only are eaten as delicacies by the
inhabitants of the Levant, and form a considerable article
of commerce at Constantinople, where, preserved, they
are exposed for sale, but they also furnish us with a
valuable dyeing material ; and what is of still greater im-
portance, we are indebted to them for the means of form-
ing ink.
The ant, too little do we think,, when incommoded by
this genus, that any of its species are important to man :
but we find, upon reflection, that the anatomist entrusts
his nicest dissections to the inmates of an ant-hill, with
perfect confidence in their skill. The cockroach in
Ceylon, is destroyed by a species of ant and in the
eighth volume of the Quarterly Journal of Science, Liter-
ature and the Arts, is a very interesting paper by a Capt.
Bagnald, who says, while in the West-Indies, he had
repeated opportunities of watching the movements of
these insects ; he saw them often destroy spiders and
cockroaches, and upon one occasion, he observed them
ENTOMOLOGY. 181
encounter a centipede, which, however, they did not put
to death, until they had completely encrusted him ; and
though in the conflict, thousands of them were destroyed,
they finally killed him. Nor are these all the advan-
tages derived from them : a low priced brandy is made in
Sweden, of rye and ants these insects supplying a
resin, an oil, and an acid. And in that country, they
are not unfrequently eaten uncooked, for their acid taste ;
the devourers first plucking off their heads and wings.
The ichneumon-fly is of essential service, in depositing
its eggs, in the eggs or as yet imbecile larvae or by
checking the progress of the powerful and voracious
caterpillar. The sphex, or ichneumon-wasp, is a de-
stroyer of the cockroach ; wasps destroy for us immense
quantities of flies and in the interior of New England,
their paper nests are used in affections of the lungs.
What their virtues are, the writer knows not : the sub-
stance by which they unite the particles of their nests
together may perhaps be of a stimulating quality, and
thus be enabled to relieve the existing stricture. But the
Bee, which has been already dwelt upon, is the most
valuable insect of this order.
If in speaking of the order Neuroptera, it was remark-
ed that the injuries they produced were of but small con-
sideration, I must here notice an order, in which but
little obvious advantage is perceived, to compensate for
its powers of annoyance.
The sixth order of Insects is called Diptcra from dis,
twice, or double ; they having but two wings. In this
order, we find the various kinds of flics and the musquitto ;
here we observe not only genera which attack our provi-
sions arid ruin them, which harass, and render furious
our cattle, and horses, and flocks, but also those which
avoid less palatable food, to regale themselves with the
blood of man. The first genus, GEstrus, the gad-fly,
is the most troublesome, which affects our domestic ani-
mals. The gad-fly of the ox, deposits its eggs in the
body of that animal, and thus the larvae are provided for,
during the whole winter. You may imagine how trouble-
some such an insect must be to the animal, particularly
if it should suffer from indisposition after the deposition
182 ENTOMOLOGY.
of the egg. Another species, by irritating the lips of the
horse in its endeavors to deposit its eggs there, renders
the animal almost ungovernable: while the larvae of a
third species, hatching in the stomach of this animal from
eggs introduced by its tongue, produce a disease, often-
times severe, and which receives its name from the larva?
which produce it. Our inoffensive flocks too, are com-
pelled to sutler from a species of gad-fly, which, deposit-
ing its eggs in the nostrils of the animal, feeds in the
larvae state upon the delicate membrane there, causing
extreme distress, and not unfrequently, by insinuating
itself into the brain, produces death. But these are
not the only sufferers: not only does a species of gad-
fly deposit its eggs in the abdomen of man, causing great
irritation and suffering, in the torrid zone, but in some
cases, even destroys life. The larvae of the second genus,
Tipula, the crane-fly, in some seasons, do much injury
to grass, wheat and corn, by burrowing in their roots.
With the inconveniences of the third genus, Musca, the
fly, all must be conversant : by this genus, our articles
of luxury are tarnished, our provisions destroyed, our
persons molested, while some species, not satisfied with
one substance, attack all provisions which may be gather-
ed for use by the husbandman : others are abroad, de-
positing the seeds of ruin in our grain, disappointing the
hard working agriculturist. One species, a few years
since in this country, from its ravages in our wheat fields,
caused no common alarm. Nor is it to be wondered at,
that the Hessian-fly should now be thought of with terror,
when it is remembered, that it not only attacked this
grain as soon as it began to grow, and destroyed every
part of.it, but also by depositing its eggs in the stem, so
weakened it, as to prevent the ear from ripening. An-
other genus, Tabanus, the whame-fly, is at times very
troublesome. The horse is a principal sufferer from their
attacks although in Africa, the inhabitants of whole
counties are compelled to emigrate yearly to the locations
of sand, to prevent their cattle from being destroyed by
the attacks of this insect. The Culex, or gnat, remains
to be noticed the greatest plague of this order. Annoy-
ing as the musquitto is to us, when travelling in the vicin-
ENTOMOLOGY. 183
ity of marshes, or when our rooms are lighted during the
evenings of summer we have but little reason for com-
plaint, when we observe their ravages in other countries.
It is said that in South America, soldiers are sometimes
forced to sleep with their heads thrust into holes in the
earth, made with their bayonets, and to wrap round their
necks their hammocks ; that a king of Persia, his army
having been completely exhausted by these insects, has
been compelled to raise the siege of cities : that the Lap-
lander is barely able to exist, with every means of defence
he can employ ; and that the Russian soldier, although
sleeping in a sack, is not always able to live under such
excessive irritation. And for all the sufferings expe-
rienced from this order, decomposing matter is removed
by the infinite tribe of flies, which on every side surrounds
us. The larvae of one species, the inmate of putrid
cheese, is a delicious repast fur the refined epicure ; and
it is conjectured that the larva? of the gad fly, which -
haust the poor horse, are in some cases, a gentle and
beneficial stimulant.
The seventh and last order, is called Jlpicra from a,
primitive, andptcron, wing, and includes all such insects
as want wings, in either sex. This order includes the
Lepismae, commonly called moths ; Termites, or white-
ants ; Pedicalus, the louse ; Palex, the flea ; &c, &c.
The termites or white-ants, are extremely* numerous in
warm countries, and very destructive, although wood is
their common food ; clothes, furniture, books, and almost
all manufactured articles, are ruined by them. They
curiously avoid injuring the exterior of substances, while
they are destroying all within ; houses are ruined by them ;
and when vessels are so unfortunate as to receive any on
board of them, much injury is suffered. The genus
Pediculus, louse, is very extensive. There is scarcely
an animal or vegetable, that does not suffer from its own
peculiar louse. Our domestic animals, as well as birds,
fishes, plants, all have their lice to man, it is extremely
troublesome : but as it has been ascertained that the in-
convenience is merely external irritation, we ought per-
haps to consider it in the light of a proper reward for
those who cherish them ; as rarely, any one is annoyed,
184 ENTOMOLOGY.
unless really deserving of their attacks. The Pulex, or
flea, and Acarus, or mite, are also included in this order,
and are extremely troublesome.
Although other slight benefits have been derived from
several genera, the insects of this order appear to be
most extensively employed as articles of food.
It would be almost useless to mention any of the dis-
tinct and individual cases of this singular propensity ;
although they might be pointed at, among the most polish-
ed nations of Europe ; because they would be considered
perversions of taste, when the inhabitants of extensive
tracts of country offer themselves as examples. The
people of New Caledonia eat immense quantities of
spiders ; and all who have ever read of the Hottentots and
Esquimaux Indians, must have been disgusted with their
meals of lice.
In the compilation of fhe above Tract, the system of
Linnaeus the Swede, has been followed, on account of its
conciseness, principally. The entomologist will at once
perceive, that 4 was prepared for the general reader, and
not for him who woulrl be satisfied only with the more
elaborate classifications of the great French naturalists.
SCIENTIFIC TRACTS.
NUMBER VIII.
FOREST TREES.
EVERY day brings new and animating proof, that Natu-
ral History is rapidly advancing to take the place its
importance claims, as a branch of common educatioTi.
Infant schools owe their uniform and distinguished
success, in no small degree, to the use of specimens,
pictures, and other illustrations, to exhibit and explain
the different departments of nature. The representation
and description of animals are equally favorable to the
gratification of the feelings of children, and to the de-
velopment of their intellectual and moral faculties. Geo-
logy, when illustrated with specimens, furnishes a most
delightful exercise to young minds, and is already intro-
duced into most infant schools, and is rapidly finding its
way into elementary schools of every grade.
In behalf of the science last mentioned, it is truly gra-
tifying to learn from various sections of the country,
that the second number of this series of Tracts, which
treats of Geology, is coming fully up to its design, in
acting an humble but efficient part, in bringing its subject
in a most attractive form, into schools and families. We
are informed from various sources, that it is leading young
people, and even children, to convert their* walks and
rambles into exercises for useful instruction, by exam-
ining and collecting specimens of rocks and other min-
erals, which they find to be scattered around them, with
a profusion, variety, richness, and beauty, of which they
had never formed a conjecture. While these collections
VOL. i. NO. vnr. 17
186 FOREST TREES.
furnish a most salutary exercise for the physical, intel-
lectual, and moral development of those who make them
they add in no small degree to the resources and wealth
of our country, by bringing to view its hidden treasures.
When it is known that our earth is adorned and en-
riched by sixty thousand different species of plants, ren-
dered attractive by an endless variety, the most delicate
shades of beauty, and frequently by their lofty and ma-
jestic appearance, as well as their various uses, it cannot
be denied or doubted that the vegetable kingdom, no less
than the animal and mineral, contains a vast store-house
of materials, well fitted to enliven the imagination, invig-
orate the understanding, and warm and purify the hearts
of the thousands of the sprightly intelligences constantly
blooming into youth, or ripening into manhood. Ve-
getables, by the variety of their species, the curious work-
manship of their structure, the richness of their verdure,
the beauty and fragrance of the flowers, and the constant
and abundant supply they furnish to the wants of man
and beast, present a boundless and exhaustless field for
the cultivation, improvement, and elevation of the intel-
lectual and moral kingdom of our Creator, for which his
whole material universe was designed. Every plant,
from the humblest vine that creeps upon the earth, or
the most uncomely moss that hangs upon the wall, to the
stately and majestic oak that towers in the forest, fully
proves the divinity of the hand which made it, by a
striking and wonderful display of wisdom, power, and
goodness, which far surpasses everything human.
If such is the character of the vegetable kingdom, the
adoption of the science which treats of it, as a branch
of common instruction, must be a necessary consequence
of enlarged and appropriate views of the subject of
education. We hence find that in most schools where
instruction is given under the most enlightened and ra-
tional views, and upon the largest and most liberal plan,
the science of botany forms an essential part of the
course. It is already introduced into numerous schools,
especially female seminaries, besides the instruction
extensively given in the form of lectures, to classes col-
lected particularly for the purpose.
FOREST TREES. 187
But from some cause, which perhaps it would be diffi-
cult to explain, one subject of botany has hitherto been
almost wholly neglected, both by teachers and the ama-
teurs of science.
American forest trees, which foreigners inform us, con-
stitute the grandest department of the vegetable king-
dom, have been doomed to a strange and unwarranted
neglect, unless indeed it is to sweep them by an almost
sacrilegious hand, with all their richness and majestic
grandeur from the earth, which groans under their
weight. The towering oak, which all ages, and even
barbarians have acknowledged to be the monarch of
their forests, capable of enduring the buffeting tempests
of a thousand winters, has been less studied and is less
understood by the lovers of science, especially in our own
country, than the rarest, humblest, and most useless
plant, which some barren knoll supports for a few days
or weeks, with a frail and meagre form, but suffers it to
wither, die, and disappear by the force of the genial rays
of the sun for half a season.
Why our own majestic forests should be thus neglected
and abused, while the less stately groves of other nations
and other ages have been subjects of general interest,
and sometimes of adoration, we shall not undertake to
explain. But such is the fact.
It does not speak well for the science, the taste, or the
good sense of Americans, that the best, and almost
only description of their forest trees which has come to
the public, is from the hands of Europeans. Two gen-
tlemen from France, by the name of Michaux, first the
father and afterwards the son, crossed the Atlantic for
the express purpose of examining our forests, which they
ranged from Canada to Mexico. They not only exa-
mined our trees with the eyes of botanists, and under the
enthusiasm of the lovers of science, but as men of busi-
ness and common sense, they visited ship-yards, work-
shops, and other places where they would be likely lo learn
by observation and from inquiries of tliose who worked
or used the timber they furnish, what are their properties
and uses.
The fruits of the science and researches of these two
188 FOREST TREES.
intelligent and sensible Frenchmen, were several splen-
did volumes, which by full and practical descriptions of
our forest trees, illustrated by splendid engravings,
do no little credit to the skill of their artists, while
of their own science, good sense, and ardor in the
promotion of rational improvement, they will descend
to posterity as living memorials.
These gentlemen inform us that in our country, one
hundred and forty different species of trees grow to the
height of thirty feet, while in theirs, only thirtyseven
grow to the same height, and that but eighteen of those
are natives of their forests.
Among the numerous kinds of trees which in this as
in every other country, load the earth with their wealth,
the oak is the most extensive and most interesting genus.
The different species of this tree, described by various
authors, amount to one hundred and forty, one half of
which are natives of America.
The numerous species of this genus possess almost
every variety of character. They differ greatly in their
magnitude and elevation ; in the texture, strength, and
durability of their timber, size, taste, and abundance of
their fruit ; the form, color, and odor of their leaves, and
in almost every other property belonging to vegetables.
While one species presents its stern and lofty head to the
raging of the tempest, and protects from its fury the nu-
merous trees of less hardy growth, others merely creep
upon the earth, seldom lising more than twenty inches
above its surface. The timber of one kind is almost as
firm and durable as iron, while that of another is so loose
and open in its texture as to be classed among the soft
woods. The acorns of some oaks are large, extending
far out of their cups, are palatable to many animals, und
by some nations, especially by the natives of America,
esteemed as food and even as delicacies, and are very
abundant; while others are small, nearly covered by their
envelope, of a bitter taste, and with but here and there
one upon a tree. The leaves of some are small, others
large ; some smooth, others deeply indented ; some of a
FOHEST TREES.
189
dark green, others of a light complexion ; some enriching
their species with perpetual verdure, others deserting at
the first annual frost, the parent stock which supported
and nourished them through the summer, to the buffet-
ings of every winter.
Accounts of several oaks hand them down to us
as renowned in history. Some on account of their
great size, others for their recording, or in some way
preserving interesting events. One in Dennington
Park, (England), called the king's oak, rose to the height
of fifty feet, without a limb or knot, and squared
five feet of solid timber. Another, called the queen's
oak, was nearly the same size. An oak in Holt
Forest was thirtyfour feet in circumference in 1759, and
twenty years after, the circumference had not increased
half an inch. Another extended its boughs one hundred
and forty feet, and furnished twentyeight tons of timber.
The Boddington oak, in the vale ofGloucester, was fifty-
four feet in circumference at the base, with a hollow ca-
vity of sixteen feet. Damory's oak, in Dorsetshire, the
largest known, was sixtyeight feet in circumference, with
a cavity of sixteen feet by twenty, and was used in the
time of Cromwell for the entertainment of travellers. In
1703, it was shattered by a storm, and in 1755 the last
vestiges of it were sold for fire-wood. An immense oak
was dug out of the Hatfield bog, one hundred and twenty
feet in length, twelve feet in diameter at the base, and
six feet at the smaller end where it was broken off.
Less than a hundred years since, the oak against which
the arrow of Sir William Tyrrel glanced before it killed
William Rufus, was standing, though in a decayed state.
Charles the Second concealed himself in an oak at Bas-
cobell, after his defeat at Worcester. An oak still more
renowned, is said to be standing in Stirlingshire, under
which the Scottish patriot, Wallace, convened his follow-
ers, and impressed upon them the necessity of throwing
off the yoke Edward was attempting to fasten upon them,
and their power of freeing themselves from his thraldom.
Alfred's oak, at Oxford, which was a sapling when that
great monarch founded the university, is said to be still
standing. An oak is still standing in Hartford, Connec-
VOL. i. NO. vni. 17*
190 FOREST TREES.
ticut, under which was concealed the charter of the
state given by Charles Second soon after it was received.
WHITE OAK.
The most valuable species in this genus of forest
trees both in Europe and America is the white oak.
Indeed, the timber of this tree is probably applied to a
greater variety of uses in the domestic and useful arts
and comforts, than any other vegetable growing upon our
globe. In the character of this timber are combined so-
lidity, strength, elasticity, durability, and an abundant
growth, extending in this country in greater or less
quantities from latitude 28 to 40 north. It is used to a
great extent for the frames and coverings of houses, for
almost all kinds of agricultural implements, such as
wagons, carts, ploughs, and harrows, also for the posts
of fences, and sometimes for boards ; and except hickory
it is the best fire-wood found in the northern states.
It is used in vast quantities for the staves of casks, fifty-
three millions of which were exported to the West
Indies, and the same article to the amount of one hun-
dred and fortysix thousand dollars to England, in the
year 1808, a part of which, however, were other species
of the same genus than white oak. The same timber
when young, on account of its elasticity, is extensively
used for hoops, as it is for baskets and many other pur-
poses where that property is required.
But perhaps the most extensive, if not the most impor-
tant use to which this timber is applied, is tho building of
ships. In most of the ship-yards in the United States,
the keel, frame, knees, planks, and many of the boards,
for vessels of all sizes, are made of the timber of the
white oak.
Though the American white oak bears a near re-
semblance to that of England and other parts of Europe,
it is said to be less firm in its texture, less durable, and of
course less valuable for most of the purposes to which it
is applied. It hence cannot like many other American
trees, be recommended for cultivation in Europe, but on
the contrary the European oak ought to be introduced
into our own forests.
FOREST TREES. 191
The acorns of this species are large and sweet, of a
grayish color, contained in a rough and shallow cup, but
not abundant. The bark is white and rough, the leaves
deeply indented, and by that means cut into large lobes ;
many of them continue upon the tree through the winter,
which circumstance is peculiar to this species.
LIVE OAK.
This singular and useful tree is confined to the south-
ern sections of the United Slates. It has the most luxu-
riant growth on the islands, and near the creeks in the
Carolinas, Georgia and Florida. Its northern limit is near
Richmond, Virginia, and it extends from thence to the
mouth of the Mississippi. Its numerous limbs, with their
branching and irregular form, and the hardness and dura-
bility of the wood, render it the most valuable material
that grows, for the building of ships. Its great impor-
tance to our navy, the narrow limits to which it is confin-
ed, and the great destruction it has suffered, to give place
to the growth of cotton, have led Congress to take meas-
ures to preserve and cultivate it.
It is neither so large, or so high, as many other trees ;
its common height being from forty to fiftyfive, and the
diameter of the body from one to two feet. It has a
broad tufted head, supported upon a trunk about eighteen
or twenty feet high, and when seen from a distance, has
some resemblance to an aged apple tree, or perhaps more
like a pear tree. Its leaves are small, of an oval shape,
not indented, of a dark green on the upper surface, and
whitish beneath. They continue upon the tree several
years, and fall but gradually, so that the tree always re-
tains its rich and native verdure.
The acorns are of a long oval form, almost black, cups
shallow with a gray color. The natives are said to have
extracted an oil from them, which they used with their
food, besides eating them in their natural state. They
are abundant, some seasons particularly, and they germi-
nate so readily, as sometimes to shoot out their radicals
before they fall from the tree.
Few trees are probably more deserving of an extensive
cultivation ; but doubts are entertained whether they can
192 FOREST TREES.
be propagated, except in maritime regions; and it has
even been supposed that sea air is essential to its existence.
CORK OAK.
The tree which furnishes all the cork used in the
domestic and useful arts, is confined to the south of Eu-
rope and the north of Africa. It is an evergreen, though
a great portion of the leaves fall every spring, giving place
to fresh ones. They are oblong oval, of a light green
above, and whitish beneath. Acorns large and half buried
in their cups, of sweet taste, and palatable to some ani-
mals, especially swine. The timber of this tree is hard
and compact, but less durable than the more common oaks.
The principal value of the cork oak is in the bark,
which indeed constitutes the riches, in a great measure,
of those countries where it grows naturally or by cultiva-
tion. Spain, Portugal, France, Italy, and some of the
Barbary States, furnish the cork for commerce.
The first coat which is taken from the tree, when it is
about fifteen years old, is of little value, being thin, hard,
and full of fissures. The second coat, which is removed
about ten years after, is valued but slightly. Thfe bark is
afterwards removed once in about eight or ten years, and
every succeeding crop increases in value.
July and August, are the months for removing the
bark, which is done by making incisions lengthwise of
the body and two or three in a circular direction, by the
application of wedges, hammers, &,c. After the bark is
removed, it is slightly charred to contract its pores, when
by the application of weights to flatten its surface, it is
prepared for market.
Two thousand five hundred tons of cork were import-
ed into Great Britain in the year 1827. France is sup-
posed to furnish seventeen or eighteen thousand quintals
of cork annually, each quintal giving seven or eight thou-
sand corks, amounting to a hundred and ten or a hun-
dred and fifteen millions, most of which are consumed
in that country. Michaux is of opinion, that the intro-
duction of the cork oak into the United States, would
prove a great acquisition to the country.
VARIOUS OAKS.
The species of oaks are too numerous to admit of a
FOREST TREES. 193
particular description in this tract ; a few others however,
will be mentioned.
Black Oak is very abundant in various parts of the
United States, and is extensively used for fuel and many
purposes in the arts, and perhaps conies next to the white
oak in the value of its timber. The bark of this tree is
of great value, both in tanning and dying. It is one of
the tallest trees in our forests, growing to the height of
80 or 90 feet.
Had Oak, like that last mentioned, grows to a great
height and in great abundance, in the northern states. It
produces acorns of a large size and in bountiful crops.
Scarlet Oak grows in the vicinity of Boston, and in
other parts of the Union farther south, but not in
Maine, New Hampshire or Vermont. It is a large tree
and useful for numerous purposes.
Spanish Oak does not grow in New England, but is a
large, abundant and useful tree in New Jert-ey, and States
farther south. Its bark is particularly valuable.
Bear Oak, frequently known by the name of schrub
oak, is very common in New England, but less known
farther south. Its common height is three or four feet,
and it sometimes grows to the height of eight feet. The
small size of this tree, though it covers hundreds of acres
of barrens in some regions, gives but little value to its
growth.
Running Oak is the smallest species in this genus,
seldom rising more than twenty inches from the earth,
and is found in the Carolinas, Georgia and Florida.
Bartram's Oak is a single tree, growing on the farm of
Mr Bartram, three miles from Philadelphia. It is about
thirty feet high, and eight in diameter, and is the only
individual known of that species.
Willow Oak, Laurel Oak, Mossy Cup Oak, Chesnut
Oaks, of several species, Post Oaks, and numerous other
kinds, grow in abundance in different parts of this coun-
try, but the occasion will not justify a description.
Next to oaks, walnuts are the most numerous species
of trees in American forests. Two general divisions are
194 FOREST TREES.
made of this genus, the one embracing two species, viz.
the Black Walnut and Butternut ; - the other, all that
large class of trees known by the name of Hickory. In
several points, the black walnut and butternut bear a near
resemblance, and when young can hardly be distinguish-
ed, the bark and leaves being almost precisely alike.
Their fruit is alike in having the outer husk in one
connected piece, so that it cannot be removed without a
fracture, in which they differ from all the species of hick-
ory. The shape of the fruit of the black walnut, is al-
most perfectly gobular, while that of butternut is oval.
The timber of both these species, is valuable for many
purposes in the arts, and though somewhat alike in the
texture and appearance, the walnut is preferred for most
uses to which they are applied. Indeed, few kinds of
timber growing in this country, are more extensively
used, and better answer a great variety of purposes, than
the black walnut. It is of great value in numerous kinds
of cabinet work, and before the introduction of mahoga-
ny, it was perhaps more used in that work, than any
other material. It is also used for ship-building to some
extent, and answers well both for the knees and floors of
vessels of various sizes. Gun-stocks are made of this
timber almost exclusively, which use, at the national ar-
mories, especially those at Springfield and Harper's Ferry,
furnishes a large market for the timber, which is supplied
from Philadelphia.
The black walnut grows in great abundance in Penn-
sylvania, Kentucky, Ohio and other western States, and
although it is not a native of New England, wherever it
has been introduced there, it grows with great luxuriance,
and might undoubtedly be cultivated in any of the north-
ern States, with great success. It is perhaps an article
of political economy worthy of attention.
This tree resembles the common English walnut, both
in its timber and fruit. Where the two have been culti-
vated beside each other, as is the case in England, the
American tree outstrips the other in its growth. By
grafting the European, or rather the Asiatic walnut on to
the American, we may obtain the fruit of one and the
timber of the other.
FOREST TREES. 195
The butternut, or as it is called at the south, the white
walnut, grows well in Canada, and in every part of New
England. The timber of this tree is of considerable
value in the arts, and some specimens which have been
put into cabinet work, nearly equal mahogany in beauty.
As it is a hardy tree, and fitted to a northern climate, it
is perhaps worthy of more extensive cultivation.
Hickory. The most interesting species of that large
class of walnuts, called hickories, is probably the shag-
bark ; called also the shell bark, and scaly bark. The
timber of this tree is more flexible and stronger than al-
most any other in this country, and consequently is
peculiarly fitted to certain purposes, which cannot be an-
swered by other wood of greater firmness and durability.
It is much used for hoops, bows, and numerous other
articles, which require great flexibility. It is more val-
uable for fuel than any other wood in the northern States,
and though of rather a slow growth, on account of its
great value in the arts and comforts of life, deserves cul-
tivation.
The fruit of the shagbark walnut is preferable to any
other except one, and besides that, is the only one which
yields nuts of sufficient value to be sent to market These
nuts are very palatable and much used, especially in re-
gions where they grow.
Another kind of hickory resembling that just mention-
ed, is the thick shagbark. It is difficult to perceive a
difference in the tree or timber, but the fruit of the last
is nearly twice as large as that of the other, with a shell
so thick as not to be broken but by a heavy blow, and is
far less pleasant to the taste, and consequently seldom
used.
Pacane-nut is a species of hickory growing in Louisiana,
Illinois, Missouri arid other western States. It is a hand-
some tree, growing like the two last mentioned, to the
height of seventy or eighty feet, and like them with tim-
ber, coarse grained, heavy and strong, and leaves from
12 to 18 inches in length.
Tho nuts are large, with full kernel, thin shell, an
agreeable taste, very abundant, and exported in large
quantities to the West Indies and different parts of the
196 FOREST TREES.
United States. The growth is slow, but if they should
be grafted into the black walnut or shagbark with suc-
cess, their cultivation would be an object worthy atten-
tion.
The Pig-nut, has a productive growth, and furnishes
timber of equal or greater strength, than any other species
of the walnut. The fruit is small with a thick shell, not
agreeable, and of our course of little value, except to re-
produce ils kind.
This tree grows through an extensive range, and south of
Vermont and New Hampshire, is common in every part
of New England.
Bitter-nut is a common tree in various parts of the
United States. It rises to the height of seventy or eighty
feet, and furnishes timber of some value, though of less
than most of the species ju-t mentioned. The nuts are
small, with thin shells and disagreeably bitter.
It will be concluded from this slight description of a
few species of the walnut, that they are an important arti-
cle of the natural growth of the United States. Although
the properties of the two general divisions in this genus,
do not resemble each other, and of course the timber of
each is fitted for different uses, all are of great value in
the arts, and deserve both preservation and cultivation.
The hickories resemble each other in the size, form
and general appearance of the tree, arid in the quality,
and of course the uses of the timber. The timber of each
possesses great weight, strength and flexibility, but are
all subject to rapi I decay, when exposed to heat and
moisture, and are attacked and nearly consumed by worms.
Botanists have described fourteen species of maple,
seven of which belong to America. They are among the
most lofty and beautiful trees of our forests, and grow in
great abundance over a large extent of territory. They
extend on both continents to northern latitudes, and
flourish well in the coldest, hardest soils.
The different species of maples are not only among
the greatest ornaments of the forest, but are applied to
numerous important uses in the arts.
FOREST TREES. 197
The most stately and beautiful tree in this genus, is the
Sugar Maple, -This tree enters largely into the forests of
the northern States, and grows no where in greater abun-
dance than between the latitudes of 46 and 43, which
embrace Canada, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Vermont,
New Hampshire and Maine. In some parts of New York
and Pennsylvania, it is also common and abundant. It
was estimated by Dr Rush, that in the northern parts of
these two states, there were ten millions of acres contain-
ing the sugar maple, at the rate of thirty trees to an acre.
In Virginia, the Carolinas, Georgia and Mississippi, it is
seldom if ever found.
The sugar maple occupies a more extensive range of
American territory, than any other species of this genus.
It flourishes best on elevated, and even mountainous situ-
ations, and in moist soils, and is often found in company
with beach, ash and birch.
This tree often rises to the height of seventy or eighty
feet, though more commonly to fifty or sixty. The great
height, extended branches, regular form, rich verdure,
and neat appearance of the leaves, render it a most beau-
tiful shade tree, and it well deserves to line the sides of
all our streets throughout the Union.
The wood when first cut, is white, but by exposure for
a short time, takes a rosy tinge. The grain is fine and
close, and when polished, has a silky lustre. It is strong
and heavy, but not durable when exposed to the weather.
In Vermont. New Hampshire and Maine, where oak and
chesnut are not common, tnaple timber is used in their
stead, as it is more durable than beech, elm or birch. It
is much used by cabinet and chair-makers, and to some
extent by wheelwrights, for axletrees, spokes, lining the
runners of sleds, &.c. The sugar maple timber is also
sometimes used for the frames of houses, 'keels and lower
frames of ships, and many other purposes which do not
expose it to sudden decay by alternate moistening and
drying.
Two accidental forms are found in some specimens of
the sugar maple, which are much valued and sought for
by cabinet-makers, as they give beauty to their work.
The first is an undulating form in the grain of the wood,
VOL.I. NO. VHI. 18
198 FORRST TREES.
which in this and the red flowering species, constitute
the curled maple ; the second, which is found only in old
trees in a sound state, is a singular appearance of small
radiating spots, more or less thickly interspersed through
the wood, and furnish the material called bird's-eye
maple. These singular spots are more numerous near
the sap than near the heart of the tree.
The cause which produces these singular appearances
in this timber has never been satisfactorily explained.
Both, however, are beautiful, and if brought from a foreign
country, the furniture made from it would be prized as
the richest specimens to adorn our parlors.
The sugar maple when cut at the proper season, and
thoroughly dried, forms an excellent fuel, for which pur-
pose it is exported from Maine in great quantities. The
quantity of heat produced from a given bulk of this wood,
though less than that from hickory, is greater than can
be furnished from most of the hard woods.
The ashes procured from this species of the maple, are
richer in the alkaline principle, and more abundant in
quantity than those obtained from any other tree. They
furnish a large part of the potash exported to Europe
from New England and Ne\v York.
The charcoal procured from this wood and used in
forges and domestic economy, is of the most valuable
kind ; and that made in Vermont, New Hampshire and
Maine, is one fifth heavier, than that from the same tree
in the more southern States ; a proof that northern lati-
tudes are fitted to the growth and firmness of maples.
The sap of the sugar maple furnishes no inconsidera-
ble resource for the economy, the comfort, and even the
wealth of our northern citizens ; especially to those occu-
pying regions newly settled.
The method of procuring the sap and forming the sugar,
is simple, and nearly the same in most places where any
is resorted too. The common process to collect the sap
is to perforate the tree with an inch auger, in two places
about four inches apart, and eighteen or twenty inches
from the ground. It is found that a more abundant flow
of sap is obtained from a shallow, than a deep hole. Into
these holes, two tubes are inserted, which from the direc-
FOREST TREES. 199
tion given the auger in boring, nearly meet at the outer
ends. The tubes are made of elder, sumac or other
shrub with a large pith, and conduct the sap into small
troughs or buckets, from which it is conveyed to the
camp, or the place where temporary preparations are
made for boiling, &c. These preparations are little more
than a boiler, containing from rifteen to fifty gallons, sus-
pended upon a bar supported by crotches, at a convenient
distance from the ground for building the fire ; moulds to
receive the syrup when of sufficient consistence to form
into cakes ; and an axe for preparing the fuel.
The evaporation is carried on by a constant and brisk
boiling of the sap, which is frequently replenished as the
bulk is diminished, until a syrup is formed of sufficient
strength to become solid as it cools. A scum which is
constantly rising to the surface during the first part of
the process is frequently removed, and before the syrup is
left to cool and harden, it is strained through woollen cloth
to separate the remaining impurities. The time for stop-
ping the evaporation is, determined by rubbing a drop of
the syrup between the fingers, which will granulate if the
process has been carried to a sufficient length. When
the ebullition is so violent as to give signs of rising over
the sides of the boiler, it is quelled by a piece of lard,
butter, or rind of pork.
Maple molasses is made by discontinuing the evapora-
tion before the liquid is of sufficient consistence to con-
solidate by cooling, and by the drainings from the syrup
as it forms into sugar. Sugar of the finest character and
grain may be formed from the sap of the maple, and
though the more common kind is neither very white, nor
very delicate, it has a peculiar flavor, much admired by
those not accustomed to its use.
The time for collecting the sap is about the last of
February, and continues from four to six weeks ; after
which the liquid is less abundant and less rich in the
saccharine principle, and is finally so weak, that it can no
longer be reduced to sugar. The tree gives the most
abundant discharge of its sap, early in the season, and in
clear pleasant days, preceded by cold frosty nights.
The quantity of sap discharged from a tree of an ave-
rage size, varies in different years and different days.
200 FOREST TREES.
Trees are sometimes supposed to average about four
pounds of sugar in a season, but frequently do not produce
more than half that quantity. A single tree discharges
in one day from two quarts, to two or three gallons of sap.
The following statement appeared some years since
in the Greensburgh, Penn. Gazette. ' Having introduc-
ed,' says the writer, ' twenty tubes into a sugar maple, I
drew from it the same day, twentythree gallons and three
quarts of sap, which gave seven pounds and a quarter of
sugar. Thirtythree pounds have been made this season
from the same tree, which supposes one hundred gallons
of sap.' From this statement, it appears that but little
more than three gallons were required for a pound, though
four gallons are commonly allowed.
Maple sugar is made in most of the northern and west-
ern States, and in Canada ; and it has been supposed
that New York and Pennsylvania contain maples enough
to supply the consumption of sugar in the whole of the
United States. But as a country becomes settled, the
groves and forests of maple disappear, and the expense of
converting the sap into sugar is increased ; so that the
whole country will, within a moderate period of time, be
supplied with this useful article in domestic economy,
from foreign importations, or from the juice of the cane
in our own country.
Though the ease and abundance with which sugar is
made from the cane, and the expense of fuel to procure
it from the sap of the maple would not favor the cultiva-
tion of this stately and beautiful tree for the supply of our
tables, the value of its timber, and the elegant, and cleanly
f shade it furnishes, would probably render the cultivation
of it, especially by the sides of our roads, an article of
domestic and political economy, as well as a public orna-
ment and comfort.
Most kinds of domestic animals are excessively fond of
the sap of the maple, and frequently break through their
inclosures to get access to the vessels containing it.
If the sap be exposed for a few days to a warm sun, it
is formed into vinegar of a good quality. Maple beer,
which is a pleasant beverage, is also made from the same
material, by the addition of yeast and the essence of spruce.
FOREST TUBES. 201
Besides the tree just described, several others of the
same species are worthy of a fuller notice, than can be
given on the present occasion.
The Red Flowering Maple makes its first appearance
at the north in Canada, latitude 48; becomes more abun-
dant in proceeding south, and is common to the extremi-
ties of Florida and Louisiana. Of all the trees which
grow in wet grounds, and those occasionally overflowed,
this flourishes most in the middle and southern States.
It lines the borders of creeks, and abounds in swamps
frequently inundated, and always miry. In these situa-
tions, it is found in company with black and white ash,
swamp white oak, shagbark, hickory, and two or three
other trees less commonly known. It is remarkable
that this species of maple is also found in the vicinity of
Pittsburgh on elevated ground. But in swamps it has
the most abundant and largest growth, where it rises to
the height of seventy or eighty feet.
The timber of this tree, like that of the sugar maple,
is used in various kinds of cabinet work ; and though
less hard than that, .it is more so than most other species
of this genus, and of a closer, finer grain ; and is hence
readily wrought in the lathe, and polishes with a glossy
silken surface. It finds an extensive use in the manu-
facture of chairs and cabinet work, and was formerly a
common material for spinning-wheels.
The curled rnaple, much sought for by cabinet-makers,
is furnished in greater abundance from this species, than
that already described. Before the introduction of ma-
hogany, it was more extensively used than at present,
and is now used for inlaying mahogany, and other mate-
rials. For the stocks of fowling-pieces it is much used,
for which purpose its lightness, together with its strength
and elegance, renders it peculiarly appropriate. It is
but poorly fitted for fuel, and is but little used for that
purpose.
The French Canadians use the sap of the red flower-
ing maple for sugar, though it produces but half the
quantity of that from the species which produces this
article of domestic economy in so great abundance.
The inner part of the bark of this tree, is used as a
VOL. i. NO. VIK. 18*
202 FOREST TREES.
dye stuff, which, with copperas, produces a dark blue ;
and with the addition of a little alum, a black.
Notwithstanding the timber, from this species of ma-
ple, furnishes an elegant material for cabinet work, and is
useful for many purposes in the domestic and common
arts, it is so subject to decay, and to be devoured by
worms, and to some other objections, that it will rapidly
give place to the cultivation of plants of smaller growth,
and will be less likely to be renewed than oak, ash,
walnut, and many other trees.
The White J\laple grows in Maine and Vermont,
though it does not flourish so well under the rigorous
winters of these states, as in more southern climates. On
the banks of the Ohio it grows in abundance, and with
great majesty and beauty. Its numerous extended
branches, the richness of its foliage, interspersed with
that of the willow, the brilliant white of its leaves be-
neath, forming a striking contrast with the bright green
above, with an alternate reflection of both surfaces from
the water which it overhangs, increases in no small de-
gree the beauty of the landscape on this majestic river.
It is remarked that this tree, unlike others of the same
genus, flourishes only on the banks of rivers with limpid
waters and gravelly beds, and not in swamps and other
miry soils or moist grounds.
The flowers of the white maple open early in the
spring, are small and sessile, (closely set to the stem,)
and produce fruit with two capsules, larger than those
of most other species of this genus.
The wood of this tree is white and of a fine grain, but
is softer and lighter than those of any other maple in the
United States ; and from its want of strength and dura-
bility, is but lit.tle used in the arts. It is, however, oc-
casionally used as a substitute for poplar for wooden
bowls, and for some part of cabinet work, when a better
material cannot be procured. Charcoal formed from this
wood, is much used and valued by hatters, as it affords
a more uniform heat, and of longer continuance than the
coal of any other wood.
The sap is sometimes used for sugar, and produces
about the same quantity as the red flowering maple,
FOREST TREES. 203
which is only one half of that from the sugar tree. The
sap begins to discharge from the tree in January, and
discontinues before the other appears.
From the great majesty and beauty of the white maple,
together with the rapidity of its growth, it has become, in
Europe, the subject of extensive cultivation in gardens.
Black Sugar Maple. A tree somewhat resembling the
sugar maple, and frequently mistaken for it, grows in
Virginia, Pennsylvania, New York, and the southern
part of New England. In the Genesee country it. con-
stitutes a large part of the forests, and yields an abundance
of rich sap, which is much used in the manufacture of
sugar. Its foliage is much darker than that of the-sugar
maple, and is hence called the black sugar tree. The
shape, size and situation of the leaves, flowers and seeds,
are much the same as those of the species for which it is
frequently taken. The wood, though coarser grained,
and less brilliant when polished than some other maples,
would probably find a more extensive use in the arts, did
not oak, walnut, and other valuable timber grow in abun-
dance where this is found.
Sycamore Tree. A species of maple, known by the
name of sycamore tree, is diffused over the centre of
Europe, and abounds in Bohemia, Hungary and Poland.
It is a majestic and beautiful tree, rising to the height of
sixty or seventy feet, with a regular form, and leaves of
a dark green above, and whitish beneath. In the heat of
midsummer they are covered by a sweet viscid substance,
collected with avidity by bees.
The wood of the sycamore is fine grained, and suscep-
tible of a beautiful polish. It is much used by turners,
frequently for making violins, and sometimes for orna-
menting forte pianos. A course of interesting experi-
ments has proved it to be capable of affording more heat
than any other tree in the north of Europe.
Sugar has recently been made from the sap of the syc-
amore in Bohemia and Hungary, though it does not
yield it in so great abundance as the American sugar
maple.
Nonoay Maple. Another lofty tree in the forests of
Europe, accompanies the sycamore ; but as it abounds
204 FOREST TREES.
most in Sweden and Norway, it has received the name
of Norway maple. Its appearance and uses so much
resemble the species last mentioned, that a particular
description is unnecessary.
Mouse Wood. In the British provinces in America,
m New England, and in small quantities farther south,
a small species of maple constitutes a large portion of the
underbrush in many of the forests. It seldom grows to
more than ten feet in height, and four or five inches in
diameter. The light color and fine grain of the wood,
bring it into use in some of the smaller work of cabinet-
makers, but its small size will prevent an extensive ap-
plication of it in the useful or domestic arts.
This is one of the first trees to announce the approach
of spring. This circumstance, together with its -rapid
growth, and thick and beautiful foliage, has brought it
into extensive cultivation in the parks and gardens of
Europe.
The principal use mado of it in America is the brows-
ing of cattle at the opening of spring, when the buds
are swollen, the twigs tender, and rich in saccharine
matter. At this time the various kinds of domestic ani-
mals, as well as the moose and other animals in the
forest, feed upon the buds, twigs and branches of this
tree with avidity. The first settlers observing the ra-
pidity with which this tree was devoured by moose, then
abounding in the forests, gave it the name of moose
wood, which it has ever since retained.
No tree of the forest rises with such majesty in north-
ern climates as the birch. It is found as far north as the
seventieth degree of latitude, though under the intense
cold to which it is there exposed, it appears only as a
shrub. A few degrees farther south, it rises to the
height of seventy or eighty feet, and between the sixty-
fifth and fiftyfifth degrees of latitude, is the tallest and
hardiest of the trees which compose the forests.
On the other continent, Russia, Sweden, Norway and
Lapland are the countries where the different species of
birch abound ; on this continent, Canada, the New Eng-
FOKEST TREES. 205
land states, and northern regions generally, are congenial
to the growth of this vegetable, where it is more common
than in countries farther south. As maples, elms and
beeches increase, birches diminish both in number and
size. The forty fifth degree of latitude is the northern
limit of this genus of forest trees in Europe : in this
country it is found in latitudes considerably farther south,
though here, it is seldom found in Virginia, and never in
the more southern states.
Seven species of birch have been discovered in Ame-
rican forests, and about the same number in those of
Europe. Among these species, there is a less variety
than in some other trees ; though they differ considerably
in their size, and more or less in the qualities of their
timber.
The Canoe Birch is the most common tree of this
genus in Canada, New Brunswick, Maine, New Hamp-
shire and Vermont ; but it is not known in the southern
part of Connecticut, nor in New York, south of Albany.
This tree grows to the height of seventy feet, and
three feet in diameter. The wood has a fine glossy
grain, and considerable strength, but soon decays when
exposed to the weather. It is much used in cabinet
work, for many articles in which it is a beautiful ma-
terial.
On trees not more than six or eight inches in diameter,
the bark is perfectly white, like that of the white birch of
Europe, and like that, too, it appears to be almost inde-
structible. This bark is applied to various uses, some of
which are important. It is sometimes placed beneath
the shingles on the roofs of houses ; baskets, boxes and
port-folios are made of it, and embroidered with silk ;
it has been used as a substitute for paper, and is some-
times placed between the soles of shoes, and in the
crowns of hats, as a protection against moisture.
The most important use to which the bark of birch is
applied, is in the conslruction of canoes, from which this
tree derives its name. The bark is removed from the
tree in the spring, in strips from two to nine inches
wide, and ten or twelve feet long. These strips are
stitched together by the fibrous roots of the white spruce.
200 FOREST TREES.
The seams are coated with resin from the Balm of
Gilead.
These canoes are much used both by the Indians and
French, in their long journeys into the interior. They
are sometimes of sufficient size to carry fifteen passen-
;rs; and one capable of carrying four persons, with their
, weighs but forty or fifty pounds,
'he canoe birch has been introduced into the nurse-
ries in France ; and as it grows to a large size on poor
land, and surpasses the European birches in the qualities
of its timber, Michaux is of opinion, that it can be intro-
duced to advantage into the forests of Europe.
White Birch. This species of birch, like the one last
mentioned, grows in Canada and the New England
states, and is sometimes found as far south as Virginia.
It is neither so large nor so abundant as some other spe-
cies of this genus. It is most common on thin soils,
not occupied by many other trees, where it grows to the
height of thirty or thirty five feet. The wood is white, soft,
and of a glossy lustre ; but the small size of the tree,
and the rapid decay of the timber when exposed to the
weather, prevent its coming into use, either in the arts,
or for fuel.
Red Birch. The climate and soil of the southern
states appear to be congenial to this species of birch.
It flourishes well in the Carol inas, and even in Georgia,
but is seldom, if ever, found north of New Jersey. It is
not, like other species of birch, found in forests or thick-
ets of other trees, but on the banks of rivers, accompanied
by the button-wood, white maple and willow. It flour-
ishes most on the sides of limpid streams with gravelly
beds, where it grows to the height of seventy feet.
The wood of the red birch is sufficiently compact,
hard and beautiful to fit it for a variety of uses, not un-
like those to which the other species are applied.
The Yellow Birch abounds most in those climates and
soils where the canoe birch prevails. It is a beautiful
tree, and rises to a great height. The trunk is straight,
nearly of the same diameter, and frequently without
branches to the height of thirty or forty feet. It is re-
markable for the golden yellow color of the bark, from
which is derived its name.
FOREST TREES. 207
The wood is used for many kinds of cabinet work ;
and experience has proved it to be well fitted for those
parts of the frames of vessels which are always under
water. It is also an excellent fuel.
Black Birch. The beautiful foliage, and the valuable
properties of the timber of the black birch, render it one
of the most interesting species of this genus of forest
trees. It is found over an extensive territory, growing
in abundance from Canada to Maryland, and in elevated
or mountainous regions, even in Georgia. On the Hud-
son River, and in New Jersey it is one of the first trees
to announce, by the opening verdure of its foliage, the
advancement of spring. The growth of this tree is
rapid, its foliage beautiful, and its timber no less useful
than any other species of birch. From these consider-
ations, Michaux recommends to Americans great care in
the preservation of it, and to Europeans the introduction
of it into their forests
The sap of the birch which flows in great abundance
in the spring, is used for making a syrup, and may be
converted into beer, vinegar, and a kind of wine, but not
into sugar. The leaves, both in a green and dry state,
are used for the feeding of cattle.
All the properties of the common white birch of Eu-
rope, are united in the canoe birch of our own country.
Although tin's genus of American forest trees is less
useful and less interesting than some others which adorn
and enrich our country, it constitutes a part of the beauty
and the riches of this highly favored part of the globe,
and deserves to be studied more and appreciated higher,
by those into whose possession it has fallen.
* t
.
AGENTS
FOR THE
* ;
SCIENTIFIC TRACTS.
MAINE.
Norwich, Thomas Robinson.
Portland, Samuel CnJman.
Hallowell, C. Snuiilding.
Mi.ldlutown, Kdiein Hunt.
NEW YORK.
Bangor, . -
Belfast, JV. P. /filers.
Albany, Little Cummiiins.
Canaiidaigua, P.tmis t[ H :rd.
' \H. .S. Favor,
Troy, - W.S.Pa.rktr.
Eastport, j n p 1
I'tifa, G S. Wilsoa.
Norway, j?-vz Bm-tn
Rochester, E. Perl; $ Co.
"NEW HAMPSHIRE.
NEW JERSEY.
n I F.li French,
Trenton, P. Fr>,ion.
Dover, | g- c> ,,.,,,,,,.,.
PENNSYLVANIA.
Hanover, Thomas ,1MAn.
( /C. Littcll &' Jit other
Concord, Horatio //.' $ Co.
Philadelphia, j y.
Keene, Or.nrge Ti^ni.
MARYi.AM)."
Portsmouth, Jo/in W. :
VERMONT.
Baltimore, Chnrlr.n Carter.
DISTRICT OF COI.I
Burlington, * C. Gaud. .
Brittl..'!ioro', Gen. 11. Pi-c/,:
Windsor, Snneo,< Idc.
WasliniL'tDii, TlioHifiua If ilaiiians.
(Jeorjj'utown, .In we* T/iomua.
V-itCIMA.
Montp,-li..r, ./. S. H',,1',,,1.
..,11s .law,* /. r,,>lert C,,.
Freilericksburg, 11 m. F. ftrar, P.M.
OHIO.
Rutland, Win. fay.
Middlebury, Jonathan. Jlagar.
CaMlKuii, B. Kurt. 2,7.
St Albans, /,. /,. D,tt&er.
CiriciniKiti, j c'",)!"^ 1 '',^,,^ a c \
Columbus,
sfissia3tppi.
Chaster, Clint-It* 1!
MASSACHUSETIB.
Natches, F. Beaumont.
SOUTH CAROLINA.
Salem, Wn ipple $ A : irre.iicc.
Cli irii'-i:i>:i, F.benntr T/iayer.
Newbnrvpnrt, Charles l! '
Northau'ipton. S. HuHrr Sf .VUH.
Andovtr, JU.JVeicat .
NORTH CAROLINA,
ttaleigh, Turner if Hughes.
GKORGIA.
Ainlierst,, .7. S. If C. Jldimi.
Savannah Thomas M. 7)ris:oll.
WorcnstiT, Dorr 4' ;.'
ALABA.MA
Sprinsfirl.l, Tliuma* D
Now Ite.ltorJ, Jt.Slir.arn,,-.
Mobile, 0,ti,>rnr ,$ S-niH.
LOI'ISIAN \.
Metliuen, J. n: C,/r .v Co
Brookfield, F.. t( (f. .Mtrriam.
New Orleans, .\htr-n C.irrult.
MICHIGAN TEiJRITOilY.
RHODE Itil.AND.
Detroit, Genrirr I.. H It, him.
p . , ( Currti $ !:
Providence, J ^ ^,.
CANADA.
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SCIENTIFIC TRACTS.
NUMBER IX.
THE WEATHER.
THE eye, as Christian philosophers have often shown,
is an optical instrument, contrived for its purpose with
wonderful dexterity. The whole human system is a
highly artificial machine, filled with evidences of inven-
tive skill : and the whole animal and vegetable creation is
crowded with the most consummate proofs of contrivance,
mechanical and chemical, for adapting means to ends,
and for accomplishing those benevolent purposes which
the Creator has in view.
There is not, however, in the whole range of human
observation, any case in which this benevolent design,
and this unrivalled skill in the selection of means to
promote it, is more striking than in that arrangement in
the constitution of nature, which produces those phe-
nomena, to which, as a class, we give the appellation of
THE WEATHER. These proofs are not at once so evident;
and when we examine th^m.we find them so unlike any
human contrivances that wq do not so easily appreciate
fBem. The telescope imitates the eye ; the automaton,
made by the highest effort of human skill, gives us a
faint resemblance of muscular motions : and in many
other cases where human ingenuity has imitated the
Creator's works, we can more easily see the power and
wisdom displayed in the original, because we can appre-
ciate the efforts made to produce the copy. But in
regard to those phenomena which are now our subject,
the Creator's work stands uncopied and alone. There
is no human imitation of the whirlwind and the storm.
There is no power or skill among us which can guide the
lightning or arouse the tornado. Hence we have nothing
to rest upon in endeavoring to ascend to proper concep-
YOL. I. NO. IX. 19
210 THE WEATHER.
tions of the divine wisdom and power displayed in these
phenomena.
If we, however, look at the circumstances, we shall, in
a degree, be able to understand the subject. Let us
suppose that the earth had been completed in its present
form and condition, but without an atmosphere. The
ocean lies calm and still : the fields and hills are moistened
with water, and consequently crowned with verdure and
fertility ; for we must suppose that at the time when the '
creation is completed, there is a proper distribution of heat
and moisture for the commencement of those processes
which give to earth its beauty and fruitfulness. Foun-
tains therefore spring forth among the hills. Cataracts
descend from every precipice, brooks meander through
the valleys, and their united waters flow on in the majes-
tic river. In fine, the whole earth is, at the moment,
precisely what it is now, presenting every variety, from
the drenched meadow to the warm soil of the elevated
plain.
But all is still. As we suppose no atmosphere, there
must be no breeze, and the whole creation must sleep in
apparent death. No bird can fly ; and if we suppose
that Providence has arranged it so that human life can
be preserved without the air, man would observe, as he
walked around, one universal silence and stillness, of
which no calm summer's evening can now give us any
conception. The ocean must present one broad, glassy
expanse, unruffled by any wave, unless the entrance of
some mighty river should send forth a few silent ripples.
No leaf would rustle or move ; not a blade of grass
would wave, and not a sound would arise from nature, or
animal, or man. The lion might strive in vain to roar,
and the lofty cataract would fall upon the rocks silently.
But this dreadful calm would not be all. As the brooks
and streams could carry their waters unceasingly to the
ocean that great home of the waters there would be
no means of again supplying their fountains. The spring
from the hill side would soon be checked in its flow;
the cataract grow slender in its form, and at last cease to
fall ; the southern sloping hill would soon become
brown, and nature, from every elevated spot, would soon
call for water. But it must call in vain. Gravitation
THE WEATHER. 211
would hurry with irresistible energy every brook and
stream onward in its course, and ere long the work would
be done. Every fountain would have failed ; river after
river would have left its bed deserted and dry. The
meadows and marshes would be drained ; the waters of
every lake and pond would have escaped, and men might
walk over the dry and dusty bed even of Niagara.
The consequences to animal and vegetable life need
not be described. It requires very little imagination to
see that our lovely earth would soon reduce itself under
these circumstances to one universal desert ; upon which
every plant and every land animal must have found a
grave.
And what was the plan which the Creator adopted in
order to avoid this danger ? He spreads over the whole
surface of the earth an ATMOSPHERE, transparent, invisi-
ble, but producing almost inconceivable effects. It
raises the waters from the ocean, whither they are
constantly tending, and by its unceasing motions they
are borne back to the land where they descend in re-
peated showers. By this arrangement, the great object is
accomplished, but 1 it is not by a regular and monotonous
process. There are a few simple principles, but they
produce an infinite variety of effects.
The plan which will be adopted in this treatise will
lead me, in the first place, to detail those general princi-
ples upon which all the particular phenomena depend.
They are few and simple in character.
1. TEMPERATURE OF THE AIR.
(a) Diminution of Heat from the Equator towards the
Poles.
Owing to the manner in which the rays of the sun
fall upon the different regions of the earth's surface, there
is a gradual diminution of heat from the intense, and
sometimes unmitigated sultriness of the equatorial
regions, to the severe and perpetual cold of the poles.
The following interesting description of a scene near the
southern pole will give the reader a very vivid conception
of the nature and effects of this cold.
The individuals mentioned in the account belonged to
Capt. Cook's celebrated expedition to the Pacific Ocean.
212 THE WEATHER.
It must be noticed, too, that this took place in the sum-
mer of those latitudes ; i. e. in January, corresponding to
our July. The party, consisting of Sir Joseph Banks,
Dr Solander, and ten attendants, were returning from a
botanical excursion, and Dr Solander had just been
cautioning the company against indulging in a propensity
to sleep. The account proceeds as follows :
' They had not proceeded far before the effects appre-
hended began to be felt ; and he, who had thus cautioned
others, was the first to declare himself unable to observe
his own precept. At length, overcome by a stupor, he
threw himself on the ground, although it was covered
with snow. A black servant of Mr Banks, name,d
Richmond, next yielded to this fatal propensity. In this
distress, five of the company were sent forward to make
a fire at the first convenient place they could find, while
the rest continued with the doctor, making use of every
means to keep him awake. The poor negro was so
overcome with fatigue that being told he must keep in
motion or he would be frozen to death, replied that he
desired only to lie down and die ! At length, all the
endeavors of the company became ineffectual. Their
whole strength was not sufficient U> carry their two
exhausted companions, so that they were suffered to sit
down, and in a short time they fell into a profound sleep.
In a few minutes afterwards news was brought that a fire
was kindled at the distance of about a quarter of a mile.
Dr Solander was then waked with great difficulty ; but
during his short sleep his muscles were become so con-
tracted that his shoes fell off his feet, and he had almost
lost the use of his limbs : but all attempts to wake the
servant were ineffectual. Two men, who seemed to have
suffered the least by the cold, were left to look after him,
and in a short time two others were sent to their relief.
One of the former rejoined the company, but the other
was quite inseneible. Their companions, therefore,
made them a bed of boughs, and spread the same covering
over them to a considerable height, and in that situation
left them to their fate.
'The company passed the remainder of the night in a
dreadful situation round the fire. They supposed them-
THE WEATHER. 213
selves at a great distance from the ship ; th,eir way
stretched through a trackless wood, and they were
unprovided with refreshments, their only provisions being
a vulture, which they had shot in the course of their
journey. Nor did the dawn of day remove their appre-
hensions ; for at the approach of light nothing presented
itself to their view but a dreary expanse of snow. It
was not till six o'clock in the morning that they could
discover the place of the sun through the clouds, which
then began to disperse. With foreboding apprehensions
they went in search of poor Richmond and the other
man, whom they found quite dead. A dog, which
belonged to one of them, was however still alive and
standing close by his master's corpse, which he unwil-
lingly left to follow the company. The hardy nature of
this animal enabled him to brave the severity of the
weather, and he was for several years afterwards alive in
England.'
This diminution of heat is, however, by no means
regular. Different countries equally distant from the
equator are very different in climate, according to their
situation. The average warmth of the atmosphere at
any place is learned by keeping, for a long time, a record
of the weather and obtaining the mean of all the obser-
vations. There is another method somewhat singular :
that is, to take the temperature of the springs of water.
These it is supposed come from such a distance below
the surface of the ground that they are not affected by
the ordinary changes of heat and cold in the atmosphere
above, and they are accordingly found to remain nearly
the same during the year. In making such observations,
however, a proper regard must be had to the situation of
the springs, the strata through which they come, and
their elevation above the level of the sea.
(6) Diminution of Heat from the Surface of the Earth
upwards.
Although this fact is very generally known and ac-
knowledged, the cause of it is not very obvious. An
observer at the equator, in the middle of a sultry summer's
day, might perhaps imagine that if he were to ascend
VOL.1 NO. IX. 19*
214 THE WEATHER.
into the atmosphere, directly* towards the sun, it would
grow warmer the farther he proceeds. It is not, how-
ever, the fact. Whether he mounts in a balloon or
ascends a mountain, he finds the cold increases as he
leaves the surface of the earth, until he arrives at a region
of perpetual ice and snow. The cause is this.
Suppose we take a sponge, compress it slightly with
the hand, and pour upon it as much water as it will
receive. While it is now dripping with the surplus,
release the pressure. The pores will immediately open,
and they will be more than sufficient to absorb the water, '
so that the sponge, in its expanded state, will be com-
ratively empty. So if the experiment is reversed.
a sponge is moderately wet, while in its expanded
state, and afterwards compressed with the hand, it will
be found that it cannot retain the water which at first it
received.
Now the air is this sponge, compressed near the
surface of the earth by the load of atmosphere which is
above it ; and the heat which it contains is represented
by the water, which was abundant in the compressed, and
scarcely perceptible in the expanded sponge. If a por-
tion of this air, thus compressed at the surface of the
earth, and containing an abundance of heat, rises, it
expands, and occupies a larger and larger space : the
quantity of heat, therefore, which it contains, is diffused
over a greater space, and consequently will produce less
sensible effects. In the same manner, if a portion of the
air, in an elevated region, having a moderate quantity of
heat diffused throughout it, should descend, it will become
compressed as it approaches the surface, and the heat
which it contains, which before occupied a great space,
will now be condensed into a small one, and will produce
more sensible effects. In other words, the air will
become warmer. These motions of the air, ascending
and decsending, are continually taking place, and they
keep up a constant difference in temperature of the
higher and lower regions.
Arnott, in his interesting work on Physical Philosophy,
makes the following remarks : 'Persons not understand-
ing the law which we are now illustrating, will express
surprise that wind or air blowing down upon them from a
THE WEATHER.
215
snow-clad mountain should still be warm and temperate.
The truth is, that there is just as much heat combined
with an ounce of air on the mountain top as in the valley ;
but above, the heat is diffused through a space perhaps
twice as great as when below, and therefore is less sen-
sible. It may be the same air which sweeps over a warm
plain at the side of a mountain , which then rises and
freezes water on the summit, and which in an hour
after, or less, is playing among the flowers of another
valley, as a warm and gentle breeze.'
2. CURRENTS OF THE AIR.
(a) Great Current from East to West.
It is well known that near the equator there is a con-
stant wind blowing from east to west. This is called
the Trade Wind ; and its regularity is such as is difficult
for us to conceive, who live in a country where the
variableness of the wind is proverbial. Through the
Indian, Atlantic, and Pacific Oceans, this wind blows
almost unceasingly. It is interrupted by the land in
many places, and in different seasons it blows with
greater or less degrees of violence. North and south of
the equator, too, it changes from an east to a northeast
and southeast wind.
The cause of this wind is the following. Let N S
represent the poles, and
E Q, the equator. Now
a portion of air at a, re-
volving with the earth in
the direction of the arrow,
moves at the rate of about
ten miles an hour; where- E
as another portion at 6,
upon the equator, moves
at the rate of fifteen
miles an hour, on account
of its revolving in a
greater circle. Now in
consequence of the heat upon the equator, the air is
rarefied and rises, and the air from a, comes down to
supply the vacancy. It has however an eastward velocity
of only ten miles, while that part of the earth to which it
216 THE WEATHER.
comes is moving much more swiftly. It will of course be
left behind. In other words it will appear to move
towards the west. This is the explanation of that great
aerial current which is constantly-flowing from east to
west over all the equatorial regions.
The Gulf Stream is one remarkable consequence of
this wind : and another, quite as striking, is seen in its
effects on the nature and length of sea voyages, and the
tracks of ships. These winds are so regular that seamen
sometimes go much out of their direct course to meet or
to avoid them ; and persons not aware of this fact are
much surprised in reading accounts of voyages to find
the ships, whose adventures they are following, sometimes
very far from the track which it might have been sup-
posed they would pursue.
(6) Monsoons.
In various parts of the earth, within the tropics, there
are periodical winds which blow six months in one
direction and six months in the opposite. They are
called Monsoons. It is unnecessary for our present
purpose more particularly to describe them, than to say
that they prevail most extensively in various parts of Asia,
and especially in the northern part of the Indian Ocean.
When they change in the spring and autumn, the winds
are for some time variable and violent, and the aspect of
the sea and skies very unfavorable to navigation.
(c) Land and Sea Breezes.
In warm climates there is on the shore of the sea a
breeze blowing towards the land in the night, and towards
the sea in the day. The cause is obvious. The land
becomes heated by the sun, and the air rises from it, and
a fresh supply comes in from the sea to fill the vacancy ;
for the sea, not reflecting the sun's rays so strongly,
does not heat the air over it so soon. In the night, how-
ever, the current is reversed. The land becomes cooler
than the sea, and the atmosphere moves from the warmer
to the cooler region. The following very happy illustra-
tion of this process has been quoted many times in books
on this subject It is so clear and complete that it
deserves to be perpetuated.
THE WEATHER. 217
' Take a large dish, fill it with cold water, and into
the middle of this put a little plate filled with warm water,
the first will represent the ocean, the latter an island
rarefying the air above it.
' Blow out a wax-candle, and if the place be still, on
applying it successively to every side of the dish, the
smoke, being visible and very light, will be seen to move
towards the plate, and, rising over it, point out the course
of the air from sea to land. Again, if the ambient water
be warmed and the plate filled with cold water, when
the smoking wick of the candle is held over the centre
of the plate, the contrary will happen, and show the
course of the wind from land to sea.'
(d) Variable Winds.
In the Temperate and Frozen Zones on each side of
the equator, the winds are variable. Great efforts have
been made to study their changes so as to predict the
weather ; but these efforts have been almost entirely
fruitless. There seems to be some faint connexion
between the changes of the moon and those of the wind.
Whether this arises from any influence of the moon itself,
or of the tides of the ocean, occasioned by the motions
of the moon, or of the great Aerial Tides, which, though
not obvious to us, are equal, real, and certain, is a point
on which the weatherwise are not agreed. We shall
make no farther remarks on this point but only present
our readers here with one or two descriptions of violent
winds which have occurred "in the latitudes in which we
live. The following account of a hurricane in Hun^
tingfordshire, Sept. 8, 1741, is unquestionably true.
'The storm seemed not to be thirty yards high from
the ground, bringing along with it a mist, rolling along
with such incredible swiftness, that it ran about a mile
and a half in half a minute. It began exactly at twelve
o'clock, arid lasted about thirteen minutes, eight minutes
in full violence : it presently uncovered the house, and
some of the tiles falling down to windward, were blown
in at the sashes and against the wainscot on the other
side of the room. The broken glass was blown all over
the room ; the chimneys all escaped, but the statues QA
218 THE WEATHER.
the top of the house, and the balustrades from one end to
the other, were all blown down.
The stabling was all blown down, except two little
stalls. All the barns of the parish except those that
were full of corn quite up to the top, were blown flat on
the ground, to the number of about sixty. The dwelling
houses escaped best, there were not above twelve blown
down, out of near one hundred. If the storm had lasted
five minutes longer, almost every house in the town must
have been down ; for they were all in a manner rocked
quite off from their underpinings. All the mills in the
country were blown down. Hay-stacks and corn-stacks
were some quite blown away, some into the next corner
of the field. Wherever it met with any boarded houses,
it seemed to exert more than ordinary violence on them
and scattered their wrecks about a quarter of a mile to
the northeast in a line. ' I followed,' says the gentleman
who furnished the account, 'one of these wrecks; and
about 150 yards from the building, found a piece of
a rafter, many feet long, and about six inches by four,
stuck upright two feet deep in the ground. At the dis-
tanpe of 400 paces from the same building, was an inch
board, nine inches broad, fourteen feet long; these boards
were carried up into the air, and some were carried over
a pond about thirty yards ; and a row of pales as much as
two men could lift, were carried two rods from their
places, and set upright against an apple tree. Pales in
general were all blown down, some posts broke off short
by the ground, others torn up by the stumps. The whole
air was full of straw; gravel stones as large as the top
of my little finger, were blown off the ground in at the
windows ; and the very grass was blown quite flat on the
ground. After the storm was over I went out into the
town, and such a miserable sight I never saw; the havoc
above described ; the women and children crying ; the
farmers all dejected ; some blessing God for the
narrowness of their escape, others wondering how so
much mischief could be done with one blast of wind,
which hardly lasted long enough for people to get out of
their houses. The storm was succeeded by a profound
calm, which lasted about an hour, after which the wind
continued pretty high till ten o'clock at night.'
THE WEATHER. 219
How such sudden and violent gusts of wind are to
be accounted for is not satisfactorily ascertained. They
are much more frequent in mountainous and in tropical
countries, than in other parts of the earth.
The following statement may be relied upon as fact.
The account was furnished for this treatise by an eye
witness.
Hurricane in the West Indies.
' In the fall of the year 1780, a very severe hurricane
visited the westerly part of the island of Jamaica. In
the morning of the day which was so destructive, the
sky was cloudy, and the clouds wild in their appearance; ,
the wind from the north and east. About one o'clock,
while at dinner, the wind was so violent as to blow down
one of the negro houses, and in a short time the rest of
them in succession. After this, a building, containing
the cane after the juice is taken from it, was blown down
in like manner. Aware of our own danger, every
measure was taken to secure the doors and windows,
knowing that our own security depended upon prevent-
ing the wind entering the house. For a few hours we
succeeded ; but at last a door or window was blown in ;
and in a very short time the whole of the house, except-
ing the southwest room, was blown away from the ground
floor. Before this, however, we had made our escape
out of the southerly door, and sought our protection be-
hind another building, to the southwest of the house,
where we remained till about midnight. The wind then
subsided, and there was an appearance of entire calm ;
we availed ourselves of this to return to the southwest
room, and to put on what dry clothes we could collect,
buf before we had completed this, the storm was renewed,
and blew with equal violence as before from the south
and west, and carried off the remaining room, and ex-
posed us, without protection, to its fury; our only resource
was the cellar, which, with great difficulty, we reached;
every building on the estate was destroyed, and the roads
rendered impassable for ten days. A remarkable circum-
stance occurred on an adjoining estate : the buildings on
this estate were placed at the foot of two hills, with a
220 THE WEATHER.
deep gully between the hills. A plank windmill was ex-
posed to the wind, which came down this gully, and
with such violence as to carry a shingle from a dis-
tant building in such a direction as to enter the plank of
the windmill three quarters of an inch; a piece of the
plank, with the shingle in it, was put on board the Ville
de Paris; to be deposited in the British Museum. The
Ville de Paris was lost, and with it the evidence of this
fact.
The swell of the sea was so great from the violence of
the wind, that a ship of about four hundred tons was car-
ried on the land about eighty rods from the shore ; this was
the only habitation for many of the distressed inhabitants
of Savanna le Mar till they could rebuild. There were
many almost miraculous escapes ; arid farther scenes of
distress which it would be difficult to describe.'
The variable winds which blow in different parts of the
earth, are sometimes productive of very striking effects,
owing to peculiar circumstances. If the current comes
from a dry and sandy country it is of course dry and
scorching ; and the reverse. There is the hot sirocco,
the damp and chill east wind of New England ; the
refreshing sea breeze ; and the fatal simoom. We shall
give but one specimen of these; it is the harmattan, a
current which derives a drying and withering influence
from passing over the arid sands of Africa. It blows
from the interior towards the western coast.
' Extreme dryness is an extraordinary property of this
wind. No dew falls during the continuance of the har-
mattan ; nor is there the least appearance of moisture in
the atmosphere. Vegetables of every kind are very
much injured ; all tender plants, and most of the pro-
ductions of the garden, are destroyed : the grass withers
and becomes like hay ; vigorous evergreens likewise feel
its pernicious influence ; the branches of the lemon,
orange, and lime trees droop, the leaves become flaccid,
wither, and, if the harmattan continues to blow for ten
or twelve jlays, are so parched as to be easily rubbed to
dust between the fingers. The fruit of these trees, de-
prived of its nourishment, and stinted in its growth only
appears to ripen, for it becomes yellow and dry, without
acquiring its usual size. The natives take the opportu-
THE WEATHER. 221
nity afforded by the extreme dryness of the grass and
young trees, to set fire to them, especially near their
roads, not only to keep the roads open to travellers, but
to destroy the shelter which long grass, and thickets of
young trees would afford to skulking parties of their ene-
mies. A fire thus lighted flies with such rapidity as to
endanger those who travel. A common method of es-
cape is, on discovering a fire to windward, to set the
grass on fire to leeward and then follow your own fire.
There are other extraordinary effects produced by the
extreme dryness of the harmattan. The covers of books
even closely shut up in a trunk, and lying among clothes,
are bent as if they had been exposed to the fire. House-
hold furniture is also much damaged ; the pannels of
doors and of wainscot split and any veneered work flies to
pieces. The joints of a well laid floor of seasoned wood
open sufficiently to lay one's finger in them ; but become
as close as before on the ceasing of the harmattan . The
seams also in the sides and decks of ships are much in-
jured, and the ships become very leaky, though the
planks are two or three inches in thickness. Iron bound
casks require the hoops to be frequently driven tighter ;
and a cask of rum or brandy with wooden hoops, can
scarcely be preserved ; for unless a person attend to keep
it moistened, the hoops fly off.
' The parching effects of this wind are likewise evi-
dent on the external parts of the body. The eyes, nos-
trils, lips and palate, are rendered dry and uneasy, and
drink is often required, not so much to quench thirst, as
to remove a painful aridity in the fauces. The lips and
nose become sore, and even chapped; and though the
air be cool, yet there is a troublesome sensation of prick-
ling heat on the skin.'
(e) Force of Winds.
This instrument by which the force and velocity of
winds is measured is called a wind gage, or anemometer.
It is constructed as follows. A B C E is a bended tube,
large at A, which side is to be turned towards the wind.
The part F B C E is filled with water or some other
liquid less likely to freeze, and the whole apparatus is
VOL. i. NO. ix. 20
THE WEATHER.
supported in such a manner by the stand D, as to turn
with the wind, so that the orifice A is turned towards it.
The pressure of the breeze now upon the surface of the
water at F, forces it down in
the great tube, and conse-
quently up in the small tube,
C E. The height to which
it rises may be observed on
the scale at E, and indicates
the force of the wind. The
tube at B C is made very
small, in order to prevent sud-
den fluctuations of the sur-
face of the water at E. The
force and velocity of the wind
may both be obtained with
a good degree of accuracy
by this instrument. The
drawing is, however, not intended to be an accurate de-
lineation of the instrument, but only a sketch, illustrating
its construction.
The following Table will give the reader some idea of
the velocity of different winds, and the force which they
exert upon the surfaces which they press :
Mile* per
Feet per
Perpendicular force on one square foot, in Avoirdupois
Hour.
Second.
Pounds and Parts.
1
1 47
005 Hardly perceptible.
2
3
2 93
44
020
044
Just perceptible.
4
5
587
733
079
123
Gently pleasant.
10
15
1467
22
492
1 107
Pleasant, brisk.
20
25
2934
3667
1968
307b
Very brisk.
30
4401
4 429
35
51 34
6027
High wind.
40
45
5868
6601
7873
9963
Very high wind.
50
7335
12300 ' Storm or tempest.
60
8802
17715 Great storm.
80
11736
31 490 Hurricane.
100
1467
4Q 9fn $ Hurricane that tears up trees anc
w * w I carries buildings before it.
It is by these means that the vapors drawn up iont
THE WEATHER. 223
the atmosphere from the sea, are wafted in every direction
over the surface of the earth. This distribution goes
constantly forward, and the air, however transparent and
apparently free from moisture, is indeed always loaded
with these invisible vapors. This is evident from the
following experiment.
In a summer's day place an empty tumbler upon the
table, and it remains hour after hour, dry. Pour now
cold water into it until it is half filled, and the moisture,
condensed by the cold, will stand in dew drops upon the
outside of the glass. The same effect will be produced
if any other cold substance is introduced into warm air.
There are two ways by which the vapors, thus dif-
fused throughout the air, are made to fall. These we
shall describe.
3. CONDENSATION.
(a) Condensation by Cold.
Such is the constitution of our atmosphere, that it will
receive into itself much more moisture when warm than
when cold. The consequence of this is that if warm air,
previously loaded with moisture, becomes, from any cause,
cold, it can no longer retain that moisture in transparent
solution. It consequently assumes again the form of
water, small, very small drops of water, too minute to
be seen singly by the naked eye, but forming altogether
a hazy appearance, which we call fog, or mist, or cloud,
according to circumstances. There are many ways in
which this principle is illustrated.
The breath which proceeds from our lungs is always
loaded with moisture. It is nevertheless invisible unless
in a cold day, when it appears in the form of a cloud
issuing from the mouth. This apparent cloud does not,
however, appear to commence precisely at the lips. The
warm air must proceed a little distance before it is so
mixed with the cold air around as to have the effect
produced.
When in cold weather, green wood is burnt for fuel,
a cloud of visible vapor issues from the top of the
chimney. That is, the vapor, which was invisible as it
comes from the fire, and as it passes up the flue of the
224 THE WEATHER.
chimney, because the air which carried if. teas warm,
becomes visible as soon as it is exposed to the cold air
above. It will be observed in this case as in the other,
that the condensation does not take place until the vapor
has ascended a foot or two above the top of the chimney.
A short time since a large congregation were assembled
in a church in Boston at an evening lecture. The heat
and moisture produced within the house by the crowd,
began to be very great ; and when, towards the close of
the evening, tho door was opened, the cold air rushed in
and produced such a condensation of moisture in the air
that it was mistaken for smoke and produced a momen-
tary alarm of fire.
(6) Condensation by the Rarefying of the Air.
It is observed that generally when from any cause the
air becomes rarefied, there is a tendency to condensation
of the moisture which it contains. It has been previously
shown that when the air becomes rarefied by diminution
of the pressure upon it, (see page 114) its temperature is
diminished. Now perhaps the condensation of the
vapor is owing to this cooling of the atmosphere, though
it is on the whole probable that the diminution of density
has a direct influence.
A proper consideration of this principle will explain
the fact at which so much surprise is sometimes expressed,
namely, that storms move against the wind. That is,
a northeast storm begins in New Orleans and works its
way against the ivind to Boston. This, however, instead
of being surprising, is precisely what, with a little reflec-
tion, we should have been accustomed to expect. The air
over Mexico is rarefied by the sun, and rises. The
atmosphere from Louisiana rushes in to supply the
vacancy. Virginia then and the states around it must
send on a supply to Louisiana. New York must
part with a portion of her atmosphere to fill the void in
Virginia ; and a breeze from New England to New York
closes the process. Now it will be evident that the rare-
faction which commenced at the southwest gradually
will extend towards the northeast, and as it advances,
will produce condensation, that is, rain. But the wind at
THE WEATHER. 225
each particular point through the whole distance will
blow in the contrary direction, i. e. from the northeast.
This accords with well known facts.
These principles in regard to the condensation of the
vapors ' of the atmosphere, will explain a vast variety of
facts.
A family sit during a winter's evening by their fireside,
and their breath fills the air of the room with moisture.
In the night the windows become intensely cold, and the
water thus diffused becomes condensed upon the glass in
beautiful icy crystals, called, usually, frost upon the
windows.
In a summer's day the sun, by warming the atmosphere,
brings up into it a large supply of vapor. In the eve-
ning the grass and the buildings become cool, and the
moisture, previously diffused, becomes condensed in drops
of dew, which load the herbage to a degree proportioned
to the warmth of the preceding day, and to the coolness
of the night.
A portion of air having been lying upon the surface of
the earth, until it is almost saturated with moisture, at
length rises. It expands as it ascends, can no longer
retain its vapor in an invisible form, and floats, alight
fleecy cloud, through the sky.
In a similar case the condensation proceeds farther.
Instead of merely forming those minute globules which
are too light to fall and too small to be separately visible,
the water gathers into visible drops, which form in the air
a black and heavy mass, or descend in showers of rain.
If they fall through a very cold stratum in their descent,
they freeze into balls of ice : or if the stratum of air in
which the condensation takes place is very cold, the vapor
shoots into icy crystals, which descend as snow.
In an afternoon in August a river loads the air above it
with moisture. The chill of the night cools the whole
mass, and in the morning we find lying upon the stream
a bank of fog, which the sun's rays cause to vanish, but
which they do not remove. The warmth of the sun enables
the air to hold in transparent solution the water which was
visible before
'Beyond Cape Town,' says Arnott, 'as viewed from
VOL. i. NO. ix. 20*
226 THE WEATHER.
the bay, there is a mountain of great elevation, called,
from its extended flat summit, the Table Mountain. In
general its rugged steeps are seen rising in a clear sky ;
but when the southeast wind blows, the whole summit
becomes enveloped in a cloud of singular density and
beauty. The inhabitants call the phenomenon the
spreading of the table-cloth. The cloud does not appear
to be at rest on the hill, but to be constantly rolling
onward from the southeast : yet, to the surprise of the
beholder, it^never descends, for the snowy wreaths seer,
falling over the precipice towards the town below, vanish
completely before they reach it, while others are formed
to replace them on the other side. The reason of the
phenomenon is, that the air constituting the wind from
the southeast, having passed over the vast southern ocean,
comes charged with as much invisible moisture as its
temperature can sustain. In rising up the side of the
mountain, it is rising in the atmosphere, and is therefore
gradually escaping from a part of the former pressure ;
and on attaining the summit it has dilated so much, and
has consequently become so much colder, that it lets go
a part of its moisture. This then appears as the cloud
BOW described : but it no sooner falls over the edge of
the mountain, and again descends in the atmosphere, to
where it is pressed, and condensed, and healed as before,
then it is re-dissolved and disappears : the magnificent
apparition thus dwelling only on the mountain top.'
Such are the general principles by which the changes
of cloud and rain, sunshfhe and storm, and all
those meteorological phenomena which occur in the
atmosphere are regulated. There are, however, many
particular and striking results to which we should be
glad to direct the attention of our readers, so far as our
limits will permit. The subject, however, which must
principally attract our attention must be the effects of
electricity.
4. THUNDER AND LIGHTNING.
The various phenomena which are to be classed under
the head of electricity, and of which the thunder is one,
are very imperfectly understood. Some facts, and the
THE WEATHER. 227
principles explaining them, have been thoroughly inves-
tigated ; but others baffle all human efforts.
There is a certain something, called by philosophers
electric fluid, which is diffused naturally over all bodies.
It is in the chair in which I sit, in the table, the paper,
my hand, in a word, in everything. In its natural
state it is equally and generally diffused and produces no
sensible effects. But there are certain causes which colled
it. When it is thus accumulated in one place .or upon
one body, it produces very striking results : one of the
most remarkable of which is, it tends to dart away into
the surrounding objects, with a bright spark and a noise.
This can be easily imitated on a small scale with the
electrical machine ; and it is this agent, operating pre-
cisely in this way, but with tremendous energy and
splendor, which so often terrifies us in the skies.
Among the processes by which the electric fluid is
accumulated, and thus prepared to produce these sensible
effects, one of the principal is, the condensation of vapor,
as described on a preceding page. This is shown by a
simple electrical experiment which it is not necessary to
describe particularly here. But it is considered as estab-
lished, that whenever the vapor of the atmosphere is
condensed, electricity is collected, and tends to dart off
into surrounding objects. Whenever a cloud is formed
in the sky it probably becomes more or less charged with
electricity.
Now it is one remarkable property of this electric fluid,
that some substances easily convey it away and others do
not. The former are called Conductors, the latter Non-
Conductors. The metals and water are the conductors :
almost all other substances, non-conductors.
Whenever the electric fluid is collected in any place,
if there is a conductor, or a chain of conductors, to
convey it away, it passes off silently and without any
sensible effect. If there are no conductors, it accumu-
lates until it becomes excessive in quantity, and then it
darts off through the air or any substances which are in
its way, sometimes with great violence and often doing
irreparable injury.
We do not, however, always have thunder and lightning
when clouds form in : the sky. When a fog rolls in from
228 THE WEATHER.
the east its vapors lie in contact with the earth and
ocean, and the electricity passes off silently as fast as it
accumulates. In a long continued storm the clouds
cover the whole heavens, and extend over a region of
many miles ; and they form so slowly that there is oppor-
tunity for a gradual escape of the fluid. But when, in
a sultry summer afternoon, black masses of cloud rise in
the west, forming very rapidly, and with rounded and
well denned boundaries, the fluid then accumulates
faster than it can escape, and after a time it darts to the
earth, or from cloud to cloud, producing the terrific
effects which we so often see. Splendid and appalling
as these results sometimes are, they are imitated precisely,
but harmlessly, by the apparatus of the lecturer. The
fluid is the same in its movements and in its character,
whether it sparkles on the table or thunders in the skies.
When it darts to the earth, its aim is to pass Uirough
the best conductors it can find on its way. Hence it
strikes a tree ; that is, it chooses to come down through
the juices of the trunk ; for it will be recollected that
water was said to be a conductor. It often seeks a way
through the walls and partitions of a house, because it
finds there metallic or watery substances which help it
forward. But it must be remembered that it strikes these
subjects only so far as they furnish it a passage way to
the place for which it is destined. The common idea
that a penknife, or other metallic body, attracts the light-
ning is erroneous. A lightning rod suspended horizon-
tally in the air would not attract lightning. It is only
when it forms a connexion between the place where the
electricity is, and that towards which it tends to move.
The following remarkable case will illustrate the prin-
ciple. The truth of the statements may be relied on.
We extract it from the Lon. Phil. Trans.
Remarkable Case of a House Struck by Lightning.
1 Thomas Olivey, a respectable farmer, had returned
from the field, about a quarter before twelve o'clock, and
had all his family round him in the kitchen, except his
daughter, who was in the hall. There was a pan over
the fire in the kitchen chimney, full of boiling water.
The farmer was sitting by the fire, and his wife on a
THE WEATHER. 229
bench before it; their only son, twentythree years of
age, was standing at the window, when it lightened much,
and the first clap of thunder followed. This was so vio-
lent that the back door of the kitchen, which opened to
the north, quivered. The farmer called to his son, and
desired him not to stand so near the window, lest the
lightning: should hurt his eyes ; on which the young man
removed from the window, backwards, into the corner of
the room, and sat down. The lightning came from the
west-north-west, and falling on the stack of the kitchen
chimney, which was about four feel square, and as much
in height, of hewn stone, carried it clear off from the
house, and threw it into a pool of water twenty feet dis-
tant. In the chamber over the kitchen, directly beneath
the top of the chimney, there was a little closet boarded
in ; all the boards were broken to pieces, the timbers of
the roof were shattered, as also the bedstead in the
chamber. Of the chamber partition, two planks were
forced, a large clothes-press thrown down, and the south
windows of the chamber floor (excepting the casement)
all broken and blown out. From the top of the chimney
and chamber floor, it descended into the kitchen below,
where the family was. The farmer saw no lightning 1 ,
nor heard any thunder, after the first clap before men-
tioned ; but was struck senseless by the first flashj and
thrown into the middle of the kitchen, and continued
senseless for a quarter of an hour. As soon as he came
to himself, he asked who struck him ; but had not the
use of his arms, and felt an aching pain, shooting, as be
described it, into his bones.'
A still more striking proof, or rather illustration, of this
principle, is furnished by the following case, which
occurred in Beverly a few years since, and which is
inserted here from the manuscript of an eye-witness.
Thunder Storm at Beverly, Mass,
' As I was going to the school-room, which was to
be the scene of my afternoon's labors, I observed a
large black cloud rising in the west and covering
the whole side of the heavens with its black shade.
The school hour arrived just as it began to rain,
230 THE WEATHER.
and by the time that the boys were engaged in their
work, the tempest came on with such violence as to put
a stop to almost every proceeding. The wind blew and
the rain poured down so as to make a complete turmoil
without, and the thunder, which seemed to hover directly
over our heads, and to be bursting all around us, render-
ed conversation almost perfectly inaudible. The light-
ning had not the appearance of a flash diffused through
the air, but it glittered on the seats with a brightness
which almost blinded me. and immediately upon it came
the peal, so loud and terrifying, that almost every face
in the room was distorted as if from a bodily pain. Du-
ring this time, at the intervals between the flashes, the
room was so completely darkened as to render it impossi-
ble to see to write even the large hand copies which were
before the scholars. I have heard loud thunder before,
but never seemed to be so completely in the midst of it.
It appeared to keep up its unceasing rattling all around
us, without intermission or abatement.
'It began however soon to look less dark. the peals
followed each other less rapidly, and were more distant
from the flashes to which they belonged, and as they
passed off towards the east, they gradually changed their
sharp and broken rattling, for the prolonged rumbling
sound of distant thunder. The wind died away; the
rain only sprinkled upon the windows ; a broad bright
zone was rising in the west ; the sun soon broke forth in
it, and all was over. The cloud lay for some time in
the east, discharging its bolts into the water, and then
left us not a little relieved by its departure.
* I was soon informed that the lightning 'had struck in
several places ; to one house particularly, it did much
injury, and destroyed one life. The next morning I
went to visit the house, and found it in the situation which
I will attempt to describe.
' The lightning had first struck the chimney ; in the
garret there was hanging a saw from one of the rafters
at the distance of a few feet from the chimney; the saw
reached very near to the floor. Nearly under that part
of the floor over which the saw was suspended, there
W^s a closet. Now it happened that the mistress of the
THE WEATHER. 231
house stood a few moments at the closet with her head
exactly under the extremity of the saw ; though the gar-
ret floor was between them. This was in the second
story ; on the lower story, there was nearly under the
place where the woman was standing, some metallic sub-
stances, particularly a large pair of tongs, which stood
up by the fire-place. There was thus, it will be observed,
a continued chain of conducting substances, extending
from the top of the house to the ground, and the light-
ning pursued precisely the track prepared for it. It de-
scended by the chimney, ran down the roof, tearing up
the shingles, until it came over the saw; it. passed down
the saw easily, and without injury, as the steel was a good
conductor. It then perforated the floor, making several
small holes, like those produced by a gimlet. It passed
through the body of the woman whom it instantly de-
prived of life, and thence found its way through the me-
tallic substances in the kitchen to the ground. Another
lady sitting at the window of the room, in which the
woman was killed was not injured in the slightest degree.'
Such is the account of this very clear and striking in-
stance of the unerring certainty, with which the light-
ning selects its path through the best conductors, which
it finds in its way. A saw lying horizontally, would
have had very little influence, unless it should even in
that position, form part of a connected series of conduc-
tors to the earth. The reason why one person was safe
in the immediate vicinity of such danger was, that she
was out of the series of conductors.
We have from these and other similar cases, a very
simple direction, which will enable us to avoid danger,
so far as it is possible to avoid it, and that is, take such a po-
sition that the body shall not be one of a series of substances
likely to conduct the. fluid. More particular rules cannot
be given, for the circumstances vary so much, that they
would be of very limited application ; each individual
keeping the general principle in view, must judge. The
middle of a room, or lying horizontally upon a bed, are
for obvious reasons, the safe position.
It may here be observed that the flash and report, or
which is the same thing, the lightning and thunder are
232 THE WEATHER.
precisely at the same moment, and one never takes place
without the other. It is true that we often see the flash
some time before we hear the sound, and so do we often
see the smoke of a distant gun, long before we hear its
report. The reason is not that they are in reality sepa-
rated, but because light travels faster, and reaches us
sooner than sound ; and as the apparent separation is pro-
portional to the distance, the latter may be calculated
pretty accurately by observing the former. It is true also
that we sometimes see a cloud in the evening which emits
frequent flashes in apparent silence. This is not because
it is a different species of lightning; but because in the
darkness of the hour, the light may be seen at so great a
distance that its thunder is not heard. On the other
hand, when the cloud rises in the day-time, we hear the
thunder first, because in the glare of the sun, the flash
must be vivid before it can be seen. The phenomena
are, without doubt, in all cases the same; and when the
cloud is near, the peal follows instantaneously upon the
flash ; at a less or greater distance it is in a small or
great degree separated from it. When the cloud ap-
proaches us in the dark, as might have been expected,
we see the light before we hear the sound ; and when it
comes in bright daylight, the peal is heard before the
flash is ^visible.
We rave thus described as fully and to as great an ex-
tent as our limits will permit, the principles by which -the
changes of the weather are regulated. We must not
forget the great object of the whole, which is to take up
from the ocean the waters which rivers and streams are
continually bearing to its bosom, and distributing them
again over the earth to refresh and to fertilize. In con-
sidering this subject we know not which mo>t to admire,
the skill which contrived this system, or the omnipotent
control, which confines these elements of agitation
within such bounds, that they seldom encroach upon hu-
man life, or even disturb the peaceful and happy em-
ployments of society.
SCIENTIFIC TRACTS.
NUMBER X.
THE ART OF BUILDING.
SIR CHRISTOPHER WREN has remarked, that the art
of building has its political, as well as civil use ; and
national monuments being the ornament of a country, it
establishes a nation, increases population and commerce,
makes people love their country, which is the origin of all
great actions in a commonwealth.
This is the testimony, not only of one of the best archi-
tects that ever lived, but of a very wise and good man,
on the importance and utility of architecture ; we there-
fore consider the art of constructing beautiful and per-
manent edifices one of the most important occupations of
man. If architecture is so important, every exertion
should be made to advance the proper understanding of
all its parts ; every auxiliary should be thoroughly taught
to perfect this noble art.
The advancement of our country in the arts of life and
civilization has been most rapid and successful, as is
most clearly shown, by the improvements made in the art
of building. Within twenty years a progressive and
judicious reform has been made in the architectural
appearance of our cities, towns and villages ; there is an
improved taste manifest, not only in the construction of
our national monuments and public buildings, but also in
our private dwellings. A very great improvement has
also been made in the durability of our buildings, sub-
stituting for wood the imperishable materials of stone and
brick ; and these improvements are in no small degree
VOL. i. NO. x. 21
234 ART OF BUILDING.
owing to the increased skill of our masons, not only in
practice, but in the theory of their art.
Notwithstanding the improved taste and skill, mani-
lest in the art of building, there is a want of science
among our masons, when compared with those of England
and France, where the blind routine of practice is
guided by the light of science ; where as much learn-
ing is considered necessary to construct a church or
bridge, as to plead a cause in a court of justice. Our
remarks will apply equally as well to most of our mechanic
arts, as to building in all of which, science is the only
thing required to render them equal to those of any
country.
The want of science among our mechanics we attri-
bute entirely to the want of proper elementary instruction,
and it is with a view to remedy this defect in one trade,
that the following pages have been prepared not for
the master builder only, but for the great mass of our
countrymen ; we wish to spread the scientific principles
of the arts and trades before the ichole people. We wish
that every mechanic in our, country, may not only know
the science of his own profession, but also that of every
other with which his own is in any way connected,
believing that this knowledge would not only add greatly
to his pecuniary gains, but vastly increase his means of
happiness.
1 In a short way we propose to describe the principal
materials employed by the mason in the construction of
edifices, with a brief account of their application ; to
which we have added a concise description of the prin-
cipal manual operations of the mason's trade.
MATERIALS.
Stone. This is the most durable material of which
buildings can be constructed. There are various kinds
of stone which are used for building in the United
States, such as limestone, granite, gneiss, sieniie, and
sandstone. Limestone is used extensively in New York,
Pennsylvania, and some other stales. Granite is used
abundantly in the New England states, where it is found
in great abundance. Sienite is used extensively in and
near Boston. Gneiss is principally used for cellar and
ART OF BUILDING. 235
foundation walls. Sandstone is used for building in
almost every part of the country.
Limestone is of several kinds granular limestone
(Marble) and compact limestone (common limestone) are
the two principal varieties. All limestone is essentially
composed of carbonic acid, (dead orjixcd air) and quick
lime ; it is of various colors white, gray and veined.
This stone may be distinguished from all other building
stone, by putting a small piece into diluted sulphuric
acid, when it will effervesce or bubble like soda water,
which is caused by the acid combining with the lime,
and thereby setting the carbonic acid gas free. It is
about 2^ times heavier than water.
Among all the kinds of limestone used in building,
marble holds the first place, both as respects durability
and beauty. Marbles are principally used for interior
decorations. The principal kinds are the following.
1. White marble, which is used for statuary and
interior decorations ; the coarser kinds are often used for
exterior walls ; the City Hall in New York, and the State
Prison at Sing-Sing, in New York, are examples of this
species. This kind of marble is found in Vermont,
( Middlelury ) Rhode Island, (Smithfield) and Massa-
chusetts, as well as many other places.
2. Colored marble is of many shades, and is used prin-
cipally for interior decorations. It is found in abun-
dance in most parts of the country.
3. Breccia marble is that kind of marble which is ap-
parently made up of different sized fragments imbedded
in different colored cements, the fragments are of all
sizes and shapes ; and when polished present a very
beautiful appearance. The most beautiful variety in this
country is found on the Potomac river, fifty or sixty miles
above Washington city. It is used for interior decora-
tions. The shafts of the columns in the Representatives'
Hall, in the Capitol, are formed of this marble ; they are
nineteen feet nine inches in height, and two feet in
diameter at the base. There are many other varieties of
marble, but they are seldom used by the mason.
Granite. This is one of the best materials for the
construction of buildings, and is composed of three
substances, feldspar, quartz, and mica ; it is gra-
236 ART OF BUILDING.
nular, the grains varying from the size of a pin's head to
that of a nut or even larger.
The color of granite depends upon the feldspar, which
is white, gray, yellow, green, &c ; the predominant color
is gray ; its beauty for building depends upon the inti-
mate mixture of the white feldspar and black mica.
Granite is not generally acted upon by fire or water, nor
does the frosts of our winters affect it ; it is about two and
a half times heavier than water.
Granite is found extensively distributed over the whole
surface of the earth. It forms the principal part of the
highest mountains, and is found in low places, in beds, or
what are called ledges; single blocks of granite are
found resting upon loose earth.
Beautiful varieties of granite for building are found in
Maine, New Hampshire and Massachusetts.
Granite is used by the mason for the construction of
whole edifices, and for window and door stools and caps,
also for ashlar ; in some situations it is used undressed,
for foundations, cellar-walls, &,c.
Sienite resembles granite in its external characters,
but differs from it in being- essentially composed of feld-
spar and hornblende; sometimes it contains quartz and
mica. Feldspar is the principal ingredient in sienite.
This stone is much less abundant than any other stone
which is used for building; it is found in the vicinity
of Boston, where it is extensively used. The Stone
Chapel and Tremont House in Boston, the State
Prison (old) in Charlestown are built with sienite. This
stone received its name from Siena, a city in Egypt,
whence the Romans obtained it for building and statuary.
Gneiss resembles granite in its appearance, and is
of the same composition, but differs from it in always
being more or loss slaty, and when viewed in the mass,
appears to be formed of layers of different colors. Gneiss
is a hard rock, and answers very well for cellar and foun-
dation walls.
Sandstone (Ores of the French, Freestone,) is com-
posed of grains of quartz united together by a cement,
which is variable in quantity and quality ; it may be
limey, clayey, or even silicious. The texture of some
sandstones is loose and porous, while some are hard and
ART OF BUILDING. 237
compact. The most common kinds for building are red,
white and gray. In New England the red sandstone is
extensively used by the mason for jambs, hearths, door
and window caps ; there are, however, some kinds of
sandstone which are easily affected by the frost, and of
course should not be used in our climate. We may ob-
serve several specimens of this in Boston, in which the
frost has caused them to crumble to pieces.
These stones are extracted from quarries or from single
beds. In quarrying limestone gunpowder is necessary
in detaching the stone at first, after which it is split with
wedges. Granite is quarried by means of wedges only
when taken from single blocks, gunpowder is used when
in large masses, Sandstone is generally found in layers,
and it is quarried with the pick, wedge and lever. Gneiss,
generally, only requires the wedges and hammer.
Brick is the next most durable material to stone for
building. Bricks are made of clay mixed with a certain
portion of sand ; the quality of the brick depends mainly
upon the proportions of these ingredients; if there is too
much clay, they shrink greatly in burning, and if too
much sand, the bricks are brittle and heavy. The proper
tempering of the raw material has another great effect
upon the quality, which is most effectually done by means
of a pttg-mill instead of the rude contrivance of our New
England brickmakers. This mill consists of a hollow,
upright cone, the interior being set with knives arranged
in a spiral form ; in this cone an upright shaft is placed,
armed in the same manner with knives, having a pivot at
the bottom on which it revolves. The clay being put in
at the top and a horse attached to the shaft, the knives
cut, separate, and most admirably prepare it for the
moulder's bench.
Bricks are burned in kilns in this country, which, pre-
vious to the fire being applied, are covered with a coat of
clay and sand ; this being a bad conductor of heat keeps
it in. A kiln forty bricks long, thirtyseven wide and
thirty high, will require about sixty cords of pine wood,
or about half a cord to a thousand. The heat in burning
VOL. i. NO, x. 21*
ART OF BUILDING.
bricks should be applied gradually, till it attains its great-
est height, because a sudden application would cause the
bricks to break as they are bad conductors of heat.
Bricks are of several kinds, as rnarls, stocks, and place.
The finest marls are called Jirsts, and are used for arches;
the next best are called seconds, and are used for fronts.
Stocks are similar to seconds, and are used for the same
purposes. Place- bricks, samel or salmon, are such as
were on the outside of the kiln, and arc not thoroughly
burned, consequently are pale and soft. There are also
burrs or clinkers, which are such as were too violently
burned.
There is another division of bricks founded upon a
difference in the manufacture, viz. pressed and impressed,
or common bricks.
Pressed bricks are such as after being partially dried,
are subjected to mechanical pressure, and then are
burned, which increases their density und beauty.
The use of bricks in constructing buildings is of the
highest antiquity. The Jirsl bricks made by man were
rude masses of clay, hardened in the sun ; afterwards,
they were regularly shaped. The tower of Babel or
Belus, was built of sun-dried bricks. The ruins of Babylon
are of the same material. The ruins of a pyramid near
Grand Cairo in Egypt, erected by Asychis, is of unburnt
bricks. The ancient Greeks and Romans used the
same material in their edifices the walls of the
temple of Jupiter and Hercules the palace of Croesus
at Sardis, &c. Augustus (wasted that he found Rome
of brick and left it of marble. The Roman bricks were
square and triangular, the last being just half of a square
one cut, diagonally, and formed the outsides of the walls,
the square ones being laid diagonally across the thickness
of the wall.
Mortar. Mortar is made of quicklime and sand, each
of which we shall describe.
Lime is the soul of masonry, and is the principal sub-
stance used for joining stones and bricks together in the
construction of masonry.
Quicklime is obtained by the calcination of limestone,
the heat driving off the water and carbonic acid.
Limestone is generally contaminated with alumina
ART OF BUILDING. 239
(day), magnesia, and the oxides of iron (iron rust 4*c,
sometimes with sulphate of lime (lime and oil of vitriol
called gypsum, or plaster of Paris) when the limestone is
hard enough to scratch glass it contains quartz, when of
a brown or red color it contains oxide of iron, when it
effervesces slowly, producing a milky appearance it con-
tains magnesia ; and when black with a bad smell it con-
tains coaly substances. Magnesia and clayey substances
impair the quality of the quicklime by preventing its
setting wtU.
The hardest limestones make the best quicklime.
There are two kinds of quicklime used by masons,
common lime and hydraulic or water lime ; the latter dif-
fers from the former in containing iron and manganese.
The best common lime comes from Thomastown, Me.
A good hydraulic lime (cement) manufactured in New
York, was used for constructing the locks of the Grand
Canal.
Lime is nature's universal cement, and is employed
frequently in an immense number of her combinations.
Besides the great masses of limestone on mountains as
well as in plains, besides the great variety of compound
stony substances, widely diversified, of which it forms
an essential part, it is found in vegetables. The bones
and shells of all animals are formed of the same substance
united with certain acids.
Sand is the next important ingredient of mortar. On
the quality of this, essentially depends the quality of the
mortar, and if it contains any clay or mud, or is brought
from the shores of salt waters, it is unfit lor mortar
until it is washed, because the clay or salt will prevent
its setting, these substances having a greater affinity
for water than for carbonic acid. The sharper and
coarser the grain of the sand, the better the mortar
and the less lime is required, which of course diminishes
the price ; it should be a general rule to use no more lime
than what is just necessary to cover every particle of the
sand.
The celebrated Rondelet, a French engineer, and Mr
Smeaton, the builder of the Eddystone light-house, made
numerous experiments on mortar. The following are
some of their conclusions.
240 ART OF BUILDING.
1. Pit sand, mixed with lime, makes a better mortar
than river sand.
2. Pit sand, fresh dug, makes a better mortar than that
made of the same sand dried in the sun.
3. A mixture of lime and old mortar as cement, forms
a better mortar than the best sand and lime.
4. The darkest colored sand makes the best mortar.
It would be vain for us to attempt giving any rules as
to the proper proportions of sand and lime to form a good
mortar, owing to the various qualities of the lime ; if it is
perfectly pure and caustic, fifty parts of sand to one of lime
would be the proper proportions ; but the most common
proportions in this country are two parts of sand to one
of lime. In this country our masons err greatly in using
too little sand, and in not mixing what they do use tho-
roughly and intimately with the lime. The quality of the
mortar depends essentially upon the slacking of the lime ;
it is of the utmost importance that every particle of the
lime be thoroughly slacked ; if any parts of it are mixed
up before it is slacked, the water continuing to act upon
it, will cause it to expand, and in plastering will cause
blisters. But a small quantity of lime should be slacked
at a time unless it is protected from the air, as it will
absorb carbonic acid gas from the air, which injures the
mortar.
Cement Puzzolanas, Tarras. For the construction of
masonry in water, a peculiar kind of mortar is necessary
common mortar will not harden in water. For lining
reservoirs or tanks, common mortar may be used, if they
are suffered to dry and harden before the water is let in.
For hydraulic works, cement, puzzolanas and tarras are
mixed with lime, which forms a mortar that sets immedi-
ately in water. There are various kinds of cement. The
Roman cement which comes from England, is composed
principally of a calcined marl. The Dutch cement is
tarras and lime, one of the former to two of the latter.
Puzzolana is the production of volcanoes, and is com-
posed principally of marl, and is found in Italy. Green-
stone calcined and powdered, mixed with lime and sand,
formed the mortar with which the famous Eddystone
lighthouse was constructed by Smeaton.
Grout and Grubbstone mortar. Grout is nothing more
ART OF BUILDING. 241
than thin mortar, and is generally poured upon masonry
to fill up all the interstices.
Grubbstone mortar is made of water, lime, sand, and
small rough fragments of stone ; it is used for founda-
tions and other works in water ; it is sometimes employed
for filling up between the two faces of a wall, to render
it water tight.
Having detailed in a brief manner the different mate-
rials used by the masons, we now proceed to show their
application.
Masonry is the art of forming cut stone, rubble or
brick into masses by means of mortar or plaster ; of
course, there are several kinds of masonry the two
principal however, are Regular and Irregular.
Regular masonry is formed of stones or bricks of a
regular form. The object of all kinds of masonry is to
form with a number of pieces of stone or brick, one mass
which shall have the eolidity of a single block.
The ancients employed stones of a much greater size
than are used at the present time. In the ruins of Per-
sepolis there are single blocks, weighing over 500 tons.
In the great temple of Balbec, there are single blocks
weighing 1000 tons.
In this country cut stones are called ashlar, of which
most of our stone edifices are built, the stones being
of various length, but should always be of the same length
for the same building. Where the face stones are not so
thick as the wall, it is customary to fill in the back with
rough materials, in which case the backs of the face
stone, or ashlar, should not be parallel to the front face,
but inclined ; and every stone should have its back inclin-
ed in the same direction, which will give a certain lap to
each course. In all kinds of face stone work, every
course should have a number of thorough stones in it,
that is, stones which go through the wall ; these are ne-
cessary to the stability of the work.
Brick masonry is that which is most common in our
country. In building brick work in dry weather the
best of mortar is necessary, and the bricks should be
dipped in water as they are laid, to cause them to adhere ;
242 ART OF BUILDING.
because the brick being porous and dry, will absorb so
much of the water from the mortar as to prevent its
sticking.
In building a wall of any kind, not more than four or
five feet of any part should be built at a time, because
as we have stated in our Tract on Heat, the mortar shrinks
on becoming solid ; and if one part of the wall shrinks
before the other it will cause a rupture.
There are two kinds of bonds used by masons. Eng-
lish and Flemish. The English bond consists of a
course of bricks laid -lengthwise, then another under-
wise to the face of the wall. There is but one ob-
jection to this bond, which is the difficulty in breaking
joints, which requires that a brick should be broken at every
course. The Flemish method consists in placing a head-
er and stretcher alternately. This is deemed much neat-
er than the former ; but in the execution it has some in-
conveniences and is not thought to be so firm as the English.
The masons of Boston adopt a different bond, they lay
five or seven courses of stretchers and then one of head-
ers. This, however, is thought by some, must yield to
the English and Flemish, not only in beauty and prac-
tice, but greatly in strength, because there is not a suffi-
cient bond between the two faces of the wall.
In laying all kinds of stone masonry, it is of the utmost
importance that each stone should lay on its natural bed,
otherwise the joints will flush, and frequently the stone
will break ; a glaring instance of this may be seen in the
front of St Paul's church in Boston, where the stones are
ruptured, in consequence of this very fault. It is also of
the utmost importance that each bed of the material
should be perfectly level and smooth, otherwise the joints
will flush out and ruptures will be produced.
Rubble stone masonry is such as is made of unhewn
stone ; it may be laid in courses, or in an irregular man-
ner. In coursed rubble, the stones are all gauged to the
same height, but in uncoursed rubble the stones are laid
promiscuously in the wall, only having the sharp corners
knocked off.
The strength and durability of all masonry when it
has been laid in a proper manner, with good lime, de-
pends entirely upon the force with which the mortar ad-
ART OP BUILDING. 243
heres to the stones or bricks, as well as the adhesion of its
own particles. These forces are greatly augmented by age.
The following table shows the force with which stone
and brick adhere together, when joined by good mortar
made of nine parts of sand and one of good lime.
Two pieces of Maine granite, hewn, 105 pounds.
The same not hewn, ... 162
Red sandstone, hewn, - - 159
The same not hewn, - - - 166
Sienite, (Quincy) hewn, - - 101
The same not hewn, - 147
Boston unpressed brick, - - 172
ditto pressed. - - - - 167
These had all been united nine months, and placed in a
dry situation.
The following appears to be the principle on which
mortar acts as a cement in joining masonry. It is well
known that when quicklime and water are mixed together,,
the lime swells and falls to pieces, and is soon reduced to a
fine powder, and so much heat is produced as to convert
a part of the water into steam. If the lime be weighed
after being slacked, it will be found to have increased in
weight, which is owing to a part of the water having com-
bined with the lime and become solid ; of course, the
water has parted with that portion of its heat which
caused its fluidity; hence, the great heat produced in
slacking lime for if two parts of powdered quicklime
and one part of powdered ice (both at 32 of the thermome-
ter) be mixed together, they instantly combine and their
temperature is 212. Here the increase of heat comes
from the ice. When large quantities of lime are slacked,
heat and light are produced in large quantities hence
the reason vessels and buildings filled with lime are often
set on fire by the water getting to it. This combination
of lime and water, is called a hydrate of lime.
When the hydrate of lime is forming, if the black ox-
ide of iron, or the scales ^thrown from it when hammered
by the smith, be mixed -with burnt clay or sand, the
mixture becomes harder than the lime would alone, which
is owing to a certain degree of chemical attraction be-
tween the hydrate of lime and these substances.
244 ART OF BUILDING.
If the oxides of iron or burnt clay are used, the mortar
has the property of not being acted upon by water, and
thus forms a cement.
Most persons must have observed that buildings formed
of masonry, require to have their joints pointed over or
refilled, the old mortar having become rotten; this is ow-
iug to the action of moisture and the carbonic acid gas
' which is in the air, the gas having united to the lime and
formed limestone, and thus destroying the attraction which
the hydrate of lime had for the sand, which causes the
mortar to crumble and fall to pieces.
From the above principles we may explain the cause
why lime exposed to the air, becomes slacked and finally
loses its properties the moisture of the atmosphere
combines with the lime and slacks it, or forms a hy-
drate ; the carbonic acid gas from the same source, then,
combines with the slacked lime or hydrate, and forms a
carbonate of lime. This may again be made quicklime
by heating it violently, which expels the water and gas.
FOUNDATIONS.
Having described the materials used by the mason, and
explained the principles of their action on each other, we
now proceed to describe some of his operations in erect-
ing a building or other work.
The laying of the foundation is the first operation in
constructing a building, and is the most important part
of the whole work ; without a firm foundation it is in vain
for the mason to attempt to produce a permanent building.
Almost every city in our country can show the pernicious
effects of masonry constructed without a due regard to
the foundation. Boston can show some lamentable
instances, where rents and settlings are to be seen from
the cellar to the ridgepole.
Wherever it is intended to erect masonry, the ground
should be examined with an iron bar, or a well diggers'
auger, which will not only show the composition of the
earth, but the depth at which solid ground is found,
which will determine whether the earth can be excavated
to the solid bottom or not.
ART OF BUILDING. 245
When the soil is loose to any great depth, the founda-
tion may be well established by turning inverted arches
under each aperture and opening, as the doors and
windows ; by this means the foundation is rendered per-
fectly safe and solid, because the sinking of the piers will
carry the arches with them, and thus push the ground
under them, which presses it against the under sides of
the arches ; the arches of course, will not give, it' pro-
perly constructed : where this expedient is noUised, those
parts of the wall which are under the apertures, or doors
and windows, not being so heavy as the solid parts of the
wall, will be left behind when the solid parts scttk-, be-
cause the resistance of the soil will keep them up, causing
fractures in the wall, and frequently in the window caps
and sills.
In so essential part of a foundation as the arch, great
care should be paid to its curve, and the curve, called a
parabola, should be used in preference to any other ; next
to this the semi-circle.
The most common method in this country is to estab-
lish foundations in soft earth, upon piles ; these arc driven
into the ground, and the foundation stones laid upon
them. In using piles, great care is requisite that
they be driven down to the firm bottom ; it some-
times happens that the piles stop before they have
reached the solid ground, and if the masonry is placed
upon them in that state, the Avails will certainly be rup-
tured therefore, such piles should be left a short time
at rest, and then apply the pile engine and it will drive
them down to the firm bottom : this stoppage i? pro-
duced by the friction of the pile and the resistance of
earth. An important instance of the fracture of walls
established upon piles occurred in Boston a few years
since on Central wharf.
It sometimes occurs that a foundation is required to
be constructed on inclined ground, in which case the
walls should rise in a series of level steps. This will
endure a level and firm bed for the building walls, and
prevent their sliding, which they would be apt to <;> in
moist situations, thereby causing serious fractures if not
the entire destruction of the building.
VOL. i. NO. x. '1-
246 ART OF BUILDING.
Where a foundation is laid upon piles, it is important
that they are not overloaded, which will cause their rup-
ture and the overthrow of the building. In order to de-
termine the weight which each pile should support with-
out bending, we must know the total weight of the mass
of masonry which is to be placed upon them, together with
the dimensions of the piles, from this we may determine
the number of piles. The total weight of the building
may be asceitained by calculating the solid contents of
the walls from the bottom of the foundation to the top of
the building, to which the weight of the wood- work &-C,
must be added, and the doors, windows and other open-
ings must be subtracted. Having found the cubic con-
tents of the masonry, we may find their weight by knowing
the weight of one cubic foot of the stone or brick, or
what is the same thing, the specific gravity. Specific
gravity may be defined as the relative weight of any
body when compared with some other of which we know
the weight, one cubic foot of pure rain water weighs just
1000 avoirdupois ounces, and this is the substance with
which we compare the weight of solid bodies. Example.
How much will one cubic foot of Chelmsford granite
weigh more than one cubic foot of water 1 The deter-
mination of this is determining the specific gravity of
Chelmsford granite. If we could cut out a block of this
stone, exactly one foot oh each side, we could easily
weigli it, but this cannot be done for practical purposes,
and if it could, we may arrive at the same conclusion
much easier.
It is evident, that if we drop a piece of stone or brick
into a tumbler or other vessel filled with rain water, the
stone will displace apart of the water just equal in bulk
to itself, and if the stone be weighed in the water it will
be found to have lost just as much in weight as the water
displaced will weigh, therefore we have the weight of the
piece of stone and the weight of an equal bulk of water,
which is the specific gravity. Suppose the stone weighed
3i pounds out of water, and one pound in the water,
here the bulk of water equal to that of the stone weighs
' 2^ pounds, and the specific gravity in the relation or pro-
portion between 2^ and 3iV which is li or 1. 4. In this
ART OF BUILDING. 247
way we may determine the specific gravity of any body
which is heavier than water.
Knowing the specific gravity of any body we know
the weight of one cubic foot of it. As a cubic foot of wa-
ter is just 1000 ounces, if we multiply this number by the
specific gravity, we have the weight in ounces and from
thence in pounds, Sec.
The following table of specific gravities of several bo-
dies will answer for all practical purposes, instead of
calculating them as above.
Iron, wrought, - 7645
Iron, cast, - - 7425
Granite, Maine, - 2731
Do, Chelmsford, 2910
Sienite, Quincy, - 3000
Limestone, - 2635
Clay, - - - 2160
Brick (impressed) 1980
Brick (pressed) - 2050
Earth, common about 1*J89
Sand, - - 1520
Sea water, - 1030
Marble, - - 2840 Common water, - 1000
Sandstone (Freestone) 2435 Slate, - - 2541
Note. The specific gravity of water is here called
1000, which is just its weight in ounces, therefore the
numbers in this table express the weight of one cubic
foot of each substance in ounces.
From the above principles we may find the solid con-
tents of any irregular body, provided we know the weight
and specific gravity. The above numbers in the table
are the weights of one cubic foot or 1728 cubic inches
in ounces ; therefore if we find how many times the num-
ber of ounces in one cubic foot is contained in any given
weight, we find how many cubic feet there are in that
given weight, the remainder, if any, reduced to inches
and divided will give the cubic inches.
Example. Required the solid contents of an irregular
block of sienite which weighs 281^.
Answer, I! cubic feet.
The reverse of the above rule we have explained, that
is, to find the weight, knowing the dimensions and specific
gravity, multiply the solid contents in feet by the spe-
cific gravity, and it will give the weight in ounces.
Having determined the weight to be supported by the
piles, we may determine their number and size. It has
been found from experiments, that each pile should not
243 ART OF BUILDING.
be calculated to sustain more than 50,000 pounds when 9
inches in diameter. The piles cannot be placed nearer
together than a certain distance, if they are the ground
will be so much compressed as to render the driving of
them very difficult, if not impossible ; the nearest dis-
tance at which they can be placed has been determined
by numerous experiments to be 2 feet from centre to
centre.
It is well known that a piece of wood will resist a
pressure on its end, acting in the direction of the fibres,
in exact proportion to its number of fibres, or its size
but its length has some influence upon its resistance.
It has been found that as pressure is increased, the
length should decrease according to its square ; that is, if
a stick of timber or pile be 25 feet long and just support
1000 pounds, if the pressure be increased to 2000 pounds
the pile must be decreased, not to 12^- feet, but to 5 feet
to be just as strong.
Our conclusions then, from this elementary detail of
principles, are as follows ; piles should never be placed
nearer together than 2 feet, and should never be calcu-
lated to support more than 50,000 pounds.
The construction of stone arches is the most difficult
and useful part of the practical mason's trade. The meth-
ods now in use for finding the patterns of the stones for
arches of various descriptions, are not only laborious but
exceedingly difficult and perplexing. A knowledge of
descriptive geometry as applied to finding these patterns,
would be an important acquisition to the masons ; by
means of this science, what requires the labor of weeks
in the old way, may be performed in a few hours. Our
limits will nor permit us to explain this highly important
science, as it would require the space of two or three tracts.
Stone Houses. The beauty of a stone building depends
mainly upon the kinds and finish of the stone, and where
the stones are handsomely. cut and in proper shape, it
leaves scarcely anything to be desired. Houses and
other buildings are constructed in an economical manner,
particularly in the country, of rough stone of any kind,
to which great beauty may be given by covering them on
the outside with plaster or cement. For this kind of
construction the following principles should be adhered
ART OF BUILDING. 249
to. Where it is intended to construct a house of stone
and then cover it with cement, the face of the walls
should be left as rough as possible ; therefore, small
stones will answer better than large ones ; the joints on
the outside should be left as open as possible, and no small
stones or mortar should be put in between them. After the
walls are completed the cement may then be applied.
The cement or mortar should be made of pure lime,
and if it is slacked with water in which lime has been
dissolved, so much the better ; the sand should be pure
and coarse, from the size of a pea to the head of a large
pin, and mixed with a suitable quantity of lime and hair.
This mortar should be put on, and floated over all at one
operation, and should be done as quick as possible.
Only one coat should be applied, as another would not
stick, if applied, the first frost would take it off. The
plaster may afterwards be beautified by a lime wash
made of milk instead of water, of any required color ;
the cheesy part of the milk forms with the lime a kind
of varnish without gloss, which is not acted upon by wa-
ter and air.
A cement put on as here directed '^permanent and
will stand fifteen or twenty years without repair.
Stone houses are not only the most durable when prop-
erly built, but do not yield in beauty to those of any other
material, and where stones are plenty, they are the most
economical. Stone or brick houses should never be
plastered upon the stone, but upon lathes fixed to fur-
rings, (see article, plastering).
Chimneys. The building of chimneys has always been
considered a very important part of the mason's trade.
There are a few principles which we conceive may be of
advantage to the practical man in this part of building.
Count Rumford, whose experiments on the economy of
fuel and heat are numerous and interesting, says, that
the back of the chimney should never exceed two thirds
of the opening in front, and that the jambs or sides
should incline to the back in an angle of 135 degrees, or
what is the same thing, three mitres : because this fare
or opening, sends out more heat than any other ; which
may be easily explained by those who understand the
VOL, i. NO. x. 22*
250 ART OF BUILDING.
elements of Plane Geometry, in the following manner.
Heat moves in straight lines, perpendicular to the hot
body or fire, therefore, the heat from the ends of the fire
will strike the jambs at the same angle, on one side, as
the jambs and back make, on the other side ; the angle
will be just 45 degrees, or a mitre. This is the angle with
which a ray of heat strikes, and as it is a law of heat
that it is reflected, or will fly off, at the same angle with
which it strikes, that will be 45 degrees more ; and of
course, the angle between the striking ray and the re-
flected ray will be 90 degrees, or two mitres ; and as no
other angle but 135 degrees will give these proportions,
this must be the true flare or angle. A less angle, how-
ever, may be used according to the size of the room and
the nature of the fire, whether for coal or wood ; for a
small room and when coal is to be used, a less angle will
answer. The back of the chimney should be brought
within four or five inches of the mantel bar, or breast of
the fire-place, for the following reasons.
It is known that the smoke ascends in a chimney in
consequence of the air therein being rarefied or warmed,
which renders it lighter, and it therefore ascends carrying
the smoke with it ; this warm air is replaced by the colder
air of the room ; by this means a current is produced, and
the smaller the opening (to a certain point) the greater
the draught or current. For the same reason the flue
should be placed as directly over the fire-place as possible,
and should be straight and smooth the whole extent; the
flue should be about 14 inches wide. The most common
material for fire-places is brick and jambs of sandstone,
marble or soap-stone (steatite) is now used extensively ;
this is far preferable to sandstone or dark colored marbles,
as it is of a light color, takes a tolerable polish, and be-
comes hard and durable by exposure to heat. Light
colored, polished jambs, are the best, because they absorb
less heat and reflect more than dark colored and rough
substances.
It sometimes happens that chimneys constructed in the
above manner, will, notwithstanding, smoke, particularly
if the top should be overtopped by some other building,
as in that case eddies' of air are produced which will
drive the smoke down chimney ; in which case the
ART OF BUILDING. 251
chimney must be raised up to the overtopping object, or
covered with a pot or cap as recommended by Mr Tred-
gold of England.
His method consists in placing in the top of the chim-
ney a cap of brick or iron, formed in the following man-
ner : the top opening of the chimney is constructed in
size, according to the following rule. Divide seventeen
times the width of the grate or fire-place in inches, by the
square root of the height of the chimney in feet, the
quotient is the area of the opening at the top in square
inches. It should be understood however, that this
opening should never be less than Cinches in diameter,
and seldom more than 6J- ; the inside of the cap or
hood should be rounded off, and made as smooth as pos-
sible, so that the smoke may meet no obstacle. This
plan is very general in Boston, and gives a neat finish
to the top of the chimney, as well as prevents it from
smoking.
Measurement of Masonry. Although it is not custom-
ary at the present day for masons to work by measure,
yet it may be useful to know the rules for measuring
stone and brick-work. We accordingly give a few of
them.
Stone work is generally measured by the cubic foot or
perch, and almost every city has its particular rules as to
what parts of the work shall be measured in taking the
dimensions, therefore, no general rule can be given for
stone work. Brick work is either estimated by the rod
or by the thousand inches ; therefore, a rod of brick
work is 16^ feet square and 1^ bricks thick or 13^ inches ;
therefore, a rod of brick work is 306 cubic feet, while a
perch or rod of stone work in some places is only 3l
solid feet ; therefore, for brick work the rule is, multi-
ply the area of the wall by the number of half bricks in
thickness, and divide by 816 and the quotient is rods, and
the remainder, if any, feet.
A rod of brick work laid in mortar will require 4500
bricks, a cubic yard 460. For paving, a yard of work,
82 paving bricks, or 38 bricks laid flat, are required.
Masons and others are frequently called upon to esti-
mate the quantity of materials necessary to construct any
given work ; this may be easily done by the common rules
252
ART OF BUILDING.
of arithmetic. For a stone building it must be done in
detail, by finding the number of stones of eacli dimen-
sion and finish, which will be required.
For brick work it is different ; we have only to find the
superficial contents of the building, and then by estima-
ting 4500 bricks to each square rod, when the wall is 1^
bricks thick, we have the total number required ; this is
the number with a proper allowance for waste, &c. To
facilitate these calculations, the following table is here
introduced.
Area of the
face of the
wall.
The number of bricks thick and the quantity required.
1-2 brick. I brick. 1 1-2 brick. | 2 bricks.
2 1-2 bricks.
1
5
11
16
22
27
2
11
22
33
44
55
3
16
33
49
66
82
4
22
44
66
88
110
5
27
55
82
110
137
6
33
66
99
132
165
7
38
77
115
154
193
8
44
88
132
176
220
9
49
99
148
198
218
10
55
110
165
220
275
20
110
220
330
441
551
30
165
330
496
661
827
40
220
441
661
882
1102
50
275
551
827
1102
1378
60
330
* 661
992
1323
1655
70
386
772
1158
1544
1930
80
441
882
1323
1764
2205
90
496
992
1488
1985
2480
100
551
[1102
1654
2205
2757
200
1102
2205
3308
4411
5514
300
1654
3308
4963
6617
8272
400
2205
54411
6617
8823
11029
500
2757
5514
8272
11 029
13786
600
3308
6617
9926
13 235
16554
700
3860
7720
11 580
15 441
19301
800
4411
8823
13235
17647
22058
900
4963
9926
14889
19852
24816
1000
5514
11029
16544
22058
27 573
2000
11029
22 058
33 088
44117
55 147
3000
16544
33088
49632
66 176
82720
4000
22058
44 117
66176
88 235
110294
5000
27 573
55147
82 720
110 294
137867
6000
33 088
66176
99264
132 352
165 441
7000
38602
77205
115808
154 411
193 014
8000
44117
88235
132 352
170 470
220588
9000
49632
99264
148896
198 529
248 161
10000
55 147
110294
165 441
220 588
275735
ART OP BUILDING. 253
By this table, the number of bricks required to con-
struct any given work may be found immediately, by
knowing the superficial contents. Example. Suppose
a building to contain 5873 square feet, how many bricks
will build it, supposing the walls to be l bricks thick 1
4000 feet will require - - - GO, 176
800 " " '"- - - 13,235
70 " ... H58
3 " " " - - - - 49
4875 80,618
Plastering. In New England, and almost all other
parts of the country, the stone and brick mason is a plas-
terer, to whose art we are indebted for a considerable
portion of the effect produced by the decorative part of
architecture. The art of the plasterer is necessary in the
proper finish of all kinds of building.
Great care is requisite in the preparation of the mor-
tar, or stuff, as the workmen call it ; the lime should be
thoroughly slacked, or soured, before the sand and hair
are added. Unless the lime is completely slacked it is
impossible to make smooth and durable work ; the best
burnt lime will require the maceration of several days.
In making mortar for plastering, some other substances
are frequently added besides lime, sand, and hair, accord-
ing to the nature and uses of the walls to be plastered.
The most common cement used for plastering the in-
side walls of buildings, common mortar, is called coarse
stuff, and is prepared in the usual way with the addition
of hair.
Next to this is fine stuff, which is formed by first pro-
perly slacking the lime with a small quantity of water,
after which a large quantity of water is added to it in a
tub, where it should remain until the water has solar evap-
orated as to leave the lime of a proper consistency for
use ; commonly about three parts of fine sand is added to
three parts of this lime, and sometimes a little hair, and is
then called troiccllcd stt/if' or bastard stucco, and with
this stuff all walls intended to be painted should be fin-
ished.
For the purpose of forming cornices and mouldings
254 ART OF BUILDING.
with a wooden mould, a different cement is used ; it con-
sists of fine stuff, as above three fifths, and plaster of par-
is one fifth, mixed with a proper quantity of water. But
a small quantity should be made at a time, as it sets
very quickly. Where great expedition is required the
same stuff is used for other plastering.
Plaster of Paris, known also by the names of gypsum,
and sulphate of lime, is an important material in plaster-
ing. The best method of preparing this substance for
the use of the plasterer, is to select the purest kinds and
burn them in a proper place, by which means the
water and sulphuric acid are driven off, after which the
stones are powdered fine, when it is fit for use. Care
is requisite in the calcination ; too much or too little
injures its qualities, and causes it to become soft on
exposure to the air. It is known to be well burned, if, on
mixing it with water, it has a soapy and sticky feeling to
the fingers. If it has not these qualities it is not worth
using. As burnt plaster looses its qualities by exposure
to the air, it should be used fresh ; and in places which
do not furnish this material, this stone should be procured
and calcined as wanted.
Stucco is a very neat kind of work, and is principally
used for the interior of buildings in this country ; in France
and Italy it is used also for covering the exterior, but
this kind of work will not bear the cold of our climate
for exterior decorations.
Various cornices and ornaments are formed of this sub-
stance for interior decorations, by means of moulds made
of wood ; Basso-relievos and friezes are made of the same
material by casting them in wax moulds ; these moulds
are made from clay moulds, by forming the latter by hand
and then running melted wax into them. The capitals
of columns are formed in the same manner, only requir-
ing numerous moulds to complete them.
Fresco-painting or staining, is sometimes applied to out-
side walls to give them the appearance of stone, and is
performed in the following manner. The walls are
first covered with Roman cement, after which they are
washed over with a mixture of diluted sulphuric acid
and^water, to which a fluid-ochre of the required tint
is added : by this means the color is fixed and permanent,
ART OF BUILDING. 255
because the acid unites with the iron which is in the
cement, and fixes the color.
There is a distinct branch of plastering invented, and
much used in Italy, and from thence introduced into
France and England, where it is much used for interior
decorations, it is called scagliola from the Italian word
scaglia (a chip of marble) ; it is sometimes called mar-
blitur, from its imitating marble. This kind of work is
principally used for columns and pilasters (half columns) ;
for this purpose a frame of wood is made and lathed
about 2^- or 3 inches less in diameter than it is intended
to be when furnished ; the lathes are covered with com-
mon plastering mortar. When this is pricked up or
roughened by crossing it with a lathe, so as to make the
next coat stick, and is sufficiently dry, the worker in
scagliola commences.
In preparing the materials for this kind of work, the
purest plaster of paris is necessary, and should be
reduced to a fine powder : it is mixed with a solution
of glue, isinglass, &c. In this solution the required
colors are mixed, and when the work is to be of several
colors, they are mixed separately, and afterwards min-
gled and combined as required. It is floated like other
plastering by means of proper moulds: after which it is
polished with pumice stone, it is then rubbed with tri-
poli, (a good kind of rotten stone) charcoal, and a piece
of linen, afterwards with a piece of felt dipped in a
mixture of oil and tripoli, and finally with pure oil.
In this way the most precious marbles and other costly
stones are imitated with astonishing and delusive effect ;
as the imitation takes as high a polish, and feels as cold
and hard as the most compact marbles, nothing beyond
actual fracture can possibly discover the deception. If
the capitals of columns are made of real marble, the de-
ception is beyond discovery. If not exposed to frosts
and moisture, its durability is little inferior to that of mar-
ble, it retains its polish as well, and is not one tenth of
the expense of the coarsest kind of marble.
In plastering the walls of buildings constructed of
stone or brick, the cement or plaster should never be laid
upon the stone or brick, if it is, the building will always
be damp ; therefore, the plastering should be placed on
256 ART OF BUILDING.
lathes nailed to pieces of wood ctMedfurrings, leaving a
space between the wall and plastering. This is the com-
mon practice in this country and is founded upon the fol-
lowing principles of heat. Brick and stone being bad
conductors of heat, stone or brick houses are warm in
the winter and cool in the summer, and if warm air
(which is always charged with moisture) comes in
contact with a colder body, as stone or brick, the moist-
ure is condensed upon the cold body in the form of wa-
ter : now apply the principles to a room in a stone or
brick house, the moisture of the room is condensed by
the cold walls. If a confined space of air is left between
the wall and plastering, air being a bad conductor of heat,
the cold of the brick or stone does not reach the plaster-
ing, therefore such houses are never damp because
the moisture can never come through the walls, if pro-
perly constructed.
White-washing and coloring is another part of a ma-
son's work, and consists in laying a thin coat of lime upon
any surface, either its natural color, white, or any other.
Lime washes for stone, brick, or plastering should be
made by slacking lime with pure fresh water, as salt wa-
ter would cause it to exfoliate or peal off, and a small
quantity of lampblack should be added, (previously kill-
ed in vinegar) as this deprives the lime of its yellow tint.
Where wood work is to be washed, the lime should be
slacked with ?alt water, as this gives it a better set than
fresh water would, and will prevent its pealing off.
Thus, we have gone through with a practical explana-
tion of the principal materials used !>v the mason, and a
short illustration of some of their uses , our object has
been solely to explain the rationale of their operations, to
give a few of the whys and whcnfures : if these are pro-
perly understood by the masons of our country, we willingjf
leave the manual part of their art to the well known in-
genuity of our countrymen, with a sure pledge that our
country will not be wanting in monuments of their skill
and intelligence.
BOSTON:
PUBLISHED BY CARTER, II E X D E E &. BAB COCK.
SCIENTIFIC TRACTS.
NUMBER XI .
EVAPORATION.
THIS is a process which is continually going on around
us. The earth is alternately dried and replenished with
moisture, the streams shrink and grow again, vegeta-
tion at one time mourns the absence of her genial nour-
isher, and at another glows with renovated life and vigor ;
all these changes are the effect? of evaporation. Often
on one day the weather is fair and clear, and the sun
goes on ' rejoicing as a strong rmm to run a race.' The
next day, the face of the heaven is veiled in clouds, and
the drenching rain or chilling snow is rapidly descending.
In the morning, nature is smiling beneath the light of
day, and before the shades of evening have fallen upon
the landscape, the tempest has risen in its wrath, and the
thunder is echoing through the sky. What is the agent
that has produced this transformation 1 What is it, that
at one time forms the materials 'ibr the tempest, and at
another, creates the golden clouds that gather around the
path of the descending sun 1 It is evaporation. It is
this that dries the face of the ground in spring, gives the
beautiful greenness to the fields of summer, and prepares
the materials for the snows and storms of winter.
Scarcely less important are the effects of evaporation on
domestic economy. To the painter, the clothier, the
calico-printer, it is indispensable ; to those engaged in
the daily routine of domestic avocations, no less so.
They all rely upon it with implicit confidence, nor do
they rely in vain. For thousands of years it has been
employed, and still it performs its destined task, as faith-
VOL. i. NO. xi. 23
258 EVAPORATION.
fully as when its operations first began. Let us then
examine this operation of nature, so important in its
effects, so interesting in regard to the phenomena by
which it is attended.
We will first inquire into the cause of evaporation.
Heat appears to be the great agent, by which the process
is carried on. Perhaps the air itself may have some
tendency to raise water ; but various experiments prove
the great influence of heat in the formation of vapor.
An illustration of this may be seen in the rapidity with
which the ground dries after a rain in summer, compared
with the slowness of the same process in autumn or win-
ter. When the temperature of water is raised above 212
degrees, it assumes the form of vapor so rapidly
as to cause that bubbling which we term boiling. This
process differs in some respects from the formation of
vapor at the common temperature of the atmosphere.
The distinction between them is sometimes expressed by
the terms vaporization and evaporation. There is how-
ever so much connexion between them, that we may with
propriety examine them together. Water may be made
to pass off entirely in vapor, though kept at a temperature
far below 212 degrees. Moisture collects on the cover
of a kettle, when placed over the fire, long before the
liquid has reached the boiling point. But it is not till it
has reached that point, that the expansive power of heat
is sufficient to enable the water to assume the form of
vapor, while pressed by the superincumbent liquid. At
that point it becomes sufficient, and the water near the
bottom expanding into vapor, and rising rapidly to the
surface, causes the appearance, which is termed boiling.
On high mountains water boils at a much lower tempera-
ture than in valleys. The pressure of the air on the
surface of the water is less, and consequently the resist-
ance to the formation of vapor is diminished. On the
top of Mont Blanc, the highest of the Alps, water boils
at 187 degrees. In the exhausted receiver of an air
pump, it boils at a still lower temperature. Ether is so
volatile that it boils at almost any temperature, when the
pressure of the atmosphere is removed. If a watch-
crystal containing a little ether, be placed in another
EVAPORATJOX.
containing a fe\v drops of water, and the pressure of the
air upon the surface of the ether be removed by the air-
pump, the ether will boil and the water will freeze. The
heat which the ether absorbs in boiling causes the water
to freeze. From the same cause, wetting the hands with
ether will make them severely cold. The ether evapo-
rating takes away heat from the hands.
The fact that liquids are driven oft* or made to boil at
lower degrees of heat when the pressure of the atmo-
sphere is lessened or removed, has recently been applied
to some very useful purposes.
The process for refining sugar is to dissolve impure
sugar in water, and after clarifying the solution to evapo-
rate the water that the dry, crystallized mass may remain.
Formerly this operation was conducted under atmo-
spheric pressure, and a heat of 218 or 220 was requisite
to make the syrup boil : by this heat a portion of the
sugar was often discolored and spoiled, and often the
whole was more.or less injured. The thought occurred
to Mr Howard that this evil would be remedied, if the
water were dissipated by boiling in a place from which air
was excluded, as the temperature then required would be
so low as not to injure the sugar. The plan proposed by
him was tried and succeeded ; and the saving of sugar
and the improvement of quality were so great as to make
the patent right, by which the emoluments of the process
were secured to him and others, worth several thousand
pounds a year. The syrup, during this process, is not
more heated than it would be in a vessel merely exposed
to a summer sun. This is an interesting instance of
the application of philosophical principles to purposes of
practical utility.
The process of distillation affords another instance.
This process consists simply in bringing the more volatile
parts of any substance by means of heat into an aeriform
state, and then condensing them again in appropriate ves-
sels. Many substances which are changed and injured
by high degrees of heat, may be obtained of very superior
quality by carrying on the operation in a vacuum. The
essential oils of lavender, peppermint, &c, never had the
natural flavor and virtues of the plants themselves, until
260 EVAPORATION.
since a plan based on this principle was adopted. In
many instances the influence on the human system of
vegetable medicines thus obtained is so different from
that of the old preparations,, that this principle becomes
one of the utmost importance to the medical practitioner.
The expansive force of steam is prodigious. At 212
degrees, the point at which water boils under common at-
mospheric pressure, the force of steam is, as might be
supposed, 15 pounds to the square inch, or equal to the
pressure of the atmosphere. Above this temperature it
increases according to the following table :
At 250 it is 30 pounds per inch.
" 272 " " 45 " " "
" 290 " " GO " " "
Seeing the rapid increase of the expansive force in the
above table, we have the explanation of the terrible
effects occasionally produced by confined water, when
overheated. A boiler of any kind, if completely closed
and having no safety valve, will explode as if charged
with gunpowder. And against such a disaster, no strength
of materials is a sufficient protection without care and
skill on the part of those who have the management of
this mighty agent ; but with these it may be made, notwith-
standing its tremendous power, to perform its part almost
if not quite as safe, as the beast of burden that we consider
completely under our control. Unhappily the instances
are too numerous, in which the incautious or ignorant use
of steam has produced explosions, which have shattered
buildings, and sometimes destroyed whole neighborhoods.
The principle on which the steam engine acts is not dif-
ficult to be understood, although it is often supposed to
be intelligible to those only who will devote much time to
the study of it. He who can understand a pump, can
understand a steam engine. It is in fact only a pump in
which the fluid is made to impel the piston instead of
being impelled by it, that is to say, in which the fluid
acts as the power, instead of being the resistance. It
may be described simply as a strong barrel or cylinder
with a closely fitting piston in it, which is driven up and
down by steam admitted alternately above and below from
EVAPORATION. 261
a suitable boiler. The power of the engine is of course
proportioned to the size or area of the piston, on which
the steam acts with a force according to its density, of
from 15 to 100 or more pounds to each square inch. In
some of the mines in Cornwall, England, there are cylin-
ders and pistons of more than 70 inches in diameter, on
which the pressure of the steam equals the effort of 600
horses. So extensively is this engine used in England,
that it is an important source of her national power.
There one engine is often seen stretching its long arms
over an extensive manufactory, and guidir^ all its com-
plicated movements seemingly with the precision and
more than the precision of intellect. In one part of the
building it is keeping thousands of spinning-wheels in
motion, while in another it is carding the material, and
in a third weaving the cloth. In like manner, one steam-
engine in a great brewery may be seen at the same time
grinding the malt, pulling up supplies of all kinds from
wagons in various situations, pumping cold water into
some of the coppers, sending the boiling wort from
others into lofty cooling-pans, over which it is turning
the fans, and in a word, performing the offices of a hun-
dred hands. It is not strange that the eulogist of Watt,
the great improver of the steam engine in England,
should say, ' it is the steam engine which has fought our
battles and enabled us to come off victorious in the late
tremendous contest.' Had it not been for this mighty
engine, perhaps England herself would have been com-
pelled to bend under the power of Napoleon, aided as he
was at one time by the power of almost all Europe.
Water, if not confined, slowly evaporates and incor-
porates with the atmosphere at any temperature above
the freezing point. And it is highly probable that even
freezing does not wholly put a stop to this process. Ice
appears gradually to waste away even when the surround-
ing air is at a temperature far below the freezing point.
When water is rarefied to a certain degree, it becomes
lighter than the surrounding air, and consequently rises>
although its presence in the air is not generally perceiv-
ed. The air can contain a certain quantity of moisture
so dissolved as to be perfectly invisible. In this state it
VOL. I. NO. XI. 23*
262 EVAPORATION.
occasions no dampness. The quantity which it is capa-
ble of so containing, varies with the warmth and density
of the air. It decreases ' from below upwards, and from
from the equator to the poles. The air has been com-
pared to a sponge, expanding and becoming capable of
containing more water, by heat, and contracting by cold.'
Air at the freezing point can hold in solution T -^ of its
own weight in water : at 59, ^ at 86, V> anf l so on,
its power doubling at every increase of temperature equal
to 27 degrees. In a hot summer day, the air holds a
great quantity of water in solution ; yet we are wholly
unconscious of its presence unless it is by some means
deprived of its heat, and thus rendered visible. If, in a
warm day, a tumbler be filled with cold water, the outside
of it will almost immediately be covered with dew. The
tumbler being colder than the surrounding air, takes away
a part of its heat, and the moisture which that heat kept
in solution is rendered visible on the outside of the tum-
bler. When the dew thus deposited is very abundant, it is
justly regarded as a sign of rain. Other things being
equal, the quantity deposited will be in proportion to the
amount of water then held in solution by the air. If this
amount is great, a small change in the state of the air
may produce rain. If it is small, a greater change will
be necessary, and consequently the probability of rain is
less. But vapor sometimes rises in so great quantities
that the air cannot dissolve it all. Sometimes by a
change of temperature, or some other means, the air loses
a part of its power to contain water in an invisible state.
A part of the water will then become visible in the form
of a cloud.
Clouds, then, are collections of vapor in the air, render-
ed visible by condensation. They seldom rise very high.
Sometimes they rest upon the earth's surface, constituting
what is termed fog. Sometimes they are a mile above
the surface of the earth, sometimes more ; but they sel-
dom rise higher than two or three miles. Very thin
fleecy clouds, however, sometimes rise to the height of
4 or 5 miles. But why do they not rise to the surface of
EVAPORATION. 263
the atmosphere ? The density of the atmosphere rapidly
decreases upwards. One half of the whole quantity of air
is within about three miles from the earth. Above this
height, the air is unable to support any considerable quan-
tities of vapor. Hence we see the reason why clouds
rise no higher, and why the thinnest and lightest rise
highest.
Form and Color of Clouds.
To an attentive observer the clouds present many in-
teresting subjects of contemplation. Their ever varying
forms, their bea*utiful and richly variegated colors, and
their silent motion varying often in velocity and direction,
while they furnish the poet with a field in which his fancy
may rove delighted, also afford to the student of nature,
many an interesting theme for reflection. At one time,
dark and portentous, fancy might easily imagine them
the ruins of some ancient castle, or time-worn tower.
At another, they gather in beautiful and glorious forms
around the path of the descending sun, and seem to vie
with that luminary itself in splendor. Sometimes they
move swiftly over the face of heaven, and soon recede
from our view ; sometimes they seem to meet each other,
and soon, like hasty travellers, pass each other by,
without a sign of recognition. At one time while we
gaze upon them, they vanish ; at another they gather into
darker and heavier masses of collected gloom. Now
they collect, now they disperse, and now they change
form and color with surprising rapidity. To the inquir-
ing mind the question naturally occurs, what is the cause
of- all these varied appearances ? The inquiry leads to
careful observation, and though in many instances, that
cause clouds our search, yet, in many others, we are ena-
bled to arrive at general principles and uniform relations,
which enable us to anticipate the storm, and predict the
time of its termination. The principal circumstances
which influence the form of clouds are the motion of the
air and the formation and condensation of vapor. Sub-
stances so light as clouds, readily change form, when sub-
jected to greater atmospheric pressure on one side, than
on the another. Different portions of the air move with
264 EVAPORATION.
different degrees of velocity. Hence clouds situated in
these portions of air, divide, collect, and change form,
according to the foice acting upon them. Water-spouts
are usually attended by a thick black cloud, formed pro-
bably by the vapor condensed by opposite currents of air
meeting. New accessions of vapor often change the
form of clouds ; also the dissolving of vapor or a dimi-
nution of its density. Sometimes probably a cloud meets
with a stratum of air sufficiently warm to dissolve it. In
this case it will vanish by degrees. Different parts of a
cloud may be in strata of air of different warmth or den-
sity. The cloud will then partly dissolve, and the part
dissolved will perhaps rise and become visible in a higher
portion of the air, where the heat is not sufficient to ren-
der it invisible. In the spring it is often cloudy in the
morning, and clears off towards noon. The heat of the
sun dissolves the moisture which arose in great quantities
from the damp earth in the morning.
Clouds near the horizon generally appear to extend
much farther horizontally than perpendicularly. This is
probably, in part, an illusion. If the lower surface of a
cloud is nearly parallel to the surface of the earth, its
extent towards the zenith will appear much less than it
really is, while this will not be the case with its extent in
the direction of the horizon. As it approaches the zenith,
it will appear more nearly of its true dimensions. Hence
clouds in the zenith seldom, or never appear to be of this
form. Clouds often move in opposite directions. Dif-
ferent portions of air often move in different directions
above one another, on account of their being unequally
rarefied by heat. They of course carry the clouds with
them. This may be readily illustrated. If, in cold
weather, the door of a warm room be opened a little,
and a candle held near the bottom of the opening, and
another near the top, the flame will often be blown in op-
posite directions. The cold air rushes in at the bottom,
and the warm air being lighter goes out at the top.
The color of clouds depends on the rays of light which
they reflect. Dark clouds often precede wind. But
although they are seen before the wind is felt, they are
not the cause, but the effect of the wind. As the wind
moves on, it presses upon that portion of the air, which
EVAPORATION. 265
has a velocity less than its own, and by this pressure, and
perhaps also by its greater coldness, condenses the vapor
contained in it, and thus forms a cloud. This cloud, be-
ing so dense that little or no light can pass through it,
appears black. And the degree of darkness on the den-
sity of the vapor, or in other words, on the velocity of
the wind, and the quantity of water in the portion of air
compressed. The beautiful colors, that often adorn the
sky at sunset, are caused by the clouds reflecting the sun's
light. That redness of the sky in the morning, which is
often regarded as the precursor of a storm, probably re-
sults from the red rays of the sun passing through the
vapor collected in the air. Light is composed of seven
different colored rays, possessing different degrees of
force. These may be seen separate from each other in
the rainbow. Of these the red rays have the greatest
force or momentum. Hence, when the air is very full
of vapor, the red rays have sufficient power to penetrate
it, while the others have not. Many of the red rays,
however, do not come directly from the sun, but are scat-
tered in various directions on striking the vapor, and thus
the redness is diffused over a considerable space.
Thunder-clouds exhibit an appearance peculiarly strik-
ing. To many they are objects of terror ; in a greater
or less degree they arrest the attention of almost every
one. These clouds are collections of vapor strongly
electrified. They are generally very dense, and very
near the earth. Frequently two clouds rise in different
parts of the horizon, and move towards each other, till
they meet, at the same time rising up towards the zenith.
When clouds in different electrical states approach near
each other, or when a strongly electrified cloud approaches
near to the earth, the electricity is discharged in vast
quantities and with tremendous violence, thus constitut-
ing what is termed lightning, while the concussion given
to the surrounding air by its force, and the rushing to-
gether of the portions of air separated by its motion causes
thunder. This sound, reflected and reverberated among
the clouds, produces the lonsf-coritinued and solemn roll,
which forms one of the sublimest characteristics of a
thunder-storm. It is often imagined that lightning always
266 EVAPORATION.
moves towards the earth. But there is reason to suppose,
that discharges are sometimes made from the earth to the
clouds, as well as from the clouds to the earth. It is not
difficult to measure the distance of thunder-clouds from
the earth. Sound moves at the rate of 1142 feet in a
second ; light at the rate of about 200,000 miles in a sec-
ond. The time in which light traverses so small a space,
as that between a thunder-cloud and any place, from
which the thunder can be heard, is so short that it need
not be estimated. If then we multiply the number of
seconds between the flash and the thunder by 1 142, we
have the distance of the cloud in feet. Hence, when a
very short time elapses between the flash and the thunder,
the discharge is very near. There is a peculiar sublimity
attending thunder-storms in mountainous regions. The
traveller among the Andes frequently hears the thunder
roll, and sees the lightning flash from the clouds that
gather around the hills far beneath him, while around his
path, and on the heights above him, the sun is shining
with unclouded splendor.
As the quantity of water in the clouds is increased by
new accessions of vapor, they at length become too heavy
to be supported in the air, and begin to sink. Often
also the air below them grows lighter, and consequently
less able to support them. They will then descend with-
out any increase of weight. On this principle, the falling
of smoke indicates rain. It seems a very fair conclusion
that if the air is not sufficiently heavy to carry smoke up,
it will soon let the water which it contains, come down.
The barometer usually sinks before rain, showing that
one great cause of storms is a diminution of the weight
of the atmosphere. As the vapor descends, it will meet
with other portions of vapor, and by degrees turn into
drops of rain. To exhibit the process in a clearer light,
let us suppose a few particles of vapor suspended high in
the air, and strata of vapor arranged horizontally below.
As each particle of the higher vapor passes through the
strata below, a portion of the water in those strata, will
unite with it : thus a drop will be formed. As the air
.-
EVAPORATION. 267
contains more or less water, and as the clouds are higher
or lower, the drops will vary in size. Perhaps we may
hence discover a reason why large drops are considered
a sign, that the rain will not last long. Large drops, it
is supposed, come most generally from elevated clouds,
and the reason why they are large is, the number of par-
ticles accumulated during their passage through so large
a portion of the atmosphere. But at a height sufficient
to form these large drops, the air is not heavy enough to
support large quantities of vapor. Hence the rain con-
tinues but a short time. But when the clouds are low,
the particles of vapor, passing through but a small space,
do not coalesce in sufficient numbers to form a large drop.
The air near the earth being dense, can support more
vapor. Hence the storms from these clouds are long.
But thunder-clouds are low ; yet the rain from them often
comes in large drops, and does not generally continue
long. These clouds are formed of very dense collections
of vapor, so that in falling a short distance, a number of
particles sufficient to form a large drop come in contact.
In addition to this, the concussion given to the clouds by
the motion of electricity, probably serves to condense
the vapor still more. There is another marked difference
between thunder-clouds, and those which produce long
storms. The former extend over but a small space : the
latter sometimes cover a large part of a continent. This
will account for the difference in their duration. In ad-
dition to this, during a storm clouds probably often re-
ceive fresh accessions of vapor from places beyond the
limits of the storm. Daily experience shows that the
duration of storms depends very much on the direction
of the wind. Winds which blow from the ocean, come
loaded with vapor, which contributes to swell the amount
already collected, and consequently to prolong the storm.
IIe,nce clear weather succeeding a storm, while the wind
still continues in the northeast, east, or southeast, is sel-
dom of long continuance. The wind soon load? the air
again with vapor, and another storm is the consequence.
On the contrary, north-northwest and west winds usually
bring fair weather. They not only drive the clouds to-
wards the ocean, but coming from a colder region into a
268 EVAPORATION.
warmer one, they become capable of holding an addi-
tional quantity of water in solution, and therefore take
this additional quantity from the clouds, that come in
their way.
HAIL, SNOW, ETC.
Hail is caused by drops of rain passing through air
sufficiently cold to freeze them. It is said to occur prin-
cipally in the temperate zones. In the torrid zone it is
seldom or never cold enough to form hail so near the
earth as the clouds usually are, and should hail be form-
ed in the higher regions of the atmosphere, the great
heat which it would encounter in descending would
probably melt it. In the frigid zones, on the contrary,
the intense cold would freeze the vapor, before it had
formed into drops ; and during the few days of summer
in those zones, the rapidly increasing heat renders the
air capable of holding so much water in solution that
the weather is generally pleasant. But in the temperate
zones, which are exposed to currents of warm air from
the south, and of cold air from the north, drops of water
are often frozen after attaining a considerable size. The
coldness of air generally increases in proportion to its
elevation, but sometimes a higher stratum is warmer than
a lower one. Hail-stones frequently result from such an
inversion, and, as might be expected under such circum-
stances, are generally attended by wind. The wind, par-
ticularly in the torrid zone, blows from the poles towards
the equator. The warm air at the equator rises, and flows
back to restore the equilibrium. As it flows back, it
grows colder. If it is so full of water, that on cooling it
will deposit a part, the water thus deposited will pass
through the current of air below, moving from the poles,
and if this is sufficiently cold to freeze it, hail will be
formed. It is believed that hail is generated in the higher
regions of the atmosphere. Warm air is lighter than
cold air, and will therefore tend to rise higher. Air, that
passes swiftly from a warm region to a cold one, will have less
time to cool in passing, than if it passes more slowly, and
therefore will rise high, and pass on, till it comes in con-
tact with very cold air, before it will deposit the water
EVAPORATION. 269
which it contains. This water, in passing through a very
cold stratum of air, will freeze. Again, a very cold current
of air may suddenly meet with a body of air much warmer
than itself, and freeze it. The hail-stones at first will
be small. As they descend, they will freeze the parti-
cles of vapor, with which they come in contact, and thus
grow larger. Observations made in elevated situations
show that they do thus grow larger. In the winter the
vapor, as it condenses, is probably frozen before it forms
into large drops, and thus becomes snow. Hence, when
particles come together, they do not unite into one dense
mass, as in rain and hail, but each particle exhibits its
own formation and structure, and even when hail is form-
ed in winter, the hail-stones are very seldom large. Hail-
stones are generally hardest in the centre, and of a looser
texture towards the outside. In passing through succes-
sive portions of vapor, the intense cold of the hail-stones
is gradually diminished, and consequently those particles,
which unite with them last, are not frozen so hard, as
those which coalesced at an earlier period. It is fre-
quently the case, that it snows on mountains and rains
in valleys at the same time. Here we have evidence that
the condensed vapor, during a part of the period of its
descent, had the form of snow, and retained it, till it had
descended as low as the tops of the hills, but melted in
descending into the valleys. Hence the tops of the White
Mountains and many others are robed in white, long be-
fore snow begins to fall in places near the level of the
sea. Probably many of the rain-storms, which we expe-
rience, would be snow-storms to one who should ascend a
mile or two in the air.
As the earth cools more rapidly than the air, when it
ceases to receive heat from the sun, the moisture, which is
contained in the portion of air in contact with the earth
imparts heat to it, and becomes condensed in the form of
dew. When the cold is great this condensed moisture
freezes, forming what is termed white frost. Dew col-
lects most abundantly on those substances which give off
heat most rapidly, as the difference between the warmtk.
VOL. i. NO. xi. 24
270 EVAPORATION.
of these and that of the atmosphere is the greatest.
Hence we may see the reason why dew is more abun-
dant in some places than in others. The soil being com-
posed of different materials, gives off heat with different
degrees of rapidity. It may perhaps seem surprising,
that so much dew should be deposited from so small a
quantity of air, as that which comes in contact with the
earth ; but the quantity of water deposited on a tumbler
of cold water in hot weather, shows that a small portion
of the atmosphere may hold in solution an amount of
moisture by no means inconsiderable. It might perhaps
seem that more dew would be deposited in very windy
nights, than at other times, but generally this is not the
case. Probably the particles of air are not in contact
with the earth a sufficient length of time to lose much of
their heat, and consequently continue to hold in solution
most of the water combined with them.
It is often remarked that on cloudy nights there is
little or no dew. This may perhaps be explained a&
follows: There is a tendency in heat to diffuse itself
uniformly among bodies by a constant radiation from
one to another, which is rapid in proportion to the differ-
ences of temperature. Bodies therefore differing widely
in temperature are soon reduced to nearly the same
degree. When there are clouds in the atmosphere at
night they receive the heat darted upwards from bodies
on the earth's surface, and throw it back again to the
earth ; thus keeping the atmosphere near the earth warm-
er than it would otherwise be. But in clear weather, the
heat thus sent upwards rinding no obstacle to intercept
its progress, darts away into boundless space, and is lost
altogether to the objects which emitted it. Probably the
sultry oppressive heat which is sometimes felt on cloudy
days may be attributed to the same cause.
EFFECTS ON TEMPERATURE, CLIMATE, ETC.
The effect of evaporation on temperature is strikingly
exhibited in the refreshing coolness, which generally fol-
lows a summer shower. As heat is the principal, if not the
sole agent in the process of evaporation, the rapid evapora-
EVAPORATION.
lion which succeeds a shower in summer, causes that grate-
ful coolness, which is so generally felt after such showers
Though the heat, by which vapor is raised, is given out
again, when that vapor is condensed into rain ; yet it is not
generally feJt by us, as it remains mostly in that region of
the air where the condensation causing the rain took place.
A room may be made quite comfortable even in the
hottest weather, by keeping the floor wet. The water
will rapidly evaporate, and by evaporating absorb so much
heat, as to render the room comfortably cool. In India,
by an application of this principle, they even produce
such a degree of cold as to freeze water, though at the
same time the temperature of the air is several degrees
above the freezing point. Water is exposed to the air
during the night in large shallow dishes, and by its
evaporation carries off so much heat, that what remains
in the morning is found covered with a thin coat of ice.
It is well known that islands and places near the ocean
are warmer in winter, and cooler in summer than others.
For an explanation of this fact, we must refer to the
principles of evaporation. In summer, much of the heat
is employed in converting the water of the ocean into
vapor, and consequently the air is cooled. In winter,
the ocean retaining a portion of the heat which it ab-
sorbed in the summer, and having parted with it less
rapidly than the land, gives it off by degrees, and thus
moderates the severity of the cold. The desert of Sa-
hara has long been distinguished for its wide extent of
barren and inhospitable sands. In the torrid zone, in
which this desert is principally situated, the wind blows
constantly from the east, or some point not far from east.
The vapors brought by it from the ocean are arrested by
the mountains of Abyssinia, and there descend in tor-
rents of rain, which go to swell the waters of the Nile
-and fertilize the fields of Egypt. As there are few or no
inland seas in Africa, there are no sources from which
vapor can be obtained to furnish rain for the desert.
Hence plants find no nourishment, and consequently
cease to grow, and the whole region becomes a desolate
and barren waste, except where some spring, fed by sub-
terranean streams or reservoirs.diffuse its vivifying influ-
ence around for a few rods, and supplies the plants which
272 EVAPORATION.
grow upon its borders, with the nourishment which they
require. From a similar course, probably results the fact
that it seldom or never rains in Peru. But this country is
so near the ocean, that the water which rises from the
ocean produces copious dews, which in some measure
supply the want of rain, and thus save the country from
utter sterility. Hence also a narrow strip of land, term*
ed Azanaga, between the desert of Sahara and the ocean,
is comparatively fertile.
The northwestern part of the United States owes much
of its fertility to the- great lakes Superior, Huron, &c.
These furnish a quantity of vapor to supply the deficiency,
which would otherwise result from the great distance, at
which the States in this section of the country lie from
the ocean. Were these lakes to be dried up, the people
of those states would soon feel the effects in the dimin-
ished quantity of rain, which they would receive, if not
in seeing utter desolation spreading over their now beauti-
ful fields. In warm countries, even where rain is common,
plants often suffer for want of moisture. In some parts
of Spain, the fields often appear almost as if a fire had
passed through them ; vegetation becomes parched and
dried, as the heat of the summer sun and often the winds
blowing from Africa carry off the moisture with very
great rapidity. In such countries, however, vegetation,
when plentifully watered, and sheltered from the burning
heat of the sun sufficiently to prevent too rapid evapora-
tion, exhibits a luxuriance, which would seem surprising
to an inhabitant of more northern regions. There, nour-
ished by the combined influence of heat and moisture,
the palm, the magnolia, and other gigantic sons of the for-
est, raise their lofty heads, arrayed in perpetual verdure ;
while the forests, often rendered impenetrable by vines
and bushes of various kinds, bear witness to the powerful
influence of that agent, which dresses the fields of the
temperate zones in less luxuriant, but perhaps not less
beautiful verdure. In the frigid zones, where, during a
great part of the year, water scarcely exists in a fluid
state, evaporation is very scanty, and this, together with
the intense cold, prevents the progress of vegetation, ex-
cept during the few weeks of their brief summers.
The influence of cultivation on climate and tempera-
EVAPORATION. 273
ture is very important, and this influence is exerted ia a
great measure through the medium of evaporation.
Forests are the abodes of dampness. As these are re-
moved, the bogs, morasses, &/C, which they contain, are
dried up, and no longer give rise to cold and dampness by
absorbing heat, and loading with vapor the air which
passes over them. Trees prevent heat from penetrating
the earth, and thus render a country in which forests
abound cooler than one in which they do not. The
decayed vegetation, which is constantly accumulating
where the ground is covered with forests, presents a for-
midable barrier to the heat, which, were it not for this,
would penetrate the earth in summer, and be given off to
mitigate the severity of winter. The climate of Europe
is well known to be much milder than it was 2000 years
ago. Roman writers speak of snow-storms and ice as
common in their days, in countries, the inhabitants of
which would now be almost surprised to see them. Even
in New England it is generally thought that the climate
has grown sensibly warmer since the country was settled.
Whether this amelioration is wholly to be ascribed to the
cause which we have mentioned, may perhaps be doubted ;
but that the influence of evaporation is great, few will
question. So extensively indeed is its influence connected
with changes of temperature, and the growth of plants,
that whatever tends to throw light on this connexion well
deserves the attention of the agriculturist and the philoso-
pher.
DOMESTIC ECONOMY, ETC.
The avocations of the husbandman, and the employments
of domestic life depend, in many instances, on the opera-
tion of nature, which we are now considering. It is
evaporation, which removes the superfluous moisture
from the ground in spring, prepares the new-mown hay
for the barn, and makes ready for use the apparel that has
tried the cleansing power of water. It is this that seasons
the timber of the carpenter, dries the mortar of the mason,
and gives permanence to the effects produced by the skill
and labor of the painter. The same agent causes some
substances to crumble to powder, and others to become
VOL. i. NO. xt 24*
274 EVAPORATION.
moist or liquid on being exposed to the air. Common
pearlash is moistened by being exposed for a short time
to the action of the atmosphere. Having a strong attrac-
tion for water, it absorbs it from the air, and becomes
rnoist, and ultimately, if allowed to stand a sufficient
length of time, liquefied. On the other hand, some sub-
stances have so little attraction for water, that they readily
give off to the air that which they at first contained, and
thus crumble into powder. These two properties are
often distinguished by the terms deliquescence, and efflo-
INTERESTINQ PHENOMENA RESULTING FROM EVAPORATION.
Many interesting appearances in nature are connected
with evaporation. A few of these we will notice. The
reflection of light from vapor is perhaps one of the most
interesting of these. Among the Hartz Mountains, in
Germany, there are places in which a person may see his
own image in the air almost or quite as distinctly as in a
mirror. A light breeze of wind will destroy it, but it will
appear again, soon after the wind has passed. A curious phe-
nomenon, probably resulting from a similar cause, acting
under different circumstances, has been noticed in the
great American Desert. The ground at a distance ap-
peared to be covered with water, in which objects could
be distinctly seen reflected, as they generally are from
still water, but on approaching, no water was to be found.
In the deserts of Arabia such an illusion often mocks the
hopes of the thirsty traveller. There is, however, some
difference of opinion in regard to the cause of this last
phenomenon. It is often observed at sea, that when the
air is full of vapor, objects appear very large, or ' loom
up,' as the sailors term it. For an explanation of this
fact we must refer to the principles of Optics. From
these we learn, that when light passes out of a rarer
into a denser medium, those rays which do not strike
the denser medium perpendicularly, are bent so as to
make them nearer perpendicular to the denser medium.
Now the air ia thickest, and therefore capable of con-
taining most morsture near the earth. The rays of light
therefore in passing through the vapor are bent downwards,
EVAPORATION. 275
and appear to come from a point nearer overhead than
they really do. Consequently the object appears higher
than it really is, and as we judge of the distance of ob-
jects by their apparent size, nearer. A similar appear-
ance is sometimes witnessed, though perhaps not to so
great an extent on land, when the air is full of vapor.
Hence it is a common remark in some places, ' We shall
have rain soon, for the hills look near.' The different
situation of hills, &c, makes this appearance more noticed
in some places than in others. It is well known that
fog when it is dense, almost wholly obstructs vision. It
has been asked why this should be, as fog is composed of
water, which is transparent. Those, however, who have
observed the appearance of an object, when viewed
through a globular vessel of water, can easily imagine
the effect produced by millions of exceedingly small glo-
bules, such as constitute fog. The principle of Optics,
on which this is explained, is mentioned above, but it is
necessary to mention that if the surface of the denser
medium be convex, the rays of light, in beaming nearer
perpendicular to that surface, are bent towards each other.
This may be seen in a common burning glass. If we
should attempt to look at an object through a pile of ten
thousand little balls of glass, we probably should not be
much better able to see it, than we are to see objects
through fog.
Those who live near the Cape of Good Hope often
witness a striking phenomenon illustrative of our present
subject, when the wind blows from the southeast. ' Be-
yond the city, as viewed from the bay. there is a mountain of
great elevation, called, from its extended flat summit, the
Table Mountain. In general its rugged steeps, are seen
rising in a clear sky ; but when the southeast wind
blows, the whole summit becomes enveloped in a cloud of
singular density and beauty. The inhabitants call the
phenomenon the spreading of the table-cloth. The
cloud does not appear to be at rest on the hill, but to be
constantly rolling onward from the southeast ; yet to the
surprise of the beholder, it never descends, for the snowy
wreaths, seen falling over the precipice towards the town
below, vanish completely before they reach it, while oth-
276 EVAPORATION.
ers are formed to replace them on the other side. The
reason of the phenomenon is, that the air constituting the
wind from the southeast, having passed over the great
Southern Ocean, comes charged with as much invisible
moisture as its temperature can sustain. In rising up
the side of the mountain it is rising in the atmosphere,
and is therefore gradually escaping from a part of its
former pressure ; and on attaining the summit, it has
dilated so much and has consequently become so much
colder, that it lets go part of its moisture. This then
appears as the cloud now described ; but it no sooner
falls over the edge of the mountain, and again descends
in the atmosphere to where it is pressed and condensed,
and heated as before, than it is re-dissolved and disap-
pears ; the magnificent apparition thus dwelling only
on the mountain top.'
When the elevation, to which moisture is suddenly
carried, is very great, the fall of temperature is propor-
tional, and the separating water becomes snow instead of
rain. A sudden reduction of temperature by other
means will produce the same effect. This is curiously
illustrated by a fountain used in one of the mines of
Hungary ; during the play of which the air is so com-
pressed, that on being released it expands and cools
itself enough to cause the moisture driven out with it to
appear, even in summer, as a shower of snow.
At the time of the great eclipse of the sun in February
last, it was observed in several different places, that
although the sky was clear at the commencement of the
eclipse, clouds began to appear before the middle, and
continued to increase till the sun was almost or wholly
hid from view. It was also observed that soon after the
eclipse ended the clouds began to diminish in density, and
that at length they vanished away. It is not difficult to
account for these appearances on the principles of evapo-
ration. As the heat received from the sun was diminished
in consequence of the eclipse, it became insufficient to
keep all the vapor contained in the air in an invisible
state ; the moisture therefore condensed and formed
clouds. When the sun after the eclipse shone on these
clouds, the heat thus communicated caused them to dis-
EVAPORATION. 277
perse. If in some places the sky continued clear during
the eclipse, the atmosphere in those places probably con-
tained less moisture than those before mentioned, and
was therefore able even at a diminished temperature to
support it in an invisible state. In the town, in which
the writer of this resides, it was observed that on and
near a certain pond, it snowed constantly during the
latter part of the eclipse, while at a distance from the
pond no snow fell. In this case it would seem that the
atmosphere over the pond was saturated with moisture,
and that as the air over land cools more rapidly than that
over water, the colder air from the land moved towards
the pond and produced the condensation of vapor and the
consequent formation of snow which was noticed.
Perhaps there is scarcely any operation of nature, which
more strikingly displays the wisdom and goodness of God,
than evaporation. Let this cease, and the earth would
become a desolate waste, except where the laborious ef-
forts of man might, by frequent watering, create a spot of
verdure here and there, amid the desert. The important
effects resulting from so simple a cause may well lead us
to admire the wisdom and goodness of that Being who is
' wise in counsel, and wonderful in working,' and who
' maketh the sun to rise on the evil and the good, and
sendeth rain on the just and on the unjust.'
The facts mentioned in the foregoing pages show that
the subject of evaporation, especially when considered in
connexion with changes of the weather and with meteor-
ology in general, opens a wide and interesting field for
reflection and investigation. And this field is open to all.
Here he who will may study the operations of nature, and
search for the principles by which those operations are
guided and on which they are conducted.
To the reflecting mind it is ever a source of pleasure
to be able to trace effects up to causes, and to ascertain
the various relations which subsist among the works of
nature. Indeed, who would not prefer the knowledge of a
Franklin who could trace the lightning's path and guide
it to the ground, to that of him who thinks there will be a
thunder-shower to-day because the clouds look as they did
last year before a thunder-shower, but who knows nothing
278 EVAPORATION.
of the nature or cause of the magnificent display of power
and grandeur, which he is about to witness.
It is a fact, which, were it not so common, would strike
us with surprise, that multitudes, although nature is con-
stantly exhibiting to their view interesting phenomena
and beautiful illustrations of philosophical principles, yet
pursue their way amid all her sublime scenery and inter-
esting illustrations, unconscious that they themselves are
thereby furnished with any means of intellectual improve-
ment, or sources from which they may derive accessions to
their stock of knowledge. And it is a lamentable fact,
that many teachers have yet to learn that the laboratory
of nature is one of the most important objects to which
they can direct the attention of their pupils. Many seem
to imagine that when they have conveyed to those under
their instruction, the ideas contained in a certain number
of books, they have done all that is required of them.
It does not even occur to their minds that the book of
nature, which is open to the eyes of ail who will read,
contains any valuable instruction. But let them once
become accustomed to directing the minds of their pupils
to the operations of nature; let them once familiarize
themselves with the practice of referring to scenes and
.events around them for illustrations of philosophical prin-
ciples, and they will find science in everything ; they
will find it in the wind that sweeps over the hills, in the
clouds that hang on the mountain's top, in the fire that
burns on the hearth, and even in the fly that crawls on the
window. Few things are more important for men and
especially for teachers to learn, than that science is not to
be considered as standing aloof from the common con-
cerns of life, but that it is simply the explanation of facts
and events which in different ages have arrested the at-
tention of observing and reflecting minds. The book of
nature is open with lessons appropriate for all. A very
simple problem in mechanics or hydrostatics presented by
the operations of nature, may be as truly a source, and
perhaps as great a source of mental improvement to one
individual, as a much more difficult one to another whose
mind is more expanded and better disciplined. Then let
not him who cannot have access to the volumes in which.
EVAPORATION. 279
are contained the results of laborious research and scien-
tific investigation, conclude that he is thereby debarred
from all means of intellectual cultivation. Let him ex-
amine with a spirit of inquiry and investigation the
scenes around him. Let him search for knowledge in
the trees of the forest and the stones of the brook ; let
him lay nature under contribution to increase his stock
of knowledge and he will find that her instruction is
freely given, and that exertions made to gain knowledge
carry their own rewards with them. Let it be proclaimed
till it shall sound in the ears of every teacher who is not
awake to that which is both his interest and his duty,
that there is a way by which his instructions may be ren-
dered doubly interesting and doubly profitable to those
who are placed under his care. If he has become wea-
ried by listening to the same dull sound of recitations,
and has found his pupils not less so by conning over again
and again the same lesson, let him lead them out into the
fields of nature ; let him vary and diversify his instruc-
tions by visible illustrations drawn from scenes and objects
around him, and see if he does not find anew charm
thrown over the objects to which his attention is directed.
He will find such a course a source of improvement
scarcely less important to himself than to his pupils. By
the intellectual effort thus required, and the new ideas
thus elicited, he will find that his own mind is expanded
and enlarged, and that while he is endeavoringto enlighten
the minds of those under his instruction, he is perform-
ing the same office for his own mind.
But it is not in Natural Philosophy alone that the intelli-
gent and faithful instructor will seek to diversify and
elucidate the principles of science, by familiar and varied
illustrations drawn from objects around him. In almost
every path of science, nature has scattered flowers, which
the hand of the diligent and attentive lover of knowledge
will not fail to gather. Human character and human
actions are among the most interesting objects of contem-
plation that can be presented to the mind of man. While,
therefore, the instructor, who loves his employment, will
delight to refer to the material world for illustrations in
280 EVAPORATION.
Natural Philosophy, he will see that the world of mind
furnishes him with illustrations perhaps, not less extensive
and interesting, pertaining to Mental Philosophy. The
mind here has its laboratory within itself, and the dreams
of the night, the actions and thoughts of the day, and the
opinions and ideas brought to view by the ever fluctua-
ting tide of popular opinion, will furnish him with many
an interesting illustration of the laws of mind. Even in
the sports of childhood, the attentive observer will find
much that is interesting, much that elucidate the princi-
ples on which the mind of aspiring and intellectual man
is wont to act. And many an important principle of the
sciences which pass under the high-sounding names of
rhetoric, logic, and intellectual philosophy, may receive
simple and yet beautiful illustrations from the words and
actions of the child, who, as yet, knows nothing of the
sounding names' by which those operations are designated
in the halls of science.
If the above remarks are thought to be too great a devi-
ation from the professed subject of this Tract, the writer
can only reply, that they are such as suggested themselves
to his own mind in connexion with the subject, and that
he therefore inserted them, hoping that if they were not
very closely connected with the subject, yet as they seem-
ed to arise from it, they might be useful in exciting atten-
tion to the important principle of education which they
are intended to enforce.
BOSTON:
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SCIENTIFIC TRACTS.
NUMBER XII.
ANIMAL MECHANISM.
THE EAR.
BY JEROME V. C. SMITH, M. D.
THE ear, that organ by which we are made sensible
of the imptession of sound, in the higher species of ani-
mals, is a very complicated instrument. ^ It is a beautiful
piece of mechanism, more intricate than a timepiece,
' and no less wonderful in structure, than the arrangement
of the numerous pipes of a church organ.
It is a curious circumstance in the economy of organ-
ized beings, that the central portion of the human ear,
termed the saculus vestibnK, hereafter to be described, is
the basis of the apparatus of hearing in all animals with
which naturalists are acquainted, with the exception
of insects,*, but becoming more and more complex as
inferior grades approximate the physical perfectibility of
man.
Sound being a vibratory motion of the air, first put in
motion by a solid body, is collected by the ear as the
pulsations travel onward, and transmitted directly to the
auditory or seventh pair of nerves, mere filaments, like
two white cotton threads, which communicate the fact of
these vibrations to the sensorium, or, in other words,
produce a corresponding Change in the brain.
fc The antenna of insects are considered the only organs with
which they are furnished, that convey a sensation analogous to
hearing. By the vibrations communicated to the body, through
these, they are probably made susceptible of simple sonorous im-
pressions.
VOL. I. NO. XII. 25
282 ANIMAL MECHANISM.
Taking it for granted, that the reader has already a
thorough knowledge of the doctrine of acoustics, diacous-
tics and catacoustics, we shall steadily pursue that kind
of popular philosophical examination of the ear, which
has been the endeavor in a preceding essay on the me-
chanism of the eye.
Those beings only, which are denominated locomotive,
having the power of moving themselves from one place
to another, have an ear. The circumstance of the exist-
ence of this faculty, presupposes some sort of auditory
contrivance, by which the creature can be made con-
scious of the certain existence of near foes, or its friends
and species. Without this sense, of such vast importance
to man, inferior tribes would be constantly exposed to
dangers and even destruction as they would necessa-
rily be obliged to move towards an apprehended evil, to
see it, in order to be certain. Nature has not been ne-
glectful in granting the necessary means of happiness to
every being, in proportion to its wants in the sphere in
which it is destined to live; nor partial to man, in the
development of all his senses, to the exclusion of other
animals, whose physical propensities, necessities and cir-
cumstances are of as much importance to them, in the
scale of existence, as his own.
EXTERNAL EAR.*
That appendage termed auricula, pinna or cxterna
ear, peculiar to all the warm blooded quadrupeds, divest-
ed of the skin, is a thin, delicate piece of cartilage, quite
elastic, and bearing some resemblance, in this respect, to
parchment. On its outer surface, on such as carry the
ear erect, it is generally concave, but thrown into deep
semicircular grooves, which terminate in one large dish,
surrounding the canal that enters the bones, called concha,
because it resembles a shell. The lines/or eminences
lying between the furrows, have definite names, as helix,
antihelix, tragusand antitragus, and lastly, the fat pendu-
lous portion, on the under edge of the ear, in which trin-
kets are worn, occasionally, in civilized society, in hum-
ble imitation of genuine savage life, the lobus.
* So called from aura, air.
ANIMAL MECHANISM.
283
FIG. 1.
Explanation of Figure 1.
This is a well marked car
of a man, drawn from life.
a to e The helix, forming
the rim.
a The upper end or com-
mencement of the rim, slop-
ing into the concha.
b Part of the edge lost in
the face.
c, d Prominent from the
head.
e The fold terminating in
.the lobule of the ear.
fio m The antihelix.
/, g The upper end divid-
ed into two ridges, h the
union of them, / and g.
i, k lower end of the anti-
helix, continued at i into
the concha, and at k into
antitragus.
I The tragus covering the
entrance to the ear like
a post at the corner of a street
to prevent sudden injury.
m Antitragus.
n Lobe of the ear, usually bored.
oo Furrow between the helix and antihelix.
p The boat like depression between the lines of the antihelix
x The concha.
r The beginning of the meatus auditorious.
MUSCLES.
Although in the human species, there are muscles which
seem at first sight to have been designed for moving the
ear in different directions, their office is expressly
to keep the cartilage tense, equally on the stretch at
all points, to increase its vibratory property. Occasion-
ally, individuals are seen who have such development
of the auricular muscles, as to be able to move their ears
at pleasure. Wags and buffoons are sometimes expert in
the exercise. Several physiologists have suggested that
mankind, in these degenerate days, have lost the power
of moving their ears, by wearing hats, bonnets and such
like unphilosophical coverings for the head, and in cor-
roboration, (by way of sustaining an argument,) make
reference to some solitary examples of ancient statues,
284
ANIMAL MECHANISM.
on which the ears are represented as standing outward
and forward. There are three of these muscles or cords.
FIG. 2.
Explanation of Figure 2.
In this plate is represented the muscles peculiar to the external ear.
o-12-e-fhe cartilege of the ear, as seen on that side looks towards
fiop- ThTattolcns M reft, or lifter up of the ear. f-g-h-i-^
ANIMAL MECHANISM. 285
upper end of it. l-m shows where it becomes tendinous on
the bones of the head, o-p attached to prominences.
g to t The anterior auris, placed between the face and ear. q-r
the portion of it connected to the muscle of the forehead,
growing narrower at s, and inserted into the helix at t.
u-z Two muscles, or rather, two portions of one, retrahentes
aurum, to draw the ear back from the face.
u-v-w-x The upper or larger portion, consisting of fleshy fibres,
n, v, w.
y-z The inferior portion of the same muscle.
All such animals as keep their ears habitually erect, as
the fox, lynx, cat, horse, ox, ass and various species of
the dog, maintain them in that position by the strength
of the muscles, which are thoroughly developed, strong
and under the control of the will. Such as have this
characteristic, are either timid, feeble, harmless creatures,
or distinguished for their rapacity, cruelty and propensity
for slaughter.
In either case, it is necessary for safety on the one
hand, or success in seizing prey, by surprise, on the
other, for the animal to have a distinct auricular percep-
tion, accompanied by a nice sense of smell. By remain-
ing perfectly quiet, the ears are directed to and fro, as
circumstances may require, to receive, most favorably
and forcibly the sonorous rays, without being obliged
to move the head.* Elephants, hounds, beside an al-
most endless catalogue of mammalia, have pendular
ears hanging down over the ear pipe, as though the de-
sign was to defend the orifice ; in these examples, the
muscles are small, as they are in man, and finally, in age,
for want of use, become indistinct on dissection.
Birds have but a slight rim, approaching in outline, the
pinna ; lizards, of which there are about forty varieties,
as well as serpents and other reptiles, have nothing ex-
ternally resembling an ear : in some, it is difficult, on
close examination, to discover the precise spot where the
nerve of the auditory machine is located. Fishes are
* It is a favorite theory with me, that an ear trumpet for deaf
people, instead of being like the funnel of a common bugle, should
have a broad plate grooved, and indeed, wrought in exact imitation
of the external human ear, it being certain that this is the best mode
of directing sound into the head, or nature would have constructed
it differently.
VOL. I. NO. XII. 25*
236 ANIMAL MECHANISM.
also dsstitute of an external accompaniment of the inner
organ, and yet all these families, including the amphibi-
ous, as frogs, turtles and the like, have a beautifully con-
structed internal ear, as remarkable, so far as a mechani-
*cal arrangement of parts is concerned, in conveying the
pulsation of sound, as that of the most favored musician.
In the sequel, it will be noticed that the common skin of
their bodies, drawn as it is over the opening in the head,
answers two important offices in the function of hearing.
EAR TUBE.*
When the temporal or side bone of the head, contain-
ing, entirely, the internal ear, is carefully sawed in twain,
the canal, of which we are speaking, will be found about
three quarters of an inch in length, and somewhat coni-
cal, being contracted towards its inner extremity and,
on an average, a little less than a quarter of an inch in
diameter. This passage is a gentle curve, as the tube,
from the external opening, rises upward, but at half its
length, turns downward again, and there bulges out in
shape, something like the bowl of a spoon. A delicate
rim, like a moulding rises on the edge of this expanded
mouth, for sustaining the drum head, soon to be noticed,
very much like the method of nailing a hoop within the
mouth of a barrel, near the chime, to keep the head from
falling in. To afford greater surface, that the drum
head may be considerably larger than the extremity of
the tube would allow, were it stretched perpendicularly
across, it is sloped, so that it requires an oval cover, under
such circumstances, very much larger, than if it were
round, and fitted to the square end of the pipe. All this
may be examined in the temporal bone of a horse, sheep,
or dog's skull, as they are found bleaching in the fields.
In these animals, the analogy to the human is particu-
larly strikincr. The common skin of the face is carried
within the tube, for its lining, but perforated in numerous
pFaces, by the ducts of delicate little bags, lying between
the bone and skin, which are constantly secreting and
pouring out a bitter, nauseous oil or wax. The object of
*In books, termed tlio Metus auditorius externus, simply
meaning the external passage to the inner cavities.
AMMAL MECHANISM.
287
this excretion is two fold, viz. first, to keep the lining moist
and pliable ; and secondly, to kill insects that may intrude
there.* Crossing this canal, from the sides, are strong
short hairs, intersecting each other in such a manner,
that an insect must overcome the resistance of these
pikes, or chevaux de frise, in case the wax t does not
arrest its progress, before reaching the drum head, where
its peregrinations are impassably limited. f
*Ear wax, (cerumen aitrium) is certain death to insects that feed
upon it ; though its composition is such, that they cannot restrain
their appetites when pent up where it is. Naturalists have taken a
hint from this, to prevent the depredations of insects on dried prepa
rations in cabinets, by washing them in some bitter decoction, as
aloes or other vegetable bitters.
t At birth, the tube is filled with a viscid mucous, which, in some
children, unless speedily taken away, forms a cake of hard wax,
completely closing it; and by the time the articulative organs arc
developed, the child is actually deaf and dumb. There seems to
be a peculiar predisposition to this course in some families. In
others, children after having once talked, lose their hearing at four or
five years of age, and become permanently deaf and dumb.
J NVhen the glands are diseased, in consequence of a chronic in-
flammation, a thin, purulent discharge takes place, giving the indi-
vidual, in some instances, trouble, inconvenience, and pain through
life. I have seen a skull, in which the entire tube, on one side,
was closed up by a deposition of bone. The opposite ear was par-
tially diseased in the same manner, but the peculiar circumstances
of the case, while the person was alive, could not be ascertained.
Explanation of Figure 3.
This has been an exceed-
ingly difficult plan of the ear
to execute, so as to give the
exact relation of parts ;
hence it is very much fore-
shortened.
c to d, cc, The mealus ex-
ternus, as it appears, taken
from the bone ; b, c, its two
curvatures; the first e;
the second c : dd, the ob-
lique slant, like a spoon
bowl, at the inner end, cov-
ered by the drum head,
spoken of in the text.
e The membrana tympani,
stretched on its bony hoop,
bulging inward.
FIG. 3.
ANIMAL MECHANISM,
The remaining parts, beyond the boundary of the membrane, re-
main to be described, particularly, although represented here for the
sake of keeping up the connexion of parts in the mind.
/, g, /i The malleus; f its handle ; g its long handle; h the head
or bulb.
i, k inchus, or anvil; i short, and k, long processes, m stapes.
V, H, A, m, n,p, The labyrinth; n,p the cochlea, n the begin-
ning, p termination, m the vestibulum.
NOTE. I have found immense difficulty in demonstrating this or-
gan, without very large models: one now in my cabinet, made of
wood, magnifies the internal ear three feet, which can be seen and
understood in all its relations. Formerly, when I taught anatomy
at the Berkshire Medical Institution, it was customary to suppose
the medical college an ear, and thus, illustrate its intricacies, by
constant reference to the apartments and passage ways of that
edifice.
THE DRUM, Oil MEMBRANA TYMPANI. (*)
From the foregoing description of the mcatus or canal,
the exact locality of the drum head will be understood.
Fitted to the rim of bone, in a manner similar to the
parchment over the barrel of a snare drum, it is kept
perfectly tense, but by an arrangement of fibres peculiar
to its organization, which is not clearly comprehended
by anatomists. It is oval in shape, and somewhat con-
cave outwardly, and so transparent and thin, that objects
can be seen through it, being of the color of white oiled
paper ; any person of common ingenuity, can dissect this
beautiful membrane in the head of a dead fowl, in five
minutes, with the point of a knife. It then presents a
striking resemblance to a battledoor. This closes up
the extremity of the tube, in a healthy ear ; notwithstand-
ing, it is frequently ruptured by the firing of heavy guns,
inflammation, and other accidents, without producing
deafness. Across this drum, a fine thread of a nerve is
drawn, called corda tympani, which gives it the requisite
sensibility and connexion with the system of sensation.
(l) Lobsters, crabs, and in fact, all that remarkable class of ani-
mals, whose skeletons are outside of the body, in the form of a shell,
have their ears placed at the extremities of projecting points. The
lobster's can be detected at the end of a short stump, near the root
of the long feelers it consists of a perforated bony papilla, having
a membrane stretched over it, covering a drop of fluid, in which
floats the auditory nerve.
ANIMAL MECHANISM. 289
When a pin-head is introduced far enough to touch the
drum head, an exquisitely acute pain is the conse-
quence, from pressing the nerve.
I have seen men with the membranes ruptured on both
sides, which was inferred from the fact, that in smoking,
they puffed the fumes, for amusement, out at their ears,
yet the sense of hearing, in them, did not appear im-
paired. The rationale of this will be subsequently
explained. The deafness of old people might in some
instances be alleviated by puncturing the membrane,
which, by age, has become thickened and inelastic. A
distinguished surgeon in England, but a few years since,
discovered that by making an opening through the drum
head, in peculiar cases, restored the diseased ear, instan-
ter : the same operation is now successfully practised in
this city.
No one can be in doubt as respects the office of this
membrane: it receives the sonorous rays having a
broad surface, and being on the stretch, is put in vibra-
tory motion by the slightest pulsations in the air,
which it transmits to the still more important apparatus
within.
We have remarked that reptiles and fishes have no
discernible external orifice: the external surface ap-
pears smooth, as though they were destitute of this
valuable sense. Under the skin, however, and in the
bone answering to the temporal one in man, there is
around hole, growing larger within. This cavity is
the tympanum or drum barrel answering to the apart-
ment beyond the drum head, in men and quadrupeds,
next to be elucidated. The common skin, which is thus
drawn over the mouth of the tympanum, acts precisely as
the drum head does, vibrating to the least noise, with
exceeding nicety. In the economy of reptiles those
scavengers of the earth, created to wallow in filth at the
threshold of organic life, an external ear or opening,
would be soon destroyed, by being filled with mud,
gravel or insects. The skin over the frog's ear and the
catnelion, is very dense, shining and tremulous. Frogs,
particularly, have a splendid circular piece of skin over
the tympanum, just back of their large prominent eyes.
290
ANIMAL MECHANISM.
There is a necessity for uncommon delicacy, in their
case, as their ear is constructed for hearing with equal
precision in water as well as air. ( 2 )
INTERNAL EAR.
All parts beyond the drum head are collectively called
the labyrinth, in consequence, probably, of their intri-
cacy.
To understand the arrangement of the apartments to
which the reader is now to be introduced, requires pa-
tience, as well as close observation, or the mechanism
cannot be comprehended. First the
TYMPANUM.
Directly beyond the membrane is a small room, of the
capacity of a common white bean. Its name is derived
from a word, meaning a drum, as it is one in office,
but having, instead of one head like the kettle or
two as in the snare drum, it has three heads; the
argest of which is towards the outer ear, while at the
other end of the barrel, are two little ones.
This labyrinth constitutes the difficulty in studying the
anatomy of this part of the system. Three distinct
(2) In that class of serpents which is covered with scales, the
external contrivance of a tense skin over the internal ear, is far infe-
rior to the frog or lizard's: to the underside of a cluster of thin
scales, wedged in the loose dermoid texture, a slender bone, in
in figure like the pestle of a mortar, runs into the tube, towards the
brain, and plays into the fenestra ovalis.
All the varieties of serpents are distinguished for their delicacy
in the perception of sound. The boa family, particularly, are
those which exhibit the most satisfaction in music. The writer
has carefully examined a boa constrictor, which when fully grown,
is horrible to the sight, that was inattentive to sounds, except when
hungry. At such 'times, the scratch of a pin against the wall,
roused the monster to unceasing watchfulness. The ear of the land
tortoise, and the rattlesnake, both of which are in my collection, do
not differ as much as the physiologist might at first suppose though
in the water turtle, constituted for hearing alternately in air and
water, there is a perceptible difference. In the first, a single bone
is found ; while in the latter, in addition to the bone, there are fine
chalky particles, which move against each other, to propagate the
motion or noise in the water, to tlie ear containing the ramifications
of ihft nerve.
ANIMAL MECHANISM. 291
apartments, or rooms, one beyond the other, which, in
antomical works, have further minute subdivisions,
collectively, make up the labyrinth. First, the tympa-
num, just adverted to; Secondly, the vestibule; and
thirdly, the conchlca. In connexion with these are certain
tubes, having sundry barbarous, unintelligible names,
which are not remembered by one physician in a hun-
dred, nor, indeed, is it at all necessary. Though retained
in modern books of science, modern authors do not
seem to. have the courage to discard them.
Behind the ear, a hard knob of bone may be felt, with
the finger, (mastoid process) on which that muscle is
fastened, which, with its fellow on the opposite side, brings
the head forward, as in bowing : within, this knob
is hollow being full of conical cells, resembling the
spokes of a wheel, growing smaller as they unite in one
pipe, which opens into the tympanum or drum barrel.
Physiologists agree that the use of these cells is for rever-
berating sound, that it may gain strength by being re-
flected from wall to wall, in order to excite a stronger
sensation when conveyed to the nerve : these are partic-
ularly large in some animals.* A similar piece of
mechanism is discoverable in the cheek bones, and even
the centre bone of the skull, for reverberating and
strengthening the voice. Lions, have large cavities in
the bones of their heads and faces, on purpose to increase
the intensity of the vibrations ; hence their charac-
teristic roar.
In another direction, is the minute orifice of a cone-
shaped pipe, eustuchian tube, that opens with a trumpet
like extremity in the mouth, it being necessary to the
free vibration of the drum head, that the same quality of
air that transmits the sonorous pulsations, should also
* In a recent letter from the venerable Dr James Thacher, of
Plymouth, the following curious fact is related :
Reflection of Sound.' ' A gentleman told me, today, (May 3d,
1831,) that a few days since, he was passing through one of our
streets, where there were considerable intervals between the
houses, a gentleman totally blind, walking with him, assured him
that he knew exactly when he was passing a building, by a peculiar
sensation in his ears, occasioned by a different concussion of the air.'
292 ANIMAL MECHANISM.
exist on the opposite side, within the barrel : the use of
the eustachian tube (so called from Eustachias, the
discoverer) is to admit it. Nothing, therefore, is more com-
pletely an imitation of the tympanum of the ear, than the
martial drum, which has a little hole in the side, equiva-
lent to this we are describing, descending to the mouth,
the nearest point from which atmospheric air could be
taken, without disarranging or disturbing the functions
of vital organs. By closing the sounding hole of the
drum, the music is less audible sounding, when the
air inside becomes rarefied, like music in a well. The
reason is, the equal balance of air is destroyed : such
is the object and office of the eustachian tube. Some-
times, in violent sneezing, or sudden cough, thepatulous
mouths get stopped for an instant with saliva; and many
readers are probably familiar with the sensation of fulness
that ensues, giddiness and ringing in the ears, to the
annihilation of accurate auricular perceptions, till the
cause is removed. In bathing, it is not unusual to get,
as it is quaintly called, a bubble in the ear, producing
these characteristic symptoms. ( 3 )
There are many existing cases of deafness, having
their origin in some such cause : the pipe finally inflames,
and becomes permanently sealed : a skilful aurist, un-
der such circumstances, will adroitly puncture the drum
head, with an instrument purposely constructed and
relieve the patient, without pain.
FENESTRA OVALIS.
Fenestra Ovdlis means an oval window covered by one
of the two little drum heads. Beyond this, supposing a
person could pass through, he would arrive in the vesti-
(3) Notwithstanding the fine arguments of medical writers to
the contrary, I believe that partially deaf persons hear better when
the mouth is open ; instinctively, it may be observed, such indivi-
duals listen with an open mouth. The pulsations of sound thus
enter the tympanum and set the fenestra ovalis vibrating, but
very much less forcibly than through the external opening, in its
healthful condition.
ANIMAL MECHANISM. 293
bule, or second room. Lower down, but a few lines
from this, is the second little parchment head, called
FENESTRA ROTUNDA.
This is a round window; were it possible to tear it
away, and creep through the frame, the traveller would
enter into one of the canals of the cochlea.
FIG. 4.
Explanation of Figure 4.
In this diagram, the labyrinth and little bones of the ear, are
magnified exceedingly. This is to show the manner in which they
are connected, and the order in which they are placed.
a to e The malleus, about to be described ; a a long process ; b,
a shorter one; c, the handle, attached to the drum head; d, the
neck; and e the head of the malleus, like a mallet.
/to i The inchus ; f its body ; g its short leg ; i the point united
to the stapes.
k to n The stapes ; k its small head, the anterior leg, n the ba-
sis connected with the membrane which closes the fenestra ovali^
o to m The labyrinth ; o-r, the first turn of the cochlea; s t u v,
the second ; w x, the half or third turn ; y the foramen rotundum
or round window ; zz, the vestibuluin ; A B C D, superior semi-
circular canals, A the ampulla; BC, its curvature ; D, its union
with the inferior or posterior cdnal ; E F G H, inferior canal ; E,
its ampulla ; F G H, its curious curve and its junction with the
first; 1KLM, the exterior canal; I, the ampulla; KL, the
direction of its curve; M, its termination in the vestibule.
VOL. i. NO. xir. 2G
294 ANIMAL MECHANISM.
FIG. 5.
Explanation of Figure 5.
In this, the bony case of the labyrinth, has had one half cut
away to exhibit the interior.
a to I The upper part of the cochlea; aa, the thickness of its
external shell in a foetus of eight months ; bed, the lamina spira-
lis; be, scala vestibuli ; efghi, the scala tympani. Here is seen
the bony lamina spiralis ; b its origin ; d its termination in a little
hook, termed hamulus : k the opening of the infnndibulum, where
the scalae communicate ; I the opening of the aqueduct, or drain
ol the fluids from the cochlea.
m tog The under half of the vestibulum ; m the thickness of its
case in the foetus ; n the fovea or round pit ; o an oval pit ; p a
ridge between them ; q opening of the aquseductus vestibuli.
r,g,lc,l The canals divided ; r the thickness of their case in
the infant; g the posterior; / exterior semicircular canal ; 1 open-
ing of the big end of the posterior canal ; 2 opening of the large
end of the superior ; 3 the opening common to their united tubes ;
4 the larger end; 5 the contracted opening of the external canal.
OSSICULA AUDITUS.
Perhaps there is no insulated portion of an animal,
that more clearly and satisfactorily evinces superhuman
design, than the figure and articulations of the four ear
ANIMAL MECHANISM.
295
bones, which we shall now endeavor to describe. The
tecimical phrase, ossicula auditus, in the Latin language,
implies little bones of the ear. They are by far the small-
est in the body. The first, in the order of their distribu-
tion is the malltus or mallet, having a faint resemblance
to that instrument, inasmuch as there is a long handle
joined to a round knob. Secondly, the inchus, from its
resemblance to an ovil : os orbicularc or round bone,
the least in size that has ever been discovered or probably
exists in any terrestial creature, being in man consider-
ably smaller than the smallest mustard seed. And lastly,
the stapes or stirrup, almost a miniature facsimile of a
saddle stirrup. Birds have but two of these, of which
the malleus is most developed. Turtles, of which I have
a specimen, have but one, the malleus ; and reptiles, as
far as personal dissection warrants, have but two. In
these classes, there is a departure in form, from those we
are contemplating in our own species.
Explanation of Fig. 6. FIG. 6.
There are present-
ed here, a magnified
view of the ear bones.
The os orbicular e, or
round bone, is not
represented, being
considered by some
anatomists as only
an appendage of the
malleus.
The malleus known
by its long arms : a,
b, c, d, e, mark the
same points as in
Figure 4. The in-
chus, resembling a
molar tooth, having
shorter arms, is in the same position as in Figure 4, the letters have
the same reference. The star points out the articulating surface
for the malleus.
Any person, from the foregoing remarks, can recognise the stapes,
by its shape a 6 its head; c the neck; d anterior erus; e the
second; /the oasis.
The fourth drawing represents another view of the stapes, seen
from above a its cartilage ; 6 anterior; c posterior; d the basis.
296
ANIMAL MECHANISM.
As these bones are placed in the drum barrel, ^>ne
joined to the extremity of the other, they make a Com-
pound lever, the object of which is, to have the freest
and longest extent of motion, in a little space, unlike the
muster drum, which is continually referred toon account
of familiar illustration, the sticks of this are fixed on the
inside, and' though no hands are there to beat them on
the head, they are connected to little cords, which jerk
them down with a sort of conscious independence, when-
ever there is the least noise abroad, to give the brain
intelligence as it were of what is going on without. ( 4 )
Explanation of Figure 7. FIG. 7.
In this drawing, the little bones are represented
of their natural size.
There is some resemblance in the motion to be effected
by this chain of bones, to the up and down motion of the
hand at the extremity of the arm, viz. carrying one
end of the lever through considerable space, while the
other, to which the power is applied, lias no perceptible
motion.
(4) There are some diseases, familiar to medical gentlemen,
beside local affections of the ear, which fix upon the bones, particu-
larly about the face. Under such circumstances, a sanious dis-
charge washes these little bones entirely away nothing is mere
certain, than this fact, that the three first bones may be corroded
and floated from their connexions indeed, extracted with forceps,
and the patient hears, to all intents and purposes, nearly if not quite
as well as he did before. Thus the membrane, (drum head) and
three out of four bones are unnecessary, it seems, in the auditory
apparatus of man. Stripped thus.it fulls before the frog's being
deficient in an external covering or vibrating membrane. The
current or vibrations, in this case, act directly on the foot piece of
the stapes which is broad enough to offer a resistance to the
sonorous column. Being connected with the membrane of the
fenestra ovalis, it produces a motion in it, and that is propagated (o
the fluid beyond, and thus the nerve becomes agitated. If the
stapes could be detached without rupturing the membrane of tho
fenestra ovalis, then hearing could be effected independent of the
little bones. Their use is merely to strengthen the vibrations
within, just in the proportion that they have a tendency to become
faint, as the distance increases whence they had their origin.
ANIMAL MECHANISM. 297
Small as the ossicula auditus are, the first and last
of the series have muscles, called tensors, laxators, &c,
which are susceptible of demonstration. Rough points
and projections on the inside of the tympanum, give at-
tachij|ent both to the muscles and the bones themselves.
Even these minute points, the old anatomists have
belabored with what they supposed significant names.
One end of the malleus, the handle, is connected with
the inside of the membrana tympani ; the other is fitted
into a socket of the inchus and that articulated with the
orbiculare or round bone, which stands as a medium
of connexion between the stapes or stirrup.
Now such is the mechanical adaptation of one of these
bones to the other, that if the extreme point of the handle
of the malleus which, as befor* remarked, is joined to
the membrane, be moved the millionth or ten millionth
part of an inch, 7 by the vibrations of the drum head, it
will so operate on the inchus and then on the stapes,
through the intervention of the orbiculare, that the last
bone, will move through treble the space, by a single
sonorous pulsation of the malleus, in the same period of
time. In fact, the stirrup, in plain language, is exactly
fitted into the oval window, like the box of a pump, so
that a motion given to the handle of the malleus, operates
on the chain, to effect the stapes, that it may work back-
ward and forward, with the same motion and on the same
principle of the working of the piston of a syringe. To
hear, it is necessary that the stapes, attached to the
parchment window, should move to and fro, for a reason
hereafter to be explained, or no sensation can be convey
ed by the acoustic nerve to the brain.
Gentlemen curious in these inquiries, can readily pick
out the ossicula auditis from the dry skulls of horses,
sheep, dogs and cats. There is a slight variation however
in form, and ultimately, in burrowing animals, a wide
departure in configuration from those in man.
VESTIBULE.
This word, implies a porch or entry, being an in-
termediate apartment between the tympanum and coch-
lea ; in the sense in which it is now received, it is a
VOL. i. NO. xn. 26*
298 ANIMAL MECHANISM.
hall or porch of the edifice beyond, from which doors
are opening into various winding passages. Its length
and diameter are not far from a grain of wheat, as in a
preceding paragraph, if we suppose an individual has
torn away the stapes from the little drum head, str^fched
across the oval window, and then cut away the latter, to
wend his way into the vestibule, he will find it a long,
but narrow room. ( 5 )
On one side he will discover three holes, and on the
opposite, only two, which are the openings or communi-
cation of the semicircular canals, with the vestibule.
Within this vestibule, are two sacs, water tight, contain-
ing a clear aqueous fluid. Though there is no commu-
nication between the sacs, the quality of the fluids
distending them, is alil$ one is considerably larger
than the other, and both together, would not equal in
bulk, two good sized pin-heads. The one of the greatest
magnitude, is called the alvcus communis or the union of
rivers from the circumstance that the canals were
thought by the old anatomists to resemble streams of
water, having a free communication with the water in
the reservoir. Saculus Cochlea, the lesser one, though
separated from the other by the thickness of its own and
the other's walls, is eked out into a long gyrating tube,
that traverses the cochlea.
This large sac, alveus communis, is the elementary one
found in polipi and it is this that is built upon from
one species to another, till the complicated machinery of
the human ear, on dissection, displays it, as the corner
stone of the sense of hearing from worms, to the perfect
musical ear of man.
(5) If, by any circumstance, the membrane of the oval windov)
or Jenestra avails, be ruptured, the fluid of the labyrinth will cer-
tainly escape. This constitutes incurable deafness. No operation,
no prescription can avail, as, in the constitution of things, the
acoustic nerve cannot be acted upon in any other way, than that
through the agitation of the fluid which surrounds it. Dr Darwin
was of an opinion that if a deaf person dreamed of hearing, the in-
ternal parts, essential to the function, were unimpaired. The same
remark is applicable to the blind. I have invariably found that
the incurably deaf as well as incurably blind, never ; dream of
hearing or seeing. This clearly shows a destruction of the sense,
inasmuch as the imagination cannot rouse a single vestige of their
former activity.
ANIMAL MECHANISM. 299
Besides the sacs themselves, the porch is lined with a
membrane of exquisite texture, in which is conducted
the blood vessels that administer the blood to the contained
saculi, and also secrete their contained fluid, aqua
labyrintha or water of the labyrinth, further to be com-
mented upon.
SEMICIRCULAR CANALS.
These are properly a prolongation of the vestibule
the design evidently being to furnish surface for expand-
ing the auditory nerve, without carrying it onward
towards organs that would be affected by their presence.
No way could be devised, possibly, more strictly eco-
nomical, than to have a circular or semicircular canal,
curving in a little space, as in a very small solid bit of
bone. Precisely on this plan, are these canals they
are three in number. Let it be remembered in this
place, that the tympanum, including the vestibule, little
bones and semicircular canals, exclusively make up the
ear of fishes, and reptiles neither of these tribes have
an external ear, nor the cochlea, which still remains to
be elucidated.
So much is necessary to the true perception of simple
sounds : the cartilaginous fishes, (sharks, eels, &c,) have
them, and are therefore capable of judging of the di-
rection and condition of different sounds. The Chinese
drive fish from the crevices of rocks to the angling
ground, by beating a gong. Pike and carp, reared in
artificially stocked ponds, both in Poland and France,
have been taught to come to a particular spot or border,
to feed, at the ringing of a bell. Serpents, abundant
evidence substantiates, are exceedingly excited by the
lively strains of music coiling themselves into a variety
of folds, and giving a tremulous vibration to the tail,
which long experience proves to be the result of a plea-
surable sensation, and not one of displeasure, rage or
pain. Egypt, of all countries on the globe, is the paradise
of serpent charmers, who never fail to astonish Europeans
by their tact in discovering the true characters and in-
stinctive propensities of the individuals constituting
their serpentine exhibitions.
300 ANIMAL MECHANISM.
Two of these canals, as they wind towards the side of
the vestibule, coalesce and when they perforate the
wall, have only one orifice in common. The third
enters alone, and this explains the two holes seen on one
side of the vestibule ; on the opposite side are three
holes, being the orifices of the same three canals, open-
ing singly. When the semi-circular canals are closely
examined, they are observed to be larger at one ex-
tremity, near the walls of the vestibule, than at the other,
the bulbs or bulges are termed ampullulcB or bottle
shaped. A crook-neck squash is an exact, though
greatly magnified representation of any one of the semi-
circular canals. The diameter of the circle of which
they are a little more than two thirds of a segment, varies
but little from one quarter of an inch in man ; and the
calibre of the canals themselves will scarcely admit the
introduction of a fine bristle. A probable reason for the
swelling out of the ampullulse will be given when dis-
coursing particularly on the nerve.
FIG. 8.
Explanation of Figure 8.
In this enlarged diagram of the labyrinth which is laid open,
the soft parts are seen. Some of my readers, particularly young
ANIMAL MECHANISM. 301
gentlemen pursuing medical studies, will derive the most profit
from this pi an.
a to c The lamina spiralis viewed from above. The distribution
of the nerve will not be easily distinguished I fear a a a, the
first turn ; bb, second turn ; cdc, the third turn of the lamina ;
d e, where the scalas communicate.
Comparctti has described, so says Mr Abernethy, in Rees' Cy-
to consist of four different substances, or zones :
omparctt as escre,
clopaedia, the lamina to consis
1, the bony zone ; 2, coriace
y zone ; 2, coriaceus; 3, vesicula; 4, the membraneous
zone.
f, sacculus sphericus ; g, space between that and the alveus coin-
munis; h, alveus communis ; 1 k i3, posterior canal ; 1 i, its am-
pulla; A-, the nerve expanded over it; 2Zwi, the superior canal;
/, the ampullula? ; 4 n 5, the exterior canal, communicating at both
ends with the alveus communis.
Within these bony tubes, are membraneous ones,
prolongations of the sacs found in the vestibule ; but
they are not in contact with the walls : on the contrary, they
are kept from them by the interposition of a fluid, whose
equal pressure keeps them exactly in the centre. Further
to show the exceedingly minute structure of this accu-
rately operating instrument, it is necessary to remember
that the membraneous tube, being already a wheel within
a wheel, is also , distended with a transparent watery
liquor. Still smaller canals, running through the petrous
portion of the temporal bone, in which the internal ear
is located, pour in and discharge the old fluid, as au un-
ceasing process.
COCHLEA.
The third and last anatomical division of the internal
ear, is the cochlea, or snail shell. Recollecting how
the canal of a snail shell winds about a central pillar,
will enable the reader to understand the text. In the
snail shell of the ear, however, there are two canals, side
by side, which wind twice and a half round a central
pillar, which is a hollow pillar and termed modiolus.
At the apex, the two canals open in one common cavity,
but a thin slip of bone caps over both openings as well as
over the top of the hollow end of the pillar, like a parasol.
This is the cupola, in technical language. The upper
end of the hollow pillar is broad, but becoming narrower,
hence it is denominated the inj'undibulum or tunnel
shaped extremity. Most writers on this subject describe
two pillars, as constituting the centre, but it is unneces^
302 ANIMAL MECHANISM.
sary minutiae. After leaving the inner extremity of the
vestibule, commences one canal of the cochlea, which
becomes smaller and smaller, till it terminates under the
cupola. Now, supposing the reader were travelling in
this canal, he could step from the termination of the one,
we are describing over the broad opening of the modiolus,
shaded above by the cupola, into the mouth of the second
canal. By following its turns, increasing in diameter, as
he proceeds, till he has gone twice and a half round the
modiolus, he would arrive at the fenestra rotunda or
round window. This being like parchment, semi-trans-
parent, he could look into the tympanum where the little
bones are lodged.
Thus it is, that one canal is in reality a prolongation
of the vestibule, and the other opens into the tympanum.
A fluid fills the canals, which is prevented from escaping
by the oval window, in the vestibule, in one direction,
and by the round one at the other. In the centre of this
liquor, floating, are the finely organized threads of the
acoustic nerve.
Those animals having the power of combining sounds
to produce song, have a cochlea, and generally, a corres-
ponding vocal apparatus. Birds, particularly, have a
cochlea, but it consists only of two tapering tubes, united
at one extremity, but diverging at the other, as in man.
A musical ear was once thought by physiologists, to de-
pend exclusively on a cochlea ; but common sense
teaches us, and the fact is notorious, that singers as well
as those who cannot sing, have ears constructed precisely
alike ; and therefore, the whole mystery depends on the
peculiar development of the brain.
Explanation of Figure 9. FIG. 9.
Let it be remembered by the reader, that that part
of the last as well as the following diagram, which js|
has a sort of shell like turn, is denominated the
cochlea.
The object in this drawing, is to show the soft
contents of the labyrinth, of their natural size and
in their natural situation. All the rock like portions
of the temporal bone have been broken away.
aa, the spiral plate of the cochlea; b the round sac, or sac of the
cochlea ; c alveus communis ; g the posterior ; k the superior,
and I exterior semicircular canal.
ANIMAL MECHANISM.
THE AUDITORY NERVE.
There is no part of the intricate organ we have been
explaining, more absolutely difficult to display and to fully
understand, in all its relations, than the nerve of hearing,
and we shall therefore avoid all laborious anatomical des-
criptions, and merely generalize. All the nerves origina-
ting in the brain, are reckoned from before, backward,
that is, beginning with olfactories, at the nose, and
ending with the tongue, or lingtials.
In this order, the auditory is the seventh, a pair
precisely alike on the two sides of the brain; not much
larger than cotton sewing threads ; it enters the cochlea
first through a sieve like orifice, on one side of a bone
that projects from the inside of the skull towards the
brain. This depression where the nerve enters, to travel
outward, towards the external ear, is the meatus audito-
rius interims. It assumes a variety of shapes in distribu-
ting itself in the various tubes, sacs, canals and pits we
have been exhibiting. At some points, many delicate
threads are discoverable, side by side : at others, fibres
are seen floating in the surrounding fluid, from the main
trunk : at others, the nerves assumes the form of a flocu-
lent paste, and at others, a woolly texture. The whole,
distributed thus elaborately, constitutes the nerve of
hearing. The sense of hearing is not confined, in a
healthful condition of the organ, to any one particular
part or point : the sensation is perceived in the whole at
the same instant of time. The question now may arise,
why was it necessary to construct such an intricate
machine, if one part of it has not a higher office to sus-
tain than another ?
Economy was the object : to pack as much as possi-
ble in the smallest space, is observable in all animal
mechanism. No other kind of arrangement of cells in
the small block of bone in which these are found, would
or could have afforded so much surface to spread out
such an extent of nerve. This then is the probable rea-
son for semi-circular canals, the cochlea and their ap-
pendages.
304 ANIMAL MECHANISM.
MUSICAL EAR.
No question oftener arises amongst physiologists, on
surveying the auditory apparatus, than this, viz. why
has one person the ear for music, when another, whose
internal organ is as beautifully and nicely constructed,
is totally unable to appreciate harmonious sounds ? The
difficulty, probably js in the peculiar development of
some portion of the brain, and therefore does not arise in
consequence of a defect in the original conformation of
the ear. It obviously requires as delicate auricular per-
ception to appreciate, understand and imitate articulate
sounds, as it does to sing in concert. It is by no means
uncommon for an individual to possess the faculty of ap-
preciating and cultivating, the highest departments of
instrumental music, and at the same time be wholly
unable to sing. This is entirely owing to a defective
development of the vocal organs. A perfect organiza-
tion of both, in the same individual, united to that in-
scrutable development of brain which gives the taste for
music, constitutes the most gifted performer, and such
as Handel, Mozart, Beethhoven, Mad. Catalina, Garcia,
the wonderful Paganini, and a few others have exhibited
to the highest human perfection. Another circumstance,
worth remembering, in relation to the musical ear, is the
following : some persons have the ear as well as the
taste for music, and yet find it impossible to accompany
others in a performance. This arises, probably, in most
cases, in consequence of a non-agreement in the tension
of the drum heads of the two ears, or a want of corres-
pondence in the calibre of the internal tubes ; hence one
ear perceives sounds to be half a tone above or below the
other the same occurs in respect to the focal distance,
oftentimes, of the eyes. Time rarely corrects the former,
though in the latter it finally modifies the aberration. ( 7 )
( 7 ) Philosophers of antiquity were more conversant with the doc-
trine of sounds, than the moderns: the remarkable cavern, hewn
in a solid rock by a celebrated tyrant, and called Dionysius' ear, is
said to have been an exact model of the windings of the human
ear. Vitruvius gives an interesting and particular account of the
manner iu which the Greeks contrived to augment the compass of
the voice in theatres, by placing large metal vases in different \nrts
ANIMAL MECHANISM. 305
RINGING OF THE EARS.
A ringing noise in the ear is an indication of a dis-
eased state of the nerve ; generally, it arises from some
slight inflammation. The beating of adjacent arteries,
in consequence of local inflammation of the throat, may
excite the nerve, which being incapable of transmit-
ting any sensation but that of sound, the ringing is an
imperfect sen-ation. The eye, when the optic nerve is
encroached upon by inflammation of surrounding parts,
or the pressure of a growing tumor, transmits the sensa-
tion of light, though the individual be in total darkness;
affections of the brain itself may remotely excite a mor-
bid action in many or all the nerves of sense. Hence,
persons dying of acute inflammatory diseases, complain
of hearing loud and strange noises, although the apart-
ment is perfectly still.
Perhaps the ear-ache, (ostalgia) is as difficult to ex-
plain as to remedy. Very many individuals are subject
to excruciating pain in the internal ear, on taking the
slightest cold or from exposing themselves to a humid
atmosphere ; and others seem to inherit the disease,
which no application can remove. A peculiar irritability
of the nerve that crosses the drum-head, (corda ti/mpani)
may be one cause, the vascular covering of which,
suffering from a chronic inflammation, compresses the
nerve and thus produces almost intolerable agony. De-
fending the external opening with cotton wool, or lint,
is a common and indeed, rational defence ; but the in-
troduction of oils, spirits and the like, is often attended
with pernicious consequences. Generally such cases
end in deafness. Nature, to save the rest of the machine
from becoming disordered, by its sympathy with the
diseased member, finally destroys it, as firemen demolish
of those edifices. Mr Curtis, an aurist, in England, has recently
invented a chair, with certain pipes and tambours, that enables the
individual seated in it to hear, distinctly, a suppressed conversation,
which may be carried on in any part of the room.
VOL. I. NO. XII. 27
306
ANIMAL MECHANISM.
contiguous buildings, to save a town, when they can no
longer master a threatening conflagration. ( 7 )
PARTIAL DEAFNESS, FROM A COLD.
Probably, in a majority of cases, partial deafness arises
from a slight inflammation of the tube opening behind
the palate. In consequence of this, the balance between
the air in the tympanum and mouth, is destroyed, and
the regular vibratory function of the membrane is alter-
ed. A deafness in one ear generally depends on this
cause. Tumors in the throat, and polipi of the nose,
by pressure on the mouth of the eustachian tube, where
it opens back of the soft palatine arch, may each of
them be the cause of deafness. Deafness in fevers is
an excellent symptom, and offers encouragement in the
worst cases, because it is an evidence of a diminution of
the morbid condition of the brain.
FIG. 10.
Explanations to Figure 10.
An enlarged ivew of the labyrinth laid open.
a> 5 f C) the cochlea. To exhibit the zona mollis ; the outside
or bony case removed.
(!) Painful affections of the ear may be induced from habitually
picking the ears, a very pernicious practice. In India, where a
cla*s of men particularly follow the profession of cleansing ears, cut-
ANIMAL MECHANISM. 307
d, e, y, the vestibulura.
g, to q, the semicircular canals.
g t h, i, the posterior ; k, I, m, the superior; o, p, q, the exte-
rior canal.
1, 2, 3 the lamina spiralis, seen on itg under surface; 3, the two
sacs so often mentioned in this .tract, in the vestibule, which,
viewed in this plan, look like one.
t, u, the membranous posterior canal.
v, w, x, the superior membranous canal, uniting with the last, at
x, y, z, the exterior membranous canal.
Tliis diagram exhibits the distribution of the acoustic nerve in
the labyrinth ; the large branch goes to the cochlea, and the three
others, smaller, to the vestibule, and three semicircular canals.
PERMANENT DEAFNESS.
A total deafness implies a destruction of the organ :
but I apprehend there are only a very few persons in this?
condition. Even in those unfortunate fellow-beings who
are deaf and dumb, the faculty of hearing, to a certain
extent, still exists. They hear the report of a cannon,
or heavy thunder, which act so powerfully on the body as
to rouse the sleeping energies of the acoustic nerve. In
fact, the tremor is communicated by being propagated
through the bones of the head. Fishes, of the bony
kind, have the organ of hearing acted upon in the same
manner, as the nerve is completely cased up in solid
bone, without either drum-head or external openings.
Many years ago, in the course of a visit at the Hartford
deaf and dumb Asylum, I ascertained many of the
pupils could feel sounds, which they could not hear, by
holding a twine between the teeth, while the other end
was tied to a musical instrument at considerable dis-
tance. One young gentlemen assured me that he derived
a pleasurable sensation from the vibrations of the strings
of a piano. It is my firm belief that many persons who
ting the nails, &c though in that .climate <he secretions may be
fluid, in greater abundance, and discharge freely, th.e plucking of the
hairs and frequent introduction of scraping instruments render the
organ irritable, and less accurate in the perception of sounds.
Tumors, ulcerations and other troublesome complaints are
brought on by picking them. A sudden pressure on the corda tym-
pani, a nerve belonging to the face, which crosses the drum-head,
by the head of a pin, may forever after render it liable to inflame
on the slightest exposure.
Fluids ought not to be poured into the external ear to drown in-
sects, aa the worst consequences may ensue.
$03 ANIMAL MECHANISM.
are deaf and dumb, might readily be restored by a punc-
ture of the membran^, even in advanced life. ( 9 )
CONCLUSION.
None of the organs of sense are more complicated or
splendidly constructed than the one under consideration.
The will has it but slightly under its control, and being
unable ' to withdraw itself from impressions,' it has
the curious apparatus of little bones to increase or dimin-
ish the intensity of impressions on the nerve, like a
regulator between the external agent and the nervous
tissues. Judgment, by the combined assistance of the
other senses, perfects the function of the organ and
ideas, without number are constantly ushered into being
by the sense of hearing.
By this sense, music is a never failing source of plea-
sure, heightened and infinitely modified, according to
the physical development of the ear, and the discipline
and education to which it has in modern times been
subjected. ' The causes of the pleasure resulting from
harmony and melody, are very far from being satisfac-
torily explained, notwithstanding the sagacious conjec-
tures and repeated attempts of the most able metaphysi-
cians, as well as physiologists : we know no more of
them than we do of the causes of the pleasures and pains
of all the other senses.'
(9) Dr Forster of Manchester, England, who recently ascended
to the height of 6000 feet in a balloon, in company with Mr Green,
the aeronaut, remarked that the pressure on the membrane of the
ear, arising from the rarefaction of the atmosphere, was so painful
as to oblige him to descend ; sounds, however loud, below, soon
became inaudible as he ascended. Dr Forster suggests that an
aerial jaunt into the clouds, might cure some kinds of deafness.
BOSTON :
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SCIENTIFIC TRACTS.
NUMBER XIII.
SOUND.
I. VIBRATIONS OF SOUNDING BODIES.
EVERY one has noticed that, in many cases, where
sound is produced, there is a trembling or vibration of
the sounding body. This is evidently the case when a
heavy bell is struck, or the large strings of a viol are
sounded. In some other cases, as in the flute and whis-
tle, these tremblings are less obvious. They are not
however less real. Sound is, in all cases, produced by
vibrations in a sounding body, occasioning similar vibra-
tions in the air.
Various facts will, at once, occur to the reader, illus-
trative of this principle.
The vibrations of a large bell, or of a viol string, as
above remarked, are visible.
The head of a drum is thrown into a state of vibration
by the strokes of the drumstick.
If a tuning fork, when sounding, is touched to the
teeth, the vibrations are sensibly felt.
If the tuning fork or a bell be touched with the finger,
so as to check these vibrations, the sound is instantly
stopped .
In the rctd stops, as they are called, of an organ, the
sounds are produced by the vibrations of thin slips of
metal, fastene'd^t one end.
If a large glass vessel, partly filled with water, is made
to sound by rubbjlig the edge with a wet finger, the vibra-
tions produced are made evident by peculiar and beauti-
ful undulations in the water. If the upper part of the
VOL. i. NO. xin. 28
310 SOUND.
tumbler is held by the hand, so as to prevent vibrations,
the sound will be prevented.
Sound may be produced by one single shock or con-
cussion of the sounding body, in which case the vibrations
continue but an instant. The blow of a hammer, the
crack of a whip, a pistol shot, the stroke of a bell,
when the hand is pressed upon the outside of the bell, so
as to prevent a continuance of the sound are examples.
If, however, these vibrations are continued for some
time with ^regularity, a continued and equable sound is
produced, Called a musical sound or tone. Arnott illus-
trates this subject in the following manner. 'If a wheel
with teeth be made to turn and to strike a piece of quill
with every tooth, it will, when moved slowly, allow every
tooth to be seen, and every blow to be separately heard ;
but with increasing velocity, the eye will lose sight of the
teeth, and the ear will at last hear only a smooth con-
tinued sound, called a tone, of which the character will
change with the velocity of the wheel.'
In like manner, the vibrations of a long harp-string,
while it is very slack, are separately visible, and the
pulses, produced by it in the air, are separately audible ;
but as it is gradually tightened, its vibrations quicken,
and the eye soon sees that it is moving only by a broad
shadowy line; the distinct sounds which the ear lately
perceived, run together, owing to the shortness of inter-
vals, and are felt as one uniform, continued tone, which
constitutes the note or sound proper to the string. It is
the elasticity of such a string which causes the repetition
of the percussions, and therefore the continuance of the
sound. Thus the string having been pulled at its
middle to one side, and then let go, its elasticity carries
it back quickly to the straight position ; but by the time
it has reached this, it has acquired a momentum which,
like the momentum of a vibrating pendulum, carries it
nearly as far beyond the middle station as the place from
whence it came. It has to return therefore from this
second deviation, by its elasticity, in the same way ; but
still passing the middle as before, it has again to return,
and thus continues vibrating as a pendulum does, until
SOUND 311
the resistance of the air and friction bring it gradually
to rest.
A large vibration of any one string occupies very nearly
the same time as a smaller, because the more the
string is bent, the more forcibly it is pulled back again
by its elasticity ; hence the uniformity of a musical tone.
To the perfection of a tone, it is of no consequence in
what way the pulses are produced, provided they follow
with sufficient regularity ; witness the pure sound pro-
duced by the motion of a fly's wing^- supposed by many
to be the voice of the insect. ThWclacking of a corn-
mill, and the noise of a stick, pulled along a grating, are
not musical only because the pulses follow too slowly.
Where a continued sound is produced by impulses
which do not, like those of an elastic body, follow in reg-
ular succession, the effect ceases to be a clear, uniform
sound or tone, and is called a noite. Such is the sound
of a saw or grindstone ; the roar of waves, breaking on
a rocky shore, or of a violent wind in a forest ; the roar
and crackling of houses, or of a wood in flames ; the mixed
voices of a talking multitude; the diversified sounds of a
great city, including the rattling of wheels, the clanking
of hammers, the voice of street criers, the noises of man-
ufactories, &c ; which rough elements, however, at last
mingle with such uniformity, that the combined result is
often called the hum of men, from analogy to the smooth
mingling miniature sounds which constitute the hum of
a bee-hive.
II. VIBRATIONS IN THE AIR.
The vibrations of sounding bodies above described are
communicated to the air around them, and thence to the
ear. Without the air, therefore, although the bell would vi-
brate if struck, the vibrations would not be communicated
to us, and we should hear no sound. That these vibrations
are thus conveyed through the air is evident from a vari-
ety of facts and experiments. The following is, however,
a sufficient illustration.
If two bass-viols, tuned so that corresponding strings
in each, will give the same sound, be placed in two rooms,
312 SOUND.
at a distance from each other of ten or fifteen feet, and
the bow be drawn across a string of one, so as to produce
a loud sound, the corresponding string in the other in-
strument will be thrown into vibrations, and a similar
sound will proceed from it. This can arise from no other
circumstance than that the vibrations of the string, across
which the bow is drawn, are communicated to the air,
and through the air to the same string in the other viol.
These vibratory motions in the air, are very different
in their nature froi^progrcssivc motions, and it is im-
portant here to explam them. They are usually illustrated
by the undulations of water.
If a piece of wood is lying still, on the surface of water,
and a stone be thrown beyond it, a series of undulations
are produced, which recede from the place where the
stone fell, and seem to be a motion of the water itself to-
wards the shore. This is, however, not the fact. The
motion seems to be progressive, but is really only vibra-
tory. The stone falling into the water, produces a de-
pression in that place, the surrounding water presses in
to fill it, and by its momentum an elevation is produced.
The water thus elevated falls by its weight, and produces
an elevated ring around it. This by its descent produces
another and another, larger in diameter, and nearer the
shore ; but in such rapid succession, that it seems as if
the teave first produced, itself moiled towards the shore.
That this is not really the case is evident from this fact :
If, before the stone was thrown in, apiece of wood had
been floating on the water, we should have observed that
the wood would approach but very little, if at all, nearer
the shore. It would rise and fall with each successive
circle, but still make no visible progress. Now, as the
wood would move with the water, if there was really a
progressive motion of the latter, we can safely infer that
all the motion of the water is simply a rising and falling,
or a vibratory motion, not a progressive one, towards the
shore. The appearance is delusive.
The undulations of the air are in the same manner vi-
bratory, that is to and fro, not progressive. This may be
illustrated by the annexed diagram.
SOUND.
313
Let A B C D, represent
the strings of two bass-viols,
5 laced fifteen or twenty feet
istant ; o x y z, particles of
air through which the sound
made by drawing a bow over
the string A B, of the first
viol, is communicated to the
string C D, of the second
viol. When the string A B,
is put in motion it comes in
contact with the particle of
air o, or sufficiently near to
give it an impulse. This
particle receives an impulse
sufficient to carry it forward
in the direction of the dotted
line e, from thence it returns
an equal distance on the other side of the point from whence it
started.
The second particle of air, x is impelled forward in a direction
towards y, by the first particle o, and the same with all the
others of' the series. The sound made by drawing a bow over
the string A B, of the first viol, is thus transmitted through
the successive particles of air, and at length reaches the string C D
of the second viol, and causes it to sound. Here it will be eviden
that there is no progressive motion of the particles. Each one moves
slightly and then returns to its place. It probably goes back farther
than to its first place, and after various oscillations comes to a stale of
rest in its original position. If, however, the whole mass of air
moved onwards, it would be wind not sound.
That sound is thus conveyed by vibrations of the air, is
evident from many other facts. The concussion thus
produced is sometimes very great. A discharge of artil-
lery will sometimes break windows. The thunder has
often the same effect. An explosion of a powder mill
produces a shock in the air for many miles, though un-
doubtedly in this case the concussion is not altogether
produced by the sound.
It follows from what has been said above, that without
air there would be no sound. This fact has been proved
by many experiments. If a bell be placed under a glass
vessel from which the air has been exhausted, any efforts
to produce a sound by striking the bell, will be in vain.
A faint sound may sometimes be heard ; but this would
not be the case if the air could be completely exhausted
from the glass vessel, and the connexion with surround-
VOL. i. NO. xin. 28*
314 SOUND.
ing solid substances, capable of conveying sound, could
be entirely cut off.
This experiment has been tried in the following man-
ner. Under the receiver of an air pump, a piece of clock
work was placed, to produce sound in a bell, which
rested upon a bag stuffed with cotton or wool. A vacuum
was produced by working the pump, and then by means
of a handle, or stem which went through the top of the
receiver, the clock work was set in motion, and the
"hammer was then seen to strike the bell continually, but
no sound was heard. Another philosopher, to render
this experiment still more decisive, placed the bell in a
first receiver, which remained full of air, and which was
covered by a second receiver, so disposed that a vacuum
might be made between the two. Although in this dis-
tribution of things, a sound was produced in the interior
receiver, when motion was communicated to the hammer,
yet the bell remained mute with regard to the observer ;
he perceived no sound.
The loudness of sounds consequently depend in some
measure upon the density or rarity of the air. When
the air is dense a distant bell is heard more distinctly
than usual. A cannon fired on the top of a mountain is
not heard so distinctly as it would be in a less elevated
situation, on account of the rarity of the air. Saus-
sure noticed this when upon the Alps. The pistol
which he discharged at that great elevation, produced
scarcely anything but a flash. In a deep mine, where
the air is denser than at the surface, the sound would be
louder than usual. The thundering noise, however,
which travellers produce in caverns, is not owing chiefly
to this cause, but to reverberations which will be subse-
quently explained.
Sound is affected not only by different degrees of
density in the atmosphere, but it varies in the same way,
when produced in different^ases of various densities.
' Sounding bodies vibrate much more rapidly, if
placed in hydrogen, than in common air, and more
quickly in common air, than in any of the heavier
g ases : " because the lighter the air, the less is the
resistance to a body moving in it. Thus also a bell will
315
ring under water, but produce a much graver sound than
in the air.
1 That water also is a vehicle of sound, is proved by
the fact last mentioned, by the distinctness with which
the blows of workers around a diving-bell are heard
above, and by the fact that fishes hear very acutely.'*
III. MOTION OF SOUND.
1. Communication of sound through solids.
Sound is communicated also through solids. The
vibrations move even with greater rapidity through a
solid substance ; the following are examples :
';Children often suspend a pair of tongs or other metal-
lic substance by a string, the end of which is pressed
into the ear. The sound in this case, is heard much
more distinctly than usual, the vibrations being conveyed
by the solid fibres of the string. In the same manner
the scratch of a pin at one end of a log of wood is
directly heard by the ear applied at the other end',
although through the air it is not at all audible. Sava-
ges often discover the proximity of enemies, or of prey,
by applying an ear to the ground and hearing their tread.
The approach of horsemen at night is easily discovered
in the same way. The report of a cannon placed on
ice, is carried much farther by the ice than by the arr
around. In the military operation of mining, or cutting
away under ground, for the purpose of entering a citadel,
or blowing up fortifications, the approach of the enemy
is often discovered by the subterranean sound of the '
pioneers' tools. The awful muttering of earthquakes is
merely the sound of subterranean explosions, conveyed
from amazing distances, by the solid earth.
' The readiness with which solids receive and transmit
sounds, is further perceived in the fact, that a small
musical box while held in the hand, is scarcely audible,
but when pressed against a table or a door, will rival a
little harp. The vibration communicated from the box,
pervades the whole of the wood, and the extended surface
then acting on the air increases the effect. The con-
* Arnott.
316 SOUND.
struclion of violins, harps, guitars, &c, and of sounding
boards, generally is governed by the same law. In the
dancing-master's kit or small fiddle, which he carries in
his pocket, there are the same strings, and the same bow
as for a violin, but it has very little sound because the
extent of its surface is so small. A heavy piece of metal,
called a sourdine, when fixed upon the bridge of a violin,
damps the sound, because it is a dead mass resisting the
motion of the elastic wood.'
2. Motion of Sound through the Air.
Every one has noticed that sound does not pass from
place to place, through the air instantaneously. We see
the flash and the smoke of a distant cannon some seconds
before we hear the report. When a cloud is remote
from us, we see its lightning, and a pause, sometimes of
minutes, intervenes, before the rumbling of the thunder
reaches our ears. We see the flashes, in these cases, at
the instant of their occurrence, and hear the sound after
a sufficient interval has passed to allow of the transmission
of the vibrations through the intervening distance.
The velocity with which sound passes through the
air, has been ascertained by careful experiments. The
method is obvious. If a ship stationed at a known dis-
tance from the spectator, fires a gun, and the distance
between the flash and the report is accurately noted by
means of a stop watch, it is easy to calculate the velocity
per second. For example, suppose that by means of the
stop watch, we find that thirty seconds elapse after seeing
the flash, before hearing the report. We next ascertain
exactly the distance of the ship. Suppose we find it to
be 6 miles and 860 yards. This reduced to feet, is
34,260 ft. which divided by 30, the number of seconds,
gives us for a quotient 1142. The result of the calcula-
tion therefore is, that the sound of the cannon travels at
the rate of 1 142 feet in a second.
This is the velocity which is now generally assigned
to sound. Though different experiments have given
very different results, as the following table will show.
The first number, 968 feet, given by Sir Isaac Newton,
was obtained not by experiment but by mathematical
calculation.
SOUND. 317
I
r Isaac Newton,
e Hon. Mr Roberts,
e Hon. Mr Boyle,
Dr Walker,
Mersennus,
968 Princip Phil Nat L 2, Prop. 50,
1300 Phil. Trans. No 209.
1200 E*say of languid Motion, p 29
1338 Phil. Trans. No 247.
1474 Balistic Prop. 39.
,Mr FlamsteadandDrHalley, 1142 Exper. per Acad. del. Cimen
'The Florentine Academy. ill46 P. 141.
The French Observers, J1172 Du Hamel Hist. Acad. Rex.
3. Experiments for calculating the velocity of Sound.
Perhaps the most careful of the experiments which
have been performed, were those of Derham, not far from
London. One observer ascended a hill to discharge a
gun, and others took their stations upon other hills at
various distances from three to twelve miles. In order
to measure the time, they had a very accurate instrument,
with a pendulum vibrating half seconds. That the reader
may judge of the particularity and accuracy with which
the experiments were performed, we^ubjoin the queries
which the philosophers proposed to themselves, and with
reference to which the arrangements of the experiments
were made.
' J . How much space sound passed through in a second,
or any other interval of time? 2. Whether a gun dis-
charged towards the observer, transmit the report in the
same space of time, as when discharged the contrary way 1
3. Whether, in any state of the atmosphere, when the
mercury either ascends or descends in the barometer,
sound pass over the same space in the same interval of
time ? 4. Whether sound move with greater velocity in
the day-time, than in the night? 5. Whether a favorable
wind accelerate sound, and a contrary wind retard it ;
and how winds affect sound ? 6. Whether sound move
with a greater velocity in a calm day, than when the wind
blows ? 7. Whether a violent wind blowing transversely
accelerate or retard the motion of sound ? 8. Whether
sound have the same degree of motion in summer and.
winter, by day and night, in snowy and in fair weather ?
9. Whether a great and small sound have the same degree
of motion ? 10. Whether in all elevations of a gun ; viz.
from point blank to ten, twenty, and ninety degrees,
318 SOUND.
sound reach the observer's ear in the same space of time 1
11. Whether all sorts of sounds, as those of guns, bells,
hammers, &-c, have the same degree of motion ? 12.
Whether the different strength of gunpowder vary the
motion of sound ] 13. Whether sound pass over the
same space in the same interval of time, on the tops of
high mountains, and in the bottoms of valleys ; or in the
highest and lowest parts of the atmosphere ? 14. Whether
sound in acclivities and declivities have the same degree
of motion; or whether it descends from the top to the
foot of the hill with the same velocity, as it ascends from
the foot to the top of the same 1 15. Whether sound
move swifter in the beginning, and slower at the end; as
is the case in a great many other violent motions 1 16.
Or whether it be not rather equable 1 viz. moving in
half the time, over half the space ; in a fourth part of the
time, a fourth part of the space, &c. 17. Whether
sound have the same degree of motion in all climates,
both north and soudfr, in England, France, Italy, Germany,
&,c 1 18. Whether sound pass from one place to another
in a straight line, or in the shortest way ; or whether it
move along the superfices of the intermediate earth ? '
The answer to all these questions may be given in a sin-
gle sentence. The velocity of sound through the air, is
under all circumstances the same. A wind will of course
retard or accelerate it, according to the velocity of the
wind.
On account of 'the variation in the results of previous
experiments, the French [Academy of Sciences, in 1728
undertook them anew. They stationed a cannon at
Monthlery, and noticed the report at Montmartre near
Paris, a distance of 2 miles, 4076 feet. They found
the sound to have a uniform velocity of 1107 feet in a
second ; so that it was merely weaker at a greater dis-
tance, but passed successively through equal spaces in
equal times. The velocity seemed to be affected by no
circumstances but the direction and force of the wind.
It was the same in rainy as in settled weather. The
wind occasioned no variation when it blew in a direction
perpendicular to a line drawn from the cannon to the
observer, But when both were in the same direction, it
SOUND. 319
was necessary to add the velocity of the wind to that of
the sound ; when in opposite directions, this was to be
subtracted. The force of the sound was found to cause
no change in the velocity, the feeblest report reaching
the ear in an equal space of time with the loudest.
The velocity of sound as determined by the French
Academicians, is less by 35 feet than the commonly re-
ceived computation of Derham, 1142. The Florentine
Academy make it 1148. Farther experiments are neces-
sary to determine which of these is nearest to truth ; or
whether the velocity does not vary in different times,
places, and temperatures. Some late philosophers have
doubted the uniformity of the velocity. Yet Derham,
whose experiments have been conducted with great care,
says, ' That in all weathers, whether the sky be clear
and serene, or cloudy and turbid, whether it snows or
rains, thunders or lightens, whether hot or cold, winter
or summer, whether the mercury in the barometer rises
or falls, in all changes of atmosphere, wind only excepted,
the velocity of sound is neither more nor less ; only
the sound will be more or less loud.
As before stated, some other philosophers have sup-
posed that they could perceive a difference in the velocity
of sound, occasioned by various circumstances ; such as
the state of the weather, the loudness of the sound, &c.
But the experiments of Derham, which lead to a different
result, were performed with greater care, and with more
accurate instruments. The opinions of the other philos-
ophers, too, might be expected to be influenced by the
strong expectation which any one would have of finding
such a difference. For example, every one would ex-
pect that a very loud and intense sound would force itself
through the air with greater velocity than a faint and
dull one. Yet the result of Mr Derham's experiments,
showed that the sounds of all bodies, such as guns, bells,
hammers, &c, have the same degree of velocity. ' He
compared the strokes of a hammer, and the report of a
gun, at the distance of a mile, (that being the greatest at
which he could hear the sound of a hammer,) and he
found that the sound of both reached him at the same
320 SOUND.
time ; and that it had passed over , , and , of the
same space, in , 4-, and ^-, of the same time. As to intense
and languid sounds, Mr Derham found that they pass
through the same space in the same time ; as appears from
the following experiments. At Tilbury Fort were fired one
or two common guns, and also a great gun, into which
the powder was well rammed ; the report of all these
reached Mr Derham, who was about three miles off, at
the same time. After sun-set, some muskets, sakers,*
and mortars were discharged on Blackheath. Mr Der-
ham could not hear the muskets, either on account of the
great distance, or because the air was not clear enough ;
yet he heard the sakers and mortars in the same space of
time, though the report of the mortars was more languid
and weak than that of the sakers.'
4. Various Phenomena produced by the Motion of
Sound. j
In consequence of the fact that it requires some time
for sound to pass through the air, it is impossible for two
sounds at any distance from each other, to be heard at
the same moment of time, by persons who are at those
places.
If A and B are standing at the distance of one mile
from each other, and each fires a gun at the same mo-
ment, A will riot hear B's gun until several seconds
after he hears his own, because the sound will require
that time to pass through the distance between them.
And the same will be the case with B. One might
at first suppose that if A should wait and fire at the mo-
ment he hears the report from B the two sounds would
then be heard together. A would hear them together,
but the time that must elapse after B had fired, before
the sound from A would come to him, would be greater
than if they fired at the same moment. For he must
wait till the sound of his own gun had gone to A, and
then until the sound of A's discharge should return to
him. It is thus evidently impossible for two persons,
standing at a distance from each other, to produce a
sound which shall be heard by both, at the same time.
* A spicies of ordnance.
It is on account of this principle, that in long ranks of
soldiers where two bands of music are placed at a con-
siderable interval from each other, it is impossible for
the two bands to keep time with each other. They may
indeed play together, but each soldier will hear the
nearest sounds quickest, and thus they will seem to be
out of time. It is often noticed too, that if from an emi-
nence we look upon a long column which is marching
to a band of music in front, the various ranks do not
step exactly together. Those in the rear are in each
step a little later than those before them. This produces
a sort of undulation in the whole column, which is diffi-
cult to describe but which all who have noticed it will
understand. Each rank steps, not when the sound is
made, but when in its progress down the column at the
rate of 1142 feet per second, it reaches their ears.
Those who are near the music hear it as soon as it is
produced, while the others must wait till sufficient time
shall have elapsed, for it to have passed through the air
to them.
Should a commander stand at the distance of a fifth
of a mile from his army, and command them to fire, they
might all obey at the moment when the word of command
reaches them ; but the officer will hear the report of the
guns from those at the side nearest him first, then those
a little farther off, and so on to the most remote. Thus
though all might obey with equal alacrity, the sounds will
not, and cannot appear simultaneous, for the reports of the
distant guns must be delayed long enough for the com-
mand to pass from the officer to the men, and then for
the sound to return. All attempts therefore to make the
firing appear exactly simultaneous from a long line must
be in vain.
5. Distances calculated by the velocity of Sound.
The velocity of sound being thus once ascertained, it
is evidently easy to calculate with the assistance of this
knowledge, the distance of any object near which a loud
sound is produced, as a ship firing a gun at sea, or a
thunder cloud.
VOL. i. NO. xiii. 29
322 SOUND.
In order to illustrate this subject, let us suppose our-
selves standing on an elevated rock near the sea-shore ;
a cannon is fired from a distant ship, and we are desirous
to know the number of miles the ship is below us. We
observe the moment when we see the flash of the cannon,
and then by a stop watch or by some accurate instrument
count the number of seconds which elapse before we hear
the report. Suppose it to be 30 seconds. Now, as it has
been ascertained, that sound travels at the rate of 1 142 feet
in a second, we must in this case, multiply 114:2 by 30.
We shall thus find that the ship is 34,^60 feet from us.
Dividing 34,'<2(iO by 5280 (the number of feet in a mile,)
we find that the ship is six miles and 2580 feet from us.
It is evident that these calculations of distances cannot,
in any case, be very accurate. It is difficult to ascertain
the time within half a second, and in half a second the
sound would move five hundred feet. But it may be of
some service occasionally to know the distance of an ob-
ject within a thousand feet. If chased at sea by a pirate,
it would be a satisfaction to know that his ship is many
miles from it, even if we were not sure whether it was
seven miles or seven and a half. In a thunder storm,
also, perfect accuracy in regard to the distance of the
cloud is not necessary. In the same manner, the distance
of a thunder cloud in a storm, may be easily calculated
by noticing the time which elapses between the lightning
and the thunder. It will be recollected by our readers,
that every flash of lightning is attended by a clap of
thunder ; and that they both really take place at the same
instant, though we see the flash usually at the moment it
occurs,* while we must wait for the sound of the thun-
der to traverse the intermediate distance. In case a
stop watch is not at hand, the distance may be calculated
with some success, by counting the pulsations of any
healthy individual. These pulsations are generally about
once a second.
* Light travels a great distance almost instantaneously, it re-
quiring only 8 seconds to cross the orbit of the earth, a distance ot
190,000,000 of mile*. Consequently in a passage of a/etc miles, the
lape of time is not perceptible.
323
IV". THE EAR.
The vibrations in the air caused by a sounding body,
are communicated to the ear, and from that to the brain,
by the connexion of which with the mind, the idea of
sound is produced.
The ear is composed of an external ear, so contrived
as to collect the vibrations of the air ; of a tube lying at
the root of the external ear, through which these vibrations
pass to a thin membrane, called the drum of the ear, on
account of its resemblance to the head of a drum. This
vibrates, and gives motion to four small moveable bones,
which are so connected with each other, and with the
drum of the ear, that if the drum of the ear vibrate, these
bones are put in motion, at the same moment. The last
bone of the four, is called the stapes, which in connexion
with some complicated parts whose use is not fully un-
derstood, conveys the sound to the auditory nerve which
proceeds from the brain. When the vibrations thus come
to the sensorium, they there produce found. Strictly speak-
ing there is no sound, but only a motion of particles,
before. A thousand thunders would produce no sound
unless there was a living being to hear. Without this
they would occasion only silent agitations of the air.
V. REFLECTION OF SOUND, OR ECHO.
Suppose a cannon to be fired at a distance from a per-
pendicular wall. This causes vibrations in the air, and
the particles conveying sound at length reach the wall,
and not being able to proceed any further, return back,
and produce what we call a reverberation or echo.
The echo may be illustrated by the following experi-
ment. If a pebble be thrown into the centre of a vessel
containing water, circular waves will be immediately
formed around the place where it falls, and will gradually
extend until they reach the sides of the vessel ; when
not being able to proceed farther, they will be reflected,
as it were, and a new succession of waves will extend
towards the centre. The air moves in precisely the same
manner in the production of the echo.
An echo follows every sound which is made, but it
generally follows the principal sound so immediately that
we do not perceive it. The more distant a sound is from
324 SOUND.
the object which reflects it, the longer will the echo be in
returning.
Consequently, a person speaking in a large hall, is
obliged to speak more slowly than he would in a small
room, in order to give the echo time to return from all
parts of the building. If he neglects this, and speaks as
rapidly as usual, it will be almost impossible to under-
stand him, as the words which he utters will be con-
founded with the returning echo.
Remarkable Echoes.
The following are some of the most celebrated echoes,
which writers have noticed.
Dr Plot, in his Natural History of Oxfordshire, men-
tions an echo in Woodstock Park, in Oxfordshire, which
repeats seventeen syllables in the day-time, and twenty
in the night. The difference if there is any is probably
occasioned by the stillness of the night which renders
the sounds more audible.
Harris describes an echo on the north side of the
Shipley church, in Sussex, as repeating twentyone sylla-
bles distinctly, under favorable circumstances.
Dr Birch informs us, that there was an echo at Rose-
neath, in Argyleshire, in Scotland, which distinctly
repeated, three times, a tune played on a trumpet. When
a person, placed at a proper distance, plays eight or ten
notes, they are correctly repeated, but a third lower ;
after a short silence, another repetition is heard, in a
still lower tone ; and, after another short interval, there is
a third repetition, in a yet lower tone.
Addison describes an echo at the palace of Simonetta.
near Milan, as returning the sound of a pistol fiftysix
times. The palace has two wings ; and, when a pistol
is fired from a window in one of the wings, the sound is
reflected from a dead wall in the other wing, and is heard
from a window in the back front. The following ac-
count of it, however, from Keysler, is more minute and
interesting.
' At the Marquis Simonetta's villa is a very extraordi-
nary echo ; it is occasioned by the reflection of the
voice between the opposite parallel wings of the building,
which are fiftyeight common paces from each other, and
SOUND. 325
*
without any windows or doors, by which the sound might
be dissipated or lost. The repetition of the sound dwells
chiefly on the last syllable, which might have been alter-
ed by allowing a greater distance between the two wings ;
but possibly it was apprehended, that the number of the
repetitions would be diminished by that means. Two or
more bodies placed opposite each other, at different
distances, are requisite to form a multiplied echo ; or the
wall at which the speaker stands, must have another wall
opposite to it, so as to form two parallel planes, which
will alternately reflect to each other the sound communi-
cated to them, with as little dissipation as possible. This
last circumstance is found in the two parallel wings of
this seat, which, forming right angles with the main body
of the building, have a very surprising effect. A man's
voice is repeated above forty times, and the report of a
pistol above sixty, by this echo : but the repetition is so
quick, that it is difficult to tell them, or even to mark
them down, unless it be early in the morning, or in a
calm still evening ; when the air is rather too moist or
too dry, the effect is found not to answer so well.'
Southwell mentions a building, similar to the palace
of Simonetta, which had projecting wings, and produced
sixty repetitions of every sound.
The Abbe Guynet describes an echo on the road from
Rochepot to Chalons, which repeats, in the day-time,
fourteen syllables well articulated, and, during the night,
sixteen syllables.
About three leagues from Verdun, there is a singular
echo, occasioned by two towers projecting from the body
of a house, and distant twentysix toises, or about fifty
metres. When a person stands in the line between the
two towers, and pronounces a word in a pretty high tone,
he will hear it repeated twelve or thirteen times at equal
intervals, and always more feebly. If he places himself
at a certain distance out of this line, the echo is no
longer heard. One of these towers has a low apartment
vaulted with hewn stone, while the other has its vestibule
vaulted.
In the memoirs of the French Academy of Sciences
for 1792, there is described a curious echo, at Geuefay,
32t> SOCND.
, . *
in the neighborhood of Rouen. A person who sings,
does not hear the repetition of the echo, but merely his
own voice ; while those who listen hear only the repeti-
tion of the echo, though \v ith singular variations. Some-
times the echo seems to approach, and at other times to
recede. One person hears a single voice, and another
several voices : one person hears the echo on the right,
and another on the left; the echo always varying with
the position of the person who hears it.
M. duesnet has described another singular echo near
Rouen, in the Memoirs of the Academy for 1664.
In the neighborhood of Coblentz, on the banks of
the Rhine, there is a very remarkable echo, which is
described by Barthius, in his notes upon the Thebaid of
Statius. He has heard it repeat words seventeen times,
and it produces exactly the same effects as. that at
Genefay, near Rouen.
At Lochencilan, a lake in Invernesshire, and the
property of J. P. Grant, Esq. of Rothiemurehus, there is
a very fine echo. The wall of an old castle, in the mid-
dle of the lake, repeats several syllables with great dis-
tinctness ; and when a pistol is fired, the sound is repeated
about thirty times, from the numerous and lofty hills with
which the lake is encircled.
In the neighborhood of Edinburgh, in the King's
Park, there is a place called the Echoing Rock. A per-
son standing in front of this will hear repeated with great
distinctness several syllables which he may utter. The
sound in this case is reflected from a circular wall at no
great distance, and the rock to which the property is
ascribed merely happens to be near the centre of the cir-
cular wall.
In erecting the baptistry of the church of Pisa, the
architect, Giovanni Pisano, disposed the concavity of the
cupola in such a manner, that any noise from below is
followed with a very loud and long double echo. The
repetition, however, is not so distinct as that of Simonetta.
Two persons whispering, and standing opposite to each
other, with their faces near the wall, can converse to-
gether without being overheard by the company between.
This arises from the elliptical form of the cupola, each
person being placed in the focus of the ellipse.
SOUND. 327
In the Cathedral church of Gloucester, there is a
whispering 'gallery above the eastern extremity of the
choir, which extends from one end of the church to the
other. If two persons, placed at the distance twentyfive
toises, speak to one another in the lowest voice, it is dis-
tinctly heard. A similar effect is produced in the vesti-
bule of the Observatory of Paris, and in the cupola of St
Paul's in London. Mr Southwell informs us, that, in
Italy, on the way to Naples, and two days' journey from
Rome, he saw in an inn, a square vault, where a whisper
could easily be heard at the opposite corner, but not at
all on the side corner that was near to you. This pro-
perty was common to each corner of the room. He saw
another on the way from Paris to Lyons, in the porch of
a common inn, which had a round vault. When any
person held his mouth to the side of the wall, several per-
sons could hear his whisper on the opposite side.
The whispering gallery in St Paul's, London, is a
great curiosity. It is 1 40 yards in circumference. It
is just below the dome, which is 430 feet in chcum-
ference. A stone seat runs round the gallery along the
front of the wall. On the side directly opposite the door
by which visitors enter, several yards of the seat are
covered with matting, on which the visitor being seated,
the man who shows the gallery whispers with the mouth
near the wall, at the distance of 140 feet from the
visitor, who hears his words in a loud voice, seemingly at
his ear. The mere shutting of the door produces a
sound like a peal of thunder rolling among the moun-
tains. The effect is not so perfect if the visitor sits
down halfway between the door and matted seat, and
much less if he stands near the man who speaks, but on
the other side of the door.
VI. MUSICAL SOUNDS.
The smallesfnumber of vibrations which will produce
sound, is twelve and a half per second, and the greatest
number audible is 6400 per second. There are two
methods, both exceedingly ingenious and curious, by
which these numbers are ascertained, which however,
cannot here be explained.
323 SOUND.
If a person should have a bar of steel vibrating at the
rate of twelve and a half times a second, a very low hum
would be heard, so low that it would scarcely be perceiv-
ed that it was a sound. Then if the experimenter should
have another bar of steel, so adjusted that it would
vibrate, twice as fast, that is, at the rate of tioentyjive
times per second, it would evidently produce two vibra-
tions to every one of the first bar. Thus the bars would
correspond at every other vibration, and no two bars can
correspond more closely.
A person might for a moment think that if one vibrates
thirteen times, when the other vibrates twelve and a half,
they will coincide more nearly. But in this case, they
would only coincide at the thirteenth vibration, whereas
if one vibrates twentyjive, while the other does twelve and
a half, they correspond every second beat. Now it is
found that the two sounds produced by two bars, vibra-
ting one twice as fast, as the other, unite more completely
and more pleasantly, than any other sound ; and one of
these is called the octave of the other.
Fifty vibrations in a second would produce a sound
an octavs above the one vibrating twentyfive times, and
one hundred the octave above that. The next would be
200 in a second , the next 400 ; then 800 ; then 1600;
then 3200; and last 6400. This makes in all nine
octaves, in which is included the whole compass of
musical sound. Beyond that number the sound becomes
inaudible.
These octave distances are subdivided ; that is, be-
tween every two of these sounds a multitude of others
may be made. The whole number of possible sounds,
therefore, is immensely great, but all must be comprised
between the first and last of the sounds above described.
The first, produced by twelve and a half vibrations being
a low hum scarcely distinguishable as a sound, and the
others increasing in shrillness until the last, produced
by 6400 vibrations in a second is almost lost to the ear.
The human voice produces only a small portion of these
possible sounds, perhaps those from one hundred to eight
vibrations in a second.
SCIENTIFIC TRACTS.
NUMBER XIV.
METEORS.
THAT department of physical science which treats of
atmospherical phenomena is called Meteorology. This
term includes all the various phenomena of the atmo-
sphere, as winds, cloud?, rain, hail, snow, dew, thunder,
lightning, and the fiery meteors.
The word Meteors is almost exclusively confined to
those luminous bodies, which occasionally appear in the
sky, and which are not governed by any known laws.
They may be arranged in three general classes. I. Au-
rora Borealis, or Northern Lights. II. Shooting Stars.
III. Ignes Fatui, usually termed Will o' the Wisps, ot
Jack o' Lanterns.
I. Aurora Borealis. When walking in a cloudless
evening, the eye is frequently directed to luminous ap-
pearances in the northern part of the heavens, called
Aurora Borealis, or Northern Lights. They are irregu-
lar in their appearance, assuming different forms and of
different degrees of brilliancy. Sometimes they con-
tinue for several successive days and nights ; and again
they are of but a few moments' duration. Sometimes
there is a pale illumination spread over a large extent of
sky ; again large flames waving to and fro, and sweeping
from one point of the heavens to the other. Sometimes
they assume the form of pillars of fire, and at other times
appear like slender fibrous rays of light, majestically
moving along the horizon. These movements are occa-
sionally accompanied with a hissing noise, or a low
VOL. i. NO. xiv. 30
330 METEORS.
rumbling, resembling distant thunder. In the Polar re-
gions where the shivering inhabitants have one long night
of six months, these lights assume an intense brilliancy,
and aide^. by the other luminaries of the evening sky
give almost the light of day, during the dreary interval
of the absence of the sun. Scarcely anything can sur-
pass the splendor which these phenomena assume, as
they glitter in the clear atmosphere of the frigid zone,
and are reflected from its mantle of eternal snow. In the
northeastern districts of Siberia, according to the de-
scription of Gruelin,* the Aurora is observed to ' begin
with single bright pillars rising in the north, and almost
at the same time in the northeast ; which gradually in-
creasing, comprehend a large space of the heavens,
rush about from place to place with incredible velocity,
and finally cover almost the whole sky up to the zenith,
and produce an appearance, as if a vaet tent were expand-
ed in the heavens glittering with gold, rubies and sapphire.
A more beautiful spectacle cannot be painted. But
whoever should see such a northern light for the first
time, could not behold it without terror. For however
fine the illumination may be, it is attended, as I have
learned from many persons, with such a hissing, crack-
ling and rushing noise through the air, as if the largest
fire works were playing off. To describe what they then
hear, they make use of the expression spo/ochi chorfjat,
that is, the raging host is passing. The hunters who
pursue the white and blue foxes in the confines of the
icy sea, are often overtaken in their course by these
northern lights. Their dogs arc then so much frighten-
ed that they will not move, but lie obstinately upon the
ground till the noise is passed.'
The inhabitants of the southern hemisphere witness
similar lights in the south, which they therefore denomi-
nate Aurora Australis or southern lights. Says Captain
Cook, 'on Feb. 17, 1773, in south latitude 58, a beau-
* Gruelin was a German, born about the ye.u- 1700. A man o
distinguished abilities, and of a scientific niind. He was a member
of the Academy at Petersburg, and obtained much celebrity by
publishing a journal of bis travels in Siberia.
METEORS. 331
tiful phenomenon was observed during the preceding
night, which appeared again this and several following
nights. It consisted of long columns of clear white light
shooting up from the horizon to the eastward, almost to
the zenith, and gradually spreading on the whole south-
ern part of the sky. These columns were sometimes
bent sideways, at their upper extremities, and though in
most respects similar to the northern lights in our hemi-
sphere, yet differed from them in being always of a whitish
color, whereas ours assume various tints, especially those
of a fiery and purple hue.'
Many conjectural opinions have been formed concern-
ing the cause of this phenomenon. Some have supposed
it to be caused by rays of light reflected from the im-
mense masses of ice floating in the northern ocean.
Others have supposed it inflammable air. It is now
pretty generally admitted that electricity is the agent in
producing these appearances. Every theory upon the
subject is however conjectural and no one perfectly
satisfactory. There can be but littlw doubt that electri-
city (which is the same with lightning) is the agent.
But how to account for its accumulation at the poles, and
for the peculiar phenomena which it there exhibits, is
difficult. The following theory is perhaps more plausi-
ble than any other which has been presented.
' The great quantity of vapor rising between the tro-
pics forms clouds, which contain much electricity ; some
of them fall in rain, before they come to the polar
regions. Every drop brings down some electricity with
it ; the same is done by snow or hail ; the electricity so
descending, in temperate climates, is received and im-
bibed by the earth. If the clouds be not sufficiently dis-
charged by this gradual operation, they sometimes dis-
charge themselves suddenly, by striking into the earth,
when the earth is fit to receive their electricity. The
earth in temperate and warm climates, is generally fit to
receive it, being a good conductor.
' The humidity contained in all the equatorial clouds
that reach the polar regions, must there be condensed,
and fall in snow. The great cake of ice that eternally
covers those regions may be frozen too hard to permit
'J32 METEORS.
the electricity's descending with that snow, to enter the
earth. It may therefore be accumulated on the ice.
The atmosphere being heavier in the polar regions than
in the equatorial, will there be lower, as well from that
cause as from the smaller effect of the centrifugal
force ; consequently the distance of the vacuum above
the lower part of the atmosphere will be less at the poles
than elsewhere, and much less than the distance (upon
the surface of the globe,) extending from the poles to
those latitudes in which the earth is so thawed as to
receive and imbibe electricity. May not then the great
quantity of electricity brought into the polar regions by
the clouds which are condensed there, and fall in snow,
which electricity would enter the earth, but cannot pene-
trate the ice ; may it not, as a bottle overcharged, break
through that low atmosphere, and run along in the
vacuum over the air towards the equator ; diverging as
the degrees of longitude enlarge, strongly visible when
densest, and becoming less visible as it more diverges ;
till it finds a passage to the earth in more temperate
climates or is mingled with the upper air ? If such an
operation of nature were really performed, would it not
give all the appearances of an Aurora Boreal is ? And
would not the Auroras become more frequent after the
approach of winter ; not only because more visible in
longer nights, but also because in summer the long pres-
ence of the sun may soften the surface of the great ice
cake, and render it a conductor by which the accumula-
tion of electricity in the polar regions will be pre-
vented T
This theory is confirmed by the fact that if you ex-
haust a glass vessel of the air, and then charge it with
electricity, the electric fluid in the vacuum exhibits all
the appearances of the Aurora Borealis. When the ves-
sel is most perfectly exhausted, the electric fluid appears
quite white ; when a little air is introduced, it assumes
more of a purple hue.
At different periods of the world, and in various coun-
tries, there have been brilliant illuminations of the
heavens, resembling fiery arches, and clouds, and flaming
METEORS. 333
swords, and contending armies. These are generally a
great source of terror to the ignorant and superstitious.
Though so different in the form they assume from the
usual appearance of the northern lights, they are gener-
ally to be ascribed to the same cause.
It is hoped, however, that as science advances, the
causes of this phenomenon will be more clearly revealed.
II. Shooting Stars or Fire Balls. There are other
celestial or atmospherical phenomena, differing so entirely
from the Aurora Borealis in appearance as to be undoubt-
edly different in origin. Fiery Balls shoot with rapidity
through the heavens, emitting for a moment a brilliant
light, and then becoming suddenly and silently extinguish-
ed. Sometimes they burst with a loud explosion and dis-
appear, or falling, are extinguished in the ocean or sink
deep beneath the surface of the ground. Many of these
meteors appear to be of a gaseous nature, which in some
unaccountable way are collected and inflamed, and which
blaze for a moment and are gone. Whence they came,
or whither they go, or by what power impelled, we can-
not say. The only knowledge we can have of their exist-
ence is from the momentary glitter with which they
dazzle the eye. These meteors are seldom of more than
a few moments' duration, and sometimes have rivalled the
sun in splendor and turned the night into day. They
have occasionally been traced from one second to two or
three seconds, but are not often of so long existence.
They are of various shades and dimensions and of divers
colors. But they agree with great uniformity, in their
transient appearance, in their velocity and elevation.
Their height has been very generally calculated at from
fifty to sixty miles above the surface of the earth, and their
velocity at from twenty to thirty miles a second. Numer-
ous hypotheses have been advanced to account for these
extraordinary phenomena. Some have supposed them
luminous vapors ; some electrical appearances ; some
volcanic substances propelled into the atmosphere by ex-
plosions of great violence : others suppose that some of
them are of a gaseous nature, fortuitously collected in
the atmosphere, and the more compact of them are thrown
from volcanos in the moon. None of these theories are
VOL. I., NO. XIV. 30*
334 METEORS.
perfectly satisfactory. A famous meteor was observed
passing over Italy in March, 1076. About an hour and
three quarters after sunset, thousands of eyes were attract-
ed by a ball of fire, flying with immense velocity through
the air. Scientific men computed its height to be at least
thirtyeight miles. The ball itself was above half a mile
in diameter and moved with the immense rapidity of one
hundred and sixty miles in a minute of time. It was
heard to make a hissing noise as it passed along, like that
of artificial fireworks. As it left the main land at Leg-
horn and passed off to sea towards Corsica, it was heard
to give a report like a heavy cannon ; immediately after
which another sound was heard like the rattling of a great
cart running aver stones. It is difficult to imagine by
what natural powers this huge body could have been col-
lected, or how an impulse could have been communicated
to send it with such amazing velocity.
A wonderful meteor somewhat resembling that just
described, was seen all over England in March, 1819.
The following description is given by an eye witness.
1 Sir Hans Sloane mentions that once walking in the
streets of London at about a quarter past eight o'clock in
the evening, he was surprised to Stee a sudden great light
far exceeding that of the moon, which shone very bright.
He turned to the westward where the light was, which
he apprehended at first to be artificial fire-works, or rock-
ets. Its color was whitish with an eye of blue, of a
most vivid dazzling lustre, which seemed in brightness
very much to resemble if not to surpass, that of the body
of the sun in a clear day. This brightness obliged him
to turn his eyes from it several times, as well when it was
a stream, as when it was pear fashioned and a globe.
There was left behind it, when it had passed, a track of
a cloudy or faint reddish yellow color, such as red-hot
iron or glowing coals have, which continued more than a
minute, seemed to sparkle, and kept its place without
falling. This track was interrupted, or had a chasm
towards its upper end, at about two thirds of its length.
He did not hear any noise it made ; but the place where
the globe of light had been, continued for some time after
it was extinct, of the same reddish color with the stream,
METEORS. 335
and at first some sparks seemed to issue from it, such as
come from red-hot iron beaten out on an anvil. The
splendor was little inferior to that of the sun ; within
doors the candles gave no manner of light ; and in the
streets not only all the stars disappeared, but the moon,
then nine days old, and high near the meridian, the sky
being very clear, was so far effaced as to be scarcely seen ;
at least not to cast a shade, even where the beams of the
meteor were intercepted by the houses ; so that for some
few seconds of time it in all respects resembled perfect
day. A loud noise followed the explosion of this meteor,
accompanied by an uncommon tremor of the air, which
sensibly shook the glass windows and the doors of houses,
and in some places the houses themselves. It is gener-
ally admitted that this meteor must have been composed
of inflammable vapor or gas ; but how generated, how
inflamed, and whence it received its impulse, it is diffi-
cult to imagine. Any solution hithe'to suggested, hardly
falls within the limits of possibility. It will at once be
perceived that the transient appearance of these meteors
preclude the possibility of a careful examination. No-
thing relative to them causes greater astonishment than the
excessive light they emit. The illumination often oblit-
erates the stars, makes the moon look dull, and dazzles
the night with the brilliancy of day. There are many
instances in which such meteors have made a splendid
appearance in full sunshine. They are undoubtedly of
as frequent occurrence in the day as in the night, but
being eclipsed by the superior splendor of the sun, do not
attract the eye.'
A celebrated meteor was observed in England, August
18, 1783, the following account of which was given by
the late Mr Cavallo.* ' On the evening of the 18th of
August, 1783, we were standing upon the northeast cor-
ner of Windsor! terrace. The weather was calm and
* Mr Cavallo, was the son of a physician at Naples, and was
born in 1749. He removed to England and devoted himself exclu-
sively to scientific pursuits. Many valuable treatises in the trans-
actions of the Royal Society are from his pen. He died in London
in 1809.
t Windsor on the Thames, 22 miles west of London, the favorite
country residence of the British Kings.
METEORS.
agreeably warm. The sky was serene, excepting very
near the horizon, where a haziness just prevented the
appearance of the stars. A narrow, rugged and oblong
cloud stood on the northwest side of the heavens, reach-
ing from the extremity of the haziness, which rose as
high as .18 or 20 degrees, and stretching itself for several
degrees towards the east in a direction nearly parallel to
the horizon. It was a little below this cloud, and conse-
quently in the hazy part of the atmosphere, about the north
by west half west point of the compass that this luminous
meteor was first perceived. Some flashes of lambent
light, much like the Aurora Borealis, were first observed
on the Northern part of the heavens, which were soon
perceived to proceed from a roundish luminous body,
nearly as big in diameter as the semi-diameter of the
moon, and almost stationary in the above-mentioned point
of the heavens. It ^vas then about twenty rive minutes
after nine o'clock in the evening. The ball at first ap-
peared of a faint bluish light, perhaps from being just
kindled, or from its appearing through the haziness ; but it
gradually increased in light, and soon began to move, at
lirst ascending above the horizon in an oblique direction
towards the east. Jts course in this direction was very
short, perhaps of five or six degrees ; after which it direct-
ed its course towards the east, and moving in a direction
nearly parallel to the horizon, reached as far as the south-
east by east point, where it finally disappeared. The whole
duration of the meteor, was half a minute or rather less,
and the altitude of its track, seemed to be about 25 degrees
above the horizon. A short time after the beginning of
its motion, the luminous body passed behind the above-
mentioned cloud, without actually seeing the body from
which it proceeded for about the sixth or at most the fifth
part of its track ; but as soon as the meteor emerged
from behind the cloud its light was prodigious. Every
object appeared very distinct ; the whole face of the
country, in that beautiful prospect before the terrace, be-
ing instantly illuminated. At this moment the body of
the meteor appeared of an oblong form ; but it presently
acquired a tail, and soon after it parted with several small
bodies, each having a tail or elongation ; and all moving
METEORS. 337
in the same direction, at a small distance from each other,
and very little behind the principal body, the size of which
was gradually reduced after this division. In this form
the meteor moved as far as the southeast by east point,
where the light decreasing rather abruptly, the whole
disappeared.
' During the phenomenon no noise was heard by any
of our company excepting one person, who imagined to
have heard a crackling noise, something like that which
is produced by small wood when burning. But about ten
minutes after the disappearance of the meteor, and when
we were just going to retire from the terrace, we heard a
rumbling noise as if it were of thunder at a great distance,
which in all probability was the report of the meteor's
explosion ; and it may be naturally imagined that this
explosion happened when the meteor parted inlo small
bodies, viz. at about the middle of its track.' From the
interval between the apparent explosion, and the time the
report was heard, the distance of the meteor from the
spectators may be easily computed. Sound is ascertained
to travel at the rate of 1 150 feet per second.* About ten
minutes elapsed after the disappearance of the meteor
before the report was heard. From these particulars the
following calculations have been made with mathematical
accuracy respecting the distance, altitude, course, and
diameter of this meteor. It is, however, obvious, that if
the noise heard was not that of the meteor's explosion, or,
if the meteor did not explode when it appeared to, the
following results must be considered as altogether useless.
D:?Unce of the Meteor from Windsor castle, . 130 miles.
Length of path described in the heavens, . . 550 miles.
Diameter of the luminous body when it came out of
the clouds, 1070 yards.
Its height above the surface of the earth, . . 56^ miles,
* The rapidity with which sound travels is easily ascertained by
experiment. When a cannon is fired, a spectator at a distance, sees
the flash some time before he hears the report. Then by measuring
the distance between the c:u-,non and himself, and observing the time
which elapsed between the flash and the report, he learns bow Jonsf
it took the sound to travel that distance. In the same manner you
may learn the distance of thunder, by observing the interval be-
tween the Hash a-.id the report.
338 METEORS.
It has been remarked that all large meteors have made
their first appearance in the northwest and passed on
to the southeast, or precisely the reverse, moving very
nearly in the line of the present magnetical meridian.
METEORIC STONliS.
Many accounts are upon record in which the explosion
of fire balls has been followed by a shower of stones ;
some so large as to sink many feet into the earth, and
others so small as to lie loosely upon its surface. These
stones, in consequence of their falling from luminous
bodies or meteors, are called Meteoric Stones or Meteor-
ites. These meteors burst with an explosion, and then
the shower of stones fulls to the earth. Sometimes the
stones continue luminous till they reach the earth, but
usually their luminousness disappears at the time of the
explosion. Their size differs from a few ounces to sev-
eral tons. They all resemble each other though falling
in the most distant parts of the globe. They are all com-
posed of nearly the same ingredients and completely
differ from every other known stone. It seems therefore
that these stones must have some common origin for it
seems otherwise inconceivable that in India, England,
France, Germany, Italy, and America, stones should have
fallen which differ from every other mineral in the coun-
tries in which they are found, aad which almost exactly
resemble one another. In Fiance, in 1492, a huge stone
was seen to fall immediately after a loud thunder clap.
On going to the place a hole was discovered, and digging
out the stone, it was found to have entered three feet deep,
and weighed 260 pounds. ' In 1790, in France, about
ten at night, a luminous ball was seen traversing the
atmosphere with great rapidity, and leaving behind it a
train of light which lasted about fifty seconds. Soon a
loud explosion was heard and sparks were seen flying off
in all directions. This was soon after followed by a fall
of stones over a considerable extent of ground and at
various distances from each other. These were all alike
in appearance, but of many different sizes, the greater
number weighing about two ounces, but many a vast deal
more; some fell with a. hissing noise and entered the
METEORS. 339
ground, but the smaller ones remained on the surface.
The shower did no considerable damage, only breaking
the tiles of some of the houses.' These showers are not
always, however, harmless. In- Bordeaux, in 1789, a stone
fell through the roof of a cottage and killed a herdsman
and some cattle. Parts of this stone are now preserved
in the Museum at Bordeaux.
The following is an account of some meteorites which
fell in Tennessee, May 9, 1827. It is given on the author-
ity of the Rev. Hugh Kirkpatrick.
' On Wednesday the 9th inst. about 4 o'clock P. M.,
the day being as clear as usual, my son and servants
were planting corn in the field ; they heard a report simi-
lar to that of cannon, which was continued in the air,
resembling the firing of cannon or muskets by platoons,
and the beating of drums as in a battle. Some small
clouds with a trail of black smoke, made a terrific appear-
ance, and from them without doubt, came a number of
stones with a loud whizzing noise, which struck the
earth with a sound like that of a ponderous body. One
of those stones my son heard fall about fifty yards from
where he was. In its descent it struck a tree, of the
size of a small handspike, and tore it to pieces as light-
ning would have done. Guided by the tree he immedi-
ately found the spot, and there he found the stone about
eight or ten inches under the ground. This stone weighed
five pounds and a quarter; Mr James Dugge was also
present. They stated that the stone was cold, but had
the scent of sulphur.'
' On the same day and about the same time, Mr Peter
Kitsing was in the field with his laborers, about one
mile distant, when a stone fell which weighed eleven
pounds and a half. A number of respectable men were
present when it was found and taken up. It was twelve
inches under the ground. I have seen one that fell at
Mr David Garrett's, and part of one that fell at Mr John
Bones', and have also heard of one more that has been
found. These stones are perfectly similar, glazed with
a thin black crust, and bear the marks of having been
through a body of fire and black smoke. Many gentle-
men who have been incited within a few days to come
340 METEORS.
to my house to see them, say they never saw such
before.'
This stone was analyzed by Mr Leybert, a gentleman
of distinguished skill in this peculiarly difficult kind of
investigation. According to his analysis, the stone was
found to be composed of the following ingredients :
Per
100 parts.
Silica,
40
Protoxide of Nickel, -
2 166
Magnesia,
23 fe33
Alumina, ...
2 466
Protoxide of Chrome,
833
Metallic lion, -
12 000
Per Oxide of Iron, -
13 200
Sulphur,
2 433
93 931
100 000
[metrical Moisture.
4069 Loss and Hygro-
All the Meteorites, in whatever part of the world they
have fallen, are composed of nearly the same ingredients.
Where do these stones comt; from 1 This is a question
which as yet remains unanswered. We may safely infer
that these bodies have not been thrown from any terres-
trial volcano; for no native minerals of a similar nature
have been found in any part of the globe ; neither can
the phenomena attending them be accounted for upon
this hypothesis ; neither are there any known volcanos
in 'many parts of the world in which they have fallen,
frotn which they could have been thrown ; some have
supposed that they were formed in the upper parts of the
atmosphere. But there are no known laws of nature
which allow us to assign them this origin. A splendid
theory has been erected, which supposes them to have
been thrown from some volcano of the moon. This is
the most probable supposition, still it is not free from
many difficulties. The Journal of Philosophical Trans-
actions remarks, that it appears impossible to ascribe
these phenomena to a formation in the superior parts of
the atmosphere, or to the irruptions of terrestrial volca-
nos ; but it is possible for such masses to be projected
METEORS. 341
from the moon so as to reach the earth ; and that all the
phenomena of these meteors or falling stones, have a
surprising conformity with the circumstances which
would be expected to attend masses, expelled from the
moon by natural causes. These things unite in forming
a body of strong evidence, that this is, in all probability
actually the case. All those luminous balls however,
which occasionally make their' appearance in the hea-
vens, are involved in much obscurity. They may be all
of the same origin; they maybe of different natures.
Their transient appearance awakens a curiosity which
science as yet is unable to allay.
Falling Stones. Many persons have expressed much
incredulity respecting the reality of stones falling from
the atmosphere. I have just been examining a stone
which fell in Virginia ; it very much resembles that
which fell in Tennessee as described in this tract. No
one who has attended to this subject can have the least
doubt respecting the reality and the frequency of this
phenomenon. A stone fell in Forsyth, in Georgia, in
May, 1829. It is thus described by an eye-witness :
' Between three and four o'clock, on the 8th instant,
a small black cloud appeared south from Forsyth, from
which two distinct explosions were heard, following
in immediate succession, succeeded by a tremendous
lumbling or whizzing noise, passing through the air ;
which lasted from the best accounts from two to four
minutes. This extraordinary noise was, on the same
evening accounted for by Mr Sparks and Captain Por-
tian, who happened to be near some negroes working
in a field, one mile south of this place, who discovered a
large stone descending through the air, weighing, as was
afterwards ascertained, thirtysix pounds. The stone was
in the course of the evening, or very early the next morn-
ing recovered from the spot where it fell. It had pene-
trated the earth two feet and a half. The outside, wore
the appearance as if it had been in a furnace : it was
covered about the thickness of a common knife blade,
with a black substance somewhat like lava that had been
melted. On breaking the stone, it had a strong sulphur-
ous smell, and exhibited a metallic substance resembling
silver. The stone however when broken, had a white
VOL. i. NO. xiv. 31
342 METEORS:
appearance on the inside, with veins. By the applica-
tion of steel it would produce fire.
The facts, as related, can be supported by many in-
dividuals who heard the explosion and rumbling noise,
and saw the stone.'
Dr Boykin of Georgia remarks, ' no one can tell from
what direction the meteor came. The first thing noticed
was the report, like that of a large piece of ordnance ;
some say the principal explosion was succeeded by a
number of lesser ones in quick succession, similar to the
explosions of a cracker ; one has told me the secondary
noise was only a reverberation. Very soon after the
explosion some black people heard a whizzing noise,
and on looking saw a faint smoke descend to the ground ;
at which time they heard "the noise produced by the fall
of the stone ; they ran to the spot, for they saw where it
fell, and discovered the hole it had made in the ground,
being more than two feet in a hard clay soil. The
negroes and others who went early to the spot, say they
perceived a sulphurous smell. The stone weighed
thirtysix pounds ; it fell at a small angle with the
horizon.'
Had. this matter appeared in the night, it would un-
doubtedly have appeared luminous, but the superior
splendor of the sun so far eclipsed it that its brilliancy
was unobserved. All these meteorites contain iron.
There is however a class of meteorites a little different
from those just described, consisting almost entirely of
iron. Large quantities of iron are found on the surface
of the earth, lying in loose insulated masses, and at great
distances from any mines of iron. These in their ap-
pearance and situation give indubitable evidence tif
having been ejected from some volcano, or having de-
scended from the air. Meteoric iron is generally
whiter and more malleable than common iron. Some
of these masses have been seen to descend ; they have
undoubtedly a very intimate connexion with the meteoric
stones, and probably are of the same origin. A large
mass of this iron, weighing 30,000 pounds, has been
found in the province of Tucuman, in South America.
In many other parts of the world similar masses have
been found. One is now in the cabinet of Yale College,
METEORS. 343
which was found in Louisiana ; its weight exceeds 3000
pounds. It contains nickel, and probably a little carbon,
and is less easily oxidated than purified iron. Several
large masses have recently been found in the valley of
the Mississippi. Mr Sowerby, an English mineralogist,
presented the Emperor Alexander a sword 2 feet long
and 1| inches wide, hammered at a red heat from a
mass of meteoric iron found in Africa. He received in
return a ring set with diamonds, and inclosing an eme-
rald in the centre. The descent of these bodies is indeed
a wonderful phenomenon ; and there is no theory pre-
sented the public as yet, which satisfactorily accounts
for all the like appearances attending them. Says Prof.
Cleaveland, ' The similarity of aspect and composition
in almost all meteoric stones, hitherto examined, indi-
cates a common origin. But this origin is yet unknown.
It is impossible to say when, or in what manner, meteoric
stones have been formed. We can do no more than to
state the four principal conjectures upon this subject,
namely 1. Meteoric stones are formed in the atmos-
phere. 2. They are projected from terrestrial volcanos.
3. They proceed from lunar volcanos. 4. They are
fragments detached from terrestrial cornets.'
The following well authenticated instances of stones
falling from the air will interest the reader.
November 27, 1627, the sky being quite clear, Gassen-
di, a celebrated astronomer, saw a burning stone fall on
mount Vaisir, in the southeast extremity of France, near
the city of Nice, on the coast of the Mediterranean sea.
While in the air it seemed to be about 4 feet in diameter ;
it was inclosed in a luminous circle of colors like a rain-
bow ; and in its fall it produced a sound like the discharge
of cannon. It weighed 59 Ibs. was very hard, of a dull
metallic color, and in specific gravity considerably more
than that of marble.
Prior to this is another remarkable instance in the stone
that fell near Ensisheim, a considerable town in Alsace,
the northeast point of France, near the upper Rhine, a
little north of Brazil. This was in 1492. November 7,
between eleven and twelve, before noon, when a dreadful
thunder clap was heard at Ensisheim, a child saw a large
stone fall on a field lately sowed with wheat. On the
344 METEORS.
people going to the place the hole was found, and digging
out the stone it was found to have entered three feet
deep and weighed 360 Ibs, which makes its size equal to
a cube of about thirteen inches the side. No doubt has
ever been entertained of this fact ; and cotemporary writ-
ers all agree in its general belief by the neighborhood,
and the natives of the place must have known that in
their wheat field no such stone or hole had formerly
existed.
In September, 1753, several stones fell, accompanied
with loud noises in the province of Bresse, a little west of
Geneva ; particularly one fell at Pont-de-Vesle, and one
at Liponas, at nine miles' distance from each other. The
sky was clear, and the weather warm. A loud noise and
hissing sound were heard at those two places, and for
many miles round, at the time the stones fell. The stones
appeared exactly similar to each other, of a darkish, dull
color, very heavy, and their surface showing as if they
had suffered a violent degree of heat. The largest 'weigh-
ed about 20 Ibs., and penetrated about six inches into the
ploughed ground ; a circumstance which renders it high-
ly improbable that they could have existed there before
the explosion. This phenomenon has been described by
the astronomer Delalande, who seems to have carefully
examined on the spot the truth of the circumstances he
describes.
It is related by Paul Lucas, the traveller, that when he
was at Larissol, a town in Greece, near the gul of Sa-
lonica, a stone of 72 Ibs. weight fell in the neighborhood.
It was observed to come from the northward, with aloud
hissing noise and seemed to be enveloped in a small
cloud, which exploded when the stone fell. It looked
like iron dross and smelled of sulphur.
In the year 176S, three stones were presented to the
Academy of Sciences at Paris, which had fallen in dif-
ferent parts of France ; one at Luce, in the Maine ;
another at Aire in the Artois, and the third at Cotentin.
These were all externally of the very same appearance ;
and Messrs Fougcraux, Cadet, and Lavosier, drew up a
particular report on the first of them. They state, that
on the 18th of September, 1768, between four and five,
afternoon, there was seen near the village of Luce, in Ie
METEORS. 345
Maine, a cloud, in which a sharp explosion took place,
followed by a hissing noise, but without any flame ; that
some persons, about 10 miles from Luce, heard the same
sound : looking upwards, they perceived an opaque body,
describing a curve line in the air, and fall on a piece of
green turf near the high road ; that they immediately ran
to this place, where they found a kind of stone, half buried
in the earth, extremely hot, and weighing about T^lbs.
December 18, 1795, several persons near Captain
Topham's house in Yorkshire, heard a loud noise in the
air, followed by a hissing sound, and soon after felt a
shock as if a heavy body had fallen to the ground at a
little distance from them ; in fact one of them saw a huge
stone fall to the earth at eight or nine yards from the
place where he stood ; it was seven or eight yards above
the ground when he first observed it ; in its fall it threw up
the mould on every side and buried itself twentyone inches
deep; the stone being raised was found to weigh 56 Ibs.
March 17, 1798, a body burning very brightly, passed
over the vicinity of Villa Franche on the Saone, a little to
the east of Lyons, in France, accompanied with a hissing
noise and leaving a luminous track behind it. This phe-
nomenon exploded with a great noise about 1200 feet
from the ground; and one of the splinters, still luminous,
being observed to fall in a neighboring vineyard was
traced : at the spot a stone was found about a foot in dt-
ameter, which had penetrated twenty inches into the
ground.
An account of a phenomenon of precisely the same de-
scription, was received from the East Indies, vouched by
authority particularly well adapted to procure general
respect. Mr Williams, F. R. S. residing in Bengal,
hearing of an explosion with a descent of stones, in the
province of Bahar, diligently inquired into the circum-
stances among the Europeans upon the spot. He learned
that on December 19, 1798, at eight o'clock in the even-
ing, a large fire ball or luminous meteor was seen at
Benares, and other parts of the country ; that it was
attended with a loud rumbling noise ; and that about the
same time the inhabitants of Krakhut, fourteen miles from
VOL. i. NO. xiv. 31*
346 METEORS.
Benares, saw the light, heard a report like a loud thunder
clap, and immediately after heard the noise of heavy
bodies falling in the neighborhood. Next morning the
mould in the fields was found to have been turned up in
many spots, and unusual stones of various sizes, but of
the same substances, were picked out of the moist soil,
generally from a depth of six inches. As the occurrence
took placer in the night, after the people had retired to
rest, the explosion and fall of the stones were not seen :
but the watchman of an English gentleman near Krakhut,
brought him a stone the next morning which he said had
fallen through the top of his hut, and buried itself in the
earthen floor.
It seems quite impossible to deny very great weight to
all these testimonies, and many others that might be given,
several of them by intelligent eye witnesses, and others by
more ordinary persons indeed, but prepossessed by no the-
ory: all concurring in these descriptions; and examined
by acute and respectable persons, immediately after the
phenomena had occurred. Without offering any further
remarks then, on this mass of external evidence, we shall
only just notice the main points, which it seems to sub-
stantiate in a very satisfactory manner. It proves, then,
that, in various parts of the world, luminous meteors have
been seen moving through the air with surprising rapidi-
ty, in a direction more or less oblique, accompanied with
a noise, commonly like the whizzin.ii of a large shot, fol-
lowed by an explosion, and the fall of hard, stony, or
semi-metallic masses, in a heated state. The constant
whizzing sound; the fact of stones being found, similar
to each other, but unlike all others in the neighborhood,
at the spots towards which the luminous body, or its frag-
ments were seen to more ; the scattering or ploughing
up of the soil in these spots, always in proportion to the
size of the stones ; the concussion of the neighboring
ground at the time ; and especially the impinging of the
stones on bodies somewhat above the earth, or lying loose
on its surface are circumstances perfectly well authen-
ticated in these reports ; proving that such meteors are
usually inflamed hard masses, descending rapidly through
the air to the earth.
347
The following table contains some of the other most re-
markable cases of falling stones, which have occurred,
with the authorities for each.
Substances.
Where they fell.
Time.
Shower of stones.
Rome.
Before Christ.
Shower of stones. ...
- Home. - -
Shower of iron. ...
Lucania.
A very large stone.
- Thrace. -
"
Three large stones.
- Thrace.' -
Shower of fire. ...
- Quesnoy. -
January.
Stone of 72 Ibs.
- Macedonia.
January.
About 1200 stones one of 120 Ibs.
another of 60 Ibs.
1 Italy. -
- 1510.
Another of 53 Ibs. -
- Provence. -
November.
Shower of sand for fifteen hours.
- IntheAtlanti
ic. April.
Shower of rain -
- Mansfield.
- 1658.
The siiue
Pnn^nhitrpn
1646.
Shower of sulphur. -
- Brunswick.
October.
Ditto, of a viscid, unknown matter.
Ireland.
- 1659.
Two large stones weighing 20 Ibs.
- Bresse.
September.
A stony mass. ...
- Normandy.
- 1750.
A stone of 7^ Ibs.
Le Maine.
- 1768.
A stone. -
- Artois. -
- 1768.
176S
Extensive shower of stones.
- A gen.
- 1790.
About twelve stones.
Tuscany.
- 1794.
A large stone of 50 Ibs.
- Yorkshire.
- 1795.
A stone of about 20 Ibs. -
- Sate.
- 1798.
A stone of 10 Ibs. -
- Portugal. -
- 1796.
Shower of stones.
.
- 1798.
Shower of stones. ...
- Bohemia.
- 1753.
Mass of iron 70 cubic feet.
- America. -
- 1800.
Mass of iron 14 quintals.
- Siberia. -
- Very old.
Shower of stones. - .
- Barbonton.
- 1789.
Large stone of 220 Ibs.
.
- 1792.
Two stones 200 and 300 Ibs.
- Verona. -
- 1762.
A stone of 20 Ibs.
.
- 1798.
Several stones from 10 to 17 Ib?.
Normandy.
- 1803.
One curious hypothesis has been advanced in relation
to meteoric stones, which we cannot refrain from noti-
cing before closing our remarks on this part of our sub-
ject. We ofi'er it, not as a satisfactory explanation of the
phenomena, but as a specimen of the ingenuity with
which philosophers have sought to explain the wonderful
appearances of nature.
It had long been known that between Mars and Jupi-
ter, in the solar system, there was a large space entirely
unoccupied by any discovered planet. The attention of
348 METEORS.
philosophers was accordingly directed to this part of the
heavens, until, in the nineteenth century, four very small
planets were discovered, which have been called, from
their diminutive size, asteroids. Their.names are Vesta,
Juno, Pallas, Ceres. One of them is estimated to be only
eighty miles in diameter. The estimates, however, vary
very much.
The most remarkable circumstance, however, which is
connected with these asteriods, is this. They all have
very nearly the same average distance from the sun, the
same period of revolution in their orbits they are of the
same density ; that is, the matter which composes themes
of the same weight and in the points at which each
of them approach the sun, called their perihelions, and in
those where their orbits cross the elliptic, all the asteroids
agree.
These are certainly extraordinary coincidences. They
have given rise to the hypothesis that these four bodies
were originally one large planet, which by some vast con-
vulsion, of which we can know nothing in detail, was
rent asunder, separating itself into four large, and a mul-
titude of small fragments. These four large fragments,
it is supposed, continue to revolve around the sun, very
nearly in the place of the original revolution of the whole ;
each one deviating from the former track, according to
the impulse given it by the shock.
But what connexion has all this, the reader will ask,
with meteoric stones? The theory which we are endeav-
oring to explain, imagines that some smaller fragments
from this fancied explosion, were thrown to a great dis-
tance from the original place of the planet, and that many
of them came into the vicinity of our earth, and that they
are now revolving about it, like satellites. While they
are moving in the empty space beyond the earth's at-
mosphere, they are invisible. They sometimes, however,
are supposed to dip into the atmosphere, for their orbits
being probably very eliptical, they may at times ap-
proach very near the body of the earth. When they thus
enter the earth's atmosphere^ the friction of the air dis-
engages fight and heat. The former makes these bodies
visible to us, and the latter, the heat, cracks off portions
of the revolving body, which fall to the earth. The main
METEORS. 349
fragment is then supposed to pass out of the atmosphere,
and to continue its revolution until again it approaches
the earth, and by dipping into its atmosphere, produces
again the same effects.
In corroboration of this hypothesis it may be said,
1. The stones which fall at any time, are always very
small, in comparison with the observed magnitude of the
meteor moving through the air.
2. The stones, as it is said, are always hot, if examin-
ed immediately after they fall.
3. The stones are all similar in character. It ought
however to be added that their density is much greater
than the mean density of the asteroids.
4. The noise which precedes the falling of the stones
is a rapid succession of reports, like the irregular discharge
of musketry.
5. The meteor which is usually seen before the fall of
the stones, has always a rapid motion, and that not in a
direction towards the earth, but parallel, or slightly in-
clined to the horizon.
We do not offer this opinion as a satisfactory explana-
tion of the phenomena, nor do we condemn it as fanciful.
It is presented for the reader's consideration.
III. Jgnes Fatui. With the Ignes Fatui, familiarly
known by the name of the Will o' the Wisp, we are better
acquainted than with those more sublime meteors which
ride higher in the heavens, and by the rapidity of their
flight, and their momentary existence, elude investigation.
To the ignorant and superstitious the ignes fatui are a
source of terror. The appearance of these harmless
lights in a marsh has jnade many a poor simpleton trem-
ble with fright. But it would be just as wise to be fright-
ened by the dense fog which rises from the bosom of the
lake, or to be appalled by the cheerful blaze of the win-
try fire. These luminous bodies are always seen in
marshy lands. Sometimes they are caused by the de-
composition of vegetable substances, forming something
of the nature of light wood, with which every one is
acquainted. The light emitted from these decaying
bodies, and seen through the damp exhalations of the
marsh is magnified, as the sun when setting behind a
thin veil of clouds, expands to double its usual apparent
350
METEORS.
form. Some of these marshy meteors appear to change
their situation, and dance about from place to place.
They are composed of inflammable air, which is continu-
ally evaporating in the low stagnant grounds where these
phenomena make their appearance. The earth is con-
tinually exhaling hydrogen gas, phosphorus, carbonic
acid gas, and occasionally sulphurous vapors. ..These
gases readily inflame from a great variety of natural
causes, to which they are perpetually exposed. They
may be inflamed by electricity, or by heat generated
during the decomposition of animal or vegetable materi-
als. Now this mass of gas being on fire will burn till its
inflammable principle is destroyed. In proportion to its
greater or less degree of combustible power, it will pour
forth a greater or less degree of light. From the levity
of the burning vapor, it will wave to and fro, in the cur-
rents of the air, like any gas light exposed to the wind ;
sometimes flaming higher and again sinking down to a
feeble flicker ; thus constantly moving before the specta-
tor, and assuming different forms and colors, according
to the varying density of the fog through which it is seen.
A friend of mine, says Rev. John Mitchell, returning from
abroad late in the evening, had to cross a strip of marsh.
As he approached the causeway he noticed a light to-
wards the opposite end, which he supposed to be a lantern
in the hand of some person whom he was about to meet.
It proved however to be a solitary flame, a few inches
above the marsh, at the distance of a few feet from the
edge of the causeway. He stopped some time to look at
it, and was strongly tempted notwithstanding the wariness
of the place, to get nearer to it, for the purpose of closer
examination. It was evidently a vapor issuing from the
mud, and becoming ignited, or at least luminous, in con-
tact with the air. It exhibited a flickering appearance,
like that of a candle expiring in its socket; alternately
burning with a large flame, and then sinking to a small
taper ; and occasionally for a moment becoming quite
extinct. It constantly appeared over the same spot.
This same gentleman remarks that the locomotive pow-
er with which these meteors seem to be endowed, is
probably apparent only, not real. As the light dwindles
away, it will seem to move from you, and with a velocity
METEORS. 351
proportioned to the rapidity of its diminution. Again as
it grows larger, it will appear to approach you. If it
expires by several flickerings or flashes, it will seem to
skip from you, and when it reappears you will easily
imagine that it has assumed a new position.
It is sometimes thought that you cannot approach an
ignis fatuus ; that it will recede as rapidly as you ad-
vance. This is probably the effect of imagination. In
a misty night, a traveller easily mistakes one of these
lights, , for the light of a neighboring house, and going in
pursuit of it, he finds hedges and bogs and mire, till he
i> lead to the middle of a swamp. It is stated by Mr
Mitchell that a man left his neighbor's house late in the
evening and at daylight had not reached his own, a
quarter of a mile distant : at which his family being con-
cerned, a number of persons went out to search for him.
We found him near a swamp with soiled clothes, and a
thoughtful countenance, reclining by a fence: The ac-
count he gave way, that he had been led into the swamp
by a jack o' lantern. His story was no doubt true, and
yet had little of the marvellous in it. The night being
dark, and the man's senses a little disordered withal, by
a glass too much of his neighbor's cherry, on approaching
his house he saw a light, and not suspecting that it was
not upon his own mantel, made towards it. A bush or
bog might have led to the same place, if he had happened
to take it for his chimney top. These are some of these
marshy lights which cannot as yet be scientifically
explained. But repeated observations and successive
experiments are removing one difficulty after another^,
and the time may yet corne when the science of meteors
shall be as simple and satisfactory as any other which
elucidates the mvsteries of nature.
AGENTS
SCIENTIFIC TRACTS
Portland,
Hallowell,
Augusta,
Bangor,
Belfast,
MAINE.
Samuel Caiman.
C. Spaulding.
P. Jt. Brinsmo.de.
B. JVourse.
JV. P. Hawes.
Norway, Asa Barto*
NEW HAMPSHIRE.
Dover ' j S.'cf .
Hanover, Thomas Mtinn.
Concord, Horatio Hill $ Co.
Keene, George Tilden.
Portsmouth, John W. Foster.
VERMONT.
Burlington, C. Goodrich.
Uurhngton, C.
Brattleboro', G
Windsor, Simeon Ide.
Montpelier, J. S. Walton.
Bellows Fulls, James /. Culler $ Co.
Rutland, Wm. Fay.
Middlebury, Jonathan Hagar.
Castleton, B. Burtun 2</.
St Albans, L. L. Duecher.
C hester, Charles Whipple.
MASSACHUSETTS.
Salem, Whipple Sf Laurence.
Newburyport, Charles Whipple.
Northampton, S. Butler Sf Son.
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NUMBER XV.
LIFE OF COLUMBUS.
IT is remarkable that, after all the elaborate investiga-
tions of many writers, the early biography of Columbus
is still wanting in several interesting particulars. As to
his birth, for example, it is only made to appear probable
that he was born about the year 1435 or 1436. The
place of his nativity, also, has been the subject of as much
and as warm contention as the birth-place of Homer.
The original and long settled opinion was in favor of
Genoa. But strenuous claims have also been asserted
by the Italian States of Placentia and Piedmont : the for-
mer connecting the navigator with the household of his
great grandfather, who owned a small property in a Pied-
montese town ; and the latter making him the sou of
Dominico Colombo, lord of the castle of Cucurro in
Montserrat. There has been a controversy among the
Genoese themselves, moreover to whom, on the whole,
other claimants have abandoned the field whether he
was born within their city, or in some one of six or
eight villages in other parts of their territory. In one of
these it seemed that his family possessed a small farm ;
in another, a portrait of him is preserved ; in a third, a
public square once bore his name. But the testimony of
Columbus himself may be considered decisive of this
question. In a will executed in 1498, he twice speaks
of ' being born in Genoa.' In the same instrument he
also commands his son to maintain always in the city
of Genoa a person of his lineage, ' to hold footing and
rank in that city as a native of it, so that he may have aid
VOL. i. NO. xv. 32
354 LIFE OP COLUMBUS.
and favor in that city in case of need, for from thence I
came, and there I was born. 1 Furthermore, a little brevia-
ry was found in the Corsini library at Rome, in the year
1785, bequeathed ' to his beloved country, the Republic
of Genoa,' by an informal codicil executed at Valladolid,
May 4th, 1506, sixteen days before his death. It is well
observed by an historian, as accurate as he is elegant, that
the ' sentiments which are manifest in these passages
would be without all object, if not directed to the native
place of Columbus. He was at this time elevated above
petty pride on the subject. His renown, he well knew,
would have shed lustre on any hamlet ; and the strong
love of country here exhibited, would never have felt it-
self satisfied, until it had singled out the spot and nestled
down in the very cradle of his infancy.'
There has been another dispute concerning the lineage
of the illustrious discoverer, several noble and ancient
families of the same name (in Italian, Colombo) having
advanced various theories upon the subject. It is suffi-
cient, however, to say of these, that they were all more or
'less nearly connected with each other, and with a com-
mon though distant origin : and that the great subject of
the controversy was probably connected with them all.
It is well ascertained that his immediate ancestors were a
line of humble, but worthy citizens, living in Genoa,
even from the time of Giacomo Colombo, ' the wool card-
er,' in 1311 ; and that the navigator's father was a man
of this same trade. Beyond this, it certainly is not ne-
cessary to pry into the rolls of his genealogy. Whether
his remote ancestors were or were not noble, and wheth-
er they did or did not keep hawk or hound, it will be
glory enough for his descendants, in all countries and in
all times, that he transmitted a brilliant and unsullied
name which he is known not to have inherited.
It need only be farther observed of his family, that he
was the eldest of four children ; the history of two of
whom, the brothers Bartholemew and Diego, is somewhat
connected with his own. His opportunities of education
were not remarkable. He was taught to read and write
while yet a child, arid his writing is said to have been
so elegant that he might at any time have earned his
LIFE OF COLUMBUS. 355
bread by it. He made proficiency also in arithmetic,
drawing, design, grammar, and the latin language. But
in consequence of decided evidences which he soon gave
of a strong passion for geography and navigation, his edu-
cation was chiefly directed to these studies. He was
sent to a famous school at Padua, for a short time, and
there instructed in geometry and astronomy, in addition
to the studies just named. Here, the foundation was laid
in his mind for his future greatness ; for he devoted
himself to his books with all the ardor and energy of his
nature, and late in life he often spoke ofthis youthful ap-
plication, as a secret impulse of the Deity, guiding and
inspiring him in reference to the great end he was chosen
to accomplish. But he could have learned nothing more
at Padua than the rudiments of what he studied, for he
left that university while yet extremely young, and re-
turned to his father's house at Genoa. Whether he there
engaged with him in wool-combing does not appear. He
could not, however, have continued long in that employ-
ment, as his nautical life commenced at the age of fourteen
years. Upon this his heart had been long set ; and the
passion was undoubtedly quickened, as well by the gen-
erally reviving and curious spirit of the times, as by the
peculiarly maritime and adventurous habits of the Geno-
ese citizens, and the situation of the city itself.
His first voyages were made with an old and hardy sea-
captain of his own name, who had acquired considerable
reputation by his daring cruises ; and who, from a distant
relationship, probably took some pains to initiate the young
mariner into the toils of the ocean, and the perils of the
piratical wars then common in the Mediterranean se%.
He was engaged also in an expedition fitted out in 1459,
by the Duke of Calabria against Naples. Genoa furnished
aid in money and ships on this occasion, and the vete-
ran Colombo probably had a share of the command of their
forces. This war, which lasted four years, was finally
unsuccessful ; but that the young discoverer rather gained
than lost honor in the course of it would appear from his
being at one time appointed to a separate command, and
despatched on a hazardous cruise, to cut out a galley
from the harbor of Tunis. A characteristic expedient
356 LIFE OF COLUMBUS.
which he used at this early period for beguiling a discon-
tented crew into a continuation of the enterprise, by
deceiving them as to the ship's course, strongly reminds
us of the character which he subsequently developed in
still bolder relief. ' When I arrived off Sardinia,' he
writes long afterwards, ' I was told there were two ships
and a carrack with the galley ; by which intelligence my
crew were so' troubled that they determined to proceed
no further, but to return to Marseilles for another vessel
and more people. As I could not by any means compel
them, I assented apparently to their wishes, altered the
point of the compass, and spread all sail. It was then
evening, and the next morning we were within the cape of
Carthagcna, when all werejirmly of opinion thatthey were
sailing toioards Marseilles? After this though the ex-
act date is not known he was concerned in a naval
exploit of Colombo the younger, nephew to the veteran,
and himself so celebrated a corsair, that the Moorish
mothers are said to have frightened their unruly children
with his name. It was an attack upon four richly laden
Venetian galleys, intercepted by the corsair on their re-
turn voyage from Flanders. A desperate engagement
took place ; the vessels grappled each other, and the
crews fought hand to hand, and from ship to ship ; and
thus the battle continued from morning to evening with
great carnage upon both sides. The vessel commanded
by our young navigator was engaged with a huge Vene-
tian galley. By means of hand-grenades and other fiery
missiles, the latter was wrapped in flames ; and the two
being fastened together by chains and grappling irons,
both were involved in the same fire, and soon became a
mere burning mass. The crews threw themselves into the
sea, and Columbus to save himself seized an oar which was
floating within reach, and being an expert swimmer,
attained the shore, though five or six miles distant. This
action was fought on the coast of Portugal: and such was
the occasion of his arrival by some writers it is said,
his first arrival in the city of Lisbon.
This was about the year 1470, when Columbus is de-
scribed as in the full vigor of manhood, tall, well formed,
muscular, of commanding and dignified manners, moder-
LIFE OF COLUMBUS. 357
ate and simple in apparel and diet, eloquent in discourse,
engaging and affable with strangers. He resided in or
about Lisbon for fourteen years. This circumstance was
partly owing, no doubt, to a matrimonial connection
which he formed with an Italian cavalier's daughter
whom he met with in attending religious services, as he
did with scrupulous regularity, at the chapel of the con-
vent of All-Saints. The father-in-law being dead, the
young couple lived with the mother ; and the latter soon
perceiving the interest which Columbus took in mari-
time matters, told him all she knew of the voyages of her
late husband, who had been a distinguished navigator un-
der Prince Henry of Portugal, and brought him all his
charts, journals, and memorandums. Columbus devoted
himself with unwearied diligence to the examination of
these papers, and of whatever others of a similar nature
he could obtain. Thus he acquainted himself with all
the routes and plans of the enterprising Portuguese. He
also occasionally joined in expeditions to the African
coast, then a country of great and novel interest. Some
other leisure, meanwhile, was devoted to making maps
and charts, in which he finally acquired a proficiency then
quite rare, and which assisted him, too, in the mainte-
nance of his family. His wife inheriting some property in
the recently discovered island of Porto Santo, he went to
reside there with her for some time. There, on the very
frontiers of discovery, they were frequently visitt d, no
doubt, by the African voyagers going to and fro, while he
held daily familiar conversations upon all the popular
topics of the day, with Correo, the husband of his wife's
sister, a man of influence upon the island and a naviga-
tor of great note. This was a period of general excite-
ment, and it is not wonderful that Columbus, situated as
he was and had been, and with his ardent temperament,
should enter into it with his whole soul.
At this time he seems to have gradually matured his
theory concerning undiscovered lands in the west. This
was founded, 1. Upon the nature of things. 2. The
authority of learned writers. 3. The reports of naviga-
tors. Under the first head, he considered the earth to be
a sphere, of which about one third still remained unex-
VOL. i. NO. xv. 32*
358 LIFE OF COLUMBUS.
plored. This he believed was occupied by a continuation
of the continent of Asia, which might extend so far as to
approach the western shores of Africa and Europe, within
no very great distance. Of course a navigator would
reach Asia, by sailing from east to west, and would dis-
cover any intervening land. This reasoning was con-
firmed in the mind of Columbus, not only by passages of
ancient writers, and the more recent travels of Mandeville
and Marco Polo in the east, but by various conversations
with African voyagers, Portuguese pilots, and the inhabit-
ants of the lately discovered islands. From some of these
he learned that a piece of carved wood had been picked
up, which must have drifted from the west; and that
reeds of an immense size, trunks of huge pine trees of
unknown kind, and lastly, the bodies of two dead men of
strange features and color, had been cast either upon
the main coast or upon some of the neighboring islands.
He derived great additional aid from the correspondence
of Toscanelli, a learned Florentine ; and especially from
a map furnished by him, in which the eastern coast of
Asia was drawn in front of the western coast of Europe,
at a moderate distance. He also procured and perused
carefully, the enthusiastic and vague history of Polo.
His increasing enterprise is proved by a voyage which he
made in 1477, several hundred miles beyond Iceland,
(which was then called Thule.)
From the time when the theory of Columbus was matur-
ed, it remained unalterably fixed in his mind and heart,
and he never afterwards spoke of it with doubt, hesitation
or indifference. He is said even to have regarded it with
superstitious awe, and to have looked upon himself as- a
chosen instrument for great future purposes in the hand
of Heaven. Several years, however, elapsed, without any
steps being taken towards his ultimate design, owing partly
to his poverty, and partly to the circumstance that the age
was not yet prepared for his theory, or at least for attempt-
ing to ascertain its correctness. But the time was fast
approaching, and two fortunate events seemed particu-
larly to favor his scheme. One was the application of
the astrolabe to navigation ; and the other, the com-
mencement of the reign of the enterprising king John II.
LIFE OF COLUMBUS. 359
of Portugal. It was immediately after the first of these
events, that Columbus proposed his voyage of discov-
ery to the king. The latter referred the proposal to
a junto of learned men, who treated it as extravagant
and visionary ; and afterwards to a larger council of
prelates and men of science. But the decision was still
the same, though the objections were less to the theory
itself, than upon the ground of the war with the Moors of
Barbary, and other enterprises in which Portugal was al-
ready engaged.
Towards the end of 1484, Columbus left Lisbon, with
his son Diego, as is generally supposed, for Genoa, and
thence for Venice, to both which governments he renewed
his proposals without success, while his brother Bartholo-
mew met with the same fortune in England. During the
next season he visited Spain for the first time, under cir-
cumstances not unworthy of mention. A stranger, on
foot, it is said, in humble guise, but of a distinguished
air, accompanied by a small boy, stopped at the gate of
an old Franciscan convent, near the sea-port Palos, and
asked of the porter a little bread and water for his child.
While receiving this humble refreshment, the prior of the
convent, Juan Perez, happening to pass by, was struck
with the stranger's appearance, entered into conversation
with him, and soon learned the particulars of his story.
It was Columbus and his son. The prior was still more
interested in the eloquent explanation which the former
gave of his theory. He detained him as his guest, there-
fore, and sent for a learned physician of Palos to converse
farther with him. He, too, was delighted with Colum-
bus ; and so entirely convinced by his reasoning, that he
pressed him to introduce himself immediately at court,
and gave him a letter to the queen's confessor, Talavera,
an intimate friend of his, and a man of great influence
with the royal family. The good prior, meanwhile, took
charge of the young Diego, the wife of Columbus being
at this time deceased.
Columbus entered the city of Cordova in the spring of
I486, at a period when the whole chivalry of Spain was
gathering together there for a final campaign against the
Moors. This circumstance was unpardonable ; and dress-
LIFE OF COLUMBUS.
ed and introduced as he was, he could not even obtain
an audience of the king or queen. Both of them soon
left the city, and Columbus, too poor to follow them, re-
sumed his old business of map-making. Meanwhile,
however, he not only found leisure to form a new con-
nexion with a lady of whom he became enamored, but
he obtained the patronage of the archbishop of Toledo,
by whom he finally procured an introduction at court.
Columbus modestly, but eloquently, explained his project
to the king, and the result was left to the decision of a
council of learned men at Salamanca. Before them the
navigator accordingly appeared, not daunted or dispirit-
ed, but with an elevated demeanor, an air of authority, a
firm voice and a kindling eye. Some of them were in-
terested warmly in his favor ; but the majority decided
against, and even ridiculed and reproached him. The
objections made to his theory are curious illustrations of
the state of science at that period. His clear and sound
philosophy was overwhelmed by the writings of saints.
Lactantius was quoted to prove that the antipodes are an
inconceivable absurdity inasmuch as people cannot walk
with their heels up and their heads down, nor trees
grow, nor rain and hail fall upward. To say that there
were inhabited lands on the opposite side of the earth,
would imply too that, there were nations not descended
from Adam, it being impossible for men to pass the inter-
vening ocean. Besides, the heavens were compared in
Scripture to a tent, and the inference was that the earth
underneath was flat. And then, should a ship ever reach
Asia by sailing westward, it was clear as daylight, they
said, that he could never get back again ; for the rotundity
of the globe would make the return- voyage altogether
an up-hill cruise.
But the king not considering this opinion of the coun-
cil decisive, Columbus was induced to linger about the
court for nearly seven years, (while the war lasted,)
when he returned to the old convent of Palos, resolved
upon leaving the country forever. But here he was
again befriended by the good prior and the physician,
the former of whom insisted on writing to queen Isabella.
This measure was adopted ; and Columbus soon after re-
LIFE OF COLUMBUS. 361
ceived an invitation to attend court, with a present
of about '200, wherewith to bear his travelling expenses,
improve his dress, and provide himself a mule for the
journey. All this was done promptly, and Columbus
appeared before Ferdinand and Isabella. His proposals
were heard with attention, but his terms being consider-
ed unsatisfactory and he refusing any concession of what
he considered his dignity, the interview ended with dis-
gust upon his part, and he immediately turned his back
upon the court, once more determined to abandon it for-
ever. He had gone about two leagues from Granada, when
he was overtaken and summoned back by a courier of
the queen, who, upon better reflection and at the instance
of a warm patron of Columbus, had determined in his fa-
vor. An arrangement was now readily effected, execu-
ted April 17, 1492, by which Columbus and his suc-
cessors forever were to hold the office of Admiral in the
countries to be discovered ; should reserve to himself a
tenth part of the wealth ; and might contribute an eighth
of the expense of outfits. An order was issued for
the preparation of two vessels at Palos ; and for that
port, the weary but successful adventurer, now in the fifty-
sixth year of his age, once more started on the ensuing
sixteenth of May.
Nearly three months were consumed in preparing the
expedition now determined on, owing in a large deirree to
its unpopularity ; nor was it until early in the morning of
August ^d, that Columbus set sail, after solemn religious
ceremonies, with his three small vessels, and 120 men-
He had drawn an improved map of the world, in which
Japan, the Cipango of Marco Polo, was nearly in the
real situation of Florida. The first land made by the
little squadron was the Canary Islands, where various
circumstances detained them over three weeks. Other
difficulties awaited him in the fears of his crew, many of
the most rugged of whom broke into loud lamentations
upon losing sight of the islands, and launching forth in-
to an unknown ocean. Others became mutinous after
the voyage had continued some weeks. But Columbus
was not to to be turned from his purpose. He kept a se-
rene countenance on all occasions ; and soothed, stimu-
LIFE OF COLUMBUS.
lated, and threatened his ignorant and superstitious crew,
as they occasionally required it. He sustained their hopes
also by directing their attention from time to time, to
large patches of weeds drifting on the water, from the
west ; to land-birds, whales, shore-fish, and every other ap-
pearance of a neighboring continent or island. On the
25th of September, as two of the vessels were sailing
gently together side by side, Columbus was startled by a
shout from the Pinta, and looking up he beheld Pinzon,
the captain of that caravel, mounted on the stern of his ves-
sel, and crying with a loud voice, 'Land ! Land ! Se-
nor, I claim my reicard!' (a pension of thirty crowns
promised by the sovereign, to the first who should see
land.) He pointed at the same time to the southwest,
where there was indeed an appearance of land at a great
distance. The enthusiasm raised by this incident was
unbounded. Columbus fell upon his knees and returned
thanks to God ; and Pinzon repeated the Gloria in Excel-
szs*in which he was loudly joined by the crews of both ves-
sels. The light of the next morning, however, put an end
to their hopes, for the fancied coast, which was nothing
more than an evening cloud, vanished during the night.-
They were now dejected and mutinous again. But the
signs of approaching land soon became too numerous
and plain to be mistaken. The evening of October llth,
after the mariners of the admiral's ship had sung the
vesper hymn to the Virgin, as usual, he collected them
together, addressed them impressively, assured them that
they should make land that very night, and promised a
velvet doublet, in addition to the king's pension, to whom-
soever should make the discovery.
Not an eye was closed that night, on board either of
the vessels. All was enthusiastic expectation. As the
evening darkened,Columbus himself took his station upon
the top of the castle or cabin on the high poop of his vessel,
and there maintained hour after hour an anxious and in-
cessant watch. Suddenly, about 10 o'clock, he thought
he beheld a light glimmering at a distance. Distrusting
the eagerness of his own hopes, he called one of his
* Glory in the Highest.
LIFE OP COLUMBUS. 363
friends, and demanded of him whether he saw a light
in that direction ; the latter replied in the affirmative ; but
Columbus, determined to be well satisfied, called another,
and made the same inquiry. Before this third person could
ascend the round-house, however, the light had disap-
peared, though it was seen once or twice afterwards in
sudden and transient gleams, borne to and fro upon trie
shore. They continued their course until two in the
morning, when a gun from the Pinta, the best sailer of the
squadron, gave the joyful signal of land, which could
now be clearly seen about six miles distant. It was discov-
ed by a common mariner, but the reward was afterwards
adjudged to the admiral for having previously perceived the
light. The vessels now lay to, and waited for day-break.
That hour soon came, though slowly to those who
awaited it, and a new and beautiful scene unveiled it-
self before the eyes of the voyagers. A long island
was before them, covered with splendid verdure, spotted
with magnificent trees like a continual orchard, sending
out fresh sweet odors upon the gale, and surrounded by
a calm sea of transparent clearness. Columbus entered
his own boat, richly attired in scarlet, with the stan-
dard of Spain in his hand ; while Pinzon and his brother,
the commanders of the two caravels, put offin company
in their boats, each bearing the banner of the enter-
prise emblazoned with a green cross, and having on each
side the initials of the two Castilian monarchs. No
sooner did they land than Columbus threw himself upon
his knees, kissed the earth, and with tears of gratitude
returned thanks to Heaven. The whole company fol-
lowed his example. He then took solemn possession of
the soil in the name of the king and queen, named the
island San Salvador, and called upon all present to ac-
knowledge his own authority as admiral. The feelings
of the crew on landing, burst forth in the most extrava-
gant transports. They pressed about the admiral, em-
braced him, kissed his hands, and implored his forgive-
ness for all the trouble they had caused him. The na-
tives of the island, meanwhile, recovering from the terror
which the first appearance of the Spaniards and their
vessels had occasioned, gradually and silently drew nearer
LIFE OF COLUMBUS.
to them, and gazed at the persons and proceedings of the
new-comers with looks of profound awe, and with signs
of adoration. Finding themselves unharmed, they con-
tinued to advance, and examine the hands, beards, and
faces of the Spaniards more closely, Columbus treating
them with a benignity, which soon won their entire confi
dence. The colored caps, glass beads, and hawk bells,
which he distributed among them, they received as
inestimable gifts, hanging the beads on their necks, and
leaping with joy at the sound of the bells. The shore
was again thronged with them the next morning. Fear-
less of the ships, which had at first seemed to them mon-
sters of the deep, numbers of them came swimming off
towards them; and others embarked in long light canoes,
bailed with calabashes, and dexterously managed with
paddles. Anything and everything, even fragments of
glass, they received from the Spaniards as divine gifts, and
cheerfully gave particles of their own in return ; among
other things, parrots, large balls of cotton-yarn and cakes
of a kind of bread called cassava, made of a great root.
One of them was at another time detained on board the
admiral's vessel, for the purpose of conciliating him and
his countrymen, though somewhat against his own will.
Columbus put a colored cap on his head, strings of
green beads around his arms, and hawks bells in his
ears ; and then dismissed him to return to the shore, and
be surrounded and admired by his countrymen. After
this, Columbus continued his cruise, and discovered the
Bahama isles and the island of Cuba, delighted to en-
thusiasm, as his crew also were, with the rich and glowing
scenery, the verdure, the perfume, the music of innumer-
able birds, the glancing light from the scales of many,
colored myriad fish in the clear water, the massy mag-
nificence of the forests, and the simplicity and gentleness
of the natives ; only one of the habits of these people
surprised them. Several of them were seen going about
with fire-brands in their hands, and certain dried herbs,
which they rolled up in a leaf, and lighting one end, put
the other in their mouth and puffed out the smoke. This,
it seems, was a tobacco, the name being originally given
to the roll, and since transferred to the plant.
LIFE OF COLUMBUS. 365
Off the island of Hispaniola, soon afterwards discover-
ed and coasted by Columbus, he had the misfortune to be
wrecked ; and having before this parted company with
one of the two caravels he was obliged to establish
himself and his crew for some lime upon the shore, where
the natives treated them with all possible kindness. The
sailors became so fond indeed, of the romantic and
easy life which they passed in this beautiful island, with
these happy people, that a large number of them volun-
teered to settle there while Columbus should return to Eu-
rope. This proposal was finally agreed upon ; a fort was
built of the wrecked vessel ; stocked with its guns, stores
and ammunition ; and manned by thirtyfive volunteers,
among whom were aphysician, a carpenter, caulker, cooper,
tailor and gunner. Articles were also left for trade.
Having made all these arrangements, and given very full
instructions and advice, Columbus sailed from the island
Jan. 6, 1493, on his voyage for Spain. Pinzon joined
him soon afterwards. The most remarkable incident
of the passage was a storm of more than two days' duration,
and of such extreme violence, that the fate of the two
vessels seemed for a time inevitable. In this extremity
many were the vows made on board, of pilgrimages,
watchings, processions and penitence. But the tempest
grew more terrific ; and the danger of the ship was aug-
mented by the want of ballast causing her to roll and
toss about at the swelling of the waves. The admiral
partially remedied this evil by having all the empty casks
on board filled with sea-water, this measure gave some
relief; but Columbus had other and peculiar causes of
anxiety, and above all the gloomy apprehension that
with him and his comrades, the memory and the immortal
glory which belonged to him would be lost forever.
With this feeling, he hastily wrote a brief account of his
voyage on parchment; sealed and directed it to the king
and queen, with a promise superscribed of 1000 ducats
to him who should bear it safely to their hands; then
wrapped it in a waxed cloth, which he placed in the centre
of a cake of wax; and inclosing the whole in a barrel,
threw it into the sea. To insure his object, a copy
inclosed in the same manner, was placed upon the
VOL. I. NO. XV. 33
366 LIFE OF COLUMBUS.
poop of his vessel . Happily, neither of these memorials
was ever needed, for the storm abated towards evening,
and early the next day, land was made among the Azores.
The little squadron arrived off the mouth of the Tagus
on the 4th of March, and in this vicinity Columbus re-
mained, till May 13th, the object of universal curiosity
and of very general admiration and respect. Barges and
boats of every kind, full of spectators and visiters, cover-
ed the bosom of the Tagus. All hung with wrapt atten-
tion on the story told by the voyagers, and gazed with un-
bounded wonder upon the Indians and the specimens of
unknown plants and animals they had brought with them.
Even the king invited the admiral to an interview, and
though evidently mortified at his own want of an inter-
est in his glorious expedition, treated him with the atten-
tion due to his high rank and his unsullied character.
The latter was not long detained, however, in Portugal.
He reernbarked on the 13th of March, and entered the har-
bor of Palos, on the 18th, amid the ringing of bells, and
the loud shouts of the whole populace of that neighbor-
hood. The fame of his discovery had resounded over
all Spain; and wherever he passed on his way to the
royal residence at Barcelona, the village-roads were lined
with people, and the streets, windows and balconies of
the large towns crowded with eager spectators, rending
the air with their acclamations. His reception at Barce-
lona was still more magnificent. Escorted by large num-
bers of young courtiers and gallant cavaliers, and fol-
lowed by an immense populace, he entered that noble city
with almost the pomp and splendor of a Roman tri-
umph. First in the march were paraded the Indians,
painted and decorated in their native style. After these
were carried various kinds of live parrots, stuffed birds
and animals of unknown species, rare plants, and a rich
display of Indian coronets, bracelets, pearls, gems and
gold. Then came Columbus, with his splendid escort
in long array around and behind him. Countless multi-
tudes crowded the streets wherever they passed; the
windows and balconies were filled, and even the roofs of
the houses covered with spectators. In this manner Co-
lumbus approached the throne of his sovereign, and they
LIFE OP COLUMBUS. 3G7
rose as he drew near. Kneeling down, he requested
to kiss their hands; they then raised him in the most gra-
cious manner, and ordered him to seat himself in their
presence, and relate his adventures. This done, they
sunk on their knees, wept with joy, and gave thanks to
God ; and the whole of the vast multitude present, with a
common emotion, followed their example. Such was the
reception of Columbus! Such the celebration of the most
sublime discovery recorded in the annals of the world !
In the ensuing year, a second expedition was fitted
out for Columbus, consisting of seventeen vessels and
fifteen hundred men, including large numbers of
young, noble and enthusiastic volunteers. They sailed
before sunrise on the twentyfifth of September, 1493,
from the Bay of Cadiz. In the evening of the twentysecond
of November, after a winding cruise among several new-
ly-discovered islands, they arrived at the harbor of the
fort, named La Navidad, and anchored a league from the
land. Here, impatient to know at least that the garrison
were living, Columbus ordered a cannon to be fired ; the
report echoed along the shore, but there was no reply; no
shout was heard ; no light was seen ; all was darkness and
death-like silence. At midnight, a canoe was seen cau-
tiously to approach the fleet. Those who paddled it, how-
ever, would not go on board even of the admiral's ship, un-
til Columbus showed himself with a light at the side of
the vessel. By their confused accounts, and by subse-
quent sources of information, it appeared that the unfor-
tunate garrison had neglected the admiral's advice, and
had suffered the consequences of their imprudence. The
avarice of some, and the sensuality of others, occasioned
quarrels with the natives, while jealousy and ambition
embittered them against each other. The results were
combinations, factions, brawls, war, and at last sudden
destruction by the hands of the enraged and disgusted
natives. Such was the history of the first European
settlement in the new world.
But, discouraging as it was, it became necessary to un-
dertake a second one; and for this purpose a site was se-
lected upon the same island (Hispaniola) at a place where
two rivers, a green and beautiful plain between them, and
LIFE OF COLUMBUS.
a spacious harbor, gave promise of a more fortunate desti-
ny. Here, too, the soil was fertile, the climate genial ; the
trees were in leaf, the shrubs flowered, and the birds sing-
ing, though it was the middle of December. The settle-
ment was immediately undertaken. An encampment was
formed upon the plain ; the cattle, horses, stores, guns
and everything on board the vessels was conveyed ashore ;
streets and squares, gardens and orchards projected ; and
the greatest diligence used in erecting a church, a store-
house, and residence for the admiral, of stone, beside a
number of wooden and reed houses for the multitude at
large. The greater part of the fleet, meanwhile, sailed
for Spain on the 2d of February, 1494.
From this time commenced the troubles of Columbus.
Many of his ardent followers were already disappointed in
their extravagant expectations of wealth and glory ; and
the same heat and moisture which fertilized the soil they
had settled on, soon proved fatal to themselves. Pro-
visions grew scarce, and labor became necessary ; but
the cavaliers were both indolent and ill-humored, and
thus controversy and jealousies arose between them and
Columbus, which lasted during their and his whole life.
To quiet them for a time, however, he undertook various
exploring expeditions into the interior, and also voyages
upon the neighboring seas. Jamaica was discovered, and
that island and others already known were more tho-
roughly explored the admiral himself sharing with his
humblest companions, during all this time, the utmost of
their privations and labors, in addition to his own pecu-
liar and poignant anxieties, of which they could not even
form a conception. Indeed so completely was he worn
out, on his return in September to his new settlement,
(named Isabella in honor of the Queen) as to be car-
ried on shore at that place in a stale of lethargy resem-
bling death itself, deprived of sight, of memory and of all
his faculties.
His history between this period and the ensuing spring
may be passed over with the remark, that his brother
Bartholomew arrived from Europe, meanwhile, to comfort
and assist him in the difficulties which still beset him up-
on all sides. Not the least of these was a war with the
LIFE OP COLUMBUS. 369
natives in the interior, and this had now advanced so far
upon their part, early in March, 1795, that tljey were ac-
tually assembled in great force within two days' march of
Isabella, and were preparing for a general and overwhelm-
ing assault upon the settlement. Columbus, now recov-
ering from his sickness, determined to meet this move-
ment in its first stages, though the whole force of his col-
ony did not exceed two hundred infantry and twenty horse.
These, however, were disciplined soldiers, cased in steel,
covered with bucklers, and well armed with cross-bows,
swords, lances, and heavy arquebusses, which were in
those days used with rests, and sometimes mounted on
wheels. They had twenty blood-hounds trained, strong,
and terribly ferocious. Columbus began his march on
the 24th of the month, and in two or three days came 'in
sight of the enemy, collected in immense numbers at the
place where St Jago has since been built. He immedi-
ately adopted the plan of attacking them in various direc-
tions, with a great din of drums and trumpets, and a deadly
discharge of the infantry fire-arms from the covert of the
trees. A charge was then made by the horse, with lance
and sabre ; while the blood-hounds let loose upon the
naked savages, seized them by the throat, dragged them
to the earth, and despatched them with a terrific violence.
The Indians were panic-struck, and fled in all directions ;
nor was any resistance ever afterwards attempted by them,
though thousands wandered and perished, from month
to month, among the remote fastnesses and wilds of the
island.
Meanwhile, intrigues, arising from jealousy and envy,
were going on against Columbus in the court of Spain, to
such an extent that the King and Queen thought proper
to send out an agent, named Aguado, for the express
purpose of ascertaining the truth or falsehood of the
charges made against the Admiral. This agent arrived
at Isabella in the fall of 1495 ; and Columbus, after en-
during some insolence from him with astonishing dignity
and calmness, resolved to return with him to Spain.
They sailed, accordingly, on the 10th of March, 1496,
and arrived at Cadiz on the llth of June. Columbus
was 'at this time so dejected, that he had suffered his
VOL. i. NO. xv. 33*
370 LIFE OF COLUMBUS.
beard to grow in the manner of Franciscan monks, and
had clad himself in a garb fashioned and colored like
theirs, girded only with a cord. Nor was he much anima-
ted by the indifferent reception which he met with, gen-
erally, among his misinformed and fickle countrymen.
His sovereigns, indeed, received him graciously, and even
kindly ; and yet their exertions, situated as Spain then
was, were insufficient to raise a third expedition for
him until the spring of 1498. On the 30th of May in that
year, still undiscouraged by all his disappointments and
distresses, he sailed westward once more with a squad-
ron of six vessels. In the course of this voyage he dis-
covered Trinidad, and navigated the Gulf of Paria to a
great extent, in the expectation of arriving at the end of
what he considered a large island. Disappointed in this
hope, worn down with labor and hardships, parched with
fever, racked by gout but not even now less sanguine
than ever before he returned to Isabella again, hag-
gard, emaciated and almost blind. The troubles here, a
series of factions and mutinies of the most insolent and
violent character the same which had constantly harass-
ed his brother Bartholomew during his absence now de-
volved upon him ; nor was it until the year 1490 that any-
thing like harmony and order could be restored among
the colonists.
At this time new disasters were ready to overwhelm
him, for the intrigues against him in Spain had been re-
sumed with increased bitterness. The effect was that a
new agent, Don Francisco de Bobadilla, an arrogant
and unprincipled man, but entrusted nevertheless with
large authority was sent out to investigate the charges
against the admiral, and to treat him according to the
result, in a great degree as he might himself think prop-
er. Bobadilla went far beyond Aguado in his insolence,
for, he not only assumed absolute authority upon his ar-
rival in the island, but proceeded to quiet all opposition,
real or imaginary, by force ; summoned Columbus to ap-
pear before him ; put him and his brother in chains ; and
in October of the same season sent them for trial to
Spain, shackled like the vilest culprits, and amidst the
scoffs and shouts of a servile and disorderly populace.
LIFE OF COLUMBUS. 371
But neither the people nor the sovereigns of Spain
were prepared for this step : and upon the arrival of Co-
lumbus on the shores of that kingdom in the condition
just mentioned, a universal burst of indignation was excit-
ed. The king and queen, too, received the admiral, now
liberated, with a kindness which overcame him more than
all his calamities ; he threw himself upon his knees before
them, and for some time could not utter a word for the
violence of his tears and sobbings. But gracious as they
were, and respectfully as they listened to his request that
preparations might be made for a fourth expedition under
his command, various obstacles stood in his way, as usual,
not the least of which was probably a suppressed jeal-
ousy of the king. But an armament was at last com-
pleted, consisting of four small caravels and one hundred
and fifty men : and the admiral, with his brother and son,
leaving Cadiz once more, in May, 1502, arrived upon the
shores of San Domingo about the last of June. Here,
notwithstanding the apparent approach of a storm, Bo-
badilla's successor, the governor of the Colony, refused
him even shelter for his vessels, a measure attributed by
some writers to the circumstances that large numbers of
the colonists were at this time the inveterate enemies of
the admiral, and mij?ht be expected to treat him with
violence. His excellent seamanship saved him, however r
from the storm y terrible as it was ; while Bobadilla and
many others of his worst enemies who had rashly em-
barked for Spain, regardless of his prediction, with all
the ill-gotten wealth with which they loaded their vessels,
were overwhelmed, and perished in the strife of the ele-
ments. After this, the admiral coasted along the shores
of Honduras, the Musquito coast, and Costa Rica in the
vain hope of discovering a strait between North and South
America. Meanwhile, he discovered Porto-Bello r explor-
ed various sections of the main land, and attempted the
formation of a settlement. Compelled after incredible ex-
ertions and sufferings to abandon these projects, he return-
ed towards Jamaica ; nothing being now left of his sea-
stores but a little oil, biscuit, and vinegar, while his men
were obliged to labor incessantly at the pumps to keep
their crazy vessel from sinking. In this condition, they
372 LIFE Of COLUMBUS.
anchored among a cluster of isles south of Cuba, call-
ed the Queen's Garden, May 30th, 1503. Here, a sud-
den tempest came on at midnight, with such violence
that, as Columbus himself writes, 'it seemed as if the
world would dissolve.' The seas ran mountain high ; and
the winds dashed the vessels against each other in such a
manner that, had darkness continued an hour longer,
they must all have inevitably gone to the bottom. As it
was, they were hardly able to continue the voyage east-
ward, their anchors being lost, the vessels ' bored as full
of holes as a honey-comb,' and the leaks gaining upon
them so that not only the pumps, but buckets and kettles,
were incessantly used in bailing. Finally, on the coast
of Jamaica, Columbus gave up the struggle ; he ordered
his crazy vessels to be run aground, within a bow-shot of
the shore, and fastened together, side by side. They
soon filled with water to the decks. Thatched cabins
were then erected at the prows and stems, for the accom-
modation of the crews, and the wreck was placed in the
best possible state for defence.
In this location Columbus remained about a year, at
peace with the natives, but rebelled against and deserted
by a large part of his soldiers, as well as reduced to ex-
treme hazard of famine. He survived, however, with a
small company of his men ; and upon the 28th of June,
15(M, they had the inexpressible satisfaction of leaving
this memorable spot, in two vessels sent them by the gov-
ernor of San Domingo. They arrived in that colony on
the 13th of August ; and there, for once, the unfortunate
admiral, too humble and wretched to be any longer the
object of envy, was received with the honor due to his
distinguished character and services. He remained at
this place until the 12th of September, when he com-
menced his last voyage to Spain ; nor was it until nearly
two months' tempestuous and perilous navigation, during
which one of his two vessels was obliged to put back,
that the other, shattered and crazy, anchored at last
in the harbor of San Lucar. From this port, Colum-
bus had himself immediately conveyed, feeble and worn
out as he was, to Seville. Thenceforth, the rest which
he now sought fled from his pursuit. His family affairs
LIFE OF COLUMBUS.
373
were in confusion : ' If I desire to eat or sleep,' he writes,
' I have no resort but an inn, and for the most part have
not wherewithal to pay my bill.' He was anxious, too,
for the restoration of all the original honors of which he
had been gradually deprived; and he earnestly desired,
on this and other accounts, to get to court. But this his
illness made impossible ; and meanwhile his warm and
constant patroness, the queen, died upon the 20th of
November, 150-4. He was able to spend months of at-
tendance at court during the next season, but this was
now unavailing : Ferdinand complimented him politely,
but otherwise gave him neither encouragement or assist-
ance.
Life was now drawing to a close, for he was once more
confined to his bed by a severe illness, aggravated by his
sorrows and disappointments. Ingratitude, the suspension
of his honors, pecuniary embarrassments, defamation, anx-
iety for his own glory and for the welfare of the Spanish
settlements in the west, all had their effect upon him, an
effect too strong for a worn-out constitution to endure.
Admonished of his approaching end, he made suitable
preparations for it with resignation and with calmness.
The property which he still owned he ordered to be dis-
tributed among relations, friends and servants ; so min-
utely remembering the smallest debts, that half a mark
of silver was left to a poor Jew, who lived at the gate of
Jewry in the city of Lisbon. These arrangements satis-
factorily made, he turned his exclusive attention, ear-
nestly but with composure, to the interest of his own soul :
and having received the holy sacraments, and performed
all the pious offices of a devout Christian, he calmly
breathed his last on the day of Ascension, May 20th,
1506, at the age of about seventy years. His last words
were ' //* monus tuas, Domine, commcndo spirit um me-
um' ' Into thy hands, O Lord, I commend my spirit.'
His body was deposited in the convent of St Francis-
co, and his obsequies were celebrated with funeral pomp
at Valladolid. In 1513, his remains were transported to
the Carthusian monastery of Las Cuevas, at Seville,
where also those of his son Diego were deposited upon
his death in 1526. Ten years after this, the bodies of
874 LIFE OF COLUMBUS.
both father and son were removed to Hispaniola, and
interred in the principal chapel of the cathedral of the
city of San Domingo. But even here they did not rest
in quiet for when the Spanish section of the island just
named was, in 1795, ceded by France to Spain, a strong
solicitation was made by the latter that the ashes of the
admiral might be exhumed and translated to Havana,
in Cuba. The request was complied with ; and the ob-
ject carried into effect with a variety of solemn ceremo-
nies not unworthy of mention. On the 20th of Decem-
ber, in the year last named, a large number of the most
distinguished citizens and dignitaries of San Domingo
assembled in the cathedral : and in their presence a
small vault was opened above the chancel, in the princi-
pal wall on the right side of the high altar. Within were
found the fragments of a leaden coffin, a number of bones,
and a quantity of mould, evidently the remains of a hu-
man body. These were carefully collected, and put into
a case of gilded lead, about half an ell in length and
breadth, and a third in height, secured by an iron lock ;
the case was inclosed in a coffin covered with black vel-
vet, and ornamented with lace and fringe of gold. The
whole was then placed in a temporary tomb or mausole-
um ; on the following day, vigils and masses for the dead
were solemnly chanted; and a funeral sermon delivered by
the Archbishop of San Domingo. At four o'clock in
the afternoon the coffin was conveyed to the ship destined
for the transportation, with a civil, religious and military
procession, banners wrapped in mourning, chants, re-
sponses and discharges of artillery. The key of the cof-
fin was then formally delivered into the hands of the
highest Spanish authority present, to be by him given to
the governor of Havana. The transfer of the coffin it-
self was noticed by salutes, mourning-signals throughout
the shipping of the harbor, and by all the other honors
due to an admiral.
On the arrival of the ship at Havana, January 15,
1796, everything was conducted with the same deep
feeling, and by similar circumstantial and solemn cere-
monies. The remains were conveyed to land in the midst
of a procession of three columns of feluccas and boats in
LIFE OF COLUMBUS. 375
the royal service, and attended by distinguished citizens,
and by a marine guard of honor, with mourning ban-
ners and muffled drums. On arriving at the mole, the
remains were met by the governor, and were then con-
veyed, between files of soldiery which lined the streets, to
the obelisk, in the place of arms; and thence, after great
pomp and ceremonies of delivery, to the cathedral of
the city. All these, and other, honors and ceremo-
nies, say the historians of this great event, ' were attend-
ed by the ecclesiastical and secular dignitaries, the pub-
lic bodies, and all the nobility and gentry of Havana, in
proof of the high estimation and respectful remembrance
in which they held the hero who had discovered the new
world, and had been the first to plant the standard of the
cross on that island. It is well oberved by a recent dis-
tinguished biographer of Columbus, that when we read
of the manner in which his remains were treated at San
Domingo, after an interval of nearly three hundred years ;
the most illustrious men striving who should pay them
most reverence ; ' we cannot but reflect that it was from
this very port he was carried off loaded with ignominious
chains, blasted apparently in fame and fortune, and fol-
lowed by the revilings of the rabble.' To that place,
too, it might be added, the venerable and noble adven-
turer returned, upon his last voyage, to be refused ad-
mittance even to its harbor. ' Such honors, it is true,
are nothing to the dead, nor can they atone to the heart,
now dust and ashes, for all the wrongs and sorrows it may
have suffered : but they speak volumes of comfort to the
illustrious, yet slandered and persecuted being, encour-
aging them bravely to bear with present injuries, by show-
ing them how true merit outlives all calumny, and re-
ceives its glorious reward in the admiration of after ages.'
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auebec,
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SCIENTIFIC TRACTS
NUMBER XVI.
CHARACTER OF COLUMBUS.
IT is natural, that an interest should be felt in the
moral and intellectual character of a man, whose life oc-
cupies so large a space in the annals of the world as the
life of Columbus. The discovery of America was a
grand, a sublime event. It was an era in history. It
was the opening of new oceans to commerce, of new
continents to civilization and science, never to be again
closed or lost. It not only waked up the activity of
Spain and Portugal, the countries most immediately
concerned in the act itself, but it sent a thrill to the
heart of all Europe. A new impulse was thenceforth
given to energy and to enterprise, wherever, in all coun-
tries and all climes, there was discontent to be quieted
poverty to be employed avarice, ambition, the
spirit of adventure, of science, of romance, of religion,
to be gratified. Well, indeed when the long-lost ves-
sel of Columbus was entering the harbor of Palos on its
voyage from the far west well might the little commu-
nity of that ancient and honored village, break forth into
transports of joy, ringing the bells, shutting the shops,
and suspending all business in the tumult and triumph of
that memorable hour. Well might the progress of the
admiral, from that place to the royal residence at Barce-
lona, resemble a Roman triumph in its splendor and
pomp. Well might the tidings of his fame be spread far
and wide ' by the communications of ambassadors, the
correspondence of the learned, the negotiations of rner
chants, and the reports of travellers,' rilling the whole
civilized world with wonder and delight.
VOL. i. NO. xvi. 34
378 CHARACTER OP COLUMBUS.
The character of the man who occasioned this univer-
sal excitement must needs be a subject of interest ; and
the more so, when we come to know, that everything
which he achieved, he achieved by the mere force of his
character alone. He was in a great degree uneducated,
at least by any other care than his own, for the life
which he led, and the labors he performed. The son of
an humble wool-comber of Genoa, he could place no
reliance upon friends or fortune. Leisure, money, books,
society, advice,' everything was wanting to him in the
outset, but the desire of knowledge, and the determina-
tion to obtain and to use it. More than this. He had
positive obstacles to remove, and opposition to overcome,
at every step of his progress, the very perusal of which
is appalling to the reader of this age. The science and
the ignorance of his times, the religion of the priestcraft
and the superstitions of the people, the indifference and
indolence of monarchs, and the envy and jealousy of all
subordinate authorities, these were among the least of
his difficulties. Incredible labors were to be performed,
privations to be endured, mutiny and faction, disappoint-
ment, danger, sickness, contempt, suspicion, insult,
everything but death, and that despair, which to the un-
conquerable will of Columbus, was impossible. But he
triumphed at last, and in the glory of that triumph, well
may the memory of his woes and his wrongs be lost.
And yet it should not be lost. A lesson is to be gath-
ered from them, not to be forgotten. And this lesson
applies to all circumstances and conditions of men. Few,
indeed, are called upon to door to endure like Columbus,
as still fewer can expect his reward. But in the sphere
of the humblest man in society, there always is or should
be some honorable and honest purpose in view ; and diffi-
culties are to be encountered, and success obtained, not
precisely of the same nature, but yet by the discipline
and the exertion of the same common faculties. That
this discipline and this exertion were the causes of his
success, instead of extraordinary genius, as that vague
word seems to be generally understood, and in direct
opposition has been seen to all other accidental resources
we shall endeavor to illustrate in the course of the fol-
lowing sketch.
CHARACTER OF COLUMBUS. 379
It is worthy of special observation, in the first place,
how early in life Columbus, though both unadvised and
unaided, commenced the labor of his own education.
Some opportunities were given him by his father, it is
true, as it very rarely happens that such are not given :
but these were in themselves inconsiderable, and it was
his merit, of course, that he made the most and the best
of them. He was not content with studying whatever
books might be placed in his hands, though he did un-
doubtedly study them, such as they were, until he thorough-
ly understood them. But he learned from them that
other knowledge was to be gained ; and so desire was
excited ; effort was made to gratify and to satisfy it ; and
this very desire, and this very effort, whether successful
or not at the time, and they almost always are so, at
some time or other, were still of essential value to his
intellect and character. They encouraged a love of
knowledge, that once awakened, never again slept.
They brought upon him the necessity of reflection, and
of close and constant observation of men and things, to
answer the purpose of libraries and teachers ; of the en-
tire application of all his faculties to everything that was
for the want of things that were not within his
reach. Thus was he confirmed in habits of deep
thought, of industry, of thoroughness, of independence,
intellectual and moral : and thus, as in thousands of
other cases, was the foundation slowly but firmly laid
for a life and a character, which have excited the admi-
ration and astonishment of the world.
He neglected nothing which could be of service to
him, however trifling ; and in nothing which he once
undertook, and which, of course, he considered worth
undertaking, did he stop short of such perfection as his
means permitted. He wrote so elegant a hand, for in-
stance, in his boyhood, that those who possessed some of
his manuscript afterwards, were of opinion that he might
have earned his livelihood by it alone. He paid a very
strict attention to geography, astronomy, (then, astrology,
however,) and to every other study necessary in the art
of navigation ; for upon this all his desires and aspirations
were bent from the moment he could appreciate the cu-
380 CHARACTER OF COLUMBUS.
rious and adventurous spirit of his age. The labor which
he spent upon the construction of maps and charts, in
particular, may be inferred from the fact that he sup-
ported himself and his family for several years in Lisbon,
by this very art ; and on two or three other occasions
during his long and eventful life, he resorted to the same
resource. This skill and science he may have acquired,
to a small extesit, during the short period which he pass-
ed at school. But there he could have learned only the
rudiments. He must have matured and multiplied them
in his mind, as well as acquired the necessary manual
dexterity, by devoting to these pursuits the leisure mo-
ments of his naval life in the Mediterranean, few and far
between as they certainly were. He was fortunate, we
have no right to say sagacious, enough to marry at Lisbon
the daughter of a celebrated Italian voyager, whose
plans, projects and documents constituted, with the ex-
planations of his wife and her mother, both the recrea*
tion and labor of years. He embraced every occasion,
meanwhile, to obtain information from every living source
within his reach. He went to reside upon the newly
discovered island of Porto Santo, for a time, that he
might be in the way of the African navigators, who
touched and sometimes tarried there on their voyages to
and fro.
How rare, and how meritorious accordingly, was a
skill like that of Columbus in the construction of charts,
is evident from the distinction which Mauro, an Italian
friar, obtained, from having projected a universal map,
considered the most accurate of the time : a fac-sirnile
of which map is now deposited in the British Museum
at London. The Venetians struck a medal in honor of
Mauro, on which they entitled him the Incomparabale
Cosmographer. Americus Vespucius, from whom this
continent has derived its name, paid 130 ducats,
equivalent to 555 dollars of our coin, for a map of sea
and land, made by Gabriel de Valseca, in 1439.
Nor did these attainments alone occupy the entire
time of Columbus. The idea of his theory of the undis-
covered western world, which must have occurred to him
early in the course of his geographical reading, never
CHARACTER OF COLUMBUS. 381
ceased from that time to be the subject of his thoughts,
and the great object of his life. To digest and to sub-
stantiate it, even to his own satisfaction, must have cost
him both reflection and research enough to be exclusive-
ly the employment of any man. The evidences of the
former, furnished by his theory itself, and by the manner
in which he sustained it, need not be enlarged upon.
But it will be found, too, that situated as he now was and
ever had been, with the necessity, especially, of earn-
ing his daily bread by his daily labor, he had carefully
examined the best of the extant literature of his age
upon the subject. He delved into the old and volumi-
nous productions of Aristotle, Seneca, Pliny and Strabo,
to prove that the ' ocean surrounds the earth,' or that
' one might pass from Cadiz to the Indies in a few days.'
He corresponded with a learned doctor in Italy, and
from him obtained a knowledge of the narratives of Man-
deville and Marco Polo ; all to corroborate the idea that
Asia, or as he always termed it, India, stretched so far
to the east as to occupy a greater part of the unexplored
space, and to leave therefore but a comparatively narrow
breadth of ocean to traverse on his way to the westward.
Thus, step by step, year by year, was his theory estab-
lished. And meanwhile he was personally deriving in-
formation from mariners, pilots, adventurers, even from
the ignorant inhabitants of Porto Santfc among whom,
no doubt, daily
-The wonder grew,
That one small head could carry all he knew.
He ascertained from one individual, that at the distance
of 450 leagues to the west of Cape St Vincent, he had
picked up a piece of carved wood, evidently not wrought
with an iron instrument. Facts of the same nature were
communicated to him by his brother-in-law, a navigator
of some note. He had heard from the king of Portugal,
that immense reeds had floated to some of the islands
from the west ; in the description of which he was pre-
pared to recognise the large reeds described by Ptolemy
as growing in India. He heard also of the trunks of
huge pine trees, and of the bodies of two dead men cast
\OL. i. NO. xvi. 34*
CHARACTER OF COLUMBUS.
upon the island of Flores ; and a mariner of Port St Mary
told him, that in the course of a voyage to Ireland, he
had seen land on ' the outer side,' which the ship's crew
took for the extreme part of Tartary. Nor is it to be
doubted that useful suggestions might accrue to a mind
like that of Columbus, even from the prevalent rumors
concerning the fancied islands of St Branden, the Seven
Cities, and various other fables of a similar nature. All
these things, at all events, were carefully noted among
his memoranda ; and trifling as they may appear at the
present day, they were probably important as they were
novel and rare then; and they certainly indicate, at least,
the inquisitiveness and the energy of the indefatigable
theorist. And thus, again, was the humble and pooi
day-laborer acquiring the confidence, and drawing to-
gether the knowledge, from all the ends of the earth,
which were to be his guide and support through life, and
to be the foundation of an imperishable fame.
Nor was it mere knowledge or mere discipline of the
mind, or mere moral habits of value, which he had thus
far acquired. As much as he had studied and learned,
he was the very reverse of a simply sedentary or specu-
lative man. On the other hand, he was eminently a prac-
tical and an active man. In the naval science of the
Mediterranean, he had inured himself to bodily hardships,
privations and exertions for many years ; nor was he now
situated to be free from them. But, however such a
man might be situated, he could not be without resources
for any undertaking. Whatever were his manual em-
ployments, no time was lost. Without leisure and without
books conversation in society, and reflection in soli-
tude were made constantly subservient to the one great
object. And thus it is well worth observing was
he not only gaining that science and that power of mind
which are or should be the ordinary results of the labors
of a mere scholar ; but he was gaining them by a study
of human nature and human life, in himself and in all
around him. Here he acquired the facility of reading the
character and of managing the passions of men, which
was so indispensable to his success in afterlife; and
without which no man, however learned or ingenious, is
CHARACTER OF COLUMBUS. 383
fitted for the conduct of business, and especially of busi-
ness upon a large scale. Even industry and energy,
without self-command and command over others, will
only suffice for a man so long as he labors by himself. If
he would set on foot and sustain great plans, he must
know how to illuminate or at least to control other minds,
to interest other hearts, and to employ other hands,
than his own.
We have attended to the self-command which was a
trait in the character of Columbus. It was a very im-
portant one, too ; for as no quality is so essentially ne-
cessary to an influence over others, so no individual ever
had more occasion or more need, perhaps, for its exer-
cise than Columbus. It was self-denial in temptation,
self-possession in danger, self-respect and self-confidence
in ignominy and disappointment, magnanimity in resent-
ment, and in every emergency, in a word, coolness and
fortitude. All these were in him, as indeed they are ge-
nerally, but various manifestations of the same great
principle of self-control, variously exercised by the dif-
ferent occasions of life. It is true that one temptation
may be stronger in a man's mind than another avarice
than ambition, for example or mere appetite than any
passion ; but it is also true that the same power which
will enable himself completely to control the one, will
enable him to check or to compromise with the other.
The first interview of Columbus with Aguado, the
Spanish agent sent out to San Domingo, by the influence
of his enemies, to investigate certain malicious and in-
solent charges brought against him, is a fine illustration
of the foregoing remarks. Entrusted as he had been
and deserved to be, in the first instance, with high honors
and almost exclusive and supreme authority in the west,
the mere appointment of a petty functionary to exercise
even a ' brief authority' over him with whatever decency
or dignity it might have been done, had the functionary
been anything like a gentleman, would have been
galling enough to a man of fur less spirit than Columbus.
But Aguado, a vulgar and weak character, was purled
up by his temporary power. He interfered with public
affairs on his first arrival in the colony : ordered various
384 CHARACTER OP COLUMBUS,
persons to be arrested ; called to account the officers ap-
pointed by the admiral ; and insulted his brother, who
remained in command during the absence of Columbus
himself. He then ordered his letter of credence to be
proclaimed pompously by sound of trumpet, the vague
and irresponsible wording of which was not the least of
the provocations of the admiral ' Cavaliers, Esquires,
and other persons who by our orders are in the Indies,
we sent to you Juan Aguado, our groom of the cham-
bers, who will speak to you on our part ; we command
you to give him faith and credit.'
Among a disorderly population, the report soon circu-
lated that the downfal of Columbus was at hand, and
that the grievances of the public were to be heard and
redressed. Immediately, every culprit became an ac-
cuser ; for every man who had been punished was dis-
posed to complain of it as oppression ; and all the other
troubles which existed or had existed in the colony were
imputed to the same source. Aguado, meanwhile, pre-
tending to believe that Columbus, who was in the interior,
purposed to avoid returning to the colony, affected to set
out with a company of horse to go in quest of him. The
latter, meanwhile, was hastening to Isabella to give him
a meeting ; and Aguado, hearing of his approach, also
returned there. A violent explosion was now generally
expected (for the high sense which Columbus had of his
services and dignity was well known,) and Aguado him-
self looked forward, it is said, ' with the ignorant auda-
city of a little mind to the result.' But all were disap-
pointed. Columbus received his rival, if a man could
be called such, whom he so utterly and justly despised,
with the most grave and punctilious courtesy ; only re-
torting upon him his own ostentatious ceremonial, by
ordering the letter of credence to be again proclaimed
by sound of trumpet in the presence of the wondering
populace. He listened to it himself with solemn defer-
ence, and assured Aguedo of his readiness to acquiesce
in whatever was the pleasure of his sovereigns. The
advantages of this collected and dignified, though diffi-
cult course of conduct, are very obvious. He had to
endure, indeed, the slurs of every dastard spirit in the
CHARACTER OF COLUMBUS. 385
colony upon his courage. But he completely thwarted
his mean rival. The latter had expected with some ex-
ultation to see him enraged or at least dispirited. He
endeavored, in fact, a few months afterwards, to obtain
from the public notaries present a prejudicial statement
of the interview ; but the good conduct of the admiral
had been too marked to be disputed, and the testi-
monials were all highly in his favor.
During the absence of Columbus on his third voyage,
Bobadilla was sent out from Spain with an agency's! mi lar
to that of Aguado. He was a man of some rank, but
he was needy, passionate and ambitious : and he had
already made up his opinions violently against the admi-
ral. He considered his alleged cruelty entirely proved,
therefore, when he saw the body of a Spaniard hanging
upon a gibbet on either bank of the river San Domingo,
as he sailed up. This and a hundred other charges
were substantiated, during the day, by multitudes of people
who came off in boats to see him, and to pay court to
him, while they revenged themselves by some accusa-
tion against Columbus. On landing, he assumed supreme
authority at once, and called upon Don Diego, the
brother of Columbus, (himself absent,) to submit to him.
This he refused to do until he was satisfied of the right
of Bobadilla to exercise this command ; but the latter
declined showing it, and contented himself with a few
vulgar and blustering bravados. Not only Don Diego,
he said, but the admiral himself should know whom they
had to deal with. On the following day, as Diego still
refused to give up certain prisoners whom he held con-
fined by his brother's order, Bobadilla fell into a grievous
passion ; and having mustered a shouting and riotous mob
about him by reading his commission, he proceeded
forthwith to lead them against the prison. This was a
small slight building, wholly incapable of resisting so
tremendous a force, had there been any garrison in it
which there did not happen to be or had the garrison
been inclined to oppose this motley multitude with their
own weapons. This not being the case, Bobadilla fell
furiously upon the frail bolts and locks of the portal, and
they gave way at the first shock ; his zealous followers,
CHARACTER OF COLUMBUS.
meanwhile, having been at the unnecessary trouble of
applying ladders to the walls of the building in all direc-
tions, as if scaling a fortress. The prisoners were seized
upon, and transferred to a prison of his own choice. He
then insolently took up his residence in the house of Co-
lumbus; possessed himself of his arms, gold plate jewels,
horses, books, letters, and other papers public and pri-
vate, even of the most sacred nature ; liquidated the de-
mands of all who claimed any debt due from Columbus;
and appropriated the residue, without the least ceremony,
to his own benefit. He supported himself with the popu-
lace, meanwhile, first, by vilifying the admiral, and
secondly, by proclaiming a general license for the term
of twenty years, to seek for gold. He soon after sum-
moned Columbus, who was in the country, to appear be-
fore him immediately.
The latter had heard of his measures, and he well
knew the character of the man. He could scarcely yet
believe, indeed, that such a character, if any, should be
appointed to such an authority over himself, after all the
sorrows and services which had worn him down nearly
to the grave a sufficient provocation alone, indepen-
dently of the outrageous insults we have mentioned.
The conduct of the admiral at this juncture is a true
test of his character. Instantly on receiving the sum-
mons in the name of his sovereign, he started off unat-
tended for San Domingo, while Bobadilla, in the mean-
time, was arming the city troops in the apprehension
that Columbus was mustering an army among the In-
dians to resist him. He had just before this seized upon
Don Diego, thrown him in irons, and confined him on
board a caravel, without authority and without reason.
Columbus, purposely with no guards or retinue, now
entered the city, amid the hostile preparation, bustle and
bravado of Bobadilla. The latter, thus baulked in his
military ambition, avenged his own disappointment by
giving instant orders for putting the admiral in irons and
confining him in prison, a measure which shocked even
the enemies of the latter. No person could be induced
to put the irons upon his person, in fact, until one of his
own domestics, * a graceless and shameless cook,' says
CHARACTER OF COLUMBUS. 387
the historian Las Casas, ' with unwashed front, riveted
the fetters upon his master with as much alacrity as
though he were serving him with choice and savory
viands.' ' I knew the fellow,' he adds, ' and I think his
name was Espinosa.' The admiral being disposed of in
this manner, there was no difficulty in proving him
guilty of every charge of which he might be accused.
He was found, accordingly, to have compelled gentlemen
to labor in a case of public emergency, with their own
hands ; to have occasioned all manner of mutinies and
seditions by his mismanagement, and then suppressed
them by ' levying war against the government.' He had
confined, starved, or otherwise punished various persons,
all of whom were, of course, entirely innocent. Moreover,
he had embezzled pearls, or at least pearls were found in his
house : and the farther inference was, that the proceeds
of all his voyages had been appropriated to his own
benefit.
There can be no doubt that these base slanders were
made a part of the suffering of Columbus during his
confinement. The confinement itself he knew to be as
much without cause as it was without authority. ' I
make oath,' he writes at this time, ' that I do not know
for what I am imprisoned,' and again, ' I was taken
and thrown with two brothers into a ship, loaded with
irons, with little clothing and much ill treatment, without
being convicted or summoned by justice.' The latter
step was subsequent to those mentioned already. Boba-
dilla, finding he had succeeded so well in his own abuse
of Columbus, that insulting pasquinades were posted
up at every corner, and horns blown by the mob in the
neighborhood of the prison, felt secure in going still far-
ther. Several vessels were now ready to sail for Spain,
and he determined to put the admiral and his brothers
on board of them, under charge of one Villejo. This
man, who happened to be a gentleman, repaired to the
prison, with a guard, to conduct his venerable prisoner
to the shore. He found him still in chains, dejected and
silent. He had long feared that he should fall a sacrifice
to the vulgar and violent passions let loose around him ;
and he naturally looked toVillejo, when he entered, as his
388 CHARACTER OF COLUMBUS.
executioner. ' Villejo,' said he mournfully, ' whither
would you take me?' ' To the ship, your excellency, to
embark,' replied the other. 'To embark !' replied the
admiral earnestly: 'Villejo! do you speak the truth?'
' By the life of your excellency,' replied the officer, ' it is
true ! ' The admiral now followed him almost with a
cheerfulness, though obliged to endure, on his way to the
shore, the scoffs and hoots of the assembled populace.
Villejo treated him respectfully on the passage, and would
even have taken off his chains ; but this, with a noble
dignity, he declined. 'No!' said he proudly, 'under
the authority of my sovereigns, Bobadilla has put these
chains upon me : I will wear them until they shall order
them to be taken off, and I will preserve them afterwards
as relics and memorials of the reward of my services.' It
is affecting to know that he thought so much of this
promise of his own, as to keep the chains ever after
hanging in his cabinet, and to request that they might
be buried with him when he died. It is abundantly
evident, that he felt, on this occasion, as on many others,
a great deal more than he expressed. His passions
were strong, but his power over them was still stronger.
His li% is full of illustrations of this self-control, and
of the great advantages of it. In danger, for example,
he not only secured the confidence or at least the respect
of the people around him by his coolness, but he was
perfectly possessed of his natural shrewdness of inven-
tions, and thus frequently contrived plans of relief with
as much readiness as he would have done in his closet at
Jiome. In one of his earliest Mediterranean voyages, he
effected the design of his cruise against the remonstran-
ces and threats of a mutinous crew, by apparently as-
senting to their wish to tack about altering the point
of the compass, and spreading all sail. The next morn-
ing they found themselves hundreds of miles from their
expected destination, and were obliged to submit to his
management for the rest of the voyage. So, in the first
voyage over the Atlantic, when his ignorant crew were
frightened by every new phenomenon they observed, he
was invariably prepared to quiet them. He kept two
reckonings during this vovage, in one of which, open to
CHARACTER OP COLUMBUS. 389
general inspection, some leagues were daily subtracted
from the ship's sailing, that the crews might be ignorant
of the real distance they had advanced. With the same
readiness he explained to them the explosions of the
Teneriffe peaks the variations of the needle the
sudden swells and calms of the ocean (the causes of some
of which he did not himself understand) while, on
many of these occasions, his fanatical and frightened
companions were muttering threats, in his hearing, of
despatching him with violent hands. Another memor-
able instance of his coolness occurred on the return
voyage, when, amidst the roar of a terrific storm while
the ocean foamed over his ship, and the mariners lay
prostrate around him, trembling, praying, and buried in
tears he found leisure to write an account of his voy-
age and discovery. This he sealed, directed it to his
sovereigns, and superscribed a promise of 1000 ducats to
whomsoever should deliver it safe. He then wrapped it
in a waxed cloth, which he placed in the centre of a cake
of wax, and inclosing the whole in a barrel, threw it into
the sea. Nor was this sufficient. For fear a single copy
might be lost, he prepared another in precisely the same
elaborate manner, to be placed in another situation ; and
all this, which he did for the satisfaction of his own am-
bition, and the good of his country, he had the sagacity
to use as a means of quieting the fears of the seamen,
under the pretext of having performed a solemn religious
vow for the laying of the storm.
In another case, his astronomical science was the
means of his safety. He, and a few of his crew wh
had not mutinied and deserted him, were confined on the
desolate shores of the Island of Jamaica, while the na-
tives around him would neither sell them food, nor suffer
them to procure it. They were, in fact, in imminent
danger of starvation, besides apprehending a still more
dreaded hostility on the part of the natives. Columbus,
knowing that there would be a total eclipse of the moon
in three days, sent an Indian to summon all the chiefs
of the neighborhood to a grand council, on the day of
the eclipse. Having got them together, he gave them a
solemn warning of the fate which awaited them, if they
VOL. i. NO. xvi. 35
CHARACTER OF COLUMBUS.
refused to furnish him with provisions ; as a confirmation
of which he told them they would see the moon deprived
of its light. Some of the Indians were alarmed at this;
others scoffed ; but all awaited the evening with great
anxiety. A dark shadow began to steal slowly over the
moon, as they stood watching it in silent awe, and they
trembled at the sight. Their fears increased with the
progress of the eclipse : and when a mysterious darkness
finally covered the whole face of nature, there were no
bounds to their terror. They hurried to the ships with
whatever provisions were nearest ; threw themselves at
the feet of Columbus ; implored him to intercede with
his god ; and promised thenceforth to bring him anything
and everything which he wished. Columbus, telling
them then he would do what he could, retired to his
cabin, and shut himself in during the increase of the
eclipse, while the forests and shores resounded all the
while with the howling of the savages. At last, as the
eclipse was about to diminish, he came forth, and gave
them to understand that he would soon withdraw the
darkness from the moon, in consideration of what they
had promised. As more and more of the face of the
bright planet now became visible, they were overwhelm-
ed with joy and admiration ; nor from that time forth
did they cease to propitiate the friendship of Columbus,
as a man peculiarly owned by the deity. This anecdote
is given in proof of his presence of mind in great dan-
ger. It shows also to what an extent he had pursued
his astronomical investigation, as he pursued everything
^Ise which he undertook ; and how, indirectly as well as
directly, sooner or later, almost all knowledge may be-
come useful in the various emergencies of life. At all
events, it can never be without value, if it does but in-
spire the self-confidence which is indispensable to self-
jiossession.
Nor is it or was it in the case of Columbus of
service only in emergencies. It was never absent, as the
occasion of it never was, in his mind. It kept up, in the
great continuous courses of events which distinguished
his life, the universal dignity the moderation the
magnanimity of his character. No individual, perhaps,
CHARACTER OP COLUMBUS. 391
was ever more thoroughly tried, or more honorably ac-
quitted, by adversity or by prosperity. He endured every
hardship, privation, ignominy, disappointment, distress,
desertion, ridicule and contempt; and he bore up against
all, and triumphed over all, silently, slowly and alone,
but completely and gloriously. But he had to triumph
also over the strong temptations of flattery, of unbounded
and magnificent success, of popular admiration, and of
royal favor ; and these were not the least of his trials.
We have but to imagine him, as he frequently was,
surrounded by doubt and danger ; a foreigner among a
jealous people ; an unpopular commander in a mutinous
island ; distrusted and slighted by the government he
was seeking to secure ; and creating suspicion by his
very services.' To these circumstances must be added his
loneliness, the hardships of a wandering and perilous life,
and the extreme physical sickness and suffering which
several times brought him to the brink of the grave.
Is not such a man prepared, and does he not deserve
to relish, whenever and wherever they may meet him,
the luxury of indolence and plenty, the ostentation of
success, the pride of popularity, the opportunity of safe
revenge, the sweetness of adulation, and the glory of
fame ? In the very shackles of the culprit, then, as he
leaves one shore of the Atlantic, hooted at by the mob,
let him be landed upon the other. There let his chains
fall ; let his purse be filled, his success acknowledged,
his innocence proved, his favor solicited, his enemies and
his rivals humbled at his feet, his person followed from
town to town, over all Spain, with the splendor of noble
processions, and the welcoming shouts of admiring mul-
titudes, while his glory sounded throughout the civilized
earth as the Discoverer of a new world. All this affected
not the equanimity of Columbus. He forgave his ene-
mies the moment they were prostrate at his feet; and
humbled himself before Heaven, for his success, as the
poor instrument of its will.
And yet, as we have intimated, there are abundant
proofs that the moderation, the courage, the fortitude of
Columbus were not founded upon his want of feeling.
On the other hand, his natural passions were uncommonly
392 CHARACTER OF COLUMBUS.
strong. Instances are not wanting to show that he was
even passionate, in the vulgar sense of the term, for he
could not always forbear punishing excessive insolence
with his own hand. But these few cases only suffice to
show what the ' angry temper of his soul ' might have
been, had it been habitually or even frequently left to its
own nature.
But he gave free course, on the other hand, to all ge-
nerous and tender emotions. In the first place, he was
enthusiastically religious. When he looked back in age
upon the early career which, hard and painful as it had
been, seemed precisely calculated for his final success,
he regarded himself with a solemn and humble awe as the
appointed instrument of God. His theory was to him a gift
of inspiration. He read his contemplated discovery ere it
was yet attempted, as foretold in holy writ, and shadowed
forth darkly in the mystic revelations of the prophets.
It was to be the triumphant consummation of his enter-
prise, that the ends of the earth should be brought to-
gether, and all nations and tongues and languages united
under the banner of the Saviour. A chief argument,
indeed, by which he persuaded the sovereigns of Spain
to countenance his undertaking, was founded upon the
prospect of subduing, through the medium of Chris-
tianity, the vast and magnificent empire of the Grand
Khan, and the opulent isles beyond, which he expected
to arrive at in his western voyage. But he went farther
than this, even then. Kindling with the anticipation of
boundless wealth, to be realized by his discoveries, he sug-
gested that all the ' pearl and barbaric gold ' thus ob-
tained should be devoted ' to rescuing the holy sepulchre
of Jerusalem from the power of the infidels.' This sin-
gular project ever after continued to be a grand object
of his ambition. In the flush of fortune and glory which
succeeded his first arrival from the west, he even made
a vow to furnish within seven years an army of 1000
horse and 50,000 foot for this favorite purpose, and a
similar force within the five following years. In the will
which he executed in 1498, he made provisions of the
same nature. Whoever might inherit his estate was
solemnly enjoined to vest, from time to time, as much
CHARACTER OP COLUMBUS. 393
money as he could spare, in stock, in the bank of St
George at Genoa, to form a permanent fund, subservient
at any future time to the king's conquest of Jerusalem.
If the king should not undertake it, he was to set on foot
a crusade at his own charge and risk.
It is not strange, that a man of this ardent tempera-
ment should yield to many of the prevalent superstitions
of the age, less characteristic of his own genius. During
a tremendous storm which occurred upon his first voy-
age, some of the crew, by his orders, vowed that in case
a certain lot fell upon him, he would make a pilgrimage
to a certain saint, bearing a waxed taper of five pounds'
weight. The admiral drew the lot, and from that mo-
ment considered himself apilgrim bound to perform the vow.
He undertook another pilgrimage also, a solemn mass,
and a vigil. He speaks of a certain movement of the
sea afterwards as providentially ordered to allay the
clamors of his crew, like a similar interposition of old,
in favor of Moses.
The suppression of a mutiny is attributed to the same
cause ; and he himself records an instance of what he
considered a supernatural visitation. He was sick and
dejected, he says, and had almost abandoned himself to
despair, when he heard a voice calling to him, ' O man
of little faith! be riot cast down ; fear nothing; I will
provide for thee. The seven years of the term of gold
are not yet expired, (all allusions to the vow of the holy
sepulchres,) and in that and all other things I will take
care of thee.' On that very day, he adds, he received
intelligence of the discovery of a large tract of country
rich in mines. Again, he writes to the king and queen,
that the Indians of Cariari, on the coast of Jamaica, were
great enchanters ; as also that two of their girls, who
had visited his ship, had concealed magic powers upon
their persons. This was the belief also of his mariners,
it seems ; and the origin of it was, that some of them
had taken out pen, ink and paper to write in presence of
the Indians, who, mistaking the process for a necro-
mantic spell, had themselves scattered a fragrant
powder in the air to counteract it.
The most obvious explanation of a trait in this great
VOL. i. NO. xvi. 35*
394 CHARACTER OF COLUMBUS.
man, which would now be considered a weakness, is in
the universal spirit of the age in which, and the people
among whom, he lived. He might go beyond them in
knowledge or in enterprise ; but the science which un-
dermines superstition had been less a subject of his at-
tention, while his susceptible temperament exposed him
more than most men to the influence of mere impression,
individual and contagious. We must consider also the
extraordinary circumstances under which he encountered
these impressions, on the shores of an undiscovered
world, where everything on land and sea, animate and
inanimate, wore in itself the appearance of novelty and
of mystery, independently of the excited expectation of
the individuals concerned. Ill health, and a shattered
nervous system, are circumstances also of this case. But
above all, we should estimate the influence upon the
mind of Columbus, of his own early, favorite, deep-fixed
theory, with the ten thousand hopes, recollections and
reveries so intimately, so constantly associated with his
intense and ceaseless study of the subject. It is no
wonder, then, that his imagination partook of the almost
supernatural excitement of every other faculty of his
soul : it would have been wonderful if it had not.
It is a matter of strong interest, under these circum-
stances, to observe the enthusiasm of his specula-
tions ; and how closely this quality follows upon his
shrewdness and his science, frequently passing and out-
stripping them, though seldom with any jostling or con-
fusion. In exploring, for the first time, the great gulf
of Paria, for example, he formed one of his simple and
grand conclusions from the strict rules of science, and
the laws and the phenomena of nature. The vast body
of fresh water which he found rushing into that gulf, could
not be produced by an island or by islands. It must be
some mighty river, he believed, which had wandered
through a great extent of country, collecting its many
streams. The land, therefore, must be a continent.
The various tracts he had touched in various places,
must have some connexion with each other. The coast
of Paria, off Margarita, must extend far westward ; and
the land seen from Trinidad far southward, into an un-
known tract of ocean. Thus far he argued like Colum-
CHARACTER OP COLUMBUS. 395
bus, upon his own reason and knowledge. But he would
penetrate more thoroughly these regions of mystery, though
guided only by the dirn lights of the science of his age.
This must be, he continued, an extension of the Asiatic
continent. Of course, the greater part of the globe is
firm land : and in this conclusion he found himself sup-
ported by Aristotle, Seneca, and various saints and car-
dinals not to lay stress upon the apocryphal assertion
of Esdras, that of seven parts of the earth six are dry
land. Here, then, was a beautiful and fertile country,
wide-spread under the most benignant skies, rich with
the ' jewels of the mine,' free to be explored, appropri-
ated, and above all christianized, by any nation capable
of doing it. Columbus was boine away by the fervor
of his hopes. ' May it pleasure our Lord,' he writes to
his sovereigns, to give long life and health to your high-
nesses, that you may prosecute this so noble enterprise,
in which, melhinks, God will receive great service, Spain
vast increase of grandeur, and all Christians much con-
solation and delight, since the name of our Saviour will
be divulged throughout these lands.'
His reveries go far beyond this. He collected an as-
tonishing variety of phenomena, going to support, as he
thought, a new theory of the earth, according to which,
instead of being spherical, it was pear-shaped. The
protuberant and tapering part he located in the interior
of his new continent, and upon the edge of this swelling
of the earth he had already arrived. Hence, certain
variations of the needle were singularly accounted for.
Hence the climate of great heat and unwholesome air
he had met with, arising, as he had told Peter Martyr,
from his ' having ascended the back of the sea, as it
were ascending a high mountain towards heaven.' And
so, too, the altitude of the north star increased, and the
circle it described appeared larger. And thus he ex-
plained the great superiority of the country, the air, and
the people, in freshness and beauty, over others in the
same latitude such as those of Africa. He looked up
confirmations of this opinion, as usual, in the ancient
writers. And as to holy writ, he observed, that ' the
sun, when God made it, was in the centre of the orient, or
the first light was there ;' and that place could only be
396 CHARACTER OF COLUMBUS.
Acre, where the ocean and the extreme part of India
meet under the equinoctial line, and at the supposed
prominence of the earth. This prominence he further
supposed to be of great height, though its sides rose
slowly and smoothly, the shores of Paria being situated
on its remote borders. As one ascended, no doubt, the
land would be found still more fertile, the scenery more
beautiful, the air more serene and celestial. There, in
a word, must be the original abode of our first parents,
the terrestrial Paradise, and there must still be preserved
its primitive and blissful delights, though accessible to
mortal feet only by divine permission. Such was the
strange mixture of speculation and science, of fancy and
fact, suggested to the mind of Columbus by the current
of fresh water rushing into the gulf of Paria, and spring-
ing, as he believed, from the tree of life in the garden
of Eden !
We have made these remarks in the train of an obser-
vation upon the ardent temperament of Columbus, and
to prove that his self-command never was owing to in-
difference of feeling. And how much is our estimate of
his fortitude and his magnanimity enhanced, when we
find that his worst misfortunes and his worst enemies
came upon him in the full career of these splendid vi-
sions ; that they checked and shackled him while yet pant-
ing, within view, as he believed, of the consummation
of his hopes, his happiness, and his glory. No wonder
that, succeeding as far as he had succeeded, he should have
been anxious for his own future fame, and unwilling that
what he had already acquired should be lost 10 him in
ignominy, or in oblivion. Hence the expedient he hit
upon in the tempest, to preserve a memorial of his dis-
covery, and the astonishing resolution with which he ef-
fected it, and the great relief it is known to have given
him. So in a similar case on his return-voyage 'I
could have supported this evil fortune with less grief,' he
says, ' had my person alone been in jeopardy. But it
was a cause of infinite sorrow and trouble to think, that
after having been illuminated from on high with faith and
certainty to undertake this enterprise ; after having vic-
toriously achieved it; and when on the point of convinc-
ing my opponents, and securing to your highness great
CHARACTER OP COLUMBUS. 397
glory and vast increase of dominion, it should please the
divine Majesty to defeat all by my death.'
It may be inferred from this simple expression of
the feelings of Columbus, that he had the interest of his
country, as well as his own honor, at heart ; and there are
other abundant proofs both of his patriotism and his loy-
alty during the whole course of his life. Nothing, as it
has been truly said, can surpass the affecting earnestness
of his own declaration to this effect wrung from him,
it should be added, by an ingratitude which must have
stung him to the soul. < 1 have served their majesties,'
says he, ' with as much zeal and diligence as if it had
been to gain paradise; and if I have failed in anything,
it has been because my knowledge and my powers went
no further.' There can be no doubt of the entire truth
of this statement, nor of the personal attachment which
he cherished for Isabella, and the unbounded confidence
he reposed in her magnanimity. ' May it please the
Holy Trinity,' he says upon hearing of her last illness,
' to restore our sovereign queen to health : for by her
everything will be adjusted which is now in confusion.'
At the very moment he was thus writing, his benefactress
was a corpse, and he heard of her death soon afterwards.
' Let me remind thee, my dear son Diego,' he writes
upon that mournful occasion, 'let me remind thee of
what is at present to be done. The principal is to com-
mend affectionately, and with great devotion, the soul of
the queen, our sovereign, to God. tier life was always
catholic and holy, and prompt to all things in His holy
service : for which reason we may rest assured that she
is received into His glory, and beyond the cares of this
rough and weary world. The next thing is, to watch
and labor in all things for the service of our sovereign
the king, and to endeavor to alleviate his #rief.' Such
was his enduring loyalty towards the monarch who was
so ungratefully neglecting him expressed, it should be
observed, in a confidential and secret letter to his son.
That Ferdinand was not ignorant, ultimately at least, of
the services which the admiral had rendered him and his
country, would appear from the monument which he or-
dered to be erected to his memory, and the motto engrav-
ed upon it, To CASTILE AND LEON COLUMBUS GAVE
398 CHARACTER OF COLUMBUS.
A NEW WORLD. In this connexion should be noticed
also the provisions which the admiral made for his native
city, Genoa, as well as the injunction of loyalty, and
faithful and zealous service, ' to the loss of lite and es-
tate,' which he left upon his heirs.
He made provision in this same will for the poor fe-
males of his family ; ordering that a married person of
his line, native of Genoa, should be respectably main-
tained there, that a domicile might be kept open for
them. As early, indeed, as his first residence in Lisbon,
while he was yet struggling to maintain his own house-
hold by his daily labor, we are told of his appropriating
part of his scanty means to the succor of his aged father
at Genoa, and to the education of his younger brothers.
To these he continued the attachment through life ; and
between his own sons, the comfort and support of his
declining years, he ardently cultivated a haimony of the
same nature. ' To thy brother,' he writes to Fernando,
'conduct thyself as the elder brother should unto the
younger. Thou hast no other, and I praise God that this
is such a one as thou dost need. Ten brothers would
not be too many for thee. Never have I found a better
friend, to right or left, than my brothers.' These simple
expressions, warm from the heart of Columbus, are as
affecting as they are artless.
And such was his gratitude and his affection for all
that ever served or loved him. The care of his seamen
was as much upon his mind as the care of his children.
' It would have been more supportable,' he says in the
case of the tempest alluded to above, ' had I not been
accompanied by others who had been drawn on by my
persuasion, and who might have turned back but for that.'
On his very death-bed, and in the midst of personal dis-
tress, he was more solicitous that justice should be done
to them than to himself. He wrote repeatedly to his
sovereigns, urging the discharge of their anearages;
besides requesting his son, then at court, to exert himself
in their behalf. ' They are poor,' said he, ' and it is now
nearly three years since they left their homes. They have
endured infinite toils and perils, and they bring invaluable
tidings, for which their majesties ought to give thanks to
God, and rejoice.' Several of these men had been among
CHARACTER OF COLUMBUS. 399
the number of his enemies, and others of them he knew
to be still disposed to do him harm rather than good.
Nor ought we to omit the uniform benevolence with
which he treated the poor natives of the countries he
discovered. And it is interesting to observe the effect it
had upon them. On first landing upon the shores of
Hispaniola, for example, his sailors saw a crovyd of the
Indians flying from them in terror. They pursued, and
at last overtook a young and handsome female, and
brought her off to the ships. The admiral soon soothed
her terrors by his kindness. He had her clothed; made
her presents of beads, brass rings, hawks' bells, and
other trinkets ; and sent her .back safely to the shore,
so pleased with his finery and his kindness that she
would gladly have remained on board. On the following
day, the admiral despatched nine men to look for the
village to which this woman belonged. The natives met
these men, to the number of 2000, approaching them with
slow and trembling steps, and pausing often, their hands
upon their heads, in token of profound reverence. Another
multitude joined them soon afterwards at the head of
them was the husband of the female just mentioned.
They brought her in triumph on their shoulders, and the
husband was profuse in his gratitude for the civility with
which she had been treated, and the magnificent presents
bestowed upon her. The Indiane, on becoming more
familiar with the Spaniards, invited them to their houses,
on the bank of a fine river in a beautiful valley ; and set
before them cassava, bread, fish, roots, and fruits of va-
rious kinds. Having ascertained that their guests were
fond of parrots, they gave them great numbers of them
already domesticated, and indeed offered everything else
they possessed. These transactions were rumored over
the neighboring country ; and when Columbus was soon
after wrecked upon the same coast, he experienced the
benefit of his kindness. Well might Columbus say of such
a people, as he does with a manifest pleasure ' So loving
so tractable, so peaceable are they, that 1 swear to your
majesties there is not in the world a better nation, or a
better land.' On every future occasion, to the last days
of his life, he watched over the welfare of the Indians
with the anxiety of a father. His final exertions at court
400 CHARACTER OF COLUMBUS.
were in their behalf; and it gave him infinite distress,
that the plans he had formed for their civilization and
happiness were neglected and counteracted by his suc-
cessors.
An illustrative remark of some interest, perhaps, may
be made upon the extreme susceptibility of Columbus to
the beauties of nature. ' As I arrived at this cape,' says
he, ' there came off a fragrance so good and soft, of the
flowers and trees of the land, that it was the sweetest
thing in the world.' ' One could live there forever,'
he observes of some quiet and delicious scene ; and
then Cuba first broke upon him like an elysium,
' It is the most beautiful island,' he says, ' that eyes
ever beheld.' On another occasion, the breeze was
blowing from the shore after the usual evening shower ;
and it brought with it the sweetness of the land, the
distant songs of the natives, and the sound of their rude
music, as they were probably celebrating with their fes-
tive chants the arrival of the white men. So delightful
were these things to Columbus, that having spent the
whole night in enjoying them, he declared it had passed
away like an hour.
Such was the character of Columbus quite as extraor-
dinary, on the whole, as his life. Indeed, we can
scarcely refrain, after reviewing it, from sympathizing
with him in his own solemn persuasion, that he was
raised up, qualified, and supported by Divine Providence
for the great destinies which he fulfilled. Had he never
lived, however, undoubtedly this continent could not
have remained long undiscovered. Still, the glory is his
that he went far beyond his contemporaries, not in origi-
nating the theory only, but in fearlessly undertaking and
victoriously completing the prosecution of its proof, in
the face of every moral and physical opposition and ob-
stacle, which it is possible to conceive. And how me-
morable is the lesson to be gathered from this glorious
triumph of naked intellect and energy ! How should it
animate and elevate, in all countries and in all climes, the
exertions, the hopes, the ambition of that vast portion of
mankind, who are compelled by circumstances to be the
artificers of their own fortune and their own fame !
SCIENTIFIC TRACTS
NUMBER XVII.
THE PROPERTIES AND FUNCTIONS
OF ORGANIZED BEINGS.
MATTER is of two kinds, organic and inorganic. To
that which is arranged into a certain form, and endowed
with a living principle, the term organized is applied.
That which is not endowed with life is classed among
the inorganic substances. All plants and animals come
under the class of organized substances or beings. It is
our object in the present tract to take a superficial survey
of the vegetable and animal kingdoms, so far as it re-
gards their physical properties and organic functions.
The history of organized beings, or anything that re-
lates to them, must be of interest to us all : for from the
first moment of our existence, we form an important link
in the animal chain. The power of nature is no less
manifested around us than within us. We are sur-
rounded by animals subject to the same wants, endowed
with the same physical properties, and maintained by the
same vital processes with ourselves, at the same time,
they are subject to our wills, and aid us in our enjoy-
ments.
Vegetables as well as animals are endowed with an
organized living principle, by which they are enabled to
select their food, to change that food and apply it to their
wants, and to produce fruit by which their species may
be propagated.
They have a beginning and an end, or in other words,
they are born, and after passing through various changes,
and undergoing a limited existence, they die. If the
VOL. i. NO. xvn. 36
402 PROPERTIES AND FUNCTIONS
interesting inquiry was made What is life, or what
principle is that by which water is changed into a vege-
table substance, or vegetables into animal? what prin-
ciple is that which gives to bodies mobility or the power
of motion, which enables different parts of the same
body to cooperate for the purpose of producing a given
effect, and which prepares them to maintain a fixed tem-
perature in opposition to that by which they are sur-
rounded ? we should answer, that this is the living
principle, and that these were the properties by which we
distinguished living organized beings.
We know not what life is of itself; but we know some
of its properties or effects, and we at once pronounce
that a living being or thing which has a certain assem-
blage of properties.
Plants, by means of small vessels situated in their
roots, absorb or take up the moisture from the earth, and
this after having passed through various vessels becomes
a part of the plants. Some animals live entirely upon
vegetables, yet these vegetables eventually become a part
of the animal. Now this property which plants and ani-
mals have of changing foreign substances into a part of
themselves, is a property belonging only to living things,
and it is therefore called a vital property. Animals
have the power of moving from one place to another in
quest of food or pleasure by means of a particular appa-
ratus which is subject to the will. Now this power pro-
perly belongs only to living beings, and this is also called
a vital property. All animals and plants have the power,
to a certain extent, of maintaining a fixed temperature
in opposition to that by which they are surrounded.
Thus the temperature of man never varies more than
six degrees, although that of the atmosphere may vary
a hundred or more. This property of resisting the action
of cold or of producing heat, receives also the name of
vital property. These properties are the effect or result
of the living principle, and farther than its effects, we
know not what life is. We all of us feel and see the ef-
fects and influence of the mental powers, but farther
than its effects we know not what mind is. We all know
that there is such a principle in the physical world as at-
OF ORGANIZED BEINGS. 403
traction or gravitation, but no one can tell what attraction
is. We see one body attracted by or drawn towards an-
other, and this is the effect of a certain cause to which
we give the name of attraction. We cannot define it
except by its results. So it is with life. We know not
what life is, but we know what are the effects of that
something which we call life.
There is a regular and gradual progress towards per-
fection in the organic world, beginning with the simple
plant and passing up to men, and it forms a chain so
perfect in all its parts, that it is almost impossible to de-
scribe one link without taking into connexion those with
which it is united. It would seem easy at first sight to
tell the difference between a plant and an animal, and
yet to point out the exact difference between the most
perfect plant arid the most imperfect or least complicated
animal, has been a task for the performance of which the
greatest philosophers have almost acknowledged their
entire incompetence. If we should ask how you knew
a plant from an animal, what answer would you give?
Perhaps you would say that animals have eyes and ears,
and plants have not. It is true that most anirnals have
these organs, but not all. Some animals are destitute of
eyes, ears, brain, and even of a heart. You might say
that animals require food, but plants require food as well
as animals. Plants are organized, and possess the prin-
ciple of life to a certain degree as well as animals; but
the latter have some properties in addition to those that
belong to plants. Animals have the power of locomotion,
that is, the power of moving from place to place, but
plants are destitute of this power. Plants have simple
life as well as animals; but the latter have something
added to life, winch we call instinct. All animals have
desires ; they determine, they act. They eat at inter-
vals, and their food requires time to digest; but plants
receive nourishment instantly. Animals are to a certain
extent capable of evading danger ; they do this under
the impulse of fear ; but plants are subject to everything
that moves. We may trace the whole organic chain from
the simple plant up to man, and we shall find that there
are certain physical properties belonging to all. We
404 PROPERTIES AND FUNCTIONS
have seen how nearly the simple plant resembles the
most imperfect animal ; yet what a wonderful and mani-
fest difference there is between the physical properties
of the polypus (which belongs to the lowest order of ani-
mals) and man, the most perfect and complicated of all
organized beings.
Each order of animals which fill up the space, has
some one property as it advances towards man in addi-
tion to those possessed by the order below it.
Man, although he is placed entirely und absolutely
distinct from the whole organic creation by his intellec-
tual powers, by his knowledge of the principles of vice
and virtue, by his moral accountability, and by his con-
fidence of a still higher destiny than this life can afford ;
yet he is subject to the same physical wants that distin-
guish the lowest order of animals. He requires food as
well as they, and in both it must pass through a similar
process before it can form a part of themselves. There
must be a set of vessels to convey the fluids from one
part of th6 body to another in both one requires the
influence of the atmospheric air as well as the other, and
you can trace through all their organic functions a like '
similarity. It is these functions together with the or-
gans that perform them, which we will now describe.
All organic substances require food for the nourish-
ment and development of their various organs. Accord-
ingly all are supplied with apparatus by which the
food is taken and converted into its appropriate texture.
Most plants receive their nourishment from the earth.
This nourishment is taken up by vessels situated in their
roots, and is conveyed by other vessels prepared for the
purpose, to the extreme part of the leaves, where it un-
dergoes the process of digestion or assimilation, and is
converted into a substance fit for their growth. From
the leaves the assimilated fluid is conveyed to all parts of
the plant, arid by appropriate organs is changed into a
part of itself. If there is any excess or waste substance
this is carried off from the plant by vessels prepared for
that purpose. The arrangement of vessels in animals is
precisely upon the same plan as in plants, only in the
former they are mote complex.
OP ORGANIZED BEINGS. 405
In the most perfect animals and in man, food after it
is masticated or chewed, and mixed with saliva, which is
secreted by glands situated around the mouth, passes
into the stomach by means of a small tube, called the
aesophcgus. After it has arrived in the stomach, it is
mixed with and acted upon by the gastric juice.
The gastric juice is a fluid which is secreted by the
small vessels of the stomach. It has the property of
preventing in a remarkable degree the process of putre-
faction and it not only prevents, but all substances
hovvever putrid they may be when taken into the sto-
mach, are in a short time restored to a state of perfect
sweetness. Meat is usually eaten when sweet, but fash-
ion and the luxurious desire of having something new,
or different from others, has been temptation enough for
some even in civilized life to keep their venison as long
as they could endure the smell. The inhabitants of some
savage countries value their meat in proportion as it ap-
proaches putrefaction. The gastric juice possesses like-
wise wonderful solvent powers. It is more powerful in
this reepect however in some animals than in others.
' The toughest meat and the hardest bones are digested
in the stomach of a buzzard. The gastric juice of a dog
will dissolve ivory. Not many years since the handles
of several knives wore found half digested in the stomach
of a man who died in London in consequence of his
hardihood in swallowing them.'* After the food has
been reduced to a pulpy state in the stomach, it passes
from it into the duodenum, or what may properly be call-
ed the second stomach, there to undergo other important
changes. It is here mixed with bile, which is secreted
by the liver, and with the pancreatic juice, which very
nearly resembles saliva in its looks and properties, and
is converted into a substance called chyle. The nutri-
tious part of this chyle, or such as is fit to be converted
into blood for the nourishment of the various parts of the
body, is taken up by a set of small vessels, called lac-
teals, (from the color of the fluid which they convey be-
ing that of milk.) These small vessels empty their
* Good's Study of Mediaroe.
VOL. I. NO. XVII. 36*
400 PROPERTIES AND FUNCTIONS
contents into a tube or duct which leads directly to the
blood vessels, where the chyle is mixed with and con-
verted into blood. The blood is now conveyed to the
heart, and this immediately contracting propels its eon-
tents into the lungs, where it undergoes important
changes, which we shall presently describe.
All animals do not eat of the same kind of food.
Some feed upon flesh, others upon vegetables, and others
upon a mixture of both. Man is omnivorous. He can
live either upon vegetables or flesh, and his stomach is
accordingly adapted to that purpose. The formation of
the stomach, and the kind of food which animals eat,
seem to have a great influence over their manners and
disposition. The lion, the tiger, the hyena, &c, live
entirely upon animal food. Their stomachs are small
and short, their food is digested rapidly, and the cravings
of their appetite necessarily create in them a ravenous
and rapacious disposition. Their cruelty, therefore^
seems to be the necessary effect of the peculiar organic
structure with which nature has endowed them. Vege-
table food contains a much less quantity of nutritious
substance than animal. It must require, therefore, a
much larger quantity of it to nourish and sustain the
body, and it requires a longer time for it to digest..
Those animals, therefore, that live entirely upon vegeta-
bles, have large and capacious stomachs, and their dis-
positions are characterized by mildness, complacency
and innocence. Those animals that live upon flesh and
vegetables combined, have not the small stomach of the
carnivorous tribe, or the capacious ones of the herbivo-
rous. In their dispositions they partake not of the cruelty
of the one nor the mildness of the other.
All ruminating animals, or such as chew the cud, are
furnished with no less than four stomachs. The food
after it is masticated passes into the first stomach, where
it remains till it is partially digested. It is then thrown
by the voluntary efforts of the animal into the mouth,
where it undergoes a second chewing. The second time
it is swallowed instead of passing into the first stomach
it goes into the second, and so oji to the third and fourth.
The ruminating order of animals are distinguished for
OF ORGANIZED BEINGS. 407
their easy submission and their temerity Horns are the
only weapons of defence with which they are provided.
We should naturally infer the character of their disposi-
tions from the configuration of their bodies, and the
nature of their food ; for it must be obvious to all, that
the diversities of taste and disposition in different ani-
mals, arise from a physical cause, depending upon the
structure and formation of their bodies.
The camel and dromedary, in addition to the fore_ sto-
machs common to the ruminating tribe, are furnished
with a bag or reservoir for the purpose of holding or con-
veying water. This reservoir is capable of containing a
large quantity of water, and it can remain in it in as
pure and limpid a state as when taken from the well : for
no impurities of the body have access to it. When the
camel is thirsty or has occasion to moisten his cud, by a
simple contraction of a certain muscle, he is enabled to
force the water into the first stomach, or even as far as
the mouth. By this simple but curious formation, the
camel is able to travel the sandy desert without drinking.
Both their constitution and their structure are admirably
adapted to the climate where they are produced, and to
the uses which are made of them. The Arabians con-
sider them as gifts sent from heaven, without whose as-
sistance they could neither traffic or travel.
Birds have three stomachs. The food after it passes
through the membranous tube that leads from the mouth,
goes into the first stomach, where it is mixed with and
acted upon by the fluid that is secreted by its coats.
After it has been partly digested, it passes into the second
stomach, and so on to the third, which is called the giz-
zard or true stomach, which consists of two very strong
muscles lined with a thick and firm membrane. There
are some birds (as for instance, rooks and pigeons) that
have the power of throwing their food up from their first
stomachs in a half digested state, for the purpose of
feeding their young. Birds, like quadrupeds, are divided
into herbivorous and carnivorous, and their dispositions
and manners correspond to the formation of their bodies,
and the food they require. Carnivorous birds have
smaller stomachs than granivorous. Their wings are
4US PROPERTIES AND FUNCTIONS
usually longer that they may fly with more rapidity, and
thereby be enabled to overtake their prey ; they have
strong hooked bills and long sharp claws. The grani-
vorous birds resemble very much the herbivorous quadru-
peds, both in the capaciousness of theiy stomachs and in
the mildness of their dispositions. It is among this class
of birds that man, ever attentive to his interest, has made
selections for the purpose of domestication. Carnivorous
birds never, with but one exception, herd together in
flocks, but they spend their time in some sequestered
spot, or in the depths of the forest.
The influence of atmospheric air is absolutely neces-
sary for the support of organic life. This is not confined
to animal life : for vegetables cease to perform their
functions when deprived of it, and the seed will not
sprout unless it comes in contact with this elastic but all
important fluid. Plants have no particular apparatus by
which they respire, but they receive the air through every
pore. Animals are furnished with a particular apparatus
tor the purpose of admitting air into the internal parts
of the body. In man, and the most perfect animals, re-
spiration, or the act of breathing, is carried on by means
of organs called lungs, which are composed of an infi-
nite number of air-cells and minute blood-vessels. Re-
spiration consists of inspiration or the act of drawing in
the air into the lungs, and expiration or the act of throw-
ing it out. At each inspiration the little cells of the
lungs are filled with air. These cells are surrounded by
minute blood-vessels, and thus the blood which is thrown
from the heart and the air which enters the lungs, are
made to approximate each other.
Through the influence of the air which fills the cells,
the blood in the minute vessels is so operated upon that
it is deprived of its dark color, or is changed from a dark
to a light red. This change takes place by the blood
being deprived of its impurities, which, if allowed to cir-
culate through the body, would not only unfit it for
nourishment but life would soon be destroyed. The air
which enters the lungs pure, returns from them loaded
with impurities. Changing the impure into pure blood,.
gr relieving it of a poisonous substance,, are not all the
OF ORGANIZED BEINGS. 409
beneficial results of respiration. It is supposed that by
the action of the air on the blood, the latter in some way
receives an increased quantity of heat, or caloric, by which
means the body maintains its fixed standard of tempera-
ture.
All animals furnished with lungs have the power of
expressing their wants, their desires, their pleasures and
their pains, by words or sounds peculiar to each species.
Birds, although they are furnished with lungs as well
as quadrupeds, by a wise provision of nature, are enabled
to fill almost every part of their bodies with air. They
have air cells which communicate with their lungs situa-
ted in almost all parts of their bodies. They are situated
not only in the soft parts but their bones are furnished
with them. Mr Hunter tied up the natural air tube (the
Trackia) of a hen, and made an opening into one of the
bones furnished with a cell and the function of respiration
was carried on by means of it. Mr Hunter often having
made this and various after experiments to prove that
air cells did exist, thought that this was a provision which
nature had made, that birds being made comparatively
light by being tilled with air, and this after it had been
dilated by the natural heat of the body, would perform
with much more ease their aerial journeys. He after-
wards however found that the ostrich which does not fly,
was abundantly furnished with them, while the bat which
does, had no such peculiarity of structure.
Insects breathe through small pores situated on the
sides of their bodies or on their backs. Amphibious
animals, or such as can live in two elements, have
lungs which extend the whole length of their bodies.
Animals that reside in the water, require air as well
as those that live on the land. The cetaceous tribe, such as
the whale, are furnished with lungs like quadrupeds, but
most fish are provided with gills, which answer the pur-
pose of lungs. The water is made to pass over a small
membrane, and the air which it contains or the oxygen
of the water comes nearly in contact with the blood, and
thus the important change is effected. The surface that
is exposed to the action of the air in fish, and the blood
necessary to supply the wants of the body are much less
410 PROPERTIES AND FUNCTIONS
than in birds or quadrupeds, for being situated in a fluid
whose specific gravity is nearly equal to that of their
bodies, it must require much less muscular exertion to
move in that fluid than in the air or upon the surface of
the earth.
Experiments have proved that full grown persons
respire twentyfour thousand cubic inches of air per hour,
or five hundred and ninetysix thousand per day. We
will suppose that each time the heart contracts it throws
one half ounce of blood to the lungs, which, by the way,
is a small calculation : now we know that the heart con-
tracts on an average about seventy times in a minute ;
thus thirtyfive ounces of blood must be sent from ihe
heart to the lungs per minute, making more than 120
pounds per hour, or 2880 pounds per day. Therefore
the air cells, which are extremely delicate, in the course
of twentyfour hours sustain the weight of about thirtynine
hogsheads of air, and the minute blood vessels 2880
pounds of blood in the same length of time.
This estimate will give you some idea of the wonderful
power which these tender organs possess, and of their
importance in the animal economy. In man there is a
strong and intimate connexion between the heart and
lungs. If we cease to respire the heart ceases to act, or
if the blood does not undergo its proper change in the
lungs, that is, if it is not changed from a dark to a light
red, or more properly, if it is not decarbonized, all the
organs of the body as it were, immediately take cognizance
of it, the heart ceases to act and the man dies. The
question may be asked, how the bloed coming in contact,
or nearly so, with the air, can be so powerfully operated
upon as that this change shall take place.
We know that this change does take place, and we
know also that we cannot exist unless it does; but how
this is effected, what is the power or mode by which it is
done, we know not. We can only say that it is a vital
process performed by a vital power. It surely has been
supposed that the oxygen of the atmosphere and the car-
bon in the dark or venous blood, when coming in contact)
or nearly so, united, and thus formed carbonic acid gas,
which was expelled from the lungs at each expiration.
OF ORGANIZED BEINGS. 411
It is the carbon which makes the venous blood, or that
which circulates in the veins dark, and when it is de-
prived of it, it becomes light red or arterial blood.
We have observed that only some of the higher classes
of animals and men were furnished with proper lungs,
but we have endeavored to show at the same time, that
air was as absolutely necessary for the support of one or-
ganized being as another, as necessary for plants as
animals, although the organs through which they receive
it may materially differ.
We have thus described two functions that belong to
all organized living beings, viz. that of assimilation or
digestion and respiration. We now come to a third,
which is called the circulatory function, which consists
in the circulation of the fluids through the body. The
circulatory function is carried on by means of vessels ar-
ranged in proper order. We have in part been obliged
to anticipate this subject in order to convey a general
idea of the importance of atmospheric air.
The circulatory function in man includes those vessels
that convey the blood, which consist of a heart, arteries
and veins. The heart is the central organ from which
the blood is thrown and to which it returns. In man it
has four cavities, two of which are called ventricles, and
two auricles. The two auricles occupy the base or the
superior and posterior portion, and the ventricles the in-
ferior. On each side the auricle corresponds with its
corresponding ventricle. In the right cavities are con-
tained the dark or venous blood which is to be sent to the
lungs, there to be submitted to the action of the air, and
in the left the light or arterial blood which has undergone
this action and which is to be sent to all parts of the
body. The former receive therefore the blood from all
parts of the body, and by contracting propel it to the
lungs ; the latter receive it from the lungs and send it to
all parts of the body. Those vessels that convey the blood
from the heart are called arteries, and those that return
it to the heart are called veins.
In fish the heart has only two cavities, one auricle and
one ventricle. The blood is received from all parts of
the body into the auricle, this throws it into the ven-
412 PROPERTIES ANB FUNCTIONS
tricle, from which proceeds a vessel that conveys it to the
gills. In the gills the blood undergoes the same changes
as in the lungs of men. After the change in the blood
is effected, instead of returning to the heart it is taken up
by small vessels and conveyed directly to all parts of the
body. Insects have no real heart, but they are supplied
with a small, simple, alternately contracting vessel, which
answers the purpose of a heart. Plants have a circulatory
system which consists of vessels, by means of which the
nutriment is conveyed from the earth to the leaves, and
from the leaves after it is assimilated to all the organs of
which they are composed. This system in plants is as
simple as it would be in man, if the food which enters
the mouth pas'sed into the stomach, and there after it had
undergone the process of assimilation, it was taken up by
small vessels and distributed to all parts of the body with-
out being compelled to pass through a heart or lungs.
Theopinionof the circulation of the blood through the
body was loosely started by some of the early writers ;
but to obtain sufficient proof to support the doctrine was
so difficult that it was abandoned almost as soon as con-
ceived. Serveto, who lived in the 16th century, imper-
fectly taught it by pointing out the smaller circulation, or
that through the lun-s; but the illustrious Harvey, in the
17th century, established it by the most satisfactory ex-
periments. He, like all great discoverers, had to combat
the prejudices of mankind, but he had the happiness be-
fore his death to know that his doctrine was almost uni-
versally acknowledged. We rely at the present day upon
the same proofs that Harvey did for the support of this
doctrine. The proofs are deduced from the disposition
of the heart and blood vessels, and from the following ex-
periments. ' If we open an artery or a vessel that carries
the blood from the heart, the blood which comes from the
puncture flows in a direction from the heart, but if we
open a vein or a vessel that conveys the blood to the
heart the blood flows in an opposite direction. If we
examine with a microscope the almost transparent vessels
of frogs or other cold blooded animals, we see the blood
flowing from the heart into the arteries from these into
the veins, and from the veins back again to the heart
thus completing its circular career.'
OF ORGANIZED BEINGS. 413
We have thus considered the three functions that be-
long to all organized beings, to plants as well as animals.
We will now consider some of those which are only pos-
sessed by animals. We have before observed that ani-
mals were distinguished from plants by their power of loco-
motion or the power of moving from place to place in
search of food or pleasure.
All objects with which we are acquainted are subject
to the laws of motion, but so far as it regards motion
they are divided into two classes; one class includes all
those objects that are endowed with a self-moving power
by means of a particular apparatus which compose a part
of themselves. The other class includes all matter which
has not the power within itself of moving itself, but which
requires some external force to put it in motion, and
when once in motion requires some external resistance
to stop it. The first class is composed of animated or-
ganized beings, and the second of all unorganized sub-
stances. The force with which unorganized matter
resists any change is proportioned to the quantity which
a body contains. It is perfectly indifferent to rest or
motion, and this indifference is the natural consequence
of the most absolute inactivity.
The power of beginning motion without the aid of ex-
ternal influence belongs only to active, intelligent, organ-
ized beings. Animals having the power to move wherever
their wants dictate or their desires prompt, must be en-
dowed with a particular apparatus by which this power" is
effected.
This apparatus is called muscular. There are a great
number of muscles in our bodies, and each muscle is
composed of long parallel fibres, usually of a^red color,
soft, irritable and contractile. The muscular substance
is what is usually called red-flesh. All muscles are ca-
pable of contracting, and it is by means of this power
that all the motions of the body are effected. It is by
means of these that we walk, move our hands, chew our
food, and even breathe. The heart is composed of mus-
cular fibres, and it is by their powerful contraction that
the blood is thrown to the lungs and to all parts of the
body. If we raise one hand to the head and place the
VOL. i. NO. xvii. 37
414 PROPERTIES AND FUNCTIONS
other upon the middle of. the arm between the shoulder
and elbow, we shall feel a muscle contract and form a
hard cord. This muscle is attached to the shoulder bone
at one end, and at the other, to one of the bones of the
fore arm, and thus when it contracts or shortens, the ne-
cessary effect is to bend the arm at the elbow and bring
the hand to the head.
In man and the highest order of animals there are two
classes of muscles, those which contract under the influ-
ence of the will and those which contract independent of
it. The former are called voluntary and the latter in-
voluntary. The heart regularly contracts from the first
moments of our existence to the last, as well when we
are asleep as awake. It is not in the least influenced by
the will. The regular contractions of the stomach also
are entirely and absolutely independent of volition. The
process of respiration is usually performed by means of
the involuntary muscles. We can for a few momenta
cease to respire if we will, and if the involuntary muscles
or the nerves leading to them are involved in any disease
which unfits them for the performance of their duty, respi-
ration may be performed under the control of the will,
but this is extremely laborious and cannot be continued
for any great length of time. Thence it would seem that
the organs of respiration were furnished with voluntary
and involuntary muscles, and this fact has been proved
by the most satisfactory experiments.
Locomotion is performed altogether by means of the
voluntary muscles. We will to move and immediately
these muscles are in action.
If the contraction of the heart and the muscles of re-
spiration were under the entire control of the will, the
constant and unremitted exertions of the mind would be
required there would be no time for rest or sleep; for if
there was a suspension of consciousness there would of
course be a suspension of circulation and respiration, and
immediate death would be the consequence.
Animals are alone endowed with a proper muscular
apparatus, but some plants have the power of motion in
an eminent degree. Their fibres therefore must have the
power of contraction, and they must be endowed with
OF ORGANIZED BEINGS. 415
some irritability. If the leaves of a sensitive plant are
touched they immediately shrink, and with the branches
to which they are attached bend towards the earth. The
leaves of the moving plant, a native of the East Indies,
are so excited by the rays of the sun that they are con-
stantly in motion while exposed to them. The plant
called Dionca muscipula or Venus' fly trap, affords an-
other example of rapid vegetable motion. The leaves of
this plant are armed with rows of small prickles, and are
covered by small glands which secrete a sweetish liquid
that is extremely pleasant to flies. When a fly comes in
contact with a leaf the two lobes rise up, the prickles are
fastened together, and the unwary animal is destroyed.
The motion of animals is somewhat influenced by their
specific gravity. A flea can leap some hundred times its
length, and spiders and worms fall with impunity from
immense heights. If large animals should leap or fall
as far in proportion to their weight or gravity, they would
be crushed to atoms.
We have said that the voluntary muscles were under
the control and influence of the will. The question may
now be asked from what organ does the will emanate,
and what are the means of communication between that
organ and the muscles? The brain which is contained
within the bony cranium is allowed by all to be the seat
where all the faculties of the mind in man and of instinct
in animals reside. From the brain and spinal column
(which is a mere continuation of the brain) proceed
fortytwo pair of shining inelastic cords called nerves,
which differ from each other in size, color, and consist-
ence. These nerves send off innumerable branches
which are distributed like a net work over every part of
the body. They are the immediate organs of sensation
as well as of muscular motion. If the nerves which go
to the arm were cut off, the muscles below the incision
would lose all power of motion, and the skin of sensation.
If the nervous communication between the brain and the
eye, or ear, or tongue, were cut off, we could no more
see, or hear, or taste. When we receive an impression
on the finger, this impression is conveyed to the brain by
means of nerves, and the mind takes cognizance of it.
416 PROPERTIES AND FUNCTIONS
So when an object strikes the eye, or sound the ear, the
impression is communicated to the brain, and we then
see or hear. The will in like manner conveys its stimu-
lus along the nerve to the voluntary muscles, and imme-
diately they contract, and motion is produced. Three
things are necessary either for the mind to be acted upon
by external objects or in its turn to act upon them. As
it regards the senses there must be, 1st, an external sen-
sitive organ adapted to the property of the body to be
ascertained. 2d. There must be a nervous cord to trans-
mit this sensation to the central mass; and 3d, there
must necessarily be a central organ to perceive. As it
regards the action of the wilt upon the voluntary muscles,
there is an organ to will, a nervous cord to communicate
it to the muscle, and consequently a muscle to contract.
To complete therefore the nervous system, three dis-
tinct organs are found in man and the most perfect
animals. For example, in the eye we have an optical
instrument, situated before a nervous agent to collect the
image of the object to be perceived and to picture this
upon the retina, the brain being made sensible of the
impression of this image by the agency of the optic nerve,
which is a medium of communication between the sense
and sensorium. An animal deprived of the external
senses may be said to live within himself, as he is desti-
tute of all communication with the world around him.
To him color, sound, heat and cold give no pleasure,
neither do they produce pain. The lower classes of
animals, as for example the zoophytes and worms, gene-
rally possess but one rudimentory sense, viz. that of feel-
ing, which is exercised by an imperfectly organized in-
tegument covering the body. The nervous system is,
strictly speaking, the most striking peculiarity of animals,
and constitutes more especially what is called the animal
life and the life of relation, by means of which the animal
extends his relations and lives not only within himself
but in connexion with surrounding objects.
The human brain exceeds that of the most perfect
animals in the number and perfect development of its
parts, none being found in any animal which man has not,
while several parts found in the brain of man are either
OF ORGANIZED BEINGS. 417
reduced in size or are entirely wanting in various ani-
mals. l It is said that by laking away, diminishing, or
changing proportions, you might form from the brain of
man that of any other animal, while there is no animal
of whose brain you could in like manner compose that of
man. The brain in man approaches more nearly a spher-
ical form than that in any animal, and the nerves are
smaller in proportion to the brain. The brain diminishes
and the nerves increase from man downwards.' Plants
have no nervous system, and the lowest order of animals
have but imperfectly developed nerves, while they are
destitute of a brain.
Men and the most perfect animals, in fact all vertebral
animals, such as are furnished with a spinal marrow, have
five senses, viz. seeing, hearing, tasting, smelling and
feeling; but we have before observed, that the only sense
which pervades the whole animal creation, was that of
feeling. M. Cuvier thinks that the sense of feeling is
the sensorial power manifested in its most simple state,
and that all the other senses are mere modifications of it.
The sense of feeling in man is more strongly developed
in the tongue, lips, and ends of the fingers than in any
other part of the body. In cows and horses the tongue
and nostrils appear to be the local organs of touch. In
the mole and pig the snout appears to be the peculiar
organ which performs the office of feeling. The local
organ of feeling in many of the feathered tribe appears
to be situated in the membrane that lines their mandibles.
In the opossum it exists in the end of the tail ; in in-
sects in their antennae, and in worms in their tentacula.
It is not determined whether the fish and amphibious ani-
mals are furnished with any local organ of the sense of
feeling or not. We would here remark, that although
every sensation may be comprehended under the term
feeling, yet when we speak of it as a distinct sense, we
would restrict it to the different sensations excited
by different substances when applied to the integument
which covers the body of men and animals, or more
particularly to those organs which we have mentioned
as being local, but which perform in an eminent degree
the office of feeling. It is certain that in man, the
VOL. i. NO. xvn. 37*
PROPERTIES AND FUNCTIONS
eyes, ears, tongue, lips, nose, and ends of the fingers are
more abundantly supplied with nerves than any other, part
of the body. The immediate instruments of sensation are
small nervous papilla;, which are soft pulpy terminations of
the nerves. These papillae cover the whole surface of the
skin, but they may be seen more distinctly, for they are
more fully developed on the tongue and ends of the fingers
than any other organs which we can without difficulty ex-
amine with the naked eye. ' When examining or enjoying
an object,' says Smellie, ' it is natural to inquire what are
the changes produced in the nervous papillae or organs
of sensation. If an object possessed of agreeable feel-
ings is perceived, the nervous papillae instantly extend
themselves, and from a state of flaccidity become com-
paratively rigid. This extension of the papillae is not
conjectural, but it is founded on anatomical examination,
and may be felt by persons of acute aad discerning sensa-
tion. When a man in the dark inclines to examine any
substance in order to discover its figure or other qualities,
he perceives a kind of rigidity at the tips of his fingers.
If they are kept long in this state, the tension of the
nervous papillae will produce a kind of pain or anxiety
which it is impossible to describe. If a small insect
crawls on a man's hand when the papillae are flaccid, its
movements are not perceived ; but if he sees the animal
he immediately extends his papilla), and feels all its mo-
tions. If a body be present, which in the common state
of the nerves has scarcely any sensible odor, by ex-
tending the papilla} of the nostrils an agreeable, disa-
greeable or indifferent smell will be perceived. When
two persons are whispering, and we wish to know what
is said, we stretch the papillae of the ear, and an impres-
sion is made on them. If the sound is too low to make
an impression on the papillae in their natural flaccid
state, we are apt to overstretch them, and this produces
a painful or disagreeable feeling. When we examine a
minute object with the naked eye, a pain is propagated
over every part of that organ. Several causes may con-
cur in producing this pain, such as the dilating of the
pupil or the adjusting of the crystalline lens ; but the
chief cause must be ascribed to the preternatural exten--
OP ORGANIZED BEINGS. 419
sion of the papillae of the retina, the substance c oh
is a mere congeries of nervous terminations,' This cir-
cumstance confirms a former remark, that the immediate
organs of sensation were more copiously supplied with
nervous papiihe than those parts whose uses require no-
such exquisite sensibility ; for a distinction in this respect
is observable even among the sensitive organs themselves.
The eye is furnished with more of these papillce than
any other organ, and this would seem a necessary provi-
sion when we consider the minuteness of the particles
of light, the impressions of which that organ is fitted
to receive.
' The pleasure or pain produced by the sense of touch,
depends chiefly on the friction or number of impulses
made upon the papillae. Embrace any agreeable body
with your hand, and allow it to remain perfectly at rest,
and you will find the pleasure not half so exquisite as
when the hand is moved backwards and forwards upon
its surface. Apply the hand to a piece of velvet, and it
is merely agreeable ; but rest it repeatedly on the surface
of the cloth, and the pleasant feeling will be augmented
in proportion to the number of impulses on the papillae.
When a man is hungry, the sight or idea of palatable
food raises the whore papillae of his tongue and stomach.
From this circumstance he is highly regaled by eating.'
But if he eats the same species of food when his stomach
is in a less fit state to receive it, the papillae remain in a
flaccid state, and the pleasure is lessened. By the sense
of touch we are enabled to ascertain some of the most
important, properties of bodies, such as their softness or
hardness, their rough or smooth state, their figure and
their size ; and it is less deceptive than either of the
other senses, because in order to effect it bodies must
come in contact with the organ or organs which perform
it, whereas in the other senses some intermediate sub-
stance may serve to modify or alter the impressions, and
thus mislead the judgment.
The senses of tasting and smelling are more nearly
assimilated to the sense of feeling than those of seeing
and hearing ; for bodies must come in contact with the
papillae of the tongue or palate in order that we ma,j
420 PROPERTIES AND FUNCTIONS
taste; with the olfactory nerves that we may smell,
as well as in contact with the papillae of the skin
that we may feel, although to the former, and especially
to the olfactories, a substance must be presented in a
more attenuated form.
The sense of taste in the most perfect animals resides
in the papillae of the tongue, and palate. In insects it
is supposed by some naturalists to reside in the antennae
in combination with the sense of touch. The duck tribe
are capable of distinguishing the quality of their food in
the mud, and it is difficult to tell whether the sense of
taste resides in their mandibles together with that of
smell and touch or not.
The organ of taste is so situated that it may be truly
called the guardian of the stomach ; for before food can
enter that organ, its noxious or its salutary qualities are
subjected to its particular scrutiny. The tongue must be
moistened with saliva, and the food must partially be dis-
solved before the sense of taste can be excited, or the
qualities of the food ascertained. If the tongue is per-
fectly dry, as it sometimes is rendered by disease, the
sense of taste is vitiated, if not annihilated. This sense,
like all the other senses in man, is often perverted, so
that substances which were originally unpleasant, become
highly delicious and agreeable. This is never the case
with animals. Their taste remains as pure as when
originally formed. They are not subjected to the ca-
prices of fashion or fastidious flights of ever varying
fancy. An-imals have no compounds, but they eat their
food in its simple state. They know of no medley messes,
in which a poison may be swallowed without perceiving it.
In such animals as have nostrils, the sense of smell
resides in the nerves that are distributed on the mem-
brane which lines them. The acuteness of this sense
differs in different animals. The dog has it in a much
more perfect state than man. It is generally found that
this sense in its acuteness is in proportion to the extent
of the membrane that is exposed. In dogs, and in most
quadrupeds, it possesses a variety of folds, whereby a
large surface is exposed. In birds it extends to
the extreme points of the nostrils. In the elephant
OF ORGANIZED BEINGS. 421
this membrane extends the whole length of its pro-
boscis.
In most fish the nostrils are double ; but in a few they
are quadruple. Their sense of smell must therefore be
very acute, and afford them a powerful inlet of pleasure.
Some kinds of fish are extremely fond of aromatic sub-
stances, and are thereby easily led into the snares of the
angler, when he is disposed to take advantage of their
weakness.
The blowing holes of the cetaceous tribes are sup-
posed to be their organs of smell ; but this is by
no means certain. This sense is supposed to exist in
most amphibials and worms ; but where the organ is lo-
cated, if there is any distinct organ, is not known.
Where the organ of sense resides in insects, is not
certainly determined. That they have the power of dis-
tinguishing the odorous properties of substances in an
eminent degree, is a well established fact ; but whether
it is developed in the stigmata or feelers, or some other
organ, has not yet been ascertained.
The olfactory nerves are immediately exposed, but
they are in a measure protected from the action of the air,
which is constantly passing over them during the process
of respiration, and from acrid substances, by the rnucus
which covers them, and which is secreted by glands em-
bedded in the membrane.
Almost all bodies in nature, whether animate or inani-
mate, send forth some odor. This odor circulates in the
atmosphere, and comes in contact with the olfactory
nerves of different animals, and produces in them differ-
ent sensations. To one animal the odor of a plant may
be highly agreeable, but to another extremely unpleasant.
It is fortunate for animals and for mankind, that the
same materials produce different Impressions that there
is a variety of tastes that no two individuals are exact-
ly alike either in form, feeling, character, or expression ;
for this variety is the source of everything that is beau-
tiful or interesting in the physical as well as the moral
world.
The organs of tasting and smelling in all animals are
BO situated as to render mutual assistance to each othen.
422 PROPERTIES AND FUNCTIONS
They are always contiguous. The sense of smelling may
become perverted as well as that of tasting. Odors that
were originally unpleasant to us, may by habitual use
become not only agreeable but apparently necessary. The
nervous papillae may be so changed that the same mate-
rial presented at different times may produce entirely
different impressions, or they may lose their natural irri-
tability so much as not to be easily excited.
The senses of hearing and seeing are more refined
than those of feeling, tasting, or smelling ; and the organs
in which the former reside, or.through which the impres-
sions are conveyed, are far more complicated in their
structure than those of the latter.
The organ of hearing in men, and the most perfect
animals, is the ear. In these there are two distinct open-
ings into the ear, a larger or external, (which is surround-
ed by a lobe so constructed as in the best manner possi-
ble to collect the undulation of the air produced by
sonorous bodies, and convey the same to the nerves situ-
ated in the internal ear, which convey the impression of
sound to the brain,) and an internal opening which passes
from the mouth into the ear, and which is called the
Eustachion tube. When a person is desirous of hearing,
and the sound is imperfect, the mouth is involuntarily
opened, and the sound is thus conveyed through this
tube. Frogs, and most amphibious animals have no ex-
ternal ear, but they hear by means of the internal pass-
age or that from the mouth. Among serpents the com-
mon harmless snake or blind worm is the only one that
has an aperture which leads to the internal ear, that can
be discovered. All others have the internal organs de-
veloped in an imperfect manner ; and it is therefore pro-
bable, at least, that there is some effective entrance to
them. The whole cetaceous tribe hear through their nos-
trils or blow-holes. ;; ***
Among fishes, the shark and a few others have the ru-
diments of an external ear ; but most of the tribe hear
through the external opening alone. Insects have the
sense of hearing ; but it is questionable by what organ it
is performed. Some have supposed that the antennae
performed this office in combination with several other
OF ORGANIZED BEINGS. 423
of the senses ; but the question would then arise, how
do those animals hear that have no antennae 1 Spiders
hear, or at least we have conclusive evidence of this
fact, and yet they have no antennae.
' Hearing enables us to perceive all the agreeable sen-
sations conveyed to our minds by the melody and harmo-
ny of sounds. This to men at least is a great source of
pleasure as well as of innocent amusement. Some men
are, however, almost destitute of the faculty of distin-
guishing musical sounds, and of perceiving those delightful
and diversified feelings excited "by the various combina-
tions of musical tones. An ear for music, however, though
not to be organized by study when the faculty is wanting,
may be highly improved by habit and culture. Buffon,
after examining a number of persons who had no ear for
music, says that every one of them heard worse in one
ear than in the other, and ascribes their inability of dis-
tinguishing expressions to that defect. But a musical ear
seems to have no dependence on acuteness or bluntness
of hearing whether in one or in both. There are exam-
ples of people who may be said to be half deaf, and yet
are both fond of music, and skilful practitioners.' For a
full and scientific description of the organs of vision, see
No. V. on the mechanism of the eye, by Dr Smith.
We have thus taken a general survey of the properties
and functions which belong to all organized beings.
It may serve to enlighten those who have but little time
and less means to attend to scientific pursuits, or stimulate
those who have to a closer examination of the subject. If
either of these purposes are effected, the writer will feel
himself happy, and will rejoice at the opportunity which
has thus been given for the effort of his feeble talents.
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SCIENTIFIC TRACTS.
9
NUMBER XVIII.
WHALE FISHERY.
INTRODUCTORY REMARKS.
THERE are many circumstances which unite to give
interest to everything relating to the huge animal, the
method of whose capture is to be the subject of the fol-
lowing Tract. We shall first briefly allude to some of
these circumstances, and then proceed to describe in de-
tail the animating scenes which are presented in these
.terrific conflicts between human ingenuity on the one
hand and brute, but monstrous power, on the other.
1. The Structure of the Whale. Most of the inhabi-
tants of the sea breathe no air their blood is cold and
their young is produced by spawn, which is alwavs aban-
doned by the parent to the winds and waves. The family
of cetaceous animals, however, have warm blood they
breathe the air they produce living offspring, which they
cherish and protect while young. These things occasion
a great difference of structure. They breathe. Conse-
quently, they are generally near the surface of the w r ater,
and often come to it to take breath, giving a sort of puflT,
from which the sailors have given them all the name of
blowers. They are warm blooded. They therefore have
a thick coating of fat for clothing. It is for this clothing
that they are chiefly valuable to man.
2. Tlie Commercial Importance, of the Whale I''i>/tf>ry.
A very large amount of capital, both in the shape of
money and of men, is employed in this trade, from this
country. This amount, too, is increasing. And from
present appearances it is probable that it will increase
VOL. i. NO. xvin. 38
426 WHALE FISHERY.
still farther, both in this country and Europe. The parts
of the animal are converted to a great variety of purposes.
The flesh, though rejected by Europeans, is the principal
food of many savage tribes on the coast of the northern
seas. They construct, lalso, windows of some thin semi-
transparent membranes found in the animal ; they make
weapons of war from the bones, and cords from the sin-
ews^. The chief articles of value, however, are the oil,
and the whalebone, as it is called. This latter substance
is not properly bone. It is found in laminae in the mouth
of the animal, in the place of teeth.
3. The very interesting Nature of the Fishery. The
excitement, the danger, the magnitude of the object of
the chase, conspire to throw an intensity of interest about
this subject, which can be found in very few of the modes
in which human ingenuity and enterprise are exerted.
For the above reasons we shall present, chiefly from
the writings of Capt. Scoresby, the universal authority on
this subject, a full description of the whale fishery. Capt.
Scoresby was a whalemen himself and he united to the
most favorable opportunities of observation, a mind ad-
mirably adapted to seize on the striking and prominent
features of a scene, and to describe them with vividness
and force.
INSTRUMENTS USED IN THE WHALE FISHERY.
Whale Ships. The ships are fitted out for this pur
pose with apparatus for taking the whale, cutting up the
animal, and extracting the oil, and also with a large
supply of casks to contain it. They sail so as to be upon
the fishing stations in the northern latitudes, in the spring
of the year.
Whale Boats. A whale boat is constructed in such
a manner that it differs in many important respects from
other boats. It if lighter, more easily turned, it moves
more swiftly. They are twenty or twenty five feet long,
and between five and six feet wide.
Weapons. The chief weapon is the harpoon, of which
the adjoining cut
is a rcpresenta- ^ ^- -7
tion. The part
marked m is call- ^
WHALE FISHERY. 427
ed the mouth. It consists simply of a doul/ly barbed
point. The slender part, marked s, connecting this with
the handle, is of very ductile iron, so as to bend and
twist in any direction by the efforts of the whale, without
breaking. A very flexible but strong rope is attached
to the harpoon. It is of great length and one end is re-
tained in the boat. In addition to the harpoon, there-is
a lance, which is a spear of iron, with a very sharp steel
point. It is used for finally despatching the whale, after
he is almost exhausted in the contest.
PROCEEDINGS ON FISHING STATIONS.
Discovery of the Whale. On fishing stations, when
the weather is such as to render the fishing practicable,
he boats are always ready for inst;;nt service. Suspend-
ed from davits or cranes by the side of the ship, furnish-
ed with the requisite implements, two boats at least, the
crews of which are always in readiness, can in a general
way, be manned and lowered into the water, within the
space of one minute of time.
Wherever there is a probability of seeing whales, when
the weather and situation are such as to piesent a possi-
bility of capturing them, the croivsncst,as it is called, i. e.
a station at the mast head, is generally occupied by the
master or some of the officers, who, commanding from
thence an extensive prospect of the surrounding sea,
keeps with the assistance of a telescope, an anxious watch
for the appearance of a whale. The moment that a fish*
is seen, he gives notice to the ' watch upon deck,' part
of whom leap into a boat, are lowered down, and push
off towards the place. If the fish be large, a second
boat is immediately despatched to the support of the other.
When the whale again appears for if he has gone down
he must soon come up again to breathe, two boats row
towards it with the utmost speed ; and though they may
be disappointed in their attempts, they generally continue
their pursuit until the fish either takes the alarm, and es-
capes them, or they are recalled by signal to the ship.
When two or more fish appear at the same time in differ-
ent situations, the number of boats sent in pursuit is in-
128 WHALE FISHEKV.
creased, and sometimes all the boats are sent out. Dur-
ing fine weather, in situations where whales are seen, or
where they have recently been seen, or where there is a
great probability of any making their appearance, a boat
is generally kept in readiness, manned and afloat. If the
ship sails with considerable velocity, this boat is towed
by a rope astern ; but when the ship is pretty still,
whether moored to ice, laid to, or sailing in light winds,
the ' bran boat,' as it is called, often pushes off to a
little distance from the ship. A boat on watch commonly
lies still in some eligible situation with all its oars elevat-
ed out of the water, but in readiness, in the hands of the
rowers, for immediate use.
The harpooner and boat steerer keep a careful watch
on all sides, while each of the rowers looks out in the
direction of his oar. Thus the whole horizon is under
close observation. In fishing near fields of ice, the boats
approach the ice with their sterns, and are each of them
fastened to it by means of a boat hook, or an iron spike
with a cord attached, either of which is held by the boat
steerer, and is slipped or withdrawn the moment a whale
appears. There are several rules observed in approach-
ing a whale, as precautions, to prevent, as far as possible,
the animal from taking the alarm.
As the whale is dull of hearing, but quick of sight,
the boat steerer always endeavors to get behind it ; and,
in accomplishing this, he is sometimes justified in taking
a circuitous route. In calm weather the greatest caution
is necessary, before a whale can be reached ; smooth,
careful rowing, is always requisite, and sometimes scull-
ing is practised.
A whale *seldom abides longer on the water than two
minutes, and it generally remains from five, to ten or fif-
teen minutes under water. During this interval, it
sometimes moves through a space of half a mile or more,
and the fisher has very rarely any certain intimation of
the place in which it will reappear. Consequently, the
difficulty and address requisite to approach sufficiently
near, during its short stay on the surface, to harpoon it,
is very great.
It is, therefore, a primary consideration with the har-
WHALE FISHERY. 429
pooner, always to place his boat as near as possible to the
spot, in which he expects the fish to rise, and he conceives
himself successful in the attempt when the fish ' comes
up within a start, 1 that is, within the distance of about
two hundred yards.
In all cases when a whale that is pursued, has but
once been seen, the fisher is considerably indebted to
what is called chance for a favorable position. But when
the whale has been twice seen, and its change of place,
if any, noticed, the harpooner makes the best use of the
intimation derived from his observation on its apparent
motion, and places his boat accordingly. Thus he an-
ticipates the fish in its progress, so that when it rises to
the surface* there is probability of its being within the
favorable precincts of a start. A whale moving forward
at a small distance beneath the surface of the sea, leaves
a sure indication of its situation, in what is c;dled an
' eddy,' having somewhat the resemblance of the ' wake'
or track of a ship ; and in fine calm weather, its change
of position is sometimes pointed out by the birds, many
of which closely follow it when at the surface, and hover
over it when below, whose keener vision can discover it,
when it is totally concealed from human eyes. By these
indications many whales have been taken.
THE ATTACK AND PURSUIT.
Whenever a whale lies on the surface of the water, un-
conscious of the approach of its enemies, the hardy fisher
rows directly upon it, and an instant before the boat touch-
es it, buries his harpoon in its back. But if, while the boat
is yet at a little distance, the whale should indicate his in-
tention of diving, by lifting his head above the common
level, and then plunging it under water, and raising its bo:ly
until it appear like the large segment of a sphere, the
harpoon is thrown from the hand, or fired from a gun, the
former of which, when skilfully practised, is efficient nt the
distance of eight or ten yards, and the latter at the distance
of thirty yards or upwards. The wounded whale, in the
surprise and agony of the moment, makes a convulsive
effort to escape. Then is the moment of danger. The
boat is subjected to the most violent blows from its head
VOL. i. NO. xviii. 38*
430 WHALE FISHERY.
or its fins, but particularly from its ponderous tail, which
sometimes sweeps the air with such tremendous fury,
that both boat and men are exposed to one common- de-
sliuction.
The head of the whale is avoided, because it cannot
be penetrated with the harpoon ; bat any part of the
body, between the head and tail, will admit of the full
length of the instrument, without danger of obstruction.
The harpoon, therefore, is always struck into the back,
and generally well forward towards the fins, thus afford-
ing the chance, when it happens to drag and plough along
the back, of retaining its hold during a longer time, than
when struck in closer to the tail.
The moment that the wounded whale disappears, or
leaves the boat, a jack o'r flag,jelevated on a staff, is dis-
played, on sight of which, those on watch in the ship,
give the alarm, by stamping on the deck, accompanied
by a simultaneous and continued shout of ' a fall.'* A;.
the sound of this, the sleeping crew are roused, jump
from their beds, rush upon deck, with their clothes tied
by a string in their hands, and crowd into the boats, with
a temperature of zero. Should a fall occur, the crew
would appear upon deck, shielded only by their drawers,
stockings, and shirts, or other habiliments in which they
sleep. They generally contrive to dress themselves, in
part, at least, as the boats are lowered down ; but some-
times they push off in the state in which they rise from
their beds, row away towards the Mast boat,' that is, the
boat attached by its harpoon and line, to the whale, and
have no opportunity to clothe themselves for a length of
time afterwards. The alarm of ' a fall ' has a singular
effect on the feelings of a sleeping person, unaccustomed
to the whale fishing business. It has often been mistak-
en for a cry of distress. A landsman in a Hull ship, see-
ing the crew, on the occasion of a fall, rush upon deck,
with their clothes in their hands, when there was no ap-
pearance of danger, thought the men were all mad ; but
* The word ' fall,' as well as many others used in the fishery, if
dc-rived from the Dutcli language. In the original it is written val,
implying jump, drop, fall, and is considered expressive of the con-
duct of the sailor.-', when manning the boats, on an occasion requiring
extreme despatch.
WHALE FISHERY. 431
with another individual, the effect was totally different.
Alarmed with the extraordinary noise, and still more so,
when he reached the deck, with the appearance of all the
crew seated in the boats in their shirts, he imagined the
ship was sinking. He therefore endeavored to get into a
boat himself, but every one of them being fully manned,
he was always repulsed. After several fruitless endeav-
ors to gain a place among his comrades, he cried out,
with feelings of evident distress, 'What shall I do?
will none of you take rne in ? '
The first effort of a ' fast fish,' or whale that has been
struck, is to escape from the boat, by sinking under wa-
ter. After this, it pursues its course directly downward,
or reappears at a little distance, and swims with great
celerity, near the surface of the water, towards any
neighboring ice, among which it may attain an imagina-
ry shelter ; or it returns instantly to the surface, and
gives evidence of its agony, by the most convulsive
throes, in which its fins and tail are alternately displayed
in the air, and dashed into the water with tremendous
violence. The former behaviour, however, that is, to dive
towards the bottom of the sea, is so frequent, in com-
parison of any other, that it may be considered as the
general conduct of a fast fish.
A whale struck near the edge of any large sheet of
ice, and passing underneath it, will sometimes run the
whole of the lines out of the boat, in the space of eight
or ten minutes of time. This being the ca=e, when the
' fast boat' is at a distance, both from the ship and from
any other boat, it frequently happens that the lines are
all withdrawn before assistance arrives, and, with the fish,
entirely lost. In some cases, however, they are recov-
ered. To retard, therefore, as much as possible, the
flight of the whale, it is usual for the harpooner, who
strikes it, to cast one, two, or more turns of line round a
kind of post, called a ballard, which is fixed within ten
or twelve inches of the stern of the boat, for the purpose.
Such is the friction of the line, when running round the
ballard, that it frequently envelopes the harpooner in
smoke ; and if the wood were not repeatedly wetted,
would probably set fire to the boat. During the capture
WHALE FISHERY.
of one whale, a groove is sometimes cut in the ballard,
near an inch in depth ; and, were it not for a plate of
brass, iron, or a block of lignum vitse, which covers the
top of the stem where the line passes over, it is appre-
hended that the action of the line on the material of the
boat, would cut it down to the water's edge, in the course
of one season of successful fishing. The approaching
distress of a boat, for want of line, is indicated by the
elevation of an oar, in the way of a mast, to which is
added a second, a third, or even a fourth, in proportion
to the nature of the exigence. The utmost care and at-
tention are requisite, on the part of every person in the
boat, when the lines are running out ; fatal consequences
having been sometimes produced by the most trifling
neglect. When the line happens ' to run foul,' and can-
not be cleared on the instant, it sometimes draws the boat
under water ; on which, if no auxiliary boat, or conveni-
ent piece of ice be at hand, the crew are plunged into
the sea, and are obliged to trust to the buoyancy of their
oars, or to their skill in swimming, for supporting them-
selves on the surface. To provide against such an acci-
dent, as well as to be ready to furnish an additional sup-
ply of lines, it is usual, when boats are sent in pursuit,
for two to go out in company, and when a whale has been
struck, for the first assisting boat which approaches, to
join the fast boat, and to stay by it until the fish reap-
pears. The other boats, likewise, make towards the one
carrying a flag, and surround it at various distances,
awaiting the appearance of the wounded whale.
On my first voyage* to the whale-fishery, such an ac-
cident, as above alluded to, occurred. A thousand fa-
thoms of line were already out, and the fast boat was for-
cibly pressed against the side of a piece of ice. The
harpooner, in his anxiety to retard the flight of the whale,
applied too many turns of the line round the ballard,
which getting entangled, drew the boat beneath the ice.
Another boat, providentially, was at hand, into which the
crew, including myself, who happened to be present, had
just time to escape.
* Capt. Scoresby.
WHALE FISHERY. 433
The whale, with near two miles' length ofline, was, in
consequence of the accident, lost, but the boat was re-
covered. On a subsequent occasion, I underwent a simi-
lar misadventure, but with a happier result ; we escaped
with a little wetting into an accompanying boat, and the
whale was afterwards captured, and the boat with its
lines recovered.
When fish have been struck by myself, I have on dif-
ferent occasions estimated their rate of descent. For
the first :j()0 fathoms, the average velocity was usually
after the rate of eight to ten miles per hour. In one in-
stance, the third line of 120 fathoms was run out in six-
tvone seconds ; that is at the rate of eight and one sixth
English miles, or seven arid one eighth nautical miles per
hour. By the motions of the fast boat, the simultaneous
movements of the whale are estimated. The auxiliary
boats, accordingly, take their stations about the situation
where the whale, from these motions, may reasonably be
expected to appear.
The average stay under water, of a wounded whale,
which steadily descends after being struck, according to
the most usual conduct of the animal, is about thirty
minutes. The longest I ever observed was tiftysix min-
utes, but in shallow water, I have been informed, it has
sometimes been known to remain an hour and a half at
the bottom after being struck, and yet has returned to the
surface alive. The greater the velocity, the more con-
siderable the distance to which it descends, and the
longer the time it remains under water, so much greater
in proportion is the extent of its exhaustion and the con-
sequent facility of accomplishing its capture. Immedi-
ately on its reappearing, the assisting boats make for the
place with their utmost speed, and as they reach it, each
liarpooner plunges his harpoon into its back, to the
amount of three, four, or more, according to the size of
the v/hal-e, and the nature of the situation. Most fre-
quently, however, it descends for a few minutes after re-
ceiving the second harpoon, and obliges the other boats
to await its return to the surface, before any further at-
tack can be made. It is afterwards actively plied with
lances, which are thrust into its body, aiming at its vitals.
434 WHALE FISHERY.
At length, when exhausted by numerous wounds and the
loss of blood, which flows from the huge animal in copi-
ous streams, it indicates the approach of its dissolution,
by discharging from its 'blowholes,' a mixture of blood
along with the air and mucus which it usually expires,
and finally jets of blood alone. The sea, to a great ex-
tent around, is dyed with its blood, and the ice, boats,
and men, are sometimes drenched with the same. Its
track is likewise marked by a broad pellicle of oil, which
exudes from its wounds, and appears on the surface of
the sea.
Its final capture is sometimes preceded by a convulsive
struggle, in which, its tail, reared, whirled, and violently
jerked in the air, resounds to the distance of miles. In
dying, it turns on its back or on its side, which joyful
circumstance is announced by the capturers with the
striking of their flags, accompanied by three lively
huzzas !
The remarkable exhaustion observed in the first ap-
pearance of a wounded whale at the surface, after a de-
scent of TOO or 800 fathoms perpendicular, does not de-
pend on the nature of the wound it has received, for a
hundred superficial wounds received from harpoons,
could not have the effects of a single lance penetrating
the vitals, but is the effect of the almost incredible pres-
sure to which the animal must have been exposed. The
surface of the body of a large whale, may be considered
as comprising an area of 1540 square feet. This, under
the common 'weight of the atmosphere only, must sus-
tain a pressure of 3,104,040 pounds, or 1380 tons. But
at the depth of 800 fathoms, where there is a column of
water equal in weight to about 154 atmospheres, the pres-
sure on the animal must be equal to 211, 200 tons. This
is a degree of pressure of which we can have but an im-
perfect conception. It may assist our comprehension,
however, to be informed, that it exceeds in weight sixty
of the largest ships of the British navy when manned,
provisioned, and fitted for a six months' cruise.
Every boat fast to a living whale carries a flag, and
the ship to which such boats belong, also wears a flag,
until the whale is either killed or makes its escape.
WHALE FISHERY. 435
These signals serve to indicate to surrounding ships the
exclusive title of the ' fast ship,' to the entangled whale,
and to prevent their interference, excepting in the way
of assistance, in the capture. A very natural inquiry
connected with this subject, is, what is the length of
time requisite for capturing a whale? This is a ques-
tion which can only be answered indirectly ; for I have
myself witnessed the capture of a large whale, which has
been effected in twentyeight minutes ; and have also
been engaged with another fish which was lost, after it
had been entangled about sixteen hours. Instances are
well authenticated, in which whales have yielded their
lives to the lances of active fishers, within the space of
fifteen minutes from the time of being struck ; and in
cases when fish have been shot with a harpoon-gun, in a
still shorter period ; while other instances are equally fa-
miliar and certain, wherein a whale having gained the
shelter of a pack or compact patch of ice, has sustained
or avoided every attack upon it, during the space of for-
ty or fifty hours. Some whales have been captured when
very slightly entangled with a single harpoon, while
others have disengaged themselves, though severely
wounded with lances, by a single act of violent and con-
vulsive distortion of the body, or tremendous shake of
the tail, from four or more harpoons; in which act, some
of the lines have been broken with apparent ease, and
the harpoons to which other lines were attached, either
broken or torn out of the body of the vigorous animal.
Generally, the speedy capture of a whale depends on the
activity of the harpooners, the favorableness of situation
and weather, and, in no inconsiderable degree, on the
peculiar conduct of the whale attacked. Under the
most favorable circumstances, namely, when the fisher-
men are very active, the ice very open, or the sea free
from ice and the weather fine, the average length of
time occupied in the capture of a whale, may be stated
as not exceeding an hour. The general average, includ-
ing all sizes of fish, and all circumstances of capture,
may probably be two or three hours.
The method practised in the capture of whales, under
favorable circumstances/is very uniform with all the fish-
436 WHALE FISHERY.
ers of every nation. The only variation observable in
the proceedings of the different fishers, consisting in the
degree of activity and resolution displayed, in pursuance
of the operations of harpooning and lancing the whale,
and in the address manifested in improving by any acci-
dental movement of the fish, which may lay it open to
an effectual attack, rather than in anything different
or superior in the general method of conducting the fish-
ery. It is true, that with some the harpoon-gun is much
valued, and used with advantage, while with others, it is
held in prejudiced aversion ; yet, as this difference of
opinion affects only the first attack and entanglement of
the whale, the subsequent proceedings with all the fish-
ers, may still be said to be founded on equal and unani-
mous principles. Hence, the mode described in the pre-
ceding pages, of conducting the fishery for whales under
favorable circumstances, may be considered as the gen-
eral plan pursued by the whalemen of all nations. Nei-
ther is there any difference in the plan of attack, or mode
of capture between fish of large size, and those of lesser
growth ; the proceedings are the same, but, of course,
with the smaller whales less force is requisite ; though it
sometimes happens that the trouble attached to the kill-
ing of a very small whale, exceeds that connected with
the capture of one of the largest individuals. The pro-
gress or flight of a large whale cannot be restrained ;
but that of an under size fish may generally be confined
within the limits of 400 to COO fathoms of line. A full
grown fish generally occupies the whole, or nearly the
whole of the boats belonging to one ship in its capture ;
but three, four, or sometfmes more small fish, have been
killed at the same time, by six or seven boats. It is not
unusual for small whales to run downward until they ex-
haust themselves so completely, that they are not able
to return to the surface, but are suffocated in the water.
As it is requisite that a whale that has been drowned
should be drawn up by the line, which is a tedious and
troublesome operation, it is usual to guard against such
fin event by resisting its descent with a light strain on
the line, and also by hauling upon the line, the moment
its descent is stopped, with a view of inducing it to re-
WHALE FISHERY. 437
turn to the surface, where it can be killed and secured
without further trouble. Seldom more than two harpoons
are struck into an under size whale.
The ease with which some whales are subdued, and
the slightness of the entanglement by which they are ta-
ken, is truly surprising; but with others it is equally as-
tonishing, that neither line nor harpoon, nor any number
of each, is sufficiently strong to effect their capture.
Many instances have occurred where whales have escap-
ed, from four, five, or even more harpoons, while fish,
equally large, have been killed through the medium of a
single harpoon. Indeed, whales have been taken in con-
sequence of the entanglement of a line, without any har-
poon at all ; though, when such a case has occurred, it
has evidently been the result of accident. The follow-
ing instances are in point.
A whale was struck from one of the boats of the ship
Nautilus in Davis's Straits. It was killed, and as is usual
after the capture, it was disentangled of the line con-
nected with the first 'fast-boat,' by dividing it within
eight or nine yards of the harpoon. The crew of the
boat from which the fish was first struck, in the mean-
time were employed in heaving in the lines, by means of
a crank fixed in the boat for the purpose, which they
progressively effected for some time. On a sudden, how-
ever, to their great astonishment, the lines were pulled
away from them, with the same force and violence, as by
a whale when first struck.
They repeated their signal indicative of a whale be-
ing struck ; their shipmates flocked towards them, and
while every one expressed a similar degree of astonish-
ment with themselves, they all agreed that a fish was fast
to the line. In a few minutes, they were agreeably con-
firmed in their opinion, and relieved from suspense, by
the rising of a large whale close by them, exhausted
with fatigue, and having every appearance of a fast-fish.
It permitted itself to be struck by several harpoons at
once, and was speedily killed. On examining it after
death, to discover the cause of such an interesting
accident, they found the line, belonging to the above
mentioned boat, in its mouth, where it was still firmly
VOL. i. NO. xvin. 39
438 WHALE FISHERY.
fixed by the compression of its lips. The occasion of
this happy and puzzling -accident, was therefore solved ;
the end of the line, after being cut from the whale
first killed, was in the act of sinking in the water ; the
fish in question, engaged in feeding, was advancing with
its mouth wide open, and accidentally caught the line
between its extended jaws ; a sensation so utterly un-
usual as that produced by the line, had induced it to shut
its mouth and grasp the line, which was the cause of its
alarm, so firmly between its lips, as to produce the effect
just stated. This circumstance took place many years
ago, but a similar one occurred in the year 1814.
A harpooner, belonging to the Prince of Brazil, of
Hull, had struck a small fish. It descended, and re-
mained for some time quiet, and at length appeared to be
drowned. The strain on the line being then considera-
ble, it was taken to the ship, with a view of heaving the
fish up. The force requisite for performing this opera-
tion, was extremely various ; sometimes the line came in
with ease, at others, a quantity was withdrawn with great
force and rapidity. As such, it appeared evident that
the fish was yet alive. The heaving, however, was per-
sisted in, and after the greater part of the lines had been
drawn on board, a dead fish appeared at the surface, se-
cured by several turns of the line round its body. It
was disentangled with difficulty, and was confidently be-
lieved to be the whale they had struck. But when the
line was cleared from the fish it proved to be merely the
' bight,' for the end still hang perpendicularly downward.
What was then their surprise to find that it was still pull-
ed away with considerable force. The capstan was
again resorted to, and shortly afterwards, they hove up,
also dead, the fish originally struck with the harpoon still
fast. Hence it appeared, that the fish first drawn up, had
got accidentally entangled with the line, and in its strug-
gles to escape, had still further involved itself, by wind-
ing the line repeatedly round its body. The first fish
entangled, as was suspected, had long been dead ; and
it was this lucky interloper, that occasioned the jerks and
other singular effects observed on the line.
WHALE FISHERY. 439
EXTRAORDINARY CASES.
Hitherto I have only attempted to describe thn
method adopted for the capture of whales under
favorable circumstances, such as occur in open wa-
ter, or amongst open ice in fine weather. As however
this method is subject to various alterations, when the
situation and circumstances are peculiar, 1 shall venture
a few remarks on the subject.
1. Pack Fishing. The borders of close packs of
drift ice, are frequently a favorite resort of large whales.
To attack them in such a situation subjects the fisher to
great risks in his lines and boats, as well as uncertainty
in affecting their capture. When a considerable swell
prevails on the borders of the ice, the whales on being
struck, will sometimes recede from the pack, and be-
come the prize of their assailers ; but most generally
flee to it for shelter, and frequently make their escape.
To guard against the loss of lines as much as possible, it
is pretty usual either to strike two harpoons from differ-
ent boats at the same moment, or to bridle the lines of a
second boat upon those of the boat from which the fish
is struck. This operation consists in fixing other lines
to those of the fast-boat at some distance from the har-
poon, so that there is only one harpoon and one line im-
mediately attached to the fish, but the double strength of
a line from the place of their junction to the boats.
Hence, should fish flee directly into the ice and proceed
to an inaccessible distance, the two boats bearing an
equal strain on each of their lines, can at pleasure draw
the harpoon, or break the sinarle part of the line imme-
diately connected with it, and in either case, secure
themselves against any considerable loss.
When a pack, by its compactness, prevents boats from
penetrating, the men travel over the ice, leaping from
piece to piece, in pursuit of the entangled whale. In
this pursuit they carry lances with them and sometimes
harpoons, with which, whenever they can approach the
fish, they attack it, and if they succeed in killing it they
drag it towards the exterior margin of the ice, by means
of the line fastened to the harpoon with which it is origi-
440 WHALE FISHERY.
nally struck. In such cases, it is generally an object of
importance to sink it beneath the ice ; for effecting which
purpose, each lobe of the tail is divided from the body,
excepting a small portion of the edge, from which it
hangs pendulous in the water. If it still floats, bags of
sand, kedges or small cannon are suspended by a block
on the bight of the line, wherewith the buoyancy of the
dead whale is usually overcome. It then sinks, and is
easily hauled out by the line into the open sea.
To particularize all the variety of pack fishing arising
from winds and weather, size of the fish, state and pecu-
liarities of the ice, &c, would require more space than
the interest of the subject, to general readers, would
justify. I shall, therefore, only remark, that pack fishing
is, on the whole, the most troublesoin^ and dangerous of
all others; that instances have occurred of fish having
been entangled during forty or fifty hours, and have es-
caped after all ; and that other instances are remem-
bered, of ships having lost the greater part of their stock
of lines, several of their boats, and sometimes, though
happily, less commonly, some individuals of their crew.
2. Field Fishing. The fishery for whales, when
conducted at the margin of those wonderful sheets of
solfd ice, called fields, is, when the weather is fine and
the refuge for ships secure, of all other situations which
the fishery of Greenland presents, the most agreeable
and sometimes the most productive. A fish struck at
the margin of a large field of ice, generally descends
obliquely beneath it, takes four to eight lines from the
fast-boat, and then returns exhausted to the edge. It is
then attacked in the usual way, with harpoons and lan-
ces, and is easily killed. There is one evident advan-
tage in field fishing, which is this. When the fast-boat
lies at the edge of a firm unbroken field, and the line pro-
ceeds in an angle beneath the ice, the fish must necessa-
rily arise somewhere in a semicircle, described from the
fast-boat as a centre, with a sweep not exceeding the
length of the lines out; but most generally it appears in
a line extending along the margin of the ice, so that the
boats, when dispersed along the edge of the field, are ef-
fectual and as ready for promoting the capture, as twice
WHALE FISHERY. 441
the number of boats or more, when fishing in open situ-
ations ; because, -in open situations the whale may arise
anywhere within a circle, instead of a semicircle, de-
scribed by the length of the lines withdrawn from the
fast-boat. In consequence of this, it frequently happens
that all the attendant boats are disposed in a wrong di-
rection, and the fish, recovers its breath, breaks loose,
and escapes before any of them can secure it by a second
harpoon. Hence, when a ship fishes at a field, with an
ordinary crew, and six or seven boats, two of the largest
fish may be struck at the same time with every prospect
of success, while the same force attempting the capture
of two at once, in an open situation will, not unfrequent-
ly, occasion the loss of both. There have indeed been
instances of a ship% crew, with seven boats, striking at a
field, six fish at the same time, and of success in killing
the whole. Generally speaking, six boats at a field are
capable of performing the same execution, as near twice
that number in open situations. Besides, fields some-
times afford an opportunity of fishing, when in any other
situation there can be little or no chance of success, or,
indeed, when to fish elsewhere is utterly impracticable.
Thus calms, storms, and fogs, are great annoyances in
the fishery in general, and frequently prevent it alto-
gether ; but at fields the fishery goes on under any of
these disadvantages, As there are several important ad-
vantages attending the fishery at fields, so, likewise,
there are some serious disadvantages, chiefly relating to
the safety, of the ships engaged in the occupation. The
motions of fields are rapid, various, and unaccountable,
and the power with which they approach each other and
squeeze every resisting object, immense, hence occa-
sionally vast mischief is produced, which it is not always
in the power of the most skilful and attentive master to
forsee and prevent.
Thin fields, or fields full of holes, are usually avoided,
because a ' fast fish,' retreating under such a field, can
respire through the holes in the centre as conveniently as
on the exterior ; and a large fish usually proceeds from
one hole to another, and if determined to advance cannot
possibly be stopped. In this'case all that can be done is,
VOL. r. NO. xvni. 39*
442 WHALE FISHERY.
to break the line or draw the harpoon out. But when
the fish can be observed ' blowing,' in any of the holes
iu a field, the men travel over the ice and attack it with
lances, pricking it over the nose, to endeavor to turn it
back. This scheme, however, does not always answer
the expectation of the fishers, as frequently the fear of
his enemies acts so powerfully on the whale, that he
pushes forward to the interior, to his dying moment.
When killed, the same means are used as in pack fishing,
to sink it, but they do not always succeed ; for the har-
poon is frequently drawn out, or the line broken in the
attempt. If, therefore, no attempt to sink the fish avails,
there is scarcely any other practicable method of making
prize of it, (unless when the ice happens to be so thin
that it can be broken with a boat, a channel readily
cut in it with an ice saw,) than cutting the blubber away,
and dragging it piece by piece, across the ice to the ves-
sel, which requires immense labor and is attended with
vast loss of time. Hence, we have a sufficient reason
for avoiding such situations whenever fish can be found
elsewhere. As connected with this subject, I cannot
pass over a circumstance which occurred within my own
observation, and which excited my highest admiration.
On the 8th of July, 1813, the ship Esk, lay by the
edge of a large sheet of ice, in which were several thin
parts, and some holes. Here a fish being heard blowing,
a harpoon, with a line connected to it, was conveyed
across the ice, from a boat on guard, and the harpooner
succeeded in striking the' whale at the distance of 350
yards from the verge. It dragged out ten lines, (2400
yards) and was supposed to be seen blowing in different
holes in the ice. After some time it happened to make
its appearance on the exterior, when a harpoon was
struck at the moment it was proceeding again beneath.
About a hundred yards from the edge it broke the ice
where it was a foot in thickness, with its crown, and re-
spired through the opening. It then determinately push-
ed forward, breaking the ice as it advanced, in spite of
the lances constantly directed against it. It reached, at
length, a kind of basin in the field, where it floated on
the surface of the water, without any incumbrance from
WHALE FISHERY. 443
ice. Its back being fairly exposed, the harpoon, struck
from the boat on the outside, was observed to be so
slightly entangled that it was ready to drop out. Some
of the officers lamented this circumstance, and expressed
a wish that the harpoon were better fast ; observing, at
the same time, that if it should slip out, the whale would
either be lost, or they would be under the necessity of
cutting it up where it lay, and of dragging the pieces of
blubber over the ice to the ship ; a kind and degree of
labor which every one was anxious to avoid. No sooner
was the wish expressed, and its importance made known,
than one of the sailors, a smart and enterprising fellow,
slept forward and volunteered his services to strike it
better in. Not at all intimidated by the surprise which
was manifested in every countenance, by snch a bold
proposal, he pulled out his pocket knife, leaped upon the
back of the living whale, and immediately cut the har-
poon out. Stimulated by this courageous example, one
of his companions proceeded to his assistance. While
one of them hauled upon the line and held it in his hands,
the other set his shoulder against the extremity of the
harpoon, and though it was without a stock, he contrived
to strike it again into the fish more effectually than it
was at first ; the fish was in motion before they finished.
After they got off its back it advanced a considerable
distance, breaking the ice all the way, and survived this
uncommon treatment ten or fifteen minutes. This ad-
mirable act was an essential benefit. The fish fortunately
sunk spontaneously after being killed, on which it was
hauled out to the edge of the ice by the line, and secured
without further trouble. It proved a stout whale, and an
acceptable prize.
Fishing in Crowded Ice or in Open Packs.
In navigable open drift ice, or among small detached
streams and patches, either of which serve in a degree
to break the force of the sea, and to prevent any consid-
erable swell from arising, we have a situation which is
considered as one of the best possible for conducting the
fishery in ; consequently, it comes under the same de-
nomination as those favorable situations, in which I have
first attempted to describe the proceedings of the fishers
444 WHALE FISHERY.
in killing the whale. But the situation I now mean to
refer to, is, when the ice is crowded and nearly close ;
so close, indeed, that it scarcely affords room for boats to
pass through it, and by no means sufficient space for a
ship to be navigated among it. This kind of situation
occurs in somewhat open packs, or in large patches of
crowded ice, and affords a fair probability of capturing a
whale, though it is seldom accomplished without a con-
siderable degree of trouble. When the ice is very
crowded, and the ship cannot sail into it with propriety,
it is usual to seek out for a mooring to some large mass
of ice, if such can be found, extending two or three
fathoms or more under water..
A piece of ice of this kind, is capable not only of
holding the ship ' head-to-wind,' but also to windward of
the smaller ice. The boats then set out in chase of any
fish which may be seen ; and when one happens to be
struck, they proceed in the capture in a similar manner
as when in more favorable circumstances, excepting so
far as the obstruction which the quality and arrangement
of the ice may offer, to the regular system of proceeding.
Among crowded ice, for instance, the precise direction
pursued by the fish is not easily ascertained, nor can the
fish itself be readily discovered on its first arrival at the
surface, after being struck, on account of the elevation
of the intervening masses of ice, and the great quantity
of line it frequently takes from the fast-boat. Success
in such a situation, depends on the boats being spread
widely abroad, and on a judicious arrangement of each
boat, or a keen look out on the part of the harpooners in
the boat, and on their occasionally taking the benefit of
a hummack of ice, from the elevation of which the fish
may sometimes be seen ' blowing ' in the interstices of the
ice ; or pushing or rowing the boats with the greatest
imaginable celerity, towards the place where the fish may
have been seen ; and, lastly, on the exercise of the high-
est degree of activity and despatch in every proceeding.
If these means be neglected, the fish will generally
have taken his breath, renewed his strength, and remov-
ed to some other quarter, before the arrival of the boats ;
and it is often remarked, that if there be one part of the
WHALE FISHERY. 445
ice more crowded or more difficult of access than anoth-
" er, it commonly retreats thither for refuge. In such
cases, the sailors find much difficulty in getting to it with
their boats ; having to separate many pieces of ice before
they can pass through between them. But when it
is not practicable to move the pieces, and when
they cannot travel over them, they must either drag the
boats across the intermediate ice, or perform an extensive
circuit, before they can reach the opposite side of the
close ice into which the whale has retreated. A second
harpoon, in this case, as indeed in all others, is a material
point. They proceed to lance whenever a second har-
poon is struck, and strike more harpoons as the auxiliary
boats progressively arrive at the place.
Fishing in Stowis. Except in situations sheltered
from the sea by ice, it would be alike useless and pre-
sumptuous to attempt to kill whales during a storm.
Cases, however, occur, wherein fish that weie struck
during fine weather, in winds which do not prevent the
boats from plying about, remain entangled, but unsub-
dued, after the commencement of a storm. Sometimes
the capture is completed, at others, the fishers are under
the necessity of cutting the lines, and allowing the fish
to escape. Sometimes, when they have succeeded in
killing it, and in securing it during the gale, with a haw-
ser to the ship, they are enabled to make a prize of it on
the return of moderate weather ; at others, after having
it to appearance secured, by means of a sufficient rope,
the dangerous proximity of a pack of ice constrains
them to cut it adrift and abandon it, for the preservation
of their vessel. After thus being abandoned, it becomes
the prize of the first who gets possession of it, though it
be in the face of the original captors. A storm com-
mencing while the boats are engaged with an entangled
fish, sometimes occasions serious disasters. Generally,
however, though they suffer the loss of the fish, and per-
haps some of their boats and materials, yet the men
escape with their lives.
Fishing in Foggy Weather. The fishery in stoims,
in exposed situations, can never be voluntary, as the case
only Mnpens when a storm arises subsequent to the time
446 WHALE FISHERY.
of a fish being struck ; but in foggy weather, though oc-
casionally attended with hazard, the fishery is not alto-
gether impracticable. The fogs which occur in the icy
regions in June and July, are generally dense and lasting.
They are so thick, that objects cannot be distinguished
at the distance of 100 or 150 yards, and frequently con-
tinue for several days without attenuation. To fish with
safety and success, during a thick fog, is, therefore, a
matter of difficulty, and of still greater uncertainty.
When it happens that a fish conducts itself favorably,
that is, descends almost perpendicularly, and on its return
to the surface remains nearly stationary, or moves round
in a small circle, the capture is usually accomplished
without hazard or particular difficulty ; but when on the
contrary it proceeds with any considerable velocity in a
horizontal direction, or obliquely downwards, it soon
drags the boats out of sight of the ship, and shortly so
confounds the fishers in the intensity of the mist, that
they lose all traces of the situation of their vessel. If
the fish, in its flight, draws them beyond the reach of
the sound of a bell or a horn, their personal safety be-
comes endangered ; and if they are removed beyond the
sound of a cannon, their situation becomes extremely
hazardous, especially if no other ships happen to be in
the immediate vicinity. Meanwhile, whatever may be
their imaginary or real danger, the mind of their com-
mander must be kept in the most anxious suspense, until
they are found ; and whether they may be in safety, or
near perishing with fatigue, hunger, and cold, so long as
he is uncertain, his anxiety must be the same. Hence
it is, that feelings excited by uncertainty, are frequently
more violent and distressing, than those produced by the
actual knowledge of the truth.
Such are the methods by which, according to Scoresby,
this monster" of the deep is compelled to submit to the
very far inferior force of man. The dangers attending
this occupation have a peculiar effect upon those engaged
in it. They awaken in their breasts a most ardent in-
terest in the employment. The excitement produced by
the chace, and the congratulation and enjoyment result-
ing from the victory, are scarcely equalled by any other
WHALE FISHERY. 447
human pursuit. It must be remembered that the capture
of every whale shortens the voyage. The ship is to re-
main upon the station until her cargo is completed ; and
of course the sailor sees in every victory, that the time
of his return to country and home draws nigh. This
consideration produces no trifling effects, as we may
easily conceive, by taking into consideration the length
and the distance of the voyages.
Besides, it is, in this country we believe, the uniform
practice to allow every sailor a share of the cargo for
his pay. This makes the business a common cause. In
fact, it would probably be difficult or impossible to man-
age so laborious and hazardous a business, with any
proper degree of spirit, in any other way. Upon this
plan of allowing each sailor a regular share of the profits,
each one considers every captured whale as in part his
property. He pursues him with the spirit and energy
which a man feels who is toiling for himself, and during
the return voyage he feels the interest of an owner in the
ship and cargo. He is joint owner. The valuable com-
modities which his skill and courage have procured, are
in part his property and he inquires with eager interest,
on his landing, into the state of the market, the price
of the whalebone and oil ; for the pecuniary result of
the voyage, to him, is not decided till the cargo is sold.
So completely does the system identify the interest of the
sailor with the final success of the enterprise.
In a future number we may pursue this subject, by de-
scribing the processes in this business, subsequent to the
capture of the whale.
$ !L -4
AGENTS
FOU THE
SCIENTIFIC TRACTS.
MAINS.
Norwich, Thomas Rolinton.
Portland, Samuel Colman.
Hallowell, C. Spaulding.
Augusta, P. J. Briis,nadc.
Ban^or B. Nourse.
Middlctown, F.dtcin Hunt.
NEW YORK.
New York, Charles S. Francis.
Albany, Little tf Cummiiirs
Belfast, JV. P. Hatces.
Canandaigua, Bemis $ Wwd.
Troy, W. S. Parker.
Eastport, j f ; ^^
Utica, G S. Wilson.
Norway, Asa Barton.
NEW HAMPSHIRE.
Rochester, . Peck If Co.
NEW JERSEY.
Trenton, D. Fenton.
Dover, \ Kli Frc " ch i
PENNSYLVANIA.
Hanover, Thomas Mann.
Concord, Horatio mil $ Co.
Philadelphia, | ^^f^f**'
MARYLAND.
Keene, Geora-e Ti!d:n.
Portsmouth, John W. Foster.
Baltimore, Charles Carter.
DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA.
VERMONT.
Burlington, C. Goodrich.
Brattluboro', Gfo. //. Peck.
Washington, Thompson # Homans.
Georgetown, James Thomas.
VIRGINIA.
Windsor, Simeon Ide.
Fredericksburg, Wm.. F. Gray, P. X.
Montpelier, J. S. Walton.
OHIO.
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SCIENTIFIC TRACTS.
NUMBER XIX.
MAN, PHYSICALLY CONSIDERED.
I. THE PECULIARITIES WHICH DISTINGUISH MAN FROM
ALL OTHER ANIMALS.
* THE physical organization of man, while it subjects
him to those laws of generation, growth and dissolution,
which extend to all orders of living nature, bears at the
same time, in each of its parts, and as a whole, a charac-
ter so peculiar, so extraordinary and so sublime, that it
is impossible to suppose even the most distant relation-
ship between the brutes, who do nothing but feed and
propagate on the surface of the earth, and him who is
born to exercise dominion over them. That upright and
elevated part, which indicates both dignity and courage ;
those hands, the trusty instruments of our will, the dex-
terous performers of the most magnificent, as well as the
most useful works; those eyes uplifted from the dust,
whose intelligent glance can survey the immensity of the
heavens ; those organs which enable us to express thought
by articulate sounds of endless variety ; the admirable
union of strength and suppleness in all our members;
finally the harmony and perfectibility of all our senses,
assign to us the first rank among living beings, and give
us both the right to claim and the power to hold the em-
pire of the earth.
'Anatomy and physiology have placed these truths be-
yond the reach of dispute. Those naturalists who have
pretended to confound the human species with that of
monkeys, notwithstanding the essential difference in
VOL. i. NO. xix. 40
450 MAN, PHYSICALLY CONSIDERED.
the feet, in the organs of speech, and the notes of the
voice, appear to recognise no fixed principles whatever
in their classification of the species of animals.'*
Strange as it may seem, many persons have attempted
to confound mankind with monkeys, supposing them to
compose one and the same species. And as one horse
is better of more perfect form, and noble appearance
than another, so are some monkeys who are called men
superior in instinct and in appearance to their brethren
who are chattering in the woods. A tail is a very con-
venient appendage to the monkeys of the woods, but
Lord Monboddo supposes that civilization having intro-
duced the custom of sitting doicn, this appendage has
been worn off. The stories that have been told of the
Ourang Outang, and of his striking resemblance to the
human race are greatly exaggerated. This native of the
tropical forests is a disgusting little animal running
upon all fours, but capable of being taught, like the dog,
to stand erect. This is never his natural attitude, and
the anatomical structure of his limbs, renders it impossi-
ble that it should be. This animal is made for climbing,
and its feet are constructed in such a manner as to en-
able it to grasp hold of the branches. It is covered with
coarse hair, and has features but little more resembling
the human than the dog. And this is the disgusting
creature with which some of our fellow men have claim-
ed relationship.
Many marvellous stories have been related of wild men
found in the woods who were unable to speak, who run
upon all fours, and ascended trees with the swiftness of
the wild-cat. But not one of these stories are well au-
thenticated. A slave ship was once wrecked upon the
coast of France. One of the negro girls swam ashore,
the rest of the crew were lost. She was found in the
woods. As she had just been brought from the wilds of
Africa, she of course could not converse in French, and
people thought she could not talk at all. Wonderful sto-
ries were told about her. She was however, instructed
in the French language by the hospitable family, into
* Malte Brun.
MAN, PHYSICALLY CONSIDERED. 451
whose hands she fell, and was thus enabled to give an
account of herself, and thus put to flight the dreams of
those self-called philosophers, who would infer that the
natural state of man was like that of the monkey, without
speech, and without reason. Voltaire says that if any
one wishes to learn the habits of the bee, he will not
take a solitary one that has wandered from the hive and
is lost, and neither should we, in learning the nature and
the habits of man, take an individual who from some un-
known cause has been thrown off from his companions,
and wanders alone in the solitude of the forest. And
yet from a few fanciful stories, like that of the young ne-
gress just related, Monboddo and Rousseau, followed by
a retinue of admiring disciples, have inferred that man
and the monkey are of the same species. Says Mon-
boddo, ' the Ourang Outangs are proved to be of our
species, by marks of humanity that I think are incontest-
able.' This truly is not a very complimentary conclu-
sion. Rousseau states this idea in terms still more revolt-
ing. ' All these varieties which a thousand causes have
produced and are producing, lead me to believe, that
many animals which voyagers have taken for brutes, be-
cause there was some difference in their exterior confor-
mation, or because they could not speak, were in reality
savage men whose race has been for a long period dis-
persed in the woods, and have had no occasion to devel-
ope any of their virtuous faculties, and have acquired no
degree of perfection, but remain in the primitive state of
nature.' The gentlemen therefore, who shoots a mon-
key in the forest of Borneo sheds the blood of his fellow
man, and by the laws both of God and man is a murderer.
The pretended facts which are adduced in support of
this theory are unsatisfactory and trifling in the extreme.
The history of Peter the wild boy, is one of the most au-
thentic cases.
In July, 1724, Jurgen Mayer was walking in his field
in Hanover, and found a naked black haired boy about
twelve years of age. The boy did not seem much afraid
of him, and the man by showing him two apples enticed
him home and secured him. He could not speak. Ap-
parently he had lived for some time in the woods, upon
MAN. PHYSICALLY CONSIDERED.
berries and roots. The children in the town when they
first saw him called him Peter, and he ever afterwards
went by that name. He appeared nearly destitute of
sense did not like bread, but would eat grass, bean
shells, and the peeling of green sticks. He was very
averse to any clothing, but soon became accustomed to
it. Monboddo and Rousseau were in raptures when they
heard of the discovery of this wild boy. They consider-
ed him the true child of nature man in his genuine,
and unsophisticated state. Monboddo says, ' I consider
his history as a brief chronicle, or abstract of the history
of the progress of human nature, from the mere animal
to the first stage of civilized life.' About this time meta-
physicians were in a warm controversy respecting innate
ideas, and this poor boy was entrusted to the care of Dr
Arbuthnot, that he might watch the development of his
innate ideas and thus determine the question.
But unfortunately some subsequent facts came to light
which put to flight all their hopes. It seems that when
he was first met a small fragment of a shirt hung about
his neck ; and the whiteness of one part of his body
contrasted with the brownness of other parts, proved
that he must have worn trowsers, though not stockings.
Some boatmen descending the river Weser, upon whose
banks he was found, had several times seen a poor nak-
ed boy and had given him food. By following up these in-
quiries, at length it was ascertained, this child was born
an idiot and dumb, that he once was lost in the woods
for some time and again returned home. Upon his
father's second marriage, a cruel stepmother drove him
again from home. And this poor idiot was made the
foundation of an argument intended to elevate the mon-
key and to degrade mankind.
Some philosophers, have gone even farther than this.
They claim affinity with the oyster ! As we retrace the
line of our ancestry we are landed in the humble origin
of a bed of oysters. How are the mighty fallen 1 ' Dr
Darwin* seriously conjectures that as aquatic animals
* Dr Erasmus Darwin was born at Newark, in Nottinghamshire,
1732. He was a man ofliberal education; devoted himself pariicu-
MAN, PHYSICALLY CONSIDERED. 453
appear to have been produced before terrestrial, and
every living substance to have originated from a form of
nucleus exquisitely simple and minute, and to have been
perpetually developing and expanding its powers, and
progressively advancing towards perfection. Man him-
self must have been of the aquatic order on his first crea-
tion , at that time indeed imperceptible from his exility,
but in process of years or rather of ages, acquiring a visi-
ble or oyster like form, with little gills instead of lungs,
and like the oyster produced spontaneously, without dis-
tinction into sexes ; that as reproduction is always favor-
able to improvement, the aquatic or oyster mannikin, by
being progressively accustomed to seek its food on the
nascent shores or edges of the primeval ocean, must have
grown, after a revolution of countless generations, first
into an amphibious, and then into a terrestrial animal ;
and in like manner, from being without sex, first also
into an androgynous* form, and thence into distinct male
and female.' What a blessing it is to the world, that
some hungry man, did not in ages which are past, swal-
low for his dinner, Sir Isaac Newton's oyster parents !
Such are theories which have been advocated in con-
tradiction to the simple account of the sacred historian.
How puerile and ridiculous do they appear when con-
trasted with the beautiful simplicity of the Bible. It is
there stated that God created Adam and Eve, and from
them the whole human family has descended. And yet
will men for the sake of furnishing arguments against
the Bible, acknowledge the baboon for their brother and
the clotted oyster for their father. They call this phi-
losophy and science breaking away from the shackles
of superstition.
Such speculations as these only deserve notice to
show into what wild vagaries the human mind may wan-
larly to the study of physics, and wrote largely upon that subject.
He also wrote some verses of no inconsiderable elegance and beauty.
As a physician he acquired great celebrity, and all his philosophical
works show a mind strong and enriched with reading, but wild and
fanciful. He died suddenly at Derby, in 1802.
* Androgynous. Uniting both sexes.
VOL. I. NO. XIX. 40*
454 MAN, PHYSICALLY CONSIDERED.
der, even under a state of high cultivation. Nothing ft^uj,
be more evident than that the human race, is totally distinct
from all other animals. Says Lawrence, 'the human
species has numerous distinctive marks, by which under
every circumstance of deficient or imperfect civilisation,
and every variety of country and race, it is separated by
a broad and clearly denned interval from all other
animals.'
The following circumstances are abundantly sufficient
to characterise man, and distinguish him from all other
animals.
1. Smoothness of skin. There is no animal but man,
who is not furnished by its Creator with natural clothing.
Stories have been told of hairy nations, but they are un-
founded. A smooth skin is peculiar to the human fami-
ly. The monkey and the ourang outang, who have so
frequently and with such little cause been compared with
man, are nearly covered with hair, and no parts of their
bodies present any resemblance to the human face.
2. Erect Stature. Man alone has an anatomical
structure which makes the erect posture natural to him.
The dog and the monkey and some other animals may
be taught to stand upon their hind legs, but this position
is about as unnatural to them, as it would be for a man
to stand upon his hands. No nation, or tribe, or healthy
individual has ever yet been found with whom the up-
right attitude was not natural. Whenever we find a
race of men running upon all fours, and a tribe of mon-
keys walking erect, we will admit the claims of rela-
tionship.
3. Possession of two hands. The monkey is some-
times said to be four handed, instead of four footed.
' They live chiefly in trees for which they are admirably
adapted by having prehensible members, instruments for
grasping and holding on both upper and lower extremi-
ties. They live in trees and find their food in them ;
they can hang by one fore or hind leg, employing the re-
maining number in gathering fruit or in other offices.'
The perfection of the formation of the human hand,
characterises man. He is the only two handed animal.
4. Speech. Several animals may be taught to pro-
MAN, PHYSICALLY CONSIDERED. 455
nounce words and even sentences. But their mimicry
of human sound cannot be called speech. They may ar-
ticulate, but they are incapable of forming ideas and com-
municating them by language. Man alone possesses this
noble faculty, corresponding to his elevated, physical,
moral and intellectual powers. No race of savages was
ever yet discovered who had not a language framed for
enlarging and communicating ideas. And thus is man
distinguished from the brute.
5. Capability of inhabiting all climates. Man is the
only animal which can live and multiply in every coun-
try, upon the surface of the globe. Some animals are
confined to the polar ice ; others to the temperate re-
gions ; others can only live beneath the blazing rays of
the torrid zone. Man scales the high mountain, and
spreads his tent upon the desert, and erects his dwelling
in the deep valley. He is healthy and vigorous under
the burning line, and braves the wintry tempest of the
arctic circle. All countries and all parts of the globe,
afford a dwelling-place for man. This power is pcssess-
ed by no other animal.
6. Man is omnivorous. As man is capable of endur-
ing the extremes of heat and cold in all climates, so can
he in all countries find food, capable of affording him
nourishment and support. The brute creation are very
much limited in the sources from which they can derive
nourishment. To man there is hardly any limit. The
herbs of the field, and the fowls of the air, and the fishes
of the sea, and the beasts of the earth, alike contribute
to the strength and perfection of Jiis corporeal powers.
Among the eternal snows of the north, man lives upon
animal food alone ; upon the luxuriant plains of India, the
human frame is supported by vegetable aliment.
7. Intellectual Powers. The Creator has given all
animals certain instincts by which their lives are pre-
served. And as there is a vast difference in the physical
organization of these animals, so is there a vast differ-
ence in the perfection of their instincts. It is difficult
to define the difference between instinct and reason, but
when we look at the effects, the difference is very mani-
fest. ' The most stupid man is able to manage the most
456 MAN, PHYSICALLY CONSIDERED.
alert and sagacious animal ; he governs it and makes it
subservient to his purposes. This he effects not so much
by bodily strength or address, as by the superiority of his
intellectual nature. He compels the animal to obey him
by his power of projecting and acting in a systematic
. manner. The strongest and most sagacious animals
have not the capacity of commanding the inferior tribes,
or of reducing them to a state of servitude. The strong-
* er indeed devour the weaker ; but this action implies an
urgent necessity only, and a voracious appetite ; qualities
very different from that which produces a train of actions
all directed to one common design. If animals be en-
dowed with this faculty, why do not some of these as-
sume the reins of government over others, and force them
to furnish their food, to watch for them, and to relieve
the sick or wounded ? But among animals there is no
mark of subordination, nor indication that any one is
able to recognise or feel a superiority in his nature above
that of other species. We should, therefore, conclude
that all animals are in this respect of the same nature,
and that the nature of man is not only far superior, but
likewise of a very different kind from that of the brute.
Such are some of the more prominent characteristics
peculiar to man. Others might be adduced from his ex-
ternal and internal structure, but the above are amply
sufficient to induce us to assign to him a specific dis-
tinction.
II. THE PECULIARITIES OF THE SEVERAL NATIONS
AND TRIBES OF MEN.
As'we take a general survey of the human species, we
are struck with astonishment, at the vast difference
which appears in the physical constitution, and moral
condition of various nations. In color, in height, in
bodily formation there is a great dissimilarity. The Pa-
tagonian and the Caffire are seldom less than six feet tall,
and not unfrequently they rise to nearly seven feet.
There are other nations where you seldom find an indi-
vidual exceeding five feet in height. The inhabitants of
Lapland, and the Esquimaux are said to be real dwarfs,
MAN, PHYSICALLY CONSIDERED. 457
their stature being commonly only four feet. ' Observe
the delicate skin and the exquisite rose and lily, that
beautify the face of the Georgian or Circassian, contrast
them with the coarse skin, and greasy blackness of the
Hottentot, and imagination is lost in the discrepancy.
Take the nicely turned and globular form of the Georgian
head, or the elegant and unangular oval of the Georgian
face ; compare the former with the flat skull of the Carib,
and the other with the flat visage of the Mogul Tartar j
and it must at first sight be difficult to conceive that each
of these could have proceeded from one common scource.'
The diversities of moral and intellectual condition are
perhaps still greater. Look at the accomplished scholar
of enlightened lands the eloquent orator who draws
down the thundering applause of intelligent delight; and
compare him with the naked savage dozing in the filth
of his smoky cabin. Look at the Christian bowing at
the shrine of Jehovah, Jiving a life of prayer and faith,
and animated with the hopes of immortality ; and then
look at the fierce and loathsome cannibal, tearing with
bloody teeth, the quivering limbs of his human victim.
How vast the difference !
In consequence of this great diversity in the condi-
tion and appearance of our race, it has been found con-
renient to classify the human form. A convenient clas-
sification is presented by the five grand sections into
which the globe is divided by geographers. These five
classes have received different names.
Geographical BlumenbacJi s* Ginelin's
Division. Division. Division.
1. European Race. Caucasian. White Man.
2. Asiatic Race. Mongolian. Brown Man.
3. American Race. American. Red Man.
4. African Race. Ethiopian. Black Man.
5. Australian Race. Malay. Tawny Man.
* Blumenbach is a German naturalist of very great celebrity. For
the last fiftyfive years he has been lecturing at Gottingen upon the
subjects of natural history, physiology, osteology, comparative anato-
my and pathology. He is justly esteemed one of the brightest on-
naments of the far famed university at that place. All his \vork3
bear the impress of genius, and perhaps no man has contributed
more richly to the advancement of those sciences upon which he has
458 MAN, PHYSICALLY CONSIDERED.
These divisions embrace precisely the same class
the names only are different. I shall adopt the nomencla-
ture of Blumenbach, as that is the most common, and
generally the most highly esteemed.
1. Caucasian. This is the most elegant variety of
the human form. The characters of this race are ' a
white skin, either with a fair rosy tint or inclining to
brown ; red cheeks ; hair black, or of the various lighter
colors, copious, soft, and generally more or less curled,
or waving. The head globular, the face straight and
oval, with the features moderately distinct; the forehead
slightly flattened; the nose narrow and slightly aquiline;
the cheek bones unprominent ; the mouth small ; the
lips a little turned out, especially the under one ; the
chin full and rounded ; the eyes variable, but for the
must part blue.' The name of this variety is derived
from Mount Caucasus, which is supposed to have been
the original abode of this class. Under this class all
the Europeans, except the Laplanders are included, the
inhabitants of western Asia, and all the the inhabitants
of America, who have descended from European ances-
tors. In this variety, there are very various and strong-
ly r 'marked modifications. They are by no means alike
in' physical or moral traits. There is merely a general
resemblance sufficiently marked to admit of classifica-
tion. Blumenbach supposes that the primitive form of
the human race was that which belongs to the Cauca-
sian variety. With this variety we find the most moral
and intellectual cultivation ; they compose the enlighten-
ed nations of the earth, and though individuals of other
classes have risen to moral and intellectual eminence,
have shed lustre on art and science, yet this class is now
very decidedly in the advance of all the rest.
2. Mongolian. This variety is characterised by a
yellowish brown or olive complexion, with black eyes,
and hair black, straight, coarse, and thin. The red
tint is never seen in the cheek. The head instead of
being globular like the Caucasian is nearly square. The
so ably lectured. In 1826 he was lecturing with unabated industry.
I am not certain whether he is now living or not. If he is, he is now
about eighty years of age.
MAN, PHYSICALLY CONSIDERED. 459
forehead is low, and the face broad and flat, with fea-
tures nearly running together ; the cheek bones wide
and projecting ; the chin prominent with large ears and
thick lips. In general the stature of this race is infe-
rior to that of the Caucasian. This class includes the
tribes of central and northern Asia ; the Laplanders
and the tribes of Esquimaux in the northern part of
America.
3. The American. This variety includes all the abo-
riginal inhabitants of the American continent excepting
the Esquimaux. This class is characterised by a dark
orange, or copper colored skin ; the hair is black, thick
and coarse ; the cheek bones high and expanded ; the
eye deeply seated, the forehead low, and the upper part
of the face broad; the general expression of counte-
nance and the form of the head much resembles the
Mongolian tribes. ' In the natives of Nootka Sound,'
says Cook, ' the visage of most is round and full, and
sometimes also broad, with high prominent cheeks ;
and above these the face is frequently much depressed,
or seems fallen in quite across between the temples ; the
nose also flattening at its base, with pretty wide nostrils
and a rounded point.' This variety appears to be com-
posed of several classes very considerably differing from
each other. With some the complexion is almost white,
with others almost black. It has by some been asserted
that these tribes have no beard, but this is incorrect.
They all have beards, but it- is weak, and many of them
pluck it out by the roots. , 4
4. Ethiopian. The characteristics of this variety are
very distinctly defined. They are, hair black and mool-
ly ; head long and narrow ; projecting cheek bones ; eyes
prominent ; the nose broad, thick, flat and confounded
with the upper jaw; the front tenth obliquely placed;
the lips very thick ; the chin recedes, and the knees in
many instances turn in. This variety is found all over
western and southern Africa ; upon the coast of Mada-
gascar and New Holland, and in the islands of Van
Diemens land, New Caledonia and New Guinea. Indeed
negro tribes have been fouud in all the regions of the
torrid zone except America. There are however diver-
460 MAN, PHYSICALLY CONSIDERED.
sities in this class. The real negro has a complexion of
jet, and crisped hair ; the Caffre has a copper complex-
ion, and long woolly hair ; the natives of Van Diemens
land, a color of soot with frizzled hair. The Hotten-
tots also, who are included in this class, resemble the Ma-
lay variety, in the shape of their heads, and the Mongo-
lians in their complexions and thin beards; but their
woolly hair gives them a place in the Ethiopian class.
5. The Malay. The characteristics of this variety are
very indefinite and uncertain. Their color varies from
a very light brown, almost to a black ; the hair is black,
very abundant, short and curled ; the head narrow, with
a prominent forehead ; the mouth large ; nose thick and
flattened. Under this variety are included races of men
very different indeed, but too imperfectly known at pre-
sent to admit of a satisfactory arrangement. The inhabi-
tants of New South Wales, and of the numerous clusters
of islands in its vicinity, and also of the unnumbered
islands scattered through the South Sea, belong to this
division.
It will at once be perceived that this classification is
exceedingly imperfect. You will find individuals in each
of these classes who might with perfect propriety be in
any of the other. All you can say is that there is a gen-
eral resemblance. If a person should endeavor to di-
vide the inhabitants of any town into two classes, placing
all the light complexioned in one class and the dark
complexioned in the other, it is evident that there would
be many persons, whom it would be difficult to know to
which class to assign. The two classes run into each
other ; the difference is not broadly marked. And thus
it is in these five classes into which the whole human
family is for convenience' sake arranged. There are no
natural and clearly defined limits. There is a mingling
of shades ; an imperceptible gradation. Some natural-
ists have thought it necessary to make many more divis-
ions than the five above enumerated, while others have
thought that three classes would afford sufficient discrimi-
nation ; and therefore have contracted the varieties into
three the European, the Asiatic, and the African.
Such is the general classification of the human race.
MAN, PHYSICALLY CONSIDERED. 461
It will be perceived that the varieties of form, color,
stature, &.c, are by no means small. The dwarfish Es-
quimaux, and the gigantic Patagonian, the jet black Af-
rican and the lair faced European, seem widely separa-
ted from each other. But there are intervening links ;
these widely different hues mingle and blend. Many
exaggerated stories have been told of the human stature
reaching ten and even eighteen feet. There is a very
common belief that the human stature in remote ages,
was greater than at the present time, and this belief
ha? been grounded upon accounts which have been given
of gigantic bones dug up. We are not warranted, how-
ever, in believing in the general degeneracy of the hu-
man frame. No well authenticated example can be ad-
duced of man's stature exceeding eight or nine feet.
We must however except Goliath of Gath. He was in
height six cubits and a span. The scripture cubit is said
to have been twentyone inches. This makes this vaunt-
ing Philistine to have had the enormous stature of eleven
feet and four inches. This computation cannot however
be relied upon as perfectly accurate, for we cannot as-
certain the precise measurement of the scripture cubit.
It is however undoubtedly very near the truth. Habicut,
a celebrated anatomist, describes some huge bones found
in a sepulchre, near the ruins of a castle, which he says
composed a skeleton twentyfive feet and a half high and
ten feet broad at the shoulders. This statement gave
rise to along and warm controversy, at the close of which
it remained undecided whether these bones were the re-
mains of a man, or an elephant. The latter is altogeth-
er the most probable. There are, however, several well
authenticated accounts of very great stature.
One of the king of Prussia's guards measured
eight feet and a half. J. H. Reichardt was eight feet,
and three inches. There is now in England, in one of
the college museums, the skeleton of an individual who
was eight feet and four inches. Several Irishmen have
also been exhibited in London rising of eight feet. Gen-
erally these giants have not possessed symmetry of form,
or strength proportioned to their size. And it is a very
VOL. i. NO. xix. 41
462 MAN, PHYSICALLY CONSIDERED.
common observation that large men are seldom noted
for great intellectual powers.
There are other individuals who fall as far short of the
ordinary stature, as those above alluded to exceed it.
There are not only individuals dwarfs, but large tribes
exceedingly diminutive in size. The Bojisman tribe in
south Africa, are remarkably short. About four feet six
inches is said to be the average size of the men, and
four feet that of the women. Barrow says he saw one
woman measuring but three feet and nine inches, who
had several children. How strong the contrast between
such a tribe as this, and the Patagonians, whose average
height is said to be from six feet and a half to seven feet.
Bufibri and many learned naturalists have advanced the
idea that the soil and climate of America is unfavorable
to the development of the bodily powers. They think
that men and brutes have dwindled here, and will con-
tinue to dwindle. They describe the aboriginal inhabi-
tants of this country as necessarily dwarfish, weak and
puny. And some of the literary nobility of the old
world, have followed out this idea to a still more discour-
aging results. They say that the human mind here can-
not expand that there are some causes operating in this
continent to cramp genius, and enervate the intellectual
powers. Lawrence scouts at this idea, and yet goes on
to say, ' to expect that the native Americans or Afri-
cans can be raised by any culture, to an equal height
in moral sentiments and intellectual energy with Eu-
ropeans, appears to me quite as unreasonable, as it
would be to hope that the bull dog may equal the grey-
hound in speed ; that the latter may be taught to hunt
by scent like the hound; or that the mastiff may rival
in talents and acquirements, the sagacious and docile
poodle.' In direct opposition to this statement are ar-
ranged many facts which prove that the benighted sav-
age, when under circumstances favorable for the devel-
opment of his intellectual powers, may rise to virtue
and to eminence. Our own ancestors were as degrad-
ed as any tribe of savages now howling in the wilder-
ness. They are described as naked barbarians, fierce
and cruel, with bodies smeared with paint and living by
MAN, PHYSICALLY CONSIDERED. 463
violence. Says Gibbon, ' when they hunted the woods
for prey, it is said they attacked the shepherd rather
than his flock ; and that they curiously selected the
most delicate and brawny parts both of males and
females, which they prepared for their horrid repast.
If in the neighborhood of the commercial and literary
town of Glasgow, a race of cannibals has really exist-
ed, we may contemplate in Scottish history the opposite
extremes of savage and civilized life. Such reflections
tend to enlarge the circle of our ideas ; and to encour-
age the pleasing hope that New Zealand may produce
in some future age, the Hume of the southern hemis-
phere.' What is it that has raised us to such compar-
ative refinement and intelligence ? It is the operation
of the same causes which are now sweeping the clouds
from benighted Africa, and demolishing the bloody tesi-
ples of India and pouring the light of truth and love
upon the long desolated shores of Hawaii. It is the
blessed religion of Jesus Christ, proclaiming love to God
and love to man.
III. THE CAUSES OF THE VARIETIES OF THE HUMAN
SPECIF.S.
The question has. been asked by many who have ob-
served the great diversity in the human family, Are
these all brethren 1 have they descended from one stock ?
or must we trace them to more than one ? and if so,
how many Adams must we admit? Upon this subject
we have no history but that given by Moses. Says Dr
Good, ' the only fair and explicit interpretation that can
be given to the Mosaic history, is that the whole hu-
man race has proceeded from one single pair, or in the
words of another part of the sacred writings "God made
of one blood all nations of men, for to dwell upon all
the face of the earth." The book of nature is'in this, as
in every other respect, in union with that of revelation ;
it tells us that one single pair must have been adequate
to all the purposes on which some philosophers have
grounded their objections ; and it should be further ob-
served to them that thus to multiply causes without ne-
464 MAN, PHYSICALLY CONSIDERED.
cessity, is not more inconsistent with the operations of
nature, than with those of genuine philosophy.' It is a
little remarkable that those who are dissatisfied with the
simple and natural narration of the inspired writers
should have adopted theories in such extremes of oppo-
sition to each other. Some of these philosophers, among
whom are to be found the respectable names of Linnae-
us, Buffbn, and Helvetius, respectable certainly as to sci-
entific attainments, think we can trace back our ances-
tral line to the iilthy and chattering baboon. Others,
with Darwin at their head, make the oyster shell our cra-
dle. Others think we cannot all be -traced back even
to Adam, but that at the commencement of human exist-
ence, many couples were created answering to the di-
versities which we now see. While Moses, writing under
the inspiration of the Almighty, says that God first creat-
ed Adam and Eve, and from them all the inhabitants of
the world have descended. How much more simple and
philosophical this account, than the wild vagaries of
Buflbn and of Darwin. Voltaire says, ' no one but a
blind man can doubt that the whites, the negroes, the
Albini, the Hottentots, the Laplanders, the Chinese, and
the Americans compose races entirely distinct.' Why
these nations alone ? There are striking marks of differ-
ence between innumerable other tribes, and these all run
into ca".h other by imperceptible gradation. If we adopt
the idea that there must have been originally more than
one couple, to account for the present variety of the hu-
man species, how many distinct fountains must we sup-
pose to have been, from whence the streams of nations
have flowed ? It is as difficult to account for the present
variety, if we suppose fifty or a hundred, as if we sup-
pose one. ' In describing the varieties, it is necessary to
hx on the most strongly marked tints, between which
there is every intermediate shade of color. The oppo-
site extremes run into each other by the nicest and most
delicate gradations ; and it is the same in every other
particular in which the various tribes of the human spe-
cies differ. This forms no slight objection to the hy-
pothesis of distinct species ; for on that supposition we
cannot define their number, nor draw out the boundaries
MAN, PHYSICALLY CONSIDERED. 465
that divide them. Neither does the color, which belongs
to any particular race, prevail so universally in all the
individuals of that race, as to constitute an invariable
character, as we should expect if it rose from a cause so
uniform as aa original specific difference. Its varieties
on the contrary, point out the action of other circum-
stances.'
.It is impossible fully to explain the causes of the great
diversity now to be seen. Climate, soil, manners and
customs have a great influence, but we cannot see pre-
cisely how they operate in producing given effects.
There is however precisely the same difficulty in account-
ing for the different features of members of the same
family, that there is in accounting for the varieties of the
human race. Why do the same parents have one child
with a light complexion, and light hair; and another with
a dark complexion, and dark hair] No one can tell.
We know that children of different appearance are born
of the same parents, why then may not the Caucasian,
the Ethiopian, the Mongolian, the American, and the
Malay be traced back to the same common parents, Ad-
am and Eve ? Most evidently they may. True we can-
not account in full for the causes of this difference ; nei-
ther is it to be expected, for we cannot account for the
causes of the difference in the children who encircle the
same tire-side.
Various modes have been suggested by which these
rarieties might have been naturally produced. It is said
that ' the heat of the climate is the chief cause of black-
ness among the human species. When this heat is ex-
cessive, as in Senegal and Guinea, the men are perfect-
ly black; when it is a little less violent the blackness is
not so deep ; when it becomes somewhat temperate, as
in Barbary, Mongolia, Arabia, &c, mankind are only
brown ; and lastly when it is altogether temperate, as in
Europe and Asia, men are white. Some varieties, in-
deed, are produced by the mode of living. All the Tar-
tars for example, are tawny ; while the Europeans who
live under the same latitude are white. This difference
may safely be ascribed to the Tartars being always ex-
posed to the air ; to their having no cities or fixed habi-
VOL. i. NO. xix. 41*
466 MAN, PHYSICALLY CONSIDERED.
tations ; to their sleeping constantly on the ground, and
to their rough and savage manner of living. These cir-
cumstances are sufficient to render the Tartars more
swarthy than the Europeans, who want nothing to make
their life easy and comfortable. Why are the Chinese
fairer than the Tartars, though they resemble them in
every feature ? because they live in towns and practice
every art, to guard themselves against the injuries of the
weather ; while the Tartars are perpetually exposed to
the action of the sun and air. Climate may be regard-
ed as the chief cause of the different colors of men,
but food, though it has less influence than climate,
greatly affects the form of our bodies. Coarse, unwhole-
some and ill-prepared food makes the human species de-
generate. All those people who live miserably are ugly
and ill made. Even in France the country people are
not so beautiful, as those who live in towns ; and I have
often remarked in those villages, where the people are
richer and better fed than in others, the men are like-
wise more handsome and have better countenances.
The air and the soil have great influence on the figures
of men, beasts and plants. Upon the whole, every cir-
cumstance concurs in proving that mankind are not
composed of species essentially different from each other;
that on the contrary, there was originally but one spe-
cies, which after multiplying and spreading over the whole
surface of the earth, has undergone various changes by
the influence of the climate, food, mode of living, opi-
demic diseases, and mixtures of dissimilar individuals ;
that at first these changes were not conspicuous, and
produced only individual varieties ; that these varieties
became afterwards more specific:, because they were ren-
dered more general, more strongly marked and more
permanent, by the continual action of the same cause;
that they are transmitted from generation to generation,
as deformities or diseases pass from parents to children ;
and that lastly, as they were originally produced by a
train of external and accidental caus :s, and have only
been perpetuated by time, and the constant operation of
these causes, it is probable that they will gradually dis-
appear, or at least that they will differ from what they
MAN, PHYSICALLV CONSIDERED. 467
are at present, if the causes which produce them should
cease, or if their operation should be varied by other cir-
cumstances and combinations.
' The state of society is said to have great effect on
the formation and color of the body. The nakedness of
the savage, the filthy grease and paint with which he
smears his body ; his smoky hut, scanty diet, want of
cleanliness, and the undrained and uncleared country
which he inhabits not only darken his skin but render it
impossible, that it ever should be fair. On the other
hand the conveniences of clothing and lodging; the plen-
ty and healthful quality of food; a country drained and
cultivated, and treed from noxious effluvia; improved
ideas of beauty ; constant study of elegance, and the in-
finite arts for attaining it, even in personal figure and ap-
pearance, give cultivated an immense advantage over
savage society, in its attempts to counteract the influence
of climate, and to beautify the human form.'
' In tracing the globe,' says Smith, ' from the pole to
the equator, we observe a gradation in the complexion,
nearly in proportion to the latitude of the country. Im-
mediately below the arctic circle, a high and sanguine
color prevails; from this you descend to a mixture of red
and white ; afterwards succeed the brown and the olive,
the tawny, and at length the black, as you proceed to the
line. The same distance from the sun, however, does
not in every region, indicate the same temperature of
climate. Some secondary causes must be taken into con-
sideration as correcting and limiting its influence. The
elevation of the land, its vicinity to the sea, the nature
of the soil, the state of cultivation, the course of winds,
and imny other circumstances, enter into this view. Ele-
vated and mountainous countries are cool, in proportion
to their altitude above the level of the sea.'
It is stated by Lawrence, and is a well known fact,
that ' the color of the Europeans nearly foliows the geo-
graphical position of countries. This part of the world
is occupied almost entirely by a white race, of which the
individuals arc fairer in cold latitudes, and more swarthy
and sunburnt in warm ones. Thus the French may be
darker than the English, the Spaniards than the French,
468 MAN, PHYSICALLY CONSIDERED.
and the Moors than the Spaniards. In the same way,
where different parts of the country differ much in lati-
tude and in temperature, the inhabitants may be browner
in the south, than in the north ; thus the women of Gre-
nada are said to be more swarthy than those of Biscay,
and the southern than the northern Chinese. For a similar
reason the same race may vary slightly in color, in differ-
ent countries. The Jews, for example, are fair in Britain
and Germany, browner in France and Turkey, swarthy
in Portugal and Spain, olive in Syria and Chaldea. An
English sailor who had been for some years in Nukahei-
wah, one of the Marquesas islands, had been so chang-
ed in color, that he was scarcely to be distinguished from
the natives.'
' It is in reality,' says Good, ' from long and deeply
rooted habit alone that the black, red, and olive color of
the Ethiopian, American and Moguls, is continued in
the future lineage of so many generations, after their re-
moval into other parts of the world, and that nothing will
in general restore the skin (o its original fairness, but
a long succession of intermixtures with the European
variety. It is a singular circumstance that the black
color appears to form a less permanent habit, than the
red or olive ; for the children of olive and copper colored
parents, exhibit the parental hue from the moment of
birth, but in those of blacks it is usually six, eight or ten
months before the black pigment is fully secreted. We
also sometimes find this not secreted at all, whence the
anomaly of white negroes ; and sometimes only in inter-
rupted lines, or patches, whence the anomaly of spotted
negroes ; and we have even a few rare cases of negroes
in America who in consequence of very severe illness
have had the whole of the black pigment, absorbed and
carried off, and a white pigment diffused in its stead.
In other words, we have instances of a black man being
suddenly bleached into a white man. These instances
are indeed of rare occurrence ; but they are sufficient
to shew the absurdity of the argument for a plurality of
human stocks or species, for a mere difference in the
color of the skin; an argument thus proved to be alto-
gether superficial and which we may gravely assert to be
not more than skiti deep.
MAN, PHYSICALLY CONSIDERED. 469
' Though this reasoning will not fully explain all the va-
rieties of human appearance, yet it is undoubtedly in gen-
eral is correct. These causes are almost infinitely va-
ried and combined, and consequently we find in every
nation, village, and even family, striking diversities of
complexion, form, and stature.'
Although, however, it may be admitted that all the
races of men are of one family, it does not by any means
follow that they are all intellectually equal. Many per-
sons seeing, as they suppose, sufficient evidence of the
inferiority in intellectual or physical power, of some of
the races of men, have concluded that this is in itself a
sufficient argument to disprove identity of origin. But a
moment's reflection will show us that we are not compel-
led to maintain the intellectual equality of the different
portions of the human family, simply because we hold
that they descended from one pair. In the course of
ages, the various collateral branches of the same stock
may diverge from each other untifr in many traits
both physical and intellectual, they become widely dif-
ferent, and the peculiarities thus acquired become per-
manent, at least to such a degree as to require an
equally long series of causes and effects to restore the
original character.
It is so with other animals. The dog, for instance, is
universally admitted to form one species, yet how great
the variety of breeds produced by the influence of cli-
mate, and other circumstances. One breed is perma-
nently and unchangeably acute in the sense of smell,
another is noted for speed of foot. One is sagacious
another strong, and a third ferocious. We say these
peculiarities are permanent and unchangeable and they
are so, at least to such a degree that it would require a
very long course of years, and very special training, the
results of which should accumulate through many gen-
erations, to reverse them.
Now it may be so with men. We do not mean to
discuss here the question of the equality of the negro, or
any other race to the rest of mankind in intellectual
power. We only say that their present equality does not
necessarily follotc from their common origin. The lapse
470 MAN, PHYSICALLY CONSIDERED.
of ages has produced physical peculiarities, which are
now fixed. The flattened head, the thick lip, the
diminutive, or the gigantic stature, the red, or black,
or copper colored skin, have become indelible marks of
the various divisions of the human family. In the same
manner, the gayety of the Frenchman, the gravity of the
Spaniard, the mildness of the Hindoo, and the general
intellectual superiority, or inferiority of the Mongolian or
Caucasian, or negro race, may have become fixed char-
acteristics, which circumstances now can but slowly
change.
That there should be thus, in the course of ages, a
marked and permanent difference among the races of
men, springing originally from the same stock, is ren-
dered not improbable from another circumstance, viz.
the difference which exists between different fam Hies of
the same nation. In this case, the origin is confessedly
the same, and yet how great a difference in intellectual
or physical power is sometimes observed. One family
will be distinguished in all its members for uncommon
acuteness of intellectual powers. Another will be noted
for the reverse, so that with the best advantages they will
scarcely rise above mediocrity ; and these peculiarities
will sometimes remain from generation to generation,
until they are gradually lost. In the same manner the
great divisions of the whole human family may come to
differ in intellectual power, so that equal advantages will
not bring equal rank, and many generations may be ne-
cessary to restore the equilibrium.
4, The question then of the intellectual equality of the
various races of mankind, we mean the equality in
respect to the native powers of the individuals, as
they now successively come upon the stage, is to be
settled by an appeal to facts. Do these various races
under the same circumstances, attain to the same suc-
cessful cultivation of the arts of life ? When circum-
stances are favorable, do they make equal progress ?
and when war, or pestilence, or famine, or any other
great calamity, involves them in ruin, and throws them
back to the state of nature, do they, with equal rapidity,
and certainty, recover from the shock and rise to refine-
MAN, PHYSICALLY CONSIDERED. 471
ment and prosperity again ? To discuss and decide these
questions, a very full review of the history of the human
race would be necessary, and however it may be decid-
ed, we must at all events acquiesce in the decision of
scripture, that ' God has made of one blood all the nations
of the earth.'
<?
AGENTS
FOIl THE
SCIENTIFIC TRACTS.
MAINE.
Norwich, Thomas P.Mnson.
Portland, Samuel Caiman.
HalloweJl, C. Spaa/ding.
Middlotown, F.dwin Hunt.
NEW YORK.
Bangur, B. Hoarse.
Albany, Little If Cummiii^.
Belfast, Jf. P. Hawes.
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Eastport, \ * *JJ
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Utica, G. S. Wilson.
Norway, Asa, Barton.
NEW HAMPSHIRE.
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Trenton, D. Feiiton.
( Kit French*
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OHIO.
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MISSISSIPPI. "
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Chester, Charles Winnie.
MASSACHUSETTS.
Natches, F. Beaumont.
SOUTH CAROLINA.
Charleston, F.benezer Tliaijer.
Salem, W hippie If Lawrence.
Nevvburyport, Charles Ifhipple.
Cherau, Vr JJaynard.
NORTH CAROLINA.
Northampton, S. Butler $ Son.
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GKORG1A.
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Worcester, Dorr $ Holland.
ALABAMA
Spiingfield, Thomas Dickn.ini.
New UeclfoiJ, Jl.Shearman,Jr.$ Co.
Mobile, (Wioriie Sf Smith.
LOUISIANA.
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New Orleans, Jtlnrw Carroll.
Brookiield, K. # G. JUcrriiim.
RHODE ISLAND.
MICHIGAN TERRITORY.
Detroit, George L. 11 itttuey.
Providence, j Crej/ *,^.7tA,
CANADA.
Montreal, a. if. Cuatii
CONNECTICUT.
auebec, JVViV.>/i if Cowan.
Hartford, 1[. if F. J. Huntiugto,,
ENGLAND.
New Haven, .1. 11. Mahby
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SCIENTIFIC TRACTS.
NUMBER XX.
ELECTRICITY.
INTRODUCTORY REMARKS.
MANY centuries ago it was noticed that a certain sub-
stance called amber had a very peculiar property. When
it was rubbed upon dry cloth or flannel, it had the power
of attracting light substances. Feathers, down, and par-
ticles of dust would adhere to it, and if removed, they
were drawn forcibly to it again. The Greeks first ob-
served this phenomenon. The Greek name for amber
was E/cktron. Hence they expressed this attractive pow-
er, by the term Electricity, or rather by a term from
which the English word electricity has, by a slight
change of form, been derived.
Amber is not a very common substance in our country,
but the above experiment may in substance be tried by
any one, with a peice of resin or gum of almost any kind,
for almost all resinous substances possess this power.
Spread upon a table a little lint, or a few fibres of cot-
ton, or the light downy part of a feather ; then take
a piece of resin having a smooth surface, and after warm-
ing and drying it, rub it briskly upon a piece of woollen
cloth or dry flannel. Upon bringing it, then, near the
light substances before mentioned, they will be found to
be attracted towards it, and will adhere to it a long time.
The reason why light substances are used in this ex-
periment, is not that they are more strongly attracted
than others, but because they may more easily be moved
by the attraction, and consequently the effect will be more
manifest. The resin will attract a steel needle as strong-
VOL. r. NO. xx. 42
474 ELECTRICITY.
ly as it will a feathery fibre as large as the needle. But
this attractive force will be sufficient to lift and to sus-
tain the feather, while it will not move the needle, on ac-
count of its great weight. If, however, we suspend the
needle in such a manner that it can be easily moved, the
attraction will be as manifest as in the case of any sub-
stance whatever. This may be done by means of a
thread. The needle suspended by it will swing like a
pendulum, and if the resin after being rubbed is brought
near it, the needle will be found to move sensibly to-
wards it.
This single experiment with the amber stood for a long
time alone. It was not in these days, as it is now, the
custom to scrutinize with eager curiosity such phenome-
na, and to trace them back to their causes and con-
nexions. In modern times, however, this subject has
been very extensively examined. Many facts of a very
interesting character have been ascertained. Many
other phenomena have been observed and traced to the
same cause with the attraction of the amber. These
facts have been classified and arranged ; the manner in
which the cause of them operates in various circum-
stances, has been brought to view, and thus a most im-
portant and valuable science has arisen, which we call
in memory of the substance, whose properties first attract-
ed attention to the subject, the Science (<f Electricity.
NATURE OF ELECTRICITY.
The cause of the various phenomena hereafter to be
described, is called Electricity. It is generally consid-
ered a fluid, which pervades all bodies in nature. If it
is a fluid it must be extremely different in its nature from
all other fluids. There is much difficulty in regard to
the nature of three substances, whose effects are well
known, Light, Heat, and Electricity. If it were possi-
ble to describe the effects of these agents, the phe-
nomena caused by them, without adopting any theory in
regard to their intrinsic nature, we should prefer to do so.
But this is not possible. For convenience then of lan-
guage we call electricity a fluid, without meaning to ex-
ELECTRICITY. 475
press any opinion in regard to its substance. All that is
properly known of it, is its effects, and such of its char-
acteristics as may be fairly and logically inferred from its
effects. These last are however very few. The princi-
pal object therefore of the following tract, is to present
in a systematic form, the prominent facts, and classes
of facts, which it is common to refer to this cause. We
must first however say something of the theory.
A theory in any science may be of great advantage,
even though there be not positive evidence of its truth.
Sometimes it is only a hypothesis, adopted simply for the
purpose of arranging and systematizing the facts observ-
ed. In such cases it is of great service in reducing to
order what would otherwise be a mass of inextricable
confusion.
Some theory, for this latter purpose, is necessary for
the science of electricity. If we attempt to look at the
facts themselves individually, without any theory, we shall
have before us a confused and heterogeneous mass, which
it is almost impossible to remember, or to recall when
occasion requires. Consequently theories have been de-
vised for the purpose of grouping, and arranging the
facts, and assisting the recollection of them.
There are two prominent theories which have been
employed for this purpose in electricity. The one which
is now almost universally received among philosophers,
we shall proceed to explain. We do not offer it as posi-
tively true or as proved by experiment. Subsequent dis-
coveries may entirely destroy it, but an acquaintance
with it is absolutely necessary to the general reader. For
in the first place, it is impossible for us to describe the
facts in this science without using the language of theo-
ry ; and in the second place, this theory is now so uni-
versally received, that no book on electricity would be
intelligible to a reader without a knowledge of its princi-
ples.
The hypothesis is, that there is pervading all substances
a subtile and highly elastic fluid, which is however itself
entirely void of any sensible weight. This fluid is sup-
posed to be capable of moving over the surfaces of dif-
ferent bodies, in some cases with greater, and in
476 ELECTRICITV.
others with less degrees of rapidity. In some substances
called conductors it moves without any apparent obstruc-
tion, but in glass, resin and all bodies called non-conduc-
tors, it moves with great difficulty. This fluid exists in
two distinct forms called resinous and vitreous. Each of
these, when separate, have the general properties enu-
merated above ; but in relation to each other there is a
complete contrariety in their natures, so that when com-
bined together their powers are completely balanced and
neutralized, and all visible action ceases. This state of
union s is the natural state of electricity in all bodies.
1. Theory of the excitation of the electric jluid. By
various causes this state of union may be disturbed.
When this is done, the powers before latent are called
forth by the separation of the fluids. The vitreous passes
in one direction and the resinous in the opposite, and
each existing thus in a separate state, produces its pecu-
liar effects. Thus, when glass is rubbed with silk, a por-
tion of the electricity of these bodies is decomposed.
The vitreous electricity goes to the glass ; the resinous
to the silk ; and then each can produce visible effects.
In the same manner when sealing wax is rubbed with
flannel a similar separation takes place. The resinous
electricity however enters the sealing wax and the vitre-
ous the flannel.
2. Theory of electric attraction and repulsion. Each
of these fluids are supposed to be elastic, and consequent-
ly their particles repel each other. From very exact ex-
periments it has been ascertained, that the force of this
repulsion is inversely, as the square of the distance ; and
this repulsion is not interrupted by the intervention of
any other body.
Although each fluid repels itself, each exerts a strong
attraction for the opposite species, and this attraction in-
creases with the diminution of distance, and in the same
ratio as the repulsion mentioned above ; that is, in the
inverse ratio of the square of the distance. This force
of attraction between the opposite electricities, like the
repulsion between the particles of the same kind, is not
affected by interposing any foreign body between them.
For example, if two pith balls resinously electrified, have
ELECTRICITY. 477
a plate of glass or of iron placed between them, they
will still repel each other, as if there was no intervening
object. If one is resinously, and the other vitreously
electrified, they will attract each other notwithstanding
the intervention of the plate.
3. Theory of the discharge of the electric fluids. Let
us suppose two brass balls to be charged, one with the
vitreous, and the other with resinous electricity. Let
both of them be suspended by silken threads, at the dis-
tance of several inches from each other. The silken
thread is a non-conductor, the air around the balls is a
non-coriductor, and the vitreous electricity of the one
ball, and the resinous electricity of the other, though they
have a strong tendency to come together, into their origi-
nal union, yet they cannot pass through the intervening
space, for both balls are surrounded by non-conductors ;
or in the technical language, they are insulated. If now,
a wire is brought into contact with both the balls, a con-
nexion will be formed, for the wire being a conduc-
tor, the two fluids can pass across it and thus become
united, and diffused in their natural state of union, over
both the balls.
4. Theory of induction of electricity. If a ball vitre-
ously electrified and suspended by a silken thread, so as
to be insulated, that is, surrounded by non-conductors, IB
brought near to the extremity of a brass rod, in its natu-
ral state, but suspended by a silken thread, the vitreous
electricity of the ball will repel the vitreous electricity
which is in the nearest extremity of the rod. This vitre-
ous electricitv will pass consequently to the other extremi-
ty. The ball, however, besides repelling the iritreous
electricity will attract the rtsinons electricity of the rod
to the end nearest itself; for it was stated above, that vi-
treous electricity attracts the resinous, as well as repels
the vitreous. The rod then, through the influence of the
ball, will have its resinous electricity collected at the ex-
tremity nearest the ball, and its vitreous electricity driven
back to the extremity farthest from it. Thus the ball,
by its presence merely, will electrify the rod, throwing
the two extremities into opposite states. This corres-
ponds evidently with the theory, and is always found to
VOL. i. NO. xx. 42*
478 ELECTRICITY.
take place in experiment. Universally, whenever an
electric body is brought near others in their natural
state, it produces contrary electricity in those parts which
are nearest to the electrified body. This is called induc-
tion of electricity.
These may be considered as the fundamental princi-
ples of the theory. It was originally proposed by Du
Faye, a French philosopher. Franklin proposed another,
in which he supposed onlv one kind of electricity. When
bodies had an excess of this, they were said to be posi-
tively electrified ; when there was a deficiency, ne-
gatively. The positive electricity of Franklin corres-
ponds to the vitreous of Du Faye, and the negative to the
resinous. The theory of two fluids is now almost uni-
versally received. We shall accordingly adopt its
phraseology in this treatise, and proceed to describe the
facts which constitutes this science, under the following
heads.
I. Effects produced by electricity in its natural state.
II. Means of accumulating the electrical poic cr.
III. Effects produced by electricity when accumulated.
IV. Effects produced by electricity when in motion.
I. .EFFECTS PRODUCED BY ELECTRICITY IN ITS NATURAL
STATE.
We know, unfortunately, very little in regard to this
branch of our subject. The univetsal diffusion of this
agent, leads us to suppose that the Author of Nature,
who does nothing in vain, accomplishes some important
ends by it, in its ordinary and natural operation. What-
ever these ends may be, philosophers have almost en-
tirely failed to discover them. Various experiments have
been performed with a view to develope some unseen
power exerted by electricity, in the process of vegetation,
in muscular motion, in the phenomena of crys-
tallization, and in the ordinary fluctuations of wind
and weather. But these attempts have been attended
with very partial success. Some things, indeed, of a
very interesting character have been brought to light,
and which, in a more full treatise than this, would de-
ELECTRICITY. 479
serve special mention. These are however few. Near-
ly all the phenomena which have attracted attention, are
those which result from disturbances, produced by nature
or art, in the equilibrium which electricity ordinarily
assumes. Sometimes this equilibrium is disturbed, i. e.
an unusual quantity of electricity is collected, or a body
is deprived of its natural share by the electrical machine,
and sometimes this effect is produced by the great pro-
cesses of nature. We are thus presented with the various
phenomena of the laboratory, or the dreadful explosions,
which take place in clouds and storms. We proceed,
therefore, to describe the modes by which electricity is
accumulated.
II. MEANS OF ACCUMULATING THE ELECTRICAL POWER.
1. By condensation of moisture. If water is poured
upon burning coals, a great quantity of vapor is produc-
ed, which, rising into the cold air, is immediately con-
densed, forming a white cloud, which ascends from the
blackened coals. If now a wire is exposed to this vapor,
which wire is connected with a delicate electrometer,
i. e. an instrument hereafter to be described, by which
minute quantities of electricity are made sensible, it
will be found (hat electricity is accumulated in the va-
por. This method is never employed however for prac-
tical purposes. It is interesting chiefly from its being
the mode by which the fluid is generally accumulated in
nature. The clouds are masses of condensed vapor.
When they are suddenly formed, they become rapidly
charged with the fluid, which darts to other clouds and
to the ground, and constitutes the lightning.*
It is a common though very absurd notion, that the
lightning is caused by sulphurous vapors which collect
in the air, and by some unaccountable means, take fire
and explode. There is no way by which such vapor?
can be formed ; if they were formed they would bo
diffused and mixed with the atmosphere, and rendered
no longer inflammable ; and even if we suppose them
* See Scientific Tract on the Weather.
480 ELECTRICITY.
to be formed, and kept together, it would be very singu-
lar that they should take fire only in the midst of a
drenching shower.
2. By friction. It was by friction that electricity was
originally discovered, in the experiment with the amber
already described. It has since been ascertained that
many other substances, when first rubbed, will exhibit
the same effects. For example, if a tube of glass be
rubbed with a silk handkerchief, the electricities will be
separated; the resinous will accumulate in the hand-
kerchief, and the vitreous in the glass. The cause of
this change is not known, the fact only has been observ-
ed. If after the friction of the glass with the silk, the
two are separately examined, both will be found elec-
trified, but they will be in opposite states. If, however,
we take a rod of sealing wax, instead of glass, and rub
it with flannel, the effect will be reversed. That is, the
resinous electricity will accumulate in the sealing wax,
and the vitreous in the flannel. Glass by friction with
almost all substances becomes vitreously, or positively
electrified. Resins by friction with almost all substan-
ces become rcsinoitsly or negatively electrified. Those
substances called conductors of electricity will not be-
come electrified by friction at all. Nearly if not quite
all other bodies may. The reason why conductors can-
not be electrified by friction seems to be that, on account
of the ease with which the fluid passes over them, no
separation of the two electricities can be effected. Those
substances which can be electrified by friction are call-
ed electrics. The following is a list of the most impor-
tant of them : Glass, Precious Stones, Amber, Sul-
phur, Shell-lac, Resinous and Bituminous substance?,
Silk, Wax, Cotton, and dry animal substances, as Feath-
ers, Wool, Hair, &-c, Paper, Dry Sugar, Air and Gases.
This method of accumulating electricity, viz. by fric-
tion, is the most commonly resorted to, for experiments.
The apparatus is called the electrical machine. It con-
sists of glass, either in the form of a cylinder or plate,
mounted in such a manner as to be turned rapidly, by a
crank. A rubber, made of silk is pressed against the
glass while in motion, and thus the vitreous electricity is
ELECTRICITY. 481
accumulated upon the glass, and the resinous upon the
rubber. It is plain, that the form of the glass is not ma-
terial, excepting that one form may more easily be mount-
ed than another. The most common form is a cylinder
or a jar. Any common open mouthed jar will answer
for this purpose. Sometimes plate glass is used. The
advantage of this is that a rubber may be applied to each
side of the glass, which increases the effect. A plate ma-
chine is however much more liable to be broken, and is
consequently less frequently used. The axis upon which
the glass turns may rest upon wooden supports. It is
desirable however that the rubber should be supported
by a glass pillar, for reasons which will hereafter be ex-
plained. The forms which the electrical machine has
assumed are very various. Different artists have arrang-
ed the parts to suit their own fancy, or the particular
purpose for which each machine is intended. Almost
all electrical machines, however, consist essentially of
glass cylinders or plates, put into rapid motions by means
of a crank, so that a great amount of friction may be se-
cured with as little labor as possible to the operator.
This is all that is essential, and by understanding this
general principle, the reader can, by inspection, clearly
comprehend the details of any particular machine which
he may have the opportunity of examining.
The electricity thus accumulated upon the glass of the
electric machine is received usually upon a metallic cy-
linder, which is a sort of reservoir, where the fluid is pre-
served for use. From this cylinder which is called the
prluK: conductor, there proceed a number of sharp metal'
lie points, by which the electricity passes off from the
glass cylinder to the conductor. The reason why these
points are used will be hereafter explained. The prime
conductor may be made of any substance, provided that
it has an external surface of metal. Sometimes it is
made of wood, and coated with sheet lead or tin foil.
Sometimes it is of tin or brass plate, and hollow. The
writer of this tract once constructed a large one, five
feet long, and eight or ten inches in diameter, of thin
pine boards, put together like the staves of a barrel,
and coated with sheet lead. The prime conductor may
482 ELECTRICITY.
be made of any size or form, or of any substance which
is a conductor of electricity. All that is essential is that
it should be insulated, that is, supported and surrounded
by non-conductors, so that the electricity which it re-
ceives may be retained. A conductor of immense size
was once constructed of common military drums, coated
with tinfoil, and placed one upon another, forming a lofty
column, which was supported at the base by a cake of
beeswax which cut off all electrical communication with
the ground.
The human body may be used as a prime conductor.
In order to insulate it, an instrument is used called an
Insulating- Stool. It consists simply, of a stool with
glass feet. These feet or legs may be common phials,
with the neck cemented into the board, which forms the
upper part of the stool. A board supported upon four
common tumblers, or a cake of beeswax will answer the
purpose equally well. The human body thus insulated
may be charged with electricity, and from it the fluid
will pass in sparks to the surrounding bodies. Young
persons, who amuse themselves with electrical ma-
chines, find an inexhaustible source of pleasure from
these experiments upon each other.
Besides the prime conductor, there is another sort of
reservoir for the electric fluid when it is developed by
the electric machine, which is far more efficient. It is
called the Leyden Jar. The reader will recollect that
on the subject of the theory of electricity, it was stated
that any body, when electrified, and brought near to
other bodies, would cause them to assume a contrary
electrical state. Consequently, if two prime conductors,
one positively electrified, and the other in its natural
state, are brought within the influence of each other,
the last mentioned will become negatively -electrified,
and upon forming a connexion between the two they will
both be suddenly discharged. The effect will be in-
creased in proportion to the nearness of the two con-
ductors. If however there is nothing but air between
them, they cannot be brought very near or they will dis-
charge themselves through the air. To obviate this dif-
ficrity, a thin glass plate may be interposed, and in order
ELECTRICITY. 483
that the form of the two conductors may be such, as to
bring every part of each under their mutual influence,
simple sheets of tin foil are used, pasted, one on each
side of the plate of glass. Now if one of these sides is
connected with the electrical machine, and the other
with the ground, both will become, on principles already
described, highly charged; the one side by direct
communication and the other by induction, as explained
on page 477. The two sides will however be charged
with opposite electricities.
A glass plate, coated in this way, on the two sides,
would not be a very convenient apparatus. The same
arrangement is however effected by means of a jar, which
is coated within and without. From the inside there
arises a wire with a knob upon the top. This knob is
brought into contact, when the machine is in operation,
with the prime conductor, and thus the inside of the jar
is positively electrified. By the influence of the electrici-
ty thus conveyed into the inside of the jar, acting through
the glass, the outside is thrown into the opposite state,
and by forming a communication between the two, a
discharge results, which produces far more powerful ef-
fects than the prime conductor.
It ought to be noticed, however, that the form of the
jar, and the manner in which it is coated, are of no
consequence. All that is essential is that there should
be two metallic surfaces, separated by glass. Sometimes
the jar is filled with shot. Sometimes coated with tin-
foil, sometimes with brass or iron filings, made to
adhere by gum water. The experiment will even suc-
ceed with a tumbler, half filled with water, for the inside
coating, and covered on the outside, as high as the sur-
face of the water, with wet paper. In all cases the up-
per part of the glass, which is not covered with the coat-
ing, should be kept perfectly dry and clean, lest by the
moisture accumulated there, there should be an acciden-
tal communication formed between the inside and out-
side of the jar.
' It is hardly necessary to observe, that every species of
electrical machine will naturally require some particular
precaution ; but the following directions are more or less
484 ELECTRICITY.
applicable to all kinds of machines furnished with a glass
electric.
' Moisture and dust, but particularly the former, be-
ing detrimental to the power of an electrical machine,
it becomes necessary to guard from both as much as
may be practicable ; hence, when not actually in use,
the electrical machine should be kept in a dry and clean
place, and at least the glass part of it should not be suf-
fered to remain dirty and soiled. If the machine has
been long neglected, the operator in order to render it
ready for use, must in the first place remove the rubber ;
he must then place the machine at a moderate distance
from the fire ; so as to render every part of it very dry,
but not too warm. This done, and the dust removed,
the glass part of the machine must be repeatedly rubbed
with a clean and warm handkerchief or towel ; the rub-
ber, likewise must be cleaned, removing all the old amal-
gam that may have adhered to it. The glass cylinder
or plate, in its rotation frequently contracts some dark
spots or concretions upon its surface, which tend to di-
minish its power. These spots which adhere pretty fast
to the glass, may be removed by applying a finger's nail
to each spot, or by rubbing them off with a piece of
coarse canvas. Previously to the replacing of the rub-
ber, the following operation generally contributes to in-
crease the excitation. It consists in touching the cylin-
der with the bottom of a tallow candle in streaks parallel
to the axis of the cylinder, then rub the cylinder again
with a dry and warm linen cloth; taking care that this
cloth be not very old, for in that case it is apt to leave
filaments about the glass, and about the rest of machine.
This done, the rubber is fixed in its place, and its sup-
port i.3 adjusted, so that the rubber may bear upon the
glass with a proper degree of pressure. Formerly the
amalgam, which greatly increases the power of excita-
tion, was spread upon the rubber, before the rubber was
put in its place ; but experience has shown, that it is
much better to fix the rubber clean in its place, and then
to apply the amalgam upon a piece of leather to the sur-
face of the cylinder while this is revolving in its usual
directions ; for by this means the revolution of the cylin-
'-'
ELECTRICITY. 485
der or plate, will carry away from the leather a sufficient
quantity of amalgam, and will deposit it upon the rub-
ber. The leather with the amalgam needs not to be
kept in contact with the glass longer than while the cy-
linder makes eight or ten revolutions; moving, at the
same time the piece of leather with the amalgam from
one end of the cylinder to the other. Now if the cy-
linder be turned, and if the hand or the end of the fin-
gers be presented to it, a crackling noise, which is ac-
companied with numerous brushes in a dark room, indi-
cates that the cylinder is in good action ; and the prime
conductor being situated in its proper place, you may
proceed to perform the experiments. During the per-
formance, the electrified part of the machine is apt to
attract dust from all quarters, to obviate which the room
ought to be previously swept and dusted, and likewise
the operator ought to have a clean clolh at hand to wipe
off all particles of dust and filaments, which in spite of
all his precautions will frequently run to the cylinder,
to the conductor, &c.
' The amalgam remains to he described. Mr Canton,
as far as we are informed, first applied the amalgam of
tin and mercury to the rubber of an electrical machine,
which was undoubtedly a capital improvement ; for by
this means an electrical machine will have its power
more than quadrupled. The tin amalgam is easily made,
for if you triturate tin foil and mercury, (in the propor-
tion of one of tin to two parts of mercury) in a mortar,
or even in the palm of your hand, the amalgam will be
formed in a minute or two.
' The amalgam of mercury and any metallic substance
that may be amalgarned by it, contributes to increase
the electric power of glass, but some are more efficacious
than others. Mosaic gold has also been found efficacious
for the purpose of excitation. The zinc amalgam, how-
ever, which was first recommended by Dr Higgins, has
upon the whole been found the most efficacious. This
amalgam, which consists of one part of zinc with four or
five parts of mercury, is, according to Mr Cavallo, pre-
pared in the following manner. ' Let the quicksilver,'
he says, ' be heated to about the degree of boiling water,
VOL. i. NO. xx. 43
486
and let the zinc be melted in a crucible or iron ladle.
Pour the heated quicksilver into a wooden box, and im-
mediately after pour the melted zinc in it. Then shut
up the box and shake it for about half a minute. After
this you must wait until the amalgam is quite cool, or
nearly so, and then you may mix some grease with it
by trituration. If the melted zinc be poured into the
quicksilver when cold, a very small portion of the for-
mer will be amalgamed, the rest remaining in lumps of
different sizes.'
The following drawing and description of a simple
Electrical Machine and conductor, is from Cavallo.
The figure represents an
electrical machine of the
simplest sort. G E F, is a
strong board, which sup-
ports all the parts of this
machine, and which may be
fastened to a strong table by
means of one or more iron
or brass clamps, as at Q.
The glass cylinder A B,
quite clean and dry in its
inside, is about ten inches
in diameter, and is furnish-
ed with two caps either of wood or brass, into which its
two short necks are firmly cemented.* Each of these
caps has a pin, or projection, or pivot, which turns in a
hole through the wooden pieces A and B, which are ce-
mented on the top of glass pillars, (or pillars of baked
wood,) B E and A G, which are firmly fixed to the bot-
tom board G E F. One of the above mentioned pro-
jections passes quite through the wooden piece, as at A,
and has a square termination, to which the winch A D
is applied and secured on by means of a screw-nut.
Then by applying the hand at D, the operator may turn
the cylinder, &c. Sometimes the part A C, of the
* The best cement for this purpose is made by melting and incor-
porating; together five parts of resin, four of beeswax and two parts
of powdered red ochre.
ELECTRICITY. 487
winch is made of glass, in order the more effectually to
prevent the escape of the electric fluid from the cylin-
der. This is not, however necessary, nor is it even ne-
cessary to have the pillars of glass. / R, is the rubber,
and IRK, is the silken floss. This cushion or rubber
is fastened to a spring, which proceeds from a socket ce-
mented on the top of the glass pillars S. The lower part
of this pillar is fixed into a small board which slides upon
the bottom board of the machine, by means of a
screw-nut, and may be fixed more or less forward in order
that the rubber may press more or less upon the cylinder.
N F is a glass pillar which is fixed in the bottom board,
and supports the prime conductor M L, of hollow brass
or tin plates, which has the collector or pointed wires at
L, and knobbed wire at M. From this brass knob O, a
larger spark may be drawn than from any other part of
the conductor. But this knobbed wire is only screwed
into the conductor, and may be easily removed from it.
These three articles of electrical apparatus, the Elec-
trical Machine, the Prime Conductor, and the Leyden
Jar, are the most important instruments used for excit-
ing and accumulating the electrical power. We come
now to consider our third division.
HI. EFFECTS PRODUCED BY ELECTRICITY WHEN ACCU-
MULATED.
1. Distribution of electricity over the surfaces of bodies.
It was early observed that the electric fluid resides on
the surface, not within the substance of the electrified
body, but the manner in which it distributes itself over
the surface was left, strange as it may appear, to be dis-
covered by the application of purely mathematical rea-
soning. The existence of the fluid, and the repulsion
between its particles, were the data in this investigation,
and from these, the manner in which it must distribute
itself over bodies of every possible variety of form, may
be precisely ascertained. In order to determine whether
these results of theory should correspond with observed
fact, M. Coulomb made use of his celebrated torsion
balance, the principles of whose construction have been
4S8 ELECTRICITY.
already described in the Tract on Gravitation. By
means of this, very minute forces could be accurately
measured. Coulomb cut out a small disc or circle of
gilt paper, which he attached to a silk thread. This he
called the proof plane, and by applying this successive-
ly to the various parts of an electrified body, and bring-
ing it to his balance, the degree to which the various
parts were charged, were very accurately ascertained.
The results of these experiments were found to corres-
pond very exactly with the theory. Some of the general
principles in regard to the manner in which electricity
diffuses itself over the surfaces of bodies, thus doubly
proved, are as follows.
(a) Tf a spherical body be charged with electricity,
vitreous or resinous, the whole fluid is, in consequence
of the repulsion of its own particles, accumulated in a
thin, uniform stratum at the surface.
(b) If the body, instead of being spherical is elonga-
ted, then there will be a greater charge toward the ci-
trcmities, than near the middle.
(c) If the elongation of the body is carried as far as
possible, i. e. if it assumes a pointed form, the accumu-
lation of the fluid at the extremities, will be increased
to a very high degree, and the electricity will pass off
in a rapid stream.
(d) The electricity of a charged body, resides at the
surface. Coulomb ascertained this by experiment in
this way. He caused little holes or pits to be bored in a
brass ball, and then after having charged it, he let down
his proof plane to the bottom. On withdrawing it, and
applying it to his balance it gave no signs of electricity.
2. Attraction and Repulsion.
It has been before stated, in the brief notice of the The-
ory of Electricity, that a repulsion always exists between
bodies similarly electrified, and an attraction between those
which are in opposite states. It will also be remembered
that, by the process called induction, which has been de-
scribed on a previous page, whenever a body electrified in
either way, is brought into the vicinity of other bodies Us
mere presence electrifies them. An electrified body will
'
ELECTRICITY. 489
consequently always be surrounded by other electrified bo-
dies. I bring a brass ball highly charged with electrici-
ty, and suspended by a silk string or held by a glass
handle, so as to be insulated, over a table containing
upon it small pieces of paper. By induction the ball
electrifies the paper in a manner contrary to itself. The
ball and the paper are consequently in opposite electri-
cal states, and will therefore attract each other. The
papers will fly up to the ball. This experiment in sub-
stance, may be tried by the reader. Rub with a hot
silk handkerchief, a dry and clean tumbler ; it will be-
come electrified and will attract to it the bits of paper,
as well as if a brass ball were used. Suppose a thun-
der cloud highly charged with vitreous electricity is pass-
ing. Its influence is to electrify resinously the region
over which it moves, and it will be attracted by it, and
drawn down nearer the earth. And universally, an elec-
trified body produces an opposite electrical state in the
neighboring bodies, or parts of bodies, and then attracts
them.
On the other hand if two bodies similarly electrified
are brought near each other, they repel. If, for exam-
ple, two pith balls, both electrified positively, are sus-
pended by threads near each other, they will recede,
and hang in diverging lines.
This principle of repulsion between similar electrici-
ties, and attraction between those of an opposite charac-
ter, is the foundation of many amusing experiments,
some of which we shall proceed to describe.
1. The pith balls. If one small pith or cork ball, is
suspended by a thread, and another, electrified, is brought
near to it, they will attract each other. If the stationa-
ry ball is previously electrified in a manner opposite to
the other, they will attract more strongly; if in a similar
manner, they will repel.
2. The Electrometer. Electrometers are instruments
designed to measure electricity, or rather to indicate its
intensity. They are of several kinds. Two pith balls
suspended at the end of a rod of glass, diverge when
brought near any electrified body, for they become simi-
larly electrified, and repel each other. Sometimes a pith
VOL. i. NO. xx. 43*
400
ELECTRICITY.
ball a is fastened at one extremity of a
1 light and slender rod c a, moving on the
centre c. The part b is inserted into
the prime conductor. When the con-
ductor is charged, the stem c b and the
ball a become similarly electrified and of
course repel each other. The ball ac-
cordingly rises up the quadrant c a to a
height which depends upon the intensi-
ty of the charge. This is called the
Quadrant Electrometer.
There is a Silver Leaf Electrometer, extremely deli-
cate in its structure and operations. Two slender strips
of silver or gold leaf are suspended from the same point.
The electricity causes them to diverge. Various other
instruments for the purpose of indicating the presence of
electricity, have been contrived, but they are all on the
principle of the divergence of light bodies freely sus-
pended, and similarly electrified.
3. The divergent hair. If an individual whose hair is
loose and flexible, stands upon the insulating stool and is
electrified, the hairs of the head, each being repelled by
the others, stand out in all directions, and present a very
grotesque appearance. Sometimes a little image is made
with hair of a peculiarly dry and flexible character, to
be attached to the prime conductor.
4. The electrical snow storm. A hollow metallic cup
is placed upon the prime conductor and filled with light
shavings of pith, or small pieces of paper, or any other
similar substance. When the conductor is electrified
these become mutually repulsive, and fly off in every di-
rection, producing what the electricians call an electrical
snow storm.
5. The electrical jet . A little vessel with a hole in its
side, so small that the water oozes through in drops, is
hung upon the prime conductor. When the apparatus
is charged, the mutual repulsion of the particles causes
the water to fly out in a stream.
6. The. thread of sealing wax. Attach a small piece
of soaliug-wax to the extremity of a wire, and warm it
so as to render it ready to drop ; and at the same time
ELECTKICITV. 491
let the electrical machine be worked ; then stop the mo-
tion of the machine, and instantly bring the hot sealing-
wax within four or five inches of the prime conductor,
moving it about in a winding direction, and you will find
that the sealing-wax throws several exceedingly fine
threads to the prime conductor, which appear like red
wool. This experiment answers best where the conduc-
tor is covered with varnish.
Mr Adams describes this experiment in the following
manner. ' Stick,' he says, ' a piece of sealing-wax on
the conductor in such a manner, as it may easily be set
on fire by a taper. While it is flaming, turn the cylin-
der, the wax will become pointed, and shoot out an al-
most invisible thread into the air, to the length of a yard
and more. If the filaments that are thrown out by the
wax are received on a sheet of paper, the paper will be
covered with them in a very curious manner, and the
particles of the wax will be so far subdivided as to re-
semble fine cotton. To fasten the piece of wax conve-
niently to the conductor, stick it first on a small piece of
paper, then twist the end of the paper so as to fit one of
the holes which are made in the prime conductor ; when
it is thus placed it may easily be fired by a taper.'
7. The dancing images. A flat circular piece of
copper is suspended in a horizontal position from the
prime conductor. At the distance of a few inches from
it, another similar piece is laid upon the table or upon
something connected with the table. Upon this last me-
tallic plate, the experimenter lays a few paper images,
generally made of a grotesque form, and upon charging
the prime conductor and of course the upper metallic
plate, these images are attracted to it. Upon coming in
contact they become similarly electrified, and are conse-
quently immediately repelled. They fall back to the
lower plate, where they part with their electricity, and
are immediately attracted again, and thus by an alter-
nate attraction and repulsion, they dance from, one to the
other with no little agility.
8. The dancing balls. In this case the inside of a
tumbler is charged by bringing the parts successively into
contact with a brass ball connected with the prime con-
492 ELECTRICITY.
ductor. This tumbler ia now inverted over a number of
pith balls lying upon the table, and the balls by an alter-
nate attraction and repulsion, similar to that explained at
length under the head of dancing images, leap up and
down until they have conveyed away all the electricity
from the glass to the table and thus to the earth.
9. The electrical spider. Two Leyden jars are elec-
trified with opposite electricities, and a little image of an
insect, the form of the spider is generally chosen, is
suspended between them. The spider is attracted to
one, then repelled, because at the moment of contact, it
becomes similarly electrified ; it is then immediately at-
tracted to the other, to touch it, and to fly off again at
the instant of contact. This flying from one to the
other continues until the jars are discharged.
10. The electrical bells. An apparatus is made by
which two bells hanging side by side, are connected, the
one with the prime conductor, and the other with the
earth, a little brass ball is suspended between them
which, precisely on the principle above described,
swings from one to the other, giving each a slight stroke
sufficient to emit a very distinct sound. As the clapper
flies across with great rapidity, and in ordinary cases
there are three bells, two of which are connected with
the conductor, the apparatus keeps up a very merry ring-
ing, sometimes for half an hour.
It is said that Franklin had an apparatus of this kind
attached to his lightning rod by the ringing of which, he
was notified of the approach of thunder.
11. Electrical powders. Perhaps the most beautiful of
all the experiments illustrating electrical attraction and
repulsion, are those in which various powders are attract-
ed to electrified surfaces. One of the simplest modes by
which the experiment can be performed is as follows.
Pour upon a small board with raised edges, a quantity of
resin. When it is cooled, it forms a smooth and level
surface. Touch this surface in several points with the
knob of a jar electrified vitreously or positively, and in
several other points with the knob when it is electrified
resinously or negatively. The knobs will communicate
there respective electricities to a little region around the
ELECTRICITY.
493
points of contact. Mix now some red lead and sulphur
as intimately as possible, and by means of a bellows or
some similar contrivance, project them thus mixed
through the air. As they pass through the air, the red
lead by the friction becomes electrified vitreously, and
accordingly it will be attracted towards the resinous
spots. The sulphur electrifies itself resinously and will
accordingly be drawn towards the vitreous spots. Thus
the two powders will be entirely separated, and will ar-
range themselves in beautiful figures upon the plate.
They will gather around the vitreous spots in long and
beautiful ramifications, extending in every direction from
the point touched, and upon those electrified resinously
the powder will gather in a circle uniformly covered,
but not very distinctly defined.
' These powders may be sifted over the electrified
body from a common sieve ; they may be tied up in linen
rags, and shaken out of them ; they may be projected by
means of a brush ; also by means of a pair of bellows.
But a more commodious method is as follows : Fix a
tube of wood, or glass, or metal, to the neck of a small
bottle of India rubber ; put the powders to be projected
into this bottle, and then tie a double piece of flannel
over the aperture of the tube. If this bottle, so prepar-
ed, be held in the hand, and be squeezed by alternately
Opening and shutting the hand, the powders will be pro-
jected in a fine diffused manner.'
These experiments with the powders may be almost
endlessly varied. The following are some of the most
usual forms.
(a) ' Take a pane of glass, clean and dry, hold it sus-
pended by one corner, or lay it flat upon a table, and
draw over the surface of it the knob of a Leyden phial,
moderately charged with positive electricity in its inside ;
then lift up the glass, if laid upon the table, and holding
it suspended, project upon it a mixed powder, consist-
ing of powdered dragon's blood and gum arabic in equal
parts. The two powders will be separated upon the
glass ; the red powder of dragon's blood falling on cer-
tain places, so as altogether to form an oblong, radiated
track, consisting of two colors intermixed in a thousand
494 ELECTRICITY.
odd ways. If, instead of drawing the knob of the jar
over the surface of the glass, we only touch the surface
of it here and there with the knob of the jar, and then
project the mixed powders as before ; separate star-like
figures will be formed about those points. The stars,
however, are more defined where a single powder is pro-
jected. Their rays or ramifications sometimes are few
and strong ; at other times they are numerous and slen-
der ; and frequently they do not go quite round the points
which had been touched with the knob of the jar.
(b) ' Repeat the preceding experiment with this va-
riation only ; viz. that now the Leyden phial be charged
negatively in the inside, and the appearance of the con-
figurations will be much different from the above describ-
ed, which was produced by positive electricity. In the
present, very few rays or branicles will be observed ; the
powders mostly disposing themselves in roundish spots,
and generally it will be found that a central spot of one
powder is surrounded by another powder of a different
color.
' Instead of dragon's blood and gum arabic, powders
of other colors may be projected upon the pane of glass,
such as powdered Prussian blue, sulphur, vermilion, re-
sin, &c, and thus the colors of the configurations may
be varied.
' These powders adhere to the glass rather slightly, so
as not to bear being touched ; yet, if a piece of paper be
gently laid on the painted side of the glass, without rub-
bing it, and the edge of the paper be pasted all round
the edge of the glass, the figures may be preserved with-
out injury. But a better method is, to lay another pane
of glass of the same size upon the former, and to fasten
them by pasting a slip of paper all round their edges. If
such powders as are used by enamellers be projected
upon glass or porcelain, and these be afterward exposed
to a proper degree of heat in an enameller's furnace,
the configurations will thereby be rendered indelible.
(c) * Take a piece of common writing paper, hold it
very near the fire, so as to render it quite dry and very
hot ; lay it flat upon a dry marble slab or a very dry ta-
ble, and in that situation draw over it the knob a charg-
ELECTRICITY. 495
ed^Leyden phial*; then lift up the piece of paper by one
corner, and holding it suspended, project upon it the
mixed powder of dragon's blood and gum arabic, by
means of the elastic gurn bottle. The configurations in
this case are very beautiful, and may be made in various
shapes, such as letters, stars, stripes, &-c, by moving the
knob of Dhe Leyden phial in the desired direction ; but
they are of one color ; viz. red, for the gum arabic beititf
nearly of the color of the paper, cannot be distinguished
upon it. If the paper thus painted be held very near to
the fire during a few seconds, the powder of dragon's
blood being a resinous substance, will be melted, and
will be fastened on the paper ; after which the powder of
gum arabic may be wiped off with a handkerchief.
' Powders of other colors may be projected upon the
paper, after the same manner, but unless they are of a
resinous nature, so as to be easily melted by heat, it is
very difficult to fasten them to the paper. In these ex-
periments the Leyden phial must not be charged too high
nor too low ; for in the former case, the figure will be too
confused and irregular, and in the latter it will be too
faint. In order to form a neat and determinate figure,
and to leave the rest of the paper clean, the powders
must not be projected perpendicularly to the paper, but
the stream must be thrown in a direction parallel to the
surface of the paper. It is also necessary to perform
these experiments in as expeditious a manner as possible ;
for, if the paper be suffered to cool too much, or the
electricity to dissipate, the desired effect cannot be ob-
tained.'
12. The fying feather or the electrical shuttlecock.
Take an excited glass tube in one of your hands, and
let a small light feather be left in the air, at the distance
of about eight or ten inches from the tube. This fea-
ther will be immediately attracted by the tube, and will
adhere very closely to its surface during a few seconds,
and sometimes longer; then, having acquired the same
sort of electricity, it will be repelled, and by keeping
the tube under it, the feather will continue to float in the
air at a considerable distance from the tube. By man-
aging the tube dexterously you may drive the feather to
any part of the room at pleasure.
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SCIENTIFIC TRACTS.
NUMBER XXI.
ELECTRICITY.
[Continued.]
IV. EFFECTS PRODUCED BY ELECTRICITY WHEN IN
MOTION.
UNDER this head are to be classed by far the most
striking and powerful of the effects of this mysterious
agent. When the fluid is in its natural state of diffusion
over all bodies, it is, as we have seen, apparently inert
and powerless, though we must suppose that it exerts
some very important, though secret ajrency in those si-
lent processes, by which the course of nature is main-
tained. When the fluid is accumulated, so as to exist
in bodies in unnatural quantities, or in an unnatural state,
while it is kept in this state, it produces only the gentle
effects of attraction and repulsion which have been al-
ready described. It will be noticed that in all those ex-
periments on electrical attraction and repulsion, a motion
of the fluid is alluded to, as a consequence of the ar-
rangement of the apparatus, yet the attraction and repul-
sion are in all those cases, anterior to the motion of the
fluid, and consequently are properly to be considered as
effects producediby the electricity while at rest. For ex-
ample, in the case of the electrical spider, the little ani-
mal is attracted by the knob of the jar, while the fluid in
the knob is at rest ; it approaches in consequence of
the attraction, and, on coming into contact, a portion of
the electricity passes from the knob and enters the spi-
der. Here is motion, and immediately after it, the bo-
VOL. i. NO. xxi. 44
498 ELECTRICITY.
dies are placed in a very different state from before.
Both are now similarly electrified, and the fluids come
again to a state of rest. While in this second state of
rest a new effect, viz. repulsion, takes place. Thus it is
manifest that though a motion of the electric fluid at-
tends the attraction and repulsion, still these effects are,
strictly speaking, produced by the fluid while in a slate
of rest.
We come, however, now to specify phenomena, which
occur during the very instant of motion of the electric
fluid.
And here it must be observed that whenever a body is
electrified in any way, there must be somewhere in its
vicinity, other bodies electrified in an opposite way,
and to exactly the same amount. For example, electri-
fy vitreously a ball of brass; i. e. drive off its own resi-
nous electricity, and bring to it an equal amount of vitre-
ous fluid. Now the resinous electricity which has been
expelled must be existing somewhere in the neighboring
bodies, seeking to return, and the vitreous electricity
which has been brought to the body, must have left a de-
ficiency in the surrounding bodies, to supply which, the
accumulating fluid must be endeavoring to escape, so
that whenever a body is electrified by having a surplus of
vitreous and a deficiency of resinous fluid, the surround-
ing bodies will be electrified of course, in the opposite
way, that is, by having a deficiency of vitreous and a
surplus of resinous electricity. The two surpluses then
will have a strong tendency to dart across the interven-
ing space, to supply the two deficiencies, and thus re-
store the bodies to their natural state.
The same is evidently true if we consider the theory
of Franklin, already alluded to, as the more probable hy-
pothesis. In his view of the subject, supposing only one
fluid, it is plain that the accumulation of that in the
brass ball must bo at the expense of the surrounding bo-
dies, so that if the ball is positive, there must be an
equal amount of negative electricity in the vicinity, and
the tendency of the ball to discharge itself, is merely a
tendency of the surplus fluid contained in it, to go back
and supply the deficiency in other bodies, which its ac-
cumulation in the ball creates.
ELECTRICITY.
It must, therefore, be constantly borne in mind, that,
to discharge any electrified body, we must form a com-
munication between it, and the other bodies electrified in
an opposite manner, and we have been thus particular in
explaining the cause of this, because ignorance or forget-
fulness of this principle, is the source of a vast number
of mistakes among young persons, who are attempting
electrical experiments.
The surrounding bodies which will be oppositely elec-
trified, as above described, are generally the nearest.
Suppose a cloud to be positively electrified, and to be
suspended over a particular region of the earth. This
region we will imagine to be electrified in, an opposite
manner. Now let the cloud move over a fresh portion ;
by its repulsive power it will force off from this new re-
gion, the share of electricity which naturally belongs to
it, into the vacancy which existed in the region over
which it originally stood, and thus, whenever it moves,
the opposite electricity of the surrounding bodies will
accompany it, and the fluid will always be seeking to
dart off from the place of its excess in the cloud to the
place off its deficiency in the ground below. And it is
only by a communication from one of these to the other,
that the cloud can be discharged.
In the case of the prime conductor, the same is true.
When it is charged, the experimenter touches it with his
finger and it is discharged. His own body and other
surrounding bodies connected with his, were in the op-
posite electrical state, to an extent just sufficient to bal-
ance the electricity of the conductor. By touching it
then, he forms a communication between the two, the
fluid passes, and the equilibrium is restored.
In the Leyden jar, this principle of the necessity of
forming a communication between bodies electrified in
an opposite manner, in order to discharge them, is still
more strikingly exemplified. For here it will be recol-
lected, the outside of the jar is electrified in one way
and the inside in another, as was stated in the descrip-
tion of the theory of the jar. The very object of its con-
struction is to bring as nearly as possible together, the
surfaces thus brought into opposite states. In order,
500 ELECTRICITY.
therefore, to discharge the jar it is necessary that a com-
munication should be formed between the inside and out-
side. This may be done by the hands of the experiment-
er. He grasps with one the external coating, and with
the other touches the knob, connected with the interior.
The communication is thus completely formed, and the
fluid will pass until the former equilibrium is restored.
Nothing now is more common than for an individual
to approach a charged jar, standing upon a table, and to
touch its knob, without forming any communication with
the oittside. Now if the table is dry, it is a non-conduc-
tor, and of course though the fluid may pass down to
the floor, through the body of the experimenter, it can-
not rise through the table to the outside of the jar, except
in very small quantities. And the fluid will not leave
the inside, till it can, by this means, reach the outside.
The jar will consequently be but very slightly discharg-
ed. This mistake is made more frequently on account
of the fact, that, in order to discharge the prime conduc-
tor, nothing is necessary but to touch it with one hand.
For the opposite electricity is not, as in the Leyden jar,
situated in a small insulated plate, but is diffused among
all the surrounding bodies, as the floor, the ground, &c ;
and the feet of the operator naturally forms a communi-
cation with them. So that by simply touching the con-
ductor, a communication is actually formed, whereas
by touching the knob only of the jar it is not.
For the purpose of discharging a Leyden jar, or a
combination of jars, called a battery, a very useful in-
strument is employed called a discharger. It consists
simply of two brass wires, united at one end by a hinge,
and having knobs on the other .extremities. The arms
may be opened to any distance, and from the hinge there
proceeds usually a glass handle. One of the knobs is
now brought into contact with the outside of the jar, and
the other with the inside, and the communication is at
once formed.
Having thus shown what are the circumstances in
which a motion of the electric fluid takes place, we
proceed to explain the nature of this motion.
jq--/i ft! );>RIW,- r*jf--tvrafi HMfcj
ELECTRICITY. 501
1. It is instantaneous.
It is very common for a lecturer upon electricity, af-
ter explaining fully to his class the fact, that when a
communication is formed between the inside and out-
side of the jar, the fluid passes from one to the other,
to request them to form a line by joining hands,
and to allow the charge to pass through them all, so as
to observe who feels the etfect soonest. But when the
line is formed, and one extremity is connected with the
outside of the jar, and the individual who stands at the
other extremity, touches the knob connected with the
inside, the start of the .whole line is precisely simulta-
neous. At college this experiment is sometimes tried
with some hundreds of students arranged in a long line
in the college yard. The one at the extremity most
remote from the jar takes hold of a chain which, sup-
ported at intervals, returns to the jar, and thus the fluid
has to pass through a distance of many hundred feet,
but no perceptible difference of time is to be observed.
Another interesting way of exhibiting the instantane-
ousness of the motion is this. A wire connected, at
one end with the outside of the jar, is passed around
the room, by fastening it against the wall, so that at last
the other end returns near to the table. At any remote
part there may be a short interruption, across which
the electricity will pass by a visible spark, at the pre-
cise instant in which the returning end of the wire is
connected with the knob of the jar.
Some English philosophers tried this experiment on
a larger scale still. They extended wires, supported by
silken strings which they fastened to stakes set in the
ground, several miles in length. The discharge was ef-
fected through these, and not the slightest difference be-
tween the entrance of the fluid at one end of the wire,
and its return through the other, could be perceived,
though in the interval it must have passed six or eight
miles. The motion of electricity may, however, be pro-
gressive, it may consume time, and yet not be per-
ceptible in so short a distance. Light requires time to
pass across any space. This time is very perceptible in
VOL. i. NO. xxi. 44*
502 ELECTRICITY.
its crossing the earth's orbit, but in going ten miles, it
would occupy only the two millionth part of a second,
a period altogether imperceptible to man.
The following extracts from the Article on Electricity
contained in the English Library of Useful Knowledge,
state some interesting particulars in relation to this part
of our subject.
' By accurate experiments it appears that the force of
the electric shock is weakened, that is, its effects are di-
minished, by employing a conductor of great length for
making the discharge. But it is difficult to assign a
limit to the number of persons through which even a
small charge of electricity may be sent, so that all shall
experience the shock ; or to the distance along which it
may be conveyed by good conductors.
' At an early period of electrical inquiries, much in-
terest was attached to the determination of these points.
The Abbe Nollet passed an electrical shock from a small
phial through a hundred and eighty of the French guards
in the presence of the king ; and at the Carthusian con-
vent in Paris, the monks were formed into a line above a
mile in length, by means of iron wires held between
them ; on the discharge of the jar the sensation was felt
at the same moment by all the persons composing this
vast circuit. Many experiments were made both by the
English and French electricians with a view to ascertain
the space which a discharge can be made to traverse,
and the velocity with which it is transmitted. Of these
the most ingenious and satisfactory were the experiments
planned and executed by Dr Watson, with the assistance
of the leading members of the Royal Society. A cir-
cuit was formed by a wire which extended the whole
length of Westminster bridge, at a considerable height
above the river; one end of this wire communicated with
the outer coating of a charged phial or jar, the other be-
ing held by a person on the opposite side of the river,
who formed a communication with the water by dipping
into it an iron rod held by the other hand. The circuit
was completed by another person, who stood near the
phial, and who likewise dipped an iron rod into the river
with one hand, and was enabled by means of a wire held
ELECTRICITY. 503
in the other, to effect a contact with the knob of the phial.
Whenever the discharges took place, the shocks were
felt by both persons : thus proving that the electric fluid
must have been in motion along the whole line of the
circuit, including both the wire above and the river
below.
* In another experiment, made on Shooter's hill, at a
time when the ground was remarkably dry, the electricity
was made to perform a circuit of four miles ; being con-
ducted for two miles along wires supported upon baked
sticks, and for the remaining distance also of two miles,
through the dry ground. As far as could be ascertained,
by the most careful observation, the time in which the
discharge was transmitted along that immense circuit
was perfectly instantaneous : nor has any other trial that
has yet been made afforded the least approach to a mea-
surement of the velocity with which electiicity moves.
'On this subject, however, an important distinction
should be made between the actual movement of each
individual particle of electric fluid, and the transmission
of an impulse along a series of such particles, for the
one may bear hardly any proportion to the other, just as
we find that sound proceeds with a velocity incompara-
bly greater than that of the particles of air which are
concerned in its propagation. In like manner the por-
tion of blood, which raises the artery at the wrist, where
the pulse is felt, is not the identical portion of blood,
which is thrown out from the heart by the contraction of
that organ producing that pulsation ; the impulse in all
these cases being propagated, like a wave, from one par-
ticle to another. There is, therefore, no reason to sup-
pose that the same particles of electric fluid, which en-
ter at one part, have traversed from one end to the other
the whole line of conducting substances.'
2. It always chooses the best conductors which are in
its path.
The distinction between conductors and non-conduc-
tors of the electric fluid has been already explained.
Some substances allow the passage of the electric fluid
with great ease; others with greater or less difficulty
504 ELECTRICItV.
The former are called conductors, the latter non-conduc-
tors. For example, let a man grasp the outside of the
Leyden jar with one hand, and with the other touch the
knob with a piece of wood, and only a small portion of
the electricity will pass. Let him a moment afterwards
touch it with a piece of metal, and he will receive a vio-
lent shock. The whole force of the charge will pass
suddenly through the metal into his hand.
It is easy to determine whether any substance is or is
not a conductor. If it contains anything metallic or
moist, it is, if not, it is a non-conductor. This is a gen-
eral, but not a universal rule. Silk and glass are the
most commonly used as non-conductors, and brass or
iron as conductors.
The tendency of electricity to choose, as it were, the
best conductors may be shown by a variety of experi-
ments. Charge a Leyden jar, and bring into contact
with the outside of it, a wire, and a rod of wood. Let
the wire pass around the whole room, and the other ex-
tremity be brought near the knob. Let the other end of
wood also be brought to the same distance from the
knob, and then bring the two ends nearer and nearer
until the fluid darts across. It will invariably strike the
wire, although it must, by so doing, pass entirely round
the room, to reach its destination.
In the same manner, if a variety of objects are laia
upon a table, such as chains, money, pieces of glass, &c.
Some of whom are conductors and some non-conductors,
and if they are placed almost in contact with each
other, and so arranged that there is one way, however
crooked, by which the electricity may pass across the
table through conductors only, except the very short
interruptions between them, the fluid will ^be sure to
find this way. If one end of the table is connected with
the inside, and the other with the outside, the fluid
will pass across, choosing with undeviating certainty the
conductors, and those alone.
It is so with lightning. It darts from the cloud to the
earth, choosing the best conductors in its way. If a per-
son stands in such a manner as to be one of such a se-
ries of conductors the lightning will pass through him,
ELECTRICITY. 505
or in other words, he will be struck. Another individual
standing at the distance of only a few feet, but out of
such a series, will be safe. This subject has however
been more fully discussed in our Tract on the Weather.
3. It produces no sensible effects when passing through
conductors.
Its motion is instantaneous as was before shown, at
least it passes with inconceivable velocity, but it produces
no perceptible effects, when it passes through good con-
ductors. Let a large wire be held in the hand, one
end touching the knob connected with the inside of a
Leyden jar, and then let an assistant, by means of a dis-
charger, bring the other end into connexion with the
knob. The charge will immediately pass from the knob
through the discharger to the wire, and through the wire
as it lies in the hand to the outside of the jar. Now,
however attentively the performer may examine the wire,
at the instant of the passing of the discharge, no percep-
tible effect of any kind can be observed. There is no
motion, no heat, and no light, and the hand does not
feel the shock in the slightest degree.
When, however, the accumulated fluid, on its passage
to its place of destination finds its progress interrupted,
it then produces its most marked and striking effects.
Some of these we shall now notice. The violence of the
effect is proportioned to the degree of interruption. The
air is a non-conductor. If it has, therefore, to pass
through the air at an interruption in its circuit, the most
striking of its effects are produced. This brings us then
to our fourth particular.
4. ElcdricSl light.
It is impossible to use tHfeleclric machine at all, with-
out perceiving that the fluid evolves light whenever it
passes through the air. The jar cannot be discharged
without producing this effect, for if one end of the dis-
charger is brought into contact with the outside, and the
other is made to approach the knob, before it touches it,
the fluid will dart across, exhibiting the bright light which
the fluid always produces when passing through the air.
506 ELECTRICITY.
The appearance of this spark is somewhat peculiar.
It is usually of bright yellow at the extremities, and blu-
ish in the middle. In discharging a Leyden jar, it is
short and intense in brightness ; when taken from a
prime conductor, it is much longer and fainter. The
length of the spark which can be drawn from a conduc-
tor depends upon the size of the machine, and the condi-
tion which it is in at the time of the experiment. Sparks
can without much difficulty be obtained several inches in
length.
If, in receiving the spark from the conductor, the
operator, instead of presenting a small body like a brass
ball, presents a large fat surface, like the back of the
band, and if this surface is held at a considerable dis-
tance, the spark at a little distance from the prime con-
ductor will branch off into many beautiful ramifications,
presenting in the night, and under favorable circum-
stances, a splendid tree of fire. The size and beauty of
this tree will depend of course very much upon the ex-
cellence of the machine, and the circumstances under
which the experiment is made.
This tendency of the electric fluid to give light when-
ever it passes through the air, produces many other re-
markable appearances, in working the machine in the
dark. Long sparks dart from the prime conductor to
the rubber. Bright lines and spots of light, ornament
the under surface of the rubber, and flashes and
trees of flame dart from side to side. These beautiful
appearances can only however be seen when the cir-
cumstances are highly favorable.
There are many cases of common occurrence in
which this electric light appears. It is common for
children to amuse tUSms'elv^by rubbing the back of a
cat in the dark, to oJBtervProe sparks thus produced.
These are electrical, the fur of the cat being a most
excellent electric. A silk or flannel garment, will often
when taken off sparkle, and many a child, has, in a
cold winter night, been frightened at seeing sparks in
his bed, as he opens the blankets. The Aurora Borea-
lis is generally supposed, though without much direct
proof, to be an electrical effect.
ELECTRICITY. 507
There are many beautiful experiments designed to ex-
hibit in a striking way the illuminating power of elec-
tricity. Some of these we shall describe.
The spiral tube. This consists of a common glass
tube with little circular pieces of tin foil pasted upon it,
so as to be as near each other as possible without touch-
ing. These pieces are arranged in such a manner that
they pass round the tube in a spiral form, one end of
which is to be connected with the prime conductor.
On turning the machine the conductor becomes charg-
ed, and the fluid passes off through these discs of tinfoil,
producing a spark at each interruption ; and as the
passage is instantaneous, the appearance is that of a
beautiful spiral line of light. The operator sometimes
endeavors to perform this experiment by means of the
Leyden jar. It is, however, a remarkable fact which
we do not recollect to have seen noticed in any treatise,
that very many of the experiments with electric light,
succeed altogether better with the conductor than with
the jar. The conductor gives a longer spark, and the
charge from it forces its way through a much longer se-
ries of interruptions.
The spiral tube prepared as above described, is often
inclosed in another tube a little larger, so that the tin-
foil is protected from injury. Sometimes, instead of a
tube, a flat plate of glass is used, and the circles of tin-
foil or of nheet lead are pasted upon it in any way that
fancy may direct. The interruptions are sometimes so
arranged that the letters of a word are pictured in light,
or a profile, or a rude sketch of any kind. Some-
times a long and narrow plate of glass has a serpentine
row of discs of tin foil upon one side, while th other is
painted with transparent colors, which gives to the light
a variety of hues.
The luminous jar. A Leyden jar is coated with de-
tached pieces of tin foil coming almost into contact with
each other, instead of having the ordinary continuous
covering. While this is charging, sparks will be seen
darting from one piece of the tinfoil to another, illumi-
nating the whole surface in a beautiful manner.
The illumi'iaied thumb. If two wires lying upon the
508 ELECTRICITY.
table, be brought within a third of an inch of each other,
and the thumb is pressed upon the table so as to touch
the two ends of the wire, and to cover the whole place
of the interruption, and a strong spark be passed through
the apparatus thus arranged, the flesh of the finger will
be strongly illuminated.
The electric light exhibited in these various experi-
ments does not depend at all upon the nature of the sub-
stance which is charged. If a person stands upon the
insulating stool in the manner before described, and is
charged, sparks may be drawn from his hands, his face,
or any part of the body. A tumbler of water or a mass
of ice, may be charged, and sparks taken from its surfa-
ces. It is the simple passage of the electricity through
the air, which produces. the effect.
Illuminated water. Although water is classed among
conductors, still the resistance it makes to the passage of
the electricity is such, that when it is made a part of the
circuit, a very distinct light is evolved. A moderate
charge will produce a bright spark when made to pass
.through water, and the spark is still more luminous in
oil, alcohol, or ether, which are worse conductors than
watejfijton the contrary, in fluids of greater conducting
power^there is greater difficulty in eliciting electric light.
Thus a much higher charge is required to produce a
spark in hot water than in cold ; a still higher in saline
solutions; and in concentrated acids light can be obtain-
ed only when their volume is very small ; so that it is
necessary for that purpose to draw aline of the acid upon
a plate of glass with a camel's hair pencil. This is il-
lustrated by the following experiment. Draw a line with
a pen dipped in. water efi -tbj|L surface of a slip of glass;
place one extremity of tho^pqie ' n contact with the coat-
ihg of 4 Leyden jar, and al six inches' distance place
upon the line one knob of the discharging rod. When
the jar is fully charged, bring the. other ball of the dis-
charged to the knob of the jar, and the discharge will
take place luminously over the six inches of water. Next,
trace a line with a pe/i dipped in sulphuric acid on a
slip of glass, as in the former experiment, and place one
extremity of it in contact with the outside of the jar ; the
ELECTRICITY. 509
ball of the discharger may then be placed on the glass at
twelve inches' distance, and the electric fluid will pass as
brilliantly over that interval as over the six inches of wa-
ter. In either of these experiments if the line of fluid
be wider in any particular part, the light of the discharge
will be less brilliant in passing that portion.
5. Electrical heat.
The electrical spark developes heat as well as light, as
may be shown in a great variety of ways. Some experi-
ments for this purpose we shall enumerate.
Inflaming combustibles. Sprinkle upon a light tuft of
cotton a quantity of powdered resin, and shake the cot-
ton until the resin has penetrated it in every part. Bring
then two wires with rounded ends, very near each other,
but with the cotton between. Pass now a strong spark
from the Leyden jar through the cotton, and it will burst
into a flame.
Pour into a metallic cup attached to the prime conduc-
tor, a little elher or alcohol, and then when the conduc-
tor is charged, draw a bright spark from the centre of the
surface of the liquid. It will be immediately inflamed.
Sometimes the experiment is made in another form. In-
stead of the cup attached to the conductor, a person
standing upon the insulating stool, holds an iron spoon
containing the alcohol or ether, and a bystander takes
the spark from it by means of a brass ball, or his knuckle,
or even a piece of ice.
Detonating mixtures of gases, especially hydrogen
gas and atmospheric air, may be fired by means of
electricity. Sometimes they are contained in a strong
glass vessel, with two wirag coming on the inside within
a short distance of each other. Sometimes a little brass
cannon is used, loaded with the explosive gases, and the
muzzle stopped with a cork, the said cork being thrown
with considerable force among the bystanders by the dis-
charge, to the no small amusement of such of them as do
not chance to be shot.
Gunpowder may be fired by the electric spark, under
favorable circumstances. In all cases the combustible to
be inflamed should be previously warmed.
VOL. i. NO. xxi. 45
510 ELECTRICITY.
Metling metals. It has before been observed that the
electric fluid produces no sensible effect when passing
through conductors. If, however, the conductor is so
slender that only a part of the fluid can pass upon it, the
rest, surrounding it, but passing through the air, gives out
light and heat. By this heat a narrow strip of gold or
silver leaf a slender, thread-like cutting of tinfoil,
or even a very fine wire, may be melted by passing a
strong charge from a battery through them.
The degree of heat which is evolved by the passage
of electricity through any substance, depends upon the
degree of resistance which the substance opposes. The
more perfect the conductor the less the heat. If the me-
tal is one of those which are the most perfect conductors,
it will require a larger charge to produce a sensible ef-
fect in warming it. Wood is a very imperfect conduc-
tor, consequently a small quantity of electricity will
affect its temperature, and a piece of considerable thick-
ness may be warmed by repeated discharges.
In consequence of this fact, that the conducting power
of the metal upon which the experiment is tried, influ-
ences very much the degree of heat evolved by the trans-
mission of electricity through it, some philosophers have
endeavored to ascertain the different conducting powers
of the metals, by observing the comparative difficulty
with which they are melted by electricity. The experi-
ments may be performed in the following way.
Connect with the outside coating of a battery, which,
in order to secure the success of the experiment, should
contain at least thirty square feet of coated surface, a
wire of one fiftieth of an inch in diameter, and two feet
long. With a smaller batteryf the experiment will suc-
ceed, if the experimenter is satisfied with a shorter or
slenderer wire. The other end of the wire must be fas-
tened to the end of a discharging rod. When the bat-
tery is fully charged, the ball of the discharger may be
brought into connexion with the knob communicating
with the outside of the battery, and thus the whole charge
will be sent through the wire, which will be made red
hot through its whole extent, and even melted so as to
fall in glowing pieces to the floor. ' When a wire
ELECTR1CITV.
511
melted in this manner, sparks are frequently seen at con-
siderable distance from it, which are red hot particles of
the metal, that by the violence of the explosion, are
thrown in all directions. If the force of the battery be
very great, the wire will be entirely dispersed by the ex-
plosion so that none of it can afterwards be found.'
By repeating this experiment with wires of different
metals, and using the same quantity of electrical power,
that is, by using the same battery and charging it to the
same degree of intensity, it will be found that some me-
tals are fused more readily than others, whilst some are
not sensibly affected. This shows the difference of their
conducting powers. Some are melted instantaneously
through their whole length, and entirely dispersed by the
force of the explosion. Others merely melt and drop in
globules. Others still, become red hot or are even
only heated at the ends. An electrician once had a
number of wires prepared of various metals, all of the
same diameter, one thirtysecond of an inch. He used a
very large electrical machine, to which was attached a
battery containing 225 feet of coated surface. The wires
were of equal lengths, and the battery charged to the
same degree of intensity in all the experiments. The
following was the result. Of the leaden wire 120 inches
were melted ; of fin the same. Iron wire only five in-
ches; gold wire three inches and a half. Silver, cop-
per and brass wire, only one quarter of an inch.
Some writers on electricity have considered these ex-
periments as showing directly the conducting powers of
these metals, - supposing them to be inversely as the
fusibility. It seem more probable that the conducting
power is inversely as the heat produced, and as it re-
quires much less heat to fuse lead than brass, the lead,
even if an equally good conductor, would be much more
easily fused.
The philosopher above alluded to, had the curiosity to
try the experiment of fusing these metals under water,
and the plan succeeded. It was necessary, however,
to use much shorter wires. The same discharge would
generally melt one eighth part as much wire under water,
as in the open air.
512 ELECTRICITY.
The most suitable substances upon which to make ex-
periments on the fusibility of metals with small machines,
are gold, silver or brass leaf, or even tin foil cut into
very slender strips, or a very fine flattened steel wire,
used by watchmakers, called watch pendulum wire. By
means of either of these, fusion may often be produced
by a common machine and by a single Leyden jar.
If eat evolved by lightning. The power of those im-
mense charges of electricity which descend from the
clouds, to inflame combustibles and fuse metals is a mat-
ter of common observation. Small pieces of iron, i. e.
too small for the whole quantity of the fluid to pass them,
are melted. It must be borne constantly in mind that
this heat is developed only when the conducting sub-
stances are not sufficient to convey off the electricity
freely to the ground. There is no evidence that a com-
mon lightning lod, down which the electricity passes
freely, becomes in the least degree warmed by its power.
The points, however, at the top, are frequently fused.
A house was once struck with lightning, and a pair of
tongs which were standing up against the fireplace were
thrown down. A person standing in the room, who for-
tunately was not injured by the shock, almost immedi-
ately took them up, and on examining them was surpris-
ed to find, that although the iron was cold as usual to
the touch, yet at the two extremities of the tongs, ap-
parently at the places where the fluid entered, and left,
there were two small melted spots. The iron was very
distinctly and evidently fused and the individual was
much surprised that the heat should be so great as to
melt the iron in any part, and yet not to heat it through-
out so as to render its warmth sensible to the hand. But
the fact is that the electric fluid is not, as many suppose,
hot itself. It produces heat, when passing through the
air. It will do this when coming out of ice, as well as
when coming from a metal ; and in the case above de-
scribed, the electric fluid, developed heat in coming
through the air to the tongs, and in passing through the
air from the tongs, in sufficient quantities to fuse the me-
tal at the points where it entered, and where it left.
fit- .ixz <>*-. i JOT
ELECTRICITV. 513
6. Influence of balls and points.
It has before been stated under (he head Distribution of
Electricity, that the fluid accumulates itself in a state of
great intensity at the pointed extremities of a charged
body, where it passes off in continued streams. On this
account a body containing any sharp or pointed parts,
can with great difficulty be charged with electricity.
On the other hand if a body with all its extremities
properly rounded, is charged and brought, when in that
state, into the vicinity of any pointed bodies, its electrici-
ty is immediately and rapidly drawn off. So marked and
powerful is this effect that the greatest care is necessary,
or the successful operation of the machine will be entire-
ly prevented by the accidental presence of pointed sub-
stances in the vicinity. To avoid this every part of the
machine and of the apparatus about it, should be round-
ed, every wire should be terminated by a ball, no
roughness or raggedness of any kind should be left,
all dust should be removed, and every sharp or pointed
body should be taken away from the vicinity. A sharp
needle, held at the distance of several feet from the prime
conductor, will often effectually prevent its being charg-
ed. There are various distinct experiments by which
this influence of points may be strikingly shown.
1. Attempt to charge the prime conductor and while
doing so hold at a little distance from it a needle with
the point towards it. The effort to charge the conduc-
tor will be vain, the electricity will pass off to the point
as fast as it enters the conductor, and in the dark, a lu-
minous star will be seen Upon the point of the needle.
2. After the jar is charged bring a brass ball to it, and
observe the size of the spark. Then charge it again and
attempt to obtain a similar spark by means of a poinltd
body. The result will be that the electricity will pass to
the point silently, before it comes near enough for the
spark.
3. The discharger, heretofore described, is usually
made with balls at the extremities, so constructed that
they may be unscrewed, leaving the extremities of the
wire pointed. If now the jar be charged, and then dis-
VOL. i. NO. xxi. 45*
514 ELECTRICITY.
charged in the ordinary way by using the balls of the dis-
charger, a bright spark will pass. Unscrew then one of
the balls, charge the jar again, and attempt to dis-
charge it by bringing up the point to the knob of the jar.
It will be found that the rapid passing off of the electrici-
ty through the point, will prevent any spark.
4. 'Take a small lock of cotton, extend it in every di-
rection as much as may be practicable, and by means of
a linen thread, about five or six inches long, or by a
thread drawn out of the same cotton, tie it to the end of
the prime conductor ; then let the electrical machine be
put in action, and the lock of cotton, on being electrified,
will immediately swell out, by repelling its filaments from
each other, and will stretch itself towards the nearest
conductor. In this situation, the machine continuing in
action, present the end of a finger, or the knob of a wire,
towards the lock of cotton, and this will then immediate-
ly move towards the finger, endeavoring to touch it. But
take a sharp pointed needle in the other hand, and pre-
sent its points towards the cotton, a little above the end
of the above-mentioned finger, and you will find that the
cotton immediately shrinks upwards, and moves towards
the prime conductor. Remove the needle, and the cot-
ton will corne again towards the finger. Present the
needle, and the cotton will shrink again ; which clearly
shows that the needle, being sharp pointed, draws off the
electric fluid from the cotton, and puts it in a state of be-
ing attracted by the prime conductor ; which effect can-
not be produced by a wire having a blunted end, or a
round ball for its termination.'
5. Lightning ruds. The philosophy of lightning rods
is very evident from the foregoing remarks. The rod it-
self forms a conductor from the top of the house to the
ground, and by being terminated above by sharp points,
the electricity of the cloud is drawn off silently. When-
ever a thunder cloud passes a house which has a light-
ning rod, the fluid passes down the rod constantly in a
silent and harmless stream. So great is this effect, that
it is aaiil that HI a large city like London where there are
many lightning rods, the thunder showers lose half their
violence. When the cloud, which, as it passes over the
ELECTRICITY. 515
fields and forests, sends forth its thunderings and light-
nings incessantly, comes over the pointed rods of the
city, its charge is drawn off, almost as rapidly as it gath-
ers, the flashes are less frequent and less vivid, and
everything indicates the mitigation of the storm.
If a point proceeds from any electrified body, there is
always to be observed issuing from it a current of air.
This is the case whichever way the body is electrified.
Let a sharp point be attached to the prime conductor,
and then ' present the face, or the palm of the hand, to
the point at the distance of about three inches, and a
wind will be perceived to proceed from it.
' Fasten five or six pieces of paper to a cork, like the
leaves of a water wheel in hydraulics; pass a needle, by
way of an axis, through the cork, and suspend it by ap-
plying the end of the needle to a magnet. Let a point-
ed wire be fixed at the end of the prime conductor, and
present the paper vanes of the cork suspended, Sec, to
the current of air which proceeds from that point, when
the machine is in action ; and ihe force of that wind wjll
cause the cork to turn round.
' This current of air always proceeds from the point,
whether the point be electrified positively or negatively :
therefore it is not the influx or the elllux of the electric
fluid that occasions the wind ; but it is owing to the par-
ticles of air which, acquiring the same electricity as the
pointed wire, are repelled from it in virtue of the repul-
sion which takes place between bodies possessed of the
same kind of electricity, be it positive or negative. Other
particles of air succeed those which are repelled first,
and these being electrified are also repelled, and soon.
' When the wire, instead of a pointed termination, is
furnished with a ball of about an inch and a quarter in
diameter, a curious phenomenon may be observed, by
presenting the flame of a candle to it, viz. so that the
middle of the flame may be even with the middle of the
ball. The machine being put in action, it will be found
that the flame is blown from the ball, when the latter is
electrified positively, viz. when it is connected with the
rubber of the machine, or with a negative prime conduc-
tor ; which seems to show the real influx and efflux of
the electric fluid, according to the Franklinian theory.'
516 ELECTRICITY.
7. Mechanical effects of electricity.
Whenever a large charge of the electric fluid passes
through or among bodies of very little conducting pow-
er, it seems to exert no little mechanical force in prelbra-
ting, rupturing, or dispersing them. These experiments
may be performed in a variety of ways.
Perforating paper. Let a card of ordinary thickness,
be laid upon the table, with a piece of tin foilunder it,
one end of which is connected with the outside of the
Leyden jar. Place one knob of the discharger, on the
top of the card, and bring the other into contact with
the knob or inside of the jar. In this way the spark, if
it passes at all. will pass through the paper, and on ex-
amining it, a small perforation will be found to be made,
and if the charge is great several perforations.
There is something very singular in the appearance of
these perforations. The paper is protruded on both sides,
forming a sort of double bur, one looking down to-
wards the tinfoil, and the other up towards the knob of
the discharger. In former times when the controversy
between the supporters of the two theories, those of
Franklin and Du Faye, was going on, this experi-
ment was considered by many as very decisive proof of
the opposite motion of two fluids. It seems, however,
not probable that the protrusion of the paper is owing to
the mechanical impetus of the two fluids, but to the
very violent and sudden rarifaction of the air contain-
ed in the substance of the paper, which by the explo-
sive force thus given it, forces the parts of the paper out
each way.
This experiment may be varied by using not a card,
but several sheets of paper, a quire, or twenty or thirty
leaves of a book. The effect will be precisely analogous.
The separate leaves will be protruded from the middle
sheet outwards, each way.
Perforation of glass. If instead of a sheet of paper
a thin plate of gla.ss be used, it will be shivered to frag-
ments at the spot where the electricity passes, perhaps,
however, without falling to pieces. In one small s|K>t
the glass will be completely pulverized, and from that
spot cracks will radiate to a greater or less distance ac-
ELECTRICITY. 517
cording to the force of the discharge. The most com-
mon case in which this effect is seen is in what is call-
ed the spontaneous discharge of a Leyden jar. When
a jar formed of thin glass, is very highly charged it
sometimes discharges itself through the glass itselt', pro-
ducing the appearances above described, with this addi-
tion, however, that the tinfoil is protruded, both on the
inside and outside, forming in both cases a large and
conspicuous bur. This result seems to conlirm the
opinion stated above, that these protrusions are owing
to the explosive force of highly rarified air, or to some
similar cause, rather than to the impetus of the fluid, for
the glass, at the plar.e of fracture, is completely pulver-
ized, but it is not displaced, yet the tinfoil is displaced,
there being between it and the glass a quantity of air
mingled with the paste or other cementing substance.
' The expansion of air by the passage of the electri-
cal fluid, either in the form of sparks or shocks, is shown
in the following experiment of Kinnersley, the appara-
tus for which has been called the electrical air thermom-
eter. It consists, of a glass tube closed at both ends by
air-tight brass caps, through which two wires slide in
the direction of the axis of the tube. These wires are
terminated by brass balls, which are made to approach
within the striking distance. To an aperture in the bot-
tom of the lower cap, is fitted a bent tube of glass which
turns upwards, and is open at both ends ; the bent part
is tilled with mercury, or with a colored fluid, which may
indicate by its rising or falling in the tube, any dilata-
tion or contraction that may take place in the air
within the vessel. It is found that every time a spark
passes between the brass balls, the fluid suddenly rises,
but descends again to its former level immediately after
each explosion ; thus showing that the dilatation of the
air, produced by the abrupt passage of electricity, is but
of momentary duration.
' When a strong electrical charge is sent through a
very confined portion of air, the explosive effects produc-
ed by it, are as considerable as those we have seen ex-
hibited by denser fluids. Thus if a piece of plate glass,
of the size of a square inch, and half an inch in thjck-
518
ness, be laid flat upon a table, and pressed down by a
weight, and the points of the wires be set opposite to each
other and against the under edge of the glass, so that the
electricity may pass beneath it, the charge of a large jar
transmitted in this way will break the glass into innu-
merable fragments, and even reduce a portion into an
impalpable powder. If the mouth of a small mortar
made of ivory, with a cavity of half an inch diameter,
and an inch deep, stopped by a cork, fitted so as to close
the aperture accurately, yet without much friction, and
if two wires be inserted through the sides of the mortar
so that their points within the cavity, be separated by an
interval of about a quarter of an inch, a strong charge
being sent through the wires will expand the air within
the cavity so suddenly as to project the cork to some dis-
tance.
' Solid bodies of a porous texture, such as wood, are
easily torn asunder by an electric charge. If two holes
be drilled in the opposite ends of a piece of wood, about
half an inch long, and a quarter of an inch thick, and
the ends of two wires inserted in the holes, so that their
points may heat the distance of a quarter of an inch, on
passing a strong charge the wood will be split in
pieces. Stones, loaf-sugar, and other brittle and imper-
fectly conducting substances, may be broken in a simi-
lar way.
'Place a piece of dry writing paper upon the table of
the universal discharger, and having removed the balls
from the ends of the sliding wire?, press the points of the
wires against the paper at the distance of two inches from
each other, if a powerful shock be now sent through the
wires, the paper will be torn in pieces. If a number of
wafers be placed on the table instead of paper they will
be dispersed in a curious manner, and many of them
broken into small fragments.
The thunder house. This is an apparatus designed to
show the efficacy of a lightning rod in preventing the
violent effects of lightning. It contains in the side of a
little wooden house, a square piece of wood, which when
the little lightning rod is interrupted in its course, is
thrown out with violence.
ELECTRICITY. 519
Violent effects of lightning. We have already men-
tioned the light and the heat evolved by the electric fluid
from the clouds, but the mechanical effects of its violence
are, if possible, still more striking. In passing down
through a floor, it sometimes perforates it in many places.
It knocks down walls, breaks panes of glass, and tears
and splits the largest trees. A case is described in Silli-
man's Journal of Science, in which the clothes of a man
standing at the door of his house, were torn into utter
fragments. He was rendered senseless by the shock but
soon recovered.
8. EJfcct of electricity upon the animal system.
If the knuckle of the operator is brought to the prime
conductor, when it is charged, the spark is received,
and a slight pricking sensation is felt. If the spaik is
very large, a sudden and very peculiar sensation is felt
through the joint. It is very slightly painful.
When, however, the Ley den jar is used, and the per-
former grasps the outside with one hand and touches the
knob with the other, a very peculiar, and if the charge is
large, a very painful sensation, called the electric shock,
is felt through the arms and chest. If several individ-
uals unite by joining hands, and at one end of the line a
connexion is formed with the outside, and at the other
end with the inside of the jar, they will all perceive the
shock at the same instant. It produces a painful feeling
at the joints, attended by a convulsive twitch, which
causes an involuntary start. Some persons arc much
more easily affected than others. In many cases young
persons are fond of taking the shocks, to others they
are highly disagreeable.
When this singular effect of electricity was originally
discovered, the philosophers who first experienced the
hock in their own persons, were ' so impressed with
wonder and with terror by this novel sensation, that they
wrote the most ridiculous and exaggerated account of
their feelings on the occasion. Muschenbroek states,
that he received so dreadful a concussion in his arms,
shoulder, and heart, that he lost his breath, and that it
was two days before he could recover from its effects ; he
520 ELECTRICITY.
declared also that he should not be induced to take
another shock for the whole kingdom of France. Mr
Allemand reports, that the shock deprived him of breath
for some minutes, and afterwards produced so acute a
pain along his right arm, that he was apprehensive it
might be attended with serious consequences. Mr
Winkler informs us, that it threw his whole body into
convulsions, and excited such a ferment in his blood, as
would have thrown him into a fever, but for the timely
employment of febrifuge remedies. He states, that at
another time it produced copious bleeding at the nose ;
the same effect was produced also upon his lady, who was
almost, rendered incapable of walking. These strange ac-
counts naturally excited the attention and wonder of all
classes of people; the learned and the vulgar were equal-
ly desirous of experiencing so singular a sensation, and
great numbers of half-taught electricians wandered
through every part of Europe, to gratify this universal cu-
riosity.'
The shock is, however, perfectly harmless, at least
when obtained from any common sized Leyden jar.
The unpleasant feeling passes off in a "moment, and
though in the use of an electric machine, the performer
is continually liable to allow the charge to pass through
his system unintentionally, and indeed accidents of
this kind very often happen yet we are not aware that
any serious effects have in any case resulted. The safe-
ty is, however, owing entirely to the smallness of the
rmtity of electricity which can be accumulated with
common apparatus.
The electric fluid when collected in sufficient quanti-
ties, and caused to pass through the animal frame, de-
stroys life at once. Ft is common to ?ho\v this by killing
small animals, with Leyden jars or a battery. A square
foot of coated surface will take the life of an animal of
the size of a rat or a squirrel. With large batteries the
same effect may be produced upon larger animals. The
experiments are, however, not very pleasant to be per-
formed, and the results may perhaps as well be taken
upon trust.
The fluid seems to act most directly upon the nervou*
ELECTRICITY. 521
system, and its power here has been employed exten-
sively for medical purposes. The benefits resulting have
been at some periods highly exaggerated, but there is
perhaps no doubt that in many diseases the effects of
this agent are salutary.
'Electricity may be administered medicinally in four
different ways. The first and most gentle is under the
form of a continued stream, or aura as it is termed, de-
rived from a wire or pointed piece of wood connected
with the prime conductor, and held at the distance of one
or two inches from the point to which it is to be direct-
ed ; an impression is felt similar to a current of air ;
and in this way it may be borne by parts of great sensi-
bility, such as the eye. The second mode is by direct-
ing sparks of various sizes to the affected part, by means
of a metallic ball at the extremity of a brass rod, which
is within a moderate distance from the part ; or else by
placing the patient on an insulating stool, and while he
is in communication with the prime conductor of the ma-
chine, taking sparks from him by another person with a
metallic ball at the end of a rod which he holds in his
hand. The size and intensity of the sparks will, of course,
be regulated by the distance at which the ball is placed
from the body, provided the machine be steadily work-
ed. The third mode is that by shocks from the discharge
of a Leyden phial, which is, of course, the most severe
and painful method of applying electricity. Great cau-
tion is required against the indiscriminate application of
this last method, which is not wholly free from danger.'
We have thus presented a brief, and it has been in-
tended to be, a simple view of the science of electricity.
Our design has been to give in the confined space allotted
to us, as full a description of the nature and effects
of this mysterious agent, as is in our power.
Some very interesting incidents which have occurred
in the history of this science, we should have been glad
to have presented, if our limits had allowed. We can-
not, however, forbear quoting in the conclusion of our
treatise, the following description of Franklin's experi-
ments to identify the electric fluid and the lightning of
the clouds.
VOL. I. NO. XXI. 46
522 ELECTRICITY.
' Dr Franklin was so impressed with the many points
of resemblance between lightning and electricity, that
he was convinced of their identity, and determined to
ascertain by direct experiment the truth of his bold con-
jecture. A spire which was erecting in Philadelphia he
conceived might assist him in this inquiry ; but, while
waiting for its completion, the sight of a boy's kite, which
had been raised for amusement, immediately suggested
to him a more ready method of attaining his object.
Having constructed a kite by stretching a large silk hand-
kerchief over two sticks in the form of a cross, on the
first appearance of an approaching storm, in June, 1752,
he went out into a field, accompanied by his son, to
whom alone he had imparted his design. Having raised
his kite, and attached a key to the lower end of the
hempen string, he insulated it byfastening it to a post, by
means of asifk. string, and waited with intense interest for
the result. A considerable time elapsed without the ap-
paratus giving any sign of electricity, even although a
dense cloud, apparently charged with lightning, had pass-
ed over the spot on which they stood. Franklin was
just beginning to despair of success, when his atten-
tion was caught by the bristling up of some of the loose
fibres on the hempen cord; he immediately presented his
knuckle to the key, and received an electric spark.
Overcome with the emotion inspired by this decisive
evidence of the great discovery he had achieved, he
heaved a deep sigh, and conscious of an immortal name,
felt he could have been content if that moment had
been his list. The rain now fell in torrents, and wet-
ting the string, rendered it conducting in its whole
length ; so that electric sparks were now collected from
it in great abundance.
* It should be noticed, however, that about a month
before Franklin made these successful trials, some phi-
losophers had obtained similar results in France, by fol-
lowing the plan recommended by Franklin. But the
glory of the discovery is universally given to Franklin,
as it was from his suggestions that the methods of ob-
taining it were originally derived.
' This important discovery was prosecuted with great
ELECTRICITY.
ardor by philosophers in every part of Europe. The
first experimenters incurred considerable risk in their
attempts to draw down electricity from the clouds, as
was soon proved by the fatal catastrophe, which, on the
sixth of August, befel Professor Richman, of Peters-
burgh, whose name has been already before us. He had
constructed an apparatus for observations on atmosphe-
rical electricity, and was attending a meeting of the
Academy of Sciences, when the sound of distant thun-
der caught his ear. He immediately hastened home,
taking with him his engraver, Sokolon, that he might
delineate the appearances that might present themselves.
While intent upon examining the electrometer, a large
globe of fire flashed from the conducting rod, which was
insulated, to the head of Richman, and passing through
his body, instantly deprived him of life. A red spot
was found on his forehead, where the electricity had
entered, his shoe was burst open, and part of his clothes
singed. His companion was struck down, and remain-
ed senseless for some time ; the door case of the room
was split, and the door itself torn off its hinges.'
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SCIENTIFIC TRACTS.
NUMBER XXII.
MILITARY PROJECTILES.
ANALYSIS.
Nature of the path of a projectile. Primitive contrivances ; Sim-
ple human strength ; Sling ; Dart. Elasticity of various substances.
Bow and Arrow ; Ballista ; Catapulta. Description of the siege of
Syracuse.
Invention of gunpowder. Cannon. Mortars. Shells. Carcas-
ses. Description of the shelling of a fort in India. Howitzers, Car-
ronades. Portable fire-arms. Theory of the rifle. History of
the science of Gunnery. Calculations and experiments. Eprouvette .
Ballistic Pendulum.
THEORY OF PROJECTILES.
Whenever a body is projected, as for example, a cannoa
ball, it is plain that it is acted upon by two forces, the at-
traction of gravitation draw ing it towards the earth, and
the impelling forr.c, whatever that may be. In order,
then, to ascertain the path of the body, we must consider
the nature of these two forces, first, separately, and then
in their united action upon the body projected.
It has been already shown in our tract on Gravitation,
that bodies when falling freely, descend in the first se-
cond 16.1 feet, in the next second 48.3, making in the
two 64.4, or four times the space passed over in one.
In the same manner, in thnc seconds, a body will fall nine
times as far as in one, and in four seconds sixteen times
as far ; and, universally, the space through which the
body will descend will be as the square of the time,
VOL. I. NO. XXII. 47
526
MIL1TARV PROJECTILES.
- End of the third second.
- End of the fourth second.
This accelerated motion may be easily represented to
the eye thus :
Beginning of the fall.
1 - End of the first second. In this line each little di-
vision represents 16.1 feet,
I End of the second second, as that is the space through
which a body falls in the first
second.
The other force to which
a projected body is subject,
10 - is the impulse which is given
it. This is much more sim-
ple in its character, for, if
we leave out of the consid-
eration the resistance of the
air, the effect of this impulse
is uniform. Motion once imparted continues unchang-
ed, unless some foreign force affects it. Consequently,
the tendency of the force of impulse is to carry forward
the body uniformly in a straight line.
These two forces now must be combined in order to
show the real path of the projectile. Their combina-
tion is usually illustrated by the following diagram.
The line o c repre-
sents the tendency of f i ?,3'
gravitation, with the ll'_^J^
seconds marked on
the left ; o 4'b repre- aj
sents the tendency of
the projectile force,
which being uniform,
the line is divided
into equal parts,
which are marked by
the seconds above.
These parts compar-
ed with one of the
divisions of the per-
pendicular line appear to be about five times as long ;
and as these divisions stand for about sixteen feet, the
divisions of the other line would represent about seven-
at'
MILITARY PROJECTILES. 527
tyfive feet each; so that the figure corresponds with
the condition of a body thrown a little upwards with a
velocity of about seventy five feet per second. Now the
effect of the projectile force will be to carry it on, during
the first second, as far as 61', while during the same
time, gravitation will bring it down from the point 61'
which it would have reached, as much as the distance
from o to !'. The point then at which the body will
be found is m. In the same manner we find the points
n, 0, p, the successive places of the body at the end of
the second, third, and fourth seconds. The whole path
of the projectile will be the curve o, m, n, o, p.
It is not our present purpose to go any farther into the
theory of projectiles, but to give some practical informa-
tion, for the benefit of the general reader, in regard to
the contrivances for propelling heavy bodies for the pur--
poses of war. The above theoretical view was necessa-
ry to illustrate some remarks to be made in the sequel.
PRIMITIVE CONTRIVANCES.
1 . The unassisted strength of the human arm was the
first force which was applied to the purpose of projecting
bodies for offensive purposes. Stones, clubs and spears
were the first rude weapons. The muscular strength
which gives motion to such projectiles is not, strictly
speaking, directly applied to them by impulse. Jt is em-
ployed in giving a circular motion to the arm, the body
to be projected being thrown of by the centrifugal force.
Consequently the force given to the projectile will be pro-
portional, not only to the strength of the individual, but
to the length of his arm, as this would increase the length
of the arc through which the hand moves, and conse-
quently its velocity. A very obvious mode of increasing
the power, therefore, would be to increase by artificial
means this length, which gives rise to the construction of
the second species of weapons.
2. The sling and the dart, two modes of projecting
bodies which evidently derive their power from increas-
ing the velocity of the projectile, by increasing the arc
through which it moves, and which differ from each other,
523 MILITARY PROJECTILKS.
only in the trifling difference of the purposes to which
they were applied. The sling being intended to throw
a stone, and the dart, a sort of arrow.
'3. The third class comprises those in which the elas-
tic force of various substances is applied to the projec-
tile. The bow and arrow is the simplest instrument of
this kind, and it was for a long time in earlier ages, one
of the most important means of warfare. Hand-bows
were constructed of various materials, and fitted up in
very various ways. The accuracy with which they may be
aimed, and the greater velocity which may be given to the.
projectile, enabled them to take a high rank in the time
when they were introduced.
As men advanced in the arts of life, and began to feel
the necessity of having some permanent means of de-
fence, walls and fortifications of various kinds began to
be erected, which were for a long time an effectual secu-
rity from violence. The same principle, however, with
that which gives its efficiency to the bow and arrow, soon
afforded the means of successful attack against these.
The engines so frequently mentioned in ancient history
under the names of Balista Catapulta Oneiger, &.c,
were variously constructed ; but the force was usually
the elasticity of twisted ropes. The construction and
the employment of these and similar engines, continued
for some time in the middle ages. They received various
names, and were variously modified according to the in-
genuity, or the particular purposes of the engineers who
prepared them.
It is not possible to ascertain now with any accuracy,
what was the form, or how great the power of these en-
gines. The most exaggerated accounts of their magni-
tude and effects have descended to us, and whatever de-
duction it is necessary to make from these, it is doubt-
less true, that immense stones, and beams of wood, and
other ponderous missiles of great size were thrown by
these machines with great force and effect. The follow-
ing extract from Plutarch's account of the siege of Syra-
cuse, will illustrate the use of these and similar engines.
' Archimedes one day asserted to king Hiero, whose
kinsman and friend he was, this proposition, that with a
MILITARY PROJECTILES. 529
given power he could move any given weight whatever ;
nay, it is said, from the confidence he had in his demon-
stration, he ventured to affirm, that if there was another
earth besides this we inhabit, by going into that, he
would move this wherever he pleased. Hiero, full of
wonder, begged of him to evince the truth of his propo-
sition, by moving some great weight with a small power.
In compliance with which, Archimedes caused one of
the king's galleys to be drawn on shore, with many hands
and much labor ; and having well maimed her, and put
on board her usual loading, he placed himself at a dis-
tance, and without any pains, only moving with his hand
the end of a machine, which consisted of a variety of
ropes and pulleys, he drew her to him in as smooth and
gentle a manner as if she had been under full sail. The
king quite astonished when he saw the force of his art,
prevailed upon Archimedes to make for him all manner
of engines and machines which could be used either for
attack or defence in a siege. These, however, he never
made use of, the greatest part of his reign being blessed
with tranquillity ; but they were extremely serviceable to
the Syracusans on the present occasion, who, with such
a number of machines, had the inventor to direct them.
' When the Romans attacked them both by sea 'and
land, they were struck dumb with terror, imagining they
could not possibly resist such numerous forces and so fu-
rious an assault. But Archimedes soon began to play
his engines, and they shot against the land forces, all
sorts of missive weapons, and stones of an enormous size,
with so incredible a noise and rapidity, that nothing could
stand before them ; they overturned and crushed what-
ever came in their way, and spread terrible disorder
throughout the ranks. On the side towards the sea were
erected vast machines, putting forth on a sudden over the
walls, huge beams, which striking with a prodigious force
on the enemy's galleys, sunk them at once; while other
ships hoisted up at the prows by iron grapples or hooks,
like the beaks of cranes, and set an end on the stern, were
plunged to the bottom of the sea ; and others again by
ropes and grapples were drawn towards the shore, and
after being whirled about, and dashed against the rocks
530 MILITARY PROJECTILES.
that projected below the walls, were broken to pieces,
and the crew perished. Very often a ship lifted high
above the sea, suspended and twirling in the air, present-
ed a most dreadful spectacle. There it swung till the
men were thrown out by the violence of the motion, and
then it split against the walls, or sunk, on the engines
ietting go its hold. As for the machine which Marcellus
brought forward upon eight galleys, and which was call-
ed sambuca on account of its likeness to the musical in-
strument of that name, whilst it was at a considerable
distance from the wall, Archimedes discharged a stone
of ten talents' weight, and after that a second and a
third, all which striking upon it with amazing noise and
force, shattered and totally disjointed it.
' Marcellus, in his distress, drew off his galleys as fast
as possible, and sent orders to the land forces to retreat
likewise. He then called a council of war, in which it
was resolved, to come close to the walls, if it was possi-
ble, next day before morning. For Archimedes' engines,
they thought, being very strong, and intending to act at
a considerable distance, would then discharge themselves
over their heads ; and if they were pointed at them
when so near, would have no effect. But for this Archi-
medes had long been prepared, having by him engines
fitted to all distances, with suitable weapons and shorter
beams. Besides., he had caused holes to be made in the
walls, in which he had placed scorpions, that did not car-
ry far, but could be fast discharged, and by these the
enemy was galled, without knowing whence the weapon
came.
' When, therefore, the Romans got close to the walls,
undiscovered, as they thought, they were welcomed with
a shower of darts, and huge pieces of rocks, which fell
as it were perpendicularly on their heads ; lor the engines
played from every quarter of the walls. This obliged
them to retire ; and when they were at some distance,
other shafts were shot at them, in their retreat, from the
larger machines, which made terrible havoc among them
as well as greatly damaged their shipping, without any
possibility of their annoying the Syracusans in their turn ;
for Archimedes had placed most of his engines under
MILITARY PROJECTILES. 531
covert of the walls; so that the Romans, being infinitely
distressed by an invisible enemy, seemed to fight against
the gods.
' Marcellus, however, got off, and laughed at his own
artillery men and engineers. " Why do we not leave off
contending," said he, u with this mathematical Briareus,
who sitting on the shore, and acting as it were but in
jest, has shamefully baffled our naval assault; and, in
striking us with such a multitude of bolts at once, exceeds
even the hundred giants in the fable'?" And, in truth
all the rest of the Syracusans were no more than the
body in the batteries of Archimedes, while he himself
was the informing soul. All other weapons lay idle and
unemployed ; his were the only offensive and defensive
arms of the city. At last the Romans were so terrifi-
ed, that if they saw but a rope or stick put over the walls,
they cried out that Archimedes was levelling some ma-
chine at them, and turned their backs and fled. Mar-
cellus, seeing this, gave up all thoughts of proceeding by
assault, and leaving the matter to time, turned the siege
into a blockade.'
Such is Plutarch's account. The reader may perhaps
look a little incredulous at the idea of ships being hook-
ed up into the air, and whirled round against rocks
and walls till they are dashed to pieces and even at
some other parts of this account. But, however, exag-
gerated it may be in its details, there is no question that
Archimedes brought on this occasion an immense me-
chanical power to bear on the work of projecting
missiles.
The invention of gunpowder, however at length, sup-
plied a new and a tremendous power, which with the
rapid and decisive agency which is so characteristic of
all its effects, has banished every other mode of pro-
jection from the field and from the fortress. We shall
make no delay in examining the questions which involve
its early history in obscurity, nor even stop to consid-
er who is to receive the honor of its first composition.
Very soon after its introduction as a means of war, the
nations of Europe who attempted to employ it, vied with
each other in the magnitude of the pieces of artillery
532 MILITARY PROJECTILES.
which they brought into the field. They were usually
.made of bars of metal hooped together ; some of very
great size are described in books, many of which are
now existing in the fortresses of Europe. There is one
in Asia, probably the largest in existence. Fourteen
feet long, nearly five in diameter, and two and a half
bore.
The form and proportion of a piece of ordnance vary
according to the object for which any particular piece
is designed. The bore of the cannon is cylindrical ex-
cepting a cavity in large pieces, near the breech for the
reception of the powder.
We shall enumerate some of the principal varieties
of ordnance, with a short description of the particular
purposes of each.
MODERN ORDNANCE.
1. The cannon. This name is applied to those pieces
whose object is to throw a simple heavy ball, which is
to do injury solely by its momentum. It is mounted in
various ways, according to the particular purpose for
which it is designed, to be placed in a fortress, or in a
ship, or to be carried into the field. It is supported by
its trunnions, which are two cylindrical projections, one
on each side, and is aimed by elevating or depressing its
breech by means of wedges, and sometimes by a screw.
As has been before remarked, this species of artillery
was formerly made immensely large, but experience has
taught military men, that by reducing the size more is
gained by the ease and the frequency of the discharges,
han is lost by diminishing the balls. The size of the
pieces has .been consequently much reduced. Those
now in use by the European powers throw balls whose
weight is from one to fortytwo pounds ; each piece re-
ceiving its name from the weight of the ball which it is
intended to discharge.
The balls themselves are generally of cast iron.
Stones were formerly used, especially when very large
pieces were to be loaded. Stones coated with lead have
sometimes been employed. Balls heated in a furnace
MILITARY PROJECTILES. 533
are often discharged for the purpose of setting fire to the
object which they strike. From this piece of ordnance
there are discharged canister shot, by which is meant a
quantity of small balls inclosed in a tin case, and grape
shot, balls of the same kind bound up tightly in a can-
vass bag. These coverings are burst by the violence of
the discharge, and the balls scattered in every direction
are very destructive to the ranks of an enemy. There
are also chain shot and bar shot, consisting of two balls
connected by a bar or a chain, which are principally used
for the purpose of disabling vessels, by cutting the rig-
ging and splintering the masts and spars.
2. Mortars. This species of ordnance is designed
to discharge bomb shells, which are hollow balls of iron
filledVith gunpowder, with a slow match attached to each,
of such length as to explode soon after the bomb strikes.
It is necessary, in order to insure that the explosion of
the shell should take place while it is in the vicinity of
the object which it is intended to injure, that it should
be discharged into the air, so that falling nearly perpen-
dicularly, it remains in the place where it strikes, until
the slow match is exhausted. The construction is con-
sequently very different from that of the cannon. Its
form resembles that of the household utensil from which
it takes its name. It is fixed nearly perpendicular,
and is susceptible of very little motion. The distance to
which the shell is to be thrown, is regulated by the quan-
tity of powder used in the charge. Mortars are also em-
ployed in throwing carcasses, which, like shells are hol-
low balls of iron, but are filled with highly combustible,
though not explosive substances, designed to set fire to
the buildings or ships upon which they fall.
There is a third kind of shells, called from their in-
ventor, Shrapnells. They are hollow balls of iron filled
with small balls, and a quantity of powder, which is de-
signed to explode when the shell has arrived at the point
where it is intended to take effect.
In order that the reader may have some distinct con-
ception of the nature and effects of these implements of
death, we have selected from the journal of a British sol-
dier in India, two extracts ; one giving an account of the
VOL.I. NO. xxn. 48
534 MILITARY PROJECTILES.
effect of a breaching battery, that is, a battery of cannon,
intended to make a breach in a wall, by which the ene-
my might enter, and the other describing the effect of
shells. They give the reader a pretty vivid picture of the
nature of war.
' When the morning bestowed its bright rays abroad,
we threw a little farther light upon the subject, by open-
ing our breaching battery, accompanied with such terri-
fic cheering and shouting, as seemed to startle the new
risen sun, which at that identical moment appeared.
The enemy, after a moment's pause, were seen in a tre-
mendous bustle, mustering their full force ; and their
heads were so thick, that, had our shelling battery been
ready, we might have made dreadful havoc among the
motley group. They shouted, yelled, screamed, groaned ;
small arms whistled, cannons roared ; and, in an instant,
the fort was enveloped in smoke. On the following
morning, I went again on duty in the trenches. We re-
tired into the wood before-mentioned, which had a path
of communication with the trenches, though it was a
considerable distance from the grand breaching battery.
Our operations against the fort continued active and re-
solute ; but our balls made but little impression upon the
mud bastions and curtains. Many of them scarcely
buried themselves, and others rolled down into the un-
der works of the enemy, and were kindly sent back to
us. It is almost folly to attempt to effect a practicable
breach in a fort built of such materials. The crust you
knock off the face of a bastion or curtain, forms a great
barrier to your upproach to a solid footing. Young en-
gineers are too apt to judge, from the appearance of the
fallen mud, that the breach is practicable ; when, the
first step the storming party takes, they find they sink up
to their necks in light earth. A woful instance of this
nature, I shall have to advert to more particularly in the
course of my narrative ; and, if it prove a timely hint to
the inexperienced, I shall be rewarded. Stone forts are
soon demolished ; when undermined well at the bottom,
the top will soon follow, and they cannot easily be repair-
ed ; but mud forts defy human power.
MILITARY PROJECTILES. 535
We this day erected howitzer and mortar batteries,
and when they first opened, they struck terror and con-
sternation into the enemy, who fled in every direction,
to avoid those destructive engines ; but, in a few hours,
they dug holes in the ramparts, which they got into
whenever they saw those unwelcome visiters on the wing ;
and, unless the shell happened actually to fall on them,
they escaped in this way. But our shelling in those days
was a mere bagatelle to what it is now. A shell in five
minutes, was then enormous ; now, twenty in one min-
ute is by no means extraordinary, and these twice as big
as in the times of which I speak.
' This day the enemy was pretty passive ; no doubt
making places of refuge. Our shells, if thrown further
into the town, must have been most destructive, for the
population was evidently prodigious, from the number of
fighting men. The houses frequently appeared on fire,
and several small explosions took piace daily ; no doubt,
small magazines. These little incidents generally creat-
ed cheering by the besiegers, and redoubled firing by the
enemy. In the course of the day we saw the Rajah for
the first time : he was on the shabroodge, or royal bas-
tions, with his suit, reconnoitering with a spy-glass. The
officer commanding the howitzer battery laid a shell for
the shabroodge, which struck the very top of it, and soon
dislodged his highness and suite. In a moment, not a
soul was to be seen.'
******
' On the following day, after reconnoitering the fort
and the ground in its vicinity, spots were fixed upon for
new breaching and shelling batteries; and, in twentyfour
hours afterward, we commenced our work of death on
the fort and its obdurate inmates. Long ere the hour of
the sun's decline, it grew as dark as midnight. About
ten o'clock, the terrific shelling commenced, every
whistling shell bearing on its lighted wings messengers
of death and desolation. I never saw these implements
of destruction so accurately thrown, some of them
scarcely five inches above the walls of the fort. In five
minutes the screams of the women in the fort were
536 MILITARY PROJECTILES.
dreadful. In a place so confined, where numberless
houses were crowded together, every shell must have
found its way to some poor wretch's dwelling, and, per-
haps, torn from mother's bosoms their clinging babes.
No person can estimate the dreadful carnage committed
by shells, but those whose fate it has been to witness
the effects of these messengers of death. On this occa-
sion our shells were very numerous, and of enormous
size, many of them thirteen inches and a half in calibre.
The system of shelling had been so much improved in
the twelve years which had elapsed since the siege of
Bhurtpore, that, instead of about one shell in five min-
utes from a single battery, it was by no means extraor-
dinary to see twenty in one minute, from the numerous
batteries which were brought to bear upon this place.
It was, at times, truly awful to see ten of these soaring
in the air together, seemingly riding on the midnight
breeze, and disturbing the slumbering clouds on their
pillows of rest ; all transporting to a destined spot the
implements of havoc and desolation contained within
their iron sides. The moon hid herself, in seeming pen-
si veness, behind a dense black cloud, as though reluc-
tant to look on such a scene ; and the feathered tribe,
that were wont, in those warm nights of summer, to
melodize the breeze, retired far into the distant woods,
there to tune their notes of sorrow. Mortal language
cannot array such a scene in its garb of blackest wo.
Some carcasses were also thrown. These, when in the
air, are not unlike a fiery man soaring above. They are
sent to burn houses, or blow up magazines. Far and
wide they stretch forth their claws of death ; and well
might the poor natives call them devils of the night or
fiends of the clouds. To complete this dreadful scene, <
the roaring congreves ran along the bastion's top break-
ing legs and arms with their shaking tails. Nothing
could be more grand to the eye, or more affecting to
the sympathizing heart, than this horrid spectacle.'
This storming was successful, and the writer of the''
preceding account soon found his way into the fort, to
witness the havoc which he and his comrades had made.
MILITARY PROJECTILES. 537
The description of the scene thus brought to view is too
dreadful to be here described.
3. The third species of ordnance which we shall de-
scribe are Howitzers. They are intermediate in their
construction between the cannon and the mortar, and
are designed to combine, as far as they can be combin-
ed, the purposes of both. Like the mortar they are
used for discharging the various kinds of shells, and
they comprise a much greater extent of aim as they can
be pointed at any angle of elevation. They are much
more portable also. They can, in addition to this, be
used like cannon for the discharge of solid balls. In
fact, a shell is often discharged at a low elevation, so as
to act at first by its impulse like a solid ball, and after-
wards by its explosion.
4. The fourth species of ordnance is the Carronade,
designed for throwing cored balls as they are called,
that is, hollow and empty. It is found that when a
ball passes through a ship's side with great velocity, it
makes a smooth and well denned hole. If on the other
hand it passes with a slow motion, it tears and splinters
the planks and beams in such a manner as to produce a
much greater injury. To reduce the force then by
which the ball would strike, by diminishing the weight,
while the size remains the same, is the object gained by
the carronade. It is much used in naval warfare.
We cannot here enter at all into a description of the
endless variety in construction and use which portable
fire-arms assume. For they do not differ at all in prin-
ciple, whatever is the object for which they are design-
ed, whether to become weapons of the infantry in the
field of battle, or the means of health and recreation to
the sportsman, or a protection to the traveller from the
highwayman's attack, or the instrument by which the
duellist may gratify his unhappy revenge.
The rifle, however, deserves a notice, both on account
of the beauty of its theory, and the excellence of its
practical operation. One of the greatest causes of error
in aiming a common musket or fowling piece, is, that the
ball generally receives, on leaving the piece, by unequal
friction against the sides of the barrel, a rotatory mo-
VOL. i. NO. xxn. 48*
538 MILITARY PROJECTILES.
tion which affects the course of the ball in a manner
which depends on the direction in which this rotatory
motion takes place. Now this will evidently depend on
the side of the barrel on which the ball accidentally
rubbed on issuing from the gun. It is for this reason
that if a barrel is bent in any direction, the ball which
issues from it, will, as it is said, be deflected in the con-
trary quarter. There will always be, from this cause, a
deviation from a straight line, in the direction of the ball,
as the axis of rotation will always be perpendicular to
the axis of the gun.
In order to remedy this difficulty the idea was con-
ceived of giving the ball a rotatory motion, whose axis
should be coincident with the axis of the gun. This
would prevent effectually any other rotation, while it
would itself occasion no deflection. This object is ac-
complished by cutting spiral grooves on the interior of
the barrel, which made one turn from the breech to the
muzzle, so that the ball, in passing through the barrel,
revolves once, on that axis which coincides with the axis,
of the barrel. It will of course continue in this state
of revolution through its whole flight. In order that the
ball should so adapt itself to the grooves of the gun, it
must be driven down with considerable force. Its fric-
tion, consequently in passing out will be much greater,
and to guard against the increased danger of bursting,
which this will occasion, the barrel must be made thick-
er and stronger.
The nature of the motion of projected balls has been
an object of very assiduous inquiry, especially by the na-
tions of Europe, who have been ambitious of great mili-
tary power. For many centuries the art of gunnery
was founded entirely upon practice. The little devia-
tion from a straight line which the path of the arrow or
the spear presented, could be easily estimated after re-
peated trials, and an allowance sufficiently accurate for
ordinary purposes, was easily made. And in regard to
those great engines which the ancients constructed, in
MILITARY PROJECTILES. 539
which the course of the projectile was an arc of very
considerable curvature, they were not in sufficiently con-
stant and universal use to attract much attention to the
nature of the motions to whicli they gave rise. Indeed,
had this nature been well ascertained, the difficulty of
accurately aiming machines of such construction, would
have prevented the engineers of those days from deriving
much practical benefit from the knowledge. In later
days, however, when trains of artillery of great magni-
tude and variety, have become an essential part of the
retinue of every army, and when the management of
their operations have become one of the greatest objects
of attention, as a means of attack and defence, at every
battle, and at every siege, military men and military
governments have made great efforts to discover the true
theory of the motions in question, taking into considera-
tion the resistance of the air, which we neglected in the
view of this subject, presented at the commencement of
this tract. Courses of experiments, the most complete
and the most accurate, have been made at great expense,
especially under the direction of the governments of
France and England. And the attention of the greatest
mathematicians and mechanical philosophers, has been
devoted to the problem which this subject presents. The
result, however, has but partially rewarded these efforts.
There are so many circumstances varying by complicated
laws, affecting the phenomenon in question, that but lit-
tle progress has been made, and after all the experiments
and all the mathematics, a very large part of the iron
and the lead is projected in vain. Galileo was one of
the first who made any progress in examining the sub-
ject. He discovered from the nature of the two elements
of the nature of a projectile, viz. the projectile force, and
the force of gravity, that the course described by it must
be a parabola, as shown already in this tract.
On instituting experiments, however, it was soon found
that the fact differed widely from theory. The place
upon which a ball fell after its discharge from a gun, es-
pecially where the velocity was great, was found to be
very different from what it would have been, if the laws
of the parabola had governed its movements. And this
540 MILITARY PROJECTILES.
inconsistency between hypothesis and observation was
for a long time, a great perplexity to mathematicians and
gunners. No one could dispute the demonstration, and
it was still more difficult to deny the fact. It did indeed
occur to some that the resistance of the air might have
some influence upon the motion, while it was resolutely
denied by the most weighty authorities that so rare and
tenuous a substance could produce any sensible effect.
One writer endeavors to remove the difficulty by suppos-
ing that a ball projected with great velocity, describes in
the first part of its track, a straight line from the end of
which the parabolic track commenced. During the
straight part of its track the projectile force only could
operate of course. This imagined straight line, the dis-
coverer called the line of the impulse of the fire.
Some of Sir Isaac Newton's calculations on the sub-
ject of the resistance of fluids led him to suppose that
the influence of the air was the true cause of the devia-
tions from the parabolic path. This has been since as-
certained to be the case. To determine, however, the
law by which this influence acts, and the degree of de-
viation which it will in each particular case produce,
is one of the most difficult problems in mathematics.
The resistance varies with the velocity, increasing very
rapidly as the velocity increases. Now this velocity is
very irregularly varied, changing at every instant, and
changing in a very different law, according to the angle
of elevation at which it is thrown.
Many experiments have been instituted to determine
many points of practical importance in regard to the con-
struction and use of ordnance. The size and proportion
of the parts of the several species ; the quantity of pow-
der which produces a maximum effect ; the angle of
elevation at which the range is greatest, and the propor-
tion which the velocity of the ball bears to the quantity
of powder, the length of the piece, and the nature of
the ball. Various instruments have been contrived for
the purpose of facilitating these inquiries, which it is
unnecessary particularly to describe.
Neither mathematical calculation however, nor experi-
ment have been able to ascertain with any great precision
MILITARY PROJECTILES.
541
the path of a projectile, through a resisting medium like
the air. The practice of gunnery, therefore, depends al-
most entirely upon the skill which the gunner acquires
by repeated trials. Some experiments have, however,
given important and useful results. The following table
presents the reader with the comparative effects produc-
ed by different charges, and different degrees of eleva-
tion. The ball used was of one pound weight.
Powder.
Elevation
of Gun.
Velocity
of Ball.
Range.
Time
of Flight.
O'.
2
4
8
12
2
IS"
15
15
15
45
feet.
860
1230
1610
1680
860
4100
5100
6000
6700
5100
9'
12
144
15i
21
By this tabla it appears that with two ounces of pow-
der, the ball moved with a velocity of 860 feet per second,
whereas with twelve ounces, which is six times as much
powder, it moved only 1680, or about twice as fast.
With the two ounces, its range, or the distance to which
it went was 4100 feet, and with six times as much pow-
der, only 6700, which is not nearly twice as far. The
reason is, that with great velocities the resistance increases
very rapidly. The resistance is as the square of the
velocity, as it is mathematically expressed ; that is, doub-
ling the velocity, the resistance is increased fourfold ; and
three times the velocity, gives nine times the resistance.
Indeed it can be proved that with a certain velocity,
which can without much difficulty be given, a ball, will
move on so fast that the air will not close over it instant-
ly, but there will be a vacuum behind it. In this case
the ball will be resisted at the rate of fifteen pounds to
the square inch, which would make in a ball, four inches
in diameter, bctioecn 150 and 200 pounds. Such a load
as this must soon stop any ball ; and it is found that
whenever a ball is thrown with such a velocity, it almost
instantly becomes retarded, until it is reduced to a much
smaller velocity, so that the resistance will be less.
Various instruments have been devised for measuring
542 MILITARY PROJECTILES.
the incipient velocity of a cannon or musket ball, or the
elastic force of various kinds of powder. We shall de-
scribe one, which is called the eprouvette. We must first,
however, state that when gunpowder explodes, the ex-
pansive force is exerted in every direction. It acts not
only against the ball, but against the sides and back of
the gun. The force which it exerts each side is extin-
guished by the strength of the metal, but by the force
exerted against the back or breech of the gun, the gun
is thrown backward as much as the ball is thrown for-
ward. We do not mean as far or as siviftly, but that
the whole amount of motion is as great. That is, if the
cannon or gun weighs one hundred pounds and the ball
one, the cannon will be thrown back one hundredth part
as far. This is called the recoil, and upon the well
known mathematical principle that the action and reac-
tion are equal, it is the same in amount as the motion of
the ball.
The eprouvette measures the recoil. It is an instru-
ment contrived for the purpose of comparing the strength
of different kinds of gunpowder. It consists of a
small brass gun, about two and a half feet long, suspend-
ed by a metallic stem or rod, turning by an axis on a
firm and strong frame, by means of which the piece
moves round in a circular arch. A little below the axis,
the stem divides into two branches, reaching down to the
gun, to which the lower ends of the branches are fixed,
the one near the muzzle, the other near the breech of
the piece. The upper end of the stem is firmly attach-
ed to the axis, which turns very freely by its extremities
in the sockets of this supporting frame ; by which means
the gun and stem vibrate together in a vertical plane,
with a very small degree of friction. The piece is charg-
ed with a small quantity of powder, (usually about two
ounces,) without any ball, and then fired ; by the force
of the explosion the piece is made to recoil or vibrate,
describing an arch or angle, which will be the greater or
less, according to the quantity or strength of the powder.
To measure the quantity of recoil, and consequently
the strength of the powder, a circular brazen or silvered
arch of a convenient extent, and of a radius equal to ita
MILITARY PROJECTILES. 543
distance below the axis, is fixed against the descending
branches of the stem, and graduated into divisions,
according to the purpose required to be answered by the
machine.
The divisions in these scales are pointed out by an in-
dex, which is carried on the arch during the vibration,
and then stopping there, shows the actual extent of the
vibration.
Another contrivance which has been resorted to, to
measure the force of a ball thrown by gunpowder, is call-
ed the Ballistic pendulum. It measures the force, not
by the recoil, but by the force given to a heavy body sus-
pended like a pendulum, and against which the ball is
thrown.
* The block of wood which is struck by the ball, in-
stead of being left at liberty to move straight forward in
the direction of the ball's motion, is suspended like the
weight of the vibrating pendulum of a clock, by a strong
iron stem (with adequate braces,) having a horizontal
axis at the top, on the ends of which it vibrates freely
when struck by the ball. This large pendulum, after re-
ceiving the blow, is penetrated by the ball to a small
depth, and by reason of the motion communicated, os-
cillates round its axis, describing an arch, which is
greater or less according to the magnitude of the impul-
sion. From the extent of the arch described by the vi-
brating pendulum, the velocity of any point of the block
can be readily computed.
' Several blocks of this kind, varying in weight, from
COO pounds up to about twentyfive hundred pounds, were
constructed and employed under the direction of Dr Hut-
ton, for the purpose of ascertaining the initial velocities,
as well as the velocities at different distances from the
mouth of the piece, of balls weighing from one to sixteen
pounds.'
We have thus presented to our readers the prominent
facts in regard to this branch of human skill. The sub-
ject of war is at best a very melancholy one. It is never
pleasant to consider the efforts which human ingenuity
has made to facilitate the destruction of property and
544 MILITARY PROJECTILES.
life, and to arm passion and revenge, the usual animat-
ing spirit of war, with their deadliest power. We have
not entered upon this subject for the purpose of awaken-
ing a military spirit or cherishing a love of war, but
simply to give that degree of information which every
general reader should possess, in order that he may un-
derstand the allusions with which all history is full.
It is sad to reflect how universally the history of na-
tions is a history of war. Almost every page is a de-
scription of internal commotions or foreign struggles, in
which we are continually presented with the dreadful
spectacle of thousands meeting in the field, to mangle
and to kill each other, by every means which ingenuity
can invent, and expense obtain, and numbers almost
countless, apply. From long habit we can read of these
things with little emotion, but how few of the readers
of this tract, could actually see the bursting shell do its
work upon a crowd of his fellow-men, or behold a
single individual shot down before his door, by a mus-
ket ball, without horror. But what is one shell, or
the shriek of one single victim of a musket ball, com-
pared with the scenes to which every reader of history
must be familiarized. It is better, however, if we are
to look at these dreadful exhibitions of human guilt at
all, that we should look at them understandjngly ; we
can then better estimate their true character, and
more correctly judge of their nature and effects.
SCIENTIFIC TRACTS.
NUMBER XXIII.
RAIL-ROADS.
THE most simple inventions have been among the most
important, though they soon became common and ceased
to attract notice.
The cord and pulley must have caused an improve-
ment upon mere brute force, as astonishing in its day as
its multiplied action in spinning machinery has been sur-
prising in our time ; then it was that man could act where
he was not.
The wheel itself now so simple, so component a part
of daily action, was once an invention of no ordinary
mind.
The cask or common hogshead was an immense stride
in commercial facilities. By this, a man readily conveys
over a level space, a ton weight, which would otherwise
require twenty men to move, and on a slight inclination,
he commands a self-acting power attainable in no other
mode but by machinery.
In the history of locomotion there is much of this sim-
ple invention, less noticed than its value demands. If
there is anything that distinguishes one people from
another, it is, eminently, the power of intercommunica-
tion, and yet in principle how simple the means.
COMPARED WITH CANALS.
The knowledge and use of canals appear to have been
of long standing. The ancients (though ignorant of
locks,) were familiar with the simple canal or cut on one
VOL. i. NO. xxin. 49
546 RAIL-ROADS.
level. In China, however, the canal from Canton to Pe-
kin with locks or inclined planes, is estimated to pass
through 825 miles, and is supposed to have existed since
the tenth century. A canal from the Nile to the Red
Sea, connecting the eastern waters with the Mediterra-
nean, was completed in the sixteenth century, after im-
mense labor for many years ; it was scarcely used, and
being cut through a sandy country was soon obliterated.
The Dutch have flourished for centuries beside their
canals. In France the canal of Languedoc in 16SO, and
in England the Sauky canal from Manchester to Liver-
pool in 1755, appear to have been the first of importance
in those distinguished countries.
In modern times the art of canalling has undergone
but slight improvement, and with the exception of some
alteration in locks, it appears to have started into a sys-
tem almost at once.
There are two objections which exist against canals as
a system. .FYr.stf, the necessity of a supply of water at the
summit levels or highest points, and second, the nature of
water as a resisting medium to bodies passing through
it. The former cannot be obviated by any effort of
science or invention, and canals, therefore, can only be
located where a constant supply of water can be at com-
mand, on the highest levels. The second objection may
be diminished, but only to a very limited extent, such as
" by the form of a boat, &-c. The usual rate of a canal-
boat for goods is but two to two and a half miles each
hour, and for passengers three to four miles. On the
Delaware and Chesapeake canal, passage boats have re-
cently been propelled by an increased number of horses
at six and eight miles, but from the motion produced in the
water, and the consequent injury upon the canal, it is
stated that the tolls of such boats will not repair the
damage.
There is a third objection which attaches with pecu-
liar force to this country. Canals in New England are
rendered useless by ice often more than one third of the
year. A rail-road on the contrary may at a small ex-
pense be kept in operation the whole, of the year, except,
occasionally, in the northeastern portion of the Union.
RAIL-ROADS. 547
The Honesdale rail-road in Pennsylvania is kept open
through the winter.
Notwithstanding such difficulties, however, the long
and well tried utility of canals, their superior facilities for
conveying heavy weights, which cannot readily be di-
vided, the passing from one level to another at a trifling
expense, will still give them honorable employment where
they have been or may be readily constructed. Like an
old and respected friend, they are not to be rudely pass-
ed, for a new and more fascinating acquaintance.
It is a singular fact that the entire principle of the
railway was introduced into England long before canals,
if we except an unimportant cut of a mile or two mad
near Cambridge by the Romans.
In some of the principal collieries in the north of Eng-
land, the use of the wooden rail for conveying coal car-
riages from the pit to the place of shipment, was adopted
as far back as 1076, and possibly thirty or forty years
prior to that time. It was not, however, till the celebrat-
ed joint stock year of 1825, that the subject excited
much interest, when the projection of a railway from
Manchester to Liverpool gave a new impulse, and the
effects appear to be working a complete revolution in the
business of locomotion.
The railway and its adaptation for a moving power,
simple as it is in principle, is eminently a child of science
and the arts. The improvements which have from time
to time been adopted, and the inventions which have
added continually to its merits, have been long and grad-
ually overcoming the obstacles which this species of lo-
comotion presented.
THE RAIL.
We are not informed that any other country has claim-
ed with England the use of the railway until within a
few years. At its early adoption in 1G7G, two continued
wooden rails or strong pieces about four feet apart, were
548 RAIL-ROADS.
laid on cross sleepers even with the ground. In process
of time the rails were found more convenient, at a small
elevation, clear from dirt and other accidental obstruc-
tions ; and the renewing the rails when worn down, be-
coming inconvenient, the contrivance of a scantling or
upper rail was adopted, and this being pinned upon the
principal strong piece could be easily replaced. At this
period wooden wheels were used, and the load conveyed
was about two and a half times that on the ordinary roads.
The inclination of the rail was graduated merely for this
draft, which appeared to satisfy all the expectations of the
period. After many years thin iron plates were placed
upon the wooden scantling, wherever the friction became
great from turnings or acclivities. Rail-roads continued
much in this state until about 1776, when cast iron rails
were introduced in the shape of the ' plate rail,' or tram
rail-road, having the flange or rim upon the rail. All
rails requiring the flange to be upon the wheel are called
' edge rails.' Cast iron wheels were first used with the
iron rails, and it is only about thirty years since that stone
supports became common instead of the wooden sleepers.
In 1790 the edge rail was invented, and this is now
most approved. Square bars of wrought iron were tried
about tvventyfive years since with success ; and iron roll-
ed nearly into the form of the edge rail was also in use
about ten years since.
From some extensive experiments made in England on
the comparative strength of cast and wrought iron, the
results were in favor of the latter. The greater vibration,
however, is a serious objection.
The cast iron rails of certain length nveighing fifty-
seven pounds per yard required seven and a half tons to
break them.
The wrought iron rails of same length weighing twen-
tyeight pounds per yard required six and a half tons to
overcome their permanent elasticity, and in this case
there was a deflection or bend of one tenth of an inch in
four feet. These rails were made for four tons on wheels,
and it appears that the absolute strength of the rail should
exceed the ordinary strain or load at least as three to one.
The strongest wrought iron rails required are thirty five
549
pounds to the yard. It is found in the Liverpool and
Manchester rail-road, that the very rapid succession of
heavy carriages produces in consequence of a vibration,
a much more destructive effect upon the rails than was
anticipated. It is a singular fact, that the rolling motion
upon the wrought iron rail prevents oxydation or rust.
In Massachusetts it is proposed to substitute a running
stone foundation of perfectly even surface, on which a thin
rolled iron plate is to be laid about two and a half inches
wide and half an. inch thick; this plate is to be bolted
down to the stone. The elasticity of this, being less
than that of wood, renders it preferable, and the plan has
already been partially adopted with success. The expe-
rience, however, at Manchester may suggest the proprie-
ty of greater thickness in the iron plate. To overcome
the frost, so great an obstacle in our country to works of
this description, it is proposed to lay deep foundations for
the stone rail.
In a railway, the first principles are to form it through-
out its whole length, as nearly upon a level and in as di-
rect a line as circumstances will permit . This is obvious,
for an acclivity for one hundred feet on a road of one
hundred miles, would prevent a load over the whole ex-
tent greater than that limited by the ascent itself, unless
at the cost of unloading or of extra power. This uni-
form level or gentle inclination is attained by deep cut-
tings through hills, by long embankments in the valleys,
and by bridges over deep gullies and streams.
The width required for a public and double railway
for extensive traffic, is seldom over twenty feet, and for
a single track twelve feet, far less than that required for
ordinary canals. The horse track is generally in the
middle.
It is found that an ascent of twentysix feet in the mile
makes no perceptible inconvenience in the railway, and
that anything less than sixty or eighty feet produces but
slight difficulty. In a canal on the contrary, four inches
in the mile is the greatest allowance that can be made,
even in feeding sections, absolute level being the rule.
The Mississippi, at New Orleans even during the freshet
falls but one and a half inches each mile. When it is
VOL. i. NO. XXIH, 49*
550 RAIL-ROADS.
impracticable or unadvisable to construct the railway
within the above limits, two or more such sections are
connected by an inclined plane, and this united plan of
travelling sections and inclined planes where stationary
power is used may be continued over any obstacles and
in any direction.
When the traffic is all one way as at coal mines, and
the steep planes descending in that direction, the loaded
carriages in their progress draw up those which are
empty, by gravitation, and the planes are called self-act-
ing. When the plane is ascending in the direction of
the traffic an extra moving power is then required ; and
this is generally, from effect and economy, the steam en-
gine. A continuous or endless chain is stretched over
rollers, to one of which the engine power is communi-
cated, and the carriages being hooked on to the chain
are easily conveyed up or down. It is evident that sev-
eral engines may act in succession on the same plane,
and the planes are, therefore, sometimes a mile in length
and may be repeated when requisite. There is also no
limit to the angle of acclivity, except the inconvenience
of preserving the load, and where the situation admits
the carriages may even be raised perpendicularly.
At Quebec there is an inclined plane from the top of
Cape Diamond to the St Lawrence, 500 feet long, and
at an angle of fortyfive degrees. A steam engine at the
bottom works an endless chain, and stone', cannon, &c,
are readily conveyed on carriages at that angle. It waa
at first worked by horses at the top.
Of the power of the inclined plane there is no rea-
sonable limit, where velocity is not an object. Thus
merchant vessels are now drawn entirely out of the wa-
ter in an hour or two, upon an inclined plane or marine
railway, by a set of capstans, and ships of war, by a
common steam engine, in the same time.
THE CARRIAGE.
The simple car upon four wooden wheels was at first
the vehicle used upon the railway. This, being heavily
laden, was slowly drawn by a horse. About the tim
RAIL-ROADS. 551
that iron rails were first used, the weight came to be di-
rided into moderate loads upon several cars.
We shall only notice those in present use, the form of
which varies according to the nature of the load. The
four wheels are of cast iron and of one size, generally
about three feet in diameter, but varying from eighteen
inches to four feet. The rims of the wheels are now
usually case hardened, by which the friction and wear
are much reduced, and a true circular form more readily
preserved. On the ' plate rail' the wheel is plain, but
on the ' edge rail' a flange or rim is required on the inner
side of each wheel to preserve the carriage in its track.
The axle-trees are universally of wrought iron, the square
ends being fixed into the wheels for steadiness, and the
axles, therefore, revolve either on cast iron bearings
upon the carriage, or on springs, or on a suspending
chain, as the case may require. The weight usually
placed upon one car, varies from one to four tons, and
twenty or thirty, sometimes fifty of these cars are con-
nected together, and drawn along by a simple moving
power. The motion on a descending plane is regulated
by a brake or friction lever, also called a ' convoy.'
MOVING POWER.
Dugald Stewart has remarked of printing, that in the
fifteenth century, the wants of mankind were such that
if Faust and others had not invented the art, somebody
else would. So we may say of locomotion, in this cen-
tury, that as the horse cannot satisfy the wants, in veloci-
ty, something of greater epeed must be brought forward.
From 1802 to 180(5, appear the first effective experiments
with the locomotive steam engine. It was not, however,
supposed possible that the friction or adherence of the
plain wheels of such carriages upon the rail, could be suf-
ficient to allow any great weight to be drawn after them,
and, therefore, the cumbersome appendage of cog wheels,
and racket wheels, continuous and endless chains, pro-
pelling levers, &c, &c, continued to perplex the minda
of engineers until about 1814, when it was first found
552 HAIL-ROADS.
that the adhesion of the locomotive carriage with its
plain cast iron wheels was adequate for every purpose on
ordinary railways. The improvement consequent upon
this, was effected by Mr Stephenson in the north of Eng-
land, and until very recently, such engines with some
unimportant alterations have been generally used where
fuel is cheap. These locomotive carriages draw upwards
of 100 tons on a level at four miles the hour, and on an
average forty tons at six miles, performing the work of
twelve to sixteen horses. The engines weigh from six
to twelve tons and cost about $ 1600.
The Liverpool and Manchester rail-road was originally
intended for passengers principally. It is now complet-
ed, and 2500 passengers have been conveyed over it in
d single day. It has four sets of tracks, two for rapid
passage, and two for heavier burdens each way.
In October, 1829, a prize of .500 was awarded by the
Directors of the work to the successful locomotive steam
engine the ' Rocket.' The competition then called forth,
issued in bringing before the world facts almost over-
whelming in their nature and consequences.
The application of steam as a superior moving power
upon a railway has been fully tested by these experiments,
and the prize engine performed the required seventy
miles. Another, the ' Novelty,' of beautiful structure and
involving a new principle in the consumption of fuel,
though not then successful, was much admired and has
since caused various improvements in steam carriages.
The cylinders of these engines were equal, and the pres-
sure upon the pistons the same, the power therefore equal.
Net Weight with Fuel for
weight. fuel, &c. 35 miles.
Rocket 5 tons. 5| tons. 5 cwt. or 2 cents per mile.
Novelty 2| 3$ ! i "
Actual performance on a course one and three fourth
miles in length :
Tons. Miles. Miles.
Rocket with 17 went 12 the hour, with passengers only, 24 the h.
Novelty with 15 t( 20f " 32 to 35
35 13
RAIL-UOADS. 553
The Rocket performed seventy miles in six hours and two
minutes, or over eleven and a half miles per hour, includ-
ing stoppage. The distance from Liverpool to Manches-
ter, thirtytwo miles, has been travelled over with passen-
gers, in a little more than two hours.
The following among many data on this subject, havo
been ascertained from the laws of Natural Philosophy and
from extensive courses of experiments.
1. That air as a resisting medium, (unless irregular in
the shape of wind,) makes no perceptible difference at
increased velocities on a rail nay.
2. That on a well constructed railway, the friction or
resistance is that of the axle or a rubbing friction, and
the slight adhesion of rolling upon the rail.
3. That the friction on a level is nearly as the weight,
and the tractive force required, therefore, nearly the same
at different velocities. From this we see that if weight
is reasonably reduced, there is scarcely a limit to the lo-
comotive power of steam, so long as the pistons can
work and the wheels can turn.
4. That a horse exerts his greatest available power at
two to two and a half miles the hour, and beyond this
rate the horse requires the greater portion of his muscu-
lar action to propel hitntclf forward, leaving but little for
the load. At his customary rate seven eighths of his
force is exerted upon himself, leaving one eighth only for
the load. As the velocity increases, the proportion re-
maining for the load is of course diminished. In Eng-
land every coach on the best roads that runs for twenty-
four hours at nine miles per hour, drawing not over two
tons, requires no less than 180 horses or ninety each way.
Less than twelve horses would carry the same weight for
the same time on the same roads at two and a half miles
per hour.
A horse can, at a dead pull, walk pff raising 5 to 600
pounds over a pulley, but the average of his tractive pow-
er when in regular employment, is not above seventyfive
pounds.
The experiments of Leslie and others on this subject,
give the following practical results applicable to rail-roads.
554
RAIL-HOADS.
- 4 1
Alii 1 1 1 I "> , >? i
Ibs. to.,,.
Ahorse at 2 in. exerts usually 112 draws on a level rail road about 10
75 6|
s'.'Ht it>v/f 6. 5 ^
g [;>vfi <*ilJ 1'^ a no g,
8 . Qvaa \itdttgf.i .JfifU -itiorf *q 25
The friction, therefore, of a ton upon a rail-road is about
eleven and a half pounds. It has in recent practice been
reduced to nine pounds.
On a rail-road the usual travel of a horse at two miles
per hour, is about twenty miles per day, and his draft,
therefore, equal to 200 tons for one mile, or the tractive
power exerted one two hundredth part of the weight
moved.
In this country we may estimate the ordinary travel or
work of a horse at one third of a ton weight, or at two
and a half miles per hour, on the best roads about two
thirds of a ton weight, or one twelfth part of that on a rail-
road. The draft or tractive force exerted on roads is
equal to about one fourteenth part of the load.
5. In wuiter the resistance is as the square of the velocity.
6. On a canal one horse at the most draws thirty tons
at the rate of two miles per hour, and only one ton at six
miles per hour. This rapid decrease of horse power on
a canal compared with a railway, will appear more strik-
ing, thus :
J\ files.
One horse at 2 per hour draws
Tons. Jlfilca per hour.
30 require at
3
4
5
6
Tons on a Tons on a
Canal. Railtcay.
3 30
10
9
61
Sit
51
2
4
1
34
i
25
On Canal.
Railway.
1 horse.
3 horses.
8 "
6 "
15 *.,, .
7J
27J <
9
86
11 "
At three and a half miles per hour the two are equal.
RAIL-ROADS. 555
Steam-boats presenting less resistance, require less
power, but the proportion, must from the nature of the
water as a resisting medium, be the same.
Now, engines of twelve horse power, have for several
years conveyed on a rail-road upon the average, forty tons
at six miles per hour, that is, they have performed the
work of forty horses on a canal, and twelve on a rail-
road, and from recent experiments, locomotive engines
have actually accomplished upwards of twenty miles in
the hour with fifteen tons, or what (if it were possible,)
would require 1000 horses on a canal.
It appears desirable that the plan of placing the horse
upon a carriage to propel himself, and a number of load-
ed cars by machinery, is worthy of more attention, than it
has yet received. The power of a locomotive engine is
often greater than required. In descending the horse
would rest, and proceed at a velocity much greater than
his own. As the horse weighs but one third to one half
a ton, this addition to the load would be trifling, compar-
ed with the seven eighths of his muscular power, which
is required to propel himself when advancing on the
ground. The great speed which is attainable by the lo-
comotive engine, is also probably far beyond what will
usually be required, when experience hereafter has made
its deductions for liability to accident, and for these high-
ways of commerce being covered with traffic.
It is worthy of remark, that stationary engines will
probably be much superseded. The engine will be more
frequently locomotive upon the carriage, working by a
chain or otherwise, and additional horses will in other
cases*be furnished for the particular parts requiring in-
creased power. This is frequently done at the hills in
Frc-uch roads.
CXI'ENfE OF CONSTRUCTIQN, &.C.
The comparative expense of constructing a canal and
rail-road, is about one third in favor of the latter.
In England, there are stated to be about 2600 miles of
canal, in which thirtysix millions sterling are .invested,
or 800,000 per m'ile. Six years since, more than 1500
556 RAIL-ROADS.
miles of rail-road were in use, and 2000 more have been
for some time projected. Of this 1500 miles, only about
100 are for general traffic, the greater part being in the
coal districts. The Liverpool and Manchester rail-road
cost from its very expensive cuttings, and the unusual
number of tracks, 690,000 per mile. The Stockton and
Darlington cost $45,000 per mile.
In our own country the
Erie Canal cost per mile $20,000
Farming^on Canal do. 11,000
Blackstone Canal do. 13,000
Hudson and Delaware Canal do. 18,
Boston to Springfield estimated at
Baltimore and Ohio Rail-road estimated ! $20,000 per mile.
Mauch Chunk :">&* ' cost single 4,700
Ithica ;dOn radii'* i rmq.;4jDOfr
Lackawana , btJrVlUsd hor ^arj-^i 6,500 '37003
Boston to Providence, to Albanv, to Brattleboro'
each estimated at 15,000
We must bear in mind, that the increase of distance
Dy : a canal is often one half beyond the length of the or-
dinary road. The rail-road on the contrary increases but
little, and sometimes actually diminishes the route.
The Austrian rail-road cost 810,000 per mile. This
extends from Budweis on the Elbe eighty miles to Linz
on the Danube, thus connecting the navigable waters of
these two rivers, and opening an easy communication
between the Black Sea and Hamburg. It was construct-
ed in 1827 and 1828.
' Near London, the annual expense of repairs on the
great roads is often 85,000 per mile. Some parts of our
Cumberland road cost 17,000 per mile, and part of the
Lancaster turnpike in Pennsylvania cost $15,000 per
mile ; neither of these are macadamized.
In Scotland, on a level, a single rail-road has been
constructed, on which one horse draws ten and a half
tons at four miles per hour, for 3000 per mile. Here
of course were no excavations or embankments.
The actual expense of rail-road conveyance on ths
most approved principles, must vary under different cir-
cnmstances. Previous to the recent improvemants in
RAIL-ROADS. 557
England, the rail-road companies engaged to convey
merchandize at one third the price, and in one third the
time required on a canal. The late experiments convey-
ed at one farthing per ton for ten miles, or equal to round
the globe for eight dollars per ton. The toll or railway
tax, is not here included. In this country this toll has
been estimated variously from one to three dollars per
100 miles each ton. In England rather more. This is
but little more than coasiinsr freight.
Rail-roads have also the advantage of being extended
in single branches, at the moderate average expense of
about 3000 per mile, and thus villages and manufacto-
ries may be benefited, wher a canal could not have ex-
tended its influence. The whole materials also of such
a road and its branches might, if required, be taken up
and carried upon itself to either end, and from thence
conveyed to any distance, and be relaid where a change
of circumstances might demand. A canal must of course
be permanent.
It appears but a reasonable deduction from all these
facts, that where rail-roads can with facility be construct-
ed, they will by the aid of steam carriages gradually and
permanently give a preference over canals.
RAIL-ROADS IN TIIE UNITED STATES.
The first work of this kind in the United States was
at Quincy, in 1826. By this the granite is conveyed
from the extensive quarries in that town, to navigable
waters at Milton, a distance of two miles. This work is
of the primitive kind and single. The rails are of pine,
laid on cross sleepers with a scantling of oak on the top.
On this scantling a thin rolled iron plate is placed, tw>
and a half by half an inch, and secured by small bolts.
From its being without a precedent in our country, the
expense was great, and being too slight for the great
weights conveyed over it, is not likely to be permanent ;
a part has already been relaid with granite rails.
In March, 1827, the railway of Mauch Chunck in
Pennsylvania, was opened from the coal mines at that
place to the Lehigh canal. This railway extends upon
VOL. I NO. XXIII. 50
RAIL-ROADS.
an irregular inclination for nine miles, and was formed
and laid down in the short space of sixty days. The
loaded carriages descend the whole distance by gravita-
tion, and when emptied are drawn up by animal power.
The rate of descent is in some parts over twentyfive
miles per hour.
The Honesdale rail-road from Lackawana to the Hud-
son and Delaware canal, continues seventeen miles, and
thus connects the upper part of the same coal district,
with the Hudson river and New- York. This was con-
structed in 1829, being also an edge rail of the primi-
tive kind, and is temporary. It has five ascending planes,
worked by stationary engines, and averaging half a mile
each i;i length, surmounting in all a perpendicular height
of 800 feet in three and a half miles. Towards the ca-
nal are three descending planes of nearly the same
length.
In Pennsylvania, the route from Philadelphia to Pitts-
burg, being 407 miles, partly by canals and partly by
rail-roads, is in a state of great forwardness. First a
rail-road to Columbia, eightyfive miles, thence a canal to
the Allegliany mountains, thence a rail-road of forty
miles across the mountains, thence a canal to Pittsburg.
This forms but a part of the internal improvements of
this energetic and important state, which several years
liace had in hand 1230 in lies of canals and rail-roads,
at an expense of fifteen millions of dollars. The conse-
quence is, that already the lands within reach of these
works have increased in value, probably more than that
amount. Goods were the first season thrust to Lacka-
wana, some 120 miles into the forest, and then sold at
little more than the retail prices of New-York and Phila-
delphia. The impulse thus given to agriculture and the
settlement of the State may be conceived.
In Maryland, the Baltimore and Ohio railway is a stu-
pendous undertaking. It will be 350 miles in length ;
the first ISO miles (between Baltimore and the Allegha-
ny mountains,) will be passed with only one stationary
engine. The magnificent and permanent style in which
the work has been commenced, will render it expensive,
but its advantages will doubtless be commensurate. A
RAIL-IIOADS. 559
part of this railway towards Baltimore is already opened
for traffic.
Fioin Augusta in Georgia, to Charleston, South Caro-
lina, a railway is now in progress ICO miles in length.
A rail-road has even been projected to extend trorn
New- York towards Missouri. A part of the distance
has heen already traversed, and the whole has been pro-
nounced by the son of De Wilt Clinton to he practicable,
at an expense double that of the Erie eannl, and but lit-
tle more than that of tlie present London bridge. It is
worthy of notice, that when the Erie canal was projected
in 1809, Mr Jefferson said it might be finished in a cen-
tury, and lived to acknowledge in 1S'26, that the age was
nearly a century belbre him.
In New Jersey, a railway is now constructing across
the State from Ana boy bay, not far from New- York, to
Camden, opposite Philadelphia ; the distance is about six-
ty miles.
In Massachusetts, projected routes have heen accu-
rately surveyed, from Boston to Providence, fortytwo
miles, to Brattleboro', 114 miles, to Albany, 200 miles,
also to Lowell and Worcester. The two last only, have
as yet been undertaken. In these several routes, (ex-
cepting to Brattleboro 1 ,) no stationary power is required,
the ascent in no case exceeding eighty feet in a mile, or
one foot in sixtyfive, this is an angle of less than one de-
gree. Ascents in roads even where great traffic prevails,
are sometimes ten degrees. The route to Albany rises
to an elevation of 1440 above the Connecticut river.
A railway has also been projected from Brattleboro' on
to Whitehall on Lake Champlain. A more eligible route,
however, and one more likely to succeed, is that from
Boston to Ogdensburg on the outlet of Lake Ontario.
This would pass through Lowell, Concord, N. II., Mont-
pelier, down the valley of Onion river and near Burling-
ton ; thence from Plattsburg on the opposite side of the
lake to Ogdensburg. The whole extent is 350 miles,
and though not accurately surveyed, has been ascertain-
ed to be practicable, requiring but three stationary en-
gines, (as in seventeen miles at Lackawana,) and in no
other instance having a greater ascent than fifty or sixty
560
RAIL-ROADS.
feet in the mile. It would cross the Green mountains at
the gulf, so called, the greatest elevation being about
1000 feet above the Connecticut. The importance of
this, may be estimated from Ogdensburg, commanding a
continued navigation for vessels of 1~0 ton*, for 1200
miles along the lakes.
Besides the foregoing sketch, many hundreds of miles
of rail-roads have been projected in different States, and
some of the routes actually commenced, but an accurate
notice of all cannot be expected here.*
* Just as these sheets were going to press, we met with the fol-
lowing vivid description of a scene upon the famous Liverpool and
Manchester rail-road, which will give our readers a very clear con-
ception of the pleasures, and the present dangers of this mode of
travelling. It is contained in a letter from a correspondent of the
New York Ohserver, and was published in that paper. \\ e ought
to remark, that the danger of such accidents, as the one here de-
scribed, will he very much diminished as the art of constructing
roads, and the engines which move upon them, advance towards per-
fection. ED. So i. TRACTS
(> 'ti\; '-a -uMaiif. vJr-i/:/-. i,-- anirfofiw suli !-n .'jjjH-^r. > 9?ob
' I left Liverpool this morning, at seven o'clock, with a friend and
U'llort- passenger of the ship, a very charming young man of Paw-
lucket, Ma=s., for London, via Manchester and Birmingham the
distance to London heing 208 miles by the railway to Manchester,
of course. For who could pass by that I I had walked up to the
Liverpool end of the railway before, and saw that part of tli,is stu-
pendous and proud work, i had seen the trains of cars, both of pas-
sengers and tho^e for transportation, come in and go out, led by the
little, proud, quick, and spiteful engine a truly sublime sight. No
one, who has not witnessed the reality, can have an adequate idea
of the scene. I have several times stood upon a bridge, thrown over
the railway, about one mile from the place of slopping, and seen a
train approach in the distance, rapidly Hearing, and dart under me
with such velocity, that when the engine had met the perpendicu-
lar line under my feet, with a train of cars behind of twenty rods in
length, I have sprung with all possible agility to the opposite side of
a bridge of twenty feet in breadth, and before I could reach it, the
whole train had passed from under me, and seemed flying away to
its goal leaving the impression, that no power could possibly ar-
rest its momentum, and that it must inevitably plunge into the town,
he dashed against its walls, tearing everything away, which could
be torn ; and yet the next moment, it is seen easing and easing
away, and then at rest. I now speak of some views 1 have bad to-
day in the vicinity of Manchester, which were better than those I
had at the other end.
' The Liverpool end is in front of a hill of freestone rock, whera
RAIL-ROADS. 561
BENEFITS OF RAILWAYS TO OUR UNION.
The influence of such works upon the Atlantic, as
well as upon the Western Slates of the Union, forces it-
self upon our consideration. The object of Virginia,
Maryland, Pennsylvania, New-York and Massachusetts,
the cars aro laden with passengers, and then drawn by a stationary
engine through a chirk tunnel of 300 to 400 feet, into a deep and
rectangular ba-in, itself open to the heavens but sunk about titty
feet in the same solid rock, topped and inclosed with artificial bat-
tlements of heavy masonry.
' Tlii- immcn <e artificial chasm is a beautiful, as well as a stupend-
ous work. The deep cut in the rock continues, with gradual de-
creaso, a large moiety of a mile. The basin above describe I is the
etartinjj arid arriving point or the goal. Here the locomotive en-
gine i< a'iached. am! away it goes at the precise moment, and soon
the p:i.s.-n;.i>r feels himself on 'wing*. If he looks at the nearest ob-
jects, he i-" dizzy in an instant. He cannot endure it. And for re-
lief, he throws out his eye upon the fields, and trees, and country
around. The motion of "the car, in its rapid flight, is so much like
that of a coach running swiftly over smooth ground, itself being a
dose carriage, and the twitching so exactly similar to that of hoi-sea
on a full jump, that in spile of the evidences to the contrary around
me today, as 1 was whirled along, I several times imagined fully
for a moment, that our horses were running to destruction with loose
rein and startled at the thought.
*Th?re are two separate trains for passengers, one of the first
da??, (ho other of the second each making three trips a day to and
fro. The first is a close carriage or a train of coaches, each ac-
commodating eighteen passengers in three separate apartments
running through a distance of thirtytwo miles, in one hour and thir-
ty miu'iA-s. "The second class is composed of open cars runs
through in two hours fare three shillings and sixpence sterling.
Fare for the first class five shillings. The-e trains often carry from
200 to 300 passengers. The average number of passengers per day,
between Liverpool and Manchester, for the last two weeks, ha*
been 2.200.
' I started this morning in the first class, with six coaches in train,
and about one hundred passengers. The first halfway we passed
in fine style, and high spirits, and having replenished the water
for the engine, were soon under full speed again. I had frequently
put my head out of the coach to look backward and forward, and
abroad to make such observations, as curiosity, and the novel in-
terest of the scene, prompted. Sometimes a train, coming from the
opposite direction, might be seen ahead, and soon it would brush by
us, at a distance of three feet, with such velocity, that, pent up as
we were, we could no more count the number of coaches, than the
^>okes in a woman's spinning wheel, when buzzing in its swiftest
562 RAIL-ROADS.
is by these iifimense exertions, to bring the trade of the
western regions over land, to the middle Atlantic shores,
thus avoiding the circuitous and dangerous navigation at-
tending the export of produce, even after it has reached
New-Orleans, on the one hand, or the Saint Lawrence,
on the other. Taking the line of Ohio and Indiana, as
turn. I speak as a matter of fact: not that we could not see them,
but their speed added to our*, each going in opposite directions,
rendered it absolutely impossible to count the coaches, as Uiey pass-
ed our window. The rear presented itself almost the same instant
with the front. All we could perceive was : It is here, it is gone !
Sometimes we ran fifteen miles the hour sometimes twenty
and sometimes twenlyfive. I should judge we were running at the
rate of twentyfive miles or more rather than less when I look-
ed out of the window forward, an;l instantly exclaimed, as my
friend says, thrice, (though I do not myself recollect it,) " We are
gone! we are gone! we are gone!" And surely I had good rea-
son to make the inference. For at that instant 1 saw the engine de-
erting its proper track, and staggering and plunsjins headlong
down the bank reluctantly indeed, as if conscious of its charge
and responsibility! And what could the train do but follow? I
had no sooner uttered these words, than crash! crash! crash!
went the whole train. And instantly the engine lay bottom up-
wards, directly abreast of our car, the fourth in our train, dis-
charging its steam directly into our faces. By thu time all was at
rest, a heap of ruin The tremendous crash, by which we were
brought up, may in part be estimated, when it is considered, that al-
though we were running at such a rate, we did not make a head-
way of more than two roVis, afier the engine plunged from the rail-
road. But you will be in pain to see us out of the steam. * : Open
theoppo-ite djor !" said I- " open the opposite door !" My friend, be-
ing nearest, made the attempt, but. not succeeding, jumped through
the window. There were two ladies, a gentleman, and a boy, still
remaining with me in the same apartment of the car. And how we
all got out, I could not afterwaids recollect. The escaping steam
proved to come from the safety valve, and of course, gave us nothing
more than a very very hot bath. The forward car, next the en-
gine, was drawn after itj ;md thrown over, with all its passengers.
The next plunged into it, and stove its back in pieces. And each
car run against its predecessor in the same manner, making more or
less splinters, until all were brought up at rest, and be^an to disem-
bogue their occupants, each actuated by the impulse of self-preser-
vation. Soon, however, they began to help one another, and to
look after the killed and wounded. After seeing my own apartment
cleared of its tenants, I ran around in front of the circle (for the
wreck now made a circle,) and the first thing which attracted my
attention, was the dragging out of the engineer, who lay buried un-
der the engine the machine having turned bottom upwards. The
RAIL-ROADS. 5G3
something like a present centre to the Western States,
Montreal and New-Orleans are about equally distant, and
Baltimore, ''Philadelphia and New- York, are little more
than half the distance of either. When, therefore, we
have Ohio itself with a million of inhabitants within this
limit, Apd consider the increased distance on the other
hand, j^ith a dangerous navigation beyond it, and the
expense and un healthiness of the great mart, New Or-
leans, we can admit, that these grand efforts of the At-
lantic States, are not entirely visionary. To effect these
purposes, no means have been presented, having the same
facilities as rail-roads, and we may, therefore, suppose,
that eventually, a large proportion of the natural and ag-
ricultural productions above Kentucky, may pass over to
the Atlantic shores, and that the states thus interested,
and the intermediate regions will be benefited in a pro-
portion, at least, equal to the expense of these under-
takings.
The operation of this inland commerce, as a common
bond of union to the States concerned, cannot be too
highly appreciated, or too much encouraged.
REFLECTIONS.
From an invention then, the principle of which is as
simple as that of the chair we sit upon, the obstacles of
time and space are overcome in a tenfold degree beyond
moment lie was drawn out, he stood upon his feet, but his face and
head frightfully disfigured with blood and dust. Some one imme-
diately grasped his hand, and shook it very cordially, congratulating
him for his life preserved, lie was carried away, and I have not
heard from him since, and therefore cannot tell how much he was in-
jured. Through the exceeding mercy of God, no other person was
hurt, worthy of notice, so far as I have learned. Two or three
trains soon arrived from opposite directions, and were obliged to
slop, as our wreck covered the whole way. Men, women, and
children of the p^.-antry came pouring in from the adjoining farms,
as they witnessed our misfortune. And by the help of all, we soon
threw off from the ways our disabled cars" found three of them in
a condition to be use, fin our necessities, although not sound bor-
rowed an engine, which happened along, and having packed in
again, thick enough indeed, proceeded to Manchester, and arrived
only two hours after the regular time.'
664 RAIL-ROADS.
anything hitherto known. Places one hundred miles dis-
tant may, for every purpose of commerce, convenience
and defence, be brought within ten, and thoseTOOO miles
distant within one hundred.
An inland coasting trade we might, almost sav. has
arisen, which will carry home to our inhabitaA their
commerce, both in war and in peace, in winte^and in
summer, unparalyzed by adverse winds, by insurances or
blockade; a means of transporting, in case of invasion,
both troops and the munitions of war, from one* portion
to another of our country, with unexampled rapidity.
It is not the object of "this treatise to defend the claims
of railways. There is much conjecture about a matter
so new, but that a portion of the anticipated results, will
be an affair of jjwre history in some parts of our country,
is about as certain as the rising of tomorrow's s-un. Some
twenty years since, Mr Steven?, one of the earliest and
largest steam-boat proprietors in New- York asserted,
that there were those then living, who would, between
sun and sun, see New- York and Albany, (150 miles.)
He was ridiculed at as visionary, but it has been done in
ten hours.
The words of an accurate and practical engineer, who
had long devoted his professional attention to rail-road*,
are worthy of note. In recommending locomotive en-
gines, he says; ' It is far from my wish, to promulgate to
the world, that the ridiculous expectations, or rather pro-
fessions of the enthusiastic speculatist, will be realized,
and that we shall see them travelling at the rate of twelve,
sixteen, eighteen or twenty miles an hour; nothing could
do more harm towards their adoption or general im-
provement, than the promulgation of such nonsense/
In a future edition of his work, we shall probably see
this passage amended, as the author, five years aflerward?,
was one of the judges at the late Manchester race, when
the rate of thirtyfive miles, (and even fortyone for a short
distance,) was accomplished.
SCIENTIFIC TRACTS.
* NUMBER XXIV.
WHALE FISHERY.
[Continued.]
IN a former number, we described the ordinary pro-
cess of attacking and capturing a whale. In continua-
tion of the general subject, we proceed to devote the few
pages of the present volume which remai*, to a descrip-
tion of some particular incidents, which Scoresby nar-
rates, and which farther illustrate the business, and to
an account of the manner, by which the oil is extracted.
INTERESTING INCIDENTS.
'On the twenty fifth of June, 1812, one of the harpoon-
ers belonging to the Resolution, under my command,
struck a whale by the edge of a small floe of ice. As-
sistance being promptly afforded, a second boat's lines
were attached to those of the fast-boat,* in a few minutes
after the harpoon was discharged. The remainder of
the boats proceeded to some distance, in the direction
the fish seemed to have taken. In about a quarter of an
hour, the fast-boat, to my surprise, again made a signal
for lines. As the ship was then within five minutes' sail,
we instantly steered towards the boat, with the view of
affording assistance, by means of a spare boat, we still
retained on board. Before we reached the place, how-
cv: -, we observed four oars displayed in signal order,
* For a definition of these and other technical terms, see Tract,
No. 17.
VOL. I. NO. XXIV. 51*
566 WHALE FISHERY.
which, by their number, indicated a most urgenjttieces-
sity for assistance. Two or three men were, at the same
time, seated close by the stern, which was coWliderably
elevated, for the purpose of keeping it down, while
the bow of the boat, by the force of the line, was drawn
^Kown to the level of the sea, and the harpoojer, by
ihe friction of the line round the bollard, was erBloped
M in smoky obscurity. At length, when the ship wasfcarce-
^ly 100 yards distant, we perceived preparations for quitr ^
ting the boat. The sailors' pea-jackets were cast upolP*
the adjoining ice, the oars were thrown down, the
crew leaped overboard, the bow of the boat was bu-
ried in the water, the stern rose perpendicular, and
then majestically disappeared. The harpooner, having
caused the end of the line to be fastened to the iron ring
at the boat's stern, was the means of its loss ; and a
tongue of the ice, on which was a depth of several feet
of tvater, kept the boat, by the pressure of the line
against it, at such a considerable distance, as prevented
the crew from leaping upon the floe. Some of them
were, therefore, put to the necessity of swimming for
.^iheir preservation, but all of them succeeded in scramb-
ling upon the ice, and were taken aboard of the ship a
few minutes afterwards. I may here observe, that it is
an uncommon circumstance for a fish to take more than
two boats' lines in such a situation ; none of our har-
pooners, therefore, had any scruple in leaving the fast-
boat, never suspecting, after it had received the assist-
ance of one boat, with six lines or upwards, that it
would need any more.
' Several ships being about us, there was a possibility
that some persons might attack and make a prize of the
wh&e, when it had so far escaped us, that we no longer
retained any hold of it. We, therefore, set all the sail
the ship could safely sustain, and worked through seve-
ral narrow and intricate channels in the ice, in the direc-
tion I observed the fish had retreated. After a little
time, it was descried by the people in the boats, at a
considerable distance to the eastward ; a genera! chase
immediately commenced, and in the space of an hour
three harpoons were struck. We now imagined the fish
WHALE FISHERY. 507
was secure, but our expectations were premature. Th
whale resolutely pushed beneath a large floe, that had
recently been broke to pieces by the swell, and soon drew
all the lines out of the second last-boat, the officer of
which, not being able to get any assistance, tied the end
of his line to a hummock of ice, and broke it.
' SooB afterwards, the other two boats, still fast, were
dragged against the broken floe, mien one of the har-
poons drew out. The line of only one boat, therefore,
remained fast to the fish, and with six or eight lines out,
was dragged forward into the shattered floe with aston-
ishing force. Pieces of ice, each of which was suffi-
ciently large, to have answered the purpose of mooring
a ship, were wheeled about by the strength of the whale;
and such was the tension and elasticity of the line, that
whenever it slipped clear of any mass of ice, after turn-
ing it round, into the space between any two adjoining
pieces, the boat and its crew flew forward through the
creek, with the velocity of an arrow, and never failed to
launch several feel upon the first mass of ice it encoun-
tered.
' While we scoured tho sea, around the broken floe
with the ship, and while the ice was attempted in vain
by the boats, the whale continued to press forward in an
easterly direction toward the sea. At length, when four-
teen lines, (about 10^0 fathoms.) were drawn from the
fourth fast-boat, a slight entanglement of the line, broke
it at the stem. The fish again made its escape, taking
along with it a boat and twentyeight lines. The united
length of the lines was 6720 yards, or upwards of three
and three fourths English miles; value, with the boat,
above JoO pounds sterling.
' The obstruction of the sunken boat to the progress
of the fish must have been immense, and that of the lines,
likewise considerable, the weight of the lines alone being
thirtyfive hundred weight.
' So long as the fourth fast-boat, through the medium
of its lines, retained its hold of the fish, we searched the
adjoining sea with the ship in vain ; but, in a short time
after the line \^s divided, we got sight of the object of
1 pursuit, at the distsnce of near two miles to the eastward
1 of the ice and boats, in the open sea.
568 WHALE FISHERY.
' One boat only with lines, and two empty boats were
reserved by the ship. Having, however, fortunately fine
weather, and a fresh breeze of wind, we immediately
gave chase under all sail ; though, it must be confessed,
with the insignificant force by us, the distance of the fish,
and the rapidity of its flight considered, we had but very
small hopes of success. At length, after pursuing it five
or six miles, being at least nine miles from the place
where it was struck, we carne up with it, and it seemed
inclined to rest after its extraordinary exertions. The
two dismantled, or empty boats having been furnished
with two lines each, (a very inadequate supply,) they, to-
gether with the one in a good state of equipment, now
made an attack upon the whale. One of the harpoonera
made a blunder, the fish saw the boat, took the alarm,
and again fled. I now supposed it would be seen no
more ; nevertheless, we chased nearly a mile in the di-
rection I imagined it had taken, and placed the boats, to
the best of my judgment, in the most advantageous situa-
tions. In this case we were extremely fortunate. The
fish rose near one of the boats, and was immediately har-
pooned. In a few minutes, two more harpoons entered
its back, and lances were plied against it with vigor and
success. Exhausted by its amazing exertions to escape,
it yielded itself at length to its fate, received the piercing
wounds of the lances without resistance, and finally died
without a struggle. Thus terminated with success, an
attack upon a whale, which exhibited the most uncom-
mon determination to escape from its pursuers, seconded
by the most amazing strength of any individual, whose
capture I ever witnessed. After all, it may seem sur-
prising that it was not a particularly large individual ;
the longest lamina of whalebone only measuring nine
feet six inches, while those affording twelve feet bone
are not uncommon. The quantity of line withdrawn
from the different boats engaged in the capture, was sin-
gularly great. It amounted, altogether, to 10,440 yards,
or nearly six English miles; of these, thirteen new lines
lost, together with the sunken boat ; the harpoon con-
necting them to the fish, having dropped out before the
whale was killed.
'After having taken a large circuit with the ship Esk,
569
in the open sea in search of whales, we saw two or three
individuals, when at the distance of about twenty miles
from the middle hook of the Foreland. The weather
was fine, and no ice in sight. A boat was despatched
towards one of the fish we saw, which was immediately
struck. The men were already considerably fatigued,
having been employed immediately before in a laborious
work, but they of course, proceeded in the boats to the
chase of the fast fish. It had made its appearance be-
fore they all had left the ship. Three boats then ap-
proached it, unluckily at the same moment. Each of
them so incommoded the other, that no second harpoon
could be struck. The fish then took the alarm, and ran
off towards the east, at the rate of about four miles per
hour ; some of the boats nave chase, and others took hold
of the fast-boat, and were towed by it to windward.
When two boats, by greater exertions on the part of their
crews, had got very near the fish, and the harpooners
were expecting every moment to be able to strike it, it
suddenly shifted its course under water, and in a few
minutes discovered itself in a southerly direction, at
least half a mile from any boat. It then completed a cir-
cuit round the fast-boat, with the sweep of nearly a mile
as a radius, and though followed in its track by the boats,
it dived before any of them got near it, and evaded them
completely. When it appeared again, it was at least
half a mile to windward of any of them, and then con-
tinued arduously advancing in the same direction. At
various times during the pursuit, the boats having the
most indefatigable crews, reached the fish within ten or
fifteen yards, when apparently aware of their design, it
immediately sunk and changed its course ; so that it in-
variably made its next appearance in a quarter v. here, no
boats were near.
' The most general course of the whale being towards
the wind, it soon withdrew all the boats many miles from
the ship, notwithstanding our utmost efforts, under a press
of sail, to keep near thorn.
'After six or seven hours' pursuit, without success,
the sky became overcast, and we were suddenly envel-
oped for some time in the obscurity of a thick fog. In
VOL.I. NO. xxiv. 52 ,*
570 WHALE FISHERY.
this interval the boats were all moored to the fast-boat,
the men being fearful of being dispersed ; but on the
disappearing of the fog, ihe pursuit was recommenced
with renewed vigor. Still the harpooners were not able
to succeed. They were now convinced of the neces-
sity of using every measure to retard the flight of the
fish. For this purpose, they slacked out nine lines, a
weight in air of eleven hundred weight, while the crew
of the fast-boat endeavored farther to retard his progress,
by holding their oars firmly in the water, as if in the act
of backing the boat astern. But this plan did not suc-
ceed. They then lashed two or three boats with their
sides to the stern of the fast-boat, and these were dragged
broad side first, with little diminished velocity for some
time. But the fish at length, feeling the impediment,
suddenly changed its course, and again disappointed the
crews of two of the boats, which had got extremely
near it.
' Several times the harpooners seized their weapons,
and were on the point of launching them at the fish,
when in an instant it shot from them with singular ve-
locity and disappeared. In this way the chase was con-
tinued for fourteen hours, when the fish turned again
towards the wind. But the men were exhausted by such
continued exertion, together with the haid labor to which
they had been previously subjected, at the same time be-
ing without meat or drink, and sparingly sheltered from
the inclemency of the weather.
' By this time we had reached the boats with the ship.
The wind had increased to a gale, and a considerable sea
had arisen. We had no hope, therefore, of success.
As, however, we could not possibly recover the lines at
this time, stormy as the weather was, we applied a cask
as a buoy to support them, and moored an empty boat
having a jack flying in it, to the cask with the intention
of keeping near it during the storm, and with the expec-
tation of recovering our lines, and a faint hope likewise
of gaining the fish after the termination of the gale.
The boat was then abandoned. We made an attempt to
keep near the boat" with the ship, but the increasing
force of the gale, drove us, in spite of every effort away.
WHALE FISH BUY. 571
On the first cessation of the storm, we made all sail
towards the boat, succeeded in finding it, recovered boat
and line, but lost the fish.
'On the twentyeighth of May, 1817, the Royal Boun-
ty, of Lei th, Captain Drysdale, fell in with a great num-
ber of whales in the latitude of 77 25' N., and longi-
tude 5 or 6 E. Neither ice or land was in sight, nor
was there supposed to be either one or the other, within
fifty or sixty miles. A brisk breeze of wind prevailed,
and the weather was clear. The boats were, therefore,
manned and sent out in pursuit. After a chase of about
five hours, the harpooner commanding a boat, who, with
another in company, had rowed out of sight of the ship,
struck one of the whales. This was about four o'clock
in the morning 1 , of the twentyninth.
' The captain supposing, from the long absence of the
two most distant boats, that a fish had been struck, di-
rected the course of the ship towards the place where he
had last seen them, and about eight o'clock in the morn-
ing, he got in sight of a boat, which displayed the signal
for being fast. Some time afterwards, he observed the
other boat approach the fish, a second harpoon struck,
and the usual signal displayed. As, however, the fish
dragged the two boats away with considerable speed, it
was mid-day before any assistance could reach them.
Two more harpoons were then struck, but such was the
vigor of the whale, that although it constantly dragged
through the water from four to six boats, together with
16,000 fathoms of line, which it had drawn out of the
different boats, yet it pursued its flight nearly as fast as
a boat could row, and such was the terror it manifested
on the approach of its enemies, that whenever a boat
passed beyond its tail, it invariably dived. All their en-
deavors to lance it were, therefore, vain. The crews of
the loose boats, being unable to keep pace with the fish,
caught hold of and moored themselves to the fast-boats,
and for some hours afterwards, all hands were constrain-
ed to sit in idle impatience, waiting for some relaxation
in the speed of the whale. Its most general course had
hitherto been to windward, but a favorable change tak-
ing place, enabled the ship, which had previously been
572 WHALE FISHERY.
at a great distance, to join the boats at eight in the af-
ternoon. They succeeded in taking one of the lines
to the ship, which was made fast to the ship, with a view
of retarding its flight. They then furled the top-gal-
lant sails, and lowered the top-sails ; but after supporting
the ship a few minutes head to wind, the wither of the
harpoon upset, or twisted aside, and the instrument was
disengaged from its grasp. The whale immediately set
off toward the windward with increased speed, and it
required an interval of three hours before the ship could
again approach it. Another line was then taken on
board, which '^immediately broke. A fifth harpoon had
previously been struck, to replace the one which wag
pulled out, but the line attached to it was soon afterwards
cut. They then instituted various schemes for arresting
the speed of the fish, which occupied their close atten-
rion nearly twelve hours. But its velocity was yet such,
that the master, who had himself proceeded to the at-
tack, was unable to approach sufficiently near to strike a
harpoon. After a long chase, however, he succeeded in
getting hold of one of the lines, which the fish dragged
after it, and of fastening another line to it ; the fish then
turned fortunately towards the ship, which was at a con-
siderable distance.
' At four o'clock, in the afternoon of the thirtieth, thir-
tysix hours after the fish was struck, the ship again join-
ed the boats; when, by a successful manoeuvre, they se-
cured two of the fast lines on board. The wind blowing
a moderately brisk breeze, the top-gallant sails were
taken in, the principal sails hauled up, but, notwithstand-
ing the resistance a ship thus situated must offer, she was
towed by the fish, directly towards the quarter from
whence the wind blew with the velocity of a least one and
half or two knots, during an hour and a half. And then,
though the whale must have been greatly exhausted, it
beat the water with its fins and tail in so tremendous a
way, that the sea around was in a continual foam, and
the most hardy of the sailors scarcely dared to approach
it. At length, about eight o'clock in the afternoon, af-
ter forty hours of almost incessant, and for the most part
fruitless exertions, this formidable and astonishingly vi-
WHALE FISHERY. 573
gorous animal was killed. The capture and the flensing
occupied fortyeight hours. The fish was eleven feet bone,
(the length of the longest lamina of whale-bone,) and its
produce filled fortyseven butts, or twentythree and a half
ton casks with blubber.
4 Excepting when it has its young under its protection,
the whale generally exhibits remarkable timidity of char-
PROCEEDINGS AFTER A WHALE IS KILLED.
' The first operation performed on a dead whale, is to
secure it to a boat. The more difficult operation of free-
ing the whale from the entanglement of the lines is at-
tempted. As the whale, when dead, always lies on its
back, or on its side, the lines and harpoons are generally
far under water. When they pass obliquely downward,
they are hooked with a grapnel, pulled to the surface and
cut. But when they hang perpendicularly, or cannot be
seen, they are discovered by a process, called " sweeping
a fish." On one occasion, I was engaged in the capture
of a fish, upon which, when to appearances dead, I leap-
ed, cut holes in the fins, and was in the act of passing a
rope through them, when the fish sunk beneath rny feet.
As soon as I observed this, I made a spring towards a
boat at the distance of three or four yards from me, and
caught hold of the gunwale. I was scarcely on board
before the fish began to move forward, turned entirely
over, reared its tail, and began to shake it with such pro-
digious violence, that it resounded through the air to the
distance of two or three miles. After two or three min-
utes of this violent exercise, it ceased, rolled over upon
its side, and died.
'In the year 1816, a fish was lo all appearance killed.
The fins were partly lashed, the tail on the point of being
secured, the lines, excepting one, were cut away, the fish
lying meanwhile, as if dead. To the astonishment and
alarm, however, of the sailors, it revived, began to move,
and pressed forward in a convulsive agitation ; soon after
it sunk in the water to some depth, and then died. One
line remained attached to it, by which it was drawn up
574 WHALE FISHERY.
and secured. After a fish is properly secured, it is car-
ried towards the ship. All the boats* join themselves in
a line, by ropes carried for the purpose, and unite their
efforts in towing the fish towards the ship. The course
of the ship is directed towaids the fish, unless in calms,
or where the ship is moored to the ice, at no great dis-
tance, or when the situation of the fish is inconvenient
or inaccessible, when the ship is obliged to wait the ap-
proach of the fish. When the fish is secured to the ship,
the operation of flensing is performed. For this a varie-
ty of knives and other instruments are requisite. The
enormous weight of a whale prevents the possibility of
raising it more than one fourth or fifth part out of the
water.
PROCESS OF FLENSING, i. 6. REMOVING THE BLUBBER.
' Before the harpooners descend upon the fish their
feet are furnished with spurs, to prevent their slipping.
The blubber, in pieces of half a ton each, is received on
deck, and being divided '.here into portable, cubical, or
oblong pieces, containing near a solid foot of fat, and
passed down between decks, when it is packed in a re-
ceptacle provided for it in the hold. As the fish is turn-
ed round, every part of the blubber becomes necessarily
uppermost and is removed. When sharks are present,
they generally help themselves very plentifully, during the
progress of the flensing ; but they often pay for their te-
merity with their lives. Fulmars, a species of bird of
prey, pay close attendance in immense numbers. They
seize fragments of the fish disengaged by the knife, while
they are swimming in the water, but most of the other
gulls, take their share on the wing. The burgomaster
is decidedly the master of the feast; hence every'bird is
obliged to relinquish the most delicious morsel, when the
burgomaster descends to claim it.
'In flensing, the harpooners are annoyed by the surge,
and repeatedly drenched in water, and are likewise sub-
ject to be wounded by the breaking of ropes, or hooks,
or tackles, and even by strokes from each other's knives.
The harpooners not unfrequently fall into the fish's
WHALE FISHERY. 575
mouih, when it is exposed by the removal of a surface
of blubber, where they might easily be drowned, but for
prompt assistance.
' I was once witness of a circumstance, in which a
harpooner was exposed to the most imminent risk of
his life, by a very curious accident. The harpooner
stood on one of the jaw bones of the fish, with a boat by
his side. In this situation, while he was in the act of
cutting away the carcass of the fish, a boy inadvertently
struck the point of the boat-hook, by which he usually
held the boat, through the ring of the harpooner's spur,
and in the same act, seized the jaw bone of the fish
with the same instruments, and thus, the poor harpoon-
er was pinned to the fish. The carcass was disengag-
ed, and began to sink. The harpooner threw himself
towards the boat, but being entangled by the foot, he
fell into the water. Providentially he caught hold of the
boat with both hands, but being overpowered by the
sinking mass, he was on the point of relinquishing his
grasp, when some of his companions got hold of his
hands, while others threw a rope round ins body. The
carcass of the fish was now suspended entirely by his
body. He remained in this drradful state, until means
were adopted for drawing it back to the surface of the
water.'
The process of extracting the oil from the blubber thus
procured, is a simple one. The blubber, which is a sort
of solid liit, is exposed in large boilers to the action of
heat, and the oil is separated. Sometimes this is done
on board the ships at sea, at other times the blubber,
previously cut into small pieces, is stowed in casks, and
is brought home in this state, that it may be tried out
more conveniently on shore.
The whale fishery is a very important branch of the
business of this country. The chief to\vns from which
it is carried on are Nantucket and New Bedford. There
are in the former fifty manufactories of oil and candles.
There are now sixtytwo ships belonging to the port, and
six ships are building for the whaling business. The
value of this fleet as fitted for sea amounts to about
2,000,000 dollars.
NOTICE TO THE READER.
The present number, it will be observed, completes
the first volume of the Scientific Tracts. There was in
the early part of the volume, one number containing thir-
tysix pages. To complete the number of pages, as
was originally intended, we have made the two last
numbers shorter than the others. We have added
also a copious index of the subjects treated jn the vol-
ume. The miscellaneous character of the work renders
uch an index highly necessary.
INDEX.
Aguado 383-385
Caucasian race 458
Air, resistance of, 53
Characteristics, distin-
elasticity of, 61
guishing of man, 454-455
pump 61
Chimneys 249-251
gun 65-66
Chyle 405
current from E. to W. 215
Clouds, form and color, 262-265
pressure of, 54-55
Circulatory system in
Amber 474
man 41 J
American race 459
Circulatory system in
Animals, carnivorous, 406
fish 411
ruminating, 407
Archimedes, anecdotes
Circulatory system in
insects 412
of, 528-531
Circulatory system in
Atmosphere, its uses, 1-5
plants 412
properties, 18-19
Chaotic Ocean 23
color, 49
Chloroid 103
Aurora Borealis 329-333
Cold, how produced, 155
Coleoptera 174-175
Ballistic Pendulum 543
Columbus, early education 355
Barometer, different forms, 56-59
first voyages 356
Birds, carnivorous, 407-408
residence in
Birches 204-205
Lisbon 357
canoe, 205
application for as-
white, 206
sistance to Genoa
red, 206
and Venice 359
yellow, 206
black, 207
application for as-
sistance to Fer-
Bobadilla, Francisco, 585-7-370
dinand and Isa-
Bricks 237-238
bella 360-361
Building, improvement
first voyage of
in the art of, 233-234
discovery 361-363
Buildings, foundations
death of, 373
of, 244-248
grave of, 373
self-taught 378-379
Carbonic acid, its
self-command 383
properties, 13-15
uniform benevo-
Carronade 537
lence 399
Cataracts 111-112
Combustion 157-158
VOL. i. 53
578 INDEX.
Condensation by cold 223
Electricity, conductors of, 503-505
by rarefying
the air 224
heat produced
by, 509-512
Convex glasses, why ne-
effects of balls
cessary 123
and points in, 513
Cornea 104
Franklin's expe-
Creation, order of, 30-32
riments in 522
Electrical Machine
Deafness, partial, 306
Entomology, objections
permanent, 307
to, 163-164
Dew 269-270
motives to the
Differences between plants
study of, 165-169
and animals 403
Eprouvette 542
Diptera 181-183
Ethiopian race 459
Discovery of America 378
Evaporation 153-154
Diving-bell 68-70
cause of, 253
sugar refined
Ear, external, 282
by, 259
musical, 304
effects of, 270-273
muscles of, 283-285
interesting phe-
drum of, 288-289
nomena of, 274-277
tympanum, 290-292
Eye, structure of, 98
ache 305
human, socket of, 99
Echoes, remarkable 324-327
human, globe of, 100
musical, 327-328
human, muscles of, 100
Eclipse 339-3! M)
human, sclerotic coat
Electricity 474-476
of, 100
theory of, 476
human, aqueous hu-
effects produced
mor of, 109-110
by, in its na'u-
human, crystalline
ral state 478
humor of, 111
means of accu-
human, vitreous hu-
mulating 479-480
mor of, 1 14
distributed over
the surfaces of
Fire engine 64
boilies 437
Fluidity, cause of, 150
effects produced
Forest trees 187-207
when in mo-
tion 497-500
Gastric juice 405
motionof, instan-
Geology, practical know-
taneous, expe-
ledge of, increased 25
riments pioving
application of, to
it 501-503
the aits 26
mechanical ef-
object of, 27
fects, 311-319
a branch of com-
effects upon the
mon education 41-45
animal system 519-521
Gravitation, general law of, 75
attraction and re-
heavenly bo-
pulsion of, 489-495
dies, bet ween
ligrht produced
the, 75
by, 505-509
cause of, 83
579
Gravitation between one
Journal of a soldier in
heavenly body
India 534-538
and parts of
another 77
Lac 170
between parts
Land and sea breezes 216
of the earth 78
Lepidoptera 177-178
between small
Leydenjar 482
bodies and parts
Lightning, house struck
of the earth 79
by, 228
between small
bodies on earth's
Man, physical organization
surface 82
of, 449
laws of, 84
stature of, 461
effects of, 89
different tribes of, 463
discovery of, 91
Maple 196-198
Granite 235-236
red flowering, 201
Gunnery 538-541
white . 202
black sugar 203
Hail and snow 268
sycamore 203
Harpoon 426
Norway 203
Heat evolved by lightning 512
Marble 235
sources of, 156
Masonry 241-244
bodies expanded by, 138
measurement of, 251-252
cause of, 1 44
Match syringe 67
radiation of, 144
Matter, two'kiuds 17
reflection of, 146
Malay race 460
conduction, 147-149
Membrana nictitans 119
distribution of, 149
Meteors 329
diminution of, from
seen by Cavallo 335
equator to pole 211-213
seen by Sloane 334
diminution of, from
Meteoric stones 338
the earth upward
theory of, 347-349
Hemiptera 176
Military projectiles 326
Hispaniula, as it appeared
Mongolian race 458
to Columbus 365-368
Monsoons 216
Honey 17]
Mortar 238-240
Howitzers 537
Mortars 538
Hurricanes 217-219
Muscles of animals 413-414
Human species, varieties
of, 405-409
Near-sightedness 124-125
Hymenoptera 179-181
Nervous papillae 418
Nueroptera 178
Iris 105
Image of an objert <i the
Ossicula Auditus 295-297
eye 125-126
Optic Nerve 115
Insects, useiui products
Objects, appearance of, 126-1 27
from, 169
Origin of man 450-452
eyes of, 127
Ignis fatui 349-351
Plastering 253-251
580
Pigmentum Nigrum 117
Pneumatics 49
Silk worms 172-174
Sounding bodies, vibrations
Prime conductor 481
of, 309
Pump, common, 62
Stone liouses 248
Pupil of the Albiiii 129
Sugar, maple, 198-200
Rail-roads, history of,
Table mountain 226
width required
Tears, uses of, 119
car for, 551
Thunder storm at Bev-
Manchester and
erly 227-231
Liverpool 552
clouds 265
Rain 266-267
and Lightning 227
Respiration 403-409
Tunica conjunctiva 117
Retina 103
Rich man, death of,
Vision, power of, 121-123
Rocket, engine, 552
Rocks, ages of, 32
Walnuts 193-194
elements of, 33-34
Wax 171
strata of, 35-41
Wild boy 450-451
Winds, variable, 217
Sandstone 236-237
force of, ' 221
Semicircular canals 299-300
Whale, structure of, 475
Senses 420-423
fishery, commercial
Shooting stars
Shrapnells
importance of, 425
interesting nature of, 426
Sienite :.'3tt
ships and boats used
Sight of animals in the
for, 426
dark 130-132
description of, 427-447
of fishes 133-135
anecdotes of, 485
Sound, motion of through
unsuccessful at-
solids 315
tempt to cap-
through air 316
ture 569-570
velocity ol, 317-320
taken by the
phenomena of, 320-321
Bounty 571
distances calculated
killed, proceedings
by, 321-322
after 573-574
reflection of, 323
process of flensing 574
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