^mm-:U'- j ^ ^^ -^ Fig. 1. — Increase in population by 5-year periods. According to the Census of 1916, the Province has seven cities, 72 towns, and 302 incorporated villages, with a total population of 176,162. In 1905, when the Province wa^ organised, Regina, Moose Jaw, and Prince Albert were the only cities. Since then there has been a great growth in incorporated places, w^hich has occasionallr partaken of unwarranted '"boom." Some of the cities and towns have, as a matter of fact, suffered seriously from overvaluation and subsequent reaction — some of it, no doubt, due to the abnormal war conditions. The relative growth in rural and urban population is shown in Table 1. TABLE 1 URBAN AND RUKAL. POPULATION, ACCORDING T® EACH CENSUS, 1901 TO 1916. Census Urban Rural Total Per cent, of population Increase per cent, over preceding census year Urban Rural Urban Rural Total 1916.. 1911.. 1906.. 1901. . 176,162 131,395 48,462 14,266 471,673 361 .037 209.301 77,013 647,835 492,432 257,763 91.279 27.26 26.67 18.80 15.62 72.74 73.33 81.80 84.38 34.47 171.07 239.70 30.47 72.51 171.77 31.55 91.55 182.39 12 It appears that the rate increase in urban population for the five-year period 1911-1916 was 34.47 per cent, whih^ the rate increase of nnal population was 30.47. However, the gross increase was, urban, 44,767 and rural, 110,636. The trading centers are having a substan- tial growth to keep pace with the agricultural development ; but probably few, if any, industrial centers of magnitude will be developed. The rural population will continue in the majority and from it will come the fundamental wealth of the Province. Racial Composition of the Population. — Figure 2 shows graphi- cally the composition of the people who dwell in Saskatchewan. Considerably more than one-half of all are of '"British" origin. This group includes all who trace their ancestry to Great Britain, whether born there, in Canada, the United States, or el-ewhere. Or/ gin of Fop u /at/on 6y /^af/ofia//ties ! /9/6 British score". •*■'"*• Ame'-i<:''"- Fig. -Racial composition in Saskatchewan. The population of German origin stands second with 11.9 ])er cent. ; then come Scandinavians with 9.2 per cent., Austro-Hungarians vvith 9.15 per cent., and Slavonic peoples, with 6.16 per cent. Those of French origin number only 5 per cent, of the total. 13 Figure 3 gives tte proportion of all l>ritish to the foreign born jiopulation of each nationality. This is according to the census of 1911. The striking fact is the large per cent, of Saskatchewan population who have moved in from the United States — although not all of them native Americans. Proport/on o^ Br/rish to t/rp Foreig/r porn Fopi//af/on o/ pach Naffona//f'y. Fig. 3.— The British element. Figure 4 shows that fully one-half of all the people now there were born in Saskatchewan; 14.14 per cent, were born in the United States ; 7.2 per cent, were born in Austria-Hungary (including nearly all Ruthenians) ; and only 1.5 per cent, were born in Germany. Distrihutiori and Characteristics of tJi.e Population. — As stated above, 54.5 per cent, of the population are of British and Anglo-' American origin. The other 45.5 per cent, have been garnered in from the four corners of the earth. At best it will be a slow process to Canadianise so large a per cent, of foreign born. The assimilation process is made even more difficult by reason of the fact that the foreign born have settled mostly in great settlements, embracing frequently thousands of square mile-, where they live largely unto themselves, using their own mother tongue, their own manners and customs, often' to the utter disregard of Canadian standards and ideals. 14 X <^ o S/l3M'ATCH£WAry 3/r/-hp/oce o/ AAe Popu/ot/on /9// Fig. 4. — Birthplace of the population. The accompanying map (Map 1) gives a good idea of the present distribution of the population by race origins. British and Anglo- Americans predominate in the light coloured sections. They possess the best of the prairie lands. The rich park regions in the northeastern section, along the main line of the Canadian Northern Railway, and the newly developed southwestern section of the Province are predom- inatingly settled by immigrants of non-English origin. Several of the non-English groups obtained possession of the land under special agreements with the Dominion Government while Saskatchewan was still part of the old Northwest Territory, and these agreements which allow privileges incompatible with democratic government, have been the means of keeping a number of colonists from becoming assimilated with the Canadian people. Other colonists, having no such constitu- tional rights, have settled in large groups, held together by nationalistic and religious ties. These have likewise retarded the assimilation process. The area in the map indicated by circle "one" is dominated by Russian Doukhobors ; these are surrounded by far stretching Ruthenian and Austro-Hungarian settlements. Circle "two" is the center of German-speaking settlements, peopled with German Catholics and 15 German Lutherans. Circles "four" and "five" mark settlements of "old colony" Mennonites, who, although speaking a plattdeutsch dialect, came to Saskatchewan from Southern Russia. Circle "four," finally, represents a large colony of "progressive" Mennonites, of a more recent emigration from the United States. Similar progressive groups lie beyond the village Mennonites who are settled near Warman and Hague — in circle "three." The linguistic group known as Ruthenian is designated in the map in part as Russians and in part as Austro- Hungarians, according to recent claims of allegiance. Scandinavians, Icelanders, and Swedish Finns comprise a considerable per cent, of the population ; but by reason of their close kinship to people of Anglo- Saxon origin in traditions, history, and ideals, they are readily Canadianised and so present no special problem. The French form about 5 per cent, of the total population ; they have proved intensely nationalistic and cling tenaciously to their French tongue and customs. Scondina\//an MAP 1. In this heterogeneous people the outstanding problem so far as the process of making one Canadian-speaking and thinking people goes, centers around the colony Mennonites, and to a lesser degree, the Russian Doukhobors and the Ruthenians. Illiteracy and School Education. — The percentage of illiteracy in the foreign-born population is 17.99 per cent. This is limited chiefly 10 to the Rvissiaii and Austro-IIimg-arian groups. The percentage of illiterac}^ among tlie nati^■e-born population abo\'e six years of age is 15.45 per cent." This surprisingly large percentage of illiteracy among the Saskatchewan horn is due largely to the comparative poverty of the early seittlers, which forced them to keep their children at work; and, liiore particularly, to the far scattered conditions of homesteading, with long distances to school, bad roads, and severe winters. The agricultural prosperity prevailing at the present time, with the increase in rural population and imi)ioveuu'rit in school organisation, should in a short time materiall}^ decrease this large percentage of illiteracy. Distrihution of ropulation hy Age Groujin. — The population :of Saskatchewan are young in years. jMany of them have come to the prfiirie as young married couples or as small children. Figure 5 shows that 15. G p(r cent, of the total population in Saskatchewan and 14.3 per cent, in Manitoba and Alberta are under five yiars of age. From 5 to 14 years — the ordinary elementary school group — is correspond- ingly large in all tln'( e prairie provinces. The high school group is somewhat smaller in all the provinces. Then the percentages increase again, only to dro]) oi:ce more after passing ihe 25 to 29 year group. The age distribution in Saskatchewan runs remarkably true to the average of Manitoba and Alberta. Compared with similar age groups for the T'nited Stafes Saskatchewan has a larger per cent, of young children below and of school age. *^qe Distn6ut/on of Popa/oT/on. /S/6. ScfSkafc^Pivon c^/nparec^ tv/f/r Mon/foha ancf A/berTo. Afonitoba o/t<^ /^/bcrTo. Per Cent /O S /S-6 /4 2 SO and Oirer The percentages from 5 to 20 years, which embrace the ordinary school population, contain no special conditions that might affect the school problems hereinafter to be considered. 17 Scliuol Populalioii (Did Attendance. — The schools of the Province are theoretically opdi to all ptrsons between 5 and 21 years of age. The censns of .1 inie 1. 191G, gives the total poesi1)le school population as 196,990. Of these 129,439 are regularly enrolled in the elementary and secondary schools, and a few hundred in the higher institutions of learning. About 70,000 young people are making no use of the schools nt their disposal; but in many instances this is because many persons between ."> and 21 years of age have already taken up life responsibilities. A better basis for comparison is the "normal" school age of persons between and 18 — the period of normal elementary and secondary school attendance. This group numbers 165,176 persons, or 35,737 more than arc enrolled in schools of elementary and secondary rank. On the other hand, the compulsory attendance population — being children over 7 and below 14 — numbers 97,020, which is consider- ably less than the total enrolment in the schools. The most unsatis- factory showing is made in high school attendance. There are 40.822 children of high school age. Of these only about 7,000 are enrolled in colkgiate institutes, high schools, and continuation classes. Expenditure for School Education. — Unfortunately there are no figures to show just what resources are available for educational pur- poses in the Province. No census has ever been taken to show, definitely, what the aggregate wealth of Saskatchewan is. It is, accordino'lv, imno-sible to crive the amount of wealth back of each child of school age, and to show just how liberally the children are treated in the matter of educational expenditure. It is, however, easy to ascertain just how much is expended per child, year for year. Thus during the fiscal year closing April 30, 1916, the sum of $7,241,335.99 was actually invested in elementary and higher education. The disbursements for the year were much larger than this, but included payments on debentures and notes which cannot be considered as bona fide "investment" in education^ This is equiva- lent to $11.14 for every man, woman and child in the Province. During the same period the United States expended $900,000,000 for similar education, or a little more than $9.00 per capita. Many state- approached the per capita investment of Saskatchewan and several exceeded its investment somewhat. On the whole the Province makes a good showing. Assuredly, a new school system, such as that in Saskatchewan, requires a comparatively larger outlay in buildings and equipment, than would be the case in an older province or country. "Even after due allowance is made on this score, it can safely be said that Saskatchewan has Ix'cn unusually liberal in its provision for school education. Indeed, no other province and no single American state has been more liberal in this respect. At the same time it is fair to assume that the young, rich Province can well afford to do sitill more for educa- tion than it has done in the past, provided this investment is in the right type of education. iThe total expenditure for 1915-16 totalled $11,370,496.99. Of this amount $1,068,853.56 covered debenture payments and $3,060,307.44 matured notes, which makes a total of $4,129,161 to be deducted. CHAPTER II. FUNDAMENTAL EDUCATIONAL NEEDS AS INDICATED BY CHARACTER AND RESOURCES OF THE PROVINCE. The salient facts brought out briefly in the foregoing chapter indicate definitely the educational needs of Saskatchewan. The primary and chief industry is agriculture. In last analysis the rural population of the Province are its chief wealth makers. Their capacity for leadership, their ability to produce scientifically from the land, their native desire for wholesome, happy living on the land will be determined chiefly by the kind of school education furnished them by a far-seeing government. The greatness of the Province will ultimately be deter- mined by the type of education found in rural districts. The population, it is true, is unusually heterogeneous. Still enough arc of Anglo-Saxon origin and characteristics to perpetuate in the whole population the best Anglo-Saxon ideals, traits, and historic traditions. As a whole the people are progressive and forward-looking, with a good average of wealth. There is little poverty, and practically every farmer owns the land he tills. Democratic ideals prevail. Rank and birth are considered less than ability and thrift. Such a people offers the best opportunity for a universal education of a high standard, cultural and, at the same time, scientific and practical. To this end there is needed an efficient system of modern elementary and secondary schools within reach of all. The splendid Anglo-Saxon inheritance transplanted to the new soil craves the perpetuation of cultural standards of the highest type; as the life and occupations of the people demand provision for happy, wholesome, remunerative existence in the open country, in toAvn, and in city. These are some of the things the school must make possible. Deterrmning Factors in Any Modern Educational System. — Every school, whether in Saskatchewan or elsewhere, should teach just what a modern population craves to know in order to get the greatest good out of life. Do the schools provide the kind of instruction required to keep people in the enjoyment of good health and sanitary surroundings ? Do the schools prepare people to earn remunerative livings on the land, in the town, and in the city? Do they direct them to become useful, responsible members of the larger social group ? Do the schools, finally, lead people so that they will devote a well earned leisure to ethical and esthetical pursuits for the improvement of self and upbuilding of community and race ? So far as the schools are organised to accomplish these ends they approach the modem conception of educa- tion ; otherwise they fall short of their purpose. Such a system of education as this does not limit its activities by the walls of the school or the covers of textbooks. The entire farm place with its manifold interests becomes a vital part of it; the industrial activities of the city become tied up with it — the business man, the bank president, the shop foreman, the practical scientist, the expert account- ant, are all concerned in a modem system of education, and are, there- fore, consulted to make the school a vital factor in daily life. 19 Education such as thin is the most "ciiltiral" in the world, if bj culture is meant more than mere polish; for ir, is well to have in mind that education founded on real life purposes is the most genuinely cultural of all education. Agriculture and 11 ace Composiiion of the People to Determine the School System of Saslcatchcwan. — The school system for Saskatchewan will not disregard its debt to the loug-established and well-tried system of the mother country and the older provinces; neither will it accept every educational content and principle as fundamental, just because it seemed goo<:l in the time of our forefathers. The system will be determined by present and future needs, in the light of past experi- ence and past inheritance, Saskatchewan must evolve its own educa- tional scheme, basing it primarily upon agricultural and race needs. Other considerations are secondary to these. Pioneering in the original sense has long since passed away on the North American continent. It is true that people in Saskat; chewan have suffered some of the drawbacks and difficulties belonging to pioneer life ; but the population have come into the new Province bringing with them schools and churches and other institutions as com- plete as can be found anywhere. They have satisfactory means of transportation ; they have the best of machinery and agricultural imple- ments. The people have not, in other words, been forced to repeat the various stages of group life that the earlier N'orth Americans had to go through. Saskatchewan ha^ reached modern scientific, commercial farming on common terms with the older Canadian provinces and American states. The survey assumes that the people here are striving to bring about an era of real husbandry agriculture. Scientific farming goes hand in hand with intelligent leadership. To attain this in good measure, it is essential to set up in rural districts a type of community school in every way equipped to help the rural population to whole- some, joyous, remunerative living on the land. Town and city schools should also be considered in this conception of agricultural life. City people may not all be expected to become farmers ; but what they do become will depend largely on the agricultural prosperity by which they are surrounded. Practical courses in agriculture, rural sociology, and farm economics in the secondary schools are required to forge a bond of sympathy and understanding between town and country people, and would ultimately place agriculture on the lofty plane which it should occupy in the esteem of all Saskatchewan peojile. The Race Needs of the Popidation. — To evolve a school system without full consideration of all the divergent elements in the popu- lation would be a gross mistake, and would ultimately work as great a hardship on the alien immigrant as it would at first on the native Canadian. The alien must be understood, first of all. His own inheritance from his mother country must be given full evaluation. Patiently, sympathetically, but firmly, he must be led — and by teachers of highest Canadian ideals, who have special fitness and t: aining for this problem. With the right type of schools established in the heart of the non-English communities — faithfully served — the assimilatiori process cannot long be delayed. 20 To educate all its people, without exception, is both the duty and the right of democracy. There are in Saskatchewan thousands of adults classed as illiterates— a majority of them from foreign shores;. If these people have been deprived of educational, opportunities in their youth, it is the duty of the government to extend this blessing to them now in their years of maturity ; if they have neglected their earlier opportunities, democracy has the right to demand that they correct the deficiency with government assistance at once. For all such people there should be established, as a part of the regular school system, night schools, part time schools, and other types of continuation schools. Training Teachers for the Schools. — The predominance of agricul^ tural life indicates the need for teachers trained s])ecifically for teaching in rural schools who can prepare school children for successful agricul- tural pursuits. ISText to the fundamental consideration of life occupa- tions and race characteristics, must be placed the teachers who are to ediicate the men and women who. in their tr.rn, will furnish the prac- tical aggressiveness, cornet outlook on life, and finer idealism spoken nf !;',.^ve. How much or how little of this kind of training has been p( -sible in the schools for training teachers will appear later in the; ciiscussion. It is now the purpose to consider, in detail, the school system of the Province and to recommend such modifications as would seem desirable and necessary if the schools are to serve this rich agricultural province most efficiently and effectively. CHAPTER III. THE PRESENT EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM. The Department of Education. — The administration of the Saskat- chewan schools is much more strongly centralised than is the average American state system. The plan is less democratic, perhaps, than is the American; but in practice it is fully as eifective. Centralised adminis'tration has proved its worth during the early, formative period in Saskatchewan educational history. The schools are administered from the central Department of Education in the Legislative Buildings at Eegina. The Department is presided over by a Minister of Education, who, under law, is a member of the Cabinet. The high esteem in which education is held and its important place in shaping the future of the Province, can b'^ seen in the fact that both the present Premier and his predecessor haAc chosen education in preference to other portfolios. A Superintendent of Education, a Deputy Minister, and such other "officers, clerks a^'d servants as are required for the proper conduct of the business of I bo department" are appointed by the Lieutenant Governor in Council. The Department of Education controls and administers, as pro- vided in The School Act, "all kindergarten schools, jmblic and separate schools, normal schools, model schools, teachers' institutes and the education of deaf, deaf mute and blind persons." The Minister of Education presides over the Department and directs its educational policies. The Deputy Minister acts for the Minister in overseeing :nid directing the lar^'o force of officers and employees serving the Department in the offices and in the field, which in Saskatchewan number approximately 110 people all told. The Superintendent of Education carries into practice the profe - sional policies of the Department under the direction of the Minister and under the provisions of The School Act. He is especially charged with the general supervision and direction of high schools and collegiate institutes, model schools, public and separate schools, training-schools for teachers, the granting of teachers' certificates, technical schools, departmental examinations, teachers' institutes, teachers' reading circles, school libraries and inspectors of schools. C omprehensiveness of Powers and Duties of the Department.- - -The ]\[inister. subject to the approval of the Lieutenant Governor in Council, makes provision, (1) for the classification, organisation, government, examination and inspection of schools; (2) for the constructiai, fnr- ni.shing and care of school buildings and the arrangement of school premises; (3) for the examination, licensing and grading of teachers and for the examination of persons who may desire to enter the profes- sions, or who may wish certificates upon having completed courses of study in any school; (4) for a teachers' reading course, and teachers' institutes and conventions; and (5) for giving instruction in manual training, domestic science and physical training. These provisions give the Department of Education many vitally im.portant duties. The schools of the Piovince are organised, examined 21 22 and inspected by it, under legal prescription. This is done chiefly through a well-organised staff of departmental inspector?, who, in Sas- katchewan, are provincial officers instead of as, in the United States, usually local officials. Centralised control for general school adminis- tration has proved entirely satisfactory in Saskatchewan. The Department of Education has full control over courses of study in elementary and secondary schools, and has charge of examina- tions and promotions within these schools. It is doubtful whether this centralised control in matters of detail and local professional policy is in every respect wise. There is danger that too little flexibility of study courses and too little opportunity for local initiative will result where a central authority prescribes the details of work for teachers and pupils whom it is impossible for it to know in an intimate way. This phase of departmental control may, therefore, be considered as subject to modification to accommodate itself to local needs. The teacher-training institutions' — normal schools and special training .-chools — likewise come under departmental control, as do also licensing of instructors in the elementary and secondary schools. It is eminently correct that the certification of the teaching staff be entirely in charge of the Department which is responsible to the people for school conduct. The general policies of the normal schools should be directed by the Department ; but it is doubtful whether it should direct the internal school policies of the normal schools. The Educational Council. — This body consists of five persons appointed by the Lieutenant Governor in Council, at least two of whom shall be Roman Catholics. The Council represents the general educa- tional policies of the people and must be consulted before any depart- mental regulations can be adopted. It may also consider on its own accord questions of interest to the educational system of the Province, and make report to the Lieutenant Governor in Council. School Organisaiion and Administration. — The unit of school organisation is the local school district, which is an inheritance from Ontario, and which this province, in turn, got from the early American states. The School Act provides for the establishment of schools wherever sufficient numbers of children can be brought, together to partake of its benefits. The Act provides that an area not exceeding twenty square miles may be organised into a school district, provided there are rctiding therein ten children of school age, and four persons each of whom, on its organisation, is liable to assessment for school pur- poses. If a community neglects to organise a school district and a school is deemed necessary, the Minister of Education may organise such district and enforce the government regulations. School district, are known respectively as rural, village, and town districts, under control of local boards of trustees chosen by popular vote. These boards of education have the local management of the schools under the provisions of The School Act. Separate Schools.— The School Act makes provision that separate schools may be erected within established districts by a religious minority, whether Protestant or Catholic. Separate schools were 23 established in this region while Saskatchewan was part of the Old jSForthwest Territory, and the practice became perpetuated under section 93 of The British North America Act, which guarantees to the religious minority all the privileges and rights that it had before the Union. However, the provincial legislatures were not debarred under the Act from legislating on separate schools, provided they did not thereby prejudicially affect privilege.^ held before Union. The ratepayers establishing a separate school are assessed for tbe maintenance of the school, and ai-e exempt from taxation for public^ school purposes. The separate schools exercise their rights, however, subject to the same restrictions and government supervision as do the public schools. The separate school movement in this province is not the subject of such serious contention that it is in certain other provinces, and the liberal provision made for religious instruction in all elementary schools has minimised the demands for separate schools. At the present time, in a total of 4,020 organised districts, only 19 have separate schools — 3 Protestant and 16 Catholic. Secondary Schools. — Theoretically, Saskatchewan has a free school system of 16 years or more, embracing eight years in the elementary school, four years in the s<:condary school, and four or more years in the University of Saskatchewan. In actual practice the schools repre- sent three separate links, which require moulding into one strong chain. The elementary and secondary schools are organised under separate boards, so that an ordinary town system will have distinct boards for its elementary public .-chool, for its secondary school, and for its separate school, if such is maintained. The elementary and secondary school boards do not always work together harmoniously, much to the detriment of the schools. The secondary school is organised under a distinct law — The Secondary Education Act — which limits the establishment of high schools to town and city municipalities. The breach between the elementary and secondary schools has been needlessly wide and difficult to span, and has made the high school rather exclusive and aristocratic in its tendencies, as is seen in the rather pretentious term Collegiate Institute, by which name the first class high schools are designated. There are at this time 22 incorporated high schools and collegiate institutes in operation, with an enrolment of about 3,800 students. Some high school subjects are taught in continuation classes in certain village and town schools ; but not under high school recognition, and hence, without aid from the government. School Maintenance. — The elementar}^ schools are supported partly by rates levied upon taxable property within the school districts and municipalities ; and partly by gi^ants paid by the Government in accord- ance with The School Grants Act. The secondary schools are similarly maintained, the Government grants being apportioned in accordance with The Secondary Education Act. The source of local funds for school purposes are, (1) local assess- ments, (2) proceeds from debentures, and (3) funds borrowed on note. ^ Meaning elementary ijublic schools only. 24 The Government grants are drawn from the School Lands Trust Fund, supplied by the Dominion Government in lieu of other revenue on school lands held in trust by the Dominion Government, from depart- mental fees for examinations, certificate s to teachers and normal school fees. Succession duties and corporation taxes are also included, although devoted to the University entirely. In addition to the above, a small provincial tax is levied under the so-called Supplementary Revenue Act. This amounts to one cent per acre on all agricultural lands outside of town and village districts and lands otherwise exempted from taxation. On grazing lands held in lease from the Government of Canada the tax is one-half cent per acre. The proceeds from The Supplementary Revenue Act are distributed as follows: 10 per cent, for secondary education; 10 per cent, divided equally between the Agricul- tural College and the University of Saskatchewan, and 80 per cent, to rural elementary schools. Professional Training of Teachers. — ISTormal schools for the train- ing of teachers are maintained at two centers — liegina and Saskatoon. In addition to these schools short time schools are held, Irom time to time, for the so-called third class teachers, at selected high schools. The most ditficult phase of the whole educational problem in the Province is how to get and retain a sufficient number of well-prepared teachero in the schools. ^Nearly one thousand teachers entered the field of service, the past year, from the two normal schools and the third class centers, ^fany came into the schools from other provinces and states. In spite of this a large number of teaching permits had to be granted, or the schools would have been without teachers; and this in spite of the fact that Saskatchewan pays exceptionally good salaries, as teachers' salaries go. The courses of instruction in the normal schools are purposely short, to induce a larger number of young people to take the professional training. Here, probably, lies the real cause of the shifting and drifting and early abandonment of the profession. The teacher who invests much time and money in his training course is less ready to k'a\-c teach- ing for another occupation than if he contented himself with a hri; f course of a few short Aveeks. IJigher Iiisfitniions of Learning. — The University of Saskat- chewan was established under The University Act of 1907. The plans for the growth and development of the University are very comprehen- sive, and make provision for Faculties in Arts, Law, Medicine, Fngi- ncering, and Agriculture. The University is situated at Saskatoon upon a site of 1,333 acres, where it is housed in buildings which have cost over a million dollars. The College of Agriculture is to date the most important department of the University. In IDIG, the value of endow- nunt was $15,000; the value of lands and bnildings, $1,784,000; and total income, $227,557. .Vffiliatetl with the University are Eninianui 1 College and tlie Presbyterian College, both at Saskatoon, and St. Chad's College at Pegina. These schools exercise the right to grant degrees in divinity, and have charter rights which would enable them to do work in other faculties as well. 'lo There arc in the Province also a number of denominational schools of secondarv rank which do good v;ork in supplementing the courses of the high schools, and particularly in extending opportunities for education to persons beyond ordinary school age whose early education has been neglected. Chief among these are Eegina College, at Regina ; ^loose Jaw College for Boys, at ^NFoose Jaw; St. Alban's, at Prince Alber!:: and Battleford Academy, at Battleford. CHAPTER IV SCHOOL ORGANISATION AND AD:vriNISTRATION. Saskatchewan has been organised under provincial government a little more than a decade. In that brief period of time school develop- ment has gone forward at an encouraging pace. In September, 1905, there were in operation 885 public and 9 separate school districts. Since then school districts have been organised at the rate of about one district per working day. Much territory, however, even in the settled sections, is not yet organised into school districts. Some idea of the rapid growth may be obtained from Table 2, which gives the organisation of school districts by years since 1906 : TABLE 2. SCHOOL DISTRICT ORGANISATION. Year Number of districts Number of districts in operation Number of departments in operation 1906 1.190 i;430 1,745 2,003 2,255 2,546 2,928 3,230 3.523 3,702 3.873 873 1.101 1,410 1.692 1,912 2.110 2.444 2,747 3.055 3.367 3 608 1 017 1907 1 272 1908 1,612 1909 1,937 2,207 1910 1911 2,480 1912 2,947 1913 3,367 1914 3.787 1915 4.006 1916 4,279 The table shows that on December 31, 1916, Saskatchewan had 3,873 districts, fully organised or in the process of organisation. 3,608 districts actually had schools in operation in 1916, in charge of 4,279 teachers. Incidentally, these districts are administered by an army of about 11,500 local school trustees. Origin of the Small School District. — It is vital in this study to determine the effect of this local district organisation on the economy and efficiency of the schools. Is the small district the best unit of organisation for the schools of a great agricultural province like Saskat- chewan? How is this borne out by educational history in the Prov- ince? These queries can best be answered after indicating how the local school district came into being and why it is now used in Saskatchewan. The local school district is a heritage from the East and Ontario, where it came into use in pioneer days when no other form of organ- isation was feasible. Nor is the local district of Canadian origin. It originated, as a matter of fact, in New England in the early days of English colonisation, whence it spread westward and northward wherever Englishmen penetrated the wilderness. It was purely a community enterprise, each group of families organising and support ing its own schools as best it could 26 The district organisation usually 27 preceded school legislation, which later sanctioned it as the only practicable organisation for the settlement. In the United States people have begun to realise that the small district has outlived its period of usefulness, and that it ought to be supplanted bj a more elfective unit of organisation. In I^ew England the more compact township organisation has already driven out these local districts. The same is true in Pennsylvania, Indiana, and other states in the Middle West. The Southern States generally are organ- ised under the county unit, with one board of trustees for all the schools in a single county. Eighteen American States have already adopted the county unit in one form or another and thirteen are using township organisation in whole or in part. In all the rest there is a strong movement under way to supplant the pioneer district with one or the other of township or county organisation, with the latter generally in the ascendancy. Why the Local District Declined. — The chief reason why the local district in the American States is the cause of discontent is that it has become an almost insurmountable obstacle to the type of school organis'ation required by a modern rural population. As a tax area it causes untold injustice and inequality. School consolidation and the establishment of rural high schools have proved exceedingly difficult where local boards and district lines have to be considered. Then, local jealousy and closefistedness and individual indifference often result in short terms and underpaid teachers, a meager course of study with the usual results — non-enrolment of a large proportion of the school popula- tion, irregularity of attendance and early dropping out of school. How Local School Administration Has Worlced in SasJcatcheivan. — -A study was made of typical school districts in every section of the Province, in which were considered, (1) personnel of the board of trustees, (2) their interest in the school, (3) condition of the school plant, (4) efficiency of the school, (5) liberality of the school support, (6) selection of teacher, (7) length of school term, and (8) ability of the school to meet community needs. This study, coupled with the testimony of the inspectors who are in intimate touch with the trustees and the schools, and the convictions expressed by many trustees as well, leads to the conclusion that the small district unit does not meet modern community needs in Saskatchewan any more than it does in the United States. The local district is and remains a pioneer unit of organisation. In this connection it is well to bear in mind that Saskatchewan has never known pioneering as it was experienced in early-day America. Its schools and other institutions came fully developed from the older settled sections, not requiring a gi'adual evolution from pioneering to modern conditions. The study has disclosed that 1. Small District School Boards are Ineffective and Impracticahle. — Saskatchewan has 4,020 school districts (December 81, 1917), each in charge of three local trustees. This makes a small armv of between eleven and twelve thousand men. An average municipality has from thirty to fifty or more each. Such an organisation is inexcusable. It is unreasonable to expect that half a hundred men can be found in a 2S thinly settled municipality suited by temperanuut and training- to fill all these positions; even if the men could be found there is neither business reason nor educational reason for bringino- such a large force into the management of the schools. In many municipalities, particu- larly in non-English communities, it is entirely out of the question to hnd a sufficient number of persons suited to hold these important positions. 2. Trustees often Misdirect Their Efforts. — Many trustees give their time freely to the schools, and in some instances to good purpose. But, generally, the efforts spent are misdirected because they lack knowledge of educational needs. It is found, for example, tha! trustees, in every section of the Province, have fallen easy victims to glib agents who sell expensive and unnecessary school apparatus, while they have refused to provide books and simple school implements urgently requested by the teachers. 3. There is Inequaliti/ of School Support. — Wealthy districts are often controlled by men whose chief aim is to keep taxes down. In neighbouring districts, with smaller aggregate wealth, it may happen that the school plant is modern and satisfactory because the men there tax the community to the limit. On general principles the whole wealth of the Province should be made available for educating all the youth of the Province. Thi- is both right and just, for in Saskatchewan education is a civil func- tion, to be supported like other similar functions. While the Province may be expected to increase liberally its grants, the people should apply the same principle in its more limited application to the munici])ality. The school district has proved too small to be entrusted with final legis- lation in such matters as taxation. Taxation for educational purposes should clearly be vested in the larger natural unit of civil administra- tion- — the municipality. The injustice of the present inequality can be seen by studying the map of Municipality No. 32, Figure 6 (page 30). 4. There are Abuses in the Selection of Teachers.- -Teachers are chosen by the local boards, who do as they please about following the advice of the Department of Education in this matter. This plan has led to serious abuses. Often trustees neglect to procure a teacher in time to open the school on time after the summer holidays. Schools were found which had been closed for three or more months, either because the board had outright neglected to procure a teacher or because they could not find the type of teacher desired. In some schools permit teachers are paid higher salaries than teachers in neighbouring districts with professional certificates. Some districts, again, advertise in the public press for their teachers, inviting thereby teachers to underbid one another ; or they permit unreliable agencies to supply the teachers. The average school board in rural districts is not able to choose teachers wisely. This function should l)e vested in some educational authority in closer touch with the teachers and the schools wdiich are training teachers. 5. Small Distncts are TJnahle to Meet Modei-n Community Needs. — The local district does not have within its boundaries what is necessary 29 to make a moderu coiuumiiity .-chool (see paiie 71). The district school in Saskatchewan devotes its energies to the tool subjects almost wholly. Very few pupils complete the prescribed course of study. The- .schools are not organised to attract and hold the larger boys and girls, and most of the schools are unable to provide the social aspects required of modern education. The district school is unquestionably responsible for the following fundamental weaknesses from which all are suffering: non-attendance of a large per cent, of the school population ; irregularity of attendance : and e'reat wasta2:e in attendance due to lack of interest in prescribed school work. ^tudy of the Schools in Certain Municipalities. — The Department of Education has just completed a statistical snrvey of every munici- pality 'in the Province, of great interest to all thinking people. The survev shows conclnsivelv that in a s'iven municioalitv school districts vary in assessable property from a few hundred dollars to many hundred thousand dollars ; they vary in rate of taxation froin a mill or less to fifteen or more mills on the dollar; in enrolment, from the legal minimum to upwards of a hundred children ; while there is little uniformity in daily attendance and educational results. The attached map is of Municipality ISTo. 32, taken at random from the Department records. This particular municipality is in the uniformly well settled prairie section in the southeastern belt. Because of this the variation in assessment, tax rate, expenditure, etc., is not so marked as in municipalities in less favoured sections. But even" here the total assessment ranges from $97,640 in District ISTo. 1939 to $180,425 in the adjoining District No. 728. The rate of taxation varies from 2.5 mills to 7.5 mills. Strangely enough the length of school year rano'es from 124 davs for the rural children in the wealth- iest district to 210 'and 212 days in less wealthy districts. The teachers range from "provisional," through third grade to second grade; and total expenditures ^from $563.00 to $1,697.72." The efficiency of the thirteen different schools can also be adjudged by their average attendance — attesting to the degree of sustained interest in school work — which in this municipality ranges from the surprisingly low rate of 36 per cent, to the none too high rate of 75.14 per cent. If now the artificial lines separating these districts were removed and all the wealth of the municipality were equalised for educational uses every boy and girl would have reason to expect equalised educa- tional opportunity in uniformly strong well-paid teachers, long terms, well-maintained school buildings, and well-sustained school Avork. A Proposed Plan of School Beorganisation. — A complete reorgan- isation of existing school districts is recommended as set forth below : (1) Dis-estahlishment of all school districts as now organised out- side of incorporated village and toAvn districts, and the re-establishment instead of all schools lying wholly or in part within each rural municipality as one single municipal school district ; (2) Abolition of the present school trustees, and organisation, instead, of one municipal board of education, together wit!i custodians for each school in the municipality ; 30 (3) The municipal board of education, preferably to comprise five members, to hold office for three years each ; three mem- bers to be elected by the regular electorate of the municipality, and two to be appointed by the Minister of Education upon nomination by the inspector in whose inspectorate the munici- pality lies ; F/aurcs Oes/^/7ofc .' /. To/ff/ /f^sess/ne/jf. ffUffAL MU/V/C/P/^L/TY //?32 W. Of Pr Mer. Tjps. 2. 3. '^ s. 6. Tax /Pate. Tota/ £xper?c//ture. Tfisc/ters Cerf'/'/zca/^e. Days Ojpe/}. Perce.nfage of A/tencfcinC9. S.D 3786 S. O. 3720 SO I7i3 SJ3 aa* iO. ats /?^es. 34 MAP 2. (4) The municipal board of education to select a permanent secre- tary, prefei^ably though not necessarily, the clerk _ of the present municipal council, who shall form the connecting link between the municipal board of education and the municipal council ; i^A^l^wA 1 UHh WAN ^ RURAL MUNICIPAL DIVISIONS MAP 3. — ^RURAL MDNICIPALtTIES. I 30 (3) The municipal board of education, preferably to comprise five members, to hold office for three years each ; three mem- bers to be elected by the re.gular electorate of the municipality, and two to be appointed by the Minister of Education upon nomination by the inspector in whose inspectorate the munici- pality lies ; /?a/?AL Mu/v/c/p/^L/ry //?^2 yy. Of Pr Men Tps. 2. 3. S. 6. Tax Pate. Tbfa/ £xpef7d/ture. Tfefc/iers Cerf^///ca/-e. /Jays 0/>e/7. percentage of AttencfanC9. SD 279(, S. D 3720 S. D I7i3 '■O aa^t s.a a*s /?^es. 34 MAP 2. (4) The municipal board of education to select a permanent secre- rarv, prefei-ably though not necessarily, the clerk of the present municipal council who shall form the connectmg link between the municipal board of education and the municipal council ; 31 (5) The members of the municipal board of education to receive actual expenses only ; the secretary to get a reasonable compensation for his work; (6) The powers and duties of the municipal school board to embrace the general powers and duties now held by the dis- trict board and such others as may be necessary under the reorganisation, which may include among others (a) Appointment of one custodian for each school within the municipality, who shall report from time to time to the municipal school board, and make recommendations for improvement of school plant, educational policy, etc. ; (b) To determine the rate of taxation necessary to maintain the schools within the municipality which tax shall then be levied by the municipal council ; (c) Election of all necessary teachers for the schools within the municipality upon nomination by the provincial teachers' bureau (see page 113), including such super- visor or supervisors for the municipality as may be determined by law ; (d) Construction and maintenance of such schools as may be required to the end that all children of school age shall have the advantage of a satisfactory public school educa- tion; abolition of unnecessary schools and provision for conveyance to school of children living more than three miles from the nearest school house; (e) Power to consolidate schools and to organise rural high schools of agricultural type, within such limitations as may be prescribed by law. Plan for Beorganisatioii Explained. — Under this arrangement the municipal school district would have a board of five men, presumably the best men in the municipality. The three elective members mighc be chosen one from each two wards in the municipality. The chief reason for making two members appointive is to assure to educational authority reasonable control over certain non-English municipalities. The local school would have its own custodian to represent its interests before the central board. Experience has taught that the best and strongest men in a com munity prefer to hold such a public trust as membership on the municipal board of education without compensation. Every public- spirited citizen will be willing to give his time and energy freely, while undesirable, self-seeking men can thus be kept out of the office. The secretary should be well paid for his work. An average municipality contains about fifteen school districts, each employing one secretary treasurer at an average salary of about $40 a year. This amounts to $600, which would probably be enough to defray the expenses of the board members and pay the secretary his salary. In municipalities where he is able to devote sufficient time to do school tasks, the municipal clerk might be appointed secretary of the school board. 32 The municipality becomes the unit of taxation for educational purposes, thus guaranteeing equality of educational opportunity to all living within the community. lender this plan all assessable lands would be taxed, whether included in established districts or not. This would mean a large increase in available school funds. At the time of dis-establishment of the present districts it would, however, be neces- sary to levy a special tax upon all the assessed property lying within the district boundaries, to liquidate any pre-eut debentures ot other debts held against any school district. The municipal board should have the ])o\ver to levy a flat i-ate tax on all assessable property for the maintenance of municipal high schools, to give every rural youth the advantages of good educational facilities. (See Chapter IX. )" CHAPTER V. SCHOOL INSPECTIOX AXD PROFESSIONAL SUPERVISION. The Schools of Saskatchewan Inspected, not Supervised. — Profes- sional supervision, as now understood, has little place in the present school system of Saskatchewan. The open country and small village schools have no provisions for close, effective supervision. In most of the towns, and citie-, even, this im]->ortant unifyino- function in a com- plete educational scheme is very little in use, as will be noted in another chapter. The newness of the Province, the vast areas to be covered, the rapidity with which schools have multiplied, have made it impossible for the Government in the past to organise a scheme of oversight and supervision intimate and close enough to be of much real assistance to the classroom teachers. The men charged with the important function of enforcing educa- tional policy in the various parts of the Province are properly called inspectors. They are appointed by the Government and are representa- tive- of the Department of Education, carrying to the people and local schools the educational policy of the Government. They endeavour to visit each school in their respective inspectorates at least once a year. Occasionally early winters and impassable roads make even the one visit inipossible to remote schools. This is incidental inspection only. It can in no sense of the word be construed as professional supervision of school work. It is the judgment of the Survey, however, that the provincial inspectors neither can nor should be expected to devote much time to classroom supervision — others will have to do this — but to represent among patrons and teachers the educational policies of the Government, in their generalities and to see that educational law is enforced in spirit and in fact. The Present System of Inspection. — It has been the policy of the Department of Education to increase the number of provincial inspectors as rapidly as financial conditions would warrant. In 1916 there were 28 inspectors, not counting certain special inspectors and organisers in non-English communities; in 1917 the number has reached 32; and at the time that the survey plans are maturing to increase the number to 45. The svstem is centralised, working outward or doAviiward from the centra] Department of Education. This plan is satisfactory in practice and should not, as some have urged, be superseded by local inspectors. The provincial inspectors should, however, be assisted by professional supervisors working locally under their direction. Who the present inspectors are, what their professional qualifica- tions, experience, tenure, etc., may be gleaned from Table 3 following: 33 34 02 o H O E4 Oi QQ !z; _o O3_o_^ rn" ,-r T^" (m" rt" ,-r (^f ,— " c>r ^^ ^ -h" irf of cf — r ^^ im" c-f ■^f — ' -of o r -^^ c^f ^^ r-r ,-r r^ c lO iq_t^ coa5T}.05^00'-Hr-iTti00O5t^O5>-(rtt^O00t--^-^»OO302(M'-i^Hi— lOO^CO Jo^oadsui'sB aoiAJas JO q^Sua-^ ^(M(MC0i©Tl<'-'TtC0,■■>>>>■>>>, >>>-> ^Bdiouud yooqbg m3iH ISJIJ rr, ' m m m m ai M m ajmcccoajajcDcocoojoQcoco oooqod a o II ^ a uon'Bonpa JO ^^inoTJj . . . .:^ . £ • o • -o • -lo • •';cciOia)oo • • ■ -(M -ojc: • • • "* • • • • [ODqos [Buijosj 00 -^ o o -^ 05 ■* c- oj CJ 1 pjaq aaiSaQ XjtsjaAiuf^ ^ .^ ^ .^ • ■># ,— 1 CO ■* CO • CO CO ■* iM '-* lo ■* C5 -"ti ■* -^ • CO CO ■* •* Tfi r- uti rj* {ooqas qSijj 7 .£ ^j^.^^.^jv3u:)^j,tiC0C0C0'*'*iO»CC0C0»OiCC^l'*'*(M'OC0C0(M •rt'COC^ a3V •^Qnm(MiffliCCO^»riOiC(MO'*t^OCO'-'t:OC50t^'^'-Ot^t^OCO(MI>-Tf<(M W^Cv3^S5^Co5I-^iciO^^^COTtiCOiCTI«COT}iTj^.OiCcO^COiO-*iOCO»C 1 a^BjoiDadsui D jaqainn 3i\i Aq 33iS3p sjo-j.iaflsiii _<^rn_ti,--)cr:t--.QOO^O'— C"lc0^i-~—t^XOO — !NCO-*i-OCOt^00O>C'-iOl -H(NCO-*i--JvCt^aD>^. >_.^_^c-r^ C^irifM-MCvlC^KNC^C^IMeOOJCO 35 The inspector? are all of tlieiu men of matiu-e years and experience. Because of the many hardships that they have been exjwsed to in the great new domain the (Government has wisely limited its choice of inspectors to men only. For the future this limitation should not be necessary. Women educators with good qualifications might well be considered for inspectorates in the older settled sections, *at least, as an experiment. Until recently every inspector was a university man with degTees, ranging from B.A. to Ph.D., with additional training' in normal school or college faculty of education. In some of the later appointments there has been a departure from this policy. Certainly, if college graduates cannot be found who have the other essential qualifications, such as successful experience, administrative ability, etc., it is better to take the "self-made" man Avho has the latter qualifications. But, everything else being equal, the Department will do well to maintain, as nearly as possible, the past high standard of academic and professional prepara- tion in its inspectors. SASKATCHEWAN SCHOOL //iSP£C TOPS' D/sr/f/CT-S With Approx/mafe Arras .MAP 4. 36 These men are none of them tyros in the matter of teaching experience, which according- to the table ranges from six and a half years, in case of the lowest, to thirty-four years for the highest. Their length of service as inspectors is also satisfactory, considering the newness of the Province, The outstanding thing in Table 3 is the enormous size of the average inspectorate. Map 4 (page 35) emphasises this even more clearly. The smallest inspectorate embraces 1,548 square miles, or about four and one-half municipalities ; the largest contains 6,372 square miles, or about twenty municipalities. Automobiles are largely used in making the circuit, the annual mileage rimning as high as 7,000 miles. Inspectors in the newer parts of the Province are obliged to endure considerable "roughing it" ; many of them carry their own camping outfits, including bed, cooking utensils, etc. These sections of the country require strong men for the task. The beginning salary is $1,800 per annum, which may increase to $2,400. There is an additional allowance of $65.00 per month for travelling and living expenses. In this day of high cost of living the expense allowance often proves insufficient to meet the inspector's legitimate travel outlay. Compared with what is paid county superintendents in the American states, this compensation would be considered reasonable, though not liberal. A state like Pennsylvania pays its county superin- tendents salaries ranging from $2,000 to $6,500, with an average of $2,640. New Jersey pays every county superintendent a salary of $3,000. But the inspectors in Saskatchewan are provincial officials properly to be ranked with American state inspectors. On this basis of comparison the compensation in Saskatchewan is inadequate. Neither is it wise to pay the inspectors less than the salaried town and city principals and superintendents, whose schools they inspect. This is the case now. It is the judgment of the Survey that the inspectors' salaries should be scaled up considerably, to become commensurate with the important and difficult work expected of them. Meaning of Expert School Supervision. — It is well to emphasise, at this juncture, what is meant by expert school supervision, and to show how impossible it is for an inspector in his large territory to perform this professional function with succes-. The argument should be limited to rural and village schools, since to^\Ti and city schools have some measure of autonomy in matters of supervision. Inexperienced rural teachers require expert direction if ever any teachers needed it — particularly when one considers the very limited professional training they have. The teachers of the open country, whose prohlems are assuredly the most perplexing in the whole field of education, have had to shift for themselves as best they could. The one or more visits from the inspector can never give them the profes- sional encouragement so urgently needed. Another factor must be considered. The schools of Saskatchewan will in time be i-eorganised to meet the needs of scientific agriculture. This is bound to multiply greatly the teachers' daily tasks. The course of study will become more comprehensive and proportionately more difficult. The teachers are also expected to become community leaders. 37 No teacher of average ability can do all this without the encourag-einent, enidance. and constant co-operation of supervising officials who have had expert preparation in community leadership and school organisation, and profe.?sional supervision in the ordinary school subjects. For effective service such a staff of supervisors should always be within reach of the teacher, to encourage him when downhearted by his perplexing school problems; to give him sound advice when community troubles arise ; and to help get results in the classroom. The great territory to be covered, want of time, and numerous other legal and administrative duties preclude that the inspectors give this close professional assistance. Movement toward Pi'ofessional Supervision in the United States. — In Saskatchewan, the system of school supervision is centralised, reach- ing; downward into the local school districts. Tn most of the states it is decentralised, reaching upward from the local county or township unit. ]!^orth Dakota, for example, has a county superintendent for every county in the state, each with the assistants and office helpers deemed necessary. Such other assistants as special agricultural agents and school nurses are being added to the county staff. The state inspectors, on the other hand, are few in number and are specialists in the field of rural school inspection, high school inspection, and the like. Educationists in the United States are generally agreed now that rural school conditions can be improved largely by means of profes- sional supervision. The old-time county superintendent is looked upon as little more than a functionary whose business it is to visit schools, make statistical reports, and hold occasional institutes; but more recentl}' many states have taken real forward steps in effective super- vision. In Ohio, for example, the county— which is somewhat larger than the Saskatchewan municipality — is subdivided into supervision districts, each in charge of a district superintendent working under the direction of the countj^ superintendent. The district superintendents devote at least three-fourths of their time to classroom supervision. Xew Jersey more nearly meets Saskatchewan conditions. Here all the county superintendents are elected by the State Board of Educa- tion and may therefore be considered state officials, just as the Saskat- chewan inspectors are provincial officials. The state maintains also a number of special inspectors. The county is subdivided for super- visory purposes, so that each township may have its own supervising principal whose salary is paid one-half by the supervisory district and one-half by the state. In addition to this the state employs so-called "helping teachers" who devote all their time under the direction of the county superintendent to assisting teachers in the small schools, particularly those who are new in the service. Ohio and 'New Jersey are, to be sure, old states with a large popula- tion, and are cited only to indicate the new trend in professional super- vision, and to re-emphasiso that Saskatchewan can scarcely expect to do much for its rural and village teachers, in a professional way, before it attacks this problem locally as well as provincially. Even were the number of provincial inspectors several times multiplied the results would scarcely be what is desired. Inspectors and Professional Study. — The provincial inspectors are chosen from among the strongest available educationists. Their duties are many and exacting. During much of the year they give their energies to field work ; when winter comes they are called in to the third grade centres to instruct teachers-in-training. There is there- fore little time or energy left for self-improvement. Yet they are expected, to keep abreast of the latest educational thought. They should be rural life experts and community organisers. They should be familiar with the history and principles of education in Canada and abroad. Much study and ready access to the best educational literature are required to attain these ends and keep the inspectors educationally alert and professionally assertive. To grant all inspectors a regular sabbatical year at full pay for professional study, or shorter and more frequent leaves of absence for similar purpose, would unquestionably improve the inspectoral efficiency in Saskatchewan, and in the end prove an excellent government investment. Recommendutions for Closer and More Effective Supervision. — An energetic, forward-looking policy is imperative to provide the Prov- ince with close, professional supervision of schools. To this end the Survey recommends (1) Provisions for the gradual ilevelopment of a dual ])lan of supervision — iirovincial and local ; (2) Increase in the number of provincial inspectors, as financial conditions may permit, until they become numerically strong enough to establish thoroughly among schools and patrons the educational policy of the government, and enforce in spirit and in fact the educational law^ of the laud : (3) Establishment of each municipality as a unit for local super- vision under immediate direction of the provincial inspector in whose inspectorate the municipality lies. Such supervision to be in charge of the principal of the rural high school established under the plan set forth in Chapter TX ; (4) Provision for organisation of two or more municipalities as one supervision district, where there are no municipal high schools. Such district supervisor to be directed by the inspector of the inspectorate within whose inspectorate said municipalities lie. The provincial government to pay not to exceed one-half of the district supervisor's salary ; (5) Maintenance of the standard of provincial inspectors at a high level of excellence By selecting new inspectors preferably from among those educators of high standing and long experience in the Prov- ince who have completed a college or university course and in addition thereto have had an advanced course in a normal school or faculty of education ; By making the appointrrient provisional for two years, after which it shall be made permanent; By providing ample opportunity for professional improvement through granting <'ach inspector (1) sabbatical 39 leave at full pay; or (2) shorter leave for study every second or third year; or by requiring the inspectors to attend lectures at the University of Saskatchewan for a period of six weeks or two months each winter. The University to organise for this purpose advanced courses in educational theory and practice, leading to degrees in education. By furnishing each inspector annually, for his own use, one-half dozen or moi-e of the leading books of the year in his sphere of interest and activity ; (6) Placing the initial compensation of all provincial inspectors at $2,000 per annum, with increases thereafter at the rate of $200 per annum up to $3,000; (7) Recognition of the inspectors in every respect as officials of the Department of Education with materially increased powers in matters of policy and judgment concerning govern- ment grants, boards of education, teachers, etc.; (8) Allowance to each inspector of a reasonable amount of secretarial help to release his valuable time for more important tasks. CHAPTER VI. SCHOOL POPULATION : ENROLMENT AND ATTENDANCE. The effectiveness of a system of education may be judged by how fully it is utilised by the people for whom it is intended. If a school system is well organised and firmly administered a large per cent, of the school population will be enrolled in the schools. If the teachers in charge are well trained and do their work effectively and the course of study is well adapted to community needs a good per cent, of the enrol- ment will be in daily attendance. If, on the other hand, the people for whom the schools are established neglect to make full use of them or lack interest in the work as sliown by their irregular attendance, it is reasonable to assume that the schools are not well adapted to popular needs. The present chapter is devoted to enrolment and attendance of Saskatchewan's school population, and can be taken as a criterion on the question of whether or not the schools meet the reasonable demands of the people. The School Population. — The schools in rural districts are open to all persons between 5 and 21 years of age; and in towns and cities to persons between 6 and 20 years. But very few children will start to school at 5 or remain there till they are 20 or 21. N^ormally, children should enter school -when they have filled their sixth year and they should complete the twelfth school year — last year of high school — in their eighteenth year. This is the normal school age for the average child. In past years, unfortunately, no records have been kept of the Saskatchewan school population. Under the new Compulsory Attend- ance Act records are kept of the compulsory school population, compris- ing all children over seven years and under fourteen. Figure 6 is based on Dominion census figures for June 1, 1916, these being recent enough to form a good basis for comparison. SCHOOL POP^lAT/O/y OP S/^S/OJTCH£y\^AA/ JU/VE /. /9/6 /o 20 30 40 SO 60 ro so 90 /OOTc TOTAL POSSIBLE SCHOOL POPUL/iriol^ HOfMAL SCHOOL POPULA TION COMPi/LSO^y SCHOOL POPULAT/ON NOffMAL H'Gff SCHOaL POPULATION 6 to 2/ years /96. 990 gJSS/o 6 to /8 years /6J./76 ag-zs/o Oircr 7 ane^ undor /4^yrs. 97020 20-2/% J4-/8yrs. 40.622 40 Fig 6. 41 The total school population in the Province is 196,990 — i.e., children and youth betwetai G and 21 years of age.^ Of these 129,439 \V{ re regularly enrolled in the elementary and secondary schools, and a few hundred in higher institutions of learning; 67,551 young people in the total possible school population were making no use of the school equipment placed at their disposal by the Government. But it is not to be expected that the entire school population will be enrolled, for the evident reason that many within this age range have already taken up their life responsibilities. The normal school population of 6 to IS alone should be Qonsidered. They number in all 165,176 or 35,737 more than were actually enrolled in the schools. If the school system were ]00 per cent, efficient and the people 100 per cent, able and willing to utilise the schools this entire group of children would probably be in school. Just how Saskatchewan ranks in total percentage of school population enrolled can best be ascertained on a comparative basis. Figures from the other Canadian provinces are not available; the comparison is made, instead, with ten western and border states. TABLE 4 PERCENTAGE OF SCHOOL POPULATION ENROLLED. California 89 .53 Montana 86 .56 Wyoming 83 .13 Colorado 83 .81 Michigan •• 78.16 Saskatchewan '^'^ -"^^ Washington 77 .37 North Dakota 76 .57 Minnesota 76 .23 South Dakota 71 .41 Wisconsin 65 . 53 The comparison gives Saskatchewan a low place because of its small enrolment in secondary schools. The table gives the population of high school age (14-18 years) at 40,822. Of these 3,849 were enrolled in the high schools and 3,256 were getting high school work in continuation classes in public schools. All told, only 17.40 per cent, of the high school group were pursuing secondary school duties. On the basis of the total enrolment in all the schools only 5.48 per cent, were enrolled in secondary school studies, the number in regular high schools being little more than half of this percentage. This condition is deplor- able ; but it can be attributed to the almost entire lack of high school facilities outside the cities and larger towns. Comjmlsory School Attendance.— The new School Attendance Act came into effect May 1, 1917. It has already had a wholesome effect on the enrolment and regailarity of attendance of school children coming within its provisions. Under this Act town districts appoint attendance officers Avho report to the Department of Education once a month. In village and rural districts this task falls to the teachers. The require- ments of the law are enforced by the provincial police and the courts for schools other than town and city, where regular attendance officers are charged with the enforcement of the law. The Act limits compulsory attendance to children over seven years and under fourteen. In strict interpretation this means a school * The age 6-21 being accepted as median of rural and urban attendance range. 42 attendance of seven years. In popular interpretation it will probably average little more than six vears. The schools are full of "over asre" pupils (see page 61) who will fulfill the age requirements of the law long before completing the elementary school course. Because of this large group of children behind their normal grades and because an eight- year span is the accepted time for a well rounded elementary school education, it is felt the Attendance Act should be amended to embrace all chidren from 6 to 14 years inclusive, provided pupils shall be exempt if they have completed the elementary school course before reaching 14 years of age. Enrolment and Attendance. — An efficient school system not alone enrolls a large per cent, of the children, but it holds all who are physi- cally and mentally fit in daily attendance until they have at least finished the elementary school course. Inclement weather, long distance to school, bad roads, and, particularly, lagging interest in school work, contribute to irregularity of attendance. In an efficient system schools are built wherever they are needed and the school work is made interest- ing and attractive enough to sustain in the children a desire to be regular in attendance. A new country like Saskatchewan cannot be expected to provide ideal school conditions yet for many years; but, even after allowing for natural handicaps, school attendance is very unsatisfactory. What does it profit a child to be regularly enrolled if he is away from school every other day ? That conditions are bad can be seen in Table 5 below. TABLE 5. PERCENTAGE OF ATTENDANCE^ BY YEARS, FOR ALL RURAL, VILLAGE. AND TOWN SCHOOLS. 1906 1907 1908 1909 1910 1911 1912 1913 1914 1915 1916 Rural Town and Village All Schools . . . 50.85 49.84 50.31 53.89 51.06 52.48 56.59 53 41 55.00 50.93 54.72 52.25 53.06 52.30 52.80 54.48 51.82 53.00 54.10 53.36 53.00 54.09 56.57 55.10 55.66 58.97 57 02 56.63 61.58 58.70 53.47 57.94 55 30 In 1906 the percentage attendance was 50. ol. It reached 58.70 per cent, in 1915, but dropped again to 55.30 per cent, in 1916. Scarcity of farm labour and other economic conditions due to the war account for the falling off. This was before The Compulsory Attend- ance Act came into effect. Canada. Ontor/o. Mor7ifo£)o. A/ber/d_ 68 39 Sos/rofc/ietvon- I ig. 7. — Percentage of attendance in Canada and certain Provinces for the year 1915. 43. Figure 7 shows further that the percentage of attendance for Canada at large was (1915) 68.39, and for Saskatchewan only 58.70, with Ontario, Manitoba and Alberta all with higher percentages. Age-Grade in Rural Schools. — Normal children who enter school at six years of age can be expected to advance one grade each year, and finish the elementary course when they are fourteen. If they enroll later than six they cannot expect to complete the course before passing the compulsory age limit, unless they are exceptional children. The Sui*vey made a study of 2,100 rural schools, enrolling 42,852 pupils, to ascertain how early the children actually enter school and how well sustained is their continuance in school. Table 6 gives the enrolment by years and grades for 42,852 pupils; 16,466 are enrolled in Grade I; 1,618 of these entered school under six years of age and may be classed as ahead of their grade; 4,733 are of normal rank; 4,122 are one year behind their grade, 2,700 two years, 1,494 three years, and so on. TABLE 6. AGE-GRADE DISTRIBUTION^ RURAL SCHOOLS. a CD u c DQ h > o 03 > o ^ o > o Over 9 years up to 10 Over 10 years up to 11 Over 11 years up to 12 Over 12 years up to 13 « o (^ 0. ^ = ^ o b Q. o CO h lO o ,-; ^ ^ a, o 2 oo §3 & > ^ O tn u > 2 22 u IV Total by Grades I. 1618 4733 4112 2700 1494 842 450 301 142 50 20 3 1 16,466 II. 11 311 1048 1361 1201 806 497 300 149 54 25 9 6 5,775 III. 3 50 398 1127 1420 1213 915 547 317 135 57 16 3 2 1 4 6,2C8 IV. 2 58 358 976 1301 1154 922 599 305 103 33 10 4 1 5,826 V. 3 53 221 624 835 868 606 342 132 42 14 2 3,742 VI. 3 1 7 41 192 400 503 478 313 151 48 20 6 2 2,165 VII. 8 50 159 312 376 272 158 50 12 6 2 2 1,407 VIII. 16 71 216 324 303 185 96 21 7 3 2 1,244 Junior Form 2 2 2 3 3 2 1 15 Middle Form 1 1 Senior Form 90 Total of ages 1632 5099 5620 5606 5361 5044 4481 3969 2993 1776 834 300 29 8 10 42,852 44 Table 7 summarises the data in Table 6. It shows conclusively that (1) an overwhelming number of children are over age and are behind the grades to which they normally belong; and that (2) the wastage up through the grades is regrettably large. To be more definite: 3,850 pupils, or 8.9 per cent, of the total attendance, are ahead of their grades; 9,544 pupils, or 22.2 per cent, are in grades where they normally belong; and 29,442 pupils, or 68.7 per cent., are one or more years behind their classes. TABLE 7. RURAL CHILDREN UNDER AGE^ NORMAL AGE^ AND OVER AGE (2,100 DIFFERENT SCHOOLS.) Number in each grade Total in each grade Per cent, in each grade Grades Under age Normal age Over age Under age Normal age Over age I 1,618 322 451 418 277 244 217 303 4,733 1,048 1,127 976 624 400 312 324 10,115 4,408 4,630 4,432 2,841 1,521 878 617 16,466 5,778 6,208 5,826 3,742 2,165 1,407 1,244 9.82 5.57 7.26 7.17 7.40 11.27 15.42 24.35 28.70 18.14 18.15 16.75 16.68 18.47 22.17 26.04 61 36 II 76 23 Ill 74 58 IV 76 07 V 75 92 VI 70 25 VII 62 40 VIII 49 59 Totals 3,850 9.544 29,442 42,836 8.9 22.2 68.7 Table 8 discloses a startling condition in certain non-English schools. All the 150 Slavonic schools included in the 2,100 rural schools have been made the basis for this study. In a total of 4,806 pupils enrolled in the grades, and 18 in the junior and middle forms, 2,577, or more than one-half of the total enrolment, are in Grade T. In Grade II, these have dwindled to 692, and in Grade III, to 635. The decline continues throughout the eight years, with the result that out of the original 4,806 only 39 remain when the eighth year is reached. No one can be blind to the seriousness of this condition. It means that nearly all the children in these 150 non-English com- munities leave school without becominsi: imbued with the storv of the Canadian people, including its struggles against physical obstacles and the forces of nature, and the great men that it has produced, with the lofty ideals for which they have striven. They leave school with- out getting the training in citizenship that is so essential in a demo- cratic nation — and indispensable to the future welfare of Saskatchewan in those of its people who, like the Ruthenians, Galicians, an J Ukranians, have come from countries where autocracy still holds . swav. 45 TABLE 8. — AGE -GRADE DISTRIBUTION IN 150 SLAVONIC RURAL SCHOOLS. 1 to a E3 to - > O U > O So > o 2 go ^.'^ oS o I., c. O Over 11 years UD to 12 6 2 o 00 go o a; o 1-1 -J 6 I- a O Over 17 years up to 18 00 o 1-1 -t^ t. a O 2 Is 22 o > o Total by Grades I. 128 500 591 475 362 235 134 90 45 12 3 1 1 2,677 II. 1 12 49 119 149 155 106 62 20 16 3 692 III. 2 3 14 47 102 124 137 107 64 27 6 1 1 635 IV. 5 11 24 55 79 118 86 75 44 12 2 3 1 515 V. 1 3 9 31 32 36 39 21 7 4 183 VI. 2 9 19 20 27 11 6 1 1 96 VII. 2 4 8 13 6 10 5 1 1 1 51 VIII. 4 4 11 8 6 2 3 1 39 Junior Form 4 1 2 1 2 3 2 1 1 17 Middle! Form 1 1 Senior Form Total of ages 131 520 666 670 679 637 562 419 290 150 50 15 1 9 3 1 4 4,806 In these 150 schools, as appears in Table 9, 246 children, or 5.1 per cent., are ahead of their classes; only 725, or 15.1 per cent, are in classes where thej normally belong; and the large number of 3,817, or 79.7 per cent, are behind their classes. TABLE 9. RURAL SCHOOL CHILDREN UNDER AGE, NORMAL AGE, AND OVER AGE. (150 Schools of Slavonic Type.) Number in each grade Total in each grade Per cent, in each grade Grade Under age Normal age Over age Under age Normal age Over age I II 128 13 19 40 13 11 14 8 500 49 47 55 31 19 13 11 1,949 630 569 420 139 66 24 20 2,577 692 635 515 183 96 51 39 4.96 1.87 2.91 7.76 7.10 11.45 27.55 20.51 19.40 7.08 7.40 10.67 16.93 19.77 25.49 28.20 75.63 91 04 Ill IV. . 89.60 81 55 V 75 40 VI 68.75 VII. . . 47 05 VIII 51.28 Totals 246 725 3.817 4.7S8 5 1 15.1 79 7 46 Figure 8 give? rural and city children of normal age-grade. The data are from 2,100 rural schools and 6 of the city schools — Swift Current not being included because of incomplete figures. The comparison is greatly in favour of the cities throughout, although th.'-: latter make none too good a showing. Thus in Grade I only 28.70 in rural schools and 52 per cent, in city schools were of normal age-grade. Similar differences are noticed up throughout the other grades. The only possible interj^retation of this is that the city- schools are better organised than the rural schools, have a more regular attendance, and provide better and more systematic instruction. f^rcenta^e fr ^f^D D/i/Lr ATTEr^ DANCE SHOyvJNG M/?//IT/0/\^ Sy MONTHS ^2/00 ffURAL SCHOOLS). 4 I ? I ^ % «: ^ t I •W.. 9£ 3 }.4$a ■ — \ 1 y< 3 ',3*7, y S^'^y ^ \ / \ J0»» 2i.i *o i '^*5^ / 'fi J/2 > / t -ri ffin ,'J^ '■? ^ '^ .3<,7 ./^ ,u / \ ■9// 'n ^ 9« /it r y x' ^ fO.i *^> ^)j ,.•*' •'/♦ rz Fig. 11. — Variation in enrolment and attendance. Inroads are made in school regularity, it can be seen, from two causes — severe winters and farm labour conditions. Ts^either obstacle can be entirely surmounted, though both may be made less serious than they now are. The reason for closing many schools during the coldest winter months is due more to cold, flimsily constructed buildings than to fear of !^torms overtaking the children. ]Vrany school houses are ceiled within instead of being plastered, stand on poor foundations, and are inadequately heated. If these school houses were rebuilt and made comfortable very few schools would need to close for winter. Provision could then be made for vacation to come when help is most needed in the harvest. Recommendations for Im'pi'oving School Attendance and Effective- ness of Class Organisation. — Strict enforcement of the Attendance Act will do much to remedy the conditions discussed in this chapter. Steps have l>een taken by the Minister of Education to enforce the letter and spirit of the law. Everj^thing else will depend on how friends of educa- tion co-operate to give rural Saskatchewan well organised aimual schools in charge of teachers prepared specifically to cope with the difficulties of rural teaching. The Survey recommends : •■[ (1) A strict annual census of the school population, including not alone rural communities but also village, town, and city com- munities ; all records to be kept on file in the Department of Education, as the basis for a complete enrolment record ; 51 (2) A system of records to be perfected, to be used in transferring pupils from community to community that will make evasion of school duties impossible : (3) Gatherings of patrons and teachers out over the Province at which the serious retardation and wastage among rural pu2:)ils may be made the central topic for discussion ; (4) Reorganisation of all rural schools, by degrees, as annual schools, in charge of professional rural teachers. CHAPTER VII. ORGANISATION AND ADAPTABILITY OF THE RURAL SCHOOLS, Much time was devoted in this survey to first-hand study of typical rural schools in nearly one-half of the inspectorates. The schools chosen included every degree of variation from the best architectural model, set in large well-fenced grounds, to small insanitary structures in bleak, neglected fence comers. The range of location included the well settled prairie sections, the drier southwestern regions, the park regions dominated by the non-English elements, and the extreme northern section of the Province. The range in educational progressiveness is very marked from section to section. It is determined chiefly by economic conditions, density and race origin of the population. Educational consciousness in the different school districts and desire for better schools are deter- mined both by the above mentioned factors and by the ability and enthusiasm put into the work by the inspectors and their teachers. The Survey disclosed, in other words, that school conditions vary greatly from inspectorate to inspectorate, and that the variations are due first to local economic and social causes, and secondly to the professional spirit of the teaching and supervising staff in charge. Some districts are entirely satisfied to maintain traditional one- room schools, teaching, as the forefathers taught, the three R's, and frowning down everything else as frills and fads to be condemned as wasteful of time and energy. Other communities are willing to expend more money for improved schools, but are waiting for competent leader- ship before loosening much their purse strings. This has resulted in a class of schools which live up to the minimum requirements of the Department — and no more — in matters of equipment, teachers, etc. Finally, a few districts, limited largely to two or three long-settled inspectorates, show decided indication of having grasped the significance of the relation of school to community needs, and are well along in the task of revitalising the one-room rural schools as real farm community schools. Study of Hygienic Conditions of School Grounds and Buildings. — Educational progress in a community is generally faithfully reflected in the hygienic condition of its school plant. The schools of Saskat- chewan are no exception to this rule. The following paragraphs give accordingly an analysis of 2,100 rural schools, based largely on a separate study of hygienic conditions recently completed by the Provin- cial Inspector of School Hygiene.^ This discloses many interesting conditions, some of them speaking well for the organisation of the schools, others condemnatory of prevailing conditions. School Locations — Size and Character of Grounds. — The school grounds are larger than the average for one-teacher schools in the ^ Three thousand seven hundred and forty-ono questionnaires were sent out to tliese schools by the Provincial Director of School Hygiene, who received and compiled nnswers from 56 per cent, of all the schools included. 52 53 United States. Xine hiinclred and seventy-two schools, or 49 per cent, of all reporting, have from one to somewhat less than two acres, 1,023 schools, or 51 per cent, of the whole number report two acres or more. The Department of Education has set its minimum requirement at two acres for each school. The requirement has been literally filled in many communities already. A surprisingly large number of grounds are fenced with hog-tight fencing which makes it possible to protect the school gardens and shrubbery from strays. At 829 schools the playgrounds embrace more than one acre each ; at 723 schools, one-half acre or more ; and at 270, less than one-half acre. In most communities the site has been wisely selected; 1,581 sites comprise rich, well drained, level land ; 479 sites are rough or hilly, some of them in morainic belts, and poorly adapted for gardening and tree culture ; 90 per cent, of all are classed as well drained and free from soil pollution. Only 37 per cent, of the schools are planted to trees and shrubs. Even the long term schools, with teachers in charge nearly the year round, have failed in this first lesson bespeaking love of the soil and its conquest to the uses and pleasures of men. Allowance should, in all fairness, be made for the difficulties caused by drought, wind and high altitude which make arboriculture in the prairie sections, at least, a task requiring unusual skill and patience. About 10 per cent, of the school grounds personally inspected were untidy and littered with rubbish. In some instances the soil from around the buildings had been loosened by trampling feet and had blown away, leaving un>ightly hollows that in rainy weather are con- verted to dangerous puddles. These things are due chiefly to careless- ness and neglect by the local trustees. Very few school grounds are equipped with such simple play apparatus as should be found on every rural school ground. Each school should be provided with a minimum equipment of swing and climbing ropes, horizontal bar, teeter, giant stride, and sand pile — all of which can be home-made and inexpensive. Hygienic Conditions of Privies. — Figure 12 indicates that 25 per cent, of the school privies were classed by their own teachers as "clean" and 75 per cent, as "dirty." The latter expression includes every kind of filth, obscene marking and carving. The boys' privies get the lowest rating throughout, largely because few of them are equipped v.-ith urinals. In some non-English districts both privies were inde- scribably filthy, a condition for which the teachers and trustees are equally blamable. The best rural schools are equipped with good outdoor privies, used regularly except in inclement weather when chemical indoor toilets are used instead. These are usually sequestered in the basement. Of the latter 5 per cent, are kept entirely sanitary. All in all, the matter of sanitary privies in rural schools is a serious one. So far Saskatchewan has failed to meet the best requirements. It is well to bear in mind, too, that whatever of viciousness may crop out in school can usually be traced to insanitary, indecent toilets. Teachers are ofttimes careless in these matters or a false modesty keeps them from doing their duty. Not alone must the teachers learn — in training school 54 and elsewhere — the vital importance of terminating this menace to public health and common decency; but the government must back the teachers bv enforcing stringent legal requirements for modern, sanitarv privies to the exclusion of all others. CONO/TIOri OF OUTBUILO/NGS /fT 2086 SASffATCHEWAN ffUf^AL SCHOOLS. Stitrrg/ Co/K/itiort .' /?^moyob/p fla/'/ System: — Septic To/tk System: — \'~'/ /^ C/re/nical 7bi/it: — C/temica/ To/'/et ) . kept JoniTary) ' Scrfenecf against F/ies : ^^^^p7e^^^ ^25% D/rry -^si \ Wlll^9% 9/yc 1 -z;^ 99t^ 1 ^^■/(TX 90^, Wi^^' 9-d k^H/?/ 3S% > Fig. 12. — Condition of outbuildings. The Water Supply. — -Nothing in the whole school plant is more essential to physical and moral health, than an abundance of pure water for all purposes. It must be free not alone from contamination with disease agents, but from other disturbing agencies that might cause the children to refrain from using water in desirable quantities. Figure 13 shows that 738 schools, or 39 per cent, of all reporting, have wells on the grounds. In some districts it is difficult to obtain water, by reason of peculiar earth formation, or because of the great depth to flowing water. Some authorities who urge the great importance of abundant water supply to education, go so far as to say that the well should be assured before constrncting the building; if water cannot l>e obtained the school should be built elsewhere. This rule could hardly be applied to Saskatchewan conditions, since in certain areas the faraiers are obliged to haul water long distances for the house and stock. The only suggestion that can be made is that at every school where good Avell water is obtainable, it should be made available for school use without delay. At all schools where well water cannot be obtained well filtered cisterns should be used as substitutes — these to l>e set in the basement or excavation under the building and proj^erly protected from the weather. Seven hundred and twenty schools use neighbouring wells ; 23 use water brought from nearby springs; 18 use river or creek water; 36 have cisterns; 314 use water brought from the homes of the people; and 212 have no supply of any kind. Wells belonging to individuals are beyond control and inspection of school authorides^ while springs, creeks and oven rivers may be contaminated, and should be avoided if possible. One thousand four hundred and twenty-four schools have pure water, in the teachers' judgment; and 229 have water that is not pure. A number of schools have bored wells placed close to the public high- way equipped with good drinking troughs. This is a commendable 55 feature which assures a liberal use of the water at all seasons of the year with consequent freedom from stagnation. SOURCES OF iV/irEf? SUP PL Y //V 2/00 SAS^fATCHEIYJSA/ PUPAL SCPOOlS 1^ /450 /400 /J SO /3 00 /2S0 /ZOO //SO //OO /OSO /OOO SSO 900 8 SO 600 7S0 700 6 SO 6 00 SSO SCO ^so ^00 3 so 300 2S0 200 /SO /OO SO n >^ ^1 /3/7. I 1 I /¥^4 1 1 , 1 1 ' 1 1 yOMrj 1 / r — |- — 1 / 1 / i 1 1 1 / 1 1 / i / "^5 H 1 f^i. \ / ( / \ ( 1 \\ ' / \ 1 1 ^"17 ' \ J 4 \ 1 ' ' \ / \ / \ s <"' > / \ it < / f ^ -z — / / z.^ / », U- ^6 r 1 Fig. 13. — Sources of^water supply. Many schools are provided with expensive drinking- fountains. These, in most instances, are not used. Many of them are broken 56 or in other ways out of adjustment. Drinking fountains are practicable only where the schools have a large and easily obtainable supply of water, because of the necessarily large overflow waste. They should not be used in schools where water is scarce. Fifty-two per cent, of all the schools still cling to the tilthy common dippor, and 35 per cent, use individual cups, for schools with liu:ired water supply, inexpensive earthenware coolers arp rr--, .nniu-nded. From these the water can be drawn by individual cup wuh Intle or iit» waste. School Buildings. — All the old buildings in rural districts are of the traditional type, cross-lighted, with un jacketed stoves set in the middle of the floor, and devoid of artificial ventilation. The new buildings that are being constructed over the Province make provision for correct lighting, heating, and ventilation ; and some of them are planned to meet other ])ractical community needs as well. Illumination of Classrooms. — Faulty illumination of classrooms may cause lasting injury to children's visual health. It may both cause and aggravate nearsightedness in young children. More than this, according to high authority,^ "defective illumination of class- rooms has an adverse influence also on the activity of the intellectual processes of children. The young child requires greater intensity of illumination than the adult to enable it to interpret the meaning of written or printed characters. One reason for this is physiological. Another is that these characters are familiar to an adult, and are, therefore, easily recognised and interpreted under conditions of poor illumination. Furthermore, the mind of the young child functions largely in proportion to the volume of stimulation received through the eye. Whenever, by reason of faulty illumination, extra eflfort is required of the ocular muscles to accommodate for the recognition of written or printed characters, fatigue is soon produced, and the intellectual development of the child is hampered." N"ow what shall be the ratio of window^ glazing to floor space in order to furnish sufficient illumination to all children in the class- room ? Climatical conditions must enter into this consideration. The best authorities are now generally agreed that the standard for the N'orthem United States should require the glazing area of a classroom to be not less than one-fourth its floor space. The same standard should apply to Saskatchewan. Fisiire 14 contrasts this standard and the median ratios obtained from three groups of schools in Saskatchewan. It discloses that 27 i schools have a 10 per cent, ratio; 690 schools reach 15 per cent.; and 890 schools, 21.5 per cent. A few small schools of the so-called 'Waterman type" reach the 25 per cent, standard and 4 schools studied measure as high as 27.5 per cent. The 25 per cent, standard will provide abundant light in all kinds of weather, everything else being equal — i.e., provided the class- room is of the right shape and the windows are correctly placed with regard to exposure. The windows should be banked so as to illuminate the desks from the left and rear — the main area on the left, with high set, preferably frosted, lights at the rear. ^United States Public Hpalth Bulletin No. 77. page 33. 57 STANDARD PAT/0 OF GLASS AREA TO FLO OP ^Pa AND MEOMN PAT/ OS FOP T/^PEF GPOU/S OF SA5/hades were found in two insptcrorates only; but they were used liberally. /!'£i/fr/i/£ pos/r/o/f OF ty//vooiys /n /943 SASK/iTCHEkV/iN /fURAL SCHOOLS. 69 ScAoo/s 4 per cetrT. 32S Schoo/s f//t/m/ftatfo/7 from Left ane satisfactory in Saskatchewan because of the low winter temperature. Unquestionably the best arrangement would be to use well con- structed, screened outdoor privies with removable receptacles for use in summer, and to use well ventilated chemical receptacles, set in the tasement, for inclement weather. The Department should require wells on every school ground where this is feasible ; otherwise, there should be a large, filtered galvanised iron cistern set in the basement and protected from frost. Figure 18 is the ground plan of a model rural school prepared by the United States Bureau of Education for the recent Panama-Pacific Exposition. It is planned as an all-year social and educational center. and is intended as an enduring model for good farming and good living. This model will answer the needs of a one-teacher or a consolidated school equally well. The plan may provide from ten to an almost indefinite number of acres of land. In the central foreground lies the school building in a setting of flowers, shrubs and trees. This is flanked on either side by playgrounds. The large central area is used for baseball, football and track athletics; on either side of this again, and separated from it by planted trees, are the school's large experi- ment fields. At the left background is the teacher's home, and large grounds and garden. To the right of this can be seen the school barn and poultry pens, used jointly by the school and teacher. Finally, at the right of the poultry pens are the horse sheds where patrons stable their horses while in attendance at the week-end school rallies. It needs little imagination to picture the significance of such a school to any rural community in Saskatchewan, In charge of a permanent teacher it would rouse the pride and quicken the initiative of the patrons. The young people would find here interests unknown in the other one-teacher schools, and the old people would seek in it practical instruction and social recreation. The government might well consider recommendation 3 above in its double purpose: (1) to help establish model schools at strategic points over the Province as a stimulus to general school reorganization; (2) to help establish and mnintnin model schools in certain non- English districts. 64 A plan should be adopted for a gradually increasing number of such government aided schools. In no case should the government provide more than one-half of the initial cost of the school building and one-third of the maintenance. iiiiiiiii •<■« sraatj ms snte g I I i ar Q^i7 >-r/^i't>T*>*^ >rr*, >".L>V ■*t J 0«^ ff-fO, ■ C Mjer-,a- U S Bureau of ttfuca'o" IDEAL RURAL SCHOOL GROUNDS lOACRES Fig. 18. — A plan for ideal rural school grounds. In certain non-English communities the government should be even more liberal in its support of the model schools, which are here to be maintained for the further purpose of offering extra inducements to gel strong married teachers into the commimity. (See page 152.) CPIAPTER VIII. CONSOLIDATIOX OF RURAL SCHOOLS If it were possible to reorg-auise all the small rural schools in Saskatchewan as strong one-teacher schools of the community type described in the preceding chapter, there would be little need for the so-called consolidated schools. Unfortunately, many school districts are too sparsely settled and are financially unable to maintain such schools. Here consolidation of two or more small schools to form one graded school of two or more departments is usually the practical thing to do. While school consolidation is resorted to principally to improve rural schools, in this province it should unquestionably be used as a means also to assist the many small, struggling village schools, which in reality ought to he classed as "rural," they being mere rural trading centers. At some risk of repetition, it is said, this great agricultural com- monwealth needs schools and educational processes which can reach clear down to the roots of things, strengthening character, teaching the rights of fellowmen, loyalty to the nation, and fear of God ; at the same time that they supply young and old people, without distinction, with prac- tical training for successful bread-winning on the land. These require- ments are beyond all but the exceptional ouo-teacher schools, for which there will always be an important place in Saskatchewan. An important phase of school reorganisation will accordingly lie with the right type of consolidated farm community schools. Brief History of School Consolidation. — School consolidation has made little impression on the schools of Saskatchewan up to the pre>jent time. ISTo concerted policy has yet been adopted by the government to encourage some particular form of consolidation. The eighteen consol- idations now in operation are due mainly to local initiative. This has both its good and its bad side. If the people take the initiative in enlarging the boundaries of the district or in bringing several districts together under consolidation, they can generally be relied on to back up the new school with a liberal educational policy; but this does not always assure the community of the right type of school, nor the province of schools economically or correctly located. In the United States consolidation of schools is now accepted as good national policy. About 10,500 consolidated schools have been organised, taking the place of 50,000 one-room schools. In Canada, Manitoba has done more for consolidation than any other province, having .organised 76 consolidated schools. Alberta comes next with 34 schools. Ontario and other eastern provinces have done less. An analysis of many consolidated schools in the United States leads to the conclusion that some consolidated schools are little, if any, improvement on the old. In some places rural territory has been joined to industrial towns and the rural children have l>een offered an education poorly suited to agricultural requirements. In other places the schools are operated in the open country, but utilise courses of study originally planned for city children. Both types are failures. The kind of consol- es 66 A idated school that has succeeded — and there are many thousands of them — are organised either in the open country or in connection with rural-minded villages. But in either case the classroom work is organ- ised to meet the actual needs of the children in attendance. Just what this is will be shown in Chapters IX and XIV. Analysis of School Consolidation in SasJcatchewan. — A study of Table 13^ discloses some interesting facts: (1) All the consolidated districts contain a very large area, ranging from 42 to 57 sections; (2) The consolidations are both of the open country and village kind, with the latter in the majority; (3) The taxes under consolidation are in the gross higher than under the old system ; (4) The new schools draw and retain the older pupils, and in most cases show a marked improvement in percentage of attendance. Cupar Consolidated School. — Cupar School District No. 972 may be used to illustrate these points. This is a village district, and, in the narrow definition of the word, is an enlargement of territory and not a consolidation of two or more districts. In results it is a consolidated school. The village has reached out and drawn into its school district 57 square miles of land.- Six transportation routes convey the children to school, four using regulation vans. At times two automobiles are used instead of vans. The district is alreadv verv lara:e, although some patrons- — especially those living in the village — are eager to enlarge the district still further. Rather than do this, the present taxes should be increased, if need be. It is well to bear in mind that if the school is removed too far from the outlying homes the distance will be pro- hibitive for the children, and the school can mean nothing as a com- munity center for the older people. In time, with the increase in agricultural population, it will be possible to reduce again. The Cupar district is taxed 9^/4 mills for the rural section and 9% mills for the village. This is more in the gross than is paid by many other districts; but when one takes into consideration the larger number of children reached than formerly — chiefly those in high school forms — and the increase in attendance, it is less expensive per capita for each dav actually in school than under the old system. The percentage of attendance at Cupar under consolidation, is seen in the following: 1912 44.32 1913 59.61 1914 68.39 1915 82.70 1916 86.78 'Compiled for Department of Education Bulletin "Consolidation of School Dis- tricts in Saskatchewan," 1917. ^In 1913 The School Act was amended to provide for the organisation of school districts of not less than 36 square miles nor more than 50 square miles in area. In 1917 another amendment was added which permits the Minister of Education, in special cases, to enlarge a district beyond 50 square miles. TABLE 13. — SCHOOL CONSOLIDATION IN SASKATCHEWAN. TOTAL VALUE OF ASSESSMENT RATE OF TAXATION Rural Mill! Vil- lage rirst Term t32 PerX aeo Second Term Lemsford . . . . MiooT Lake. . Flazcombe. . . 2S.50 1.370 488 J6 49H 43 50 080897 308357 500700 110 per^i 21.34 6.71 30.20 First Term Second Term 21.74 5.98 30.44 51.78 67.10 71.09 62.11 S5.42 78.06 (1100 950 850 850 925 720 1080 900 1000 840 UOO 900 840 676 1200 900 1050 780 1000 775 840 780 1200 720 720 .3 -g 2622. 00 530. 85 1919. 60 22B7.00 1120.65 70.16. 88 at 4S89. 00 1651.50 8950. 38 60.27 53.08 51.87 Covered Vane Vano aod Buggies Covered Vans 21.40 7<*.00 40.25 Covered Democrats Covered Vans Bugtfi«8 Sleighs Covered Demoprata Buggies Covered Vans 33.G2H GOVERNMENT GRANTS PAID IN 1016. Regular Grants 83.65 250.00 218. 45 Convey ance Grants 275.10 (Firat term) Second term not complete 417.00 156.45 143.97 300. ai returns not complete returns not in order returns not complete Supp Revenue Grants paid out of 1915 Collect's •Village 874.00 170.09 619.32 402. 07 (First term) Returns for Second term not complete *Village ♦ViUagc 410.00 •Village not open 1915 1U30. 45 730 06 919.40 •Uodar The Supplementary Revenue Act. this grant is pavable only to Hural School Dislrinta. 66 idated school that has succeeded — and there are manv thousands of them — are organised either in the open country or in connection with rural-minded villages. But in either case the classroom work is organ- ised to meet the actual needs of the children in attendance. Just what this is will be shown in Chapters IX and XIV. Analysis of School Consolidation in Saskatcheivan.—A study of Table 13^ discloses some interesting facts: (1) All the consolidated districts contain a very large area, ranging from 42 to 57 sections ; (2) The consolidations are both of the open country and village kind, with the latter in the majority; (3) The taxes under consolidation are in the gross higher than under the old system ; « (4) The new schools draw and retain the older pupils, and in most cases show a marked improvement in percentage of attendance. Cupar Consolidated School. — Cupar School District No. 972 may be used to illustrate these points. This is a village district, and, in the narrow definition of the word, is an enlargement of territory and not a consolidation of two or more districts. In results it is a consolidated school. The village has reached out and drawn into its school district 57 square miles of land.- Six transportation routes convey the children to school, four using regulation vans. At times two automobiles are used instead of vans. The district is already very large, although some patrons — especially those living in the village — are eager to enlarge the district still further. Rather than do this, the present taxes should be increased, if need be. It is well to bear in mind that if the school is removed too far from the outlying homes the distance will be pro- hibitive for the children, and the school can mean nothing as a com- munity center for the older people. In time, with the increase in agricultural population, it will be possible to reduce again. The Cupar district is taxed 9^/4 mills for the rural section and 9% mills for the village. This is more in the gross than is paid by many other districts; but when one takes into consideration the larger number of children reached than formerly- — chiefly those in high school forms — and the increase in attendance, it is less expensive per capita for each day actually in school than under the old system. The percentage of attendance at Cupar under consolidation, is seen in the following: 1912 44.32 1913 59.61 1914 68.39 1915 82.70 1916 86.78 'Compiled for Department of Education Bulletin "Consolidation of School Dis- tricts in Saskatchewan," 1917. ^In 1913 The School Act was amended to provide for the organisation of school districts of not less than 36 square miles nor more than 50 square miles in area. In 1917 another amendment was added which permits the Minister of Education, in special cases, to enlarge a district beyond 50 square miles. 67 The school is organised into primary, intermediate, and senior department*, with respectively 48, 28, and 20 enrolled; 10 pupils in the senior department are pnrsuina- high school studies. ff$e./7 CUP/i/t SCf-fOOL DlSTRfCT r/^972. West 2''yA/er. /?ffc. /6 -JS- l. 27- ~?^— —36-- —2S-'- — 3/-- —3Q— ---33- -2^-W--28-' —34— -27- -JS- -2^- 'een adopted extending government grants and guidance to proposed consolidation districts. A belief that Saskatchewan is not yet ready for consolidation may have caused government officials to hesitate to push the matter. Statements are heard occasionally, for example, that conditions in Saskatchewan are quite different from those in some American states which have been 69 successful in consolidatino; their schools ; that the middle western states have small school districts and a dense population, while Saskatchewan has large areas and sparse population. This is true. But a state like I^orth Dakota does not belong to this class. Nevertheless it is remark- ably successful in its consolidations — and many of these embrace entire townships of 36 square miles to a single consolidated district. Recommendations for Future Policy on Consolidation. — It is probably well enough that consolidation has not been urged upon the people. The pathbreaking schools of the poorer sort are now gradually getting ready for reorganisation. This can best be done as good com- munity schools of the one-teacher or the consolidated kind. There should henceforth be a definite forward-looking provincial policy inaugurated, adequate to all future growth in population. The Survey recommends : (1) The appointment of an inspector who shall devote all his time to this important task ; (2) The drafting of a tentative consolidation map of each organ- ised municipality. The work to be done by the Department in co-operation with the municipal board, or the municipal council till such municipal school boards are established; (3) A governmental policy looking toward establishing (rt) Strong one-teacher schools (as discussed in Chapter VII'i which may later by enlargement of territory become consolidated schools of several departments ; (h) Associated or union school areas to embrace a central village and a number of outlying schools ; (c) One municipal high school in each municipality which may, or may not, be one of the central schools of an associated area; (4) Provincial aid in form of grants for the erection of the new school plant and for maintenance. Explanation of the Recommendations. — An expert, who has had ample op]iortunity to study consolidation in all its aspects, is required, if the task is to be well done. To plan an entire municipality for future enlargement projects, would give assurance that all consolidations would be realised syste- matically and without leaving out small schools here and there. An ideal rural municipality might well have (1) several one- teacher community schools, which should in time, as population increases, develop into larger open country consolidated schools with two or more teachers; (2) one or more village centers associated with a number of outlying schools, similar to the Minnesota Associated Schools; and (3) one municipal high school of agricultural type, as described in Chapter IX. The Minnesota plan would have to be modified to meet Saskat- cheAvan conditions. Any rural trading center embraces the central village with its various emporiums of trade and exchange, and all the surrounding country that can conveniently use the village as a clearing 70 house for its agricultural products and as a social center. The schools of such an area including the central village and outlying rural schools could then be brought into an association or consolidation for educational purposes. The whole arrangement could be placed in charge of the municipal school board. //?£/il MUr^/C/PAL SCHOOL Om/W/Z/IT/O/V -- 1 ID \ ^ / (S ) ^ "1 1 ) :> " ^ B / vl! -'"^ -- -q ' -^ •' 1 1 V / \ V- - \ / i 1 1 ■ / \ B? ( ->,* /- ■-.. — -, 1 ■ 1 1 1 — ■ -- ./ - -1 1 ( ( !>_. \ 1 / i 1 E *t ^ -^O^ / J ■ — ' ® ( / oj^m \ "■ 1 — \ (^ ')^ , / \ ( $- ^^ 1 / ■ \ ■ ^J X ---1 ) ... 1 1 „E (i ) VI / nr 1 1 V )- Aj / 1 ( ( (■ To ffp^u/ofe Atf^ndonce On/y. ■ /JssocfDfpc/ ffara/ Sc/ioo/s. O l////o^e /Issoc/o/'/on Centre (^ A7un/c/po/ /Y/^h 5c/foo/ /issocrat/o/7 Cfi/itre. Q /Para/ Co/nmun/fy Schoo/ — One-^pachpr or Conso//cfoYe o 00 ^ ^ 5- > O Over 9 years up to 10 2 2S t. Q, o ki Q, o £ ^ o > o 73 t = O 2 > ^- 22 2 ""-I ■ 22 |& S 1:2 > m «2 22 u Q, •n 22 M > Total by GradM I. 131 1487 834 287 76 27 1 4 3 1 1 2,858 II. 3 52 521 557 264 101 31 13 6 2 1 1,551 III. 6 132 489 546 256 127 50 18 5 2 1,631 IV. 8 112 442 462 285 134 77 22 5 1 1,548 V. 6 81 411 381 331 151 51 7 1 1,420 VI. 3 66 203 246 176 59 9 3 765 VII. 2 4 74 185 193 111 35 5 2 1 1 612 VIII. 1 24 87 ISO 133 61 30 3 519 total of ages 134 1545 1495 1451 1414 1328 1132 1050 804 384 121 39 5 2 10,904 "9 TABLE 15. TOWN SCHOOLS^ AGE AND GRADE. s 1 o t£> •a a & ss > o E CO 9 = 6 E go >>" o E 22 > ' o £ go, >> -H O O E C^J O 1-1 -^^ o S3 o % «0 > o Over 15 years up to 16 22 o E t 00 O E ooo O Over 19 years up to 20 % o Total by Gradea I. 159 831 700 294 116 39 16 3 1 1 2,160 II. 90 337 370 142 81 27 13 " 7 4 • • 1,071 III. 3 112 385 429 242 115 59 19 10 1 1,375 IV. 12 104 314 324 334 93 54 19 8 4 • • 1,266 V. 9 95 264 230 163 85 27 6 1 2 882 VI. 9 81 203 222 149 79 22 5 1 771 VII. 16 61 135 132 100 31 7 • • 481 VIII. 1 7 29 96 123 111 51 26 8 1 453 Total of ages 159 924 1161 1162 1106 1054 1015 784 569 .351 119 44 10 1 1 8.460 TABLE 16.- —VILLAGE SCHOOLS, AGE AND GEADE. S 1 o c o ^ > 00 -^ O E o E g- 22 o CD ;22 |& o h !N O o cn ^ o O 22 o go iC o »-( ■*-' O 22 o g 00 ^2 |& o g OS 00 o l-H -^ o go 22 « 3 6 o Total by Grades I. 579 1910 1284 623 287 140 56 36 11 10 5 1 2 1 4,945 II. 2 152 470 556 386 214 78 34 18 6 1 2 1,919 III. 25 186 500 531 369 196 42 16 4 1 1,870 IV. 1 26 195 451 504 397 243 137 51 18 1 1 1 2.026 V. 2 18 120 265 309 280 155 97 20 2 2 1,270 VI. 2 19 102 241 245 213 110 31 9 3 2 1 978 VII. 2 17 85 142 155 94 31 18 5 549 VIII. 2 4 39 105 185 167 150 64 19 5 1 2 743 Total of ages 581 2088 1968 1894 1798 1615 1401 1127 890 539 256 96 31 10 3 3 14.300 80 For convenience in comparison, summarv tables showing the number and per cent, of under-age, normal and over-age pupils in city, town, village and rural schools are presented herewith. TABLE 17. NUMBER AXD PEK CENT. OF UXDER-AGE^ NOEMAL AND OVER-AGE IN EACH GRADE. CITY SCHOOLS. Number in each grade Total in each grade 1 Per cent, in each grade Grade Under age Normal Over age Under age Normal Over age I 131 55 138 120 87 69 80 112 1487 521 489 442 411 203 185 180 1240 975 1004 986 922 493 347 227 2858 1551 1631 1548 1420 765 612 519 4.6 3.5 8.46 7.76 6.12 9.0 11.4 21.5 52.0 33.6 29.9 28.6 38.9 26.74 30.0 34.7 43 4 II 62 9 Ill IV V 61.64 64.64 54.98 VI VII VIII 64.26 58.6 43.8 TOWN SCHOOLS. Number in each grade Total in each grade ■ Per cent, in each grade Grade Under age Normal Over age Under age Normal Over age I 159 90 115 116 104 90 77 133 831 337 385 514 264 203 135 123 1170 644 875 836 514 478 269 197 2160 1071 1375 1266 882 771 481 453 7.36 8.40 8.36 9.16 11.79 11.67 16 01 29.38 38.47 31.47 28.0 24.80 29.93 26 .33 28.07 27.15 54.17 II . . 60.13 Ill IV V 63.64 66.04 58.28 VI VII VIII 62 00 55.92 43 49 VILLAGE SCHOOLS. Grade I... II.. III. IV.. V... VI.. VII. VIII Number in each grade Under Normal Over age age 579 1910 2456 154 470 1295 211 500 1159 222 451 1353 140 265 865 123 241 614 104 142 303 150 185 408 Total in each grade 4945 1919 1870 2026 1270 978 549 743 Per cent, in each grade I Under j age I 11.71 8.01 11.23 10.96 11.02 12.58 18.95 20.19 Normal 38.60 24.49 26.79 22.26 20.87 24.64 25.86 24.90 Over age 49 69 67.50 61.98 66.78 78.11 62.78 55 19 54.91 81 RURAL SCHOOLS. Grade I... II. . III. IV.. V... VI.. VII. VIII Number in each grade Under Normal Over age age 1618 4733 10,115 322 1048 4408 451 1127 4630 418 976 4432 277 624 2841 244 400 1521 217 312 878 303 1 324 617 Total in each grade 16,466 5778 6208 5826 3742 2165 1407 1244 Per cent, in each grade Under age 9.82 5.57 7.26 7.17 7.40 11.27 15.42 24.35 Normal 28.70 18.14 18.15 16.75 16.68 18.47 22.17 26.04 Over age 61.36 76.23 74.58 76.07 75.92 70.25 62.40 49.59 Citj and town school oHiciak should take no unction to their souls from the superiority of the urban schools over rural in this regard. The urban records show a waste of pupil material that would be unpardonable were it not for the fact that it has been the habit of the school and the community from time immemorial to give no heed to the pupil who leaves school or lags behind. Interest in the heavy loss of pupils is a comparatively recent development everywhere. Even the city schools of Saskatchewan show pupils as old as fifteen and sixteen in the first grade. Of course every pupil who is belated at Grade I or anywhere else along the line almost inevitably stays belated, usually getting further and further behind and soon leaving school, to take his part, entirely unequipped, in the government of a democratic community. A few examples from the tables will show the amazing conditions that prevail even in the city schools. The child in second grade should normally be between 7 and 8 years of age. But in the cities there are only 521 pupils of this age in this grade as compared with 975 who are over eight years old. There are 264 pupils in this grade between 9 and 10, 101 between 10 and 11, 31 between 12 and 13, and others whose age goes up as high as 16 years. A relatively short school life awaits the great mass of these children. Another side of the prol)lem is seen in the large numbers of under- age pupils in the upper grades. By the time seventh grade has been reached in the cities, 11.4 per cent, of the pupils surviving are under age for the grade; and when eighth grade is attained the amount of under-age is 21.5 per cent., showing that some of the children have been rapidly pushed ahead. The corresponding figures for the same grade? in town schools are 16.01 per cent, and 29.38 per cent. The tables show children under 10 years of age in sixth, seventh and even eighth grade. Clearly the children who do not get along well in school are being allowed to drop out as fast as they wish and the pupils who are bright are being shoved forward without any regard for that maturing that comes only with years. It should be said in all fairness that the conditions revealed in these tables are by no means peculiar to Saskat- chewan ; indeed, conditions are rather better than in many of the states and communities so far studied to the south. Figures for the city of San Francisco. California, recently published by the United State> 82 Jjureau of Education/ will afford an excellent comparison for tlie school men of the Province interested in pursuing age-grade distributions further. The first step in controlling enrolment and attendance is a regularly established school census that will show each year the number and ages of children in the community who should be reached by the public schools. The second is adequate administrative machinery, with facilities not merely for checking and following up non-attendance, but also for constant supervision of the work of the schools. PROBLEMS OF ADMINISTRATIOX. The outsider used to the city school systems of the States is immediately struck by the absence of certain administrative machinery that has been built up with great care in recent years by the States of the Union. If Canadian practice can in this instance be read in terms of experience in the United States, it would appear as though the cities and towns of the Province are about ready for the adoption of a prin- ciple that is considered fundamental by educators in the United States. This is the principle of professional school supendsion and adminis- tration. The School Act permits appointment of a Superintendent of Schools ''in districts where there are not less than 15 departments in operation," but only four cities hav^ superintendents (Regina, Saskatoon, Moose Jaw and Prince Albert), and no duties are assigned to this ofiicer by the Act, the language specifically leaving it to the local board to outline the duties of the superintendent.^ The traditional plan, here as elsewhere, contemplates management and control of the schools by the board of trustees of the district. The law leaves it to the board of trustees to discover, if may be, that it can most expeditiously exercise its duties by delegating them to a professional school officer, the superintendent of schools, who, as the executive officer of the board, becomes in turn responsible for the administration of the school system. It is under such a plan as this that some of the best school systems in the States have made their advance. So firmly is the idea of the executive school superintendent fixed in the States that practically every city or town of 2,500 population or over has a superin- tendent or supervising principal, and in the Western States many towns of a thousand population or less maintain a superintendent who gives practically all his time to supervision and administration. Xothing would mean more to urban educational progress in Saskatchewan than for the city and town boards of education to delegate the detail duties of management to a ju'ofessionally trained superin- tendent of schools, and to give this superintendent all necessary assist- ance in carrying on the work thus placed in his hand;*. At the present time excellent pupil material, good teachers, and ideal buildings are functioning ineffectively because of the absence of unhampered expert management of schools. Experience has sho^vn that a central driving force, represented by a single professional executive officer, is neces- sary. Without it, things go on indifferently, varying widely from iBulletin 1917 No. 46, page 34. ''The Regulations (p. 10) a.ssign certain general duties to superintendents. 83 school room to school room. What is everybody's business is nobody's business. School work is slow in getting under way in the fall — because there is nobody planning ahead or because the superintendent lacks the necessary assistance to keep track of details. Practically all the superintendents and principals visited were harassed by minor details that would normally be attended to by subordinates in a properly administered system. The schools of the Province are full of teachers of superior personality, but quite out of touch with newer movements in education — a condition brought about almost inevitably by the lack of expert school supervision in most places. This situation is com- plicated by the , shortage of Saskatchewan-trained teachers, which makes it necessary to import many teachers from the eastern provinces that pay low salaries and adhere to traditional methods. The teachers thus brought in need constant supervision. The towns and villages show especially the need of professional supervision and administration. The following are some of the points, many of them relatively insignificant by themselves, that indicate the need of a superintendent of schools to manage and direct education : 1. Double desks, long discarded elsewhere. There is no one to back up the teacher in her protest against this to the school trustees. 2. Extreme formalism in classroom management. It takes a school superin- tendent, who knows educational processes elsewhere, to abolish extreme manifestations of such devices as position signals. 3. Mechanism in method as well as management, due to lack of time for si per- vision. Pupils are bidden to "make a complete statement," even in questions where a complete statement is liHiculous. 4. The ever present lecturer. Questions are asked only to be answered by the instructor before opportunity can be given for answer by the pupil. Too many leading questions. 5. The text-book enthroned. Formal grammar is still insisted upon. Proper supervision would eliminate it or reduce it to a minimum. 6. Too many "don'ts." 7. Too much writing of questions on the board during class hours, with con- sequent waste of time. 8. Physical exercise, in charge of room teachers, but no regular plan for control in hygiene and sanitation. 9. Recesses morning and afternoon, a tribute to the dullness of much of the school work. No one whose business it is to keep informed regarding modern practice in abolishing the old time recess, especiallj' of the afternoon session. 10. Bad cross lights, even in the better schools. One of the duties of a superin- tendent would be to know the rules of lighting. Of course it would be perfectly possible to put on the other side a list of really excellent things that Saskatchewan schools do better than schools elsewhere; but even these good things do not spread over the Province as they should for jack of superintendents and supei'visors to introduce them into their systems. What happens to the schools in a community without the expert help an unhampered school principal or superintendent could render is illustrated by one of the medium-sized towns in the Province. The school board set out to increase school facilities. Instead of building a new f^chool they took the existina: four-room building and added to it haphazardly in the rear, with the result that when they finished a new heating plant had to be put in. and this comparatively small eight - room building now has two steam-heating plants, one for each part. The most serious feature of this building, perhaps, is the stairwav 84 arrangement in the center where the iwo buildings failed to join properly; an arrangement which would be dangerous in case of fire. It would be hard to conceive of a school board with a well-trained school superintendent in its service making this kind of a blunder. There were many towns like this, some of them with notably good feature? otherwise, where everything testified to the need of some guiding hand to direct, administer and supervise. A special problem is presented by the larger buildings in the cities. There are buildings in Regina, Saskatoon, and Moose Jaw that any community in North America might well envy, but they are in charge of men principals who are required to teach practically every hour of the day. How these splendid men give as much attention as they do to the plant, the teachers, the schedule, the details of management, com- munity contacts, not to mention the teaching of their own eighth grade class, will always be a mystery. Most cities of the same size in the States would expect to provide non-teaching principals and perhaps general city-^vide supervision besides, at least in special subjects. No complaint of any kind was heard, yet certainly men in charge of large schools of the type described cannot do justice to the numerous duties imposed upon them. The problem of city school administration is complicated by a situation that has already been referred to in the chapter on high schools — the existence of two and sometimes three district boards of trustees in the same community. Ideally there should be but one board of education. If there must, under present conditions, be a board in charge of "^separate" schools,^ there is, at least, no need for a high school board separate and apart from the public school board, as pointed out in the high school chapter. What is needed is recognition of the whole twelve years as one continuous system, under the control of out- board and administered by a single superintendent of schools. That this can be achieved even without any change in the law is indicated by the experience of Moose Jaw, where the high school board and the [uiblic school board are identical in membership. SCHOOL plant; insteuction ; the school and community needs. School Buildings. — City and town' school buildings throughout the Province represent a very high average in school architecture. Western jirogTessiveness in educational matters has been further stimulated by the rigours of a severe climate to produce school buildings that are sub- stantial, unusually well equipped with modem heating and ventilating devices, and generally very attractive. At the time of the sur\'ey the building programme had necessarily halted because of war conditions, and in several instances the school community had wisely sought to do it< bit by turning over one or more of its best buildings to the military authorities for hospital or other war emergency use. In the meantime- there are comparatively few really unfit buildings still in use, and the authorities seem fixed in their determination to go ahead just as soon a? conditions warrant. This decision should be rigorously adhered to; the overcrowding that is tolerated in war time should be eliminated as soon ipee Chapter XV. fc5 as practicable. In the meantime the Gary plan, or some other form of the platoon plan, might be experimented with, though there are special difficulties involved in its adaptation to Saskatchewan, It is very important that in the resumption of the building- programme after the war, more attention be paid to manual training shops, domestic science rooms, science laboratories, gymnasiums, auditoriums, libraries and the \arious auxiliary rooms that will be needed, since these are the .facilities most generally lacking in the eity and town schools. InsirncVxon. — The teaching force of Saskatchewan are described in a special chapter,^ and certain observations are recorded, especially of the rural schools. The range of teaching, from very poor to very good, is as great in the city, town, and village schools as in the country, though steadied here and there in the larger places by the beginnings of super- vision. The generally high qualities of the teaching force have already been mentioned, as well as the need for supervision. If there is one word that describes the unfavourable aspects of certain of the teaching observed in Saskatchewan it is formalism. This is the result of the short training period and the absence of sympathetic supervision. In the larger cities the teachers have the benefit of reasonably frequent visits from the superintendent ; in the towns and villages an annual visit from the inspector is the most that can be looked for, and there is nothing to break the tradition of formalism that prevails. Some of the younger teachers whose inclination is to be simple and natural in their teaching- appear to be afraid they w^ill be criticised if they allow the freedom they believe in. Curious survivals of the old-time schoolmaster tradition are met with. Classes of one, two, and three pupils in junior form work ^vere solemnly steered from their seats to the front of the room for recitation and then back again by an elaborate series of signals from a bell or the teacher's pointer. One whole-souled looking man teacher actually called his roll by the numbers in his register, instead of by name; the remarkable feature of the proceeding being that the pupils saw nothing unu.sual in thus having their identities lost. It was not surprising in this school to find, neatly framed in the hall, a set of rules adopted in 1900, chiefly of the negative,- repressive sort, instructing pupils as to their duties.^ There were many bright spots in the teaching observed, however, Xow and again one would come upon the happy wholesome looking teacher whom children love and have confidence in; the teacher who dramatise.^ much of her work, uses local materials, has games of all kinds, invites visitors — especially younger brothers and sisters, the latter with their dolls; maintains on the blackboard honour rolls of the children who saw the first flower, or the flrst birds of spring. Or, in a more advanced clas-, one finds the teacher who is chiefly concerned in helping her boys and girls to help themselves; who studies ways of presenting the facts of arithmetic in problems, not of the book, but of the lives of the children; the teacher who singles out here and there among the boys of foreign parentage those who show qualities of leader- 'See Chapter XII. V.^.— "Pupils shall confine themselves to that part of the school building and promises specified by the principal and shall not play, stand, or run in the corridor." 86 ship that mean much to the Canadianising of this or that foreign, group seekins for contacts with the new-found democracy of the western world. In the presence of teachers such as these the thought of the deadly, formal, memoriter-type of teachers is gradually erased ; but too many boys and girls are suffering daily under this formalism, with the remedy close at hand. The School and Community Needs. — With a freshened outlook un teaching and a healthier human attitude toward the- school subjects," there is much that the town teacher can do to bring school and com- munity together. The adaptation to community needs described else- where in this report is by no means merely a rural need. The city, town, ftnd village schools of Saskatchewan offer abundant field for the teacher imbued with the community spirit. The health programme already adopted in some cities offers a point of departure that a few teachers have been quick to grasp. The whole field of industrial and commercial development in the cities means an opportunity for those teachers who see the essential oneness of school and life and realise that a school into which the life of the real world is not flowing in a steady stream is impossible.^ Superintendent's Annual Eeport. — One practical device in use elsewhere for helping to bring the schools and the public together is the published annual report of the superintendent of schools. The medium of the annual school report is apparently not availed of to any extent in Saskatchewan, even by cities having superintendents. Newspaper publication is provided for by law for certain of the business aspects of the schools, and in their news columns the papers of the Province are notably generous to educational matters — reflecting the strong public interest in education ; but the annual report, the most important single medium of communication for the school system, is not in general use, though several principals and superintendents expressed the need for such a report, and one or two have made special efforts to get before the public in pamphlet form the kind of a message that would ordinarily go in a report. RECOMMENDATIONS. A review of the existing situation in the cities, towns and larger villages of the Province suggests the following improvements as most likely to bring results : (1) The position of city or town superintendent of schools should be given more recognition by law and by regulations. Any city, town, or group of towns or villages should be permitted to engage a superintendent or supervising principal, receiving aid from the Province for part of the salary of such an officer ; (2) An annual school census should be taken by the school author- ities as the basis for attendance records and follow-up. The superiutendent of schools should have sufficient clerical and research assistance to tabulate and study the records thus obtained ; 'For a discussion of occupational life and the school, see the Chapter on Voca- tional Education. 87 (3) In the larger cities buildings of eight rooms or over should be in charge of a principal at least half of whose time should be frte for supervision. In smaller communities supervision should be secured through a co-operative arrangement with other communities, or as part of the municipal development plan suggested in Chapter V; (4) One of the first aims of any supervision system that may be established should be to eliminate the excessive formalism in teaching that prevails in many of the to^\Ti and village schools ; (5) At the earliest opportunity the high school district as a separate establishment should be abandoned. There should be but one board for public schools and high schools ; (6) Organisation, methods, and course of study should everywhere be adapted to the needs of the community, with due regard to the local industrial conditions as well as to the agricultural interests of the Province as a whole. CHAPTER XI. HIGH SCHOOLS AND COLLEGIATE INSTITUTES. Three main demands underlie present progress in secondary edu- cation in North America: (1) That the high school shall be an integral part of the public school system; (2) that high school opportunities shall be available for all boys and girls, and that all boys and girls will go through the high school course; (3) that the high school shall offer a wide variety of courses, desigiied to meet the needs of all boy^ and girls, not merely those who are going to college. The High School an Integral Part of the Public School System. — Saskatchewan aims to offer a complete educational programme to the children of all its citizens, including eight years of elementary school, four years of high school, and four years of university work. In practice, however, the high school, while it is free to all who can avail themselves of its privileges, is not yet regarded as an integTal part of the public school system. By the "public school" in Saskatchewan is understood the elementary school system, not the high school. Indeed, the high school is a separate institution, maintained by its own board, and having almost no contacts with the elementary schools or with the public school authorities in charge of elementary education. There is as yet no general conception of an uninterrupted twelve years of public education for every boy and girl, under one system, and directed by one authority. The Extent of High School Provision in Saskatchewan. — It would hardly be expected that so young a commonwealth as Saskatchewan, with its broad expanse of territory and its scattered population, could yet provide high school facilities for all children of high school age. The 22 regularly recognised high schools and collegiate institutes enrolled, at the time of the survey, 2,662 pupils. In addition, 43 towns and 130 villages reported some continuation work of high school grade in con- nection with the public schools, enrolling 1,529 pupils. At most, there- fore, 5,000 boys and girls out of approximately 40,000 of high scho<:»l age (14-18) were receiving high school education in the fall of 1917.^ It would seem unnecessary to point out what a dangerously low percentage this is for any nation under modem conditions, but especially for a commonwealth like Saskatchewan, dei>endent upon public educa- tion for its democratic leadership. A Traditional Course of Study.- — The high schools and collegiate institut< s of Saskatchewan offer almost exclusively the traditional course of study of the eastern provinces and the eastern states of the American union. Economic, social, and civic demands are only beginning to make themselves felt. Agriculture, the one great industrial interest of the Piovincc, fills a relativ<-ly unimportant role as compared witb Latin and mathematics. The high schools of Saskatchewan are meeting the needs of the one small group of boys and girls who are going to college or int(/ teaching; they are neglecting the large mass of boys and girls who most need high school education in a democracy. 'The complete offieial figures for 1910 showed 3,849 students in regularly recognised collegiates or high schools and 3,256 doing high school work in towns or villages not having recognised high schools. 88 £9 TJ11-; 11 Kill SCHOOL AXD THE PUBLIC SCHOOL SYSTEM. The hiiili school? and collegiate institutes of Saskatchewan are organ'.Ked under The Secondary Education Act (1907), which author- ised the e-tablishment of high school districts within the limits of town and city municipalities. High school districts may be established, provided that : (1) At the time of the receipt of the petition for such establishment there are at least five teachers regularly employed in the Schools situated within the municipality and organised under the provisions of The School Act. (,2) Within a period of two years prior to the receipt of such petition no other high school district has been established within a distance of forty miles from the municipalities as measured by the nearest road allowance. (3) It is shown to the satisfaction of the Minister that if the district is established there will be in attendance at the high school at least twenty-five pupils above Grade VIII. Regarding the distinction between a high school and a collegi^ate institute, the Act provides that any high school in the Province may be raised to the rank of a collegiate institute on the following conditions: (1) That the average attendance of pupils above Grade VIII attending the high school for the two terms next preceding the date of application was at least seventy-five, and that during such terms at least four duly qualified teachers were regularly employed. (2) That the board has provided or is prepared to provide within one year accom- modation suitable for the pupils and staff of a collegiate institute satisfactory to the Minister. (3) That all regulations of the Department with respect to collegiate institutes have been complied with. The regulations of the Department of Education provide, in substance, that: (1) In every high school there shall be at least two teachers continuously employed. (2) In every collegiate institute there shall be at least four teachers continuously employed. (3) Admission to the high schools and collegiate institutes shall be by qualifying examinations for Grade VIII diplomas, except that in cities where Grade VIII is included with the high school, no examination is required, and in cities having recognised high schools or collegiates admission on joint certificate of the superintendent of schools and the high school principal * is allowed, provided the eighth grade teacher has been reported as satis- factory by the inspector of schools. Any pupil may write upon the Grade VIII examination. Other regulations cover requirements regarding scientific appar- atus, duties of principal, qualifications of principals and teachers, certificates, and course of study. It will be noted that the high schools and collegiates were created as separate institutions. Before the passage of The Secondary Education, Act (even in Territorial days, in fact), high school instruction had been given, as it is now in many places throughout the province, in connection with the regular public school work. Regina had a separate high school building as early as 1880. The efi^ect of the Secondary School Act was to crLfite special '^high school districts," to bo presided over by separate boards of trustees. While dignifying the high school idea, therefore, the Act gives legal sanction to a most unfortunate break in the educational chain. The experience of other countries has shown that proper extension and development of high schools are largely dependent upon the recognition by the public of the principle that the high school and elementary school are parts of a continuous educational plan. Here and there communities in Saskatchewan have taken cognisance of this defect 90 in the Act and have tried to remedy it on their owii initiative. In one city the citizens have seen to it that the high school board and the "public school" board are identical in membership. In another city the secretary treasurer of the public school board is also the secretary treasurer of the high school board. In other cities there are points of contact through individual members. A second provision of the Act, significant in its implications, if not in its effects, is that confining high schools to "towns and city munici- palities." In thus appearing to exclude the rural districts from the benefits of high schools in their midst, the Act reflects conditions inher- ited from older communities, where the democratic view of education has been slow to take hold, and where current opinion still regards education as something to be parcelled out on the basis of ability to pay. rather than something set up by all the people to guarantee a perpetual democracy based on intelligence. What Saskatchewan needs pre- eminently is the type of high school not contemplated at all, apparently, in The Secondary Education Act — a rural high school designed for the people of the open country. The Act makes possible, of course, the establishment of excellent rural high schools in the towns, and these can be made sufficiently rural in type to serve as centers for high schools adapted to rural needs; but it should be noted that the conception underlying this section of The Secondary Education Act must be radically changed if Saskatchewan's rural secondary requirements are to be met. Public policy requires that high school education shall be available for all boys and girls, but especially for those in the country. It needs to be constantly borne in mind that public high school education, like public elementary education, is not primarily a privilege bestowed by the state upon an individual, but an essential measure of protc-ction ; it is not merely that the boys and girls in the rural five-sixths of Saskatchewan need high school education for themselves, but that the Province, for its own sake and the sake of its future, needs them to have it. It is for this reason especially important that the Province devote a large share of its ener- gies in the future to the development of the high school work now attempted in some two hundred villages and small towns. Bringing the High School and the Grades Together. — Experience outside of Saskatchewan suggests several steps that are necessary in obtaining proper integTation of grades and high school. These may be summed up as follows: (1) A method of easy transition from the elementary school to- the high school; (2) administration of the high school and the elementary schools under the same school board and by a single superint< ndent of fchools ; (3) education of the public to look upon graduation from high school, rather than completion of the eight grades, as the minimum goal for normal boys and girls. With a uniform, centrally directed system of elementary schools, such as Saskatchewan has, it is diflicult to conceive of any justification for separate examinations for entrance to high school. Pupils who com- plete eighth grade work satisfactorily should be admitted to the high school, or, more correctly speaking, to the ninth year of their school coursej without question, and by the same principle, pupils below eighth 91 grade should not be admitted to high school merely because they can pass an examination. The special examination system, applied at the point of contact between elementary school and high school, serves no useful purpose ; it merely puts undue emphasis upon examinations as a test of school work,^ and at the same time accentuates a gap between elementary school and high school that should not exist. Whatever plan may be adopted to make the transition from elemen- tarv school to high school more gradual, and to integrate the work of the two divisions,^ much will still depend upon the attitude of the public. If the twelve years of publicly provided education are to be welded together into one svstem, everv effort must be made to have the public see that this plan is to its interest. The people must be made to realise, not only that education through high school is the least they can allow their children, but that this education, to be effective, must be given in the form of a unified system, under the direction of a single board responsible to the people. EXTEXT or HIGH SCHOOL PROVISION IN SASKATCHEWAN. According to the census of 1916 there were, in Saskatchewan at the time of the survey, 40,822 boys and girls of high school age (14 to Vcf lAcnrnf lc<,^,on Of CMe^tatf fnitiM,! ana /fif/l Sc/roo/l Lroff.Ta' Tor a more detailed discussion of the Saskat chew tinexaminationsystom. see page 155. '^For a discussion of the junior high school proposal, see page 100. 92 18 years). Eegiilarly recognised conegiate institutes and high schools in the Province totalled 22, with 113 teachers and 2,662 pupils. The conditions under which high schools and collegiates mav be established have already been described.^ High school instruction for 1,529 pupils was also reported by 43 towns and 130 villages. Statistics for the 22 regularly recognised collegiate institutes and high schools are given in the following table: TABLE 18. -COLLEGIATE INSTITUTES AXD HIGH SCHOOLS ; TEACHERS AND STUDENTS^ 1916-1917 « Teachers Students M. F. Total Junior Middle Senior Total M. F. M. F. M. F. Collegiate Institutes — Moose Jaw 8 1 5 14 16 4 2 1 2 1 1 3 1 2 1 2 1 3 1 1 4 3 2 4 4 1 2 1 3 2 2 2 1 2 2 1 1 1 2 2 1 12 4 7 18 20 5 4 2 3 4 3 3 4 3 4 2 3 2 5 3 2 79 15 42 123 178 20 39 3 2 14 5 11 9 10 22 12 8 7 22 10 9 123 37 68 198 256 47 49 15 17 30 22 16 24 20 34 19 18 13 32 14 21 29 3 15 68 74 19 12 4 3 4 10 3 4 11 4 1 7 4 51 29 22 55 114 29 27 8 5 20 6 14 4 15 9 16 6 7 12 5 5 14 2 2 20 12 4 6 1 5 2 2 2 5 2 12 5 8 30 44 6 3 2 2 4 2 i '2 5 '4 308 Moosomin 91 Prince Albert 157 Regina 494 Saskatoon 678 Weybum 125 Yorkton 136 High Schools — Battleford 28 Carlyle 31 Estevan 76 Humboldt 41 Indian Head 51 Maple Creek 40 Melfort 50 North Battleford Oxbow 76 63 Qu'Appelle 36 Strassburg 28 Swift Current 79 Wilkie 35 Wvnyard 39 Total 70 43 113 640 1,073 ?S1 45q 79 130 2,662 1 The towns and villages reporting high school work are listed below, with the enrolment in each class. Tt will be noted that very little senior form work is done, but that a rather large amount of junior and middle form instruction is given in these schools. Complete returns from all the towns and villages would probably make but slight differences in the figures. The 1915 report of the Department pointed out that "52.08 per cent, of the pupils taking junior high school work (in the entire Province), 37.6 of these taking middle form high school work, and 16.15 per cent, of these taking senior form high school work were enrolled in other than high schools and collegiate institutes." 1 See page 89. * Areola High School omitted; no returns. 93 TABLE 19. HIGH SCHOOL ENROLMEIS^T IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS; TOWNS. 1 To^^T^ Junior Middle Senior Total Alameda 12 9 14 7 1 32 • 16 9 11 17 5 13 18 12 16 11 12 10 12 11 7 20 22 4 16 7 13 6 13 16 12 17 7 15 13 8 7 6 16 1 15 18 13 16 's 3 6 9 t 7 1 9 10 9 2 6 5 8 2 5 3 3 14 9 2 2 1 '7 5 '5 5 '3 '2 8 1 i9 7 3 28 Alsask 4 2 4 9 Assiniboia . . 22 Balgonie 10 Bredenbury 1 Canora 38 Carnduff 25 Craik 16 Davidson 18 Fleming 18 Francis 14 Govan 23 Grenf ell 27 Gull Lake 14 Hanley 22 16 Kamsack 20 12 Kindersley 17 14 Lemberg. . . 10 Lloydminster 36 Lumsden ' 31 Manklin 6 Milestone 18 8 Mortlach 13 6 Outlook 20 21 Radville 12 Rosetown .... 26 Rosthern .... 12 Rouleau 15 Saltcoats 16 Scott 8 Shaunavon .... 9 18 Wapella 17 Watson 1 Whitewood 34 Wolseley 25 Yellow Grass 16 Total 520 212 1 742 94 TABLE 20. — HIGH SCHOOL ENROLMENT IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS — VILLAGES. Village Junior Mid. Senior Village Aberdeen 4 .4bernethy 11 Aneroid 9 Avonlca 3 Aylesbury 1 Balcarres , 7 Birch Hills 10 Bladworth 8 Blaine Lake 7 Borden 2 Bounty Village .3 Brock 1 Broderick .3 Bromhead 2 Brownlee 6 Buchanan 12 Bulyea 1 Cabri (Consolidated) 12 Cadillac 8 Carievale 9 Coblenz Hill 2 Central Butte 1 Ceylon 6 Chamberlain 1 Colgate 10 Conquest 2 Creelman 6 Cupar 5 Drinkwater 2 Dubuc .5 Dundum 3 Earl Grey 11 East End 3 Edenwold 4 Elbow 6 Elstow 6 Esterhazy Expanse 10 Eyebrow 7 Fillmore 8 Forget 2 Fort Qu'Appelle 5 Gainsborough 15 Glenavon 3 Glen Ewen 2 Goodwater 1 Grayson 2 Griffin 7 Hafford 3 Hague 1 Halbrite 3 Harris 3 Heward S Imperial .5 Invermaj' 1 Kelliher 2 Kenaston 4 Kinistino 14 Kennedy 3 Khedive 3 Kipling 11 Kisbey 7 Lampman S Lanar 1 Lang 10 Langenburg 2 10 1 2 1 3 33 3 o 12 Lashburn . Laura . . . Lemsford. Leslie. . . . Limerick. Junior Mid. Senior 9 1 1 1 o Lipton 6 Lockwood 1 Loreburn 8 Luseland 6 Macoun 17 Maidstone 3 ]Ma.nor 4 Marcelin 6 Markinch 1 Marquis 2 Maryfield 13 Maymont 2 MacNutt 1 Midale 14 Milden 3 Montmartre 3 Neville 2 Nord. 4 North Portal 8 Neudorf 2 Pangman 1 Perdue 2 Portreeve 6 Prelate 4 Punnichy 2 Quill Lake 2 Redvers 8 Rocanville 13 Roche Percee 1 Rockhaven 2 Semans 7 Shellbrook 2 Springside 1 Spy Hill 4 Star City 9 Stockholm .5 Stoughton .5 Success 3 Swanson 8 Theodore Tisdale 12 Tompkins 4 Truax 3 Tyvan fi Unity fi Vanguard 8 Verwood 2 Vibank 4 Viscount 9 Waldeck Waldron 1 Warman 7 Wawota 4 Webb 2 Welw\'n 4 Wilcox 2 Windthorst 8 Wroxton 1 Young 1 3 7 1 2 2 4 4 12 Totals fi32 141 14 95 While Saskatclicwan does not begin to reach all her boys and girls with high school education, it must be said that in many respects the facilities offered are superior to those in most parts of ^STorth America. In physical plant and equipment, in training and experience of the teaching staff, and in other important particulars, Saskatchewan's high schools and collegiate institutes rank high. High School Buildings. — Few school buildings anywhere are as good as those in which most of the collegiates and high schools are housed- — they are attractive, substantially built, and reasonably well equipped for the type of work they undertake. Some of the buildings are rendered unusually attractive by flower gardens, the only drawback being that these gardens are usually the work of a professional gardener rather than of the students. The possibilities of student participation in care of lawns, flower o-ardens and shrubbery as an educational motive do not seem to have been realised. Building programmes have necessarily been affected by the war, but despite this the secondary schools are, as has been indicated, well housed. Gymnasium and auditorium facilities are not as complete as they should be, but the return of normal conditions will doubtless remedy this. In one or two communities the school boards have shown special foresight in acquiring abundant land for the high school. It should be possible for Saskatchewan cities and towns to have high school sites of ten acres or more for future development and to meet the demands for space that will come, not merely from the better attended high schools, but from the additional types of education that the high schools of the Province should be introducing more and more in the next few years. The Teaching Force in the High Schools and Collegiates, — T^he teachers form a group of men and women of uniformly high quali- tications in training and experience. Of 63 collegiate teachers reporting, only two have had as litile as one year of teaching experience ; 32 have had 10 years' experience or more; 10 have had 20 years', and one 31 jears' experience. Especially significant, in view of the suggested rapprochement of the upper grades and the present high school, is the amount of elementary school experience these high school teachers have had. Of the 03 collegiate teachers reporting, 52 have had some elementary experience; of the 38 high school teachers, 31 have had -elementary experience, the amount ranging from one to 13 years. For collegiate institutes the average amount of experience is 3 years elementary and T.7 secondary ; for high schools it is 3.4 years •elementary and 3.5 secondary; and for the high schools and collegiates together it is 3.1 years in elementary schools and 6.1 years in secondary •schools. The teachers in the high schools and collegiates, both men and ■women, are almost without exception university graduates. Both by training and experience, therefore, they merit high salaries. While the salaries are in fact somewhat higher than in the States, they are by no means as high as they might well be for the type of service rendered. In the collegiates the salaries range from $1,400 to $3,000. the median being $1,800. In the high schools the range is from $900 96 to $2,000, with the inedian $1,100. For both groups together the- average is $1,800 and the median is between $1,600 and $1,700. It is important to note that while the Saskatchewan high school teachers are highly trained and experienced, they form a group of com- }iaratively youthful men and women. The average age is 32 years, and the median age (in this case a safer indication) between 29 and 30. In the collegiate institutes alone the average teacher's age is 34 and the median 31. This combination of experience and youthfulness constitutes a very real asset for education in the Province, especially in view of the movement for better integration of the high school and the grades, which will demand men and women who know intimately both elementary and secondary education.-^ As the high school population grows, questions of administration m collegiate institutes and high schools will become more acute. Just as in the larger domain of city schools,- so here problems of manage- ment will require special study. The mechanics of handling large bodies of students ; attendance and scholarship records, programme making, student government, and all the other details that loom sufficiently large in the daily lives of high school faculties, even under present conditions, will outgrow existing machinery and methods, and will necessitate special consideration snch as some of the schools — notably the Regina Collegiate— are already giving. As with the entire city school system, so with the secondary schools, it will be necessary to insist upon a greater amount of professional supervision and administration than is at present provided. High school principals will not be expected to administer a large school and teach besides. THE COURSE OF STUDY. Admirable as the teaching force in the Saskatchewan high schools and collegiates is, generous though the provision for high school build- ings and equipment may often be, the Provincial high school can render only small part of its real service, because it is hampered by a narrow and traditional course of study. It should be said at the outset that this narrow course of study is not the fault of the men and women in the schools. Many of them would welcome a much more diversified course of study than is possible under the regulations. The courses provided for in the regulations are as follows : General course Commercial course Teachers' course Agriculture Matriculation An examination of Table 21 below shows that only two of these courses exist in actual practice to any extent. In all the Province only 12 pupils fall girls) are reported in the general course.^ Moose Jaw, Kegina and Saskatoon report a total of 119 pupils in the commercial course, and Saskatoon reports 5 in agriculture. All but a few per cent, of the pupils (2,517) are in the teachers' course and the matriculation course, or in a combination course that includes both. »See below, "The Junior High School." 2See Chapter X. ^Regina, 5; Saskatoon, 4; Oxbow, 1; and Qu'Appelle, 2. 97 TABLE 21. COLLEGIATE INSTITUTES AND HIGH SCHOOLS, ENROLMENT BY COURSES,' 1916-1917 General Teachers' Matricu- lation Combined Com- Trs. & Ma- mercial course course course triculation ( course Boys Girls Boys Girls Boys Girls Boys Girls Bo ys Girls Collegiate Institutes — Moose Jaw 38 51 19 18 . ., 3 26 Moosomin 20 59 71 98 12 30 18 24 Prince Albert ...... Regina 5 4 41 76 37 5 156 152 78 12 33 9 25 2 9 8 33 1 132 161 50 90 231 1 66 ; 5 5 23 Saskatoon^ 19 ^Yeybu^n Yorkton High Schools"— Battleford 2 6 15 22 2 10 1 Carlj'le Estevan 14 11 47 30 8 4 7 5 Humboldt Indian Head 21 30 3 8 Maple Creek 3 7 8 oo Melfort 24 29 4 1 North Battleford . . . 4 11 27 34 Oxbow 1 18 20 12 3 Qu'Appelle 2 12 22 Strassburg 8 17 3 Swift Current 21 25 10 23 . , Wilkie» 13 26 Wynyard Totals 12 433 919 148 173 391 453 51 68 Possible Variations. — The narrowness of this provision in terms of course of study is perhaps best indicated by a glimpse at the list of types of high school work recently formulated by the United States Burea'!! of Education in its .-;nrvey of the schools of San Francisco.* The list is as follows : Types of Organisations: Four years, based on eight years ele- mentary school. Six years, based on six years elemen- tary school. Junior high school, three j^ears. Senior high school, three years. Township high school. County high school. Evening. Continuation. Part time, co-operative. Technical. Vocational. Types of Curriculum: General. College preparatory. Classical. Scientific. Literary. Professional. Commercial. Agricultural. Manual training, mechanic arts, tech- nical. Industrial . Homemaking, home economics, house- hold arts. Normal. Cosmopolitan. There are few communities in Canada or the United States where all of these types of organisation and curriculum will be found. The list expressed rather the variety offered. It is this variety that Saskatchewan lacks. 'Areola High School omitted: No data. ^Also Agricultural course, Boys 5, Girls 0. 'Principal unable to supply data. ^Bulletin of the Bureau of Education, 1917, No. 46, page 272. Printing Office, Washington, D.C., U.S.A., price 65 cents. Government 98 The Department's Course of Study. — The course of study as outlined in the Departmental "Kegulations and courses of study for high schools and collegiate institutes/'^ makes clear at once the limita- tions of the high school idea in the Province. The so-called "General course," under which practically no pupils are classified, is described as 'for general culture, and, except when local conditions justify a change, obligatory upon all students." The teachers' course is characterised as a ''vocational course," but warning is given that it "should not be used as a basis for the classifica- tion of pupils." The "matriculation course" is for persons preparing for junior and senior matriculation for the university, but "the subjects for the matriculation examinations are identical 'pro tanto with those for second and first class teachers' diplomas respectively." The agri- cultural course is labelled at once by the dictum that it is "intended for those students who have not passed the qualifying examinations for admission to high school." There is a commercial course, but it can be taken only when proper accommodation and equipment have been provided. Space does not permit a detailed analysis of the suggested subject matter for tha courses as given on pages 13-27 of the regulations. One or two things will be apparent at once to one Avho reads it from the viewpoint of high school administration. In the first place the direc- tions are entirely too detailed. Grood high school teachers are not helped^ but embarrassed, by such statements as the following.^ JUXTOR FORM. Oral Reading. — A general knowledge of the principles of oral reading; practice in oral reading. Supplementary Reading. — Careful reading of the books annually prescribed. Literature. — A thorough study of the subject matter, structure and language of such selections as are annually prescribed. Committing to memory of striking passages from these selections. English Grammar. — A general knowledge of the principles of etj^mology and syntax, including the logical structure of the sentence and the inflection and classifi- cation of words. Elementary word analysis with the most important prefixes and suffixes. These four topics, together with writing, spelling, arithmetic and mensuration, and geography, suggest that a good many subjects are carried forward into the high school 3'ears that sdiould have been long since completed in the elementary school. The conscientious school man, attempting to follow carefully the regulations and to prepare for the examinations, makes each one of these a separate subject with time allotments in the programme, so that 50 periods a week is not unusual in Saskatchewan high schools, as compared with a maximum of 30 or 35 in communities below the international border.^ The first seven statements under Junior Form, Part I, and the corresponding six under Junior Form, Part II, and Middle Form, might much rather be con- solidated into one paragraph on "English," and the standard achieve- »September, 1910, pages 12-27. ^From page 13 of the regulations. 3"The relief of the time-table from the pressure of a multiplicity of separate subjects as such is an evident necessity." (Royal Commission on Industrial Training and Technical Education, page 10.) 99 ment of each of the three years in the subject stated. If recent educational experience of other countries and states amounts to any- thing, the method adhered to in these' regulations of indicating stages in progress in the traditional subjects by references to such and such pages in a prescribed text is quite indefensible. Again and again the injunction appears: "Pages 122 to 237 of the prescribed text"; "Lesson I to XLIX inclusive of the prescribed text" ; "Page 228 to end of text (omit pages 318-336 inclusive)." This is a made-to-order type of education that is wholly contrary to the spirit of the modern high school. The courses of study clearly need, not merely recasting, but complete revamping, to make them accord with present day ideals in secondary education. It is clear that under such regulations as these there can be but one course of study in Saskatchewan collegiates — a traditional college-preparatory course characterised by extreme narrowness of aim. It is not merel}^ that the subjects are composed of one group, but the single group of subjects is presented with a curious narrowness of aim. These comments are called forth by the Departmental course of study itself. Translated into terms of activities of the school, this course of study means that practically nothing can be done to meet local community needs. The smaller the community, the more its work must necessarily be restricted to the formal things that are to be tested by t2ie Departmental examinations. The continuation classes in the towns and villages without regularly recognised high schools or collegiates are especially affected by the tradi- tional course laid down by the regulations. One high school depart- ment visited had 22 pupils present, S boys and 10 girls in the third class and 2 boys and 2 girls in the second class. The pupils were questioned regarding vocational ambition. Eight of the 10 girls who replied declared that they intended to be teachers ; the other two expected to be nurse and stenographer respectively. Of the boys who replied to the inquiry, two intended to be teachers, one a telegraph operator, one a "mechanic or electrician," one a "teacher or a clerk in bank or office," one a mineral chemist, and one a druggist. iSTot one aspired to be a farmer or anything else directly connected with Saskat- chewan's main business of agriculture. Yet this school is located in a small town, the center of a srreat fannins: community, and all but four of the fathers of the pupils are farmers or engaged in business directly related to farmin2r. It is not an indication of the failure of the high school that it guides its pupils into occupations other than those of their fathers. Quite the contrary. But it is an indication of narrowness of aim that the high school should offer its services only to such pupils as intend to teach or go into a profession, instead of broadening its opportunities to take in all youth, regardless of what their future is to be. Indoe^ome time been discussing the junior high school plan and its possibili- ties for Saskatchewan. In a word the junior high school means a rearrangement of the twelve grades of education on a basis of six years of elementary and six of high school, instead of eight and four as at present, the junior high school including the present seventh and eighth grades and the first year of the high school, organised as a separate school from the "senior" high school (last three years). Educationally, the junior high school means much more than merely putting high school work down into the grades, however; it involves a complete readjust- ment of the school's attitude toward the world of realities and a delib- erate differentiation of courses of study on the basis of individual and community needs. The junior high school movement has made rapid progress in the United States during the past four years. Whether it is adapted to Saskatchewan conditions, however, is a question that must, in the last analysis, be answered by the educators of Saskatchewan themselves. Tt is in this spirit that the following discussion is offered regarding the availability of the plan for the Province. The need of earlier entrance upon high school work, which has been one of the motives that have led to the establishment of junior high schools in the United States, is confirmed in the replies of the Saskat- chewan collegiate and high school principals to the survey questionnaire. The prevailing age at entrance to junior form work in Saskatchewan is from 13 to 15 for cities, with a usual entrance age of 14, and from 14 to 17 for the rural districts, 15 being nearer the usual age for the country. All those in charge of collegiate institutes and nearly all those in charge of high schools agree that the high school entrance age is too late, "particularly if the high school is to be more vocational," as one principal expressed it. "Much too late," "about two years too late," "too late, especially to learn language," are some of the comments. Only four of the 18 collegiate and high school principals who ex])ressed themselves were at all satisfied with the present admission age. Two of these thought the age was "about right" ; the other two noted that in their judgment "a few are too young in entering." In the villages and towns where continuation schooling is now carried on, the organisation of junior high schools would be a simple process tliat would probably save many a boy and girl for more advanced 101 work. The typical restless pupil of 12 to 14 years at sixth grade is much more apt to stay in school if he sees the "high school" two year? nearer to him and with it a new kind of work. The pupil who now leaves at the end of the eighth grade is more likely to remain one more year if that year will mean completion of the junior high school course. These are not suppositions ; they constitute what has actually taken place in communities where the junior high school has been tried. The Province might well take steps to recognise the high school work now done in the towns and villages, utilising this as the nucleus for a junior high school course that will give manual training, agriculture and home economics at least as much emphasis as is given at present to the tradi- tional subjects. In the cities the problem is not so simple. A beginning has been made in several places by taking the eighth grade into the high school. This is hardly more than an administrative device so far, however, and with the present legal separation of the two divisions of the educational system the pedagogical aspects of the problem are likely to be overlooked in a contest over jurisdiction. On the other hand, the junior high school, if it could be adopted in the larger places in Sa>katchewan, would undoubtedly further popularise secondary education, would furnish the beginnings of a definite vocational training that is very much needed, and would help settle the housing problem of some of the larger collegiate institutes, such as that at Saskatoon, for example. It should be emphasised that the object is not to get seventh and eighth grade pupils into an existing collegiate institute, however, but to create high school opportunities, of a more varied kind than now exist, for a much larger number of boys and girls. At Saskatoon, for example, where the collegiate building is overcrowded, one solution might prove to be to set aside one of the grade buildings, not now fully utilised, for the junior high school, bringing together for the new school the next entering class of the collegiate and the pupils from the seventh and eighth grades. This might or might not prove feasible; it is the method found successful by Buffalo and other cities in the states. The effective way to get at a situation like this, whether in Saskatoon or elsewhere, would be for a local commission containing representatives from the collegiate staff, the public schools' staff, the high school trustees, tho public school trustees, employers, labour workers, and the general public, to examine into the local situation and see whether the junior high school idea is applicable. There were several such situations where the possibilities of the junior high school seemed to the Survey staff worthy of careful consideration by the local authorities. Two objections are sometimes urged to the junior high school. One is that the eight-year interval is necessary for imparting general educa- tion of the present type. To this it may be answered that the eight-year period is largely an accident — an American development quite foreign to the best European experience; that the seventh and eighth years are too often only periods for marking time ; and that evidence is accumu- lating to show that what is now given in eight years can probably be given just as well in six. In the case of Saskp.tchewan i*" should be noted that few of the pupils who go through the eight grades take the full 102 eight years to do it^ and that Saskatchewan has a comparatively long school term, so that six full years of schooling in Saskatchewan should be equivalent to eight years in a system where shorter school terms prevail, A second and a more insistent objection is to the early differen- tiation of courses involved in the junior high school plan. Those who offer this objection are afraid that in some way a caste system will be created by early differentiation. The obvious answer is that for the most part pupils who take the vocational courses would probably not have remained in school anyway; so that the junior high school by offering differentiated courses for different groups of pupils has at the worst merely furnished training for those who would otherwise have to make their way without it. But the real ansAver to this argument must rest with the community. It is the same problem and the same answer that confront us in the whole question of vocational education. If we, the public, set up a machinery for the better occupational training of all of us, each according to his needs, it is for us to see to it that this machinery shall not create a caste system, but shall produce in all members of the community that understanding of the value of every type of service which lies at the basis of a workable democracy. With vocational train- ing safely lodged in the control of the whole community, there can be little danger of a caste system or any other results antagonistic to democracy. An Opportune Time for Beorganisation. — The present affords an excellent opportunity for a study by the school officers themselves of the whole problem of the relation of the high school to the rest of the educational system. Whatever studies are made now will make for a more rapid advance after the war. Every^vhere secondary education is being surveyed and reconstructed. England and France are already in the midst of a complete overhauling of the materials and aims of s(^condary education as the result of the experience of three years of war. In the United States a commission of university and secondary school men, working more or less directly under Government auspices, has been engaged for several years in an exceedingly careful formula- tion of the principles and methods of the various high school subjects.^ The whole field of secondary education is being explored as never before. RECOMMENDATIONS. The attempt has been made in this chapter to indicate certain essential steps in an effective programme for secondary education. By way of summary the following recommendations are offered : (1) More adequate high school provision, involving more high school centers and particularly the recogTiition of high school 'As evidenced by the large amount of under-age in the upper grades. See page 78. =These studies are published as bulletins by the U.S. Bureau of Education and may be secured by any teacher in the Province without cost, provided application is made before the supply is exhausted. Inquiries regarding the work of the Commission on the Reorganisation of Secondary Education may be addressed to Clarence D. Kingsley^-^S^a^e Hoiist, ,Eostcn,-Mass., or to the Commissioner of Education, Wash- ington, D'.C. 103 work done in connection with tihe public schools in villages and towns not having recognised collegiates or high schools ; (2) Recognition, by the public and the school authorities, of the continuity of the twelve years of the educational system. The collegiates and high schools should be brought under the same board of school trustees as the elementary schools and should be an integral part of a complete system with a local school superintendent at the head. The examination bar between the eighth grade and the high school should be removed ; (3) A more 'systematic effort to introduce and popularise commer- cial and agricultural high school courses. The large cities should endeavour to get in touch with local industries prepar- atory to introducing trade courses, especially of the co-oper- ative or part-time sort. (See Chapter XIV, Vocational Education) ; (4) Abandonment of the present examination system, thereby relieving the high schools of the necessity of repeating sub- jects and making possible a simplification of the high school programmes. Thirty periods a week should be the maximum, with fewer nominal subjects and more intensive work on the subjects given ; (5) Special study by each locality of the possibilities of the junior high school plan. In recognising the continuation work done by the public schools the Department should consider setting- up junior high schools, with adequate j^rovision for manual trainino', agriculture, and home economics.-^ 'See recommendations in Chapter IX. CHAPTER XII. THE TEACHING STAFF. Who the Saskatchewan Teachers Are. — Who are the teachers that are entrusted with the school education of the children in the elementary and secondary schools? What is their number, and professional prepar- ation? Their remuneration and teaching tenure? What is their social status in the community and the probability that they will make teaching their life calling? The number of teachers has increased rapidly to keep pace with the growth in school enrollment. In 1906 there were 1,298 teachers in the schools, 43.4 per cent, of them being men. By 1916 this number had increased to 5,677, only 26.2 per cent, being men. Figure 20 shows graphically the rapid increase in the total number of teachers, the period between 1915 and 1916 showing the most rapid increase. /iUMBC/? OF TEACH£ffS £MPLOVEP, By P£f?/ODS, TO /9/6. (>000 S600 S200 ^800 aaoo 4O00 3600 J2oo 2800 iooo /600 /200 8C0 S677 / / 4S< r-'-' / ^ V ^ - /- / / / ^ .«,-"^^ .■^ t^ iO ^■< r ,'^^ — --»• ,'" ,"' /&(. 19 /■*90 '^z^a ^ .* - "/i- »« TTi 2 7-^5 ^^''' --^'^ iT '1 /906 i9'0 /Si't '/5 V6 Women. A// Fig. 20. — Number of teachers employed at different periods. The same year shows a marked increase in the number of women teachers, and a corresponding slump in the number of men with an actual loss of 119 between 1915 and 1916. This condition is probably due wholly to the war. It is to be expected that women teachers will 104 105 increase steadily in numbers — and tliis is no calamity — but it is essen- tial to the welfare of the schools to retain as large a number of men teachers as possible, or there may soon be reason to fear a feminization of the schools. Conditions will not improve before the teaching- profession becomes stabilised and the opportunities in teaching becom*- equal to other occupations. Until this happens the Province cannot expect any large number of strong, well prepared men teachers to remain permanently in the schools. Saskatchewan is obliged to depend on other provinces, Great Britain, and other countries for its supply of teachers, as its o^vn normal schools have never been able to supply the number required to fill the vacancies in the teaching staff. Figure 21 gives the number of teachers outside the Province who were granted certificates in 1916. It has been fortunate that the outside could l3e drawn upon to supply the annual shortage ; but the future educational policy must include a reorgan- isation of the present teacher-training system so that, in the near future, all the required teachers will be prepared in the Province. Tpac/7ers from Oufs/c/e thp Pro\rce Gronfec/ Cerf//^/cores /n /9/6. Onfonc f35 /io)^a Scof/a S2 British Js/fs 28 Pfince £di^ardj^ 26 /Yew Brunsm'ck 26 United States 22 A/tfrTo /8 Quetfc /3 British Cotu/nbia 3 30-33% 27U/^ Fig. 21. — Certificates granted to teachers from outside the Province. In a total of 2,119 rural teachers studied, 1,936 are British subjects and 183 are alien subjects. A majority of the latter are Americans, and a few are German, Austrian, and Russian citizens. Age of the Rural Teachers. — The demand for teachers is so urgent that many immature persons have found their way into the profession. Of a total 2,106 rural teachers reporting (Figure 22), 72 are only 17 years of age. 171 are 18, and 444 are between 19 and 20 years. The largest group— 783 — range between 20 and 25 years; thereafter the decrease in number for each group is very marked. 106 For really satisfactory conditions the graph ought to have shown a steady increase from the 20-25 year group, through the succeeding, and well into the 30-35 year group, thereafter to decline gradually. 800'"'' 7-50 700 6 SO 600 560 600 460 400 350 300 260 POO /60 /OO SO CRAPM /dyrs. ^HOW/NG /?/INGE Of T£ACH£/?S' ACES Br GROUPS (/?Uff/1L ONLY J, /9-20yrs 20-2S/r.^ 2S-J0yrs JOSSyrS JS-40yrs 0,^<-r 40yrs '1 — 1 1 / r 1 ' ^ ■ ! 1 , : 1 / \ 1 1 1 1 i • 1 / 1 \ 1 I \ 1 1 i \ I \ 1 1 \ 1 / "■ • 1 \ 1 / 1 \ 1 1 } \ 1 1 i / / i^s 1 i / V \ 1 ■ V r \ JS9 ^ V ^ ^; 7 9 --- i Fig. 22 — Teachers' ages. Married and Single Teachers. — Figure 23 shows the married rural teachers in Saskatchewan as 12.5 per cent, of the whole number of teachers. This is compared with the whole number of rural teachers in the United States where conditions are very little better. The remedy has been suggested elsewhere: Community schools, well enough organ- ised to attract mature, married men teachers. It would be worth while, also, to induce married women with gi'own families to go back into the profession. A married woman, formerly a teacher, who has gone through the experience of rearing a family, can be counted on to understand children at least. Residertce of the Teachers. — Of 2,301 rural teachers reporting, 137 live in homes provided by the school district, 2,124 board and lodge in the community, and 177 spend the school day only in the district, living elsewhere. It is quite evident that a teacher who spends only six hours each day for five daj-s in the week in the school community can mean nothing as a local leader. Fortunately this group of teachers is small. The teachers who reside in the districts do better, thouo'h mauv of them spend the week-ends in town, at the very time they are needed for the Friday night literary society, the Saturday club, and the Sunday 107 COMPARAT/^e NUMBEf^S OF MARR/£0 AND UA/MARR/£D TEACHERS /N RURAL SCHOOLS In Sas/rafc/fetvafT 108 lUble class. On the other hand, the teachers who have permanent homes provided by the district find it possible to project their school activities into the homes and draw the people closer to the schools. TeachQrs' /fesidence. Home Proridpd by D/sfr/'ct. Boarding and Lody//7^ in ffj« District. Board in q and L d^in^ Outside ffyp District. Sos/rafc/rewan • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• • • A_w** • • • • ::::>f*^*:::: • • • • V • • V • • • • •••••••••••••• • • • ffoc/j t^ot re/>r*scnts /O, or a ^ract/on of /O, Tefc/r^rsJ Fig. 24. — Residence of the t facher. Academic and Professional Preparation of Rural Teachers. — The academic education of the teachers has been acquired in a wide range of provinces, states, and countries. Of the rural teachers reporting. 605, or less than one-third of all, received their elementary education in Saskatchewan; 1,009 in ot)her provinces; and 245 in the United States. In secondary education, Saskatchewan makes a better showing, while most of the university-trained educators come from the outside. (Figure 25.) Figure 26 shows that about 64.5 per cent, of all the rural teachers acquired their professional training in the normal schools and third irrade centers of Saskatchewan; 27.7 per cent, in other provinces, and 3.6 per cent, in the United States. Of the home-trained teachers Regina heads the list with 44.57 per cent., Saskatoon is second with 31.07 per cent., and the high school centers come last with 24.36 per cent. The Time Element in Preparation for Teaching. — It is interest- ing to know that Saskatchewan has a really cosmopolitan teaching force in the matter of place where the education was acquired ; but of much greater importance is the length of time devoted to academic study and the kind of schools attended. Education is a process that requires much time foi the normal child. In general, no person should be allowed to teach in the schools unless he has completed a high school course of four years, or its equivalent, and has had, in addition, a liberal professional training of at least one year. The system in vogue in Saskatchewan bases advancement in school less on the time element than on ability to pass certain set Depart- mental examinations, which really encourage young people to remain in high school just long enough to take and pass one of the lower exam- inations for an academic diploma, which then entitles its holder to enter the short term normal class. (See Chapter XTII.) 109 ACADEMfC P/?£P/}/?AT/OA/ OF SASKATCHEWAN /^URAL TEACHERS, /OSO /ooo 950 900 650 8O0 750 700 6S0 600 SSO SOO 4SO ^00 3SO 300 2S0 ZOO /SO /OO SO I I I I .«5: I .5 I I / IOO\ > / / / \ / \ ■-m r i / \ ^786 4 \ \ J / ^*» \ \ , / \ \ f60i \ \ \ \ 1 \ \ \ \ \ — 1 I \ \ \ \ »■ -• m > » / ^ / — »*- • s V / ,--• f69 \ ^ y /' s N \ i_r^ ^' ^ N W ^ \1 • '% « k 'OO ' o - — _ -H-1 .Ehmenfbf/ Secoffdory l//r/Vers/fy Fig. 25. — Academic preparation of Saskatchewan rural teachers. 110 It may be observed that altogether too many teachers get into the profession with a limited academic education and an even more limited professional pi'eparation. In 1916 there were issued 723 provisional certificates, a majority of them to teachers picked direct from the secondary schools, who had had no professional training whatever. Little imagination is required to see why these inexperienced young people find it difficult to teach the kind of school that has been described in the foregoing pages. SASMTCHEWAN /?U^AL TEACHERS YYherQ T/r^y Werq Tra/n^d ^^^^ — - soo I9IS /9/6 /906 Fig. 27. — Salaries and certificates. 112 According to this, provisional teachers averaged somewhat higher salary than third class teachers in 1906, but dropped below them in 1915, only to pass them again in 1916. The provisional teacher is occasion- ally a well-tried teacher from the outside who teaches on this kind of credential temporarily, though nearly all are amateurs with little or no professional experience. ISTaturally there can be little encourage- ment to spend much time and money in training schools when a person who has had no such training can secure for his sei-vices as much or more than the trained teacher. Salaries should be based on scholastic and professional preparation and fitness, as well as on length of tenure m the same school community. G/?APH G/y'/NG 7'£ACH£P3' ^AlAPfES BY GPOUP5 fPURALJ. 95(7 f 900 8S0 ^« ^ A 800 ^- ^^ 750 / r 700 / \ 650 / \ 600 / \ SSO / \ SOO / 4^50 / 400 / ^50 / JOO / I 2S0 / \ 2 GO / \ /SO / \ /OO • ^ V/3 /4.^ \s s^ SO ^ ^ s ^ ^ %6 50 Fig. 28.— Teachers' salaries by groups. Length of Teaching Experience— Oi the rural teachers reporting, 680 had taught less than one year; 317 had taught from one to two years; 533 from two to five years; and 567 more than five years. 113 Nine hundred and seventy-nine had been one year or less in anv one place; 409 had been from one to two years in the same school; ;jG2 had been in the same school from two to five years; and 95 m the >ame school for more than five years. One thousand one hundred and seven teachers are makmg teaciiing their permanent occupation; 593 candidly look upon it as a stepping- stone only; and 302 declare themselves as undecided. Summary of the Foregoing Data.— The Province requires aboui 5,700 teachers to fill all its schools. Of these the number of male teachers in each year becomes proportionately smaller and smaller. In 1916 it was only 26 per cent, of the total. The present teacher-training facilities are entirelv inadequate to furnish the number of teachers icquired to fill vacancies in the schools. Even after drawing liberally vn outside provinces and states, many hundred schools must be filled with provisional teachers. Very many teachers are mere boys and oirls seventeen, eiahteen and nineteen years of age, with meager Lademic qualificati^ons, who nevertheless hold permanent certificates. The preparation of high school teachers is. on the other hand quite satisfactorv when compared with other provinces and states. iiiere is no general uolicv to provide for housing teachei's at public_ expense ; teacherao-es are seldom found outside of the non-English districts. The salaries paid are very liberal, as teachers' salaries go. They are much higher than salaries paid for similar service m most other provinces ?nd states although the salaries are not generally awarded on the basis .efore teachina' can be thoroughly professionalised several things must .ome to pass .' The public will have to become fully awake to it. rpon^ibiUty towards the teachers: it will have to make the schools and housing conditions more attractive than they are, and m other wav. make possible lono-, well paid tenures in the same community. The rvernment niust,^by legal enactment, safeguard the profession ami offerspecial inducei^ent? to all teacliers to e^-P t^einseh^^^^ WMor rlipir nrofession and make it their life work. Emall^ the teacnel^ must do Xt the, can to attain genuine professional standards ot ''''^Tlf'these ends the following specific recommendations are made: m Establishment of a central teachers' bureau under the ^^ direction of the Department of Education, whose duty it shall beto list, rate, and recommend teachers to school authorities; (2) Maintenance of an official in the Department of Education to evaluate the credentials of teachers coming from outside the Province ; (3) Grantino- permanent certificates only to persons who have reached their twentieth birthday; (4) Sealing' all teachers' salaries to the grade of certificate held, thus putting a premium on special preparation for teaching; 12 a 114 (5) Granting government bonuses to teachers as awards for long tenure in the same community ; (6) Establishment of a retirement plan for teachers; (7) Increased academic and professional requirements for all teachers' certificates, on the following basis: (a) Third Class. — Courses for third grade certificates to i)e oft'ered by such first class high schools only as shall be chosen for this purpose by the Minister of Education. Beginning with the fall of 1919,^ candidates for the certificate: to complete three years of the high school course, including professional studies of school manage- ment and methods of teaching; and, beginning with the fall of 1921 candidates for this certificate to complete the full four year high school course, including profes- . sional study of school management and methods of teaching together with a maximum of practice teaching. Upon the successful completion of this course a certificate to be issued valid for two years, and renewable upon the recommendation of the inspector. The teacher holding this certificate to be entitled to advanced standing in the normal schools. The Third Class courses no longer to be given by the normal schools ; (6) Second Class. — Beginning with tlie fall of 1919, candi- dates for entrance to this normal school class to have completed three full years of the high school course. Beginning with the fall of 1921 candidates to have com- pleted four full years of the high school course. ITpon satisfactory completion of 3G weeks of study in the normal school (See Chapter XIII) the candidate will receive an interim certificate which shall become perma- nent upon the favourable report of the inspector, and attendance at the summer school at Saskatoon for at least one session, or completion of the reading course prescribed by the Department of Education for this particular certificate ; (c) First Class. — Beginning with the fall of 1920 the can- didate for entrance to this normal school class to have completed four full years of the high school course. The course of study is 36 weeks in length. (See Chapter XIII.) Upon the satisfactory completion of this the candidate will receive an interim certificate, which shall become permanent as for the Second Class above. Begin- ning with the fall of 1921 this course to be lengthened to two school years of 36 weeks each. (See Chapter XIII.) (d) High School Certificate. — To be granted to students who have completed the work of two full years at a university of recognised standing, and who have, in addition 'Or such other year as may be determined by legislative enactment. 115 (liereto, pursued at least 36 weeks of professional study in a normal school or faculty of education. This interim certificate to be rendered permanent upon the favourable report of the high school inspector, and after attending summer school, or pursuing the prescribed reading course as stated for the Second Class above. This certificate to entitle the holder to act in any teaching capacity in a high school except that of principal ; (e) High School Principal's Certificate. — To be granted only to'2:raduates of universities of recomised standing, who have also had two years of professional study in a normal school or faculty of education. This certificate to entitle the holder to act as principal of any of the high schools and collegiate institutes. The Itecommendations Explained. — (1) There is no central clear- ing house in Saskatchewan to assist school boards and teachers to get together in regard to teaching positions. This has worked some hard- ship and no little injustice. As things are it is often difficult for school boards to find the type of teacher needed ; or they arbitrarily disregard proffers of assistance from the inspector and select some local youth for the place regardless of fitness; or they advertise in the press for teachers, thereby obliging the teachers to bid against one another in the open market. It is common under this haphazard arrangement to find permit teachers holding better and more remunerative positions than do teachers with permanent certificates. Several inspectors have successfully tried out local placing bureaus for their own inspectorates. The provincial bureau would list all the teachers for a nominal fee and place them in the schools where thev can do the best work. This service would supersede the private teachers' agencies, which are chiefly interested in the commission they obligate the teachers to pay out of their earnings. (2) It is important to grant teachers coming from other provinces and countries a fair evaluation of their credentials. The only way to accomplish this is through an agency authorised to accredit teacher- training institutions in the provinces and countries concerned. There are indications that teachers from outside the province at present hqx a lower rating on their ci'edentials than they would get under this plan of accrediting. As things are the Department is naturally very conser- vative in these matters. The United States Bureau of Education, for example, would be ready to co-operate and place at the Department's disposal its list of accredited schools. Thus greater imderstanding and harmony could be brought about. (3) The normal student completes the high school course at IS years of age or a little earlier. One year spent in normal school and another to make the certificate permanent would bring the age to 20 years. This should be the minimum age for professional teachers. (4) Teaching rewards should bear a definite relation to the expense and time incurred in securing the higher certificate. Salaries ought accordingly to be based on the kind of certificate held. There 116 should be a legal minimum salary for each kind — Third Grade, the leeal minimum and upward; Second Grade, 25 per cent, more and upward; First Grade, 15 per cent, more than Second and upward, and so on. (5) Similarly, a second year in the same school community might be awarded with a provincial grant of, say, $5 per month ; a third year, with $10, and a fourth and each subsequent year, with $15 a month. These bonuses to be entirely in addition to any local increases. (6) The fundamental reason for old-age pensions for teachers, as for any class of public employees, is the betterment of the service. Saskatchewan does not yet, perhaps, feel the need for retirement of superannuated teachers as strongly as some of the older provinces and states. By establishing an adequate pension system now, however, while the problem is still comparatively simple, nearly all the financial diffi- culties that beset retirement plans can be avoided. The exact details of the system should be worked out by a group of representatives of the Government, the teachers, and the public. It is essential that scientific insurance principles be allowed to control in the drafting of a law, and expert actuarial assistance should be employed from the outset. Any plan adopted should include financial support by both jiarties to the compact- — the teachers and the Government. Such a law as that recently enacted by the State of Pennsylvania contains the essential features of a modern teachers' retirement plan and would serve as a safe guide for pension legislation in Saskatchewan.^ (7) The Third Class work should be limited to high schools of hia'hest rank. It is recommended that certain high schools and collegiate institutes be authorised to establish teacher-training departments, Avhich will give the necessary professional studies as part of the regular course. The professional studies and practice teaching, under this plan, will be in charge of a special director and will be given systematically throughout the fourth year instead of, as at the present, by the inspectors in a crowded course of ten weeks. Eurther discussion is deferred to the next chapter. ^Practically all the older pension systems in North America are considered radically defective. For a thorough analysis of modern retirement theory see Lewis Meriam, "Principles Governing the Retirement of Public Employees," Applet on, New York 1918. CHAPTER XIIT. THE NORMAL SCHOOLS. The Present Plan of Teacher-Training. — Canadian normal schools are verv different institutions from nonnal schools in the United States. While in Canada the schools give all their time to professional subject matter and methods of teaching the academic studies, the average American school devotes a major part of its time, 60 per cent, or there- abouts, to professional subjects, and the balance of the time to reteach- ing the academic subject matter from the teacher's point of view and to giving such other academic courses as are essential to success in teaching but are not tauo;ht in the ordinary academic institution. On this account the American normal schools have a greater variety of courses and longer courses than in the average Canadian system. But even in Canada the length of courses varies from province to province. In Ontario, for example, the regular course is 36 weeks long, and practically requires high school graduation for entrance. In Saskat- chewan, on the other hand, the normal school term ranges from 10 weeks for Third Class teachers to 16 weeks for Second and First Class teachers. In the United States no school diploma is granted for school attendance of less than one year, and the courses range from one to four vears of attendance, the latter usually beina; a course leading to the degree of Bachelor of Pedagogy. The Professional Courses too Short to Professionalise the Teachers- in-Training. — It has always been a problem in Saskatchewan to know how to provide an ample supply of teacher.-. The teachers' courses have purposely been short, to attract a larger number of candidates for positions. This practice has not proved successful. Paradoxical as it may seem at first thouo-ht, the remedy is to be sought in o-raduallv lengthened and differentiated courses of study, the subject matter to embrace some academic and much professional study. Changes, such as here hinted, harmonise entirely with the best educational thought in the Province. The staffs of the two normal schools have repeatedly urged a radical reorganisation of the present system ; and the Saskatchewan Teachers' Association has gone on record favouring and urging similar changes. These educationists see as clearly as anybody that the prevailing courses do not give the teacherp the kind of preparation required in modern community schools for the open country and the rural villages. There is not time enough nor is there adequate equipment. The same is true in relation to other elementary teachers. High school teachers also are trained in the present short courses, the University of Saskatchewan not yet havini;- been able to establish its own Faculty of Education. Greater Financial Support for Teacher-Training. — The people should be prepared to invest more money in their teachers. The past year it cost Saskatchewan about $39.18 for the training of each teacher, while it spent a much larger sum on each child under the direction of the teachers. 117 118 Table 23 is compiled from data furnished by the several Provincial Departments of Education and from the latest available statistics (1916) of the United States Bureau of Education. It shows a wide rano-e in per capita expenditure. The basis used for arriving at these tioures varies somewhat in the several provinces and states ; but for comparative purposes the figures are accurate enough. It shows that Prince Edward Island expends the smallest per capita amount, $32.50, with Saskatchewan as next to the lowest with 39.18. In final ranking this Province expends less for the training of its teachers than any other Canadian province, save one. Manitoba and Alberta each invest several times as much as does Saskatchewan. The American states in the list, although they have a much larger aggregate attendance, average hio-her. It is clear that Saskatchewan is not investing as much as it ought in the training of its teaching staif. TABLE 23. PER CAPITA COST OF MAINTENAjSTCE OF CANADIAN AKD AMERICAN NORMAL SCHOOLS IN CERTAIN PROVINCES AND STATES^ FOR 1915-16. No. of schools report- ing Aggregate number of students Total incomes reported Provinces and States Total appropria- tion Average per school Average per student 1. Virginia. 2. Arizona 3. North Dakota . . . 4. Ontario 5. Manitoba 6. Wisconsin^ 7. Massachusett.s . . . 8. Pennsylvania .... 9. Quebec^ 10. Louisiana 11. Illinois 12. Alberta 13. British Columbia 14. Kansas 15. Minnesota 16. Nova Scotia. . . . . 17. New Brun.swick^. 18. Saskatchewan^ . 19. Prince Edward Island 6 2 4 7 2 30 10 14 14 1 6 2 2 3 6 1 1 2 1 1,782 638 1,371 971 174 9,027 3,878 10,972 1,312 1,793- 10,334 438 462 6,533 4,651 388 350 963 200 $1,012,147 254,250 ' 333,878 278,335.62 36,885 1,638,384 696,992 1,606,661 185,000 230,568 1,265,858 48,399.73 44.833.38 632,720 417,746 23,000 16,189.23 37,735.58 6,500 $168,691 127,125 83,470 39,762.22 18,442.50 54,613 69,699 114,761 13,214 230.568 210,976 24,199.86 22,416.69 210,907 69,624 23.000 16,189.23 18,867.79 6,500 $568 399 244 215.27 212 182 180 146 141 128 123 110.50 . 97 97 90 66 43.39 39.18 32.50 That the normal .schools have not had the best facilities for doing their work in respect to buildings, equipment, training schools, and teaching staff, can be ascertained from the following study of the two normal schools. ^Includes coimty normal schools. ^Represents government aid only. ^Does not include upkeep and janitors' wages. *If the large number of Third Class students were eliminated, the average per capita would be increased to $96.51. 119 THE PROVINCIAL NORMAL SCHOOL, REGINA. Physical Equipment. — The present equipment of the Eeglna Xormal School comprises one substantial building of good dimensions and practical arrangement. The grounds contain about eight and a half acres of land very satisfactorily situated. The grounds, while ample for all present purposes, will prove cramped and inadequate if the programme outlined elsewhere in this report is adopted. The school premises should contain at least 20 acres. Unfortunately the property is already hemmed in by other institutions, so that it will hereafter be difficult to make the desired extension of grounds. The small tract of land lying between the present campus and the lake front, which was recently purchased from the government by Regina College, should by all means be acquired through purchase or otherwise and added to the l^ormal School grounds. In accordance with the programme for a larger E'ormal School, four or five acres are necessary for playgrounds and at least five acres for agricultural experimentation. Two acres should also be set aside for a rural practice school for playgrounds and school gardens. It is likewise reasonable to expect that as the school increases in numbers and multiplies its courses, space may be required for additional build- ings. Therefore, to place the total land area at twenty acres is quite conservative. The Administration Building. — The administration building is, in general, a satisfactory structure, both substantial and durable. The classrooms and hallways are well planned. The furniture is of the best type and well kept. The basement is the least satisfactory part of the building, particularly in regard to its heating. The steam boilers are not set deep enough. As a result the heating coils in the basement rooms and gymnasium are too high up for satisfactory results. In winter the rooms are too cold ; and the gymnasium particularly is so cold as to prohibit its use, even for gymnastic drill. These defects, while they cannot be entirely overcome without resetting the boilers in a sub-basement, may be relieved somewhat by the provision of additional radiation. In this connection the Survey wishes to call attention to the doubtful wisdom of vesting tbe administration of the physical school plant in the Department of Public Works, even to the selection and pay of janitors. If the full management of the plant were centered in the Department of Education, necessary readjustments and repairs could be done more expeditiously than under the present arrangement, since the Department of Education naturally understands the educa- tional needs of the institution better than does a department whose major tasks lie in a different field. Lahoratories and Library. — The household science department is equipped with good applianas, and is modern and satisfactory. The science laboratory, on the other hand, is inadequate both in material equipment and in the place where this equipment is housed. The space used is a basement room lacking the two essentials of adequate light and air circulation. The laboratory should be re-equipped with suitable 120 apparatus for instniction in physical and chemical science and agri- culture. Good airy rooms on one of tho upper floors should be devoted to this purpose. The library contains about 5,000 well selected volumes suitable for normal school use. The books ought to be catalogued on a scientific plan, as for examjDle the Dewey system. The library, while open to use at all times of the day, is little frequented by the students. Be commendations for New Equipment. — The normal school cannot enlarge the scope of its work unless two essential additions are made in the school plant. These are, a general practice school, and a rural practice school. Every well equipped normal school supports a department of theory and a department of practice. If a school relies wdiolly on theoretical instruction, its outgoing teachers wall be obliged to experiment and practice on the children in the school where they go to teach. Theory should be applied in practice before the student-teacher is permitted to leave the normal school. At Regina provision has been made in the normal school for a "model school" of eight grades, two grades to a room. This .-chool, as is expressed in the name, is a school where teachers-in-training may observe model teachers at work, but which aifords no opportunity for practice teaching. However, the city schools of Regina are utilised, in a limited way, for practice purposes, i.e., each student is expected to teach five lessons in the elementary public school during the training term. This practice work is done under the direction of the regular staff of the normal school, who for several weeks of each term devote much time to practice teaching. The normal schools should have complete practice school facilities. There are two ways to accomplish this. Either the Government could erect and maintain a practice school on the campus in charge of trained critic teachers working under the principal of the normal scliool ; or, as probably would be more practicable in this case, the Department of Education could enter into a contract with the city of Kegina to take full charge of one ' of the public elementary schools, preferably the Strathcona public school, which lies within a couple of squares of the normal school premises. Such a practice school would give the teachers- in-training excellent practice facilities and would be of direct value to the city school system of Regina. Model Bural School. — The normal schools must do a greater work than heretofore in preparing teachers for rural communities. In order to accomplish this task the schools should provide specialised instruction for rural teachers, as suggested elsewhere in the report. More than this, rural teachers ought to procure their practice teaching and obser- vation work in a model rural school planned to meet the needs of the best teaching in country districts. To this end the normal schools organise rural practice schools, either on the normal school campus, or in adjacent rural communities. An appropriation of not to exceed $6,000 might well be used for the building and equipment of such a plant on the normal school grounds. 121 THE TKOVINCIAL NORM AT. SCHOOL, SASKATOON. Location and Equipment. — The normal school is housed tempor- arily in one of the residences on the grounds of the University of Saskatchewan, at Saskatoon. Several converted doi-mitory rooms supply the very unsatisfactory recitation facilities. Other small rooms are used for reading room, administration office, etc. The whole is a makeshift which gives the school an air of transitoriness. In these borrowed quarters the school's staif cannot plan for future expansion in W'Orking equipment or courses of study. It is essential that this normal school get its own school plant at the earliest possible date. The school is fortunate, otherwise, in being associated — -although not regularly affiliated — ^\ith the University. The teaching facilities of the latter are utilised freely for the benefit of the normal school. In addition to this, the teachers-in-training have the free use of the excellent facilities offered by the College, of Agriculture. The Feasible Thing to Do. — If the normal school is to continue permanently at Saskatoon definite plans should be made, (1) for the erection of a complete school plant near the University grounds ; and (2) for a I o-operative arrangement wath the University for preparing high school teachers. The normal school might become affiliated with the University, much as Emmanuel College is. It would retain its own identitv and internal administration. At the same time this plan of co-operation would give the normal school many of the facilities usually found in a faculty of education, at very small cost to the people : (1) The normal school should maintain an ample recitation building, Avith good training school facilities for elementary school children, and a complete model rural school of the one-teacher type, similar to the school suggested for the normal school at Regina. (2) An advanced course for high school teachers should be organ- ised as an integral part of the normal school. This would give regular in ciirsu T'niversity students opportunity to procure , professional training as a part of their degree courses.^ TEACHI.XG STAFF AXD :\[ETHODS OF INSTRUCTION AT THE TWO NORMAL SCHOOLS. The Teacliinrj Staff. — The summary in Table 24, showing (1) the number of regular instructors, (2) salaries paid, (o) number of subjects taught by each instructor, (4) average teaching hours per instructor, (a) average teaching hours per week. (6) average students per hour, and (7) average student clock hours per week, furnishes some basis for comparative study of the two schools. Each school tas five full time instructors and a number of part time instructors not included in the table. iThis arrangement should be continued until the University is able to maintain its own Faculty of Education. 122 TABLE 2.4.- — COMPARATIVE STATEMENT OF INSTRUCTOBS, SALARIES, NUMBER OF SUBJECTS TAUGHT, TEACHING HOURS, ETC., IN Till-: SASKATCHEWAN NORMAL SCHOOLS.^ Institution Regular instructors only Average salary of regular instructors Average teaching hours per week Average number students per hour Average student clock hours per week Regina Saskatoon .... 5 5 $1,915 2,380 *19.9 13.8 50 42 995 .. 579 At Regina special part time instructors are provided by the Government and the Strathcona Trust for manual training, music, school agriculture, and drill ; at Saskatoon seven of the regular Univer- sity staff and one of the Provincial directors of agriculture devote some of their time to lectures at the normal school. The normal staffs are numerically small. Specialisation is there- fore out of tlie question. A single instructor in one of the schools, for example, teaches- philosophy of education and methods of arithmetic : another, psychology and methods of spelling. The average salary is somewhat larger at Saskatoon than at Regina. The median salaries foT the two schools are, however, a better basis for comparison in this particular case, being $2,200 for Regina and $2,400 for Saskatoon. The number of classroom periods per week for each instructor average 19.9 at Regina but only 13.8 at Saskatoon. This is because all "first class" and "second class" students recite in their original groups. There may be thus 9 or 10 in the "first class" and 50 or more in the "second class." The average number of students per class in the two schools is 50 and 42 respectively, and the average number of student clock hours- per week is 995 and 579 respectively. In this connection the following standards are suggested as a basis of measurement and for the guidance of administrative officers. These standards are the result of mature experience in schools of this t^'pe in American States. (1) The average salary (excluding the principal) should approximate $2,500 ; (2) The average number of classroom hours should not exceed 20 per week ; (3) Classes should not exceed 30 to 35 students each except in formal lecture work ; (4) The total number of student clock hours carried by members of the staff may range from 300 to 450, to be detennined largely by the nature of the subjects. * 19.9 refers to teaching periods varying from 30 to 60 minutes. iFor a more complete statement of the two schools, see Appendix A. ^The "student clock hour" as here used means a class period of at least 50 minutes in the clear. The total student clock hours are foimd by multiplying the average niunber periods per week reduced to a 50 minute basis by the average number of tudcnts per hour. 123 Applying these standards to the two nonnal schools, it appears that: (a) The salaries paid, while not low, do not yet approximate the standard ; (h) The number of classroom periods are about normal at Regina, and much below normal at Saskatoon ; (c) The nimiber of students per class is too large in both schools, to assure the individual student real opportunity for frequent recitation ; (d) The average number of student clock hours per week is con- siderably above normal at Saskatoon and twice too lar^e at Regina. Table 25 may be of interest by w^ay of comparison. It contains data of tfhree normal schools in the State of Washington. It will be seen that the average teaching hours, the average number of students and the average student clock hours fall below those of Saskatchewan. The salaries are lower in the American schools ; but this is mainly because the principals of the schools are excluded from the tables and ■ the critic teachers and others w^ith minor salaries are included. This tends to reduce the average. However, these three American schools do not pay up to the standard.^ TABLE 25. ^STATISTICS OF THREE WASHINGTON NORMAL SCHOOLS. Institutions Regular normal school instructors Average salary of regular instructors •Average teaching hours per week Average number students per hour Average student clock hours per week EUensburg Cheney Bellingham .... 14 24 39 $1,700 1,696 1,713 19 14 17 23 32 35 282 428 559 Preparation of the Staffs for Their Worl\ — The staffs of the two schools, generally speaking, have had satisfactory preparation for theiv important work. They are upstanding men and women of good academic and professional qualifications ; and most of them Oaave had broad experience in other phases of teaching. JSTearly all hold bachelor's degrees or higher degrees from recognised universities, with profes- sional preparation from recognised normal schools or faculties of education. A majority of the men Qiave also had valuable experienctj as provincial inspectors. Methods of Instruction. — Much of the class instruction is excel- lent, althou^-h the traditional lecture method is too much in evidence. A marked difference was noted, for example, in the methods used by staff members in presenting elementary school problems and household ^Figures are for April, 1916. what. Since that time salaries have been increased some- 124 science, and in the methods employed in several of the professional sub- jects. In the former subjects, the instructors employed a lively give- and-take recitation metihod which resulted in a satisfactory degree of student reaction. The same was not true of all the classes in which the instructors rely on lecture methods. The lecture unquestionably has its place in college and university work, where advanced students assemble in search of information regardless of the methods used in presentation. It becomes quite a different matter, however, to utilise the lecture method in a professional school for teachers. The students are quite certain to imitate their instructors, consciously or otlierwise, when they later stand before their own pupils in the schools. The teacher who has been lectured to in the normal school is quite sure to lecture in tuni when his opportunitv comes. Probably nobody realises better than do the members of the staffs the weakness of the lecture metihod, as many of them have frankly stated. More satisfactory^ results, they feel, could be obtained if there were time enough in the school term for definite recitations to give the teachers-in-traininff opnortunitv to develop their own power and faculty of expression. Likewise, there is not now time for so much collateral reading and study "far-a-field" as is desirable. Present Methodfi Justified hy the Short School Term. — But what can be done under the present organisation ? Accepted professional short term standards require that a certain definite field of knowledse be mastered before the student is allowed to go into the profession. This amount of professional work, experience teaches, cannot be acquired in a time limit of less than one academic year of 3fi weeks. !N'early all professional books are planned ou this basis. The normal schools are obliged to rely almost exclusively on professional books planned for the long term American schools. Thus, for example, the texts str.died in philosophy of education, pyschologv', history of educa- tion, and several other subjects are intended for 3fi weeks of intensive study, including collateral readings. The only possible way to get over the ground is to touch the < s ential facts merely. To this end the lecture method lends itself admirably. But the fact remains that this is a poor way to give instruction in a normal school. Entrants to the Normal Schools Weak in Academic Preparation. — A careful study of individual students in classroom practice justifies the fear that their academic preparation for the professional courses is meager and unsatisfactory. This is fully borne out by the testimony of the staff's. It was observed that First Class Diploma students Avould repeatedly miss simple questions in the academic subjects they were assumed to have studied before entering normal school. Thu* in the First Class History of Education only two students in a group of 13 had read the Odyssey and only one could give the significance of the First Olympiad. In tlie Second Class only two out of the 53 had read Sesame and Lilies, and only seven had read Macbeth. This goes to show how narrow is the educational path hewn by the examination system in the secondary schools. It is well to bear in mind that the broad-visioned teacher will have pursued many subjects that he may .never be called upon to teach 125 directly; but these subjects furnish him a valuable reserve store of knowledge to draw upon as occasion directs. Even if entrance were limited to four-year high school students it would be highly desirable to include a limited amount of academic .-subject matter in the normal school courses. For best results the courses should be recast so as to (1) Reteach from the teacher's point of view the fundamental subjects that the teacher will be obliged to teach later in the elementary schools ; (2) Teach certain new academic subjects not offered in fhe high schools, which are essential to mastery of the profession ; (3) Acquire the method of teaching mainly in this new presenta- tion of the academic subjects, and while teaching in the practice or training schools conducted by the normal school. In explanation it is necessary only to suggest that the normal school instructor wastes his time when he applies method to a subject whose content i.-; unknown or only vaguely known to the student. The academic content of the subjects >^hould accordingly be retaught by the staffs, and later applied in practice teaching by the teachers-in-training. Many academic subjects essential to successful teaching are not taught in tlie high schools, or are taught only incidentally in connection with other subjects. For example, health and home sanitation, the industrial arts, rural sociology and economics, farm accounting, com- munity civics, etc. These should assuredly be included in the normal school courses. For the two-year course — proposed elsewhere- — several advanced subjects are included which aim to furnish additional breadth and power. Content of Study Course. — A glance at the daily programme of the normal schools (see Appendix) gives some idea of the comparative meagreness of the subject content, without really revealing all the needs in this respect. Agriculture does not hold the important place that it must attain in the curriculum. This is particularly true at Regina. Industrial work, advanced manual work, and home economics are all striving for place, without yet being recognised as on a par with the literary subject-. The important field of physical science is almost untouched. Per- sonal and school hygiene is not included at Regina and gets only one hour per week at Saskatoon; nor is it taught, except indirectly, in the secondary schools. The rich field of modern social science, which deals with the vital things of everyday life, has no place in the curriculum. Daily instruction is given in military gymnastics, under the Strathcona Trust. The exercises are unquestionably valuable, although violent for the young w'omen. Better would be a kind of physical education beginning with a study of personal health, and simple exercises practic- able for the schoolroom and the playground, non-competitive athletics, volley ball, indoor baseball, etc. Physical education in the normal school should first of all fit the teacher-in-training to guard the health and play life of the children in school. 126 Proposed Standards for the Normal Schools. — The Survey at this juncture proposes a summary of standards for teacher preparation, Avhich might form a basis for the future policy of the normal schools : (1) The entrance requirements of the two normal schools should gradually be raised to graduation from a four-year high school course, as outlined in Chapter XIII ; (2) The ultimate standard of attainment for all persons teaching in the province should be graduation from a four-year high school course and at least one year of professional preparation ; (3) The normal schools should organise a thorough-going extension service for the teachers-in-5ervice to help them meet the gradually increasing requirements; (4) The normal schools should offer differentiated courses of study for primary, grade, rural, and special teachers, representing one and, in time, two years' work; (5) The normal schools should recognise a special obligation to provide an adequate number of well prepared teachers for rural schools of all kinds. Further Training of Teachers in Service. — It is not enough to pass measures looking towards increasing the academic and professional preparation of the teachers who may hereafter receive their training at the normal schools; the teachers in service must com.e under similar stringent requirements if the ultimate standard stated in (2) above is to be realised. Teachers who already hold permanent certificates would be exem2:)t from the proposed action. Only those teachers who hold interim certificates would come within the new requirements. To the end of improving the training of teachers-in-service, who are teaching on other than permanent certificates, the Survey recom- mends that the Department of Education organise the Province as two extension districts, one for each normal school, and that the Department provide an extension service for each district through the normal schools. One of the staff members of each normal school shall be designated as "Director of Extension Service," with authority" to organise study centres at strategic points over the province, in charge of able local teachers working under the director's supervision. The study courses should embrace both academic and professional studies, and should be planned with special reference to the teacher's chosen field of study. Examinations on portions of these courses should be held from time to time. On the basi's of these the teacher will receive advanced standing until they finally approximate subject requirements equivalent to the established minimum of four years of high school study, and one year of professional study, when a permanent professional certificate shall be issued. These study courses should supersede the 2^i'e>€nt reading courses for interim teachers. Differentiated Study Courses in the Normal ScJiools. — It might be argued that because Saskatchewan is almost wholly agricultural a single training course should suffice for all the teachers. This is literally true at the present time, although it is not equally true that this single course prepares for teaching in agricultural districts particularly. The 127 course in use is a general course, intended to answer the needs of all elementary schools alike. In this day of specialisation it is thought that a certain amount of differentiation is necessary to produce teachers well equipped for the problems of their o^vn chosen field. A primary teacher requires a definite amount of specialised child study. This takes form in specialised study of adolescent youth with grade teachers ; and the many-sided pix)blem of rural life with rural teachers. The time is at hand, the Survey believes, to begin planning differ- entiated courses of one and two years' duration, the one-year courses to be inaugurated immediately, and the two-year courses as soon as proper facilities can be provided. It is recommended that one-half of all the study be required professional subjects ; that one-fourth be required academic subjects; and that the remainder be elective subjects, either professional or academic. To complete a one-year course it would be necessary for the teacher-in-training to complete 40 semester hours,^ to be divided in the following manner : The one-year course would require : Semester Professional subjects 20 Academic subjects 10 Elective subjects 10 The two-year course would require: Professional subjects 40 Academic subjects 20 Elective subjects 20 More detailed outlines of differentiated courses for primary, grade, and rural teachers are suggested in the following: DIFFERENTIATED ONE-YEAR COURSE. Primary Course. Professional subjects: Observation and practice teaching 5 Educational psychology 2.5 Educational sociology 2 Primary methods 3 Special methods for primary grades 5 Class management 2.5 Total 20 General subjects, including music, drawing, expression, and physical education 10 Electives 10 Grade Course. Professional subjects: Observation and practice teaching , 5 Educational psychology 2.5 Educational sociology 2 Grammar grade methods 3 Special methods for the upper grades 5 Class management 2.5 Total 20 General subjects, including music, drawing, expression, physical education, sociology, economics, and government 10 Electives 10 lOne semester hour is equivalent to carrying one subject for one hour a day for 18 weeks. 128 KURAL SCHOOL COURSK. Semester Professional subjects: hours Observation and practice teaching 5 Educational psychology 2.5 Rural sociology 2.5 Rural school methods 2.5 Special methods for rural schools 5 Class management 2.5 Total 20 General subjects, including music, drawing, agriculture, and physical education 10 Electives 10 The above outlines are suggestive only. When differentiated one- and two-year courses are adopted, the final planning of content should be done by the Department of Education in conjunction with the normal school staffs. Detailed Outline of One-i/car Course for Rural Teachers. — The detailed course for rural teachers outlined below assumes that the student who enters the class has completed a four-year high school course. The minimum age at which he would enter upon teaching would prob- ably be his nineteenth or twentieth year. This should assure the district of a teacher of reasonable maturity and a fair degree of academic and ju'ofe-sional training, and correct outlook on rural life and its problems. Total /• Ti 7 m semester One-year Course for Bural Teachers. hours per week Practical introduction to teaching 4 A simple course embodying such principles of education and of teaching as will aid the teacher-in-training to orient himself and get a grasp of the fundamental principles which should precede observation and practice teaching and special methods and rural school management. The course is necessarily elementary; little attempt is made to stress the psychical facts underlying the principles of teaching. English 4 A course in English language, including grammar, oral and written composition, and spelling. The presupposition is that the students have already acquired a reasonably good English equipment in their high-school course. The present course is intended to intensify the work done in high school, and particu- larly to emphasise the special phases of English that should be taught in elementary rural schools — how best to teach com- position; how mvich, when, and where to teach grammar; and how to teach and how much to include of spelling. Xature study-agriculture 4 A course intended as an approach to the central subject in every rural curriculum — i.e., agriculture — from the educational and spiritual rather than the occupational point of view. The first term is devoted largely to the general environment in which rural children live, and to a study of plants, birds, insects, etc., with practical methods of presentation — for the purpose of placing children in harmony with the nature environment where they live, to the end that they may learn to love and honour the land. Rural health and sanitation 2 A comprehensive course, including personal hygiene, school sani- tation, and home and community sanitation. It emphasises the teacher's owti health and the influence of the pupil's health on 129 Total semester hours per week study and school progress. Much time is devoted to the prin- ciples of school sanitation, including ventilation, heating, light- ing, communicable diseases, etc. About one-fourth of the time is given to farm home sanitation and sanitary living, with emphasis on water supply, sewage disposal, air, food, and clothing. Observation and practice teaching 4 Local elementary and near-by rural schools to be used as labora- tory, as prerequisites for best results in this course. Fully two- thirds of the time of this term is devoted to observation of class procedure and management, technique, and drill lessons. Some time is devoted to a study of general rural school conditions. No actual practice teaching is done during this term unless the class is too large to permit all required teaching to be completed bv the students during the second and third terms. } '.\ ?ical education ,■ ; \ course devoted to the significance of physical training, correc- tive exercises, etc. Second Term — 12 Weeks. Rural school management and methods of teaching A course devoted to the problems of rural school organisation, class room procedure, daily programme, and class technique. The study accompanies practice teaching — which begins the second term' — from which it derives its meaning, as the discussions in class usually grow out of the daily experiences gained in observa- tion and practice teaching. Arithmetic and farm accounts ._ _• A careful study of the fundamental principles of arithmetic, and special emphasis on application of these principles to the content matter available in every rural environment. Considerable time is devoted to simple farm accounts. Reading and phonics .••••. A course designed to give the student a comprehensive view of the aims and purposes of teaching reading. Much time is given to how to teach the subject, what the different groups should read, and how to correlate reading to other subjects in the programme. School music • This course is intended to prepare teachers to give rnusic as a regular class exercise in the rural schools. Much time is devoted to sight reading and part singipg. The aim is largely to develop the power to read the printed score and appreciate choice music. Art. Includes such phases of art as can be profitably undertaken in rural schools. It aims to develop appreciation of good pictures, understanding and love of the beautiful in nature, and outlines ways for improving and beautifying the farm home. Industrial arts A course planned to help students prepare for such phases of industrial arts as should properly cover the first five years of the rural school course. The subject matter is planned to centre about the activities of home and community, these activi- ties are imitated in projects made by paper, cardboard, clay, and other materials which are easily manipulated. Observation and practice teaching This course is devoted to class teaching in the rural or other elementary practice schools. The work centres about language, reading, spelling, and arithmetic. Conferences with critic teachers of the practice schools. 20 20 130 Total semester Third Term — 12 Weehs. hours per ■ week Rural life problems 4 A thorough-going course in the fundamental characteristics of rural life; a history of its changes from pioneering to modern agriculture; a statement of its primary institutions and agencies, with special emphasis on the home, church, and school; place of the rural school in community leadership; modern school organisation, administration, and supervision; farm community schools, continuation schools, extension courses, etc. History and community civics 4 A course designed especially to teach the methods of these sub- jects. It supplements what has already been learned, and gives especially the phases of history and community civics which should be emphasised in rural schools. The course in civics stresses rural health and 'morals, responsibility in keeping rural cornmunities wholesome and healthful; in protecting them from social vice, etc. Nature study — agriculture 4 The course continues the work begun with the fall term. It emphasises agriculture-teaching in the laboratory of nature. The text-book is considered in the light of leading thread only. All students are expected to work in the school experiment plats, and should grow individual gardens. School and home gardens, school and home projects, and club work receive much attention. Home economics (girls) 2 A course which emphasises sewing, cooking as approached through the medium of the hot lunch, and similar phases of home economics which are practicable in the small rural school. Manual training (boys) 2 This is a study of such manual activities as every farm boy should be acquainted with. It discourages the old limitation of keeping the boy at work at a few highly finished or elaborated articles, and emphasises instead all the commonly practiced manual activities essential to successful agricultural life, which include work in wood, leather, metal, and cement. Observation and practice teaching 4 The course for this term continues the practice teaching by classes and subjects, begun with the second term. Geography, history, music, art, and industrial work receive considerable attention. The last half of the term is devoted to room teaching; i.p., the practice teacher takes entire charge of the room. Con- ferences with critic teachers continued. 20 Physical education Devoted chiefly to supervised play and games. No preparation required. « This course may be organised for three terms with GO term-honr credits, or for two semesters with 40 semester-hour credits. CHAPTER XIV. VOCATIOXAL EDUCATIOX. It has been repeatedly pointed out in t/liis report that agriculture is the chief vocational concern of the Province, and that the funda- mental vocational training is therefore agricultural education. The means and methods of this type of education are considered in detail elsewhere. The entire survey report constitutes a report on vocational agricultural education to the extent that it seeks to relate all education in the Province definitely to the basic occupation of the people. The aim of the present chapter is to give separate treatment to certain phases of vocational education that are of immediate concern to towns and cities. For convenience, vocational education is usually classified as agricultural education, industrial or trade education, and education for home-making; the divisions being based, of course, on the broader groupings of occupations. ISTot only is agi'iculture as much a legiti- mate vocational course for the town boy or girl as for the country pupil, but it lies at the basis of the other types of vocational training for Saskatchew^an cities. The trades and manufactures of the towns of the Province are usually very closely connected with the agricultural occupations: the commercial education is such as presupposes a knowl- edge of the needs and habits of men and w^omen who are getting their living directly from the land; and the kind of home-making to be taught should, as far as possible, be such as to make city girls better helpmates for men who are to render their service as farmers in a progressive farming community. These principles seem sufficiently simple and self-evident ; yet they are constantly being overlooked in the establishment of vocational training courses. OCCUPATIONS OF SASKATCITEW^AX OTHER THAIS' AGRICULTURE. Just as the main problem of vocational education for the Province as a wliole is that of ascertaining the agricultural needs, so in a more restricted field the problem of vocational education for the cities and towns first of all involves an inventorying of the local industries, in order to find out for what occupations training is necessary and practicable. It was pointed out in Chapter I that outside of farming and stock- raising, the industries include lumbering, flour milling, fishing, coal mining, the fur trade, and certain kinds of manufactures. In addition there are the important occupations involved in the distribution of products to all parts of the Province — commercial pursuits, railroading, etc. Analysis of the types of businesses in the cities of Regina and Saskatoon^ shows a surprising variety of occupations and suggests some of t)he difficulties in preparing a programme for training for vocation, ^lore than a hundred separate types of industry or business are listed, iBased on the classified business lists of the Provincial telephone directory. 131 132 represented by approximately six hundred separate concerns in Sas- katoon and eigtht hundred in Eegina. A partial list of the occupations, with the number of concerns in the two cities, is as follows . Accountants (9) Florists (4) Advertising (3) Foundries (2) Agricultural Implemonts (29) Groceries, Retail (82) Architects (3) Groceries, Wholesale (9) Automobiles and Supplies (47) Hardware (18) Bakeries (11) Insurance (78) Banks (30) Jewellers and Opticians (13) Barristers and Solicitors (61) Laundries (5) Blacksmiths (5) Lumber (18) Boots and Shoes (21) Newspapers (8) Butchers (30) Oil (13) Builders and Contractors (18) Painters and Decorators (14) Confectionery (15) Photographers (12) Dentists (30) Physicians and Surgeons (55) Departmental Stores (8) Plumbing and Heating (20) Dray and Transfer (11) Printers (12) Drugs (32) Real Estate (72) Electrical Contractors and Supplies (14) Restaurants (21) Elevators (8) Rubber Goods (12) Employment Agencies (8) Tailors (17) special Trade Schools Unnecessary. — Examination of this list will show that special trade schools such as have been established else- where are not needed in Saskatchewan. The only safe "trade" to train large numbers of persons for, is agriculture, since that, as we have seeUj, absorbs at least three-fourths of the population. The other occupations represented by this list of businesses employ so few persons in the aggre- gate that expensive schools for any of them, or even a combination of them, are not necessary or desirable. The occupations in this list employing the largest number of persons are, for the most part, callings for which trade training of the usual sort is not practicable. Account- ants should be university trained ; barristers, dentists, opticians, physicians and surgeons are already taken care of in professional institutions of university grade. The 14 electrical supply establis^h- ments in the two cities represent only a part of the demand for elec- tricians, but the aggregate number of technically trained men in this field would not normally be large, even in a Province where use of electricity is so general. The 8 newspaper and publishing plants certainly do not yet justify public investment in a printing trades school, nor do the 20 plumbing shops. Department stores, groceries, and real estate offices represent a field for which certain kinds of special training are very much needed, but it is not the kind of training that can be given under ordinary vocational school conditions. These ar» typical. An attempt was made in Saskatoon to ascertain the number of employees in the larger conceras, as a measure of the amount of training that might be needed. There are in all 17 manufacturing concerns, if manufacturing jewellers be included. The Quaker Oats plant employs approximately 130 persons; the Dominion Elevator from 5 to 40, depending upon the season; the John East foundry, 23; and four wholesale groceries, 5, 24, 20, and 25 persons respectively. Retail stores in this city, mostly small shops with one or two employees, numbered 350. 133 Conclusions from the Data. — The conclusions that emerge from any study of the occupational data are two: (1) Special city trade schools should not be established until greater need can be shown fhan exists at present, but the entire curriculum of the school should be "shot through and through" with occupational information. (2) The situation in Saskatchewan cities oifers an unusual oppor- tunity for the adoption quite generally of part time plans for vocational training. Conditions in Saskatchewan offer striking proof of the dictum that "the best preparation for vocation is a good general education for all the children." But because of the very difficulty of providing special training, Saskatchewan owes it to her children to see that this "general education" shall be based on real life — "rooted to the soil," as far as rural education is concerned, and "welded to industry," as far as the cities are concerned. It is not possible to have forest or lumbering schools here and there in the Province, but it is possible for every child, through efforts to grow trees at the school or in his own back yard, through nature study trips in the spring and fall, through visits under guidance to lumber yards and saw mills, to understand something of tihe lumber problems of the Province. ITo one would think of establishing a school for coal miners in a Province without, as yet, a mining industry of commercial importance, yet one of the real services the science classes in the secondary schools throughout the Province could render would be to investigate the fuel possibilities of the vast fields of lignite that underlie sections of the Province. There is already, in some of the cities, a good foundation on which to build a general education of this needed sort. Some of the schools have excellent construction work in the grades, in paper, clay modelling, etc. Especially noteworthy, in view of the essential relation between art and industry, is the use of pictures and other art decorations as part of the general educational plan. But the modifications should not merely be external. Every school subject should be related so concretely to the economic life of Saskatchewan and the Canadian west that the boys and girls will know the problems and possibilities of the Province instinctively. Especially should there be pupil participation in any attempt that may be made to make the curriculum live in terms of Saskatchewan conditions, Saskatchewan geography is being taught in all schools, but it is being taught with the same formality that the other subjects are taught ; whereas what is needed is for teachers to have time enough to give their pupils the opportunity to dig up their own soil and analyse it, build their own hills and valleys and lakes — if nature has not done it for them; for teachers to take their' pupils to the railroad station to see the products that come and go to and from the four quarters of the globe; and, in general, to free themselves and their children from the confining walls of the school room, which seem only too often to shut the sdhool in like a prison from the real life that throbs outside. The course of study should be "shot through and through," then, with vocational considerations. But the schools of the cities and towns 134 can in individual cases do much more than this. In many places the stage is set for co-operative or part-time education of the most helpful sort. This would be of two kinds. First there would be the group of children, large even in Saskatchewan, who leave school early to go to work. Progressive communities are now insisting that the factory, shop and store should release these employees for a certain number of hours each week, for instruction at the school, the employer paying the boys and girls for the time thus spent. The studies of such pupils might or might not be vocational. In many cases the employee would need chiefly more general education, to make it possible for him to advance further in his employment ; or he would want some special subject that would qualify him for a higher type of job. It is this type of work that England has begun to do so eifectively. This emergency type of remedial part-time training the Province will want to provide for those that need it, but more important still is the co-operative or half-time plan as it applies to high school boys and girls in the cities and towns of the Province. Prince Albert would not feel that a special trade school for the lumber industry was important, but the boys in the collegiate could advantageously continue their school work and half-time employment in lumbering. Saskatoon and Eegina could utilise the students in the collegiate commercial courses, undoubtedly, on a week-in and week-out basis with the banks and business houses. Department stores need trained saleswomen ; the schools have an opportunity to furnish the necessary workers under conditions that will insure the best educational results of employment and the most practical type of salesmanship instruction. High school girls in domestic science should have an opportunity for practical experience in local hotels and restaurants. The school should control this type of work, giving careful con- sideration to the conditions of employment; it should make the boy understand that he is to use the infomiation he gets in the employment as content material for his school subjects, and it should make him feel that he is as much a part of the high school as if he were in attend- ance every day. Experience in other places has shown that normally healthy boys and girls can carry a double burden of school and work like this with benefit to both and without injuring the health. There is also the added advantage that many boys and girls who would other- wise have to stop their education are able to go on through hig^h school and even to the universities. The plan requires no additional plant, and almost no additional expense of any kind. It is peculiarly adapted to Saskatchewan conditions.-^ In addition, rather definite prevocational courses should bo put in. The present manual training and domestic science courses offer a good beginning, though necessarily the provision is so far very meager. Two periods a week in the seventh and eighth grades is not enough, even for a respectable beginning. It should be at least half a day a week, or better twice a week, and it should go down at least as far as the fifth grade and up to the final year of the high school. Printing and electric Aviring for boys, millinery for girls, are practical subjects 1 For an interesting description of tlie co-operative plan, see Bulletin 1916, No. 37, of the United States Bureau of Education. 135 that can be installed at little expense, and made to currelato excellently with the academic subjects. As an illustration, the school printing plant might print the much needed school annual reports, and the school com- mercial department should typewrite and mimeograph the materials now copied slowly from the blackboard or taken dow^n with great waste of time from the teacher who is attempting to supplement the text- book from his own notes. The adoption of the junior high school would facilitate the introduction of prevocational training. EXA'MPLES OF VOCATIOXAL SECONDARY WORK. As instances of what can be done in smaller cities and towns to train both for agriculture and industry, brief descriptions are here given of two recently developed schools in Vermont. Although Vermont is very mudli smaller than Saskatchewan, the vocational problem is much the same in both. The towns described, it will be noted, are compar- able in population with many of the towns of Saskatchewan. Co-operative Industrial Education in the Springfield High School.^ — Springfield, Vt., is a town of 5,000 population, situated 6}4 miles from a railroad. The property valuation of the town is $4,593,525.00. Its chief business is the making; of machines. One company produces turret and automatic lathes, a second specialises in the produc- tion of an automatic machine for the shaping of gears; a third manufactures textile finishing machinery; a fourth builds machines for turning wood in irregular shapes; still another puts out a tool grinding machiiie. In addition to the above, there are two large foundries, and Springfield is also the home of the largest shoddy mill in the world. The estimated value of the monthly output of these industries is $1,250,000, or a yearly output of $15,000,000. The problems of high school education in a community so completely engaged in manufacturing and particularly in the manufacture of machinery are many. Those responsible for the school realised that an attempt should be made to correlate the work of the boy in school with actual life and thus to prepare him better to meet the require- ments placed upon him when he takes his place in the world as a producer. The manufacturers had their problems as well: How to obtain skilled operatives to carry on their ever-increasing business; how to get the particularly trained type of foreman, machine demonstrators and sales managers. The parents, as everywhere, were con- fronted with the problem of how to afford their boys the higher education which they wished for them at the age when they might be wage earners. In 1913 the idea of a co-operative course was presented to the citizens and the school, and twenty-one boys declared their desire to take the work if offered. The people were enthusiastic and it was definitely decided to establish the course. Two of the manufacturing concerns agreed to pay one-half the salary of an instructor who should direct the work. A graduate of the co-operative engineering department of a middle western university was engaged as director. He was employed for twelve months. Two years later, in order to broaden the course and give the director an opportunity for more supervision, an assistant was engaged. The plan of the course is one of alternation, a combination of teaching and doing, of theory and practice. At the beginning of the summer vacation, following the boys' first year in high school, the members of the class who wish to take the course are assigned to the shops for a trial period of about two months. They engage in the regular work of the shops, working the same hours and observing the same regulations as are observed by all the workmen. Their work during this trial period is carefully supervised by the director who spends all his time to discover the individual boy's par- ticular aptitudes and to learn whether or not he is fitted for the work of the co-operative course. The manufacturers particularly approve this trial period as it makes it possible to weed out the boys not adapted to the work before the regular course begins. In the fall if the boy's record is good he signs a contract to continue the course for the three years. The class is divided into groups of two and throughout the course the boys work in pairs. At the beginning of the school year one boy of each pair attends the class room work of the course at the high school for two weeks while his mate goes into the shop for the same length of time. While in the shop the boy attends no classes but puts in full time at his work. At the beginning of the second fortnight the ^ This and the following account are adapted from statements by RoUo G. Reynolds to the Vermont State Board of Education, and published in the 1916 Vermont report. 136 boys exchange, the first leaving the class room for his two weeks in the sliop while the boy in the shop now comes to the class room for a like period. This alternation continues throughout the school year, and necessitates the repetition of the class room work every two weeks. At the beginning of the third week the shop group coming to the class room must be taught the same subject matter which has just been presented during the first two weeks to the class room group. The first year of the course is spent entirely in the school as the boy at this time is usually too young to work to advantage in the shops. The regular courses of study are taken by the boys during this year and the mechanical subjects are not emphasised. The course of study of the remaining three years is as follows: SECOND YEAR. Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday 9 00 9.35 History History History History History 9.40 10.15 English English English English English 10.30 11.05 Mechanical Drawing Mechanical Drawing Mechanical Drawing 11.10 11.45 Mechanical Drawing Mechanical Drawing Mechanical Drawing 1.20 2.10 Algebra Algebra Algebra Algebra Algebra 2.25 3.00 Mechanism Mechanism Mechanism Mechanism Mechanism 3.05 3.40 Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics THIRD YEAR. Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday 9.00 9.35 Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics 9.40 10.15 Mechanism Mechanism Mechanism Mechanism Mechanism 10.30 11.05 Algebra Algebra Algebra Algebra Algebra 11.10 11.45 German German German German German 1.20 2.10 Mechanical Drawing Mechanical Drawing Mechanical Drawing Mechanical Drawing Mechanical Drawing 2.25 3.00 3.05 3.45 English English Engli.*h P'nglish English i 137 FOURTH YEAR. Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday 9.00 9.35 Mechanism Mechanism Mechanism Mechanism Mechanism 9.40 10.15 Chemistry Chemistry Chemistry Chemistry Chemistry 10.30 11.05 11.10 11.45 German German German German German 1.20 2.10 Mechanical Drawing Mechanical Drawing Mechanical Drawing Mechanical Drawing Mechanical Drawing 2.25 3.00 Mathematics Mathematics Mathematics Mathematics Mathematics 3.05 3.45 English English Agricultural Courses in the Orleans High School. — Orleans is a town with a popula- tion of 1,131 and an assessed valuation of $863,960.00. It is composed of a central village surrounded by farms. The village is prosperous and bustling and contains the types of business activities common to many Vermont towns, the lumber industry perhaps being the most important. The surrounding farming region is excellent and marks the community as primarily an agricultural one. The problem of the school board in 1914 was not in the quality of the work done in the school but was rather a two-fold problem of a different nature. During the three j-ears preceding, the average attendance in high school was only 35 out of a total average attendance of 232 for the same period. To increase high school attendance and thus promote the efficiency of the whole school system was the first problem. About 40 per cent, of the high school students have come from districts outlying, mostly children of farmers. The old type of high school offered to these children little except courses designed to prepare for coUege. To offer to these boys and girls a kind of instruction which would link the school with their homes and give them a broader outlook upon life was the second problem. Reports of the study of agriculture in other schools led the Board of Directors and the Superintendent to believe that the solution of problem two would go far toward solving the first problem; that is, to broaden the course of study and to utilise the things of common experience in the formation of this course would, it was thought, increase high school attendance and thus increase the efficiency of the wholeschool system. Steps were immediately taken to establish an agricultural course, and the super- intendent of the district was instructed to engage a principal who was particularly trained for agricultural work arvd had had actual experience in organising and putting upon a paying basis a school farm. The principal, thoroughly interested in the experi- ment, consented to come with the condition that he should be given free rein and at least $1,000 to equip a school farm. He agreed to stay for at least three years. The other teachers were engaged with the same painstaking care and an especially good corps of teachers was thus secured. The grade teachers were also utilised in caring for some of the high school work and the course was started with the principal, two full-time teachers, one part-time teacher, and the assistance of the grade teachers.' The school building, an excellent one which had recently been remodeled, was rearranged and some equipment was purchased, the entire cost of which did not exceed $200.00. The work offered by the school was broadened to include the following: (The number of pupils taking up each kind of work is the number during the school vear 1916-17) (1) Work specifically to prepare for college — 10 pupils; (2) Work in commercial subjects, including shorthand and typewTiting — 12 pupils; (3) Work in domestic science — 9 high school pupils, 10 from the grades; (4) Work in expression — 7 pupils; (5) Work in music — all pupils, twice a week; ()) Work in agriculture — 24 pupils, high school and grades. 138 The work in agriculture has at no time been emphasised at the expense of the other work, nor have the pupils at any time been urged unduly to take it. It has been conducted throughout in close correlation with all the other work offered by the high school. The balance of the pupils' school experience has not been upset. The work in agriculture centres around the school farm. The principal selected a plot of about two acres, consisting mostly of swampy land directly back of the school house. The boys at once set about clearing the land of rocks, stumps and willow bushes and finished it at an expense of $8.25. The school board then voted .$200 for tile draining the land. The boys borrowed surveying instruments, and with them laid out the farm, ran the lines of their draining trenches and assisted in the ditcliing, the laying and joining of the tile and had a hand in every process concerned. This was finished at a cost of $197.97. A plan of the farm was now made from the surveys and after careful study the following divisions were decided upon as being the best arrangement for a Vermont farm: (1) orchard; (2) forest; (3) rotation plot; (4) potato plot; (5) grass plot; (6) museum garden; (7) kitchen garden for grades. During the winter the class studied forestry and in the spring staked out their forest. From the State Nursery the class obtained the spruce, pine, hemlock, and cedar trees which it had decided to plant and the forest was set out. In the spring of the next year the forestry class as an Arbor Day exercise replaced the dead trees from the nursery in the presence of all the school children of the community. The school forest was planted entirely by the boys and at a cost of $2.00 for express charges on the trees. The rotation plot was staked out and after study the following rotation of crops was determined upon: Corn, potatoes, oats and grass for two years. The crops were planted, cultivated and partly harvested by the boys. There were four kitchen gardens for the grades, each 40x60 feet, and they were planted and cared for by the pupils of the grades under the direction of and with the assistance of the high school students. A greenhouse was part of the equipment which the principal had in mind and at his request the school board appropriated $400 to erect one. The subject was thorough- ly studied in the class room and complete plans for a 1.5x30 lean-to greenhouse were discussed and drafted by the boys. The class then listed all materials and equipment needed and secured prices on the same from local firms. After comparing prices the material was ordered. Because of the lateness of the season workmen from the town were engaged to erect the greenhouse but the boys took an active part in each of the building processes, cement work, carpentry, glazing, plumbing and wiring. The green- house is used as a winter laboratory. Radishes, lettuce, cucumbers, tomatoes, flowers, etc., are cultivated. Bee culture is made a part of the course and the equipment includes a swarm of bees. All the space in the greenhouse is utilised. Under the benches chickens are kept in coops, thus making brooders unnecessary. Experiments of various kinds are carried on in the greenhouse. Soils are analysed, the value of various kinds of fertilisers is determined, the poilenisation of plants is studied, and many other activities are taken up. As in the case of the farm, the products of the greenhouse are sold. Early vege- tables find a ready market among the townspeople. Much is given away. The greenhouse is cared for by the class and especially by one boy who has a very attractive room near the boiler and who has charge of the heating. The total cost of the green- house, including all equipment, was $448.12. In order to study dairying in a practical way the boys felt the need of a laboratory . It was therefore decided to equip a dairy room in the basement of the schoolhouse. Permission was secured from the school board and $60 was voted to defray the exj^ense . This work, as in all other projects, was largely done by the boys, including carpentry, cement work and plumbing. Training in the actual manufacture of butter and cheese is given and such other practical work as is connected with dairying. The latest addition to the school plant is a poultry house. Much interest in poultry raising evinced itself among tlie boys and it was decided to ask the school board for a poultry house. The board voted for this purpose $75.00. Manual training is taught not as a separate course but in correlation with every sub- ject. In the different projects outlined above the best possible training in carpentry, ])lumbing, glazing, cement work and repair work has been furnished. The boys of the Ninth Grade sold soap and with the proceeds bought tools. They made the tomato plant boxes for the greenhouse. A TKOGRAMME OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. Experience in other countries and other provinces, considered in the light of the special conditions in Saskatchewan, indicates the 139 following as a feasible programme for vocational education in the Province : (1) Wide extension of the present very limited provision for manual training and domestic science; with Provincial aid contingent upon local funds ; (2) ]\rodification of curriculum and methods in all the schools to allow for vocational contacts at every point ; (3) Extension of part-time opportunities for children 14-18 now employed in cities and towns ;-^ (4) Introduction of prevocational courses in printing, electricity, and other branches, for both boys and girls, in the seventh and eighth grades of the present elementary school or in the junior high school. These courses to be open to all boys and girls of 14 years or over whether or not they have completed the eighth gTade ; (5) Co-operative half-time education of high school grade for all occupations for which arrangements can be made with employers ; (6) Special preparation in the normal schools and at the Univer- sity for teachers of prevocational subjects, as well as the regular manual training, school gardening, and domestic science;^ (7) Adoption of a general plan of vocational guidance for all schools, city and rural, designed to lead the pupils, through early introduction of handwork, ''prevocational" subjects, courses in vocational information, and actual experience in the occupation, to a self-selected type of service to the Commonwealth. With regard to trade training in special trade schools, it is sug- gested that when the need arises, or in anticipation of that need, the Western Provinces attempt to co-operate in dividing up the expendi- ture, allotting to each Province the special training for which it is test equipped. 'Apart from the plan for continuation education in the rural municipality school. See Chapter IX. ''It has been said: "The manipulation of a tool for constructive work as distinguished from the crude constructive work of animals and savages has a special and a peculiar value which the evolution of ages has given to it. This value is imparted to a class of boys by a skilled mechanic, and it cannot be imparted by anybody else. And I mean by a skilled mechanic a man who exemplifies in his own work the best theory and the best practice — ^a man who puts tools to their latest and best uses in the construction of typical forms." CHAPTER XV. SEPARATE SCHOOLS. Under the North America Act of 1867, the right was reserved to the provincial legislatures to legislate in all matters relating to educa- tion, subject to certain restrictions guaranteeing the rights and privileges of denominational and separate schools as they existed at the time of union or admission as provinces. The powers of the provincial legislatures in readjusting education are specifically laid down in section 93 of The British North America Act, as follows: 93. In and for each province the legislature may exclusively make laws in relation to education, subject and according to the following provisions: (1) Nothing in any such law shall prejudicially affect any right or privilege with respect to denominational schools which any class of persons have by law in the province at the union. (2) All the powers, privileges and duties 'at the union by law conferred and imposed in Upper Canada on the separate schools and school trustees of the Queen's Roman Catholic subjects shall be, and the same are hereby extended to the dissentient schools of the Queen's Protestant and Roman Catholic subjects in Quebec. (3) Where in any province a system of separate dissentient schools exist by law at the union or is thereafter established by the Legislature of the Province, an Appeal shall lie to the Governor General in Council from any act or decision of any provincial authority affecting any right or privilege of the Protestant or Roman Catholic minority of the Queen's subjects in relation to education." These three paragraphs of section 93 guarantee to a religious minority in any province all the rights and privileges respecting educa- tion that it had under the Confederation. Whatever privileges were held in Saskatchewan by a religious minority in territorial days must be guaranteed under provincial rule. The legislature is not debarred, however, from legislating on such religious schools, including separate schools, provided they do not thereby "prejudicially affect privileges, previous to Confederation, enjoyed by such schools in the Province." SKl'ARATE SCHOOLS IN THE PROVINCE. Provision for the existence of separate schools in Saskatchewan was made under the educational claim in The North West Territories Act of 1875, although the first school was not actually sanctioned until 1877. The first definite action for separate school organisation was taken in 1884 — the time of the establishment of a i)ublic school system — at which time such schools w( re eroeted at Moose Jaw, Qu'Appelle, Prince Albert, and Regina. Down through the years others have been establislK'd and some di.-continued. At the present time there are in the province 19 separate schools, 16 Roman Catholic and 3 Protestant. A large majority of them are naturally found in the larg-er towns and cities, where a religions minority is sufficiently large to make the schools at all feasible. In early territorial days the separate schools were left to manage their own affairs, but within recent years uniform inspection of all schools throughout the territories, identical regulations as to course of 140 141 study, professional preparation of teachers, teachers' certificates, etc., tave brought the control of the separate schools directly under the Provincial Department of Education. It is not proposed in this section to enter at length into a con- troversy on the subject of separate schools, but merely to present a few of the facts and impressions resulting from a study of the questionnaire, which was returned by 10 of the districts, and from personal visits, necessarily very brief, to the separate schools in Regina, Moose Jaw, Prince Albert, Xorth Battleford, and Vonda. STATISTICS OF SEPARATE SCHOOLS. Age-Grade Distribution. — The 10 separate school districts report- ing enrolled 961 pupils. Of these more than two-thirds were in tht; first four grades, and over one-third were in the first grade. !N"ot quite half of all the pupils are normal or better for their grades. The per- centage of over-age is 62.85 per cent, in the first grade, 69.84 per cent, in the second, and 75.29 in the third. Compared with the city and public school group, the separate schools show an excess over-age of approximately 19 per cent, for first grade, 7 per cent, for second grade, and 13 per cent, for third. In comparison with the town schools, the excess over-age against the separate school is 8 per cent, for the first grade, 9 per cent, in the second, and 12 per cent, for the third. These figures reflect the difficulties the separate school necessarily has in organising its pupils, difficulties which are much like those of a rural school in its isolation from the main currents of population. Indeed, the percentages of over-age for separate schools parallel those for rural schools rather closely. In the first grade the figures are, 62.85 per cent, and 61.36, respectively; in the second, 69.84 and 76.23, and in the third grade 75.29 and 74.58. The lower grades in the separate schools show strikingly the wide distribution of ages that characterises the rural schools. The first grade, for example, has at least two cases in every age group from under 6 years to between 15 and 16 years, and Grade IV shows pupils from the 8 to 9 group to the 17 to 18 group, with six between 15 and 16. Doubtless some of these older children in the lower grades are foreign children who have not yet learned the language. The Teac/iers. —Like the overwhelming majority of teachers in Saskatchewan, the teachers in the separate schools are of excellent personality. Their devotion to the children committed to their care cannot be questioned. Many of them are exceedingly well educated. As to training, 3 of the teachers reporting from 10 separate schools had first grade certificates ; 14 had second grade certificates ; and 2 had third grade certificates. There were none holding provisional certificates. The public school teachers in the towns reported the following classes of certificate : First, 76 ; second, 158 ; third, 13. Salaries in the separate schools reporting ranged from $1,150 down to $725, with $750 as the median; in the villages they ranged from $1,700 down to $550, the median being $850.^ ^^pparently the most poorly paid teachers did not report. 142 TABLE 2G.- -SEPxVEATE SCHOOLS, AGE AND GRADE. (10 SCHOOLS.) tn o 13 t3 2 03 ^■; > O 0!^ 6 to 00 ♦" > O o Oi *^ ■- a o 2 u a o |2 ^2 t- a > O 2 tw a o 3 > O E 1^ 22 t- a (U 3 > O 2 ui a 0) 3 O Is 22 t. a o 3 o £ S2 t. a 4) 3 o m ^2 t. a o Total by Grades T. 19 72 78 32 16 15 3 4 2 2 2 245 II. 8 30 34 25 19 2 2 6 126 III. 14 28 57 37 21 10 2 ] 170 IV. 13 28 29 25 23 3 2 6 1 130 V. 3 28 31 15 12 3 2 , 94 VI. 1 C 18 20 21 9 3 1 79 VII. 2 6 22 17 14 8 2 71 vm. 1 11 17 4 2 1 1 46 Junior Form ] 1 1 3 Total of ages 19 SO 122 107 130 136 107 105 75 47 24 6 4 2 964 TABLE 27." — SEPARATE SCHOOLS^ NUMBER AND PERCENTAGES IN EACH GRADE UNDER AGE, NORMAL^ AND OVER-AGE. Number in each grade Total in each grade Per cent, in each grade Grade Under age Normal Over age Under age Norma] Over age I 19 8 14 13 3 7 8 10 72 30 28 28 28 18 22 11 154 88 128 89 63 54 41 25 ' 245 126 170 130 94 79 71 46 7 .75 6.35 8.24 10. 3.19 8.97 11.26 21.74 29,35 23.81 16.47 21.53 29.79 22.78 30.99 23.91 62.85 II 69.84 III. 75.29 IV. 68.46 V 67.02 VI 68.35 VII 57.75 VIII 54.35 Buildings. — The sejDarate schools do not have as good buildings as the regular public schools. This is probably inevitable in view of the financial burdens involved. The buildings are not as attractive for the most part; the grounds are distinctly inferior in extent and appearance; and the corridors and rooms were not, at least in the schools visited, as clean and fresh looking as those in most of the public school buildings. The teachers do especially good work when the unfavourable surround- ino-s are considered. Lack of supervision is everywhere evident. 143 SOLUTION OF THE TKOBLEM. With only 19 separate school districts out of over 4,000, tlie problem can hardly be considered an acute one. Certainly it calls, not for repression or bitterness, but for patience and an abiding faith in democracy trying to find its way. The issues are not nearly so complex as elsewhere, since Saskatchewan is very liberal in its provision for religious instruction to school children. It will probably he conceded that there are two essential principles involved in the separate school issue, not as it affects Saskatchewan alone, but o-eneraUv. These may be stated as follows : (1) All children, regardless of their religious affiliation, should be educated at public expense; (2) Eeligion is an essential part of all education. The school should make it possible for children of all denominations (or no denomination) to receive ethical, moral, and spiritual instruction in the form their parents desire. The United States upholds the first principle, but aims to be neutral on the second. Saskatchewan carries out the first principle by providing education for all children at public expense. The Province carries out the second principle in a very generous way by stipulating that the last half hour of the school dav niav be given to religious instruction whenever the local boards so desire. The separate school for the Protestant or Catholic minority, as the case may be, seems unnecessary in view of the specific provision for a half hour of religious instruction. At the time of the survey over two hundred rural schools and twelve village public schools reported the use of the final half hour for religious instruction. Without the daily period allowed by law for religious instruction there would be much more justification for the people to insist upon separate schools where their faith can be imparted. When there is such a i^rovision already existing it is hard to justify the separate school, especially in the smaller communities, where the double school establish- ment means heavy tax burdens, relatively inefficient education, and waste of public resources. The tw^o schools in the village of Vonda, a few hundred feet apart, illustrate the price paid by the community that insists upon dividing on the religious question regardless of the half-hour provision. Here are two buildings, able teachers, and enough pupils for one good build- ing, with nothing but the narrow old-time studies, when this village, Avithout any additional cost, without increasing its staff, but simply by agreeing to forget religious differences long enough to support a single community school, could have a school far superior to the usual village school, with manual training, home economics, school gardening, and some continuation school work that would make it a centre for education for all the countryside. ISTo compulsion can help a community in a situation like this; but only patience to wait for the time when both sides will see the wisdom of pooling their interests for the common good of their children. Sooner or later the minority Avill see that since their interests are already safe- guarded by law, they are unfair to their children in adherino- to a 144 separation of public educational provision that necessarily reduces the effectiveness of all education in the community, their own children's most of all. Union of Public and Separate Districts. — The law is careful to provide a method of carrying out the wishes of any community that sees the desirability of comins; tos-ether for the common interest. Section 63 provides ; If in any area there exist a public school district and a separate school district and it is resolved by the ratepayers of each of such school districts at a public meeting of such ratepayers respectively called for the purpose of considering the question, that it is expedient that such districts should be disorganised for the purpose of uniting them and erecting the area into a public school district, the minister may by order, notice of which shall be published in The Saskatchewan Gazette, disorganise the existing districts and erect the area into a public school district, with such name as he may decide upon. CHAPTER XVi: SCHOOLS IX NON-EXGLISir CO:\rMUXITIES. Non-EuglisJi Elements in the Educational System. — Almost one- half of the persons composing the present population of Saskatchewan were bom on foreign shores. To be exact, according to the census of 1911, exactly 50.51 per cent, were born in Saskatchewan. The rest have come from almost every known country in the Old World and the 'New. Upon the, whole these divergent elements have been ready to assimilate with the native Canadian stock and to accept Canadian ideals and manners and customs. There are, howjever, some outstandiiiir exceptions to the rule. Among them are certain groups of foreign-born settlers banded together by common religious belief, who have been reluctant to accept the ways of their adopted country. These people are now retarding the process of unifying the nation. They may be considered under the following heady- (1) Colony Mennonites; (2) Colony Doukhobors; (3) Ruthenian schools; and (4) German schools. The Colony Mennonites. — There are in Saskatchewan, according' to the Dominion Census of June, 1916, 18,934 people of the Mennonite faith. These may be distinguished as Progressive Mennonites and Colony Mennonites. The former came to Canada chiefly from Kansas, South Dakota and Minnesota, whither thev arrived orieinallv as immigrants from southern Russia. The latter came direct to Canada from the Black Sea region of Russia, in 1874 and later. The two bodies may be considered as part of the same movement from southern Russia, although the Progressives remained in the United States lone enough to accept the ways of the American people includino; their system of public education. These Progressives who, by the way, represent more than one-half of all the Mennonites, are active in public school organisation and make free use of the public schools and of English as a medium of instruction. They are not communists in any sense of the word, and constitute no sj^ecial educational problem. The Colony Mennonites, on the other hand, present a real educa- tional problem. From the first they have been opix)sed to public schools and to English as the medium of instruction in the schools, for no other reason, it can be stated, than for fear that with the introduction of English into the communities there would come also the "'hochmuth'' of the "unredeemed world and the gradual disintegTation of the com- munity spirit." The fundamental tenets of their faith are, it is well to bear in mind, renunciation of the vanities of the world, and refusal to participate in civic duties, to bear arms, and to take oaths. The Old Coloniers stand on what they believe to be their rio-hts. when they resist public school attendance. To appreciate their point of view it is well to take a glimpse at the checkered history of the Men- nonites, and sec what they have suffered for "'righteousness' sake." Organised as a denomination of Evangelical Christians in Switzerland in the 16th Century, but later taking their name from the leader of the sect in Holland, Menno Simmons, the Mennonites spread over Holland 145 146 and northern Germany; and later, on account of severe persecutions, soi]2:lit asvliim in Austria, Rumania, and finally, in Catherine the Great's reign, in Russia. Here they were permitted to worship God in their own way, and to use their own "plattdeutsch" as the medium of instruction in the schools. At length, with the outbreak of the Crimean War, and later wars with Turkey, these liberal conditions gradually changed. Some form of military service was made obligatory upon the brotherhoods, and Russian was introduced over their protests as a medium of instruction in the schools. At this juncture the Colony Mennonites began to consider a new asylum of the jSTorth American continent. They ultimately migrated to Canada, settling in Manitoba. From here some of the brotherhood later removed to Saskatchewan, where they are now settled in 17 or more village communities centered near Warman and Hague, and in 16 similar groups south of Swift Current, numbering altogether in the two groups about 6,000 persons. A definite written agreement was entered into July 23, 1873, between J. M. Lowe, Esq., secretary of the Department of Agriculture, on behalf of Hon. John Henry Pope, Minister of Agriculture, and Messrs. David Klasscn, Jacob Peters, Heinrich Wiebe, and Cornelius Toews, delegates from southern Russia, under which the Memionite movement to Canada was consummated. Such paragraphs of this agreement as are of concern to present discussion are quoted below : Department of Agriculture, Immigration Branch, Ottawa, 23rd July, 1873. Gentlemen, — I have the honour under the instruction of the Hon. the Minister of Agri- culture, to state to you in reply to your letter of this day's date the following facts relating to advantages offered to settlers, and to the immunities afforded to Mennonites, which are established by the Statute Law of Canada, and by order of His Excellence, Governor General in Council, for the information of German Mennonites, having intention to emigrate to Canada via Hamburg: I. An entire exemption from any Military service is, by Law and Order in Council granted to the denominations of Christians called "Mennonites." 10. The fullest privilege of exercising their religious principales is by Law afforded to the Mennonites, without any kind of molestation or restriction what- ever, and the same privilege extends to the education of their children in scliools. II. The privilege of affirming instead of making affidavits, is afforded by Law. I have the honour to be, Gentlemen, Your obedient servant, (Sgd.) P. M. Lowe. Secretary of Department of Agriculture. Of vital importance is paragraph 10, under which "the fullest privilege of exercising their religious principles is hy lain afforded the Mennonites, rvitliout any I'ind of molestation or restriction whatever, a.nd the same privilege extends to the education of their children in the schools." This was territorial days. " By virtue of the above law and Order-in-Council the Colony Mennonites have resisted all attempts made in recent years to induce them to organise public schools and to instruct in English. What the Study of the Colony Mennonite Schools Disclosed.— The Old Coloniers live in village communities, each under an overseer, who looks after the economic ^\•elfal■e of the group, and a pastor, who lcx)ks 147 after the spiritual welfare of the village. Certain pasture lands are held in common ; but the outlying farms are held in fee simple bv individual owners, who drive out daily — sometimes as far as four to five miles — to till the land, as is the custom under the medieval system still prevailing in Eussia. Each village has its church and school. The school house always contains housing quarters for the teacher and his family at one end and the school room at the opposite. A common hall separates the tvro. The class -rooms are badly lighted — windows on three sides invariably — and poorly ventilated. They have no modern equip- ment. The children sit on backless wooden benches. Maps, globes, clocks, etc., are unl^nown and even blackboards are few and small. In this atmosphere the Mennonite children spend six or more months each year — the boys from 6 to 14 years and the girls from 6 to 12, o-rinding through this limited school fare: German Fiebel (primer) Catechism., New Testament, and Old Testament — these forming the brief steps in the required "''reading and Godliness." Much time is devoted to prayer and hymn singing, and some to ciphering and writing. iSTo time is devoted to geography, history, civics or hygiene. The Men- nonite child has little conception of the geography of the land in which he lives. His only history is that of the Mennonite church. As for the ideals, the aspirations and the future of the Canadian people, they are largely meaningless to him ; for while he lives in Canada he is not of Canada. Method of Approach. — This is a trying time for the language question in Canada, particularly in a Province like Saskatchewan where almost one-half of the i:)eople are of foreigTi birth. The one important fact to be kept in the foreground is how best to assimilate and Canadian- ise this heterogeneous mass of people, without forcing the process of transition so rajiidly that the best of the inheritance from foreign shores becomes lost. This calls for exceptional patience and firmness ; these will probably in the end accomplish more than the application of harsh measures. The Mennonites have given the Government the most perplexing problem, by reason of the above-stated Dominion contract. To be sure, even among them there are indications of a very gradual change for the better. In some villages there is evidence of some colony disintegra- tion. Excommunication has been resorted to repeatedly to keep the membership under control. Even this harsh weapon used by the brotherhood has not always been successful. Thus, for example, one family living in the village of l^euhorst has begun to send its children to the Osier public school, four and a half miles distant. The oversee i- of o^euhorst, a progressive man, expressed himself as entirely favour- able to English instruction for his own children — if he only dared. Under section 93 of The British North America. Act "in and for each province the legislature may exclusively make laws in relation to education" subject to the provision that "nothing in any such law shall prejudicially afTect any right or privilege with respect to denomina- tional schools which any class of persons have by law in the Province at the union." Whether this particular act of granting the Mennon- ites unlimited religious and educational privileges is or is not bindins- 148 upon the citizenship of Saskatchewan, if it were shown that the pre- vailing practices are a menace to the public, is not for this survey to settle. This is for the courts to decide. The Provincial Legislature can and should take some action on the gTound that the problem, as now is apparent, seriously threatens the welfare of the people as a \yhole. The ultimate responsibility would then rest with the Governor General in Council in case of appeal. After serious consideration of the question in all its phases it is the conviction of the Survey that the Government should now take the steps outlined below for the improvement of educational conditions among the Mennonites, in the belief that it will be upheld by the highest Dominion authority. Such action would speedily redound to the better- ment of education without in any way interfering with the religious worship of the Mennonites : (1) Place all Mennonite schools under definite Government inspection. (2) Require the teachers in charge of the schools to hold valid certificates to teach school. (3) Make the public school course of study the basis of school work ; but permit the teaching of religion, as at present, in German. (4) Include all lands in the colonies for taxation for school purposes. (5) Introduce the reorganisation gradually, allowing not less than two years' time for items 2. and 3. Comments on the Proposed Reorganisation. — The Director of the Survey has since his return to the United States made a study of the only Colon}'^ Mennonites in this country — nine colonies in Hutchinson and Hanson Counties, South Dakota. While these people continue to live the old community life, one can see a marked improvement in their mode of life over the Saskatehewan type. They all can speak English, many fluently. This intercourse with other people does not seem to have affected, in a noticeable way, their religious life. The State of South Dakota requires English as the medium of instruction ; the state course of study is used : the teachers are resrularlv certificated bv state authority; the schools are all of them public schools; and they are inspected by the country superintendents just the same as other public schools. In the past, it is true, considerable time — varying from one- half hour to two hours daily— has been given to German, and German as a medium of instruction in the schools; but recently German as a medium of instruction in Mennonite, parochial, private schools, and other schools has been discontinued at the request of the State Council of Defense. These steps may seem radical to some people; but they will assuredly hasten the Americanisation process, and for it, some day, the state may receive the gratitude of the very people who assumed rights that the state is now curtailing. Comments on the suggested changes in the Mennonite schools are really unnecessary. The subject may be passed over with a brief exposition of the present scheme of school support among the Old Coloniers. The schools are maintained at a trivial outlay. Aside from i4y tins the members of the brotherhood pay only the insignificant "supple- mentary revenue" tax. The present schools are less expensive than public schools. Under the proposed municipal plan of reorganisation all this would be changed. Vast areas of land which at the present time escape taxation for school purposes, except as stated above, would be brought under taxation, and the rates used for the support of the schools ^vithin the municipality. The brotherhood are thrifty_ and calculating in money matters, and might be helped to see ''the light" by being obliged to pay public school rates in addition to their present s<;hool tax. IV. 3"- /^'■r so 609 /^es F/gurrs in dractefs sheiv /fir numbers of /efrri/ifs ih Me sen/pmen's. SAoetfcf porr/ons jAory tfn^rr *' rcr crifan/zeef. Map. 7.— Old Colonier Settlement South of Swift Current. The real significance of this can be seen at a glance from the ma]) on thl- page. The area depicted includes the Old Colonier settlements south of Swift Current, and locates most of the villages. The colony 150 proper contains 101,760 acres of land not included in the public school districts. The small railroad town of Wymark, which is controlled by the progressive element, has been erected as a public school district, and operates a well-taught and w^ell-attended two-teacher school. Thi:< defection marked the first inroads on the colony lands, as it includes in the school district two small villages, Schoenwies and Schwanzenfeldt. Under municipal school organisation it might be worth a trial for the Government and municipal boards to co-operate in maintaining public schools near a few of the villages. The schools could be planned as community schools with ample equipment, including home for the teacher. The school should be placed in charge of a strong progressive Mennonite teacher, of which a few are available. There should be the strictest health inspection in each of these schools. All the Mennonite schools inspected under the survey proved to be unsanitary ; the children appear underfed, dirty and unkempt, and live in unventilated houses. The villagers intermarry to such an extent that inbreeding is quite evident. Health inspection and health instruction could be made a practical feature of these schools, whose teachers should have the co-operation of a special school nurse appointed by the Government for this field. Once the crust is broken the Old Coloniers will probably learn, as did their brothers in the United States, that it is quite possible to retain their religion in its oldtime purity, even though they accept the tongue of the land in which they and their children live. The Community Doukhohors. — The Russian Doukhobors, or "spirit-wrestlers," first made their appearance in Saskatchewan in 1899, They are communists and believe in internationalism and vegetarianism. Like the Mennonites they are afforded liberal induce- ments to colonise the new lands; but, fortunately, unlike the Mennon- ites, they received no exceptional privileges in the matters of education. Some 5,500 of these people settled northward of Yorkton in the Veregin-Kamsack section and about 2,500 took up lands near Eosthem. At the outstart they were all communists, dwelling in quaint villages of Russian construction. They are a robust people, cleanly in their habits, and unusuallv trustworthy. Barring" their occasional outbursts of religious fanaticism, they are quiet and law-abiding. In order to save their homestead rights and for other reasons many of the Doukhobors have begun to break away from community life, so that now probably 40 per cent, of them live on their o\\ai farms, where they take great pride in constructing substantial houses and large barns. These independent Doukhobors are excellent farmers and send their children to the public schools. In 1902 Peter Veregin, their old-time leader in Russia, returned from Siberian exile and found asylum with his religious compatriots in Saskatchewan. Tor the time l)cing he succeeded in checking the colony disintegration — a most unfortunate circumstance. But since his recent removal to British Columbia with a group of malcontents there are indications that communism will die a natural death, as it has done in other places where tried. Several villages in the Kamsack section have already been abandoned, or nearly so. The 1916 census gives the total number of Doukhobors now residing in Saskatchewan at 5,880, having decreased from 8,470 in 1911. 151 The comnmnity Doukhobors live in public school districts. They have begun to send their children to public sdhools, although not with the regularity desirable nor for the length of time required under The School Act. These people will obey the new Attendance Act, if it is made clear to thorn. They have a deep respect for law. l^ow that the provincial police have been made attendance officers there is reason to believe that all their children of compulsory school age will soon be enrolled in the schools. The urgent need, however, is to place the right type of teacher in charge of their schools, English-speaking men and women of good Canadian ideals, who can help the Doukhobors to attain the place that' should be theirs in Canadian life. Ituthenians and Rvthenian Schools. — The term ''Ruthenian" is used freely in this Province, and as popularly applied includes many people of Russian and Austro-Hungarian origin, not regularly of tho ethnic group known as Ruthenian. There are in Saskatchewan, accord- ing to the census of 1916, 50,302 people classified as Austro- Hungarians, and 19,126 as Russian, a total of 78,428. Certainly only a small number of these are properly Ruthenians. In the most liberal interpretation ''Ruthenian" in Saskatchewan embraces 5,865 Ruthe- nians proper, 12,100 Galicians, 4,005 Bukowinians, and 4,580 Ukranians, a total of only 27,506. The Ruthenians, in the limited sense, came originally from Little Russia. They are an intensely nationalistic and independent people, loving their Slavic tongue, their traditions and history. But theirs has been a checkered existence. They have successively been under Poland, Russia, and Austria, suffering much, gradually being reduced to a poverty-stricken peasantry, but still clinging to their own language and the traditions of past greatness. A vast movement of Slavs to the jSTew World began in the late seventies. First they came to the United States, where t'hey are now counted in numbers upward of a million. In 1894 they made their way to Canada, the great inflow to Saskatchewan beginning a few years later. The Ruthenians must not be thought of in the same light with thc- Mennonites and Doukhobors. They have no instinct of self-preseiwa- tion through exclusive group life. They are anxious to become Canadians and to add their bit to Canadian greatness. But t'hey wish to do this in their own way. They have decided political inclinations. This they have already demonstrated by electing their own school trustees, members of municipal councils, etc. They are eager for the English language; but they long to preserve their own tongue also. This is natural in the first foreign generation. Because of this eager- ness to preserve their mother tongue they have been insisting upon having in the schools Ruthenian-speaking teachers, which generally has meant inferior teachers with little ability to give Eno-Hsh instruction. The Ruthenian Schools Analysed. — The Ruthenian schools are, on the whole, poorly organised and poorly taught. The outstanding facts are: fl) Many meagrely prepared and naturally unqualified 152 teachers; (2) short school terms (mainly ''summer schools") ; and (3) poor attendance and great wastage up through the grades. The schools are frequently short-time schools, which close down for winter in December and are not opened again till after "seeding" in the spring. The real difficulty is that the school ^houses have been constructed as cheaply as possible by the ratepayers, who until recently could not afford better shelter for the children. The school houses are for the most part frame structures, flimsily built and ceiled instead of being plastered. Many are too cold to keep open in winter. To this might be added that many children walked to school a distance of four or more miles. This makes it hazardous to send them in winter. The following table discloses a more serious condition. It was compiled from 15 Ruthenian schools chosen at random in 4 inspector- ates, between Saskatoon and Yorkton: Fifteen schools Grade attended I II. III. IV. V. VI. VII. VIII. Number of pupils in each class 14 28 30 24 9 5 13 22 20 23 30 1.5 37 14 17 16 14 16 7 3 7 15 4 14 9 6 2 7 6 4 4 4 2 14 7 4 10 4 1 6 2 1 1 7 1 3 1 4 5 1 4 1 4 1 . 2 1 1 2 1 Total by grades 301 113 67 36 S 2 2 1 Almost 60 per cent, of the entire attendance is in the first grade. Practically no pupils get beyond the fourth grade. The education of these children is limited, accordingly, to reading, writing, a little com- position work, a little ciphering, and song- — most of these schools sing patriotic and other songs as well as or better than the English schools. Geography, Canadian History, Canadian Government, and similar studies of vital importance to the foreign bom are taught from the fifth grade onward, in which grades these 15 schools have only 13 pupils. Comment is unnecessary, particularly if this table is studied in con- junction with Table 11 in Chapter VI. IIow to Improve School Conditions in Ruthenian Communities. — The one great factor in improving Ruthenian schools is the teacher. Given the right type of teacher, the other obstacles can in time be over- come. Ruthenian school trustees do not always take the advice of thf^ inspectors in choosing their teachers, usually to their own grief. The study has disclosed, however, that a higher class of teachers is gradually coming into the Ruthenian >^chools. first, because they pay better 153 salaries than many Engiisli-speakiiig commimitie?, and second, because the inspectors are making a concerted effort to place in the schools well equipped teachers of real missionary spirit. Living conditions in the average Rnthenian home are unsatis- factory and poorly suited to teachers. Cleanliness and hygienic laws <)re disregarded quite generally. It is accordingly necessary in these districts to erect houses for the teachers. To improve conditions still further, the Survey recommends: (1) That promising young men and women — -English-speaking, of Rnthenian and Canadian origin — of good native ability and missionary zeal, be chosen on nomination of the inspector, and trained in the normal schools at government expense, on agreement that they teach at least three years in Rnthenian schools ; (2) That specially prepared Canadian teachers — preferably mar- ried men with practical wives — be subsidised by the Govern- ment to teach in the schools for a definite term of years ; (3) That model community schools be organised with government aid, as outlined in Chapter VII. Permanent Teachers and Model Schools for Ruthenian Districts. — To illustrate the possibilities of strong teachers even in poorly equipi:)€d schools, a simple instance may be cited. This is Fedoruk School District Xo. 2342, near the center of a large Ruthenian settlement. It is in charge of a Canadian teacher who lives with his wife and child in a small house on the school grounds. The school is attended by 38 Ruthenian children, who have made excellent progress under this teacher and have displayed an intense interest in their school work. The school garden was the best seen anyw^here on the study round over the Province. The school had, as one of its practical activities, sold 30 bushels of potatoes from its garden for patriotic purposes and had many bushels left. It is necessary, unfortunately, to close this school during the winter months, because both the school house and dwelling house are too poorly constructed for cold weather. If the Government would take such a community and set up in it a model school, in charge of a teacher of the type now there, Canadian- isation of the people would go forward rapidly. Not alone would the school have a man teacher in charge, but his wife would exert a powerful influence among the women for clean, sanitary living and well kept, well nourished children. Private Schools in Certain Non-English Communities. — About 1,800 square miles of territory in the region of Humboldt-Muen- ster is peopled by German-Russians and Germans, with a sprink- ling of other nationalities. The Benedictine Order dominates much of the section, with here and there some German Lutherans. Until recently much of this territory has lain outside of organised school districts. Parochial schools have taken the place of public schools, in some places, because only boarding school- seemed practicable in these sparsely peopled regions ; but chiefly, no doubt, because of a desii'e to keep the school population under church control. 154 The Department of Education has a special inspector in charge of German-speaking communities. His chief task is to organise new public school districts. In some instances the private schools have hindered, or at least retarded, the erection of public schools. But, all considered, this newly settled region is making commendable headway in educational matters, albeit that much instruction is, and has been, given in the German tongue. The Humboldt group of schools particularly has been subjected to much discussion by the public. There are in this group 12 parochial schools, with an enrolment of about 525 pupils. The instruction is bi-lingual, about one-half English and one-half German. The teachers are efficient and well trained, so that the children probably learn as much English as they would in some all-English schools. It does not "set well" in an English-speaking country, however, j)articularly at the present time, to permit private schools to spring up here and there over the land, wholly without Government direction or inspection. By The School Act, parents are under no compulsion to send their children to public school, provided ''the child is under instruction in some other satisfactory manner." The authority which makes the law has the power also to say whether the other means are satisfactory or not. In other words, if children are kept out of public school and sent to private schools instead, the Government must take ujDon itself to inspect all such schools to see that the laws are obeyed and the children given a satisfactory substitute for a public school education. The Survey recommends : (1) That all private schools now operating without specific authority of law be placed under competent Government inspection; (2) That in matters of study course, teacher certification, etc., these schools be adjusted gradually to conform more closely to the needs of the Canadian people ; (3) That in these and all other parochial and private schools German, as a medium of instruction, be reduced to a minimum. The Survey recommends, finally: (1) That all public schools be authorised to u.-e public school buildings for teaching a non-English language only after regular school hours. CHAPTER XVII. THE EXAMl.XATION SYSTEM. "Are we not busy preparing students to pass examinations rather than training men to do a work ?" asks one of the school officers of the Province in his otfieial report. The question may well be asked regarding the entire Saskatchewan examination system, since in it the Province perpetuates a system that has been abandoned in most progressive countries. History of Examinations.— In its modern form the examination is a development of the eighteenth century. Historically it represents the attempt to introduce standards, and it is generally conceded to have accomplished good results in giving definiteness to the work of schools of every grade. With the attainment of certain more or less uniforni standards, however, the examination lost its usefulness and gradually fell into disuse. England, long the stronghold of the examination system, finally had to give it up in large part, after men like Matthew Arnold had sho'v^m that the policy of paying government grants on the lesnlts of examinations produced "a, monstrous uniforaiity;" and after agitation against examinations had led the Royal Education Commis- sion (1886-88) to sense a real danger and Mr. Herbert's ''The Sacrifice of Education to Examination" (1889) had led the way for reform. When the English Government abolished the system of wholesale exam- inations in 1897, it did so on the express ground that examinations did not constitute a satisfactory basis for the distribution of grants and did not secure the results aimed at — general educational efficiency. Even the surviving elements in the English examination system are being attacked. The English Association (London.) is careful to say in a recent report-^ that "The publication of suggestions for the improvement of elementary examinations in English must not be inter- preted to mean that the English Association is committed to any approval of the system now in vogue. The whole principle of subject- ing children at this stage to external examination is on educational grounds open to grave question." The report points out that in Scot- land the practice has been almost entirely abandoned; that there "the duty of examining young children is left to the teacher, and the results are checked by the inspector." A recent report by the IsTational Com- missioner of Education for Ireland, also scores examinations. Experience in other countries has been similar to that in England. France and Germany still cling to certain examination features, but in general the practice has been to develop an examination system to the point where certain standards were reached and then do away almos!: entirely with the examination machinery. In the United States and elsewhere the present policy is to leave more and more responsibility to the individual teacher and principal, depending upon good teacher- training and proper supervision of teaching to maintain standards. ^Pamphlet No. 317. English Papers in Examinations for Pupils of Schools in England and Wales. 1917. 155 loG The Saskatchewan Plan. — Saskarchewan lias not yet discarded hev examination machinery as others have done. In this Province the examination system breaks in, so to speak, at three important points in the school career — eighth grade (admission to high school) ; teachers* certificates ; and entrance to the university. Regarding admission to high schools and collegiates the regulations provide : (1) There shall be held annually by the department a qualifying examination for Grade VIII diplomas. (2) Holders of Grade VIII diplomas shall be entitled to admis- sion to a high school or to enter upon the course of study for high schools in such schools as give instruction therein. (3) The board of trustees of any high school or collegiate institute may make provision for the admission and instruction of pupils in the work of Grade VIII as prescribed for public schools. Before being admitted pupils shall satisfy the prin- cipal that they have satisfactorily completed the course for public schools up to and including Grade VII., (4) In case of a dispute as to the standing of a pupil applying for admission to a high school or collegiate institute an appea! shall lie to the inspector of schools for the district whose decision shall be final. There is the further provision that : (5) In any high school or collegiate institute where the work of Grade VIII is included in accordance with the regulations governing high schools, pupils taking such work may upon the recommendation of the principal to the Department be permitted to enter upon the high school course of study without examination. (6) (a) In any school district within the limits of which a high school or collegiate institute is in operation and where the work of the teacher has been satisfactorily reported upon by the inspector of schools, the minister may, upon the joint recommendation of the principal of the high school and the superintendent of schools where such official is employed, or where no superintendent is employed the principal or the teacher in charge of Grade VIII, admit a pupil to a high school without examination. (6) The principal of the school or the teacher in charge of Grade VIII shall submit to the Department when required full information respecting the age, attendance, attitude to work and general proficiency of any pupil recommended in accordance with the foregoing regulation. The regulations go on to say that "in all other schools the pupils shall be required to pass the examinations in such subjects of Grade VIII as may be prescribed from time to time l)y the Department," but that notwithstanding anything in the above passages, "any pupil shall hftve the privilege of writing upon the Grade VIII examination." The effect of these provisions is to set up the written examination, with its low rating of 35 and 50 per cent., as the legalised 157 route to the high school. Paragraph Ga (page G) of the regulations is a concession to the newer conception of high school cnlraiice, but the evident intent, made clear in the precise language of paragraph S. i- to make the examination the goal. The concession made to agricultural students (paragraph 9) might just as well be made for all pupils. The principle involved in it — that education beyond the gTades shall be available for all boys and girls mature enough to profit by it — is sound and will undoubtedly prove beneficial. Maturity and desire for an education provide more effective motives than examinations. The examination bar placed at the eighth grade stopping place emphasises the point made in the chapter on high schools — that the Province does not yet view the high school as an integral part of the public school system. As soon as this idea once grips the public, and the realisation becomes general that every boy and girl should have at least a high school education, the bars will be dropped down, and pupils will pass, as they should, as readily from eighth gi-ade to ninth (i.e.. into the present high school), as'they do from fifth to sixth or anywhere else along the line. The eighth grade examination is spoken of as a bar. In many cases it is an open door for the immature, though perhaps bright, pupils, to get into hig'h school. Many a principal explained proudly that "he had no Grade VIIPs this year because his seventh graders had all passed the eighth grade examination last year." It is a poor seventh grade pupil who cannot answer 50 per cent, of the eighth grade ques- tions correctly. Then why wait for the eighth grade ? It is just such incidents as these that have led to the abolition of the examination system in other countries. The examination can scarcely take into account the maturity of the pupil or his general ability to carry on more advanced work. This the teacher knows better than anyone else. She will have her own examinations, or brief tests, from time to time : and she will also have that intimate knowledsre that comes only from everyday contact. The Provincial eighth grade examination should be abolished ; in its place should be a provision that every pupil who completes eighth grade satisfactorily will be admitted to high school or collegiate on application : that seventh grade pupils will not be admitted to high school work:^ and that for all special cases of pupils not graduates of eighth grades the prircipal of the collegiate shall decide. This would put the problem of promotion to hia'h school where it belonss — with thp local school authorities. The Provincial Department's task would then be to see that school standards are maintained, so that the pupils who go forth to higher work are really equipped for it. The qualifvino- examinations for teachers' diplomas are open to the same obiectimis that He against eighth grade examinations and to certain others that arc equally fundamental. Written examination;? will not produce the best results in selecting teachers. The poorest teachers will pass the best examinations and vice versa. Put apart from this, fhe verv existence of the tvne of qnalifving examination required is a reflection on the his-h schools and colledates. Ideally th<^ ^Unles.s, of course, a junior liigh school plan is adopted. 158 liormal schools should receive only those students who have completed the course of the high schools. In any event certification by the high school principal should be the method of ascertaining the student's qualifications, not a mere academic examination on Part I^ and Part II.- Attention has been drawn to the historical functions of examina- tions as a standardising device. There is something to be said on this score for the annual departmental examinations for diplomas. They do make certain that, as far as paper examinations can assure it. work completed in one collegiate is equivalent to that of any other. On the other hand, the system of a cumulative examination places a serious burden upon the schools. It means that instead of taking up a subject- unit and disposing of it in one year, the subject must be dragged out through all the years of high school. This means a large number of very short recitation periods, an excessive apportionment of subjects or fragments of subjects to each teacher, and a general scattering of interest that must be most unfortunate from the standpoint of educa- tional progress. It would seem as though Saskatchewan, like the Western States nearest to her, had so far devTloped her educational system that she could present an unbroken chain of progress from grade- school to high school and from high school to normal school or univer- sity, with no formal Department examinations of any kind to block the way or to divert the teachers from their fundamental task of educating boys and girls, rather than preparing for examinations. The Teaclier's Measure's of Achievement. — Nothing in this chapter should be construed as denying to the teacher the legitimate use of the examination in her own school. Examinations rightly handled constitute a valuable teaching as well as testing device that no instructor will neglect. At present the teacher has close at hand, 'however, other and perhaps more reliable methods of testing achievement. Saskat- chewan teachers have an excellent opportunity just now to inform them- selves regarding the new tests and scales in the fundamental subjects that are being worked out by Thorndike, Courtis, Ayres, and others. These will form valuable supplementary agencies for the measuring process. Adequate use of available means of this sort will make still more unnecessary the present elaborate examination system in Saskatchewan. RECOMMENDATION'S. Briefly, then, it is recommended : That the present examination machinery be reduced to the lowest possible minimum; specifically, that pupils satisfactorily completing the eighth grade automatically qualify for admission to high school; that the high school work, after inspection by the Department, be accepted in lieu of all qualifying examinations for admission to normal schools and the university. 1 English — oral reading, literature, grammar, composition, spelling; mathematics — arithmetic and mensuration, algebra; geography; elementary science; either ,art or manvial training, or household science. 2 English — oral reading, literature, composition; mathematics — algebra, geornetry, elementary science; history— Can.adian and British; agriculture or household science; music (optional, marks to be regarded as a bonus). CHAPTER XVIII. SCIIOOT, iryCiFEXE AXD HEALTH IXSPECTIOX. Good IleaWi and Education. — Every human being has the right to he horn into th© world of good parentage and sound of mind and body. He lias a similar right to grow to maturity in wholesome physical surroundings, where nature can have full sway and thus demonstrate that man is created in the image of God. Unfortunatelv, this is not always so. A nation's share in the world's work is limited only by the physical equipment of the people engaged in the combat. A surprisingly large percentage of the conscripts examined on both sides of the Inter- national border are continually being turned down for physical ailments. The average person knows little about national health, and of his own health in its individual and national aspects. Without ques- tion the common disregard for personal and community health is due largely to indifferent methods of teaching hygiene in the schools, or to the fact that hygiene holds only a secondary and incidental place in the school curriculum. The latter is the case in Saskatchewan. A glance at the prescribed course of study for the public schools discloses that as a formal school subject hygiene has no place in the schools whatever. The school authorities urge that it be taught incidentally throughout the study course, as opportunity allows. Eor the ungraded schools, the printed outline suggests, hygiene may for convenience be combined with the teaching of manners and morals, civics, physical culture, and temperance. The fundamental weaknesses in the plan are two: (1) The teacher whose every moment throughout the working day is crowded with fixed subjects will give little thought to incidental teaching; (2) Even if he could find the required time, the teacher's own preparation for health instruction is entirely inadequate, since the teachers who have procured their academic preparation in Saskatchewan have themselves been subjected to the same incidental instruction in the elementary and secondary schools. Nor have the normal schools been able to do much better. A few lectures throughout the ten or sixteen weeks' course by a staff member or by the Provincial Director of School Hygiene is all the instruction the teachers-in-training have had. These are harsh facts ; but they cannot be made too emphatic. Records from fifty-two rural schools studied by the Director of the Survey show that in not a single instance was the subject of hygiene or sanitation broached by the teachers in the course of the process of instruction, and during this time the teachers were quite often breaking the simplest rules of school room hj'giene, being utterly unconscious of so doing. It has been well said that under the new Compulsory Attendance Act the "public schools become a public trust, and when parents deliver their children over to the care of the schools, they have the right to insist that under the supervision of properly constituted authority they shall be safe from harm and be delivered back again in at least as good condition as at first." 159 160 More than Legislation Needed. — The public health laws in Saskat- chewan are especially comprehensive and the provincial health machin- ery is under direction of a Commissioner of Public Health, whose authority reaches into the remotest municipality. But what does all this profit if the people are not taught from childhood the significance and desirability of hygienic living? The reference is particularly to the wholly unsanitary conditions repeatedly encountered by the Survey in non-English communities. Good health cannot be legislated into people, but it can fortunately be instilled into them as children in the school, whenever they are given the advantages of a thoroughgoing health jirogramme. Health Conditions in Toiun and Country Compared. — At this juncture it is well to consider the relative health conditions of the average incorporated town and the open country. What are the facts in regard to the matter ? Which is the healthier, the average town com- munity or the country community ? Reliable information shows that rural people, whether they live in Canada or in the ITnited States, have presumed too much of the natural healthfulness of their environment, and have neglected to make the most of the advantages they have over the incorporated places. In the cities men used to run a greater risk from contagious disease than in the open country ; but modern medical science has wrought wonders for the cities, which generally show a smaller death rate than the country and rural villages. Country people pay a startling toll in easily preventable diseases, because they disregard simple hj'gienic law.- of drainage, water supply, pure air, etc. This could be avoided, in the main, if the schools were equipped to give the children and patrons the right kind of health instruction. The SasJratcheivan Survey of Hygienic Conditions. — The Minister of Education has made the beginnings of a constructive health programme in the schools by organising a division of School Hygiene in the Department of Education in charge of a Director of School Hygiene. This new division has already carried the health propaganda to the teachers-in-?ervice, to organisations of patrons, club workers, and in the form of special lectures, to normal school students. One of the most effective things yet accomplished by the Director of Hygiene was the recent survey of hygienic conditions in rural schools, of which an analysis appears in Chapter VII. This study ha,^ disclosed many unsatisfactory conditions in school hygiene and sanitation for which both teachers and patrons must share the blame. But the above-mentioned study concerned itself chiefly with the phj'sical environment of the children. Now, what are the real facts in regard to the children of rural Saskatchewan? What about their physical condition? Is it such as to induce the greatest results from the teaching process? Every person should knoAv that a child who finds it difficult to read or to see what is on the blackboard cannot do good work in school. One whose hearing is bad or whose breathing is partially obstructed will be dull and listless. Little can be expected of children who, because of bad teeth, have digestive troubles, or who suffer from malnutrition. N 161 The Provincial Health Inspection. — Up to the present time there has been no reliable body of information in regard to the exact condition of health among rnral children. Several of the city systems have taken advantage of section 111 of The SchQol Act, nnder which town districts may appoint an attendant medical officer, a dentist and a school nurse — one or all. The rural districts are not so fortunately situated. What- ever of health inspection they have had is done by the few exceptional teachers who act as their own health inspectors. The Survey undertook to obtain the necessary data in regard to health among rural children. To this end the Minister of Education proclaimed a medical inspection day for the schools throughout the Province. The Commissioner of Public Health was charged with carrying out the details of the medical inspection. With the assistance of municipal secretaries he selected type schools in the diiferent rural municipalities. Unfortunately only a comparatively small number of schools could be reached, since the whole number of practitioners in Saskatchewan in these war times is less tlian four hundred and the schools are ten times as many. In all 2,273 children were examined. Of these 1,702, or 47.8 per cent., had not been vaccinated; 1,052. or 46.2 per cent., had carious teeth; 1,719, or 31.9 per cent, had diseased tonsils. The aggregate number of defects in all the children was 3,127, not counting the 1,702 who were not vaccinated. Table 28 gives a detailed analysis of these conditions: TABLE 28. — HYGIENIC CONDITIONS IN SASKATCHEW^AN SCHOOLS. Per Number cent. Not vaccinated 1,702 74 .8 Carious teeth 1,052 46 .2 Use tooth brush 1,003 41 .1 Diseased tonsils 719 31 .6 Adenoids 443 19 .4 Nasal catarrh, etc 213 9.3 Defective sight 157 6.9 Unhealthy appearance 98 4.3 Not well nourished 99 4.3 Heart disease 82 3.6 Trachoma or other eye disease 66 2 .9 Discharging ears 65 2.8 Deaf 51 2.2 Other morbid conditions 46 2.0 Lung trouble 20 .8 Pediculosis 16 .7 While conditions proved notoriously bad in the open country, they were little, if any, better in the town and village schools. Seventy-nine children were examined in one town school, of which fifty-two had carious teeth. In the primary department every child had one or more carious teeth. It is bootless to enlarge any further on these health conditions. What is needed is a constructive health programme based on remedial legislation. 162 A Cunstriictlve Health Programme.- — The Survey recommends the following as essential in the organisation of an effective health programme : (1) Introduction of school hygiene as a required subject in all elementary schools; (2) Study of personal and school hygiene and home sanitation as a required subject in the teachers' course in the high schools and collegiate institutes ; (3) Re-study of hygiene and sanitation, from the teacher's view- point, in the normal schools, together with systematic study of physical education, including supervised play ; (4) Permissive legislation on the subject of health inspection and health instruction in rural districts, through the medium of school nurses. School Hygiene a Required Subject.- — ^Physiology and hygiene are so often inefficiently taught as to raise the question of their utility. Yet this is no reason for excluding the study from the schools. The day in which we live demands a study of all things that relate to man's physical welfare, and the school is the only agency in position to give it. If hygiene is often badly taught it is for want of trained teachers, and these must be provided. As a rule it is inadvisable to teach the science of physiology to children. Health primers should be used as leading threads in the study, which otherwise should be informal, but ivith a definite amount of time assigned to it. The suggestive topics for study in the manual published by the Department are all excellent. Let them be given liberal place in the daily programme; place the teaching in charge of trained teachers, and effective results may soon be obtained. Physiology and Hygiene as a Subject for Professional Study. — All who are studying to become teachers, whether in high school departments or in normal schools, should follow the informal work begun in the elementary school with a study of the science of physiology, to furnish the necessary background for intelligent instruction. The method of presentation is as vital as the subject matter. Some teachers, indeed, with good mastery of the content, present the subject in such a way as to raise the question of utility, if not of morality. This calls for sound pedagogical foundations also. A suggestive course for teachers is outlined in Chapter XIII, page 127. The Municipal School Nurse. — Systematic health instruction in the schools will work great changes in rural districts, particularly as soon as the teachers have received adequate preparation to give health instruction. Everv rural teacher should assuredly be able to discover by their outward signs the common contagious diseases. He should be able to detect the ordinary remediable defects in the pupils under his care, as, for example, diseased tonsils, adenoids, deafness, and incorrect vision. But the teacher cannot be charged with conserving the health of the whole countrvside; as a matter of fact, he will need both assistance 163 and professional backing to succeed in eradicating preventable disease and physical defects from the class room, not to mention the home. The teacher should have the assistance of a regularly employed medical practitioner as health inspector or of a trained school nurse, preferably the latter. There is serious objection to employing regular practitioners because the scheme of health inspection involves not alone medical knowledge and experience, but also pedagogical training. It is often difficult for a practitioner to have sufficient appreciation of the condi- tions under which teachers labour, and the required patience and sym- pathy to accomplish the most with the children and parents. More successful has been the trained school nurse "who can act as an intermediary between the physician and the school on the one hand, and the school and the home on the other." The school nurse has already become indisiDensable in the best city systems. The school nurse discovers and reports cases for medical treatment. She does more. She follows up these cases and comes in contact with the homes and administers both relief and advice. In Eegina, as illustration, the school nurses have worked out a mosc satisfactory health programme, which, after a period of doubt and askance, has been, accepted by the local practitioners as highly satis- factory. School nurses in rural districts are of more recent acquisition. In eight or nine American states they are being introduced in increasing numbers. One need go no further than North Dakota. The first rural school nurse in the state began work in 1914. Now there are 42, all told, either in service or authorised. The school nurse in Saskatchewan would fit in admirably as a link in the reorganised municipal school district. The nurse could have charge of the group of schools within a given municipality, and in sparsely settled regions she might even have two or more municipalities. This kind of health work should receive permissive legislation. It would be unwise to go beyond this. If health education can be obtained without compulsion, it is in keeping with established democratic ideals. The government would be wise to grant liberal aid to the first few municipalities in each inspectorate who engage school nurses. CHAPTER XIX. SCHOOL SUPPORT WHAT THE PROVINCE PAYS FOR EDUCATION. The ]ast question to be considered in this study deals with financial support of education. What does the Province pay for the education described above ? Does it pay high for what it gets, or does it pay low ? It may be agreed that the results obtained from the present system are far from what they ought to be, or some time will be. But could better returns be expected in a new country on the present investment ? These and similar questions will be answered in the following pages. Steady Increase in Expenditure. — As stated elsewhere,^ Saskat- chewan invested the large sum of $7,241,335.99 on elementary and higher education, during the fiscal year ending April 30, 1916. This is equivalent to $11.14 for every man, woman, and child in the Province, and $36.75 for every person between 6 and 21 years of age. Of this amount $6,159,236.87 was invested in public elementary schools, $658,105.75 in high schools and collegiate institutes, $185,499.87 in administration of the school system. //7creosp in f^xpenc/itifre for Fub/ic £/p/77pnfary £c:fi/co//on , /906-/9/6. /OZSi .398 e.S/2.2 /. / ^6. 6/ 7. //I / ^ ^4 250.387 ^109.403 "^ 700. lis — to 9 8 7 6 S 4 3 2 / f^06 '08 */0 '/2 '/4 VS "/e Fig. 29. — Increase in expenditure for public elementary education, by years. 164 ^ See chapter I, page 17 165 The amount expended^ for public elementary education has increased (Figure 29) from $1,700,115 to $10,288,398 within the decade, while the school enrolment has increased from 31,275 to 125,590. The actual per capita ex]X'nditure for each child enrolled has advanced steadily, being $54.36 in 1906 and $81.92 in 1916. This is an increase so large as to challenge comparison. TABLE 29, EXPENDITURE FOE PUBLIC ELEMENTARY EDUCATION FOR CERTAIN YEARS. ^ Year Total expenditure School enrolment Per capita expenditure 1906 .... $1,700,115 3,109,403 4,250,387 6,617,111 9,512,249 9,157,476 10,288,398 31,275 47,086 63,964 79,882 111,059 119,279 125,590 S54 36 1908 66 04 1910 66 45 1912 82 85 1914 85 65 1915. .., 76.77 1916 81.92 Schoof Snro/menf 6y /ears. /906 To /9/6. /so. 000 (29. enditures ^ This includes payments on debentures and notes. ^This also is based on "expenditure" not on actual "investment,'' which through- out would have been less . 166 based on average enrolment. It ranks with the new western states which all maintain expensive systems by reason of their newness. In Saskatchewan the overhead expenses are particularly heavy because they must be divided amor.g comparatively few pupils. The American states deal in larger numbers of pupils taught in larger and fewer, and, therefore, more economical school centers. New York, for example, instructs 8,003,241 elementary pupils at an outlay of $57,006,957, which on the per capita basis is less than one-half what Saskatchewan expends. TABLE 30 PER CAPITA EXPENDITURE FOR PUBLIC ELEMENTARY SCEOOLS IN SASKATCHEWAN AND CERTAIN STATES. 1. Washington $50 . 84 2. Arizona 50. 26 3. Saskatchewan 49 . 04 4. Montana 48 . 89 5. North Dakota 42.42 6. Massachusetts 42 . 45 7. New York 41 . 30 8. Minnesota 40 . 63 Such a comparison as this shows that Saskatchewan does not expend too much for elementary education. In fact, if the small number of pupils reached is considered, Saskatchewan spends less than the best American states. The Province must be prepared to invest even more than it has already done for some time to come. Ultimately better prepared teachers, larger school districts and schools planned for all the people will help to reduce the per capita cost by attracting a larger number of persons into the schools to share the schools' increased efficiency and usefulness. Provincial Grants for Elementary Education. — The elementary schools are supported by local rates, or taxes, and provincial grants. Table 31 gives the ratio of these grants to tlie total expenditure by years. The median per cent, for the past eleven years is 10.84. In othfer words, the provincial government provides considerably more than one5-tenth of the entire maintenance of the elementary schools. TABLE 31. GOVERNMENT GRANTS AXD TOTAL EXPENDITURES FOR PUBLKl ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS, BY YEARS. Year 1906. 1908. 1910. 1912. 1914. 1915. 1916. Government grants , $174,218 402,028 557,299 622.088 867,590 993,579 1,077,008 Total expenditure $1,700,115 3,109,403 4,250,387 6,617,111 9,512,249 9,157,476 10,288,398 Percentage of Government grants in total expenditure 10.24 12.92 13.13 9.40 10.85 10.84 10.47 I'he variation in the graphic representation (Figure 31) is due chiefly to disproportionate increases in grants and local taxes. Thus in 167 1912 tiie government grant showed a fair increase, but this was more than overcome by a $2,000,000 increase in local taxation. Paf/o of Goi/er/t7nt>nt Grants /rj TbtoJ Expend/turv' for Pui>//c £^/(>menfory Ecfucatfon, for c^rfa/'n fipr Cent. years. 1/1 /3/3 /J / 1 y /2 92 id 11 / /0-8J f084 If /n W-2'4 /0-4-7 lU Ck 9-40 V — /906 08 /O /^ /4 15 /6 Fig. 31.— Government grants and total expenditure. At this juncture it is well to ask, does the government provide as large a percentage of the total expenditure as the best interests of the people dictate ? Should the major portion of educational support fall npon the local ratepayer, or should education be made a general provin- cial matter ? It may be retorted that a province-wide system of taxation is manifestly both democratic and equable. Schools are certainly estab- lished for the whole province or country. Ignorance or inefficiency in the local community reflects on the entire commonwealth, and eventually levies a heavy burden on it for penal and other institutions of like character. It is accordingly wise to make the whole wealth of the province available for educating all the youth of the province. In a similar way it is agreed by thoughtful schoolmen that local taxation is necessary to keep alive and foster the local interest in school affairs and to develop local independence and self-reliance. Local taxes should be used chiefly for buildings and school equip- ment and similar local advantages; provincial grants should be used for school maintenance, and particularly as an award to induce greater efficiency in education. To make the municipality the tax unit for all the schools lying within the municipal school district would be a long step in the direction of equalising wealth for school purposes. In addi- tion, the Province should scale up its grants to the point of providing one-fourth of all school maintenance funds. The basis for distributing the grants should also be modified materially. Expenditures for Secondary Education. — For the fiscal year closing April 30, 1916, $658,105.75 was expended for high schools and collegiate institutes. This is a per capita expenditure of $183.67 for each student in high school attendance. This is twice as much per capita as the best American states pay. But figured on the basis of all pn]bils 168 of school age who ought to be in high school, Saskatchewan expends only $16.12 to $22.50 for such a state as California. Table 32 gives some comparative statistics. TABLE 32. PER CAPITA EXPENDITURE FOR HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION IN SASKATCHEWAN" AND IN THE UNITED STATES. 1. Saskatchewan $183.67 2. California 92. 15 3. Montana 83 . 78 4. Arizona 83 . 45 5. North Dakota 75 . 95 6. Minnesota 71 . 93 7. Washington 70 . 77 8. Massachusetts 63 . 02 Again the chief difference in the figures can be explained in the relatively small number reached by the high schools in Saskatchewan. The experience tables of the Bureau of Education show that for each 1,000 pupils in Grade I, in 1906-07, 111 should graduate from a four- year high school in 1918. Applying these figures to the Saskatchewan high school there ought to graduate from the Senior Form in 1918 between four and five times as many students as are now in this form. Aside from the above it is well to mention that secondary school staffs in Saskatchewan are well paid because exceptionally well trained. The equipment in buildings and apparatus is good and has been procured at heavy outlay. These and the comparatively small numbers reached by the high schools account for the high per capita cost of secondary school education. The tax burden lies, however, mainly on the city and town districts where the schools are established. As was shown in Chapter XI a very large per cent, of the students in attendance are rural non-residents whose only direct share in the schools' maintenance is the supplementary revenue of $2.00 or $2.50 per diem for each teacher employed. A simple calculation will show that this does not go far towards defraying the gross cost of maintaining the secondary schools. The real difiicultv lies in the small number of secondary schools which leaves many towns and villages and the rural communities without any such facilities. This obliges the people to seek out these few centres for school enrolment with consequent tax burdens for the city population. The budget for secondary education for the past two years was apportioned on the following basis : Local: 1915 1916 Teachers' salaries $157,850 . 73 $175,097.80 Other local expenditure 344,109.97 405,529.90 Provincial: Provincial grants 30,776.47 31,885.00 Supplementary revenue grants 37,070.00 44,843.05 Manual training and domestic science grants . 300 . 00 750 . 00 $570,107.17 $658,105.75 Sources of Educational Support. — The foregoing statements make clear that the school system is not cheap. But this cannot be other- wise. Every new school system is expensive. The vital problem is to equalise the tax burdens on all alike and to have the public share its 169 privileges alike. To this end, (1) what lands are assessed for local taxation? and (2) how does the Government procure its funds for its provincial grants ? (1) Local Taxation. — Local rates are levied on the fair valua- tion of all lands (based on original cost and the unearned increment only) not otherwise exempted by law. Lands within organised school districts alone are taxed. Conse- quently vast areas are now escaping their just share of taxes because they are held in large tracts for speculation, or they maintain cheap private schools only, or they have been deliberately gerrymandered and kept without the districts by their owners to avoid taxation. Still larger amounts will be expended locally for some yeai*s. To meet this all lands musr be included in the tax rolls. Just how many hundrei'i thousands of acres escape taxation is difficult to say, but that it is large can be seen from the map on page 149. This is a drawing of the present Balcarres Inspectorate in the long settled prairie section. Round about 385,000 acres in this inspectorate are now exempt from taxation for school pur- poses except for the small supplementary revenue. The proposed municipal school district organisation will remedy all such irregularities as these. - ym///«//M», j^/>/>r»ximatr/y JdSOOO Acres 0/ JLand //? //t/3 /nipecfpratp a/e/ie, IZ/rfarecf /or Sefioo/ fljrposes, because /Vof lac/uaetf in Organirecf O/str/cts. Map 8. — The Balcarres Inspectorate (2) School Lands Trust Fund. — A large part of the Provincial revenue for school purposes is derived from interest on the School Lands Trust Fund which is held in trust by tho 170 Dominion Government. At the time of the Union the Dominion Government retained the administration of all school lands and other natural resources for what is now the prairie provinces. When school lands are sold the payments are placed in a trust fund on which the several provinces concerned receive 3 per cent, interest. All deferred interest likewise becomes a part of the provincial revenue. The pur- pose has been to establish a pennanent endowment for all the schools, similar to the permanent school funds in the United States. The difference in the two plans is that in the latter the Federal Government gave the states outright vast land areas and oth(;r resources to be administered by the several states for the benefit of the schools erected within their borders. Under this plan great funds are being accumulated from land sales, rentals and royalties. Thus^ for example, in 1914, Minnesota had permanent funds and lands valued at $204,668,248; Texas, $86,356,432; Illinois, $33,025,466; ^^orth Dakota, $38,212,264. The incomes are invested in gilt-edge securities within the states; and, most important of all, administered by the people who have an immediate interest at stake in seeing that arrears of interest and payments are made when due. It would seem good national policy to permit all the provinces to administer these educational trust funds, under reasonable legislative restriction. Unquestionably the incomes could be increased considerably beyond the present 3 per cent. Plan of Distributing the Provincial Grants. — Government grants should ever be based on the principle that educational achievements in an individual community, as an example for emulation, is deserving a genuine reward, 'thus to give grants to schools merely because they keep their doors open for a definite number of days annually, is a doubtful practice; but to make the award on the basis of actual attendance multiplied by the number of days would be an achievement worthy of reward. It would unquestionably be equitable to base the grants on the following: (1) A certain first credit to all small schools struggling under adverse conditions ; (2) Professional teachers of successful experience, for without such teachers a good equipment is of little avail ; (3) Total daily attendance for the preceding term, for without the pupils in attendance even good teachers are of little use; (4) Course of instruction adapted to the needs of the people. Finally, the inspectors should be armed with large discretionary power in withholding grants for cause. Becommendations for Equable School Support. — Saskatchewan has entered upon a policy of liberal school support. If the broad ideals of the present are to become fully realised, it will be necessary to con- 171 tinue to utilise all the sources of taxation, at least as liberally as in ihe past; and to distribute these bounties in the most equable way. As a general thing it is well to remember that the two vital factors in school cost are the teaching staff and the children actually using the schools, i.e., the children in daily attendance. These two factors should be made the basis in apportioning the Government grants. To this end the Survey recommends : (1) That all agricultural and grazing lands (not otherwise exempted) not now included in organised school districts be, under law, entered for taxation for educational purposes ; (2) That the Supplementary Revenue tax of one cent, and one- half cent per acre for agricultural and grazing lands respectively, be increased sufficiently to scale up the total ratio of provincial school support to one-fourth of the total amount expended for all purposes ; (3) That the Supplementary Revenue tax be re-apportioned to include provision for village schools that now bear a large share in the education of rural children without partaking of any of the bounties of this tax ; (4) That steps be taken to urge on the Dominion Government the reasonableness of administration of the School Lands Trust Fund by the Provincial Government ; (5) That the Dominion Government be urged to pass the neces- sary legislation to provide a fund for the elimination of adult illiteracy, to be distributed among the several prov- inces for evening schools and continuation schools ; (6) That when the municipality is made the unit for school taxa- tion, the provincial grants may consistently be appropriated direct to the several municipal boards, on the ratios that (a) The total days attended during the preceding term by all the pupils enrolled in the municipality bears to the aggregate days attended by all the pupils in the elemen- tary schools of the Province ; and (&) The number of professionally trained teachers in the municipality bears to the total number of professional teachers employed in the Province. SUMMARY OF RECOMMEXDATION'S. The following is a concise restatement of the most important recommendations made in the foregoing chapters : 1. School Organisation and Administration. (1) The establishment of municipal school districts in place of the present local districts. (2) The organisation of municipal school boards with powers to administer the public schools of the Province. 2. School Inspection and Professional Supervision. (1) The gradual development of a dual plan of supervision — provincial and local. (2) Increase in the number of provincial inspectors until they become numerically strong enough to thoroughly establish the educational policy of the Government and enforce the educational law of the land. (3) Establishment of local supervision under the direction of the provincial inspectors. 3. Enrolment and Attendance of School Population. (1) The taking of an annual school census by the Govern- pient to include all people in the Province of school age. (2) The inauguration of a system of records for the transfer of pupils from school to school, to make evasion of school attendance impossible. 4. Organisation and Adaptability of the Rural Schools. (1) Establishment in the Department of Education of a divi- sion of school architecture and sanitation. (2) The adoption of minimum standards for rural schools on which to base Government grants. (3) The organisation bv the Government of model schools in non-English and certain other communities. 5. Consolidation of Schools. (1) The appointment of an inspector to devote his full time to organisation of consolidated schools. (2) Provision for a gradual organisation of strong com- munity schools, associated schools, and other consolidated schools. (3) The granting of provincial aid as an inducement to organise the correct type of consolidated schools. 6. Rural High Schools and Continuation Schools. (1) Provision for granting provincial aid in organising and maintaining certain municipal high schools. (2) Establishment of special night school courses for illiterates and continuation school courses for persons beyond ordinary school age. 7. City, Town and Village Schools. (1) A fuller recognition by law and by regulations of the position of city and town superintendent. 172 173 (2) Provision in the larger city buildings of eight rooms or over for principals at least half of whose time should be free for supervision. The elimination of excessive formalism prevailing iu town and village schools. Adaptation of organisation, methods and course of studj to the needs of the community. h Schools and Collegiate Institutes. Provision for organising the high schools and collegiate institutes as an integral part of the free public school system. The extension of The Secondary Education Act to include other than "town and city municipalities." The reorganisation of the present high school courses to meet more fully the needs of the pupils for whom they are intended. Systematic efforts at popularisation of commercial and agricultural high school courses. The abandonment of the present examination system. Special study by each locality of the possibilities of a Junior High School plan. Organisation of specific teacher-training departments, in connection with certain high schools and collegiate institutes. Teaching Staff. Establishment of a central teachers' placing bureau in the Department of Education. The maintenance of an official in the Department of Education to evaluate credentials of teachers from other provinces and countries. Teaching awards to be made commensurate with the grade of certificate held and the length of teaching in the same community. Establishment of a retirement plan for aged teachers. The gradual readjustment of the present system of teacher certification. 0. The Xormal Schools. Provision for greater financial support for teacher- training. Gradual acquirement of additional lands and equipment for the normal schools. Provision for enlargement of the normal school staff and for increase in salaries. The adoption of gradually lengthened and differentiated study courses for normal schools. The establishment of specialised rural school departments in the normal schools. The organisation of a thoroughgoing rural school service through the normal schools for all teachers in service. (3 8. Hi (1 (2 (3 (4 (5 (6 (7 9. Th (1 (2 (3 (4 (5 (1 (2 (3 (4 (.> (6 174 11. Vocational Education. (1) The extension of the present provision for manual train- ing and domestic science contingent on professional grants and local funds. (2) Modification of the curriculum and methods of teaching to allow for vocational contacts at every point. (3) Introduction to pre-vocational courses in certain subjects for boys and girls. 12. Schools in Non-English Communities. (1) Inclusion in the tax rolls for school taxation of all taxabh' lands in each municipality. (2) Definite government inspection of all Mennonite and other private schools. (3) Regular certification of all teachers instructing the Mennonite, and other private schools. (4) Gradual reorganisation of the Mennonite and other private schools to comply with the course of study of the Department of Education. (5) The education of teachers for Ruthenian schools at Government expense, (6) The organisation of model community schools, including homes for teachers in certain non-English communities with Government assistance. (7) German as a medium of instruction to be reduced to a minimum in all parochial and private schools. (8) Authorisation to use public schools for the teaching of a non-English language only after regular school hours. 13. The Examination Svstem. (1) The reduction of the present examination machinery to the lowest possible minimum. 14. School Hygiene and Health Inspection. (1) Introduction of school hygiene as a regular subject in all elementary and secondary schools. (2) The study of hygiene and sanitation in teacher training schools to be made a requirement for certification. (3) Permissive legislation on health inspection and health instruction in the rural schools through the medium' of school nurses. 15. School Support. (1) The inclusion for school taxation of all agricultural and grazing lands not otherwise exempted by law. (2) The increase of the supplementary revenue tax suf- ficiently to scale up the provincial grants to one-fourth of the total amount expended for education. (3) The reapportionment of the supplementary revenue tax to include village schools. (4) The establishment of the municipality for school taxation. (5) The readjustment of the present plan for apportioning provincial grants. APPENDIX 177 Api)cndix A. 1 , Provincial Normal School, Regina (Data relating to the First Term, 1917). iTistructor* designated by letter Salary for" school year Total number of different subjects taught by each instructor Total teaching hours per week Average number students per hour Total student clock hours per week Kenuirks A $2,700 4 IS 49.7 895 Acting principal. B $2,500 4 22 52.6 1,157 In addition has charge of gymnasium and student's sports C $2,200 3 21 53 7 1,127 In addition has charge of Literary Society. D $1,300 4 21 52 + 1,097 E $1,200 2 24 55 1,318 Additional duties in charge of students' noon lunch. Average. . . Median . . . $1,980 $2,200 17t 17t 21 21 52.6 52 1,118 1,127 * List includes full time instructors only. Appendix A. 1^. t Total number. Provincial Normal School, Regina (Data relating to the Second Term, 1916). Instructor* designated by letter Salarv for' school year Total number of different subjects taught by each instructor Total teaching hours per week Average number students per hour Total clock student hours per week Remarks A $2,400 4 17 47 + 799 Acting principal. B .$2,400 3 19 47 + 893 Additional duties in charge of gymnasium. C $2,200 3 19 47 + 893 Additional duties in charge of Literary Society. D $1,200 4 20 49+ 980 E $,1200 3 19 48 + 912 Additional duties in charge of students' noon lunch and a class of sewing in Model School Average. . . Median . . . $1,850 $2,200 I7t 17t 18.8 19 47.6 47 895 893 * List includes full time instructors only. t Total number. 17b Ai)pcndix A. 2. Provincial Normal School, Saskatoon (Data relating to the First Term, 1917). Instructor* designated by letter Salarj' for school year Total number of different subjects taught by each instructor Total teaching hours per week Average number students per hour Total student clock hours per week Remarks A B c D E $3,000 12,500 2,200 1,800 2,400 3 5 4 3 1 15 21 18 16 5 49 46 41 46 48 735 966 738 736 240 Average. . . Median . . . S2,380 2,400 16t 16t 15 16 46 46 683 736 • ' List includes full time instructors only. t Total number. Appendix A. 2K- Provincial Normal School, Saskatoon (Data relating to the Second Term, 1916). Instructor* designated letter Salary for school year Total number of different subjects taught Total teaching hours per week Average number students per hour Total student clock hours per week Remarks A B C D E .13,000 2,500 2,200 1,800 2,400 3 5 4 3 1 12 16 16 15 4 38 27 42 35 52 456 432 512 525 208 Average. . . Median . . . $2,380 2,400 16t 16t 12.6 15 38.5 38 426 456 * List includes full time instructors only. t Total number. 179 O W o o W < o pq as CD H c o. < -a O o q q t^ I— t m' a »-H »— t -*A cS O o m Is •is a fl 0^ § a a o >. a o OS 3 . a (D o3 bO Zl"^ M T) fl o & 03 a * >> It H u o a ? 2 S .-Sa • S >) •^ ."t- -3 -r* J3 m £(S § Q J3'C PhCIh 03 a >.a (H Cd >. ■S ^- c3 Language hy OT3 M 0) £ a) a -SI 03 -t^ fl b2 >. ft -1 X! ft 3 >> t- c« *^ M Prima Geogr cn ^ 03 03 fee (U o o o a fl .2 .2 'o 'o t» w >i >. (m ^ CJ 03 a o +^ 4^ n fl >) (U cu a a a (A a 3 to w s a OP H _fl W ■o X) ^ ., , B fl M cS o OS 03 03 0) hilosophy history 4) 3 C S5 as .■3 a 3 Sj.2 o C 0) tJJ , 1 -^ o g -lift, Ph ffi < Q o< 02 1^ M >> >. >. >. C3 ^ iM tH fH ^ oi ci OS C3 c -*j ti -tJ a c c fl C ^ w a> © o3 >-> G » .2 S 1« a a a o m OJ v 13 3 mW s c3 C -d § -3 .St3 T3 ■a oS a -d B -« fl C CI a " (V) 03 03 03 03 O >, o '" \Z 0) ^ d) s ^2 .-:; CO o o J3 & cultur ience holog: 3 « 5? rima: gricu Scie t. 3 Oj " S .« o iS .„ O o nS.i; o S?§ a«2^ .2 SjM |i,0 < w <; Ph (U< ffi<1 T-i(N .-< (M rt d i-H d •— ( c^' a (O »-H .-H OJ »— * o o o H o o 4J .f^ •^ -f^ -^ O Q o o o f— 1 o CO o •^ d f— 1 y—t oi (35 T-( »-« i-H z o o 4) 03. S ;3^ .9 .9 "E g^ o >. (-1 >> -*^ .2 '3 o >, s 0) fl a 0) bl 03 II o_ .a o o o >.j3 PhCO Mechanical Drawing Composition and Grammar .9 a fl M P — >> a 03 bC a |e u 1.2 fl CO 03 3 fl .2 a| gw History of Education Manual Training Domestic Science Composition and Grammar Domestic Science Manual Training Drill Manual Training Domestic Science 4> tn 03 3 SO a 03 a)_) 3 >. 2 S « a ■H-C Composition and Grammar Domestic Science Manual Training Art Domestic Science Manual Training Art Domestic Science Manual Training a a o a 03 H .2 u a.ti O 1- CX ^fl .2Q §1 PS a .2 o o §§ PK o C .2 *o cc .2 ^ . pS r-<(N d IN O o 8 CO o , 5 o >:> O O c6 d o o CO CO 180 o c < -r o o a rn ij « o o IM T3 c p. >. 1 t^ w o a-S a).-4 SK >. a-o ■-3 03 cs a 03 •d a c4 . « [I4 3 , , -*^ c3 u. -W JjO O 03 o o I. 03 S.2 2& Is 11 "••5 CO 1-5 §s 3 m >> .2 e (U It Ci « » 0! a ll W a 6C H 13 ll 3 3 g^ a 03 22 ss §S S^ a CI _o _o '+? '-5 "W *S "S tn o a; a P. ■S B e o o ^ O o Is -Ss c3-^ cj.X '-P >J +3 2 c3 b ^ M !?J i& u 3 -♦J 03 52 5 -t^ g^ c3 2 2^ 2>g _o '+3 *m 4^ a >> C 03 03 V bn ^ T3 3 a 03 C3 H C3 o_ c3 t. ja o _o U t- 03 o O 03 C/ c.E >>M =3 3 2 "S o£ i-;o a *^ o c-« OS bc •a a o 5 S 3 0) f^ 04^ §2 3 -*^ CO C3 f 11,0 m tn ca ^iN -KN ^IN -HM o OJ O r-t _g (N t— 1 d C^ H o T-t -^ 1-H 1— 1 O O ^ C^l ■*J *^ o 6 f-H a I— 1 T-< 1 o o .2 £ & 03 a; 33 be bc « >> >. -*^ *^ 2 2 22 ;33 .2 CQm 3 3 ill Cf a 'H 2 H "rt 3 CI 03 § -a a 03 V a .2 'G u S E Q bO a 'S 2 H "3 3 e3 ^ ■a e 03 a S 'S CO at E Q .a.s a a ■g'2 HH .2.2 'm'crj >> >, J3J3 pLiflK c 3 ■a W >i (-1 -♦J .22 1 3 3 33 .2.2 Ml bC t£ bC .2.5 33 '33 HH 33 'm'« >. >» PL, PL, a < i; 03 3 3 .2.2 "C'u. bt bt bc bc .2.9 33 33 33 00 >. >> PL, PL, rtM -HiN rtiN C cs C c Appendix C. 1. Statistics affecting the Preparation and Efficiency of Saskatchewan Teachers (Rural Schools only). X umber of teacliers reporting Academic preparation Elementary WTiere obtained 615 1017 72 249 145 Length of course 180 389 1302 Secondary ^\Tiere obtained 779 80 170 49 Length of course 441 674 651 Univeisitv Where obtained 50 209 65 33 18 Length of course 65 52 84 Professional preparation Where obtained Saskatchewan 510 385 Length of course 283 484 64 293 684 Class of Saskatchewan certificate held First grade 19 I 37 89 Second grade 166 427 946 Teaching as permanent profession 1120 599 30; Teaching experience Longest tenure in any one place 686 325 538 572 366 180 iz; o c < -r < Ci c^\ c sx < g.2 SlTJ p^ 3 3 3 3 ■-3 03 2.0 1-1 CO ca 3 H .2 fi §S mm 11 a '■3 d3 !>>a 03 H §o E ■» <1> d 2 '3) >. K T3 a 03 5; 9 ■2:5 >1 m ^ o ■♦J -M .2 '+3 a s 6 1§ p s a o '-^ 1 a B 6 3 *^ 2 >> CO 0) g B « A O P f2^ .2.2 3 3 g 03 0) >•« o3 h i. 03 M C ° S 3 O '5 *« o 0. 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