iwamasaimsatstosn CLIMATICALLY AND MEDICALLY CONSIDERED HAS S ALL C!oi\nais4ulepays ou fleurit iWanger^ Oulairise €si plus douce etlbiseau i^hxB leger? >» ^■.^:M'^(:f^-^ [ t M '.- f^ -.J i r f j^i ^,7 W!'^'-''^^,- ^-'i^^'^'- j?l. SAN REMO WOllKS BY DR. AETHUR HILL IIASSALL FOOD : ITS ADULTERATIONS, AND THE METHODS FOR THEIR DETECTION. Illustrated by upwards of 200 Wood Engravings. Crown 8vo. pp. 8!»0, price 24s. SAN REMO AND THE WESTERN RIVIERA Climatically and Medically considered : IXCLUDING Ospedaletti, Bordighera, Ventitniglia, Mentone, Monaco, IVIonte Carlo, Villefranche, Nice, Cimiez, Canues, Alassio, Porto Maurizio, Diaiio Marina, Albenga, Finalmarina, Noli, Monte Grosso, Arenzano, Pegli, Cornigliano. frenoa, and many other places. With Frontispiece, ilap, and Wooil Engravings. London, LONGMANS & CO. SAN R E M O CLIMATICALLY AND MEDICALLY j) /^ CONSIDERED ^^5 H3 ARTHUR HILL HASSALL, JLD. Lond. •'",'.■' , MEMBEIl OF THE ROYAL COLLEGE OP PHYSICIANS OP EXGLAXD LATE SENIOR PHYSICIAN TO THE ROYAL FREE HOSPITAL, LONDON KOUXDEIi OF AND CONSCLTIXG PHYSICIAN TO THE EOYAL NATIONAL HOSPITAL FOR CONSUMPTION AND DISEASES OP THE CHEST PHYSICIAN TO THE NORTH BRITISH AND MERCANTILE INSURANCE COMPANY HONORARY MEMBER OP SEVERAL LEARNED SOCIETIES AUTHOR OP 'THE MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY OF THE HUMAN BODY IN HEALTH ANT5 DISEASE ' ' THE URINE IN HEALTH AND DISEASE ' AND VARIOUS OTHER WORKS WITH yUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIOSS NEV^ EDITION LONDON LONGMANS, OREEN, AND CO. 1883 All fights reserved •Connais-tu le pays oil fieuvit I'oranger, Oi^ la brise est plus douce et I'oiseau plus legcr, ()i\ rayonne et sourit comme un bienfait de Dieu Un ("■ternel printemps sous un riul toujours bleu ? ' SIR GEORGE BURROWS, BART., M.D. AND RICHARD QUAIN", M.D., F.R.S. IN GEATEFUL RECOLLECTION OF MUCH PROFESSIONAL CARE AND KINDNESS DURING A LONG AND SEVERE ILLNESS Cbis Moxli is gebitatEiJ BY THE AUTHOR PEEFACE. This work may be regarded, so far as San Remo itself is con- cerned, as a new edition of my work entitled, ' San Remo and the Western Riviera.' In the present book, however, everything relating to San Remo is treated much more fully and exhaustively. The General Features of the Climate, the Natural History of the District, and, above all, the Medical Characteristics of the Climate are de- scribed at considerable length— this last being the most im- portant portion of the work. In it the suitability or otherwise of the climate in a great variety of diseases is fully discussed and considered. I have now the pleasing duty of acknowledging the obliga- tions I am under to the following for valuable aid most kindly rendered. To Dr. Giinther, for the identification of some of the Mediterranean Fish ; to Mr. Waterhouse, for the names of some Insects ; to Mr. Edgar Smith, for the names of some of the Marine Shells ; to Colonel Cox, for the list of Land Shells found around San Remo ; to Mr. Goodchild, for the list of Fossil Shells found in the pleiocene formation at Bordighera; to the Rev. G. L. Fenton, for the MSS. of the paper by his son, the late Mr. George F. Fenton, on the Reptiles of San Remo ; to Monsieur Pierre Milliere, the distinguished Lepidopterist of France, for his highly interesting and valuable list of the Butterflies and Moths of the Riviera ; to Mr. John Congreve, for his list of Butterflies and Moths found in the neighbourhood of San Remo ; to Mr. viii PREFACE. Crump, for the list of Lepidoptera found by himself and sons, as Avell as for other information ; to Mr. Heilmann, of the Museum of the Hotel de Ville at Cannes, for the names of certain curious Grasshoppers, and for other information ; to Signor Cav. F. Panizzi, for tlie names of some Alpine Plants ; to the Eev. Clarence Bicknell, of Bordighera, for his most interesting and useful classified list of most of the principal Flowering Plants found between Ventimiglia and Taggia ; to Monsieur Dognin, for the list of Tropical Plants, the fruits of which ripen in his renowned and beautiful garden, Camille-Amelie at Cannes ; to Baron von Hiittner, for an analogous list of Tropical Plants, grow- ing in his highly interesting garden at San Piemo. My most cordial thanks are also due to Mrs. Cox, to whose skilful pencil I am indebted for the drawings of the plants engraved in this Avork ; to Miss Jay ; to Colonel Cox, for the photographs of the butter- flies figured in this book, and which were made under his direc- tion by Signor Scotto, of San Kemo. I have further to thank ^Ir. Evans, of Anipton Place, for the care and skill with which he lias executed the wood-engravings, and also Mr. p]dwy G. Clayton, ior searching through a number of works on Natural History at the library of the British Museum. Finally, I would acknowledge the great assistance I have received from my wife who, on this occasion, as during the preparation of my former work, ' San Kemo and the Western liiviora,' has been my kind amanuensis and able helper. ARTHUR HILL HASSALL. Villa Bracco, !^ax 1!e.mo; July 1883. CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. PAGE The Riviera — Situation of San Eemo — The Bay — The Sheltering Hills and Mountains — History — The OIJ Town — Its Architectural Peculiarities —The New Town— The East and West Suburbs— The Port— The Sea Baths — ^The Campo Santo — Sanitary Condition of the Town^The "Water Supply — Analyses of Fountain and Well Water — Necessity for a New Supply — Rain Water — -The Drainage — Town Refuse — The Sau Remese — Servants — Washing ^Dress of tlie San Reraese — Walks and Drives — Amusements 1-30 CHAPTER II. Food Supplies at San Remo — Mediterranean Fish — Sale of Small Birds — Vegetjibles — Fungi — Fruit — Many Articles partaken of in France and Italy, not used as Food in England — Indiscriminate Slaughter of Small Birds 31-41 CHAPTER III. Geology of the District — Factors of a Climate — Prevailing Winds — Table of Winds — Sea and Land Breezes — Order of Succession of Winds — Tables of Strong and Moderate Winds — Variation of Meteorological Observations — Divisions of the Seasons — Temperature — North Shade Temperature — Temperature of San Remo and other Health Resorts contrasted — Night Minimiim Temperature of San Remo and London contrasted — Sun Heat and Sunshine — Duration of — Days of — Warmth of the Mediterranean — Its Saltness — Relative Humidity — Tables of Relative Humidity — Rain — Duration of — Days of Rain — Rainfall — Tiible of Rainfall in other Health Resorts — Climate of San Remo contrasted with that of London — Fall of Temperature at Sunset — Difference between Shade Temperature and Sun Heat — Chief Charac- teristics of the Climate of the Riviera — Winter in the Riviera — Opinions of Medical Writers relative to the Climate of San Remo — Table of Mean Temperatures ....... 42-91 a CONTENTS. CHAPTER IV. PAGE Characteristic Vegetation of the Kiviera— Shrubs and Flowers iu Llossom ut San Rome in October and at the beginning of the Year— Scent- giving Flowers, AVild Shrubs, Plants, and Flowers— Vegetation of the Riviera, chiefly evergreen— Evidence of Mildness of the Winter Climate of tiie Riviera derived from the Vegetation— The Olive Tree — Gather- ing of the Olives— Process of obtaining the Oil— The Lemon Tree— The Orange Tree— The Vine— The Fig Tree— The Japanese Medlar— The Date Palm— The Carouba Tree— The Fir Tree— The Eucalyptus —The Pepper Tree— The Prickly Pear— Evidences of Mildness of the Climate derived from Hrds—Fish—Eeptiles— Insects— Butter- flies and Moths— The Cicada— The Firefly— The Sacred Beetle— The Blister Beetle — Grasshoppers — Locusts — Praying Mantis— Mole Cricket— Harvesting Ants— Scorpion- Trap-door Spiders— Mosqui- toes 92-186 CHAPTER V. Chief characteristics and eflfects of the Climate — The same contrasted with London — Effects of the Climate on the functions of the Body — Espe- cially suited for Debility — For those who have resided in Tropical Climates — For the period of Convalescence — The Aged — Persons of Lymphatic Constitution — Unsuited to persons of highly ner\«ous or excitable temperament — Well suited to cases of defective nutrition or malassimilation, as Anajmia and Chlorosis — Not good for Congestive an d Inflammatory Conditions or Ailments — EiFects and Properties of Sea-air — Characteristics of Mountain-air — Statistics of Mortality at Marseilles, Genoa, and San Remo — Certificates of Death — Medico- Necroscopo— Diseases amongst the Native Population, as Zymotic and Eruptive Diseases; Scrofula; Diseases of the Nervous System ; of the Organs of Respiration; Phthisis; of the Organs of Digestion ; of the Renal Organs, Total Mortality — Mortality among Winter residents — Acute Diseases frequent — Chronic degenerative disorders far less pre- valent — Visitors but little to fear from Zymotic Diseases — Intermittent Fever — Mediterranean Fever — Rheumatism — Gout— Scrofulous Aifec- tions always benefited by the Riviera — Diabetes — Diseases of Brain and Nervous System— The Climate not generally suited to Hysteria, Neuralgia, Insomnia— Diseases of the Heart — Of the Organs of Respi- ration, acute and chronic — Winter residents little to fear from Acute Diseases— Colds— Sore Throat— Tonsillitis or Quinsy— Statistics of relative frequency of Phthisis in the Riviera — Classification of Phthisis —Tubercle Bacillus— Cases of Phthisis for which the Climate is suit- able and unsuitable— Results of Treatment of Phthisis in the Riviera CONTENTS. xi I'AGE ■ — Ditto in the Royal National Hospital for Consumption — Clere^j-nian's Sore Throat — Choice of a residence in Diseases of the Organs of Eespira- tion— Antiseptic Inhalation in Phthisis — Bronchitis — Climate beneficial in Asthma — Diseases of the Organs of Digestion — Liability to Quinsy — to Diarrhoea — San Remo not well suited to most Gastric and Hepatic Affections —Well adapted for Atonic Dyspepsia — Chronic Degenerative Diseases of Kidney — Skin Affections — Affections of the Eyes — Opinions of Medical Writers on the Climate of San Rerao — Choice of a resi- dence — East and West ends of the Tovrn — Effects of residence near and far from the Sea — Want of an Esplanade — Want of paths up some Valleys — Precautions to be observed by Invalids — Suitable walks for Invalids — Proper times for Arrival and Departure — A single winter's residence not sufficient — Characteristics of suitable Summer resort — Dr. Richardson's Atlantis for Consumption .... 187-243 APPENDIX. WALKS, DRIVES, AND E'A'CUBSIONS IX AND ABOUND SAN REMO 24; INDEX 287 SAN REMO. CHAPTER I. The Riviera — Situation of San Remo — The Bay — The Sheltering Hills and Mountains — History — The Old Town— Its Architectural Peculiarities — The >'ew Town— The East and West Suburbs— The Port— The Sea Baths — The Campo Santo — Sanitary Condition of the Town — The Water Supply — Analyses of Fountain and Well Water — Necessity for a New Supply — Rain Water — The Drainage — Town Refuse — The San Remese — Servants — Washing — Dress of the San Remese — Walks and Drives — Amusements. The lovely and highly-favoured district extending for about 117 miles along the north shore of the Mediterranean from Nice to Genoa is known as the Western Riviera, Riviera di Ponente, and Genoese Riviera, Riviera di Genova, and the scarcely less lovely region lying between Genoa and Lucca, by the name of the Eastern Riviera, Riviera di Levante. The north shore of the Mediterranean, from Marseilles or Toulon as far as Cannes or Nice, has by some been included in the Riviera, since the configuration of the land near the coast resembles to some extent that of the true Riviera, although the mountain protection afforded is much less complete, and the climate consequently much colder. In- deed, the sanitary interest and value of the whole of the Riviera is mainly centred in the district lying between Nice (or let us say Camies) and San Remo, a space wdiich includes a sea frontage of about fifty miles. In this small space lie the world-known health resorts of Cannes, Nice, Monte Carlo, Mentone, Bordighera, and though last, not least, San Remo. They are all placed thus near together, because the surrounding protecting hills and mountains afford the most complete shelter to be fomid in the Riviera, and are at the same time more picturesque and beaittiful than else- where in the district. In the Western Riviera, the only place to the west of Cannes at present having any pretensions to be regarded as a health resort is St. Raphael, and this is better suited for a summer than a winter station ; while east of San Remo there are but Alassio, yet in its infancy, and Pegli, a B 2 THE RIVIERA. puburb of Genoa. In the Eastern Riviera the two chief resorts are Nervi and Spezzia. Now, the two Eivieras consist of a comparatively narrow strip of land extending along the nortli shore of the Mediterranean, facing south, and more or less completely protected to the north bv hills and mountains : the coast or sea-line of this strip is indented by a series of picturesque bays, on the shores of the more considerable of which towns are usually situated. These bays are guarded by headlands more or less bold, and haA'ing usually an elevation of several hundred feet. At a little, though variable, distance inland from the coastline are the Olive-clad hills mostly arranged in a semi- circle, bounded on either side by the projecting headlands. Behind these hills rise mountains, which attam some three or four thousand feet in height, some devoid of vegetation, but many clothed to their summits with forests of pine trees. These mountains throw out numerous spurs, which take a southerly course to the sea ; the more con- siderable of these spurs terminate in the protecting headlands of the several bays, while the smaller spurs form the steep ridges which separate the nimierous valleys of which there are usually several around each town. Through each of these valleys, the size of which varies greatly, and some few of which pierce the mountain chains, flows a stream ; these streams become much swollen and discoloured by earthy matter in the rainy season, and carrying with them much debris, they rush along to the sea with great swiftness and force : at other times the streams dwindle to mere narrow rivulets, while during the summer months the water disappears altogether, nothing remaining but the di-y, stony bed, apparently far too wdde and large for the volume of water it is destined to discharge into the sea. Of all the many torrents, streams and rivers which empty themselves into the Mediterranean from Cannes to San Eemo, the only permanent or perennial ones are the Siagne at Cannes, the Var and Paillon at Nice, and the Eoya at Ventimiglia; and these are rendered pereimial, not by the rainfall but by the melting of the snow on the higher Alps. Behind the mountains already referred to lie the Maritime Alps : these reach an altitude of some seven or eight thousand feet, and contain embedded in them many charmmg valleys : this chain of mountains begins at Nice and ends at Ventimiglia, and is succeeded by the Ligurian Alps, which extend as far as Genoa, where the Apennines commence. Then, lastly, still more inland and further to the north rise up in all their beauty and grandeur the true and snow-clad Alps, lovely glimpses of which are obtained where there are breaks in the continuity and height of the Maritime Alps, as on looking up SHELTEEING HILLS AND MOUNTAINS. 3 tlie valley of the Nervia at Bordighera, and Koya at Ventimiglia, and also in driving from Cannes to Antibes, as well as in some other situations. It thus appears that the best of the health resorts of the Western Eiviera are triply protected — first, by olive-clad hills ; second, by the mountains next in order ; and thirdly, by the Maritime and Ligurian Alps — behind these being the snowy Alps. These hills and mountains all act as ramparts or barriers against the northerly winds, and so contribute powerfully to render the Eiviera exceptionally warm. This effect is however to some extent counteracted by the snow-capped Alps. The air in passing over these is rendered exceedingly cold, and this refrigerated air sensibly affects at times, especially in winter, and in the absence of the sun, the temperature of even the most pro- tected parts of the Eiviera. On the whole, thcL-efore, it is evident that the Eiviera is wonderfully protected, and its chief towns and cities even more surprisingly so ; being placed in the curves of beautiful bays facing south, sheltered by bold headlands and backed by ranges of lofty mountains. Human ingenuity and skill could not possibly have devised, even in imagination, a scheme of more effective protection. San Eenio, a town of 15,000 inhabitants, is situated in the Western Eiviera, in a bay of the far-famed Gulf of Genoa, about four miles in breadth ; its latitude is 43° 48', longitude from Eome 4° 43', and it faces the south : it is 16 miles from Mentone, 31 from Nice, and 85 from Genoa. The bay describes a considerable segment of a circle, and, viewed from a height, it is seen that it is subdivided into four smaller bays. It is bounded by two bold headlands. Capo Verde to the east, 350 feet, and Capo Nero to the west, called by some Cape-Pin, about 800 feet in height. From these promontories the mountains gradually rise until, behmd the town, they reach an altitude in Monte Bignone of 4,270 feet. The first sheltering barrier is formed by a series of seven hills, intersected by valleys, through which flow small streams, or, as they are here termed, torrents : these valleys run from north to south, and terminate in every case on the sides of the mountains in blind extremities. The hills and valleys are densely clothed with Olive trees, and in some of the valleys are groves of Lemon and Orange trees. This first barrier of hills is succeeded by the range of moun- tains already referred to. These are not thrown up into sharp jagged peaks as at Mentone, but form an unbroken protecting chain and are mostly fir-clad. Behind this seeond range lies a third, the Alpes Marrtimes, 4 VIEWS. PEOTECTION FROM WI^D. with an elevation of 7,000 and even 8,000 feet ; these, however, are not visible from the town itself. Thus San Eemo is enclosed and protected by a triple barrier of hills and mountains. The surrounding mountains describing a considerable seg- ment of a circle, and extending some distance inland, a large area is thus enclosed, forming a noble and well protected site, suffi- ciently extensive for the erection of a large town, that already existing being of no mean dimensions. Dr. Walshe has so graphically sketched in a few words the chief topographical features of San Eemo and its amphitheatre, that his description may here be quoted with advantage : ' Lying in a deep bay looking due south, the town, "rising in a pyramidal form fi'om the shore, is protected on the north by three successive groups of hills, ranging in height from 500 to 8,000 feet, none of them cleft by torrent beds, and all free from broad gorges likely to give passage to the winds ; hence the tramontana passes over the town to seaward, while two promontories shelter the bay to the east and w^est. Yet further protection is afibrded by groves of Olive trees, and at the highest level by Pine forests.' A very good view of the hills and mountains surrounding San Remo may be obtained from the extremity of the pier or Molo, which forms the western boundary of the harbour, but a still better view, from the sea at a little distance from the shore. There are also fine views from the two capes. From Capo Verde on the east not only is the town of San Remo with its sur- rounding mountains seen, but to the north the towns of Poggio and Bussana, and along the shore eastward Arma, Riva, and San Stephano ; while from Capo Nero to the west, Bordighera, Monaco, the lighthouse of Villefranche, and sometimes even the Esterels, are plainly visible. In very clear weather, especially at sunrise and simset, the picturesque and snow-capped mountains of Corsica come into view ; this island lies a little to the south- east of San Remo and is about 80 miles distant. That it should be \asible affords a striking illustration of the di-yness and clear- ness of the atmosphere. No one can fairly judge of San Remo who has not obtained a good view of Its bay, its encircling mountains, and the extensive and sheltered area which these enclose. Now it is to the surrounding mountains and hills that the special features of the climate of San Remo are mainly due these influencing alike winds, rain, and temperature. By its triple range of liills and mountains, the latter un- pierced by valleys through which wind can find access, San Ivemo IS efficiently protected from the north, and to a considerable extent irom the north-west or Mistral, and north-east or Bise HISTORV. 5 winds, as also in part from the east and west winds but since tlie town faces the soutli, it is of course open to tlie southerly wmds. It IS thus that the mildness of the winter climate of San Itemo IS ni part explained and ensured. San Eemo is a very ancient to^\^l and was formerly one of much miportance. Its early history, given in great detail by (rn-olamo Rossi m his ' Storia della Citta di San Eemo,' is truly remarkable and full of interest. "^ On the spot where San Remo now is, there formerly stood a town, probably founded many centuries ago by the Greeks, and named by them Leucotea. When the Romans became the con- (pierors of Liguna they changed the name of Leucotea to Matuzia after Matuta, goddess of the sea. ' The submission of Liguria to the Romans occurred under Augustus, B.C. 12. . J^l® ^.^"^^ Christian missionary who appears to have been sent to Matuzia was Ormisda ; he was succeeded by his pupil San Siro, after whom the cathedral of San Remo is named • alid he again^ a.d. GOO, by Bishop Romolo, who lived for many years at the Hermitage, which is named after him, and where he died • ns memory IS still held in great veneration by the people, and tlie day of his death, October 13, is kept as a festival by the San Remese. He was buried in Matuzia, of which he was regarded as the patron samt, but m 876 his remains were removed to the cathedral of Genoa, m order to save them from desecration by the Saracens who came from Spain, and who at that period had obtained possession of the whole of Liguria. Prior to the in- vasion by the Saracens the country was overrun by the Goths and \andals. "^ The Saracens held possession of Liguria until the year 972 • the inhabitants of Matuzia in consequence of the invasion fled for refuge to the mountains, and only returned to their town after the expulsion of the Saracens by Count Guglielmo of Provence They then rebuilt it, and named it San Romolo after their patron or guardian samt ; this happened, according to Girolamo Rossi in 979 _ San Romolo became a free RepubHc about 1200 ; but not being strong enough to maintain its own independence, it after- wai-fls formed an alhance with Genoa. In 1297 San Romolo and Cenana were sold by one of the Archbishops for 13,000 lire to Oberto Dona and Georgio di Mari ; and in 1350 the Dorias liaA^ng become much impoverished by constant warfare, sold their rights to San Romolo to the Genoese Republic. The town then continued to flourish until the end of the 15th century, about which time Its name was changed to San Remo. Accordin-^ to Rossi, the reason for this change of name is unknown, but thelate hignor Ronetti believed that ' Remo ' is a corruption of ' Eremo ' B 3 (5 HISTORY. or ' Hermitage,' the patron saint having long lived in the Hermi- tage near San Eomolo. In the 16th centiiry the town was \'isited by the plague, and afterwards sufiered from attacks by Turkish pirates ; these m 1548 were driven awav for a time by Luca Sphiola, who defeated them in a battle fouglit near Verezzo, the spot being stHl marked Fig. 1. ^ by a cross, Croce di Para. The anniversary of this battle, August 7th, is still observed by a procession to the church of San Donato at Verezzo. Some time afterwards the Turks' recommenced their attacks, and protecting towers were erected, some of which are still to be seen in different places along the coast. Next, the town in 1625 passed into the hands of the Duke of Savoy, but re- THE OLD TOWN. 7 verted to Genoa at the end of the 18th century. During the wars of the Spanish Succession it was frequently attacked, sometimes by the French and Spaniards, who were in alhance with Genoa, and at otliers by tlie Austrians and Enghsli. In 1797 a Republic of Liguria was formed, San Eemo constituting a part of it mider the name of the ' District of Palms.' Later the town became a sous- prefecture mider Napoleon I., but on his fall Liguria was incor- porated with the kingdom of Sardinia, and now belongs to Italy. It thus appears that the town of San Eemo has 'undergone many changes and vicissitudes, and that the ancestors ot^the present inhabitants truly Hved m troublous and uncertain times. The traveller cannot fail to notice that nearly all the old town's on this coast are built on the steepest hills. The reason of this is that they might the more readily be defended from the piratical attacks to which they were formerly so frequently subject. Thus situated the space was necessarily in most cases very limited, and the streets, in consequence, were made very narrow, and the houses at the same time exceedingly lofty. These circumstances there- fore influenced very much the architecture of such towns. But there was still another reason, which was not without its influence on their construction— namely, the liability to shocks of earth- quakes, wl^ich formerly were much more frequent than they have been of late years. This fear led to the strengthenuig of the houses by throwmg across the narrow streets a number of sup- porting arches, which present in some towns, and particularly in San Eemo, a very curious as well as picturesque appearance (Fig. 1). With these few preHminary remarks we will now enter the ancient town of San Eemo, which still retains, after the lapse of centuries, many of its old structural features and characteristics. The greater part of it is built on the southern slope and sides of the hill which terminates the long ridge which proceeds from Monte Bignone, and divides the East and West Sanctuary Valleys, also called the San Francia and the San Eomolo Valleys, the road to San Eomolo rmniing on the top : the smaller portion of the town stands upon the west side of the San Eomolo ^'alley. The town consists of sections or quarters, each of these havuig been formerly approached by separate arched gateways, the arches m most cases being still intact. This arrangement was adopted for better defence, so that, if one of the quarters were captured, the others might still be defended. On entermg the town we find streets so steep that steps have been made to facilitate the ascent ; so narrow, and the houses so lofty, that air and light penetrate in greatly diminished amount, and to some of the houses and dwelhngs scarcely at all (figs. 2 and 3). We also notice very many of the overhanging arches 8 THE OLD TOWN. previously adverted to, and up the walls of some of the bouses are- seen the long, twisted stems of ancient vines, usually carefully protected for some feet above the ground by masonry, and which, when they have reached the tops of the five- and even six-storied houses are there carefully trained over balconies. Under the shelter of these vines, which even at this altitude bear fruit, the Fig. 2. inhabitants sit and enjoy the view of the olive-clad hills, the fir- covered mountains, and the deep blue Mediterranean. Small aqueducts are much used for the distribution of water and are often carried across the streams ; one of these may be seen in the old town crossing the San Eomolo torrent as shown in Fig. 4. The town was formerly surrounded by a wall with towers and THE OLD TOWN. 9 possessed a castle ; portions of the two former are still standing, and the foundations of the castle are yet visible. Having thus given a sketch of the position and general features of the old town, this may now be described a little more in detail. Approaching the Via Palazzo from the Piazza Colombo, we notice on the left the pharmaceutical establishment Fiu. 3. of Signor Cav*' Francesco Panizzi, so widely known for his botanical researches, and who is now engaged on the study of the Fungi of the neighbourhood, his labours liaving already been rewarded by the discovery of several new species. Passing through an archway on the right-hand side of the street we come to the Palazzo di Citta, or Town-Hall, where the Syndic, Signor 10 THE NEW TOWN. Bartolomeo Asquasciati and the other authorities have their offices. At the end of the Via Palazzo is the Piazza del Mercato, or market-place ; in the centre of this is a large and much used fountain of excellent water and several Plane trees ; it is sur- rounded hy many useful shops, while the stalls are well supplied with vegetables and fruit, with poultry, and, in lesser quantities, game and fish. At the north-west corner of the market-place the back of the Cathedral San Siro is seen, and close to this is the Baptistery. From this point we may proceed upwards through any of the more curious streets which attract our notice until we reach the sunnnit of the hill : this forms a large level space from which line views are obtained of the sea and the surrounding hills, as well as of the San Francia and San Eomolo Valleys. On the northern part of this space is the Sanctuary of the Madonna della Costa, approached by a broad flight of steps. At the south-east and south-west corners of the Sanctuary are two small cupolas curiously inlaid with water-worn pebbles. The pictures and marbles on either side of the high altar are con- sidered to be good. On descending from the Sanctuary, and at a little lower level, is ' II Leprosario,' the former Hospital for Lepers, recently abolished. From this point the descent to the lower or new town is tolerably easy. Viewed from a distance, towns similarly situated to San Eemo present no doubt to the eye a picturesque appear- ance, nor is this picturesqueness usually diminished by a closer inspection ; certainly this is not the case with San Kemo, which is one of the most curious, and interesting old towns of the Riviera. But for all this quaint beauty and interest the poor inhabitants pay heavily ; there is the toilsome daily ascent, the little less trying descent, the difficulty of carrying up water and other necessary supplies ; the diminished air and light, and the frequent absence of sunshine, impairmg health, and too often inducing disease. These disadvantages and evils are however, in San Eemo, less than might have been anticipated, and there is far more light, sunshine, and cleanliness than was to have, been looked for ; besides the present inhabitants enjoy at night, in their dwellings and in their narrow streets, the inestimable blessing of the efficient light produced by gas and petroleum. We will now endeavour to give some idea of the newer portion of the town. The old high-road from Nice ran through the narrow street, Via Francesco Corradi, opposite the Sous-prefecture, the Piazza del Mercato and the narrow Via Palazzo ; along these all the heavy traffic, including the diligences, which formed, before the days of the railway, the only mode of travellmg, were obliged to THE NEW TOWN. 11 pass ; and in them many of the principal shops still are situated. But now there is a new, broader, more direct, and in every way more convenient road ; that portion of it which passes through the town is called the Via Vittore Emanuele, and from it several streets branch off on either side, the whole constituting what may be termed the new town of San Eemo. In the Via Vittore Emanuele Fig. 4. are many of the public buildings and offices, as well as numerous Avell-furnished shops of every description. Passing along the street from the western end, we notice in succession the Hotel National on the left, a little further on to tlie right the Sous-pre- fecture, the Maison Fornari and the Hotel San Eemo, which latter stands at the west corner of the Via Andrea Carli. In this street 12 THE NEW TOWN. is the English Church of S. John the ]>aptist, and of which the Eev. G. L, Fenton has been for many years the Chaplain. At the east corner of this street is the Asilo Corradi, a school built and endowed by Dr. Corradi, a native of San Remo. Further on, in the Via Yittore Emanuele, on the left, is the Pension Suisse, the Hotel Central, Tormerly the residence of the Sous-prefet, and a little beyond is the Via Feraldi, leading to the market. A few yards further on is the Via Privata ; in this are the offices of the English Vice-Consul, Walter Congreve, Esq., M.A., and Mr, J. Congreve, Land and House Agent, Next to these are some recently opened Public Baths ; these are well arranged and very clean, and supply what has formerly been a great want. At the end of the Via Privata is the Palazzo Roverizio, recently converted into the Restaurant Molinari. with an archway leading into the Via Palazzo, Returning to the Via Vittore Emanuele, and on the same side of the way, is the Palazzo Borea, at the corner of the Via Cavour, built in the 15th century, and which originally must have been a handsome building : the lower portion now consists of shops, but the upper part is occupied by the Marquis Borea. Next is the Via Principe Amedeo, in which is the well- appointed theatre. The Via Vittore Emanuele shortly after- wards terminates in the Piazza Colombo, a kind of market-place, where carts, arri\-ing from the country with provisions, take up their stand. Returning now to the Asilo Corradi, and on the same side of the way, is the bank of ]\Iessrs. Rubino, and the establishmeiit of ^Ir. Squire, the English chemist, and next to it the new Square and gardens in the X'ia Uinberto. A little further on is the well- known library of Signor Gandolfo, and within a few doors the banking establishment of Messrs. Asquasciati Freres ; next the Via Gioberti, in which is the Hotel des Bains and Hotel Beau Sejour, and, at the end, the Custom House and Port, Returning to the Via Vittore Emanuele we notice the photographic studio of Signor P. Guidi, whose coloured photographs of the Lemon, Olive, and Eu- calyptus trees, as well as of many of the rarer wild flowers, are so extremely beautiful and natural ; and lastly, the Hotel Grande Bretagne, This brings us once more to the Piazza Colombo. The number of shops of all kinds is now so considerable that it would be impossible to enumerate even the principal, but the establishment of Messrs, Ajcardi, stocked with perfumes made from flowers mostly gro^\^l in the neighbourhood, may be specially referred to. It now only remains tliat a description should be given of the west and east suburbs of the town, in which are situated the principal hotels, pensions, and villas. Commencing westward, at the Villa Luigia Ponente, on the THE WESTEEN SUBUEB. 13 left-hand side is the Hotel des Anglais, then the commencement of the Strada Berigo, and the Pension Quisisana, next the hand- some West End Hotel, and then the Hotel de Londres, all on the same side of the way. Nearly opposite the Villa Luigia Ponente is the road which leads to the Cemetery, and further on, in front of the Hotel de Londres, is the Hotel Pavilion, the Hotel Palmieri, and the New English Clmrch of All Saints ; after the Hotel de Londres, on the same side of the way, is the site of the Casino about to be erected, and there are several villas very pleasantly situated, but some rather high up ; next come the H6tel Paradis, the Hotel Damesin, the Hotel Belle Vue. Villa Tennyson, the residence of E. Lear, Esq., and the Eoyal Hotel. The hotels occupy excellent positions, and the last-named is succeeded by a number of villas, some near the road, others higher up, at differ- ent elevations, and amongst these may be mentioned the Pension Tatlock and Pension Flora. Just before reaching the Villas Bracco is the Scotch Presbyterian Church, and after them is the Giardino Pubblico, or Public Garden, in a very sheltered position facing the south. Although not of any great extent, it yet forms a very favourite walk and lounge for the visitor and invalid ; the gromids contain many handsome trees and shrubs, including the Eucalyptus, Pepper, Lemon, Orange, Palm, and some Banana trees which, in favourable years, are said to bear fruit. Many of the trees and shrubs are labelled with the class, name, and habitat— an excellent plan. It is here that the band plays in winter. Eeturning to the Hotel de Londres, and nearly opposite to it, high above the sea and the railway, is the Jardin del'Imperatrice ; so named in honour of the late Empress of Eussia ; beside this is a broad and handsome promenade, which descending is continued to the Via Vittore Emanuele ; it is bordered by flowering shrubs, as well as by many Eucalyptus, Pepper, and Palm trees ; this walk is well exposed to the sun and sea breezes, is pro\dded with seats, and forms a very pleasant and favourite Promenade. The Hotel de la Paix is nearly opposite to the entrance of the pubhc garden, next to which, but standing back a little from the road, is the Church of the Capuchins, close to the commencement of the Via Vittore Emanuele. This completes the general description of the western suburb ; that of the eastern will now follow, commencing from the Piazza Colombo : on the right is the Couvent de la Visitation, now nearly unoccupied, and after this we come to the Corso Garibaldi, with some fine Plane and Chestnut trees on either side ; on the left of the Corso is the Via Francia with at the corner the Church of the Angels, and next, the Ospedale Civico, or Civil Hospital ; the Natural History Collection of Signor Panizzi ; and a little further on is the newly erected German 14 THE EASTERN SUBURB. Lutheran Church. The Corso Garil^aldi extends some distance heyond the Hospital, and ends ni what is called the Rondo. In the Corso on the left are the Hotels de Nice and d'Angieterre, on the right the Home for Twenty Invalid Ladies, in part sup- ported hy the contributions of the charitable, and,_ on either side, numerous villas. From the Rondo, on the left, is first a road which leads to some houses and to the Pension d'Allemagne. Beyond the Rondo is the continuation of the Genoa road, on either side of which are some fine and well-situated villas, as well as the Hotels ]\Iediterranee and Victoria on the right-hand side ; after these hotels come other villas until the San Martino torrent is reached which forms the eastern postal boundary of the town ; the Foce torrent, just beyond the West End Hotel, constituting the western boundary. Li addition to the churches already noticed, San Remo pos- sesses many others, as also sanctuaries, and oratories ; for notices of which the reader is referred to the ' Guide to San Remo ' by Cesare da Prato, and to that of M. Marest ; the latter work will be fomid to contain much useful general information. It may now be observed that the hotels and villas on the western side of the town stand for the most part on higher ground than those on the eastern side, and are nearer to the sea, con- sequently they are more exposed to the wind and sea breezes and the air is cooler and fresher. On the other hand many of the hotels and villas on the east side are on a lower level, further from the sea, and the land seaward is covered with sheltering olive trees ; hence this side is less exposed to the winds from the sea, the noise of which is less heard, and the air is warmer and moister. I shall hereafter consider more fully these differ- ences, particularly in their medical bearings. The description of San Remo would hardly be complete with- out a reference to the railway. The old station was a very shabby wooden structure not at all befitting a town of the size and importance of San Remo, but I am glad to say that since my work on San Remo and the Western Riviera appeared, a very commodious station has been erected. From the station com- mences a new, broad and handsome street. Via Roma, in which the Post and Telegraph Oftices are situated, and this terminates in the Via Ruffini, which joins the Corso Garibaldi. The rail- way unfortunately runs close to the sea ; this is a serious hindrance to the welfare of the towm, as it not only prevents the shore from being readily accessible, but it renders the construc- tion of a promenade on a level with the sea at the western side of the town all but impossible, although at the eastern end there is still space left for the formation of that essential improvement, a broad and handsome esplanade. THE PORT AND SEA BATHS. 15 The description of the town of San Remo may be brought to a conchision by a few remarks relative to the Port and Cemetery. On reaching the Port from the Via Gioberti, on the right a somewhat dilapidated fort is seen, ' Santa Tliekla,' built by the Genoese and now used as a prison. From the back of tliis a raised terrace or pier rmis out towards the sea, and forms the western boundary of the port. This terrace is called the Molo, and is reached by several flights of steps, and from its extremity, as already noticed, a very fine view of the amphitheatre of hills and mountains surrounding the town, is obtained, as well as of the town itself standing out boldly on the side of the hill. On the left of the fort are the Sea Baths ; these face the entrance of the port, and here may usually be observed a large quantity of the seaweed, peculiar to this part of the Mediterranean, cast up on the shore, where it often forms in the immediate vicinity of the baths, and for some distance beyond them, a very considerable bank, the water itself being rendered turbid and discoloured by the quantity of seaweed floating in it, and which imparts to it anything but an inviting appearance. The site chosen for the baths is there- fore not a good or suitable one ; but there is the further objection to be urged against the position, that the water of the harbour is not nearly so pure and fresh as that of the open sea. It is then very desirable that the present baths should be removed to a cleaner site on the seashore. The seaweed which sometimes accumulates in such large quantities at these baths and elsewhere along the coast contains nitrogen and other fertilising constituents in quantity sufficient to render it valuable ; and it is a pity it is not used here, as it is in many other places, as a manure. The fresher the fucus the larger the proportion of albuminous matter present. At a little distance from the baths, a few small sailing vessels are usually to be seen. Formerly, before the days of the railway, small coasting steamers regularly put into this harbour from Genoa, Nice, and Marseilles, but they have long since ceased to do so. At no time however could the larger steamers call here, in consequence of the shallowness of the harbour. If this could be deepened so as to allow of steamers putting in to the port, bringing luggage, goods, and general merchandise, the prosperity and wealth of the town would be thereby greatly increased. At present, goods coming from England by ship have to be landed either at Marseilles or Genoa, and to be transmitted thence by railway at a greatly increased cost and with vexatious Custom- house delays. The port is well protected to the east, but is much exposed on the south-west. Some extensive works are now being carried on with a view to the formation of a breakwater. This 16 THE CEMETERY. when completed will materially increase the size of the harbour and the depth of the water, and add to the protection afforded, so that vessels of larger size will be able to enter it at all times and find a safe refuge. It is to be hoped that a good landing quay will be formed. The port is well worth a visit for the sake of the view to be obtained of the surrounding hills and mountains, but for no other reason. The gromid around the port has a desolate and neglected appearance, is nearly without trees or verdure, seats, or anything to render the spot pleasant and attractive. With a little care and outlay all this might be altered, and the port made one of the bright and agreeable features of the town, to which both visitors and townspeople would be glad to repair, to enjoy the beautiful prospect thence obtained. The cemetery, or ' Campo Santo,' as already stated, is situated on the west side of the town, nearly opposite the Hotel des Anglais. There is from it a fine view of the momitains, but none of the sea. It consists of a chapel in a square piece of ground, enclosed in high walls, inside which is a covered way with supporting pillars, and under this are many of the principal vaults, monuments, and tombstones, mostly in marble ; thus situated, they, as well as the flowers and decorations, are well protected from the weather. The central portion of the cemetery is planted with rows of Cypress trees. At the head of many of the tombstones, photographs of the deceased are placed — a curious custom, but which has much to recommend it. When I first visited the cemetery at the end of November, many of the graves were decorated with fresh flowers, one especially attracting attention. Upon this lay a beautiful cross about eight feet long, formed mamly of himdreds of freshly- gathered ' Gloire de Dijon ' roses intermixed with other kinds of roses, all of which blossom in the open air in great profusion throughout the winter. A portion of the cemetery has been set apart for Protestants ; in this are many graves of Germans and English, the number of the former predominating; indeed, the English who are buried here are comparatively few. The Sunday after All Saints' day, in France the jour des Morts, a procession is formed to the cemetery, accompanied by great numbers of the townspeople, especially those who have relatives or friends buried there. A service ' in memoriam ' takes place, and the people deposit in great profusion wreaths, immor- telles, and flowers on the graves ; they also sometimes suspend on the head-stones small coloured lamps. Having brouglit the description of San Kemo to a conclusion, the Sanitary condition of the town may next be considered, and especially the Water Supply and Drainage. THE WATER SUPPLY. 17 On the importance of a Pure Water Supply it is unnecessary to insist. To be satisfactory, it should fulfil the following con- ditions : the water should be pure, abundant, easily accessible to the inhabitants, and should not be liable to contamination, as by the proximity of drains and cesspits. San Eemo itself is supplied by about eight fountains, situated in different parts of the town. The water supplying five of these is obtained from Lago Negro, below San Eomolo and near San Michele ; it is conveyed to the town by an aqueduct, which runs beside the San Eomolo road at an elevation which renders its subsequent distribution a very simple and easy proceeding. For this supply the town is indebted to the late Dr. Andrea Carli, who, according to Dr. Onetti, ' always occupied with the welfare of those under his administra- tion, and they having had only the impure and muddy water of wells or cisterns to drink, a source of endemic maladies, typhoid fevers, gastro-enteric disorders, and of verminous affections, procured for his native place in 1828 wholesome and potable water, distributed by five handsome fountains erected in as many spacious public squares.' I have had the water of the fountain in the market-place, which is supplied from Lago Negro, analysed by Mr. Otto Hehner, F.C.S., with the following results : — lu 100,000 parts Chlorine ........ r35 Sulphuric acid ....... 0728 Nitric acid 0-124 Free ammonia ....... O'OOOS Albimiinoid ammonia ...... 0'0007 Total solids 24-0 Hardness 20-0 The above figures prove that this water which, however, be- comes turbid after heavy rainfall, is of considerable purity, as was to be anticipated from the source from which it is derived, and of a moderate degree of hardness. The first and most important condition of a good water supply, namely, purity, so far as the fountains supplied from Lago Negro are concerned, is therefore fulfilled. Now I have noticed that these fountains are always running ; the supply hence is constant and abundant, and thus the second condition, so far as relates to them, is also complied with. The water, however, is not laid on to the houses, but the people have to obtain it from one or other of the fountains, and at the cost of time and great labour have to convey it, sometimes up steep streets and staircases, to their dwellings, storing the water thus obtained too often in any pails, pans, or utensils which may be procurable, whereby it frequently becomes more or less contaminated. c 18 THE WATER SUPPLY. But the remarks just made have reference only to the supply of the town from these fountains. The houses, villas, pensions, and hotels obtain their supply from wells, one well in some cases being common to two or more houses. Now the quality of the water in these cases may be expected to vary a good deal, according to the situation and depth of the well. With a view to test this, I made some time since a selection of the water from three wells ; 1, from near the Villas Carli, and consequently not far removed from the sea ; 2, high up on the west side ; and 8, low down at the east end of the town. These were also subjected to analysis by Mr. Helmer, with the subjoined results : — 1 24-30 In 100,000 parts 3 21-12 Chlorine . 7h Sulphuric acid . M-283 3-667 5-398 Nitric acid 12-690 0-137 2-498 Free ammonia 0-0045 00106 0158 Albuminoid ammonia 0-0056 00032 0-0046 Total solids 146-6 63-1 103-8 Hardness . 63-6 37-2 38-0 The above results prove that the water No. 1 was so impure that "it could not be used with safety : it contains large quantities of chlorine, sulphuric and nitric acids, and it is exceedingly hard ; it is misuited alike for' drinking, cooking, and washing. Several houses used to 'be supplied from this well, the use of which has since been discontinued. No. 2, although very far from being so bad as No. 1, is by no means a good water, and it is much liarder than is desirable for all the purposes of domestic use. No. 3 must be pronounced a very bad water, much w^orse than No. 2, but not so impure as No. 1. Thus, of the four waters submitted to analysis, one only is of the requisite purity, and this is not as soft as could be wished. Even if the three waters to which exception has been taken had been above the suspicion of contamination, they are yet much too hard, their hardness rendering them objectionable for drinking, cooking, and w^ashing : for drinking, because, being less readily absorbed, they impede digestion ; for cooking, since they are less efficient solvents and extractors ; lastly, they are unsuitable for washing because they are less cleansing and very wasteful of soap. When used for drinking, hard waters should be previously softened by boiling, and then passed through a filter in order to remove the large quantity of lime which becomes thrown down. From the fact that good water is to be obtained from the heads of some of the valleys which intersect the surrounding hills, its supply to all the houses would, so far as the engineering is concerned, be a comparatively simple affair ; such a scheme THE DRAINAGE. 19 would, however, cost a considerable sum of money, but there would be the water-rates to meet the interest of the outlay, and as a rule there are few more remunerative investments than in water companies. The present system of supply is a very costly one to householders, by reason of the labour involved, which frequently necessitates the payment of people specially engaged to bring from the well the water daily required. The Municipality of San Eemo are now fuUy alive to the necessity which exists for obtaining a constant and abundant supply of pure and soft water ; this being urgently required both for domestic use and for irrigation. Already, after much and prolonged discussion, the terms and conditions of a contract have been agreed upon between the Municipality and the Societe Fonciere Lyonnaise. The Society propose to bring the water from the Sorgenti d'Argallo, situated in the mountains above Taggia ; these springs help to form the river, which, flowing past Taggia, reaches the sea at the village of Kiva. The concession obtained by the Society has been transferred since the above paragraph was •^n.itten to Messrs. Marsaglia, who were the contractors for the St. Gothard tunnel, and they are under conditions to complete the supply within two years. The Syndic, Signor B. Asquasciati, has taken an active interest in this question, and is to be congratulated on the result of his eft'orts. The rain which falls on the roofs of the houses in the old town is discharged at once into the streets by means of over- hanging spouts : any one, therefore, passing through the streets, stands an excellent chance of being well drenched by the de- scending columns of water and by the splashings. Now, con- sidering the scarcity of water and the labour with which it is obtamed, it might be supposed that the people would be careful to collect as much of the rain-water falling from these spouts as possible ; so far, however, is this from bemg the case, that I have rarely seen a tub or vessel of any description put out to catch this soft and valuable ram- water. In the case of some of the newer villas, special tanks have been constructed for the storage of rain-water. Some of these supply water for domestic use, and others for watering gardens or irrigating land. Next in importance to the water supply of a town is the Drainage and other means for the removal of the Daily Refuse. In our visits to the old town we have been agreeably surprised at the general cleanliness of the streets, and comparative freedom from bad smells ; the same remark applies to the principal streets of the newer portions of the town. In passing through the old town, numerous gratings are c 2 20 THE DEAINAaE. observed which communicate with drains intended only for th§ reception of the Hquid refuse of the houses, although solid or- Cfanic matters often find their way into them, as shown by their being infested with rats. In the chief streets of the lower town, similar gratings and drains exist, the latter terminating usually in the sea. These drains, like those of the upper toAvn, are not for solid sewage ; notwithstanding which, however, in the course of time a con- siderable precipitation and accumulation of organic matter takes place in them, giving rise in certain localities, from the decom- position which ensues, especially in hot weather, to offensive and noxious emanations. It does not appear that any means exist for flushing the drains, nor — ^judging by the fact that bad smells may sometimes be observed commg from the same grating for a long time together — that steps are very frequently taken to remove accumu- lations and obstructions. The heavy rains of the autumn and spring do much to cleanse and purify the drains and so to lessen the smells, which it is to be feared in the summer must be greatly intensified, not only from the diminished rainfall, but from the greater rapidity of decomposition at that season of the year. It is very desirable that the drains should be periodically flushed, fi'eely ventilated, and numerous outlets afforded for noxious gases, by means of ' safety ' pipes in suitable situations, carried up the sides of houses. It is stated that there are few or no cesspits in the old town, so that the solid house refuse has to be got rid of by other means : what these are will presently appear. For the various hotels, pensions, and villas, there is no regular system of drainage at present, but only cesspits. Part of the drainage from some of the hotels makes its way into the sea, giving rise sometimes to oft'ensive and possibly injurious smells ; while the refuse from some houses is thrown into certain gullies or ditches from which, as a consequence, especially in warm weather, and at night, unsavoury odours not unfrequently proceed. Care should be taken that the cesspits are emptied at proper intervals and periods of the year, and that the Avells should not be in such a situation as to allow the possibility of the contamination of the water through the intervening soil. With a view to ob\'iate this danger the cesspit should be cemented, and placed considerably below the well, and it should also be provided with a ventilating tube or shaft. In many cases these precautions have been adopted. The general cleansing of the to-\\m, and the collection of such of the refuse as is thrown into the streets, is performed by women. They daily sweep up this refuse, which is afterwards removed and employed as manure, chiefly for the Olive trees, for which it is THE CLEANSma OF THE TOWN. 21 much prized. In very few cases is the house refuse collected in baskets, or other convenient receptacles, and placed in the street with a view to its removal ; and strange to say, no public pro- vision whatever appears to have been made for the removal of house refuse generally, and particularly of that from 'the private houses and villas. Each occupant does as he thmks fit with this, and gets rid. of it the best way he can, usually by throwing it into the nearest torrent, or taking it down to the shore and casting it into the sea, thus giving rise to unsightly spectacles, bad smells, and also wasting a very large quantity of valuable fertilising material. One would have supposed that this would be eagerly sought after, and that its value would more than pay the cost of its collection. There ought to be, as there is in so many other towns, a regulation rendering it imperative on the inliabitants to put their house refuse in some suitable receptacle in an accessible place, with a view to its daily removal early in the morning. In this way many tons of good manure would be obtained each week, and the town, torrents, and sea-shore kept clean and sweet. Not oiily is the refuse disposed of too frequently in the manner above described, but even in more objectionable ways, as by casting it over walls and throwing it in all sorts of bye-places and corners, where it becomes obnoxious alike to sight and smell. [Four years have elapsed since the preceding remarks were penned, and no system for the collection of the house refuse has yet been adopted or seems likely to be. The cleansing and scavenger- mg of the streets and roadways are better performed than form^'ly, and consequently there is less to offend the senses. In the absence of any public provision for the removal of house refuse, householders are enjoined to dig a hole in the garden, if they have any, and to throw the refuse into this ; but many people have no gardens, and if they had the hole or pit soon becomes filled, and still sooner the mass within it becomes corrupt. Li such cases the only alternatives are either to earth over the putrefying mass and to dig another hole in the garden, or to cart the refuse away fi-om time to time. The former proceeding is often im- practicable, and the latter is so costly and inconvenient that it is pretty sure to be neglected.] Thus, while the main streets of San Eemo are kept clean, and are tolerably free from smells, the same cannot always be said of the less frequented streets and outlying places, including the neighbourhood of the port, the arches mider the railway, and many other localities, where one is often confronted with accumu- lations of nastiness which ought not to be permitted to exist for a day even in the poorest town. The principal reason for this state of things is that the working and poorer population are un- 22 THE SAN REMESE. provided in their dwellings with the usual accommodation. Even the few conveniences in the town are so constructed and arranged as to give rise in hot weather to nauseous smells, while they are placed in such puhlic situations that they are a perpetual offence to passers-by. The condition of things described is the more to be regretted, since it might easily be remedied, and at a very small cost. .11- A few remarks may now be made respectmg the mhabitants of San Kemo. The San Eemese possess the good looks so characteristic of Italians, the regular features, large dark eyes, thick luxuriant black hair, and the expression in a marked degree of high intel- ligence. Their complexions are for the most part bad, being generally dark, swarthy, and sallow, the sallowness denoting the Ivmphatic temperament, and being due in some cases to ill- ventilated and dark habitations as in the old town, and to the poorness of the food. The effect of these influences is particularly observable in children and young people. The men, though w^ell -grown for the most part, w-ant that robustness of form and development of muscle wiiicli denote strength, and distinguish the hardier northern race. The women, while young, are bright-looking and comely, but they soon lose their youthful looks, and at an early age become faded and \sTinkled. This premature change is partly to be explained by the nature of the occupations wdiich fall to the lot of very niany of the w^omen of the working classes in this part of Italy. Unlike what prevails in most other countries, here the women do the rougher, heavier, and the most repulsive part of the work ; thus, they assist in building the houses, ascending even to the roofs, and carrying on their heads loads of mortar, bricks, and stones. They are fi-equently seen carrying baskets of sand a.nd shingle up from the seashore, and in this laborious occupation even girls of tender age are employed at a period when aU their powers are required for the development and strengthening of their frames. The women sweep up the streets, and carry on their heads to the Olive plantations the baskets of evil- smelling refuse thus collected ; in the same manner they carry heavy casks of wine I Fig. o), tubs of water, sacks of flour (Fig. 6), sofas, and wardrobes. If a piano be hired it is sent home on the heads of three or four women, a man frequently walking beside them like a corporal in charge of his file ; indeed, the men as a rule.think it derogatory to their dignity to carry such burdens. One cannot but feel for the women on meeting them thus heavily weighted, really more hke beasts of burden than human beings. Sometimes, however, and at certain seasons, the loads which they bear on their heads, as baskets of olives, which they bring down daily THE SAN EEMESE. 23 from the groves to the ohve mills to be crushed, or oranges and lemons, are of a pleasanter and more suitable character. The dexterity which the women display in carrying heavy loads, balancing them on their heads, is really remarkable, and is no doubt explained by their early training, since they commence as mere children. I have seen women carrying large shallow tubs of water up the steep streets of the old town, without once touch- ing the tubs with their hands or spilling a drop of the water. Fir,. 5. These occupations, so far from giving the women grace and freedom of carriage, as some writers have imagined, cause them to lose their complexion and youthful appearance, and render their figures coarse and unshapely. But the most curious part of the matter is that the women themselves see no hardship or impropriety in all this, but prefer labour so unsuited to their strength and sex, to domestic service. So much is this the case, that it is very difficult to obtain an \m- 24 SERVANTS. married woman-servant, and if one be secured she is nearly sure to be ignorant of the duties required of her, added to which, as a rule, she can neither read nor write. It is only recently that married women have become willing to go into service, but the high rate of wages now given, and their own poverty, have to some extent overcome the disinclination. In consequence of the inefficiency and small choice of Italian servants, many of the visitors to San Eemo, both English and German, either bring with them their own or engage SavIss, French, or German servants, who, while they are more efficient, are also obtained at much lower Avages. An Italian woman-ser- vant, however incapable, expects to be paid at the rate of from 50 to 60 francs a month. The necessity for engaging foreign servants is very much to be regretted, as the San Eemese women thus lose much money every season. It is most desirable that the Italian ladies should set on foot an institution for the training of young women in the duties of domestic service. The conveyance of heavy goods from village to village is mostly effected on the backs of donkeys ; this arises fi-om the steepness of many of the mountain ascents and the absence of roads. The burdens laid on these patient and most useful animals are not a little varied and curious ; now casks of wine, one slung on either side (Fig. 7), now panniers, filled with sand and stone, or faggots of firewood ; bundles of bamboos trailing many feet behind the donkey, and presenting a most singular appearance, or brush- wood intended for the oven, consisting mainly of Fir, Juniper, Lentiscus, and Myrtle. The way in which the washing of clothes is performed at San Eemo differs but little from that practised in most parts of Italy, France, and Germany. Wherever there is water, no matter how scanty or dirty it may be, there you are sure to see women washing. It is in the shallow streams in the neighbourhood of San Eemo that most of the washing is carried on, and the water of these is more or less polluted by the filth and refuse of all descriptions constantly thrown into them. The clothes are brought down to these streams in baskets, several women washing near together ; each selects a suitable stone, and on this she rubs and soaps the clothes. There is little rubbing between the hands, and no use of hot water as with us, and much of the soap is of course wasted in the stream without its having exerted any action at all in cleans- ing the clothes. The consequence is that in many cases the linen is very imperfectly washed, and is much injured by the rough usage to which it is subjected. Although the Italian and French washerwomen do not make use of large quantities of soda like the English with a view to THE METHOD OF WASHING. 25 soften the water and so to save soap, they sometimes have recourse to a proceeding of very similar character, and which produces a like effect. As the fires in the South of France and in Italy are all of wood, a large quantity of a greyish-white ash is produced ; this, of course, contains much alkali, as the washerwomen have found out by experience, and hence it is a common practice to sprinkle wood ashes over the clothes after they have midergone the first cleansing with soap. FiG.6. After having been washed in the rude and primitive maimer described, instead of the clothes being hung on lines supported by props as in England, the clothes are frequently spread out on the ground, on stones, walls, or palings, and in fact anywhere where space is to be found, quite regardless of appearances. This pro- ceeding does not make the clothes any cleaner. In the poorer quarters of Italian towns the houses are -perfectly disfigured by the display of somewhat unsightly garments hung out to dry. ^The practice of hanging the clothes in every available place is a"^ real 26 DRESS OF THE SAN REMESE. disfigurement to the town, and it is a pity that no proper drying- grounds have been provided. But the great objection to the practice of washing clothes in the manner described, is the habihty to their becoming infected, either by the sewage thro\\-n into the streams, or by infectious matter contained in contaminated garments. It would be a great boon if the authorities were to erect two or three large public washing-places in suitable situations, pro- tected from the weather, and provided with a good supply of pure soft water. For the use of these a small charge might be made, which Avould be covered many times over by the saving of soap alone, to say nothing of the saving of labour and avoidance of illness. It is very certain that washing as the poor women do now, exposed to all weathers, and kneeling in ' cramped positions in damp places or on the hard stones, they must often suffer greatly in health. At the north-east corner of the market there is already one such washing-place, the ' Lavatoio Pubbhco,' on a very small scale, but this is wholly inadequate to the requirements of so populous a town. On Sundays, holidays, and during the long evenings of spring and summer, the San Eemese are very fond of walking in the Corso Garibaldi or on the Promenade de I'lmperatrice, assem- bling often in considerable numbers. It is very interesting to observe them when thus gathered together. The appearance and dress of the women are peculiar ; they are usually without bonnets, caps, or other covering to their heads than their abundant black hair, and each wears a gaily coloured handkerchief folded like a shawl and crossed over the chest ; but if the weather be very cold they sometimes tie a handkerchief over their heads as well. The characteristic and graceful black lace veil is occasionally seen, but the wearing of bonnets or hats is confined entirely to the upper classes. The men wrap themselves up much more carefully than the women, and they are commonly seen wearing grey woollen shawls exactly like those usually worn by women ; others wear cloaks of ample dimensions, with one side thrown over the shoulder as in Spain. Whatever the style of dress adopted, the men are all very warmly clad, and even in weather by no means cold, most of them carry a shawl or other wrap over the arm, to be put on at sunset or in the event of any sudden change of temperature. Further, many of the men of the peasant class carry large umbrellas of the brightest colours. Mingled with the crowd are many priests and a few Capucin monks, who by their dress give character and picturesqueness to the scene. Until recently San Remo contained, besides its numerous churches. WALKS AND DRIVES. 27 several conventual establishments ; most of the latter no longer exist, but a great many priests and ecclesiastics still find occu- pation and have their homes in San Eemo. The opportunities for exercise in and around San Eemo are considerable. The inducements for walking exercise, which may Tig. 7 ffy^: be taken almost daily in the winter, are very great, owing to the beauty of the country and the variety of walks and excursions in the neighbourhood, as, going westward, to Capo Nero, Ospedaletti, and Bordighera, and eastward, to Poggio, Capo Verde, and Taggia; also up the several valleys, and over the hills and mountains. For those who are not strong, there are many walks 28 NEW ROADS. near the town in the Olive groves, some of which are within tlie reach of invahds, while for the longer and more distant excursions th'ere are plenty of donkeys to be hired at a very reasonable rate, but the principal excursions in the neighbour- liood of Han Kemo will be found described elsewhere. The number of drives has been considerably increased of late. The principal are, westward along the far-famed Corniche road to Ospedaletti, where a new town is being rapidly formed, to Bordighera, to Dolceacqua up the valley of the Nervia, Venti- miglia, Mentone, and Monaco ; and eastward, to Poggio, Capo Verde, and Ceriana, to Taggia, Kiva, San Stefano, Porto Maurizio, and Oneglia. A carriage road has recently been constructed, which, starting from the Genoa road a httle to the west of Capo Nero, leads to the top of the cape and to Colla, the views from near which are as beautiful as those on the east from the Madonna della Guardia on Capo Verde. Several other roads have either recently been made or are m course of construction. One of these is the Strada Berigo, which commences at the Giardino Pubblico, skirts this, and passing through an angle of the old town, continues up the San Piomolo valley for some distance ; it then Avinds to the left till the Piazzo San Bernardo is reached, a very fine view of the old town being obtained on the way. The road then runs on the level for nearly a mile high above the sea, and many of the villas and hotels, descending at length into the Foce valley, which it follows till the high road is reached near the bridge, which crosses the Foce torrent. Near the centre of the Berigo road and close to the Villa Diano another road has recently been constructed by the Societe Fonciere Lyonnaise, which ascending northwards opens up the extensive property lately acquired by the Society. Some very fine views are obtained from this road, which however is not yet finished. The other new roads are on the east side of the town ; one, the Via Francia, commences at the Church of the Angels, and after running in a straight Ime for a time divides into two. One branch follows the course of the San Francia valley for a considerable distance, crosses the valley by a new and hand- some stone bridge, turns abruptly to the left, and then, traversing the west side of the valley, gradually ascends until it passes beneath the Madonna della Costa. From this point it is intended that the road should cross the San Eomolo valley and join the eastern end of the Berigo road. This will be a great improve- ment, as it will establish the much desired communication between the new roads on either side of the town. It is intended also that hereafter the road should be carried from the Madonna della Costa along the ridge as far as San Eomolo. NEW ROADS. 29 This place will doubtless then become the summer health resort of San Eemo for those invalids who after a winter season here are recommended to remain abroad in a suitable locality. The other branch of the Via Francia turns abruptly to the right, running behind the Hotels de Nice and d'Angleterre, and terminating at the Eondo. A third new road, the Strada Peirogallo, starts from the Eondo, follows the west side of the Bestagna Valley, crosses the torrent, and turning sharply round ascends the eastern side of the valley, passing at the back of the Villas d'Anvers and Zirio, until the Villa Brigida is reached ; here it turns to the right, and after a steep descent reaches the main road nearly opposite the Hotel Mediterranee. This also is a very pretty road, and opens up some eligible building sites. Another road which has been in course of construction for some time is the Strada Verezzo : this is approached from the east end of the Strada Peirogallo ; from which it commences at the Villa Brigida. This will be continued to the village of Verezzo, a distance of some three or four miles, and will form another very attractive drive. There is still another new road which should be mentioned, though it is at some distance from the town ; this runs from the Genoa road along the east side of the Ceriana Valley, and ex- tends to the \illage of Bussana, with Poggio on the opposite side of the valley ; these places will be specially referred to later on. Although the whole of the places and excursions which have been named are within the compass of a di'ive, yet the distant ones may be still more quickly reached by railway ; indeed, very pleasant excursions may be made to any of the places on the railway as far as and even beyond Nice, returning to San Eemo the same day. The pleasure derived from the walks may be greatly enhanced if there be added the pursuit of some branch of natural science, as geology, botany, or entomology, and for which rich and rare materials everywhere abound. Then, from the little harbour, in suitable weather, boats may be taken for a row or sail along the ever beautiful shore of the Mediterranean ; the most complete view of San Eemo, as already iStated, being obtained at a little distance from the toAvn. Although fishing is to be had at San Eemo there are more facilities for this pursuit at Bordighera, which may be reached by train in twenty minutes. In the early spring bathing may be fi'eely indulged in by those in health, and without the risk of accident. Among the amusements the Theatre may be mentioned, with 30 AMUSEMENTS. its operatic representations, as well as the excellent Municipal ]>and which plays in the Public Garden several times a week throughout the winter. Tliere are two libraries, those of Gandolfo and Berio, where the works of a great number of English and foreign authors may be obtained; the subscription is moderate. In the season there are a few balls and dances, the majority of which are held at the different hotels, although here, as at most resorts for invalids, the chief social meetings take place in the afternoon. In the spring many picnics are organised, and these are really very enjoyable, the most beautiful spots of the surround- ing country then being visited. If the list of amusements at San Kemo be not long or striking, it must be remembered that this place is chiefly a health resort, and that the pursuit of health and such night pleasures as are aftbrded by operas, plays, balls, and dances can- not often be successfully combined. Still, there are few towns of the size of San Remo which possess so excellent a band and so well appointed a Theatre, or rather. Opera-house, since it is devoted almost entirely to the performance of operas. Amongst the amusements at San Remo during the winter season, the Carnival must not be forgotten ; but here, as else- where in Italy, it seems each year to become less interesting and amusing. The only really pleasant day of the Carnival is that devoted to the throwing of flowers, le Jour des Fleurs. 31 CHAPTER II. Food Supplies at San Remo — Mediterranean Fish — Sale of Small Eirds — Vegetables — Fungi — Fruit — Many Articles partaken of in France and Italy, not used as Food in England — Indiscriminate Slaughter of Small Birds. A FEW years since, before San Eenio became an important health resort, and when the town was inhabited ahnost entirely by the native population, whose mode of living is so much simpler than our own, the food supplies were indifferent in quality and presented but little variety, the surrounding moun- tains and valleys not yielding very much in the way of food, beyond mutton, poultry, olive oil, fruit, and vegetables. Now, however, since the arrival of so many strangers, especially English, the supplies have gradually increased in quantity and variety, and the cost of living also in nearly an equal ratio. The oxen which furnish the beef are brought mainly from Piedmont, and instead of being driven here as formerly, the condition of the cattle being thereby greatly impaired, they now arrive for the most part by rail, Mentone, Nice, and Cannes being supplied from the same source. The quality of the meat furnished by these oxen is excellent, but some of the beef sold in San Eemo is inferior. The sheep come from the surrounding mountains, and there being, especially in the winter, but little pasturage, they are thin and the mutton usually not equal to that we are accustomed to in England. Lamb is eaten far too young, some of the lambs being but little larger than hares. Yeal is good, but not so white as in England, it sometimes bemg more like beef in colour. The supply of Poultry is abundant, and includes not only fowls, but turkeys, guinea fowls, ducks, and geese ; the quality is for the most part good, and the prices moderate. There is also usually plenty of game, especially hares, partridges, including both the red and grey legged, wildfowl, woodcock and snipe, but pheasants are rather scarce and are seen in the market chiefly at Christmas. Flour and P)read are both good, but dear. The native population usually make their own, bread. Most of the Butter 32 MEDITERRANEAN FISH. sold is good ; much of it comes from Milan. The Milk is also good but not rich. As there is no pasturage in or near San Eenio, especially in the summer, the cows are kept in the mountains until the commencement of the winter, when they are brought down and are then stall-fed. With respect to Fish, the supply is more limited. The fish of the Northern seas is now, however, brought regularly to Nice, and from thence is distributed to the different health resorts of the Eiviera. This fish of course arrives packed in ice, and hence its quality and flavour are somewhat impaired. The quantity of fish caught in the Mediterranean is not considerable ; the fish are usually small, and but few are of really first-rate quahty, though some are very good. Several reasons are assigned for the paucity of fish in the Mediterranean ; one of these isits exceptional warmth. It is a cmious fact that all the more valuable kinds of fish are found in the greatest abundance in the colder seas, as those of North America and the North of Europe ; it is from the latter that the shoals of fish caught on our English shores annually migrate. The fish of tropical climates is neither abundant nor very good. Other reasons are the great depth of the water, reaching to nearly 10,000 feet in some parts, and the absence of shoals. In deep water there is a comparative scarcity of animal life, and a consequent diminution in the amount of food available for the nourishment of fish, while the absence of shoals operates by rendering the deposition of the spawn and breeding of the fish more difficult. But there is still another very singular reason assigned by Dr. Carpenter for the comparative absence of fish in the Medi- terranean, and that is, the small amount of oxygen contained in the water of that sea as compared with the Atlantic ; it being only 5 per cent, in the former and as much as 20 per cent, in the latter : now, oxygen is the great supporter of respiration and of animal life. This deficiency is attributed by Dr. Carpenter to the oxygen combining with the organic matter contained in large amomits in the small rivers and torrents which discharge them- selves into the Mediterranean. At the same time that there is a diminution in the oxygen, there is an increase in the carbonic acid. At San Kemo there is not much fishing, part of the fish consumed being obtained from Bordighera, but fishing is also carried on to some extent at Mentone, Cannes, and most other towns on the coast. The method usually pursued is as follows. Owing to the depth of the water trawling is, of course, out of the question : in lieu of the trawl, exceedingly long straight nets of some 6 or 7 feet in depth, properly weighted, are employed ; these are thrown into the sea at a short distance from the shore, FISHING IN THE MEDITERRANEAN. 33 the two ends are dragged along by men in boats, and gradually approximated ; thus any fish which may be contained in the space enclosed by the net are captured. The operation of casting the net and hauling it on to the shore is one which occupies a good deal of time and is attended with some excitement on the part of those, usually some ten or a dozen men and boys, engaged in it, and much interest and curiosity are evinced by the bystanders. After much shouting and hauling at the long ropes attached to it, the net with its contents is landed on the shore, and every one rushes forward, including the fishermen themselves, to inspect the capture. After so much time and labour expended, and so many persons being employed, one naturally expects some adequate result, but, as a rule, not more than two or three dozen small and insignificant-looking fish are obtained, scarcely enough to fill even a very small basket, and one wonders how such captures can possibly pay the number of persons engaged. In some cases the net is carried out far to sea and is drawn along for some miles between two sailing vessels which, when it is not too rough, are able to keep an exactly similar course ; this mode of fishing is much more efl'ective. The vessels are not permitted to approach too near the shore on account of the destruction of the fish spaA\'n which would ensue. In the spring the tunny is frequently caught along the North shore of the Mediterranean. This fish attains a length of some six feet ; ' its taste is excellent when fresh ; it is well known in France and England preserved in oil.' (Marcet.) It is caught in nets spread horizontally, the fish being thus enclosed, and when captured they are at once killed. The chase and capture of the tunny are particularly exciting. Along the shores of the Eiviera fish are sometimes caught at night by spearing. ' It frequently happens,' writes Dr. Marcet, ' that one or more bright red lights are seen m the water, moving slowly along the shore, and rising and falling under that invisible undulation seldom absent from the Mediterranean Sea even in the calmest nights ; or perhaps while sitting in one's dra^\ing- room in a ^dlla or hotel near the sea, a sudden glare through the shutters will reveal a most unexpected and novel sight. What indeed can be that very bright light ? The shutters are thrown open, and then a small boat may be seen in a flood of red light manned by two or three men with faces crimson coloured fi'om the glare of a bright fire of coal and bituminous pine wood. A grate or metal basket is fixed to the stern of the boat and over- hangs the sea ; it is one mass of light, the flames of the ignited wood rising high above the occupants of the skift". Presently one of its men thrusts the end of a stick into the burning mass ; he uses it as a poker, and then follows a shower of glittermg sparks. 34 FISH OF TUE MEDITEEEANEAN. The fishermen may now be seen intent on their pursuit ; each of them holds the handle of a long spear in the right hand, looking e^"-erly over the bows of the boat and apparently in the act of striking ; the picture, with its wonderful contrasts of light and shade, is worthy a Rembrandt. Suddenly the hand is brought down vic^orou sly with a sudden stoop of the body, again it is witluhvaAvn, arrd hi the light of the brazier a fish is seen glittering and struggling on the prongs of the merciless weapon ; another second the fish wriggles in the boat, while the fisherman prepares to strike again.' Xlthough the Mediterranean does not yield any great abun- dance of fish, yet there are many kinds partaken of, and a few of these, though small, are really excellent. Thus the sardine, Clupea pilcliardus, is both abundant and cheap, and when pro- perly fried in good olive oil it is exceedingly nice and to be regarded in fact as a delicacy. Sardines are sometimes sold about the size of whitebait, and these are quite equal to their renowned English namesake. Not unfrequently large baskets filled with a gelatinous-looking substance are seen in the market ; this, when closely examined, is found to consist of the fry of a fish which Dr. Glinther believes to be the sardine ; so small is it that it is necessary to cook it in batter. It is a thousand pities that this wholesale destruction of the fry of so commercially impor- tant a fish as the sardine, especially on the shores of the Medi- terranean, is not strictly prohibited. The fresh anchovy is also not unfrequently seen in the market. Other kinds of fish which are really very good, are a species of whiting said to be of excellent flavour, the red mullet, called Rougie, Mullus barbatus, as well as some other kinds ; a broad flat fish distinguished by its pinky hue, Pagellus erythrinus ; another, character- ised by four yellow stripes or lines running along the body, known as the Dorade, is IMaena vulgaris ; there are also the Aniande, Ijox salpa, and the Loup. But a great variety of other fish are partaken of, although not equal in quality to those already mentioned, as Serranus scriba, S. cabrilla, species of perch ; Sargus annularis and S. vulgaris ; Cantharus lineatus ; Heliastus chromis; Crenilabrus rostratus ; Scomber pneumatophorus, a species of mackerel ; Cepola rubescens, a ribbon-like fish ; and lastly, the beautiful and many-coloured Coris julis, characterised by a broad vermilion stripe down each side. For the scientific names of these fish I am indebted to the kindness of Dr. Glinther, of the British Museum. These fish, and especially the sardine, should be partaken of with a plentiful sprinkling of the juice of a freshly-gathered lemon ; they are all greatly improved by this addition, which is far more pleasant and wholesome than the hot and pungent sauces so generally used in England. SMALL BIRDS IN THE MARKET. 35 Occasionally, in the spring of the year, the fish of the North- ern seas are caught in the Mediterranean, having been carried into it by the Gulf Stream through the Straits of Gibraltar. In the season, salmon and trout are found in the shops of San Eemo. Among the more curious and scientifically interesting fish some- times captured, is the electric torpedo. If an early visit be paid to the market a variety of curious Mediterranean fish, in addition to those already mentioned, are often seen ; Cuttlefish are caught in large quantities all along the Eiviera. Their mode of 'capture is peculiar. The boat is gently rowed over the rocks near the shore, the fisherman being armed with a long stick baited at- the end ; this he puts down amongst the rocks Avher- ever he thinks the fish would be concealed ; these clutch at the bait thus presented to them, and, tenaciously adhering to it, are readily drawn to the surface of the water. There are at least two species of cuttlefish caught in this manner, and they are extensively partaken of as articles of food. It enters into the composition of that favourite dish Bouillabaisse. A species of so-called Sea Hedgehog, or Urchin, Echinus escu- lentus, is met with on the rocks close to the shore in vast quantities ; basketsful of them are "sometimes seen in the market, but they are mostly sought after and eaten by the poor. The shell is at once broken, and a small bright red mass is extracted and eaten quite raw. They are often detached from the rocks and fished up from the water by means of long cleft bamboos, the prongs of which are made to grasp them. Oysters at San Eemo are neither very plentiful nor very good. At Cannes and Nice they are abundant and of excellent quality ; they are of several difterent kinds, the most curious being the green oysters, Marennes or Hultres Vertes ; it was for- merly supposed that this colour indicated the presence of copper, then that it was due to a green fungus or alga, but it has recently been determined by M. Puysegiir,^ that it arises from a species of diatom, Na\*icula ostrearia. The oysters feed on this green colouring matter which, becoming dissolved during digestion and entering the blood, imparts to them the characteristic green hue. It does not appear that these oysters are at all unwhole- some, although their stomachs are filled with the siliceous shells of the navicular. Not unfrequently baskets of Snails of two difterent kinds are seen here in the market, as in France. Thrushes, Blackbirds, Starlings, Larks, Goldfinches, Chaf- finches, and even Eobins, in fact all tlie smaller members of the feathered tribe, are generally to be met with in the market in ' Sur ki c;iuise du Verdissemcnt des H nitres. d2 36 VEGETABLES IN THE MARKET. large numbers, no matter how rare the bird, how beautiful its plumage, or how sweet its song. The Vegetables in the market include all the usual kinds, according to the season, as well as one or two which are not so generally met with, as Salsafy, the leaves and roots of Chicory, and Cardon. Salsafy, Tragopogon porrifolius, belongs to the same natural order as Chicory ; the roots, when cooked, are soft and tender, but possess little flavour. The leaves of Chicory, Cichorium intybus, are either used alone as salad or mixed with lettuce or some other suitable vegetable ; and the roots are boiled like those of Salsafy, and served with sauce ; but, not- withstanding the boiling, the roots are somewhat bitter and woody. Neither of these vegetables can be compared for a moment, either in texture or flavour, with carrots or parsnips. Cardon consists of the stems and leaves of a species of thistle or artichoke, Cynara cardunculus, grown so as to bleach the leaves in the same manner as celery, to which the heads of cardon in form and appearance bear a striking resemblance. AVhen cooked like celery it furnishes a very palatable dish, the leaves being tender and the root having somewhat the flavour of the artichoke. In the autumn and early winter large baskets of Fungi are exposed foi sale and appear to be in much demand ; there are several species partaken of, all ditfering from the mushroom commonly consumed in England. One kind is of a salmon colour, and is named Lactarius deliciosus ; another, with a black epidermis to the shield, is Boletus edulis, and this is the one most frequently met within the market, being sometimes sold in the dried state ; a third, characterised by the vermilion colour of the epidermis, is Agaricus Cesareus ; a fourth, Agaricus albellus, is much esteemed on account of its perfume ; but the only kind which appears in the winter is Agaricus campestrisL., commonly called Boleto d'Ulivo. Tomatoes are particularly abundant and cheap ; they are full of flavour, and constitute a most agreeable addition to many dishes ; they should be partaken of freely, like other vegetables, and not used merely for flavouring. So abundant are tomatoes here that large quantities are made into a ' conserve de pommes d'amour ; ' this consists of the pulp of the tomato deprived of its seeds, with salt, pepper, and other flavouring added. In this state it keeps for a considerable time, and acquires a dark, ferrugi- nous, red colour which gives it a very singular appearance. Tubs and pans filled with this conserve are to be seen very frequently in the early part of the winter, it being evidently in much demand l)y the San llemese. Tomatoes also make an excellent jam when boiled with sugar and very slightly flavoured with lemon juice. FRUITS. 37 The Red Aubergine is frequently seen in the market, and is often served up at table, especially when filled with some savoury meat stuffing. The White Aubergine, or egg plant, is also grown here, and it may be cooked and served up in the same way as the red variety. Tomatoes are also sometimes stuffed in the same way (tomates farcies), and are nicer than the Aubergine. French beans are to be liad in the market up to Christmas, and peas make their appearance about March. In November and December large baskets of beans, resembling scarlet runners, are always to be seen ; these look old, and the seeds contained in them are of considerable size, but when cooked they are found to be quite tender and of good flavour ; they are known in the market by the appropriate name of ' mange-tout,' and they are certainly very much more nutritious than young French beans. The Fruits to be had in November- include Grrapes of different kinds, one a large, oblong purple kind called Croirora, which is really very fine, as well as abundant and cheap ; Lemons, not yet very ripe, and a few Oranges. As the winter progresses the number of baskets of oranges and lemons increase, as also does the ripeness and beauty of these fruits, so that during most of the winter they form one of the most conspicuous and charming objects in the market. It is not a little curious that such brightly tinted fruits as the lemon and orange should only begin to ripen and acquire their characteristic colours at the com- mencement of the winter, and that this process of ripening should be continued throughout that season and not completed until its termination ; even sunshine does not appear to be necessary to the ripening, as during a period of continuous rain the fruit may be seen to increase daily in depth of colour. The best oranges in the neighbourhood come h'om Taggia, whence also we have the earliest green peas. Tangerine oranges are largely grown in and around San Remo ; they are of excellent quality, and command a remunerative price. Figs are very plentiful, and of several different kinds ; they may be divided into sun^mer and autumn figs, the first ripening its fruits in June, and the second in September and October. In the one case the fruit appears before the leaves, in the other after. There are at least three kinds of autumn figs, all luscious and of delicate flavour, very different from the lialf ripe insipid figs usually met with in England. One kind is of a rich purple colour, another a pale green, curiously starred at the top, showing the rich purple contents ; the third kind is also of a pale green colour, and is distinguished by not being starred, and although, of the three varieties alluded to, it is the least attractive in appearance, its flavour is yet superior to the others. Then again. Pome- granates, so cooling, refreshing, and tonic from the quantity 38 FRUITS. of gallic acid contained in tlicm, are now to be had in abund- ance. The Apples in the market are noticeable for their very large size and beautiful appearance. Medlars are plentiful. The fruit of the Japanese Medlar is seen in great quantities durhig the months of May and June ; it does not undergo the decay of the ordinary medlar, but the fruit, which possesses a cooling and pleasant taste, is partaken of either in its natural state or preserved in sugar. The fruit of the Service-tree called here Sorbe, Pyrus tormi- nalis, is occasionally met with ; it has the size, form, and colour, when not too ripe, of a very small pear, but when fully ripe it changes like the medlar to a deep brown, in which state it is usually eaten ; its flavour is particularly pleasant and delicate, and the Sorbe would no doubt be much Hked by all who are fond of medlars, to which in some respects it is to be preferred. Another refi-eshing fruit is the Cape Gooseberry. This I have as yet seen only in Cannes, where it was pointed out to me by the Chevalier de Colquhoun. It will, however, grow anywhere in the Riviera. Unfortunately, the time soon arrives when most of these fruits are no longer obtainable. Other kinds are Olives, Arbutus berries, and Spanish chestnuts. Ripe olives are here sometimes used in cooking as well as the unripe or green fruit. Nothing can exceed the beauty of the bright scarlet coloured fruit of the Arbutus, both on the tree and when prettily arranged with leaves as a dish for dessert ; it is juicy, cooling, and sweet, but without any special peculiarity of flavour. There are few more beautiful shrul)s than an Arbutus tree laden with its fruit, as seen in many parts of the Riviera, and especially m the garden of the Due de Vallombrosa at Cannes. Everywhere in San Remo during the winter are Imskets of Spanish chestnuts ; these in fact form a staple article of food with the natives both poor and rich ; they are usually eaten boiled, when they are really very nice— sweet, mealy, highly nutritious, and by no means so indigestible as might be supposed. Here as in other countries, when winter commences, the ' marchand de marrons,' with his pan of bright burning charcoal, makes his appearance in the streets, the savoury odour of roasted chestnuts perfuming the air, while in the windows of confectioners ' shops trays filled with ' marrons glaces,' are temptingly displayed. Sometimes the chestnuts are deprived of their shells and dried ; in this state they may be kept for any length of time. Soaked in water they recover their former size and consistence, and are again ready for use. In the markets of Italy and France many articles are fre- UNUSUAL ARTICLES OF FOOD. 39 quently to be seen, and are commonly used as food, which are never consumed in England. The Italians, like the French, regard nearly everything as fit for human consumption, and it must be admitted that they thus add very considerably to their food supplies. Many people have been accustomed to laugh at the French for eating and liking such things as frogs and snails ; but if we examine the matter by the light of common sense, the French certainly deserve much praise for the discrimination and knowledge which they display in making use of sources of food supply rejected without reason by the people of some other countries. It was the French who first taught us the value of horse-flesh, as well as of many other things. There is a great deal of mere fancy and much more prejudice about what people eat and what they refuse. Nearly every animal substance, and every living thing to be found on the surface of the earth or in the water, is good for food when prepared in a suitable manner. The quality of the articles thus consumed varies no doubt, but they are all sources of nourishment and contain the principles necessary for the sustenance of the body. Visiting a French fish-market, such as that of Boulogne, one is astonished at the large quantities of uncouth-looking and often coarse fish there displayed, but which yet find ready pur- chasers. At the Halles Centrales in Paris we see bushels of large snails, white and clean, quite as pleasing to the eye as are the whelks, winkles, and many other shell-fish which are held in good esteem by even the fastidious Briton. In the same markets may be seen numerous bundles of frogs' legs tied together in Hundreds, the flesh of which is more dehcate than that of the tenderest chicken ; indeed, the quantity seen there is often really amazing, and makes one fear that the poor frog has a harder time of it in France than in most other countries, where nearly every part of his wonderfully constituted little frame is in such requisition by the physiologist and the microscopist. Again, if we visit the shores of the Mediterranean and inspect the fish-market in any of the towns there, as for instance Cannes and San Eemo, we frequently see not only large quantities of cuttlefish exposed for sale, but sea-urchins, many different kinds of univalve and bivalve mollusca as well as other curious creatures, all destined for food. Among bivalve mollusca I have noticed the foUoAving. A species of Pinna ; Mactra stellarum, L. ; Venus verrucosa, L. ; Tapes decussata, L. ; and Scrobicularia piperata, Gmelin ; and amongst univalves, ]\Iurex trunculus, L. ; Murex brandaris, L. ; Natica hebraea, Martyn; Natica olla, M. de Serres ; and Trochus (Labio) turbonatus, Born. I have never met with one of these species 40 THE KILLING OF SMALL BIRDS. in the English markets, the kinds principally partaken of in^ England being the Cockle, Cardium edule ; the Mussel, Mytilus edulis ; the common Whelk, Buccinum madatum ; and the Periwinkle, Littorina littorea. Lastly, during the winter months, in the market-place of Cannes, hundreds of small birds, frequently fastened on to strings, are exposed for sale, the birds being separately arranged according to the species ; such as thrushes, blackbirds, starlings, larks, sparrows, chaffinches, goldfinches, linnets, and a great variety of other birds, including even the little Eobin, which with us is almost sacredly preserved. But the sale of small birds is not confined to the market at Cannes : they are to be found in large quantities in all the towns of the Pli^'iera, including San Eemo, where the number of thrushes and blackbirds some- times exposed for sale is really surprising. In fact it would appear that no bird, however rare or small, is spared. We have even often seen the sparrow-hawk amongst the number, and have certainly felt less pity for his fate than for that of some of the other \'ictims. On one occasion we noticed what appeared very like some old lady's favoiirite parrot. All these birds find ready purchasers, and many of them are regularly served up at the hotels and restaurants, forming dainty little morsels which no doubt Englishmen often partake of with relish, although at the same time they condemn the practice of sacrificing to a greed for delicate food these smaller members of the feathered tribe, which while they live confer so much real benefit on man by destroying myriads of insects, many of which are so destructive to vegetation and fruit. So greatly are these small birds in demand, that in nearly every direction round the larger toA^ms of the Piiviera, the killing of them is made a regular pursuit. So-called ' chasseurs ' may daily be seen prowling down lanes, around gardens and private enclosures where birds congregate, often alarming and annoying passengers and the occupants of the houses. On Sunday the nuisance is often greater than on other days, for no sooner are the occupants of the Villas, mostly visitors, at church, than the reports of the murderous guns are heard : then when the season is over, and the Villas vacant, advantage is taken of the opportunity to shoot down all the small birds, which have found in the surrounding gardens shelter and protection during the winter. Further reference to this subject will be found in Chapter IV. In our quiet walks among the olive groves of San Eemo the report of the guns of these small-bird killers may nearly always be heard, even throughout the spring and during the time of breeding. Tliere is a law for the protection of birds during this season, but it is obviously not strictly enforced, which it might readily PKICE OF FOOD AT SAN KEMO. 41 be, since the men who make it their business to kill these birds, all pay for a licence and are well known to the authorities. For birds of passage the law does not afford any protection whatever, and these may be slain at any time. Thus while we commend the French and Italians for discard- ing prejudice and having recourse to so many unused sources of food supply, we must emphatically condemn the wholesale and indiscriminate slaughter above described. But the shooting of these small birds is not the worst feature in the matter ; not only are they thus ruthlessly shot, but they are often treacherously snared. An Italian medical man, in his work on the climate of San Eemo, thus writes on this subject : ' In the depth of winter, when the mountains are covered with snow, the little birds who love the heights descend on to the slopes of the Apennines and thus to many points of Liguria ; the capture with a net, "la cliasse au filet," in situations sheltered fi'om the wind then becomes a pleasant excitement, particularly on very cold days.' It is stated that the prices of most articles of food at San Eemo have become nearly doubled within the last few years, but on the whole living is still somewhat cheaper there than in some parts of England. The really dear articles, owing to the high duty charged, are tea, sugar, flour, bread, and salt. Wheat is subject to a tax at the mill, called ' Macinato.' This tax or duty has yielded a revenue of 80 millions lira or francs, and has no doubt hitherto helped to increase the cost of flour and bread. Recently, however, one-half of the tax has been remitted, and shortly the other half will be abolished, when it is to be hoped bread will become cheaper. At present it is much dearer than it is in England. The manufacture of salt is a Government monopoly, and hence it is dear. People are not allowed to take even a pailful of water out of the sea for a foot-bath, or for any pur- pose whatever, without a special permit. Tobacco is another Government monopoly. All articles of food of English manufac- ture are of course exceedingly dear. Not only has the price of nearly all articles of food risen considerably during the last two years, but the value of Italian money has also undergone a great rise. Little more than four years since the exchange for an English sovereign reached as much as 28*80 lira, and for a Napoleon 23-60 lira ; now the exchange is in the one case 25 "00, and in the other, 20*00, with but 5 or 10 centimes over occasionally. While Italians are to be congratulated on this increase in the value of their money, the expense of living- in Italy is of course proportionately enhanced to the foreigner. 42 CHAPTER III. THE CLIMATE OF SAN IlEMO. Geology of the District —Factors of a Climate— Prevailing Winds— Table of wtiids-Sea and Land Breezes— Order of Succoi-sion of Winds— Tables of .Strong and Mode'-ate Winds — Variation of Meteorological Observations— Divis.ions of the Seasons— Temperature— North Shade Temperature— Tem- perature of San Remo and other Health Resorts contrasted— Night Mini- mum Temperature of San Remo Hud London contrasted — Sun Heat and Sun- shine—Duration of— Days of— Warmth of the Mediterranean— Its Saltness Relative Humidity— fables of Relative Humidity —Rain— Duration of— Days of Rain— Rainfall— Table of Rainfall in other Health Resorts- Climate of San Remo contrasted with th;it of London— Fall of Temperature at Sunset— Diiference between Shade Temperature and Sun Heat- Chief Characteristics of the Climate of the Riviera— Winter in the Riviera- Opinions of ]\redic:il Writers relative to the Climate of San Remo— Table of Mean Temperatures. Since the geological features of a district influence greatly its climate in many ways, a brief sketch of the geology of San Remo and the neighbourhood may now be given before entering upon the question of weather and climate. The hills and mountains which form the protecting amphitheatre of San Remo are full of interest and instruction for the geologist. Owing to the upheaval and fracture of some of the mountains, the various strata of which they are composed are in many situa- tions plainly \-isible, some of the secrets of the earth's formation and past history being thereby disclosed. The higher mountains are composed of limestone, the stratum forming them consisting of what has been termed geologically the lower cretaceous which corresponds to the lower greensand and Wealden beds of England. It abounds in minute marine fossilised animal organisms. Upon this rests the middle cretaceous stratum equivalent to the upper greensand and gault of England, and it also contains fossils. It is formed. of layers of grey and blue argillaceous and sandy shales, with intervening thin laminae of micaceous sandstone, more or less replete in the cretaceous greensand, including also some beds of argillaceous GEOLOGY OF THE DISTEICT. 43 limestone, imbedding layers of nodules of genuine chalk flint. This again is succeeded by the upper cretaceous stratum, corresponding to the white clialk and clmlk marls of England : this stratum consists of beds of loosely cemented yellowish grey sandstone, and imbedded in some of them are more or less angular pebbles. The three strata just mentioned belong, according to the late Professor H. D. Kogers, to the upper secondary formations, although by some the middle and upper strata are regarded as tertiary. The next strata are all tertiary. The first of these is the middle eocene, there being, according to the authority above quoted, no lower or upper eocene and no miocene ; this consists of a thin limestone, abounding in fossil nummulites, and is much used as a building stone. The next stratum is formed of the pleiocene clays, made up of beds of blue and whitish clays, containing many characteristic marine fossils. The uppermost or last stratum is the pleiocene conglomerate, or ' puddingstone,' containing rounded water-worn pel)bles of various sizes up to even two feet in diameter. The above details, which may be said to apply in the main to a considerable portion of the Western Eiviera, and not merely to that which includes Mentone, San Eemo, and the parts more immediately adjacent, are derived from the Geological Chart prepared by Professor Eogers for Dr. Bennet's work, entitled ' Winter and Spring on the Shores of the Mediterranean,' a charmingly written and very im- portant work which all travellers should read. Examples of the layers forming the middle cretaceous stratum may be seen near the shore at a little distance from Capo Verde, which forms the eastern boundary of the Bay of San Piemo, and also near the Pont St. Louis at Mentone and elsewhere. Examples of the upper cretaceous stratum are to be found between the St. Louis bridge and Ventimiglia, and inside the San Eemo and Mentone amphitheatres ; indeed, the olive-- clad hills of these consist mainly of sandstone. The parapet or coping of the wall forming the southern boundary of the Jardin de ITmperatrice at San Eemo consists of the upper cretaceous sandstone, and it forms, like the middle eocene, a very excellent building stone. The same stratum is also met with in many other situations. The blue stone of the middle eocene is to be found in many localities, and especially where there are quarries. Very fine specimens may be seen in the stone quarry now in course of being worked at the extremity of Capo Nero. The for- mation of a large quarry in such a situation is much to be re- gretted, as in time it will diminish the important protection 44 GEOLOGY OF THE DISTRICT. afforded by the Cape in its present form against the north-west and west winds. There are several other stone quarries near San Eemo, nearly all of which present features of interest to the geologist. The pleiocene clays are found at San Kenio especially, it being partly built on them, also at Ventimiglia, ]\Ientone, and Eoccabruna. Lastly, tlie pleiocene conglomerate is widely dis- tributed ; it is found at Ventimiglia, and the to's^ai of Eoccabruna is built on it. The conglomerate formation observed at Eoccabruna, ' the brown rock,' and at Ventimiglia, extends over an immense area between the Esterels and San Eemo, and on the south side of the IMaritime Alps. In some regions also it attains extreme development. Thus it is found on the course of the Var and of the Vesubie, as also on a great part of the right side of the Eoya valley. On the left side it principally forms the moun- tainous elevation which separates the Eoya from the valley of the Nervia. Above Bordighera, at the Testa di Alpe, according to Dr. Niepce, of Nice, it attains an elevation of above 5000 feet.' (Bennet.) The j)rimary or igneous rocks are not represented at San Eemo or Mentone : they are fomid, however, at Beaulieu, Ville- fi-anche, Antibes, and in the valley of the Eoya. Dr. Onetti, in his work on the climate of San Eemo, writing of the clay, thus expresses himself : ' In the tertiary formation there exists a vast basin of yellow clay, suitable for potters' use, and known under the name of figuline. It forms large masses alternating with little deposits of sand and stones, and encloses specimens of different univalve and bivalve shells, of echinidte, and particularly of Briosopsis genei, as also numerous debris of leaves of cotyledons, which in their shape call to mind the appearance of the Plane and the Evergreen Oak. This clay extends from the hill of the Sanctuary of the Madonna della Costa, to a pai-t of the valley of San Francia. We close these few remarks by informing the reader that in the upper sedi- ments layers of stones conglomerated with sand are met with, the whole being cemented with the valves of pectens and oysters.' Now, the preceding details are replete with interest, the geology of a district, as already remarked, influencing greatly the climate, and so bearing upon the question of its salubrity and suitability for invalids ; it likewise exerts a most important in- fluence on the character, composition, and fertility of the soil, and the fitness of this to the growth of certain kinds of trees, shrubs, and plants. It has already been remarked that the climate of any place is WINDS. 45 made up of a great variety of circumstances or factors — as situa- tion, including latitude and longitude, surroundings or topo- graphy, direction, force and frequency of the winds, shade temperature, sun heat and its effects on the neiglibouring nrountains and the Mediterranean sea, duration of sunshine, relative humidity, number of rainy days, the hours of rain, and the rainfall. I will now proceed to consider each of these points in succession, as they bear upon the climate of San Eemo, and it should be remembered that in discussing the climate of that place, one is also considering to some extent that of the best aiid more sheltered parts of the Western Riviera. The situation and surroundings of San Remo have already been described in the opening chapter of this work, and it is unnecessary to recapitulate what has already been stated on these points. I will now, therefore, pass on to consider the subject of the winds of San Remo. Winds. It has already been stated that the seashore along the whole line of the Western Riviera is sheltered to a greater or less extent by ranges of lofty mountains. It is to these that the special features of the climate of the Riviera are mainly due, the mountains influencing alike winds, rain, and temperature. The prevailing winds of the San Remo district in the winter are Northerly, as will be shown hereafter. Owing to the height of the mountains forming the semicircle around the town, these winds blow over the district and strike the sea at some distance from the shore, although their effect in a reduction of the temperature is still felt in a marked degree. The north winds pass over the high mountain-chains of Europe, the north-east wind or Bise coming even from the Arctic regions ; these winds thus become both cold and very dry, their moisture being lost as they blow over the higher Alpine mountains, on which it becomes precipitated in the form of snow. Two of these chains are, the Alpes Maritimes, which attain in some places an elevation of several thousand feet, and more to the east, the Apennines ; while behind the former, far inland, lie the higher Alps which separate Italy from Switzer- land. The North-West wind crossing over lower mountain-chains, and sometimes even the North Atlantic, is less dry than the north and north-east winds ; but the latter, as also the east wind, are more moist and less irritating here than in England, 46 AVINDS. although they still retain in a minor degree the characteristics by which they are there distinguished. In consequence of the dryness and prevalence of the northerly winds during the winter, the whole aspect and character of land, sea, and sky are greatly affected. The winds being deprived of moisture the sky is no longer shrouded by vapour, mists, and clouds, but is seen of its natural blue colour, which is strongly reflected in the water of the ^lediterranean ; the sun shines forth in undimmed splendour, and its rays reach the earth in full force, giving warmth to both animate and inanimate nature. The sun sunk to rest, the day ended and night commenced, the moon and stars in their turn become visible, and shine forth with a brilliancy and beauty which must be seen to be ap- preciated, and which is utterly unknown in lands of vapour and of cloud. So clear is the sky that it is by no means an uncommon circumstance, both morning and evening, to see the sun and the moon at the same time. The remarkable fineness of the nights in the Eiviera Dr. Marcet attributes in part to radiation from the earth, and in part to diminished evaporation. Not only is evaporation lessened, but on fine and clear nights a very con- siderable precipitation of moisture in the form of dew takes place, which must assist greatly in rendering the air drier and clearer. The north-west wind, or much-dreaded Mistral, is occasion- ally experienced with great severity in some places on the north shore of the Mediterranean, especially to the west, as at Hyeres, Cannes, and Nice ; but this wind is felt to a much less extent the fiu'ther we go eastward, as at San Eemo, it sometimes not reaching the town as a north-west wind at all, but rounding Capo Nero it comes upon it as a south-west wind, at times cold, bracing, and exhilarating, but at others disagreeable from its dryness and the dust to which it gives rise. Many persons are apt to confound all winds accompanied by dust with the Mistral ; and although the du^st renders all such winds very disagreeable and trying, they are very different in their effects from the true Mistral. It has been already stated that the valleys which separate the hills immediately around San Eemo all terminate on the side of the encircling mountains, and that in these there is no opening or gap whereby the northerly winds can enter, so that in no situation do they blow directly on the town, their influence being mainly felt in the reduction of temperature which they occasion ; and even when they do reach the town it is rather as south-east and south-west than nor'th-east and north-west winds, they rounding the promontories. Capo Nero and Capo Verde. The San Eemo amphitheatre is of course fully exposed to the Southerly winds ; these warm winds passing over the Atlantic PREVALENT WINDS. 47 and the Mediterranean take up large quantities of moisture. Tliis is especially the case with the South-West wind, which, after coming from the Atlantic, traverses the ^Mediterranean from Gibraltar to the Grulf of Genoa, reaching the coast surcharged with moisture, which readily becomes precipitated as rain, es- pecially when brought into contact with the cold northerly winds. These winds are therefore both warm and moist, bringing to the district, and indeed to the Western Eiviera generally, warmth and frequently rain. The South-East wind originates in the deserts of Africa, which it leaves as a very liot and di-y wind, but as it passes over the Mediterranean it takes up much moisture and reaches the shores of Southern Italy as a hot, moist, and very enervating wind, constituting the much dreaded Sirocco ; but by the time it arrives at this part of the Western Eiviera it has become, by its passage over the Apennines and the Corsican mountains, much dryer and cooler, and hence deprived in a measure of its injurious qualities. In the latter part of the whiter it may even bring snow to this coast. It is very frequently a matter of difficulty in many parts of the Eiviera, and especially in the Mentone and ,San Eemo amphitheatres, to determine from which direction the windreally does blow ; this arises partly from the deflection of the wind caused by the mountains, and from the conflict which takes place when winds travelling fi-om opposing quarters meet, and partly from the course of the ^^dnds bemg diverted as by the sea breeze, or by the promontories bounding the bay on either side. Thus, winds that are i-eally northerly sometimes "enter the bay as already remarked, under the guise of southerly winds. Hence we meet with dift'erent and somewhat contradictory statements in books as to which are the prevailing winds. At Mentone the prevailing winds are described as northerly, and the same is the case at San Eemo, as shown in the following instructive table compiled at my request by Signor Eodi, of the official Meteorological Obseiwatory at San Eemo. Prevalent Winds. 1866 1867 1868 1869 1870 1871 1872 1873 1874 1875 January . N NW NNW NE NE N NE w N NW February- . NXE NE NW NE — E-SW E w ENE NW March ssw SW WNW NE — NE E E NW NE April w E S W E - E W W W May . s W w W E E E W W Juue SSE W w w E E E E E E July . s-wsw E WSW w E SW E-W E W W August S-N W w w E E E-W SW W September NE W NW E E E SW W O.-tolier . N N S E . w NE W N B November N-NNW N NNW NE NE NE N N E w December N NNW W-N NE NE NE E-NW NW Js^W NW 48 SEA AND LAND BREEZES. ' It will be seen from the preceding table that while the northerly winds are the most prevalent dm-ing the winter months, easterly and westerly winds are also of frequent occurrence. As in hot and tropical regions, the day or Sea breeze and the night or Land breeze are experienced on the coast of the Kiviera during clear sunshiny weather, particularly in summer and to a less extent in winter. Iii summer the sea breeze begins as early as eight in the morning and ends about five o'clock in the after- noon, but in winter it does not commence until about eleven and ceases about three o'clock. The explanation of the occurrence of the sea breeze is as follows : the air below and near to the contiguous mountains, becoming rarefied by the sun's heat, ascends and passes over their tops ; the cool air from the sea at the same time constantly and continuously flows in towards the land, to be in its turn similarly heated and rarefied. But, to quote Dr. Bennet, who has studied this subject closely, ' for a decided sea breeze thus to rise in winter there must be a strong wind blowing from some of the northern quarters. When this is the case, in the early part of the day until about eleven o'clock, the north wind only reaching the sea at some distance from the beach, owing to the mountain pro- tection, leaves the water in shore calm or nearly so. The sea air that later rushes in to supply the place of the rarefied land air, pushing angry billows before it, is nrerely the north wind, which having passed overhead and gone out to sea, is pulled back by the mid-day heat. When the air is perfectly calm in the upper and lower atmospheric regions, the calm of the early morning continues all day because there is then no strong wind and angry sea to be drawn inland by the effects of land heat ; the latter in winter is not sufticiently great to create this little monsoon when the atmosphere is in a state of complete repose.' Now this north wind thus pulled back in winter, it should be remembered, is often a very cold wind. At night a contrary process is in operation giving rise to the land breeze ; in this case, the heat of the sun being withdrawn, the cool mountain air descends to the sea. This land breeze especially in winter does not usually blow with any very great force, but when sudden changes of temperature take place between land and sea it may, and often does, come on with much suddenness and power, constituting a great danger to sailing vessels which may happen to be near the coast. It is in the ravines and valleys leading to the shore that this land breeze is mostly felt. In the morning, between the subsidence of the land and the commencement of the sea breeze, there is usually a period of ROTATION OF THE WINDS. 49 calm lasting two or three hours, and a similar period of repose in the afternoon, the exact duration of which varies according to the length of the day and the amount of sunshine. M. Teysseire, the veteran meteorologist of Nice, makes the following interesting remarks in reference to the daily order of rotation of the winds : ' The rotation of the winds takes place very regularly and in a marked degree during spring and summer. From the beginning of April till September, when the weather is fine and the atmospheric pressure a little below the average, a slight easterly sea breeze sets in directly after sunrise, and as soon as the land wind has ceased. This ^vind increases, and between ten and eleven blows from the south-east ; increasing still, it blows due south about one o'clock ; between three and four it has become stronger still, and blows from the south-west ; then lessening, it becomes due west, and continues in that quarter till it dies away completely at sunset. The land breeze then springs up and blows all night from a point varying from N.N.W. to N.N.E. Sailors are well acquainted with this phenomenon, and their saying is that on this coast the wind follows the sun. In autumn and especially in winter this occurrence is much rarer. It is observed only in seasons of fine weather, and ■with rather high atmospheric pressure.' Sea and land breezes, it is obvious, must exercise a, con- siderable influence on the temperature of the air at and near the shore, the former making the air cool in the day and the latter having a similar effect at night, and it is to these breezes that the comparative coolness of the day and night during the summer at San Eemo and m the more sheltered parts of the Eiviera is to be attributed. Notwithstanding the shelter afforded by the high momitain ranges, the shores of the Western Eiviera are much subjected to the action of winds ; these blow sometimes with violence, more particularly at the periods of the autumn and spring equinoxes. When, however, the air is calm and but little wind prevailing, the sea is smooth and the waves break on the shore in gentle cadence ; but with a strong southerly whid the white-crested waves rise on the surface in quick succession as in the case of more northern seas, and dash on the beach with an angry noise. At these times the sea is full of life, freshness, and motion, and is very unlike what might be supposed Avhen one reads in books that the Mediterranean is a land-locked and almost tideless sea. It is not, however, absolutely tideless, as it has a rise and fall of nearly one foot, while in consequence of the action of the winds the sea h'equently advances and recedes several feet. The number of days on which strong and moderately strong winds prevailed, and the direction from which they proceeded 50 STRONG AND MODERATE WINDS. are exhibited in the following tables for the three winter seasons of 1879-80, 1880-81, and 1881-82 :— Scale of Winds, tu 4. Strong Winds, 3 to i. 18"9-»n0 t ^'^ N ' NE E SE S SW 1 W 1 No November . December . January February March April . _ 1 3 1 2 2 6 — — — 2 2 1 1 1 3 2 3 ■ 2 7 Total . . None None 4 j 11 None None None! 7 , 22-* November . December . January February March April . 1 foderat 1 e Win 1 1 Is, 2 ir 2 2 5 2 ^ Scale — 1 2 3 6 1 . ] 2 3 4 3 3 3 4 12 13 Tptal . 1 1 2 11 None None 12 11 38 Scale to 4. Strong Winds, 3^4. 1880-81 I NW N 1 NE E SE 1 S 1 SW W j Xo. November . December . January February March April . - — 1 4 1 1 2 3 5 — — — 2 2 1 1 1 3 2 6 3 3 7 Total . None None 6 11 None 1 None None 7 24 November . December . January February March April . M 1 1 ''oderat e Wi7ic 1 2 1 U, 2 ir 2 7 4 2 Scale — 1 2 4 6 1 1 2 3 4 3 3 3 11 12 13 Total . . 2 None 4 15 None None 13 11 45 NORTH-WEST WIND, OR MISTRAL. 51 Strong Winds. 1881-82 NW N NE j E ; SE S j SW w No. November . December . January February March April . — — 1 •2 1 4 3 1 — 1 1 1 4 2 ■ I 5 4 7 Total . . |None None 3 9 None None 1 6 19 November . December . January February March April . 3 1 1 A fodcrat 2 2 1 1 e Wim 1 2 1 3 Is. 2 3 — 2 ] 2 1 1 4 6 2 6 8 Total . 5 None 6 7 5 None 4 4 31 These tables show that strong north-west winds are not preva- lent during the winter season, that due north winds are rare", and that north-east, east, and westerly winds are rather frequent ; they show also that strong winds prevailed on the average on twenty- two days, and moderate winds on thirty-eight days of the 182 days of the winter season. The north-west wind, or Mistral, is not of frequent occur- rence at San Eemo, and does not blow with anything like the force with which it prevails in the towais of the Eiviera which lie more to the west. People in general who understand but little about the winds are apt to regard all winds coming from the west, and especially if accompanied by dust, as the Mistral ; and hence this wind is often said to blow when it really does not. East winds, it must be remembered, while still preserving some of their bad characteristics, are not nearly so trying as they are in England. Against the north-east wind the protection afforded is_ very considerable, but it is less complete against the east wind — Capo Verde, the eastern protecting headland of the bay, having an elevation of only about 350 feet, while the height of the western headland is about 800 feet. San Eemo, then, and indeed the whole of the Western Eiviera, must be regarded as windy. The winds, doubtless on some occa- sions, interfere with the comfort and movements of some invalids, and they constitute a drawback of what is otherwise an excellent E 2 52 VARIATIONS OF METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. climate. On the other hand, it must be remembered that winds play a very important part, particularly in warm climates, in purifying the air, and exert, also, for the most part, tonic effects on the system. It is near the sea that the full force of the wind is ex- perienced. Further away from the sea, as in the Berigo road, they are much less felt ; in fact, the air is often calm there when there is a strong ^dnd below. Temperature. Having briefly referred to the principal causes — namely, its southerly position, 460 miles south of London, and mountain protection — which combine to impart to the Eiviera, especially in the winter, its exceptionally mild character, I will now give the figures of the actual north shade temperature of San Eemo ; but before doing so it will be well to enter into a few details respecting meteorological observations generally. The temperatures given in books, imless when otherwise stated, are shade temperatures : that is to say the instruments are placed in such a position that the direct rays of the sun do not reach them, and so do not raise the column of mercury ; but it is not always stated whether the instruments thus shaded are placed in a southern or northern aspect. Now, the indications afforded by thermometers in a north aspect wdll, mider the same circumstances of time and weather, be some degrees lower than in a south aspect. Then, again, the results will vary according to the manner and times at which the observations are taken. Some observers are content with two observations each day, others consider three necessary ; further, there is no uniformity m the hours selected for recording the results. Some take the maximum and minimum temperatures only by means of self-registering mstru- ments ; this is the easiest, and perhaps on the whole the most certain and satisfactory way, and although the results obtained by the two methods are not identical, yet they very closely correspond. Furthermore, the temperature is influenced by a variety of sur- rounding circumstances, as the proximity of radiating media, such as rocks, walls, banks, the surface of the earth, and the vegetation. All these render it exceedingly difficult to obtain, even in the same tOA^ai, two sets of observations which precisely correspond, and the difficulty of course is increased in the case of different localities, so that implicit reliance is not always to be placed on comparisons of one locality "s^dth another, when the differences of temperature are not very considerable. Neither can absolute reliance be placed on a comparison of the medium temperatures of one town with those of another ; thus two places may furnish the same media and yet the climate be totally DIVISION OF THE SEASONS. 53 flifferent. For example, the winter medium of 60° Fahr. would indicate a mild climate, but this medium might be made up of very cold nights and very hot days, as has been shown by Dr. Dalrymple to be the case in the Upper Nile. Even season media are not sufficiently detailed to allow of the character of a climate being judged of accurately. The points to be noticed particularly in comparing one place with another are the fi-ecfuency with which the highest and lowest points are reached, and the extent of the variation between the two places. Notwithstanding the pains and labour which have been bestowed upon meteorological records, and the great number of observers who have directed their attention to meteorology, the in- formation as yet acquired is in many cases not nearly so complete as is to be desired, or might be imagined. The records of the early observers are in some cases open to doubt in consequence of the imperfection of the instruments used and of the methods em- ployed. Then, again, the records of a few months, or of a single season, however accurate, go but a little way in determining the character of the climate of any particular place : this can only be satisfactorily done by taking the averages of a series of years. The custom in England is to divide the year into four equal portions or seasons of three months each : the first three months being called spring, the second summer, the third autumn, and the fourth winter. This is a very arbitrary, and at the same time a very artificial division ; in the first place the seasons are not of equal length, and in the second the tw^o coldest months of the year are usually December and January, and yet one of these months only, according to the practice above referred to, belongs to the winter, and the other to the spring. The Italians, having more regard to the actual seasons, have adopted a more natural division ; they also divide the twelve months into four equal periods, but the winter with them begins December 1, and the autumn terminates November 30 ; but this arrangement has the great disadvantage of embracing portions of two years and not being, as is the English method, complete in the one. Neither plan, therefore, can be regarded as altogether satisfactory. Even the duration of the seasons varies with the climate and the country ; in England five months might fairly be allotted to the winter. Ha\dng recourse again to the records of the Meteorological Ob- servatory at San Eemo, I find, according to the English division of the year, the average three months' spring temperatvire for nine consecutive years to the end of 1874 to be 49*81°; the average sum- mer temperature 63-04°, the autumn 72-27°, and the winter 55-21°, the mean annual for the nine years being 60-08° Fahr. Of course the average temperatures of the seasons varied with the years, the extent of the variations being shown in the following table : — 54 ANNUAL SEASON TEMPEEATUKES. Year Spring Summer Autumn Winter Annual 1866 51-69 62-00 70-88 57-02 60-40 1867 50-41 6362 71-99 54-28 6008 18G8 4911 65-60 73-92 56-49 61-28 1869 48-84 63-68 70-59 54-59 59-42 1870 49 lo 64-29 71-15 54-17 59-69 1871 49-19 61-93 72-48 52-52 59-03 1872 51-49 62-43 73-29 56-95 61-05 1873 51-56 62-52 74-26 57-14 61-37 1874 46-83 61-30 ■71-87 53-70 58-43 Following the Italian rule for the division of the year, which is that usually adopted in warm climates, the figures stand as follows : — Year Spring Summer Autumn Winter Annual 1865-66 56-34 71-03 62-76 50-55 60-17 1866-67 57-76 71-82 61-17 49-86 6016 1867-68 58-04 7520 62-11 4753 60-72 1868-69 57-10 72-83 62-31 50-38 60-66 1869-70 58-03 73-45 63-11 48-64 60-81 1870-71 58-10 6993 62-35 46-69 59-27 1871-72 57-90 71-86 62-70 48-30 6019 1872-73 58-32 74-10 60-48 50-57 60-87 1873-74 51-31 7i-83 59-74 47-50 58-35 The above figures give a mean winter temperature of 48*89°; sprhig 57*32°; summer 72-45°; autumn 61-86°, and a mean annual temperature of 60" IS"", which differs only very slightly from the mean annual based upon nine years commencing January 1. The monthly variations of temperature during the nine years over which the observations extend, are sllo^^'n in the annexed table : — CO « 00 C5 CO o j^ IN so S ^ oo o 2 00 CO 2 r^ 00 November . 55-27 52-44 52-43 52-98 53-04 54-53 52-75 55-56! 52-88 53-54 December . 48-Oe 150-84 46-40 53-15 50-45 45-66 44-33i 52-80 50 64 49-25 January . 49-20 47-85 46-45 46-25 45-51 44-79 49-19 50-52' 45-33 47-23 February . 53-45 50-91 49-76 51-74 49-96 49-64 51-38 48-391 46-54 50-19 March 52-4:^ 52-50 51-13 48-54 51-98| 53-15 53-94 55-79 48-59 52-00 April 55-97 58-04 55-74 57-03 57-571 57-92 58-33 56-73 56-04 57-04 May . 60-63 62-76 67-26 65-75 64-56 63-23 61-43 62-45 58 30 62-93 June 69-4? 7000 73-81 68-27 70-73' 64-68 fi7-56l 68-43 69-55 69-17 July. 73-36 72-12 75-23 76-06 75-59 71-51 74-04, 76-48 74-62 74-3S August 70-3'? 73-25 76-58 74-17 74-03 73-61 73-97 77-39 71-33 73-85 September 68-95 70-64 6996 72-35 72-50 "2-17 69-93i 68-92 69-69 70-57 October . 66-9C 60-46 63-39 61-55 62-31 62-13 62-58 59-64| 57-27 61-80 THE AUTHOE'S METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. 55 The above figures prove that December and January are by far the coolest months, the latter being the coldest; that February ranks next, and then in order March, November, and April. The hottest month is July, and then follow August, September, and June. It is a curious circumstance that the mean tempera- ture of the nine years for May, June, and July, 68'81°, is almost identical with that for August, September, and October, namely, 68-74°. The preceding figures, however, fail to furnish all the infor- mation required. The winter season at San Eemo may be said to extend from November 1 to the end of April ; what, therefore, has to be ascertained, since it is this which chiefly concerns visitors and invalids, is the mean temperature for that period, and this will be found set forth in the next table. The mean of the following nine seasons is 51"55° Fahr. : — Average Temperature . 51-42 . 50-95 . 51-65 . 53-30 50-00 Seasons Average Temperature Seasons 1865-66 . . 52-58 1869-70 1866-67 . . 52-10 1870-71 1867-68 . . 50-32 1871-72 1868-69 . . 51-62 1872-73 1873 -74 It is much to be regretted that owing to some omissions in the registration the observations taken at the San Eemo Observatory could not be brought down continuously to a later date ; and especially that full details are not forthcoming relative to the winter season of 1878-79, which was one of an unusually severe character. During the paist four winter seasons I have taken with Negretti and Zambra's best instruments, corrected at the Koyal Kew Ob- servatory, a comprehensive series of meteorological observations. Those for the seasons 1879-80, 1880-81, 1881-82, were read at the several annual meetings of the British Medical Association, and were published in the Journal of the Association. They em- brace the shade temperature at three periods of the day — 9 a.m., 3 P.M., and 9 p.m. — the maximum shade temperature of the day, the minimum temperature of the night, both in the air and on the ground, the sun's heat as registered by both the black bulb and solar radiation thermometers, the number of sunshiny days, the duration of sunshine, the temperature of the sea, the relative humidity of the air, the number of days and hours on which rain fell, the amount of the rainfall, and many other particulars. In fact, I know of no other series of observations of equal interest and significance relative to a health resort ; and numerous as are the particulars recorded, they are indispensable to the right under- standing of the climate of any place. 56 NORTH SHADE TEMPERATURE. The first series of observations relate to the north shade day and night temperatures, and are summarised for the three seasons specified in the following tables. The minimum thermometer placed on the grass or earth indi- cates not merely the lowest temperature of these during the night, but should rain or dew fall on the bulb, as is often the case, also the cold produced by evaporation of the moisture. Mian Montldi/ North- Shade Temperature, Season 1879-80. 9 A.M. 3 P.M. 9 P.M. o +3 .d p a 'a el eun of inia and ininia .o 0) ai November . 52-60 56-60 51-40 53-50 6-8 13-4 48-40 59-40 53-90 December . 43-50 49-90! 42-20 45-20 8-3 13-1 39-20 51-80 45-50 January 45-50 52-10 44-98 47-54 7-8 14-0 40-80 53-30 47-00 February 50-07 55-89{ 48-5-5 51-50 5-8 11-5 45-61 57-32 51-46 March o5-00 58-60' 51-40 55-00 51 ■8-8 47-70 60-10 53-90 April . 59-90 61-70 56-30 59-30 43 10-0 •62-80 6410| 58-40 Mean of Season 51-09 55-80 49-14 52-00 6-3 11-8 45-76 57-67 51-70 The mean temperature for the whole season, deduced from the three daily readings, was 52-00°; and from the maxima and minima readings, 51 "TO". The preceding observations are fully confirmed by those taken for the same season at the Official Meteorological Observatory in San Remo, as will appear by an examination of the subjoined table : — Mean Monthly Temperature at the Meteorolocjical Observatory at San Remo. >> 2 -1-3 ^- 3 -e 9 A.M. 3 P.M. 9 p.m. 3 8 gi ^1 O « g S 1^ ss November . 53-2 57-2 51-3 53-9 47-6 59-7 53-6 December . 45-2 51-0 440 46-7 40-4 53-4 46-9 January 46-4 53-0 46-4 48-6 41-2 55-2 48-2 February . 51-2 568 50-3 52-8 47-1 58-6 52-8 March 555 60-0 53-3 56-3 48-8 62-3 556 April. 601 63-6 57-2 60-3 53-5 66-1 59-8 Mean 51-9 56-9 50-4 53-1 46-4 59-2 52-8 ' The difference between the 9 a.m. and maxima readings. NOETH SHADE TEMPEEATURE. 57 According to the above table, the mean temperature for the whole season, deduced from the three daily readings, is 53' 1°, and, from the minima and maxima readings, 52"8° — being in both cases exactly 1'1° Fahr. higher than my own readings. From an examination of the table for the season of 1879-80 it appears further that the two coldest months were December and January, the means being 45-20° F. and 47'54° respectively ; the next coldest months were February, and then November, the two warmest being March and April, the means for which were 55-0° and 59-30°. The mean for the whole season was 52-00°. The mean of the 3 p.m. readings was 55-80°, and of the maxima or mid-day readings 57-07°, rising to 04-10° in April. The nights of December and January were also the coldest of the season : the mean minimum temperature for the first month being 39-20° and for the second 40-80°, reaching to 52-80° in April. The mean for the whole season was 45-76°. The mean daily variation was only 6-3°, and the greatest day difference 14°, which occurred in January. These figures are particularly instructive. The winter season of 1879-80, both in England and in the Eiviera, was one of excep- tional severity, and yet the mean temperature was 52-00°, which is somewhat over the nine years' average of 51*55° already quoted. The mean of the maxima readings was nearly 58-00°, and it is to this higher or mid-day temperature that invalids are exposed ; and this only when in the north shade, which they seldom are, since they naturally court the sun. Again, one of the most important points connected with the chmate of any place is the extent of the daily range of temperature : moderate variations are beneficial, but great and sudden ones most trying, and frequently injurious. Now the results above recorded show an extremely limited diurnal range of temperature. It further appears from my meteorological journal that the temperature fell slightly below the freezing point five times in December and once in January, the greatest degree of frost occur- ring on the night of December 9, when the thermometer stood at 27*9°. On several other occasions the temperature approached the freezing point, and on the gi-ound and in exposed situations it even froze ; and of course high up the valleys and on the hill and mountain tops, the cold reached several degrees of frost, — so great indeed was it that the lemon trees in some situations were injured. On December 1 snow fell to a depth of something under two inches, and it did not disappear until about eleven o'clock on the following day, and in northerly exposures it remained for a still longer period. This was a very unusual occurrence, both as to the quantity of snow that fell and the time it remained unmelted. Ordinarily the falls 58 NORTH SHADE TEMPERATURE. of snow in and near San Kemo are of the slightest description, and the flakes melt almost as fast as they fall. It is, however, by no means an uncommon circumstance in mid-wdnter to see the moimtains surrounding the San Eemo amphitheatre, above the limits of the ohve-clad hills, more or less covered with snow, and this sometimes remains for two or three days consecutively, or even more. The next table comprises the mean monthly north shade temperature for the following winter season — that of 1880-81. s s s >> i Is 'S o a to (3 a Q 2 +3 .3 3 ^° 48-9 li (3 "S a Month " a. C5 ^ a c 3 II 11-8 IS 51-9 62-8 November 56-9 61-0 54-7 57-7 70-3 43-7 5-9 57-4 December 52-6 59-2 51-6 54-5 65-6 45-0 6-9 13-7 49-9 44-6 m-o o4-V January 45-3: 49-8 451 46-7 59-1 33-0 5-5 12-8 42-7 39-0 50-y 46-8 February 50-8 55-4 48-4 51-5 61-8 360 6-1 140 45-6 40-9 57-0 51-3 March . 54-7: 58-4 52-2 55 1 65-1 40-4 5-7 9-5 49-3 44-1 60-4 54-9 April . 60-8 63-2 56-7 60-2 73-lj47-4 4-4 9-3 63-0 51-5 66-5 59-8 Mean of "1 Season . / o3'5 57"9 .51-4 54-3 5-7 11-8 48-6 44-8 59-7 54-1 From the above table it appears that January was the coldest month, with a mean temperature of 46-7°; that February was the next coldest, with a mean of 51•5^ December and March being next in order ; while the two warmest months were November and April, with means of 57-7° and 60-2°. The mean for the whole season was 54*3°. The mean of the 3 p.m. readings was 57*9° and of the maxima 59-7°, rising to 66-5° in April. The nights of January and February were also the coldest of this season, the mean minimum temperature in the air for the first month being 42*7° and for the second 45-6° ; rising to 53"0^ in April, the mean for the whole season being 48*6.° The mean of the night minima on the ground was 44 •8'^, bemg 3"8^ lower than the night mimima in the air. The mean daily variation of temperature was 5*7°, the greatest day difference being 14°, which occurred once only, in February. The lowest temperature in the air for the whole winter was 33° Fahr., or one degree above freezing point; this occurred in January. But on the ground the thermometer descended on three . NORTH SHADE TEMPEEATURE. 59 occasions below the freeziiii^ point, the degrees indicated being 30-5-', 31-5^ and 31-0° Fahr. It appears, therefore, notwithstanding the severe and pro- longed cold which prevailed in England and some other countries, that the winter season of 1880-81 was at San Kemo an unusually mild one ; the mean temperature, as already stated, being Si'S"" against 51*5°, the mean of nine years' consecutive observations taken at the San Remo Observatory. For some days in January snow was visible on the higher mountains around San Eemo, which gave it a somewhat wintry appearance, and led to many adverse reports as to the severity of the season ; but as appears from the data already given, those persons might indeed be regarded as fortunate who were enabled to spend the winter season of 1880-81 at San Remo. The shade observations recorded in my reports for the winter seasons of 1879-80 and 1880-81 were made at an elevation of 48 feet above the sea, 30 above the ground, and at a distance of about 500 feet from the sea ; those now about to be given were made 4 feet above the ground, 80 feet above the sea, and about 400 feet therefrom ; the louvred box being even still more effectually protected than heretofore against the sun's rays. In the following table, the chief particulars are given relative to the north shade temperature for the season 1881-82 : — ilonth ■i _• o ! -4^ 1 >> Is a ■" 2 §"3 r- ^ S =3 S 2 C5 CJ 3 60 a 62 6 is 44-8 3 4-3 7-0 51-9 r 61-0 56 5 November 56-7 59-7 55-6 57-3 December 49-8 54-3 oO-l 51-4 58-2 411 5-5 11-1 46-3 — 55-3 50-8 January 48-1 53-H 500 50-6 58-7 39 9 6-7 12-1 45-7 41-0 54-8 50-3 Febi'uary 50-8 54-6 50-0 51-8 62-8 38-0 5-5 11-0 45-9 41-0 o6-3 61-1 March . /)5-6 60-0 52-8 56-1 69-2 43 5-4 12-2 483 431 61-0 54-7 April . 58-9 62-2 55-9 o9-() 69o 43-9 4-4 10-1 50-9 46-8 63-3 o7-l Mean . 53 3 57-4 52-4 54-4 63-0 41-8 5-3 10-6 4817 58-6 53-4 No frost occurred during the whole of this season; the lowest temperature was on February 3, when the thermometer on the ground marked 33'4° and that suspended in the air 38"0^ Fahr. From this table, it appears that January was much the coldest month, with a mean temperature of 50'6° Fahr., December and 00 DAILY KANGE OF TEMPEKATURE. February being next in order, with a temperature of 51-4° and 51-8° respectively; that November and April were the warmest months, with a mean of 57*3° and 59-0° ; that the mean of the three daily readings for the whole season was 54*4°, and the mean of the minima and maxima readings 53*4° ; that the highest day temperature recorded was in April, 69-5° ; and the lowest night temperature, 38*0°, in February, The lowest temperature on the ground occurred on February 3, namely, 33-4°; so that the freezing point was not once reached during the whole season, except in exposed places and situations. The mean of the 3 p.m. readings was 57'4°, and of the maxima readings 58"6°; and it is to these temperatures that visitors are exposed ; and this, it should be remembered, only when they happen to be in the shade to the north ; in the sun, of course, the temperature to which they would be subject would be much higher. A point of great im- portance to notice is the daily range of temperature ; the greatest day range shown in the table is 12-2° in March, and the mean range for the whole season was only 5-3°; these figures showing that the shade temperature, at all events, varies within very moderate limits. Comparing the above figures with those of the two previous seasons, the results stand thus : — From the figures for the winter season 1879-80, it appears that the two coldest months were December and January, the mean for the former being 45-2°, and for the latter 47*5°. The two warmest months were March and April, the means being 55*0° and 59*3°, and the mean temperature for the whole season was 52-0° Fahr. The lowest temperature for the whole season was 27"9°. The thermometer in the air reached the freezing point five times in December and once in January ; the winter climate, therefore, of San Kemo for the season 1879-80 was, on the whole, a more than usually mild one, being above the average 51-5°, though colder than the seasons of 1880-81 and 1881-82. The greatest day difference of temperature was 14*0°, and the mean of the six months 5-7°. The mean of the 3 p.m. readings was 67"9°, and of the maxima readings 59-7°. From the observations for the next season, 1880-81, the con- clusions were: that January was the coldest month, with a mean temperature of 46-7° Fahr. ; that February was the next coldest, with a mean of 51*5° ; that the two warmest months were November and April, the means being 57*7° and 60-2° respectively. The mean of the three daily readings was 54-3°, and that of the maxima and minima reading 54-1°. The lowest temperature in the air for the whole winter, namely, 33*0°, or one degree above freezing point, occurred in January. The mean of the night minima observations in the air was 48-6°, and on the ground BOURNEMOUTH, TORQUAY, AND VENTNOR. 61 44 •8° ; the tliermometer on the ground descended on three occasions below the freezing point, the degrees indicated being 30'5°, 31"5°, and 31-0° Fahr. The greatest variation of tempera- ture on any one day of the season 1879-80 was 14*0'', and, for the season 1880-81, also 14*0^ ; the mean difference for the whole six months being, in the one case, 6*3°, and 5*7° in the other ; the figures again show that the north shade temperature varies within very moderate limits. The mean six months' winter season temperature for nine years ending 1873-74, as deduced from the observations of the Official Meteorological Observatoiy at San Kemo, and which ob- servatory was then placed at the top of the Palazzo di Citta, was 51*5°; as shown in my work on ' San Kemo and the Western Eiviera,' the means for the three seasons recorded by me were, as has been just stated, 52-00°, 54*3^, and 54*4°, = o3'G° per season. The season 1880-81, it will be remembered, was a very severe one in England and many other countries. During the seasons 1880-81 and 1881-82, the temperature of the air, neither by day nor night, ever descended, even on a single occasion, to the freezing point. The mean annual temperature of San Eemo is C0"13~' and the mean six months' season 51*55° or, according to my observations, 53'6°. Contrast the preceding figures of shade temperature with those for the three chief English Health Resorts. The mean annual temperature of Bournemouth for 9 vears from December 1, 1866, to November 30, 1878, but omitting''72, '75, and '77, was 49-66°, and the mean six months' season temperature for the years above named was 43"31°. The mean annual temperature for Torquay from December 1, 1877, to November 30, 1878, was 50*23°, and that for the season 44*65°. Lastly, the mean annual temperature of Ventnor for the two years 1876-77 and '77-78 was 51*95°, and that for the two seasons 46*58°. The preceding figures, taking 51*55° as the basis of calculation, but which is certainly too low, show a difference in the annual temperature in favour of San Kemo of 10*56° in the case of Bournemouth, of 9*99° in that of Torquay, and 8*27° for Ventnor ; the differences for the seasons being respectively 8*24°, 6*90°, and 4*97°. For the data upon which the calculations of the temperature of Bournemouth, Torquay, and Ventnor are based, I am indebted to the kindness of Mr. Humphreys, of the General Register Office. It is to be regretted that the observations for the two latter places do not extend over a longer period, but as far as they go they are thoroughly reliable, and I believe that had they done so, the general results obtained would not differ materially from those now recorded. But the difference of temperature may be shown in a still more striking manner. 62 TEMPEKATURE OF SAN REMO AND LONDON. The winter of 1878-79 was the severest, both on the Eiviera and in England, which has been experienced for some years, if we except that for the season 1882-83. In the following table the minininm night temperature is shown for the month of Janu- ary at the gardens of the Koyal Botanical Society, Eegent's Park, London, and at San Kemo for the same period. The records at the latter place were kindly furnished me by Major Toone. 1879 Eegeut's Park San Eemo 1879 Regent's Park San Ttemo January 1 2 42-0 28-5 47 ,50 January 17 18 . 29-0 29-0 41 40 3 28-0 47 19 • . 31-4 43 4 27-0 46 20 . 27-0 40 5 24-0 42 21 . 268 42 6 20-0 37 22 27-8 51 7 28-7 39 23 . 23-0 55 8 25-0 38 24 . 280 54 9 240 34 25 270 49 10 24-0 40 26 . 30-0 48 „ 11 20-0 40 27 . 32-0 46 12 16-0 41 28 . 300 47 13 28-0 44 29 . 28-8 44 14 37-0 44 30 . 30-8 44 15 36-0 44 31 . 285 44 16 260 44 It A\dll be seen from an examination of the above table that on January 23, the difference of temperature between the two places amomited to 32° ; the mean daily difference for the whole month was a Httle over 16°. But Dr. C. T. Williams has brought into even still stronger contrast, in the following table, the great difference which fre- quently exists between the winter temperature of the north shore of the Mediterranean and England : — Minimum Maximum Kew Hyferes Kew Hyeres January 2 3 4 ,, 5 14 15 March 1 7 18 19-9 5-7 50 10 10-5 14-3 27 3 11-5 500 o2-0 54-0 52 58-0 56-0 53-0 550 28-7 28-6 16-4 30-8 29-8 31-3 36-9 32-7 54-0 55-0 57-0 56-0 65 640 67-0 670 SUN' HEAT AND SUNSHINE. G3 The difference shown in the above table is really extraordinary, and amounted on one occasion to no less than 51° Faln-enheit ; indeed the cold of Europe does not appear to have penetrated to Hyeres at all in that year. SuN-iiEAT AND Sunshine. The chief particulars relative to the sun-heat and sunshine at San Remo for the past three winter seasons will be found embraced in the following tables. The temperature indicated by the solar radiation thermometer is the heat imparted by tlie direct rays of the sun, 2)^us the ordinary shade temperature ; the acti;al solar temperature is the difference between the two readings. Again, it should be remem- bered that the sun's rays act with greater power on the ther- mometer the greater the altitude ; this arises mainly from the fact that the air is usually much dryer, and therefore that the sun's rays pass through it more easily. ' On the Peak of Tenerifie at 9,000 feet, according to the astronomer, Mr. Piazzi Smyth, the sun raises the black bulb thermometer in vacuo to the temperature of boiling w^ater at the seaside ; while oddly enough in winter at Davos, 5,000 feet above the sea, and in the midst of snow and ice, the sun is warmer than at Cannes and in the blue sky of the Mediterranean seaside.' (Marcet.) Sun-heat and Sunshine, Scasoji 1879-80. Maximum Sun-heat Average Sun-heat in vacuo Days of Sunshine Hours of Sunshine Possible Sunshine Mean Daily Sunshine November December Janiiary . February March . April 120-3 128-0 135-6 135-4 146-1 113-0 114-3 118-5 123-1 129-7 24 28 30 27 29 28 h. m 182-00 226-00 227-17 208-42 264-14 222 37 h. m. 286-07 271-30 279-04 293-28 363-38 398-13 h. m. 7-58 8-07 7-34 7-46 9-10 7-57 Mean . . 133-08 119-72 27-6 221-4 315-20 805 From the foregoing table it appears that the mean sun- heat for the season, as recorded by Negretti & Zambra's vacuum solar radiation thermometer, was 119-72, the mean maximum sun-heat being 133'08 ; that the number of days on w'hich the sun shone was IGG, thus leaving only sixteen days during the whole six 64 SUN-HEAT AND SUNSHINE. months on which the sun did not shine ; that it shone for 1,330 hours out of a possihle sunshine of ahout 1,891 hours, equal to no less than eight hours per day, excluding the sixteen days above referred to. Of course some of the days on which the sun shone were davs of partial sunshine only, with cloud in some cases or rain in others. The figures for the season 1880-81 were : — Sun-heat and Sunshine, Season 1880-81. S 3 M 1 Sf ^ u CC > a =■ C =* S,a a s M F- o v-i C "tt a Q2 = -s y. -t> II Ij II S""" a o 1 ^32 h. m. h. 111. h. m. November . 1186 130-8 73-0 83-7 4.5-6 2.5 190-26 286-07 7-37 December . 114-9 130-7 77-1 83-6 37-8 29 193-24 271-30 6-40 January — — 61-9 77-3 — 23 119-01 27904 ■5-10 Febnuirv — 129-0 72-2 93-0 — 24 183-03 293-28 7 41 :Marcli 123-2 139-4 73-8 80-7 49-4 30 219-07 363-38 7-18 April . 129-7 1440 80-0 86-4 49-7 29 272-00 398'13 9-22 ileau 121-6 134-8 73-0 84-1 4.5-6 26-6 196-10 31.5-20 7-18 From an examination of the above table it appears that the average sun-heat in vacuo for this season, omitting .January and February, was 121 '6°; that the mean maximum sun-heat in vacuo, omitting only January, was 134-8°; that the average sun-heat in air, including all months, was 73'0°, and the mean maximum sun- heat in air 84-1°; the mean excess of the sun-heat in vacuo over that in air was therefore no less than 48-6°. Now it should be clearly understood that the degree of heat denoted by the vacuum solar radiation thermometer is not one to which the human body luider ordinary circumstances is exposed, since it cannot, like the bulb of a thermometer, be placed in vacuo and be wholly protected from currents of air and moisture. Neither, indeed, does the ordinary smi thermometer, with its blackened and naked bulb, indicate the true temperature to which the body is subject, since the latter is not naked but clothed, and hence protected to some extent from the action of cvn-rents of air. It appears further from the table that there were 160 days out of a total of 181 days constituting the six months' winter season on which the sun shone, leaving but twenty-one smiless days ; that the number of hours during which the sun shone was 1,177, against a possible smrshine of 1,891 hours, and that the SUN-HEAT AND SUNSHINE. 65 mean daily sunshine amounted to 7 hours 18 minutes. This mean inchides only the days on which the sun actually did shine, but spreading the sunshine over all the days of the season it would amount to 6 hours 30 minutes. Comparatively bright and sunshiny as was the winter season of 1880-81, it was less so than the previous season, in which there were 166 days of sun- shine and 16 cloudy days, the daily duration of sunshine being a little over 8 hours, as against 7 hours 18 minutes for the season of 1880-81. Season 1881-82. Average Sun-heat in Vacuum Maximum Sun-lieat in Vacuum Average Sun-heat in Air « a u ° 5 1 Daya of c3 a O-a Hours of CD 3.S Month ^72 05a Sunshine |l Sunshine H.M. H.M. November . . 110-0 118-5 1 73-9 83-6 36-1 24 7-42 184-47 284-54 December . . 101-3 107-1 , 71-0 70-9 30-4 28 6-56 194-12 2G2-09 .Tanuarv . . . 109-1 ! 118-0 t 68-3 730 36-1 29 6-35 184-20 284-02 February . . 114-0 123-2 67-8 75-0 39-0 26 9-08 237-41 290-22 March . . . 125-7 ; 132-2 1 74-2 85-4 40-3 30 10-04 302-07 368-29 AprU .... 128-1 1 136 75-4 84-7 43-4 30 10-19 309-45 403 47 1412-52 = 235 Mean . . . 114-7 1 122-5 71-8 78 8 37-5 167 = 27-8 8-27 1893-43 per month per montli From an examination of the above table, it appears that the mean sun-heat in vacuo for the season 1881-82 was 114*7°, that the mean maximum sun-heat was 122-5° ; the mean sun-heat in air was 71*8°, and the mean maximum sun-heat in air 78-8°, the mean excess of sun-heat in vacno over that in the air being 42-9°. It appears further fi'om the table that there were 167 days out of a total of 181 days constituting the season, =27*8 days per month on which the sun shone : that the number of hours of sunshine was 1,412 = 235 hours per month, and 8 hours 27 minutes per day, out of a possible sunshine of over 1,893 hours. There were thus only 14 days of the whole six months on which the sun did not shine. These means include only the days on which the sun did actually shine ; but, spreading the sunshine over all the 181 days, whether sunshiny or cloudy, the figures would be somewhat different : the average sun-heat in vacuo would be 111°, and in air 70-5°, while the mean daily duration of the sunshine would be 7 hours 49 minutes. The above figures abundantly establish the fact of the bright and sunshiny character of the climate during the season 1881-82 : the readings for the two previous seasons may be quoted in further corroboration of the brilhancy of the climate. During 66 SUN-HEAT AND SUNSHINE. the season 1879-80 there were 1G6 days on which the sun shone, and the duration of the sunshine was 1,330 hours ; equal to no less than 8"05 hours of sunshine per day. During the season 1880-81 there were 100 days of sunshine, the sun shining 1,177 hours, with an average for each sunshiny day of 7 hours 18 minutes. The above statistics of the sun-heat and of the number of fine and sunshiny days certainly convey a most pleasing feature of the climate of the more sheltered parts of the Eiviera, and they show how immeasurably superior it is to our English climate. In our own country the invalid in winter is kept in the house for days and even weeks together, whereas the days on which he cannot enjoy the benefits of fresh air, exercise, and even sunshine, are here comparatively few. The preceding figures tell very strongly in favour of the climate of San Remo, and prove that it well sustains the reputation of the ' Sunny South.' Eeviewing all the tables, it appears that the average sun- heat in vacuo for the three seasons was 118*7°, and in the air 72"4° ; that the mean north-shade temperature for the same seasons was 53"1°, showing a difference of 65'6° in favour of the sun-heat, as recorded by the vacuum solar radiation thermo- meter, and 19-1° by the ordinary black bulb thermometer. These figures may be accepted as proving the great power of the sun at San Remo, and indeed in the Western Eiviera generally, even during the winter season. But the sun contributes to the warmth of the Riviera, not only by its direct rays, but indirectly ; thus some of the rocks and mountains around San Remo, as well as elsewhere in the Riviera, consisting chiefly of limestone, and being bare of vegeta- tion, absorb during the day, especially in summer, a large amount of caloric or heat ; this being gradually given off again during the night and the colder months of the year, helps greatly to increase the temperature. Again in the same manner the Mediterranean absorbs and stores up heat during the day, particularly in summer, gradually parting with it at night and during the colder period of the year. It must not be forgotten, however, that the remarkable warmth of the ]\Iediterranean is in part due to its very slight admixture with the colder water of the Atlantic, which at a depth of 100 fatlioms is about 20° colder than the Mediterranean at the same depth and in the same latitude, this colder water entering only through the Straits of Gibraltar. Were the water of the Atlantic to enter more freely it would not be possible for this sea to retain its warmth. The Mediterranean, therefore, exercises an impor- tant influence in raising and equalising the temperature of the TEMPERATURE OF THE MEDITERRANEAN. 67 places upon its shore, and helps to explain in part their freedom from frost. The chief facts relative to the temperature of the Mediter- ranean are embodied in the subjoined tables. Temperature cf the Mediterranean, Season, 1879-80. Month Mean Tempera- ture Highest Tempera- ture Lowest Tempera- ture Mean Tempera- ture of Air Sea Warmer than Air Greatest Differ- ence November December January . February March . April 9 A.M. 60-2 53 8 52-8 53-8 55-2 57-4 9 A.M. 63-2 56-4 549 550 56-2 60-4 9 A.M. 58-8 61-6 621 52 2 521 55 7 9 A.M. 526 43-5 4o-5 50-0 55-0 599 9 A.M. 7-6 10-3 7-3 3-8 •0 2-5' 9 A.M. 19-6 18-4 16-4 6-7 6-0 8-82 Mean . 55-5 — — 51-1 — — It thus appears that the mean temperature of the sea for the six months of the season 1879-80 was 55-5° ; that the highest temperature which occurred in November was 63-2°, the lowest 51'6° in December, giving a difference of 11'6°. The mean temperature of the air at 9 a.m. was 51-1°, showing a difference of 4 "4° for the whole season. Again, during the three coldest months, November, December, and January, the sea was relatively the warmest, the mean differences being 7'6", 10'3°, and T'S"" respectively. In March the temperature of the sea corresponded, but in April the air was 2-5° warmer than the sea. On one occasion in November the difference in favour of the sea amounted to no less than 19-6° ; in December to 18-4°, and in January to 16"4°. It thus appears that the sea is warmest just when warmth is most required, that is to say, during the coldest months of the winter season. Indeed, so warm is the sea at San Remo that there are but few days during the winter when bathing to a healthy Englishman would not be agreeable. I have no record of the temperature of the sea at 3 p.m. during the wdnter season and none for the summer months. I know, however, that the temperature rises considerably on hot sunny days even in ■\\dnter, while in the summer the readings would doubtless be very much higher than any which I have hitherto met with. ' In this month, the sea was 2'5° colder than the air. ^ The air was on one occasion during this montli 8'8° warmer than the sea at 9 A.M. F 2 68 WARMTH OF THE JIEDITERRANEAN. Temperature of tJie Mediterranean, Season 1880-81. >Iean Highest Lowest Mean Sea Greatest JfontU Tempera- Tempera- Tempera- Tempera- Warmer DiflEer- ture of Sea ture ture ture of Air than Air euce 9 A.M. 9 A.M. 9 A.M. !t A.M. 9 A.M. November 62-0 63-9 610 56-7 5-3 11-5 December 59-8 610 69-0 52-2 7-6 9-9 January 56-3 58-7 55-0 46-9 9-4 15-8 February 540 557 52-6 50-7 3-3 51 March . 5o-4 56-6 53-8 55-2 •2 7-5 April 58-6 59-2 57-6 62-0 3-5' — Mean . 57-7 — — 53-9 — — For the season 1880-81 the figures stand therefore thus : The mean temperature of the whole season was 57*7°, the highest jioint reached 63'9° in Novemher, and the lowest 52'6° in February ; showing a difference of 11*3° between the highest and the lowest points. The mean temperature of the air at 9 a.m. for the six months was 53-9°, giving a difference of only 3"8° on the whole season between the air and the sea. In this season again the greatest mean difference occurred in November, Decemher, and January, and was for those months as follows : 5-3°, 7-6°, and 9*4°. In March there was but httle difference between the sea and the air, but in April the air was 3*5° warmer than the sea. The greatest difference in November amounted to 11'5°, in December 9*9°, and in January to 15-8°. It is thus again seen that the high temperature of the Medi- terranean must exert a considerable effect in raising the tempera- ture of the air, particularly at night and during the colder winter months. The influence of the sea in warming the air is of course most felt near the shore, and houses near the sea are, when the air is calm, often warmer than those situated further from it. On the other hand, houses near the sea are more exposed to the sea breeze, while the land breeze descending from the mountains at night reaches first those habitations not specially protected by surrounding trees, which are furthest removed from the sea. From the table for 1881-82, it appears that the mean tempera- ture of the sea at 9 a.m. for the whole season w^as 57*5°, that the highest point reached was 62 ■5'' in the month of November, and the lowest 54*3° in February, showing a difference of 8"2=' between the highest and lowest points. The mean temperature of the air at 9 a.m. was 53'3°, giving a difference on the whole season of 4-2° between the air and the sea. During the two coldest months of the year, December and January, the mean ' The air was 3-5° warmer in this month than the sea. SALTNESS OF THE MEDITERRANEAN. 69 difference in favour of the sea was 8-1° and 7-8°, and in March the sea was only 0*8° warmer than the air, while in April the air was 0-7° warmer than the sea. It thus again appears that it is during the two coldest winter months the sea is relatively the warmest ; that is just when the air most requires to be warmed. Temperature of the Mediterranean, Season 1881-82. Month Mean Temperature of Sea Highest Temperature Lowest Temperature Mean Temperature of Air 9 A.M. Sea Warmer than Air November . December . January February March . April . 61-4 57-9 559 55"1 56-4 582 62-5 60-6 56-5 560 590 59-4 60-8 55-8 55-6 54-3 55-8 57-3 56-7 49-8- 481 50-8 55-6 58-9 4-7 81 7-8 4-3 0-8 0-7 Mean 57-5 — 53-3 — Captain Spratt (' Travels and Eesearches in Crete,' quoted by Dr. C. T. Williams) has shown that the Mediterranean in the Eastern and Western basins at a depth of 100 fathoms has a temperature of 59|° Fahr., whereas the temperature of the Atlantic at the same depth and latitude, according to the observa- tions of Eoss and others, is but 39^°, showing a difference of 20° between the two seas. The changes of temperature con- seqi;ent on the seasons are said not to embrace more than a fall of 10° in winter and a rise from 10° to 20° in summer, and these changes extend only to the depth of 100 fathoms. But the Mediterranean differs from other seas, not only in its remarkably high temperature, but in some other particulars, which, although less immediately connected with the subject of temperature, may here be referred to ; as the greater concentration and weight of its water. Thus while the water of the Atlantic off" Bayonne contains as much as 38 parts of saline matter in 1,000, according to Messrs. Legrange and Vogel, in that off Marseilles there is as much as 41 in 1,000 parts. The analyses of Messrs. Schweitzer and Laui'ent are nearly to the same effect ; the water of the British Channel containing 35*2, and that of the Mediterranean 40-74 in 1,000 parts. This greater concen- tration of the Avater of the Mediterranean is mainly due to three causes : the small amount of water which this inland sea receives through the Straits of Gibraltar, the smallness of the rivers and streams which empty themselves into it, and the evaporation constantly going on, due in part to its own warmth, but mainly to the influence of the sun, mostly shining in a sky miobscured 70 COMPARATIVE HUMIDITY. by clouds. The intense blue colour of the Mediterranean has already been referred to, and it was partly explained by the dry- ness and clearness of the atmosphere allowing of the reflection in it of the bright blue sky ; but the quantity of saline matter contained in it has been shown to be the principal cause of its depth of colour. Comparative Humidity. The subject of the Comparative Humidity of the climate of San Eemo next claims attention ; this comprises the relative humidity of the air, the number of days on which rain falls, the duration of the rain and the quantity, or rainfall. The relative humidity, number of rainy days, duration of the rain, and the amount of the rainfall are influenced by a variety of circumstances, as the character of the surrounding country, the height of the protecting mountains, the distance these are from the town, and the direction of the prevailing winds. If there be mountains having an altitude of some 3,000 or 4,000 ft. close to the town, the probability is that the days of rain will be much more frequent than in places where they are further off. This circumstance, I believe, explains the great difterence in the number of wet or partly wet days at San Eemo and Mentone, although they are but fifteen miles apart ; thus the average number of rainy days for the whole year at San Eemo is forty-eight, while it is eighty at Mentone. The subject of the winds at San Eemo has already been considered, but it may be remembered it was stated that the northerly winds passing over the high mountain chains of Europe, become thereby deprived of their moisture, which is precipitated on the mountain tops in the form of snow, and hence when they reach San Eemo they are particularly dry, and also cold winds. The north-east wind comes even from the arctic regions, the north-west wind passing over lower mountain chains is less dry than the north and north-east winds, but the latter, as also the east wind, are^ more moist and less irritating here than in England. The southerly winds are both warm and moist in consequence of their passing over large tracts of water from the surface of which aqueous vapour is constantly being given oft". It is there- fore the southerly winds that usually bring rain. Belative Humidity. The amount of moisture contained in the air exerts a very marked efi"ect on the character of the climate of any locality, and to this branch of the meteorology of health resorts too little EELATIVE HUMILITY. 71 attention has hitherto heen paid. Writers confine themselves frequently to the statement that a given place has a mean annual humidity of so many degrees, but this information is wholly inadequate, since two places may have the same relative humidity, and yet the condition of the two be entirely diflferent. The relative humidity varies greatly even on the same day and from a variety of different causes, as from rain, mist, dew, wind, and sunshine ; hence there should be a fi'equent record of the state of the air as regards humidity and its causes. As a rule, the morning air is somewhat damp and that of the afternoon much drier, but the evening air contains on an average more moisture than even the early morning air. This increased humidity may proceed from two different causes : it may be due to general humidity of the air from recent rain, but more frequently it proceeds from a deposition of dew after a dry sunny day with a cloudless sky at night. Now these two causes of humidity should be distinguished. The times during which the air is most damp are immediately preceding, during, and for some time after rain ; during mist and fog ; early in the morning, and in the evening from deposition of dew. The periods when the air is most dry are after prolonged drought, or with strong northerly winds prevailing and in bright sunshiny weather. I have often been struck with the little difference in the mean humidity of the air on many fine and sunshiny days, as contrasted with days on which the air or soil has been more or less moist from recent rain ; the reason of this of course is that in the one case the morning and evening air is rendered humid by the falling dew, the air during the day being comparatively dry, while in the other there being no dew the air remains moist throughout both the day and night in consequence of recent rain. This difference is important from a health point of \T.ew, and deserves more attention than it has yet received. The degree of moisture in the air is ascertained by means of two thermometers, the bulb of one being kept constantly moistened and the other dry. The drier the air the greater the difference of temperature indicated by the thermometers, the wet bulb thermometer of course showing, in consequence of the evaporation going on, a much lower temperature. The more moist the air the greater the approximation of the temperature indicated by the two bulbs, and the drier, the greater the difference. When the air contains as much moisture as it is capable of holding in suspension the two thermometers show the same temperature, and when this occurs the air is said to be ' saturated,' the point of saturation forming one end of the scale and being indicated by the figures 100. This condition of the air is not unfrequently observed during the course of a year. 72 TABLES OF EELATIVE HUMIDITY. Tlie other end of the scale is distinguished by an 0, and this represents that the air is absohitely deprived of moisture, a con- dition never attained in temperate or habitable climates. The scale between the two extremes is divided into 100 degrees. In order to convey a fair notion of the humidity of the air, this should be determined at least three times a day — morning, afternoon, and evening — and these observations should be reduced to daily, montldy, and annual means. In the following tables the monthly means of the morning, afternoon, and evening readings are shown for three winter seasons. It will be seen that the air in the afternoon is much drier than either in the morning or the evening, and that it is the least dry at the latter period. Relative Humidity. Season 1879-80. Month !) A.M. 3 P.M. 9 P.M. :>rontlily Mean November . 75-0 60-0 81-5 72-2 December . bob 56-3 64-2 58-6 January . 63-0 620 64-0 63-0 February . 73-3 70-0 74-2 72-4 March 68-5 65-5 61-1 650 April 69-5 69-0 76-4 71-6 Mean of Season 67-5 63-8 70-3 672 Season 1880-81. November . 720 70 5 78-2 73-7 December . 74-7 70-0 761 73-6 January . 78-3 70-7 70-6 73-2 February . 686 63-4 74-2 687 March 74-7 72-0 82-0 76-2 April 68-0 65-0 79-8 70-9 Mean of Season 72-8 68-6 76-8 72-7 Sea son 1881-82. November . 76-8 731 73-0 74-5 December . 69-1 66-1 66-0 67-1 January . 71-0 72-0 69-1 70-7 February . 66-3 64-2 66-1 65-5 March 69-5 67-0 70-5 69-2 April 70-0 63-7 670 66-9 Mean of Season 70-4 67-7 68-7 68-9 SEDATIVE AND STIMULATING CLIMATES. 73 From a comparison of these tables it appears that the first and last of the three seasons were relatively dry — that for the season 1880-81 being much more humid ; the mean difference amounting in one case to 5-5°, and in the other to 3-8°. The mean morning relative humidity for the three winter seasons was 70-2° ; the afternoon mean, 66*7° ; the mean evening humidity, 71'90° ; the mean of the readings for the three seasons being 69*6°. Since invalids are scarcely ever out of doors either in the early morning or evening, it follows that they are most concerned to know the relative humidity of the air for the middle part of the day, and this is sufficiently shown in the afternoon readings recorded in the tables, I notice that there is a very considerable difference between my observations as to the dryness of the atmosphere, and those taken at the Observatory of San Eemo. According to the observations at the latter place the mean monthly humidity for the season 1879-80 was as follows : for November, 60-5° ; December, 46*0° ; January, 54-9° ; February, 66-3° ; March, 62-8° ; April, 66-4°, the mean of the whole season being 59*5'', against my mean of 67'2°. This difierence is to be explained partly, perhaps, by the instru- ments at the Observatory being high above any vegetation, namely, at an elevation of sixty-four feet. Now it has been found from experience that moist climates are as a rule sedative, and dry ones stimulating. A very important practical distinction. It may here be asked to which of these two divisions does the climate of San Eemo belong ; the answer is that it is moderately dry and stimulating, but less so than some of the other health resorts of the Western Eiviera. This difference arises in part, as already explained, from the very abundant vegetation in and about San Eemo and the more retentive soil. The greater or less dryness of the air of rooms occupied by invalids, especially those suffering from bronchitis and asthma, is a matter of much importance ; the air may be either too dry or too moist ; so that it is very advisable that the condition of the air of rooms as regards the relative humidity should be frequently observed by means of the combined wet and dry bulb thermo- meters. The Eain. The rain on the shores of the Western Eiviera falls chiefly at two periods of the year : namely, at the autumnal and vernal equinoxes. The autumn rainfall usually begins near the end of September, continues at intervals through October, and may if later than usual extend even into November ; the spring rain- fall commences generally in March, and may include the early 74 THE RAINY SEASON. part of April, but the exact time of the commencement and termination of the equinoctial rains varies in different years. The autumn equinox being over, there is usually a lengthened period of dry weather, with a prevalence of northerly winds ; the spring equinox ended, a still longer dry period of from five to even six months is sometimes experienced. The great dryness of the summer on the shores of the Mediterranean is due to the fact that this sea is placed near the northern limit of what is known as ' the rainless tract,' which comprises the desert of Sahara. This dryness renders the storage of water in large tanks and fi-equent irrigation, usually by means of innumerable water channels, which on low-lying grounds one sees everywhere, absolutely indispensable to the preservation of the Orange, Lemon, and many other trees and vegetable productions. When rain comes with a northerly wind it is usually gentle, but when with a southerly it often descends Avith ahuost tropical violence, as much as over seven inches of rain having been known to fall in a single day. On November 28, 1881, 7"26 inches fell in the course of a few hours, carrying away bridges and doing much damage. When such tropical rain falls on the mountains, the beds of the torrents and rivers become suddenly filled with large volumes of water ; this rushes impetuously to the sea, carrying with it great quantities of earth, stones, pieces of rock, and all kinds of debris. Very quickly, however, the rivers recover their usual and comparatively insignificant pro- portions, and their wide, stony, and unsightly-looking beds are once more exposed to view. Those who are not acquainted with the effects of a sudden and heavy rainfall often wonder at the insignificance of most of the rivers in the Eiviera, in comparison with the size of their beds, which seem far wider than could ever be required. This is observed particularly with the Paillon at Nice and the Eoya at Ventimiglia. This heavy downpour takes place especially at the point where the south and north winds meet ; sometimes, as Dr. Bennet has so well shown, this happens at the top of the moun- tain ranges, at others it occurs a little way out at sea — the weather on the shore line remaining bright and fine all the time. The number of days on which rain falls, and the amount of the rainfall, vary in different parts of the Western Riviera ; this variation being mainly determined by the height, form, and arrangement of the contiguous and protecting mountains. At San Remo, according to Dr. Onetti, there are but forty-five days in the year on which rain falls, but he does not give the data upon which this average is based. In reply to my inquiries, DAYS OF RAIN AND RAINFALL. 75 Signer Eodi, of the Observatory at San Eemo, has furnished me with the particulars embodied in the subjoined table : — Years Days in Year Days in Winter Season Hours in Year Annual Amount 1866 I8()7 1868 1869 1871 1872 1873 1874 1875 1877 63 61 55 36 43 61 45 39 35 43 35 36 29 27 22 44 45 20 25 33 225-50 181-30 172-50 110-30 33600 161-45 169-45 208-50 inches 43 30 23-36 26-19 1618 20-48 57-08 31-92 20-20 18-79 30-42 Means . 48 31-6 195-6 28-7 From the preceding table it appears that during the 10 years, rain fell on an average on 48 days in each year, that the period during which rain actually fell amounted to no more than 195*6 hours for the Avhole year, or a little over 8 days and nights, and lastly, that the rainfall was 28*7 inches. The meteorological observations taken at the Obsei'vatory for 1878 and the first half of 1879 were so incomplete that I have not included them in the above table : this is much to be regretted, as the weather during the greater part of that period was so exceptional, especially as regards the number of rainy days and the rainfall, and to a less extent the temperature, that the ob- servations would have aftected the averages, not only for San Kemo, but for the whole of the Western Eiviera. Turning to my own observations I find that rain fell during the winter season of 1878-70, commencing November 1, on no less than 74 days ; it should be stated, however, that the day included the whole 24 hours, and hence on some of the days enumerated rain fell only in the night. The amount of the rainfall was also excessive. But since the winter season at San Remo extends from November 1 to April 30, it became important to determine the average number of days on which rain fell during that period, and I found it to be for the ten years 31*6 days. I have during the last four winter seasons taken a very careful series of observa- tions of the rain and rainfall, and I will now proceed to give the results. The principal particulars in relation to these points for the season 1879-80 are set forth in the following table : — RAIN AND RAINFALL. Bain mid Humidity, Season 1870-80. Month 11 II 1 1 o s - "3; S w5 11 ^5 h. m. inches November 6 31-30 2-40 65-6 94^4 44^2 Strong N.W., W., and N.E. winds December 3 20-00 1 65 58-7 93^1 33-3 Strong N.E. -wind Jaiuuiry . 1 •10 •08 63-2 84-6 44^2 Strong N.E. wind February 5 27-00 2-70 74-0 9o-8 53^0 March 3 3-00 •2(1 75-0 8.r9 47-7 Strong N.E. wind April 9 3O-30 3-30 70-6 84-6 50-6 S.E. gale Total . 27 117-10 10^26 67-8 — ■ — ■ — Observations. — When only a few drops of rain fell, and the quantity was too small to be measured, they were not included. There were three days in November and three in February when this occurred. The figures of the rain- fall in the above table are calculated from the register of the Observatory at San Remo. It thus appears that there were but 27 days on which a measurable quantity of rain fell ; that the period during which it actually descended embraced only 117 hours, between 9 a.m. and 9 p.m. ; and that the total rainfall amounted to 10-26 inches. The facts for the season 1880-81 are as follow : — >> >. >. Month to P5 So 3l H =5 Ph Mean Eelative Humidit 11 Ma |1 h. m. inches November 7 32-30 4-00 74-6 91-2 55-4 Strong S.W. and W. winds December 2 1-05 028 72-6 92-3 49-0 — January 12 55-2o 6-54 73-3 94-5 37-4 Strong N.E. wind February 7 30-30 r44 68-4 88 21 48-2 — March . 5 18^45 1-25 760 94^4 54-8 — April . 10 43 22-50 1-76 70^7 86-4 53-4 Strong E. wind Total 151-05 15-27 Mean 728 _ 1 _ _ It is shown in the above table that rain fell on 43 days, and, including the nights as well as the days, on no less than 49 days of 24 hours each. This is a very high average for San Eemo, seeing that the mean number of rainy days for the whole year amounts to only 48-0. But the rain was all needed to make up for previous deficiencies. The number of hours of day rain HAIN AND KAINFALL. 77 only for the six months was 161'0 ; the total rainfall, including the nights, amounted to 15-27 inches — the average for the whole year being 28*78 inches. With respect to the number of rainy days, it should be stated, that on 13 of the 49 days and nights the rainfall did not exceed 0*05 of an inch, and in four instances it amounted to only 0*01, the least quantity measurable. These figures show that the winter season of 1880-81 was for San Eemo unusually wet, though as contrasted with England and many other countries, it would still have to be regarded as a very dry one. Bain and Humidity, Season 1881- -82. ilonth 3| > - 1.- _>,t --^ M «^ ^^ ^1 S« «" 3 C-. November 4 5 28-00 9-47 76-8 73-1 73-0 74-5 95-8' 55-8 December 6 7 19-10 1-47 69-1 66-1 660 67-1 84-8 46-7 January 2 4 1900 1-42 71-0 72-0 69-1 70-7 85-8 55-8 February 1 1 1-30 0-82 66-3 64-2 66-1 65-5 860 42-4 March . 3 5 6-15 2-11 69-5 67-5 70-5 69-2 92-0« 45-8 April 2 5 7-00 1-35 70-0 70-4 63-7 67-7 670 66-9 85-0 40-6' Total . 18 27 80-55 16-64 680 68-7 88-2 47-8 It is shown in the above table, amongst other particulars, that during the whole six months rain fell in the daytime only on 18 occasions, and 27 times, including the nights as well as days ; the hours during which the day rain actually descended were but 81, the total rainfall for the whole season being 16'64 inches. The figures quoted prove that the winter season of 1881-82 at San Remo was a very favourable one as respects rain and moisture ; the air, although comparatively dry, was not so to the extent of its becoming overstimulating and exciting. Of the 16 inches of rain, no less than 7*26 inches fell in the course of twenty- four hours, doing much damage. It has been pointed out that the principal rainfalls occur at two periods ; usually in September and early in October, and in March and the first part of April. Now, the invalids who come to the Ei\dera in search of health, do not generally arrive until after the termination of the autumnal equinox, so that they ' The unprecedented quantity of 7-26 inches fell in 24 hours between 9 A.M. on November 28 and the same hours of the following morning, doing much damage. * A sea fog, a very rare occurrence. ^ Strong N.E. wind. 78 RAIN IN ENGLISH HEALTH RESORTS. usually escape this first great rainfall, and have only to encounter the second period, that of the vernal equinox. Contrast for a moment the preceding figures with the number of rainy days in some other health resorts, especially the most favoured places in England. It appears that during the years 1870, '77, and '78 rain fell in Ventnor on no less than 524 days, giving an average of 174"6 days for each year ; also that taking the six months' winter season, beginning November 1, for the two seasons 1876-77 and 1877-78, rain fell on 210 days, making an average of 105 days each season. At Bournemouth in the course of 10 years, commencing with 1866 and ending December 1878, the years 1872, '75 and '77 not being given, in consequence of the incompleteness of the observations, rain fell on 1,563 days, show- ing an average of 156'3 for each year, and in the winter seasons it fell on 967 days, making an average of 87*9 for each season. Lastly, at Torquay (Babbacombe), during the years 1877 and 1878 rain fell on 400 days, giving an average of 200 days for each of these years. The following table comprises the annual number of rainy days, and the amount of the rainfall, at some of the principal winter health resorts of Europe : — San Remo .... Mentone .... Nice ..... Cannes .... Hyeres .... Pau . . Malaga .... Madeira .... Ventnor .... Bournemouth Torquay .... ' The mean number of days on which rain falls in London is 89*5 (Strachan), or just about t^^^ce as many as at Cannes during the corresponding winter months ; but while the amount of rainfall at Cannes is 20-3 inches, in London it equals 10*8, or about half.' (Marcet.) Such, then, are the principal data on which a reliable and scientific estimate of the climate of San Eemo may be based. To sum up briefly, the particulars, so far as the six months' winter season is concerned, stand thus : — The mean season north shade day temperature is 53-1, or from eight to ten degrees higher than that of England. ' For six months only. Daj-s Inches 48 28-78 80 De Brea 23-68' / 70 De Yalcourt^ ^. { 60 Roubaudi J^" 70 3-5-43 63 27 119 43 40 Francis 16-50 88 White 30 174-6 34.54 1.56-3 28-81 200 39-66 SUMMARY OF CLIMATE OF SAN REMO. 79 The mean maximum north shade temperature 58*7° Fahr. The mean minimum or night temperature for the season is 40-2° Fahr. The mean variation of the day shade temperature is 5-8°, the greatest day difference recorded being but 14° Fahr. The mean sun-heat, as estimated by the naked black bulb solar thermometer, is 72*4° Fahr. The mean sun-heat indicated by the vacuum solar radiation thermometer is 118-7° Fahr, The mean duration of the sunshine equals 7'8 hours per day, not including the few sunless days. The days on which the sun shines amount on an average to 162 out of the 181 days of the season, leaving only twenty days each season without sun. The mean relative humidity for the whole day is 69"G° ; but that at 3 o'clock p.m. is only 06-7°. The mean number of days on which rain falls is 30, and the mean rainfall 14"06 inches for the whole season. With respect to temperature the data show that the climate of San Eemo, and the same may be said of the Riviera generally, so far from being, as it is often described, so warm as to be relaxing, is really during nearly the whole of the winter season cool and bracing, sometimes even cold ; even in summer it is not unduly hot, the mean temperature for June being 69*17, for July 74-33, and for August 73-85. Many people indeed complain of the cool- ness of the climate in the winter, and certain it is that the same clothes should be worn here as in England ; it is only in April that any change should be made, and then with gi-eat caution. The data show that even at night the temperature but seldom falls below 40'% and this only out of doors and in the coldest months, which are usually December and January — that the temperature of the air but rarely falls to the freezing point, often not once in a whole vtanter season, though a thermometer placed on the ground does occasionally descend to or below that point. Frost is therefore rare ; snow seldom falls in the precincts of the town, although in some winters it may be seen above the olive-clad hills on the surrounding mountains. The range of day shade temperature is exceedingly small, and this is an important point in favour of the climate of any place. Let us now contrast the data for London wath those given above. They bring out in a striking manner the great difference in every particular between the climate of the two places. The readings of the vacuum solar radiation thermometer on the grass will be relatively higher than those of an instrument sus- pended in the air four feet above the ground, as my thermometer was placed. 80 WEATHEE IN LONDON. Observations for London, Season 1881-82. W) ^ a- -S u 3 u 2 ■A s a 'S It London a H o S aa t. 1 S H " s ■ a 'S 1 i H B a a 1 s 3 ■3^ p -" a lis ^ ^ r.' S t< 1 S -2 3 % 3 3 CO g Pi % 3 1 Q -§1 o s 1^ a a B s 3 2'" X! S . a 3 *4H u 0? ll 1 S 2 1 s 3 ;z; a 3 "A SJ3 ^ 3S |h ^ fe 1880 Week eudiug Novembei • 6 39-3 31-2 47 2 73-0 4 24-2 0- 83 13 46-3 40-2 51 5 69-5 4 7-8 4 0-24 84 J) 20 40-8 36-3 46 9 65-3 4 8-1 5 1-38 88 " " 27 42-4 36-4 48 66-4 6 16-8 5 0-46 82 „ December 4 44-1 37-5 49 3 60-6 3 4-4 1 0-04 89 11 47-7 43-4 51 2 59'5 3 5-2 0- 87 " " 18 43-3 38-1 47 7 55"5 2 3-5 5 0-76 86 » » 25 40-6 34-9 45-7 55-9 4 9-4 4 1-26 87 1881 Week ending January 1 40-6 35-8 44-7 533 3 11 5 0-96 91 8 38-4 34-9 41-8 57-8 4 13-0 0- 86 " " 15 2S-0 24-0 31-6 43-2 3 3-8 1 013 83 " '* 22 23-4 18-5 28-9 43-5 2 6-9 2 0-46 81 " " 29 32-5 27-9 37-9 51 1 2-1 4 0-49 92 „ February 5 42-8 38-5 47-8 64-9 3 6-3 7 0-22 92 12 38-8 33-8 451 73-3 6 15-1 5 0-77 82 " *' 19 38-0 33-7 42-7 54-4 1 0-2 3 0-51 92 )) )) 2C 34-4 30-9 381 57'2 2 6-9 4 1-00 89 „ Marcli 5 37-1 32-2 43-4 72-4 4 9-0 3 1-20 83 12 49-4 44-3 56-0 89-4 5 16-4 3 0-2S 83 " " 19 44-8 360 55-5 98-0 7 38-8 0- 81 " 26 39-5 33-1 47-5 82-2 7 14 6 0-39 80 „ April 2 39-1 29-6 49-2 104-7 7 55 7 0- 70 9 40-5 32-1 49-6 110-9 7 49-1 0- 72 16 50-8 41-8 61-7 112-1 7 17-0 2 0-15 81 » » 23 43-5 34-8 53-4 96-0 6 28-7 2 0-11 69 " ',! 30 49-9 42-1 59-2 101-7 6 16-3 4 0-36 It 40-6 34-7 47-0 72-0 111 385-3 7o 11-15 83-4 , ^^^ ^ ^ ^_ •' M ean of 6mont hs "rotaT Mean of 6 months Turning again to my own observations, the figures given of the mean sun-beat by the ordinary sun thermometer prove that the sun shines with considerable power in San Eemo, and not only so, but that there are but few days in the six months' winter season on which it does not shine on an average for several hours a day. The mean difference between the shade temperature and the smi-heat, as indicated by the ordinary black bulb solar ther- mometer, is in round numbers about 20° ; this difference is con- SUMMARY OF CLIMATE OF SAN EEMO. 81 sidevable, and it shows that the warmth of the climate of the Riviera is to a great extent sun-warmth, and it explains sufficiently why on suddenly passing from the sun into the shade a feehng of chilhness is so quickly experienced. The mean difference between the north shade temperature and the sun-heat as recorded by the vacuum solar thermometer is of course still more considerable, it amounting to no less than 60-7° Fahr., but it has already been explained (page 64) that the human l)ody is never under any natural circumstances exposed to the liigh degrees of heat indicated by that instrument. But to this subject I shall shortly have occasion again to refer. The mean relative humidity of San Remo is indicative of a climate of moderate dryness only, of a climate, in fact, less dry than that of some other parts of the Western Eiviera. This is due to, and is explained by, two circumstances already noticed, the one being the large amount of vegetation in and around San Piemo, the mountain tops being for the most part covered with forests of pine trees, and the other that the soil of San Remo contains a considerable admixture of clay ; this retains the mois- ture near the surface, parting with it slowly by evaporation, and thus preventing the air from becoming as dry as otherwise it would be at times. The effect of this admixture of clay in the case of a naturally dry climate like San Remo is therefore rather beneficial than hurtful. It is thus that the climate of San Remo is rendered more sedative than that of some of the other towns of the Riviera. As a consequence, but few persons who come here suffer from sleeplessness, a very frequent com- plaint at Nice and even at Cannes, near the sea. With reference to the relative humidity, the effects of the sun's heat should not be forgotten ; this causes much of the moisture on and near the surface of the ground to become evaporated and to pass into the air, but with the withdrawal of the sun's rays at sunset this moisture is reprecipitated in part on the earth in the form of dew. It is this deposition of dew ■which causes the morning and evening readings of the wet and dry bulb thermometer to be so much greater than they would be otherwise, and hence it follows that the mean humidity of the mid-day or afternoon reading is that which best indicates the character of the climate as respects its relative humidity. The comparative dryness of the climate is still further estab- lished by the small number of days and hours on which rain falls, and the very moderate amount of the rainfall. It has been stated that a considerable fall of temperature takes place at sunset on the days the sun shines, and, not only so, but that when the sky is clear and bright a deposition of moisture or dew also occurs, rendering the air while it falls more Q 82 FALL OF TEMPEEATURE AT SUNSET. or less liumid. It is for these reasons that dehcate people are always advised never to be out at or shortly after sunset ; in fact they should be within doors some time before sunset. Fall of Temperature at Sunset. December 9. December 14. h. m. Temp. E,.H." h. m. Temp. K.H. 300 Somewhat 60-0 5-2 70-4 3-00 Bright 60-4 5-6 68-0 cloudy 4-00 J 60-2 6-2 1 65-5 4-fio ,j 55-8 3-8 76-4 4-35 jj 65-3 4-2 74-0 4-30 „ 524 2-5 83-0 (sunset) (sunset) 6-00 J, 52-2 2-9 81-0 5-10 Clear 51-3 2-2 84-8 5-30 ■)) 500 2-0 86-0 5-40 jj 498 2-2 84-8 6-00 49-7 2-3 84-8 6-00 „ 49-8 2-0 86-0 9-00 49-5 2-6 82-2 9-00 » 50-4 2-0 86-7 ■December 1/5. December 10. S-oo Sunny 60-8 6-3 64-8 1 4-UO Sun and 64-9 3-8 75-2 3-00 4-00 Bright 62-3 60-0 4-9 4-2 72-5 75-0 4-36 cloud Pretty clear 52-0 2-7 82-0 4-32 " 52-9 2'1 86-2 (sunset) (suuset) " 5-00 Cloudy in 51-0 25 83-0 5-(i0 52-5 3-1 79-4 west 5-30 " 52-3 4-8 70-0 5-30 „ 50-6 2-7 81-8 600 " 51-5 5-0 69 6-00 Bright 51-0 2-6 82-4 9-00 — 53-4 3-2 81-2 9-00 51-0 2-7 81-8 December 11. December 16. 3-0 Sun partly 60-8 4-9 71-5 ol)scured 3-00 Bright 600 — 4-00 Sun ob- 57-7 5-5 68-1 4-00 „ 55-3 41 75-2 scured, 4-34 „ 54-7 3-0 80-0 overcast (sunset) 4-37 57-4 50 70-7 500 „ 52-8 2-9 81-3 (sunset) 530 „ 51-0 2-5 830 5-00 Obscured, 57-3 4-9 71-2 600 — 50-5 3-2 78-8 except in 9-00 — 52-4 3-8 75-6 ■west 5-30 600 Cloudy 57-4 57-6 4-0 4-0 750 75-6 9-00 — 56-6 5-5 67-8 December 12. 3-00 6-0 71-0 December 17. 1 Sunshine 61-0 and cloud 3-00 Bright 59-8 5-3 69-5 4-00 Ratlier 59-9 4-3 74-5 4-00 Overcast 56-7 4-5 72-9 cloudy 4-40 54-8 3-1 79-4 4-34 „ 56-3 3-0 81-0 (sunset) (sunset) 5-00 64-4 3-7 75 8 500 Cloudy 53-2 2-0 86-0 5-00 54-2 3-2 80-6 5-30 „ 52-9 2-2 84-8 6-00 Clearing a 53-0 30 79-4 6-00 Moonlight 53-0 2-3 84-6 little 900 61-9 3-4 77-6 9-00 — — — The columns of figures in tlie above table indicate in order, the time, temperature, difference between the Avet and dry bulb thermometers, and the relative humidity. SHADE TEMPERATUKE AND SUN-HEAT. 83 Tlio effect of sunset on the temperature and humitlity are well exhibited in the table, taken from my paper on the ' Climate of San Eemo,' read at the annual meeting of the British Medical Association in 1881. It will be noticed that the greatest fall of temperature takes place when the sky is clear and free from cloud ; it is then also that the dew falls and the air becomes most moist. On cloudy days the fall of temperature is much less and the air much drier. Difference of Shade Tempeeatuke and Sun-heat. It has been already shown that the mean daily range of north shade temperature is very small ; that of the sun -heat is of course more considerable in most climates, and the difference between the two is still greater. With a view to elucidate this point I cannot do better than reproduce in this place the substance of a paper commixnicated by me to the ' International Medical Congress,' and published m Volume II. of the 'Transactions' of the Congress. The first chapter of the recent and very excellent work by the late Dr. Sparks on the Riviera is devoted to a description of the meteorology of that famous district. On page 2 of that chapter are the following remarks : — ' According to Teysseire, the mean temperature for the winter of spots exposed to full sunshine is 128'9° Fahr., and of those in the shade on a northern wall 55*9° Fahr. ; giving a difference between the two of 73°. ' In spring the numbers are 146"1° in the sun, and G7*6° in the shade ; difference 78' 5°, ' In summer we have 155*1° in the sun, and 82 '9° in the shade ; difference 72°. ' In the autumn the temperatures are 139*8° in the sun, and 64*4° in the shade ; difference 75*20°. ' The mean difference for the wdiole year is thus 75*2°.' Referring to M, Teysseire's own figures, which are given in accordance with the Centigrade scale, I find that when converted into that of Fahrenheit, they differ slightly from the above and stand thus : Difference in winter, 74*5° ; in spring 78*5° ; in summer 74*0° ; and in autumn, 75*2° ; the mean difference bemg 75*5°. I was much surprised at these results, and, seeing the im- portance of the subject, I resolved, on the first convenient occasion, to put the figures given above to the test ; and I have therefore made some special observations, with a view to the determination of the range of difference between the sun and g2 84 SHADE TEMPERATUKE AND SUN-HEAT. north shade temperatures. If the figures quoted are correct, and there be really anything approaching a mean annual difierence of 75"2° Fahr. of spots exposed to the full sunshine, and the shade of a northern wall, then the climate of the Eiviera must be most trying, not to say, in many cases, highly dangerous. Dr. Sparks has not stated in what position the sun ther- mometer was placed, or with what kind of instrument the temperature of spots exposed to full sunshine was taken, an omission of some importance, as will presently appear. M. Teysseire himself thus describes in ' Vingt ans d'Etudes M^teorologiques a Nice,' the circumstances under which the figures were arrived at : ' On est frappe dans ce pays plus encore en hiver qu^en ete de la forte chaleur que Ton ressent lorsqu'on est expose aux rayons directs du soleil ... pour donner une idee precise de Tenonxie difference de temperature que Ton eprouve en passant du soleil k I'ombre, et reciproquement, je vais rapporter ici les obseiwations comparatives que j'ai faites pendant un an (1868). J'ai place, plusieurs fois dans chaque mo'is, de midi a deux heures, sur le bord de ma fenetre et en plein soleil, un thermometre a mercure, dont j 'avals prealable- ment enveloppe la boule d'un tissu de laine noire, afin d'eliminer I'eft'et du rayomiement et d'empecher la dispersion du calorique ; ce thermometre se trouvait done dans les memes conditions qu'une personne vetue de drap noir ; j'ai note avec soin les indications de cet instrument et celles que me donnait, au meme instant, mon thermometre place au nord et a I'ombre.' It will be observed that M. Teysseire states he placed his thermometer several times in each month in his window in full sunshine ; and in a note addressed to myself, he further remarks that the instru- ment was so placed only on days that were entirely free from cloud. Hence it appears that his mean temperatures are not founded on a continuous series of daily observations, as they should have been, in order to arrive at a true season and annual mean. M. Teysseire's figures, therefore, accepting them for the moment as correct, indicate the extreme differences between sun and north shade temperatures rather than the mean differences. With a view to test the temperature given by M. Teysseire, I prepared a thermometer in the manner described by him, enveloping the bulb with a piece of black cloth of sufficient substance for a moderately heavy great -coat, and I placed it in a horizontal position over grass some inches from the ground, and away from houses or other objects which could be sources of reflected heat. I placed near to the clothed thermometer three other thermometers for comparative observations ; an ordinary maximum thermometer, a black bulb solar radiation, and a vacuum solar radiation thermometer. Observations were taken SHADE TEMPERATURE AND SUN-HEAT. 85 on fifty-nine different days, mostly consecutive, extending over the months of February, March, and April, and I will now proceed to summarise the results. The observations with the maximum thermometer gave a mean temperature of 72-9° on thirty days. Those witli the ordinary solar radiation thermometer, a mean of 76-2^ on fifty days, and those with the thermometer clothed in cloth for the same days, a mean of 82-0°, or 6-4° higher than the mean of the readings of the ordinary solar radiation thermometer. The results of the readings of the vacuum solar radiation thermometer will be stated later on. Now, the mean maximum north shade temperature for the same dates and period was 60-o°, showing a difference of only 22-1° between the sun-heat as recorded by the thermometer clothed with cloth, and the maximum north shade temperature in place of a mean annual difference of 75-5° as given by M. Teysseire. But the figures may be put in a still more striking form. In place of taking the mean of all the observations, I will give that of the six days in each of the three months, which sliowed the highest readings with the clothed thermometer, namely, 85*7°, and the north shade temperature for the same • eighteen days was 62-0°, gi\-ing a difi'erence of only 23-7°. The greatest difference, which occurred in February, was 38-2° on the 11th ; in March 23-0° on the 27th ; and in April 3o"6° on the 29th. If in place of taking the mean maximum north shade temperature, 60-5'', we take the minimum north shade, 48-2°, which of course occurs almost invariably at night, and therefore is not a temperature to which the human body is subjected under ordinary circumstances, the mean difference between the readings of the minimum thermometer and the sun- heat, as shown by the thermometer clothed with cloth, will even then amount to only 34-4°. But M. Teysseire made no such comparison as this, his north shade readings corresponding exactly as to date and time with those of his sun thermometer. Thinking it possible that by clothing the thermometer still more I might obtain higher readings, approximating even to those of M. Teysseire, I placed aromid the bulb three coverings, the first of flannel, the second of linen, and the third of cloth, in imitation of the clothing of most individuals when out of doors. This thermometer was exposed to the sun for three consecutive days in May and the same number in June. The mean temperature with this clothed thermometer was 102*3°, while the mean maximum north shade temperature for the same days was 76-3°, showing a difference of 26-0° only, in place of 75-5° as given by M. Teysseire. The mean of the readings of the ordinary solar radiation thermometer for the same days was 91-3°, or 11*0° 86 SHADE TEMPERATUEE AND SUN-HEAT. less than that of the clothed thermometer. That the thermometer prepared as described should mdicate a higher temperature than even the solar radiation thermometer is only what might have been anticipated, seeing that the bulb of the former is protected to a considerable extent from the action of currents of air and moisture, but still, as will be seen, the readings fall very far below those by M. Teysseire. The indications furnished by the clothed thermometer, especially that with the triple covering in imitation of the ordinary clothing of man, are really of con- siderable practical interest and importance, as they demonstrate the actual temperature to which the human body when thus clothed is subjected. It is not a difficult matter to prepare thermometers in the manner described. Had M. Teysseire 's readings been obtained with the vacuum solar radiation thermometer, the results would not have been so surprising, and they would have stood somewhat thus : The mean sun-heat as recorded by me at San Remo by means of the vacuum solar radiation thermometer for five months of the winter season of 1879-80 was 119'72° ; and the mean maximum north shade temperature for the same months was 57*3°, showing a difference between the two of 62'4° ; again, the mean sun- lieat for the following season, 1880-81, was 121"6° ; and the mean maximum north shade temperature for the same period was 62*5°, giving a difference of 59' 1° ; the mean difference of both series of observations being 60*7°. It thus appears that even the readings of the vacuum solar radiation thermometer do not reach by some degrees those of M. Teysseire ; but if they did, the indications of the clothed thermometer are not comparable with those of the vacuum solar thermometer. M. Teysseire expressly states that his thermometer resembled a person dressed in black, implying thereby that a person thus clothed would be subjected under like circumstances to the temperature indicated by that instrument ; but in the case of the vacuum solar radiation thermometer the circumstances are totally different ; the bulb is in vacuo, and of course protected from the influence of the moisture and currents of air ; its readings therefore are neces- sarily very much higher, and they do not at all indicate the tem- perature to which the human body is exposed under natural conditions. The sun doubtless possesses very great power in the Riviera, and this is one of the advantages of the climate ; there is certainly considerable difference between sun and shade, but even in England and other colder climates there is much difference, although to a less extent, between the temperature in the shade and that in the sun. Apart from the increase of temperature occa- sioned by the power of the sun, the temperature of the climate of SUMMARY OF CLIMATE. 87 the Riviera is a very equal one. In the six months' season of 1879-80 the greatest range of temperature which occurred, and this once only, was 14°, and the mean for the whole season was only G''d°. The figures for the winter season of 1880-81 were almost identical, the mean being 5 '7°. The preceding observations, although they do not extend over the whole year, are yet amply sufficient to show that the figures given by M. Teysseire cannot be accepted as correct, and that the range of difference of temperature between sun-heat and north shade is less than one-third of the range given by that gentleman. The great difference between my observations and those of M. Teysseire appears to be explained by the position in which his thermometer was placed, namely, as he says, ' sur le bord de ma fenetre,' where, doubtless, it was much affected by radiation. It should be stated, however, that M. Teysseire is a very careful observer, and that he has taken a very extensive series of meteorological observations at Nice for a period of over thirty years. Although my observations were taken at San Remo and his at Nice, yet this really makes no practical difference in the general accuracy of the conclusion at which I have arrived. Considering the importance of the health resorts of the Eiviera, and the annually increasmg nmnber of invalids and others who frequent them, it was very necessary that an error of such magnitude as the one indicated, and to which such pro- minence has been given, should be challenged and rectified. Since the date when the paper of which the above is an abstract was published, it has occurred to me that this question might be more accurately determmed simply by a comparison of the mean north shade temperature for a series of years with that of the sun -heat as recorded by the ordinary black bulb thermometer. The difference between these means as already shoTsai is only about 20^, in place of 75°, or little more than one- fourth of the range of M. Teysseire, quoted by Dr. Sparks and other medical writers. To sum up then in a sentence the chief characteristics of the climate of the Riviera, of which San Remo may be taken as one of the best types, one would say of it that during the six months' winter season the weather as a rule is dry, mild, bracing, and sometimes windy and even cold ; also bright and sunny, with a brilliant blue sky and sea. In the summer it is even more dry, but still fresh ; of course very warm, though rarely excessively hot and never close and sultry, vnth a still more brilliant sunshine and an even brighter sky and sea. It must not be imagined, however, that winter is not experienced in the Western Riviera, only it sets in later, terminates earlier, and is rarely severe, the utmost inclemency experienced being the 88 MEDICAL OPINIONS OF CLIMATE OF SAN EEMO. very occasional and temporary presence of slight frost, with some- times snow on the higher mountains. In most winters it does not freeze at all in the more sheltered parts below the mountains or on the shore level. The cold is, however, sufficiently great to make fires usually necessary at least during three out of the six months of the season, especially on cloudy, wet, and sunless days, and also in the evenings ; on such occasions the fire should not be spared, although it is somewhat expensive. The fuel consists almost entirely of the wood of the Olive tree, and the heat given out is not nearly equal to that of a good English coal fire ; still if the wood fire be well kept up, it gives a fair amount of warmth and is free from the objectionable sulphur compounds generated by the combustion of coal, and hence it does not vitiate the air of the rooms to the same extent. The fires are lighted at San Eemo and other places on the Eiviera with fir cones, which are collected from the fir forests of the higher mountains in large quantities ; it is sufficient simply to apply a match to them and they at once burst into a flame, owing to the large quantity of resin they contain ; these cones constitute the most elegant, fragrant, and effective of fire- kindlers. The opinions of various writers, chiefly medical, relative to the climate of San Eemo may now be cited, most of these, by a residence there, having had ample opportunities of arriving at correct conclusions. Mr. Aspinall has thus recorded the opinion entertained by him : — ' San Eemo has a delightful climate, so fresh and bracing and yet so balmy ; there is even a certain amount of humidity in the air, especially at the east end of the town, which suits some invalids better than too dry an atmosphere. As far as my own experience goes I have not found any other climate from which I have derived so much benefit, though I have passed a winter in Madeira, another in Egypt, and shorter periods in Eome, Naples, and Sorrento. It combines in a modified degree the invigorating qualities of Nice with the warmth of Mentone, but without its closeness. There must be something peculiarly sooth- ing and conducive to sleep in the air of San Eemo ; at Nice sleep- lessness was a general complaint, and I, amongst others, suffered dreadfully. Here on the contrary I scarcely pass a sleepless night, and I find it has the same effect almost universally.' 'Another way in which nature has been wonderfully and specially kind to San Eemo is in protecting it almost as well from the heat of summer as from the cold of winter ; the sun rises out of the sea in mid^ winter, but as the summer advances its gradual progress towards tlie north brings it behind the mountains, the natural consequence MEDICAL OPINIONS OF CLIMATE. 89 of which is, that it rises about an hour and a half later in San Eemo than in the more level country, and also rises later there in April than in February ; the same applies to its setting, so that there are actually two or three hours less of the sun's heat in the day. This also makes the twilight very long and peculiarly delightful and cool.' The late Dr. Rose, who lived and practised for some years at San Eemo, where he was for a time Vice-Consul, in a pamphlet entitled 'Climate and Phthisis,' has thus written : 'Its climate is intermediate between the east and west ends of Mentone, not so warm as the former, and more sheltered than the latter, the air being also more soothing than at Cannes, Nice, and Mentone. This depends on the fact that the ground is covered to the water's edge with Orange, Lemon, and Olive trees, thus preventing too rapid evaporation, and the soil, being principally clay, prevents the rain percolathig through so rapidly as it would in sandy and gravelly soil.' Dr. Prosser James, in his brochure on the ' Climate of San Eemo and other Winter Stations of the Mediterranean,' has dis- cussed and considered fully the merits of San Eemo as a winter station. He writes : ' Protection from injurious winds is then the chief characteristic of the climate. At the same time, as a very large space is encircled by these hills, there is never that stifling ' feeling, produced by want of ventilation, which is such a drawback to those resorts which are built immediately mider protecting or overhanging cliffs. Even when all is calm below, strong winds may sweep freely over the town and agitate the sea beyond the precincts of the bay.' Further on. Dr. James thus expresses himself : ' San Eemo then, with its warmer and more equable temperature, its calmer atmosphere, its tone-giving elasticity, its dryness and other attractions, must be preferable to any of the other stations in certain cases. These are for the most part those for which other localities are too stimulant.' ' We hold,' writes Dr. Onetti, 'San Eemo, e ilsuoClima,' 'as very rare the climates which maintain an equal temperature and which show extremely slight oscillations, as that of San Eemo : warm in winter, cool in summer, and delicious in spring and autumn.' Another medical writer who was for a time at San Eemo, and afterwards at Nice, Dr. Pasquale, wrote : ' San Eemo has a most beautiful and picturesque situation, the most sheltered, mild, and healthy spot that can be found on the Mediterranean coast.' Dr. Sigmund, a distinguished physician of Vienna, in his 'Siidliche Klimatische Kurorte,' thus summarises the advantages 90 MEDICAL OPINIONS OF CLIMATE. of San Kemo : ' an equable warm air, absence of the dust and noise of a large town ; a rich evergreen vegetation, abundant oppor- tunity for exercise in the open air, without the great variations of temperature to which Nice is subject, and pleasing environs.' ' San Kemo,' said the late Dr. Bottini of Mentone, ' where the Lemon tree likewise flourishes in the open air, is, from the clear- ness of its sky and the richness of its vegetation, one of the most salubrious stations of the south.' Another well-lmown medical writer on climate. Dr. Edwin Lee, in ' Menton and San Eemo,' after making some considerable quotations from the work of Dr. Prosser James, expresses his general concurrence in the observations of that writer, ' consider- ing them valuable as coming from one whose attention has been directed to the subject of climate, and who, in thus speaking highly of San Eemo, cannot be supposed to have been actuated by any motive of a personal nature.' Dr. C, T. Williams has thus written of San Eemo : ' The climate of San Eemo is warm and dry, and from the protecting ranges not rising precipitously as at Menton, but sloping gradually back, the shelter from the northerly winds is not quite so perfect as at the last named place : at the same time the vast Olive groves screen the locality from any cold blasts, and the breezes which filter through the Olives impart a pleasing freshness to the atmosphere and remove sensations of lassitude often experienced in well- protected spots. The size of the sheltered area gives patients a considerable choice of residences, which can be found either close to or at varying distances from the sea, according to the require- ments of the case.' The last author whose opinion I will quote is Dr. Walshe : ' The Lemon tree flourishes with peculiar vigour ; the flora of the district is marvellously beautiful. The air is dry, rainy days few and far between ; the dust not seriously troublesome. The wide- ness of the space, encircled by the hills, allows of free (sometimes too free) movement of air in and about the town. The quality of the atmosphere seems to be tonic without being excitant, exhilarat- ing and yet soothing.' In a word, the spot seems to ' combine in a modified degree the bracing qualities of Nice with the warmth but without the closeness of Mentone.' The noise of the surge gives no annoyance here as at Mentone, — the houses being built at some height above the sea-level.' The following Table of the Comparative Temperature of difl'er- ent Health Eesorts and Places, based on that of Sir James Clark, will be found useful for reference. It must be understood that the winter months include December, January, and February, except in the case of Port Jackson, Port Philhp, and Auckland; in these the winter months are June, July, and August ; the spring September, TABLE OF COMPARATIVE TEMPERATURE. yi Cairo .... Annual Winter Spring Summer Autumn 72-17 58-52 73-58 85- JO 71-48 Santa Cruz (Canaries) 71-(i9 64-65 68-87 76-68 74-17 Ceylon Hill District - . 70-31 69-45 71-65 69-73 70-78 Malta' 67-28 5746 62-43 78 20 71 03 Corfu. 6.5-55 54-28 59-85 77-09 70-97 Madeira ' . 64-97 60-47 62-44 69-60 67-32 Algiers (added) . 64-50 55-00 66-00 77-00 6000 Palermo ,, 63-47 53-10 59-30 74-70 66-80 Port Jackson - . 62-54 54-67 63-53 67-49 64-46 Cadiz .... 62-05 52-90 59-53 70-43 65-35 St. Michael's (Azores) 62-42 57-87 61-17 68-33 62-33 Naples 61-29 48-50 58-50 74-17 6400 Mentone (added) 60-93 48-98 58-34 7388 62-54 Rome 60-67 48-90 57-65 72-16 63-96 Pisa .... 60-38 46-37 57-19 75-19 62-80 Genoa 60-37 44-90 58-60 7503 62-98 San Remo . 60-13 48-89 57-32 72-45 61-86 Cannes 59-90 49 64 57-38 72-96 60-98 Marseilles . 58-90 45-48 57-56 72-50 60-08 Toulon 58-41 43-33 57-00 74-33 59-00 Nice .... 59-48 47-82 56-20 72-27 61-63 Hyeres — 47-30 — ^_.. — Florence 58-76 44-33 56-00 74-00 60-70 Port Phillip (N.S.W.)- 58-98 50-07 58-40 67-50 59-97 Auckland (N.Z.)'' 68-42 50-68 56-82 66-38 59-82 Moutpelier 57-58 44-33 53-33 71-33 61-33 Pau . 56-18 42-53 5406 70-73 57-40 Malaga (added) . — 5600 — — — Underoliff' 51-36 41-89 49-33 60-64 53-58 Ventnor (added)* 51-95 45-95 48-05 61-00 52-80 Torquay „ 50-23 43-30 47-63 59-83 50-16 Bournemouth (added) . 49-66 41-17 47-12 59-95 50-43 Paris .... 51-41 38-43 50-40 64-47 52-33 London ' . 50-39 39-13 48-76 62-32 51-35 Camden Town (added) 50-23 40-68 48-26 61-77 50-20 Greenwich (added) 48-53 37-97 46-50 60-20 49-46 October, and November ; tbe summer December, January, and February ; and the autumn March, April, and May. The origmal table contained many errors of calculation, which as far as possible have been rectified. ' Register Thermometer. "^ Common Thermometer. ' Doubtful. * These observations were taken at the Royal National Hospital for Con- sumption and Diseases of the Chest, Ventnor. To convert Centigrade into Fahrenheit multiply by 1-80 and add 32 if al)0ve the freezing point, and subtract from 32 if below. To convert Reaumur into Fahrenheit multiply by 2-25 and add 32 if above freezing and subtract from 32 if belosr. 92 CHAPTEK IV. Characteristic Vegetation of the Riviera — Shrubs and Flo-vrers in blossom at San Remo in October and at the beginning of the YeJir — Scent-giving Flowers, AVild Shrubs, Plants, and Flowers — Vegetation of the Riviera, chiefly evej^reen — Evidence of Mildness of the AVinter Climate of the Riviera derived from the Vegetation — The Olive Tree — Gathering of the Olives — Process of obtaining the Oil — The Lemon Tree — The Orange Tree — The Vine — The Fig Tree — The Japanese Medlar — The Date Palm — The Carouba Tree — The Fir Tree — The Eucalyptus— The Pepper Tree — The Prickly Pear — Evidences of Mildness of the Climate derived from Birds — Fish — Reptiles — Insects — Biitttrflies and Moths — The Cicada — ■ The Firefly — The Sacred Beetle — The Blister Beetle — Grasshoppers — Locusts — Praying Mantis — Mole — Cricket — Harvesting Ants — Scorpion — Trap- door Spiders — Mosquitoes. The mild character of the winter chniate of San Kemo and the AVestern Eiviera generally has already been demonstrated by a variety of circumstances and data, but the proofs are not yet complete and others may now be cited of a different kind ; namely those furnished by the Fauna and especially the Botany of the district. Most of the vegetation differs so much from that to which we are accustomed in Great Britain and other cold and northerly climates, that the aspect of the country is entirely changed, presenting to some extent a semi-tropical appearance. Approaching the Eiviera from Marseilles, the eye is first attracted by the Olive trees scattered here and there on the way — these are by no means large or imposing however until Cannes is reached ; here the scene becomes completely changed and we ^ee for the first time the vegetation which imparts to the Eiviera its peculiar features. Thus we now notice extensive groves of large Olive trees, with some Orange trees, occasional Palms, and towering above all numerous magnificent specimens of the Blue Gum, or Eucalyptus globulus. This latter forms the most con- spicuous feature in the landscape, although it is only little more than twenty years since it was first introduced into Cannes : so rapid, however, has been its growth, that many of the speci- mens have attained the dimensions of lofty forest trees ; and so well has it flourished here that it has been planted nearly all along the Eiviera, many fine trees being seen almost everywhere. CHARACTERISTIC VEGETATION OF THE RIVIERA. 93 As we near Nice the number of Orange trees is seen to have increased ; in sheltered situations groves of Lemon trees are also observed for the first time, while Palms occur more frequently. When we reach Mentone we find that the Lemon has almost taken the place of the Orange tree, and here we notice that the encircling hills are thickly clad with Olive trees of great size and age. At Bordighera the scene for a short distance becomes truly Oriental from the number and size of the groves of Palm trees, the age of some of which is said to exceed a thousand years. At San Kemo the Lemon tree abounds as at Mentone, with of course many Orange trees, while here the protecting hills and sheltering valleys are clothed with perfect forests of Olive trees stretching far away to the base of the higher mountains. These Olive forests cover many miles of ground, and when we walk over the hills or through the valleys, we find that they are planted on terraces faced with walls of rough stones ; of these terraces there are thousands, and the toil involved in their construction is almost inconceivable. When I first saw the vine-clad terraces at Eildesheim on the Eliine, I was astonished at the labour which must have been expended on their formation, but these bear no comparison for extent with the Olive terraces in and around San Kemo, and, indeed, many other places on the Western Riviera. The three trees therefore, which give to the Eiviera its special features are the Olive, Orange, and Lemon ; add to these the majestic Eucalyptus and the graceful Palm, and the picture becomes tolerably complete. But on the way along the Riviera, numerous other trees attract our notice ; the Esterel mountains are clothed with fine specimens of the Cork tree, a species of evergreen oak, Quercus Suber ; fi-om the stems and branches of many of these, the outer bark or cork has been stripped, exposing to view the inner bark of a beautiful rich chocolate colour. So abundant are the cork trees on these mountains, that the removal of the bark constitutes a considerable industry. Next we observe, as we near Cannes, many examples of that singular looking Fir, the Stone or Umbrella pine, Pinus Pinea ; indeed just before entering Cannes there is a regular grove oi* plantation of them, and although specimens of this pine are occasionally to be met with further on the route, yetnoAvhere are they to be seen in such numbers and perfection as at Cannes. Then in many localities throughout the Riviera, especially on hill tops and other elevated situations, the pyramidal or Italian Cypress, Cupressus pyramidalis, is noticed, some of the trees being of great size and age ; these are usually placed near churches or other buildings, which they appear to guard like sentinels, their lofty bare cylindrical stems and dark-green pyra- 94 CHARACTEEISTIC VEGETATION OF THE RIVIERA. midal summits towering above the surrounding trees and stand- ing clearly out against the sky, thus constituting another characteristic feature of the Eivierean landscape. Another tree which attracts attention by its abundance and beauty is the Pepper tree, Schinus molle, with its graceful compound leaves and handsome bunches of coral-like berries. But there are still a few other trees to be described before the list is complete. The Camphor tree, Camphora officinarum, grows freely in some parts of the Eiviera ; like so many of the other trees referred to, it is an evergreen. Another is the beautiful and majestic Carouba or Locust tree, Ceratonia siliqua, with its dark shinmg evergreen foliage and large bean-like pods, which contain so much sugar and nitrogenous matter that they are largely used for the feeding of cattle. ' Along with the Carouba may be mentioned Pistacia Lentiscus and Terebinthinus Chio, as peculiarly indicative of a dry, sunshiny southern climate and of a rocky arid region. P. Lentiscus is an evergreen shrub which grows fi-eely in the same regions as the Carouba, flow^ering during the winter, and is very abundant between Nice and Ventimiglia, indeed all along the Eiviera ' — ' it forms, I believe, one of the chief botanical features of Palestine and Sp'ia.' — ' Terebinthinus Chio is frequently met with on the most sheltered, smniiest, w^armest, and most arid mountain sides. It is a ligneous shrub or small tree, and is remarkable as being the last tree or shrub met with in the Desert of Sahara on descending from the south slopes of the Atlas.' (Bennet.) Then there are many beautiful and elegant species of Acacia and Mimosa ; these grow in great abundance nearly all over the Eiviera, and some of them attain a very considerable size : they blossom freely early in the spring, the flowers giving forth a delicate and highly agreeable perfume, which in many places scents the surrounding air. Near the Chateau St. L^on at Cannes is an avenue of Acacias, which have attained almost the size of forest trees, and which in the spring when covered with their light-yellow blossom are exceedingly beautiful. Another tree which attracts attention in many parts of the *Ri\-iera fi'om its beauty is the Judas tree, Cercis Siliquastrum. This comes into flower early in the spring, the leafless branches being densely covered with the deep pink blossoms. About the same time, in the gardens and up the valleys, the Almond and Peach trees, with their delicate pink blossoms, add a further charm to the scene, and form a beautiful contrast to the sombre green of the Olive trees ; while here and there are seen the snow-white blossom of the cherry and some other fruit trees, this contrast of colour being equally pleasing. Again, Fig trees, some of gigantic size, are everywhere met CHARACTERISTIC VEGETATION OF THE RIVIERA. 95 with ; while in many places the Vine is extensively cultivated ; this in parts of the Riviera was desti'oyed some years since owing to the attacks of oidium, and it has not been replanted to any- thing like its former extent. In the course of the numerous small streams which flow from the valleys into the sea, large beds of reeds, resembling Canes or Bamboos, Arundo Donax, L., are seen, often attaining a height of fifteen or twenty feet, and so numerous are these that they also form one of the special features of the Eivierean vege- tation. In the autumn the canes are cut down in large quanti- ties and are much used for hedges and fences and as laths in buildings. It is from these canes that Cannes is said to have derived its name. Growing beside the streams, as well as in many gardens, fine specimens of the Oleander or rose Laurel, Nerium oleander, occur ; these often reach a great size, becoming veritable trees, and when in blossom they are extremely beautiful. Another tree which not only blossoms here but ripens its fruit, is the Pomegranate, as also do the Shaddock and Citron. Passing now from the larger trees, the Agave, Agave Americana, commonly called the Aloe, and the Prickly Pear, Opantia Ficus-Indica, also help to give a special character to the vegetation of the Eiviera ; these are both abmidantly met with in many situations. The Agave grows very freely, and is often seen as a grand and massive-looking plant ; the ordinary tradition respecting the Aloe is, that it blossoms but once in a hundred years, and that it dies in the eftbrt of bringing its blossom and fi'uit to maturity. The tradition as to its blossoming only once in a century does not apply to the Agave, and it is a very common thing to see it in flower in the Ei\'iera, and several even may be seen at the same time in one group. The Agave however really does gradually ^\itlier up and die after it has brought forth its blossom, and this is not surprismg when we observe the mast -like flower stem which it throws up to the height of some twenty feet. The Agave contains strong elastic fibres which are used in England for brush making, and in Mexico for ropes and mats. The juice at the time of flowering contains so much sugar that it is fermented in Mexico, and an in-* toxicating drink prepared. That curious Cactus, the Prickly Pear, a native of Mexico, reaches a considerable size, and flowers and ripens its fruit in great abundance. But very many other Cactaceae flourish here equally well. It will be observed that nearly all the trees which have been hitherto described are evergreens, and hence the landscape in winter bears the same fresh and green aspect that it does in summer. 96 MANY ANNUALS BECOME PEEENNIALS. The deciduous trees, excepting only the Fig and Oriental Plane, are for the most part met with at some distance from the sea, and are found at moderate elevations, either up the valleys or on some of the lower hills, as the Spanish Chestnut and many Fruit trees, the Peach, Almond, Cherry, Medlar, Apple, and Pear. The Oriental Plane tree, in consequence of the luxuriance and density of its foliage, is found in many towns and is usually planted in avenues with a view to protection from the sun. This tree often grows to a great size ; the leaves do not fall off till ahout the end of December, they are then carefully collected and given to the cows for food. At Cannes, Nice, Mentone, San Piemo, and many other towns there are handsome avenues of these trees. Above the region of the trees which have been hitherto noticed, and even of the Olive, which rarely grows at an eleva- tion greater than 2,000 feet, the mountains become clothed with forests of evergreen firs, except where they are so steep that no soil exists for their growth, the principal species being Pinus maritima, the timber of which, although soft, is used for building. The Aleppo pine, Pinus Halapensis, is also common. Quitting now those trees wdiich impart to the landscape its general features, and entering some of the gardens along the Eiviera, a whole host of beautiful flowering trees, shrubs, and flowers are met with, many of which in our own land are only to be found in greenhouses or even hothouses. A great variety of the plants which grow and flourish out of doors here are of the tenderest kind, many of which would be fatally injured by the slightest frost ; even the fruit of the Lemon tree falls off at 5° of frost and the tree itself is killed at about 8° Fahr. Again, owing to the extreme mildness of the climate, very many of those flowers which are annuals in England and other equally cold countries, here become perennials, some of them attaining considerable size, rivalling veritable shrubs ; this is the case with the Petunias, Stocks, Wallflowers, Carnations, Nas- turtiums, and also with Cobaea scandens. The characteristic Palm of this district is the date-bearing Palm, Phoenix dactylifera, but several other kinds grow freely without protection in the open air ; as the fan-like Palms of the genera Latania and Cham^rops, including L. Borbonica and C. excelsa ; but a variety of genera and species are cultivated in the gardens of the wealthy, and amongst them the Cocoa-nut Palm. The only Palm indigenous to the Piiviera is Chaniferops humilis ; but, even this, from some cause or other, is now extinct. Although the date-palm blossoms and bears fruit freely, the bunches sometimes weighing two or three kilogrammes, the dates TROPICAL PLANTS WHICH EIPEN THEIR FRUIT. 97 become ripe only in very warm and specially favourable situations. In very sheltered situations, fine specimens of Musa or Banana are met with, the fruit sometimes even becoming ripe. There are some large examples of Musa paradisaica in the Public Garden at San Kemo, as also at Bordighera. Musa Ensete is sometimes seen, the leaves of which are usually much grander than those of the first named species in consequence of their being entire and not slit into pieces. Indeed, a great variety of tropical plants bearing fruit, not only grow in the most protected parts of the Piiviera, but the fruit of very many of them even ripens there. This is the case with the following, all of which flourish in the very choice garden of Monsieur Dognin at Cannes, to whose kindness I am indebted for the subjoined list : — Anona Clierimolia. Anona Cinerea et divers. Diospyros divers. Eriobotria japonica. Eugenia jambosa. Garsinia australis. Musa paradisaica. Musa sapientum. Persea gratissima. Psidium Cattleyanum. Psidium montanum. Psidium pyriferum. Punica divers. Cookia punctata. Opuntia Ficus indica. Cornelia fragraus. Phoenix daetylifera. Phoenix Leonensis. Phoenix pusilla. Several of the preceding species, as well as many other fruit- bearing kinds, are also found in the very interesting garden of Baron von Hiittner at San Eemo, who has very kindly given me the followina: list : — Anona triloba, L. — Pf.misylvania. Anona Cherimolia, Mill. — Peru. Diospyros Kaki. A new fruit-bearing plant recently introduced from Japan. The fruit is about the size of a mandarine orange, of a yellow colour, and rather pleasant taste. It ripens in November. Musa paradisaica, L. Musa sapientum, L. Opuntia Ficus indica, Mill. — Sotith America. Mespolus japonica amara, H. Yucca buccata, Torr. Bears a large banana-like, pleasant-tasting fruit. Chamaernps hj^strix, Fras. — Georgia. Bears sweet, edible berrie.s. Philodendron pertusum, Kth. e. B. Eugenia Fambor, L. (Fambosa vulgaris, D.C.). Bears edible fruit, with a rose-like smell. Persea gratissima, Gsertn. — West Indies. Psidium Cattlej'anum, 'Lnh. — China and Brazil. Bears a very nice fruit of the size of a plum. Psidium pyriferum, L.— West Indies. Bears a pleasant-tasting fruit of the size of a hen's egg. Cookia punctata, Retz. — China. " Phoenix daetylifera, L. 98 SHEUBS AND FLOWERS IN BLOSSOM IN OCTOBER. On arriving at San Eemo about the middle of October the following shrubs and flowers are usually found in blossom in the gardens, and many of them so continue until the end of the year : the double Oleander ; the Arbutus, which is then seen laden with its beautiful fruit ; Viburnum tinus with its leaves and flowers so closely resembling those of a species of Laurustinus, and with its steel-blue berries ; the several varieties of Euonymus, which, unlike that which grows so freely at Ventnor, here blossoms and even ripens its coral-like seeds ; Tecoma radicans wdth its brilliant scarlet flowers ; the Malvaceous plant, Sida venosa ; several species of Solanaceee, as Solanum glutinosum, with its turquoise-blue blossoms and marble-like bluish-black berries, and S. pseudo-capsicum ; Datura Brugmansia, which grows at San Eemo in great perfection, many specimens attain- ing a considerable size, ajid, when covered wdth their large white trumpet-shaped blossoms, presenting a very handsome and striking appearance ; the very pretty Tree Veronica ; the curious Castor-oil plant, Eicinus communis ; Melianthus major with its splendid compound leaves ; Gomphocarpus fruticosus -snth its singular bladder-like fructification. Other plants and flowers also in bloom at this period of the year are the Heliotrope ; the Verbena or Lemon plant, V. citrata ; the pale blue Plumbago ; as well as many kinds of Geraniums, Chrysanthemums, and Eoses. The Eose tribe grows to perfection, and the most beautiful kinds are commonly met with. With the new year a great variety of other shrubs and flowers come into blossom, the following being the more notice- able : Sparmannia Africana, Bignonia capensis, Abrotamnus elegans, Justicia adathoda, Cassia tomentosa, Jasminum humile, Osteospermum moniliferum, Mespilus Japonicus, Crataegus glabra, Spirea lanceolata, Semper%'ivum patulatum, Eaphiolepsis Indica, ]\Iioporum pictum and M. parviflorum, Pittosporum tobira Ait., Mimosa lophante. Viburnum lucidum, Abutilon Sumatrensis, the Marguerite, Chrysanthemum grandiflorum ; Cineraria platanifolia, Ageratum celeste, v. caeruleum ; and lastly, several species of Salvia, including S. involucrata. Amongst creepers may be mentioned the following : the pretty white Solanum jasminoides ; Lonicera periclymenum with its small black berries ; the beautiful Bougain-\411ea spectabilis ; species of Passion flower, and lastly, Mesem bryanthemum Da- syphyllum L. ■\\-ith its fleshy leaves and conspicuous white, pink, scarlet, and blue blossoms. This plant is seen everywhere, cover- ing and giving verdure and beauty to rough banks and walls, which it does, not by climbing up after the fashion of most creepers, but by spreading over them from above. In this way SCENT-GIVING FLO WEES. 99 it hangs down and often covers walls of some ten or twelve feet in height, and it would doubtless extend still further were it not that at length the stems break off in consequence of the great weight they have to bear. So favourable is the climate of the Riviera to the growth of scent-giving flowers that several kinds are extensively cultivated, especially in the neighbourhood of Cannes, for the manufacture of perfumes ; thus large tracts of land are covered with Roses, one kind grown especially for the sake of the favourite White Rose Scent, another for the Essence or Otto of Rose, the quality of which is much superior to that from the East ; other districts are planted with the white Jasmine ; with Acacia Farnesiana, the Cassia of the Bible ; and lastly, the double blue ^•iolet is cultivated in enormous quantities for the sake of its much prized perfume. Unfortunately the San Remese, as well as the inhabitants of some of the other Rivierean to^ms, seem to care but little for flowers and gardening, and whatever beauty the gardens possess at San Remo is due rather to nature than to art. Most of the Lemon trees in the town are by no means striking examples of their kind, while the Orange trees are but poor specimens, and this simply because their cultivation is not appreciated for mere purposes of ornament. Leaving now the gardens and strolling through the valleys, over the hills, and up the higher mountains, some of the principal shrubs, plants, and flowers which are met vrith growing vnld, may now be very briefly noticed. On dry and sandy elevations in many localities a very beautiful and sweet smelling heath is found, remarkable for its size and for the very handsome spikes of blossom which it bears ; this is the Mediterranean Heath, Erica. arborea ; it flowers m February and March. Unfortmiately, large quantities of this heath are annually dug up for the sake of its roots, of which the so-called briar-root pipes are made. Another species is the well-known Ling heath, Calluna vulgaris, which comes into flower in December. In the same situations difterent species of Phillyrea,- P. angustifolia and P. latifolia, Rhamiius Alaternus, and Juni- perus Oxycedrus are found. The Myrtle, which with us grows only as a choice plant and in the most sheltered situations, requiring even then special protection in the winter, is met ^\dth as a wild shrub nearly all over the Riviera. The lies Lerius, opposite Cannes, are almost covered with Myrtle, it forming in fact a kind of brushwood which is periodically cut down and used as fuel for bakers' ovens ; in favourable situations, however, where it is allowed to grow H 2 100 WILD SHRUBS AND FLOWERS. freely, it attains the size of the largest Laurustinus bushes, not only flowering but ripening its abundant blackish-blue berries. Although the Strawberry Tree, Arbutus Unedo, is frequently seen in gardens, into which it is introduced in consequence of the great beauty of its fruit, which ripens only the second year, it is also found growing wild in many places. Great numbers of leguminous plants are also seen, species of Spartium, Genista, Cytisus, and Coronilla. A very bright and cheerful-looking plant, although a very common one, is the Prickly Broom, Calycotoma spinosa, with its abundant golden blossom ; it flowers in the month of April, and makes up in a measure for the absence of the Furze. Spartium junceum, a species of Broom distinguished by its rush-like stems, the absence of regular leaves, and its yellow blossoms sometimes occurs in the same localities flowering about the same time. Other plants which may be mentioned are the yelloAv Jasmine, Jasminum fruticans, Globularia Alypum, and Daphne gnidium. Among other conspicuous wild plants are several species of Cistus or Eock rose, one distinguished by the large size of its pale pink blossoms and the white woolly under surface of its leaves, Cistus albidus. This species is found growing on the hills and mountains in large quantities in company with Kosemary and other plants of the same habit ; this Cistus flowers in April. Other species are Cistus salvifolius and C. monspeliensis ; allied to Cistus are several species of Helianthemum. A plant, which with us is chiefly confined to the greenhouse, namely the golden Coronilla, is here likewise numbered among wild plants ; the kind most frequently met with is C. Emerus. A species of Sarsaparilla, Smilax aspera, occurs in great abundance in the neighbourhood of San Kemo, as also elsewhere in the Kiviera, It is a very characteristic plant and is dis- tinguished by its sagittate and prickly leaves, and its bunches of round cherry-like berries (see Fig. 8). The figures of the several plants given were most skilfully and tastefully drawn from nature, upon the wood blocks in readi- ness for the engraver, by Mrs. Cox, to whom therefore I beg to render my warmest thanks. (See the Preface.) A rarer plant is the Cneorum ricoccum, one of the Terebin- thinacefe, known by its small dark-green leaves and three-lobed seeds ; it flowers all the winter, and is found in elevated and dry situations. Another class of wild jolants deserving special notice are the curioiis Euphorbias, with their milk-like juice ; some of these are perennials here ; one. Euphorbia dendroides, attains in favourable situations, as between Villefranche and Mentone, the size of great bushes, distinguished by their light and refreshing green foliage. WILD SHRUBS AND FLOWERS. 101 Large plants of Eue, Kuta bractiosa, are also of frequent occur- rence. The Kosemary, Eosmarinus officinalis, which in England is a garden plant, is here found in profusion on the higher hills and mountains flowering all the winter. Again, several species oi Lavender, especially the true lavender, L. Vera, and the spike lavender, L. spica, are met with in great SMILAX ASPERA. profusion. The true lavender is usually found growing on the most stony and arid mountain sides, where but little else than itself and perhaps a few hardy but handsome thistles manage to live ; these it literally covers in many situations with its pleasing blue blossoms. In the autumn, stills are carried up the mountains and the fresh flowers are distilled on the spot. The quantity of 102 WILD FLOWERS. oil obtained varies with the season, but 200 kilogrammes of the flowers and stalks yield aboiit one kilo of oil. That which is obtained in the Alpes Maritimes of France finds its way for the most part to the perfumers of Clrasse, whence some of it reaches England. The best French Oil of Lavender is sold by the perfumers at about 20 francs the kilogramme. The spike lavender is more locally distributed, and the oil being of an inferior aroma does not realise more than half the price. While the oil from Fig. 9. ADONIS ALTUMNALIS. the true lavender is used for making lavender water and in perfumery generally, the spike oil is employed in the scenting of soap, for which purpose, in consequence of its strong camphory odour, it is well adapted. I pass on now to the smaller kinds of mid flowers. Many so familiar to us in England are found also here, and a simple enumeration of the chief of these will be sufficient : as the very WILD FLOWERS. 103 pretty Pheasant's eye, with its cherry-red blossoms, imbedded in finely-cut and soft green leaves, Adonis autvunnalis, but whicli in the Eiviera comes into flower early in April (Fig. 9), and the still more attractive Love in a Mist, Nigilea damascena (Fig. 10). The common but very pretty Fumitory, Fumaria officinalis, the generic name of which is derived from tlie Latin word fumus, smoke, the ancients having attributed to Fig. 10. NIGILEA DA5IASCEXA. the smoke of this plant the power to drive away evil spirits ; the Stock, Matthiola ; Wallflower, Cheiranthus ; Wild Mignonette, Eeseda phyteama ; pink Soapwort, Saponaria officinalis, so named from its soapy juice ; the Borage, Borago officinalis, which grows in great profusion and forms with its blue blossom so beautiful a contrast with many other flowers ; Comfrey, Symphytum offici- 104 WILD FLOWERS. ualis ; the Snapdragon, Antirrhinum ; several species of Veronica or Speedwell ; and of Verbascuni ; the Primrose, Primula acaulis ; the Cowslip, P. veris ; the scaidet Pimpernel, Anagallis arvensis, a blue variety of the same being also of not unfrequent occurrence ; lastly, the Wild Thyme is met with nearly everywhere on the hills and mountains, it flowering throughout the winter and perfuming the air around. I will now notice m the order of their appearance those wild flowers which either by their abundance or beauty constitute more or less conspicuous objects in the flora of San Kemo and of other parts of the Eiviera. One of the wild flowers first observed on arrival here is a very curious species of Arum, A. Arisarum, distinguished by the cowl- like shape of the hood, Avhich is of a shining brown chocolate colour ; this Arum is so abundant that it is seen continually, sometimes in such profusion as to form large beds and to cover some of the Olive terraces. Its bulbous roots, like those of Arum maculatum, are very nutritious and capable of furnishing a kind of arrowi'oot. Another flower which equally attracts attention at that time is a kind of Daisy, very difierent however from the one met with in our own country and which Burns has immortalised ; it is not the ' wee, modest, crimson-tipped ' flower of the poet, but it nearly rivals in size the ox-eyed daisy, the flowers standing elevated on stalks some six or eight inches long, always turning their faces gratefully to the sun. From the large size of the flowers, their abundance, and the fact that this daisy blossoms at the period of the year when there are so few wild flowers to be seen, it forms a very welcome and cheerful addition to the winter Flora. About the middle of December the Sweet-scented Violet, Viola odorata, comes into blossom, and by the beginning of January the ground in many situations is literally carpeted with its blue flowers, and the air around laden with their sweet perfume ; it is even found growing abundantly on the stone walls. Soon after the appearance of the Violet the Hyacinths come into flower : that is to say, in January ; of these there are four kinds, which, though called Hyacinths in common parlance, yet really belong to difierent genera. One of these is the Oriental Hyacinth, Hyacinthus orientalis ; this grows in the greatest pro- fusion in some of the valleys around San Eemo, and hundreds of bouquets of it are sold daily by the children in the streets ; it is the same Hyacinth which in England is cultivated in gardens and grown in glasses ; it is usually of a blue or beautiful violet-blue colour, but a white variety is sometimes met ^ith. Another is tlie very pretty little Grape Hyacinth, Botryanthus vulgaris Kunth, WILD FLOWERS. 105 formerly Hyacinthus botryoides Lin., and Muscari botryoides Mill ; the blossoms of this are small, oval, deep blue, and closely aggregated into bunches resembling somewhat miniature grapes ; this species is also found in abundance, and it possesses when first gathered a peculiar plum-like odour (Fig. 11). A third kind is Leopoldia comosa Pari., formerly Hyacinthus comosus Lin., and Muscari comosum Mill ; it is distinguished by the tuft of abortive blossoms crowning each stem, by the sparseness of the flowers, Fig. 11. MUSCARI BOTRYOIDES. and by these after a time turning from blue to brown ; it is of much less frequent occurrence. The fourth kind I have met with is Bellevalia romana ; this is a very singular-looking flower and by no means so pretty as those previously referred to ; the blossoms closely crowded on the bluish stem in a pyramidal form are of a whitish colour shading into dull blue or green at the top. This species is only occasionally met with. About the same time the Anemones appear ; of these there are several species and many varieties, but most of the forms 106 WILD FLOWERS. found in the neighbourhood of San Eemo, notwithstanding the diversity of their colour and appearance, resolve themselves into two species. One is Anemone coronaria L., the flowers of which are formed of large sepals ; there are six principal varieties : — 1, with scarlet flowers ; 2, blue ; 3, purple ; 4, white and pink or rosy- coloured at the base ; this latter variety is small, r-ather rare and sometimes called Anemone rosea ; 5, yellowish white, tinted red at the base of the sepals or entirely white ; 6, rose violet or white, a I'onglet violace. The first four varieties are common, but I have not myself met with the last two. The second species is Anemone liortensis, the sepals of which are much narrower and hence more numerous than those of the former species ; there are two chief varieties found at San Eemo, one single and of a beautiful light mauve colour ; this is sometimes called Anemone stellata ; in the other, named A. pavonina, which may be either single, partly double, or doiable, the sepals are of a brilliant scarlet, yellow near the base on the inside, a circular disc being thus formed, while in the double flowers the sepals are green on the outside : this latter variety is sometimes called by the natives ' Marguerite,' but the true Marguerite is a Chrysanthemum, as already mentioned. We must not forget to notice amongst the Anemones the beautiful blue A. hepatica, also called Hepatica triloba, which is found abundantly on Monte Bignone and some of the highest mountains, a pink variety being also occasionally met with. As was the case with the Violets, immense quantities of Anemones are gathered in the valleys and woods around San Eemo, and daily offered for sale in the town. Other flowers which come into blossom in quick succession are different kinds of Narcissus, Tulip, Iris, and Gladiolus. Of the Narcissus there are several species ; that most commonly met with and which is to be found profusely scattered through most of the valleys is the very pretty species with golden yellow flowers, Narcissus Italicus Sims ; another yellow but rare kind is N. biflorus ; other kinds occasionally found are the very handsome white N. papyraceus Gawl and N. nivens ; other species are N. Panizzianus Pari., N. Tazzetta, and N. Eemopolensis ; the latter was regarded as a variety of N. Tazzetta until its claims to a specific rank were established by the Cav^, Francesco Panizzi, to whom I am much indebted for the names of many of the flowers I have met with in my various walks and excursions around San Eemo. The Narcissi above named by no means include the whole of those found at San Eemo ; photographs of other kinds are included in ' La Flora Sanremese Fotografata,' of Signor Pietro Guidi, and by these they can be easily identified. The Tulips chiefly seen are of two species ; the first which comes into flower is of large size and brilliant scarlet colour, Tu- WILD FLOWERS. 107 lipa prfficox Ten. ; this is followed a little later by the very elegant Lady Tulip, distinguished by its white colour and broad pink band running down the outer surface of the petals, T. Clusiana D.C. (Fig. 12). Of the Iris there are at least three species, one of these being Iris Florentina L., the others are I. pseudo-acorus, and I. Gernianica. The only species of Gladiolus I have come across is Gladiolus segetum ; this does not usually flower until the beginning of April, it then makes its appearance for many miles round San Eemo in Fig. 12. TUUPA CLUSIANA. vast quantities, and being of a very beautiful magenta colour, it forms one of the most conspicuous and attractive of the many flowers which at that season everywhere so abound. Another spring flower which deserves a separate notice is the Star of Bethlehem, Ornithogalum divergens ; the blossoms of this are remarkable for their pure white colour, and are distinguished by the outer surface of the petals being careened with green (Fig. 13). Several species of the genus Allium grow around San Eemo in great abundance ; one of these is Allium nigrum, characterised 108 WILD FLOWERS. by its broad tulip-like leaves and large umbel of pinkish flowers. But the species which attracts the most attention and which is met with in some localities in the greatest profusion is A. Neapo- litanum Cyr., A. album L. This is a particularly graceful flower, especially when it first comes into blossom ; it is of the purest wliite, and from its beauty and abundance it is much used in bouquets and in Easter church decorations ; the only drawback is Fig. 13. / OBNITHOCIALUM DIVERGENS. its smell, and it has been found that this is removed by plunging the stems into boiling water (Fig. 14). Other species which grow in the neighbourhood are, A. triquetrum L., A. roseum L., A. subhirsutum L., and A. trifoliatum, all of which have been photo- graphed by Signor Guidi. In such profusion does the Allium Neapolitanum grow in many districts that the ground is whitened with the blossom. Another wild plant, which though far less beautiful also helps to produce WILD FLOWERS. 109 the same effect, is the common white scurvy grass, Cochlearia draba. Early in April a very striking-looking Arum comes into blos- som, A. Italicum ; its sheath is very large, nearly white, and when of its proper shape this Arum is really very handsome. Among the Thistle tribe there is one which by its beauty and abundance, particularly in and around San Eemo itself, challenges Fig. 14. ALLIUM KEAPOLITANUM. observation, Galactites tomentosa Gaertn. ; this is at once distin- guished by its green and white denticulated leaves and by the pale mauve colour of its flowers. Other plants which cannot be passed by without a brief notice are, Ficaria ranunculoides Mcench, formerly Eanunculus Ficaria L., which, conspicuous for its green leaves and large yellow shining blossoms, grows in great perfection in the valleys in damp situations near the streams ; the curious Umbilicus pendulinus DC, so common on stone walls, to which it gives verdure by its large round 110 WILD FLOWERS. shining green leaves ; the very beautiful malvaceous mountain plant with its pale pink blossoms, Lavatera punctata ; the nearly equally beautiful but less rare Convolvulus altha^oides ; the Cvclamen-like plant, Erythronium Dens Canis L., with its flesh- coloured upturned petals, met with so plentifully on the top of Monte Bignone ; the very pale Periwinkle, Vinca media ; and last but not least the elegant Caper plant, Capparis spinosa, which, although a tropical plant, here ripens its fruit freely. Several species of Flax are met with among the rocks, particularly Linum narbonense, L. maritimum, andL. visosum, with their blue, yellow, or rosy flowers. ' Close upon the sea shore the stock, or Matthiola incana, has taken possession of the most inaccessible spots upon the clifts, which it lights up with its bright violet flowers ; the handsome vellow-flowered leguminous shrub, Coronilla Valentina, roots itself in the clefts of the rocks, where it is associated with the singular Cneorum ricoccum, a European representative of the tropical family of the Simarubese, while the white-leaved Cineraria maritima and the beautiful Lavatera maritima, with its large flowers of pale rose, form other striking elements in the Flora of the sea clifis. Lower down, over the dry sandy beach, the Squirting Cucumber, Ecballium Elaterium, sends out its prostrate stems, and covers the ground with its fine dark green foliage ; while here and there the curious Thymelaceous plant, Passerina hirsuta, presents us with a form of vegetation unknowai in the Flora of the North.' (Professor Allman.) The family of the Orchids— Orchis, Ophrys, Serapias, Epipactis, &c. — is particularly well represented on the Kiviera and in the neighbourhood of San Eemo. The handsome Bee Orchis is found in such large quantities that bunches of it are often seen in the baskets of wild flowers carried about by the children, as is also sometimes Barlia longibracteata Pari. Signor Guidi has photographed most of the kinds met with. As might be supposed, from the many rocks, bridges, aqueducts, and stone walls near San Kemo, Ferns abound. One of the kinds most commonly met with is the elegant and with us much prized Maiden Hair fern, Adiantum Capillus Veneris, called by the Italians ' erba della fontana ; ' an infusion made from its leaves is sometimes drunk as tea. Other ferns which are also very abundant are the common Maiden Hair' Spleenwort, Asple- nium Trichomanes, known by its delicate narrow fronds and opposite oval leaflets, and the Scaly Spleenwort, Ceterach oflici- narum, distinguished by the bro^vn chaft'-like scales and curled extremities of the fronds. Kinds less frequently seen are, the Black Maiden Hair Spleenwort, Asplenium adiantum nigrum, and the variety of this, sometimes called the Acute Spleenwort, A. WILD FLOWERS. Ill ficutum Pollin., and the common Polypody, Polypodium vulgare. In damp situations, specimens of the very pretty Lycopodium denticulatum are also met with. But a great many other flowering plants and shrubs are encountered in the rambles around San Kemo in addition to those which have already been referred to — as the following : Oxalis corniculata ; Koniga maritima ; Odoastrum rubrum ; Urospermum Daleschampii Desf. with its large pale yellow blossoms, and Pyrethrum Myconis Moench, with its rich yellow flowers ; Cineraria maritima ; Globularia Alypum and G. vulgaris ; Pulmonaria angustifolia ; Symphytum bulbosum ; and Ompha- lodes verna Moench ; the last three belonging to the Borage family ; the Samphire, Crithmum maritimum, which belongs to the Umbellifer^e, many curious and rare species of which are to be found flourishing on the rocks near the sea and on the mountains ; Crocus medius and C. versicolor ; Scilla maritima and Nectaroscilla hyacinthoides. In addition to the plants which have been already mentioned I have found some others ; the principal of these are referred to in connection with the localities where they were met with. There are still, however, a great number of beautiful wild flowers to be found in the valleys and on the hills and mountains around, and within a short distance of San Eemo. The more important of these will be found enumerated in the following in- structive and comprehensive classified list, for which I am indebted to the great kindness of the Kev. Clarence Bicknell, of Bordighera, who has made the botany of the district a su.bject of special study. ' The following list of flowering plants gives most of those likely to be met with in one day excursions from San Piemo. Only those British plants which are comparatively uncommon at home have been included, such as Adonis autumnalis, Trifo- lium ochroleucum, &c. A great many of the cruciferous, umbelli- ferous, and compositous flowers have been omitted, also docks, willows, sedges, grasses, &c., being usually less interesting to amateur botanists, as well as more difficult to determine. ' The district chosen has been from the Argentine to the Roya, inclusive, and for convenience sake this area has been arbitrarily divided into two districts, that of San Remo (R.), from Taggia to Ospedaletti, including Monte Bignone, and that of Bordighera (B.), from Ospedaletti to Ventimiglia, including the Roya valley as far as Airole, and the ridge on which Caslet d'Appio stands above the town of Ventimiglia. ' The amphitheatre of San Remo and the mountain ridge by which it is bounded contain many plants not found in the Bordighera district, while the marshy fields and broad torrent beds and sands of the Roya and Nervia rivers contain many not 112 CLASSIFIED LIST OF WILD FLO WEES. found in the San Eemo district, including some carried down from their natural homes far away in the liigher regions. All the plants here mentioned have heen seen hy the compiler within the last three years, between the beginning of October and the end of May. ' Kare plants are marked by an asterisk, and B. and E. denote that the plant has only been gathered in the Bordighera or the San Eemo district, and is probably not found, or if so, very rarely, in the other. Professor Arcangeh's "Flora Italiana" is strongly recommended, and the " Nouvelle Flore Francaise," by Gillet and Magre, with illustrations, will be found very useful. Ardonio's " Flore des Alpes Maritimes " gives nearly all the plants here mentioned, but is far less satisfactory.' Eammculacea : — Clematis flammula, L. . October. Anemone coronaria, L (4 or o varieties of colour) . . Jan. — March. ,, hortensis. L. (vars. stellata, pavonina, fulgens) . Feb. — March. ,, trifolia, L. (white flowers) .... March — April. *J^. „ rannnculoides, L. (yellow) .... IMarch — April. „ bepatica, L. (blue, rarely pink and white) . March — April. Adonis autumnalis, L. (pheasant's eye) .... April — May. Eanunculus mnricatns, L. (buttercup) .... March — May. „ parviflorus, L. ..... . ,, Ivigilea damaseena, L. (Love in a Mist) .... April— May. Helleborus foetidus, L Jan. — April. Papaveracca : — Papaver hybridum, L. (poppy) .... B. Hypecoum procumbrus, L. . . . . . Fuy7iariacea : — Fumaria capreolata, L . Cnici/erce : — ^ *B. Brassica olesacea, L. (cabbage, wild on precipitous cliffs) *B. Moricandia arvensis, D.C. (lilac flowers) B. Matthiola sinuata, E. Br. (stock) .... E. Cheiranthus cheiri, L. (wall-flower) B. Erysimum australe, Gay (yellow) .... Alyssum maritimum, Lamck. (white) „ calycinum, L. (yellow) .... Lepidium gramini folium, L. (white) „ dralja, L. (white) Biscutella l?evigata, L. (yellow) .... Calepina corvini, Desv Besedacees : — Eeseda phyteama, L. (mignonette) . Cistacece : — CJstus albidus, L. (magenta flowers) ,, salvifolius, L. (white) . ., monopeliensis, L. (white) Helianthemum fumana, Dun. (yellow) „ italicum, Pers. (yellow) April — May. March — May. Jan. — May. March— May. Jan. — May. March — May. April — May. March — May. All tlie season. April — May. May— Oct. April — May. April— May. April. All the .season, April — May. CLASSIFIED LIST OF WILD FLOWERS. 113 rolygalacete :-— Polygala nicseensis, Risso (Milkwort) Caryophyllacece : — Gypsnphila Saxifraga, L. Saponaria ocymoides, L. (Soap ,, vaccaria, L. „ officinalis, L. . ]'. Silene sericea, All. (pink) ,, fuscata, Link, (pink) ,, iUilica, Pers. (white) ,, gallica, L. (pink) „ nocturna, L. (white) Tamariscinece : — Tamarix africana, Poir. . B. Myricaria germanica, Desv. woi-t) Hypericincfs : — - B. Hypericum Coris, L. (St. John's Wort) Androsaemum officinale, All. . MalvacecE : — Malva nicfeensis (Jlallow), All. B. Lavatera raaritima, L. Althaea hirsuta, L. GeraniacecB : — *R. Geranium tuberosum, L. ,, sanguineum, L. Eroflium malacoides, Wilkl. ,, romanura, Willd. „ ciconium, W^illd. „ moschatum, L'Herit. O.validacefe: — *E. Oxalis cernua, Thunb. (yellow) ,, corniculata,, L. (yellow) L\nace. Plagiiis virgatus, D.C. . 15. Diotis candidissima, Desf. Helichrysum Stooecas, D.C. (I .E vax , p ygmaia , Pers . Phagnalon sordidum, D.C. ,, saxatile, Cass. Calendula arvensis, L. (^larigold) Erigeron canadensis, L. . Aster acris, L. (Michaelmas Dai.-y) Asteriscus spinosus, G. & G. Insla viscosii, Ait. . Senecio erraticus, Bert. (Ragwor;") ,, Cinerai'ia, D.C. . Bellidiastrum Michelii, Cass. Bellis sylvestris, Cyr. (Daisy) Chrysanthemum 3Iyconis, L. (( *B. „ coronarium, L B. Lactuca perennis, L. (Lettuce) Hyoseris radiata, L. Rhagadiolus stellatus. D.C. Scorzonera hispanica, L. . Tragopodon australis, Jord. E. Geropodon glaber. L. Urospermum Dalesehampii Scolymus maculatus, All. Campanulacea : — Specularia hybrida, DC. . falcata, DC. . ,, Campanula 3Iedium. L. „ Rapunculus, L. ,, Erinus, L. ,, macrorxhiza. Gay . Citcnrhitacea : — Ecbalium Elaterium. Eich. Eriraccray. April — May. May. JIarch— May. April — May. May. Aj'ril — May. Oct.- April. . April— May. May. April— May. May. Oct. May. April. Almost all the season. Almost all the season. ]May. Feb. — May May. April — May. Oct. May. 118 CLASSIFIED LIST OF WILD FLOWEES. Orobanche caryophjllacea, Sm. * „ coiicolor, Duljy Labiates : — Calamintha Nepeta, Savi . Lavandula officinalis, L. . ,, Stcechas, L. . Eosmarinus officinalis, L. Thymus vulgaris, L. Sideritis romana, L. Stachys recta, L. *B Ballota spinosa, Link Brunella hyssopifolia, L. . Ajuffa Iva, Schreb. . Teucrium Botrys, D. ,, Polium, L. ,, montanum, L. . ,, Ghaniajdrys, L. . ,, Scordium, L. . Laniium amplexicaule, L. Melittis Melissophyllum, L. VerhenacecB : — ' B. Vitex agnus-castus, L. . . . Primulacca : — Goris monspeliensis, L. . Anagallis cjerulea, Schreb. (Pinjpcvnel) I). „ tenella, L. . . . Glohulariaceie : — Globularia vulgaris, L. . ,, Alypuni, L. . I'lumbaginece : — Statice cordata, L. . VlujtolaccacecE : — Phytolacca decandra, L UrticacccB : — Thelygonum Cynocrambe . Urtica membranacea (Stinging Nettle) Polygonacece : — Polygonum maritimum, L. Eumex bucephalophorus, L. Diiphnacea : — Daphne Guidium, L. . . . Santalacea : — Thesium divaricatum (Jan.) Osyris alba, L. .... AristolochiacecE : — *R. Aristolochia pallida, "Willd. „ rotunda, L. . B. ,, Clematitis, L. CytinecB : — * Cj'tinus Hypocistis, L. May. Oct. May. March — April. Oct.— May. April — May. May. March — May. April- Mas. October. April — May. Nearly all the season. May. April. Oct.— May. October. Feb.— May. April. May— Oct. April — May. Oct. April — May. May. April. CLASSIFIED LIST OF WILD FLO AVERS. 119 KiipIu>rhiaee(B : — '45. Eupliorbia Preslii, Guss. . ,, Peplis, L. ,, pubescens, Viilil I{. ,, verrucosa, L.-unck. ,, dulcis, Jiicq. . ,, spinosa, L. *i\. ,, platyphylla, L. „ falcata, L. ,, segetalis, L . *E. ,, terracina, L. . ,, serrata, L. ,, deiidroides, L. „ Esula, L. „ Cyparissias, L. ,, Characias, L. Orchidacecs : — Liraodoruin abortivum, Sw. Cepbalanthora rubra, liich. ,, ensifolia, Kich. „ pallens, Rich. Coeloglossum viride, Hartm. Nigritella globosa, Reichb. Serapias Lingua, L. . ,, loiigipetala, Poll. ,, cordigera, L. * Barlia longibracteata, Pari. *R. Orchis papilionacea, L. . B. „ coriophora, L. ,, tridentata. Scop. . „ purpurea, Huds. . ,, provincialis, Ball). ,, Simia, Lamck. ]'). „ laxiflora, Lamck. R. ,, sambucina, L. ,, intacta. Link *B. Ophrys bombilifera, Link *R. ,, Bertolonii, iVIoretti ,, lutea, Cav. . „ fusca, Link. . ,, aranifera, Huds. . Jridacece : — Crocus versicolor, Ker • . ,, medius, Balb. Gladiolus segetum, Gawl. *R. Iris florentina, L. (-white) ,, germanica, L. (purple) *B.R. Hermodactylus tuberosus, Salisb. . AmaryllidacecB : — Pancratium maritimum, 1/. * Narcissus poeticus, L. (white) . * ,, papyraceus, Gawl. (white) *R. ,, Pauizzianus, Pari, (white) . •R. ,, aureus, Lois. (yello-\v) Oct. May. April. March. May. All the season. Feb.— May. April — 3Iay. March — April. April — May. Feb.— May. May. April. May. April —May. Feb. — March. May. April — May. J\lay. April. May. April. April — May. Feb.— March. Oct. April — May. April. March. Oct. April. Jan. — Feb. February 120 CLASSIFIED LIST OF WILD FLOWEES. *E. Narcissus Bertolinii, Pari, (yellow) „ Tazzetta, L. „ remopolensis, Panizzi *R. ,. elatus, Guss. * Ajax incomparabilis, Car. (yellow) Asparagacea : — Asparagus acutifolius, L. . Smilax aspera, L. . Liliacea : — *B. Lilium pomponieum, L. (vermilion) R. Erythronium dens-eauis . Tulipa prsecox, Ten. „ Clusiana, DC. *B. Fritillaria involucrata, All. Ornithogalum divergent, Bor. . *B. „ pyrenaicum, L. . „ narbonense, L. . * Scilla hyacinthoides, L. (Squill) ., italica, L. . • Ilyacinthus orientalis L. (blue and white Bellevalia romana, Rtichb. *B. „ Webbiana, Pari. Mitscari comosum, Mill. . ,, racemosum, Medik. * Asphodelus albus, Willd. Phalangiura Liliago, Schreb. . *B. Aphyllanthes monspeliensis, L. Allium nigrum, L. . „ triquetrum, L. neapolitanum, Cyr. ,. roseum, L. . ,, subhirsutum, L. . Ampeloprasum, L. Aracea: — Arum italicum, Mill. Arisarum valgare, Targ. . February. March — April. April. Feb. Feb, — March. Oct. May. April. March — April. March. April. May. March— April. March. April — May. April. May. March — April. May. April — May. May. April^May. Nov. — April. In such profusion do tlie various kinds of \^dld flowers grow in the valleys and on the hills around San Eemo, that they are daily sold m the streets ; from the beginning of January until nearly the end of April the flowers are made up into hundreds of tempting httle hunches and the air of the Esplanade is frequently perfumed w^ith their scent. In no other place have I ever met mth wild flowers in such quantities and of so many kinds. Occasionally the roots are dug up with the flowers and offered for sale ; this practice is of course strongly to be condemned, and should be discountenanced as much as possible. It is to be feared that the wholesale way in which the wild flowers are gathered, rendering their seeding impossible, will ere long seriously aflect the supply, but the removal of the roots will certainly be fatal. Some species have already disappeared. CLASSIFIED LIST OF WILD FLOWERS. 121 The extreme dryness of the chmate of the Ei\^era more particularly during the summer, rain often not falling for months together, influences greatly the character of the vegetation. Those trees and plants thrive best which throw out the strongest and longest roots, whereby they are enabled to supply themselves with the necessary moisture from the soil, and which also part with the moisture so obtained with the least facility by evapora- tion from the leaves. Thus the Aloe is not only remarkable for tlie depth to which its roots penetrate but for the density of its epidermis ; the leaves of Evergreens in general, having also a dense cuticle, retain their moisture much longer than do those of deciduous trees, and hence are enabled to sustain drought for a longer period, and in this fact we are furnished with one of the reasons Avhy the vegetation of the Eiviera is principally ever- green. The epidermis of many Cacti is so thick that these plants also lose their moisture only with difficulty, and hence they are particularly adapted to a sandy dry soil and hot atmosphere. Another class of plants which grow freely in the Riviera and resist for a long time the effects of drought, are the Euphorbiaceae, but this for a different reason ; the juices of these plants are thick and form an emulsion which contains a kind of india- rubber. Such is the dryness of the climate that very many deciduous and delicate shrubs and flowers are unfitted for it, or grow only during the moister periods of the year, or, in the summer, when constantly watered, and as the process of watering at that season is in most cases laborious, and hence costly, some plants are either not cultivated at all or are allowed to die in the summer, to be replanted again in the autumn. This is the case -odth the grass forming the lawns in the grounds of many villas at Cannes, the grass seed being sown afresh each winter season. But not only do flowers and small shrubs require to be kept constantly watered in the summer, but even the Lemon and Orange trees, especially the former. Now fortunately the means exist whereby this may be aocompUshed -ndthout too great ex- pense, especially in the neighbourhood of San Eemo. As has already been stated, a stream runs through each of the several valleys which lie east and west of the to^ii, and these streams are made to supply innumerable reservoirs and tanks, the water being distributed from these by means of small aqueducts to all the low-lying lands, which can thus be irrigated whenever necessary. Where streams do not exist the tanks are filled from wells. In the neighbourhood of Cannes, partially sunk in the ground, huge vase-like jars are frequently seen ; these are employed for 122 EVIDE.VCES OP MILDNESS OF CLIMATE. the storage of water or manure ; but the &ame description of jar is also used for oHve oiL These jars resemble in size and form exactly those which I have seen on the stage in the pantomime of the ' Forty Thieves ; ' it was doubtless in precisely similar jars that those redoubtable thieves were concealed, and in which they met their well deserved fate. The e^^dences then of the extreme mildness of the whiter climate of the Kiviera and particularly of its more sheltered parts derived from the Flora are numerous and may be thus summarised. 1. The fact that many plants which in England would be surely killed, live here throughout the winter in the open air. 2. That they not only live and grow, but many of them blossom freely during the whole winter. 3. That some plants which in England and other countries having a similar cUmate are annuals only and attain but small size, here become perennials, growmg even into shrubs. 4. The growth in the open air throughout the winter of many plants and flowers which with us can be preserved only m green-houses or even hot-houses. 5. Notwithstanding that the leaves fall off and the blossoms are injured by one or two degrees of frost ; that the fruit falls off at 5° and the tree itself is killed at about 8° of frost, the Lemon tree grows and flourishes here through a long series of years without being killed or even seriously injured. 6. That the Flora of the Kiviera includes as we have seen numerous trees and shrubs of a semi-tropical character, as many kinds of Palms and Bananas ; the Orange, Lemon, Pomegranate, and Ohve trees ; the Carouba or Locust tree ; Pistachia Lentiscus ; Terebinthinus Chio ; the Oleander ; Myrtle ; Caper plant ; the Aloe ; the Prickly Pear, and the bush-like Euphorbia. All of these grow freely without artificial protection of any kind. Having brought this somewhat rapid sketch of the vegetation of the Eiviera to a close, some fuller particulars may now be given of a few of the more important and characteristic trees. The first to be noticed is the Olive tree, since it is the most con- spicuous and abundant of them all, it claiming the hills and valleys for its own. Although the Olive tree has taken possession of the Pdviera, it is really a native of the Holy Land, but it has evidently found here conditions of soil and climate not less favourable than those of its own country. The Olive tree, Olea Europea, is an evergreen of slow growth, attaining under favourable conditions the size of a forest tree and flourishing for many centuries. The finest and oldest Olive trees are found from Nice to Oneglia. At Beauheu is a very remarkable one, Avhich has a girth of 23 feet at 4 feet from the ground, and which formerly yielded 500 lbs. weight of oil ; its THE OLIVE TREE. 123 supposed age being about 1 ,000 years. There are many varieties of the Olive tree — that of the Eiviera is distmguished by the name Pleureur, from its weeping or pendulous branches. The mode of growth is singular ; the younger trees usually consist of a single trunk which divides at a short distance from the ground into two or three primary branches, and this trunk is often irregularly twisted and contorted. When the tree has attained any considerable size, the interior frequently decays and the outer part of the trunk with the bark becomes split up into two or three segments ; the bark then gradually encircles the separate portions until each becomes coated all round and several stems are thus formed out of the original single trunk. Why the inner portion of the tree should be so prone to decay is not very apparent, but it may be caused in some cases by the admission of moisture through the numerous fissures and holes in the bark ; these extend some distance into the substance of the tree, and from their number one would be led to suspect that many of them are the work of some boring moth. This splitting up of the tree into smaller trunks and the forms thus assumed are often very singular. The roots are very large and massive ; they spread round the tree for a considerable distance, and some of them penetrate deeply in search of the nourishment which is contained but sparingly in the soil in which the Olive trees grow. Now this breaking up of the original trunk is probably materially aided by the extension outwards of the roots, which draw the lower portion of the trunk with them and so help to split it up. But there is still another way in which the trunks are multiplied, and which contributes in many cases to their singular appearance. From the roots which lie so thickly spread round the trmik, and which are often partly above the surface of the ground, sprmg up numerous shoots, some of which, being sufiered to grow, attain at length the size of secondary trees ; and thus one Olive tree in time often possesses several trunks. The leaves of the Olive tree are long and narrow, dark green on the upper and silvery grey on the under surface, the young shoots presenting also a silvery appearance. The leaves resemble closely those of the willow, to which indeed the whole tree bears some resemblance. It puts forth its small axillary and pretty clusters of yellomsh white blossoms, usually in April ; it begins to ripen its fruit about October ; the berries are^ at first green, afterwards of a plum colour, and finally almost black, with a rich bloom ; when ripe they begin to fall off the trees, and great numbers of women and children are employed in picking them up, and carrying the baskets filled with them at the end of the day to the olive mills. The picking up of the olives at San Kemo sometimes extends 124 THE OLIVE TKEE. from November or December far into the spring, the period varying in different years according to the weather, the greater or less abundance of the crop, and the freedom of the ohves from the attacks of an insect, Cynips olete, which lays its eggs* in them and to which they are particularly liable ; the eggs become hatched, and the larvffi feed on the pulp of the berry. When once the olives have fallen from the trees the sooner they are picked up the better, as if they are allowed to remain on the ground and especially if rain falls on them, they acquire a taste of earth and grass, and the quality of the oil is thereby injured. In good olive years men climb up into the trees and beat the branches with long poles, the olives falling on to cloths spread beneath the trees ; the oil extracted from these olives is of the best quality, being free from all extraneous taste. The olive crop is very uncertain, and it is reckoned that a good one is only obtained on an average once in three years, and in order even to ensure this, it is necessary that the tree should be regularly pruned and well manured. Every year the earth is dug up about them, and once in three years a trench is made running partly round the tree, but at a little distance from it ; into this the manure is put. This consists of almost any descrip- tion of animal and vegetable refuse, but old woollen rags are considered to be the best, and the fouler and dirtier they are the more suitable they are deemed for the purpose. The collection of these rags and their importation into the olive districts con- stitute a regular trade. The trees appear at their worst after having been beaten to obtain the berries, and when they have been pruned ; it is in winter that they are seen to most advantage, when the foliage is thickest and freshest ; but they also look particularly well in the spring after they have put forth their new shoots and are in blossom. The leaves of trees that are out of health from any cause are often covered with a black powder like soot ; this powder consists of a fungus, dtematium monisphyllum. It also attacks the leaves of the Orange tree. Although the Olive is much hardier than the Orange and Lemon tree, it bearing a frost of about 15° without being killed, a warm climate, such as that of the Eiviera, is yet necessary to the production and ripening of its fruit. Sparks says that it will not bear a temperature below 21° or 22° Fahr., and hence that it has during very severe winters, such as those of 1709, 1788-89, 1820, 1829, and 1839, in exposed situations suffered severely, numberless trees being killed. Thus the presence of large Olive trees in any place affords a sure testimony of the mild- ness of the climate. Some years since I had a small Olive tree PROCESS OF OBTAINING THE OIL. 125 planted in a very sheltered position in the grounds of the Koyal National Hospital for Consvimption at Ventnor. It grew rapidly and blossomed freely in the spring, but I never saw more than one green olive upon it ; at the end of three or four years it had attained a considerable size, although it was never manured or specially protected in any way except during very severe weather in winter. The process of obtaining the oil is as follows, and for most of the particulars I am indebted to the kindness and practical knowledge of M. Alexandre Escoffier of San Remo. The olives are sold by the grower to the manufacturer and are carried to the mills by the women who collect them ; the mills are usually situated for the sake of water power in the course of the streams which flow through the valleys. The ohves are strewn on the floor, the different days' gatherings and qualities being separated by boards placed edgeways, and the sooner the olives are pressed after they are collected the better the oil. The olives are next reduced to a pulp by means of a stone, which revolves on its edge vertically on a horizontal stone, an operation which takes from 3 to 4 hours ; the pulp is then taken out of the mill and put into circular bags termed ' exportins,' or sportins, having a large hole at top and bottom and made of a very tough kind of fibre worked in meshes like a net ; these when filled are placed one on top of the other, to the number of 10 or 15, under a press which is almost always worked by hand. A portion of the oil escapes from the pulp before any pressure is applied, and this is called ' virgin oil ; ' that produced by pressure is mixed with the water naturally contained in the olive, and the expressed liquid must consequently be allowed to stand for some hours that the oil may rise to the surface ; this oil is called ' huile de seconde,' and is not so good nor does it keep as well as the ' virgin oil.' It should be understood however that unless special orders from the mer- chants are received to the contrary, the manufacturers do not keep them separate ; they are mixed together at once. After the olives are pressed the pulp is placed in large pits called ' fosses a ressences,' where it is left to be used, two, three, even six months later ; or it can be immediately placed a second time in the mill, the oil to be extracted by the ' cold process,' as it is called ; the mill is set going and a stream of water continuously poured on the pulp, the water and pulp being carried away by a siphon into five or six receptacles all communicating with each other. The stones of the fruit of course sink to the bottom, the pulp and any parts containing oil rise to the surface in these receptacles ; this is all skimmed off and the pulp once more placed in the ' ex- portins,' which however are of a much closer make than those first used, and are called ' spagnolettes.' They are subjected to 126 PEOCESS OF OBTAINING THb! OIL. pressure as before, and an oil is obtained which is used for burn- ing and also for greasing of machinery. In case the manufacturer prefers to wait for some months, the pulp before being put under pressure is placed in a large caldron with one-third the quantity of water and boiled for several hours ; the contents of the caldron are then put into the ' spagnolettes,' which are pressed and a very thick and greasy oil procured; this after being allowed to stand for a long time divides into two qualities : the upper portion has a bad smell, is often green, very limpid, and is used for machmery and in cloth manufactories ; it is more valuable than the other quality or lower portion, which is only used in the making of soap. The pulp that still remains from this last process is sold to the manu- facturers of sulphuric acid, who by the aid of this and hydraulic pressure produce an oil, Avhieh in the trade is kno\\ii by the name of ' sulphur oil ; ' soap is also made from this. The stones of the fruit are sold for fuel to heat ovens and for steam machinery. The water from the pulp contains much of the colouring matter of the ripe ohve and is stained a deep red ; sometimes this is collected in receptacles to allow of the subsidence of a residue which is used as manure, or for fuel, at others it is discharged directly into the streams. ' The quantity of virgin oil yielded by 100 litres of healthy olive berries is about 12 litres on the average, and of recens oil 4 litres. The olives from the hills yield about 2 litres per 100 more oil than those from the plains. On the other hand, the olives of the plains give most fruit.' (Sparks.) The olive oil of San Eemo is of excellent quality and commands a good price in the market. The olive crop is not so profitable as that of lemons and oranges, yet should the trees be once destroyed it would take generations to replace them ; moreover, they are usually planted so as to allow of the cultivation, especially in the valleys, of various other trees, including the Vine, Orange, and Lemon. A destruction of Olive trees is however constantly going on in the neighbourhood of San Eemo and other to'\\ais in the olive districts, either with a view to the clearance of the gi'ound for buildmg purposes or to the removal of old and decayed trees ; even these when cut down are still very valuable, since they furnish, especially the roots, nearly all the wood used for burning, it constituting, with the exception of the small quantity of charcoal employed in cooking, the chief fuel of the country. The wood of the Olive being somewhat hard, of a warm yellowish tint and pretty grain, is also much used for the manu- facture of various kinds of ornament ; some of these being beautifully inlaid. Some persons do not admire the Olive tree, and think its THE LEMON TREE. 127 foliage sombre, and those who have only seen the smaller and scattered trees which occur between Marseilles and Cannes may well feel some degree of disappointment at the appearance which tliey present. The Olive tree is only found in perfection along tlie Kiviera proper, and especially in and around San Eemo and for some miles to the east and west of it. Here the trees are large, lofty, many of them very ancient and thickly planted, and extending from the verge of the sea through the valleys and up the sides of the protecting hills for miles to an elevation in some cases of nearly 2,000 feet, giving to the hills and valleys their soft, dark-green and silvery vegetation. Any one who has seen Olive trees as they grow at San Eemo, and who has wandered through the Olive groves and over the Olive -clad hills, will, I am sure, no longer regard them as sombre, monotonous, and uninteresting, but will be struck with the singular variety of forms which they present, their soft and not too obtrusive green colour, and the modified screen which tliey afford from glaring light, too strong sunshine, or stormy winds. Although at a distance the hills appear to be densely covered with Olive trees, yet on walking amongst them we find that there are considerable intervals between the trees, so that while they form a screen they yet admit an abundance of light, air, and sunshine. In fact they afibrd exactly the kind of shelter best adapted for the invalid in his walks and rambles. The next tree to be specially noticed is the Lemon, Citrus Limonum ; of this there are several species and varieties, as there are also of the Orange, and although the Citron is occasion- ally met with in the Kiviera, it is the ordinary kind of Lemon which is there chiefly cultivated. Although the Lemon chiefly grown in the Ki^'iera is the common kind, in other parts of the Mediterranean the Bignetta is largely cultivated, which is said to be in every way superior to the ordinary kind. There is also a kind of lemon met with in the Eiviera which is called the Sweet Lemon, Specimens of this, which I have tasted, have certainly been much less sour than the ordinary description. There are usually three prmcipal crops of fruit in the year — one in the winter, one in the sprmg, and the chief one m May. The Lemon tree is distinguished by the somewhat sparse habit of its growth, its few and straggling branches, the paucity of its light-green leaves, and by the curious fact that it blossoms nearly all the year round, even m mid-winter, and that it con- sequently bears fruit in all stages of development, fi'om the scarcely formed and green condition up to the pale-yellow and ripe fruit. It is in these circumstances that we find the ex- planation of the fact that the Lemon is not nearly so handsome 128 THE LEMON TREE. as the Orange tree presently to be noticed. Still although not so beautiful as a rule, yet when seen in perfection and bearing a crop of ripe lemons it presents to us Northerners a sight at once novel and interesting. The Lemon is a very delicate tree ; the blossoms and leaves are injured by a very slight frost, the fi'uit falls off, as already stated, at 5°, and the tree is Idlled at about 8° or 9° of frost. The exact temperature however at which the fruit and trees are injured varies according to the state of the atmosphere as to moisture and drpiess and the amount of radiation going on. The existence therefore of Lemon trees in considerable numbers, these growing without any special protection and reaching a size only to be attained in the course of some twenty or thirty years, affords unmistakable evidence, not only of the mildness of a climate, but of its comparative uniformity from year to year. The leaves and fruit of the Lemon are liable in summer to be attacked by an insect. Coccus adonidium, and those of the Orange by another coccus, C. hesperidum, both species being also subject to injury by the black fungus already noticed as attacking the leaves of the Ohve tree. The Lemon, milike many of the trees which grow and flourish in the Riviera, does not bear drought, but requires frequent watering, and hence the most congenial situations for its growth are the numerous valleys, each watered by its stream, which exist arormd San Eemo and in a hmited district which may be said to be bounded on the one side by Mentone and on the other by Taggia. It is in excursions up these watered and sheltered valleys that the Lemon tree is principally met ^^^th and where it is profitably cultivated. The light green of its foliage contrasts so strongly with the softer and darker green of the Olive as to make it at once apparent that if the valleys and hills were as thickly studded with Lemon as they now are with Olive trees, the eye would quickly become fatigued with the brightness of the coloimng. The growth of the Lemon is quite as dependent upon a plentiful supply of water as on the mildness of the climate and protection from frost ; Lemon trees are therefore not found in many situations otherwise suitable, in consequence of the absence of a due supply of water. Water is the great want of the Riviera, both for domestic and agricultural purposes, especially in the summer, when there is but little rain and the streams become dried up. When this occurs, the cultivators are dependent upon one or other of the followmg sources of supply : upon the rainfall stored in large reservoirs, on wells or on springs situated at a distance high up the momitains, and brought in small stone channels to each THE ORANGE TREE. 129 principal Lemon farm. These springs are usually private property, and a very high rent is charged for the use of tlie water, which is allowed to flow for an hour or two once a week into the main channels supplying tlie orchard. The water thus received may pass into a tank for future use, or the land may at once be irrigated witli it by means of the numerous small channels which are distributed with much ingenuity to all parts of the land. In the town of San Kemo a great many Lemon trees have of late been removed, and the process of removal is still continued to make room for the erection of houses, and there are not now, therefore, nearly as many trees as formerly. The Lemon is a much more remunerative crop than the olive ; the price of course varies with size and quality, but the best lemons usually fetch from 20 to 30 francs per thousand. Lemon picking is made a speciality by men, who show their skill by selecting only such fruit as will just pass through a certain sized ring. The difference between lemons bought in England and those which we get here freshly gathered from the tree is very great ; the lemons, even when gathered green, as they very often are, are much more fragrant and pleasant to the taste than the im- ported lemon. Neither the cook nor the pharmaceutist could dispense with the grateful juice or fragrant oil of the peel of this most valuable and wholesome fruit. The kindred tree upon which a few words may next be bestowed is the Orange tree. Who in his youth has not pictured to himself the beauties of an Orange grove, and longed to behold it in its loveliness ! Unlike the Lemon, the Orange tree is distinguished by the regularity of its groAvth, the closeness of the branches, and the abundance and density of its dark-green foliage, in which the golden fruit lies half buried and concealed. Few spectacles can exceed the beauty of a grove of large and well-grown Orange trees laden with their abundant crops of ripe golden oranges, such as are to be found during the "s\anter in the valley of Taggia within a short distance of San Eemo ; as there seen the picture formed in childhood of its beauty is even surpassed. The Orange tree blossoms once only, in the early spring, usually in the month of February, but sometimes earlier or later, the whole air in the neighbourhood of a group of trees being then perfumed with the scent. This year the trees both of Orange and Lemon were covered with blossom on the 1st of December. This is a very unusual circumstance, due, it is said, to the abun- dant rain. The flowers being out of season will bear but little fruit, and will of course weaken the usual crop. K 130 THE ORANGE TEEE. The Orange tree flowers very freely, especially the Idnd which bears bitter fruit, and since there is usually more blossom than is necessary for fruiting, it is customary to pick off the super- abundant flowers and to sell them to the perfumers ; those from the bitter Orange tree have much the strongest perfume and yield the largest quantity of scent, and hence are the more valuable. ' A bitter orange tree in full bearing will give from 20 to 60 kilogrammes of flowers, while a sweet orange tree only yields from 10 to 30 kilos,' 'It is calculated that 100 kilos of fresh bitter orange flowers will give, on distillation, about 40 kilos of " eau double," and 10 of " eau simple," and from G to 7 decigrammes of essential oil (Neroli).' — Sparks. It of course bears but one crop of fruit, which begins to ripen and to assume its characteristic golden tint in the autumn and early winter. It is at this time that a large proportion of the oranges are gathered for sale, those intended for exportation being gathered while still somewhat green ; but the quality of the fruit improves greatly by its being kept on the tree for some months longer, until April or May, or even till the autumn. It is stated that a tree in full fruit will produce as many as from 4,000 to 6,000 oranges. The Orange tree is less delicate than the Lemon, the fruit bearing about 1'^ and the tree 11° of frost. Amongst the varieties or species cultivated on the Eiviera, the Bitter orange and the Mandarine, sometimes called the Tangerine, may be mentioned ; this last was only introduced from China in lb28, and is now being largely grown, the fruit commanding a higher price than that of the sweet orange. On the whole, the orange, especially if we include the several species and varieties embraced under the name, must be pro- nounced even a more valuable fruit to man than the lemon ; what more grateful than the juice of its ripe fruit '? what more agreeable preserve than that of the bitter orange ? what lighter or pleasanter tonic than the infusion made from bitter orange peel '? and what more acceptable perfumes than those pre- pared from its flowers ? especially the essence or Neroly so much used in the making of Eau de Cologne. The following very interesting account of the cultivation of the Vine is from the pen of Mr. Van Eys of San Eemo ; this gentleman has vineyards of his own, is practically acquainted with the manufacture of wine, and has specially studied the chemistry of the subject. ' The Vine is very generally cultivated at San Remo, but not on a large scale. The province of Porto Maurizio, to Avhicli San Remo belongs, has no more than 5,884 ettari (16,209 acres) of vineyard, with a produce of 18 ettolitri (306 gallons) per ettaro, 1,000 square metres, which is very little, considering that an THE VINE. 131 ettaro of p^oofl soil can produce from 80 to 100 and more ettolitri (2,201 gallons). ' Tlie cultivation is, generally speaking, rather careless ; but as the soil is very fertile and the vine a very strong plant, much can be done that is wrong, and much can be left undone that would be profitable, without damaging directly the results of the crop. The general carelessness is perhaps more felt in the wine itself, whicli is very often made in such a way that it is impossible to keep it longer than a year ; in some measure the cause may be the small quantity of tannin which is found in the wine, though the principal cause must be the want of cleanliness, the wine being very often turbid. ' The vineyards are planted in close lines ; they are pruned in December, and are never looked at afterwards, consequently they have a very luxuriant foliage, at the expense of the grape. There are roughly speaking six kinds of grape — two red and four white ; of the red grapes, the Croirora is most appreciated, as it gives the largest quantity of wine ; but the Rossese (the red one) gives certainly the best wine, and has made the reputation of the wine of Perinaldo, a small village near Ban Eemo, of which more is sold in San Remo than Perinaldo produces. Among the white grapes the Vermentino is the best loiown, though the Verdapollo and Massardo are perhaps equally good ; but this last is perfectly ripe only in October, and no one has ever patience to wait so long : generally the vintage beginning before the grape is ripe. The wine of San Remo and its environs is, upon the whole, a light and good wine, when well made, without the sweetish taste of the Southern, and the more heavy taste of the Piedmontese wines. When well made it reminds one of, though inferior to, the Verona wines, whicli are excellent, and might be compared to Bordeaux wines ; of which they have the same amount of alcohol, namely, 9 and 12 percent. Mentioning here some Italian wines, it would not be fair to consider all the Southern wines as sweet wines. The red Lacrima Christi is a fresh and good wine, more like the French red wines. ' Until now San Remo has been fortunately free from the phylloxera, though at Porto Maurizio, very near, two or three vineyards have been infested, and consequently destroyed after the adopted Italian method. Upon the whole, the cultivation of the vine is rather increasing ; the uncertain crops of the Olives and Lemons have brought al)out this happy change.' The Fig-tree abounds everywhere. It grows rapidly, often attains a great size, and bears freely. By its large and handsome leaves it affords in the summer a very agreeable screen from the sun. There are many different varieties, some of which ripen their fruit in the early summer ; but the greater number not till K 2 132 THE FICt TEEE AND MEDLAR September and October ; some even bear two crops in the year. In the case of the early figs, the fruit appears before the leaves, but with the late figs, the reverse occurs. The milky juice of the fig possesses acrid properties ; this juice is often seen before the fig becomes over-ripe, issuing from the stalk, and if it touch the lips, as it often does, when the figs are consumed directly as gathered from the tree, it will cause them to smart and burn. The Figs of San Eemo are very abundant, cheap, and good ; and since they are very nutritious, they form an important item, both in the fresh and dried state, m the diet of the poor — indeed, they are very freely partaken of by all classes. The Sea Onion, or Squill, is frequently seen growing beneath fig-trees ; ibis is placed there in the belief that the flowers of this plant attract the insects, which would othermse feed upon the figs themselves.. However this may be, the Fig tree has many enemies. One is a very curious creature which, though it has no shell, resembles very much in form and habit the Limpet. It attaches itself very firmly to the small t^^dgs on which it is usually found, and being a parasite, and living on the juices of the tree and fruit, it impairs greatly the vitality of the tree. Species of the same genus sometimes infest the Orange tree, doing it niTich mischief. Assuming more or less the colour of the tree on which they are found, and being flat and so closely attached, their presence is often overlooked. The Japanese Medlar, IMespilus Japonica, is of common occurrence in gardens and orchards. It is an evergreen with hand- some darlv green foliage. It flowers freely in the whiter. The flowers give forth an odour which is at once abundant, soft, and very pleasant ; it ripens its yellow- oval and subacid cool fruit early in the spring (see page 38). The Common Medlar, Mespilus Ger- manica, also grows freely in the Eiviera, and the fruit of both kmds is commonly seen in the market. Of all the trees of the Riviera there is none which imparts to the scenery so graceful and Oriental an aspect as the Date-bearing Palm, Phoenix dactylifera, "udth its long feathery and pendent compound leaves. This palm is beautiful in all stages and conditions. In its young state, when the plant is stemless and the leaves seem to spring directly from the ground ; or when, after the lapse of many years — it may be a century — the leaves are borne liigh mounted on the top of long and slender stems ; or lastly, when in flower, or bearmg large bunches of fruit. To see it in perfection it is necessary to go to Bordighera, but it may also be seen to great advantage in many other places and situations, as m the gardens of the Casino at Monte Carlo, the Quai des Pahniers at Nice, and m the garden of the Victoria Hotel Sat an Piemo. THE PALM. 133 It is this palm which gives to Bordighera its reputation, and which constitutes its chief attraction. The trees abound every- wliere, and are of all sizes and ages ; the principal Palm groves lie to the east of Capo San' Ampeglio, which shelters them somewhat from the westerly winds. The Palms in these groves are very fine, some of them attainmg a height of a hundred feet or even more, and beuig, it is stated, over a thousand years old. The effect produced is very striking, the Palms imparting to the scene an Oriental chai'acter which would be even more apparent were it not that the leaves of very many of them are gathered up and tightly bomid together, whereby of course the trees are deprived of all their feathery gracefulness. The object of this proceeding is to prevent the leaves from becoming green, they being preferred colourless for some purposes, although they are used in church processions and decorations both green and blanched. Another very fine and ancient grove is on the left-hand side of the footway, leading up to the old town. Beautiful as the Date Palm is in its orduiary state, it is still more interesting when in flower and fruit. The inflorescence consists of a bmidle of fine tvngs the sides of which bear at short intervals single small blossoms. At first these twigs are tightly enclosed in a hard sheath, which by their growth and expansion they manage to burst ; when hberated, the t^vigs spread out in a brush-like form, and each small flower gradually passes or is converted into a date : thus each tmg becomes bordered with dates in the manner commonly seen m freshly opened boxes of this fruit. The dates attain their full size, change from green to yellow or broAMi, and ultimately become ripe. When tasted, however, though sweet, they are usually found to be hard, juiceless, and almost destitute of their usual pleasant and characteristic flavour. It is only m very sheltered situations that the dates ripen so as to be edible. When the palm is m full vigour, some of the bunches of dates are really gigantic, and would weigh some two or three kilos. The same tree may bear several such branches, and in this state the tree presents a really majestic appearance. It is generally imagined by most people that the presence of ancient Palms in great numbers in any locality affords indispu- table evidence of the exceptional mildness of the climate : this is true to a certain extent only, since this, the Date-bearing Palm, would grow nearly if not quite as well in most parts of the Eiviera, and particularly in such sheltered places as San Piemo and Mentone ; but they are not planted there to any great extent, because their cultivation would not pay, as there is but little demand for the leaves, whereas Bordighera has long had 134 THE CAROUBA TREE AND FIR TREES. the monopoly of the supply of palms to the churches of Eome on Palm Sunday. Another handsome and productive tree which claims a notice, though its distribution is somewhat limited, is the Carouba, or Locust tree, Ceratonia Siliqua. By the Germans it is called Johannisbrod, or St. John's Bread, from the behef that it was on the pods or fruit of this tree that St. John the Baptist fed when in the wilderness. It thrives best on a rocky soil with full exposure to the sun, and the finest specimens of it are to be found between Villefranche and Mentone. It is a large and bold-looking evergreen tree, distinguished by its dark-green, shining, pinnate leaves. It is dioecious, the flowers rising up directly from the bark of the smaller branches, and from the union of these ■\\'ith larger branches, in place of as in most cases from the axils of the leaves. It flowers in the spring, and ripens its pods and beans in the autumn : these contain not only a large proportion of nitrogen, but also much sugar, and hence they are very nourishmg and fattening, and, being com- paratively cheap, they are much used in the feeding of cattle. The Carouba tree is very delicate ; injured by shght, and killed by severe frosts. The Firs of the Ei\dera also form a very conspicuous feature in the landscape. The soil being dry, Hght, and sandy in many parts, the Firs find the conditions favourable to their growth. In some places they are found growing close to the water's edge, in others on the near hills, or on the more distant surrounding mountains. The prhicipal species met with are the following : — • One of the most beautiful and singular is the Umbrella, or Stone pine, Pinus pinea. A little forest of these trees is found on the sandy plain to the west of Cannes, where they excite the attention and surprise of every passer-by. Fine specimens are met with in some other situations, as in the neighbourhood of St. Kaphael. From their picturesqueness, they often form a prominent feature in sketches of Ei^-ierean scenery. The species of fir usually fomid growmg on the lower hills is the Aleppo, or White Pine. The two chief species on the mountains are the Cluster Pine, Pinus Pinaster, which furnishes the large and beautiful fir cones, ' pommes de pin,' so much used for lighting the wood fires ; and the Maritime Pine, or Pinus Maritima, the cones of which are small and rounded. More inland the Scotch Fir, Pinus Sylvestris and Pinus Cembra, are met with. Amongst the trees deserving of special notice is the Blue Gum, or Eucalyptus Globulus, belonging to the natural order Myrtaceas. The FUicalyptus is an evergreen, blossoming freely, and producing in abundance its curious bronze-hke and urn-shaped flowers and THE EUCALYPTUS TREE. 135 seed ; the flowers, which are large and resemble closely those of the Myrtle, as well as the fruit, may be seen on most of the larger trees throughout the winter. The stamina are at first enclosed in the urn, the lid of which after a time falls off, allowing of their expansion. The difference of appearance presented by the young and older trees, especially in the form of the leaves, is very singular ; in the young tree the leaves are light green, opposite, sessile, ovate, and coated with a bluish bloom, from which circum- stance, no doubt, the familiar name of Blue Gum is derived ; but the leaves of the older trees are long, stalked, twisted or scimitar- shaped, thick, and of a dark green colour. The Eucalyptus sheds its rich cinnamon-coloured and fragrant bark freely in very large pieces, which may be often seen hanging from the trees in strips. The Eucalyptus is remarkable for the large quantity of a volatile oil which it contains ; this possesses a fragrant and balsamic odour and abounds in every part of the tree, the leaves emitting the odour strongly when bruised ; indeed, it is evolved naturally in some cases to such an extent as to scent the air near the trees. Now, this volatile principle is a source of ozone like the resin of the Fir tree, and it possesses powerful medicinal properties ; hence the Eucalyptus Globulus in various forms is now becoming employed in medicine. A liqueur is prepared from it at Marseilles, termed Eucalypsinthe, which is extensively used in France and which is specially recommended on account of its calmative properties as a substitute for that pernicious and nerve-destroying compound. Absinthe. Specimens of Eucalypsinthe prepared by the firm above alluded to were exhibited at the Paris Exhibition ; one of these I examined. It possessed strongly the odour of the Eucalyptus, and a small quantity added to water caused the mixture to become of a milky colour from the deposition of the oily and resinous matter contained in it ; the flavour was however anything but agreeable, and it is difficult to understand how any one could be brought really to like it as a beverage, though they might take it as a medicine. The Eucalyptus is credited with febrifuge properties ; these, some would assign to the volatile oil it contains, and to the action of this as an ozoniser, while others with more reason attribute its beneficial effects to its drying up, by the rapidity of its growth and the abundance of its evergreen foliage, the damp marshy and even malarious soil in which it is frequently planted. Another of the more noticeable of the trees which abound and flourish so luxuriantly in San Kemo and the neighbourhood is the Pepper tree, Schinus molle. This often attains considerable dimensions ; there is a very large specimen in the garden of the English Chaplain, the Eev. G. L. Fenton, and this, although of the size of a forest tree, yet appears to be full of life and vigour. The Pepper tree is especially remarkable for the delicacy and elegance of its compound leaves and the large bunches of coral- 136 THE PEPPER TREE AND PRICKLY PEAR. like berries. When unripe the berries are green, and it is no unusual circumstance in the autumn to seethe blossom, which is comparatively small and insignificant, and the green and ripe berries together on the same tree ; the berries are pungent and have very much the taste of those of ordinary pepper. In the month of October the Pepper trees are laden with their ripe berries, and are then seen in the height of their beauty. That curious plant the Prickly Pear, Opuntia vulgaris, is made up of a series of oblong pieces or sections which are attached to each other by their extremities. The several sections resembling each other very closely in form and size, and being so united, impart to the plant a very formal and curious appear- ance, the arrangement reminding one of some gigantic coralline. The new sections grow from the extremities of the older ones, and it is from the distal edges of these that the blossoms spring which afterwards bear the peculiar fruit knowm to most English people, as it is not unfrequently seen in fruiterers' shops in London. The Prickly Pear blossoms freely in the months of May and June, and if in a favourable situation, it bears an abundant crop of fruit, which it ripens early in the winter. These ' pears ' are sometimes called here 'figues deslndes' and 'poires d'epines;' one section alone often bears as many as twenty specimens of the fruit. When ripe the pears are of a bright and almost vermilion colour on the side exposed to the sun, and from their surface spring bunches of spines disposed in geometrical order. They contain a deep reddish-yelloAv pulp with numerous seeds ; this is cool and refreshing, but the pears I have tasted possessed but little flavour. It is necessary to be very careful in handling the fruit of this cactus, not only on account of the thorns above referred to, many of which drop off before the fruit becomes ripe, but because from the spots where the larger thorns spring, there also issue innumerable hair-like prickles, which are so exceedingly minute as to escape observation and which readilypierce the skin, giving rise to a good deal of irritation. The following quotations will form an appropriate conclusion to the foregoing description of the vegetation of the Eiviera. Dr. Panizzi, in his work entitled ' San Eemo e il suo Clima,' writes : — ' The vast extent of soil betw^een San Remo and Ventimiglia is full of plants which present a true indication of our mild temperature. One may in vain search beyond these limits for such hardy specimens of the Date Palm, which, though its fruit seldom ripens here, rises proudly feathering to the height of 20 yards or more. The " Circuit of the Palm trees " w^as the name given at the close of the last century by the Ligurian Piepublic to this tract of country, which is so strikingly distinguished from the rest of Italy.' By some authors San Piemo is described as EVIDENCES OF CLIMATE FURNI^iHED BY ANIMALS. 137 the ' Garden of the Western Liguria ' or Riviera, as Nervi has been styled the ' Garden of the Eastern Eiviera.' Professor Alhnan, the President of the Linnrean Society, affirms : — ' Nowhere in Europe is there a vegetation -which in winter and in spring basks under the rays of a more genial sun, where its mountain barriers more thoroughly defend it from the icy winds which sweep over the unprotected plains of the north ; and when the season of rains is at an end, there spreads over all this sunny land an atmosphere of absolute transparency ; while away upon its extreme southern boundary lie the waters of the Mediterranean, flowing round wooded crags and picturesque headlands, and gleam- ing with an intensity of blue approached by that only of the cloud- less sky which stretches over all.' It has thus been shown that the Vegetable kingdom affords abundant evidences of the mildness of the climate of the Piiviera, especially its more sheltered portions, as San Piemo and Mentone. But the Animal kingdom likewise furnishes proofs of the same fact, only that these are less patent and not so generally known. Thus evidences are furnished by the Feathered tribe. But on this point I will cite the authority of an accomplished ornithologist, Signor Benedetto Musso, of Alassio, whose valuable ornithological collection will be found more particularly referred to in the account given of Laigueglia and Alassio in my work on ' San Eemo and the Western Piiviera.' He states that, of the kinds of Birds which are stationary in the Western Riviera during the spring, summer, and autumn, there is not one which leaves in the winter, and that this suffices to show that they can find but very little difference between the winter and the other seasons : that the Martin, Hirundo urbica ; the common Swallow, H. rustica ; and the Crag or Rock Swallow^ H. rupestris, which are on the passage in spring, and which remain until the autumn, are seen in some parts of the Western Riviera to prolong their stay throughout the whole winter : that in winter, and particularly on the colder days when snow falls on the Alps, the Apennines, and even in Corsica and Sardinia, and most frequently in the last case, although these countries are situated much further south, we see an immense quantity of Birds arrive here, either of the kinds which are stationary or of those seen only on the passage in spring and autumn, the latter having returned hastily to our Riviera to enjoy our mild climate. Among these pilgrims, which come to us in search of warmth, and which at certain periods cover the country in vast numbers, may be mentioned the follow- ing : the Redbreast, Sylvia rubicola ; the Wren, Sylvia troglo- dytes ; the Alpine Warbler, Accentor alpinus ; the Warbler, A. moclularis ; the Stonechat Warbler, Saxicola rubicola ; the White 138 EVIDENCES FURNISHED EY BIRDS, Wagtail, Motacilla alba ; Grey Wagtail, M. boarula ; the Eedwing Thrush, Turdis iliacus ; the Fieldfare Thrush, T. pilaris; the Song Thrush, T. musicus ; the Missel Thrush, T. viscivorus ; the Eing Thrushel, T. torquatus ; the Blackbird, T. merula ; the Solitary Thrush, T. cyanus ; the Wood Lark, Alauda arborea ; the Skylark, A. arvensis ; the Crested Lark, A. cristata ; the Cirl Bunting, Emberiza cirlus ; the great Titmouse, Parus major ; the Lorrain Bunting ; E. Cia ; the yellow Bunting, E. citrinella ; the Goldfinch, Fringilla carduelis ; the Chaffinch, F. coelebs ; the Linnet, F. cannabina; the Bramble Finch, F. montifringilla ; the Grunling, F. chloris ; the Bullfinch Grosbeak, Pyrrhula vulgaris. Notwithstanding that the Birds above enumerated are de- scribed as pilgrims, yet it must be understood that many of them, as the Finches, are also stationary and build their nests there, in the Kiviera. Although many birds are driven to the Eiviera in Avinter by stress of weather, it is in the spring and autumn that they arrive there in the greatest numbers ; at the former season they are on their, way to their summer quarters, which lie far northwards, and in the autumn to their winter habitations, which are much further south than the Eiviera. In the summer, birds are comparatively scarce ; this arises from the fact that they can then obtain only a limited supply of water and food, owing to the warmth of the climate and the comparative absence of rain during that season. Among remarkable birds of passage met with near the coast are the Golden Oriole, the Huppoo, some handsome Woodpeckers, and the Bee-eater. Although there is a close season for native birds, the law does not aft'ord the slightest protection to birds of passage ; the conse- quence of this is they are ruthlessly shot down immediately they alight on the coast, often hungry and exhausted by their long flight, and under the plea of shooting birds of passage the native birds are often slaughtered as well. It is true that shopkeepers are forbidden under a penalty to sell native birds during the close season, but this regulation is constantly evaded. The number of men who carry guns, in every town and village along the Eiviera, must be very great indeed, for they may be encountered in troops nearly everywhere. Each man pays 15 lire a year for his licence, and it is in this payment that the reason is found for the tolerance of a practice which, as carried out here, is both barbarous and unwise. No wonder that insect life abounds to the injury and loss of the agriculturist. Other proofs of mildness of climate are afforded by Fish ; many of the Mediterranean kinds resembling those of tropical seas in the beauty and brilliancy of their colours. Some of those often seen in the market are of a deep blue, vivid green, or bright scarlet ; others are marked with stripes of vermilion or gold, and EVIDENCES FUKNISHED BY FISH. 139 some are variegated, presenting all the colours of the rainbow. (For a list of the chief fish brought to the San Eemo market see page 34.) The extraordinary depth of the Mediterranean serves to modify in a very singular manner the structure of some of the fish which inhabit it. Those fish which live in deep water, where light only partially penetrates, are remarkable for the large size of their eyes, while those which are found only at the greatest depths, which scarcely a ray of light reaches, have eyes very im- perfectly developed, thus affording a striking example of adapta- tion to particular ends. The fish which inhabit the deeper water have need of eyes which enable them to utilise the limited light that is there found, while those which live in darkness have but little need of eyes at all. But few Marine Shells are found at San Remo, or I believe along any part of the coast of the Western Riviera. The kinds met with nearly all make their way into the market and are regarded as edible ; the names of these are given elsewhere. Through the kindness of Colonel Cox, however, I am enabled to give a list of the Land and Fresh Water shells collected by him in 1882 in the neighbourhood of San Kemo. Land and Fi esh Water Shells found rt San Eemo, or in its Vicinity, 1882. Order Bulimus Species Locality where found Acicula Under dead leaves, moss, in fissures of bark and rocks ,, Detritus . Under dead leaves, on limestone rocks " DecoUatus On grassy banks, under stones, San Eemo " Folliculus Under stones and dead leaves, San Remo " Montanus On woody mountains, under moss and dead leaves ,, Obscnrus . " Quadridens Under stones and leaves, in clefts of rocks Bythinia Tentaculata In ponds, streams, mouth of the Adina Clausilia Bidens Bordighera at foot of olive roots ,, Nigricans. On moss on olive trees, San Remo ,, Punctata . Montff Bignone, on moss at Giandola ,, Rolphii . On the Roya River (I Solida On bark of trees in shady spots ,, Ventricosa Under moss and bark of old trees Cyclostoma Elegans . Septfmspirale . Abundant everywhere at San Remo ,, Acuta On herlmge on the seashore Helix Aperta At foot of old walls, San Remo I) Arbustarum 140 LAND AND FRESH AVATEE SHELLS. Land and Fresh Water Shells — continued. Order Species Helix Aspersa . " Bulimoides Carthusiana ,, Canliana . ,j Cespitum . ^j Cinitella . J, Ciliala ,, Conspersata ,, Explanala ,, Ffletans ,j Incarnata „ Lapuida . ., Nemoralis jj Niciensis . ., Obroluta . ,j Pisana ^, Pomatium ,, Pulchella . „ Serpentina „ .Substriaca ,, Terverii . » Terrestris Trochoides J, Unifaseiata jj Variabilis ,, Vermiulata Lymnea Aurieularis Peregra . Pahistris , Planorbis Contortus . Pupa 5> Avenacea. Doliuni Granum . Multidentata Perversa . Numquedentata Subcylindrica Umbellicata Zonites Algirus . Cundidissimus Celarius . Diaphanus j» Lueidus . Locality wliere fouud Common everywhere Abundant at Ventimiglia, on swampy ground In San Martino Valley „ „ near flour mills Everywhere about San llemo San Martino Valley, above flour mills Under dead leaves San Martino Valley, among old ruins In damp places under dead leaves Giandola, on the Eoya Iliver Abundant everywhere Bordighera Old flour mills, San Martino Valley Taggia, Bordighera Station, common Ventimiglia Common Taij-gia, in stagnant water At the foot of coarse grass On old walls Common in olive groves, San Remo Common everywliere Beyond old flour mill, San Martino Valley For the following very interesting particulars in reference to the fossil shells found in the Pleiocene at Bordighera and other places in the neighbourhood I am much indebted to Mr. Good- FOSSIL SHELLS. 141 child. The genera, as will be seen, are numerous, but the species amount to some hundreds. ' I enclose a list of the genera represented amongst our Pleiocene fossils. The large genus Pleurotoma is the most numerously re- presented as regards species (about sixteen varieties if I remember rightly), and the Pectens are the most plentiful, though only of five or six species. Amongst the Pectens is the extnict Pecten latissimus, which bears the same relation to Pecten maximus, largest of li\ang Pectens, as a hea\y stoneware dish does to a Japanese eggshell saucer. The very small genus, Trochotropis, is present in one extinct species ; this shell, which is also found at Asti, is catalog^ued in the Museum at Geneva as Cancellaria umbilicata, but though it presents a superficial resemblance to a Cancellaria the mere presence of an umbilicus in such a shell is sufficient to relegate it to its true genus, A unique find of an exceedingly small and perfect Imperator was found interesting by Dr. Woodward, who had never seen so small a specimen of that genus, and thought it might belong to a new species. Many of the Conidfe and Naticje retain traces of their coloured markings, whilst the nacre of the Trochi, Pinnae, and others is still brilliant. The beds in which these fossils are found are of a similar cha- racter to those which extend southwards along both slopes of the Apennines throughout Italy and terminate in Sicily ; according to Lyell these beds are progressively more modern as they extend south, and represent the sea-bottom where the Mediterranean was shallowed by estuaries at the time of the latest upheavals of the Apennine range. On this coast the upheaval, which is very slight near Genoa, rises to three or four hundred feet near Albenga, and to about twelve hundred where it culminates at Ventimiglia ; beyond Nice it sinks again, being about six hundred near Cannes, and ends, I believe, at the Esterels. The chief beds of the series on the northern slope are so far as I know about Asti. They are evidently of the same date, so that the upheaval took place when the valley of the Po and its tributaries was still a continuation of the Adriatic. The clay, which is a fine bluish earth suitable for potters' work, is often washed into fantastic spires, precipices, or caverns by ,tlie heavy rains ; and I ad\'ise those who explore the beds to be cautious in doing so. They exist in the Borghetto, Vallecrosia, Nervia, Eoya, and Latti Valleys, and in two inter- mediate ravines. The Latti deposit is far the most extensive, though not, I think, the richest. ' List of Genera. — Univalves : Strombus, Aporrhais, Murex, Typhis, Eanella, Triton, Pisania, Trophon, Fasciolaria (?),Latirus, Cancellaria, Pyrula, Fusus, Buccinum, Terebr^, Nassa, Eingicula, Purpura, Trochotropis, Columbella, Cassidaria, Cassis, Oliva, Ancillaria, Conus, Pleurotoma, Voluta, Mitra, Cyprrea, Erato, 142 EVIDENCES OF CLIMATE FROM REPTILES. Natica, Chemnitzia, Enlima, Aritliium, Turritella, Proto, Ver- metiis, Scalaria, Solarium, Kissoa, Pliorus, Turbo, Imperator, Troclius, Emarquinla, Calyptr^a, Pileopsis, Patella, Dentalium, Bulla, Acera. ' Bivalves : Terebratula, Ostrtea, Anomia, Plaumonica, Placuna, Pecten, Lima, Spondylus, Plicatula, Pinnu, Area, Pectunculus, Limopsis, Uncula, Seda, Yoldia, Chuma, Cardium, Lucina, Corbis, Astarte, Cardita, Venus, Cytherea, Mactra, Tellina, Donax, Solen, Corbula.' There are, I believe, but three localities in the neighbourhood of San Kemo where fossil shells are found, namely, in the sand- pit below the Madonna de la Costa, on the road leading to San Bartolomeo, and at Bussana. The class of Keptiles affords equally striking evidence of mildness. In England and other countries with a similar climate, most of the members of this class lie concealed during the winter months in a state of torpor or hybernation, but here they retain, especially the Lizards, their wonted agility, the walls and banks when the sun is shining being literally alive with them. It is very amusing to watch the Lizards ; in the winter they do not stray far from their homes, usually holes or fissures in rocks or walls to which they immediately retreat on the approach of any one, but as the spring advances and insect life becomes more abundant, many of them forsake their winter haunts altogether and are often to be seen on the trunks and branches of trees, or on the leaves of plants, searching or lying in wait for their food, which consists almost entirely of insects. In the tribe of Eeptiles are some curious species not met with in England. I must not omit to mention the pretty green Tree Frog, the croaking of which in the spring, in damp places and near water, sometimes persis- tently carried on through the night, is something really astounding, and quite sufficient to put sleep to flight. The Eev. G. L. Fenton placed in my hands a considerable time since the MSS. of an article by his son, the late Mr. George F. Fenton, M.E.C.S., containing a list with detailed descriptions of the Amphibia and Pieptilia found in San Eemo and the neighbourhood. He devoted much time to their study, of which he was particularly fond, and kept many of the species for a long time, in order to make himself thoroughly acquainted with their habits. The list is both interesting and valuable, and I am glad to have the opportunity of now making it known. The Amphibia include Toads, Frogs, Newts, Tritons and Salamanders, the Eeptilia Snakes and Lizards. BuFO VULGARIS, Toad. Common in most of the torrents early in spring; it frequents the deeper holes under shelving rocks ; found as high as San Romolo. Perh.ips it is LIST OF EEPTILES. 143 most abundant in the ' Foce torrent,' as that is most free from the ejecta of the oil-mills at that period. They leave the water after they have deposited their spawn ; which consist of lonjr double strings of black ova arranged in a single row, and enveloped in a transparent albuminous materiHl (frogs, on the other hand, deposit theirs in a mass). The males are usually the first to appear, and the last to leave the water. The colour- ing of the upper surface is usually brownish in thn females, and olive in the males (but the hue varies in the same individuals according to circum- stances), with irregular lighter patches on back and sides ; the under sur- face of both is usually of a dirty-white or yellowish. The large gland at the sides of the head is marked by a broad black stripe, and there is generally a black mark on each side of chest. They feed on insects, worms, &c. They shed their skin at uncertain periods, and always swallow it. This toad is very much larger than the common English toad; when fully grown it has a length of some 6 or 7 inches. Bupo YiRiDis, Green Toad. I have not found this species at San Remo, but it probably does occur here ; these toads are not uncommon, however, in the torrents nenr the sea. and stagnant pools of water and ditciies, at Bordigheraand Ventimiglia. They breed about the beginning of April ; the males at such times give utterance to a beautifully clear, bell-like note, ' trilled' forth, and rising towards its termination, not unlike a distant railway whistle if that were rolled. It is dark-grey, ashy, or olive above, with numerou.s large, irregular-shaped green spots ; white below with a few black spots ; the irides are lemon- coloured. The length of the body is usually from 2i to 3 inches. This species is sometimes called the Natter- Jack. Hyla viRiDis "VEi,. H. ARBOREA, Common Tree-Frog-. J\[et with everywhere where there is water, as high as San Romolo. They are usually of a bright uniform green above, but this often varies, in the same individual, from an almost cream-colour, through shades of blue, to a very dark olive ; they may, however, be spotted or blotched with various shades of brown, grey, ash, olive, or violet, &c., which marks are at times liable to become invisible. The male alone possesses a vocal sac ; and when full grown, can be distinguished by the yellow colour of the throat and the corrugations of the skin over it. The toes are provided with dilated extremities, by the aid of which they are able to climb the smoothest vertical surface. They will live well many years under confinement ; feed on insects, and always require moisture. They shed their skin at variable intervals, and generally swallow it. Full grown specimens attain a length of from 1 to 2 inches. They breed in tanks in April, when they can at least be heard, if not seen ; they will answer to any sound at all like their own. Pelodytes PUjrcTATTJs, Spotted Pelodyte. This batrachian is about the size of an ordinary tree-frog, but rather more slenderly made ; it can, however, be at once distinguished by the presence of the numerous small warts on the upper surface of the bodv ; the two species are frequently found in company in tanks and wells. They breed twice in the year, and the tadpoles from the autumn brood pass the winter in that state, and are the first of all the class to leave the water in spring ; and all tadpoles found here in the winter months will probalily belong to this species. They are of a dark-grey or tawny, or ash above, spotted with green, white below ; the males acquire rough black spots on the breast and fore-legs, and some of the toes, in the breeding season. Is widely distributed, 144 LIST OF REPTILES. nowhere very abundant, prefers hilly places ; found at San Romolo, Bordi- ghera, &c. (N.B. — This is, I believe, the first record of its occurrence in Italy; it is usually considered to be confined to France.) BoiiBiNATOR IGNEUS, ' Fire-bellied Toad.' I have not found this species myself; but from accounts given, I have little doubt it occurs up at San Eomolo. Prefers hilly and mountainous dis- tricts. Is toad-like in appearance, with upper parts of body covered with warts. The length of body scarcely more than an inch. It is olive-brown above, and orange or rose-coloured beneath, more or less spotted with bluish- black. Ordee Urodela. Newts, Salamanders, &c. One or more species of newts occur at San Romolo, but I have not been able to procure any in their perfect state for identification ; and one species at least, of salamander is also to be found there, viz. Salamandra maculosa, black, spotted with yellow. But it is not common, and I have not seen it. Class Eeptilia (Snakes, &c.) Coluber tEsculapii, yEsculapian Snake. Not very common here, at least during the season ; nor does it appear to attain any considerable size. I have not seen any much over 3 feet, and mostly are under that ; does not seem to frequent the hills, but keeps chiefly to the lower cultivated districts. It is probably crepuscular in its habits, and that may account for its not being so frequently seen ; it feeds on mice. Is a very harmless snake, never attempting to bite. Is very slender for its length, the head being of an elongated or oblong form. Above it is of a light yellowish-brown colour, not unlike dried and polished olive-wood, with two indistinct longitudinal dusky stripes along each side, and fre- quently with small whitish spots on them ; and also two light triangular spots on each side of neck ; the under surfiice is of a pale Naples yeilow, without any spots or marks whatever. Itis not easy to mistake this snake for any other here. CORONELLA GiRONDICA. This is perhaps the handsomest of all the snakes found here ; it is the one most frequently seen in the vicinity of houses, and in gardens ; grows to a length of about 2 feet. Is of a grey colour above, with two faint dusky stripes along each side, and is marked with d;irk, obliquely transverse spots down centre of back ; there is an oblique l)liick line from behind eye to angle of mouth ; the lower surface is lemon yellow, with a row of quadri lateral black spots on each side ; the sides of body havea pink or rosy hue. From the scales being quite smooth, the surface of the body has a highly polished appearance. It is also to be found in hilly localities, and seems to prefer the drier parts ; is met with up to San Romolo. Very gentle snake, lives well in confinement, and feeds on lizards, geckos, and probably mice. It is pretty common, judging from the numljer of killed ones that are to be met with, lying about the roads, especially after the spring rains. Teopidonotijs Nairix, tar sicijlus, Ringed Snake. This is of the same species as the common snake of England, but diflf'ers from it in its colouring, and is the only variety found here ; the diflFerence seems to be brought about by a total absence of yellow pigment in this LIST OF REPTILES. 145 variety; thus, the upper surface is grey, instead of an olive fjrcen ; the yellow ring round the neck, so characteristic of the English snake, is either entirely absent, or imperfectly replaced by a whitish one ; the lower surface is white without any yellowish tinge, and the irides, which are usually of a light brownish colour in the former, are of a dark grey in the latter. The longitudinal series of alternate black spots along back and side, and the large alternate black ones on the under surface, are the same in bf)th. It grows much larger hero than in England ; I kept onefor some time that was 4 ft. 4 in. in lengtii, and it no doubt sometimes exceeds even this ; the one mentioned lived entirely on toads, but this is not usual — they mostly keep to the various species of frogs. They are found along the banks of the torrents, and never far from water — occur also at San Rf)molo. Are not very common, give forth a strong and peculiar odour when alarmed. The female, as among all snakes and most reptiles, grows to a much larger size than the male. Tropidonottjs tiperinits, Viperine Snake. Always found near water, and is common in most of the torrents after April ; when alarmed it immediately takes to the water, usually diving to the bottom, where it can remain a very considerable time without coming up to breathe. I have never seen any over 2 feet in length, and they are usually about 18 inches. The general colouring of the upper surface is grey or brownish with a greenish tinge, there is a dark zig-zag mark down centre of back, sometimes interrupted, and dark spo^s with lighter centres along the sides; the under surface is white or of a brownish- yellow, with numerous black spots arranged in a sort of cheque pattern. It feeds on tadpoles, aquatic insects, and frogs. I have seen one catch and devour a small eel. (N.B. — This species is not very unlike the viper in its general appearance, and even possesses a more or less perfect V 0° 'fs head ; but the fact of it always being found in or near water is almost sufficient in itself to prevent its being mistaken for the more dreaded reptile.) CALorELTis LACEPTINA, Lacertine, or Lizard-eating Snake. This is the largest of the snakes found here, sometimes attaining a length of 5 feet ; it is besides very fierce, biting and hissing readilv if provoked, but of course is only capable of drawing a little blood. It frequents the dry, uncultivated, and wilder localities on the hills, and lives in the hcles and crevices of the stone terrace walls ; it probably feeds on mice and birds, as there are few lizards to be found in such places ; the younger individuals sometimes are found at a lower level, and probably come to procure lizards, slow-worms, &c., which are more suited to their size. They never live long in confinement, and never become tame. The whole of the upper surface is of a dark-green or greenish-brown colour, with a few more or less distinct black spots along the back; there is a greyish stripe along each side of the body ; and in all I have met with here, there has bpen a large irregular black patch near the neck, extending two-thirds round the body. The lower surface is yellow and may or may not be marked or spotted with black. This species may be rt cognised at once, by having the scales of the body hollowed out in their centre, like a spoon — no other European snake has this character. Xotc. — This concludes the list of all the non-venomous snakes I have ever seen or heard of at San Remo. Of the venomous class, I have little doubt that one species at least is to be found here ; in which case it; would probably be Vipera Aspis ; but it must be extremely rare, as I have searched for it in vain in the most suitable places. If it really does net L 146 LIST OF REPTILES. occur, all I can say is, ' the more's the pity.' Vipers are chiefly nocturnal reptiles, living on mice, though they are often to be met ■with in the daytime basking in the sun, but on such occasions are very inert, and only too glad to make their escape. It is impossible to give any certain means of dis- tinguishing between the harmless and venomous kinds, ut sight, to the in- experienced ; the shape of the head proves nothing, and the V^iark even is present in a harmless species ; on a closer inspection the presence of fangs, and the fact that the upper surface of the head is covered with numerous small scales, siniihir to those on the body, in place of large, broad, regiilarly-deposited plates, will at once put the matter at rest. Vipers prefer dry. rocky, or sandy localities away from water. The authentic cases of a fatal result from the bite of a riper, in a previously healthy subject, are extremely few on the Continent, and entirely wanting in Great Britain ; but any ordinary enthusiast will certainly not stop to contemplate any such remote possibility, but proceed at once, on discovering such a prize (in the words of Tom Hood), to Take it uji tenderly, Lift it with care, Fashioned so slenderly, . . . . and so rare. Lacerta. ocellata, Eyed Lizard. Is the largest of its genus; it grows here nearly, if not quite, to a length of 2 feet. I have had one in my possession of 21 inches, but the tail occupies about two-thirds of this. It lives among the terraces up in the hills, in the driest and sunniest situations ; subsisting on insects of various kinds, the praying mantis and locust are among its favourites. It is less shy than the near-related green lizard, and turns to defend itself when pushed to extremities. It lives well in confinement, and is capable of being tamed to a certain extent. The colouring of the adult is green above, with large blue spots on the flanks and greenish-yellow beneath ; the young is marked with transverse rows of round yellow spots. This species can at once be distinguished from the next, by having ten longitudinal rows of scales on the abdomen, and not six as in the Common Green Lizard. There are still other species to be described, but the MSS. containing the full description of these is unfortunately missing. One of these is the beatitiful green Lizard, Lacerta viridis ; this is nearly a foot in length, and is usually foimd under stones in the beds of torrents ; it is quite harmless and becomes very tame m confinement. Another species is the Hemadactylus Verritculatus, or Gecko : this inhabits holes in walls, its body is fiat and covered with warts, but it is principally distinguished by a double series ot transverse plates beneath the feet, and by the toes on each foot being provided with nails. It is perfectly harmless. Then there is the small and graceful, but common Lizard. Platydactylus muralis, sometimes called Lacerta muralis, and Avhich is seen everywhere on walls. The body is usually brownish, smooth, and the form very graceful, but it is specially distinguished by having a single series of plates beneath the toes — the second and third toes of each foot only being provided with nails. The last species is the well-known Angtiis fragillis, or slow- THE INSECT TEIBE IX WINTER. 147 worm ; in this the legs are not apparent, the scales are smooth and the general form of the hody resembles that of a snake. The smaller lizards live principally on flies and other insects. There are no land or fresh -water Tortoises to be found at San Remo or in the neighbourhood. Fig VANESSA CARDUI. The Insect tribe abounds throughout the winter. As many kinds of flowers, which in a less favourable climate are annuals, here become perennial, so the lives of some insects would appear to be prolonged. Indeed, it seems that the death of some Fig. 16. VAXESSA ATALANTA. Butterflies in the winter in the Eiviera is due not so much to fixed hmit of age or severity of weather, as to the failure at that season of the supply of flowers on which they are accustomed to feed. The same remark applies to the ordinary House-Fly, the detestable Mosquito, and some other insects. Even during the winter of 1878-79, so remarkable for its severity, butterflies L 2 148 THE BUTTERFLIES OF SAN EEMO. were to be seen in great numbers on every sunshiny day. Up to ilie middle of October they were much more numerous here than they are in the summer in England, and to the end of November they were still abundant. During December and January the kinds chiefly met with were the Painted Lady, Vanessa Cardui (Fig. 15), the Red Admiral, Vanessa Atalanta (Fig. 16), and the Humming Bird Hawk Moth, or Macroglossa stellatarum ; but the Clouded Yellow, Colias edusa and Speckled Wood, Pyrarga /Egeria, were also found until late in the whiter. At the end of February the new year's butterflies began to appear. Fig. 17. PAPU.IO PODALIRIIS. the first noticed being the small Garden White, Pieris Eapfe; the large Garden White, Pieris Brassies ; the Pale Clouded Yellow, Colias hyale, and the beautiful pale yellow or brimstone-coloured species, PJiodocera Ehamni ; later on, the still more handsome Swallow Tails, Papiho Podalirius (Fig. 17), P. Machaon (Fig. 18), and many others made their appearance, and by the beginnmg of April Ijutterflies were seen in great numbers, particularly the Painted Lady. For a further notice of this species the reader is referred to the description of the Valley of Ceriana. Moths are still more numerous tlian butterflies, and these embrace a great variety of species, including the gigantic Night- THE BUTTERFLIES OF SAN REMO. 149 flying Peacock, the Death's Head Moth, and many large Sphinxes and species of Deilephila, When I left England in the middle of October 1878 there was scarcely a butterfly to be found, but as soon as the Eiviera was approached countless numbers were seen from the windows of the railway carriages ; the rush of air created by the passage of the train rendering them partly unable to control tlieir flight, they were carried along as though they were pieces of coloured paper. On quitting San Eemo at the end of April butterflies were sv,'arming everywhere, but on reaching England again, scarcely a single specimen was anywhere to be met viith. The specific names of many butterflies are derived from Fig. 18. PAPILIO MACHAOX. certain plants, and the reason of this is curious ; they themselves do not feed upon these plants, but instinct teaches them to select those upon which to deposit their eggs best adapted for the food of tlie young caterpillars. Thus, not to go beyond the species already mentioned, the large Garden White derives its scientific or Latin name, Pieris BrassiccT, from depositing its eggs upon the cabbage ; the Painted Lady, Pyrameis Cardui, from laying hers on the Thistle ; and the Brimstone, Ehodocera Ehamni, from selecting for its eggs a species of Buckthoi'n ; and so on. But not only may evidence be gathered of the unusual mild- ness of the climate from the comparative longevity of butterflies, and the non-hybernation of certain kinds, but likewise from the 150 MILDNESS OF CLIMATE INDICATED BY INSECTS. fact that species of butterflies and other insects are met with unknown to colder latitudes. On this point the following remarks by Dr. Onetti may now be quoted : — ' If, as we have said above, the vegetation and the kinds of plants aflord incontestable proof of the mildness of our climate, the presence of certain insects peculiar to warm climates will furnish another palpable demonstration of the same fact. As evidence we would adduce, among the Lepidoptera, Poliommatus ballas : Charaxes Jasius ; Amphipyra elfusa ; Polia cantaneri ; amongst the Coleoptera, Epomis circumscriptus ; Ateuchus sacer ; Cimelia muricata ; Coniatus tamarixi ; Lampiris Italica ; and among the Orthoptera, Bacillus granulatus, &c.' Dr. Coulon of Monaco who has specially studied the Lepi- doptera of the Eiviera has kindly given me the names of the following species as indicative of a southern temperature : Charaxes Jasius ; Deilephila Livornica ; D. Nerii ; and Ophiodes Tirrhfea. There are few more elegant and pleasing studies in the whole range of Natural History, and a study, moreover, of much utility, than that of the Lepidoptera, an order which includes butterflies and moths. The study of the former, since they are chiefly diurnal in their habits, is best suited to those who are delicate. Moths, on the other hand, are for the most part nocturnal, and must, therefore, be captured and studied at night. The pleasure of this pursuit lies not so much in the observation of a class of hisects remarkable for the elegance and grace of their form and movements, and the wonderful beauty and harmony of their colouring, as in the fact that in the search for some of the rarer species one is led to visit and revisit in the free air and bright sunshine many lovely spots in valleys and on mountains which would otherwise remain unseen and untrodden by us. The Lepidoptera, as is of course well known, are oviparous ; from the egg comes the caterpillar, from this the chrysalis, in which the several parts, which combined, form the moth or butterfly, as the case may be, are at first faintly foreshadowed, and then gradually completed, until at length the perfect insect emerges from its narrow prison house, and that very wonderful transformation is effected from a creeping thing, destined to crawl on the earth, to the bright- winged denizen of the air. The Lepidoptera should be studied in each of the three stages of their lives, as caterpillars, chrysalides, and winged insects : in each of these conditions they present characters of great interest, and the knowledge of the one state often aftbrds much help to the study of the other. Caterpillars are great epicures, and are most particular what they eat ; unlike man they are not omnivorous, and their diet is THE STUDY OF THE LEPIDOPTERA. 151 iisually confined to tlie leaves of a very small numl)er of plants ; in very many cases to those of one particular kind of plant, a somewhat singular fact. Some few caterpillars, however, live exclusively on grain or seeds, attacking them even in the pods ; others bore into the stems and trunks of trees, and live on the wood or pith ; others, again, feed on a variety of fruits, as apples, pears, plums, &c. ; while lastly, the wool and silk of our garments, and even the feathers of our beds, are liable to be infested with caterpillars. The particular food of any caterpillar being known — and this information is usually readily obtainable either from books or by noticing the plant upon which the caterpillar is caught — it is an easy matter to keep them alive, and to rear them until they undergo their great change into chrysalides ; these may also be readily preserved until the perfect insect emerges in its full beauty. A very simple and convenient way of rearing caterpillars, which by the way are often remark- able for beauty and delicacy of colouring, and hence form excellent subjects for the pencil and brush of the amateur artist, is to place a sprig or branch of the plant on which they feed in a flower-pot filled with earth, to put the caterpillar on this and to enclose the branch in a piece of muslin fastened below. All that is afterwards required is the renewal of the food from time to time. Caterpillars grow very fast and quickly attain their full size ; as soon as they reach this, they cease to feed, become usually very restless, and evidently seek for a suitable place wherein to undergo their transformation. The locality chosen varies greatly in the case of the different orders and species of Lepidoptera. They soon lose their brilliancy of colour, diminish in size, and seem really to be ill at ease. The caterpillars of most butterflies spin cocoons more or less perfect, which are placed in various situations, sometimes exposed to the weather, in others placed under sheltering walls, eaves, &c., and secured in position by threads of silk. On the other hand, the caterpillars of many moths bury themselves in the earth in readiness for their change ; these usually forming much less perfect cocoons. There would appear to be several reasons why the cocoons exposed to air should be more perfect than those in the ground ; one is that the chrysalides, if not furnished with a reasonably secure dwelling, would be much exposed to the attacks of their enemies ; another is that the compact cocoon or covering helps to retain within the chrysalis the moisture necessary to the carry- ing on of its vital functions. Buried in the earth, the chrysalis is less liable to attack or to perish from exsiccation. When the caterpillar is evidently about to undergo its transformation, it should be placed in a suitable box, one section of Avhich should contain some fine sandy earth ; the caterpillar can then make its 152 THE STUDY OF THE LEPIDOPTERA. selection between air and earth, and remain either above or below ground. When the caterpillars bury themselves in the earth they should not be disturbed for two or three weeks ; indeed, they may be allowed to remain thus interred until the chrysalides become hatched. When regular cocoons are formed these may be placed in a box containing sufficient bran or fine sawdust to cover them, the box being put in a cool and not over dry room. If kept in a hot place many kinds will dry up, and thus become killed. When the butterfly or moth has come forth it may be either at once preserved, when it will of course be in a much more perfect state as regards its plumage than when caught in a net ; or if there be several of the same kind they may be kept for the sake of the eggs. The period during which the chrysalis state lasts varies greatly ; in cold countries it usually continues in the case of butterflies throughout the winter, but in warm climates and with some species there may be two broods of butterflies in the season. Li the case of the Emperor Moth, the chrysalis condition may endure from six months to three years, as I am informed. I would now point out the best and most humane method of killing butterflies and moths intended for preservation. This is the least pleasant part of the subject, and I would remark that young children should not be allowed to kill these insects at all ; neither should those of more mature years do so, unless they have the intention of really studying the ways and habits of these creatures, and to make a useful and instructive collection. The mere passing excitement of the moment to catch, kill, and possess, is not a sufficient justification. There is a great differ- ence in the vitality of butterflies and moths. Some of the smaller kinds, die quickly, literally in a few moments; wdiile others, usually the larger and more vigorous sorts, are much more tenacious of life. The best reagent to use is cyanide of potassium, A wide-mouthed bottle, holding about thirty ounces, and furnished with a screw top or lid or even a well-fitting bimg, is selected ; in this a quarter of an ounce of the cyanide, dissolved in the smallest quantity of water possible, is first placed, and then a paste of plaster of Paris, sufficient to cover the bottom of the bottle, and form a deposit of about an inch in thickness. The plaster will become hard in the course of a few minutes, and the bottle when -uiped clean on the inside will be ready for use. Care being taken to keep the top on, the cyanide ^xi\\ not require to be renewed for some months. The butterflies should be allowed to remain in the bottle for two hours or more, and it is better not to spread them out till the next day, as at first they are very stift", and the operation is by no means an easy one. Chloroform is sometimes used, but it is less certain in its action, THE LEPIDOPTERA OF THE WESTERN EIVIERA. 153 and it stiffens too mucli. Sulphide of carbon is also occasionally employed, and is, I believe, effectual ; it has, however, a very unpleasant smell. With a view to permanent preservation by the destruction of parasites, perhaps the very best substance is carbolic acid. It is sufficient to place three or four small round pieces of cotton wool well steeped in the strongest solution of the acid in each box ; these should be supported on pins, and the solution renewed two or three times a year. Besides the butterfly net, which should be very light and portable, two or three cork-lined boxes, a few pieces or sheets of thin cork or pith of agave, and about a dozen ' etaloirs ' of different sizes for spread- ing out the wings of the insects, are necessary. In the best cabinets the butterflies are all high mounted ; that is to say, they are raised about an inch and a half above the bottom of the box on the long pins, by which the insects are supported. I have said that butterflies are diurnal in their habits, but that the majority of moths are nocturnal ; the same may be affirmed in a general way of their respective caterpillars, those destined to become moths forsaking their shelter at the close of day and feeding only at night. Of this habit the Processional Caterpillar, to be shortly described, affords a remarkable example. The caterpillars of moths as well as these last are to be obtained chiefly at night, and special proceedings have to be resorted to for their capture. Although moths are night flyers they are greatly attracted by a bright light, as that of a lamp; this may be placed in a room "^itli an open window, or, still better, under trees and backed up by a white sheet. The lamp should be visited from time to time, and any moths flying about or settled on the sheet secured. Moths are also much attracted by sac- charine substances ; and hence has arisen the practice of smearmg about a square foot of the bark of several trees with a mixture of sugar or treacle and beer. The following is a list of the principal Lepidoptera met with in the gardens, valleys, hills, and mountains of the Western Eiviera. This Hst includes most of the larger and more conspicuous kinds, as well as some of the rarer species, very many of which are to be found in and around San Eemo. For this catalogue I am indebted to the great kindness of M. Pierre Milliere, of Camies, a very distinguished authority and "s\T.iter on the Lepidoptera. Butterflies. Papilio Podalirius, Linne, Chenille sur Prunellier. ,, Machaon, L., Ch. sur les Ombelliferes. Thais var. Cassandra, Hh., Ch. sur Aristolochia rotunda. ,, Eumina, L., Ch. sur Aristolochia Pistolochia. Leuconea Cratsegi, L., Ch. sur les Eosacees. Pieris Brassicae, L., Ch. sur les Cruciferes. 154 THE LEPIDOPTERA OF THE RIVIEEA. Pieris Eappe, L., Ch. sur les Cruciferes. ,, Napi, i., ,, ,, Anthocliaris Daplidice, Hb. Ch. sur Eesedaeees. ,, Tagis, Hh., Ch. sur Iberis pinnata. ,, Cardamines, Hh., Ch. sur plusieurs Cruciferes. ,, Eupheno, L. (Aurore de Provence), Ch. sur BiscuteUa didyma. Leucophasia Sinapis, Fab., Ch. sur Lotus et Vicia. Colias Hyale, L., Ch. sur les Corouilla. ,, Edusa, B\, „ „ Rhodocera Cleopatra, L., Ch. sur Rhamnus alaternus. Thecla V. Album, Kii., Ch. sur les Ulmus. ,, Ilicis, Esp., Ch. sur Querous Ilex. Polyommatus Ballus, Fab., Ch. sur Lotus hispidus. „ Phlsas, L., Ch. sur les Rumex. Lycsena Telicanus, Hb., Ch. .sur les Erica et Genista. ,, Argus, God., Ch. sur Legumineuses sous-ligneuses. ,, Battus, God., Ch. sur plusieurs especes de Sedum. ,, Corydon, Hb.. Ch. sur Trifolium, Lotus, &c. „ Argiolus, L., Ch. sur Legumineuses. „ Sebrus, Hb., Ch. (?) „ Melanops, Bdv., Ch. sur Dorycnium snffruticosum. Euphemus, Hb., Ch. (?). Libythsea Celtis, Esj}., Ch. sur Celtis australis. Charaxes Jasius, God., Ch. sur Arbutus Unedo. Limenitis Camilla, Schiff., Ch. sur Chevrefeuille des bois. Vanessa Polychloros, L , Ch. sur Ulmus. „ lo, L., Ch. sur les Orties, le Houblon. ,, Cardui, L., Ch. sur tons les Carduus. „ C. album, L., Ch. sur le Houblon. „ Antiopa, L., Ch. sur les Saules. ., Atalanta, L., Ch. sur Parietaria officinalis. Melilpea Didyma, Esj)., Ch. sur plusieurs especes de Violettes. Argynnis Latonia, L., sur Viola canina. ,, Adippe, God., Ch. sur Viola esterelensis. Melanargia Psyche, Hb., Ch. sur Graminees. Satyrus Alcyone, Bup., Ch. suj* Graminees. „ Fidia, L. „ ,, „ Phaedra, L. ,, ,, Pararga Nigeria, L. „ „ Epinephile Pasiphse, Esji. ,, ,, 3fofhs. Syrichtus Malvfe. L., Ch. sur Fragaria vesca. Acherontia Atropos, L., Ch. sur Datura Stramonium. Sphinx Pinastri, L., Ch. sur Pinus halepensis. ,, Convoluli, Es}:)., Ch. sur Liserons. Dellephila Euphorbiae, God., Ch. sur Euphorbia Characias. ,, Nicfea, Prun., Ch. sur Euphorbia nicpeensis. ,, Livornica, E.-ip., Ch. sur Rumex et Linaria. ,, Elpenor, L., Ch. sur les Epilobes et siir la Vigne. ,, Nerii, God., Ch. sur le Nerium. Smerinthus Ocellata, L., Ch. sur les Saules. „ Quercus, Schiff. „ Populi, L., Ch. sur les Peupliers. Pterogon (Enotherce, L.,Ch. sur Epilobium aquaticum et angustifolium. THE LEPIDOPTERA OF THE RIVIEEA. 155 Macroglossa Stellatarum, L., Ch. swv les Eubiacees. ,, Fuciforniis, Ch. sur Cliuvrefeiiille. Sesia Uroceriforiuis, Tr., Ch. ronge les Eacines du Cistus mons peliensis. Thyris Fenestrell;i, Scap., Ch. sur Prunus spinosa. Zvgaena Minos, Jidu., Ch. sur Thymus vulgaris. „ Trifolii, Esp., Ch. sur Lotus et Hippocrepis. ,, Tran.salpina, Esj)., Ch. (?). „ Ehadamanthus, Bdv., Ch. sur Dorycnium. „ Ononidis, Mill., Ch. sur Ononis spinosa. „ Occitanica, Bdv., Ch. sur Durycnium. Lithosia Quadra, L., Ch. sur les Lichens. Emydia Grammitica, L., Ch. sur Craminees. Deiopeia Pulchella, L., Ch. sur les Borraginees. Euchelia Jacoljca?, L., Ch. sur Sonccio. Callimorpha Hera, God., Ch. sur plantes basses. Chelonia Villica, L., „ „ „ Fasciala, Esp. „ ,, „ Hebe, L. „ „ „ Pudica. L., Ch. sur Graminces. „ Casta, Esp., Ch. sur Asperula cynanehiea. Spilosoma Fuliginosa, L , sur plantes herbacees. ,, Lubricipeda, God., Ch. polyphage. Cossus Lignipenda, Ch. dans les trones d'arbres. Hypopta Ciiestrum, Hh., Ch. (?) Zeuzera Jisculi, L., Ch. dans les tiges d'arbres fruitiers. Demas Coryli, L., Ch. sur Noisetier. Liparis Dispar, L., Ch. sur un grand nombre d'arbres. Cnethocampa Pytyocampa, ajardo there is a pathway to Pigna, where accommodation at a small but clean inn may be had for the night ; the return home can then be made by the Nervia Valley and Bordighera, altogether a most beautiful and varied excursion. It is impossible to convey in words anything like a correct idea of the splendour of the prospect on a clear day from Monte Bignone ; it must be seen to be appreciated ; it has been described as one of the finest in Europe. The excursion is one which may be safely undertaken with ordinary precautions and is within the ■compass of any person of fair health and strength. An additional charm consists in the number of rare and beautiful wild flowers, which are different from those found at a lower elevation. Amongst the most noticeable of these is the blue Hepatica, Anemone Hepatica L., a pink variety of which is sometimes met with ; the pink cyclamen-like flower, Erythronium Dens Canis L, with its trefoil-like and spotted leaves ; in shady places the Primrose, Primula acaulis All. ; everywhere over the summit of the mountain the Cowslip, Primula veris ; two species of Gentian, Gentiana verna and G. acaulis L. ; Ophrys fusca Link, also a species of Asphodel, Asphodelus albus Willd., which however was not in blossom at the time of my visit ; Saxifraga cuneifolia ; Sempervivum araclmoideum L. ; and lastly, in shady dells. Daphne laureola L. With two or three exceptions, these flowers were found in blossom at the end of April, but they had been so for some weeks previously. On my way up the San Eomolo Valley I noticed many plants of Helleborus fcetidus L. ; as also for the first time in flower, the large and handsome pink Cistus, C, albidus L. ; this is the species which is so commonly found above the region of the Olive trees, which by its abundance helps to clothe the rocks in many places, and when in full flower it must present a very handsome appearance. The descent was made by the ridge of II Poggietto, the Croce di Pani, and the Chapel of San Pietro, San Eemo being entered by the Via Francia which runs beside the Madonna degli Angeli, The scenery is very beautiful all the way, the view across the valley of San Martino of Verezzo with its churches being par- THE FOCE VALLEY. 277 ticularly pleasing. The descent of Monte Bignone is not un- attended with risk, and severe falls are frequent ; the safest course is not to ride, but to walk down the roughest and steepest places. The donkey men, whenever they can, send boys with you instead of going themselves. THE FOCE VALLEY. Chapel of San Bartolomeo — Chapel of San Lorenzo — Descent of the Mossi and Foce Valleys — Walk in the Foce Valley. The next valley to the west is the Foce or Lemon Valley ; on the ridge separating this from the San Eomolo Valley stands the Chapel of San Bartolomeo, and hence the first excursion described in connection with the Foce Valley will be to the Chapel of that name. Chapel of San Bartolomeo. — Ascend to the Kondo at the east end of the lierigo road, either by the Public Garden or the Via Costigluoli, take the path which leads past the small shrine con- taining a figure of the Virgin in marble ; this very soon passes behind a castellated house, and after a short and somewhat sharp ascent turns abruptly ofit" to the left. From this point, as already stated, one of the best views of San Eemo, the Madonna della Costa, and the former Hospital for Lepers is obtained, together with Capo Verde, the Madonna della Guardia and the hills and mountains forming the eastern boundary of the San Kemo amphitheatre. In a few minutes a path on the right leads into the San Eomolo Valley, and almost immediately after another path is given off on the left, going apparently into the Foce Valley ; then a shrine is noticed on the right, and in about five minutes afterwards a second shrine, near to which on the left- hand side is the ruined house referred to in the description of the return journey from San Lorenzo. From this there is a fine view both right and left of the bay of San Eemo, of its two promon- tories, of its encircling amphitheatre of hills and mountains and of the towns of San Eemo and Poggio. In a few minutes more, the mule-path divides, the left hand or smaller division leading into the Foce Valley, and being the path by which the return from San Lorenzo is made ; while the other or main division leads to San Bartolomeo ; this makes a sharp ascent somewhat to the right, and very soon a shrine is seen on the left, shortly after passing which there is a very excellent view of both the Foce and San Eomolo Valleys, the ridge in this situation being very narrow ; another path descends into the latter valley, the ascent again becomes steep, terminating in a few minutes at the Chapel of San 273 WALKS,. DKIVES, AND EXCURSIONS. Bartolomeo ; the journey thus far ha\'ing occupied, with some short delays on the way, about an hour and a half. Looking across the Foce Valley the Chapel of San Lorenzo is seen, and across the San Eomolo Valley that of San Giacomo. In about ten minutes from the Chapel a path branches off on the left to the Foce Valley, the main pathway ascends and from it in the course of a few yards another path leads mto the San Komolo Valley ; the path now becomes very rocky and rough, and in a quarter of an hour or twenty minutes a hill is reached from the back of which there is a grand view of Bignone and of the other mountains of the San Kemo amphitheatre, rendered more striking and imposing when the dark shadows of evening gather upon them. The wide valley of San Romolo is seen to great advantage for nearly its whole length, with San Eemo occupying a conspicuous position at its termination. The further you proceed on the mule- path the mlder and grander the scenery becomes, and by it San Eomolo may be reached on the right, or Colla on the left. Above the Olive trees the summits of the hills and spurs of the moun- tams are more or less bare, and it is then seen that some of them are of the schistous formation, the strata in many cases being placed almost vertically. Chapel of San Lorenzo. — Take the mule-path on the eastern side of the Hotel des Anglais. The ascent is steep at first ; in a few mmutes you observe on the left a small Chapel and house partly in ruins ; just past the Chapel two paths are seen on the left gomg down into the valley of Bernardo, and then another to the right which descends the Foce Valley. Keep straight on ; in about a quarter of an hour a shrine is reached on the left and a mule-path branches off down the Foce Valley bearing in the direction of Colla. Do not take this however, but go on, and in a few muiutes more Colla is seen, apparently but a very little way off" ; almost immediately is a second shrine on the right, soon after passing which a tolerably good path is observed running down the Foce Valley, and from that point there is a good view across the valley and of the Church of San Bartolomeo on the other side. The mule-path now bears somewhat to the left in the direction of Colla, and skirts the Bernardo Valley ; in less than five minutes a good path branches off" still more to the left, the original mule-path, which should still be followed, now ascends a little to the right ; after a few yards a good path leads gently down the western branch of the Foce Valley ; this has received the name of the Mosse Valley, it being separated from the other branch of the Foce Valley by an intervenmg laill or spur. Li a few minutes the very pretty and beautifully situated little Chapel of San Lorenzo is reached, the ascent to which on foot occupies about three- quarters of an hour from the Genoa road ; there is a still better THE FOCE VALLEY. 279 view from here of the Chapel of San Bartolomeo and also of the Bernardo Valley and Colla. Just past the Chapel there is another path leading down the Mosse Valley, and a few yards further a shrine on the left with a well executed painting ; just beyond this another very good path branches off on the left, going down the Bernardo Valley ; the mule-path, which now ascends sharply bearing to the left, passes over masses of rock almost too rough even for a mule. After an ascent from this point of about a quarter of an hour a rocky plateau is reached, and from this there is a glorious view both right and left, embracing the whole of the San Kemo amphitheatre. This view is well described by Mr. Aspinall. ' As almost all the hills and valleys lying round San Remo are seen from this point, it will be a good place to specify their names. You are standing with your back to Piano del Carparo, on one of its spurs, —the one which divides the valley of the Bernardo on the right, from that of the Mosse on the left ; the next spur divides the Mosse from the Foce ; it is short and at its foot the two valleys join into one. Piano del Carparo leads up to Monte Caggio, Monte Caggio to Monte Bignone. The deep valley wlich runs from Bignone to the sea is the valley of San Piomolo ; the hill bordering it, on its further side, is Campo Bandito : this hill divides the valleys of San Eomolo and Francia. Then comes II Poggietto, separating the Valle di Francia from that of Bestagna ; the next ridge is Monte Colma, enclosing the further side of the Martino Valley ; one of the three valleys which rmi the whole way from the sea up to Bignone. ( San Romolo and Ceriana are the other two.) The peaks rismg beyond this again, are those of Monte Lona, lying at the head of the Taggia Valley ; Monte Panizzi, Monte della Croce, and Monte Calvo ; they slope down to the sea, which sweeps round from here back to Monte Corvi and the furthest spur of Piano del Carparo, behmd which the pyramidal head of Monte Nero raises itself, completmg the panorama. ' The towns are San Eemo, of which you only see the highest part, Bussana on Monte Panizzi, Torsorio far away on a spur of Monte della Croce, and Colla on the furthest spur of Piano del Carparo. ' The Chapels are San Bartolomeo, San Eomolo, San Giacomo, Villetta, and the Madonna della Guardia, to the left ; while to the right, are the Madoima di Bonmoschetto, and a little higher up, San Bernardo.' The above description, excellent and accurate as it is, applies obviously to the view as seen from a point much below that which I reached, and from which were visible on the left the white tower on the ridge of Poggietto, the Croce di Parti, and what appeared to be the square tower of Poggio, and on the right Colla lying far 2 so WALKS,. DillVES, AND EXCURSIONS. below with the road leading to Ospedaletti, Capo Nero and the mountain range beyond. The view here was truly grand, and I left it with great reluctance. The smell of Wild Thyme filled the air, the loud humming of bees was heard, and once more our old but vigorous friend the ' Red Admiral ' made his appearance, as well as the ever active Humming Bird Moth. The mule-path seemed still to go on and on, ever ascending, making apparently for the summit of the higher mountains, which, had time and strength permitted, I too would have gladly scaled. Descent of tlie Mosse and Foce Valleys. — Descend the hill by the same path, to where the branch is given off which leads down into the Mosse Valley and which should now be followed. In a few mmutes the stream is reached ; pass over this and ascend the opposite bank, crossing the spur which. separates the Mosse from the continuation of the Foce Valley, and descend to the Foce stream or torrent, which you cross by a high single-arched bridge. Ascend on the other side and follow the mule-path which goes down the valley and from which many pleasant peeps are obtained across the valley and down to the sea. Li about half an hour after crossing the Foce torrent the mule-path di-\-ides, the branch on the right traversmg the ridge which separates the Foce and San Eomolo Valleys and leading up to San Bartolomeo, while the continuation of the mule-path passes by the ruined house on the right, which was noticed particularly in the excursion to San Bartolomeo, and from this it runs on to the Strada Berigo, from which the descent may be made by the Via Costigluoli of the old town. Descenduig through this the Genoa road is gamed just opposite the Subpre- fecture. The walk through the Mosse and Foce Valleys is a very charmmg one ; wild flowers in abmidance are met Avith, hacludmg the Scarlet Tulip, T. Pr^ecox ; the mauve Anemone, A. stellata ; the Oriental Hyacinth, and countless Violets. The terraces here, as in most of the other valleys, are thickly covered -wdth the bright green, self-sowai Oat, which is now being cut down in large quantities and used as fodder for cattle. When we see the vast profusion in which wild flowers grow in some of the valleys, but little apprehension need be felt of their extmction by gathering them for sale ; it seems that they suffer to a much larger extent by the digging up and plantuig of the terraces, when enormous quantities of bulbs and roots are fi-equently removed and destroyed. The excursion as far as San Lorenzo is a tolerably easy one, but it should be made by invalids on a donkey ; the descent by the Mosse and Foce Valleys is also by no means difficult. Walk in the Foce Valley. — Leave the Genoa road by the turning whicli runs between the new West End Hotel and its THE BERNAEDO VALLEY. 281 Dependance ; follow the pathway at the back of Villa Congreve which gradually ascends until it passes the Villa Evelina, distinguished by its statues, close to which it joins a mule-path running right and left. Turning to the right the path, after passing a number of villas, brings you in the course of a quarter of an hour to the Via Costigluoh by which the old town is entered; but following it on the left, it terminates in about twenty minutes in the Foce stream, which here can be crossed by stepping-stones unless the stream be swollen by heavy rams. Just before the path descends to the stream another path is given off from it ; this after ascending the valley for a short distance, also goes down to the stream, which in tliis situation can be crossed even more easily; there is a pathway on the other side by which the mule-path from San Lorenzo may be reached in a few minutes. This walk in the Foce Valley is very easy and really beautiful, the Olive trees are fine, some of them very ancient and curious, and Lemon trees interspersed with a few Orange trees abound ; the stream itself is also picturesque._ A number of small pathways are seen running in different direc- tions, some higher up the valley, and which if followed would no doubt bring the pedestrian to many a pleasant nook. This is the most suitable walk amongst the Olive trees for invalids residing on the west side of the town. (Owing to the construction of the Berigo road, the mule-path referred to in the above description, as running right and left near the Villa Evelina, has been done away with, the carriage road taking its place and for some distance following much the same course. Access to the valley is now more difficult, but there is still a foot-path near the western end of the Berigo road, which branches off' on the right and leads into the valley.) THE BERNARDO VALLEY. Chapel of San Bernardo— Madonna di BonmoscJietto — Colla. This is the last of the three valleys on the west side of the town : it is very open, its western boundary being formed by the ridge which terminates in Capo Nero ; high up on this stands the town of Colla, which may be reached either by the now well- known carriage road commencing on the west side of Capo Nero and near to Ospedaletti, or by two mule-tracks ; the steepest but most direct way for pedestrians is by the mule-path seen immediately after passmg the Villa Luigia Ponente ; the other way is by the mule-path which starting from the eastern side of the Hotel des Anglais passes the little Chapel and ruined house and runs along the ridge which separates the Bernardo and Foce 282 WALIi:S, DEIVES, AND EXCUESIONS. Valleys ; at the first shrine which is passed on this ridge, a path is given oil' which descends into the Bernardo Valley and runs in the direction of Colla, and it is this which should be followed if this second route be selected. Usually, however, as already stated, the ascent is made by the steeper and more direct way and the return by the ridge above referred to as separating the two valleys. On the last occasion when I made an excursion in the Bernardo Valley, as the object was to see as much of the valley as possible, the pathway was taken which branches off from the ridge soon after passing the second shrine. Following this, after a steep ascent, the road bore to the left and, on turning round, a fine view was obtained from this point across the valley, of Capo Verde, of the Madonna della Guardia and of the bay of San Kemo. The path then turned to the right and higher up Bussana came into view ; but as the pathway continued to ascend appa- rently leading up into the mountains, and as Colla lay now some hundred feet below and behind us, the mule-path was abandoned and the head of the valley was crossed by small branch paths not available for mules, and in a short time the broad mule-path behind and above Colla was reached. This path, which was very steep and rough, was ascended for some distance, in fact until it di\dded into two, one di^dsion leading to the right and apparently running across the head of the Bernardo Valley, and the other on the left, traversmg a mountain ridge running in the direction of Ospedaletti. From this point, as also lower do^^^.l and near to Colla itself, the views are very extensive. On the right. Cap Ampeglio cro^sMied by the old town of Bordighera, and the bay and amphitheatre of Ospe- daletti are seen, and some hundred feet below, Colla, Capo Nero, the Chapel of San Bernardo and on the left the valley of Ber- nardo, San Kemo, Capo Verde, and the mountains forming the eastern boundary of the San Remo amphitheatre with Bignone to the north. The descent was now made to Colla, which will be separately noticed. In order to vary the route and explore the Bernardo Valley still further, the descent was made by a very rough and small path- way immediately to the east of Colla. This path was soon lost and the descent of the valley was effected by various other foot- paths, and a mule-path was at length reached which after a short time passed the Chapel of the Madonna di Bonmoschetto, and in a few minutes terminated in the Genoa road some little distance to the west of the mule-path near the Villa Luigia Ponente by which the ascent to Colla is usually made. In different parts of this valley wild flowers abomid, including the blue variety of Anemone coronaria L., and the scarlet and THE BERNARDO VALLEY. 283 mauve varieties of Anemone hortensis ; also tlie very pretty blue Nectaroscilla liyacinthoides Pari., with its delicate almond-like odour. The ascent to Colla, which is 1,000 feet above the sea, by the path to the west of the ^'illa Luigia Ponente, is particularly steep and the path itself full of rocks, boulders, pits, and holes, and is in fact as rough and rugged as it well could be. After ascending for a little time the view becomes very pretty. On the right you look down into the Foce Valley, while to the left there are charmmg peeps of the sea. As you near Colla the valley of Bernardo opens out, and, looking towards the east, a really fine view of the surrounding amphitheatre of Olive-clad hills and Pine-covered mountains is obtained. Entering the town, which is situated on one of the spurs of Piano del Carparo, and which is reached from San Remo after about an hour and a half s climbing, it is found that Colla is composed of an aggregation of closely built houses, without order or beauty, and, hke most small Italian towns similarly situated, remarkable for the narrowness of its streets, their dimness, the number of arches thrown across them, and the steepness of the staircases. Colla, however, strange to say, possesses a collection of paint- ings bequeathed to the town by Professor Piambaldi, a native of Colla, and this is well worth a visit ; it includes some original pictures by Nicholas Poussin, Gaspard Poussin, Paul Veronese, Salvator Rosa, Domenichino, and Carlo Dolce. There is also a library of over 6,000 volumes, a gift to the town from the same benefactor. Visitors should not omit to see the Sacristy of the parish church, Avhere is the large and beautifully carved ivory crucifix, the legacy of Monsignor Stefano Rossi, also a native of Colla, or Colle di Rodi as it is sometines called. The town is a very much larger place than would at first sight be supposed, and although in its present condition it is un- attractive, it yet might with a little outlay be greatly improved. It occupies a commanding situation ; the prospects around are extensive and beautiful, and facilities exist for the making of one or two terraces and promenades which would be of the greatest possible benefit to the inhabitants and which would serve to attract visitors to the town. The carriage road having been completed Colla has now become readily accessible, and the views from it will doubtless prove as attractive as those from Poggio and the Madomia della Guardia. At a short distance from Colla, on the ridge which terminates in Capo Nero, is the Chapel of San Bernardo, and behind this runs a mule-path leading down to Ospedaletti. From this Chapel one of the best and most favourable \'iews of Colla, with its encircling mountains, is obtained. 284 WALKS, DRIVES, AND EXCUESIONS. The mule-path which leaves the town on the north and ascends the side of the mountain presents a very inviting appear- ance to a strong and adventurous climber ; this is the path by which Colla was entered on the way back from the excursion up the Bernardo Valley. Steep and trymg as the ascent to Colla is, the descent by the same path would be eveii more fatiguing ; it is well therefore to return by another road. At the corner of the principal church is a fountain from which the inhabitants derive their supply of water, and the overflow of which escapes as a small stream down a pathway or mule-track to the right of the church. Follow this, it leads across the head of the Bernardo Valley for about ten minutes, when you come to a small stream over which you cross by an arch ; continue on the same track for about five minutes more, when you cross another stream with a water-tank for irrigating purposes close to the path. This now turns to the right and after a time skirts for some distance the eastern side of the Bernardo Valley ; after about twenty minutes the rough mule-path which we have hitherto followed makes a sharp and very steep ascent to the left ; this leads up to the Chapel of San Lorenzo, which hoAvever is not visible from the path. Be careful not to ascend this, if it be desired to return direct to San Eemo, but follow the path on the right, which, narrow at first, afterwards becomes a regular mule-track and which e\ddently leads downwards. After a time the western side of the Foce Valley is reached, along which you continue until you arrive at the Genoa road close to the Hotel des Anglais. Very noticeable features in the Foce Valley as seen on the return journey are the small houses and buildings scattered about in different directions, each of these being distinguished by one or more of those stately Pyramidal Cypresses, which are so conspicu- ous in the scenery of the Piiviera, and which seem to stand about buildings like landmarks to point out the way to the traveller. We started for Colla at two o'clock in the afternoon, and on the way back it became dark before reaching San Eemo. On nearing home and looking across the Foce Valley, on the edge of the ridge separating it from the San Eomolo Valley, a limited red glow was observed like that which precedes the rising of the sun or the reflected light which is sometimes seen in the east on its setting. It was thought it might be the glare of a mountain fire, but in a few minutes the cause became apparent, the full moon rose slowly and grandly behind the hill, unobscured by a cloud and shedding around it such a flood of light as to illuminate the surrounding hills and mountains and to bring their outlines clearly into view, a panorama of exceeding loveliness being disclosed. The above comprise all the excursions proposed to be given, following the coast westward. A great variety of other very THE BERNARDO VALLEY. 285 beautiful or interesting excursions may be made, and towns visited, either on foot, by carriage, or by railway, as the following : To the newly created town of Ospedaletti ; to Bordighera, renowned foi" its palms ; to Dolceacqua, with its sulphur springs ; to the curious and ancient frontier town of Ventimiglia ; then to Men- tone, with its picturesque mountain peaks and its Lemon trees ; to Monaco, so trim and well kept ; to Monte Carlo, which gi-ows and flourishes apace as a health resort notwithstanding, and perhaps partly in consequence of, the indiscriminate attacks to which it has been subjected ; to the fair and beautiful city of Nice, with its Carnival gaieties ; to wealthy and ever-increa- sing Cannes ; and lastly, to St. Eaphael, one of the latest candi- dates for the favour of the winter visitor, but more suited, however, to a summer resort. These and many other places and excursions will be found described in my work entitled ' San Remo and the Western Riviera.' INDEX. AFF A FFECTIONS, scrofulous, 207 l\. — chronic, gastric, and hepa- tic, 228 Agave, the, 95 Air, sea and mountain, 197 Aloe, the, 95 Anchovies, 34 Animal kingdom, proofs of mildness of climate furnished by, 137 Appendix, 245 Asthma, 226 Atlantis for consumption, 243 Aubergine, 37 BANANA, or bread fi-uit. 97 Beetle, the sacred, 163 — the blister, or Spanish fly, 164 — the musk, 164 Birds, sale of small, 35 — slaughter of, 40 — evidence of climate shown by, 137 Bournemouth, temperature of, 61 Breeze, sea and land, 48 Bright's disease, 229 Bronchitis, 225 Butterflies, 147 — list of, 150, 153 • — illustrations of, 158 ■ — evidence of mildness of climate furnished liy, 147 FEV Caterpillar, 153 — processional, 158 Chicory, 36 Cigale, the. 161 Climate, 73 — sedative and stimulating, 73 — summary of that of San Eemo, 79, 80, 81 — medical opinions of, 88, 232 — of 8an Eemo and London, 189 - — effects of, on the body, 191 — conditions for which suited, 195, 196 • — beneficial effects of, in phtliisis, 222 Constipaticn, 229 Cuttle-fish, 39 DEATH, certificates of, 199 Diabetes, 208 Diarrhoea, 228 Diseases of nervous system, 209 — of heart, 212 — of organs of respiration, 213 - — of organs of digestion, 227 — of renal organs, 229, 231 — of skin, 232 — of the eyes. 233 Dysentery, 228 Dyspepsia, 228 pACTI, 121 vJ Cane, or so-called bamboo, 95 Cardon, 36 Carouba or locust tree, 134 Carpenter liee, 168 Castor-oil plant, 98 ■pUCALYPTUS tree, the, 135 FERNS, 121 Fever, typhoid, 203 — intermittent, 204 288 INDEX. FEV Fever, remittent, 204 — Mediterranean, 205 Figs, 37 Fig-tree, the. 131 Firefly, the, 162 Fish, evidence of climate sliown by, 139 Flora of Riviera, 123 Flowers in Octolter, 98 — scent giving, 99 — wild, 102-122 — illustrations of. 101-109 — ■wild, list of, 112-120 — evidence of mildness of climate furnished by, 123 GEOLOGY of the di.strict, 42, 44 Gooseberry, the Cape. 38 Gout, 206 Grapes, the Croirora, 37 Grasshoppers, the tribe of, 165 HARVESTING ants, 169-177 — battles of, 174, 175 — habits of 176 Humidity, comparative, 70 — relative, 71 — relative, tables of, 72 TXHALATIOX, 223 224 in throat and lung diseases, Insects, mildness of climate shown by, 150 LAVENDER, 101 Lemon tree, the, 128 Lepidoptera, 150 — study of 151 — lists' of, 153, 157 MANTIS, the praying, 165 Mediterranean, fish of, 32 — fishing in. 33 — list of edible fish, 34 — fever, 205 — saltness of, 69 — temperature of, 67 EES Mediterranean, tables of tempera- ture, 67 Medlar, the Japanese, 132 Meteorological observations, 55 — variations of, 52 Mistral. 192 Mole cricket, the, 167 Mortality. 198 — statistics, 199-202 Mosquitoes, 183, 185 Moths, list o*-; 153 Museum of Natural Historv, 186 NATIONAL Hospital for Con- sumption and Diseases of the Chest. 222 OLIVE tree, the, 123. 125 — oil, 126 — wood, 127 Opinions, medical, of San Remo, 231 Orange tree, the, 129 Orchids, 120 PALM tree, the, 132, 133 Pepper tree, the, 135 Phthisis, 215 — lieneficial effects of Riviera in, 221 — life to be lei bv the phthisical, 223 Platits, tropical, at Cannes, 97 at San Remo, 97 Pomegranate. 37 Precautions to be observed, 237 Prickly pear, 136 nUINSY, 227 RAIN, 73 — season of, 74 Rainfall, 75 — tables of. 75 — in English health resorts, 78 Reptiles, 142 — evidence of mildness of climate furnished bv, 142 — list of, 142ll46 Residence, choice of, 234 INDEX. 289 EHE Eheumatism, 206 Riviera, 1 — situation, 1 — Western, 1 — Eastern, 1 — winds, 192 — epidemic diseases in, 203 — characteristic vegetation of, 92 — ditto, chiefly evergreen, 95 — the fir-trees of, 134 — characteristics and eflfects of the climate of, 188 — boundaries of, 188 — health resorts of, 188 SAN EEMO, 3 — situation, 3 — population, 3 — the bay, 3 — hills and mountains, 3 — Dr. Walshe's description of, 4 — views, 4 — climate due to protecting moun- tains, 4 — history, 5 — the old town, 7 — views of, 6, 8,9,11 — the new town, 110 — the western suburb, 13 — the eastern suburb, 14 — railway station, 14 — port, 15 — sea baths, 15 — cemetery, 16 — sanitary condition of, 17 — water supply, 1 7 — rain water, 19 — the drainage, 19 — the town refuse, 20 — the San Remese, 22 — occupations of the women, 22 — engravings illustrative of, 23, 27 — servants, 24 — method of washing, 25 — dress of the San Remese, 26 — walks and drives, 27 — new roads, 27 — amusements, 30 San Remo, food supplies, 31 — Mediterranean fish, 32 — fishing in Mediterranean, 33 — destruction of the fry of fish, 34 — list of edible fish, 34 SAN SanRemo, sardincs.and anchovies, 34 — fish of the Northern Sea, 35 — sea hedgehog, 35 — snails, 35 — sale of small birds, 35 — vegetables. 36 — cardon, 136 — salsafy, 36 — chicory, 36 — tomatoes, 36 — fungi, 36 — aubergine, 37 — fruits, 37 — grapes, 37 — oranges, Tangerine, 37 — lemons, 37 — figs, 37 — pomegranate. 37 — Japanese medlar, 38 — fruit of service-tree, 38 — fruit of arbutus-tree, 38 — curious articles of food, 39 — cuttle-fish, 39 — list of edible shell-fish, 39 — slaughter of small birds, 40 — price of food, 41 San RkiMo, climate of, 42 — geology of, 42 — winds, 45 — prevalent winds, 47 — sea breeze, 48 — land breeze. 48 — rotation of winds, 49 — table of strong and moderate winds, 50 — the mistral, 51 — temperature of, 52 — tables of temperature, 54 — tables of north shade tempera- ture, 56, 59 — daily range of temperature. 60 ■ — temperature contrasted with Bournemouth, Torquay, and Vent nor, 61 — temperature contrasted with London, 62 — ditto with that of England. 62 — sun heat and sunshine, 63 — tables of, 64, 65 — humidity, comparative, 70 relative, 70 — tables of humidity, 71 — rain, autumn and vernal equi- noxes, 74 290 INDEX. SAN San Rkmo, tables of rain and raia- fall, 75 — summary of climate, 79 — weather in London contrasted with San Remo, 80 - fall of temperature at sunset, 82 — diiference of shade temperature and sun heat, 83 — further summary of climate, 87 — medical opinions as to climate, 88 — table of comparative tempera- ture, 91 — characteristics and effects of the climate, 188 — climate of contrasted with Lon- don, 189 — effects of the climate on the functions of the body, 190 i^^alsafy, 36 Sardines, 34 Sarsaparilla, 100 Scorpion, the, 178 Sea hedgehog, 35 Seasons, division of, 33 Service-tree, 38 Shells, 139 - list of, 139 Shell-fish, edible, 39 Shells, fossil, list of, 141 Shrubs, wild, and flowers, 101 WAL Snails, 35 Spiders, trap-door, 179, 182 Stone, or umljrella pine, 134 Summer resorts, suitable, 242 Sun-heat and sunshine, 63 — tables of, 64 TABES MESENTERICA, 228 Temperature, 52, 53 — tables of annual and season, 54 — north shade, 56 — north shade, tables of, 58 — daily range of, 60 — San Remo and London, 62 — fall of, at sunset, S2 — shade and sun-heat, 83 — table of comparative, 91 Time for arrival and departure. 240 Torquay, temperature of, 61 VEGETATION, 92 Vent nor, temperature of, 61 A'ine, the, 130 w ALKS and drives, 236-240 Walks, drives, and exc sions, 247-285 LONEON : PE1>-TED BY SrOTTISWOODE .4ND CO., XBW-STKEET SQUABB A^D rABlIAJlEh'T STREET ADVERTISEMENTS. Advertisements. THE ROYAL NATIONAL HOSPITAL CONSUMPTION & DISEASES OF THE CHEST, On the SkPARATE PftlNClPLE, SITUATE AT VENTNOR, I.W. Founded for the reception of 100 Patients from all parts of the Kingdom^ and of all denominations. PATRON : HER MOST GRACIOUS MAJESTY THE QUEEN. PRESIDENT: H.R.H. PRINCE LEOPOLD, DUKE OF ALBANY. CHAIRMAN OF BOARD OF MANAGEMENT: TREASURER: CRUMPTON J. NUNN, Esq. FREDERICK COLEMAN, Esq. HON. CONSULTING PHYSICIANS: SIR GEORGE BURROWS, Bart., M.D., F.R.S., late President of the Royal College of Physicians. DR. QUAIN, r.R.S., Member of the General Medical Council. ARTHUR HILL HASSALL. M.D. Lend., M.R.C.P., Founder of the Royal National Hospital for Consumption, and late Senior Physician to the Royal Free Hospital, London. CONSUMPTION is the most prevalent and fatal of the maladies which afflict mankind. According to the return of the Registrar-General for 187.5, 51,133 deaths occurred in England and Wales from consumption alone ; being in proportion of about one death in ten from all other diseases, and one in every five deaths among adiUts; and, in addition, 63,089 deaths occurred from bronchitis. Owing to their protracted nature and the consequent expense entailed. CMes of Consump- lion are to a lart/e extent excluded from the ijeneral Hospitals; while the Institutions which at present exist for their reception do not merely fall far short of the actual requirements, bnt they are designeJ upon the principle of lanje buildings and wards; and some of them, are placed in wrong situations— namely, in the vitiated air of towns wid cities, instead of on the South Coast. For these reasons, and in accordance with the plan and prospectus first put forth by Dr. Arthur Hill Hassall (with whom the project of erecting the Hospital at Ventnor originated, and by whose unceasing efforts it has to a large extent been realised), and with the approval of some of the most distinguished Physicians and of the Medical Press, the Hospital is erected upon the separate prindple — of which, in fact, the aim has been to make it the model. Thus the patients are distributed through a series of sixteen houses, situa'ed in a locality well sheltered from unfavourable winds ; they are designed in harmony with the surrounding scenery, constructed upon the most approved sanitary principles, and surrounded by gardens. In these Houses the patients enjoy the advantages of plenty of light and sea air, of effective ventilation and good drainage, and as far as possible of a regulated temperature, large sitting and separate sleeping rooms, of a lovely landscape and sea view ; they, moreover, experience all the comforts and conveniences of home, in place of being congregated in wards in one large building, and subject in conseqtience w many depressing and injurious influences. SECRETARY :-ERNEST MORGAN. BANKERS: LONDON AND WESTMINSTER BANK, St. James's Square. S.W. HAMPSHIRE AND NORTH WILTS BANKING COMPANY, Vextnor Brakch. OIPIPICES: 34 CRAVEN ST., CHARING CROSS, LONDON, W.C. A dvertisem ents. Pi Q < en w Q J W H O This beautifully situated Hotel, facing the sea,^vhieh has long been frequented by the best English fami- lies, has been greatly im- proved and renovated, and every comfort is to be found under the able manage- ment of its proprietors, BOGGE BROTHERS. W cr; cr w D I O I CO _l O z LU LjJ I O h- I- OD LU or < z o Q < p CO z z o LU W I o Advertisements. MR & MiviE MAREST, PROFESSEURS DE FRANQAIS, LECTURE ET CONVERSATION, Correspondance, Diction et Prononciation. LECONS PARTICULIERES. PARLENT ANGLAIS. Madame Marest fait trois fois par semaine un conrs ponr les Jeunes Dames ou Demoiselles qui vondraient se reuiiir. 20 FRANCS PAR MOIS. VILLA SAN ROCCO, No 6 CORSO DE L'IMPERATRICE. LISTE DES ETRANGERS, ANNUAIRE DU COMMERCE, Griiide de San Remo. Bordighera ET LEURS ENVIRONS, Plan de la Yille de San Remo, Plan des Environs de San Remo, A r USAGE DES TOURISTES. RENSEIGNEMENTS GRATUITS Pour I'achat, la vente et la location de terrains et villas. CorrenpondaM dfis ' G%ddes Joanne ' de la Maison HarJiette. Senl cm-respondant en Europe du ' Guide Officiel de Neyii- York et Chicago: Correnpondant du Great Eaxfern Hailwav, du London, Chatham, and Doirr i Railn-ay, du London, Brighton, and South Coast Railway, du Cheviin defer dn Kord de France et du Paris-Lijoa-Mrditerranre. RENSEIGNEMENTS ET REPRESENTATIONS COMMERCIALES. G CORSO DE UIMPERATRICE, VILLA SAN ROCCO. A dverfisem ents. ENGLISH PHARMACY, SAN REMO. ITALY. F. R. SQUIRE, €\\^\\s\ dispensing Cljenitst, Qualijled by Examination of the Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain^ and of the Apothecaries Hall, London. The only true English Pharmacy on the Italian Riviera. ESTABLISHED BY MR. SQUIRE IN 1870, By special PERMISSION of the ITALIAN AUTHORITIES. Open only from tlie middle of October in each year to the latter part of the following May. Advertisements. GRAND HOTEL VICTORIA. MAISON DE PREMIER ORDRE. COLOMBO PANICCI, Proprietaire. Advertisements. SCOTCH CHURCH, CORSO DE L'IMPERATRICE, SAN REMO. Services, after the Presbyterian form of worship of BRITAIN" and AMERICA, are held during the season, November till May. HIOTJ I^.S . Sunday 11 to 12 Morning. „ 3 to 4 Afternoon. 7.30 to 8.30 Evening (Monthly). Saturday 11 to 12 Morning (Bible Reading). Rev. ALEXANDER ROBERTSON, Minister from Scotland. LIBRA mi E ET PA PETER IE GANDOLFO, 21 RUK VICTOR -EMMANUEL. PAPIERS DE LUXE ANGLAIS, FRANgAIS, IT ALIENS. Articles de bureau et a dessin. PHOTOGRAPHIES — Cartes a jouer Anglaises et Fran^aises. LTVRES CLASSTQUES ET AMUSA:N^TS. Librairie circulante avec 8,000 volumes (ALLEXODS, ANGLAIS, FRANQAIS, ITALIENS et RUSSES). CABIXET DE LECTURE POUR LES JOURXAUX ETR ANGERS. Advertisem en is. SAN REMO: VIA V. EMMANUELE, CASA RUBINO. ENGLISH AND AMERICAN BANK. THE FIRST ESTABLISHED BANK IN SAX REMO. Correspondent of ALL THE PRINCIPAL BANKS OF ENGLAND AND AMERICA. Agent for the AMERICAN EXCHANGE IN EUROPE. As only the Dihect Corrkspondent can give best exchange and not charge Commission for Circular Notes, Foreigners are requested to address themselves to the Bank noted on their Letter of Indication. Mr. A. RrBixo and the Banks represented by him do not answer for irregular payment of Circular Kotes and Letters of Credit made by any other Bank, if adc-res^ed to Mr. A. RtTBINO. Payment of any Letter of Credit, Circular Note, Cheque, Bank Note, Dividend, dc. DeiDOsit with Interest, Current Accounts with Cheque. BRANCH AT BORDIGHERA. SAN REMO (ITALIE). HOTEL BELLE-VUE. FIRST-CLASS. FULL SOUTH. SITUATED IN A BEAUTIFUL GARDEN, TeFraees overlooking- the Sea. CELEBI^-A-TEX) 'F O :R GOOTD COOICIITCS-. EXCELLENT WINES AND SERVICE. HOFFMANN & SEYECKE, Proprietors. AdvertisemenU. 22, RUE VICTOR-EMMANUEL, 22. E & MOSCA, VEXTE ET LOCATION DE MUSIQUE & PIANOS Des Premiers FaMcants d'Europe A LA SAISON ET ATI MOIS. PAUL POIE Pianiste Honoraire cle S.A.R. le Due d'Aoste, DONNE DES LECONS DE PIANO, DE CHANT ET D'AGGOMPAGNEnENT. A. MOSCA, PROFESSEUR DE MUSIQUE, DONNE DES LECONS DE VIOLON, DE CHANT ET D'AGGOMPAGNENENT. Advertisements. CAISSE DE CEEDIT DE HCE, SUCCURSALE DE SAN REMO, 15 RUE VICTOR-EMMANUEL, Change de billets, monnaies et devises dtrangeres sur les cotes de Paris ou de Grenes. DEPOT DE FONDS. 3 pour cent disponible jusqu'ii 5,000 francs par jour. 4 ,, „ pour les bons a 6 mois. 41 „ „ „ „ a un an. 5 „ „ ,, ,, a dixhuit mois. INTERETS PAYABLES TOUS LES 6 MOIS. HOTEL DE LA MEDITERRANEE. Expressly built with every modem comfort ; very sheltered situation ; and possessing one of the largest Gardens and Parks in the Riviera. SPLENDID VIEV/S OVER THE SEA. TARIFF ON APPLICATION. HOTEL DE LA PAIX, Opposite the Station and the Public Garden. J. MAZZETTA, Proprietor. 10 Advertisements. VILLA QUISISANA PENSION. GOOD SITU A TION. COM FOR TA BL Y FURNISHED. BEAUTIFUL GARDENS. DRAWING-ROOM, READING & SMOKING-ROOM, BATHS IN THE HOUSE. ELISA SCHMIDT, geh. VON BODEMEYER. HOTEL D'ANGLETERRE. FIRST CLAsb FAMIL\ HOUbE It is deUthttuU) situated in the most sheltered position nnd the most protected from the wiiid^i. Splendid view ot the Sea, but suthciently distant to avoid its tnervatini; air. MuUerute Cliarges iii Services, bpeeial arrangement for Families. Large Garden with Lawn Tennis. A. De PERRARI, Proprietor. N.B — A Free Omnibus will be at the service of the guests every Holy Day for the English and Scottish Churches. Advertisements. 1 1 GRAND HOTEL ROYAL, SAN REMO. FIRST CLASS HOTEL, PATRONISED BY ENGLISH VISITORS. Full South, beautifully and healthfully situated. Commanding tnagnificent Vieius of the Toiun and Sea. Fine Garden (16,000 square yards) with a good Lawn Tennis Court. The Hotel is kept by the well-known Proprietor of the Hotel Royal, CouRMAYEUR (Valles d'Aoste). L. BERTOLINI, Proprietor. SAN REMO. WEST-END HOTEL. ONLY HOUSE WITH LIFT. ROBERT WtJLFING, PROPRIETOR. 12 Advertisements. SAN REMO. HOTEL DE NICE. GRAND ZPS-EH^^IEE- Oie-IDIS-ZE]. Inaugiire en 1874 par S. A. le Prince de HohenzolI<'rn, et choi^i pour le sejour de S. M. I. riniperatrice de Russia, Thiver 1874-75. Ij. PlJSr, Proprietaire. FOURNITURES DE BUREAU. ^^^ Ar ^/. <% MAHOQUINERIE. Specialite en bois d'olivier. GRAND CHOIX DE ^. ^/. 'JV ^. ^^>/ k POTERIES ARTISTIQUES. ■: /;^.^J 'Jf * 'iV » ■■ * J.' -^T UC SOUTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY A 000 649 329 ■i . . *■ ■^ * ^ .\M' ^?.