FORGE-PRACTICE 
 
 (ELEMENTARY) 
 
 BY 
 
 JOHN LORD BACON 
 
 Instructor in Forge-work, JLewis Institute, Chicago 
 Junior Member, American Society of Mechanical Enfineert 
 
 FIRST EDITION 1 
 SECOND THOUSAND. 
 
 NEW YORK 
 
 JOHN WILEY & SONS 
 
 LONDON : CHAPMAN & HALL, LIMITED 
 
 1905
 
 Copyright, 1904 
 
 BY 
 JOHN L. BACON 
 
 ROBERT DRtlMMOND, PRINTER, NRVT YORK
 
 Co m 
 
 WITHOUT WHOSE ASSISTANCE IT WOULD 
 
 NEVER HAVE BEEN WRITTEN, 
 
 THIS LITTLE VOLUME IS 
 
 DEDICATED. 
 
 2066037
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 THIS little volume is the outgrowth of a series of 
 notes given to the students at Lewis Institute from time 
 to time in connection with shop work of the character 
 described. 
 
 It is not the author's purpose to attempt to put forth 
 anything which will in any way take the place of actual 
 shop work, but rather to give some explanation which will 
 aid in the production of work in an intelligent manner. 
 
 The examples cited are not necessarily given in the 
 order in which they could most advantageously be made 
 as a series of exercises, but are grouped under general 
 headings in such a way as to be more convenient for 
 reference. 
 
 The original drawings from which the engravings 
 were made were drawn by L. S. B.
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 PAGB 
 
 GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF FORGE AND TOOLS i 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 WELDING 17 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 CALCULATION OF STOCK FOR BENT SHAPES 41 
 
 CHAPTER IV 
 UPSETTING, DRAWING OUT, AND BENDING 51 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 SIMPLE FORGED WORK 68 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 CALCULATION OF STOCK; AND MAKING OF GENERAL FORCINGS. ... 90 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 STEAM-HAMMER WORK , 120 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 DUPLICATE WORK 146 
 
 Tii
 
 Vlll CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 METALLURGY OF IRON AND STEEL 159 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 TOOL-STEEL WORK 174 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 TOOL FORGING AND TEMPERING . 197 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 MISCELLANEOUS WORK 221 
 
 TABLES 243 
 
 INDEX 251
 
 FORGE-PRACTICE. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF FORGE AND TOOLS. 
 
 Forge. The principal part of the forge as gener- 
 ally made now is simply a cast-iron hearth with 
 a bowl, or depression, in the center for the 'fire. 
 In the bottom of this bowl is an opening through 
 which the blast is forced. This blast-opening 
 is known as the tuyere. Tuyeres are made in 
 various shapes; but the object is the same in all, 
 that is, to provide an opening, or a number of 
 openings, of such a shape as to easily allow the 
 blast to pass through, and at the same time, as 
 much as possible, to prevent the cinders from 
 dropping into the blast-pipe. 
 
 There should be some means of opening the 
 blast-pipe beneath the tuyere and cleaning out 
 the cinders which work through the tuyere-open- 
 ings, as some cinders are bound to do this no 
 matter how carefully the tuyere is designed. 
 
 When a long fire is wanted, sometimes several
 
 2 FORGE-PRACTICE. 
 
 tuyeres are placed in a line ; and for some special 
 work the tuyeres take the form of nozzles pro- 
 jecting inwardly from the side of the forge. 
 
 Coal. The coal used for forge-work should be 
 of the best quality bituminous, or soft, coal. It 
 should coke easily; that is, when dampened and 
 put on the fire it should cake up, form coke, and 
 not break into small pieces. It should be as free 
 from sulphur as possible, and make very little 
 clinker when burned. 
 
 Good forge-coal should be of even structure 
 through the lumps, and the lumps should crumble 
 easily in the hand. The lumps should crumble 
 rather than split up into layers, and the broken 
 pieces should look bright and glossy on all faces, 
 almost like black glass, and show no dull-looking 
 streaks. 
 
 Ordinary soft coal, such as is used for "steam- 
 ing-coal," makes a dirty fire with much clinker. 
 " Steaming-coal " when broken is liable to split 
 into layers, some of which are bright and glossy, 
 while others are dull and slaty-looking. 
 
 Fire. On the fire, to a very great extent, depends 
 the success or failure of all forging operations, 
 particularly work with tool-steel and welding. 
 
 In building a new fire the ashes, cinders, etc., 
 should be cleaned away from the center of the 
 forge down to the tuyere. Do not clean out the 
 whole top of the forge, but only the part where 
 the new fire is wanted, leaving, after the old 
 material has been taken out, a clean hole in which 
 to start the fresh fire.
 
 GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF FORGE AND TOOLS. 3 
 
 The hearth of the forge is generally kept filled 
 with cinders, etc., even with the top of the rim. 
 
 Shavings, oily waste, or some other easily lighted 
 material should be placed on top of the tuyere 
 and set on fire. 
 
 As soon as the shavings are well lighted, the 
 blast should be turned on and coke (more or less 
 of which is always left over from the last fire) 
 put on top and outside of the burning shavings. 
 Over this the "green coal" should be spread. 
 
 Green coal is fresh coal dampened with water. 
 Before using the forge-coal it should be broken 
 into small pieces and thoroughly wet with water. 
 This is necessary, as it holds together better when 
 coking, making better coke and keeping in the 
 heat of the fire better. It is also easier to prevent 
 the fire from spreading out too much, as this 
 dampened coal can be packed down hard around 
 the edges, keeping the blast from blowing through. 
 
 The fire should not be used until all the coal on 
 top has been coked. As the fire burns out in the 
 center, the coke, which has been forming around 
 the edge, is pushed into the middle, and more 
 green coal added around the outside. 
 
 We might say the fire is made up of three parts: 
 the center where the coke is forming and the iron 
 heating; a ring around and next to this center 
 where coke is forming; and, outside of this, a ring 
 of green coal. 
 
 This is the ordinary method of making a small 
 fire. 
 
 This sort of fire is suitable for smaller kinds of
 
 4 FORGE-PRACTICE. 
 
 work. It can be used for about an hour or two, 
 at the end of which time it should be cleaned. 
 When welding, the cleaning should be done much 
 oftener. 
 
 Large Fires. Larger fires are sometimes made 
 as follows: Enough coke is first made to last for 
 several hours by mounding up green coal over 
 the newly started fire and letting it burn slowly 
 to coke thoroughly. This coke is then shoveled 
 to one side and the fire again started in the follow- 
 ing way: A large block, the size of the intended 
 fire, is placed on top of the tuyere and green coal 
 is packed down hard on each side, forming two 
 mounds of closely packed coal. The block is 
 taken out and the fire started in the hole between 
 the two mounds, coke being added as necessary. 
 This sort of a fire is sometimes called a stock 'fire, 
 and will last for some time. The mounds keep 
 the fire together and help to hold in the heat. 
 
 For larger work, or where a great many pieces 
 are to be heated at once, or when a very even 
 or long-continued heat is wanted, a furnace is 
 used. For furnace use, and often for large forge- 
 fires, the coke is bought ready-made. 
 
 Banking Fires. - - When a forge-fire is left it 
 should always be banked. The coke should be 
 well raked up together into a mound and then 
 covered with green coal. This will keep the fire 
 alive for some time and insure plenty of good 
 coke for starting anew when it does die out. A 
 still better method to follow, when it is desired 
 to keep the fire for some time, is to bury a block
 
 GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF FORGE AND TOOLS. 5 
 
 of wood in the center of the fire when bank- 
 ing it. 
 
 Oxidizing Fire. When the blast is supplied 
 from a power fan, or blower, the beginner generally 
 tries to use too much air and blow the fire too hard. 
 
 Coal requires a certain amount of air to burn 
 properly, and as it burns it consumes the oxygen 
 from the air. AVhen too much blast is used the 
 oxygen is not all burned out of the air and will 
 affect the heated iron in the fire. Whenever a 
 piece of hot iron comes in contact with the air the 
 oxygen of the air attacks the iron and forms oxide. 
 This oxide is the scale which is seen on the outside 
 of iron. The higher the temperature to which the 
 iron is heated, the more easily the oxide is formed. 
 When welding, particularly, there should be as 
 little scale, or oxide, as possible, and to prevent its 
 formation the iron should not be heated in con- 
 tact with any more air than necessary. Even on 
 an ordinary forging this scale is a disadvantage, 
 to say the least, as it must be cleaned off, and 
 even then is liable to leave the surface of the work 
 pitted and rough. If it were possible to keep air 
 away from the iron entirely, no trace of scale would 
 be formed, even at a high heat. 
 
 If just enough air is blown into the fire to make 
 it burn properly, all the oxygen will be burned 
 out, and very little, if any, scale will be formed 
 while heating. On the other hand, if too much 
 air is used, the oxygen will not all be consumed 
 and this unburned oxygen will attack the iron 
 and form scale. This is known as "oxidizing";
 
 FORGE-PRACTICE. 
 
 that is, when too much air is admitted to the fire 
 the surplus oxygen will attack the iron, forming 
 "oxide," or scale. This sort of a fire is known as 
 an "oxidizing" fire and has a tendency to "oxidize" 
 anything heated in it. 
 
 Anvil. The ordinary anvil, Fig. i, has a body 
 of cast iron, wrought iron, or soft steel, with a 
 tool-steel face welded on and hardened. The 
 hardened steel covers just the top face, leaving 
 the horn and the small block next the horn of the 
 softer material. 
 
 FIG. i. 
 
 The anvil should be so placed that as the work- 
 man faces it the horn will point toward his left. 
 
 The square hardie-hole in the right-hand end of 
 the face is to receive and hold the stems of hardies, 
 swages, etc. 
 
 For small work the anvil should weigh about 
 150 Ibs. 
 
 Hot and Cold Chisels. Two kinds of chisels are 
 commonly used in the forge-shop: one for cutting
 
 GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF FORGE AND TOOLS. 
 
 7 
 
 cold stock, and the other for cutting red-hot metal. 
 These are called cold and hot chisels. 
 
 The cold chisel is generally made a little thicker 
 in the blade than the hot chisel, which is forged 
 down to a thin edge. 
 
 Fig. 2 shows common shapes for cold and hot 
 chisels, as well as a hardie, another tool used for 
 cutting. 
 
 HARDIE 
 
 FIG. 2. 
 
 Both chisels should be tempered alike when 
 made. 
 
 The cold chisel holds its temper ; but, from con- 
 tact with hot metal, the hot chisel soon has its 
 edge softened. For these reasons the two chisels 
 should never be used in place of each other, for by 
 using the cold chisel on hot work the temper is 
 drawn and the edge left too soft for cutting cold 
 metal, while the hot chisel soon becomes so soft 
 that if used in place of the cold it will have its 
 edge turned and ruined. 
 
 It would seem that it is useless to temper a hot 
 chisel, as the heated work, with which the chisel
 
 8 
 
 FORGE-PRACTICE. 
 
 comes in contact, so soon draws the temper. When 
 the chisel is tempered, however, the steel is left in 
 a much better condition even after being affected 
 by hot metal on which it is used than it would 
 be if the chisel were made untempered. 
 
 Grinding Chisels. It is very important to have 
 the chisels, particularly cold chisels, ground cor- 
 rectly, and the following directions should be 
 carefully followed. 
 
 The sides of a cold chisel should be ground to 
 form an angle of about 60 with each other, as 
 shown in Fig. 3. This makes an angle blunt 
 
 FIG. 3. 
 
 enough to wear well, and also sharp enough to 
 cut well. 
 
 The cutting edge should be ground convex, 
 or curving outward, as at B. This prevents the 
 corners from breaking off. When the edge of the 
 chisel is in this shape, the strain of cutting tends 
 to "force the corners back against the solid metal
 
 GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF FORGE AND TOOLS. Q 
 
 in the central part of the tool. If the edge were 
 made concave, like C, the strain would tend to 
 force the corners outward and_snap them off. The 
 arrows on B and C indicate the direction of these 
 forces. 
 
 Hot chisels should be ground sharper. The 
 sides should be ground at an angle of about 30 
 instead of 60. 
 
 Another tool used for cutting is the hardie. This 
 takes the place of the cold or hot chisel. It has a 
 stem fitted to the square hole in the right-hand end 
 of the anvil face, this stem holding the hardie in 
 place when in use. 
 
 Cutting Stock. When soft steel and wrought -iron 
 bars are cut with a cold chisel the method should 
 be about as follows: First cut about one-fourth 
 of the way through the bar on one side; then 
 make a cut across each edge at the ends of the 
 first cut; turn the bar over and cut across the 
 second side about one-fourth the way through; 
 tilt the bar slightly, with the cut resting on the 
 outside corner of the anvil, and by striking a sharp 
 blow with the sledge on the projecting end, the 
 piece can generally be easily broken off. 
 
 Chisels should always be kept carefully ground 
 and sharp. 
 
 A much easier way of cutting stock is to use 
 bar shears, but these are not always at hand. 
 
 The edge of a chisel should never under any circum- 
 stances be driven clear through the stock and allowed 
 to come in contact with the hard face of the anv.il. 
 
 Sometimes when trimming thin stock it is con-
 
 IO FORCE-PRACTICE. 
 
 venient to cut clear through the piece; in this 
 case the cutting should be done either on the horn, 
 the soft block next the horn, or the stock to be 
 cut should be backed up with some soft metal. 
 An easy way to do this is to cut a wide strip of 
 stock about two inches longer than the width of 
 the face of the anvil, and bend the ends down to 
 fit over the sides of the anvil. The cutting may 
 be done on this without injury to the edge of the 
 chisel. It is very convenient to have one of these 
 strips always at hand for use when trimming thin 
 work with a hot chisel. 
 
 The author has seen a copper block used for 
 this same purpose. The block 
 was formed like Fig. 4, the stem 
 being shaped to fit into the hardic- 
 hole of the anvil. This block was 
 designed for use principally when 
 FIG. 4. trimming thin parts of heated 
 
 work with a hot chisel. 
 
 Care should always be taken to see that the 
 work rests flat on the anvil or block when 
 cutting. The work should be supported directly 
 underneath the point where the cutting is to be 
 done; and the solider the support, the easier the 
 cutting. 
 
 Hammers. Various shapes and sizes of hammers 
 are used, but the commonest, and most convenient 
 for ordinary use, is the ball pene-hammer shown in 
 
 Fig. 5- 
 
 Tlie large end is used for ordinary work, and 
 the small ball end, or pene, for riveting, scarfing,
 
 GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF FORGE AND TOOLS. 
 
 II 
 
 etc. These hammers vary in weight from a few 
 ounces up to several pounds. For ordinary use 
 about a i^- or 2 -pound hammer is used. 
 
 Several other types in ordinary use are illustrated 
 
 FIG. 5. 
 
 FIG. 6. 
 
 in Fig. 6. A is a straight-pene ; B, a cross-pene; 
 and C, a riveting-hammer. 
 
 Sledges. Very light sledges are sometimes made 
 the same shape as ball-pene hammers. They are 
 used for light tool-work and boiler-work. 
 
 Fig. 7 illustrates a common shape for sledges. 
 This is a double-faced sledge. 
 
 FIG. 7. 
 
 Sledges are also made with a cross-pene or straight- 
 pene, as shown in Fig. 8.
 
 12 
 
 FORGE-PRACTICE. 
 
 For ordinary work a sledge should weigh about 
 10 or 12 Ibs. ; for heavy work, from 16 to 20. 
 
 Sledges for light work weigh about 5 or 6 Ibs. 
 
 Tongs. Tongs are made in a wide variety of 
 shapes and sizes, depending upon the work they 
 are intended to hold. Three of the more ordinary 
 shapes are illustrated. 
 
 The ordinary straight-jawed tongs are shown in 
 Fig. 9. They are used for holding flat iron. For 
 holding round iron the jaws are grooved or bent 
 to the shape of the piece to be held. 
 
 Fig. 10 shows a pair of bolt- tongs. These tongs 
 are used for holding bolts or pieces which are larger 
 on the end than through the body, and are so 
 shaped that the tongs do not touch the enlarged end 
 when the jaws grip the body of the work. 
 
 FIG. 9. 
 
 FIG. jo. 
 
 FIG. ii. 
 
 Pick-up tongs, Fig. n, are used for handling 
 small pieces, tempering, etc., but are very seldom 
 used for holding work while forging.
 
 GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF FORGE AXD TOOLS. 13 
 
 Fitting Tongs to Work. Tongs should always be 
 carefully fitted to the work they are intended to 
 hold. 
 
 Tongs which fit the work in the manner shown 
 in Fig. 12 should not be used until more carefully 
 fitted. In the first case shown, the jaws are too 
 close together; and in the second case, too far 
 apart. 
 
 FIG. 12. 
 
 FIG. 13. 
 
 When properly fitted, the jaws should touch 
 the work the entire length, as illustrated in Fig. 
 13. With properly fitted tongs the work may be 
 held firmly, but if fitted as shown in Fig. 12 there 
 is always a very "wobbly" action between the 
 jaws and the work. 
 
 To fit a pair of tongs to a piece of work, the jaws 
 should be heated red-hot, the piece to be held 
 placed between them, and the jaws closed down 
 tight around the piece with a hammer. To pre- 
 vent the handles from being brought too close 
 together while the tongs are being fitted, a short 
 piece of stock should be held between them just
 
 14 FORGE-PRACTICE. 
 
 back of the jaws. If the handles are too far apart, 
 a few blows just back of the eye will close them up. 
 
 Flatter Set-hammer Swage Fuller Swage-block. 
 Among the commonest tools used in forge-work 
 are the ones mentioned above. 
 
 The flatter, Fig. 14, as its name implies, is used 
 for flattening and smoothing straight surfaces. 
 
 The face of the flatter is generally from 2 inches 
 to 3 inches square, and should be kept perfectly 
 smooth with the edges slightly rounding. 
 
 FIG. 14. FIG. 15. 
 
 Fig. 15 shows a set-hammer. This is used for 
 finishing parts which cannot be reached with the 
 flatter, up into corners, and work of that character. 
 The face of this tool also should be smooth and 
 flat, with the corners more or less rounded, depend- 
 ing on the work it is intended to do. 
 
 Set-hammers for small work should be about 
 i or i^ inches square on the face. 
 
 "Set-hammer" is a name which is sometimes 
 given to almost any tool provided with a handle, 
 which tool in use is held in place and struck with 
 another hammer. Thus, flatters, swages, fullers, 
 etc., are sometimes classed under the general name 
 of set-hammers.
 
 GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF FORGE AND TOOLS. 15 
 
 Fullers, Fig. 16, are used for finishing up filleted 
 corners, forming grooves, and for numerous pur- 
 poses which will be given more in detail later. 
 
 They are made in a variety of sizes, the size 
 being determined by the shape of the edge A. 
 On a % inch fuller this edge would be a half -circle 
 ^ inch in diameter ; on a f inch it would be f inch 
 in diameter, etc. 
 
 Fullers are made "top" and "bottom." The 
 one shown \vith a handle is a "top" fuller, and 
 the lower one in the illustration is a "bottom" 
 fuller and has the stem forged to fit into the square 
 hardie-hole of the anvil. This stem should be a 
 loose fit in the hardie-hole. Tools of this character 
 should never be used on an anvil where they fit 
 so tightly that it is necessary to drive them into 
 place. 
 
 A top and bottom swage is shown in Fig. 17. 
 The swages shown here are for finishing round 
 
 FIG. 16. 
 
 FIG. 18. 
 
 FIG. 17. 
 
 work; but swages are made to be used for other 
 shapes as well.
 
 1 6 FORGE-PRACTICE. 
 
 Swages are sized according to the shape they are 
 made to fit. A i-inch round swage, for instance, 
 is made to fit a circle i inch in diameter, and would 
 be used for finishing work of that size. 
 
 All of the above tools are made of low-carbon 
 tool steel. 
 
 A swage-block is shown in Fig. 18. These blocks 
 are made in a variety of shapes; the illustration 
 showing a common form for general use. This 
 block is made of cast iron and is about 3^ inches 
 thick. It has a wide range of uses and is very 
 convenient for general work, where it takes the 
 place of a good many special tools.
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 WELDING. 
 
 Welding-heat. A piece of wrought iron or mild 
 steel, when heated, as the temperature increases 
 becomes softer and softer until at last a heat is 
 reached at which the iron is so soft that if another 
 piece of iron heated to the same point touches it, 
 the two will stick together. The heat at which 
 the two pieces will stick together is known as the 
 welding-heat. If the iron is heated much beyond 
 this point, it will burn. All metals cannot be welded 
 (in the sense in which the term is ordinarily used). 
 Some, when heated, remain very dense and retain 
 almost their initial hardness until a certain heat 
 is reached, when a very slight rise of temperature 
 will cause them to either crumble or melt. Only 
 those metals which, as the temperature is increased, 
 become gradually softer, passing slowly from the 
 solid to the liquid state, can be welded easily. 
 Metals of this kind just before melting become 
 soft and more or less pasty, and it is in this con- 
 dition that they are most weldable. The greater 
 the range of temperature through which the metal 
 remains pasty the more easily may it be welded. 
 
 In nearly all welding the greatest trouble is in 
 heating the metal properly. The fire must be clean 
 
 17
 
 1 8 FORGE-PRACTICE. 
 
 and bright or the result will be a "dirty" heat; 
 that is, small pieces of cinder and other dirt will 
 stick to the metal, get in between the two pieces, 
 and make a bad weld. 
 
 Too much care cannot be used in welding ; if the 
 pieces are too cold they will not stick, and no 
 amount of hammering will weld them. On the 
 other hand, if they are kept in the fire too long 
 and heated to too high a temperature they will 
 be burned, and burned iron is absolutely worthless. 
 
 The heating must be done slowly enough to 
 insure the work heating evenly all the way through. 
 If heated too rapidly, the outside may be at the 
 proper heat while the interior metal is much colder ; 
 and, as soon as taken from the fire, this cooler 
 metal on the inside and the air almost instantly 
 cool the surface to be welded below the welding 
 temperature, and it will be too cold to weld by 
 the time any work can be done on it. 
 
 If the pieces are properly heated (when welding 
 wrought iron or mild steel), they will feel sticky 
 when brought in contact. 
 
 When welding, it is best to be sure that every- 
 thing is ready before the iron is taken from the 
 fire. All the tools should be so placed that they 
 may be picked up without looking to see where 
 they are. The face of the anvil should be perfectly 
 clean, and the hammer in such a position that it 
 will not be knocked out of the way when the work 
 is placed on the anvil for welding. 
 
 All the tools being in place, and the iron brought 
 to the proper heat, the tongs should be held in
 
 WELDING. ig 
 
 such a way that the pieces can be easily placed in 
 position for welding without changing the grip or 
 letting go of them ; then, when .everything is ready, 
 the blast should be shut off, the pieces taken from 
 the fire, placed together on the anvil, and welded 
 together with rapid blows of the hammer, welding 
 (after the pieces are once stuck together) the 
 thin parts first, as these are the parts which 
 naturally cool the quickest. 
 
 Burning Iron or Steel. The statement that iron 
 can be burned seems to the beginner to be rather 
 exaggerated. The truth of this can, however, be 
 very easily shown. If a bar of iron be heated in the 
 forge and considerable blast turned on, the bar will 
 grow hotter and hotter, until at last sparks will be 
 seen coming from the fire. These sparks, which are 
 quite unlike the ordinary ones from the fire, are 
 white and seem to explode and form little white 
 stars. 
 
 These sparks are small particles of burning iron 
 which have been blown upward out of the fire. 
 
 The same sparks may be made by dropping fine 
 iron-filings into a gas-flame, or by burning a piece 
 of oily waste which has been used for wiping up 
 iron-filings. 
 
 If the bar of iron be taken from the fire at the 
 time these sparks appear, the end of the bar will 
 seem white and sparkling, with sparks, like stars 
 similar to those in the fire, coming from it. If the 
 heating be continued long enough, the end of the 
 bar will be partly consumed, forming lumps similar 
 to the "clinkers" taken from a coal fire.
 
 2O FORGE- PRACTICE. 
 
 f" To burn iron two things are necessary: a high 
 enough heat, and the presence of oxygen. 
 
 As noted before, when welding, care must be 
 taken not to have too much air going through the 
 fire; in other words, not to have an oxidizing fire. 
 
 If the fire is not an oxidizing one, there is not so 
 much danger of injury to the iron by burning and 
 the forming of scale. 
 
 Iron which has been overheated and partially 
 burned has a rough, spongy appearance and is 
 brittle and crumbly. 
 
 Use of Fluxes in Welding. When a piece of iron 
 or steel is heated for welding under ordinary con- 
 ditions the outside is oxidized; that is, a thin film 
 of iron oxide is formed. This oxide is the black 
 scale which is continually falling from heated iron 
 and is formed when heated iron is brought in contact 
 with the air. This oxide of iron is not fluid except 
 at a very high heat, and, if allowed to stay on the 
 iron, will prevent a good weld. 
 
 When welding without a flux the iron is brought 
 to a high enough heat to melt the oxide, which is 
 forced from between the welding pieces by the 
 blows of the hammer. 
 
 This heat may easily be taken when welding 
 ordinary iron; but when working with some ma- 
 chine-steel, and particularly tool-steel, the metal 
 cannot be heated to a high enough temperature 
 to melt the oxide without burning the steel. 
 
 From the above it would seem impossible to weld 
 steel, as it cannot be heated under ordinary condi- 
 tions without oxidizing, but by the use of a flux
 
 WELDING. 21 
 
 this difficulty may be overcome and the oxide 
 melted at a lower temperature. 
 
 The flux (sand and borax are the most common) 
 should be sprinkled on the part of the piece to be 
 welded when it has reached about a yellow heat, 
 and the heating continued until the metal is at a 
 proper temperature to be soft enough to weld, but 
 care should be taken to see that the flux covers 
 the parts to be welded together. 
 
 The flux has a double action; in the first place, 
 as it melts it flows over the piece and forms a 
 protecting covering wilich prevents oxidation, 
 and also when raised to the proper heat dissolves 
 the oxide that has already formed. 
 
 The oxide melts at a much lower heat when 
 combined with the flux than without it, and to 
 melt the oxide is the principal use of the flux. The 
 metal when heated in contact with the flux becomes 
 soft and "weldable" at a lower temperature than 
 when without it. 
 
 Ordinary borax contains water which causes it 
 to bubble up when heated. If the heating is con- 
 tinued at a high temperature, the borax melts 
 and runs like water; this melted borax, when 
 cooled, is called borax-glass. 
 
 Borax for welding is sometimes fused as above 
 and then powdered for use. 
 
 Sal ammoniac mixed with borax seems to clean 
 the surface better than borax alone. A flux made 
 of one part of sal ammoniac and four parts borax 
 works well, particularly when welding tool-steel, 
 and is a little better than borax alone.
 
 22 FORGE-PR ACTIC'K. 
 
 Most patented welding compounds have boi\v: 
 as a basis, and are very little, if any, better 
 than the ordinary mixture given above. 
 
 The flux does not in any way stick the pieces 
 together or act as a cement or glue. Its use is 
 principally to help melt the oxide already formed 
 and to prevent the formation of more. 
 
 Iron filings are sometimes mixed with borax and 
 used as a flux. 
 
 When using a flux the work should always be 
 scarfed the same as when no flux is used. The 
 pieces can be welded, however, at a lower 
 heat. 
 
 Fagot or Pile Welding. When a large forging 
 is to be made of wrought iron, small pieces of 
 "scrap" iron (old horseshoes, bolts, nuts, etc.) 
 are placed together in a square or rectangular 
 pile on a board, bound together with wire, heated 
 to welding heat in a furnace, and welded together 
 into one solid lump, and the forging made from 
 this. If there is not enough metal in one lump, 
 several are made in this way and afterward welded 
 to each other making one large piece. This is 
 known as fagot or pile welding. 
 
 Sand is used for fluxing to a 
 large extent on work of this kind. 
 Sometimes a small fagot weld 
 is made by laying two or more 
 pieces together and welding them 
 their entire length, or one piece 
 may be doubled together several 
 times and welded into a lump. Such a weld is
 
 WELDING. 23 
 
 shown in Fig. 19, which shows the piece before 
 welding and also after being welded and shaped. 
 
 Scarfing. In a fagot weld the pieces are not 
 prepared or shaped for each other, being simply laid 
 together and welded, but for most welding the 
 ends of the pieces to be joined should be so shaped 
 that they will fit together and form a smooth 
 joint when welded. This is called scarfing. It 
 is very important that the scarfing be properly 
 done, as a badly shaped scarf will probably spoil 
 the weld. For instance, if an attempt be made 
 to weld two bars together simply by overlapping 
 their ends, as in Fig. 20, the weld when finished 
 would be something like Fig. 21. Each bar would 
 
 FIG. 20. 
 
 FIG. 21. 
 
 be forged into the other and leave a small crack 
 where the end came. On the other hand, if the 
 ends of the bars were properly scarfed or pointed, 
 they could be welded together and leave no mark 
 making a smooth joint. 
 
 Lap-welds are sometimes made without scarf- 
 ing when manufacturing many pieces alike, but 
 this should not be attempted in ordinary work.
 
 24 FORGE-PRACTICE. 
 
 Lap-weld Scarf. In preparing for the lap-weld, 
 the ends of the pieces to be welded should be first 
 upset until they are considerably thicker than the 
 rest of the bar. This is done to allow for the 
 iron which burns off, or is lost by scaling, and 
 also to allow for the hammering which must be 
 done when welding the pieces together. To make 
 a proper weld the joint should be well hammered 
 together, and as this reduces the size of the iron 
 at that point the pieces must be upset to allow 
 for this reduction in size in order to have the weld 
 the same size as the bar. 
 
 If the ends are not upset enough in the first 
 place, it requires considerable hard work to upset 
 the weld after they are joined together. Too 
 much upsetting does no harm, and the extra 
 metal is very easily worked into shape. To be on 
 the safe side it is better to upset a little more than 
 is absolutely necessary it may save considerable 
 work afterwards. 
 
 If more than one heating will be necessary to 
 make a weld, the iron should be upset just that 
 much more to allow for the extra waste due to 
 the second or third heating. 
 
 Flat Lap-weld. The lap-weld is the weld ordinarily 
 used to join flat or round bars of iron together 
 end to end. 
 
 Following is a description of a flat lap-weld: 
 The ends of the pieces to be joined must be first 
 upset. When heating for upsetting heat only the 
 end as shown in Fig. 22, where the shaded part 
 indicates the hotter metal. To heat this way
 
 WELDING. 
 
 place only the extreme end of the bar in the fire, 
 so the heat will not run back" too far. The end 
 should be upset until it looks about like Fig. 23. 
 
 FIG. 22. 
 
 FIG. 23. 
 
 When starting to shape the scarf use the round 
 or pene end of the hammer. Do not strike directly 
 down on the work, but let the blows come at an 
 angle of about 45 degrees and in such a way as to 
 force the metal back toward the base as shown in Fig. 
 
 FIG. 24. 
 
 FIG. 25. 
 
 24. This drives the metal back and makes a sort of 
 thick ridge at the beginning of the scarf. In 
 finishing the scarf, use the flat face of the hammer, 
 and bring the piece to the very edge of the anvil, 
 as in this way a hard blow may be struck without 
 danger of hitting the anvil instead of the work. 
 The proper position is shown in Fig. 25. 
 
 The scarfs should be shaped as in Fig. 26, leav- 
 ing them slightly convex and not concave, as 
 shown in Fig. 27.
 
 26 FORGE-PRACTICE. 
 
 The reason for this is that if the scarfed ends be 
 concave when the two pieces are put together, a 
 
 C 
 
 FIG. 26. FIG. 27. 
 
 small pocket or hollow will be left between them, 
 the scarfs touching only the edges. When the 
 weld is hammered together, these edges being in 
 contact will naturally weld first, closing up all 
 outlet to the pocket. As the surface of the scarf 
 is more or less covered with melted scale and 
 other impurities, some of this will be held in the 
 pocket and make a bad place in the weld. On 
 the other hand, if the scarfs are convex, the metal 
 will first stick in the very center of the scarf, forc- 
 ing out the melted scale at the sides of the joint 
 as the- hammering continues. 
 
 The length of the scarf should be about i times 
 the thickness of the bar; thus on a bar \" thick 
 the scarf should be about f " long. 
 
 The width of the end A should be slightly less 
 than the width B of the bar. In welding the two 
 pieces together, the first piece should be placed 
 scarf side up on the anvil, and the second piece 
 laid on top, scarf side down, in such a way that 
 the thin edges of the second piece will lap over 
 the thick ridge C on the first piece as shown in 
 Fig. 28. The piece which is laid on top should 
 be held by the smith doing the welding, the other 
 may be handled by the helper.
 
 WELDING. 
 
 The helper should place his piece in position 
 on the anvil first. As it is ralher hard to lay the 
 other piece directly on top of this and place it 
 exactly in the right position, it is better to rest 
 the second piece on the corner of the anvil as 
 
 FIG. 28. 
 
 FIG. 29. 
 
 shown at A, Fig. 29, and thus guide it into position. 
 In this way the piece may be steadied and placed 
 on the other in the right position without any 
 loss of time. 
 
 When heating for a lap-weld, or for that matter 
 any weld where two pieces are joined together, 
 great care should be taken to bring both pieces 
 to the same heat at the same time. If one piece 
 heats faster than the other, it should be taken 
 from the fire and allowed to cool until the other 
 piece "catches up" with it. It requires some 
 practice to so place the pieces in the fire that they 
 will be heated uniformly and equally. The tips 
 particularly must be watched, and it may be 
 necessary to cool them from time to time in the 
 water-bucket to prevent the extreme ends from 
 burning off. 
 
 The fire must be clean, and the heating should be 
 done slowly in order to insure its being done evenly. 
 
 Just before taking the pieces from the fire they
 
 28 FORGE-PRACTICE. 
 
 should be turned scarf side down for a short time, 
 to be sure that the surfaces to be joined will be hot. 
 More blast should be used at the last moment 
 than when starting to heat. 
 
 The only way to know how this heating is going 
 on is to take the pieces from the fire from time 
 to time and look at them. The color grows lighter 
 as the temperature increases, until finally, when 
 the welding heat is reached, the iron will seem 
 almost white. The exact heat can only be learned 
 by experience; but the workman should recognize 
 it after a little practice as soon as he sees it. 
 
 To get an indication of the heat, which will help 
 sometimes, watch the sparks that come from the 
 fire. When the little, white, explosive sparks 
 come they show that some of the iron has been 
 heated hot enough to be melted off in small particles 
 and is burning. This serves as a rough indication 
 that the iron is somewhere near the welding heat. 
 This should never be relied on entirely, as the 
 condition of the fire has much to do with their 
 appearance. 
 
 Round Lap-weld. The round lap-weld the weld 
 used to join round bars end to end is made in 
 much the same way as the ordinary or flat lap- 
 weld. The directions given for making the flat 
 weld apply to the round lap as 
 well, excepting that the scarf 
 is slightly different in shape. 
 The proper shape of scarf is 
 shown in Fig. 30, which gives 
 the top and side views of the piece. One side is
 
 WELDING. 29 
 
 left straight, the other three sides tapering in 
 to meet it in a point. The length of the scarf 
 should be about one and one-half times the 
 diameter of the bar. Always be sure, particularly 
 in small work, that the pieces are scarfed to a 
 point, and not merely flattened out. The greatest 
 difficulty with this weld is to have the points of 
 the pieces well welded, as they cool very rapidly 
 after leaving the fire. The first blows, after stick- 
 ing the pieces together, should cover the points. 
 The weld should be made square at first and then 
 rounded. The weld is not so apt to split while 
 being hammered if welded square and then worked 
 round, as it would be if hammered round at first. 
 
 If the scarf were made wide on the end like 
 the ordinary lap-weld, it would be necessary to 
 hammer clear around the bar in order to close 
 down the weld; but with the pointed scarf, one 
 blow on each point will stick the work in place, 
 making it much more quickly handled. 
 
 Ring Weld, Round Stock. A ring formed from 
 round stock may be made in two ways; that is, 
 by scarfing before or after bending into shape. 
 When scarfed before bending, the length of stock 
 should be carefully calculated, a small amount 
 
 FIG. 31. 
 
 being added for welding, and the ends upset and 
 scarfed exactly the same as for a round lap-weld,
 
 FORGE PRACTICE. 
 
 Care should be taken to see that the scarfs come 
 on opposite sides of the piece. 
 
 Fig. 31 shows a piece of stock scarfed ready for 
 bending. 
 
 After scarfing, the piece should be bent into 
 
 a ring and welded, care 
 being taken when bend- 
 ing to see that the points 
 of the scarf lie as indi- 
 cated at A, Fig. 32, and 
 not as shown at B. 
 
 When the points of 
 the scarfs are lapped as 
 shown at A, most of the 
 welding may be done 
 while the ring lies flat on 
 the anvil, the shaping 
 being finished over the 
 FIG. 32. horn. If the points are 
 
 lapped the other way, B, the welding also must 
 be done over the horn, making it much more awk- 
 ward to handle. 
 
 The second way of welding the ring is practically 
 the same as that of making a chain link, and the 
 same description of scarfing will answer for both, 
 the stock being cut and bent into a ring, with the 
 ends a little distance apart; these ends are then 
 scarfed the same as described below for a link 
 scarf and welded in exactly the same manner 
 as described for making the other ring. 
 
 Chain-making. -The first step in making a link 
 is to bend the iron into a U-shaped piece, being
 
 WELDING. 3 1 
 
 careful to keep the legs of the U exactly even in 
 length. The piece should be gripped at the lower 
 end of the U, the two ends brought to a high heat, 
 scarfed, bent into shape together, reheated, and 
 welded. 
 
 To scarf the piece place one end of the U on the 
 anvil, as shown in Fig. 33, and strike one blow on 
 it ; move it a short distance in the direction shown 
 by the arrow and strike another blow. This 
 should be continued until the edge or corner of 
 the piece is reached, moving it after each blow. 
 
 FIG. 33. FIG. 34. 
 
 This operation leaves a series of little steps on 
 the end of the piece, and works it out in a more 
 or less pointed shape, as shown in Fig. 34. 
 
 This scarf may be finished by being brought 
 more to a point by a few blows over the horn of 
 the anvil. The ends should then be bent together 
 and welded. Fig. 35 shows the steps in making 
 the link and two views of the finished link. The 
 link is sometimes left slightly thicker through 
 the weld. A second link is made all but welding 
 spread open, and the first link put on it, closed 
 up again, and welded. A third is joined to this 
 etc. 
 
 When made on a commercial scale, the links are
 
 FORGE-PRACTICE. 
 
 not scarfed but bent together and welded in one 
 heat. 
 
 FIG. 35. 
 Ring, or Band. A method of making a ring from 
 
 FIG. 36. 
 
 flat iron is shown in Fig. 36, which shows the 
 stock before and after bending into shape.
 
 WELDING. 33 
 
 The stock is cut to the correct length, upset, 
 and scarfed exactly the same as for a flat lap-weld. 
 The piece is bent into shape and welded over the 
 horn of the anvil. The ring must be heated for 
 welding very carefully or the outside lap will 
 burn before the inside is hot enough to weld. 
 
 In scarfing this as in making other rings care 
 must be taken to have the scarfs come on opposite 
 sides of the tock. 
 
 Washer, or Flat Ring. In this weld flat stock 
 is used bent edgewise into a ring without any 
 preparation. The corners of the ends are trimmed 
 off parallel after the stock is bent as shown in 
 Fig- 37- 
 
 FIG. 37. FIG. 38. 
 
 After trimming the ends are scarfed with a 
 fuller or pene end of a hammer and lapped ready 
 for welding (Fig. 38). 
 
 When heating for welding, the ring should be 
 turned over several times to insure uniformity in 
 heating. 
 
 If the work is particular, the ends of the stock 
 should be upset somewhat before bending into 
 shape.
 
 34 FORGE-PRACTICE. 
 
 Butt-weld. This is a weld where the pieces 
 are butted together without any slanting scarfs, 
 leaving a square joint through the weld. 
 
 When two pieces are so welded the ends should 
 be slightly rounded, simillar to Fig. 39, which 
 shows two pieces ready for welding. If the ends 
 are convex as shown, the scale and other impurity 
 sticking to the metal is forced out of the joint. 
 If the ends were concave this matter would be 
 
 FIG. 39. FIG. 40. 
 
 held between the pieces and make a poor weld. 
 The pieces are welded by being struck on the ends 
 and driven together. This, of course, upsets the 
 metal near the weld and leaves the piece something 
 like Fig. 40, showing a slight seam where the 
 rounded edges of the ends join. This upset part 
 is worked down to size at a welding heat, leaving 
 the bar smooth. 
 
 A butt-weld is not as safe or as strong as a lap- 
 weld. 
 
 When the pieces are long enough they may be 
 welded right in the fire. This is done by placing 
 the pieces in the fire in the proper position for 
 welding; a heavy weight is held against the pro- 
 jecting end of one piece to "back it up" and 
 the weld is made by driving the pieces together 
 by hammering on the projecting end of the second 
 piece. As soon as the work is "stuck," the weld
 
 WELDING. 3 5 
 
 is taken from the fire and finished on the 
 anvil. 
 
 Jump Weld. Another form of butt-weld, Fig. 41, 
 is the "jump" weld, which, 
 however, is a form which should 
 be avoided as much as possible, 
 as it is very liable to be weak. 
 When making a weld like this, the 
 piece which is to be "jumped," 
 or "butted," on to the other FlG - 41. 
 
 piece should have its end upset in such a way as 
 to flare out and form a sort of flange the wider 
 the better. When the weld is made, this flange 
 indicated by the arrow can be welded down with a 
 hammer, or set-hammers, and make a fairly strong 
 weld. 
 
 Split Weld; Weld for very Thin Steel. Very thin 
 stock is sometimes difficult to join with the ordi- 
 nary lap -weld for the reason that the stock is so 
 thin that if the pieces are taken from the fire at the 
 proper heat they will be too cold to weld before 
 they can be properly placed together on the anvil. 
 
 This difficulty is somewhat overcome by scarfing 
 the ends, similar to Fig. 42. The ends are tapered 
 
 FIG. 42. 
 
 to a blunt edge and split down the center for half an 
 inch or so, depending on the thickness of stock. 
 One half of each split end is bent up, the other
 
 FORGE-PRACTICE. 
 
 down; the ends are pushed lightly together and 
 the split parts closed down on each other, as shown 
 
 FIG. 43- 
 
 in Fig. 43. The joint may then be heated and 
 welded. 
 
 This is a weld sometimes used for welding spring 
 steel, or iron to steel. 
 
 Split Weld; Heavier Stock. A split weld for 
 heavier stock is shown ready for welding in Fig. 
 
 FIG. 44. 
 
 FIG. 45- 
 
 FIG. 46. 
 
 45, Fig. 44 showing the two pieces before they are 
 put together. In this weld the ends of the pieces 
 are first upset and then scarfed, one piece being
 
 WELDING. 3 7 
 
 split and shaped into a Y, while the other has its 
 end brought to a point with the sides of the bar 
 just back of the point bulging out slightly as shown 
 at A and B. This bulge is to prevent the two 
 pieces from slipping apart. 
 
 When properly shaped the two pieces are driven 
 together and the sides, or lips, of the Y-shaped 
 scarf closed down over the pointed end of the other 
 piece. The lips of the Y should be long enough to 
 lap over the bulge on the end of the other piece 
 and thus prevent the two pieces from slipping apart. 
 The pieces are then heated and welded. Care must 
 be taken to heat slowly, that the pointed part may 
 be brought to a welding heat without burning the 
 outside piece. Borax, sand, or some other flux 
 should be used. (Sometimes the faces of the scarfs 
 are roughened or notched with a chisel, as shown in 
 Fig. 46, to prevent the pieces from slipping apart.) 
 
 This is the weld that is often used when welding 
 tool-steel to iron or mild steel. 
 
 Sometimes the pieces are heated separately to a 
 welding heat before being placed together. Good 
 results may be obtained this way when tool-steel is 
 welded to iron or mild steel, as the tool-steel welds 
 at a much lower temperature than either wrought 
 iron or mild steel, and if the two pieces are heated 
 separately, the other metal may be raised to a much 
 higher temperature than the tool-steel. 
 
 Angle Weld. In all welding it should be remem- 
 bered that the object of scarring is to so shape the 
 pieces to be welded, that they will fit together and 
 form a smooth joint when properly hammered.
 
 FORGE PRACTICE. 
 
 Frequently there are several equally good methods 
 of scarfing for the same sort of weld, and it should 
 be remembered that the method given here is not 
 necessarily the only way in which the particular 
 weld can be made. 
 
 Fig. 47 shows one way of 
 scarfing for a right-angle weld 
 made of flat iron. Both pieces 
 are scarfed exactly alike. The 
 scarfing is done with the pene 
 end of the hammer. If neces- 
 sary the ends of the pieces 
 may be upset before scarfing. 
 
 As in all other welds, care 
 must be taken to so shape the 
 scarfs that when they are placed 
 together they will touch in the 
 center, and not around the edges, thus leaving an 
 opening for forcing out the impurities which collect 
 on the surfaces to be welded. 
 
 FIG. 47. 
 
 FIG. 48. 
 
 "T" Weld. A method of scarfing for a 
 weld is illustrated in Fig. 48.
 
 WELDING. 
 
 39 
 
 The stem, A, should be placed on the bar, B, 
 when welding in about the position shown by the 
 dotted line on B. 
 
 "T" Weld, Round Stock. Two methods of 
 scarfing for a "T" weld made from round stock are 
 shown in Fig. 49. 
 
 FIG. 49. 
 
 The scarfs are formed mostly with the pene end 
 of the hammer. 
 
 The illustration will explain itself. The stock 
 should be well upset in either method. 
 
 Welding Tool - steel. The general method of 
 scarfing is the same in all welding ; but when tool- 
 steel is to be welded, either to itself or to wrought 
 iron or mild steel, more care must be used in the 
 heating than when working with the softer metals 
 alone. 
 
 The proper heat for welding tool-steel about a 
 bright yellow can only be learned by experiment. 
 If the tool-steel is heated until the sparks fly, a 
 light blow of the hammer will cause it to crumble 
 and fall to pieces.
 
 4O FORGE-PRACTICE. 
 
 When welding mild steel or wrought iron to tool- 
 steel, the tool-steel should be at a lower heat than 
 the other metal, which should be heated to its reg- 
 ular welding heat. 
 
 The flux used should be a mixture of about one 
 part sal ammoniac and four parts borax. 
 
 Tool-steel of high carbon, and such as is used for 
 files, small lathe tools, etc., can seldom be welded to 
 itself in a satisfactory manner. What appears to 
 be a first-class weld may be made, and the steel 
 may work up into shape and seem perfect may, in 
 fact, be machined and finished without showing 
 any signs of the weld but when the work is hard- 
 ened, the weld is almost certain to crack open. 
 
 Spring steel, a lower carbon steel, may be satis- 
 factorily welded if great care be used.
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 CALCULATION OF STOCK FOR BENT SHAPES. 
 
 Calculating for Angles and Simple Bends. It is 
 
 often necessary to cut the stock for a forging as 
 nearly as possible to the exact length needed. This 
 length can generally be easily obtained by meas- 
 ment or calculation. 
 
 About the simplest case for calculation is a plain 
 right-angle bend, of which the piece in Fig. 50 will 
 serve as an example. 
 
 This piece as shown is a simple right-angle bend 
 made from stock i" through, 8" long on the outside 
 of each leg. 
 
 * 
 
 .*' 
 
 n 
 
 FIG. 50. 
 
 FIG. 51. 
 
 Suppose this to be made of wood in place of iron. 
 It is easily seen that a piece of stock i" thick and 
 15" long would make the angle by cutting off 7" 
 
 41
 
 4 2 FORGE-PRACTICE. 
 
 from one end and fastening this piece to the end of 
 the 8" piece, as shown in Fig. 51. 
 
 This is practically what is done when the angle is 
 made of iron only f in place of cutting and fasten- 
 ing, the bar is bent and hammered into shape. 
 
 In other words, any method which will give the 
 length of stock required to make a shape of uniform 
 section in wood, if no allowance is made- for cutting 
 or waste, will also give the length required to make 
 the same shape with iron. 
 
 An easier way which will serve for calculating 
 lengths of all bent shapes is to measure the length 
 of an imaginary line drawn through the center of 
 the stock. Thus, if a dotted line should be drawn 
 through the center of stock in Fig. 50, the length of 
 each leg of this line would be 7^", and the length of 
 stock required 15", as found before. 
 
 No matter what the shape when the stock is left 
 of uniform width through its length, this length of 
 straight stock may always be found by measuring 
 the length of the center line on the bent shape. 
 This may be clearly shown by the following experi- 
 ment. 
 
 Experiment to Determine Part of Stock which 
 Remains Constant in Length while Bending. Sup- 
 pose a straight bar of iron with square ends be 
 taken and bent into the shape shown in Fig. 52. If 
 
 the length of the bar be 
 measured on the inside 
 edge of the bend and then 
 FlG - 5 2 - on the outside, it will be 
 
 found that the inside length is considerably shorter
 
 CALCULATION OF STOCK FOR BENT SHAPES 43 
 
 than the outside; and not only this, but the inside 
 will be shorter than the original bar, while the out- 
 side will be longer. The metal must therefore 
 squeeze together or upset on the inside and 
 stretch or draw out on the outside. If this is the 
 case, as it is, there must be some part of the bar 
 which when it is bent neither squeezes together nor 
 draws out, but retains its original length, and this 
 part of the bar lies almost exactly in the center, as 
 shown by the dotted line. It is on this line of the 
 bent bar that the measuring must be done in order 
 to determine the original length of the straight 
 stock, for this is the only part of the stock which 
 remains unaltered in length when the bar is bent. 
 
 To make the explanation a little clearer, suppose 
 a bar of iron is taken, polished on one side, and lines 
 scratched upon the surface, as shown in the lower 
 drawing of Fig. 53, and this bar then bent into the 
 shape show r n in the upper drawing. Now if the 
 length of each one of these lines be measured and 
 the measurements compared with the length of the 
 same lines before the bar was bent, it would be 
 found that the line A A, on the outside of the bar, 
 had lengthened considerably; the line BB would 
 be somewhat lengthened, but not as much as A A ; 
 and CC would be lengthened less than BB. The 
 line 00, through the center of the bar, would meas- 
 ure almost exactly the same as when the bar was 
 straight. The line DD would be found to be 
 shorter than 00 and FF shorter than any other. 
 The line 00, at the center of the bar, does not 
 change its length when the bar is bent; conse-
 
 44 
 
 quently, to determine the length of straight stock 
 required to bend into any shape, measure the 
 
 < A 5Vi >i 
 
 r 
 
 r A 
 
 
 A D 
 
 n 
 
 r ~ 
 
 5 
 
 L F 
 
 
 F C 
 
 *< 
 
 ) 
 
 
 ** 
 
 B 
 
 / 
 
 t 
 
 
 
 
 
 r- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 T 
 
 if 
 
 
 
 : - 
 
 
 
 -4- 
 
 j 
 
 FIG. 53. 
 
 FIG. 54. 
 
 length of the line following the center of the stock 
 of the bent shape. 
 
 As another example Fig. 54 will serve. 
 
 Suppose a center line be drawn, as shown by the 
 dotted line. As the stock is i" thick, the length of 
 the center line of the part A will be 5", at B 8", 
 C 5", D 2", E 3$", and the total length of stock 
 required 2\\" . 
 
 A convenient form for making calculations is as 
 follows : 
 
 A = 5" 
 
 Total. .. 2 1 " = length of stock required. 
 
 Curves. Circles. Methods of Measuring. On cir- 
 cles and curves there are several different methods 
 which may be employed in determining the length 
 of stock, but the same principle must be followed
 
 CALCULATION OF STOCK FOR BENT SHAPES. 
 
 45 
 
 in any case the length must be measured along 
 the center line of the stock. 
 
 One way of measuring is to lay off the work full size. 
 On this full-size drawing lay a string or thin, easily 
 bent wire in such a way that it follows the shape 
 of the bend through its entire length, being careful 
 that the string is laid along the center of the stock. 
 
 The string or wire may then be straightened and 
 the length measured directly. 
 
 Irregular shapes or scrolls are easily measured in 
 this way. 
 
 Another method of measuring stock for scrolls, 
 etc., is to step around a scroll with a pair of dividers 
 with the points a short distance apart, and then lay 
 off the same number of spaces in a straight line and 
 measure the length of that line. This is of more 
 use in the drawing-room than in the shop. 
 
 Measuring-wheel. Still another way of measuring 
 directly from the drawing is to use a 
 light measuring- wheel, similar to 
 the one shown in Fig. 55, mounted 
 in some sort of a handle. This is a 
 thin light wheel generally made 
 with a circumference of about 
 24". The side of the rim is some- 
 times graduated in inches by 
 eighths. To use it, the wheel is 
 placed lightly in contact with the 
 line or object which it is wished 
 to measure, with the zero-mark on 
 the wheel corresponding to the point from which 
 the measurement is started. The wheel is then 
 
 FIG. 55.
 
 46 FORGE-PRACTICE. 
 
 pushed along the surface following the line to be 
 measured, with just pressure enough to make it 
 revolve. By counting the revolutions made and 
 setting the pointer or making a mark on the wheel 
 to correspond to the end of the line when it is 
 reached, it is an easy matter to push the wheel over 
 a straight line for the same number of revolutions 
 and part of a revolution as shown by the pointer 
 and measure the length. If the wheel is gradu- 
 ated, the length run over can of course be read 
 directly from the figures on the side of the wheel. 
 
 Calculating Stock for Circles. On circles and parts 
 of circles, the length may be calculated mathe- 
 matically, and in the majority of cases this is prob- 
 ably the easiest and most accurate method. This 
 is done in the following way: The circumference, or 
 distance around a circle, is equal to the diameter 
 multiplied by 3} (or more accurately, 3.1416). 
 
 As an illustration, the length of stock required to 
 bend up the ring in Fig. 56 is calculated as follows: 
 The inside diameter of the ring is 6" and the 
 stock i" in diameter. The length must, of course, 
 be measured along the center 
 of the stock, as shown by 
 the dotted line. It is the 
 diameter of this circle, made 
 by the dotted line, that is 
 used for calculating the 
 length of stock; and for 
 convenience this may be 
 FIG. 56. called the "calculating" di- 
 
 ameter, shown by C in Fig. 56.
 
 CALCULATION OF STOCK FOR BENT SHAPES. 
 
 47 
 
 The length of this calculating diameter is equal 
 to the inside diameter of the ring with one-half the 
 thickness of stock added at each end, and in this 
 case would be \" + 6" + ^" = 7". 
 
 The length of stock required to make the ring 
 would be 7 // X3}-=22 // ; or, in other words, to find 
 the length of stock required to make a ring, multi- 
 ply the diameter of the ring, measured from center 
 to center of the stock, by 3^-. 
 
 Calculating Stock for " U's." Some shapes may 
 be divided up into straight lines and parts of circles 
 and then easily calculated. Thus k s 
 the U shape in Fig. 57 may be 
 divided into two straight sides and _^j<-- 
 
 a half -circle end. The end is half of 
 a circle having an outside diameter 
 of 3^" . The calculating diameter of 
 this circle would be 3", and the 
 length of stock required for an entire FIG. 57. 
 
 circle this size 3X3^ = 9!, which for convenience 
 we may call 9", as this is near enough for ordinary 
 work. As the forging calls for only half a circle, 
 the length needed would be 9f" + % = 4{$". 
 
 As the circle is 3!" outside diameter, half of this 
 diameter, or if", must be taken from the total 
 length of the U to give the length of the straight 
 part of the sides ; in other words, the distance from 
 the line A to the extreme end of the U is half the 
 diameter of the circle, or if". This leaves the 
 straight sides each 4^" long, or a total length for 
 both of 8y. The total stock required for the 
 forging would be :
 
 4 8 
 
 FORGE-PRACTICE. 
 
 Length stock for sides 84-" 
 
 end 4\l" 
 
 < < i < 
 
 Total 
 
 " forging i 3v y. 
 
 |: 
 
 Link.- As another example, take the link shown 
 in Fig. 58. This may be divided int(/the two semi- 
 circles at the ends and the 
 two straight sides. Calcu- 
 lating as always through 
 the center of the stock, 
 there are the two straight 
 sides 2" long, or 4", and the 
 FlG - 5 8 - two semicircular ends, or 
 
 one complete circle for the two ends. The length 
 required for these two ends would be i?"X3|" = 
 f f " = 4 i", or, nearly enough, 4^". The total length 
 of the stock would be 4" + 4li" = 8i", to which 
 must be added a slight amount for the weld. 
 
 Double Link. The double link in Fig. 59 is an- 
 other example of stock calculation. Here there 
 are two complete circles each hav- 
 ing an inside diameter of ", and, 
 as they are made of |" stock, a 
 4 ' calculating ' ' diameter of i " . The 
 length of stock required for one side 
 would be 3.1416'' X i" = 3.1416", 
 and the total length for complete FlG - 59- 
 
 links 3. 1416" X 2" = 6. 2832", which is about 6\".. 
 
 As a general rule it is much easier to make the 
 calculations with decimals as above and then 
 reduce these decimals to eighths, sixteenths, etc.
 
 CALCULATION OF STOCK FOR BENT SHAPES. 49 
 
 Use of Tables.. To aid in reduction a table of 
 decimal equivalents is given on p. 249. By using 
 this table it is only necessary to find the decimal 
 result and select the nearest sixteenth in the table. 
 It is generally sufficiently accurate to take the 
 nearest sixteenth. 
 
 A table of circumferences of circles is also given; 
 and by looking up the diameter of any circle the 
 circumference may be found opposite. 
 
 To illustrate, suppose it is necessary to find the 
 amount, of stock required to make a ring 6" inside 
 diameter out of f " round stock. This would make 
 the calculating diameter of the ring 6f . 
 
 In the table of circumferences and areas of circles 
 opposite a diameter 6f is found the circumference 
 21.206. In the table of decimal equivalents it will 
 be seen that -^ is the nearest sixteenth to the deci- 
 mal .206; thus the amount of stock required is 
 21-^-". This of course makes no allowance for 
 welding. 
 
 Allowance for Welding. Some allowance must 
 always be made for welding, but the exact amount 
 is very hard to determine, as it depends on how 
 carefully the iron is heated and how many heats 
 are taken to make the weld. 
 
 The only stock which is really lost in welding, 
 and consequently the only waste which has to be 
 allowed for, is the amount which is burned off or 
 lost in scale when heating the iron. 
 
 Of course when preparing for the weld the ends 
 of the piece are upset and the work consequently 
 shortened, and the pieces are still farther shortened
 
 50 FORGE-PRACTICE. 
 
 by overlapping the ends in making the weld; but 
 all this material is afterward hammered back into 
 shape so that no loss occurs here at all, except of 
 course the loss from scaling. 
 
 A skilled workman requires a very small allow- 
 ance for waste in welding, in fact sometimes none 
 at all; but by the beginners an allowance should 
 always be made. 
 
 No rules can be given; but as a rough guide on 
 small work, a length of stock equal to from one- 
 fourth to three-fourths the thickness of the bar will 
 probably be about right for waste on rings, etc. 
 When making straight welds, when possible it is 
 better to allow a little more than is necessary and 
 trim off the extra stock from the end of the finished 
 piece. 
 
 Work of this kind should be watched very closely 
 and the stock measured before and after welding in 
 order to determine exactly how much stock is lost 
 in welding. In this way an accurate knowledge is 
 soon obtained of the proper allowance for waste.
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 UPSETTING, DRAWING OUT, AND BENDING. 
 
 Drawing Out. When a piece of metal is worked 
 out, either by pounding or otherwise, in such a way 
 that the length is increased, and either the width or 
 thickness reduced, we say that the metal is being 
 " drawn out," and the operation is known as " draw- 
 ing out." 
 
 It is always best when drawing out to heat the 
 metal to as high a heat as it will stand without 
 injury. Work can sometimes be drawn out much 
 faster by working over the horn of the anvil than on 
 the face, the reason being this: when a piece of 
 iron is laid flat on the anvil face and hit a blow with 
 the hammer, it flattens out and spreads both length- 
 wise and crosswise, making the piece longer and 
 wider. The piece is not wanted wider, however, 
 but only longer, so it is necessary to turn it on edge 
 and strike it in this position, when it will again in- 
 crease in length and also in thickness, and will have 
 to be thinned out again. A good deal of work thus 
 goes to either increasing the width or thickness, 
 which is not wanted increased; consequently this 
 work and the work required to again thin the forg- 
 ing are lost. In other words, when drawing out 
 iron on the face of the anvil the force of the blow is
 
 52 FORGE-PRACTICE. 
 
 expended in forcing the iron sidewise as well as 
 lengthwise, and the work used in forcing the iron 
 sidewise is lost. Thus only about one half the 
 force of the blow is really used to do the work 
 wanted. 
 
 Suppose the iron be placed on the horn of the 
 
 FIG. 60. 
 
 anvil, as shown in Fig. 60, and hit with the hammer 
 as before. The iron will still spread out sidewise a 
 little, but not nearly as much as before and will 
 lengthen out very much more. The horn in this 
 case acts as sort of a blunt wedge, forcing out the 
 metal in the direction of the arrow, and the force of 
 the blow is used almost entirely in lengthening the 
 work. 
 
 Fullers may be used for the same purpose, and 
 the work held either on the horn or the face of the 
 anvil. 
 
 Drawing Out and Pointing Round Stock. When 
 drawing out or pointing round stock it should always 
 be first forged down square to the required size and 
 then, in as few blows as possible, rounded up. 
 
 Fig. 6 1 illustrates the different steps in drawing 
 out round iron to a smaller size. A is the original
 
 UPSETTING, DRAWING OUT, AND BENDING. 53 
 
 bar, B is the first step, C is the next, when the iron 
 is forged octagonal, and the last step is shown at D, 
 
 FIG. 61. 
 
 where the iron is finished up round. In drawing 
 out a piece of round iron it should first be forged 
 like B, then like C, and lastly finished like D. 
 
 As an example: Suppose part of a bar of " 
 round stock is to be drawn down to f " in diameter. 
 Instead of pounding it down round and round until 
 the f " diameter is reached, the part to be drawn out 
 should be forged perfectly square and this drawn 
 down to f", keeping it as nearly square as possible 
 all the time. 
 
 The corners of the square are forged off, making 
 an octagon, and, last of all, the work is rounded up. 
 This prevents the metal from splitting, as it is very 
 liable to do if worked round and round. 
 
 (KB 
 
 tA 
 FIG. 62. 
 
 FIG. 63. 
 
 The reason for the above is as follows: Suppose 
 Fig. 62 represents the cross-section of a round bar
 
 54 FORGK-PRACTiCtf. 
 
 as it is being hit on the upper side. The arrows 
 indicate the flow of the metal that is, it is forged 
 together at AA and apart at BB. Xow, as the bar 
 is turned and the hammering continued, the out- 
 side metal is forced away from the center, which 
 may, at last, give way and form a crack; and by 
 the time the bar is of the required size, if cut, it 
 would probably look something like Fig. 63. 
 
 The same precaution must be taken when forging 
 any shaped stock down to a round or conical point. 
 The point must first be made square and then 
 rounded up by the method given above. If this is 
 not done the point is almost sure to split. 
 
 Squaring Up Work. A common difficulty met 
 with in all drawing out, or in fact in all work which 
 must be hammered up square, is the liability of the 
 bar to forge into a diamond shape, or to have one 
 corner projecting out too far. If a section be cut 
 through a bar misshaped in this way, at right angles 
 to its length, instead of being a square or rectangle, 
 the shape will appear something like one of the out- 
 lines in Fig. 64. 
 
 FIG. 64. FIG. 65. 
 
 To remedy this and square up the bad corners, 
 lay the bar across the anvil and strike upon the 
 projecting corners as shown in Fig. 65, striking in 
 such a way as to force the extra metal back into the
 
 UPSETTING, DRAWING OUT, AND BENDING. 55 
 
 body of the bar, gradually squaring it off. Just as 
 the hammer strikes the metal it should be given a 
 sort of a sliding motion, as indicated by, the arrow. 
 
 No attempt should be made to square up a corner 
 of this kind by simply striking squarely down upon 
 the work. The hammering should all be done in 
 such a way as to force the metal back into the bar 
 and away from the corner. 
 
 Upsetting. -When a piece of metal is worked in 
 such a way that its length is shortened, and either 
 or both its thickness and width increased, the piece 
 is said to be upset; and the operation is known as 
 upsetting. 
 
 There are several ways of upsetting, the method 
 depending mostly on the shape the work is in. With 
 short pieces the work is generally stood on end on 
 the anvil and the blow struck directly on the upper 
 end. The work should always be kept straight; 
 after a few blows it will probably start to bend and 
 must then be straightened before more upsetting is 
 done. 
 
 If one part only of a piece is to be upset, then the 
 heat must be confined to that part, as the part of 
 the work which is hottest will be upset the most. 
 
 When upsetting a short piece for its entire length, 
 it will sometimes work up like Fig. 66. This may 
 be due to two causes: either the ends were hotter 
 than the center or the blows of the hammer were 
 too light. To bring a piece of this sort to uniform 
 size throughout, it should be heated to a higher heat 
 in the center and upset with heavy blows. If the 
 work is very short it is not always convenient to
 
 56 FORGE-PRACTICE. 
 
 confine the heat to the central part; in such a case, 
 the piece may be heated all over, seized by the tongs 
 in the middle and the ends cooled, one at a time, in 
 the water-bucket. 
 
 FIG. 66. FIG. 67. 
 
 When light blows are used the effect of the blow 
 does not reach the middle of the work, and conse- 
 quently the upsetting is only done on the ends. 
 
 The effect of good heating and heavy blows is 
 shown in Fig. 67. With a heavy blow the work is 
 upset more in the middle and less on the ends. 
 
 To bring a piece of this kind to uniform size 
 throughout, one end should be heated and upset 
 and then the other end treated in the same way, 
 confining the heat each time as much as possible 
 to the ends. 
 
 Long work may be upset by laying it across the 
 face of the anvil, letting the heated end extend two 
 or three inches over the edge, the upsetting being 
 done by striking against this end with the hammer 
 or sledge. If the work is heavy the weight will 
 offer enough resistance to the blow to prevent the 
 piece from sliding back too far at each blow; but 
 with lighter pieces it may be necessary to "back 
 up" the work by holding a sledge against the un- 
 heated end.
 
 UPSETTING, DRAWING OUT, AND BENDING. 57 
 
 Another way of upsetting the ends of a heavy 
 piece is to "ram" the heated end against the side of 
 the anvil by swinging the work back and forth hori- 
 zontally and striking it against the side of the anvil. 
 The weight of the piece in this case takes the place 
 of the hammer and does the upsetting. 
 
 Heavy pieces are sometimes upset by lifting them 
 up and dropping or driving them down on the face 
 of the anvil or against a heavy block of iron resting 
 on the floor. Heavy cast-iron plates are sometimes 
 set in the floor for this purpose, and are called 
 ' ' upsetting-plates. ' ' 
 
 Fig. 68 shows the effect of the blows when upset- 
 ting the end of a bar. The lower piece has been 
 properly heated and upset with 
 heavy blows, while the other 
 piece shows the effect of light 
 blows. This last shape may also 
 be caused by having the extreme 
 end at a higher heat than the rest 
 of the part to be upset. FlG - 68 - 
 
 Punching. There are two kinds of punches used 
 for making holes in hot metal the straight hand- 
 punch, used with a hand-hammer, and the punch 
 made from heavier stock and provided with a 
 handle, used with a sledge-hammer. 
 
 Punches should, of course, be made of tool-steel. 
 
 For punching small holes in thin iron a hand- 
 punch is ordinarily used. This is simply a bar of 
 round or octagonal steel, eight or ten inches long, 
 with the end forged down tapering, and the extreme 
 end the same shape, but slightly smaller than the
 
 FORGE-PRACTICE. 
 
 hole which is to be punched. Such a punch is 
 shown in Fig. 69. The punch should taper uni- 
 formly, and the extreme end should be perfectly 
 square across, not in the least rounding. 
 
 FIG. 69. 
 
 FIG. 70. 
 
 For heavier and faster work with a helper, a 
 punch like Fig. 70 is used. This is driven into the 
 work with a sledge-hammer. 
 
 A, B, and C, in Fig. 71, show the different steps 
 in punching a clean hole through a piece of hot iron. 
 
 FIG. 71. 
 
 The punch is first driven about half-way through 
 the bar while the work is lying flat on the anvil; 
 this compresses the metal directly underneath the 
 punch and raises a slight bulge on the opposite side 
 of the bar by which the hole can be readily located. 
 The piece is then turned over and the punching 
 completed from this side, the small piece, "A 1 ', 
 being driven completely through. This leaves a
 
 UPSETTING, DRAWING OUT, AND BENDING. 59 
 
 clean hole ; while if the punching were all done from 
 one side, a burr, or projection, w r ould be raised on 
 the side where the punch came through. 
 
 D and E (Fig. 71) illustrate the effects of proper 
 and improper punching. If started from one side 
 and finished from the other the hole will be clean 
 and sharp on both sides of the work; but if the 
 punching is done from one side only a burr will be 
 raised, as shown at E, on the side opposite to that 
 from which the punching is done. 
 
 If the piece is thick the punch should be started, 
 then a little powdered coal put in the hole, and the 
 punching continued. The coal prevents the punch 
 from sticking as much as it would without it. 
 
 Bending. Bends may be roughly divided into two 
 classes curves and angles. 
 
 Angles. In bending angles it is nearly always 
 necessary to make the bend at some definite point 
 on the stock. As the measurements are much easier 
 made while the stock is cold than when hot, it is 
 best to "lay off" the stock before heating. 
 
 The point at which the bend is to be made should 
 be marked with a center punch generally on the 
 edge of the stock, in preference to the side. 
 
 Marking with a cold chisel should not be done 
 unless done very lightly on the edge of stock. If a 
 slight nick be made on the side of a piece of stock to 
 be bent, and the stockbent at this point with the 
 nick outside, the small nick will expand and leave 
 quite a crack. If the nick be on the inside, it is apt 
 to start a bad cold shut which may extend nearly 
 through the stock before the bending is finished.
 
 00 FORGE-PRACTICE. 
 
 Whenever convenient, it is generally easier to 
 bend in a vise, as the piece may be gripped at the 
 exact point where the bend is wanted. 
 
 When making a bend over the anvil the stock 
 should be laid flat on the face, with the point at 
 
 o 
 
 LJ 
 
 FIG. 72. 
 
 which the bend is wanted almost, but not quite, up 
 to the outside edge of the anvil. 
 
 The bar should be held down firmly on the anvil 
 by bearing down on it with a sledge, so placed that 
 the outside edge of the sledge is about in line with 
 the outside edge of the anvil. 
 
 This makes it possible to make a short bend with 
 less hammering than when the sledge is not used. 
 
 The bar will pull over the edge of the anvil 
 slightly when bending. 
 
 Bend with Forged Corner. Brackets and other 
 / forgings are sometimes made with 
 the outside corner of the bend 
 forged up square, as shown in 
 
 Fig- 73- 
 
 There are several ways of 
 bending a piece to finish in this 
 FIG. 73. shape. 
 
 One way is to take stock of the required finished
 
 UPSETTING, DRAWING OUT, AND BENDING. 6 1 
 
 size and bend the angle, forging the corner square 
 as it is bent ; another is to start with stock consid- 
 erably thicker than the finished forging and draw 
 down both ends to the required finished thickness, 
 leaving a thin-pointed ridge across the bar at the 
 point where the bend will come, this ridge forming 
 the outside or square corner of the angle where the 
 piece is bent ; or this ridge may be formed by upset- 
 ting before bending. 
 
 The process in detail of the first method men- 
 tioned is as follows : The first step is to bend the bar 
 so that it forms nearly a right angle, keeping the 
 bend as sharp as possible, as shown at A (Fig. 74). 
 
 FIG. 74. 
 
 This should be done at a high heat, as the higher 
 the heat the easier it is to bend the iron and conse- 
 quently the sharper the bend. 
 
 Working the iron at a good high heat, as before, 
 the outside of the bend should be forged into a 
 sharp corner, letting the blows come in such a way 
 as to force the metal out where it is wanted, being 
 careful not to let the angle bend so that it becomes 
 less than a right angle or even equal to one. Fig.
 
 62 FORGE-PR ACTIl I.. 
 
 74, B, shows the proper way to strike. The arrows 
 indicate the direction of the blows. 
 
 The work should rest on top of the anvil while 
 this is being done, not over one corner. If worked 
 over the corner, the stock will be hammered too 
 thin. 
 
 The object in keeping the angle obtuse is this: 
 The metal at the corner of the bend is really being 
 upset, and the action is somewhat as follows: In 
 Fig. 75 is shown the bent piece on the anvil. We 
 will suppose the blows come on the part A in the 
 direction indicated by the heavy arrow. The 
 metal, being heated to a high soft heat at C, upsets, 
 part of it forming the sharp outside corner and 
 part flowing as shown by the small arrow at C and 
 
 FIG. 76 
 
 making a sort of fillet on the inside corner. If in 
 place of having the angle greater than 90 degrees it 
 had been an acute angle (Fig. 76), the metal forced 
 downward by the blows on A would carry with it 
 part of the metal on the inside of the piece B, and 
 a cold shut or crack would be formed on the inside 
 of the angle. To form a sound bend the corner 
 must be forged at an angle greater than a right 
 angle. When the piece has been brought to a sharp
 
 UPSETTING, DRAWING OUT, AND BENDING. 
 
 FIG. 77. 
 
 corner the last step is to square up the bend over 
 the corner, or edge, of the anvil. 
 
 The second way of making the above is to forge 
 a piece as shown in Fig. 77, 
 where the dotted lines indi- 
 cate the size of the original 
 piece. This piece is then 
 bent in such a way that the 
 ridge, C, forms the outside 
 sharp corner of the angle. 
 
 This ridge is sometimes upset in place of being 
 drawn out. 
 
 The first method described is the most satisfac- 
 tory. 
 
 Ring-bending. In making a ring the first step 
 of course is to calculate and cut from the bar the 
 proper amount of stock. The bend should always 
 be started from the end of the piece. For ordinary 
 rings up to 4" or 5" in diameter the stock should 
 be heated for about one-half its length. To start 
 bending, the extreme end of the piece should be 
 first bent over the horn of the anvil, and the bar 
 should be fed across the horn of the anvil and bent 
 down as it is pushed forward. Do 
 not strike directly on top of the 
 horn, but let the blows fall a little 
 way from it, as in Fig. 78. This 
 bends the iron and does not pound 
 it out of shape. One-half of the 
 ring is bent in this way and then the part left 
 straight is heated. This half is bent up the same 
 as the other, starting from the end exactly as before. 
 
 FIG. 78.
 
 6 4 
 
 FORGE-PRACTICE. 
 
 FIG. 79. 
 
 Eye-bending. The first step in making an eye 
 like Fig. 79 is to calculate the 
 amount of stock required for the 
 bend. The amount required in th in- 
 case, found by looking up the circum- 
 ference of a 2" circle in the table, is 
 7". This distance should be laid off by making 
 a chalk-mark on the face of the anvil i\" from the 
 left-hand end. 
 
 A piece of iron is heated and laid on the anvil with 
 the heated end on the chalk-mark, the rest of the 
 bar extending to the left. A hand-hammer is held 
 on the bar with the edge of the hammer directly in 
 line with the end of the anvil. This measures off 
 7^" from the edge of the hammer to the end of the 
 bar. The bar is then laid across the anvil bringing 
 the edge of the hammer exactly in line with the 
 outside edge of the anvil, thus leaving 7^" project- 
 ing over the edge. This projecting end is bent 
 down until, it forms a right angle. The extreme 
 end of this bent part is then bent over the horn into 
 
 1st 
 
 2nd 
 
 4th 
 
 FIG. 80. 
 
 the circular shape and the bending continued until 
 the eye is formed.
 
 UPSETTING, DRAWING OUT, AND BENDING. 
 
 The same general method as described for bend- 
 ing rings should be followed. The different steps 
 are shown in Fig. 80. 
 
 If an eye is too small to close 
 up around the horn, it may be 
 closed as far as possible in 
 this way, and then completely 
 closed over the corner or on 
 the face of the anvil, as shown 
 in Fig. 81. 
 
 Double Link. Another good FlG - 8l - 
 
 example of this sort of bending is the double link, 
 shown in Fig. 59. 
 
 The link is started by bending the stock in the 
 exact center, the first step being to bend a right 
 angle. This step, with the succeeding ones, is 
 shown in Fig. 82. 
 
 2nd 
 
 1st 
 
 3rd 
 
 4th. 
 
 FIG. 82. 
 
 After this piece has been bent into a right angle, 
 the ring on the end should be bent in the same way
 
 66 FORGE-PRACTICE. 
 
 as an ordinary ring ; excepting that all the bending 
 is done from one end of the piece, starting from the 
 extreme end as usual. 
 
 Twisting. Fig. 83 shows the effects produced by 
 twisting stock of various shapes square, octagonal, 
 
 FIG. 83. 
 
 and flat, the shapes being shown by the cuts in 
 each case. 
 
 To twist work in this way it should be brought to 
 a uniform heat through the length intended to 
 twist. When the bar is properly heated it should 
 be firmly gripped with a pair of tongs, or in a vise, 
 at the exact point where the twist is to commence. 
 With another pair of tongs the work is taken hold 
 of where the twist is to stop, and the bar twisted 
 through as many turns as required. The metal 
 will of course be twisted only between the two pairs 
 of tongs, or between the vise and the tongs, as the 
 case may be; so care must be used in taking hold 
 of the bar or the twist will be made at the wrong 
 points. 
 
 The heat must be the same throughout the part 
 to be twisted. If one part is hotter than another,
 
 UPSETTING, DRAWING OUT, AND BENDING. 
 
 6 7 
 
 this hotter part, being softer, will twist more easily, 
 and the twist will not be uniform. If one end of 
 the bar is wanted more tightly twisted than the 
 other, the heat should be so regulated that the part 
 is heated hottest that is wanted tightest twisted; 
 the heat gradually shading off into the parts wanted 
 more loosely twisted. 
 
 Reverse Twisting. The effect shown in Fig. 84 
 is produced by reversing the direction of twisting. 
 
 FIG. 84. 
 
 A square bar is heated and twisted enough to 
 give the desired angle. It is then cooled, in as 
 sharp a line as possible, as far as B, and twisted 
 back in the opposite direction. It is again heated, 
 cooled up to A, and twisted in the first direction; 
 and this operation is continued until the twist is of 
 the desired length.
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 SIMPLE FORGED WORK. 
 
 Twisted Gate-hook.- This description answers, of 
 course, not only for this particular piece, but for 
 others of a like nature. 
 
 Fig. 85 shows the hook to be made. To start 
 with, it must be determined what length of stock, 
 
 FIG. 85. 
 
 after it is forged to proper size, will be required to 
 bend up the ends. 
 
 The length of straight stock necessary should, of 
 course, be measured through the center of the 
 stock on the dotted lines in the figure. To do this 
 lay out the work full size, and lay a string or thin 
 piece of soft wire upon the lines to be measured. 
 It is then a very easy matter to straighten out the 
 wire or string, and measure the exact length re- 
 quired. If the drawing is not made full size, an 
 accurate sketch may be made on a board, or other 
 flat surface, and the length measured from this. 
 
 68
 
 SIMPLE FORGED WORK. 69 
 
 The hook as above will require about 2\" length 
 for stock; the eye, about 2f". 
 The first step would be like Fig. 86. 
 
 FIG. 86. 
 
 After cutting the piece of -f~' square stock, start 
 the forging by drawing out the end, starting from 
 the end and working back into the stock until a 
 piece is forged out 2f" long and \" in diameter. 
 Now work in the shoulder with the set-hammer in 
 the following way: 
 
 Forming Shoulders: Both Sides One Side. Place 
 the piece on the anvil in such a position that 
 the point where the shoulder is wanted comes 
 exactly on the nearest edge of the anvil. Place 
 the set -hammer on top of the piece in such a way 
 that its edge comes directly in line with the edge of 
 the anvil (Fig. 87). Do not place the piece like 
 
 FIG. 87. FIG 88. 
 
 Fig. 88, or the result will be as shown a shoulder 
 on one side only. As the shoulder is worked in the 
 piece should be turned continually, or the shoulder
 
 7O FORGE-PRACTICE. 
 
 will work in faster on one side than on the other. 
 Always be careful to keep the shoulder exactly even 
 with the edge of the anvil. 
 
 When the piece is formed in the proper shape on 
 one end, start the second shoulder 4" from the first, 
 and finish like Fig. 86. Bend the eye and then the 
 hook; and, lastly, put the twist in the center. 
 Make the twist as follows: 
 
 First make a chalk-mark on the jaws of the vise, 
 so that when the end of the hook is even with the 
 mark the edge of the vise will be where one end of 
 the twist should come. Heat the part to be twisted 
 to an even yellow heat (be sure 
 that it is heated evenly) ; place 
 * it in a vise quickly, with the end 
 even with the mark; grasp the 
 piece with the tongs, leaving the 
 p g distance between the tongs and 
 
 vise equal to the length of twist 
 (Fig. 89) ; and twist it around one complete turn. 
 
 The eye should be bent as described before, and 
 the hook bent in the same general way as the eye. 
 
 Grab-hooks. This is the name given to a kind 
 of hooks used on chains, and made for grabbing or 
 hooking over the chain. The hook is so shaped that 
 the throat, or opening, is large enough to slip eas- 
 ily over a link turned edgewise, but too narrow to 
 slip down off this link on to the next one, which, of 
 course, passes through the first link at right angles 
 to it. 
 
 Grab-hooks are made in a variety of ways, one of 
 which is given below in detail.
 
 SIMPLE FORGED WORK. 
 
 7 1 
 
 Fig. 90 will serve as an example. To forge this, 
 use a bar of round iron large enough in section to 
 form the heavy part of the hook. This bar should 
 first be slightly upset, either by ramming or ham- 
 mering, for a short distance from the end, and then 
 flattened out like Fig. 9 1 . 
 
 FIG. 90 
 
 FIG. 92. 
 
 FIG. 93. 
 
 The next step is to round up the part for the eye, 
 as shown in Fig. 92, by forming it over the corner of 
 the anvil as indicated in Fig. 93. The eye should 
 be forged as nearly round as possible, and then 
 punched. 
 
 Particular attention should be paid to this point. 
 If the eye is not properly rounded before punching, 
 it is difficult to correct the shape afterward. 
 
 After punching, the inside corners of the hole are 
 rounded off over the horn of the anvil in the man- 
 ner shown in Fig. 94. Fig. 95 shows the appear- 
 ance of a section of the eye as left by the punch. 
 When the eye is finished it should appear as though 
 bent up from round iron that is, all the square 
 corners should be rounded off as shown in Fig. 96. 
 
 When the eye is completed the body of the hook
 
 72 tfORGE-PRACTlCE. 
 
 should be drawn out straight, forged to size, and 
 then bent into shape. Care should be taken to 
 
 FIG. 94. 
 
 keep the hook thickest around the bottom of the 
 bend. 
 
 As the stock is entirely formed before bending, 
 the length of the straight piece must be carefully 
 
 k A _ . measured, as indicated 
 
 (tS*~ 3^> at A (Fig. 97), where 
 
 the piece is shown ready 
 for bending. To deter- 
 mine the required length the drawing or sample 
 should be measured with a string or piece of flexible 
 wire, measuring along the center of the stock, from 
 the extreme point to the center of the eye. 
 
 The weakest point of almost any hook is in the 
 bottom bend. When the hook is strained there is 
 a tendency for it to straighten out and take the 
 shape shown by the dotted lines in Fig. 90. To 
 avoid this the bottom of the hook must be kept as 
 thick as possible along the line of strain, which is 
 shown by the line drawn through the eye. A good 
 shape for this lower bend is shown in the sketch, 
 where it will be noticed that the bar has been ham- 
 mered a little thinner in order to increase the thick- 
 ness of the metal in the direction of the line of 
 strain.
 
 SIMPLE FORGED WORK. 73 
 
 The part of the hook most liable to bend under a 
 load is the part lying between the points marked 
 I and J in. Fig. 102. 
 
 Another style of grab-hook is shown in Fig. 98, 
 
 FIG. 98. 
 
 which shows the finished hook and also the straight 
 piece ready for bending. 
 
 The forming will need no particular description. 
 The hook shown is forged about f" thick; the out- 
 side edge around the curve being thinned out to 
 about |", in order to give greater stiffness in the 
 direction of the strain. 
 
 Stock about f" X i" is used. 
 
 A very convenient way to start the eye for a hook 
 of this kind, or in fact almost any forged eye, is 
 shown in Fig. 99. Two fullers, top and bottom, 
 are used, and the work shaped as shown. The bar 
 should be turned, edge for edge, between every few 
 blows, if the grooves are wanted of the same depth. 
 After cutting the grooves the edge is shaped the 
 same as described above. 
 
 A grab-hook, sometimes used on logging-chains, 
 is shown in Fig. 100. This is forged from square
 
 74 FORGE-PRACTICE. 
 
 stock by flattening and forming one end into an eye 
 and pointing the other end; after which the hook 
 is bent into shape. 
 
 FIG. 99. FIG. ioo. 
 
 Welded Eye-hooks. Hooks sometimes have the 
 eye made by welding instead of forging from the 
 solid stock. Such a hook is shown in Fig. 101, 
 
 FIG. 101, 
 
 which also shows the stock scarfed and bent into 
 shape ready for closing up the eye for the weld, and 
 also the eye ready for welding. Before heating for 
 the weld, the eye should be closed, and stock at the 
 end be bent close together. The scarf should be 
 pointed the same as for any other round weld.
 
 SIMPLE FORGED WORK. 
 
 This sort of eye is not as strong as a forged eye 
 of the same size ; but is usually as strong as the rest 
 of the hook, as the eye is generally considerably 
 stronger than any other part. 
 
 Hoisting-hooks. A widely accepted shape for 
 hoisting-hooks, used on 
 cranes, etc., is shown in 
 Fig. 102. The shape and 
 formula are given by Henry 
 R. Town, in his Treatise on 
 Cranes. 
 
 T = working load in tons 
 of 2000 Ibs. 
 
 A = diameter of round 
 stock used to form hook. 
 
 The size of stock to use 
 for a hook to carry any 
 particular load is given below. The capacity of 
 the hook, in tons, is given in the upper line the 
 figures in the lower line, directly under any particu- 
 lar load in the upper line, giving the size of bar 
 required to form a hook to be used at that load. 
 
 FIG. 102. 
 
 =i i i 
 
 x} 
 
 4568 10 
 
 2\ 
 
 2\ 
 
 The other dimensions of the hook are found by 
 the following formula, all the dimensions being in 
 inches : 
 
 D= . 5 T +1.25 
 
 E= .647+1.6 
 
 F= . 33 r+ .85.
 
 7 6 PORGE-PRACTICM. 
 
 G= .750 
 
 O= .3637+. 66 
 
 Q= .647+1.6 
 
 L=i.o 5 A 
 M= . 5 A 
 JV= .85^-. 16 
 [7= .866A 
 
 To illustrate, the use of the table, suppose a hook 
 is wanted to raise a load of 500 Ibs. 
 
 In the line marked T in the table are found the 
 figures \, denoting a load of one-quarter of a ton, or 
 500 Ibs. Under this are the figures \\, giving the 
 size stock required to shape the hook. 
 
 The different dimensions of the hook would be 
 found as follows : 
 
 =.6 4 XV4 + 1.6"= i. 76 = i 3 //' about. 
 H = i. 08 A = i. 08 X "/.!=. 74 =V 4 about. 
 
 When reducing the decimals, the dimensions 
 which have to do only with the bending of the hook, 
 that is, the opening, the length, the length of point, 
 etc., may be taken as the nearest i6th, but these 
 dimensions for flattening should be reduced to the 
 nearest 3 2d on small hooks.
 
 SIMPLE FORGED WORK. 77 
 
 The complete dimensions for the hook in ques- 
 tion, 1000 Ibs. capacity, would be as follows : 
 
 7~) r 3/ff r* T ff ZJ 3 / // J 23 / // 
 
 U= I/a ti - / 4 L= / 32 
 
 77 T 3 /' r O= 3 / " /" 29 / " M 11 / " 
 
 L I \ /4 "/32 /82 
 
 F= tt /ie" Q=I 3 //' 7 : 
 
 ' 16 
 
 i n 
 
 32 
 
 TT 9/ 
 
 ~ / 1 
 
 Bolts. Bolts are made by two methods, upset- 
 ting and welding. The first method is the more 
 common, particularly on small bolts, where it is 
 nearly always used, the stock being upset to 
 form the head. In the second method the head is 
 formed by welding a ring of stock around the stem. 
 
 An upset head is stronger than a welded head, 
 provided they are both equally well made. 
 
 The size of the bolt is always given as the diame- 
 ter and length of the shank, or stem. Thus, a 
 \" bolt, 6" long, means a bolt having a shank \" in 
 diameter, and 6" long from the under side of the 
 head to the end. 
 
 Dimensions of bolt-heads are determined from 
 the diameter of the shank, and should always be 
 the same size for the same diameter, being inde- 
 pendent of the length. 
 
 The diameter and thickness of the head are meas- 
 ured as shown in Fig. 103. 
 
 The dimensions of both square and hexagonal 
 heads are as follows: 
 
 D = diameter of head across the flats (short 
 diameter) . 
 
 T = thickness of head. 
 
 5 = diameter of shank of bolt.
 
 FORGE-PRACTICE. 
 
 r=s. 
 
 For a 2" bolt the dimensions would be calcu- 
 lated as follows : 
 
 Diameter of head would equal i^"X2" + |" = 
 
 ,17 " 
 
 3/8 
 
 Thickness of head would be 2". 
 
 These are dimensions for rough or unfinished 
 heads; each dimension of a finished head is Y le " 
 less than the same dimension of the rough head. 
 
 FIG. 103. 
 
 Bolts generally have the top corners of the head 
 rounded or chamfered off (Fig. 103). This can 
 be done with a hand-hammer, or with a cupping- 
 
 c 
 
 FIG. 104. FIG. 105. 
 
 tool (Fig. 104), which is simply a set-hammer with 
 the bottom face hollowed out into a bowl or cup 
 shape.
 
 SIMPLE FORGED WORK. 79 
 
 For making bolts one special tool is required, 
 the heading-tool. This is commonly made some- 
 thing the shape of Fig. 105, although for a "hurry- 
 up" bolt sometimes any flat strip of iron with a 
 hole punched the proper size to admit the stem of 
 the bolt can be used. 
 
 When in use this tool is placed on the anvil 
 directly over the square hardie-hole, the stem of 
 the bolt projecting down through the heading-tool 
 and hardie-hole while the head is being forged on 
 the bolt. 
 
 This heading-tool is made with one side of the 
 head flush with the handle, the other side project- 
 ing a quarter of an inch or so above it. The tool 
 should always be used with the flat side on the anvil. 
 
 Upset-head Bolt. An upset head is made as fol- 
 lows : The stock is first heated to a high heat for a 
 short distance at the end, and upset as shown at 
 Fig. 1 06. The bolt is then dropped 
 through the heading tool, the up- 
 set portion projecting above. This 
 upset part is then flattened down 
 on the tool as. shown at B, and 
 forged square or hexagonal on the 
 anvil. FlG - Io6 - 
 
 The hole in the heading-tool should be large 
 enough to allow the stock to slip through it nearly 
 up to the upset portion. 
 
 Welded-head Bolts. A welded-head bolt is made 
 by welding a ring of square iron around the shank 
 to form the head, which is then shaped in a heading- 
 tool the same as an upset head. A piece of square
 
 8o 
 
 FORGE-PRACTICE. 
 
 iron of the proper size is bent into a ring, but not 
 welded. About the easiest way to do this is to take 
 a bar several feet long, bend the ring on the end, and 
 then cut it off as shown in Fig. 107. 
 
 FIG. 107. 
 
 This ring is just large enough, when the ends are 
 slightly separated, to slip easily over the shank. 
 
 The shank is heated to about a welding heat, the 
 ring being slightly cooler, and the two put together 
 as shown in Fig. 107, B. The head is heated and 
 welded, and then shaped as described above. 
 
 When welding on the head it should be hammered 
 square the first thing, and not pounded round and 
 round. It is much easier to make a sound weld by 
 forging square. 
 
 Care must be used when taking the welding heat 
 to heat slowly, otherwise the outside of the ring will 
 be burned before the shank is hot enough to stick. 
 
 It is sometimes necessary when heating the bolt- 
 head for welding to cool the outside ring to prevent 
 its burning before the shank has been heated suffi- 
 ciently to weld ; to do this put the bolt in the water
 
 SIMPLE FORGED WORK. 
 
 81 
 
 oideways just far enough to cool the outside edge of 
 the ring and leave the central part, or shank, hot. 
 
 Tongs. Tongs are made in a great variety of 
 ways, several of which are given below. 
 
 Common flat- jaw tongs, such as are used for 
 holding stock up to about f inch thick, may be 
 made as follows: Stock about f inch square 
 should be used. This is first bent like A, Fig. 
 1 08. To form the eye the bent stock is laid 
 
 FIG. 108. 
 
 across the anvil in the position shown at B, and 
 flattened by striking with a sledge the edge of the 
 anvil, forming the shoulder for the jaw. A set- 
 hammer may be used to do this by placing the 
 piece with the other side up, flat on the face of the 
 anvil, and holding the set-hammer in such a way as 
 to form the shoulder with the edge of the hammer, 
 the face of the hammer flattening the eye.
 
 82 FORGE-PRACTICE. 
 
 The long handle is drawn out with a sledge, 
 working as shown at C. When drawing out work 
 this way the forging should always be held with 
 the straight side up, the corner of the anvil forming 
 the sharp corner up against the shoulder on the 
 piece. If the piece be turned the other side up, 
 there is danger of striking the projecting shoulder 
 with the sledge and knocking the work out of shape. 
 
 For finishing up into the shoulder a set -hammer 
 or swage should be used, and the handles should 
 be smoothed off with a flatter, or between top and 
 bottom swages. The jaw may be flattened as 
 shown at D. 
 
 The inside face of the jaw should be slightly 
 creased with a fuller, as this insures the tongs grip- 
 ping the work firmly with the sides of the jaws, and 
 not simply touching it at one point in the center, as 
 they sometimes do if this crease is not made. 
 
 After the tongs have been shaped, and are fin- 
 ished in every other way, the hole for the rivet 
 should be punched. The rivet should drop easily 
 into the hole. The straight end of the rivet should 
 be brought to a high heat, the two parts of the 
 tongs placed together with the holes in line, the 
 rivet inserted, and the end "headed up." Most of 
 the heading should be done with the pene end of 
 the hammer. After riveting the tongs will prob- 
 ably be rather "stiff"; opening and shutting them 
 several times, while the rivet is still red-hot, will 
 leave them loose. The tongs should be finished 
 by fitting to a piece of stock of the size on which 
 they are to be used.
 
 SIMPLE FORGED WORK. 
 
 Light Tongs. Tongs may be made from flat stock 
 in the following way : A cut is made with a narrow 
 fuller at the right distance from the end of the bar 
 to leave enough stock to form the jaw between the 
 cut and the end, as shown at A, Fig. 109. 
 
 FIG. 109. 
 
 This end is bent over as shown at B and a second 
 fuller cut made, shown at C, to form the eye. The 
 other end of the bar is drawn out to form the handle, 
 as indicated by the dotted lines. The jaw is shaped, 
 the rivet-hole punched, and the tongs finished, as 
 at D, in the usual way. 
 
 Tongs of this character may be used on light 
 work. 
 
 Tongs for Round Stock. - - Tongs for holding 
 round stock may be made by either of the above 
 methods, the operations 
 in making being the 
 same, with the exception 
 of shaping the jaws> 
 which may be done in 
 this way: A top fuller 
 and bottom swage are FlG - Bo- 
 
 used, the swage being of the size to which it is 
 wished to finish the outside of the jaws, the fuller
 
 84 FORGE-PRACTICE. 
 
 the size of the inside. The jaw is held on the swage, 
 and the fuller placed on top and driven down on 
 it, Fig. no, forcing the jaw to take the desired 
 shape, shown at A. The final fitting is done as 
 usual, after the jaws are riveted together. 
 
 Welded Tongs. Tongs with welded handles are 
 made in exactly the same way as those with solid, 
 drawn-out handles excepting that, in place of draw- 
 ing out the entire length of the handle, a short stub 
 only is forged, a few inches long, and to this is 
 welded a bar of round stock to form the handle. 
 Fig. in shows one ready for welding. 
 
 FIG. in. 
 
 Pick-up Tongs. - - No particular description is 
 necessary for making pick-up tongs. The tongs 
 may be drawn out of a flat piece and bent as 
 shown in Fig. 112. 
 
 A 
 
 FIG. 112. 
 
 Bolt-tongs. Bolt-tongs are easily made from 
 round stock, although square may be used to 
 advantage. 
 
 The first operation is to bend the bar in the shape
 
 SIMPLE FORGED WORK. 
 
 5 
 
 shown in Fig. 113. This may be done with a fuller 
 over the edge of the anvil, as shown at A. When 
 bending the extreme end of the jaw the bar should 
 be held almost level at first, and gradually swung 
 down, as shown by the arrow, until the end is prop- 
 erly bent. 
 
 FIG. 113. 
 
 FIG. 114. 
 
 The eye may be flattened with the set-hammer, 
 and the part between the jaw proper and the eye 
 worked down to shape over the horn and on the 
 anvil with the same tool. 
 
 The jaw proper is rounded and finished with a 
 fuller and swage, as shown in Fig. 114. 
 
 There is generally a tendency for the spring of 
 the jaw to open up too much in forging. This 
 may be bent back into shape either on the face of 
 the anvil, as shown at A (Fig. 115), or over the 
 horn, as at B. 
 
 Another method of making the first bend, when 
 starting the tongs, is shown in Fig. 116. A swage- 
 block and fuller are here used; a swage of the
 
 86 
 
 FORGE-PRACTICE. 
 
 proper size could of course be used in place of the 
 block. 
 
 FIG. 115. 
 
 FIG. 116. 
 
 Ladle. A ladle, similar to Fig. 117, may be 
 made of two pieces welded together, one piece 
 forming the handle, the other the bowl. 
 
 A square piece of stock of the proper thickness 
 is cut and "laid out" (or marked out) like Fig. 
 118; the center of the piece being first found by 
 drawing the diagonals. 
 
 FIG. 117. 
 
 FIG. 1 1 8. 
 
 A circle is drawn as large as possible, with its 
 center on the intersection of the diagonals; the 
 piece is cut out with a cold chisel to the circle, 
 excepting at the points where projections are left 
 for lips and for a place to weld on the handle. This 
 latter projection is scarfed and welded to the strip 
 forming the handle.
 
 SIMPLE FORGED WORK. 87 
 
 The bowl is formed from the circular part by 
 heating it carefully to an even yellow heat and 
 placing it over a round hole in a swage-block or 
 other object. The pene end of the hammer is used, 
 and the pounding done over the hole in the swage- 
 block. As the metal in the center is forced down- 
 ward by the blow of the hammer, the swage-block 
 prevents the material at the sides from following 
 and is gradually worked into a bowl shape. 
 
 Fig. 119 shows the position of the block and the 
 piece when forging. 
 
 The bowl being shaped properly, the lips should 
 be formed, and the top of the bowl ground off true. 
 
 FIG. 119. 
 
 FIG. 120. 
 
 The lips may be formed by holding the part 
 where the lips are to be against one of the smaller 
 grooves in the side of the swage-block, and driving 
 it into the groove by placing a small piece of round 
 iron on the inside of the bowl as shown in Fig. 120. 
 
 For a ladle with a bowl 3^" in diameter, the diam- 
 eter of the circle, cut from the flat stock, should be 
 about 4", as the edges of the piece draw in some- 
 what. Stock for other sizes should be in about 
 the same proportion. Stock should be about \" 
 thick.
 
 FORGE-PRACTICE. 
 
 FIG. 121. 
 
 Machine-steel should he used for making the 
 bowl. If ordinary wrought iron is used, the metal 
 is liable to split. 
 
 Bowls. Bowls, and objects of similar shape, 
 may be made in the manner described above, but 
 care must be used not to do too much hammering in 
 the center of the stock, as that is the part most 
 liable to be worked too thin. 
 
 Chain-stop. The chain-stop, shown in Fig. 121, 
 will serve as an example of a very numerous class 
 
 of forgings ; that is, forg- 
 ings having a compara- 
 tively large projection 
 on one side. 
 
 Care should be taken 
 to select stock, for pieces 
 of this sort, that will work into the proper shape with 
 the least effort. The stock should be as thick as 
 the thickest part of the forging, 
 and as wide as the widest part. 
 Stock, in this particular case, 
 should be *"Xii". 
 
 The different steps in making 
 the forging are shown in Fig. 
 122. First two cuts are made 
 \\' f apart, as shown at A ; then 
 these cuts are widened out with 
 a fuller, B. The ends are then 
 forged out square, as at C. To 
 finish the piece the hole is 
 punched and rounded and the 
 round. 
 
 FIG. 122. 
 ends finished
 
 SIMPLE FORGED WORK 
 
 When the fuller is used it should be held 
 slightly slanting, as shown in 
 Fig. 123. 
 
 This forces the metal toward 
 the central part and leaves a 
 more nearly square shoulder, in 
 place of the slanting shoulder 
 
 FIG. 123. 
 
 that would be left were the fuller to be held exactly 
 upright.
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 CALCULATION OF STOCK; AND MAKING OF 
 GENERAL FORCINGS. 
 
 Stock Calculations for Forged Work. When cal- 
 culating the amount of stock required to make a 
 forging, when the stock has its original shape 
 altered, there is one simple rule to follow: Calcu- 
 late the volume of the forging, add an allowance 
 for stock lost in forging, and cut a length of stock 
 having the total volume. In other words, the 
 forging contains the same amount, or volume, of 
 metal, no matter in what shape it may be, as the 
 original stock; an allowance of course being made 
 
 < . 3 5?jf . 
 
 
 , 
 
 IT 
 
 r i? j 
 
 FIG. 124. 
 
 for the slight loss by scaling, and for the parts cut 
 off in making. 
 
 Take as an example the forging shown in Fig. 
 
 124, to determine the amount of stock required to 
 
 90
 
 CALCULATION OF STOCK; GENERAL FORCINGS. 9 1 
 
 make the piece. This forging could be made in 
 much the same way as the chain-stop. A piece of 
 straight stock would be used and two cuts made 
 and widened with a fuller, in the manner shown 
 in Fig. 125. The ends on either side of the cuts 
 
 X 
 
 FIG. 125. 
 
 are then drawn down to size, as shown by the 
 dotted lines, the center being left the size of the 
 original bar. The stock should be \" Xi", as these 
 are the dimensions of the largest parts of the forg- 
 ing. For convenience in calculating the forging 
 may be divided into three parts: the round end 
 A, the central rectangular block B, and the square 
 end C. 
 
 The block B will of course require just 2" of 
 stock. 
 
 The end C has a volume of " 'xtf' 'X^' '=f of a 
 cubic inch. 
 
 The stock (|"Xi") has a volume of f Xi" 
 X i" = ! of a cubic inch for each inch of length. 
 
 To find the number of inches of stock required to 
 make the end C, the volume of this end (f cubic 
 inch) should be divided by the volume of one inch 
 of stock (or \ cubic inch). Thus, -* \ = \\" . 
 
 It will therefore require \\" of stock to make 
 the end C; with allowance for scaling, if". 
 
 The end A is really a round shaft, or cylinder, 
 4" long and \" in diameter. To find the volume
 
 9 2 FORGE-PRACTICE. 
 
 of a cylinder, multiply the square of half the diame- 
 ter by 3Y 7 , and then multiply this result by the 
 length of the cylinder. 
 
 The volume of A would be '/ 4 X */ 4 X 3 1 / 1 X 4 = * ! / 14 . 
 And the amount of stock required to make A would 
 be n / I4 -*- V 2 = i 4 / 7 " m l en gth, which is practically 
 equal to i 5 / 8 . To the above amount of stock must 
 be added a small amount for scaling, allowing alto- 
 gether about i 3 //'- 
 
 The stock needed for the different parts of the 
 forging is as follows : 
 
 Round shaft A if" 
 
 Block B 2" 
 
 Square shaft C if" 
 
 Total 
 
 First taking a piece of stock i"Xi"X5f", the 
 cuts would be made for drawing out the ends as 
 shown in Fig. 125. 
 
 In such a case as the above it is not always neces- 
 sary to know the exact amount of stock to cut. 
 What is known to be more than enough stock to 
 make the forging could be taken, the central block 
 made the proper dimensions, the extra metal 
 worked down into the ends, and then trimmed off 
 to the proper length. There are frequently times, 
 however, when the amount of material required 
 must be calculated accurately. 
 
 Take a case like the forging shown in Fig. 126. 
 Here is what amounts to two blocks, each 2"X4" 
 X6", connected by a round shaft, 2" in diameter.
 
 CALCULATION OF STOCK; GENERAL FORCINGS. 
 
 93 
 
 To make this, stock 2" thick and 4" wide should 
 be used, starting by making cuts as shown in Fig. 
 
 -24- 
 
 FIG. 126. 
 
 127, and drawing down the center to 2" round. 
 It is of course necessary to know how far apart to 
 
 FIG. 127. 
 
 make the cuts when starting to draw down the 
 center. 
 
 The volume of a cylinder 2" in diameter and 
 24" long would be i" X i"X3 1 / 7 "X24 // = 75 3 / 7 cubic 
 inches, which maybe taken as 7 5 1 / 2 cubic inches. 
 For each inch in length the stock would have a 
 volume of 4"X2"X i" = 8 cubic inches. There- 
 fore it would require 75 l / 2 + 8 = 9 7 / 16 inches of stock 
 to form the central piece; consequently the dis- 
 tance between cuts, shown at A in Fig. 127, would 
 have to be 9 7 / 16 / '. Each end would require 6" of 
 stock, so the total stock necessary would be 
 
 Any forging can generally be separated into sev- 
 eral simple parts of uniform shape, as was done 
 above, and in this form the calculation can be
 
 94 FORGE-PRACTICE. 
 
 easily made, if it is always remembered that the 
 amount of metal remains the same, and in forging, 
 merely the shape, and not the volume, is altered. 
 
 Weight of Forgings. To find the weight of any 
 forging, the volume may first be found in cubic 
 inches, and this volume multiplied by .2779, the 
 weight of wrought iron per cubic inch. (If the 
 forging is made of steel, multiply by .2836 in place 
 of .2779.) This will give the weight in pounds. 
 
 Below is given the weight of both wrought and 
 cast iron and steel, both in pounds per cubic inch 
 and per cubic foot. 
 
 Lbs. per Lbs. per 
 
 Cu. Ft. Cu. In. 
 
 Cast iron weighs 450 .2604 
 
 Wrought iron weighs. . 480 -2779 
 
 Steel weighs 490 .2936 
 
 Suppose it is required to find the weight of the 
 forging shown in Fig. 124. We had a volume in 
 A of n / u cubic inch, in C of 3 / 4 cubic inch, and in 
 B of i cubic inch, making a total of 2 15 / 28 cubic 
 inches. If the forging were made of wrought iron, 
 it would weight 2 15 / 28 X .2779 = .7 of a pound. 
 
 The forging shown in Fig. 126 has a volume in 
 each end of 48 cubic inches, and in the center of 
 75f cubic inches, making a total of 171^ cubic 
 inches, and would weigh, if made of wrought iron, 
 47.64 pounds. 
 
 A much quicker way to calculate weights is to 
 use a table such as is given on page 250. As steel 
 is now commonly used for making forgings, this
 
 CALCULATION OF STOCK; GENERAL FORCINGS 95 
 
 table is figured for steel. The weight given in the 
 table is for a bar of steel of the dimensions named 
 and one foot long. Thus a bar i" square weighs 
 3.402 Ibs. per foot, a bar sV'Xi" weighs 11.9 Ibs. 
 per foot, etc. 
 
 To calculate the weight of the forging shown in 
 Fig. 126, proceed as follows: Each end is 2 // X4 // 
 and 6" long, so, as far as weight is concerned, equal 
 to a bar 4 // X2 // and 12" long. From the table, 
 a bar 4"Xi" weighs 13.6 Ibs. for each foot in 
 length; so a bar 4 // X2 // , being twice as thick, 
 would weigh twice as much, or 27.2 Ibs., and as 
 the combined length of the two ends of the forging 
 is one foot, this would be their weight. The table 
 shows that a bar 2" in diame.ter weighs 10.69 Ibs. 
 for every foot in length; consequently the central 
 part of the forging, being 2 ft. long, would weigh 
 10.69X2, or 21.38 Ibs. The total weight of the 
 entire forging would be 48.58 Ibs. (This seems to 
 show a difference between this weight and the 
 weight as calculated before, but it must be remem- 
 bered that before the weight was calculated for 
 wrought iron, while this calculation was made for 
 steel.) 
 
 Finish. Some forgings are machined, or "fin- 
 ished," after leaving the forge-shop. As the draw- 
 ings are always made to represent the finished 
 work, and give the finished dimensions, it is neces- 
 sary to make an allowance for this finishing when 
 making the forging, and all parts which have to 
 be "finished," or "machined," must be left with 
 extra metal to be removed in finishing.
 
 9 6 
 
 FORGE-PRACTICE. 
 
 The parts required to be finished are generally 
 marked on the drawing; sometimes the finished 
 surfaces have the word FINISH marked on them; 
 sometimes the finishing is shown simply by the 
 symbol /, as used in Fig. 128, showing that the 
 shafts and pin only of the crank are to be finished. 
 
 fr E* > 
 
 f 
 
 
 
 
 ** 
 
 : 
 
 <^' 
 *fl/ 
 /7X 
 
 
 f ^ 
 
 
 
 r 
 
 f 
 
 FIG. 128. 
 
 When all surfaces of a piece are to be finished 
 the words FINISH-ALL-OVER are sometimes marked 
 on the drawing. 
 
 The allowance for finish on small forgings is gen- 
 erally about Vie'' on each surface ; thus if a block 
 were wanted to finish 4"X2"Xi", and Via" were 
 allowed for finishing, the dimensions of the forging 
 should be 4fc"X2i"Xii". 
 
 On a forging like Fig. 126, about " allowance 
 should be made for finish, if it were called for; 
 thus the diameter of the central shaft would be 
 2^", the thickness of the ends 2\" , etc. On larger 
 work \" is sometimes allowed for machining. 
 
 The amount of finish allowed depends to a large 
 extent on the way the forging is to be finished. If 
 it is necessary to finish by filing the forging should 
 be made as nearly to size as possible, and having 
 a very slight amount for finish, V 32 "> or even y w ", 
 being enough in some cases.
 
 CALCULATION OF STOCK; GENERAL FORCINGS. 
 
 97 
 
 It is of course necessary to take this into account 
 when calculating stock, and the calculation made 
 for the forging with the allowance for finish added 
 to the drawing dimensions and not simply for the 
 finished piece. 
 
 Crank-shafts. - - There are several methods of 
 forging crank-shafts, but only the common com- 
 mercial method will be given here. 
 
 When forgings were mostly made of wrought iron, 
 cranks were welded up of several pieces. One 
 piece was used for each of the end shafts, one piece 
 for each cheek, or side, and another piece for the 
 crank-pin. Mild-steel cranks are now more uni- 
 versally used and forged from one solid piece of 
 stock. The drawing for such a crank is given in 
 Fig. 128; finish to be allowed only as shown, that 
 is, only on crank-pin and shafts. The forgings, as 
 made, will appear like the outlines in Fig. 129. 
 The metal in the throat of the crank is generally 
 removed by drilling a line of holes and then sawing 
 slots where the sides of the crank cheeks should 
 come, as shown by the dotted lines in Fig. 129. 
 
 A 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 * " 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 r*^ 
 
 
 1 
 
 FIG. 129. 
 
 The central block is then easily knocked out. This 
 drilling and sawing are done in the machine-shop. 
 This throat can be formed by chopping out the
 
 98 FORGE-PRACTICE. 
 
 surplus metal with a hot chisel, but on small cranks, 
 such as here shown, it is generally cheaper in a well- 
 equipped shop to use the first method. 
 
 The first step is to calculate the amount of stock 
 required. Stock i^"X4" should be used. The 
 ends, A and B, should be left i|" in diameter to 
 allow for finishing. The end A contarhs 10.13 
 cubic inches. Each inch of stock contains 6 cubic 
 inches. It would therefore require 1.7" of stock 
 to form, this end provided there were no waste from 
 scale in heating. This waste does take place, and 
 must be allowed for, so it will be safe to take about 
 2" of stock for this end. E contains 5.22 cubic 
 inches, and would require .87" of stock without 
 allowance for scale. About \\" should be taken. 
 The stock should then be 7^" long. The first step 
 is to make cuts i\" from one end and 2" from the 
 other, and widen out these cuts with a fuller, as 
 shown in Fig. 130. 
 
 FIG. 130. FIG. 131. 
 
 These ends are then forged out round in the man- 
 ner illustrated in Fig. 131. The forging should be 
 placed over the corner of the anvil in the position 
 shown, the blows striking upon the corner of the 
 piece as indicated, As the end gradually straightens
 
 CALCULATION OF STOCK; GENERAL FORCINGS. 
 
 99 
 
 out, the other end of the piece is slowly raised into 
 the position shown by the dotted lines and the 
 shaft hammered down round and finished up be- 
 tween swages. 
 
 Care must be taken to spread the cuts properly 
 before drawing down the ends, otherwise a bad 
 cold-shut will be formed. If 
 the cuts are left without spread- 
 ing, the metal will act some- 
 what after the manner shown 
 in Fig. 132. The top part of 
 the bar, as it is worked down, 
 will gradually fold over, leav- 
 ing, when hammered down to Fl &. 132. 
 size, a bad cold-shut, or crack, such as illustrated 
 in Fig. 132. When the metal starts to act this way, 
 as shown by the upper sketch in 132, the fault may 
 be remedied by trimming off the corner along the 
 dotted line. This must always be done as soon as 
 any tendency to double over is detected. 
 
 Double-throw Cranks. Multiple-throw cranks are 
 
 FIG. 133. 
 
 first forged flat, rough turned, then heated and 
 twisted into shape. 
 
 The double-throw crank, shown in Fig. 133,
 
 100 
 
 FORGE-PRACTICE. 
 
 would be first forged as shown in Fig. 134 ; the parts 
 shown dotted would then be cut out with the drill 
 and saw, as described above. 
 
 After the pins and shafts have been rough turned 
 that is, turned round, but left as large as possi- 
 
 p 
 
 ^ L 
 
 J r 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 , i 
 
 1 ! 
 
 i 
 
 
 B 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 FIG. 
 
 134- 
 
 
 ble the crank is returned to the forge-shop, where 
 it is heated red-hot and twisted into the finished 
 shape. 
 
 When twisting, the crank is gripped just to one 
 side of the central bearing, as shown by the dotted 
 line A. This may be done with a vise or wrench, 
 if the crank is small, or the crank may be placed 
 on the anvil of a steam-hammer and the hammer 
 lowered down on it to hold it in place. 
 
 The other end of the crank is gripped on the line 
 B and twisted into the required shape. 
 
 FIG. 135. 
 
 A wrench of the shape shown in Fig. 135 is very 
 convenient for doing work of this character. It
 
 CALCULATION OF STOCK; GENERAL FORCINGS. IO1 
 
 may be formed by bending a U out of flat stock, 
 bent edgewise, and welding on a handle. 
 
 Three-throw Crank. Fig. 136 shows what is 
 known as a "three-throw" crank. The forging for 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 v^ 
 
 1 7 3 
 
 
 f 
 
 
 
 
 'if 
 
 
 -1 f J 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ~^ 
 
 
 
 __ 
 
 2 / 
 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 
 .^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 *! 
 
 l 
 
 <-wn 
 
 1-7V 
 
 1 
 
 -rU^ 
 
 
 4 8 s 
 
 
 FIG. 136. 
 
 this is first made as shown by the solid lines in Fig. 
 137. The forging is drilled and sawed in the 
 
 
 .1 
 
 i j 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 In 
 
 n 
 
 * ! ' 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 
 at/ 1 
 
 
 H 5V 
 
 
 01 >* 
 
 . 
 
 
 3J< 
 ts" 
 
 -T- 83 *- 
 
 
 < 8X~ 
 
 FIG. 137. 
 
 machine-shop to the dotted lines, and pins rough 
 turned, being left as large as possible. The forging 
 is returned to the forge-shop, heated, and bent into 
 the shape of the finished crank. It is then sent 
 to the machine-shop and finished to size. Four- 
 throw cranks are also made in this manner. 
 
 The slots are sometimes cut out in the forge-shop 
 with a hot chisel, but, particularly on small work, 
 it is generally more economical to have them sawed 
 out in the machine-shop. This is especially so of 
 multiple-throw cranks, which must be twisted.
 
 102 
 
 FORGE-PRACTICE. 
 
 Knuckles. There is a large variety of forgings 
 which can be classed under one head such forg- 
 ings as the forked end of a marine connecting-rod, 
 the knuckle-joints sometimes used in valve-rods, 
 and others of this character, such as illustrated in 
 Figs. 139, 140, 141, E. 
 
 FIG. 141. 
 
 Connecting-rod End. Fig. 138 shows the shaped 
 end often used on the crank end of connecting- 
 rods. The method of forming this is the same as 
 the first step in forging the other pieces above men- 
 tioned. 
 
 The stock used for making this should be as wide
 
 CALCULATION OF STOCK; GENERAL FORCINGS. 
 
 10.3 
 
 as B and somewhat more than twice as thick as A. 
 The first step is to make two 
 fuller cuts as shown at A, Fig. 
 
 142, using a top and bottom 
 fuller and working in both 
 sides at the same time. When 
 working in both sides of a bar 
 this w r ay, it should be turned 
 frequently, bringing first one 
 side, then the other, upper- 
 most. In this way the cuts 
 will be worked to the same 
 depth on both sides, while if 
 the work is held in one posi- 
 tion, one cut will generally be 
 deeper than the other. After 
 the cuts are made, the left- 
 hand end of the bar is drawn 
 out to the proper size and the 
 
 right-hand end punched and split like B. Some- 
 times when the length D, Fig. 138, is compara- 
 tively short and the stock wide, instead of being 
 punched and split, the end of the bar is cut out, as 
 shown at C, Fig. 142, with a right angle or curved 
 cutter. 
 
 The split ends are spread out into the position 
 shown at D, and drawn down to size over the cor- 
 ner of the anvil, in the manner illustrated in Fig. 
 
 143. These ends are then bent back into the 
 proper position for the finished forging. Gener- 
 ally when the ends are worked out and bent back 
 in this manner, a bump is left like that indicated 
 
 FIG. 142.
 
 104 
 
 FORGE-PRACTICE. 
 
 by the arrow-point at E, Fig. 142. This should 
 be trimmed off along the dotted line. 
 
 Knuckle. The knuckle, Fig. 139, is started in 
 exactly the same way, but after being forged out 
 
 FIG. 143. FIG. 144. 
 
 straight, as above, the tips of these ends are bent 
 down, forming a U-shaped loop of approximately 
 the shape of the finished knuckle. A bar of iron 
 of the same dimension at the inside of the finished 
 knuckle is then inserted between the sides of the 
 loop and the sides closed down flat over it, Fig. 
 144. 
 
 Forked-end Connecting-rod. Fig. 140 is made in 
 the same manner. The shaft 5 should be drawn 
 down into shape and rounded 
 up before the other end is 
 split. After the split ends 
 have been bent back 
 straight, the shoulder A 
 should be finished up with 
 a fuller in the manner shown 
 in Fig. 145. The rounded 
 
 FIG. 145. 
 
 ends B-B should be formed before the piece is bent
 
 CALCULATION OF STOCK; GENERAL FORCINGS. 10$ 
 
 into shape. The final bending can be done over a 
 cast-iron block of the right shape and size if the 
 forging is a large one and several of the same kind 
 are wanted. 
 
 Hook with Forked End. Fig. 141, is a forging 
 which also conies in this general class. This is 
 made from f " square stock. The end of the bar is 
 first drawn down to 3 / 16 " round. This round end is 
 put through the hole of a heading-tool, and the 
 square part is split with a hot chisel, the cut wid- 
 ened out, and the sides hammered out straight on 
 the tool. The different steps are shown in Fig. 
 141. 
 
 Wrench, Open-end. Open-end wrenches of the 
 general class shown in Fig. 146 may be made in 
 
 FIG. 146. 
 
 several different ways. It would be possible to 
 make this by the same general method followed 
 for making the forked end of the connecting-rod 
 described above. Ordinary size wrenches are more 
 easily made in the way illustrated in Fig. 147. 
 
 A piece of stock is used, wide enough and thick 
 enough to . form the head of the wrench. This is 
 worked in on both sides with a fuller and the head 
 rounded up as shown. A hole is then punched 
 through the head and the piece cut out to form 
 the opening, as shown by the dotted lines at B. 
 
 This wrench could also be made by bending up
 
 io6 
 
 FORGE-PRACTICE. 
 
 a U from the proper size flat stock and welding 
 on a handle. 
 
 FIG. 147. 
 
 The solid-forged wrench is the more satisfactory. 
 Socket- wrench. - - The socket- wrench, shown in 
 Fig. 148, may be made in several ways. About 
 
 the easiest, on "hurry- 
 up" work, is the method 
 shown in Fig. 149. Here 
 a stub is shaped up the 
 same size and shape as 
 the finished hole is to be. A ring is bent up of thin 
 flat iron and this ring welded around the stub. 
 
 FIG. 148. 
 
 FIG. 149. 
 
 The width of the ring should of course be equal to 
 the length of the hole plus the lap of the weld. 
 
 When finishing the socket, a nut or bolt-head 
 the size the wrench is intended to fit should be
 
 CALCULATION OF STOCK; GENERAL FORCINGS. 107 
 
 placed in the hole and the socket finished over 
 this between swages. 
 
 A better way of making wrenches of this sort is 
 to make a forging having 
 the same dimensions as 
 the finished wrench, but 
 with the socket end 
 forged solid. The socket 
 end should then be 
 drilled to a depth slightly 
 greater than the socket is 
 wanted. The diameter of 
 the drill should be, as 
 
 shown in Fig. 150, equal to the shortest diameter of 
 the hole. 
 
 After drilling, the socket end is heated red-hot 
 and a punch of the same shape as the intended hole 
 driven into it. The end of the punch should be 
 square, with the corners sharp. As the punch is 
 driven in, the corners will shave off some of the 
 metal around the hole and force it to the bottom 
 of the hole, thus making it necessary to have the 
 drilled hole slightly deeper than the socket hole is 
 intended to finish. 
 
 While punching, the wrench may be held in a 
 heading tool, or if the wrench be double-ended, in a 
 pair of special tongs, as shown in Fig. 150. 
 
 Split Work. There is a great variety of thin 
 forgings, formed by splitting a bar and bending 
 the split parts into shape. For convenience, these 
 can be called split forgings. 
 
 Fig. 151 is a fair sample of this kind of work.
 
 io8 
 
 FORGE-PRACTICE. 
 
 This piece could be made by U.king two flat strips 
 and welding them across each other, but, particu- 
 
 FIG. 151. 
 
 FIG. 152. 
 
 larly if the work is very thin, this is rather a diffi- 
 cult weld to make. 
 
 An easier way is to take a flat piece of stock of 
 the proper thickness and cut it with a hot chisel, 
 as shown by the solid lines in Fig. 152. The four 
 ends formed by the splits are then bent at right 
 angles to each other as shown by the dotted lines, 
 and hammered out pointed as required. 
 
 If machine steel stock is used, it is not generally 
 necessary to take any particular precautions when 
 
 FIG. 153. 
 
 splitting the bar, but if the material used is wrought 
 iron, it is necessary to punch a small hole through
 
 CALCULATION OF STOCK; GENERAL FORCINGS. 
 
 109 
 
 the bar where the end of the cut comes, to prevent 
 the split from extending back too far. 
 
 Fig. 153 shows several examples of this kind of 
 work. The illustrations show in each case the 
 finished piece, and also the method of cutting the 
 bar. The shaded portions of the bar are cut away 
 completely. 
 
 Expanded or Weldless Eye. Another forging of 
 the same nature is the expanded eye in Fig. 154. 
 
 FIG. 154. 
 
 FIG. 155. 
 
 To make this, a flat bar is forged rounding on the 
 end, punched and split as shown. The split is 
 widened out by driving a punch, or other tapering 
 tool into it, and the forging finished by working 
 over the horn of the anvil, as shown in Fig. 155. 
 
 If the dimensions of the eye are to be very accu- 
 rate, it will be necessary to make a calculation for 
 the length of the cut. This can be done as follows: 
 Suppose the forging, for the sake of convenience in 
 calculating, to be made up of a ring 3" inside diame- 
 ter and sides \" wide, placed on the end of a bar 
 \\" wide. The first thing is to determine the area 
 of this ring. To do this find the area of the out-
 
 IIO FORGE-PRACTICE. 
 
 side circle and subtract from it the area of the 
 inside circle. (Areas may be found in table, page 
 2430 
 
 Area of outside circle ............. =12.57 SC L- m - 
 
 " " inside " ............. 7.07 
 
 " " 
 
 = 5-5o " " 
 
 2// 
 3 
 
 The stock, being i" wide, has an area of 
 sq. in. for every inch in length, and it will take 3 
 of this stock to form the ring, as we must take an 
 amount of stock having the same area as the ring. 
 This will be practically 3 n / l6 ". 
 
 The stock should be punched and split, as shown 
 in Fig. 154. It will be noticed that the punch- 
 holes are f" from the end, while the stock is to be 
 drawn to \" . The extra amount is given to allow 
 for the hammering necessary to form the eye. 
 
 Weldless Rings. Weldless rings can be made in 
 the above way by splitting a piece of flat stock and 
 expanding it into a ring, or they can be made as 
 follows: The necessary volume of stock is first 
 forged into a round flat disc and a hole is punched 
 through the center. The hole should be large 
 enough to admit the end of the horn of the anvil. 
 The forging is then placed on the horn and worked 
 to the desired size in the manner indicated in 
 Fig. i55- Fig. 156 shows the different steps in 
 the process the disc, the punched disc, and the 
 finished ring. 
 
 Rings of this sort are made very rapidly under 
 the steam-hammer by a slight modification of this
 
 CALCULATION OF STOCK; GENERAL FORCINGS. 
 
 Ill 
 
 method. The discs are shaped and punched and 
 then forged to size over a ' ' mandril. " A U- 
 
 FIG. 156. 
 
 FIG. 157. 
 
 shaped rest is placed on the anvil of the steam- 
 hammer, the mandril is slipped through the hole 
 in the disc and placed on the rest, as shown in 
 Fig. 157. The blows come directly down upon 
 the top side of the ring, it being turned between 
 each two blows. The ring of course rests only upon 
 the mandril. As the hole increases in size, larger 
 and larger mandrils are used, keeping the mandril 
 as nearly as possible the same size as the hole. 
 
 Forging a Hub, or Boss. Fig. 158 is an example 
 of a shape very often met with in machine forging: 
 a lever, or some flat bar or shank, with a "boss" 
 
 FIG. 158. 
 
 FIG. 159. 
 
 formed on one end. This may be made in two 
 ways either by doubling over the end of the bar, 
 as shown in Fig. 159, and making a fagot-weld of 
 sufficient thickness to form the boss, or by taking a 
 bar large enough to form the boss and drawing 
 down the shank. The second method will be
 
 112 
 
 FORGE-PRACTICE. 
 
 described, as no particular directions are necessary 
 for the weld, and after welding up the end, the 
 boss is rounded up in the same way in either case. 
 The stock should be large enough to form the boss 
 without any upsetting. 
 
 A bar of stock is taken, for the forging shown 
 above, 2" wide and 2" thick. The first step is to 
 make a cut about 2" from the end, with a fuller, 
 like A, Fig. 160. 
 
 FIG. 160. 
 
 The stock, to the right of the cut, is then flat- 
 tened down and drawn out to size, as shown at B. 
 In drawing out the stock, certain precautions must 
 be taken or a " cold-shut ' ' will be formed close to 
 the boss. If the metal is allowed to flatten down 
 into shape like Fig. C, the corner at X will over- 
 lap, and work into the metal, making a crack in 
 the work which will look like Fig. E, This
 
 CALCULATION OF STOCK; GENERAL FORCINGS. 113 
 
 is quite a common fault, and whenever a crack 
 appears in a forging close to a shoulder, it is gener- 
 ally caused by something of this sort that is, by 
 some corner or part of the metal lapping over and 
 cutting into the forging. When one of these cracks 
 appears, the only way to remedy the evil is to cut 
 it out as shown by the dotted lines in E. For this 
 purpose a hot-chisel is sometimes used, with a 
 blade formed like a gouge. 
 
 Fig. D shows the proper way to draw out the 
 stock; the corner in question should be forged 
 away from the boss in such a manner as to grad- 
 ually widen the cut. The bar should now be 
 rounded up by placing the work over the corner of 
 the anvil, as shown in Fig. 161. First forge off the 
 
 FIG. 161. 
 
 corners and then round up the boss in this way. 
 To finish around the corner formed between the 
 boss and the flat shank, a set-hammer should be 
 used. Sometimes the shank is bent away from 
 the boss to give room to work, and a set-hammer, 
 or swage, used for rounding the boss as shown,
 
 FORGE-PRACTICE. 
 
 After the boss is finished, the shank is straightened. 
 The boss should be smoothed up with a swage. 
 
 Ladle Shank. The ladle shank, shown in Fig. 
 162, may be made in several ways. It is possible 
 
 to make it solid without 
 any welds, or the handle 
 may be welded on a flat 
 bar and the bar bent into 
 a ring and welded, or the 
 ring and handle may be 
 forged in one piece and 
 the ring closed together by welding. The last- 
 mentioned method is as follows : The stock should 
 be about i" square. It is necessary to make a 
 
 FIG. 162. 
 
 FIG. 163. 
 
 rough calculation of the amount of this size stock 
 required to form the ring of the shank. If the ring
 
 CALCULATION OF STOCK; GENERAL FORCINGS. 115 
 
 were made of f'Xi" stock, about 23!" would be 
 required; now as i"Xi" stock is the same width 
 and about two and one-half times as thick as 
 f'Xi" stock, every inch of the i"Xi" will make 
 about r 2\" of f'Xi", consequently about 9^" of 
 the i" square will be required to form the ring. 
 
 A fuller cut is made around the bar, as shown 
 at A, Fig. 163. This should be made about 9^" 
 from the end of the bar. The left-hand end of the 
 bar is drawn down to \" in diameter to form the 
 handle. If the work is being done under a steam 
 or power hammer, enough stock may be drawn 
 out to form the entire handle, but if working on 
 the anvil, it will probably be more satisfactory to 
 draw out only enough stock to make a "stub "4" or 
 5" long. To this stub may be welded a round bar 
 to form the handle. 
 
 After drawing out the handle, the q\" square 
 end of the stock is split, as shown by the dotted 
 lines at B. These split ends 
 are spread apart, as shown 
 at C, forged into shape, and 
 bent back to the position 
 shown by the dotted lines. 
 
 The ring is completed by FlG> l64 ' 
 
 cutting the ends to the proper length, scarring, 
 bending into shape, and welding, as indicated in 
 Fig. 164. 
 
 If for any reason it is necessary to make a forg- 
 ing of this kind without a weld in the ring, it may 
 be done by the method shown in Fig. 165. The 
 split in this case should not extend to the end of the
 
 u6 
 
 FORGE-PRACTICE. 
 
 bar. About 
 at the end. 
 
 ' or |" of stock should be left uncut 
 This split is widened out and the 
 
 FIG. 165. 
 
 sides drawn down and shaped into a ring as desired. 
 Starting-lever. The lever shown in Fig. 166 is a 
 
 FIG. 166 
 
 shape sometimes used for levers used to turn the 
 
 fly-wheels of engines or other heavy wheels by 
 
 gripping the rim. 
 
 The method used in making the lever is shown 
 
 in Fig. 167. The end is first drawn down round 
 
 and the handle formed. 
 The other end is then 
 split, forged down to 
 size, and bent at right 
 angles to the handle, 
 u After trimming to the 
 
 n 
 
 B j-, proper length, the flat 
 
 ' ends are bent into shape. 
 
 If this shaped end is 
 very heavy, it may be necessary to forge it in the 
 
 FIG. 167.
 
 CALCULATION OF STOCK; GENERAL FORCINGS. 117 
 
 shape of a solid block, as shown in Fig. 168, and 
 then either work in the depression 
 shown by the dotted lines, with a 
 
 fuller and set-hammers, or the dotted 
 
 FIG. 168. 
 line may be cut out with a hot-chisel. 
 
 Moulder's Trowel. The moulder's trowel shown 
 in Fig. 169 gives an example of the method used in 
 
 FIG. 169. 
 
 making forgings of a large class, forgings having a 
 wide thin face with a stem, comparatively small, 
 forged at one end. 
 
 The stock to be used for the trowel shown should 
 be about "Xi". This is thick enough to allow 
 for the formation of the ridge at R. 
 
 FIG. 170. 
 
 Fig. 170 shows the general method employed. 
 The forging is started by making nicks like A, with 
 the top and bottom fuller. One end is drawn down 
 to form the tang for the handle. This should not
 
 1 1 8 FORGE-PRACTICE. 
 
 be forged down pointed, as required when com- 
 pleted, but the entire length of handle should be 
 forged square and about the size the largest part is 
 required to finish to. The handle is then bent up 
 at right angles, as at B, and the corner forged 
 square in the same manner that the corner of a 
 bracket is shaped up sharp and square on the out- 
 side. 
 
 After this corner is formed, the blade is drawn 
 down to size on the face of the anvil. 
 
 When flattening out the blade, in order to leave 
 the ridge shown at R, Fig. 169, the work should 
 be held as shown at C, Fig. 1 70. Here the handle 
 is held pointing down and against the side of the 
 anvil. By striking directly down on the work, and 
 covering the part directly over the edge of the anvil 
 with the blows, all of the metal on the anvil will be 
 flattened down, leaving the metal not resting on 
 the anvil unworked. By swinging the piece around 
 into a reverse position the other edge of the blade 
 may be thinned down. If care be taken to hold 
 the trowel in the proper position while thinning 
 out the blade, a small triangular-shaped piece next 
 the handle will be left thicker than the rest of the 
 blade. This raised part will form the ridge shown 
 at R, Fig. 169. 
 
 The same result may be obtained by placing the 
 trowel, other side up, on the face of the anvil and 
 using a set-hammer, or flatter, to thin out the blade. 
 
 Welded Brace. Fig. 171 shows a form of brace, 
 or bracket, sometimes used for holding swinging 
 signs and for various other purposes.
 
 CALCULATION Of STOCK; GENERAL FORCING?. 
 
 119 
 
 The bracket in this case is made of round stock; 
 but the same method may be followed in making 
 one of flat or square material. 
 
 FIG. 171. 
 
 The stock is first scarfed on one end and this end 
 doubled over, forming a loop, as shown in Fig. 172. 
 
 FIG. 172. 
 
 The loop is welded and then split, the ends straight- 
 ened out and flattened into the desired shape as 
 illustrated. 
 
 FIG. 173. 
 
 Welded Fork. The welded fork, shown in Fig. 
 173, is made in the same way as the brace de- 
 scribed above.
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 STEAM-HAMMER WORK. 
 
 General Description of Steam-hammer. The gen- 
 eral shape of small and medium steam-hammers 
 
 is shown in Fig. 174. 
 This type is known as 
 a single - frame ham- 
 mer. 
 
 The size of a steam- 
 hammer is determined 
 by the weight of its 
 falling parts ; thus the 
 term a 4oo-lb. ham- 
 mer would mean that 
 the total weight of 
 the ram, hammer-die, 
 and piston-rod was 400 
 Ibs. 
 
 Steam-hammers are 
 made in this general 
 style from 200 Ibs. up. 
 
 The anvil is entire- 
 ly separate from the 
 
 FIG. 174. 
 separate foundation. 
 
 frame of the hammer, 
 and each rests on a
 
 STEAM-HAMMER WORK. 121 
 
 The foundation for the frame generally takes the 
 shape of two blocks of timber or masonry capped 
 with timber one in front and one behind the anvil 
 block. The anvil foundation is placed between 
 the two blocks of the frame foundation, and is 
 larger and heavier. 
 
 The object of separating the anvil and frame is to 
 allow the anvil to give under a heavy blow with- 
 out disturbing the frame or its foundation. 
 
 Hammer-dies. The dies most commonly used on 
 steam-hammers have flat faces ; the upper or ham- 
 mer die being the same width, but sometimes 
 shorter in length than the lower or anvil die. 
 
 Tool-steel makes the best dies, but chilled iron 
 is also used to a very large extent. Sometimes, 
 for forming work, even gray iron castings are used. 
 Flat dies made of tool-steel are sometimes used 
 without hardening. Dies made this way, when 
 worn, may be faced off and used again without 
 the bother of annealing and rehardening. 
 
 For special work the dies are made in various 
 shapes, the faces being more or less in the shape of 
 the work to be formed. When the die-faces aie 
 shaped to the exact form of the finished piece, the 
 work is known as drop-forging. 
 
 Tongs for Steam-hammer Work. The tongs used 
 for holding work under the steam-hammer should 
 be very carefully fitted and the jaws so shaped 
 that they hold the stock on all sides. Ordinary 
 flat-jawed tongs should not be used, as the work 
 is liable to be jarred or slip out sideways. 
 
 Fig. 175 shows the jaws of a pair of tongs fitted
 
 122 
 
 FORGE-PRACTICE. 
 
 to square stock. Tongs for other shaped stock 
 
 should have the jaws 
 formed in a correspond 
 ing way; that is, the in- 
 side of the jaws, viewed 
 from the end, should have 
 
 FIG. I75 . 
 
 the same shape as the cross-section of the stock they 
 are intended to hold, and should grip the stock 
 firmly on at least three sides. 
 
 Flat-jawed tongs can be easily shaped as above 
 in the manner shown in Fig. 176. The tongs are 
 
 FIG. 176. 
 
 heated and held as shown, by placing one jaw, 
 inside up, on a swage. The jaw is grooved or 
 bent by driving down a top-fuller on it. After 
 shaping the other jaw in the same way, the final 
 fitting is done by inserting a short piece of stock of 
 the proper size in the jaws and closing them down 
 tightly over this by hammering. 
 
 When fitting tongs to round stock, the finishing
 
 STEAM-HAMMER WORK. 
 
 I2 3 
 
 may be done between swages, the stock being kept 
 between the jaws while working them into shape. 
 
 Tongs for heavy work should have the jaws 
 shaped as shown in Fig. 177. When in use, tongs 
 of this kind are held by 
 slipping a link over the 
 handles to force them to- 
 gether. On very large sizes, 
 this link is driven on with a 
 sledge. 
 
 To turn the work easily, 
 
 FIG. 177. 
 
 the link is sometimes made in the shape shown in 
 Fig. 178, with a handle projecting from each end. 
 
 FIG. 178. 
 
 Hammer-chisels. The hot-chisel used for cutting 
 work under the hammer is shaped, ordinarily, like 
 Fig. 179. This is sometimes made of solid tool- 
 
 STEEL 
 
 FIG. 179. 
 
 FIG. 180. 
 
 steel, and sometimes the blade is made of tool-steel 
 and has a wrought-iron handle welded on. Fig. 
 1 80 shows the method of welding on the wrought- 
 iron handle.
 
 124 
 
 FORGE-PRACTICE. 
 
 The handle of the chisel, close up to the blade, is 
 hammered out comparatively thin. -This is to 
 allow the blade to spring slightly without snapping 
 off the handle. The hammer will always knock 
 the blade into a certain position, and as the chisel 
 is not always held in exactly the right way, this 
 thin part of the handle permits a little ' ' give ' ' 
 without doing any harm. 
 
 The force of the blow is so great when cutting, 
 that the edge of the chisel must be left rather 
 blunt. The edge should be square across, and not 
 rounding. The proper shape is shown at A, Fig. 
 
 FIG. 181. 
 
 181. Sometimes for special work the edge may 
 be slightly beveled, as at B or C, but should never 
 be shaped like D. 
 
 Sometimes a bar is cut or nicked with a cold- 
 chisel under the hammer. 
 The chisel used is shaped 
 like Fig. 182, being very 
 flat and stumpy to resist the 
 crushing effect of heavy blows. The three faces 
 of the chisel are of almost equal width. 
 
 Cutting Hot Stock. Hot cutting is done under the 
 
 FIG. 182.
 
 STEAM-HAMMER WORK. 
 
 steam-hammer in much the same way as done on 
 the anvil. 
 
 If the chisel be held perfectly upright, as shown 
 at A, Fig. 183, the cut end of the bar will be left 
 
 FIG. 183. 
 
 bulging out in the middle. When the end is wanted 
 square the cut should be started with the chisel 
 upright, but once started, the chisel should be very 
 slightly tipped, as shown at B. When cutting 
 work this way the cut should be made about half 
 way through from all sides. When cutting off 
 large pieces of square stock the chisel should be 
 driven nearly through the bar, leaving only a thin 
 strip of metal, \" or \" thick, joining the twc 
 pieces, A, Fig. 184. The bar is then turned over 
 
 FIG. 184. 
 
 on the anvil and a thin bar of steel laid directly on 
 top of this thin strip, as shown at B, Fig. 184. 
 One hard blow of the hammer sends the thin bar 
 of steel between the two pieces and completely 
 cuts out the thin connecting strip of metal. This
 
 126 FORCE PRACTICE. 
 
 leaves the ends of both pieces smooth, while if the 
 
 chisel is used for cutting 
 on both sides, the end of 
 one piece will be smooth 
 
 and the other will have a 
 FIG. 185. . . 
 
 fin left on it. 
 
 For cutting up into corners on the ends of slots 
 bent cutters are sometimes used; such a cutter is 
 shown in Fig. 185. These cutters are also made 
 curved, and special shapes made for special work. 
 
 General Notes on Steam-hammer. When working 
 under the hammer, great care should always be 
 taken to be sure that everything is in the proper 
 position before striking a blow. The work must 
 rest flat and solid on the anvil, and the part to be 
 worked should be held as nearly as possible below 
 the center of the hammer-die ; if the work be done 
 under one edge or corner of the hammer-die, the 
 result is a "foul" blow, which has a tendency to 
 tip the ram and strain the frame. 
 
 When tools are used, they should always be held 
 in such a way that the part of the tool touching 
 the work is directly below the point of the tool on 
 which the hammer will strike. Thus, supposing a 
 piece were being cut off under the hammer, the 
 chisel should be held exactly upright, and directly 
 under the center of the hammer, as shown at A, 
 Fig. 1 86. In this way a fair cut is made. If the 
 chisel were not held upright, but slantingly, as 
 shown at B, the result of the blow would be as 
 shown by the dotted lines, the chisel would be 
 turned over and knocked flat, and, in some cases,
 
 STEAM-HAMMER WORK. 
 
 127 
 
 might be even thrown very forcibly from under 
 the hammer. 
 
 When a piece is to be worked out to any great 
 extent, the blows should be heavy, and the end of 
 
 v 
 
 /r\ 7 \ 
 
 FIG. 186. 
 
 the stock being hammered should bulge out slightly, 
 like A, Fig. 187, showing that the metal is being 
 
 FIG. 187. 
 
 worked clear through. If light blows are used the 
 end of the piece will forge out convex, like B, show- 
 ing that the metal on the outside of the bar has 
 been worked more than that on the inside. If this 
 sort of work is continued, the bar will split and 
 work hollow in the center, like C. 
 
 Round shafts formed between flat dies are very 
 liable to be split in this way when not carefully 
 hand 1 ed. 
 
 The faces of the hammer- and anvil-dies are gen- 
 erally of the same width, but not always the same
 
 1 28 FORGE-PRACTICE. 
 
 length. Thus, when the hammer is resting on the 
 anvil, the front and back sides of the two dies are 
 in line with each other, while either one or both 
 ends of the anvil-die project beyond the ends of 
 the hammer-die. 
 
 This is not always the case, however, as in many 
 hammers the faces of the two dies are the same 
 shape and size. 
 
 Having one die face longer than the other is an 
 advantage sometimes when a shoulder is to be 
 formed on one side of the work only. 
 
 When a shoulder is to be formed on both sides of 
 a piece the work should be placed under the ham- 
 mer in such a way that the top die will work in one 
 shoulder, while the bottom die is forming the other ; 
 in other words, the work should be done from the 
 side of the hammer, where the edges of the dies are 
 even, as shown in Fig. 188. If the shoulder is re- 
 quired on one side only, as in forging tongs, the 
 
 FIG. 188. FIG. 189. 
 
 work should be so placed as to work in the shoulder 
 with the top die, while the bottom die keeps the 
 under side of the work straight, as in Fig. 189, A,
 
 STEAM-HAMMER WORK. 129 
 
 The same object, a shoulder on one side only, 
 may be accomplished by using a block, as shown 
 at B, Fig. 189. The block may be used as shown, 
 or the positions of work and block may be reversed 
 and the work laid with flat side on the anvil and 
 block placed on top. 
 
 This method of forming shoulders will be taken 
 up more in detail in treating individual forgings. 
 
 Tools: Swages. In general, the tools used in 
 steam-hammer work, except in special cases, are 
 very simple. 
 
 Swages for finishing work up to about 3" or 4" 
 in diameter are commonly made as shown in Fig. 
 190. The two parts of the swage are held apart 
 
 FIG. 190. 
 
 by the long spring handle. This spring handle 
 may be made as shown at B, by forming it of a sep- 
 arate piece of stock and fastening it to the swage, 
 by making a thin slot in the side of the block with 
 a hot-chisel or punch, forcing the handle into this 
 and closing the metal around it with a few light 
 blows around the hole with the edge of a fuller. 
 
 Another method of forming the handle (C) is to 
 draw out the same piece from which the blocks are
 
 FORGE- PRACTICE. 
 
 made, hammering down the center of the stock to 
 form the handle, and leaving the ends full size to 
 make the swages. 
 
 Swages for large work are made sometimes as 
 shown in Fig. 191. The one shown at B is made 
 
 FIG. 191. 
 
 for an anvil-die having a square hole, similar to 
 the hardie-hole in an ordinary anvil, near one end. 
 The horn on the swage, at x, slips into this hole, 
 while the other two projections fit, one on either 
 side, over the sides of the anvil. These horns, or 
 fingers, prevent the swage from slipping around 
 when in use. 
 
 END-VIEW 
 
 FIG. 192. 
 
 Tapering and Fullering Tool. As the faces of the 
 anvil- and hammer-dies are flat and parallel, it 
 is not possible to finish smoothly between the bare 
 dies, any work having tapering sides.
 
 STEAM-HAMMER WORK. 131 
 
 By using a tool similar to the one shown in Fig. 
 192 tapering work may be smoothly finished. 
 
 Taper Work. The use of the tool illustrated 
 above is shown in Fig. 193. For roughing out 
 taper work, the tool is used with the curved side 
 
 FINISHING 
 FIG. 193. 
 
 down, the straight side being flat with the hammer- 
 die. When finishing the taper, the tool is reversed, 
 the flat side being held at the desired angle and 
 the hammer striking the curved side. This curved 
 side enables the tool to do good work through 
 quite a wide range of angles. If too great an angle 
 is attempted, the tool will be forced from under 
 the hammer by the wedging action. 
 
 Fullers. Fullers such as used for ordinary hand 
 forgings are very seldom employed in steam-ham- 
 mer work. To take their 
 place simple round bars 
 are used. When much 
 used, the bars should be 
 of tool-steel. 
 
 One use of round bars, 
 
 j t. -1 FlG " 
 
 as mentioned above, is il- 
 lustrated in Fig. 194. Here the work, as shown,
 
 132 FORGE-PRACTICE. 
 
 has a semicircular groove extending around it, 
 forming a "neck." The groove is formed by plac- 
 ing a short piece of round steel of the proper size 
 on the anvil-die; on this is placed the work, with 
 the spot where the neck is to be formed directly 
 on top of the bar. Exactly above the bar, and 
 parallel to it on top of the work, is held another bar 
 of the same diameter. By striking with the hammer, 
 the bars are driven into the work, forming the 
 groove. The work should be turned frequently 
 to insure a uniform depth of groove on all sides; 
 for, if held in one position, one bar will work in 
 deeper than the other. 
 
 Adjusting Work Under the Hammer. When work 
 is first laid on the anvil the hammer should 
 always be lowered lightly down on it in order to 
 properly "locate" it. This brings the work flat 
 and true with the die-faces; and if held in this 
 position (and care should be taken to see that it is), 
 there will be little chance of the jumping, jarring, 
 and slipping, caused by holding the forging in the 
 wrong position. This is particularly true when 
 using tools, as great care must be taken to see that 
 the hammer strikes them fairly. If the first blow 
 is a heavy one, and the work is not placed exactly 
 right, there is danger of the piece flying from under 
 the hammer and causing a serious accident. 
 
 As an illustration of the above, suppose that a 
 piece be carelessly placed on the anvil, as shown in 
 Fig. 195, the piece resting on the edge of the anvil 
 only, not flat on the face, as it should. 
 
 When the hammer strikes quickly and hard two
 
 STEAM-HAMMER WORK. 
 
 133 
 
 FIG. 195. 
 
 things- may happen : either the bar will be bent (as 
 it will if very hot and soft) or 
 it will be knocked into the posi- 
 tion shown by the dotted lines. 
 If the hammer be lowered lightly 
 at first, the bar will be pushed 
 down flat, and assumes the dotted 
 position easily, where it may be 
 held for the heavy blows. 
 
 Squaring Up Work. It frequently happens in 
 hammer work, as well as in hand forging, that a 
 piece which should be square in section becomes 
 lopsided and diamond-shaped. 
 
 To correct this fault the forging should be held 
 as shown in Fig. 196, with the long diagonal of 
 
 t>on 
 
 FIG. 196. 
 
 the diamond shape perpendicular to the face of the 
 anvil. 
 
 A few blows will flatten the work into the shape 
 shown at B ; the work should then be rolled slightly 
 in the direction of the arrow and the hammering 
 continued, the forging taking the shape of C, and, 
 as the rolling and hammering are continued, finally, 
 the square section D. 
 
 Making Small Tongs. As an example of manipu-
 
 FORGE-PRACTICE. 
 
 lation under the hammer, the making of a. pair of 
 ordinary flat-jawed tongs is a good illustration. 
 
 Fig. 197 shows the different steps from the straight 
 stock to the finished piece. 
 
 FIG. 197. 
 
 The stock is heated to a high heat and bent as 
 shown in Figs. 198 and 199. A and B (Fig. 198) 
 
 \ / 
 
 FIG. 198. 
 
 FIG. 199. 
 
 are two pieces of flat iron of the same thickness. 
 The stock is placed like Fig. 198, the hammer 
 brought down lightly, to make sure that every- 
 thing is in the proper position, and then one hard 
 blow bends the stock into shape (Fig. 199). 
 
 Fig. 200 shows the method of starting the eye
 
 STEAM-HAMMER WORK. 135 
 
 and working in the shoulder. The bent piece is 
 laid flat on the anvil and a piece of flat steel laid on 
 top, in such a position that one side of the steel 
 will cut into the work and form the shoulder for 
 
 FIG. 200. FIG. 201. 
 
 the jaw of the tongs. The steel is pounded into 
 the work until the metal is forged thin enough to 
 form the eye. This leaves the work in the shape 
 shown in Fig. 201. The part A, Fig. 201, is after- 
 ward drawn out to form the handle, the jaw and 
 eye are formed up, and, lastly, the eye is punched. 
 The forming of the jaw and the punching of the 
 rivet-hole should be done with the hand-hammer, 
 and not under the steam-hammer. 
 
 The handle is, of course, drawn out under the 
 steam-hammer, but needs no particular descrip- 
 tion. For careful finishing, the taper tool illus- 
 trated in Fig. 192, may be used, or a sledge and 
 swages. 
 
 As a general thing, steam-hammer work does not 
 differ very much from forging done on the anvil. 
 The method of operation, in either case, is almost 
 the same; but, when working under the hammer, 
 the 4 work is more quickly done and should be han- 
 dled more rapidly. 
 
 Crank-shafts. The crank-shaft, shown in Figs.
 
 136 
 
 FORGE-PRACTICE. 
 
 128 and 129, is a quite common example of steam- 
 hammer work. 
 
 The different operations are about the same as 
 described for making it on the anvil. 
 
 A specially shaped tool is used to make the cuts 
 each side of the crank cheek. This tool and its 
 use are shown in Fig. 202. When the cuts are 
 
 J-fl 
 
 FIG. 202. 
 
 FIG. 203. 
 
 very deep, they should first be made with a hot- 
 chisel and then spread with the spreading tool. 
 If the shoulder is not very high, both operations, 
 of cutting and spreading, may be done at once with 
 the spreading tool. 
 
 After marking and opening out the cuts, the 
 same precautions, to avoid cold-shuts, must be 
 taken as are used when doing the same sort of 
 work on the anvil. The work should be held and 
 handled much the same as illustrated in Fig. 131,
 
 STEAM-HAMMER WORK. 137 
 
 only in this case the sledge and anvil are replaced 
 by the top and bottom dies of the steam-hammer. 
 
 A block of steel may be used for squaring up into 
 the shoulder, as shown in Fig. 203. If a shoulder 
 is to be formed on both sides, one block may be 
 placed below and another above the work, some- 
 what as shown before in Fig. 194; the round bars 
 in the illustration being replaced with square ones. 
 
 Knuckles. A knuckle such as shown in Fig. 
 139 would be made by identically the same 
 process as described for making it on the anvil. 
 A few suggestions might be made, however. 
 
 After the end of the bar has been split and bent 
 apart, ready for shaping, the work should be han- 
 dled, under the hammer, as shown in Fig. 204. It 
 
 FIG. 204. 
 
 should first be placed as shown by the solid lines, 
 and as the hammering proceeds, should be gradually 
 worked over into the position shown by the dotted 
 lines. The other side is worked in the same way.
 
 FORGE-PRACTlCK. 
 
 After drawing out and shaping the ends the 
 knuckle is finished by bending the ends together 
 over a block, in the same way as shown in Fig. 144, 
 the work being done under the hammer. 
 
 Connecting-rod. Drawing Out between Shoulders. 
 The forging illustrated in Fig. 126, while hardly 
 the exact proportions of common connecting- 
 rods, is near enough the proper shape to be a good 
 example of that kind of forging. 
 
 The forging, after the proper stock calculation 
 has been made, is started by making the cuts near 
 the two ends, as shown in Fig. 127. The distance, 
 A, must be so calculated, as explained before, that 
 
 ZL 
 
 FIG. 205. 
 
 FIG. 206. 
 
 the stock represented by that dimension, when 
 drawn out, will form the shape, 2" in diameter and 
 24" long, connecting the two wide ends. 
 
 The cuts are made with the spreading tool used 
 in connection with a short block shaped the same
 
 STEAM-HAMMER WORK. 139 
 
 as the tool, or a second tool, the tools being placed 
 one above and one below the work, as shown in 
 Fig. 205. 
 
 After making the cuts the stock between them is 
 drawn down to the proper size and finished. 
 
 It sometimes happens that the distance A is so 
 short that the cuts are closer together than the 
 width of the die-faces, thus making it impossible 
 to draw out the work by using the flat dies. This 
 difficulty may be overcome by using two narrow 
 blocks as shown in Fig. 206. 
 
 Weldless Rings Special Shapes. It is often nec- 
 essary to make rings and similar shapes without a 
 weld. The simple process is illustrated in Figs. 
 155-7. Rings may be made in this way under the 
 steam-hammer much more rapidly than is possible 
 by bending and welding. To illustrate the rapid- 
 ity with which weldless rings can be made, the 
 author has seen the stock cut from the bar, the 
 ring forged and trued up in one heat. The ring in 
 question was about 10" outside diameter, the section 
 of stock in rim being about 
 i" square. The stock used 
 was about 3" square, soft steel. 
 
 A forging for a die to be 
 made of tool-steel is shown in 
 Fig. 207. FlG - 2 7- 
 
 This is made in the same general way as weld- 
 less rings. The stock is cut, shaped into a disc, 
 punched, and worked over a mandril into the shape 
 shown at A, Fig. 208. 
 
 The lug, projecting toward the center from the
 
 140 
 
 FORGE-PRACTlrE. 
 
 flat edge of the die, is shaped on a special mandril, 
 the work being done as shown at B, the thick side 
 
 FIG. 208. 
 
 of the ring being driven into the groove in the man- 
 dril and shaped up as shown at C, where the end 
 view of the mandril and ring is shown. 
 
 If the flat edge of the die is very long, it may be 
 straightened out by using a flat mandril and work- 
 
 FIG. 209. 
 
 ing each side of the projecting lug after the lug has 
 been formed.
 
 STEAM-HAMMER WORK. 141 
 
 The forging leaves the hammer in the shape 
 shown in Fig. 209 at A. The finishing of the sharp 
 corner is done on the anvil with hand tools, in 
 much the same way that any corner is squared up, 
 Figs. B and C giving a general idea of working up 
 the corner by using a flatter. 
 
 Punches. The punches used for this kind of 
 work, and in fact for all punching under the steam- 
 hammer, should be short and thick. 
 
 A punch made as shown in Fig. 210 is very satis- 
 factory for general work. This punch is simply 
 a short tapering pin with 
 a shallow groove formed 
 around it about one third 
 of the length from the big 
 
 end. A bar of small 
 
 FIG. 210. 
 round iron (f" is about 
 
 right for small punches) is heated, wrapped around 
 the punch in the groove and twisted tight, as shown. 
 
 The punching is done in exactly the same way 
 as with hand tools ; that is, the punch is driven to 
 a depth of about one half or two thirds the thick- 
 ness of the piece, with the work lying flat on the 
 anvil; the piece is then turned over, the punch 
 started with the work still flat on the anvil, and 
 the hole completed by placing a disc, or some other 
 object with a hole in it, on the anvil; on this the 
 work is placed with the hole in the disc directly 
 under where the punch will come through. The 
 punch is then driven through and the hole completed. 
 
 The end of the punch must not be allowed to 
 become red-hot. If the punch is left in contact
 
 142 FORGE-PRACTICE. 
 
 with the work too long, it will become heated, and, 
 after a few blows, the end will spread out in a mush- 
 room shape and stick in the hole. 
 
 To prevent the above, the punch should be lifted 
 out of the hole and cooled between every few blows. 
 
 Sometimes, when a hole can be accurately lo- 
 cated, an arrangement like that shown in Fig. 211 
 is used. The punch in this case is only slightly 
 longer than the thickness of the piece to be pierced, 
 and is used with the big end down as shown. 
 
 FIG. 211. FIG. 212. 
 
 The punch is driven, together with the piece of 
 metal which is cut out, through into the hole in the 
 die, which is just enough larger to give clearance to 
 the punch. 
 
 A convenient arrangement for locating the punch 
 centrally with the hole in the die is shown in Fig. 
 212. 
 
 The die should be somewhat larger in diameter 
 than the work to be punched. The w r ork is first 
 placed in the proper position on the die and the 
 punch placed on top. The punch is located by 
 using a spider-shaped arrangement made from thin 
 iron. This spider has a central ring with a hole in 
 the center large enough to slip easily over the 
 punch. Radiating from the ring are four arms, 
 three of which have their ends bent down to fit
 
 STEAM-HAMMER WORK. 143 
 
 around the outside of the die, the fourth being 
 longer and used for a handle. The ends of the bent 
 arms are so shaped that where they touch the out- 
 side of the die the central hole is exactly over the 
 hole in the die. 
 
 After locating the punch with the spider, and 
 while the spider is still in place, a light blow of the 
 hammer starts the punch, after which the spider is 
 lifted off and the punch driven through. 
 
 Forming Bosses on Flanges, etc. A boss, on a 
 flange or other flat piece, such as shown in Fig. 213, 
 may be very easily formed by using a few simple 
 
 FIG. 213. FIG. 214. 
 
 tools. The special tools are shown in Fig. 214, 
 and are : a round cutter used for starting the boss, 
 shown at A, which also shows a section of the tool, 
 and a flat disc, shown at B, used for flattening 
 and finishing the metal around the boss. 
 
 The stock is first forged into shape slightly 
 thicker than the boss is to be finished, as it flattens 
 down somewhat in the forging. 
 
 The boss is started by making a cut with the 
 circular cutter, as shown at A, Fig. 215, where is 
 also shown a section of the forging after the cut 
 has been made.
 
 144 
 
 FORGE-PRACTICE. 
 
 The metal outside of the cut is then flattened 
 out, as shown by the dotted lines. This flattening 
 
 ^ .> 
 
 FIG. 215. 
 
 and drawing -'out may be done easily by using a 
 bar of round steel, as shown at C. The bar is 
 placed in such a position as to fall just outside of 
 the boss. After striking a blow with the hammer, 
 the bar is moved farther toward the edge of the 
 work and the piece is turned slightly. In this way 
 the stock is roughly thinned out, leaving the boss 
 standing. To finish the work, the forging is turned 
 bottom side up over the disc, with the boss extend- 
 ing down into the hole in the disc, as shown at B. 
 With a few blows, the disc is forced up around the 
 boss and finishes the metal off smoothly. 
 
 The disc need not necessarily be large enough to 
 extend to the edge of the work; for if a disc as 
 described above is used to finish around the boss, 
 the edge of the work may be drawn down n the 
 usual way under the hammer. 
 
 A disc is not absolutely necessary in any case; 
 but the work may be more carefully and quickly 
 finished in this way.
 
 STEAM-HAMMER WORK. 
 
 Round Tapering Work. A round tapering shape, 
 such as shown at A, Fig. 216, should be first 
 
 FIG. 216. 
 
 roughly forged into shape. It may be started by 
 working in the shoulder next the head with round 
 bars, in the way illustrated before in Fig. 194. 
 
 The roughing out may be done with square or 
 flat pieces, using them in much the same way; or 
 one piece only may be used and the work allowed 
 to lie flat on the anvil, with the head projecting 
 over the edge. 
 
 After roughing out, the work may be finished 
 with swages. As ordinarily used, the swages 
 would leave the forging straight, with the oppo- 
 site sides parallel. To form a taper, a thin strip 
 should be held on top of the upper swage close to 
 and parallel with one of the edges, as shown at 
 B, Fig. 216. The strip causes the swage to tip 
 and slant, thus forming the work tapering.
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 DUPLICATE WORK. 
 
 WHEN several pieces are to be made as nearly 
 alike as possible, the work is generally more easily 
 done by using "dies" or "jigs." 
 
 Generally speaking, "dies" are blocks of metal 
 having faces shaped for bending or forming work. 
 The term "jig" may be applied to almost any 
 contrivance used for helping to bend, shape, or 
 form work. As ordinarily used, a jig, generally, 
 is simply a combination of some sort of form or 
 
 flat plate and one or more 
 clamps and levers for bend- 
 ing. 
 
 Dies, or jigs, for simple 
 bending may be easily and 
 cheaply made of ordinary 
 cast . iron ; and, for most 
 purposes, left rough, or un- 
 finished. 
 
 Simple Bending. - The 
 bend shown in Fig. 217 is 
 a fair example of simple 
 work. The dies for making 
 this bend are two blocks 
 
 "! B 
 
 FIG. 217. 
 
 of cast iron made as shown, one simply a rect- 
 
 146
 
 DUPLICATE WORK. 147 
 
 angular block the size of the inside of the bend to 
 be made, the other a block having on one side a 
 groove the same shape as the outside of the piece 
 to be bent. The blocks should be slightly wider 
 than the stock to be bent. 
 
 The stock is cut to the proper length, heated, 
 placed on the hollow block, and the small block 
 placed on top, as shown by the dotted lines at B, 
 Fig. 217. The bend is made by driving down the 
 small block with a blow of the hammer. 
 
 Work of this kind may be easily done under a 
 steam-hammer; and the dies described here are 
 intended for use in this way, most of them having 
 been designed for, and used under, a 2oo-lb. ham- 
 mer. 
 
 Dies of this kind may be fitted to the jaws of an 
 ordinary vise, the bending being done by tighten- 
 ing up the screw. 
 
 A die such as described above should have a 
 little "clearance"; that is, the opening in the hol- 
 low die should be slightly larger at the top than at 
 the bottom. The small, or top, die should be made 
 accordingly, slightly smaller at the bottom. 
 
 To make the dies easier to handle, a hole may be 
 drilled and tapped in each block and pieces of 
 round bars threaded and screwed into the holes to 
 form handles. This is more fully described in the 
 following example: 
 
 Fig. 218, A, is a hook bent from stock f" X i", to 
 fit around the flange of an I beam. The hooks 
 were about 6" long when finished. To bend these, 
 two cast-iron blocks, or dies, were used, shown at
 
 148 
 
 FORGE-PRACTICE. 
 
 B. The dies were rough castings. Patterns were 
 made by laying out the hook on a piece of 2" white 
 
 FIG. 218. 
 
 FIG. 219. 
 
 pine and then sawing to shape with a band-saw. 
 The block was "laid off" as shown in Fig. 219, A, 
 the sawing being done on the dotted lines. This 
 left the blocks of such a shape that the space be- 
 tween them, when they were brought together 
 with the upper and lower edges parallel, was just 
 equal to the thickness of the stock to be bent. 
 
 Patterns of this kind should be given plenty of 
 "draft," which may be quickly and easily done by 
 planing the sides, after the blocks are sawed out, 
 to taper slightly as shown in Fig. 219, B, where the 
 dotted lines show the square sides before being 
 planed of! for draft as indicated by the solid lines. 
 
 When the castings were made, a 13 / 32 " hole was 
 drilled in the right-hand end of each block and 
 tapped with \" tap. A piece of \" round iron 
 about 30" long was threaded with a die for about 
 i\" on each end and bent up to form the handle.
 
 DUPLICATE WORK. 149 
 
 A nut was run on each end and the blocks screwed 
 on and locked by screwing the nut up against them, 
 making the finished dies as shown in Fig. 218. The 
 handle formed a spring, holding the dies far enough 
 apart to allow the iron to be placed between 
 them. 
 
 As mentioned before, dies of this kind can be 
 easily made to cover a variety of work, and are 
 very inexpensive. The dies in question, for in- 
 stance, required about half an hour's pattern work, 
 and about as much time more to fit the handles. 
 Calculating shop time at 50 cents per hour and 
 castings at 5 cents per pound, and allowing for the 
 handle, the entire cost of these dies was less than 
 $1.25. 
 
 The same handle can be used for any number of 
 dies of about the same size, and if any one of these 
 dies should break, it can be replaced at a very 
 trifling cost. 
 
 Cast-iron dies of this character will bend several 
 hundred pieces and show no signs of giving out, 
 although they may snap at the first piece if made 
 of hard iron. On an important job it is generally 
 wise to cast an extra set to have in case the first 
 prove defective. 
 
 Almost any simple shape may be bent in this 
 way, and the dies may be used on any ordinary 
 steam-hammer with flat forging faces ; and not only 
 that, but, not having to be fastened down in any 
 way, they may be placed under the hammer, or 
 removed, without interfering with other work. 
 
 Loop with Bent-in Ends. For larger work, it is
 
 150 FORGE-PRACTICK. 
 
 often better to have a die to replace the lower die 
 of the hammer, as in the case mentioned below. 
 
 A number of forgings were wanted like .4, Fig. 
 220. The stock was cut to the proper length and 
 
 FIG. 220. 
 
 the ends bent at right angles. To make all the 
 pieces alike, one end of each piece was first bent, 
 as shown at B, in a vise. The other ends of the 
 pieces were then all bent the same way, by hooking 
 the bent end over a bar cut to the proper length 
 and bending down the straight end over the other 
 end of the bar, as shown at C. To make the final 
 bend, a cast-iron form was used similar to D. This 
 casting was about i\" thick, and the dovetail- 
 shaped base fitted the slot in the anvil base of the 
 hammer. When the form was used, the anvil-die 
 was removed and the form put in its place. 
 
 The strips to be bent were laid on top of this form 
 and a heavy piece of flat stock, i"X2", bent into
 
 DUPLICATE WORK. 
 
 a U shape to fit the outside of the forging, placed 
 on top. A light blow of the hammer would force 
 the U-shaped piece down, bending the stock into 
 the proper shape. Fig. 221 shows the operation, 
 the dotted lines indicat- \_ 
 
 ing the position of the 
 pieces before bringing 
 down the hammer. 
 
 The most satisfactory 
 results were obtained 
 by bringing the ham- 
 mer down lightly on 
 the work, then, by turn- 
 ing on a full head of 
 steam, the ram was 
 forced down compara- 
 tively slowly, bending 
 the stock gradually and 
 easily. This was much 
 more satisfactory than a quick, sharp blow. 
 
 It is not necessary to have the U-shaped piece of 
 exactly the same shape as the forging. It is suffi- 
 cient if the lower ends of the U are the proper dis- 
 tance apart. As the strip is bent over the form, it 
 naturally follows the outline; and it is only neces- 
 sary to force it against the form at the lower points 
 of the sides. 
 
 The last bend might have been made by using a 
 second die fastened to the ram of the hammer in 
 place of the U-shaped loop. 
 
 Two dies are necessary for much work ; but these 
 are more expensive to make. The upper die can 
 
 FIG.
 
 152 
 
 FORGE-PRACTICE. 
 
 be easily made to fit in the dovetail on the ram and 
 be held in place with a key. 
 
 Right-angle Bending. Very convenient tools for 
 bending right angles, in stock V' or less in thick- 
 ness, are shown in Fig. 222. The lower one is made 
 
 to fit easily over the anvil 
 of the steam-hammer, the 
 projecting lips on either 
 side preventing the die 
 from sliding forward or 
 back. The upper one has 
 a handle screwed in, as 
 described before. Both 
 of these bending tools are 
 made of cast iron, the 
 patterns being simply 
 sawed from a 2" plank. 
 
 Cast-iron dies of this 
 kind should be made of a tough, gray iron, rather 
 than the harder white iron, as they are less liable to 
 break if cast from the former. 
 
 Many of the regular hammer dies, that is, the dies 
 with flat faces for general forging, are made of cast 
 iron ; but the iron in this case is of another quality 
 chilled iron the faces being chilled, or hardened, 
 for a depth of an inch or more. 
 
 Circular Bending Coil Springs. The dies de- 
 scribed before have been for simple bends; the 
 blows, or bending force, coming from one direction 
 only. In the following example, where a complete 
 circle, or more than a circle, is formed, an arrange- 
 ment of a different nature is required. 
 
 FIG. 222.
 
 DUPLICATE WORK. 
 
 153 
 
 The spring shown in Fig. 223 is an example of 
 this kind. In this particular case the bending 
 was done cold; but for hot bending the operation 
 is exactly the same. 
 
 FIG. 223. 
 
 FIG. 224. 
 
 This jig (Fig. 224) was built upon a base-plate, A, 
 about |" thick, having one end bent down at right 
 angles for clamping in an ordinary vise. 
 
 The post E was simply a i" stud screwed into 
 the plate. B was a piece of f'Xi" stock about 
 2" long, fastened down with two rivets, and served 
 as a stop for clamping the stock against while bend- 
 ing. C was a lever made of a piece of "Xi" 
 stock about 10" long, having one end ground 
 rounding as shown. This lever turned on the 
 screw F, threaded into the base-plate. D was the 
 bending lever, having a hole punched and forged 
 in the end large enough to turn easily on the stud 
 E. On the under side of this lever was riveted a 
 short piece of iron having one end bent down at 
 right angles. This piece was so placed that the 
 distance between stud E and the inside face of bent 
 end, when the lever was in position for bending, was
 
 I $4 FORGE-PRACTICE. 
 
 about Y 6 /' greater than the thickness of the stock 
 to be bent. 
 
 When in operation, the stock to be bent was 
 placed in the position shown in the sketch, the 
 lever C pulled over to lock it in place, and the bend- 
 ing lever D dropped over it in the position shown. 
 To bend the stock, the lever was pulled around in 
 the direction of the arrow and as many turns taken 
 as were wanted for the spring, or whatever was 
 being bent. By lifting off the bending lever and 
 loosening the clamping lever the piece could be 
 slipped from the stud. 
 
 With jigs of any kind a suitable stop should 
 always be provided to place the end of the stock 
 against, in order to insure placing and bending all 
 pieces as nearly as possible alike. 
 
 Drop-forgings. Strictly speaking, drop-forgings 
 are forgings made between dies in a drop-press or 
 forge. Each die has a cavity in its face, so shaped 
 that when the dies are in contact the hole left has 
 the form of the desired forging. One of the dies is 
 fastened to the bed of the drop-press, directly in 
 line with and under the other die, which is keyed 
 to the under side of the drop, a heavy weight run- 
 ning between upright guides. The forging is done 
 by raising the drop and allowing it to fall between 
 the guides of its own weight. 
 
 There are generally two or more sets of cavities 
 in the die-faces, one set being used for roughing 
 out, or "breaking down," the stock roughly to 
 shape ; another set for finishing. 
 
 The dies mentioned above would be known as
 
 DUPLICATE WORK. 155 
 
 the "breaking-down" and "finishing" dies, re- 
 spectively. Sometimes several intermediate dies 
 are used. 
 
 In a general way, the term drop-forging may be 
 used to describe almost any forging formed be- 
 tween shaped dies whether made by a drop-press or 
 other means. 
 
 Taking the word in its broadest meaning, the 
 example given below might be called a drop-forg- 
 ing, the work being done between shaped dies. 
 
 Eye-bolt Drop-forging. The example in ques- 
 tion is the eye-bolt given in Fig. 225. The differ- 
 ent steps in the making, and 
 the dies used, are shown in Fig. 
 226. 
 
 Round stock is used, and first 
 shaped like A, Fig. 226, the 
 forming being done in the die 
 
 B. This die, as well as the other 
 
 .ru FlG - 22 S- 
 
 one, is made in the same way 
 
 as ordinary steam-hammer swages ; that is, simply 
 two blocks of tool-steel fastened together with a 
 spring handle. The inside faces of the blocks are 
 formed to shape the piece as shown. 
 
 The stock is revolved through about 90 degrees 
 between each two blows of the steam-hammer, and 
 the hammering continued until the die-faces just 
 touch. 
 
 For the second step the ball is flattened to about 
 the thickness of the finished, eye between the bare 
 hammer-dies. The hole is then punched, under 
 the hammer, with .an ordinary punch.
 
 156 
 
 FORGK-PRACTICr:. 
 
 The forging is finished with a few blows in the 
 finishing die D, which is shown by a sectional cut 
 and plan. This die is so shaped that, when the 
 two parts are together, the hole left is exactly the 
 
 SECTION AT X-X 
 
 FIG. 226. 
 
 shape of the finished forging. In the first die, how- 
 ever, it should be noticed that the holes do not con- 
 form exactly to the desired shape of the forging; 
 here the holes, instead of being semicircular, are 
 rounded off considerably at the edges. This is 
 shown more clearly in Fig. 227, A, where the dotted 
 lines show the shape of the forging, the solid lines 
 the shape of the die. 
 
 The object of the above is this : If the hole is a 
 semicircle in section, the stock, being larger than 
 the small parts of the hole, after a blow, is left
 
 DUPLICATE WORK. 
 
 157 
 
 FIG. 227. 
 
 like B, the metal being forced out between the 
 
 flat faces of the die and 
 
 forming 'fins.' When 
 
 the bar is turned and 
 
 again hit, these fins are 
 
 doubled in and make a 
 
 bad place in the forging. 
 
 When the hole is a 
 modified semicircle, as de- 
 scribed above, the stock 
 will be formed like C, 
 and may be turned and 
 worked without injury 
 or danger of cold-shuts. 
 
 Forming Dies Hot. Making dies for work of the 
 above kind is generally an expensive process, par- 
 ticularly if the work be done in the machine-shop. 
 
 Rough dies for this kind of work may be cheaply 
 made in the forge-shop by forming them hot. 
 
 The blocks for the dies are forged and prepared, 
 and a blank, or 'master,' forging the same shape 
 and size as the forgings the dies are expected to 
 form is made from tool-steel and hardened. 
 
 The die blanks are then heated, the master 
 placed between them, and the dies hammered to- 
 gether, the master being turned frequently during 
 the hammering. 
 
 This, of course, leaves a cavity the shape of the 
 master. 
 
 When two or more sets of dies are necessary 
 there, of course, must be separate masters for each 
 set of dies. Dies made in this way will have the
 
 158 FORGE-PRACTICK. 
 
 corners of the cavities rounded off, as the metal is 
 naturally pulled away during the forming, leaving 
 the corners somewhat relieved. 
 
 Dies such as described above may be used to 
 advantage under almost any steam-hammer. 
 
 For spring hammers, helve hammers, and power 
 hammers generally the die faces may be formed 
 the same as above; but the die-blocks should be 
 fastened to the hammer and anvil of the power 
 hammer itself, replacing the ordinary dies. 
 
 Cast-iron Dies. Much drop-forging is done with 
 cast iron dies, and for rough work that is not too 
 heavy they are very satisfactory, and the first cost 
 is very small as compared with the steel dies used 
 for the same purpose. 
 
 Drop-forging can be done in this way with the 
 steam-hammer, by keying the dies in the dovetails 
 made for the top and bottom hammer-dies. 
 
 Welding in particular is done in this way, as the 
 metal to be worked is in such a soft condition that 
 there is little chance of smashing the die.
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 METALLURGY OF IRON AND STEEL. 
 
 Classification. For intelligent working in iron 
 and steel some understanding of their chemical 
 nature and method of manufacture is necessary. 
 
 For convenience' sake, the irons and steels ordi- 
 narily used in the forge-shop may be divided into 
 three general classes, viz. : 
 
 1. Wrought iron. 
 
 2. Machine-steel, or low-carbon steel. 
 
 3. Tool-steel. 
 
 Cast iron should also be considered as being the 
 base product from which the above are derived. 
 
 Roughly speaking, the above metals may be con- 
 sidered as mixtures, or, better, compounds of iron 
 and carbon. 
 
 There is always present a small percentage of 
 other elements, such as manganese, silicon, sulphur, 
 phosphorus, etc., but for the present these need not 
 be considered. 
 
 The percentage of carbon commonly contained 
 in the several materials is about as follows : 
 
 Cast iron 2 . 50 to 4 . 50 per cent. 
 
 Wrought iron 02" .50" " 
 
 Machine-steel 02 " . 60 ' ' " 
 
 Tool-steel 70 " 1.50 " "
 
 l6o FORGE-PRACTICE. 
 
 Cast Iron. The crude material, from which all 
 iron and steel are manufactured, is iron ore; which 
 is, in its commercial forms, iron oxide. Some of 
 the common ores have much the same appearance 
 and color as iron rust. 
 
 To obtain cast iron, the ore is mixed with lime- 
 stone and melted in a blast-furnace. The blast- 
 furnace is a shell of iron round in section and lined 
 with fire-brick. For a short distance up from the 
 bottom the sides are straight, then rapidly con- 
 verge, and then contract again to about the same 
 diameter as the bottom. Such a furnace, with its 
 accompanying 'hot-stoves,' is shown, partly in 
 section, in Fig. 228. 
 
 The blast-furnace here illustrated is about 80 feet 
 high and 20 feet inside diameter at its largest point. 
 
 Heated air, under pressure, is blown into the fur- 
 nace through water cooled tuyeres placed a short 
 distance above the bed, or bottom, of the furnace. 
 
 When the furnace is in operation, there is a bed 
 of burning coke extending somewhat below the 
 level of the tuyeres ; on this is a charge, or layer, of 
 mixed ore and limestone, then a layer of fuel, 
 another layer of ore and limestone, etc., until the 
 furnace is nearly filled, more ore and fuel being 
 added as the mass settles down in the furnace. 
 The limestone acts as a flux and helps to carry off, 
 as slag, earthy impurities in the ore. The ore, as 
 it melts, is deoxidized; that is, the oxygen is car- 
 ried off, and the molten iron, being much heavier 
 than the other material in the furnace, sinks to the 
 bottom.
 
 METALLURGY OF IRON AND STEEL. iCl 
 
 When enough melted iron has collected in the 
 bottom, or hearth, of the furnace, a small hole is 
 opened, and the molten metal flows out and runs 
 
 By Courtesy of The Scientific A merican. 
 
 FIG. 228. 
 
 into a series of small ditches, much like a gridiron, 
 where it cools, and is then broken up into pieces 
 4 or 5 feet long. These pieces are called ' pigs ' ; and 
 in this form cast iron is marketed. 
 
 When castings are to be made, these 'pigs' are
 
 1 62 FORGE-PRACTICE. 
 
 remelted in the foundry, in a furnace called a cupola, 
 similar to, but considerably smaller than, the blast- 
 furnace. 
 
 It was the custom some years ago to allow the 
 hot gases to escape from the top of the furnace 
 and to blow in cold blast through the tuyeres. 
 Now the top of the furnace is kept closed by means 
 of a cone-shaped casting pulled upward against a 
 conical rim, slanting downward. 
 
 When new material is to be added to the charge, 
 the ore or fuel is dumped inside the slanting, funnel- 
 shaped rim and the cone is lowered, allowing the 
 material to slide downward, when the cone is again 
 raised, thus closing the furnace. 
 
 Just below the rim a large pipe opens into the 
 furnace. Through this pipe the hot gases are led 
 downward into the 'hot-stoves.' 
 
 The hot-stoves are iron cylinders about 20 feet in 
 diameter and 80 feet high, filled with fire-brick hav- 
 ing small holes, or flues, extending from top to 
 bottom of the stove. The hot gases rise through 
 one set of flues and descend through another, thus 
 heating the brick to a high temperature. 
 
 After leaving the stoves, the gases are carried 
 through underground pipes to a large stack, or 
 chimney, and discharged into the air. When a 
 stove has been thoroughly heated in this way the 
 gases are turned into other stoves, and the cold 
 blast from the blowing-engines is forced through 
 the flues in the heated brick on its way to the blast- 
 furnace. 
 
 Each stove is used in turn in this way.
 
 METALLURGY OF IRON AND STEEL. 163 
 
 The blast leaving a hot-stove is heated to a tem- 
 perature considerably over 1000 F. The use of 
 hot blasts effects a considerable saving in the 
 manufacture of cast iron; and its introduction is 
 regarded as marking an epoch in the iron indus- 
 tries. 
 
 Wrought Iron. It will be seen from the table 
 that, while cast iron contains a comparatively 
 large amount of carbon, wrought iron and machine- 
 steel contain very little. It would seem only nec- 
 essary, then, in order to make either of the two 
 last-named metals, to remove some of the carbon 
 from cast iron. In most cases this is exactly what 
 is done. First, the high-carbon cast iron is made, 
 and then a large part of the carbon is burned out, 
 leaving the low-carbon wrought iron, or machine- 
 steel. 
 
 Both wrought iron and machine-steel are made 
 by very similar processes, the essential difference 
 being principally the temperature at which the 
 metals are worked. 
 
 Fig. 229 represents a "puddling" furnace used 
 for making wrought iron. The sketch shows a sec- 
 tion running the length of the furnace through its 
 center. At A is the fireplace; B, the hearth, or 
 puddle ; and the stack, or flue, at C. 
 
 A fire is built in the fireplace, and the flames on 
 their way to the stack are deflected downward, by 
 the roof of the furnace, upon the iron lying on the 
 hearth. The iron is thus brought under the influ- 
 ence of the flames without being in direct contact 
 with the fire.
 
 164 
 
 FORGE-PRACTICE. 
 
 Cast iron, together with hammer scale, or some 
 other oxide of iron, is placed upon the hearth and 
 melted down. The fire is then so regulated as to 
 give an oxidizing flame; that is, more air passed 
 through the fire than can be burned, leaving a sur- 
 plus of oxygen in the flames which are playing over 
 
 FIG. 229. 
 
 the melted iron on the hearth. The oxygen in the 
 flames, as well as that in the hammer scale, or iron 
 ore, melted with the cast iron, gradually burns out 
 the carbon of the cast iron. The melted mass is 
 constantly stirred in order to expose all parts to 
 the influence of the flames. 
 
 As a general rule, the more carbon iron contains 
 the easier it melts ; so cast iron will melt at a much 
 lower heat than wrought iron. A temperature 
 which is high enough to melt cast iron will leave 
 wrought iron in sort of a pasty condition. 
 
 When making wrought iron, as the carbon is 
 burned out of the iron the temperature of the fur- 
 nace is kept below the melting-point of wrought 
 iron, but above that of cast iron ; and, as the carbon 
 is burned out, the metal stiffens and becomes pasty ; 
 and, as the process is completed, the pasty mass is
 
 METALLURGY OF IRON AND STEEL. 165 
 
 worked up into balls, which at the completion of 
 the process are taken from the furnace and ham- 
 mered or rolled into bars. 
 
 There is more or less slag with the iron in the 
 puddle, and some of this slag sticks to the iron, 
 and drops of it are mixed with the iron in the balls. 
 Some of this slag is squeezed from the balls, but 
 part of it remains in small drops all through the 
 mass. When the balls are drawn out into shape, 
 these small drops of slag are lengthened out and 
 form minute streaks running through the length of 
 the bar. These small seams of slag give wrought 
 iron its peculiar characteristics together with its 
 fibrous structure. 
 
 Machine-steel. Machine-steel is variously known 
 as machine-steel, machinery-steel, low-carbon steel, 
 mild steel, and soft steel. The common shop name 
 is machine- or machinery-steel, while the more 
 correct technical term is low-carbon steel. 
 
 Machine-steel contains about the same amount of 
 carbon as wrought iron, but does not have the slag 
 seams of the iron. Like wrought iron, it is made 
 by reducing the amount of carbon in cast iron. 
 
 Machine-steel may be divided into two classes, 
 open-hearth and Bessemer, both deriving their 
 names from the method of manufacture. 
 
 Bessemer steel is made by blowing air through 
 melted cast iron, the oxygen in the air burning out 
 the silicon and carbon, all of the carbon, as nearly 
 as possible, being removed in this way, the proper 
 amount of carbon afterward being added to the 
 steel in the form of " spiegeleisen " a form of 
 cast iron very rich in manganese, carbon, and silicon.
 
 1 66 FORGE-PRACTICE. 
 
 In this process the cast iron is treated in a vessel 
 known as a converter. The converter is a large 
 barrel-shaped steel or iron vessel, 15 or 20 ft. high, 
 lined with fire-brick, and having a bottom pierced 
 with many small holes through which air is blown. 
 The top is covered, with the exception of a short, 
 spout-shaped opening about 3 ft. in diameter. 
 The converter is mounted on trunnions, and may 
 be turned upside down, right side up, or any inter- 
 mediate position. 
 
 In operation, the converter is turned in a horizon- 
 tal position, a charge of melted cast iron poured in 
 at the mouth, and the blast turned on. The blast 
 has sufficient pressure to prevent the melted iron 
 from flowing down into the tuyeres in the bottom. 
 The vessel is then turned on its trunnions into an 
 upright position and the air blown through the 
 metal until practically all the carbon has been 
 burned out. The exact condition of the metal is 
 shown by the flame coming from the mouth of the 
 converter, this flame changing in color and volume 
 as the silicon and carbon are gradually burned. 
 When the carbon has been consumed, the converter 
 is again turned on its side, the blast stopped, -the 
 necessary amount of spiegeleisen added to give the 
 proper per cent of carbon and manganese, and the 
 contents of the vessel poured into a large casting 
 ladle. From the ladle the metal is poured into 
 moulds and cast into ' ' ingots." 
 
 If the "blowing" is continued too long, the iron 
 itself will begin to burn, making the metal ' ' rotten" 
 and crumbly when working. 
 
 It seems like a waste of time to burn all the carbon
 
 METALLURGY OF IRON AND STEEL. 
 
 167 
 
 out and then add more; but it is easier to remove 
 nearly all the carbon and replace some of it than to 
 Stop the blow at just the moment when the carbon 
 content is right. 
 
 This process derives its name from Sir Henry 
 Bessemer, credited with its invention, and has been 
 used since about 1858. 
 
 Open-hearth steel is made by melting together 
 pig iron, cast iron, and scrap iron and steel, and 
 removing the carbon by the action of an oxidizing 
 flame of burning gas. 
 
 The process is carried out in a furnace the same in 
 principle as, but more elaborate in construction than, 
 the puddling-furnace used in making wrought iron. 
 
 A view and partial section of a large open-hearth 
 furnace is shown in Fig. 230. The fuel used is pro- 
 
 By courtesy of the Scientific American. 
 
 FIG. 230. 
 
 ducer-gas. This is made by burning coal in air- 
 tight retorts, not enough air being supplied to give
 
 1 68 FORGK-PRA(TI(T.. 
 
 complete combustion. The gas from these retorts 
 is forced into the furnace through valves and a 
 mass of heated brickwork pierced with holes. Air 
 is also supplied to the furnace through a similar 
 arrangement, the air and gas entering through 
 openings near each other and combining to make 
 an intensely hot flame. This flame plays over the 
 metal lying on the hearth of the furnace and per- 
 forms exactly the same work as the flame from the 
 fire in the puddling-furnace. 
 
 The hot gases from the furnace, instead of being 
 allowed to escape, are first led through an arrange- 
 ment of brickwork at the opposite end of the fur- 
 nace, similar to the heated brickwork through 
 which the entering gas and air were forced. 
 
 After a short time the valves, through which the 
 air and gas are admitted, are turned, and the air 
 and gas are forced through the brickwork which 
 has been heating, the flames being then led through 
 the first set of bricks, which is, in its turn, heated, 
 this reversal of the flow taking place several times 
 an hour. This arrangement is very similar to the 
 hot-stoves used with the blast-furnace. 
 
 Under the action of the gas-flame the carbon is 
 gradually oxidized, and when it has been reduced 
 to" the proper percentage the melted metal is 
 drawn from the hearth and cast into ingots. 
 
 This process takes much longer than the Besse- 
 mer, but may be stopped at any moment when the 
 steel contains the proper amount of carbon. 
 
 As a comparison of the two different processes, it 
 may be said that open-hearth steel, from the nature
 
 METALLURGY OF IRON AND STEEL. 169 
 
 of the process, may be tested and corrected from 
 time to time while it is being converted, while 
 Bessemer steel is converted so rapidly that none of 
 this testing can be done. 
 
 Bessemer steel is used mostly for rails, also to 
 some extent for structural shapes and cheaper 
 boiler-steel, etc. 
 
 Open-hearth steel is used for best grades of 
 boiler-plate, structural steel, etc. 
 
 The United States Government specifies that 
 sheet steel used in marine boilers must be made by 
 the open-hearth process. 
 
 When machine-steel is made, the temperature of 
 the furnace is high enough to keep the metal liquid 
 during the entire process. In this way the slag 
 floats to the top of the iron and does not remain 
 mixed with it, as when making wrought iron. 
 
 After sufficient carbon has been taken from the 
 iron,, and while the metal is still in a molten condi- 
 tion, it is drawn off from underneath the slag, cast 
 into ingots, and later rolled into bars. This gives 
 the steel a granular, not a fibrous, structure, and 
 leaves it free from the slag contained in wrought 
 iron. 
 
 Tool-steel. Tool-steel may be made by the 
 process outlined above that is, by making a 
 high-carbon open-hearth or Bessemer steel; but 
 the best steel is made by the ' 'crucible" process. 
 
 Ordinary tool-steel contains about i per cent car- 
 bon, and may be made either by taking some of the 
 carbon from cast iron, which might be done by the 
 methods above, or adding carbon to wrought iron.
 
 1 70 FORGE-PRACTICE. 
 
 The last is the method in common use. In the 
 crucible process, small pieces of wrought iron, steel 
 scrap, and other material rich in carbon are mixed 
 in proper proportions to give the desired percentage 
 of carbon and are placed in a crucible. The cruci- 
 ble is covered with a lid to prevent the oxidation 
 of the melted metal, placed in a furnace and the 
 mixture melted down. When the metal has been 
 melted and properly mixed, the crucible is taken 
 from the furnace and the steel poured into a mold 
 and cast into an ingot, which is afterward rolled into 
 bars. 
 
 What was known as "blister steel" was once 
 made in almost the same way ' ' case-hardening ' ' is 
 now done. " Harveyizing " armor plate is also 
 done in somewhat the same way. 
 
 The process was based on the fact that when 
 wrought iron is heated in contact with some sub- 
 stance very rich in carbon, it will gradually absorb 
 the carbon from those substances and be converted 
 into high-carbon steel. This is the principle used 
 when making blister steel or in case-hardening. 
 
 Steel was at one time commonly made by sur- 
 rounding bars of wrought iron with charcoal and 
 sealing the bars and the charcoal in air-tight 
 boxes, this being necessary to prevent oxidation 
 during the heating which followed. The boxes 
 were heated to a high temperature and held at 
 that heat for several days. The outside of the bars 
 was carbonized first, thus making a shell, or coat- 
 ing, of tool-steel around a soft, wrought-iron center. 
 In other words, carbon was added to the low-carbon
 
 METALLURGY OF IRON AND STEEL. 17 r 
 
 wrought iron and converted it into high-carbon 
 tool-steel. As the heating was continued, the 
 carbon worked in deeper and deeper, but the inside 
 of the bar would not become as highly carbonized 
 as the outside and the steel was ' ' streaky." 
 
 After bars were carbonized in this way, they 
 were cut into lengths and welded together, making 
 the steel more uniform in structure, but not nearly 
 as uniform as modern "crucible" steel. 
 
 Comparison of Wrought-iron and Machine-steel. 
 Both wrought-iron and low-carbon steel are chem- 
 ically about the same; that is, a sample of each 
 may contain about the same amount of carbon, 
 etc., and yet the two materials may be very differ- 
 ent. 
 
 The broken end of a bar of iron has a stringy, 
 fibrous appearance, while machine-steel shows a 
 more crystalline, grainy fracture. It is this struc- 
 tural condition that marks the distinction between 
 the two metals. 
 
 The fiber of the wrought iron is produced by 
 minute, slag seams. Each one of these slag seams 
 is more or less a source of weakness, as the slag, 
 being much weaker than the iron, is liable to give 
 way, causing a crack. The presence of the slag 
 is of some advantage when welding, acting as a 
 flux. 
 
 Wrought iron is much more liable to split than 
 machine-steel when being forged, and, while it 
 may be heated and worked at a slightly higher 
 temperature than steel, wjll not stand as much 
 hammering at a lower temperature.
 
 172 FORGE-PRACTICE. 
 
 Machine-steel is stronger than wrought iron, hav- 
 ing a tensile strength very much higher. 
 
 Machine-steel may be welded easily without a 
 flux; but sound welds are more easily made when 
 a flux is used, the welding being done at a slightly 
 lower heat than the welding heat of wrought iron. 
 
 Machine-steel may not be distinguished from 
 wrought iron by the hardening test. Some irons 
 may be slightly hardened, while many low-carbon 
 steels can not be hardened to any appreciable ex- 
 tent. The Government specifications for boiler- 
 plate state that the steel used in boilers shall be 
 capable of being heated to a red heat, plunged in 
 cold water, and then bent double, cold showing 
 by this that steel does not necessarily harden. 
 
 In brief: In a forging, when much welding is to 
 be done, wrought iron has some advantages; but, 
 for general work particularly when much forging 
 is required machine-steel is to be preferred, being 
 stronger and less liable to split. 
 
 The fibrous structure of wrought iron is well 
 shown by taking a piece 5" or 6" long and treating 
 it with weak acid for a day or so. The acid will 
 etch in the iron and leave the fibers of slag standing 
 in relief. 
 
 Properties of Wrought Iron, Mild Steel, and Tool- 
 steel. In brief, the valuable properties of the 
 different metals are as follows: 
 
 Wrought iron : Easily welded ; easily hammered, 
 or forged, into shape while hot; can be worked to 
 some extent while cold; will not harden to any 
 extent ; particularly good for welds.
 
 METALLURGY OF IRON AND STEEL. 173 
 
 Mild steel: Easily welded; easily hammered, or 
 forged, into shape while hot ; can be worked to some 
 extent while cold ; will not harden to any -extent ; 
 particularly good for forging ; stronger than wrought 
 iron. 
 
 Tool-steel: Particularly valuable on account of 
 its hardening property; much stronger than mild 
 steel in tensile strength; used principally for mak- 
 ing tools and parts of machines where wearing qual- 
 ities are required; welds with difficulty, sometimes 
 not at all; properties depend to large extent upon 
 percentage of carbon present.
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 TOOL-STEEL WORK. 
 
 Tool-steel. Ordinary tool-steel is practically a 
 combination of iron and carbon. The kind com- 
 monly used for small tools contains about i per cent 
 carbon. 
 
 Steel which contains a large amount of carbon is 
 known as "high" carbon steel, while that having a 
 small amount is called "low" carbon steel. Steel- 
 makers use the word "temper" as referring to the 
 amount of carbon a steel contains; thus a steel- 
 maker speaks of a high-temper steel as meaning a 
 steel containing a large amount of carbon, and a 
 low temper as meaning a small amount of carbon. 
 
 Steel is also designated by the number of hun- 
 dredths of i-per-cent carbon which it contains. 
 For instance, a one-hundred-carbon steel contains 
 i per cent, or one hundred hundredths per cent 
 carbon, a forty-carbon steel contains forty hun- 
 dredths per cent carbon, etc. 
 
 The property of tool-steel which makes it par- 
 ticularly valuable is the fact that it can be hardened 
 to a greater or less degree to suit the purpose for 
 which it is intended. 
 
 Hardening. If a piece of tool-steel be heated 
 
 174
 
 TOOL-STEEL WORK. 175 
 
 red-hot and then suddenly cooled it becomes very 
 hard. This is known as "hardening." If the 
 reverse be done the steel heated red-hot and 
 cooled very slowly it will be softened. This is 
 known as "annealing." In other words the speed 
 at which a piece of steel is cooled from a high heat 
 determines its hardness; thus, if steel is cooled 
 very fast it becomes very hard ; if cooled very slowly 
 it is softened, and by varying the speed of the cool- 
 ing the hardness of the steel may be varied. 
 
 The proper heat from which the steel should be 
 cooled varies with the percentage of carbon in the 
 steel. As a general rule, the greater the amount 
 of carbon, the lower the hardening heat that is, 
 a "high" steel will harden at a much lower tem- 
 perature than a ' ' low" carbon steel. 
 
 The only way to determine the proper heat at 
 which to harden any particular kind of steel is by 
 experiment. This may be easily done as follows: 
 A small piece of the same kind of steel as that to 
 be hardened is hammered out into a bar about \" 
 or f" square. The end of this bar is heated until 
 it shows dull red and then cooled in cold water. 
 The end should be tried with a file and about \" 
 broken off over the corner of the anvil. 
 
 It will probably be found that the steel may be 
 filed, and breaks with difficulty, the grain of the 
 broken end being rather coarse and somewhat 
 stringy. The same experiment should be repeated 
 at a slightly higher heat. This time the steel will 
 be harder shown by its being harder to file and 
 more easily broken and the grain will be slightly
 
 176 FORGE-PRACTIOF.. 
 
 finer. This experiment should be repeated, rais- 
 ing the heat slightly each time, until a heat is 
 reached which, after cooling, leaves the steel so 
 hard that the file will slip over without catching 
 at all, and so brittle that it snaps very easily. 
 When broken, the break shows a very fine, even 
 grain. This is the proper heat at which to harden 
 that particular kind of steel, and is called the 
 ' ' hardening heat." 
 
 If the experimenting be continued it will be seen 
 that each additional increase of temperature, above 
 the hardening heat, increases the coarseness of the 
 grain and makes the steel very brittle, indicating 
 that the steel, when hardened at these higher heats, 
 grows coarser and less fine in texture, and, conse- 
 quently, is not as strong, and will not hold as good 
 a cutting edge, as if hardened at the proper ' ' hard- 
 ening" heat. 
 
 The proper heat at which to harden any kind of 
 steel is, as noted above, that particular heat that 
 gives the steel the finest grain and leaves it file 
 hard. 
 
 The two general laws of hardening are these : 
 
 1. The more carbon a steel contains the lower 
 the heat at which it may be properly hardened. 
 
 2. The faster steel is cooled from the hardening 
 heat the harder it becomes. 
 
 Tempering. Giving a piece of steel or a tool 
 the proper degree of hardness to do the work for 
 which it is intended is known as "tempering." 
 
 The steel-workers use the word "temper" in a 
 very different sense from the steel-makers. ' ' Tern-
 
 TOOL-STEEL WORK. 177 
 
 per" is used by the tool-maker, or tool-smith, as 
 meaning the hardness of a tool or piece of tempered 
 steel, regardless of the amount of carbon it con- 
 tains. 
 
 Tools hardened as described above (heated to 
 hardening heat and cooled in cold water) are too 
 hard and brittle for most uses, and must be softened 
 somewhat to fit them to perform the work they are 
 intended for. 
 
 The operation of slightly softening the hardened 
 steel is known as ' ' drawing the temper, ' ' and this 
 is accomplished by slightly reheating the previ- 
 ously hardened steel. 
 
 If a piece of hardened steel be heated to a tem- 
 perature of about 430 F. it will be very slightly 
 softened and toughened, being left about hard 
 enough for engraving-tools, small lathe- tools, 
 scrapers, etc. If the heat be raised to 460 F. or 
 500 F., the hardness is about right for taps, dies, 
 drills, etc. Reheating to 550 F. or 560 F. makes 
 the hardened steel about right for cold-chisels, saws, 
 etc.; while a temperature of 570 F. leaves very 
 little hardness in the steel just about right for 
 springs. When a temperature of 650 F. is reached 
 the ' ' temper ' ' is all gone and the steel is left soft 
 enough to be easily filed. With a slight increase 
 of temperature above this point the steel becomes 
 red-hot. 
 
 These temperatures to which the steel is reheated 
 may be measured in several ways. One way would 
 be to heat a bath of oil to the proper temperature 
 and, after hardening, dip the tools in this until they
 
 178 FORGE-PRACTICE. 
 
 were of the same temperature as the bath. This 
 would answer for tempering on a large scale, but 
 is hardly practical when only a few tools are to be 
 treated. 
 
 The steel itself furnishes about the easiest means 
 of roughly determining this temperature. If a 
 piece of steel or iron be polished bright and heated, 
 a thin scale forms on the outside, which changes color 
 as the temperature is increased. When the scale 
 first commences to appear, at a temperature of 
 about 430 F., the surface of the steel seems to turn 
 a very pale yellow ; as the temperature increases and 
 the scale grows thicker, this yellow becomes darker, 
 changes into brown, which becomes tinged with 
 red, turning into light purple, dark purple, and 
 finally blue. These colors are due to the thin oxide 
 or scale formed and show nothing except the tem- 
 perature to which the metal was last heated. 
 
 A piece of wrought iron or soft steel will, when 
 heated, show these colors as well as tool-steel. The 
 colors are permanent and remain after the metal 
 is cooled. The colored scale is very thin and may 
 be easily removed by polishing. 
 
 If the tool is not properly hardened in the first 
 place the fact that it shows the proper temper color 
 on the outside means nothing. 
 
 About the only way to test the temper of a tool is 
 to try it with a file, and even then the grain may 
 be too coarse, due to hardening at too high a heat. 
 
 The complete process of tempering a tool (i.e., 
 giving it the proper degree of hardness to perform 
 its work) consists of first hardening, by cooling sud-
 
 TOOL-STEEL WORK. 179 
 
 denly from the hardening heat, and then slightly 
 softening, by reheating to a comparatively low 
 temperature. 
 
 After the reheating the steel may be suddenly 
 cooled or left to cool in the air. Sudden cooling 
 leaves it slightly harder. 
 
 The higher the temperature of the reheating, up 
 to a visible red heat, the softer the steel and the 
 ' ' lower ' ' the temper. 
 
 If the steel is by accident or otherwise reheated 
 to too high a temperature when drawing the tem- 
 per, the tool must be rehardened and the temper 
 again drawn. 
 
 When there is any doubt as to the proper heat 
 at which to harden any piece of steel it is much 
 better to harden at too low rather- than too high a 
 heat. If hardened at too low a heat it may be 
 reheated and again hardened at a proper heat, but 
 if too high a heat is used the first time there is no 
 way of detecting the fact, and the tool will prob- 
 ably break the first time used. 
 
 As a general rule, a tool hardened at too high a 
 heat will have a crumbly and scratchy cutting 
 edge. 
 
 Tempering Tools. In practice tools may be di- 
 vided for convenience in tempering into two gen- 
 eral classes: 
 
 First, tools which have only a cutting edge tem- 
 pered, such as most lathe-tools, cold-chisels, etc. 
 
 Second, tools tempered to a uniform hardness 
 throughout, or for a considerable length, such as 
 dies, reamers, taps, milling-cutters, etc.
 
 l8o FORGE-PRACTICE. 
 
 Tempering Tools when Only an Edge is Hardened 
 Cold-chisel. The method of tempering a cold- 
 chisel will serve as an example of the tempering 
 of tools in the first class, the only difference in 
 the tempering of various tools in this class being 
 the temperature to which the tools are reheated, as 
 shown by the ' ' temper color." 
 
 A table showing the temperatures to which 
 various tools should be reheated after hardening to 
 properly ' ' draw the temper, ' ' together with the so- 
 called "temper colors," or color of scale, corre- 
 sponding to these temperatures, is given on page 
 248. 
 
 After the chisel has been forged it should be 
 allowed to cool until black. The cutting end is 
 then heated to the proper hardening heat for two 
 or three inches back from the edge, care being 
 taken no to heat the steel above the hardening heat. 
 (Steel should always be hardened at a rising heat.) 
 The heated end is then hardened by cooling about 
 two inches of the point in cold water, the end being 
 left in the water just long enough to cool it. The 
 chisel is then withdrawn from the water and the 
 end polished with a piece of emery-paper, old grind- 
 stone, or something of that character. 
 
 As part of the chisel is still red-hot the heat from 
 this hot part will gradually reheat the cold end, 
 thus "drawing the temper." "Temper colors" 
 will begin to show next the heated part, and as 
 the cold end is reheated the band of colors will 
 move toward the point of the chisel. When a deep 
 bluish-purple color shows at the cutting edge the
 
 TOOL-STEEL WORK. l8l 
 
 tool is again cooled in order to prevent further 
 reheating and softening of the steel. 
 
 Should part of the chisel be still red-hot when 
 the end is cooled the second time, then only the 
 end should be dipped in the water and the tool held 
 there until all of the chisel is black, when the entire 
 length may be cooled. 
 
 If it were a lathe-tool being tempered the process 
 would be the same excepting the tool should be 
 cooled the second time when the yellow scale appears 
 at the cutting edge. 
 
 When hardening the ends of tools as described 
 above, the tool while in the water should be kept 
 in constant motion to prevent cooling the steel 
 along a sharp line, as well as to keep up a circula- 
 tion of water around the cooling metal. 
 
 Tempering Tools of the Second Class (Hardened 
 all Through). Tools of the second class (those of 
 uniform hardness throughout) may be tempered as 
 follows : The whole tool is first heated to a uniform 
 hardening heat and cooled completely, thus harden- 
 ing it throughout. The surface is then polished 
 bright and the temper drawn by laying the tool on 
 a piece of red-hot iron until the surface shows the 
 desired color, generally dark yellow or light brown 
 for such tools as taps, dies, milling-cutters, etc. 
 
 While reheating on the iron the tool should be 
 turned almost constantly, otherwise the parts in 
 contact with the iron will become overheated, and 
 consequently too soft, before the other parts are 
 hot enough. 
 
 Sometimes the reheating is done on a bath of
 
 1 82 FORGE-PRACTICE. 
 
 melted lead or heated sand. Large pieces arc 
 sometimes ' ' drawn ' ' over a slow fire or on a sheet 
 of iron laid over the fire. 
 
 Recalescence. There is a peculiar fact which 
 helps to determine the proper hardening temper- 
 ature of a piece of steel. If a piece of steel be 
 heated to about a bright-red heat and allowed to 
 cool, it will cool gradually until a temperature is 
 reached at which it seems to grow hotter; that is, 
 it grows darker in color, and then, when the critical 
 temperature is reached, it becomes lighter for an 
 instant and then gradually cools down. The tem- 
 perature at which this seeming reheating takes 
 place is about the proper hardening heat. 
 
 This phenomenon is known as "Recalescence." 
 An attempt is made in Fig. 231 to illustrate the 
 
 FIG. 231. 
 
 action of the heated bar at the point of recales- 
 cence. A shows the heated bar as it comes from 
 the fire the hottest part showing lightest. At 
 B the steel has cooled slightly and the heat of 
 recalescence begins to show at the light point about 
 the centre of the bar. At C the first streak has
 
 TOOL-STEEL WORK. 1^3 
 
 shifted somewhat and the end begins apparently 
 to reheat, this second streak gradually moving up 
 as illustrated at D, E, and F, until at G the bar 
 has passed the critical temperature and cools down 
 normally. 
 
 This illustration is somewhat the same as that 
 shown by Howe in his "Metallurgy of Steel," 
 which gives an excellent explanation of this phe- 
 nomenon. 
 
 The temperature at which this reheating occurs 
 depends upon the amount of carbon in the steel, 
 being higher for the lower carbon steel, and it is 
 at about this temperature that the steel will harden 
 properly. 
 
 The hardening heat of steel is often described 
 as a "cherry -red" heat. This term is very mis- 
 leading and means very little. Such an author- 
 ity as Metcalf says: "Cherries are all shades from 
 very light yellow to almost black; and 'cherry' 
 heat seems to mean almost any of these various 
 colors." 
 
 It is a good plan when taking the steel from the 
 fire to hold it for an instant in the shadow of the 
 forge, as the hardening heat may be distinguished 
 with more certainty in this way. The color of the 
 heat will appear quite different here than in the 
 sunlight, and there is a better chance of obtain- 
 ing uniform heat by judging in the shadow than 
 in the open sunlight, which varies so much in in- 
 tensity. 
 
 Rate of Cooling Different Hardening Baths. The 
 more quickly steel is cooled for a hardening heat
 
 184 FORGE-PRACTICE. 
 
 (everything else being equal), the harder and more 
 brittle the steel is made. 
 
 Files, wanted very hard, are hardened by cooling 
 in a bath of cold brine ; as the brine cools the steel 
 faster than water the steel is left harder than if 
 hardened in water. 
 
 Springs wanted tough and not very hard are 
 cooled in oil, as oil cools much slower than water. 
 
 Sometimes articles delicately shaped and liable; 
 to crack when hardening are cooled in water having 
 a thin film of oil on top ; the oil sticks to the steel 
 as it is plunged into the water and the steel is not 
 cooled quite as quickly as in pure water. 
 
 The faster steel is cooled the more danger there 
 is of cracking. 
 
 Heating and Cooling Importance of Uniform 
 Heating. The greatest care must be taken when 
 hardening to have the steel uniformly heated. It 
 must not be left in the fire one minute longer than 
 is necessary to accomplish this ; but it must be uni- 
 formly heated or the results are liable to be disas- 
 trous. Take a milling-cutter, for example, with 
 sharp-pointed, projecting teeth. The points of 
 these teeth may become much hotter than the body 
 of the cutter while being heated. If dipped while 
 the points are hotter, they are almost certain to 
 crack off. 
 
 Too much importance can not be attached to uni- 
 form heating. It is safe to say that probably the 
 failure of three-quarters of the work spoiled in hard- 
 ening is caused by improper heating. 
 
 When it is necessary to heat milling-cutters and
 
 TOOL-STEEL WORK. 185 
 
 flat tools in an open fire, it is a good plan to lay a 
 piece of thin, flat iron on the fire and heat the steel 
 on this. The steel does not then come in direct 
 contact with the fire and may be more uniformly 
 heated. 
 
 For heating taps, small-end mills, etc., a piece of 
 pipe may be laid through the fire and the tools 
 heated in this. The pipe forms a crude muffle, 
 which is very satisfactory for such work. 
 
 The most satisfactory way to harden is to use a 
 gas-furnace, but this is not always obtainable. 
 
 Lead Hardening and Tempering. A bath of lead 
 is frequently used for heating both when hardening 
 and drawing the temper. 
 
 When hardening the lead is heated red-hot (hard- 
 ening heat of the steel) and the tools to be hardened 
 are held in the lead until heated to the proper tem- 
 perature. 
 
 The top of the hot lead is kept covered with char- 
 coal to prevent oxidation, otherwise, the lead 
 when exposed to the air would be rapidly oxidized 
 and wasted. 
 
 The steel is cooled in the ordinary way. 
 
 This is a very satisfactory way to harden, as the 
 steel may be very uniformly heated. For small 
 work the lead may be heated in an ordinary ladle; 
 for larger pieces some special arrangement is neces- 
 sary. 
 
 When drawing the temper the lead is not heated 
 as hot as when hardening, and the pieces to be tem- 
 pered are laid on top of the melted lead. The 
 steel, being lighter than lead, will float on top and
 
 J86 FORGE-PRACTICE. 
 
 may then be easily watched during the heating. 
 The pieces to be tempered are polished and heated 
 until the proper colors appear the same as when 
 heated in the ordinary way. 
 
 Warping in Cooling. When heated steel is cooled 
 it contracts, and unless contracting takes place 
 uniformly on all sides the piece is liable to be 
 warped, or sprung, out of shape. If, for instance, 
 a long, thin, flat piece of steel were to be hardened 
 by dipping into the cooling bath edgewise or flat- 
 wise it would probably spring out of shape. If 
 dipped endwise the piece would be cooled from all 
 sides at once and would stand a better chance of 
 coming out of the cooling bath straight. 
 
 As a general rule, it is better to dip cylindrical 
 and long thin pieces endwise ; round, thin discs and 
 square flat pieces edgewise. 
 
 Cooling Thin Flat Work. Very thin flat work of 
 uniform thickness is easily hardened as follows: 
 The piece is heated to a hardening heat and cooled 
 between two heavy plates of iron having flat faces 
 smeared with oil. The piece is laid on one plate 
 and the other quickly laid on top. This leaves the 
 work hard and very true and flat. Pieces which 
 would be warped all out of shape if cooled in water 
 or oil may be easily hardened in this way. The 
 temper is drawn in the ordinary way. 
 
 Hardening Files Straightening Long Thin Work. 
 The hardening of files is a good example of the 
 treatment of long thin work; and the method em- 
 ployed may be used to advantage for many other 
 pieces.
 
 TOOL-STEEL WORK. 187 
 
 The files are heated in a pot of red-hot lead. They 
 are placed in this pot on end, and when properly 
 heated are plunged end first (being held in a verti- 
 cal position) into a vat of brine. 
 
 The files nearly always warp somewhat when 
 hardened, and when the warping is slight are 
 straightened as follows: Across the top of the 
 brine vat are fastened two wooden strips about two 
 inches apart, joined by two iron pins about six 
 inches from each other. The hardener draws his 
 file from the brine before it is entirely cold. The 
 metal has just heat enough left to cause the water 
 on the surface of the steel to disappear almost in- 
 stantly. The file is then placed between the pins, 
 under one and over the other, with the concave 
 side up, as shown in Fig. 232, which shows one of 
 
 FIG. 232. 
 
 the side strips removed. The hardener then bears 
 down on the end of the file, springing it straight, 
 and at the same time pours some of the cold brine 
 on top of the concave part. This will generally 
 straighten out the file and leave it perfectly true. 
 Of course if the files are too badly warped there is 
 nothing to do but reheat, straighten, and harden 
 again. 
 
 Bad Shape to Harden. There are some shapes
 
 i88 
 
 FORGE-PRACTICE. 
 
 which are very difficult to harden. Fig. 233 shows a 
 
 sectional view of a steel bear- 
 ing which should be hardened 
 very hard. The body of the 
 bearing is thick and contains 
 proportionately a large vol- 
 
 FIG. 233. 
 
 ume of metal, while the flange is very thin and light 
 and joins the body in a sharp angle, making a bad 
 shape to harden. The thin flange cools almost 
 instantly as it strikes the water, while the body 
 takes some seconds to cool and by that time the 
 flange is set. As the body contracts in cooling it 
 pulls away from the flange, cracking in the sharp 
 corner. 
 
 Of course shapes like this will not always crack, 
 but there is always a strong tendency to do so when 
 a thin body of metal joins a thick one with a sharp 
 corner between the two parts. This danger can be 
 lessened by leaving a fillet in the corner as shown in 
 the side sketch. This equalizes the strain some- 
 what by not leaving a distinct line between the 
 thick and thin parts. 
 
 Milling-cutter teeth when made with a sharp 
 angle at the bottom are liable to crack in harden- 
 ing. If left with a slight fillet between them they 
 very rarely crack if properly heated. 
 
 Tempering Springs Blazing Off. Spring temper- 
 ing done in oil is a good example of work where 
 the temperature of the reheating is determined 
 independently of the ' ' temper colors." 
 
 This method of tempering springs is known as 
 "blazing," and gives about as reliable results as
 
 TOOL- STEEL WORK. 189 
 
 any, on a small scale, for ordinary work. The 
 spring is heated to a hardening heat and cooled in 
 oil. To draw the temper, the spring, still wet with 
 the oil, is reheated (ordinarily in the blaze of the 
 forge) until the oil blazes up and then plunged for 
 an instant into the oil-bath and again reheated until 
 it blazes. This is continued until the oil blazes 
 uniformly over the entire spring at the same time. 
 
 Springs are generally not uniform in thickness, 
 and the thin parts heat more quickly than the 
 thicker. This momentary plunge into the oil cools 
 the thin parts somewhat and affects very little the 
 thicker parts. As the reheating is continued all 
 parts of the spring are thus brought to the same 
 temperature at the same time. If the reheating 
 were continued without this partial cooling, by the 
 time the thicker parts were hot enough to have the 
 proper temper, the thinner parts would be heated 
 to too high a temperature and have no temper left. 
 
 Animal oil, and not mineral oil, should be used 
 for this kind of work, as the mineral oil is too uncer- 
 tain in its composition and will sometimes blaze at 
 one temperature, sometimes at another, while the 
 animal oil is fairly uniform in its composition and 
 generally blazes at about the same temperature. 
 Lard- or fish-oil is a good material for this purpose. 
 
 Another way of tempering springs (which is 
 rather risky but which is sometimes used) is to 
 harden the spring in the ordinary way in water. 
 It is then reheated over the fire, and to test the 
 temperature from time to time a dry, pine splinter 
 is scraped over the edge of the spring. As soon as
 
 190 FORGE-PRACTICE. 
 
 the minute shavings thus made will catch fire the 
 right temperature is supposed to be reached, the 
 burning of the wood in this case taking the place 
 of the burning oil mentioned above. 
 
 Sometimes when no pine splinters are convenient 
 even the hammer-handle is made to serve the pur- 
 pose. 
 
 These last are not processes to be recommended, 
 but are given as illustrations of how the tempera- 
 ture of reheating for drawing the temper may be 
 determined in a variety of ways, viz., by the blue 
 color of the scale ; by the blazing of the oil ; by the 
 burning of the wood. 
 
 Hardening to Leave Soft Center. Another method 
 of tempering used for milling-cutters and taps 
 which has proved very satisfactory is as follows : 
 
 The tools are heated in the ordinary way and are 
 cooled in water, but are not left in the water long 
 enough to become completely cold, being drawn 
 out of the water as soon as the "singing" stops. 
 (When red-hot metal strikes water the water in 
 immediate contact with the metal starts to boil, 
 and this boiling produces a decided humming 'or 
 singing noise and a throbbing sensation easily felt 
 through the tongs. This ceases when the outside 
 of the metal cools to about the temperature of 
 boiling water.) 
 
 When the tool is drawn out of the water it is in- 
 stantly plunged into lard-oil and left there for a 
 very short time (depending upon the size of the 
 tool) and then withdrawn. It is then held in the 
 flame of the forge or near the fire until the oil on
 
 TOOL-STEEL WORK. 19 1 
 
 the outside just commences to smoke, when it is 
 again plunged for an instant into the oil and again 
 reheated, this being continued until the oil smokes 
 evenly all over the tool, when the tempering is 
 complete and the tool may be cooled off. 
 
 The object of the method is this: The first cool- 
 ing in water hardens the outside and cutting edges 
 of the tool. The tool is then taken from the water 
 and plunged into oil while the inside is still com- 
 paratively hot. As the oil conducts the heat more 
 slowly than water, the cooling of the tool is con- 
 tinued in the oil, thus leaving the center rather 
 tougher than if hardened in water. But even here 
 the metal is not completely cooled, but taken from 
 the oil-bath while there is still some heat left in the 
 center. This heat in the center helps to draw the 
 temper of the outside, and consequently the tool 
 is reheated much quicker than if entirely cooled. 
 The smoking oil serves to indicate the proper tem- 
 perature to which the reheating should be carried. 
 
 With a little practice the tool can be withdrawn 
 from the oil-bath while there is still heat enough 
 left in the central part to draw the temper. In 
 this way no reheating in the fire is necessary, the 
 tool being simply taken from the oil, allowed to 
 reheat itself until the oil commences to smoke, 
 and then plunged in water to prevent further re- 
 heating. 
 
 Annealing. It may be said that annealing is the 
 reverse of hardening. To go back to first princi- 
 ples : If a piece of steel be heated to a proper ' ' hard- 
 ening heat" and cooled very suddenly, the steel is
 
 192 FORGE-PRACTICE. 
 
 left very hard. The faster it is cooled the harder 
 the steel. On the other hand, if the steel be cooled 
 from this hardening heat very slowly it is left soft, 
 and the slower it is cooled the softer it becomes. 
 This softening process of heating and cooling slowly 
 is known as annealing, and steel so treated is called 
 annealed steel. 
 
 Water Annealing. The quickest way of anneal- 
 ing is what is known as "water annealing." In 
 doing this the steel is heated until it just shows 
 very dull red when held in a dark place, and is then 
 cooled in water. This method leaves the steel soft 
 enough to be worked, but not as soft as it would be 
 if heated to a hardening heat and cooled very 
 slowly. 
 
 A bar of steel if hammered until cooled below a 
 red heat is rather hard, and can be made somewhat 
 softer and put in a better condition to work by 
 water annealing. 
 
 Water annealing is quite often used for work of 
 the following nature: A drill or tap is sometimes 
 broken off in a piece of work and must be softened 
 before it can be removed. Such work is generally 
 wanted in a hurry, and water annealing is resorted 
 to to soften the broken piece. 
 
 Soapy water gives good results for water anneal- 
 ing. 
 
 Annealing at the Forge. A common way of an- 
 nealing is to bury the heated steel in the cinders 
 on the forge and keep it there until it is cold. This 
 method is very satisfactory for ordinary work. Still 
 another way, and about the most satisfactory, is
 
 TOOL-STEEL WORK. 1 93 
 
 to bury the metal in a box filled with common lime. 
 The steel cools slowly in this, and is left in very 
 good shape for working. 
 
 The object in each case is to cool the metal as 
 slowly as possible by keeping the air from it, as heat 
 is lost to the air very rapidly. When the steel is 
 buried in some material which does not conduct 
 heat readily, it of course cools very slowly and is 
 left that much softer. 
 
 Box Annealing. Sometimes a piece of polished 
 steel must be annealed without raising any scale on 
 the surface, such as would be left by any of the 
 methods described before. To do this the air must 
 be kept from the metal, both while it is being 
 heated and while cooling. The steel can be buried 
 in an iron box, filled with ground bone, burned 
 leather, or other carbonaceous materials and sealed 
 air-tight. The box may be slowly heated to the 
 right temperature and allowed to cool very slowly, 
 the steel being removed from the box after it is 
 cold. 
 
 There is a patented process for annealing polished 
 steel which is said to leave the metal as bright and 
 polished as it was before annealing. The method 
 is about as follows: The pieces to be annealed are 
 placed in a piece of large pipe having a cap on one 
 end; into this cap is screwed a small gas-pipe 
 which extends back through to the outside of the 
 furnace. When the pieces are all in the large pipe, 
 a second cap is screwed on the open end. This 
 cap has a small hole drilled in it. While the large 
 pipe containing the steel is being heated gas is run
 
 194 FORGE-PRACTICE. 
 
 into it through the small gas-pipe. This gas fills 
 the pipe and escapes and burns at the small hole 
 through the second cap. 
 
 Ordinary illuminating-gas is used. Oxygen is 
 necessary to form scale on the steel, and as the gas 
 (containing very little or no oxygen) which fills 
 the pipe drives out the air, there is no oxygen left 
 to form scale and discolor the steel, consequently 
 the steel comes out of the pipe as bright as when 
 it went in. The pipe, of course, is kept full of gas 
 until the steel is cold. 
 
 Mr. William Metcalf, in his book on Steel, gives 
 as a substitute for the above-patented process 
 (known as the Jones process) the following method 
 (this description is taken verbatim from his book) : 
 ' ' Let a pipe be made like a Jones pipe without a 
 hole in the cap or a gas-pipe in the end. To charge 
 it first throw a handful of resin into the bottom of 
 the pipe and screw on the cap. The cap is a loose 
 fit. Now roll the whole into the furnace ; the resin 
 will be volatilized at once, fill the pipe with carbon 
 or hydrocarbon gases, and with the air long before 
 the steel is hot enough to be attacked. 
 
 The gas will cause an outward pressure, and may 
 be seen burning as it leaks through the joint at the 
 cap. This prevents air from coming in contact 
 with the steel. This method is as efficient as the 
 Jones plan as far as perfect heating and easy man- 
 agement are concerned. It reduces the scale on 
 the surfaces of the pieces, leaving them a dark- 
 gray color and covered with -fine carbon or soot. 
 For annealing blocks it is handier and cheaper than
 
 TOOL-STEEL WORK. 195 
 
 the Jones plan, but it will not do for polishing sur- 
 faces." 
 
 File blanks (the shaped pieces of stock ready to 
 have the teeth cut) are annealed by packing them 
 in cast-iron boxes 3^" or 4" long, i" deep, and 8" 
 or 10" wide, with just a little sprinkling of some 
 carbonaceous material over the steel. The box is 
 closed by an iron cover which fits inside the box 
 and comes about an inch and a half below the top 
 of the sides. 
 
 The box is made practically air-tight by packing 
 fire-clay (the damp dust or grit which collects be- 
 neath the grindstones is sometimes used) around 
 the inside the box on top of the cover. 
 
 These boxes are placed in a furnace and heated 
 for about forty-eight hours and then drawn out 
 and covered with sheet-iron covers lined with 
 asbestos, where they cool very slowly. A box put 
 under a cover Saturday is expected to be used 
 Tuesday; and the steel is sometimes so hot even 
 then that it can hardly be touched. This method 
 leaves the steel very soft and easy to work. 
 
 Steel is sometimes annealed by bringing it up to 
 a proper heat in a furnace and then allowing the 
 steel and the furnace to cool off together. 
 
 Annealing is done in pits by building up a fire- 
 brick pit, filling it with steel, either in piles or 
 packed in boxes, leaving spaces for the burning gas 
 to circulate between the piles or boxes, covering 
 the whole over with a fire-brick-lined cover, and 
 heating the pit up to the proper temperature by 
 burning gas in it. This gas is admitted through
 
 196 FORGE-PRACTICE. 
 
 openings in the side of the pit left for the purpose. 
 When the steel has been heated evenly to the proper 
 temperature, the gas is turned off and the pit and 
 its contents slowly cooled. This is the method 
 used for annealing steel from which tin-plate is 
 made. 
 
 The underlying principle is the same in any case 
 the steel is first heated uniformly to a " harden- 
 ing heat" and then cooled slowly, the slower the 
 better. Sometimes, to prevent oxidation, precau- 
 tions are taken to keep the air away from the steel 
 both during heating and cooling.
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 TOOL FORGING AND TEMPERING. 
 
 IT is assumed that the general method of tem- 
 pering as described before is understood, and only 
 special directions will be given in particular cases 
 in the following pages. 
 
 Forging Heat. Any tool-steel forging on which 
 there is any great amount of work to be done 
 should have the heavy forging and shaping done 
 at a yellow heat. At this heat the metal works 
 easily and properly, and the heavy pounding re- 
 fines the grain and leaves the steel in proper condi- 
 tion to receive a cutting edge. When a tool is 
 merely to be smoothed off or finished, or forged to 
 a very slight extent, the work should be done at a 
 much lower heat, just above the hardening tem- 
 perature. 
 
 Very little hammering should be done at any 
 heat below the hardening temperature. 
 
 Cold-chisels. The ordinary cold-chisel is so sim- 
 ple in shape that no detail directions are necessary 
 for forging. The stock should be heated to a yel- 
 low heat and forged into shape and finished as 
 smooth as possible. If properly forged the end, or 
 edge, will bulge out, like Fig. -2 34. This should be 
 nicked across with a sharp hot -chisel (but not cut 
 
 197
 
 198 FORGE-PRACTICE. 
 
 off), as shown at C, and broken off after the tool 
 has been hardened. This broken edge will then 
 
 FIG. 234. 
 
 show the grain and indicate whether the steel has 
 been hardened at a proper temperature. 
 
 When hardening, the chisel should be heated red- 
 hot as far back from the point as the line A, Fig. 
 235. Great care must be taken to heat slowly 
 I i enough to heat the thicker part of the 
 chisel without overheating the point. If 
 the point does become too hot, it should 
 not be dipped in water to cool off, but 
 allowed to cool in the air to below the 
 hardening heat and then reheated more 
 carefully. 
 
 k When the chisel has been properly heated 
 to the hardening heat, the end should be 
 hardened in cold water baclc to the line B, 
 Fig. 235. As soon as the end is cold the 
 chisel should be withdrawn from the 
 water and one side of the end polished 
 off with a piece of emery or something 
 of that nature, as described before. 
 
 The part of the chisel from A to B will be still 
 red-hot, and the heat from this part will gradually
 
 TOOL FORGING AND TEMPERING. 1 99 
 
 reheat the point of the tool. As the metal is re- 
 heated the polished surface will change color, show- 
 ing at first yellow, brown, and at last purple. As 
 soon as the purple, almost blue color reaches the 
 nick at the end, the chisel should again be cooled, 
 this time completely. The waste end may now be 
 snapped off and the grain examined. To test for 
 proper hardness, try the end of the chisel with a 
 fine file, which should scratch it slightly. If the 
 grain is too coarse, the tool should be rehardened 
 at a lower temperature, while if the metal is too 
 soft, it should be rehardened at a higher tempera- 
 ture. 
 
 Cape-chisel. The cape-chisel, illustrated in Fig. 
 236, is used for cutting grooves and working at the 
 
 bottom of narrow channels. The cutting edge A 
 should be wider than any part of the blade back to 
 B, which should be somewhat thinner in order that 
 the blade may "clear" when working in a slot the 
 width of A. 
 
 The chisel is started by thinning down B over 
 the horn of the anvil, as shown at A, Fig. 237. The 
 finishing is done with a hammer or flatter in the 
 manner illustrated at B. The chisel should not 
 be worked flat on top of the anvil, as shown at C, 
 as this knocks the blade out of shape.
 
 20O 
 
 FORGE-PRACTICE. 
 
 The cape-chisel is tempered the same as a cold- 
 chisel. 
 
 FIG. 237. 
 
 Square- and Round -nose Cape-chisels. The chisels 
 are started in the same way as an ordinary cape- 
 chisel, the ends being left somewhat more stubby. 
 
 The end is then finished round or square, as 
 shown in Fig. 238, and tempered the same as a 
 cold -chisel. 
 
 Round-nose cape-chisels are sometimes used to 
 center drills, and are then called "centering" 
 chisels. 
 
 Lathe-tools in General. The same general forms 
 of lathe-tools are followed in nearly all shops; but 
 in different places the shapes are altered somewhat 
 to suit individual tastes.
 
 TOOL FORGING AND TEMPERING. 2OI 
 
 Right- and Left-hand Tools, Such tools as side 
 tools, oVamond points, etc., are generally made in 
 pairs that is, right- and left-handed. If a tool is 
 made with the cutting edge on the left-hand side 
 (as the tool is looked at from the top with the shank 
 
 FIG. 238. 
 
 of the tool nearest the observer), it would be called 
 a right-hand tool. That is, a tool which begins its 
 cut at the right-hand end of the piece and cuts 
 towards the left is known as a right-hand tool; 
 one commencing at the left-hand end and cutting 
 towards the right would be known as a left-hand 
 tool. 
 
 The general shape of right- and left-hand tools 
 for the same use is practically the same excepting 
 that the cutting edges are on opposite sides. 
 
 Round-nose and Thread Tools. Round-nose and 
 thread tools are practically alike, the difference 
 being in the grinding of the end. The thread tool 
 is sometimes made a little thinner at the point. 
 
 The round-nose tool, Fig. 239, is so simple in 
 shape that no description of the forging is neces- 
 sary. Care must be taken to have proper ' ' clear- 
 ance." The cutting is all done at or near the
 
 202 
 
 FORGE-PRACTICE. 
 
 end, and the sides must be so shaped that they 
 "clear" the upper edge of the end. In other 
 words, the upper edge of the shaped end must be 
 
 FIG. 239. 
 
 wider at every point than the lower edge, as shown 
 by the section. 
 
 For hardening, the tool should be heated about 
 as far as the line A, Fig. 240, and cooled up to the 
 
 FIG. 240. 
 
 line B. Temper color of scale should be light yel- 
 low. 
 
 Cutting-off Tools. Cutting-off tools are forged 
 with the blade either on one side or in the center of 
 the stock. The easier way to make them is to forge
 
 TOOL FORGING AND TEMPERING. 
 
 203 
 
 the blade with one side flush with the side of the 
 tool. A tool forged this way is shown in Fig. 241. 
 
 
 ^ ' 
 
 1 
 
 / 
 
 I 
 
 \l 
 ] 
 
 x 1 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 \ / ! 
 
 < 
 
 * ^i ^ 
 
 FIG. 241. 
 
 The cutting edge is the extreme tip of the blade, 
 and the cutting is done by forcing the tool straight 
 into the work, the edge cutting a narrow groove. 
 The only part of the tool which should touch the 
 work is the extreme end, or cutting edge; there- 
 fore the th'ckest part of the blade must be the cut- 
 ting edge, the sides gradually tapering back in all 
 directions and becoming thinner, as shown in the 
 drawing, A being wider than B. 
 
 The cutting edge should be slightly above the 
 level of the top of the tool, or, in other words, the 
 blade should slant slightly upwards. 
 
 The clearance angle at the end of the tool is 
 about right for lathe-tools ; but for plainer tools the 
 end should be made more nearly square, about as 
 shown by the line X X. 
 
 For hardening, the heat should extend to about 
 the line C C, and the end should be cooled to 
 about the line D D. Temper color should be light 
 yellow. 
 
 The tool may be forged by starting with a fuller 
 cut, as shown at A, Fig. 242. The blade is roughly
 
 204 
 
 POROK-PRACTICT:. 
 
 forged into shape with a sledge, or, on light stock, 
 a hand-hammer, working over the edge of the anvil 
 to form the shoulder in the manner shown at B. 
 This leaves the end bulged out and in rough shape, 
 
 FIG 242. 
 
 similar to C. The end should be trimmed off with 
 a sharp hot-chisel along the dotted line. 
 
 The finishing may be done over the corner of the 
 anvil, using a hand-hammer or flatter, in the same 
 way as when starting the tool; or a set -hammer 
 may be used, as shown at D. 
 
 Care must be taken to have proper clearance on 
 all sides of the blade. It is a good plan to upset 
 the end of the blade slightly by striking a few light 
 blows the last thing on the end at the cutting 
 edge, then adding a little clearance.
 
 TOOL FORGING AND TEMPERING. 
 
 205 
 
 When a tool is wanted with the blade forged in 
 the center of the shank, the two shoulders are 
 formed by using a set-hammer and working at the 
 edge of the anvil face, letting the corner of the 
 anvil shape one shoulder while the set-hammer is 
 forming the other. This process has been de- 
 scribed before under the general method of form- 
 ing double shoulders. 
 
 Bent Cutting-off Tool. The bent cutting-off tool, 
 
 FIG. 243. 
 
 Fig. 243, is made and tempered exactly the same 
 as the straight tool, excepting that the blade is 
 bent backward toward the shank through an angle 
 of about 45 degrees. 
 
 \ 
 
 FIG. 244. 
 
 Boring Tool. The boring tool, illustrated in Fig. 
 244, needs no particular description. The length 
 of the thin shank depends upon the depth of the
 
 2O6 
 
 PORGE-PRACTICE. 
 
 hole the tool is to be used in, but, as a general 
 rule, should not be made any longer than necessary. 
 
 This thin shank is started with a fuller cut and 
 drawn out in much the same way as the cutting-off 
 tool was started. 
 
 The cutting edge is at the end of the small, bent 
 nose. The only part of the tool required tempered 
 is the bent nose, or end, which should be given the 
 same temper color as the other lathe-tools light 
 yellow. 
 
 Internal Thread Tool. This tool, used for cut- 
 ting screw threads on the inside of a hole, is forged 
 to the same shape as the boring tool described 
 above, the end being afterward ground somewhat 
 differently. 
 
 Diamond-points. These tools are made right and 
 left. 
 
 FIG 245. 
 
 There are several good methods of making these 
 tools; but the one given below is about as quick 
 and easy as any, and requires the use of no tools 
 excepting the hand-hammer and sledge. 
 
 The diamond-point is started as shown at A, Fig. 
 246, by holding the stock at an angle of about 45 
 degrees over the outside edge of the anvil. It is 
 first slightly nicked by being driven down with a
 
 TOOL FORGING AND TEMPERING. 
 
 207 
 
 sledge against the corner, and the bent end down 
 to the dotted position with a few blows, as indi- 
 cated by the arrow. 
 
 FIG. 246. 
 
 This end is further bent by holding and striking 
 as illustrated at B. The diamond shape is given 
 to the end by swinging the tool back and forth and
 
 208 
 
 FORGE-PRACTICE. 
 
 striking as shown at C, which gives a side and end 
 view of tool in position on the anvil. 
 
 The tool is finished by trimming the end with 
 a sharp hot-chisel and so bending the end as to 
 throw the top of the nose slightly to one side, giv- 
 ing the necessary side ' 'rake" as shown in Fig. 245. 
 
 When hardening, the end should be dipped as 
 shown at D and the temper drawn to show light- 
 yellow scale. 
 
 Tools like the above made of stock as large as 
 " Xi" may be made using the hand-hammer alone. 
 
 FIG. 247. 
 
 Side Tools. Side tools, or side-finishing tools, as 
 they are also called, are generally made about the 
 shape shown in Fig. 247. These tools are made 
 right and left and are also made bent. The bent
 
 TOOL FORGING AND TEMPERING. 2OQ 
 
 side tools leave the ends forged the same; but the 
 blade is afterward bent toward the shank, cutting 
 edge out, at an angle of about 45 degrees. 
 
 The side tool may be started by making a fuller 
 cut as shown at A, Fig. 247, near the end of the 
 stock. 
 
 The part of the stock marked x is then drawn 
 out by using a fuller turned in the opposite direc- 
 tion, working the stock down into the shape shown 
 at B. The blade is smoothed up with a set-ham- 
 mer and trimmed with a hot-chisel along the dotted 
 lines on C. The curved end of the blade is smoothed 
 up and finished with a few blows of the hand-ham- 
 mer. 
 
 The tool is finished by giving the proper ' ' offset ' ' 
 to the top edge of the blade. This is done by plac- 
 ing the tool, flat-side down, with the blade ex- 
 tending over, and the end of the blade next the 
 shank about one-eighth of an inch beyond, the 
 outside edge of the anvil. A set-hammer is placed 
 on the blade close up to the shoulder and slightly 
 tipped, so that the face of the hammer touches the 
 thin edge of the blade only, as illustrated at D. 
 One or two light blows with the sledge will give 
 the necessary offset, and after straightening the 
 blade the tool is ready for tempering. 
 
 It is very important on these tools, as well as on 
 all others, to have the cutting edge as smooth and 
 true as possible ; it is, therefore, best, the very last 
 thing, to smooth up this part of a tool, using the 
 hand- or set-hammer. Above all things, the cut- 
 ting edge must not be rounded off, as this necessi-
 
 2IO FORGE-PRACTICE. 
 
 tates grinding down the edge until the rounded 
 part has been completely ground off. 
 
 While the side tool is being heated for temper- 
 ing, it should be placed in the fire with the cutting 
 edge up. It is more easy to avoid overheating of 
 the edge in this way. 
 
 The blade is hardened by dipping in water as 
 shown at E, only a small part of back, A, of the 
 blade extending above the water and remaining 
 red-hot. The tool is taken from the water, quickly 
 polished on the flat side, and the temper drawn to 
 show a very light yellow. The same color should 
 show the entire length of the cutting edge. If the 
 color shows darker at one end, it indicates that 
 that end of the blade was not cooled enough, and 
 the tool should be rehardened, this time tipping 
 the tool in such a way as to bring that end of the 
 blade which was before too soft deeper in the water. 
 Centering Tool. The centering tool, Fig. 248, 
 used for starting holes on face-plate and chuck 
 
 work, is started in 
 
 (I /I J much the same way 
 
 as the boring tool. 
 The end is flattened 
 out thin and trimmed 
 into shape with a hot- 
 chisel. The right- 
 hand side of the end should be cut from the top side 
 and the left-hand from the other, leaving the end 
 the same shape as a flat drill. 
 
 Tempered the same as other lathe-tools. 
 Finishing Tool. This tool, Fig. 249, is started by
 
 TOOL FORGING AND TEMPERING. 
 
 21 I 
 
 bending the end of the stock down over the edge of 
 
 the anvil in the same way . 
 
 as when starting the diamond- II Li. 
 point. 
 
 The end is flattened and 
 widened by working with a 
 hand- or set-hammer, as FlG - 24 9- 
 
 shown at A, Fig. 250. This leaves the end bent 
 out too nearly straight; but, after being shaped, it 
 is bent into the proper angle, in the manner illus- 
 
 FIG. 250. 
 
 trated at B. The blade will then probably be bent 
 somewhat like C, but a few blows with a hammer, at 
 the point and in the direction indicated by the 
 arrow, will straighten this out, leaving it like D. 
 After trimming and smoothing, the tool is ready
 
 212 FORGE-PRACTICE. 
 
 for tempering. The blade should be tempered to 
 just show the very lightest yellow at cutting edge. 
 
 When a tool of this kind is to be used on a planer, 
 the front end should make more nearly a right angle 
 with the bottom; or, in other words, there should 
 be less front "rake" or "clearance." 
 
 Flat Drills. The flat drill, Fig. 2=51, needs no 
 
 FIG. 251 
 
 description, as the forging and shaping are very 
 simple. The end should be trimmed the same as 
 the centering tool. The size of the tool is deter- 
 mined by the dimension A, this being the same size 
 as the hole the drill is intended to make; thus, if 
 this dimension were i " , the drill would be known 
 as an inch drill. 
 
 The temper is drawn to show a dark-yellow scale. 
 
 Hammers. As a general rule, when making ham- 
 mers of all kinds by hand the eye is made first. A 
 bar of steel of the proper size and convenient length 
 for handling is used, and the hammer forged on 
 the end, as much forging and shaping as possible 
 being done before cutting the hammer from the 
 bar. 
 
 The hole for the eye is punched in the usual way 
 at the proper distance from the end of the bar, 
 using a punch having a handle (Fig. 70). 
 
 The nose of the punch is slightly smaller but has 
 the same shape as the eye is to finish. Great care
 
 TOOL FORGING AND TEMPERING. 213 
 
 must be taken to have the hole true and straight. 
 It is very difficult and sometimes impossible to 
 straighten up a crooked hole. 
 
 After punching the eye, the sides of the stock 
 are generally bulged out, and to prevent knock- 
 ing the eye out of shape while forging down this 
 bulge a drift-pin, Fig. 252, is used. This is made 
 
 of tool-steel and tapers from near the center to- 
 ward each end, one end being somewhat smaller 
 than the other. The center of the pin is the same 
 shape and size as the eye is to be in the hammer. 
 
 When the bar has been heated the drift-pin is 
 driven tightly into the hole and the bulge forged 
 down in the same way (B, Fig. 254) as a solid bar 
 would be treated. When the drift-pin becomes 
 heated it must be driven out and cooled, and under 
 no circumstances should the bar be heated with 
 the pin in the hole. The pin should always be 
 used when there is danger of knocking the eye out 
 of shape. 
 
 The steel used for hammers, and "battering 
 tools ' ' in general, should be of a lower temper (con- 
 tain less carbon) than that used for lathe-tools. 
 
 The eye of a hammer should not be of uniform 
 size throughout, but should be larger at the ends
 
 FORGE-PRACTICE. 
 
 and taper slightly toward the center, as illustrated 
 in Fig. 253, which shows a section of a hammer cut 
 through the center of the eye. 
 When the eye is made in this 
 way (slightly contracted at 
 the middle), the hammer- 
 handle may be driven in 
 
 FIG. 253. 
 
 tightly from one end ; then by driving one or more 
 wedges in the end of the handle it is held firmly 
 in place and there is no chance for the head to 
 work up or down. 
 
 Cross-pene, Blacksmith's or Riveting Hammer. A 
 hammer of this kind is shown at C, Fig. 6. 
 
 FIG. 254. 
 
 The different steps in the process of forging are 
 illustrated in Fig. 254. First the eye is punched 
 as shown at A. The pene is then drawn out and
 
 TOOL FORGING AND TEMPERING. 215 
 
 shaped and a cut started at the point where the 
 end of the hammer will come (C), the drift-pin 
 being used, as shown at B, while forging the metal 
 around the eye. 
 
 The other end of the hammer is then worked up 
 into shape, using a set-hammer as indicated at D. 
 
 When the hammer is as nearly finished as may be 
 while still on the bar, it is cut off with a hot-chisel, 
 leaving the end as nearly square and true as pos- 
 sible. 
 
 After squaring up and truing the face the ham- 
 mer is tempered. 
 
 For tempering, the whole hammer is heated in a 
 slow fire to an even hardening heat; while harden- 
 ing, the tongs should grasp the side of the hammer, 
 one jaw being inserted in the eye. 
 
 Both ends should be tempered, this being done 
 by hardening first one end, then the other. 
 
 The small end is hardened first by cooling, as 
 shown in Fig. 255. As soon as this end has cooled, 
 the position is instantly 
 reversed and the large 
 end of the hammer dipped 
 in the water and hard- 
 ened. While the large 
 end is cooling, the smaller 
 one is polished and the 
 temper color watched for. 
 When a dark-brown scale 
 appears at the end the FIG. 255. 
 
 hammer is again reversed, bringing the large end 
 uppermost and the pene in the water. The face
 
 2l6 FORGE-PRACTICE. 
 
 end is polished and tempered in the same way as 
 the small end. If the large end is properly hard- 
 ened before the temper color appears on the small 
 end, the hammer may be taken completely out of 
 the water and the large end also polished, the 
 colors being watched for on both ends at once. As 
 soon as one end shows the proper color it is promptly 
 dipped in water, the other end following as soon as 
 the color appears there. 
 
 Under no circumstances should the eye be cooled 
 while still red-hot. 
 
 For some special work hammer-faces must be 
 very hard; but for ordinary usage the temper as 
 given above is very satisfactory. 
 
 Ball Pene-hammer. The ball pene-hammer, Fig. 
 5, is started by punching the eye. 
 
 The hammer is roughed out with two fullers in 
 the manner illustrated at .4, Fig. 256. 
 
 The size of stock used should be such that it will 
 easily round up to form the large end of the hammer. 
 
 After the hammer is roughed out as shown at A, 
 the metal around the eye is spread sidewise, using 
 two fullers as illustrated at B, a set-hammer being 
 used for finishing. This leaves the forging like C. 
 The next step is to round and shape the ball, which 
 is forged as nearly as possible to the finished shape. 
 
 After doing this a cut is made in the bar where 
 the face of the hammer will come, and the large end 
 rounded up, leaving the work like D. 
 
 The necked parts of the hammer each side of 
 the eye are smoothed and finished with fullers of 
 the proper size. Some hammers are made with.
 
 TOOL FORGING AND TEMPERING. 21 7 
 
 these necks round in section, but the commoner 
 shape is octagonal. 
 
 After smoothing off, the hammer is cut from the 
 bar and the face forged true. Both ends are ground 
 true and tempered. This hammer should be tern- 
 
 FIG. 256. 
 
 pered in the same way as described above for tem- 
 pering the riveting-hammer. 
 
 Ball pene-hammers may be made with the steam- 
 hammer in practically the same way as described, 
 only substituting round bars of steel for use in 
 place of fullers. 
 
 Sledges. Sledges are made and tempered in the 
 same general way as riveting -hammers. Sledges 
 may be forged and finished almost entirely under 
 the steam-hammer.
 
 2 1 8 FORGE-PRACTICE. 
 
 Blacksmith's Cold-chisel. This tool (Fig. 2) is 
 forged in practically the same way as the cross-pene 
 hammer described before. The end, of course, is 
 drawn out longer and thinner, the thin edge com- 
 ing parallel with the eye instead of at right angles 
 to it. 
 
 The cutting edge only of the chisel is tempered. 
 The temper should be drawn to show a bluish 
 scale just tinged with a little purple. Under no 
 circumstances should the head of the chisel be 
 hardened, as this would cause the end to chip 
 when in use and might cause a serious accident. 
 
 The tool shown in Fig. 192 may be used to ad- 
 vantage when making hot- or cold-chisels with the 
 steam-hammer. By using this tool, as illustrated 
 in Fig. 193, the blade of the chisel may be quickly 
 drawn out and finished. 
 
 Hot-chisel. After forming the eye of the hot- 
 chisel (Fig. 2), the blade is started by making the 
 
 two fuller cuts, as il- 
 lustrated in Fig. 257. 
 -^ The end is drawn 
 ^-' x down as indicated by 
 the dotted lines. The 
 head is shaped and 
 
 the chisel cut from the bar in the same way that 
 the riveting-hammer was treated. 
 
 This chisel should have its cutting edge tem- 
 pered the same as that of the cold-chisel. 
 
 Hardies. Hardies such as shown in Fig. 2 
 should be started by drawing out the stem. This 
 stem is drawn down to the right size to fit the
 
 TOOL FORGING AND TEMPERING. 2tQ 
 
 hardy-hole in the anvil and the piece cut from the 
 bar. This is heated, the stem placed in the hole 
 in the anvil, and the piece driven down into the 
 hole and against the face of the anvil, thus forming 
 a good shoulder between the stem and the head of 
 the hardy. 
 
 After forming the shoulder, the blade is worked 
 out, starting by using two fullers in the same way 
 as when starting the hot-chisel blade. 
 
 The cutting edge should be given the same tem- 
 per as a cold-chisel. 
 
 Blacksmith's Punches. Punches shaped similar 
 to Fig. 70 are started the same manner as the hot- 
 chisel, excepting that 
 the fuller cuts are 
 made on four sides, as 
 shown in Fig. 258. 
 The end is then drawn 
 out to the shape FIG. 258. 
 
 shown by the dotted 
 lines. 
 
 Temper same as cold-chisel. 
 
 Set-hammers Flatters. The set-hammer, Fig. 
 15, is so simple that no directions are necessary for 
 shaping. The face only should be tempered and 
 that should show a dark-brown or purple color. 
 
 Flatters such as shown in Fig. 14 may be made 
 by upsetting the end of a small bar, the upset part 
 forming the wide face; or a bar large enough to 
 form the face may be used and the head, or shank, 
 drawn down. 
 
 The eye should be punched after the face has been
 
 220 
 
 FORGE -PRACTICE. 
 
 FIG. 259. 
 
 made. The face should be tempered to about a 
 
 blue. 
 
 When many are to be 
 made a swage - block 
 similar to Fig. 259 
 should be used. Half 
 only of the block is 
 shown in the figure, the 
 other half being cut away 
 to show the shape of the 
 
 hole which is the size of the finished flatter. 
 
 When using this block the stock is first cut to 
 
 the proper length, heated, placed in the hole, and 
 
 upset. 
 
 Swages. Swages may also be made in a block 
 
 similar to the one used for the flatter. The swage 
 
 should be first upset in the block and the crease 
 
 formed the last thing. The crease may be made 
 
 with a fuller or a bar of round stock the proper 
 
 size. 
 Fullers. Fullers are made in the same way as 
 
 swages. 
 
 All of these tools may be upset and forged under 
 
 the steam-hammer, using the die, or swage, blocks 
 
 as described above. The swage-blocks may be 
 
 made of cast iron.
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS WORK. 
 
 Shrinking. When iron is heated it expands, and 
 upon being cooled it contracts to practically its 
 original size. 
 
 This property is utilized in doing what is known 
 as "shrinking." 
 
 FIG. 260. 
 
 A common example of this sort of work is illus- 
 trated in Fig. 260, showing a collar "shrunk" on a 
 shaft. The collar and shaft are made separately. 
 The inside diameter of the hole through the collar 
 is made slightly less than the outside diameter of 
 the shaft. When the collar and shaft are ready 
 to go together the collar is heated red-hot. The 
 high temperature causes the metal to expand and 
 thus increases the diameter of the hole, making 
 it larger (if the sizes have been properly propor- 
 tioned) than the outside diameter of the shaft. 
 The collar is then taken from the fire, brushed 
 clean of all ashes and dirt, and slipped on the shaft 
 
 221
 
 222 FORGE-PRACTICE. 
 
 and into the proper position, where it is cooled as 
 quickly as possible. This cooling causes the collar 
 to contract and locks it firmly in place. 
 
 If the collar be alowed to cool slowly it will heat 
 the shaft, which will expand and stretch the collar 
 somewhat; then, as both cool together and con- 
 tract, the collar will be loose on the shaft. 
 
 This is the method used for shrinking tires on 
 wheels. The tire is made just large enough to slip 
 on the wheel when hot, but not large enough to go 
 on cold. It is then heated, put in place, and 
 quickly cooled. 
 
 Couplings are frequently shrunk on shafts in this 
 way. 
 
 Brazing. Brazing, it might be said, is soldering 
 with brass. 
 
 Briefly the process is as follows: The surfaces to 
 be joined are cleaned thoroughly where they are to 
 come in contact with each other. The pieces are 
 then fastened together in the proper shape by 
 binding with wire, or holding with some sort 
 of clamp. The joint is heated, a flux (gener- 
 ally borax) being added to prevent oxidation of 
 the surfaces, and the "spelter" (prepared brass) 
 sprinkled over the joint, the heat being raised until 
 the brass melts and flows into the joint, making a 
 union between the pieces. Ordinarily it requires a 
 bright-red or dull-yellow heat to melt the brass 
 properly. 
 
 Almost any metal that will stand the heat can be 
 brazed. Great care must be used when brazing 
 cast iron to have the surfaces in contact properly
 
 MISCELLANEOUS WORK. 
 
 223 
 
 cleaned to start with, and then properly protected 
 from the oxidizing influences of the air and fire 
 while being heated. 
 
 Brass wire, brass filings, or small strips of rolled 
 brass may be used in place of the spelter. Brass 
 wire in particular is very convenient to use in some 
 places, as it can be bent into shape and held in place 
 easily. 
 
 A simple brazed joint is illustrated in Fig. 261, 
 which shows a flange (in this case a large washer) 
 brazed around the end of a pipe. It is not neces- 
 sary to use any clamps or wires to hold the work 
 together, as the joint may be made tight enough to 
 hold the pieces in place. The joint should be tight 
 enough in spots to hold the pieces together, but 
 must be open enough to allow the melted brass to 
 run between the two pieces. Where the pipe 
 comes in contact with the flange the outside should 
 be free from scale and filed bright, the inside of 
 the flange being treated in the same way. 
 
 FIG. 261. 
 
 FIG. 262. 
 
 When the pieces have been properly cleaned and 
 forced together, a piece of brass wire should be 
 bent around the pipe at the joint, as shown in Fig. 
 262, and the work laid on the fire with the flange
 
 224 FORGE- PRACTICE. 
 
 down. The fire should be a clean bright bed of 
 coals. As soon as the work is in the fire the joint 
 should be sprinkled with the flux; in fact, it is a 
 good plan to put on some of the flux before putting 
 the work in the fire. Ordinary borax can be used 
 as a flux, although a mixture of about three parts 
 borax and one part sal ammoniac seems to give 
 much better results. 
 
 The heat should be gradually raised until the 
 brass melts and runs all around and into the joint, 
 when the piece should be lifted from the fire. 
 
 The brazing could be done with spelter in place 
 of the brass wire. If spelter were to be used the 
 piece would be laid on the fire and the joint cov- 
 ered with the flux as before. As soon as the flux 
 starts to melt, the spelter mixed with a large 
 amount of flux is spread on the joint and melted 
 down as the brass wire was before. For placing 
 the spelter when brazing it is convenient to have a 
 sort of a long-handled spoon. This is easily made 
 by taking a strip of iron about \" X 1" three or four 
 feet long and hollowing one end slightly with the 
 pene end of the hammer. 
 
 There are several grades of spelter which melt at 
 different heats. Soft spelter melts at a lower heat than 
 hard spelter, but does not make as strong a joint. 
 
 Spelter is simply brass prepared for brazing in 
 small flakes and can be bought ready for use. The 
 following way has been recommended for the prep- 
 aration of spelter: Soft brass is melted in a ladle 
 and poured into a bucket filled with water having 
 in it finely chopped straw, the water being given a
 
 MISCELLANEOUS WORK. 
 
 225 
 
 swirling motion before pouring in the brass. The 
 brass settles to the bottom in small particles. Care 
 must be taken when melting the brass not to burn 
 out the zinc. To avoid this, cover the metal in 
 ladle with powdered charcoal or coal. When the 
 zinc begins to burn it gives a brilliant flame and 
 dense white smoke, leaving a deposit of white oxide 
 of zinc. 
 
 Another example of brazing is the T shown in 
 
 FIG. 263. 
 
 Fig. 263. Here two pipes are to be brazed to each 
 other in the form of an inverted T. 
 
 A clamp must be used to hold the pieces in proper 
 position while brazing, as one pipe is simply stuck 
 on the outside of the 
 other. A simple 
 clamp is shown in Fig. 
 264 consisting of a 
 piece of flat iron hav- 
 ing one hole near each 
 end to receive the two 
 small bolts, as illus- 
 trated. This strip lies 
 
 FIG. 264. 
 
 across the end of the 
 pipe forming the short 
 stem of the T, and the bent ends of the bolts hook
 
 226 FORGE-PRACTICE. 
 
 into the ends of the bottom pipe. The whole is held 
 together by tightening down on the nuts. 
 
 The brazing needs no particular description, us 
 the spelter or wire is laid on the joint and melted 
 into place as before. 
 
 A piece of this kind serves as a good illustration ot 
 the strength of a brazed joint. If a well-made 
 joint of this kind be hammered apart, the short 
 limb will sometimes tear out or pull off a section of 
 the longer pipe, showing the braze to be almost as 
 strong as the pipe. 
 
 When using borax as a flux the melted scale 
 should be cleaned (or scraped) from the work while 
 still red-hot, as the borax when cold makes a hard, 
 glassy scale which can hardly be touched with a 
 file. The cleaning may be easily done by plunging 
 the brazed piece, while still red-hot, into water. 
 On small work the cleaning is very thoroughly done 
 if the piece, while still red-hot, is dipped into melted 
 cyanide of potassium and then instantly plunged 
 into water. If allowed to remain in the cyanide 
 many seconds the brass will be eaten off and the 
 brazing destroyed. 
 
 It is not always necessary when brazing wrought 
 iron or steel to have the joint thoroughly cleaned; 
 for careful work the parts to be brazed together 
 should be bright and clean, but for rough work the 
 pieces are sometimes brazed without any preparation 
 whatever other than scraping off any loose dirt or scale. 
 
 Pipe-bending. There is one simple fact about 
 pipe-bending which, if always carried in mind, 
 makes it comparatively easy.
 
 MISCELLANEOUS WORK. 
 
 227 
 
 Let the full lines in Fig. 265 represent a cross- 
 section of a piece of pipe before bending. Now 
 suppose the pipe be heated and an attempt made 
 to bend it without taking any precautions what- 
 
 FIG. 265. 
 
 FIG. 266 
 
 ever. The concave side of the pipe will flatten 
 down against the outside of the curve, leaving the 
 cross-section something as shown by the dotted 
 lines; that is, the top and bottom of the pipe will 
 be forced together, while the sides will be pushed 
 apart. In other words, the pipe collapses. 
 
 If the sides can be prevented from bulging out 
 while being bent it will stop the flattening together 
 of the top and bottom. A simple way of doing 
 this is to bend the pipe between two flat plates held 
 the same distance apart as the outside diameter of 
 the pipe (Fig. 266). Pipe can sometimes be bent 
 in a vise in this way, the jaws of the vise taking 
 the place of the flat plates mentioned above. 
 
 Large pipe may be bent something in the follow- 
 ing way: If the pipe is long and heavy the part to 
 be bent should be heated, and then while one end is
 
 228 
 
 FORGE-PRACTICE. 
 
 supported, the other end is dropped repeatedly on 
 the floor. The weight of the pipe will cause it to 
 bend in the heated part. Fig. 267 illustrates this, 
 
 FIG. 267. 
 
 the solid lines showing the pipe as it is held before 
 dropping and the dotted lines the shape it takes as 
 it is dropped. 
 
 As the pipe bends the sides, of course, bulge out, 
 and the top and bottom tend to flatten together; 
 but this is remedied by laying the pipe flat and 
 driving the bulging sides together with a flatter. 
 
 Another way of bending is to put the end of the 
 pipe in one of the holes of a heavy swage-block (as 
 illustrated in Fig. 268), the bend then being made 
 
 FIG. 268. 
 
 by pulling over the free end. The same precau- 
 tion must, of course, be taken as when bending in 
 other ways. 
 
 The fact that by preventing the sides of the pipe 
 from bulging it may be made to retain its proper
 
 MISCELLANEOUS WORK. 
 
 shape is particularly valuable when several pieces 
 are to be bent just alike. In this case a jig is made 
 which consists of two side plates, to prevent the 
 sides of the pipe from bulging, and a block between 
 these plates to give the proper shape to the curve. 
 A piece of bent pipe which was formed in this 
 
 -3 
 
 FIG. 269. 
 
 way is shown in Fig. 269, together with the jig 
 used for bending it. 
 
 The pipe was regular one-quarter-inch gas-pipe. 
 The jig was made as follows: The sides were made 
 of two pieces of board about i|" thick. Between 
 these sides was a board, A, sawed to the shape of 
 the inside curve of the bent pipe. This piece was 
 slightly thicker than the outside diameter of the 
 pipe (about VK" being added for clearance). The 
 inside face of the sides and the edge of the block A 
 were protected from the red-hot pipe by a thin 
 sheet of iron tacked to them. 
 
 A bending lever was made by bending a piece of 
 f'Xi" stock into the shape of the outside of the 
 pipe. This lever was held in place by a \" bolt 
 passing through the sides of the jig, as shown.
 
 2JO FORGE-PRACTICE. 
 
 To bend the pipe it was heated to a yellow heat, 
 put in the jig as indicated by the dotted lines and 
 the lever pulled over, forcing the hot pipe to take 
 the form of the block. 
 
 A jig of this sort is easily and cheaply made and 
 gives good service, although it is necessary some- 
 times to throw a little water on the sides to prevent 
 them from burning. 
 
 Another common way of bending is to fill the 
 pipe with sand. One end of the pipe to be bent is 
 plugged either with a cap or a wooden plug driven 
 in tightly. The pipe is filled full of sand and the 
 other end closed up tight. The pipe may then be 
 heated and bent into shape. It is necessary to have 
 the pipe full of sand or it will do very little good. 
 
 For very thin pipe the best thing is to fill with 
 melted rosin. This, of course, can only be used 
 when the tubing or pipe is very thin and is bent 
 cold, as heating the pipe would cause the rosin to 
 run out. 
 
 Thin copper tubing may be bent in this way. 
 
 A quite common form of pipe-bending jig is 
 illustrated in Fig. 270. 
 
 The outside edge of the semicircular casting has 
 a groove in it that just fits half-way round the pipe. 
 The small wheel attached to the lever has a cor- 
 responding groove on its edge. When the two are 
 in the position shown the hole left between them 
 is the same shape and size as the cross-section of 
 the pipe. 
 
 To bend the pipe, the lever is swung to the ex- 
 treme left, the end of the heated pipe inserted in
 
 MISCELLANEOUS V/ORK. 
 
 231 
 
 the catch at A (which has a hole in it the same size 
 as the pipe) , and the lever pulled back to the right, 
 bending the pipe as it goes. 
 
 The stem on the lower edge of the casting was 
 
 FIG. 270. 
 
 made to fit in a vise, where the jig was held while 
 in operation. 
 
 Annealing Copper and Brass. Brass or copper 
 may be softened or annealed by heating the metal 
 to a red heat and cooling suddenly in cold water, 
 copper being annealed in the same way that steel is 
 hardened. Copper annealed this way is left very 
 soft, somewhat like lead. Hammering copper or 
 brass causes it to harden and become springy. 
 When working brass or copper, if much bending or 
 hammering is done, the metal should be annealed 
 frequently.
 
 232 FORGE-PRACTICE. 
 
 Bending Cast Iron. It is sometimes necessary to 
 straighten castings which have become warped or 
 twisted. .This may be done to some extent by 
 heating the iron and bending into the desired shape. 
 The part to be bent should be heated to what might 
 be described as a dull-yellow heat. The bending is 
 done by gradually applying pressure, not by blows. 
 For light work two pairs of tongs should give about 
 the right amount of leverage for twisting and bend- 
 ing. 
 
 When properly handled (very "gingerly"), thin 
 castings may be bent to a considerable extent. 
 Before attempting any critical work some experi- 
 menting should be done on a piece of scrap to deter- 
 mine at just what heat the iron will work to _ the 
 best advantage, and how much bending it will 
 stand without breaking. 
 
 Case-hardening. Case-hardening is a process by 
 which articles made of soft steel or wrought iron 
 are given a hard wearing surface. 
 
 Wrought iron or machine-steel will not harden 
 to any appreciable extent, and this fact would pre- 
 vent the use of either metal in many places where 
 they would be the ideal materials if they could only 
 be given a hard surface. 
 
 This hard surface can, however, be had by 
 means of the process known as "Case-hardening." 
 (Wrought iron and machine-steel are taken as 
 being practically alike, as they are, so far as chemi- 
 cal composition is concerned.) 
 
 Practically the only difference between wrought 
 iron and tool-steel is that tool-steel contains a little
 
 MISCELLANEOUS WORK. 233 
 
 more of the element called carbon than wrought 
 iron does. Tool-steel can be hardened by heating 
 to a red heat and cooling suddenly, because it does 
 contain this carbon; while wrought iron can not be 
 hardened, on account of the lack of it. If then by 
 some means carbon can be added to the metal on 
 the outside of an article made of wrought iron or 
 machine-steel, the outside part will be made into 
 tool-steel, and may then be hardened in the ordinary 
 manner, while the inside metal will be soft and 
 unchanged. 
 
 Wrought iron or machine-steel if heated to a high 
 heat in contact with charred leather, ground bone, 
 or other material containing a great deal of carbon 
 will "take up" or absorb carbon from that mate- 
 rial ; and the outside will be converted into a high- 
 carbon (tool) steel, which may be hardened by cool- 
 ing suddenly from a high heat. This process is 
 known as case-hardening, and is used for work 
 which requires a hard wearing surface backed up 
 by a softer and tougher material to resist shocks. 
 
 If a piece of wrought iron which has been 
 case-hardened be broken across, it will appear 
 something like Fig. 271. The out- 
 side layer, or coating, of hard steel 
 can be easily distinguished from 
 the inner core of softer unchanged 
 metal. 
 
 The " depth of penetration" of 
 the carbon (or, in other words, the 
 depth to which the iron is changed 2?I ' 
 
 into steel) is determined by the temperature to which
 
 234 FORGE-PRACTICE. 
 
 the metal is heated, the length of time it is kept at 
 that temperature, and the substance it is heated in 
 contact with. 
 
 The carbon penetrates faster at a high heat; but 
 a high heat can not always be used, particularly if 
 that mottled appearance so often seen on case- 
 hardened articles is wanted. Pieces which are to 
 be mottled should not be heated much above a 
 good red heat, as a higher heat destroys the color. 
 The longer the work is kept at the proper heat the 
 deeper the carbon penetrates. So, when the same 
 heat and the same case-hardening mixture are used 
 all the time, the depth of hardness on the pieces 
 treated can be determined by the length of time 
 the pieces are hot. For ordinary work, where it is 
 not necessary to have the mottled coloring on the 
 pieces, about a good yellow heat should be used 
 about as high a heat as ordinary cast iron will stand 
 without danger of going to pieces. 
 
 As stated before, a case-hardened piece of iron 
 or machine-steel is really made up of two distinct 
 metals the outside hard shell of high-carbon steel 
 (which is the same as tool-steel) and the inside 
 softer core of the original material. This outside 
 coating can be treated in the same manner as ordi- 
 nary tool-steel; that is, it can be hardened and 
 annealed just as tool-steel is. In fact, when a case- 
 hardened article is suddenly cooled from a red heat 
 exactly the same thing is done as when hardening 
 a piece of ordinary tool-steel, with, however, this dif- 
 ference: in hardening tool-steel the piece is hard- 
 ened clear through, and for ordinary purposes is so
 
 MISCELLANEOUS WORK. 235 
 
 hard as to be almost useless; while with a piece of 
 case-hardened machine-steel, for instance, the out- 
 side only is hardened (because the outside only is 
 tool-steel), while the inside is left tough and com- 
 paratively soft. In the case-hardened piece there 
 is a tough inside core which will stand shocks 
 that would snap off a piece of hardened tool-steel 
 and an outside coating which is as hard and is the 
 same as hardened tool-steel. This gives a combi- 
 nation of hardness and toughness which is not pos- 
 sible with either machine-steel or tool-steel alone; 
 and it is this fact which makes case-hardened arti- 
 cles so valuable for many purposes. 
 
 To repeat: The object of case-hardening is to 
 convert the outside of a low carbon steel or iron into 
 a high-carbon steel that can be hardened easily; 
 and this converting is done by heating the piece in 
 contact with some substance containing a large 
 amount of carbon. 
 
 By taking certain precautions while heating and 
 cooling, the surface of the case-hardened pieces 
 may be given a mottled coloring of reds, blues, and 
 greens, which when rightly done is sometimes very 
 beautiful. Such coloring is often seen on gun- 
 locks, finished wrenches, etc. 
 
 Two common methods of case-hardening are in 
 use what might be called the cyanide method 
 and the bone or animal-charcoal process. 
 
 Cyanide Case-hardening. For the cyanide method 
 cyanide of potassium is used the purer the better. 
 
 One way of using the cyanide is as follows : Small 
 pieces and pieces which need only a very thin shell
 
 236 FORGE-PRACTICE. 
 
 of hard steel are heated to a high red heat, drawn 
 from the fire and sprinkled over with cyanide of 
 potassium, reheated for a few seconds to give the 
 carbon from the cyanide a chance to "soak in," 
 drawn from the fire again, sprinkled with the cya- 
 nide, and cooled in cold water. This is an easy and 
 quick way when it will answer the purpose. 
 
 This method is also of use when case-hardening 
 in spots. When only a hole or some small part of 
 a piece is wanted hardened a small piece of the 
 cyanide may be placed on that particular spot 
 and the hardening confined to the area covered by 
 the cyanide. 
 
 Another method of using the cyanide is to melt 
 it and heat red-hot in a ladle or pot. The pieces to 
 be case-hardened are heated and placed in the red- 
 hot cyanide and left there for some minutes. After 
 "soaking" a proper length of time they are hard- 
 ened by cooling in cold water. 
 
 This method when properly carried out gives a 
 mottled appearance to the case-hardened surfaces 
 if they have been previously polished. 
 
 The longer the articles are left in the heated cya- 
 nide the deeper will be the penetration of the carbon, 
 although not quite in proportion to the time. 
 Heating in this way for about ten minutes will give 
 a penetration of perhaps one hundredth of an inch. 
 
 Case-hardening with Bone. This method is used 
 when a deeper coating is needed. The pieces are 
 first packed in an iron box in such a way that they 
 are completely surrounded by ground bone or 
 some other material containing a great deal of ani-
 
 MISCELLANEOUS WORK. 237 
 
 mal carbon. On the bottom of the box is placed a 
 layer of the ground bone about an inch deep; on 
 this are laid pieces to be case-hardened, leaving a 
 space about three-quarters of an inch wide on all 
 sides of every piece; over these pieces is put more 
 bone, covering them about one inch deep; then 
 more pieces and more bone until the box is full. 
 There must be a top layer of bone at least as thick, 
 if not somewhat thicker, than the bottom layer. 
 The box is then sealed up air-tight (to prevent the 
 oxidation of the bone) with fire-clay and it and its 
 contents heated in a furnace to the right heat and 
 kept at this heat for several hours. The deeper the 
 coating is needed the longer the box is kept hot. 
 When the box has been heated long enough it is 
 withdrawn from the fire, the top taken off, and the 
 pieces picked out while still red-hot and hardened 
 in cold water. Or, as is often done, after taking 
 off the top of the box it is turned bottom side up 
 over the tank and the whole contents, bone and all, 
 dumped into the water. 
 
 The boxes used are made of cast or wrought iron, 
 but cast-iron boxes are very satisfactory and are 
 easily replaced as they wear out. 
 
 The bone may be used several times before it is 
 "spent." 
 
 When it is desired to give the articles a bright 
 mottled color on the surface they must be polished 
 before case-hardening and should be packed in 
 "charred" bone; that is, fresh bone which has 
 been heated just hot enough to char it black. 
 
 When cooling, the cover of the box should be
 
 238 FORGE-PRACTICE. 
 
 removed and the articles dumped by turning the 
 box upside down over the cooling-tank, keeping the 
 box very close to the surface of the water. 
 
 Good results are obtained by using a mixture of 
 about half and half charred bone and powdered 
 charcoal. 
 
 The penetration of the carbon is perhaps one 
 hundredth of an inch for each hour the pieces are 
 left hot. It is possible to convert a piece of wrought 
 iron to tool-steel clear through in this way. 
 
 Sometimes cyanide is mixed with the bone and 
 used as above. This hastens the penetration of 
 the carbon somewhat. 
 
 Milling-cutters and tools of that character which 
 are only to be used once, or on light work, may be 
 made of machine-steel and case-hardened by using 
 bone. 
 
 After case-hardening, or carbonizing, they may 
 be hardened, tempered, and ground in the usual 
 way. 
 
 Case-hardening, in Parts Only, of Pieces. Some- 
 times it is desirable to case-harden only certain 
 parts of a piece. In such a case the parts to be left 
 untreated may be covered with a coating of clay 
 held in place with wire. Wherever the work is 
 protected by the clay it remains uncarbonized, 
 while the uncovered parts can be hardened. After 
 covering the parts with the clay as above, the case- 
 hardening may be done in the usual way by pack- 
 ing the object in bone and heating as usual. 
 
 Another way of obtaining the same result is to 
 carbonize the entire surface and then machine off
 
 MISCELLANEOUS WORK. 
 
 2 39 
 
 the parts wanted untreated; thus, suppose a shaft 
 is wanted similar to Fig. 272, A, with only the parts 
 
 FIG. 272. 
 
 marked D, E, and F case-hardened. When the 
 shaft is first made, only the parts wanted hard 
 (D, E, and F) should be turned to size, the rest 
 being left in the rough. 
 
 The shaft is then carbonized in the usual way 
 and annealed instead of hardened. The rough parts 
 are then turned to size; the cut taken removes all 
 of the carbonized coating on these parts, exposing 
 the untreated metal underneath. After this the 
 shaft is heated in a fire and hardened, and as the 
 parts D, E, and F are the only parts left carbonized, 
 they will be the only parts hardened, leaving the 
 rest soft.
 
 TABLES,
 
 TABLE I. 
 
 CIRCUMFERENCES AND AREAS OF CIRCLES. 
 
 Diam- 
 eter. 
 
 Circumfer- 
 ence. 
 
 Area. 
 
 Diam- 
 eter. 
 
 Circumfer- 
 ence. 
 
 Area. 
 
 1 
 
 7854 
 
 .0490 
 
 3 
 
 9.4248 
 
 7.0686 
 
 % 
 
 .9817 
 
 .0767 
 
 i 
 
 9-8I75 
 
 7 . 6699 
 
 1 
 
 1.1781 
 
 . 1 104 
 
 i 
 
 IO . 2IO 
 
 8.2958 
 
 % 
 
 1-3744 
 
 I 53 
 
 
 10 .603 
 
 8 .9462 
 
 1 
 
 1.5708 
 
 .1963 
 
 | 
 
 10 . 996 
 
 9 .6211 
 
 % 
 
 1.7671 
 
 .2485 
 
 f 
 
 II/388 
 
 10.321 
 
 I 
 
 1-9635 
 
 .3068 
 
 I 
 
 II .781 
 
 11.045 
 
 : Ve 
 
 2.1598 
 
 37 12 
 
 1 
 
 12.174 
 
 H-793 
 
 I 
 
 2.3562 
 
 .4417 
 
 4 
 
 12 . 566 
 
 12 . 566 
 
 % 
 
 2 -55 2 5 
 
 .5184 
 
 * 
 
 I2 -959 
 
 I3-364 
 
 J 
 
 2.7489 
 
 6013 
 
 i 
 
 !3-352 
 
 14.186 
 
 % 
 
 2.9452 
 
 .6902 
 
 1 
 
 J 3-744 
 
 I5-033 
 
 i 
 
 3.1416 
 
 .7854 
 
 \ 
 
 14-137 
 
 I5-904 
 
 Xe 
 
 3-3379 
 
 .8866 
 
 f 
 
 14.530 
 
 16 . 800 
 
 1 
 
 3-5343 
 
 .9940 
 
 I 
 
 14-923 
 
 17.728 
 
 % 
 
 3-73o6 
 
 1.1075 
 
 I 
 
 I5-3I5 
 
 18.665 
 
 i 
 
 3.9270 
 
 i . 2272 
 
 5 
 
 15.708 
 
 19-635 
 
 ^6 
 
 4-1233 
 
 I -353 
 
 i 
 
 16 . 101 
 
 20 .629 
 
 I 
 
 4.3197 
 
 i .4849 
 
 i 
 
 16.493 
 
 21 .648 
 
 & 
 
 4.5160 
 
 1.6230 
 
 t 
 
 16.886 
 
 22 .691 
 
 i 
 
 4.7124 
 
 1.7671 
 
 \ 
 
 17.279 
 
 23-758 
 
 % 
 
 4.9087 
 
 I -9 I 75 
 
 f 
 
 17.671 
 
 24.850 
 
 i 
 
 S-JOS 1 
 
 2.0739 
 
 f 
 
 18 .064 
 
 25.967 
 
 %. 
 
 5-30I4 
 
 2.2365 
 
 I 
 
 18.457 
 
 27 . lOQ 
 
 i 
 
 5-4978 
 
 2-4053 
 
 6 
 
 18.850 
 
 28 . 274 
 
 % 
 
 5- 6 94i 
 
 2 .5802 
 
 i 
 
 19.242 
 
 29.465 
 
 * 
 
 5-8905 
 
 2 . 7612 
 
 i 
 
 I9-635 
 
 30 .680 
 
 % 
 
 6.0868 
 
 2.9483 
 
 t 
 
 20 .028 
 
 3I-9I9 
 
 2 
 
 6.2832 
 
 3.I4I6 
 
 \ 
 
 20 .420 
 
 33.l8 3 
 
 X 
 
 6-4795 
 
 3-3410 
 
 f 
 
 20.813 
 
 34-472 
 
 J 
 
 6.6759 
 
 3-5466 
 
 f 
 
 21 . 2O6 
 
 35-785 
 
 % 
 
 6.8722 
 
 3-7583 
 
 I 
 
 21.598 
 
 37.122 
 
 i 
 
 7.0686 
 
 3-976I 
 
 7 
 
 21 . 991 
 
 38.485 
 
 % 
 
 7.2649 
 
 4 . 2000 
 
 i 
 
 22.384 
 
 39-871 
 
 1 
 
 7-46i3 
 
 4-43 01 
 
 1 
 
 22 . 776 
 
 41 . 282 
 
 ^6 
 
 7-6576 
 
 4 .6664 
 
 f 
 
 23.169 
 
 42.718 
 
 \ 
 
 7-8540 
 
 4.9087 
 
 i 
 
 23-562 
 
 44.179 
 
 % 
 
 8-0503 
 
 5-I572 
 
 i 
 
 23-955 
 
 45.664 
 
 \ 
 
 8.2467 
 
 5.4II9 
 
 f 
 
 24-347 
 
 47- I 73 
 
 % 
 
 8.4430 
 
 5-6727 
 
 i 
 
 24.740 
 
 48.707 
 
 t 
 
 8.6394 
 
 5-9396 
 
 8 
 
 25.I33 
 
 50-265 
 
 % 
 
 8.8357 
 
 6 . 2126 
 
 f 
 
 25.525 
 
 5 1 -849 
 
 | 
 
 9.0321 
 
 6 .4918 
 
 i 
 
 25.918 
 
 53-456 
 
 % 
 
 9 . 2284 
 
 6.7771 
 
 t 
 
 26.311 
 
 55-088 
 
 243
 
 244 
 
 TABLES. 
 
 TABLE I (Continued). 
 CIRCUMFERENCES AND AREAS OF CIRCLES. 
 
 Diam- 
 eter. 
 
 Circumfer- 
 ence. 
 
 Area. 
 
 ; Diam- 
 eter. 
 
 Circumfer- 
 ence. 
 
 Area. 
 
 8* 
 
 26.704 
 
 5 6 -745 
 
 1 6J 
 
 51.051 207.39 
 
 I 
 
 27 .096 
 
 58.426 
 
 \ 
 
 51-836 
 
 213.82 
 
 f 
 
 27.489 
 
 60.132 
 
 I 
 
 52 .622 
 
 220.35 
 
 1 
 
 27.882 
 
 61.862 
 
 17 
 
 53-407 
 
 226.98 
 
 9 
 
 28.274 
 
 63-617 
 
 1 
 
 54.192 
 
 233-7 1 
 
 i 
 
 28.667 
 
 65-397 
 
 * 
 
 54-978 
 
 240.53 
 
 v 
 
 29 .060 
 
 67 . 2OI 
 
 I 
 
 55-763 
 
 2 47-45 
 
 i 
 
 29.452 
 
 69 .029 
 
 18 
 
 56.549 
 
 254-47 
 
 Si 
 
 2 9-845 
 
 70.882 
 
 i 
 
 57-334 
 
 261.59 
 
 j 
 
 30-238 
 
 72.760 
 
 i 
 
 58.119 
 
 268.80 
 
 1 ' 
 
 30-631 
 
 74 .662 
 
 f 
 
 58.905 
 
 276 . 12 
 
 i 
 
 31-023 
 
 76-589 
 
 J9 
 
 59-690 
 
 283.53 
 
 10 
 
 31.416 
 
 78-540 
 
 i 
 
 60 .476 
 
 291 .04 
 
 I 
 
 31.809 
 
 80.516 
 
 i 
 
 61 . 261 
 
 298.65 
 
 i 
 
 32 . 2OI 
 
 82.516 
 
 i 
 
 62 .046 
 
 3 6.35 
 
 I 
 
 32.594 
 
 84-541 
 
 20 
 
 62.832 
 
 3I4.I6 
 
 i 
 
 32.987 
 
 86.590 
 
 i 
 
 63.617 
 
 322 .06 
 
 
 33-379 
 
 88.664 
 
 * 
 
 64.403 
 
 33- 6 
 
 
 33-772 
 
 90.763 
 
 J 
 
 65.188 
 
 338.i6 
 
 
 34-165 
 
 92.886 
 
 21 
 
 65-973 
 
 346 . 36 
 
 II 
 
 34.558 
 
 95-033 
 
 i 
 
 66.759 
 
 354-66 
 
 1 
 
 34-95 
 
 97.205 
 
 * 
 
 67-544 
 
 363-05 
 
 
 
 35-343 
 
 99.402 
 
 I 
 
 68.330 
 
 371-54 
 
 i ; 
 
 35-736 
 
 101 .62 
 
 22 
 
 69.115 
 
 380.13 
 
 
 36.128 
 
 103.87 
 
 i 
 
 69 .900 
 
 388.82 
 
 j- 
 
 36.521 
 
 106 . 14 
 
 * 
 
 70.686 
 
 397-6i 
 
 '.' 
 
 36.9*4 
 
 108.43 
 
 * 
 
 71.471 
 
 406 .49 
 
 1r 
 
 37-306 
 
 110.75 
 
 23 
 
 72.257 
 
 415-48 
 
 12 
 
 37-699 
 
 113.10 
 
 J 
 
 73-042 
 
 424-56 
 
 i 
 
 38-485 
 
 117.86 
 
 $ 
 
 73-827 
 
 433-74 
 
 i 
 
 39.270 
 
 122.72 
 
 f 
 
 74.6i3 
 
 443 - OI 
 
 f 
 
 40.055 
 
 127.68 
 
 24 
 
 75-398 
 
 452.39 
 
 13 
 
 40 .841 
 
 132.73 
 
 1 
 
 76.184 
 
 461 .86 
 
 i 
 
 41 .626 
 
 J37-89 
 
 i 
 
 76 .969 
 
 47i -44 
 
 i 
 
 42.412 
 
 143 - J 4 
 
 f 
 
 77-754 
 
 481 . ii 
 
 J 
 
 43-197 
 
 148.49 
 
 25 
 
 78.540 
 
 490-87 
 
 14 
 
 43-982 
 
 153-94 
 
 i 
 
 79-325 
 
 50-74 
 
 1 
 
 44.768 
 
 J59-48 
 
 i 
 
 80 . 1 1 1 
 
 510.71 
 
 5 
 
 45-553 
 
 165.13 
 
 f 
 
 80.896 
 
 520.77 
 
 * 
 
 46.338 
 
 170.87 
 
 26 
 
 81.681 
 
 530.93 
 
 15 
 
 47.124 
 
 176.71 
 
 i 
 
 82.467 
 
 54I-I9 
 
 i 
 
 47.909 
 
 182.65 
 
 i 
 
 83-252 
 
 551-55 
 
 * 
 
 48.695 
 
 188.69 
 
 f 
 
 84.038 
 
 562 .00 
 
 i 
 
 49 .480 
 
 194-83 
 
 27 
 
 84-823 
 
 572.56 
 
 16 
 
 50-265 
 
 2OI .06 
 
 1 
 
 85.608 
 
 583-21
 
 TABLES. 
 
 245 
 
 Tx\BLE I (Continued). 
 
 CIRCUMFERENCES AND AREAS OF CIRCLES. 
 
 Diam- 
 eter. 
 
 Circumfer- 
 ence. 
 
 Area. 
 
 Diam- 
 eter. 
 
 Circumfer- 
 ence. 
 
 Area. 
 
 2 7 i 
 
 86.394 
 
 593-96 
 
 38f 
 
 121.737 
 
 II79-3 
 
 I 
 
 87.179 
 
 604 .81 
 
 39 
 
 122 .522 
 
 1194 .6 
 
 28 
 
 87.965 
 
 6I5-75 
 
 i 
 
 123.308 
 
 1210 .O 
 
 i 
 
 88.750 
 
 626.80 
 
 i 
 
 124.093 
 
 1225.4 
 
 i 
 
 89-535 
 
 637-94 
 
 I 
 
 124.878 
 
 1241 .0 
 
 i 
 
 90.321 
 
 649 . 18 
 
 40 
 
 125.664 
 
 1256 . 6. 
 
 29 
 
 91 . 106 
 
 660 . 52 
 
 i 
 
 126 .449 
 
 1272.4 
 
 j 
 
 91 . 892 
 
 671 .96 
 
 \ 
 
 !27- 2 35 
 
 1288.2 
 
 ^ 
 
 92.677 
 
 683.49 
 
 1 
 
 128 ;O2O 
 
 1304.2 
 
 i 
 
 93-462 
 
 695 -13 
 
 4i 
 
 128.805 
 
 1320.3 
 
 3 
 
 94.248 
 
 706.86 
 
 i 
 
 129.591 
 
 1336.4 
 
 i 
 
 95-33 
 
 718.69 
 
 \ 
 
 130.376 
 
 !352-7 
 
 i 
 
 95.819 
 
 730.62 
 
 I 
 
 131 .161 
 
 1369.0 
 
 i 
 
 96 .604 
 
 742.64 
 
 42 
 
 i3 I -947 
 
 1385-4 
 
 31 
 
 97-389 
 
 754-77 
 
 \ 
 
 132.732 
 
 1402 .0 
 
 i 
 
 98.175 
 
 766.99 
 
 * 
 
 !33-5 l8 
 
 1418.6 
 
 i 
 
 98 . 960 
 
 779-31 
 
 1 
 
 134-303 
 
 1435-4 
 
 i 
 
 99.746 
 
 791-73 
 
 43 
 
 135.088 
 
 1452.2 
 
 32 
 
 100.531 
 
 804.25 
 
 i 
 
 I35-874 
 
 1469 . i 
 
 j 
 
 101 . 316 
 
 816.86 
 
 i 
 
 136.659 
 
 1486.2 
 
 i 
 
 102 . 102 
 
 829.58 
 
 I 
 
 J 37-445 
 
 1503-3 
 
 i 
 
 102.887 
 
 842.39 
 
 44 
 
 138.230 
 
 1520.5 
 
 33 
 
 103.673 
 
 855-30 
 
 i 
 
 139-015 
 
 1537-9 
 
 I 
 
 104.458 
 
 868.31 
 
 \ 
 
 139.801 
 
 1555-3 
 
 * 
 
 105.243 
 
 881 .41 
 
 I 
 
 140 . 586 
 
 1572.8 
 
 1 
 
 106 .029 
 
 894 .62 
 
 45 
 
 141 -372 
 
 i59 -4 
 
 34 
 
 106 .814 
 
 907.92 
 
 i 
 
 142.157 
 
 1608.2 
 
 i 
 
 107 .600 
 
 921.32 
 
 i 
 
 142.942 
 
 1626 .0 
 
 i 
 
 108.385 
 
 934-82 
 
 1 
 
 143.728 
 
 1643-9 
 
 i 
 
 109 . 170 
 
 948.42 
 
 46 
 
 *44-5 I 3 
 
 1661 .9 
 
 35 
 
 109.956 
 
 962 . 1 1 
 
 i 
 
 145.299 
 
 1680 .0 
 
 i 
 
 i 10 . 741 
 
 975-91 
 
 \ 
 
 146 .084 
 
 1698.2 
 
 * 
 
 111.527 
 
 989.80 
 
 I 
 
 146 .869 
 
 1716.5 
 
 I 
 
 112.312 
 
 1003 .8 
 
 47 
 
 I47-655 
 
 1734-9 
 
 36 
 
 113.097 
 
 1017 .9 
 
 i 
 
 148 .440 
 
 1753-5 
 
 i 
 
 113.883 
 
 1032.1 
 
 | 
 
 149 . 226 
 
 1772.1 
 
 \ 
 
 114.668 
 
 1046.3 
 
 f 
 
 150 .01 i 
 
 1790.8 
 
 I 
 
 iiS-454 
 
 1060 . 7 
 
 48 
 
 150.796 
 
 1809 .6 
 
 37 
 
 116.239 
 
 1075.2 
 
 i 
 
 I5I.5 82 
 
 1828.5 
 
 i 
 
 117 .024 
 
 1089.8 
 
 \ 
 
 152-367 
 
 1847-5 
 
 i 
 
 117 .810 
 
 1104.5 
 
 I 
 
 153.153 
 
 1866.5 
 
 1 
 
 118 . 596 
 
 1119.2 
 
 49 
 
 I 53-93 8 
 
 1885.7 
 
 38 
 
 119.381 
 
 1134-1 
 
 i 
 
 154-723 
 
 1905.0 
 
 i 
 
 120 . 166 
 
 1149.1 
 
 i 
 
 I55.509 
 
 1924.4 
 
 \ 
 
 120 .951 
 
 1164. 2 
 
 i 
 
 156.294 
 
 1943-9
 
 246 
 
 TABLES. 
 
 TABLE I (Continued). 
 CIRCUMFERENCES AND AREAS OF CIRCLES. 
 
 Diam- 
 eter. 
 
 Circumfer- 
 ence. 
 
 Area. 
 
 Diam- 
 eter. 
 
 Circumfer- 
 ence. 
 
 Area. 
 
 5 
 
 157.080 
 
 I963.5 
 
 62} 
 
 196-35 
 
 3068 .0 
 
 i 
 
 157.865 
 
 1983.2 
 
 63" 
 
 197.920 
 
 3117.2 
 
 | 
 
 158 .650 
 
 2003 . o 
 
 \ 
 
 199.491 
 
 3166.9 
 
 
 
 159.436 
 
 2022 .8 
 
 64 
 
 2OI . 062 
 
 3217.0 
 
 5 1 
 
 l6o . 221 
 
 2042 .8 
 
 \ 
 
 202.633 
 
 3267.5 
 
 i 
 
 161 .007 
 
 2062 . 9 
 
 65 
 
 204 . 204 
 
 3318.3 
 
 i 
 
 161 . 792 
 
 2083.1 
 
 \ 
 
 2 5-774 
 
 3369.6 
 
 I 
 
 162.577 
 
 2103.3 
 
 66 
 
 2 7-345 
 
 3421 .2 
 
 5 2 
 
 163.363' 
 
 2123.7 
 
 \ 
 
 208 .916 
 
 3473-2 
 
 i 
 
 164 . 148 
 
 2144.2 
 
 6? 
 
 2IO .487 
 
 35 2 5-7 
 
 * 
 
 164.934 
 
 2164.8 
 
 \ 
 
 212 .0^8 
 
 357 s -5 
 
 1 
 
 165.719 
 
 2185.4 
 
 68 
 
 213.628 
 
 3631-7 
 
 53 
 
 166 . 504 
 
 22O6 . 2 
 
 \ 
 
 215.199 
 
 3685.3 
 
 i 
 
 167 . 290 
 
 2227 .0 
 
 6 9 
 
 216 . 770 
 
 3739-3 
 
 i 
 
 168.075 
 
 2248 .0 
 
 \ 
 
 218.341 
 
 3793-7 
 
 I 
 
 168.861 
 
 2269 . 1 
 
 70 
 
 219.911 
 
 3848.5 
 
 54 
 
 169 .646 
 
 2290 . 2 
 
 i 
 
 221 .482 
 
 3903-6 
 
 i 
 
 I7 -43i 
 
 23II-5 
 
 7i 
 
 22 3-53 
 
 3959- 2 
 
 
 
 171.217 
 
 2332.8 
 
 \ 
 
 224 .624 
 
 4015.2 
 
 | 
 
 172 .002 
 
 2354-3 
 
 72 
 
 226 . 195 
 
 4071.5 
 
 55 
 
 172.788 
 
 2375-8 
 
 \ 
 
 227.765 
 
 4128 . 2 
 
 i 
 
 J 73-573 
 
 2397-5 
 
 73 
 
 229.336 
 
 4185.4 
 
 
 174.358 
 
 2419 . 2 
 
 i 
 
 230.907 
 
 4242.9 
 
 
 
 J75 - J 44 
 
 2441 . I 
 
 74 
 
 232.478 
 
 4300.8 
 
 56 
 
 175.929 
 
 2463.0 
 
 i 
 
 234-049 
 
 4359-2 
 
 1 
 
 176.715 
 
 2485 .0 
 
 75 
 
 235.619 
 
 44I7.9 
 
 * 
 
 177.500 
 
 2507.2 
 
 \ 
 
 237.190 
 
 4477-0 
 
 * 
 
 178.285 
 
 25 2 9-4 
 
 76 
 
 238.761 
 
 4536.5 
 
 57 
 
 179.071 
 
 2551.8 
 
 i 
 
 240.332 
 
 4596.3 
 
 i 
 
 179.856 
 
 2574.2 
 
 77 
 
 241 .903 
 
 4656.6 
 
 \ 
 
 180.642 
 
 2596.7 
 
 \ 
 
 243-473 
 
 47I7.3 
 
 \ 
 
 181 .427 
 
 2619 .4 
 
 78 
 
 245-044 
 
 4778.4 
 
 58 
 
 l82 .212 
 
 2642 . I 
 
 i 
 
 246 .615 
 
 4839.8 
 
 
 182.998 
 
 2664 .9 
 
 79 
 
 248.186 
 
 4901.7 
 
 | 
 
 183.783 
 
 2687.8 
 
 \ 
 
 249.757 
 
 4963.9 
 
 J 
 
 184 . 569 
 
 2710.9 
 
 80 
 
 25L327 
 
 5026.5 
 
 59 
 
 185.354 
 
 2734.0 
 
 \ 
 
 252.898 
 
 5089.6 
 
 
 186.139 
 
 2757.2 
 
 81 
 
 254-469 
 
 5 r 53-o 
 
 
 186.925 
 
 2780.5 
 
 i 
 
 256 .040 
 
 5216.8 
 
 
 187 . 7IO 
 
 2803.9 
 
 82 
 
 257.611 
 
 5281 .0 
 
 60 
 
 188.496 
 
 2827 .4 
 
 i 
 
 259 . 181 
 
 5345-6 
 
 \ 
 
 I9O .066 
 
 2874.8 
 
 83 
 
 260 . 752 
 
 5410.6 
 
 61 
 
 191.637 
 
 2922.5 
 
 \ 
 
 262.323 
 
 5476.0 
 
 i 
 
 193.208 
 
 2970 .6 
 
 8 4 
 
 263.894 
 
 5541-8 
 
 62 
 
 194.779 
 
 3019.1 
 
 \ 
 
 265.465 
 
 5607.9
 
 TABLES. 247 
 
 TABLE I (Continued). 
 CIRCUMFERENCES AND AREAS OF CIRCLES. 
 
 Diam- 
 eter. 
 
 Circumfer- 
 ence. 
 
 Area. 
 
 Diam- 
 eter. 
 
 Circumfer- 
 ence. 
 
 Area. 
 
 85 
 
 267.035 
 
 5674.5 
 
 93 
 
 292 . 168 
 
 6792.9 
 
 1 
 
 268 . 606 
 
 5741-5 
 
 i 
 
 2 93-739 
 
 6866.1 
 
 86 
 
 270.177 
 
 5808.8 
 
 94 
 
 295.310 
 
 6939.8 
 
 J 
 
 271.748 
 
 5876.5 
 
 i 
 
 296.881 
 
 7013.8 
 
 87 t 
 
 273-3I9 
 
 5944-7 
 
 95 
 
 298.451 
 
 7088.2 
 
 $ 
 
 274.889 
 
 6013 . 2 
 
 i 
 
 300 .022 
 
 7163.0 
 
 88 
 
 276 .460 
 
 6o82.I 
 
 96 
 
 301-593 
 
 7238.2 
 
 i 
 
 278.031 
 
 6151.4 
 
 i 
 
 303.164 
 
 7313-8 
 
 89 
 
 279 .602 
 
 6221 . I 
 
 97 
 
 304.734 
 
 7389.8 
 
 i 
 
 281 .173 
 
 6291 .2 
 
 i 
 
 306.305 
 
 7466 .2 
 
 90 
 
 282.743 
 
 6361.7 
 
 98 
 
 307.876 
 
 7543-0 
 
 i 
 
 284.314 
 
 6432.6 
 
 i 
 
 309-447 
 
 7620 . i 
 
 9 1 
 
 285.885 
 
 65 3.9 
 
 99 
 
 311 .018 
 
 7697.7 
 
 4 
 
 287.456 
 
 6575-5 
 
 * 
 
 312.588 
 
 7775-6 
 
 92 
 
 289 .027 
 
 6647 .6 
 
 IOO 
 
 3I4-1S9 
 
 7854.0 
 
 i 
 
 290.597 
 
 6720 . i 
 
 

 
 248 
 
 TABLES. 
 
 TABLE II. 
 
 TEMPERATURES TO WHICH HARDENED TOOLS SHOULD BE HEATED 
 TO PROPERLY "DRAW THE TEMPER," TOGETHER WITH 
 THE COLORS OF SCALE APPEARING ON A POLISHED-STEEL 
 SURFACE AT THOSE TEMPERATURES, AND OTHER MEANS 
 OF DETECTING PROPER HEATING. 
 
 Kind of Tool. 
 
 Temper- 
 ature, 
 Fahr. 
 
 Color of 
 Scale. 
 
 Action of 
 File. 
 
 Other Indi- 
 cations. 
 
 Scrapers for ordi- 
 
 200 
 
 
 
 Water dries 
 
 nary use. 
 
 
 
 
 quickly. 
 
 Burnishers. 
 
 
 Very pale 
 
 Can hardly 
 
 L a r d - o i 1 
 
 Light turning and 
 
 43 
 
 yellow. 
 
 be made 
 
 smokes 
 
 finishing tools. 
 
 
 
 to catch. 
 
 slightly. 
 
 Engraving-tools. 
 
 
 
 Can be 
 
 
 Lathe-tools. 
 
 
 
 made to 
 
 
 Milling-cutters. 
 
 460 
 
 Straw - yel- 
 
 catch 
 
 
 Lathe- and planer- 
 
 
 low. 
 
 with dif- 
 
 
 tools for heavy 
 
 
 
 ficulty. 
 
 
 work. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Taps. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Dies for screw-cut'g. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Reamers. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Punches. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Dies. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Flat drills. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Wood- working tools. 
 
 5 00 
 
 Brown-yel- 
 
 
 
 Plane-irons. 
 
 
 low. 
 
 
 
 Wood-chisels. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Wood-turning tools. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Twist drills. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Sledges. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bl'ksmiths' ham'rs. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cold-chisels for very 
 
 530 
 
 Light pur- 
 
 Scratches. 
 
 
 light work. 
 
 
 ple. 
 
 
 
 Axes. 
 
 550 
 
 Dark pur- 
 
 
 
 Cold-chisels for or- 
 
 
 ple. 
 
 
 
 dinary use. 
 
 
 Blue, ting'd 
 
 
 
 
 
 slightly 
 
 
 
 
 
 with red. 
 
 
 
 Stone-cutting chisels 
 
 
 
 Files with 
 
 
 Carving-knives. 
 
 
 
 great dif- 
 
 
 Screw-drivers. 
 
 
 
 ficulty. 
 
 
 Saws. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Springs. 
 
 5 8o 
 
 Blue. 
 
 Files with 
 
 Lard-oil 
 
 
 610 
 
 Pale blue. 
 
 difficulty. 
 
 burns or 
 
 
 630 
 
 Greenish 
 
 
 flashes. 
 
 
 
 blue. 
 

 
 TABLES. 
 
 249 
 
 TABLE III. 
 DECIMAL EQUIVALENTS OF FRACTIONS OF ONE INCH. 
 
 From Kent's Mechanical Engineer's Pocket-book. 
 
 1/64 
 
 .015625 
 
 33/64 
 
 5 I 5 62 5 
 
 1/32 
 
 03125 
 
 J 7/3 2 
 
 53125 
 
 3/64 
 
 .046875 
 
 35/64 
 
 546875 
 
 1/16 
 
 .0625 
 
 9/16 
 
 5625 
 
 5/6 4 
 
 .078125 
 
 37/64 
 
 57 8l2 5 
 
 3/32 
 
 09375 
 
 19/32 
 
 59375 
 
 7/64 
 
 109375 
 
 39/64 
 
 609375 
 
 1/8 
 
 125 
 
 5/8 
 
 .625 
 
 9/64 
 
 .140625 
 
 41/64 
 
 .640625 
 
 5/32 
 
 15625 
 
 21/32 
 
 65625 
 
 11/64 
 
 I 7 l8 75 
 
 43/64 
 
 .671875 
 
 3/16 
 
 1875 
 
 11/16 
 
 6875 
 
 13/64 
 
 .203125 
 
 45/64 
 
 703125 
 
 7/32 
 
 .21875 
 
 23/32 
 
 71875 
 
 15/64 
 
 234375 
 
 47/64 
 
 734375 
 
 1/4 
 
 25 
 
 3/4 
 
 75 
 
 17/64 
 
 . 265625 
 
 49/64 
 
 765625 
 
 ' 9/32 
 
 .28125 
 
 25/32 
 
 .78125 
 
 19/64 
 
 .296875 
 
 5 J / 6 4 
 
 .796875 
 
 5/16 
 
 3 I2 5 
 
 13/16 
 
 .8125 
 
 21/64 
 
 328125 
 
 53/64 
 
 .828125 
 
 11/32 
 
 34375 
 
 27/32 
 
 84375 
 
 23/64 
 
 359375 
 
 55/64 
 
 859375 
 
 3/8 
 
 375 
 
 7/8 
 
 875 
 
 25/64 
 
 .390625 
 
 57/64 
 
 .890625 
 
 13/32 
 
 .40625 
 
 29/32 
 
 .90625 
 
 27/64 
 
 .421875 
 
 59/64 
 
 .921875 
 
 7/16 
 
 4375 
 
 I5A6 
 
 9375 
 
 29/64 
 
 453125 
 
 61/64 
 
 953125 
 
 15/32 
 
 46875 
 
 31/32 
 
 96875 
 
 3 J / 6 4 
 
 484375 
 
 63/64 
 
 .984375 
 
 1/2 
 
 5 
 
 i 
 
 i.
 
 w 
 
 WEIGHTS OF BAR STEEL PER LINEAL FOOT. 
 The weight given in the table is for a bar of steel i foot long and of the dimensions named. 
 
 (From Jones & Laughlins.) 
 
 Thickness in Inches. 
 
 
 
 CO fico re ir> </-. ir> v. ir O O 
 
 XI Pl O HI 10 O X 1 O w, re PI O O i^C re O i^ -t X "i 
 
 ro -1- -t .r. -0 u-.vo <-X O O - P. re -, t^X O -. i^ 
 
 S 
 
 CO 10 <N O i^ -t O /". C" -tX ro t^- O O C" i O tr r ^' O 
 ON ro r^* O "1~ X w C^O r t'' H C" O "^t 1 - 1 C* <"O X r O XXX 
 
 04 ro CO *"t" 't ^t" LO iOO t"^X X C" O *-* i -< ro *t >C *"* O <"O 
 
 s -t 
 
 to r-* O" -* ro 10 t>* O i^X w w> O fC f^ Q CC "% ro O <A O 
 f.VS - u-,cC - -t - t^ r--: O O 0) C" \r. w -rf i^ Q r C X -t 
 
 
 X 
 
 c^o"' ?t Ji. N J f. POX "5; 3- 3 - I^c'vS xT 
 
 <N tN d (N rO'^ r O*1' T ^'Voi/~yONO r^t^-OC C^O * ^ ] "1" *"** 
 
 X 
 
 O *N c* *f i/~, i^X O '"O it~, t^ O ro i/"-X O Iy ~- O ^O O O O 
 
 -i HI CN Cl OJ (N fj ro ro -f "t 'O "~- ^~, O O t^'X C' O ro 
 
 
 
 O X O w, "O d OX LT"y d C 1 O r O O X >^, O ^1" X ro O 
 "tO 00 O C) -fO O* ro *^ O -tX <M i^- C^ i^ -t " C> -t C" 
 
 I-H M M CN cj CN ci (N ro ro rf -t -J- ir, ir, ^-O r^-X X O 
 
 a** 
 
 CO ro O^O c* X ro "", i^. C 1 - 1 r O "". t-^-X O *1~ X r-i tr, ro O 
 <N rj- ir) i-^. C> O CJ i^-X >*%X -f I-* I-. ro O O O CJ 
 
 M M M i-i KH c] rt rj d ro ro ro -t -t -t >O iv,O t^- t^X O 
 
 ^O O roo C" f O O ci CN ir, c* O> '-O M C^ U">X -- 1 "1" X *1" O 
 
 M M M M t-i 1-1 M O* 01 C4 Ol rorO r Oro-^-Tj-U~;iOO t^-X 
 
 * 
 
 O "OvO r^X CO O O -" (N -t "~/O X O O ro 10, r> O "" O 
 
 
 "fr * 
 
 1 
 
 
 \O C^ I^*CO CT^ 
 
 M N w rt "1 
 
 x 
 
 ro X ro s "^ w^ w^ 'O O ~O r** X X O 1 O O Cj ro "^ *-O X O 
 
 MHIMMHMHIWCINCIINfO 
 
 e 
 
 M rf r^ O ci iff cC ro CO ro ^ t" w^ *o O l ^ O r** t^ X s O 
 
 
 
 ?w3i 
 
 H*H^:-^:C^ r^^C^* r^HC^f ^N H^ 
 
 
 sqq ui 
 
 O Ci ON ^O ^t" ro o* ^* X "1" ^^ *i X ""^ HI CO ^O d cO 
 
 10 t-^ o^ "" ro *-O O *^> M t^* 1 ^t" O^ *o d d ro^O w t*^ 
 M M M c* dd rorOTt - '^ > i/% i OCO O d TfOO^tH 
 
 M (-1 M HI M d 
 
 sqq ui 
 
 O v> o t^^fci o d r-io r>*cO CO CO d ON C\ ro O 
 
 M co u^vO COO ^fOO dt^.d rf-oO^O d O O M 
 
 
 
 saqouj 
 ui azig 
 
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 INDEX. 
 
 Annealing, in general, 175, 191. 
 at forge, 192. 
 copper and brass, 231. 
 " in boxes, 193. 
 " , special methods of, 194. 
 " water, 192. 
 Anvil, description of, 6. 
 
 Bending, in general, 59. 
 cast iron, 232. 
 duplicate work, 146. 
 pipe, 226. 
 
 Bessemer steel, making of, 165. 
 Blast-furnace, description of, 160. 
 Bolts, general dimensions of, 77. 
 
 " , cupping-tool for, 78. 
 
 " , heading-tool for, 78. 
 
 " , making of, 77. 
 
 " , upset-head, 79. 
 
 " , welded-head, 80. 
 Bone, for case-hardening, 236. 
 Borax, use as flux, 21. 
 Boss on flange, forging of, 144. 
 
 " " lever, forging of, in. 
 Bowls, making of, 88. 
 Brace, or bracket, welded, 119. 
 Brass, annealing of, 231. 
 Brazing, flux used, 226. 
 " , methods of, 223.
 
 252 INDEX. 
 
 Brazing, process of, 222. 
 " , spelter for, 224. 
 Butt-weld, 34. 
 
 Calculation of stock, see Stock calculation. 
 
 Cape-chisels, forging and tempering of, 199. 
 
 Carbon, effect of, on iron and steel, 163, 164, 174, 175, 176, 
 
 " , percentage of, in iron and steel, 159, 169. 
 Case-hardening, in general, 232. 
 
 " , colored, 235, 236, 237. 
 
 " , different methods, 235. 
 
 " in boxes with bone, 236. 
 
 " in spots, 236, 238. 
 
 " , penetration of carbon in, 236, 238. 
 
 " with cyanide of potassium, 235. 
 
 Cast iron, bending of, 232. 
 
 " " , description of, 160. 
 Chain, making of, 29. 
 
 " , stock required to make link, 48. 
 Chain-stock, forging of, 88. 
 
 Chisels, blacksmith's, hot and cold, description and use, 6. 
 " , " , forging and tempering of, 218. 
 
 " , , grinding of, 8. 
 
 " or cutters for steam-hammer, 123. 
 Coal, requirements of forge, 2. 
 Cold-chisel, description of blacksmith's, 7. 
 " making of, 197. 
 
 " tempering of, 180. 
 
 Connecting-rod, forging of forked end, 104. 
 
 " , " with steam-hammer, 138. 
 
 " , stock calculation for, 93. 
 
 Copper, annealing of, 231. 
 Copper pipe, bending of, 226. 
 Crank-shaft, calculation of stock required, 91. 
 
 " , forging of, with steam-hammer, 135. 
 " , " " single-throw, 90, 97. 
 " , " " double-throw, 99. 
 " , " " triple-throw, 101. 
 Crucible-steel, 169. 
 Cupping-tool, for bolts, 78. 
 Cutting-block, description of, 10.
 
 INDEX. 253 
 
 Cutting stock, methods of, q. 
 
 Cyanide of potassium, for case-hardening, 235. 
 
 Drawing-out, definition and methods of, 5 1 . 
 Drift, use of, for hammer-eyes, 213. 
 Drills, flat, 212. 
 
 Drop-forging, description of, 154. 
 " , eye-bolt, 155. 
 
 , forming dies hot, 157. 
 
 with steam-hammer, 155. 
 Duplicate bending with block, 147. 
 
 " with jig, 152. 
 Duplicate work, 146. 
 
 Eye, bending of, 64. 
 
 " , weldless, making of, from flat stock, IOQ 
 Eye-bolt, drop-forging of, 155. 
 
 Files, finish, allowance for, 95. 
 
 " , hardening and tempering of, 187. 
 Fire, banking of, 4. 
 
 " , building of, 2. 
 
 " , description of good, 3. 
 
 " , oxidizing, 5. 
 
 Flange, with boss, forging of, 143. 
 Flux, for brazing, 226. 
 
 " , use of, in welding, 20. 
 Forge, description of, i. 
 Fork, welded, 119. 
 Forked ends, forging of, 102, 107. 
 Fullers, description of, 15. 
 " , forging of, 220. 
 
 Gate-hook, making of, 68. 
 
 Hammers, description of, 10. 
 
 " , ball pene-, 216. 
 
 " , forging and tempering of, 212. 
 
 " , riveting, 214. 
 
 " , sledge, 217. 
 Hardening, laws of, 176. See also Tempering.
 
 254 INDEX. 
 
 Hardie, description of, 7. 
 
 " , forging of, 218. 
 Heading-tool, for bolts, 78. 
 Hook, chain, 71. 
 
 " , gate, 68. 
 
 " , grab, 70. 
 
 " , hoisting, 75. 
 
 " , welded eye-, 74. 
 Hot-chisel, description of, 7. 
 , forging of, 218. 
 
 Iron, cast, making of, 160. 
 " , wrought, making of, 163. 
 
 Jump-weld, 35. 
 
 Knuckles; forging of various kinds, i ~>2. 
 
 Ladles, making of, 86. 
 Ladle-shank, forging of foundry, 114. 
 Lathe-tools, in general, 200. 
 " , boring, 205. 
 " , centering, 210. 
 " , cutting-off, 202. 
 
 , diamond-points, 206. 
 " , finishing, 210. 
 " , internal-thread, 206. 
 " , round-nose, 201. 
 , side-finishing, 208. 
 , thread, 201. 
 
 Machine-steel, making of, 165. 
 
 " , properties of, 171, 172. 
 Metallurgy of iron and steel, 159. 
 Molder's trowel, forging of, 117. 
 
 Open-hearth furnace, 167. 
 
 steel, making of, 167. 
 Oxide, formation of, on iron, 5 
 Oxidizing fire, 5. 
 Oxygen, effect on heating iron, .$.
 
 INDEX. 255 
 
 Pipe-bending, in general, 226. 
 
 , copper, 230. 
 
 , different methods, 228. 
 
 with jigs, 229, 231. 
 Planer-tools, see undei Lathe-tools. 
 Pointing, precautions necessary, 52. 
 Puddling-furnace, 163. 
 Punch, for steam-hammer, 141. 
 Punching, method of, and tools used, 58. 
 " , tools for duplicate, 142. 
 
 Recalescence, description of, 182. 
 Rings, amount of stock required, 46. 
 
 " , bending up, 63. 
 
 ' , forging under steam-hammer, 139 
 
 " , welding of flat-stock, 32. 
 
 " , " " round-stock, 29. 
 
 " , " " washer, 33. 
 
 ' , weldless, making of, no. 
 Round-nosed chisels, 200. 
 
 Sand, uses of, as flux, 21. 
 Scarfing for weld, object of, 23. 
 Set-hammer, description of, 14. 
 
 , making of, 219. 
 
 Shaper-tocls, see under Lathe-tools. 
 Shrinking, process of, 221. 
 Sledges, description of, n. 
 
 , forging and tempering of, 217. 
 Socket-wrench, forging of, 106. 
 Spelter, for brazing, 224. 
 Split-work, shaping from thin stock, 107. 
 Spring-steel, welding of, 35. 
 Square corner, forging of, 60. 
 Steam-hammer, description of, 120. 
 
 , cutting work under, 127. 
 
 , forging taper work with, 130. 
 
 , general notes on, 126. 
 
 , tongs for, 121. 
 
 , tools and swages for, 129. 
 
 , tools for cutting, 123.
 
 256 INDEX. 
 
 Steel, Bessemer, 165. 
 " , machine or soft, 165. 
 " , open-hearth, 167. 
 " , tool, 169. 
 
 Stock calculation, in general, 41. 
 for circles, 46. 
 " connecting-rod, 92. 
 " curves, 44. 
 
 " " " links, etc., 48. 
 
 " " " simple bends, 44. 
 
 " single-throw crank, 91. 
 " weldless ring, no. 
 
 Taper-work, with steam-hammer, 130, 145. 
 Tempering, in general, 179. 
 
 " , bad shapes for, 187. 
 " , definition and methods of, 176. 
 " , different methods of, 180, 181, 185, 188, 190. 
 " , heating for, 184. 
 " , straightening work after, 186. 
 " , thin flat work, 186. 
 " to leave soft center, 190. 
 " , see under individual tools. 
 Tongs, description and use of different kinds, 12, 
 " , fitting of, 13. 
 
 " for round stock, forging of, 83. 
 " for steam-hammer work, 121. 
 " , forging bolt-, 84. 
 
 " of lighthand-, 81. 
 " " pick-up, 84. 
 " , " with welded handles, 84. 
 " , forging with steam-hammer, 133. 
 Tool-forging, in general, 198. 
 
 Tools, see under individual tools; also under Lathe-tools. 
 Tool -steel, hardening, 173. 
 " , making of, 169. 
 " , properties of, 192. 
 " , tempering, 176. 
 " , " temper "-rating, 174. 
 Trowel, forging of moulders, 117. 
 Truing-up of work, 54.
 
 INDEX. 257 
 
 Truing-up of work under steam-hammer, 133. 
 Tuyere, use and description of, i. 
 Twisting, for ornamental work, 66. 
 " , " gate-hook, 70. 
 
 Upsetting, definition and methods of, 55. 
 
 "Veight of forgings, calculation of, 94. 
 Weld, angle, flat-stock, 37. 
 " , butt, 34. 
 " , chain, 19. 
 " , faggot or pile, 22. 
 " , flat lap-, 24. 
 " , fork, 119. 
 " iron to steel, 36. 
 " , jump, 35. 
 " , ring, flat stock, 32. 
 " , " , round stock, 29. 
 " , round lap-, 28. 
 " , split, for heavy work, 36. 
 " , split, for light work, 35. 
 " , spring-steel, 35. 
 " , "T", flat stock, 38. 
 " , "T", round stock, 39. 
 " , washer or flat ring, 33. 
 Welding, in general, 17. 
 
 " , allowance of stock for, 39. 
 " , scarfing for, 23. 
 " , spring-steel, 35, 40. 
 " , tool-steel, 39. 
 " , use of fluxes, 20. 
 Wrench, for twisting crank -shaft, 100. 
 " , forging of open-end, 105. 
 " , " of socket-, 106. 
 Wrought iron, making of, 113. 
 
 " " , properties of, 171, 172.
 
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 Goodrich's Economic Disposal of Towns' Refuse 8vo, 3 50 
 
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 Hayford's Text-book of Geodetic Astronomy 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 Bering's Ready Reference Tables (Conversion Factors) i6mo, moroccoi 2 50 
 
 5
 
 Howe's Retaining Walls for Earth i2mo, i 25 
 
 Johnson's (J. B.) Theory and Practice of Surveying Small 8vo, 4 oo 
 
 Johnson's (L. J.) Statics by Algebraic and Graphic Methods 8vo, 2 oo 
 
 Laplace's Philosophical Essay on Probabilities. (Truscott and Emory.) . i2mo, 2 oo 
 
 Marian's Treatise on Civil Engineering. (1873.) (Wood.) 8vo, 5 oo 
 
 * Descriptive Geometry 8vo, i 50 
 
 Merriman's Elements of Precise Surveying and Geodesy 8vo, 2 50 
 
 Elements of Sanitary Engineering 8vo, 2 oo 
 
 Merriman and Brooks's Handbook for Surveyors i6mo, morocco, 2 oo 
 
 Nugent's Plane Surveying 8vo, 3 50 
 
 Ogden's Sewer Design 1 2mo, 2 oo 
 
 Patton's Treatise on Civil Engineering 8vo half leather, 7 50 
 
 Reed's Topographical Drawing and Sketching 4to, 5 oo 
 
 Rideal's Sewage and the Bacterial Purification of Sewa{_<; 8vo, 3 50 
 
 Siebert and Biggin's Modern Stone-cutting and Masonry 8vo, i 50 
 
 Smith's Manual of Topographical Drawing. (McMillan. i 8vo, 2 50 
 
 Sondericker's Graphic Statics, with Applications to Trusses, Beams, and Arches. 
 
 8vo, 2 oo 
 
 Taylor and Thompson's Treatise on Concrete, Plain and Reinforced 8vo, 5 oo 
 
 * Trautwine's Civil Engineer's Pocket-book i6mo, morocco, 5 oo 
 
 Wait's Engineering and Architectural Jurisprudence 8vo 6 oo 
 
 Sheep 
 
 6 50 
 
 Law of Operations Preliminary to Construction in Engireerirg and Archi- 
 tecture 8vo 5 oo 
 
 Sheep 5 50 
 
 Law of Contracts 8vo 3 oo 
 
 Warren's Stereotomy Problems in Stone-cutting 8vo, 2 50 
 
 Webb's Problems in the Use and Adjustment of Engineering Instruments. 
 
 i6mo, morocco, i 25 
 
 * Wheeler s Elementary Course of Civil Engineering 8vo, 4 oo 
 
 Wilson's Topographic Surveying 8vo, 3 50 
 
 BRIDGES AND ROOFS. 
 
 Boiler's Practical Treatise on the Construction of Iron Highway Bridges. . 8vo, 2 oo 
 
 * Thames River Bridge 4to, paper, 5 oo 
 
 Burr's Course on the Stresses in Bridges and Roof Trusses, Arched Ribs, and 
 
 Suspension Bridges 8vo, 3 50 
 
 Burr and Falk's Influence Lines for Bridge and Roof Computations. . . .8vo, 3 oo 
 
 Du Bois's Mechanics of Engineering. Vol. II Small 4to, 10 oo 
 
 Foster's Treatise on Wooden Trestle Bridges 4to, 5 oo 
 
 Fowler's Ordinary Foundations 8vo, 3 50 
 
 Greene's Roof Trusses 8vo, i 25 
 
 Bridge Trusses 8vo, 2 50 
 
 Arches in Wood, Iron, and Stone 8vo, 2 50 
 
 Howe's Treatise on Arches 8vo, 4 oo 
 
 Design of Simple Roof-trusses in Wood and Steel 8vo, 2 oo 
 
 Johnson, Bryan, and Turneaure's Theory and Practice in the Designing of 
 
 Modern Framed Structures Small 4to, 10 oo 
 
 Merriman and Jacoby's Text-book on Roofs and Bridges: 
 
 Part I. Stresses in Simple Trusses 8vo, 2 50 
 
 Part n. Graphic Statics 8vo, 2 50 
 
 Part HI. Bridge Design 8vo, 2 50 
 
 Part IV. Higher Structures 8vo, 2 50 
 
 Morison's Memphis Bridge 4t 10 oo 
 
 Waddell's De Pontibus, a Pocket-book for Bridge Engineers. . i6mo, morocco, 3 oo 
 
 Specifications for Steel Bridges I2mo. i 25 
 
 Wood's Treatise on the Theory of the Construction of Bridges and Roofs . . 8vo, 2 CO 
 Wright's Designing of Draw-spans : 
 
 Part I. Plate-girder Draws 8vo, 2 50 
 
 Part n. Riveted-truss and Pin-connected Long-span Draws 8vo, 2 50 
 
 Two parts in one volume 8vo, 3 50 
 
 6
 
 HYDRAULICS. 
 
 Bazin's Experiments upon the Contraction of the Liquid Vein Issuing from 
 
 an Orifice. (Trautwine.) 8vo, 2 oo 
 
 Bovoy's Treatise on Hydraulics 8vo, 5 oo 
 
 Church's Mechanics of Engineering 8vo, 6 oo 
 
 Diagrams of Mean Velocity of Water in Open Channels paper, i 50 
 
 Coffin's Graphical Solution of Hydraulic Problems i6mo, morocco, 2 50 
 
 Flather's Dynamometers, and the Measurement of Power I2mo, 3 oo 
 
 Folwell's Water-supply Engineering 8vo, 4 oo 
 
 FrizelPs Water-power 8vo, 5 oo 
 
 Fuertes's Water and Public Health i2mo, i 50 
 
 Water-filtration Works i2mo, 2 50 
 
 Ganguillet and Kutter's General Formula for the Uniform Flow of Water in 
 
 Rivers and Other Channels. (Hering and Trautwine.) 8vo, 4 oo 
 
 Hazen's Filtration of Public Water-supply .8vo, 3 oo 
 
 Hazlehurst's Towers and Tanks for Water-works 8vo, 2 50 
 
 Herschel's 115 Experiments on the Carrying Capacity of Large, Riveted, Metal 
 
 Conduits. 8vo, 2 oo 
 
 Mason's Water-supply. (Considered Principally from a Sanitary Standpoint.) 
 
 8vo, 4 oo 
 
 Merriman's Treatise on Hydraulics 8vo, 5 oo 
 
 * Michie's Elements of Analytical Mechanics 8vo, 4 oo 
 
 Schuyler's Reservoirs for Irrigation, Water-power, and Domestic Water- 
 supply Large 8vo, 5 oo 
 
 ** Thomas and Watt's Improvement of Rivers. (Post., 440. additional. ).4to, 6 oo 
 
 Turneaure and Russell's Public Water-supplies 8vo, 5 oo 
 
 Wegmann's Design and Construction of Dams 4to, 5 oo 
 
 Water-supply of the City of New York from 1658 to 1895 4to, 10 oo 
 
 Williams and Hazen's Hydraulic Tables. . . . . 8vo, i 50 
 
 Wilson's Irrigation Engineering Small 8vo, 4 oo 
 
 Wolff's Windmill as a Prime Mover 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 Wood's Turbines 8vo, 2 50 
 
 Elements of Analytical Mechanics 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 MATERIALS OF ENGINEERING. 
 
 Baker's Treatise n Masonry Construction 8vo, 5 oo 
 
 Roads and Pavements 8vo, 5 oo 
 
 Black's United States Public Works Oblong 4to, 5 oo 
 
 Bovey's Strength of Materials and Theory of Structures 8vo, 7 50 
 
 Burr's Elasticity and Resistance of the Materials of Engineering 8vo, 7 50 
 
 Byrne's Highway Construction 8vo, 5 oo 
 
 Inspection of the Materials and Workmanship Employed in Construction. 
 
 i6mo, 3 oo 
 
 Church's Mechanics of Engineering 8vo, 6 oo 
 
 Du Bois's Mechanics of Engineering. Vol. I Small 4to, 7 50 
 
 *Eckei's Cements, Limes, and Plasters 8vo, 6 oo 
 
 Johnson's Materials of Construction Large 8vo, 6 oo 
 
 Fowler's Ordinary Foundations 8vo, 3 50 
 
 Keep's Cast Iron 8vo, 2 50 
 
 Lanza's Applied Mechanics 8vo, 7 50 
 
 Marten's Handbook on Testing Materials. (Henning.) 2 vols 8vo, 7 50 
 
 Merrill's Stones for Building and Decoration 8vo, 5 oo 
 
 Merriman's Mechanics of Materials. 8vo, 5 oo 
 
 Strength of Materials I2mo, i oo 
 
 Metcalf's Steel. A Manual for Steel-users I2mo, 2 oo 
 
 Patton's Practical Treatise on Foundations 8vo, 5 oo 
 
 Richardson's Modern Asphalt Pavements 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 Richey's Handbook for Superintendents of Construction i6mo, mor., 4 oo 
 
 Rockwell's Roads and Pavements in France I2mo, i 25 
 
 7
 
 Sabin's Industrial and Artistic Technology of Paints and Varnish 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 Smith's Materials of Machines I2mo, i oo 
 
 Snow's Principal Species of Wood 8vo, 3 50 
 
 Spalding's Hydraulic Cement i2mo, 2 oo 
 
 Text-book on Roads and Pavements I2mo, 2 oo 
 
 Taylor and Thompson's Treatise on Concrete, Plain and Reinforced 8vo, 5 oo 
 
 Thurston's Materials of Engineering. 3 Parts 8vo, 8 oo 
 
 Part I. Non-metallic Materials of Engineering and Metallurgy 8vo, 2 oo 
 
 Part II. Iron and Steel 8vo, 3 50 
 
 Part III. A Treatise on Brasses, Bronzes, and Other Alloys and their 
 
 Constituents 8vo, 2 50 
 
 Thurston's Text-book of the Materials of Construction 8vo, 5 oo 
 
 Tillson's Street Pavements and Paving Materials 8vo, 4 oo 
 
 Waddell's De Pontibus. (* Pocket-book for Bridge Engineers.)- .i6mo, mor., 3 oo 
 
 Specifications for St*. i Bridges lamo, i 25 
 
 Wood's (De V.) Treatise on the Resistance of Materials, and an Appendix on 
 
 the Preservation of Timber 8vo, 2 oo 
 
 Wood's (De V.) Elements of Analytical Mechanics 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 Wood'- (M. P.) Rustless Coatings: Corrosion and Electrolysis of Iron and 
 
 Steel. 8vo, 4 oo 
 
 RAILWAY ENGINEERING. 
 
 Andrew's Handbook for Street Railway Engineers 3x5 inches, morocco, i 25 
 
 Berg's Buildings and Structures of American Railroads 4to, 5 oo 
 
 Brook's Handbook of Street Railroad Location. i6mo, morocco, i 50 
 
 Butt's Civil Engineer's Field-book i6mo, morocco, 2 50 
 
 Crandall's Transition Curve i6mo, morocco, i 50 
 
 Railway and Other Earthwork Tables 8vo, i 50 
 
 Dawson's "Engineering" and Electric Traction Pocket-book. . i6mo, morocco, 5 oo 
 
 Dredge's History of the Pennsylvania Railroad: (1879) Paper, 5 oo 
 
 * Drinker's Tunnelling, Explosive Compounds, and Rock Drills. 4to, half mor., 25 oo 
 
 Fisher's Table of Cubic Yards Cardboard, 25 
 
 Godwin's Railroad Engineers' Field-book and Explorers' Guide. . . i6mo, mor., 2 50 
 
 Howard's Transition Curve Field-book i6mo, morocco, i 50 
 
 Hudson's Tables for Calculating the Cubic Contents of Excavations and Em- 
 bankments 8vo, i oo 
 
 Mo lit or and Beard's Manual for Resident Engineers i6mo, i oo 
 
 Nagle's Field Manual for Railroad Engineers i6mo, morocco, 3 oo 
 
 Philbrick's Field Manual for Engineers i6mo, morocco, 3 oo 
 
 Searles's Field Engineering i6mo, morocco, 3 oo 
 
 Railroad Spiral i6mo, morocco, i 50 
 
 Taylor's Prismoidal Formulae and Earthwork 8vo, i 50 
 
 * Trautwine's Method of Calculating the Cube Contents of Excavations and 
 
 Embankments by the Aid of Diagrams 8vo, 2 oo 
 
 The Field Practice of Laying Out Circular Curves for Railroads. 
 
 \ , i2mo, morocco, 2 50 
 
 Cross-section Sheet Paper, 25 
 
 Webb's Railroad Construction i6mo, morocco, 5 oo 
 
 Wellington's Economic Theory of the Location of Railways Small 8vo, 5 oo 
 
 DRAWING. 
 
 Barr's Kinematics of Machinery 8vo, 2 50 
 
 * Bartlett's Mechanical Drawing 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 * . " " " Abridged Ed 8vo, i 50 
 
 Coolidge's Manual of Drawing 8vo, paper i oo 
 
 Coolidge and Freeman's Elements of General Drafting for Mechanical Engi- 
 neers . Oblong 4to, 2 50 
 
 Durley's Kinematics of Machines 8vo, 4 oo 
 
 Emch's Introduction to Project! ve Geometry and its Applications 8vo. 2 50 
 
 8
 
 Hill's Text-book on Shades and Shadows, and Perspective 8vo, 2 oo 
 
 Jamison's Elements of Mechanical Drawing 8vo, 2 50 
 
 Advanced Mechanical Drawing 8vo, 2 oo 
 
 Jones's Machine Design: 
 
 Part I. Kinematics of Machinery 8vo, i 50 
 
 Part II. Form, Strength, and Proportions of Parts 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 MacCord's Elements of Descriptive Geometry 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 Kinematics; or, Practical Mechanism 8vo, 5 oo 
 
 Mechanical Drawing 4to, 4 oo 
 
 Velocity Diagrams 8vo, i 50 
 
 * Mahan's Descriptive Geometry and Stone-cutting 8vo, i 50 
 
 Industrial Drawing. (Thompson.) 8vo, 3 50 
 
 Meyer's Descriptive Geometry 8vo, 2 oo 
 
 Reed's Topographical Drawing and Sketching 4to, 5 oo 
 
 Reid's Course in Mechanical Drawing 8vo, 2 oo 
 
 Text-book of Mechanical Drawing and Elementary Machine Design. 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 Robinson's Principles of Mechanism 8vo, 3 oo* 
 
 Schwamb and Merrill's Elements of Mechanism 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 Smith's Manual of Topographical Drawing. (McMillan.) 8vo, 2 50 
 
 Warren's Elements of Plane and Solid Free-hand Geometrical Drawing. i2mo, i oo 
 
 Drafting Instruments and Operations I2mo i i 25 
 
 Manual of Elementary Projection Drawing I2mo, i 5* 
 
 Manual of Elementary Problems in the Linear Perspective of Form and 
 
 Shadow ' I2mo, i oo 
 
 Plane Problems in Elementary Geometry I2mo, i 25 
 
 Primary Geometry I2mo, 75 
 
 Elements of Descriptive Geometry, Shadows, and Perspective 8vo, 3 50 
 
 General Problems of Shades and Shadows 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 Elements of Machine Construction and Drawing 8vo, 7 50 
 
 Problems, Theorems, and Examples in Descriptive Geometry 8vo, 2 50 
 
 Weisbach's Kinematics and Power of Transmission. (Hermann and Klein)8vo, 5 oo 
 
 Whelpley's Practical Instruction in the Ait of Letter Engraving i2mo, 2 oo 
 
 Wilson's (H. M.) Topographic Surveying 8vo, 3 50 
 
 Wilson's (V. T.) Free-hand Perspective 8vo, 2 50 
 
 Wilson's (V. T.) Free-hand Lettering 8vo, i oo 
 
 Woolf's Elementary Course in Descriptive Geometry Large 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 ELECTRICITY AND PHYSICS. 
 
 Anthony and Brackett's Text-book of Physics. (Magie.) Small 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 Anthony's Lecture-notes on the Theory of Electrical Measurements. . . .I2mo, i oo 
 
 Benjamin's History of Electricity 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 Voltaic Cell 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 Classen's Quantitative Chemical Analysis by Electrolysis. (Boltwood.).Svo, 3 oo 
 
 Crehore and Squier's Polarizing Photo-chronograph 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 Dawson's "Engineering" and Electric Traction Pocket-book. i6mo, morocco, 5 oa 
 Dolezalek's Theory of the Lead Accumulator (Storage Battery). (Von 
 
 Ende.) 1 2mo, 2 50 
 
 Duhem's Thermodynamics and Chemistry. (Burgess.) 8vo, 4 oo 
 
 Flather's Dynamometers, and the Measurement of Power iamo, 3 oo 
 
 Gilbert's De Magnete. (Mottelay.) 8vo, 2 50 
 
 Hanchett's Alternating Currents Explained I2mo, i oo 
 
 Bering's Ready Reference Tables (Conversion Factors) i6mo, morocco, 2 50 
 
 Holman's Precision of Measurements 8vo, 2 oo 
 
 Telescopic Mirror-scale Method, Adjustments, and Tests. . . .Large 8vo, 75 
 
 Kinzbrunner's Testing of Continuous-Current Machines 8vo, 2 oo 
 
 Landauer's Spectrum Analysis. (Tingle.) 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 Le Chatelien's High-temperature Measurements. (Boudouard Burgess.) I2mo. 3 oo 
 
 Lob's Electrolysis and Electrosynthesis of Organic Compounds. (Lorenz.) i2mo, i oo 
 
 9
 
 * Lyons's Treatise on Electromagnetic Phenomena. Vols. I. and II. 8vo, each, 6 oo 
 
 * Michie's Elements of Wave Motion Relating to Sound and Light 8vo, 4 oo 
 
 Niaudet's Elementary Treatise on Electric Batteries. (Fishback.) iimo, 2 50 
 
 * Rosenberg's Electrical Engineering. (Haldane Gee Kinzbrunner.). . 8vo, i 50 
 
 Ryan, Norris, and Hoxie's Electrical Machinery. Vol. 1 8vo, 2 50 
 
 Thurston's Stationary Steam-engines 8vo, 2 50 
 
 * Tillman's Elementary Lessons in Heat 8vo, i 50 
 
 Tory and Pitcher's Manual of Laboratory Physics Small 8vo, 2 oo 
 
 Ulke's Modern Electrolytic Copper Refining 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 LAW. 
 
 * Davis's Elements of Law 8vo, 2 50 
 
 * Treatise on the Military Law of United States 8vo, 7 oo 
 
 * Sheep, 7 50 
 
 Manual for Courts-martiaL i6mo, morocco, i 50 
 
 Wait's Engineering and Architectural Jurisprudence 8vo, 6 oo 
 
 Sheep, 6 50 
 
 Law of Operations Preliminary to Construction in Engineering and Archi- 
 tecture 8vo, 5 oo 
 
 Sheep, 5 50 
 
 Law of Contracts 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 Winthrop's Abridgment of Military Law 121110, 2 50 
 
 MANUFACTURES. 
 
 Bernadou's Smokeless Powder Nitro-cellulose and Theory of the Cellulose 
 
 Molecule I2mo, 2 5* 
 
 Holland's Iron Founder 1 2ino, a 50 
 
 " The Iron Founder," Supplement izmo, 2 50 
 
 Encyclopedia of Founding and Dictionary of Foundry Terms Used in the 
 
 Practice of Moulding I2mo, 3 oo 
 
 Eissler's Modern High Explosives 8vo, 4 oo 
 
 Effront's Enzymes and their Applications. (Prescott.) 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 Fitzgerald's Boston Machinist I2mo, i oo 
 
 Ford's Boiler Making for Boiler Makers i8mo, i oo 
 
 Hopkin's Oil-chemists' Handbook 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 Keep's Cast Iron 8vo, 2 50 
 
 Leach's The Inspection and Analysis of Fod with Special Reference to State 
 
 ControL Large 8vo, 7 50 
 
 Matthews's The Textile Fibres 8vo, 3 50 
 
 Metcalf's Steel. A Manual for Steel-users i2mo, 2 oo 
 
 Metcalfe's Cost of Manufactures And the Administration of Workshops 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 Meyer's Modern Locomotive Construction 4to, 10 oo 
 
 Morse's Calculations used in Cane-sugar Factories i6mo, morocco, i 50 
 
 * Reisig's Guide to Piece-dyeing 8vo, 25 oo 
 
 Sabin's Industrial and Artistic Technology of Paints and Varnish 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 Smith's Press-working of Metals 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 Spalding's Hydraulic Cement I2tno, 2 oo 
 
 Spencer's Handbook for Chemists of Beet-sugar Houses. ... i6mo, morocco, 300 
 
 Handbook for Sugar Manufacturers and their Chemists. . i6mo, morocco, 2 oo 
 
 Taylor and Thompson's Treatise on Concrete, Plain and Reinforced 8vo, 5 oo 
 
 Thurston's Manual of Steam-boilers, their Designs, Construction and Opera- 
 tion 8vo, 5 oo 
 
 * Walke's Lectures on Explosives 8vo, 4 oo 
 
 Ware's Manufacture of Sugar. (In press.) 
 
 West's American Foundry Practice I2mo, 2 50 
 
 Moulder's Text-book. 12010, 2 50 
 
 10
 
 Wolff's Windmill as a Prime Mover 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 Wood's Rustless Coatings: Corrosion and Electrolysis of Iron and Steel. .8vo, 4 oo 
 
 MATHEMATICS. 
 
 Baker's Elliptic Functions 8vo, I 59 
 
 * Bass's Elements of Differential Calculus I2mo, 4 oo 
 
 Briggs's Elements of Plane Analytic Geometry i2mo, i oo 
 
 Campion's Manual of Logarithmic Computations I2mo, i 50 
 
 Davis's Introduction to the Logic of Algebra 8vo, i 50 
 
 * Dickson's College Algebra Large I2mo, i 50 
 
 * Introduction to the Theory of Algebraic Equations Large I2mo, i 25 
 
 Emch's Introduction to Projective Geometry and its Applications 8vo, 2 50 
 
 Halsted's Elements of Geometry 8vo, i 75 
 
 Elementary Synthetic Geometry. 8vo, i 50 
 
 Rational Geometry i2mo, i 75 
 
 * Johnson's (J. B.) Three-place Logarithmic Tables: Vest-pocket size. paper, 15 
 
 100 copies for 5 oo 
 
 * Mounted on heavy cardboard, 8X 10 inches, 25 
 
 10 copies for 2 oo 
 
 Johnson's (W. W.) Elementary Treatise on Differential Calculus. . Small 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 Johnson's (W. W.) Elementary Treatise on the Integral Calculus. Small 8vo, i 50 
 
 Johnson's (W. W.) Curve Tracing in Cartesian Co-ordinates I2mo, i oo 
 
 Johnson's (W. W.) Treatise .on Ordinary and Partial Differential Equations. 
 
 Small 8vo, 3 50 
 
 Johnson's (W. W.) Theory of Errors and the Method of Least Squares. I2mo, i 50 
 
 * Johnson's (W. W.) Theoretical Mechanics 1200, 3 oo 
 
 Laplace's Philosophical Essay on Probabilities. (Truscott and Emory.) . i2mo, 2 oo 
 
 * Ludlow and Bass. Elements of Trigonometry and Logarithmic and Other 
 
 Tables 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 Trigonometry and Tables published separately Each, 2 oo 
 
 * Ludlow's Logarithmic and Trigonometric Tables 8vo, r oo 
 
 Maurer's Technical Mechanics 8vo, 4 oo 
 
 Merriman and Woodward's Higher Mathematics 8vo, 5 oo 
 
 Merriman's Method of Least Squares 8vo, 2 oo 
 
 Rice and Johnson's Elementary Treatise on the Differential Calculus. . Sm. 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 Differential and Integral Calculus. 2 vols. in one Small 8vo, 2 50 
 
 Wood's Elements of Co-ordinate Geometry 8vo, 2 oo 
 
 Trigonometry: Analytical, Plane, and Spherical i2mo, i oo 
 
 MECHANICAL ENGINEERING. 
 
 MATERIALS OF ENGINEERING, STEAM-ENGINES AND BOILERS. 
 
 Bacon's^ Forge Practice 1 21110, i 50 
 
 Baldwin's Steam Heating for Buildings I2mo, 2 50 
 
 Barr's Kinematics of Machinery. 8vo, 2 50 
 
 * Bartlett's Mechanical Drawing 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 * " " Abridged Ed " 8vo, i 50 
 
 Benjamin's Wrinkles and Recipes I2mo, 2 oo 
 
 Carpenter's Experimental Engineering 8vo, 6 oo 
 
 Heating and Ventilating Buildings 8vo, 4 oo 
 
 Cary's Smoke Suppression in Plants using Bituminous Coal. (In Prepara- 
 tion.) 
 
 Clerk's Gas and Oil Engine Small 8vo, 4 oo 
 
 Coolidge's Manual of Drawing 8vo, paper, i oo 
 
 Coolidge and Freeman's Elements of General Drafting for Mechanical En- 
 gineers Oblong 4to, 2 50 
 
 11
 
 Cromwell's Treatise on Toothed Gearing I2mo, i 50 
 
 Treatise on Belts and Pulleys 121110, i 50 
 
 Dtirley's Kinematics of Machines 8vo, 4 oo 
 
 Flather's Dynamometers and the Measurement of Power I2mo, 3 oo 
 
 Rope Driving 12010, 2 oo 
 
 Gill's Gas and Fuel Analysis for Engineers i2mo, i 25 
 
 Hall's Car Lubrication i2mo, i oo 
 
 Bering's Ready Reference Tables (Conversion Factors) i6mo, morocco, 2 50 
 
 Button's The Gas Engine 8vo, 5 oo 
 
 Jamison's Mechanical Drawing 8vo, 2 50 
 
 Jones's Machine Design: 
 
 Part I. Kinematics of Machinery 8vo, i 50 
 
 Part IL Form, Strength, and Proportions of Parts 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 Kent's Mechanical Engineers' Pocket-book i6mo, morocco, 5 oo 
 
 Kerr's Power and Power Transmission 8vo, 2 oo 
 
 Leonard's Machine Shop, Tools, and Methods 8vo, 4 oo 
 
 *Lorenz's Modern Refrigerating Machinery. (Pope, Haven, and Dean. ). .8vo, 4 oo 
 
 MacCord's Kinematics; or, Practical Mechanism 8vo, 5 oo 
 
 Mechanical Drawing 4to, 4 oo 
 
 Velocity Diagrams 8vo, i 50 
 
 Mahan's Industrial Drawing. (Thompson.) 8vo, 3 50 
 
 Poole s Calorific Power of Fuels 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 Reid's Course in Mechanical Drawing 8vo, 2 oo 
 
 Text-book of Mechanical Drawing and Elementary Machine Design. 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 Richard's Compressed Air I2mo, i 50 
 
 Robinson's Principles of Mechanism 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 Schwamb and Merrill's Elements of Mechanism 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 Smith's Press-working of Metals 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 Thurston's Treatise on Friction and Lost Work in Machinery and Mill 
 
 Work 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 Animal as a Machine and Prime Motor, and the Laws of Energetics. 1 2 mo, i oo 
 
 Warren's Elements of Machine Construction and Drawing 8vo, 7 50 
 
 Weisbach's Kinematics and the Power of Transmission. (Herrmann 
 
 Klein.) -. . 8vo, 5 oo 
 
 Machinery of Transmission and Governors. (Herrmann Klein.). .8vo, 5 oo 
 
 Wolff's Windmill as a Prime Mover 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 Wood's Turbines ..8vo, 2 50 
 
 MATERIALS OF ENGINEERING. 
 
 Bovey's Strength of Materials and Theory of Structures 8vo, 7 50 
 
 Burr's Elasticity and Resistance of the Materials of Engineering. 6th Edition. 
 
 Reset 8vo, 7 50 
 
 Church's Mechanics of Engineering 8 vo, 6 oo 
 
 Johnson's Materials of Construction 8vo, 6 oo 
 
 Keep's Cast Iron 8vo,' 2 50 
 
 Lanza's Applied Mechanics Svo, 7 50 
 
 Martens's Handbook on Testing Materials. (Henning.) Svo, 7 50 
 
 Merriman's Mechanics of Materials. Svo, 5 oo 
 
 Strength of Materials I2mo, i oo 
 
 Metcalf 's Steel. A manual for Steel-users I2mo. 2 o 
 
 Sabin's Industrial and Artistic Technology of Paints and Varnish Svo, 3 oo 
 
 Smith's Materials of Machines I2mo, i oo 
 
 Thurston's Materials of Engineering 3 vols,, Svo, 8 oo 
 
 Part II. Iren and Steel. Svo, 3 50 
 
 Part HI. A Treatise on Brasses, Bronzes, and Other Alloys and their 
 
 Constituents Svo, 2 50 
 
 Text-book of the Materials of Construction. 8vo, 5 oo 
 
 12
 
 Wood's (De V.) Treatise on the Resistance of Materials and an Appendix on 
 
 the Preseivation of Timber 8vo, 2 oo 
 
 Wood's (De V.) Elements of Analytical Mechanics 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 Wood's (M. P.) Rustless Coatings: Corrosion and Electrolysis of Iron and 
 
 SteL ... 8vo, 4 oo 
 
 STEAM-ENGINES AND BOILERS. 
 
 Berry's Temperature-entropy Diagram I2mo, i 25 
 
 Carnot's Reflections on the Motive Power of Heat. (Thurston.) I2mo, i 50 
 
 Dawson's "Engineering" and Electric Traction Pocket-book. . . .i6mo, mor., 5 oo 
 
 Ford's Boiler Making for Boiler Makers i8mo, i oo 
 
 Goss's Locomotive Sparks 8vo, 2 oo 
 
 Hemenway's Indicator Practice and Steam-engine Economy I2mo, 2 oo 
 
 Button's Mechanical Engineering of Power Plants 8vo, 5 oo 
 
 Heat and Heat-engines 8vo, 5 oo 
 
 Kent's Steam boiler Economy 8vo, 4 oo 
 
 Kneass's Practice and Theory of the Injector 8vo, i 50 
 
 MacCord's Slide-valves 8vo, 2 oo 
 
 Meyer's Modern Locomotive Construction 4to, 10 oo 
 
 Peabody's Manual of the Steam-engine Indicator 121110. i 50 
 
 Tables of the Properties of Saturated Steam and Other Vapors 8vo, i oo 
 
 Thermodynamics of the Steam-eagine and Other Heat-engines 8vo, 5 oo 
 
 Valve-gears for Steam-engines 8vo, 2 50 
 
 Peabody and Miller's Steam-boilers 8v, 4 oo 
 
 Pray's Twenty Years with the Indicator Large 8vo, 2 50 
 
 Pupin's Thermodynamics of Reversible Cycles in Gases and Saturated Vapors. 
 
 (Osterberg.) i2mo, i 25 
 
 Reagan's Locomotives: Simple Compound, and Electric i2mo, 2 50 
 
 Rontgen's Principles of Thermodynamics. (Du Bois.) 8vo, 5 oo 
 
 Sinclair's Locomotive Engine Running and Management 12010, 2 oo 
 
 Smart's Handbook of Engineering Laboratory Practice lamo, 2 50 
 
 Snow's Steam-boiler Practice 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 Spangler's Valve-gears 8vo, 2 50 
 
 Notes on Thermodynamics 1 21110, i oo 
 
 Spangler, Greene, and Marshall's Elements of Steam-engineering 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 Thurston's Handy Tables 8vo. i 50 
 
 Manual of the Steam-engine 2 vols., 8vo, 10 oo 
 
 Part I. History, Structure, and Theory 8vo, 6 oo 
 
 Part II. Design, Construction, and Operation 8vo, 6 oo 
 
 Handbook of Engine and Boiler Trials, and the Use of the Indicator and 
 
 the Prony Brake STO, 5 oo 
 
 Stationary Steam-engines ' 8vo, 2 50 
 
 Steam-boiler Explosions in Theory and in Practice I2mo, i 50 
 
 Manual of Steam-boilers, their Designs, Construction, and Operation 8vo, 5 oo 
 
 Weisbach's Heat, Steam, and Steam-engines. (Du Bois.) 8vo, 5 oo 
 
 Whitham's Steam-engine Design 8vo, 5 oo 
 
 Wilson's Treatise on Steam-boilers. (Flather.) i6mo, 2 50 
 
 Wood's Thermodynamics, Heat Motors, and Refrigerating Machines. . .8vo, 4 oo 
 
 MECHANICS AND MACHINERY. 
 
 Barr's Kinematics of Machinery 8vo, 2 50 
 
 Bovey's Strength of Materials and Theory of Structures 8vo, 7 50 
 
 Chase's The Art of Pattern-making ,. . . . i2mo, 2 50 
 
 Churches Mechanics of Engineering 8vo, 6 oo 
 
 18
 
 Church's Notes and Examples in Mechanics 8vo, 2 oo 
 
 Compton's First Lessons in Metal-working izmo, i 50 
 
 Compton and De Groodt's The Speed Lathe 12010, i 50 
 
 Cromwell's Treatise on Toothed Gearing i2mo, : 50 
 
 Treatise on Belts and Pulleys i2mo, i 50 
 
 Dana's Text-book of Elementary Mechanics for Colleges and Schools. .I2mo, i 50 
 
 Dingey's Machinery Pattern Making i2mo, 2 oo 
 
 Dredge's Record of the Transportation Exhibits Building of the World's 
 
 Columbian Exposition of 1893 4to half morocco, 5 oo 
 
 Du Bois's Elementary Principles of Mechanics: 
 
 VoL I. Kinematics 8vo, 3 50 
 
 Vol. II. Statics 8vo, 4 oo 
 
 VoL III. Kinetics 8vo, 3 50 
 
 Mechanics of Engineering. Vol. I Small 4to, 7 50 
 
 VoL II Small 4to ,1000 
 
 Durley's Kinematics of Machines 8vo, 4 oo 
 
 Fitzgerald's Boston Machinist i6mo, i oo 
 
 Flather's Dynamometers, and the Measurement of Power izmo, 3 oo 
 
 Rope Driving lamo, 2 oo 
 
 Goss's Locomotive Sparks 8vo, 2 oo 
 
 Hall's Car Lubrication i2mo, i oo 
 
 Holly's Art of Saw Filing i8mo, 75 
 
 James's Kinematics of a Point and the Rational Mechanics of a Particle. Sm.8vo,2 oo 
 
 * Johnson's (W. W.) Theoretical Mechanics 1 2010, 3 oo 
 
 Johnson's (L. J.) Statics by Graphic and Algebraic Methods 8vo, 2 oo 
 
 Jones's Machine Design : 
 
 Part I. Kinematics of Machinery 8vo, i 50 
 
 Part II. Form, Strength, and Proportions of Parts 8vc, 3 oo 
 
 Kerr r s Power and Power Transmission 8vo, 2 oo 
 
 Lanza's Applied Mechanics 8vo, 7 50 
 
 Leonard's Machine Shop, Tools, and Methods 8vo, 4 oo 
 
 *Lorenz's Modern Refrigerating Machinery. (Pope, Haven, and Dean.). 8vo, 4 oo 
 
 MacCord's Kinematics; or, Practical Mechanism 8vo, 5 oo 
 
 Velocity Diagrams 8vo, i 50 
 
 Maurer's Technical Mechanics 8vo, 4 oo 
 
 Merriman's Mechanics of Materials 8vo, 5 oo 
 
 * Elements of Mechanics i2mo, i oo 
 
 * Michie's Elements of Analytical Mechanics 8vo, 4 oo 
 
 Reagan's Locomotives: Simple, Compound, and Electric i2mo, 2 50 
 
 Reid's Course in Mechanical Drawing 8vo, 2 oo 
 
 Text-book of Mechanical Drawing and Elementary Machine Design. 8 vo, 3 oo 
 
 Richards's Compressed Air I2mo, i 50 
 
 Robinson's Principles of Mechanism. 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 Ryan, Norris, and Hoxie's Electrical Machinery. VoL 1 8vo, 2 50 
 
 Schwamb and Merrill's Elements of Mechanism 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 Sinclair's Locomotive-engine Running and Management I2mo, 2 oo 
 
 Smith's (O.) Press-working of Metals 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 Smith's (A. W.) Materials of Machines i2ino, i oo 
 
 Spangler, Greene, and Marshall's Elements of Steam-engineering 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 Thurston's Treatise on Friction and Lost Y/ork in Machinery and Mill 
 
 Work 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 Animal as a Machine and Prime Motor, and the Laws. of Energetics. 
 
 I2mo, I OO 
 
 Warren's Elements of Machine Construction and Drawing 8vo, 
 
 Weisbach's Kinematics and Power of Transmission. (Herrmann Klein. ) . 8vo, 
 
 Machinery of Transmission and Governors. (Herrmann Klein. ).8vo. 
 Wood's Elements of Analytical Mechanics 8vo, 
 
 Principles of Elementary Mechanics I2mo, 
 
 Turbines 8vo. 
 
 The World's Columbian Exposition of 1893 4to, 
 
 14
 
 METALLURGY. 
 
 Egleston's Metallurgy of Silver, Gold, and Mercury: 
 
 VoL I. Silver 8vo, 7 50 
 
 Vol. U. Gold and Mercury 8vo, 7 50 
 
 ** Iles's Lead-smelting. (Postage 9 cents additional.) I2mo, 2 50 
 
 Keep's Cast Iron 8vo, 2 50 
 
 Kunhardt's Practice of Ore Dressing in Europe 8vo, I go 
 
 Le Chatelier's High-temperature Measurements. (Boudouard Burgess. )i2mo, 3 oo 
 
 Metcalf' s SteeL A Manual for Steel-users i2tno, 2 oo 
 
 Smith's Materials of Machines I2mo, i oo 
 
 Thurston's Materials of Engineering. In Three Parts 8vo 8 oo 
 
 Part U. Iron and SteeL 8vo. 3 50 
 
 Part III. A Treatise on Brasses, Bronzes, and Other Alloys and their 
 
 Constituents 8vo. 2 50 
 
 Hike's Modern Electrolytic Copper Refining 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 MINERALOGY. 
 
 Barringer's Description of Minerals of Commercial Value. Oblong, morocco, 2 50 
 
 Boyd's Resources of Southwest Virginia 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 Map of Southwest Virignia Pocket-book form. 2 oo 
 
 Brush's Manual of Determinative Mineralogy. (Penfield.) 8vo, 4 oo 
 
 Chester's Catalogue of Minerals 8vo, paper, i oo 
 
 Cloth, i 25 
 
 Dictionary of the Names of Minerals 8vo, 3 50 
 
 Dana's System of Mineralogy Large 8vo, half leather, 12 50 
 
 First Appendix to Dana's New " System of Mineralogy." Large 8vo, i oo 
 
 Text-book of Mineralogy 8vo, 4 oo 
 
 Minerals and How to Study Them 12010, i 50 
 
 Catalogue of American Localities of Minerals Large 8vo, i oo 
 
 Manual of Mineralogy and Petrography i2mo , 2 oo 
 
 Douglas's Untechnical Addresses on Technical Subjects tamo, i oo 
 
 Eakle's Mineral Tables 8vo, i 25 
 
 Egleston's Catalogue of Minerals and Synonyms 8vo, 2 50 
 
 Hussak's The Determination of Rock-forming Minerals. (Smith.). Small 8vo, 2 oo 
 
 Merrill's Non-metallic Minerals: Their Occurrence and Uses 8vo, 4 oo 
 
 * Penfield's Notes on Determinative Mineralogy and Record of Mineral Tests. 
 
 8vo. paper, o 50 
 Rosenbusch's Microscopical Physiography of the Rock-making Minerals. 
 
 (Iddings.) 8vo, 5 oo 
 
 * Tillman's Text-book of Important Minerals and Rocks 8vo, 2 oo 
 
 Williams's Manual of Lithology 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 MINING. 
 
 Beard's Ventilation of Mines I2mo. 2 50 
 
 Boyd's Resources of Southwest Virginia 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 Map of Southwest Virginia Pocket book form, 2 oo 
 
 Douglas's Untechnical Addresses on Technical Subjects I2mo. i oo 
 
 * Drinker's Tunneling, Explosive Compounds, and Rock Drills . . 4to. hf . mor. . 25 oo 
 
 Eissler's Modern High Explosives 8vo. 4 oo 
 
 Fowler's Sewage Works Analyses I2mo, 2 oo 
 
 Goodyear's Coal-mines of the Western Coast of the United States i2mo . 2 50 
 
 Ihlseng's Manual of Mining 8vo. 5 oo 
 
 ** Iles's Lead-smelting. (Postage gc. additional.) ~. 12010. 2 50 
 
 Kunhardt's Practice of Ore Dressing in Europe 8ro. i go 
 
 O'DriscoU's Notes on the Treatment of Gold Ores. 8vo. 2 oo 
 
 * Walke's Lectures on Explosives 8vo, 4 oo 
 
 Wilson's Cyanide Processes .. izmo., i 50 
 
 Chlorination Process ...izmo, i 50 
 
 16
 
 Wilson's Hydraulic and Placer Mining I2mo, 2 oo 
 
 Treatise on Practical and Theoretical Mine Ventilation t2mo, i 25 
 
 SANITARY SCIENCE. 
 
 Bashore's Sanitation of a Country House I2mo, i oo 
 
 FolwelTs Sewerage. (Designing, Construction, and Maintenance.). 8vo, 3 o 
 
 Water-supply Engineering 8vo, 4 oo 
 
 Fuertes's Water and Public Health. izmo, i 50 
 
 Water-filtration Works I2mo, 2 50 
 
 Gerhard's Guide to Sanitary House-inspection i6mo, i oo 
 
 Goodrich's Economic Disposal of Town's Refuse Demy 8vo, 3 50 
 
 Hazen's Filtration of Public Water-supplies 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 Leach's The Inspection and Analysis of Food with Special Reference to State 
 
 Control 8vo, 7 50 
 
 Mason's Water-supply. (Considered principally from a Sanitary Standpoint) 8vo, 4 oo 
 
 Examination of Water. (Chemical and Bacteriological.) izmo, i 25 
 
 Merriman's Elements of Sanitary Engineering 8vo, 2 oo 
 
 Ogden's Sewer Design I2mo, 2 oo 
 
 Prescott and Winslow's Elements of Water Bacteriology, with Special Refer- 
 ence to Sanitary Water Analysis I2mo, i 25 
 
 * Price's Handbook on Sanitation I2mo, i 50 
 
 Richards's Cost of Food. A Study in DUtaries xarno, i oo 
 
 Cost of Living as Modified by Sanitaiy Science I2mo, i oo 
 
 Richards and Woodman's Air, Water, and Food from a Sanitary Stand- 
 point 8vo, 2 oo 
 
 * Richards and Williams's The Dietary Computer 8vo, i 50 
 
 Rideal's Sewage and Bacterial Purification of Sewage 8vo, 3 50 
 
 Turneaure and Russell's Public Water-supplies 8vo, 5 oo 
 
 Von Behring's Suppression of Tuberculosis. (Bolduan.) I2mo, i oo 
 
 Whipple's Microscopy of Drinking-water 8vo, 3 50 
 
 Woodhull's Notes on Military Hygiene i6mo, i 50 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS. 
 
 De Fursac's Manual of Psychiatry. (Rosanoff and Collins.). . . .Large lamo, 2 50 
 Emmons's Geological Guide-book of the Rocky Mountain Excursion of the 
 
 International Congress of Geologists Large 8vo, i 50 
 
 Ferrel's Popular Treatise on the Winds 8vo. 4 oo 
 
 Haines's American Railway Management I2mo, 2 50 
 
 Mott's Composition, Digestibility, and Nutritive Value of Food. Mounted chart, i 25 
 
 Fallacy of the Present Theory of Sound i6mo, i oo 
 
 Ricketts's History of Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 1824-1894. .Small 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 Rostoski's Serum Diagnosis. (Bolduan.) I2mo. i oo 
 
 Rotherham's Emphasized New Testament Large 8vo, 2 oo 
 
 Steel's Treatise on the Diseases of the Dog 8vo, 3 50 
 
 Totten's Important Question in Metrology .8vo, 2 50 
 
 The World's Columbian Exposition of 1893 4*. i oo 
 
 Von Behring's Suppression of Tuberculosis. (Bolduan.) i2mo, i oo 
 
 Winslow's Elements of Applied Microscopy I2mo, i 50 
 
 Worcester and Atkinson. Small Hospitals, Establishment and Maintenance; 
 
 Suggestions for Hospital Architecture : Plans for Small Hospital . I2mo, 125 
 
 HEBREW AND CHALDEE TEXT-BOOKS. 
 
 Green's Elementary Hebrew Grammar I2mo, i 25 
 
 Hebrew Chrestomathy 8vo, a oo 
 
 Gesenius's Hebrew and Chaldee Lexicon to the Old Testament Scriptures. 
 
 (Tregelles.) Small 4to, half morocco, 5 oo 
 
 Uttews's Hebrew Bible 8vo > 3 S 
 
 16