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 THE 
 
 IMPERIAL ENCYCLOPEDIA; 
 
 OK, 
 
 DICTIONARY 
 
 or THE 
 
 -^^^ g>cimcr6 anb !lrts ; ^a^. 
 
 COMl'ntHENDlNG ALSO THE IVUOLE CIRCLE OF 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS LITERATURE. 
 
 IN THIS WORK 
 
 ALL THE SCIENCES ARE DIGESTED IN A SYSTEMATIC FORM, 
 
 AND EXHIBITED ACCOUDIKG TO THE PRESEJTr HIGHLY IMPROVED STATE OF KNOWLEDGE; 
 
 AND " 
 
 ILxery Term of Art amply explained in Alphabetical Order. 
 
 The whole including all the MoiJern Discoveries in 
 
 ASTRONOMY, CHEMISTRY, ELECTRICITY, GALVANISM, GEOGRAPHY, 
 DOMESTIC AND POLITICAL (ECONOMY, &c. &c. &c. 
 
 WITH A GENERAL \IE\V OF ALL 
 
 Empires, Kingdoms, States, Countries, 3Iountains, Seas, Rivers, Lakes, ^c. S^-c. 
 
 AND A CONCISE ACCOUNT OF 
 
 PATRIARCHS, PROPHETS, APOSTLES, PHILOSOPHERS, POETS, PAINTERS, AUTHORS AND THEIR 
 
 WORKS, HEROES, LAWYERS, AND STATESMEN, 
 
 WITH EVERY OTHER TOPIC OF I>TORJIATION ESSENTIAL TO A WORK OF THIS NATURE. 
 
 BY THE 
 
 REV. W. M. JOHNSON, A. M. 
 
 f URATE OF IIENBURY, AND CHAPLAIN TO THE RIGIfT HONOURABLE LORD HLTCHINSON; 
 
 THOMAS EXLEY, A. M. 
 
 TEACHER OF THE MATHEMATICS, BRISTOL. 
 
 Apis debenius imitari, qux ut vagantur et flores ad mel faciendum idoneos carpunt: deinde quicquid attulere, disponunt, ac pe» 
 favos digerunt ; ita dtbeiuus quscunque ex divers& lectione congessimus sepaiare: melius enira distincta servantur : deinde, ad debitam 
 facultatem ingenii, in uiiuiu saporeiu varia ilia libaraenta confundere ; ut etiam si apparuerit uude suinpluni est, aliud taraen esse, 
 quam unde suiuptura est, appareat. SENECA. 
 
 IN FOUR VOLUMES. 
 
 VOL. H. 
 
 LONDON: 
 PRINTED BY AND FOR J. AND J. CUNDEE, IVY-LANE ; 
 
 AND SOLD BY SHERWOOD, NEELV, AND JONES, 
 PATERNOSTER-ROW.
 
 « ' »^« X 
 
 •* v»'.-^
 
 ,le is,? 
 d c< 
 irclt 
 
 Stack 
 Annex 
 
 THE 
 
 IMPERIAL 
 
 ENCYCLOPiEDIA. 
 
 CONIC SECTIONS. 
 
 CONIC SECTIONS arc the figures forniMl by ciitfmg a 
 cone by a plane. They are five in number corresponding 
 to the different positions of the cutting plane ; viz. a Tri- 
 angle, a Circle, an Ellipse, a Parabola, and an Hv])frbola. 
 The last three of these only are peculiarly called conic sections. 
 The more ancient mathematicians, before the time of Apollonius 
 Pergsus, admitted only the riglit cone into their geometry, and 
 they supposed a sectioji made of it by a plane perpendicular to one 
 of its sides : and as the vertical angle of a right cone may be either 
 right, acute, or obtuse, this method of cutting these several cones 
 produced all the three conic sections. The parabola was called 
 the section of a right-angled cone, the ellipse the section of the 
 acute-angled cone, and the hyperbola the section of the obtuse- 
 angled cone. I5ut Apollonius, who on account of his writings on 
 this subject, obtained the title of the Great Geometrician, observ- 
 ed that these sections miglit be obtained in every cone, both oblique 
 and right, and thit they depended on the dillerent inclinations of 
 the section to the cone itself. There have been two methods em- 
 ployed in treating of the conic sections ; by the one they are con- 
 sidered as cut out of the solid cone, which is the nielhod of tlie 
 ancients, and of some of the most elegant writers of the modei'ns ; 
 and by the other method certain curves are defined, eitlier from 
 some property by which any number of points may be found in 
 them, or else by which they may be described michanically upon 
 a plane ; or they are detined by means of an algebraical equation, 
 an<! in either case tiiese curves are shewn to have the very same 
 properties as those which are formed by the intersections of a plane 
 and cone. Each of these methods has Us advantages ; although 
 tome of the demonstrations of writers who have treated the subject 
 geometrically by the latter, be short and perspicuous, yet there are 
 others upon which depend some of the principal properties, that are 
 tedious a',d difficult. The demonstrations of writers who have 
 pursued the fust method are free from this objection, being ge- 
 nerally plain and concise ; but they have been obliged to intro- 
 duce so many previous propositions concerning the properties of 
 lines toucliing and cutting conical surfaces, in oriler to arrive at 
 the princi|;al properties of the three sections, tliatit reejuires a con- 
 sider.^b1e p'jrtion of time and resolution for a beginner in mathe- 
 matical studies to go through them. Some writers, who have treat- 
 ed the subject alaebraically, have reduced the whole into a nar- 
 rowr compAss ; but in their eagerness to avoid prolixity, they 
 have falUn into another more exceptionable fault. The method 
 in which tliey have <leduced some of the properties, particularly 
 the relations of the absciss* and ordinates, is extremely operose 
 and inelegant ; each step in the process is so little connected with the 
 
 VOL. U.— NO. 56, 
 
 2i}2d 
 
 preceding one, tliat it is scarcely possible to retain them in the 
 memory. The conic sections are of great use in physical and 
 geometrical astronomy, as well as in the physico-matli. matical 
 sciences, and therefore they have been nmcli cultivated ever since 
 their great importance in these sciences was known. 
 
 Definitions of the Co«e. 
 
 If an indefinite straight line Z X, fig. 1, Plate XLVITI. be 
 made to revolve in the circumference of the circle BCD E so as 
 always to pass through a fixed point A without the circle, the sur- 
 faces so generated are called conical superjicits, or conic surfaces, 
 and when mentioned together, opposite conical supirficics. Also 
 tlie solid contained by the conical superficies and a circle is called 
 a cone, and the solids contained by the opposite conical superfi- 
 cie.s, and two circles in parallel planes are called opposite cones. 
 The terminating circle is called the base of the cone. 1 he fixed 
 point A is the vertex, and the line AF joining the vertex and 
 centre of the base is the axis of the cone. When the axis is per- 
 pendicular to the plane of the base the cone is called a J-i^lit cone, 
 and when the axis is inclined to the plane of the ba»e it is a sca- 
 lene cone. See Cone. 
 
 Corotluri/ 1. Hence it is evident, that a straight line drawn from 
 the vertex to any point in the circumference base lies wholly in the 
 conical superficies; for it coincides with the generating line. 
 
 Cor. 2. A section pas'^ing through the vertex will be a iriiinnle. 
 For let V O B, fig. 4, be a section" passing through the vertex^', 
 and meeting the circumference of the base in B and O, then V O, 
 V B, are straight lines by cor. 1. and O B is a straight liiie, since 
 it is the common section of two planes. 
 
 Cor. 3. A section parallel to the base is a circle. For let 
 F G H, fig. 5, be a section parallel to tlie base meeting the axis 
 in X, through the axis draw the plane V A 1), ;nd U-t its ( ommon 
 sections with the given plane and with the b3:.e be FXH?nd xVC'l), 
 also pass any other plane through the axis, as \' C B, cuttiii>T the 
 given plane and the base in XG and CB ; then bei au^e the plam-s 
 FGH, ABD, are parallel, FH is parallel to Ar\ : i,d XG to CB, 
 hence by similar triangles \'C : VX : : CB : XG : : CD : XH : I 
 CA : X'F, but CB, CD, CA, are . [y,ial; iherelure XG, Xll, aiid 
 XF, are equal, hence FGH is a circle. 
 
 Cor. 4. If a scalene cone be cut through the axis by a plane 
 perpendicular to the base, as VBC, fig. 6, and in tli;s pla..e a line 
 LNI be drawn, making the angle VLM = V15C, and the conj be 
 cut by a plane MPLQ, passing through LM, perpendicular to the 
 plane VEC, the section will be a circle, 'ihrough am point li in 
 AIL draw a plane GPFQ parallel to the base; FQ'its ccnmion 
 '^ section
 
 2 
 
 CONIC SECTIONS. 
 
 section with MPLQ is perpei«\icular to the plane VBC, because 
 tbo planes (tPFQ and MPLQ are perpendicular to it ; therefore 
 PQ is bisected in H, and HG x !■ H = PII^ ; also the triangles 
 MHG and FHL are similar, having the angles MGH ond FLU 
 e<(vial, and also the vertical angles at II equ..l, lience Mil : flG : : 
 FH : HL ; therefor-' MH x liL = IIG x FlI = PlI-, hence 
 MPLQ is;i circle whose diameter is LNL The circle MPLQ is 
 railed a sub-contrary section. If a cone be cut by a plane which 
 does not pass through the vertex, and which is neither })arallel to 
 the base, nor to the plane of a siibcontrary section ; the conunon 
 section of the plane and tin- surlace of the cone will be an ellipse, 
 a parabola, or an hyperbola, according as a plane passing through 
 the vertex parallel to the culling plane, hili> without the cone, 
 tOMclie, it, or falls within the cone ; as explained in the following 
 deliniiions ; 
 
 Definitions. 
 
 1. A conic section is the figure forriied by the intersection of a 
 cone and a i)lane. Scholium. The triangle and circle, though conic 
 sections, are not treated under that denomination, but their proper- 
 ties are con>idered together in plane geometry. 
 
 ". A line drawn from the vertex to a point in the circumference 
 of the base of the cone is calleil a side nj' the cone. 
 
 3. A plane passing through the vertex of the cone, and jiaralk-l 
 to the plane ot the section, is called the vcrticul plane. 
 
 4. A plane not culling the cone, and passing through a side of 
 the cone, is called a tangent plane. 
 
 5. A straight line drawli iu the tangent plane is called a tan;^cnt 
 to the cone. 
 
 6. When the vertical plane as VBN, fig. 7, is wholly without 
 the cone, and not parallel to the b-ase, the section PQ is called an 
 ellipse. 
 
 Cnr. It is evident that because the vertical plane, meets all the 
 sides of the cone, the plane of the section which is parallel to it 
 will nieei all the sides of the cone, and cannot meet the opposite 
 superficies. Hence the ellipse surrounds the cone. 
 
 7. When the vertical plane is a tangent plane as VBN, ii". 8, 
 the section PQ is called -j. piuahola. 
 
 Cor. It IS evident that the cutting plane can never meet VB, 
 the side of the cone through which the tangent plane passes ; 
 hence the curve of the scclion will not return into itself. 
 
 8. When the vortical jjlane VBN cuts the cone, as in MN, fig. 
 9, the section is called a hijpcrMa. 
 
 Cor. Since the vertical plane meets all the sides of the cone, the 
 cutting plane will likewise meet them, and it is evident that it wdl 
 meet those which arc on one side of the vertical plane in one of 
 the conical superficies, and those on the other side of the vertical 
 plane in the opposite conical superficies, forming a hvpcrbola in 
 each cone. 
 
 9. The two hyperbolas formed in the opposite tones are called 
 opposite hiiperholas. 
 
 10. A line which meets a conic section but does not cut it, is 
 called a tangent; any other line meeting a conic section is called a 
 secant. 
 
 Cor. It is evident, that a tangerit to a conic section is in the tan- 
 gent plane, and is a tangent to the cone. 
 
 1 1. If the triangular section VAD, fig. 7, S, 9. be perpendicu'ar 
 to ihe cutting plane, the common section of these planes, as PQ, 
 terminated by Ihe conical superficies, i* called the transverse axis, 
 and the extn-mities of the axis are its vertices. 
 
 Cor. 1. It is evident, that the transverse axis in the ellipse and 
 opposite hyperbolas has two vertices, and that of the parabola onl\ 
 one vertex. 
 
 Cor. 2. It is also evident, that the transverse axis in the ellipse 
 and parabola, is entirely wilhin the section ; and the traniverse 
 axis of the opposite hyperbolas entirely without the section. 
 
 12. The middle ol the axis, as C, is the centre of the section. 
 Cor. The parabola l)as no centre, since PQ is unliuiite<l. 
 yi. If a plane EIFH be drawn parallel to the base of the cone, 
 
 and culling the conic section, the common sei lion IH of this plane 
 and the conic section, is called a double ordinate, and its half an 
 ordinate to the transverse axis. 
 
 Cor. 1. The ordinate is at right angles to the axis, for the planes 
 KIFH and PlQil are at right angles to VAD. 
 
 Cor. y. The double ordinate IH is bi^t cted in G, for it is at 
 tight angles to the diameter of the circU- F.IH. Hence 10 or GH 
 i.« uji oTiimalf 
 
 A 
 
 14. The segment of an axis contained betwet e vertex and 
 ordinate, is called an absciss. 
 
 15. The double ordinate passing through the itre of the el- 
 lipse is called the conjugate aiis, anii its extreim s are called the 
 vertices of t lie conjui^ate axis. 
 
 It), h through C, the centre of the opposite hyperbolas, a 
 plane be drawn forming in the cone the ciiclt HS, and if from C 
 a tangent CL be drawn to the circle, the tangent is called the semi- 
 conji'gaie axi.<i oj the opposite hyperbolas. 
 
 17. The slraight line wiiich is a third proportional to the axis, 
 and its conjugate, is called iuc parameter oj the axis, or latiis rec- 
 tum, in the ellipse or opposite hyperbolas; and a third propor- 
 tional to an absciss and ordinate in the parabola, is ihe parameter 
 of the axis of the parabola. 
 
 Cor. Tfle scnii-trausverse is to the semi-conjugate, as the semi- 
 conjugate is to half the parameter. 
 
 18. The point where that double ordinate which is equal to the 
 parameter cuts the ::\h, is called ihe focus nJ the scrtion. 
 
 Cor. The ellipse and opposite hyperbolas w;jll have two foci, the 
 parabola only one. 
 
 19. If F, fig. 17 and 19, be a focus of an ellipse, or hvptrbola, 
 or opposite hyperbolas, and AG betaken in the transverse axis (on 
 tiie opposite side of the vertex to the focus F), such, that AF is 
 to AG a; CF is to CA ; then a line, as. UK, draw-n through G per- 
 pcn;licular to the transverse axis, is called a directrix of the ellipse, 
 liliperbola, or opposite hi/perbolas. 
 
 Fig. 18. But the directrix of a parabola is a line, as HK, per- 
 pendicular to the axis, drawn through a point G as far distant from 
 the veite.x of the axis on the one side as the focus is on the other 
 side. 
 
 Cor. An ellipse, hyperbola, or opposite hyperbolas, have two 
 directrices ; one corresponding to each focus. " For the same con- 
 struction that is made for one focus may be made for the other 
 focus. 
 
 20. The tangents DLQ, DTq, fig. 23, 24, which are drawn 
 through the extremities of the ordinate passing through the focus, 
 are cAled focal tangents. 
 
 21. Any line passing through the centre of an ellipse or hyper- 
 bola, and terminated both ways by the curve in the former, but by 
 the ojjposite curves in the latter, is called a Aujdtfer. 
 
 22. A line drawn through any point in the parabola parallel to 
 the axis, is called a diameter of the parabola. 
 
 23. Any point where the diameter meets the curve is called a 
 vertex to that diameter. 
 
 24. It from the centre C, fig. 27, at the distance CA, half the 
 transverse axis, a circle be described, cutting the directrix of the 
 hyperbola in the points H, h, and lines drawn from the centre 
 through the points of interseclion, these lines are called a.ir/mn- 
 totes. ■" 
 
 25. If A.\I be the transverse axis, and B b, the conjugate axis of 
 two opposite hyperbolas, and two other hyperliohis be described 
 ot which the transverse axis is h b, and conjugate axis AW, these 
 liyperbotas are said to be conjujiate to ihejormer. 
 
 2t). When the two axes are equal, the hyperbolas are said to be 
 equilateral. 
 
 27. The straight line PR, fig. 33, 34, which is drawn from the 
 point of contact perpendicular to the tangent, intercepted betw een 
 ihe tangent and the axis of a conic section, is calleil a normal. 
 
 28. The segment of the axis NR, which is intercepted between 
 the ordinate and the normal, is cMcd a subnormal. 
 
 29. If a straight line be drawn througli any point in the diame- 
 ter of a conic section, parallel to a tangent at the vertex, and ter- 
 minated both ways by the curve, it is called an ordinate to that 
 diameter. 
 
 30. The segment of any diametcrof a conic section; which is in- 
 tercepted between an crUiiuile and the vertex, is called an at- 
 sciss. 
 
 31. A diameter which is parallel to the tangent at the vertex of 
 any diameter of the ellipse or hyperbola, is called a conjugate 
 diameter, 
 
 32. A line which is a third proportioial to any diameter of the 
 ellipse or hyperbola, and its conjugate, is called apcruywicr o/' 
 that diameter. ' 
 
 33. If a line be drawn through the focus of a parabola ^wrallel to 
 the ordinatesc'auy diameter, terminated both ways by the curve, 
 it is called aparani' tcr to that diameter, 
 
 34. A
 
 CONIC SECTIONS. 
 
 34. A circle is said to touch a conic section in any point, wlien 
 the circle and conic section liavea common tangent in thai point. 
 
 3,5. If a circle touch a conic section in any point, so that no 
 other circle can he drawn ht twecn the conic section and tliat circle, 
 it is said to have the same curvature with Uie section in the point 
 of contact, and ii called the circle ofcuroaiurc. 
 
 Proposition I. Fig. 10. 
 
 A line parallel to a side of the cone will meet the conic surface 
 in one puint, and in one only. 
 
 Let IH, tig. 10, he parallel to AV, a side of the cone: then be- 
 cause AV meets \'D, and IH is parallel to it, IH shall also meet 
 \D ; let it meet it in E, then the part El is wholly within the 
 coni', since it is parallel to AV ; in like manner EH is wholly with- 
 out the cone, therefore HI cannot meet the conical superhcicj, 
 except in E. 
 
 PRor. II. Fig. 11. 
 
 Not more than one tangent plane can be drawn through the 
 same side of the cone. 
 
 For if possible let each of tlie planes VBN, VBM, fig. 11, pass- 
 ing through the side of the cone \'B, touch the conical supcr- 
 licics, anu let BN, EM, lie their common sections with the plane 
 of the base; then because the two planes touch the cene, the com- 
 mon sections BN, BM, are tangents to the base of the cone, and 
 at rigiit angles to the radius CB, which is impossible. 
 
 Prop. HI. Fig. 10. 
 
 A right line drawn through a point of a conic surface, so as nei- 
 ther to be a tangent, nor to be parallel to a right line contained in 
 tlie conic surface, w ill meet either the same, or the opposite, conic 
 surface again in anotlier point. 
 
 Let a plane he drawn through the verte.\ of the cone and tl;e 
 right line FE or Kti, lig. 10 ; tli<-n that plane will cut the cone ; for 
 if it do not, the right line FE or EG would be a tangent coni rarv 
 to the hypothesis. Let \ D and VA be the common sections of 
 the plane and the conic surface ; then since the right line FE or 
 IlG is not parallel to VD or VH contiiined in the conic surface, 
 therefore it will meet VD and VH either in the same conic sur- 
 face as FE, or, when produced in the opposite conic surface, 
 as EG. 
 
 Prof. IV. Fig. 12, 13, 14. 
 
 If a straight line be drawn from the vertex of a cone to a point, 
 as B, in the plane of the base, but not in the periphery of the base; 
 and, through any point, as P, situated without or within the cone, 
 another straight line, parallel to the former, be drawn to cut or 
 touch the conic surface or opposite surfaces ; then the square of 
 the line drawn from the vertex of the cone to the ])oint B is to the 
 rectangle under the segments of the secant, or to the square of the 
 tangi-nt drawn Irom llie point P, as the rectangle under the seg- 
 mellt^ of any line drawn from B to cut the base of the cone, is to 
 the rectangle under the segments of anv line, parallel to the base 
 of the cone, drawn tnrough the point P, to cut the conic surface. 
 
 Let the point B, hg. V2, be without tiie base of the cone, and 
 let PQ, cutting the conical superficies in R and Q, be parallel to 
 VB, and let the plane N'BPQ cut the conic surface in the lines 
 VRG and VQH, and the plane of the base in the line BGH ; and 
 through P draw LK parallel to GH. Because QP is parallel to 
 VB, and LK to GH, therelore the triangle QPL is equi-angular 
 to the triangle V BH, and the triangle PKR to the triangle VGB : 
 therefore 4. 6. E. 
 
 VB : PR :: BG : PK 
 VB : PQ : : BH : PL. 
 
 Consequently, VB^: PR x PQ : : BG x BH : PK X PL, 23. 
 6. E. But the rectangle BG x BH is equal to the rectangle under 
 the segments ot any other line drawn from B to cut the base of the 
 cone, 35 and 36. 3. E; and for the same reason ttie rectangle PK 
 X KL is equal to the rectangle under the segments of any other 
 line, parallel to the plane of t!ie base, drawn from P to cut the' 
 conic surface, because the section formed by a plane passing through 
 PL parallel to the base is a circle, and hence the proportion is 
 manifest in this case. 
 
 And if the point B, lig. 13, be within the base of the cone, and a 
 Straight line, asPQR, parallel to (he line VB tli?.tjouis the point B 
 
 and the vertex of the cone, be drawn to cut the opposite surfaces 
 through a point P, situated witliout or within the cone' the pro- 
 position may be demonstrated inthis, as in the former case. 
 
 And it the point P, fi^. 14, be without the cone, and the line 
 VB, and PS, jjaiallcl to \ B, be drawn to touch the conic surface, 
 instead of cutting it ; then tjie plane PVB w ,11 meet the conic sur- 
 face in a line \ SM ; and BM will touch t':e base of the cone, and 
 PN, parallel to BM, will touch the conic surface. An i because 
 the two triangles ijI'N and VBM areecpiiangular, therelore 
 VB : PS :; B.M : PN 
 And VB^: PS' :: BM« : PN* 
 
 But BM- is equal to the rectangle under the segments of any 
 line drawn from B to cut the base of the cone; and PN^ is e<[ual 
 to the rectangle unvler tlie segmeiits of any line, parallel to tiic 
 base of the cone, drawn from P to cut the conic surface; and 
 hence the proposition is manifest in this case also. 
 
 Prop. V. Fig. 15. 
 
 If a point be assumed without or within a cone, and two lines 
 be drawn through it to meet a conic surface, or opposite surfaces, 
 and so as to be- parallel to two straight lines given by position ; then 
 the rectangle under the segments of the secant, or the square of 
 the tangent, parallel to one of the lines given by position, has to 
 the rectangle umler tl.e segments of the secant, or to the square of 
 the tangent, paraUel to the other line given by pos.ticn, a ratio 
 that is constantly the same, wherever the point (trom winch the 
 lines are draw n) is assumed without or within the cone. 
 
 Let V Band ^'C' be twe straight lines, fig. 15,.drawnfrom the vertex 
 of a cone to the plane of the base, and given by position (or parallel 
 to lines given by position) ; and let PQ andMN be two straight lines 
 drawn through any assumed point, as R, to cut the conic surface, 
 and so as to be respectively parallel to CV and VB : then as CV- 
 is lo the rectangle CK x CL (contained by the segments of any 
 line drawn from C to cut the base of the cone), so let D, any as- 
 sunieS line, or magnitude, be to E ; and as \'B- is to BG X BH 
 (the rectangle contained by the segments of any line drawn from 15 
 to cut the base of the cone), so let F be to E ; and draw ST pa- 
 rallel to the base of the cone through the point R ; then, Pr. 4. 
 (CV^: CK X CL, or) D : E :: PR x KQ : SR x KT, and 
 BV'^ : BG x BH, or) F : E :: MR X RN : SR X RT. There- 
 fore inVertendo and ex a'quo, 
 
 D: F:: PR X RQ : MR X RN. 
 And, as the same reasoning applies wherever the point R is as- 
 sumed, therefore the ratio of the rectangles PR x RQ, and 
 MR X RN is the same with, or eciual to, the constant ratio of D 
 to F, wherever tlie ])oint R is assumed. And, in like manner, 
 may the proposition be demonstrated i.i all oll-.er cases, or in all 
 positions of the lines PQ. andMN whether they cut, or touch, 
 the same or opposite surfaces. 
 
 Prop. VI. Fig. 16. 
 
 If a right line, as PT, drawn through a point P in tlie surface 
 of a cone, so as to be parallel to a right line \ B contained in the 
 conic surface, meet two parallel lines (in the points R and S) that 
 cut or touch the conic surface or opposite surfaces : then PR is to 
 PS as the rectangle under the segments of the secant, or the 
 square of the tangent, drawn through the point R, is to the rec- 
 tangle under the segments of the secant, or to the square of the 
 tangent, drawn through the point S. Through the two parallels 
 PT and VB, tig. IS, draw a plane outtiug the conic surface again 
 in the line VA, and the plane of the base in the line BA ; and, 
 through R and S, draw MN and HG p.'rallel to AB. Because 
 PT is parallel toVB, and RN to SG, theretjore RNGS is a paral- 
 lelogram ; and R N = G S. It is obvious that the triangles 
 PiMR and PHS are equiangular: therefore PR is to PS as MR is 
 to HS, 4. G. E, or as MR x RN is lo HS x SG, I. 6. E. But ' 
 MR X RN and HS x SG are respectively eqtial to the rectan- 
 gles contained bv the segments of any two lines, parallel to the • 
 base of the cone, drawn, through R and S lo cut the conic surf.ice, 
 ;ind hence the piopos tion is manili-sl, when PT meets two lines 
 piirallel to the plane (i the base. And if PT meet two parallel lines 
 DEand IK, not parallel to tlie plane of the base; then, let the 
 ^aine construction I e made as before : and becau.e DEisparal- • 
 lei to IK, and MN to GH; therefore, 
 
 DR X KE : M.R X RN :: IS X SK : HS x SG ; 
 
 AlternaQdo,
 
 4 
 
 CONIC SECTIONS. 
 
 Alternando, DR x RE: IS x SK :: MR X RN : IIS X SG. 
 
 Therefore, as is nbvioiis from what has already been shewn, 
 PR: PS:: DR X RE: IS X SK. 
 And if She without the cone, and tlie line drawn tlirough it 
 toucli the conic surface instead of cutting it, the reasoning is still 
 the same when the square of the tangent is taken in place of the 
 rectangle under the segments of the secant. 
 
 Prop. VII. Fig. 7, <). 
 
 Ill the ellipse and hyperbola the rectangle of the abscis^-es of tlie 
 transverse axis, is to the squ:ire of their ordinates in a constant ratio 
 which is the ratio of the square of the semitraniverse axis, to the 
 square of the semiconjugate. 
 
 Let PQ be the transverse axis, as in def. 11, and let IG, KG, 
 be ordinates, and LC the semiconjugate; ;;lso let the jilane \'AD 
 intersect the vertical plane in the line VB, then I6. ll.E. PQ 
 is parallel to VB, and since IGH is parallel to the 'oase oftlic cone, 
 Vlf^ : AB X BD :: PG X GQ : IG X GH = IG^ In the same 
 manner it mav be sliewn that VIV^ : AB x BD :: POx OQ : KO^ 
 :: PC X CQ'=: PC-! : CL-; therefore PC^ : CL' :: PG X GQ : 
 IG-: hence the proposition is manifest. 
 
 Cor. 1. The square of the transverse axis is to the square of the 
 conjugate as the rectangle of the abscisses to the square of their 
 ordinate, 
 
 Co)-. '2. Hence at equal distances from the centre, or from the 
 vertices, the ordinates are equ;il ; for the property is tlie same on 
 both sides. 
 
 Cor. 3. Hence also the two foci are equally distant from the cen- 
 tre, or from either vertex. 
 
 Cor. 4. Because PG x GQ = PC=-GC- in the ellipse, and 
 equal GC-— PC- in the hyperbola, 5, and 6. 2. E. the same pro- 
 perty is thus expressed PC-' : CL^ :: PC^ c/; GC^ : IG^ 
 
 Cor. 5. The transverse is to its paramett-r as the rectangle of the 
 abscisses to the square of their ordniate. For Cor. 1. PQ^ : 2 CL- 
 2 CU 
 
 or by division PQ : : : PG X GQ; or PC^ c/3 GC- : IG^; 
 
 PQ 
 2CL= 
 
 but is equal to the parameter, def. 17; hence the Cor. is 
 
 PQ2 
 manifest. 
 
 Cor. 6. The distance of each foci of an ellipse from eitjier ex- 
 tremity of the conjugate axis is equal to half the transverse axis ; 
 and the disance of either of the foci of a hyperbola from the centre 
 is equal to the distance between the extremities of the transverse 
 and conjugate axes. 
 
 For let G be the focus, then PC : CL: : CL : IG. def. 17. Cor. 
 therefore PC : C L^ : : C L' : IG^ 
 
 but PC^ : CL= -.i PC m GC^ : IG', 
 
 Cor. A. hence CL2 = PC= c^GC^that is PC^ - GC-' in the 
 ellipse GC-— PC in the hyperbola ; but because GCL is a right 
 angle, CL5= GL' - GC'^; hence in theellipse PC =;GL=, and 
 PC =: GL. And in the hyperbola GL= = 2 GC--PC-=GQ2-f 
 QL' + 2 QC X GQ, (12. 2. E.) = GC^ +?G x GQ, (6. 2. 
 E.) = GC:-'+ 2 QC X GQ + GQS therefore QL= = GC, and 
 QL=GC ; hence the corollary is manifest. 
 
 Cor. 7. The semiconjugate is a mean proportional between half 
 the parameter and the two segments between the focus and each 
 vertex of the ellipse, or opposite hvperholas. For Cor. 6, CL- 
 = PC2 a:GC==PGx GQ. 
 
 Prof. VIII. Fig. 8. 
 
 In a parabola the abscisses are proportional to the square of their 
 ordinates. 
 
 Let the figure be as in the 7th definition, then because EF, AB, 
 are parallel, PG : PQ : : GE : QA, and because GF, QB, are 
 equal, GQ being panillel to FB ; PG : PQ : : GE x GF : QA 
 x QB, but GE X GF = IG X GH = IG^ and QA x QB 
 = KQi; therefore PG : PQ : : IG^: QK^ 
 
 Cor. I. Hence thetliird proportion to the absciss, and ordinate, 
 
 IC 
 or the parameter of the axis is a constant quantity. For — - 
 
 PG 
 
 -_-i = the parameter of the axis, def. 17. 
 
 Cor. 2. The distance of the focus from the vertex is ecpial to 
 half the ord-nate passing through the focus. For let HI be the 
 double ordinate passing through the focus, then IG is equal to 
 hall the parameter, def."l8; then PG : GI : : Gl : SGI, therefore 
 PG = 4 GI = } HI = ^ of the parameter. 
 
 Cor. 3. The rectangle of the parameter, or four times the dis- 
 tance of the focus from the vertex, and the absciss is equal to the 
 square of the ordinate. Thus if G be the focus 4 PG x PQ 
 -^ KQ^ 
 
 Prop IX. Fig. 17, 19. 
 
 Let AB be the transverie, and UE the conjugate axis of an 
 ellipse, or hyperbola, or opposite hyperbolas; from any point in 
 the curve, or opposite curves, as M, let MC be drawn to the cen- 
 tre, and ^H' perpendicular to the transverse axis, and take CO in 
 the same axis, such that CO-^ may be equal to MC" — CD- in tlie 
 ellipse, and to MC- -f- CD- in the hyperbola ; then as AC is to 
 CF, so is PC to CO. 
 
 For, because AB and DE are conjugate axes, therefore, 
 AC"- : CD'^ ; : AP x P!' : MP- (Prop. 7.) therefore, AC^: AC- 
 ± CD-': : AP X PB : AP X PB ± MP^. But in the ellipse 
 AC^ - CD^ = CF^; (Prop. 7. Cor. 6.) and AP x PB-MP' 
 = AC= - C¥^- MV = AC^ - MC = AC - CD= - CO* 
 (hvp.) =CF2— CO-: and, in the hyperbola, AC^ + CD* 
 ="CF= ; (Prop. 7, Cor. 6,)and AP x PB + MP-' = PC"- - AC 
 -f MP- — MC- - AC-^ = CO^ - CD5 - CA= = CO^ -- CF-'. 
 'I'herefore, the last analogy becomes, AC* : CF" : : AC= + CI'« 
 : CF^iCO^. Consequently, AC : CF^ : : CP^ : C0», (19. 5. E.) 
 And,ACtCF: : CP : CO. 
 
 Prop. X. Fig. 17, 19. 
 
 If M be a point in an ellipse or hyperbola, and MF and M/be 
 drawn to the foci ; then, in the ellipse, the sum of MF and My is 
 equal to the transverse axis; and, in the hyperbola, the difference 
 of MF and M/is equal to the transverse axis. 
 
 Draw MP perpendicular to th? transverse axis, and take CO as 
 in the hst proposition. And, because 
 
 AC ; CF : : CP : CO, Pr. 9, 
 
 Therefore, AC x CO = FC x CP; and 4 AC X CO— 4CF 
 X CP. But, because A B and F/ are bisected in C, therefore 
 4ACxC0 = nO' - AO«, (8. 2. E.) and 4 FC x CP= P/a _ 
 PF^ =^ M^ - MFS 47. 1. E; Uierefore BO* - AO* =/M' 
 - MF«. 
 
 Again, MF'^ + Mf-= /P^-f FP' + 2MP' = 2FC -^2 CP* 
 + 2MP' = 2FC^ + 2MC* = 2FC* ± 2CD« + aCO« 
 = 2AC= + 2C05 = BO* + AO'. 
 
 And, because BO* -f AO* =:/M* + MF*, and BO* - AO* 
 =/M* — MF* ; therefore, by adding the equals, 2 BO* = l/M"; 
 and. by subtracting the equals, 2 MF* = 2 AO*. Therefore^lM 
 = BO, and FM = AO ; whence the proposition is manifest. 
 
 Prop. XI. Fig. 17, 18, 19. 
 
 A straight line di-.iwn from any point in a conic section to a focus 
 has to a perpendicular drawn to the corresponding directrix, a ra- 
 tio that is constantly the same wherever the point is assumed in 
 the curve ; and, in the ellipse, the constant ratio is a ratio of mi- 
 nority (or of a less magnitude to a greater) ; In the hyperbol.i the 
 constant ratio is a ratio of majority (or of a gre.ater magnitude 
 to a less) ; and. In the parabola the constant ratio is a ratio of 
 equality. 
 
 Let NI, fig. 17 and 19, be a point in an ellipse or hyperbola, 
 and draw MF to a focus, and MK perpendicular to the directrix 
 HG, which corresponds to that focus, draw MP peipeadicular to 
 the transverse axis, and take CO, as in Prop. 9. Then 
 
 AC : CF : : CP : CO, Pr. 9. 
 Invertendo, CF : CA : : CO : CP 
 
 Therefore, CF : CA : : FO : AP, (10. 5. E ) 
 
 But, CF : CA : : AF : AG, Def. 19. 
 
 Thf-refore, CF : CA : : AO : GP, (12. 5. E.) 
 
 But, as has been shewn in the demonstration of the last proposi- 
 tion, AO = MF, and GP = MK; therefore 
 CF: CA: : MF: MK. 
 But the ratio of CF to C.V i« a constant ratio ; and it is a ratio of 
 minority in the ellip c, and a ratio oi majority in (lie hyperbola. 
 In the parabola, lig. 18, GA = AF, and 4 AF x AP :^ MPa, 
 
 Prop!
 
 CONIC SECTIONS 
 
 PF-, S.'J.E; thort- 
 01- MF^ = GPS or 
 
 (Prop. 8, Cor. 3.) but 4 AF x AP ^^GP^ - 
 fore MP^ = GP^ — PF^ ; an.l MP- + PF-^ 
 >1KS Therefore MF = MK. 
 
 Cor. CA and CG, (ig. 17 aiul 19. are in tI;o same ratio, For CF : 
 C'A : : FA : AG ; liierefore CF : CA : : CA : CG.; Hence CF, 
 CA, and CG, arc continual proportionals. 
 
 Prop. XII. Fig. 22, 23, C4. 
 
 I:' two straight linos DQ, D7 lie drawn from the point D, where 
 the axis meets the directrix, threngh L andT, li;e ordinate passing 
 through the focus, which are produced both ways in the hyper- 
 bola; and through any point P in the curve of the section a line QPp 
 be drawn parallel to the il'.rectrix, meeting DL and DT in Q ar:d 
 <j; the segment QX, which is intercepted between either of the 
 lines and the axis, will be equal to SP, the distance of P from the 
 focus. 
 
 'l"he triangles DNQ, DSL, are similar, therefore NQ : ND : : 
 SL : SD, i. e. :: SP: iND. Prop. 1 1. Hence NQ=SP, and in 
 the same nr.:nner it may be proved that "Sij — Hp. 
 
 Cor. 1. if KAG be dra.vn th.'-ough the vertex parallel to the 
 directrix, .SA will be eqiial to AK or AG. 
 
 Cor. S. '1 he lines DQ, Dq, touch the conic section in the 
 points L andT. For the triangle .SNP being right-angled, SP or 
 QN is always giealer than PN except when P is at L, where they 
 coincide ; Ihereiore DQ meets the curve only in one point L. In 
 like n)anner it may be shewn that Dijr touches the curve atT. 
 
 Prop. XIII. Fig, 22, 23, 24. 
 
 If from the point G, where the straight line KG, which is drawn 
 through the vertex parallel to (he directrix, meets either of the 
 tangents DQ, D7, a line GR be drawn through the focus S, and 
 produced boih ways in the hyperbola, it wiil be parallel to the 
 other tangent -DQ in the' parabola; it will, meet it somewhere in 
 g in the diredion GSg in the ellipse, and in the opposite direction 
 in the hv-perbola. 
 
 Let S'G meet the directrix in X. The triangles SAG, SDX, 
 are similar; now SA=:AG, Cor. 1. Prop. 12, therefore SD^DX, 
 but in the parabola, hg. 22, SL=DS, therefore SL is equal and 
 parallel to DX; and coiiiequenlly Xrf is equal and parallel to DL. 
 In the ellipse, tig. 23, SL is less than Si3 or DX, and therefore 
 the lines DL, XS, must meet when produced in the direction 
 XGS. In the hyperbola, fig. 24, SL is greater than SD or DX ; 
 and therefore the lines must meet when produced in the direction 
 SGX. 
 
 Cor. 1 . Because tlietriangles GAS, SlvR, are similar, SX will 
 be equaJ to NR. 
 
 Cor. 2. Fig. 23, 24. Hence where Q coincides with g; in the 
 ellipse or opposite hyberbola, QN will be equal to gM, or SM ; 
 therefore SP will be equal to SN; and therefore SP will coincide 
 with SN, and the curve will meet the axis in the point M. 
 
 Cor. 3. Hence tlie whole ellipse, fig. 23, is centained between 
 the lines GK, gk, on one side of the directrix. 
 
 Cor. 4. In the parabola, fig. 22, NQ being always greater 
 than NK, except at the vertex, SP is greater than SN ; therefore 
 the curve will meet the axis only in one point A, and it will ex- 
 tend without limit on one side of the directrix. 
 
 Cor. 5. In the hyperbola, tig, 24, NQ being greater than NR, 
 except at .A. and M, SP is greater than SN, and the two curves 
 will be exlendetl without limit, on opposite sides of the directrix. 
 
 Prop. XIV. Fig. 25, 26. 
 
 The conjugate axis bisects all lines drawn parallel to the trans- 
 verse axis, which aie terminated by the ellipse, and bv the oppo- 
 site hyperbolas. Those lines which are e(;ually distant from the 
 centre are equal; and those which are ne.irer to the centre are 
 greater in ibe ellipse, and less in the hyperbola, than those which 
 are more remote. 
 
 Take CN any distance from the centre, between C and A in 
 the ellipse, and in C.\ produced in the hyperbola. Take 
 CR-=CN, and draw the ordinates PN/), QR5; join PQ, pq, 
 meeting lit in n and r. Becau^e Pp and Q.y are ec|ual. Cor. 3, 
 Prop. 7, and they are bisected in N and R, the lines PQ, NR, p q, 
 are equal and parallel, and because Ph, pr, are equal to NC, and 
 Qii, qr, equal to RC, orNC, PQ, pq, are bisected in n and r, 
 2iid they are at equal dislancee from tke centre, because Cn, Qr, 
 
 VOL. II. — NO. 5(5. 
 
 are equal (o PN, 'isp. Lastly, as Ch decreases, PN decreases and 
 tiieieiore CN increases in (he ellipse, and decreases in the hyper- 
 bola; but Cn is equal toCN, P« tiierel'ore increases in the former, 
 and decreases in the latter, asC.v, ils distance from C, decreases. 
 
 Cor. 1. The conjugate axis divides the ellipse into two equal 
 and similar parts, andtiie two opposite livperbolasare equal an'.l si- 
 milar. 
 
 Cor. 2. Suppose PQ, ilg. 2f), which is always parallel to AM, 
 to move from the cci.tre towards B, the poii.ts P, Q, will coincide 
 at B, and the line liPQ will become a tangent to the ellipse; 
 tliorefore the ordinates (o (he coiiiugatc axis are parallel to the 
 tangent at its vertex. A line parallel to Pp, and passing through 
 A, is a tangent. 
 
 Prop. XV. Fig. 26. 
 
 The square of the semi-ordinate to the conjugate axis, in the 
 ellipse, is to the rectangle under the abscissae as the square of the 
 transvei'se axis to the square of the conjugate axis. 
 
 For P«Q being paiallel to AM, it is perpendicular to BA, and 
 it is bisected i;i n, by the last F'rop. it is- therefore an ordinate to 
 B6, and by Prop. 7, PN«, or Cn:' : BC^ : : ANxNM : AC", 
 and by division B^ix nh : BC' : : CN- or Vn- : AC-, and by alter- 
 ation and inversiou P;i- : Bh X ni : : AC-: BC- : : AM-: Bi-. 
 
 Pkop. XVI. Fig. 20, 21. 
 
 All the diameters of an eliipse or Jiyperbola are bisc( ted in the 
 cenlre. 
 
 From any point P in tlie curve draw PC to the centre, and PN 
 perpendicular to the axis, 'lake CfJ^^CN; and draw nG paral- 
 lel to NP, but on the otlier side of (he axis, let it meet the curve 
 in G, and join CG. Then because Qn^ CN, the scnii-ord nates 
 G;;, PN, will be eciual, Cor. 2, Prop. 7, and the angles at N and 
 7i are right angles, therefore the triangles CNP, C'ntJ. are equal, 
 therefore CG= CP, and tlie angle kCG is equal to NCP ; hence 
 it follows that GCP is a straight line, which is bisected at C. 
 
 Prop. XVII. Fig. 27. 
 
 If lines SH, S.'i, be drawn from the focus S to the points H, //, 
 in which the iisymptotes cut the directrix, they will be perpendi- 
 cular to tlie asymptotes; and these lines, as also AG, An, the seg- 
 ments of the tangent at the vertex, which is intercepted between 
 the asvmplotL-s, are each equal to half the conjugate axis. 
 
 For' Cor. Prop. 1 1, CS : CA : : CA : CD, that is, CS : CH : : 
 CH : CD; now (he angle HCS is common to the two triangles 
 CIID, CSH, therefore these triangles are similar, and the angle 
 CHS = CDH =: a right angle. In the same way it may be prov- 
 ed that CAS is a right angle. 
 
 Again, SHi'='SCi' - CH' = SC^ - C.\' = CB'by Prop. 7, 
 Cor. ti; Iherefore SHdiCB. Jn the same way it may be proved 
 that SA=:CB: and because CH = CA, and CHS, CAa, are 
 riglit angles, and the angle PICS is (ommoii to (be triangles SHC, 
 nAC, these triangles are equal, and A.a = SH = BC. 
 
 Cor. 1. Radius is to the sine of the angle contained by the 
 asymptote and directrix in the constant ratio, mentioned Prop. II, 
 for CA or CH is to CD in the same ratio, and CH : CD : : ra- 
 dius : sine CHD. 
 
 Cor. 2. If a line PG, fig. 28, be drawn from any point P in 
 the hyperbola, or in the opposite curve, parallel to the asympto(e, 
 meeting the directrix in G, PG will be equ.->l (o PS. Draw PE 
 perpendicular to the directrix ; and beciiuse the angle PGE == 
 CHD, PG is to PK in the above-menlioued ratio, or as SP to PE, 
 therefore PG = PS. 
 
 Prop. XVIII. 
 
 The asymptotes never meet the 
 drawn parallel to an asymptote will meet one ot the hyperbolas. 
 
 For, if it be possible, let the asymptote meet the curve in the 
 point R. Join RS, and draw RN perpendicular to the directrix. 
 Then by Cor. 1, last Prop. HR is to RN, us SR (o RN, there- 
 fore RS=RH, and the angle RSH =:RHS, which is impossi- 
 ble ; for by last Prop. RHS"is a right angle. In the same way it 
 may be proved that it cannot meet the opposite curve. Let any 
 other line GP be drawn parallel to the asymptote; and fii-st let it 
 be nearer to the focus. Join SG, and produce it to meet (he 
 asymptote CH w I : vh.en the anjlit SGP = SIH, which is le»5 
 C thin 
 
 Fig. 28. 
 curve, but anv other
 
 6 
 
 CONIC SECTIONS. 
 
 than SIIR, a right angle; tlierelbre, if GSP be made equal to 
 SGP, SP, GP, will meet somewhere in P, which is a point in the 
 rurve. For draw PE perpendicular to the directrix, and the 
 angle PGE beins equal to CHD, PG is to PE in the constant 
 ratio mentioned Prop. 11; therefore SP is to PE in the same ratio, 
 and P is a point in the hyperbola. 
 
 Secondly, let gp be drawn parallel to the .asymptote, at a greater 
 flislancp from the focus. Join Sg', meeting IIC in i; the angle 
 Sgp=:^iH which is less than a right angle; if therefore gSp be 
 iiiiide equal to Sgn, the lines Up, gp, will meet when produced in 
 .some point p, v^iiich is in the opposite hyperbola; for the angle 
 /)gc being equal to CUD, pg- is to /J f, or SP ijtopc in tlie same 
 constant ratio; therefore/j is a point in the curve. 
 
 Cor. Hence, if any line be drawn through the centre of an hy- 
 perb.'iila within the angle contained by the asymptotes it will meet 
 botli the curves. 
 
 Prop. XIX. Fig. 27. 
 
 The asymptotes are diagonals, of the rectangle, wliicli is made 
 by drawing tangents through the vertices of the four hyperbolas. 
 
 Let the tangents GA a, IM/, which are drawn through the ver- 
 tices of the traasverse axis, meet lheasym|itotes in G, a, and I, i. 
 Join If>, GB, as also ab. ih. The trian«lt;s MCI, AC", are equal, 
 for AC = CM, the angle MCI = ACn, and CMI = CAa, there- 
 fore MT = A'.?, whichis equal to C'li, Prop. 17. In like manner 
 it muy be proved that M/=::C//=CB; therefore, IB, BG, are 
 equal' .-ind parallel to MC, CA, th.e angles IBC, GBC, are each a 
 riglit angle, and IBG is one straight line, which is equal and paral- 
 lel to MA. For the same reason iba is one straight line, wliich is 
 equal and parallel to MA; and because the lines IBG, iha, are 
 perpendicular to the axis BC/', they are tangents to the conjugate 
 hyperbolas, and IGai is a rectangle of which the asymptotes Ic, 
 Gi, are the diagonals. 
 
 Cor. 1. The asymptotes GCz, ]Ca, are also asymptotes to the 
 conjugate hyperbolas. For Bl = RG = CA, which is the semi- 
 coniug;ite axis lo the hyperbolas EBR, Ihr. 
 
 Cor. 2. If the hyperbolas be equilateral, tlie asymptotes will 
 be perpendicular to each other. See Def. 25, 26. 
 
 Prop. XX. Fig. 29, 30, 31. 
 
 If a straight line Vp, whicJi cuts a conic section or opposite sec- 
 tions in two points P, p, meets the directrix in H, and a risht 
 line HST be drawn through the focus, and SP, S/), be joined ; The 
 angle PSH. will be equal topST. 
 
 Draw p'X parallel to PS, and let it meet HS in T ; and draw 
 PE, pe, perpendicular to the directrix. The triangles HPE, Hpf, 
 are similar, as also HSP, HT/), and SP : PE : ; Sp : pf ; and al- 
 lernatelv SP : Up : : PE : pe : : HP : Up : : SP : pT; therefore 
 Sp - Tp, and the angle pST = pTS = P.SII. 
 
 Cor. 1. When P and p coincide, (ig. 29, 31, orwhen MP be- 
 comes a tangent to the conic section, SP will coincide with Sp, 
 and the angk-s PSH, pST, will be right angles. 
 
 Cor. 2. Hence if a line SP be drawn from the focus to any 
 pohit P in a conic section, fig. 32, and SH be drawn perpendicu- 
 lar to SP, meeting the directrix in il, and HP be joined, it will 
 touch the conic section in P. 
 
 Cor. 3. It is evident from this proposition, that a straight line 
 cannot cut a conic section in more points than two. 
 
 Prop. XXI. Fig. 32. 
 
 If a tangent be drawn to any point in the parabola, it will bisect 
 the angle contained by the two straight lines drawn from the point 
 of contact, one to the focus, and the other to the flirectrix. 
 
 Let PVI, which touches tiie |)arabola at P, meet the directrix in 
 H. JoinSP, SH, and draw PE perpendicular to the directrix. 
 Th? angle SPE is bisected by PH. For SP = PE, and PH is 
 «!omnion to the triangles SPll, IT'H, and I'SIl, PEH, are right 
 angles, therefore the triangles SPH, EPH, are similar; and the 
 angk--SPM=zEPH. 
 
 Cor.X. Hence if a straight line PH bisects the angle SPE, it 
 will be a tangent to the parabola at the point P. 
 
 Cor. 2. Lot PS meet the curve again in p, and let HI be 
 'drawn parallel lo the axis, it will bisect Pp in I, atxl HI will he bi- 
 sected by t!>e curve in A. Forlhe an^le H1P:=11PE --= IlPl, 
 tliertfuri; 1P= HI, and if pli bi" joined, tlie line pH will be a 
 
 tLingent, and therefore for the same re.ison Ip=rIH, therefore 
 IP = Ip. Secondly, because SA = AH, the angles ASH = 
 AHS, and the complements of these angles jire equals that is, ASI 
 = AIS, therefore AI = AS = AH. 
 
 Prop. XXII. Fig. 33, 34. 
 
 If a tangent be drawn to any point in an ellipse or an hyperbola, 
 and two lines be drawn from the point of contact to the ioci, the 
 angles contained by e;ich .^ n .-^se lines and the tangent are equal. 
 Let PT touch the ellipse Of i',', ps^rbola at any point P, let it meet 
 the directrices in T and t. Throuch P draw a line parallel to the 
 axis AM mri'ting the direcvrices in E and e, draw PS, PH, to the 
 foci, and join ST, lit. Because the triangles 'I'PE, iPt, are simi- 
 lar, PE :"PT : : \\- : Vt, and SP : PE : : HP : Pc, therefore SP: 
 PT : : IIP : Vt, and tiie angles PST, Vllt, are fmht angles. Cor. 
 I, Prop. 20, therefore the triangles SPT, HPi are similar, and the 
 angle SPT=HPf. 
 
 Prop. XXHI. Fig. 35, 36. 
 
 The tangents at the vertices of any diameter of an ellipse or aa 
 hyperbola are parallel. 
 
 Let PCG be anv diameter of an ellipse or hvpcrbola; draw the 
 tangents PQ, GK; and join SP, PH, SG, GH. Because SC = 
 Cir, and CP = CG, and the angle SCP^GCH, also SP is- 
 equal and parallel to GH, therefore PH is equal and parallel to 
 SG, and SPHG is a parallelogram; therefore the angle SPH = 
 SGIl, and the halves of these angles, fig. 36, or the halves of their 
 supplements, fig. 35, will be equal, that is, the angle SPQ =r 
 IIGR, and if these be added to the equal angles SPC, CGH, in 
 the ellipse, and su!>tracted from them in the hyperbola, CPO =. 
 CGR, therefore PQ is parallel to GR. 
 
 Prop. XXIV. Fig. 37, 3S, 39. 
 
 If two straight lines Pp, Q17, which meet each other in any point 
 I/, and are inclined to the directrix at any given angles LHX, 
 LAX, cut a conic section, or opposite sections, in the points P, p, 
 and Q, q; the rectangles LP x Lp, and LQxLfy, v\ill be in a 
 con^tant ratio to each either. 
 
 Let S be the nearest focus. Join HS, and produce it if neces- 
 sary; also join SP, Sp. J5raw LX, PE, perpendicular to the di- 
 rectrix; and draw LT, Li^ paiallel to SP, Sp, meeting HS in T 
 and <. Because (Prop. 20,) the angle PSH^pST, tig. .17, and 
 39, and = pSVV, fig. 3S, the angle Ll( = LiT, and LT = Lf . 
 On L as a centre, at the distance LT or Lf, describe a circle cut- 
 ting HPp in M and vi. Join SL, and produce it to meet the cir- 
 cle in D and d ; and because the triangles HPE, HLX, are simi- 
 lar, as also MPS, HLf, LT : SP : : LH : PH : : LX : PE; and 
 alternately LT : LX : : SP : PE, that is, in the constant ratio 
 mentioned Prop. 11; therefore the radius of the circle is given 
 when the distance of L from the directrix is given, whatever b» 
 the position of the line Pp. And because LI is par.-.liel to PS, 
 and Lt topS, 
 
 LP : TS : : LH : HT, 
 and pL : S( : : LH : fH, therefore 
 
 PLx Lp : TSx S< : : LH^ : llTxtli. 
 But TSxSf = DSxS(i, and THx Hf = MHx Ilm — LH^"— 
 LM=, hg. 37, 38, or = LM= — LH^ tig. 39. Therefore PLx 
 Lp : DSxSd :: LH^ : LH^— LM^ or LM"^ — LH-. But 
 LH-" : LTS or LM^ : : PH^ : PSS and by division LH^: : LH^ 
 — LM', or LM^ — LH^ :: PH- : PH^ — PSS or PS^ — 
 PIP ; which ratio depends only upon the constant ratio, Prop. 
 11, and the angle LHX, SP being to PH in a ratio which is coni- 
 pownded of the ratios of SP to PE, and PE to PH, or of the con- 
 stant ratio, and of the sine of the angle LHX to radius. In the 
 same manner it may be proved that the rectangle QLxL'/ is to 
 DSx Srf in a ratio depending only on the same constant nitio, and 
 the angle L/(X, llu'refore PLx I^p is to QLxL? in a constant, 
 ratio, whatever be the distance of Lfiom the directrix. 
 
 Cor. 1. If either of the lines Pp, i\q, or both of them become 
 tangents to the conic section, or opposite sections,, tin' sciuares of 
 fix- tangents must be substitu'.ed for the rectangles Pl.x Lp, QL 
 X 1.9. For let LP touch the section in P, hg. 40, 4l, then 
 QL being parallel to SP, by the preceding Prop. LP : QS : : 
 LH : HQ ; and LP^ : QS= : : LH^ : HQ^ ; but QS- = DSx 
 Srf, andQH^ = MHxHH( = LIl^ — LMS therefore LP= : DS 
 xSii: : MH^ : LH- — L.M^ which was proved to he a con- 
 stant
 
 CONIC SECTIONS. 
 
 stant ratio; therefore LPS is to Lp- or QL X Lq,f.g- 38, in a 
 CLnstant ratio. 
 
 Prop. XXV. Fig. 42. 
 
 If two riglit lines QL, Pp, meeting each otlier at any point L, 
 one of ^liid) is panillel to tiie axis, and the other is inclined to the 
 directrix in a given angle, cut a parabola in the points Q,p, and 
 P, the rectangle under QL, and tlie latus rectum, will be to tlie 
 rectangle PLxL/i in a constant ratio. Let LQ meet the direc- 
 trix in X; and from the centre L, at the dist,ince LX, describe a 
 circle, join QS, XS, S l)eing the focns, 1-t XS meet the circle in 
 1', and join LT. Draw SO perpendicular to LX, take 01 = OX, 
 and joii'i SI, then SI=SX, now LT = LX, and QS = QX, 
 therefore LT is parallel to QS, and because tiie angle QSX — 
 SXQ = S!X, thetrianalesQXS, SXI, are-imilar, cndlXxXS 
 : : XS : SQ : : ST : QL, therefore the rectangle IXxQL = 
 XSx ST = DSx Srf, which by the preceding proposition is to PL 
 X Lp in a constant ratio, and because IXx 20X, the distance of 
 tlie focus from the directrix, therefore IX .— latus rectum, there 
 fore the rectangle under QL, and the latus rectum, is to PLx Lp 
 in a given ratie. 
 
 Lemma. Fig. 43. 
 If a straight line be divided in two points C and D, such, tliat 
 the rectangle C.-Vx AD = DBx 15C, or ."^Cx CB=: BDx DA, 
 the part AC will be equal to BD. First, let CAxAD = DB 
 xBC. Bisect CD in, E; and CAx ADx EC= = AE^, also 
 DBxBC+ED' = EBS but ED^ = ECS therefore BE'- = 
 AE^, and BE = AE, and therefore BD = AC. Secondly, let 
 ACxC'B = BDxDA, hv biecting AB in E, it may be shewn as 
 above, that ED = EC, and therefore BD = AC. 
 
 Prop. XXVI. Fig. 44, 45. 
 
 All lines parallel to any diameter of the ellipse or hyperbola, 
 v.hich are terminated both ways by the ell pse or opposite hyper- 
 bolas, are bisected by the conjugate diameter 
 
 Let ACB be any diameter of au ellipse or hyperbola. Through 
 the vertices A, B, draw the tangents AL, BM ; and through tiie 
 fentre C draw tlie diameter DCK paK\del to .'VL or BM, which 
 will be the conjugate diameter. Througli N any point in DK 
 <haw LNM parallel to .\B, meeting the ellipse or opposite hyper- 
 bolas in P and Q, and the tangents AL, BM, in L and M. Then 
 AL being parallel to CN and BM, and LNM parallel to ACB, 
 AL = BM, andLN^NM; and Cor. Prop. 24, LA^ : PLx 
 LQ : : BM»: QMxMP, therefore PLx LQ = QMx MP, 
 therefore Lem. PL = QM, and, because LN = Ni\I, PN = 
 KQ. 
 
 Cor. 1. If the diameter DK bisect all lines parallel to AB, it 
 will be the conjugate diameter to AB. 
 
 Cor. 2, Fig. 44. If a straight line RDT be drawn througli D 
 the vertex of the conjugate diameter parallel to AB, it will touch 
 the curve in the point D. 
 
 Prop. XXVIL 
 
 Every diameter of a conic section bisects all its ordinates. 
 
 1st. If the section be an ellipse, it is evident, from the last 
 prop(«ition, for the ordinates of any diameter are parallel to the 
 conjugate diameter. 
 
 2dlv. If the section be an hyperbola. Fig. 45, of which ACB is 
 any diameter ; in the tangent KAL take AR = AL, through L 
 anii R draw PLQ, PRG, parallel to AB, meeting the opposite hy- 
 perbolas in P, Q, and F, G, and the tangent at B in M, T. Join 
 PF, cutting the diameter in V : then PF' will be ah ordinate which 
 is bisected at V ; for bv last Prop. PL = MQ, and FR = TO ; 
 and Cor. Prop. 24, FR x RG : RA« : : PL x LQ : LA-% but 
 L.V = RA-, thevetore, FR x RC; = PL x LQ, that is RF x 
 FT = LP X PM ; therefore Lem. RF = PL, and PLRF is a 
 parallelogram, and therefore PF is parallel to RAL, and P\' 
 = VF. 
 
 Lastly, let the section be a parabola. Fig. 46, of which AN is 
 any diameter, and PNQ an ordinate ; through the verte.x A draw 
 the langent LAM ; and draw PL, QM, parallel to NA, tiien PL 
 = QM, but the rectangle under LP and the latus rectum is to 
 J-A- as the rectangle under MQ and the latus rectum to MA", 
 
 therefore LA^ = M.A-, and LA=M.'\, and tiierefore QN = 
 PN. 
 
 Prop. XXVIIl. Pig. 47. 
 
 If a straight line cuttin<5 the hyperbola, or opposite hyperbolas) 
 meets the asymptotes in two points ; the segments between the hy- 
 perbola or hyperbolas and asymptotes will be equal. 
 
 Let PQ cut the hyperbola, or the opposite hyperbolas in P and 
 Q, and meet the asymptotes in R, T: the segnients PR, QT, will 
 be equal. F'or if PR be not equal to QT, let one of them, as QT, 
 be the greater ; and Q o = PR, join C o, whic-h being produced will 
 meet the curve in some point r. Cor. Prop. 18. Through 7 draw 
 (/pr parallel to QP meeting the curve in p and asymptote in r. 
 Bisect PQ in N, and draw the diameter CSn, and PQ, p q, will be 
 ordinate to tliat diameter. Because NQ = N P, and Q o = PR, 
 therefore N o =: NR, and o N : 9 n : : CN : C s : : NR : n r. 
 
 therefore n q 
 
 but IK} :^ np, therefore np ::= nr, which it 
 
 absurd ; therefort- QT is not greater than PR. 
 
 Cnr. If the line TNR be supposed to move from N tc ■' . li'c 
 points P, Q, will coincide in A, and lA will be equal to .\G ; 
 therefore when a line touches an hyperbola, the segments betwecR 
 the point of contact, and the asymptotes are equal. 
 
 Prop. XXIX. Fig. 48. 
 
 If from any point P in the hyperbola PQ two straight lines PL, 
 PH, be drawn to the asymptotes, and from any other point Q, in 
 the same or in the opposite curve, there be drawn oilier two 
 straight lines QE, QF, parallel to tlie two former lines PL, PH. 
 The rectangle Q E x QE will be eijual to the rectangle PL x PH. 
 
 Join PQ, and let it meet the asymptotes in R and T : and be- 
 cause the triangles TQF, TPH, are similar, as also the triangles 
 RPL, PQ E, QF : PH : : TQ : TP ; : RP : RQ : : PL : QE ;. 
 therefore the rectangle QF X QE is equal to the rectangle PH x 
 PL. 
 
 Cor. Hence, if from any two points, P, Q, in the same or in the 
 opposite hyperbolas, two straight line*, PL, QE, be drawn to the 
 same or to different asvmptdtes parallel to the other asymptote : the 
 rectangles CL x LP", CE x EQ, will be equal; also the paral- 
 lelogram CLPH will be equal to the parallelogram CEQF; and 
 the triangle CLP to tiie triangle CEQ. 
 
 Prop. XXX. Fig. 5S. 
 
 If, from anv point R in the asymptote of a.hyperbola, there be 
 drawn a straight line RT cutting the hyperbola, or opposite h\- 
 perbolas in P and Q, and the other asymptote in T ; the rectangle 
 PR • RQ is equal to the square of the semidiameter which is pa- 
 rallel to RT. 
 
 Let AM, B/;, be the tv. o axes, join AB meeting theasymptots 
 in N. Draw the tangent lAo meeting the asymptotes in I and a. 
 Because A (J is ecjual and parallel to BC, Prop. 17, AB is equal 
 and parallel to a C, and I A : I a : : AN : a C, or AB ; now lA is 
 half of I a, therefore AN is half of AB, and AN = N B. 
 
 Let CF be the semidiameter parallel to the line cutting the op- 
 posite hyperbolas, draw .the tangent LFH meeting the asymptotes 
 in L and H, draw FE parallel to C^L, meeting the asymptotes in 
 E, and the conjugate livperbola in D, anil join CD. Because the 
 reclamile CN ■ NA, or CN • N B = CE • EF, Cor. Prop. 29, rad 
 CN • Kb — CE • ED • therefore CE • EF =CE • ED. and EF 
 = ED, and FE is half of FD, but because LF is half of LJl, 
 Cor. Prop. 28, and FE is parallel to CL ; FE, is also hah of CL, 
 tiieiefore FD = CL, and they are parallel, therefore CD is equal 
 and parallel to FH, and C D is a conjugate diLun ter to CF. Let 
 the line which cuts tiie hyperbola PFQ be parallel to CD or LH. 
 Take anv point .' in the asymptote, and draw fc parallel to^lR, 
 cuttng the curve or opposite curves in yi and </, and the ctlier 
 asymptote in r. Draw PY, VZ,pi/,pz, parallel to the asymptotes. 
 Because the triangles I'YR. pi/r, are equiangular. 
 PR : PY : : pr : py, and in like manne:-, 
 PT:PZ::7.'f:p:, therefore 
 RP X PT : YP X PZ : : /;) X pt : pu X p: : hut YP X PZ = 
 tip X pz, Cor. Prop. 29 ; therefore RP x PT =1 rp x pt; or 
 iince RP = QT, Prop. 28, PR x RQ — p r X r q ; Lnd wlun 
 P is taken at F, the rectangle PR x RQ becomes FL^ or FH^ 
 
 viliicb
 
 8 
 
 CONIC SECTIONS. 
 
 wliich Heciuiil lo CD'^; ami wheu P iii Ihe opposite liyperbola is 
 at M, the rectangle PK X V.Q becomes equal lo GC^. 
 
 Prop. XXXI. 
 
 If two right lines meeting eacli other cut or touch a conic sec- 
 tion, or oppo^it!-" sections, tlie rectangles under the segments be- 
 twec'u the point of concourse Lind the points of interuection, or the 
 squares of th.e tangents v/iU l;e to each otlier as the squares of the 
 ben;idianietors to which the lines arc parallel. 
 
 Iflheluiesbe parallel to any of the diameters of the ellipse, or 
 of the opposite hyperbolas, the proposition is evident from Prop. 
 y4, because the lines which meet each other make the same angles 
 \\ith Ihe directrix as tliose which pass through the centr:-, and the 
 latter are bisected in the centre. But if either of the lines P[.<-J, 
 LRT, or both the lin.es PI.Q, InLM, be parallel to some of the 
 conjurate diameters of the hyperbola, Fig. 4y, jivoduce QLP till 
 it meet the asymptote in G, and through G draw FGH parallel to 
 ]jR'P, meeting the opposite curves in F and H. Let CB, CD, 
 CA, be the semidiameters wliich are parallel to QP, MN, RT. 
 'ihcn Prop. C4, PL x LQ : RL X LT : : PG X GQ : FG X GH 
 : : CB- : CA-, Pri.p. .30. In like manner it may lie proved, that 
 KL X LT •• NL X LM :: CA^ : CD=; thereiore, PL x LQ : 
 KL X LM :: CB':: CD^ 
 
 If the lines touch the conic section or opposite sections, the 
 squLues of the tangent? will be to each oilur as the rectangles un- 
 der the segments of any two lines drawn piaallel to them, which 
 meet each other, and cut the section or opposite sections; and 
 therefore they are as the squares of the semidiameters lo which 
 they are parallel. 
 
 Cor. If two right lines IQ, IN, Fig. 4P, 50, meeting each other 
 In I, touch an ellipse or hyperbola in Q, N, ar.d are parallel to two 
 other lines ^'T, VN, which meet each other in V, and touch the 
 ellipse or opposite hyperbola, orh.yperboks, in T, N ; IQ : IN : : 
 VT : VN : for IQ^' I N^, are to each other as the squares ot the se- 
 midiameters to'whichthey are parallel, a.id VT**, VN-, are in the 
 ■same ratio. 
 
 Prop. XXXII. Fig. 51, 52. 
 
 If an ordinate he drawn to any diameter of an ellipse or an hy- 
 perbola ; the rectangle under the abscisses will be to the square of 
 the semi-ordinate as the square of the diameter is lo the square : f 
 its conjugate. 
 
 Let ACM be any diameter of an ellipse or hvpcrbola, to which 
 PNQ is an ordinate, and let DCK be the conjugate diameter, 
 which is parallel to PNQ. Then by the precednig proposition 
 AN X NM : PN X NQ(orPN2) :; CAa-. CD^ : : AM- : DK^. 
 
 Cor. 1. Because the paramete-.- is a third prO])ortional to the 
 diameter and its conJHgate, the rectangle under tiie abscisses is to 
 the square of the semi-ordinate as the diameter is to the para- 
 meter. 
 
 Cor. '2. The two conjugate diameters being constant, the rect- 
 angle under the abscisses will vary as the square of the or- 
 dinate. 
 
 Prop. XXXIIL Fig. 53. 
 
 If an ordinate be drawn to any diameter of a parabola; the 
 sc]uare of the semi-ordinate is equal to the rectangle under the ab- 
 scisses and the parameter. 
 
 Let AN beany diameter of the parabola to which PNQ is an 
 ordin:ite. Draw the parameter TSV, cutting the diameter in F; 
 join SA, let the diameter meet the directrix in D. Because TF 
 'is half of TV, Prop. 27, and AF is half of DF, or TF, Prop. 21, 
 Cor. AF : FT : : FT : TV, and AF x TV =: FT^ ; but AF x 
 TV -. AN X TV : : TF2 : PN''', Prop 25, therefore AN x TV 
 =r PN"*. 
 
 Cor. Because TV = 2 TF = 4 SA, 4 SA x AN = PN^ 
 
 Prop. XXXIV. Fig. 54. 
 
 If two tangents he drawn at the extremities of any right line 
 vhich is terminated by a conic section, and which does not pas, 
 throu-h the centre of an ellipse, they will meet each other in the 
 diameter which bisects that right line. 
 
 Let PQ meet the curve in P and Q ; bisect PQ in N, and 
 through N draw the diameter CNT. Through P draw the tan 
 gent PT meeting tlie diameter in T, and Join TQ, which will 
 
 touch the conic section in Q. For draw any other line DCPi pa- 
 rallel to PNQ, meeting TP, TQ, inLandM. The triangles 
 TNP, TCL, are similar, as aKo TNQ, TCM, therefore, 
 
 NP : CL: : TN : TC : : QN : MC, and alternatelr 
 NP: NQ: : CL:CM; therefore CM = CL, which is greater 
 than CD or CB, tlierefore M is without the section, and the line 
 TQ meets the curve only in one point Q. 
 
 Cor. ii two right lines which touch a conic section meet each 
 other, a right line drawn through the point of concourse bisecting 
 the line which joins the points of contact, will be a diameter of 
 the section. 
 
 Prop. XXXV. Fig. 55. 
 
 If a tangent to any point in the parabola meet a diameter, ind 
 aii ordinate be drawn to that diameter from the point of contact, 
 the segment of the diameter between the vertex and the tangent 
 will be eaual to the absciss. 
 
 Let I'l^, which touches the parabola in any point P, meet (he 
 diameter NA in 1', and draw the ordinate PN. NA will bo 
 equal to AT. Draw the tangent AI meeting PT in I ; join AP, 
 and draw the diametei IG cutting AP in I', and PN in G ; then 
 AF = FP, Cor. Prop. 34. Therefore AI or NG = PG ; and 
 Al is half of NP ; but AI : NP : : TA : TN, therefore Tx\ is the 
 half of TN. 
 
 Prop. XXXVI. Fig. 56, 57. 
 
 If a tangent to any point in an ellipse, or an hyperbola meet a 
 diametei, and fr'..'m ttie point of contact an ordinate be drawn to' 
 that diameter, the semidiameter will be a mean ])roportionnl be- 
 tween the Segments of the diameter, which are intercepted be- 
 tween the centre and the ordinate, and betvveen the centre and 
 the tangent. 
 
 Let P'P touch the ellipse or hyperbola in any point P, and 
 meet the diameter MA in T ; dtaw PNQ an ordinate to the dia- 
 meter MA, CN : CA : : CA : CT. Through the vertices A, M, 
 draw the tangent Al, ML, meeting P'P in 1 and L ; take CO = 
 CN, tl'.en Cor. Prop. 31, IP : lA : : LP : LM, and alternately 
 IP: LP:: lA : LM, and because Al, NP, LM, are parallel, 
 AN : NM : : TA : TM, and by composition, (lig. 67,) or by di- 
 vision, (lig. 56,) ON : AN :': AM : 'I'A; and by taking the 
 halves of the antecedents, CN : AN : : CA : AT, and by compo- 
 sition, (lig. 57,) or by division, (hg. 5fi,) CA: CN : : CT: CA, 
 and by inversion CN ; CA : : CA : CT. 
 
 Prop. XXXVII. Problem. Fig. 59. 
 
 Two unequal straight lines being given, which bisect each other 
 at riijht angles; to describe an ellipse, of which the given lines 
 shall be the axes. 
 
 Let AM, Yi b, be the given lines of which AM is the greater. 
 From the centre B, with a radius equal to x\C, describe a circle 
 meeting AM in S and H, which will be the foci. Prop. 7, Cor. fi. 
 Take a string equal in length to AIM, and hx the extremities of it 
 at the points S and II ; and by means cf a pin at P let the string 
 be stretched, and let the pin be carried round, till it return to the 
 same point ; the point P will describe an ellipse, of which AM, 
 B b, are the axes, as is evident from Prop. 10. 
 
 Prop. XXXVIH. Prob. Fig. CO. 
 
 Two straight lines being given, which bisect each other at right 
 angles; to describe an hyperbola, of which these lines shall be 
 the axes. 
 
 Let AM, Bft, be the given lines, bisecting each other at right 
 angles in C. Join AB ; and take CS and CII, in AM produced 
 both ways, equal to AB. At the point H let one end of a ruler 
 be lixed, so that it may move round this point as a centre ; and 
 let a string be taken, the length of which exceeds that of the ruler 
 by a line e(|ual to AM ; let one end ot the string be fixed at L, 
 and the other at the point S ; apply the string, by means of a pin 
 al P, to the side ot the ruler Lll; and let the rnler be moved 
 about the centre II, while the string is constantly apjilied, and 
 kept close to the ruler by the pin at P. I'hen the diflerence be- 
 tween the whole length of the string SPL ami Ihe ruler HL being 
 equal to AM, the difference between HP and PS jvill be equal to 
 AM ; and the point P will describe o«e of the oppo-ite liyper- 
 bolas of which AM, Bi, are the axes, as is evideat t'lom Pmp. 10. 
 
 f PllOP.
 
 CONIC SECTIONS. 
 
 f) 
 
 I'rop. XXXIK. Prob. Fig. 01. 
 
 ^ Two rif^ht lines i)i:iiig giviti, one of wliich U l)'HCcle(! I)y the 
 Other at ri^lit un,-;le?; ; to de-icribe a parahohi, in which tlie right 
 line bisetleiJ shafl he an onUnate, and the other line tlie axis. 
 
 ].et AC, Iji he tli-:- two gives Hnes, one of wliich R /;, wliich 
 is perpendicular to AC, is bisected ini;. Find a third propor- 
 tional to AC, C15 ; and produce CA to D, so tliat AD may be a 
 fonrth part of that third proportional ; take AS = AD, and draw 
 DX porpenJicnlar to DC. Let a rnlcr, tlie sides of which HE, 
 EL, are perpendtfiilar to each other, be placed in the plane CDX, 
 so that the bide EL may be applied to DX ; and take a string 
 ecpial in length to the side HE, one extremity of which must be 
 fixed at H, and the other at S ; and let part of the string be ap- 
 plied by means of a pin P, to tlie side of the ruler HE; and 
 whilst the side- EL moves along DX, let the string be stretched 
 by the pin, and constanllv applied to HE. Then, because the 
 \>'hole length of the string" H PS is equal to HE, the part SP will 
 always be equal to PE ; therefore the point P will describe a pa- 
 r.iboia, by Prop. 12, of which AC is the axis, S the focus, and 
 DX the 'directrix ; and BC 6 will be an ordinate, because it is 
 perpendicular to the axis, and CB is a mean ppportional between 
 the absciss AC and 4AS, or the latus rectum. 
 
 Prop. XL. Prob. Fig. 40, 41. 
 
 To draw a tangent to a conic section from any given point with- 
 out it, w hich is not the centre of the hyperbola. 
 
 if the given point H be in the directrix ; draw HS to the focus 
 which is nearest to the directrix ; dr.w SP perpendicular to SH, 
 jnecting the curve in P, and join II P, which will touch the conic 
 section in P, Cor. 1, Prop. '20. 
 
 If the given point be in any other situation, as at L ; join LS, 
 and draw LX perpendicular to the directrix. Take LD to LX 
 in the constant ratio, Prop. 11, and from the centre L, at the dis- 
 tance LD, describe a circle DM 17.. From S draw SQ a tangent 
 to the circle, meeting the directrix in H. Join LQ, and draw 
 SP parallel to if, or perpendicular to SH. Join HL, and produce 
 it to meet SP in P, winch is in the conic section, and the line HP 
 touches the curve at P. For the triangles IIQL, HSP, are simi- 
 lar, as also LHX, PHE, therelore SP : PH : QL : LH, and PH : 
 PE: : LH: LX ; therefore SP: PE: : QL: LX, that is, in the 
 constant ratio; therefore P is a point in the curve, and because 
 PSIl is a right angle, PH is a t;iiigei,t. Cor. 1. Prop. 20. 
 
 Cor. Because two lines SQ, S'/, may be drawn from the point 
 S to touch the circle; two tangents LP, Lp, may be drawn Irom 
 L to the conic section. 
 
 Prop. XLL 
 
 If a circle touches a conic section, and cuts off from the diame- 
 ter, which passes through the point of contact, a segment equal to 
 its parameter, the conic section is of the same curvature with the 
 circle at the point of contact. 
 
 First let a tangent DM be drawn to any point D in the para- 
 bola, (fig. 02,) draw also the diameter DF, and the perpendicular 
 DL : through any point Q in the curve, near to D, let the circle 
 DQO be described to touch DM in D, and meet DF in P, join 
 PQ, DQ, and draw QN parallel to MD, meeting DF in N. 
 Tlien because the angle DPQ = MDQ = DQN, the triangles 
 DNQ, PQD, having a common angle at D are equiangular; 
 hence PD : DQ : : DQ : DN, and PD x DN =: DQ^ also PD^ : 
 PQ2 : : DQ2: QN^ therefore PD^ : PQ"- : : PDx DN : Px DN, 
 where P := parameter of DF. Now, it is evident, that the nearer 
 the point Q is to the point D, the nearer w ill the circumfereiice 
 of the circle be to a coincidence with the curve at that point ; 
 and therefore, as no portion of these curves, however small, can 
 be the same, the circumference of the circle will have approached 
 the nearest pos-.ible to a coincidence with the curve at D, when 
 the point Q falls upon it; in which case, the la>t analogy becomes 
 PD^ : PD* : : PD : P, therefore PD = P, the parameter of DF ; 
 therefore the proposition in the case of the parabola is uianiiest. 
 
 Next let DM be a tangent at any point in the ellip-^e or hyper- 
 bola, (lig. 63,) DF, EG, conjugate diameters, and DHO a per- 
 pendicular to the two parallels Dm, eg. 
 
 Through any' point Q in the curve, near to the point D, let the 
 cuxle DQU be described, to touch DM in D, and meet DF in 
 P. Let PQ, QD, be joined, aud QN drawn parallel to DM, to 
 ' VOL. ii. — Uf}^ 56v 
 
 meet DF in N. Tlie triangles DNQ, PQD, being similar, DN': 
 DQ : : DQ : DP, hence DN : DP : : DN* : DQ-, 
 
 Or DN . DP:: QN-: P<i-. 
 
 But DF : P : : FN X N D : QN', Prop. 32. Cor. 1 . 
 
 Therefore DF X DN : P X DP: FN X DN : PQ*, 
 
 and DF : FN : : P X DP : PQ* ; this analogy, when Q coin- 
 cides with D, becomes DF : DF : : P X DP : 1)P*, in which case 
 P = PD, where P = parameter of DF as before. 
 
 Cnr. If, from anv point D in an ellipse or hyperbola, a diame- 
 ter DF be drawn, and a perpendicular DH to its conjugate EG, 
 the radius of curvature at the [xiint D is a third proiJortional to the 
 perpendicular DH and the semi-conjugate diameter EC. 
 
 For since DH : DC:: DP: DO, 
 and DC: EC : : EG : P or DP; 
 
 therefore DH : EC : : EG : DO : : EC : DII, the radius of 
 curvature. 
 
 Prop. XLII. Fig. 64. 
 
 If any ordinate and absciss of a parabola be completed into a. 
 pardlelogram ; the area of the parabola, included between the 01- 
 dinate and the curve, is to the parallelograui as 2 to 3. 
 
 Let AN be the absciss, and PQ the ordinate ; let the parallelo- 
 gram PQC15 be completed, and let AN be divided into indefi- 
 nitely small equal parts, of which ND is one ; through D draw 
 fl I parallel to PQ, cutting the ))arabola in F and G, and through 
 F draw KE parallel to NA ; take KR = KP, and draw KL pa- 
 rallel to KE. By Prop. 25, HF x HG : PN* : : HP : NA, but 
 because DN is indelinitelv small, i'Q or 2PN mav be taken for 
 H(; ; and PK =: HF, also NA = PB, therefore 2PKx PN*: PN" 
 : : HP : PB, and 2PK, or PR : PN : : IIP : PB; now the parallelo- 
 grams Rl!, PD, are eciuiangular ; therefore they ;ire equal, and 
 the parallelogram PI) : KB : : 2 : 1 ; and the sum of all the paral- 
 lelograms in APN is to the sum of all those in APB in the same 
 ratio of 2 to 1 ; but the sum of all the parallelograms in APN ap- 
 proaches indefinitely near to the curvilineal area AFPN, when 
 their breadths are continually diminished ; and in like manner the 
 sum of all the parallelograms in APB approaches to the curvilinear 
 area AFPB ; therefore area AFPN : :a-ea Ai''PB : : 2 : 1, and th« 
 area PAt-i is to the parallelogram PBCQ as 2 to 3, 
 Prop. XLIII. Fig. 65, 66. 
 
 If two ellipses or two hyperbolas have a common axis, and an 
 ordinate be drawn through the same point in the axis to each of 
 the curves; the areas included between the common absciss, the 
 ordinates, ami the two curves, also the whole areas of the ellipses 
 will be to each other as the conjugate axes. 
 
 Let AP, AQ, be t\\'o ellipses or two hyperbolas; lake any ^b- 
 .sciss AN, which is not greater than half the axis of the ellipse, 
 and draw the ordinates N P, NQ. Let the absciss AN be divideil 
 into any number of equal parts A E, EF, FG, GN, &c.; draw 
 the ordinates EHI, FSK, GTL, and complete the parallelograms; - 
 AR, AI, ES, EK, &c. also draw li, K /c, Lt parallel to .4N. 
 Then it is evident that the difference between the circumscribed 
 parallelograms AI, EK, FL, GQ, and the inscribed parallelograms 
 E i, F k, G I is ec|ual to GQ ; and if parallelograms be inscribed 
 in the same manner in the ligure APN, the difference beiweeii 
 these and the circumscribed parallelograms would he ecpial to GP, 
 therefore the difference between each series of parallelograms, and 
 the areas AQN, APN will be less than the parallelograms Gt^, 
 GP, and because GP : GQ: : NP : NQ, and each parallelogram 
 in the figure APN is to the corresponding parallelogram in the 
 figure AQN in the same ratio, the sum of all those in APN is to- 
 the sum of all those in AQN as NP is to NQ, which is the same 
 ratio with that of the. conjugate axes. Conceive tlie breadths of 
 the parallelograms to be now diminished, and their number in- 
 creased ad infinitum, and the parallelograms APN, AQN will be 
 ultimately equal to the areas APN, AQN, for the parallelograms 
 GQ, GP will now vanish, therefore the areas APN, AQN are to 
 each other as their conjugate axes ; and if the sections be ellipses, 
 their whole areas are to each other in the same ratio. 
 
 Cor. 1. If a circle be described about au ellipse, the area of the 
 circle is to be the area of the ellipse as the transverse axis is to 
 the conjugate. 
 
 Cor. 2. The area of an ellipse is equal to that of a circle whose 
 diameter is a mean proportional between the two axes. 
 
 ("or. 3. The areas ot two ellipses are to each other as the rec- 
 tangles under thek axc8> 
 *1 ii eONiFERji,
 
 CON 
 
 10 
 
 CON 
 
 CONiFER/E, in betaiiy, the name of one of the orders of 
 I^innaciis's frasmeuls of a naUir^l method, consisting of plants 
 whose f'jniale tiowors, placed ♦t a distance from the male either on 
 the same or distinct roots, are formed into a cone. Of this order 
 are the Abies, Cypre'si's, &;c. All tlie conifers yield a resin 
 ■which renders most of them evtM-green. The fruit in all is bien- 
 nial, beint; prodnced in the- spring, but uot ripening and chopping 
 its seeds nnlil the spring after. 
 
 CONlGLrANO, a town of Italy, in the marquisate of Trevi- 
 tftno, and late Venetian territories ; ceded by the Frencli to 
 the emperor, in 1797. Lon. 12. 40. E. Lat. 45. 50. N. 
 
 CONIL, a town of Spain, in Andalusia, 18 miles S. S. E. of 
 Cadiz. 
 
 CONIN, or KONIN, a town of Poland, in tlie palatinate of 
 Kalisch, IS miles S. S. E. of Gnesne.. 
 
 CONINGSBECK, or CONINGSECK, a county of Ger- 
 nianv, in the circle of Suabia.. 
 
 CoNiNGSECK, the capital of the county, 20 miles N. of Con- 
 stance. Eon. y. 20. E. Lat. 47. 50. N. 
 
 CONJOINT Degrees, in niusjc, two notes which imme- 
 diately follow each other in the order of the scale ; as nt and re. 
 
 Conjoint Tetkachords, two tetrachords, or fourths, where 
 the same chord is the highest of one and the lowest of the 
 other. 
 
 CONITZ, or CHOINITZ, a town of Poland, in Pomerella, 
 40 miles S. of Dantzic. 
 
 CONJUGATE Axis. See Conic Sections. 
 
 Conjugate Hyperbola. See Conic Sections. 
 
 CONJUGATION, IconJKgalio, i.ai.l in grammar, a regular 
 distribution of the several inllexions of verbs in their different 
 Toices, moods, tenses, numbers, and persons, so as to distinguisli 
 them from one anotlier. See Grammar I'.nd Language. 
 
 CONIUM, n EMLOCK : a genus of the digynia order, and pen- 
 tandria class of plants ; natiu'al order, Umbellata^ Partial involu- 
 cra halved, mostly triphvUous ; fruit subglobose, quinque-striated, 
 the stria? erenateci on each sidi'. There are live species. 
 
 C. Aekicanum, with prickly seeds, is a native of the Cape of 
 Good Hope, and rarely grows above nine inches high ; the lower 
 leaves are divided like those of the small wild rue, and are of a 
 greyish colour. 
 
 C. Macueatum, or the greater hemlock, grows naturally on 
 the sides of banks and roads in many parts of Britain. It is a bien- 
 nial plant which perishes after it has ripened its seeds. It has a 
 long taper root like a parsnip, but smaller. Tlie stalks are termi- 
 nated by umbels of while (lowers, each composed of about ten rays 
 or small innbels, and have a great niunber of flowers which spread 
 open, each sitting upon a distinct footstalk; the seeds are small 
 and channelled, and like those of anniseed. It flowers in June, 
 and the seeds ripen in autumn. This species is sometimes ap- 
 plied externally, in the form of decoction, infusion, or poultice, as 
 a discutient. 
 
 CONJUNCTION, in astronomy, the meeting of two stars or 
 planets in the same degree of tiie zodiac. See Astronomy. 
 
 Conjunction, in grannnar, an indeclinable word or particle, 
 which serves to join words and sentences together, and thereby 
 shews their relation or dependance one upon another. See 
 Grammar. 
 
 CONJURATION, pro])erly implies magic words, characters, 
 or ceremonies, whereby evil spirits, tempests, &c. are supposed 
 to be raised, or driven away. The Romish priests pretend to ex- 
 pel devils, by preparing holy water in a particular mamier, and 
 sprinkling it over the pos^essed, with a nun.ber of conjurations and 
 exorcisms. Some authors make the difference between conjura- 
 tion and witchcraft to consist in this ; that the former effects its 
 fnd by prayers and invocation of God's name, &:c. to compel the 
 devil to do what is desired ; so that the conjurer is supported to be 
 at war with the devil, and that evil spirit to act merely out of con- 
 straint : whereas the latter attains its end by an immediate appli- 
 cation to the devil himself; and the devil's complaisance is sup- 
 posed to be the consequence of some compact between them, so 
 that the devil and the w itch have a good understanding together. 
 Both these, again, differ from enchantment and sorcery ; in that 
 tliese latter operate secretly and slowly by, spells, charms, &:c. 
 without invoking the devil. 
 
 CONKERE, a town in Chinese Tartary. Lon. 102. 10. K, 
 Lat. 44. 50. N. 
 
 CON LIE, a town of France, in tlie department of Sarte, 10 
 miles N. W . of iMans. 
 
 CONNAUUS, Ceylon Sumach: a genus of the deoandria 
 order, and monodelphia class of plants. Stigma sinipie ; capsule 
 i bivalved, unilocular, and monospermous. T^iere are live species", 
 natives of warm climates. 
 
 CON NAUGHT, the most western of the four provinces of 
 Ireland, bounded on tlie E. by that of Leinster, on the Vi' . by the 
 ocean, on the N. and N. W. by part of the ocean and province of 
 Ulster, and on the S. and S. E. by Munster. It is 130 miles long, 
 and S4 broad ; and was anciently a kingdom. It has no rivers of 
 note besides the Shannon. It has several convenient bays and 
 creeks, and is fertile in many places. It contains tive counties ; viz. 
 Leitrim, Sligo, Mayo, Kosccmmon, and Galway ; wliicli compre- 
 hend 1 archl)ishopric, 5 b.si.oprics, 7 market-towns, 8 places of 
 trade, 10 boroughs, that seaa members to parliament, about 47,256 
 houses, 24 old castles, besiues fortresses that have been recently 
 erected, and .330 parishes. Galway is the chief town. 
 
 CONNAUX, a town o. trance, in the department of Gard, 
 9 miles N. I'., of Uzes. 
 
 CONNECTICUT, a brge river of North America, the most 
 considerable one in the eastern part of the United States. It rises 
 in the high lands \ihicli separate the states of Vermont and New 
 Ilampsliire from Lower Canada. Its course is generally S. S. W. 
 until it reaches tlie city oi Middleton ; after which it runs a S. S. 
 r^. coui-se to its mouth. 
 
 Connecticut, one of the United States of North America, 
 called by the ancient natives Quunnihticut, is situateil between 
 41.0. and 42. 2. lat. N. and between 71. 20. and 73. 15. lon. W. 
 Its greatest breadth is 72 miles, its length 100 miles. It is bound- 
 ed on the N. by Massachusetts, on the E. by Rhode Island; on 
 the S. by the sound which di\ ides it from Long Island, and oa 
 the \V. by the stale of New York. This state contains about 
 4674 squaie miles ; equal to about 2,1340,000 acres. Connecticut, 
 though subject to the extremes of heat and cold, as well .is to fre- 
 quent and sudden changes, is very healthful. From accurate cal- 
 culalicMi it is fomul, that about one in eight live to the age of se- 
 vcnl) andupwardis; one in thirteen to eighty, and one in about 
 thirty to ninety years of age. In the maritime towns the weather 
 is variable, according as the wind blows from the sea or land. la 
 the iiil.ind country it is less variable. Its principal productions 
 are Indian corn, rye, wheat, oats, and barley, which are heavy and 
 good; buck wheat, flux, hemp, potatoes of several kinds; pump- 
 kins, turnips, peas, beans, and fruits of all kind?. The soil is well 
 calculated for pasture and hav, which enables the farmers to feed 
 large numbers of neat cattle and hordes. 'I'he beef, porl<, butter, 
 and cheese, of Connecticut, are etjual to any in the world. Con- 
 necticut is divided, into eiyht counties, viz. Hartford, New Haven, 
 New London, p'airheld, Windham, Litchtield, Middlesex, and 
 Tolland. The counties are subilivided into upwards of 100 town- 
 ships ; each of which is a corporation, invested w itli |)ower to hold 
 lands, choose tlieir own officers, to make prudential laws, the pe- 
 nalty of transgression not to exceed 20* and to choose their own 
 representatives to the general assembly. 
 
 CONNECTIVES, in grammar, one of the four species under 
 which, according to Mr. Harris, all words may be included. They 
 are of two kinds ; and as they connect sentences or words, are 
 called by the diti'erent names of conjunctions and prepositions. 
 See Grammar. 
 
 CONN ELS, a town of the United States, in Pennsylvania, 25 
 miles W. S. W. of Cliambersburg. 
 
 CONN ERE, a town of France, in the department of Sarte, 
 12 miles E. N. E. of Mans. 
 
 CONNEXION, the relation whereby one thing adheres to, or 
 depends upon, another. Such is the relation between Euclid's 
 propositions, that the latter cannot subsist but by its connexion with 
 the former. 
 
 Connexion, or Continuity, in the drama, consists in the 
 joining of the several scenes together. The connexion is said to 
 be observed, when (he scenes of an act succeed one another im- 
 mediately, and are so joined as that the stage is never left empty. 
 
 CONNIVENTES Valvul.?:, or CONNTVENT Valves, 
 in anatomy, wrinkles, cellules, and vascules, in the inside of the 
 ilium and jejunum. See Anatomy. 
 
 CONNOISSEUR, [from connnilrc, French, to know,] lite- 
 rally siguilies a person well versed in any thing; aiid is used for
 
 co>Tiii" sectiwpj:^;. 
 
 A" 
 
 \ 
 
 "iV \ 
 
 i*^ .
 
 C ©BTG SE CTiwri s» : 
 
 ^fi.: ,^ fwy.-t:^ I^ttijl.-'n ^Aa^
 
 i
 
 i\ibii.^ht,i i'V J,in»... rotul.. Mi-uii rr.:,:,. L.vi.i,m ■
 
 
 MISCEILX.. 
 
 Fiq;. IDfclina-tor 
 
 Ji^lM^ tyj.m,^ .^mJ^.^IK^n IW^'.I'mdm^e'^i'-
 
 cor 
 
 11 
 
 CON 
 
 one who i< a llioroiigii Jiulge in any sciuicc, but particularly 
 paiutinii and sculjitiire. 
 
 CON NOU, a town of Ireland, in tlie county uf Antrim, 6 miles 
 JC. ol Antrim. 
 
 Connor, !5EaN'AR.D, M. D. and F. R. S. was born in Kerry, 
 Ireland, about A. D. l60d. He studied physic in the university 
 of Montpelier: and afterwards went to Paris, from thonce he 
 travelled to \'enice, and tlirougli great part of C'erinany, to Yt'-Av- 
 saw, where he was niade pliysiciau to king John Sobieski. In 
 1695, he came to England, read lectures in Londion, Oxford, and 
 Cambridge, and became member of llie Royal Society and Col- 
 Jege of Pliysicians. He wrote a singularly philosophical and me- 
 dical treatise in Latin, entitled " Evangelmm Medici," /. e. tlie 
 Physician's Gospel ; wickedly pretending to explain the miracles 
 performed by Christ as natural events, ujjon the principles of na- 
 tural philosophy. He wrote also " A History of Poland ;" 
 " Dissertations on Mount Vesuvius," &c. and died in lfi9S, 
 aged 3i. 
 
 "COXOCARPUS, Button Tree : a. genus of the monogynia 
 order, and pentandria class of plants ; natural order. Aggregate. 
 Corolla pentapetalous ; seeds naked, solitary, inferior ; flow ers 
 aggregate. There are three species, natives of the West Indies. 
 
 CONOID, a iigure generated bv the revolution of a conic 
 section about its axis ; there are, consequently, three kinds, an- 
 swering to the three conic sections, viz. tiie elliptical conoid, or 
 spheroid, the hyperbolic conoid, and tine parabolic conoid. If a 
 .conoid be cut by a plane in any position, the section will be of 
 the figure of some one of the conic sections ; and all parallel sec- 
 tions of the same conoid are like and similar figures. 
 
 CONOID ES, the pineal uland. See An.atomy. 
 
 CONON, a renowned Athenian general and admiral, who flou- 
 rished about B. C. 393. After his defeat by Lysauder, he fled to 
 Evagoras king of Cyprus : after which he put himself under the 
 protection of Artaxerxes king of Persia; with whose army he de- 
 livered Atiiens Uom his oppressors, and rebuilt its walls. In the 
 SoOth year of Rome, he beat the Lacedemonians in a sea-fight 
 near Cnidus upon the coast of Asia, deprived them of the sove- 
 reign rule they had on sea ever since the taking of Athens, and 
 had some other considerable advantages over them : but falling 
 into the hands of Teribazus a Persian, who envied his glory, he 
 was put to death. 
 
 CONOPEA, in botany, a genus of the class didynamia, and 
 order, angiospermia. Calyx five-cleft ; corolla ringent, two- 
 lipped ; stigma two-lobed ; capsule one-celled, four-valved ; seeds 
 many. One species, a native of Guiana. 
 
 CONOPOLl, a town of European Turkey, in Livadia, 10 
 Utiles N. E. of Lepanto. 
 
 CONORS, in zoology, a senus of insects of the order diptera. 
 Kobtrum porrected, and jointed like a knee; antennx terminated 
 by a flat and solid articulation, resembling the bowl of a spoon, 
 ^ith a lateral bristle. Tweut^-tuo species are enumerated. 
 
 CONOr, a town of Persia, in Lariston, on the coast of the 
 Persian Gulf, 66 miles E. S. E. of Lar. 
 
 Ct)NQUES, a town of France, in the department of Aveiron, 
 18 miles N. of Rhodez. 
 
 C(3NQUEST, in civil jin'isprudence, is the acquisition of pro- 
 perty in common by a number of persons. In some countries 
 they confound ac(|uisition with conquest ; but, according to the 
 most general acceptation, acquisition is the gaining of unappro- 
 priated goods before the establishment of a conmiunity : whereas 
 by the term conquest, is ordinarily intended whatever is acquired 
 J»y a number of persons in coninumity ; or bv some one far all 
 the others. As it is more especially in the union of persons by 
 marriagL- that a connnunitv of property takes place ; so it is in re- 
 ference to them that we frequently use the woid conquest. There 
 are nevertheless conquests also among other persons w ho are in a 
 tacit community or society ; such as obtain by particular local 
 customs. According to thi-; spn«e of the word, it has been con- 
 tended by several, that William I. claimed the kingdom of Eng- 
 land ; that is, not by right of arms but by right of conquest or ac- 
 {[uest ; under promise of succession made by Edward the C<)nles- 
 sor, and a contract entered into by Harold to support his preten- 
 sions to that succession ; and by old writers, conquestns, acqui- 
 sitio, and perquisitio, are fre<iucntly used a^ synonymous terms. 
 
 CovttUKST, in the law of nations. The iightof conquest i> 
 derived from the laws of war ; and w lien -i people h subjected. 
 
 the conduct of the conqueror is regulated by four kinds of law. 
 First, the law of nature, which dictates whatever terids to self-pre- 
 servation ; '2(\\y, our reason, which teaches us to us*; others, as we 
 would be treated ourselve:* ; 3d!y, the laws of political society, to 
 which nature has not assigned any precise boundary ; lastly, the 
 law which is derived from the particular circumstances attending 
 the conquest. Thus, a state conquered by anotiier will be treated 
 in one of the four methods following: Either the conqueror will 
 continue it under its own laws, and will only claim the exercise 
 of civil and ecclesiastical sovereiauty ; or he will impose a now 
 form of government ; or he will ri(-stroy the frame of their-socie- 
 ty, and incorpovati- the inhabitants with o'diei-s; or he will e.xtet- 
 niinate them : which last, to the disgrace of human nature, has 
 been too often done. 
 
 CONQUET, a town of France in Uie department of Finisterre, 
 12 miles W. of Brest. 
 
 CONSANGUINITY, or KINDRED, is either lineal or 
 collateral. 
 
 Consanguinity, Collatekal, agrees with the lineal in this, 
 that the collateral relations descend from the same ancestor ; but 
 dilfers in this, that they do not descend the one I'rom the other. 
 Collateral kinsmen are such as lineally spring from one and the 
 same ancestor, who is the stirps or root, the stirps, trunk, or com- 
 mon stock, from whence these relations are branched out. Thus if 
 Daniel Gogerly hastwo sons, who have each a numerous issue, both 
 these issues are descended from Daniel Gogerly as their com- 
 mon ancestor ; and they are collateral kinsmen to each other, be- 
 cause they are all descended from this common ancestor, and all 
 have a portion of his blood in their veins, which denonunates then* 
 consanguineous. Collateral consanguinity consists in this descent 
 from one and the same common ancestor. Thus Daniel Gogerly 
 and ills brother George are related, because both are derived from 
 one lather. George and his first cousin are related, because both 
 descend from the same grandfather ; and his second cousin's claim 
 to consanguinity is, that they are both derived from the same great- 
 grandtathcr. In siiort, as many ancestors as a man has, so man.y 
 common stocks he has from which collateral kinsmen may be de- 
 rived. And as we are taught by holy writ, th.it there is one couple 
 of conjmou ancestors belonging to us all, from whom the whole 
 race of mankind is descended, the obvious and undeniable conse- 
 quence is, that all men are in some <legree related to one another-. 
 For, indeed, if we only suppose each couple of our ancestors to 
 have left, one with another, two children ; and each of tliose chil- 
 dren to have loft, on an average, two more, (and without such a 
 supposition the liunKtu species must be daily diminishing) ; we shall 
 find tliat each of us now subsisting has above C6S millions of kin- 
 dred in the 15th degree, at the same distance from the several 
 common ancestors as we ourselves are, and in the 20lh degree no 
 fewer than 274,877,905,944 : besides those that are one or two de- 
 grees nearer to or farther from the common stock, who i.«aj 
 amount to as many more. And if this calculation sho;ild ajipear 
 incompatible with the number of inhabitants on the earth, it is be- 
 cause, by inter-marriages among the several descendants from the 
 same ancestor, a hundred or a thousand modes of consanguinity 
 may be consolidated in one person; or he may be related to us a 
 hundred or a thousand dilierent ways. The method of computing 
 these degrees in the canon law, which we have adopted,, is as fol- 
 lows. AV'e begin at the common ancestor, an<l reckon down- 
 wards ; and in whatsoever degree the two persons, or tlie most re- 
 mote of them, is distant from tlie common ancestor, that is the de- 
 gree in which they are related to each other. Thus, George and 
 his brother are related in the first degree ; for from the father to 
 each of them is counted only one: George and his nephew are re- 
 lated in the second degree ; for the nephew is two degrees removed 
 from the common ancestor, viz. his own grandl'.ither, the father of 
 (Jeorge. To give an iustan-.e from the English annals : KingHenry 
 VII. who slew Richard III. in the battle of Bosworth, wasrelaiL-d 
 to that prince in the fifth degree. Let the propositus, therefore, 
 in the table of consanguinity, repr.'sent Richard ill. iuid the cla>$ 
 miirked E, Henry \T1. Now their common ancestor was Ed- 
 ward III. the abavus in the same table : from him to Edward duke 
 of York, the proavus is one degiee ; to Richard earl of Cain- 
 bridge, the avus, two ; to Richard duke of York, the pater, 
 throe: -to kina: I'ichard HI. U\e propositus, four; and from ki«(; 
 F.dward III. to John of Catuit (a) is cue degree; to John I'"., ot 
 Somerset- (B) two; .to John Juke of .Somereet (c) three ; tdMar-
 
 CON 
 
 n 
 
 CON 
 
 garet coiiutcsB of Kitlinioiid (_d) fonr ; to king Henry VI!. (e) 
 live ; whicii last mentioned prince, lieing tlie farthest removed from 
 tlie comnio]] stock, gives tlie <ienomination to the decree of kin- 
 dred in tlie canon and municipal ia\v : '1 lioiigli according to the 
 computation of tlie civilians, (who count upwards from either of 
 the persons related to tiie cornmoii stock, and then downwards 
 auain to the other ; reckoning a degree for each pc-r=on both as- 
 cending and descending,) these two princes are related in llic 
 nintli (legree ; for from king Kicbard Hi. to Richard duke of 
 Yofk is one degree ; to Richard earl of Cambridge two ; to Ed- 
 jimnd"duke of York th.ree ; to king Edward HI. the common an- 
 cestor, four ; to John of (Jaunt Ave ; to Jolm earl of Somerset, six ; 
 to John duke of Somerset, seven; to Margaret countess of Rich- 
 mond, eight; to king Henry VII. nine. See the Talile of Con- 
 sanguinity, Plate LI, wherein all the degrees of collateral kindred 
 to the propositus are computed, as far as the l4th of the civilians 
 and the ninth of the canonists inclusive ; the former being distin- 
 guished by numeral letters, the latter by common figures. 
 
 CoN'SAMGUiNiTV, LiN'EAL, is that wiiich Subsist? between per- 
 sons of ■(vhom one is descended in a direct line from the other; as 
 between John Stocks, the propositus in the table of consanguinity 
 (See Plate LI',) and his father, grandfather, great-grandfather, and 
 so upwards in the direct ascending line; or between John Stock? 
 and his son, grandson, great-grandson, and so downwards in the 
 direct descending line. Every generation, in this direct lineal 
 consanguinity, constitutes a different degree, reckoning either up- 
 wards or downwards; the father of John Stocks is related to him 
 in the first degree, and so likewise is his son ; his srandsire and 
 grandson, in the second ; his great-grandsire and great-grandson in 
 the third. This is the only natural way of, reckoning the degrees 
 in the direct line; and therefore universally obtains, as well in the 
 civil and canon, as in the common law. This lineal consanguinity 
 falls strictly within the definition given by lawyers, of vinculum 
 personaruni, ab eodem stipite descendentium ; as lineal relations 
 descend one from the otlier, and both of course from the same 
 eommon ancestor. The doctrine of lineal consanguinity is suf- 
 ficently obvious; but it is astonishing to consider the number of 
 lineal ancestors which every man has, within no very great num- 
 ber of degrees: and so many ditferent bloods is a man said to con- 
 tain in his veins, as he has lineal ancestors. Of these he has two 
 in the lir>t ascending degree, his own parents; he has four in the 
 second; the parents of his father, and the parents of his mother: 
 he has eight in the third, the parents of his two grandfathers, and 
 of his two grandmothers ; and, by the same rule of progivssion, 
 he has 12S in the seventh ; 1024 in the tenth ; and at the aOth de- 
 gree, or the distance of twenty generations, every person has above 
 a million of ancestors, as common arithmetic will demonstrate. 
 This will seem surprising to tliose who are unacquainted with the 
 increasing power of progressive numbei-s ; but is palpably evident 
 from tlie annexed table, in which the tirst term is two, and the de- 
 nominator also two; for each of us has two ancestors in the first 
 degree, the number of whom is doubled at every remove ; because 
 each of our ancestors has also two immediate ancestors of his own. 
 A shorter way of finding the number of ancestors at any even de- 
 
 3 gree, is by squaring the number of ancestors at half that 
 
 4 number of degrees. Thus 1 6 the number of ancestors 
 8 at four ilegrces, is the square of four, the number ofan- 
 
 16 cestors at two ; 256 is the square of Ifi; 6553Gof256; 
 
 32 and the number of ancestors at 40 degrees would be the 
 
 64 square of 1 ,048,576, or upwards of a million of millions. 
 
 128 But notwithstanding these calculations are numerically 
 
 J56 just, they cannot be supposed to be strictly true of every 
 
 512 individual. On the contrary, we are certain from the 
 
 1024 "vast number of intermarriages, that have taken place 
 
 2048 among consanguineous relations in all agesand countries, 
 
 4096 that such estimates must be greatly beyond the truth 
 
 Sly2 with regard to a great majority of mankind. For in- 
 
 16384 stance, it a man's father and mi^ther are cousins german, 
 
 32768 the son and daughter of two brotheis, it is plain, that 
 
 •65336 though he has two grandfathers, he has not tour great- 
 
 131072 gramlfathers, but only three. And on this jirinciple, 
 
 *621-'!4 a Jew or Braniin, whwe ancestors, for twenty genera- 
 
 5242S8 lions, have constantly intermarried within their own 
 
 1048576 tribe, or cast, must have fewer ancsstors by many thou- 
 
 KUids, than a person whose ancestors were under no such restric- 
 
 »i,vn by Uw or custom. Ar.d we are tertaiu that the patriarch 
 
 very 
 
 Noah, although he might have had 32 ancestors in the 5th degrerr 
 had in tact only two in the tenth. Admitting every dedticlion, 
 however,- for the identity of particular ancestors, by internuir- 
 riages among near relations, still the number of lineal ances- 
 tors, which every individual has, must be allowed to be 
 great. 
 
 CONSAU, a town of Persia, in the province of Irak, 53 miles 
 N. W. of Ispahan. 
 
 CONS0.\CH, a town of Sweden, in S. Gothland, 32 miles N. 
 of U'ardbeg. 
 
 CONSCIENCE, [conscientia, Latin.] tlie knowledge or 
 faculty by which we judge of the goodness or wickedness of our- 
 selves. 
 
 CONSCIENCE, in ethics, the moral sense. See Mor.^l 
 Philosophy. 
 
 ("oNsciE:fcE Courts or, are courts of recovery of small 
 debts, constituted by act of parliament in London, Westminster, 
 &c. and other populous and trading districts. 
 
 CONSECRATION, a rite or ceremony of dedicating and de- 
 voting thin;;? or persons to the service of God, with an application 
 of certain proper solemnities. 
 
 CoN'SECBATioK is also Used for the benediction of the elements 
 in the euchiirist. 
 
 Consecration, in Jewish antiquity, the Mosaical law ordained, 
 that all the lirst-born, both of men and beasts, sliould be sanctifieci 
 or consecrated to God. W'c find also, that Joshua consecrated the 
 Gibeonites, as David and Solomon did the Nethinims, to the ser- 
 vice of the temple ; and that the Hebrews sometimes consecrated 
 their fields and cattle to the Lord, after which thev were no longer 
 in their power. 
 
 Consecration', among antitiuaries, is the representation on 
 medals of the apotheosis of an emperor, or his translation among 
 the gods. On one side is the emperor's head, crowned with lau- 
 rel, sometimes veiled; and the inscription gives him the title of 
 divus: on the reverse is a temple, a bustum, an altar, or an eagle 
 taking its llight towards heaven, either from off the altar, or frcwn 
 a cippus. Sometimes the emperor is seen in the air, born up by 
 the eagle ; the inscription always consecratio. These are the 
 usual symbols; yet on the reverse of that of Antoninus is the .\n- 
 tonine column. In the apotheoses of empresses, instead of aa 
 eagle tliere is a peacock. 
 
 Consecration op Churches, &c. Among the ancient Chris- 
 tians, the consecration of churches was performed with a great deal 
 of pious solemnity. In what manner it was done for the three first 
 ages, is uncertain ; tlie auth.enlic accounts reaching no higher than 
 the fourth, when in the peaceable reign of Constantine, churches 
 were every where built, and dedicated with great solenniity. Some 
 think the consecration consisted in sitting up the sign of the cross, 
 or in placing a communion table in the church ; and others, that 
 no mere was done than preaching a panegyrical sermon in com- 
 mcnioratiou of the founder, and tlulthen the\- jiroceeded to pray- 
 ers one of which was composed on purpose lor the church to be con- 
 secrated. The Romanists have a great deal of foppery in the 
 ceremonies of consecration ; which they bestow on almost every 
 thing, as bells, candles, books, water, oil, ashes, palms, swords, 
 banners, pictures, crosses, agnus-dei's, roses, children's clouts, ^-c. 
 In England, churches have been always consecrated svith parti- 
 cular ceremonies, the form of which was left to the discretion of 
 the bishop. That observed by archbishop Laud, in consecrating 
 St. Catherine Creed church, in London, gave great olience. 
 
 CONSECTARY, deduction from premises ; consequence ; co- 
 rollary. See Corollary. 
 
 CONSENT OF Parts, in the animal economy, an agreement 
 or sympathy, whereby, when one part is inmiediately affected,. 
 anotlier at a distance becomes affected in the same manner. This 
 mutual accord or consent is supposed to be effected by the com- 
 merce (if the nerves, and their ramification tliroughout the bodv. 
 1 he effect is so sensible as even to come under the phvsicians cno-- 
 nizance : the remedy, therefore, in such cases, is to regard the 
 part originally affected, how remote and grievous soever may be 
 the consequences and symptoms in other places. The fifth con- 
 jugation of nerves branched to the parts of the eye, the ear, those 
 ot the mouth, cheeks, pracordia, and parts adjacent, ;tc. is sup- 
 posed by naturalists to be tlie instrument of that particular and ex- 
 traordinary consent between those parts. Hence a savoury thins 
 seen or siiielled e.xcites the appetite, and all'ects Ui? glaiids and 
 
 parte
 
 CON 
 
 13 
 
 CON 
 
 parts of the uioutii ; that a shameful thing seen or heard affects the 
 checks with blushes ; on the cor.trary, if it please, it attiects the 
 pracorciia, and excites the muscles of tlie mquth and face to laugli- 
 tcr; if it grieve, it afl'ects the glands of the eyes, so as to occasion 
 tears, and the uiiiscles of the fate, putting them into an aspect of 
 crying. Dr. Willis, cjuoted by Mr. Derham, imputes the pleasure 
 ot kissing, and its elfecls, to this pair of nerves; which being 
 branched both to the lips and the genital p:irts, when the former are 
 alU'ected an irritation is occasioned in the latter, bee Sympathy. 
 
 COXSENTES, in Roman antiquity, the twelve superior gods, or 
 
 Dii majorum gentium. The word signifies as much as consenti- 
 
 entes ; that is, who consented to the deliberations of Jupiter's 
 
 council. Emiius has briefly expressed their names in these lines, 
 
 Juno, Ve^ta, Minerva, Ceres, Diana, Venu-, Mars, 
 
 Mercurius, Jovi, Neptunus, Vulcanus, Apollo, 
 
 CONbENZ.A, a town of Naples, in Calabria Citerior, anciently 
 called Consentia, 16 miles from the coast. Lou. 16. 39. E. Lat. 39. 
 35. N. 
 
 CONSEQUENCE, [consequcntia, Lat.] in l<^;^ic, the conclu- 
 sion, or what results from reason or argument. See Conclusion. 
 The consequence is that other proposition in which the extremes 
 or premises of a syllogism are joined or separated ; and is gained 
 from what was asserted in the premises. This word, in a more 
 restrained sense, is used for the relation or connection between 
 t« o propositions, whereof one is inferred from the other. 
 
 CONSEQUENT, something deduced or gathered from a for- 
 mer argumentation. But, in a more precise sense, it is used for 
 the proposition which contains the conclusion, considered in itself, 
 without any regard to the antecedent : in which sense the conse- 
 quent may be true, though the consequence be false. See tlie pre- 
 ceding, article. 
 
 CoKSEdUEKT OF A Ratio, in mathematics, the latter of the 
 two terms of a ratio, or tliat to which the antecedent is compared ; 
 thus in 711 : n, or nt to n, n is the consequent, and m the antecedent. 
 See the articles Ratio and Proportion. 
 
 CONSERANS, a territory of France, being the S. \V. divi- 
 sion of the late province of Gasconv. 
 
 CONSERVATOR, an otlicer ordained for the preservation of 
 the privileges of some cities and communities, having a com- 
 mission to judge of and determine the diflerences among them. 
 In most catholic universities there are two conservators ; the con- 
 servator of royal privileges, or those granted by kings; and the 
 conservator of apostolical privileges, or those granted by the popf. 
 The first takes cognizance of personal and mixed causes between 
 the regents, students, &c. and the latter of spiritual matters be- 
 tweea ecclesiastics. 
 
 CoXSERV.\TOR OF ScOTS PRIVILEGES, AT Ca.MPVERE, an 
 
 officer belonging to the royal boroughs of Scotland, who before 
 the late revolution in the "United Dutch States, took care of the 
 mercantile arl'airs of Scotland, agreeably to the staple contract be- 
 - tween them and the States-General. 
 
 Conservator of the Peace, in the ancient English customs, 
 was a person who had a special charge, by virtue of his oftice, to 
 see the king's peace kept. Till the erection of justices of the 
 peace by king Edward 111. there were several persons who by 
 common law were interested in keeping the same : some having 
 that charge as incident to other offices ; and others simpl v, or of it- 
 self, called custodes, or conservators of the peace. 
 
 Conservator op the Truce, and Safe Conducts, was 
 an officer appointed in every sea-port, under the king's letters 
 patent. His charge was to enquire of all oiVences committed 
 against the king's truce, and safe conducts upon the main sea, out 
 of the franchises of the cinque-ports, as the admirals were wont to ' 
 do, and such other things as are declared anno 3 Hen. V. cap. 6. 
 
 CONSERVATORIO, a musical school for tlie instruction of 
 children in the profession of music. There are four of these at \'i.>- 
 nice, for the education of girls, and three at Naples, for that of boys. 
 
 CONSERV E, in pharmacy, a form of medicine contrived'to 
 preserve the flowers, herb-, roots, or fruits of several simples, as 
 near as possible to what they were when fresh gathered. See 
 Pharmacy. 
 
 CONSIDERATION, inlaw, the material cause or ground of 
 a contract, w ilhout which the party contracting would not be bound. 
 
 CONSIGLIO.NE, a town ofSit.lv, in tlie valley of Mazar, 
 r Ji9 miles S. of Palermo. 
 
 CONSIGN M ENT, in Uw, the depositing of any ^\m of money, 
 
 VOL. II. — NO. 66. " ' ' 
 
 bills, papers, or commodities, hi good hands; either by appoint- 
 ment of a court of justice, in order to be delivered to the persons 
 to w hom tliey are adjudged : or voluntarily, in order to their being 
 remitted to the persons tliey belong to, or sent to the places they 
 are designed for. 
 
 Consignment of Goods, in commerce, is the delivering or 
 making of them over to another ; thus, goods are saidtobecoHsigned 
 to a factor, when tliey are sent to him to be sold, &c.*or when a 
 factor sends batit- goods to his principal, they are said to te con- 
 signed to him. 
 
 CONSISTENCE, in physics, that state of a body wherein its 
 component jiarticles are so connected or entangled among them- 
 selves, as not to separate or recede from each other. It dilfer« 
 from continuity in this, that it implies a regard to motion or rest, 
 which continuity does not, it being suificient todenom'mate a thing 
 continuous that its paits are contiguous to each other. 
 
 CONSISTENT ES, inchxrch-history, a kinti of penitents who 
 were allowed to assist at prayers, but who could not be admitted 
 to receive the sacrament. 
 
 CONSISTORY, signifies as much as pra-torium, a tribunal; 
 it is commonly used for a council-house, session, or assembly of 
 ecclesiastics. 
 
 Consistory, is particularly used for the pope's senate and 
 council, before whom judiciary causes were pleaded at Rome. 
 This consistory, or College of Cardinals, (as it is also called) was 
 the first court of tribunal at Rome before the revolution of the 1 5th 
 Feb. 1798. It never met but when the pope pleased to convoke 
 it: he presided in person mounted on a magnititent throne, and 
 habited in his pontificalia ; on the right sat the cardinal bishops 
 arid priests, and on the left the cardinal deacons. The place 
 where it was held, was a large hall in the apostolical palace, where 
 princes and ambassadors were received. The othe" prelates, pro- 
 thonotaries, auditors of the rota, and other officers were seated on 
 the steps of the throne : the courtiers sat on the ground ; :uiibai- 
 sadors on the right, and consistorial and fiscal advocates behind the 
 cardinals. Besides the public consistory, there was also a private 
 one, held in a retired chamber, called the chamber of papegay ; 
 the pope's throne being only raised two steps. Nobody was ad- 
 mitted but the cardinals, whose opinions were collected, and 
 called sentences. 
 
 Consistory was also used among the reformed, for a council 
 or assembly of ministei-s and elders, to regulate their aiiairs, dis- 
 cipline, &:c. 
 
 Consistory, or Court, Christian, in the English laws, is a 
 council of ecclesiastical persons, or the plate of justice in an eccle- 
 siastical or spiritual court. Every archbishop and bishop has. a 
 consistory court, held before his chancellor or commissarv, either 
 in hiscathedial, in some chapel, aisle, or portico, or in some other 
 convenient place of his diocese, for ecclesiastical causes. 
 
 CONSOLATION, in rhetoric, one of the points, wherein the 
 orator endeavours to moderate the grief of another. 
 
 CONSC~)[,E, ill architecture, an ornament cut upon the key of 
 an arch, which has a projecture, and, on occasion, serves to sup- 
 port little corniches, figures, busts, and vases. They are also 
 called mutules and n'odiilions, according to their form. 
 
 CONSONANCE, in music, is ordinarily used in the same 
 sense with concord, viz. for the union or agreement of two sounds 
 produced at the same time, the one grave and the other acute; 
 which mingling in the air in a certain proportion, occasion an ac- 
 cord agreeable to the ear. See Concop.d. 
 
 CONSONANT, [^consomms, Lat.] a letter which cannot bs- 
 sounded, or but imperfectly, by itself. 
 
 CONSONANT S are divided into mutes and liquids ; and sub- 
 divided into labials, den'als, &:c. See Gra.m.mar. 
 
 CONTiPIRACY, in law, signifies an agreement between two or 
 more, falsely to indict, or procure to be indicted, an innocent 
 person of felony. 
 
 CONSPIRATORS are, by statute, defined to be such as bind 
 themselves by oath, covenant, or other alliance, to assist one _ 
 another falsely and maliciously to indict persons, or falsely to main- ' 
 lain pleas. 
 
 Conspirators in treason, are those that plot against the king 
 and the government. 
 
 CONSPIRING Powers, in mechanics, all such as act in 
 (Krection not opposite to one another. 
 
 CONSTABLE, ffrom corns stabidi,'] an officer ancientlv well 
 E * '.^nowa
 
 C (> N 
 
 14 
 
 CON 
 
 known in tlic cni|)ii'e ; so called, becaiise, like (lie ijreiit constable I 
 of France, (an office suppressed by Lewis XIII.) as well ai tUc 1 
 lord high con-.table of England, he was to regulate all matters of 
 cliivalry, tilts, tournaments, and feats of anns, which were per- 
 formed on liorseba'k. 
 
 Constable, Lord High, or Engi.avd, is the 7th great of- 
 ficer of the crown ; and he with the rarl niar.-.lial of England, were 
 formerly judges of tiie court of chivalry, called in king Ueiuy 
 IV. 's time Curia Mililaris, and now the court of honour. It is 
 the fountain of the martial law, and anciently was held in the 
 king's hall. The power of the lord high constable was formerly 
 so great, and ofwiiich soiniproper a use was made, that so early 
 as the 13th of king Richard 11. a statute passed for regulating and 
 abridging it, together «ith that of the earl marshal of England; 
 and by lliis statute, no plea could be tried by tlieni or their courts, 
 that could l>e tried by tlie common law of the realm. 'I'he office 
 ef constable is said to have existed before the con<|uest. After 
 the conquest, the office went with inheritance, and bv the tenure 
 of the manors of Harleiield, New ham, and Whitenlunst, in Glou- 
 cestershire, by grand sergeanty, in the family of the I5ohnns earl of 
 Hereford ami Hssex, and afterwards in the line of Stal'ford as heirs 
 general to lliem ; but in 1321, this great oiiice became forfeited 
 to the king in the person of Edward .'itallbrd duke of Buckingham, 
 who was that year attainted for high treason ; and in consideration 
 of its extensive power, dignity, and large authority, both in war 
 and ])cace, it has never been granted to any ijcrson, otherwise 
 than hac vice, to attend at a coronation, or trial by combat. 
 
 CoNSTABLe, Lord High, OF ScoTi.ANn, is an office of great 
 antiquity and dignity. 1 he first upon record is Hugo dc Mor- 
 ■velle in the reign of l)avid [. He has two grand prerogatives, vii!. 
 I. The keeping of the king's sword, which the king, at his pro- 
 motion, when he swears fealty, delivers to him naked. Hence 
 the badge of the constable is a naked sword. 3. I'he unlimited 
 command of the king's armies in the held, in the absence of tlie 
 king ; but this command did not extend to castles and garrisons. 
 He was likewise judge of all crimes conujiitted witliin two leagues 
 of the king's house, which precinct was called Uie Chalmer of 
 Peace. 
 
 Constables, Inferior. From the great ofiice of high consta- 
 ble is dei'ived that inferior order, since called the constables of 
 lumdreds and franchises; these were first ordained in the 13th year 
 of Edward I. by the statute of Winchester: which, from the con- 
 servation of the peace, and view of armour, appointed that two 
 constables slonld be chosen in every hundred and franchise. 
 These are what we now call constabularii capitales or High Con- 
 stables ; berause continuance of time, and increase of p(.'ople, &c. 
 have occasioned others of like nature, but inlerior authority, in 
 every town, called petty constables, or sub-conslabiilarii, first in- 
 stituted about the reign of Edward HI. The former, or modern 
 high con-itables, are appointed at the court leets of liie franchise or 
 luindred over which they preside ; or, in del'ault of that, by the 
 justice at their <piarter sessions ; and are removeahle by the same 
 authority that appoints them. The petty constables have two of- 
 fices united in them, the one ancient and the other modern. 
 Their ancient office is that of head-borough, tithing-nian, or bors- 
 holder; who are as ancient as the time of king .Mired ; their more 
 modern office is that of a constable merely: which was appointed 
 so lately as the reign of Edward III. to assist the high constable. 
 And in general the ancient head-buroughs, titliing-men, rnd bors- 
 holdcrs, were made use of to serve as petty constables ; though 
 not so generally, but that in many places they still continue dis- 
 tinct officers from the constables. Tliey are all chosen by the 
 jury at the court-leet; or if no court-leet be held, are a|)i)ointed by 
 two justices of the peace. The general duty of all constables, 
 botli high and petty, as well as the other officers, is to keep the 
 king's peace in their several districts; and tg that purpose they 
 are armed with very large powers of arresting and imprisoning, of 
 breaking open houses and the like ; of the CNtent of which powers, 
 considering what manner of men are for the mt'st part put upon 
 these offices, it is perhaps very well they are generally kept in ig- 
 norance. One of their principal duties arisnig from tlie statute of 
 Winchester, which appoints thein, is to keep watch and ward in 
 their respective jmi-dictions. The constable may ap[)oint watch- 
 men at hi< discretion, ref^ukited by the custom of the place; and 
 
 these, being hi^ deputies, have, for 
 of their principal. 
 
 the time being, tlie authorit\ 
 
 CONSTADT, a town of Silesia in the principality of Oels, \i- 
 miles E. S. E. of Namslaa. 
 
 CONSTANCE, a strong town of Germany, in the circle of 
 Suabia, seated between two lakes, io miles N. E. of Zorich. 
 Lon. 9. 10. E. Lat. -''7. 38. N. 
 
 Constance, Lower, or Zeller Zee, a lake between Ger- 
 many and Switzerland, 16 miles long and 10 broad. 
 
 Constance, Upper, or Baden Zee, a large lake between Ger- 
 many and Switzerland, A5 miles long and IS k.road. The Rhine 
 runs through both it and the lower lake. 
 
 Constancy, in ethics, implies steadiness, particularly under 
 sul'lerings. It was the saying of a heathen philosopher. That there 
 cannot be imagined upon earth a spectacle more worthy the re- 
 gard of the Creator, than a brave man superior to his sufl'erings. 
 Nothing indeed can be more honourable than to have courage to 
 execute the commands of reason and conscience ; and to be 
 proof against poverty, pain, and death itself, so far as not to 
 ilo any thing that is scandalous or sinful to avoid tliem. Of this 
 virtue tlie tollv'ving example is selected, as at least equal to any 
 other upon record ; though the marly relogy of Scottand furnishes 
 many not inferior. Sir William Askew of Kelsay, in Lincoln- 
 shire, had several daughters. His second, named Anne, had re- 
 ceived a genteel education; which, with an agreeable figure and 
 good understanding, rendered her a very proper person to be at 
 the head of a family. Her father, regardless of his daughter's in- 
 clination and happiness, obliged her to marry a gentleman who 
 had nothing to recommend him but his fortune, antl who was a 
 most bigoted Papist. No sooner was he convinced of bis wife's 
 regaril lor the (loctrines of the reformation, than, bv the instiga- 
 tion of the priests, he violently drove her from his house, though 
 she had born him two children, and her conduct was unexception- 
 able. Abandoned by her liusUmd, she came up to London, ta 
 procure a divorce, and make herself known to that part of the 
 court who either professed or were favourers of Protestantism ; 
 but as Henry VHI. had just enacted the law of the six articles, 
 commonly called the bloody statute, she was cruelly betrayed by 
 her own husband ; and, upon his information, taken into custody, 
 and examined concerning her faith. The act denounced death 
 against all who should deny transubstantiation ; or, maintain the 
 iiccessily of receiving the sacrament in both kinds; or affirm, that 
 it was lawful for priests to marry ; that the vows of celibacy might 
 be broken ; that private masses were of no avail ; and that auri- 
 cular confession to a priest was not necessary to salvation. I'poa 
 these articles she was examined by the inquisitor, a priest, the lord 
 mavor of London, and the bishop's chancellor; and to all their 
 queries gave proper answers ; but not being such as they approv- 
 ed, she was sent back to prison, where she remained eleven day* 
 alone, beiug denied the small consolation of a friendly visit. The 
 king's council being :it Greenwich, she was once more examined 
 by chancellor Wriothesley, Gardiner bishop of Winchester, Dr. 
 Cox, and Dr. Kobinson ; but not being able to convince her of 
 her supposed errors, she was sent to the tower. Mr. Strype, from, 
 an autnentic paper, gives the following short account of her exa- 
 mination : — "Sir Nlartin Bowes (lord mayor) sitting with the 
 council, as most meet for his wisdom, aiul seeing Iier stand upon 
 life and death, I f>ray you, quoth he, my lords, give me leave to 
 talk to this woman ? Leave was granted. Lorn Mayor. Thou 
 foolish woman, savest thou that the priest cannot make the holy 
 body of Christ? ^/. ylfkcn: I say so, my lord: for I have read 
 that God made man ; but that man made God I never read ; nor 
 I suppose ever shall read it. L. M. No! Tnou foolish Avonian, 
 after the words of consecration, is it not the Lord's body ? y/. j1. 
 No: it is but cousecr.ited bread, or sacramental bread, /,. M. 
 What if a mouse eat it after consecration ; what shall become of 
 this mouse? wh:it sayestthou, thou foolish woman? yl.^-1. \\hat 
 shall become of her, say you, my lord ? /,. .U. I say, that the 
 mouse is damned, yl. A. Alack, poor mouse !" Perceiving that 
 sfime could not keep in their laughing, the coungl pioceeiled to 
 the butchery and slaughter that lliey intended before they came 
 there. It w:n strongly suspected, tliat Mrs. A-kew was favoured 
 by some ladies pf high rank ; and th it she carried en a religious 
 corre-pcndcnce with the (picen. So that the chancellor Wriothes- 
 ley, lioping that he might discover something th.,t would al'lord 
 matter of impeachment against that princess, the Earl of Hertlord, 
 or bis lountess, who all lavoureil reformation, ordered her to be 
 put to the rack ; but her fortitude in sufl'ering, and her resolution 
 
 not
 
 CON 
 
 1.5 
 
 CON 
 
 l)i)t to helrav tier friends, was proof ngainstthat iliabolical inven- 
 tion. Not :i groan, not a word, coul<l be extorted from her. The 
 fliaiiCfUor, provoked with what he called her obstinacy, angment- 
 cd her tortnres with liisown hands, and with unlieard of violence ; 
 but her coiirai;e and con>taiKy were invincible ; and tliese barba- 
 rians gained notliing by their cruellies but everlasting disgrace and 
 infamy. As soon as she was taken from the rack, she fainted away ; 
 but bting recovered, she was condemned to the llamcs. Her 
 bones were dislocated in such a manner, that tliey were forced to 
 L".irrv her in a chair to the place of execution. While she was at 
 the slake, letters were brought her from the lord chancellor, offer- 
 ing her tiie king's pardon if she would recant, liutshe rcfuseil to 
 look at them; telling the messenger, that "she came not thiliier 
 to deny her Lord and Master." The same letters were also len- 
 <lered to three other persons condemned to the same fate ; and 
 who, animated by her example, refused to accept them. Where- 
 upon the lord mayor commanded the hie to be kindled ; and 
 with savage ignorance cried out. Fiat justitia, " Let ju<tice take its 
 couree." The faggots being lighted, she commendi'd her soul, 
 with the utmost composure, into the hands of lier Maker; and, 
 like the great founder of the religion she professed, expired, pray- 
 ing for her murderers, July 16, 1546, about the 25th year of 
 her age. 
 
 CONSTANTIA, a district at the Cape of Good Hope, con- 
 sisting of two farms, which produce the well known wine so much 
 prized in Europe, and known by tlie name of Cape or Constantia 
 wine. 
 
 CONSTANTINA, a territory of Africa, in the kingdom of 
 Algiers. 
 
 CoNSTANTiNA, the Capital of the above territorv, 75 miles from 
 the sea. Lon. 7. \'2. E. Lat. 36. 4. N. 
 
 CoNSTAKTi.sA, a small territory of Spain, in Andalusia. 
 
 CoxsTAXTiNA, the Capital of the above territorv. Lon. 5. 35. 
 W. Lat. 37.-40. X. 
 
 CONSTANTINE, thenameof 13 emperors of the East. There 
 ieastrange inaccuracy among authors in enumerating the emperors 
 of this name. Some makeonly IX; others X; Alstedins reckons 
 XI ; Marcel and other good chronologists enumerate XIII ; while 
 almost all of them occasionally blunder in their numbers, when 
 applied to particular emperors. 
 
 CoxsTANTiNE I. sumauied the Great, the hrst emperor of the 
 Romans who embraced Christianity. Dr. Anderson in his Iloval 
 Genealogies, makes him not only a native of Britaui, but the soii of 
 a Brrtish princess. It is certain that his father Constantius Chlorus, 
 was at York, when, upon the abdication of Dioclesian, he shared 
 theRoman empirewith (Valerius Maximinus in 305, and that he died 
 in York, in 3o6 ; having first caused his son Constantine to be 
 pnx^laimed emperor by his array, and by the Britons. Galerius 
 at first refused to admit Constantine to his' father's share in the im- 
 perial throne; but after having lost several battles, he consented in 
 30S. Maxentius, who succeeded Galerius, opposed him : but was 
 deft-ated, and drowned himself in the Tiber. The senate then de- 
 clared Constantine lirst Augustus, and Licinius his associate in the 
 empire, in 313. These princes published an edict, in their joint 
 names, in favour of the Christians: but soon after Licinius, jea- 
 lous of Constantine's renown, conceived an implacable hatred 
 against him, and renewed the persecutions against the Christians. 
 This brought on a rupture between the eniperors, and a battle, in 
 vhich Constantine was victorious. A short peace ensiled; but 
 Licinius having shamefully violated the treaty, the war was renew- 
 ed when Constantine totally defeating him, he tied to Nicomedia, 
 where he was taken prisoner and strangled in i'23. Constantine, 
 now becoming solemasterof iheVholeempire.imjiediatelv formed 
 the plan of establishing Christianity as the religion of tlie state; for 
 which purpose he convoked several ecclesiastical councils: but 
 Jinding he was likely to meet with great opposition from the Pa- 
 <;an interest at Rome, he conceived the design of founding a new 
 city, to be the capital of his empire. See Consta.s'tinople. 
 Constantine now displayed his regaril for the religion which he 
 had adopted, by building numerous churches, and taking a iournev 
 to Jerusalem to visit the holy sepulchre. lu the Holy Land he 
 orected a church at liethlehem. At this time the Christian world 
 was disturbed by the disputes between the orthodox and the 
 Ariaiis. At the head of the first stood Athanasiua, to vvhoui Con- 
 stantine sbe wed but little favour, a»d con-entetl to his baniMiment; 
 
 6 
 
 but afterwards he condemned the doctrines of Arius, and adhered 
 to the Niceiie confession. He poured a flood of wealth on the 
 Christian world. With this zeal for r<.-ligion he blended couragp 
 and justice. He ])erformed many actions that entitled him to the 
 name of Great. In 332, the Sarmatians iniplorctl his asiiilanro 
 against the Golhs, who had made an irruption into their territories, 
 and destroyed every thing with fire and sword. The einperov 
 readily gr.mted their request, and gained a complete victory. 
 Near 100,000 of the enemy ))erished, either in the battle, or 
 after it, with hunger and cold. In consequence of this overthrow , 
 the Goths were obliged to sue for peace ; but the ungrateful Sar- 
 matians no sooner found themselves delivered from their enemies, 
 than they turned their arms against their benetactor, and ravaged 
 the provinces of Masia and Thrace. The emperor, receiving in- 
 telligence of this treachery, rfturned with incredible expedition, 
 cut great numbers of them in ])ieces, and obliged the rert to sub- 
 mit. Constantine seems to have been a prince very highly re- 
 spected, even by far distant nations. In 333, according to E«- 
 sebius, ambassadors arrived at Constantinople from the Blemyei;, 
 Indians, Ethiopians, and Persians, comting his liiendship. They 
 were received in a most obliging maimer ; and learning from the 
 ambassadors of Sapor, king o? Persia, that there were great num- 
 bers of Christians in their master's dominions, Coiislantiiie wrote 
 a letter in their behalf to the Pei-sian monarch. Next year, the 
 Sarmatians being attacked by the Cloths, found themselves obliged 
 to arm their slaves against them. They thus overcame the Goths : 
 but the victorious slaves turning their arms against their masters, 
 drove them out of the country. This misl'orlune obliged them, to 
 the number of 300,000, to apply for relief to the emjieror, w ho in- 
 corporated with his legions such as were capable of service ; and 
 fave settlements to the rest in Thrace, Scythia, Mucedon, and 
 taly. This was the last remarkable 2ction of Constantine. He 
 died May ^5, aged 66, 337, having divided the empire among his 
 children and nephews, in the following manner. Constantine, 
 his eldest son, had Gaul, Spain, and Britain; Constantius, the se- 
 cond, had Asia, Syria, and Egypt ; and Constans, the younge.-t, 
 lUyricuni, Italy, and Alrica, To his nephew Dalnnitius, he gave 
 Thrace, Macedon, and Achaia ; and to king Annabalianiis, his 
 other nephew, Armenia Minor, Pontus, Cappadocia, and tlse city 
 of Cffisarea, which he desired might be the capital of his king- 
 dom. 
 
 CoKSTANTiNE, RoBERT, a learned physician born at Caen, 
 taught polite literature in that city : and acquired great reputa- 
 tion by his skill in the Greek language, in hi'-torv, and in medi- 
 cine. He died in 1603, aged 103. He wrote a dictionary in 
 Greek and Latin, and other works, which are esteemed. 
 
 Constantine, in geegra]>hy, a kingdom of Africa, in Barbarv, 
 bounded on the N. by the Mediterranean, on the E. bv the king- 
 dom of Tunis, on the S. by Biledulgend, and on tl:e"\V. bv the 
 river Sufegniar, which separates it from the kingdom of Bugia. It 
 is the new Numidia of the ancients, and had its own kings; but 
 it is now a province of Algiers. 
 
 CONST ANTINOPLE, one of l^ie largest and most celebrat- 
 ed cities ill Europe, situated at (he eastern extremity of Komania, 
 and capital of the Ottoman empire. It is delightfufly situated be- 
 tween the Black Sea and the Archipelago, and is now called 
 fstampol by the Turks, and by the Greeks Stampoli. It is 700 
 miles S. E. of Vienna. Lon. 28. 59'. E. from London, Lat. 4l. 1. 
 N. There are a great number of ancient monuments, of the origi- 
 nal grandeur of Constantinople, still remaining. Among these 
 may be mentioned the ancient Hippodrome, bfguii by Alexander 
 Severus and finished by Constantine. The Turks call it Atmei- 
 dan. It has a pvramiil of Theban marble inscribed with hiero- 
 glyphics. See HirpoDROME. There is also a colossus consist- 
 ing of several square blocks of free-stone; a triangular pillar of 
 cast brass representing tliree serpents entwined in each other, but 
 the triple head is wanlinc"; a column erected in honour of thi. em- 
 peror Arcadius, ire. but the superb temple of St. Sophia, now 
 converted into a mosque, surpasses all thereat for grandeur and 
 elegance. This city was enlarged and beautilied by the einperor 
 Coii.tamini' the Great, hi 330. At the same time lie transferred 
 thither Vhe seat of the empire; and this removal is generally 
 thought to h;ive been one of the principal causes of tlie sudden 
 dtcline of the we>lern empire. The numb'-r of inh:ibitants in this 
 extensive citv, has been vaviouslv eiHimatah Dr. Brookes and 
 
 Mr.
 
 .CON 
 
 16 
 
 COM 
 
 Mr. Walker state it at 800,000; of whom one-halt are Turks; 
 two-thirds of the other half Christiati?, and the rest Jews. Mr. 
 Criitwell makes it 900,000 ; of w hem 300,000 are Greeks, nearly 
 200,000 Armenians,, and the rest Turks or other Europeans. But 
 frojn the frec|ueiit depredations inade by the plague, estimateii.of 
 the population of this city made at different periods mutt nccessa- 
 ril) vary. 
 
 "CoNSTAKTiS'OPLE, THE SxRAiT OF, anciently called Thracian 
 Boiphoru', and lorniins; tiie conimuniaition between the Euxirte 
 or Black Sea, and the Propontis, or sea of Marmora, is "0 miles 
 lona;, and a mile and a quarter broad, where it is narrowest. 
 
 CONSTAN TINOW, a town of Poland, inVolhynia, 96 miles 
 S.E. ot Lucko. 
 
 Ct)N.STANTIUS I, surnained Chlorus, one of l!ie few ex- 
 cellent emperors of Rome. He succeeded along with Galerius, 
 A.U. 305, and died at York jn 31 1, leaving a character completely 
 annable. To llie military fame justly acquired in his victorious 
 expeditions to Germany and Britain, he added the virtues of fru- 
 gality, chastity, temperance, clemency, justice, and mercy. 
 Thouj^l) not a professed Christian himself, ho would not suffer the 
 Christians to be injured; and on Ijis death-bed, he particularly re- 
 commenilec. them to the protection of his soa and successor, Con- 
 stantine the Great. 
 
 CONSTAT, in law, a certificate which the clerk of the pipe 
 and auditors of the exchequer make at the request of any person 
 who intends to plead or move in that court lor ttie distharge of 
 anything; and the effect of it is, the certifying wliat does constcre 
 upon record touching the matter in question. A constat is held 
 to be superior to a certilicate ; because this may err or fail in its 
 cont.enls; that cannot, as i:ertifving nothing but what is evident 
 upon record. I'he exemplihcation under the great seal of tlie en- 
 rolment ot anv letters patent is also called constat. 
 
 CONSTELLATION, in astronomy, a systetn of several stars, 
 near one another, but not in a cluster. Astronomers not only 
 mark out the stars, but to bring them into order, they distinguish 
 them by their situations and positions in respect to.each other; and 
 distribute them into constellations, allowing several stars to make 
 up one constellation. For the better distinguishing of them, they 
 reduce these constellations to the forms of animals, as men, bulls, 
 bears, &c. ; or to the images of some things known, as of a crown, 
 a harp, a balance, &c. ; or give them the names of those, whose 
 memories they wish to transmit to future ages. The division of 
 the stars by images and tigiires is of great antiquity, for in the book 
 of Job, Orion, Arcturus, and the Pleiades, are mentioned; and we 
 meet with the names of many constellations in the writings of Ho- 
 mer and Hesiod. The ancients, in their division of the lirmament, 
 took in only so much as came under their notice, di.itributing it 
 into 48 loiistellatioiis; but the modern astronomers comprehend 
 the wh.ole starry hrmament, dividing it into thi-ce regions. See 
 
 ASTRU.NOMY. 
 
 CONSTITUENT Part, in physiology, differs little from ele- 
 ment and principle, which see. 
 
 CONS'l ri UTION, in a physical sense, is the particular tem- 
 perament of the body, whicii depends chiefly on the state of its 
 Imiiiours or fluids, and sometimes also on the solids, but especially 
 the nerves. It is curious, says Dr. Percival, to observe the revo- 
 lution that has taken place, within the last century, in the constitu- 
 tions of the inhabitants of Europe. Inflammatory diseases occur 
 less frequently ; and in general are less rapid and violent in their 
 effects, than they were formerly.. This advantageous change, 
 however, is more than counter-balanced by the introduction of de- 
 bilitating articles of food and drink, several of which were utterly 
 unknown to our ancestors, but now universally prevail. The bo- 
 dies of men are enfeeliled -uid enervated; and it is not uncommon 
 
 ■ to observe very high degrees of irritability, under the e.vternal ap- 
 pearance of great strength and robustness. The hypochondria, pal- 
 .sies, cachexies, dropsies, and all those diseases which arise from 
 laxity and debility, are in our days often endemic; and the hys- 
 terics, which used to be peculiar to women, as tlie name itself in- 
 dicates, now attack both sexes indiscriminately. It is evident that 
 so great a revolution could not be effected without a concurrence 
 of many causes; but amongst these (according to Dr. Percival,) 
 the general use of tea holds the fiist rank. I'he second may per- 
 haps be allowed to excess in spirituous liquors. Tliis pernicious 
 custom, it is said. In jvaiiy instances, o\yes its rise to the former, 
 
 .wliich, by the lowness aud depression of spirits it occasions, ren- 
 
 ders it almost necessary to have recourse to something cordial and 
 exhilarating. ..It is argued on the other hand, however, that tea 
 t.ends to exliilarate instead of depressing the spirits; and that those 
 of both sexes who are most addicted to excess in spirituous liquorsj 
 are almost alw.ays quite indifferent about tea. 
 
 Constitutions, Apostolical, a collection of regulations at- 
 tributed to the apostles, and supposed to have been collected bv 
 St., Clement, who.;e name they likewise bear. It is the general 
 opinion, however, that they are spurious, and that St. Clement 
 had no iiand in them. They appeared lirsl in the fourth century, 
 but have been much changed and corrupted since. Thev are di- 
 vided into eight books, consisting of a great number of rules and 
 precepts, relating to the duties ol Christians, and particularly the 
 ceremonies and discipline oi the chuvcli. 
 
 CONSTill CTION, '[construclin,^ in geometry, is the draw- 
 ing of such lines, such a ligure, &c. as are previously necessary for 
 the making of any demonstration appear more plain and undeniable. 
 
 Construction of EauATioNs, in algebra, the methorl of 
 drawing a geometrical figure, whose properties shall express the 
 given equation, in order to <lemonstrate the truth of it geometri- 
 cally. See EQUATIONS, Con'struction of. 
 
 Construction, hi granmiar, the connecting of the words of a 
 sentence according to the rules of the language. Construction is 
 either simple or tigurative, according as the parts of the discourse 
 are placed in their natural order; or recede from that simplicity, 
 when shorter and more elegant expressions are used than na- 
 ture affords. The construction of words, called syntax, is distiii- 
 guished into two parts, concord and regimen. See Grammar. 
 
 CONSUALIA, in antiquity, feasts held in honour of the god 
 Consus or Neptune ; different from the Neptunalia. They were 
 introduced with a magnificent cavalcade, because Neptune was 
 reputed to have first taught men the use of horses. Evander is 
 said to have tii-st instituted this feast. 
 
 CONSUBSTANTIAL, [o^oiKna;,'] was a term first attempted 
 by the fathers of the councils of Antioch and Nice, to express the 
 orthodox doctrine the more precisely, and to serve as a barrier 
 and precaution against the errors and subtleties of the Arians; who 
 owned every thing except the consubstantiality. The Arians al- 
 lowed that the Word was God, as having been made God; but 
 they denied that he was the same God, and of the same substance 
 with the Father: accordingly they e.xerted themselves to the ut- 
 most to abolish the use of the word. The emperor Conslantine 
 used all his authority with the bishops to have it expungetl out of 
 the symbols; but it was retained, and is still the distinguished cri- 
 terion between an Atlianasian and an Arian. Sandius insists, that 
 the word consubstantial was unknown till the time of the council 
 of Nice, but it is certain, it had been proposed to the council of 
 Antioch and rejected. 
 
 CONSlfBSTANTIATION. See Lutheranism. 
 
 CONSUEGRA, a town of Spain, in New Castile, belonging 
 to the knights of Malta; 25 miles S.S.E. ofToledo. 
 
 CONSUL, [consul, consiilemln, Lat.] the chief magistrate 
 in the Roman republic. There were two magistrates invested 
 with supreme authority for one year, and annually chosen in the 
 Campus Martins. Brutus and Collatinus, the two hrst consuls^ 
 were elected A.U.C. 244. For 144 years afterwards the consuls 
 were always chosen from Patrician families, but the people ob- 
 tained the privilege of electing one of the consuls from their own 
 body, A.U.C. 388, and sometimes both were |ilebeians. The first 
 consul among the plebeians was L. Sextius. The legitimum tem- 
 pus, the time fixed by law, for the consulship was 43 years of age. 
 The candidate was always to appear at the election as a private 
 man w ilhout a retinue, and it was requisite before he canvassed for 
 the office to have discharged the functions of a qua'stor, edile, and 
 praetor. Sometimes these qualilications were disregarded. 
 
 Consul, at present, is an officer established by virtue of a com- 
 mission from the king and other princes, hi all foreign countries of 
 any considerable trade, to facilitate and dispatch business, and 
 protect tlie merchants of the nation. 'I he consuls are to keep up 
 a correspondence with the ministers of England residing in the 
 courts whereon Iheir consulate depends. They are to support the 
 commerce and the interest of the nation; to dispose of the sums 
 given, and the presents made to the lords and piiiicipals of place«j 
 to obtain their protection, and prevent the insults of ti;e natives on 
 the mci'chants of the nation. By the treaty of Utrecht between 
 Great Erilain and Spain, the consul residing in the king of Spain's 
 
 doiumioa.''
 
 CON 
 
 17 
 
 CON 
 
 do .mioiis slK'.il take inventories of the estates of the En i ii i^uig 
 intestate in Sp-.in; and these estates shall be intrnsted with two or 
 tliree r.ierchants, for the security and benelitof the proprietors and 
 creditors. 
 
 CONSULTATION, in law, a writ by whi.-h a cause being 
 removed from the spiritual court to the king's court, is returned 
 thither again; and the reason is, that if the judges of the king'- 
 court, by comparing the lil^el >.iitli the suggestion of the party, 
 find the suggestion false or not proved, and on that account the 
 cause to be wrongfully called from the ecclesiastical court, then 
 upon this consuilation or deliberation they decree it to be returned. 
 1 his writ is in the nature of a procedendo ; yet properly a consul- 
 tation ought not to be granted, only in case w here a person cannot 
 recover at the common L.vv. In causes of which the ecclesiastical 
 and spiritual comU have jurisdiction, and they are not niiNed with 
 any temporal tiling; if suggestion is made for a prohibition, a con- 
 sultation shall be awarded. 
 
 CONSUMPTION, in medicine, is a very comprehensive 
 term, including all those diseases, in which the body, from a de- 
 fect of nquriihuient, is gradually reduced to a state of debility and 
 emaciation. This fatal disorder may arise from a great variety of 
 causes, such as a mal-con'ormaticn of the trunk; straitness of the 
 chest; intemperance of whatever kind ; obstructions in the pulmo- 
 nary vesstli; suppression of any natural evacuations; as likewise 
 in consequence of pleurisies, coughs, catarrhs, diarrhu'as, grief, in- 
 tense study, &c. More frequently, however, it originates from a 
 negh-cted cold, especially in constitutions where a peculiar here- 
 ditary disposition prevails, without any otlier discoverable cause. 
 See Medicike. 
 
 CONS US, a name of Neptune, the pagan god of counsel. He 
 had an altar under ground in the great circus at Rome, to shew 
 that counsel ought to be kept secret. 
 
 CONTA, a river of Italy, in Liguria, which runs into the 
 sea near Albenga. 
 
 CONTABULATE, v. a. [contahido, Lat.] to floor with 
 boards. 
 
 CONTABULATION, {contabuhtio, Lat.] a joining of 
 boards together. 
 
 CON'IACT, [contactus, Lat.] is when one line, plane, or 
 body, is made to touch another, and the parts that do thus touch, 
 are called the points or places of contact. The contact of two 
 spheres, and of a tangent with the circumference of a circle, is 
 only in one point. 
 
 CONTAGION, [coHtngio, Lat.] infection, or the commimica- 
 tion ot a clisease fi-om one body to another. In some cases it is 
 conveyed by immediate contactor touch ; in others, by infected 
 clothes, such as cotton, and particularly wool, which of all sub- 
 stances is the most suscept ble, because it is extremely porous. 
 Contagious matter is also, though we apprehend erroneously, said 
 to be transmitted through the air, at a considerable distance, by 
 means of etlluvia arising from the sick, in which case tlie atmo- 
 sphere is said to be infected. Some authors have asserted, that 
 the gout and consumption are likewise contagious; but this appears 
 to be very doubtful. It is, however, highly probable, that those 
 dise.ises may be communicated by the milk of nurses. In tem- 
 perate climates, like that of Britain, there is but little danger of 
 contracting them by infection, among adults; though, in the 
 vrarmer climates of Europe, it will be prudent to take the neces- 
 sary precautions against su.-h accidents. To obviate as far as pos- 
 sible all infection, we would recommend to those who are oblis^ed 
 to attend patients, never to approach them fasting; and, while 
 they are in their apartment, to avoid both eating and drinking, and 
 also the sw allowing of their own saliva. Kor w ill it be altogetiier 
 useless to chew myrrh, cinnnmon, and similar drugs, v,hich pro- 
 jnote a plentiful discharge from the mouth. As soon as a person 
 has returned from visiting an infected patient, he ought inimedi- 
 ately to wa^h his mouth anil hands with vinegar; to change his 
 clothes, carefully exposing those he has worn to the fresh air; and 
 then to drink a warm infusion of sage, or other aromatic herbs, 
 •which tends to open the pores, and expel, by means of a gentle 
 perspiration, tiie pestilential virus, if any should have incorporated 
 with the mas of his tluids. It will also be of considerable service 
 to those who are employed about sick persons, frequently to smell 
 vinegar and camphor, or to fumigate the apaitinf-nts with tobacco, 
 the |)ungency of which accelerates tjie circulation of the blood, 
 
 VOL. II. — KO. 77, 
 
 ind i^ b'.lieved fo prevent infection, by attracting the contagious 
 ellluvia. 
 
 CoNTAGTON, a disorder peculiar to cattle, more commonly 
 called iisiemper, to which we refer. 
 
 CONTAY, a town of France, in the department of Somme^ 
 104 miles N.E. of Amiens. 
 
 CONTCHOUDSONG, a town of Asia, in Thibet, 3S0 miles 
 E.N.E. of L.issa. 
 
 CONTEMPLATION, an act of the mind, whereby it applies 
 itself to consider and r. (lect upon the works of God, nature, &:c. 
 
 CONTEMPr, in law, is a disobedience to the rules and or- 
 ders of a court, whiih hath power to punish s\ich offence; and as 
 this is sometimes a greater, and sometimes a '.ess offence, so it is 
 punished with a "rtater or less punisi'ment, byline or imprison- 
 ment. 
 
 CONTENT, in geometry, the area or quantity of matter or 
 space included in certain bounds. The content of a tun of round 
 timber is 43 solid feet. A load of hewn timber contains ."jO cubic 
 leet: in a foot of timber are conta'oed 172S cubic or solid inches ; 
 and as often as I72S inches are contained in a piece of timber, be 
 it round or square, so many feet of timber are contained in th^ 
 piece. See Mensuration. 
 
 CONTEN nous JURISDICTION, in law a court wliicl* 
 has a power to judge aird determine diflerences between contend- 
 ing parties. The lord chief justices, and judges, have a conten- 
 tious jurisdiction ; but the lords of the treasury, and the commis- 
 sioners of the customs, have none, being merely judges of accounts, 
 and transactions. 
 
 CONTERMINOUS. Repetends, or circulates, containing aa 
 equal number of circulating places, are so called. 
 
 CONTEXT, ami, ng divines and critics, that part of scripture 
 or of a writing that precedes and follows the tr.xt. See Text. 
 In order to have the lull sense of the text, the context should be 
 regarded. 
 
 CONTf, a town of France, in the department of Somme, 62 
 miles N. of Paris. 
 
 CON riGUITY, in geometry, is when the surtace of one body- 
 touches that of another. 
 
 CONTIGUOUS Anc;les, in geometry, are such as have one 
 leg common to each angle, and are sometimes called adjoining 
 angles, in conlradistuiction to those produced by continuing their 
 legs through the point of contact, which are called opposite or 
 vertical angles. See Angle. The sum of any two contiguous 
 angles i> always equal to two right angles. 
 
 CONTINENCE, in ethics, is that moral virtue, bv which we 
 resist concupiscence. There is this distinction between chastity and 
 continence in that it requires no effort to be chaste, which result* 
 from constitution; whereas continence appears to be the conse- 
 quence of a victory gained over ourselves. The original verb, 
 CPiitiiicre, siguihes to restrain. The term, however is most usu- 
 ally applied to men ; as chastity is to women. See Chastity. 
 Continence is a virtue too little i-egarded in modern times. But 
 however fashionable certain vices may be, solid virtue will always- 
 keep^ its place in the opinion of the wise and sensible part of man- 
 kind' 
 
 CONTINENT, [continens, Lat.] in geography, a great ex- 
 tent of land not interrupte 1 by seas, in contradistinction to island,, 
 peninsula, &c. See Gi-ogkaphy. The world is usually divided 
 into two great continents, the old and the new. Whetlier there 
 exists in the southern hemisphere another continent, or the whole 
 be only an immense watery region, was a question that for near 
 three centuries engaged the attention of the learned as well as 
 the commercial world, and gave rise to many interesting vovages. 
 a;id discoveries. 
 
 CONTINGENT, [^cont!nc;ens, Lat.] falling out by chance i 
 accidental ; not determinable by any certain rule. Hence future 
 contingent, in logic, denotes a conditi<:nal event which may or 
 may not happen, according as circumstances fall out. 
 
 Contingent is also a term of relation for Ihequota Hint falls to. 
 .any person upon a division. Thus each prince in Germany, 
 in time of war was lormerly obliged to furnish so many men, and 
 so much money and ammunition for liis contingent. 
 
 CosTiNGEST Use, in law, is an use limited in a conveyance of 
 
 lands which may or may not happen to vest, according to the 
 
 contingency mentioned in Ute Limitatiou of the use. And a con- 
 
 f tingenl
 
 CON 
 
 18 
 
 CON 
 
 ttiigent remainder is wlipii ;m estate is limited to lalie place at a 
 time to come, on an uncertain event. 
 
 Contingent Line in diiilling, the same with the tangent line. 
 It is supposed to arise from tlie intersection of the plane ot the 
 dial and the cquinoctiL:! ; and is so called becau>e it is a tangent 
 to a circle, drawn upon the plane of the dial, and is at right angles 
 with the subslilar line. See Dialling. 
 
 CON'l'lXUAL, [cnntinuus, Lat.] in law, a continual claim is 
 niu.le from thne to time, within every year and a (lay, to land or 
 Dther thing, which, m some respect, we cannot attain without 
 danger. For example, if 1 be disseised of land into which, tliough 
 I h:;ve right into it, I dare not enter, for fear of bei^ting ; it be- 
 liovclh me to hold on niv right of entry to the best o|)portnr,ity of 
 mc and mine heir, by approaching as near it' as I can, oricc every 
 year as long as I live ; and so I save the riglit of entry to my heir. 
 CoN'TiN'UAL Proportioxals, in;%rillmietic, are silcli num'oers, 
 wherein ti;e ronscquer.t of the first ratio is the same with the an 
 tecedcnt of the second, as 4 : 8 : : 8 : 16. And, on the contrary, 
 if the consequent of the first ratio bediftt-rent from tiie antecedent 
 of tlie second, the proportion i* said to be discrete, as 3 : 6 : : 
 4: S. 
 
 Continuance of a Writ or Action, is its continuing in 
 force- fr(;m one term to anotlicr, where the sherifi'ha* not returned 
 a former writ issued out in the same action. With respect to 
 continuances, the court of king's bench is not to enter them on the 
 roll till after issue or demurrer, and then they enter the continu- 
 ance of all on the back, before judgement. 
 
 CONTINUED BASS, in music, thus called, says Roussean, 
 because it is continued through the whole |)iece. Its principal use, 
 besides that of resulaling the harmony, is to support the voice and 
 preserve the tone." They pretend that it was one Ludovico Viana, 
 of whom a treatise still remains, who, towards the end of the last 
 century first put the continued bass i.i practice. 
 
 Continued Fever, js such a one as sometimes remits, but 
 never intermits or goes entirely oif, till its period. . 
 
 Continued Proportion, in arithmetic, is that where the 
 terms or quantities compared are continual proportionals ; tliat is, 
 where the consequent of the first ratio is the same with the ante- 
 -cedenl of the second. See Continual 1'roportionals. 
 
 CoNTiKuiTY is defined by some schoolmen the immediate co- 
 Iiesion of parts in the same quantum; by others, a mode of body, 
 whereby its extremities become one ; and by others, a state of 
 body residling from the mutual implication of its parts. 'I'here 
 are two kinds of continuity, mathematical and physical. 'I'he 
 iirst is merely imaginary, since it supposes real or physical parts 
 where there are none. The other or physical continuity, is that 
 -state of two or more particles, in which their parts are so mutuallv 
 implici'ted as to constitute one uninterrupted (piantity. 
 
 CONTIN UO, in music, or Basso continue, is'the continual or 
 thorough bass, which is sometimes marked in music books by the 
 Utters B.C. 
 
 CON lOBABDITES, a sect which appeared in the 6th cen- 
 tury. 'l"h"ir first leader was Severus of Antioch; wlio was suc- 
 ceeded by John the grannnarian, surnamed I'hiloponus, a«d one 
 Theodosi'us whose followers were also called i'heodosians. 
 
 CONTORSION, in medicine, signifies, 1. The diac passion: 
 2. An incomplete dislocation, when a l)one is in part, but not en- 
 tirelv, forced from its articulation : 3. A dislocation of the 
 •vertebra; of the back side- ways, or a crookedness of these veriehra-i 
 an-l, 4. A disorder of the head, in which it Is drawn towards one 
 side, either hv a spasmodic contraction of the muscles on the same 
 «idr, or a palsv of the antagonist muscles on the other. 
 
 CON TOUR, in architecture, is the oudine of any member, as 
 that of a base, cornice, &c. 
 
 Contour, among tiie Italian painters signifies the lineaments of 
 the face. • 
 
 CONTOURNE, in heraldry, is used wlien a beast is represent- 
 ed standing or running with its face to the sinister side of the 
 escutcheon, tliey being always supposed to look to the rigitt, if not 
 otherwise expressed. ^ 
 
 CONTOIJRNIATED, a term among antiquaries applied to 
 jiiec'.als, the edges of which appear as if turned \n a lath. 
 
 CONTRABAND, {contrutmiido, Ital. contrary to proclama- 
 tion,] prohibited; illegal; uidawful. - 
 
 Contraband, in commerce, a prohibited coinmodily, or mer- 
 
 chandise bought or sold, imported or exported, in prejudice to the 
 laws and ordinances of a slate, or the public proiiiuitions oi the so- 
 vereign. Contraband goods are not only liable to c:ouUscatiun 
 tiieniselves, but also subject alT other allowed merchandise found 
 with them in the same box, bale, or parcel, tcgether with Uie 
 horses, waggons, &c. wiiich oonduct them. I'here are contra- 
 bands likewise, which, besides the forteiture of the goods, are at- 
 tended With several penalties and disabilities. In Uiis country, 
 there are tw-o principal contrabands for exportation, wools and live 
 sliee|>, which all strangers are prohibited Irom carrying out ot the 
 country ; the other that of sheep-skins and calf-skins. 
 
 CONTRACr, in a general sense, a mutual consent of two or 
 more parti'js, who voluntarily promise and oblige themselves to 
 do somethiiis, pay a certain smn, or the like. All donations, ex- 
 changes, leases, &c. are so many different contracts. 
 
 Contract, in common law, an apreemeut or bargain between 
 two or more persons with a legal consideration or cause ; as where 
 a person sells goo<ls, &c. to anotiiar for a sum of monev ; or cove- 
 nants in consideration of a certain sum, or an annual rent, to grant 
 a lease of a messuage, &c. Contracts are two-fold, either express 
 or implied. Express contraets are where the terms of the agree- 
 ment are openly uttered, as to pay a stated price for certain goods. 
 Implied arc such as reason and justice dictate, and whicli, there- 
 fore, the law presumes that every man undertakes to perform : thus, 
 if a man take up ware? from a trailesman, without any agreement 
 of price, the law concludes that he contracted to pay their real- 
 value. 
 
 Contract, Usurious, is an agreement to pay mere interest 
 for money than tiie laws allow. 
 
 CONTRACTILE FORCE, [from con, together, and /ra/io, 
 to draw, Lat] that property or power inherent in certain bodies, 
 wheicby, when extended, they are enabled to draw themselves 
 up to their fonr,er dimensions. 
 
 CONTRACTION, [coiUractio, Lat.] in physics, the dimi- 
 nishing of the extent or dimensions of a body, or the causing otits 
 parts to approach nearer to each other, in which sense it stands 
 opposed to dilalation or expansion. See Expansion. Water 
 and all aqueous huids are gradually contracted by a diminu- 
 tion of temi)eiature, until they arrive at a certain point, wliich 
 is about 8" above the freezing point ; but below that point they 
 begin to exiKind, according as the temperature is lowered. Si- 
 milar effects have been observed with regard to some metals. 
 Glass and some metals are rendered veiy hard and brittle by being 
 suddenly cooled. The cause of this effect is thus explained 
 by Dr. Voung. " When glass in fusion is very suddenly cooled, 
 its external parts become solid first, and determine the niagnitufle 
 of the whole piece, while it still remains iluid within. 'The inter- 
 nal part, as u cools, is disposed to contract still further, but its 
 contraction is prevented by tlie resistance of the external parts, 
 ■which form an arch or vault round it, so that the v\hole is lelt in a, 
 state of constraint ; and as soon as the equilibrium is disturbed in 
 any one part, the \^hole aggregate is destroyed. Hence it be- 
 comes necessary to anneal all glass, by placing it in an ovei;, 
 where it is left to cool slowly ; for, without this precaution a very 
 slight cause would destroy it. 
 
 CONTRADICTION, a sort of direct opposition, wherein one 
 thing is found directly contrary to another. It is usually defined 
 in the schools, oppositio inter ens i^' non ens, medio carens; where 
 by tfis & non-ens, arc meant any two extremes, one whereof alf.rms 
 and the other denies; and it is said lohr '^udio curcns, in oTdet 
 the better to distinguish it from other species of oppositions : for 
 the extremes iiere neither agree in subject, as is tlie case in form 
 and privation, nor in essence and khid, as in contrariety. See 
 Contrariety, and Privatio.n. 
 
 CONTRADUrnON, in a legal sense, a person that has a 
 title to contradict or gainsay. An inventory of the goods of a 
 minor should be made in presence of his guardian, or trust-ve, he 
 being the legal contradutor. A decree against a larmer has no 
 eliect on the'landlord, the first not being the legitimate contra- 
 dictor. 
 
 Co.n'tradictory Propositions, in logic, are such as differ both 
 in (juality and ipiantity, one being universal ami the other particu- 
 lar, ivhich constitutes 'the opposition of quantity ; one affirmative 
 and the other negative, which makes the opposition in quality: 
 thus, A. Every vine is a tree. O. Some vine is not a tree. 
 
 CoNTRADICTeRY,
 
 CON 
 
 19 
 
 CON 
 
 Contradictory, Seeming, is when the members of a period 
 q«ite (li-.agroe in appearance and sound, but ptniectly agree aiid 
 are tonsisUiit in sen^e ; thus. 
 
 Cowards die many tipiesliefore tlieir death : 
 Tiie valiant never taste of deatli but once. 
 
 CONTKA-HARMONiCAL PROPORTION, in arithme- 
 tic, i',; that relation of three tL-rms, wherein tlie diOerence o! the lirst 
 and second is to the dillerence of the second and thirel as the third 
 is to llie liril : thus, 3, 5, and 6, are numbers contra-harnionically 
 proport;; nal, for 2 ; 1 : : G : 3. 
 
 CON TRAMURE, in fortification, is a wall built before ano- 
 ther partition- tt si 1, to strengthen it, so that it may receive no da- 
 iviagc from the adjacent buddings. 
 
 CONTRARlE'l'V, [from cmitrariclux, Lat.] an opposition 
 between two things, wliich imports tlieir being contrary to one ano- 
 ther; and consists in tliis, that one of the terms implies a negation 
 ot the other, either mediately, or immediately ; so liiat contrariety 
 may be said to be the contrast, or ojiposition, of two things, one of 
 which imports the absence of tlie ether, as love and hatred. 
 
 CON'l RAS r, {^coiiti'itst'-, !•>.] opposition and dissimilitude of 
 ^gures, by which one contributes to the visibility or eltect of ano- 
 tlier. 
 
 CoKTRAST, in architecture, is the avoiding of tlie representation 
 cii the same thing, in order to please by variety. 
 
 Contrast, in painting and sculpture, expresses a difference of 
 position, att;tud«", &c of two or more figures; as where, in a 
 gioupe of three figures, one is shewn before, another behind, and 
 another sideways, they are said to he. in contrast. 'I'lie contrast is 
 not only to be observed in the position of >everal figures, but also 
 hi that of several niembefs of the same figure : thus, if the right 
 arm advance farthest, the right leg is to be hindermost ; if the eye 
 be directed one way, the arm to go the contrary way, &c. The 
 contrast must be pursued even in the drapery. 
 
 CONTRA TE-W HEEL, in watch-work, that next to tlie 
 crown, tiie teeth and hoop of which lie contrary to those of the 
 other wheels, whence it takes its name. 
 
 CONIRAVALLATION, [from contra iud to//o, Lat.] the 
 fortification thrown up by the besiegers, round a city, to hinder 
 the sallies of the garrison. 
 
 CONTR.WALLATION, LlVE OF. See FORTIFICATION. 
 
 CON rRA\ ENITON, in law, a man's fading to discharge his 
 word, obligation, duty, or the laws or customs oi tiie place. ,- 
 
 CON IRE, in heraldry, an appellation given to several bear- 
 ings, on account ot their cutting the shield contrary and opposite 
 ■ways: thus we meet With contre-bend, contre-chevron, contre- 
 paft", -^c. when Uiere are two ordinaries of- the same nature oppo- 
 site to each other, so as colour may be opposed to metal, and me- 
 tal to colour. 
 
 CONTRES, a town of France, in the department of Loir and 
 Cher, district of tit. Aignan, and late province of Blaisois, 
 10 miles.S. of IMois. 
 
 CONl RIBtn TON, in a general sense, the payment of each 
 person's quota, or the share he bears in some imposition or com- 
 mon expeiici;. Contributions are either voluntary, as those of ex- 
 pencts lor carrying on some undertaking for the public interest; 
 or invoUintary, as those of taxes and impo>ts. 
 
 Contribution, in a military sen-^e, an imposition or iax paid 
 by frontier countries to au enemy, to prevent their being plunder- 
 ed and ruined by him. 
 
 CoNTRiBUTioN'F. Facienda, in law, a writ that lies where te- 
 nants in common are liound to do the same thiiu.;, and one or 
 more of them retuse to contribute their part ; as w here they jointly 
 hold a mill, pro indiviso, and equally share the- profits thereof, if 
 the mill falls to decay, and one or more of tiie persons refuse to 
 contribute to its reparation, the reat shall have this writ to compel 
 tjiem. 
 
 CONTRITION, in theology, a sorrow for our sins, resulting 
 from tiie reflexion of having ollended God, from tiie sole consider- 
 ation of his goodness, witiiout any regard to the punishment due 
 to the trespass, and attt nded with a sincere resolution of reforming 
 them. The scripture never uses this term in this sense; but there 
 are several passages which prove, that, without contrition, there is 
 iio re|)entance, and without repentance no remission of sins. 
 
 CONTROL, [cr,7i/;-o/f, that is, contrcrolc, Vi.'] a register or 
 account kept by auotiiw officer, that each may be exammed by 
 tlie othe«'. 
 
 CoNTKOLLKu, an oilicer appointed to control or oversee the ac- 
 counts of other oihcers; and, on occasion, to certify whether 
 things have l>cen controlled or examined. In Britain we have se- 
 veral officers under this title; as controller of the navy, the cus- 
 toms, the mint, &c. besides the lollowing: 
 
 CoNTROLLEu OF THE IIanaper, an ollicerwho attends tlic lord 
 cliancellor daily, in term and in seal time, to t.iki all things sealed 
 in leathern bags from the clerk? of the hiiuaper,, and to make the 
 numbei and elfect thereof, and enter them iri a book', with all the 
 duties belonging to the king and other othcers for the sanse, ;-,tid s« 
 charge the clerk of the hanaper with them. , ■■' ' 
 
 Controller of the Household, the second ofKiccr under 
 the lord steward. liis office is to control the accounts and reckon- 
 ings of the Green Cloth, of which f>oard he is always a mcn;bcr. 
 He carries a whiie stall, and is always one of the privy council. 
 
 Coxtrolll's. of the Pei.ls, two officers ot the' exchequer, 
 who are the chan^berlain's clerks, and keep a ton'.rol of the pell 
 of receipts, and goings out. 
 
 Controller OP the Pipe, an officer of the exchequer, tliat 
 makes out a summons twice every yea.r, to levy the farms and 
 debts of the pipe. See Pipe, and E.xcuEauER. 
 
 CONTUMACY, [contumacia, Lai.] obstinacy; pcrversc- 
 ness; stubbornness; inflexibility. 
 
 Contumacy, in law, a wilful contempt and disobedience, to an» 
 lawful summons or judicial order. ••' 
 
 CONTUSION, in medicine and surgery, any hurt of 'tlie bij- 
 dv that is inlixted by a blunt instrument. ' See Medicine, and 
 
 CONVALESCENCE, or CONVALESCENCY, [fro.ui 
 coircaltsco, Lat.] signifies tiie insensible recovery of health; or 
 that state in which, after the cure of a disorder, tlie body, \vh ^h 
 has been reduced, has not yet regained it> vigour, but iiegins tcj 
 resume its power. Proper aliments conduce to the re-establish- 
 ment of the languid faculties; but as tlie tone of the bowels is 
 weakened, tlie digestive faculty is not equal to its office, wdiich is 
 shewn by liglit sw eats over the w hole body ; and the smallest ex- 
 cess in this respect is oftentimes the occasion of dangerouirelapses. 
 A person in this state is like a taper relumined, wliich the least de- 
 gree of wind is sufficient to extinguish. 
 
 CONN'ALLARI A. the Lily of thf. Valley, in botany, a 
 genusofthe monogynia order, and hexandria class of plants; natural 
 order, Sarmentacea'. Corolla sexfid; berry spotteil, trilocular. 
 There are eleven species. 
 
 CON\ EN.-E, an ancient peo])le of Gallia Narbonensis, said by 
 Pliny to have been originally robbers and slaves, whom Pompey 
 compelled to settle at the foot of the Pyrenees, alter the SertoriaH 
 w ar. 
 
 CONVENER, the title given to the praises of the 14 deacoirt 
 of the Incorporations, or Trades of Edinburgh, from his power of 
 convening the deacons, or the wdiolc incorporations, upon any 
 emergency. 
 
 C()>.^\ENT. See Monastery, and Monk. 
 
 CONV ENl'ICLE, is a diminutive of convent; denoting, pro- 
 perly, a secret assembly of a part of the monks of a convent, to 
 make a (Hity in the' election of an abbot. Hence tiie word is 
 come into disrepute, and stands for any sedit.ious, or irregular as- 
 sembly. The word was first attributed as an appellatioii of re- 
 proach to the religious assemblies of Wickliffe, in this nation, in 
 the reigns of Edward HI. and Richard II. and is now api)lie<i to 
 illegid meetings of non-conformists. There were several statute*; 
 made in former reigns, for the suppression of conventicles. But 
 the IstW. and M. cap. 18. ordains, that protestant dissejiters shall 
 be exempted from penalties: tiiough if they meet in a house wilh 
 the doe.rs locked, barred, or boited, sucli dissenters sirall have i:o 
 benefit from I \V. and M. Officers of the government, &c. pre- 
 sent at any conventicle, at which ihereshalflje ten per-ons, if the 
 royal family be not prayed for in express wonls, sjiall forfeit 4.'/. 
 ami be disabled.: 10 Anne, cap. 2. . 
 
 CONVENTION, a treaty, contract, or agreement belweea 
 two or more parlies. Every convention among men, provided it 
 be not contrary to honesty and good manners, produces a natural 
 obligation, and makes the performance a point of conscience. 
 Every convention has either a name and a cause of eonsidei-otion, 
 or it has none; in the first case it obliges civilly and naturally, ia 
 the fatter only naturally. . ' 
 
 CoN^EXTUiN, is aVsQ a name ^dven to an extraordinirvassem- 
 
 G ' blv
 
 CON 
 
 20 
 
 CON 
 
 blv of pmliament, or the states of t!ie realm, belt! without the 
 king's writ; as was the convention of estate's, wlio, upon tlie re- 
 treat of James II. came to a conclusion that lie had abdicated the 
 tlirone, and that the right of succession devolved to King William 
 and Queen Mary; whereupon their assembly expired as a con- 
 vention, and was converted into a parliament. 
 
 CONVENTUS JuRiDici, in Roman anticjuity, courts of jus- 
 lice established in the provinces; with jurisdictions circumscribed 
 within certain limits, whither all who were of the resort weie to 
 re))air forjustice. 
 
 CONVERGE, \_convergn, Lat.] to tend to one point from 
 different places. 
 
 CONVERGING, or CONVERGENT LINES, in geome- 
 try, are such as continually approach nearer one another ; or whose 
 <listance becomes still less and le.ss. These are opposed to diver- 
 gent lines, -the distance of which become continually greater: 
 tiiose lines which converge one way diverge the other. 
 
 CoNVERGiN'G 11 vpEREOi.A, is oiie whose coiicave legs bend in 
 towards one another, and run both the same way. 
 
 CoKVERGiNG Kays, ill Optics, those rays that, issuing from di- 
 ners points of an object, incline towards one another, till, at last, 
 they meet and cross, and then become divei'ging rays. See 
 
 OlTICS. 
 
 Converging Series. See Series. 
 
 CONVEUS.VnON, or DISCOURSE, an interlocution be- 
 tween two, or among several persons. There is no part, perha|)S, 
 «f social life which alTords more real satisfaction than those hours 
 Y'hich one jjasses in rational and unreserved conversation. To 
 render conversation at all limes agreeable, the following rules have 
 been laid down : 1. The parties should meet together with a de- 
 termined resolution to please, and to be pleased. 2. No one 
 •ihoiild be eager to interrupt others, or be uneasy at being inter- 
 rupted. 3. All should have leave to speak in turn. 4. Inatten- 
 tion should be carefully avoided. 5. Private concerns should ne- 
 ver be mentioned, unless particularly inquired into, and even then 
 its briefly as possible. 6. Each person should, as far as propriety 
 will admit, be all'orded an opportunity of discoursing on the sub- 
 ject with which he is best acciuaintcd. He will be pleased, and 
 the company will be informed. By observing this rule, every 
 one has it in his power to assist in rendering conversation agree- 
 able; since, though he may not choose, or be qualiiied, to sav 
 much himself, he can propose questions to those who are able to 
 answer them. 7. Stories should be avoided, unless short, pointed, 
 and quite a-propos. He who deals in them, says Swift, mu^t 
 either have a very large stock, or a good memory, or must often 
 change his company. 8. Each person should speak often, but 
 not long. Haranguing in private company is insupportable. 9. 
 If the majority of the conijiany be naturally silent, or reserved, 
 the conversation will flag, unless it be often renewed by one who 
 can start new subjects. It). It is iinpro|)er to laugh at one's own 
 wit and humour. This should be left to the company. 1 1. When 
 the' conversation is llowing in a serious and useful channel, never 
 interrupt it by an ill-timed jest. 12. It Is at all times ex- 
 tremely indelicate to whisper to one's next neighbour. It is, in 
 some degree, a fraud, conversation being a kind of common pro- 
 perty. 13. Ill speaking of absent people, the infallible rule is, to 
 sav no more than we should say, if they were present. " I resolve 
 (said Bisliop Beveridgc) never to speak of a man's virtues to his 
 face, nor of his faults behind his back:" A golden rule; the ob- 
 .wrvation of which would at once banish ilattery and defamation 
 from the world. 
 
 CONVERSE, in mathematics. One proposition is called the 
 converse of another, when, after a conclusion is drawn from sonie- 
 Ihing supposed in the converse proposition, that conclusion is sup- 
 posed ; and then, that which in the other \v;is supposed, is now 
 <lrawn as a conclusion from it: thus, when two sides of a triangle 
 ire equal, the angles opposite to tliese sides are eq'^.al ; and, ^oii 
 the conver-e, if these angles arc e(|ual, the two sides are e<[ual. 
 
 CON VEKSERA, an island in the Adriatic sea, on the coast of 
 Istria. 
 
 CONVERSI, a title formerly given to Jews, who wereconvert- 
 «d to Ciiristianity in England-.- 
 
 CONVF.l{SU)N, [^convasio, Lat.] change from one state to 
 iinotl.er ; transmutation. 
 
 CeisvEKSioji, IB a morel seBje, in|[)lies a rcpcatancc for a tem- 
 
 per anxl conduct unworthy oiir nature, and unbecoming our obli- 
 gations to its author, and a resolution to act a wiser and a belter 
 part tor the future. 
 
 CoNVhRsioN, inascripture^ense is the turning, or total change, 
 of a sinner from sin unto God. Psal. 5!. 13. " And sinners shall 
 be converted unto thee." It is equivalent to the new birth, and 
 therefore essential to salvation. 
 
 Conversion, in rhetoric, &c. is understood of arguments which 
 arc returned, retorted, and shewn on opposite sides, by changing 
 the subject into the attribute, and the attribute into the subject. 
 See Attribute, &:c. 
 
 Conversion, in war, a military motion whereby the front of 3 
 battalion is turned where ti'J flank was, in case the battalion is at- 
 tacked in the flank. As tlii^ may often be the case in action, this 
 motion is accounted a most useful and necessary one. 
 
 Conversion OF Equations, in algebra, is when the quantity 
 
 sought, or any part or degree thereof, being in fractions, the whole 
 
 is reduced to one common denomination, and tlien omitting the 
 
 denominators, the equation is continued in the numerators only. 
 
 aa -j- cc 
 
 Thus suppose a~b= \-h-\-b; niuUiply all by d, and it 
 
 (/ 
 will stand thus, da—db = na-\-cr-\-dh-\~db. See Algebra. 
 
 Conversion of Propositions, in logic, the changing of the 
 subject into the place of the predicate, and tlie predicate into the 
 place of the subject; and yet always retaining the same quality of 
 both propositions; as, every right-lined triangle has the sum ot its 
 angles ecjual to two right ones: every right-lined figure, th;it has 
 the sum of its angles equal to two right ones, is a triangle. Con- 
 version is usually defined a due change of the order of the ex- 
 tremes: i.e. under such a habitude and coherence, with respect 
 to each other, that the one is rightly inierred from the other. 
 
 CONVERT, a person who has undergone conversion. See 
 Conversion. Convert is freciuently used in respect of change* 
 from one religion, or religious sect, to another. These, with re- 
 gard to the religion they have rehn(|uished, are denominated apo- 
 states, and converts only with relation to the religion turned to. 
 
 Convert, in a monastic sense, a la^- friar, or brother, admitted 
 for the service of tlie house; without orders, and not allowed to 
 sing in the choir. The word was anciently used for persons who 
 embraced the monkish life at the age ol discretion. 
 
 CONVEX, \_conrexus, Lat.] an appellation given to the ex- 
 terior surface of gibbous or globular bodies, in opposition to the 
 hollow inner surface of such bodies, which is called concave: thus 
 we say, a convex frieze, lens, mirror, superficies, &c. 
 
 Convex Lens, or Convex Mirror. See Convexity, and 
 Optics. 
 
 CONVEXITY, in catojitrics and dioptrics; is applied to mir- 
 rors and lenses. A convex mirror represents its images smaller 
 than the objects; as a concave one represents them larger: a con- 
 vex mirror reflects the rays from it, diverging; and therefore dis- 
 perses and weakens their elTect : as a concave one reflects them 
 converging, so as they concur in a point, anil have their el'fect iii- 
 creased: and by how much the mirror is a portion of a smaller 
 sphere, by so much does it diminish the objects, and disperse the 
 rays the more. A conve.x lens is either convex on both sides, 
 called a convexo-convex; or it is plain on one side and convex on 
 the other, called a plano-convex; or concave on one side, and 
 convex on the other, called, a convexo-concave, or concavo con- 
 vex, as the one or the other surface prevails, i. c. as this or that is 
 a ]ioition of a smaller sphere. See Optics. 
 
 CONVEYANCE, in law, a deed which passes land f:-om one 
 to another. The most common conveyances now in use are,. 
 deeds of gift, bargain and sale, lease ancl release, fines and reco- 
 veries, settlements to uses, &c. A conveyance cannot be fraudu- 
 lent in part, and good as to the rest ; for if it be fraudulent and void 
 in part, it is voiil in all, and it cannot lie divided. Fraudident 
 conveyances to deceive creditors, defraud purchasers, &c. ar« 
 void, by st;it. .50 Ed. III. c. G. 13 Eliz. c. 5. 27 Eliz. c. 4. 
 
 CONVICT, in common law, a person that is found guilty of 
 an offence by the verdict of a jury. The law implies that there 
 must be a conviction before punishment for any oliieuce, tliougli- 
 it be not mentioned in any statute. On a joint indictment, or in- 
 formation, some of the clefendants may be convicted and others 
 acquitted. 
 
 Convict
 
 COK 
 
 21 
 
 C O O 
 
 Convict Recusant, a person \<ho iias boen legally presented, 
 indirte'.l, ami convicted, tor refusing to come to cluircli to hear 
 the conmioii prayer, according Lo the statutes 1 and 23 Eliz. and 
 3 Jac. 1. 
 
 CONVICTION, in theology, expresses the first degree of re- 
 pentance, wherein the sinner l)ecoiiu'S sensible of his guilt, of the 
 evil nature of sin, and of the daui^er of his ways. 
 
 CONVOCATION, an assembly ot the clergy of England, by 
 their representatives, to con'^ult of ecclesiastical matters. It is 
 held thiring the session of parliament, and consists of an upper and 
 a lower house. In the upper sit the bishops, and hi the lower the 
 inferior elergv, who are represented by their proctors, consisting 
 of all the deans and archdeacons, of one proctor for every chapter, 
 aiul two for the elergv of every diocese, in all one hundred and 
 forty-three divines, viz. tuenty-lwo deans, fiftv-three archdeacons, 
 twenty-four prebendaries, and fort>-lour proctors of the diocesan 
 clergy. The lower house chooses its prolocutor, whose business 
 it is to take care that the members attend, to collect their debates 
 and votes, and to carry their resolutions to the upper house. The 
 convocation is summoned by tlie king's writ, directed to the arcli- 
 bishop of each province, requiring him to summon all liishops, 
 deans, archdeacons, &c. The power of the convocation is limited 
 by a statute of Henry VIII. They are not to make any canons 
 or ecclesiastical laws without the king's lirence ; nor when per- 
 mitted to make any, can they put them in execution but under 
 several restrictions. They have the examining and censuring of all 
 heretical and schismntical books and persons, &c. but there lies an 
 ■appeal to the king in chancery, or to his delegates. ,The clergy 
 in convocation, and their servants, have the same privileges as 
 members of ijarliamcnt. See Pari.iamknt. 
 
 CONVOLVULUS, BiND-wEF.o: a genus of the pentandria 
 order, and monogvnia class of plants: natural order, Campanaceit;. 
 Corolla campanulated, plaited; stign)ata two; capsule two-celled, 
 liaving two seeds in each cell. There are 1 10 species of this very 
 numerous genus, not more tlian thirteen species are natives of Eu- 
 rope; the others are mostly inliabitants of the warmer climates of 
 Asia and America. \'ery few of them are cultivated in our gar- 
 <!ens, except C. purpureus, purple bindweed; and C. tricolor, 
 trailing bindweed, more commonly known by the names of con- 
 volvulus, major, and minor; the stems are herbaceous and milky, 
 in the greater part twining, in a very few shrubby; leaves alter- 
 nate; peduncles axillary or terminating, one-flowered, with two 
 bractes. Thejalappa, or jalap, used in medicine, is a native of 
 the city of Aleppo in Spanish America, situated between 
 La Vera Cruz, and Mexico. It has a large root of an oval form, 
 full of a milky juice; from which come out many herbaceous 
 twining stalks, rising eight or ten feet high, with variable leaves; 
 some of tliem being heart-shaped, others angular, and some ob- 
 long and poiiited. They are smooth, and stand upon long foot- 
 stalks; the flowers are shaped like those of the common greater 
 bind-weed, each footstalk supporting only one flower. See Plate 
 XXXV. ii ~ J 
 
 CONVOY, in marine affairs, one or more ships of war, em- 
 ployed to accompany and protect merchant ships, and jirevent 
 their being insulted by pirates, or the enemies of the state in time 
 vf war. 
 
 CoNvov, in miUtary matters, a bodv of men that guard any 
 supply of men, money, ammunition, or provisions, conveyed by 
 land into a town, army, or tlie like, in time of war. 
 
 CON US, in natural history, a genus of vermes testacea: ani- 
 mal a limax; shell univalve, convolute, turbinate; aperture efl'use, 
 longitudinal, linear without teeth, entire at the base; pillar smooth. 
 This genus is divided into five distinct families, viz. A. spire or 
 turban nearly truncate. B. pyriform with a rounded base; the 
 cUinder half as long again as the spire. C. elongated and round- 
 ed at the base; the cylinder as long again as the spire. D. ven- 
 tricose in the middle, and contracted at each end. E. thin, ven- 
 trico>e, and making a tinkling sound when tlirown on its back 
 iip<iii a table or board. There are upwards of 70 species. Many 
 of tlie conns tribe are beautiful shells, and bear a high price on ac- 
 count of their rarity. We have no species of this genus upon the 
 English coast. Some very curious kinds have been discovered in 
 a fossil state in England, chiefly in the chalk cliffs of Hampshire 
 See Plate V. 
 
 CONVULSION, a disease attended with an irregular and un- 
 natural contraction of the muscles without sleep. The causes 
 
 VOL. II. — NO. 57. 
 
 depend on a certain irritability of the nervous system. — Delicate 
 hysteric women, and men ihsposed to hypochondriasis, are equally 
 subject to this disorder. Fnquently, however, convulsive synip- 
 tonis take place in consequence of wounds, irritations of the stom- 
 ach and intestines, worms, poisons, violent cathartics, emetics, &c. 
 When infants are attacked with convulsions which threaten their 
 lives, the safest expedient will be to immerse them into tepid or 
 milk-warm water, and keep tlicm in that situation, by adding 
 gradually a litile hot water, so as to preserve an equal temperature 
 of y(3 or 98 degrees, till medical assistance can be procured. Al- 
 though wc are not inclined to give implicit credit to anonymous 
 authorities, yet we think the following particulars worthy of 
 insertion. A correspondent in the 22d volume of the Gentle- 
 man's Magazine, justly ^observes, that convulsions in children, 
 betore dentition, generally proceed from acrid, irritating humors 
 produced in the first passages, by living chiefly on acescent food ; 
 such fits being preceded by gripings, green-stools, &c. He 
 therefore directs one ounce of white sugar-candy to be reduced 
 to fine powder, and 120 drops, or two drams, of the best oil of 
 aniseed, to be dropped upon it : these should be rubbed together 
 in a mortar, then mixed with an ounce of spermaceti, in powder. 
 The dose is twenty grains, to be given in a little milk drawn from 
 the breast, and to be repeated every three or four hours, or often- 
 er, if the uneasiness of the child shouUl require it. See 
 Medicinf.. 
 
 CONWAY, a market-town of N. Wales, in Caernarvonshire, 
 called also Aberconway, situated 15 miles west of St. Asaph. 
 
 CoNWAV, a river of N. Wales, which rises from a lake where 
 the counties of Caernarvon, Denbigh, and Merioneth, meet ; and 
 falls into the Irish sea at Conway. 
 
 Conway, a township of the United States, in Stafford county. 
 New Hampshire. 
 
 Conway, a township in Hampshire county, Massachusetts. 
 
 CONV. See Lepus, and Cavia. 
 
 CON\ ZA, Fleabane; a genus of the polygamia snperflua 
 order, and syngenesia class of plants; natural order, Coniposita-. 
 Pappus simple ; calyx imbricated, roundish, the corollulx of 
 the radius tritid. There are 43 species, herbaceous or sluubby 
 plants with compound flowers. 
 
 CONZA, a town of Naples, on the river Ofl'anto, 52 miles S. 
 E. of Naples. 
 
 COOK, Sir .-Anthony, a descendant of Sir Thomas Cook, lord 
 mayor of London, was born in 1506. He was so eminent for his 
 learning, piety, and prudence, that the guardians of king Ed- 
 ward V I. appointed him his chief instructor. He had four daugh- 
 ters ; and being resolved to have sons by education, lest he should 
 have none by birth, he taught his daughters those lessons by night 
 that lie had instilled into the prince by day: he was happy inliis 
 endeavours, as they proved learned in Greek and Latin, and 
 equally distinguished by virtue, piety, and good fortune, fvlild- 
 red was married to the great lord Biirleigh; Ann to Sir Nicho'as 
 Bacon, lord keeper of the great seal ; Elizabeth to Sii John Kus- 
 sel, son and heir of Francis earl of Bedford ; and Catherine to Sir 
 Henry Killigrew. He lived in exile during the persecution un- 
 der Q. Mary, and returning on the accession of Q. Elizabeth, 
 spent the rest of his days in peace and honour, till he dieii, 
 in 1575. 
 
 Cook, Captain Jvmes, one of the most celebrated navigators 
 that ever appeared, was the son of .lames Cook, a servant in hus- 
 bandry. Captain Cook was born, at Mailon in Yorkshire, Oct. 
 27, 17'-'«. He was one of nine children, and wa- I'ut to a day- 
 school, by Mr. Skottow, his fatlier's employer, where he was in- 
 structed in writing and the first rules in arithmetic. Before tha 
 age of 13, he was bound apprentice to a shopkeeper at Straiths, 
 10 miles from Whitby : but some disagreement occurring, he 
 bound himself apprentice to Messrs. Walkers of Whitby, who had 
 several vessels in the coal trade ; and after serving a few' yeai-s as a 
 common sailor, lie was raised to be mate of one of Mr. Walker's 
 ships. On the breaking out of the war in 1755 he entered on 
 board the Eagle man of war, and distinguishing' himself by his 
 sobriety and diligence, obtained, in 1759, a warrant as master. 
 He served in that capacity at the reduction of Quehec, and while 
 on that station was employed in taking the soundings of the river 
 St. Lawrence ; afterwards he was engaged in making a chart of 
 the same river, which he executed with great accuracy. He w.is 
 next with lord Colvil, in the Northumberland, at tite retakinc
 
 c o o 
 
 ^s 
 
 coo 
 
 ol NewfoluulUiml, of which coa>l lie made a siirvev. On his re- 
 turn to England in 1762 lie married a respectable yomig woman 
 ;U Barkitii?, in Essex, for whom he had always ll'e teii'dere-^t re- 
 gard. The year following he accompanied captain Crraves, gover- 
 nor of Newfoundland, where he made many curious researches, 
 and observed a solar eclipse, an account of which he transmitted 
 to the Royal Society. It being resolved to send out persons to 
 (Maheite, in the South sea, for the purpose of observing the tran- 
 sit of Venus, in 1769, Mr. Cook was selected for the command, 
 and raised to the rank of lieutenant. In August 176S, he sailed in 
 the Endeavour, accompanied by Mr. Green, as astronomer, Mr. 
 now Sir Joseph Banks, and Doclor Solander. Tlie transit wa:. 
 accurately ob.--crved, and July 1,3th our navigator left Otahcite on 
 a voyage of discovery, in which he discovered a number of islands, 
 to which he g_a\etlie name of Society islands. October 6th he 
 anchored at Is'ew Zealand, which he tircuinnavigaled. From 
 thence he sailed to New Holland, his account of which occasion- 
 ed a settlement there, named by liiin Bot;iny Ray, and which 
 colony will, in all probability, be attended with vast effects in 
 those regions. He arrived, alter many dangers, June 12, 1771, 
 and in Au'TusI following was appointetl a commander in the navy. 
 An accoui.t of this voyage was pidtlished from the captain's jour- 
 nals an I those of Mr. liauks bv Dr. Ilawkesworth. The exis- 
 
 tence of a southern continent 
 
 still an undecided qiu-stion, 
 
 capt un Cook was employed in another voyaue to ascertain the 
 point, and ho accordingly sailed with two ships, the Resolution, 
 commanded by himself, aiid the Adventure, by captain Furneaux, 
 July 13, 1772. In this voyaoie they esplored the southern hemi— 
 phere as high as latitude 71'" 10', auiidst immense fields and moun- 
 tains of ice, where a ship had never been ; but in the course of 
 it the two vessels parted, and never joined each other agrin. 
 Captain Cook, after reh-cahing at Otaheite, sailed to the v.est- 
 ward, and discovered a groupe, wliich he called the Friendly isles. 
 He next fell in with the islands discovered by Quiros, and having 
 surveyed them all, denominated ihenitheNew Hebrides. He 
 ne\t discovered a large inland, which he called New Caledonia; 
 and another, named by him Norfolk island, which has since been 
 colonized. After many other additions to our geographical know- 
 ledge, but without attaining the main object, he arrived safe at 
 Spithead, July 30, 1775, cluring which perilous voyage. Only 
 one man had died out of 118 on bo:nd the Resolution, owing to 
 the excellent means adopted by him for preserving the liealth o; 
 his crew. Of these he gave an accoimt in a paper transui.tted to the 
 Koyal Society, of which body he was chosen a member, and had 
 the gold medal awarded him" in 1776. He was now raised to the 
 rank of post Captain, and appointed to a po.-t in Greenwich 
 hospital. The admiralty having resolved to determine the dis- 
 puted (juestion, whether there be a northern communication be- 
 tween the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, captain Cook willingly 
 volunteered his services on the occasion, and July 12, 1776, sailed 
 from Plymouth in the Resolution, accompanied "by another vessel 
 called the Discovery. He carried out with him" a native of the 
 Society islands, named Oniai, whom he had brought to England 
 at his own request. After touching at Otaheite, the captain's fa- 
 vourite spot, he sailed to Huaheine, where Onr.ii was landed with 
 his presents, which he had received in lingland. Sailing from 
 thence our navigators fell in with a groupe of i=;lands, to Which, 
 out of compliment to (he lirsl lord of the admiralty, was given 
 tl>? app_idlation of the Sandwich islands. Tlien steering for the 
 north-we^t coast of America, they arrived at a place called Nootka 
 Sound. On this coast they discovered a vast inlet, which at first 
 seemed to indicate the opening of t!ie communication they were 
 in search of, but it proved to lie only a large river, which was 
 called Cook's river. After sailing as liigh as lat. 74° 44' N. and 
 being opposed by an impenetraijle mass of ice, the ships were 
 obliged to shift their course to tl'.e south, and November 26, 1778, 
 reached the Sandwich islands. Here they met at lirat with a kind 
 reception from the native*, but the daring thefts commit, ed bv 
 the savages produced quarrels, and threatened hostilities. At 
 length the islanders proceeded so far as to steal the cutter belong- 
 ing to the Resolution, wliicli being a serious object, captain Cook 
 armed two boats, and went on shore with a design of seizing the 
 person of the king, which had been his custom on these occa- 
 sions. But in the present instance it proved fatal, for the natives 
 armed themselves, and gathered in such numbers, that the cap- 
 tain renounced his purpose, and hastened to his boats. TUe[ 
 
 savagi-, however, pressed on, throwing stones ; the n-.ariies tfeii 
 tired, btU four of them were knocked down and killnl. In this 
 scene of confusion captain Cook pre erved his wonted coolness, 
 and remaiind the last man on shcre ; Lutju^as he reached the 
 water Side he received a blow from a club, uliicli brought liini 
 down on one knee, and as he was rising he receivi-d a s!at) witn a 
 dagger, ami (ell prostn;te. He was soon dispatciieil by the savages, 
 who carried oil liis body in triumph. Soinr of hi's bones were 
 alterwards recovered, the"l!esh in all probabihty having been feast- 
 ed on by the savages wlio are known to eat the dead bodies of 
 their enemies. Such was the mehinclioly fate oi this great man,, 
 February 14, 1779. He left a widow aii'd several children who 
 were provided for by the royal bounty.. Captain Cook was a 
 tall robust man, of placid temper ; niodc-t, alifable, and persever- 
 ing ; and a l.itlier to his crew, by wliom lie was recardi-d with ve- 
 neration. His name is revered for having enlarged the stock of 
 valuable knowledge, and he v ill ever be regarded as a honour to 
 Ids country. AVe mut not conclude tliis article v.itliout taking 
 notice of tiie honours paid to our celebrated navig., tor alter Ins 
 death, both by his own countrymen and diose of other nations. 
 Perhaps indeeii it may be said with justice, that foreigners holdiiis. 
 memory in an estimation unec|Uc,l'ed even in this country ; a ve- 
 niarkalde proof cif which Oi curs in tiie eulof^y upon him bv Mi- 
 chael Angelo Gianetii, read in the Florentine academy on tiic 
 ninth June, 17«.">, and |)ul)li.-.hed at Florence. One of the l-renclx 
 literary academies, too, proposed a prize for the best eiilogium 
 on captain Cook ; but the most striking evidence cjf tlie esteem 
 in which he and his important discoveries were held by foreigners, 
 was given by the French court itself, at the very time «hea 
 France was ;t war with Britain. This happened in 1779, after 
 his death, but before it was known in Europe ; wdien a letter vva» 
 issued by i\I, do Sarline, secretary to tlie maiine department of 
 I'Vance, and s; nt to all the commanders of French ships, importing, 
 that captain Cook should be treated as the commander of a 
 neutral and allied power; and that all captains of armed vessels 
 who might meet with him, should make him acciuainted with the- 
 king's orders, but at the same time let him know, that, on his 
 pan, he must refrain from hostilities. I'his lumiane aad gene- 
 rous proceeding, with regard to Fivnce, origiiuited from M. Tur- 
 got ; but the thought seems first to have struck Dr. Franklin. 
 This at least is certain, that the docto:', while ambassador from 
 the United States, wrote a circular letter to the American naval 
 commanders to the same purport. 'Fhe Royal Society of Lon- 
 don resolved to testify their respect to him by a medal, for w liich 
 puqsose a voluntary snb;<ription was ojiened. A gold medal 
 was given to such of the fellows as subscribed 20 guinea> and a 
 silver one for those who subscribed smallsrsums; and each of 
 the other members received one of bronze. Those who sub- 
 scribed 20 guineas, were. Sir Joseph Banks, president, the Prince 
 of Anspach, the D. of Montague, Lord Mulgrave, and Messrs.. 
 Cavendish, Peachy, Perrin, Poll, and Shuttle«orth. Many do 
 signs were proposc-d on the occasion ; but the following was pre- 
 ferred, and struck. On one side was the head of captain Cook 
 in profile, with this inscription round it, Jac. Cook ocf.ani in^ 
 vESTiGATOR AcKRRiMus; aiid Oil thcexergue, Reg. Soc. Lond. 
 SOCIO suo. On the reverse is a representation of Britannia liolcl,- 
 ing a globe, with this inscii|)tion round her. Nil in.tentatvm. 
 .vosTRi LiiiVKKE ; and on the exergue Ausi-iciis CJtoRGii IlL 
 One of the gold nu'dals struck on this occasion was presented to 
 the king, another to the cpiei'ii, and a third to the prince of Wales.. 
 A 4th was sent to tlif French king on account (f the protection 
 he had granted to the ships; and a 5tli to the Empress ot Russia, 
 in whose doniin'oiis they had been treated with every cxpres-ion 
 of friendship and kindness. Both these great personages act'e])ted 
 of the presents with marks of satisfaction. Ixwis X\'I. wrote a 
 handsome Utter to the Society signed by hiniseb, and under- 
 signed by the Marcpiis de \'i rgeniies; and Catharine H. com- 
 missioned Count Osterman to signify to Mr. Fit/lierbcrt the 
 sense she had of the value of the present, and that she had caused 
 it to be deposited in the museum of the Imperial .Academy of 
 Sciencc-s. She also presented to the Royal Soi i'ty a large and 
 beautiful gold medal, containing on om- side ht r ov u e liigies,. 
 and on the other a representation of the st.itue oi I'cter the Great. 
 After the general assignment of tlie medals, vhich took place 
 in 1784, there being a surplus of money still remaining, it was 
 resolved by the presidejit and council, tliat au additional number 
 
 oi
 
 coo 
 
 2.3 
 
 C 0() 
 
 of nu-dals shoul'l be tluovvn oil', t(i be ilsposnl ot in picfiil'i to 
 Mrs. Cook, the E. of Sanduicli, Dr. Rciijamiii t'riiiikliii. Or. 
 Cooke, provost ot Kind's Colli.'^e Cambridge, and Mr. I'iunta.' 
 Mr. Aiibert was also allowed to have a gold medal oi captain 
 Cook on his paving for the gold and the expence ot striking it, 
 to present to tlie king of l'oI;nid. During the iwo visits ot llie 
 ships at Kanitsch,\lka, Colonel Behin, conjmandant of that pro- 
 vince, had bestowed every kind o' assistance in his power ; and 
 such was tiie sense entertained by the lords of the admiraily ot 
 tlie kindness he had shewed, that liiey 'tetermined to make him 
 a present of a magnificent piece of plate, with an inscri|)tion, ex- 
 pressive of his humane aiui generous conduct, winch was drawn 
 up by Dr. Cooke. Sir II. Pall, er, who had all along an unconi- 
 jnoii respect and kindness for captain Coot, likewise di^plaved 
 his regard lor his memory, bv er^'cting, on his estate in liiicknig- 
 hamshire, a small building u:tli a pillar, containing the cluiracter 
 of captain Cook, which was drawn up by Admiral turbo, to 
 whom he was known only by his merit. Amidst all these ex- 
 pressions of unavailing; praise, it was not turgotten to do essential 
 service to th.e widow and family of our celebrated navigator. A 
 memorial for a pension was given in to the king from tlie coni- 
 liiissioners of tlie admiralty, and a grant v. as passed, by which 
 200/. per. annum were settled on the v.'idow during life ; and 'Jjl. 
 vear on each of her three sons. After her deatli tlie 200/. wa^. to 
 be divided between her children; a fourth was ;'lloU<'d to captain 
 King, and the remaining fourth to Mr. Bligh and the represi n- 
 tatives of captain Clerke. 'The Uist liononr jiaid to tlie memory 
 of captain Cook, wasthe granting of a coat of arms to the family, 
 which, was done by patent on 3d of Sepleniber, 17Si. 
 
 Cook's River, a large river of In. America, which runs into 
 the N. Pacific Ocean. 
 
 Cook's Strait, a strait in the S. Pacitic Ocean, which dividei 
 Uie two islands ot New /''aland. 
 
 COOKLE, in botany, a genus of the class and order decandria 
 monogynia. Calyx live-cleU, inferior; corolla live-peialed, 
 equal, inicrior ; pome live-celled ; the cells one seeded. One spe- 
 cies foiiml in China. 
 
 COOKING, COOKERY, the art of dressing or preparing food. 
 It is ellecteil by various methods, of wnicli boiliiu- is the most 
 common, but also the most objectionable ; a^ it deprives flesh of 
 its nutrilious juice. A belter mode oi dressing animal food is 
 roasting, by which its strength is less dissipated ; beci-u^e a crust 
 issoon4oniiedonitssuriV.ee, that more eflVctually preserves the 
 nutritive particles frum evap ■ration. Hence, one jiound ot 
 roasted meat is, iu real nouri-hment, equal to douiile tliat quantity 
 of boiled animal food. Many substances, though natundiy po:5- 
 sessed of salubrious qualities, are ri-iv'ered unwholesome, by the 
 refinements of cookery. By c'ompou!i:!in- st^veul incongruou 
 ingredients, to produce a poignant sauce, or r.ch soup, the cook 
 frequently forms composition^ that aie almost |>oison'-,us. Thus, 
 high-seasoning of every kind, pickles, and tlie hke, merely stimu- 
 late the palate, and cannot tail to injure tlie stomach. Hence the 
 plainest didies are uniformly the most conducive to healtii, while 
 they are most easily dige-t. d. 'I'iiis sei:-evident proposition is 
 acknowledged by every reflecting person, but gives the least satis- 
 faction to the epicure who consults his taste before he appeals to 
 his warped understuiiding. Animal food is generally boiled in 
 half-open vessels, instend of which close uteiiwls only ought to be 
 employed for that purjo.-e. We therefore prefer.fbly recom- 
 mend the process called stewing ; as it is not only the most w hole- 
 some mode of dressing meal, but at the same time well adapted 
 to retain and concentrate the mo>t subsi..iilial p,'.its of animal food. 
 The utility of preparing viduals after this method, having been 
 generally aiknowledged, various patents have been granted to 
 persons for the invenlion of i.iaciiincr) , by which that object mav 
 be attained, at the smallest expence. Of tliese, we shall com- 
 miinicate the following; for the better ilUistrali'jn o. which we 
 shall give the figures. A p.itent was granted, in December 1793, 
 to Mr. Stanley Howard, of St. Paul's Church-yard, iron-menrer, 
 for his invention of a mach ne which he calls a Pneumatic Kitchen, 
 for cooking provisions by steam ; in such a way, that no com|>lex 
 machinery is recpiired for supplying ilie boilei uilh water, tore- 
 place the quantity dissipated by evaporation, nor any jnimp (the 
 boiler being constantly supplied during the evaporation, without 
 the aid of a cistern) ; which apparatus may bt lised at a siiull 
 
 expence, w ithout any allerauoo ol the chiinney ; and, w hen once 
 arranged, requires no repair. The steam-<i'oiLer, and cooking- 
 vessels, lieing made in the usual way, the foini*r is to be supplied 
 with water by a fountain-reservoir, marked A, Mate Xl.VIl. lig. 
 12, which is to be placed at a convenient di-tanie trom it, with its 
 discharging tube, marked IJ, inserted in a cistern, or |'lpe, marked 
 C; in wli.ch the surface of the water will, by means of the foun- 
 tain, be preserveil always at one height, pointed out by the let- 
 ter D : and by a coinmiinii alion marked K, from the said cisterit 
 or pi|)e, with the steam-boiler, marked F, the water tht;rein will, 
 during the evaporation, be preierved at a height corresponding 
 with such cistern or pipe, and always at the same level, marked 
 0. By means of tlie tountaiii above-mentioned, the necessity of 
 cocks and pipes, or pumps, for supplying the boiler, is obviated ;. 
 and the su|)ply rendered more immediate, moie certain, and at 
 flie same time iiiore simple, llian by any uieihod liitherlo con- 
 trived. The fountain p.iay be made of any materials, or in any 
 form, suited to the purpose. A p^itenf was 1 kewise granted, in, 
 December 1796, to Mr. James Tate, of T otteiiham court-road, 
 iron-monger, for a portable cooking machine, for the use of ollicers 
 in the army or navy, which is provided with lamps. The patentee 
 directs a lamp to be made with any number of burners, or wicks, 
 accord, ng to the size of ti]e maehint', and they should be placed 
 in one or in<;re straight lines. To one side of this lamp helixes 
 an oven, tor the purpose of washing, or baking ; one side of the 
 former is applied to one of the latter, in an inclined direction, so 
 as to come in contact with the ti.me of the wicks. On the other 
 side of the lamp, he places ai.other oven, which may be either- 
 with a straight side next the lamp, or may incline in Ihe same 
 direction as the former; but, if this latter oven incline Irom the 
 li.ane, it uill serve only to keep any ihiid, or solid, substimes in 
 a hot state. The two sides of the ovens wilf form a Hue, or c him- 
 ney, ;nd convey the remaiiuler of the heat upwards to a ve-sel of 
 any shape, which may be put over tlum, tor tie- purpose of 
 raising steam, either to turn ajaik, or b il water for tea, &c.;, 
 and on the top ol >vliicli, another steaming vessel may be pUeetl, 
 A trying, or lioiling pan may also be occasionally substituted for 
 that last mentioned.. Any of these utensils can be Used ^e^rj.- 
 rately with, or over, the lamp ; and, il baking or r,oa'-tiag only he 
 required, that puipose will be better eliecteil, by h.aving an oven 
 so constructed as to receive the whole heat of the lamp, or lamps, 
 vliich. ought to be surrounded with a c;,se, for confining the flame, 
 u.th an open space at the bolti.m to admit the iiei;!, and another 
 at the top to give it vent. The following is a liescriplion of tlie 
 different artiiles, as they are conii/ined to (orm ih.s mi,chine,, 
 v.]<.tu made portable. P, Plate XLVTI, iig, 13, i; the lamp for 
 the m;,cliiiie. Fig. 14 is the lamp, in combination with the 
 two ovens, and the boiler or vessel lor raising steum, and boiling 
 any substance in water. P, i, tlie baking oven. 0, isllie heathig 
 oven. K,istlie end of the lamp; and S, is the vessel for boiling in, 
 and raising steam for oth.er purposes. This machine, and its 
 Viinous component parts, m.:y be constructed of any of the difler- 
 ent metals, of which similar artic les are usually made. Ar.d,. 
 tiiough it isat present described only asoperaling with a lamp and 
 oil, yet the patentee proposes to constnu t sucn as may be used 
 v.ilh common tuel. 
 
 COOLICR, among brewers, distillers, &c. a large vessel where- 
 in cert:>in liquors are cooled, after having lieen boiled. 
 
 COOMU, or COMB, [comliU; Fr. \-uiinilus, I.at. a hca]<,] a 
 measure of corn containing lour fushels. 
 
 C'OOMT.\H, a town of Hn.dostan, in Birar, 45 miles N. E, 
 of Nagpour. 
 
 CO()P, in hu^handrv, a tumbrel or cart inclosed wiihboards>. 
 and used to carry cing, grains, I'^c. 
 
 COOPEU, Anthon'v-Ashley, first earl of Shaflesburv, \>ai 
 the son of Sir John Cooper, Bart, ot Rockborn in Hampshire, 
 and was born in ifi21. He was elected M. P. for Tewkesbury at 
 19 years of age, in the short parliami nt that met April 13, I64O. 
 He teems to have been well affected lo the king's service at the 
 beginning of the civil wars ; lor he rep.iieil to the king ,1 0\ ord 
 with oilers of assistance : but prince Maurice breaking an cles 
 with a town in Dorsetshire, that he had got lo receive him, he went 
 .iierto the parliament, from which he accepttd a commission. 
 \\ hen Rich'.ird Cromwell was deposed, and the Kump paili.amenti 
 came agaijp itUo power, they nouiUkateil Sir Anthony one of their 
 
 ««UBcil|,
 
 c o o 
 
 24 
 
 COO 
 
 f oiincil of stale, and a comniissiom r for managing tlie army. At 
 that very tiiiio lie had engaged in a -jci ret correspondence for re- 
 jtoring Charles II. and, upon the king's coming over, was sworn 
 of his privy council. lie was one of the commissioners for the 
 trial of the regicides ; and was soon after made chancellor nf the 
 exchequer, then a commissioner of tlie treasuvv ; in I67i! was 
 treated earl of Shaftesbury ; pnd soon af;er was raised to the post 
 of lord chancellor. He tilled this office with great ability, and 
 though the short time he was at the helm was in a tempestuous 
 season, nothing could either distract or afi'right him. 1 lie great 
 seal was taken trom hini in 167.5, twelve months after his receiving 
 it; but, though out of oftice, he still made a distinguished figure 
 in parliament. He drew upon himself the implacable hatred of 
 the duke of York, by steadily promoting, if not originally invent- 
 ing, the famous exclusion bill. When his enemies came hito 
 power, h'-' retired into Holland, vvheie he died ..i.^: weeks after his 
 arrival, in 1683. His great abilities are confessed by all, though 
 Butler has given a very severe character of him in his " Hucli- 
 bras." 
 
 Cooper, AKTHOxv-.'\sHLEy, third earl of ''haftesbury, was 
 son of Anthony the second, and grandson of Anthony the first 
 earl. He was born in 1671, at Exeter house in London, where 
 his grandfather lived, who from his birth conceived so great an af- 
 fection for him, that he undertook the care of his education ; 
 wherein he made such progress that he could read with ease both 
 Latin and Greek, uhen only eleven years old. In 1683, his father 
 carried him to Winchester school, where being insulted on his 
 grandfather's account, by the zealots for despotism, he prevailed 
 with his father to consent to his going abroad, in 1686. He re- 
 turned to Euiibnil in losp, and was offered a seat in parliament, 
 but did not accept it, that he might not be interrupted in the 
 course of his studies, wliich he prosecuted five years with great 
 success; till, on Sir John Trenchard's death, he was elected M. 
 P. for Pool. Soon after his coming into parliament, he had an 
 opp"rtunity of expre.wing that S])irit of liberty, which uniformly 
 directed his cou<luct, by bringing in " the bill for regulating trials 
 \n cases of high treason." After the dissolution of parliament in 
 IfiyS, he went to Holland, where the conversatioji of Mr. Bayle, 
 ]M. le Clerc, and several other learned men, induced him to re- 
 side a year. During this time, there was printed at London, in ' 
 Svo. an imperiect edition of lord Ashley's " Inquiry concernijig 
 Virtue." It had been surreptitiously taken (by Mr. 'Poland, it is 
 said,) from a rough draught, sketched when he was only twenty 
 years of age. His lordship immediately bought up the impres- 
 sion before many books v, ere sold, and completed the treatise, as 
 it afterwards appeared in the second volume of his " Charac- 
 teristics." In 1703, he made a second journey to Holland, and 
 returned to England in 1704. His " Letter concerning Enthu- 
 Biasm," was published in 1708. His " Moralist, a philosophical 
 Rhapsody, being a recital of certain Conversations on natural and 
 moral Subjects," appeared in Jan. 1709 ; and in May following, 
 his " SeniUS Commune," an Essay upon the Freedom of Wit 
 and Humour, in a Li Iter to a Friend. In 1710, his " Soliloquy, 
 or .\dvice to an Author," was published at London in 8vo. 
 While he was thus employing himself in literary composition, his 
 health declined so fast, that he was advised to go to a warmer cli- 
 mate. Accordingly, in July 1711, he set out for Naples, and 
 took his journey by \v:iv cf France. After having resided at Naples 
 about a year aiifl a" halt, he died the 4th Feb. O. .S. 1712-13, aged 
 42. The only pieces which he finished at Niiples, were " The 
 .Judgement 0! Hercules," and the "Letter concerning Design." 
 In 1711, the /ir^t edition was published of all the characteristics 
 together, and in the order in which they now stand. But a more 
 elegant edition was given to the world in 1713, soon after his de- 
 cease. The several prints that were then first interspersed tlirough 
 the volumes were all mventi;d by himself, and designed under his 
 immediate inspection ; r.nd for this purpose he drew up a most 
 accurate set of instructions, the MS. of which is still preserved in 
 the family. To prevent mistakes, the earl corrected the press 
 himself. In the three volumes of the " Characteristics of Men, 
 Miinners, Opinions, and Times," he completed the whole of his 
 works which he intended for the public eye. He had a fine taste 
 in painting and sculpture, and had thoughts of writing on these 
 subject- ; which his premature decease prevented. By many au- 
 thors lord Shaftesbury is ranked among the d'dsts, while others 
 think that he oi:ght not to be reckoned among the deistical writers. 
 
 In support of his Lordship's having been a believer in our holy 
 religion, have been urged his " Preface to Whichcot's Sermon'^," 
 and his " Letters to a Student at the University:" in both which 
 works he expreses hiin-elf in sach language as seems to indicate 
 that he believed the sacred scriptures. Nevertheless, there are in 
 the " Characteristics" so many sceptical passages, thathe must be 
 considered as having been a doubter at least, if not an absolute 
 disbeliever, with rcsj.ect to revelation. 
 
 CoopF.n, John GiLnERT, a polite writer, brrn hi 1723. Af- 
 ter stiidyii:g at Westmin:,ter school under Dr. John Nicoll, lie be- 
 came in 1743, a Fellow Coniimner of Trinity college, Cam- 
 bridge; biitquiUed the imi\ersiiy on his marriage with Susanna 
 the d.iuglUer of ^V■illianl Wiighte, E-iq. Recorder of Leicester. 
 In 17-iJ he published " The Power of Harmony," a poem in 4to. 
 and in 1746 and 1747, several Essays and Poems, signed I'hila- 
 Icthes, in Mr. Dodsley's " Musa;um." With the assistance of the 
 Rev. John Jackson of Leicester, he publishetl with his name, 
 " The Life of Socrates, collected from the Memorabilia of Xeno- 
 plion and the Dialogues of Plato," and illustrated by Aristotle, 
 Diodorus SIculus, Cicero, Proclus, Apuleius, Maximus Tyrius, 
 Boethiu-, Diogenes, Laeitius Aulus, Gellius, and others, 1749, 
 Svo. In this work Mr. Cooper gave evident marks, of superior 
 genius. In 1734, he published his " Letters on Taste," Svo. ; 
 an elegant volume, on which no small share of his reputation is 
 founded; and in 1733, "The Tomb of Shakespeare, a Vision," 
 4lo. In 1736, he assiste<l Mr. Moore, by writing some numbers 
 of " The World ;" and attemptcHl to rouse the indignation of his 
 countrymen against the Hessians, then brought over to defend the 
 nation, in a poem called " The Genius of Britain," acklressed to 
 Mr. Pitt. In 175S, he published " Epistles to the Great, from 
 Aristippus in Retirement," 4to. ; and " The Call of Aristippus," 
 Epistle l\. to Mark Akenside, M. D. Also, " A Father's Ad- 
 vice to his Son," in 4to. In the Annual Register of 173S, is his 
 Translation of an Epistle fror.i the King of Prussia to Monsieur 
 Voltaire. In 1759, he published " Ver ^'ert ; or, the Nunnery 
 Parrot;" an Heroic Poem, in four cantos ; inscribed to the Ab- 
 bess of D*** ; 4to. ; and, In 1764, " Poems on several Subjects, 
 by the Author of the Life of Socrates;" with a prefatory Adver- 
 tisement by Mr. Dodsley. He died at his father's house in May- 
 Fair, after a long and excruciating illness arising from the stone, 
 April 14, 1769. 
 
 Cooper, in gcogra|)hy, a large navigable river of the United 
 States, which unites the xVsliley below Charleston city, in South 
 Carolina. 
 
 Cooper, one who manufactures casks, tubs, pails, and some 
 other similar articles used in domestic concerns. These are made 
 generally of oak timber; a great part of which conies from Ame- 
 rica, cut up into naiTow pieces or staves ; they are sometimes bent 
 and sometimes straight, according to the purposes for which they 
 are wanted. ^I'he staves are kept together by means of hoops, 
 made from hazel or a>h, or of iron. To make them hold water 
 or other liquids, split flags are inserted, which swell by moisture, 
 and efiectually prevent the vessels from leaking. Coopers, by 
 23 Hen. \ HI. r. 4, shall make their vessels of seasonable wood ; 
 and make them with their own marks, on forfeiture of 34-. -id. : 
 and the contents of vessels arc appointed to be observed under a 
 like penalty. 
 
 Cooper, King's, an oflicer in every custom-house and excise 
 office. 
 
 Cooper, on board a ship, he that looks to the casks, and all 
 other vessels for beer, water, or any other liquor. He has a mate 
 under him. 
 
 Cooper's Isl.\kd, an island on the N. coast of the isle of Java, 
 near Batavia. 
 
 Cooper's Isl.vnd, an island in the South Pacific Ocean, near 
 South Georgia. 
 
 Cooper's Island, one of (lie lesser Virgin Isles in the West 
 Indies. 
 
 Cooper's Town, a post town of New York, in Otsego 
 county. 
 
 CoopEp..'s Town, a town of Pennsylvania, situated on the Sus- 
 Cjiu-hanna. 
 
 COOS, or COS, an island in the Archipelago, 56 miles N. 
 W. of Rhodes. 
 
 Coos, or CoHOS, a teiritory of New Hampshire, on the Con- 
 necticut. 
 
 COOSACTEES,
 
 c o P 
 
 2.) 
 
 C OP 
 
 COOSAC'l'EIvS, a tvihc of the Creek, or Muskogulge Iiuliaiis 
 in Nortli AintM-ica. See Muskogulge. 
 
 COOSy, or COSA, a river of Asia, which rises in the moun- 
 -taiiis of 'I'liibet. , „ ... 
 
 COO IS, or COOTSTOWN, a town of Pennsylvania, in 
 
 Berk< coiintv. ... 
 
 COPAtl'/A, or BALSAM OF COPAIBA, a hqnid resmoin 
 juice, flowing from incisions made in the trunk of the copaifera 
 officinalis. It is transpar^-nt, of a whitish or pale yellowish colour, 
 an agreeable sm-11, and a bitlorijh pvngent taste. It is usually 
 about the consistence of ol, or a little thicker : when long kept, it 
 becomes nearlv as thick as honey, retaining its clearness ; but does 
 not grow drv or solid, as most other resinous juices do. The bal- 
 sam of copiiba is an useful corroborating detergent medicine, ac- 
 comjianiecl with a degree of irritation. It streiiothens the nervous 
 system, tends to loosi-n the belly, in large doses proves purgative, 
 promotes urine, and cleanses and heals exulcerations inthe urinary 
 passages, which it is sui)poseJ to perform more effectually than any 
 other balsams. The dose rarely exceeds twenty or thirty drops, 
 though some direct sixty or more. It maybe laken in the form 
 of an ela-osaccharum, of in that of an emulsion, into which it may 
 bo reduced by triturating it with almonds, or rather with a th.ick 
 nuicilage of r"u;u arable, liil they are well incorporated, and then 
 gradjally addiin; a proper ciuantity of mater. 
 
 COP.VIFKKA, in botai'.y, a genus of the monogyma onler, 
 »nd decandrid class of plant's. No calyx ; petals tour ; Icgumen 
 ovate ; seed one, with an arillus. One species, vir. 
 
 C. Opficinalis. This tree grows near a village called Ayapel, 
 in the province of Antiochi, in the Spanish West Indies, about ten 
 days journey from Carthagena. Great numbers of these trees 
 grow to the" height of lifty or r,i-:tv iect. Some of tnem do not 
 yield any balsam ; those which do', are distinguislied by a ridge 
 which ru'ns aluiig the trunks. Thev are wounded m the centre, 
 »nd calabash shells, or other vessels, are placed at the wounded 
 part to receive the balsam, wlr.th flows wholly out in a short time. 
 One of these trees will yield five or six gallons of balsam: but 
 though they will thrive well after being tapped, yet they never 
 afford any more balsam. . 
 
 COPAL, a substance of great use as a varnisli, which is obtain- 
 ed from the rhus copalinum, a tree in North America. It is a 
 beautiful transparent resinous-like substance. When heated it 
 melts like other resins ; but it differs from them in not being solu- 
 ble in alcohol, nor in oil of turpentine without peculiar manage- 
 ment. Neither does it dissolve in the fixed oils like other resins. 
 The specific gravity of copal varies from 1,045 to 1,139. Mr. 
 Hatchett fouiul it soluble in alkalies and nitric acid with the usual 
 phaniomena ; so that in this respect it agrees with the other resms. 
 The solution of copal in alkalies he found iiuleed opalescent, but 
 it is nevertheless permanent. It deserves attention, th.at he found 
 resin when dissolved in nitric acid, and then thrown down by an 
 alkali, to acquire a smell resembling that of copal. When copal 
 is dissolved in any volatile liquid, and spread thin upon wood, 
 iVietal, paper, &c. so that the volatile menstrimin may evaporate, 
 the copjil remains perfectly transparent, and forms one of the most 
 beautiful and perfect varn'ishes that can well be conceived. I he 
 varnish thus formal is called copal varnish, from the chief ingredi- 
 ent in it. This varnish wa» first discovered in France, and was 
 long known bv the name of vernis martin. Copal varnished used 
 by the Lnglisli japanp.ers is made as follows : Four parts by weight 
 •f copal in pow'der are put into a glass matrass and melted. l he 
 li<iuid is kept boiling till the fumes, condensed upon tlie po-nt ot 
 a tube thrust into tin? matrass, drop to the bottom of the liqu.d 
 without occasioning any his.-ing noise as water does. 1 his is a 
 proof that all the water i's dissipated, and the copal has been long 
 mough melted. One part of boiling hot linseed oil (previously 
 boiled in a retort without any litharge) is now jjoured into it, and 
 well mixed. The matrass isthen taken off the fire, and the liquid, 
 vhile still hot, is mixed with about its own weight of oil ot tur- 
 pentine. The varnish thus made is transparent, but it has a tint of 
 yellow, which the japanners endeavour to conceal by giving the 
 white ground on which thev apply a shade of blue. It is with 
 this varnish that the dial plat'es of clocks are covered after having 
 been painted white. Mr. Sheldrake has lately favoured the pub- 
 lic with another and easier method of dissolving copal. This me- 
 thod is as follows : " Provide a strong vessel made of tin or ether 
 Bietal; it should bo shaped like a "wine bottle, aud capable of 
 \oi.. II. — MO. 57. 
 
 holding two (piarts ; it w ill be convenient to ha.ve a handle strongly 
 riveted to the neck; the neck should be long ami ha\e a cork 
 fitted to the mouth, but a notch or small hole sliould be made in 
 the cork, that, when the spirit is expanded by heat, a small por- 
 tion may force its way through the hole, and thus prevent llie ves- 
 sel from bursting. Dissolve half an ounce of camphor in a quart 
 of spirit of turpentine, and put it into the vessel ; take a piece of 
 copal the size of a large walnut, reduce it to a coarse pow.'cror 
 very small pieces, pi'it them into the tin bottle, fasten the corK 
 down with a wire, and set it, as <|uick as possil-.le, upr n a fire eo 
 brisk as to make the spirit bod almost immediately ; then keep it 
 boiling very gently for about an hour, when so iiuich of tl.e copal 
 will be dissolved 'as will make a very good varnish ; or, it ll-e 
 operation has been properly begun, b'ut enough of copal has not 
 been dissolved, it may be "again put on the tire, and by boinng it 
 slowly for a longer time, it "may be at last brought to the consist- 
 ence desired. 
 
 COPARCENAllY. An estate held in coparcenary, is where 
 lands of inheritance descend from the ancestor to two or more 
 persons. It arises either by connnon law, or particular custom. 
 By common law, as where a person seised in fee-simple, or fee-tail 
 
 By .., -..,_ . 
 
 dies, and bis next heirs are two or more females, his daughters, 
 sisters, aunts, cousins, or their n-presentatives ; in this case they 
 shall all inherit. And these co-heirs are then called copafceners ; 
 or for brevity sake parceners. Parceners, by particular custom, 
 are where la'nds descend, as in gavel-kind, to all the males in 
 equal degree> as sons, brothers, uncles, or other kindred ; and m 
 either of^hese cases, all the parceners put togetlier make but one 
 heir, and have but one estate among them. 
 
 COPiC, in Doomsday Book, as .Mr. Hagar has interpreted it, 
 siguitics a hill. - , , • 
 
 Cope is also the name of an ancient tribute paid to the king of 
 lord of the soil, out of the lead mines in Derbyshire. 
 
 COPELAND Islands, three islands, in the Irish Sea, on the 
 coast of Down ; near Carricklergus Bay. Their names are Big, 
 Cross, and Mew. Lon. 5. 53. W. Lat. 54. 33. N. 
 
 COPENHAGEN, anciently called Kiobmandshaven, the ca- 
 pital of the kingdom of Denmark, situated on the E. shore of the 
 island of Zealand, upon a fine hay of the Baltic sea, near the strait 
 called the Sound. Copenhagen lies 300 miles S. W . of Stock- 
 holm, and 500 N. E. of London. Lon. I'i. 40. E. Lat. a:>. 
 41. N. 
 
 COPERNICAN System, that system of the world, where:i» 
 the sun is supposed to rest in the centre, and the planets, with the 
 earth, to move in ellipses round him. See Astronomy. 
 
 COPKRNKT'S, NicoL.Ai's, an eminent astronomer, born at 
 Thorn in Prussia, Jan. 10, 1472. He was taught the Latin ai-d 
 Greek languages at home ; and afterwards studied philosophy and 
 phvsic at Crotovia. His genius being naturally turned to mathe- 
 matics, he pursued that science through all its various branches. 
 He set out for Italy when he was 23 years of age; but staid at 
 Bononia some time, with the celebrated astroncmer Dominicns 
 -Maria; whom he assisted in making his observations. Iroin 
 thence he passed to Rome, where he soon acquired so great repu- 
 tation, that he was chosen professor of inathematirs. He ab-o 
 made some astronomical observations about A. D. 1500. Return- 
 ing to his own couDtrv some yeai^ after, he began to apply his 
 vast knowledge in mathcmatic"s, to correct the systein ot astrono- 
 my which the^l prevailed. He collected all the books whicii had 
 be'en written by astronomers, and examineil the various hypotheses 
 invented for the solution of the celestial phenomena. Of all the-e, 
 none pleased him so well as the P^lhagorean, which made the sun 
 to be the centre of tlic sv:,tem, and supposed the earth to move 
 not only round the sun, but round its own axis also. He discern- 
 ed much beautiful order and proportion in this ; and that all that 
 embarrassment ami jierplexitv from the epicycles and eccentrics, 
 which attended the Piolemai"c hypothesis, were here entirely re- 
 moved. Tliis system, then, he begaB to write upon, when he was 
 about 35; and after more than twenty years, he brought his 
 scheme to perfection, and established that system ot the world 
 .■.hich is now universally received. See Astronomy. His sys- 
 tem, however, was then' looked upon as a most dangerous heresy ; 
 for which he was thrown into prison by Pope I'rbaii Vlll. ai.d 
 not suffered to come out till he had re.anted his ooinicn, and il ui 
 renounced the testimony of his senses. He died May 24, 1543, 
 a'^ed 70. This extraordinary man had been made cuuou of \N orm-. 
 
 ° n ■ . ^^
 
 COP 
 
 26 
 
 C O P 
 
 bv hi> mother's brollur, Lucas Wazelrodius, who was l)i-ho|> of 
 tliiit plate. He was not only llie iireaU;.-.t of astronomers, but a 
 perfect master of the Greek aiul Latin tongues, and a man ot the 
 greatest piety and innocence of manners. 
 
 COPHTl, the CoPHTs, a nunie given to Hie Christians of 
 Egypt, who are of the sect of Jacobites. 1 he critics dilfer much 
 ab"out tlw orthog.-aphy, as well as the etymology, of tliis word. 
 Some write it C'ophli ; others Copti, Copiitit;e, Cophlitc::,. Copts, 
 fwrc. Scaligcr derives the name from Coptos, an am ienlly cele- 
 brated town of Egypt, tlie metropolis ot theThebaid. liirclier 
 maintains, tli.it the word originally signifies cut or circumscribed ; 
 and was given them on account of their practising circumcision ; 
 Scaliger afterwards derived the word from Aiyjsr^, the ancient 
 name of Egypt, by retrenching the fust syllabic: but P. Sollier 
 disputes bofii these opinions. John de Leo and others say, that 
 the Egyptians anciently called their country Elchibth or Cibth, 
 from Ciblh their king, whence Cophtite, &c. others say from Cob- 
 tim second king of Egypt. Vansleb derives Copht from Copt, or 
 Caphtorim, the son ot Misraim, grandson of Noah. All these 
 etymologies P. Solher rejects, on this principle, that were they 
 true, the Egyptians ouglit all equally to be called Cophti ; where- 
 as, in ellect, none but the Christians, and among those none but 
 the Jacobites, bear the name, the Melchites not being compre- 
 hended under it. Hence he derived the word from the name Ja- 
 cobite, retrenching the lirst syllable ; whence Cobite, C'obea, 
 C'opta, and Coph.ta. The Coplits have a patriarch who resides at 
 Cairo, but lie takes his title from Alexandria: he has under him 
 eleven or twelve bisliops. 'I he rest of llie clergy, whether secu- 
 lar or regular, is composed of the orders of St. Antony, St. Paul, and 
 St. Macarius, who have each their inonasleries. 
 
 COFH'l IC, or COPTIC, the language of the Cophts, the 
 ancient language of the Egyptians, mixed with a deal of Greek, 
 the characters it is written in being all Greek. It has a form and 
 construction peculiar to itself: it has no inllections of the nouns 
 or verbs ; but expresses number, case, gender, person, mood, 
 tense, and possessive pronouns, bv letters and particles prefixed. 
 F. Kircher was the first who published a grammar and vocabulary 
 of the Cophlic. There is not known any book extant in the 
 Cophtic, except translations of the Holy Scriptures, or of eccle- 
 siastical offices ; or others that have relation tliereto, as dictiona- 
 ries, &c. The ancient Cophlic is now no longer found but in 
 books ; the langu^.ge now used throughout tiie country being 
 Arabic. The old Cophtic, which Kircher maintains to be a mo- 
 ther tongue, and independent of all others, had been much altered 
 by the Greek ; for besides that it has borrowed all its characters 
 from the Greek, with a very little variation, a great number of 
 words are pure Greek. Vossius, indeed, asserts, that there was 
 110 Cophtic language till after Egypt became subject to the Arabs. 
 'l"he language, according to him, is a mixture of Greek and Ara^ 
 bic : the very name thereof not being in the world till after the 
 Arabs were masters of the country. But this, M. Simon observes, 
 proves nothing ; except that what was anciently called Egyptian, 
 lias since by the Arabs been called Coptic, by a corruption of 
 speech. There are, jt is true, Arabic words in the Cophlic ; yet 
 this by no means proves but that there was a language before that 
 time, either Cophtic or Egyptian. 
 
 COPIAPO, a district of South America, in the N. of Cliili, 
 which abounds in minerals of all kinds. 
 
 COPIA TA, [from xstslu, to cut,] a grave-digger. In the first 
 ages of the church, clerks were destined for this employment. 
 A. D. 357, Constantinc made a law in favour of the priests 
 copiata', i.e. of those wlio had the care of interments; whereby 
 he exempted them from the lustral contributions. 
 
 COPILOWATS, a town of European Turkey in Bulgaria. 
 Lon. 27. .30. E. Lat. 43. 40. N. 
 
 COPING Over, in carpentry, a sort of hanging over, not 
 square to its upright, but bevelling on its under side, till it ends in 
 an edge. 
 
 COPORIA, a town and river of "Rus ia, in the province of 
 Ingria. 
 
 "COPPA, in law, a cop or cock of grass, hay, cr corn, divided 
 into titheable portions; as the tenth cock, &c. This word de- 
 notes laying up the corn in cops or heaps, not bound up, that it 
 may be tlie more fairly tithed: and in Kent they still retain the 
 word, a cop or cap of I'lay, straw, &c. 
 
 COPPEL, COPEL, CUPEL, or CUPPEL, a chemical 
 vessel made of earth, pretty thick, and of the form of a platter or 
 dish. See Cupel. 
 
 COPPER, a very useful metal, which is found in the bowels 
 of tlicearth, in the following states : 
 
 1. Native or ])ure copper, which possesses the red colour, the 
 malleability, and all the other properties of this metal, and is dis- 
 covered in viu-ious parts of England and Wales, but more par- 
 ticularly in the county of Cornwall. It is formed into threads of 
 branches, and lies in veins of considerable thickness, contained in 
 blackish serpentine stone, mixed witlj a brownish red, and covered 
 externally with a greenish nephrites. 
 
 II Mineralized by fixed air; of which tliere are several vari- 
 eties: 1. Red copper, or hepatic ore of copper, which is known 
 by its dusky colour. It is generally mixed with native copper and 
 mountain green. 2. Earthy copi)er, or mountain green, which 
 is mostly found in a loose friable stale, and fre<|uenlly blended 
 with calcareous earth, iron, and sometimes with arsenic. 
 
 III. Mineralized by sulphur, with a small proportion of iron. 
 This is of a deep violet grey, or liver colour, melts with a genlle 
 lieat, is ponderous, fiexible, and vields to the knife. .When broken, 
 it appears of a bright golden colour, and is the richest of all the 
 copper ores, affording from 80 to 90 per cent, of copper, 10 or 12 
 ofMilphur, and a small proportion of iron. 
 
 I\'. Mineralized by sulphur, with a large proportion of iron, or 
 azure copper ore ; it varies from the preceding sort only in the 
 cpiantity of iron it contains, which sometimes amounts to 50 per 
 cent. It yields 50 or 60 pounds of copper per cwt. the rest being 
 sulphur. The principal parts of Great Britain, whicji afford cop- 
 jier, are the counties of Cardigan, Chester, Cornwall, Cumber- 
 land, Derbv, Devon, Northumberlanil, Lancaster, Salop, Somer- 
 set, Stafford, York, Warwick, Westmoreland ; in the Islands of 
 Man and Anglesey ; and also in Scotland. Copper is a very bril- 
 liant metal, of a fine red colour, dilfering from every other metal- 
 lic substance. The specific gravity of copper is 8.5S. When it is 
 hammered it acquires a greater density. It possesses a consider- 
 al.'le degree of hardness, and some elasticity. It is extremely 
 malleable, and may be reduced to leaves so fine, that they may be 
 carried about bv the wind. It has also a considerable degree of 
 ductility, intermediate, according to Guyton, between tin and lead. 
 The tenacity of copper is also very great. A wire .078 of an inch 
 in diameter will support a weight without breaking equal to more 
 than SOOlbs. avoirdupois. Copper has a peculiarly astringent and 
 disagreeable taste. Cupper does not melt till the tempesiture is 
 elevated to a red heat, which is about i,''/" Wedgwood, or by es- 
 timation 1450° Fahrenheit. When it is rapidly cooled after fusion, 
 it assumes a granulated and porous texture: but if it be cooled 
 slowly, it affords crystals in quadrangular pyramids, or in octahe- 
 drons, which proceed from the cube, its piimitive form. W'hen 
 thelempeialure is raised beyond what is necessary for its fusion, it 
 is sublimed in the form of visible fumes. Copper soon tarnishes, 
 and ex|)osed to the air, especially if it be humid, is deprived of its 
 lustre, and at last is covered with a shining green crust, which is well 
 known under the name of verdigris. This effect is produced by 
 the absorption ot oxygen from the atmosphere, by which the metal 
 is oxygenated. As this oxide is formed, the carbonic acid of the 
 atmosphere combines with it, so that it is to be considered as a 
 mixture of oxide and carbonate of cojiijer. But when copper is 
 subjected to a strong heat, the oxidation proceeds more rapidly. 
 If a plate of copper be made red-hot in the open air, it loses its 
 brilliancy, becomes of a deep brown colour, and the external layer, 
 which is of this colour, may be detached from the metal. This is 
 the brown oxide of copper. This oxide may be obtained by 
 immersing a plate of red-hot copper into cold water. The scales 
 which are formed on tlie surface fall off by the sudden contrac- 
 tion of the heated copper. This may be repeated till the whol« 
 is converti'd into the oxide. The copper in this state is in the 
 highest degree of oxidiilion. The component parts of this oxide 
 are, 
 
 O.vygen ,...25 
 
 Copper 75 
 
 100 
 
 There are, however, different oxides ; copper combine? with a 
 
 stnal.'ej
 
 COP 
 
 $7 
 
 COP 
 
 sjnalk'i- proportion of OX) gen, for:iiiiiJ- an oxide of u!i oran.'.'i^ co- 
 Jour. 'I'liis is tiie oxide ol copper witli tlie smaller pvoponioii of 
 oxygen. 'I'lie component parts of tliia o.\iiie, ■.iccordii.g to Mr. 
 CJievevix, are. 
 
 Oxygen ■ 11,5 
 
 Copper ^•'i,j 
 
 1110,0 
 
 Tliis oxide changes colour (he moment it is exposed to tlie air, 
 l)V tliF absorption ot oxygen, tcr wliieii it l.asa very strongaliinity. 
 There is no action between azote, liydrogen, or carbon, anl cop- 
 per. Pliospliorus readily conil)in(-s vviili copper, and forms w it!i 
 It a pliospiuiret, whicli is jjrepared by fusing oijujI parts of cop- 
 per and piiosplioric a,as, with -tth of the wliole of charcoal in pow- 
 der. Copper comt)ines with sulphur by dilieront processes. If 
 sulphur in powder and liliuivs of copper are mixed together, and 
 formed intci^a paste with a little water, when they are exposed to 
 the air, the mass swells up, i)ecomes hot, and is converted into a 
 brown matter, wliich elUoresces slowly in the air, and is converted 
 into sulphate of copper. The alloys of copper (that is, tiiose in 
 which this metal predominates) are more numerous and more im- 
 portant in the arts than those of any odier metal. Many of them 
 are perfectly well known, and Itave been in usn from very ancient 
 times; of many the exact composition, and particularly the mode 
 of preparing, are kept as secret as possible ; tor even wnen the pre- 
 cise composition ot an alloy is found by cliemical analysis, it may 
 often be extremely difficult to produce a mixture by common 
 methods, which shall have exactly the same shade of colour, the 
 same nialleablility, teNlure, suscepiibility of polish, or some other 
 excellence, w liich, perlraps, a mere accident has discovered to the 
 possessor. The principal objects of alloying cojiper appears to be 
 to render it less liable to tarnish, and especially to be acted on by 
 common animal or vegetable substances, to make it more fusible, 
 and harder, and able to take a higher (.olish, and to alter its colour 
 cither to a golden yellow or silvery white. Ail these objects are 
 •attainable by (liferent alloys. Copper alloyed witli gold, silver, 
 and platina, is seldom, if ever, used in the proportions in which it 
 would be reckoned as alloj of copper, being riucli loo costly for 
 ' any purpose of manufacture ; with this e:;ceptloH, however, tliat a 
 very small portion ot silver. much improves the composition oi the 
 alloy of copper and tin, w hen used as bell-metal or specnluwj- 
 metal. Coppej- is used largely as an alloy of gold and sdver, and 
 it is ofte.'j plated with one or the other. Copper nearly saturated 
 with zinc, forms brass, the most important ot all the all .ys of this 
 metal. See Brass. Willi a much less proportion of zinc the 
 colour of the alloy approaches very nearly to that of gold, and the 
 malleability increases. Mixtures chiefly of these two melals arc 
 used to form a variety of yellow or gold-coloured alloys, known 
 by the names of tombac, Manheim, or Dutch gold, tinsel, siniilor. 
 Prince Rupert's metal. Pinchbeck, &.c. ; but the precise composi- 
 tion varies according to the fancy or the experience of different 
 manufacturers. The alloys of copper an. 1 tin are extremely im- 
 portant in the arts, and curious as ch(Mnical mixtures. Thev form, 
 in dilTerent proportions, mixtures wluclihave a distinct and'appro- 
 pi'iate use. Tin added to copper makes it more fusible; much 
 less liable to rust or corrosion by common substances; harder, 
 denser, and more sonorous. In these respects the alloy has a real 
 advantage over unmixed copper; but this is in many cases more 
 than counterbalanced by the extreme brittleness w'hich even a 
 moderate portion of tin imparts, and which is a singular circum- 
 stance, considering how very malleable both metals are ■before 
 mixture, aa<l the remarkable sottness and ductility of tin. Cop- 
 per, or sometimes copper with a little zinc, -.illnyed with as much 
 tin as will mike from about ^igth to about 4th of the whole, forms 
 an alloy which is the principal, and often the only composition for 
 bells, brass cannon (so called,) bronze statues, and several smaller 
 purposes, and hence it is called bronze, or bell-metal; and it is 
 excellently fitted for these purposes, by its hardness, density, so- 
 norousness, and fusibility, whereby tlie minute parts of hollow 
 moulds may be readily tilled before it fixes in cooling. For can- 
 non a lower portion of tin seems to be used. Bronze cannon are 
 much less liable to rust than those of iron ; but in large pieces of 
 ordnance, by very rapid firing, the touch-hole is apt to melt down, 
 and >poil the piece.; of whicii there is a remarkable instance at the 
 Tower of Loudon, of a mortar of the largest calibre thus spoiled at 
 
 the siege of Ncmur. On account of tlie sonorousness of broii/c 
 these cannon give a much sharper report than those ot iron, which 
 for a time iuipaiw (lie hearing of liie peop'le tliat work them. A 
 common alloy for bell-metal is about flO of cojipcr to 21) of tin; 
 or where copper, br.iss, and tin, are used, the copper is from 70 to 
 SO pec-ccnt. inciutliiig the portion contained in the brass, antl th'o 
 remainder is tin and zinc. The zinc rertainly makes it more so- 
 norous. Antimony is also often found in small tpiantities in bell- 
 metal. Some of the riner kinds used for small articles contain 
 also a litlic silver, which much improves the sound. When the 
 tin is nearly one-third of the alloy, it is then mcst beautifully white 
 with a lustre almost like that cf" mercury, e.xtremely hard, very 
 close-grained, and periectly brittle. In this state it takes a most 
 beautiful polish, and is admirai)ly lilted for the reflection of light 
 for all optical pnipo-.es. It is then called speculum metal, which, 
 liowever, for the extreme perfection required in mo<,lern astrono- 
 mical instruments, is belter mixe'd with a very small proportion of 
 other metals, particularly ai^enic, brass, and silver. When takeu 
 into the human body, copper acts as a violent emetic, and is gene- 
 rally considered as' poisonous: and, though it has occasionally 
 been prescribed bv physicians, it is always an unsafe and hazar- 
 dous remedy. Hence, the greatest precaution is necessary in using 
 this metal, 'of wh.ich so many kitchen utensils are nvaiuifacturcd. 
 Besides the most scrn])ulous aitention to cleanliness, it is extremely 
 improper to leave any liquid to cool in a copper vessel ; for this 
 metal is more easily decomijosed by li(iuids, when cold, than in a 
 heated state. In order to prevent' the deleterious effects of cop- 
 per, the vessels made of it are usually covered with tin, on the iii- 
 sidci It is nevertheless justly complained, that the tinning of cop- 
 l%er vessels is not sufficient to defend them from tlie action of the 
 air, moisture, and saline substances; because, even when strongly 
 coated, they are liable to rust. This may be remedied by a 
 tliicker covering of tin ; and a manufacture of this kind was es- 
 tabli-hed a few years since at Edinburgh ; in w.hich the following 
 method is adojHed : The surface of the copper is maile very rough, 
 by means of a machine contrived for that purpose; then a thick 
 coat of tin is laid on, and the copper hammered smooth as before. 
 To prevent the tin from being melted, and the surface of the cop- 
 per from being left nucoveied, in consequence of a degree of heat 
 superior to that of boiling water, the tin is alloyed with iron, silver, 
 or platina, in order to diminish its fusibility, and render it capable 
 of beinij applied in thicker layers on the copper. 
 
 COPPERAS, sul])hate of iron, it is commonly called green- 
 vitriol. It is purilied and prepared in the same manner as alum 
 and saltpetre, being passed through several lixivia, till it is wholly 
 reduced to crystal. Itisusedin dying wool and hats black, in 
 making ink, tanning leather, and in preparing a kind of Spanish 
 brown'for painters. A patent was granteil m May 1791 to Mr. 
 Will. Muidock, of Redruth, Cornwall, for a method of making 
 (fr(>m the same materials, and from processes entirely new) cop- 
 peras, vitriol, and different sorts of dye, or dying stutf, paints, and 
 colours. The patentee directs any quantity of what remains after 
 the calcination of niundic, or such, other ores as contain sulphur, 
 arsenic, and zinc, to be taken, and washed in water ; which is to be 
 placed on the top, or on any o'her part of the kiln, house, or .oven, 
 while the munilic or other ores are burning ; the heat of which will 
 cause the water to evaporate ; or the w ater may be evaporated to 
 a crystallizing point, by exposing it to the heat of the sun, after 
 which it should be suftered to stand for 24 hours, or longer, when 
 crxstalsof copperas, or green vitriol, will be produced. From 
 tl-.is process arises a considerable saving; as the ores remaining 
 afterfusion, may be applied lo various chemical purposes. 
 
 Coi'PEit-pi,ATE. See ExGRAVrNG. 
 
 COPROCRiriCA, purgative medicines. 
 
 COPROSMA, in botany^ a genus of the class and order, poly- 
 gamia monacia. Natural order Stellata:. Calyx oncleafeil, 
 five-toollied ; corolla five or six cleft ; stamina five, six, or seven. 
 Hermaphrodite styles two, longi berry containing two llattish 
 seeds. There are" two species, viz. C. foctidissima, and C. lucida, 
 both shrubs ; leaves ojiposite, witli a stipule interposing. These 
 are natives of New Zealand. 
 
 COPULA, in logic, the verb that connects any two terms in an 
 afTirmative or iterative ; as virtue makes a man haopy ; where 
 riuikcs is the copula: no weakness is any virtue; wlfcre is is the 
 copula. 
 
 COPULATIVE Profositjoxs, in logic, those where the sub-
 
 COR 
 
 gs 
 
 COR 
 
 ject and predicate are so linked togetlicr, by copiilalive con- 
 junctions, that they may be all scvemlly af'liinied or denied one 
 of another. Examjilc, Riclies and honours are apt to elate the 
 mind, and increase tlie number of our desires. 
 
 Ct)PY, [cnpic, Fr. copia, low Latin,] in a law sense, signifies 
 the transcript of ?ny original writing, as the copv of a patent, ciiar- 
 ter, deed, &:c. A common deed cannot be proved by a copy or 
 counterpart, where the original may be procured. But if the deed 
 be inrolled, certifying an attested copy, is proof of the iiirolment, 
 and such copy may be given in evidence. 
 
 Coi'Y is also u^ed for the imitation of an original work, more 
 particularly in painting, draught, figure, izr. 
 
 Copy, among printers, denotes the manuscript, or original of a 
 book, given to be printed. 
 
 COl'Y-liOi'.D, [copy ?,nA hold,'] a tenure, for which the te- 
 nant hath nothing to shew but the copy of the rolls made by the 
 steward of his lord's court : for the steward, as he enrols other 
 things done in the lord':; coiirt, &o he registers such tenants as are 
 •admitted in the court, to any parcel of land or tenement belonging 
 to the manor ; and the transcript of this is called the court roll, the 
 copy of which the tenant lakes from him, and keeps as his only 
 evidence. • This is called a base tenure, because it holds at the will 
 of the lord ; yet not simply, but according to the custom of the 
 manor: so that if a copy-holder break not the custom of the rin- 
 nor, and thereby forfeit his tenure, he cannot be turned out at the 
 lord's pleasure. These customs of manors vary in one point or 
 other almost in every manor. Some copy-hoUU are linalile-, and 
 some certain ; that which is finable, tl-.e lord rates at what line or 
 income he pleases, wiien the tenant is admitted into it : that vviiicli 
 is certain is a kind of inheritance, and called in many places cus- 
 tomary : because the tenant dying, and the hold being void, the 
 next of blood paying the cu>lomr.ry fine, as two shillings for an 
 acre, or so, cannot be denii'd his admission. Some copy-holders 
 have, by custom, the wood growing upon their own land, which 
 by law they could not have, tjome hold by the verge in ancieni 
 demesne; and though they hold by copy, yet are they, in acccunt, 
 a kind of freeholder; for, if such a one connnit felony, the king 
 hath annum, diem, et yastum, as in ease of freehold. S'ome 
 others holct by common tenure, called mere copy-hold ; and they 
 committing felony, th<;ir land escheats to the lord of the manor. 
 ijee T'enl're aud'ViLLENAGK. 
 
 Coi-y-HoLDEK, one wiio is admitted tenant of lands or tene- 
 ments within a manor, which time out of mind, by use and cus- 
 I torn of the manor, have been demisable, and tlemised to sucli as 
 will take them in fee-simple or fee-tail, for life, veais, or at will, 
 according to the custom of the manor by copy of court-roll; 
 but is generally where the tenant has such estate" ehher in fee or 
 for three lives. 
 
 Copv-RiGHT, the right which an author Ics in his own composi- 
 tions. See Literary PRoricuTY. 
 
 COQLE r, a river in Northumberland, which runs into the sea, 
 seven miles S. of Alnwick. 
 
 Coquet, a small island of England, near the coast of Northum- 
 berland. 
 
 COQULMBO, a pert town of South Ameiica in Chili. Lon. 
 7!. II. "vV. Lat ?9. ii. S. 
 
 CoiitiMBO, a river of Chili, which falls into 'he Pacific Ocean. 
 
 C(J1{ CAS OLE, in astronomy, an extraconstellated star in the 
 jiorthern hemisphere, situated between the coma Berenices, and 
 iirsa major; so called by Dr. Halley in honour of king Charles. 
 
 Cor Hydrje, n fi.vcd star of the first magnitude, in the constel- 
 lation Hydra. 
 
 Cor Leon'is, a fixed star of the first magnitude, in the constel- 
 lation Leo. 
 
 COKACE, a river of Italy in Naples. 
 
 t^OR.ACL^S, the KoLLER, a gemis of birds, order pici. Bill 
 straight, bending towards the lip,' with the edges cullrated ; nos- 
 trils narrow, naked ; legs for the most part short ; toes placed three 
 before iuid or.e behind, and divided to their origin. One or other 
 of the dhferent species may be met with in all tjuarters of the 
 globe. 'J'here are 10 species. 
 
 C. Cyan EA, the Blue-striped Roller, is in length 8 inches; the 
 bill i of an iiK'h long, bent ;,t the tip, and of a black colour ; the 
 irifles are red) the general colour ol the plumage deep blue black, 
 dashed v. ilh streaks of gr.;enisli blue:, the tails and legs are black, 
 it inhabits New Caledonia. See Plate XXXVIIL 
 
 C. Garuula, the Garrulou.s Roller, is about the size of a jay ; 
 the bill black, and at the base beset with bristles; the head, neck, 
 breast, and belly, are of a light bluish green ; back and scapulaii 
 reddish brown, coverts on tlie ridge of the wing/ich bku', bem-ath 
 pale green ; upper part and tips of the quills dusky; the lower 
 |)arts and rump of a line deep blue ; tail forked of a light blue. 
 'I'hey are found in Sweden and Ue:;mark on the one hand, and as 
 far as Africa on the other. 
 
 CORACOi5RACHL\LIS,amuscleofthearm. SeeANATOMY. 
 
 CORACOIDES, a small sharp process of the scapula. Sec 
 Anatomy. 
 
 CORACO^L\NTES, [xoatxi,-, crows, and ft",vT!i(», divination, 
 Gr.] in antiquity, persons who foretold events from their observa- 
 tions on crows. ; 
 
 CORAH, orCORAH-JEHENEBAD, a city of Hindostaii 
 Proper, in the territory ofDoab, 60 miles S. S. ^V. of Lucknow. 
 
 COKAL. See Corallina. There are properly but three 
 kinds of coral ; red, white, and black : the black is the rarest, and 
 most esteemed. 1 he red was formerly used in medicine, but is 
 now scarce ever prescribed by any intelligent practitioner, having 
 no virtues superior to the common testacea. When coral is newly 
 taken up out of the sea, the small protuberances on its surface are 
 soft, and yield, on being pressed, a milky juice which eli'ervesces 
 with acids. The coitical part with which the coral is all over co- 
 vered, is not near so compact as the internal, and may easily be 
 taken oft' whilst fre£;h ; and from this part it is usually freed before 
 it comes to the market. The greatest coral trade is in GJcnoa and 
 Leghorn. Cora! is pt'ten imitated by artificial compositions, some 
 of V hich are made to reseinblo it exactly ; but the fraud may be 
 discovered by fire, the counterfeit not aftbrding alkaline earth like 
 the genuine coral. The colouring ingredients in the artificial co- 
 ral are cinnabar and minium, which are easily discovered. The 
 natural coral seems to receive its colour witli iron ; for spirit of 
 vitriol acquires from it a ferruginous taste ; and on calcining the 
 coral, some pai'ticles are found amon_; the ashes tlut are attracted 
 by the magnet. According to Neumann, ll5oz. of coral, distilled 
 in an open fire, yield about 6+ scruples of volatile alkaline spirit, 
 with two or three grains of an enipyreumatic oil : from the caput 
 mortuum calcined, j'^ 9<;ruples of fixed salt may be extracted. 
 
 Coral Fishery. Red coral is found in the Mediterranean, on 
 the coast of the late Provence, from Cape de la Couronne 
 to tiiat of St. Tropez ; about the isles of Majorca and Minorca: 
 on the S. of Sicily ; on the coasts of Africa ; and in the Etiiiopic 
 ocean, about capt Negro. The divers saj-, tliat the little branches 
 are found only in the cayerns whose situation is parallel to the 
 earih's surfai;e, and open to the south. Tlic manner of lishing is 
 nearly the same wherever coral is found. The metliod used at 
 the bastion of France, under the direction of the company esta- 
 blislied at Marseilles, is to send out seven or eight men in a boat, 
 and when the net is throw n by the caster, the rest work the vessel, 
 and iiclp to draw the net in. The net is composed of two rafters 
 (A wood tied cross-wise, with leads fixed to them : to these thej 
 fasten a quantity of hemp twisted loosely round, and intermingled 
 with some large' netting. 'J'his instrument is let down where tliey 
 think there is coral, and pulle<l up again w lien the coral is strongly 
 iiitangled in the hemp and netting. For this purpose, six boats 
 are sometimes required ; and if in hauling in, the rope happens to 
 break, the fishermen run the hazard of being lost. 
 
 CORALLINA, or CORAL, in :<oology, a genus belonging fo 
 the order of vermes zoophyta. The trunk is radicated, juinled, ainl 
 calcari'ous. The S'pecies are S, distinguished by the form of their 
 Ijianches, and are found in the ocean adhering to stones, bones, 
 liells, I'^c. The corals were formerly believed to be vegetable 
 substances hardened by the air; but are now known to be com- 
 posed of congeries of animals, which are even endued with tlie fa- 
 culty of moving spontaneously. 'I'he islands in the South Sea 
 are mostly coral rocks covered over with earth. The little crea- 
 tures, which have scarce sensation enough to distlnijuish them 
 from plants, build up a rocky structure from the bottom of that 
 sea, too dee|)to be measured by human art, till it reaches the sur- 
 laee. Some of these coralline islands appear to be of a much older 
 dale than othei's ; particularly the Friendly Islands ; and it is pro- 
 bable that as these subni.ii ine works are still going on, new islanils 
 may by that means frequently be produced. M. De I'yssonnel 
 ol Mai'seilles, in conseuuence ot a series of experiments, from 
 1720 to 17JU, seems to liave been the first who threw a proper light 
 t apo»
 
 Jit' J i'rrtilh'ih\f
 
 CO R 
 
 20 
 
 COR 
 
 UDon the lulureniul prodiiclion of coral and similar niamie sub- 
 st-inces Those bodies, «hi>:h the count do MoTSigU imagined to 
 "be (lowers this ingenious naturalist diseoveied to be uisfel> inha- 
 biting the coral ; for upon taking brandies ot it out ot the water, 
 \hr lh>wirs, which proceeded from a number of white points aii- 
 swerin- to the lu.lcs that pierced the bark, and the radiation of 
 vhich7esembled t!ie llowerof tlie olive-tree, entered into the bark 
 and disappeared ; but upon being again restored to the water, they 
 were some huui-s alter perceptible. These flowers sjjreiul on vv lute 
 paper lo-t their traiispaiencv, and became red as they dried 1 He 
 holes in the bark corresponded to small cavities upon the substance 
 of the coral; ami when the bark is removed, there may be seen an 
 mlinite ciuantity of little tubes connecting the bark with the inner 
 substance, besides a great number ot small glands adhering to 
 them- and from these tubes and glands the milky iuice of coral 
 issuesVorth : the holes in the bark are the openings through winch 
 the insects that form the substances lortlicir habitation come foith ; 
 and those cavities whicharc partly in the bark, and partly in the 
 substance, are the cells which they inhabit. The organs of the 
 animal are contained in the lubes, and the glandules are the ex- 
 tremities of its feet, and the milky liquor is the blood and juice ot 
 the animal, which are more or less abundant in proportion to its 
 health and vigour. AVhen the insects are dead, they corrupt, and 
 communicate to the water the smell of putrid fish. 1 his juice or 
 liquor runs along the furrows perceived upon the proper substance 
 or body of coraf, and slopping by little and little becomes hxed 
 aud hard, and is changecl into stone ; and being stopped in the 
 bark, causes the coral to increase proportionably, and in every 
 direction. In forming coral, and other marine productions of this 
 class, the animal labours like those of the testaceous kind, each ac- 
 cording to his species ; and their productions varj' according to 
 their several forms, magnitudes, and colours. 'I he coral insect, 
 or polvpe, M. Peyssoiinel observes, expands itself in water, and 
 contracts itself in nir, or when it is touched with the hand 
 in water, or acid liquors are poured upon it: and he ac- 
 tually saw these insects move their claws or legs, and expand 
 thenuelves, when tlie ^ea-water containing coral was placed near 
 the fire, and keep them in their expanded state when separated 
 from the coral in boiling water. Broken branches of coral have 
 been observed to fasten themselves to their branches, and have 
 continued to grow ; and this is the ca?e vrhen they are connected 
 with (k-lached pieces of rock and other substances, from whicli no 
 nouri-.liment couUI be derived. 'J'he coral insects in their cells, 
 not having been iniured, continue their operations; and as they 
 draw no nourishment from the stone of the coral, they are able to 
 increase in a detached and ^'epurale state. 
 
 CoRALLiKKS, ill natural history, were formerly reckoned a genus 
 of plants, and iNIr. 'I'ouriiefort enumerates 3(3 s|)ecics of them; 
 but in the LiiniA-an system they belong (o the class of the zoo- 
 phvtes. They are del'uied by modern naturalists, silhmarine plant- 
 like bodies, that cousin of niany slander (inely divided and joiut- 
 i-d branches, resembling some spi cies of moss; or animals grow- 
 ing in the form of plants, having their stems fixed to other bodies. 
 'J'iiese stems are composed of capillary tubes, whose extremities 
 piMis through a calcareous crust, and open into pores on the sur- 
 face. Idle branches are olleii jointed, and always subdividedinto 
 smaller branclus, which are either loose and unconnected, or join- 
 ed as if they were glued together. They are distinguished from 
 plants by tiieir texture aiut hardness : they also yield in distillation 
 a considerable quantity of volatile salt; and their smell, in burn- 
 ing, resembles that of burnt horns and other animal substances. 
 Many of the corallines seem to consist of a single tube, con- 
 taining a single parent animal. Every branch emitted contains an 
 offsprmg of this parent ilependent upon it, and yet capable of pro- 
 ducing its like in die emission of a ne\y branch. Others consist of 
 many such lubes united, rising up together, and encircling the de- 
 serte'd tubes of their ]>rogenilors, whose cxuvia' become the sub- 
 stratum of a rising generation. 'Ihe common coralline is only used 
 in medicine, as a vermifuge. Ills given in powder, from 10 grains 
 to a scruple or h.dfadrani, twice a day. x\lr. Ellis distributes 
 corallines into four kinds ; viz. 
 
 1. Corallines, Articulated, consisting of short pieces of a 
 
 stony or cretaceous brittle matter, whose surface is covered with 
 
 pores or cells, which are joined by a tough, membranous, flexile 
 
 substance, composed of many small tubci of the like nature com- 
 
 VOL- 11, — NO. 57. 
 
 pacled together. Tlie stony part is soluble in vinegar, and the 
 other parts remain entire, l-'ig. 1, I'lale MI. represents the 
 coralline of the shops; and iig. 2, a branch ot it magnified. It 
 is fixed to rocks and shells by stony joints, which, as they 
 rise, are united to others bv extremely Ime aud slender lubes : 
 these may be discovered by'a good eye, or a common magnifier. 
 As the slem, extend themselves, they become pcnnated by side- 
 branches which come out opposite to each other, and arejouiteil 
 ill the same manner; the joints of this species are like the upper 
 part of an inverted cone, but a little compressed: the who e sur- 
 face is covere<l over with very minute cncular-shaped cells like 
 pores: see fig. 3, and 4, where they are higher magnified. Fig. 5, 
 shews :i cross scdioii highly niagmlied. It a branch of tins coral- 
 line is put into vinegar, these cells are dissolved with the whole 
 cretace.nis surface ; instead of which there appear rows of minute 
 ramifications, which seem to have communicated with each of 
 these cells. I'pon some specimens of this coralline, are seeix 
 small figures like sc 
 
 ssels, with which the branches frequently 
 
 termiiia'te. We frequently hnd these corallines of dillereiit co- 
 lours, as red, green, a-h, and while ; but all of (hem, when ex- 
 posed to the sun and air on the shore, become white. 
 
 'J. CoRALLivEs, Celliferous, those which appear, when 
 magnifieil, to be fine thin cells, tlie habitations of small animals 
 Gonnected together, and disposed in a variety of elegant forms 
 like branches. These effervesce with acids. See fig. 6 ; with 
 parts magnified, fig. 7, 8, and 9. , r- 
 
 3 CoRVLLiNEs, Tubular, are composed of a number ot sim- 
 ple tubes, growing up nearly together ; or of such branched ones 
 as have neither denticles nor vesicles. These are horny and elas- 
 tic, and recover their original form in water. Some ot them ap- 
 pear wrinkled like the wind-pipe, and others like the interlines of 
 small animals. See fig. 10. ., , , .i • 
 
 4. Corallines, Vesiculated, are distinguished by their 
 hornv hollow ramifications; most of them are furnished with little 
 denticles on their branches, like leaves and mosses; and at cerlain 
 seasons of the year they have small bodies like bladders proceed- 
 ing from their'stems and brandies, and differing in form according 
 to' the dilierent species. Their colour, when dry, is of a yellovv- 
 ish or pale brow n, and their nature is clastic. They are found ad- 
 hering to rocks, shdls, and fucuses, by small root-like tubes : 
 they recover their form in water, after having been dried ; and 
 when put into vinegar, they cause no elfervescence. Fig. U, re- 
 presents the sea tamarisk in its natural size, and hg. IC, the denti- 
 cle; magnified : fig. 13, the sea-cypress ; fig. 1 4, a jiart magnified; 
 and fig. I'., and 16, (he small climbing coralline, with wcll-shapeu 
 cups. Besides the above, Mr. l':Uis enumerates other genera of 
 marine productions ; as die keratophyta i-schara, fig. 17, sponges, and 
 alyconium; all which are the nests or matrices of sea-ammals. 
 This class of marine bodies is formed like fungi of various ligures, 
 and with different sorts of covering ; some coiisLsting ot a spongy, 
 and others of a fleshv substance; the skm being in some grittv, 
 and in others callous'; and fig. 19, CO, are views of one of tiic 
 warts magnilied; fig. 'il, is Ihe appearance of the polype, when 
 the cretaceous matter was dissolved : fig. -22, represent* the parti- 
 cles that compose the incrustation, magnified; hg. IS. is a sea- 
 willow, or keratophyton dichotomum. ,.,.„■.„ 
 
 CORAL lUVEU, uriveria NewMexico.wduch falls into the 
 
 gulf of California. ... , i • •,, , 
 
 Coral-Stone, a kind of red and vfhite agate, found in Italy 
 and some parts of Saxony, which breaks in veins. 
 
 COHAN ICH, among the Scotch and Irish, the cnstom of sink- 
 ing at funerals, anciently prevalent in those countries, and still 
 practised in several parts. See Uloghone. 
 
 CORBACH, a town of Germany, nithe circle of the Uppei 
 Rhine, 12 miles N. N. W. of Waldeck, 
 
 C:011BAN. [53ip,] an alms-basket; a receptacle of chanty ; t 
 
 gift; an alms. r . 
 
 CoKBAN, in Jewish antiquity, stands for an olVering or gift made 
 to God, or his temple. The J.-ws sometimes swore by corbaii, or 
 the gifts offered unto God, If a man made all his^ortune corban, 
 or devoled it to God, he was forbidden to use it. If all that he 
 was to give his wife, or his father and mother, was declared corban, 
 he was no longer permitted to allow them necessary subsistence. 
 Even debtors were permitted to defraud their creditors, by conse- 
 cratinE their debt to God. Our Saviour reproaches the Jews, m 
 ^^ the
 
 COR 
 
 vSO 
 
 COR 
 
 1 
 
 the Go-^pel, willi tjiese uncharitable and irreligious vous. ^By lliis 
 word biith persons were likewise meant as devoted themselves to 
 the service of God and i\is temple. Corbun signifies also the trea- 
 sury of the temple, where the offerings which were made in mo- 
 ney, were deposited. 
 
 CoRBAN was also applied to those ofierings which had life, in 
 opposition to the niiniliah, or those which had not. It is derived 
 from the word karab, which signifies to a|iproacli ; because the 
 victims were brought to the door of the tabernacle. 
 
 CoRBAN is likewise a ceremony which theMohammedans perform 
 at the foot of mount Ararat in Arabia, ne;:r .Mecca. It consist^in 
 killing a great number of sheep, and distributing them among the 
 poor. 
 
 C^ORBECK, a town of France, in the department of D)K', 
 thice miles .S. of Lonvain. 
 
 CO K CEl L, a town of France, in the department of Seine and 
 Oise, 17 miles S. of Paris. 
 
 CoRHKiLS, in fortiiicalion, little baskets about a foot and a half 
 high, eight inches v.ide at the bottom, and twelve at the top; 
 which l-.eing filled with earth, are frequently set one against another 
 upon the parapet, or elsewhere, leaving certain port-lioles, whence 
 to iire upon the enemy under covert, without being seen by 
 them. 
 
 CORBEI.., in architecture, the representation of a basket, 
 sometimes seen on the heads of caryatides. The word is aUo 
 used, in building, for a short piece cf limber placed in a wall, witli 
 its end .-ticking out six or eight inches, as occasion serves, in man- 
 ner of a shoul'lering-piece. 
 
 CORBELIN, a town of France in tlio department of Isere, 
 3n miles E. S. E. of Lyons. 
 
 CORBENY, a town of France, in the department of Aisne, 
 15 miles N. N. W. of Rheims. 
 
 CORBET', or CORBIE, a town of France, in tlie depaitment 
 of Somiiie, 10 miles E. of Amiens. 
 
 CORBI ERES, a town of the Helvetic republic, in the Canton 
 of l''riburc; ; 10 miles !S. of Friburg. 
 
 CORBY, a town of Germany, on the confines of Westphalia, 
 with a famous alibey, 3(j miles \\. of Paderlioni. 
 
 CORCAS, an island ill the Atlantic, N. of St. Domingo, re- 
 sembling a crescent in form. Lon. 70. 5j. W. Lat. '2\. ij. N. 
 
 CORCHORUS, in botany, a genus of the monogynia order, 
 and polyaudria class of plants; natural order, Columnea". Corolla 
 peiilapetalous ; calyx pentaphyllous, deciduous ; ca))sule many- 
 valved, many-celled. It has sixteen species, natives of both tlie 
 Indies. 
 
 C^ORCUI.UM, in botany, a term used by Linnxus for the 
 heart, or more properly embryo, of a seed, aiUidiiig to its shape, 
 wliicli in the walnut, and many other seeds, resembles the animal 
 heart in miniature. It is the most important, and even essential 
 part of a perfect seed, to which all the rest are subservient, being 
 the point whence the future plant originates. In unimpregnated 
 seeds it is deficient, or rather abortive ; in fertile ones it is closely 
 connected with the culyledons, on which it depends for the first 
 supplies of nutriment, and other exciting causes of its evolution. 
 Tlie corculum consi'ts of the radicle, which descejids to become a 
 root, and the plumula or feather which ascends and becomes tlie 
 stem and leaves. 
 
 CORCYRA, in ancient geography, an island in the Ionian 
 sea, opposite to Thesprotia, a district of F.pirus, called Scheria 
 and Pha-aciaby Homer. It is now called Corfu. 
 
 CoRCYR.^, a town in the above island, now Corfu, from the 
 K=;-j.f.u of the middle age, the name of the citadel. It was a colony 
 of Corinthians. 
 
 CoRCYRA Nigra, an island in the Adri.itic, on the coast of 
 Dalmatia; now Curzola. 
 
 CORD, or CHORD. See Cordage, 'the word comes 
 from the Greek xH''> w'l'ch properly signiries an intestine or gut, 
 of which cords may be made. 
 
 CoRW, Magic-vl, an instrument in great use among the Lap- 
 landers, and by them suppo^ed.to be endued witli a number of 
 ■virtues. It is a cord or rope with three knots tied in it. 'I'hev 
 use many magical rites and ceremonies in the tying of thi^ cord ; 
 and, when thus prepared, it is supposed to have power oviv the 
 winds; r.nd they will sell, by means of it, a good wind, or at le.ast 
 tlie promise, of vue, to a sinp. If they untie only one of these 
 
 kjiots, a moderate gale succeeds ; if two, it is much stronger ; and 
 if three, a storm is sure to follow. 
 
 Cord of Wood, a certain quantity of wood for burning, so 
 called because formerly measured with a cord. The <liniensions 
 of a statute cord of wood are eight feet long, four feet high, and 
 four feet broad. 
 
 CX)I<DAGE, a term used, in general, for all sorts of cord, 
 whether small, middling, or great, made use of in the rigging of 
 ships. 
 
 Cordage, Cable-laid, as the seamen term it, is made with 
 nine strands, i. e. the first three stramls are laid slack, and then 
 three ol them being closed together, make a cable. See Cable, 
 The same for tacks, but they are laid tapering. 
 
 Cordage, IL^wser-laiu, is made- onlv with three strands. 
 Cordage-stays are cable-laid, bet made with four strands, as cables 
 are with three; with the addition of a heart, \Wiich goes through 
 the centre of them. 
 
 Cordage, White, is that which lias not yet been tarred. 
 
 Cordage, Tarred, in spinning is that which is made of rope- 
 yarn ready tarred. 
 
 Cordage, Tarred IN the Stove, is that which has passed 
 through hot tar, in comingout of thestove. Every (luiiital of cord- 
 age may take about twenty pounds of tar. Cordage re-made is that 
 which is made of ropes Used before. Cordage, when reiy old, is 
 used for oakiiiu to caulk the seams of ships. When a rope is said 
 to be six inches it is understood of its circumference. A rope of 
 sixty threads is one composed of so many rope-yarns. The naval 
 rorilage of the earlier ages was in all iirobability only thongs of 
 leather. 'I'hese primitive ropes were retained by the Caledonians 
 in the 3d century. The nations N. of the Baltic bad them in the 
 9th or 10th centuries: and the inhabitants of the western isles of 
 Scotland still use them ; cutting the skin of a seal, or the raw and 
 salte<l hide of a cow, into long pieces, and fastening the plough 
 to their horses with them, or even twi^ting them into strong ropes 
 of"0 or 30 fathoms in length. But these, in the south of our island, 
 and on the continent, were early superseded by the use of iron 
 chains. The Veneti, who were so intimately connected with the 
 Belg.e of Britain, used iron chains for their cables in the days of 
 Ciesar. But in the more refined countries of the south, both 
 thongs and these had long given i)lace to vegetable threads. The 
 Greeks appear to have used the commeii rushes of their country, 
 and the Carthaginians the spartium or broom of Spain. And as all 
 the cordage of the Romans was made of these materials at their 
 last descent on our island, so the art of manufacturing them would 
 necessarily be introduced with the Roman setdenients among the 
 Britons. Under the direction of Roman artists their thongs of 
 leather would naturally be laid aside, andthejunci, or rushes of 
 the plains, worked up into cordage. And what remarkably coin- 
 cides with this opinion is, that the remains of old cables and ropes 
 are still ciistinsuished among the British sailors by the name of old 
 junk. The Roman sails, which were composed of flax in the days 
 of Agricola, were afterwards made of hemp ; and our own are 
 therefore denominated cannabis or canvas by our mariners at pre- 
 sent. And doubtless about tl-.e same period did the junk of the 
 British cordage give way to the same materials ; the use of hempen 
 ropes upon land, and of hempen nets for hunting, being very 
 common among the Romans in the first century. See Rope- 
 Makin'g. 
 
 CORDEAU, [Fr.] a measuring line used for marking out the 
 ground for a camp or fortification. 
 
 CORDED, in heraldry, across corded: some authors take it 
 for a cross wound or wrenched about with cords ; others, with 
 more probability, take it for a cross made of two pieces of cord. 
 
 CORDILLER.'VS, mountains of South America, otherwise 
 called Andes. 
 
 CORDELIER, in church history, a Franciscan, or religious 
 of the order ol St. Francis. The cordeliers are enjoined to live in 
 common: those who are admitted into the order, are first to sell 
 all they have and give it to the poor. The priests are to fast froio. 
 the least of All Saints till the Nativity. 
 
 COUDES, two towns of France, viz. 1. m the department of 
 Tarn, 10 miles N. of Gail lac. 2. lu that of Upper Garonne, CO 
 miles N. W. of Thoulouse. 
 
 CORDED, in botany, a genus of the monogynia order, and 
 pcntandria class of plants ;, natural order, A: pciifoUx. Corolla, 
 
 fujwielr
 
 COR 
 
 .^1 
 
 COR 
 
 fi'niitl-shM'etl- ^t\le (licliotonioiis or diviiU-d into two threads and 
 cacli of thVse divid.-d into otlu-r lu-o. It hastuelve spec.es. 
 
 C M YXA t!lP ASSYKIAM I>1.UM, "iS a TKltlVf of Assvn.l, b!?> pt, 
 
 and \W cou.t of Malabar. The leaves of this tree are about tir.ee 
 inches long, oppo-^ite, tlat, entire, r,n aronnd petiole Halt an n r i 
 in len-'th ; peifuucles panicled, terniinating. suocorymbed ; petals 
 vlute,°vevolute; Irn.t interior, red, nearly un inch ni diameter. 
 The timber of this tree is tongh and .olid ; it i. used for procuring 
 iire bv friction. ^ , . . ,. 
 
 CORDIAL, [from cor, the heart, Lat.] reviving, mvigoratuig, 
 
 restorative. 
 
 CoKDiALS. See Caroiac. . . 
 
 Cordial, in medicine, v.hatever raises the •spirits, and gives 
 them a sudden strength and cheerfulness. See Mkdicixe.- 
 
 CORDON, ill fortification, a row of stones, made round on 
 the outside, and set betxvecn the wall of the fortress, which les 
 adope, and the parapet which stands perpendicular, :.fler such a 
 manner, that this difference may not be ofiensive to the eye: 
 whence the cordons serve only as an ornament, ranging round 
 about the place, being only used in fortilication of stone-work. 
 Vov m tho-e made with earth, the void space is filled up with 
 
 pointed slakes. „ , -,, it 
 
 COUDONNIERS.Freres, [Fr. z. e. Brothers, shoemakers,] 
 the title of two pious societies, uliich existed in Paris before the 
 revolution. They were established by authority about the niid- 
 «lle of the 17th century ; tlie one under Ihe protection of St. Cris- 
 pin, the other of St. Crispianus, two saints who had formerly ho- 
 noured tlie profession. Thev lived in community, and under 
 fixed statutes and olVicers ; by wliich they were directed botn in 
 their spiritual and secular concerns. 
 
 CORDOVA, a province of Spain, in Andalusia, and formerly 
 an independent kingdom. 
 
 Cordova, or Cordoua, the capital of the above provuice, 
 ancic-nth- called Corduba, >and sea'ed on the Guadalquiver, 75 
 miles N". E. of Seville. Lon. 4. 4. W. Lat. 37. 52. N. 
 
 Cordova, a pro\ince of South America m the government of 
 Buenos Ayres. ,..,.. , 
 
 Cordova, a city of Peru, in S, America, in the jurisdiction ot 
 Charcas, 80 leagues S. of St. Jaso. From indisputable evidence, a 
 negress, in this city, named Louisa Truxo, was alive in 1774, 
 aged one hundred and seventy-five years I Lon. 63. 30. W. Lat. 
 
 32. 30. 'S. 
 
 CORUWAINER, [from Conirccw, Spanish leather,] a term 
 whereby shoemakers ar^ denominated in statutes. By a statute ol 
 Jac. L the master and wardens of the corduainers company, &c. 
 are to appoint searchers and triers of leather ; and no leather is 
 to be sold, befoj-e searched, sealed, &c. 
 
 Cordwainers, or Cordivers, is still the title of the incorpo- 
 ration of shoe-makers in Edinburgh. "I'lie French workmen who 
 prepare the corduas are still called corduanniei-s. 
 
 CORDYLOCARPUS, in botany, a genus of the tetrady- 
 namia sihquosa class and order. Silique cylindrical, swelling into 
 knobs, jointed, the uppermost joint diotinct ; calyx closed. 1 wo 
 species, natives of the Archipelago. 
 
 CORE, a sound in N. Carolina, lying S. of Pimlico, with 
 vhich it communicates. 
 
 COREA, a peninsula lying N. E. of China, between 99 and 
 109 degrees of E. Lon. and between 32 and 46 of N. Lat. It is 
 divided into 8 provinces, which contain 40 cities of the 1st rank, 
 51 of the 2d, and 70 of the 3d. The capital is Hanching, where 
 the king resides. Corea chiefly produces wheat, rice, and gin- 
 seng, with a kind of palm-tree which yields a gum capable of pro- 
 ducing a yellow varnisli little inferior to gilding. Hence also are 
 exported caitor and sable'skins; also gold, silver, iron, and fossil 
 salt ; a kind of small brn^hes tor painting, made of the hair of a 
 wolf's tail, are likewise iranufactnred here, whic'a are exported to 
 China, and highly esteemed there. The sea-coasts abound in *ish, 
 and very great numbers of whales are found tliere year towards 
 the N.E. „ . 
 
 COREL\, in antiquity, a festiv.al in honour of Proserpine, 
 named Core, Kiji, which in the Molossinn dialect signifies a beau- 
 tiful woman. 
 
 CORELLI, Archangelo, a famous Italian musician and 
 composer, born at Fusignano, in Bologna, in 1653. He enter- 
 tained an early propensity to the v'uAm. About 1672, his curiosity 
 Jed hira to visit Pans, but notwithstanding the character which he 
 
 brouoht with him, he was driven back to Rome by Lidly, wliose 
 jealous temper cc-uld not brook so formidable a rival. In 1080 
 he visited Germany, and met with a reception suitable to his merit 
 from most of the German princes, particularly the elector of Ba- 
 varia ; in whose service he was retained, and continuid for some 
 time. After ahout live years stay abroad, he returned to Rome. 
 His proficiency on the violin was so great, that his time scon 
 spread throiigiiout Europe. The style of his performance was 
 learned, elegaiit, and pathetic ; and his tone firm and wen. Mr. 
 Geminiani, who was well acquainted with it, u-ed to resemble it 
 to a sweet trumpet. It is said, that, whilst he was playing on the 
 violin, it was usual tor his countenance to be di-torieil, his eyes to 
 become as red as (ire, and his eye-tails to rull as in an agony. 
 CorcUi was highly favoured by that great patron of poetry and 
 music, cardinal' Oltoboni ; and regulated the musical academy 
 held at his jialace. Here Mr. Handel became accpiainted with 
 him ; and a serenata oiHandel's entitled, U Triomto del Tempo, 
 being performed, the overture was in a style so new and singular, 
 that Corelli was ronfcunded in his first attempt to play it. ^\ hile 
 Corelli resided at Rome, many persons from other countries were 
 andntious of becoming; his disciples. Of these it is said tlie late 
 lord Edgecnmbe Vi-as one. CorelU died at Uome in 1713 ; and 
 was buru'd in the church of the Rotunda. A monument with a 
 marble bust was erected to his memory by Philip W illiam, count 
 palatine of the Rhine, under the direction of cardinal Oltoboni. 
 For many years after his death, he was commemcrated by a so- 
 lemn muMcal performance in the Pantheon ; where some of his 
 concertos were performed by those who had been his pupils,_ in 
 tl.e same slow, distinct, and lirm manner, without graces, in which 
 thcv v\'ere played by the author himself. He was a passionate ad- 
 mirer of pictures, and lived in an uninterrupted friend-hip with 
 Cignani and Carlo iMarat ; who presented him at times with pic- 
 tures, both of their own painting and by other masters: whereby- 
 he became possessed of a valuable collection of original paintings ; 
 all which, together with about 6000/. sterling, he left to his friend 
 "Ottoboni; wlio, reserving the pictures to himself, gencroudy dis- 
 tributed the rest among the relations of the testator. Corelli was 
 remarkable for the mildness of his temper, and the modesty of liis 
 deportment; though not insensible of the respect due to his skill 
 and exquisite perrormance. His compositions are equally cele- 
 brated for the harmony resulting from the union of all the parts, 
 and for the fineness of the airs. His music is the language of na- 
 ture, and, for a series of years, all that heard it were sensible of 
 its elTects. Amidst all the innovations which the love of cliangc 
 had introduced, it continued to be performed, and was heard with, 
 delight in churclics, in theatres, -at public solemnities and festivals,, 
 in ail the cities of Europe for near 40 years. And even at this day,, 
 the masters of the science allow that, of fine harmony and elegant 
 modulation, the most perfect exemplars are the compositions of 
 
 Corelli. . , 
 
 COREOPSIS.TicK-SEEDED Sunflower ; a genus of the poly- 
 
 gamia frust.-anea order, and syngenesia cl-ass of plants; natural 
 
 order, Composite. Receptacle paleaceous; pappus two- horned ; 
 
 calyx erect, polyphyllous, surrounded with patent radiated leaflets 
 
 at the basP. Twenty species, most of them herb.accous perenniak. 
 CORFE CAS TLE, a town in Dorsetsliire, so named from a 
 
 strong castle, now in ruins. It is 21 miles E. of Dorchester, ai«V 
 120 \V'. by S. of Ix)ndon. T his town was built by king Edgar,. 
 
 and was the scene of the murder ot Edward the martyr. 
 
 CORFU, an island in tlie Ionian sea, at die nioutli of the gulph 
 of Venice, formerly called Corcyra and Phoeacia, famous for tlie 
 wardens of Alcinou's. It was long considered as the bulwark of 
 Christenvlom against the Turks, w ho often attempted to reduce it, 
 but in vain. It is well fortified, having 50 castles ; and the num- 
 ber of the inhabitants is said to be about 50,000, who arc of the 
 Greek church. The soil is very fruitful, and produces a great 
 deal of wine, olives, and other fruits, particularly excellent tigs. 
 
 Corfu, the capital of the above island. It is four mdes ni cir- 
 cunifereuce, und is seated on the E. coast. Lon. 19. 48. E. Lat. 
 
 39. 40. N. 
 
 CORGA, a country of India an the coast of Malabar, bounded 
 on the N. and E. b\ '.Mysore.. 
 
 CORIA, a town of Spain, in the kingdom of Leon, and pro- 
 vince of Estremadura. , 
 
 CoRiA, a town of Spain, in the province ot Seville, on the 
 
 Guadalquiver, seven miles from-Sevdle. ,,,,„, . ,„T^„T.»f 
 
 ' 5 CORIAJ\DRlM,
 
 COR 
 
 32 
 
 COR 
 
 COKl AXDRL'M, Coriander: a genus of the digyiiia order, 
 aiKl'peiitaiidria class of |)Uiiits ; natural order, Uiubellata-. Corolla 
 radiated; petals iiiliexeil, emargiiuited ; iiivoUicrum universal luo- 
 nopliylloun ; partial invoUiera halved ; fruit splierical. Tliere are 
 two species, both lierbaeeoiis annual--', the leaves of which are use- 
 ful fur the kitchen, and the seeds for medicine. Both species have 
 divided small leaves, somewhat resembling parsley. 
 
 COIU.^HIA, the Tanner's, or Myrtle-leafed .Sumach : 
 a genus of the decatidria order, jnd dia-cia class of plants; natural 
 order. Miscellanea'. Male calyx pentaphyllous ; corolla pen'a- 
 pelalous, very like the calyx, I'ud united with it : anthera- bipar- 
 tite : female calyx pentaphyllous ; corolla like that of tiie male ; 
 styles five; seeds five, covered with live succulent petals, form- 
 in(i altogether the resemblance of a berry. It has three species. 
 
 CORIDOK, [Ital. and Span.] in architecture, a gallery or 
 long isle around a building, leading to several chambers at a dis- 
 tance from each other, sometimes wholly inclosed, and sometimes 
 open on one side. 
 
 CoRinoR, or CoRRiDoii, in fortification, a road or way along 
 the edge of the ditch, without side, about twenty yards broad, en- 
 compassing the whole fortitication. It is also called the covert 
 way; because covered with a glacis, or esplanade, serving it as a 
 parapet. 
 
 CORIENTES, a cape of Mexico, or New Spain, on the N. 
 Pacific ocean. 
 
 CoRiENTES, a small city of S. Americv in the r;overnment of 
 Buenos Ayres, at the conflui nee oi the Parana and Paraguay. 
 
 CORlIs'NA, a celebrated 'I'heban poetess, who is said to have 
 gained the prize in competition with Pindar himself, five rtiflerent 
 times. She flourished about B. C. 450, and wrote 50 books of 
 Kpigrams. 
 
 CORINTH, a celebrated city of antiquity, for soihc time tl'.e 
 most illustrious of all the Greek cities. It is said to have Ijeen 
 founded 1514 years before Christ, by Sisyphus the son of jEolus, 
 and Grandfather of Ulysses. Various reasons are given for its 
 name, but most authors derive it from Corinthus, the son of Pe- 
 lops. It was situated in the S. part of the Isthmus which joins the 
 Peloponnesus to tlie continent. Lon. v.'3. 3. E. Lat 38. 14. N. 
 As the genius of the Corinthians led them to commerce rather than 
 martial exploits, their city became the finest in all Greece. It was 
 adorned with the most sumptuous buildings, as temples, palaces, 
 theatres, porticoes, &c. all enriched with a beautiful kind of 
 columns, which from the city were called Corinthian. 
 
 Corinth, the Isthmus of, is a neck of land in the Morea, 
 M'hich joins the Morea to Greece, and reaches from the gulph of 
 Lepanio to that of Egina. 
 
 CORINTHIAN Order, is generally reckoned the fourth, but 
 by some the fifth, of the five ortlers of architecture ; and is the most 
 noble, rich, and delicate, of them all. \'itruvius a>cribesit to Cal- 
 limachus, a Corinthian sculptor, who is said to have taken the hint 
 by passing by the tomb of a young lady, over which a basket with 
 some of her plavthings had been placed by her nurse, and covered 
 with a tile ; the whole having been placed oVera root of acanthus. 
 As it sprung up, the branches encompassed t'le basket; but arriv- 
 ing at the tile, bent downwards under the corners of it, forming a 
 kind of volute. Hence Callimachus imitated the basket by tlie 
 vase of his capital, the tile in the abacus, and the leaves in the vo- 
 lute. Villalpandus imagines the Corinthian capital to have taken 
 its original from an order in the temple of Solomon, whose leaves 
 were those of the palm-tree. The capital is adorned w ith two rows 
 of leaves, between which little stalks arise, of which the lli volutes 
 are formed, which support the abacus. See Architecture. 
 
 Corinthians, the people of Corinth. Christianity was early 
 planted among them, and St. Paul wrote them three letters, the 
 lirst of which is lost. See 1 Cor. v. f). 
 
 CORIS, in botany, a genus of tlie monogynia order, and pentan- 
 dria class of plants. Corolla monopetalous, irregular ; calyx 
 prickly ; capsule cjuinquevalved, superior. There is only one 
 species, viz. the 
 
 C Monspeliensis, or blue maritime coris of Montpelier. 
 CORISPKR'MITM, TicKSEED, a genus of the digynia order, 
 and monaiuhia class of plants: natural order, Iloloracea-. No ca- 
 lyx; petals two; seed one, oval, naked. There are two species; 
 neither of them remarkable for beauty or any other quality. Na- 
 tives of Russia. 
 CORITANI, an ancient people of Britain who possessed the 
 
 inland ])arts now called Northampton, Leicester, Rutland, Lin^ 
 coin, Nottingliam, and Derby shires. 
 
 CORK, a county of Ireland, in the province of Munster; con. 
 taining near a million of acres, and divided into 15 baronies. It 
 is bounded on the N. E. by the county of Waterford. Ne.xt to 
 Dublin, it is the nost populous county in the kingdom. 
 
 Cork, a city of Ireland, and capital of tl-e county. It is an 
 episcu\ial see ; and is the second in the kingdom, in point of size, 
 trade, and population. The harbour called the Cove, sevcli niilej 
 below the town, is one of the best in the world, the entrance is safe, 
 ^■nd the whole navy of England might ride in it, secure from 
 e\'eiy wind that blows. Sliii)s of burilen, however, are obliged to 
 unload at Passage, 5j miles from Cork, the channel not adiuiiting 
 vessels of above 150 Ions. Cork lies 50 miles S. of Limerick. 
 Lon. B. 23. ^V. Lat. 51. 54. N. 
 
 Cork, {cortex, Latin ; korck, Dutch,] is the bark of a species 
 of (lurrciis. See Quercus. To take olf the bark an incision is 
 made from the top to die bottom of the tree, and at each extremity 
 another round the tree, pi-rpendicular to the lirst. \Vhen strijiped 
 from the tree, which does not theretbre die, the bark is piled up in 
 a pond or ditch, and lo.ided with heavy stones to flatten it, and re- 
 duce it into tables: hence it is taken to be dried; and when suf- 
 ficiently dry, put in bales for carriage. If care be not taken to 
 strip the bark, it splits and peels oil' itself; being pushed up by 
 another bark formed underneath. The bark of cork, as well as 
 the acorn, are of some use in medicine; being both reputed astrin- 
 gents, after being burnt and powdered when used externally; but 
 the chief use of the former is, to put in shoes, slip|icrs, &c. and to 
 stop bottles. The Spaniards burn it to make that kind of light 
 bhuk we call Spani^h black, UM?d by painters. Cups made of 
 cork, are s:iid by some to be good for hectical persons to drink out 
 of. The Egyptians made coffins of cork ; which being lined witlx 
 a resinous composition, preserved dead bodies uncorrupted. The 
 Spaniards line stone walls with it, which not only renders theni 
 very warm, but corrects the moisture of the air. 
 
 Cork-\V aistcoat, in the Gentleman's Magazine for 1758, 
 we met with the following curious contrivance of a cork-waistcoat, 
 for the purpose of preventing accidents by drowning. It was in- 
 vented by Mr. Dubourg, and is composed of four pieces of cork, 
 two for the breasts, and two for the back, each being nearly of the 
 same length and breadth as the (piarters of a common waistcoat, 
 without llajis ; the whole is covered with coarse canvas, having two 
 holes to put tlie arms through. There are spaces left between the 
 tw o back pieces and each back and breast piece, that they may the 
 more easily be adjusted to the body. Thus, the waistcoat is open 
 only in front, and mav be fastened on the wearer with strings; or, 
 if it sliould be thought more secure, with buckles and leather 
 straps. The weight ol this cork-wai^tcoat docs not exceed twelve 
 ounces, and mav be made at a very mmlerate expence. It is 
 more simple in its form than any other contrivance for a siinilar 
 purpose. Mr. Dubourg has made trial of its efficacy in the 
 Thames, and found that it not only supported him onthewatei;, 
 but th.at even two men, with their utmost efforts, were not able 
 to sink Iiim. Hence it is eminently c.ilrul.it<'d for mariners, pas- 
 sengers at sea in general, and likewise lor all those who resort to 
 bathing-places for the benefit of their health ; as the most timorous 
 and delicate person may, with perfect safety, boldly venture with 
 one of these waistcoats into a rough sea. See Bamboo-Habit. 
 
 CORLIN, or CORLING, a town of Germany, in Pomerania, 
 eight miles S. E. of Colbcrg. 
 
 CORMANIIN, Great, a town of Africa, on the Gold Coast, 
 in the territory of Eiuitin. It contains about li.'00 men, who are 
 either traders or fishermen. 
 
 Cormaktin, Little, a town on the Gold Coast, four miles 
 W. S. \\ . of Great Cormantin. 
 
 CORMERV, a town of France, in the department of Indre and 
 Loire, eight miles S. E. of Toui-s. 
 
 CORN, [cnrn, Sax. korn, Germ.] in rural economy, the grains 
 or seeds of plants, which are separated trom the ear, and used 
 chiefly for making bread. ' There are several species of corn, s\ich 
 as wheat, rve, barley, oats, millet, and rice, maize, or Indijn corn, 
 &c. each of which will be mentioned in its alphabetical order. \Ve 
 cannot but animadvert upon the injudicious practice of cutting 
 corn in cold autumns, before it is perfectiv ripe; as experience 
 has proved, that, if lett standing, the ears will continue to fill, and 
 become heavitr, even during the autumnal fro^. Were this lat- 
 ter
 
 COR 
 
 33 
 
 C O R 
 
 ter mot'ioJ adopleil, a mucli gre;'.ter proportion of flnur niiglit be 
 proriuceU ; atul the grain would neither siirink, nor shrivel, in 
 barns or granaries: it might, at the same lime, bo prevented from 
 rotting, on account of its immaturity, and llie softness or moisture 
 which are the necessary consequence. Notwithstanding the great 
 eare and attention which the hasbandman may bestow on the cul- 
 tivation of corn, his expectations of a plentiful harvest are often 
 frustrated by a variety of disorders, and accidents, to which corn 
 is peculiarly liable. The first and most formidable is the smut, 
 wiiich is caused Ijy vermin breeding in the grain, and thus destroy- 
 ing its substance. Their propagation, be^iiie otlier causes, is evi- 
 dently facilitated by laying on the soil too large a quantity of 
 crude dung: which, becoming mouldy, promotes the generation 
 of the smut-animals. \'arious t-xperiinents have been accordingly 
 tried, to eradicate this noxious distemper, with different degrees of 
 success; a few of which, we shall enumerate. In the greater part 
 of the counties of Devon and Cornwall, on the evening before the 
 wheat is intended to be sown, it is laid on the floor in a heap, on 
 which is poured a solution of lime, slacked with boiling water, and 
 reduced to the consistence of cream : both are then mixed, and 
 left together till morning, by which time the wheat is dry, and fit 
 to be sown. In other parts of the same counties, the wheat is 
 steeped either in fresh or salt water, for I'i, 18, or 24 hours, when 
 it is put to drain for an hour or two, after which, powdered lime is 
 sifted over it, the whole being w ell mixeil with a sliovel : it is then 
 thrown together in a heap, to dry previously to its being sown. 
 Few farmers, however, soak it in brine, and a still smaller number 
 of them, substitute animal urine, soap-boiler's lye, &c. In several 
 other counties, there prevails a general practice of employing 
 brine, strong enough to bear an egg, to which powdered lime is 
 added, till it acciuires an unctuous consistence. This composi- 
 tion is mixed with tlie w heat, the evening before it U committed to 
 the ground. In Yorkshire, and several of the adjoiningcounties, 
 arsenic is substituted for salt: some farmers render the solution 
 thick<'r, by the addition of lime, while others either sprinkle the 
 wheat with it, or steep and wash the former, then sift the lime over 
 it, and mix them as before. Another method is, to put 70 gallons 
 of water into a tub, at the bottom of wliich is a hole provided 
 with a stafi' and tap hose, as in brewing ; to this is to be adtled half 
 .a hundred weight of lime-stone, and the wliole well stirred for half 
 an hour, when it is suffered to stand about 30 hours. It should 
 then be drawn ojf into another tub, and three pecks (4Clbs.) of salt 
 added, wliich, when dissolved, will make a strong pickle, fit for 
 immediate use. But, if sea-water can be procured, half the quan- 
 tity of salt will be sufficient. A basket of about two feet in dia- 
 meter at the bottom, and twenty inches deep, should then be placed 
 in the pickle, and the corn gradually immersed, in small quanti- 
 ties from one to two bushels ; care being taken to skim off the 
 light grains, wliich ought not to be sown, because many of them 
 are infected with the smut. As soon as this operation is completed, 
 the basket should be drawn up, and drained for a few minutes over 
 the liquor, when it may be repeated, as often as the quantity 
 cf grain to be sown may require. This seed will be fit for tiie 
 ground in 24 hours ; but, where it is to be drilled, it should stand 
 for 43 : and, if the driller meet with any difficulty in performing 
 his work, it vvill be necessary to make the pickle more astringent, 
 by adding lime. Seed, thus prepared, may be kept for t\ve, six, 
 seven, eight, or even ten days above ground", witliout any injury or 
 inconvenience. Another mode of preventing the smut in corn, was 
 discovered by Mr. R. Treffrey, of Beer, in Flintsliire: who, in a 
 communication to Mr. Young, in the 21st vol. of "Annals of 
 Agriculture," states, that having rubbed out a quantity of corn, he 
 sowed part of it, unwashed. Tf.e remainder, about two bushels, 
 was well winnowed, taken to a brook, and washed in the following 
 manner : A gallon was put into a wire sieve, that had eight bars to 
 an inch ; it was first gently immersed a few times in the water, by 
 which means every smut-ball, or animal, was easily discovered, 
 .md taken away ; next the sieve was briskly agitated, for about a 
 minute, when the whole, after being washed, and throwii into a 
 tub with some water, was stirred round with a brooni. It was then 
 • again put into the sieve, in the same proportion as before, and im- 
 mersed in the brook, that the remaining particles might sink 
 through the bottom of the sieve, and" be'carried away by the 
 stream. This wheat was sown in the same field with the former, 
 Inhere no kind of manure could have the least tendency to pro- 
 diic.e smut-balls among either. The result at harvcit proved; that 
 
 VOL. li. — S0..-5S. 
 
 the unwashed corn produced as many smut-balls as grains of wheat, 
 while that which had been immersed' in the brook, was almost en- 
 tirely exempt from the disorder. We venture to recommend the 
 last-mentioned expedient ; for the superiority of gradual washing 
 over that of throwing the whole into a vessel and sirring it, is 
 manifest. By this method, the infectious matter is not only 
 loosened from the grains, but is carried awaj with the stream, 
 while that, which is only washed in a tub, &c. cannot be totally 
 cleared ; for the more ponderous particles sink to the bottom, and 
 remain among the seed-corn after the water is poured off. Corn 
 is also liable to be grown, or sprouted, w hen it has partly begun to 
 vegetate; for, if llie whole of the grain were to bud, it would be- 
 come unlit for being converted into bread. Hence it is very dif- 
 ficult to preserve sprouted corn, as the opening of the bud occa- 
 sions it to heat, and the moisture it retains, disposes it still more to 
 undergo the process of fermentation. It is also more subject to be 
 attacked by insects, on account of its being sweeter, more tender, 
 and susceptible of heat, consec|uentIy more liable to receive their 
 eggs. It left to itself, sprouted corn heats, ferments, and contracts 
 an unpleasant smell, ami a bad colour : it also accjuires a disagree- 
 ably sharp taste, which is communicated to the fiour and bread; 
 and, finally, grows mouldy and sour; in this state, it is fit only for 
 the manufacture of starch. Farther, it h ground with dilliculty, 
 clogs the iniU-stones, chokes the bolting-cloths, and yields but lit- 
 tle (lour; which is soft and moist, and will not keep for any 
 length of time, especially durinij warm weather. .Sprouted 
 corn should by no means be stacked, but housed and thresh- 
 ed with the greatest expedition. Nor should it be ])ut in a 
 granary together w ith dry grain, as the latter will thus become 
 moist. Care should also be taken to keep the place well aired ; 
 for, in the contrary case, even the latter cannot be preserved. As 
 soon as sprouted corn is threshed, it should be spread upon the 
 floor, and frequently turned; a door, or window, being left open 
 to give vent to the steam. Sometimes it will be necessary to dry 
 the corn in an oven, alter llie bread is reinoved; leaving tlie door 
 half open, and turning the grain every ten minutes, to facilitate 
 the evaporation of the moisture. V\'hen it is thus dried, it sliouUl 
 be silted, and not put into sacks, or in heaps, till it is prcperiy 
 cooled; as it will otherwise become mouldy. Although some 
 fastidious persons mav object to the trouble occasionecf by this 
 mode of curing sprouted corn, yet as eight or ten days continual 
 drying will preserve it for a wdiole year, and render both the bread 
 and fiour ot a better quality, it surely merits the attention of every 
 diligent husbandman, and will amply compensate his trouble and 
 labour. There is another disease tliat frequently attacks corn, 
 which is usually termed burnt grain, which ii like the shiut, and is 
 to be treated in a similar manner. To these may be added, what 
 is called the spur, which aflects both wheat and rye, but mort;. 
 especially the latter. The grains infested with it, are thicker and 
 longer than the sound ones; their outsides are either brown or 
 black, and their surface rough. If a spurred grain be opened, a 
 white flour is perceivable in it, which is covered with another of a 
 reddish or brow n colour. The latter has some degree of consist- 
 ence, but mav be easily crumbled between the fingers. Natu- 
 ralists are unable to ascertain, with precision, the cause of this dis- 
 temper; but it is supposed to be occasioned by the bite or siir.g 
 of an insect, that turns the corn into a kind of gali; a coiijeciure 
 which is partly confirmed by the ta-te left on the tongue, alter 
 eating such grain. Tlie effects arising from the Use of corn thus 
 damaged, are said to be malignant fevers and gangrenes, in coii^e- 
 quince of which the extremities of the body sometimes mortify, 
 and spontaneously separate, with.mt any pain or eti'usion of blood. 
 Among the various insects w liich prey upon corn, none is more 
 destructive than the corn-butterfly, which is generated in a 'man- 
 ner similar to that of the common butterliies It settles on one 
 grain, and aftT having totally comumed it, its existence is sup- 
 I posed to be prolonged by eating its own excrement. When it_ 
 has attained its full growth, it is about one-quarter of an inch in 
 length, and half tlie thickness of the grain it has devoured. To 
 eNlerminate this noxious insect, it has been recommended to pre- 
 pare a very strong lye of wood-ashes, to which, when it becomes 
 yellow, as nuich quick-lime should be added, as will make it of a 
 dusky white: while it is as hot ;is the hand can well bear it, the 
 grosser part of the lime should be sulleied to subsiile, and the Ive 
 poured off into a proper vessel ; into which the corn is to l)e im- 
 mersed by means of a ba5!-.,etj and quickly agitated ; skiiniiiing off 
 K liiose
 
 C O II 
 
 5i 
 
 C O R 
 
 tliose grains wliich float on the surface. In the course ot two or 
 three minntes, it may be taken oat, and the basket witli it-, con- 
 tents sii.-i|ieiid,'il on two poles to drain ; alter which it sliould be 
 spread on tlie floor of a granary to dry, wliile a second basket un- 
 dergoes a similar immersi )n. Tiiis simple process not only pre- 
 serves the grain from rotting, but at tlie same time destroys all 
 those insects that may have penetrated its substance. An oven is 
 also employed lor drying the ^eed; but, as it is dilfieult to a'cer- 
 tain the proper degree of heat, witliout injuring vegetation, and 
 yet not always sullicient to extirpate the vermin, it is seldom prac- 
 ticed. When corn lias beiin kept a long time, it i'reciuently hap- 
 pens that miles reduce the greater part of the grain to dust. This 
 serious d.ama,j,e may be prevented by rubbing tlie adjacent places 
 with fetid oils ;uul herbs, such as garlic and dwarf-elder, the strong 
 smell of which tends to expel them: besides, they may be e.\pos- 
 ed to the rays of the sun, which imnied ately destroy them. In 
 order to ascertain the relative value of diiferent species of grain, 
 corn-dealers avail themselves chiefly of the combined criterion of 
 weight and measure. In a commercial point of view, such a me- 
 thod is doubtless the most accurate; however, an attention to the 
 following practical directions, will be of considerable advantage 
 in the sale or purchase of corn in general: 1. Take a handful of 
 grain from a heap, or sack, and compress it closely for a minute; 
 then pass it from one band into the other, aiad attentively examine 
 its flavour, wlu-ther it possess any peculiar smell, ditferent from 
 tiiat which is natural to the species: in which case you may con- 
 clude that it has been repeatedly exposed to moisture, and under- 
 gone a slight degree of fermentation. The Hour obtained from 
 such corn, is delicient in measure, of an indifferent c|uality, and 
 af/brds neither nourishing, nor wholesome bread. 2. If, on pres- 
 sure by the hand, the grains appear so solid and smooth that they 
 in a manner glide throng"! the lingers, without having any foreign 
 smell or colour, in this case it may He pronounced perfectly dry, 
 and ill a good slate of preservation. 3. Should, on the contrary, 
 the corn feel rough, or, if a number of grains, after compressing 
 them by the dry hand, clog together and adhere to the lingers, it 
 may be justly apprwhended that such wheat, rye, &c. is damp, 
 and possessed of all the bad properties before specified. Every 
 attentive observer will hud, that fre!(ucntly some species of grain 
 bears a price in the market, far exceeding its relative value, or 
 jiroportion to other kinds of grain, which, in many instances, may 
 serve as excellent substitutes. From the prices which have pre- 
 vailed in different countries, during a long series of years, we have 
 derived the following result of numbers: 
 
 Wheat 41 
 
 Kve ...32 
 
 Barley 23 
 
 Oats 14 
 
 TABLE OF PROPORTIONS. 
 
 Wheat. Rve. Rarlev. Oats. 
 ... 1 : 1 I .5 :" ,4 I 7 : 4 I 3 : 1 
 
 Wheat... 
 Rve 
 
 "iJarle 
 
 7 I 2 
 
 1 : 
 ■t- 
 
 2 I IG 
 
 1 : 3 [ 7 : 16 [ 5 : 8 | 1 : 1 
 
 to be remarked, tliat these proportions 
 
 Oats 
 
 It deserves, liowever 
 occasionally vary, accordingly as the soil of dillt-rent countries is 
 more favourable to the production of one species of grain than to 
 the other; and likewise as there is a greater or less demand for 
 partif ular kinds of corn in the market, especially in barren or un- 
 productive seasons. Thus, in Britain, the price "of barley and oats 
 is almost constantly di^propoitiontite to that of wheat, and especi- 
 ally to rye, which may, coiisec|ueiitly, be considered as the 
 cheapest bread-corn. The immense (luantitics of malt liquors 
 brewed in this country, and the great number of horses kept for 
 pleasure, are snlBcieiit reasons why barley and oats are sold at 
 prices comparatively higher than their intrinsic value, in relation 
 to wheat and rye. l>nt if tlse rates stated in tlie p'eceding table 
 be adopted in the computation of prices, and the iurnier, or corn- 
 dealer, be desirous to know what proportion, for instance, the 
 price of oats bears to that of rye, let him search in the horizontal 
 line for oats, and in front of the perpendicular line for rye: the 
 field, or partition where both meet, contains the numbers 7 : It), 
 namely, that the price of oats is in proportion to that of rye, as se- 
 
 ven to sixteen; and so forth, with respect to the other species of 
 corn here exhibited. 
 
 Corn, in medicine and surgery, a bard tumour like a flat wart, 
 growing in several parts of the feet, especially upon the joints oi 
 the toes. This disorder is attributed to the wearing of too strait or 
 narrow-toed shoes, which never fail to produce these tubercles, 
 especially if the person is obliged to stand or walk much, and in 
 the summer time. The uneasiness occasioned by the pressure of. 
 coins may be prevented in the following manner: take a piece of 
 linen, spread with any emollient plaster ; lay one piece over an- 
 other, eight, or ten, or mi;re times, and cut a hole in the middle 
 of them, exactly the same size and circumference as the corn, then 
 apply it in such a way that the corn enters the hole in the piaster, 
 and is thus defended against the cont;ict of shoes and stockings. 
 Such a plaster, properly applieti, will frequently cure in a tew 
 weeks, without any other remedy. If the corn is at the bottom 
 of die font, a hole cut in i felt sole, so as to lit the corn, is sufli- 
 cieiit. AViien this method is found ineilicient, rub the corn with 
 the vohitile liniment, two or three limes, in the twenty-four hours, 
 keejjing it covered in the intervals with an emollient plaster. 
 Every morning and evening the foot must be kept in warm water 
 for half an hour, and the corn well rubbed with soap, A^'hen soft- 
 ened with the water, it should be scraped with a blunt knife till the 
 soft part is removed, and till the operation begin to give pain. 
 This treatment is to be continued till tlie corn is entirely extir- 
 pated. 
 
 CORNAGE, [from corne, Fr. cirnu, Lat.] a tenure which 
 obliges the landhokler to give notice of an invasion by blowfng a 
 horn. 
 
 CORNARO, IIklesa LucRETiA, a learned Venetian lady, 
 daughter of John Baptist Cornaro. She not only acquired a com- 
 plete knowledge of the languages and sciences, but went through 
 the philosophy of the schools ; and at last took her degrees at Pa- 
 dua, being the first lady that ever was made a doctor. She made 
 a vow of perpetual virginity, and devoted her time entirely to stu- 
 dy. The fame of her learning attracted the atlcntion of Lewis 
 XIV. wdio ordered the cardinals Bouillon and D'Etrees to call on 
 her ; and they reported that her talents had not been exaggerated. 
 She died in 1685. 
 
 CORNE, an island in the gulf of Mexico, ten miles long, and 
 one broad. 
 
 CORNEA TUNICA, in anatomy, the second coat of the eye. 
 See Anatomy, and Eye. 
 
 CORNEL Tree, in botany. See Cornus. 
 CORNELIA LEX, the Cornelian Law, in antiquity, a 
 name given to 16 Roman laws: viz. 1. De eivitate, enacted 
 A.U.C. t)70, by Sylla ; confirming the Sulpician law, and requir- 
 ing tlie citizens of the eight newly elected tribes to be divided 
 among the 35 ancient tribes. 2. De judiciis, in (J7J, ordaining, 
 that the pr:vtor should always observe the same invariable method 
 in judicial |)roce,'dings, and that the process should not depend 
 upon will. 3. De sumptibus, limiting the expences of funerals. 
 4. De religione, in 677, restoring to tlie college of priests the pri- 
 vilege of choosing the priests, which by the Domitian law had 
 been lodged in th.e hands of the people. 5. De iminicipiis, re- 
 voking all the privileges which had been granted to the towns that 
 bad assisted Marius and Cinna in the civil war. P. De magistrali- 
 bus, giving the power of bearing honours, and being promoted 
 before the legal age, to those who had followed the interest of 
 Sylla; while the sons and partizans of his enemies who had been 
 proscribed, were deprived of the privilege of standing for any 
 office in the state. 7. De magistratibus, in 073, ordaining that up 
 person sliould exercise the same office within ten years distance, 
 or be invested with two dili'erent magistracies in one year. S. De 
 magistratibus, in t)73, divesting the tribunes of the privilege of 
 making laws, interfering, holding ii^-seniblies, and receiving ap- 
 peals. All such as had been tribunes were incapable of holding 
 an) olTice in the state by that law. 9. De niajestate, in t)7(), 
 making it treason to lend an army out of a province, or engage in a 
 war without orders, to influence the soldiers to spare or random a 
 captive general of the enemy, to pardon the leaders of robbers or 
 pirates, or for the absence ol a Roman chizen to a foreign court 
 without previous leave. The ijuiiishinent was aqua- et ignis in- 
 terdictio. 10. (living the power to a man accused of minder, 
 either by poison, wcaponSj or false accusations, and the setting lire 
 
 to
 
 COR 
 
 55 
 
 COR 
 
 to buildings, to rliooae wlR-tlier the jury Ih.it trieil iiim shuuki givt 
 t!iL>ir vcTclict dam or i)alain, viva voce, or h\ ballot. 1 1. Making 
 il aquae ct ignis iiilL'rdiclio to such as wen; guilty of forgery, 
 roiicealiiiT and altering of wills, comiption, false aeciisations, and 
 the tlebas'.ng or counterfeiting of the public oath. All who were 
 accessary to this olfeuce were deemed as guilty as the offender. 
 12. Ue'pecuniis repetundis; by wliicli u man convicted of pecu- 
 lation or extortion in the provinces, was condenuied to sulfer the 
 aqua; et ignis intcrdictio. 13. A law giving power to such as 
 were sent into the ])ruviuces wHh any government, of retaining 
 their command and appointment without a renewal of it by the 
 senate. 14. Another ori'.aining that the lands of proscribed per- 
 sons should be common, especially those about \'olateiT;e and 
 T'esuhi; in Elruria, which Sylla divided among his soldiers. All 
 the above were enacted bv •'sylla. 15. A law by C. Cornelius 
 tribune of the people, in tJSG; it ordains that no person should be 
 exempted from any law according to the general custom, unless 
 200 senators were present in the senate; and no person thus ex- 
 empted could hinder the bill of his exemption from being carried 
 to the people for their concurrence. 16. Another by Nasica, in 
 iS2, to make war against Perseus, son of Pf.ilip, King of Mace- 
 donia, if he did not give proper satisfaction to the Roman people. 
 
 t'ORNEH-STONES, among builders, the two stones which 
 stand one in each jaumb of a chimney. The breadth of each 
 stone ought to be e(pial to that of the jaumb, and its face to be 
 hollowed m the swee)) of a circle; their height ought to reach 
 from the hearth to the mantle-tree; they are commonlv made of 
 Kyegatc or rire-stone. 
 
 CORNET, \_corneiic, Fr.] in the military art of the ancients, 
 an instrumi-nt much in the nature of a trumpet; whew only it 
 sounded, the ensigns were to march alone without the soldiers; 
 whereas when the trumpet only sounded, the soldiers were to 
 move willioOt the ensigns. The cornets and buccin;e sounded the 
 charge and retreat, and the cornels and truuipets ioundetl during 
 the course of the battle. 
 
 Cornet, in the modern military ccconomy, is the third officer 
 in the company, and commands in the absence of the captain and 
 lieutenant. He takes his title from his ensign, which is square; 
 and is supposed to be called by that name from coriui, because 
 placed on the wings, which form a kind of points or horns of the 
 army. Others derive the name from coronet; alleging, that it 
 was the ancient custom for these olticers to wear coronets or gar- 
 lands on their heads. 
 
 CORN ETO, a town of the late Roman republic, in the depart- 
 ment of Cimino, .37 miles N.W. of Rome. 
 
 CORNEl'S, the name jjiven by Linn;Bus to a kind of tin ore, 
 found in black columns, with irregular sides, and terminating in 
 prisms. 
 
 CORN-FL.\G. See Gladiolus. 
 
 CORN-FLOWER. See Centaurf.a. 
 
 CORNICE, CORNICHE, or CORNISH. Sec Archi- 
 TKCTURK. The word is used, in general, for all little proiecluI■e^ 
 in masonry or joinery, even w here there are no columns, as the cor- 
 niche of a chimney, beaufet, S:c. 
 
 CoKNicE RiN'G, in gunnery, the next ring from tlie nniz/le 
 backwards. 
 
 CORNICULATIIUS, in antiquity, an ofiiccr in the Roman 
 army, whose business was to assist the military tribune in ipuditv 
 of a lieutenant. The cornicnlarii went the rounds in lieu of the 
 tribune, visite<l the watch, and were neailvwliat the aids major 
 weie in the French army, before the revolution. 
 
 ('ORNU'ULUM, in ancient geography, a town of the Sa- 
 bines, E. of Crustnmctum, towards the Anio. 
 
 {JORN ISH Diamonds, crystals found in digging the tin-mines 
 of Cornwall. 
 
 CORN-MARIGOT.D. See Chrysanthlmum. 
 
 Corn-mill. See Mechanics. 
 
 CORNOGAL, a town in the island of Cevlon, 30 miles 
 N.N.W. of Candi. 
 
 CORN-PARSLEY, SeeSisoN. 
 
 CoRN-KocKLT, is a spccics of Bunias, 
 
 Corn-rose. See Papaver. 
 
 Corn-sallad, a species of N'aleriana. 
 
 CORNl'-CERVl. See IlARTSHor.N. 
 CORNI'BIA, the ancient name of Cornwall. 
 COKNUCOrL'E, among the ancient poets, a honi out of which 
 
 proceeded' plenty of all things; by a paiticular j>rivilege which Ju- 
 piter granted his nurse, the goat Amallhea. 
 
 CoRNUcopiii, in architecture and sculpture, is represented 
 niuler the hgure of a large horn, out of which issue fruits, flower.s, 
 iScc. On medals, F. Joubert observes, the cornucopia; is given to 
 all deities. 
 
 ("ornucopi;e, in botany, a genus of the digynia order, and , 
 triandria class of plants; natural order, Graniina. Involucruui 
 moiiophyllous, funnel-shaped, crcnatcd, and muhitlorous; calyx 
 bivalved; corolla one-valved. There are two species. 
 
 CORNUS, Cornel-Tree, Cornelian Cherry, or Dog- 
 wood, a genus of the nionogynia order, and tetrandria cl:;ss of 
 plants; natural order, Stellat;e. Involucrum most fre(iucntiy te- 
 Iraphyllous; petals four, above the receptacle of tl.e fruit; fruit a 
 bilcciilar kernel. I'welve species are enumerated. 
 
 C Florida, 0I•^ irginiax Dog-wood, has a tree-stem branchina 
 12 or 15 feet high, and tine red shoots parnished with large heart- 
 shaped leaves ; and the branches terminated by umljeliate white 
 tiowers, having a large involucrum succeeded by dark red berries. 
 
 CORNL^TIA, in botanv, a genus of the angiospermia order 
 and didynamia class of plants ; natural order, Personatx. Calyx 
 quinquedenlatcd ; stamina larger than the corolla; style very 
 long; berry monospermous. It has two species, C. pyramidata, 
 with a blue pyramidal Howcr, and hoary leaves, it grows plentifully 
 in several islands in the West Indies, at Campeac hy, and La Vera 
 Cruz. It rises to the height of lOorlSfeet, with rude branches, 
 the leaves being placed opposite. C. quinata, is a native ol Chi- 
 na, in the woods near Canton. 
 
 Ct)RN\VALL, a county of England, which forms the S.W. 
 extremity of Great Britain. It is bounded by the English channel 
 on the S. St. George's channel on the N.\V. the Bristol channel 
 on the N. and on the E. by the river Tainar, which separates it 
 from Devonshire. Its name is supposed by some to be com- 
 pounded of cum, signifying a rock in the British language, and 
 Ciiul.i or U'aults, the name the Saxons gave to the Britons. 
 Others think it is derived from the Latin ornu, o\ the Britisk 
 ktrn, a horn ; on account of its rujuiing out into the sea somewhat 
 in the form of a horn. Its chief rivers are the Tainar, Fale, Co- 
 ber, L'ooe, Camel, Fowey, Haile, Lemara, Kense, rnd Aire. Its 
 principal head-lands are the Land's-end, the Lizard, Cape Corn- 
 wall, Deadman's-head, Rame-head, &c. and a cluster ot islands, 
 145 in number, called the Scilly isles, supposed formerly to have 
 been joined to the main land, though now 30 miles distant ; 
 abounding with antiquities, particularly druidical. '1 his county- 
 abounds in mines of different metals and semi-metals; but the 
 principal produce is tin. ^I'he Phenicians visited these coasts for 
 tills article, about 400 or 450 years before Christ ; and the mines 
 continued to be wrought with various success at different periods. 
 Mundic, a scarce mineral ore, of a white brassy or brow n colour, 
 is found in large quantities, intermixed with tin, copper, and lead, 
 and sometimes by itself. Iron ore is found at Cornwall, but the 
 working of it does not imsw er. There is no richer C()p))cr, nor a 
 greater variety any where, than in this county. Silver has been 
 rarely t'ouiul, nor do the h'ad mines answer. Very late discoveries 
 have proved that Cornwall has more gold than was formerly ima- 
 gined. The cornish diamond is a figured crystal, generally hexa- 
 gonal and pvramidical, or columnar, or both, of a line clear wa- 
 ter. Of all our bastard diamonds, it is esteemed the best. They 
 are of different colmirs, black, yellow, &c. The clearer they aie, 
 the better they will bear engraving lor seals. 
 
 Cornwall, a township of Cmniecticut, in Litchfield count v. 
 
 Ct)RNWALLIS, a river of Nova Scotia. 
 
 CoRNWALLis, a town of Nova Scotia, in King's county. 
 
 COROLLA, among botanists, the most conspiiuovis part of a 
 (lower, surrounding the organs of generation, and composed ot one 
 or more flower-leaves, most commonly called petals, tJ distinguish 
 theni from the leaves of the plant; accortUng as there ii one, two, 
 or three of the.-e petals, the corolla is saiil to be monopetalous, di- 
 petalous, tripetaloiis, &c. See Botany. 
 
 COROLLARY, [coroUurium, Lat. I'rom corolla ; finis coro- 
 mitnpu.s; corotluir, Fr.] is an useful consequence drawn from 
 something already advanceil, or demonstrated; thus it being de- 
 monstrated that a triangle which has two equal sides, Iras also two 
 angles equal ; this corollary will follow, that a triangle which has 
 three siiles equal, has ;dso its three angles e<|ual. 
 COROMANDEL, the eastern coast ot the peninsula on this 
 
 side
 
 C O R 
 
 a 
 
 COR 
 
 = .i1l' the Garige? in As'a. It is 1)oimu!c(1j i llic N. by Golcoiicia, 
 on t'.'.c E. by tlie bay of Bengal, on tlie S. by Ma<liini, and on t!ie 
 W. bv Bisnagyr. This coast so iniich resembles tliat of Orixa, 
 tliat tlie Abbe Uaynal considers them as one, and gives to both 
 t'iie general name of Coromandel. An excessive 1-ieal reigns from 
 the beginning of May to the end of October. It begins at nine in 
 the morning, and continues till nine in the evening. During the 
 n'ght it is allayed by a sea breeze from the S.E. The British 
 h.-ive formed on it several settlements. 
 
 CORON, a town of Tm'key in Europe, in the territory of Bel- 
 "videre, 80 miles S. S. AV. of Corinth. 
 
 CORONA, [Latin,] in architectiue, a large flat member of the 
 cornice, so called because it crowns the entalilature and the '.vhole 
 order. It is called by workmen the drip. See ARcuntc- 
 
 TUKK. 
 
 CoRON.\, in boUwv, a name given by some to-the circumfe- 
 rence or margin of a radiated compound (lower. 
 
 CoRos'A, in natural history and optics, a hmiinous circle sur- 
 rounding ihe sun, niuon, planets, and stars. See H.\LO, and 
 
 P.\RHEI.ION'. 
 
 Corona BoREALis, the northern crown or garland, in astrono- 
 my, a constellation of the northern hemisphere, wiiose stars in 
 Ptolemy's catalogue are eight, in Tycho's as many, and in Mr. 
 Flamsteed's thirty-one. 
 
 CORON'.VLE OS, the os frontis. See Anatomy. 
 
 CORON.'MUAC, in botany, the tentli order of plants in Lin- 
 na>us's Fragments of a Natural Method. Under this name Lin- 
 iiseus gives a great number of genera, most of which furnish very 
 beautiful tloweis, as (he hyaciiithus, agave, polyanthus, &c. 
 
 CORONARY ARTERIES. See Anatomy. 
 
 CoRONAKv, Stomachic, a vein inserted into the trunk of the 
 splenic vein, which, by uniting with the mesenteric, forms the vena 
 porta. 
 
 Coronary Vein, a vein diffused over the exterior surface of 
 tlie heart. 
 
 Coronary Vessels, vessels which furnish the substance of the 
 heart with (dood. 
 
 CORONATION, [from corona, Lat.] the public and solemn 
 conlirmina; of the title, and acknowledging of the rightof governing, 
 to a king or c|uecn ; at which time the prince swears rociprocaiiy 
 to the i>eople, to observe the laws, customs, and privileges of the 
 kingdom, and to act and do all things conformable thereto. 
 
 CiORONATOR, in old records, a coroner. 
 
 CORONDA ALREIG, a town of Persia, in Irak, 35 miles 
 N. W. of Isjiahan. 
 
 CORONE, in ancient geopraphv, a town of Messenia, situated 
 on the sea. Pansanias takes it to be the ,Epea of Homer; but 
 Strabn Thuiia, and Plinv, I'edassus. It is now called Coron. 
 
 COKONER, [from cornna, Lat.] an oflicer whose duty it is to 
 inipiiie, on the part of the king, how any violent death was occa- 
 sioned; for which puipo-ie a jury is empannelled. Coroner is an 
 ancient oflieer in England, so called because he hath principally 
 to do with pleas of liie crown, or such wherein the king is more 
 itiimediately concerned. And in this light, tlie lord chief justice 
 of the king's bench is the principal coroner in the kingdom ; and 
 may, if he please, exercise the jurisdiction of a coroner in any 
 part oj the realm. But there are also particular coroners for every 
 iounty of England ; usually four, sometimes six, and sometimes 
 i'ewer. This officer is of eipial autluirity with the sheriff; and was 
 ordained, together with him, to keep the peace when the earls gave 
 up the wardship of the county. He is chosen by all the freeholders 
 of the county court ; and bv the statute of Westminster, 1. it was 
 enacted that none hut lawful and discreet knights should be cho- 
 sen : but it seems now sufliciemt if a man have lands enough to be 
 made a knight, whether he be really knighted or not: for the co- 
 roner ouglit to have an estate sufficient to maintain the dignity of 
 his otiic, aiulanswer anv fines that may be niade upon him for 
 )iis misbehaviour ; and, if he hath not enough to answer, his fine 
 shall be levied upon tlie county, as a punishment for electing an 
 inHill'icient oiYicer. Now, indeed, through the culpable neglect 
 ef gentlemen ot property, this office has been suffered to fall into 
 disrepute, and got into low and indigent hands; so thutfdthough 
 formerly no coroners would be paid for serving their country, and 
 tiicy were by the afi'iesaid stii'ule of Westminster, 1. expressly for- 
 bidden to take a reward under p.uii of great forteitnre to the king ; 
 jct for many years past tliey have only desired to be chosen for 
 
 the sake of their perquisites ; being allowed fees for their attend- 
 ance liy the st;Uule 3 Hen. VII. c. 1. which Sir Edward Cok« 
 coqiplains of heavily, though since his time those fees have been 
 much enlarged. 1 he coroner is chosen for life ; but may be re- 
 moved, either by being made sheritt', or chosen verdemr, which are 
 offices incompatible with the other; and by the statute 2i Geo. 11. 
 c. 29, extortion, neglect, or misbehaviour, arc also made causes of 
 removal. 
 
 Coroners, Office and Powers of. These are like those of 
 the sheriff, cither judicial or ministerial ; but princijially judicial. 
 This is in great measure ascertained by statute 4 Edw. I. De Officio 
 Coronatoris ; and consists, first, in incpuring, when any person is 
 slain, or dies suddenly, or in prison, concerning the manner of his 
 death. And tliis must 1)C super visum corporis ; for if the body is 
 not found, the coroner cannot sit. He must also sit at the very 
 place where the death happened. .And his inquiry is made by a 
 jury from four, live, or six of the neigiibouring towns, over whom 
 he is to preside, ll any be fouiid guilu by tills inquest of murder, 
 he is to commit to prison for farther trial, and is also to inquire con- 
 cerning their lands, goods, and chattels, which are forfeited there- 
 by ; but whether it be murder or not, he must inquire whether any 
 deodund has accrued to the king, or the lord of the franchise, by this 
 death ; and iniist certify the whole of this inquisition to the court 
 of King's Bench, or the next assizes. Another branch of his of- 
 fice is to impure concerning shipwrecks; and certify whether 
 wreck or not, and who is in possession of the goods. Concerning 
 treasure trove, he is also to inquire concerning the linders, and 
 where it is, and whether any one be suspected of having found and 
 concealed a treasure; " and that may well be perceived (saith the 
 old statute of Edw. I.) where one liveth riotously, haunting ta- 
 verns, and hath done so of longtime; whereupon he might be at- 
 tached and held to bail upon this suspicion only. The ministerial 
 office of the coroner is only as the sherilf's substitute. For when 
 just exception can be taken to the sheriff, for suspicion of partiality 
 (as that he is interested in the suit, or of kindred or either plain- 
 tiff or defendant), the process must then be awarded to the coro- 
 ner, instead of the sherilif, for execution of the king's writs. I'Ue 
 coroner shall have for his fee, upon every inquisition taken upon 
 the view of the body slain, 13.S. Ad. of the goods and chattels of 
 him that is the slayer and murderer, if he have any goods ; and if 
 he have no goods, of such amerciaments, as any township should 
 happen to be amerced for the escape ef the murderer, 3 Heu. 
 VII. But as the said fee of 13.9. 4rf. is not an adequate reward for 
 the general execution of the said ntiice, therefore for every inqui- 
 sition taken upon view of a body dying in gaol the coroner shall 
 have 'JOs. and also 'jd. lor every mile he shall be compelled to 
 travel from his usual place of abode to take such inquisition, to 
 be paid by order of the justices in sessions, out of tlie country 
 rates, 2.) Geo. II. c. 29. s.' I. 
 
 CORONET. See Crown. 
 
 CORONILLA, Jointed podded Colutea: a genus of the 
 decandria order, and diadelphia class of plants; natural order papili- 
 onacea-. Calyx bilabiated; vexillum scarce any longer than the 
 alx ; legumen contracted between the seeds. Fourteen species, 
 mostly natives of France, Switzerland, and Italy, are enumerated. 
 
 CORONIS, in the heathen mythology, a nymph, the mother 
 of A'^sculapius. 
 
 CORONOID PROCESS. See Anatomy. 
 
 COROORAA, one of the Pelew islands. 
 
 COROPA, a prtjvince of South America, situated between the 
 river Amazon and lake Parime. 
 
 CORPOH.\ PYRAMIDALIA, are two protuberances of the 
 under part of tlic cerebellum, about an inch long ; so called from 
 their resemblance to a pyramid. 
 
 CORPORAL, an inferior oflicer under a Serjeant in a com- 
 p:iny of foot, who has charge over caie of the divisions, places and 
 relieves centinels, and keeps good order in the corps de garde : 
 he also receives the word from the inferior rounds, which passes 
 by his corps de garde. 'I'his officer carries a fusee, and i- com- 
 monly an old soldier : there are generally three corporals in each 
 company. 
 
 CoRPoRAt, Corporai.e, IS also an ancient church-term, signify- 
 ing the sacred linen spread under the chalice in the eucharist and 
 mass, to receive the fragments of the bread. 
 
 Corporal of a Ship, an officer that has tlie charge of setting 
 the watches and sentries, and relieving them; who sees that ail 
 
 C) the
 
 COR 
 
 37 
 
 C OR 
 
 <tie >oMiers am! sailors ktcij their arm-; neat ;iiul (-lean, and tfacties 
 tliom how to Vise tliciii, lie lias a mate under him. 
 
 CoRi'CRAL OF A Ship of W ar is under tlie master at aims, 
 and Is emph}\ed to teach the officers the exercise ot small arms, or 
 of musketry; to attend at tne gangway, on entering ports, and 
 observi! that no spnatuous liquors are brouglit inio the ship, unless 
 bv express leave troni the otiicers. He is also to eNtingui>h the 
 /ires and candles at eight o'clock in w liter and nine in summer, 
 when the evening gun is tired ; and to walk trequently down in the 
 lower decks in his watch, to see that there are no liglits but such 
 as are under the charge ot proper centiiiels. 
 
 CORrORATlON, [corpu,?, Lat.] A corporation is a body 
 politic, authoriseil bv the kina's charter to have a common seal, 
 one head officer or more, and members, able, by their common 
 consent, to grant or receive, in law, any thing within the compas^ 
 of tlieir charter: even as one man may do by law all things, that 
 by law he is not forbidden ; and bindeth his successors, as a suigle 
 man Wnds his executor or heir. 
 
 Corporation' Acr is diat which prevents any person being le- 
 gally elected into any office relating to the government of any city 
 or corporation, unless within a twelvemonth before he has receiv- 
 ed the sacrament of the Lord's supper, according to the rites of 
 the church of England ; and which enjoins him to take the oaths of 
 allegiance and supremacy when he takes the oatli of oflice ; other- 
 wise his election is void. 
 
 Corporations, Aggregate, consist of many pei-sons united 
 together into one society, and are kept up by a perpetual succes- 
 sion of members, so as to continue for ever ; of which kind are the 
 mayor and commonalty of a city : the head and fellows of u col- 
 lege; the dean and chapter of a cathedral church. 
 
 Corporations, Ecclesiastical, are v here the members that 
 compose it are entirely spiritual persons ; such as bishops ; certain 
 deans and prebendaries ; all archdeacon^, parsons, and vicars : w hich 
 aiv sole corporations : deans and chapters at present, and formerly 
 prior and convent, abbot and monks, and the like, bodies aggre- 
 gate. These are erected for the furtherance of religion, and per- 
 petuating the riglits of the church. 
 
 CoRPOR.ATioN, Lay, are of two kinds, civil and eleemosynary. 
 
 1. Corporations, Civil, are such as are erected tor a variety 
 of temporal purposes. The king, for instance, is made a corpora- 
 tion to prevent the possibility of an interregnum or vacancy of 
 the throne, and to preserve the possessions of the crown entire ; 
 For, immedi.itely upon the demise of one king, his successor is in 
 fidl possession of the regal rights and dignity. Other lay corpora- 
 tions are erected for the good government of a town or particular 
 district, as a mayor and commonalty, bailiff and burgesses, or the 
 like: some for the advancement and regulation of manufactures 
 and commerce ; as the trading companies of London, Edinburgh, 
 Sjc. and some for the better carrying on of divers special pur- 
 poses ; as churchwardens, for conservation of the goods of the pa- 
 rish ; the college of physicians and company of surgeons in London, 
 for the improvement of the medical science; the royal society for 
 the advancement of natural knowledge; and the society of aiiti- 
 ijuai-ians for promoting the study of antiquities. 
 
 2. Corporations, Eleemosynary, are such as are constituted 
 for the perpetual distribution of the free alms, or bounty, of tlie 
 Founder, to such persons as he has directed. Of this kind are all 
 hospitals for the maintenance of the poor, sick, and impotent ; and 
 all colleges; which last are founded for two purposes: 1. For the 
 promotion of piety and learning by proper regulations and ordi- 
 nances. 2. for imparting assistance to the members of those bo- 
 dies, in order to enable them to prosecute their devotion and 
 studies with greater ease and assiduity. 
 
 Corporations, Sole, consi>t of one person only and his suc- 
 ;essors, in some particular station, who are incorporated by law, to 
 5ive tliem some legal capacities and advantages, particularly 
 :hat of perpetuity, which in their natura|4,iersons they could not 
 liave had. In this sense the king is a sole corporation : so is a bi- 
 ihop : so are some deans and prebendaries, distinct from their se- 
 teraX chaptei-s; and so is every parson and vicar. And the use ot 
 his institution w ill be apparent, if we consider the case of a parson 
 jfd church. At the original endowment of parish churches, the 
 reehold of the church, the church-yard, the parsonage house, tlie 
 ;lebe, and the tithes of the parish, were vested in the then parson 
 jy the bounty of the donor, as a temporal recompence to Iiim for 
 ii-i spiritual care of the inhabitants, and with intent that the same 
 
 vol,, n. — NO, 58. 
 
 emoUinieiits should ever attei wards coutnuie as a recomp. nCi- lor 
 the same care. But how was tli's to be eilecled.' The Ireeliold 
 was vested in the parson ; and, if we suppose it vested in his natu- 
 ral capacity, on his death, it might descend to his heir, and would 
 be liable to his del)ts and incumbrances: or at best the heir might 
 he com])ellable, at some trouble and expcnce, to convey those 
 rights to the succeeding incumbent. Tlie law therefore has'wiscly 
 ordained, that the parson, cpiatemis parson, shall never die, any 
 more than the king ; by making him and his successors a corpora- 
 tion. By which means all the original rights ot the pai'sonage are 
 preserved entire to the successor: lor the present incumbent, and his 
 predecessor w!;o lived seven centuries ago, are in law one and the 
 same person ; and what was given to the one, was given to the 
 other also. 
 
 CORPOREITY, [from corporeus, Lat.] materiality; the qua- 
 lity of being enibo(''<'<l ; the sl:ite of having a body ; bodiliness. 
 
 CoPvPoreity ii me quality of that which is corporeal, or is bodv; 
 or that which consiitules or denominates it such. 'I'he corporeity 
 of God was the capital error of the ^Vnthroponiophites. Some au 
 thors reproach Tiitullian with admitting a corporeity in the Deity ; 
 but it is manifest that by the body he means no more than siili 
 stance. '1 he Mohammedans reproach the Samaritans to this day, 
 witli a belief of the corporeity of God. Many of the ancients be- 
 lieved the co.'poreity of angels. 
 
 CORPS, in aichltecture, a term borrowed from the I'Vench. 
 signifying any p:irt that projects or advances beyond the naked oi ii 
 wall ; and wliich serves as a ground for some decorations, ur the 
 like. 
 
 Cop.ps, in geography, a town of France, in the departmeHt of 
 Isere, ?0 miles S. E. of Grenoble. 
 
 Corps ue Bataille, is the ntain body of an army drawn up 
 for battle. 
 
 Corps DE Garde, a post in an army, sometimes under covert, 
 soinetinies in the open air, to receive a body of soldiery, who are 
 relieved from time to time, and are to watch in their turns, for the 
 security of a (|uarter, a camp station, &c. The word is also used 
 for the men wlio watch therein. It is usual to have also a little 
 corps de garde, at a good distance before the lines, to be the moif 
 rea<lily advertised of the approach of the enemy. 
 
 CORPSES, Laws respecting. If any one, in taking up a 
 dead body, steals the shrowd, or other apparel, it is felony. Steal- 
 ing only the corpse itself is not felony; but it is punishable as a 
 misdemeanorbv indictment at common law. 
 
 CORPULENCY, or OBESPIY, in physiology, is the accu- 
 mulation of too great a quantity of fat or animal oil, whicli dis- 
 tends the solids to an unnatural degree, by the abundance of gra- 
 nulated matter collected in the cellular membrane. Corpulency 
 arises from a variety of causes, which may operate separately.or con- 
 jointly in the same constitution. It may, however, be principally 
 ascribed, 1. To the introduction of too much oil into the habit, 
 through the channels of nourishment, by which menus it is retain- 
 ed in too large a quantity. 2. An over laxity, or perhaps too 
 large a structure of the cells in which it is deposited, so as to ad- 
 mit and retain an immoderate proportion of unctuous matter. 3. 
 To a peculiar disposition of the blood, which renders it liable to 
 separate too easily from its oleaginous particles, and to admit of 
 their being strained olT too plentifully by the secretory vessels ; 
 or, lastly, to defective evacuation or expulsion of oil already ab- 
 sorbed, separated from the blood, and deposited in its cells, in- 
 stead of being discharged through the dilferejit emunctories of the 
 body. Corpulency is the occasion of various diseases, and parti- 
 cularly of the apoplexy. It was held infamous among the ancient 
 Lacedremanians. Senuertus mentions a man tliat weighed tiOOIbs. 
 and a maid 36 years of age who weighed 450. Bright of Maiden, 
 wlio died at the age of 29, in 1750, weighed Gltilbs. Obesity is 
 promoted by whatever tends to soften the blood, and render it 
 less sharp and saline ; such as want of exercise and motion, an in- 
 dolent life, indulgence in too much sleep, &c. It may be re-> 
 moved or prevented by the contrary causes, and particularly by 
 the use of saline and acid food and drink. Chiapin Vitelli, mar- 
 quis of Ceroiia, a noted Spanish general in his time, from an exces- 
 sive corpulency, is said to have reduced himself, by drinking vine- 
 gar, to such a degree of leanness, that he could fold his skin seve- 
 ral times round him. Castile soap, in the form of a bolus, an 
 electuary, pills, or dissolved in a gill or more of soft water, from 
 one to four drachms, taken at bed-time, is strongly recomujended 
 L witk
 
 COR 
 
 58 
 
 COR 
 
 ■with a view of reducing corpulency, in a discourse on its nature, 
 causes, and cure, by Malcolm I'lemyng, M.D. Lond. 1760. See 
 Medicine. 
 
 CORPUSCLE, in pliysics, signifies a miinite particle, or phy- 
 sical atom, being such as a natmal body is made up of; that is 
 S'uch part!cle«, whether of a simple or compound nature, wiiose 
 parts will not be dissolved nor dissipated by ordinary degrees of 
 heat. See Physics. 
 
 CORPUSCULAllIAN Philosophv, is that way of philoso- 
 phising which endeavours to explain things, and to accouni for t'le 
 pha-iioinena of nature, l)y the motion, figure, rest, position, &c. 
 of the corpuscles, or the minute particles of matter. Mr. Boyle 
 snms up the chief principles of the corpuscular hypothesis, which 
 now llourishes under the mechanical philosophy, in these particu- 
 lars: 1. They suppose that there is but one catholic Or uni>-ersal 
 matter, which is an extended, impenelraljle, and divisible sub- 
 Stance, common to all bodies, and capable of all forms. 2. That 
 this matter, in order to form the vast variety of natural bodies, 
 must have motion in some or all its assignable parts; and that this 
 motion was given to matter by God, the Creator of all things, and 
 has all manner of directions and tendencies. 3. Matter must also 
 be actually divided into part's, and each of these primitive particles, 
 fragments, or atoms of niatter, must Iiave its proper magnitude or 
 size, as also its peculiar figure or shape. 4. They suppose also, 
 these differently sized and shaped particles may have as different 
 orders and positions, whereof great variety may arise in the com- 
 position of bodies. See Physics. 
 
 CORREA, in botany, a genus of the cla^s and order octaiidria 
 monogynia: calyx campanulate, four-toothed; petals four, re- 
 flected at the ends; capsule four-celled, four-valved, with a single 
 seed in each. One species, the alba, a shrub of Port Jackson. 
 
 CORRECTION, in printing, the act of retrenching the faults 
 in a work; or the reading which the corrector gives the proofs, to 
 point out and amend the faults, to be rectified by the compositor. 
 The corrections are placed on the margin of every page, against 
 the line in which the faults are found; and there are different cha- 
 racters used to express different corrections: thus .5 is put for dele, 
 to intimate that something, as a pr.int, letter, word, kc. dashed in 
 that line is to be taken out. If any thing in to be inserted, the 
 place is to be marked thus A, and the thing to be inserted added 
 m the margin. When there are two or more corrections in tlie 
 same line, then they are all separated in the margin by little bars, 
 thus I . If a space is omitted, its place is marked with a caret, 
 and in the margin thus XI. When a letter is inverted, it is ex 
 pressed in the margin thus q. When any thing is to be transpos- 
 ed, it is directed thus. Extraordinary scarce ever tail oil attain ments 
 exciting envy, for Extraordinary attainments scarce ever tail of 
 exciting envy, and iu the margin is added tr. If Italic characters 
 are to be changed for Roman, or vice versa, a line is drawn thus 
 — under the letters, and Rom. or Ital. is written in the margin. If 
 a space, or an m or n ([uadrat, stick up, and print black, it is 
 marked in the margin with a dash, thus | . If a word, sentence, 
 or paragrapii is entirely omitted, the place is marked with a caret, 
 and in the margin is put the word out. If the letters of a word 
 stand loo far asunder, a line is drawn under them, and in the mar- 
 gin is put a crooked line or hook, thus ^. ^riiere are many other 
 marks used in correcting, sup. for superior, cap. for capital, /. c. 
 lor lower-case, &c. 
 
 Corrector of the Staple, a clerk belonging to the staple, 
 who records the bargains made l)y the merchants. 
 
 CORREGIDOU, an officer' of justice in Spain; the chief 
 judge of a town or province. 
 
 CORREGIO, a late principality of Italy, united to the duchy 
 of Modeua. 
 
 CoRREGio, a town of the Cisalpine republic, in the late duchy 
 of Modena, 25 miles S. of Mantua. 
 
 CoKREGio, Anton'io, an eminent historical painter, born in 
 1494, and whose original name was AUegri, which was changed to 
 that of his birth-place. Reing descencied of poor parents, and 
 educated in an obscure village, he enjoyed none of those advan- 
 tages which contributed to form the other great painters of that 
 illustrious age. He saw none of the statues of ancient Greece or 
 Rome ; nor any of the works o<' the established schools of Rome 
 and Venice, fiut Nature was his guide; and Corrcgio was one of 
 .her favorite pupils. To express the facility with which he paint- 
 
 ed, he used to say tliat he alvvavs had his ihoughls ready at the 
 end of his pencil. The agreeable smile,, and the profusion of 
 graces which he gave to his madonas, sainfs, and children, have 
 been said to be sometimes uiuiatural; but still they are amiable 
 and seducing: an easy and flowing pencil, an union and harmony 
 of colours, and a perfect intelligence of light and shade, give an 
 astonishing re)ief to all his pictures, and have been the admiration 
 both of his cotcmporaries and his successors, Annibal Caracci, 
 who flourished 50 years after him, studied arid adopted his manner 
 in preference to that of any otlier master. From want of curiosity 
 or of patronage, Corrcgio never visited Rome, but rcmaine<l his 
 whole life at Parma, where the art of painting was little esteemed, 
 and poorly rewarded. T his concurrence of unfavourable circum- 
 stances occasioned at last his premature death at the age of 40. He 
 was employed to paint the cupola of the cathedral at Parma, 
 the subject of which is an assumption of tlie Virgin; and having 
 executed it in a manner that has long been the admiration of every 
 person of good taste, for the grandeur of design, and especially for 
 the boldness of the fore-shortenings (an art which he first and at ouce 
 brought to the utmost perfection), he went to receive his pavment. 
 The canons of the church, either through ignorance or baseness, 
 found fault with his work ; and although the price originally agreed 
 upon had been very moderate, they alleUged that it was far above 
 the merit of the artist, and forced him to accept of the paultry 
 sum of 21)0 livres, which, to add to the indignity, they paid him 
 in copper money. To carry home this unworthy load to his in- 
 dignant wile and children, poor Corregio had to travel six er eight 
 miles from Parma. 'l"he weight of his burden, the heat of the 
 weather, and his chagrin at this villanous treatment, immediately 
 threw him into a pleurisy, which in three days put an end to his 
 life and his misfortunes, in 1534. For the preservation of this 
 magnificent work, the world is indebted to Titian, As he passed 
 through Parma, in the suite of Charles V. he run instantly to see 
 the chef d'cEuvre of Corregio. While he was attentively viewii>g 
 it, one of the principal canons of the church told him that such a 
 grotesque performance did not merit his notice, and that they in- 
 tended soon to have the whole defaced. " Have a care of what 
 you do, (replied the other,) if I were not Titian, I would certainly . 
 wish to be Corregio. 
 
 CORREZE, a department of France, bounded b)- those of 
 Upper Vie.ine and Creuse on the N. Pny de Dome on the E. 
 Cantal on the S. E. Lot on the S. and Dordogne on the W. It 
 includes the late province of Limosin. Tulles is the capital. 
 
 CoRREzE, a river of France, which rises about 20 miles N. E. 
 of Tulles, and joins the Vezere, three miles below Brives. 
 
 CoRREZE, a town in the department of Correze, 8 miles N. E, 
 of Tulles. 
 
 CORRIGTOLA, in botany, a genus of the trigynia ortler, 
 and pentandria class of plants ; natural order Holoracca;. Calyx 
 five-leaved; petals live; seed one, three-sided. There is but 
 one species, viz. C. litoralis, bastard knot-grass, a native of 
 France, Germany, Switzerland, and Piedmont, in sandy soils, 
 usually near the sea or rivers. 
 
 C'ORRIRA, the Courier, in natural history, a genus of birds 
 of the order grails. Rill short and straiaiht, and with.out teeth ; 
 legs long; thighs longer than the body; feet palmated, with a 
 back toe. One species, is a native of Italy, remarkable for 
 the extreme length of its neck as well as legs ; it runs with peculiar 
 speed, and derives, unquestionably, from this circumstance its 
 popular designation of courier. 
 
 CORROSION, [corrodo, Latin,] in a general sen^e, the ac- 
 tion of gnawing away, by degrees, the continuity of the parts of 
 bodies. Acids corrode most natural bodies. 
 
 CORROSIVE SuiiLiMATE, an old name for the oxyniuriate 
 of mercury, or as it is called in the shops muriated mercury. 
 If muriatic acid be added to the yellow sulphate of nicrciirv, or 
 to the nitrate of mer^'fi'y, muriate of mercury is formed, which 
 is soliitile in water, pa/l.-wliich on account of its properties was 
 formerly called tiorrosi-"^ sublimate, or corrosive muriate of 
 niercury. 
 
 Corrosives, in surgery, are chiefly burnt alum, red and 
 white precipitates of mercury, white vitriol, butter of antimony, 
 lapis infernalis, S:c. 
 
 CORRUP'l'ICOLa;, a sect who rose out of the Monophysite» 
 in Egypt, about A. D. 519, under their cl.ief Severus, the pre- 
 tended patriarch of Alexandria. Theij- distinguishing doctrine 
 
 * was
 
 COR 
 
 59 
 
 COR 
 
 was, tliaUlie body of JeMis Christ was corniplihli; ; and that to 
 ^uiv it w;i« to 'leiiv the triilh of our S;)vioiu-'s p ission. 
 
 COKKUP'l'lO'N, [i-orrupiin, 1/at.] the destruction of the 
 proper iiioile of existence of iiiiy natural hody. 
 
 CoRHUPTiON OF Bi.ooo, ill law, an infection accruing to a 
 man's state, attainted of felony and treason, and to his issue ; for 
 j(s he loses all to the prince, '&c. his issue cannot be heirs to him, 
 or to any other ancestor by him ; and if he were noble his heirs are 
 rendered innoble. 
 
 COUSAIK, [French,] a private; one who professes to scour 
 tJie sea, and seize merchants. Corsair is derived from the Italian 
 corsnre, ot c(yrso or « cursibus, courses, or excursions. Tlie 
 name is commonly given to the piratical cruisei-s of Barbary, who 
 had their rise aboiit the beginning of the l6th century. A corsair 
 is distinguished from a privateer in this, that the latter lias a com- 
 mission, and only attacks llie vessels of those at war with the slate 
 whence his commission is derived. The punishment of a corsair 
 is to bi- hanged, without reinissiou; whereas privateers are to be 
 treated as prisoners of war. 
 
 CORSKLET, a little cuirass, or, according to otliers, an ar- 
 mour or coats made to co^ er the whole bodv, anciently worn 
 by the pike-men, usually placed in the froDt and flanks of the 
 battle, for the better resisting of the enemy's assaults, and guard- 
 iug of the soldiere placed behind them. 
 
 CORSIAUA, a town of Persia, in the province of Farlistan ; 
 100 miles S. VV. of Schiras. 
 
 CORSICA, an island, in that part of the Mediterranean, an- 
 ciently called the Sea of Liguria, between 8°. and lo°. l.on. E. 
 and between 41°. and 43°. Lat. N. On the S. side it is separated 
 from Sardinia, by a narrow strait, anciently called t«Soo,- by the 
 Greeks, and Fossa by the Romans ; tiU stadia, or about seven miles 
 broad. It is now called Boccadia Bonificio. 
 
 CORSNED, or MORSEL OF EXECRATION, a species 
 of trial, or purgation, anciently in use among us, and which prub- 
 ablv arose from an abuse of revelation, in the dark a£;es of super- 
 stition. It consisted of a piece of cheese or bread, about an ounce 
 in weight, which was consecrated with a form of exorcism; de- 
 siring of the Almighty that it might cause convulsions and ))aleness, 
 and (ind no passage if the man were reailv guilty; but might turn 
 to health and nourishment if he were innocent ; as the water of 
 jealousy among the Jews was, by God's especial appointment, 
 to cause the belly to swell, and the tliigh to rot, if the woman 
 were guilty of adultery. This corsned was given to the suspected 
 person, who at the same time received the sacrament. Historians 
 assure us, that Godwin, earl of Kent, in the reign of king Edward 
 the Confessor, abjuring tlie death of the king's brother, at last 
 appealed to his corsned, which stuck in his throat and killed him. 
 '1 his custom has been long abolished, but the remembrance of it 
 still subsists in certain phrases of abjuration ; as " I will take 
 the sacrament upon it ; May this morsel be my last," &r. 
 
 CORSOER, a town of Denmark, on the W. coast of Zealand, 
 53 miles S. W. of Copenhagen. Lon. 11. 1:2. E. Lat. 55. 
 12. N. 
 
 CORTATE, a town of Hindustan, N. of Cape Comorin. 
 CORTE, a territory of Corsica, near the centre of the 
 island. 
 
 CoRTE, a town in the above territory, 27 miles S. W. of 
 Bastia. 
 
 CORTES, or CORTEZ, Ferdinand, a Spanish general, fa- 
 mous for the conquest of Mexico, and other victories over the 
 natives of S. America; but exceedingly infamous for the cruelties 
 he committed upon the vanquished, without regard to rank, age, 
 or sex. It probably was on this account he was coolly received 
 on his return to Europe, by his master Charles V. It is'even said, 
 that the emperor asked him who he was.' to which Cortez replied, 
 •• I am the man who has given you more provinces, than youran- 
 ceBtors lelt you towns." He died in 1354, aged 65. 
 
 CORTIS, atown of Germany, in the bishopric of Liege, 10 
 riilesN. E. of Ramillies. 
 
 CORTONA, a town of Italy, in Tuscany, 32 miles E. of 
 Sienna. Lon. U. 52. E. Lat. 43. 14. N. 
 
 CORTULA, in botany, a genus of the syngenesia polygamia 
 supcrflua class and order. Natural order Compusita- Discoidea', 
 or compound radiated flowers. Receptacle almost naked; down 
 margined; corollules of the disk four-cleft; in the ray scarcely 
 any. There are litteen species, mostly natives of the Capc^ 
 
 COKTISA, Bear's EarSanicle: agenus of the monogynia 
 order, and pentandria class of plants, natural order, Pircia-. Co- 
 rolla wheel-shaped, with its throat like an elevated ring; capsule 
 unilocular, oval, quinquevalved at theto|). There are two species, 
 both very low, flowery, herbaceous perennials, crowned by um- 
 bels of monopeU'.lous wheel-shaped fiowei% of a line red colour, 
 nativ(*s of mountainous rocky parts abroad. 
 
 CORVEY, a town and small principality of Germany, in the 
 circle of Westphalia, 12 miles long, and 12 broad. 
 
 CORUNDUM, a mineral, of which tiiere are two species, the 
 perfect and imperfect. Perfect corundum or sapphire is found in 
 the East Indies, especially in Pecu and the island of Ceylon ; and 
 it is most commonly crystallized. The crystals are not large ; their 
 primitive form is a rhomboid whose angles are 86° and 94°, and 
 which therefore is nearly rectangular. Sometimes it occurs in 
 this form, thougli but seldom. Bounion has described no les* 
 than eight modilii ations of it. The texture of the sapphire i» 
 foliated ; but in the more perfect specimens the plates arc separa- 
 ted with difliculty. Fracture conchoidal. Spccitic gravity from 
 3. '307 to 4. 161. Colour most frequently blue ; sometimes red, 
 purple, yellow, and green ; and sometimes colourless : imperfect 
 corundum is usually crystallized ; sometimes found hi amorphous 
 masses. The figures of the crystals are the same as those of the 
 last species ; opaque, except when in very thin pieces ; specilic 
 giavity from 3.710 to 4.180; colour grey, often with various 
 shades of blue and green. Mr. Chenevix obtained the following 
 constituents from different specimens of corundum subjected t#' 
 chemical analysis. 
 
 Imperfect coniiidum. 
 
 From the From I'roni Fron* 
 
 Carnatic. Malabar. Cliina. Ava. 
 
 Silica 5.0 7.0 3.25 6.5 
 
 Alumina 91.0 8fi.5 86.30 87.0 
 
 Iron 1.3 4.0 6.50 4.5 
 
 Loss 2.5 2.5 1.75 2.0 
 
 100.0 100.0 
 
 100.0 100.0 
 
 Perfect corundum. 
 
 Blue, or 
 
 Red, or 
 
 sapphire. 
 
 oriental ruby. 
 
 5.25 
 
 7.0 
 
 ina 92.00 
 
 90.0 
 
 1.00 
 
 1.2 
 
 1.75 
 
 1.8 
 
 100.00 
 
 100.0 
 
 Silica 
 Alum 
 Iron 
 Loss 
 
 CORUNNA, a port town of Galicia in Spain, situated on a- 
 finc bay of the Atlantic, about 32 miles N. of Compostella. 
 
 CORVO, the smallest and most northern island of the Azores, 
 being only 12 miles in circumference. It abounds in crows, 
 wlience the name. Lon. 31° 4' 56" W. Lat. 39° 43' 38" N. 
 
 CORUS, OMER, HOMER, or CHOMER, in the Jew- 
 ish antiquities, a measure containing 10 baths, or 75 gallons and 5 
 pints, as a measure for things liquid, and 32 pecks and one pint, 
 as a measure for things dry. 
 
 CoRus, in old records, eight bushels. 
 
 CORUSCATION, [cnruscatio, Lat.] flash ; quick vibration 
 of light. Coruscation is chiefly used for a flash of lisjhtning 
 darting from the clouds in time of thunder. See Meteoro- 
 logy. 
 
 CORVUS, in antiquity, a military engine, or rather gallery, 
 moveable at pleasure by means of pullies ; chiefly used by tlie 
 Romans, in boarding the enemy's ships to cover the men. 
 
 CoRVUs, in ornithology, the Raven or Crow ; a genus of birds 
 of the order picie. Beak convex, cultrated ; nostrils covered 
 with bristly feathers; tongue forked, cartilaginous; Iocs three. 
 'I'here are above 40 species. The following are the most rc-- 
 markable : 
 
 C. Canadensis is nine inches long and weighs two ounces. 
 The bill is blackish, and not quite an inch long: the^ iridcs are 
 black : the forehead and threat a dirty yellowish white ; the hind 
 head and sides blackish brown: tiie upper parts of the body 
 
 brown ;
 
 COR 
 
 40 
 
 COS 
 
 hrosvr. ; beneath pale iisli ; palest on the breast: the (piills and 
 tail are. brown, tippe.l with white ; the tail is a little wedged: the 
 legs and claws are blackisli. 'I'hese bhxls inhabit Canada ; and 
 are common near liudsun's Bay, where they arc called Whis- 
 kiejohn. 
 
 C. Caryocatacts?, the Nutcracker, is somewhat less than 
 the jack-daw: the bill i. strong, straight, and black ; the colonr 
 of'the whole hea<l and neck, breast and bodv, ot a nistv brown: 
 the crcjwn of the head and rump are plain ; the other parts mark- 
 ed with triangular white spots; the wings black; the coverts 
 spotted like the body ; the tail rounded at the end, black tipt 
 wilh white; the vent feathers are white ; the legs dusky. I'hese 
 birds are scattered in many parts of Europe, but no where so nu- 
 merous as in Germany. 
 
 C. CoRAx, the Raven of English authors, weighs three lb. 
 and is about two feet in length ; the colour is black, hnely glossed 
 "vith a rich blue ; the belly excepted, \vhich is of a diiskv colour. 
 They are very docile, and may be trained up to fowling like 
 hawks; to fetcli and carry like spaniels; they may be taught 
 to speak like parrots ; and, what is the most extraordinary of all, 
 ihey may be taught to imitate the human voice in singing.' They 
 have a great propensity to pilfer, often hiding things of value. 
 They frequent the neighbourhood of great towns, where thev are 
 iised in devouring the carcases and filth which would otherwise 
 prove a nuisance. They also destroy many living animals ; such 
 as, rabbits, ducks, chickens, and even lambs which have been 
 dropped in a weak state. In clear weather they lly in pairi to a 
 great height, making a deep loud noise, dilf'erent from the common 
 i-roaking. See Plate XXXVHI. 
 
 CoRvos CoRNix, the Royston Crow, pretty much resembles 
 the rook, feeding on insects, and flying together in great Hocks. In 
 England it is a bird of passage, visiting it in the beginning of win- 
 ter, and leaving it with the w oodcocks. 
 
 C. CoRON'E, the Carrion Crow, agrees with the raven, in the 
 form of its body, as well as in its food. It also eats grain and in- 
 jects ; and like the raven jjicks out the eyes of animals; whence 
 it was formerly distinguished from the rook, (which feeds enlircK 
 on grain and insects) by the name of the gor, or gor crow. 
 
 C Frugilegus, the Rook, is the corvus of Virgd ; no other 
 species of this genus being gregarious. It dififers not greatly in its 
 form from the carrion crow; the most remarkable dili'eren'cc is in 
 the nostrils and root of the bill ; which in the crow are well clothed 
 with feathers, but in the rook are bare, or covered only with some 
 bristly hairs. This arises from its thrusting the bill into the earth, 
 after "the worms and eruc:e of insects, on which itieeds ; for it does 
 not live on carrion. It feeds on all sorts of grain, with some loss 
 to the husbandman, but which is doubly repaid by the good done 
 him in extirpating th-e maggots of the chafer beetle, which in 
 some seasons destroy whole crops of corn by feeding on the roots. 
 The rook is a gregarious bird, sometimes being seen in inuiiense 
 flocks, so as almost to darken the air. These flights they regularly 
 perform morning and evening, except in breeding time^ when 
 Ihe daily atlendaiK'e of both male and female is recjuired for the 
 use of incubation, or feeding the young ; forthey do both by turns. 
 As they form themselves into societies, such places as they frequent 
 ■iluring the breeding time are called rookeries; and they'generallv 
 choose a large clump of the tallest trees for this purpose; bii^t 
 juake so great a litter, and such a perpetual chattering that nothing 
 but habit can reconcile one to the noise. The young birds are ac- 
 counted good eating, especiall}' if put in a pie. 
 
 C- Gi ANDARius, the Jay, is one of the most beautiful of British 
 birds. The weight is between six and seven ounces: tlie length 
 13 inches. The forehead is white streaked with black: the head 
 is covered with very long feathers, which it can erect at pleasure 
 into the form of a crest ; the whole neck, back, breast, belly, 
 and covert feathers of the wings, are faint purple dashed with grey. 
 See Plate XXXVIII. 
 
 C. Monedula, the Jack-daw, weighs nine ounces; and is 
 thirteen inches long and twenty-eight broad. The head is lar^e 
 in proportion to its body. The irides are white ; the breast and 
 ■belly are of a dusky hue inclining to ash colour; the rest of the 
 plumage is black, slightly glossed with blue ; the claws are very 
 atrong and hooked. It is docile and loquacious. Jack-daws breed 
 in steeples, old castles, and high rocks, laying live or six eggs. 
 -Sometimes tliey breed in hollow trees near a rookery, and join 
 lliose birds in their foraging parties. 
 
 C. Pica, the MACnii, is in length above eighteen inches, and 
 weighs eight or nme ounces. The bill h black; the irides are^ 
 hazel ; the scapulars, and all the under parts from the breast, 
 white; the rest ot the plumage, wings, and tail, black, glossed 
 With green, purple, and blue, in dillerent lights. They are un- 
 commonly beaulitul Ijirds. I\lr. Latham has been able to trace 
 this bird no farther S. than Italy, or N, than Sweden and Den- 
 mark. K is a cratty bird in every state, and if brought up young 
 becomes exceedingly familiar, and will talk, many "sentences, as 
 well as imitate every noise wilhm hearing, like a parrot, but not 
 so i)lain. 
 
 CORYBANTES, in antiquity, ])riests of Cybele, who danc^ 
 and capered to the sound ot tlutes, drums, &c. See Crotalum. 
 Catullus, in his poem called Atys, gives a beautiiul description of 
 them, respecting them as madmen. May.imus Tyrius says, that 
 those possessed with the spirit of the Corybantes, as soon as they 
 heard the sound of a liute, were seized with an enthusiasm, ancl 
 lost the use of their reason. And hence the Greeks used the word 
 •,io_!,S'a»T!iv, to corybanlize, to signify a [Jerson's being possessed with 
 a devil. 
 
 CORYBANTJCA, a festival held in Crete, in memory of the 
 Cor)bantes, who educated Jupiter when he was concealed in that 
 island from his father Saturn. 
 
 COR\ CEUM, in antiquity, that part of the gymnasium where 
 people undressed ; called a^so Apodyterium. 
 
 CORYCOMACHIA, among the ancients, was a sort of exer- 
 cise in which they puslied iorwsrds a ball, suspendet! from the 
 ceiling, and at its return either caught it \vith their hands, or suf- 
 fered it to meet their body. 
 
 CORYLl'S, the H azle : a genus of the polyandria order, and 
 monaxia class of plants ; natural order, Anu-ntatea-. Male calyx 
 nionophyllous, scale-like, trilid, and unillorous ; no corolla ; sta- 
 mina eight: female calyx diphyllous, lacerated; no corolla ; two 
 stales; an egg-shaped nut. 1 hree species. They are all of the 
 large shrub kind, hardy and deciduous ; and have si veral varieties 
 valuable for their nuts, as also for their variety in large wilder- 
 nesses and shrubbery work. 
 
 CORYMBIUiM, hi antiquity, an ornament of hair worn by 
 the women. Us torm was that of a corymbus. 
 
 CoRYMBiUM, in botany, a genus of the monogamia order, and 
 syngenesia class of plants ; natural order, Composila'. Calyx di- 
 phyllous, uniilorous, prismatical ; corolla nionopetalotis, regular. 
 Four species are found, natives of the Cape. 
 
 CORYMBUS, [Latin,] among the ancient botanists, was used 
 to express the bunches or clusters of berries of ivy : among-t mo- 
 dern botanists it is used tor a compound discous flower, whose 
 seeds are not pappous, or do not tly away in down ; such are the 
 liowers of daisies, and common marigold. 
 
 COR\ NOCARPUS, in botany, a genus of the monogynia 
 order, and pentandria class of plants. Calyx a pentaphjllous pe- 
 riantliium ; corolla hve-pelaled, roundish, erect ; anthera; erect, 
 oblong ; pericarpium a monospernunis turbinate clavated nut. 
 One species only is known, a native of New Zealand. 
 
 CORYPfIA, Mountain Palm, or Umbrella Tree, in bo- 
 tany, a genus of |)lants of the order Palma'. Corolla tripetalous ; 
 stamina six, with one pistil ; fruit a monospermous plum. There 
 are two species. 
 
 COR"\ PILENA, in ichthyology, a genus belonging to the or- 
 der of thoracici. Head sloping suddenly downwards, gill-mem- 
 brane with live rays; dorsal fin as long as the back, l here are 
 nineteen species, of which the principal is C. hippuris, the com- 
 mon coryphene. These fishes are commonly known by the name 
 ot dolphin, and appear in the Indian and Atlantic seas in immense 
 numbers, frequently follow ing in tin- wake of ships, and seizing 
 with extreme rapacity whatever is thrown from them at all appli- 
 cable for food. Indeed, occ;isionally, on their being ojiened, their 
 stomachs have been found to contain liaiil aiul indigestible sub- 
 stances, 'i'hese ridi are more esteemed, for beauty than delicacy 
 of taste. Thev arc taken on the coast of Hispuiiiola, Cuba, anci 
 the Bahama Islands. "See Plate LV. 
 
 CORYPfLEl'S, [from Mjf^j'i, Ihe top (if the head,] in the an 
 cient tragedy, was the chief or leader of the company that com- 
 posed the chorus. 
 
 CORZOLA, or CURSOLA, an island in the gulph of ^'e- 
 nice, divided iVom Ragusa in Dalmatia by a ikiitow strait. 
 
 COS, or COt)S, in ancic-nt geography, an islanu and town on 
 
 the
 
 COS 
 
 41 
 
 COS 
 
 tlie coast of Caria, in Asia, 15 miles W. of Halicaniassiis, and 100 
 ill loiiipass, called also Meropis. 
 
 COoClNOMAN'CY, [from « x->>"v»v, a sieve, and S p-tvT.-iK, 
 diviiw.tion,] tlie art of diviiiation by nicaiis of a -iicve. 
 
 C.'osciKOMAN'CY vvas iiSL'd, iiN apj-ears fioin Tlieocvilii*, to dis- 
 <-o\rr Ihf* secrets of kiinwii persons, as well as to f.r.doiit th-- iin- 
 Iviiown. Tlio sieve being siispLMided, after reliearsiii^ a fonmila ot 
 words, it was taivcii between two lingers oidy ; and tlie names 
 of tiie parties suspected repealed : he at whoie name the sieve 
 turned, trembled, or shook, v.as reputed gnilty of the evil in 
 ijus-siien. 
 4|i C'OSl'XANT, in geometry, Hie secant of an arch, whicli is 
 the com|)lement of ajiodier to i)0 degrees. See Trigonometry. 
 
 COstiK, a town of Egypt on tha coast of the Red Sea, 100 
 miles S. S. I'", of Suez. 
 
 COS EN AGE, in law, a writ that lies where the tresail, that is, 
 the tritavns, the fallier of llie be^ail, or great grandfather, being 
 seised in fee at liis deatli of certain lands or tenements, dic>; a 
 stranger enters, and abates ; then shall his heir have this writ 
 of cosenage ; the form of which see in I-'itzh. Nut. Br. fo- 
 lio 221. ^ 
 
 COSENING, inlaw, an offence whereby any thing is done 
 deceitfully, in or out of contracts, which canHot be fitly termed 
 by any especial name. In the civil law it is called stellionatus. 
 See Stellionate. 
 
 COSENZA, a town of Naples, the capital of Calabria Citra, 
 11 miles from the sea-coast. 
 
 COSEUS, a town of Asiatic Turkey, in the Arabian Irak, 80 
 miles S. of Bagdad. 
 
 COSIA Di Donna, a small island near the W. coast of Sar- 
 dinia. 
 
 COSINE, in geometry, the right sine of an arch, which is the 
 complement of another to 90°. See Trigonometry. 
 
 COSINISSA, a small island in the Srecian Archipelago. 
 
 COSLIACO, a town of Istria, \2 miles W. of St. Veit. 
 
 COSLIN, a towji of Germany, in Prussian Pomeraiiia, ISJ miles 
 E. of Colberg. 
 
 COSMEA, in botany, a genus of the syngenesiafrustr,;nea class 
 and order. Recei)tacle chaify ; seeds four-sided, with a two or 
 four-awned crown ; calyx double, each of them of one eight-part- 
 ed leaf. 
 
 COSMETIC, [from :'.3irju.;V,]any medirine or preparation which 
 renders the tkin soft and white, or helps to beautify and improve 
 the complexlion, as lip-salves, cold creams, ceruss, &c. 
 
 CO.SSilCAL, [_iii!7ij.i-A.:(,'] a term in astronomy, expressing one 
 of the poetical risings of a itar: thus, a star is said to rise cosmi- 
 cally, when it rises with the sun, or with that point of the ecliptic 
 in which the sun is at that time : and the cosmical setting is wlien 
 A star sets at the same time that the sun rises. 
 
 COSMOGONY, [5 xi<7^@-, and ", ym,] the rise or birdi of the 
 world ; the creation. A word frequently used to denote the 
 science of the formation of the universe. In our conjectures 
 about the formation of the world there are two principles 
 which we ought never to lose sight of. 1. That of creation; 
 for certainly matter could not give itself existence ; it must have 
 received it. 2. That of a supreme intelligence directing this 
 creation, and the arrangement of the parts of matter, in conse- 
 (juence of which this world was formed. See Creation and 
 Earth. 
 
 COSMOGRAPHY, [S x3o-,Lt@-, and ys^ifm.,] the description of 
 the world: or the science which teaches tiie construction, figure, 
 disposition, and relation of all the parts of the world, with the 
 manner of representmg ihem on a plain. Cosmography consists 
 chiefly of two parts: Astronomy, which shews the structure of 
 the heavens, and the disposition of the stars ; and Geography, 
 which shews those of the earth. See these articles. 
 
 COSMOLABE, [from 3 xj^iuo,-, world, and Xa^&vw, I take,] an 
 ancient mathematical instrument, serving to measure distances, 
 both in the heavens and on earth. The cosmolabe is in great 
 measure the same with the astrolabe. 
 
 COSMOLOGY, [from ix.iiri^®', world, and Sxoy©-, discourse,] 
 the science of the world in general. ThisWolfius calls general, 
 or transcendental cosmology, and has written a treatise on the sub- 
 ject, wherein he endeavours to explain how the world arises from 
 simple substances; and treats of the general principles of the mo- 
 
 VOL. 11. — NO. 58. * 
 
 88 
 
 dill cations of material diings, of the elenientsol liodii,?, of the laws 
 of motion, of the perfection of the world, and of the order anil 
 course of nature. 
 
 COSMOPOLITAN, or COSMOPOLITE, [' xiT,-.®., and'. 
 i:ci"/.i't-.i;,] a citizen of tiie world ; one who is at home in every place, 
 or who has no fi.xed living or place of abode. 
 
 (-OSNii, a town of t'rauce, in the department of Nicvrc, 
 miles S. of Paris. 
 
 COSPOUli, a town of Asia, in the kingdora of Affam. Lon. 
 92. 57. E. Lat. 24. in. N. 
 
 COSSACKS, a name given the people inliabiting the banks of 
 the rivers Dniepi-r and Don, near the ISIack Sea and borders of 
 1 urkey. '1 be word implies irregular troops of horse. These 
 peojile are divided into European and Asiatic Cossacks. The first 
 consist of the Zajiorog^-, who dwell below the cataract of tlie 
 Dnieper, some on the side next to Russia, and others on the oppo- 
 site side of the river; the lower and upper Cossacks ; the Bielo- 
 gorod Cossacks ; and a part of the Don Cossacks. The Asiatic 
 Cossacks are composed of the rest of the Don Cossacks, the Gre- 
 bia Cossacks, the Yaik Cossacks, and the western Calmucks, who 
 retiring from those that inhabited the south borders of Siberia un- 
 der Yaiuki Can, settled upon tlie Wolga, and are dependent 
 upon Russia. The Cossacks were known by that name ever since 
 A. D. 94S. They dwelt upon mount Caucasus, in the place now 
 called Cabardy ; and were reduced to the Russian dominion by 
 prince Mastislaw in the year 1021. 
 
 COSSAY, a province of Asia, in the N. of Ava. 
 
 COSSE BE Geniste, an order of knighthood inslitutod in 
 1234, by Louis IX. at his marriage with Margaret of Provence. 
 The motto on the collar was, exaltat huniilis. 
 
 COSSERANS, a late province of France, forming with Foix 
 the department of Arriege. 
 
 C0SSIMBA?:AU, a small city of Hiiidostan Proper, in Ben- 
 gal, 5 miles S. of Mooijhedabad. Lon. 85. 2'i. E. Lat. 2j 
 40. N. 
 
 COSTS, in law, imply the expences of a suit recovered by the 
 plaintilf, together witl> damages. Costs were not allowed by the 
 common law, the amercement of the vaiiquislied party being his 
 only punishment ; but they are given by statute. Costs are al- 
 lowed in chancery for failing to make answer to a hill exhibited, 
 or making an insufficient answer: and if a first answer be certified 
 by a master to be sufficient, the defendant 'u to pay 40*. ; 31. for 
 a second insufficient answer ; il. for a third. Szc. But if the an- 
 swet be reported good, the plaintiff shall pay the defendant 40j. 
 costs. 
 
 COSTARD, George, a clergyman of the church of England 
 and author of several learned works, was born about 1710 ; edu- 
 cated at VVadham college, Oxford ; and took the degree of M. A. 
 in 1733. He was first appointed curate of Islip, in Oxfordshire. 
 He published, in 1747, some " Observations on the Book of Job," 
 8vo. In 1750, Two Dissertations: 1. On the meaning of the 
 Word Kesitah, mentioned in Job, chap. xlii. ver. 11. 2. On the 
 Signification of the Word Hermes. In 1752, he published, in 
 8vo. at Oxford, " Dissertationes II. Critico-Sacra;, quatum prima 
 explicatur, Ezek. xiii. 18. Altera vero, 2 Reg. x. 22." In 1755, 
 he wrote a letter to Dr. Birch, which is preserved in the British 
 Museum, respecting the meaning of the phrased sphaira barbarica. 
 Some time after, he published a second edition of Dr. Hvde's 
 " Historia Religionis veterum Persarum, eorumcpie Magonmi ;" 
 whicli was printed, under his inspection, and with his corrections, 
 at the Clarendon Press at Oxford, 4to. in 1760. Mr. Costard's 
 extensive learning having now recommended him to the notice gf 
 Lord Chancellor Northington, he obtained, in June 1764, the 
 vicarage of Twickenham in Middlesex ; in which situation he con- 
 tinued till bis de;;th. In 1667, h« published in one vol. 4to.. 
 " The History of Astronomy," with its application to Geography,, 
 History, and Chronology ; occasionally exemplified by the 
 Globes. This work shews, " by a gradual deduction, at what 
 time, and by whom, tlie principal discoveries have been made in 
 geography and astronomy ; how each discovery has paved the 
 way to what followed ; and by what easy steps, through the revo- 
 lution of many ages, these very useful sciences have advanced 
 towards their present state of perfection." in 1778, he published 
 in Svo. " A Letter to Nathaniel Brassey Halhetl, Esq. contain- 
 ing some ReiJiiuks on his Preface to Uie Code of Goiloo Laws." 
 ^ This,
 
 C (> t 
 
 42 
 
 COT 
 
 This appears to have been the last of his publitalioiis. It contains 
 sonic critici-ms to invalidate the opinion whicli Mr. Ilalhed hud 
 conceived concerning. the great antiquity of theGcntoo laws; and 
 some argnnients ag;:inst a notion drawn from the observjition of 
 natural pha-noinena, that the world is far more ancient than it is 
 represented to be by the Hebrew chroJiology. Mr. Cojtard died 
 Jan. 10, IT'di. He was a man of uncommon learning;, and emi- 
 nently skilled m Grecian and oriental literature. His private cha- 
 racter was amiable, and he was much respected for l;is humanity 
 and benevolence. He wrote some other works, besides several 
 learned jiapers, inserted in the Philosophical Transactions, on as- 
 tronomical and chronological subjects. 
 
 COS'l'A RICA, p. e. the rich coa'-t,] a province of New Spain, 
 in the audience of Gnatinvala, so called from its rich mines of gcild 
 and silver, those of Tinsigal being preferred by the Spaniards to 
 llie mines of I'otosi ; but in otlier respects, it is niountainoius and 
 b*Tcn. It is bounded by the province of Veragua on the S. E. 
 find that of the Nicaragua on the N. E. 
 
 COSTIVENESS, hi medicine, a retention of the excrements, 
 accompanied with an unusual hardness and dryness, so as to ren- 
 der tlie evacuations difficult, and sometimes painful. Sedentary 
 persons are peculiarly liable to this complaint, especially those of 
 sanguineous and clioleric temperaments ; or who are subject to 
 hypochondriac affections, the gout, acute fevers, and bilious dis- 
 Crders. See Medicine. 
 
 CO.STUME, a rule in painting, by which the artist is enjoined 
 to make everv person and thing sustain its pro])er character, and 
 not only observes the story, but the circumstances, the scene of 
 action, the country or place ; and takes care that the habits, arms, 
 manners, proportions, and the like, exactly coiTcspor.d. 
 
 COS'I't'S, in botany, a genus of the monogynia order, and 
 munaiKlria class of plants ; natural order, Scitamiiaca;. Corolla 
 inferior, inflated, ana ringcnt, « ith the other lip tritid. Four spe- 
 cies.are known, natives of the Eabt and M est Indies. 
 
 COTABAMBO, a territory of South America, in Pern, Go 
 miles S. W. of Cusco. It abounds in grain, fruits, and cattle. Its 
 rich mines are now almost exha\isted. 
 
 COTANGENT, in geometry, the tangent of an arch which 
 is the complement of another of ninety degrees. See Trigomo- 
 
 METRY. 
 
 COTE, or EA COTE, one of the most beautiful, rich, aud 
 populous districts of the Helvetic republic, in the Pays de Vaud, 
 about 15 miles long, near the lake of C^eneva. 
 
 Cote, in coursing, the advantage one greyhound lias over ano- 
 ther when he runs by the side of it, and, putting before it, gives 
 the hare a turn. See Hunting. 
 
 Cote d'Or, [;'. e. gold coast,] a department of France, 
 bounded by those of Aube on tlie N. I'pper Marne on (he N. E. 
 I'ppcr Saone on the E. Jurr on the S. E. Saone and Eoire on the 
 S. and Nievie and Yonue »n the W. It is chielly formed out of 
 the late province of Burgundy. Dijon is the capital. 
 
 COTEAUX, atown'of St. Domingo. 
 
 COTE-GAKE, a kind of lel'use wool, so clung or clotted to- 
 gether that it cannot be pulled asunder. 
 
 COTERELLUS, and COTARIl'S, according to Spelman 
 and Du Fresne, are servile tenants; but in Doomsday and other 
 ancient MSS. there appears a distinction, as well in their tenure 
 and quality as in their name ■ for the cotarius had a free soccage 
 tenure, anil paitl a stated lirm or rent in provisions or money, with 
 some occasional customary services; whereas the coterelkis seems 
 to have held in mere villenage, and his person, issue, and goods, 
 were dispo^alile at tlie pleasure of the lord. 
 
 COTERIE, a term adopted from the French trading associa- 
 tions or partnerships, where each person advances in quota of slock, 
 and receives his proportion of grain ; and which retains its origi- 
 nal meaning when applied to little assemblies or (•onipanics asso- 
 ciated for miilh and good humour, wliere each one furnishes his 
 quota of pleasantry. 
 
 COTES, RoGKR, an excellent mathematician of the IRth cen- 
 tury. At seventeen years of age he was admitted a pensioner of 
 Trinity college, Cambridge. In 1706 he was appointed professor 
 of aflronomv in the profes5orshi|) founded by Dr. Plume, being 
 <he first in that chair. In 1713, he published at Cambridge in 
 i!(o. u second edition of " Newton's Principia," with all the au- 
 thor's improvements ; to wliich he prelixed an excellent Preface 
 
 Heprepared several useful books for the public ; and w rote " A 
 Description of the Crieat Meteor which appeared on the OtU 
 March !716," published i;i the Philosophical Transactions. He 
 died in the prime of his age in 1716, to the great regret of all the 
 lovers of ihe sciences. 
 
 Cotes du Nori), orj The North Coasts, a department of 
 France, so named from its situation; bounded on the N. by the 
 British chiMinel ; on the E. by tlie department of llle and Vilaine ; 
 and on the S. and E. by those of Morbilian and Fini-tcrre. 
 
 COTESIAN Theorem, in geometry, an appellation used for 
 an elegant property of the circle discovered by Mr. Cotes. The 
 theorem is this ; 
 
 c c 
 
 If the factors of the binonVial a -\- x be required, the index c 
 
 m 
 
 being an integer number. With the centre O, (Plate LI. fig. C,) 
 and radius AO = o, describe a circle, and divide its circumfer- 
 ence into as many equal parts as there are units in 2c, at the 
 points A, B, C, D, Src: then in the radius, ];roduced if necessary, 
 take OP =3- ; and irom the point P, to all the uoints of division 
 in the circumference, draw the lines, PA, PB, 1 C, &c. ; so shall 
 these lines taken alternately he the factors sough.t : viz.- 
 
 PB X PD X PF kc.t=a + r, 
 
 c c .^ c c c c 
 
 and PA x PC X PF &c. = a vt x , \*i2f/''fi '-ii- .r , or x — a , 
 accoiding as the point P is within or witliout the circle. 
 
 For instance, if c = 5, di\ ide the circumference into 10 equal 
 parts, and the points being within the circie, then will 
 OA''-|- U\'-= HP X DP X KP X HP X KP, 
 
 and OA' — OP'' = AP X CP x EP x GP x IP. 
 
 In like mander, iff =::6, haviiig divided the circumference into 
 twelve equal parts, tlien will ' ' 
 
 OA'i-fOP«=BPx DP X FP X HPx KP x MP, 
 DA'S — OP'i^APx CP X EPx GPx IP x LP. 
 
 The demonstration of this theorem may he seen in Dr. Pem- 
 berton's Epist. de Cotesii Inventis. See also Dr. Smith's Tlieo- 
 remata Logometrica et Trigonometrica, added to Cotes's Harm. 
 Mens, pa^e 114; De Moivre Mi^cel. Analyt. page 17; and 
 Waring's Letter to Dr. Powell, page .Si*. 
 
 By means of this theorem, the author made a farther progress in 
 the inverse method of fluxions than had been done before. But 
 in the application of his discovery there still remained a limitation, 
 which was removed by M. DeinoiM'e. 
 
 COTHEN, a town of Germany in Upper Saxony, the capital 
 of Anhalt Cothen, l" miles S. W. of Dessau. 
 
 C OTHIBEB, a town of Africa in .Morocco. 
 
 COTHURNI'S, the BusxiN, is said to have been invented 
 by TEsckvlus. See Buskin. 
 
 'COTl'iUSE, COTBUS, or COTUITZ, atownof Gerfnany 
 in Lower I.usatia, fiO miles S. by E. of Berlin. 
 
 COTICE, or COTISE, in heraldry, is the 4th p?rt of the 
 bend ; which with us is seldom or never borne, but in couples, with 
 a bend between them. A bend thus bordered is said to be 
 coticed. 
 
 COTPUTLY, atown of Hindostan, in Mewat, 8 miles S. S. 
 W. of Delhi. 
 
 COTT, a sort of bed-frame, suspended from the beams of a 
 shi|) for the oflicers to sleep in between the decks. It is much 
 more convenient at sea than cither the hammocks or fixed cabins ; 
 being a large piece of canvas sewed into the form of a chest, about 
 six feet long, one deep, and from two to three wide. It is ex- 
 tended by a square wooden frame with a canvas bottom, equal to 
 its lenijth and breadth, to retain it in an horizontal position. 
 
 COTTAGE, [c'Atagiiim,'] in law, is pro))erly a little house 
 fur habitation without lands belonging to it ; stat. 4. Edw. I. But 
 by a latt(T statute, 31 Eliz. c. 7, no man may build a cottage unless 
 he lay four acres of land thereto ; unless in market-towns or cities, 
 or within a mile of the sea, or for the habitation of laboiirers in 
 mines, sailors, foresters, shepherds, &c. and cottages erected !>▼ 
 orders of justices of peace for poor impotent people are excepted 
 out of tilt" statute. The four acres of land, to make it a legal cot- 
 tage, must be a freehold, and land of inheritance. Four acres 
 liolden by copy, or for life 'or lives, or for any number of years, 
 arc not suliicient. 
 
 COTTILAH,
 
 OT 
 
 43 
 
 COT 
 
 t:OTTILA!I, a town of Himlostan, in Mewat ; S2 miles S. oi 
 Delhi. 
 
 COTTON, [named, according to Skinner, from tlie down 
 llial adlioies t>) the mala cotnnca, or quince, called by the Italians 
 cotov;!!! ;"] in commerce, soft downy subslanc(! found on the gos- 
 • vpinni, or cotton-tree. See Gossvpium. The (i nest sort comes 
 from Bengal an.i Coromandel. C'otton makes a very considera- 
 ble article in commerce, and is distinguished into cotton wool and 
 cotton thread. Cotton wool used in Britain is brought mostly trom 
 the West India plantations : the most esteemed is white, lont;, and 
 soft. Those who buy it in bales should see that it has not been 
 wet, moisture being very prejudicial to it. Of cotton thread, 
 that of Damas, called cotton d'ounce, and that of Jerusalem, call- 
 ed baza.s, are the most esteemed; as also that of the West India 
 islands. It is to be chosen white, line, very dry, and evenly 
 spun. The other cotton threads are the half bazas, the r.inies, the 
 heledin, and gondezcl ; the payas and niontasiri, the geneguins, 
 the baquins, the josselassars, of whicli there are two sorts. Cot- 
 ton \< separated from the seeds of the plant bv a mill, and then 
 spun and prepared for all sorts of line works, as stockings, waist- 
 coals, quilts, tapestry, curtains, &c. Muslin is also made of it, 
 and sometimes it is mixed with wool, sometimes with silk, and 
 even with gold itself. The cotton manufacture consists of various 
 branches, and reijuires much machinerv. 
 
 CorTo.s', Carding of, as a preparation for spinning, used for- 
 merly to be performed by the hand, with a pair of single cards 
 upon the knee : but this being a tedious method, ill-suited to the 
 rapid operations ot the new spinning macliines, other methods 
 were contrived tor alfording a quicker and more adequate supply. 
 The first improvement for'tliis pur|)Ose was made by Mr. James 
 Ilargrave, weaver, near Blackluirn, in Lancashire, and consisted 
 in applying two or three cards to the same board, and fixing them 
 to a stool or stock ; whaiict they obtained the name of stock cards. 
 W itli these, one woman could perform two or three times as much 
 work as she could do before in the common way. A still more 
 ex))cdilious method of carding, however, by what are commonly 
 called cylinder cards, was soon afterwm'ds invented, and is that 
 wliich is now most conmionlv practised. 
 
 Cotton Mills are large buildings with peculiar machinerv for 
 carding, roving, and spinning cotton. These were entirely un- 
 known in this country before the different inventious and iinp'rove- 
 nients of Messrs. Arkwright and Harsrave; since which time 
 great numbers have been erected in England, and several in Scot- 
 land. The first erections of the kind were bv Messrs. Arkwright 
 and Ilargrave, both in the town of No!tinglia"m, and both nearly 
 at the same time. The engines were then driven bv horses : but 
 since that time tliey have been chieflv erected upon' water-falls in 
 different parts of the country, parlicidarlv the warp macliines, 
 whicli are belter adapted for being driven bj" water than anv other. 
 The mo^t extensive of lliese is in the village and neighbourhood of 
 Cromford in Derbyshire, and till verv latelv.under the immediate in- 
 spection of Sir lucharil Arkwright. The lirs't that was erected in Scot- 
 land was for Mr. Peter Brotherston, under the inspection and direc- 
 tion of .Mr.JohnHackett froniNoftingham ; and is in tlie neijlibour- 
 liood of Pennycuick near Edinburgh. Since which time'several 
 have been erected in the neighbourhood of Glasgow, Paisley, La- 
 nark, Perth, cScc. ^ 5 ' .>' 
 
 Cotton Spinning is the art or process of reducing cotton 
 wool into yam or thread. The most simple method for this pur- 
 pose, and the only one in use for a long time in this country, was 
 by the hand upon the well known domestic machine called a one- 
 thread wheel. But as tiie demand for cotton goods beaan to in- 
 crease, other inventions were thought of for expediting^'this part 
 of the manutactiire. About GO years ago, one Paul and others of 
 London contrived an engine for a more easy and expeditious me- 
 thod of spinning cottoji, and for which they obtained a patent ; but 
 the imdertaking did not prove successful." Some years thereafter, 
 various machines were constructed bv different persons for facili- 
 tating the spinning of cotton; but without producing anv very 
 material or lasting advantage. At length, about 1767, Mr. Har- 
 grave, constructed a machine by whicii a great number of threads 
 (from twenty to eighty) might be spun at once, and for which he 
 obtained his. Majesty's letters patent. This machine is called a 
 Jenny, and is ihe best contrivance for spinning woof or shute that 
 Las hitherto appeared. It is now cemmonlv constructed for 84 
 
 threads; and with it one person can spin !0n English hanks in the 
 dav, each hank containing 840 yards. Tlie most capital imjirove- 
 ments which this branch of manufacture received were from Mr. 
 alterwards Sir Richard Arkwright, a native of Lancashire, and long 
 a resident at Cromford in Derbyshire. He first brought forward 
 his new method of spinning cotton in 17f>8, for wliich he obtained 
 a patent in 1709 ; he alterwards, in 1775, obtained a patent lor en- 
 gines which he had constructed to prepare the materials for spin- 
 ning : though one of these patents, being challenged at law, was 
 set aside some years before it expired. The result of Mr. Ark- 
 wri^hl's different inventions and improvements is a combination 
 of maciiinery, by which cotton is carded, roved, and spun, with 
 the utmost exactnc:s and equality ; and such a degree of perfec- 
 tion attained in spinning warp, as is not to be equalled i(i any other 
 part of the world. '1 o these improvements this country is entirely 
 indebted for the great extent of its cotton manufactures ; large- 
 buildings have been erected for that branch both in England and 
 Scotl.uid, many of which contain several thousands ol spindles, 
 each driven by one or more large water-wheels ; and some of such 
 extent as to spin at the rate of 1000 yards of twist or warp yarn in 
 the minute. Other machines have been invented at dilferent 
 times, and a variety of improvements made by different mechanics 
 and manufacturers ; one of which in particular we must not omit 
 to mention. It is called a Mule, being a kind of mixture of ma- 
 chinery between the warp machine ot Mr. Arkwriglit and woof 
 machine or hand-jenny ol Mr. Ilargrave ; and was also invented 
 in Lancashire. Ihis machine bids lair to be of great use in spin- 
 ning cotton yarn for muslins to a degree of iineness never before 
 known in this country, being nearly equal to those usually brought 
 from India. 
 
 Cotton, State of the Manufacture of. The facilities 
 which the manufacturers of Great J5ritain had sudf'enly acquired, 
 and the immense capitals which they have so recentK laid out in 
 expensive machinery and other heavy establishments for carrying 
 on the cotton trade, are unparallcleU in the annals of the world. 
 A multitude of cotton mills are now built in Great Britain, of which 
 the greater part have been erected within these 30 years. Be- 
 sides these, there are above 20,j00 hand-mills or jennies for spin- 
 ning the shute for tlie twisted ) am spun by the water mills. Above 
 a million of money was, witlini this time, sunk in mills, hand-en- 
 gines, and other machines, and a power createil of working nearly 
 two millions ot spindles; and men, women, and children, were train- 
 ed to this business, capable of carrying the cotton manufacture 
 almost to any extent. In the branches applicable to muslin and 
 calico, it was calculated that employment was given to 100,000 
 nien and women, and at least (50,000 children. The quantity of 
 the raw material of cotton wool consmiied in this manufacture, 
 which did not amount to t),000,000 lb. in 1781, and was only 
 about 11,000,000 lb. in 17S4, had amounted in the year 1787 to 
 the enoraioiis height of 22,000,000 lb. and upwards;' and the as- 
 tonishing rapidity of this increase is in some me.asure to be attri- 
 buted to the extension of these branches to the goods of India, 
 particularly the calicoes and muslins. British calicoes were fii-st 
 made in ijancashire about the year 1772, but the [irogress wa* 
 slow till within these last thirty years, ihe quantity manufac- 
 tured has since extended from about 50,000 to 1,000,000 of pieces 
 made in the course of a single year. British muslins were not 
 successfully introduced until the year 178 1, and were carried to 
 no great extent until 178."), alter which period the progress during 
 two years became rapid beyond all exiimple. The acquisition of 
 cotton wool of a superior quality from Demerara and the Brazils, 
 and the improvemeuts made in the spinning tine yarns upon the 
 mule jennies, had given a spring to this branch of the cotton manu- 
 factory, which extended it beyond what it was posslbU- to have 
 conceiveil. Not only the quantity of good* manufactured in 
 Great Britain have increased daily with the new accession of powers, 
 but the quality have bean exceedingly improved ; and a yearly 
 supply oi about 300 bides of East India cotton have been ob- 
 tained, yarns spun, and muslins wove, equal to any from India. 
 Nothing, therefore, but a fine raw material appeared wanting to 
 enable tlie British manufacturer to carry this branch to the greatest 
 extent, and the utmost peilection of whi'ch it is capable. East India 
 cotton wool has been spun into one pound of yarn worth five gui- 
 neas ; and when wove inio musliu, and afterwards "^irnameuted br 
 children in the tambour, has extend. J to the value oi 15/. ; yield-
 
 COT 
 
 44 
 
 COT 
 
 ing a return of 5,900 per cent, on the raw material. But the 
 
 state of the raw materials, and the progressive and astonishing 
 increase of this manufacture, will be best understood by what 
 follows : 
 
 Cotton IVaol used in Suppnied I'alue v.hc ii . 
 
 thf, Mmiifacture. ninnuj'actnrcd. 
 
 1781 ft 5,101,9J0 I.'_',000,000 
 
 17S3 Il,206,Sin 3,900,01.1) 
 
 1783 9,->46,l79 S,200,onrt 
 
 1784 n,280,'i3S 3,950,000 
 
 1785 I7,99-',SS8 6,000,000 
 I7St> 19,151,867 6,500,000 
 1787 '."i.OOO.OOO 7,500,000 
 
 In June, 1796, a patent was granted to Mr. Robert Miller, 
 falico-priiiter, DunibavtonMiiie, Scotland, for a nictl.od of weav- 
 ing all kinds of cotton, liiien, and worsted-cloths, by means of 
 looms worked bv water ; and which may be fartlier facilitated by 
 steam-engines, horses, or any other power: the weaving is per- 
 formed at considerably less 'expence, and more expeditiously, 
 than it can bo accomplished by the hands of weavers; the cloth 
 thus woven is of a more regular texture, and superior to that 
 wrought by the hand. But, as this patent relates purely to a 
 mechanical operation, solely calculated for niaiuifacturers, we re- 
 fer the reader to the eighth vol. of the "Repertory of Arts and 
 Manufactures." Fnrtlier improvements have lately lifen made 
 in tlie manufacturing of this important article by the application of 
 steam, Ike. 'I'he utility of cotton is not merely conlined to the 
 manufacture of dirterent cloths: it is also capable of being con- 
 verted into liats and paper. F-Nporinients have shewn, that, if 
 raw cotton be beaten to a suflicient degree, and then rc'luced to a 
 proper pulp, it will produce a smootli, strorig, white paper, little 
 mferior in texture to that commonly made of linen rags. 
 
 Cotton, Sir Robert, a most eminent Engli^h antiquarian, de- 
 scended from an ancient family, was born in 1570. In his 18th 
 year he began to collect ancient records, charters, and other MSS. 
 Camden, Selden, and Speed, acknowledged their obligations to 
 him in their respective works. He was higldy distinguished by 
 queen Elizabeth, and by James T. who created him a baronet. lie 
 wrote many things himself ; but our principal obligations to him 
 are for his valuable library, consisting of curious MSS. &c. which 
 be was 40 years in collecting. At his death, in Ui3l, he left the 
 property of it to his family, though designed for public use. A 
 large accession was made to this library by private benefactions be- 
 fore the death of the founder, and atterwards by the purchases of 
 Ms heirs, and donations of others, who added to it a great num- 
 ber of books, chietly relating to the history and antiquities of 
 Britain. An act of parliament was obtained, at the request of Sir 
 John Cotton, in 1700, for preserving it after his decease, under 
 the denomination of the Cottonian Library, for public use. It 
 is now fixed in the British Museum. For statutes relating to it, 
 see 12 and 13 William III. cap. 5, and 5 Anne, cap. 30. 
 Cotton Weed, a species of Filago. 
 
 COTTUS, the Bull-head, in ichthyology, a genus of fishes 
 of the order thoracic!. Head broader than the body, spiny ; 
 eyes vertical and supplied with a nictitating membrane ; gill mem- 
 brane, of six rays ; body round, without scales, tapering towards 
 the tail ; dorsal tins generally two. There are ten species, of 
 which tlie principal is C. gobio, the river bull- head. This is 
 about five inches long when full grown, is found in almost every 
 part of Europe in clear streams, and conceals itself under a stone, 
 or in the gravel. Its food consists of worms, aquatic insects, and 
 extremely young fish. The mailed bull-head, .-r C. cataphractus, 
 is found in abundance in the seas of Europe. For a representation 
 of it see Plate LV. 
 
 COTULA, in botany, May-weed ; a genus of the polygamia 
 •uperflua order, and syngenesia class of plants. Receptacle al- 
 most naked ; pappus marginated ; florets of the disc (|uadrifid ; of 
 the radius frequently none. There are fifteen species, all herba- 
 ceous annuals. 
 
 CoTULA, or CoTYLA, a liquid measure in use ainong the an- 
 cients. Fannins says, the cotyla was the same thing with the he- 
 mina, which was half a sextary. 
 
 COTUY, a canton and town in the Spanish part of the island 
 of kit. Domingo. 
 
 COTYLEDON. A seed consists of three parts : viz. the co- 
 tyledons, the radicle, and the plumula, which are usually inclosed 
 in a cover. If we take a garden bean, we may perceive each of 
 tliese three parts with great ease ; for this seed is of so large a size, 
 that all its organs are exceedingly distinct. When we strip off llie 
 external coats of tlie bean, which are two, we tind that it easily di' 
 vides into two lobes, pretty nearly of the same size and ligurt. 
 Each of these lobes is called a cotyledon. Tlie cotyledons of the 
 bean, then, are two in nuudjer. See Botakv. 
 
 Cotyledon, Naval Wort ; a genus of the pentagynia order, 
 and deeandria class of pUnits ; iratutal order, Succulentx. Calyx 
 qiiinquehd ; corolla monopetalous ; there are hve nectarifercus 
 scales at the base of the gernien ; capsules five. There are nine- 
 teen -species, most of them hardy succulent perennials ; natives 
 chietlv of the Cape. 
 
 CdTYLEDONES, in anatomy., are certain glandular bodice, 
 adiiering to the chorion of some animals. 
 COTYTTIA, the festivals of Cotytto. 
 
 CO I Y TTO, the goddess of all debauchery. Her festival* 
 were celebrated by tlie Alheniiins, Corinthians, Thracians, &c. 
 iluring the night. Her priests were called bapla', and notliipg 
 but debauchery and wantonness prevailed at the celebration. 
 
 COI'CII, in painting, denotes a lay, or impression of colour, 
 whether in oil or water, wherewith the painter covers his canvas, 
 wall, wainscot, or other surface to be painted. 
 
 Couc:h is also used for a lay or impression on any thing, to 
 make it firm and consistent, or to screen it from the weather^ 
 Paintings are covered with a couch of varnish; a canvas to be 
 painted must first liave two couches of size, before the colours be 
 laid ; two or three couches of white lead are laid on wood, before 
 the coucli of gold is applied. 
 
 COUCIIA-HOTUN, a town of Asia, in Thibet, 270 miles 
 S. S. W. ot Tourfan. 
 
 COUCHANT, in heraldry, is understood of a lion, or other 
 beast, when lying down, but with his head raised ; which distin- 
 guishes the posture of couchant from dormant, wherein he is sup- 
 posed quite stretched out and asleep. 
 
 C;OUCHE, in heraldry, denotes any thing lying along: thus, 
 chevron-couche, is a chevron lying sideways, with the two ends 
 on each side of the shield, which should properly rest on the 
 base. 
 
 COUCHER, or COURCHER, in our statutes, is used for 
 a factor, or one that continues in some place or country for traf- 
 fic ; as formerly in Guscoigne, for the buying of wines. Anno 
 37 Evlw. 111. c' 16. 
 
 Colic her is also used for the general book in which any religious 
 house or corporation register their particular act.. Anno 3 and 
 4 Edw. VI. c. 10. 
 
 COUCHES, a town of France, in the department of Saoneaud 
 Loire, 12 miles E. S. E. of Autun. 
 
 COUCHGRASS. SeeTRiTicuM. i 
 
 COUCHING OF A Cataract, in Surgery. See Surgery. 
 COUCO, a country of jVfrica, in Algiers, governed by an in- 
 dependent chief. It is mountainous, but fertile, and lies between 
 Algiers and Boujeiah. 
 
 COUCOUK-HOTUN, a town of Thibet, 210 miles W. of 
 Tourfan. 
 
 COVENANT, in ecclesiastical history, denotes a contract or 
 convention agreed to by the Scots in 1633 for maintaining their 
 religion free Irom innovation. In 1581, the general assembly of 
 Scotland drew up a confession of faith, or national covenant, con- 
 demning episcopal government, under the name of hierarchy, which 
 was signed bv .lames 1. and which he enjoined on all bis subjects. 
 It was again subscribed in 1590 and 1596. 4'he subscription was 
 renew ed in 1638, and the subscribers engaged by oath to maintain 
 religion in the same state as it was in 1580, and to reject all innovations 
 introduced since that time. This oath annexed to the confession 
 of faith received the name of the covenant: as those who subscribed 
 to it were called covenanters. 
 
 Covenant, in law, is the agreement of two or more persons to 
 do, or not do, some act, or thing, contracted between them. Also 
 it is the declaration the parties make, that they will stand to such 
 agreement, relating to lands or other things : and is created by 
 deed in writing, sealed and executed by the parties, or otherwise 
 it may be implied iu the coiHract thereto, ^nd if the persons do 
 
 not
 
 cor 
 
 45 
 
 cou 
 
 not iicrl'oiin tlicir covpnaats, a \i rit or at lien of lovfiiant i, tlic 
 remedy to recover daiuages tor llic bieacli ot tliem. 
 
 CovtN.iMT, in theology, is niucli used in coiuiectioii with otiier 
 terms; a^, 
 
 1. Covenant of Guace is tliat which is made between God 
 andthosewlio believe the gospel, whereby they decLre their sub- 
 jection to him, and he declares his acceptance of them and favour 
 to them. 'I'he gospel is sometimes denominated a covenant of 
 grace, in opposition to the Mosaic law. 
 
 2. Covenant of REDtMPXioN denotes a mutual stipulation, 
 tacit or e^.press, between Christ and the Father, relating to the re- 
 demption of sinners l)y hini, previous to any act on ChnsL's part 
 under the character of Mediator. 
 
 3. Covenant of Work-, signines, in the language of many di- 
 vines, a covenant whereby God recpiires perfect obedience from his 
 creatures, in such a manner as to make no express provision for the 
 pardon of ollences to be committed against the precej)ts of it, oii 
 tlie repentance of such supposed offenders, but pronounces a sen- 
 tence of death upon them : such, they say, was the covenant made 
 with Adam in a state of innocence, and that made with Israel at 
 Motmt Sinai. 
 
 Covenant. See Solemn I.EAcrE. 
 
 Covenant, Ark of the. See Ark. 
 
 COVENTRY, an ancient citv of England in Warwickshire, 
 supposed to derive its name from a convent formerly situated in it. 
 Coventry sends two members to parliament ; and lies 91 miles N. 
 N. W. of London. Lon. 1. 30. W. l.at. J3. 23. N. 
 
 COVERS ED Sine, in geometry the remaining part of the 
 diameter of a circle, alter the verseci sine is taken from it. See 
 Trigonometry. 
 
 COVERT WAY, in fortification, a space of ground level with 
 the tield, on the eilge of the ditch, three or four fathoms broad, 
 ranging quite round the half-moons, or other works toward the 
 country. See Fortification. 
 
 COVERTURE, in law, is applied to the state and condition of 
 a married woman, who is under the power of her husband, and 
 therefore called femrae coverte ; and disabled to contract with anv 
 person to the detriment either of herself or husband, without his 
 consent and privity ; or allowance and continuation thereof. 
 
 COIiGH, in farriery. See Farriery. 
 
 Cough, in medicine. See Medicine. 
 
 COVIN, COVIN E, a deceitful agreement between two or 
 wiore, to the hurt o; another. 
 
 COUL,orCOWL. See Cowl. 
 
 COULAM, a town of Hindostan, on the S. coast; 15 miles 
 N'. E. of Cape Comorin. 
 
 COULONS, a town of France, in the department of Loiret, 
 seven miles S. \V. of Gien. 
 
 COULTER, in husbandry, an iron-instrument, fixed in the 
 beam of a plough, and serving to cut the edge of each furrow. 
 Sec Plough. 
 
 COUNCIL, [concilium, Lat.l in church history, an assembly 
 of prelates and doctors, met for the regulating of matters relating to 
 the doctrine or discipline of the church. These are either Na- 
 tional or General. 
 
 Council, Common, in the city of London, is a court wherein 
 arc made all by-laws which bind the citi/ens. It consisis like the 
 parliament, of two houses ; an upper one composed of the lord 
 mayor and aldermen ; and a lower, of a number of common coun- 
 cil men, chosen by the several wards, as representatives of the body 
 of the citizens. 
 
 Council, National, is an assembly of prelates of a nation 
 under their primate or patriarch. 
 
 Council, Oecumenical, or General, is an assembly which 
 represents the whole body of the universal church. The Roman- 
 ists reckon 18 of them ; liuUingcr, in his Treatise ile Conciliisti; 
 Dr. Prideaux, and bishop Beveridge 8, wliich, he says, are all 
 the general councils which have ever been held since the time of 
 the first Christian emperor. They are as follows: 1. The council 
 of Nice, held in the reign of Constantine the Great, on account of 
 the heresy of Arius. 2. 'I'he council of Constantinople, called 
 under the reign and by the command of Theodo^ius the Gre.at, 
 for much the same end that the former council was summoned. 
 3. The council of Ephesus, convened by Theodosius the younger 
 *t the suit of Nestorius. 4. The council of Chalcedon, held in the 
 
 VOL. It. — NO. 18. 
 
 ri-ign of Martianus, whiih apjiroved o( the J'.utychian hereby. 5. 
 Ihe second council of Coi:-.lantinople, assembled by thi' einpi.rnr 
 Justinian, condenined the three ch.ipleri takm <;ul of the book of 
 Theodorus of Mupsuestia, having hr,l detidcii thai it was lawful to 
 an.ithcmatize the dead. Some authors leilu;, that tliuv liku\vi>e 
 condemned the several errors of Origen about the Trinity, the 
 plurality of worlds, and pre-exislence of souls. (>. 'i'he third 
 council of Constantinople, hehl by the comniand of Constanlius 
 Pogonatus t!ie emperor, in which they rectived the deluiilions of 
 Ihe iive first general councils, and pailicularly that against Orison 
 aud Theodorus of Mopsueslia. 7. The second Nicene council. 
 S. 1"he fourth council of Constantinople, assembled when Lou i» 
 II. was emperor of tlie West. 1"heir regulations are contained in 
 27 canons, t!ic heads of which are set down by M. du Pin, to 
 whom the reader is referred. 
 
 Council OF Ancients, the senior branch of the legislative 
 body of the French republic, according to the co-'stitution of 1795. 
 It consisted of 250 members; of whom 12C were to be present at 
 a sitting before they could deliberate. 'I'heir exclusive privilege 
 was to approve or reject the propositions of the Council of Five 
 Hundred. No proposition of a law could originate in the Council 
 of Ancients. Each member was to be above 40 yeai's of age ; 
 either married or a widower; be possessed of sonif property, ami 
 have resided in the territory of the republic for 15 years previous 
 to his election, unless sent out of it on the business of Ihe nation. 
 
 Council of Five IluNDKEn, the junior branch of the French 
 legislature, was invariably fixed by the constitution of 1705, to 
 consist of 500 members. To this council belonged exclusively 
 the privilege of ])roi)Osing laws. Each member was to be 30 years 
 of age; po.isessed of some real property, and must have resided 
 within the republic for 10 years previous to his election. I'hey 
 could not deliberate unless 200 members were present. The mcmberi 
 of both councils were chosen by the citizens in the electoral assem- 
 blie.^. One third went out annually, and their places were tilled 
 up by new members, elected between the 20th and 30th of Ger- 
 minal. Old members were not to be re-elected till they had been 
 two years out of the legislative body. Each council chose a 
 president and secretary monthly. Both councils resided always in 
 the same commune. 'Ihis council was dissolved by Napoleon 
 Bonaparte, Nov. 9, 1799, preparatory to his being elected first 
 consul of the Freni h republic. 
 
 Council of War, an assembly of principal officers of an army 
 or fleet, occasionally called liy the general or admiral to concert 
 measures for their conduct with regard to sieges, retreats, engage- 
 ments, k.r. 
 
 Councils, King's. In Great Britain, the law, in order to as- 
 sist ihe king in the discharge of his duties, the maintenance of his 
 dignity, and Ihe exeition of his prerogative, has assigned him a 
 diversity of councils to advise with, viz. 1. The high court of 
 parliament. See Parliament. II. The peers of the realm are 
 l)y their birth hereditary counsellors of the crown ; and may be 
 called together bv the king, to give their advice in all matters of 
 importance to the realm, either in time of parliament, or, which 
 has been their principal use, when there is no parliament. Acconl- 
 ingly, Biacton, speaking of the nobility of his time, says, they 
 might properly be called " consules a consulendo; reges emni 
 tales sibi associant ad consulendwm." And in the law books, it is 
 laid down, that th.e peers are created for tuo reasons : 1. Ad con- 
 si'lendiini. '2. AA defendendum regem : for which reasons the law 
 gives them certain great and high privileges ; such as freedom from 
 arrests, even when no parliament is sitting; because the law sup- 
 poses that they are always assisting the king with their counsel tor 
 • he common-wealth, or keeping the realm in safety by their prowess 
 and valour. Instances of conventions of tiie jjeers, to advise the 
 king, have been in former times very frequent ; though now fallen 
 into disuse, by reason of the more regular meetings of jjarliament. 
 Sir Edward Coke gives an extiact of a record, five Henry IV. 
 concerning an exchange of lands between the king and the earl of 
 Northumberland, wherein the value of each was agreed to be set- 
 tled by advice of parliament (if any should be called befoie the 
 feast of St. Lucia.) or otherwi-e by advice of ihe grand council of 
 l)eers, which the king promises to assemble before the said- feast, 
 in case no parliament shall be called. .Vlany other instances of 
 this kind of meeting are to be found under our ancient kings; 
 though the formal method cf convoking them lad been so hms. 
 H l«!it
 
 CO IT 
 
 46 
 
 con 
 
 s»t 
 
 li-lt oti, thiil wlva kinc Chaiii's I. in li'40, is-,iu'(l out writs iiinU-r 
 the great seal, to l\!I1 a council of all tlu' peers of England, to 
 meet and attend his majesty at York, previous to the meeting of 
 the Ions; parliament, ihe earl of Clarendon mentions it as a new in- 
 vention, not before heard of ; thai i?, as he explains himself, so old, 
 tf.at it had not been practised in some hundreds of years. Ikit 
 though there had not for long liefore l)een an instance, nor has 
 there been any since, of assembling them in so solemn a manner, 
 vet in case ot'emergencv, our princes have at several limes thought 
 jjroper to call for, ami consult as many of the nobility as could 
 oa>ilv be broudit together: as was particularly the case with king 
 James II. after the landing of the prince of Orange, and with the 
 prince of Orange himself, before he calletl the convention jiarlia- 
 iiient wliich afterwards called him to the throne. Resides this 
 gener.d meeting, it is usually lookeil upon to be the right of each 
 particular peer of the realm, to dcmantl an audience of the king, 
 and to lav before him v.ith decency and respect such matters as he 
 shall judge of importance to the public weal. And therefore, in 
 the reign of Edward II. it was made an article of impeachment in 
 parliament against the two Hugh Spencers, father and son, for 
 which thev were banished the kmgdoni, ■' that they by their evil 
 covin would not sutler the great men of the realm, the king's good 
 counsellors, to speak with the king, or to come near him ; but 
 onlv in presence and hearing of said Hugh the father and Hugh 
 thc'son, or one of them, and .it tlieir will, and according to such 
 things as pleased them." HI. A third council belonging to the 
 king, according to Sir Edward Coke, are his Judges of the courts 
 of law, for^ law matters. And this appears frequently in the Eng- 
 li;h statutes, particularlv 14 Edwar<l 111. c. j, and in other books 
 of law. So that when the king's council u mentioned generally, 
 it mu^t be delined, particularized, and uuder?lood, secundum sub- 
 jectam materiem ; " according to the subject matter:" and if the 
 tubject be of a legal nature, then by the king's council is under- 
 titfiod his council for matters of law ; namely, his judges. There- 
 fore, when by statute lt5 Richard II. c. S, it was made ahigh of- 
 fence to imijort into England any papal bulls, or other processes 
 Irom Home ; and it was enacted, that the offenders should be at- 
 t.iched by their bodies and brought before the king and his council 
 to answer lor such oflence ; here, bv the expression of king's 
 rouiicil, were understood the king's juclges of his courts of justice, 
 the subject matter being legal : this being the general way of in- 
 terpreting the word council. IV. But the principal council be- 
 longing to the king is his privv council, which is generally, bv 
 ■way ot eminence, called the council. See Council, 1'kivy. 
 
 ('cuKCiL, Privy, the priinum mobile of the civil government 
 (tf Great Britain, bearing part of that great weight in the govern- 
 T.ent which otherwise would be too heavy upon the King. It is 
 » omposed of eminent persons, the number of whom is at the Sove- 
 reigii's plcdsure, whoare bound by oath to advise the King to the best 
 of their jndgme:it, with all the fidelity and secrecy that becomes 
 their station. The King may declare to, or conceal from, his 
 privy council whatever he thinks lit, and has a select council out of 
 iheir number, commonly called the cabinet council, with whom 
 lui Muje.~ly determijies such matters as are most important, and re- 
 «j!ilre the utmoit secrecy. All proclamations from the King and 
 (lie privy council, ought to be grounded on law, otherwise they are 
 not biwiing to the sul)ject. Privy counsellors, though but gentle- 
 men, h.ive precedence of all the knights and younger sons of 
 liarons and vicounts, and are styled right honourable. 
 
 COUNSEL, orADN'OCAfES, in English courts of law, are of 
 two "species or degrees: Barristers and Serjeants. See these articles; 
 also Advocates. From both tliese degrees, some are usually se- 
 lected to be his majesty's counsel, learned in the law; the two 
 principar ot whom a.re called his attorney- general, and solicitor- 
 general. A custom has of late years prevailed of grantiug letters 
 patent of precedence to s\ich barristers as the crov^'ii thinks proper 
 to honour with that mark of distinction; wher'eby tlrey arc in- 
 titled to such rank and preaudience as are assigned in tlreir respec- 
 tive patents ; sometimes next after the king's attorney-general, but 
 usually next after his majesty's counsel next being. 
 
 CoUN'SKi., King's. The fust king's couasel, umler the degree 
 of Serjeant, was Sir Francis B.icon, who was made so honoris cuusit, 
 vilhout patent or fee. The first of the modem order (who are 
 now the sworn servants of the crown, with a standing salary) seems 
 to have been Sir Francis North, aftcrwai;i<8 lord lieeper of the 
 
 Great Seal to king Charles II. Tliese king's counsel answer, iij 
 some degree, to the advocates of the revenue, advocati (isci, among 
 the Romans. 
 
 CtH.'NSELLOR at L.\w, a person retained by a client to 
 plead his cause in a public court of judicature. There are two de- 
 grees of counwl, viz. barristers and sergeants. Barristers are call- 
 ed to the bar alter a certain period of standing in the inns of 
 court. See Barrister. "After 16 years standing they may be 
 called to the degree of sergeant. The judges of tl)e courts of 
 Westminster are always admitted seigeants before they are ad- 
 vanced to the bench. From both sergeants and barristers the 
 King's counsel are usually selected, the two principal of whom are 
 called his :ittorney and solicitor-general. Counsel are supposed l<j 
 plead gratis, and can maint4in no action for their lees ; and to en- 
 courage in them a freedom of speech in the lawlul defence of 
 their clients, a counsellor is not answerable for any matter by hinj 
 spoken, though it should prove groundless, and reflect on the re- 
 l)utation of another; proviiled it relates to the cause which he 
 espouses, and is suggested in his client's iiistructioBS. And not- 
 withstanding counsellors have a special privilege to practise the 
 law, yet tliey are punishable for m.sbeliaviour by allachmcnt. 
 No counsel is allowed to a prisoner upon a general issue of in- 
 dictment of felony, unless some point of law arise ; for the court is 
 the prisoner's only counsel. 
 
 COUNT, \_cnmptc, Fr. computus, Eat.] in law, denotes the 
 original declaration in a real action ; as the declaration is in a per- 
 sonal one; the libellus of the civilians answers to beth. Yet, 
 count and declaration are sometimes confounded, and used for 
 eacli other; as count in debt, count in appeal, &c. 
 
 Cou.N'T, [comte, Fr. romts, Lat.] a title of foreign nobility; 
 supposed equivalent to an earl. 
 
 Count properly signifies a nobleman who possesses a domain 
 erected into a county. See ^'ISC0UNT. Engli--h and Scottish 
 counts we distinguish by the title of earls ; foreign ones still re- 
 tain their proper name. The dignity of a count is a medium be- 
 tween tli.it of a duke and a baron. According to the modern use, 
 inojt plenipotentiaries and aml)assadoi'S assume the title of counts, 
 though they have no county. Anciently, all generals, counsellors, 
 judges, and secretaries of cities under Charlemagne, were calleet 
 counts; tlie distinguishing character of a duke and a count being 
 this, that the latter had but one town under him, but the former 
 several. A count has a right to bear on his arms a coronet, adorn- 
 ed with three precious stones, and surmounted with three huge 
 pearls, whereof those in the middle and exlreinities of the coronet 
 advance above the rest. The Germans call a count, gnmf, or 
 graff ; which properly signifies judge ; and is derived I'rom grf(i7> 
 or lirajjio, of yi^fiu, I write, iliey have several kinds of these 
 counts or gratis ; as landgraves, marchgraves, burg-graves, ami 
 palsgraves, or counts palatine. 'I'hese last are of two kinds; the 
 former are of the number of princes, and have the investiture of -i 
 p;;i.atinatc ; the others have onlv the title of count palatine with- 
 out the investiture of any palatinate. Some assert, that by jiub- 
 licly professing the imperial laws for 20 years, tlie person acipiires 
 the dignity o.f a camit [Xilatinate ; and thsve are instances of pro- 
 fessors in law who h.avcasMimecl the title accordingly : but thera 
 are others who que.slion this right. 
 
 CciiNT Whkki., in the striking part of a clock, a wheel wliicK 
 mov(^ rouad once in I'J or iJ4 hours. It is sometimes called the 
 locking wheel. 
 
 COL!N PER, in law, applied to deeds, means an exact copy- 
 kept by the contrary party, and sometimes signed by both parties. 
 CoxiNTFR is also the name of a piece ot' metal with a stamp on 
 it, useil in ])laying atcards. 
 
 CouNTF.Rs IM A Ship, aretwo: vk. 
 
 1. CotTNTER, Lower, between the traiisoraaadtlic lower part 
 of the gallery. 
 
 L\ Counter, Upper, the hollow arching from the gallery tu 
 the lower part of the straight ])iece of the stern. 
 
 Counter-Barrv, or Contre-Barrf.', in heraldry, isthc same 
 as our bendy sinister (ler beiul counterchangeil. 
 
 Counter-Battkry, is a balteyy raised to play upon another 
 to dismount the guns. 
 
 CouNTKR-Boxn, a bond of in<lemnificalion given to one who 
 has given his bond as a security for another's paymcut of a debt, 
 or the faithful discharge of his office or trust.. 
 
 COUMTEIL-
 
 COTT 
 
 47 
 
 cou 
 
 CovNTKR-CHANGED, in heraldry, tlie iutcnnixUire, or oi)posi- 
 tion of -anv metal with a colour. 
 
 CouNTKiinuAW, Willi painters, to copy a design or painting by 
 means of aline linen cloth, an oiled paper, or other transparent 
 matter, whereon the strokes appearing tlirouglj, are traced with a 
 pencil. 
 
 C<'l'Mter-Dk AWING is sometimes donr on glass, and with 
 frames or nets diviiled into sqllare.^ with silk or thread, and also 
 by means ot inslrunieats invented for the pnr|)Ose, as llie parallel- 
 ogram. 
 
 Coun'TER-Kkmink, in heraldry, is the contrary of ermine, 
 being a black (iehl with while spots. 
 
 Counterfeits, in law, arc persons that obtain money or goods 
 by counterfeit letters or fal<e tokens; who being convicted be- 
 fofe justices o( asjize or of the pcace, &c. are to suffer such pii- 
 njsnient as shall be tiiought lit to be indicted, un<ler death, as im- 
 prisonment, pillory, &c. 
 
 CouNTER-tLDRY, ill heraldry, is said of atressiire whose flowers 
 de luce are o])positeto others. See Heraldry. 
 
 Coi'MTER-FOiL, or Counter-Stock, in the excheiiuer, thai 
 part of an ally which is kept bv an oOicer of the court. 
 
 Counter-Gage, in carpentry, a method used in measuring the 
 joints, i-'or e.vample, they transfer the breadth of a mortoise to 
 the place in the timber v. here the tenon is to be, in order to make 
 them fit each other. 
 
 Counter-Guard, in fortification, is a work raised before the 
 point of a bastion, consisting of two long faces parallfl to the laces 
 of the bastion, making a salliant angle : they are soinctimes of 
 other shapes, or otherwi^e situated. 
 
 Counter-Light, or Contre-Jour, a light opposite to any 
 thing, which makes it appear to disadvantage. A single coun- 
 ter-light is sufficient to take away all the beauty of a line paint- 
 ing. 
 
 COUNTERMAND, in the English law, is where a thing 
 before executed Is by some act or ceremony afterw aids made void 
 by the party that did it. 
 
 Counter-Mar< H, in iniM.iry affairs, a change of the face or 
 wings of a battalion, by wliicli means those that were in the 
 front come to be in the rear. 
 
 CouNTERiviARK, 1. A second Or third mark put on a bale of 
 goods belonging to several merchants, that it may not be opened 
 but In the presence of them all. 2. 'The mark of the goldsmitlis 
 company, to shew the metal is standard, added to that of the ar- 
 tificer. 3. An artificial cavity made in the teeth ol horses, that 
 have outgrown their natural mark, to disguise their age. 4. A 
 mark added to a medal a long time after it is struck, by which the 
 curious know the several changes in value which it has under- 
 gone. 
 
 Coun'TER-Min'E, in war, a well and gallery drove and sunk till 
 it meet tlie enemy's mine, to prevent its effect. 
 
 Counter-Mure, a wall built close to another, that it may not 
 receive any damage from the contiguous buildings. 
 
 Counter-Paled, [coiitre-pdUi:,'] in heraldry, is when the es- 
 cutcheon is divided into twelve pales parted per fesse, the two 
 rolouTs being counterchanged : so tint the upper are of one co- 
 lour, and the hn\ er of another. 
 
 Counter-Part, in music, denotes one part to be applied to 
 another. 'I'lius tiie ha-.? is said to be a counter-part to tlu- treble. 
 In law, it is the duplicale or copy of any indenture or deetl. 
 
 Counter-Passant, is whiMi two lions are in a coat of arms, 
 and the one seems to go quite the contrary way from the other. 
 
 Counter-Plea, in law, a cross or contrary plea, paiticularlv 
 such as the demandant allege; against a tenant in couJte^y, or 
 dower, who prays the King's aid, kc. for his defence 
 
 Counter-Point, in music, tlie art of coniposiiMr harmony, or 
 of disposing several parts in such a manner as to make an agreeable 
 whole or a concert. In general, every harmonious coniposit ion, 
 or composition of many parts, is called eounter-point. It took its 
 name Irom hence: before notes of ditjferent measures were in- 
 vented, the manner of composing was to set pricks or points one 
 against another, to denote the scvtTal concords. 
 
 CoUNTER-Pomi ED, iu lierakh'yv is wlien two chevrons in one 
 escutcheon meet in the points, the one rising a^ usual from the 
 base, and the other inverted falling from the chief; so that they 
 are eonnier to one another in the points. They may also be 
 couuter-pointed when (Jiey arc founded upoa tiie sides of the 
 
 shield, and the poiiHs meet that way, ciUled counter-pointed in 
 lesse. 
 
 CouNTEU-PoiSE is a piece of metal, called by some the pear, 
 on account of its figure, and the nias.s, by reason of its weight, 
 which sliding along the beam, determines the weight of bodie* 
 weighed by the statera Komana. * 
 
 Counter-Prooe, in rolling-press printing, a print taken off 
 from another fresh printed ; whicli by being passed ihrougii iht! 
 press, gives the figure of the former, but inverled. 
 
 Cou.vTER-QuARTERED, [_corilrc tcaiitU', Fr.] in heraldry, de- 
 notes tlie escutcheon, after being (juartered, to have each in'.ailcr 
 again divided into two. 
 
 Counter- K EVOLUTION, a change of government in a country, 
 where a revolution has already taken place ; eillier by restoring 
 the old government, or eslahlishlng a new one different from botii. 
 It Is generally useil In the lormer sense. Tliis word, tliough in 
 much use, e-pecially since the coinmencement ot the Fiem h re- 
 volution, has not hitherto found a place in any English dic- 
 tionary. 
 
 Counter-Saliant, in heraldry, is when two beasts are borne in 
 a coat leaping from each other directly the contrary way. 
 
 Counter-Scarp, in fortiliration, is properly the exterior talus 
 or slope of the ditch ; but il is often taken for the covered way and 
 the glacis. In this sense we say, the enemy have lodged them- 
 selves on the counter-scarp. 
 
 Counter-Scarp, Angle of the, is that made by two side.s 
 of the counter-scarp nieeliiig before the middle of the curtain. 
 
 Counter-Signing, the signing of the writing of a superior in 
 quality of a secretary. Thus charters are signed by the king, and 
 countersigned by a secretary of state or lord-chancellor. 
 
 Counter-Svvallow.'-Tail, in fortilication, an out-work in formi 
 of a single tenaille, wider at the gorge than tiie head. 
 -- Counter-'I'ime, in the manege, is tlie defence or resistance of 
 a horse that interrupts his cadence, and die measure of his manege, 
 occasioned either by a bad horseman, or by the malice of the- 
 horse. 
 
 Counter-Trifpi.ng, is when two beasts are borne in a coat ia 
 a walking pojture, the head of the one being next the tail of the 
 other. 
 
 Counter-Vallation, in the military art, a ditch made round 
 a besieged place, to prevent the garrison from making sallies. See 
 C'ontuavallation and Fortification. 
 
 Counter-Working, the raising of works to oppose tiiose of 
 the enemy. 
 
 COUNTORS, -CONTOURS^ or COUNTERS, has been, 
 used for serieants at law, retained to defeiul a cause, or to speak 
 for their client in any court of kuv. I'hey were anciently called 
 Serjeant contours. 
 
 COUNTRIES, among the miners, an appellation they give to. 
 their works uiuler gruuml. 
 
 COUNTRY, among geographers, is usedt indifferently to de- 
 note eithe: a kingdom,, province, or less district. But its most 
 fre(|ueiit use is in contradistinttion to towii. 
 
 COL'N'l'Y, in gcograpliy, ongiiuilly signified the territory of a 
 count or earl, but now it is used in the same sensir with shire. Sec 
 Shire. England, for the better government thereof, and the. 
 more easy administration of justice, is divided into lilty-two coiin^ 
 lies, eacli whereof is subdivided into rapes, lathes, wapentakes,, 
 huudreds ; and these again into lytliing«. For the execution of 
 the laws in the several counties, excepting Cumberland, West- 
 moreland, and Durham, every Michaelmas term officers are ap- 
 pointed, called sherilVs : otiier officei-s of the several counties are 
 lord-lieutenants, custodes rotulorum, justices of the peace, bailiffs,, 
 high constables, coroner, clerks of the market, &e. 0f the fifty- 
 two counties in England and Wales, th«re are tbup termed coiiii- 
 ties-iialatlne, viz. Lancaster, Chester,. Durham, and Ely: these 
 countii-s are reckoned among the superior courts, and are privi- 
 leged as to [ileas, so that no inhabitant of such counties shall be 
 compelled by any writ to appear, or answer the same, except for 
 error, and in cases of treason, &c.. The counties palatine of Diir- 
 hani anil Chester are by prescription, where the king'^urils ought 
 not to come, but under the seal of the couiilies-p;ila;ine, unless it 
 be a writ of proilamation. Therfi is a court of ciiaiicery In the 
 countiespalatuie of Lancaster and Durham, over whicii there are 
 chancellors. Scotland is divided into thirty-three counties, the 
 covcrnmeut of which is committed to slur'.lls. See Suerii-f. 
 
 tou.N'Ty,.
 
 cou 
 
 48 
 
 COU 
 
 C'oVNTY CoRPor.ATE 15 II liiU' f»iveiito several cit'u-^, or aiiciviil 
 boroughs, on wliicli our moiiarchs have thought lit tu bestow ex- 
 traorihiiary privilege?; amiexirg to tliem a particular tervitory, 
 laud, or jurisdiction ; ar.d making them couiuies of themselves, to 
 be governed bv their own 3lienl'l> and magistrates. 
 
 County Col-rt, in KiigUsh laiv, a court incident to the juris- 
 diction of the slierii'i". It is not a court ot' record, but may liold 
 pleas of debt or damages under the value of 40s. Over some of 
 which causes these interior courts iiave, by the express words of 
 the statute of Gloucester, a jurisdiction totally exclusive ot the 
 king's superior courts. For in order to he intit'ed to sue an ac- 
 tion of trespass for goods before the king's justiciars, the plaintit}' 
 is directed to make aflidav it, that the cause of action does really 
 and bona fide amount to iJs. which affidavit is now unacccunt- 
 ahly disused, except in the court of exchequer. The statute also 
 4,3 Eli.':, c. (i, which gives the judges ia many personal actions, 
 where the jurv assess less damages than 40 -s. a power to certify the 
 same and abridge the plaintilf of his full costs, was also meant to 
 prevent vexation bv litigious plahitil'l's ; who, for purposes of mere 
 o[)pression, might be inclinable to institute such suits in the su- 
 perior courts for injuries of a trilling value. The county court 
 may also hold plea of many real actions, and of all personal ac- 
 tions to any amount, by virtue of a special writ called justices ; 
 which is a writ empowering the iheriff for the sake of dispatch to 
 do the same justice in his county court, as might otherwise be had 
 at Westminster. 
 
 CtU'OUDEN, a city of Holland, in Over-yssel ; 42 miles N. 
 K. of Deventer. 
 
 (JOL P-I)E-.\IATN, in military aflairs, implies a desperate re- 
 solution in all small exiieditioiis of surprise, &.-C. The favourable 
 side of the proposed action must ever be viewed ; for if what may 
 happen, arrive,or fall out, is chielly thought upon, it will, at the very 
 best, not only greatly discourage, but in general it will produce a 
 total failure. The very name ot an expedition implies risk, hazanl, 
 precarious warfare, and a critical but desperate operation or coup- 
 de-main. 
 
 Coup-d'CEil, in a military sense, signifies that fortunate aptitude 
 . of eve in a gineral or other officer, by which he is enabled at one 
 glance on the map to see the weak p.u'ts of an enemy's country, or 
 to discern the strong ones of his own. By possessing a ready coup- 
 d'li'il, a general may surmount the greatest difficulties, particnlarlv 
 in offensive operations. On a small scale this faculty is of the 
 greatest utility. Actions have been recovered by a sudden con- 
 ception of different openings upon the enemy, which could only 
 be ascertained by a quick and ready eye, during the rapid move- 
 ments of opposing armies. 
 
 COUPED, [from coupe, Fr. cut,] in heraUlry, is used to ex- 
 press the head, or any limb, of an animal, rut off from the 
 trunk, smooth ; distinguishing it from that which is called erasscd, 
 that is, forcibly torn off, and therefore is ragged and unrven. It 
 is aUo applied to such crossof, bars, bends, chevrons, &c. as do 
 not touch the sides of the escutcheon, but are, as it were, cut off 
 from them. 
 
 Coupee, Point, a Spanish settlement of N. America, extend- 
 ing 20 miles on the west side of the Mississippi. 
 
 touPLE-CLoss, in heraldry, the 4th par.t of a chevron, never 
 borne but in pairs, except there be a chevron between them, saith 
 Guillini, though Bloom gives an instance to the contrary. 
 
 COUPTHAIN, a town of France, in the department of 
 Maine, 7^ miles N. of Vilaine. 
 
 COUR, a town of France, in the department of Loire and Cher, 
 9 miles S. of Blois. 
 
 COURA, a river of Portugal, wh.iih runs into the Duero, four 
 miles N. E. of Lamego. 
 
 COURAGE, in ethics, is that quality of the mind, derived 
 either from constitution or principle, or both, that enables men to 
 encoimter difficulties and daugei-s. See Fortitude. 
 
 CouuAMT, in music, is a piece in triple time: the air of the 
 couran'. is ordinarily noted in triples of minims; the parts to be re- 
 pealed twice It begins and ends when he who beats the mea- 
 sure falls his hand ; in contradistinction fram the saraband, which 
 ordinarily ends wdien the hand is raised. 
 
 COUR.VP, a general name in the East-Indies for any sort of 
 itch ; but particularly applied to a species very common in Java 
 and some other part-. 
 
 COURE, a post of Chiu.!se 'I'artary. 
 
 COIIRGIS, a town of Ftance, in the department of Yoiuie, 
 5 miles E. of Auxerre. 
 
 COURGIV AUX, a town of France, in the department of 
 Marne, 10 miles VV. S. W. of Sezanne. 
 
 COl'KLAND, a duchv of Europe, situated between 51" and 
 eO" i-on. E. and between .56° 30' and 67"" 30'. Lat. N. It is 
 bounded by the gulph of Riga and the river Dwina, which divide 
 it from Livonia, on the N.; by Lithuania, on the E. ; by Samo- 
 gitia, on the S. ; and by the Baltic sea on the \V . ; being iiJO miles 
 long and 40 broad. This duchy was formerly independent, and 
 elected their own duke ; but is now subject to Russia. This 
 country rises in gentle hills, and is fertile in corn, hemp, and flax. 
 It also abounds in pines, hrs, oaks,&c. and has many neat villagfi 
 and god inns, it is divided into Courlaud Proper and .Semi- 
 gallia. The chief tow :is arc Mittau the capital, Candau, Goldeii- 
 gen, Groben, Libau, and W'inday. 
 
 COL'KSK, in navigation, that point of the coni])ass, or horizon, 
 on which the ship steers : or the angle between the rhumb-line and 
 the meridian. See N.wigiVTIon. 
 
 Course, in architecture, a continued range of stones, level, or 
 of the same height throughout the whole length of the building, 
 without being interrupted by any aperture. 
 
 Course of Plinths, tiie continuity of a plinth of stone, or 
 plaister, in the face of a building, to mark the separation of the 
 stones. 
 
 Courses, in a ship, the mainsail ami foresail: when the ship 
 sails under them only, without lacing on any bonnets, she is then 
 said to go under a pair of courses. To sail under a main couriS 
 and bonnets, is to sail under a mainsail and bonnet. 
 
 Course is used f«r a collection or body of laws, canons, or the 
 like. As, the civil course is the collection of the Roman law com- 
 piled by order of Justinian . canonical course, the collection of the 
 canon law^ made by Gratian. See the articles Civii.-Law and 
 Canon-Lavv. 
 
 Course is also made to express the elements of an art, explain- 
 ed either by experiment or writing. 
 
 Course is also applied for the time spent in learning the ele- 
 ments of a science ; as a student is said to go through his course's 
 of philosophy, divinity, mathematics, &c. at the university. 
 
 COURT, [i;(ir/f/, Lat.] in a law sense, the pUice where judges 
 distribute justice, or exercise jurisdiction ; also the assembly of 
 judges, jury, &c. in that place. As by our excellent constitution, 
 the sole executive power of the laws is vested in the person of the 
 king, it tollows that all courts of justice, which are the medium by 
 which he administers the laws, are derived from the power of the 
 crown. For w liether created by act of parliament or letters pa- 
 tent, or subsisting by prescription, (the only methods by which 
 any court of judicature can exist,) the king's consent in the two 
 former is expressly, and in the latter impliedly, given. In all 
 these courts, the king is supposed in conlemplation of law to be 
 always present; but as that is in fact impossible, he is there repre- 
 sented by his judges, whose power is only an emanation of the 
 royal prerogative. For the more speedy, universal, aiid impaj-tial 
 admimstr.ition of justice between subject and subject, the law has 
 appointed a treat variety of courts, some with a more limited, 
 others with a more extensive jurisdiction; some constituted to in- 
 quire only, others to hear and determine; some to determine in 
 the first instance, others upon appeal and by way of review. Sei; 
 Law, and the respective articles in the order of the alphabet, 
 Oiie distinction runs throughout them all; viz. that some of them 
 are courts of record, others not of record. A court of record is 
 th.it where the acts and judicial proceedings are enrolled in parch- 
 ment for a perpetuid memorial and testimony: which rolls are 
 called the records of the court, and are of such high and stiper- 
 emiiient nuthority, that their truth is not to be called in question. 
 For it is a settled rule and maxim, that nothing shall be averred 
 against a record, nor shall any plea, or even proof, be admitted to 
 the contrary. And if the existence of a record be denied, it shall 
 be tried bv nothing but itself; that is, upon bare inspection, whc- 
 the,- there be any such record or no; else there would be no end 
 of disputes. But if there appear any mistake of the clerk in mak- 
 ing up such record, the court will direct him to amend it. Ail 
 courts of record are the king's conits, in right of his crown and 
 royal digiiitv, and therefore no other court hath aiifhority to fine 
 9 ' cr
 
 c o u 
 
 49 
 
 COW 
 
 or imprison; so tliat tlie very eveclion of a i;e\vjurisiliction with 
 power of fine or imprisonment, makes it instantly a court of re- 
 cord. A court not of record is the court of a private niiin; whom 
 tlie Ui'.v will not intrust witli any discretionary power over tlie for- 
 tune or liberty of his feIlow-8ubjecl>. Such arc the courts baron, 
 and other inferior jurisdictions : where the proceedings are not en- 
 rolled or recorded ; but as well tlieir existence as the truth of the 
 matters therein contained sliall, if disputed, be tried and determin- 
 ed by a jury. These courts can hold no plea of matters cogniza- 
 ble by tile common law, unless under tlie value of 40.s. nor of any 
 forcible injury whatsoever, nor having any process to arrest the 
 person of the defendant. In every court there must be at least 
 three constituent parts the actor, reus, and judex: the actor, or 
 plaintift', who complains of an injury done; the reus, or defendant, 
 who is called upon to make satisfaction for it; and the judex, or 
 judicial power, which is to examine the trutii of tiie fact, to deter- 
 mine the law arising upon that fact, and, if any injury appears to 
 have been done, to ascertain, and by its officers to apply the re- 
 medy. It is also usual in the superior courts to have attorneys, 
 and advocates or counsel, as assistants. See Attorney, and 
 Counsel. 
 
 Court, Arches. See Arches Coi/ft. 
 
 Court Barox, in English law, a court incident to every manor 
 in the kingdom, to be holden by the steward within the said nia- 
 Bor. This court baron is of two natures: the one is a cubtoniarv 
 court, appertaining entirely to the copyholders, in which their 
 estates are transferred by surrender and admittance, and other 
 matters transacted relative to their tenures oidy. The other is a 
 court of common law, and it is tlie court of the barons, by which 
 name tlie freeholders were called: for that it is lield before the 
 freeholders who ovi-e suit and service to the manor, the steward 
 being rather the regi-trer than the judge. These courts, though 
 in their nature distinct, are confounded together. 
 
 Courts, Ecclesiastical, are those courts whicli are held by 
 the king's authority, as supreme governor of the churcli, for mat- 
 ters which chiefly concern rel'gion. As to suits in s])iritual or ec- 
 clesiastical courts, tliey are for the reformation of manners; as for 
 the punishing of heresy, defamation, laying violent hands on a clerk, 
 and the like; and some of tlieir suits are to recover something de- 
 manded, as tithes, a legacy, contract of marriage, &c. ; and in 
 cases of this nature, the court may give costs, but not damages. 
 The proteedings in the ecclesiastical courts are according to the 
 civil and canon law: they are not courts of record. 
 
 Court of Conscience, a court in the cities of London, West- 
 minster, and some other places, that determines matters in all 
 cases, where the debt or damage is under forty shillings. 
 
 Court of Delegates, a court where delegates are appointed 
 by the king's commission, under the great seal, upon an appeal to 
 him from tlie stnti.-nce of an archbishop, &c-. in ecclesiastical 
 causes ; or of the court of admiralty, in any marine cause. 
 
 Court of Hustings, a court of record held at Guildhall, for 
 the city of London, before the lord mavor and aldermen, sh-riffs, 
 and recorder, wliere all pleas, real, personal, and mixt, are deter- 
 mined; where all lands, tenements, &c. within the said city, or its 
 bounds, are pleadable in two hustings; the one called the hustings 
 of plea of lanils, and the other the hustings of common pleas. The 
 court of hustings is the highest court within the city, in which 
 writs of exigent may be taken out, and out-lawries awarded, 
 wherein judgement is given by the recorder. To the lord mayor 
 and city of Lod('o:i belong several other courts, as the cotut of 
 common-council, consisting of two houses, the one for the lord 
 mayor and ahlermen, and the other for the commoners; in which 
 court are made all by-laws uhirh bind the citizens. The cham- 
 Bferlain's court relates to tiie rents and revenues of the city, to the 
 affairs of servants, &c. See Chamberlain. To the lord mayor 
 belongs the Court of coroner and csckeator; another court for "the 
 conversation of the river of Thames; another of gaol delivery, 
 held eight limes a year at the Old FSaily, for the trial of criminals, 
 where the lord mayor himself ib the chief judge. There are also 
 other courts calle.l ward-motes, or meeting of the wards; and 
 courts of holymote, or assemblies of the guilds and fralernilies. 
 
 Court-i.eet, a court ordained for the punishment of offences 
 rinder high treason against the crown. 
 
 Court-martial, a court ap'poiiited fnrthe puni-hing of offences 
 ■11 officers, soldiers, and tailors, the, powtn of whix:h is regulated 
 by the mutiny-bill. ' ' ■. ' 
 
 ' ■ VOL. II. — NO. 59. 
 
 Court of Piepowder, a court held in fairs to do justice to 
 buyers and sellers, and for redress of disorders committed in them ; 
 So called because tliey are most usual in summer, when the s^iitors 
 to the court have dust}- feet. The court of piepowder may hold 
 plea of a sum above 40.?. The steward before whom the court is 
 held is thejudge, and the trial is by merchants and traders in the 
 fair; and thejudgement against the'clefendant shall be, cpiodamer- 
 cietur. If the steward proceeds contrary to the statute 17 Edw. 
 IV. he shall forfeit 51. 
 
 Court of Req,uests, was a court of equity, of the same na- 
 ture with the chancery, but inferior to it. It was chielly instituted 
 for the relief of such petitioners as in conscionable cases addressed 
 themselves to his majesty : the lord privy-seal was the chief judge 
 of this court. 
 
 COUIITENAY, a town of France, in the department of Loi- 
 ret, 13' miles S.W. of Sens. 
 
 COURTESY, or CURTESY of England, a certain tenure, 
 whereby a man marrying an heiress seised of lauds of fee simple, 
 or fee tail general, or seised as heir of the tail special, and hath a 
 child by her that cometh alive into the world, though both it and 
 his wife die forth.vilh; yet if she were in possession, he shall keep 
 the land during his life, and is called tenant per legem Anglia", or 
 tenant by the courtesy of England; because this privilege is not 
 allowed in any country except Scotland, where it is caHed curiali- 
 tas Scoti:c. 
 
 COL RTIIEZOX, a town of France, in the department of the 
 Mouths of the Ulione. 
 
 COURllNE. See Curtix, and Fortification. 
 
 COURT-OF-ALDER.MEN, a cluster of small islands, in the 
 S. and N. Pacific Ocean, off the coast of New Zealand, 
 
 COURTRAI, orCOURTR.\Y, a town of France in the de- 
 partment of Lvs, 2-i miles S. of Bruges. 
 
 COUSIN, Ts a term of relation between the children of bro- 
 thers and si.-ters, who, in the first generation, are called cousins- 
 germanj in the second generation, second cousins, &c. Theodo- 
 sius the Great prohibited cousins from marrying, under pain of 
 death; on pietence that they were, iusome sort, brothers and sis^ 
 ters to each other. 
 
 COUSU, in heraldry, signifies a piece of another colour or 
 metal placed in the ordinary, as if it were sewed on, as the word 
 imports. 
 
 COUTAHOU, a town of Asia, in Thibet, 25 miles E. of Ma- 
 nas-Iiotun. 
 
 ■ COUTANCES, a city of P'rance, in tlie department of tlie 
 Channel, 40 miles S. of Cherburg. Lon. 1. 2J. \V. Lat. 49. 3. N. 
 
 COUTANTIN, COrANTlN, or COTENTIN, a late ter- 
 ritory of France, in Lower Normandy; containing the towns of 
 Coutances, Carentan, Cherburg, B-arl!eur, (iranville, St. Sau- 
 veur, Valogne, Ville-Dieu, &c. It is now included in the depart- 
 ment of the Channel. 
 
 COUTCIIING, atown of China, in Petcheli. 
 
 Cou-TCHiNG-KEON, an island of China. 
 
 COUTOUCTOU-HOTUN, atown of Chinese Tartary, 325 
 miles E. of Pekin. 
 
 COUTKAS, a town of France, in ll.e department of Dordogne, 
 I'O miles N.E. of Bourdeau.x. 
 
 COUX'ERT, in heraldry, a piece of hanging, or a pavilion 
 falling over the top of a chief or other orJi.^ary, so as not to hide,, 
 but oulv to be a covering to it. 
 
 COUXEA, a town of Africa, os the coast of Guinea, in Sierra 
 Leone. 
 
 COW, in zoology. See Bos. 
 
 Cow, Sea. See Trichecus. 
 
 Co'.v and Calf, tswj rocks of Ireland, ofi" the S.E. coast of the 
 county of Down. 
 
 COWBRIDGE, a town of S.AV ales, in Glamorganshire, where 
 the coiuity assizes are held. It is l".' miles \\. of Cardiff, Hi \\ . 
 by N. of Gloucester. 
 
 CO WE, the capital of the Cherokee ludia^is, situated on tlie 
 foot of tlie lulls, on both sides the river Tennessee. 
 
 COWEL Dr. John, a learned and eminent civilian, born 
 about \}>j%. In lOO", he compiled a Law Dictionary, which gave 
 great offence to Sir Edward Coke and the common lawyers: so 
 that they lirsL accused him to James I. as asserting that the king's 
 prerogative was in bom^- cases limited; and when thi'V failed in. 
 that attempt, thev complained of hini to the house of conimous, 
 O as.l
 
 c-ow 
 
 60 
 
 C R A 
 
 «s i bolmyer ot (he rights of llic peojile, liy asserting that tlic king 
 was not bound by thi^ iawi; for whicii he was cor.iinitted to cus- 
 tody, and Ills book publicly burnt. lU- also published " Institu- 
 tiones Juris Anglicaiii," in the manner of Justinian's Institutes; and 
 died of the operation for the stone, in 1611. 
 
 COWES, East, and COW £S West, two towns on the N.E. 
 coast of the Isle of Wight. 
 
 COWLS, haljits worn by the Bernardines and I'enedictines; 
 they are of two kinds ; the one white, very large, worn in cere- 
 mony, and when they assist at the office; the other black, worn 
 on ordinary occasions, in the streets, &c. F. Mabillon maintains 
 that the cowl was the same thing in its origin with the sca- 
 pular. The author of the apology of tlie Emperor Henry IV. 
 dislinguislies two forms of cowls: the one a gown reaching to the 
 feet, having sleeves, and a capuchin, used in ceremonies; the 
 other a kind of liood to work in, called also a scapular, because it 
 only covers the head and shoe.lders. 
 
 (-OWLEY, Abraham, an English poet, was born in London 
 in 1(>!S, and fducaled at Westminster school. At the age of 15 
 he published a small collection of poems, entitled Poetical Blos- 
 soms. From Westminster he removed to Trinity college, Cam- 
 bridge, where he wrote several of his pieces. In 1043 he was 
 ejected from the college for his loyalty, and then went to Oxford, 
 wlii-re he materially served the royal cause. He afterwards re- 
 moved to I'Vance in the family of tiie earl of St. Albans. In lt;56 
 he returned to England, and was soon after committed to prison, 
 from wlience he was bailed by Or. Scarborough. Next year he 
 went to Oxford, and obtained the degi-ee of M.D. On the death 
 of Cromwell he again visited France, but returned at the Restora- 
 tion, and obtained a lease of a farm at Chertsey, valued about 
 30(1/. a year, where he died in lG()7. His remains were deposited 
 in Westminster abbey, wliere is a monument to his memory. Dr. 
 Johnson places Cowiey at the head of those whom he calls meta- 
 physical poets; but though he is sometimes subllTne, always moral, 
 and freipiently w itty, yet his poems are tedious and affected. 'I'he 
 anai-reontics are reckoned the best. He also wrote a comedy call- 
 *-d the Cutter of C'ohnan-street, and some pieces in prose, parti- 
 cidarly a Discourse on the Government ot Cromwell, and a I'ro- 
 posiiicMi for the Advancement of l'",\periniental Philosophy. 
 
 COWPEK, William, an excellent English poet, son of Dr. 
 Cowper, chaplain to George II. rector of BerkhamsteatI in Here- 
 fordshire. He was born in 1731, at Berkhamstead, and lost his 
 mother when he was only six vears old. His constitution was very 
 delicate from his infancy. lie received the rudiments of learnin': 
 at Market-street, Hertfordshire, from whence he was removed to 
 Westminster school, which he quitted at the age of eighteen. After 
 finishing his studies for llie law at the aue of thirty-one, he was no- 
 minated a clerk in the house of lords ; but an unconquerable timi- 
 dity prevented him from taking it. He was next ajjpointed clerk 
 of the Journals; but an occasion occurring which rendered it ne- 
 cessary for him to appear at the bar of the h.ouse, it had such an 
 el'fect on his nerves, that he was obligeti to resign the place. In 
 1703 he settled at Huntingdon, where he formed an acquaintance 
 vith a clergyman of the name of I'nwin, in whose fanidv he be- 
 came an inmate. That gentleman being killed by a full from hi^ 
 luirse in 17f)7, Cowper aiul Mrs, I'nwin went and settled at Olm-v 
 in Bucknigham^hire, wher.' they contracted an intimacy with Mr. 
 Newton, then curate of that parish, and well kno\vn as a popular 
 preacher, and calvinistic writer. To a collection of hymns pub- 
 lished by that gentleman, our poet contributed (i8. In 1782 ap- 
 peared a volume of his poems, which did not excite niuch alte!i- 
 tion; but the second volume, in 17SJ, st.miped his reputation as a 
 lira-rate poet, p.nlicularly by that exquisite piece " 1 he Task." 
 J.ady Austin, for whom the poet had a tender regard, being a great 
 admirer ot Milton, requested him to try his powers in blank verse; 
 and, on his asking her for a subject, she said, " Oh, vou can write 
 upon any; let it be this s'lfa." Thus originated one of the line>t 
 poems in our language, ']"he same lady was also the occasion of 
 the popular ballad ot John C^ilpin, wlii( h story she related to amuse 
 C'ow|)fr in one of his gloomy moments; and it ha<l s« h an cflect 
 upon him, that hi' turned if into verse. About this time he en- 
 gaged in translating Homer into Miltonic verse; and though the 
 version is not so pleasing as that of Pope, it exhibits more of the 
 original. In 1786 he removed to Weston in Northampti ndiire, 
 with Mrs,-l'nwin, whom he regarded as a mother, tn 1794 his 
 jiiaje^ty granted him a pension wf 300/. per aiuiuin, but llie i«_\al 
 
 bounty yielded ple.;.ure only to his friends, for he was now sunk 
 into a state of complete dejection, front which lie never fully- 
 emerged. He continued, however, occasionally to write, and also 
 linished a revisal of his Il.aiier, which has since been printed. 
 'I'liis amiable man, and extraordinary genius, died at Derehatft, ia 
 Norfolk, Anril 25, 1800. 
 
 COWSL'lP. See Pkimul.\. 
 
 COW_SLUXG\VORT. See Verbascu.m. 
 
 COW-WEED. See Chj-erophyllum. 
 
 Cow-wKEAT. See jMelampyrum. 
 
 COXWOLD, a town in the North riding of Yorkshire, 14 
 miles N. of York. 
 
 COYAU, a settleinent of the United Stales, on the river Ten- 
 nessee, 30 miles btdow Knoxvilk.. 
 
 COYPEL, a celebrated family of painters in France. 1. Noel 
 Coypel was born in l6l'S, and became the disciple of Quilletier. 
 The king gave him apartments in the Louvre, and nominated him 
 director of the French academy at Home, which institution nou- 
 rished greatly under his care. He executed a number of excellent 
 works, and died in 1707. 2. Anthony Coypel, eldest son of the 
 above, was born at Paris in iCtJl. He accompanied his father to 
 Rome, where he greatly improved himself. He succeeded hh 
 father in his honours, and in 171,5 was .Tppointed first jiainter to the 
 king. To his professional talents he added a taste for literature, 
 and wrote a poetical epistle.on painting in a style of elegance. He 
 died in 1722. 3. His son Charles was an eminent artist, and a dra- 
 matic poet. He died in 1752, aged 58. 4. Noel Nicholas Cov- 
 pel, another son of Noel Coy|)el, and brother of Antony, was boi'ii 
 at Paris in 16P2. His father dying while he was youiig, he lost 
 several advantages of instruction; but he actp'.ired great know- 
 leilge by his own application, and produced a picture for a royal 
 prize, which was highly admired. He also painted some ln\e 
 church pieces. In 1733 he was appointed a professor in the aca- 
 demy, and died in 1735. 
 
 COZUMEL, an island near the west coast of Y'ocatan, wliere 
 Cortez landed and refreshed his troops before entering upon the 
 conquest of Mexice, 
 
 CRAB, in zoology. See Cancer. 
 
 Cuab, an engine of wood, with three claws, placed on the 
 ground like a capstan, and used on launching or heaving ships 
 into the dock. See Plate XLV 1 1, fig. 15. 
 
 C'rab's Claws. See Materia Medica. 
 
 Crab's-Eyes. See Materia Medica. 
 
 Crab, or Gin, an engine used for mounting large giins on their 
 carriages, &c. It is composed of three long and stout legs, meet-,' 
 
 ing together at their tops ; these legs are 
 
 poles of about 12 
 
 or 13 feet long, whose diameters at the lower eiul are about four 
 inches, five just below the roller besides the cheeks that are added 
 to them in that place, and about three inches and a half above. 
 
 CRACATOA, the most southern of a cluster of islands lying in 
 the entrance of the Straits of Sunda in the East Indies. 
 
 CKACOVIA, or CRACOW, a palatinate of Poland, bounded 
 on t'le N, bv Siradia, on the S. by Hungary ; and on the W. by 
 Silisia, The principal towns are Cracow, and Landscorn, 
 
 Cracow, or Crackow, situated in the above-mentioned pala- 
 tinate, was built by Cracus I, king of I'ohind, and was formeily 
 the capital where the kings were elected and crowned. 
 
 CRADLE, a well-known machine in whi<h infants are rocked 
 to sleep. It denotes also that part of the stix'k of a cross-bow 
 where the bullet is put. 
 
 Cradle, in surgery, a cii-^e in which a broken leg is laid after 
 being set. 
 
 Cradle, among shipwri.L;hts, a tinvber frame made along the 
 outside of a ship by the bilge, for the convenience of lauwtl*- 
 iiig her with ease and safety. Sei' Vlate XLV It. fig. Itj. 
 
 CRAFT, in the sca-langnage, signifies all manner of nets, lines, 
 hooks, &c. used in fishing. I len; e all such little vessels, as ketches^ 
 hoys, and smacks, &c. used in the lishihg trade, are called small 
 craft. 
 
 CRALIOVA VELIKA, a town of Sclavonia, 52 miles E. ef 
 Carlstadt. 
 
 (UAMBE, S*A Cabbage, Sea Beaoh Kale, or Sea Cole- 
 woR'i, in iiotany, a genus of the silicpiosa order, and tetrad" ;,aniia 
 class of plants; natinal order, siliqtiosn-. FilauK nts, the four 
 longer forked at top, \\ ith one anthera at the end of each; the 
 fitiit a tlry, globose, and ileiriduous berry. L here MC six species, 
 
 alt*
 
 CRA 
 
 CRA 
 
 ;\J1 heibaccoiK esciilonts wilh pert'iinial roots, produtiiig amuiallj 
 large leavi-srcsoinbliii;; tlioso of cabbage sijieadiiig on the t;rouii(l, 
 with itroiie flowcr-stal^Ks and yc-llowish flowers. 
 
 CRAMP, in medicine, a convulsive contraction of a imisrular 
 part of the body, being either natnral, as in convulsive con^ti^u- 
 tioni, or ai-i.idenlal, IVoni living in cold places, under ground, &:c. 
 It alfccts all pra-ts indifl'erently, but the ham, calves, lect, and toes, 
 oUeiier than the arms and hands: it is seldom mortal, though its 
 returns ai'e ol'ten quick, ar.d continuance long, with great pain 
 »iul distension of some vessels, as appears from the linots and 
 ganffjions it occasions. . If it be natural, observe llie cure as in an 
 epilepsy or convulsions; if accidental, it is removed by rubl>in<T; 
 the part ati'ected. To prevent the cramp in the calves of the legs, 
 stretch out the heel as far as possible, at tlie same time drawing 
 up tlie toes towards tlie body. 
 
 Cramp I'lSH, or To^PbiDo. Seel^.\jA. 
 
 CRAM PONEi'':, in iieraldry, an epitlict given to a cro=;s whicli 
 has at each end a cran'.p oV Sj^are piece coming from it ; tiiat Iroin 
 the arm in chief towards the sinister angle, that from the arm on 
 that side downwards, that from the arm in base towards the de.xter 
 aide, and from the dexter arm upwards. 
 
 CRAN-CRRRY. See Vaccinium. 
 
 Cranberry, in geocraphv, a thriving town of New Jersey, in 
 Middlese.x county, IG miles S. S. W. of Brunswick. 
 
 CRAN'niiuRy Islands, two islands of the United States, on the 
 coa^t of tlie district of Maine. 
 
 CRANBOURN, or CRANBURN, a town of Dorsetshire, on 
 the borders of Hampsliire. 
 
 C RAX BROOK, a town in Kent, 1.3 miles S. of Maidstone, and 
 5'i S. E. of London. 
 
 CRANE, in ornithology. See Akde.\. 
 
 Crane, in mechanics. See Mkchanics, (Art. 19.) 
 
 CRANGANORE, a tov;n of liindostan on the coast of Malabar, 
 S3 miles S. S. W. of Calicut. 
 
 CRAXICHIS, in botany, a genus of tl>e gvnandria diandria 
 class and order. NiUural order orchideaL*. N'ectary galeated, 
 There are five species, all natives of Jamaica. 
 
 CllANIOLARFA, in botanv, a genus of the didynamia angi- 
 osperjuia class and order. Natural order Pcrsonata-. Calyx 
 double of the flower; perianth four-leaved ; spathe one-leaved ; co- 
 rella tube very long. One species, viz. C. annua, found in the 
 neighbourhood of (.\.rtluigena in New Spain. 
 
 CRANIUM. See Anatomy. The word conies from the 
 Greek xjan'ox, of xoiiv©-, galea, a helmet ; because it serves to de- 
 fend the brain like a head-piece. 
 
 CRANK, a contrivance in machines, in manner of an elbow, 
 only of a square form, projecting from a spindle, and serving by 
 its rotation to raiie and lall the pistons of engines. 
 
 Crank likewise denotes the iron support lor a lantern, and also 
 the iron made fast to a stock of a bell for ringing it. In the sea- 
 language, a ship is said to be crank-sided wlien slie can bear but 
 snrall sail, for fear of oversetting; and when a ship cannot be 
 brought on the ground without tianger, she is said to be crank by 
 the ground. 
 
 C^IAN.MER, Thomas, a celebrated archbishop, reformer, and 
 martyr, was the son of Thomas Cranmer, Esq. of Aslacton in Not- 
 tinghamshire, wliere he was born in 14R9. At the age of 14, he 
 wa^ admitted a student of Jesus' College, Cambridge, of which 
 he afterwards became fellow ; but marrymg the relation of an inn- 
 keeper's wife, he lost his fellowship and quitted the college. On 
 the death of his wife he was readmitted fc-Uow of Jesus' college.-. 
 In i;vi3, he took the degree of D. D. and was maile theological 
 lecturer and examiner. Tlie plague being at Cambridge, he re- 
 tired to tlie house of a relation at \\'althani Abbev, where meeting 
 with I'ox the king's almoner, and Gardener the secretary, he gave 
 his opinion concerning tlie king's marriage with Catherine mucii to 
 the satisfaction of Henry. J'liis opinion was, lliat instead of dis- 
 ])iituig about the validity of tlie king's marriage with Catharine, 
 they should reduce the matter to this simple qui;btion, " WhetlKM- 
 a man may marry his brother's wit'e or not:" AV hen the king 
 was told of it, he said, " This fellow has got the right sow bv the 
 car." lie then sent for him to court, made him one of his chap- 
 lains, and ordered liiin to write in vindication of the divorce in 
 agitation. 'I'his book having quieted the king's tender conscience, 
 he was de^n■ous that all Europe should be convinced of the iUcca- 
 li'y of his marriagcAvith Queen Cutharine-; and for that purpose 
 
 sent Cranmer to France, Italy, and Germany, to dispute the mat- 
 ter wilh tlie divines of those countries. At Nuremberg Cranmer 
 married a second wife. Being returned to England, in March 
 lj.53, he was consecrated Abp. of Canterbury ; in May following 
 he pronounced the sentence of divorce between the king ana 
 (pieen; and soon after married the amorous monarch to Anna Bo- 
 leyn. Being now at the hend of the cluir-jh, he exerted liimself iiv 
 tlie business of the Reformation. The Bible was tian-!.;ted into 
 English, and monasteries were dissolved principally by his meanf. 
 In l.i36, the royal conscience again requiring his assi;tancc, he di- 
 vorced the king from Anna Boleyn. In 1;)37, he visited his ciio' 
 cese, and endeavoured to abolish the superslitious observation of 
 li.;lidays. Id 1.t3'J, he and some of the bishops fell under the 
 king's displeasure, because they would not give their consent in 
 parliament lh..t the monasteries should be suppressed for the king's 
 sole use. He also strenuously opposed the act fur the six articles 
 in the house of lends, speaking three days against it: and upui: it.s 
 passing, sent away his wife into (icrmany . !n ls>40, he vsas one of 
 the commisjioners for inspecting into matters of religion, and ex- 
 plaining some of its chief doctrmes. Tlie result of their commission 
 was the book intitled " A necessary Erudition of any Christian 
 man. After Lord Cromwell's death, (in whose behalf he had 
 written to tlie king,) he retired and lived in gre;it privacy, not 
 meddling with state afiairs. In 1541, he gave ordeis tor taking 
 away superstitious shrines; and, exchanging Bishopsbourn for Be- 
 kesbourn, united the latter te his dioie^e. In 1j4l', he procured 
 the " Act for the Advancement of true lleligion, and the AboKsli- 
 ment of the Contrary," which moderated tlie rigour of the six ar- 
 ticles. Tlie king contmued afterward.s to jirotect him from Ids 
 enemies; and at his death appointed him one of tlie executors of 
 his will, and one of the regents of the kingdom. In 154'i, ha 
 crowned Edward VI. during whose short reign he promoted the 
 reformation to the utmost of his power; and w;is parlii iilarlv in- 
 strumental in composing, correcting, and estabti-hing the liturcv 
 by act of parliament. He had also a share in compiling the .59 
 articles. In ljj3, he opposed the settlement of the crown upon 
 Lady Jane Gray, though at last, through importunily, he was pre- 
 vailed upon to set his hand to it. Upon Quei-n Mary's accession, 
 he was committed to the tower; partly for setting his hand to the 
 instrument of Lady Jane's succession, and partly for the pul.'lic^ 
 oiler he had made of justifying openly the religious proceedings of 
 the late king. Some of his frieiuls, foreseeing the storm that was 
 likely to fall upon him, advised him to lly, but he refused. In 
 the ensuing parliament, Nov. 3, he was attainted, and at Guildhall 
 found guilty of high treason; whereupon the fruits of his arch- 
 bishopric were sequestered. In April, 1jj4, he with liidlcy and 
 l^atimer were removed to Oxford, for a public di-putation with 
 the Papists; which was held there towards the middle of the 
 month, with great noise, triumph, and impudent confidence on 
 the Papists side, and with ai much gravity, learning, modesty, and 
 convincing sufficiency, on the side of the Prote^tan^ bishops. The 
 20th of April, two days after the end of these disputations, Cran- 
 mer and the two others were brought before the commissioners, 
 and asked, whether they would subscribe (to Popery)? which 
 ihey unanimously rel'using. Were condemned as heretics. I'roui 
 this sentence the archbishop appealed to the just judgement of the 
 Almighty, and wrote to the council giving yiem an account of the 
 disputation, and desiring the quern's pardon- for his treason, which 
 it seems was not yet remitted. By the convocation which met this 
 year, his Defence of the true and Catholic Doctrine of the Sacrament 
 of the Body and Blood of our Saviour Christ, was ordered to be burnt. 
 Some of Ins friends petitioned the ijueen in his behalf; putting her in 
 mind how he had once preserved her in hertalher'stinie, by his earn- 
 est intercessions with him for lier. All solicitations, however, were 
 ineffectual; and the arclibishop being degraded, and nm-t ignomi- 
 iiiouslv treated, w.i^ at laH flattered and terrihed into an in^ino-r*- 
 recantation and renunciation of the Proti"-tant faith. But thi> tri- 
 umph was not suflicienl to gratify tlie pious vengeance of the R<i- 
 niis:i Mary. On the L'4lh of Eeb. 1 jj(), a writ was signed for the 
 burning of Cranuur; and on the L'4th of .March, which was the 
 f.ital day, he w';is brought to St. Mary's clnirch, Cambridge, ami 
 placed on a kind of stsge over against the pulpit, where Dr. Cole 
 was appointed to preacli a sermon on the occasion. While Cole 
 was haranguing, Cranmer expressed great luw-ard coiifu-ion; often 
 lilting up his Jiandi and eyes to heaven, and frequently shedding 
 lears^ At the end of the sermon, w1k;i) Cole desired hiiii to makti 
 
 a
 
 CRA 
 
 52 
 
 CII A 
 
 an open proiession of his fuilli, as he had promised liim he wmild, 
 he i.fjt praved in the mo>l fervent manner; then made an exhort- 
 stinii to the people present, not to set their min<is upon the world, 
 lo love each other, and to be charitable. After this he made a 
 coni'ession of his faitli, bet;inning with the creed, and concluding 
 vith the^e word^ : " And I believe every word and sentence taught 
 by our Saviour Je^tis Christ, his apostles, and prophets, in the Old 
 and New 'i'estamenl. And now (added he) I come to the great 
 thing', that so inucii troubleth nty conscience more than any thing 
 I ever did, or sai<l, in my whole life; and that is the setting abroad 
 a writing contrary to the truth, which 1 here now renounce, as 
 tilings written with my hand coi-.trarv to the- truth which I thought 
 in my heart ; and written for fear of death, and lo save my life if it 
 might be: that is, all such bills and pajiers which I have written, 
 or signed with my hand since my degradation, wherein 1 liavc 
 written many things untrue. And forasmuch as my hand olVend- 
 ed, writing contrary to my heart, my hand shall first l)e punished; 
 for, may I come to the tire, it shall be first burned. As for the 
 pope, f refuse him, as Christ's enemy and antichrist, with all his 
 fahe doctrine. And as for the sacrament, I believe as 1 have 
 taught in my book against the Bishop of Wincliesler." Tluinder- 
 struck with this unexpected declaration, the enraged Popish crowd 
 admonished him not to dissemble. "All! (replied he) since 1 
 lived hitherto, I have been a hater of falsehood, and a lover of 
 simplicity, and never before this time have I disseinbled." 
 Whereupon thev pulled him off the stage with the utmost fury, 
 and hurried him to the place of hi-^ martyrdom over against Baliol 
 College; where he put off his clothcii in haste, and standing in his 
 shirt, and without shoes, was fastened with' a chain to the stake. 
 Some pressing him to agree to his former recantation, he answered, 
 shewing his liaiid, " This is the hand that wrote it, and therefore it 
 shall first suffer punishment." Fire being applied to him, he stretch- 
 ed out his right hand into the flame, and held it there unmoved (ex- 
 cept th'it once with it he w iped his face) till it was consumed ; crying 
 uitli a loud voice, " This hand hath offended ; and often repeating, 
 " This unworthy right hand." At last, the fire getting up, he 
 soon expired, never stirring or crying out; only keeping liis eyes 
 fixed to h.eaven, -and repeating more ilian once, " Lord Jesus, re- 
 ceive my spirit." Such was the en'd of the renowned Thomas 
 Craniner, in the 67th year of his age. Abp. Ch'ani>ier wro e a 
 great number of books: many of them he published himself; and 
 many of them still remain in MS. viz. two folio volumes in the 
 king's liljrarv, several letters in the Cottonian Library, ^c. 
 
 CRANNY, in glass-making, an iron instrument wherewitli the 
 necks of gl.asses are formed. 
 
 CRANSAC, a town of France, hi the department of Aveiron, 
 15 miles N. W. of Rhodes. 
 
 CRANTARA, among the ancient Britons, was a sort of mili- 
 tary signal used for collecting the distant and scattered warriors to 
 the slatidard'of their chief. 
 
 CRAON, a town of France, in the department and late pro- 
 vince of Maine. 
 
 CRANZIA, in botany, a genus of the pentandria monogynia 
 class and order. Calyx five-parted; |»tals five; nectary none ; 
 capsule, berried There is but one species, viz. C. acuieata, a 
 prirkly shrub ; native of the East Indies. 
 
 CRAPE, in coniminxe, a kind of stuff made in the manner of 
 gauze, with raw silk, gummed and twisted on tlie mill. 
 
 CR.\PIS, [y.sciri;,'] temperature; constitution arisuig from the 
 various properties of humours. 
 
 Cr.isis, in grammar. See Syn.brests. 
 
 CR.ASPKDIA, a genus of the class and order syngenesis polv- 
 pmia segrega'a. Calyx imi)ricate ; florets in depressed bundles ; 
 lioun feathered ; receptacle chaily. There is one species, a native 
 ef New Z'»i>laiid. 
 
 CRASSl'L.-V, Lesser Ormn'e, in botany, a geniw of tiie 
 P'-'iitandria pentacynia class and order. Natur:d order Suc^ulentnj. 
 Cilyx one-leafed, five-cleft; petals five ; nectareous scales five at 
 the ba-e of the germ ; capsule five, many-seeded. Tjiere are six- 
 ty-four species. 
 
 C'RASSUS, M. LiciNius, a celebrated Roman, surnanied the 
 Rich on account of his opulence. At fiir^t he was very circum- 
 siribed in his circumstances, but by educating slaves, and selling 
 them at a hig.h price, he soon enriched himjeif. When the Gla- 
 diators with Spartacus at their head had sprtad au universal alarm 
 
 in Italy and defeateil some of the Roman gener.ih, Crassus wks 
 sent against them. A battle was fought, in uhich Crassus slaogh- 
 tcred i;,'i(lO of the slaves, put an eiui to the war, and was ho- 
 noured w ith an ovation at his reluvn. II e was soon after made con- 
 sul with Ponipey, A. U. C. 6S'J, and in this high office lie dis- 
 played his opulence, by entertaining the populace at 10,000 tables. 
 He was afterwards Censor, and formed the first triumvirate with 
 Pompey and Ca;sar, As his love of riches was more predominant 
 than that of glory, Crassus never imitated the ambitious conduct 
 of his colleagues, but was satisfied with the province of Syria, 
 which promised an inexhaustible source of wealth. AVith hopes 
 of enlarging his possessions he set otT from Rome, though the 
 omens proved unfavourable, and every thing seemed to threaten 
 his ruin. He crossed the F.uphrates, and liasteiied to make him- 
 self master of Parthia. He was betrayed in his march by the 
 di-lay of Artavasdes, king of Armenia, and the perfiily of Ari- 
 anines. He was met in a large plain . bv Surena the Parthian 
 general, and a battle was fought in which 20,000 Romans were 
 killed and 10,000 taken prison^s. The darkness of the night 
 favoured the escape of the rest ; and Crassus, forced by the mu- 
 tiny and turbulence of his soldiers, and the treachery of his 
 guides, trusted himself to the general of the enemy on pretence 
 of pro|iosing terms of accommodation. However his head was 
 cut olf and sent to Orodes, who poured mcUed gold dowa his 
 throat. He has been called avaricious, yet lie shewed himself 
 always ready to lend money to his friends without interest. He 
 was fond of philosophy, and his know ledge of history w as great and 
 extensive. 
 
 CRAT-EGl'S, Wild-service Tree, Hawthorn, &c. : A 
 genus of the digynla order, and icosandria class of plants ; natural 
 order, Pomacea". Calyx cpiinquefid ; petals five; berry inferior, 
 two-seeded. Tw enty species, three of the tree and shrub kind, 
 hardy and deciduous. Those most valuable for economical and or- 
 namental |)urposes in gardening are the following: 
 
 C. OxYCAN'THUs, The Hawthorn, or ^VH^rE Thorn, grows 
 naturally all over Europe. In the state in which we usually see it, 
 it is notliing better tlian a tall, uncouth, irregular shrub ; but 
 trained up as a standard, it sw-ells to a large timber size, with a 
 tall stem and a full spreading head. The standard hawthorn, 
 'vhether we view its flowere in the spring, its foliage in the summer, 
 or ils fruit in the autumn and winter, is one of the most ornamental 
 plants standing singly, that can he scattered over a park or lawn. 
 This shrub is very useful for making fences. See Hedges. To 
 propagate a (jiiantity of quick, one method is generally practised, 
 viz.S^rst burying the haws, and taking them up to sow the Octo- 
 ber following; though Hanbury thinks it preferable to prepare 
 the beds, and sow the haws soon after they are gathered. W hoever 
 pursues the _ former method, having gathered what ([uantity of 
 haws will answer his purpose, should, in some bye-corner of the 
 kitclien garden or nursery dig a hole or pit capacious enough to 
 receive them ; some of the earth which came out of the hole, 
 after the haws afe put in it, should be laiil upon them ; and being 
 thus careftilly covered they may remain tluretiU October. Then, 
 havjng ground well dug, and cleared of the roots of all tiouble- 
 some weeds, and the mould being fit for working, the beds should 
 be made for the haws. Four feet is a very good width for these 
 beds, as they m;iy be easily reached over to be weeded ; and if 
 the alleys between be e;ich one foot and a half wide, they will 
 be of a good size. The beds being marked out with a line, 
 sufficient mould must be raked out to cover the haws an inch and 
 an half deep. .This being done, and the bottom of the beds being 
 made level and even, the haws should be sown, and afterwards 
 gently tapped dow n with the back of the spade ; and then the 
 line iiiouki, which had been raked out of the beds, must be thrown 
 over them, covering them an inch and a half deep. In the spring 
 the plants will come up, and in the summer following should be 
 kept clear of weeils; though it sometimes happens, that few of 
 them will appear till the second spring alter sowing. Sometimes 
 the voting plants are jjlanled out from the seed-beds at one, two, 
 or three years old ; but the best plants are obtained by transplanting 
 them into fresh mouhl the first or second year, letting them remain 
 in the nursery 'two or three years longer. Of this species there are 
 the following varieties : the large scarlet, the yellow, the white, 
 the maple-leaved, and the double blossomed hawthorns; and the 
 Glastonbury thonv. The scarlet haw tliora is c-\cceding!y large, 
 
 'cblongj
 
 CRA 
 
 ^^3 
 
 ;) 
 
 CRE 
 
 'jlilong, perfectly siiiooUi, and of a briglit scarlet. Tlie yellow 
 liaw is a most exquisite plant. The buds are of a tine yellow, 
 and tlie iVuit is of the colom- of gold. 'J'he tree retains its fruit 
 all winter. It was originally brought from Virginia, is greatly 
 admired, and no collection of hardy trees should be without it. 
 White hawthorn hardly ever grows to the height of the common 
 hawthorn, and the fruit is small. Maple-leaved hiiwthorn grows 
 to near '20 feet high, and has very few thorns. The leaves are 
 large, resemble those of the maple, and are of a whitish green. 
 The flowers are produced in large bunches in June, and are suc- 
 ceeded by remarkable fruit, of a shining red, which looks beauti- 
 ful in winter. Double-blossomed hawthorn produces a full tlowcr, 
 and is one of the sweetest ornaments in the spring. These beauti- 
 ful double llowers come out in large bunches in May, and the 
 tree often apjiears coveretl with them. Glastonbury thorn differs 
 iu no respect from the common hawthorn, except that it some- 
 times flowers in winter. It is said to have been originally the 
 start of Joseph of Arimathea, who, according to tradition, at- 
 tended by 11 companions, came over into Britain, and founded 
 the lirst Christian church in this isle. As a proof of his mission, 
 he is said to have stuck his staff into the ground, which imme- 
 diately shot forth and bloomed. This tree is pretended to have 
 blossomed on Christmas day ever since; but Hanbury says, in 
 fine seasons they v\\\ sometimes be in blow before Christmas, 
 sometimes they allord their blossoms in February, and some- 
 times it so happens that they will be out so early as Christmas day. 
 
 CRATCHES, in the manege, aswelling on the pastern, under 
 th.e fetlock, and sometimes under the hoof ; for which reason it is 
 tlistingui^hed into the sinew cratches, which afiect the sinew, and 
 those upon the cronet, called <piitter-bones. 
 
 CRATliK, the cup, a constellation in the southern hemis- 
 phere, consisting in Mr. Flamstecd's catalogue of 1 1 stars. Sec 
 
 AsTRONO.MY. 
 
 Crater, in natural history, the mouth of a volcano. See 
 Volcano. 
 
 CRATES, a famous philosopher of Thebes: a disciple of Dio- 
 genes the Cynic. It is said that he threw all his money into the 
 sea, that he might the more freely apply h'mself to the studv of 
 philosophy. Others assert that he placed it in another person's 
 hands, with orders to give it to his children if they should hap- 
 pen to be fools: For (said Crates), if they should be philosophers, 
 tliey will have no need of it ; in wdiich case it was to be given to 
 the |)eo|)le. He nourished about B. C. 32S. 
 
 CRA TEVA, the Garlic Pear, a genus of the monogynia 
 order, and dodecaiidria class of plants; natural order, Putaminea'. 
 Corolla three-petaled ; calyx live-ch-fl; berry one-celled, manv- 
 seeded. There are five species, natives of both the Indies ; trees 
 chielly distinguished by their fruit. 
 
 CRATO, a small town of Portugal, in Alentejo, 10 miles W. 
 of Port-alegre. 
 
 CRAVAN, or CRAVANT, a town of France, in the depart- 
 ment of Yontie, nine miles S. E. of Auxerre. 
 
 CRAVEN, in geography, a district in Yorkshire, about the 
 source of the river Air. 
 
 Craven, a county in Newbern district, N. Carolina. 
 
 CRAX, in ornithology, the Crassou, a genus of birds, of (lie 
 order gallina;. Generic character: Bill strong, convex, and thick, 
 the base of each mandible covered with a cere ; nostrils small, fixed 
 in the cere, feathers which cover the head often curling at the ends : 
 tail large andstraight. Five species are enumerated. 
 
 C. Alector, the Peacock Pheasant ot Guiana. It abounds 
 in l)ra/il, and the warm parts of America. It is about the 
 size of a small turkey, and is black, witha white belly. A yellow 
 wax coveis about one-half of each mandible; the tongue is 
 entire; the temples are bare and black. These birds are very 
 common at Guiana ; and are called piiwese by the natives from their 
 cry, w hich is somewhuT similar ; are pretty numerous in the woods, 
 and make no small part of the food ofthe planters, who are supplied 
 by the Indian hunters; and their flesh is reckoned as delicate as 
 that of a turkey. They are easily brought up tame. See Plate 
 XXXVHI. ^ b 1 
 
 C. RuKRA, the Peruvian-Hen, is red, with a bluish bead. 
 These birds are natives of Mexico and Peru. They feed on 
 fruits, and perch on trees : the Hesh is white ; and esteemed good 
 food. They arc frequently kept tame in our menageries in Eng- 
 land, and readily mix with other poultry, feeding on bread and 
 
 vol. II. — no, iy. 
 
 grain ; but they are not able to bear the dampness of our mea- 
 dows, which makes their toes rot otT. 
 
 CRAYER, Caspeu De, an eminent painter, born at Y^iitwerp 
 in l.^Si. He was a disciple of Raphael Coxi», who^e father had 
 studied under Raphael ; but he soon far sur|);issed his master, and 
 formed lor himself a manner that was exceedingly pleasing. The 
 lirst work which established him in the favour ot the court at I'lns- 
 sels, was a portrait of Cardinal T'erdinaud, brother to the king of 
 Spain, which he painted at full length, and as large as life. In 
 that picture he succeeded so happily, that the king sent him a 
 gold chain with a medal, and an appointment for a considerable 
 pension. But nothing places the lalenis of Craycr in a stronger 
 light, than the testimony of Rubens, who went to Antwerp on 
 IHirpose to visit him, and after examining attentively his picture of 
 the Centurion, hi the abbey of AHIeghem, he declared that no 
 painter couki surpass Crayer. Nor was he less distinguished by 
 Vaiidyck. He had not so much fire in his compositions as Rubens, 
 but his design is frequently more correct. His compositions gene- 
 rally consi^led of a small number of figures: and lie avoided the 
 encumbering of his subject with any thing that did not contribute to 
 its elegance or probability. '1 here is a remarksble variety in his 
 draperies, and an equal degree of simplicity in their folds ; and 
 his colouring is admirable. He was accounted to approach 
 nearest to Vandyck, not only in liistory but in portrait. He prin- 
 cipally painted religious subjects, and thougli he lived to a great 
 age, yet to the last month of his life, he retained the same force 
 and fri edom which he possessed in his most vigorous time. 
 
 CRAYON, [crayon, French,] a general name for all coloured 
 stones, earths, or other minerals and substances, used in designing 
 or painting in pastel : whether they have been beaten and reduced 
 to a paste, or are used in their primitive consistence, after sawing 
 or cutting them into long narrow slips. In tliis last miinner are 
 led crayons made, of blood-stone or red chalk ; black ones, of 
 ch:u-coal and black-lead. Crayons of all other colours are com- 
 positions of earths reduced to paste. 
 
 Cravon-Painting. See Painting. 
 
 CRAZE-MILL, or CRAZING-M ILL, a mill in all respects 
 like a grist-mill to grind corn, and so called by the lin-miners, who 
 use it to grind their tin, which remains too great after tramjiling. 
 
 CREAM, [ci-emnr, Latin,] a general name applicable to all 
 substances that separate from a liquor, and are collected upon its 
 surface. 
 
 Cream, Corstorphine, a very agreeable preparation of milk, 
 slightly acidulated, for which the village of Corstorphine has been 
 famous for centuries p;ist. The Rev. Mr. Oliver says " the most 
 approved process" for making it " is very simple, and is as fol- 
 lows: They put the milk, when fresh drawn, inio a barvel, which 
 is submitted to a certain degree of heat, generally by immersion 
 in warm water. This, accelerates the stivge of fei mentation ; the 
 serous is separated from the other parts ol the milk, the oleaginous 
 and coagiilable ; the serum is drawn olf by a hole in the lower 
 part of the vessel ; what remains is put into the ])iunge cliurn, and 
 after being agitated for some time is sent to market." 
 
 Cream of Milk, the most oily part, which being naturally only 
 mixed, and not dissolved in the rest, soon separates, being'speci- 
 fically lighter ; alter v\ hich it collects on the surface; froin which 
 it is generally skimmed, to complete the cUseiigagement of the 
 oily from the caseous and serous parts. Cream is an agreeable 
 and very nourishing article of food, when fresh; but too^ fat and 
 diliicult to be digested by persons of a sedentary life, or possessed 
 of a weak stomach. It is nevertheless of considerable service in 
 medicine, as a lenient (though palliative) application to tetters and 
 erysipelas, which are attended with pain, and proceed from acrid 
 humours. 
 
 Cream, a Method of Preserving. Take 1? ounces of while 
 sugar, and dissolve them in the smallest possible qu.intilv of water, 
 over a moderate tire. After the solution has taken place, the sugar 
 ought to be boiled for about two minutes in an earthen vessel ; 
 when 12 ounces of new cream should be immediately added, and 
 the whole uniformly mixed, while hot. Let it then graduallv 
 cool, and pour it iiito a bottle, which must be carefully corked. 
 If kept in a cool place, and not exposed to the air, it m.iy be pre- 
 served in a Sweet state for several weeks, and even months. 
 
 Cream ok Tartar, is the crystals of tartar pulveri^cil. It is 
 
 a supertartrate of potash well known as a mild purgative, and of 
 
 late years has been employed largely vith advsiilage in dropsies. 
 
 r ' CRJiATION.
 
 C R E 
 
 54 
 
 ORE 
 
 C'RRA'l'lON, icrcaiio, tVcm axn, l.^l.] \u its primary im- 
 port, si<;niiies the bringing into being scmethiiig which did not he- 
 ion* exi'st. The t<-nii is therefore most generally applied to the 
 original productions of the materials wliereof t!ie visible worUI is 
 composed. It is also luwl in a secondary or subordinate sense, 
 to denote tho-.e subsequent operations of the Deity upon the mat- 
 ter so produced, by which the whole system of nature, and all the 
 primitive genera oi things, received their form, qualities, and laws. 
 There are few subjects, concerning which there have been more 
 disputes than this. ' It is certain that many of the ancient philo- 
 sophers had no idea of its being possible to produce a sub- 
 stance out of nothing, or that even the power of the Deity himself 
 could work without" any materials to work upon. Hence some of 
 Ihem, particularly Aristotle, asserted that the world was eternal, 
 both as to its matter and form. Others, though they believed that 
 •-the gods had given the world its form, yet imagined the materials 
 w hereof it is composed to have been eternal, indectl the opinions 
 of the ancients, who had not had the benelit of revelation, were on 
 this head so confused and contradictory, that nothing of any con- 
 sequence can be deduced from them. The freethinkers of the 
 present and former ages have denied the possibility of creation, as 
 being a contradiction to reason ; and of con J quence have taken 
 the opportunity from thence to discredit revelation. On the 
 other hand, many defenders of the sacred writings have asserted, 
 that creation out of nothing, so far from being a contradiction to 
 reason, is not only probable, but demonstralily certain. Nay, 
 some have argued, that Irom the very inspection of the visible 
 system of nature, we are able to infer, that it was once in a state of 
 iion-c?;istence. It v/ould be impossible for us, however, to enter 
 into the nudtiplicity of arguments used on both sides ; nor ran we 
 pretend to settle it on the ground of human reason, since the sub- 
 ject is confessedly above human comprehension. But one thing 
 appears to be certain, that, as we have no ideas but what we receive 
 from our senses, and as no man ever sa-.v any thiiiT created out of 
 Roih'iig, so the idea of such a creation never could have entered 
 into 'he mind of man, if it had not been at tir.~t revealed to the first 
 p:iir, by the Crc.lor himself, and afterwards ciimnumicated by 
 tradition to their posterity. Hence the Christian may draw a dc- 
 -cisive argument in favour of the divine origin of that system of re- 
 ligion, wirch fir^t promulgated this doctrine. No person who be- 
 lieves in the existence of one infinite, omnipotent, and omniscient, 
 Deity, can doubt, that, all other beings whatsoever are his crea- 
 tures. Men and other animals that inhabit the earth, the. air, and 
 the waters; all the immense varieties of herbs and plants of which 
 the vegetable kingdom cmsi^ts ; the globe of the earth, and the ex- 
 p.'.nse of the heavens ; these we know to have been produced by 
 his power. Besides the terrestrial world which we inhabit, we see 
 many other material bodies disposed around it in the wide extent 
 of space. The moon, which is in a particidar manner connected 
 With our earth, and even dependent upon it ; the sun, and the other 
 olanets with their satellites, which, like the earth, circulate round 
 the sun, and appear to derive from him light and heat; those 
 bodies which we call fixed stars, and consider as illuminating and 
 cherishing with heat <ach its peculiar system of planets ; and the 
 cornets which at certain periods surprise us with their appearance, 
 and whoje connection with the general system of nature, or with 
 any particular system of planets, we know very little about. See 
 Astronomy. These are so many more of the Deity's works, from 
 the contemplation of which we cannot but conceive the most aw- 
 ful lUeas of his infinite creative power. Matter, however, what- 
 ever the varieties of form under which it is made to appear, the 
 relative disposition of its parts, or the motions communicated to 
 it, is but an mfeiior part of the works of creation. We ourselves 
 are animated viith a much higher principle than brute matter ; in 
 viewing the manners and economy of the lower animals, we can 
 scarce avoid acknowledging even them to consist of soniething 
 more than mere modifications of matter and motion. T he other 
 planetary bodies which seem to be in circumstances nearly ana- 
 logous to those of our earth, are doubtless, aswellas it, destined for 
 the habitations of rational, intelligent beings. The existence of 
 created intell gences of a higher order than man, ajjpears ex- 
 tremely probable : — Of those .spiritual beings called Angels we 
 have express intimation in scripture, (See Angels.) Such are our 
 jiotions conorning the existence of beings essentially distinct from 
 raatter, and in their nature far superior to it : these are the crea- 
 tur.'s of the Deit^-. But the limits of creation we cannot pretend 
 
 to define. liou' far the regions of space are filled, we know not. 
 How the planetary worlds, the sun and the fixed itars, are occu- 
 pied, we cannot ascertain. AV'e are even ignorant how wide a di, 
 versify of torms, what an inrmense number of animated beings, in- 
 habit our own globe. So confined is our knowledge of creation ; 
 ) ct so grand, so awful, that part which our limited understandings 
 can comprehend ! At what periods of tinie the Deity executed 
 hissc\eral works of creation mankind have no particular infor- 
 mation. I'rom viewing the phenomena of nature, and considering 
 the general laws by which tliey are regulated, we cannot draw anv 
 conclusive, or even plausilde inference, with respect to the precise 
 time at which the universe began to c::ist. We know not, whether 
 the different systems of planets circulating round our sun and the 
 other fixed stars, were all created at once, or at dirtf?renl periods. 
 ^Ve cannot even determine, from any thing that appears on the 
 face of nature, whether our earth was not created at a later ])eriud 
 than any of her fellow planets which revolve round tlie sunie sun. 
 Astronomers are, from time to time, mr.king new discoveries in 
 the heavens ; and it is impossible to say whether some of these suc- 
 ce.;sive discoveries may not be owing to succes>ive~creations. Phi- 
 losophers have, indeed, formed some curious conjectures concern- 
 ing the aiitiquity of the earth, from the appearances of its surface, 
 and from the nature and disposition of its interior strata. The beds 
 of lava in the neighbourhood of volcanoes have afforded ground 
 for some calculations, which, though they do not fix tlie period of 
 the earth's origin, are yet thougiit to prove that period to have 
 been much more remote than the earliest age of sacred or profane 
 history. In the neighbourhood of mount Altna, or on the sides of 
 that extensive mountain, there are beds of lava covered over with 
 a considerable thickness of earth ; and another, which, though 
 known from ancient moinmients and historical records to have Is- 
 sued from the volcano at least 2000 years ago, is still almost entirely- 
 destitute of soil and vegetation: In one place a pit has been cut 
 through seven different strata of lava ; and these have been found 
 separated fiom each other by almost as many thick beds of rich 
 earth. Now, from the fact, that a stratum of lava 2000 years okl 
 is yet scantily covered with earth, it has been inferred by the in- 
 genious canon llebupero, who has laboured thirty years on the 
 natural history of mount Altna, that the lowest of these strata, 
 which have been found divided by so many beds of earth, must 
 have been emitted from the volcanic crater at least 14,000 years 
 ago ; and conseciuently that the age of I he earth, whatever it may ex- 
 ceed tl is term ot years, cannot possibly be less. Other facts of a "simi- 
 lar nature concur to favour this conjecture. But all these facts are as 
 nothing in comparison with the long series which would be requi- 
 site to establish such a conjecture as an incontrovertible truth. 
 And, besides, any evidence, which they can be supijosed to af- 
 ford, may be very easily explained. The bed of lava, w Inch in the 
 course of 2000 years has scarcely acquired a covering of earth, is 
 confessed to stand in a situation in which it is exposed to the spray 
 of the sea, and to all the violence of the winds and rains. In such 
 a situation, it cannot bethought that a thick bed of earth could, in 
 any length of time, be formed on it: we might as well expect 
 depth of soil and vigorous vegetation on the eraggy cliffs of hills. 
 In crevices here and there over it, in which the earth has been re- 
 tained, there is a depth of soil which supports large trees. The 
 fact, therefore, admits of no such inference as that which Recu- 
 pero has deduced from it. The local circumstances, again, of the 
 seven strata that have been pierced through, are very differerit. 
 They are situated at Jaci Ueale, in a situation where showers of 
 ashes from the volcano must frequently fall; and where whatever 
 falls nmst be naturally retained and accumulated: so that seven 
 beds of earth might be formed on these seven strata of lava, much 
 sooner than one thin layer could be formed on the stratum above 
 mentioned. In other places, some of which are within the infiu- 
 ence of the same aw ful volcano, and some adj;icent to that of \'e- 
 suvius, soil 's known to have accumulated on laya, with the help 
 of showers of ashes from the volcanoes, with suflicient rapidity to 
 justifvthis supposition concerning the coverings of the strata at 
 Jaci Beale. From the ob.ervation of these phienomena of volca- 
 noes, therefore, no tacts have been gained, that can help us to de- 
 termine with any certainty the earth's age. And so wide is the 
 variety of circumstances to be here taken into the account, that it 
 cannot be hoped that tills desideratum will be ever supplied from 
 this c|Uavter. But, by examining the composition and arrange- 
 ment of the interior strata of the globe, and by viewing the general 
 \ appearance
 
 C R E 
 
 55 
 
 C R E 
 
 :i,)oarnnce of its surface, pliilosopliers hrive fndoavuured to .ciiess 
 I the leiu;th of tiiiif (Ku-iiit; which it must liave existed. Observ- 
 ' ■.■^ the exuviae of sea aiut lanil anhnals depo-ited at profcnuid 
 ;rj)ths under ground, and accomp:»nied wiiii vegetable bodies in a 
 i.'od state of pre-ervation, as well as with oleaginous and bitumin- 
 I-- substances wliich have in all probability been formed from ve- 
 ■-lable bodies; and remarking at the same time with what cont'u- 
 on the other materials, composing tiiC crust of tiiis terrestrial ball, 
 .<•, in various instances, not arranged, but cast together; tlu-y 
 .live concluded tliat the earth must have existed 'or many an age 
 before the earliest events recorded in sacred or profane history, and 
 must have undergone many a revolution before it settled in its 
 present state. Such at least are the ideas which the Count de 
 ■ Bi'.ffon, M. de Luc, and Dr. Ilutton, have communicated con- 
 cerning its changes and antiquity. It is but iustice to these philo- 
 sophers to acknowledge, that they liave collected, with amazing 
 industry, almost every fact in the natural history of the earth that 
 can serve to give plausibility to their conjectures. But still their 
 facts, besides the inconsistency of many of them, are by far too 
 scantv to warrant the c^mrlusions which th.ev have deduced from 
 them. See Earth. Profane history is far from being decisive 
 foncerning the age of the world; nor is it to be expected th.t it 
 should. When the cartli first arose into existence, mankin'li'were 
 not spectators of the event: and wi' mav naturall}' imagine that 
 the first human beings who occupied it, would be too much busied 
 in furnishing themselves with the immediate necessaries and the 
 conveniences of life, to think of curious researches into its origin, 
 or even their own. Profane history is not, however, without ac- 
 counts of the age of tlie earth, and" the origin of human society ; 
 but these accounts are various and contradictorv. Plato, in his 
 Critias, mentions his Atlantis to have been buried in the ocean 
 about 9000 years before the age in which he wrote. lie asserts it 
 to have been well known to the F.gyptian priests, and to the co- 
 iemporary inhabitants of Attica. l3ut the learned world gene- 
 rally agree in regarding his accounts of that island as a fiction, 
 which the author himself did not design to be understood in any 
 other light. Tlie Chinese represent the world as some hundreds 
 of thousands of years older: and we are also told that the astrono- 
 mical records of the ancient Chaldeans carried hick the origin of 
 society to a very remote period; no less than 47.3,000 years. The 
 Egyptian priests reckoned between Menes and Setlion 341 gene- 
 rations. But tirese accounts are so discordant, and so slen<!crly 
 supported by evidence, that we cannot hesitate to reject them as 
 false; the fables of historians scarce merit so much attention as the 
 hypotheses of philosophers. From 'acred hi tory, we may reason- 
 ably expect more acciu-ale information concerning the antiipiity 
 of "the globe. As the authenticity of the Holy Scriptures is iit- 
 coiitrovertibly established, where"ver they aff./rd evidence con- 
 cerning any fact, that evidence must be re'garded as decisive. A 
 hot so important as the present may be th.ouglit highly worthy of a 
 place in them; but it should be "remembered. That' they hiive a 
 much higher object in view than the adjusting of chronology ; viz. 
 the eternal felicity of mankind. It is' evidently but a secondary 
 oijject of the Sc'riptures to hint at the ara of creation. We need 
 not, therefore, be surpiised that thev do not fix it with accuracy; 
 or that they leave us at a loss w>het"her to extend what they say 
 concerning tliat era to the whole contents of created space, or to 
 confine it to our earth and its inhubitarts; much less need we l)e 
 surprised, that among tlie numerous copies made out of them, dif- 
 ferent dates should be found in different versions. The Hebrew- 
 copy of the bible, w hich Christians consider as the most authentic, 
 dates the creation .3944 years before the Christian era. The Sa- 
 maritan bible, again, fixes the era of the creation 4305 years be- 
 fore the birth of Christ. And the Greek translation, known by 
 the name of the Septuagint version of the bible, gives 5270 as the 
 mmiber of the years, which intervened between those two periods. 
 By comparing "the various dates in tlie sacred v, ritings, examining 
 how these have co.ne to disagree and to be diversified in different 
 copies, endeavouring to reconcile the most authentic profane with 
 sacred chronology, some ingenious men have forined very plausi- 
 ble schemes of chronology. Ussher makes out from the 'llebiew 
 bible 4004 years, as the term between the creation and the vulgar 
 <ra of the biith of Christ: Josepbus, according to Dr. Wills and 
 Mr. Whiston, makes it 465« years; but the Rev. AVilliam Hales, 
 D.D. in his " Rectification of the Chronology of Josephus," with 
 ^f eat ingenuity and learning, d<-nionotrates it to be Sil 1 years. M. 
 
 I'ezron, with the help of the Sepluar:ir.t, extends it to 587'2 years. 
 Ussher's system is the most gt neraliy rect ived ; and, in our opi- 
 nion, is tlie best that has hitherto been given. But though these 
 differeut systems of chronology disagree, yet tiie diiferences among 
 them are so inconsiderable, v/hen compared with those v/hich we 
 find in the chronologies o/ the Chinese, th.e Chalde ns, and the 
 Egyptians, and they agree so well with the geneiai information of 
 authentic history, and with the appearances of nature and of so 
 ciety, that they may bo considered as nearly fixing the true period 
 of the creation of the eatth. See CriROfJoioCY. Some (liflicid- 
 ties occur in comparing the above accoiuil of the creation, with the 
 laws which appear at present to regulate the syst-'-m of natiue. It 
 seeiTis hard to conceive how the earth, while yet a stranger to the 
 influence of the sun, could experience the vicissitude of day and 
 nigiit. The condition of matter when the ea'tli was without" form 
 and void, and the operation of the Spirit of C^od on the face of the 
 waters, are equally mysterious. Some ingenious men have eagerly 
 laboured to remove these difficulties. Among these is Dr. Bur- 
 net, who supposes all the celestial bodies, even the sun and all the 
 other planets of the solar system, to have existed long befoie tlie 
 earth. The chaos on wliic-li the Spirit of God moved'^, consisted, 
 according to liim, of the first principles from which all terrestiial 
 bodies have been formed. W'hen tliose laws, by which the mate- 
 rial world is regulated, first began to operate on the mass, he sup- 
 poses that its grosser and heavier parts would sink towards the cen- 
 tre, and tliere form a solid ball. Around this solid ball, two spe- 
 cies of particles would still float together in confusion. Of these 
 he tliinks one, being more volatile, woidd by degrees make its 
 escape from tne other, would leave it still recumbent on the solid 
 centre, and spread around it in an atmosphere. The middle stra- 
 tum he composes of aqueous and oleaginous fluids; imd he makes 
 no doubt, that after the air had made its escape, tlie levity of tlie 
 oleaginous fluids would enable them to rise above the aqueous, diui 
 dispose themselves next the surface of the liquid mass. On them 
 he supposes the impure atmosphere to liave tlien deposited a quan- 
 tity of terrene particles, sulficient to form, by intermixture with 
 the oils, a thick crust of rich earth for the production of plants and 
 herbage, and to afford an haliitation to animals.- This delicate 
 shell lie was careful not to furrow with seas, or load with mountains; 
 either of tliese would liave reduced all to confusion. Sucli is his 
 earth; and after moulding it with so much ingenuity, and into so 
 happy a form, he contents himself, without venturing to use the 
 same freedoms with the remaining part of Moses's account of tiie 
 creation. We need not attempt to refute so absurd a theory which 
 has long been justly condemned as equally unsupported b"y scrip- 
 ture and philosophy. Mr. Wliiston treats"both the scriptures and 
 the laws of nature with greater reverence; yet he certainly in- 
 volves himself in no small difficulties in attempting to solve those 
 of Moses. He supposes the sun, moon, and stars, to be all more 
 ancient than the earth. The chaos from whicli the earth was 
 formed, he represents as Iiaving been originally the atmosphere of 
 a comet. The six days of the creation he w ould persuade us t<\ 
 be equal to six of our years: for he is of opinion that the earth did 
 not revolve daily round its axis, but only annually round its orbit, 
 till after the fall. On the first day or year, therefore, the more 
 ponderous parts of the chaos were acc'ording to this theory con- 
 glomerated into an orb of earth, the chinks and interstices over 
 that orb filled up with water, and the exterior part or atmosphere 
 rarefied, so as to admit some faint glinunering of the rays of the 
 sun. On the second day, the atmosph.ere was diffused to its due 
 extent around the earth, and reduced to a degree of rarity and pu- 
 rity which rendered it still more suitable for the transmission of 
 light; the earth was still more consolidated; and the waters, beiuj 
 blmcst entirely excluded from the interstices which they before 
 occupied, were partly spread over the surface of the earth, and 
 partly raised in vapour into the atmosphere or firmament. On the 
 third day the earth's surface became so irregular, in one place ris- 
 ing into hills, in another sinking into vales, as to cause the waters, 
 which were before equally diffused, to collect into seas and lakes, 
 leaving large tracts of ground unoccupied. And no sooner was a 
 part of the earth's surface lift bare by the wateis, than the general 
 influence of the sun produced on it a rich covering of heibage, and 
 all the diflerent species of vegetables. On the fourth day, tlie earth 
 was rendered subject to the regular influence of the s"uii, moon, 
 ai>d stars. On the fifth day, or year, things were so far advanced, 
 that fishes and fowls were bow produced fram the «att.r=. On tiie 
 
 sImIv
 
 C RE 
 
 56 
 
 CRE 
 
 sixth dav the earth was fiirnislicd with animals; and the lord of all 
 the other animals, man, was now created. Sueh is Mr. Whistou's 
 account of tlie phxnomcna of the Mosaic creation. Pnit he like- 
 vise assiiines much more tliaii can be reasonably granted. The 
 atmosphere of a comet could not well be the primitive chaos; it 
 is not an obscure, but a pellucid fluid ; and its exterior strata, if of 
 the same nature with the matter of our eartli, nmst be scorified by 
 its near approaches to the sun. Had the earth not begun to move 
 round its axis till after the work of creation was completed, the 
 immoderate degrees of heat and cold which its diflerent paits 
 would have alternately felt, would in all probability liave proved 
 fatal to both plants an<l animals. No interpretation of Moses's 
 vords can represent him as informing us, that the sun and moon 
 were created at different periods. Nor will piiilosophy permit us 
 to imagine, that the moon was formed before the earth. And 
 therefore we cannot agree with Mr. Whieton, that the creation of 
 the earth was latei- than tliat of the other bodies of the solar system. 
 M. de Luc, like Mr. Whislon, thinks that the days of the creation 
 were much longer periods of time than our present days. He 
 seems to think that the earth had existed long before the" Mosaic 
 creation ; but began at that era to cxiierience new changes, and 
 to be regulated by new laws: that all the diflerent events describ- 
 ed by Moses in his Iiistory of the creation, actually took place in 
 the o'rder in which he relate,, lliem; but that Moses's days are in- 
 definite spaces of time, which must have been very long, but of 
 which we cannot hope to ascenain the precise length. These are 
 ingenious conjectures; but they do not appear necessary, nor are 
 they justified by history. What appears to us the most natural 
 way of understanding "Moses's accour.t of the creation, is, that it 
 was neither confined to the earth alone, nor extended to the whole 
 universe. The relation wliich all the planets of the solar system 
 bear to the same illuminating body countenances the coRJeclure, 
 that they, together with the luminary by which they are enlighten- 
 ed, were all created at one period. On the supposition, that the 
 whole solar system, at least, was created at once, which certainly 
 docs no violence to the narrative of Moses, the creation of the 
 sun and the other pkinets may be understood to have been carried 
 on at the same time with the creation of the earth. In that case, 
 even in the course of the first day, though not longer than our 
 present days, i\uy,e bodies miglit be reduced to such order, and 
 their rclati've motions so far established, as to begin the distinction 
 between ligiit and darkness, day and night. On the second day, 
 we may nal«rally understand from Moses's narrative, that the at- 
 mosphere was purified, and the specific gravities of acpieous va- 
 pour and atmospheric air so adjusted, as to render the latter capa- 
 ble of supporting the former. On the third day the waters were 
 fu-st collected into lakes and seas: but in what manner, we cannot 
 determine. Some call in the operation of earth(]uakes ; others 
 ' that of specific gravity, &c. Rut these are mere fancies; and we 
 have not facts to offer in their stead. On the latter part of this day 
 vegetables were caused to spring up over the earth. Their grow th 
 must have been much more rapid than we ever behold it now: 
 but by what supern;'.tural power tiiat might be elfected, we should 
 in vai"n inquire. On the fourth day the sun, moon, and stars, were 
 raade^to appear. But according to the conjecture which we have 
 mentroned as plausible, those heavenly bodies may have been cre- 
 ated before this day; though they had not ti'.l now begun to exert 
 their full influence" on the "earth, "as they have since continued to 
 do'. The creation of the inanimate world was now finished, and 
 the earth prepared for the reception of animals. On the fifth day, 
 therefore, were the living inhabitants of the air and the waters cre- 
 ated. On the sixth day tlie inferior aninials inhabiting the earth 
 were first created ; anvl "after that, the whole work wascrowned by 
 the creation of a male and a female of the human species. To the 
 account of the creation of the animals, nothing certain can be add- 
 ed in explanation of Moses's narrative. As only one pair of the 
 human species were at first created, the same economy might pos- 
 sibly have been observed in the creation of the inferior animals. 
 Though many phUosophers, leaning too much on their own too 
 often delusive' reasonings, have endeavoured to brinij into disre- 
 pute the Mosaic account of the creation; yet, after all their bitter 
 sarcasms and ingenious sopiiisms, none of them have yet been able 
 to propose to the world anv other system instead of it, which is at 
 all plausibl'', or which woidd do any credit to the infinite intelli- 
 gence, and eternal onmiscience, of the Divine Being. 
 
 CREDENTIALS are particularly applied to letters of recom- 
 
 mendation and power, given to ambassadors or public ministers, 
 by the prince or state that sends them to foreign courts. 
 
 CREDIBILI TY, a species of evidence, less than absolute 
 certainty or demonstration, but greater than mere possibility : it is 
 nearly allied to probability, and seems to be a mean between pos- 
 sibility and demonstration. 
 
 CREDIT, in commerce, a mutual trust, or loan of merchan- 
 dize, or money, on the reputation of the property or solvency of a 
 dealer. Credit is cither public or private. Every trader ought 
 to possess some estate, stock, or portion, of his own pro- 
 perty, sufficient to carry on the traffic in which he is engaged : his 
 dealings should also never exceed his capital, so that no disap- 
 pointment in his return may incapacitate him from supporting Ui> 
 credit. Yet traders of worth and judgement, may sometimes be 
 obliged to borrow money, in order to carry on their business 
 to the best advantage. We cannot, however, avoid observing, 
 that the almost unlimited credit given to wliolesale, as well as re- 
 tail traders, is by no means a prudential, or even justifiable prac- 
 tice ; for it not only tends toencourage the most shameful monopolv 
 carried on, at present, with many articles, both of subsistence and 
 convenience (for instance, those of bread-corn and paper) ; but 
 here also we may discover the prolific source of those bankruptcies 
 wliichiswell every Tuesday's and Saturday's Gazette. The public 
 national credit is said to run high, when the commodities of that 
 nation are readily sold at a good price, and when dealers may be 
 safely entrusted with them: also, when houses and lands meet 
 with readv puixhasers ; money is borrowed at a low interest ; and, 
 lastly, when notes, mortgages, &c. will pass as currently as money. 
 Private credit has no accurate scale, and depends entirely on the 
 mutual confidence of the parties. When it is extended beyond a 
 certain lengtli, without proper controul (as is too frequently the 
 case with families of a certain rank, or fashion,) we may safely 
 predict, that the following generally are its concomitant effects, 
 viz. inferior goods, higher charges, inaccurate calculations, and 
 law-suits, which dissolve all future connection. The advantage of 
 giving credit to men of large capitals is that they get higher prices, 
 the dilference bctsveen the money-price and the credit-price being 
 greater than the legal interest of the money-price for the time. 
 Hence it is a principle with some traders to give very long credit 
 at proportionate prices. The advantage to purchasers of small 
 capital is, that these credits are so much adihtion to their capital 
 for the time. Some men of large property, but whose concern;* 
 admit of indefinite extension, will take all the credit they can get, 
 either on pecuniary loans, or in purchases, being able to make a 
 larger profit on any capital they can procure by either of these 
 methods, tlian it costs them. They are exposed, however, 1. to 
 the risk of liaving great demands made upon them when it may be 
 inconvenient to satisfy them; and, '2, to the very common mist'or- 
 tune of forgetting how much of their capital belongs to other peo- 
 ple; Dr. Franklin's observation being too true, that most men 
 think their debt and their sins less than they really are. A person 
 on whom credit is placed, and to whom it is advantageous, shotild 
 be religiously punctual. Nothing will so much confirm his credit. 
 He, however, is in a safer condition who can grve credit without 
 taking any ; who sells on credit, l)ut buys for money. And this 
 should in general be the object of every young tradesman. 
 
 Crkdit is also used for the currency which papers or bills have 
 in the iiublic or among dealers. In this sense credit is said to rise, 
 wlien, in negociating tlie shares of the company, they are received 
 and sold at prices above par, or the standard of their first creation. 
 Discredit is opposed to credit, and is used wdiere money, bills, &c. 
 fall below par. 
 
 Credit was also anciently a right which lords liad over their 
 vassals; consisting in tliis, that during a certain lime they might 
 ol)lige them to lend them money. In tliis sense, the Duke of 
 Brilanny had credit during 13 days on his own subjects, and those 
 of the Bishop of Nantes; and the bishop had the same credit or 
 right among his subjects and those of that prince. 
 
 Credit, Letters of, are those given to persons in whom a 
 merchant, Ike. can trust, to take money of his correspondent 
 abroad, in case he happens to need it. 
 
 CREDITON, a town in Devonshire, which has a considerable 
 woollen manufactory. It is shuated I'J miles N. W. of Exeter. 
 
 CREECH, THO^tAS, eminent for his translations of ancient au- 
 thors both ui prose and verse, was son of Thomas Creech, and 
 burn near Slierbourne in Doi'^etshire, in 1659. He was educated 
 
 mukr
 
 CRR 
 
 57 
 
 CRE 
 
 imilti- Mr. Carganven of Siierborni', airl entered a coniiiioiier of 
 Wadliani collrgo iii Oxford, in lt)7J. He was actoiiiitfd a good 
 [jhilosoplier and poet, and a diligent sHident. In 1695*. liavinj; 
 taken Imly orders, lie was presented l>y his college to tlie living 
 of \VeKv\ n, in Herefordshire ; but this he had not long enjoyed 
 before he put an end to his own life. The au hor of the Ncii- 
 velles de la Repul)li(]ne dcs Lettres informs ws, that in 1700, Mr. 
 Ore.ch fell in love with a woman, who treated him with great neg- 
 hi I, tlious-,li she was complaisant enoi;gii to several others. '1 hij 
 allroiil he could not bear, and resolved Hot to survive it. Where- 
 fore ho shut himself up in iiis study, where he hanged himself, about 
 the end of June, 1700, and was found in that situation three days 
 ;uler. The Poetical Kegister ascribes tiiis fatal catastrophe to the 
 iiioroseness of hi» tem])er, which made him less esieemeil than his 
 great merit dest rved, and eiigageil him in ircqufiit animosities and 
 di ^utes. But from an original letter of Arthur Charlett, preserved 
 m the Bodleian library, it has been discovered, that this unhappy 
 event wai owing to a very ddferenl cause. There was a tellow 
 collegian of whom Creech frequently borrowed money; but, re- 
 pealnig his applications too oUen, he met one day with such a cold 
 reception, that he retired in a lit of gloomy disfi,usl, and in ibree 
 days was found hanging in bis study. Creech's puucipal perform- 
 ances are, 1. A Translation of Lucretius. 2. A 'i"rtmshUion of Ho- 
 race ; in which, however, he has oKiittcd some odes. 3. The Idyl- 
 liunis of Theocritus, with j^apin's Discourse of Pastorals. 4. A 
 'i'lanslation of Maniruis's Aslrononiicon. Besides translations of 
 several parts of \irgil, Ovid, and Plutarch; printed in dilterent 
 collections. 
 
 CKli^FT), Apostlf.s, a formula, or summary, of the Christian 
 faith, drawn up, according to Ruffinus, by the apostles them-.elves ; 
 w ho, during liieir stay at Jerusalem, soon alter our Lord's ascen- 
 sion, agreed upon this creed, as a rule of faitli. H.;ronius aiul 
 other- conjecture, diat they did not compose it till the second 
 year of Claudius, a little before their d.sprrrsion. x\s to their man- 
 ner of composing it, some say, that each Apostle pronounced his 
 article, which is the reason ol its being called symbolum Apostoli- 
 cum, it being made up of seiUences joiiiiiy contributed, alter the 
 maimer of persons pay ing each their club, (symbolum,) or share 
 of a reckoning. But there are many reasons which induce us to 
 question whether the apo^tles composed any such creed. For, 
 1st. Neither St. Luke, nor any other writer before the 5th cen- 
 tury, make any mention of an assendjlv of the apo-^tles for com- 
 posing; acreed. 2dly, The fathers of the three hrst centuries, in 
 disputing against the heretics, endeavour to prove, that the doc- 
 trine contained in this creed was the same which the apostles 
 taugiit ; but they never pretend that the apostles composed it. 
 3dly, If the apostles had made this creed, it would have been the 
 same in ill ciuirches, and in all ages ; and all authors would have 
 cited it after the same manner. But tlie case is quite otherwise. 
 In the second and third ages of tiie church, there were as many 
 creed; as authors, and the same author sets down the creed after a 
 ditferent manner in several places of his works; which is an evi- 
 dence that there was not at that time any creed reputed to be the 
 apostles. In the 4th century, Ruffinus compares together the 
 tiiree i.ncient creeds of the churches of Aquileia, Rome, and the 
 East, which ditfer very considerably. Besides, these creeds differ- 
 ed not only in the terms and expressions, but even in the articles, 
 some of wnich were omitted in one or other of them; such as 
 those of tlie descent into hell, the conuiumion of the saints, and 
 the life everlasting. From all which it may be gathered, that 
 though this creed may be said to be that of the apostles, in regard 
 to the doctrinci contained therein, yet it cannot be referred to 
 them as tl-.e authors of it. Its gieat antiquity, however, may be 
 inferred from hence, that the whole lorm, as' it now stands iii the 
 English liturgy, is to be I'ovind in the works of St. Amiiroie and 
 Rufiinus; the former of whom flourished in the 3d, and the latter 
 in the 4th centurj. The primitive Chri-tians, did not publicly re- 
 cite the creed, e.\cept at baptisms, which, unless in cases of neces- 
 sity, were only at Ka~ter luul Whitsuntide. The constant repeat- 
 ing of it was not introduced into the church fill the end of the .)th 
 century; about which time Peter Gnapheus, bishop of Antiuch, 
 prescribed the recital of it every time divine service was per- 
 formed. 
 
 Creed, Athanastan, or Creed, Nicene. See Athana- 
 siAN- and Nicene. These two, with the Apostles Creed, are tin- 
 most univfixal. They tre used in the public oli-.ces of the churcii 
 
 VOL. II. — NO. i9. 
 
 of England ; and subscription to them is required of the clergy, 
 and of dissenting teachfrs properly qu;dihed by the toleration act, 
 as the 8lh article declares that they may be proved by the surest 
 testimonies of scripture. 
 
 CRER Indians, a nation of North Americans who inhabit 
 W. of Winnipeg, around Fort Dauphin, in Upper Can.ada. 
 
 CREEK, a part of a ha^en, where any thing is landed from the 
 sea. So many landing places as there are in a harbour or port, so 
 many creeks there are. It is also said to be a shore or bank 
 whereon the water beats, running hi a small channel from any part 
 of the sea ; from the Latin crepido. This word is used in the 
 stat. 4 lien. IV. c. 20, and 5 Eliz. c. 5. 
 
 Creek seems to be used, in the Uifited States of America, in 
 a sense dilVerent from those in the above detinitions ; bein;^ 
 repeatedly applied by Messrs. Morse and Scott, in their (ni- 
 zetteers, to small rivers, several of which it makes part of the 
 names of. 
 
 Creeks, confederated nations of North American Indians. 
 They form a numerous tribe in Georgia. 
 
 CREEPER, in naval alfairs, an instrument of iron resembling 
 a grappling iron, having a shank, and four hooks or claws. It is 
 ti-ed to throw into the bottom of any river or harbour, with a rope 
 fastened to it, to hook and draw up any thing from the boltora 
 which mav have been lost. Sec Plate XXV 11. 
 
 C'Rin.riiR, in ornithology. See Certhia. 
 
 CREEPING Leaf, in "zoology. See Mantis. 
 
 CRiilE-'rO\\ N, a small sea-port of Scotlaiul, in Kirkcud- 
 brightshire. 
 
 CREGLINGEN, a town of Germany, in the circle of Fran- 
 conia, and principality of Anspach, and 22 miles S. of Wurtz- 
 burgh. 
 
 CREICIICOW, a country of Germany, between Suabia and 
 the Li-.wer Palatinate. 
 
 CREIL, a town of France in the department of Oise, 5 miles 
 N. W. of Senlis, 
 
 CRENL\, a town of Italy, capital of Cremasco, now in- 
 cluded in the department of Adda. It is situated 20 miles N. of 
 Placentia. 
 
 CREMASCO, a sraalf territory of Italy, in the late Vene- 
 tian territories, now included in the department of Adda. It is 
 fertile in corn, wine, and flax. 
 
 CREMASTER, in anatomy, the name of two muscles of the 
 testicles, of which there is one on each side. 
 
 CKE.NL-VTION is particularly applied to the ancient cujtoin 
 of burning the dead. This custom is well known to have prevail- 
 ed among most eastern nations, and continued with their descen- 
 dants after they had peopled the ditferent parts of Europe. It 
 prevailed in Cireece, Italy, Gaul, Britain, Germany, Sweden, Nor- 
 way, and Denmark, till Ciiristianity abolished it. 
 
 CREMiEU, or CREMIU, a town of France, in the depart* 
 nient of Isere, IS miles E. oi Lyons. 
 
 CREMMEN, a town of Cierraany, in Upper S;vxony. 
 
 CRE.VIONA, an ancient cjty of Italy, capital of the Cremoncsp, 
 30 miles N. W. of Parma. Lon. 9- JS- E. Lat. 45. 3. N. 
 
 CREMONESE, a territory of Italy, in the late duchy of Mi- 
 lan, north of I'anna. 
 
 CREMOR, in anatomy, is used for Chyle. 
 
 CRENOPHYLAX, \_!i-i-Jvi, fountain, and S xn! n fi'iif , tire 
 guardian, J in antiquity, a magistrate of Athens, who had the iuspec- 
 lion of fountains. 
 
 CREODIBA, [from erm/ :ixid dii-en, i. e. wood-robbers,] in 
 the customs of tJie middle age, a robbery and murder committed 
 in a wood, where the body of the person killed was burnt, in or- 
 der to prevent any df:covery of the crime. 
 
 CREOLES, a name given to the families descended from tie 
 Spaniards who settled at Mexico, in America. Tiiesc are much 
 more uuracrous than either the Spaniards properly so called, or 
 the Mulalloes : which two olher species of inhabitants are exclud- 
 ed from all considerable employments. The n.sme throughout 
 ,he rest or the West Indies is applied to all the natives who are de- 
 scended from European parents. 
 
 CREON, king of Corinth, in fabulous history, the sou of Sy- 
 siphus. He promised his daughter Gluuce to Jasin, who had re- 
 pudiated Medea. To revenge the success of her riyal, Medea 
 -ent lier as a present, a gov n covered with poison. Glarce put 
 li on. and was seized with sudden pains. lier body took fre; 
 Q the
 
 CRE 
 
 58 
 
 CRE 
 
 ihf house alio was coimuiied, along will) Cieon ami his whole 
 family. 
 
 Cr'eon', king of Thebos, in fabulous history, 'the son of Meiio;- 
 tiiis, anil falhfi' of Joca^la, the mother ami wiw. of Oeilipns. On 
 thi; death of Lains, who had married Jocasta, Creon ascended the 
 vacant ihrone of Thebes As the ravages ot the Sphynx uere in- 
 tolerable, Creoii ofi'ered his crown anu daughter m marriage to 
 him wlio could explain the enigmas wliich the monster proposed. 
 Oedipus explained the riddles, ascended the tlirone, and married 
 Jooasta, will'.ont knowing she was his mother; and by her he had 
 two sons, I'uKnices and Eteocles, and two daughters. 
 
 CUF.l'ID/t, in Roman antiquity, a kind ot slippers or shoes, 
 which were always worn with the pallium, as the calcei were with 
 fi:e toEa. 
 
 CRlil'IS, Hawk-weed: a genus of the polygamia superflua 
 order, and synp;enes;a class of plants ; natural order, Composita\ 
 Receptacle naked; calyx calyculated v ith deciduous scales; 
 pap])us feathery and stalked. There are twenty-three species, 
 most of them herbaceous amiuals. 
 
 C;RF.l'I'l"A'l"ION, in chemistry, the noise which sonic salts 
 make over the lire in calcination. 
 
 Crei'ITatios, in surgery, the nois« made by the ends or pieces 
 of bones, when the surgeon moves a limb to assure himsell by his 
 ear of the existence of a fracture. 
 
 CREFUNDIA, in antiipiity, a term used to express svicli 
 things as were exposed along with children, as rings, jewels, &c. 
 serving as tokens wherebv tliev afterwards might be known. 
 
 CR'fcPUSCULU.M, '[froni cninrus, Lat. doubtful, q. d. a 
 «lubious light,] the twilight. See Astronomy and Twilight. 
 
 CRKSCENT, [crescens, Lat.] the new moon, as ilbeginstore- 
 cede from the sun, shews a little rim of light, (eiminatinst in points 
 or horns, which are still increasing till it become full and round in 
 the 0|)|)osition. The term is also used, but hnproperlv, for the 
 same figure of the moon in its decrease. The horns are theu 
 turned towards the W. whereas they point to the E. in the proper 
 crescent. 
 
 Crescent, in heraldry, is a bearing in form of a half moon. 
 The Ottomans bear sinople, a cresent montant, argent. 'Ihe 
 crescent is frequently used as a dit1(>rence in coat-armour, to dis- 
 tinguish it for that of second brother or junior family. The figure 
 of the ( rc'C'-nt is the 'i'urkish symbol ; or rather is that of ttu' city 
 Bvzantium, which bore this device from all antiquity ; as appears 
 from medals struck in honour of Augustus, Trajan, &c. See He- 
 raldry. 
 
 Crlscest is also the name of a military order, instituted bv 
 Rcnatus of Anjou, king of Sicily, &c. in 1448 ; so called from its 
 symbol, a crescent of gohl enamelled. Renatus took for his de- 
 vice a crescent, with the motto loz, " praise," which in the stvle 
 of rebus, makes loz in crescent, q. d. by advancing in virtue, one 
 merits iiraise. 
 
 C'RK.SCENTIA, the Calabash Tree, a genus of the angios- 
 permia order, and didynamia class of plants ; natural order, Puta- 
 inine;r. Calyx bipartite, equal; corolla gibbous; berry pedicel- 
 lated or stalked, unilocular, and polyspermous ; seeds bilocular. 
 There are two species : 
 
 C. CojETE, with oblong narrow leaves, and a large oval 
 fruit. 
 
 C. Latifolia, the broad-leaved calabash, seldom rises more 
 than 15 or 20 feet high, with an upright trunk. They are botli 
 natives of the West Indies. 
 
 CRESCENTINO, afortified townof Italy, in Piedmont, seat- 
 ed on the Po. 
 
 CKESPEY, or CRESPY, a town of France, in the depart- 
 ment of Oise, 39 miles N. E. of Paris. 
 CRESS, a npecies of I.epidiuni. 
 CuKss, Watkr. See Stsymbrium. 
 
 CRESSA, in botany, a penus of the pcntandria digynia class 
 and order. Caljx fivL'-leaved ; corolla salver form; filaments 
 tilting on the tube ; capsule two-valvcd, one-seeded. There are 
 two species, natives of the East Indies, in salt marshes. 
 
 CRESSY, or CRECY, a town of Fnmce, in the department 
 of Somme, in the late province of Picardy ; remarkable for » great 
 victorv obtained over the French bv Edward HI. of England, in 
 1346.' Edward having encountered ?.nd overcome many diflicul- 
 ties, in his expedition, was at last so closely followed and harassed 
 by the French army, commanded by Philip VI. King of FVance i! 
 
 in pei-son, that he determined to make a stand at \\m place, and 
 to give his pursuers a check. For this jjurpose he chose lii^ 
 gromid with great judgement, on the gentle cieclivity of a hill, 
 with a thick wood in his rear. He ordered deep entrenchments 
 lo be made on eacli Hank, and waited with lirnmess tlie approach 
 of ills enemies. The King of Frame, dreading nothing so mucli 
 as the escape of tin? English, began the murcli of his great army 
 trom Abi)eville early in the morning, August ..'(>, and continued 
 it several hours with great eagi'nwss, till he received intelligence 
 that the F'ngli h had lialted at Cressy, and were prepared to give 
 hull battle. He was advised at the same lime not to enga/'e that 
 day, when his troops were much faligued with their maicli, and 
 'n great disorder ; and -he was disposed to have taken this advice. 
 But the discipline of these times v ere so imperfect, th.it tlie orders' 
 given for hailing were not obeyed ; and one corps of this mighty 
 liost impelling another, they continued advancing till they came 
 into the presence of their enemies in much coiifu'ion. Edward had 
 employed the forenoon of this important day in drawing up his 
 army in the most excellent order, in three line^. The first line 
 which consisted of 800 men at arms, 4000 English archers, and 600 
 Welsh toot, was commanded by his young, amiable, and heroic 
 son, the Prince ©f Wales, assisted by the Earls of Warwick and 
 Oxiord, and several other noblemen. The second line, compos- 
 ed of 800 men at arms, 4000 halberdiers, and 'J400 archers, was 
 led by the Earls of Arundel and North.ampton ; the last line, or 
 body of reserve, in which were 700 men at arms, 5300 biltmen, 
 and 6000 archers, was ranged along the summit of the hill, and 
 conducted by the King in person, attended by the l.ortls Mou- 
 bray, Mortimer, and others. When the army was completely 
 formed, Edward rode along the lines, and by his words and looks 
 inspired his troops with tlie most ardent courage and strongest 
 ho|)es of victory. He then commaucled the cavalry to dismount, 
 and the whole army to sit down upon the grass, in their ranks, and 
 refresh themselves with meat, drink, and rest. As soon as the 
 French army came in view, they sprung from the ground, full of 
 bticngth and .^pirit, and stood ready to receive them. 'J1ie King 
 of Franci-, as-isted by the Kings of Bohemia and Majorca, the 
 Dukej ot Lorraine and Savoy, and several other sovereign princes, 
 wiih the llower of the French nobility, laboured to restore some 
 degree of order to his prodigious army, and drew it up also in 
 three lines, but very indistinctly formed. ']'he first line wa; com- 
 mandi d in chief by the King of Bohemia ; the 2d by tlie Earl of 
 Alencon, the French king's brother; and the 3d by Philip in per- 
 son : and ench of the«e lines contained a greater number of troops 
 than tiie whole English army. The battle was begun about three- 
 o'clock P. M. Aug. '2(y, by a great body ot Genoese cross-bow- 
 men, in the F'rench service, who let lly their ([uarrels at too 
 great a distance to do any execution, and were presently routed 
 by a shower of arrows from the English archers. The Earl of 
 Alencon, after trampling to death many of the ilying (Genoese, ad- 
 vanced to the charge, and made a furious alt.ick on that corps 
 commanded by the Prince of Wales. The Earls of Arundel and 
 Northampton advanced with the 2d line to sustain tlie Prince, 
 and Alencon was supported by as many troops as could crowd to 
 his assistance. Here the battle raged tor soiiie time with uncom- 
 mon fury ; and the King of lioliemia, the Earl of Alencon, and 
 many other great men, being slain, the whole 1st and Sd lines of 
 the French army were put to Uight. Philip, undvinayed, ad- 
 vanced to the charge with the line under his immediate command. 
 Rut this Uody soon shared the 'ame fate with the other two; ahd 
 Philip, alter having being unhorrd, and wounded in the neck 
 and thigh, was earned oil" the field by John de Hainault, and lied 
 with no more than five knights and about 60 soldiers in his com- 
 pany, of all his mighty army, which at the lieginning of Ihe battle 
 consisted of more than 1?0,000 men. Such was tlie iVmous vic- 
 tory of Cressy, the greatest ever gained by any king of England. 
 Edward continued wilh his army at Cressr three days, number- 
 ing and bur\ ing the di-ad. The French had left on this blood-y 
 scene ihe King of Bohemia, II other princes, 80 b:iiiiierets, ICOD 
 knights, I.'jOO gentlemen, 4000 men of arms, and 30,000 other 
 soldiers. (Henry's History of Britain, vol. iv. p. 178). Cressy 
 lies 10 miles N. of Abbeville, 32 S. E. of Calais, and 100 N of 
 Paris. 
 
 CREST, in armoury, the top part of the armour for the head, 
 mounting over the helmet, in manner of a comb, or tuft of a 
 cock, deriving its name troiii i-rista, a cock's comb. Tlie cre<t 
 
 i VllJn
 
 CRE 
 
 59 
 
 CRE 
 
 was tor tlie most part made of f't-athci-s, or the hair of horses' tails 
 or mains'. The soldiers tool<. great pride in adorning them. In 
 most of the old moiuiments we linri tlie rrest repiesenied, not 
 much unlike those on the tops of our modern hea<l-pieces : ijut 
 vhati'ver the common soldiers had, those of theoCfic ei-s were usually 
 wrought in gold or siher, and the pUmies of a larp;er size, (piite 
 ocru-s the helmet; and soiiie wore two, three, or lour together of 
 these plumes. 
 
 C'kest, in heraldry, the uppermost jvirt of an armoury, or that 
 part of the cask or helmet ne>4t to tlie mantle, (juillim says, the 
 crest, orco^nizance, elahns the highest place, beiuf; seated on the 
 most eminent part of the helmet; yet so as to admit of an inter- 
 position of some escr(i|, wreathe, cha()e;ai, crown, &c. Tiie 
 Crest is esteemed a greater mark of nobdity than the armoury, 
 being borne at tournaments, to which none were admitted till siicti 
 time as lliey had given proof of their nobility : sometimes it 
 serves to distinguish llic several branches of a lamily ; and it has 
 ■served, on occasion, as a distinguishing badge of iBctions ; some- 
 times the crest is taken for the device ; but more usually is formed 
 of some piece of the arms. Families that e.\change arms do not 
 change their crest. 
 
 CKES T-FALLEN', in the manege, a fault of an lioi'sc, when 
 the crest hangs to one side. The cuie is to place it upright, clip- 
 ping away the spare skin, and applying plasters to keep it in a 
 proper position. 
 
 CRk I'F, in ancient geog:iaphy, one of the largest islands in the 
 Mediterr.inean, lying between '^2° and 27" Lon. E. and between 
 Sj" and 36" Lat. N. According to .Slrabo, this island is 28T miles 
 it) length; according to I'liny, JTO ; and according to Seylax, 31'J, 
 As to its breadth, it is not, as 'I'liny observes, above jj miles 
 where widest ; whence it vas styled, as Stephanus observes, the 
 Long Ijland. Anciently it was known by the names of Acria, 
 Chthonia, C'urete, Ills'.'., Macaris, Sci-. but its most common name 
 was Crete. Homer, the celelirated Grecian bard, thus describi-s 
 this island as it stood in his time: " Crete is an extensive island in 
 Ihe midst of the stormy main. The soil is rich ;md fertile. It 
 contains an iimnense number of inhabitants. It is adorned with 
 100 cities. Its inhabitants speajc in various languages. \\e find 
 there Acha-ans, valiant Eieocretes, Cydonians, Dorians, and god- 
 like Pelasgians. Crete received its name irom Cres, the first of 
 its monarclis. He was aiitl'.or of several useful inventions, which 
 contributed to the happiness of his subjects. Prompted by gra- 
 titude, they endeavoureil lo perpetuate the memory of his fa- 
 voui-s, and to immoitaliz;' his name, by naming the islan-d after 
 liim. To distinauisli the true Cretans trom >trangers, ihev were 
 iiamed Kteocretcs. A number of colonies, trom different parts of 
 Greece, settled on the island. The agreeableness of the climate, 
 and the fertility of the soil, invited thcni to lix their habitation 
 there. The Laeedaniionians, Argivcs, and Athenians, were the 
 principal peojile who sent colonies into Ch'ete. The Eieocretes 
 inhabited the southern division of the island ; they built there the 
 city of Pra'sus, and erected a temple to Dictaan Jove, Cres was 
 not the only monarch who reigned in the island of Crete. He 
 had a series of successors. But history allords little information 
 concerning them ; only the names of a few are preserved, and a 
 small number of events which happened under the reign of some 
 others, hut blended and disligured with an intermixture of fable. 
 Among those nionarchs we lind two Jupitcrs, and tv.o ofthe name 
 of Minos. However, most writers confound them, and ascribe l/j 
 one those transactions and exploits which should be shared be- 
 tween the two. Minos was esteemed the wisest legislator of an- 
 tiquity. The oflice assigned him in the regions below, is a clear 
 proof of liis having gained an exalted reputation by his justice. 
 Greece, says Plato, lias with great propriety adopted the laws of 
 Crete ; for ihey are founded on the solid basis of reason and equity, 
 and have a natural tendency to render the people, who live in 
 subjection to them, opulent and happy. One of those laws for- 
 bade "-the Cretans ever to carry thr-ir festivity so far as to in- 
 toxicate tliemselves with wipe." The following was very suitable 
 to repress the presumptuous ardoMr of youth, " Let young people 
 not canvass the laws with an indiscreet curiosity ; let them not ex- 
 amine whether the lawgivi>r has done right or wrong in promul- 
 gating them ; but let them join unanimously in declaring them 
 good, since they proceed from the gods. If any of the old men 
 perceive something in tUem meriting aimendment, let him men- 
 
 tion it to the magistrate, or discn.ss it with his ecpials, but never iu 
 the |)resence of llie young people." That excellent code was t-ii- 
 graven on tables ot« brass ; and Talos, chief miniiler lo Minos, 
 visited all the towns and cities in the island, three times a year, to 
 observe in what manner the laws were executed and obeyed. 
 The king, kiiowmg that the marvellous was nccefsary lo command 
 the belief aiifl enlorce the obedience of his people, pretended that 
 he had received those laws from his father Jupiter, in tlie grotto 
 of mount Ida. In opposition to this account, others of the an- 
 cients describe Minos as a prince abandoned lo the fury of his 
 passions, and a barbarous conqueror. Falling passionately in love 
 with the iivmfh. D;clyniia, who reiiijed to gratify hisw^hes, lie 
 pursued her to the brink of tlie shore, and lorced her to plui.ge 
 into the sea, where she was saved by some fishermen, who receiv- 
 ed her in their nets. He was the first of the Greeks who appeared 
 in the Meiliterranean at the head of a naval armaniei.t. He con- 
 quered the Cyclades, expelled the Carians, established Cretan 
 colonies in those islands, and commiUed the government of them 
 to his son. Being iiiformed, at Paros, that his son Andiogeus was 
 slain at Athens, he declared war against jF.geus, and imposed on 
 him a disgracet'ul tribute ; from the payment of which Theseus de- 
 livered his countrv. He took arms against Nisus, king of Me- 
 gara, made him prisoner by the treacliery of his daughter Scylla, 
 and put him to death, together with Megarus, tlie son of Hippu- 
 manes, who had brought some forces to his assistance. D.xdalus, 
 who had by some means incurred his displeasure, despairing of 
 pardon from so severe and intlexible a prince, employed the re- 
 source of his inventive genius, lo escape from his power. He fled 
 to Sicily, gained the protection of king Cocalus, and obtained an 
 asylum in his court. Valerius Fl.iccus has described his flight : 
 " Thus Uadalus, with the wings of a bird, ascended from mount 
 Ida. Beside him flew the coinra<le of his flight, with shorter wings. 
 'Ihey ap))eared like a cloud rising in the air. Minos, seeing his 
 vengeance thu.s eluded, glowed with impotent rage. In vain he 
 followed with his eyes the secure flight of his enemies through 
 the wide expanse of heaven. His guards returned to Gortynia 
 with their (piivers filled with arrows." The Cretan monarch did 
 not, however, give up his prey. He e([uipped a fleet, puftucd 
 the fugitive to Sicily, and fell before the wdls of Camicum. It is 
 plain, that these actions do not agree to the character of the mo- 
 narch, whose justice immortalized him. We may, tl'.ercfore, rea- 
 sonably conclude, that Minos the legislator is a different person 
 from the conqueror ; that it w'as the former who gained a lasting 
 reputation by his wisdom and justice ; and the Litter who subdued 
 most of the islands of the Archipelago, but tarnished his glory by 
 his cruelty and merciless thirst for vengeance. 1 he last king of 
 Crete was Idomeneus', who conducted 2 4 ships (or according to 
 Hyginus 40) to the assistance of Agamemnon. Ilpmcr informs us 
 of the illustrious exploits by which he signalized himself before the 
 walls of Troy. At his departure from Crete, he comniitted the 
 government to Leucus his adopted son, promising him the hand 
 of his daughter Clisithera if he governed wisely in his absence. But 
 Leucus forgot tlie,-e favours, and aspired to the immediate posses.. 
 sion of the crown, without waiting till he should obtain it lawfully 
 by marriage. Mida, wife to Idomeneus, and the princess Clisi- 
 thera, were obstacles to his wishes. But ambition knows no re- 
 straint, and tramples under foot the most sacred obligations. Hav- 
 ing seduced the people from their allegiance, and gained over the 
 nobles, he sacrificed those unfortunate victims in the temple. 
 When Idomeneus, crowned w ith laurels, landed on the coast of 
 Crete, Leucus, who had now firmjy established his power, attacked 
 him with an armed force, and obliged him to reimbark. Servius 
 indeed gives a ditferent account of the banishment nf Idomeneuj, 
 and says, that he had vowed, in a storm, to sacrifice to the goils 
 the first person that his eyes should behold on the Cretan shore ; 
 that his son having met him first after his arrival, he fulfilled his 
 vow, by sacrificing him; and tiial the i.sland being soon after de- 
 populated by pestilence, the inhabitants looked upon that afflic- 
 tion as the effect of divine vengeance, and expelled the parricide; 
 who, retiring to Italy, founded Salentum, on the Messapian coast. 
 But that opinion appears entirely groundless. History mentions 
 no son of Idomeneus. If he had oue, why did he adopt Leucus? 
 The most probable opinion is, that the plague was introduced inta 
 the island !iy his ships, when he returned from the siege of Troy, 
 as Herodotus asserts ; and that Leucus mtfully made use of that 
 
 pretext
 
 CRE 
 
 60 
 
 C R E 
 
 pretext to expel his lawful sovereign from tlic island. But llie 
 usurper did not lon^ enjoy the fruit of hi« crimes. Soon aiter 
 the <leparturc of Idomeiu-us, monarchv was abolished, and Crete 
 l)ec;mie a republic. The republic of Crete has been celebrated 
 bv the panegyric of Plato, served Lycurgus as a model for that 
 vhich he estaljlished in Lacedenion, and was beheld by all Greece 
 vith admiration. Strabo has thought it not unworthy of hi? pen- 
 cil, and has consecrated the leading features of its constitution to 
 l;.sting fjnie in his inunortal work. It was indeed a system of le- 
 gislature, whose direct tendency was to call forth the buds of virtue 
 in the heart of infancy ; to open and expand them in youth; to 
 inspire man, as he reached niaturity, with the love of his countrv, 
 of glory, and of libertv ; and to comfort tlie infirmities of age with 
 the respect and esteem due to the experience and wisdom of that 
 period of life, it tended to form all'ectionate friends, patriotic 
 citizens, and worthy magistrates. It made no use, however, of a 
 innltitude of acts and statutes to produce those inestimable advan- 
 tages. Thev ilowed all from one sour<e ; the public education of 
 youth, judiciously directed. The virtuous examples set before 
 youth in the course of that education, the illustrious deeds which 
 were recited to them witli high applause, ihe honours conferred on 
 valour and on noble actions, the opprobrium invariably cast on 
 vice ; these were tlie only means whieh the Cretan lawgiver made 
 use of to form a warlike, humane, and virtuous nation. The Cre- 
 tan government, soon after the expulsion of Idonieneus, became 
 partly ari-.toeratical. The power was divided between the nobles 
 r.nd the people. Yet a^ the chief employments wercoccupied by 
 tlie nobles, they directed the administration of allairs. Ten ma- 
 gistrates were annually elected, by a majority of voices, in the na- 
 tional assembly. These were named Cosmoi, and their public 
 ofticf: and character were the same with those of the Rphori at 
 Spnrta. They were th" generals of the republic in time of war, 
 and directed all affairs of any importance. They had the right. of 
 choosing certain old men for ronusellors. Those old men, to the 
 number of 2R, conijioscd the Cretan senate. They were chosen 
 from among s\ich as had discharged the oftice of Cosmoi, or iiad 
 di>tinguished themselves by extraordinary merit and blameless 
 piol)itv. These senators continued in oflice during l;fe, possessed 
 a weighty influence, and were consulted in every affiur of impi^r- 
 tance. This body was a barrier against tlie ambition of the ten 
 chief rulers. Another restraint on their power was the limiting of 
 their administration to one year. As the suflrages of the people 
 might be obtained by bribery or personal influence, and as their 
 choice might sometimes fall on a man unworthy of so honourable 
 an office, he who had been thus undeservedly advanced to the 
 dignity of Cosmos was degraded, either in a national assembly, or 
 simply by the voices of his colleagues. This, doubtless, is what 
 Plato alludes to, when he says, " Neither the commonwealth, 
 which approaches too near to a monarehical constitution, nor 
 that which alfectj a licentious liberty, is tounded on the solid basis 
 of a just medium between anarchy and despotism. O Cretans ! 
 Lacecemonians ! by establishing yours on firmer foundalidris. you 
 have avoided those fatal extremes. Such were the di^lvibution of 
 power and the administration of public allairs in the Cretan go- 
 vernment. Its smiplieity was admirable. A people who were 
 blessed with the sacred enjoyment of liberty, but possessed not 
 suflieient knowledge and discernment to direct themselves, elected 
 magistrales to whom they delegated theh' authority. These ma- 
 gistrates, thus arrayed with sovereign power, chose senators to 
 assist and direct tfieir delitierations. 'i'hese counsellors could 
 lieilher enact or decide of themselves: but they held their of- 
 fice for life; and that circumstance contributed to strengthen 
 their influence and to increase their experience. 'J he magis- 
 trates were animated by the most powerful motives to distin- 
 guish themselves wdien in office, by unwearied activity in 
 llie public service. On one side, they were restrained bv tlie 
 fear of clegradation ; on the other, actuateil by the hope of be- 
 coming one day members of the national council. " The legisla- 
 tor, says Strabo, considered lii'/erlyas the greatest blessing 
 that cities can enjoy. Liberty alone can secure the property 
 of the citizens of any state. Slavery either robs them of it, or 
 renders it precarious. The first care of nations should therefore 
 be to preserve their liberty. Concord strengthens and supports 
 her empire ; she flourishes wherever the seeds of dissentioii are 
 CKdnguished. Almost all those hostilities which ))revail among 
 u:itiou5 or individuals spring cilhir from an inordinate desire of 
 
 wealth or the love of luxury. Introduce, iii>tcad of those bane- 
 ful principles, trugality, moderation, and equality of conditions ; 
 you will thus banish tnvy, hatred, iifjustice, and haughty disdain." 
 This was what the Cretan lawgiver happily ellectec-l. And tlie 
 community, whicli was regulated by his wise institutions, rose to 
 glory, opulence, and power; and was honoured with the pane- 
 gyrics ot the most celebrated philosophers of Greece. But the 
 highest honour it ever obtained, was that of serving Lycurgus as a 
 model lor tlie lorm of goveriiinent, which he established .at Spar- 
 ta. 'Ihc republic of Crete continued to flourish till the age of 
 Julius Ca'sar. No other state has enjoyed so long a period of 
 strength and grandeur. The legi-slator, regarding liberty as the 
 only sure basis of a nation's happinc'ss, had instituted a system 
 of laws, the natural tendency of which was, to inspire men with 
 an ardent passion for liberty, and with such virtue and valour 
 as are m^cessary to support aiul defend it. All the citizens were 
 soldiers; all skilled in the art of war. The valiant youth of other 
 nations resorte<l to Crete, to learn the exerci^es, manoruvres, 
 and evolutions, of the military art. Philopa'iucn (says Plutarch) 
 to acquire skill in arms, embarked for Crete. ^\ hen he returned 
 to the Aclueans, the knowledge he hail acquired made him so 
 eminent among them, that he was immediately appointed gene- 
 ral c;>f their cavalry. On the other hand, -the legislator, being 
 persuaded that conquists are generally unju?t and criminal, that 
 they often exhau-t the strength of the victorious nation, and al- 
 most always corrupt its iiianiiei'S, endeavoured to preserve the 
 Cretans from the ambition of con()uesl. The fertility of the is- 
 land abundantly supplied their wants. They needed not that 
 commerce should introduce among them the riches of foreign 
 countries, along with whicii luxury and her train of attendant 
 vices would also be introduced; and he inspired them with an 
 indili'erence for such acquisitions, without expressly forbidding 
 them. 'ihe gymnastic exercises, which occupied the leisure 
 of tlic gallant youths; the pleasures of the chase ; the ardour of 
 friendship; the public she«s, at which both men and women 
 assembled ; the love of equality, order, and their country, with 
 which he inflamed every breast; the wi-e institutions, which 
 united a wlwle naiion so closely that they seemed to compose 
 but one family ; — all these ties attached Ihe Cretans to their native 
 island : and linding happiness at home, they never thought of 
 wandering abroad in search of imaginary glory, or of extending 
 their empire over other nations. "^1 herefore, from the period at 
 which that stale assumed a republican form, till the time when 
 they were attacked by the Romans, the nation was not once 
 known to send an hostile force into the territories of any of theii' 
 neighbours. This instance of moderation is unijaralleled in history; 
 no other nation can divide the glory of it with the Cretans. In- 
 dividuals indeed might leave their country to engage in foreign 
 armies. Those princes and states, who knew their valour and 
 skill in archery, eagerly sought to take tkeni into their pay ; all 
 the neighbouring monarchs were desirous of having in their armies 
 a body of Cretan archers. But though the indepemlent cities 
 which flouiishcd in Crete did not unite their arms to subjugate the 
 neighbouring islands, yet they were not so wise as to live in peace 
 among themselves. .Sometimes Gnossus and Gortynia marched 
 with social banners against their neighbours, levelled their for- 
 tresses, and subjected them to their power; at other times they 
 attacked each other with hostile violence, and saw their bravest 
 youtli perish amid the horrors of civil war. Lyctos and Cydoii 
 opposed an invincible barrier to their ambition, and preserved 
 their own libertv. The last of these cities had acquired such 
 strength and influence, that she held the bal.mce between the 
 rival powers of the island. 1 hese wars destii'veda mmiberof 
 the cities, and drenched the native country ol -liipiter with blood. 
 It is difiicult to traie the source of those intestine dissenlions. 
 Part of the i.dand was occupied by th.e Eteocretes, the original 
 inhal)itants ; the rest was peopled with colonies from Athens, 
 Sparta, Argos, and Samos. Perhaps the ancient grudges, which 
 had sub-isted among those strangers, were rekindh-d by accident, 
 and inflamed with new fury. The most powerful among them, 
 would eiuleavour to take advantage of the weakness ol the rest, 
 and disregarded all laws but those of force; and the glowing ar- 
 dour of the youth, trained to military exercises, would be ever 
 ready to liy to arms. Such, probably were the causes which fo- 
 mented disi ord and hostility amoug a people living under die 
 same religion, custojns, and laws. Whatever these niight be, 
 
 the
 
 CUE 
 
 61 
 
 c n E 
 
 tlic Cntaiis, being per-iuaileil that the firm union of ihi-ir soMit-rs 
 '«'a> es^t-nlijl to victory, arrayed the bravest yontlis of the arjiiy 
 iii snk-nditl robes, and t'aibeil them to sacritke to Friendship In-. 
 I'lve engaging in liatlle. In some conntries ilvould b^- very 
 projier to obhge tlie generals, on such occasions, to sacrillcc to 
 Concord. Nations are ellao-d from the earth like the monuments 
 of their power, and after the revolution of several ages we can 
 scarce (race in Uieir posterity any romaini of their ancient charac- 
 ter. Some of them exist longer, others sliorter; but we niav 
 r^hnost .Tlwavs calcidatc the period of their duration by the e\c( f- 
 bfice of their laws, and the tidelitv witli which tliey support and 
 oi-cylheni. The re|)ublic of Crete, bfing established on a solid 
 l.'a~is, knew no foijign master for a period of ten centuries. She 
 h/avely repelled the attacks of those princes who attempted to 
 ■ •;, slave her. At length the time arrived when the warlike and 
 victorious Uomans would sulTer none but their subjects or ;V.ves 
 to inhabil wiliiin the reach of their arms. Florus acknowledges, 
 (hit the Romans had no other motive for invading Crete but the 
 ambition of subduing the renowned native country of Jupiter. 
 " If anv person wish to ki.ow the reasons which induced us to 
 attack Crete (says he), the true reason was our desire to subdue 
 :.o celebrated an island. The Cretans had appeared to favour 
 Mitliridates, and the Romans thought pi oper to declare wara- 
 .^,::inst ihem on that pretext. Mark Antony, father of the trium- 
 vir, attacked them with strong hopes of success ; but was severe- 
 ly punished for his presumption and imprudence. 'I'lie Cretans 
 look a great part of his lleet, hung up his soldiers and sailors on 
 the masts amid the sails and conlage, and returned in triumph 
 into their harbours." The Romans never forgot nor forgave a 
 deieat. .•\s soon as the Macedonian war was brought to a con- 
 clusion, they took arms against the Cretans to revenge their ig- 
 nominy and loss. Q. MetL-llns was sent to Crc:te with a powerful 
 srmament. lie met with an obstinate and vigorous n-sistance. 
 Panarus and I^sthenes, two experienced leaders, collecting a 
 body ofi'0,000 young warriors, all eager for battle, and of de- 
 termined courage, employed their arms ■uccessfully against the 
 Komans, and protracted the fate of Crete for three years. I'hi^-se 
 conc]uerors could not make themselves masters of the island till 
 tliey had destroyed its briiTcst warriors. Thev lost a great mun- 
 ber oftroops, and bought a bloo iv victory at the |)riceofmanv 
 a danger and much fatigue. However, their usual good fortune 
 at length prevailed. The first care of the conciueror w as to abolish 
 the laws of Minos, and to establish those of Nunia. Strabo, that 
 enlightened philosopher, coniplains of this act of seventy ; and 
 intorms us, that in his days the cniginal laws of Crete were no 
 longer in force, because the Romans compelled the conquered 
 provinces to adopt their civil code. To secure themselves still 
 more fully in the possession of the island, thev sent a ])owerful 
 colony to Gnossus. From the concpicst of Crete bv the Romans, 
 to the present time, that is, for a period of 1900 vears, the Cretans 
 have no longer formed a separate nation, nor made any ticure 
 among the states and kingdoms of the world ; their noble and 
 ingenious manners, their arts and sciences, tlieir valour and their 
 virtues, arc no more. They lost tlu'se with their liberty. So 
 true it is that man is not born for himself; and that, w hen de- 
 prived of that aid which Nature has designed to strengtiien and 
 support his weakness, the flame of genius and the ardent glow 
 of valour are extinguished in his breast ; he becomes incapable 
 of vigorous resolution, and sinks below the natural virtue and 
 dignity of the species. The island of Crete, joined with the small 
 kin:;dom of Cyrene, on the Lybian coast, formed a Roman 
 ])rovince. It was at fust governed by a proconsul ; a cpiestor 
 and an assi-tant were afterwards sent there ; at last, it was put 
 under the government of a consul. It was one of the first islands, 
 that were favoured with the light of the gospel. St. Paul intro- 
 duced the Christian faith into it; and hi-, disciple 'T ilus, whom he 
 left there to cultivate that precious plant, became the first bishop 
 of t!ie island. In the reign of the emperor J.eci, it had 12 bishops, 
 all subject to the patriarch of Constantinople. Constantine sepa- 
 rated t'n-te from Cyrene, in the new division which he made of 
 the provinces of the empire: and left Crete, with Africa and 
 Illyria, to his third son, Constans. In the reign of Micliael II. 
 emperor of Constantijiople, a rebellion, which lasted three years, 
 caused him to neglect the other parts c.f the empire. The Sara- 
 cens, who had conciuered the linest preriaces of Spain, svi/:ed 
 VOL. II. — so. ."ly. , 
 
 that opportunity. Tliey titled out a eonsiilerahle lleetj pUindered 
 the Cyclide^, attacked the isliinl of Crete, and made ti>emselve- 
 masters of it without opposition. To secure their conquest, they 
 built a fortress which they named Khanilak, ?', c. intrenciunenl. 
 From that cita<lel thev made inrc^.ads into the interior parts of the 
 island, carrying havuck and devast.iiioii wherever they appearec'. 
 Ky repeated attacks, thev subdued all (he cities in Crete except 
 Cydon. Michael made' some iuelTectual ellbrls to expel them 
 from Crete. The emperor !5asilius I. was not more succfsstul. 
 I'hcy defeated him in a bloody battle; but being vancpiisheci by 
 one of his generals, they were subjected to tlje payment of an 
 annual tribt:le. At the end of 10 yoais the Arabians refu.sed liie 
 trihule. Ft was restrvod for Nicephorus Phocas, afterwards 
 emperor, to deliver this fine island from the yoke of the infidels. 
 He landed on it with a numerous army, boldlv attacked tliem, 
 and routed them in various engagcmeiUs. 'I'he Saracens, no 
 longer daring to itieet so formidable a general in the field, ilecl 
 for protection to their fortresses. PhcKMs being plentifully sup- 
 plied with all tl-.e warlike, machines necessary for a siege, levelled 
 their walls, took their cities and fortresses, and drove thein iiUo 
 K'landak, their metropolis. In ninenionth.^ hesubdued the wiiole 
 island, took their king Curup, and his lieutenant Aremast, prison- 
 ers, and reunited to the ein|)ire a province wiichliad been 127 
 years in the hands of the infidels. It remained under the domi- 
 nion ot tlic Romans till the lime when Baldwin E. of Flanders, heii-.g 
 raised to the throne, liberallv rewarded the services of Ronifacc 
 Murtpiis of Montscrrat, by making liim king olThessalonica, and 
 adding the island of Crete to his kingiiom. That lord, bring 
 lonckr of gold than glorv, sold it to the Venetians, A. D. Ily4; 
 under whom it assumed the name of Candia. See that arl.cie. , 
 
 CRFTIO, in aiiticiuitv, a certain number of days allortid the 
 heir, to coii'ider whether he would act as heir to the deceased or 
 not ; after which time, if he did not act, he was excluded frotn 
 the e-tate. 
 
 CREVEC(EUR, a town and fortress of Holland, in the pro- 
 vince of Holland, CO miles E. of Breda. 
 
 CuF.vEcir.i-'it, two tow !is of 1- ranee ; viz. I. in the department 
 of Calvados : 2. in the department of the No:th. 
 
 CKEVIF.R, John' B.vptist Li^;wis, a native of Paris, (rained 
 under the celebrated Rollin, and afterwards professor of rhetoric. 
 I' poll the death of his master, in 1741, he finished Ids " Roman 
 History." He published other works, and was greatly ser\ic-e- 
 able to the cause of virtue and religion, as well as letters. His 
 death happened in 1765, at a very advanced age. Besides the 
 continuation of Rollin, he published, 1. An edition of Livius, 
 cum Notis, in six vols. 4to. 174S : and afterwards another, for the 
 use of his pupils, in six vols, small 8vo. 2. La Ilistoiie des Em- 
 pereurs de Romains Jusqu' a Constaiitin, 1749, 12tom. l-tno. 
 3. Ilistoire de I'Universite de Paris, 7 torn. ll?mo. 4. Rheto- 
 ricjue F'rancoise, a just and useful work, a. Observations syr TEs- 
 prit des Loix. 
 
 CREISA, a daughter of Priain, king of Troy, by Ilecuba. 
 She married .Eneas, by whom she had Ascanius. 
 
 CKEISE, a department of Friave. It contains the late pro- 
 vince of Marche. CJuerel is the capital. 
 
 Crevse, a river of France^, which rises eight miles S. of Fulle- 
 tin, crosses the department, and that of Indic ; and falls into the 
 river Viemie. 
 
 CREl'l'Z, a town of Croatia, Iti miles S. S. E. ofVaiasdin. 
 
 (RKUT/ENACH, CREl' TZN'ACH, or KREl'TZ- 
 NACH, a town of Geimany, in the circle of the I'pper Rhine, 
 Ji) miles S. \V. of Mey.i/. 
 
 CRF.l'X, a French term used aiiiong artificers, and literally 
 signifying a hollow cavitv, or pit, out of which something has been 
 scooped er dug ; whence it is used to sigifify that kind of sculp- 
 ture, where the lines and figures arc cut and formed within (he 
 face or plan of the plate, or '.natter engravcil ; and thus il stands 
 in opposition !o relievo, where the lines ami figures are emboss- 
 ed, and ri-e prominent above the face of the matter engrav- 
 ed on. 
 
 CREW, ttie comirany of sailors belonging to a ship, boat, sr 
 other ve-s(>l. The sailors that are to work and mannge a sjiip, 
 are regidated bv the number of lasts it mav carry, each lait mak- 
 ing two tons. The crew of a Dutch ship, (Vom forlv to fitly last-i, 
 is seven sailors and a swabber ; from tjfiy to Mxl-; lasts, the crew 
 K ccjisist*
 
 CRT 
 
 62 
 
 C R T 
 
 ~ consists of eight men and a swabber ; and tlms intrea=^ps at the rate 
 of one mill every ten last<:. English and Frcnih treAs are iiMiallv 
 stronger tl-.an Dutch, but always in about the ?anie proportion. 
 There are in a ship several particular crews or giUigs as the gun- 
 room crev.. the carpenter's crew, &c. 
 
 CUKWKERN, or CREWKERNE, a town of England, in 
 Sonw^Tsetshire, on the borders of Dorsetshire, a mile from the 
 Parret. 
 ■ CKF.X, in ornithology. See Rallus. 
 
 C'ivl!U?AGE, a game at cards. 
 
 CRIBRARIA, in botany, a genus of the cry ptngamia fungi : 
 ca-".e furnis'.ied with a double nienil>rane, tlie outer one thin and 
 fugaciiuis, inner one reticulate; seeds without lilaments, ejected 
 th.rougli the foramina. One species, viz. the pallida. 
 
 C'RlCi'.LASFA, the driving of a ring or hoop. Driving a hoop 
 was one of the ancient gymnastics : this hoop was as high as the 
 breast of the person who used it. It was commended fur render- 
 ing the limbs pliable, and for strengthening the nerves. 
 
 CRICiri'ON, James, a celebrated Scotchman, of whom so 
 many wonderful things are related as to have procured him the 
 name of " the admirable Crichton." He was born about 1530, 
 in tiie county of Perth, of a good family, and educated at St. An- 
 drews, where he tnade a rapid progress in the languages and sci- 
 ences. At the age of twenty he visited Paris, and acquired un- 
 common repntatiou as a disputant, and for his skill and activity in 
 games of all sorts, as well as marti;il exercises. It is said that he 
 caused placards to be tixed on all the gates, of tlie schools, hall-, 
 aiicl colleges, belonging to the university, anjl on all the pillars and 
 posk before the houses of the most renowned men for literature in 
 tH** city, inviting all tSiose who were well versed in any art or sci- 
 ence, to dispute with him in the college of Navarre, that day six 
 weeks, by nine o'clock in the morning, where he would attend 
 them, and be ready to answer to whatever shouUl be proposed to 
 liim, in any art or science ; and in any of these twelve languages, 
 Hebrew, Syriac, Arabic, Greek, Latin, Spanish, Trench, Italian, 
 English, Dutch, Flemish; and Sclavonian ; aiid this either in verse 
 or prose at the discretion of the disputant. During this whole 
 tiine, instead of closely applying to his studies, he regarded no- 
 thing but hunting, hawking, tilting, vaulting, riding, tossing the 
 pike, handling the inusket, and odier military feats ; or else he 
 employed himself in domestic games, such as balls,, concerts of 
 music vocal and instrumental ; cards, dice, tennis, and the like 
 tUversions. This conduct so provoked the students of the univer- 
 sity, that ni\der the placard which was fixed on the Navarre gate, 
 thev caused the following words to be placed : " If you would 
 meet with this monster of perfection, to make search for him either 
 in the tavern or bawdv-house, is the readiest way to find him." 
 Nevertheless, when the day appointed arrived, Crichton appeared 
 in the collece of Navarre, and acquitted himself beyond expres- 
 sion in't'.' disputation, which lasted from nine o'clock in the morn- 
 ing till six at night. At length, the president, after extolling him 
 highlvforthe many rare and excellent endowments, which the 
 Almighty had bestowed upon him, rose from his chair, and, accom- 
 panied by four of the most eminent professors of the university, 
 gave hini a diamond ring, and a purse full of gold, as a testimony 
 of their esteem. The whole ended with the repeated acclamations 
 of the spectators ; and henceforward our young di'^outant was call- 
 »-d The adinirablc Crichton. It is added, that he was so 
 little fatigued with the dispute, that he went on the very 
 next dav to the Louvre, where he had a match of tilting, and in 
 the presence of some of the French princes, and many ladies, car- 
 ried away the ring fifteen times successively. About two years 
 after this we find him at Rome, where he altixed a placard u|ion 
 ;.ll the eminent places of the city, in the following tcrins : " Nos 
 Jacobus Crichtonus Scoius, cuicumque rei propositie ex im;ro- 
 viso respondebinius. In a city which abounded in wit, this bold 
 challenge, to answer to any ciuestion that could he propo^-ed to 
 him, without his being previously adve.tised of it, could not 
 escme the ridicule of a pasciiiinade. 11 is said, however, that 
 tieing nowise discouraged, he appeared at the time and place ap- 
 pointed,; and that, in the presence of the pope, many cardinals, 
 bishops, doctors of divinity, and professors in all the sciences, he 
 displayed «!uch wonderful proofs of his universal knowledge, thai 
 lie exi ited no less tnrprise than he had done at Paris. From 
 Rome he went toVcuice ; where he coiUracted an intimate frieiul- 
 
 6 
 
 ship with Aldus Manulius, Lanrentius Massa, Sp'-ron Speronius, 
 Johannes Doi.atus, and other learned men, to whom he presented 
 several poenis in commendation of the city and university. At 
 length he was introduced to llie Doge and Senate, in whose pre- 
 sence he made a speech, which was accompanied with such elo- 
 quence, aiul grace of person and mannttr, that he received the 
 thanks of that illustrious body ; and nothing was talked of through 
 the whole city but this rara axis in tern's, this prodigy of nature. 
 He held, likewise, disputations on theology, philosophy, and ma- 
 tliematics, befiire the most eminent professors, and large multi- 
 tudes of people. His reputation was so great, that the desire of 
 'eeiiig and hearing him brought together a vast concourse of per- 
 sons Irom ditferent quarters to Venice. At Padua Ue disputed for 
 six hours with the most celebrated professors on various subjects 
 of learning ; and lie exposed, in particular, the errors of Aristotle 
 and his commentators, with so much solidity and acnteness, and 
 at the same time with so niuch modesty, fltat he excited universal 
 admiration. In conclusion he delivered extenipore an oration in 
 jiraise of igiiorancif, which was conducted with such ingenuity and 
 elegance, that his hearers were astonished. This exhibition of 
 Cricliton's talents was on the l4th of March 1j81. He caused a 
 paper to be fixed on the gates of St. John and St. Paul's church, 
 wherein he offered to prove before the university, that the errors 
 of ^Vrislotle, and of all his followers, were almost innumerable; 
 and that the latter had failed both in explaining their master's 
 meaning, and in treating on theological subjects. He promised 
 likewise to refute the dreams of. certain mathematical professors; to 
 dispute in all the sciences ; and to answer to whatever should be 
 proposed to hini or objected against him. All this he eng3<Ted 
 to do, either in the common logical way, or by numbers and 
 mathematical figures, or in 100 sorts of verses, at the pleasure of 
 his opponents. According to Manutius, Crichton sustained this 
 contest, \^ithout fatigue, for three days; during which time he 
 supported his credit, and maintained his propositions, w ith spirit 
 and energy, and with the highest applause from an unusual con- 
 course of people. We next find him at Mantua, where he is re- 
 ported to have slain a famous fencing-master in a duel. The 
 duke of Mantua was so pleased with Crichton as to appoint him 
 tutor of his son, who was a very licentious young man. This ap- 
 pointment, however, proved fatal to him ; for one night, as he was 
 walking through the streets in carnival time, he was attacked by 
 six assassins, and after a gallant defence lost his life. It is said that 
 the person who gave him the fatal stroke was the prince, his pupil. 
 This event is placed in the year I.tS3. The following catalogue 
 of Cricliton's works is given by Dempster: 1. Odi ad Lauren- 
 tium Massam plures. 2. Laudes Patavina*, Carmen extempore 
 eflusum, cum in Jacobi Aloysii Cornelii Domo Experimentura In- 
 genii, coram tota Academis Frequentia, non sine multorum Slu- 
 pore, faceret. 3. Ignorationis Laudatio, extemporale Thema ibi- 
 dem reddittim, post sex Horarum Disputationes, ut, prssentes 
 Somnia potius fovere quam Rem se veram videre aftirmarhit, ait 
 Manutius. 4. De Appulsu suo Venetias. 5. Oda; ad Alduui 
 Manutium. 6. Epistote ad Diversos. 7. Prasfationes soleniies 
 in omnes Scientias <acras ct profanas. 8. Judicium de Philosophis. 
 9. EiTores Aristotelis. 10. Anna an Liter;e priestant ? Contro- 
 versia Oratoria. 11. Refutatio Matheniaticorum. 12. A Co- 
 medy in the Italian language. 
 
 CRICK, among tarriers, is when a horse cannot turn his neck 
 any wav, but holds it fore right, insomuch that he cannot take his 
 meat from the ground without great pain. 
 
 CRK'KF'T, an exercise or game, performed with bats and a 
 ball. This sport was formerly confined solely to the labouring 
 cla«s of people, but is now becoming daily more fashionable among 
 those, whose rank and fortune entitle their countrymen to expect 
 a very ditferent conduct. Although we have, on all occasions, 
 enioiiied proper muscular exercise, yet we strongly reprobate that 
 of cricket, which is in all respects too violent, and, from the posi- 
 tions into which players must necessarily throw themselves, caiuiot 
 fail to be productive of frequent injury to the bodv. 
 
 Cripket, in zoology. See Grylt.us. 
 
 CRICKHOWEL, a town of South Wales in Brecknockshire, 
 on the Usk, fi miles W. N. W. of Abergavenny. 
 
 CRICKLADE, a borough of Wiltshire, Mm. S.W. of Oxford. 
 
 CRICKLIETH, an ancient low-i of North Wales, in Catrnar- 
 voiishire, 
 
 CRICO.
 
 CIU 
 
 .6.1 
 
 CRT 
 
 CKICO-ARYTyENOlDiEUS, two muscles of tlic larynx. 
 See Anatomy. 
 
 CHIC'UIDES, in anatomY> a cartilage of the larynx, called 
 nl-o 111!' aiuiiilar carlilasie. !t occupies the lowest part by \v:iy of 
 Im.^c to tliL- rest of the cartilages, ami to the lower part of it the 
 a-;>i-ra arteria adhere-!. Sec Anatomy. 
 
 ClUCO-THYlvOIDyEl'S, one of the live proper muscles of 
 tlic larynx. See Anatomy. 
 
 CRIME, [critnen, ]_.at.] the transgression of a law, cither natural 
 or divine, civil or ecclesiastic. Civilians distinguish between cri- 
 men and delictum. f5y the first, tlu-y mean c. pital olTences, in- 
 jurious to the wiiole conmiunity, as nuirdei-, perjury, &c. the pro- 
 secution of which was permitted to all persons, though no ways 
 inmiediately interested. By the latter, they understood private 
 olCences committed against individuals, as theft, Sec. By the laws, 
 nobody was allowed to prosecute in tliese, except those interest- 
 ed. VVith us, crimes are distinguished into capital, as treason, 
 nuH-der, robbery, &c. and common, as perjuries, &c. Again, 
 tune crimes are cognizable by the king's judges, as the above- 
 ii.entioned ; and others aie only cognizable in the spiritual courts, 
 a- simple fornication. All the pleas and excuses, whicli protect 
 tlie committer of a forbidden act from the punishment which is 
 otherwise annexed thereto, may be reduced to this single consi- 
 deration, the want or defect of will. An involuntary act, as it has 
 HO claim to merit, so neither can it induce any guilt: the concur- 
 rence of the will, when it has its choice either to do or to avoid 
 the fact in question, being the only thing that renders human ac- 
 tions either praiseworthy or culpable. Indeed, to wiake a com- 
 plete crime, cognizable by human laws, there must be both a will 
 and an act. For though, in toro conscienti.T, a fixed design or 
 will to do an unlawful act is almost as heinous as the commission 
 ot it ; yet as no temporal tribunal can search the heart, or fathom 
 the intentions of the mind, ptherwise than as they are demonstrat- 
 ed by outward actions, it tlierefore cannot punish tor wiiat it can- 
 not Know. For which reason, in all temporal jurisdictions, an 
 overt act, or some open evidence of an intended crime, is neces- 
 s.iry in order to demonstrate the depravity of the will, before the 
 . man is liable to punishment. 
 
 CRIMEA. SccTartary. 
 
 CRIMNOIDES, or CRIMOIDES, among physicians, a 
 term sometimes used for the sediment of urine, resembling 
 bran. 
 
 CRIMSON, one of the seven red colours of the dvers. See 
 Dyeing. 
 
 CRINGLE, [from krinckehn, Belg. to run into twists,] a small 
 hole made in the bolt rope of a sail, Iiy intertwisting one of the 
 divisions of a rope, called a strand, alternately round itself and 
 through the strands of the bolt-rope, till it becomes three-fold, and 
 assumes the shape of a wreath or ring. The use of the cringle 
 is generally to contain the end of some rope, which is fastened 
 thereto for the purpose of drawing up the sail to its yard, or of 
 extending the skirls by tlie means of bridles, to stand upon a side 
 wind. 
 
 CRLNODENDRUM, in botany, a genus of the monadelphia 
 decandria class and order. Calyx none ; corolla bell-shaped, six- 
 petaled ; capsule one-celled, gaping clastically at top. One spe- 
 cies, viz. C. patagua, a beautiful evergreen branchy tree, with a 
 body seven feet in diameter. It is a native of Chili. 
 
 CRINUM, in botany, a genus of the hexandria monogynia 
 class and order; natural "order, Spathacea'. Corolla funnel-form, 
 monopetaious, six-parted, three alternate segments unciate ; germ 
 at tiie bottom of the corolla, covered ; stamina distant. TUere are 
 six species. 
 
 CRISIS, [t xoi-ir, Gr.] in iiiedicine, is used in dilTerent senses, 
 both by the ancient and modem physicians. With some it means 
 frequently no more tlian the excretion of any noxious substance 
 from the body. Others take the word for a secretion of the noxi- 
 ous humours made in a fever. Others use it for tlie critical mo- 
 tion itself; and C^alen defines a crisis in fevers, a sudden ann in- 
 stantaneous change, cither for the better or tlie worse, productive 
 of recovery or death. 
 
 CRISTiE, in surgery, excrescences about the anus and pu- 
 denda. 
 
 CRISTA Gai.li. See Anatomy. This process is so named 
 from its figure, which resembles a cock's coit.b. To it is fiisteued 
 
 that part of the dura mater whidi divides the brain, called faU. 
 In adults, this process appears of a piece with the septum iia- 
 riimi. 
 
 CRITERION, [t5 y.;iTi;j!)v, Or.] a iTiark by which any thing is 
 judged of, with regard to its goodness or badness. 
 
 Criterion, in logic, a standard by which propositions and opi- 
 nions are compared, to discover their truth or falsehood. 
 
 CRITIIE, in surgery, commonly called the stye, a sort of tu- 
 bercle that grows on the eyelids. 
 
 CRITIlMl'iM, Samphire; a genus of the digynia order, and 
 pentandria class of plants ; natural order, Umbellats. Fruit oval, 
 compressed; florets equal. There are three species. 
 
 Ckn TIOMANCY, [from '■ x,;'?!, barley, and'! fj-nynln., magic,] 
 a species of divination, by considering the dough or matter of the 
 cakes offered in sacrifice, and the meal strewed over the victims 
 to be killed. Barley meal was commonly used; whence the 
 name. 
 
 CRITICAL DAYS, or CRITICAL SYMPTOMS, among 
 physicians, are certain days_and symptoms in the course of acute 
 diseases, which indicate the patient's state, and determine him 
 either to recover or grow worse. See Medicine. 
 
 CRITICISM, [from xc.n^J;, Gr.] the art of judging with pro- 
 priety, (oncerning any objector combination of objects. But 
 in a more limited sense, the science of criticism is conlined to the 
 tine arts. Tiie principles of the line arts are best unfolded by 
 studying the sensitive part of our nature, and by learning what ob- 
 jects are naturally agreeable and what are nalurally disagreeable, 
 rhe man who aspires to be a critic in these arts, must pierce still 
 deeper: he must clearly perceive what objects are loftv, what 
 low, what are proper and improper, what are manly, and what are 
 mean or trivial. Hence a loundation for judging of taste, and 
 for reasoning upon it: where it is conformable to principles,, we 
 can pronounce with cerlainly that it is correct; otherwise, that it- 
 is incorfect, and perhaps whimsical. I'hus the tine arts, like 
 morals, become a rational science; and, like morals, may be cul- 
 tivated to a high degree ofrehnement. Notwithstanding the ig- 
 norance and insolence which have occasionally (lisgraced the 
 writings of professed critics of minor rank, and notwithslandincr the 
 sneers of one of the wittiest of English authors against what he de- 
 nominates the " cant of iriticism," and his memorable eulogiuiu 
 of those who "are pleased they know not why, and care not where- 
 fore," the art of criticism is founded in nature, and every man ot" 
 thinking mind is led to the practice of that art. The merits or de- 
 merits of literary works are a perpetual subject of comment, and 
 ihe intelligent reader is not contented with referring to his own 
 immediate feelings as the grounds of Ids verdict, but appeals to 
 certain principles which he regarils as established, and which he 
 quotes as the guides of opinion. 
 
 C'RiTinsM may be regarded as embracing three separate 
 branches: 1st. The establisliing of rules and principles for correct 
 composition; such are the incomparable treatises of Cicero and 
 Quinctiliaii upon oratory, and of Longiniis on the sublime. la 
 English we have many valuable essays and treatises of this class. 
 The prefaces of Mr. Drydeu are a rich mine of critical principles 
 finely illustrated. Some of Mr. Addison's papers in the Spec- 
 tator, and Mr. Pope's and Dr. Johnson's prefaces to Shakspeare, 
 are excellent specimens of rational criticism. In more modern, 
 times we have had some excellent compendiums of criticism : 
 among 'which lord Kaimes's Elements of Criticism, Dr. Blair's 
 Lectures, Dr. Priestley's Lectures on Oratory and Criticism, and 
 particularly bishop Lowth's Lectures on the Sacred Poetry of the 
 Hebrews, deservedly hold a very high rank. See the articles Rhe- 
 toric and Poetry. The second branch of critical science re- 
 lates to the commenting upon ancient authors, explaining diUicult 
 passages, and elucidating their beauties. Eustathius and the scholi- 
 aiits, Vida, Scaliger, tiie Stephenses, and, above all, the gentlemen 
 of Port Royal, have been great benefactors to the public in this 
 way. The delphin and variorum editions of the classics do great 
 credit to the learned persons by whom they were edited. Manv 
 cditiens of Shakspeare have been imblished with critical notes iii 
 tills country. Mr. Theobald's w:is better than Mr. Pope's, except 
 for the preface. Dr. Warburton entirely failed, for the same rea- 
 son as Dr. Bentley in . his edition of Nlilton, viz. inJulginT too 
 freeiy in conjectural criticism. Dr. Johcson's explanatory notes- 
 on Siiakspearg are c.vcellent j and the profound reading of Malone,, 
 
 Stetvens,.
 
 C RI 
 
 64 
 
 CRO 
 
 eat 
 
 S(covi.'iis, and I'aniier, in Hritiili and Saxon literature, have been 
 exrellenll-, applied lo the ilUibtralion of the tirat ot dramatic poel-^. 
 Tlie third branch of criticisni regarduthe forming of a correct jiidge- 
 iv.ent of tlie meritj and dements of eonleniporary writers. In tliii 
 every nian of Cilecalion oiu^lit to (nialify hiniieli to see with his 
 O'.vn eves, and determine with his own understanding; and this is 
 to be elf'eeted bv tlie attentive stndy of the best works, anrient and 
 modern, en the' fieneral principles of criticism (set; above.) For 
 lo form our judgement on that of any other men is a specie,^ of lite- 
 rary slavery. The various partialities and conflicting interests by 
 whicji mankind ere governed, render it also very unsafe to rest 
 oiir opinion upon that of ctliers : and it is peculiarly unfortunate 
 that this deiiailment of liierature is seldom excreise<l by pei-sons 
 adequate, irom education and experience, to llie task. ^^ here it 
 is, there is no reason why the name of the critic should not be a^ 
 public as that of the author ; when that is not the case, his motive 
 will be suspected : nor can the reader assent to observations frc^m 
 nil authority, of the comiietency of which he is not assured. Tor 
 these reasons but little credit is attached, except in remote country 
 places, to anonymous criticism. The great yices of modern 
 criticism are pertness and flippancy. Writers of this class seem to 
 ■consider the study of Joe Miller as of more importance to their 
 craft tlian that of Quinctiiian ; and a readiness in the art of pun- 
 iiinir, as the highest praise and principal qualilications of a critic. 
 Alaniioki are the advantages of criticism, when studied as a ra- 
 tional science. I. A thorough acquaintance with the principles of 
 tlie fine arts re<loubles the entertainment these arts afford. To 
 tl'.e man wiio resigns himself enlir-jly to sentiment or feeling, 
 without interpo?ing any sort of judgement, po'try, music, and paint- 
 ing, are inere pas' inie ; in tlie prime ot lile, indeed, they are de- 
 lijjhtful, being supported by the iorce of novelty and the heat of 
 imagination: but they lose their relish gradually with their 
 novelty; and are generally neglected in the maturity of life, which 
 tlis])o-es t-o more serious anil more important occupations. 'l"o 
 tlio^e wlio deal in criticism as a regular -cience, governed by just 
 }iriiKiple', and giving scope to judgement as well as to fancy, the 
 line ans are a favourite entertainment ; and in old age maintain 
 thiit relish whicli tliev protluced in the morning of lile. II. A phi- 
 loso|)hic;.l incpiirv into the principles ol llie fine arts, inures the re 
 fleeting mind to the most enticing sort of logic : the practice of 
 reasoning upon subjects so agreeable tends to a habit; and, habit 
 strengthening the reasoning (acuities, prepares the mind for enter- 
 ing into subjects morediflicuU end abstract. To have, in this re- 
 spect a just conception of the importance of criticism, we need but 
 reflect upon the common method of education ; which, after some 
 years spent in acquiring languages, hurrie' ijs, without the least pre- 
 paratory discipline, into the most profound philosophy. A more 
 elfectual niethed to alienate the tender mind from abstract science, 
 is beyond the reach of invention; and accordingly, with respect 
 to such speculations, the bulk of our youth contract a sort of hob- 
 gobling terror, which is seldom, if ever, subdued. Those who ap- 
 ply to the arts are trained in a very different manner: they are 
 led, step by step, from the easier parts of the operation to what are 
 more ilifficult ; and are not permitte<l to make a new motion till 
 thev be perfected in those which regularly precede it. The sci- 
 ence of criticism appears then to be a middle link, connecting the 
 dilferent parts of education into a regular chain. This science fur- 
 nishes an inviting opportunity lo exercise the judgement: we de- 
 light to rea- Oil upon subjects that are equally pleasant and fami- 
 liar ; we proceed gradually from the simpler to the mere involved 
 cases: and in a (\ue course of disciplii.e, custom, which improves 
 all our faculties, bestows acuteness upon those of reason, 'ufficit nt 
 lo imravel all the intricacies of philo-ophy. III. The last ::nd 
 mo^t important advantage of rationil criticism is that it is a pre.d 
 support to morality. No employment attaches a man more to 
 iiis duty, than that of cultivating a taste in the fine arts : a just 
 relish of what is beautiful, proper, elegant, and ornamental, in 
 writing or painting, in architectnn- or gardening, is a fine prepa- 
 ration for file same just relish of these qualities in character and lie- 
 haviour. To the man who has ac<iuired a taste so acute and ac- 
 complished, every action wrong or improper niHst be highly dis- 
 gu^ttul : if, in any instance, the overbearing passion sway hini from 
 his duty, he th.en turn-, to it upon the tir-t icliection, w ith redonblod 
 resolution never to be swayed a second time ; he has now an ad- 
 riitional motive to virtue, a conviction derived from experience, 
 Hiat happiness depends on regularity and order, and that a dis- 
 
 regijrd toju^tice or propriety never fails to be punished with jhame 
 and renior?e. 
 
 C'KiTicisM, Rules or. For these, as applicable to the fire art?, 
 and derived from human n:iture, see Akchitecture, Beavty, ■ 
 
 COMPAKISON, CoNCRL'lTY, GraNDEVB, PROPRIETY, &C. 
 
 C'KITIC, a man skilled in the art of judging of literature ; a 
 man able to distinguish the faults and beauties of writing. 
 
 C'HlTKil'K, a criticism. See Criticis.m. 
 
 CIUTO, an Athenian philosopher, who nourished B. C. 40a. 
 lie was one of the most zealous disciples of Socrates, and sup|^ie(l 
 him with whatever he wanted. He had several scholar- who 
 proved great men, and he composed some dialogues which are 
 lost. 
 
 CRIZZELLING, in the glass trade, a kind of roughness arising 
 on the surface of some kinds of glass. 
 
 C1H)A'1 lA, a country of Europe, and p. -rt of thr ancient 
 Illyricum, bounded on tlie E. by Sclavonia and Bosnia, on the S.. 
 and S. V.'. by Morlachia, on the ^^ . by Carniola, and on the N. 
 bv tho Drave, which separates it from a part of Sclavonia. Ills 
 about SO milea long and 70 broad. 'I'he soil, where cultivated, is 
 fruitful in wine and oil, S,:c. but being a frontier country, it is net 
 so well cultivated as otherwise it might be. Carlostadt is the 
 capital. 
 
 CKOCODILE, in rlictoric, a captious and sophistical kind of 
 argumentation, contrived to seduce the unwary, and <lraw thenj 
 speciously into a snare. It has its name from tlie following fable, 
 invented by the poets. A poor woman begging a crocodile, that 
 had caught her son walking by the river-side, to spare and restore 
 liini, was answered, that he would restore him, provided she should 
 give a true answer to a tpiestion he should propose: the i]nestion 
 was, Will I restore thy son or not.' To this the poor woman, sus- 
 ptctiiig a deceit, sorrowfully answereil. Thou wilt not: and de- 
 manded to have him restoretl, because she had answered truly. 
 Thou lyest, says the crocodile ; for if 1 restore him thou hast not 
 answered truly ': I cannot therefore restore him williout- making 
 thy iinswer false. 
 
 Crocodile, in zoology. See Lacei'.ta. 
 
 Crocodile, Fossile, one of the greatest curiosities wliiclihave 
 been discovered in the fossile world. Jt is the skeleton of a large 
 crocodile, almost entire, found at a great depth under ground, bed- 
 ded in stone. It w as in the possession of Linkiu.«, w ho w rote many 
 pieces of natural history, and particularly an accurate description 
 of this curious fossile. It w as found in the side of a large mountain 
 in Gemiany, anclin a stratum of black fossile stone, somewhat like 
 our common slate, but of a coarser texture, the same with that in 
 which the fossile fish in many parts of the world are fouiid. It 
 had the back and ribs very plain, and was of a much deeper black 
 than the rest of the stone ; as is the case in the fossile lishes, pre- 
 seived in this manner. The part of the stone where the head lay 
 was not lound ; being broken otf just at the shoulders, but irregu- 
 larly ; so that, in one place, a part of the back oI" the head was 
 visible in its natural form. 'J'he two shoulder-bones were very fair, 
 and three of tlic feet were well preserved; the legs were ot their 
 natural shape and size, and the feet preserved even to the extre- 
 mities the tiye toes of each. 
 
 f'ROCl'S.in botany,SAFFROK : a genus of the monogynia order, 
 and triandria class of plants ; natural order, En-ata,-. Corolla sex- 
 partite, e(iual ; stigmata convoluted or rolled spirally inwards. 
 There are two species with many varieties, viz. C. officinalis, of- 
 (icinal crocus, or sallVon, and C. vernus. pr Sjiring crocus. 
 
 Crocus, in chemistry, any metal calcined to a red or deep yel- 
 low colour. 
 
 CRG'".Sl'S, the last king of Lydia, remarkable for his riches, 
 his conquest'-, his teinporarv prosperity, and his sad reverse of for- 
 Uiiie. He subdued the lhr_\gians, Mysiuns, I'aphlagonians, 
 Thracians, and Carians ; amassed together immense riches; and 
 became one of thi- most powerful ami niagnfircnt princes in the 
 world. He drev^ the learned to his ci.urt, and took a pleasure in 
 conversing with them. Thales of Miletus, I'ltlacus ot Mily lene,. 
 Bias of Friend, Clcobulus of Lindus, and most of the other wise 
 men, as they are emphatically styled, who lived in that age, as 
 well as jV.sop the fabulist, and the elegant C^reek poets ot the Units, 
 were bountifully received at the court of Crasm. Cvnis, king of 
 Pertiia, defeated him, H. C. .^4i', and commanded him to be burnt 
 alive. When on the pile, the unfortunate (uonart h thrice lepeatid 
 the name of Solcn, bit wkicki Cvtus Itad liic curi*SLtv to wsk hint
 
 C RO 
 
 (55 
 
 CRO 
 
 tlie meaning, lie told the conqueror, that Solon haJ niaiiitaiuL-d 
 that poverty was ;i liappier state than riches, nndt'iat he found now 
 his words uere true. The words of a dying man make a strong im- 
 pression on the heart. Those of Croesus deeply ali'ected the mind of 
 Cyrus, who considered the speech of Solon as addressed to him- 
 »ell". He not only spared his life, but also gave ordcre that he 
 should be seated by his side, and tlienceforth treated as a kiog ; a 
 ri-volutiori of fortune equally sudden and nnexpected. But the 
 mind of Crotsus had undergone a still more important revolution : 
 for, tutored in the useful school of adversity, he learned to think 
 Miith patience and to act with prudence ; to govern his own passions 
 by the dictates of reason, and to repay by w holesome advice the 
 generous behaviour of his Persian master; whom he survived. 
 
 CROIA, or C ROJ A, a town of European Turkey, in Albania, 
 anciently the capital of the Albanian kings. It is seated near the 
 Gulf of Venice. 
 
 CROISADE, CRUSADE, orCRUZADO. [from rro/x, a 
 Cross, Fr. or crux, a cross, Lat.] a name given to the expeditions of 
 the Christians against the infidels, for the corKpiest of Palestine; 
 so called because those who engaged in the undertaking wore a 
 cross on their clothes, and bore one on their standard. This ex- 
 fjedition was also called the holy war, to which people flocked in 
 great numbers out of pure devotion, the pope's bulls and the 
 preaching of the priests of those days making it a point o( con- 
 science. The several nations engaged in the holy war were dis- 
 tinguished by the diflercnt colours of their crosses ; the English 
 wore white, the French red, the Flemish green, the Germans 
 black, and the Italians yellow. From tliis enterprise several orders 
 of knighthood took their rise. Tliev reckon seven croisades for 
 ■the conquest of the Holy Land : tlie tirst begun iu the year 1095, 
 at the solicitation of the Greek Emperor and the Patriarch of Jeru- 
 salem. Though tliese croisades were elfects of the most absurd 
 superstition, they tended greativ to promote the >iood of Europe. 
 Mullilu.les indeed were destroyed. It iscomputed in the ditferent 
 expeditions that upwarils of two millions of jieople perished. 
 Many there were, however, w lio returned ; and these, having con- 
 versed so long with people who lived in a much moremagniticent 
 way than themselves, begiiu to eiitertain some taste for a refined 
 and polished way of life. Thus the barbarism, in which Europe 
 had been so long immersed, began to wear off soon after. The 
 princes also who remained at home, found means to avail them- 
 selves of the frenzy of the people. I5y the absence of such niun- 
 bers of restless and martial adventurers, peace was estiiblished in 
 their dominions. They also took the opportunity of annexing to 
 their crowns many considerable fiefs, either by purchase, or the 
 extinction of the heirs ; and thus the mischiefs which must always 
 attend feudal governments were considerably lessened. With re- 
 gard to the bad success of the croisaders, it was scarce possiljle that 
 any other thing could happen them. The emperors of Constanti- 
 nople, instea<l of assisting, did all in their power to disconcert their 
 schemes. They were jealous, and not without reason, of such an 
 inundation of barbarians. Yet, had they considered their true in- 
 terest, they would rather have assisted them, or at least stood 
 neuter, than entered intoallianccs with the Turks. They followed 
 •the latter method, however, and were often of very great'disservice 
 to the western adventurers, which at last occasioned the loss of 
 their city. But the worst enemies the croisaders had were tlieir 
 own internal feuds and dissensions. They neither could agree 
 ■while marching together in armies with a view to conquest, nor 
 could they unite their conquests under one government after they 
 had made them, 'i'hey set up three small states, one at Jerusalem, 
 another at Antioch, and another at Edes>a. These states, instead of 
 assisting, made war upon each other, and on the Greek emperors; 
 and thus became an easy prey to the common enemv. The hor- 
 rid cruelties they committed, loo, must have inspired the Turks 
 with the most invincible hatred again.>t thent, and made them re- 
 sist with the greatest obstinacy. Tliov were such as coidd have 
 been committed only by barbarians iirilamed with the most bigot- 
 ted enthusiasm. 
 
 CROISES, or CROIZES: the knights of St, John of Jorusa- 
 It-m, instituted for the defence and protei tion of pilgrims, wert 
 particidarly so called, from across they More as a badg<'. 
 
 CKOISHTARICH, a miliiary signal among the ancient Cale- 
 <luniar,s, simdar to the Crantara ./i'the S. liriton's. 
 
 CROISIERS, a religious order founded in l.>onour of tli« dis- 
 
 voL. II. — so. 60. 
 
 covery of the cross by the empj-css Helena. 'I'hev were, till of 
 late, Jjispei-sed in several parts of Europe, pailicularlv in the 
 iS'ftherlands, France and llohemia. 1 hose m Itiiiv were >up- 
 preoised even before the late revolulioas. These rel.^ions folijw 
 liie rule of St. Augustine. They had in England tlie name of 
 Crouched Friars. 
 
 CROIX, St. a river which forms part of I lie boundary line lie- 
 Iween the United States and tlie 15ritiah province of New Bruns- 
 wick. 
 
 Croix sur Meuse, a town of France in the department of 
 Meuse, 12 miles S. S. E. of Verdun. 
 
 CROMAC V\"ater, a romantic lake of Cumberland between 
 Butiennerc and I.owes water. 
 
 CROMARTY, [trom Croni Ba Gael. i. e. Crooked bay,] a. 
 county of Scotland, comprehending [lart of a penin^uU bounded 
 on the N. by the bay of Cromarty ; on the E. and S. by the Moray 
 Frith, and on the V\'. by Ross-shire. 
 
 Cromarty, the capital of the county. Lon. 3. 53. W. Lat. 
 37. 44. N. 
 
 CROMER, a town of England, on (he N. E. coast of Nor- 
 folk, chiefly mhabited by fishermen. It is 23 miles N. of Nor- 
 wich. 
 
 CROMLECH, or CROMLEH, in British antiquity, huge, 
 broad, flat stones, raised upon other stuiies set up on end. They 
 are common in Anglesey. See Plate XLVll. fig. 17, 18. These 
 monuments are described fully by Mr. Rowland, by Dr. Borlase, 
 and by Wormius, under the name of Ara;, or altars. Mr. Row- 
 land, however, is divided in his opinion ; for he partly inclines to 
 their having been altars, and partly to their having been sepuL- 
 chres: he supposed them to have been originaliy torabs, but that 
 in after times sacrifices were performed upon them to the heroes 
 deposited within. Cromlech is by some derived from the Ar- 
 moric word C7-U)/!, crooked or bowing, and /< A, stone, alluding 
 to the reverence which peisons paid to them by bowing. Row- 
 land derives it from the lii-brew words carcju luticlt, signifying a 
 " devoted or consecrated stone." They are called by the Welsh, 
 coeine Arihor, or Arthur's quoits, it being a custom in Wales, as 
 well as Cornwall, to ascribe all great or wonderful objects to king 
 Artlior, the hero of those countries. 
 
 CROMVVELL, Oliver, Lord Protector of the common- 
 wealth of England, one of tlie most extraordinary personages men- 
 tioned in hisloi-y, was the son of Mr. Robert Cromwell of Hinch- 
 inbrooke in tlie county of Huntingdon, by a lady of the name of* 
 btuart; by some said to have been descended from the royal family. 
 His paternal ancestors were of very hoiiourable extraction : but 
 no ways related to Thomas Cromwell earl of Essex. Their nawie 
 was originally Williams, but afterwards clianged to Cromwell. 
 Oliver was born in the parish of St. John, Huntingdon, where his 
 fatlier mostly lived, on the 24th or 2oth of April I J99, and edu- 
 cated at tlie'free school of tliat town. It is related by authors of 
 un5uspected veracity, that when at school he gave niany sigrns of 
 a very turbulent and restless disposition. At the age of 'Jl, he 
 married Elizabeth, datiditer of Sir James Bouchier of Essex. He 
 continued at Huntingdon, where he settled after his marriage, lilJ 
 an estate of between 400/. and jOO/. per annum devolved to him 
 by the death of his uncle Sir Thoina.s Stuart. This induced him 
 to remove to the isle of Ely where the estate lay, and here he 
 embraced the puritanical doctrines. He wa- elected a member of 
 the 3d parliament of Charles I. %vhich met on the 20th Jan. 162S; 
 and was a member of the committee for religion, where he dis- 
 tinguished himself by his zeal against popery. After the dissolu- 
 tion of that parliament, he returned again into the country, where he 
 continued to express much concern tor religion, to keep company 
 with silenced ministers, and to invite diem olten to lectures ancl 
 sermons at his house. Thus he brought his alfitirs again into a 
 very indilifereiit situation ; so that, by v. ay of rej'airing the breaches 
 iip had made in his fortune, Vie took a farm at St. Ives, which he 
 kept five years. But this scheifie succeeded so ill, that he gave it 
 up ; and at last, chagrined with ids disappointments, and by the 
 treatment his party at that tune receivetl, he funned a design of 
 goinit over to New EiigKiiid. In this, however, he was disap- 
 pointed ; the king issued out a protlamatiun ag.iinst all such emi- 
 grations. Altcrwards he removed to Ely, where he acquired ce-' 
 lebrity by his gilts in prayer and preaching. In Hi40 he was rpj 
 turned to parliiiment I'oi tU« borough of Cambridge by the puril 
 
 •^ tan
 
 CRO 
 
 w 
 
 CRO 
 
 tan intPii'st. I:i the liouse hi; was a frtqiiejit speaker, vulgar, and 
 vehement, always oppo.-iiig the court, and attacking the cliurch, 
 He was in a great measure the cause ot the war, as he was con- 
 tinually by his plots and contrivances urging matters to that ex- 
 tremity. In 164l', when parliament determined upon hostilities, 
 Cromwell went to Cambridge, where he raised liis troop of horse, 
 and behaved with great inhumanity to the loyal members of tlie 
 imiversily. He soon acquired the rank of colonel, and a great 
 reputation for milikiry skill and valour. His men were well dis- 
 ciplined, and animated with a strong portion of jeligious fanati- 
 cism, which their cominander encouraged in such a manner that 
 they actpiired at the battle of iMarston Moor, in 1644, the name 
 of Ironsides. At the second battle of Newbury, Cromwell's be- 
 haviour obtained for him from his parly the title of Saviour of the 
 Nation. This party consisted of the independents, who had 
 gained so great an inlluence in parliament as to pass the famous 
 Self-denyinn ordinance, by which all luembers of either ho\ise were 
 excluded from conunands in the army, with the particular excep- 
 tion of Cromwell, who, by this ma-ter-piece of policy, accjiiired 
 an ascendancy over the army, and thus paved the way for his fu- 
 ture advancement. He was new constituted lieutenant-general, 
 and by his management the battle of Naseby was gained in 1045, 
 which decided the t'lte of tlie royalists. Tliis victory was followed 
 I)y a series of successes, for which he was voted a pension of 2.i()0/. 
 per annum, and the thanks of the house. When the king was be- 
 trayed by the Scotch to the parliament, Cromwell determined 
 to get him into his own power. This he effec'.ed by means of 
 cornet Joyce in 1647. The same year he purged the house of 
 commons, tliat is, he turned out those members who were not 
 likely to be gained over to his purpose. The share lie had in the 
 murder of the king is too plain to need detail. He was present at 
 the trial, and signed the warrant of execution, boon after this a 
 inutuiy broke out in the army, which threatened dangerous con- 
 sequences ; but Cromwell, by punishing the ringleaders, put an 
 eno to It. In 164y he went to Ireland', which he subdued, and 
 Jeavnig Iretoii as deiiutj-^ returned to England in 1650 ; but his 
 cruelties are regarded with horror and detestation in that kingdom 
 to this day. He was now appointed commander-in-chief against 
 the Scots, who had armed to restore Charles H. Septembers, 
 1650, he gamed the battle of Dunbar ; and that day twelvemonth 
 he deteated the king at Worcester. From this time he kept his 
 eye on the sovereign power. He began this favourite project by 
 mouUhng the army to iiis will ; and having a party subservient to 
 Jus wishes, he struck a bold stroke by dismissing the parliaiuent 
 and locking the door of the liousc. He then dissolved the council 
 of state ; alter which, he called a council, composed of his olHccr^. 
 He next convened a mock representation of the nation, consist- 
 jng of 14V persons, called, from one of the members, Barebone's 
 {wriianient. This assemblage bf'ing a motley crew of ignorant 
 fanatics, and the creatures of Cromwell, agreed lo resign their au- 
 thority ; on which the council of ofiicers assembled, and drew up 
 HT) instrument declaring him protector of tlie commonwealth of 
 i-ngland. Scotland, and Ireland: accordingly, Dec. 16, 1654, he 
 was invested with this dignity in the court of chancery. The 'fol- 
 lowing year he called a parliament but finding that tlie members 
 began with questioning his authority, he placed a guard at their 
 door, and then made each member as he entered take an oath of 
 :illegiaiice (o him. Tliis parliament still continuing refractory, he 
 dissolved llicin after sitting five mouths. A war'broke oui be- 
 tween Kngland and Spain in 1655, in which Jamaica was takeu, 
 and Blake gained several splendid victories, and caused the Fno-! 
 Jish flag to be respected in the Mediterranean. One consequence 
 was an alliance between the protector and France, and the deli- 
 very ot Dunkirk to PIngland, after its being taken by the united 
 forces of the two countries. In 1656 he called another parliament 
 which gratitied the protector by confirming his title and sanction- 
 ing his proceedings. lie wanted now the 'title of king, but tliis 
 was rejected by Ins most zealous friends; and finding the object 
 VHiattaiiiable, he abandoned it. However, he had the privilege 
 granted him to make a sort of lords ; and the title of protectur be- 
 ing veeognized, he was inaugiuated with the pom|) of a coronation 
 111 Weslminster-hall. In 16;,8 he convened the two houses, and 
 addre>se(l them m the laiuruage usual for the kin^s of Enu-lind • 
 
 but none of the heieililary nobles would attend Ins mockparlia-' 
 u.CiU !• Hiding that he could not form anj thing like a regular 
 
 establishment, he dissolved the assembly. In August of that year 
 his favourite daughter, Mrs. Claypole, "died, bitterly reproachinff 
 him tor his conduct, which, with the publication of a pamphlet, bv 
 colonel Titus, entitled Killing no Murder, tending to prove 'the 
 assassination of the tyrant a public duty, produced a slow fever, of 
 which he died September 3, 165S. A very pompous funeral was 
 performed at the public ex]K-uce, from Somerset-house, with a 
 splendor even superior to that bestowed upon crowned heads. 
 Some have related that his body was deposited in Naseby-Jield ! 
 others, that it was wrapped in lead, and sunk in the Thames to' 
 prevent any insult that might afterwards he offered to it. Bu't it 
 seems beyond doubt that it was interred at Westminster; as we 
 are informed, that on the order lo disinter him after the restoration, 
 his corpse was found in a vault in the middle aisle of Henry VII.'s 
 chapel. In tlie inside of the coflin, aiul on the breast of the'corpse, 
 was laid a copper-plate finely gilt, inclosed in a thin case of lead*. 
 On one side of this plate were engraven the arms of England im- 
 paled with those of Oliver, and on the reverse the following le- 
 gend: Oliverius Protector Ileipubljcie Analia-, Scotia-, et Iliber- 
 nil', natus ^5 Aprilis 1599, inauguratus UiDccembris 105.3, mor- 
 tuus3 Septembris aim. 1658, hic'situs est. Cromwell was of a ro- 
 bust frame of body, and of a manly, though not agreeable aspect. 
 His nose being remarkably red aiid shining, was often made thj 
 subject of ridicule. He left only two sons, Richard and Henry • 
 and three daughters; one married to General Fleetwood, another 
 to Lord Fauconberg, anda third to Lord Rich. 
 
 Cromwell, Kichard, eldest son of Oliver, was by his father 
 appointed successor to the protectorship, but WaS soon deposed by 
 the army. They discharged his debts, took all the household stut>, 
 plate, &c. gave him a protection for six months, and so he 
 retired. He was not qualified to support the station gained by 
 the aspiring talents of his father. Pie was of a moderate temper, 
 and. untainfed with either the ambitious or fanatical spirit which 
 his father had so successfully cultivated. The late Lord Garden- 
 stone, in his Remarks on English Fli^tol■ians, savs, " Had Richard 
 possessed the abilities of his latlier, we should have heard no more 
 of the posterity of the holy martyr." On the resfonUioij he went 
 abroad ; but returned in 1080 under the assumed name of Clark 
 and settled at Cheshuntin Hertfordshire, where he lived privately^ 
 and died in 171L', aged S6 ; leaving several thildrei), whose po's- 
 terity are still in existence. 
 
 C'ROMWEi-L, Thomas, Earl of Essex, was the son of a black- 
 smith, at Putney, and born in 149S. Without a liberal education, 
 but endowed with a strong natural genius, he conside.'-ed tiavellmg 
 as tlie proper means of improving his underslanding ; and to this 
 early token of his sounf! judgement he stood indebied for the high 
 rank and distinguished honours he afterwards enjoyed. He be- 
 came by degrees the contidtiitial favourite and prime minister Qf 
 Henry VHI. and from the moment he acquired any authority in 
 the cabinet, he employed it in promoting the refoimatioii, to iii<; 
 zeal for which he became a victim ; for, the uiore firmly to secure 
 the Protestant cause, lie contrived to marry the king lo Ann of 
 Cleve.s, whose friends were all Lutherans. IJnfortuiKitely He 
 took a disgust lo Ihis lady, which brought on Crcmwel" 
 the king, with ' " 
 nity tosacrilice i 
 
 he seemed desirous of reconciling himself, as soon" as lie had Ca- 
 therine Howard in view. Cromwell was a great polilician, and a 
 good man ; but, like most statesmen, was guilty of great errors. 
 In his zeal for the new religion, lie had introduced the unjustifil 
 able mode of attainder in cases of treason and heresy : and his 
 enemies, who were numerous (consi>.lii!g of two classes, the an- 
 cient n(jbility and gentry, wlio were enraged to see the highest 
 honours bestowed on a m:in of his mean extiaction, and the Roman 
 Catholics, who detested him,) liaving preferred many complaints 
 against him, availed themselves of his own law. He wa:; attainted 
 ot treason, and heresy, convicted uuheaid, and beheaded in 1540. 
 He was the chief instrument of the suppression of the abbess an(\ 
 monasteries, and of the destruction ot images and relics ; to him 
 also we are indebted for the iiislitution of parish registers of birtlis, 
 '"■"■'•'•iges, and burials. 
 
 lenry 
 
 ruin ; 
 
 us usual cruelty and caprice, taking this oppoitii- 
 
 'lis minister to the Ronian Clatholic parly, to whom 
 
 man 
 
 ^ CRONACH, a fortified town of Germany, in the circle of 
 Franconia, S?5 miles N. £. of Bamberg. 
 
 CRONENBUKG, atown of f;ermaiiy, 
 per Rhine, 10 miles N. of Frankfort. 
 
 in thv circle of the Up-
 
 CR O 
 
 07 
 
 C RO 
 
 (I'roven'B'jrg, 01' Cronbohg, a strong fortress of Denmark, 
 l« tUe isle of Zealand, at the entiaiico of the Soiiiul, wliere the 
 jDaiies take toll of such shi|)> a> are boiiiu! fur the Oallic. 
 
 CIRONIENES, fi-usts celebrated at Allien, in the month Cro- 
 liins, in honour of Saturn, answering to the Saliirnaha of the 
 Koman*. 
 
 CROKtUS, orCIIRONIUS, in chronology, the ancient name 
 of the Athenian mouth Ileeatomba'on ; which wasthe first of their 
 vear, and answered to the Litter i)art of our June, and beginning 
 of Jnly. 
 
 CKilNSNIERE, an inland on the coast of France, about live 
 miles in circumference. 
 
 ORONSTADT, a sea-port town of Russia, where the greatest 
 part of the navy is situated. It stands upon the island of Ketnsarl 
 in the Gulph of Finland. 
 
 Cronstadt, or Krokstadt, a town of Transylvania, near the 
 frontiers of Moldavia, (50 miles E. N. ¥.. of Ilcrmanstadt. 
 
 CROSIERj orCROZIER, a shepherd's crook ; a symbol of 
 pastoral authority, consisting of a gold or silver staff crooked at 
 the top, carried occasionally before bishops and abbots, and heUl in 
 the hand when they give the solemn benedictions. The custom of 
 bearing a (lasioral stall' before bisiiops is\crv ancient. Regtdar 
 abbots are allowed to ol'ticiate with a mitre and crosier. Among 
 the Greeks none but a patriarch had a right to the crosier. 
 
 Crosiek, in astronomy, four stars in the soutln-rn hemisphere 
 in the form of a cross, serving those who sail in south latitudes to 
 find llie antarctic pole. 
 
 C'RO.SLET, in heraldry, is when a cross is crossed again at a 
 small distance from each of the ends. Upton says it is not so 
 often borne by itself in arms as other crosses are, but often in di- 
 minutives, that is, in small croslets scattered about the field. See 
 Heraldry. 
 
 CROSS, [cr/;.r,Lat.]in antiquity, a species of punishment, or ra- 
 ther the instrument wherewith it v.as inllicted, consisting of wood 
 placed crosswise, either crossing at right angles at the top like a 
 T, or in the middle of their length like an X. The cross to which 
 our Saviour was f..-tened, and on which he died, was of the for- 
 mer kind; being thus reprei^ented by old monuments, coins, and 
 crosses; and St. Jerom ccir.pares it to a bird Hying, a man swim- 
 ming, or praying with his arms extended. The punishment of the 
 Cross was common among the Syrians, Egyptians, Persians, Afri- 
 cans, Greeks, Romans, and .lews. It was the most dreadful of all 
 ctliers, i)oth for the sname and pain of it : and so scandalous, that it 
 was inflicted as the last mark of detestation upon the vilest of peo- 
 ple. It was the punishment of robbers and murderers, provideii 
 t!-iat they were slaves too ; but if they were free, and had the pri- 
 vilege of the city of Rome, it was thought too infamous a punish- 
 ment lor such a one, let his crimes be what they would. The 
 Mosaic law ordained, that the bodies of persons executed sliould 
 Bot be left upon the tree after sun-set. Deut. xxi. 22. The Jews 
 confess, that they crucified people in their country, but deny that 
 they inllicted tliis punishment upon any one alive. Thev lirst put 
 them to death, and then fastened theiii to the cross either by the 
 hands or neck. But tliere are indisputable proofs of their cruci- 
 fying men frequently alive. Before the crucifixion the criminal 
 was generally scourged with cords ; sometimes little bones, or 
 pieces of bones, were tied to these scourges, that the condemned 
 person might suffer more severely. It was also a custom, that he 
 who was to be crucified should bear his own cross to the place of 
 execution. In this manner Christ was comptdled to bear his own 
 cross ; and as he sunk under the burden, Suiion the Cyrcnian was 
 constrained to bear it a:ti-r him and with iiim. Rut whereas it is 
 generally supposed that our Lord bore the wliole cross, i. e. the 
 long and transverse part botli, this seems to be a thing impossible; 
 and therefore Lipsius (in his tre.itise " De Supplicio Crucis") 
 lias set the matter iri a true light, w hen he tells us that Jc^ns only 
 carried the transverse beam ; because the long beam, or the body 
 of the cross, was either fixed ia the ground before, or made ready 
 to be set up as soon as tlie prisoner came : and from hence he o')'- 
 ^erve«, that jiainters are very much mistaken in representing our 
 Saviour carrying the wdiole cross. There are several ways of cru- 
 cifying ; sometimes the criminal was fastened with cords to a tree, 
 sometimes he was crucified v.itli his head downwards. 'J'his way 
 St. Peter chose out of respect to his master-jesus Christ, not think- 
 ing himself worthy to be crucified like liim ; though the common 
 waj of crucifying was by fastening the criminal with nails, one 
 
 througli each hand, and one through both feet, or one through 
 each of them : for this was not always performed in the same man- 
 ner. The ancients sometimes rcpi ejent Je»us Christ crucified with 
 ! four nails, and sometimes with three. Tlie text of the Gospel 
 ' shews clearly, that Jesus Christ was fastened to the cross with 
 nails; and the Psalmist (xxii. 17,) had fori told Ion,; before, that 
 thry should pierce his liands and his feet : but there are great dis- 
 putes concerning the number of these nails. The Greeks repre- 
 sent our Saviour as fastened to the cross with four nails ; in w hK-h 
 Ciregory of Tours agrees with them, one at each hand and fout. 
 But several are of opinion, that our Saviour's hands and feet were 
 pierced with three nails only, viz. one at each hand, and oive 
 through both his feet : and the custom of the Latins is rather for 
 this last opinion ; for the generality of the old crucifixes made in 
 the Latin church have only three nails. 
 
 Cross, Exaltation of THt, an ancient feast, lield on the 
 14tli of September, in memory of this, that Ileraclitu; restored t.) 
 Mount Calvary the true cross in C4J, which had been carried off 
 14 years before by Cosroes king of Persia, upon his taking Jeru- 
 salem from the emperor Phocas. 
 
 Cross, 1n"vkntiox of thf, an ancient feast, solemnized on 
 the .3d of May, in memory of the true cross of Christ being found 
 by St. Helena, the mother of Constantine, deep in the ground on 
 Mount Calvary ; where slie erected a church for the preservation 
 ot part of it; the rest being brought to Rome, mid deposited in 
 the church of the Holy Cross of Jerusajem. 
 
 C^Koss, Ordeal of the, a species of trial frequently practised 
 in the days of superstition. See Ordeal. 
 
 Cross, Order of the, or Croisade, an order of ladies in- 
 stituted in 166S, by the empress Eleonora de Gonzagua, wife of 
 the emperor Leopold I. on occasion of the miraculous recovery 
 of a little golden cross, wherein were inclosed two pieces of the 
 true cross, out of the ashes of part of the palace. The five is said 
 to have burnt the case wherein it was inclosed, and melted the 
 crystal, yet the wood remained untouched ! 
 
 Cross, in heraldry, is defined by GuiUim, an ordiuarv com- 
 posed of fourfold lines ; wh.ereof two are perpendicular, and the 
 other two transverse ; for so we m»st conceive of them, though 
 tliey be not drawn throughout, but meet by couples, in four 
 right angles, near tiie fess-point of the escutcheon. See Heral- 
 dry. 'Jliis bearing was first bestowed on such as had perform- 
 ed, or at least undertaken, some service for Christ, and the 
 Christian profession ; and is held by divers the most honourahlu 
 charge in all heraldry. It came into frequent use from the an- 
 cient expeditions into the Holy Land; and the holy war pil- 
 grims, after tlieir jiilgrimage, taking the cross for their cogni- 
 zance ; the ensign of that war being the cross. In those wars, 
 says Mackenzy, the Scots carried St. Andrew's cross ; the French 
 a cross argent; the English a cross or; the Germans, sable; tlie 
 Italians, azure; the Spaniards, gules. Leigh mentions 46 several 
 crosses; Sylvanus Morgan, 26; Upton, 30: Johannes de Bado 
 Aureo, 12. 
 
 Cross, St. George's, or the red cross, in a field argent, is 
 new the standard of England; of which that saint is the reputed 
 patron. 
 
 Cross, in law, instead of a signature to a deed, &c. is derived 
 from tlie Saxon practice of affixing the sign of the cros,s, wlicther 
 they could write or not. 
 
 Cross, in mining, two nicks cut on the superficies of the eajtli 
 thus -|-, which the miners make when they take the around to dig; 
 tor ore. This cross gives the miners three days liberty to make 
 and to set on stones. As many of these crosses, as "the miner 
 makes, so many meats of ground he may have in the yein, pro- 
 vided. he set on stones within three days after making his cross or 
 crosses. But if he make but one cross, and a by-staiider makes 
 t!ie second, and a siranger iiinkes the third, every one is served 
 with the next mear, according as they have first orlast, sooner or 
 later, made tlieir cross or crosses upon the ground. 
 
 Cross-bar Shot, a round shot, or great bidlet, with a bar of 
 iron put through it. 
 
 Cross-bar Shot, is used in sea-figlits to destroy the enemy's 
 rigging. The iron bar projects six or eight inches en each 
 side. 
 
 Cross-bearer, [port-croi.r, cniriger,'] in the Latin church, 
 the chaplain of an aiclibisiiop or primate, wUo bears a cross before 
 him oil solemn occasions. 
 
 Cross-
 
 CRO 
 
 63 
 
 CRO 
 
 Cross-bearers also denotes certiiiii officers in the inquisition, 
 who make a vow before the inquisitors or their vicars to defend the 
 Calhohc faith, tiioudi with llie' loss of fortune and life. Their bu- 
 siness is to provide the ii'iqnisilors with necessaries. 
 
 Cro3S-B!u,, in chancery, is an original bill, by which the de- 
 fcndent prays relief against the piaintilf. 
 Cross-bill, in ornithology. See Loxia. 
 Cross-bow. .See Archf.ry, Ballista, and Bow. 
 Cross-grained Stuff, in joinery. Wood is said to be cross- 
 grained, when a bougii or bvanch has shot out of it ; for the grain 
 of the branch shooting forward, runs athwart that of the tnnik. In 
 wood well grown tliis defect is scarce perceivable, except in vvork- 
 ing ; but ni deal boards these boughs niaTie knots. 
 
 Cross-jack, [pronotuiced cro-ject,'] a sail extended on the 
 ioHer yard of Llie niizen-mast, which is hence called cross-jack 
 yard. 'This sail however, has generally been found of little ser- 
 vice, and is therefore very seldom used. 
 
 Cross-piece, a rail of' timber extended over the windlass of a 
 inercliant-ship from the knightheads to the belfry. 
 
 Cross-staff, [from cnwj- and sialj','] an instrument commonly 
 called the forestall', used by seayien to lake the meridian altitud;- 
 of the sun and stais. 
 
 Cross-timing, in husbandry, a method of harrowing land, con- 
 sisting in drawing the harrow up the interval it went down before, 
 and down that which it was drawn up. 
 
 Cross-trees, certain pieces of timber, supported by the 
 cheeks and trestle-trees, at the upper ecids of the lower masts, 
 athwart which thev are laid to su-itain the frame of the top. 
 
 Cross-tree "\'ard is a yard standing square, just under the 
 mizeii-top, and to it the mi^en-top is fastened below. 
 
 CROSSEN, a duchy of Germany, in the circle of Upper 
 Saxony. 
 
 Crossen, the capital of the duchy, 21 miles S. E. of Frank- 
 fort 
 
 CROSSOSTYLIS, in botany, a genus of the monadelphia 
 polyandria class and order. Calyx simple, four-parted ; corolla 
 lour-petaled ; nectary twenty, corpuscles between the filaments ; 
 stigmas four-jasged. . There is but one species, \'vi. C. bifiora, a 
 native of the Societylsles. 
 
 CROSTOLO, a "department of the late Cisalpine republic; 
 which compreliended the duchy of Reggio. 
 
 CROTALARIA, Ivattle-wort ; a genus of the decandria 
 order, and diadelphia class of plants ; natural order, Papilionacea;. 
 Legumen turgid, inllated, pedicellated ; filaments coalited with a 
 Assure on the back. 'J'here are thirty-two species, natives of warm 
 climates. 
 
 CROTALO, an instrument in modern military music, resem- 
 bling the ancient Crotalum. The Turks are the iir>t, among the 
 moderns, who introduced the u^e of it for their troojis. It is now 
 common in Florence, and other territories on the continent. It ii 
 the same with the ancient cymbalum. 
 
 CROTALt'M, an ancient kind of musical instrinnent, fomid 
 on medals, in the hands of the priests of Cybele. It diffi'red from 
 the sistrum, thougii authors frequently confound the two. It 
 consisted of two Utile brass plates or rods, which were sliakcn 
 in the hand, and in striking against each other made a noise. 
 
 CROTALUS, the Rattle-snake, in zoology, a genus of the 
 class and onler am|)hibia serpentcs. Generic character : scuta on 
 the abdomen ; scuta and scales beneath the tail ; rattle at the end 
 of the tail. There are live species. The C. horridus, or banded 
 rattle-snake, inh.ibits Carolina in North America, and is from 
 three to live feet in length, of a ycllo\ush brown colour. 'Fhe 
 rattle is fixed at the end of the tail, and is composed of dry and 
 Iiollow boniis, nearly of the same fornr and size. See Plate LX\'ll. 
 It is of a brown colour, composed of several horny, membraneous 
 cells, of an imdulaled pyramidal figure. These are articulated 
 <iithin one another in such a manner that the point of the first cell 
 reaches as far as the basis of the ])rotubcrant ring of the third, and 
 soon; which articulation, being very loose, fives liberty to the 
 parts of the cells that are inclosed within the outward rings to 
 strike against the sides of them, and so to catise the rattling noise 
 which is heard when the snake shakes its tail. This is the most 
 inactive and slow moving of all the snakes, iuul is never the ag- 
 gres-.or ex'cept in what it preys upon, 'i'he us'e of the rattle lias 
 not a little perplexed naturalists, and some have coiLsidered it de- 
 
 signed to warn other animals of their danger, while otliers have 
 regarded it as intended, indeed, to sound the alarm of peril, buf- 
 such an alarm as is followed by consternation, under which the 
 art'righted victims experience a prostration of all its faculties, and 
 is bereaved at once of intelligence and motion. Tiiese animal^ 
 were supposed to possess the power of charming others, or of ope- 
 rating upon them by some inelfable power, to induce them to 
 drop from their stations into the very mouth of the destroyer. 
 I'liis opinion, long prevailing, but now exploded, not unnaturally 
 arose from the circumstance just mentioned. The appearance of 
 the rattle-sn,;ke to these creatures, who instantly recognize it for 
 their mortal enemy, and the sound of that instrinnent, which is as 
 it were the signal of execution, impresses tliem occa.ionally with a' 
 degree of tern.-r, which withei'S all tlie energies of tlicir frame, and 
 relaxing their hold on the branches of trees, causes ihem to di'op 
 almost lifeless into tlie mouth of tlieir adversary. The bite of 
 tliese animali is not otdy poisonous, but rapidly fatal, and has been 
 known to kill a man in two minutes. When the bite is received 
 iu a fleshy part, the Indians apply the knife with all possible speed. ■ 
 In slight cases they have recourse to various roots ; and in some 
 cases thev suck the wound : but when a principal vein or artery 
 is penetrated, with the animal's full strength, they abandon their 
 case as hopeless, and apply no remedy whatever. In the terri- 
 tories of America, but thinly inhabitetl, rattle-snakes are abun- 
 dant ; but in others they are almost exterminated. They are 
 seldom seen farther north than Lake Chainplain, or south tlian 
 Brazil. They are extremely fond of Irogs, and are found gene- 
 rally where these are most to be met with. In siiinnicr they are 
 generally seen in pairs ; in winter they are gregarious, and secure 
 ihemselvi's from tlie rigours of the ^eason by withdrawing deeply 
 ill the earth, whence a fine day sometimes induces them to ap- 
 pear, but in a stale of great weakness, in which they may be at- 
 tacked without danger, and in which a single person has some- 
 times destroved with a stick several scores in a single morning. 
 The largest ever seen by Catesby, who, while in Carolina, paid 
 particular attention to them, was about eiglit feet long, and nearly 
 nine pounds in weight. 
 
 CROTCHES, \\\ ship-building, very crooked timbers in tli« 
 hold or bread-room, from the mizen-step aft, fayed cross th« 
 keelson, to strengthen the ship in the wake of the half-timbers. . 
 CROTCliEl', in music, one of the notc-s or character* 
 of time, which is equal to half a minim, and double of a 
 ([uaver. 
 
 Crotchet, in printing, a sort of straight or curved line, al- 
 ways turned up at each extreme ; serving to link such articles as 
 are to be read together ; and used in analytical tables, &c. for fa- 
 cilitating the divisions and subdivisions of any subject. 
 
 Crotchets are also marks or characters, serving to inclose 3 
 word or sentence, which is distinguished from the rest, being ge- 
 nerally ill this form [ ] or this ( ). 
 
 CROrO, or CROTON, in ancient geography, a city of the 
 Ih-utii, in Italy, built by the Acheans; 150 stadia to tlie N. of 
 Lacinium, andin the neighbourhood of Metapontuni. 
 
 Ckoton, in botany. Wild Ricinus: a genus of the mona- 
 delphia order, and mono-cia class of plants ; natural order, 'I'ri- 
 cocca-. Male calyx cylindrical, quinquedentatcd ; corolla ])en- 
 tapetalous; sttiniina from ten to fifteen ; female calyx i)olyph)l- 
 lous ; no corolla ; three bifid styles, ; capsule trilocular ; seed 
 one. There are fifty-three species, mostly herbaceous and shrub- 
 by plants. 
 
 CROTON A, an ancient city of Naples, in the province of 
 Calabria Ultra, originally built by the Greeks. It is sealed uijou 
 the mouth of tlie K>saro, jO miles E. of Cosenza. 
 
 CROTOPHACrl, in ornithology, a genus of l)irds of the or- 
 der pic;r. Bill thin, compressed, greatly arched, half oval, and 
 cultr.ited at top : nostrils round ; tongue flat, pointed at the end ; 
 tail consists of ten feathers ; toes placed two aiul two. Fouf 
 species are known. 
 
 C. Ani is about the size of a blackbird : the colour is black, in 
 some parts glossed with purple, and about the neck taintly tinged 
 with yreen on tin- margins: the base of the bill is furnished witii 
 black bristles, which turn forwards : the eyelids have long ha. is 
 like eye-lashes: the tail is six inches long, and much cuiieated ; 
 and tlie Ug? are black. This species is found in Jamaica, St. 
 Domiiigo.'und other iskinds in the West Indies ; also at Ca)emie.j 
 
 aa4
 
 c n <) 
 
 nt^ 
 
 (■' R O 
 
 ,1 lid otli"i- part-; of Smith Aiiicric-a. C'onttary lo all otlun' birds, 
 
 i!icy huvo the singularity "f many layiiisf in tlie same nest; lo 
 
 ke \vhi';li, tlicytill uni'le in concerl.'and after laying (Keir egi^s 
 
 ■ in them close to each other in crdiT to liateli tiieni, each luia- 
 i;iii)oii<lv i'.rivin^; to do the l)est for the general };oo'l ; and v.licii 
 the yiiuni; ar;- hatched, the parent-;, without ryicrve, do llie l)esl 
 to f'"eU tliL- whole lloik. • iMil! a greater singularity occurs, which 
 : , tliJt as soon as each ieinale lays her egg* she covers them with 
 1 ves, doing the same ihiiig-wheuevcr she is obliged to leave the 
 
 i for food; this might be necessary in a cold climate ; l)nt why 
 liouUI be wanled in a hot one seems not clear, especially as it 
 
 has pot been observed in other birds. 
 CliOTOY, a town of France, in tlic department of Somnie, IG 
 
 niiles N. \V. of Abbeyille. 
 CROI.U', orCYNANCilETIUCHEALlS, a disease of the 
 
 Iraeliea, to which children are liable. See Medicine. 
 
 CUOUPADES, liigher leaps than those of corvcts, that keep 
 
 the fore and hind (piarters of the hurse in an efjual heiglit, so that 
 
 he t;iHse5 his logs under his belly without yerking, 
 
 CHOL'SAZ, JoHK PlirER'nE, a learned phiiosoplier and ma- 
 "iv.'.tician, born in 1663. Having made !;;iT-at progress in tin,- 
 :tliemalif<i and the philosophy 'of l)es Cartes, he travelled to 
 ■iieva, liolhind, and l''rance; was successively professor in seve- 
 
 - i universities; and at length was chosen governor to Prince Fre- 
 
 lic of llesse-Ciwsel, nephew lo the King of Sweden. He 
 
 ite many works; the most esteemed of which are, 1. His Lo- 
 
 ■, ill () vols. 8vo. in 1741. ?. A Treatise on Pjeauty. 3. A 
 
 ' alise on the Educ.ition of Children, 3 vols. 12mo. 4. Several 
 
 ■ atises on Philosophical and Mathematical Subjects, &:c. He 
 -'1 at Lausanne, in 174S. 
 
 c:KOUTI:, SOUUCROUTE, or K\{0VTE, ^Sautr kraut, 
 !'.'-rni. i. e. sour herb,] a preparation of cabbage, which has been 
 
 iiid of sovereign efficacy as a preservative from the sea scurvy 
 
 long voyaiges. The process tor making it is as follows: the 
 ■pvi'iiidest and most solid cabbages are selected for this use, and cut 
 s ' ry Rinall, commonly with an instrument made for this purpose, 
 "■-'■n:brnig the plain lor slicing cucumbers. A knife is used when 
 prepnialioii is made with greater nicely. The cabba.ge thus 
 . 'ijceif is put into a barrel in layers, hand high, and over each is 
 •.revved a handful of salt and caraway seeds; in tliis manner it is 
 1 .uiimed down with a rammer, stratum super stratum, till the barrel 
 is full ; wiien a cover is ])ut ovei it, an<l pressed down with a 
 heavy weight. After standing some time in this state, it begins to 
 ferment; audit is not till the fermentation has entirely subsided, 
 that the hea<l is fitted to it, and the barrel is finally shut u[) and 
 preserved for use. There is not a drop of vinegar employed in 
 this preparation. 
 
 CHOW, in ornithology. See Coltvus. 
 
 CROWD S.ML, in the sea language, is to carry an extraordi- 
 nary force of sail upon a ship, in order to accelerate her course on 
 some impovtaiu occasion; as in pursuit of, or llight from, an ene- 
 my; to escapi- any immediate danger, kc, 
 
 'CIvOWEA, ill botany, a genus of the class decandria, order 
 monogynia. Calyx iive-parted; petals live, sessile; stamina flat, 
 subulate; capsules five, united; seeds coated. One species, na- 
 tive of Australasia. 
 
 t:R0\\'F001', See Ranun'culvs. 
 
 CuowFDOT, ou shipboard, a complication of small cords 
 spreading out from a long block, like the smaller parts which ex- 
 tend from the back-bone of a herring. It is u>;ed to suspend the 
 ownings ; or lo keep the top-sails from striking violently, and fret- 
 ting against the tops. See Plate XLVIL. fig. 19. 
 
 CUOWLAN D, a town in Lincolnshire, seated in the fens, in a 
 dirty soil, 12 miles N. N, E. of Peterborough. 
 
 C'ROWLE, a town in Lincolnshire, in the isle of Axholm, 36 
 miles N. of Lincoln. 
 
 CROWN, {counmne, Fr. kroone, Dut. corona, Lat.] an orna- 
 ment worn on th.e head by kings, sovereign princes, and noblemen, 
 as a mark of their dignity. 
 
 Crown', is also used to signify the possessions and dignity of a 
 king. The crown of England, according to Sir William l5lack- 
 «tone, is, by common law and constitutional custom, hereditary; 
 and this in a manner peculiar to itself; but the right of inheritance 
 inav from time to time be changed or limited by act of parliament, 
 under which limitaSions the crown still continues hereditary. See 
 S'Jcor.ssioK. 
 
 VOL. II. — NO. 60. 
 
 Cuow.v OyvtcE, art oflice belonging to thi? court of King's 
 Bench, of which the king's coroner or attonn-y is commonly mas- 
 ter. Ill tlii> oflice, the attorney-general and clerk of tlu; crown 
 severallv exhibit informal ions for crimes and nii--demennors at 
 common law, as in the case of batteries, conspiracies, libelling, &c. ■ 
 on which the olieiuler is liable to pny a fine to the king. 
 
 Crown, Pleas of the. See Ai;kaignment, aiiti Pi.ea. 
 
 Crown', in commerce, is a general name for coins, both foreign 
 and domestic, ot or near the value of five shillings sterling. In 
 its limited sense, crown is only applicabU- to the Rriti-hcoiii of that 
 name, whidi is worth five shillings and equivalent to six livrcs 
 French money: but, in its extensive sense, it takes in several 
 others; as the French t:rii, which we call the French crown, 
 struck in 1641 for sixty sols, or three livres; also the patagon, 
 dollar, ducatoon, rixdollar, and piece of eiglit. 
 
 Crown, in an ecclesiastical sense, is used for the clerical ton- 
 sure ; the mark of tlie Komish ecclesiastics. T Iiis is a little circle 
 of hair shaved oil' from the crow n of the head ; more or less broad, 
 according to the qualily of the orders received. 
 
 Crown-, in jewellery work, the upper work of the rose diamond, 
 which all centres in the point at the top, and is bounded by the 
 horizontal ribs. 
 
 Crowks, An'CIEKT. The first crowns were no more than a 
 bandelet ilrawn round the head, and tied beliind, as we still see it 
 represented on medals round the lieads of Jupiter, the Ptolemies, 
 and kings of Syria. Afterwards they consisted of two bandelets; 
 by degrees they took branches of trees of divers kinds; at length 
 they abided ilowers, iiisonuich that Claudius Saturninus says, there 
 was not any plant whereof crowns had not been made. 
 
 C'rowns, Amcient Jewish. In scripture there is frequent 
 mention of crowns, and the use of them seems to have been very 
 common among the Hebrews. The high priest wore -a crown, 
 whicli was a fillet of gold placed upon the forehead, and tied with 
 a ribbon of hvacinth colour, or azure blue. It seems that private 
 priests, and even coiTinion Israelites, wore also a sort of crowns, 
 since God commanded Ezekiel not to take olT his crown, iiur as- 
 sume the marks of one in mourning. This crown was only a rib- 
 bon or fillet, with which the Jews and several people in the east 
 girt their heads. 
 
 Crowns, An'ciekt Rom.an'. The'Homan emperoi-s had four 
 kinds of crowns, still seen on medals, viz. a crown of laurel, a ra- 
 dial or radi;iting crown, a crown aiiorned with pearls and precions 
 stones, and the'fcurth a kind of bonnet or cap, something like the 
 mortier. The Romans had also various kinds of crowns, which 
 they distributed as rewards of merit ; which were considered as 
 marks of nobilitv to the wearers ; and upon conipttitions with ri- 
 vals for rank and' dignities, often determined the preference in their 
 favour: such as, 
 
 1. Crowns, Athletic, those generally bestowed upon victoi-s 
 at the public gems. 
 
 2. Crowns, Camp, or Trench, [cnroiitr ceslrciises, or vol- 
 lares,'] were circles of gold, raised with jewels or palisades; the 
 rewards of those who first Ibrced the enemy's entrenchments. See 
 Plate XLVn. fi". 20. 
 
 3. Crowns, Civic, were made of brandies of green oak, and 
 given to such as had saved the life of a citizen. See fig. 21. 
 
 4. Crowns, Golden, [^coromv aurea;'] without any distin- 
 guishing term or form, are mentioned as olten bestowed upon the 
 soldiers for extraordinary acts of bravery. 
 
 5. Crowns, Lavrel, were peculiarly appropriated, though 
 not exclusively, to eminent poets, orators, &c. 
 
 6. Crowns, Mural, were in the form of a circle of gold, in- 
 dented and embattled. See Fig. ifv!. They were given to such as 
 first mounted the wall of a besieged place, and there lodged a 
 standard. 
 
 7. Crowns, Naval, orT^osTRAL, were composed of a circle 
 of gold, with ornaments representing beaks of ships, and given to 
 the captain who first grappled, or the soldiers who firet boarded, an 
 enemy's ship. See Fig. 23. 
 
 8. Crowns, Obsidional, or Gramineous, [ohsiclionalcs, ov 
 gramim-K,'] were made of grass growing on the place, where a ge- 
 neral iian delivered a Roman army fr'im a siege, in the form re- 
 presented in fig. 24, and presented to him as a mark of ho- 
 nour. 
 
 9. Crowns, Oval, were made of myrtle, and presented to ge- 
 nerals, entitled to the ovation, or les^ triumph, fig. 25. 
 
 T ■10- Crowic,
 
 CRO 
 
 70 
 
 CRU 
 
 10. Crown's, Radial, weri- beitowcd on empeioi?^ ;;pou liifh- 
 deiruation, fig. 26. 
 
 11. Crowns, Triumphal, consisted at first of wre.'itlia of lau- 
 rel, but woro after\vard> made of gold, and given to sucli generals 
 as had the honour of a triunipli, tig. '21. 
 
 Crowns, Modern. See Heraldry. 
 
 Crown-, in geonietry, is a plane ring included between two 
 concentric perimeters, and is gci.eruted by the motion of some part 
 of a rig.'it line round the centre, the said moving part not being 
 contiguous to the centre, 'i'he aiea ot a crown will be had bv 
 multiplying Its breadth bv tlie length of the middle periphery; for 
 
 « + -^' 
 a series ol' terms in arillimelic progression being n x , that 
 
 H, the sum of the first and last multiplied by half the niunber of 
 
 a -\- If 
 
 terms, the middle terms must be ; therefore that multiplied 
 
 2 
 by the breadth, or sum of all the two terms, will give the crown. 
 
 Crown of Colours, certain coloured rings, wliich, like halos, 
 appear about the body of the sun or moon, but of the colours 
 of the rainbow, and at a less distance than the common haloe. 
 These crowns sir Isaac Newton has shewn to be made bv the sim'- 
 shining in a fair day, or the moon in a clear night, through a thin 
 cloud of globules of water, or hail all the same bigness. And ac- 
 cording as the globules are greater or less, the diameters of these 
 crowns will be larger or smaller; and the more equal these glo- 
 bules are to one another, the more crowns of colours w ill appear, 
 and the colours will be the more lively. 
 Crown-glass. See Glass. 
 Crown Imferial. See Tkitillaria. 
 
 Crown Isi and, an island in the eastern sea, near the N. E. 
 coast of New Guinea. Len. 146. 50. E. Lat. 5. 18. S. 
 
 Crown-point, a township of New York, in Chntun county. 
 Crows-whekl of a Watch, the upper wheel next the"ba- 
 lance, which by its motion drives the balance, and in royal pendu- 
 lums is calle<l the swing-wheel. 
 
 Crown-work, in fortification, an outwork having a very large 
 gorge, generally the length of the curtin of the place, and two 
 long side* terminating towards the fields in two demi-bastions, 
 each joined by a particular curtin to a w hole bastion, which is the 
 head of the work. The crown-work is intended to inclose a rising 
 ground,orto cover the head of a retrenchment. See Eortification. 
 CUOW-NET, an invention lor catching wild fowl in winter, 
 which may be used in the day-time. It is made of fine pack- 
 thread; the meshes should be two inches wide, the length about 
 ten yards, and the depth three; it mu.>t be verged on the side with 
 good strong cord, and stretched out very stiff on long poles pre- 
 pared tor that purpose. At the proper place, open it, and lay it 
 out at its full length and breadth; then fasten the lower end of it 
 all along the grourkd, so as only to move it up and down ; the up- 
 per end of the net must stand extendeil on the long cord ; the fui - 
 ther end Ihtreof being staked first to the earth by a strong cord 
 about hvr yards from the net. Place this cord in an even line 
 with the lower edge of the net. The other end uiUst be at least ■?;■■. 
 yards distant to reach into some natural or artilicial shelter, where 
 one may lie concealed from the fowl, otiierwise no success can be 
 expected, 'i'l.e net must be placed in such exact order that it 
 may give way to jday on the fowl en the least pull of the cord, 
 which iTuist be done smartly, lest the fowl should escape. This 
 net may be used for pigeons, crows, or other birds, on corn-fields 
 newly sown : aJso m stubble-l>lds; provided the stubble conceals 
 the net from the birus. 
 
 CROWNING, in architecture, is understood, in the general, 
 nf any thing that termir:ates or finishes a member or decoration. 
 Thus, a corniclie, a pediment, &c. are called crownings, the aba- 
 cus is said to crown the capital; :.nd any moulding is said to be 
 wowned when it has a fillet over it; and ;wfiche is crowned when 
 it is covered with a cajiital. 
 
 Crowning, in sea language, denotes the finishing part of a knot 
 matle at the e;.d of a rope. It is performed by interweaving the 
 rnds of the different strands artfully amongst each other, so as they 
 may nut becom« loosened or uutwisted. They are useful in all 
 kinds of stoppers. 
 
 CROW'b-BlLL, among Rurseons, a kind of forcep.s for draw- 
 ing bullets iiud other foreign bodies out of wounds. 
 
 CHOV. 'I'll, or CKUTII, a kind of musical instrument an- 
 ciently in u-e among the common people in Wales. It is of tl;e' 
 lidicinal kind, iomewhat rosemblin;.'; a violin, VZ inches in length, 
 and an inch antl an half in thi<kncss'.' Sec Plate XXVII. 
 
 CROYDON, a town of England, in Suricv, near the head of 
 
 the river \S andel. ' ; 
 
 CUUANACARRA, u small island in the Atlantic, on the W,^ 
 
 coa-t of Irelanil. \ 
 
 (T! UANAKILLY, an island on the W. coast of Ireland. 
 
 CRUCIAN ELLA, Petty- v>adder, a genus of the monogv- 
 
 nia <.rder, and telraudria class of plants; nalu.al order, Slellali;. 
 
 Corolla monuiH't.dous, funnd-'diaped; calyx diph) Ileus; ■.eeii.r 
 
 two, linear. N ine species, herbaceous plants, natives of waiiu 
 
 climates. 
 
 CRUCIBLE, a chemical vessel made of earth, and so temper- 
 ed and baked as to endure the greatest fire. They are used to 
 melt r.ielals, and to lUix minerals, ores, &c. See Chemistry. 
 
 CRUCIFORM, in botany, a term applied to cross-shaped 
 flowers, or flowers consist ing ut fom- petals, which sj)read at the 
 tuj) in form of a cross. 0\ this kind is the stock-gillyflower, &c. 
 
 CHVCn'A, in botany, a genus of the digynia order, and te- 
 trandriacla^^cf plants. Interior calyx tetraphyllous, exterior ca- 
 lyx trij-hyllous; uo corolla; seed one. 
 
 CliL'lJEN, Alexander, M. A. an author, whose literary la- 
 bours will ever entitle him to the gratitude of all who wish to study • 
 the scriptures, was the son of Mr. \>'illiam Cruden, merchant, anti 
 one of the magistrates of Aberdeen. He was born in 1701, and 
 educated at the grammar-school of that city, lie studied divinity 
 at the Maiischal College, and intentled to follow that profession'; 
 liad he not been prevented by a mislortune, to which kings and 
 beggars have been equally subjected, and lo which men ot uncom- 
 mon genius arc perhaps peculiarly liable, if we may credit the 
 pcct; that 
 
 " Great wit to madness oft is near allied, 
 " And thin partitions do the bounds divide." 
 The cause of his insanity has been variously accounted for; hut 
 the most probable reason assigned, appears lo have been disap- 
 pointment in love; wherein, to the vexation of repeated refusals, was 
 ailded the horror of hearing, that the object of his affection was 
 with child to her own brotlier. I'eing a clergyman's daagliter, 
 she was sent out of the country, and never returned. Mr. Ciu- 
 den never after mcntione<l her name, l)ut with the most tentier 
 compa^sion and the bitterest grief. He was confined fin ;ome time 
 after in a mad-house at Aberdeen. Heing released, he went to 
 London in 17^2, as a private tutor; in whicli emplojment he also 
 spent some years in the Isle of Man. About 1732, he returned 
 to LoiKlon, and acted as a bookseller, and conector of the press. 
 His shop was under the royal exchange. In 1733, he began to 
 conijiile tliat important work, which he had long meditated, " A 
 Complete Concordance of the Holy Scrii)tures of the Old and 
 New Testaments." If the merit oi laboiir oidy be allowed, it 
 nui^t be acknow ledged that he bestowed labour to which no ad- 
 dition can be made, accompanied by a perseverance with liardly 
 any interval. But he had the additional merit ol both fornung the 
 plan and executing it. The work was dedicated to Q. Caroline, 
 who had given him reason to expect a gratuity on presenting it. 
 But a few days before its publication, Cruden lost his royal pa- 
 trt'neis by the queen's death. His afi'aiis were now embarrassed ; 
 liis hopes were gone, and in such circumstances it is not surprising, 
 that he should have had a return of his menial disorder; which 
 rendered it necessary again to confine him. Upon his release, he 
 avenged himself on his keepers, ii:c. by publishing a painphlet en- 
 titled, " The London Cilii-en, exceedingly uiiiired, giving an ac- 
 count of his adventures, during his severe and long campaign at 
 Bethnal Green, for nine weeks and si.x days," iScc. After this he 
 lived chiefly by correcting the jiress; particularly of the Greek 
 and Roman classics, which were published under his inspection, 
 with ;;reat accuracy, lu such occupations he spent several years 
 w ith the strictest attention and fidelity to the booksellers who em- 
 ployed liim, till a third attack ot his disorder obligerl hisiricnds to 
 confine iiim once more. When released, he publiihed his case, 
 under the whimsical title of " The AdvenUires of Alexander the 
 Corrector." This work exhibited a faithful picture of a wild mind; 
 varieus, whinuical, serious, end jocose. In private life he wai 
 courteous and alifable; in religious sentiments a strict Calvinist, 
 but by no means intolerant. In J7tjy, he re-visited Aberdeen, 
 
 where
 
 C R TJ 
 
 1 
 
 C RY 
 
 \ili<;re lie s[)fnt about u )car; after wliicli he rctunipcl to London; 
 and on the Isl of Nov. 1770, was foiiml ilcail on his knees in a 
 pa-ilure of pra\ing. lie had for seme lime before beeu troubled 
 vilh an asthma. 
 
 CKUDIA, in botany, a genus of the decandria nionopynia 
 class and or<ler. Calyx onc-leiifed, with a two-cleit border ; im 
 coroih ; tilar;ieiits dilated at the base ; capsule orbicular ; about 
 two-i'-eiicd. Two species, viz. the sjjicata and aroniatica, lound 
 in Guiana. 
 
 CUUISE, [from the Ger. kruis.^, aeross,^ signifies to cross to 
 and fro, to sail up and downwi'.lun a ceitain space of the sea, 
 called the cruising l.ititude, in i|ue-it of vessels, or fleets of an eiie- 
 > my, .Ic. 
 
 / CUUISI'RS, in the navy, are small men of war used in the 
 ' channel, and elsewhere, toseiure onr merchant-ships and vessels 
 from the enemy's small frigates and privateers. 'I hey are gene- 
 rally such as sail well, and are co.iin'ioiily well manned : and in- 
 deed the safety of the trade in the channel, and up and down the 
 soundjigs, and other places, requires th«: constaiit keeping out 
 of such ships at sea. 
 
 CUUir, an i.-land in the Atlantic, on the N. W. coast of 
 IrclaaJ. 
 
 CHUMENTAT.\, among zoologists, animals furnished with a 
 pouch or l)ag, wherein to receive their youni; in lime of danger ; 
 as the opos-um. 
 
 CRUMP, an inland, N. E. of Antigua, about one mile long. 
 Loo. <ii. '25. \V. L-.f. 17. 14. N. 
 
 CRl'OU, sometimes signilies the blond in general; sometime; 
 only the venous blood ; and sometime^ e\travasa!ed or coagulaled 
 blood; but is mcsl ire(iueiilly used for the red globules of the 
 Wood, in couiradi-tir.ction to tin- limpid or serous part. 
 
 CRUPPER, [from croupe, Fr. the buttoeks of the horse,] in 
 tlie mane;ie, the ijuttocks of a horse, llie rump; al^o a thong of 
 leather put under :» horse's tail, and drawn up by thong> to the 
 bu;kle behind the saddle, so as to keei) him from casting the saddle 
 forwards on his neck. 
 
 CRUR.EUS, or CRUREUS MUSCULUS, in anatomy, a 
 fle.-hy mass, covering almost ..U the lore-side of the os femoris, be- 
 tween tne two vasti, which l.kewise cover tlie edges of this muscle 
 on eacli side. See .Anatomy. 
 
 C RURAL, in anatomy, an epithet given to the artery which 
 conveys the blood to the crura or legs, and to the vein by which 
 this blood returns to the heart. See Anatomy. 
 
 CHIS, in anatomy, all that part of the body contained between 
 the butlockt and the toes. 
 
 CRUSADO, in commerce, a Portuguese coin, struck under 
 Alphon-.us V. about A.D. 1457, when pope Calixlus si-nt thither 
 the bull for a croisade against the infidels. This coin iias a cross 
 on one side, and the arm^ of I'ortugil on the other. 
 
 CRUSCA, [Ital. i. e. hrnn,'] the title assumed by a celebrated 
 academy established at Florence for purifying and perfecting the 
 Tuscan language. See Academy. The academy look its name 
 from its office and object ; w hich were to refine the language, and 
 as it were to separate the bran from it. .\ccordinu ly, its device is 
 a sieve; and its motto, llpin htljior ncc<^iitit; that is, " Itgalhers 
 the finest flour thereof." In the hall where the Academy meets, 
 M. Moneonis informs us, that e\prv thing bears an allusion to tlie 
 name and device: the sei^ts are in form nl a baker's basket ; tlieir 
 barks like a shovel ; tlic cushions of grey satin, iu form of sacks ; 
 and the branches where the lights are placed resembling sacks. 
 The vocabulary Delia Crusca is an excellent Italian dictionary, 
 composed by this academy. 
 
 CRUSTACEOUS FISH, in natural history, arc those covered 
 w ith shells consisting of several pieces or scales ; as those of crabs, 
 lobsters, &c. The^e are usuallv softer than the shells of the testa- 
 ceous kind, which consist of a single piece, and generallv are 
 thicker and stronger than the fornitr; such as those of the rvsler, 
 scallop, cockle, &c. Dr. W oodward 'observe*, in his Natural 
 Hi-:tory, that of all the shcllsjound in beds, and of all the different 
 matters dug out of the earth, there are scarcely any of tlse crusta- 
 ceousk'nd: the reason he gives for it is, th-.it' these being much 
 lighter llrui the rest, must have lioated on the surface at tlie tinie 
 of the d; luge, when all the strata were formed, and there have 
 corru))!!".! ; nd perished. 
 
 CKUhTS. in chemistry, those bony coverings of wliich the 
 whole external surface of crabs, loaste;-s, and other sea-ani- 
 
 mals of a similar kind are compo.ed. These consist of, 1. Car- 
 lllaginous substai.ce, possessing the properties of coaf^ulaled 
 albumen. 2. Carbonate of lime. 3. Phosphate of lime. By 
 the pre.-ence of the phosphate of lime, they are di-tinguished from 
 bones. Thus the crusts lie ;is au intermediate substance between 
 hones and shells, partaking of the properties and con^titution of each. 
 The shells of the eggs of low Is must be referred likewise to the <las!i 
 ot crusts, since they conbiin both plwsphale and carbonate of linie ; 
 the anim.ll cement in them, however, is much smaller in quantity. 
 From the experiments of Uerniard and Hatchett, it is extremely 
 probable that the shells of snails are com|)Osed likewise of the same 
 ingredients, phosjihale of line having been delected in them by 
 these chemists. Mr. Hatchett examined the crust of crabs, lob- 
 slei-3, prawns, and crayfish. When immcTsed in diluted nitric 
 acid, these crusts elVervesced a little, and gradually assumed the 
 form of a yellowish-white soft elastic cartilage, retaining the form 
 of the crust. Tl'.e solution yielded a precipitate to acetate of 
 lead, and ammonia threw dcjwn phosphate of bnie. Carbonate 
 ol ammonia threw down a much more copious precipitate of car- 
 bonate of lime. On examining the crust which covers dilVerent spe- 
 cie* of echini, Mr. Hatchett found it correspond with the other 
 crusts in its composition. 
 
 CRUX, or Sr. CROIX, oiie of the Caribbee islatwls, situated 
 about 60 miles S. E. ot Porto-Rico. Lon. Hi. 0. \V. Lat. 17. 30. N. 
 CRUXn AVEN, a sea-poit town of Germany, on the N. coast 
 of the di.chy of Bremen. 
 
 CRY .MODES, among the physicians, a kind of fever attended 
 with a shivering cold, and inflammation of the internal parts ot the 
 body. 
 
 CRYPSIS, in botany, a genus of the diandria digynia class and 
 order: natural order Grasses. Calyx glume tvvo-valved, one-flow- 
 ered ; corolla glume two-valved, awnless. One species, viz. C. 
 aculeata, prickly crypsis, a native of the south of Europe and 
 Siberia. 
 
 CRYPTA, [from xoinTiu, to hide,] a subterraneous cell or 
 vault, especially under a church, for the interment of narticular fa- 
 milies or persons. 
 
 CRYPTO-CALVINISTS, a name given to the favourers of 
 Calvinism in Saxony, on account of their setrel attachment to the 
 Genevan doctrine and discipline. 
 
 CRYPTOCEPIIALUS, in natural history, a genus of in- 
 sects of the order colef)ptcra. Characterised by filiform anteiinar ; 
 four feelers; thorax margined.; khellsinmiarginate ; body somewhat 
 cylindrical. This is a very extensive genus, having nearly 300 
 species. ^Hiey are divided into two sections, A. feelers equal, 
 filiform ; B. feelers unequal ; fore-ones hatehet-shapcd. Sc« 
 Plate XX XV H. 
 
 CRYPTOGAMIA, [from itfi/TrTgt', concealed, and y^^o;, nup- 
 tials,] the twenty-fourth class in Ih.e Linnaan system, comprehend- 
 ing those plants whose frui tification is concealed, either through, 
 ininuteness, or within the fruit. See Botany. 
 
 CRYPTOGRAPHY, l^.Cnl,^ aud yj-^i.v.] l. Tlie act of writ- 
 ing secret characters. ?. Secret characters ; cyphers. Also the 
 art of writing with svmpathetic ink. See CvPHta and Ink. 
 CRYPTOLOGY, \h:v7!U and Xj^©-,] a'nigmatical lanijiwie. 
 CRYPTOPORTICUS, [«. rio,-, Gr. and pnrticus, Lat.] a 
 subterraneous place, arched orvatilted; used as an underwork or, 
 passage in old \>alls. 
 
 CRYPTOSFO.MUM, in botany, a genus of the pentandria 
 monogynia class and order. Calyx veutricose, five-cleft ; tube 
 of thi corolla inserted into the throat of the calyx; border five- 
 cleft; nectary five-tiiothed ; ben y ; seeds scarred. One >peci?s, 
 viz. C. Guiaiiensc, Guiana cryptoslomum. 
 
 CRYST.AL. [r.ji'r*' > ©-,] in natural history, the name of a very 
 large cl.iss r^f fossils; hard, pellucid, and naturally colourless. TI.e 
 foi nis or orders of pure crystal are three: I. Perfc-t columnar 
 crystals, with double pyramals, composed of 18 [daiies, in an he.\- 
 an'gular column, terminated by au iiexangular pyranud at caclr 
 end. l\ . Pnfcct cri/stiils v.iili double jiiTumiiis, without a co- 
 liiiiiii, composed either of 12 or Id jilanes, in two hexangular p\- 
 ramiils joined closely base to base, without the intervention of any 
 column. HI. Jmptrfcft crystals, with single pyramids, composed 
 eitber of 12 or 1.0 planes, in an hexangular or |jenl;,nKular cului'.m, 
 allixed irregularly at one end to some solid bi.dy, and lerniin..ted 
 at the other by an hexangular or pentangular pyramid. Tlie.-e 
 are all the geucra] forms into wrliiedi crystal, when pure, is found 
 
 concreted ;
 
 CRY 
 
 7^2 
 
 CRY 
 
 j.-onrrt;lcil : l)Ut luuier tlie!.e tlierc ;;ro allllo•^t iiiiiiiite varieties in 
 lliL' lUHiibiT ot Luv.ihs, ami the Icnglli, thickness, atul other acci- 
 <leiit< of the cuiunuis of the pyramids. IV. Wlicii crystal is blend- 
 ed witli metalline [.articles ai tlie time of its formation, it assumes a 
 variety of ligures wholly diliercnt from these, constituting a fonrth 
 order, under the name of metalline crystals: when the metal is 
 lead, the crystal assumes the form of a cube ; when it is tiii, of a 
 Tiuadfilateral pyramid, with a broad base; when iron, the crystal 
 is found concreted in rhomboidal ligures: these crystals are very 
 common about mines ; but the common spars, which are liable to 
 he influenced in the same manner by tlie metals, and to appear in 
 the very same form, are to be carefully distinguished from them. 
 There is one very easy test, viz. that all spars are subject to be 
 ~rlisSolved by aquafortis, and effervesce violently onlv on its touch- 
 ing them: but it' has no such effects on cr%stal. V. \Vhcn crystals 
 :ire found in the form of round pebbles, which is occasioned bv 
 their being tossed about and rul)be(i against one atiother bv tlootfs 
 ■or by the sea, they are called by the English iapidaries' pebble 
 xrrystal. Th.ey come from the Indies, Siberia, and other places. 
 V}. The pebble crystal is common in all parts ot the world ; but 
 that which is formed of liexaugular colunms, affixed to a solid 
 base at one end, and terminated by an hexangular column at the 
 ttfher, is intiiiitely more so: this is called sprig or rock crystal, and 
 is the species described by most authors under the ni.me of crvstal 
 of the shops, or that kept for medicinal uses. When the rock crys- 
 tals are semitransparent, or intermixed with opacpie veins, thVv 
 ■are called by the Swedish lapidaries niilk crystals. According to 
 .l?omare, they are generally t'ormed irpon or among ouartz, whicli 
 ihews their great aliiniiy, and are to be found in almost all parts 
 of the worUl. The frreatcst quantity of them is brought from 
 Mount Saint Gothavd, in Switzerland. Large pieces of these 
 weighing from 5 to 800 pounds, were found there at Griinfel- 
 ■berg. 
 
 CRYSTALLINE HEAVENS, in ancient astronomy, two 
 spheres, imagined between the primimi mobile and the firmament, 
 in the Ptolem:iie system, which suppo^es the heavens solid, and 
 susceptible of only a single motion. See Astkonomt. 
 
 Crystailin'k tluMoL'R, in anatomy, a thick, compact humour, 
 in form of a tlallish convex lens, situated in the tniddlc of the eve, 
 serving to make that refraction of the rays of light, necessary to 
 make them meet in the retina, ifiid form an image thereon, whcre- 
 l)V vision may be performed. See Amatomy and Eye. 
 
 ■CRYS'rA"LLIZ.\TK)N. This word originally signified ice; 
 but it was afterwards applied by the ancients to crystallized silica, 
 or rock crystal; because, as Pliny informs us, they'considered that 
 liody ai riolhing eUe than water congealed by the action of cold. 
 iCMiemists afterwards applied the word to all transpart-jit bodies of a 
 Tegular shape; and at present it is -employed to denote in general 
 the regular ligures which bodies assmiie when their particles- have 
 full liberty to combine according to the laws of cohesion. These 
 regular bodies occur very frequently in the mineral kingdom, and 
 have long attracted attention on acc'nunt of their great beauty and 
 regularity. The process by which these crystals are formed, is 
 called crystallization. It takes place when the attraction of aggre- 
 gation ha's been weakened, either by the application of heat, or of 
 a chemical aflinily, and is suffered to resume its force more slowly 
 or equally. In this case, the particles are not imited indiscrimi- 
 ralely, but in uniting as>ume a parlicular arrangement ; and thus 
 form'masses of regular figures, boundi-d by plain surfaces and de- 
 terminate angles. Crystallization is of two kinds: first, as it takes 
 place from the reduction of temperature in a body which has had 
 tluidily communicated to it by the operation ot' heat; and, se- 
 condly, as it proceeds from the diminution of the solvent power of 
 a fluid, which has conmnniieated fluidity to a solid bv haviii" 
 combined with it. Of the first kind of crystallization, water af^ 
 fords ail example in passing into ice by a reduction of its tempera- 
 ture. At first long and slender 6|)icula; form in the fluid, and from 
 these others shoot out at a certain angle, and this cotitimics till the 
 interstices are tilleil with the crystals, and the whole becomes a 
 solid transparent crystallized mass of ice. Also the metals, when 
 melted and cooled slowly, assume symmetrical forms. Some in- 
 liammables, as sulphur,' crystallize 'in a similar way. Of the se- 
 cond kind of crystallization, the principal examples are derived 
 from the order of salts, and a few other solids, soluble in water. 
 The solution of a solid in a fluid, is in almost every case increased 
 by heal, which weakens cohesion: hence a larger quantity of the 
 
 solid is kept in suUition at a hi-h, than a low temperature. If, 
 therelbre, we prepare a solution of salt in hot water,' the solution 
 lieing saturated, or the fluid having dissolved as much of the salt as 
 it can do, on allowing it to cool, the portion of the salt which the 
 heat enabled llie fluid to dissolve, will separate; and unless the 
 cooling of the soltilion has been very rapid, the particles of the so- 
 lid, ill ;'pproaching to each other, will pass into those regular ar- 
 rangements yvhich constitute crystals- 'i'he same thing is"e(il"ecte(l 
 by the evaporation of the fluid'iii which a solid body is dissolved. 
 If the evaporation be spontaneous, the crystals will be frequently 
 more regular, and of a larger size than those obtained by cooling 
 or reducing the temperature, since, in this case, the particles are 
 more at liberty to obey the laws of attraction, which unites them 
 in regular forms. In general, it is found, that the slower the pro- 
 cess of crystallization, the more perfect is the crystal in its airaiige- 
 ment; it is also larger, harder, and more transparent; whereas, 
 when the process is too rapid, or is disluibed by agitation, or other 
 causes, fliy arrangement is less regular, and tlie form incomplete. 
 Hence the crystals fcrn.ed by nature are so much more perfect 
 than those produced by art ifie'ial processes. Another method of 
 crystallizing s;ilts, is, by adding to a solution of .salt a substance 
 which does not act upon the latter, but which has a greater affinity 
 with tlie water, and will Serve to ileprive the salt of a portion of 
 that liquid which holds it in a state of solution. Alcohol will effect 
 this purpose in many salts; and, if judicioiisly added, will cause 
 them to separate freely from the menstruum,' or fluid, and form 
 large and beautiful c'rystals. From a variety of experinunts, it 
 has been observed that crystallization may be' remarkably promot- 
 ed, by throwing into the vessel a few small crystals of tlie same 
 nature. And on this Le Ulaiu- has founded a ui'cthod of' obtaining 
 large and perfect crystals, It consists in selecting very regular 
 crystals of a salt that have been newly formed, and putting theni 
 into a saturated sc/lution of the same salt. 'I'liev increase in size ; 
 and as the side which is in contact with the vessel receives no in- 
 crease, they arc to be turned daily to preserve their regularity. 
 After some time, the largest and most regular of these crystals are 
 to be selected, and the same process repeated on them ; 'and tliua 
 crystals much larger and more regular than are usually formed in a 
 solution may be obtained. The access of the air lias'an important 
 influence on this process. If a saturated solution of salt when hot, 
 be put into a vessel from which tke air is excluded, it does not 
 crystallize even when cold. I5ut if the air be admittctV, the crys- 
 tallization immediately commences and proceeds with rapidity. It' 
 has been shewn by Dr. Higgins, that any pressure, equival'ent to 
 that of the atmosphere, as the pressure of a column of mercury, 
 has the same effect. During crystallization a quantity of h.cat i% 
 rendered sensible. In many cases the volume of the substance 
 crystallizing is enlarged, as m the e.xaniple of water, of iron, and 
 of the greater number of salts; but in others the volume is dimi- 
 mished. (-Juicksilver, in congealing, contracts about rX of its 
 whole bulk, yet it 'exhibits the crystalline texture; and wlieu the 
 congelation is partial, the crystalline figure can even be discover- 
 ed. Crystals deposited from water always contain a pari of it 
 which is'retained by tlie affinity of the solid, and has passed with 
 it into the concrete form. It is termed v.ater of crvstalliyation. 
 Its quantity is very various; s9111cti1r.es it C(juals or "exceeds the 
 weight of tlio solid, and sometimes it amounts only to a few parts 
 in the hundred. Much of the cold produced <liuing the solution 
 of salts in water, is owing to this water of crystallization passing 
 into the fluid state; hence crystallized salts generally produce 
 more cold than when they are iincrystallize<l. It the water of 
 crystallization be expelled irom a crystal, it loses its tranr-pi;rency, 
 and at length its form. Crystals \vhich part with their water of. 
 crystallization when exposed to the atmosphere, are said to elflo- 
 resce, and to deliquesce when they attract water and becoine hii- 
 —■-' As different bodies ri'quire very difrertnt e.uantities of \va- 
 
 mid. 
 
 ter for their solution, it is pc^jible yvhen two iuch bcdics are dis 
 solved in one fluid, to obtain them separate by crvsuillization, the 
 one which is least '^oluble, or most disposecl to'crystallize, first 
 passing into the solid tbrni ; and by farther evaporation the other is 
 obtained. A fact on this subject, somewhat singular, is noticed 
 by Mr. Kirwan. If into a s;iiurated solution of two salts in water, 
 a crystal of eitl-er be jiut, that salt crystallizes in preference to the 
 othe'r. I5y crystallization, also, ^alts,"llle solubility of which is un- 
 equally promoted by lieat, maybe obtained afpiiiatelv from tlie 
 I same solution. Thus, if one salt be iiuich mor« BOiuble in hot 
 
 than
 
 CRY 
 
 15 
 
 GRY 
 
 than in (.old vvatrr, ;in(l anolhcr be (.'(luallv soluble, or nearly so, at 
 nny teni[jdatiirf, on evaporating the solution sulliciently, the lat- 
 ter salt will crystallize while the solution is liot; on cooling, the 
 other will shoot into crystals; and, by alternate evaporation and 
 coolinp;, llif two may be obtained unconibined, though generally 
 with u little intermixture of each other. Soniefimes, howevir, 
 when two salts are in sohitioji in the same fluid, and have even clit- 
 fereot tendencies to crystallization, their mutual aitinity leads 
 llii-ni to crystallize in one mass, and even to aasnuiE a form differ- 
 ent from tliat in which separately they would have crystallized. 
 In other cases this Tiuitual affiinty, between substances in solution, 
 is sufficient to resist their crystallization, or to render it more dil'li- 
 cull. Crystallization sometimes takes place, when bodies in the 
 gaseous form become subject to the attractien of aggregation, as in 
 sublimates; and even solids separated from a liquid by chemical 
 action, in some instances at the moment of their separation, assume 
 a crystallized form. Every substance in crystallizing is disposed 
 to assume a particular figure. Thus, sea-salt crystallizes in the 
 form of a cube; nitre in tiiat of a hexaedral prism; sugar iu that 
 of a four or six-sided prism, with triedral termniations. '1 he crys- 
 (alline figure in any substance, however, is not invariable, but may 
 be altered by circumstances affecting the crystallization ; and we 
 ;...d the same substance crystallized under a variety of loruis. 
 -a-salt crystallizes, not only in cubes, but also in octaedrons; Lud 
 rbonate of Inne is found in nature in the form of an hesaedral 
 prism, an hexaedral, and a triedral pyramid. The elfect of ligiil 
 upon the act of crystallization is very remarkable. It is found, in 
 general, that the crystals of salts are larger and better formed in the 
 dark than when light falls upon tlie solution. But this relates only 
 to such crystals as are formed in the fluid. In many, and indeed 
 most salts, there are crystals formed, during the spontaneous eva- 
 poration of the solution, which rise above the surface into the air, 
 either in contact with the sides of the vessel, or supported by their 
 own structure. It appears to have been well determined by expe- 
 riments of Chaptal and others, that this plia;iiomenoa does not take 
 place witliout the presence of light. 
 
 CRYS I'ALLOGK.VPHY, [from S %m^a>x<^, glass or cry- 
 stal, and yjiii".', to describe,] the science by wliich we under- 
 stand the structure and forms of crystals. It is remarkable that 
 crystals not only assume regular figures, but are always bounded 
 by plane surfaces. It is very rarely indeed that curved surfaces 
 are observed in these bodies ; and when they Rre, the crystals 
 always give imequivocal proofs of imperfection. But this con- 
 stant tendency towards plane surfaces is i;iconreivable, imless the 
 particles of which the crystals are composed are themselves re- 
 gular figures, and bounded by plane surfaces. If the figure of 
 crystals depend upon the figure of their integrant particles, and 
 ujjon the manner in which they combine, it is reasonable to sup- 
 pose that the same particles, wlien at full liberty, will always com- 
 bine in the same way, and consequently that the crystals of every 
 particular body will be always the same. Nothing at firsi slglit 
 can appear farther from the truth than this. The different forms 
 which the crystals of the same body assume are often very nume- 
 rous, and exceedingly different from each other. Carbonate of 
 lime, for instance, has been observed crystallized in no fewer than 
 forty different Ibrnis, fluateoflime in eight different forms, and 
 sulphate of lime in nearly an etjual number. But this incon- 
 sistency is not so great as might at first sight appear. Rom;? de 
 Lisle has sliewn that every body susceptible of crystallization has 
 a particular form which it most frequently assumes, or ^ least to 
 which it does most frequently approach. Bergman has demon- 
 strated, that this primitive foiiTi, as Haiiy has called it, very often 
 lies concealed in those very crystals which appear to deviate far- 
 thest from it. And Haliy has demonstrated, that all crystals either 
 have this primitive form, or at least contain it as a nuelev . within 
 them ; for it may be extracted out of all of them by a skilful me- 
 chanical division. Haiiy made this discovery of mechanical di- 
 vision in examining a hexangular prism of calcareous spar, or 
 carbonate of lime, which had been detached from a group of the 
 ifame kind: he observed that a small portion of the crystal was 
 wanting, and that the; fracture presented a very smooth surface. 
 Let Il\, fig. I, Plate LI 1 1, be the crystal: the fracture lay ob- 
 rupiely as the trapezium a hg c, and made an angle of 135 degrees, 
 both with the remainder oi the base, and with the remainder of 
 the side of the prism. Observing that the segment abgci-d ihuscut 
 off had for its vertex e d one of the edges of the base of the prism, 
 VOL. n. — NO. 60. 
 
 he attempted to detach a similar segment in thi' part to which the 
 rie.-;t edge belonged; he employed for that pur])ose the blade of a 
 knife, directed in the same degree of obliquity as tiie trapezium 
 ahgc, and assisted by the strokes of a hammer, lie could not 
 succeed: but on making the attempt upon the next edge lie de- 
 tached another segment, precisely similar to the first. lie could 
 produce no elfect on the next oi fourth edge ; but from the next 
 following, he cut a segment similar to the other two. The sixth 
 edge likewise proved refractory. lie tlien went to the other base 
 of the prism, and found that'tlie edges which admitted sections 
 similar to the preceding ones were- not the edges corresponding 
 with those which had been found divisible at the opposite base, 
 but the intermediate edges, as represented in fig. f, where nAgc 
 shews the base, and e d the vertex of the sej^nents cut off from the 
 first, third, and fifth edges of the base at one end, and tjie inter- 
 mediate ones at the other end of the prism. Tlie sections on the 
 opposite sides and opposite ends are parallel, siice tliey are alike 
 inclined to tlie side, or to the base of the prism ; thus the section 
 abgc marked A is parallel to that marked D, also B is parallel 
 to E, and C to F. These sections were, without doubt, the 
 natural joinings of the layers of tiie crystal; ;.nd he easily suc- 
 <eeded in making others parallel to them, witliout its being possi- 
 ble for him to divide the crystal in any o;her direction. Inthii 
 manner he detached layer after layer, approaching always nearer 
 and nearer the axis of the prism, till at last tl;e bases disappeared 
 altogether, and the prism was converted into a solid, fig. 2. ter- 
 minated by twelva pentagons parallel two and two; of wliich those 
 at the extremities, that i~, tl;e three marked ac gc b, r.t the upper 
 extremity, and main, at the lower, were the results of mechan- 
 ical division, and had their common vertices g- and i in the axis 
 of the prism. The six lateral pentagons, viz. macb n, and a m o nh, 
 three of each were the remains of the six sides of the original 
 prism. By cutting off sections parallel to the former till »i n co- 
 incided with a b in each face of the prism, there remained no- 
 thing of the lateral pentagons but the triangles « c i, rtino, see 
 fig. 3. By continuing tiie same sections, these triangles at last 
 disa|)peared, and the prism was converted into the rhomboid GI, 
 fig. 4, which is therefore the primitive form, or nucleus of the 
 crystal. Struck with the important result of this experiment, 
 Haiiy applied the same method to other crystalline forms of tl'.e 
 same substance, and obtained from them the same result ; the 
 crystal, whale\er was its figure, being by this mechanical divi- 
 sion converted into a rhomb. Thus in the dodecaedron, com- 
 posed of two six-sided pyramids joined by the base, the primitive 
 form may be obtained at once by making a first section, on the 
 edges EO, 01, fig. 5 ; a second, o"n the edges IK, GK; a third, 
 on GH, EH ; a fourth, on OI, IK ; a filth, on GK, Gil ; and 
 lastly, a sixth, on EH, EO;and the result is, that these edges 
 become the same with the lateral edges of the primitive form, as 
 may be perceived from mere inspection of fig. 6, which repre- 
 sents tills primitive form described in the dodecaedron. He then 
 applied it to other crystalline substances, and found, that from 
 these also, by discovering the joints by which the lamina; com- 
 posing the crystals were united, a certain primitive ferm might 
 be extracted. That of fluorspar, is an octaedron; and that of 
 the heavy spar, a prism with rhomboidal bases ; of corundum, a 
 rhomboid somewhat acute ; of beryl, a hexaedral pri^m ; and of the 
 elba iron-oar, a cube. Each of these forms is constant with re- 
 gard to the species, and is that from which all the forms of the va- 
 rieties, often extrauely numerous, are derived. The latter are 
 denominated by Haiiy secondary forms. Sometimes, thougl* 
 rarel) , the primitive an'd secondary forms are the same. All crys- 
 tallized substances, however, do not admit of this mechanical analy- 
 sis. But with regard to those that have hitherto refused it, Haiiy 
 has remarked, tifat their surface striated in a certain direction, o'r 
 the relation subsisting among the difi'erent secondary forms of tlie 
 same substance, mark with imich probability, their primitive forms. 
 Thus Haiiv establishes what he names the " Primitive Eorni of 
 Crystals," and which he defines, " A solid of a constant form, 
 inserted symmetrically in all the crystals of the same species, and 
 the faces of which observe the directions of the layers which com- 
 pose these crystals." The primitive forms hitherto observed are 
 reduceable to'six : the parallelopipedon, which includes the cube, 
 tl-.e rhomb, and all the solids which are terminated by six faces 
 parallel two and two; the tetraedron ; tlie octaedron ; the regular 
 iiexaedral prism ; the dodecaedron, with equal and similar rhom- 
 y boidat
 
 CRY 
 
 74 
 
 CRY 
 
 boidal planes ; and tlie dodecaedron with triangular planes. 1 he 
 priniitis'e form may always be still farther svibdividod parallel to its 
 ditterent faces, and sometimes even in other directions. .AJl tlie 
 enveloping matter is equally divisible by sections parallel to the 
 faces of the primitive forms; and the only limit to this possible 
 division is that placed by the composition of the substance. The 
 calcareous spar, to take it as an example, maybe reduced to a 
 particle beyond which the division cannot be carried, without re- 
 solving it into its elements, lime and carbonic acid; or at least it 
 may be reduced to a particle, beyond which, if its minuteness 
 allowed us to operate upon it, it is demonstrable its ligure would 
 not change. To these last particles, the result of the mechan- 
 ical analysis, riaiiy gives the name of integrant particles, and their 
 union constitutes the crystal. Their forms, so far as experiment 
 has been carried, arc three : the tetraedon, the simplest of the 
 pyramids; the IriarigiiUir prism, the simplest of prisms; and the 
 parallelopipedon, the simplest of solids, which have their faces 
 parallel, two and two. It is very probable that between tiiese 
 the attraction of cohesion is immefliately exerted. In order to 
 complete the theory of the structure of crystals, it is rcc|uisitc 
 now to explain by wliat arrangements the secondary forms, or, 
 in other words, the actually existing crystals, are produced. The 
 nucleus of the crystal is the symmetrical solid which constitutes 
 its primitive form, arisingfrom tlie union of the integrant particles, 
 either by their faces or their edges ; and the additional matter, 
 which forms the crystal, consists of layers of these particles super- 
 added to that nucleus, and arranged on its faces; and to account 
 for the formation of the crystal under a figure dilierent from that 
 of its primitive form, these layers, as they recede from it, are 
 supposed to decrease, in the space they occupy, from the regu- 
 lar abstraction of one or more ranges of the integrant particles. 
 This decrease may take place in various modes ; and according to 
 these, dilierent figures of crystallization will be produced. Thus, 
 to take the simplest example. Ictus suppose the primitive form is 
 a cube ; it is easy to conceive, that on each of its six sides mar be 
 reared a series of decreasing layers, or lamina", composed entirely 
 of cubical particles, each layer diminishing on each of its edges by 
 one row of the minute cubes of which it consists. The lamins 
 thus decreasing as they recede from the base on which they rest, 
 until the apex consists of a single particle, it is obvious, that on 
 each side of the cube a four-sided pyramid will be formed. Two 
 of these are represented, tig. 7, ABCD, EBCG. We shall thus 
 have, then, six four-sided pyramids, and ol course 24 triangles, 
 such as ABC, BCE, CEG, &c. But since the decrease is uni- 
 form on all the sides, as from the line BC to A, and from the 
 same line to E, it must also be uniform from A to E ; it is obvious, 
 therefore, that the side ABC of the one pyramid will be found 
 exactly in the same plane as the side BCli of the adjacent pyramid ; 
 so that the ent're surface of these will be the rhomb ABEC. The 
 case must be the same with all the others. Tlie 24 triangles will 
 therefore be reduced to twelve rhombs, and the figure will be a 
 dodecaedron, very remote from the primitive form. Now a 
 ci-ystal of this figure, and having this primitive form, would be 
 resolved into that forti, merely by cutting off the six solid angles, 
 by sections, in the direction of the small diagonals of the sides, 
 which go to the formation of these angles. We should thus suc- 
 cessively uncover six squares, which will be the faces of the 
 primitive cube. In explaining the structure of a crystal, although 
 the representation in the fii;nre be such as to shew the decrease of 
 the lamina; by rows of particles of such a size as to give a surface 
 uneven, similar to a succession of steps, it is obvious, that if we 
 subuitute for this the delicate structure of nature, the number of 
 lamincc may i)e so great, and the number of their cubical parti- 
 cles such, that the depression or channel at their edges wll be 
 altogether imperceptible to our senses, and the surfaces will ap- 
 pear perfect planes. Thus we see that a body which has the 
 cube for the primitive form of its crystals, may have a dodecae- 
 dron for its secondary form. The formation of secondary crystals, 
 by the superposition of lamina; gradually decreasing in size, wa- 
 first pointed out by Bergman, 15ut Ilaiiy has carried the subject 
 much farther: he has not only ascertained all the different ways 
 by wliicli these decrements of the lamina" mav take place, biit 
 pointed out the method of Ci.lculating all the possible varieties of 
 secondary forms which can result from a given primitive form ; 
 •^iid con: eiiuently of ascerUinlng whether or not any given crystal 
 
 can be the secondary form of a given species. The decrements of 
 the limiinic which cover the primitive nucleus ia secondary crystals 
 aie of four kinds: 
 
 1. Decrements on the edges, that is, on the edges of the slices 
 which correspond with the edges of the primitive nucleus. 
 
 2. Decrements on the angles ; that is to>.ay, parallel to the 
 diagonals of the faces of the primitive nucleus. 
 
 3. Intermediate decrements; i.e. parallel to lines situated ob- 
 liquely between the diagonals and edges of the primitive nucleus. 
 
 4. Mixed decrements. In these the superincumbent sl.ces, 
 instead of having only the thickness of one integrant particle, have 
 the thickness of two or more integrant particles ; and the deci'e- 
 ment, whether parallel to the edges or angles, consists not of the 
 abstraction of one row of particles, but of two or more. Haijy de- 
 notes these decrements by fractions, in which the numerator indi- 
 cates the number of rows of particles whicii constitutes the decre- 
 ment, and the denominator represents the thickness of the laminr. 
 riius I denotes lamins of the thickness of three integrant particles, " 
 (let reasing by two rows of particles. An example of tlie lirst law 
 of decrement, or of decrement on the edges is given above in the 
 conversion of the cubic luiclens to a rhomboidal dodecaedron. 
 In that example the decrement c'unsisted of one row of particles, 
 and it took place on all the edges. But these decrements may be 
 more rapid : instead of one, they may consist of two, three, four, 
 or more rows ; and instead of taking place on all the edges, they 
 may be confined to one or two of them, while no decrement 
 at all takes place on the others. Each of these different modifica- 
 tions must produce a different secondary crystal. Besides this, 
 th.e lamin:c may cease to be added before they have reached their 
 smallest possible size ; tlie consequence of which must be a differ- 
 ent secondary form. Thus, in the example given above, if the 
 superposition of lamina; had ceased before the pyramids were com- 
 pleter!, the crystal would have consisted of 18 faces; six squares 
 parallel to the faces of the primitive nucleus, and 12 hexaedrons 
 parallel to the faces of the secondary dodecaedron. This is the 
 figure of the barate of lime and magnesia found at Luneburg. The 
 second law in which the decrement is on the angles, or parallel to 
 the diagonals of the faces of the primitive nucleus, will be under- 
 stood from the follov\'ing example: Let it be proposed to con- 
 struct around the cube ABGF, fig. 8, considered as a nucleus, a 
 secondary solid, in which the lamime of superposition shall de- 
 crease on all sides by single rows of cubes, but in a direction 
 parallel to the diagonals. Let ABCD, fig. 9, the superior base of 
 the nucleus, be divided into 81 squares, representing the faces of 
 the small cubes of which it is composed. Fig. 10 represents the 
 superior surface of the first lamina of superposition ; which must 
 be placed above ABCD, fig. 9, in such a manner, that the points 
 a b c d, fig. 10, answer to the points a b id, fig. 9. By this dispo- 
 sition the squares An, B6, Cc, Drf, fig. 9, which compose the four 
 outermost rows of squares parallel to the diagonals AC, BC, re- 
 main uncovered. It is evident also, that the borders QV, ON, 
 IL, GF, fig. 10, project by one range beyond the borders AB, 
 AD, CD, BC, fig. 9 ; which is necessary, that the nucleus may- 
 be enveloped towards these edges : for if this were not the case, 
 re-enteringangleswould bcformed towardsthe parts AB, BC, CD, 
 DA, of the crystal ; which angles appear to be exckided by the laws 
 which deter nine the formation of simple crystals, or, which come* 
 to the same thing, no such angles are ever observed in any crystal. 
 The solid must increase, then, in those paits to which the decre- 
 ment does not extend. But as this decrement is alone sufficient 
 to determine the form of the secondary crystal, we may set aside 
 all the other variations whicli intervene only in a subsidiary man- 
 ner ; except when it is wished, as in the present case, to construct 
 artiti( ially a solid representation of a crystal, and to exhibit all 
 the details which relate to its structure. The superior face of the 
 second lamina will be AGLK.fig. 11. It must he placedso that 
 the points a, b, c, d, correspond to the jjoints n, h, c, d, fig. 10; 
 which will leave uncovered a second row of cubes at each angle, 
 parallel to the diagonals AC and BD. The solid still increases to- 
 w;:rds the sides. 'J~he large faces of the lamina- of superposition, 
 which in fig. 10 were octagons, in fig. 11 arrive at the form of a 
 scpiare; and when tliev pass that term they decrease on all sides; 
 so that the next lamina has for its superior face the square RMLS, 
 fig. 12, less bv one range in every direction than the preceding 
 lamina, fig. 11. This sijuarc must be placed so that the points e, 
 
 J}
 
 CRY 
 
 75 
 
 C RY 
 
 r 
 
 /, j(, li, fig. V2, cori-c>|)oiultotiiepoinls<?,.f, i^-, A, lig. 11. Figiiros 
 13, 14, 15, anil 16, repivseiit the tour laminae vvliich oiiglit to rise 
 successivelv al)Ove llie piecccliiig ; tlie manner of placing them 
 being; pointed out by concrpondlng letters, as was done witli re- 
 spect to the first three laniins. The last lamina :, fia. 17, is a 
 sujv>le cube, which ought to be placed upon the square z., lig. Hi. 
 Tlic- luminse of superposition, thus applied upon the side A15CD, 
 fig. 9, evidently produce four faces, wliicli correspond to tlie points 
 A, B, C, D, and form a i)yi-aniid. Tliesefaces, having been form- 
 ed by lamina: which began by increasing, and alterwards de- 
 creased, must lie <iuadrilaterals of the ligure represented in lig. 18; 
 in wliicli the inferior angle (' is the same point with the angle C of 
 the nucleus, ligs. 9 and 10, and the diagonal LQ represents LG of 
 tlie laniira .\GLK, rig. 11. Antl as the number of lair.iiue com- 
 posing the triangle LQC, lig. IS, is much smaller than thai ot tlic 
 lamina" forming the triangle ZLQ, it is evident that tlie latter 
 triangle will have a much greater height than the former. The 
 surface, then, of the secondary crystal llius produccii, must evi- 
 denlly consist of 2-1 cpiadrilalerals, for pyramids are raised on the 
 other live sides of the primary cube exactly in the same liianner, 
 disposed three and three around each solid angle of the nucleus. 
 But in consequence of the decrement by one range, the three 
 quadrilaterals which belong to each solid angle, as C, lig. 8, will be 
 in the same plane, and will loriu an equilateral triangleZlN, fig. 19- 
 The 24 (luadrilaterals then will produce eight equilateral triangles ; 
 and consequently the secondary crystal will be a regular octae- 
 dron. This is the structi'.re of the octaedral sulphuret of lead, and 
 of muriate of soda. The third law is occasioned by the abstrac- 
 tion of double, triple, &-c. jiarticles. Fig. 20 e.\hibits an in- 
 stance of the subtractions in (|uestion : and the moleculi which 
 compose the range represented by that figure are assorted in such 
 a manner as if of two there were formed only one ; so that we 
 need only to conceive the crystal composed of paialUlopipedoiis 
 having tlieir bases equal to the small rectangles a b c d, e dj'g h i I, 
 &:c. to reduce this case under that of the common decrements on 
 the angles. This particular decrement, as well as the fourth law, 
 which requires no farther explanation, is uncommon. Indeed 
 Haiiy has met with mixed decrements only in some metallic 
 crystals. These dilferent laws of decrement account for all the 
 different forms of secondary crystals. But in order to see the vast 
 number of secondary forms which may result from them, it is 
 necessary to attend to tlie different modifications wliich re.-ult 
 from their acting separately or together. These modiiications may 
 be re<luced to seven : 
 
 1 . The decrements take place sometimes on all the edges, or all 
 the angles, at once. 
 
 2. Sometimes only on certain edges, or certain angles. 
 
 3. Sometimes they are uniform, and consist of one, two, or more 
 rows. 
 
 4. Sometimes they vary from one edge to the other, or from 
 one angle to another. 
 
 5. Sometimes decrements on the eclges and angles take place 
 at the same time. 
 
 6. Sometimes the same edge or angle is subjected successivelv 
 to dffferent lav. s of decrement. 
 
 7. Sometimes the secondary crystal has faces parallel to those of 
 the primitive nucleus, from tiie superposition of lamin.X' not going 
 beyond a cert:?in extent. 
 
 Hence Mr. Haiiy has divided secondary forms into two kinds, 
 namely, simple and compound. Simple secondary crystals are 
 those which result from a single law of decrement, and which en- 
 tirely <:onceal the primitive nucleus. Compound secondary crys- 
 tals are those which result from several laws of decrement at once; 
 or from a single law which has not reached its limil, and which of 
 course has left in the secondary crystal faces parallel to those of 
 the primitive nucleus. " If amidst this diversity of laws (observes 
 Mr. Haiiy) sometimes united by coml)ination> more or less com- 
 plex, the number of ranges subtracted was itself extremely vari- 
 able : for example, were these tlecrements by 15, 20, 30, or 40 
 ranges, or more, as might absolutely be possible; the multitude of 
 the forms which might exist in each kind of mineral would be im- 
 mense, and exceed what could be imagined. But the power which 
 effects the subtractions seems to have a very limited aciion. These 
 sublracti-ms, for the most part, take place by one or two ranges of 
 molecules. I have found none which exceed f(>ur ranges, except 
 in a variety of calcareous spar forming part of tire eollcclion ofC. 
 
 Gi'let Laumont, the structure of which depends on a <li ciemeil 
 by six ranges: so that if there exist laws which exceed the decre- 
 ments by tour ranges, th.ere is reason to believe they rarely take 
 place 111 nature. Yet nolwiih..tandiiiii; these n;.rrovv limits by 
 which the laws of crystallization are circumscribed, I have found, 
 by conlining myself to two of the simplest laws, viz. those which 
 jjroduce subtractions Dy one or two ranges that calcareous spar is 
 su--ceptii)le of 2044 diflereiit forms, a number w hich exceeds more 
 tinn 50 times that of the forms already known: and if we admit 
 into the combina.lion decrements by three or four ranges, calcula- 
 tion will give 8,38S,604 po-ssible forms in regard to the same sub- 
 stance. And even this number may be much augmented in con- 
 sequence either of intermediate or mixed decrements brinn taken 
 into account. In concluding this sketch of Crystallography, e.x- 
 tracted from the " Sysleni of Chemistry" by Murray, we have also 
 thought it projier, v. ilh him, to give the figures of the more usual 
 forms of crystals, and their modilications. The planes, which are 
 the surfaces of cry!'tals, are dislinguislied into lateral, or those which 
 are of the greatest extent, and which form its conhnes towards its 
 smallest extent ; and extreme or terminal, which are those of 
 smallest extent, and form the bounds of the body towards its 
 largest extent. Edges aie formed by the junction of two planes 
 under determinate ?ngles ; they also are lateral, or those formed by 
 the junction of two lateral planes; and terminal formed by the 
 junction of two terminal planes, or of a terminal with a lateral 
 plane. Werrer admits even primary figures of crystals which are 
 susceptible of numerous modifications. These figures are the 
 icosaedron, the dodecaedron, the hexaedron, which includes the 
 cube and the rhomb, the prism, the pyramid, the table, and the 
 lens. I'^t. The icosaedron, fig. 21, is a solid, consisting of twenty 
 equilateral triangular planes, united under equal angles. 2d. The 
 dode<'aedron, lig. 22, or solid of twelve equal or pentagonal faces. 
 3d. The cube, fig, 23, or solid, composed of six quadrilateral planes 
 united at right angles. 4th. The riionib, fig. 21-, or solid, of six 
 quadrilateral planes united at oblique angles. 5th. The prism, or 
 soliti, of two terminal planes, parallel, equal, and similar, con- 
 nected by quadrangular lateral planes having one direction; the 
 number of lateral planes may of course be various ; the usual form 
 observed in crystals are the four-sided rectangular prism, fig. 25 ; 
 and tiie six-sided equiangular prism, fig. 27. 6lh. The pyramid, 
 or solid, the base of which is a plane of an indeterminate number of 
 sides, and the sides triangles, the vertices of which meet in one 
 point, forming the summit ; the more common varieties of this 
 figure, as forms of crystals, are the three-sided pyramid, or tetrae- 
 dron, fig. 28, and the four-sided pyramid, fig. 29. 7th. The table, 
 which, strictly speaking, is nothing but a very compressed prism ; 
 it is defined as composed of two parallel lateral planes, and of an 
 indeierminate number of terminal planes, connected with the 
 lateral [ilancs and with each other, and small, compared with the 
 lateral ones ; the principal varieties are, the oblique-anguhir, or 
 rhomboidal four-sifled ta.jle, fig. 30, the rectangular four->ided 
 table, fig. 31, and the six-sided table, fig. 32. Lastly, The lens, 
 rig. 3i, a solid, consifling only of two planes, which are curved ; 
 of which there are two varietie'^, one composed of two convex 
 planes, and another composed of a convex and a concave plane. 
 These simple figures are modified by combination, by truncation, 
 by bevelment, and by acumination. The modilication by com- 
 bination is confined to the jiyramids, and these are frequent, two 
 pyramids being joined by the base ; the lateral planes ot the one 
 being set either directly on the lateral planes of the other, as in the 
 double tour-sided pyramid, octaedron, fig. 36, or obliquely, as in 
 the double four-sided pyramid, fig. 35. Fig. 34, is the double six- 
 sided pyramid. A crystal is said to be truncated, when any or all 
 of its solid angles or edges appear cut off, so that where there 
 would have been an edge or angle we have a plane. Fig. 37, shews 
 the cube with the angles and edges truncated : fig. 38, the six-sided 
 pri<m, with truncated terminal edges. A crystal is said to be be- 
 velled, when its edges, angles, or terminal |daues, are so altered, 
 that insleatl of an angle edge or terminal plane, there appear two 
 smaller converging planes, which terminate in an edge : lig. 39, 
 shews the cube with bevelled edges: fig. 40, the three-sided py- 
 ramid, with bevelled edges. Lastly, the forms of crystaN are 
 altered by ;Kimiination. 'I'his is that kind of alteration in which, 
 in i-ilace of the angles or terminal planes of a crystal, there are 
 three or more planes converging and fonning a point or edge: 
 rig. 41, shews the cube, with angles acuminated by three plaues set 
 
 4 ' oa
 
 CUB 
 
 7(5 
 
 cue 
 
 on the lateral planes : tig. 42, the rectangular four-sided prism, 
 acuminated by four planes set on the lateral planes. The forms 
 of crystals from the preceding modifications are frequently stil 
 more altered, and rendered complicated, by being super added 
 and combined; and by the extent of the modifications, one form 
 frequently passes into another. The figures of crystals are like- 
 wise rendered complicated by aggregation, two or more crystals of 
 the same substance being more or less closely united. A minute 
 detail of this article may be found in Weaver's translation ol the 
 " External Character:; of Minerals," by Werner; or in Professor 
 Jameson's treatise on the same- subject. 
 
 CRYTANDRA, in botany, a genus of the class pentandria, and 
 order monogynia. Calyx five-leaved; corolla tubular, with a 
 five-cleft border; stigma" tlux-e-cleft; capsule thiee-valved, three- 
 celled, superior; seeds single, compressed. It has but one species 
 a shrub, native of Australasia. 
 
 CTESIBUS, a mathematician of Alexandria, who flourished 
 about B. C. 120. He was the first who invented the pump. He 
 also invented a clepsvdra, or water-clock. Water was let drop 
 upon wheels which it turned: tlie wheels communicated tlieir 
 regular motion to a small wooden image, which by a gradu.d rise 
 pointed with a stick to the proper hours and months, which were 
 engraved on a column near the machine. t 
 
 CTESIPHON, a celebrated Greek architect, who gave the 
 designs for the famous temple of Ephesus, and invented a machine 
 for bringing thither the columns to be u^ed in that noble structure. 
 He flourished B. C. 544. 
 
 CUB, in zoologv. See Ursus. 
 
 Cub, North, a small island of N. America, in James's Bay, 
 E. of Hudson's Bay. 
 
 Cub, South, another island in James's Bay. 
 
 CUBA, a l.irge and important island in the West Indies, belong- 
 ing to Spain; 700 miles long and 87 broad. On the E. it begins 
 at 20° 20' Lat. N. touches the tropic of Cancer on the N. and ex- 
 tends from 74° to 83° 15'. Lon. W. It lies 60 miles W. ol His- 
 paniola, 75 N. of Jamaica, 100 E. of Yucatan, and as manv to the 
 S. of Cape Florida. It was discovered by Columbus in I4y2, 
 who gave it the name of Ferdinando, in honour of king Ferdinand 
 of Spain; but it soon after recovered its ancient name of Cuba. 
 • CUBEA, in botany, a genus of the class decandria, and order 
 inonogvnia. Calyx 'turbinate, five-parted, unequal, permanent ; 
 petals five, unequal; filaments viUose, three shorter; legume vil- 
 lose, six, or seven-seeded. It has two species, 
 
 CUB.-VGUA, an island of S. .\merica, eight miles long, near 
 Cumana, between Margarita and Terra Firma, discovered by 
 Columbus. 
 
 CUBAN, a large river of Russian Tartnry, formed by tlie 
 junction of many small streams, that rise in Mount Caucasus, be- 
 tween the Black Sea and tlie Caspian. 
 
 CUB.'VrURE, [from c»/fc,] is the finding of the solid content 
 of any proposed body. 
 
 CUBE, [S w?«r, "a die,] in geometry, a regular solid body, 
 contained under six square and equal faces or sides, and the angles 
 at! right, and therefore equal, as fig. 28, Plate XLVII. See 
 Geometry, and Mknsuration. 
 
 Cube, -or Cubic Number, in arithmetic, that which is produced 
 bv the multiplication of a scpiare number by its root, thus, 64 is a 
 cube number, and arises by multiplying 16, the square of four, by 
 the root four. Sec Artthmetic. 
 
 Cube, or Cubic, Quantity, in algebra, the third power in a 
 leries of geometrical jnoportionals continued ; as a is the root, aa 
 the S(]uare, and auu the cube. All cubic numbers may be 
 ranged into the form of cubes; as 8 or 27, whose sides are two 
 amUhree, and their bases four and nine; whence it appears, that 
 every true cubic number, produced from a binomial root, consists 
 of these i)arts, viz. The cubes of the greater and less parts of 
 the root, and of three times the sijuare of tlie greater part multi- 
 plied by the less, and of three times the square of the less mul- 
 tiplied l)y the greater, as, 
 aa -(- 2 ttb + bb 
 a + h 
 
 cah -j- 1 abb -\- hbh 
 
 nau -\- 3 aab + 3 «'''' + '''''' 
 
 From hence it is easy to understand both the composition of any 
 
 cubic number, and the reason of the method for extracting the 
 cube root out of any member given. See Algebra. 
 
 Cube Root of any Number, or Quantity, such a number, 
 or quantity, which, if multiplietl into itself, and then, again, the 
 product thence arising by tliat number or quantity, being the cube 
 root, this last product shall be equal to the number or quantity 
 whereof it is the cube root, as two is the cube root of eight, be- 
 cause two times two is four, and two times four is eight ; and a-\-h 
 is the cube root of u^ -\- i u- b -\- 3 ab- -\- b^. See Algebra. 
 
 Cube, Duplication of the, is the finding of the side of a cube 
 th?t shall be double in solidity a given cube, which is a celebrated 
 problem, much discussed by ancient geometricians. It was firsW pro- 
 posed by the oracle of Apollo at Delphos, which declared that the 
 plague, then raging at Athens, should cease when Apollo's altar, 
 a cube, was doutileci. Upon this the mathematicians a])plied them- 
 selves seriously to seek the duplicature of the cube ; hence it is 
 called the Delian problem. It cannot, however, be effected geo- 
 metrically, as it requires the solution of a cubic equation, or re- 
 quires the finding of two mean proportionals, viz. between the sides 
 ol the given cube and the double of the same, the first of which 
 two mean proportionsjs the side of the double cube, as was fiiut 
 observed l)y Hippocrates of Chios. For, let a be the s-ide of the 
 given cube, and : the side of the double cube sought ; then it is z' 
 ^2a^, or a' : z- : : z : 5'« ; so that, if a and ; be the first and second 
 turns of a set of continued proportionals, then u' : i'^ is the ratio of 
 the square of the first to the scpiare of the second, which, it is known, 
 is the same as the ratio of the first term to the third, or of the 
 second to the fourth, that is, ofzto2fl; therefore z being the 
 second term, 2a will be the fourth. So that z, the side of the 
 cube sought, is the second of four terms in continued proportion/ 
 the first and fourth being ii and Sc, that is, the side of the double 
 cube is the first of two mean proportionals between a and 2ri. This 
 problem has been frequently solved mechanically by Archimedes, 
 Eutochius, Pappus, &c. 
 
 CUBIC, or CUr>lCAL, EQUATION, in algebra, one wliose 
 highest power consists of three dimensions, as j:^^:^ a^ — i', on' 
 
 -)- rxx 
 
 n^, &c. See Algebra. 
 
 Cubic Foot of any Substance, so much of it as is contained 
 in a cube, whose side is one foot. 
 
 CUBl'l", [cubitus, Lat.] in the mensuration of the ancients, along 
 mea-ure, equal to the length of a man's arm. from the elbow to the 
 tip ot the fingers. Dr. Arburlhnot makes the English cubit ec|ual 
 to IS inches; the Roman cubit equal to one too:, 5,4o6 inches; 
 and the cubit of the scripture equal to one foot, 9,888 inches. 
 
 CUBIT/EUS. See Ai ATOMY. 
 
 CUBITUS, [Lat.] in anatomy, a bone of the arm, reaching from 
 the elbow to the wrist, otherwi-^e called the ulna. 
 
 CUBOIDES, Os, orOs CT'BIFORME, in anatomy, the 7th 
 bone of the foot , so called from its being in form of a cube, from 
 5 xuo©', enbe, and tj ilS^, likeness. 
 
 CUCKFIELD, alov, 11 in Sussex, 40 miles S. by W. of London. 
 
 CTX" KING-STOOL, an engine invented for the punishment 
 of scolds and uiKpiiet women, which formerly was called tumbrel. 
 
 Cucking-Stool, in Doomsday, is called cathedra stercoris ; 
 anil it was in use even in the Saxon time. It was anciently also a 
 punishment indicted upon brewers and bakers transgressing the 
 laws ; who were in such a stool immerged over head and eare in 
 utercorc, some stinking water. Some think it a corruption from 
 ducking-stool ; others from choakiag-stool, because the delincjueriUs 
 were nearly sufi'ocatt'd in the water. 
 
 CUCI\t)0, or CUCKOW. See Cuculus. 
 
 Cuckoo-Flower. See Cardamine. 
 
 Cuckoo PiXT. See Arum. 
 
 CUCUBALUS, Berry-Bearing Chickweed: a genus of 
 the trigvnia order, and decandria class of plants; natural order, 
 Carvopliillei. Calyx inllated ; petals five, unguiculated with- 
 out a nectariferous corona at the throat ; capsule trdocular. There 
 are seventeen species. 
 
 CUCUJUS, in natural history, a genus ofthe coleoplera order of 
 insecis: antenna filiform; feelers four, equal, the last joint truncate, 
 thicker; lip short, bifid, the divisions linear and distant; body 
 depressed. There are about thiiteen species. 
 
 CUCULIv/FJUA, in botany, a genus of the class and order, 
 monandria monogynia. Calyx four-parted ; corolla lour-jietaled, 
 unequal, spurred; filaments petal-like ; anthers with distinct cells. 
 It has only one species, a native ol Guiana. 
 
 CUCULLANUS,
 
 _i A .»; 
 
 "A 
 
 J^ 
 
 ■Zl 
 
 'h 
 
 ••'7 
 
 \\ 
 
 ^^P 
 
 ft 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 7] 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (' 
 
 
 
 z^ 
 
 
 
 
 Y 
 
 
 V 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 T 
 
 
 *' 
 
 /I 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 b 
 
 
 "ST 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 T- 
 
 z 
 
 ,/ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 C 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 "^ 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 .T 
 
 
 i;? 
 
 
 
 K 
 
 
 n 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 '■ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 kP 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 J s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ./ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ImL 
 
 3—5- 
 
 ^(' 
 
 >iK 
 
 ^^ 
 
 ^7 
 
 22 
 
 7 
 
 -^ 
 
 So' 
 
 32 
 
 .ffl 
 
 M' 
 
 ^^J^ 
 
 Jl 
 
 ^-=4^
 
 OTIC 
 
 cue 
 
 CUCULI-ANUS, ill natural liKtorv. a rl-iuh of the vi;rnH-s 
 uite^iiia. 15oi1y shari), poinU-il behind and ohUisL- belove; moutli 
 orbicular, with a sti iatc l.ood. Must of tlii« genus arc viviparous 
 and L'eueiallv intestinal. Thure are four sections : A, infesting the 
 niaiiima!ia;T), infesting birds; C, intestmg reptiles ; and IJ, lu- 
 fesliiKT lish. It lias w'ven species besides varieties. 
 
 t'L^C'ULl'S, the Cl'CKOO, in ornitholootv, a |>,enus of the order 
 
 pica:. m\ smooth, and more or less bending ; nostrils bounded 
 
 • br a small rim ; tongue short and arrowed ; toes two t.,n-wanl and 
 
 two l)ackward; tail wedge-formed of ten soft leathers. Omelin 
 
 eiiunieratei (i.'"l\-live species, and Latham fortv-six. 
 
 C CAN'or.rs', theCoMMON Cuckoo, weigh, about hve ounces ', 
 and is in length 14 inches ; in breadth 'i3. 'I he bill is black, and 
 about two-thirds of an inch in leoHth. The liead, h:nd part of the 
 neck, coverts of the wings and rump, are of a dove colour ; darker 
 ca Iho head and oaler on the rump. The throat and upper part 
 of the neck arc of a pale grev ; the breast and belly white, crossed 
 fleuantlv with undulated lines of black, 'i he tall coi-.Msts ol ten 
 t>athers"of unequal leusths ; the two middle tad feathers are black 
 tipped with white ; the others are marked with white spots on each 
 lide their shafts. On the natural history of this singular bird, a 
 Terv curioui paper was publish.ed by Dr. Jenner, in the 1 liiloso- 
 phical Transactions, for 17SS, Part 11, Art. U. It is almost uni- 
 ve«ally allowed, that the cuckoo does not liatch its ow n eggs. 
 The liedgc-,parrow, the water wagtail, the titlark, the red-breast, 
 the yellow luuiimer, the crrcen linnet, or the winchat, is generally 
 tlie 'nurse of the young cuckoo : but BuHbii enunierates twenty 
 SDHs of nests at least in which they h.>ve deposited their eggs. It 
 iiiuy be supposed, th d the female cuckoo lays her egg m the ab- 
 sence of liie bird in who^e nest she intends to deiiosit; as it has 
 been known, that on sight of one of the^e a redbreast and its mate 
 jointly attacked lier oa approaching the nest, putting her to tlight ; 
 and so effectually drove her away, that she did not (Uire to relnrn. 
 Among the bird's above-mentioned it generally, according to the 
 Dr's. observations, selecU the three first, but shews a nmch greater 
 partiality to the hedge-sparrow. This last commonly takes up 
 tour or live days in la\ ing iaer eggs. During this time (generally 
 after she has laid one or two) the cuckoo deposits her egg among 
 the rest, leaving the future care of it entirely to the hedge-sparrow. 
 This intrusion" often occasions some discomposure; tor the old 
 hedge-s^iarrow at intervals, whilst she is sitting, not unfrecpiently 
 throws out some of her own ecgs, and sometimes injures them in 
 such away that they become addle; so that it frequently happens 
 tliat only 'two or thiee hedge-sparrow's eggs are hatched with the 
 cuckoo's. IJut whether tliis be tiie case or not, she sits tl-.e saine 
 length of lime as if no foreign egg had bcea introduced, the 
 cuclvoo's egg requiring no longer incubation than her own. 
 Wlien the hedge-sparrow has sat her usual time, and disengaged 
 tlie voung cuckoo and some of her own olf-.pring from the shell, 
 her own voung ones, and any of her eggs that remain unhalched, 
 are soon "turned out, the your.;; cuckoo remaining possessor of the 
 nest, and sole obiect ofher future care. The young birds are not 
 previouslv killed, nor are tlie eggs demolished; but -all are left to 
 perish t.igether, eilh.r being entangled about the bush which con- 
 tains the nest, or King on the ground under it. " 'Hu- early fate 
 
 of the young hedgr-„p,uTows (<ays Dr. Jenner) is a circumstance 
 that lia's been noticed by others,' but attributed to wrong causes. 
 A variety of conjecture's have been formed upon it. Some have 
 suj'poseJ the parent cuckoo the author of their deslruction; 
 while others, as crroiieouslv, have i>ronou need them smothered by j 
 tlie di>pri)portionate size ol'their fellow nestling. The following i's ' 
 one of the manv curious observations of the Dr. to shew how tliis 
 is eflccled. Ju'ne IS, 1787, 1 examined the nest of a hedge-spar- 
 row, which then contained a cuckoo's and tliree hedge-sparrow's 
 eggs. On inspecting it the day following, I found the bird had 
 hatched, but that tiie nest no'w contained only a young cuckoo 
 and one voung hedge-i|)airow. The nest was placed so near the 
 extremity of a hedge, that 1 could distinctly see wiiat was going i 
 forward in it ; and to my astonishment, saw the \ oung cuckoo, j 
 though so newly hatched, in the act of turning out the young, 
 lu-dge-sparrow. The mode of accomplishing this was veiy curious, i 
 Thelitlleaniin.il, with the assistance of its rump and wings, con- j 
 trived to get the bird upon its back; and making a lud(;eiiifnt for | 
 the burden by elevating its elbows, claoibered buckward with it | 
 up the side of the nest till it reached the toi) ; where resting for a j 
 Uiomi-nt, it threw off its load with ii jerk, Kiid quite dise»;;.'.ged it jj 
 VOL. II. — NO. til). 
 
 from the n est. It remaineri in this situation a short time, lei'lin^i 
 about with the extremities of its wings, as if to be co)ivince t 
 whether the busines.i was properly executed, and then droi>ped 
 into the nest again. With these '(the oxtrcmities of its wings) I 
 have often seen it examine, as it wore, an egg and nestling licfore it 
 bcaan its operations; and the nice sensibility wliich these parts ap- 
 pe'ared to po:^sess, seemed sufiicieiitly to coii)pens;ilc the v.ant of 
 sii-hl, which as yet it was destikite of. I afterwards put in an eg!>.; 
 and this, by a siinilar process, was conveyed to the edge of the nest 
 and thrown out. These experiments I iiave since repeated several 
 limes in dilierent nests, and have always found the young cuckoo 
 disposed to act in the same manner. In climbing up the nest, it 
 -ometiines drops its burden, and thus is foiled in its endeavours: 
 but, after a little respite, the work is resumed, and goes on alniosl. 
 incessantly till it i.; elfecieil. It is wonderful to see the extraordi- 
 nary CNcriions of th.c young cuckoo, when it is two or tl-.rec day* 
 old', if a bird be put in the nest with it that is too weighty for it {<y 
 lilt out. Ill this state il seems ever restless and uni^asy. But this 
 disposition for turning out its comjjanions begins, to decline iVoin 
 the time it is two or three till it is about twelve daysoUl ; when, as 
 tar as 1 have hitherto seen, it ceases. See I'lale XXX\"I !I. 
 
 C. Capen'sis, the Cape Cuckoo of Bulfon, is a little smaller 
 than ours; the bilt" is a deep brown; the upper part of th,e body 
 greenish brown; tliroat, cheeks, fore-part of the neck, and upper 
 wing coverts, of a deep rufous colour ; tail feather rufous, l)ut 
 paler, tipped with white; the breast, and all the under parts of the 
 body, white, crossed with lines of black ; the legs reddisii brown. 
 It iiihabits the Cape of Good Hope; and is probably the same bird 
 which is called Edolio, from its pronouncing tli.;t word fre(;ucally 
 in a low melancholy tone. 
 
 C. Indicator, or the Honey C)i;ide, is a native of Africa. 
 The follouing description is given of it by Dr. Sparrnian, in tl-,e 
 Philos. Trans, for 1777. " This curioui species of cuckoe is 
 found at a considerable distance from the Cape of Good Hope, in, 
 the interior parts of Africa, being entirely unknown at iIkiI .settle- 
 ment. The lir5l place I heard of it was in a wood, called the 
 Groot-vaader's liosch, the Gr»nil-li,ther's Wood, situated in a" 
 desert near the river which the Hottentots call T'kaut'kai. The 
 Dutch settlers thereabouts have given this bird the name of honi 
 guy/er, or honey-guide, from its quality of discovering wild honey 
 to "travellers. Its colour has nothing linking or be.iutiful. Its size 
 is considerably smaller than that of our cuckoo in Europe: but in 
 return, the instinct which prompts it to seek its food in a singuLr 
 manner is truly admirable. The honey being its favoiiriit- food, 
 its own interest promjits it to be instrumental in robbing the hive, 
 as some scraps are commonly left lor its support. The mornicg 
 and evening are its times of feeding, and it is then heard calling in 
 a shrill tone, cherr, cherr; which the honey hunters carefully at- 
 tend to as the sunnnons to the chace. From tune to time they 
 answer with a soft whistle ; which the bird hearing, always con- 
 tiap,es its note. As soon as they arc in sigiit of e.ich other, the 
 bird gradually flutters toward the place where the nest is situated, 
 continually repeating its former call of clierr, ciierr; nay, if it 
 should happen to have gained a considerable way before the meti 
 (who may be easily hindered in the pursuit by bushes, rivers, 'op 
 the hke,)"it returns' to them again, and redoubles its note, as it 
 w«e to reproach them with thi ir inactivity. At la>t the bird is 
 observed to liovi'r for a few moments over a ( t rtaiii spot, and then 
 silently reliring to a neighbouring bush or retting place, tlie hunters 
 aivsuiV'of lin<ling the bees iie,,l in that identical sjiot : whether it 
 be in a tree or in the crevice of a rock, or (as is aJo,st commonly 
 the case) in the earth. AVh.ile the hunters are busy in taking ih'^ 
 honey, the bird is seen looking on attentively to wh.it is goin^ 
 forward, i.nd waiting for its share of the spoil. The bee-lu:nler< 
 never fail to leave a small portion for tin ir conductor; but com- 
 mcnlv take eare never to leave so much as would satisfy it^ hunter. 
 The bird's appetite being whi.tted by th s parsimony, it is obliged 
 to commit a second trea--vOU, by discovering another bee's nest, iu 
 hopes of a belter salary. 
 
 C. NiTEN!, the SiuKixo Cuckoo, is lire ^ize of a small thrtish : 
 the bill is bluish: the upper part of the- botly green, with a rich 
 gilded gloss; tie uiuler parts are while, transversely waved with 
 ''r:.'eu gold ; the under tail coverts almdst white ; the cpiiUs and 
 Tail du-kv brown; the legs are bluish. This inhabits New Zea- 
 
 land, where it is called Poopo-arowro. See Plate XX Will. 
 C. VtTVLA i* a little bijjjjer lliau a blackbird -. the bill above 
 
 X. ■•!■»
 
 CUL 
 
 78 
 
 CUL 
 
 an inch uiul ;i half long: ihe iippiT niaDclible l)!ack ; the lower 
 v.■]ntl^h : crown oflhi; head brown, the feathers of it solt and silky ; 
 tUi* upper p.'Tli of the body and the qnills cinoreoiH olive. This 
 species i:;habits Jamaica, where it is common in the woods and 
 Iiedjjes ail thevearroinid. It feeds on seeds, small worm?, and 
 e.iterpilL.!-;, and is very tame. It is called tacco from its cry, 
 \vtiich vi like that v.'ord ; the fir.^t svllable is prononnced hardly, 
 r!ie other following in a full oetave lower than the first. It has 
 ;dso another cry like q;;a, qua, qua ; but that only wfien alarmed 
 by au enemy. 
 
 CUCUMIS, a geniH of the syngene^ia order, and monacia 
 ••lass of plants; natural order, Cucurbitkcea?. Male caly.x quin- 
 qiiedeiilatetl ; corolla quinciueparlile ; fdaments three; ftm.de 
 « aly X quincjncdcntaied ; corolla quinqucpartite ; pistil tritid ; p«me 
 wit!i argute seeds. In this genus LinoLeus inclu<ie':s the Melon. 
 'Viiere are thirteen species. 
 
 {,'. CoLocvKTHis, the CoLocYwTH, CoLoauiNTiD.^, or r>iT- 
 TB-R April, of the shops, is brought to us from Aleppo and the 
 i;>!and of Crete, the leaves of the plant are large, placed alternate, 
 almost round, atid stand upon footstalks four inches long. The 
 'bcllv or huskv ouiiide incloses a b".tter pulp interspcrserl with 
 tialtish seeds. The pulp dried and powdered i? commonly used 
 3s a piireative in this country. If taken in a large dose, it not 
 unly often brings away blood, but produces colics, convulsions, 
 ulcers in the bowels, and fatal super-purgations. Ihe most effec- 
 tual corrector of these virulent qualities is to triturate it finely 
 with sugar or sweet almonds. 
 
 C. .^^ATivA, the C'o.MMON Cucumber, is well known: it has 
 many varieties. Cucumbers in this country are raised at three 
 d.fl'erent seasons of the year : 1. on hot-beds, for early fruits ; 2. 
 under bell or h.md-glasses, for the middle crop ; 3. on the com- 
 snon ground, which is for the late crop, or to pickle. 
 
 CUCUKBri", in chemistry, au earthen or glass vessel, so call- 
 ed from its resemblance to a gourd, arising gradually Ironi a wide 
 botiom, and lermiuating in a narrow neck. 
 
 CUCURBITA, the Gourd and Pompion, a genus of thesyn- 
 genesia order, and mono^cia class of plants ; nL:tural order, Cucur- 
 bitice;e. Calyx of the male quinquedentated; corolla quincjue- 
 )id; tilaments three : calyx of the female quinquedentated; co- 
 rolla quinquetid ; pistil cpiinquefid ; seeds of the pome with a 
 timiid margin. Seven species, annuals, \s ith trailing herbaceous 
 stems, furnished with tendrils for climbing ; they are very much 
 r.ke the curumis. 
 
 CUC:URBn"ACE.£, in botany, the name of the thirty-fourth 
 order in Linna'us's fragments of a natural method, consisting of 
 p'.ants which resemble the uourd in external figure, habit, virtues, 
 M\.\ sensible qualities. These are divided into two sections. 1. 
 'I'hose with hermaphrodite flowers, as the passion-llower. 2. 
 'I'hose with male iuid female flowers pro 1 need cithef on the 
 s.iiTie or distinct roots, as the cucumber, &c. See Rotanv. 
 
 CUDDAI^ORE, a town of Hindostaii, on the coast of Coro- 
 niandel, I j miles S. S. W. of Pcndicherry. 
 
 CUDDAPA, a territory of Ilindostan, west of the Carnatic. 
 
 tluDDAPA, the capita! ot the above territory, seated on the river 
 Pennar, 95 miles W. by N. from its muutli. 
 
 CUDDY, in a first-rate man of war, is a place lying between 
 the captain-lieutenant's cabin and the (]uarter-deck ; and divided 
 into partitions for the mister and otlier officers. 
 
 CUDWKED. See (^napkalilth. 
 
 CUENCA, a considerable district of South America, in the 
 priivince of Quito in Pern. 
 
 CuENCA, or Bamba, the capital of the above district, 170 
 miles S. of Quito. 
 
 CuENC.^, or Cuenza, a to«n of Spain, in New Castile, and in 
 the territory of Sierra, with a bishop's see. 
 
 CUJAVIA, a territory of Great Poland, having the duchy of 
 Prussia on the N. It contains two pdatinater, the chief towns of which 
 are Inowloezaud Brest; assise Li iadislavv, the capital of the distrii t. 
 
 CUIRASS, a piece of defensive armi ur, made of iron plate, 
 well hammered, serving to cover the bo-iy, from the neck to 
 the girdle, both before and behind. It was not brought into use 
 till about A. D. 1300, though they were known both to the aucicnt 
 Greeks and Romans in oiflerenl forms. 
 
 CUL, [!'>. i. c. a bottom, Cul df Sac, a street that has no way 
 eut,] in geogr.nphy, applie<l metaphorically, denotes a bay, and 
 Hiukcs part of llje names of several bays. 
 
 CULDEES, in church history, a sort of m0llki^h priests, for- 
 merly inluibiting Scotland and Irehiiid. Being remarkable lor the 
 religious exercises of pre.;cl.-ng and priyiiig, liiey were called, by 
 way of eminence, cultores Dei ; whence is derived the word cul- 
 decs. They made choice of one of their o\\ ii iraternity to be their 
 spiritual head, who was ufterwar.is crJIed the Scots bishop. 
 
 CULEM3ACH, or CULMBACII, a marqnisate of Ger- 
 many in the circle of Fraiiconia. It is about 50 miles long from 
 N. to S. and 30 broad from E. to \V. and contains 54 towns. It 
 is full of forests and high mountains, covered with pine-trees, and 
 abounds with copper, iron, lead, alum, sulphur, antimonv, and 
 n.arble. Here are the sources of lour large river-, the Maine, 
 the Sala, the Eger, and the Nab. 
 
 Cui.embach, the capital of the marquisate. It lias good forti- 
 fications, and is si'ated 25 miles N. E. ot Bamberg. 
 
 CULIlCS, in Roman antiquity, the largest measure of capacity 
 for things liquid, containing 20 amphora, or -'tO urna?. It contained 
 143 gallons 3 ])inl<, English wine measure; and was 11,095 solid 
 inches. 
 
 CUI^EX, the Gnat; a genus of insects of the order diptera. 
 Mouth formed by a fjex.ble sheath, inclosing bristles pointed like 
 stings ; antenmc of the males iiliform ; those of the females fea- 
 thered. There are fourteen species. These insects, too well 
 known by the severe punctures they inflict, and the itchings 
 thence arising, alford a most interesting history. Before they turn 
 to flying insects, they have been in some manner fishes, under two 
 ditlcrent forms. One may observe in stagnating waters, trom the 
 beginning of Mav till winter, small grubs with tlieir heads down- 
 wards, their hinder parts on the surface of the water; from which 
 part arises sideways a kind of vent-hole, or small hollow tu.be like 
 a tunnel, and this, is the organ of respiration. The head is armed 
 with hooks, that serve to seize on insects and bits of grass on v hich 
 it feeds. On the siiies are pl.iced four small tins, by the lulp of 
 which the insect swims about, and dives to the bottom. These 
 larva? retain their form during a fortnifiht or three weeks, alter 
 which pei iod they turn to chrysalids. All the parts of the winged 
 insect are distinguishable through the outward robe that shrouds 
 them. The chrysalids are rolled up into spirals. The situation 
 and shape of (he windpipe i? then altered ; it consists of two tubes 
 near the head, which occupy the place of the stigmata, througli 
 which the winged insect is one day to breathe. These chrysalids,' 
 constantly on ihe surface of the water in order to draw breath, ab- 
 stain now from eating ; but upon the least motion are seen to un- 
 roll themselves, and |)luiige to the bottom, by means of little pad- 
 dles situated at their hinder parts. After three or four da-\s fast- 
 ing they pass to the state of gnats. A moment before, wafer was 
 its element ; but uuw, b.ecome an aerial insect, he can no longer 
 exist in it. lie swells his head, and bursts his inclosure. ') lis 
 robe he latelv wore, turns to a ship, of which the insect is the mast 
 and sail. If at the instant the gnat displays his wings there arise ' 
 a breeze, it proves to him a dreadful hurricane ; the water gets 
 into the ship, and the insect, who is not yet loosened from it, sinks 
 and is lost. Hut in calm weather, the gnat forsakes his slough, 
 dries himself, flies into the air, seeks to pump tiie alimentary juice 
 of leaves, or the blood of man and beasts. The sting which our 
 naked eye discovers, is but a lube, containing live or six spicula 
 of exquisite minuteness ; some dentaled at their extremity like 
 the head of an arrow, others sharp-edged like razore. These spi- 
 cula introduced into the veins, act as pump-suckers into which 
 blood ascends by rc;;soii of the smallness of li:e capillary tubes, 
 'the insect injects a small cpiantity of rupior into the woi:iid, by 
 which the blood becomes more fluid, and is seen ti'.rough the mi- 
 croscope p:;ssing through those spicula. The animal swells, grows 
 red, and docs not quit its hold till it has gorged itself. The 
 licpior it has iniected causes by its fermenting lliat disagreeable 
 itching which we experience; and which may be removed by 
 volatile alkali, or by scratching the part newly stnng, ani.1 wash- 
 ing it instantly with cold water; for if later, the venom ferments, 
 and the tumor and the itching are only increased by friction. 
 Rubbing one's self at night with luller's e.uth and v^-ater, lessens 
 the pa'n and ie.llammaiion. Gnats perform their copulation in ti.e 
 air. The female deposits her eggs on the water ; by the lielp q{ 
 her moveable hinder part and her legs, placing them one by th5* 
 side of another in the form of a little boat. 1 his vessel, compos- 
 ed of two or three hundred eggs, svinis on (he water lor two or 
 I three days, after which they are hatched. If a storm arises, the 
 
 . < boats
 
 C UL 
 
 79 
 
 C U N 
 
 loats nre sunk. Every moiitli Ihert.- is a fresh proc;Pny of these 
 cets. Were they not tlevoured by swallows, artd olhor biriU, 
 
 well as by several carnivorous insects, the air would be darken- 
 ed by them. 
 
 t." PiPiENs, tlie MvsKETo Fly, IS tlie most trniiblesome species 
 (if llie whole genns ; and swarms in llie West Indies. In the day- 
 time or at night liiey tome into the houses ; and when the people 
 ai e gone to bed they begin their disagreeable humming, ;.pproacii 
 ;.!«ays near.T to the bed, and at last suck up so much blood that 
 thevcan hardly fly away. Their bite causes bli-lcrs in people 
 ot a delicate complexion. When the weather has been cool fur 
 soii'e days, the nTusqueloes disappear ; but w hen it changes again, 
 and especially after a rain, they gather Ueciuently in such <iuan- 
 tities about the houses, that their numbers are a«toi:i!.liing. In 
 sultry evenings they accompany the cattle in great swarms, from 
 the woods to the houses or to town ; and when they are driven 
 before the houses, the gnats fly in wherever they can. In the 
 greatest heat of sumnier, they are so numerous in some places tliat 
 ll'.e air seems to be quite full of them, especially near swamps and 
 stagnate waters, such as the river Morris in New Jersey. T he in- 
 habitants therefore make a fire before their houses to expel these 
 disagreeable guests by the smoke. 
 
 CULIACAN, a province of Guadalaxara, in Mexico. 
 
 CuLiACAN, the capital of the province, 480 miles N. W. of 
 Mexico. Lon. 108. :.. W. Lat. 24. '.'0. N. 
 
 CULLEN, Dr. \\'iLLiAM, an eminent physician, was born in 
 the county of Lanark in Scotland in 17 I'J, and served his appren- 
 ticeship to a sin'geon at Glasgow. On the expiration of his time 
 he went surgeon in a merchant-ship to the West Indies, and on 
 his return, he established himself in business, in partnership with Dr. 
 William Hunter. In 17-:0 he took his degree of M. D. and in 
 1746 he was chosen lecturer in chemistry at Glasgow. In 1761 
 he was ap|)ointed king's professor of me«.licine in the same univer- 
 sity. In 1765 he was elected profe^^or of chemistry at Edinburgh, 
 where, in 1766, he was chosen to the medical chair, in which he 
 r.cised the reputation of that university to an unequalled height in 
 physical science. He died in 1790. His " First Lines ot Pliy- 
 sic," 4 vols. 8vo. are too well known to need praise in this |)lace; 
 besides which, he was the author of " .Synopsis Nosologia' MetJio- 
 dic.i'," 2 vols. Svo. a class book for medical students ; " Lectures 
 on Materia Medica," i.' vols. 4to. ; and a pamphlet on the reco- 
 yery of pereons drowned and seeniinglv dead, Svo. Dr. Cullen 
 "was the first person in Scotland, who underlopd the Linna'an 
 sv'tem ol botany, and recommended it to his pupils, at a lime w hen 
 it met with nnicii opposition from others." 
 
 CULLODEN NlooR, a heath in Inverness-shire, memorable 
 tVr a victory gained over the adherents of the house of Stuart, on 
 the iCth of 'April, 1746. 
 
 CULM, or C'L'L.MUS, hi botany, a straw, or haulm, the 
 proper trunk of grasses which elevates the leaves, flower, and 
 Iruit. 
 
 CuiM, in geography, a town of the late Polish Prussia, capital of 
 a jialatiiiate of the same name, and the see of a bishou. It is IS 
 wiles N. N. W. of Thorn. Lon. IS. 30. E. Lat. S3. Si. N. 
 
 CULMINA'l'ION, in astronomy, the passage of any heavenly- 
 body over the meridian, or its greatest altitude for that day. 
 
 CULMORE, a town of Ireland, in Loudoiidevry, 5 miles N. 
 of Londonderry. 
 
 CULPRIT, is not (as is vulgarly imagined) an opprobrious 
 name given to the prisoni r before he is found guilty, but it is the 
 reply of the clerk of arr.iigns to tlie prisoner, alter he had pleaded 
 Kot Guilty ; which plea was anciently entered upon the minutes 
 in an abbreviated Icrni, non cul' ; upon which the clerk of the 
 arraigns, on behalf of the crown, replies that the prisoner is giiiltv, 
 and that he is ready to prove him so; which is done by a hke 
 kind of abbrevialioii, cul'prit, signifying tji.'it the king is ready to 
 prove him guilty (from cul, that is, culpabilis, guilty ; and prit, 
 pr^4o sum, I am ready to verify it). 4 Black. 339. 
 
 CULROSS, ato>\iiof Scotland, on the river Forth, 23 miles 
 N. W. of Edinburgh. 
 
 CULVERIN, a long slender piece of ordnance or artillery, 
 serving to carry a ball to a great- distance. Mau'^ge derives the 
 word from the Latin cnluhrinn ; others from coluber, a snake ; 
 either on account of the length and slenderness of the piece, or of 
 the ravages it makus. Tlieie are three kinds of tulverins, viz. the 
 e.\!lraordiiiary, the ordiu'ry, ar.d the least siicU ■ 1. TheculveriB 
 
 extr.iordinary has 5^ inches bore; its length 3'2 calbres, or 13 
 feet; weighs 4800 pounds: itt load i;bove 12 pounds; carries a 
 shot j|- inches diameter, weighing 20 pounds wei;, ht. 2. The or- 
 dinary culverin is 12 feet long; carries a ball of 17 pounds 5 
 ounces; calibre .">t inches ; its weight 4500 pounds. 3. The cul- 
 verin of t+ic least size, has its diameter 5 inches ; is 12 feet long ; 
 weighing about 4000 pounds ; carries a shot 3| inches diameter, 
 weia,hing 14 pounds 9 ounces. 
 
 CULVERT AIL, among ship-wrights, signifies the fastening or 
 letting of one timber into another, so that tliey cannot slip out, as 
 the corlings into the beams of a ship. 
 
 CUM A, a small island in the Mediterranean, near the coast of 
 Italy, 5 miles W. of Naples. 
 
 CuMA, a tow n of the island of GiUo, situated ot the bottom of 
 a large bay. 
 
 CuMA, or CuM-E, in ancient geography, a town of yEolia in 
 Asia Minor. 
 
 CuMz-E, or CuMA, in ancient geography, a city of Campania 
 near Puteoli, founded by a colony from Chalcis and Cum:e of Alo- 
 lia before the Troian war. 
 
 CUMANA, COMANA, or NEW CORDOVA, a town of 
 South America, and capital of New Andalusia. Lon. 63. 39. W. 
 Lat. 9- 46. N. 
 
 CUMBERLAND, or CUMBRIA, .so denominated from the 
 Cumbri, or Britons, who inhabited it; one of the most northerly 
 countries in England. Ic was formerly a kingdom extending fiom 
 the vallum of Adrian to the city of Dunbritton, now Dumbarton, 
 on the frith of Clyde in Scotland. At present it is a county of 
 England, bounded on tlie N. and N. W. by Scotland ; on the S. 
 and S. E. by part of Lancashire and Westmoreland. I'lie county 
 produces great quantities of coal, some lead, and abundance of the 
 mineral earth called black-lead. It has several mines of lapis ca- 
 lamiiiaris, and an inconsiderable pearl-fishery on the coast near 
 Raveii-glass. 
 
 Cumberland, a county and town of North America, in New- 
 Brunswick. 
 
 CuMBKKLAND, a County of the I'^nitcd States, in the district o£ 
 ^L^ine, between York and Lincoln ( ounties. 
 
 CiuMBKRLAND, a county of the Unite.l States, in New Jersey. 
 
 Cumberland, a courily of North Carolina. 
 
 Cumberland, a county ot Pennsylvania. 
 
 Cumberland, a county of Virginia. 
 
 Cumberland, an island of the United States, olTthe coast of 
 Camden c^ unty, Georgia. 
 
 Cumberland Island, an island in the South Pacific ocean. 
 Lon. 140. 36. W. Lat. 19. 18. S. 
 
 Cumberland Islands, a cluster of islands near the N. E. 
 coast of New Holland. Lon. 148. 32. E. Lat. 20. 36. S. 
 
 Cumberland River, calh;d b\ the Indians Shawanee, and by 
 the French Shavanon, falls into the Ohio 10 miles above the n;outh 
 of Tenne-see river. 
 
 Ci;xMBRAES, CIMBRAES, CAMBRAY, orCl'MBRAY, 
 an i>hi.nd and parish of Scotkind, in A\r^lure, h nig in the Frith 
 of CIvde. 
 
 CCMINUM, Cbmmik : a genus of tlie digvnia order, and 
 pentau'hia class of plants ; natural order, Umbelial:p. Fruit 
 ovale and striated.; partial umbels four; involucra quadrilid. 
 One species only is kno/vn. 
 
 CUNEIORIVl Bone is the same with the os basilare and os 
 spheni'ide.s. See .\natomy. 
 
 CUNEl'S, U) anti(iuity, a company of infantry drawn up in 
 Ibrm of a wedge, the belter to break through the enemy's 
 rark^. 
 
 CUNICULUS, in mining, a term used by authors in distinc- 
 tion from puteuj, to expri'SS the several s. rts of pas.-^aKes and cuts 
 in these subterranean works. The cuiiiculi are those dir'Ct ps- 
 sages in mines where thty walk on horizontally ; but tlie putei are 
 till' perpend.icular cuts or descents. 
 
 Cuniculus, in zoology. See Lkp'Js. 
 
 CUNIIA, in botany, a gc:-u: of the monogynia or<ler, rnd 
 monauvlria (lass; natm-al order, Vertici'lata'. Corolla riiigent, 
 with it? upper lip erect and pU.ne ; two ti'aments, castrated, or 
 wanting anthera ; seeds four. There are four species. 
 
 CUNINA, in mythology, the goddess who had the care of lis 
 tie cli'Utren. 
 
 CUNIJZ, Makv, one of the greale t geniuses in the I6'h • 
 
 <) - tei.turv ,
 
 C IT P 
 
 80 
 
 C V P 
 
 i w HT Si yrvT 
 
 <oiilurv, wa-, bom in Sili;si;i. She leiinied )Biigija:j,cs will; amazing 
 j'acilUy ; and niulerslood Polish, Geniiiiii, Fignch, Italiuii, Latin, 
 Grceli, anti IKbrow. She attainud a knowledge of the sciences 
 with equal ease : slie was skilled in history, physic, poetiy, paint- 
 ing, music, and playing upon 'lnstrun)ents ; yet these were her 
 aniuseuieiits only. She mint' purlicuh'.rly applied herself to tjje 
 inathemat^cs, and especially to astronomy, which she made lier 
 ))rincipal sludv, and was raid'ied in the number of the most able 
 uslronomers oi her tinie. Iltr Astronomical Tables acquired her 
 a prodigious reputation : slie printed theni in Latin and Geniian, 
 and dedicated them to the emperor T'erdinand 111. She married 
 Elias <le I^ewin, M. D. ; and died at Pistchen, in ltJ64. 
 
 C'l'NKlNGIIAM, Alexandt.k, a Scotch writer, was born 
 at Ettrick, near Selkirk, in 1654, and educated in Holhind, from 
 whence lie came to England with the prince of Orange. lie be- 
 came travelling tutor to several noblemen and gentlemen ; by 
 which means he obtained the appointment of resident envoy at 
 Venice, where he continued live years. He died in London in 
 1737. Ill 17!>7 ajipeared his " 1,1 istory of Great Britain, from the 
 Revolution to the Accession of George I." two vols, translated 
 from the Latin MS. by Dr. M'illium '! honipson. There was one 
 Alexander Cimningham who published an edition of Horace at 
 Ihe Hague, in Iwu vols. Svo. 1721, which is held in great e:.teeni. 
 Jt is not certain whether he be the same person with the preced- 
 ing or not ; but the particulars in the ciiaracters are so much alike 
 that it seems proliable he was the same person. 
 
 CUNNINGHAMIA, in botany, a genus of the tetrandria 
 luonogynia class and order. Calyx "<'ery small, four-toothed ; co- 
 rolla iour-ckit, with a short tube; berry crowned with a two- 
 celled two-seeded mil. One species, viz. C. sarmentosa. 
 
 CUN0CLPn.4J.I, in mythology, [from xywv, dog, and 
 r.ifuh,,, head,] a kind of baboons, or animals with heads like those 
 oi dogs, w hich w ere wonderlully endowed, and were preserved 
 with great veneration by the Kpyptians in many of their temples. 
 Jt is related, that by their assistinice the Egyptians found out the 
 particular periods of the sun and moon ; and that one-half of the 
 animal was olten buried, wliile tlie other half survived ; and that 
 they could read and write. This strange history. Dr. Hrvant 
 imagines, relates lo the priests of ICgvpl, styled cahen, to the' no- 
 vlcfs in their temples, and to the cxaniinalions they were 
 obliged lo undergo, before they could be admitted 'to the 
 priesthood. 
 
 CUNONIA, ill botany, a genus of the digvnia order, and de- 
 Candria class. Corolla peiitapetalous ; calyx "penlaiihyllous ; cap- 
 sule bilocular, acuminated, polvspermous ; styles longer than the 
 llower. One sjiecies, a Cape plant. 
 
 CUP Galls, in mitural history, a name given to a curious kind 
 <>( galls found on ihe leaves of the oak, and some other trees. 
 'I'liey derive their name from their sha|)e being that of a cup. The 
 oiik leaves furnish us with several other species, of various shapes 
 and size.-, which appear on the leaves at dilferent seasons of the 
 year, 'i'hey all contain the wor.n of some small (ly, that passes 
 Vh'.ough all its changes in this habitation, beiii^ sonieiimes f:,uiid in 
 the Worm, sometimes in the nymi>h, and sometimes in the i\v state, 
 in llu: cavity. 
 
 Cue, in botany, calyx. Sec Botaxy. 
 
 Cl'P.\N!A, in bol.uiy, a genus of the monadelphia order, 
 and inonoccia class ; natural order, Tricocc.r. Calyx of tlu; male 
 triphyllous ; corolla pent^'.pelalous ; stamina live: calvx of the 
 female triphyllous; corolla tripetalous; style Irifid ; seeds two. 
 It has two species, natives of the West Indies. 
 
 Cvp.4R, a town of Scotland, seven miles S. of Dundee. 
 
 CUPEL, in metallurgy, a small vessel, which absorbs metallic 
 bodies vohen changetl by hre into a fluid scoria ; but retains them 
 as long as they continue in their metallic stale. One of the mpsl pro- 
 per materials for making a vessel of this kind is the ashes of animal 
 bones; there is scarcely any other substLUice which so strongly re- 
 sists vehement fire, which so readily iuitiilies metallic scoria'j and 
 wImcIi is so little- disposed to be vitrified by them. Instead of 
 these, some use vegetable ashes, freed by boiling in water from 
 "their saline milter, which would cause theiu to melt in the lire, 
 'i'he bones burnt lo (lerlecl whiteness, so that no )iarticle of coaly 
 or inflaimiiable matter may remain in them, and well wa<lied iVon'i 
 lilih, are ground inlo moderately line ]iowder; whiih, to form 
 into cupels, is moistened with just as imich water as is sufficient to 
 jiiike it hold logi.'ther, wh'U slroii^gly pressed between the lingers. 
 
 Some mix glutinous liquids, as whites of eggs or gum water, to 
 give the powder a great tenacity; but th.e mlUnimable matter, 
 however small in quantity, which accompanies these lluids, una 
 cannot be easily burnt out from the internal part of the mass, it 
 apt to revive a part of the metallic scoria that has been absorbed, 
 and to occasion the vessel lo burst or cruck, '1 he cupel is formed 
 in a brass ring, from three quarters of an incii to two inches dia-. 
 meter, and not quite so deep, placed upon some smooth support : 
 the rihg being filled with moistened powder,_whicli is pressed closo 
 w ill) the lingeisi ; a round faced pestle, called a moi/k, is struck! 
 down into it with blows of a mallet, by which Ihe mass is made to 
 coheie, and rendered sulliciently com|)act, and a shalloV cavity 
 is lormed in the middle. The ligure (<i the cavity is nearly sphe- 
 rical, that a small quaiitily of mclal melted in it may run together 
 into a bead, 'i'o make tlie cavity the smoother, a little of the same 
 ashes levigated inlo an impalpable powder, and not moistened, is 
 1 comiiionlv sprinkled on the surface, through a small line sieve 
 made for this purpose, and the monk again struck down upon it. 
 'Ihe ring or mould is a liule nai rower at bottom ihan at top : so 
 that by pressing it down on some of the dry powder spread iqjon a 
 fable, the cupel is loosened, and forced upwards a little; alter 
 wliich it is easily pushed out with the linger, ajid is then set to 
 dry in a warm place free from dust. 
 
 CUPELLA TION, the act of refining gold or silver by means 
 of a cupel. l'"or this purpose another vessel, called a niulHe, it 
 matle use of, within which one or more cupels are placed. 'I'lic 
 mullle IS placed upon a grate in a projier furnace, with its mouth 
 lacing tlie door, and as close as it may be. I'he furnace being 
 filled up with fuel, some liglited charcoal is thrown on the top, and 
 what fuel is afterwards necessary is supplied through a. door above. 
 The cupels arc set in the mullle ; and being gradually healed by 
 the successive kindling of the fuel, they are kept red-hot for some 
 time, that the moisUire which they strongly retain may be com- 
 pletely dissipated: lor if any vapours should issue from them alter 
 the melal is jnil in, they would occasion it to sputter, and a part 
 of it to be thrown off in little drops. In the sides of the inufile 
 arc some perpendicular sJils, with a knob over the top of each, lo 
 prevent any small pieces of coals or aslies from falling in. 'I'he- 
 door, or some apertures made in it being keiJl open, for the in- 
 spection of the cupels, fresh air ente« inlo the mullle, and pasji'j^ 
 oil tlnough these slits : by laying some burning charcoal on au 
 iron plate before the door, the air is heated before ils admission ) 
 and by removing the charcoal or supplying more, the heal in the 
 cavity of the mullle may be somewhat diminished or increased 
 more speedily than can be eHectcd by suppressing or exciting the 
 tire in the furnace on the outside of the muflle. The renewal of 
 the air also is necessary for promoling ihe scorilication of the leail. 
 The cupel being of a full red heat, the lead cast iulo a smooth 
 bullet, that it may not scratch or injure the surface, is laid lightly 
 inthecavily: it imniediiitely melts ; and then the gold or silver 
 lo be cupelled is cautiously introduced either by means of a small 
 iron ladle or by wrapping ilieni in paper, and dropping them oiv 
 the leail with a pair of tongs. The quantity of lead should be ;it 
 least ihree or four limes that of the gohl or silver : but when gohl 
 is very impure, il requires 10 or 1:2 limes ils ([uantity of lead lor 
 cupelliition. It is rtckoned that copper reipiiies lor ils scorilica-. 
 lion about 10 times ils weight of leail ; th.al when copper and gold 
 are mixed in equal quantities, t!ie copper is so much defi'uded by 
 the gold as not to be separa'ole with less than Vu times its weight of 
 le:id ; and that when copjier is in very small proportion, as a '.0th 
 or 30lh p.irt of the gold or silver, upwards of (iU jiarls of lead are 
 necessary for one of the tojipcr. The cupel must always weigh 
 at least half as much as the lead and copper ; for otherwise it will 
 not be sufficien". for receiving liaH the scoria: llicre is liille dan- 
 ger, however, ol cupels being made too small for Ihe ciuanlity ol a 
 gold assay. The mixture being brouglil into thin tusion, the heat 
 is lo be regulated according lo the appearances ; and in this con- 
 sists the priiici|ial ni<cly 111 the opi ration. It a various coloiind 
 skin rises to the top, which, liquilying, runs oU to tlie sides, and is 
 there absorbed by the ciqiel, visibly staining the parts it enters;' 
 if a fresh scoria Kjutimially succeeds, and is absorbed nearly us 
 fast as it is foriiicd, only a line circ-le dl it remaining round 'the 
 edge of the metal ; il th^" lead apijears in genlle motioi-, anU 
 throws up a fume a little way from its surface; the iiie is of the 
 proper degree, and the process goes on suceessfully. Such a f'ei-y 
 brighlucss of the cupel as preveuts its colour from being distixi- 
 
 guislitil
 
 CUP 
 
 a I 
 
 CVR 
 
 giiished, and the fumes of the lead rising up almost to the arch 
 of the muffle, are marks of too stronc; a heat : though it mn'^t lie 
 observed, that llie elevation of the fumes is not always in propor- 
 tion to the degree of heat ; for if the heat greatly exceeds the due 
 limits, both tlie fumes and ebullition will entirely cease. In these 
 circumstances tlie fire must necessarily be diminished : for while 
 the lead boils and smokes vehemently, Its fumes are apt to carry 
 off some part of (he t^old ; the cupi-1 is liable to crack from the 
 hasty absorption of the scoria, and part of the gold and silver is 
 divi'ded into globules, which lying discontinued on the cupel after 
 Ihc process is finished, cannot easily be collected : if there is no 
 ebullition or fumes, the scorification does not api)car to go on. 
 Too weak a heal is known by the dull r(;dness of the cupel ; by 
 the fume not rising from the surface of the lead ; and the scoria 
 like bright drops in languid motion, or accumulated, or growing 
 all over U\e metal. Tlie form of the surface aflbrds also an useful 
 mark of the degree of heat ; the stronger the fire, the more convex 
 is the surface ; and the weaker, the more flat : in this point, how- 
 ever, regard must be had to the quantity of metal ; a large rjuan- 
 tity being always (latter than a small one in an equal fin-. To- 
 vards the end of the process, the fire must be increased; for the 
 ^leatest part of the lead being now worked off, the gold and sil- 
 ver will not continue melted in the heat that was sufiicicnt before. 
 As the last remains of the lead are separating, the rainbow colours 
 on the surface become more vivid, and variously intersect one 
 another with quick motions. Soon after, disappearing all at once, 
 a sudden luminous brightness of the button of gold or silver shews 
 the process to be finislied. The cupel ijthen drawn forwards to- 
 wards the mouth of the muflile ; and the buttan, as soon as grown 
 fully solid, taken out. 
 
 CUPHEA, in botany, a genus of the dodecandria monogynia 
 class and order. Calyx six-toothed, unequal ; pct:)!3 six, unec|ual ; 
 inserted into the calyx ; capsule one-celled, with a three-sided fol- 
 licle. There is but one species. 
 
 CUPID, in pagan mytliology, the god of love. There were 
 •twocupids; one the son of Jupiter and Venus, wdiose delight it 
 was to raise sentiments of love and virtue ; and the other the son 
 of Mars and the same goddess, who inspired base and impure de- 
 sires. The first of these, called Eros, or true love, bore golden 
 arrows, which caused real joy, and a virtuous atTection ; the other 
 called Anteros, had leaden arrows that raised a passion founded 
 only on desire, which ended in satiety and disgust. Cupid was 
 alwavs drawn with wings, torejiresent his inconstancy ; and naked, 
 to shew that he has nothing of his own. 
 
 CUPOLA, in architecture, a sp'ierical vault ; or the round 
 top of the dome of a church, in form of a cup inverted. See 
 Dome, and Plate LIV. fi;^. 4. 
 
 CUPPING, in surgery, the operation of applying cupping- 
 glasses for the discharge of bloo<l and other humours by the skin. 
 See SiJur.ERY. 
 
 CUPRESSUS, the Cypress Tree : a genus of the mrnadel- 
 phia order, and monoccia class of plants ; natural order, Conifers?. 
 Male calyx, a scale of the catkin ; no corolla ; anthers four, ses- 
 sile, and without filaments : calyx of the female a scale of the stro- 
 bilus, uniflorous ; instead of styles there are hollow dots ; fruit an 
 angulated nut. There are seven species. 
 
 C. DisTicHA, the Deciduous A.merican Cypress, hasan erect 
 trunk, retaining a large bulk, branching wide and regular; grows 
 50 or 60 feet high, fully garnished with small spreading deciduous 
 leaves, arranged distichous, or along two sides of the branches. 
 All these species are raised from seeds, and will sometimes also 
 grow from cuttings ; but those raised from seeds prove the hand- 
 somest plants. 
 
 C. Semperviuens, with an upright straight ?tem, closely 
 brandling all around, almost from the bottom upwards, into nu- 
 merous quadrangular branches ; rising in the ditt'erent varieties 
 from 15 to 40 or .">0 feet in height, and very closely garnished with 
 small, narrow, erect, ever-green leaves, placed imbricatim ; and 
 flowers and fruit from the sides of the branches. The wood of 
 this species is said to resist worms, moths, and putrefaction, ?.nd to 
 last many centuries. The coffins in which the Athenians were 
 wont to bury their heroes were made, says Thucydides, of tills 
 wood ; as were likewise the chests containing the Egyptian mum- 
 mies. The doors of St. Peter's church at Rome were originally 
 of it. ■ These, after lasting upwards of fiOO years, at the end of 
 - which they did not discover the smallest tendency to corruption, 
 VOL. 11. — so. ()l. 
 
 were removed by pope Eugenius IV. and the gates of brass sub- 
 stituted in their place. Cypress, says Mr. Pococke, is the only- 
 tree that grows towards the top ol mount Lebanon, and being nip- 
 ped by the cold, grows like a small oak. Noah's ark is com- 
 monly supposed to have been made of this kind of wood. 
 
 ('. TitYOiDES, the evergreen American cypre>s, commonly 
 called white ci-dar, hath an upright stem, branching out into nu- 
 merous two-edged branches, rising 20 or .30 feet high, ornamented 
 with flat ever-green leaves imbricated like arbor vita', and small 
 blue cones the size of juniper berries. 
 
 CUPRll'M, copjier. See Copper. 
 
 CURACOA, CUKASSOU, or QUERISOA, an island in 
 the West Indies, 9 or 10 leagues N. E. from Cape Roman, on the 
 continent of Terra Firma. Lon. 68. 20. W. Lat. 11. 50. N. 
 
 CURATE the lowest degree in the church of England; he 
 who represents the incumbent of a church, parson or vicar, and 
 officiates divine service in his stead. In cases of pluralities of liv- 
 ings, or where a clergyman is old and infirm, a curate is requisite 
 to perform the cure of the church. He is to be licensed and ad- 
 mitted by the bishop of the diocese, orby an ordinary having epis- 
 copal jurisdiction : and when he has the approbation of the bishop, 
 he usual! V appoints the salary too ; and in such case, if he be not 
 paid, the curate has a proper remedy in tlu- ecclesiastical court, 
 by a sequestration of the |<rofits of the benefice ; but if the curate 
 is not licensed by the bishop, he is put to his remedy at common 
 law, where he must prove the agreement, &c. 
 
 CLIRATELLA, in botany, a genus of the digynia order, and 
 jiolyanilria class. Calyx pentaphyllous ; petals four ; styles two ; 
 capsule bip.utite, with the*;ells dispermous. 
 
 CURATOR, in Roman antiquity, an officer under the empe- 
 rors, who regulated the prices of all kind; of merchandise, and 
 vendible; commodities in the cities of the empire. They had like- 
 wi.-.e the superintendauce of the customs and tributes ; whence 
 also they were called Logist.x. 
 
 Curator, in the civil law, a trustee nominated to take care of 
 the affairs of a person emancipated or interdicted. In countries 
 where the Roman law prevails, between the age of 1 4 an<l 24 years, 
 minors have curators assigned them ; till 14, they liave tutors. 
 
 Curator of anUniversity, in tlieci-devantUnited Provinces, 
 an officer that had the direction of the atfairs of the university, suci» 
 as the superinlendi'nce of the professors, the management of the 
 revenues, &c. these officers, being elective, wore chosen by the 
 states of each province. Leyden had three curators. 
 
 CURB, in the manege, a ch.un of iron, made fast to the upper 
 part of the 1 ranches of the bridle, in a hole, called the eye, and 
 running over the horde's beard. 
 
 CURCliLIGO, in botany, a genus of the polygamia monoccia 
 class and order. Calyx none ; corolla six-petalcd ; filaments six ; 
 pistil one; capsule; seeds beaked. One species, viz. C. orch- 
 iodes, native of shady, uncultivated places about Samulcotah. 
 
 (JURCULIO, Weevfl, in natural history, a genus of insects of 
 the order coleoptera : antenna clavate, scaled on the snout, wiiich 
 is horny and. prominent ; four feelers, filiform. It has from 800 to 
 1000 species. These have been separated into three sections, viz. 
 A. jaw cylindrical, one-toothed. 15. lip bifid ; jaw bifid, short; 
 snout short. C. lip rounded, horny ; feelers very short. Of these 
 the section A. is distinguished into a, snout longer than the thorax ; 
 thighs unarmed ; b, snout longer tlian the thorax ; thighs toothed : 
 
 c, snout longer than tlie thorax ; hind thighs formed for leaping; 
 
 d, ■iiiout sliorler than the thorax ; thighs unarmed: t, snout shorter 
 than the thorax; thighs toothed. 
 
 C". Imperialis, or a Diamond Beetle, is represented in Plate 
 XXXVII. The larva; oftlie curculiones differ not from those of 
 most coleopterous insects. They bear a resemblance to oblong 
 soft worms. They are provided anteriorly with six scaly legs, and 
 their head is likewise scaly. But the places where those larvse 
 dwell, and their transformations, alford some singularities. Some 
 species of them, that are dreaded for the mischief they do in gra- 
 naries, find means to introduce themselves, while yet small, into 
 grains of corn, and there make their abode. It is very difficult 
 to discover them, as they lie concealed within the grain. There 
 thev grow at leisure, enlarging their dwelling places as tuev grow, 
 at the expence of the interior meal of the grain on which they 
 feed. Corn-lofts are often laid waste by these insects, whose 
 numbers arc sometimes so great as to devour and destroy all th^ 
 corn. When the insect, after having eat up the meal, is come to 
 Y it-:
 
 CUR 
 
 82 
 
 CUR 
 
 its full size, it remains within the grain, hidden under the empty 
 husk, which siiir^ists alone ; and there transformed, it Ijecomes a 
 chrysalii, nor does it leave it till a perfect insect, making its way 
 through the hnslc of tlie grain. It is no easy matter to discoveV 
 _ by the eye the grains of corn thus attacked and hollowed out by 
 these insects, as they outwardly appear large and full ; Inii the 
 condition the curchlio has leduced them to, renders them iniich 
 lighter ; and on throwing corn infested by these insects into water, 
 all the tainted grains will swim, and the rest sink to the bottom. 
 Other larvi of cin-culiones are not so fond of corn, but fix in the 
 same manner on several other seeds. Beans, pease, and lentils, 
 that are preserved dry, are liable to be spoiled bv these little ani- 
 mals, which prey upon the inward part of the grain, where they 
 Lave taken up tlieir habitation, and do not come forth till tliey 
 have completed their transformation, by breaking through the out- 
 ward husk of the grain ; this is discoverable by casting those grains 
 into water ; those that swim are generally perforated bv the ciir- 
 culiones. Odier species are lodged in the inside of plants. The 
 heads of artichokes and thistles aie often bored through and eaten 
 away by the larv;c of large curculiones. Another species smaller, 
 but singular, pierces and inwardly consumes the leaves of elms. 
 It frequently happens that ahnost idl the leaves of an elm appear 
 yellow, and as it were dead towards one of their edges, while th^- 
 whole remainder of the leaf is green. Upon inspecting those leaves, 
 the dead part appears to form a kind of bag or small bladder. The 
 two lamina,' or outward pellicles of the leaf, as well above as below, 
 are entire, but distant and separated from eacli other, whilst the 
 parenchyma that lies between th.^m ha, been consimied by several 
 small Iarv;e of the curcuho, that have made themselves that dwell- 
 ing, in \('hich they may be met with. After this transtbrinatiou 
 they come forth, by piercing the kind of bladder, and give being 
 to a curculio that is brown, small, and liard to catch, by reason of 
 the mmbleness with which it leaps. The property of leaping, al- 
 lotted to this single species, depends on tlie shape and length of its 
 hinder legs. 
 
 CURCUMA, Turmeric: a genus of the inonogvnia order, 
 and nionandria class of plants ; natural order, Scitainlnes. Sta- 
 Jiiina tour, barren, a fifth fertile ; corolla four-parted ; nectary 
 three-lobed ; (ilament flat. There are three species, of which C. 
 rotundo, round-rooted tin-meric has a perennial root, with a 
 large ovate bulb, fretpientlv as big as a goose's egg, covered with 
 a thin pellicle, that has parallel rooting rings within, solid, fleshv, 
 reddish yellow, of a bitterish taste, and slightly aromatic smell. 
 Native of the East Indies, China, &c. 
 
 CURDIS TAN,, a country of Asia, seated between the Turkish 
 empire and IVisia, lying along the E. coa*t of the Tigris, and 
 comprehending great part of the'ancient Assyria. 
 
 CURDLING, the coagulating or lixing of any fluid bodv ; 
 particularly milk. See Cheese. Pausanias savs, that jiristsus 
 son of Apollo, and Cyrene daugliter of the river Peneus, were 
 the first who found the art of curdling milk. 
 
 CURETES, ancient Cretan priests, called also Corybantes. 
 _ CURFEW, a signal given in cities, taken in war,' &c. to the 
 inhabitants to go to bed, and to advertise the people to secure them- 
 selves from the robberies and debaucheries of the night. Thj 
 most eminent curfew in England, was that established by William 
 the Conqueror, who appointed, under severe penaltie's, that, at 
 the ringing of a bt-11, at eight o'clock in the evening, every one 
 should put OHt their lights and fires, and go to bed : whence to this 
 Jay, a bell rung about that lime, is called a cuvfew-bell. 
 
 _CURL4, among the ancient Romans, denoted a portion or di- 
 Tision of a tribe. In the time of Romulus, a tribe consisted of 
 t«n curL-e, or 1000 men; each curia being 160. The legisl;>tor 
 made the first division of his penple into thirty ciiri.T. After- 
 wards, curia became used for the place where each curia held its 
 -assemblies as well as for the senate-house, and hence the moderns 
 ■use the word curia, a court, for a place of justice, and for the 
 ■judges, &c. there a'^sembled. Varro derives the word from cura, 
 care ; 9. d. an assembly of people charged with the care of pub- 
 lic alifai«. Others deduce it from the Greek ; maintaining, that 
 at Athens they called xi/^» the place where the magistrate ' held his 
 a-ssizes, and the people used to assemble ; xuj;«, again, may come 
 frcni ii.vfoi, autiioiity, or power ; because here tlie Taws were made. 
 CuK'A Claijdenda, in law, is a writ that lies against him who 
 «h«nld foict and inclose the ground, tut refuses or defers to 
 
 CI) It 
 
 Curia Maria, an island in the Arabian sea, near the S. E. 
 coast o! Arai/ia, 40 miles long, and 16 broad. 
 
 CURACO, a bay in TerraFirma, S. America, on the North Sea.- 
 
 CURING, a term used for the preserving of tisli, flesh, andotlier 
 animal substances, by means of certain additions of things, to pre- 
 vent putrclactioii. One method of doing this, is by smoaking 
 the bodies uilh the smoke of wood; another and the chief one, 
 I- by rubbing them with salt, nitre, &c. 
 
 CURIO, the chief and priest of a curia. Ronmlus, upon di- 
 viding the people into curia-, gave each division a chief, who was 
 to be priest of that curia, under tlie title of curio and fiamen cu- 
 nalis. I.lis business was to provide and ofliciate at the sacrilices 
 of the curia, which were called cuiionia. 
 
 CURRENT is a term used to express the present time: thus, 
 the year 1810 is the current year ; the 20th current is the 20tl.' 
 day ot the present month. The price current is tlie known and 
 ordinary price accustomed to be given for it. As applied to 
 commerce, we say, " current coin," for the kiiowa and common 
 coin of the country. 
 
 CUKIOSUS, [from cuva, care, Lat.] an odicer of the Roman 
 empire during the middle age, appointed to take care that no frauds 
 and irregularities were committed ; particularly m what related to 
 tlie ))osts, the roads, &:c. 
 
 CURRAN.S, or Currants. See Ribes. 
 
 Currants also signifv a smaller kind of gropes brought princi- 
 pally from Zante and Ccphalouia. Thev aie opening and pec- 
 toral, but are more used in the kitchen tlian'in medicine. 
 
 Currents, in navigation, are certain settings of the stream, by 
 which ships are compelled to alter their course or velocity, or 
 both, and submit to the motion impressed upon them by the cur- 
 rent. See Navigatio.v. 
 
 Current Island, a small island in the Pacific ocean. Lon 
 134. 3. E. Lat. 4. 40. N. 
 
 CURRICL'LUS, in our ancient writers, denotes the year or 
 course of a year. 
 
 CURRITUCK, a county of N. Carolina, on the sea-coast of 
 Edentnn district. 
 
 CURRODREP.\NUS, [from cm-rin, a chariot, and Je/Trwov, a 
 scythe,] hi antiquity, a chariot armed with scvthes. The driver 
 ^01 these chariots was obliged to ride on one ot the horses, as there 
 Vas no other seat for him ; the usual place for him being all armed 
 with knives, as was likewise the hinder part of the chariot. There 
 were no scythes pointing down to the earth either from the beam 
 or axle-tree; but tiiese were tLxed on the axle-tree, 30 as to be move- 
 able by means ot a rope, and thereby could be raised or let down, 
 and drawn forward or let tall Ijackward, by reUixing the rope. 
 
 CURRYING, the method of preparing leather with oil, tallow, 
 &:c. The chief business is lo soiten and supple cov/ and ailve- 
 skins, which make the apper-k-athers and quai'ters of, shoes, cover- 
 ing of saddles, coaches, and other things which must keep out wa- 
 ter. 1. These skins, alter coming from the tanner's yard,- having 
 many fleshy fibres on them, the currier soaks them some time in 
 common water. '2. He takes tiiem out and stretches on a verv even 
 wooden horse; then with a paring knife be scrapes otf all tlie su- 
 perfluous flesh, and puts them in lo soak again. 3. He puts them 
 wet on a hurdle, and tramples Ihein with his heels till they begin 
 to grov.' soft and pliant. 4. He soaks thereon train oil, which by 
 its unctuous ([uality, is tlie be-t liquor (or this purpose. 5. He 
 spreads them on huge tables, iinil fastens Ihein \X the ends. .There 
 with the help of an instrument, called a pummel, \\ Inch is a thick 
 piece of wood, the under side of which is full ot furrows crossing 
 eai h other, he folds, scpiares, and moves them foruai'ds and back- 
 wards several times, miller the teeth of this instrument, which. 
 breaks their too great slilfness. This is what is piopirly called 
 currying. U'lie order and niiniber of these opei.,tions is varied by 
 different curriers, but the material part is always the same. 6. 
 After the skins are curried, there may be occasion to co- 
 lour them. The colours most in use are fclack, white, red, yel- 
 low, green, &c. the other colours are given by the skinners, who 
 diflVr from curriers in this, tliat they apply their colours on the 
 flesh side; the curriers on the hair side. In order to \Wiiteii 
 skins, they are nibbed with lumps of chalk or while lead, and af- 
 terwards with pumice-stone. 7. When a skin is to be made black, 
 after having oiled and dried it, he passes over it a puff dipt \n wa- 
 ter impregnated with iron; and after his first wetting, he .jives ii: 
 another in a water prepared with soot, viucgar, and gum-arabic." 
 
 These- 
 
 \
 
 CUR 
 
 83 
 
 CUR 
 
 Tlicscdifl'ortMitdycs2;«diiall\ turn tin; skin black, and llu- operations 
 are repeated till it be ot a filiinin[; black. i'lie gr.iiii ;aid w rniklc-s, 
 ■which contribute to the suppleness ol calves and cows leather are i 
 made by the reiterated foldi given to llie skin in every direction, 
 and bv the care taken to scrape oliall hard parts on the colour side. 
 • CURSITOR, [Latin,] an officer or clerk lielonging to the 
 Chancery. Of these tlicre are twcnty-lour in number, which have 
 certain siiires allotted to each of them, into which they make out 
 such original writs as are required. 'I'hey are a corporation among 
 themselves. 
 
 CURSOLIERS, a small island of Greece, in the gulf of Patras, 
 anciently called Echanadcs. 
 
 CURSOR, in mathematical instrimients, is any small piece that 
 slides: as the piece in an e(|uinoctial ring-tlial that slide... to the day 
 of the month; the little label ot brass divided like a line of sines, and 
 sliding iu a groove along the niiddle of another label, reprcienling 
 the horizon iu the analemma; and likewise a bras- point screwed 
 on the beam-compasses, which may be moved along the beam for 
 the striking of greater or less circles. 
 
 CURTAi'j5 DlSl ANCE, in astronomy, the distance of a 
 planet iroin the sun to that point where a perpendicular let fall 
 trom the planet meet-- with tlie ecliptic. 
 
 CURT EYN, Cukfana, in the f5vitish customs, king Edward 
 the Confessor's sword, borne before the prince at coronations. Its 
 point IS said to be broken off, as an emblem of mercy. 
 
 CURTIN, CURI'AIN, or COURTIN, in fortification, is 
 that part of the rampart of a place which is betwixt the flanks of 
 two bastifuis bordered with a parapet five feet high, behind which 
 the soldiei-s stand to fire upon the covered way, and into the moat. 
 See Fortification. 
 
 CURTISIA, in botany, a genus of the tetrandria nionogynia 
 class and order. Calyx four-parted ; petals four ; drupe superior, 
 roundish, succulent, with a four or five-celled nut. it has one 
 Sjpecics, viz. C. faginea, beech-leaved curtisia, or hassagay-tree. 
 This is one of the largest trees in the African woods, with very di- 
 minutive flowers. 1 he Hottentots and Caffres make the shafts of 
 their javelins, or assagajs, from the v\ood of this tree. 
 
 CURTIUS, QuiNTUs, a Latin hislorian, who wrote the life of 
 Alexander the Great in ten book*, ol which the two hrst art! not 
 extant, but are so well supplied by Freiiishemius, that the Ic-ss is 
 scarcely regretted. Where this writer was born, or even when he 
 lived, is not known. By his style he is supposed to have lived near 
 the Augustan age ; thougli some imagine the work to have been 
 composed in Italy about 300 years ago, and the nani'- of Quintns 
 Curtius fictitiously prehxeil. Cardinal de Perron was so great an 
 admirer of this work, as to dec 1 're one page of it to he worth 30 of 
 Tacitus's; yet M. le CUerc, at the end oi ills Art of Criticism, has 
 charged the writer with great ii>nora:ice and many contradictions. 
 He has nevertheless many i|iialities as a writer, which will aKvays 
 make hiin admired and applauded. 
 
 CURVATURE of a Line, is the peculiar manner of its bend- 
 ing or flexure, by which it becomes a curve of such and suth pe- 
 culiar properties. Any two arches of curve lines touch each other 
 when the same right line is the tangent of both at the same point ; 
 but when they are applied upon each other in this manner, they 
 never perfei tly coincide, unless they are similar arc!)i-s of equal 
 and similar figures ; and the curvature of lines admits of indefinite 
 variety. Because the curvature is uniform in a given circle, and 
 may be varied at pleasure in them by enlari-ing aiul diminishins 
 their diameters, the curvature of circles serves lor m?«isuring 
 that of other lines. Of all the circles tliat to\ich a curve in any 
 given point, that is said to have the same curvature with it, ■which 
 touches it so closely, that no circle can be drawn through tlie point 
 of contact between them : and this circle is called the circle of 
 curvature ; its centre the centre of curv.ai.re ; and its semi-diame- 
 ter, the radius of curvature belonging to the point of contact. As in 
 all rigures, rectilinear ones excepted, the po^ilioll of the tangent is 
 continually varying, so the curvature is continually varying in all 
 curvilinear figures, the circle only excepted. As the curve is se- 
 parated from its tangent by its curvature, so it is separated from the 
 circle of curvi.turein consequence of the increase or decrease of its 
 curvature; and its curvature is greater or less, according as it is 
 more or less inflected fiom tiie tangent, so the variation of curva- 
 ture is greater or less, according as it is more or less separated Irom 
 the circle of curvature. When any two curve lines touch each 
 «ther in such a manner that no circle can pass between theiiij. they 
 
 must have the same curvature; for the circle that touches the one 
 so closely that no circle can pass between them, must touch tlie 
 other in the same niamier. And it can be made appear, that circles 
 may touch curve lines in this manner ; that there may be indelinite 
 degrees of more or less intimate contact between the curve and 
 the circle of curvature ; and that a conic section may be described 
 that shall have thesame curvature with a given line at a given point, 
 and the same variation of a curvatur.', or a contact of the same 
 kind with the circle of curvature. 'I'he rays of curvature of simi- 
 lar arcs, in similar ligures, are in the same ratio as any honv logons 
 lines of these figures, and the variation of curvature is the same. 
 
 CURVE, in geometry, a line which, ruhnlng on continually iu 
 different directions, may be cut by a right line in more points than 
 one. In a curve, the line AD, (!See Plate LI. fig. 3,) which bi- 
 sects all the parallel lines MN, is called a diameter, and the point 
 A, where tlie diameter meets the curve, is called the vertex of the 
 diameter; if AD bisect all the parallels at right angles, it is called 
 the axis. The parallel lines MN are called ordiiiates, or appli- 
 cates, and tiieir halves, PM, or PN, semi-ordinates. '1 he por- 
 tion of the diameter AP, between the vertex, or any other fixed 
 point, and an ordinate, is called the absciss; also the concourse 
 of all tlie diameters, if they meet all in one point, is the centre. 
 This definition of the diameter, as bisecting the parallel ordinates, 
 respects only the conic sections, or such curves as are cut only in 
 two points by the ordinates ; but in the lines of the third order, 
 which may be cut in tliree points by the ordinates, then the dia- 
 meter is that which cuts the ordinate so, that the sum of the 
 two parts that lie on the one side ot it, shall be equal to the part 
 on the other side ; and so on for curves of higher orders; tlie 
 sum of the pjrts of tlie ordinates on one side of the diameter, 
 being always equal to the sum of the parts on the other side of it. 
 A line which meets the curve, and does not cut it, is called a tan- 
 gent. Curve linesare distinguished into algebraiciil or geometri- 
 cal, and transcendental or mechanical. Algebraical or geome- 
 trical curves are those in which the relation of the abscisses AP, 
 to the ordinates "TM, can be expressed by a common algebraic 
 vqualion. And transcendental or mechanical curves are such as 
 cannot be so defined or expressed by an algebraical equation. 
 Thus suppose, for instance, the curve be the circle (fig. 4,) and 
 that the radius AC = /', the absciss AP = x, and the ordinate 
 PM =5 (/; then, because the nature of the circle is such, that the 
 rectangle AP x PB is always = PM-', therefore x . 2r ~ x =y-, 
 ov 'Jrx — x'^ ^ i/^, is the equation, defining this curve, which is 
 therefore an algebraical or geometrical line. Or suppose CP = .r, 
 then is CM^- — CP- = PM-, that is, )•' — ,r= = tf ; which is an- 
 other form of the equation of the curve. The doctrine of curve 
 lines in general, as expresse<l by algebraical equations, was first in- 
 troduced by Des Cartes, who called algebraical curves geometri- 
 cal ones, as admitting none else into the construction of problems, 
 nor consequently into geometry. But Newton, Leibnitz, and 
 Wolfius, think that in the construction of a problem, one curve is 
 not to be preferred to another for its being defined by a more sim- 
 ple equation, but for its being more easily described. Algebrai- 
 cal or geometrical lines are best distinguished into orders accord- 
 ing to the number of dimensions of the equation expressing the 
 relation between its ordinates and abscis-ses, or, vhich is the same 
 thing, according to the number of points in which they may be 
 cut by a right line. And curves of the same kind or oitler are 
 those whose equations rise to the same dimension. Hence of the 
 lirst order, there is the right line only ; of the second order of 
 lines, or the first order of curves, are the circle and conic sec- 
 tions, being four species only, viz. dx — x- := t/- the circle, 
 
 C'S (..2 
 
 — .cb:~x"=: y"^ the ellipse, — . dx -\- x- =iy- the hyperbola, and 
 d- d^ 
 
 dx = y^ the pai'abola ; the lines of the third order, or curves of 
 the second order, are expressed by an equation of the third de- 
 gree, having three roots; and so on. Of these lines of the third 
 order, Newton "ivroie an express treatise, under the title of " Enii-. 
 meratio Linearum Tertii Ordinis," shewing their distinctive cha- 
 racters and properties, to the number of seventy-two difierent spe- 
 cies of curves ; l)ut Mr. Stirling afterwards added four more to 
 that number, and Mr. Nic. BernouiUi and Mr. Stone added two 
 more. As to the curves of the second orderS;, Sir Isaac Newton 
 observes, they have parts and projierlies similar to those of the^ 
 fi.-^.t : Ihusj as the conic secticas liave diameters and axes, the lines
 
 C UR 
 
 84 
 
 cus 
 
 cut bv tliese are called ordiiiiites, aivJ tlie intersection ot the curve 
 and diameter, the vertex. So in curves ol' the second order, any 
 two parallel lines being drawn so as to meet the curve in three 
 points, a right line cutting these parallels, so as that the sum of the 
 tvvo parts between the secant and the curve on one side, is equal 
 to the third part terminated by the curve on the other side, will 
 cut in the same manner all olher right lines parallel to these, and 
 meet the curve in three parts, so as that the sum of the tvvo parts on 
 one side will be still equal to (he third part on the other side. 
 These three parts, therefore, thus equal, may be called ordinates 
 or applicates ; the second may be styled the diameter; the inter- 
 section of the diameter and the curve the vertex ; and the point 
 of concourse of any two diameters the centre. And if the diame- 
 ter be normal to the ordinate?, it may be called axis ; and that 
 point where all the diameters terminate, the general centre. Again, 
 as an hyperbola of the first order has two asy mptotes, that ot the 
 second three, that of the third four, &c. and as the parts of any 
 right line lying between the conic hyperbola and its true asymp- 
 tote are every where equal, so in the hyperbola of the second or- 
 der, if any right line be drawn, cutting both the curve and its three 
 asymptotes in three points, the sum of the two parts of that right line 
 being drawn the same way from any two asymptotes to two points 
 of the curve, will be ecjiial to a third part drawn a contrary 
 way from the third asymptote to a third point of the curve. 
 Again, as in conic sections not parabolical, the s<iuare of the ordi- 
 nate, that is, the rectangle under the ordinates drawn to contrary 
 sides of the diameter, is to the rectangle of the parts of the diame- 
 ter which are terminated at the vertices of the ellipsis or hyperbola, 
 as the latus rectum is to the latus transversum ; so in nonparabolic 
 curves of the second order, a parallelopiped under the three ordi- 
 nates is to a parallelopiped under the parts of thediameter, termi- 
 nated at the ordinates, and the three vertices of the figure, in a cer- 
 tain given ratio ; in which ratio, if you take three right lines situ- 
 ated at the three parts of the diamcltr between the vertices of the 
 figure, one answering to anollier, then these three light lines inay 
 be called tlie latera recta of the figure, and the parts of the diame- 
 ter between the vertices, the latera transversa. And, as in the co- 
 nic parabola, having to one and the same diameter but one only 
 vertex, the rectangle under the ordinates is equal to that under the 
 part of the diameter cut oil' between the ordinates and the vertex, 
 and the latus rectum; so in curves of the second order, which have 
 but two vertices to the same diameter, the parallelopiped under 
 three ordinates, is equal to the parallelopiped under the two parts 
 of the diameter rut off between the onlinates and those two ver- 
 tices and a given right line, wfiich therefore may be called the la- 
 tus rectum. Moreover, as in the conic sections, when two paral- 
 lels, terminated on each siile of the curve, are cut by two other pa- 
 rallels tei-minated on each by the curve, the first by the third, and 
 the second by the fourth; as here the rectangle under the parts ot 
 the first is to the rectangle under the parts of the third, as the rect- 
 angle under the parts of tlie second, is to that under the parts of 
 the fourth; so when four such right lines occur in a curve of the 
 second kind, eacli in three points, then shall the parallelopiped 
 under the parts of the rirst right line, be to that under the parts of 
 the third, as the parallelopiped under the parts of the second line, 
 to that under the parts of the fourth. Lastly, the legs of curves, 
 both of the first, second, and higher kinds, are either of the para- 
 bolic or hyperbolic kind; an hyperbolic leg being that which ap- 
 proaches infinitely towards some asyirptote; a parabolic, that 
 which has no asymptote. These legs are best distinguished by 
 their tangents; for if the point of contact go off to an infinite dis- 
 tance, the tangent of the hyperbolic leg will coincide with the 
 asymptote; and that cf the parabolic bg recede infinitely, and 
 vanish. The asymptote, therefore, of any leg is found by seek- 
 ing tlie tangent of that leg to a point inlinitely distant; and the 
 bearing of an infinite leg is found by seeking the position of a right 
 line parallil to the tangent, when the point of contact is inlinitelv 
 remote; for this line tends the same way towards which the infi- 
 nite leg is directed. For the other pro))erties of curves of the se- 
 cond order, we refer the 'reader to Mr. Maclaurin's treatise " De 
 Lineanim Geometricarum Proprietatibus generalibiis." Sir Isaac 
 Wewlon reduces all curves ot tiie second order to the four follow- 
 ing particular equations, still expressing them all. In the first, the 
 relation between the ordinate and thealisciss, making the absciss 
 T and the ordinary y, assumes tliis /"orm, xtj'' -\- tij =^ ax^ -{- bx'' -\- 
 
 cx-^d. In the second ca.-e, the equation takes this form, xy = 
 ax' -\- bx"-\-cx-\-d. In the third case, the equation is ?y*z= ax' 
 -f- /u- + c.r + (f . And in the fourth case, the equation is of this 
 form , ?/ = fl.i-' -|- hx'' -\-cx-{-d. 
 
 Curves, F.\mii.y of, according to Wolfiiis, is a congeries of 
 several curves of dififerent kinds, all defined by the same equation 
 ot an indeterminate degree, but dill'erently, according to the diver- 
 sity of their kinds. For example: let the equation of an indeter- 
 
 7/j — 1 m 
 
 minate degree be a i" = y ■ Ifm = 2, o.r will be equal to 
 
 ;/-. IfHi=:3, then will fi-jr = !/'. If }!i = i, then will fi-''x = j«, 
 &c. all w hich curves are said to be of the same family. The equa- 
 tions, however, by which the families of curves are defined, must 
 not be confounded with transcendental ones; though with regard 
 to the whole family they be of an indeterminate degree, yet with 
 respect to each several curve of the family, they are determinate; 
 whereas transcendental equations are of an indefinite degree with 
 respect to the same curve. The genesis and properties of parti- 
 cular curves, as the conchoid, cycloid, Sec. see under their proper 
 heads CoNCHoro, Cycloid, &c. Sec also Conic Sections, 
 Geometry, and Equations, Construction op. 
 
 CURVET, or CORVET, in the manege, an air in which the 
 horse's legs are raised higher than in the dtmi-volt; being a kind 
 ot leap up, and a little forwards, wherein the hoi-se raises both liii 
 tore-legs at once, equally advanced, (when he is going straight for- 
 ward and not in a circle) and as his fore-legs are tailing, he imme- 
 diately raises his h:nd-legs, equally advanced, and not one before 
 the other: so that all his four legs are in the air at once ; and as he 
 sets them down, he marks but twice with them. 
 
 CURULE Chair, in Roman antiquity, a chair adorned with 
 ivory, wherein the great magistrates of Ivonie had a right to sit 
 and be carried. 
 
 CuRULES, the curule magistrates were the aediles, the pra;tors, 
 censors, and consuls. 
 
 CURZOLA, an island of Dalmatia, belonging to the emperor, 
 30 miles long, and 8 broad. 
 
 CuRzoLA, a town in the E. end of the above island. 
 
 CUSC'O, the ancient capital of the Peruvian empire in South 
 America, and formerly the residence of the Incas. It is 325 miles 
 E. of Lima. 
 
 CUSCOWILLA, an Indian town of East Florida, the capital 
 of the Alachua tribe. 
 
 CUSCU'TA, Dodder: in botany, a genus of the digynia or- 
 der, and tetrandria class of plants. Calyx quadrifid ; corolla mo- 
 nopetalous; capsule bilocular. Four species; of which C. Euro- 
 p;ea, dodder, hell-weed, or devil's guts, is a very singular plant, 
 almost destitute of leaves, parasitical, creeping, fixing itself to 
 wliatever is next to it. It decays at the root, and afterwards is 
 nourished by the plant which supports it. Hops, fiax, and nettles, 
 are its common support; but principally the common nettle. 
 
 CUSHION, in engraving, is a bag of leather filled with sand, 
 commonly about nine inches square, and three or four thick, used 
 for supporting the plate to be engraved. 
 
 Cushion, in gilding, is made of leather, fastened to a square 
 board, from 14 inches square to 10, with a handle. The vacuity 
 between the leather and board is stuffed with fine tow or wool, so 
 that the outer surface may be flat and even. It is use<l for receiv- 
 ing the leaves of gold from the paper, in order to its being cut into 
 proper sizes and figures. 
 
 CUSP, [ctispi.i, Lai.] a term used to express the points or horns 
 of the moon, or other himinary. 
 
 Cusp, in astrology, is usetl for the first point of each of the 12 
 houses, in a figure or scheme of the heavens. 
 
 Cl?SPATED, orCUSPIDATED, [homriispis, Lat.] aword 
 expressing the leaves of a flower ending in a point. 
 
 CUSPINIAN, John, a German, born at Sweinfurt, in 1473. 
 He was first physician to the emperor Maximilian 1. and employ- 
 ed by him in several negociations. He wrote in Latin, 1. A his- 
 tory of the Roman emperors from Julius Ctrsar to the death of 
 Maximilian I. Degory Whcare, in his Methodus Legendas His- 
 toria>, calls this " luculenium sane opus, et omnium lectione dig- 
 nissimum." 2. An History of . Austria ; being a kind of contimia- 
 tion of the preceding. 3. An History of the Origin of the 1 iirks, 
 and of their Cruelties towards Christians. (Jerard Vossius calls 
 Cuspinian mognum suo xvo historia; lumen. He died at Vienna, 
 in 15S9- CUSSET,
 
 c us 
 
 8 
 
 c u s 
 
 C'USSjyr, a louu of I'laucf, 111 Uk; dopartiiifnt ol Allier, 17 
 miles N. of Kuaniie. 
 
 CL'SSONIA, ill botany, a genus of tlie pentanilria ilii^ynia class 
 OJid onler: iiatuial order Anili:v. Petals lliree-cornered ; margin 
 (jf llie receptaele dilated into a (iye-tootlied ealyx. Two species, 
 viz. C. ihysillora, and C. spicita, natives of the Cape of Good 
 Hope. 
 
 CUSTOM, a very coiiipivlieii--i»e term, denoting the manners, 
 ceiemonies, anil faaliions, of a people, w liicli having tinned into a 
 liabit, and jjasied into ine, olitains the force of laws; in wliieli 
 sense it implies such usages as, lliougli voUintary at lirst, are yel, 
 by i)raetiee, become necessary. Custom is hence, both by law- 
 yers and civilians, defined lex noli scripla, a law, or right, not 
 written, established by long usage, and the consent of our ances- 
 tor^; in which senje it stands opposed to the lex soripta, or the 
 written law. .\s no law can bind people without their consent, 
 so, wherever that is had, and a certain rule used as a law, such 
 rule gives it tlic force of a law; and if it be universal, then it is 
 common law ; but if re:.trained to this or that particular place, it is 
 custom. Custom had its beginning, and received the sanction ol 
 the law, thus: when a reasonable act, once done, was found to be 
 benelicial to the pi^ople, then they had frequent recourse to it ; 
 and by repetitions thereof, it became a custom, whicii being con- 
 tiiiueJ ultra trivavum, time out of mind, without any interruption,- 
 it obtained the power of a law, and binds the places, persons, and 
 things, concerned therein. All customs ought to have a reasonable 
 commencement, be certain, not ambiguous, have uninterrupted 
 continuance, and not be against the King's prerogative: these are 
 incidents inseparable: yet a custom is not unreasonable for being 
 injurious to private persons and interest, so as it tends to the 
 general advantage of the people : but if any custom be contrary to 
 the public good, or if it injures a multitude, and benefits only 
 iome certain persons, such a custom is repugnant to the laws of 
 reason, aud consequently void. Custom must always be alleged 
 in many persons; and so it maybe claimed by copyholders, oi 
 the inhabitants of a place, as within such a county, hundred, city, 
 borough, manor, parish, &c. but regularly they shall not allege a 
 custom against a statute: nor may custom be pleaded against cus- 
 tom ; though acts of parliament do not always take away the force 
 of customs. The general customs used throughout England being 
 the common law, are to be determined by the judges, who can 
 over-rule a custom that is against natural reason, &c. ; but parti- 
 cular customs are determinable by jury. See Prescription'. 
 
 Custom of London. It is a custom of London, that where a 
 person is educated in one trade, he may set up another ; that where 
 A woman uses a trade without her husband, she is chargeable alone, 
 as a femme sole merchant, and, if condemned, shall be put in prison 
 till she pays the debt ; likewise the ball for her are liable if she ab- 
 •Tot herself, and the husband, in these cases, shall not be charged. 
 1 1 a debtor be a fugitive, by the cu-tom of London he may be ar- 
 risted before the day, in order to lind better security, &c. These 
 • n- customs of this city, dil'ii'rent from those of other places. 
 
 Custom OF Merchants. If a merchant give a character of 
 a stranger to one who sells him goods, he may be obliged to sa- 
 tisfy the debt of the stranger for (he goods sold, by the custom of 
 merchants. And when two persons are found in arrears, upon an 
 account grounded on the custom of mercliants, either of them may 
 be charged to pay the whole sum due, &:c. 
 
 Custom AND "FJ ABIT, in the human economy, are often con- 
 founded. B\ custom we mean a frequent reiteration of the s.une 
 aet; and by habit, the effect that custom has on the mind or bod\ . 
 See Habit. 
 
 CusTo.MS. In political economy, the duties, toll, tribute, or ta- 
 riff, payable to the king upon merchandize exported and in/ported, 
 form a branch of the perpetual taxes. See Tax. 'J'he coiisider- 
 ation upon which this revenue (or the more ancient part of it, 
 which arose only from exports) was invested in the king, were 
 said to be iwo : 1. Because he gave the subject leave to depart the 
 kingdom, and to carry his goods along with him. i'. Because the 
 king was bound of common right to maintain and keep up the 
 ports and havens, and to protect the merchant iroiu pirates. Some 
 have imagined they are called with us customs, because they were 
 the inheritance of the king by immemorial usage and the common 
 law, and not granted by any statute: but Sir Eilwarcl Coke hath 
 clearly shewn, that the "king's Inst claim to them was by grant of 
 parliaments Edw. I. Alju iiulced lliis is iu express words con- 
 
 voi- n. — NO. (51. 
 
 fessoil by statute 'ij Edw. I. c. 7. whri'eiii the king promiaCj to 
 take no custom-; from merchants, without the common absent of 
 the realm, " saving to us and our heirs the customs on wool, skiii^, 
 and leiither, formerly gr.mted to us by the commonalty aforesaid." 
 These were formerly lalled hereditary customs of the crown; and 
 were due on the exportalion only of the said three commodities, 
 and none other: which wi-re styled the staple commodities of the 
 kingdom, because they were obligeil to be br<;uglit to those ports 
 where the king's staple was establisiied, in order to be there tirsl; 
 rated, and then exporteil. I'hey were denominated in the b:irl)i- 
 rous Latin of our ancient records, custuma, ^an appellation whicli 
 seems to be derived from the French word coustum, or coiituiu, 
 which signidcb toll or tribute, and owes its own etymology to thu 
 word cw»47, which signifies price, charge, or, as we have ;idop(e(i 
 it in English, cost); not consuetudines, wliich is Ihe language of 
 our law wiienever it means nv rely usages. The duties on woo), 
 sheep-skins, or wool-fells, and leather, exported, were called cus- 
 tuma antiqua sive magna: and were payai)le by every men haiif, 
 as well native as stranger; with th's difference, that merchant- 
 strangers paid an additional toll, viz. half as much again as wai 
 paid by natives. The custuma p;irva et nova were an impost of 
 •>(/ in Ihe pound, due from merchant strangers only, for all com- 
 modities as well imported as exported; wliich was usually called 
 the alien's duty, and w:as fii-st granted in 31 Edvr. I. But these 
 ancient liereditary customs, especially those on wool and w ool- 
 fells, came to be of little account, when the nation bei-ame sensible 
 of the advantages of a home manufacture, and prohibited the ex- 
 portation of wool by statute 11 Edw. III. cap. 1. Other customs 
 |)ayable upon exports and imports were distinguished into subsi- 
 dies, tonnage, ])oundage, and other imposts. Subsitlies were >ucli 
 as were imposed by parliament upon any of the staple commodities 
 before-mentioned, over and above the custuma antiqua et magna : 
 tonnage was a duty upon all wines imported, over ami above the 
 prisage and butlerage aforesaid: poimdage was a duty imposed ad 
 valorem, at th"? rate of \2d. in the pound, on all other merchan- 
 dize whatsoever : and the other imposts were such as were occa- 
 sionally laid on by parliament, as circumstances and times requir- 
 ed. These distinctions are now in a iranner forgotten, except by 
 the ollicei-s immediately concerned in this department; their pro- 
 duce being in effect all blended together, under the one denomi- 
 nation of the customs. By these we understand, at present, a 
 duty or subsidy paid by the merchant «t the quay upon all im- 
 ported as well as exported commodities, by authority of parlia- 
 ment; unless where, for particular national reasons, certain re- 
 wards, bounties, or drawbacks, are allowed for particular exports 
 or imports. The customs thus impose<l by iiarliament are chiefiy 
 contained in two books of rates, si t forth by parliamentary autho- 
 rity; one signed by Sir Harhollle (iiinu-ston, speaker of the 
 house of commons in Charle-, 11. 's time; -and the other an addi- 
 tional one signed by Sir Spenser Compton, speaker in the reign 
 of George I. to which also subsci|uent adililions have ben made. 
 .Miens pay a larger proportion than natural Mibjects, which is \vli:it 
 is now generally underst<.iod by the alien'' iluty ; to be exempted 
 from which is one principal ciuse of Ihe frequent applications tr> 
 parli;iment for acts of nalurali/iation. These customs are then a 
 tax immediately paid by the mercliant, although ultimately by 
 the consumer. And yet these are the duties felt least by the peo- 
 ple; and, if prudently manaeicd, the people hardU coii-'ider that 
 they pay them at all. For the merchant i-" eisy, being sensible he 
 does not pav tliem for himself; and the consumer, who reallv 
 p.iys tlieni, confounds them w ith the price of the commodity : in 
 the same manner as Tacitus observes, that the emperor Nero gain- 
 ed die reputation of abolishing the tax of the sale of slaves, though 
 he only transferred it from llic buyer to the seller; so that it was, 
 as he expresses it, remi^sum niagis specie, quam vi : quia, cum 
 venditor penderejuberetur, in partem pretii einptoribus accresce- 
 bat. But this inconvenience attends it on the oiher hand, that 
 these imposts, if too heavy, are a cramp upon trad.e; aad especi- 
 ally when the value of the commodity bears little or no proportion 
 to "the c(uanlity of the duty imposed. This in consequence gives 
 ri;e also to smuggling, wiiich then becomes a very lucrative em- 
 ployment: and its natural and most rejsonablo puniihmeut, vi:', 
 confiscation of coimnodity, is in such ca^e^ quite inefticctual ; the 
 intrinsic value of the goods, yUiich is bU that the smuggler hat 
 paid, and therefore all thai he can lose, bfing very inconsiderable 
 when compjr«"d v\iiU U:i jirxspect of aUxdiitage in evjding the 
 Ji duly.
 
 c V r 
 
 80 
 
 CUT 
 
 lUrtv. BecGiii'se r.nist lUereforp be luid to extraordinaiy puiiisii- 
 -inents to prevent il; perhaps even to capital ones: which destroys 
 all proporlio!) ot punishment, aiiil puts nuirderers upon an equal 
 footing witii such as are really i,uilty of no natiu'al, but merelv a 
 positive oitence. There is also another ill consequence atlenUing 
 high imposts on merchandize, not iVeqiientlv considered, but in- 
 disputably certjin ; that the earlier any tax is laid on a comniodilv, 
 the heavier it falls \ip<.n the consumer ifi the end ; for every trader 
 throu^li whose hands it passes must have a profit, not only upon the 
 raw material and his own labour and time in preparing it, but also 
 upon the very tax itsulf, which he advances to the government; 
 otherwise l;e loses the use and interest of the money which he so 
 atlvances. 'I"o instiince in the article of foreign paper. 'I'he mer- 
 chant pays a duly upon mnportalion, which he does not receive 
 again till he sells llie commodity, perhaps at the end of three 
 liionlhs. He is therefore equi'U'y entitled to a profit upon that 
 duty which he pays at the custom-house, as to a proht upon the 
 original ))rice wliich he pays to the manufacturer abroad; ami 
 considers it accordinj'ly in the price he demands of the stationer. 
 When the stationer sells it ai»ain, he requires a prorit of the printer 
 or bookseller upon the whole sum advanced by him to the mer- 
 chants: and the bookseller does not forget to charge the full pro- 
 portion to the student or ultimate consumer; who therefore docs 
 r.ot only pay the original duty, but the profits of these three inter- 
 meihate traders, who have successively advanced it for him. 'I'his 
 might be carried much farther in any mechanical, or more com- 
 plicated, branch of trade. 
 
 Cl'Sl'OS, [Lat. i.e. a keeper,] is a title of several oflices ; 
 such as 
 
 1. CusTos Brevium, the i>rincipal cleik belonging to the 
 court of common pleas, whose business it is to receive and keep 
 all the writs made returnable in that court, iiling every return by 
 itfeU ; and, at the end of each term, to receive prothonotaries all 
 the records of the nisi prius, called the posteirs. 
 . 2. Gustos Rotulokum, an officer who lurs the custody of the 
 rolls and records of the sessions of peace, and also of the commis- 
 sion of the peace itself. He is usually a nobleman, ami always a 
 justice ol the peace, of the quorum, in'the county where he is ap- 
 pointed. 
 
 3. Gustos Sphutualium, he that exercises the spiritual 
 jurisdiction of a diocese, during the vacancy of any see, which, 
 by the canon law, belongs to the dean and chapter ; but at 
 present, in England, to the arciibishop of the province by pre- 
 scription. 
 
 4. Gustos Temporalium, the person to whom a vacant see 
 or abbey was given by the king, as supreme lord. His office was, 
 as steward of ihe goods and profits, to give an account to the es- 
 cheator, who did the like lo the exchequer. 
 
 7o GUT A Feather, in the sea-language, a phrase applied 
 to a ship that has too broad a bow. In such a case, it is common 
 to say, she will not cut a feath.-r; that is, she will not pass through 
 the water so swift as lo make il foam or froth. 
 
 To CvT THE Sail, to unfurl it, and let it fall down. 
 
 GUTGH, a country of Hiudostan; bounded on the E. bv 
 Guzerat. I'he i]rin( ipal towns are Hooge-booge and 'I'ahe;. 
 
 GU'IH, or GLITHAH, a province of Assyria, which, as some 
 say, lies i\\>on the Araxes, and is the same with Gush ; but others 
 take it to ne the country which the Greeks called Susiana, and 
 w'hich to this day, says'Dr. "Wells, is by the iiih;ibitants called 
 Ghusistaii. Calniet is of opinion that Gut'hah and Scythia are the 
 «ame place, and that the Guthiles wlio were removed Into Samaria 
 hy Salmaneser (2 Kings xvii. 24,) came from Gush, or Guth, men- 
 tioned in Gen. ii. 'I'liey worbhipi;ed the idol Nergal. Galmet 
 says, that they came from Gush, or Gulha u|)on the Araxes; and 
 that their first selllenicnl was in the cities of the Medes, subdued 
 hy Salmaneser and Ihe kings of Syria his predecessors. 'I'he 
 Scriptures inform us, that the' Giith.ites, upon Iheir arrival in this 
 new country, continued to vtorship the gods formerly adored bv 
 them beyond the Euphrates. 
 
 GtJTlGLE, [cuticulti, Lat.] in analomv, a thin membrane, 
 closely lying upon the skin, or cutis, of ivhich'it seems a part, and to 
 which it adheres very lirini), being assisted by the intervention of 
 tiie corpus rvticulare. 
 
 Gl''l'lS,[L;:t.]tlie skin, ill anatomy, islhal strong covering which 
 envelopes the whole (eternal surl.ice'ol animals. It consists chielly 
 of a ihiii rthite elastic layer on the oiitsid.-, called the epidermi's 
 
 or cuticle, and a thicker layer, composed of fibres thickly inter- 
 woven, and disposed in different directions, which is the cutis or 
 real skin. The epidermis is that part of the skin which is raised 
 111 blisters. It is easily separated trom the cutis by maceration in 
 hot water. It is very elastic and insoluble in water and alcohol. 
 '1 he hxed alkalies and lime dissolve il entirely. Mr Hatchet, 
 irum many experiments, has shewn that the ep'idemiivesembles 
 albumen in many of its properties, or rather that il is nothing more 
 than a peculiar modilication of coagulated albumen. 'I'he cutis 
 IS a thick dense membrane, composed of libres interwoven like 
 the texture of a hat. When it is macerated for some hours in wa- 
 ter, and agitation and pressure are employed to accelerate the 
 effect, the blood, and all the extraneous matter with w hich it w;is 
 loaded, are separated from it, but its texture remains unaltered. 
 On evaporatuig the w;ater employed, a small quantity of gelatine 
 may be obtained. No subsequent maceration in cold water has 
 any farther elfect. When distilled it yields the same products as 
 fabrina. The concentrated alkalies dissolve it, converting it into 
 nil and ammonia. Weak acids soften it, ri^nder it Iranspafcnt, and 
 .it last dissolve it. Nitric acid converts it into oxalic acid and 
 tat, while, at the same time, azotic gas and prussic acid are emitted. 
 When healeil it contracts, and then swells, exhales a fetid odouv, 
 and leaves a dense charcoal, difficult to incinerate. By .spontane- 
 ous decomposition in wat.r or moist earth, it is converted into a 
 fatly matter, and into ammonia, which compose a kind of soap. 
 When allowed to remain long in water, it softens and putrehes, 
 being converted into a kind of jelly. When long boiled in water 
 it becomes gelatinous, and dissolves completely, constituting a vis- 
 cid liquor, which by proper evaporation is converted into glue. 
 Hence the cutis of animals is commonly employed in the manii- 
 lacture of glue. From these facts the cutis appears to be a pecu- 
 liar nrodification of gelatine enabled to resist the action of water, 
 partly by the compactness of its texture, and partly by the visci- 
 dity of the gelatine of which it is formed ; for those s'kins which 
 dissolve most readily in boiling water afford the worst glue. Mr. 
 Hatchett has observed, that the viscidity of the gelatine obtained 
 from skins is nearly inversely as their flexibility, tlie supplest hides 
 always y ieltling tire weakest glue ; but this glue is very soon ob- 
 tained from them by hot water. The skin of the eel is very flex- 
 ible, and affords very readily a great proportion of gelatine. U'lie 
 skin of the shark also readily yields abundance of gelatine ; and 
 the same remark airplies tolhe'skins of the hare, rabbit, calf, and 
 ox ; the ditiiculty of obtaining the glue and its goodness always 
 increasing with the toughness of the hide. The hide of the rhino- 
 ceros, which is exceeilingly strong and tough, far surpasses 
 the rest in the difliculty of solution, and in the goodness of its glue. 
 When skins are boiled they gradually swell and assume the appear- 
 ance of horn, then they dissolve sfouly. It is from the skin or 
 cutis of animals that leather is formed ; and the goodness of the 
 leather, or at least its strength, depends in some measure on the 
 toughness of the hides. Those easily soluble, as seal-skins, ali'ord 
 a weaker leather than those which arc more difficultly soluble in 
 water. The process by which Hie skins of animals are converted 
 into leather is called tanning. See Anatomy, Physiology, and 
 Tanning. 
 C'UTLER, one who makes or deals in edge tools. ' 
 GUTLEKY. Though cutlery in the general sense comprises 
 all those articles denominated edge-tools, "it is more particularly 
 confined to the manufacture of knives, forks, scissars, penknives, 
 razors, and swords. Damascus was anciently famed for its razors, 
 sabres, and swords. The latter are said to possess all the advantages 
 of flexibility, elasticity, and hardness. 'I'hese united distinctions 
 are said to have been elfected by blending alternate portions of 
 iron and steel, in such a manner, "that the softness and tenacity of 
 the former could prevent the breaking of the lalter. The t^ermans, 
 it appears, \\ere early ac<iuainted with the art of making various 
 cutlery. The steel employed by them is iminediatelv made from 
 the crude iron hito bars, without requiring afterwards to be con- 
 verted. Those articles of cutlery not requiring a tine polish, are 
 generally made from blistered steel. Those articles which require 
 the edge to possess great tenacity, when superior hardness is not 
 required, are made trom sheer-steel. The hner kinds of cutlery 
 ai^' made from steel which has been iu a state of fusion, ;,iul which 
 is termed cast steel, no other kinds being susceptible of a line po- 
 lish. See Steel. ' 
 GUTTACK, or GATTAGK, a city iu the Dccran of Hin- 
 
 doslaiij
 
 CUT 
 
 87 
 
 CYC 
 
 <loslan, Ihi' ca|)iUil of Oiisia, i.''-'0 miles S. \\'. ul' CalcutLi. l.oii. 
 8t). 1. E. I.at. ','0. Sl.N. 
 
 Cll'I'TEK, ill naval affairs, a small vessel, conimonly iiavigal- 
 rd in tl>e clumiiel of Eiiji.iiiiKl. It is furiiisln;d with one- ina^t, and 
 rinsed as a slooi). Many of tliese vt!Si.els are used in an illicit 
 tiade, and others are eniijloyed by govemineiit to take tlieni ; the 
 latter of which are either iin'd'.T the direcliun of the admiralty or 
 Ciistoni-bouse. See Phite LIV. tip;. 1. 
 
 CuTTtR OF THE TALLIES, an officer of Uie ENcliequer, whose 
 business is to provide wood for the tallies, to cut or notch llie 
 smn paid upon them ; and then to cast them into court, to be 
 written upon. 
 
 CUT'llNG, in coinage. When the lamina; or plates of the 
 metal, be it gold, silver, or copper, are brought to the thickness of 
 the specie to be coined, pieces are cut 0C:t, of the thickness, and 
 nearly of the weight of the intended coin ; which are now called 
 plancliets, till the kind's image hath been stamped upon them. 
 J he instrument wherewith they cut, consists of two^pieces of steel, 
 very sliarp, and placed over one another; the lower a little hol- 
 low, representing a mott.ir, the other a pesile. See Coin 'ige. 
 Medallions, where the relievo is to be great, are not cut, but cast 
 or moulded. 
 
 Cutting is partic\darly used in heraldry, where the shield is 
 divided into two equal parts, from right to left, parallel to the lio- 
 rizon, or in the fesse-way. The word is also applied to the ho- 
 nourable ordinaries, and even to animals and moveables, when 
 they are divided equally the fiame way ; so, however, as that one 
 moiety i» colour, the other metal. I'he ordinaries are said to be 
 cut, couped, when they do not come full to the extremities of the 
 iliield. 
 
 CuTTiKG, in painting, the layingof one strong lively colour over 
 another, without any shade or softening. The cuttuig of colours 
 lias always a disagreeable elTect. 
 
 . Cutting, in surgery, denotes the operation of extracting the 
 stone out of the bladder by the knife. 
 
 . Cuttixg, in the manege, is when the horses feet interfere; or 
 when with the shoe of one" foot he beats olT the skin from the pas- 
 tern joint of another foot. This is more frequent in the hind-feet 
 than the fore : the cause is commonly bad shoeing. 
 
 CuTTiKG IN Wood, a particular kind of sculpture or engrav- 
 ■ iiig ; denominated from the matter wherein it is employed, "it is 
 used for various purposes ; as for figured letters, liead and tail 
 pieces of books ; and even for schemes and other ligures, to save 
 the expences of engraving on copper ; and for prints and stamps 
 for paper, calicoes, linens, &c. The invention of cutting on 
 wood, as well as that in copper, is ascribed to a goldsmith of Flo- 
 rence ; but it is to Albert Durer and Lucas the\ are both indebt- 
 ed for their perfection. See Engraving and Printing. Hugo 
 Da Carpi invented a manner of cutting in wood, by means whereof 
 the prints appeared as if painteii in clair-obscure. The art of cut- 
 ting in wood was certainly carried to a very great pitch above 
 •200 years ago; and might even vie, for beauty and justness, with 
 that of engraving in copper. At present it is perhaps too much 
 neglected, and the application of artists almost wholly employed 
 on copper, as the more easy and pro\nising province'. In some 
 respects wooden cuts have the advantage of those in copper; as in 
 figures and devices for books ; for they can be printed at the same 
 time and in the same press with the letters; whereas for the other, 
 there is required a particular impression. In the representation of 
 plants and flowers, and in designs for paper hangings, where the 
 outline only is wanted to be printed, in a bold full manner, this 
 method is cheaper and more elt'ectual than tlie use of copper-plates. 
 The cutters in wood begin with preparing aplanl; or block of the 
 size and thickness required, ?nd very even and smooth on the side 
 to be cut: for this, tliey usually take beech, jiear-tree, or box; 
 though the latter is the best, as" being the closest, and least liable 
 to be worm-eaten. The wood being cut into a proper form and size, 
 should be planed as even and truly as possible: it is then fit to re- 
 ceive the drawing or chalking of the design to be engraved. But 
 the effect may be made more apparent, and the iiik, if any be 
 used'in drawing, be prevented from running, by sprea<ling thinly 
 on the surface of the wood white lead tempered with water, by 
 grinding with a brush pencil, anil afterwards rubbhig it well wilh a 
 bne linen rag whilst it is wet ; and when it is dry, brushing off any 
 loose or powdery part with a soft pencil. Ou this block they 
 
 draw tlieir dcMgn willi a pen or pencil, just as they wouhl have it 
 |)rinted. '1 hose who cannot draw their own design, as there arc- 
 many who cannot, make use of a design furnished them by ano- 
 ther ; fastening it upon the block witli paste made of flour and 
 water, with a little vinegar or aum tragacanth ; the strokes or 
 lines turned towards the wood. When the pa|)er is dry, they wa-!\ 
 it gently over wilh a spunge dipped in water; which don<-, they 
 take oil' the paper by little and little, still rubbing it a little first 
 with the tip c)f ll)e fingiM- ; till at length there be nothing left on 
 tiie block but t!ie strokes of ink that form th.e design, which mark 
 out so much of the block as is to be sp-ared or left standing. Ei- 
 gures are sometimes cut out of prints, by taking away all the white 
 part or blank paper, and cemejited with jjnm-water to the surface 
 of the wood. The rest thev cut off, and take away very curio\:sly 
 with tile points of very shiir|) knives, or little chissels or gravers', 
 according to the bigness or delicacy of the work ; for they nfcd 
 no other mstrumcnts. It differs from er.sraving in cojJiJer, in that 
 t!:e impression comes off from the prominent parts or strokes left 
 uncut; whereas in the copper-plates, it comes from the channels 
 cut in the metal. The manner of printing with wooden prints is 
 much more expeditious and ea^y than that with copper-plates, be- 
 cause they require cnlv to be dipped in the printing ink, and im- 
 pressed on the object in tlie same manner and with the same appa- 
 ratus as the letter printing is managed ; and for puri)o.ies that do 
 not require great correctness, the impression is made by tiie hand 
 only, a proper handle being fixed to the middle of the jjrint, by 
 which it is first dipped in the ink, spread by nuans of a brush on a 
 block of proportionable size covered with leather; and then lilted 
 up instantly, and impressed with some little force on the paper 
 wdiich is to receive the impression. 
 
 Cuttings, or Slips, in gardening, the branches or sjirigs of 
 trees or plants, cut or slipped off to set again; which is done in 
 any moist fine earth. The best season is from August to April ; 
 but care is to be taken wdien it is done, tliat the sap be not too' 
 much in the top, le^t the cut die before that part in the earth have 
 root enough to support it : nor must it be too dry or scanty ; tiie 
 sap in thebranches assi>ting it to take root. In providing the cut- 
 tings, such branches as have joints, knots, or burrs, are to be cut 
 off "two or three inches beneath them, and the leaves to he stripjjed 
 olif so far as they are set in the earth. Small top-branches, ol two 
 or three years growth, are fittest for this operation. 
 
 CUTTLE Fish. See Sepia. 
 
 CUTTUPDEA, an island in the north-east part of the bay of 
 Bengal. Lon. 92. 0. E. Lat. 21. 53. N. 
 
 CUT-WATER, tlie sharp part of the head of a ship below the 
 beak ; so called because it cuts or divides the water before it 
 comes to the bow, tliat it may not come too suddenly to the breadt)> 
 of the ship, which would retard it. 
 
 CUZUMEL, an island on the hay of Honduras. _ ■• 
 
 CYAN ELLA, in botany, a genus of the hexandria monojtynia 
 class and order ; natural order, Coronaria?. Corolla six-petaUd ; 
 the three lower petals hanging forwards; stamens lower, declined, 
 longer than the rest. Three species, natives of ihe Cape. 
 
 CYATHEA, in boiany, a genus of the cryptogamia filices 
 class and order. Fruclilication in roundish scattered dots, seated 
 on a coUmmar r;'Ceptacle, witliin the calyx-like involucre which 
 opens at top ; there are about nine species. 
 
 CYATHUS, in botany, a genus of the cryptogamia funari : 
 fungus campainilateorcylindrical, bearing lentiform capndes with- 
 in. There are six species. 
 
 CYBEBE, a name of Cybele, from )tv,3-.i,?iiv, because in the ce- 
 lebration of her festivals, men were driven to madness. 
 
 CYBELE, in Pagan mythology, the daui^hter of Cu»ius and 
 Terra, wife of Saturn, and mother of Jupiter, NeiHime, Pfulo, cVc. 
 She is also calUil Khea, Ops, Vesta, Bona Mater, Magna Mater, 
 Berecynthia, Dindymere, &c. and by some is reckoned ti-.e same 
 with Ceres; but most mythologists make these two distinct god- 
 desses. In Phrygia tlie festivals of Cybele were observed with 
 the greatest solemnity. Her priests, called Corybaiites, Curetes, 
 Galli, &c. it is said, were net admitted in the service of the god- 
 dess without a previous mutilation. In the celebralion of the fes- 
 tivals, they imitated th.e manners of madmen, and filled Ihe air 
 with shrieks and howlings, iniNed witli the confused nwise of drums, 
 tabrets, bucklers, and spears. 
 
 CYCAS, ip-botany, a genus of the dicecia polyandria class and 
 
 order ;
 
 cvc 
 
 88 
 
 C Y C 
 
 order; natiu-ul order, Palnis. Male, ameiiUim strobile form, with 
 tlie scales covered every wiicre benealii willi pollen. I'emale, 
 spadix SA'ord-fomi ; )ienn immersed inio t!ie corners of it, solitary ; 
 style one ; drape willi a woody luit. Two species, viz. C. circi- 
 nali^, broad-leaved cycas, and C. revoluta, narrow-leaved cyeas. 
 ""I'lie lirst is a valuable tree to the inhabitants of India, as it' not 
 only fumi^lles a considerable part of their constant bread, but 
 also supplies tlieni with a lara;e article of trade. See Sago, and 
 Plate Xkxv. 
 _ CYCEOX, [troni x-jOTrry, to mix,] a name ^iven by the an- 
 cient poets and physicians (o a nn\tnre of meal and water, and 
 sometnnes of other ingredients. These constitute the two kinds 
 of cyceon ; the coarser being of water and meal alone ; the richer 
 and more delicate composed of wine, honey. Hour, water, and 
 cheese. 
 
 CYCINNrS, a Grecian dance, so called from its supposed in- 
 ventor, one of the satyrs belonginn; to Bacchus. It consisted of 
 a combination of grave and gay movements. 
 
 C\ CLAItE.S, iii ancient geography, islands so called, as Pliny 
 informs u», bom the cyclus or orb in which tliey lie ; beginning 
 from the promontory Geraestum of Enba'a, and lying round the 
 island Delos. Strabo recites them after Artemidorus, as follows: 
 Helena, Ceos, C'ynthns, Seriphus, Melus, Siphus, Cimolus, Pre- 
 jje.inUius, Olearus, Naxus, Parus, Syrus, Myconus, Tenus, An- 
 dros, Gyarus ; but he excludes froni the nuiiiber, Prepesinthus, 
 Olearus, and Gyarus. 
 
 CvcLADEs, Great. See Hebrides, New. 
 
 f'^^I-'AMEN, Sowbread: a genus of the monogynia order 
 and pentandria class of plants; natural order, Precia-. Corolla 
 ■ferticiHated, with the tube very short, and the throat prominent ; 
 berry covered w ith the capsule. There are live species ; many 
 beautiful varieties. They are low, herbaceous, flowery peren- 
 nials of the tuljcroas-rooted kind, with numerous, angular, heart- 
 shaped, spotted, marbled leaves; and many lleshy foot-stalks six 
 inches liigh, carrying monopetalous, five-parted, rellexed flowers 
 of various colours. All the varieties are extremely ornamental, 
 ?.]id some of the flowers very fragrant. They may be planted in 
 any of the common borders, but require to be sheltered from hard 
 frosts by being covered with mats. 'J'hey should also have a 
 light dry soil, otherwise their roots are apt to rot. The species 
 are propagated by seeds, and the particular varieties by dividing 
 their roots. 
 
 CYCLAS, a genus of testacea of the class of bivalves ; shells 
 somewhat transverse, witiiout a fold on the anterior side ; exterior 
 liganieni recurved ; hinge of tliree teeth ; lateral teeth elongated, 
 iamellifonn, and let into a groove in the opposite valve. ' This 
 genus contains seven or eight species, mostly inhabiting fresh 
 water pools. Animal acephalous, with two tubes projecting on 
 one side, and on the other, a foot linguiforni, or tongue-shaped. 
 See Plate XXXVII. ^ ' 
 
 Cyclas, in botany, a genus of the decandria monogynia class 
 :md order; natural ordei, Lomentacea". Calyx four-parted, 
 spreading, with a short turbinate tube; corolla "none; filaments 
 inserted into the ncek of the calyx ; style (lexuose ; legume 
 rouuditiii, winged, one-seeded. There are' two species, vi/. C. 
 spicata, and C. aromatica, both very tall trees, natives of 
 Guiana. 
 
 C\C'LE, [xux>.^, a circle,] in clironologv, a certain period 
 or Series of years, which regularly proceed from the first to the 
 last, and then return again to the'fust, and circulate perpetually. 
 'I'he most considerable cycles are those of the sun, of the mooii, 
 and of the Roman indict"ien. See CHUoNOLOoy. 
 
 C^ CLIDIL'M, in natcnal hi>tory, a genus of vermes infu- 
 soria. Worm invisible to the naked' eye, very simple, pellucid, 
 ilat, oriiicular, or oval. 'J'liere are seven species. C. bulla ; or- 
 bicular, transparent ; in infusions of liay ; pellucid, white, with 
 the edges a little darker ; motion slow ami circular. C. milium ; 
 elliptical, transparent ; in vegetable infusions ; i>ellucid, crystalline, 
 nieml)ranaceous, with a line through Ihe whoh/ length. 
 
 CYCLOID, a curve of such importance, that tlie honour of its 
 Uivention has been much contested among matheniaiicians. The 
 r'rench ascriln- it to their countryman Robervall ; but there is suf- 
 luitnt evidence that he was not" tiie original inventor of it. Tor- 
 ricellius informs us, in a treatise containing a demonstration of one 
 i/ the propcities of this curve, viz. th.it ilb area is triple that of the 
 
 generating circle, and published in 1644, that this curve was known 
 torty-hve years before this period, or in 15S)y, to his niaster Ga- 
 lileo, and distinguished by the appellation of Cycloid. Besides, 
 Dr. Wallis has (iiscovered among the mathematfcal works of Bo- 
 villus, published at several times between the years 1501 and 1510, 
 th.it this curve had been considered in his time; and he has also 
 found, that it was known to cardinal Cusanus, who gave an account, 
 of it in a copy of his works transcribed in 14,M. But its various ' 
 properties have been gradually discovered ; and the method of 
 regulating the motion of a pendulum by this curve, was the inven- 
 tion of Huygcns in the last century. 'The cycloid is a curve ge- 
 nerated by the motion of any point in the periphery of a circle, 
 whilst the periphery revolves on a right line, till that point which 
 touched the line at the beginning of tiie motion be brought to 
 touch it again. Let the- circle CDH, Plate LI, lig. 5, roll on 
 the given straight line AB, so that all the parts of the circumfe- 
 rence be applied to it one after another, the point C that touched 
 the line AB in A, by a motion thus compounded of a circular and 
 rectilinear motion, will describe the curve ACEB, called the cy- 
 cloid or tiochoid, from the manner of its formation, 'i'he circle 
 CDU, by the revolution of which the curve is formed, is called 
 the generating circle ; the right line AB is the base ; the line Et' 
 bisecting the base in V is the axis ; and E is the vertex ; a line 
 KC parallel to the base, and intercepted between the curve and 
 the axis, is an ordinate ; and the space included by the curve and 
 bitse, v'a. AEB.-\, is the cycloidal space. If any ])oint, which is 
 not the centre of the generating circle, be taken in the diameter 
 passing through the generating point ; during the revolution of the 
 circle it will describe a curve, which is called a prolate or inliected 
 cycloid. But if the point be taken in llie diameter produced, or 
 without tb.7 circle, the curve, which it will describe, is called a 
 curtate cycloid. The chief properties of the cycloid are, 1. If on 
 the axis liF be described the generating circle EGF meeting the 
 ordinate CK in G, the ordinate will he e<[ual to the sum of the arc 
 ICG and its right sine CJK ; that is, CK will be equal to EG + GK. 
 2. The line CH parallel to the chord EG is a tangent to the cy- 
 cloid in C. 3. 'Phe arch of the cycloid EL is double of the chord 
 E.\I, of the corresponding arc of the generating circle EMF: 
 hence the semi-cycloid ELB is eqyal to twice the diameter of thu 
 generating circle EF ; and the whole cycloid ACEB is quadruple 
 of the diameter EF. 4. If ER be parallel to the base .'\B, and 
 CR parallel to the axis of the cycloid EF'; the sp.ice ECR, 
 bounded by the arc of the cycloid EC, and the lines ER and RC, 
 shall be equal to the circle area EG K : hence it follows, if AT, 
 perpendicular to the base AB, meet ER in T, the space ETACE 
 will be ecpial to the senii-ciicle EGF: and since AF is equal to 
 the semi-circumference EGF, the rectangle EFAT, being the 
 rectangle of the diameter and semi-circumference, will be e(|ual to 
 four times the semi-circle EGF; and therefore the area ECAl'E 
 will be equal to three times the area of the generating semi-circle 
 EGF. Again, if vou draw the line KA, the area intercepted be- 
 twixt the cycloid EGA, and the straight line EA, will be ctpial to 
 the semi-circle EGF; for tlie area ECAFE is etiual to tluee times 
 EGF, and the triangle EAF=: AF X iEF, the rectangle of the 
 semi-circle and radius, and conset|uently equal to 2 EGF; there- 
 fore their dirt'crence, the area ECAE, is equal to FXiF. 5. Take 
 E/> = OK, draw li'Z parallel to the base, meeting the generatinj); 
 circle in X, and the cycloid in Z, and join CZ, l'\ ; then shall 
 the area CZEC be equal to the sum of the triangles (iFK and 
 AFX. Hence an infinite number of segments of the cycloid may 
 be assigned, that are perfectly quadrable. For example, if the or- 
 dinate CK bi; supposed to cut the axis in the middle of the radius 
 OE, then K aod ii coincide ; and the area ECK becomes in that 
 case e(|ual to theiriangle GKF, and EiZ becomes equal to F/jX, 
 and tliesc triangles themselves become equal. The cych.id i? tli(> 
 curve of (piickest descent, i. e. a botly failing in it, from any given 
 point above, to another not exactly under it, will come to this 
 point in a less time than in any other curve passing through those 
 two points. See farther relating to the cycloid under Mechavics 
 and Pendulum. 
 
 CYCLOP.'EDIA, [xix^©' and waiJtia,] a circle of knowledge; 
 a course of the sciences. • 
 
 CYri.oPA:DiA, say the authors of the French Encyclopedic, 
 ought to explain as much as possilile the order and connection ot" 
 human knowledge. Sec ENcvc-ixij;*:bi-\. 
 
 t CYCLOP^:,
 
 CYl) 
 
 89 
 
 CY-D 
 
 CYCLOP.">, ill I'uihuleus history, the boiis of Nfiittino ami Am- 
 phitiite ; t!ie principal of vlioiii \v( f Pol} phL'iiuis, lirontes, Stc- 
 i-'ipi;s,-;m<l Pviucmoii ; but tht'ir wliolc; iuiihIht ainouiitL'tl toubovc 
 oiu- huiulrecl'. Jcipiler threvf them into Tartanis as soon as they 
 V, ltc born; but they were delivered at the intercession of Tellua, 
 and In.canie the asiistanls of Vulcan. They were of prodigious 
 suture, and liad eacli only oni: eye, whicli was placed in the mid- 
 dle ot tl-.cir foreheads. 
 
 CYCLOl'l'lilUIS, the Si'CKtR, in ichthyology, a genus of 
 the cartila£>inei order ; head obtuse, fm-nislied with saw teeth ; 
 ravs four in the gills ; belly fins connected together in an orbicu- 
 lar form. There are ten species. 
 
 Cycloptekus Liparis, the Lump Fish, !>row3 to the lengtli 
 of nineteen inches, an<l weighs seven pounds. The shape of the body 
 is like that of tin; bream, deep and very thick, and it swims edge- 
 wavs. The back is sliarp and elevated ; the belly liat, of a bright 
 crimson colour. Along the body there run s-'veral rows of sharp 
 and bony tubercles, and the whole skin is covered with small ones. 
 The tail and vent-lins are purple. The pectoral tins are large and 
 br'jad, almost uniting at their base. Geueath these is the part by 
 which it adheres to the rocks, X:c. It consists of an oval aperture, 
 t.errounded with a lleshy, nmscuUur, and obtuse substance ; edged 
 w ith many small-threaded appelulages, which concur as so many 
 claspers. By means of this part it adheres with vast force to any 
 tiling it pleases. See Plate LV. 
 
 C. MiN'oK, the Li-.ssER Sucking Fish, is found in dilVerent 
 
 I' irts of the British fens. It is about four inches in length; the 
 
 -111 without scales, slippery, and of a dusky colour. It has also 
 
 .;;i apparatus for adlieriiig to stones and rocks similar to the 
 
 otheis. 
 
 CYDF.I\, or CIDER, a sharp, cool, and vinous beverage, 
 made by fermenting the juice of apples. Some connoisseurs in 
 tins liquor are of oi);iiion, that the juice of the more delicate table- 
 fruit is generally more cordial and [ileasantthan that of the wild or 
 l.irsh kinds ; though others assert tiie latter to be in many respects 
 pieferable. The apples should remain on the tree till they are 
 thoroughly ripe, when they ought to be gathered with the hand in 
 (hy weather, that they may be protected both from bruises and 
 from moisture. I'hey are then to be sorted, according to their 
 various degrees of nia{urity, and laid in separate heaps, in order to 
 ;\. cat ; ill coiisei|uence of which they greatly ini[irove. This 
 jiraciiee, however, appears to be n-eful only tor such fruit as is 
 not perfectly ripe, tliough some recommend it as being proper for 
 all apples. The duration of the lime of sweating may be deter- 
 ' mined by the flavour of the fruit, as dili'erent kinds require various 
 lengths of lime; namely, from eight or ten days to six weeks. 
 The harsher and more crude the apples are, the longer it is neces- 
 sary that they should remain in a sweating state, and not only be 
 Weil dried, Imt the rotten parts carefully pared, before they are 
 exposed. The utility of the sweating practice is acknowledged 
 in all the cyder countries, though various methods have been 
 adopted in following it ; as the apples are piled up either in the 
 open air, or under cover in houses. In the South-hams, a middle 
 way has been adopted to avoid the fermentation occasioned by 
 piling them up in rooms, and which we recommend as the best, 
 and most rational. Heaps of fruit are raised in an open part of the 
 Orchard, where, by means of a free air and less heat, the desired 
 maturity is Gradually effected, with an inconsiderable waste of the 
 juice and ilecay of the fruit, which thus becomes almost totally 
 divested of rancidity. And though a few apples will rot even in 
 this manner, they are still fit for use ; all of them continue plump 
 and full of juice, and heiglUen in a considerable degree the co- 
 lour of the litpior, without imparting toil any disagreeable smell 
 or taste. The truH is then to be ground till the rind and kernels 
 nre well bruised ; a process winch will considerably improve the 
 llavour and strength of the liipior, when it should' be allowed to 
 stand for a day or two, in a large open vessel. It is next pressi-d 
 between several lu.ir-clotlis, and the li(|uor received in a vat, 
 whence it is removed into casks, which ought to he placed in a 
 pool situation, or in the free air, with their bungdioles open. 
 These casks are to be sedulously watched, till the cyder drops 
 line, when it is to be innnediateiy racked off from the lees into 
 other vessels. _ The first racking is a most important operation ; 
 as cyder, which is suffered to become foul again, by missing the 
 first o|)portuiiity of racking it when line, will never become what 
 
 VOL. II. — NO. (il. 
 
 is called a prime liquor. After the clear paii has been racked ofl» 
 a quantity of lees or dregs remains, which, when liltered througli 
 coarse linen bags, yields a bright, strong, but extremely llat'li- 
 (|Uid: if this be added to the former portion, it will greatly con- 
 triliute to preveni fermentation, an excess of which will maf;e thi- 
 cyder thin and acid. To avoid such an accident) the casks should 
 neither be entirely filled, nor stojjped down too close ; and, if 
 the whole incline lo ferment, il ought again to be racked. This 
 latter opiralion, however, should on no account be repeated, 
 unless from absolute necessity; aa every racking diminishes its 
 r4rength. A\'hen there are no signs of any farther fermentation, 
 the casks should be filled up with cyder of the best quality, and 
 the bung-hole firmly closed with resin. This method ofniakiMir 
 cyder is that chielly followed in -Herefordshire. Considerable 
 quantities of this liipior are also made in Devonshire, where the 
 jiroc e,s varies but little from that pursued in the county before- 
 mentioned. Several farmers, however, instead of rackiiis, i'uic it witli 
 isinglass, steeped in white wine, dissolved over the fin-, and then 
 boiled in a quantity < f liquor inten.led to be fined : in this state, it is 
 added to that in the cask. Others, instead of dissolving the isinglass 
 over the fire, digest it in white wine for tlie space oftbur or' live 
 weeks, during whicli time it acquires the consistence of a jelly ; a 
 iiuaiitity of this being beaten up with some of the liquor, the w'h'ole 
 IS worked into a frotli, and mingled with the rest. As soon as th? 
 cyder becomes clear, it is drawn, or bottled off, as occasion may 
 rec|uire. Those who are anxious to pre])are gcjod cyder, ou^ht 
 diligently to watch every change of weather, however slight ;°a3 
 the least neglect, at such times, is often detrimental to many hogs- 
 heads. In summer the danger is much greater tlian in winter. 
 There is, however, scarcely any distemper incident to this liquor', 
 which may not, by a timely application, be easily remedied. If 
 it become somewhat tart, about half a peck of goo'd wheat, boiled 
 and hulled in a manner similar to rice, may be put into each ho"-s- 
 head, which will ellectually restore it ; and also contribute to pre- 
 serve it, when drawn out of one cask into another. Such a re- 
 medy is doubtless far preferable to that odious custom practised by 
 too many cyder merchants, who put animal substances into their 
 liquors, namely, veal, pork, beef, mutton, and even liorsc-llesh 
 lor the pur|)ose of filling them. This singular expedient, tliough 
 sanctioned by the usage of ancestors, we think it our duly to i^'- 
 probale; because it is fraught with mischievous efT'ects on the con- 
 stitution of those, who are doomed to drink the cyder thus adul- 
 terated. I5y allowing a small quaiuity to stand in an open vessel 
 for two or three da^s in a warm room, the fetid exhalation of the 
 liiiuorwill easily discover its ingredients, 'i he bet cyder is that 
 made from a reif-streak apple, grafted upon a geunet-moil stock 
 These two varieties of the apple-tree agree welftogether, and their 
 trunks seldoim canker, as others are apt lo do, especially when the 
 former is grafted on crab-trees. The fruit of the red-streak ob- 
 tained from the former combination, is always larger and milder- 
 and, when ripe, not only most delicious eatmg, but also affords a 
 mellower litpior than the same fruit produced by tJie Utter mix- 
 ture. Many estates, where the soil is not proper for corn, niisht 
 be greatly improved in value, by cultivating the diffen-nrsorts of 
 apples that are used in making cyder, which finds at all times a 
 ready market, and requires no lue"l in brewing it ; besides that the 
 labour occurs only once every year. The greater tlie iiuan- 
 tities of cyder made together, the better it usiuilly succeeds; but 
 it will be necessary that the vessels in which the liquor is to be 
 kept, be capacious and v\ell seasoned. In this case, it will not 
 only remain sound for a great number of years, but also ijio- 
 gressively improve. An Ingenious Treatise on C\der, in 4!o 
 was published about the year 1754, in which tlie rea'.ler will find 
 several pertinent instructions relative to this subject. By the 57(h 
 (tco. 111. c. 13, every hogshead of cyder or perry, made and sold 
 by retail, pays a duty of 14^. id. to which are to be added, 4,r 
 imposed by the annual malt-act^, the whole amounting lo 18s! 7 d. 
 For every hogshead, made and sold in quantities ol I'O gallons' 
 or upw.ards, by any diraler or retailer, from fruit of his own growth' 
 ti.9. 11(/. ; and for every hogshe'ad of such last-mentioued c\der or 
 perry, received into the possession ot any person, to be sold by 
 liim, 7.V. Sd. are to be paid : the total of these duties, after adding 
 the annual one of 4,s., will amount lo IS*. 7(/. For every ho<j* 
 head made iu Great Britain, and sent or consigned lo any faet",;!- 
 or agent, who shall receive it fer sale, t* be )>,"iid by such' factor, 
 ^ ^ 19*. ?>'
 
 CYL 
 
 90 
 
 r Y N 
 
 ■VOv. ~J- ; l>utj if tlie iMui- hnYL- [X.it! tin' aniur.il niait-dnty of 4s., 
 this sum is to be uediicted fi-om tiie \9s.Qd. no cydti- or perry 
 bring cliai-gfal)lc with a iiigher cliUy than ly*. Cd. All Uiese du- 
 tits are pa-vahle to tlie pxcisc, ajul are drawn back on exportation ; 
 id. per ton bein^ alloxcd. Cyder is a cooling, pleasant, and 
 wliolesonie liqnor during the lieat of snmiTier, if it lias been pre- 
 pared without foreign ingredients, and properly fermented. On 
 tlie contrarr, where it is too new, or tart, or has perhaps been 
 kept in leaden vessels; or the apples and pears have, after grind- 
 ing them, passed through leaden tubes, we am by no means re- 
 eonimond it as a saUibrioiis beverage; because that poisonous me- 
 tal is crifily dissolved by the acid, and thus gradually introduced 
 into the body. However agreeably sucli cyder, or perry, may 
 stimulate the palate, it cannot fail, sooner or later, to produce 
 painful and dai)gerous colics, as it not Uiit'rcquently f^enorates the 
 most desperate and incurable obstipations, among those who ac- 
 custom liieniselves to the free use of these U.juois. 
 
 CvPEE. Spirit, a spirituous liquor drawn from cyder by distil- 
 lation, in die same manner as brandy from wine. The particular 
 flavour of this spirit is not agreeable, but it may be entirely di- 
 vested of it, and rendered perfectly pure by rectification. Tlie 
 traders in spirituous liquors are well acquainted with the value of 
 such a spirit as this: they can give it the llavours of some other 
 kinds, and sell it under their names, or mix it in large proportion 
 with foreign brandy, and arrack, in the sale, without danger ol de- 
 tection. 
 
 Cydek WiKE, a kind of wine made from the juice of apples 
 taken from the preis and boiled, and which being kept three or 
 four years is said to resemble Kheni-h. The -..lethod of preparing 
 it, as communicated by Dr. lUish of America, where it is mucii 
 practised, consists in evaporating in a brewing copper the fresli 
 apple-juice till half of it be consumed. The remainder is then im- 
 mediately conveyed into a wooden cooler, and afterwards put into 
 a proper cask, with an addition of yeast, and fermented in the or- 
 dinary way. The process is evidently borroweil from what has 
 long been" practised on the recent juice of the grape, under the 
 termofvincuit, or boiled wine, in It'ily, and the islands of tiie 
 Archipelago, from time immemorial. 
 
 CVDElilvIN PURRIs or PERKIN, is a liquor made of the 
 murk, or lees remaining after the cyder is pressed : these are put 
 into a large vat, with half the (piantity of cold water, which has 
 been previously boiled : if that proportion be exceeded, the cv- 
 derkin will be small. The whole is left to dige>t for forty-eiglit 
 hours, when it should be well expressed: the liquor thus obtained 
 is to be immediately barrelled, and closely stopped ; it will be (it 
 for use in a few days. C'ydcrkin easily clarities, and is used in 
 many families instead of sniall beer: if boiled after pressure, with 
 a proper quantity of hops, it may be kept for any length of time. 
 
 CYDONIA, or CYDON, in ancient geography, one of the 
 tliree most illustrious cities of Crete, situated in the N. AV. of the 
 island, with a locked port, or walled round, 
 
 CYGNU.S, the Swan, in astronomy, a constellation of the 
 northern hemisphere, between Lyra and Cepheus. See Astro- 
 nomy. 
 
 Cygnus, the Swan, in ornithology. See Anas. 
 
 CYLINDER, [jii;x.vJ>©',] in geometry, a solid body,'s\ipposed 
 to be generated by the rotation of the parallelogram. If the gene- 
 rating parallelogram be rectangular, the cylinder it produces will 
 be a right C) liiider, that is, it will have its axis perpendicular to its 
 base. If the parallelogram be a rhombus, or rhomboides, the 
 cylinder will be oblique or scalenous. 
 
 Cylinder, Properties of the. 1. The section ©f every 
 cylinder by a plane oblique to its base, Is an ellipsis. 2. The su- 
 perficies of a right cylinder is equal to the periphery of the base 
 multiplied into the length of its side. 3. The solidity of a cylin- 
 der is equal to the area of its base, multiplied into its altitude. 4. 
 Cylinders of the same base, and standing between the same paral- 
 lels are equal. S. Every <vliiKler is to a spheroid inscribed in it, 
 as ^ to 2. t). If the altitudes ol two right cylinders be equpl to 
 the diametei-B of their bases, tiiosa c)linders a're to one another as 
 the cubes of the diameters of their bases. To find a circle ecpial 
 to the surface cf a cylinder, we have this theorem; the surface of a 
 cylinder is eipi. -I to a circle, whose radius is a mean proportional 
 between the d'ameter and height of the cylinder. The diameter 
 of a sphere, and the altitude of a cylinder equal thereto, being 
 given, to find the diameWr of the cylinderj the theorem is, the 
 
 square of the diameter of the sL'hcre is to the stpnrf of the di:iiiio 
 ter of the cylinder equal to it, nearly, as triple the ahitudc of the 
 cylinder to double the diameter of tlie sphere. See Geo.mbtrt. 
 
 CVLIST.A, in botany, a genus of the diadi-lphia decaiulria 
 class and order ; natural order papilienacese or leguniinoss;. Calyx 
 very large, four-parted ; the upper division ck-lt at the end ; co- 
 rolla iiermaiient. There is but one species, viz. C. villosa, haii'y 
 cylisla. It is a shrub, arid requires the heat of the stove to pre- 
 serve it. 
 
 CYMBACHNE, in botany, a genus of Ihepolygamia inonffi- 
 cia class and order; nati.ral order Gramina. intioresci:nce half- 
 spiked ; herm. calyx two-glumed, one-flowered, parallel to the 
 rachis ; outer valve linear, the opposite boat-form; female caly.\ 
 one-glumed, ovate, opposite to the rachis. "One specif^, viz. C. 
 ciliata, a slender grass, a foot in height, with several culms. It is 
 found in Bengal. 
 
 Cylinder, LoAnED, or Cylinder, Rolling, a cylinder 
 which rolls m an inclined plane. Its phanomena will be found 
 explained under M ech anics. 
 
 C YLINDROID, [from ' xOxivJj^, cylinder, and -5 sT?^, like- 
 ness,} in geometry, a solid body, approaching to the figure of a 
 cylinder, but differing from it in some re:-pects, as having the bases 
 elliiiti'.al, but parallel and equal. 
 
 C'YMAIIUM, [Lat. from t-nnTiiy, a little wave,] a member 
 of arcliitecture, whereof one-half is convex, and the other concave. 
 There are two sorts, of which one is hollow below, as the other ig 
 above. See Architecture. 
 
 CYMU.'^L, [v.Ju?rtAov,] a musical instrument much used among 
 the ancients. It was formerly made of brass, like our kettle- 
 drums, and, as some think, in their form, but smaller and of dif- 
 ferent use. Ovid gives cymbals the epithet of genialia, because 
 they were used at weddings and other divei-sions. Cassiodorus 
 and [sodorecall this instrument acetabulum, the name of a cup or 
 cavity of a bone wherein another -is articulated; and Xenophori 
 compares it to a horse's hoof; whence it must have been hollow ; 
 which aiipears, too, from the figure of several other things deno- 
 minated from it ; as a basin, caldron, goblet, cask, and even a 
 shoe, such as those of Empedocles, which were of brass. The an- 
 cient cymbals appear to have been very different from our kettle- 
 drums, and their use of another kind. To their exterior cavity 
 was fastened a handle ; whence Pliny compares them to the upper 
 part of the tliigh, and Rabanus to pliials. I'hey were struck 
 against one another, in cadence, and made a very acute sound. 
 Their invention was attributed to Cybele : whence their use in 
 fca--ts and sacrifices. The modern cymbals is a mean instrument, 
 cliiefly in use among vagrants, gypsies, &c. it consists of steel 
 wires, in a triangular form, whereon are passed five rings, which 
 are touched and shifted along the triangle with an iron rod held in 
 the left hand, while it is supported in the right by a ring, to give it 
 the freer motion. 
 
 CYMBARIA, in botany, a genus of tiie didynamia angiosper- 
 mia class and order ; natural order, Personat.x. Calyx ten-toothed ; 
 capsule cordate, two-celled. There is but one species. 
 
 tYM E, or CUM A, in ancient geography, a city built by Pelops 
 on Ills return from Greece. It stood in Vl'olia, between the 
 Myrina and Phocaa, and in Pentinger's map, is set down 9 miles 
 from Myrina. 
 
 CYM ANCHE, a species of quinzy, in which the tongue is in- 
 flameci and swelled, so that it hangs out beyond the teeth 
 
 CYNANCIIUM, Bastrad Dogsbane; a genus of the di- 
 gynia order, and pcntandria classof plants ; natural order. Contorts:. 
 ISlectarium cylindrical, fiv(_-.tootlied. It has twenty-seven species, 
 shrubs chiefly twining, and natives of hot climates. 
 
 CYNANTHROPY, [5 xref S wiuv, ii xta -rli; xuvof, and nv3'{i<m©',] 
 aspecies of madness in which men have the qualities of dogs. 
 
 CYNARA, tlie Artichoke, a genus of the polygamia aequalis 
 order, and syngenesia class of plants. Calyx dilated, inil)ricatcd 
 with carnous squauuc, and emarginated with a sharp point. Of 
 this genus there are six species ; of which two ar;- cultivated for use 
 
 Cl'NlCS, [xuvis©',] a sect of ancient philosophers, who valued 
 themselves upon their contempt o' riches and state, arts and sci- 
 ences, and every thing, in short, except viitue or morality. The 
 cynic philosojihers owe their origin anil institution to Antisthenes 
 of Athens, a disciple of Socrates, who, being asked of what use his 
 philosophy had been to liini, replied, " U enables me to live withi 
 myself." ' Diogenes was the most famous of his disciples, in whose 
 
 life
 
 C \' N 
 
 PI 
 
 C Y P 
 
 life tlic systpm ol" tliis philosopliv ap^)ears in its grcalert perfi-ction. 
 l\t !<»<! a inci'^ ^ himsK-.ii lif", ftepisini^ fvcrj kin^ ot' i onver.i- 
 eiici', n tub siTving him for a lottging, wliiih Iil" rtllc^l hifo;e him 
 • hercvcv lir went. Yet lie was not rl'.c more humble on ac comit 
 oT his HM'ged r'.oak, bug, aixl Inb. One clay cntfruvc; Pl:ito's houo, 
 al a limi-\vli('-n there v-a^; a sijlemiid entertiiiniuent lor sevei-il per- 
 sons of Uistinction, he ;iiinije<! up, in all his tlift, upon a very rich 
 eouch, «;iying, " I truniple on the pride ol Plato." " Yes (re- 
 plied Plato), but with still greater pride, Dion( lies." He had 
 the iitiiiosl contempt for all the human rare ; tor he walked the 
 streets of .Athens al noon dny with a lighted lanlhorn in liis^aiid, 
 telling the people, " He wa' in search of an honest man." 
 Amonest nianv excellent in;i\iin« of morality, he held some very 
 (>ernieious opinions ; for he used to say, that tiie miinterrnpted 
 good fortune ol Harpahi*!, who generally passed -for a thief and a 
 robber, was a testimony against the gods. He regarded chastity 
 an<l njodestv as weaknesses : hence [.aerliiis observes of him, that 
 hedideverv thhig openly, whether it belonged to Ceres or \"e- 
 nus ; though he add^. that Diogenes only r?n to an excess of im- 
 pudence to pnt others out,ot conceit with it. Rut impudence was 
 the charact<ri:,tic of these philosophers ; who argued that all 
 what was right to be done, might be done at all times and in all 
 places. The chief principle of this sect, in common with the 
 stoics, was, that \v e should follow nature. But they differed from 
 the stoics in their explanation of that maxim ; the cynics being of 
 opinion, that a nia^n followed nature, who gratiljed his natural ap- 
 petites; while tlie stoics understood right reason by the word na- 
 ture. 
 
 ■Cynic Spasm, a kind of convulsion, wherein the patient imi- 
 tates the howling of dogs. 
 
 CYN'IPS, Gali.-fly, a genus of insects of the order hymenop- 
 tera. Mouth with a short one-toothed membranaceous jaw, the 
 mandibles vaulted ; horny cleft, the iip entire, feelers four, short, 
 wnequal, capitate; antenna' moniliform; sting s[)iral, often con- 
 cealed within the body. There are thirty-five species. The nu- 
 merous excrescences, or galls, found on the root's, branches, and 
 leaves of %'arious trees are prorluced bv the puncture of these in- 
 sects: the larva is without feet, soft, cylindrical, and inhabits witli- 
 in the gall, feeding on the juices of the tree: the pupa resemldes 
 V-.2 perfect insect, except iu having only the rudiments of wings. 
 C. querci, or oak-leaf C) nips, is of a burnished shining brow n co- 
 lonr. It. is found in the hard galls under oak-leaves, generallv 
 fastened to the fibres. C. ros;e is represented in Plate XXXVlt. 
 CVN0(;L0SSI'M, Houn-d's 'Ioxgl'e: a genvis of l.he mo- 
 nog^ nia order, and ])entandria class uf plants; natural order, .Aspe- 
 rifoli*. Corolla funnel-'-haped, with its throat closed up by'liltle 
 arclu-s formed in it; seeds depressed, and affixed to the style or 
 receptacle only on their inner side. Twelve species liave' been 
 noticed, i.one of them remarkable for beauty. 
 
 C. Officinale, the Common Greater Hou.vd'sToxguf. was 
 ■formerly used in medicine, and its root supposed to possess narcotic 
 virtues; but it is discarded from the present practice. 
 
 C^ NOMETR,'\, in botany, a genus of the monogynia order, 
 and decandria class of plants. " Calyx tetraphyllous; antherie, bi- 
 fid at top ; legumen canious, crescer.t-shaped, and monospernious. 
 Twospecies are found in India. 
 
 CVNOMORIUM, in botany: a genus of the nionandria or- 
 <fer, and nioncecia class of plants; natural order, Amentaces. 
 Male calyx, an iniliricated catkin; no corolla; calvx of the fe- 
 male in the same catkin ; no corolla; one style; and one roundish 
 seed. It has three species. 
 
 CYNOPHONTIS, in antiquity, a festival observed in thedog- 
 ilays at Argos, and so called ani ru; xum; fo-mv, i. e. from killing 
 <lo";s ; because it was usual on this day to kill all the dogs they met 
 ■witli. 
 
 CYNOREXY, an immoderate appetite, to the degree of a 
 tlisease; called also fames canina and bulimy. 
 
 CYNOSURA, in astronomy, a denomination given bv the 
 Greeks to ursa minor, or the little bear, from xtvoo-wja, q. d. n tS 
 •zii; x^vof isi, the dog'stail. 
 
 Cynosura, in mythology, a nymph of Ida in Crete, said to 
 have nulled Jupiter, who changed her into a star. 
 
 C\ KOSURUS, Dog's-tail Grass, in botany, a genus of 
 the digynia order, and Iriandria class of plants; n.;tuVal orcler, Gra- 
 mina. Caljx bivalved, multiflorous; receptacle proper, unila- 
 
 teral, foliacecus. There are twenty sjiecics, most of tliern natives 
 l^f the Fast or West Indies. 
 
 C YNTI! I A, an cpitliet of Diana. 
 
 CYNTIl irj;, an epithet of Apolia. 
 
 CYN'i'Hl'S, in ancient geography, a mountain df the islrnd 
 Delos, so high as to overshadow xhc whole island. On this moun- 
 tain Larona was fabled ro havebrouglit forth Apollo and Diana; 
 hence called Cvnthius and Cviithi;;. 
 
 CYNURIA; or CYM'RU'b AGf R, in ancient geography, a 
 district of I.aconia, on thf coufines o"^" "olis, that proved a per- 
 petual l:one of contention betv.een the A. gives and Spartans. 
 
 CYPERUS, in botany, a genus of the monogynia order, and 
 trianJria class of plants; natural order, Calamaria;. Glumes pale- 
 aceous, imbricated towards each side; corolla wanting ; seed one, 
 naked. There are fifty-three species, chiefly natives of the East 
 or ^^'est Indies. 
 
 C YPH ER. See Cipher, and ARiTHMF.Ttc. 
 
 CYPIION, in anticpiity, a kind of punishment used by the 
 Attienians. It was a collar made of wood; so called because it 
 constrained tiie criminal to I'ow down his head. 
 
 CYPHONISM, or CYPHONIS.MUS, [from x,;^»v, derived 
 from y.i'fi;, crooked,] a kind of torture or punishment, in use 
 among the ancients. 
 
 CYPR.l'A, the GowRiE, a genus of insects of tlie order rer- 
 mes testacea. Animal, a slug; shell one, involuted, subovated, 
 obtuse, smooth valve; aperture on each side linear, longitudinal, 
 and teetlied. There are 44 species, distinguished by tjie form of 
 their shells. See Plate XXV 1 1. 
 
 CYPRESS. See CupREssvs. 
 
 CYPRIAN Queen, a title of Venus. 
 
 CYPRI.ANUS, THAScivs-dciLius, a principal father of (lie 
 Christian church, born at Carthage, about the end of the second, 
 or beginning of the third century. His parents were heathens; 
 and he himself continued such till the last 12 years of his life. He 
 applied himself carlv to the study of oratory ; and some of the .an- 
 cients, particularly Lactantius, informs us, that he tauglit rhetoric 
 in Carthaoje w ith' the highe^ applause. Cyprian's convei-sion is 
 fixed by Peai-son to A.D. 'J46. He was at Carthage, where, as 
 St. Jerom observes, he had often employed his rhetoric in the de- 
 fence of pag-anism. It was brought about by one Cacilius, a 
 priest of the church of Carthage, wliose name Cyprian aflewards 
 took ; and between whom there ever after subsisted so close a 
 friend^hip, tliat Ca-cilius at liis death committed to Cyprian the 
 care of his family. Cyprian was also a married man himself^ but 
 as soon as he was converted, he resolved upon a state of conti- 
 nence, which was then foolishly thought a high degree of pietvv 
 As a proof of the sincerity of his conversion, he wrote in defence 
 of Christianity, and composed his piece "De GrdtiaDei,"which he 
 addressed to Donatus. He next composed apiece "De Idolorun> 
 Vanitatc," upon the variity of idols. Cyprian's behaviour, both 
 before and after his baptism, was so highly pleasing to the bishop- 
 of Carthage, that he ordained him a priest a few months after, 
 though it was rather irregular to ordain a man thus in his very 
 noviciate. Rut Cyprian was so extraordinary a person,, and 
 thought capable of doing such singular service to the church, that 
 tlie usual period of probation was dispensed witli. He consigned 
 
 over all his goods to the poor, and gave Ijimseli I'p enlirely to dii 
 vine things. \Vhen, therefore, llie bishop of Carthage died the 
 year after, viz. A. D. 248, none was jucigcl so proper to sricceeil 
 him as Cvprian. The repose, which the Christians had enjoyed 
 daring the last 40 years, had greatly coiTupted their manners ; and 
 therefore Cyprian's first care, after his advancement to the bi- 
 sho])ric, was to reform abuses. Luxury was prevalent among 
 them; and many of their women were not strict iu the article of 
 dress. This led him to draw up his piece " De Habitu Virginum," 
 concerning tlie dress of young women; in which, i)esides what he 
 says on that particular, he inculcates many lessons ot modesty and 
 sobriety. In 249, Decius issued very severe edicts against the 
 Christians; and in 250, the heathens, in the circus and amphithe- 
 atre of Carthage, insistt-d up(m Cyprian's being thrown to the 
 lions. Cyprian upon this withdrew from Carthate, to avoid the 
 furv of hi!i persecutors. He wrote, in the place of his retreat, 
 pious and instructive letters to those who had been his hearers ; and 
 also to the Libeilatici, or those pusillanimous Christians, who pro- 
 cured certificates of the heathen raagistiateS; to shew that they had 
 
 complied
 
 C YP 
 
 m 
 
 C YR 
 
 complied with the emperor's orders, iusacriticing to idols. At liis 
 return to Carthage he held several councils on the repentance of 
 those who liad fallen oft during thii persecution, and other points 
 of discipline; he opposed the schemes of Novatus and iSov.itia- 
 Hus ; and contended for the re-baptiziny of th.ose who had been 
 baptised bv heretics. At last he died a martyr in the persecution 
 under Valerian and Gallienus, in 2JS. Cyprian wrote SI letters, 
 and several treatises. The best editions ot his works are those of 
 Pamelius in 1 j6S; of Rigaltius in 164S; and of Oxford in 16S2. 
 His works have also been translated into English by Dr. Marshall. 
 CYPUINUS, the Carp', in natural history, a genus of hshes 
 of the order al)dominales. Mouth small and without teeth ; gill 
 membrane, with three rays; ventral fins often, and, perhaps, ge- 
 Nerally nine-rayed. There arc fifty species, of which C. carpio, 
 or the common carp, inhabits tiie Slow and stagnant waters of 
 many countries of Europe, in wlfich it is found extremely to vary 
 in size, from sixteen inches, to the length of three or four lect. In 
 Persia the carp is not unfre*|uently found of this length, and will 
 wei'di from 30 to 40 pounds. It was introduced into England in 
 the ^sixteenth century. It feeds on herbs, worms, and water in- 
 sects: it is extrenielv prolific; the roe having been occasionally 
 found to weigh as n'uich as the real substance of the fish: the 
 principle of vitality in the carp is uncouunonly strong: it may be 
 kept alive in a damp situation for a very considerable time after 
 hein'? taken from the water; and if wrapped in wet moss, and 
 plunged in water every four hours, and led on bread and milk, 
 will not oalv conlinue'to exist, but wiil thrive and fatten: it has 
 been ascertained to live to a very considerable age, when they 
 become completelv white. The carp was classed by the ancients 
 amon" sea-fish; it 'is, however, generally found in ponds and ri- 
 vers ;%nd now considered as a fresh-water hsh. For a variety ol 
 this species, called the large-scaled carp, see Plate LV. 
 
 C.AuRATUS, the GoLDEN'-i-iSH, a small fish domesticated by 
 tlie Chinese, and generally kept for ornament by great people in 
 their courts and gardens. 'Tlioy breed them in small ponds made 
 for the purpose, in basons, and even in porcekiin vessels. This 
 lisli is no larger than our pilchard. The male is of a bright red 
 colour from tiie top of the head to the middle of the body: the 
 rest is of a gold colour ; but it is so bright and splendid, that the 
 finest gildiiig, according to F. le Comte, cannot approach it. The 
 female is white ; but its t.fd and half of its body resemble the lus- 
 tre of silver. F. du llalde, however, observes, that a red and 
 white colour are not always the distinguishing marks of the male 
 and female ; but tlrat the females are knov.n by several white spots 
 which are seen round the orifices tl'.at serve them as organs of 
 hearing, and the males, by liaving these spots much brighter. 
 Gold fish are light and lively ; they love to sport on the surface of 
 the water, soon become faniiliarized, and may be even accus- 
 tomed to come and receive their food on soundmg a small rattle. 
 
 C. Barbus, tlie BftRiiEL, is e.xtremely coarse. They fre<iuent 
 the still and deep parts of rivers, and live in society, rooting like 
 the swine with their noses in the soft banks. They are so tame as 
 to suffer themselves to be taken b\ the hand; and people have 
 been known to take numbers by diving for them. In summer 
 tlie\ move about during the night in search of food; but towards 
 autumn, and during winter, confine themselves to the deepest 
 
 holes. ■ . , , . , , , , , 
 
 C. Brama, the Br.EAM, is an inhabitant of lakes, or the deep 
 parts of still rivers. It is a fish that is very little esteemed, being 
 extreinely insipid. _ a, a c „ r 
 
 C. Ci.i'HALUS, the Cucn, is a very coarse fish and lull of 
 bones. It freciuenls the deep holes of rivers ; and in summer com- 
 monlv lies on the surface, beneath the shade of some tree or bush. 
 
 C.GoBio, theGuDOKON, is generally found in gentle streams, 
 and is of a small size, the largest not exceeding l.alf a pound 
 wei"ht. They bite eagerly ; and are assembled by raking the bed 
 of the river; to this spot they inmicdiately crowd in shoals, in ex- 
 pectation of food. 
 
 C. Levciscus, the Dacf., is gregarious, hau.nts deep stiil waters, 
 is a ''real breeder, very lively, and during summer is very fond of 
 Irolicing near the surface of the water. It never exceeds the 
 V eight of a pound and an half; the scales are smaller than tliose of 
 
 the roach. , ^ , r i ■ 
 
 C. RuTiLus, the PiOACH, is a common lisii tound in many of 
 the deep still rivers of this country. They are gregarious keep- 
 itig in Urge shoals. 
 
 C. TiNCA, the Tench, has by some been called the physician 
 of the fish ; and its slime has been said to be of io h.ealing a nature, 
 that the wounded fishes apply it as a styptic. lu this country it i$ 
 reckoned a w hulesome and delicit/Us luod ; but the Germans are 
 of a different opinion. By way of contempt they call it the shoe- 
 maker. 
 
 CYPRIPEDU'M, the Lady's Supper, hi botany, a genus 
 of the diand.ia order, and gynaiuhia class of plants ; natural order, 
 Orchidea;., Nectarium veutricose, intlateu, hollow. There are 
 five species. 
 
 CYPRUS, an island situated in the Levant, or most easterly 
 part of tlie Mediterranean sea, between 33° and 31)" Ion. E. and 
 oi:>'> and 34" lat. N. It is JL'O miles long, Co broad_, and about GOO 
 in circumference; and is divided from E. to W. by a chain of 
 mountains, the highest of which are St. Croix, Piill'avent, and 
 Olympus. In ancient times this islanil was known by tlie nanit^i 
 of Acamis, iErosa, Amathus, Aspalia, Cerastis, Colniia, Cryptos, 
 Macaria, Paphia, Salaniinia, and bphecia. The name by wliich it 
 was most generally known is Cyprus, said to be derived from Cy- 
 pres, a shrub or tree, with which the island abounded ; supposed 
 to be the cypress. 
 
 Cyprl'S, Kxigiite Of, an order instituted by Guy de Lusig- 
 nan, titular king of .'erusalem, U) whom Richard I. of England, 
 after con<piering Cyprus, made over his riglit. 
 
 CYUEN'AIC.V, an ancient kingdom of Africa, corresponding 
 to till- present kingdom and desert ol I5arca and Tripoli. 
 
 CYKENAICS, a sect of ancient plulosophevs, so called from 
 their founder Aristi|;pus of Cyrene, a disciple of Socrates. See 
 Aristippus. Tlie great principle of their doctrine was, that the 
 supreme good of man in this life is pleasure; whereby they not 
 only meant a privation of pain, and a trancjuillity of mind, but an 
 assemhhige ot all mental and sensual jjleasures, particularly the 
 last. 
 
 C YREN E, in ancient "eography, the capital of Cyrenaica, and 
 one of the five cities called Pentapolis, distant l;oni Apollunia, iti 
 sea-port, 10 miles. 
 
 CYRILL, St. bishop of Jerusalem, succeeded Maxiraus in 
 3J0. He was a;terward.i ileposed for a most praise-worlhy ac- 
 tion; viz. selling the treasures of tlie cluuch, and applying the 
 money to the support of the poor during a great famine. But the 
 spirit (if Antichrist, which led the clergy to prefer the grandeur of 
 the church to the good of the people, was then beginning to work. 
 Under Julian he was restored to his see, and firnily established in 
 all his honours under Theodosius; in which he continued unmo- 
 lested to his death, in 380. The remains of this father consist 
 only of 23 catccheses, and one letter to the emperor Coiislaiitius. 
 
 Cy'Kill, St. patriarch of Alexandria, succeeded Tlieophilus', 
 his uncle, in4l2. Scarce was he installed, when he began to exert 
 his authority with great vigour; he drove the Novations and Jews 
 from Alexandria, permitting their wealth and synagosjues to be 
 taken from them. This proceeding highly displeased Orestes, the 
 governor, who saw, that if the bishop's authority was not soon sup- 
 pressed, it might grow too strong for that oi the magistrate. Upon 
 which a kind of civil war broke out between Orestes and the bi- 
 shop; many tumults were raised, and some battles fought in the 
 very streets of .A-lexandria. ol. Cyrill also distinguislied himself 
 by ills zeal against Nestorius, bishop of Constantinople, who, in 
 some of his homilies, h;;d asserted that the ^'irgm Mary ought not 
 to be called the mother of God. The dispute at first proved un- 
 favourable to Cyrill, whose opinion was not oidy condemned, but 
 himself deprived of his bishopric and thrown into prison. But he 
 was soon after released, and gained a complete victory over Nes- 
 torius, who in 431 was deposed from his see of Constantinople. 
 Cyrill returned to his see at Alexandria, where he died in 444. 
 St. Cyrill also wrote against Theodorus of Mopsuesta, Diodorus 
 of Tarsus, and Julian the apostate, lie composed commeiitaries 
 on St. John's Gospel, and wrote several other books. His works 
 were published in Greek and Latin in !i)3S, in six volumes fuli«. 
 
 C\ Ul'S the Great, the founder of the united empire of the 
 Medes and Persians. The two chief historians, who liave written 
 the life of Cyrus, are Herodotus and Xenophon ; but their ac- 
 counts of him are e.stremely dililerent. The former leils us, that 
 Astyages, king of the Medes, dreamed, that a vine sprung from the 
 womb of his daughter Mandane, the branches w hereof oversf.a- 
 dowed all Asia; whereupon, having consulted the soothsavers, he 
 was told that this dream portended the future power and grealnes's 
 
 of
 
 CYR 
 
 03 
 
 CYT 
 
 of a child who should Ik- bom of \n< diuighU'r; ;iik1 further, that I 
 this child sliouUl de|jrivc hiiii ot his kingdom. Astyagvs, to pre- 
 vent the acconiphshincnt of ll'.is preiiution, married Ins daughter 
 to C;iiTil:)vse>, a IV-rsiaii of mean condition, wlio liad no capacity 
 for loiniinganv important design, nor for supporting tiir- ambition 
 of his son, by his own riches and autiiorily. And h-sl Mandaiie's 
 soil sliou'.d lind that assistance in his own courage, or some lucky 
 circumstances, wliirh his taniilv was tiot able to su))[)ly him with, 
 he cc'Himanded one of his ollicers, named llarpagus, to destroy 
 tlie infant as soon as it came into tiie w.irld. liarpagus, tearing 
 the resentment of M.mdane, put tlie child into tlic hands of one 
 %\'ho was tiio king's siiepherd. The slie|)lierd's wife v.as so ex- 
 tremely touched with the beauty of Cyrus, that she desired her 
 husband rather to expose her own son, who was born some lime 
 before, (a story cipially unnatural and incredible,) and preserve 
 the young prince. Tiius Cyrus svas preserved, and brought up 
 among the king's sheplierds. due day, as the neighbouring chil- 
 tlren were at play together, Cvrus was chosen king; and having 
 punished one of his plav-fellows with some severity, for disobey- 
 ing his commands, the child's parent iom]>lained of t'yrusto As- 
 tyages. '1 his prince sent for young Cyrus, and observing some- 
 thing great in his air, together witii a great resemblance of his 
 daughter Mandane, he made particular inquiry into the matter, 
 and discovered that C'yrus was iiis grandson, llavpagus, who was 
 the instrument ol preerving him, was piniishcd with the death of 
 his own son; but AstsaL'es believing that the royalty which tlie 
 .soothsayers had promised to tlie voung prince, was only that which 
 he had lately exercised among the sliepherds children, laid aside 
 his fears. Cyrus being grown up, liarpagus disclosed the secret 
 of his birth to him, witn llie m.uiner wherein he !iad delivered him 
 from his granc;ialher's crueltv. lie cncourage<l him to come into 
 Media, and promised to furnish him with forces, in order to make 
 him master ot tlie country, and depose Astyages. Cvrus hearken- 
 ed to their propositions, engaged the Persians to take arms against 
 the Medes, marched at the head of them to meet A4yages, de- 
 feated him, and possessed himself oi Meflia. He canieil on many- 
 other wars; and at length sat down before Babylon, which, after a 
 long siege he took. Xenophon's account of Cyrus's Ihe is more 
 credible, and has less of the miraculous in it. Astyages, king of 
 Media, married his daughter Mai.dane (o Cambyses, king of Per- 
 sia, son and successor to Acliamenes. Cyrus was born at his fa- 
 ther's court, and was educated with all the care his birth required. 
 Wl. en he was about the age of 12, his gram Ifathcr Astyages sent 
 for him to Media, together with his mother Mandane. Some 
 time after, the king ot Assyria's son having invaded Media, Asty- 
 ages, with his son Cyaxares, and his grandson C'yrus, m.irclied 
 ugainst him. C'yrus distinguished himself in tliiswar, -.md defeat- 
 ed the Assyrians. Cambyses afterwards recalled him, that he 
 niiglit have him near his own person ; and Astyages dying, his son 
 Cyaxares, uncle by the mother's side to Cyrus, succeeded him in 
 the kingdom ot Media. Cyrus, at the age of 30, was, by his fa- 
 ther Cambyses, made general of the Persian troops; and sent at 
 the head of 30,000 men to the assistance of his untie Cyaxares, 
 whom the king of B..bylon, and his allies, the Cappadocians, Ca- 
 rians, Phrygians, Cilicians, and Paphlagonians, were preparing to 
 attack. Cyaxares and Cyrus prevented them, by tailing upon 
 them and dispei-sing them" Cyrus advanced as far as Babvlon, 
 and spreail terror throughout the country. From this expedition 
 lie returned to his uncle, towards the frontiers of Armenia and As- 
 syria, and was received by Cyaxares in the tent of the Assyrian 
 king whom he had defeated. After this, Cyrus carried the war 
 into the countries beyond the river Halys, entered Cappadocia, 
 and subdued it entirely. From thence he marched against Cro?- 
 sus king of Lydia, beat him in the lirst battle; then besieged liini 
 in Sardii his capital ; and after a siege of 14 days, obliged him to 
 surrender. See Crcesus. After tins, Cyrus 'having almost re- 
 duced all Asia, repassed the Euphrates, and made war upon the 
 Assyrians. He marched directly to Babylon, took it, and there 
 prepared a palace tor his uncle Cyaxares, whither he might retire, 
 if at any time he had an inclination to come to Babylon ; for he 
 was not tnen in the army. After all these expeditious, Cyrus re- 
 turned lo his father and mother into Persia, where they were still 
 living ; and going some time after to his uncle Cyaxares into Me- 
 dia, lie married his cousin, the only daugliter and heiress of all 
 Cyaxares's dominions, and went witliMier to liabylon, from whence 
 he sent men of the lirst rank and quality to govern all tlie several 
 VOL. !l. — no. Cl. 
 
 nations which lie had conquered. Me engaged again in several 
 wars, and subdued all the nations that lie between Syria and the 
 i<ed Sea. He died at the age of.70 years, after a reign of 30 : but 
 authors ditiler very much concerning the manner of his death. 
 Danii'l (viii. 3 — 20.) in the famous vision wherein God shewed 
 him tlie ruin of the four great empires, which were to precede the 
 birth of the Messiah, represents Cyrus, or rather his extensive em- 
 pire, under the idea of " a ram, which hail two horns; the one 
 was higher than the other, and the higher came up last." T he 
 ram's two horns signify the two enqiires which Cyrus united in his 
 person; that of tlii Medes, and that of Ihe Pers"ians. The lattef 
 was greater and more powerful than the former. Cyrus succeeded- 
 his lather Cambyses in the kingdom of Persia, and his uncle Da- 
 rius the Mode, by Xenophon called Cyaxares, in the kingdom of 
 the Medes, and empire of Babylon. He was monarch ot all the 
 East; or as he himself speaks {'2 Chr. xxxvi. 22, 23, and Ezra, i. 
 1, 2.) "of all the earth," when he permitted the Jews to retuin 
 into their own country; A.M. 3466, and B.C. 53S. The ene- 
 mies of the Hebrew sj making use of this prince's affection to his 
 own religion, prevailed with him to put a stop by his orders to thtf 
 building of the temple at Jerusalem; (Ezra iv. 5.) The prophets' 
 Irequcn'tly foretold the coming of Cyrus; and Isaiah (xliv. 2S.) ii 
 so particular as to declare his name above 100 years before his birth. 
 Joseplius (Antiq. I. II. c. 2,) says, that the Jews of Babylon shew- 
 ed this passage of tlie prophet to Cyrus, which is extremely pro- 
 bable: and that this prince, in the 'edict which he granted them 
 for their return, acknowledged that lie received the empire of the 
 world from tlie tJod of Israel; and that the same God had de- 
 scribed him by name in the writings of the prophets; and foretold 
 that he should build a temple to him at Jerusalem. Cyrus is ex- 
 pressly stiled in scripture " the righteous man, the Lord's anoint- 
 ed, and the shepherd ol Israel:" (Isaiah xli. 2, xlv. 1, and xliv. 
 28.) Notwithstanding this, God says of him, (Isa. xlv. 5.) " I 
 girded tliee, though thou hast not known me." And Jeremiah 
 calls Cvrus and his people, who overthrew the Babylonish empire, 
 thieves' and robbers ; as indeed most great conquerors may be 
 justlv stvled. The taking of Babylon by Cyrus, was clearly fore- 
 'told'by'the prophets. Abp. Ussher fixes the birth of Cyrus to 
 A.M. 3403; his lirst year at Babylon to 3466, and his death to 
 347j. The eastern p'eople say, that Cyrus by the mother's side 
 was descended from some of the Hebrew prophets; and that his 
 wife was a Jewess, which they assign as the reasons of his favour- 
 ing the Jews. 
 
 Cyrcis the Younger, son of Darius Nothus, and brother of . 
 Artaxerxes. He was sent by his father at the age of 16, to assist 
 the Lacedemonians against Athens. Artaxerxes succeeded to 
 the throne at the death of Nothus; and Cyrus, mad with am- 
 bition, attempted to assassinate him. He was discovered, aud 
 would have been punished with death, had not his mother Pary- 
 satis saved him by her tears and intreaties. This circumslance did 
 not check the ambition of Cyrus ; he was appointed c ver Lydia 
 and the sea-coasts, where he se'cretly fomented rebellion and levied 
 troojK under various pretences. A't last he took the field with an 
 army of 100,000 barbarians; and 13,000 Greeks under the com- 
 mand of Clearchus. Artaxerxes met him with 900,000 men near 
 Cunaxa. The battle was long and bloody ; and Cyrus might ha\e 
 perliaps obtained the victory, had not h.is uncommon rashness 
 proved his ruin. It is said'tlwt the two royal brothers met in 
 person, and their engagement ended in the death of Cyrus, 401 
 years before the Augustan age. 
 
 CYTHERA, in ancient geography, an island opposite to Boii 
 a town of Laconia ; sacred to N'enus, with a very ancient temple of 
 that goddess. It is now called Cerico. 
 
 Cythera, a town in the above island. It has a good port, 
 called Scandea. 
 
 CYTIIEREA, in mythology, the surname of Venus, so called 
 from Cvthera, her birth place, where she had a temple. 
 
 C YTHEKIADES, an epithet of the Graces who attended Ve- 
 nus on the shore of Cytherea. 
 
 CVTINUS, in botany, a genus of the dodecandria order, and 
 gyiiandria class of plants ; natural order, Sarmeut-ace.t. Calyx 
 q'uadrilid, superior; no corolla ; antherce are 16, sessile ; fruit an 
 oetolocuUir polyspermous berry. One species. 
 
 CiYTlSUS,"LABi'UNv'M, a' genus of the decandria order, and 
 diadclphia class of plants ; natural order, Papilionacca-. CalvM 
 bil-ibiatcd, with the upper lip bifid; inferior, trideiitale ; leguinen 
 ' 2 Q attenuated
 
 C ZA 
 
 94 
 
 c zu 
 
 iitteiuiateil at the base. Eighteuii species, sliruljs witliout spine; 
 most of them proper for plantations. 
 
 CYZICUM, ill ancient geography, an island ofllie Propontis, 
 on the coast of iMjsia. 
 
 Cyzicijm, or t'Y^icus, one of llie noblest cities of the Hilhcr 
 Asia; situatetl in the above island. It was a colony of the Mile- 
 sians, and is famous for its siege by Mithridates, wiiich was raised 
 by I.viciilliis. 
 
 CZACKTIIURN, a town of Germany, in Anstria, near the 
 frontiers of IJnngarv. It seems to be the 'same with Csakathnrn 
 Lon. 17. 19. E. Lat. 40. 24. N'. 
 
 CZACSAN ICII, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of Brac- 
 law ; ,)S miles ',i. of Braclaw. 
 
 CZAR, £a Sclavonian word, written more properly /lor,] lli 
 title of the emperor of R ussia. 
 
 C^.vR is pronounced ;:(;;•, or zafir, by the Russians; and this, 
 by corruption (it has been fanci(;d) from Ctc.sar, emperor, from 
 some imagined relation to the Roman emperors. But this elymo- 
 logy does not seem correct. \Vlien the Czar Peter formaliy re- 
 ijiiired of the European courts an acknowledgment of his imperial 
 titles, and that the appellation of Em|jerorsliouid never be omitted, 
 lliere was great difficulty made about it, especially at the court of 
 Vieinia. At the same lime it occasioned a curious controvers) 
 among the learned, concerning the rise and progress of the titles by 
 which the monarchs of this country have been distiriguisbed. 
 From their researches, it appearetl that the early sovereigns of 
 Kussia were called great dukes, and that Vassili "Ivanovitch was 
 probably the first who styled himself tzar, an expression which, in 
 the Sclavonian language, signifies Ai«g-; and that his successor> 
 continued to bear, within their own dominions, that title, as the 
 most honourable appellation, until Peter the Great first took that 
 of Povelitel, or emperor. After many delays and objections, the 
 
 ininci|)al courts of Europe consented, about 1772, to address the 
 sovereign of Russia with the title of Emperor ; without prejudice, 
 nevertheless, to the other crowned heads of Europe. 
 
 CZARN'OKOZYN ECZI 1':, a town of Poland, in the palatinate 
 of Kaminier ; 12 miles \V. of Kaminiec. 
 
 CZAbLAU, or TCflASLAU, a circle of Bohemia. 
 
 CzASLAU, the capital of the above circle, 42 miles E. S. E. of 
 Prague. 
 
 C'ZKNSTOKOW, or CZESTOCHOW, a town of Poland, in 
 Ihe palatinate of Cracovia, with a fort, ia which they keep a ricli 
 treasure, called the treasure of the Virgin Mary. 'The town i» 
 situated on the river in Warte, 50 miles N. N. \V. of Cracow. 
 
 CZERMC CZERXICK, orCZlRNlTZ, a town of Ger- 
 many, ill the circle of Austria, and piovince of Carmola. 
 
 CZERNIGOF, orCZERNlKOU, a duchy of Russia; alsa 
 the capital of the duchy, 76 miles N. by E. of Kiow. 
 
 CZIUNI'IZER Zkf., a very e.Ntiaordinary lake of Austria, in 
 Carniola, 15 miles long and five broad, which annually produces 
 both fish and corn: for in summvr being dry, its bottom is culti- 
 vated, and it produces corn, grass, &c. ; but about the ?9th of 
 September the water rushes in from several subterraneous passages, 
 tlinjugh large apertures; wliich with tiie rains and streams that fall 
 from the mountains, quickly fill it again for the winter season. 
 Thc-e subterraneous passages are probably connected with some 
 gulf, the ebbing or flowing oi whose waters depend upon periodicai 
 winds or currents. 
 
 CZONGRODT, aterrilory of Upper Hungary. 
 
 CzoNGRODT, the capital of the territory. Lon. 20. 17. E. Lat.- 
 46. 50. N. 
 
 CZUDNOW, a town of Poland, in that jiart of the Ukraine*, 
 seized by Catherine II. in 1793, and amiexed to Russia. 
 
 D 
 
 DIs a consonant nearly approaching hi sound toT, but formed 
 by a stronger appulse of the tongue, to the upper part of the 
 mouth. The sound of D in English is uniform, and it is never 
 mute. It is the lourth of the alphabet, and the third consonant. 
 Grammarians generally reckon D among the lingual letters, as 
 supposing the tongue to have the principal share in ihe pronuncia- 
 tion thereof; tlio' the Abbot de Dangeau seems to have reason in 
 ranking it with those of the palate. The letter D is tlie fourth in 
 the Hebrew, Chaldee, Samaritan, Syriac, Greek, and Latin 
 alphabets ; in the five first of which languages it has nearly the 
 same name; e.g. in Hebrew, Chaldee, and Samaritan, Daletli, in 
 Syx'ac DoUth, and in Greek Delta. The form of our D is the 
 same with that of the Latins, as appears from all the ancient 
 medals and inscriptions; and the Latin D is only the Greek ^, 
 rounded a little by making it quicker and at two strokes. The a 
 of the Greeks, again, is borrowed from the ancient tharacler of 
 the Hebrew Daletb ; which form it still retains, as is shewn by the 
 .lesuit Souciet, in his Dissertation on the Samaritan Medals." As 
 anumeral, D signifies 500; D, with a dash or line above it thus 
 D, denotes 5000. As an abbreviation, D, has various significa- 
 tions: thus D stands for Doctor; as, \L D. for Doctor ot Medi- 
 cine ; D. T, Doctor of Theology ; D. D. Doctor of Divinity, 
 or dono dedit ; D. D. D. dat, dicat, dedicat ; and D. D. D. D. 
 for dignum Deo donum dedit. 
 
 DA, in music books, signifies for or by. 
 
 D.'\B. See Pleuronectes. 
 
 I)ABUL,a to\vn of llindostan, on the coast of Malabar, S. of the 
 gulf of Cambayp, 75 miles S. W. of Bombay. 
 
 DACCA, a city of llindostan, in the E. quarter of Bengal, seated 
 on a branch of the Ganges. Dacca is lt)0 miles. "N. E. of 
 Calcutta. 
 
 DACE is a species of Cyprinus, which see. 
 
 DACHAU, or DACHAVV, a town of Bavaria in Germany. 
 
 Lon. 11. 30. E. Lat. 48. 20 N. 
 
 DACHSTEIN, a town of France, in the department of the 
 Lower Rhine, 8 miles W. of Strasburg. 
 
 DAC1.\, in ancient geography, a country which Trajan, who 
 reduced it to a province, joineil to Moesia by an admirable briilge. 
 This country lies extended between tlie Danube and the Carpa- 
 thian mountains, from the river Tifaiscus, quite to the N. bend of 
 the Danube. 
 
 Dacia Ac'rei.ian'A, a part of ancient Illyricum, which was dir 
 vided into. the eastern and western; Siruiium being tlie capital of 
 the latter, and Sardica of the former. 
 
 DACl EH.An'duew, a learned Frenchman, was born of Protes- 
 tant parents at Castrcs, in 1651, and educated at Saiimur under 
 Tanaquil Faber, or Le Fevre, whose learned daughter he married. 
 He published at Paris, in UiSl, an eilition ofPompiius Festus, 
 for the use of the dauphin. His translation o! Horace came out 
 the same year. In Ibyl he published his transUition of the re- 
 flections of Marcus Antoninus; and the next year Aristotle's 
 Poetics. For his services to literature he was appointed perpetual 
 secretary to Ihe academy, rewarded with a pension of 2000 livres, 
 and made keeper of the cabinet of the Louvre. He died in 1723. 
 Daeier and his wife renounced the Protestant religion in 1685. 
 Besides the works abovementioned, he tr.uislated the works of 
 Plato into French ; the Lives of Plutarch; the Manual of Epicte- 
 tus; &:g. 
 
 DAciER,AN'NE,wifeof the preceding, and daughter of Le Fevre, 
 professor of Greek at Sauniur, where she was born in lt)5I. Her 
 father discovering her turn for learning, gave lier a liberal educa- 
 tion. In 1074 she published an edition of Callimachus, which 
 
 gave
 
 D AC 
 
 95 
 
 1) JF. M 
 
 £;avo so imich satisfaction, that she was piiiployeil to prppare 
 I'.litions of Latin authors for the dauphin, the lirsl of which was 
 Floras. In 16S1 she published a translation of Anacrcon and Sap- 
 pho, which was followed by versions ol some of I'lautns's comedies, 
 and of the I'liitus and Clouds of Aristophanes. In 1()83 she mar- 
 ried M. Daeier, and soon alter they renounced the Protestant re- 
 ligion. In 1711 appeared her translation of the Iliad; ami in 1714 
 she defended llouifr ai^ainst M. de la Motte, in a book, entitled 
 The Causes of the Corruption of Taste; this was followed in 17H) 
 by another against father Uardouin. The >aine year was printed 
 her version of the Odyssey, which closed her literary labours. 
 She died in 1720. She had two daughters and a son. One of the 
 daughters became a nun, the other died at the age of 18, and the 
 son when he was a child. Madame Daeier was as remarkable for 
 lier modesty as her erudition. A learned German having paiil 
 Jier a visit, begged tliat she vvouUl write her name and a sentence 
 in his book. She excused herself as long as she could, but being 
 strongly importuned she com|)lied, and added to her signature a 
 verse from Sophocles, importing that silence is the ornament of the 
 temale sex. 
 
 DACRYDIUM, in pharmacy, the juice of scaiiiony, prepared 
 and hardened in a quince made hollow; called also Lachrvmula. 
 
 DACRYODES, or DACRYOIOES, [from fe=v, a tear, and 
 t7i®', form,] a name given to ulcers, which coutinually yield a 
 putrid matter, resembling tears. 
 
 D.VCTYLE, [i-ixTi.*/^, a linger,] a poetical foot consisting of 
 one long syllable and two short, like the joints of a finger ; as can- 
 didus, "i; fM-j. The dactyle is said to be the invention of Diony- 
 sius or Bacchus, who delivered oracles in this measure at Delphos, 
 before Apollo. The Greeks call it otoXitjx-.;. The dactyl and 
 spondee arc the most considerable of the poetical feet : as being 
 the measures used in heroic verse, by Homer, Virgil, etc. These 
 two are of equal time, but not equal motion. 'I'he spondee has 
 an even, strong, and steady pace, like a trot : the dactyl resembles 
 the nimble strokes of a gallop. 
 
 DACTYLETURA, or DACTYLITHRA,Digitale, a me- 
 dicine used by the ancient physicians, to excite vomiting. 
 
 DACrVLIC \'erses are hexameter verses, ending in a dactyl 
 instead of a spondee ; as Spondaic Vcncs are those which have a 
 spondee in the filth foot instead of a dactyl. An instance of a 
 dactylic verse occure in Virgil; lEn. vi. 33. 
 
 Bis patria; cecidere manus : qtiin protinus omnia. 
 
 D.VCTYLI lojEi, [7. d. the Fingers of Mount Ida,] in Pagan 
 mythology, are personages very differently described by ancient 
 authois. The Cretans paid divine worship to them, as to tho<e 
 vho had nursed and brought up the god Jupiter; whence it ap- 
 ])ears, that they were the same as the Corybantes and Cuietes. 
 Nevertheless Strabo makes them different ; and says, that the tra- 
 dition in Phrygia was, that the " Curctes and Corybantes were 
 descended from tlie Dactyli Idi-i: that there were originally 100 
 men in the island, who were called Dactyli Idiei ; from whom 
 sprang nine Curetes, and each of these nine produced ten men, as 
 many as the fingers of a man's two hands: and that this gave the 
 name to the ancestors of thi- Dactyli Idjei." He relates anotlier 
 opinion, w hich is, that there were but five Dactyli Ida-i ; who, ac- 
 cording to Sophocles, were the inventors of iron : that these five 
 brothers had five sisters, and that from this number they took the 
 name of fingers of mount Ida, because lliey were in number ten ; 
 and that they worked at Ihe foot of this mountain. 
 
 DACTYlJOMANCY, or DACTYLIO.MANTIA, [from 
 JaxTuX®', a ring, and (xkvtj.'i, divination,] a sort of divination per- 
 formed by means of a ring. It consisted in holding a ring, sus- 
 pended by a line thread, over a round table, on the edge whereof 
 Were made divers marks with the letters of the alphabet. The 
 ring in shaking, or vilnating over tlie table, stopped over certain 
 of the letters, which, being joined together, composed the answer 
 required. 
 
 DACTYLIS^ Cock's-Foot Gr.^ss, a genus of the digv- 
 nia order, and triandria class of plants; natural order, Gramina.' 
 Calyx bivi'lved, com])rcssed, with the one valve longer than the 
 other, carinated, or having the rachis prominent and sharp. Tliere 
 are seven species. 
 
 DACTYLOGY, [from ii-iny.^, a finger, and >.i).^, a dis- 
 course,] the art of communicating our thoughts by signs made by 
 the fmcers. 
 
 DACTYLGNOMIA, or DAC lYLON'OM Y, [from ^i*-' 
 rvh(^, and vi/A.^, a rule,] the art of numbering by the fingen. 
 The rule is this; The lelt thumb is reckoned one ; "the index or 
 lore-linger two ; and so on to the right thnmo, which stands for the 
 cypher. 
 
 DAC'TYLUS, in antiquity, a dance among the Greeks, chiefly 
 performed, Ilesycliius observes, by the athletx. 
 
 Dactylls, in poetry. Sec Dactvi.I';. 
 
 DADO, [Ital.] in architecture, the plain part between the base 
 and cornice of a column : the dye. 
 
 DADUCHI, [re'i .''rtoax,,«>, toicli-bearers,] in antiquity, priests 
 of Ceres. The goddess having lost her <laughter Proserpine, say 
 niythologists, began to make search for her at the beginning of the 
 night. In order to do this in the dark, she lighted a torch, and 
 thus set fortii on her travels tliroughout the world : for w hich reason 
 she is represented with a lighted torch in her hand. In coni- 
 niemoralion of this pretended exploit, it became a custom for- 
 the prfests, at the feasts and sacrifices of this goddess, to run about 
 in the leni|)le, with torches after this manner ; one of tliein took a 
 liglited torch from off the altar, and liolding it with his hand, ran 
 With it to a certain part, of the temple, where he gave it to another, 
 saying to him, Tibi trado; this second ran after the like manner 
 to another part of temple, and gave it to tlie third, and so of the 
 rest . 
 
 D.EDALA, two festivals in Boeotia ; one of them observed in 
 Alalcomenos by the Platscans in a large grove, where they exposed. 
 Ill the oi)en air pieces of boileJ flesh, and carefully observed 
 whether the crows that came to prey upon them directed tlicir 
 flight. All the trees upon which any of these alighted were imnicdia- 
 ately cut down, and with them statues were made, called D;edala, 
 in honour of Da;dalus;. The otlier festival was of a more solemn, 
 kind. It was celebrated every sixty years by all tlie cities of 
 Ba-otia, as a compensation for the intermission of the smaller festi- 
 vals, for that number of years, during the exile of the Platseans. 
 
 D.EDALUS, in fabulous history, the son of Eupalamus, de- 
 scended from Erechtheus king of Athens. He was the most -in- 
 genious artist of his age; and to him we are indebted for the in- 
 vention of tlie wedge, with many other mechanical instruments, 
 and the sails cf ships. He made statues which moved of them- 
 selves, and seemed to be endowed with life. Talus his sister's son 
 promised to be as great as himself by the ingenuity of his inven- 
 tions; and therefore from envy he threw him down from a win- 
 dow and killed him. After this murder, D.rdalus, with his son 
 Icarus, fled from Athens to Crete, where Minos gave him a cor- 
 dial reception. DLsdalus made a famous labyrinth for Minos, and 
 assisted Pasiphac the queen, to gratify her unnatural passion for a 
 bull. For this action Da"dalns incurred the displeasure of Minos, 
 who ordered him to be confined in the labyrinth which lie hail 
 constructed. Here he made himself wings with feathers and 
 wa-x, and carefully fitted them to his body and that of his son, who 
 was the companion of his confinement. They took their flight in 
 the air from Crete; but tlie heat of the sun melted the wax on the 
 wings of Icarus, whose flight was too high, and he fell into that 
 part of the ocean, which from him has been called the Icarian Sea. 
 The father by a proper management of his wings alighted at Cuma?, 
 where he built a temple to Apollo, and thence directed hi . course 
 to Sicily, where he was kindly received by Cocalu?, who reigned 
 over p;n-t of the connti-y. 
 
 DjEDIS, [from i'a&r, a torch,] in Grecian antiquity, a solemn 
 festival, that lasted three days during w hich the torches were con- 
 stantly keep burning. 
 
 D.F.MON, [Sua; ^ Air,aio»,] a name given by the ancients, to 
 certain spirits or genii, which appeared to men, either to do them 
 service or to hurt them. The word is derived (according to Plato, 
 in his Cratylus, p.' 398. ed. Scrrani, vol. i.) irom ia:;/xa;v7 knowing 
 or intelligent: but according to otliers from Sc.iojj.ti, to distribute. 
 Either of these derivations agree with the office ascribed to da-inons 
 by the ancient healhens, as the spirit entru^ted with the ins|icction 
 and government of mankind. For, according to the philosophers, 
 d.Tmoiis held a middle rank between the celestial gods and men on 
 earth, and carried on all intercourse between them ; conveying the 
 addresses of men to the gods, and the divine benefits to nien'. It 
 was the opinion of many, that the celestial divinities did not 
 themselves interpose in human affairs, but committed the entire 
 administration of the goveiHmc4it of this lower woilJ to these sub- 
 ■ ■'' altera
 
 DtEM 
 
 05 
 
 D JE M 
 
 alteru tlt;itii>. Hence Ihey became the objects of idokitrou? 
 woi'ihip. Hesiocl and other poets, wlio liave recorded tlie ancient 
 history of traditions, on which the public faith and worship were 
 founded, assert, that the men of the golden age, who were sup- 
 posed to be very good, became daemons after death, and dispen- 
 sers of good things to mankind. Though da-nion is often used in 
 a general sense, as equivalent to a deity, and is accordingly ap- 
 plied to fate or fortune, or w hatcver else was regarded as a god ; 
 yet these d:cmons wlio were' tlie more immediate objects of wor- 
 f !'iip amongst tb.e heathens were human spirits : as is shewn by 
 i''armei'/)n ivJiracles, chap. iii. sect. 3. The word dsmon is used 
 inditlerently in a good and in a bad sense. In the former sense, 
 it was very commonly used among the ancient heathens. But 
 tiiey are mistaken wlio aftirm, that ri.Tmon never signihed an evil 
 being till after the time, of Christ. Pythagorasjieh! that da-mons 
 sent diseases to men and cattle. (Diogen. Laert. V'it. Pjthag.) 
 Zaleucus, m his preface to his Laws, supposes that an evil da;mon 
 might be present with a man, to influence him to justice. The 
 d.Tiuons of Empedocles were evil spirits, and exiles from heaven. 
 And Plutarch in his life of Dion says, " It was the opinion of the 
 ajicients, that evil and mischievous ditmons, out of envy and 
 hatred to good men, oppose whatever they do." Scarce did any 
 opinioii more generally prevail in ancient tim.es than this, viz. that 
 as the departed souls of good men became good da:mons, so the 
 departed souls of bad men became evil da;mons. It has been 
 generallv thought, that by daemons we are to understand devils, in 
 the Sept'uagint version of the Old Testament. Others think the word 
 is in that version applied to the ghosts of such dead men as the 
 heatliens deilied. That dsmon often bears the same meaning in 
 the New Testament, and particularly in Acts xvii. 18. 1 Cor. x. 
 21. 1 Tim. iv. 1. Rev. ix. 20. is shewn at large by Mr. Joseph 
 Mcde. (See his Works, p. 62j. et seq.') That the word is ap- 
 plied always to human spirits in tlie New Testament, Mr. Farmer 
 has attempted to shew in his Essay on Demoniacs., p. 203, et seq. 
 As to the meaning of the word d;emon in the fathers of the Chris- 
 tian church, it is used by them in the same sense as it was by the 
 heathen philosophers, especially the latter Platonists ; that is, some- 
 times for departed human spirits, and at other times for such spirits 
 as had never inhabited human bodies. In the fathers indeed the 
 word is more commonly taken in an evil sense, than in tlie ancient 
 philosophers. Besides the two forcmentioned kinds of daemons, 
 the fathers, as well as the ancient philosophers, held a third, viz. 
 such as sprang from the congress of superior beings w itb the daugh- 
 ters of men. In the theology of the fathers, these were the worst 
 kind of diemons. Different orders of dsmons had different stations 
 and employments assigned them by tlie ancients. Good da;mons 
 were considered as the authors of good to mankind ; evil diemons 
 brought innumerable evils both upon men and beasts. Amongst [ 
 evil dsmons there was a great distinction with respect to the olilces j 
 assigned them ; some compelled men to wickedness, others stimu- ' 
 latedthem to madness. See Demoniac. 
 
 DjKMONES, among ancient medical authors, diseases, which 
 could not be .issigned to any natural cause, and proceeded, or were 
 supposed to proceed, from the inlhience or possession of the devil. 
 See DiEMoNiACS. 
 
 DjEMON IAC, [from dcemoii,'] a human being whose volition 
 and other mental faculties are overpowered and restrained, and his 
 body possessed and actuated, by some created spiritual being of 
 superior power. The Greeks and Romans imagined, that their 
 deities, to reveal future events, frequently entered into the pro- 
 phet or prophetess who was consulted, overpowered Iheir faculties, 
 and uttered responses with their organs of speech. Apollo w;is 
 believed to enter into the Pythoness, and to dictate the prophetic 
 answers received by those who consulted her. 0;!ier oracles be- 
 sides that of Delphi were supposed to imfoid futurity by the same 
 machinery. And in various other cases, either malignant damons 
 or benevolent deities were thought to enter itito and to actuate 
 luiman beings. The Lvmphatici, the Cerriti, the Larvati, of the 
 Komans, were all of this description ; and the Greeks, by the use 
 of the word datij.mt<^iij.:m, shew lliat tlity rcfenvd lo this cause the 
 origin of madness. Among the ancient healhens, therefore, it a])- 
 pears to have been a generally received opinion, lliat superior 
 beings entered occasionally into men, overpowered the faculties 
 of their minds, and actuated their bodily organs. 
 
 D.'EMONiAcs, Argi'mfnts AC ainstthe flxisTENCE Of. Those 
 who are unw iUiug to allow that angels or devils have ever intermed- 
 
 dled with the concerns of human life, urge a number of s])ecious 
 arguments. The Greeks and Romans of old, say they, did lie- 
 iieve in the reality of da;moniacal possession. They supposed 
 that spiritual beings did at times enter into the sons or daughtei-s 
 of men, and distinguish themselves in that situation by capricious 
 freaks, deeds of wanton miscliief, or prophetic enunciations. But 
 in the instances in which they supposed this to happen, it is evi- 
 dent that no such thing took place. Their accounts of the state 
 and conduct of those persons whom they believed to be possessed 
 in this supernatural manner, shew plainly tiiat what they ascribed 
 to the influence of diemons were merely the effects of natural 
 iliseases. Whatever tliey relate concerning the larvati, the cerrili, 
 and the lymphatici, shews that these were merely people dis- 
 ordered in mind, in the same unfortunate situation with those mad- 
 men and idiots and melancholy persons w liom we have among 
 ourselves. Feslus describes the Larvati as being furiosi et men- 
 temoti. Plato, in his Tinia'us, says, t"5i!f yij 'no-j; If/i-nhrat lurwrixij 
 rM^a;. Luciau describes demoniacs as lunatic, and as start- 
 ing with their eyes, foaming at the mouth, and being speechless. 
 It appears still more evidently, that all the persons spoken of as po.s- 
 sessed with devils in the New Testiiment, were either mad or epi- 
 leptic, and precisely in the same condition with the madmen and 
 epileptics of modern liines. The Jews, among other re|)roaches 
 which they threw out against our Saviour, said. " He h.ith a 
 devil, and is mad; why hear ye him.'" 1 he expressions he hath 
 a devil, and is mad, were certainly used on this occasion as svno- 
 nyiuous. With all their virulence, they would not surely ascribe 
 to him at once two things that were inconsistent and contradictory. 
 Those who thought more favourably of the chaiacier of Jesus, 
 asserted concerning his discourses, in reply to his adversaries. 
 These are not the words of him that hath a dajmon ; meaning, no 
 doubt, that he spoke in a more rational manner than a madman 
 could be expected to speak. The Jews appear to have ascribed 
 to the influence of daemons, not only that species of maones-> in 
 which the patient is raving and furious, but also melan<lioly mad- 
 ness. Of John, who secluded iiimself from interci>Brse wilii the 
 world, and w'as distinguislied ior abstinence and acts of mortili- 
 cation, th.ey said. He hath a daemon. The youth, whose falhrr 
 ap])lied to Jesus to tree him from an evil spirit, describing his un- 
 happy condition in these words. " Have mercy on my son tor he 
 is lunatic, and sore vexed with a da;mon : for oft-times he falleth 
 into the hre, and oft into the water," was plainly epileptic. Every 
 thing indeed that is related in the New 'I'estament concerning 
 daimoniacs, proves that they were people affected with such natu- 
 ral diseases as are far from being uncommon among mankind in the 
 |)resent age. When the synqitoms of disorders cured by our 
 Saviour and his apostles as cases of da-moniacal possession, cor- 
 respond so exactly with those of diseases well known as natural in 
 the present age, it would be absurd to impute them to a super- 
 natural cause. It is much more consistent with common sense 
 and sound philosophy to suppose, that our Saviour and his apostles 
 wisely, and with that condescension to the weakness and prejudices 
 of those with whom they conversed, which so eminently distin- 
 guished the character of the author of our holy religion, and must 
 always be a prominent feature in the character of the true Christian, 
 adopted the vulgar language in speaking of those unfortunate per- 
 sons who were groundlessly imagined to be possessed with da;- 
 inons, though they well knew the notions which had given rise to 
 such modes of expression to be ill-founded, than to imagine that 
 diseases which arise at present from natural causes, were produced 
 in days of old by the intervention of da:mons, or that evil spirits 
 still continue to enter into mankind in all cases of madness, melan- 
 choly, or apileps-y. Besides, it is by no means a sufficient reason 
 for receiving any doctrine as true, that it has been generally re- 
 ceived through the world. Error, like an epidemical disease, is 
 communicated from one to another. In certain circumstances 
 too, the inlluence of imagin.ition predominates, and testr.iiiis the 
 exertions of reason. Many false opinions have extendi'd their in- 
 iluence through a very wide circle, and luaiRtained it long. On 
 every such occasion as the present, therefore it becomes us to en- 
 (piire, not so much how generally any opinion has been received, 
 or how long it has prevailed, as ironi what cause it has originated, 
 and on what evidence it rests. When we contemplate the frame 
 of nature, we behold a grand and beautiful simplicity prevaihne 
 through the whole. Notwitlist;nding its immense extent, and 
 though it contains such numbcrlesi diversities of being: yet tlic 
 
 simplest
 
 D m M 
 
 i)7 
 
 J) AI 
 
 giiiiplest niacliinecoiistriicti'd by human art does not disphiy greater 
 simplicity, or an liappier connection of parts. We may theretoro 
 inter, by analogy, irom what is ol)Sfrval)le of the order of nature in 
 general to the present case ; that to permit evil spirits to inter- 
 meddle witii the concerns of human liie, would be to !)rfak 
 through that order which the Deity appears to have establiilied 
 through his works; it would be to introduce a degret' of confu^ioil 
 unworthy of the wisdom of Divine Providence. 
 
 D.«;;uoNiAC5, Akgumenis for thk Existence of. In op- 
 position to these arguments the following are urged by the Da^mon- 
 lanists. In the days of oin- Saviour, it would appear that dxmon- 
 iacal possession wa.s very frequent among th.e Jews and the neigh- 
 bouring nations. Man5' were the evil spirits whom Jesus is related 
 In the gospels to have ejected from patients thai were brought 
 unto him as possessed and tormented by those nialevolei;t daemons. 
 His apostles too, and the lirst Christians, wlio were most active 
 and successful in the propagation of Christianity, appear to have 
 often exerted the miraculous powers with which they were en- 
 flowed on similar occasions. 'J'he da;mons displa\ ed a degree of 
 knowledge and malevolence which sufficiently d'istinguisli them 
 from human beings : and the language in whicii the dicmoniacs are 
 inenlioned, and the actions and sentiments ascrib<d lo them in the 
 New Testament, shew that our Saviour and his apostles did not 
 cousider the idea of da;moniacal possession as being merely a vulgar 
 error concerinng the origin of a disease or diseases produced by 
 natural causes. 'I'he more enlightened cannot always avoid tlie 
 use of metaphorical modes of expression ; wliich though founded 
 upon error, yet have been so established in language by the in- 
 fluence of custom, that they cannot be suddenly dismissed. But 
 in descriptions of characters, in the narration ot facts, and in the 
 laying down of systems of doctrine, we require dilt'erent rules to be 
 observed. Sliould any person, in compliance with popular opi- 
 mions, talk in serious language of the exi-lence, dispositions, de- 
 clarations, and actions, of a race of beings whom he knew to be ab- 
 solutely fabulous, we surely could not praise him for integrity ; 
 we must suppose liim to be eitlier exulting in irony over the weak 
 credulity ol those around him, or taking advantage of their weak- 
 Bess, with the dishonesty and the sellisU views of an impostor. 
 And if he himself should pretend to any connection with this ima- 
 ginary system of beings ; and should claim in consequence of his 
 connection with them, particular honours from his contempora- 
 ries; whatever micht be die dignity of his character in all other 
 respects, nobody could hesitate to brand him as an impostor. In 
 this light must we regard the conduct of our Saviour and his apos- 
 tles, if the idea of dtcmoniacal possession were to be considered 
 merely as a vulgar error. They taUced and acted as if they be- 
 lieved that evil spirits had actually entered into those who were 
 brouglit to them as possessed with devils, and as if those spirits had 
 been actually expelled by their authority out of the unhappy per- 
 sons whom they had possessed. They demanded too, to have their 
 possessions and declarations believed, in consequence of their per- 
 forming such niighty works, and having thus triumphed over the 
 powers of hell. The reality of demoniacal possession stands upon 
 the same evidence with the gospel system in general. Nor is there 
 any thing unreasonable in this doctrine. It dees not appear to 
 contradict those ideas, which the general api^earames of nature and 
 the serie? of events, suggest, concerning the benevolence and wis- 
 dom of the Deity, by which he regulates the affairs of the uni- 
 verse. We often fancy ourselves able to comprehend things to 
 which our understanding is wholly inadequate ; we persuade our- 
 selves, at times, tliat the whole extent ot the works of the Deity 
 must be well known to us, and that his designs must always be 
 such as we can t'athom. We are then ready, whenever any dif- 
 ficulty arises to us, in considering the conduct of Providence, to 
 model things ac<ording to our own ideas; to deny that the Dcitv 
 can possibly be the author of things which we cannot reconcile ; 
 and to assert, that he must act on every occasion in a manner con- 
 sistent with our narrow views. This is the pride of reason ; and 
 it seems to have suggested the strongest objei lions that have 
 been at any time urged against the reality of d.vmouiacal posses- 
 sion. But the Deity may surely connect one order of his crea- 
 tures with .inother. We perceive mutual relations and a beautiful 
 connection to prevail through all that part of nature wliich falls 
 within the sphere of our observation. Ihe inferior animals ate 
 connected with mankiiul, and subjected to their authority, not 
 VOL. n.— wo. 6v'. 
 
 only in instances in whicli it is exerted for Iheir advantage, but 
 even w here if is tyrannically abused to their deslruclioa. Ainoni* 
 the evil to which mankind Ivave been sul>jected, wlrj might not 
 (heir being liable to da;nioniacal possession be one ? While the 
 Su|)reme Being retains the sovereignty of (hf universe, he mjy 
 employ whatever agents he thinks proper iii the execution of his 
 purposes: he may either (ommission an angel, or let luo<e a devil j 
 as well as bend the hun>an will, or commr.ni' ale any particular 
 impulse to malter. All that revelttii-.n makes known, nil that 
 human reason can conjecture, conccrnaig tiie existence of various 
 orders of spiritual beings, good and bad, is perfectly consistent 
 with, end even favourable to, the doctiine oi da-inoniacal posses- 
 sion. It is menlioaed in the New Testament in such, language, 
 and such narratives are related conccniing it, that the go'pels 
 cannot well bo regarded in any otlier ligiit than as pieces of im- 
 posture, and Jesus ("hrisl must be considered as a iiisn who tc^k 
 advantage of the weakness and ign'^rapcc of his contemporaries, if 
 this doctrine be nothing but a vulgar error ; it teaches nothing 
 inconsistent with Che general conduct of i'rovidencc. In shart, it 
 is not the caution of philosopliy, but the pride of reason, that sug- 
 gests olijections a.gair.st this doctrine. 
 
 ]J).EMoNiA(:s. in cliuich history, a brancii of the Anabaptists ; 
 whose '.listinguishing tenet is, that the devils Shall be saved at the 
 end of the world. 
 
 DAFFODIL, in botany. See Narcissus. 
 
 DAGIIES IAN, a province of Asia, bounded bv Circassia oii 
 the N. ; by the Caspian sea on the E. ; by Schivvan, in Persia, on 
 the S. ; and by mount Caucasus and Cieorgia on the W. Its 
 chief towns arc Tarku aiul Doiiient, both situated on tlie Caspian 
 Sea.^ It is inhabited by Tartars, who are subject t» Russia. 
 
 Dagtstan, a town of Persia, 240 miles N. W. of Meschid. 
 
 DAGNO, a town of Turkey in Europe, in Albania, 13 miles 
 S. E. of Scutari. 
 
 DAGO, or DAGHO, an island in the Baltic Sea, on the coa?f 
 of Livonia, between the gulf of Finland and Riga. 
 
 DAGOiN, the idol of Ashdod or -Vzotus. He is coinnionlv re- 
 presented as a monster, half man and half lish ; whence most learn- 
 ed meji derive the name from the Hebrew i1, (log, which signi- 
 fies " a lish." Those who make liim to have been the inventuC'pf 
 bread corn, derive his name from the Hebrew, ^^^, Dagnn, sigiii^ 
 tying corn ; whence Philo-Biblius calls hiin 7.!u; a.;'6T5'i®', Jupiter 
 Aralrius. This deity continued to have a temple at Ashdod to 
 the time of the Maccabees: for the author of the first book of 
 Maccabees tells us, that "Jonathan, one of the .Maccabees, hav- 
 ing beaten the army of Apollonius, Demetrius's general, they fled 
 to Azotus, and entered into Bethdagon (the temple of their idol ;) 
 but Jonathan set fire to Azotus, and burnt tlie temple of Dagoii, 
 and all those who were tied into it." Dagnn according to some 
 was the same with Jupiter, according to others Saturn or Venus ; 
 but according to most Neptune. 
 
 DAC^YS.V, in zoology, a genus of the vermes mollusca. Body 
 loose, nayant, angular, tubular, and open at each extremitv. One 
 species, viz. D. notata, found in the Spanish sea, is aboiit thiee 
 inches long and one thick. This genus is very like the Salpa, 
 whicli see. 
 
 DAHllLAK, DALAKA, or DALACCA, an island in the 
 Red Sea, near the coast of Abvssinia, about C3 leagues in length, 
 and four in breadth, celebrated for its pearl tishery. 
 
 D.VHL, or DAL, a river of Sweden, which runs through the 
 provinces of Dalecarlia and Gcslricia, and falls into the gulph of 
 bothnia. 
 
 DAliOME, DAHOMY, or DAUM A, a kingdom of Africa, 
 on the coast of Guinea, N. of Whidali. It is said to extend from 
 I jO to 200 miles inland. The soil is rich, and producis all the 
 tropical fruits and vegetables. There is not a stone to be found as 
 large as an egg in this gouiitry, so far as Europeans have hitherto 
 travelled. 
 
 DAIRI, or DAIRO, in Japan, is the sovereign pontiff of the 
 Japanese ; or, according to Kicmpfer, the hereditary ecclesiastical 
 monarch of Japan. 
 
 DAIR^ -HOUSE, in rural economy, a place appropriated to 
 the management of milk, lHitte(-^ cheese, &c. A dairy ought to 
 be so situated, that the windows, or latticfs, may never front tlie 
 south, south-east, or south-west ; and it should at all limes be kept 
 in the neatest order. I^attices we also far preferable to glazed 
 2 C Ughtt,
 
 DAK 
 
 08 
 
 DAM 
 
 li;<ht=. 05 -tlivy :uliiiit a free civcolatieii of tlif air. It lias, Ikav- 
 evor, l)ei.'n objerted, that (he toniier allord access to the cold air 
 of winter, aud to the sun in funimer ; but either mav be easily re- 
 iiH'died, by niaking the fraiv.e somewhat larger than the hitVice, 
 and con;(rnctii\e; it ^o as to »lide backward and forward at plea- 
 sure. -Across thi : iVaine, packthread may he stretched, and oileil 
 paper parted on it, wliicliwill thus admit' the hpsht, and effectually 
 keep out the sun and wind. Uuring ihe slimmer, dairvdiouses 
 cannijt be kept too cool ; they ought therefore to be erected, if 
 possible, near a cold spring, or runninu; water ; and, where it is 
 practicable to coiulnct a <nirdl stream thruiighthe premises, it vvill 
 mnch coiitrilnite to the convenience anil utilitv of the place. Dr. 
 And-ison bb-ei ves, in his practical essay on tlie manaijement of 
 thf dairy (published in the 3i\ and -ilh vols of his ingenious " Ke- 
 crealions in Ai;riciilturc," Sir.) that, if the w ater can be introiUiced 
 bymepns of a pipe, so as to f.dl from some height on the flour, it 
 will be productiv e of many advanta'.;es, particulariv by preserving 
 a continual frevhnes^ and purity of tlie air. Dairv-houses should 
 therefore be neatly paved, either with red brick,' or smooth hard 
 stone, and laid wilii a proper descent, so that no water may stag- 
 iiale. This pavemi nt should be v»ell washed every day during 
 Ihesnm'i'er; and all the utensils, here employed, be teptwitii 
 unremitting attention to cleanliness. Nor should the churns be 
 at any ti'hv.- scilded in ttie<'airy; as the steam arising from hot 
 water, tends gr.'atly to iii'ure the milk. For similar reasons, nei- 
 tlier the cue.sc and rennet, nor the cheese-press, must be sulifered 
 to taint ti;e .'tnio-i)hcre; as the whey and curd will dilCuse their 
 acidity over the whole building. All the utensils of the dairy 
 should be made of wood, in preference cither to lead, copper, or 
 t;;ist-'rou ; for these nii-lals are easily soluble in acids ; tlie solu- 
 tions of the two lirst are in a high dearee poisonous; and, though 
 the latter is in itseii harmless, the taste of it renders the produc- 
 tions of the dairy very disagreeable. The cream-dishes, when 
 perlettly cle.in and cool, o.-.ght to be tilled with the milk, as soon 
 as it is drawn from the cow, and has been carefully strained through 
 a cloth, or cloth-sieve made of hair or silver-wire ; tlie latter of 
 which, as Dr. Anderson justly remarks, is more wholesome than 
 _tho.-e of other nutals. These dishes should never exceed three 
 niches in depth, but may be so wide as to contain a gallon and a 
 lialf ot milk — when tilled, they ought to be placed on shelves, to 
 remain there till the cream be completely separated. Now it is 
 lobe taken olf with nicety, by a skiinmiiig-dish (without lifting 
 or removing the milk, or siirddina; any of it on the floor, which 
 would soon corrupt the air of (he room'), and then deposited in a 
 separate vessel, t;!! a proper quantity be collected for churning. 
 A nrm, neat, wooden barrel, which is open at one end, and has a 
 lid closely iitted to it, appears to be well calculated for this pur- 
 pose; acock or spigot, ou',ht also to be fixed near the bottom, 
 to draw off the thin, or serous part, that may drain from tlie cream ; 
 and the inner side of the opening should be covered with a piece 
 of line silver wire-gauze, in order to prevent the latter from 
 escaping, wiiile ili;* former is allowed to pass. But, if notwith- 
 standing the fatal consequences arising from the use of metallic 
 iiteiisils, or of earthen vessels glazed with lead, farmers still per- 
 'ji'-t in employing tliein, it ought to be aconstant and indispensable 
 rule, to scald and scour them properly with salt and water, every 
 day, and to dry tliem thoroughly, before the milk is deposited in 
 1li"in. L.i-tly, it is slnterelv to be wished, that all the utensds 
 employeil 111 the dairy, of whatever materials they may consist, 
 should be cleaned with similar care, previously to their being used ; 
 ;.nd, as long as the leat acid smell is perceptible, they ought to 
 nn<!ergo repeated scourings, till they are completely sweetened. 
 
 DAIS, in boti'.ny, a ger.us of the monogynia order, and decandria 
 class of |)lants, and n.tr.ral or<!er, Vepret ula'. Involucrum tetra- 
 pliyllous; corolla quudrilid, or quiiiquc'tid ; berry one-seeded. 
 Three species. 
 
 DALBERGf.A, in botany, a genus of the diadelphia decan- 
 itria class and order ; natural order P.ipilionaces, or Leguminosa;. 
 Vilaments two, four-deft at top. Fruit pedicelled, not opening, 
 legiiminose, membran.tceous, compressed. There are two species, 
 vi/.. D. lanceolariaand D. monetaria; the former is native of Ma- 
 Lb ar and Cevh.n, the latter of Surinam. 
 
 DAISY. 'SeeBELLis. 
 
 DAKIU, in cur statates. Is used for the 2nth part of a last of 
 hides. Accordi(ig.to llie ftatute of 15 Hen. III. De composi- 
 
 tione pondcrnm ^ men-urarnm, a last ol liic!es con>:sls '.f 30 da- 
 kirs, and every dakir of ten hides, liut by 1 Jac. cap. 3J, ow 
 last of hides or skins is I'J dozen. 
 
 DALl'^A, DALlA,or DAAI., a jirovince of Sweden bounded 
 on theN. by Dalecarlia, on the E. by the Wcrmelaiid and the 
 lake \Vcnner, on the S. by Gothland, and the \\. by Norway and 
 the sea. 
 
 DALERURG, a town in Sweden, capital of Dalia, jO miles 
 north of Gotleiiburg. , 
 
 D.\I.EC'AKI,IA, a province of Sweden, bounded on the N. 
 by Ililsingland: on the E. by Gestricca ; on the S. by Warm- 
 land, and en the W. by Norway. It is divided into two parts, 
 which they call valleys; and is about 175 miles in length and 100 
 in bieadth. It is fidl of mountains, which abound in mines of 
 copper ami iron, .some o*^ which are of a prodigious depth. 
 
 ]).\i.EC,\RLiA, a liver of Sweden. 
 
 DALECHAM1M.\, in botany, a genus of the inonadelphia 
 order, and moncecia class of plants ; natuial order, Tricocca;. In- 
 volucrum of the male common, ijuadripartUe ; calyces hexaphyl- 
 lous ; corolla none ; nectarium laminated or scaly; female iuvo 
 lucrum common and triphyllous; corolla none; style one; cap- 
 sule tricoccous. Two species: D. Scandens, a climbing plant, 
 native of Jamaica; and D. Colorata, found in New Granada. 
 
 DALE-Vl, or D.\LEN, a town of France, in the department 
 ef Ourte, 5 miles N. E. of Liege, 
 
 DALKEITH, a town in Scotland, 6 nvles S. E. of Edin-- 
 burgh. 
 
 DALKEY, a small island, in St. George's channel, ne.ir the 
 coast of Ireland, a Utile to the S. of Dublin bay. Lon. 6. 5. \V. 
 Lat. 53. 20. N. 
 
 DALMANLTTHA, in ancient geography, a city of Judiea, 
 on the E. side of the sea of Tiberias, either the same with Mag- 
 dala, or situated near it. Hence Mark says, (Ch. viii. 10,.) that 
 our Saviour and his disciples landed in tlie parts of Dalmanutha; 
 while Matthew, (\v. 39,) recording the same fact, says that he 
 came into tlie coasts of Magdala. 
 
 DALMATIA, a country of Europe, bounded on the N. by 
 Bosnia and Croatia, on the E. by Servia, and on the S. aud \V. by 
 the Adriatic. The air is wholesome, and the soil fruitful. It 
 abounds in wine, corn, and oil. Its rivers have no long course, 
 but are mostly navigable. The mountains abound with minerals, 
 and are covered with sheep and black cattle. Gold and silver 
 mines are in some of thein. 
 
 DALRYMPLE, Sir David, of Hailes, I?art. a late eminent 
 and learned judge of Scotland, was born in Edinburgh, Oct. 28, 
 17'i6. His father Sir James Dalrymple, Bart, was the son of Sir 
 David, Lord Advocate under K. George I. and grandson of the 
 fii-st earl of Stair. His mother, Lady Christian Hamilton, was 
 daughter of the E. of Hadinton. He was educated at Eton and 
 at I'trecht. In 174She»as tailed to the Scotch bar, and in 
 176tj appointed a judge, on which occasion he took the title of 
 lord Hailes. He died in 1792, leaving two daughters. He pub- 
 lished a number of books, as " Memoirs and Letleis relating to the 
 History of Britain in the Reigns of James I. and Charles I." in two 
 vols. " Remarks on the History of Scotland," 1 2mo. ; "Annals of 
 Scotland," 4to. 2 vols.; "Remains of Christian Antiquity," 3 vols, 
 several Memoirs intended for a Biographia Scotica ; " Pa|H'rs in the 
 World and Mirror," &c. He has also left many valuable MSS. 
 
 DALTON, a town of England in Lancashire. Lon. 50. 0. 
 W. Lat. 54. IS. N. 
 
 DAMA, in zoology. See Cervvs. 
 
 DAMAN, or DAMAUN, a sea-port town of the East Indies, 
 at the entrance of the gulph of Cambay, Lon. 72.25. E. Lat. 
 20. 20. N. 
 
 DAM.VR, a town of Arabia, in the country of Oman, 70 miles 
 N. of Oman. 
 
 DAMASCENE. See Pruniis. 
 
 DAM ASCENDS, John, an illustrious father of the church iu 
 the Sth century, born at Damascus, where his father, though a 
 Christian, enjoyed the office of counsellor of state to the Saracen 
 caliph ; to which the son succeeded. He retired afterwards to 
 the monastery of St. Sabas, and spent the remainder of his life 
 in writing books of divinity. His works have been often print- 
 ed : but the Paris edition in 1712, two vols, folio, is esteemed 
 the ben. 
 
 DAM ASCI US,
 
 DAM 
 
 99 
 
 DAN 
 
 DAMASCUS), a ci'lebratc'd liratlifii ()liilu»oi)!itr, i)orii at Da- 
 ni (snis, A. D. 340, wlieii the Ciollis roic^iied in Ilaly. lie wiole 
 tlie liff o' lli^ iiuistrr l?i(lon\s ; and drdiiatcd il to Tln-edora, a 
 verv learned and |iliilo>o|)hica! lady, wiio iukI also been a pupil to 
 Isidoriis. In this life, which was eopioii^ly writleii, he tre(|iienlly 
 in ule obliijiie attacks on tlie Chri-tian relij^ion. W e liave notliing 
 remaining ot it but some extracts preserved by Photius. Danias- 
 cius succeeded I'heon n\ the rhetorical school, and Isidorus in 
 that of philosophy, at Alliens. 
 
 DAMASCi'^, [pu'CT, litb.] a very am icjit city ol' Syria in 
 Asia, ijonie of the ancients suppose this City to have been built 
 bv one Daniiscn-, from wiioni it took ils iiauie ; but the niosl (Ge- 
 nerally received opinion is, that it was tomideil by V/. tlie eldest 
 son of Aram. It is certain, from G^ii. \iv. 15, that it was in being 
 in .Vbiahaui's time, and conse((UeiUly may be looked upon as one 
 of the most ancient cities in tlie world. In tiie tune of kinj; Da- 
 vid it seems to have been a very considerable place ; as the sacred 
 historian tells us, that the Syrians of Damascus sent 20,000 men to 
 tlie relief of Hadadezer kmg of Zobah. We are not informed 
 whether at that time it was governed by kings, or was a republic. 
 Aflerwards, however, it became a monarchy whicii proved very 
 troublesome to tlie kingdom of Israel, and would evcii have de- 
 stroyed it cntirelv, had not the Deity niiraculously interposed in 
 its behalf. This monarchy was de~troyi;d by Tiglatli-PileltT, king 
 of Assyria, and Damascus was never afterwards governed by its 
 own kings. Notwith-tanding the tyranny of the Turkish jovern- 
 inenl, Damascus is still a consiilerabie place. It is situated in a 
 plain of so great extent, tliat one can but just discern the moun- 
 tiiins whicii compass it on the other side. The fruil-tiee called 
 the damascene, and the tlower called the damask rose, were traiis- 
 plauleu from the gardens beljiiging to this city ; and the silks and 
 linens known by the name of damasks, were pro'jably invented 
 •liy the inhabitants. Damascus is 1 \'2 miles S. of Antioch, 130 
 N.N. E. of Jerusalem, and 270 S. S. W. of Diarbeck. Lon. 37. 
 0. K. l^at. ji. 45. N. 
 
 DAMASIA, in ancient geography, a town of Vindelicia, on 
 the Licus ; afterwards called Augusta ; now Augsburg in 
 Suabia. 
 
 D.'VMASK, a silk-stuff, w'th a raised pattern, so as that the 
 right side of the damask, is that which has the flowers raised or 
 satined. Damasks shoulfl be of dressed silk, both in warp and 
 woof ; and in France, half an ell in breadth : thev are made at 
 Chalons in Champagne, and in some places in flanders, as at 
 Toumay, &c. entirely of wool, three-eighths of an ell wide, and 20 
 ells long. 
 
 Damask is also applied to a very tine steel, in some parts of 
 the Levant, thiellv at Damascus in Syria ; whence its name. 
 It is used for sword and cutlass-blades, and is finely tem- 
 pered. 
 
 DAMASKEEXIKG, or DAMASKING, the art or opera- 
 tion of beautilying iron, steel, &c. by making incisions therein, 
 and filling them up with gold and silver wire ; chielly used 
 for adorning sword-blades, guards, and gripes, locks of pis- 
 tols, &c. 
 
 DAMBEA, or DEMBEA, a province of Abyssinia. It is a 
 flat country, and subject to inundations. It is situated N. of 
 Dambea, an extensive lake of Abyssinia, containing many fertile 
 islands, with plenty of fish .ind rivei-liorses. It is lUO miles from 
 tha source of the Nile. 
 
 Dambea, the capital of Abyssinia, is seated in the above pro- 
 vince, at tin- iiead of the lake, 320 miles W. of the Red Sea. 
 Lon.34. 20. E. Lat. U. 4U.N. 
 
 DAMEL, or K.-VYO, a country of Africa, on the coast of the 
 Atlanru-, bctwen the n.ers Sene^y.l and Gambia. 
 
 DAMELF.N, a town of Ciirmany, in the circle of Upper 
 ,y. Saxony, and .Middle Mark of Brandenburg, 6 railed \V. of Belitz. 
 •' D.WllANISTS, in church history, a branch ot ;he ancient 
 Acephali Severita". They agreed with the Catholics in admitting 
 tiie tixth council, but disowned any distinction of persons in the 
 Godhead ; and professed one single nature incapable of anv dif- 
 ference : yet they called God " the Father, Son, and tloly 
 Gho-t." 
 
 DAMIANO, St. a town of Italy in Montserrat, 18 miles W. 
 by N. of Vercelli. 
 'DAMICOTTA, a town of Hindo?tan, m the Coimbetore 
 
 country, 3o miles N, of Coimbetore, and tO miles S. of Seringa- 
 patani. 
 
 DAM 1 ETTA, a port town of Egypt, situated on the E. mouili 
 of the Nile, four utiles from the sea-coast. '1 he present town 
 stands ujioii a dilTeieiit site from the ancient Damietia so repeat- 
 edly attacked by tlie European princes. The latter, arcorrimg to 
 AlMille<la, was a " town surromuled by walls, and situated at the 
 moulh 01 the ea-tcrn branch of the Nile." 1 he pre.->eiit Dam'<'tt« 
 is rounded in a semicircle on the E. bark of the Nile, 7| miles 
 Iroin the mcutli of it. Lon. 31.50. E. Lat. 3 1.15. N. 
 
 DAMM, a town of Germany, in Upper Saxony, and duchy 
 of I'omerania, 5 miles E. of Stettin. 
 
 D.VM.ME, a town of ilolland, in Groningen, on the river 
 Damsur. 
 
 D.-\.\lNTr, an ancient people of Britain, who inhabited the dis- 
 trict, situated between tile territories of the Selr.ovx oB the S. and 
 the Caledoiiii on the N. now called Clydesdale. 
 
 DAMOCLICS, one of the flatterers of Dioiivsius the Elder ol 
 Sicily. He admired the tyrant's wealth, and pronounced him 
 the lia|)pie^t in.m on earth. Dionysius prevailed upon him to 
 undertake for a while the charge of royalty, and be convinced of 
 the happiness wliich a sovereign enjoved. Daniocle-. ascended 
 the throne, and while he gazed upon the weahh and splendor that 
 Jiirrouiided him, he perceived a sword hanging over Ins hea<l by a 
 single lior:ie- hair. '1 his so terrified him that all his imaginary feli- 
 city vanished at once, and he begged Dionysius to remove 
 him from a situation which exposed his liie to such fears and 
 dangers. 
 
 DAMON and FY TKIAS, two illustrious friends of antiquity, 
 who Iiave immortalized their names, by the strength and since- 
 rity of thvir friendship. Damon was a Pythagorean plulo-repher, 
 who, having incurred the displeasure of Dionysiui, tyrant of Sy- 
 racuse, was condemned to death. Whereiipon he re(|uired a 
 short respite till he should settle seme rlomestic business of the 
 utmost importance to his family, but which required his personal 
 presence at some distance iVom Syracuse. Dionysius agreed tt» 
 grant his reepiest, but upon a condition, which he supposed im- 
 possible to be complied with; viz. that Damon should find some 
 person who was willing to suffer death in his stead, provided he did 
 not return at the lime appointed. Pythias, to the surprise of the 
 tyrant, cheerfully surrendered himself as a pledge for his friend 
 Damon ; who, after his settling business, astonished the tyrant still 
 more by returning punctually at the hour fixed for his execution. 
 Dionysuis was so struck with the fidelity of those two friends, that 
 he remitted the punishment, and intreated Ihem to permit him to 
 share their friendship, and enjoy their confidence. See an elegant 
 embellishment of this piece of ancient history, in Brookes's " Fool 
 of Quality." 
 
 DAMO r, a province of Abyssinia, situated in the 8. W. pa t 
 of that empire, about 40 miles long from N. to S. and 20 broad 
 from E. to W. 
 
 DAMPS, in natural history, are certain noxious exhalations 
 issuing from some ]>arts of the earth, and which prove almost in- 
 stantly fatal to those who breathe them. These damps are chietlv 
 observed in mines and coal-pits, though vapours of the sar^ kind 
 often issue from old lavas of burning mountains ; and in those 
 countries where volcanoes are common, will Irecitienllv enter 
 houses, and kill people suddenly without the least w ainiiig of their 
 approach. See Gas. 
 
 DAMPTEK, WiLLi.vM, a famous navigator, descended from a 
 respectable family in Somersetshire, and born in 1652. Losing 
 his father wheii very voung, he was sent to the sea, where he soon 
 distinguished himself, particularly in the South Sea. His voyage 
 round the world is well known, and has gone through many edi- 
 tions. He appears afterward to have engaged in an expedition 
 conccrtetl bv the merchants of Bristol to the South .Sea, commaiul- 
 cd by Captain Woods Rogers ; who sailed in August 1708, and 
 returned in Sept. 1711: but no farther particulars of his life or 
 death are recorded. 
 
 DAMSON Tree. See Frunus. 
 
 DAMSONfi, a town of Asia, in the country of Bootan, 54 
 miles S. W. of Tass.isudou. 
 
 D A.M VILLI ERS, a town of France, in the department of 
 Meuse, II miles N. of \ erdun. 
 
 DAN, [p, llcb. i. e. judgement,^ one of the twelve pa- 
 9 triartus.
 
 DAN' 
 
 100 
 
 DAN 
 
 triarchs, Uie lifth son of Jacob, and tlie e\(\est by Bilhali. Of 
 his liistory nothing is recorded, oxct-pt tliat ho liaii but one Son 
 named llusliiin ; Uioiigh his poslciily was alteiwards very nu- 
 merous. 
 
 Dan, or, The Dakites, one of the twelve tribes of Israel, de- 
 scended from the |xitriarch Dan. Tlieir number, at the emigra- 
 tion from Egypt, amounted to 62,700, and in the wilderness they 
 increased to 64,400. Alfi-r their seltlemejit in Canaan, a party of 
 tiiem, who went to lake Laish, in tlieir way robbed Micali the 
 Ephrainiite of his idol, whith they continued to worship till they 
 were carried captive by Tiglatli-Pileser. S imson, the heroic judge 
 of Israel, was of thi^ tribe ; and 28,600 of them attended at Da- 
 vid's coronation. The Danites appear to have been early ac- 
 qn;:inted with commerce, lor tliey had ships in lire time of Jabin, 
 knig of the Csnaanites. See Judges v. 17. I'he territory of the 
 Djuilei extended W. of Judah, and was terniinaled by Azotus and 
 Dora on the Mediterranean. 
 
 Dan", in ancient geography, a city of the Danites, situated on 
 the E. side of the sprini^s of Jordan, wliich was so named from 
 the tribe, and nn the S. of Mount Lebanon. It was early built 
 by the Canaanites, and originally named Laish or Leshem ; till 
 600 of the Danites took it, and named it after tlieir progenitor. 
 This city and Beerr^heba were the two extremities of the kingdom 
 of Israel; wliere Jeroboani establisheil idolatry by setting up 
 his golden calves. It was taken and pillaged by lienhadad king 
 of Syria; notwithstanding which it made some figure after the 
 ca|.)livity. , 
 
 DAN AE, in antiquity, a coin somewhat more than an oboUin, 
 used to be put into the mouths of the dead, to pay their passage 
 over the river Acheron. 
 
 Danae, in fabulous history, the daughter of Acrisius king of 
 Argos, by Eurydice. She was confined in a brazen tower by her 
 i'ather, who had been told by an oracle that his daughter's son 
 wuidd put himself to death. But Jupiti-r, who was enamoured of 
 Danae, introduced him to her bed by changing himself into a 
 shower of gold. From his embraces Danae had a son, with whom 
 she was exposed to the sea by her father. The wind drove the 
 bark which carried her to the coasts of the island of Seriphiis ; 
 where she was saved by some fishermen, and carried to Potydectes 
 king of the place, whose brother, Dictys, educated the child, who 
 was named rerseus, and tenderly treated the mother. Polydectes 
 fell in love with her; but benig afr.ud of her son, he sent him to 
 conquer the Gorgons, pretending that he wished Medusa's head to 
 adorn his nuptials with llippodaiuia the daughter of GMiomans. 
 When Perseus had victoriously finished his expedition, he retired 
 to Argos with Danae to the house ol Acrisius, whom he inadver- 
 tently killed. Virgil says that Danae after this came to Italy, and 
 fonniled the city of Ardea. See Ardka. Some suppose tliat it 
 was Prcftus, the brother of Acrisius, who introduced him-elf to 
 Dahae in the brazin tower ; but wiioever .was her seducer, the 
 ial)le of the golden shower plainly niii^lies that the keepers of the 
 tower were bribed. Ag.iiM4 such showers, indeed, towers of brass, 
 and bars of iron, are no defence. As to Jupiter, a certain poet 
 justly remarks, 
 
 '" But what though these things tradition but jests? 
 " What is fabled of Jove may be true of his priests." 
 
 DAN/EA, in Ijotany, a gi-nus of the cryptoi;.iniia (dices class 
 and order: iructilication oblong, linear, transversely immersed in 
 thefro.it, parallel, many-celled; cells- in a doiihlo row, openir;g 
 upwards; seeds numerous, very minute. There are two specie--, 
 viz. the nodosa and alata. 
 
 D.-VN'AIDES, in fabulous history, the fifty daughters of Da- 
 naus king of Arg(jS. When tbeir Uncle .-Vgyptus came from 
 Egypt with his tiflv sons, they were promised in marriage to their 
 cousins; but before the celebration ot their nuptials, Daiiatis, who 
 had been informed by an oracle that he was to be killed by the 
 hands of one of his sons-in-law, made hi« daughters solemnly pro- 
 mise that tliev would destroy their luishands. They were provid- 
 ed with daggers, and all except II\ permnestra proved but too 
 obedient to their father's bloody injunctions, as a proof of which 
 they presented him with the heads of their murdered husbands, on 
 the nioining alter then' nuptials. Ilypermnestra was summoned 
 to appear and answer for her disobedience in suffering her hus- 
 band I.yncens to escape ; but the unanimous voice of the people 
 ilecUireil her innocent, and she <ledjcated a.temple to the goddess 
 
 of Persuasion. 1 he 49 sisters were condemned to hi 11, to hll with 
 water a vessel full of holes, so that their labour was iiiniiite, and 
 their punishinent eti-rnal. 
 
 DAIs'AUS, in fabulous history, a son of Belus and Anchinoe, 
 who after hi* father's death reigned conjointly with his brother 
 ^Egvptus on the throne of Egypt. Sometime alter, adilieience 
 arose between the brothers, and Daiiaus set sail with his iO daugh- 
 ters In <|uist of a settlement. 
 
 DANCE, or DANCING, a movement of the body, per- 
 formed according to rule, and adjusted to the measures of music, 
 either ^ung or played. However, dancing in a ger.eral sense is 
 applied to certain anoiri.ilous motions of the body. Dancing 
 was bv the ancients divided into cubi-tic, spheristic, and orches- 
 tic : the cubistic dance was perl'ormed with certain wreslliiigs and 
 coiitorsions of the body ; the spheristic with a sort ot bail, or bowl 
 |)lay ; but the orcliestic was most usual, and what indeed was 
 dancing properly so called. Dancing is usually an effect and in- 
 dication of joy, though Mr. Palleprat assures us, that there are na- 
 tions in South America, who dance, to shew their sorrow. It lias 
 been in use among all n..lioiis civilizes and baibar-.ns, though hi. Id 
 in esteem among some, and in contempt among otl;er-. It has 
 olten bei-n, and still is, sometimes, made an act of leligion. Thus 
 David danced before the ark to honour God, and express his ex- 
 cess of joy for it> return into Si jn. Among liie Pagans it made a 
 part of the worship paid to the gods, it being usual to dance roui;d 
 the altars and statues ; and at Rome, the said, who were priests of 
 Mars, danced thr.iugh the streets in honour of that god. The 
 poets made the gods themselves dance. The Christians are not 
 free from diis superstition, for in popish countries certain festivals, 
 particularlv those of the sacrament, and passion of our Loril, are 
 cllcbrated' with dancing. Sudden joy seems to be the general, 
 and almD^t the only natural, stimulus to dancing, according to the 
 general sense of the term ; but tliat it should naturally incite the 
 mind, to direct the motions of the body according to the measures 
 of music, we can bv no means conceive. This seems to be a refine- 
 ment which puts a restraint upon nature, and in some cases is carried 
 to such excess as tobe truly scandalous. Violent dancing, especially 
 in the heated atmosphere of a crowded assembly, produces a tem- 
 porary tcvcr, even in the bye-standers, who inspire an air exceed- 
 ingly vitiate<l bv the breath of persons apparently in a semi-delirious 
 ti-ance, ami' bv the sullocating vapour of candles. The blood is unna- 
 turally propelled to the breast and head — hence arise frequent colds, 
 cougli«, and periodical head-achs; perspiration i» wantonly check- 
 ed ; the lungs are forcibly expanded, and the foundation is laid 
 for that avenging disease, consumption, which spares neither rank, 
 age, nor sex, and often exterminates whole families. 
 
 DANCETTE, in heraldry, is when the outline of any bordurc, 
 or ordinary, is indented very largely, the larseness of the in- 
 dentures being the only thing that distinguiihes it from in- 
 dented. 
 
 DANDA, a province and river of Angola. 
 
 DANDAU, a ciixar of Hindostan, in the country of Gu- 
 zerat. 
 
 D;VNT)EL10N, in botany.. See Leontodon. 
 
 DANEGEL r, a tax, or tribute on every hide of land, impos- 
 ed on our ancestors the Saxons, by the Danes, on their frequent 
 invasions, as the arbitrary terms of peace and departure. It was 
 first impo'-ed as a continual yearly tax upon the whole nation, un- 
 der King Ethelred. It svas levied by W illiain 1. and II. but was 
 releaseil by Henry I. and finally abolished by King Stephen. ' No 
 church, or chnrcli-land paid the danegelt, because, as is set fortU 
 in the ancient Saxon law, the people of England placed more con- 
 fidence in the prayers of the church, than in any mifitarv defence 
 tluy could make. 
 
 D.ANK HA, a town of Russia, in the government of Tobolsk, 
 on the C'halanfa. 
 
 DANIEL, [V»':n, Heb. i.e. my judge is God,] the fourth of 
 the greati r prophets, was born in Judca of the tribe of Judah, 
 aliout the 'J.nli year of the reign of Josiah ; A. M. 3308. He was 
 led <-aptive to Babylon, with other young Hebrew lords, alter 
 the taking of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar, who took them into 
 his serviee. That prince gave them masters to instruct them in 
 the language and sciences of the Chaldeans, and ordered them tb 
 be fed with the most delicate viands ; but they, fearing that they 
 should eat meat forbidden bv the kiw otMoses, desired the king s 
 
 oftcert
 
 DAN 
 
 101 
 
 DAP 
 
 officiMs lo iillow lliem only pulse. Tlii! wisdom and conduct of 
 Daniel pleasing Nolmchadniv.zar, that iiionarcli gavi' liim several 
 P'lsts of hononr. lie explained Nebuchadue/zar's dream of the 
 iiivslerious st-itiie, wliicli foretold llie four great monarcliies; on 
 wliicli accoiMit lie was made prefect of the province of Babylon. 
 He afterwards exjilained that monarch's other dream, which fore- 
 tolil his luiKiey. Intheveignof Darius the Mede, he refused to 
 obey the wicked decree of the king, mn\ was cast into the lion's 
 den, when those beasts, though pinched with hunger, did him 
 no hurt. And he explained the characters written on thj wall of 
 the room where IJelshazzar was feasting. It is believed that Daniel 
 died in Chaldea, and that he did not take advantage of tlie per- 
 llii^si(.n granted I>yC_\rus to the Jews of retmning lo their own 
 country. St. Epiphanius says he died at l3;d)ylon ; and h.erein he 
 is followed by the generality of hisloriaus. 'I'he prophecies of 
 Daniel concerning the coming of the Messiah, and the other 
 great events of after-times, are so clear and explicit, that, as St. 
 Jerom tells us. Porphyry objected to thep.^, that those which re- 
 lated to the kings of Syria and Egypt, chap. xi. must have been 
 written after the times of Antiochus Epiphanes ; whereas this pro- 
 phecy was translated into Greek ICO years before his time, and 
 the translation was in the hands of the Egyptians, vho had no 
 great kindness for the Jews and their religion. Josephus says, 
 the prophecies foretelling the successes of Alexander, chaps, viii. 5. 
 xi. 3. were shewn to him by the Jews, in consequence of which 
 they obtained several privileges from him; (Anti([. lib. xi. c. 8.) 
 The style of Daniel is not so lofty and figurative as that of the 
 other prophets ; but it is more clear and concise, and bis narrations 
 and descriptions are simple and natural : in sh.nrt, he writes more 
 like a historian than a prophet. The lir-.t six chapters of the book 
 of Daniel are a history of the kings of Babylon, and what befel the 
 Jews under their govornnient. In the last six he is altogether 
 prophetical, foretelling not only what should happen to his own • 
 church and nation, but events in which foreign princes and king- 
 doms were concerned; some of which now are evidently ful- 
 filling; See Dan. vii. 11 ; 26. 
 
 Daniel, GAtjRiEt,, a celebrated Jesuit, and one of the best 
 French historians, was born at Rouen in ltJ49. lie taught polite 
 literature, philosophy, aiid divinity, among the Jesuits; and was 
 superior of their liouse at Paris, where he died in 1T2S. There 
 ai" a great number of his works published in Frensh, of which the 
 principal are, 1. An History of France, of which he also wrote an 
 al)ridgnient, in Q vols. 12nio. 2. An lli-tory of the I'rench Militia, 
 in 2 vols. 4to. .3. An Answer to the Provincial Letters. 4. A 
 Voyage to the AVorid of Descartes. 5. Letters on the Doctrines 
 of the Theorists, and on Probability. (5. New DifllcuUies relating 
 to the Knowledge of Brutes; And, 7. A theological Treatise on 
 the Ellicacy of Grace. 
 
 DAN KALI, or DANCALI, a kingdom of Abyssinia, lung 
 along the coast of the Red Sea. 
 
 DANMONfl, an ancient British nation, supposed to have in- 
 habited the tract of country, now calleil Cornwall and Devonshire, 
 bounded on theS. tiy the British Ocean, on the VV. by St. George's 
 Channel, on the N. by the Severn Sea, and on the Ei by the coun- 
 try of the Durotriges. 
 
 'DANNENBERG, DANNEBERG, or DAKEBURG, a 
 county of Germany, in the late circle of Lower Saxony, and 
 Lunenburg. 
 
 Dannenberg, a town ia the above county, seated on the Jetze, 
 near the Elbe. 
 
 DANTE, John Baptist, a native of Perugia, and an excel- 
 lent mathematician, called the new D;edalus, for the wings lie made 
 himself, and wi'h whicli he fiew several times over the lake Thrasy- 
 menus. He fell in one of his enterprises; the iron work with 
 which he nia'',r.ged one of his wingi ha\ ing failed; by which acci- 
 dent he broke I. is thigh : but it was f r-t by the surgeons, and he w as 
 afterw:;rus c.dled to N'enice to profit's mathematics. 
 
 DANT.21CK,orDANTZ!G,lhecapital of the late Polish Pros. 
 sia, is seated (jU ; L-ranch of the Vistula, about four miles above" « here 
 it tails into the Baltic. It is 63 milesW.S.W. of Konigs'oerg. Lon. 
 18. 40. E. Lat. -U. 22. N. 
 
 DANUBE, the latgest and most con-iderable river in Europe, 
 rising in the Blaci; Forest, nearZunberg; and running N.E. 
 through Swahia by IJIm, the capital of that country; then run- 
 jiiug E. through Bas;arla aud .Austria, passes by Ratisbon, Passan, 
 
 VOL. Ji. — :;o. 62. 
 
 Ens, and \'ienna. It then enters Hmigary, and runs S.l^. from 
 Presburg to Buda, and so on to Belgra'le ;' after which it divides 
 Bulgaria from Morlachia and Moldavia, di--charging itself by 
 several channels into the Jilack Sea, in the province of Besarabij". 
 Towards the mouth, it was called the ister by the ancients ; and 
 it is now said, that four of the mouths are choaked up with sand, 
 and that there are only two remaining. It begins lo be navigable 
 for boats at Ulm, and receives several large rivers as it |)asses 
 along. It is so deep between Buda and Belgrade, that the Turks 
 and Christians have had men of war upon it; and yet it is not 
 navigable to the Black Sea, on account of the cataracts. ''I'he 
 Danube was generally supposed to be the noilhem boundary of 
 the Roman empire in Europe. It was worshipped as a deity by 
 the Scythians. 
 
 DAN\ILLE, a town of Kentucky, in Mercer county, plea- 
 santly situated in a large, fertile plain", on the S\V. side of Dick's 
 river, 35 miles S.S.W. of Lexington. 
 
 DAPHNE, in anciert geography, a small district on tiie lake 
 Samaclionitis, in the Higher Galilee, very pleasant and plenti- 
 fully watered with springs, which feed the Lesser Jordan. 
 
 Daphne, Spurge Laurel; a genus of the monogvnia order, 
 and octandria class of plants ; natural order, \'eprec"ulE. No 
 calyx ; corolla quadrihd, marcescent, inclosing the stamina ; berry 
 one-seeded. T here are 2S species, slirubs a!)out five teet hiidi. 
 
 D. Mezereum, the Mezereon, or Spurge Olive, isalojv 
 deciduous shrub. It is a native of Germany, and lias glso been 
 discovered in some yvoods near Andover in Hanipsliire. Of this 
 elegant plant there are four varieties: I. The while: 2. The pale 
 red : 3. I'he crimson : and 4. 'I'he purple (lowering. — Ilar.bury 
 says, " these shrubs have every perlection to recommend them 
 as llowering shrubs. l.They are ol low growth, seldom arising 
 to more than tluee or four feet in height, and therefore are proper 
 even for the smallest gardens. 2. 'J hey will be in bloom when 
 few tree^, especially of t'le shrubby tribe, present their honours. 
 It will be in February, nay, sometimes in January; then will the 
 twigs be garnished with flowers all around from one end to the 
 other. Each twig has the appearance of a spike of flowers of the 
 most consummate lu-.tre ; and wliether beheld near or at a distance, 
 it has a most enchanting appearance, 'i'he sense of smellin" i^i 
 pecul'tarly regaled by the flowers; their spicy sweetness is diffuse.-J 
 around, and tlie air is perfumed with tlieir odours to a considerable 
 distance. Besides the beauty of the leaves, which come out after 
 the flowers are fallen, and which are of a pleasant green colour and 
 an oblong figure, it will be full of red berries in June, whicii >uli 
 continue growing till the autumn. Of ihe;e berries the birds are 
 very fond; so that wlioever is delighted uitli- those songster.-, 
 should have a quantity of them planted all over the outsides^if ins 
 wilderness quarters." The root of the mezereon was long used in 
 the Lisbon diet-drink, a remedy said to be good for several com- 
 plaints, particularly nodes and other symptoms resisting the use of 
 mercury. 'I'he composition of this diet drink is described in the 
 Edinburgh Physical Essays, by Dr. Donald Monro of London. 
 On chewing the root it proves very pungent, and its acrinio.nv is 
 accumuhUed about the fauces, and is very durable. It is employed 
 chielly under the form of decoction ; and it ent-rs the decoct'uni 
 sarsap'ariihc ccmpositum of the Lnadon college ; but it iias also 
 been used in powder combined v.ith soir.e inactive one, a? that of 
 liquorice root. It is apt to occaion. vomiting r.nd purging; so 
 must be began in grain doses, and gradually increaNcd. It is 
 often usefully combined v.ith nnrcur\-. 'The bark of the rocf, 
 which is the most acrimonious pan, is recommended in the phav- 
 mneopaia rhiruigica, to be steeped in vinegar, and applied to 
 promote the discharge of Lssues. Mezereon has also bei n of use 
 in tumours and culaneous eruptions j.ot \enore:d. The wliole 
 plant is very corrosive; and six of the ferries, it is said, will kill i 
 wolf. A woman gave 12 grains of the berries to her daughter 
 who had a quartan ague; she vomited blood, and- died iuime- 
 diately. 
 
 Daphne, in the Pagan mythology, a daughter of the ri\er 
 Peneus l.y ti^e goddess 'I'eria. of whom Apollobecame enamouied. 
 This p.is3ion had been raised by Cupid; with whom Apolh-, 
 |)roud of hij late conquest of t';ie serpent I'vthon, had disputed 
 the power of his darts. Daphne heard with horror .his addres-es, 
 and endeavoured to avoid iiis impormiiilies by flight. Apollo pur- 
 sued her, and Daphnr intreat.;d the assi.-tance of the gods, v ho, 
 2 D dianectl-
 
 D A R 
 
 \02 
 
 DAR 
 
 ciiLingod hoi- iiilo a iauivl. ApolK) ciowiifd his head willi hf 
 leaves ot Uic laurel, aud lor over ordcied ihat Uiot tree shoukllie 
 saere.d to his diviiiity. 
 
 I)a?hse, a daiiijhter of Tire-ias, priestess in the temple of 
 ]Delp!-.!. She was consecrated to the service of Apollo by the 
 Eplgoni, or according to others by the goddess Tellus. She was 
 called S;by! on accoup.t of the wildness of her looks and expressions 
 when she delivered erodes.. 
 
 llAPIiNEl'llAGI, \_n ntl a' Jafy.i^iyoi, from ^ oac-,^, laurel, 
 and f'-jw, to eat,] in antiquity, enthusiasts, who pretended to be in- 
 ,;pjred, afler eating IcO-vcs ot laurel. 
 
 DAPUNEPHORIA, a festival inhonour of Apollo, celebrated 
 every ninlli vear by the Boeotians. It was then usual to adorn an 
 olive-bougii "with gar'ands of laurel and other ilowers, and place on 
 the top a bra:!en glolje, on which were suspended smaller ones. In 
 ■the middle wore placed a number of crowns and a globe of inferior 
 size, and the bottom w;is adorned with a saffron-coloured garment. 
 The globe on the top represented the sun or Apollo. That in the 
 ndddle was an emblem of the moon, and the other of the stars. 
 The crowns, which were 3tjj in number, represented the sun's 
 annual revolution. This bough was carried in solemn procession 
 by a beautiful youth of an illustrious family, and whose parents 
 were both living. The youth was dressed in rich garments which 
 reached to the ground, his hair hung loose and dishevelled, his 
 iicad was covered with a golden crown, and he wore on his feet 
 shoes called Iphicratida.', from Iphicrates an Athenian, who lirst 
 invented them, lie was called Aa9v7;4ioaoc, Daphnephorus, luurcl- 
 Oeartr ; and at tiie time executed the office of priest of Apollo. 
 
 DAPPLE-SAY, in the manege, an epithet applied to bay 
 horses that liave marks of a dark bay. 
 
 Dapple-blacr is applied to a black horse, that has got spots or 
 marks more black orshnnng than the rest of his skin. 
 
 DAPS, a river of Denmark, which runs into the Little Belt, 
 \i miles N. E. of Hadersleben. , 
 
 DAUAH, or DRAS, a country of Africa, bounded on the N. 
 by Morocco, Gezula, and Talilet, on the E. and the S. by Za- 
 liara, and on the W. by Sus. It takes its name from the river Da- 
 rah, or Dras, which passes through it. The principal produce is 
 indigo and dates. 
 
 DARAMPOORY, a town of Ilindostan, in the Mysore coun- 
 try, SS miles E. of Sering;i|)ata]u. 
 
 DARAN TASIA, now Moosteers, in ancient geography, a 
 town oftheCentrones, in Gallia Narbonensis, between Lemincuni 
 and Augusta Pretoria, called Forum Claudii by the Romans. 
 ^loustiers. 
 
 DAR.'VPORUM, a town of Ilindostan, 36 miles E. S. £. of 
 Coimbetfire. 
 
 D ARAPTI, among logicians, one of the modes of syllogisms of 
 the third figure, whose jncmises are universal affirmatives, and the 
 ciintludcn is a prnticular aliirmative: thus, 
 D.>R- Every body is divisible ; 
 AP- Every body is a substance ; 
 Ti- Therefore, some subsuuicc is divisible. 
 
 D ARh)A,a town and furt of Lower Hungary, 3 J miles S. of Baes. 
 
 D.'\ RDAN ICLLES, two ancient and strong castles of Turkey, 
 ene of which is in Romania, and the other in Natolia, on each side 
 of the canal, formerly called the liellespout. 
 
 DARDANI, 1, t he ancient in habitants of Troas: 2. the people of 
 Dardania, who are supposed to have been descended from the former. 
 
 DAR(3aNIA, in ancient geography, 1. a district of Moesia 
 Su])i_'rior on the S. now the S. part of Servia, towards the condnes 
 of Macedonia and Hi vricum: 'J. a small district of Troas, along 
 the Hellespont: 3. the ancient name of Samotfiracia ; from Dar- 
 doMus, who removed thither. 
 
 hAKDANlS, DARDANIUM, or DAKDANIUM PRO- 
 MONIORII'.NI, a promontory ofTroa-;, near Abydos, running 
 out into the Hellespont. ^ 
 
 DaRDANT'S, a sou uf Jupiter and Electra, who after the 
 death of his brother Jason, left Samothrace his country, and pass- 
 ed into Asia Minor, where h,' married Batia, the daughter of Teu- 
 cer, king of Teucria. After the death of his father-in-law, lie 
 reigned sixty-two years. 
 
 DAREA, in bo'tanv, a genus of Ihecryptogamia tilices class and 
 order. Fructification In scattered nearly marginal lines: involucre 
 originating laterally from a vein, opening towards the margin. 
 There are nine specie;. 
 
 D.VKICL llAM.'iRA, a town of Africa, in die kingdom of Fei, 
 Lon. (). 3j. ^V. Lat. 34. 20. N. 
 
 ]>AKIC, in antiquity, a famous piece of gold, first coined by 
 Daiius the Mede, about B. C. i38 ; probably during his stay at 
 Babylon, out of the vast quantity of gold which had been accunui- 
 lated in the treasin'y. From thence the darics were disperajd 
 over the cast, and into Greece; where they were also called statere?, 
 and were the gold coins best known in Athens in ancient times. 
 According to Dr. Bernard, the daric weigh.ed two grains more 
 ttian our guinea ; but as it was very line, ami contained little alloy, 
 it may be reckoried '.vorlli alwut y.'i.v. sterling. 
 
 DARIEN, or terra FIRMA r]!OPER, is the northern 
 division of Terra Firnia, or Castde del Oro. It is a narrow istli- 
 nms, tlu\t, properly speaking, joins Korth and South America to- 
 ;>,elher; but ,is generally reckoned as pf.rt of the latter. It is 
 bounded on the N. by the gulf of Mexico; on the S. by the 
 South. Sea; on the E. by the river or gulph of Darlen; and on 
 the W. by another part oi the South Sea, and the province of V'e- 
 ragua. It lies in the form of a bow or crescent, about the gi-eat 
 bav of Paiiama, in the South Seo, and is 300 miles in length. Its 
 breadth has generally been reckoned -60 miles from N. to S. but 
 it is only 37 miles bro d from Porto Bello to Panama, the two 
 chief towns of the province. 
 
 Dariex, Gulf ok, an arm of the sea ru:ining eastward into the 
 Isthmus, on the W. side of St. Seljastian. 
 
 Darie.v, a town of the United Slates, in Liberty county, 
 Georgia, 47 miles S.S.W. oi Savannah. 
 
 f).\Rll, in logic, one of the modes of syllogism of the first 
 figure, wherein the major proposition is an universal aiSn-native, 
 and the minor and conclusion particular aliirmatives: thus, 
 D.\- Every thing that is moved, is moved by another; 
 Ri- Some body is moved ; 
 I- 'I'herefore, somebody is moved by another. 
 
 DARKENED ROOM, the same as camera obscura; beinga 
 room darkened all but in cue little hole, having a convex glass in 
 it to ti ansmit the rays of outward objects to a piece of paper, or 
 white cloth in the room. 
 
 DARK TENT, a portable camera obscura, resembling a desk, 
 and fitted with optic glasses, to take prospects of landscapes, &c. 
 
 DARKING, a town of Surrev, 10 miles E. of Guilford, and 
 24 S.S.W. of London. 
 
 DARKNESS, Egyptia.v. One of the most terriblesorts of dark- 
 ness was that which God by Moses brought upon Egypt, as a plagve 
 to the inhabitants of it. The Septuagint, our translation of the 
 Bible, and indeed most others, ui explaining Moses's account of 
 this <larkncss, render it " a darkness which may be felt :" and the 
 Vulgate has it, " a palpable darkness;" that is, a darkness con- 
 sisting of black vapours and exhalations, so condensed that they 
 ndght be perceived by the organs of seeing or feeling; but some 
 commentators th.ink that this is carrying the sense too far, since in 
 such a medium as this mankind could not live an hour, much less 
 for the -.pace of three days, as the Egyptians are said to have done, 
 during the time this darkness lasted ; and therefore they innigine, 
 that instead of a darkness that may be felt, the Hebrew phrase 
 may signify a darknest; wherein men went groping and teeling 
 about lor eVerv thing Ihev wanted. Le Clerc is ot this opinion, 
 and thinks that Philo, in Ids life of Moses, understood the passagi; 
 in its right sense. " For in this darkness (says he), whoever were 
 in bed,' durst not get op ; and such as their natural occasions com- 
 pelled to get up, went feeling about by the walls, or any tiling they 
 conld lay hold on, as it they had been blind." What it was that 
 occasioned Ihis darkness, whedier it was in the air or in the eyes ; 
 whether it vas a suspension ol light from the sun in that country, 
 or a black thick vapour which totally intercepted it, it would he in 
 vain to conjecture. 
 
 Darkness, Extraordisaby, at ovr Saviour's C'RUcirix- 
 lON. During the last three hours that our Saviour hung upon 
 the cross, a darkness covered the face of the earth, to the great ter- 
 ror and amazement of the pi'ople present at his execution. 'I'iiis 
 extraordinary alteration in tlie lace of nature (sa_\s Dr. Macknight, 
 in his Harmony of the Gospels), was jjeculiarly proper, wliilbt the 
 Sun of righteousness was withdrawing his bea;us from the land of 
 hrael an<l from the world ; not only because it was a miraculous 
 testiinonv born by (iod himsell to his innocence; but also because 
 it was a lit emblem of his dej)arture and its effects, at least till his 
 
 ^ light 
 
 J
 
 I) A S 
 
 103 
 
 DAT 
 
 
 'I'Hit slioiic out anew witli aclditioiuil spleudour in tliu iiiiiiislry of 
 hi-i aposlU's. 'riif (larkiu-is whiili now toveiTil Jiidta and ihi; 
 iu-i!;lil)oiiiin«; coinitiics, boginnini; ;it noon and coiitiniiin;^ till 
 Jesus expired, was not tin;' eO'ccr of an ordinary eclipse of tlu' 
 hu;i ; for that can never happen hut at llie new moon, whereas 
 now it was full moon ; not to nieiitioii, that the total darkness oe- 
 easioned by eelip^es of the sun never continues above four nii- 
 I'.iites ; wherefore it must have been produced by the divine power, 
 i.'i a manner we cannot explain. Accordingly, Luke (Luke xxiii. 
 44, -i')), after relating that there was darkness over all the cartii, 
 ald^, " and tlie suu was darkened;" which perhaps may imivly, 
 that the darkness of the sun did not occasion, but proceeded from, 
 t!]e darkness that was over all the land. Furlher, tlie Cliri.-lian 
 writers, in tlieir most ancient apologies to the heathen?, afiirin, 
 ' it as it was full moou at the passover when Christ was crucilied, 
 such eclip-e could happen by the course of nature. They ob- 
 :, :, ved also, tliat it was taken notice of as a prodigy by tlie heathens 
 themselves. 
 
 DARLLNGTOX, a county of the United States, in Cheraws 
 district, South Carolina, boundi.d on the S. and S.W. by Lynch's 
 Creek. It is 35 miles lon-i: and 'J I broad. 
 
 D-iRLfNGTON, n town of Durham, situated on a /lat on the ri- 
 ver Skerne, 19 miles S. of Durham. 
 DAKN EL, in botany. .See Lolium. 
 
 DAKOCA, a town of Spain, in the province of Arnigon, 38 
 miles S.S.W. of Saragos-a. 
 
 DAU'l'LOUD, a town of Kent, seated on the Darent, IG miles 
 E. by S. of London. 
 
 DAlvTMOU'l'H, a sea-port town in Devonshire, 30 miles 
 S.S.W. of Exeter, and'J04 \V. bvS. of London. Lon. 3. 45. W. 
 Lat. 50. 22. N. 
 
 Dartmouth, a sea-port of the United Slates, in Drlslol county, 
 Massachusetts, 70 miles S. of Boston. 
 
 DARTOS, in anatomy, one of the coats which form the scro- 
 tum. 
 
 DARWAR, a considerable fortress of Ilindostan, in the coun- 
 try of Sanore, 90 nules E. N. E. of Goa. 
 
 DASSEN, an island in the Atlantic, ner.'r (he coast of Africa, 
 between the Cape of (jood Hope, and the Saldanha bay. Lon. 
 18° r 5'2" E. from GJreenwich. Lat. 3-1' 25' N. 
 
 DASYPUS, the Armadillo, or Tatou, in zoology ; a genus 
 of the class mammalia, and order bruta. No tusks; grinders short 
 and cylindrical, and seven or eight in each jaw; body covered 
 with a shelly armour, intersected by circles. All the species of 
 this animal were originally natives of America: they were entirely 
 unknown to the ancients; and modern travellers mention them as 
 peculiar to Mexico, Brazil, and the southern parts of America ; 
 though some indeed have confounded them with two species of 
 manis, or shell-lizard, which are found in the ICast Indies: others 
 report that they are natives of Africa, because 'onie of them have 
 been transported from Brazil to the coast of Ciuinea, where a few 
 have since been propagated; but they were never heard of in En- 
 rope, Asia, or Africa, till after the discovery of America. Thev 
 are all endowed with the facultv of extending and contracting 
 their bodies, and of rolling themselves up like a ball, but not into 
 60 complete a sphere as the hedge-hog. They are very inolVen- 
 sive animals, excepting when they get into gardens, wlieie they 
 devour tlie melons, potatoes, and other roots, 'i'hev walk quicklv; 
 but can hartlly be said to run or leap, so that they seldom escape 
 the pursuit either of men or dogs. But nature has not left them 
 altogetlier defenceless. They dig deep holes in th.e earth ; and 
 seldom go ver\ iVr from their ••uhterraneous habitations: upon anv 
 alarm they immediately go into their holes; but, when at too great 
 a distance, tlu-y require but a few moments to make one. The 
 hunti'rs can hardly catch them by the tail before thev sink tiieir 
 body in the ground; wiiere tliey stick so close, that'thc tail fre- 
 <iuenlly comes away and leaves the holy in the earth; which ob- 
 liges the luu.ters, when thev want to take them alive and imimiti- 
 lated, to dilate the sides of the hole. ^V hen they are taken, and 
 tind Uiat there is no resource, they in^tantlv roll themselves up, 
 and will not ex'.end their bodies, unless thev are held near a lire. 
 When in deep holes, there is no other method of irraking them 
 come out, but by forcing in smoke or watei. They keep in their 
 holes through the day, and seldom go abroad in quest of suhsi'.t- 
 cuce, but in the night. The hunteiv usually chase ttiem wit}i small 
 
 dogs, V iiich easily come up with them. WIi-jii tlife dop^are near-* 
 the creatures ins'tanlly roll ihcmselvej up, and in this co:f1;tiou 
 llie hunters carry them off. However, if they be near a j»reci- 
 pice, they often escape both I'lC tlogs and hunters: thev roll tliern- 
 solves up, and tumble down like a ball, without breaking (heir 
 shell, or receiving any injury. Tlic dasypus ii a very fruitful .mi- 
 mal: the female generally brings forth four young ones every 
 month; which is the reason why Ihe/pecies are so nun:ero«s, not- 
 withtanding they are so much souglit aiter, on account of (lie 
 sweetness of their llesh. The Indians likewise make bi.kets^ 
 boxes, &c. of the shells which cover their heads. Liuivi-ns enu- 
 merates six species of dasypus, principally .distinguished hj' the 
 number of their moveable belts. Mr. Kerr, who prefers the ar- 
 rangement of the Count de Buffon, to that of Liniiius, enume- 
 rates ten speciws of this genus. 
 
 D. Nov r..Mci.vcTus, the Nine-banded Akmadim.o, has inne 
 belts, four claws on each fore-foot, and hve on the hind feet. The 
 head is live inches long, the body 18, and the tail lit; butsomeart 
 smaller. Plate X Lit. 
 
 D. No\ EMDEci.MciNCTVs, the CiRQuiN'cov, iias no shifld oi« 
 the rump, and has only 18 bands, though from the name we should 
 suppose it to have 19. The body is 10 iiic'ies long, the head 
 three, and the tail tjve. The head resembles that of a w\,azel, 
 having a large fiat forehead, small eyes, and ears about an inch 
 long. The breast, belly, and ears, are naked. 
 
 D. Septemcinctus, tlie Seven-handed AFMADiu.o,withse»ni 
 belts; four toes on each ^f the fore-feet, and live en the hind. 
 Gni'.lin says it lias only six belts, but Mr. Kerr vindicates Lin- 
 nanis, who says it has seven. 
 
 D.SexCINCXUS, theENCOUBERTO, or SlX-EANLiKIJ ARMADIt.ro, 
 
 has six moveable girdles, two shields, and Mve toes on each fool," 
 It lives on roots and fruits; and tiie llesli is good. The head e- 
 sembles a pig; there are IS teeth in eacii jaw: the tail h thick at 
 the rump; the body is of a reddish yellow colour, and is com- 
 monly plump. Plate XLII. 
 
 DA'! A, among mathematicians, a term for such things or quan- 
 tities, as are given, or known, in order to tind other things therebv 
 that are unknown. Euclid uses the word data ("of which he has a 
 particular tract) for such spaces, lines, and angles, as are given in 
 magu'tude, or to wdiich we can assign others equal. From the use 
 of this word in mathematics, it has been transplanted into other 
 arts; as philosopliy, medicine, &:c. where it expresses any quan- 
 tity, which, for the sake of a present calculation, is taken for 
 granted to be such, without requiring an immediate proof for its 
 certainty; called also the given quantity, number, or power. And 
 hence also such things as are known, from w hence either in natural 
 philosopliy, the animal mechanism, or the operation of medicines, 
 w e come to the knowledge of others unknown, are now frequently 
 in physical writers called data. 
 
 DATE, in law, is the deicription of the day, month, year of 
 our Lord, and year of the reign of the king, in which a deed or 
 other writing was made. Anciently deeds had no dates but only 
 of the month and year, and now, if in the date of any dee<l, the 
 year of our Lord is right, though the year of the king's reign be 
 wrong, it shall not hurt the same. A deed is good, though it has 
 no date of the dav, or if th "t be mistaken, or though it contains aa 
 impossible date; but then he that pleads such a deed, must set 
 forth the time when it was delivered: for every deed or writing 
 hjis a date in law, and that is the day of the delivery; and where 
 there is none, a plaintiff, it is said, may count it of any liate. In 
 writings of importance, the date should be written in wwrds at 
 length. In letters, it is usua.lly written in figures. An antedate is 
 a date prior to the real time when the in--tri;ment was signed. A 
 post-date is that posterior to the real time w hen the instrument was 
 passed. 
 
 D.^TISC.A, riASTARD-Hi^.MP, in botany, a genus of the dode- 
 candria order, anil diacia class of plants; niilural order, Miscella- 
 neje. Male calyx pentaphyllous; no corolla; anihcrx sessile, 
 long, and 15 in numbe:-; female calyx bidented; no corolla, 
 styles three; capsule triangular, three-horned, unilocular, pervi- 
 ous, polyspermous, inferio;'. It has two species, natives of North 
 Amf-rica. 
 
 DATISI, in logic, a mode of syllogism-; in the third figure, 
 wherein the major is an universal aliirmative, and die minor and 
 conclusion particular aUirmalive propositions, 'i'hi^s, 
 
 Da- All
 
 DA IT 
 
 104 
 
 DAY 
 
 Da- All ttlio sc-rve Ood are king-;; 
 
 Ti* Soivie '.Oio sirvc God are poor; 
 
 St, Therefore, some wlio arc poor are kings. 
 
 DATIVE, [rhlh'us, Ltil.] 1. [In gr,mimur.] The epithet of 
 the >.ase tnat s giiiiiis tlie per-oii tu whom any thing is given, i'. 
 [Ih law.] Those are termed dative exceiitors who are appouited 
 f,\ich bv the judge's decree; as administratovs with iii here in 
 
 Ellglaiul. 
 
 IJATOLA, one of tlie Lipari islands, in the Mediterranean. 
 It i> 10 miles N. I"., of Lipari. 
 
 DA'i UM, or DAT! a, in ancient geography, a town of 
 Thrace, situated lietueen Neapolis, and the river Nessiis. It was 
 taken by Philip ol Macedon, who changed its name to Philippi, 
 being oiiginidly cidled Crenides on account of itsspriiigs. 
 
 DATCRA, Uie Thorn-applk, in botany, a genus of tlie mo- 
 i]og_\uia order, and pentandria class of plants; natural order, Lu- 
 ridai. Corolla funnel-shaped, plaited; calyx tubular, angulated, 
 deciduous; capsule quadrivalved. 'i'here are eight species; all, 
 except one, annual herbs. 
 D.VIT'S. See Datum. 
 DAY A, or USFO, a province of .lapan. 
 
 DAVAL, Petei;, Esq. V. R. S. an eminent English mathema- 
 tician, lie was bred a barrister at law; was afterward? master in 
 chancery; and at last :iccouniant-i.;r.nera! of that court. Retrans- 
 lated the memoirs of Card, de Kctz, printed in I'^mo. 17^3. In 
 the dispute concerning elliptical arches, when Black-friars bridge 
 was bliill, his opinion was apjdied for by the committee. His an- 
 swer may be seen in the London Magazhie for March 1760. He 
 died January S, 1763. 
 
 DA\AL"L1A, in botany, a genus of the cryptogamia, fdices. 
 Frnctiliciition in roundish liistinct dots near the margin ; involucre 
 membianeuus from tiie surface, half-hooded, distinct, somewhat 
 truncate, opening toward the margin. There are eighteen species. 
 DAUCUS, the Carrot, a genus of the digynia order, and 
 pentandria class of plants; natural order, Cmbellata\ Corolla a 
 little radiated, all hermaphrodite; fruit bristly, With short hairs. 
 There are eight species; but the one wliici! chiefly merits attention 
 is the 
 
 D. Carota, or CoM.MON Carrot. I'here are several varie- 
 ties, as the white, the orange, and the purple carrot ; but of these 
 the orange carrot is the most esteemed. It grows longer, larger, 
 and is generally h;.nds<jmer than the others, being often 1 i or IS 
 inches long in the eatable part, and from two to four in diameter 
 at tup. Carrots are propagated by seeds, sown at different seasons 
 of the year, to afford a supply for the table at all times. The sea- 
 son for sowing for the earliest crop is soon after Christmas. The 
 situation should be 0|)en, but near a wall ; though if they are sown 
 cio^e under it they will he apt to run up to seed too fast, and give 
 no good roots: the most proper distant e is eight inches. Tliev 
 <lelight in a warm sandy sail, which shotdd be light, and well dug 
 to a good depth, that the roots may n;eet with no obslrnclion in 
 miming down, so as to make them forked, and shoot out lateral 
 branches. This will hajipeu, especially when the ground has been 
 too much dimged, the same year that the seeds were sown, which 
 •will also occasion them to be worm-eaten. The hairiness of these 
 jiceds makes the sowing of them diliiculi, on account of their being 
 apt to stick together. They shoidd, therefore, be put through a 
 fine chaff sieve; and a calm day should be chosen for sowing 
 (hem. Whfii sown, they should he trod in with the feet, and the 
 a;round raked level over them. Whc;, they first come up, tlie^ 
 should be cut up to four inches distance, and a mon'h aher this 
 they are to be cleared again ; and if drawn while young, they are 
 now to be left at six iiiciies distance every way ; if Ihcv are to 
 stand to grow large, they must be separated to 10 inches distance. 
 The second season for sowing carrots is in February, This must 
 be done umler a wall or hedge, en warm banks: hut those which 
 arc to be on open large ijuarters siiould not be sown till tlie begin- 
 ning of March. I:i July, carrots maybe sown for an autumnal 
 trop; and lastly, in the end of August, for those which arc to 
 stand the winter. These last will be lit foy use in ?>Iarch, before 
 any of the spring ones; but they are seldom so tender or well 
 tasted. In order to preserve carrots for use all winter, they are to 
 Ije dug up in tlie beginning of Novemler, and laid in a dry place 
 in sand ; and these ro;)t.^ bemg :igain planted in Fchruarv, will ripen 
 seeds in August for succecihng crops: the loagc-t and straigiilest 
 rccts. arc to be thoscn. for this puijtsc. Carrels have beeu re- 
 
 commended as food for cattle. Dr. Hunter attempted to make 
 ale from carrc;!^; but though it worked kindly, and was in all re- 
 spects treated as ale, vet, after keeping it four nujuths, it proved 
 of a thick muddy appearance. He attempted to fine it, but in 
 vain. Sec Georgical Essays, 1773. "Tlie taste (he adds) was 
 by no means displeasing, as it much resembled malt litjuor. My 
 lirst ir.teTition being frustrated, I threw it into the still, being about 
 40 gallons in measure, and by two distillations obtained four gal- 
 lons of a clean proof spirit. It had, however, contracted a flavour 
 from the hop, which should be left out when the intention is to 
 reduce the liquor into spirit. I'Vom a gross call ulation, I am in- 
 duced to think that a good acre of carrots manufactured in this 
 maimer, will leave a profit of 401. after deducting the landlord's 
 rent, cultivation, distillation, and other incidental expences. In 
 this calculation, I presume that the s|5irit is worth 6?. per gallon, 
 and not excised. An acre of barley will by no meair produce so 
 much spirit. A rich sandy loam is the best laud for carrots; which 
 alter the crop is removed, will be in high cultivation for corn." 
 Attempts have also been made to prepare sugar from carrots, but 
 without success; a Ihii k syrupy matter like treacle being the only 
 product. A poultice made of carrots has been found to mitigate 
 the pain, and abate the stench of foul and cancerous ulcers. 
 Crickets are very fond of carrots; and are easily destroyed by 
 making a paste oi powdered arsenic, flour, and scraped carrots, 
 w hich must be placed near their habitations. A marmalade made 
 from carrots, by their strong antiseptic qualities, has also been 
 found useful in jireventing and curing the sea-scurvy. The seeds 
 have been reckoned carminative and diuretic; and were formerly 
 much used as a remedy for the stone. Carrots were lirst introduc- 
 ed into England by the Flemings, in the reign of queen Elizabeth. 
 DA\T'.NTRY, or DAINTRY, a handsome town of North- 
 amptonshire, 10 miles W. of Northampton. 
 
 DAUGHTi'^R. See Children. Daughters, among the an- 
 cients, were more frequently exposed than sons, as reo|uiriiif 
 grea'.er charge to educate and settle them in the world. See Ex- 
 rosiNC OF Children. Those wlio had no legitimate sons were 
 obliged, by the Athenian laws, to leave their estates to their daugh- 
 ters, who were contined to marry their nearest relations, otherwise 
 to forfeit their inheritance; as we find to have been practised like- 
 wise among the Jews, many of whose laws seem to have been 
 transcribed by Solon. If an heiress happened to be married before 
 her father's death, this did not hinder the nearest relation to claim 
 the inheritance, and even to take the woman from her husband ; 
 which is said to have been a common case. 
 
 DAVID, [Tn, Heb. /. e. beloved,] king of Israel, and He- 
 brew poet, was born at Bethlehem in B.C. 1085, and died B.C. 10 14; 
 after having reigned seven years and a half in Hebron, and tliirty- 
 three in Jerusalem. No hero, whose actions are recorded in sa- 
 cred or profane history, exhibits a more striking contrast of cha- 
 racter than David, or a more surprising mixture of the most emi- 
 nent virtues and the most fervent piety, witli the greatest crimes 
 and vices. It would be foreign from the nature of this work, to 
 expatiate upon either of these. Both are fully and impartially re- 
 lated in the Scriptures. But we cannot help observing, that while 
 the former have led many well-meaning Christian authors almost to 
 idolize the royal psalmist as a saint, the latter have given occasion 
 to infidel writers to degrade him to a level with Nero and the 
 worst of tyrants ; and to ridicule' revealed religion for stiling such a 
 character " the man after God's own heart." Neither the one 
 party nor the other seem to have adverted, that this expression 
 relates only to David's government of the kingdom, in establish- 
 ing purity of worship, and preserving the Israelites from those ido- 
 latries to which they were so prone. In this sense, and this alone, 
 David was never equalled by any of his successors either in Israel 
 or Jiidah. The context (.\ctsxiii. 21, 1?2), shews plainly, that it 
 was in this sense only that David " fullilled all his will." We 
 I'md an expiessioii nearly similar, used by the Almighty, upon a 
 similar occasion, to a monarch much less eminent fnr jiietv, ami 
 whom nobody ever sujiposed to deserve the character of "a man 
 according to Goil's own heart, though in this instance he acted 
 properly. " Thou hast done well,/ said the Lord to Jehu, (2 
 Kings .\. 30,) upon his extirpating the idolatrous worship of Baal, 
 ," in executing that which is right in mine eyes, and hast done 
 according to all that was in mine heart," Sec. One of the most 
 unjustifiable actions of David's life appears to have been his tor- 
 turing of tht Ain;nonites, with saws, harrows, and axes, and in 
 
 brick
 
 DAV 
 
 105 
 
 DAY 
 
 brick kilns. (J Sam. xii. 31.) Even the jus talionis could hardly 
 vindicate such wanton barbarity, had the Ammonites treated the 
 Israelite.s in the same manner, which is no-where recorded. Some 
 commentators however, vindicate David from this charge of 
 cruelty by saying, that llie words he " put them under saws," &c. 
 only meal) that lie subjected them to hard labour with these instru- 
 ments; but thougli tlie passage in 2 Sam. might perhaps bear such 
 a construction, we doubt tlie parallel passage in 1 Chron. xx. ,3. 
 will not admit of it, for it is e\pressly said that he " cut them with 
 saws," &:c. As an author and poet the merits of David have long 
 been universallv acknowledged, both by Jews and Christia[is. 
 Those who deny, that there luis ever been such a thing as any in- 
 spiration, or <livine revehition, given by the Almighty to his crea- 
 tures, in anv age or country, would do well to study the Psahiis of 
 David, andcompare them with the writings of the most celebrated 
 authors in the Pagan world, and see if there is any thimr equal to 
 them in i>oint of gr.md and sublime conceptions of the Deity, to 
 be found in the best of the heathen authors. Upon such a 
 comparison, the ideas given by Homer himself, of his deities, will 
 be found quite puerile and contemptible. Let tliose, then, who 
 deny revelation, account for this plncnomenon, how a man born 
 in an early age and a barljarous country, where the arts had 
 made little progress, and the sciences nmch less, and bred up in one 
 of the lowest stations of lite, though afterwards raised to tlie higliest, 
 should have been capable, in the midst of much persecution, vi- 
 cissitude of fortune, and cares of government, if not inspired, of 
 composing a set of poems, wiiich, in sublimity of sentiment, and 
 just conceptions of the Deity, far excel the most admired ])i'o- 
 ductions of Greece an-cl Rome, in their highest periods of reline- 
 uient? 
 
 DAVLDICI, DAVIDIsrS, or DAVFD GEORGIANS, a 
 sect of lieretics, the adherents of David George, a native of Delft, 
 who, in 1525, began to |)rpacli a new doctrine ; publishing himself 
 to be the true Messiah ; and that he was sent thitiier to fill heaven, 
 which was quite empty for want of people to deserve it. He is 
 likewise said to have denied the existence of angels, good and evil, 
 of heaven and hell, and to have rejected the doctrine of a future 
 judgement. He rejected marriage with the Adamites ; held, with 
 Manes, that the soul was not defiled bv sin ; and laughed at the 
 self-denial so much recommended by Jesus Christ. Such were 
 his principal errors. He made his escape from Delft, and retired 
 tirst into Eriesland, and then to Basil, where he changed his name, 
 assuming the name of John Bruck, and died m 1556. He left 
 some disciples behind him, to whom he promised that he would 
 rise again at the eml of three years. Nor was he altogether a false 
 prophet: for the magistrates of that city being informed, at three 
 years end, of what he had taugh.t, ordered liim to be dug up and 
 burnt, together witn Ivis writings, by the common hangman. 
 
 DAVID'S, St., a town of Asia, in the peninsula on this side 
 the Ganges, and on the coast of Coroinandel, which had fornierlv 
 a fort, 'hie town lies SO miles S. of Fort St. George. Lon. 79. 
 45. E. Lat. II. 30. N. 
 
 David's, St., an episcopal town of South Wales, in Pembroke- 
 shire, 24 miles N. W. of Pembroke. 
 
 David's I'own, a town of New Jersey. 
 
 DAVIESIA, in botany, a genus of the class and order decan- 
 dria monogynia. (,'alyx angular, simple, fi%'e-cleft ; corolla pa- 
 pilionaceous ; stigma simple, acute ; legume compressed, one- 
 seeded. One species, D. aiistralasia, described by Dr. Smith in 
 the fourth volume of the Liiinxan Tr.insactions. 
 
 DAVIS, John, a famous navigator in tlie I6th century, was 
 bora at Sandridge, near Dartmouth in Devonshire; and "distin- 
 guished himself by making three voyages to the most northern 
 parts of America, in order to find out a N. \V. |)ass2ge to the East 
 Indies ; in which he di^covered the Straits which bear his name. 
 He afterwards performed five voyages to the East Indies; in the 
 last of which he was slain in a desperate fight with some Japanese, 
 near the coast of Malacca, on the 27tii of December, ItJOj. 
 He wrote an account of his second voyage for the discovery 
 of the N. W. passage; a voyage to tlie East Indies; and otIieV 
 tracts. 
 
 D.^vis, Sir John, an eminent lawyer and poet, born about 
 1570. He first distinguidied himself by his poem " Nosce Teip- 
 sum" on the Immortality of the Soul. He became attorney-ge- 
 neral, and speaker of the house of commons in Ireland ; and after- 
 wards was appointed lord chief justice of the court of King's 
 
 VOL. II. NO. (52. 
 
 Bench in England, but died before his installation, in 1626. H* 
 published many law tracts ; but was esteemed more as a scholar 
 and a wit, than as a lawyer. 
 
 Davis's Quadrant, the common sea quadrant or backstaft. 
 See Quadrant. 
 
 Davis's Strait, a narrow sea, lying between the N. main of 
 America, and the western coast of Greenland; running N.W. 
 from Cai)e Farewel. 
 
 1) A\' rr, in a ship, a long beam of timber, represented by a, a, 
 (Plate LIV. fi». 2.) It is used as a crane whereby to lioi.sl the 
 tlukes of the anchor to the lop of the bow, without injuring the 
 sides oi the ship as it ascends ; an operation which, by mariners, 
 is called fishing the anchor. The anchors being situated on both 
 the bows, the davit may be occasionally shifted, so as to project 
 over either side of the ship, according to the position of that an- 
 chor on which it is employed. The inner end of the davit is se- 
 cured by being thrust into a square ring of iron b, whicli is bolted 
 to the deck, and forelocked under the beams. This ring, which is 
 called the span-shackle, exhibited at large in fig. 3, is fixed exactly in 
 the middle of the deck, and close behind the foremast. Upon the 
 outer end of the davit is hung a large block c, through which a 
 strong rope traverses, called the lish-pendent d\ t < the foremost 
 end of whicli is lifted a large iron liook f, and to tlie after end a 
 tackle or complication of pullies J ; ihe former of which is called 
 the fish-hook and the latter the fish-tackle. Tiie davit, therefore, 
 according to tlie sea-phrase, is employed to fish the anchor ; which 
 being previously catted, tlie fish-hook is fastened upon its fiukes; 
 and the effort of the tackle being transmitted to the hook, by- 
 means of the fi-h-pendent, draws up that part of the anchor sufii- 
 ciently high upon the bow to fasien it, wdiich is done by the 
 shank-painter. See that article. There is als" a davit of a smaller 
 kiiul occasionally fixed in the long-boat, and employed to weigh 
 the anchor therein. 
 
 DAUMA, a kingdom of Africa, in Negroland, with a town of 
 the same name. Lon. 34. 10. E. Lat. 8. 0. N. 
 
 DAVOS, a town of the Helvetic republic, and capital of a 
 jurisdiction of the same name, in the country of the Grisons. It 
 is (iO miles S. E. of Zurich. 
 
 DAUPHIN, a title given during the monarchy of France, to 
 llie presumptive heir of the crown ; on account of the province of 
 Dauphine, which in 1349 was given to Philip VI. on tliis condi- 
 tion, by Hubert II. dauphin of Viennois. 
 
 D.^upHiN was anciently the title of the princes of Viennois in 
 Fiance. Most authors who have sought the origin of the name 
 Dauphin and Dauphine, seem to have given too much loose to 
 conjecture. Du Chesne is of opinion, that it was the grandson of 
 Guy the Fat who first bore the name of dauphin. Chorier ob- 
 serves, that William, canon of Notre Dame at Grenoble, who has 
 written the life of Margaret, daughter of Stephen earl of Bur- 
 gundy, married with Guy, the son of Guy the Fat, calls the 
 latter simply Guy the Old, and the former always count , 
 Dauphin ; and adds, that no record, no monument, ever attri- 
 butes Ihe title of dauphin to Guy the Fat or any of his predeces- 
 sors : so that it must necessarily have taken its rise in his son, all 
 whose successors so constantly assumed it, that it became the pro- 
 per name of the family. He died in 1 142, in the ilower of his 
 youth : so that it must have been about 1 120 that the title com- 
 menced ; and without doubt, adds he, on some illustrious occasion, 
 Daupuin, an island about 10 miles long, in the mouth of Mo- 
 bile bay, in the Gulf of Mexico. 
 
 Dauphin, Foht, a jurisdiction, fort, and sea-port town in the 
 N. part of the island of St. Domingo. 
 
 DAI'PHINY, or DAUPHINE', a late province of France, 
 which was bounded on the V\'. by tlie Rhone, on the N. by the 
 Rhone and Savov, on the S. by Provence, and on the E. bv the 
 Alps. 
 
 DAX, DACQS, or ACQS, a town of Fiance, in the depart- 
 ment of Laiides. See Accas. 
 
 DAXABON, DAJABON, DAIIABON, or LAXABOX, 
 a settlement of the Spaniards on the line between the French and 
 Spanish divisions of the island of St. Domingo. It was settled 
 to prevent smuggling, when the Spaniards l;aa their share of the 
 island. 
 
 Daxabon, a town in the above district, 240 miles N. AV. of St. 
 Domingo. 
 DAV, according to the most natural and obvious sense of the 
 2 E word.
 
 DAY 
 
 106 
 
 D E A 
 
 word, signifies th;:t space of time during which it continues to be 
 liglit ; in contradistinction to night, being that pi'.rlition of time 
 wherein it is dark; but the space of time in which it is light, being 
 somewhat vague and indeterminate, tlie time between the rising 
 and settngijf the sun is usually looked on as the day ; and the 
 time which lapses from its setting to its rising again, the night. 
 The word day is often taken in a larger seiise, so as to include the 
 night a^o ; or to ilenote the time of a whole apparent revolution 
 of the sun roimd the eartii, in which sense it is called by some a 
 natural day, a^id by others an artificial one : but to avoid confu- 
 sion, it is usual to call it in the former sense simply the day, and 
 in tiie latter a iiychthemeron, l)y which term that acceptation of it 
 is aptly denoted, a» it implies both day and night. The nyclithe- 
 meron is divided into 24 parts called hours; which are ot two 
 sorts, ecjual and iineiiiial, or temporary. See Hour. Different 
 nations begin their clay at different hours. See Chronoloc.v. 
 The method of beginning tlie day at midnight prevails in Great 
 Britain, France, Spain, and mo>t pans of Europe, except Italy, 
 and several parts of CJennaiiy ; where tlu-y begin their day at sun- 
 setting, and reckon on till it sets next day, calling that the L'4ih 
 hour : these are generally termed Italian hours. The Jews also be- 
 gan their Iiychthemeron at sun-setting: but then they divided il into 
 twice twelve hours, as we do; reckoning twelve for the day, be it 
 long or short, and twelve for the night ; so that their hours conti- 
 nually varying with the day and night, the hours of the day were 
 longer than tliose of the night for one half-year, and the contrary 
 the other ; from whence their hours are called temporary : those 
 at the time of the equinoxes became equal, because then those of 
 the day and night are so. The Romans also reckoned their hours 
 after this maimer, as do the Turks at tliis day. This kind of hours 
 is called planetary, because tlie seven planets were anciently look- 
 ed upon as presiding over the affairs of the world, and to take it 
 by turns each of these hours, according to the following order: 
 Saturn iir.it, then Jupiter, Mars, the Sun, Venus, Mercury, and 
 last of all the Moon : hence they denominated each day of the 
 week from that planet whose turn it was to preside the first hour 
 of the nychthemeron. Thus, assigning the lir^t liour of Saturday 
 to Saturn, the second fell to Ju|)iter, the third to Mars, and so the 
 22d of the same nychthemeron fell to Saturn again, the l?3d to Ju- 
 piter, and the '2ith to Mars : so that on the hrst hour of the next 
 day, it fell to the Sun to preside ; and by the like reckoning, the 
 first hour of the next fell to the Moon ; of the next to Mars ; of 
 the next to Mercury; of the nextto Jupiter; of the nextto Venus: 
 hence the days of the week came to be distinguished by the Latin 
 names, of Dies Saturni, Solis, Lun;e, Martis, Mercurii, Jovis, and 
 Veneris ; and among us, by the names of Saturday, Sunday, Mon- 
 day, &c. 
 
 i)AY, Civil, Natural, Sidereal, and Solar. See Chro- 
 nology and Astronomy. The sidereal day is shorter tian the 
 mean solar day by 3' 50" nearly. We are inclined to think tliat 
 many persons, especially in the higher walks of Hie, avail them- 
 selves oWie change of >easons ; insomuch, that bv the law of fa- 
 shion, in Winter tliey convert the night into day; and in sumaier 
 exchange the most agreeable mornings and forenoons, for damp, 
 unwhole-ome evenings and nights. It would be a vain attempt 
 to reprobate this unnatural custom, in those circles where it is fan- 
 cied to be etpially vulgar to repair to bed in good time, and to 
 rise earlv ; a practice instinctively followed even by the lower ani- 
 mals. To the industrious and more domestic members of society, 
 we venture to recommend, while in a good state of health, the fol- 
 lowing <livi^ion of die day : namely, in spring and autumn to rise 
 with (he lir.it rays of the sun; in summer, one hour after ; and in 
 ivfnter, one hour before the luminary appeal's; — to allot every 
 •lay (Sundavs excepted,) from ten to {welve hours to useful occu- 
 pations ; from six to seven hours to the various purposes of dress- 
 ing, taking provisions, exercise, or amusements; and also from six 
 lo seven, or eight hours, to repose, accordingly as they have been 
 more or less fatigued the preceding day, either by nuMital or bo- 
 flily exertions. 
 
 Days of Grace, in commerce, are a customary number of 
 days allowed for the pavment of a bill ol exchange, &c. after the 
 s;min becomes tlue. Three days of grace are allowed in Britain ; 
 ten ii France and Dantzic ; eight at Naples ; sIk at Venice, Ara- 
 Merd.v,ii. Kotierdam, and Antwerp; four at Frankfort; life in 
 Lep^.c; cweivc at Hamburgh; six iu Porlup^ai ; fourteen in 
 
 Spain; thirty in (jeiioa, &c. In Britain the days of grace are 
 given and taken as a matter of course, the bill being only paid on 
 the last day : hut in other" countries, where the time is much 
 longer, it would be reckoned dishonourable for a merchant to take 
 advantage of it ; bills are therefore paid on the very day they fall 
 due. 
 
 Days of Grace, in law, are those granted by the court at the 
 [-'layer of the defendant or plaintiff. 
 
 Day, in a legal sense, relates to the day of appearance of par- 
 ties, or the continuance of suits, where a day is given, &c. See 
 the article Essoi.sr. In real actions there are common days and 
 speiial days given by the judges, in an assise, &c. 
 
 Days im Ban'K, are days set down by statute or order of the 
 court, when writs shall be returned, or when the party shall appear 
 on the writ served. Thev say also, if a person be dismissed with- 
 out day, he is linally di-c!iarged. 
 
 Day-light, in our law, some time after sun-setting, and be- 
 fore snn-ri-ing, being accounted part of the day, when the 
 hundred is liable for any robberies committed within that time. 
 
 Day's Ma.v, in the noilii of England, an arbitrator or person 
 chosen to determine an affair in dispute. 
 
 Days of Grack, in trade and commerce, an indulgence 
 granted to the acceptor of a bill, by which it is ordered that the 
 holder shall take no measures, and not even protest an acceptance 
 until the expiration of certain days after the bill becomes due. In 
 London thiee davs of grace are allowed ; in Amsterdam, six; in 
 Hamburgh, twelve ; in Dantzic, ten; in Copenhagen, eight ; iu 
 Berlin, three ; and a different term in almost every distinct mer- 
 cantile city. 
 
 Day's Point, a districlof Virginia, on the banks of James river. 
 
 Day's Work, among seamen, the reckoning or account of the 
 ship's course during twenty-four hours, as between noon and 
 noon, according to the rules of trigonometry. See Dead Reck- 
 oning. 
 
 DEACON, [Airjxov©', Gr. a servant,] in ecclesiastical polity, 
 one whose business is to baptise, read in the church, and assist at 
 the celebration of the eucharist. Seven deacons were instituted 
 by the apostles. Ads chap. vi. which number was retained a long 
 time in several churches. Their office was to serve in the Agapse, 
 and to distribute the bread and wine to the communicants. An- 
 other part of their office was to be a sort of directors to the people 
 in the exercise of their public devotions in the church ; for which 
 purpose they used certain forms of words, to give notice when 
 each part of the service began. Whence they are sometimes 
 called eirokerukes ; or holy criers of the church. Deacons 
 hail, by licence from the bishop, a power to preach, to recon- 
 cile penitents, and to represent their bishops in general councils. 
 Their office out of the church was lo lake care of orphans, widows, 
 prisoners, and all the poor and sick who had any title to be main- 
 tained out of t!ie revenues of the church ; to in(|uire into the nio- 
 rals of the people, and to make their report to the bishop. Whence, 
 on account of the variety of business, it was usual to have several 
 deacons in the same church. In the Latin church, it is the 
 deacon's office to incense the officiating priest or prelate; to lay 
 the corporal on the altar; to receive the pattern or cup from the 
 subdcacon, and present theni to the pcisoii officiating ; to incense 
 tiie choir ; to receive the pax from the officiating prelate, and 
 carry it to the subdeacon ; and at the pontilical mass, when the 
 bishop gives the blessing, to put the mitre on Ins head, and to take 
 off the archbishop's pall and lay it on the altar. In England, the 
 form of ordaining deacons, declares that il is their office to assist 
 the priest in the ilistribution of the holy communion: in which, 
 agrecablv to the pra<tice of the ancient chuicli, they are confined 
 to the administering wine to the communicants. A deacon in 
 England is not capable of any ecclesiastical promotion ; yet he 
 may be a chaplain to a fam ly, curate to a beneliced clergyman, 
 or lecturer to a parish church. He may be ordained at 23 years 
 of age, but it is expressly provided, that the bishop shall not or- 
 dain the same person a priest and deacon in the same day. The 
 (lualifications of a deacon in the primitive church are mentioned 
 by (he apo^lle i-'aul, 1 Tim. ill. 8 — 13. 
 
 DEACONESS, an order of women who had their distinct 
 offices and services in the primitive cluirv h. This office appears 
 as ancient as the apostolical age ; for St. Paul calls Phebe, Aiaxov®-, 
 a servant of the church of Ceuclirea. Tertuilian calls them, yid:ia, 
 
 widows.
 
 DEA 
 
 107 
 
 DEA 
 
 widows, because tlii\v were commonly chosen out of the widows 
 of the church ; and Epiphiinius, and the council of Lnotlicea, call 
 them ■JT^iir^u'hSu.i, elilcily women, because none but such were or- 
 dinarily taken into this ollice. For, indeed, by some ancient 
 laws, tliese foiu' qualhicutions were required in every one that was 
 to he admitted into this order. 1. 'I'iiat she should he a widow. 
 2. 'i'liat she sliould he a widow that had borne children. 3. A 
 widow that was but once married. 4. One of a consideral>le age, 
 4i, 50, or 60 years old. 'I'hough all these rules admitted of ex- 
 ccjitions. 
 
 DEAD Languages. See Philology. 
 
 Dead Lights, certain wooden ports which are made to fasten 
 into the cal)in win<low», to prevent the waves from gusliing into 
 the ship in a high sea. As they are maae exactly to rit the win- 
 dows, and are strong enough to resist the waves, they are always 
 lixed in on tiie ajiproach o( a storm, and the glass lights taken out, 
 which must otherwise be shatten-d to pieces by the surges, and 
 surtcr great <|uantities of water to enter the vessel. 
 
 DEADLY Feud, in English law-books, a profession of irre- 
 concileable enmity, till ;> person is revenged bv the death of his 
 enemy. The word ffud is derived from the Gei man Fflid ; which, 
 as Hottoniaii observes, sianiiies modo bellum, modo capitales ini- 
 niicitias. See Feud. Such enmitv and revenge vas allowed by 
 law in time of the Saxons. If any man was killed, and a pecu- 
 niary satisfaction was not made to the kindred, it was lawful for 
 them to take up arms and revenge themselves on the murderer: 
 this was called deadly feud ; and probably was the original of an 
 appeal. 
 
 Deadly Nightshade. See Atropa. 
 
 DEADMAN'S Island, one of the Magdalen islands. Lon. 
 61.30. W. Lat. 47. 22. N. 
 
 Dead Mens Eves, in the sea language, a kind of blocks with 
 many holes in them, but no sheevers, whereby the shrowds are 
 fastened .to the chains ; the crow-feet reeve also through these 
 holes, and, in some ships, the main stays are set tight in them ; 
 but then they have only one hole, through which the lanyards are 
 passed several times. 
 
 Dead Nettle. See Lamium. 
 
 Deab Reckoning, in sea language, that estimation of con- 
 jecture which the seamen make of the place where a ship is, by 
 keeping an account of her way by the log, by knowing the course 
 they have steered by the compass, and by rectifying all witli the 
 allowance for drift or leeway ; so that this reckoning is without 
 any observation of the svm, moon, and stars, and is to be rectified 
 as often as any good observation can be had. This account kept 
 for 24 hours is called a day's work. 
 
 Dead Sea, in geography, a lake of Judea, into which the river 
 Jordan discharges itself; being about 70 miles long and 20 
 broad. 
 
 Dead Tops, a disease incident to young trees, and cured by 
 cutting off the dead parts close to the next good twig or shoot, 
 and claying them over as in grafting. 
 
 Dead Water, at sea, the eddy water just astern of a ship ; so 
 called, because it does not pass away so swift as the water running 
 by her sides does. They say th. t a ship makes much dead-water 
 when she has a great eddy following her stern. 
 
 DEAFNESS, the disease of the ear, which prevents its due re- 
 ception of sounds. See Medicine. Deafness generally arises 
 either from an ol^struction or a compression of the auditory nerve ; 
 or from some collection of matter in the cavities of the inner ear ; 
 Of from the auditory passage being stopped up by some hardened 
 excrement ; or lastly, from some excrescence, a sweiling of the 
 glands, or some foreign body introduced within it. Those born 
 deaf are also dumb, as not being able to learn any language, at 
 least in the common way. However, as the eyes in some mea- 
 sure serve them for ears, they may understand what is said by the 
 motion of the lips, tongue, &c. of the speaker ; and even accus- 
 tom themselves to move their own ; as they see other people do, 
 and th\is learn to speak. Thus Dr. Wallis taught two young gen- 
 tlemen born deaf to know what was said to them, and return per- 
 tinent answers. Digby gives us another instance of the same 
 within his own knowledge ; ami there was a Swiss physician lately 
 living at Am^te^dam, one John Conrad Amman, who effected the 
 same in several children born deaf with surprising success. He 
 reduced the art to a systematic method, which he published in his 
 " Surdus Lociuens," Ainstelod. 1692, and " De Lotjuela," ibid. 
 
 1700. But no person has excelled Mr. Br.tidwood, in the art of 
 teaching the deaf and dumb to speak. The instances of his suc- 
 cess with various pupils, born pertectly deaf, but whom he has 
 nevertheless taught to speak, read, write, cast accounts, and even 
 to become masters of the most abstruse branches of science, are 
 numerous and astonishing. In the Phil. Trans. No. 312, we have 
 an account by Mr. Waller, R. S. Secretary, of a man and his sis- 
 ter, each about 50 years old, born in the same town with Mr. Wal- 
 ler, who had neither of them the least sense of hearnig ; yet both 
 of them knew, by the motion of the lips only, whatever was said 
 to tiiein, and would answer pertinently to the question proposed. 
 It seems they could both liear and sjieak when children, but lost 
 their sense afterwards ; whence they retained their speech, which, 
 though uncouth, was vet intelligible. Such another instance is 
 that of Mr. Goddy's daughter, minister of St. Gervais in Geneva, 
 related by Bishop Buinet: " At two years old tliey perceived 
 she had lost her hearing; and ever since, though she hears great 
 noists, yet she hears nothing of what is said to her. But by ob- 
 serving the motions of the mouth and lips of others, she acquired 
 so many words, that out of thes^- she has formed a sort of jargon, 
 in which she can hold conversation whole days with those that can 
 speak her language. She knows nothing that is said to her, 
 unless she sees the motions of their mouths that speak to her, so that 
 in the night they are obliged to light candles to speak to her. 
 One thing will appear the strangest part of the whole narration : 
 she has a sister, with whom she has practised her language more 
 than any body else ; and in the night, by laying her hand on her 
 sister's mouth, she can perceive by that wliat she saith, and so can 
 discourse with her in the dark."' (Burn. Let. IV. p. 243. See 
 Dumbness.) It is oliservable, that deaf persons, and several 
 other persons dull of hearing, hear better and more easily if a loud 
 noise be raised at the time when one speaks to them: which is 
 owing, no doubt, to the greater tension of the ear-drum on that 
 occasion. Dr. Wallis mentions a deaf woman, who if a drum 
 \vi re beat in the room could hear any thing very clearly ; so that 
 her husband hired a drummer for a servant, that by this means he 
 might hold conversation w ith his wife. The same author men- 
 tions another, who, living near a steeple, could always hear very 
 well, if there was a ringing of three or four bells, but never otherwise. 
 
 DEAL, in carpentry," a thin kind of lir plank. They are form- 
 ed by sawing the trunk of a tree into a great many longitudinal 
 divisions, of more or less thickness according to the purposes they 
 are intended to serve. A very good method of seasoning planks 
 for deal, is to throw them into salt water as soon as they are saw- 
 ed ; and keep them tiiere three or four days, frequently turning 
 them. In this case they will be rendered much harder, by drying 
 afterwards in the air and sun : but neither this, nor any other me- 
 thod yet known, will preserve them from shrinking. Rods of 
 deal expand laterally, or cross the grain, in moist weather, and 
 contract again in dry ; and thence have been found to make an 
 useful hygrometer. " Deals are imported into this country from 
 Christiana, and other parts of Norway ; from Dantzic, and various 
 parts of Prussia; from Si. Petersburgh, Archangel, Narva, Me- 
 mel, &c. They are sold by the piece, or by the standard hun- 
 dred, or by the long hundred of 120. A standard, or reduced 
 deal, is one inch and a half thick, eleven inches w ide, and twelve 
 feet long. 
 
 Deal, in geography, a town of England, in Kent, between 
 Dover and Sandwich ;' supposed to be the Dohi of NinniMs, and 
 situated on a fiat and level coast, 7 miles S. bv E. of Sandwich, 
 and 72 E. by S. of London. Lon. 1. 29. E. Liit. 51. 13. N. 
 
 DEALBATION, Idealhatio, Lat.] the act of bleaching or 
 v.hiti-nin? ; rendering things white which were not so before : a 
 word in little use. 
 
 DEAMENA, in the mythology, the goddess who was suppos- 
 ed to preside over woinen during their menses. 
 
 DEAN, [decamis, Latin ; do;;en, Fr.] from the Greek word 
 Jsxre ; in English, ten ; because he was anciently set over ten 
 canons or prebendaries at least in some cathedrd church. 
 
 Df.an is an ecclesiastical dignitary in cathedral and collegiate 
 clunclies, and head of th« chapter. As tliere are two foundations 
 of cathedral churches in Engh.nd, the old and the new, so there 
 are two wavs of creating deans. Tiiose of the old foundation, 
 founded before the suppression of monasteries, as the deans of St. 
 Paul's, York, Sec. arc raised to that dgnity much after the man- 
 ner of bishops, the king fust sending his tongfe d'eliie, the chapter 
 
 electing
 
 D EA 
 
 108 
 
 DEA 
 
 cU'ctiMi;, ajul the king granting his royal assent, the bishop confirms 
 liini, r.iicl gives his mandate to install him. Tliose of the iiew 
 foundation, whose deanries were raised upon the ruins of priories 
 and convents, soch as the deans of Canterbury, Durham, Ely, 
 Korwich, Winchester, &c. are donative, and installed by virtue 
 of the king's letters patent, without either election or confirmation. 
 Canonists distinguisli between deans of cathedral and those of col- 
 legiate churches. The first, with their chapter, are regularly sub- 
 ject to the jurisdiction of the bishoj). As to the latter, they have 
 usually the contentious jurisdiction in themselves, though some- 
 times tills belongs to them in common with the chapter. There 
 are cathedral churches which never liad a <lean, and in which tlie 
 bishop is head of the chapter, and in his absence, the archdeacon : 
 such are the cathedrals of St. David and Landati'. There are also 
 deans without a chapter, as the dean of Battle in Sussex, dean of 
 the arches, &c. and deans without a jurisdiction, as the dean of the 
 chapel royal. In this sense the word is applied to the chief of 
 certain peculiar churches or chapels. 
 
 Dean and Chapter are the council of the bishop, to assist 
 him with their advice in affairs of religion, as well as in the tempo- 
 ral concerns of his see. When the rest of the clergy were settled 
 in the several parishes of each diocese, these were reserved for the 
 celebration of divine service in the bishop's own cathedral ; and 
 the chief of them who jjresided over the rest, obtained the name of 
 decanus or dean, being probably at first appointed to superintend 
 ten canons or prebendaries. > 
 
 Dean of a Monastery was a superior established under the 
 abbot, to ease him in taking care of ten monks ; whence he was 
 called decanus. 
 
 DEA^J, Rural, called also Arch-presbyter, originally exercised 
 jurisdiction over ten churches in the country, and afterwards be- 
 came only the bishop's substitute, to grant letters of administra- 
 tion, probates of wills, &c. ; to convocate tlie clergy ; and to sig- 
 nify to them sometimes by letters the bisliop's will, and to give 
 induction to tlie archdeacon. Their office is now lost hi that of 
 the archdeacons and chancellors. 
 
 Dean, in geography, a forest of England in Gloucestershire, 
 between the Severn and the county of Monmouth. 
 
 Dean, Great Dean, or Michael Dean, a town in the 
 above forest, 12 miles W. of Gloucester. 
 
 Dean, is also a title given to certain civil officers ; as 
 
 1. Dean of Faculty, the president of the Faculty of Advo- 
 cates, in Scotland. 
 
 2. Dean of Guild, the chief judge of the Guild Court. See 
 Law. 
 
 DEATH is generally considered as the separation of the soul 
 from the body ; in which sense it stands opposed to life, which 
 consists in the' union thereof. Physicians usually deline death by 
 a total stoppage of the circulation of the blood, and a cessation of 
 the animal and vital functions consequent thereon ; as respiration, 
 sensation, &c. An animal body, by the actions inseparable from 
 life, undergoes a continual change. Its smallest fibres become 
 rigid; its minute vessels grow into solid fibres no longer pervious 
 to the fluids ; its greater vessels grow hard and narrow ; and every 
 thing becomes contracted, closed, and bound up ; whence the 
 dryness, immobility, and extenuation, observed in old age. By 
 such means the offices of tlie mjniiter vessels are destroyed ; the 
 humours stagnate, harden, and at length coalesce with the solids. 
 Thus are the subtilist fluids in the body intercepted and lo.t, the 
 concoction weakened, and the reparation prevented ; only the 
 coarser iuices continue to run slowly thro'ign the greater vessels, 
 to the preservation of life, aftt r the animal fuii-t'ons are destroyed. 
 At length, in the process of these ciianges, death itself becomes 
 inevitable, as the necessary consequence of life. But it is rare that 
 life is thus long protracted, or that death succeeds merely from the 
 decays and im|)airment of old age. Diseases, a long and horrid 
 train, cut the work short. Tlie signs of death a; e in many cases 
 verv uncertain. If we consult what Winslow or Bruchier have 
 said' on this subject, we shall be convinced, that between life and 
 death the sliade is so very undistinguivhable, that all the powers of 
 art can scarcely determine, where tte one ends and the (jthcr be- 
 cins. The colour of the visage, Uic warmth of the body, and sup- 
 pleness of the joints, are but uncertain signs of life still subsisting ; 
 while, on the contrary, the paleness of the complexion, the cold- 
 ness of the body, the stilfness of the extremities, the cessation of all 
 
 motion, and the total insensibility of the parts, are but uncertain 
 marks of death begim. In the same manner also, \viih regard to 
 the pulse and breathing ; these motions are often so kept under, 
 that it is impossible to perceive them. By bringing a looking-s;lass 
 near to the mouth of the person supposed to be dead, people often 
 e.xpect to find whether he breathes or not. But this is a very un- 
 certain experiment : the glass is frequently sullied by the vapour 
 of the dead man's body ; and often the person is still alive, though 
 the glass is no way tarnished. In the same manner, neither burn- 
 ing nor scarifying, neiilier noises in the ears nor pungent spirits 
 applieil to the nostrils, give certain signs of the discontinuance of 
 hie; and there are many instances of persons who have endured 
 them all, and afterwards recovered w'ithout any external assistance, 
 to the astonishment of the spectators. This ought to be a caution 
 against hasty burials, especially in cases of sudden death, drowning, 
 &c. No person who has died, or appeared to die suddenly, 
 should be interred till undoubted signs of putrefaction appear. 
 
 Death, Symptoms of: 1. Cessation of the pulse; 2. Total 
 suppression of breathing; 3. Loss of animal heat ; 4. Rigidity of 
 the body, and inflexibility of the limbs ; 3. Relaxation of the 
 lower jaw ; (i. Inability of the eye-balls to return to their sockets, 
 when pressed by the finger ; 7. Dimness, faintness, and sinking of 
 the cornea, or uppermost horny coat of the eye ; 8. Foam in the 
 cavity of the mouth ; 9. Blue spots of various sizes, and on different 
 parts of the body; 10. A caxlaverous smell ; 11. Insensibility to 
 all external stimulants. All these symptoms, however, if indi- 
 vidually considered, are far from being conclusive: they then 
 only aftbrd a certain criterion of death, when most or all those ap- 
 pearances concur at the same time, especially if the sixth, seventh, 
 and tenth of the signs be strongly marked. 
 
 Death Apparent, is that state in which life is suspended, 
 either because the body is not susceptible of external stimuli, or 
 the interior organs are in a state similar to that of palsy. Dr. 
 Struve, in his "Practical Essay on the Art of recovering Siispeiided ' 
 Animation," lately translated from the German 12mo. London, 
 1801, exhibits llie following view of all the Symptoms of Life : A 
 slight degree of warmth in the region of the heart, accompanied 
 with contractions and dilatations; a vibrating motion of the whole 
 body, especially after being sprinkled with cold water; and a 
 convulsive tension of some muscles. Doubtful Signs : Rigidity of 
 the limbs, gradual smoothness of the skin, warmth and redness in 
 particular parts of the body, hiccough, contraction and hissing of 
 the nostrils, a tremulous motion of the whole body, mucus issuing 
 from the nose during the artificial intialion of the lungs, a slight 
 convulsive motion of the mouth, and a firm compression of the 
 teeth. More certain signs; Gentle throbbing of the heart ; pul- 
 sation of the temporal arteries; a slight convulsive motion of the 
 inner corner of the eye ; vibration of the eye-ball ; and almost 
 imperceptible convulsions of the muscles surrounding the neck. 
 Distinct signs of Life : A gentle motion of the jaw ; gradual red- 
 ness of the lips and cheeks; contraction of the different muscles in 
 the face ; convulsive motions of the toes ; sneezing; tremor of the 
 whole body ; vomiting ; respiration interrupted by coughing ; 
 and groaning. 
 
 Death, in law. The law makes a distinction between natural 
 and civil death. 
 
 Death, Civil, takes place, where a pei-son is not actually dead, 
 but adjudged so by law. Thus, if any person, for whose life an 
 estate is granted, remains beyond sea, or is other« ise absent, seven 
 veais, and no proof of his being alive, he shall be accounted natu- 
 rally dead. 
 
 De.vth, Natural, inlaw, means a person actually dead. 
 Death-Watch, in natural history, is also called jjediculus, 
 fatiilicus, niortisaga, pulsatorius, &c. There are two kinds of 
 death-watches. I. Of the first we have a good account in the 
 Pliil. Trans, by Mr. Allen. It is a sinall beetle, .j'g of an inch 
 long, of a dark brov. n colour, spotted ; having pelluc.d wings un- 
 der the vagina, a large cap or helmet on the head, and two antenna' 
 proceeding from beneath the eyes, and doing the oftice of pro- 
 boscides. The part it beats withal, he observed, was the extreme 
 edge of the face, wliicli he chooses to call tlie upper li[), tlie mouth 
 being contracted by this bony part, and lying iiiKleine:ith out of 
 view. This account is confirmed by Dr. Deriiam ; with this dif- 
 ference, tliat in-tead of ticking with the upper lip, he observed the 
 insect to draw back its mouth, and beat with its forehead. Tiiat 
 4 author
 
 DEB 
 
 109 
 
 DEC 
 
 aiillior hv.\ two doatli-watches, a male and a female, wliicli 1ie kept 
 alive ill a box several months ; and could bring one of thein to 
 heal whenever lie iileased, l)y imilatina; its boating. Ily lliis tick- 
 ing noise ho could freijnontly invite the male to get up upon the 
 other in the way of coition. ' A\ ln-n the v.ido found he got up in 
 vain, lie would get olf again, beat very eagerly, and then up again : 
 ■\Vhencetho Dr! concludes l!iosc p'.dsiilions to betheway wh.creby 
 these insects woo one another, and lind out and invite each other 
 tocopulEfion. II. The second kind of death-watch is an insect in 
 appearance quite dilfereiit from the first. The former only beats 
 seven or eight strokes at a time, and cpiicker ; the latter vvdl beat 
 some liouK together without intermission ; and his strokes are more 
 leisurely, and like the beat of a watch. It i- a small greyish in- 
 sect, much like a louse when viewed with the naked eye. It is 
 verv common in all parts of the house in summer: it is very nini- 
 blein running to shelter, and shy of beating when disturl)ed ; but 
 will beat very freely, and even answer one's beating, if viewed 
 without giving it disturbance, or shaking the place 'a here it lies, S-zc. 
 Dr. Derham cannot say whether they beat in any other thing, but 
 he never heard their noise except in or near paper. He is in doubt 
 whether it be made by their heads, or rather snouts, against the 
 paper ; or whether it be not made after some such manner as gras- 
 hoppers aud crickets make their noise lie inclines to the former 
 opinion. The reason of his doubt is, that he observed the ani- 
 mal's body to shake and give a jerk at every beat, but coidd 
 scaice perceive any part of its body to touch the paper. Hut its 
 body is so small and near Ih.e paper, and its motion in ticking so 
 OMiek,tliat he thinks it might lie, vet he did not perceive it. 'I'he 
 ticking, as in the other, he judges to be a wooing act. 
 
 DliBEMIAM, a town m Suflblk, 84 miles N. N. E. of Lon- 
 don. 
 
 DEBENTURE, [dehentur, Latin, from cLIho,'] a writ or 
 Dote, by which a debt is claimed. 
 
 DEnENTURE is Used at liie customhouse for a kind of certificate 
 signed by the officers of the customs, which intitles a merchant ex- 
 porting goods to the receipt of a bounty or draw-back. All mer- 
 chandises that are de^igIlod to be takel^ on board for th;t voyage 
 being entered and shipped, a?id tlie ship being regularly cleared 
 ont, and sailed out of port on her intended voyage, debentures 
 may be made out from the exporter's entries, in order to obtain the 
 draw-backs, allowances, bounties, or premiums; which debentures 
 for foreign goods arc to be paid within one month after demand. 
 Aud in making out these debentures, it must be observed, that 
 every l«iece of vellum, parchment, or paper, containing any de- 
 benture for drawing liack customs or duties, must, before writing, 
 be stamped, and pay a duty of eight-jience. The forms of deben- 
 tnres vary according to the merchandise exported. In the ex- 
 ecution of debentures for tobacco, it must be particularly oliserved, 
 1. Tiiat debentures for the same quantity may be vnade on one or 
 more parchments. 2. That the exporter's oath must be printed, 
 specifying whether he acts for himself or en commission. 3. If ex- 
 ported to any other foreign ports than Ireland,, the word Ireland 
 must be added to the oalli after Great Britain. 4. That as no to- 
 bacco may be consumed on board of ships of war in Europe hut 
 what has paid full duties, and been manufactured in Great Britain, 
 jio drawback is to be allowed for tobacco exjiorled in any man of 
 war. 5. That the eight pounds per hogshead of 3jO pounds, or 
 more, allowed for draught at importation, must not be deducted 
 on exportation. 6. That debentures for tobacco exported te he- 
 l.'ind must not be paid till a certificate be produced, testifying tiie 
 kmding thereof. 7. ^Ihat no jiersons niav swear to the exportation 
 but such as are permitted to swear to debentures for other goods. 
 'In debentures for all other foreign goo<ls, no person may be ad- 
 jnitted to swear to ti;e e.'.portation but the true exporter, either as 
 u. proprietor, or who, being employed by commission, is concerned 
 in the direction of the voyage. All kinds of debentures, belore 
 being delivered or paid to the exporters, a»:e entered into a sepa- 
 rate book kept for that purpose by the collector and comptroller 
 of the customs. 
 
 DEBILITY, is that feeble state of life in which the vital 
 function- are languidly performed ; wlien the mind loses its cheer- 
 fulness and vivacity ; when the limbs are tottering with weakness, 
 and the digestive faculty is impaired. This complaint, which at 
 present is so prevalent, even in the bloom of life, and among those 
 who ought to form the most vigorotK and robust part of a nation, 
 voi. 11. — NO. 6:^. 
 
 may arise from a great variety of causes, of which tlie following ar« 
 the principal : 1. Descent from enfeebled parents; 2. Changes 
 in the admixture, and component parts of the surrounding atmo- 
 spheri . 3. A sedentary and indeUnt mode of life. 4. Immode- 
 rate sleep; or, in a still more hurtful degree, want of the neces- 
 sary portion of sleep and repose. 5. Too great exertions either of 
 Mind or body. 0. The unnecessary and imprudent use of medi- 
 cines; lastly', the almost total disuse, and exclusion of gymnastic 
 exercise, and the general introduction of sedentary games, the 
 effect of which creates an almost univer al apathy to every pur- 
 suit that requires exertion. Debility is the source of numerous 
 disorders, such as spasms, palsy, violent evacuations, hemorrhages, 
 pulrid and nervous fevers, fainting lits, and apparent death. 
 
 DEBIR, in ancient geography, a sacerdotal city of Palestme, 
 in Hebron. 
 
 DE-COIS-BLANC, an island of the United States, belonging 
 to the North-Western Territory, which was a voluntary gift of the 
 Chipeway Indians, at the treaty of peace, concluded by General 
 \Vayne, at Greenville, in 1795. _ 
 
 DEBRECEN, DEBRECHIN, DEBRECZIN, or DER- 
 RETZEN, a large and poijulous town of Hungary, fi7 miles A\ . 
 N. \V. of Colosvar, and 103 E. S. E. of Vienna. 
 
 DEBRUIZED, in heraldry, a term peculiar to the Englisii, 
 by which is inlimated the grievous restraint of any animal, debar- ■ 
 red of its natural freedoiii, by any of the ordinaries being laid 
 over it. 
 
 DEBT, debitum, in law, any thing due to another, whether it 
 be money, goods, or services ; or the action brought for recovering 
 the same. W here money is due upon any speciality, an action of 
 debt, and no other, lies. On a bond, deb'tmay be brought against 
 the obligor or his heir, who has lands by descent, if the executors 
 have not sufticient to pay it ; and an heir mediate may be sued 
 for debt, as if he were an immediate heir. If a person acknow- 
 ledges, by deed, that he has so much of another's money in his 
 hands, here the action of debt will lie ft.r it ; and where one owes a 
 sum of money to another, who hath his note underhand, without a 
 seal, action "of deV.it on a mutuatus lies. Debt lies also on a re- 
 cognizance ; so upon a sta'ute merchant, which is in nature of a 
 bond, or obligation: but it is said to be otherwise, in case of a 
 statute staple. "'Vv'helher an action of debt be brought on a iii'l, 
 bond, lease, &c. the several writings are to be well considered, hy 
 which the plaintitf warrants his action, and the sum due must be 
 r'ghtlv set hntli: tins, if it be for rent, the time of commence- 
 ment ana ending must be specified ; and the judgemeiU, wh-re (he 
 demand is in the debet and defiiiet, is to recover the debt, 
 damages, aud costs of suit. But in a debt on a single bill, a de- 
 fendaiit may plead payment, liefore the action brought in bar ; 
 and, on bond, he may bring in the principal, interest, and cosli 
 pending the action, and tliereupon be discliarged. 
 
 Deut xr- THE KiNG, Comprehends in it all rents, issues, amer- 
 ciaments, and other things due to the king, wlii'se debts are pre- 
 lerred before those of a subject ; and until his de'ot is satistied, he 
 may protect the debtor horn the arrests of others. Pledges shall 
 not" be dcstrained for these debts, where the principal is sul- 
 licieiit. 
 
 Debt, National. See Natiokal Debt. 
 DEBTOR, a person who owes any thing to another, in con- 
 tradistinction to i-reditor, which is he to whom the debt is owing. 
 See Cook-keepino. Where debt is a iiiii|ile contract, it follows 
 the person of the debtor, and, it is said, not of the creditor, as to 
 actions brons;ht, &c. 'I here have been divers statutes discharging 
 debtors out of prison, when they had no elTects to pay their cre- 
 ditors. 
 
 DECACIIGRDON, in anti([uity, a music.il instrument with 
 ten strings, called by the Hebrews hasur, being almost the s.ime as 
 our l.arp, of a trianf^ular figure, widi ;ui hollow belly, and sounding 
 from the lower part. 
 
 DECADE, [Sv-it, Gr. decern, Lat.] the sum often ; a nuiuhcv 
 containing ten. 
 
 Decade, in literary history, has been -appropriated to the num- 
 ber of books, into w"hich the Komaii llisiorj of 'I'lti.s Livius 13 
 di--ided. _ 
 
 Decade, iathenew French calendar. S<;e Caikspar. 
 DECADI, in the French calendar, the name of the-lOih day. 
 of each decade, or lUc lOlh, SUtb, -aiitl i'.Hli <^av of each mom!.. ' 
 2 i' DECAGON,.
 
 DEC 
 
 110 
 
 D E c; 
 
 DECAGON, in geometry, a plane figure with ten sules ami 
 ten angles; it is c-4lecl a rei;uhr tltcagon, when all the sides an'l 
 angles are ccjual. It we su[)poie llie vadius of a circle to be 
 
 r, tl*L-n will ^-l r^~ {r, or 
 
 v~ 
 
 -\- r, be the side of a decagon 
 
 inscribed in that circle. Aj'iin, supposing the side of a decagon 
 to be I, the area tliereof will be 8. tit); whence as I to 8.69, so is 
 the square of the side of any given decagon to the area of that 
 decagon. 
 
 DF.CAYGNIA, [fri^m Jw^, ten, and yi<vi, a woman,] an order 
 in the class decan<h'ia, consisting of plants whose llowers are fur- 
 nished witii teii stamina and ten styles. See r>OTANy, 
 
 DECAl.OGUE, rSoiBXoy®',] the ten commandments given by- 
 God to Moses. Tl'.ey were engraved by God on two tables of 
 stone. The Jews, by way of eminence, called these command- 
 ments the ten words, from whence they had afterwards the name 
 of decalogue: but they joined the 1st and 2d into cne, and di- 
 vided the la»t into two. They understand that against stealing to 
 relate to the stealing of men, or kidnapping ; alleging, that the 
 stealing one another's goods or jiroperty is forbidden "in the last 
 commandment. The church of Itome has struck the 2d com- 
 mandment quite out of the decalogue ; and to make their num- 
 ber complete, has split the tenth into two. The reason is 
 obvious. 
 
 DECANDRIA, [^'>cr<, ten, and oV «■?;■;, men,] in the Linnean 
 system of botany, a class of plants, the great characteristic of which 
 is, that they have hermaphiodite ilowtrj, with ten stamina in each. 
 See fjoT.\NY. 
 
 DECAN TATION, among chemists, ^cc. the gently pouring 
 otT a liquor from its fa-ccs, by inclining the lip or canthus of the 
 vessel ; whence the name. The design of this operation, is in 
 order to have the liquor free from the sediment, whicli, upon 
 standing, it lets fall to the bottom of the vessel. 
 
 DECANUS, in Roman antiquity, an ollicer who presided over 
 the ten olilcers, and was head of the contubernium, or serjeant of 
 a hie of soldiers. 
 
 DECAl'OLIS,[i-'i^i and S 7r;>i;,]in ancient geography, a district 
 beyond Jordan, almost wholly belonging to the half-tribe of Ma- 
 nasseh ; before the captivity, called Bethsan. 
 
 DECAPROTi, Uecempkimi, in Roman antiquity, ofiicers 
 for gatliering the taxes. 
 
 DECARCH, [from J;xc4, ten, and ".jx^>' o"" "jX"'*. chief,] a cap- 
 tain often. 
 
 DECCAN, an Indian term signifying South, under which the 
 East Indian geographers include all the countries of India S. of 
 the parallels of '-'1° or 22° of N. Lat. forming an extent of territory 
 nearly equal to the British inlands, Spain, and European Turkey"; 
 but in its proper and more limited sense, it means only the coun- 
 tries situated lietwecn Uindiretan Proper, the Carnatic, the AVcst- 
 crn Indian sea, and the province of Orissa ; i. c. the provinces of 
 Caiideish, Dowdatabad, or Amednagur, \'isiai)our, Golconda, and 
 the western part ot Berar. llydrab'ad is the capital. 
 
 Deccan Sh.\bazhour, an island King in the mouth of the 
 Ganges. Lon. <)«. .''8. Y.. Eat. 22. 30. N. 
 
 DECEIT, dolus, in h'w, a subtile trick, or device, to which 
 may be added all manner of craft and collusion, or underhand 
 practice, used to defraud another, by any means whatever. De- 
 ceit is an offence both by common law aiul l)y statute. All prac- 
 tici's of defrauding, or endcavourir.g to defraud, another of his 
 light, are punislial)le by line and imprisonment, and sometimes 
 pillory, &c. and there is a writ called deceptione, that lies for one 
 Mho receives injury cr damage, &.c. A writ of deceit lies against 
 atturnies, for Iosse> sustained by their default ; also again^t baker-, 
 brewers, and other artificers, for not selling good commodities, ur 
 refusing to pcrfoim a bargain : in all wliich cases, they are, by 
 statute, rial)le to iirnjUies m projjortioii to their olfence. " 
 
 DECEI\'ED, in the manege; a horse is said to be deceived, 
 upon a demivault of one or two treads, when working, for 
 instance, to the right, ami not having yet fmi .lied above half the 
 (Icmivaull, he is pressed one lime (,r inuVion forwards with the in- 
 ner leg, and then is put to a reprize upon the left, in the same 
 cadence with which he began ; and thus he regains the place 
 where the demivault liad been begun to the right, and work* to 
 the left; thus a hor^c may b»> deceived upou an\ liaud. 
 
 DECEMBER, the month wh.erein the sun enters tlie tropic of 
 Capricorn, and makes the winter-solslicei Among the ancient 
 Romans December was under the protection of \ esla. Romului 
 a-signed it 30 days, Numa reduce. i it to 2f', which Jidius Ca'sar 
 increased to 31. In the reign of Commodus, this month was 
 called, by way of llattcry, Amazonius, in honour of a courtesan 
 whom that prince passionately loved, and had goL painted like an 
 Amazon; but this name died with tl;at tyrant. At llie end of 
 December they had the juveniles ludi ; and the country people 
 kept the feast of the goddess \'acuna in the fields, having tl;.'i\ 
 gathered in their fruits and sown their corn ; whence seems to be 
 derived our popular festival called Ilarvest-Homc. 
 
 DECEMFL'^DA, [iiacnw;, ivom ikcem, ten, and /im, a foot,] 
 ten feet rod, an instrument used by the ancients in meusuring. It 
 was a rule or rod divided into ten feet ; the fo'it svas subdivided 
 into 12 inclies, and each inch into 10 digits. The decern |)eda was 
 Uicd both in measuring land, like the cliain among us ; ami h\ ar- 
 chitects to give the proper dimeiisions and proportions to tlie parts 
 of their b'.nldings, which use it still retains. 
 
 DECEMVIRATE, [f/fCf/nrfradci-, Eat.] the dignity and of- 
 fice of the ten governors ot Rume, who were appointed to rule the 
 commonwealth instead of consuls. Their authority subsisted 
 only two years. Any body often men. 
 
 DECEMVIRI, ten magistrates of absolute authority among 
 the Romans. I. 'I'he privileges of the patricians raise.l dissatis- 
 faction among the plebeians ; w ho, though freed from tlie power of 
 the Tarfpiins, still saw that the administration of justice dej)ended 
 upon the will and caprice of their superiors, witliout any written 
 statute to direct them, and convince them that they were govern- 
 ed with equity and impartiality. The tribunes complained to tlie 
 senate, and demanded tluit a code of laws might be framed tor 
 the use and benelit of the Roman people. 'I'liis petition was 
 complied with ; and three ambassadors were sent to Athens and 
 tlie other Grecian slates, to collect the laws of bolon ami all the 
 other celebrated legislators of Greece. Upon the return of the 
 commissioners it was univei-sally agreed, that ten new magistrates 
 called Decemviri, should be elected from the senate to put the 
 jn-nject into execution. 'I'heir power was absolute, all other of- 
 hccrs ceased after their election, and they presided over the city 
 with regal authority. They were invested with the badges of the 
 consul, in the enjoyment of which they succeeded by turns; and 
 only one was preceded by the fasces, and had the power of as- 
 sembling llie senate and conlirming decrees. The first decemvirs 
 were x\ppius Claudius, T. Genutius, P. Sextus, Sp. Veturius, 
 C. Julius, A. Manlius, Ser. Sulpitius, Pluriatius, T. Romulus, 
 and Sp. Postlmnms ; \. U. C. 302. Under them the laws which 
 had been exposed to jjiiblic view, that every citizen might speak 
 his sentiments, were publicly approved of as constitutional, and 
 ratilied by the priests and augurs in the most solemn and religious 
 manner. " They were ten in number, and were engraved on tables 
 of brass; two were afterwards ad.ded, whence tliey were called 
 the laws of the XII tables, leges XU tabularum, ami leges decem- 
 virales. The decemviral jiowcr, which was at first beheld by all 
 ranks of people with the greatest satisfaction, was continued ; 'but 
 in the jd year after their creation the decemvirs became odious on 
 account of their tyranny, and the attempt of Ap. Claudius to ra- 
 vish \'irgiiiia totally abolished the office. Thejieople were soex- 
 as|)erateil against tlicm, that tliey demanded them from the senate 
 to burn them alive. Consuls were again appointed, and tranquil- 
 lily re-cst.ihlished in the state. II. There wore other oliicers in 
 Home (. sUed decemvirs, who were originally appo iited in the ab- 
 sence of the pra'tor to admiiiister justice. 'J'heir a])pointment 
 became afterwards necessary, and they generally assisted at sales 
 called subhastioiies, ln-cause a spear, hasta, was fixed at the door 
 of the place where tlie goods were exposed to sale. They were 
 called (lecemviri lilibus judicandis. 111. Tlie ofiicers wliom'I'ar- 
 quill appointed to guard the Sibylline books were also called de- 
 cemviri, 'i'heyviere originally two in number, tailed duumviri, 
 till A. U. C.38S, when tlieir number was increased tu ten, five of 
 whom were chosen from the plebeians and five from the patri- 
 cians. Sylla increased their number to 15, hence called quiiide- 
 cenivirs. 
 
 DECEM TALES, inlaw, a writ th.it issues directed to the 
 sheriff, whereby he is commanded to mal^e a supply of jurymen, 
 where a full jury does not a-ppear on a trial at bar. 
 
 DECENNALiA, ancient Roman festivals, celebrated by the 
 
 emperors
 
 DEC 
 
 111 
 
 DKC 
 
 |«nij)erors every lOlli year of lliiiir reigns, witli sacrifices, games, 
 [ann largesics for the'people. Augustus lirst iiistituled tlic^c so- 
 I lemnitics, in which he was imitated l)y his successors. 
 
 DEC'lIAl-liS, Claudius Fka.vcis Milliet, an exceUent 
 mutheuialician, mecliunic, and astronomer, descended from a 
 nohle lamily, and horn at Chamberryin Itjll. Ili> principal per- 
 formances are an edition of Euclid's Elements, in whicli the un- 
 serviceable propositions are rejected, and the uses ot those re- 
 tained, annexed ; a discourse on fortitication ; and another ou na- 
 Tigation. These with olliers have been collected lirst in 3 vols, 
 folio, and afterwards in 4, under the the title of Mundus Mathe- 
 niaticus : beiag indeed a complete course of mathematics. He 
 died in 1673, prjfes«jr of mathematics in llie universitv of 
 i urin. 
 
 DECIATES, or DECIATII, an ancient people of Gallia 
 Narbonensis, near the borders otTtaly, on the Mediterranean. 
 
 DECIATUM Opi'iDu.M, in ancient geography, a town of the 
 Deciates, situated between Antibes and Nice. 
 
 DECIDUOUS, an appellation chietly used in respect to plants; 
 thus, the calyx or cup ot a iiower is said to be deciduous, w hen it 
 i^ls along « ilh the flower leaves ; and, on the contrary, it is called 
 pennanent, wiien it remains after they are fallen. Again, deci- 
 duous leaves are those which fall in autumn; in contradistinction 
 to tliMse of tiie everareens, which remain all the winter. 
 
 DECIE.S TANTUM, a writ which lies against a juior who 
 has taken money for giving his verdict ; called so of the elVect, 
 bi'cause it i^ to recover ten times as much as he took. St.it. 9S 
 E Iw. HI. c. 12 and 13. Decies t.uitnm lies against sherilfs taknig 
 J reward for arraving a pannel. 1 1 H. \L c. 14. See ^'in. Abr. 
 37S and 382. 
 
 DECIL, In astronomy, an aspect or position of two planets, 
 when they are distant from each other a tenth [lart uf the zodiac. 
 
 DF.CIM.E, Tithes. SeeTixHEs. 
 
 DECLMAL ARITHMETIC, the art of computing by deci- 
 mal fractions. 
 
 DECIMAL FRACTION, that whose denominator is always 
 1, with one or more cyphers: thus, an unit mav be imagined to 
 be equally divided into 10 parts, and each of these into lb more ; 
 so that by a continual decimal subdivision the unit mav be sup- 
 posed to be divided into 10, 100, 1000, &c. equal parts, called 
 tenth, hundredth, thousand parts of an unit. See Arithmetic. 
 
 DECI^lAT10N■, a puni iiment inflicted by the ancient Ro- 
 mans, on such soldiers as quitted tlicir posts, or behaved them- 
 selves cowardly in tlie iieUl. The names of the guilty v.cre put 
 into an urn or helmet, and as many were drawn out as made tlie 
 tenth part of the whole number, and those were put to the sword, 
 and tlie others saved. 
 
 DECIPHERINCt, the art of reading or ex))laining ciphers. 
 See Cipher. The rides of deciphering are different, according 
 to the language in which the cipliers are wrote : bnt in fact it is 
 dilficuit, if not impossible, to form any general rules, which will 
 apply in all eases to the discovery of (he meaning of ciphers ;'» Inch 
 are arbitiary in their nature, and the rules of which must vary in 
 almost every different instance of importance, as the iole object 
 of those who U5e them is to prevent a jiossibilily of detection.' 
 And wheie even the language in which the ciphei-s are wrote is 
 vincertain, tlie diiiiculty of deciphering must be greatly increased, 
 and the art rendered entirely conjectural. 
 
 DFCIZE, a tow n of France, in the department of Nicvre, 16 
 iiiik--. S. E. of Nevcrs. 
 
 DECK OF A Ship, is a planked floor from stem to stern, tipon 
 which the guns lie, and where the men walk to and fro. Great 
 ships have three decks, first, second, and third, beginning to 
 count from the lowermost. Half-deck reaches from the main-mast 
 to the stem of the sliip. Quarter-deck is that aloft the steerage, 
 reaching to the round house. Flush-deck is that which lie-, even 
 in a right line fore and aft, from stem to stern. A rope-deck is 
 made of cordages, interwoven and stretched over a vessel, through 
 "hich it is easy to annoy an enemy who comes to board her. 
 'j'hey are little used but by small vessels, to defend them from 
 prlvaieers. See Shipbuilding. 
 
 Deck, Flush, implies a continued floor laid from stem to 
 ttevn, upo:i one line, wiilioul any stons or intervals. 
 
 Deck, liALt-, a space uiider'tfe quartei-detk of a ship of war, 
 contained between the foremost bulk head of the tteeraije and the 
 
 fore-pan of the quarter-deck. In the colliers of NorthtunbiTland 
 tiie steerage itself is called the half-deck, and is usually the habita- 
 tion of the crew. 
 
 DECLA.MATION, a speech made in public, in the tone and 
 manner of an oration, unitLig the expression of action to the pr-)- 
 priely uf pronunciation, in order to give the sentiment its full uii- 
 pression upon the mind. The word is also-used in a derogatory 
 sense, as when it is said, "sucli a speech was mere declamation," 
 it implies, that it was deficient in point of reasoning, or had more 
 sound than sense. According to the manners and customs of th.e 
 present age, public har.uigues are made oulv, 1. In thcpulpit. 1'. 
 In the senate, in council, or other public as-mubly. 3. By public 
 professors. 4. On the theatre. \\c shall notice the three hrst: 
 
 1. Declamation' iv the Pulpit. The dignity and sanctity of 
 the place, and the importance ot the siiiiject, require the pieach.er 
 to exert the utmost powers of his voice to produce a pronuncia- 
 tion tliat is perleclly distinct and harmoniou-, and that he observe 
 a deportment and actio;i which is expressive and graccfuL Na 
 man, tlierefore, who is destitute of a good voice, should ascend the 
 ))ulpit. The preacher should not, however, roar like a common 
 crier, and rend the ear with-a voice like thunder; fur such kind 
 of declamation is not only withcnit meaning and without persua- 
 sion, but highly incongruous with the meek and gentle spirit of 
 the gu>pe!. He sliould likewise U'.ke particular care to avoid a 
 monotony ; his voice should rise trom the beginning, as it were 
 by degrees, and its greatest strength sliould be exerted in the ap- 
 plication. Each inflexion of the voice should be adapted to the 
 phrase, and to the meaniiig of llie words; and each remarkable 
 expression should have its peculiar inflexion. Tlie dogmatic re- 
 (juiresa plain, uniform tone of voice only ; and the menaces of the 
 gospel demand a greater force than its promises and rewards : but 
 the latter should not be pronounced in the soft toae of a Itutc, nor 
 the former with the loud sound of a trumpet. The voice should 
 still retain its natural lone in all its various inflexions. Happy is 
 that preaciier, to whom nature has given a voice that is at once 
 strong, flexible, and harmonious. An air of complacency and 
 benevolence, as well as devotion, should be constantly visible in 
 the countenance of the preacher. But every appearance ofalfec- 
 tation must be carefully avoided : for nothing is so disgustful to an 
 audience, as even the semU-mce of dissimulation. Eyes con- 
 stantly rolling, turning towards heaven, and itreaming with tean, 
 rather denote a hypocrite, than a man possessed of the real spirit 
 of religion, and who feels the true import of what lie preaches. An 
 air of aft'ectad devotion infallibly destroys the efiicacy of all that 
 the preacher can say, however just and important it maybe. On 
 the other hand, he must avoid every a])pearance of niinli or rail- 
 lerv, or of that cold unfeeling manner, which is so apt to freeze the 
 heart of bis hearers. The body shouUi be in general erect, and in 
 a notural and easy attitude. The perpetual movement or con- 
 tortion of the bod_\ , has a ridiculous effect in the puipit, and niakes 
 the figure of a preacherand a harlequin too similar. On the other 
 hand, he ought not lo remain con-tantly upright and inoiionless, 
 like a speaking statue. Theinotiunsof the hands give a strong expres- 
 sion to a discourse; but they sliould be decent, grave, noble, and ex- 
 pressive. The preacher, who is incessantiy in aclion, who is perpe- 
 tually elapsing his hands, or who menaces with a clenched, tist, or 
 who counts his argumejits on his fingei's, w ill only excite mirth among 
 his auditorv. In a w ord, declamation is an art that tiie sacred orator 
 should study with assiduity. The design of a sermon is to con- 
 vince, to atiect, and to persuade. The voice, the cour.tena.ice, 
 and the action, which, are to produce this triple effect, ,;;re there- 
 fore objects to which the preacher should particularly apiily 
 himself. 
 
 ". Declamation' IN THB Sevate, &c. The declamaiion of a 
 minister or statesman in the senate, in council, or other publia 
 assembly, is cf a more uncouhned nature. To persuade, to move 
 the passions, and gain .tu ascendancy in a public a^ei .My, tii>» 
 crator should himself fee! the force of what iie>ays, and tiie de- 
 clamalion should only express that internal sensation. But no- 
 thing should be carried to excess. A suavity in the tone of voice, 
 a dignity of deportment, a graceful action, and a- certain tran- 
 (|uiHity of c..)unteii-;nce, should lOUstanlly accompany the states- 
 man when he speaks in public, even when he is most earnestly en- 
 gaged ill debate, or when, he is addressing his sovereigu in person, 
 1 A pleasing tone of voice, and a distinct pronuirciatioti, prejudice 
 
 • ' thr
 
 D E C 
 
 112 
 
 DEC 
 
 the hearers greallv in the speaker's favour. A young man may 
 improve these to a" turpriaiiis degree. Demosthenes, wlio had a 
 uatuial impcvhment in his speeeli, was accustomed to go to tlie 
 se.i-=hore, and partly (iUins his mouth with pebbles he dcclaihied 
 with a loud vo'ice. 'The stones by degrees gave a volubility to his 
 ton'Tue, and the roaring of the waves reconciled him insensibly to 
 the noise ot the multitude. 
 
 3. Declamatio.s OF Pl-euc Professors. The principal ob- 
 iect of a public professor is the instruction of the studious youth : 
 for which purpose, he is to convince and persuade. Every tone 
 of voice, every expression of the countenance, or action of the 
 body, which "can proihice this effect by enforcing tlie words, 
 sliould therefore be employed by those who are to teach the 
 sciences. There is one esseiilial reliection wliich every professor 
 ought to make ; viz. that he is surrounded by youn" students, na- 
 turally possessed with vivacity, often ludicrous, and for the mo:.t 
 part previouslv instructed in the preparatory sciences. 'I'hey are 
 therefore cou'taallv inclined to critici-'c, to jest, and to ridicule : 
 for whicli reason, the |)rol'essor should endeavour to inspire them 
 with respect ami attention, by a grave, commanding, and vene- 
 rable couiiten.mce ; and carefully avoid any appearance of gri- 
 mace in his action, and every k'ud of affectation in his discourse, 
 that he may not allbrd the least opportunity for pleasantry. 
 
 DECLARATION', is a shewing in writing the grief and com- 
 plaint of the denv.rudant, or plaiii'till, against the defendant, or 
 tenant, wherein he is supposed to have done some wrong. And 
 thisouglilto be plain and certain, both because it impeaches the 
 defendant, and also compels iiim to answer thereto. It is also an 
 exposition of the writ, with the addition of time, circumstances, 
 &c. and must be true as well as clear, for the court will not take 
 things in ii by implication; and it sets fortli the names both of 
 the j)laintifi and defendant, the nature and cause of the action, &:c. 
 and the damage receivi'd. Such a declaration in an action real 
 is termed a count, and it is essential, that the count or declaration 
 ought to contain demoiistralion, declaration, and conclusion; and 
 in "tlie conclusion the ])U\intifl' ought to aver, and olfer to prove 
 his suit, and shew the damages he lias sustained by the urongclone 
 liim. Declaration must be c-ertain : conla'.ning, 1. Such suliicient 
 cerlaintv whereby the court may give a peremptory and final 
 judgement upon' the matter in controversy. 2. The defendant 
 may make a direet answer to the matter contained therein. 3. 
 That tlie jury, after issue joined, may give a complete verdict 
 thereupon. 4. Xo blank, or space, to be left therein. 
 
 Declaration of AVar, a public proclamation made by the 
 herald at arn)s to the members or subjects of a state, declaring 
 them to be at war widi some foreign power, and forbidding 
 all and every one to aid or assist the common enemy at their 
 peril. 
 
 DECLENSION, in grammar, an inflexion of nouns accord- 
 ing to their divers cases, as nominative, genitive, dative, &c. 
 With regard to languages, where the nouns ^\o not admit of 
 changes in the same number, declension is the expression of the 
 <liii'ercnt states a noun is in, and the different relations it has. See 
 Ga^yMMAK. 
 
 Declension of a Disease is when it is past its height. 
 
 DEC;LINAT1()N, in astronomy, die distance of any celestial 
 object from the equinoctial, either northward or southward. It is 
 eifher true or apparent, according as the real or apparent place of 
 the object is considered. The declination being an arch of a 
 »e,on-lary of the equinoctial intercepted between a given point 
 andti-.e equinoctial, and |)erpoiidicuhir to the same, the declination 
 of.; star, ,Vc. is found in tiu- following manner. I'^irst observe 
 the altitude of tlie pole, as ITv, I'late LI. tig. 6, this subtracted 
 4m\n 1(0°, giwslhe heiaht of the equator AH; tlien the meridian- 
 altitude ',.f the s(:;r HO being oiiserved, if it be greater than the 
 altitude of the equator All, the latter subtracted from the former, 
 leaves the declination northwar<l AD : or if the althude of the star 
 IlTbe less than that of the equator AH, the former subtracted 
 from the latter, leaves the tleclination southward T.4. If the star 
 be in tiie quadrant ZR, then the least altitude MR, subtracted 
 from the altitude of the pole I'R, leaves the distance from the 
 pole I' .M; which suhtractcil again from the quadrant PQ, leaves 
 the d-clinalion MQ. See Astronomy. 
 
 Declixatio.-j ok the Sea-compass, or Needle, is its vaiia- 
 Jioji from the trut ;nerL-iau of any place, See Variatick, 
 
 Declination' of a Wall or Plan-^e for Dials is an arch 
 of the horizon, contained cither between the plane and the prime 
 vertical circle, if you reckon it from the east or west ; or else be- 
 tween the meridian and the plane, if you account it from north or 
 south. There are many ways given by authors for iinding the 
 declin.ation of a plane, of which all those that depend upon the 
 magnetic needir deserve to be suspected on many accounts. The 
 common method, by finding the sun's horizontal distance from 
 the pole of the plane, is subject to iii.iny errors and difliculfies. 
 ^riie way therefore we would recommend as the best for finding 
 tlie dcciiiiafion of a plane, is by a declinator. See the ne.xt 
 
 DECLINATOR, or DECLINATORY, an instrument con- 
 trived for taking the declinations, inclinaliuus, and reclinalions, of 
 planes. It is constructed in the following manner: on a square 
 woollen board, ABCD, Plate LI. fig. 7, describe a semicircle 
 A ED, and divide the two quadrants AE and ED hrto 90°, each 
 beginning from E, as in the hgure : then h.aving fixed a pin in 
 the centre I'', tit a ruler HI, upon the same, moveable thereon, 
 with a box and needle K, fig. 8. In order to take the declination 
 of a plane, apply the side AD to the plane proposed, as MN, fig. 
 
 9, and move the ruler FG, with the compass G, about the centre 
 F, till the needle re-t upon the line of the magnetical meridian of 
 the place: if the ruler cut the quadrant in E, the plane is either 
 directly northern or southern ; but if it cut between D and E, 
 the plane declines to the west; and if between A and E, to the 
 east, by the tiuantity of the angle GFE. Would you take the 
 incrmation> ami reclinations of planes with th's instrument, instead 
 of the ruler and needle, a thread witli a plummet is fitted on a pin 
 iu the Centre F; then the side BC of t(ie declinator ABCD, fig. 
 
 10, being applied to the jiroposed plane, as IL, if the plum-line 
 FC; cut the semicircle A ED, in the point E, the plane is ho- 
 ri/ont.il; or if it cut the quadrant ED, in any point at G, then 
 will EFG be the angle of inclination: lastly, ifapplving the side 
 AB to the plane, tlie jdummet cut E, the plane is vertica'. Hence 
 if tlic quantity of the angle of inclination be compared with the 
 elevation of the pole and ccpiator, it is easily known whether the 
 plane be inchned or reclined. See Inclination and Recli- 
 nation. 
 
 DECLINING Dials, those which do not face directly any of 
 the four cardinal points. See Dialing. 
 
 DECLIN'IS, in anatomy, a muscle otherwise called obliquus 
 descendens. 
 
 DECOCTION, [dccociiim, Lat.] the act of boiling any thing, 
 to extract its virtues. 
 
 Decoction is only applicable to matters containing some 
 principles soluble in rater; such particularfy are animal and 
 vegetable matters. Decoction ought not to be u'ed with such 
 substances as contain any volatile principles, as they would be 
 dissipated in the air during the process, liut it may be safely used, 
 nay, even becomes necessary, when the matters to lie treated are 
 solid, an<l of a close and compact texture; because then the water 
 could not extract its principles without a bi)iliiig heat.^ Most soft 
 animal matters, as flesh, skin, tendons, may be conveniently boil- 
 ed in w.ater; because they contain no principle volatile with a 
 boiling heat. Water extracts from them nothing but a gelatinous 
 substance, and some oily |)arts which float en the surface of the 
 wi'.ter. All vegetable matters which are inodorous, and parti- 
 cularly those which are hard, as roots, barks, i\:c. are generally 
 boiled, when an extraction of their principles by water is required. 
 To tills rule, however, there are some exceptions. Peruvian 
 bark, for instance, gives its strength to cold water better than tu 
 such as is boiling hot. Many other vegetables have also the 
 property of yielding less to boiling than cold water. And there- 
 fore a general ru'e may be established, that decoction ought not 
 to be em|)loyed but when absolutely necessary, that is, when the 
 same principles, or the same <|uantitics of those prim iples cannot 
 be obtained bv an infuion, and that without heat. If it can be so 
 done, considering that the proximate principles of vegetables are 
 generally so dclicati-, and so suscepli'le of change and decompo- 
 sicion, that frequently the most gentle heat changes much their 
 nature and properties. 
 
 DECOLLATION is used for a painting, wherein is repre- 
 sented John tiie Baptist's head struck oil from his trunk. Jt is 
 likewise the name of a festival held ui honour of that mari-vr. 
 
 t) D£COMPOSiT;ON,
 
 DEC 
 
 113 
 
 DEC 
 
 DECOMPOSrnON, in clu-:iii>tiv, usually signilies t!ie dis- 
 union or sepaiation of the conslitui-nl pdrU of bodies. Il diflers 
 from mere mechaniial division, in thai wlien a hotly i'^ chemically 
 di'composcd, the parts into which it is resolved arc essentially 
 diireient from the body itself; but thou!;h a mechanical furce is 
 apjilied to it ever so long, or if with ever so mnch violence, the 
 minutest particles into which tlie body may he reduced, still re- 
 tain their oriRiiuiI nature. Thus, let nitre be reduced to ever so 
 fine a powder, each particle retains the nature of nitre, as much as 
 the compoiMided mass; but sulphuric acid is applied, a decompo- 
 sition takes place, and one of th.e largest compouLMit parts ot the 
 nitre rises ni the form of a smoking acid spirit, wliich never 
 could have been suspected to lie hid in the mild neutral salt. 
 
 DECOR.-VllON, in architecture, anv thing that adorns and 
 enriches a building, church, triunii)hal arch, or the like, either 
 withoMt side or witliin. The orders of architecture contribute 
 greatlv to the decoration ; but the several parts of those orders 
 must have their just proportions, characters, and ornaments; olhtr- 
 vi^e the fniest order will bring confusion rather than richness. 
 > -e ARCHiTtCTURE. Decorations in (hurches, are paintings, 
 vasis, festoons, &c. occasionally appliejl to the walls; and with so 
 much conduct aiul discretion, as not to take olY any thing from 
 the form of the architecture: as is much practised in Italy at the 
 solemn feasts. 
 
 DECORUM, in architecture, is the suitableness of a building, 
 and the several parts and ornanjents thereof, to the station and oc- 
 casion. 
 
 DECOUPLE, in heraldrv, the same as uncoupled; thus a 
 chevron decouple, is a chevron wantuig so mucli of it towards the 
 point, tl;at the two ends stand at a distance from one another, being 
 parted and uncoupled. 
 
 DECOY, anion? fowlers, a place made for catching wild fonl. 
 ""A decov is generally made where there is a large pond surrounded 
 with wooil, and beyond that a marshy and uncultivated countrv: 
 il the piece of water is not thus surrounded, it will be attended 
 with the noise and other accidents which may be expected to 
 frighten the wild fowl from a quiet haunt, where thev mean to 
 sleep, during the day, insecurity. If these noises or disturbances 
 are wilful, an action will lie against the disturber. As soon as the 
 evening sets in, the decoy rises (as they term it), and the wild fowl 
 feeds, during the night. If the evening is still, the noise of their 
 wings during their ti:glit, is heard at a very great distance, and is 
 a pleasing, though melancholy sound. This rising of the decov 
 in the evening, is in Somersetshire called radihng. The decov 
 ducks are fed with hempseed, which is thrown over the screens in 
 small quantities, to bring them forwards into the pipe* or canals, 
 and to allure the wild fowl to follow, as this seed tioats. There 
 are several pipes, as they are called, which lead up a narrow ditch 
 that closes at last with a funnel net. Over these pipes (which 
 prow narrower from their first entrance) is a continued aich of net- 
 ting suspended on hoops. It is necessary to have a pipe, or ditch, 
 for almost evirv wind that can blow, as upon this circumstance it 
 depends which pipe the towl will take to; aiid the decoy man 
 always keeps on the leeward side of the ducks, to prevent hi> 
 eflluvia reaching their sagacious nostriK. All along each pipe, at 
 certain intervals are placed screens made of reeds, so situated, that 
 if is impossible the wild fowl should see the decoy man, before 
 they have passed on towards the end of tlie pipe, w here the purse 
 net is placed. The inducement of the wihl fowl to go up one of 
 these pipes is, because the decov ducks trained to this lead the 
 way, either after hearing the whistle of the decov man, or enticed 
 by the hempseed: the latter will dive under water, whilst the wild 
 fowl fly on, anil are t.iken in the purse net. It olten happens, 
 however, that fhe wild fowl are in sui ii a state of sleepine>s and 
 tlozing, that they will net follow the decoy duck. Use is then 
 generally made of a dog, who is taught his lesson ; he passes back- 
 wardsanil forwards between the reed screens (in which are little 
 holes, both Jor he de' oy man to see, and the little dog to pass 
 througii) ; this attracts the eye of the wild fowl, who, not choosing 
 to be interrupted, advance towards the small and contemptible 
 animal, that they may drive him away. The dog ail the time, bv 
 the direction of the decoy man, plavs among the screens of reeds, 
 nearer and m-arer the purse-net; till at last, perhaps, the decov 
 man appears behind a screen, and the wild fowl not daring to pass 
 by him in return, nor being able to escape upwards on account of 
 the net covering, rush on into the purse-net. Sometimes the dog 
 
 VOL. II. — NO. 63. 
 
 will not attract their attention, if a red handkerchief, or soiiu-th ng 
 very singular, is not put about him. Tne geiir-ial season for 
 catching fowls in ilecoy, is from the end of Ocloljer till I'lbiuarA- ; 
 the taking of them earlier is prohibited bv an act 10 Geo. II. V. 
 .3..', which forbids it from June 1 to October 1, uncUr th.e penalty 
 of 5.S lor each bird destroyed within tiiat spare The Lincolri- 
 sliire decoys are commonly' set at a certain annual rent, from 51. 
 to L'Ol. a year; and there is one in Somersetshire that pavs 301. 
 The former contribute principally to supply the markets in Lon> 
 don. .Aina/ing numbers of ducks, wigeon"', and leal, aret:iken: 
 a lew winters past, in one season, andiii oiilv len decoys, ni ihs 
 neighbourhood »f Wain fleet, the nuinher ^nioiinted to 3I,-'00, in 
 \yhicti were includt-d <e\cral other species of ducks. These ruan- 
 tities make them so cheap on the spot, that tlw.- decov men wouW 
 be contiiit to contract tor years to deliver their ducks at Boston, 
 tor KW. per couple. It was ciistoinarv formerly to haVe in the- 
 fens an annual driving of tlie young ducks before they took wing. 
 Numbers of people assembled, who beat a vast tract, and forced 
 the birds into a net placed at the spot where the sport was to ter- 
 minate; 150 dozens have been taken at onie; but this practice 
 being supposed to be detrimental, has been abolished by act of 
 parliament. 
 
 Decov, in naval affairs, a stratagem employed bv a ship of war, 
 to betray a vessel of inlerior force' into an uncautio'us pursuit, till 
 she has drawn her within the range of her cannon, or what is called 
 within gunshot. It is usually perfurmed bv painting the stern and 
 sides in su< h a manner as to disguise the ship, and represent her 
 either much smaller and of inferior force, or as a frieud to the hos- 
 tile vessel, which she endeavours to ensnare, bv assuming the em- 
 blems and ornaments of the nation to whi.ii the stranger is sup- 
 posed to belong. When she has tljus provoked the adversary to 
 chase, in hopes of acquiring a prize, she continues the decov,' by 
 spreading a great sail, as endeavouring to escape; at the same time 
 that her course is con-iderably retarded bv an artful alteration of 
 her trim till the enemy approaches. Decoying is also performed 
 to elude the chase of a ship of a superior force in a dark night, by 
 throwing out a lighted ca^k of pitch into the sea, which will burn 
 tor a considerable time, and misguide the enemv. Immediately 
 alter liie cask is thrown out, the ship changes her" course, and may 
 easily escape, if at any tolerible distance from the foe. 
 
 DECREE, in the civil law, is a determination which tlie em- 
 peror pronounces upon hearing a particular cause between the 
 plaintitl and defendant. 
 
 Decree in Chancery, the determination of the lord chancel- 
 lor, upon a full hearing of the merits of a cause. 
 
 Decrees of Councils, laws made by tliem, to regulate tlie 
 doctrnie and policy of the church. 
 
 DECREET, in the law of Scotl.ind, a final decree or judge- 
 ment of the lords of session, from which an appeal only lies to p'ar- 
 liameiit. ' ' 
 
 DECREMENT, in heraldry, sieuifies the w.ine of the moon 
 from the full to the new. Tlie moofi in this state is called moon 
 decresc!-nt, or imlecours; and when borne in coat armour, face* 
 to the left side, when in the increment. 
 
 DECREPITA TIOX, in chemistry, signifies the quick separa- 
 tion of the parts of a body, occasioned bv a •.Iron? heat, and ac- 
 companied with noise and crackling. 'I'his effect is most fre- 
 quently produced by water contained betwixt the parts of the de- 
 crepitating boily. when these j)arts have a certain degree of adha- 
 sion together. This water being quickly reduced into vapour bv 
 the heat suddenly applied to it, rarelies,'aiid bursts with noise the 
 parts which compress it. The bodies most subject to d-crepita- 
 tion are certain salts, such as coininon salt, vitrio'iated tartar, nitre 
 of lead, &c. the decrepitation of all which proceeds from the wa- 
 ter of their cry-tallization. Clays which are not perfectly dry. 
 and flints, are also subject to decrepitalion. " '' 
 
 DECRESCENT, [from lUcresctiis, Ijt.] growing less; be- 
 ing in a state of decrease. 
 
 DECREIAL, \_decretal, Eat.] the collection of the pope's de- 
 crees. The decretals compose the second part of the cinon law. 
 The first genuine one, acknowledge.l bv all the learned as such] 
 is a letter of Pope Slricins, written A. D.'3S5, to Himerus. bishop 
 of Tarragona, in Spain, concerninE; some disorders which had crept 
 into tlie churches of Spain. Gratian puhlish'd a collection of de- 
 cretals, containing all the ordinances made bv the popes till A D 
 1150. Gregory IX. in 12j27, following the 'example of Thcodo^ 
 
 k
 
 D EE 
 
 \U 
 
 DEE 
 
 sius and Justinian, iormefl a constiUi'.ion of his own, collecting 
 into ow body all the (U-cisions and all the causes which served to 
 advance the papal pov.cr; which collection of decretajs was called 
 the p>MitHlri.i< h, because it contains live books. 
 
 DECTUHAPOUR, one of the Laccadive islands, in the In- 
 dian sea. Lon. 72. 0. E. Lat. 12. 8. N. 
 
 DECUMARIA, in botanv, a genus of the monogyma order, 
 and dodecandria class ot plaiits. Calyx eight to twelve-leaved, 
 superior; petals eight to twelve; capside eight-celled, with many 
 seeds. There i-- but one species, viz. D. barbara, climbing decu- 
 iTiaria, u native of Cavolina. 
 
 Dr.CUPLE Propoftjon, that of ten to one. 
 DEC'URIA, a Decijry, anion;; the ancient Romans, ten men 
 iindev cne leader, called tlie Decurio. '1 he decnrio was the third 
 part of a turnia, or the 30th of a legion of horse, which consisteii 
 of 300 men. The Roman eavalry was divi<led into decuria;, which 
 vere subdivisions ot a century, each century containing ten de- 
 curies. 
 
 DECURIO, a subaltern officer in the Roman armies, who 
 commanded a decuria. 
 
 DECURIONES, Municipales, magistrates in the Roman 
 proviiuis, «l,o formed a body to represent the Roman senate in 
 free aiul corporate towns. 
 
 DECUSSATION, in geometry, optics, and anatomy, signifies 
 the crossing ot two lines rays, or nerves, when they meet in a 
 point, and then go on separately from one another. 
 
 DECrSSORIUM, an instrument used by surgeons, which, by 
 pressing gently on tlie dura mater, causes an evacuation of the 
 pus coll.'Cled between it and the cranium, through the perforation 
 made by the trepan. 
 
 DEDDINGTON, a town of Oxfordshire, 16 miles N. of 
 0.\ford. 
 
 DEDIIAM, a town in Essex, seated on the Stour, 7 miles 
 N.N. E. of Colchester. 
 
 DEDICATION, [dedicatin, Lat] the act of consecrating a 
 temple, altar, statue, palace, &c. to the honour of some deity. 
 The use of dedications is very ancient both among the worshippers 
 of the true 6od and among the heathens: the Hebrews call it 
 /Jiaimchah, " imitation;" which the Greek translators render 
 iyxamn, and lyxnintrfji^f, " renewing." In the scripture we meet 
 -.vith dedications of the tabernacle, of ahavs, of the first and se- 
 cond temple, and even of the houses of ])rVvate persons. One of 
 the most solemn on record is that of the first temple by Solomon. 
 (1 Kinss viii. 2 Chron. vi.) There were also dedications of ves- 
 sels, and garments of the priests and Levites, and even of the men 
 themselves. The heathens had also dedications of temples, altars, 
 and images, of their gods, &c. Nebuchadnez.'.ar held a solemn 
 dedication of his statue, Dan. iii. 2. Pilate dedicated gilt buck- 
 lers at Jerusalem to Tiberias, Philo de legat. Petronius would 
 have dedicated a statue to the emperor in tlie same city, ibid. p. 
 . 7tll. Tacitus, Hist. lib. iv. c. 53. mentions the dedication of the 
 capital, upon rebuilding it by Vespasian, &c. The Jews cele- 
 brated the annivci-sary ot the dedication of their temple every year 
 for eia:ht davs. This was tii-st enjoined by Judas Maccabeus, and 
 the whole synagogue, in the year of the Syro-Macedonian era 148, 
 '*. e. 164 years before Christ.' The heathens had similar anniver- 
 saries, as that of the dedication of the temple of Parthenope, men- 
 tioned by Lycophron Under Christianity, dedication is only ap- 
 plied to a church; and is properly the consecration thereof pcr- 
 t'ormc-d by abishop, with a number of ceremonies prescribed by the 
 church. The Christians iinding th.emselves at liberty under Cod- 
 ttantine, in lieu of then ruinous churches, built new ones in every 
 place; and dedicated them with a deal of solemnity. The dedi- 
 cation was usually performed in a synod; at least they assembled 
 a number of bislidps to assist at the service. We have the descrip- 
 tion of those of tlie churches at Jerusalem and Tyre in Eusebius, 
 and many others in later writers. 
 
 Dedication, \_dtd/catio, Lat.] in literature, is an address pre- 
 fixed to a book, solicitin:^ patronage, or testifying respect for the 
 person to whom it is made. 
 
 DEE, a river of England and Wales, which rises in the N. W, 
 au'^le of Merionethshire, and falls into the Irish sea 15 miles below 
 Chester. 
 
 Dee, a river of Ireland, which crosses the county of Louth. 
 
 Dee, a river of Scotland, in .Aberdeenshire. 
 
 Dj.e, John, a famous mathematician and astrologer, was boru 
 
 at Loiidon in July 1527, where his father was a wealthy vintner. 
 In 1542, he was sent to St. John's college, Cambridge. After 
 five years close application to malhemalical studies, particularly 
 astronomy, he went to Holland, to visit several eminent mathema- 
 ticians on the continent. Having continued abroad near a year, 
 he returned to Cambridge; and was there elected one of the fel- 
 lows of 'Irimty college, then lirst erected by king Henry VIII. 
 In 1548, he took the degree of M. A. and left England a second 
 time; his stay at home being rendered uneasy to him, by tlie sus- 
 picions that were entertained of his behig a conjuror; arising 
 partly from his application to astronomy, but especially on ac- 
 count of a piece of machinery in the Eij.in of Aristophanes, which 
 he exhibited to the university, and in which he represented the 
 Scarabeus flying up to Jupiter, with a man, and a ba' Kel of victuals 
 on its back." These suspicions he could never afterwards shake 
 ofl'; nor did his subsecpient coixluct, tend to clear him of the im- 
 putation; lor if he was not actually a conjuror, it was not for want 
 of endeavours. Upon leaving Eiigland, he went to the university 
 of Louvam; where he was much esteemed, and visited by several 
 persons of high rank. Here he resided about two years, and then 
 set out for Erance; where, in the college of Rheims, he read lec- 
 turesof Enclid'selementswith vastapplausc. In 1551, he returned 
 to England, and king Edward VI. assigned him a pension of 100 
 crowns, which he afterwards relinquished for the rectory of Upton 
 upon Severn: but soon alter the accession of queen Mary, having 
 some correspondence with the lady Elizabeth's servants, he was ac- 
 cused of practising against the queen's life by euciianlment. On this 
 account hesuti'cred a tedious conlinemert,and was several times ex- 
 amined ; till, in 1555, he obtained his liberty by an order of coun- 
 cil. Upon queen Elizabeth's accession, our astrologer was con- 
 sulted by lord Dudley, concerning a propitious liay for her coro- 
 nation. He was, on this occasion, introduced to the queen, who 
 made him great promiies, which were never performed, though 
 she.condescended to receive his instructions relative to his unin- 
 telligible writings, which he published about this lime. In 1564, 
 he made another voyage to the continent; to present a book he 
 had dedicated to the emperor Maximilian. He lelurnt d to Eng- 
 land, but in 1571, we find him in Lorrain; where, being danger- 
 ously ill, the queen sent over two physicians to his relief. Having 
 once more returned to his native country, he settled at Mortlake 
 m Surrey, where he continued his studies with unremiituig ardour, 
 and colkctecl a con>iiderable library of curious books and MSS. 
 with a variety ot instruments; most of which were afterwards de- 
 stroyed by the mob, as belonging to onewlio dealt w.th the devil. 
 In 1578, the queen being much indisposed, .Mr. Dee was sent 
 abroad to consult with German physicians and philosophers (astro- 
 logers no doubt) on the occasion. We now behold him again in 
 England, where he was soon after employed in a more rational 
 service. The queen desirous to be informed concerning her title 
 to those countries which had been discovered by her subjects, 
 commanded Mr. Dee to Cdiisult the ancient records, and furnish 
 her with projjer geographical descriptions. Accordingly he pre- 
 sented her, in three weeks after, with two large rolls, in which the 
 discovered countries were geographically described, and histori- 
 cally illustrated. These rolls are preserved in the Cottonian li- 
 brary. His next employment was the reformation of the calendar, 
 on which subject he wrote a rational and learned treatise, preserv- 
 ed in the Ashmolean library at Oxford. Though Dee was un- 
 doubtedly a man of parts and learning, he became at last a credu- 
 lous alchvmist, and gave his mind to necrnmancy. In 1581, he 
 fell acquainted w ith one Edward Kelley, by whose assistance he 
 uerformed -diverse incantations, and maintained a very frequent 
 intercourse witli S))irlts. He v\as, it is said, intimate with 
 the angels Raphael and Gabriel. One of them made him a pre- 
 sent of a black speculum, in which his angels and demons appear- 
 ed as often as he had occasion for them; they answered his (pies- 
 tions, and Kelley's business was to record their dictates. In 1583, 
 they were both introduced to a Polish nobleman, then in Eng- 
 land, named Albert Laski. palatine oi Siradia, a person addicted to 
 the same antichristian pursuits. He was so charmed with Dee and 
 his companion, that he persuaded them to accompany him to his 
 native country. They embarked tor Holland in Septtmbcr 15y3; 
 <ind travelling over land, arrived at the town of Laski in I'lbruary 
 following. Their patron, however, fiiidina himself abused by their 
 abominations, persuaded them to pay a visit to the emperor Ro- 
 I dolphlL; who, in a very short time, was soon disgusted with 
 il 9 them
 
 I 
 
 DEE 
 
 115 
 
 D EF 
 
 icm. TliL-y were afterwards introduci'd to .Ste)>lu-n, king of 
 
 oland, but'witli no better success. Sodu after this they were 
 
 ivited I'y a rich Buheiriian nobleman, to his castle of Tre- 
 
 oiia, where they contintu'd tor some time in ;jreat aflliimce ; ovv- 
 
 >H, as tliey as-ertcd, to their art of tfjnsr,:utatioi) by means of a 
 
 e^taiji powder in the possession of K'lley. Dr^e now ((Uiirrelbng 
 
 .itli his companion in ini(|uity, quitted Ij'^'hemia, and returned to 
 
 iim;'and, where he was once more graciously received by the 
 
 lueen; who, in 1595, made him warden of Manchester college, 
 
 II which town he reiided several years. In 1604, he returned to 
 
 lis hoise at Mortlake, where he died in 1008, aged SI, leaving a 
 
 arge family, and many works, behind liiin. T)ie black stone into 
 
 ■vhlch Dee used to call his spirits, was in^tiie collection of the eail- 
 
 jf Peterborough, whence it came to Lady Elizabeth Germaine. 
 
 It was next the property of llie late duke of Argyle, ami is now 
 
 Mr. Walpole's. It has neen found upon examination 4obe nothing 
 
 out a polished piece of cjiuiel coal. The celebrated Dr. Houk, 
 
 many years after Dee's dcith, has endeavoured to prove that 
 
 his journal, published by Cas, nbon, was entirely cryptographical, 
 
 concealing his political transactions, and that under the mask of 
 
 pursuing the occult sciences, he was emploved by queen Elizabeth 
 
 as a siiy. He is said to have been created LL. 1>. at Louvain. 
 
 DEED, an in-'rumeiit written on pi'per or parchment, which 
 relates principally to the conveyance, or transterring of property, 
 and the validity of vvhieli consists in the following essential parti- 
 cular>: 1. Proper parties to contract wittr one another, and a pro- 
 per subject matter to ij, contracted for; 2. A good and sufficient 
 consideration; 3. Writing on parchment, or paper, duly stamped; 
 4. Sufticient and legal words, properly disposed; 5. Reading (if it 
 be desireO) before execution; 6. By stat. 29 Car. 2. c. 3, in many 
 cases sigiiiflg also; and, lastly, delivery which must be done either 
 by the party liiniself, or by his attorney, lawfully authorized, and 
 expressed in the attestation. If any of these requisites be wanting, 
 the deed is absolutely void, from the beginning. The preserva- 
 tion of deeds is an object that has ever engaged the attention of 
 the lawyer and the antiquary: it is of still greater importance to 
 those who hold estates or other tenements, in order to enable them 
 to peruse such papers as have been kept for a series of years, and 
 which from moisture, or other causes, are almost illegible. To fa- 
 cilitate this desirable object, we select the following, as being the 
 most simple of the many recipes which have been recommended : 
 immerse th-e parchment obliterated by time, into a vessel of cokl 
 water, fre-ii drawn irom a well: in the space of a minute, it should 
 be taken out, and pressed between two blotting papers, to prevent 
 it from shiivelling, while it is drying. As soon as it is moderately 
 dry (if the cluiraaers be not legible,) the operation should be re- 
 peated two or three times. Thus, the skin will resume its pristine 
 colour, and appear I hroughout alike. In construction of law, the 
 first de«d and the last will stand In force; and where a deed is by 
 indenture between parties, none can have an action upon such 
 deed, but the pei-son who is a party ta it. In a deed-poll, hew- 
 ever, one person may covenant wiih anotlier, who is not a party, 
 to do certain acts; t'oi the non-performance of which he may bring 
 his ai tion. Where a man justifies title under any deed, he ought 
 to produce that deed; if it be alleged in pleading, it must be pro- 
 duced to the court, that it may determine whether the deed con- 
 tain sufficient words to make a valid contract. 
 
 DEEMSTERS, or DEMSTERS, {horn dema, Sax. a judge 
 or umpire,] all controversies in the Isle of Man arc decided with- 
 out process, writings, or any charges, by certain judges, chosen 
 yearly from among themselves, called deemsters ; there being : .. o 
 for each division of the island: they sit judges in all courts, either 
 for life or property ; and with the advice of 24 keys, declare what 
 is law in unccniinon emergencies. 
 
 DEEP SEA-LINE, or DIP SEA-LINE, in the sea-language 
 a small line to sound with : some a hundred and fifty fathoms'long, 
 with a hollow plummet at the head, and tallow put into it, to 
 bring up stones, gravel, sand, shells, and the like, from the bot- 
 tom, in order to know the differences of the ground; which beimj 
 entered from time to time in their books, by comparing of obser- 
 vations, tbey guess by their soundings, &c. what coasts they are 
 on, though they cannot see land. 
 
 Deer, an island of the United States, in Penobscot Bay, on 
 the coast of Hancock county, in the district of Maine, 18 miles in 
 circumference. 
 DEERj Ideor, Sax, thkr, Teutonic ; ^ij, Gr.] that class of 
 
 animals which is hunted lor venison, containing nu.nv suliordinatc 
 species; as the slag, or red deer, the buck, or fallow deer, the 
 roebuck, and others. SeeCKUVUS. 
 
 DEERFIELD, a town of New Hampshire 35 miles N. \X. of 
 Portsmouth. 
 
 Deerfield, or Pocomtic, a.river of Vermont, wiiich receiv- 
 ing many streams, enters Massachusets, thence falls into the Con- 
 necticut. 
 
 DE EACTO, [Lat.] something actually in fact, or existing; ia 
 coiitradi-.tinction to dejure, where a tiling is only so injustice, but 
 Dot in lact: as a king de facto is a person who is actually in pos- 
 session ot a crown, but has no legal right to the same ; and a king 
 de jure is the person who has a just right to the crown, though he 
 is not possessed (.)f it. 
 
 DEi'AMATKJN, the offence of speaking slanderous words of 
 another; and where any person circulates any report injurious to 
 the credit or character of another, the party injured may bring an 
 action to recover damages proportioned to the injury he has sus- 
 tained ; but it is incumbent upon the party to prove that he has 
 sustained an injury, to entitle him to d.iinages. In some eases, 
 however, as for words spoken which, by law, are in themselves 
 actionable, as calling a tradesman a bankrupt, a cheat, or swindler, 
 &c. there is no occasion to prove any particular damage, but the 
 plaintiff must be particularly attentive to state words precisely as 
 they were spoken, otherw ise he will be nonsuited. 
 
 DEF'AULT, is commonly taken for non-appearance in court at 
 a day assigned. If a plaintilf make default in appearance in a trial 
 at L'.w, he will be nonsuited ; and wla-re a defendant makes a de- 
 fault, judgement shall be had a^am^t him by default. 
 
 Default in Criminal Cases. If an offender, being indicted, 
 appears at the capias, and pleads to issue, and is let to bail to at- 
 tend his trial, and then makes delac.lt ; here the inquest, in case of 
 felony, shall never be taken by default : but a capias ad audien- 
 dum juratum shall issue, and if the party is not taken, an exigent ;. 
 and it he appear on that writ, and then makes deiault, an exigi 
 facias de novo may be granted : but where, upon the capias on 
 exigent, the sheritf returns cepi corpus, and at the day h^s not his 
 body, tlie sheriff shall be punished; but no new exigent awarded 
 because in custody of record. 2 H. H. 202. 
 
 Defwlt OF Jurors. If jurors make default in their appear- 
 ance for trying of causes, they shall forfeit their issues, unless thev 
 have any reasonable excuse proved by witnesses, in which case- 
 the justices may discharge the issues for default. Slat 35 II^ 
 VIII. c. 6. 
 
 DEFEASANCE, or DEFEISANCE, the difference between 
 a common condition and a defeasance is, that the condition is an- 
 nexed to, or inserted in, the deed ; and a defeasance is a deeci by 
 itself, concluded and agreed on between the parties, anil having 
 relation to another tlccd. 
 
 DEFECAl E, or DEFJICATE, in chemistry, a term applied, 
 to a body freed and purged from fxces and impurities. See the 
 article Clarification, &c. 
 
 DEFEC TION, the deserting, abandoning, or falling off from, a 
 party, or inte -si. a person had been engaged in. 
 
 DEFECTIVE, in general, an appellation given to thingswhich 
 want some of the properties that naturally they ought to have. 
 Thus, 
 
 Defective Nouns are those which want one of the numbers^ 
 or one or mo'-e cases. See Noun. 
 
 DEFENCE, in fortifici.Lion, all sorts of works that cover and 
 defend the opposite post~, as flanks, casemates, parapets, and- 
 faussebrays. See Fortificatio.n. 
 
 Defence, to be is a Posture or, is to be in a condition to 
 resist or oppose an enemy. 
 
 Defence, Line of, a supposetl line drawn from the angle of 
 the curtin, or from any other part in th« curtin, to the flanked 
 angle of the opposite b.tstion. See Fortification. 
 
 Defence, in law, signifies a plea, or what the defendant ought 
 to make after the plaintiff's count, or declaration, viz. that he de- 
 fends all the wrong, force, and damages, where and when he 
 ought, &c. it the defendant would plead to the jurisdiction, i a- 
 must omit the words, where and when he ought; and if he w n^d 
 shew any disability in the plaintiff, and demand juJgeuieni, if ihe- 
 plaintiff shall be answered unto, then In- oug .: tj omit V,e h-fence 
 ot the damage. There is a full defence \isualiy in personal ac- 
 tions. 
 
 D£F1£»CB£
 
 D E I ■ 
 
 116 
 
 D EF 
 
 Defences, in luTaUlry, are the weapons of ain llea^t, as the 
 'horns (if a stag, the tusks of a w iUl l)oav, ?>'e. 
 
 DEFEND, a term used in our old statutes, for, to prohibit or 
 forbid. 
 
 DEFENDANT, in law, the person sued in an action ]ier- 
 sonal ; as tenant is he who is sued in an action real. See Ac- 
 tion. 
 
 DEFENDEML'S, inlaw, a word formerly used in gifts and 
 -grants, havui;; this force, that it binds the donor and his heirs to 
 defend the donee, it any persons claimed right to, or laid any in- 
 cumbrance on, the thing given, otiierwise tiian is contained m the 
 deed of gift. 
 
 DEFENDER OF THE FAITH, [fidei defensor, Lzt-I a 
 peculiar title belonging to the king of England; as Catholicus to 
 the king of Spain, and Christianissimus to the king of France, &:c. 
 These titles were given by the popes of Rome. That of lidei de- 
 fensor was first conferred by Leo X. on king Henry VIll. for 
 ■writing against Marlin Luther; and the bull for it bears date 
 .quiiito idus Octob. \52\. It was_ aftersvards continued by Cle- 
 ment VTL But the pope, on Henrv's suppressing the houses of 
 religion at the time ot the reformation, not only deprived liiiii of 
 his title, but deposed him from his crown also ; though in the 33(h 
 year of his reign, his title, l^c. \v;is confirmed by parliament; and 
 has continued to be used by ail his successors. Chainberlayne 
 says, the title belonged to the kings of England before that time : 
 and for proof hereof appeals to sever.d charters granted to the uni- 
 versity of Oxford ; so that pope Leo's bull was only a renovation 
 of the ancient right. 
 
 DEFIClEN'l' NUMBERS, in arithmetic, are those 
 luimbers whose parts, added together, make less than the integer, 
 whose parts thev are, such is 8, its parts 1, ?, 4, niaking only 7. 
 
 DEP'ILE, in fortilication, a straight narrow passage, througli 
 which a company ot horse or foot can pass only in lile, by niaknig 
 a small front; so that the eiieniv may lake an opportunity to stop 
 their march and charge them with so much the. more advaiitiige, 
 in regard that those in the front and rear, cannot reciprocally come 
 ;to the relief of one another. 
 
 Defile is to reduce an army to a small front, in order to march 
 through a defile. 
 
 DEFINITF;, in grammar, is applied to an article that has a 
 precise determinate signification ; such as the article i/ie in Eng- 
 lish, /i; and /« in French. &cc. which h.\ and ascertain the noun 
 they belong to, to some particular; the king, le roi, the queen, 
 la reine, i. e. the king or (pieen of the country we are in, or 
 speaking of; whereas the articles, a. r.ii, iin or uiic, mark nolhing 
 particular, and are therefore called indefinite: thus a king, an ar- 
 tist, nil roi, uiie reine, mean a king, artist, orciueen, of any coun- 
 try cr any age. 
 
 DEFINITION, the shewing tlie meaning of one word by se- 
 veral other not synonymous terms. The meaning of words being 
 only the ideas they are made to stand for, by him that uses them, 
 the meaning of any term is then shewed, or the word is defined, 
 when, by otiier words, the idea it is made the sign of, and is an- 
 nexed to it in the mind of the speaker, is, as it were, represented 
 and set before the view of another; and thus its signification is as- 
 certained. This is the only end and use of definitions, and 
 therefore the onlv measure of what is, or is not, a good definition. 
 The names then of simple ideas are incapable of being defined, be- 
 cause the several terms of a delinition signifying several ideas, 
 they can altogether by no means, represent an idea which has no 
 composition at all ; and therefore a definition, which is properly 
 but shewing the meaning of any one word by several others, not 
 signifying the same each, can in the names of the simple ideas have 
 no i>lace. Definilions, which then take place in compound ideas 
 onlv are of two sorts: tlve delinition of the name, which is the ex- 
 planation of what any word means ; ami the delinition of the thing, 
 which explains in wh.it the nature of that thing consists. In order 
 -to form a delinition of any thing, we must employ thc^e three acts 
 of the mind, first compare the thing to be defined with other 
 things that are most like to itself, and see wherein its essence and 
 nature agrees with them ; and that is called tlie general nature or 
 genus in a definition : so, if vou would define » hat wine is, first 
 compare it with other things like itself, ;is cyder, perry, &c. and 
 you will find th;'.t it agrees essentially with them in this, that it is a 
 sort of juice. Secondly, consider liie most rein;irkable and pri- 
 mary attribute, property, or idea, wherein the thing diflers from 
 
 thoie other things that are mo^t like it, and llut is its essential or 
 specific dilf'crence: so that wine dilfers Irom cyder and perry, and 
 all other juices, in its being pressed from a grape. This may be 
 called its special nature, which distinguishes it from other juices. 
 Thirdly, join the gencial and special nature together, or the genus 
 and the ditference, and these make up a delinition; so the juice of 
 a grape, or juice pressed trom grapes, is the definition of wine. 
 Here it must be observed, that in speaking of the genus and dif- 
 ference, as composing a definition, it must always be understood, 
 that the nearest genus and specific dill'erence are required. The 
 next genera! nature, orth'^ nearest genus, must be used in a defi- 
 nition, because it includes all the rest: as if I were to liefiiie wine, 
 I must sav, wine is a juice, which is the nearest genus; and not 
 say, wine is a liquid, which is a remote general nature; or, wine 
 is a siibitaiice wliich is yet more remote, for juice includes both 
 lu|uid and substance. Besides neither of these two remote gene- 
 ral natures wotild make any distinction between wine and a thou- 
 sand other substances, or other liquids : a remote genus leaves the 
 thing too much undistinguished. The specific ditTerence is ihat 
 primary attribute which distinguishes each species from one an- 
 other, while they stand ranked under the same general nature or 
 genus; so that the specific ditTerence of wine is its pressure from 
 the grape, as c) 'ler is pressed from apples, and perry from pears. 
 In definitions we must also use the primary attribute that distiii- 
 gui^hes the species, or special nature ; and not attempt to define 
 wine by its particular tastes, or elTects, or rather properties, which 
 are but secondary, or consequential, when its pressure from the 
 grape is the most obvious and primary distinction ol it from all 
 other juices. In some cases, indeed, it is not so easily known, 
 which is the primary idea that distinguishes one thing from an- 
 other; so some would as soon define winter by the coldness of the 
 season, as by the shortness of the days, though the shortness of the 
 days is doubtless the most just, primary, and philosophical ditfer- 
 ence; since winter-days are always the shortest, but nut always the 
 cc>ldest; besides, the shortness is one cause of the coldness, but the 
 coldness is no cause of their shortness. The special rules for a 
 good definition are these: l.A definition must be uuivei-sal or 
 adequate, that is, it must agree to all the particular species or in- 
 dividuals that are included under the same idea. 2. It must be 
 proper, and peculiar to the thing defined, and agree to that alone. 
 These two rules, being observed, will always render a definition 
 reciprocal with the thing defined, that is, the definition may be 
 used in the place of the thing defined; or they may be mutually 
 afiirnied concerning each other. 3. A definition should be dear 
 and plain ; and indeed it is a general rule concerning the definition 
 both of names and things, that no word should be used in either of 
 them, which has any difVuulty in it, unless it has been before de- 
 fined. 4. A definition should he short, so that it must have no tau- 
 tology in it, nor any words superfluous, j. Neither the thing de- 
 fined, nor a mere synonvmous name should make any part ot the 
 definition. Though thedefining by the genus and ditierence he 
 the shortest way, jet it may be doubled whether it be the best; 
 certainly it is not the onU, and so nit absolutely necessary. 
 Thus, n'lan may be di.'lined to be a solid extended substance, hav - 
 ing l:fe, sense, spontaneous motion, and the faculty of reasoning: 
 ami certainly the meaning of the word man would be as well un- 
 derstood as when it is <lefiiied a rational animal. 
 
 Definition, in rhetoric, is defined by Cicero, a short compre- 
 hensive explaiiati<in of a thing. The definitions of the orator, it 
 must be observed, dilt'er much from l-linsc of the logician and phi- 
 losopher: the orators take a large compass, and define things more 
 ornamentallv: thus, " man is a curious work of analmighlyCreator, 
 framed after his own image, endued whh reason, and born with 
 immortality,:" but this rhetorical definition, in strictness, comes 
 nearer to the nature of a description, than any accurate definition. 
 
 DKFLAGR.VnON, [dcfiagratio, Lat.]" in cliemislry, the act 
 of burning two or more substances together, as charcoal and nitre. 
 When nitre, (nitrale of potash,) is mixed with an equal weight of 
 sulphur, charcoal, or other inlhimniable substance, and the mix- 
 ture is thrown into a crucible heated to leflness, a very vivid com- 
 bustion is inst:iiitly excited: this is called dellagriition, which is oc- 
 ciisioned bv the disengagement of a large portion of oxygen, from 
 the nitre thus suddenly presented to the inllammahle body, and 
 hence the vivid combustion that is excitetl: and for the produc- 
 tion of this, it is not even requisite to raise the temperature so 
 high as that which would be necessary, if applied alone, to decom- 
 
 ppje
 
 DEF 
 
 117 
 
 DEF 
 
 pose the niUe, the al'fiiiity of llie ir.rtainiiialile body to the oxygen 
 of tlie nitre, causing it to take place at a tenipeialiirv.' sonie\\hat 
 lower. The nitrogen, or azote of the nitric acid, passes oli in tlie 
 slate of gas, and the potash witli vvliich the acid was united, re- 
 mains niiNeJ, or united witli the body formed by the combination 
 of the owijen, and the inilainmaljle substance. 
 
 DKKLKCIION of the Kays cf Light, a property whijh 
 Dr. Hook ol)ieived in iGTr), and read an account of before tlip 
 Koyal Society, Marcli IS, liie same year. He says he found it 
 ditlerent bolli' from rellectioa and refraction, and tliat it was made 
 towards the surface of Idie opaque body, perpendicularly. This 
 property Sir Isaac Newton calls inllection. 
 
 Deflection', in naTigalion, the tendency of a ship from lier 
 true course, by reason of currents. Sec. which turn her otd of iier 
 right way. 
 
 DK i'OE, Davif.l, a writer fiimcus for politics and poetry. 
 lie was bred a hosier, which profession he soon forsook, and be- 
 cajite one of the most enterprising authors that any aue has pro- 
 duced. When discontents ran iiigh at tlie Kevolution, and king 
 William was obliged to dismiss his Dutch guards, Do Foe, who 
 lia'J true notions cf civil liberty, ridiculed the enemies of uoveni- 
 mcnt ill his well known poem, called " I'lie true-born English- 
 man ;" which had a prodigious sale. The next ;.atire lie wrote 
 was intitle.i, " Reformation of Manners;" aimed at some persons 
 of high rank, who rendered themselves a disgrace to their country. 
 When the ecclesiastics brcath.eil too much ol a spirit of p,-rsecution, 
 De Foe wrote a tract called "The Shortest Way with the Dis- 
 senters;" for which he was called to accotuit, and explained him- 
 self with great lirmriess. He was afterwards sentenced to the 
 pillory for attacking some [-ublic meastires; which so little intimi- 
 dated I'.ini, that, in tleliance of their usage, he wrote a " llvmn to 
 the Pillory." It would be endless to enumerate all his publica- 
 tons; but the following are the principal: "The History of the 
 Plague in iGoj ;" a novel intitled "The History of Colonel 
 Jack;" "A new Voyage round the World by a Company of 
 Merchant-;," printed i'or Bettesworth, 1725; "The Hi>turV of 
 Roxana;" "Memoirs of a Cav;.iier;" "The History of Moll 
 Flanders;" a religious romance, intitled " Religious Courtship," 
 which has unuergone upwards of 20 editions; and the "Life and 
 Adventures of Robinson Crusoe, an admirable performance, of 
 which there have been editions w ithout number, but concerning 
 which t.h.ere is an anecdote, that does the author of it no credit, 
 as to the better p^irt of a writer's character, honesty. AVhen Cap- 
 tain ^^'oods Rogers touched at liie islaiid of Juan Fernandez, in 
 the Suiith Sea, he brought away Alexander Selkirk, a Scots sailor, 
 who had been lel'l ashore there, and had lived on that desolate 
 place above four years. When Selkirk came back to England, 
 he wrote a narrative of his adventures, and put the |)apers into 
 the hands of De Foe, to digest for pubrui'tion ; who ungene- 
 rously converted the materials into thellistory of RobinsonCrusoe, 
 and returned Selkirk his papers again ! A fraud for which, the 
 distii'.guished merit of that romance can never atone. Daniel de 
 Foe died at Islington, in 1731. All his productions of the ro- 
 mantic species, but especially the two last mentioned, are much 
 in vogue amongst cotmtry readers; and, on account of their 
 moral and religious tendency, may very probably in some mea- 
 sure counteract the pernicious effects, produced by the too general 
 circulation of modern novels, those occasional vehicles of impiety 
 and intidelitv. 
 
 ^ DEI'OLLVTION, [from de, and folium, a leaf,] the fall of 
 the leaves; a term opposed to frondescentia, the annual renova- 
 tion of the leaves. Most plants in cold and temperate climates 
 shed their leaves every year: tliis luijipens in autumn, and is 
 generally announced by t"h-? Howering of the common meadow- 
 saffron. The term is only applied to trees and shrubs ; foi- herbs 
 perish down to the root every year, losing stem, leaves, and all. 
 All plants do not drop their leaves at the same time. The ash 
 and walnut t.'ees, though latest in Uiifulding, are soonest divested 
 otthem: tlie latter seldom carries its leaves above live months. 
 On the oak and hornbeam, the leaves die and wither as soon a? 
 the cold commences; but remain attached to the branches till 
 they are pushed oif by the new ones, which unfold themselves 
 the following spring. These trees are doubtless a kind of ever- 
 greens : the leaves are probably destroyed only by cold; and per- 
 haps would continue longt>r 'on the plant, hut for the force of 
 the spring sap, joined to the moisture, in mild and dry sea-sons, 
 
 VOL. H. — XO. t)>. * 
 
 the lilac, privet, yellow jessamine of the woods, and maple o^ 
 Crete, jircserve their leaves green until spring, and do not drop 
 them till th.e new leaves are begnning to appear. The lig-trcc, 
 and many other trees that grow between the troiiics, arc of this 
 partit tdar class of ever-grecns. ' 1 he trees in Eg\|)t, fays Dr. 
 llasseK;nist, cast ti'.eir leaves in tlie end of Dccemher and be- 
 ginning of January having young leaves before all the oki ones 
 are fallen off; and, to forward this opcalion, few of the trees iiavc 
 buds: the sycamore, and willow, indeed, have some, bt;lwUli 
 few and quite loo^e stipula; or scales. Bi:ds ;eem not so neces-sary 
 in the southern as in the i:orthein ccunlries. Seme trees and 
 shrubs preserve their leaves constantly tluough the whole year: 
 and are not in the least iniluenced by the clenurcy or inclemency 
 of seasons. Such arc the firs, juniper, yew, cedar, cypress, and 
 many other trees, hence dcr.ominated ever-greens. 'I'lie falling 
 off of tlie leaves of deciduous trees seems principally to depend on 
 the temperature of the atmosphere, which likewise serves to liasten 
 or retard the appearance in cjuestion. An ardent sun contributes 
 to hasten the dropping of the leaves. Hence in hot and diy sum- 
 mers, the leaves of the lime-tree and hoi-se-chcsnut turn yellow 
 about the lir^t of September; whilst m other years, the yellowness' 
 doei not appear till the beginning of October. Nothhig, how ever, 
 contributes more to hasten the fall of the leaves, than ininiodei-ate 
 cold or moist weather in autumn ; moderate droughts, on the 
 other hairJ, serve to retard it. As a proof of this position, Mr. 
 Adar.son relates, that in 1759, the leaves of the elm-tree, which 
 generally fall olf about the 25th of November, continued in ver- 
 dure and vigour at Paris, where the autumn was reniaikably dry, 
 till the ■ lOtli of the following month. The fullowing table, re- 
 specting the mean times in which different trees shed their leaves, 
 is founded upon observations: 
 GoosL-bcrry-tree and bladdei-sena, "^ ■- fOct. 1st. 
 
 Walnut and ash, ■£ I5tli. 
 
 Almond-tree, h.or3e-chesnut,andlime-tree, „ = 2Dth. 
 
 Majile, hazWntit, black poplar, and aspen tree, z-^ — — 25th. 
 Birch, plane-tree, mountain osier, false acacia, )^ 7 ? ' 
 
 pear, and apple tree, I ~' > Nov. 1st. 
 
 Vine, mulberry, fig, sumac, and angelica tree, 2 _o 10th.- 
 
 Elm-tree and willow, £ 15th. 
 
 Apricot and elder trees, J :^ [^ 20th. 
 
 it is remaikable that an ever-green tree grafted upon a deciduous, 
 determines the latter to retain its leaves. This observation is 
 confirmed by repe.ited experiments; particularly by grafting the 
 laurel, or cherry-bay, an ever-green, on the common cherry ; arA 
 the ilex, or ever-green oak, on the oak. 
 
 DEFOUCEM ENT, a with-holding of lands and tenements by 
 force from the right owner. 
 
 Deforce.ment, in Scots law, the opposing or resisting of the 
 officers of the law in the execution of their office. 
 
 DEFORMITY, [dcformitus, Lat.] generally signifies tl'.e want 
 of that symmetry and uniformity, which are necessary to constitute 
 the beauty of an object ; it is more particularly applied to the 
 human frame. The chief cause of tlie personal delorniity so fre- 
 quent at present, is the neglect of paying proper attention to the 
 clothing of infants, by which they are oleprived of the free use of 
 their limbs ; and thus, in a great measure, rendered unserviceable 
 to society. But, though deformity may apparently be prejudicial 
 to, health, it is ultimately a real advanta"^-. Delormed pei'sons, 
 it is true, possess a less share of stiengtii tlian cll-.ers; they s'k-uIiI 
 therefore be naturally more careful to pr.-serve it, as w eli as their 
 health ; which can be effected only by a strict adherence to tem- 
 perance. 'I'his object will likewise be considerably .facilitated by 
 moderate exercise, wliich few, in such a situation, can want 
 strength to perform ; and, as they are not calculated for violent 
 exercise, they are consequently exempt from all the disorders 
 arising from that source; and may thus attain a mature old age. 
 For a further investigation of this subject, w'e refer fhe reader to an 
 ingenious essay, intitled " Deformity," by Mr. Hay, in iSvo. pub- 
 lished in the year 1753, and of which a new edition appeared a 
 few years since, collectively with his other works, in two vols. 4to. 
 wiiere it is amply discussed. 
 
 DEF0SSIO,'or DEFOSSION, the punishment of bnryintc_ 
 alive, indicted anicng the Romans on vestal virgins guilty of 
 incontinency. It is also a custom among the Hungarians to inliict 
 this punishment on women convicted of adultery. Heretics weri 
 also punished in lids manner. 
 
 2 11 DEGENERATION
 
 D EG 
 
 118 
 
 DEI 
 
 DEGExN'ERATlON OF PLANTS. Some naturalist? have 
 been of opinioii, (hat phuit-^ are capable of rlegeneratina; into quite 
 iiulistinct sjit'cifi ; Imt this is a mere chimera. All tiiat liinpens 
 in the degoiievatioii of a plant, is the lovnu ii- uiual ijeauty, colour, 
 j.inell, &c. a circiimstaiR-e entirely cm ing to )lf being planted in an 
 iinproper soil, climate, &c. 
 
 DEtiJ.L'l'iriON, ill medicine, the art of swallowinf; the 
 fooj, pi'rlormed by means of the tongue iliii'inf; tlie aliment into 
 the oesophagus, whirh, by the contnuiion of the sphincter, pro- 
 trudes ihc- (■ontei;i> (loiviiuards. 
 
 DE(;NIZI.U, or DENIZSLEY, a town of Asiatic Turkey, 
 in the |)rovinc<- ol Nalolia, I OS miles E. S. ¥.. of Snsvrna. 
 
 DEOUADA TION. the act of (le|)riving a person for ever of a 
 dignity or degree of honour, and taking away the title, badge, and 
 privileges, of it. 
 
 Deciadation, in our law-books, is cilled Disgradation and 
 Deposition. 'I'lie degradation of a peer, a priest, a knight, a 
 gentleman, an officer, &c. are perfoi nied v.ith divers cerouionie^, 
 in wliich the person degraded is stripped of those ornaniei.ts and 
 rights which were the ensign^ of his ordtr and degree. 
 
 Degradation, in painting, expresses tiie lessen'ng the appear- 
 ance of distant objects in alandskip, in the same manner as tbey 
 would appear to an eye placed at that distance from them. 
 
 DEGRADED Cross, in heraldry, a cross divided into steps at 
 each end, diminishing as they ascend towards the centre, called by 
 the Frenclip(Tro««t'c. 
 
 DEGREE, [c/t^orc Fr.] in geometry, a division of a circle, 
 including a three hundred and sixtieth part of its circumference. 
 Every circle is supposed to be divided into tliree hmidred and 
 sixty parts, called degrees, and each degree di\ided into sixty other 
 pirts, called minutes; each of these minutes being again divided 
 into sixty seconds, each second into sixty thirds, and each third into 
 sixty fuurllis, and so on. By this meiin^ no more degrees or 4-iarts 
 are reckoned in the greatest circle than in the lea: t that is; and 
 therefore if the same angle at the centre be subtended by two 
 concentrical arches, as many degrees are counted in the one as 
 in tiic other ; for these two arches have llie same proportion to 
 their whole peripheries. See Tric.on'ometry. 
 
 Degree of Latitude, and Degree of Longitude. See 
 Latitude, Longitude, Geography, and Astronomy. 
 
 Dt&REE) ill the civil and canon laws, denotes an interval in 
 kinship, by whic'i proximity, and remoteness of blood are com- 
 puted. See Consanguinity, and Descint. 
 
 Degree, in universities, denotes a quality conferred on the 
 students or members thereof, as a te.-tiniony of their prolicienev 
 in the arts or sciences, and intitling them to certain privileges. 
 The degrees are much the same in all universities, but the laws 
 thereof, and tlie previous tliscipline or exeicise differ. The 
 degrees are l>atchelor, master, and doctor, instead of which last, 
 in ^onle foreign univei-silies, they have licentiate. In each faculty, 
 there are tw.i degrees, batchelor and doctor, which were anlient- 
 ly called batchelor and master. In the arts likewise tiiere are 
 two degrees which still retain the antient denomination, viz. 
 batchelor and master. With regard to olitair.ing degrees at Ox- 
 ford and Cambridge, matters are nearly on the same footing, only 
 at Cambridge the discipline is somewhat more severe, and the 
 exercises more diflficult. For the degree of batchelor of arts, 
 "tjesides residence in the university near four years, it is requ'.red 
 thai the person in the last year have defended three questions in 
 natural |)hilosophy, mathematics, or ethics, and answered the 
 objections of three several opponents at two several times; as also 
 that he have opposed three times. After which, being examined 
 by the master and fellows of the college, he i-. referred to seek his 
 degree in the scliools, where he is to sit three days, and be ex- 
 amined by two masters of arts appointed for the purpose. For 
 the degrei' of master of arts, the candidate is obli^^ed three seven! 
 times to maintain two philosophical 'pie-.tions in the |)ublic school;., 
 and to answer die objection^ brought against hmi by a master of 
 aits. He must also keep two ads in the batchelois school, and 
 declaim once. To pass batchelor of divinity, the caniluiate must 
 have been seven years master of arts: he must huve opposed a 
 batchelor of divinity twice, kept one divinity act, an.l preach.ed 
 before the university ouce in Liiin and cnce in Eng.idi. For the 
 desree of doctor, set' Doctor. 
 
 Degrees of Comparison,, in g:;:mni;:r, are three; viz. tlie 
 positive, comparative, and superlative. Sec Grammar. 
 
 Decrees, in music, are the little intervals whereof the con- 
 cords, or harmonical intervals, are composed. Musical degrees 
 are three, Ut. The greater tone, whi se ratio is 8 : 9. 2. The Icis 
 lone, wliose ratio is 9 : 10. and 3. The semitone, whose ratio i> 
 ];■> : Ui. 
 
 DEJANIRA, in fabulous liistory, daughter of Oeneus king of 
 1'^tolia, and wife of Heicules. 'i'he centaur Kessus, endeav- 
 ouring to ravish her, was slain by Hercules witli a poisoned 
 arrow . 
 
 DEINSE or DEYNSE, a town of France in the department of 
 Escact, 9 miles S. \V. of Ghent. 
 
 DEIPHON, in fabulojs history, a brother of Triptolemus, 
 
 and son of Celeiis and Metanira. N\'hcn C'eres travelled over 
 
 the world, she slopped at his father's court, and undertook to mire 
 
 liiin and !>rii)g him up. 'I'o reward the hospitality of C'eleus, the 
 
 i goddess, to make his son in. mortal, every evening placed him 
 
 I on burning coals, to purify liim from his mortal partich-s, 
 
 DEI.SCALor DEISM'EAL.in the ancient British customs, the 
 name of a ceremony originally used in the druidical worship, and 
 retained in many places dovui to a very late period as a civil cere- 
 mony towards persons of particular distinction. The temples of 
 the ancient Britons were all circular; and the druids in pei-forminor 
 the public ofiices of their religion, never neglected to make tliree 
 turns ruu.iri the altar, accompanied by all the worshippers. 'Iliis 
 practice was so habitual to the ancient Britons, that it contimied 
 in some places many ages after the druids and their religion were 
 both destroyed. In the Scottish isles, the vulgar never came to 
 the ancient sacrificing and fire-hallowiug cairns, but they walk 
 three times round them, from east to west, according to the "course 
 of the sun. 
 
 DEISM [di-i.wit; Fr. from Dsiis, God, Lat.] may properly be 
 used to denote natural religion, as comprehending those tiuths 
 which have a real foundation in reason and nature; and in this 
 sense it is so far from being opposite to Cliristianity, that it is one 
 great design of the gospel to illustrate and enforce it. 'Ihus some 
 of the deisiical «riurs have atfected to use it. Put deism more 
 precisely signifies that system of religion relating both to doctrine 
 and praitice, which, it is supposed, every man may discover for 
 himself, by the mere force of natural reason, independent of all 
 revelation, ancj exclusive of it ; and this religion, Dr. Tindal and 
 otiiers pretend, is so perfect, as to be incapable of receiving any 
 addition or improvement even from divine revelation. It is in- 
 deed furprising, that men of learning and philosophv, who reject 
 Christianity, on account of its miracles and mysteries. See Deists, 
 notwithstanding its many evidences external I'nd internal, should 
 nevertheless adept opinions, without tlie smalh'st tvidence, which, 
 if they were true, would be not only more miraculous, but even 
 more mysterious, becaue paradoxical and contradictory. For 
 miraculous it certainly would be, if a finite, limited, foolish, im- 
 perfect, material, being, whose days are of yesterday, and whose 
 whole mass of knowledge is acquired from external and visible 
 objects, through the medium of his five senses, could, bv his own 
 powers alone, rliscover the existence, nature, powers, and charac- 
 ter, of an infinitely and eternally wise, goail; perfect, unlimited, 
 immaterial, and invisible. Being, without the smaller information or 
 revekition from him. And it is a self-evident contradiction, to say, 
 that such a weak and iinpeifect being could discover, or (what, 
 in matters of this kind, amounts to the san.e thhig,) form a system 
 of religion and moralitv, so j.erfectly pure and excellent, that the 
 omnipotent Author of all wisdom, goodness, and perfection, could 
 not improve it, or give a better in its stead. Yet such contradic- 
 tory systems are adopted as sterling truths, by many modern 
 deists: which affords the Christian a stri ng proof of the truth of 
 our Saviour's prophecy, that at his second coming he will hardly 
 find faith on the earth. 
 
 DEIS'!', a sect or class of people also denominated Free- 
 thinkers; they profess to think freely for themselves; and to 
 fiillow the light and law of nature, rejecting revelation, and op- 
 posing Christianity. The name of Deists seems to have been first 
 assumed as t!ie denomination of a party, about the middle of the 
 iGth century, by some gentlemen in France and Italy, who were 
 desirous of thus disguising their opposition to Christianitv, by a 
 more honourable appellation than that of Atheists. \iret, an 
 eminent reformer, mentions certain persons, in his epistle dedica- 
 tory, prelixed to the second volume of his " Instruction Chrcti- 
 enne," published in 1563, who called themselves by a new name, 
 
 tliat
 
 DE I 
 
 119 
 
 DEL 
 
 ■: tofDe'iSls. These, he tells us, professed lo believe in God, 
 t shewL-d no recird lo Je us Christ, and consirlered the doctrine j 
 oi the apostle; aiid evangelists a< tahles and dreams. He adds, 
 that they laughed at all religion, thongh they outv.ardly conform- 
 ed to the religion of those with whom they lived, or whom they 
 wished to p!i-ase, or feared lo nifcnd. Some, he observed, pro- 
 fessed to believe the immortality of the soul ; others denied both 
 this doctrine and that of providence. Many of them were con- 
 sidered as persons of acute ant subtil g.'n'.us, and took pains in 
 disseniinatini their notions. The deists hold, that, considering the 
 multiplicity of religions, the ncmerous pretenc-s to revelation, and 
 the precarfous arguments generally advanced in proof thereof, the 
 best and sure it way is to return to the simplicity of nature and the 
 belief of one God; which is the only (ruth uiireed to by all 
 nations. 'I'hey complain, liiat the freedom of thinking and reason- 
 ing is oppressed under t'le yoke of religion; and iliLit the minds of 
 men are tyran:iize 1 over, by the necessity imposed on them of 
 believing inconceivable mysteries; and contend that nothin;; 
 sliould be req'.iired to be assented to or believed, but what their 
 reason clearly conceive;. The di^ting-iishing clu:ractcr of modern 
 deists is, that thev discard all pretences to revelati <n, as the effects 
 of impo ture or entluuia^m. The) jirofess a regard for natural re- 
 ligion, though ihey are far from being agreed in their notions con- 
 cerning it. 'rhcy are classed by some of their own writers into 
 mortal and immortal dei ts ; the latler acknowled.:ing a future 
 state ; arid the former denying it, or representing it as very uncer- 
 tain. Dr. Clarke di.4inguishei four s.^rts ofd.'is's. 1. Those who 
 pretend to believe the existence of an eternal, intinite, indepen- 
 dent, intelligent Being, who nvade the world, without concerning 
 himself in the government of it. 3. Tho-c who believe the being 
 and natural providence of God, but deny Ihe diiference of actions 
 as moral!) good or evil, resolvirig it into the arb.trary constitution 
 of human laws; and theretore they suppose that Got\ takes no 
 notice of them. With respect to both tiiese classes, he observes, 
 that their opinions can con--i-tently terminate in nothing but down- 
 right atheism. 3. Those wiio having- right app elieiisions con- 
 cerning tlie nature, attributes, and all-governing providence of 
 God, seem also to have some notion ot his mor;.l perfections ; 
 though they consider them as transcendant, and such in nature 
 and degree, that we can torm no true judgement, nor argue with 
 anv certainty concerning tliem : but they deny the immortality of 
 human souls; aUe;:ing that men perish at death, an<l that the 
 present life is the whole of human existence. 4. Those who be- 
 lieve the existence, perfections, and providence, of God, the 
 obligations of natural religion, and a state of future retribution, 
 on the evidence of the light of nature, without a rlivine revelation ; 
 such as theve, he says, are the only true deists ; but their princi- 
 ples, he apprehends, should lead them to embrace Christianity ; 
 and therefore he concludes that there is now no con-islent scheme 
 of deism in the world. Tlie first deistical writer of any note that 
 appeared in this country was Herbert baron of Cherburv. He 
 lived and wrote in the seventeenth century. His book " De 
 Veritate" was first published at Paris in r6.'4. This, together 
 with his b<iok " De Caus:s Errorum," and his treatise " De Hc- 
 ligione La'ci," were afterwards published in London. His cele- 
 brated work " De Religione Gentilium" was published at Am- 
 sterdam in IfifiS in 4to, and in ITiiO in Svo. ; and an English 
 translation of it was publislied at London in 1705. As he was 
 one of llie lirst that formed deism into a system, and asserted the 
 sulTiciency, universality, and absolute perfection, of natural re- 
 ligion, with a view to discard all extraordinary revelation as useless 
 and needless, we shall subjoin tiie five fundamental articles of 
 this univei-sal religion. They are these: 1. That there is one 
 supreme God. 2. That he is chiefly to be \vorshi])ped. 3. That 
 piety and virtue are the principal ])art of his worsliip. A. That we 
 must repent of our sins; ami if we do so, God will p;:rdo'n them. 
 5. That there are rewards for good men and piinishuients for bad 
 men, both here and hereafter. Our own age has pioduced a num- 
 ber of advocates in the same cause; an<l however thev m;>v have 
 differed among themselves, they have been aareed in tlieir at- 
 tempts of invalidating the evidence and authority of divine revela- 
 tion. We might mention Hobbes, Blount, 'Toland, Collins, 
 Woolston, Tindal, Morgan, Chubb, Lord Rolingbroke, Hume, 
 Gibbon, Paine, &c. Some have added Lord Sbattesbury, and 
 the late Lord Kaimes, to the number. Among foreigner's, Vol- 
 taire, Rousseau, Conooicet, and many other celebrated FrencU 
 
 authors, have rendered themselves conspicuous by their deistical 
 writings. Hut the friends of Christianity have no reason to repn-t 
 the free and ur.resei-vcd discussion which tlieir religion has under- 
 gone. Objections have been slated and ur^ed in their full force, 
 and as fully answered; arguments and raillery have been repelled; 
 anti the controversy between Chrisiians and "Deists has called forth 
 a threat number of excellent writers, who have illustrated both the 
 doctrines and evidences of Christianity, in a manner that will ever 
 reflect honour on their names, and be of lasting service to the 
 cause of genuine religion, and the best interests of mankind. With 
 all their boast of reason, the dei--tb, have not been able to pro- 
 duce one solid argument to invalidate revelation, or the Christian 
 doctrine of salvation as delivered in the gospel. On the other hand, 
 the truth of revelation has been evinced by the clearest, and most 
 solid arguments, wliich were ever urged in favour of any truth, 
 U e shall here add this advice, viz. let him who wishes to be fully 
 as^ured of tl:e truth of revelation, attend, in simplicity and sin- 
 cerity of he.irt to its doctrines and precepts, and he will experience 
 its efficacy so as fully to be satisiied, that it is of God and not of 
 man. 
 
 DE-LA-WAR, a town of Virginia, in King William's coun- 
 ty, 20 miles N. by W. of William^bury. 
 
 DELAWAKE", a river of the United States, which was called 
 Chiholiocki by the aboriginals, and in an old Nuremburg map is 
 named Zuydt river. It rise.; bv two principal head waters in New 
 York state. 
 
 Delaware, one of the United States of N. America, situated 
 between 3s" 29' 30'' and 3<f 34' N. lat. and between 75° and 7.=>'' 4?' 
 W. Ion. being in length 92 miles, and in breadth 24, containing 
 2000 square miles, or 1,200,000 acres. This state derived its name 
 from Lord De-La- War, who was instrumental in establishing the 
 rirst settlement of Virgin'a. It is divided into three countie-, 
 Newcastle, Kent, and Sussex; whose chief towns are Wilmington, 
 Newcastle, Dover, Milford, and Lewes. Dover is the seat of go- 
 veriimeiit. The state of Delaware, the upper parts of the county 
 of Newcastle excepted, are in general low and level. It is ch.iefiy 
 an agricultural state, including a very fertile tract of country ; 
 and scarcely any part of the United Slates is better adapted to the 
 different purposes of agriculture, or in which a greater variety of 
 the most useful productions can be conveniently and plentlfidly 
 reared. This state produces plentiful crops of Indian corn, bar- 
 ley, rye, oats, flax, buck wheat, and potatoes. It abounds in na- 
 tural and artificial meadows, containing a very large variety -of 
 grasses Hemp, cotton, and silk, if properly attended to, would 
 thrive well. 
 
 Delaware Bay is 60 miles long, froin the cape to the en- 
 trance of the river, Delaware, at Bombay Hook ; and occupies a 
 space of about 630,000 arres. It is so wide in some paits, that i 
 ship, in the middle of it, cannot be seen from the land. It opens 
 into the Atlairtic on the N. W. and S. E. between Cape He'nlc- 
 pen on the right, and Cape May on the left ; which are 13 or 20 
 miles apart. 
 
 Dfiav^'are Countv, in Pennsylvania, is S. W. of Philadel- 
 phia county, on Delaware river. 
 
 Delaware Coln-ty, a new county in the state of New 
 York, on the head *-aters of Delaware river, talicu from Otsego 
 county. 
 
 DKLAWARES, a nation of North American Indians, formerly 
 numerous and powerful, and wdio uosses-ed part of Penn-vlvania, 
 New Jersey, and New York. This name was given them bv the 
 Europeans ; for they call themselves Lennilenape, that is, Indian 
 men; or Woupanachky, which signifies a people living towards 
 the rising sun. They now reside about hall-way between lake 
 Erie and Ohio river. 
 
 DELEGATES, Court of, a court wherein all causes of 
 appeal, by way of devolution from either of the archbishops, arc 
 decided. Tiiis is the gre.;t court of appeal in all ecclesia.sticai 
 causes. These delegates ore ;;ppointed by the king^'s conunissioii 
 under his- great seal, and issuing out of chancery, to represent hs 
 royal perse'u, and hear all appeals to hiiii made by virtue of the 
 statute 2."i Henry VHI. cap. 19. This commission is usually 
 filled with lords spiritual and temporal, judges of the courts at 
 Westminslcr, and doctors of the civil law. Appeals to Rome were 
 always looked upon by the English nation, even in the times of 
 Popery, w th an evil eye, as being contrary to the liberty ot tiie 
 subject, tlte honour of llie crovsji, and t! e iudeoendeuce oftiifl* 
 
 wliols
 
 DEL 
 
 120 
 
 DEL 
 
 wlioleiTalm; and wpie lii^t iiilrotluced in very turbulent times, 
 ill the UHh year of king Sle|>l)en, (A. D. 1151,) at the same pe- 
 riod (Sir Heiirv Spehnan ol)-erves,) that tlie civil and canon laws 
 were lirst imported into Eugland. However, the custom of ap- 
 pealing to Rome in causes ecclesias'ical were so prevalent, that it 
 uever could be thoroujhl)- broken oft', till the grand rupture hap' 
 pened in the reign of Henry VIII. when all the Jmisdiction usurp- 
 ed by tlie Pope in matters eccU.'siaslica! was restored to the crow n, 
 to wliich it originaliv belonged : so that the statute 2i Henry 
 \'in. was but declaratory of the ancient law of the realm. But 
 ill CL;se the king himself be party in any of these snit^, the 
 appeal does not then lie to him in chancery, which w ould be ab- 
 t-urd ; but, by the 24 Henry VHI. cap. 12, to all tlie bishops of 
 the realm, assembled in the upper house of convocation. 
 
 DELEGATION, in law, a commission extraordinary given 
 by a judge to take cognisance of, and determine some cause, 
 which ordinarily does not come before him. 
 
 Delegation, in Scots law, the extinguishing an obligation on 
 a former debtor, by another becoming bound in his place. 
 
 DELFINO, a town of European Turkey, in Albania, 356 
 miles west of Constantinople, and 60 S. S. W. of Edessa. 
 
 DELFl', one of the eiglit departments into which the Bata- 
 vian republic, was divided in March 179S. Del: t is the capital. 
 It is pleasantly situated among the meadows on the river Schie, 
 S miles N. W. of Rotterdam. 
 
 Delft Ware, a kind of pottery bf baked earth, covered with 
 an enamel or white glazing, which gives it the appearance and neat- 
 ness of porcelain. Some kinds of it differ much from others 
 either in sustaining sucKhn heat without breaking, or in the beauty 
 and regularity of their forms, of their enamel, and of Hie painting 
 with which they are ornamented. In general, the line and beauti- 
 ful enamelled Dotteries, which ajjproach the nearest to porcelain 
 in external appearance, are least able to resist a l)ri^k lire. Those 
 which best sustain a sudden heat, are coarse, and resemble com- 
 mon pottery.- The basis of this pottery is clay, which is to be 
 mixed, when too fat, whh ;uch a quantity of sand, that the earth 
 shall preserve enough of its ductility to be worked, moulded, 
 and turned easily : and yet that its fatness shall be sufficiently taken 
 from it, that it may not crack or shrink too much in drying or in 
 baking. Vessels formed of this earth must be dried very gently to 
 avoid cracking. They are then to be placed in a furnace to re- 
 ceive a slight baking, which is onlv meant to give them a certain 
 consistence or hardness. And, lastly they are to be covered with 
 an enamel or glazing; which is done, by putting upon the ves- 
 sels thus prepared, the enamel, which has been ground very fine, 
 and diluted with water. As vessels on which the enamel is ap- 
 plied are but slightly baked, they readily imbibe the water m 
 which the enamel is suspended, and a layer of this enamel adheres 
 to their surface : these vessels may then be painted with colours 
 composed of metallic calces, mixed and groundwith afusible glass. 
 When they are become perfectly dry, they are to be placed in 
 the furnace, included in cases of baked earth called seggars, and 
 exposed to a heat capable of fusing uniformly the enamel which 
 covers them. This heat given to fuse the enamel being much 
 stronger than that which was applied at first to give some con- 
 sistence to tilt; ware, is also the heat necessary to complete the 
 baking of it. The furnace and the colours used for painting this 
 ware, are the same as those employed for Porcelain. The glazing 
 which is nothing but white enamel, ouqht to be so opatpie .as not 
 to shew the ware under it. There are many receipts fVr making 
 these enamels ; but all of them are composed of sand or (lints, vi- 
 trifying salts, oxide of lead, and oxide of tin ; and the sand must 
 b.-* perfectly vilrilicd, so as to form a glass considerably fusible. 
 Somewhat less lluui an e(|ual part of .ilkaline salt, or twice its weight 
 of oxide of lead, is requisite to effect such vitrilicalions of sand. 
 The oxide of tin is not intended to be vitrified, but to give a white 
 opaipie colour to the mass ; and one part of it is to be added to 
 three or four parts of all the other ingredients taken together. 
 From the-e general principles various enamels may be made to 
 suit the dilferent kinds of earths. To make the enamel, lead and 
 till ar<- oxyded together with a strong lire; and the sand is also 
 to be made into a trit with the salt or ashes. The whole is (hen 
 to be well mixed and ground togetiier. The matter is tlien to 
 be placed under the furnace, where it is melted ami vitrified dur- 
 ing the baking of the ware. It is next to be ground in a mill, and 
 
 applied as above directed. Concerning the earth of which the 
 ware is made, M. Bosc d'Antic observes, that pure clay is not a 
 proper muti rial when used alone. Dilferent kinds of earth mixed 
 together are found to succeed better. Pieces of ware made of 
 clay alone, are found to recinire too much lime to dry ; and tliey 
 crack, and lose their form, unless they are made exceedingly thick. 
 All addition of maile diminishes the contraction of the clay ; ren- 
 ders it less compact ; and allows the water to escape, witiiout al- 
 tering the form of the ware in drying. It affords also a belter 
 ground for the enamel ; which appears more glossy and white than 
 when laid on clay alone. The kinds of clay which are chiefly 
 used in the composition of delft ware, are the blue and green. A 
 mixture of blue clay and marie would not be sufficiently solid, 
 and would be apt to scale, unless it were exposed to a fire more 
 intense than what is commonly used for the burning of delft ware. 
 To give a greater solidity, some red clay is added ; which on ac- 
 count of its ferruginous matter, possesses the rctpiisite binding qua- 
 lity. The proportion of these ingredients vary in dilferent weiks, 
 according to the different (lualitics of tlie earths employed. Three 
 parts of blue clay, two parts of red clay, and five parts of marie, 
 form the composition used in several manufactories. ■ M.' d'Antic 
 thinks, that the best delft ware might be made of equal parts of 
 pure clay and pure calcareous earth ; b"ut this composition would 
 require that the fire should be continued twice as long as it ge- 
 nerally is. 
 
 DELFTIIAVEN, a sea-port town of the late Batavian repub- 
 lic, in the department of Delft, 2 miles S. W. of Kotteruani. 
 
 DELHI, or DELLI, a province of Hindostan Proper, bound- 
 ed on the N. NV. by Lahore, on thcN. E. by Serinagur, on the 
 E. by tlie Rohila country on the S, by Agra, and on "the W. by 
 Moultan. 
 
 Delhi, the capital of the above province, is seated on the W. 
 bank of the river Jumna, and is surrounded with brick walls 4 or 
 j feet thick ; it is the nominal capital, at present, of all Hindostan, 
 and was the actual capital during the greatest part of the time since 
 the Mohammedan conquest. It is 8S0 miles N. E. Iiy N. of Bom- 
 bay. Lon. 77. -10. E. Lat. 28. 37. N. 
 
 DELIA, in antiquity, a festival celebrated every 5th year in 
 the island of Delos, in honour of Apollo. It was first instituted by 
 Theseus, who at his return from Crete placed a statue there, which 
 he had received from Ariadne. 
 
 DELIBAMENTA, in antiquity, a libation to the infernal 
 gods, always offered by pouring downwards. 
 
 DELIBERANDI Annus, ni the Scots law, a year allowed to 
 an heir, to deliberate whether he will enter heir or not. 
 
 DELIBERATIVE, [delibemtn-us, Lat.] an appellation given 
 to a branch of rhetoric, employed in proving a thing, or convinc- 
 ing an assembly thereof, in order to persuade them to put it in 
 execution. 
 
 Deliberative Voice, a right to give advice, and to vote in an 
 assembly. In councils, the bishops have deliberative voices ; those 
 beneath them have only consultative voices. 
 
 DELICT, in Scots law, a small olVence, or breacli of the peace, 
 punishable only by fine or short imprisonment. 
 
 DELl^L\, in botany, a genus of the monogynia order, and 
 polyandria class of plants. No corolla ; calyx five-leaved, with a 
 Iwo'-fceded berry. One species a native of Ceylon. 
 
 DELINQI'ENT, [from deliiiquo, Lat.] a guilty person, or one 
 who has committed some fault, orofience, for which he is punish- 
 able. 
 
 DELIQUESCENCE, in chemistry, the ^iroperty which cer- 
 tain bodies have of attracting moisture from the air, and thereby 
 becoming licpiid. This property is never found but in saline sub- 
 stances, or matters containuig \\vm. It is caused by ti-e great af- 
 finitv which these substances have for water. The more sim])le 
 they are, according to Mr. Macquer, the more they incline to de- 
 liquescence. Hence, acids, and certain alkalis, which are (he most 
 sim|)le, are also the most deliquescent salts. iSlany neutral salts 
 are deliquescent, cliicfiy those whose bases arc not saline sub- 
 stances. See Chemistry. ■• 
 
 DELIQUIl'M, [trcm deliqtu'xo, to be dissolved,] in chc- 
 misiry, Salt oftarta-, or any fixed alkali, set in a cellqcaor other 
 moist place, and in an open vessel, resolves or runs info a kind of 
 liijuor called by the chemists oil Of tartar per deliquiiilii. 
 
 Deliqvil'm, or Deliuc'ium Avawi, in medicine, [f,-om delhi-
 
 D EL 
 
 HI 
 
 D E L 
 
 ^t/i, to swoon,] a swooning or faintiiis away ; calltil also :isp1iy\ia, 
 cthsi'!, lipnpsvclii;', lipolhvmia, ami syin-'opo. 
 
 DEIJUIHAI, [Lai.] iniiiedicino, "(lie proiludion of iile;;S not 
 tnswerablo to i'\tenial causes, I'roni an internal iiulispo>ilion of the 
 brain, alliMnk-il witliawrons jiulgement following; from those iiloas, 
 .^nd an allection of the nund, and motion of the body, acrord- 
 inplv ; ai"' fro'" '''*'■*'■' iiK-reased throu-^h various degrees, cither 
 tlon'e or joined togeiher, various kinds of deliria aie produced. 
 
 DELIVIEKY. See Midwifery. 
 
 DF.LMP:NHORSr, a town of Germany, in the cirele ot 
 Westphalia, and touiily of Oldenburgh, eight miles S. W. of 
 Bremer. 
 
 DKLOS, an island of the Archipelago, very famous in ancient 
 history. Originally it is reported to have been a lloating island, 
 but atlerwarils it became fixed. It was fabled to have been the 
 birth-place of Apollo and Di;;na. ^ Anciently it was governed by 
 its own kings: It is now called Dii. 
 
 Df.los, an extensive city in tlie above island, which occupied 
 3 spacious piain, reaching from the one coast to the other. It wis 
 well peopled, and the richest- city in the Archipelago, especially 
 afler the destruction of Corinth ;' merchants tfocking thither from 
 nil parts, both on account of the immunity they enjoyed, and of 
 its convenient situation l)etween F.uroup and Asia. 
 
 DI^LPIK, in ancient geography, a town of Phocis situated on 
 the .S. W. extremity of mount Parnassus. It was famous for a 
 temple and oracle of Apollo, of which the following was said to 
 be the origin: a number of goats that were feeding on mount Par- 
 nassus came near a place which had'a deep and long perforation. 
 Tlie steam whicli issued f.om the hole seemed to inspire the goals 
 and they played and tVKked about in such an uncommon manner, 
 that the herd was tempted to lean on the hole, and see what mys- 
 teries the place contained. He was immediately seized with a tit 
 of enthusiasm, his expressions were wild and extravagant, and 
 passed for prophecies. This circumstance was soon known about 
 the conntrv, and many experienced the same enthusiastic inspi- 
 ration. The i)lace was' revered ; a temple was erected to Apollo; 
 and a city built, which became the most illustrious in Phocis. The 
 influence of its oracle controlled the councils of states, directed 
 the course of armies and decided the fate of kingdoms. The an- 
 cient history of Greece is full of its energy, ami early register of 
 its authority. The circuinjacont cities were the stewards and 
 guardians of the god. Their deputies composed the famous Am- 
 phictvonic assemlilv, which once guided Greece. 
 
 DiiUTIINTU.NI, DoLPHi\- Flower, or Lafksi'Ur: a genus 
 of the trigvnia order, and polyandria class of plants ; nauiral order, 
 Multisiliipia?. No calyx ; petals five ; nectariuni bind, horned be- 
 hind ; siliqua; three or one. Tlicre are eleven fjiecies; liardy 
 annuals or perennials. They are herbaceous plants of upright 
 growth, rising from IS inches to four feet in height, garnished with 
 finely divided leaves, and terminated by long spikes of pentape- 
 taloiis tlowers of blue, red, while, or violet coloui-. 
 
 DF-LPIllML'S, an epithet of Apollo, so called, as it is pre- 
 iPiided, because he assumed the form of a. dolphin, to conduct 
 Castalins and his colony from the i-le of Crete to the Sinus Cris- 
 sieus Delpiiiniuin, one of the courts of judicature of the Athenians. 
 
 DEf.PHlNUS, the Dolphin, in astronomy. See AsTKON'OMY. 
 
 TiELPiilNUS, the Dolphin, in zoology! a genus of the class 
 mammalia, order ccte. Teeth in each jaw ; spiracle on the head. 
 SIv.iw enumerates six species, and (jnielin four. 
 
 D. Dei.phis, the 'I'i^ue Dolphin. Historians afil philoso- 
 phers seem to have contended who >h<>uUi invent most fables con- 
 cerning this fish. It was conseciatv;l (o the gods, was celebrated 
 in ihe earliest tisie for its toudness of the human race, w as honoured 
 with the title of the sacred, fish, ami distinguished by tiiose of boy- 
 loving and philanthropist. It gave rise to a long train of inven- 
 tions, prwofs of the credulity and ignorance of the times. Ari- 
 itolle steers the cleare»t of alll he, ancients from these fables, and 
 •■ives in general a faithful history of this an!i)ial ;, but the elder 
 Pliny, /F.lian, and others, seem to preserve no bounds in (heir he- 
 lief "of the tale.? related of tills lidi's attachment to mankind. 
 Scarce an accident could happen at sea, but the dolphin offered 
 himself to convey to shore thi" unfortunate. Arion the musician, 
 when thing into the ocean by the pirates was received and saved 
 l)y this benevolent fish. (0"v id ii Fasti. Lib. ii. 113.) We aix> at 
 a'lo-sto account for the origin of those fables, since it docs not r.p- 
 
 VOL. II. — NO. 03. 
 
 pear that the doljihin shows a greater attachment lo m:inkiiid, (h.'n 
 the rest of the cetaceous tribe. We know, that at present tlie ap- 
 ])earance ol this fish and the porpesse are far from be ng e>tcenu-4 
 favourable omens by the scaniPli : for their boundiiif's, sijring', 
 and ffolics, in the water, archeld lo be sure signs ol an i pproachini; 
 pale. It is during their leaps out of that element, l/iat lhe%' as- 
 sume a temporarv ti rm that is not natural to them ; but which Ihe 
 ancient painters and sculptors have almost always gixen them. .'V 
 dolphin is scarce CNhibited by ihe ancients in a straight sh;:pe, 
 but almost always incurvaled : sucli arc those on the coin of Alex- 
 ander tlie Great, preserved by Uelon, as well as <mi siver.d other 
 pieces of anti(|uity. The poi ts de^iribe them much in tlie same 
 manner, and it is not improbable but that the one had borrowcd 
 froni the other. (See Senec. Trag. Again. 4.>0.) The natural 
 shape of the dolphin is almost straight, the hack being very slightly 
 incurvated, and tiie body slender: the nose is long, narrow, and 
 pointed, not much unlike the beak of some birds, for which reasc,r< 
 the French call it I'oye de ii'.er. See Phite LV. It has in all 
 forty teeth; twent3'-oiie in the upper jaw and nineteen in llie 
 lower ; a little above an inch long, conic-at their ujiper end, shar;^- 
 pointed, bending a little in. They are i)laced at small distances 
 from each oilier ; so that when the mouth is shut, the teeth of both 
 jaws lock into one another. It was formerly reckoned a great 
 delicacy: Dr. Cains says, that one, which was taken in his tune, 
 was thought a present worthy tlie duke of Norfolk, whodistiibutcd 
 part of it among his friends. 
 
 I). PiiocEN.i, or the Porpesse, is the most abundant of ce- 
 taceous animals, and is found particularly in the ICuropean seas, 
 whence it often advances very nearly to the mouths of con^-iderable 
 rivers. Its general length is from live to eight feet. Porpe^ses 
 are gregarious, and arc lret|uently seen frolicking on the water, and 
 plavina their uncouth gambols, more especially in boi-terous and 
 tenipestiious weather. They feed jnincipally on sirulier fishes, 
 and pursue the slioals of herrings and niL.ckrel with apparently un- 
 wearied vigour and insatiable appetite. They are covered im- 
 meiliatelv under tlie skin willi a fatty substance of considerable 
 thickness, and which produces a large (juantity of oil. The por- 
 pesse was formerly considered, not merely as eatable, but as a 
 species of luxury, beingserved up at noble and royal tables. Such, ■ 
 however, are tlie revolutions of taste, that by the least fastidious 
 appetiti- this food i, at present decidedly rejected. 
 
 D. Okca, the Gr.\mpus, is found from the length of fifteen 
 feet to that of twcnty-tive. It is remarkably thick in proportion 
 to its length, one of eighteen feet being in the thickest pU'ce ten 
 feet diameter. With reason then did Pliny call this " an immense 
 heap of tlesh armed with dreadful teeth." It is extremely vora- 
 cious; and will not even spare the porpesse, a congenerous fish. 
 It is said to be a great enemy to the whale, and that it will laneii on 
 it like a dog on a bull, till the animal roars with pain. The no.se is 
 ihit and tu'rns up at the end. There are30 t^eth in each jaw : 
 those before are blunt, round, and slender: the farthest >harp and 
 thick : between each is a space adapted to receive the teeth of the 
 opp.osite jaw wlien the mouth is closed. The spout hole is in the 
 top of the neck. The colour of the back is black, but on i ach 
 shoulder is a large while spot ; the sides marbled with black riid 
 white; the bellv of a snowy whiteness. Thrse fishes sometimes 
 appear on our coasts; but are found in much gre:iter numbers off 
 the N. Cape in Norway, whence they are called the North- 
 Capers. 
 
 DFLPIIOS, a town, or nther vlUacrc, of Turkey in Asia, in the 
 province of Libadia : occupvmg pail ot tlie site of tlit: ancient 
 Defphi. 
 
 l)i-",LSPKKC;, a town of Switzerland, in the bid.ornc of 
 Basle, 10 mile, N. W. of Soleiire. 
 
 DELTA, a p;rt of Lower Egypt, which takes u pa considerable 
 space of ground between Ihe brandies of the Nile and the Me<li- 
 terraneaii Sea : liie ancients called it the Delta, because it is in the 
 form of a triangle, like the Greek A. The piincipal towns en the 
 coast are Danv.etta, Ito^rtla, and Alexandria; but, within Isnd, 
 Menousia, aail Maala or Klmala. , 
 
 DELTOl DE, [from i=-\ry,, dellri, the fourth letter of Ihe Greek 
 alphabet, and i'^Ss Idleness ; .so. called by reasin of its resemb- 
 ling this letter,] an epithet applied lo a triangular muscle arising 
 from tiie clavicula, and from the process of the same, vhoseacticn 
 is lo raise the arm upward. See An.vtomv. 
 
 el DELVGi",
 
 13 E L 
 
 122 
 
 DEL 
 
 DKl-LGE, [dihaiam, Lat.] an iuuntlation, or overflowing of 
 tbo CuTlh, either wliullv, or in piirt, by water. We have several 
 »1'-Uigcs recorded in lu^torv, as that ofOgyges, whicii overtioweil 
 almost all Attica, and that of Deucalion, wliich drowned all Tlies- 
 saTv, in Greece: hut tlie most memorable was that called the uni- 
 versal delcge, or NoLih's flood, which overflowed and destro^ed 
 ti.e whole e^rtli, and out of which only Noah, and those with him 
 in the ark, escaped. This flood mokes one of the most consider- 
 able epochs in chronology. Its lii-~tory is given by Mo^es Gfn. 
 chap. vi. and vii. Its time is ti\ed by the best cbroiiologers, to 
 tlie vear from the creation, I6.i6, answering to the year before 
 Christ, 2348. From thi^ flood, the state of the world is divided 
 into diluvian and antediluvian. Among the many testimonies of 
 the truth of thi< part of the Mosaic history, we may account the 
 genend voice of mankind at all times, and in all parts of the world. 
 The objections of the free-thinkers have indeed principally turned 
 upon three points, viz. I. The want of any direct- history of that 
 event by the profane writers of antiquity : 2. the apparent inipos- 
 »*oiiitv of accounting for the quantity of water necessary to over- 
 flow the whole earth to such a deptii as it is said to have been : and 
 3. there appearing no necessity for an universal deluge, as the same 
 end miglit have been accomplished by a p.trtial one. The first of 
 these olijections has given rise to several very elaborate treatise's. 
 Air. Bryant, in his System of Mythology, has with great learning 
 and considerable success endeavoured to siiew, that thi- deluge was 
 one of the principal'if not the only found ition, of tlie Gentile wor- 
 ihip ; that the hrst of all their deities was Noah; that all nations 
 of the world look up to him as tlieir foumler: and that he, his 
 sons, and the first patriarchs, are alluded to, in mo^t if not all of 
 tlie religious ceremonies, not only of the ancient but of the modern 
 heathens. In short, lie observes that tlie deluge, so far from being 
 forgot, or obscurely mentioned by the heathen world, is in reality 
 conspicuous throughout every one of their acts of religious wor- 
 shio. The Egyptian Osiris (he says) was the same with Ham the 
 son of Noah ; though the name was sometimes bestowed on Noah 
 ' himself. Osiris, according to Diodoius isiculus, was wondeifully 
 preserved in an ark, and tauglit the use of the vine ; to build, 
 plant, &c. He proceeds to shew from the hieroglyphics, fables, 
 a.nd ceremonies, whicli are found in the heathen mythology, and 
 history, as well as from the names which were applied to the ob- 
 jects and places of their worship, a» gods, heroes, temples ,Scc. that 
 an indubitable account of an universal deluge and the principal 
 circumstances of it, as mentioned in the sacred scriptures, is pre- 
 served in every part of the pagan world. 2. The fact being thus 
 established bv the universal consent of mankind, that there was a 
 fciieral deluge which overflowed the whole world ; it is worthy of 
 inquiry, by what means it may be supposed to have been accom- 
 plished. The chief hypotheses are the following: — 1 . It has been 
 asserted, that a quantity of water was created on purpose, and at a 
 proper time annihilated, by divine power. This, however, besides 
 its being absolutely without evidence, is direc lly contrary to the 
 words of the sacred writer, whom the asserters of this hypothesis 
 mean to defend. He expressly derives the waters of tlie flood 
 from two sources; first, the fountains of the great deep, which he 
 U-lls us were all broken up ; and secondlv, the windows of heaven, 
 which he says were opened: and speaking of the decrease of the 
 waters, he savs, the fountains of the deep and the windows of 
 heaven w ere stopped, and the waters returned continually from olf 
 tlie earth. It is obviou--, that Moses was so far from h<ivi;ig any 
 difficulty about the quantity of water, that he thought the sources 
 from whence it came were not exhausted ; since both of them re- 
 quired to be stopped by the same ahijighty hand who opened them. 
 'i. Dr. Burnet, in his " TellurisTheoria Sacra," endeavours to shew, 
 that all the watersin the ocean are not suflicient to cover the earth 
 to tl'.e depth assigned by Moses. Supposing the sea drained quite 
 (!rv, and all the clouds of t!ie atmosphere di-solved into rain, we 
 should still want the greatest part of the water of a <lehige. Ac- 
 tording to the Dr. no less \\-,:n eght oceans would have been re- 
 <iuisile. To get clear ot this dilTiculty, he and others have adopted 
 Descartes's theory. That philosopher will have the antediluvian 
 ■wp'ld to have been been perfectly round and equal, without 
 mountains or valleys. He accounts for its formation on mecliani- 
 lal principles, by su|iposing it at tiral in the condition of a thick 
 turbid fluid replete with divers heterogeneous matters ; which, sub- 
 kiding by blow degrees, formed themselves into different concen- 
 ttic Btrata, or beds, by the laws of gravity. Dr. Burnet iinproves 
 
 Oil this theory, by supposing the primitive earth to have been no 
 niore than a crust inveoting the water contained in the ocean, and 
 in the central abyss, which he and others suppose to exist in the 
 bowels of the earth. At the time of the flood, this outward crust 
 broke in a thousand places ; and sunk down among the water, 
 whicli thus spouted up in vast cataract^, and overflowed the whcle 
 surface. He supjjoses also, that before the flood tbere was a per- 
 fect coincidence of the equator with the ecliptic, and consequently 
 that the antediluvian world enjoyed a perpetual spring; but that 
 the violence of the shock, by w hich the outer crust w as broken, 
 shifted aKo the position of the earth, and produced the present 
 obliquity of the <"cliptic. This theory is not only equally arbi- 
 trary with the former, but directly contrary to the words of Moses, 
 who assures us, that all the high hills were covered ; while Dr. 
 Burnet affirms that there were no liilis then in being. 3. Other 
 authors, supposing a sufficient fund of water in the sea or abyss, 
 are only concerned for an expedient to bring it forth. Accordingly 
 Mr. Ray ha* recourse to a shifting of the earth's centre of gravity, 
 which, drawing after it the water out of its cliannel, overwT.elmed 
 the several parts of the earth successively. But this could only oc- 
 casion a partial deluge in that part of the globe, towards which the 
 centre of gravity was translated : nor can the possibility of such a 
 trar.slation be allowed, smc^ the centre of gravity is the necessary 
 result of the materials composing our globe, and not alterable 
 whilst the parts remained in the same position. 4. Dr. Hook's 
 opinion of tile compression of a shell of earth into a prolate spheroid, 
 lliereby pressing out the water of the abyss under the earth, may 
 very well account for the waters overflow ing two opposite zones' of the 
 globe ; but tlie middle zone being by much the greater part of the 
 earth's surface, must thus have been raised higlier from the centre, 
 and consequently more out of the water than before. 5. Dr. 
 Halley ascribes the deluge to the shock of a comet, whereby the 
 polar and diurnal rotation of the globe would be instantly changed. 
 The great agitation that must have been occasioned by it in the 
 sea, he observes, would be sufficient to account for all those strange 
 appearances of heaping vast quantities of earth and high clifli, upoti 
 beds of shells, which were once the bottom of the sea, and raising 
 up mountains where none were before. Such a shock as this, im- 
 pelling the solid parts, would occasion the waters, and all fluid 
 substances that were miconiined, as the sea is, to run violently to- 
 wards that part of the globe where l!ie blow w as received, and that 
 with force suflicient to take with it the very bottom of the ocean, 
 and remove it to tiie land. It is objected to this system, that such 
 a shock must have brought on the deluge instautai;eous|y, and not 
 gradually, as it is expressly said to have happened.- Phil. Trans. 
 No. 383, p. ICO. 6. The inquisitive Mr. Whiston, in his " New 
 1 heory of the Earth," has a very ingeniouR hypothesis, similar to 
 that of Dr. Halley, but more fully explained. He shews from 
 several remarkable coincidences, that a comet descending in the 
 plane of the ecliptic, towards its perihelion, passed just before the 
 earth on the flist day of the deluge; the consequences whereof 
 would be, first, that this comet, when it came below the moon, 
 would raise a vast and strong title, both in the small seas, which, 
 according to his hypothesis, were in the antediluvian earth, (for 
 he allows no great ocean there as in ours,) and also in the abvss 
 whicli was under the upper crust of the earth ; and this tide v ould 
 ri^e and increase ail the time of the approach of the comet towards 
 the earth ; and would be at its greatest height when the comet 
 was at its least distance from it. Bv the force of this tide; as well 
 as by the attraction of the comet, lie judges, that the abyss must 
 put on an elliptical figure, whose surfrce being considerably larger 
 than the former spherical one, the outward cru?! of the e;ulli, in- 
 cumbent on the abyss, must accommodate itself to that figure, 
 which it ( ould not do while it held solid, and conjoined together. 
 He concludes, therefore, that it must of necessity be extended, 
 and at last broke by the violence of the said tides and attraction ; 
 out of which the included water issuing, was a great means of the 
 deluge : this answering to what Mo.-.es speaks oi the " fountains of 
 the great deep being broke open." — Again, the same comet, he 
 shews, in its descent towards the sun, passed so close by liie body 
 of the earth, as to involve it in its atmosphere and tail for s con- 
 siderable time ; and of consequence left a vast (piantity of its vu- 
 pours, both expanded and condenseil, on its surface ; a great part 
 of which being rarelied by the solar heat, would be drawn up into 
 the atmosphere, and afterwards relurn in violent rains: and this l-.e 
 takes to be wliat Moses intinuites by " the windows of heaven 
 (J being
 
 D EL 
 
 12*^ 
 
 DEL 
 
 l)t:ng 0|ieiifd," niul p,irliciilarly by tl'.e " lortv days rain." For 
 «s to tlie following rain, winch witli this made llie whole time of 
 raining 150 days, Mr. Whiston attri!)iites it to the oaith coming a 
 s«coik1 time with'n the atmosplierc of the comet a-i the comet was 
 on its return from the sun. 7. Dr. Woodward, taking the several 
 strata found in the earth for the relicts of a deluge, and considering 
 the circumstances of those fishes, sliells, and other c\'uvi;e. found in 
 them, draws several inferences, which seem to illustrate the eil'ects 
 of the deluge. These marine bodies, and other spoils of spit- 
 water lish, were carried out of the sea by the universal delude ; 
 and on the return of the water, were left behind upon the kind, i^c. 
 See Nat. Hist, of the Earth, p. I and 2. 8. According to M. Dc 
 La Pryme, the antediluvian world had an external sea as well as 
 land, with mountains, rivers, &c. and the deluge was elf'ected by 
 breaking tlie subterraneous caverns, and pillars thereof, with 
 dreadful earthquakes, and causing the same to be for the 
 most part, if not wholly, absorbed, swallowed up, and covered 
 by the sea5 that we now have. This earth of ours arose (lie says) 
 out of the bottom of the antediluvian sea ; and in its room, just as 
 many islands are swallowed down, and others thrust up in their 
 stead. 9. Mr. King has lately adopted an hypothesis resembling 
 this Ust, He ascribes the deluge to subterraneous fires within the 
 bowels of the earth, which burst forth with great violence under 
 the sea, and raised up the bottom of the ocean, so as to pour out 
 the waters over the lace of what was before dry land, which thus 
 became the sea, and has since continued, and that which was be- 
 fore the bottom of the sea became dry land. An earthquake thus 
 occasioned will account, he supposes, for the access of the deluge 
 and the confused disposition of marine productions in the post- 
 diluvian earth. Phil. Trans, vol. l\ii. p. 44, &c. These three 
 last hypotheses appear to be pretty plausible, because they seem 
 to account for the well-known phenomena of shell-fish, shells, and 
 various other marine productions, as well as trees and the bones 
 and horns of numberless quadrupeds, &c. being found deeplv bu- 
 ried in the earth among various strata, and in the heart or moun- 
 tains far distant from the sea, or the places where the plants and 
 animals are originally and usually produced. Piut on these, as on 
 all the other hypotheses, it may be remarked, that they are quite 
 arbitrary, and without the least foundation from the words of 
 Moses. The sacred historian speaks not one word of earthquakes, 
 comets, or subterraneous lires, nay, from the nature of the thing, 
 ■we know it is impossible that the ilood could have been occasion- 
 ed by an earthquake, and tlie ark preserved, without a miracle, 
 which is. not to be supposed, when we endeavour to account for 
 events upon natural principles. It is certain, that if a ship sinks 
 at sea, tlie commotion excited in the water by the descent of such 
 a large body, will swallow up a small boat that happens to come 
 too near. If the pillars of the earth itself then were broken, what 
 must the commotion have been, when the continents of Europe, 
 Asia, and Africa, descended into the ab;. ss at once ? not to men- 
 tion America, which lying at so great a distance from Noah, he 
 might be supposed out of danger from that quarter. Bv what mi- 
 racle was the ark preserved amidst the tumult of those'inipetuous 
 waves which must have rushed in from ;.ll quarters? Resides, as 
 the ark was built not at sea, but on dry ground ; when the earlli 
 on which It rested sunk down, the ark iiurt have sunk along with 
 it ; and tlie waters falling in vs. it wero overhead, nunt have dash- 
 ed in pieces the strongest vessel that can be imagined. Earth- 
 quakes,- also, operate sucldenly and violently ; whereas, according 
 to the Mosaic account, th" Hood came on gradually, and did not 
 arrive at its height till six weeks, or periiaps live months, after it 
 began. 10. Mr. Hutchinson and his followers present us with 
 a theory of the deluge, which they pretend to derive from the 
 word of God itself. This theory has been illustrated by Mr. Calcot, 
 ■who, in 1768, published a volume on the subject.' He asserts, 
 that when the world was first created, at the time when it is said to 
 liave been " without form and void," the terrestrial matter was 
 then entirely dissolved in the aqueous ; so that the whole formed, 
 as it were, a thick muddy water. The figure of this mass was 
 spherical ; and on the outside of this sphere lay the gross dark air. 
 Within the sphere of the earth p.iid water was an immense cavitv, 
 called h) Moses the deep ; and this internal cavity was filled with 
 air of a kind similar to that on the outside. On' the creation of 
 light, the internal air received ela'ticitv sufiicient to burst out 
 through the external covering of eartii and water. Upon this liie 
 ■«'ater descended, tilled up the void, and left the earth in a form 
 
 similar to whit it hath at present. Thus, according to him, the 
 antediluvian world, as well as the present, consisted of a va«t col- 
 lection of water, called the great deep, or the abyss ; and over thij 
 tlie shell of eartli perl'orated in many places ; by which weans the 
 waters of the ocean communicated with the abyss. 'J'he breaking 
 up of these fountains was occasioned by a miraculous pressure of 
 the atmosphere, from the immediate action of the Deity .himself. 
 So violent was this pressure, that the air descended to where it liad 
 been originally ; occupied the space of the abyss ; and drove out 
 the waters over the whole face of the dry land. But tliis account, 
 so far from being infallibly certain, seems inconsistent with the 
 most common observations. No pressure, however violent, will 
 cause w;iter to rise above its level, unless that pressure is une(iual. 
 If, therefore, the atmosphere entered into the supposed abyss, by 
 a vehement pressure on the surface of the ocean, that p'resHire 
 must only have been on one place, or on a few placeV: and even 
 though we suppose the atmosphere to have been tlie agent made 
 u^e of, it is impossible that it could have remained for any time in 
 the abyss without a continued miracle; as the pres-ure ol the wa- 
 ter would immediately have forced it up again through tho,-,e 
 holes wl'.ich had ailorded it a passage downwards. The explica- 
 tion given from Hui:cliiionn by Mr. Catcot, of the " windows of 
 heaven," is som-.;ivliat extraordinary. According to him, these 
 windows are not ia heaven, but in the bowels of the earth ; and 
 me..n no more than the cracks and fissures by which tlie airs found 
 a pass.ige through the shell or covering of earth, wii'.ch they utterly 
 dissolved and reduced to its original siute ot Ikii.Jily. It is, how- 
 ever, dinitult to conceive how the opening of such windows a5 
 these could cause a violent rain for 40 days and iiiuht-:. These 
 several theories are ail of them very far from being satisfactory, 
 and some of them are quite contradictory : however, they serve to- 
 shew the weakness of our reason and the limited slate of our 
 kiiowledge, for though we cannot liiid out one way naturally to 
 account for tl:e deluge, yet we are well satisfied that God could 
 find a thousand ways to effect this purpose. - The following theory 
 inserted under the article Deluge, in the Encyclo|)a'dia Britan- 
 nica, is more agreeable both to Scrijiture, and to the latest disco- 
 veries in natural philosophy, than any of those above-menlioned. 
 I. "If we consider the quantity of water requisite for tlv/ purpose 
 of tlie deluge, it will not appear so very extraordinary as has been 
 commonly represented. The heiglit ol the highest lIlll^ is thought 
 not to be quite four miles. ■ It will therefore be deemed a sufiici- 
 ent allowance, when we suppose the waters of the deluge to have 
 been four miles deep on the surface of the ground. Now it is 
 certain, that water, or any oilier matter, when spread out at large 
 upon the ground, seems to occupy an immense space in compari- 
 son of what it does when contained in a cubical vessel, or when 
 packed together in a cubical form. Suppose we wanted to over- 
 flow a room 16 feet every way, or containing C?j6 square feet, with 
 water, to the height of one foot, it may be nearly done by a cubi- 
 cal vessel of six feet filled with water. A cube of eight'feet will 
 cover it two feet deep, and a cube often feet will very nearly co- 
 ver it four feet deep. It makes not the least dilTerence wh'ethei' 
 we suppose feet or miles to be covered. A cube of ten miles of 
 water would very nearly overflow -56 square miles of plain ground 
 to the heigiit of four miles. But if we I; ke into our account the; 
 vast number of eminences with which the surface of the earth 
 abounds, the above-mentioned (piantity of water would do a great 
 deal more. If, therefore, we atiempt to calculate the quantity of 
 water sufficient to <le!uge the earth, we mu>t make a very consi-- 
 derable allowance lor the bulk of all the hills on its surface. To 
 consider tliis matter, however, in its utmost latitude : the surface 
 of the earth is supposed, by the latest conijiutations, to contain 
 199,512,595 square miles. To overllow this surface to the height 
 of ibiir miles, is required a p-arallelopipcd of water 16 miles deep, 
 and containing 49,S7S,l48 square miles of surface. Now, consi- 
 dering the immense thickness of the globe of the earth, it can by 
 no means be improbable, that this whole (piantity of water may 
 be contained in its bowels, without the necessity of any reinavk- 
 able abyss or huge collection of water, such as most of our theo- 
 ri ts suppose to exist in the centre. It is certain, that as far as the 
 earlh has been dug, it hath been found not dry, but m.oist ; nor 
 have we the least reason to imagine, that it is not at least equally 
 moist all the way down to the centre. How moist it reallv is 
 cannot be known, nor the quantity of water requisite to impart ta 
 it the uegvee of moisture it has ; but yve are sure it must be im- 
 mense.
 
 D E T. 
 
 1-24 
 
 DEL 
 
 iiiense. The earth is computed to be near 8000 miles in diame- 
 ter. The- ocean is of an iinfatlioinablt; depth ; but there is no 
 iea;on for supposing it more tlian a few miles. To make all rea- 
 sonable allowances, however, we sh.all suppose the whole solid 
 matter in the globe to be only ecjual to a cube of jOOO ni.iles; and 
 even on this supposition we shall find, that all the waters of the de- 
 lude would not be half sufficient to moisten it. The above-men- 
 tioned parallelopipe d of water would indeed contain 798,030,368 
 cubic miles of that fluid ; but the cube of earth containing no less 
 than 125,000 millions of cubic miles, it is evident that the quan- 
 llty assigned for the deluge would scarce be known to moisten it. 
 It couhl have ijideed no more effect tliis way, than a single pound 
 of water could have upon 150 times its bulk of dry earth. We 
 nre persuadeii therefore, that any person who will try bv experi- 
 ment how much water a given quantity of earth contains, and 
 ti'om that experiment will make calculations with regard to 
 the whole quantity of water contained in the bowels of the 
 earth, must be abundantly satislied, that though all the water of 
 the deluge had been liience derived, the diminution of the general 
 store would, comparatively speaking, have been next to nothing. 
 2. It was not from the bowels of the earth only that the waters 
 were discharged, but also from the air; for we are assured by 
 Moses, that it rained 40 days and 40 nights. This source of the 
 diluvian waters hath been considered as of small consequence by 
 almo.-t every one who huth treated on the subject. The general 
 opinion concerning this matter we shall transcribe from the " Uni- 
 versal History," Vol. 1. where it is very fully expressed. " Accord- 
 ing to the observations made of the quantity of water that falls in rain, 
 the rains could not alford one ocean, nor half an ocean, and would 
 be a very inconsiderable part of what was necessary for a deluge. 
 If it rained 40 ilays and 40 nigl-.ts throughout the whole earth at 
 once, it might be sufficient to lay all the'lower grounds under wa- 
 ter, but it would signify very little as to the overflowing of the 
 mountains ; so that it has been said, that if the deluge had been 
 made l;y rains only, there would have needed not 40 clays, but 40 
 years, to have brought it to pass. And if we suppose Ihe whole 
 •atmosphere condensed into water, it would not all have been suf- 
 ficient for this effect; for it is certain; that it could not have risen 
 above 3> feet, the height to which water can be raised by th.c 
 pressure of tlie atmosphere : for the weight of the whole air, when 
 condensed into water, can be no more than equ.d to its weight in 
 its natural state, and must become no. less than SOO times denser ; 
 for that is the difference between the weight of the heaviest air and 
 that of water." On this subject we must observe, that there is a 
 very general mistake with regard to the air, similar to the above- 
 mentioned one regarding the earth. Because the earth below our 
 feet appears to om- senses firm and compact, therefore the vast 
 quantity of water, contained even in the most solid parts of it, and 
 which will readily appear on proper experiment, is overlooked, 
 and treated as a ncn-entily. In like manner, because the air does 
 not always deluge with excessive rains, it is also imagined that it 
 contains but very little water. Because the pressure of the air is 
 able to raise only 32 feet of water on the surface of the earth, it is 
 therefore sujjposed we may know to \vh it depth the atniospliere 
 could deluge the earth, if it was to let fall the whole water con- 
 tained in it. But daily observations shew, that the pressure of the 
 ;itinds])here has not the least connection with the ipiantity of water 
 it contains. Nay, if there is any connection, the air se"ems to be 
 liglitest when it contains most water. In the course of a long 
 summer's drought, for insl.ince, tlic mercury in the barometer 
 will stand at 30 inches, or little more, if it does so at the begin- 
 nifig of tlie dronglit, it ought to ascend continually during the tune 
 the dry weather continues; because the air is all the while absorb- 
 ing \vater in great (piantity from the surf.ice of the earth and sea. 
 'I'iiis, however, is known to be contrary to fact. At such limes 
 the mercury does not ascend, but remains stationary ; and what is 
 still more extraordinary, when the droughl is about to have an end, 
 the air, while it yet contains the whole (|nantity of water it ab- 
 sorbed, and has not discharged one single drop, becomes suddenly 
 liglitcr, :;nd the mercury will perhaps sink an inch before any rain 
 falls. 'I he most sur|)rising pha'iiomenon, however, is vet to conic. 
 After the alni(.si)here has been disehari',ing for a number of days 
 successively a quantity of matter ROO times heavier than itself, i'n- 
 steatl of being lightened by the di charge, it becomes heavier, nay 
 .snecifically heavier th^iii it was before. It is also certain, that ver\ 
 thy air, pruviiled it i, not at the same time very hoi, is alwa3's 
 
 heaviest; and the driest air which we are acquainted witii, namely 
 Dr. Priestley's dephlogisticated air, is considerably heavier than 
 the air we commonly breathe. Tor these reasons we think the 
 quantity ot water contained in the whole atmosphere ongl-.t to be 
 considered as indefinite, especially as we know that by whatever 
 agent it is suspended, that agent must counteract the force of gra- 
 vity, otherwise the water would immediately descend; and while 
 the torce of gravity in any sub.tar.ce is counteracted, that sub- 
 stance cannot appear to us to gravitate at all. 3. The above con- 
 siderations render it probable at least, that there is in nature a- 
 quantity of water sufficient to deluge the world, provided h was 
 applietl to the purpose. We must next consider whether there ;.; 
 any natural ageijt powerful enough to effect this purpose. AV.- 
 shall take the phrases used by Moses in their mo.st obvious sense. 
 The breaking up of the fountains ef tl.e deep we may reasonably 
 suppose to have been the opening of all the passages, whether 
 small or great, through which the subterraneous waters possilily 
 could discharge themselves on the surface of the earth. The 
 cpening of the windows of heaven we may also suppose to be the 
 pouring out of the water contained in the atmosphere through those 
 invisible passages by which it enters in such a manner as totally to 
 elude every one ot our senses, as when water is absorbed by' the 
 air in evaporation. As botl^ these are said to have been opened at 
 the same time, it seems from thence probable, that one natural 
 agent was employed to do both. Now it is certain, that the in- 
 dustry of modern inquirers has discovered an agent unknown to 
 the former ages, and whose influence is so great, that with regard 
 to this world it may be said to have a kind of omnipotence, 'i'lie 
 agent we mean is electricity. It is certain, that, bv means of it, 
 imnien-e quantities of water can be raised to a great height in tl'.e 
 air. This is proved by tiie ]ih.T?nomena of waterspouts. Mr. 
 For^ter relates, that he happened to see one break very near him, 
 and observed a flash of lightning proceed from it at the moment 
 of its breaking. The conclusion from this is obvious. When the 
 electric matter was discharged from the water, it could no longer 
 be supported by the atmosphere, but immediately fell down. 
 Though water-spouts do not often appear in this conntrv, vet 
 everyone must have made an observation somewhat similar "to Sir. 
 Forster's. In a violent storm of thunder and rain, after everv flash 
 of lightning, or discharge of electricity from the clouds, the rain 
 pours down with increased violence; thus shewing that the cloud, 
 having parted with so much of its electricity, cannot longer be 
 sU])ported in the form of vapour, but must descend in rain. It is 
 not indeed \et discovered that electricity is the cause of the sus- 
 pension of water in the atino,--pliere; but it is certain that evapora- 
 tion is promoted by electrifying the fluid to be evaporated. (See 
 Electkicity and Evaporatiom.) It may therefore be admitted 
 as a possibility^ that the electric fltiid contained in the air is the 
 agent by which it is enabled to suspend the water which rises in va- 
 pour. If, therefore, the air is deprived of the due ])roportion of 
 this fluid, it is evident that rain mu-^t fall in ijrodigious quantities. 
 .'Vgain we are assured, from the most umleniable observations, that 
 electricity is able to swell Up water on the surface of the earth. 
 This we can make it do even in our trifling experiments; and much 
 more must the whole force of the fluid be sujiposed capable of do- 
 ing it, if a])|)lied to the waters of the ocean, orany others. The agita- 
 tion of the sea in earth'.iiiakes is a suflicient i:roof of this. (yeeKARTH- 
 auAKE.) It is certain, that at these times there is a clibcharge of a vast 
 (luantity of electric matter from the earth into tiie.air; and as soon as 
 fills happens, all becomes qu'et on the surface of the earth. From a 
 multitude of observations it also appears, tlial there is at all limei 
 a passage of electric matter from the atmosphere into the earth, and 
 vice versa from the earth into the atmosphere, 'j'here is there- 
 fore no absurdity in sunposing the Deity to have influencd the 
 action of the natural powers, in such a manner, that for 40, days 
 and nights tl'.e electrh; matter contained in the atmosphere, should 
 desci-iid into the bowels of the eartli ; if indet>il there is occasion 
 f(T supposing any such immediate influence at all, s'nce it is not 
 impossible that there might have been, from some natural cause, 
 a descent of this matter from the atmosphere for that time. But 
 by whatever cause the descent was occasioned, the consequence 
 would be, tlie breaking up of the fountains of the deep, and the 
 opening the whidows of heaven. The water containeU in the at- 
 mosphere being left without support, would descend in iuip-etuous 
 rains; while the waters of the ocean, those from « hich fountaing 
 originate, and those contained in the soliU earth |tself, would ri>e 
 
 from
 
 DEL 
 
 125 
 
 D I ■. L 
 
 fio:ii ih? very cfiitre, aiul iiiei't the waters wliicli desceiKlecl from 
 «bove. Thiis ihe bre.ikiiig up of the fountains of the ilei-p, ami llic 
 opening of the w.ndows of heaven, would accompany each other, as 
 Mn<e5 tells us they acttially did ; for, accordiiig to hun, both hap- 
 f 'I'Cd on the same day. In tiiis manner the Hood would come on 
 quietly and gfadually, without that violence to the globe which 
 Burn/t, Whistou, and other theorists, are obliged to suppose. Tlie 
 abatement of the waters would ensue on the ascent of the electric 
 id to where it was before. The atmosphere would then absorb 
 J water as formerly ; that which had ascended tlirougli the earth 
 dd again subside; and thus everything would return to its 
 tine state." 3. The proof of the universal deluge is so strong 
 liom the traditions prevalent among almost all nations on (he face 
 of tlie earth, lliat no farther objection could be made to the Mo- 
 saic account, were it not tlut the necessity of an universal deluge 
 is denied bvsomc, who contend that all the deluges mentioned in 
 nistorv, or recorded by tradition, were oidy partial, and may be 
 iccountcd far from the swelling of rivers, or other accidental 
 causes. Many inilecd, even of those who profess to believe the 
 Mosaic account, havs thought that tlie deluge was not universal; 
 or, that though it migiit be universal with respect to mankind, it 
 was not so with regard to the earth itself. The learned Isaac Vos- 
 sius waj of this opinion, though his reasons seem principally to 
 Ifave been, that he could not conceive how an universal deluge 
 could happen. Bishop Stillingfleet adopted the same opinion, 
 from a persuasion that the earth was Iiy no means fully peopled, 
 and therefore there was no necessity for the deluge being univer- 
 sal. And Mr. Coetlogon, in his LTniversal History of Arts and 
 Sciences, has adopted the same idea, to acconmioclate the belief 
 of a deluge to the opinions of freethinkers. All the arguments 
 that have been advanced bv these ingenious authors, in support of 
 a partial deluge, may be suinmcd tip in the three following arti- 
 cles; 1. The impossibility, in a natural way, of accounting for the 
 quantity of water necessary to overilow the whole world ; 2. the 
 small number of mankind supposed at that time to have existed 
 on the earth ; and, 3. The inutility of an universal deluge, when 
 the divine purposes could have been equally well answered by a 
 partial one. But to all this we may make one general answer, 
 that a partial deinge, sufficiently great to have overwhelmed the 
 whole human race, though tlie globe had not been half-peopled, is 
 iu the nature of things impossible. We cannot imagine that the 
 waters could accumulate upon any country without going off to 
 the sea, wdiile the latter retained its usual level ; neither can we 
 suppose any part of the sea to remain above the level of the rest. 
 On the supposition of Bishop Stillingfleet, therefore, that the de- 
 luge extended over the w hole continent of Asia, we know tliat it 
 must have covered the high mountains of Ararat, on which the ark 
 rested; Caucasus, Tauiiis, &c. The height of Ararat is indeter- 
 mined, as no traveller of any credit pretends to have ascended to 
 its top; but from the distance at whicli it is seen, we can scarce 
 look upon it to be inferior to the most celebrated mountains of the 
 old continent. Sir John Chardin tiiinks that some part of Cauca- 
 sus is higher; and supposing each of tiiese to be only a mile and 
 an half in height, tlie sea all round the globe must have been rais- 
 ed to the same height; and. therefore all that could remain of dry 
 ground, as a shelter to animals of any kind, must have been the 
 uninhabitable tops of some high mountains scattered at immense 
 distances from one another. We may, therefore, with equal rea- 
 son su|)pose, that these were in like manner covered, and that no 
 living creature wliatever couUl find shelter for a moment : and it 
 is certainly more agreeable for the character of the Deity to be- 
 lieve, that he would at once destroy animal life by sutioc". tiou in 
 Water, rather than allow numbers of 'them to collect diemselves on 
 the tops of mountains, to perish w ith hunger and cold. It is be- 
 sides very improbable, that any creature, whether bird or beast, 
 could sustain a continued rain of 40 days and 40 nights, even w ith- 
 out supposing them to have l)een absolutely immersed in water. 
 Tliis consideration alone is sui'Hcient to shew,' that 'die deluge mu>t 
 have been univer-^aLwith regard to the world as well as the liumau 
 race. At the time of the deluge, according to the most moderate 
 compulations, the world must have been vastly more full of peo- 
 ple than at ])reserit. The lowest calculation indeed seems incredi- 
 ble; ^ince, according to it, the world must have contained up- 
 wards of 03,710 times as many inhabitants as are at present to be 
 met with in the empire of China, tlie most populous country in 
 ♦Jie world : hut China bears a much larger proportion to the ha'bit- 
 
 VOt,. )!.— NO. 'Jo. 
 
 alile i)art of the world than this. The vitfleaces exercised by man- 
 kind upon om- anotiicr, have always been the chief means oi thin- . 
 iiing tiieir numbers, und preventing the earth from being over- 
 .-tocked with inhabitants; and the strcng expression in Scripture, 
 tliat the " earth was filled with violence," siiews that it must iiavc 
 gone to an extraordiu.iry height, luit though this violence mti.'t 
 have undoubteilly thinned the old world of its iiihabilanti, it must 
 likewise have dispersed some of them into distant regions. There 
 is therefore no reason for supposing, that before the flood the hu- 
 man race were not driven into the remotest regions of the habit- 
 able world, or that America was destitute of inhabitants then, 
 more than it is at present. At any rate, the schemes of Vossius 
 andjC'oetlogon, who would confine the whole race of niaiikind to 
 a small part of Asia, must appear higlily erroneous. Objections 
 iiave been made to the doctrine of an universal deinge freni the, 
 state of the continent of America, and the number .of animals pe- 
 culiar to that and other countries, which could not be supposed to 
 travel to such a distance either to, or from the ark. On this sub- 
 ject bishop Stillingfleet observes, that the supposition of animals 
 being propagated^ much fartiier in the world than mankind before 
 the flood, seems very probable, " because the production of ani- 
 mals is parallel in Genesis with that of fishes, and both of them tlif- 
 terent from man. (See Gen. i. 20-25.) From hence I observe 
 this difference between the formation of animals and of man, th.:t 
 in one, God gave a prolific power to the earth and waters for the 
 production of Ihe several living creatures which came from them, 
 so that the seminal principles of them were contained in the matter 
 out of which they were produced, which was otherwise in man, 
 who was made by a peculiar hand of the great Creator himself, 
 who thence is said to have formed man out of the dust of l\\f. 
 ground. If now this supposition be embraced, by it we presentlj* 
 clear ourselves of many d'flicultii s concerning the propagation of 
 animals in the world, and their conservation in tlie ark. I'esides, 
 some kind of animals cannot live out of the climate wherein tliey 
 are; and there are many sorts of animals discovered in America 
 and the adjoining islands, which have led no remainders of them- 
 selves in tiiese parts of the world. And it seems very strange, 
 that these should emigrate into those parts of the world from ti.e 
 place of the flood, and leave none at all of their number behind 
 them in these parts whence they were propagated." To this \It. 
 Cotkburn, in his treatise on the deluge, replies, 1. That It 
 pleased God to create only one man and one woman at the begin- 
 ning, and their posterity were suflicieiit to overspread the earth, it 
 miglitwell be supposed' to be furnished with animals from an ori- 
 ginal pair of each. 2. On the supposition of many pairs of brute 
 animals having been created originally, they must, when the hu- 
 man race were few in number, have multiplied to such a degree as 
 to render the world uninhabitable. We have good reason thi're- 
 fore to conclude, that there was but one^;airof animals created at 
 first, that they might not increase too fast for mankind; i.nd 
 though they would multiply much more, and increase faster tliali 
 men could do, they had room to spread themselves for a long time 
 without much annoyance toman; and as men increased in num-, 
 her and extended their habitations, they would be able to drive 
 them further ofi", or defend themselves from their depredations." 
 3. ThiHigh at the restoration of the world it was to be re-peopitd 
 bv six persons instead of two, and though at the same time amnial . 
 fiod was given to man, yet Noah was commanded only to lake a, 
 single pair of cacli of the animals, clean beasts, wdiich are but few 
 in number, only excepted. It is I'mther observable, that notwitli- 
 standing this scanty siipniv of animals, they had increased so much 
 by the time of Nimrod, that it Uicn became necessary to hunt and 
 destroy them; and Nimrod was celebrated for his courage and 
 skill in that necessary employmenL 4. Mr. Cockburn is of opi- 
 nion, that America must have been peopled before the flood, as' 
 the old continent could not be sujipo^ed able to hold the number 
 of inhabitants. .'>. With regard to the main dilficuUy, viz. how 
 the aiiimaK peculiar to dilTerent countries could travel to such dis- 
 tances to and t'roni the ark, he replies, that America has nothing 
 peculiar to it, but what may efpuilly well be urged boili with re- 
 spect to Asia an<l Africa; each oi them having animals peculiar to 
 themselves. It is also posible, that there miglit lornurly be a 
 more easy communication between the Asiatic and American con- 
 tinents than there is row. He likewise observes, that though the 
 ark rcsjed on mount Ararat, yet «e are not told wliere it wa" 
 built, which might be far enough from the place commonly sup- 
 
 :i a. ~ pOBCd,
 
 D r, M 
 
 125 
 
 DEM 
 
 jjci^etl. But in uljaU'vcr part of the earth the ark was huiU, it was 
 it Gull's coininand that the several kiiuls of animals came thither 
 ill order to tlieir presei vatioii ; and his power could bring them 
 Irom the farthest parts of the earth, during the 120 years that the 
 V orlii lav under condemnation. Though after all, none of the ani- 
 jiials miirfit have very far to travel to the ark ; for if only one pair 
 of each kind was created at lirst, and all of these in or near one 
 place, since they v,-erc all brought before Adam, and received 
 iiianeff from him, there is no absurdity in supposing, that some of 
 fvery kind might remain in the country where they were llrst pro- 
 duced, from whence Noah's habitation might not be very distant. 
 Ne;liiercan ary objection be brought from the e.\tiiiction of some 
 ipecies of animals in certain countries of the world, since they 
 might have been hunted and destroyed either by the human race, 
 or by other creatures. Among other questions which ha\e been 
 started on this '■vibject, one is, by what means were the ravenous 
 animals, which I'eed only upon tlesli, supported in the ark? For 
 this some authors have supposed, that Noah, besides those animals 
 whom he took into the ark for preservation, took likewise a great 
 iiinnber tor slaughter. Bishop \Vilkins has allowed no fewer than 
 IS'iJ sheep, though he was of opinion, that there were no carni- 
 vorous animals before the flood; and this latter opinion is adopted 
 by Mr. Cockbuni. The idea ijideed of slaughtering a number of 
 harmless animals to satisfy a few vile rapacious ones, and that too 
 in a place designed for the common asylum of the animal creation, 
 seems inconsistent witli that scheme of mercy displaved in the 
 whole transaction. It is by much the more probable supi<o>ition, 
 then, that tliough some animals had been accustomed to live on 
 flesh in their natural state, they could nevertheless subsist upon 
 vegetable food. This seems the more probable, as some animals 
 naturally carnivorous, partictdarly dogs and cats, may he support- 
 ed in their domestic state by vegetable food alone. If we extend 
 this to the whole canine and feline genera, we shall take, in the 
 most of the beasts of prey ; as lions, tygers, leopards, panthers, 
 wolves, foNCS, hysnas, &c. Bears are well known sometimes to 
 feed on berries; snakes will eat bread and milk; and there is no 
 reason to suppose, that even the most carnivorous birds could not 
 be kept alive by grain or other vegetable food. By thus exclud- 
 ing such a number of useless animals, a very considerable space 
 will be allowed for the circulation of air in the ark, the want of 
 ■which seems to be the most inexplicable difficulty, if we may 
 jtidge from the present constitution of Ihinps. See Ark. • 
 
 DEMAIN, DEMEAN, DEMESNE, [domaine, Fr.] 1. 
 That land which a man holds originally of himself, called doniinium 
 by the civilians, and opposed to fco'dum, or fee, which signifies 
 those that are held of a superior lor<l. It is sometimes used also for 
 a distinction, between those lands that the lord of the manor has in 
 his own hands, or in the Uands of his lessee, demised or let upon 
 i. rent for a term of years or life, and such other lands appertain- 
 ing to the said manor as belong to free or copyholdere, 2. Estate 
 in fand. 
 
 DEMAND, calling upon a man for at)y sum or suras of money, 
 •r any other thing due. fJy the several statutes of limitation, 
 debts, claims, ice. are to be demanded and made in time, or they 
 will be lost by law. There are two manner of demands, the one 
 in deed, the other in law ; in deed, as in every precepe there is an 
 express demand ; in law, as in every entry in land, distress for 
 rent, taking or seizing of goods, and swch like acts, which may be 
 done without any words, are demands in law. Where there is a 
 duty which the law makes payable on demand, no demand 
 Hired be niaile ; but if there be no duty but demand, in auch case 
 tinre iiiiist be a demand to make the duty. 
 
 DEMEUARA, a district of South America, in Dutch Guiana, 
 which forms one government with Issciiuibo. 
 
 DKMER.-iRA, Demerary, or Demerari, a river in the above 
 district, about 'J miles wide at its mouth, oppositt; the fort, ou the 
 K. bank ol the river. 
 
 DEMESNE. See Demain. 
 
 Df.mhsne Lands. See KEvrNUE. 
 
 DEME'l'iE, an ancient people of Britain, supposed to be a 
 branch of the Silures, who occupied that inner corner formed by 
 the Bristol Channel and the I'risn Sea. 
 
 DEMETER, or DEMETRA, [a.|(^.iti5, Cr.] the name given 
 tv the Greeks to Cerc^. 
 
 DEliSETBIA, a festival in hgnour of Ccrej. It vm then cus- 
 
 tomary for the \ ot.iries of the goddess to lash themselves with 
 whips made of the b.uk of trees. 
 
 DEMETKIOWnz, a city of Russia, in the duchy of Smo- 
 lensko. Eon. 37. 0. E. Lat. 53. 20. N. 
 
 DEMETRIUS I. surnamed Poliorcetes, i. f. a taker of 
 towns, was the son of Antigonus, king of Asia, by Stratonice. At 
 the age of twenty-two, he was sent by his fiilher against Ptolemy^ 
 w ho invaded Syria. He was defeated near Gaza ; but he soon re- 
 paired his loss by a victory over one of the generals of the enemy. 
 He afterwards sailed with a fleet of 2j0 ships to Athens, and re- 
 stored the Athenians to hberty, by freeing them from the power 
 of Cassander and Ptolemy, and expelling the garrison, which was 
 st.ttioned there under Demetrius Phalereus. Alter this successful 
 expedition, he besieged and took Munychia, and defeated Cas- 
 sander at I'hermopyliE. His reception at Athens after these vic- 
 tories was attended with the most servile flattery ; and the Athe- 
 nians were not ashamed to raise altars to him as to a god, and con- 
 sult his oracles. This uncommon success raised the jealousy of 
 the successors of Alexander ; and Seleucus, Cassander, and Ly- 
 simachus, united to destroy Antigonus and his son. Their hos- 
 tile armies met at Ipsus, li. C. 301 : Antigonus was killed in 
 the battle ; and Demetrius, after a severe loss, retired to Ephesus. 
 The Athenians, who had lately adored him as a god, refused to 
 admit him into their city. But he soon after ravaged the territory 
 of Lysimachus, and reconciled himself to Seleucus, to whom he 
 gave his dauiihter Stratonice in marriage. Athens now laboured 
 under tyranA-, and Demetrius relieved it a second time, and par- 
 doned the inhabitants. The loss of his possessions in Asia recalled 
 him from Greece, and he established himself on the throne of Ma- 
 cedonia by killing Alexander, in self-defence. Here he was con- 
 tinually at war with the neighbouring states, and the superior 
 power of his adversaries obliged him to leave Macedonia, after he 
 had sat on the throne for seven years. He passed into Asia, and 
 attacked some of the provinces of Lysimachus with various suc- 
 cess ; but famine and pestilence, having destroyed the greatest 
 part of his army, he applied to Seleucus for assistance. He met 
 w ilh a kind' reception : but hostilities were agjin soon begun ; and 
 though he gained some advantages over his son-in-law, he was at 
 hist forsaken bv his troops, and taken prisoner. Though he was 
 kept in confinement by Seleucus, yet he maintained himself like 
 a prince, and passed his time in hunting and in every laborious 
 exercise. His son Antigonus ortered Seleucus all his possessions, 
 and even his person, to procure his father's liberty ; but all proved 
 unavailing, and Demetrius died in the 54th year of his age, after 
 a confinement of three years, B. C. 28(3. Ifis remains were giveu 
 to Antigonus, and honoured with a splendid funeral at Corinth, 
 and thence conveyed by his friends with royal pomp to De- 
 metrias. 
 
 Demetrius, the disciple of Apollonius Tyaneus, a cynic philo- 
 sopher in the age of Caligula. The emperor wished to gain the 
 philosopher to his interest by a large present ; but Demetrius re- 
 fused it with indignation, and said, " If Caligula wishes to bribe 
 me, let him send me his crown. Vespasian was displeased with 
 his insolence, and banished him to an island. The cynic derided 
 the punishment, and satirized the emperor. He died in an ex- 
 treme old age ; and Seneca observes, that " nature had brought 
 him forth to shew mankind, that aiv exalted genus can live se- 
 curely without beuig corrupted by the vices of the surrounding 
 worlti." 
 
 DEMIANSKOI, a town of Russia, in the government of To- 
 boKk, 100 miles N.N.E. of Tobolsk. 
 
 DEMI-CANNON LOWEST, a great gun that carries a ball 
 of thirty pounds weight, and six inches diaincter. The diameter 
 of the bore is six inches two-eighth parts. 
 
 Demi-Cannon of the Gre-atest Size, a gun six inches and 
 six-eighth parts diameter in the bore, twelve feet long. It carries a 
 ball of six inches five-eighths diameter,and thirty-six pounds weight. 
 
 Demi-Cannon Ordinary, a great gun six inches four-eighths 
 Tliameter in the bore, tw elve feet long. It carries a shot six inches 
 uiie-sixth diameter, and thirty-two pounds weight. 
 
 DEMI-CUL\'ER1N, Elder Sort, a gun four inches six- 
 eighths diameter in the bore, ten feet, one-third in length. It 
 carries a ball four inches four-eighth p.irts diameter, and twelve 
 poumis eleven ounces weight. It weighs 3000 pounds, and car- 
 ries a ball point blank 178 paces. 
 
 Demi-cux-verj;*
 
 DEM 
 
 U7 
 
 D E i\i 
 
 Demi-culvekin of the Lowest Size, a gun four inches two- 
 eightlis (liamctcc in the bore, and ten feet long. It curries a ball 
 four inches ilianii-ter, anil nine poinds weight. It is 2000 pound 
 weight, and carries a ball 174 paces. 
 
 Demi-culverin' Ordinary, a gun four inches four-eighths 
 diameter in the bore, ten feet long. It carries a ball four inches 
 h"o-eighths diameter, and ten pounds eleven ounces weight. It 
 is 2700 lb. weight, an 1 carries a ball point blank 175 paces. 
 
 DEM 1-GORGIi, in fortification, is that part of the polygon 
 wliicli remains after the llaiik is raised, and goes from the cuvtin 
 to the angle of the polygon. It is half of the vacant space or en- 
 trance into a bastion. See Fortification'. 
 
 DEMI-LUNE, Half-Moox, in fortitication, an outwork con- 
 sisting of two faces and two little flanks, frequently built before 
 the angle of a bastion, and sometimes also before the curtin, though 
 now \iiuch disused. See Kortific.\tiok. 
 
 DEM IQU AVER, a note in music, two of which are equal to 
 ■i quaver. 
 
 DEMISE, in law, is applied to an estate either in fee simple, 
 fee tail, or for term of life or yean ; and so it is commonly taken 
 in many writs. 
 
 Demise, and Ke-demise, denote a conveyance where there 
 are mutual leases made from one to another of the same land, or 
 something out of it. 
 
 DE.Mi-SEMI-QUAVER, in music, the shortest note, two of 
 them being equal to a semi-quaver. 
 
 DEMIURGE, [from i.i,un)-, a public servant, and.jyay, work,] 
 in the mythology of the eastern philosophers, was one of the ^Eons 
 eraploved by thesupreme Deity in tlic creation of the world. The 
 cliaracter they give him is a compound of shining qualities and in- 
 supportable arrogance ; and liis excessive lust of empire effaces his 
 talents and virtues. He is represented as claiming dominion over 
 the new world he has formed, as his sovereign right ; and exclud- 
 ing totally the supreme Deity from all concern in it, he demands 
 from mankind, for himself and his associates, divine honours. 
 
 D EMM IN, a town of Germany, in the circle of Upper Saxony, 
 and duchy of Pomerania, "6 miles S. of Stralsnnd. 
 
 DEMOCIDES, a celebrated physician of Croton, who was fa- 
 mous for his attachment to his native soil. Though caressed and 
 enriched by the king of Persia, whose queen he had snatched from 
 the jaws of death, he abandoned wealth and honours, and by stra- 
 tagem escaped to the humble comforts of a private life at Croton. 
 
 DEMOCRACY, [i>i,'.i3Xj-aTia, from .i'l/^o;, the people, and 
 xwt/.!., to govern,] literally signifies that form of government 
 wherein the people govern, or are equally entitled to govern, 
 themselves. In this sense of the word, the world has not yet seen 
 a pure democracy. Among the ancient republics, the two that 
 approached nearest to it were Athens and Rome. But in both 
 these commonwealths there were distinctions of ranks, between 
 certain privileged orders and the great body of the people, which 
 were inconsistejit with that perfect equality, which seems requisite 
 to constitute the essence of a democracy. And personal sla- 
 very, which is not oidy inconsistent with liberty, but imper- 
 ceptibly undernunes it, wherever it is permitted, disgraced the 
 constitutions of both. All the modern states of Europe, that have 
 assumed the name of republics within these few centuries, have 
 been more or less aristocratic. Venice was the most tyrannical 
 aristocracy that ever existed, Genoa was not much better ; and 
 of the Sw'ss cantons, all but one were mere oligarchies. Basil 
 was the only one that had any thing like a democratic form of go- 
 vernment, though even it was inferior to that of ancient Athens. 
 Holland was only a limited monarchy, with the substitution of the 
 title stadtholder for that of King. Of the various republics which 
 the present age has produced, not one can be strictly said to be 
 a pure democracy. Among the sixteen United States of America, 
 not above three have established that sine qua non of democracv, 
 nniversal suffrage ; and slavery is not only permitted, but inter- 
 woven with tlie very constitution of the wholg United States, al- 
 though the citizens of three of them have not taken advantage of 
 this pernnssion. And even in tlie French, Batavian, Cisalpine/ 
 Ligurian, Roman, and Helvetic republics, a pure democracv was 
 far from being ostabli^hed, notw ithstanding their boasted systems 
 of liberty and equality. For although hereditary honoui>-, dis- 
 tinctions of rank by titles, and ecclesiastical hierarchies, as well as 
 per>oiia! slavery, were abolished in all of them, yet a very' consider- 
 able part of the people liad no vote in electing their governors ; 
 
 I even after the privileged electors had CNfrciscd their constitutional 
 powers in choosing their repre-entatives, we have seen by recent 
 instances, that the directory (of France at least, and from them we 
 may judge of the rest), coiild exercise a power beyond the consti- 
 tution, of turning out and e\en banishing, a lunuber of those 
 representatives, upon mere alleged disaffeclioii to the constitution, 
 without so much as trial by jur) , to establish the fact. In short we 
 may safely say, the experiment of a pure democracy, wherein all 
 do, or may, govern all, by frequent and free election and repre- 
 sentation, "has not yet been'made. 'I'he French constitution of 1793, 
 indeed, exhibited a plausible theory of such a perfect democracy ; 
 but while the fascinating plan was held out to the people in theory. 
 It was never attempted to be reduced to practice ; but, instead of It, 
 the most absolute despotism took place, and a few individuals, as- 
 suming the whole power of the st;.te, in tl-.eir own hands, marked 
 with indelible characters of blood the awful lesson to posterity, of 
 the dreadful consequences of a conjunction of the legislative' and 
 executive powers, in the hands of any, but especially in those of a 
 small oligarchy. On the whole, from all the experiments that 
 have as yet been made, the philanthropic philosopher will be apt 
 to doubt, whether a perfect democracy is not inconsistent with the 
 present imperfect state of human nature ; and whether, wherever it 
 is attempted to be established, the ungovernable passions of man- 
 kind will not soon make it degenerate eitlicr into a tyrannical oli- 
 garchy, or absolute anarchy. 
 
 DEMOCRITUS, a famous philosopher of antiquity, was born 
 at Abdera, in Thrace, about the SOtli Olympiad, or"K. C. 460. 
 His father, says \'alerius Maximus, was able to entertain the army 
 of Xerxes. At his father's death it is said that his portion amount- 
 ed to about 100 talents, which is near 20,000/. slerliiig. Hi, ex- 
 traordinary love of knowledge, induced him to travel into all 
 countries tamed for learned men. He went to visit the priests of 
 Egypt, from w hom he learned geometry ; he consulted the Chal- 
 dean aild the Persian philosophers, and'it is said that he penetrated 
 even into India and Ethiopia, to confer willi the Gymnosopiiists. 
 In these travels he wasted his substance, so that on his return, he was 
 obliged to be maintained by his brother ; notwithstanding wliich, 
 he gave such proofs of superior understanding, that he procured 
 the h'ghest honours of his country ; wliich he governed with unli- 
 mited sway, as well as -consummate wisdom. The jnag'strates of 
 Abdera made him a present of 500 talents, and erected statues to 
 him even in his lifetime: but being naturally more inclined to 
 contemplation than delighted with public honours and employ-, 
 meiits, he withdrew into solitude and retirement. lie inces- 
 santly laughed at human life, as a continued farce, which made the 
 inhabitants of Abdera think he was mad ; on which he sent for 
 -Hippocrates to cure him; but that celebrated physician havin^o- 
 discoursed witli the philosopher, expresses the utmost veneration 
 for him, and told the Abderians, that those who esteemed them- 
 selves the most healthy were the most distempered. Democritus 
 died, according to Diogenes Laertius, aged 109. He was the au- 
 thor of man) books, which arc lost ; ancl from these Epicurus bor- 
 rowed his philosophy. 
 
 DEM01\RE, Adraham, an eminent French mathematician, 
 born at \'itri, in Champagne, in May 1067. Being a protestant, 
 he fled to London upon the revocation of the e<lict of Nantes, in 
 16S5. He had studied mathematics in France, but the Principia 
 .Mathematica of Sir Isaac Newton soon convinced liim how littic 
 he ?iad advanced in the science he pro'essed to teach. He fell 
 hard to work; made himself master of Newton's piinciples, and 
 soon became connected witli, and celebrated among the first rate 
 mathematicians. His abilities soon procured him an adm'ssiun 
 into the Roval Society of London, and afterwards into the Aca- 
 demy of Sciences at Paris. His merit was so acknowledged br 
 the former, that they judged him a fit person to decide "the fa- 
 mous contest between Newton and Leibnit;;. The colhvtion of 
 the academy at Paris contains no memoir of this author, \\Iio died 
 at London, Nov. 1754, soon after his admission into it; but tlie 
 Philosophical Transactions of London have seveial, and all of 
 them interesting. He publiihed also some capital works, sm h as, 
 "Miscellanea .Vnalviica, deSeriebusS; Quadraturis," 17J0, 4io. 
 But |)erhaps he has been more generally known bv his " Dcclrine 
 of Chances; or Method of calcul.iting the Probabilities of Events 
 at Play." This work was first printed 171S, in 4to. and dedicated 
 to Sir Isaac Newton : it was reprinted 173S, w ith great alterations 
 and improvements ; and a third edition was sfterwjucL published
 
 DEM 
 
 128 
 
 DEM 
 
 vvUh a^uillKlll^, and " A Treatise on YViiiuiiUL's/'dedicaled lo Lord 
 C'arpciiUT. 
 
 DEMON. Soe Daemon. 
 
 DEMONA, or VAL Dl DEMONA, [i. e. tlie valley of de- 
 mons,] a province of Sicily, so tiilled from monril yl'tna being 
 situatfd in it, wliose continual flames led the superstitious inhabit- 
 ants anciently to believe that it was a chimney of hell. 
 
 DEMO?sOLOGY, [i".i,'iiuv and xoy®*',] discourse of the nature 
 of devils. Thtu king James entitled his book concerning witches. 
 
 DEMONSTRABLE, a term used in the schools, to signify 
 that a thing may be clearly proved. Tluis,it is demonstrable, 
 that the three angles of a triangle, are equal to two right ones. 
 ' DEMONSTKATION, [dcmoiistratin.lMl.'] in logic, a series 
 of syllogisms, all whose premises are cfitlier delinitions, self-evi- 
 dent trutlis, or propositions already established. See Logic. 
 
 DEMONSTRATIVE, in grammar, a term given to such pro- 
 nouns as serve to demonstrete or point out a thing or person. Of 
 this nmiiber are /(/c, /iiTc, Aoc, among the Latins; and this, that, 
 tlicse, ihnse, in English, 
 
 DICMOSTHENES, the f;uiious Athenian orator, was born at 
 Athens, B. C. 381. He lost his father at seven years of age; and 
 was placed under the conduct of guardians, who robbed him of 
 liis substance, and neglected his education. Demosthenes soon 
 repaired this loss by his extraordinary abilities. He became the 
 disciple of I'xus and Plato, and studied the orations of Isocrates. 
 At the age of 17 he gave a proof of his eloquence and abilities 
 • aj;ainst his guardians, from whom he recovered the greatest part of 
 liis estate. His rising talents were, however, impeded by various 
 natural defecl>, but which he overcame by dint of resolution and 
 tmwcaried attention. He declaimed by the sea-shore, that he 
 might be used lo the noise of a tunuiltiioiis assembly; and with 
 pebbles in his mputh, that he might correct a defect in his speeeh. 
 He practised at home with a naked sword hafigiiig over his shoul- 
 der, that he mi jht check an ungraceful mo ion to whichihe was 
 subject. He conlined himself in a subterraneous cave, to devote 
 himself more closely to study; and to check all inclination to ap- 
 pear in public, he sliaved one-half of his head. In tliis solitary re- 
 tirement, by the help of a glimmering lamp, he composed' the 
 greali'st part of his orations, which have since been the admiration 
 of all ages, though his contemporaries and rivals inveighed against 
 them, and observed that they smelt of oil. His abilities as an 
 orator raised him to conseipience at Athens, and he was soon 
 placed at the head of government. In this public capacity he 
 roused his countrymen from their indolence, and animated them 
 against the encroachments of Philip of Macedonia. In the battle 
 ot Cheroir.ea, however, his eloquence could not supply the want 
 of courage, and he saved his life by flight. After the death of 
 Philip, he declared himself warmly against his son Alexander; 
 when the Macedonians demanded of the Athenians their orators, 
 Demo^thelle^ reminded his countrymen of the fable of the sheep 
 which delivered up their dogs to the wolves. By tlie prevalence 
 of parly, however, he was forced to retire to Tro;zen in iEgina, 
 where, it is said, he lived with more elTemiiiacy than heroism. 
 Vheii Antipaler made war agiinst (ireece after the death of Alex- 
 ander, Demosthenes was publicly recalled from Jiis exile, and a 
 galley was s<'nt to fetch him frum .Egina. His return was af.end- 
 ed with much splendor, and all the citizens crowded at the Pira-us 
 to sec him land. But his triumph and popularity were short. An- 
 tipater and Craterus were near Athens, and demanded all the ora- 
 tors to be delivered up into their hands. Demosthenes fled to the 
 temple of Neptune in Calauria; when he saw no hopes of safety, 
 li9 took a dose of poison, which lie always carried in a quill, aiid 
 expired on the day that the Thesmophoria w cro celebrated, B. C. 
 3'-'2. The Athenians raised a brazen statue to his honour, with a 
 suitable inscription. Demosthenes has been deservedly called the 
 prince of orators. Indeed no orator had ever a finer field than 
 Demosthenes in lii.^ Olynthiacs and Philippics, which arc his ca- 
 ])ilal orations ; and undoubtedly to the greatness of the schiect, 
 and tothat integrity, .md public spirit, which breathe in them, they 
 owe a large portion of their merit. The subject is, to excite the 
 indignation of his countrymen against Philip of Macedon, the pub- 
 lic enemy of the liberties of C;reece; and to guard them against 
 the treacherous measures by which that cral"ty tyrant endeavoured 
 to lull them into a neglect of their danger. T« attain this eiul, he 
 uses every proper means to animate a people, distingui-hed by 
 jitstice, humanity, and valour, but in many instances become cor- 
 
 rupt and des.;enerate. He boldly accuses them of venality, indo- 
 h-iice, and indillerence, to the public good; while at tlie same 
 time, he reminds them of their former glory, and of their present 
 resources. His contemporary orators, who were bribed by Piiilip, 
 and who persuaded the people to peace, he openly reproaches as 
 traitors to their country. He not only prompt., to vigorous mea- 
 sures, but teaches how they arelo be carried into execM.ition. His 
 orations are stronyly animated, and full of the impetuosity and ar- 
 dour of public spirit. His composition is not distinguislied hy 
 ornament and splendor. It is an energy of thought, peculiarly his 
 own, which forms his character, and raises him abuve his species. 
 He seems not to attend to words, but to thing*. V\'e forget the 
 orator, and think of the subject. He has no parade and ostenta- 
 tion, no studied introductions; but is like a man full of his sub- 
 ject, who, after preparing his audience by a sentence or two for 
 the reception of plain truths, enters directly on business. The 
 style of Demosthenes ;i3 strong and concise ; though sometimes it 
 must be confessed, harsh and abrupt. His words are highly ex- 
 pressive, and his arrangement firm and manly. Negligent of 
 less graces)* he seems to have aimed at that true sublime which 
 lies in sentiment. His action and pronunciation are said to have 
 been uncommonly vehement and ardent ; which, from the man- 
 ner of his writings, we should readily believe. His oliaracter ap- 
 pears lo have been of the austere rather than of the gentle kind. 
 He is always grave, serious, and passionate; never degrading liim- 
 self, nor attempting any thing like pleasantry. If his admirable 
 eloquence be in any respect taiilty, it is that he sometimes bor- 
 ders on the hard and dry. He may be thought to want smooth- 
 ness and grace; which is attributed to his imitating too closely the 
 manner of Thucydides, w ho was his great model for style, arid 
 whose history he is said to have transcribed eight limes with his 
 own hand. But these defects are inore than atoned for by that 
 masterly force of masculine eloquence, which, as it overpowered 
 all who heard it, cannot, even in the present day, be read without 
 emotion. Cicero calk him a perfect model, and such as he him- 
 self wished to be. These two great jirinces of eloquence have 
 l)een often compared together; but the judgement hesitates to 
 which to give tlie preference. The archbishop of Canibray, how- 
 ever, seems to have stated their merits with great justice and per- 
 spicuity, in his " Reflections on Rhetoric, and Poetry. " I do 
 not hesitate (says he) to declare, that I think Demosthenes supe- 
 rior to Cicero. I am persuaded no one can admire Cicero more 
 than I do. He adorns whatever he attempts. He does honour 
 to language. He disposes of words in a manner peculiar to him- 
 self. His style has great variety of character. Whenever he 
 pleases, he is even concise and vehement ; for instance, against 
 Catiline, against Verres, against Antony. But ornament is too vi- 
 sible in his writings. His art is wonderful, but it is perceived. 
 When the orator is providing for the safety of the republic, he for- 
 gets not him.elf, nor permits others to forget him. Demosthenes 
 seems to escape from himself, and to see nothing but his country. 
 He seeks not elegance of expression ; unsought for, he possesses 
 it. He is superior to admiration. He makes use of language, as 
 a modest man does of dress, only to cover him. He tliunders, he 
 lightens. He is a torrent which carries e\eiy thing before it. We 
 cannot criticise because we are not ourselves. His subject en- 
 chains our attention, and makes ns forget Ids language. \\'e lose him 
 from our sight: Philip alone occupies our minds. I am delighted 
 with liotli tiicse prators; but I confess that I am less affected by 
 the infinite art and magnificent eloquence of Cicero, than by the 
 rapid simplicity of Demosthenes." 
 
 DEMPS I ER OF CovRT, the name formerly given in Scotland 
 to the common executioner, or hangman. 
 
 DEMSTER, or DEE.MS lER. See Deemster. 
 
 DP^MULCENTS, aiv.ong physicians, medicines good against 
 acrimonious luimours. Such are the roots of marsh-mallows, 
 white lilies, liquorice, and viper-grass, tlie hve emollient herbs, 
 &;c. \ 
 
 DEMl^RRAGE, [from demnr,'] an allowance made by mer- 
 chants to masters of ships, for their stiiy in a port beyond the time 
 appointed. 
 
 DEMURRER, [dcmeurer, p"r. i. v. niantre in aliqtto locf>,rcl 
 mortiri,'] a kind of pause upon a point of difFicully in an action ; 
 for, in ever) action, the controversy consists either in the fact, or 
 in tlie law : if in the fact, that is tried by the jury ; if in faw, Ihls^ii 
 is the case plain to the judge, tir so hard and rare, as it breedeth 
 
 just
 
 DEN 
 
 ]20 
 
 DEN 
 
 just doubt. I (.all tli.it plain to tlu' judge, wherein he is assured 
 of the law ; and in such case the jud.,e, with his associates, pro- 
 ceeds to judgement without farther work. But when it is douljtiul 
 to him and Ins a^socialis, then is their stay made, and a time taken, 
 either for the court to think fartb.er upon it, and to a:jree, if they 
 can ; or else for all the justices to meet together in the Chequer- 
 chamber, and, upon liearing that which the Serjeants can say of 
 both parts, to advise, and set down as law, whatsoever they con- 
 clude firm, without farther remedy. 
 
 DEN, l_i!tn, S.ix.] I. A cavernTjr hollow running liorizontally, 
 or with a small oldiquity unde:' ground ; distinct from a lu)le vvh'ich 
 runs down perpendicularly. 2. 'l"he cave of a wild beast. 3. 
 Den, the termiriation of a local name, may signify cither a valley 
 or a woody place; for the Sa\oa (/e/i imports both. It is only- 
 Dear the sea, on a high coast, that ilens exist. They are very dis- 
 tinct from glens, which are valleys between hills. These you can 
 easily survey in all llieir grandeur, from the summit of the hill on 
 either side. But you cannot judge from the appearance of the ad- 
 jacent grounds, which are highly cultivated, and rise nobabovcthe 
 level ot the surrounding ticlds, that there are any such objects as 
 dens, till you come close upon them ; and the illusion greatly 
 heightens the pleasure ni the spectator. Dens sink suddenly from 
 (he conmion level of the couutry, and seem to owe their origin to 
 some rivulet or stream: which issuing frofn springs on the 
 higher lands, and meeting with soft materials on its way, has 
 washed away all lliese in the course of ages, till it found the hard 
 bottom. 
 
 DENARIUS, [Lat.] in antiquity, the chief silver coin among 
 the Komai.s, worth in our money about 7|f/. at 5i\ 2d. per ounce, 
 or S(/j-. wlieu bullion is high priceil. It was about the size of a 
 sixpence but much thicker, and had the emperor's head on the 
 one side : the figures on the reverse were various. In our trans- 
 ■ lation of the New Testament, the denarius is called a penny. See 
 Matlh. xxii. 19. A considL-rable quantity of Denarii, with the 
 heads of Nero, Vespasian, Titus, Domit.an, Nerva, Trajan, and 
 Adri;ui were found near Stirling, in I'btJ. 
 
 DtNARius was also the name of a Roman weight; the 7th part 
 of an ounce. 
 
 Den'.vrius is likewise used in our law-books for an English 
 pennv. 
 
 DENBIGH, or DENBIGHSHIRE, a county of N. Wales, 
 bounded on tlit S. by Merioneth and Montgomery shires, on the 
 N. by part of Flintshire and the Irish sea, on the W. by Caernai-- 
 von and part of Merionethshire ; and on the E. by Shropshire and 
 Flintshire. It is 4S miles long and 2 1 broad. The air is w holesome, 
 but sharp ; the comity being pretty hilly, and the snow lying long 
 on the tops of the mountains. 
 
 Denbigh, the capital of Denbighshire, in N. Wales, 27 miles 
 \\'. of Chester. 
 
 DENDER, a river of France, which nms into the Scheldt at 
 Dendermond. 
 
 DENDERA, a town of Egypt, on the W. side of theNile, at 
 the edge of a smiUl but fertile plain, about half a mile from the 
 river. 
 
 DENDERMOND, a hanc^some town of France, in the de- 
 partment of Dsle, 14 miles E. of Ghent. 
 
 DENDRACHATES, in natural history, [from a.-vojov, a tree, 
 and a-x't''!;, an agate,] the name used by the ancients for an ex- 
 tremely elegant and beautiful species of agate, the ground of which 
 15 whitish, variegated with veins ofa brighter v^ilite, and often very 
 beautiful delineations of trees, mosses, sea-plants, and the like. See 
 Demdrites. 
 
 DENDRANATOMY, a term used by some for a description 
 of the \arious parts of trees; as the root, trunk, branch, bark, wood, 
 pith, flower, fruit, &c. See Plants, Vegetation, &c. 
 
 DENDRITES, or ARBORIZATIONS. This appellation is 
 given to figures of a eeetabks which are frequently observed in fossil 
 substances. These are of two kinds; the one superficial, the 
 other internal. The lirst are chielly found on the surface of stones, 
 and between the strata and in the fissures of those ofa calcareous 
 nature. JSlones of a similar kind, when very compact, sometimes 
 also exhibit inlernal arborizations ; such are' the marbles of Hesse, 
 of Angt i-sbiirg in Prussia, and of Badcn-Dourlach on the left bank 
 of the Rhine. Several of these dendrites bear a striking resem- 
 blance to the poplar; w hile otjjers exhibit the straight stem, py- 
 
 VOL. ji. — NO. 64. 
 
 rainidal form, and pendant branches, of the fir. Seme specimens 
 of dendrites found in Switzerland, represent, in a very surprising 
 manner, plantations of willows; and many of them i;re so beauti- 
 lul, as really to a|)pearthe work of art. 'I"he superficial dendrites 
 arc nio.>tly ofa brown, changing gradually to a reddisli \ellow. 
 The internal dendrites are of a deep bla<k. Tlie most esteemed 
 ilench'ites are those lound in agates ; and moi^ particularly in the 
 sardonyx, cornelian, and other precious stones, brought from the 
 East, and wliich are commonly denominated Moka stones. The 
 Oriental agates display t!ie most varied ami beautiful forms. 
 Somelimcs they exhibit the appearance of terraces covered wi.li 
 dilferent species of moss, interspersed with plants of the fern-tribe, 
 having large leaves, and the outlines ex>iuis:tely finished ; the 
 colours are likewise extremely brilliant. A species of metallic 
 dendrites is sometimes formed by means of lire. For example, 
 some kinds of copper ore, on being subjected to the action of heat, 
 and afterwards withdrawn from the furnace, appear covered with 
 brilliant yellow spots, some inches in diameter, exactly resem- 
 bling in form lichens growing on rocks. These arborizations, 
 which are of pure copper, are verv singular ; being composed of 
 vertical threads, of about a lii'e in height, united in fasciculi, like 
 so many small sheaves standing upright by the side of each other. 
 The finest specimens of this kind of metallic dendrites are pro- 
 duced at a foundry on the Oural mountains. The ore with which 
 this foundry is supplied, is brought from the mines of Touria, 
 where the most beautiful native co)jper in a state of vegetation yet 
 known, is to be found. In whatever manner we may be inclined 
 to account for this wonderful phsr.omenon, it should seem, from 
 the above fact, that the Same cause which produces these arboriza- 
 tions in the mine, must likewise produce the same effect after the 
 ore has been subjected to the action of fire; See Plate LIV. fig. 
 7,«nd S. 
 
 DEN'pROMETER, [from ii^i=«, a tree, and f.-.tr;.*, to mea- 
 sin-e,] an instrument lately invented by Messre. Duncombe and 
 Whittel, for which they obtained a patent, so called from its use 
 in measuring trees. See Plate LIV. fig. 5, and 6. This instru- 
 ment consists of a semicircle A, divided into two quadrants, and 
 graduated from the middle ; upon the diameter B there hangs a 
 plummet L for fixing the instrument in a vertical position; there 
 is also a chord D parallel to the diameter, ami a radius E, passing 
 at right angles through the diameter and chord. From a point on 
 the radius hangs an altimeter C, between the chord and diameter, 
 to whicli is fixed a small semi-circle G, and a screw, to confine it 
 in any position. The altimeter, which is contrived to form the 
 same angle with the radiu^ ot the instrument as the tree forms witfj 
 the horizon, is divided from its centre both ways into forty equal 
 parts ; and these parts are again subdivided into halves and <iuar« 
 ters. Upon the small semicircle G, on which is accounted the 
 quantity ofthe angle made by tiie altimeter and radius, are ex- 
 piessed'degrees trom (iO to 120, being 30 on each quadrant. The 
 radius is numbered with the same scale of divisions as the altime. 
 ter. There is also a nonius to the small semicircle, which sliews 
 the quantity of an angle to every five minutes. On the back of 
 the instrument, fig 6, the stock, M, of the sliding piece, is con-, 
 fined to the a.vis N, w hich moves concentrically parallel to the 
 elevation index F on the opposite side, to which it is fixed. This 
 index is numbered by a scale of equal divisions with the altimeter 
 and radius: at the end of the index is a nonius, by which the an- 
 gles of elevation above, or of depression below, the horizon, mea- 
 sured upon tlie semicircle of the instrument, are determined to 
 every five minutes. There is also a groove in the radius, tliat 
 slides across the axis by means of a screw 1, working betw-een the 
 chord and semicircle o"f the instrument ; and this screw is turned by 
 tl'.e key. Upon the stock M is a sliding piece P, that always 
 acts at right angles with the altimeler, by means of a groove m 
 the latter. To the shank of the sliding piece is affixetl a move- 
 able limb Q, wiiich forms thesame angle with the altimeter as the 
 bough forms with the body or trunk of the tree, This lind) may 
 be of ai.v convenient length, divided into equal parts of the same 
 scale with all the foregoing divisions. At the extremity of tlie 
 fixed axis, on a centre, an index R, with telescopic sights, works 
 horizontally upon the moveable limb of the sliding piece. Uj)ou 
 this liorizoutal index R may be fixed a small (luadrant T, do- 
 scribed with anv convenient radius from the centre on which the 
 index moves, and divided into 90 degree?, beginning at a right 
 
 2 L ItliL'
 
 DEN 
 
 130 
 
 B EN 
 
 line drawn from the centre at right angles with the fiducial edt'e of 
 ♦he said index ; and upon the extremity of the axis is a nonius, 
 whereby to determine the quantity of an angle upon the quadrant 
 to every five minutes. There are also two small circular arches S, 
 S, serving to keep the sights in a parallel prssition, each contain- 
 ing an equal number of degrees. Upon these arches is measured 
 the angle, subtending a side equal to the difference of ttie altitudes 
 of the observed objects above the plane of the horizon, and whose 
 base is the nearest distance between the perpendiculars in which 
 these objects are situated. The dendrometer is fitted to a theodo- 
 lite, and may be used either with or wilIio\it it as occasion requires. 
 The principal use of tliis instrument is for measuring the length 
 and diameter of any tree, perpendicular or oblique, to an horizon- 
 tal plane, or in any situation of the plane on which it rests, or of 
 any figure, whethe'r regular or irregular, and also the length and 
 diame'ter of the boughs, by mere inspection ; and the inventors of 
 it have calculated tables, annexed to their account of the instru- 
 ment itself, by the help of which the quantity of timber in a tree 
 is obtained -without calculation, or the use of the sliding rule. The 
 instrument is rectified by setting it in a perpendicular position, 
 by means of the plumme't, and screwing it to the staff; then the 
 altimeter is placed in the exact position of the tree, whether per- 
 pendicular, reclining, or inclining, and screwed fast. If the tree 
 stands on level ground, the horizontal distance from the tree to 
 the axis of the instrument is measured with a tape line, and the 
 radius is moved with a key till that distance be cut upon it by the 
 inside of the diameter : but if the ground be slanting, the dis- 
 tance from the tree to the instrument is measured, and the eleva- 
 tion index is moved till the point of the tree from which the dss- 
 tau»re was measured is seen through the sights, and there screwed 
 fast ; and the radius is moved backwards or forwards witli tlie key- 
 till this distance is cut upon the elevation index by the periiendi- 
 cular line of the altimeter ; and the horizontal line will be marked 
 upon the radius by the inside of tlie diameter. To obtain the 
 length of the tree, the elevation index is first moved downwards, 
 till the bottom of the tree cut by the' horizontal wires is observed 
 through the sights, and the feet and inches marked by the index 
 upon the altimeter below the point of sight or horizontal line are 
 noted down: then the index is moved upwards till the part to 
 -which you would measure, cut by the iiorizontal wires, is seen, and 
 the feet and inches marked on the altimeter above the point of 
 sight are noted : these tvvo quantities added together give the exact 
 length of the tree, which is inserted in a field book. For the girth 
 of the tree, the circumference in tliat part where the horizontal 
 distance was taken, is measured with the tape line ; and a sixth 
 part of this circumference is added to the distance on the radius, 
 which was before cut by the inside of the diameter, because the 
 tape line, in t-aking the distance cannot be applied to the centre of 
 the body of the tree ; then the elevation index is lowered to that 
 part of the tree, -of which the diameter is to be taken and screwed 
 fast. Set the moveable limb of the sliding piece quite srtaight, 
 and the edge of the horizontal index upon the first division of it. 
 Turn the whole instrument about to the left hand till the left side 
 of the tree is seen, through the sights, cut exactly by tne perpen- 
 dicular wires ; then the instrument being fixed, move the sights 
 only upon the sliding piece, till the right side of the tree is also 
 seen cut by the perpendicular wires: and the true diameter will 
 be foun ' marked by the horizontal index upon the sliding piece, 
 which is to be entered in a distinct column of the field book. For 
 the boughs; let the distance on the radius be now deduced to its 
 former quantity, and the elevation index moved upwards till the 
 bouoh is seen through the sights and screwed fast. Set the move- 
 able part of the sliding piece in a position parallel to the bough, 
 and the edge of tlie horizontal in<\ex on the first division of it. 
 Turn the whole instrument about till you see through the sights 
 the shoo' of the bough close to the trunk cut by the f)erpendiciilar 
 wires: then move the sights till yon see the other end of the hough- 
 cut by the sad wires, and note the feet and inches marked l)y 
 the horizontal Ind-x on the moveable limb of the sliding piece, 
 which will give the true length of the bough to be inserted in the 
 field book. And the girth of the bough may be obtained by di- 
 recting the sights to tkat part of it whose girth is desired ; then by 
 moving the elevation index downwards till you sec the under side 
 of the hough cut by the horizontal wires, and there noting the feet 
 and inehes matked by the saidiudex cm the altimeter; after which 
 
 let the elevation index be moved upwards till the upper sine of 
 the bough cut by the horizontal wires is seen; the leel and incites 
 marked upon the altimeter are to be noted as before. The for- 
 mer quantity subtracted from the latter will give the true di- 
 ameter of the bough, which is entered in the field bogk. The 
 true solidity both of the body of the tree and of the boughs may 
 be found from the diameter and lejigths in tables calcufated for 
 this purpose. The dendrometer, fitted to a theodolite, may be 
 applied to measuring the lielghts and distances of objects, accessi- 
 ble or inaccessible, whether situated in planes parallel or oblique ' 
 to the plane In which the instrument is placecl. It may be also 
 used for taking all angles, whether vertical, horizontal, or oblique, 
 in any position of the planes in which they are formed ; and tnus 
 for facilitating the practical operations of engineering, land sur- 
 veying, levelling, mining, &c. and for perfonning the various 
 cases of plane trigonometry withont calculation ; of which the in- 
 ventors have subjoined to their accouni of this instrument many 
 examples. 
 
 DP:N'DR0PH0RI, [from sivhtiv, a tree, and ftfoi, to bear,] 
 tree-bearers, in antiquity, priests who marched in procession, car- 
 rying branches ot trees in their hands in honour ot some god, as 
 Bacchus, Cybelc, Solvanus, &c. 
 
 DENDUOPHORIA, in antiquity, tlie religious ceremony of 
 carrying branches of trees. See last article. 
 
 DENEB, an Arabic term, si^nitying tail, used by astroDomers 
 to denote several fixed stars. 1 hus, 
 
 1. Deneb Adigege signifies the bright star in the swan's 
 tall. • 
 
 2. Deveb Eleet, that in the lion's tail. 
 
 DENIA, a sea-port of Spain, in the province of Valencia. 
 Denier, [from denarius, Lat. It is pronounced as deneer, in 
 two syllables,] a small French copper coin, of which 12 make a 
 sol. There are two kinds of denlers, the one tournois, the other 
 parisis, whereof the latter is worth a fourth part more than the 
 former. 
 
 Denier is also the name of a small weight used in assaying silver. 
 Like the caract used in trying and expressing the fineness of gold, 
 it is rather imaginary, than real, as the whole mass of silver, what- 
 ever be its weight, is supposed to be divided into twelve deniers; 
 and as many 12th pa-'ts as it contains of pure silver, it Is called sil- 
 ver of so many deniers fine. Thus Sterling silver of eleven de- 
 niers fine, the standard degree of fineness, oi which the British coin 
 consists, and of which all silver manufactured into plate and sold 
 by weight, ouglit to consist, is a ml.\.ture, of which eleven parts 
 are pure silver and one part copper. Each denier is supposed to 
 be divided into 24 grains: and thus estimating pure silver at six 
 shillings per ounce an ounce of Sterling silver is worth five shil- 
 lings and six-pence, and the fineness of any quantity of silver can 
 be calculated with the utmost exactness to iialf a grain in purity, 
 or half a farthing in value per ounce. The deniers and grains, 
 used by the assaymasters for this purpose, are real weights, made 
 with the most scrupulous exactness in the above proportions to each 
 other. 
 
 DENIZEN, in law, an alien made a subject by the king's let- 
 ters-patent ; otherwise called donation, bee use, " his hgitlmation 
 proceeds ex donatione regis, from the king's gilt." A denizen is 
 in a kind of middle state between an alien and a natural born sub- 
 ject, and partakes of both of them. lie may take lands by pur- 
 chase or devise, which an alien may not ; but cannot take by in- 
 heritance; for his parent, through whom he must claim, being an 
 alien, had no inheritable blood, and theretore could convey none 
 to the son ; and upon a like d;'fect of blocd, the issue of a denizen 
 born before denization c;iniiot inherit to him ; but his issue horn 
 after may. A denizen is not excused from paying the alien's duty, 
 and some other mercaclile burdens. And no denizen can be of 
 the privy council, or either house of parliament, or have any of- 
 fice of trust civil or military, or be capable of any grant of lands, 
 &c. from the crown. 
 
 DENMARK, one of the most ancient monarchies in Europe, 
 comprehending the peninsula oi Jutland, and the islands of Zea- 
 land., Funen, &c. But Denmark, properly so called, is only that 
 part of Scandinavia, which formerly went by the name of Cimbrica 
 C'hersoncius, and is now called Jutland. Including Holstein, it is- 
 bounded by the (,'ategate on the N. l>y the Baltic on the E. bv the- 
 Elbt, which separatesit froinBremen, on the S. and by theduchv of 
 
 Saxe-
 
 DEN 
 
 131 
 
 DEN 
 
 Saxe-L,.wen!iurg towards tlie S. E. extending from ,t4. 40. to 58. 
 20. Lat. N. The kingdom of Denmark is divided into six grand 
 districta or provinces; viz. I. Deiima;k properly so (;?.lled, com- 
 prehending the islands of Zea'and, Ftnien, Langland, Laaland, 
 ralstrij, Mona, Samsot;, Airoe, (5omholm, Anlioult, Lessaw, and 
 t'lat part of tile continer,t called North Jutland. ?. The duchv of 
 
 ■<\vick, or South Jutland. 3. The dticliy ot lioHtcin. 4. The 
 
 .Idoni-' of Oidenbi'.'gh and Delmenhoi'st. 5. The k.n^doni of 
 Norway; and ti. Icelanil, w.th the islan Is lying in the Northern 
 S.^as. The \vh(jle kingdom is also diviiied into six dioceses ; viz. 
 one in Zealand, one i:i Tunen, and four in Jutland. Saxo Graninia- 
 ticus, the most anrie:>t anil be=;t of the Danish historians, derive: the 
 name of Denmark from Daa the son of Humhle, the tirst king, 
 and Mark, a word signilying a country i" several dialects of the 
 Teutonic ; according lo wliich etymology, the word Denmark 
 signifies (ho country of Dan. This Dan is said to have flourished 
 ab'.iit A. D. 1058, or 1030. Tke language of Denmark is a dia- 
 lect of the Teutonic, and bears a strong alfinity to thL- Norwegian 
 tongue i bui is dnagreeabh- to strangei-s, on 'cccunt of the drawl- 
 ing tirie wilh winch it is pronounci-d. They have borrowed many 
 words from the German ; nd, indeed, the higli Dutch is userl in 
 common discoui-se by the court, the gentry, and the Imrghers ; 
 who lii'iewise understand French, and speak it fluently. The Lu- 
 theran doctrine is universally embraced throughout all Denmark, 
 Sweden, and Norway ; "^o that there is not another sect in these 
 kingdoms. The laws of Denmark are .■>o concise, that the w hole 
 body is contained in one 4to volume, written in the language of 
 the country. Every man may plead his own cause, without em- 
 ployi.ig ether council or attorney : but thfrre are a few advocates 
 lor the beneht of those who cannot or will not speak in their own 
 defence. The proceedings are so summai-y, that a suit mav be 
 carried througli all the courts, and (in:.lly decided, in 13 months. 
 There are tliree courts in Denmark, and an appeal lies from the 
 inferior to the superior tribunal. Tl;e low est of these is, in citie"; 
 and towns, denonunated the Byfoglid^ court ; and in tlie country 
 the Herredsfougd«. Causes may be appealed fi-om this to the 
 Landstug, or general head court for the province: but the final 
 appeal lies to die High Right in Copenhagen, where the king pre- 
 sides in person, assisted by the prime nobility. 
 
 DENN, a town :.f Arabia, in the county of Yemen. Lon. 43 
 43. E. Lat. 14. 15. N. 
 
 DENOMINATION, Idenominaho, Lat.l a name given to a 
 thing, which commonly marks some principal cpiality of it. 
 
 DENOMINATOR of a Fraction, is the number below the 
 line, shewing the nature and quality of the parts which any integer 
 is supposed to be divided into: thus in &, 8 the denominator 
 shews you, tha^t the integer is supposed to be divided into eight 
 parts, or half-quarters : and the numerator six shews, that you take 
 six of such parts, f. e. three quarters of the whole. See Arith- 
 metic. 
 
 Denominator of a Ratio, is the quotient arising from the 
 division ot theantecedent by the consc(|uenl. Thus S is the deno ■ 
 miiiator of the ratio 40 : 5, because 40 divided bv 5, gives 8, for 
 a quotient. It is also called the exponent ofaratio.See Exponent. 
 
 DENSITY OF Bodies, is that property directiv opposite to 
 rarity, whereby they contain a certain quantity of matter uncler a 
 certain bulk. Accordingly, a body is said to have double or 
 triple the density of another body, when, their bulk being equal, 
 the quantity of matter is in the one doubie or triple the quantity 
 of matter in the other. 
 
 Devsity of the AtR, is a property that has employed the 
 later philosophers, since the discovery of the Torricellian experi- 
 ment. It is demonstrated, that in the same vessel, or even in ves- 
 sels communicating with each other, at the same distance from the 
 centre, tUe air has every where'the same density. The density of 
 ajr, ca-leris paribus, increases in prcporticn to the compressing 
 powers. Hence the inferior air is denser man the superior ; the 
 density, however, of the lower a^r is not proportional to the weight 
 of thejitmosphere on account of heat and cold, and other causes 
 perhaps which make great alterations in density and raritv. How- 
 ever, from the elasticrty of the air, its density must "be always 
 different at dilTerent heights from the earth's surface ; for the lower 
 pa.ts being pressed by (he weight of those above, will be made to 
 accede nearer to each other, and 'he more ^o as the weight of the 
 incumbent air is greater. Hence the density of the air is greatest 
 at the earth's surface, and decreases upwards iu geometrical pro- 
 
 portion to the altitudes taken in aritiimetica! progression. If the 
 air be rendered denser, tiie weight of bodies in it is diminished : if 
 rarer, increased, because bodies lose a greater part of their weight 
 in denser than in rarer mediums. Hence, if the density of the air 
 be sensibly altered, bodies equally h'avy in a rarer air, if their 
 specific gravities be considerably different, will lose their equili- 
 brium in the denser, and tne specilically heavier body will pre- 
 ponderate. See Pneumatics, and Hydrostaiics. 
 
 Densities of the Planets. See Astronomy. 
 
 DENTALIUM, Tooth-shell, in natural history, a getius of 
 the class and order vermes testacea. Animal a terebella ; shell 
 univalve, tubular, straight or slightly curved, with the cavity open 
 at both ends, and undivided. -It has twenty two species, some of 
 which are found in the fossil state. There are but few species in 
 this country, and those principally of the minuter kind. 
 
 DENTARIA, Tooth-wort, or Tooth-violet : a genus of 
 the siliquosa order, and tetrad) namia class of plants ; natural order, 
 Siliquo^3?. Siliqua parts with a spring ; valvules^foll spirally 
 backwards; stigma emarginated; calyx clo>ing longitudinally. 
 There are four species, hardy perenniaU ; producing annual stalks 
 twelve or eighteen inches high, adorned with many lobed-leaves, 
 and spikes ot quadripetalous cruciform flowers of a red or purple 
 colour. They delight in shady places; and are propagated either 
 by seeds or parting the roots. 
 
 DENTATUS, Siccius, a hero of ancient Rome, of the ple- 
 beian order, but of uncommon merit, who flourished about 
 A. U. G. 300. When disputes ran high between the patricians 
 and plebeians, about the Agrarian law, Dentatus, loaded with 
 glory, and advanced in years, but still exhibiting an admirable 
 person, set off with all the dignity of a military veteran, addressed 
 the people and expatiated upon his atchievements and his hard- 
 ships. He had served his country in the wai^s forty years ; he had 
 been an ofiicer thirty ; first a centurion and then a tribune; he had 
 fought in 120 battles, and by the force of his single arm had saved 
 the lives of a multitude of his fellow-citizens: He had gained 
 fourteen civic, three mural, and eight golden crowns ; besides S3 
 chains, 60 bracelets, IS gilt spears, and 23 horse trappings, whereof 
 nine were for killing the enemy in single combat; and he had 
 received 45 wounds, all before, none behind. These were his 
 iionours ; yet notwithstanding all this, he had never received any 
 share of those lands which were wonfiom the enemy, but con- 
 tinued to drag on a life of poverty and contempt, whilst others pos- 
 sessed those very territories wdiich his valour had won, without any 
 merit to deserve them, or ever having contributed to the conquest. 
 Dentatus's speech, and the hardship of his case, had a strong effect. 
 The people unanimously demanded that the law might be passed, 
 and that such high merit should not pa^s unrewarded. Some of 
 the senators attempted to speak but were overpowered by the cries 
 of the people. At last a number of resolute young patricians rush- 
 ing furiously amongst the crowd, broke the balloting urns, and 
 dispersed the multitude. For this riot they were fined by the tri- 
 bunes, but they gained their object for the time, by getting- the 
 Agrarian law postponed. Such was the justice of the Roman pa- 
 tricians, at one of the most virtuous periods of that celebrated re- 
 public ; for it was the age of Cincinnatus himself. 
 
 DENTELLA, a genus of the monogynia order, and pentandria 
 cla^sofiiiants. Calyx a live-parted penanthium, with small subu- 
 lated leaves; filaments short ; anther* subulated, small ; capsule 
 globul.ir, bilocular, egg-shaped, very numerous. It has one spe- 
 cies, a native of New Caledonia. ' 
 
 DENTIFRICE, \_dcns end frico, Lat.] a powder made to 
 scour the teeth. 
 
 Dentifrices are of dilTerent kinds; generally made of earthy sub- 
 stances finely pounded, and mixed witfi alum, or some other saline 
 substances: but these are pernicious, on account of their wearing 
 away the enamel of the teeth ; but more especially by the septic 
 quality with which these earthy substances are endowed. On 
 this account, a portion of Peruvian bark finely pounded is now 
 comaionh added, which answers the double purpose of cleaning 
 the teeth, and preserving tlcm afterwwds from corruption. 
 
 DENTILES, or DENTILS, in architecture, an ornament in 
 cornlches bearing some resemblance to teeth, particularly used in 
 the Ionic and Corinthian orders. See Architf.cture. 
 
 DENTISCALPRA, in surgery, an instrument for scouring yel- 
 low, livid, or black teeth : to which being applied near the gums. 
 It scrapes off the foul morbid crust. 
 
 ift. DENTITION.
 
 DEP 
 
 1:52 
 
 D ER 
 
 DENTITION. See Medicine. 
 
 DENTON, the chief town of Caroline county in Maryland, 
 37 miles S. S. E. of Chester. 
 
 DENYS, St., a town of France, in the department of Paris, 
 five miles N. of Paris. 
 
 DEOBSTRUENT, [^deobstruens, Lat.] a medicine that has 
 power to resolve viscidities, or to open by any means the animal 
 passages. See Detergent. 
 
 DEODAND, IDeo dandiim, Lat.] a thing given or consecrated 
 to God for the pacifying of his wrath, in case of anv misfortune, bv 
 which any Christian comes to a violent end, witliout the fault of 
 any reasonable creature ; as, if a horse should strike his keeper, and 
 so kill him ; if a man, in driving a cart, and endeavouring to rec- 
 tify something about it, should tall so as tlie cart-wheels, by run- 
 ning over him, should press him to death ; if any one should be 
 felling a tree, and giving warning to company by, when tlie tree 
 was near falling, to look to themselves, and any of them should 
 nevertheless Ue slain by the fall of the tree : in these cases the horse, 
 the cart-wheel, cart and horses, and the tree, are to be given to 
 God; that is, sold and distributed to tlie poor, for an expiation of 
 this dreadful event, though occasioned by unreasonable, senseless, 
 and dead creatures ; and though this be giving to God, yet it is 
 forfeited to the king by law, as executor in this case, to see the 
 price of these distributed to the poor. 
 
 DEOGUR, a town of Hindostan, in the country of Bcrar, 55 
 miles N. N. W. of Nagpour. 
 
 DEPARTMENT, in modern geography is used as a substitute 
 for province, in the new divisions of the French Government. 
 
 DEPARTURE, in navigation, is the easting or westing of a ship 
 in respect of the meridian it departed or sailed irom : or it is the 
 difterence of longitude, either easT or west, between the present 
 meridian the ship is under, and that where the last reckoning or 
 observation was made. This departure, any where but under the 
 equator, must be accounted according to the nundier of miles in 
 a degree, proper to the parallel the ship 'is under. See Naviga- 
 tion. 
 
 DEPHLOGISTICATED, a term applied by Dr. Priestley, 
 to what is now called_oxygen gas, when \v.: first discovered it. It 
 was called by Scheele, who discovered it at the same time, vital 
 air. 
 
 DEPILATORY Medicines, those applied to take off the hair: 
 such are linie, and other caustic substances, which ought lo be 
 used with great caution. 
 
 DEPONENT, in Latin grammar, a term applied to verbs, 
 which have active significations, but passive terminations or con- 
 jugations, and w;ant one of their participles passive. 
 
 DEPORTATION, a sort of banishment used by the Romans, 
 whereby some island or other place was allotted to a crimmal for 
 the place cf his abode, with a prohibition not to stir out of the same 
 ou pain of death. 
 
 DEPOSIT, among civilians, something that is committed to 
 the custody of a person, to be kept without any reward, and to be 
 returned again on demand. Deposit is distinguished into simple 
 and judiciary. 
 
 DEPOSI'TION. Proofin the high court of chancery is by the 
 depositions ot witnesses; and the copies of such, regularly taken and 
 published, are read as evidence at the hearing. For the purpose 
 of examining witnesses in or near London, there is an examiner's 
 office appointed ; but for such as live in the country, a commission 
 to examine witnesses is usiudly granted to four commissioners, two 
 named on each side, or any three or two of them, to take the de- 
 positions there. Audit the witnesses reside beyond sea, a com- 
 mission may be had to examine them there, upon their ov<n oi.llis; 
 and if foreigners, upon the oaths of two skilful interpreters. The 
 tonnuissiojiers are sworn to lake the examinations tridy, and with- 
 out partiality, and not to divulge them till published in the court 
 of chancery"; and their clerks are alio sworn tosecresy. The 
 witnesses are compellable by process of snbpaua, as in the courts of 
 common law, to appear and submit to examination ; and when 
 llieir depositions are taken, Ihiv are transmittcd"to the court with 
 the same care that the answer of a defendent is sent. 3 Bldck. 445. 
 
 DnrosiTiON also signifies the sequestering or depriving of a man 
 of some d.gnity and office, and is nearly the same with degradation. 
 See Degradation. 
 
 DEPOT, in militray affairs any particular place in which mili- 
 tary stores are deposed for the use of an army. In a more exten- 
 
 sive sense, it means several m.igazines collected together for that 
 purpos.'. It also signifies an appropriated tort, or place, for the 
 reception of recruits, or detached parties, belonging to different 
 regimeiils. The barracks near Maidstone are depots lor the British 
 cavalry, and C.'hatliiim is allotted to the infantry. 
 
 DEPRECATION, in rhetoric, a figure whereby the orator in- 
 vokes the aid of some one ; or prays for some great evil to befal 
 him who speaks falsely, either himself or his adversary. 
 
 DEPRESSION OF AN EiiUATiON, in algebra, is the bringing 
 it into lower and more simple terms by division. See Algebra. 
 
 Depression of a Star, with astronomers, is the distance of 
 a ^tar from the horizon below, and is measured, by the arch of tl'e 
 vertical circle or azimuth, passing through the star, intercepted be- 
 tw(en the star and the horizon. 
 
 Depression of the Pole. When a person sails or travels to- 
 wards the equator, he is said to depress the pole ; because as manv 
 degrees as he approaches nearer the equator, so many degress will 
 the pole be nearerthe horizon. This pha;nomenon arises from the 
 spherical Sgure of the earth. 
 
 Depressionof the Visiull Horizon, or Dip of the Hori- 
 zon, denotes its sinking or dipping below the true horizontal plane, 
 by the observer's eye being raised above the surface of tiie sc-a ; 
 in consequence of which the observed altitude of an object is by so 
 much too great. See Navigation. 
 DEPRl\ ATION in law, is when a clergyman, as a bishop, par- 
 son, vicar, or prebend, is deprived, or deposed, from his preferment, 
 for any matter in fact or law : it is of two kinds, viz. 
 
 1. Deprivation a Beneficio, when for some crime a minister 
 is for ever deprived of his living. 
 
 2. Deprivation ab Officio, when a minister is for ever de- 
 prived of his order. It is the same with deposition and degrada- 
 tion. It is usually for some heinous crime deserving death, and i". 
 performed by the bishop in a solemn manner. See Degrada- 
 tion. 
 
 DEPTFORD, a town of England, situated on the Thames, 
 partly in the county of Kent, and partly in Surry. It was gene- 
 rally known in ancient records by the name of Deptford Strond, 
 alias West Greenwich, a name winch, in latter times, became solely 
 appropriated to the lower parts of it, on the banks of the Thames, 
 tlie upper town retaining that of Deptford oidy. It is four miles 
 E. of London. 
 
 DEPTH, in geometry, the same with altitude; though, strictly 
 speaking, we only use the depth to denote how much one body, 
 or part of a body, is below another. See Height, &:c. 
 
 Depth of a Battalion, SauADRON, &c. the number of men 
 in a file, or who stand before each other in a straight line. In the 
 ancient armies thir, was very great. 
 
 DEPURiVTORY Fever, a name given by Sydenham to a 
 fever which prevailed much in l6bl, 1662, 1663, and 1664. He 
 supposed that nature regulated all the symptoms in such a manner, 
 as to fit the febrile matter, prepared by proper concoction, for ex- 
 pulsion in a certain time, either by a copious sweat or a freer per- 
 spiration. 
 
 DEPUTATION, a mission of select persons out of a company, 
 or body, to a prince or assembly, to treat of matters in their name. 
 Thry are more or less solemn, according to the quality of those 
 who send them, and the business they are sent upon. 
 
 DEPUTY, is one tliat exercises an office in another's right ; 
 and the forfeiture or misdemeanor of such deputy shall cause the 
 person, whom he represents, to lo:.e his office. There is a great dif- 
 ference between a deputy and assigneeof an office ; for an assignee 
 has an interest in the office itself, and docs all things in his o^^n 
 name, for which his grantor sju.ll not answer unless in special case ; 
 but a deputy has not any interest in the office, but is only the 
 shadow of an ofticer, in wliose name he does all things. 9 Hep. 
 49. A superior ol'ficer must answer for his deputy in civil actions 
 if he is not sullicient; but in criminal cases it is otherwise, where 
 deputies are lo answer for themselves. 2 Inst. 191. 
 
 DERAS, a large town of Asia, in Persia. Lon, 61. 56. E. Lat. 
 31.32. N. 
 
 DERBEND, or DERBENT, a town of Persia, said to have 
 been founded by Alexander the Great. It is sealed near the Cas- 
 pian Sea, at the foot of Mount Caucasus. 
 
 Derbend, orDERBENT, a town of Turkey, in Romania, twenty 
 miles N. of Adri.'.nnple. 
 
 DERBY, or DERBYSHIRE, a county of England, bounded 
 
 on
 
 DER 
 
 uri 
 
 1) ER 
 
 on tlie N. i)y Yoiksliiie ; on tlie E. by NoLiiughamsiiKX- ; on Iht 
 S. 1)\ L' .<■< slershiiL-; and a point ot VVjiruickdiiie ; on tlieW. 
 by Sl;iioiii-lnrf ; an<1 on tlie N. W. Ijy Ciieslure. It extciicis 59 
 iiiiles m lentil tVcmi N. to S. and 34 fVoni E. to VV. where broad- 
 est. Tlic principal vivers are tlie Derweiit, Dove, Erwasi), and 
 
 Tu'Mt. 
 
 Deuby, the comity town of Derbyshire, seated on the Der- 
 ><vent, over wliicli It lias a li:MKl5ome stone bridge. It is 36 miles 
 ■N. of Coventry. Lon. 1. 2J. W. Lat. 52. 5S. N. 
 
 Derbv, UighPeik or, a chain of very high inouiitainr. in 
 TJerbysiiire, lu llie.-e nionntains there are two reinarkable caverns, 
 •tolled KIdcn-liole, and Pool's-hole. Tiie soil is so shallow that it 
 Iiardlv adniits cf jilowing, but atforcLs i^ood pasture for sheep. 'I'he 
 Peak properly so called, is reckoned tlie highest mountain in ICiig- 
 land. 
 
 DEREHAM, a town of Norfolk, 14 miles W. of Norwich. 
 DER ELI CIS, snch lands as the sea, by recedin;^ from tluMii, 
 4cave> dry and rit for cullivalion. If they are left by a !;radiivd re- 
 cess of the sea, llu-y are aujnd|ied to belnna; to the owner of the 
 adjoining lands ; but when an island is tornied in the seJ, or a large 
 ■t|Mantily ot new land appears, snch derelict lands belong to (he 
 king. 
 
 . D.EUEOUTE, orDElKOlJTE, a town of Egypt between 
 Cairo and Koscua. 
 
 DEUIIAM, Dr. William, a celebrated English philosopher 
 aii.l divine, born in l(i57. In IfiS'J, he was presented to the vica- 
 rage of VVanrrave in I'eVkshire, and, in 16S9, to the ivctory of Up- 
 iiiiiiiter in Essex. Applying hiniscU' with great eagerness to natu- 
 ral and experimental philosophy, he soon became a distinguished 
 ineiuber of the Ruval So'.-Jetv, whose Phdosophical Transaclions 
 contain a great variety of curious and vaUiable pieces, the f^ui^^ of 
 -Ills Liidable indu-lry. In his younger years he published his 
 Artihcial Cloek-inaker, which has been o'.ten printed : and in 
 1711, 171-, and 1714, lie pn-ached tho^e sermons at Boyle's lec- 
 •■ture, wiiich he afterward digested under the well-known titles of 
 I'liysico-Theology and Astro-Theology, and enriched villi valu- 
 able notes ar,d copper- plates. The last thing he published was 
 <..'hristo- 1 he'-logy, a demonstration of the divine authority of the 
 Christian religion, being the substance of a sermon jireached at Bath 
 in 17-i>. This great and good man, after spi-iiding his life in the 
 most agreeable as well as improving study of nature, died at Up- 
 iiiinster in 1735; and, besides many other works, left a valuable 
 collection of curiosities, particularly specimens of birds and insects 
 of this island. Dr. Derliam w as well skilled in medical as well as 
 in physical knowledge ; and was constantly a physician to tlie 
 bodies as well as the souls of his p«rishioners. 
 
 DERIG, a small island, near the west coast of Ireland, and 
 county ot .Sligo. Lon. 8. 24. W. Lat. 54. 55. N. 
 
 DF.UIN'A 1 IVE, in grammar, a word which takes its origin 
 i'rom another word, called iis primiti\ e. Thus the word derivative 
 itself takes its origin from the primitive rivus, a rivulet or channel, 
 out of which no less streams are drawn; a;id thus deity, iiian- 
 iiood, la'.wer, &c. are derived from detis, man, law, &c. 
 
 DEHNl EsTES, a genus of insects of the order coleoptera. 
 Antenna; clavate, the club perfoliate, tliree of the joints thicker; 
 thorax conveN, slightly margined; head indected, and hidden 
 under the thorax. Gmelin reckons about yo S))ecies, in three 
 sections. A. jaw bilid. 15. jaw one-toothed. C. feelei-s four, 
 clavaie, the last joint larger. This genus consists principally of 
 small insects. Their larva- are found among skins, furs, and vari- 
 ous animal substances of a dry kinti, on wiiich they live. They 
 are exceedinaly destructii'e to books, furniture, and collections of 
 jiatiiral history. In the grub state they arc --f a lengthened oval 
 •sliape, and hairy, especially towards the eiul of the body. The 
 complete insect has the habit of withdrawing the iiead beneath the 
 thorax when handled. 
 
 D. VioLACEt'S is a beautiful little insect: its elvtra are of a 
 ■deep viol.-t blue. The thorax is co"Cred with greenish hairs, the 
 legs are black. The whole animal being of a glittering brilliancy 
 renders it a pleasing object. The larva, as well as the perfect in- 
 sect, inha'.iils the bodies of dead animals. 
 
 DEUNE, a town of Africa, in 'J'ripoli, near the sea-coast. 
 Lon. 22. 45. E. Lat. 32. 55. N. 
 
 DERtiGATORY Clause, in a testament, is a certain sen- 
 tence, cipher, or secret character, which the testator inserts in his 
 vrill, and of which he reserves tlieknowledgetohimsclf alone, add- 
 voL. n. — NO. 64. 
 
 ing a condition, that no will he may make hereafter is to be 
 reckoned valid, if this derogatorj clause is not inserted expressly 
 and word for word. It is a precaution invented by lawyers against: 
 latter wills e.xtoiled by violence, or obtained by suggestion. 
 DERP, a jiaLtinatc of Livonia. 
 
 Deki', the capital of the above palatinate. Lon. 26. 15. E. Lat. 
 5S. 30. N. 
 
 DERRY, or LONDONDERRY, a town and county of 
 Ireland, in Ulster. See Londonderry. 
 
 DfLRVENTiO, in ancient geography, 1. a river of the Bri- 
 gantes in Britain ; now called Darwent, in Y'orkshire : 2. a town 
 of the Brigantes, sealed on the river; now called Auldby. 
 
 DER VIS', or DER V] Gil, a name given to a sort of monks 
 among the Turks, who lead a very atisterc life, and profess ex- 
 treiViC I'overly ; though they are allowed to marry. ^1 he word is 
 originally Persian, f'W, signifying a beggcir, or person who has 
 nothing: and because the religious, and parlicularb. the followers 
 of Mevelava, profess not to possess any thing, they call both 
 the religious in general, and the Mevelavites in particular) 
 dervises. 
 
 Dervises, Egyftian^, and Syrian. There are in Egypt 
 several Kintis: those that are in convents, are in a manner of the 
 religious order, and live retired ; though there are of these some 
 who travel and return again to tlicir convents. Some take this 
 character, and yet live with their families, and exercise their trades: 
 of this kind are the dancing dervises at Damascus, who go once or 
 twice a week to a little uninhabited convent, and perferm their 
 extraordinary exercises: these also seem to be a good people : 
 but there is a' third sort of them who travel about the country, and 
 beg, or rather olilige people to give, for whenever they sound their 
 horn something must be given them. The |ieople of those 
 orders, in Egviit, wear an octagonal badge, of a greenish white 
 alabaster, at their girdles, and a high stiii' cap without any thing 
 round it. 
 
 Dervises, Persian. The dervises in Persia, are called Ab- 
 dals, g. d. servants of God. They lead a very penurious, austere 
 life, and preach the Alcoran in the streets, coHVe-houses, and 
 wherever thev can meet with auditors. The Persian dervises re- 
 tail liule but "fables to the people, and are in the utmost contempt 
 among the men ofsen-.e and letters. 
 
 Dervises, Turkish. The dervises called Mevelavites, are a 
 Mohammedan order of religious ; the chief or founder whereof was 
 one Mevelava. They are now very numerous. Their chiet mo- 
 nastery is that near Cogna in Natolia, where the general makes his 
 residence, and where all the assemblies of the order are held; the 
 other houses being all dependent on this, by a privilege granted to 
 this monastery under Ottoman I. The dervises alTect a great deal 
 of modesty, patience, humility, and charity. They always go 
 bare-legged and open-breasted, and frequently burn themselves 
 with hot irons, to inure themselves to patience. They always fast 
 on Wednesdays, eating nothing on those days till alter sun-set. 
 Tuesdays and Fridays they hold meetings, at which the superior 
 jiresides. One of them plavs all the while on a llute, and the rest 
 dance, turning their bodies round and round wUh the greatest 
 swiftness imaginable. Long ciutom to this exercise from their 
 youth has brought them to such a habitu<le, that it does not dis- 
 compose them at all. This practice they observe with great 
 strictness, in memory of Mevelava their patriarch's turning mira- 
 culously round, as they pretend, for the s|)ace of four days with- 
 out any food or refreshment ; his companion llamsa playing all the 
 while on the llute: after which he fell into an extasy, and therein 
 received wonderful revelations for the establishment of his order. 
 They believe the llute an instrument consecrated by Jacob and the 
 shepherds of the Old Testament, because they sang the praises of 
 Goil upon them. They profess poverty, chastity, and obedience, 
 and really observe them while they remain dervises; but if they 
 choose to' go out and marry, they are ;dways allowed. 'I'he gene- 
 rality of dervises are mountebanks: some apply themselves to 
 legerdemain, impostures, &c. to amuse the people; others pretend 
 to sorcery and magic: but all of them, contrary to Mohammed's 
 precept, are said to drink wine, brandy, and other strong liquors, 
 to give them the degree of gaiety their order requires. Besides 
 their great saint Mevelava, there are particular saints honoured in 
 particular monasteries : as Kiderele, greatly revered in the mo- 
 nasteries ot Egypt, and held by some to be St. George; and by 
 other with more probability, tlie prophet Elias. 1 he dervises 
 2 M are
 
 DES 
 
 134 
 
 DES 
 
 are great travtllers; and, uiuli'i' pretence of preaching, and pro- 
 paL!;iliijg their I'ailh, are coiiruiiiall\ passing troni one piace to 
 anutlier: on which acconnt llipy have been iVequentiy used as 
 sp\es. 
 
 DKKWENT, the name of four rivers of Enphmii: viz. 1. in 
 Cumberland: 2. in Derbysliire : 3. in ]3urliam : 4 in Yorksliire, 
 rising in tlie N. Ridmtr, and running S. full^ into the Ouse below 
 Yorii. 
 
 Derwent Fells, or Derwent Water Fells, a cliain of 
 monnlainniii Cumberland, reckoned among the loftiest in Engkuid. 
 
 DEKnE.NT Wi^TER, or the Lake of Keswick, a beantirul 
 lake of Cumberland, in the vale of Keswick, lying between Ih.e 
 mountain of Skiddaw on the N. and the craggy hills of Bnrrodale 
 on the S. whence it derives its chief supplies of water. It is four 
 miles long and al>ove one broad. 
 
 Dli;5AtjULULES, John Theopkilus, F. R. S. the son of 
 John Desaguliers, a French proteslant refugee, was born at llo- 
 chelle in 16S3. His father brought him to England an infant ; and 
 at a proper age placed him at Chrisl-tluircli college, OxUird; 
 •v.'here he succeeded Dr. Keil in reading lectures on experimental 
 pltilosophy at Hart Hall. The niagnihccnt duke of Chantios made 
 Dr. Desaguliers his cliapldn, and presented liim to the living of 
 Edgware, near his seat at Cannojis ; ajid he was afterwards chap- 
 lain to Fred'-'ric prince of Wales. He introduced the practice of 
 readnig public leclnres on experinjenlcd philosophy, in London: 
 and continued Ihem with great success to the time of his deatii fn 
 174y. He n\ade several improvements in mechanics, and c.oiii- 
 uinnicated many curious papers printed in the Philosophical 
 'I'ransactions ; published a valuable " Course of Experimental 
 Philosophy," in 2 vols, 4to ; and gave an edition of "Gregory's 
 Elements of Catoptrics and Dioptrics," with an Appendix on re- 
 flecting telescopes, 8vo. He was also a member of several foreign 
 aciidemie'i. 
 
 DESART, or DESERT, a large e.\tent of country entirely 
 barren, and producing nothing. In this sense some are sandv 
 tiesarts ; as tliosc of Lop, Xamo, Arabia, and several others in Asia; 
 in Africa, those of Libya and Zara : others are stony, as the desart 
 of I'haran in Arabia Petrea. 
 
 DE.SCANT, in music, the art of composing in several parts. 
 Descant is three-fold, viz. plain, ligLiralive, and double. 
 
 1. Descant, Double, is when the parts are so contrived, thai 
 the treble, or any high pari, may be made the bass ; and, on the 
 contrary, the bass the treble. 
 
 i.'. Descant, FiGC'RATivE or Flokid, is that part of an air of 
 music wherein some discords are concerned, as well, though not 
 so much, as concords. "^I his may be ternjed the ornamental and 
 rhetorical part of music, in regard that there are introduced 
 all the varieties of points, syncopes, diversities of measures, and 
 whatever is capable of adorning the composition. 
 
 .3. Descant, Plain, is the ground work and foundation of all 
 musical compositions, consisting altogether in the orderly placing 
 of many concords answering to simple co\mter|>oint. 
 
 DESCENDAN T, in genealogy, a term relative to ascendant, 
 and applied to a person who is born or issued from some other re 
 ferred to: thus mankind are said to be the descendants of Adam. 
 See the article Descent. 
 
 DESCENSION, or DESCENDING, in general, signifies 
 much the same w ith descent. 
 
 DescensiON, in astronomy, is either right or oblique. 
 
 Descension, Right, is an arch of the equinoctial, intercepted 
 between the vernal equinoctial point and the inter^ection of tlie 
 meridian, passing through the ctr;tre of the object, at its setting, in 
 a right sphere. See .Astronomy, and Ascension. 
 
 Descension, Obliuue, an arch of the equinoctial Intercepted 
 between the vernal equinoctial point and the horizon, passing 
 through the centre of the object, at its setting, in an oblique 
 sphere. See Astronomy, and Ascension. 
 
 DESCENSIONAL, something belonging to descension. See 
 Descension. 
 
 Desce.nsional Difference, that between the right and 
 oblique descension of any heavenly body. .See Descension. 
 
 DESCENT, in general, is the tendency of a body from a high- 
 er to a lower place ; thus all bodies, unless otherwise determined 
 by a force superior to their gravity, descend towards the centre of 
 the earth: the planets too may be said to descend from tlic 
 aphelion to the perihelion of their orbits, as tlie moon does from 
 
 the apogee to the perigee. Heavy botlies, meeting with no re- 
 sistance descend with an uniformly accel. rated motion. See Me- 
 cHA.vics, and Gra\tiy. 
 
 Desce.nt, in heraldry, i> used to express the coming down of 
 any thing trom above : "as, a lion en descent i- a lion with his head 
 towards the base points, and his heels towards one of the cornei-s ol 
 the chief, as if he were leaping down from some high place. 
 
 Descent,- or Heredit.ary Succession, in law, is the title 
 wliereby a man, on the ileath of his ancestor, acquires his estate 
 by right of representation, as his heir at law. An heir, therefore, 
 is he upon wliom the law casts the estate immediately on the deatii. 
 of the ancestor: and an estate so descending to the heir is in l..w 
 called the inhcriiance. See I.NiiEiitiANCE. Descent is either 
 Hneal or collateral: 
 
 1. Descent, Collateral, is that springing out of the side of. 
 the line or blood; as from a iHan to his brother, nephew, or the 
 like. See Consanguinity. 
 
 U. Dfscent, Lineal, is that cenveyed down in a right line from 
 Ihe grandhithe? to the father, from the father to the son, and from the 
 son to the grandson, &c. 
 
 Descent of Ijignities. A dignity differs from common in- 
 heritances, and goes not according to the rules of the commoa 
 lasv: for it dt-scends to the half-blood; and there is no coparcener- 
 ship in It, but the ehlest takes the whole. The dignity of peerage- 
 is personal, annexed to the blood ; and so inseparable, that it can- 
 not be transferred to any person, nor surrendered even to thecrowi? 
 it can move neither forward nor backward, but only downward to 
 posterity; and nothing but corruplioH ot blood, as ii the ancestor 
 be attainted of treason or Itlony, can hinder the descent to the 
 right heir. 
 
 DESCENTS, in fortification, are the holes, vaults, and hcdlaw 
 places, made by undermining the ground. '1 lie descent into the 
 moat or ditch is a deejj passage made through the esplanade and 
 covert-way, in form ot a trench, whereof the upp' r pan is covereil 
 with madners anil clays, to secure the besiegers from the enemy's 
 lire. In wet ditches this trench is on a level willi the surface o£ 
 the water, but iu dry cues it is sunk as deep as the bottom of the 
 ditch. 
 
 DESCRIRENT, iugeoraelry,a lineor surface, whicli, by mov- 
 ing parallel to itself, describes a surt.ice or solid. 
 
 DESCRIPTION, ill the modern fashionable dialect, is used as 
 a sub,^tilllte for sort or kind, and in this sease is applied both to j>er' 
 sons and ihinirs. 
 
 DE^CKlPTJON, in literary composition, is such a strong and beauti- 
 ful representation ot a thing, as gives the readers a distinct view and 
 satisfactory notion of it. See Narration. 
 
 Description. In deeds and grants there must be a certain de- 
 scription of the lands granted, the places where they lie, and the per- 
 sons to whom granted, &c. to make them good. But wills are 
 more favoured than grants as to those dcfscriptions ; and a wrong 
 description of the person will not make a devise void, if there be 
 otherwise a su.'Vicient certainty, what jierson was intended by the 
 testator. Where a first description of laud, &c. is false, though, 
 the second be true, a deed will be void : contra, if tlie lirstbe true 
 and the second false. 
 
 DESEADA, DESIRADA, or DESIDERADA, the fii-st 
 of the Caribbee islands, discovered by Columbus in hi» second 
 voyage, anno 1494, when be gave it that name. It is situated E. 
 of Guadaloupe. 
 
 DesEada, or Cape Desire, the S. point of the S'.raits of Ma- 
 gellan. 
 
 DESEADEN, a town of Persia, in the plovince of Segestan,^ 
 30 miles S. S. E. of Kin. 
 
 DESENZANO, or DISSENZANO, a town of the late Cisal- 
 pine republic, Ij miles E. of Brescia. 
 
 DESERT ISLAND, Mount, an island of the United States, 
 on the coast of the district of Maine. 
 
 DESERl'EH, in a military sense, a soldier who, by running 
 away from his regiment or company, abandons the service. A 
 deserter is, by the articles of war, punishable by death, and, after 
 conviction, is hanged at the head ot the regiment he formerly be- 
 longed to, w.itli his crimewrit on his breast, andsuilered to hang till 
 the army leave that camp, for a terror to others. 
 
 DESHACHE, in heraldry, is w here a beast has its limbs se- 
 parated trom its body, so that they still remain on the- escut- 
 cheon, with only a suiall separation iroui tiitsii- natural places. 
 
 PESIDERArUM,
 
 D'ES 
 
 135 
 
 DET 
 
 DKSIDEllAl UM, [Lut.] soineuhal which ciKniiiy lias nol 
 yel been able to s.-ltle or dincover; as. the Icngitiui^ is a deside- 
 ratum of naviijation. I'he trisectioii of an angle, and the quadra- 
 ture of a circle, are desiderata of gecinctry. 
 
 DESIGN', sigiiilicsthe plan, order, representation, or construc- 
 tion, of a building, book, painting. Sec. See Archiiectlre, His- 
 tory, Oratory, Painti.vo, and Pof.try. 
 
 DbsiGK, in manutactories expresses the figures wherewith the 
 workman enriches his stulf orsilk, and which lie copies alter some 
 painter or emuient draiightsniin, as in diaper, damask, and other 
 tlowcred silk and tape>try, and the like. In th.e undertaking of such 
 kmds of figured slutls, it is nece^ary, saiis Mfins. Savary, that, 
 before the hiNt stroke of the sliuttle, the whole design be represent- 
 ed on the threads of the warp, we do not mrau in colours, but with 
 an inlinite number of lutle packthreads, which being di-posed so 
 as to raise tlie threads of the warp, let tJie workmen see, from time 
 to time, what kind of silk is to be put in the eye of the shuttle for 
 woof. This method of preparins t!ie work is called rcachn;j the 
 (lesign, and reading the figure, which ij perlornied in the following 
 manner: A paper is i)rovitU'd, considerably broader than the stuff, 
 and of a length proportionate to what is intended to be represented 
 tliereon. Ibis they divide lenglliwisc, by as many black lines as 
 there are intended threads in the warp ; and cross these lines, by 
 others drawn breadlliui-<e, wliicli, witii the for.ier, make little 
 ccjiial s.inares ; on the paper thus squared, tiie draughtsman cle^-gns 
 his figurt"?, aotl heigth-ns them wrth coloui's as he sees fit. When 
 the design is finished, a svorkmari reads it, while anotlier lavs it on 
 thesimblot. loread the design, is to tell the person who manages 
 the loom, the number of squares or threads comprised in the space 
 lie is reading, inlim..ting at the same time, whether it is ground or 
 ftgure. To put what is read on the simblot, is to lasten little strings 
 to the several packilireads, which are to raise (he thre;;d> named; 
 and this they continue to do till the whole design is reail. Every 
 piece being compo'^ed of several repetitions of the same design, 
 when the whole design is drawn, the drawer, to re-begin the <lesign 
 afre-h, has nothing to do but to raise Ihe little strings, viilh slip- 
 knots, to tl-.c top of the sinililot, which he had laid down to tlie 
 bottom . this he is to repeat as olten as is necessary till the whole 
 is maiiufartnred. '1 he ribbon weavers have likewise a design, 
 but far more simple than that now described. It is drawn on 
 ])aper with lines ami s(|uares, representing the threads of the warp 
 and woof. But instead of lines, wiiereof the ligures of the former 
 consist, these are constituted of points only, or il;-.ts, placetl in cer 
 fain of the little scjiiares formed by the intersection of the lines. 
 These points mark the threads of the warp that are tolje raised, 
 and the spaces left blank denote the threads that are to keep their 
 situation: the rest is managed as in the former. 
 
 Design, in music, isj;;sily defined by Rousseau to be the in- 
 vtiuioii and th.e conduct of the subject, the disposition of ever( 
 part, and tlie general order ot the whole. It is in a distribution 
 formed with intelligence and ta^fe, in a just proportion between all 
 the par;>, that the peiiection of design consists; and it is above all, 
 in this point, that tiie immortal Persoleso has sliewn his judgement 
 and his taste, and has left so far behind him all his competitors. 
 His Stabat Mater, liis Orseo, his Serva Padrona, are, in three 
 different species of composition, three masterpieces of design 
 equally perfect. Tliis idea of the general design of a work is like- 
 wise particularly applicable to every piece of which it_ consists ; 
 thus the composer plans an air, a duelt, a chorus, &c. For this 
 purp"se, after having invented his subject, he distributes it, ac- 
 coixling to the rules of a legitimate modulation, into all the parts 
 where it ought to be perceived, in such a ])roportion, that its im- 
 pression may net be lost on the minds of the au lience; ^e^ tliat it 
 may never bereiterau-d in their ears, without the graces of novelty. 
 'I'he composer errs in designing who suffers his subject to be for- 
 got ; he is still more culpable who pursues it till it becomes trite and 
 tiresome. • 
 
 Design is particularly used, in painting, for the first idea of a 
 large work, drawn roughly, and in liltl.-, with an intention to be 
 executed and finished in lars>e. In this sense, it is the simple con- 
 tour or outlines of the figures intended to be represented, or the 
 lines that terminate and circumscribe theni : such design is some- 
 times drawn in crayons or ink, without any shadows at all ; some- 
 times it i? hatched, tJiat is, the shadcHVS are e.xpressed by sensible 
 
 outlines, usually drawn across each other with the pen, crayon, or 
 graver. 
 
 DE.SIGN,\T()R of an Estate is made by the tenants, hut- 
 ments, and bonndiiigs. Among theKomaiis, there wen- designations 
 ot the consuls and otiier magistrates, some time belore their 
 elections. 
 
 DESIGNATOR, a Roman officer, who assigned and marked 
 each pereon his place and rank in public ceremon cs, shews, pro- 
 cessions, SiC. He was a kind of master of the ceremonies, w ho re- 
 gulated the seats, march, order, &c. 
 
 DESIGN ING, the art ol delin ating or drawing the appearr 
 aiice of natural objects, by linci, on a plane. '1 o design, accord-- 
 ingtotheniles of mathematics, makes the object of true perspective. 
 See Perspective. 
 
 DESOLATION. See Kerguelen's La.vd. 
 
 DESPOT, [Jfi/iroln;,] an absolute prince ; one that governs with 
 unlimited authority. Despot originally signified the same witfi 
 /lertis, a master ; f.ut in time it underwent the same fate on medaU 
 ds, among tiie Roniaii3, Ca;sar did with regard to Augustus ; 
 BAci.vETC, king, answering to Augustus, and AECnoTHC, despot, to 
 C;usar. Thus, Nicepliorus having ordered his son Stauracius to bs 
 crowned, the son, out of respect would only take the name 
 .::iEtnoTHC, leaving to his father that of baciaeTc. The following 
 enqwrors, however, preferred the fiualitv ot AEcnoTHc to that of 
 BA JACTc; particularly C'onstantine XII. Michael Ducas, Ro- 
 manuj Diogenes, Niccphorus Botoniates, the Conineni, and some 
 others. In imitation of the princes, the prince ses likewise as- 
 sumed the title of jsEcnoiNA. it was the emperor AIcmus Ange- 
 1ns that created th.e dignity of despot, and made it the first afiec 
 that of emperor, or Augustus, above those of Sebastocrator and 
 Ca'sar. Des|)ot is at present a title of quality given to the princes 
 ot Wallacliia, Servia, and some ot the neiglibouring countries. 
 
 DESP()T1SM is particularly used lor an arbitrary govemmenty 
 where the power of the prince is unlimited, and his w 'il a law tiy 
 his subjects : such arc those of Turkey, Persia, and most of the 
 eastern governments; and even those of Euroiie, if we e.\cept 
 our own government. 
 
 DESPOLTELE, in heraldry, the whole 'ase, skin, or slougK 
 of a beast, with tlie head, feet, tail, and all appurtenances, so that 
 being filled and stuHi-d it looks like the entire creature. 
 
 DESSAl', cr DESS.Wv. a strong town of Germany, in Upper 
 Saxony, 37 miles N. ol I.eipsic. 
 
 DE.S 1 INTES, in mvthologv. See Parcie. 
 
 DICSTKUCTION, an alteration of any tliir>g from its natural 
 state, to one contrary to nature ; whereby it is deemed tie same 
 with corruption. 
 
 Destruction, Chemical, or CoRBUPTroN, is nothing but a 
 resolution of tiie whole naturally mi\t body into its parts. 
 
 DESUETOR, in anli(|uity, a vauUer or leaper, who, leading 
 one horse by the bridle, an<l riding anotiier jumped from the back 
 of the one to the other, as'the custom was, after they iiad run se- 
 veral courses or heats. This practice 'required great dexterity, 
 being perlormed before the use of either saddles or stirrnps. 
 
 DETACHED PIECES, in fortilicaticn, are such out-works, 
 as are detached, or at a distance from the bodj of the^place; as 
 demilunes, ravelines, bastions, &c. In painting, the figures are 
 sail! to be well detached, when they st.aid free and disengaged 
 from I'acli other. 
 
 DETACHMENT, in military affairs, a certain number of sol- 
 diers drawn out from several regiments or companies e(iual'y, to be 
 employed as the general th.nks proper, whether on an attack, at a, 
 siege, or in parties to scour the country. A dctachiiient of two 
 or three thousand men, is a commiaid for a brigadier; eight hun- 
 dred, ior a colonel ; four or hve hur.died, fiir a lieutenant-colonel. 
 A Captain never marches on a detachment with less than hity men, 
 a lieutenant, an ensign, and two Serjeants. A lieutenant is allowed 
 thii'tv, and a Serjeant ; and a sereant ten or twelve men. Detach- 
 ments are sometimes made of intire si;uadrons and battaliciis. 
 
 DE'l AINDER, the name of a writ mr holding one iu custody, 
 
 DETEN TS, in a clock, are those stops which, by being lifted 
 up or let fall down, lock and unlock the clock in striking. 
 
 Detent Wheel, or Hoop Wheel, in a clock, a wheel ♦ 
 w hieh has a hoop almost rouud itj wherein there is a vacancy, at 
 which the clock locks. - 
 
 DETERGENTS,
 
 D ELI 
 
 l.i(5 
 
 1) K V 
 
 DKTKRGliNTS, in pharmacv, sucli medicines us ;iie not onlv 
 «o1teniiis and adhesive, but ;ilso, by a peculiar activity, cojijoined 
 vith a suitable conliguratioii of pai'ls, are apt to abrade and carry 
 along with them such particles as they lay hold on in their pass- 
 age. 
 
 DETERMINATE PRnBt.EM, in geonieli-y, that which has 
 but one, or at least, a limited nirnber ol answers: as the followiiit; 
 problem, which has Init onf oisly soUainn, viz. To describe an 
 isosceles triangle on a given line, whose angles at the base shall be 
 (iSnbIc that at the vertex. IJnt the tollowing hath two solutions, 
 viz. To find an isosceles triangle, wliose area and perimeter are 
 given. A determinate problem miy be cither simple, linear, 
 plain, solid, &c. 
 
 DETER.MFN.ATIOX, among divines, is an act of divine 
 power, limiting the agency of second causes, in every instance, to 
 ■wliat the Deity predestinated concerning tbcni. See PitEDESTi- 
 
 KATION. 
 
 Detf.rmikstion, in meclianics, signifies nnnh the same with 
 tendency or dirtction of a body in motion. See Mi:o!ianu'S. 
 
 DETERSn'E, an application th.at has the power of cleansing 
 uounds. 
 
 DETHMOLD, or DETMOLD, a town of Germ.jiy, in 
 Westphalia, C.i miles S. S. W. of Miiiden. 
 
 DETINUE, \_drirnug, Fr.] a writ that lies against liim, who, 
 liaving goods or chattels delivered him to Keep, refuses to deliver 
 them again. 
 
 Detikue lies for any thing certain and valnahle, wherein one 
 iiuiy have a property or right; as for a liorse, cow, sheep, hens, 
 <logs, jewels, plate, cloth, bags of money, sacks of com, &e. It 
 ■must be laid so certain, that the tiling ditained may be known and, 
 recovered: and therefore, for money out of a bag, or corn out of 
 ;> sack, &rc. it lies not; for the money or corn cannot, in this case, 
 he known from other money or corn; so that the party must have 
 an action on the case, &c. Yet detinue may be brought tor a 
 
 fiece of gold of the price of 22.s. though not for 22.?. in money, 
 n this action, the thing detained is generally to hv recovered, and 
 iiot damages; but if one cannot receiver the thing itself, he shall 
 recover damages for the thing, and also for the det;uner. In or- 
 <ler, therefore, to ground an action of detinue, which is only for 
 Ihe detaining, these points are jieces-ary: l.That the defendant 
 came lawfully by the goods, as either by delivery to him, or iind- 
 ing them. 2. 'J'hat the plaintilT have a jiroperty. 3. That the 
 goods themselves be of value. And 4. Tliat they be ascertained 
 in point of identity. Upon this, the jury, if they find for the 
 plaintilf, assess tlie resjiective values of the several parcels detain- 
 ed, and also damages lor the detention, and the judgement is con- 
 liitional, that the plaintiir recover the said goods, or (if they cannot 
 be had) their respective values, and also the damages for detaitiing 
 tbem. 
 
 DETONATION, [f/fJoMo, Lat] in chemistry, an explosion with 
 noise, made by the intlammation of a combustible body. Decre- 
 pitation differs from detonation only as producing a fainter noise, 
 or merely a kind of crackling sound peculiar to certain salts. 
 F'ulmination is a more quick and liveiv detonation, such as takes 
 place with certain prepar.Uions of gold, silver, mercury, Sec. 
 
 DETRANCHE, in heraldry, a line bend-wise, proceeding 
 always from the dexter side, but not from the very angle diago- 
 iiallv atliwart the shield. 
 
 n-ETKOir, or D'ETROIT FORT, one of the principal 
 •towns, an'I best fortilicd, in the north-western territory of the I'nil- 
 ed States: situated on the W. bank of the DT'.troit, 78 miles N. 
 of Lake Erie. 
 
 D'Etroit Ri\'f:R, or Strait of St. Clair, flov.s from I;.ke 
 St. Clair into the W. end of lake Erie, forming part of the boun- 
 dary between the Uriited States, and Ujjper Canada. 
 
 DEVA, a sea-port town of Spain, 1 J miles W. of St. Sebastian. 
 DEUCALION, king of Thessaly. The tlood said to have 
 liappened in his time, about 15. C. 1500, is supposed to have been 
 only an inundation of that country, occasioned by heavy rains, 
 and an earthquake that stopped the course of the river Peneus, 
 vhere it usually discharged itself into the sea. According to the 
 ^ mythology, he was the son of Prometheus. He governed his peo- 
 ple with equity; but the rest of mankind being extremely wicked, 
 vrere destroyed by a Hood, while Deucalion, and Pyrrha his 
 «^ueeii, saved tkeinselves by ascending iiiotmt Parnassus. WJien 
 
 the waters were decreased, they went and consulted the oracle of 
 Themis, on the means by whicli tlie earth was to be rcpeoph-d; 
 when they were ordered to veil their heads and faces, to unleose _ 
 their girdles, and throw beliind their backs the bones of their great 
 mother. .A-t this advice Pyrrha was seized with hoiror; but Deu- 
 calion expRiined the iiiysterv, by ob'<erving, that their great mo- 
 ther must mean the eartli, and her brKii's the stones; xvlieii takingf 
 them lip, those Deucalion threw over his head became men, and 
 those thrown by Pyrriia women. Dr. Bryant and others have 
 supposed, that Deucalion was the same with the patriarch Noalr; 
 and that his liood in Thessaly, as well as that of (>gyge3 in Attica; 
 and of Prometheus in Egypt, were the same with that of Noah re- 
 corded in Scripture. 
 DEVENSHRING. See DEvoysHr.ERi.NG. 
 DE\'ENTER, a large, strong, trading, and populous town oF 
 Holland, 50 m.ilcs E. ot Amsterdam. 
 
 DEVICE, among |iainteis. See Devisf,. 
 DE^TCOTTA, "a town of India, in tl;e Carnalic, 20 miles N* 
 of Tranqueh.ar. 
 
 DEVIL, an evil angel, one of those celestial spirits cast down 
 from lieaven, for pretending to equal Inmseif with. God. The 
 Ethiopians paint the devil white, to be ev-eu with '.iie ICavope;:ns, 
 ulio paint him black. There is no mention of tiiC word devil in 
 the Old Testament, but only of the words Satan and Peliai: nor 
 do we meet with it in any heatiien authors, in the sense it is taken 
 among Christians, that is, as a Creature revoltetl from Gpd. •Their 
 theology went no lartlter than to evil gcjiii or danions. ' See Da- 
 mon, and Dtemoniac. Some of the American idolatei's have a 
 notion of two collateral independent beings, one of v. Ironi is good, 
 and the other evil; w liich last ti.ey imagine h.as the directicn r.i.d 
 superintendence of this caith, for which reason they chieDy wor- 
 sliip him ; u hence those that give iis an account of the relij.'Jon of 
 these savages give out, that they worsliip the devil, 'i lie Chal- 
 deans and Persians, in like manner, believed both a good princi- 
 ple and an evil one; which last they imagined was an eneinv to 
 mankind. Isaiah, siieaking according to some commentators, of 
 the fall of the devil, calls him Lucifer, from his former elevation 
 and state of glory: but olliers explain this passage of Isaiah in re- 
 ference to the king of Babylon, who had l>een precipitated from 
 Ills throne and glory. The Arabians call Lucifer Lblis; wIulU 
 some think is only a diminutive, or corruption of the word Dia- 
 bolns. 
 
 Devil on the Keck, a tormenting engine made of iron, 
 straitening and wincing the neck of a man, with his legs togeth.er, 
 in a horrible manner; ^o that the more lie stirs in it, the straiter it 
 presses him ; formerly used by the persecuting papists. 
 
 Devil's Arse-a-peak, a great uiifathoinable hole or cavern ia 
 Derbyshire. 
 
 Devils Pit, in botany. See Scabiosa. 
 
 DEVISE, or DE^TCE, in heraldry, painting, and sculpture, 
 an eniblein used to represent a certain family, person, action, or 
 quality; with a suitable motto, applied in a iigurative sense. See 
 Motto. The essence of a device consists in metaphorical simili- 
 tude between the things representing and represented: thus, a 
 young noblemanj of great courage and aiid)ition, is said to have 
 borne his devise, in a carousal at the court of I'" ranee, a rocket 
 mounted in the air, with this motto iji Italian, "proco duri purche 
 m'inalzi;" expressing, th;it he preferred a short life, provideil lie 
 might thereby attain to glory and eminence. 
 
 Devise, inlaw, the act whereby a person bequeatlis his lands 
 or tenements to another, by his last will and testanuiit. The per- 
 son who makes this act, is called the devisor, and he in wliosc fa- 
 vour the act is made, is termed in law the devisee. 
 
 DEVIZES., a populous borough of Wilt»luie, 19 miles E. ot 
 Bath. 
 
 DEVON, a river of Scotland, in the counties of Pertli and 
 Clackmannan. 
 
 DEVONSHEERING, the burning of land byway of manure'. 
 The method is to cut oil' tiie turf about four inches thick, and burn 
 it in heaps, and then spread the ashes upon the land. 
 
 DEN ONSHIRE, a county of 12ngland, bounded on the S. and 
 S. E. by the English channel, on the^N. and N. W. by the I'ris- 
 tol channel, on the l",. liy Somersetshire and Dorsetshire, and ou 
 the \V. by Cornwall. It is about 69 miles long from N. to S. 
 and G4 broad. The soli is various ; in the western parts it i* 
 * coarse.
 
 DEU 
 
 137 
 
 DIA 
 
 coarse and moorwli, bad for sheep, but proper for black cattle. 
 Its chief rivers are the Dart, the Ex, the Tamar, and the 
 Teigne. 
 
 DEVOTION is defined by Juricu, a softening and yielding of 
 the heart, with an internal coH-.olation, which the soul> of be- 
 lievers feel in the exercise of piety. It also incUules certain reli- 
 gioMa practices, which a person makes it a rule to discharge regu- 
 larly ; and with reason, if these be founded on solid piety ; other- 
 wise they are mere superstition. Tliat devotion is vain, which we 
 would accommodate both to God and to the world. 'The cliarac- 
 ter of devotion has frequently sutVered from the forliidding air 
 which has been thrown over it, by bigotry and superstition. 
 When freer and more cheerfid minds have not had occasion to 
 see it accompanied with those feelings of delight and benevolence 
 which naturally attend it, they are apt to be prejudiced ag.iinst 
 piety, bv mistaking this ungracious appearance for its genuine 
 form. Wherever the vital spirit of Christian devotion, founded on 
 genuine faitli in Christ, prevails, its iumiediate objects will be to 
 adore the perfections of God ; to entertain with reverence and 
 complacence the various intimations oi his pleasure, especially 
 those contained in holy writ ; to acknowledge our absolute depen- 
 dence, and iniinite obligations t-. him; to confess and lament tlie 
 disorders of our nature, and the tiansgre^sions of our lives ; to im- 
 plore his grace and mercy through Jesus Christ ; to intercede for 
 our brethren of mankind ; to pray for the propagation and esta- 
 blishment of truth, righteousness, and peace, on earth ; in line, to 
 long for a more entire conformity to the will of God, and to 
 breathe after the everlasting cnjovraent of his friend^hip. The 
 ClFects of 6uch a spirit habitually cherished, and feelingly express- 
 ed before him, must surely be important and happy. Among 
 thc^e may be reckoned, a profound htunility in the sight of God, 
 a high veneration for his presence and attributes, an anient zeal 
 for Ills worship and honour, a con>tant imitation of our Saviour's 
 divine example, a diffusive charitv for men of all denomina- 
 tions, a generous and unwearied seli-denial for the sake of virtue 
 and society, a total resignation to Providence, an increasing esteem 
 for the gosj)el, with clearer and (irnier hopes of that immortal life 
 which it has brought to light. 
 
 Devotion, or being Devoted, among the ancient Romans, 
 was a kind of sacrilice or ceremony, w liereby they consecrated 
 themselves to the service of some person. I'he ancients had a 
 notion, that the life of one might be ransomed by tlie death of an- 
 other ; whence those devotions became frequent for the lives of 
 the emperors. 
 
 DEVOURING, in heraldry, is when fishes are borne in an 
 escutcheon in a feeding posture, for they .SAvallow all the meal 
 whole. 
 
 DEUTERO-CANONICAL, [from aei/t.-j,,-, second, and x«- 
 »o»i:to.-, caxonical,] in the school theologv, an appellation given to 
 certain books of holy scripture, which were added to the canon 
 after the rest ; either because they were not wrote till after the 
 compilation of t!ie canon, or by reason of some dispute as to their 
 canonicalne--,s. The Jews acknowledged several books in their 
 canon, which were put there later than the rest. They say, that 
 Under Ezra, a great assembly of their doctors, whicii thev call bv 
 way of eminence th.e great synagogue, made the colleciion of the 
 aacrcd books which we now" have in the Hebrew Old Testament. 
 And they agree that they put books therein which had not been 
 so before the Babylonish captivity ; such arc tho=e of Ezra, Nehe- 
 niiah, Esther, E/.ekiel, Daniel, Haggai, Zechari^h, and Malachi. 
 The Latin church has since added otliers to the canon, that 
 were not, and could not be, in the canon of the Jews ; being 
 wrote long after, ijurh are several of the apocryphal books, as 
 the Maccabees, Ecclesiasticus, Wisdom, &c. Others were add- 
 ed ^tiU later, by reason their canonicalness had not been previously 
 examined. The deutero-canonical books in the niodeni canon, 
 are the epistle to the Hebrews ; those of James, andJude; the 
 second of St. Peter ; the second and third of St. John ; and the 
 Revelation. 
 
 DEUTEROXOMY, [-i;i/rijo.-, Or. second, and voius-, law,] 
 one ol the sacred books of the Old Testament, was the last of those 
 written by .Moses. See Pentateuch. It was written in the 40th 
 year after the delivery from Egypt, in the country of tlie .Moa- 
 bites beyond Jordan ; Moses being then in the l?Olh year of his 
 
 age. 
 
 VOL. II, • 
 
 -NO. f>4, 
 
 DEU TEROPOTMI, in Grecian antiquity, a designation 
 given to such of the .'\tlienians as had been tliought dead, and, 
 after the celebration of the funeral rites, unexpectedly rcco- . 
 veied. 
 
 DEUTEROSIS, [Ar^TrLi-^,;,] the Greek name by which the 
 Jews called their Misclinah, or second law. See Mischnah. 
 
 DEU rZIA, in botany, a genus of the decandria trigynia cla5S 
 and order. Calyx one-leafed ; capsule three-celled ; lilaraenis 
 three-cusped. '^i'here is only one species, a native of Japan. 
 
 DEUX PONTS, a late duchy of Germany, in the circle of 
 the Upper Rhii\e, aiine.\cd to the French re]>ublic, in December 
 1797. 
 
 Deux Ponts, or Zweybrucke;*, (as the Germans call it,) a 
 tow n of Germany, now annexed to France, and included in the 
 de|)aitmcnt of Sarre and Moselle. It is 46 miles W, of Ma»* 
 heim. 
 
 DI'2\V, [rfcaw. Sax. daam, Dut.] a dense, moist vapour, found 
 on the earth in spring and summer mornings in form of a misling 
 rain, being collected there chielly while the sun is below the ho- 
 rizon. Dr. Hutton defines it to be " a thin 1 ght insensible mist, 
 or rain, ascending widi a slow motion, and falling while the sun is 
 below the horizon." He adds, " that it apjieaw to dillcr frofii 
 rain, as less from more. Us origin and matter are doubtless from the 
 vi'.pours and exhalations that rise from the earlli and water." See 
 Meteor 3L0GY. 
 
 DEW-BORN, in country alTairi, a diftemper in cattle, being 
 a swelling in the body, as much as the skin can hold, so that some 
 bea'-ts are in danger of bursting. It [irocceds from greediness in 
 feeding, when put into a rank pasture; but coinmonlv when the 
 grass is full of water. In this case the beast should be stirred up 
 and down, and made to purge v.ell : but the proper cure is bleed- 
 ing in the tail; then take a grated nutmeg, with an egg, and. 
 breaking tlie top of the shell, put out so much of the white as vou 
 may have room to slip the nutmeg into the shell ; mix them toge- 
 ther, and then let shell and all be put down tlie beast's throat ; that 
 done, walk him up and down, and he will soon mend. 
 
 DEXT.VNS, in Roman antiquity, ten ounces, or ten-twelfths 
 of their libra. See Libra. 
 
 DEXTER, in heraldry, an appellation given to whatever be- 
 longs to the rigiit side of a shield or coat of arms : thus we say, 
 bend dexter, dexter point, &c. 
 
 DEXTROCHEHF, or DliSTROIIEKE, in heraldry, is ap* 
 piled to the right arm painted in a shield, sometimes naked ; soiue.* 
 times cloli'.ed, or adorned with a bracelet ; and sometimes armed., 
 or holding some moveable or member used in the arms. 
 
 DEY, ;he title of the sovereign of Algiers, under the protec* 
 tion of the grand seignor. A prince under tiiis title was appoir.ted 
 by the sultan, at the request of the Turki^h soldiers, in 1710. The 
 term dey, in tlie Turkish language, signifies an uncle by the mo- 
 ther's side ; and the reason of the denomination is this: that the 
 Turkish military consider the grand seignor as their father; thtf 
 state as their mother, by wiiieh they are nourished and maintain- 
 ed ; and the dey as the brother of the state, and consequently tha 
 uncle of all who are under his dominion. 
 
 DEZKAK, a town of Persia, in the province of Segeslan, 119 
 miles E. N. E. of Zareng. 
 
 DliAR, a town of iiiudostan, in the country of Malwa, At 
 miles W. of Indore. 
 
 DIIOOLPOUR, a townof Hindostan, in the country of Agra, 
 32 miles S. oi Agra. 
 
 DL-VBETES, \_S:t:^xi'ir,;,'] a morbid copiousness of urine. See 
 Medicine. 
 
 DIACAUSTIC Curve, a species of the caustic aurves form- 
 ed by refraction. Thus if you imagine an infinite number of ravs 
 BA, BM, BD, &c. (Plate LIV. fig. y,) issuing from the same lu- 
 minous point 15 to be refracted to or from the perpendicular MC 
 by the given curve AMD, and so that CE, the sines of the angles 
 of incidence CME, be always to CG, the sines of the refracted 
 angles CMG, in a given ratio; then the curve HFN, which 
 touches all the refracted rays, is called the diacaustic, or caustic 
 refraction. See C.-\ustic Curve. 
 
 DIACHYLON, in pharmacy, an emollient digcstire plaster 
 composed of miuilages or viscid juices drawn from certain plants. 
 See Pharmacy. 
 
 DTACODIU.M, [^'KKafuv.] the syrup of poppies. 
 
 ■; N Diacodu'mJ
 
 DIA 
 
 138 
 
 DIA 
 
 DiACODiUM is also caUed syriipiis tie meconio. See Phar- 
 macy. 
 
 DIACOUSTICS, or DIAPHONICS, the consideration of 
 the properties of refracted souiiJ, as it passes througli different nie- 
 tliiinis. See Acoustics, The word is formed from the Greek 
 I'a, per, thro'.i'.'h, wliicli intimates a passage ; and nmx, 1 liear, cj. d. 
 the consideriUiun of the passage of the sounds we hear. 
 
 DIACRII, in aiiticpfity, the name of a faction at Athens. That 
 city was divided into two parties . the one wished for an oligarchy, 
 iiiid would onlv have a few persons employed in the government ; 
 the others were tor democratical government, wherein the whole 
 people should liave a share. Tlie first were called diacrii, and tlie 
 latter pediaci ; the latter inhabiting the lower, and the former tlie 
 axjsy, or upper part of the city. 
 
 DiADELPHlA, [from i^f, twice, and aS.xso,-, a brother,] the 
 17tli class in tlie sexual sy>tem, comprehending those plants which 
 bear hermaphrodite tiowers with two sets of united stamina ; but 
 this circumstance must not be absolutely depended on. They are 
 the papilionacei of Tournefort, the irregulaies tetrapetali of Kivi- 
 iius, and the leguminosa of Kay. See Botany. 
 
 DIADEM, ill antiquity, was a head-band or filUt, worn by 
 kings as a badge of their rovalty. It was made of sill;, thread, or 
 wool, and tied round the temples and forehead, the ends being 
 tied behind, and let fall on the neck. It was usually white, and 
 quite plain ; though sometimes embroidered with gold, and set 
 with pearls and precious stones. In latter times, it came to be 
 twisted round crowns, laurels, &c. and even appears to have been 
 Worn on divers parts of the body. See Crown. The word' is de- 
 rived from the Greek verb, iia'su, to gird. 
 
 DtADEM, in heraldry, is applied to certain circles or rims serv- 
 ing to inclose the crowns of sovereign princes, and to bear the 
 globe and cross, or the flower de luces, for their crest. The 
 crowns of sovereigns are bound, some with a greater, and some 
 with a less number of diadems. The bandage about the heads of 
 Aloors on shieUis is also called diadem, in blazoning. 
 
 DLEKESIS, [5it»;jr3-if,] the separation or disjunction of sylla- 
 bles: as aiir, Ti>iX^iuh;, i^^i, Aaul. 
 
 Di;eresjs, in medicine, is the consuming of the vessels of an ani- 
 mal body, when from some corroding cause certain passages are 
 made, which naturally ought not to have been ; or certain natural 
 passages are dilated beyond their ordinary dimensions, so that the 
 humours which ought to have been contained in the vessels e.Ktra- 
 vasate or run out. 
 
 DiiTiKEsis, in surgery, an operation serving to divide and 
 separate the part when the continuity is a hindrance to the 
 cure. 
 
 DI/ERETICS, corrosive medicines. 
 
 DI/F.TE !'.,£, in Grecian antiquity, a kind of judges, of which 
 there were two sorts; viz. 
 
 1. Di«tetjB Cleroti, public arbitrators, chosen by lot (o 
 determine all causes exceeding ten drachms, within their own 
 tribe, and from their sentence an appeal lay to the superior 
 courts. 
 
 2. DiyETET.B Diallecterii, private arbitrators from whose 
 sentence there lay no appeal. They always took an oath to adminis- 
 ter justice without partiality. 
 
 DI/ETETICS, that branch of medicine which relates to the 
 rules respecting food. See Medicine. 
 
 DIAGLYPHICE, the art of cutting or engraYing figures on 
 metals, such as seals, intaglios, matrices of letters, &«. or coins for 
 medals. See Engraving. 
 
 DIAGNOSIS, [from ciKyivuirxw, Gr. to distinguish,] the diag- 
 nostics or signs of a disease. See next article. 
 
 DIAGNOSTIC, [iiayivuicrxu;,] a syioploin by which a disease is 
 distinguished from others. 
 
 Diagnostics, are of two kinds ; viz. 
 
 1. Diagnostics, Adjunct, are common to several diseases, 
 and serve or.ly to point out the dillcrence between diseases of the 
 same species. 
 
 2. Diagnostics, Pathognomonic, are those which always 
 attend the disease, and distinguish it from all others. 
 
 DIAGONAL, [Jiayiuvi®-,] in geometry, a right line drawn 
 across a quadrilateral figure, from one angle to another; by some 
 called the diameter, and by others the diametral, of the ligure. 
 See Geo.metry. 
 
 DIAGORAS, surnamed the Atheist, lived in the 91st Olym- 
 piad. He was not a native of Alliens, but he philosophised there. 
 He delighted in making verses, and had composed a poem which 
 a certain poet stole from liim. He sued the thief, who swore it 
 was his own, and got glory by it. This tempted Diagoras to deny 
 a Providence. 1 he Athenians summoned him to give an account 
 of his doctrine. He fled, and they set a price upon his head, pro- 
 mising a reward to any who sliould kill him ; but lie took ship- 
 ping, and was cast away. 
 
 DlAGR.WI, [^'^s'/jV'/-*"'] 3 delineation of geometrical figures; 
 a mathematical scheme. 
 
 DIAH, or DIAT, a name given by the Arabs to the punish- 
 ment of retaliation. By the Mohammedan law, a brother, or tlie 
 next relation of a murderetl person, ought to take part against the 
 murderer, and demand his blood in reparation for the murder. 
 
 DIAllEXAPLA, or DIAHEXAPLE, among lairin-s, a. 
 compound medicine, so called from its containing six ingredients, 
 viz. birthwort and gentian roots, juniper berries, bay berries, 
 myrrh, and ivory shavings. It is commended for colds, consump- 
 tions, pursiness, and many other disorders in horses. 
 
 DIAL, [from the Latin, dies, day, because it indicates the 
 hour of the day,] the ancients also called it Sciatherium, from its 
 ertect by the shadow. See Dialing. 
 
 DIALECI", [^'f.Xfx)^,] the subdivision of a language; as the 
 Attic, Doric, Ionic, j'Eolic dialects. 
 
 Dialect is an appellation given to the language of a province, 
 in so far as it dilieis from that of the whole kin^tlom. 'i he term 
 is particularly used in speaking of the ancient Greek, w'hereof. 
 there are four dialects ; each of which was a perfect language in 
 its kind, that took place In certain countries, and had peculiar 
 beauties. In Great Britain, besides the two grand dialects ot Eng- 
 lish and Scotch, almost every county has a dialect" of its own, all 
 dilfering considerably in pronunciation, accent, and tontvuMiDUgli 
 one and the same language. 
 
 DI.ALECTIC, 1^1 ha>.ixlm TixT/'ul logic; the act o reasoning. 
 
 Dialectics, in the literary history ijf the ancients, that branch 
 of logic which tauglit the rules and modes of reasoning. See the 
 articleLoGic. Zeno Eleates was the hi>t who discovered the na- 
 tural series of principles and conclusions observed iii.reasoning, and 
 formed an art thereof in form of a dialogue ; which, ior this rea- 
 son, wae called diaiectica. The dialectica of the ancients is usuallv 
 divided into several kinds: 1. The first was the elealica, that of 
 Zeno Eleates, which was threefold; viz. consecutionem, collo- 
 quntionum, andcontentionum : the first consisting of rules for de- 
 ducing or drawing conclusions. The second, the art of dialogue ; 
 which became of such universal use in philosophy, that all reason- 
 ing was called interrogation : then, syllogism being laid aside, tlie 
 philosophers did all by dialogue; it lying on the respondent to 
 conclude and argiie from the several concessions made. The last 
 part of Zeno's dialectics, E;i4-ix)i, was contentious, or the art of dis- 
 puting and contradicting; though some, particularly Laerlius, 
 ascribe this part to Protagoras a disciple of Zeno. 2. 'I'he second 
 is the dialectica megarica, whose author is Euclid, not the mathe- 
 matician, but another of Megara. He gave much into the method 
 of Zeno and Protagoras ; though there are two things appropriated 
 to him: the first, that he impugned the demonstrations of others, 
 not by assumptions, but conclusions ; continually making illations, 
 a proceeding from consequence to consequence: the second, that he 
 set aside all arguments drawn from comparisons of similitude as inva- 
 lid. He was Slice ceded by Eubulides, from whom the sophistic v\ay 
 of reasoning is said to be derived. In his time the art is described .as 
 manifold: mentiens, fallens, electra, obvelata, arcevalis, conuit.i, 
 and calva. See Sophism. 3. The third is the dialectics of Plato, 
 wdiich lie proposes as a kind of analysis to direct the human mind, 
 liy dividing, defining, and bringing things to the first truth ; where 
 being arrived, and stopped there a little, it applies itself to explain 
 sensible things, but with a view to return to the first truth where 
 alone it can rest. Such is the idea of Plato's analysis. 4. The 
 fourth is Aristotle's dialectics; containing the doctrine of simple 
 words, delivered in his book " De Interpretatione;" and that of 
 the several kinds of syllogism, iu his bocjks of Analytics, Topics,, 
 and Elenchuses. 5. The fifth is the dialectics of the Stoics; 
 which they call a part of philosophy, and divide into rhetoric and 
 dialectic ; to which some add the definitive, whereby things are 
 justly deliued ; cumprcheuding likewise the canons or criterions 
 
 •oi'
 
 DIA 
 
 139 
 
 DIA 
 
 of triilli. I'he Stoics, before tliey treat of sylUigijins, Imve tu-p 
 principal places; the one about the si!>nificatioii of words, the 
 oilier about the things sigiiitied. 6. The sixth is Epicuriis's ilia- 
 li-clics ; for though he seems to have despised dialectic, he culti- 
 vated it with vigour. He was only averse to that of the Stoics ; 
 who he thought attributed too much to it, as pronouncing him 
 alone wise who was well versed in dialectics. For this reason, 
 Epicurus, seeming to set aside the common dialectics, hatl re- 
 course to another way ; viz. to certain canons which he substitut- 
 ed in their stead, the collection whereof he called canonica ; and 
 all questions in philosophy are either (k re or (k voce, he gave 
 separate rules for each, 
 
 DIALITIIA, in the writings of the ancients, a word used to 
 express the elegant ornaments of the Greeks and l^omans, com- 
 P'lsed of gold and gems. They also called these LithocoUa, (j. d. 
 cemented stones or gems ; the gold being in tins case as a cement 
 to hiild the stones together. 
 
 DIALlUiM, in botany, a genus of the monogynia order, and 
 diandria class of plants. Corolla regular, pcntapetalous ; no ca- 
 lyx ; stamina at the upper side of the receptacle. It has but one 
 species, a native of the East Indies. 
 
 DIALLAGE, \_^ixM.rcy^i, Gr.] in rhetoric, a figure, wherein 
 many arguments are adduced, but nojie of them conclusive. 
 
 DIALING. 
 
 The art of drawing dials upon any given surface, wliether 
 plane or curved. This art is of great antiquity, for we read 
 m Isaiah xxxviii. 8, of the dial of Ahaz who bejan to reign 
 400 years before Alexander, and within 12 years of the building 
 of Kome. Among the ancients Anaxinienes the Milesian, and 
 Thales, are said to have made dials, and Vitruvius mentions one 
 made by the ancient Chaldee historian Berosus, on a reclining 
 plane almost parallel to the equator. Aristarchus of Samos in- 
 vented the hemispherical dial, and there were at the same time 
 some spherical ones, with a needle for a gnomon. The discus of 
 Aristarchus was an horizontal dial with its rim raised up all around 
 to prevent the shadow from stretching too far. The first sun-dial at 
 Rue-.e was set up by Papirius Cursor, about A. U. C. 430 ; before 
 which time says Pliny there is no me?-tion of any account of time 
 but by the sun's rising and setting: it was set up at or near the 
 tenii)le of Quirinus, but was very inaccurate. About 30 years 
 after, M. Valerius Me^sala, being consul, brought out of Sicily 
 another dial, which he set up on a pillar near the rostrum ; but be- 
 cause it was not niade for the latitude, it did not shew the time truly. 
 Th;"y made use of it 99 years ; till Martins Philippus set up ano- 
 ther more exact. The first professe<l writer on dialing is Clavins; 
 who demonstrntes both the theory and the operations, after the 
 rigid maur.er of the ancient mathematicians ; but w'ith so much 
 intricacy, that few perhaps ever read them all. Dechales and | 
 Ozanain give much easier demonstrations in their " Courses," and I 
 V'ollius ill his " Elements." M. Picard has giveo a f.ew metiiod 
 of making large dials, by c.^lculatil!g the hour-lines ; and M. de la 
 Hire, in his " Dialing," printed in 1683, a gcometiical method of 
 drawing hour-lines from certain points determined by observation. 
 Eberhardus Welperus, in \69h, published his ^'Dialing," wherein 
 he lays down a method of drawing the primary dials on a very 
 easy foundation. The same foundation is described at length by 
 Sebastian Munster, in his " Rudimenta MatheiiK.tica," published 
 in 1551. Stermius, in 1672, publislied a new edition of Welpe- 
 rus's " Dialing," with the addition of a whole second part, about 
 incl-ningand declining dials, &c. In 1708, the same work, with 
 Sturmius's addition, was republished with the addition of a fourth 
 part, containing Picard's and de la Hire's methods of drawing 
 large dials. Pater-on, Michael, and MuUer, have each wrote on 
 dialing, in the German tongue ; Coetsius in his " Horologiogra- 
 phia Plana," printed in l6Sy; Gaiippenius, in his " Gnomonica 
 Mechanica ;" Bion, in his " Use of Mathematical In-trunicnts ;" 
 the late ingenious Mr. Ferguson, in his " Select Lectures ;" Mr. 
 Ei'iprson, in his " Dialing ;" and Mr. W. Jones, in his "Instru- 
 mental Dialing." Mr. Feriituson liaving treated this subject in a 
 clear and satisfactory manner, we shall make liberal use of his 
 " Lecture on Dialing." 
 
 Definitions. 
 
 1. A dial is a surface, which is generally plane, upon wliich 
 lines are described in such a manner, that the shadow of a w ire, or 
 of the upper edge of another plane, erected perpendicularly on the 
 former, ni.iy shew the true time of the day. 
 
 2. The edge of the plane by which the time of the dav is 
 found, is called the style of the'dial, which must be parallel" to 
 the earth's axis ; and the line on which the said plane is erected, 
 is called the substile. 
 
 3. Tlie angle included between the substile and stile, is called 
 the elevation or height of the stile. 
 
 4. Those dials whose planes are parallel to the plane of the ho- 
 rizon, are called horizontal dials ; and those dials w hose planes 
 are perpendicular to the plane of the horizon, are called vertical 
 or erect dials. 
 
 5. Those erect dials, whose planes directly front the north or 
 south, are called diieVt north or south dials ; and all other erect 
 dials are called decliners, because their planes are turned away 
 from the north or south. 
 
 6. Those dials whose planes are neither parallel nor perpendi- 
 cular to the plane of the horizon, are called inclining or recUning 
 dials, according as their planes make acute or obtuse angles with 
 the horizon ; and if their planes are also turned aside from facing 
 the south or north, they are called declining inclining or declining 
 reclining dials. 
 
 7. The intersection of the plane of the dial, with that of the me» 
 ridian, passing through the stile, is called the meridian of the dial, 
 or the hour-line of XII. 
 
 8. Those meridian^, whose planes pass through the stile, and 
 make angles of 15, 30, 45, 60, 75, and 90 degrees with the meri- 
 dian of the pla< e (which marks the hour-line of XII.) are called 
 hour-circles ; and their intersections with the plane of the dial are 
 called hour-lines. 
 
 9. In all declining dials, the substile makes an angle with the 
 hour-line of XI!. and this angle is called the distance of the sub- 
 stile from the meridia;». 
 
 10. The declining plane's difference of longitude, is the angle 
 formed at the intersection of the stile and plane of the dial, by two 
 meridians: one of which passes through the hour-line of Xll. and 
 the other through the substile. 
 
 Illustration of the PRiscirLrs of Dialing. 
 See Plate L\ I. 
 
 If the whole earth a Pep, (rig. 1,) were transparent, and l-.ollow', 
 like a sphere of glass, and had its equator divided info 24 equal 
 parts by so many meridian semicircles, a, L, c, d, e,f, g, &:c. one 
 of which is the geographical meridian of any given ))lace, as Lon- 
 don, (which is supposed to be at the point a ;) and if the hours of 
 XII. were marked at the equator, both upon that meridian and 
 the opposite on%and all the rest of the hours in order on the rest 
 of the meridians, those meridians would be the hour-circles of 
 London : then, if the sphere had an opaque axis, as PEp, termi- 
 nating in the poles P and p, the shadow of the axis would fall 
 upon every particular meridian and hour, when the sun came to 
 the plane of the opposite meridian, and would consequently shew 
 the time at London, and at all other places on the meridian of 
 London. If this sphere were cut throuch the middle by a solid 
 plane ABCD, in the rational horizon of London, one-half of the 
 axis EP would be above the plane, and the other haU below it ; 
 and if straiclit lines were drawn from the centre of the plane to 
 those points where its circumference is cut by the hour-circles of 
 the sphere, those lines would be the hour-lines of a iiorizontal dial 
 for London : for the shadow of the axis w ould '.v\\ upon each par- 
 ticular hour-line of the dial, when it fell upon the like hour-circle 
 of the sphere. ' If the plane which cuts the spliere be upright, as . 
 AKCG, (fig. 2,) touching tlie given place (London) at F, and 
 
 1 directly
 
 140 
 
 DIALING. 
 
 
 direcllv fairing the meriiliaii of J.oiidon, it will then become the 
 plane of an erect direct soiilh dial: and if right lines be drawn 
 from it>! centre V. to those points of its circumference wliere the 
 iiour-circdes of the sphere cut it, these will be tlie liour-Iines of a 
 vertical or (hrect soiilli dial for London, to which the hours are to 
 be set as in the (igure, (contrary to tliose on a horizontal dial,) and 
 the lower half Ep of the axis w'lll cast a shadow on the hour of the 
 day in this dial, at the same time that it woidd fall upon the like 
 hour-circle of the sphere, if the dial plane was not in the way. If 
 tiie plane (-till facing the meridian) lie made to incline, or recline, 
 aiiv given number of degrees, the hour-circles of the sphere will 
 sliil cut the edge of the plane in those points to which the hour- 
 iines must be drawn straight from the centre; and the axis of the 
 sphere will cast a shadow on these lines at the respective hours. 
 The like will still hold, if the plane be made to decline by any 
 given number of degrees from the meridian toward the east or 
 west : provided the declination be less than 90 degrees, or the re- 
 clinatioii be less than the co-latitude of the place : and the axis 
 of the sphere will be a gnomon, or stile, for the dial. But it can- 
 not be a gnomon, wlieii the declination is quite 9O degrees, nor 
 when the reclination is etpial to the co-latitude ; because, in these 
 tvvo ca-es, the axis has no elevation above the plane of the dial. 
 And thus it appears, that the plane of every dial represents the 
 plane of some great circle upon the earth; and the gnomon the 
 earth's axis, w liether it lie a small wire as in the above figures, or 
 the edge of a thin plate, as in the common horizontal dials. The 
 whole earth, as (o its bulk, is but a jioint, if compared to its dis- 
 tance from the sun : and therefore, if a small sphere of glass be 
 placed upon any part of the eardi's surface, so that its axis be pa- 
 rallel to the axis of tlu' eanh, and the sphere have such lines upon 
 it, and such planes within it, as above described ; it will shew tlie 
 hours of llie day as truly as if it were placed at the earth's centre, 
 and the shell of the earth were as transparent as glass. But be- 
 cause it is impossible to have a hollow sphere. of glass perfectly 
 true, blown round a solid plane ; or if it was, we could not get at 
 the plane within the gla^s to set it in any given position ; we make 
 use of a wire sphere io explain the principles of dialing, by joining 
 24- semicircles together at the poles, and putting a thin Hat plate ot 
 brass within it. See lig. 1 and 2. 
 
 Dialing by the Terrestrial Globe. 
 A common globe of 1'..' inches diameter, has generally 24 meri- 
 dian semicircles drawn upon it. If such a globe be elevated to 
 the latitude of any given place, and turned about until one of 
 these meridians cut the hnrizon in the north point, where the hour 
 of XII is supposed to be marked, the re>t of the meridians will 
 cut the horizon at the respective distances of all the other hours 
 from XII. Then if these points of distance be niiU'ked on the ho- 
 rizon, and the globe be taken out of the horizon, and a flat board 
 or plate be put into its place, even with the surface of the Iiorizon ; 
 and if straight lines be drawn from the centre of the boaixl, to 
 those points of distance on the horizon which were cut l)y the 24 
 meridian semicircles; these lines will be the hour-lines of a hori- 
 zontal dial for that latKude, the edge of whose gnomon must be in 
 the very same siUiatloii that the axis of the globe was before it 
 was taken out of the Iiorizon : that is, the gnomon must make an 
 angle with the plane of tlse dial, equal to the latitude of the place 
 for whicb the di.cl is made. If the pole of the globe be elevated 
 to the co-latitude of the given place, and any meridian be brought 
 to the north point of the horizon, the rest of the nj^riilians will cut 
 the horizon in the respective distances of all the Rours (aam XII, 
 for a direct south dial, whose gnomon must make an angle with 
 the plane of the dial, equal to the co-latitude of the place ; and the 
 Iiours must be set the contrary way on this dial to what they are 
 on the horizontal. But if the' globe have more than ^4 meridian 
 semicircles ujjon it, we nul^t take the following nietliod for making 
 horizontal and south dials. Elevate the poU- to the latitude of ihe 
 place, and turn the globe until any particular meridian (suppose 
 the first) comes to the north point of the horizon, and the oppo- 
 site meridian will cut the horizon in the south. Tlien, set the 
 hour-index tothe uppermost XI! on its circle ; which done, turn 
 the globe westward until 1 j degrees of the equator pass under the 
 brazen meridian, and then the hour index will be at I, (for the 
 nun moves 1 j degrees every iiour,) and the first meridian will cut 
 the horizon hi the number of degrees from the north point that I 
 ij distant from XII. Turn on until oilier Ij degrees of the e(|ua- 
 
 tor pass under the brazen meridian, and the hour index will then 
 be at II, and the first meridian will cut the horizon in the num- 
 ber of (legrees that II is distant from XII : and so, by making 15 
 degrees ot the equator pass under the brazen meridian for every 
 hour, the first meridian of the globe will cut the horizon in !'■ ■ 
 distances of all the hours from Xil to VI, which is just 90 r 
 grees; and tlien the distances of XI, X, IX, VIII, Vll, and \'l, 
 in the forenoon, will be same from XII, as the distances ot I, II, 
 III, IV, V, and VI, in the afternoon ; and these hour lines con- 
 tinued through the centre, will give the opposite hour lines on the 
 other half of the dial. To make a hoiizontal dial for the latitude 
 of London, which is S 1 J- degrees north, elevate the north pole of 
 the globe 5\i degrees above the north ])oint of the horizon ; and 
 then turn the globe, until tiie first meridian (which is that of Lon- 
 don on the English terrestrial globe) cuts l:ie north point of lheho» 
 rixon, and set the hour index to XII at noon. Tlien turning the 
 globe westward until tlii^ index points successively to I, II, III, 
 I'v , V, and VI, ill the afternoon, or until li, 30, 4j, 60, 75, and 
 90 degrees of the ec|uator ]>ass under the brazen meridian, the first 
 meridian of the globe will cut the horizon in the following num- 
 bers of degrees from the north towards the east, viz. li-|, 24-J-, 
 3S-j'j, 53 J, 71-j-'s> and 00 ; which are the respective distances of 
 the above hours from XII, upon tlie plane of the horizon. To 
 transfer these, and the rest of the hours, to a horizontal plane, 
 draw the parallel right lines a c, and dli, fig. 3, upon that plane, 
 as far from each other as is equal to the intended thickness of the 
 gnomon or stile of the di.il, and the space included between them 
 will be the meridian or tvvchv- o'clock line on the dial. Cross 
 tliis meridian at right angles with the six o'clock line k li, and set- 
 ting one foot of the compasses in the intersection a, as a centre, 
 describe the quadrant i' e with any convenient radius or opening 
 of the compasses : then, setting one foot in the interr.ec. lion h, as a 
 centre, witii the same radius describe the quadrant j7(, and divide 
 each ipiadrant into 90 equal parts or degrees, as in tlie figure. As 
 the hour-lines are less distant from each other about noon, than iu 
 any other part of the dial, it is l)esttohave the centres of these quad- 
 rants at a little distance trom the centre of the dial plane, on the 
 side opposite to Xll, in order to enlarge the hovir-distances there- 
 abouts, under tlu; same angles on the plane. Thus, the centre of 
 tlie plane is at C, but the centres of the quadrants are ata and b. 
 Lay a ruler over the point b, (and keeping it there for the centre 
 of all the afternoon iiours in the quaJraiil.f'/O draw th.y liour-line 
 of I tlirough 11 J degrees in the cpiadrant ; the hour-line of II, 
 through '241 decrees ; of III, through 3Sxi degrees; IV, tluough 
 33i ; anil N', through 71yj ; and because the sun rises about 4 la 
 the morning, on the longest days at London, continue the hour- 
 lines of IV and V in the afternoon through the centre /; to the op- 
 posite side of the dial. This done, lay the ruler to the centre a 
 of the quadrant e ^ ; and tlirough the like divisions or degrees of 
 that quadrant, viz. 1 14, 24t, 3.S-jJj, 53i, /l-j!^, draw the forenooa 
 hour-lines of XI, X, IX, VIII, and VII; and because the sun 
 sets not before S in the evening on the longest days, continue the 
 hour-lines of Vll and VIII in the forenoon, through the centre *, 
 to VII and VIII in the afternoon ; and all the hour-lines will lie 
 finished on this dial ; to which the hours may be set, as in the fi- 
 gure. Lastly, through :>ll degrees of either quadrant, and from 
 its centre, draw the right line a,g for the hypotheiiuse or axis of the 
 gnomon agi ; and from g, let fall the perpendicular gi, upon the 
 meritlian line n i. and there will be a triangle made, whose sidcs.i 
 are a g, g i, and ia. If a plate similar to this triangle be made as 
 thick -.n the distance between the lines a c and i d, and set upright 
 between them, touching at a and h, its hypolhenuse a g will he pa- 
 rallel to the axis of the world, when the dial is truly set; and will 
 cast a shadow on the hour of the day. The trouble of dividing 
 the two qdadrauls may be saved by a scale with a line of chords- 
 upon it. 
 
 To make an erect direct South Dial, fig. 4, elevate the 
 pole to the <-o-latitude of the place, and proceed in all respects as 
 above for the horizontal dial, and from ^'I in the morning to VI 
 in the afternoon ; oah' the lionrs mtrst be reversed, as in the fi- 
 gure ; and the iiypothcnuse a _.!; of the gnomon «,!<■,/', must niake 
 an angle with tlie dial-pkine equal to the co-latitude of the place. 
 As the sun can shine no longer on this dial than from six in the 
 morning until six in the evi-ning, there is no occasion for having 
 any more than 1'? hours upon it. 
 
 To make an erect Dim, declining from Uie S. towards the 
 
 E. or 
 
 «
 
 Dialing. 
 
 141 
 
 E. or W. elevate the pole to the laliliitle of llie place, antl screw 
 the quadiant of altitucli; to the zenith. Then, if ilie dial declines 
 towards the E. (which we shall suppose it doi-s), count in tlic ho- 
 rizon the degrees of declination, from the E. point towanis the N. 
 and brias the lower end of the quadrant to tiiat degree of decli- 
 nation at'which the reckoning ends. This done, bjin;; any par- 
 ticular meridian of the globe (suppose the first) directly under (lie 
 graduated edge of the upper part of the brazen ineridisn, and set 
 the hour to XII at noon. Then, keeping the quadrant of altilude 
 at the degree of declination in the horizon, tn:n the globe east- 
 ward on its axis, and observe the degrees cut by the first meridian 
 in the quadrant of altitude (counted from the zenith) as the hour 
 index conies to XI, X, IX, &c. in the forenoon, or a^ 1.), 30,4.S 
 &c. degrees of the equator pass under tlie brazen meri Jian at these 
 hours respectively; and tlie degrees then cut in the quadrant by 
 the lirst meridian, are the respective distances of the forerioon 
 hours from XII on the plane of the dial. Then, forthe afternoon 
 hours, turn the quaihant of altitude round the zenith until it 
 comes to the degree in the horizon opposite to that where it was 
 placed before; namely, as far from tlie W. point of the horizon 
 towards the S. as it was set at fir^t from the E. point towards the 
 N.; and turn the globe westward on its axis, until the first meri- 
 dian comes to the brazen meridian again, and the hour index to 
 XII : then continue to turn the globe westward, and as the index 
 points to the afternoon hoursl, II, III, &c. or as 15, 30, 43, &c. 
 degrees of the equator pass under the brazen meridian, the first 
 meridian will cut the quadrant of altitude in the respective number 
 of degrees from the zenith that each of these hours is from XII on 
 the dial. And when the first meridian goes olV the quadrant at 
 the horizon in the forenoon, the hour index shews the time when 
 tlie sun will come upon this dial ; and when it goes off the quad- 
 rant in the afternoon, the index will point to the time when the 
 sun goes olT the dial. Having thus found all tiie hour distances 
 from XII, lay them down upon the dial plane, either bv divid- 
 ing a semicircle into t« o quadrants of 90 degrees each, (beginning 
 at the hour-line of Xli,) or by the line of cl'.ords as above di- 
 rected. In all declining diaN, the line on which the stile or 
 gnomon stands (commonly called the substile line) makes an angle 
 with the \'2 o'clock line, and falls among the forenoon hour-lines, 
 if the dial declines towards the E.;and among the afternoon hour- 
 lines, when the dial declines towards the W. that is, to the lefl 
 hand from the 1. o'clock line in the former case, and to tlic 
 right hand from it in the latter. To find the distance of the sub- 
 stile fiom the 12 o'clock line, if the dial declines from the S. lo- 
 *• ward the E. count the degrees of the declination in tlie horizon 
 from the E. point tcnvard the N. and bring the lower end of the 
 <juadr.int of altitude to that degree of declination where the reck- 
 oning ends: then, turn the globe until the first meridian cuts the 
 horizon in the like number of degrees, counted from the S. point 
 toward the E. and the (luadrant and first meridian will tiien cross 
 one another at riglit angles ; and the number of degree* of the 
 quadrant, which are intercepted between the meridian and the 
 ;:enith, is equal to the distance of the substile line from the 13 
 o'clock line; and the number of degrees of the first meridian, 
 whicli are intercepted between ti.e quadrant and tlie north pole, 
 is equal to the elevation of the stile above the plane of the dial. 
 Iftiie dial decline": westward from the S. count that declination 
 from the E. point of the horizon towards the S. apd bring the 
 •piadrant of altitude to the degree in the horizon at which the 
 reckoning ends ; both for finding the forenoon hours, and distance 
 of the substile from the meridian: and forthe afternoon hours, 
 t^'ing the quadrant to the opposite degree in the horizon, nanielv, 
 a>: far from tlie W. towards the N . anJ then proceed in all re'pects 
 as above. Thus when our declining dial is finished, we have four 
 dials, viz. 1. A north dial declining eastward bv the same num- 
 ber of degrees. 2. A north dial declining the same number west. 
 3. .\ south dial, declining east. And, 4. A south dial declining 
 west; only, placing the proper number of hours, and the stile or 
 gnomon respectively, upon each |ilane. For, in the S. W. plane, 
 the substihir line faUs among the afternoon hours ; and in the S. E. 
 of the same declination, among the forenoon hpurs, at equal dis- 
 tances liomXII. And so all the morning hours on the AV. de- 
 cliner will be like the afternoon hours on the E. decliner ; the S. E. 
 decliner will produce theN.W. decliner; and the S. W. decliner, 
 thoN. K. decliner, by only extending the hourdincs, stile and 
 
 VOL, II.^NO. C4, 
 
 substile, quite through the centre : the axis of the stile (or edge 
 that casts the shadow on the hour of th.e day) being in all dials 
 whatever parallel to the axis of the world, and consequently 
 pointing towards the north pole of the heaven in north latitudes, 
 and towards the south pole, in south latitudes. 
 
 Method of constructing Dialing Lines. 
 
 Describe, with any opening of the compasses, as EA, Fig. .i, 
 accoriliug to the intended length of the scale, the circle ADCB, 
 and cross it at right angles by the diameters CEA and DEB ; di- 
 vide the quadrant AB first into 9 equal parts, and then each part 
 into 10 ; so shall the quadrant be divided into 90 equal parts or 
 degrees. Draw the right line AFB for the ch.ord of this quad- 
 rant; and setting one foot of the compasses in the point A, ex- 
 tend the other lothe several divisions of the quadrairt, and transfer 
 these divisions tothe line AFB by the arcs 10, 10, 20, 20, &c. and 
 this will be a line of chords, divided into 90 unetpial parts. Di- 
 vide the quadrant CD into 90 eepial parts, and fixm each point of 
 division dn.w right lines, as i, k, I, &c. to tl'.e line CE ; all ])er- ^ 
 piTidicular to that line, and parallel to DE, wdiich will divide EC 
 into a line of sines; and although these are seldom put among the 
 dialing lines on a scale, yet they assist in drawing the line ot lati- 
 tudes. For il a ruler be laid upon the point D, and over each 
 division in the line of sines, it will divide the' quadrant CB into 
 90 unequal parts, as Vii, lib, &c. shewn by the right lines \oa, 
 20';, 30c-, &c. drawn along the edge of the ruler, ll the right line 
 BC be draw n, subtending this cpiadrant, and the nearest distances 
 Bi(, ])b, lie, &c. be taken in the compasses from B, and set upon 
 this line in the same manner as directed for the line of chords, it 
 will make a line of latitudes BC, equal in length to the line of 
 chords AB, and an equal number of divisions, but very unequal 
 as to their lengths. Draw the right line DGA, subtending the 
 quadrant DA ; and parallel to it, draw the right line rs, touching 
 the quadrant DA at the numeral figure 3. Divide this quadrant 
 into SIX eipial parts, as 1, 2, 3, &c. and through these points of 
 division draw right lines from the centre E to ti:e Ihie )■ s^ which 
 will divide it at the points wlu-re the^ix hours are to be placed, as 
 in the ligure. If every sixth part of the quadrant be sub-divided 
 into four equal parts, right lines drawn from the centre through 
 these pouts of division, and continued to the line i-s, will divide, 
 each hour upon it into quarters. 
 
 Method of constructing Dials by means of the Dial- 
 ing Lines. 
 
 This is the easiest of all mechrnical methods, and by much the 
 best, wdien the lines are truly diiided : ami not only th.e half-hours, 
 and (juarters may be laid down by all of them, but every fifth mi- 
 nute by most, and every single nunute by those w here the line of 
 hours is a foot in kiitrth. Huvii.g lUawn the double meridian-line- 
 ab,cd, tig. 6, on the plane intended for a horizontal dial, and 
 crossed it at right angles b\ the six o'clock line./V (as in fig. 3,) take 
 the latitude of the place with the compasses, in the scale of lati- 
 titdes, and set that extent from c tof, and tVom a to J) on the six 
 o'clock line: then, taking the whole six hours between the points 
 of the compasses in the scale ot liours, witli tliat extent set one foot 
 on tlie point e, and let the other fool f..!! where it will upon tl'.e 
 meridiiin-line c rf. as at </. Do the same iromf.iob, and draw 
 the right lines e ii audi 6, ea«h of (hem will be equal in length to 
 the w hole scale of hours. This done, setting one foot of the com- 
 passes in the beginning of the scale at Xi 1, and extending the other 
 to each hour on the s< ale, lay off t licse e\ler.t> from d \.o e for the 
 afternoon hou!-=, and from b to/ for tho-^e of tl^e forenoon ; this 
 will tlivide tl'.e lines d e and hj in the same manner as the hour- 
 scale is divided at 1, 2, 3, 4, and .'> ; on which the quarters may 
 also be laid down, ifrccpiired. Then, laying a ruler on the point 
 c, draw the first five hours in the afternoon, from that point, 
 through the dots at the numeral figures 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, on the lina 
 d e ; and continue the lines of IV and V through the centre c, to 
 the other side of the diaU for the like hours of tlie morning: whiih. 
 done, lay the ruler on the point a, and draw the last live hours in 
 tlie forei'ioon through the dots j, 4, 3, 2, l; on the line /6 ; con- 
 tinuing the hour-lines of VII and \'III through the centre a to tiie 
 other side of the dial, for the like hour;, of the evening ; and set 
 the hours to theLr re-'pettive lines, as in the figure. Lastiv, niakor 
 2 O ' Ui^
 
 <(* 
 
 142 
 
 DIALING. 
 
 tlie gnomon llie same way asdirL-qfced above for the horizonlal dial, 
 aiul ihc vvliole will be linished. 
 
 To make an krectSovxh Dial, take the co-latitude of your 
 plafe from the scale of latitudes, and tluMi proceed in all respects 
 for llie hour-line as in the horizontal dial ; only reversing the 
 liours, as in tig. 4, and making the angle of the stile's height equal 
 to the co-latitude. 
 
 Geometrical Method of dkawincthe Hour Lines upon 
 Dials. 
 
 T. To construct a Horizontal Dial, fig. 7. Describe with 
 any opening of the compasses, as ZL, the two semicircles LF^- 
 and LQ^-, upon the centres Z and z, where the si.x o'clock line 
 crosses the double nioridian-line, and divide each semicircle into 
 1 2 equal parts, beginning at L (ihougli strictly speaking, only the 
 quadrants from 1. to the six o'clock line need be divided) ; tlien 
 connect the divisions which are equidistant from L, by the parallel 
 line KM, IN, HO, GP, and FQ. Draw VZ for the hypothe- 
 nuse of the stile, making ihe angle VZE equal to the latitude of 
 your place; and continue the line VZ to R. Draw the line R ;■ 
 jiarallel to the si.x o'clock line, and set ot"f the distance a K from 
 Z to Y, the distance b I from Z to X, c H from Z to W, d G 
 from Z to'l', and t F from Z to S. Tlien draw tlie lines S s, T t, 
 ^\'^i■, Xx, and Y y, each parallel to R r. Set off the distance 
 .7/ ^', from a to 1 1 , and from^'to 1 ; the distance X .r from l> to 1 0, 
 and from g' to 2 ; tt' W from c to 9, and from A to 3 ; / T from d 
 to S, and from z to 4; s S from e to 7, and from n to 5. Then 
 laying a ruler to the centre Z, draw the forenoon hour-lines 
 through the points 1 1, 10, 9, 8, 7 ; and laying it to the centre :, 
 draw the afternoon lines through the points 1, 2,3, 4,5: con- 
 tinning the forenoon lines of Vll and VHI through tlie centre Z, 
 to the oppo-ite side of tlic dial, fur the like afternoon hours ; and 
 the ai'ternoon lines IV and \ through the centre :, to the opposite 
 side, for the like morning hours. Set the hours to these lines as in 
 tlie figure, and then erect the stile or gnomon, and the hori/^ontal 
 dial «ill be linislied. 
 
 II. To construct a South Dial, draw the line VZ, making an 
 angle with the meridian ZL, e(|ual to the co-latitude of your place ; 
 and proceed in all respects as in the above horizontal tlial for the 
 same latitutle, reversing the hours as in fig. 4, and making the ele- 
 vation of the gnomon equal to the co-latitude. 
 
 III. To'construct a North Dial. See fig. S. If the hour- 
 Jiiies IV and V, as also VII and \Ul on the south dial, fig. 4, be 
 continued beyond the line \' I a \l, and the triangle ii g A' turned 
 about the point o, till«/i fall on « XII produced, it is evident a 
 north dial is thereby had. The hour-line tor VII in tiie morning, 
 on the south dial, when produced, forms the hour-line for V in the 
 morning on the nortli dial ; and the hour-line for V in the afternoon, 
 on the south dial, forms the hour-line for VII in the evening on 
 the north dial. The manner of placing the characters for the other 
 hours is therefore obvious. 
 
 IV. To describe an East Dial. On the eastern side of the 
 plane of the meridian, draw aline Al'., lig. 9, parallel to the hori- 
 zon ; draw also aline AK, making with AB an angle KAB equal 
 to the complement of the latitude of the place for which the dial is 
 made. Take a point D in .\K, and on that point for a crntre 
 <i>-scribe a circle. Through D draw EC perpendicular to AK, 
 thub" tlie circle will be divided into four quadrants; divide two of 
 tht'se quadrants into 6 p<|uul parts, as in the figure. Draw a 
 straight line FEG perpendicular to EC, the diameter of the circle, 
 and from the centre D, through the several dii'isions, draw the 
 right lines D IV, D V, D VI, D VH, D VIII, D IX, D X, 
 D XI. Through IV, V, VI, VII, &c. draw lines IV IV, ^' V, 
 Ike. parallel to EDC. Lastly, in D erect a stile e<|ual to the ra- 
 dius DPI, perpendicular to the plane ; or on two little pieces per- 
 pendicularly hxed in EC, and cipial to the same DE, fit an iron rod 
 jiarallel to l''.C, thus will each index at the several hours project a 
 shadow to the respective hour-lines I\' IV, V V, XI \l, &c. 
 'I'he east dial, it is obvious, can only shew the hours till twelve 
 o'clock. 
 
 V. To deficribe a W?sT Dial. The construction is perfectly 
 the samc-asthat of an east dial, oiilv that its situation is inverted, 
 and the hours are written accordingly. A west dial, it is obvious, 
 can only be illuminated after noon, 'and therefore, joined with an 
 e.;st dial, shews all the hours of the dav. 
 
 1 VI. To describe a portable Dial. This dial is represented 
 in fig. 10, and may be drawn upon a card and carried in a pocket 
 book. Dra'.v the occult line AB, fig. 11, paralld to the top of 
 the card, and cross it at i ight angles with the six o'clock line F.CD ; 
 then upon C, as a centre, with the radius CA, describe the semi- 
 circle AEL, and divide it into 12 equal parts (beginning at A), a>i 
 Ar, A.S, &c. and from these points of division draw the hour- 
 lines r, .!, t,ii, V, E, It', and x, all parallel to the si.x o'clock line 
 EC. If each part of the semichcle be subdivided into four equal 
 liarts, they will give the half hour-lines and quartei's, as in fig. 12. 
 Draw the right line ASDo, making the angle SAB equal to the 
 latitude of your place. Upon the centre A describe the arch 
 RST, and set off upon the arcs SR and ST, each equal to 33-,', 
 degrees for the sun's greatest declination ; and divide them into 23^^'. 
 equal parts, as in lig. 12. Through the intersection D of the lines 
 E(;D and ADo, draw the right line FDG alright angles to ADo. 
 Lay a ruler to the points A and R, and draw the line ARE through 
 23-['-, degrees of south declination in the arc SR ; and then laying the 
 ruler to the points A andT, draw the line ATG through 23^^ de- 
 grees of north declination in the arc ST : so shall the lines AKF 
 and ATG cut the line FDG in the proper lengths for the scale of 
 months. Upon the centre D, with the radius DF, describe the 
 semicircle FoG ; which divide into si.x equal parts, Fm, mri, no, 
 &c. and from these points of division draw the right lines 7nh, ni, 
 pk, and ol, each parallel to oV). Then setting one foot of the 
 compasses in the point F, extend the other to A, and describe the 
 arc AZH for the tropic of yy ; (sec fig. 10 and 1 1,) with the same 
 extent, setting one foot in G, describe the arc AEO for the 
 tropic of So. Next setting one foot in the point A, and ex- 
 tending the other to A, describe the arc AC I for the begin- 
 nings of the signs ccc and f ; and with the same extent, setting 
 one foot in the point /, describe the arc AN for the beginnings of 
 the signs n and S\,. Set one foot in the point i, and having ex- 
 tended the other to A, describe the arc AK for the beginnings of 
 the signs X and y\\; and with the same extent, set one foot in k, 
 and describe the arc AM for the beginning of the signs y and Xi^. 
 Then setting one fool in the pointD, and extending the other to A, 
 describe the curve AL for the beginnings of 'y and =5r ; and the 
 signs will be finished. This done, lav a ruler from the point A 
 over the sun's declination in the arch RST ; and where the ruler 
 cuts the line FDG, make marks : and place the days of the months 
 right against these marks, in the manner shewn by fig. 10. Lastly, 
 draw the shadow-line PQ parallel to the occult line AB ; make the 
 gnomon, and set the hours to their respective lines, as in fig. 10, 
 and the dial will be finished. The lines a (/, a i, and ic of the 
 gnomon, must be cut quite through the card ; and as the end a b 
 of the gnomon is raised occasionally above the plane of the dial, it 
 turns upon the uncut line c d as on a hinge. '1 he dotted line AB 
 must be slit (|uite through the card, and the thread C must be put 
 through the slit, and have a knot tied behind, to keep it from being 
 easilv drawn out. On the other end of this thread is asmall plum- 
 met D, and on the middle of it a small bead for shewing the hour 
 of the day. To rectify this dial, set the thread in the slit right 
 against the day of the month, and stretch the tliread from die (fay 
 of the month over the angular point where the curve lines meet at 
 XII. ; then shift the bead to that point on the thread, and the dial 
 will be rectifieil. To find the hour of the day, raise the gnomon, 
 (no matter how much or how little) and hold tlie eilge of the dial 
 next the gnomon towards the sun, so as the uijpermost edge of the 
 shadow of the gnomon may just cover the shadow-line ; and the 
 bead then playing freely on the face of the dial, by the weight of 
 the plummet, will shew the time of tlie dav among the hoin-lines 
 as it is forenoon or afternoon. To find the time of sun rising and 
 setting, move the thread among the hour-lines, until it either covers 
 some one of them, or lies, parallel betwixt any two ; and then it 
 will cut the time of sun-rising among the forenoon hours ; and of 
 the sun-setting among the alternoon hours, for that ilav of the year 
 to which the thread is set in the scale of months. To luid the sun'i 
 declination, stretch the thread from the day of the month over the 
 angular point at XII. and it will cut the sun's declination, as it is 
 north or south, for Uiat day, in the proper scale. To find on what 
 days the sun enters the signs : when (lie bead, as above rec'ified, 
 moves along any of the curve lines w liieh have the signs of the zo- 
 diac marked upon them, the sun enters those signs on the days 
 pointed out by the thread in the sv'alc of months. 
 
 I. The
 
 niAi.iXfi 
 
 „xrr i. ;".ai 'JS 
 
 "^l^l^—IWMl"< 
 
 1 
 
 .'K"? 
 
 Of L'Kn'EiiSAL ])iais, 
 
 I. The I'nivcrsal Dial, invented by Pardie, fig. 11?, ron^ists of 
 three pi-iiu'i]>Lil |)arts ; the lirst whereof is called the horizontal 
 plane (A,) bei anio in practice it imist be parallel to the horizi'n. 
 In this plane is lixed an upright pin, which enters into the edge of 
 (h( srcsnd part BD, called the nieridii^Hiai plane; whicli is made 
 of two pieces, the lowe.-t whereof (B) is culled the ijuadrant, be- 
 cause it contains a c]uarler of a circle, divided into yo degrees; and 
 it is only into this part, near B, that the piii enters. 'J'he other 
 piece is a semicircle (!^) adjusted to the quadrant, and lurni]i,;in 
 U by a groove, for raisin;; and depressing the diameter (F.K) of the 
 semicircle, which diameter is called the axis of the instrument. 
 1'he third piece is a circle (G,) divided on both sides into 'J4 c(|iial 
 parts, wliicb are the iiours. This circle is put upon the meridional 
 plane so, that the axis (ICF) may be jierpendicidar to the circle, 
 and the point C be the common centre ot the circle, semicircle, 
 and quadrant. 'l"he straight edge of the semicircle is chamlered 
 on both sides to a sharp edge, which passes through the centre of 
 the circle. On one side of the chamfered part, the llr^l six mi)ulhs 
 of the year are laid down, according to the sun's declination fur 
 their respective days, and on the other side the Ia>t six months. 
 And against the days on uliicli the sun enters the signs, tliere are 
 straight lines drawn upon the seniicircle, witli tin'' characters of (he 
 signs marked upon them. Therx is a black line drawn along the 
 middle of the upright edge of the cjuadrant, over which hangs a 
 thread (H,) v ith its plummet (I,) for levelling the instrument. 
 From the 2.3d Sei)t to the 'J 1st March, the upjier surl'ace of the 
 circle must touch both tlie centre C of the semicircle, and the line 
 offy^ and =5r ; arid from the 21st March to the 23d Sept. the 
 lower surface of the circle must touch thai centre and line. To 
 find the time of day by this dial, set it on a level place in sun-slune, 
 and adjust it by tlie levelling screws k and /, until the pUunb-line 
 hangs over the back line upon the edge of the ipiadrant, and pa- 
 rallel to the said edge ; move the semicircle in the quadrant, milil 
 the line of fy and =^ (where the circle touclu's) comes to the lati- 
 tude of your ))lace in the quadrant; then turn the whole meri- 
 dional plane BD, with its circle G, upon the horizontal plane A, 
 until the edge of the shadow of the circle falls precisely on the day 
 of the month in the semicircle; nn<l then the meridional plane will 
 l)e<lue N. and S. the axis EF will be parallel to the axis of the 
 xorld, and will cist a shadow upon the true time of the day among 
 the hours of the circle. AN'hcn the instrument is thus rectified, the 
 quadrant "and semicircle are in the ])lane of the meridian, and the 
 circle is then in the plane of the etiuinoctial. Therefore, as the 
 sun is above the equinoctial in summer (in northern latitudes,) and 
 below it in winter ; the axis of the s.niiicircle will cast a shadow on 
 the hour of tlie day, on the upper surface of the circle, from the 
 2lst March till the"23d of Sept. ; and from the 23d of Sept. to the 
 2lst March, the hour of the day will be determined by the shadow 
 of the semicircle upon the lowtr surface of the circle. In the for- 
 mer c.ise, the shadow of the circle falls upon the day of .the month, 
 on the lower part of tlie diameter of tlie semicircle; and in the 
 latter case, on the upper part. The method of laying down the 'j 
 months and signs upon the semicircle is as follows : Draw the right jj 
 line ACB, tig. 13, equal to the diameter of the semicircle ADB, i, 
 and cross it in the midille at right angles with the line ECD, e((ual 
 in length to ADB ; then EC will be the radhis of the circle FCG, I' 
 which is the same as that of the semicircle. Upon E, as a centre, ] 
 describe the circle FCG, on w hich set ori'the arcs C/i and Ci, each 
 equal to 23-i?T degrees, and divide them accordingly into that num- 
 ber for the sun's declination. Then laying the edge of a ruler over 
 the centre E, and also over tiie sun's declination lor every hfth 
 day of each month (as in the card dial,) mark the points on the di- 
 ameter AB of tiie semicircle from u to g, which arc cut by the 
 ruler ; and there place the days of the months accordingly, answer- 
 iiiglo the Sim's declinations. This done, setting one foot of tlie com- 
 passes in C, and -extending the other to u or g. describ<' the semi- 
 circle abed ej'g; which divide into six etpial parts, and through 
 ttie points of division draw right lines parallel to CD, for tlie be- 
 ginning of the signs (of which one-haif are on one side of I he semi- 
 circle and the other half on the otlier,) and set tiie characters of tlie 
 signs to their proper lines, as in the figure. 
 
 II. An Universal Dial on a plain cross, fig. 14, 15, Ifi, as de- 
 scribed by Mr. I'erguson. It is moveable on a joint C for ele- 
 vatuig it to any given latitude on the cpradranl Co 90, as it stands 
 
 I upon the horizontal hoard A. "JJio arms of the cro<s sUjnd at righ' 
 
 angles to the middle part ; and the lop of it, from a to n, \< of equal 
 
 length with (ither ot the arms v e or m Ic, .See (ig. 1 i. Tiie di.d 
 
 i is reclilied by setting the middle line t u to the latitude of lU" 
 
 I place on the (|uadr;int, the board A level, and the point N. iiorh- 
 
 I ward liy the needle ; thus, tlie plane of the cross will he parallel 
 
 I to the plane of tlie ecjuator. Then, from 111 o'clock in the nioin- 
 
 I ing till VI, t-he upper edge k I of the arm (' r> will cast a --hadow on 
 
 I the time of the day on the side of tli« arm r m ; from \'I. till IX., 
 
 I the lower edge / of the arm i n will cast a shadow on the hours en 
 
 theside u ij. I'rom IX. in the morningto XII. at noon, the e<lgo 
 
 « h of the top part « n will cast a shadow on the hours on the ai ni 
 
 I ncf; from Xll.tolll.in the afternoon, the edge f li of the top 
 
 I part will cast a shadow on the hours on llie arm kt m ; from lit. 
 
 I to \'I. in the evening, the edge ^ A will <-a-l a sh.idow on the 
 
 j hours on tlie part /)»",• and from V J. till IX. the shadow of the 
 
 j edge f_/'will shew the time on the top i)art n n. The breadth of 
 
 eacli part a b, ef, 5ic. must be so great, as never to let the shadow 
 
 fall 
 
 ipiite without the part or arm on which the hours are ni.uked. 
 
 when the sun is at his greatest declination from the equator. To 
 determine the breadth of the sides of the arms which contain the 
 hours, so as to be in just proportion to their length ; make an an- 
 gle ABC (lig. Hi,) of 23 /j- degrees, which is equal to the sun's 
 greatest declination: and suppose the lengtli of eacli arm, from 
 the side of the long middle part, and also the length of the top part 
 above the arms, to be equ.al to B d. Then as the edges ot the 
 shadow, from each of the arms, will be parallel to 15 c, making ari 
 angle of 23-/- dcarees with the side B d of the arm, when the sun's 
 declinatioH is 23Vt: 't i' plain, that if the length of tlie arm be B d, 
 the least breadth that it can have, to keep the edge I! c of the sha- 
 dow B c i; (/ from going oft' the siile of the arm d f before it comes 
 to the end of it e (I, must be ecpial to r d or d B. But to keep the 
 shadow within the (juarter divisions of tlie hours, when it comes 
 near the end of tlie arm, the breaiith of it should be still greater, 
 so as to he almost doubled, on account of the distance between the 
 tips of the arms. The hours nuiy be placed on the arms, by lav- 
 ing down the cross o be d, lig. Ij, on a sheet of jjaper: and with" a 
 bhkck lead pencil held close to it, drawing its shape and size on the 
 paper. Then take the length a e in tlie compasses, and with one 
 foot in the corner a describe with the other the quadrant ef. Di- 
 vide this arc into six equal parts, and through the points of division 
 draw light lines a g, a h, &c. continuing three of them to tho 
 arm cc, which are all that can fall upon it ; and they will niect tho 
 I arm in those points through wliich the lines that divide the honrj 
 from each other, as in fig. 14, are to be drawn right aero -s it. Divide 
 each arm for the three lioui-s contained in it, in the sanie manner ; 
 and set the hours- to their proper places, on the sides of the arms, 
 as they are marked in lig. 14. Each of the hour-spaces should be 
 divided into four ecjual parts, for the halt-hours and quarters, in 
 the (|uadrant ef\ and right lines should be drawn through these 
 division-marks in the quadrant, to the arms of the cross, in order 
 j to determine the places thereon where the subdivision of the hour* 
 must be marked. This kind of universal dial is easily made, ami 
 has a pretty uncommon appearance in a garden. 
 
 III. The Universal Meclianical Dial, lig- 17,aHbrds, bv itsctpii- 
 noclial cin le, an '-asy method of describinu a dial on any kind of 
 plane. For example : Sufipose a dial is required on .ui horizi-nlal 
 plane. If the plane be immovealjle as .\BC1), lind a meiidiaii-line 
 as GF ; or if movealile, assume ihe meridian at pleasure : then bv 
 means of the triangle I'.kF', whoiebasp is applied on the nieridian- 
 line, raise the etpiinoctial dial II till the imlex (il becomes parallpl 
 to the axis of the eailh, (which is so, if the angle KEF be eipial lo 
 the elevation ot the pole,) and the 12 o'clo-.k line on the ilial liaii" 
 over the nreridian-line of the plane or ihe base of the triangle, ft' 
 then, in the night, or in a dark place, a lighted ctnidle be suc- 
 cessively applied lo the axis (; I, so as the shadow of the imlex 
 or slvle Gl shall I'all upnn one Imur line alter another, ihp 
 same shadow will mark oei the several Imur-hnes on the |il;-:ne 
 A BCD. Noting the points thereii:re on the sliadnw, draw linei 
 through them to G ; then an index being lixed on ( ;, ai-cordiiv> to 
 iheangle KjF, its shadow will p<.int out the several Ihhun by the 
 light of the sun. If a ilial were required on a vertical plane, havin<' 
 raised the p<[uinocii,d circle as directed, push forward the inde< 
 Gl till the ti]) thereof I touch Ihe plane. If the plane be inclined 
 to the horizon, the elevation of the pole should Lm- found on tlia 
 
 •« same;
 
 lii 
 
 DIALING. 
 
 «l 
 
 s-iii;e ; ;uk1 the aiia.lL' of the- triaiwk' KEF shouUl be made crjiial- 
 tlu-reio. 'I"he liour-liiies may be t'oimd by pnijettion tliiK, on the 
 ct'iitre Z, Plate LVII. fig. I'i, ck'.-,cribe a'cirde as ENWS to re- 
 present the horUoti of tlie given placejsnppo^c London ; draw N. S. 
 and E. W. al right angles to it, lind the pole P by the stereogra- 
 piiic prujeclion of th.e sphere, se<! Projection of the Sthere 
 ill n proiect tlie meri(hans ) P «, 2 P i, 3 P c, &c. making the 
 angles N P «, N P b, N V c, &c. equal to 1.5°, 30", 4.5", &c. 
 l-ay a rtder fmni the points in whieh these honr-eircle.? tnl the 
 horizon, and draa the lines I I., 'J ![., 3 111., 4 I\'., &c and tiiey 
 V ill be the truehoitr-lines of the dial. Set off the lalilnile from S 
 to A, in this ease ':> l" .'i'-", and draw / A for the stile, which placed 
 over Z S will complete the di«l. The arcs N «, N l>, N c, &<■. may 
 be easily calcnlated tr!gcM|omclric;dly since in triangles N P«, 
 N /) /, S; ]>, &c. there is given the side N, P and the angle at P, 
 the angle at N being a right angle. We proceed to the calculation as 
 follows. 
 
 Dl^ling by Spherical Tbigoxo.metry. 
 
 The construction of snn-dial.-. on all planes wliatever maybe 
 included in one general rule: intelligible, if that of a horizontal 
 dial tor any given latitude be well understood. For tlicre is no 
 ]ilane, however oblicpiely situated with respect to any given place, 
 i)ut wdial is parallel to the horizon of some other place ; and there- 
 fore if sve can find that other place by a problem on the terrestrial 
 globe, or by atrigonometncal calculalion, and construct a horizon- 
 tal dial for it ; that dial applied to tlie plane wdiere it is to serve 
 will be a true dial for that place. — 'I'hus, an erect direct S. dial in 
 
 5li degrees N. latitude 
 
 be a liorizontal dial on the same 
 
 meridian, 90° southward of 5 l-j degrees of N. hititude : which falls 
 in with 3SJ degrees of .S. l.ititiide. Put if the upright plane de- 
 clines from facing the S. at the given place, it would still be a 
 horizontal plane 90^ from that place, but for a dilierent longitude, 
 which would alter the reckoning of the hours accordingly. 'l"o 
 calculate the angles which the hour-lines of a horizontal dial make 
 with the meridian or twelve o'clock line: See fig. 18. ],et N E 
 S \V' represent the horizon of any place, PS N the meridian, and 
 P the nurtli pole of the sphere: let KPH be any hour-circle, for 
 CNample the circle wliicli makes wilii the meridian an angle of 13 
 d( ,grees, llieii it is evident from wh.at has been said in the pre- 
 ceding ])arlof this p.rllcle, that Mil, the arc of the horizon inler- 
 ce|)led between N, the north, and PII the liour-cirde in whose 
 pl.:iie the sun is at Xt or 1 o'clock, nieisures the angle contained 
 b\ the substile of the dial, and the hour-lines corresponding to these 
 hours. In the spherical triangle P N 11, right-angled at N, there 
 are given tile side PN which is the elev.ition of the pole above t!ie 
 liorizon, and the angl? N P H which is contain.'d by the meridian 
 und hour-circle, to liud T\T1 the arc of the horizun opposite that 
 anile. iSy sphi>rical trigononu'try, radius is to the sine of P N as 
 tlie tangent of N PII to the tangent of N il the side rec|uired. 
 Hence we have this practical rule. To find tlie angle which anv 
 hour-line of a liorizo.'ital dial makes with the meriiiian, or wliicii 
 is the same, to find the ar.jle which the hour-lines on any dial 
 make with the substile: — 'I o the logarithmic sine of the laiitude 
 cf the place for which the dialjs made, add the log. tangent of the 
 sun's distance from the nierinian for the hour reciuired, the sum, 
 aijating JO, is tlie log. tangent of the angle rei;nired. 
 
 /•.ii.wp/c. 'I'o.lind tin; angl-'s which the hour-lines of XI or I 
 make with the meridian of a horizontal dial for the latitude ol Lon- 
 th-n, which is 51-^° ^^ 
 
 'I o log. s"ne of.Vl' 30' 9.893.'.4 
 
 Add log. tan. of li" 9:4':>fc0i 
 
 Sum, rejecting 10, is 9.3C1 j9 
 
 which is the tangent of ll"^ 51' nearly. In like inimner it \v,ll be 
 found, that the hour-lines "fX and II make each with the meridian 
 an aiu^le of '-'■)" IS' .''ic. And by compulni.a in this manner, with 
 the sine of the latitude, and tin- tangents of 30, 45, t30, and 7j°, for 
 the hours of II, HI, i\ , an(- V, in the afternoon; orofX, IX, 
 Vill, and \'ll, in the forenoon; ycu will find their angular dis- 
 tances from XII to be 'J 4° IS', 3S° 3', 53-' 35', and 71" 6'; which 
 are all that there is occasion to <onipnte for. — And these distances 
 may be set oil' from XII by a line of ch<.rds ; or ratl)er, by takin>' 
 100) from a scale of equal parts, and setting that extent" as a ra- 
 tlins from C to XII, lig. 19, and then, taking ^03 of tl-.e same 
 f(|ftrt«-<wliich are tha jauiral tangents of 1 1° jO';, and settiilig them 
 
 from XII to XI and I, on tlie line //'/, vhicli is perpendicular 
 C XII: and so for the rest of tiie hour-lines, which in the tab! 
 of natural tangents, against the abo\-(; distances, are 452, 782, 135. 
 and 2920, of such equal parts from XII as the radius C XII coiv 
 tains 1 000. And, lastly, set off 125, (the natural tangent of 5 1° 30') 
 for the angle of the stile's lieight, w liicli is cijnal to the latitude of 
 the place. 
 
 .Declining Dials. .I.ct.us suppose tliat an upright plane at 
 London declines 36 degrees westward from facing the south, and 
 that it is required to find a place on the globe to w hose horizon the 
 said plane is parallel ; and also the dillcience of longitude between 
 London and that ])!ace. Let N E S W be the horizon of London, 
 fig. 21, whose zenith is Z, and P the north jiole of the sphere; and 
 let Z/i be t!ie position of a vertical i)lane at Z, declining west- 
 ward from S (the south) by an angle of 36 degrees ; on which plane 
 an erect dial for London at Z is to be described. Make the semi- 
 diameter ZD perpendicular to Z/i ; and it will cut the horizon in 
 D, 36 degrees west of the south S. Then a plane, in the tangent 
 II D, touching the sphere in D, will be ])arallel to the plane ZA ; 
 and the a.\is of the sphere will be equally inclined to both these 
 places. Let W Q E be the equinoctial, w fiose elevation above the 
 horizon of Z (London) is 381 degrees ; ami PKD be the meridian 
 of the place D, cutting tin? equinoctial in P. Then it is evident, 
 that the arc RD is the latitude of the place D (where the plane Z/i 
 w ould be horizontal; and the arc KQ is the difference of longitude 
 of the pitincs Zli and DIl. 1. In the spherical triangle ^\ D R, 
 the arc \V D is given, for it is the complement of the plane's de- 
 clination from S the south ; which complement is 54° (viz. 90° — 
 36":) the angle at R, in which the meridian of the place D cuts 
 tile equator, is a right angle ; and the angle R W D measures the 
 elevation of the equinoctial above the horizon of Z, namely 38-J 
 degrees. Say therelbre. As radius is to the co-sine of the ])lane's 
 declination from the south, so is the co-sinc of the latitude of Z 
 to the sine of RD the latitude of D: which is of a different de- 
 nomination from the latitude of Z, because Z and D are on dilier- 
 ent bides of the equator. 
 
 As radius ..* 10.00000 
 
 To co-sine 30° 0'=:;RQ 9.90796 
 So co-sine 51° 30' =; QZ 9.79415 ' 
 
 to I 
 
 >ie J 
 
 ,5. a 
 
 in- H 
 
 I)') ■ 
 
 To sine 30° 14' = DR (9.70211) = the latitude 
 of D, whose horizon is jiarallel to the verlical |.ilane Zh at Z. 2. 
 To find RQ the dilletence of longitude of the places D and Z, say. 
 As radius is to the cosine of R W I) 381 degrees, the height of the 
 etjuinoctial at Z, so is the co-tangei t of DW M degrees, the plane's 
 dcclinaticn, to the co-tangent of RQ the dillerence of longitude?. 
 Thus, 
 
 To the logarithmic sine of 51^ oi? 9.S9354 
 Add to tlie logarithmic tang, of 54° 0' 10. 13874 
 
 Their sum rejecthig 10 10. 03228 is the near- 
 est tangent of 47° 8' = \V R ; which is the co-tangent of 42° 52'= 
 RQ, the diflereuce of longitude sought. A\hich ditference, being 
 reducetl to time, is 2 hours 51 £ minutes. 3. And thus having 
 found the latitude and longitude of the place D, to whose horizon 
 the vertical plane at Z is p;irallel, we proceed to the construction 
 of a liorizontal dial for the place D, whose latitude is 30° 14' south ; 
 but anticipating the time at D by 2 hours 51 minutes (neglecting 
 thei mill, in practice,) because ]) is so far westward in longitude 
 from the meridian of London ; and this w ill be a true vertical dial 
 at London, declining westward 36 degrees. Assume any right 
 line CSL, fig. 19, for the substile ofth.e dial, and make the aiigle 
 kCP equal to the latitude of tlie place (viz. 30" 14'), to whose 
 horiz'in tiie plane of the dial is parallel ; llu'n CRP will be the axis 
 of the stile, cr eilge that casts the shadow on the hours of the day, 
 in the dial, 'i'his done, draw the contingent line KQ, tutting the 
 siibst.lar line at right angles in R ; and from K make KR perpen- 
 dicular to the axis CRP. Then KG (=KR) being niade radius, 
 that is, eipril to the chord of 60° or tangent of 45°, on a good sec- 
 tor take 42° 52' (the dillerence of bmgitude of the places Zand 
 D) from the tangents, and having set it from K to M, draw CM 
 for the hour-line of XII. Take KN, equal to the tangent of an 
 angle less by 15 degrees than KM ; that is, the tangent of 27° 52' : 
 and through the point N draw CN for the hour-line of I. '.Phe 
 tangent of 12° 52' (which is 15° less than 27° 52'), sot off the same 
 way, will give a ^joint between K ami N^ througb whicli the houp- 
 
 I
 
 DIALING. 
 
 l-t.5 
 
 -■ — • rt 
 
 Une of I [ i-i to be drawn. 'I'he tangent i>f L'" S' (llie (iilTerence he- 
 twi'en 46° and :iO°6'-'') placed on the other side <>t CL, will deler- 
 niiiietlie point throngh which the hour-line of III is to he <iiawn ; 
 to «hii'h '2° S', if the lansenl of l."i° be added, it will make 17" »'; 
 and this set olf from K towards Q on the line KQ, will pive tlie 
 point for tlic hour-line of IV: and so of the rest. —The forenoon 
 lionr-liiies are drawn the same way, bv the eontiniial addition ol 
 the tangents 1 j°, 30", 4;)°, &c. to h" .V.'' (=:lhe tangent KM) fi.r 
 the hours of XI, X, IX, &c. as far as necessary; that is, until 
 tliere be five hours on each side of the sub^tile. The (5lh hour, 
 accounteil from tliat hour or part of the hour on which the substile 
 falls, will be always in a lint perpendicular to the subside, and 
 drawn through the cejilre C. 4. In all erect dials, CM, the hour- 
 line of XII, is perpendii, ular to the horizon of the place for which 
 the dial is to serve; for tliat line is the intersection of a vertical 
 plane with the plane of the meridian ol the ])lace, both which are 
 perpendicular to the pla?ie of the horizon: and any line HO, or/i'J, 
 perpendicular to CM, will be a horizontal line on the plane of the 
 dial, along which line the hours may be numbered ; arxi CM being 
 set perpendicular to the horizon tlic dial will have its true position. 
 5. If the plane of the dial had declined bv an ei|ual angle toward 
 the east, its description uovdd have difli-red only in this, thai the 
 hour-lme of XII would have fallen on the other si<le of the sub- 
 Stile CL, and the line HO wt)uld have a subcontrarv position to 
 what it has in (his figine. 6. And these two dial-, with the upper 
 ponits of llieir stiles turned toward the N. pole, will serve for 
 other two planes parallel to tliem ; t!ie one declining from the N. 
 toward the R. and the other from the N. toward the W. by tlu- 
 same quantity of angle. The like holds true of all dials in general, 
 whatever be their declination and oblitiuity of their planes to the 
 borizon. 
 
 , Recliners. If the plane ot the dial not only declines, hut 
 also reclines. Suppose its declination from fronting the 
 south S be e<|ual to the arc SI), fig. 'JO, on the horizon; and its 
 . reclination be ef|ual to the arc D(/ of the vertical circle DZ: then 
 it is plain, that if tlu- (punhant of altitude ZrfD on the globe, cuts 
 the point D in the horizon, and tlie reclination is counted upon 
 the (piailraut from ]) to d; the intersection of the hour-circle 
 Vlid, with the equinoctial \V()E, will determine Krf, tlie latitude 
 of the place J, whose horizon is jiarallel to the given plane Z/i at 
 Z; ajul U() will b<- the dilTerence in longitude of the places at d 
 and Z. Trigononietrically thus; Let a great circle pass through 
 the three points, W , d, K; and in the triangle \ST)(/, righl-ai\gled 
 at I), the sides WO and DJare given ; and thence the angle D Wi/ 
 is found, and so is the hypolhennse \\'(/. Again, the dilTerence, 
 or the sum, of OWt/and DW'U, the elevation of the eipiinoctial 
 above the horizon of '/,, nives the angle rfWR ; and the hypothe- 
 nuse of the triangle *VK(i was just now found ; whence the sides 
 V,d and \V K are found, th.e former lu-ing the latitude of the place 
 d, and the latter the complement of KQ, the diOerence of longi- 
 tude sought. Thus, if the latitude of the place Z be J J" 30' north ; 
 the declinalion SD of the plane VJi (which would be horizontal at 
 d) he 3t)°, and tlie reclination be l.i°, or equal to the arc T)d ; the 
 south latitude of tlie place d, that is, the arc Wd, will be 15° 9'; 
 and UQ, the dilference of the longitude, srr 2'. From these data, 
 therefore, let the dial, tig. '2^i, be described, as in the former ex- 
 ample. 8. Tliere are several things recjuisite in the practice of 
 dialing; the chief of which shall be given in the form of arithme- 
 tical rules, siniple and easy to those who have learned the ele- 
 ments of trigonometry. For in practical arts of tliis kind, arith- 
 metic should be used as far as it can go ; and scale* never trusted 
 to, except in the final construction, where they are absolutely ne- 
 cessary in laying dow n the calculated hour distances on the plane 
 of the dial. The latitude of the place, the sen's declination, and 
 his hour-distance from the ineriilian, being given, to find, 1st, his 
 altitude, 'Jd, his azimuth. 1. Let d, fig. 20, be the sun's place, 
 rfR, his ileclinntion ; anil in the trianiile I'Zrf, l'(/thesum, or the 
 difference, of rfU, and the ipiadrant I'U, being given bv the suji- 
 position, as also the complement of the latitude I'Z, an<( the angle 
 dl'Z, which measure^ tlu horary distance of d from the meridian ; 
 we shall (by spheric trigonometry) find the base 'Ad, which is the 
 Sim's distance from the zenith, or the complement of his altitude. 
 And 2. as sine Xd : sine IV : : sine rfl'Z : (/ZP, or of its supple- 
 ment DZS, the azimuthal distance from the soulh. Or the practi- 
 cal lule may be as follows: Write A for the sine of the sun's alti- 
 tude, L and / for the sine aad c»-sine of the latitude, D and d for 
 
 ■ VOL. JI. — NO. W. 
 
 the sine and co--ine of the sun's decimation, and II lor the sine of 
 tlie horary distance from VI. Then the relation of H to .\ wilt 
 have three varieties. 0. When the declination is toward the ele- 
 vated pole, and tlie hour of the day is between XII Awi VI ; it is 
 
 A — LD. 
 A = LD -f H W, and H = . 3. When the hour is after 
 
 VI, itis A = LD- 
 
 Id 
 ■ nid, and H = 
 
 ID- 
 
 Id 
 
 3. When the de- 
 LD, 
 
 clination is toward the depressed pole, we have A = Hid 
 A -f LD, 
 
 and n =: . These theorems will be feund uscfulj and 
 
 Id 
 expeditious enough for solving tJKise problems in geography and 
 dialiii*, which depend on the rLlation of the sun's altitude to the 
 hour of the day. 
 
 Example 1. Suppose the latitude of the i)!ac« to be 5 \\ degrees 
 north: the time five horns distant from XH, that is, an hour after 
 \'I in the niorninijr, or before VI in the evming; and the sun's de- 
 clination 20" north. Required tl:e sun's altitude? 
 
 Then to log. l. = log. sin. il'SO'— !.S93.')-t 
 add log. D=: log. sin. 30° 0' — 1.5.3405 
 
 Their sum — 1.427J'J gives 
 
 LD = logarithm of 0.36T6l)4, in the natural sines 
 
 And, lo-log. H = log. sin. 15° 0' — 1.41300 
 
 ]. Jlog. ^ = log. sin. 38' 0' — 1.79414 
 
 ° (log. d= log. sin. 70° C— 1.97300 
 
 Their sum — 1.15014 gives 
 H/(f= logarithm of O.I5146S, in the natural sines. And these 
 two numbers (0.267664 and 0.151408) make 0.419072 = A; 
 w hicl), in the table, is the nearest natural sine of 24° 47', the sun's 
 altitude sought. In these calculations the radius is considered as 
 unity, and not 10,00000, by which, instead of the index 9, we 
 have — I, which only makes the work a little easier. The same 
 hour-distance being assumed on the other side of \'I, then LD — • 
 H/J is 0.1 Hi2j6, the sine of 6° 405'; whic-h is the sun's altitude at 
 \' in the morning, or VII in the evening, when his N. declination 
 is 20°. but when the declination is 20° S. (or towards the depress- 
 ed pole) llie dilference H/rf — LD becomes nesative ; and there- 
 by shews, that an hour before VI in the morning, or past A' 1 ill 
 the evening, the sun's centre is f)° 40J' below the horizon. 
 
 Exitmj). II. From the same data, to find the sun's azimuth. Tf 
 II, L, and D, are given, then from H having found the 
 altitude and its complement Zd: and the arc !'(/ (the distance 
 from the pole) being given ; say, as the co-sine of tlie altitude i« 
 to tlie sine of the distance from the pole, so is the sine of the hour- 
 distance from the meridian to the sine of the azimuth distance from 
 the meridian. Let the latitude be 51° 30' north, the declination 
 15° 9' S, find the lime 11 h. 24 m. in the afternoon, when the sun 
 begins to illuminate a vertical wall, and it is required to find the 
 l)osilion of the wall. Then, by the foregoing theorems, tiie com- 
 plement of the altitude will be 81° 32^', and Vd, the distance from 
 the pole being 109° 5', and the horary distance from the meridian, 
 or the an<;le rfPZ, 30°. 
 
 To log. sin. 74° 51' • . — 1.98464 
 Add log. sin. 36" 0' - - — 1.769 J'i 
 
 And from the sum 
 Take log. sine8r32'i 
 
 1.75386 
 1.99525 
 
 Remains — 1.75361 = log. sin. 
 35°, ths azimuth distance sought. W hen the altitude is given, 
 find from thence the hour, and proceeil as above. This praxis is 
 of singular use on many occasions; as, I. in rinding the declination 
 of vertical planes more exactly than in the common wav, especi- 
 ally if the transits of the sun's centre are observed by applying a 
 ruler with sights, either plain or tclescopical, to the wall or plane 
 whose declination is required; 2. In drawing a meridian-line, and 
 finding the magnetic variation: 3. In finding the bearings of places 
 in terrestrial surveys; the transits of the sun over any place, or his 
 horizontal tlistance from it, being observed, together w ilh the alti- 
 tuile and hour ; and thence determining small diilerences of longi- 
 tude: 4. Ill obsorviiijj tli9 vaiialioiu at sea, Stc. 
 
 SP Of
 
 1") I A 
 
 146 
 
 D FA 
 
 Ok FINDING THE Declination, Inclination, anu Reclina- 
 TioN, Of Planes. 
 
 ■^riie declination, inclination, and rcclination, of planes, nre fre- 
 <|UentlY taken with a snfiicient degree ot accuracy by an iiistru- 
 iiicnt called a declinator, oi' declinatory. 
 
 The coiisfruclinn of this instrinnent, as somenhat improved by 
 Mr. Jones, is as follows; On a mahogany board AIUK, lig '23, k 
 inserted a semicircular arc AGEB of ivory or box-wood, di- 
 vided into two quadrants of 90° each, beginning from the middle 
 G. On the centre C turns a vertical quadrant Di'lC, divided ijito 
 90°, beginning from the base F. ; on which is a moveable index 
 CF, with a small hole at F for the sun's rays to pass through, and 
 from a spot on a mark at C. Tlie lower extremity of the (jna- 
 drant at F is pointed, to mark the linear direction otti e cpiadrant 
 wlitn applied to any other plane; as this quadrant takes olf occa- 
 sionally, and a pbnnb-line P hangs at the centre on C, for taking 
 the inclinations and reclinations of planes. At li, on the plane 
 of the board, is inserted a compass of points and degrees, with a 
 magnetical needle turning on a pivot over it. The addition of the 
 moveable quadrant and index considerably extend the ntilitv of 
 the declinator, by rendering it convenient for taking equal alti- 
 tudes of the sun, the sun's altitude, and bearing, at the same lime, 
 &.-C. To apply this instrument in taking the declination of a wall, 
 or plane: place the side ACB, in an horizontal direction, to the 
 plane proposed, and observe what degree, or point of the compass 
 the N. part of the needle stands over from the north, or the south, 
 Slid it will be the declination of the plane from the north, or south, 
 acccrdii'gly. In this case, allowance must be made for the varia- 
 tion of the needle (if any) at the place; and which, if not previ- 
 ously known, will rendei' this operation very inaccurate. At Lon- 
 don it is now 22° 30' to the west. Another way more exact niav 
 be used, when the sun shines out half an hour before noon. The 
 side ACB being placed against the plane, the quadrant must be so 
 moved on the semicircle AGC, and the index CF on DE, till the 
 sun's rays passing through the hole at F fall exactly on the mark at 
 G, and continue so till the sun requires the index to be raised no 
 higher: you will then have the meridian or greatest altitude of the 
 sun; ami the angle contained between G and E, will be the de- 
 clination required. The position of CE is the meridian, or iQ 
 o'clock line. But the most exact way for taking the declination 
 of a plane, or finding a meridian-line, by this instrument, is, in the 
 forenoon, about two or three hours before 12 o'clock, to observe 
 two or three heights or altitudes EF of the sun; and at the same 
 time the respective angular polar distances GE from G: write 
 them down; and in the afternoon watch for the same, or one of 
 the same altitudes, and mark the angular distances, or distance on 
 the quadrant AG : Now, the division or degree exactly between 
 the two noted angular distances will be the true in>;ridian, and the 
 
 distance at which it may fall from the C of the divisions at G will 
 be the declination of the plane. 'I'he reason for observing two or 
 three altitudes and angles in the morning is, that in case there 
 should be clouds in the afternoon, we may have the chance of one; 
 corresponding altitude. 'J'he quadrant may be occasionally taken 
 off at C, in order to place it on ihesurlace of a pedestal or plane 
 intended for an horizontal dial ; and thereby form ei|ual altitudes 
 of tlie sun, as above, to draw a meridian or IS'o'clock line to set the 
 dial by. The base ABIk serves to take the inclination, and re- 
 clinatlon of planes. In this case the quadrant is taken olf, and the 
 plunimet P is fitted on a pin at the centre C : then the side, 
 KjK being applied to the plane proposed, as QL, fig. Qi, of the 
 pUunb-line cuts the semicircle in the point G, the plane is hori- 
 zontal ; or if it cut the quadrant in any point at S, then will GCS 
 be the angle of ini linalion. Lastly, it a|)plying theside ACB to 
 the plane, the plummet cuts G, the plane is vertical; or if it cuts 
 either of the quadrants, it is accordingly the angle of reclination. 
 Hence, if the quantity of the angle ot inclinafion be compared 
 witli the elevation of the pole aiurequator, it is easily known whe- 
 ther the plane be inclined, or reclined. 
 
 Of the right placing of Dials. 
 
 The plane on which, the dial is to rest being daly prepared, and 
 every thing necessary for fixing it, take the sun's altitude by a 
 good (piadrant, noting the precise time of observation by a clock 
 j or watch. Then compute the time for the altitude observed ; and 
 set your watch to agree with that time, according to the sun. A 
 ILidle^'s quadrant is very convenient for this purpose: for bv it 
 you may take the angle "between the sun and his nnage reflected 
 from a bason of water ; the half of which angle, subtracting the re- 
 fraction, is the altitude rcipnred. This is best done in summer; 
 and the nearer the sun is to the prime vertical (the E. or W. azi- 
 muth) when the observation is maile, so much tlie better. Or,- 
 take two equal altitudes of the sun in the same day ; one any time 
 between seven and ten in the morning, tiie other between two »nd 
 five in the atternoon ; noting the moments of these two observa- 
 tions by a clock or watch : and if the watch shews the observations 
 to be at equal distances from noon, it agrees exactly with the 
 sun : if not, the watch must be corrected by half the dilference of 
 the forenoon and afternoon intervals ; and then the dial may be set 
 true by the watch. For example, suppose you had taken the sun's 
 altitude when it was 20 minutes pa--t VHI.'in the morning by the 
 watch ; and found, by ol)servation in the afternoon, that the sun 
 had tlie same altitude "ten minutes before III ; then it is plain, that 
 the watch was five minutes too fast for the sun: for five minutes 
 after XII is the middle time between VIII h. 'JO ni. in the morn- 
 ing, and III h. 50 m. in the afternoon ; and therefore to make the 
 watch agree with the sun, it must beset back five minutes. 
 
 Dialing in a Mine, called alfo plummiHg, is the using of a 
 compass which the miners call a dial, and a long line, to know 
 which way the load or vein of ore inclines, or where to shift an 
 all-shaft, or bring an adit to a desired place. , 
 
 Dialing Lines, or Dialing Scales. See Dialing, and 
 Plate L\'I. rig. 5. 
 
 Dialing Sector is a sector having upon it, besides other lines, 
 the dialing lines the construction of which is shewn under dialing. 
 It is evident that some advantage will be obtained in the prac- 
 tice of dialing by having the lines placed on a sec;tor. 
 
 Dialing briiERE, is an instrument made of brass, with several 
 semicircles sliding over one another, on a moving horizon, to 
 demonstrate the nature of the doctrine of spherical triangles, 
 and to give a true idea of the drawing of dials on all manner of 
 planes. 
 
 Dialing Tricon, an instrument invented by the late Mr. 
 Benjamin Martin, consisting of two graduated scales and a plane ; 
 used by some in tUe practice of dialing. 
 
 DIALOGISM, in rhetoric, the soliloquy of persons deliberat- 
 ing with themselves. See Soliloqut. 
 
 DIALOGUE, [i;f.).oy©',] a conference; a convei-sation be- 
 tween two or more, cither real or feigned. As the end of speech 
 is eonvers;ition, no kind of writing can be more natural than dia- 
 logue, which represents this. Accordingly we find it was intro- 
 duced very early ; for there are several instances of it in the Mo- 
 saic bistovy. The ancient Greek writers also fell very iniicli into 
 
 it, especially the philosophers, as the most agreeable method of 
 communicating their sentiments and instructions to mankind. In- 
 deed it seems to be attended with very considerable advantages, if 
 judiciously managed. For it is capable of making the driest sub- 
 jects entertaining and pleasant, by its variety, aiid the different 
 characters of the speakers. Besides, things may be canvassed more 
 minutely, and many less matters, which serve to clear up a 
 subject, may be introduced with abetter grace, by questions and 
 an wers, objections and re|)lies, than can be conveniently done in 
 a continued discourse. ^1 here is likewise a further advantage in 
 this way of writing, that the author is at liberty to choose his 
 speakers: and therefore, as Cicero has well observed, when we 
 imagine that we hear persons of an established reputation for wis- 
 dom and knowledge talking together, it necessarily ailds a weight 
 and authority to the dibcourse, and more closely engages the at- 
 tention. The subject matter of it is very extensive: tor whatever. 
 ; is a proper argument of discourse, public or private, serious or 
 jocose ; whatever is fit for wise and ingenious men to talk upon ei- 
 I ther for improvement or diversion, is suitable for a dialogue. The 
 I greatest regard is to be had in the choice of the persons, who ought 
 to be such as are well acijuaiiiled witli the subject upon which 
 i they discourse ; in the dialogues of Cicero, the two principal dis- 
 j putants are Crassus and Antony, the greatest orators of that age, 
 I and tiiercfore the "most projicr persons to dispute upon the (pialifi- 
 I cations necessary for their art. One wovild think it scarce necessary 
 ' to observe, that the conference should be held bv peisoiis who 
 ' ' lived
 
 Hi-'lTZi vr/i 1/ JJiiil 
 
 nrrir,!/ jji.t/. 
 
 /Ii'riz,v)/nl IJi.il 
 
 J'oit.M- Z//ciI 
 
 
 -s 
 
 
 
 ^^^^^== 
 
 "■-^ 
 
 ^^^B 
 
 / ^^v 
 
 
 ,7 
 
 U: .J 
 
 / l,/-/i.tAe,) };:'i:m.-f ,1,n.l,v.J/M,.,i /*,■■
 
 f'iMit/u-d dyj.mio- Cuitilee, AlHonJtrtt.TMitdcn.ie^,
 
 I
 
 I) r A 
 
 147 
 
 D I A 
 
 livoil at the siime lime, ami sa wi'jv capable to converse together, 
 lint yet some gooti vvnteri have run into the impropi-ioty of feigning 
 J'alogucs between |)erson-: who lived at distant times. Plato 
 took this method, in which ho has been followed by Macrobius. 
 But otliiM->, who have been willing to bring pi isi:ns to discourse 
 tni;e(hi-r, who lived in dilfen nt ages, wilhoiit siicii inconsistency, 
 biM e wrote Oialogiies of the Dead. 
 
 DlALTIl/KA, in ph: rmacy, an iingneut much used as a resol- 
 Tent; so called from alth;ca, or marshmallows, which is the prin- 
 cipal ingredi( nl in it. 
 
 :. DIALYSIS, [ha^vai;,} tlic ligurc in rhetoric by which syllables 
 er words are divided. 
 
 . DtAi.Ysis, in grammar, a mark or character, consisting of two 
 points (") placed over two vo\vel<, because otiierwise they would 
 m.ike a diplithong, as Mosaic, Phaeton, &c. 
 
 DIAMAN'J", a town of the island of Martinico, on tlie south 
 roast. 
 
 DIA.MASTIGOSIS, a festival at Sparta in honour of Diana 
 Orthia, which received that name a-no rm fAti^iyovi, from whipping, 
 because boys were wliipped before the altar of the goddess. I'hese 
 boys, ci'.Heil bomonica?, were originally free-born Sj)artans, but in 
 the more delicate ages they were of mean birlh, and generally of a 
 slavish origin. 
 
 DlAiNi K'l'F.R, [Ji« and fjursc-,,'] the line, which passing through 
 the centre of a circle or other curvilinear figure, divides it into 
 equal parts. 
 
 DiAMKTER, in conic sections. See Conic Sections. 
 . DIAMOND, [cLiaiiKini, Fr. rt(/(/»ifl.5, Lat.] the most valuable and 
 hardest of ail the gems, is, when pure, perfectly clear and pellucid as 
 tlie purest water; and is eminently distinguished from all other sub- 
 stances by its vivid spliiulour, and the brightness of its rellections. 
 It is extremely various in shape and size, being lound in the great- 
 est (piantit^- very small, and tlie larger ones extjemely seldom 
 met with. But most commonlv it is crystallized in the form of a 
 six-sided prism, terminatetl by a six-sided pyramid. Its brilliancy 
 arises from its greater refractive power, which is suck as to cause 
 all the liglit to be reflected which falls on it at an angle of inci- 
 dence greater tlian 24;- degrees; and it is capabh' ot being ren- 
 dered still more brilliant by its surface being cut into facets, which 
 multiply the reflections of li",ht. From its hardness its lustre re- 
 mains uninjured : this hardness is such, that it can be cut, or ra- 
 ther worn down only by rulibiug one diamond against another, and is 
 polished only by the liner diamond powder. Diamonds are found 
 in India, in the districts of Visapore, Golconda, Bengal, and the 
 island of Ce\ Ion, and in Brazil in South America. It is not found 
 in its original situation, but in the beds of streams, or in a loose 
 ferruginous sand beneath the soil. The Brazilian diamonds are 
 inferior in transparency and purity to the Oriental. The diamond 
 is col uriess, or tinged of various shades of white or grey, and 
 sometimes also, though more rarely, of brown, green, yellow, 
 blue, and red, frequeiiilv with darker coloured spots. It is gene- 
 rally transparent, though not perfectly so, and has the property of 
 single refraction ; its fracture is lamellated, and it can be split by 
 striking it in the direction of the plates. Its specific gravity is 
 from 3j00 to 3(500. It i» phosphorescent, or, when it has been 
 exposed to the light, is luminous in the dark. It is rendereil elec- 
 trical by rubbing, the electricity being positive. The diamond 
 was long thought to be an incombustible substance since it was found 
 to resist Iheaction of the strongest fires. However, Sir Isaac Newton 
 observing that combustibles refract light more powerfully than 
 other bodies, and that the diamond possesses this property in great 
 perfection, suspected it, from that circumstance, to be capable of 
 • combustion. ^I'his singular conjecture was verified in 1694 by the 
 Florentine academicians, in the presence of Cosmo III. grand 
 duke of Tuscany. By means of a burning-glass, they consumed 
 several diamonds. Francis I. emperor of Germany, afterwards 
 witnessed the destruction of several more in the heat of the furnace. 
 These experiments were repeated by Rouelle, Marcpier, and 
 Darcet ; who proved that the diamond was not merely evaporated 
 but actually burnt; and that if air was excluded it underwent no 
 change. No attempt, however, was made to ascertain the product 
 till 1772. Lavoisier, in a memoir published that year, shewed 
 that when the diamond is burnt, carbonic acid gas is obtained, and 
 that there is a striking analogy between it atid "charcoal. In 178 
 Guyton-Morveau found that the diamond is combustible when 
 dropped into melted nitre ; that 'it biirns without leaving any resi- 
 
 duum, and in a manner analogous to charcoal. This expermunt 
 was repeated with more precision by Mr. Tennant in 1797. The 
 conclusion which he drew from it was, that when a diamond is 
 burnt the whole of the |)roduct is carbonic acid gas; that a given 
 weight of diamond yields just as much carbonic acid gas as the 
 same wt-iglit of charcoal ; and that diamond and charcoal are both 
 composed of the very same substance. The conclusion tiuit dia- 
 mond is nothing else than charcoal, was directly contrary to what - 
 one would have expected from comparing the two substances to- 
 gether. Their colour, hardness, specific gravity, and ele. trical 
 properties, are exceedingly dilfirent ; nor do they resemble each 
 other more nearly in their combustibility. Charcoal takes fire at 
 a red heat ; and when once kindled in oxygen gas continues to 
 burn tdl it is wholly consumed. According to Morveau, the dia- 
 mond, before it can be burnt, must \fe exposeil to the sun's rays 
 in the focus of a large burning glass, or to a heat not under 5000°. 
 But Sir George M'K.enzie found that diamonds will burn in a 
 muffle, when heated no higher than 14° or 1 j" Wedgewood; which 
 must be considerably lower than 5000° Fahrenheit. Its surface 
 assumes a black colour like charcoal: this crust is soon wasted, 
 and another is formed in its place. It was in this manner that a 
 diamond weighing 3.089 grains troy, gradually wasted away com- 
 pletely when exposed by Morvtau for one hour and forty mi- 
 nutes in the focus of the celebrated burning glass of Tschirnhau- 
 sen, while a thermometer exposed to the sun stood at 104°. 
 Morveau found that one part of the diamond during its com- 
 bustion combines with 4. 592 parts of oxygen, and the carbonic 
 acid gas formed amounts to 5.592 parts: consequently, carbonic 
 acid gas is composed of one part of diamond and 4.592 of 
 oxygen ; or, which is the same thing, 100 parts of carbonic acid 
 gas are composed of 
 
 17.88 diamond 
 
 100.00 
 
 ivoisier, ascertained that one part of charcoal, when burnt, 
 res with 2.5714 parts of oxygen, and forms 3.5714 paits of 
 
 But Lav 
 
 combines with 2.5714 pai 1.3 t-*! «j--vi i4,cii, cum n^ims l».^/ i-r ^uiu wi 
 carbonic acid gas : conseipiently 1 00 parts of carbonic acid gas are 
 composed of 
 
 28 charcoal 
 
 72 oxygen 
 
 100. 
 
 But 100 parts of carbonic acid gas are also coitiposed of 17. SS 
 diamond, and 82. 12 oxygen. VVe have therefore this equation : 
 
 Diamond. Oxygen. Char. Oxygen. 
 17.88 -f- 82.12 = 28 -f 72 
 
 Consequently, subtracting 72 parts of oxygen from both sides of 
 the equation, we liave 
 
 Diamond. Oxygen. 
 
 17.88 -f 10.12 = 23 charcoal. 
 
 That is to say, 28 parts of charcoal are composed of 17.83 dia- 
 mond and 10.12 oxygen. Of course, 100 parts of charcoal are 
 composed of 
 
 63,85 diamond 
 
 36.15 oxygen 
 
 100.00 
 The diamond, from these experiments, appears to be that sub- 
 stance in a state of purity to which Lavoisier and his associates 
 gave the name of carbon ; and therefore charcoal is not 
 carbon, as they supposed, but the oxide of carbon. Thus char- 
 coal is a compound substance, -and hence tiie different qualities of 
 charcoal and carbon, or diamond. See Carbon. Sir George 
 Mackenzie, likewise, repeated and confirmed an experiment of 
 the F'rench chemists, in which a piece of soft iron was converted 
 into steel by being heated with diamonds, in tiie same manner.as 
 it would have been by being healed in the usual manner with 
 charcoal powder; and his experiments are more satisfactory, as having 
 been made with a diamond in its purest state. (Nicholson's 
 Journal^ 4to. vol. iv. p. 103.) The first water in diamonds means 
 the greatest purity and perfection of their complexion, which 
 ought to be that ol the jjurest water. When diamonds fall short 
 of this perfection, they are said to be of the second or third water, 
 
 &c.
 
 DTA 
 
 143 
 
 DTA 
 
 &c. till the stuni! maybe properly called a coloiireci one : for it 
 Nvould be an iiiipropriety to speak of an impertecUy coloured 
 diamond, or one that has other defects, as a stone of a bad water 
 only. T lie names of oriental and occidental, i^iven by jeuoUers to 
 this and all other precious stuius, have a dililerent meaning from 
 the obvious seii-e; the fmesl and hardest being always called ori- 
 ental, whether they be produced in the east or not. Tliose called 
 occidental are of inferior value ; but according to Mr. ielJeries, 
 \vho ha-j wriUen a treatise on the subject, the diamonds of Hrasil 
 equal the finest oriental ones. Diamonds are also distin- 
 guished according lo their lignre, by the names of rose diamonds, 
 brilliant, and rougli diamuiuW. 
 
 1. Diamonds, Brilliant, are those cut in faces botli at top 
 and boltoiii ; andwliose table, or principal face at top, is ilat. lo 
 make a complete square brilliant, if the rough diamond be not 
 found of a square figure, it must be made so ; and if the work is 
 perfectly executed, the length of the axis will be equal to tlie side 
 of the square base of the pyramid. Jewellers tlien form the table 
 and collet by dividing toe block, or Icngtli of the axis, into 18 
 parts. 'I'liey take five-lSths from the upper part, and oiie-18th 
 from the lower. This gives a plane at four-18tlis from the girdle 
 for the table; and a smaller plane at five-lStlis distance for the 
 collet; the breadth of which will l)e one-5tli of the breadth of the 
 table. In this state the stone is said to be a complete square table 
 diamond. The brilliant is an improvement on the table diamond, 
 and was introduced within the last century, according to Mr. .lef- 
 feries. To render a brilliant perfect, each comer ol tiie above de- 
 scribed table diamond, must be shortened by one-'JOlh of its origi- 
 nal. The corner ribs of the upper sides must be lialiened, or run 
 towards the centre of the table one-6th less than the sides ; the 
 lower part, which terminates in the girdle, must be oiie-Slh of one 
 side of the girdle ; and each corner rib of the under sides must be 
 flattened at the top, to auswer the L^bove (lat^ening at the girdle, 
 and at bottom must be one-4th of eacli side of the collet. The 
 parts of the small work, which complete the brilliant, or the star 
 and skill facets, arc of a triangular ligure. Both of these partake 
 equL-.lly of the depth of the upper sides from the tsbic to the girdle; 
 and meet in the middle of eacli side of the table and girdle, as also 
 at the corners. Thus ihey produie regular lozenges on the four 
 Tipper sides, and corners of the stone. The triangular facets, on 
 the under sides, joining to the girdle, must be half as deep again as 
 the abov'e lacets, lo answer to the collet parts. The stone here 
 described is sai<l to be a lull-subslanced brilliant. If the stone is 
 thicker than in the proportion here mentioned, it is said to be an 
 over-weighted brilliant. If the thickness is less tlian in this pro- 
 portion, it is called a spread brilliant. The beauty of brilliants is 
 diminibhed by their being either over-weighted or spread. The 
 true proportion of the axis, or depth of tlie stone to its side, is as 
 two to three. Brilliairts are distinguished into sipiare, round, oval, 
 and drops, from the figure of their respective girdles. 
 
 2. Diamonds, Rose, are quite Ilat underneath, with their upper 
 part cut in divers little faces, usually triangles, the uppermost of 
 vhich terminate in a point. The depth of the stone from the base 
 to the point must be half the breadth of the diameter of the base 
 of the stone. The diameter of the crown must be two-oths of the 
 diameter of the base. The perpendicular, from the base to the 
 crown, must be tliiee-:)ths of the diameter of the stone. The lo- 
 zenges which appear in all circular rose diamonds, will be equally 
 divided by the ribs that form the crown ; and the upper anples or 
 facets will termina'e in the extreme point of the stone, and tlie 
 lower ill the base or girdle. 
 
 3. Diamonds, Rough, are the stones, .as nature produces them 
 in the mines. They should be chosen uniform, of a good shape, 
 transparent, not quite white, and free of flaws and shivers. Black, 
 nigged, dirty, llawey, veiny stones, and all such, are not lit for 
 cutting, they use to pound in a steel mortar made tor that purpose; 
 and when pulverized, they serve lo saw, cut, and polish, the rest. 
 Shivers are occasioned in diamonds by this, that the miners, to 
 get them more easily out of the vein, which winds between t\>o 
 rocks, break the rocks with huge iron levers, which shakes, and 
 fills the stone with cracks and sliivers. Lewis Renpicn, a native 
 of Bruges, in 14/6, invented the art of cutting diamonds. The 
 dianiond is so hard, that it can only be cut and ground by itself 
 and ils own substance. To bring it" to that perfection whic'li aug- 
 meiils its price so considerably, they begin by rubbing several 
 against each other, while rough ; after having fuxed them to the 
 
 ends of two wooden blocks, thuk enough to be held in the liand^ 
 with a mixture of rosin and brick dust. It is this powder, thus 
 rubbed oti tlie stones, and received in a little box for the purpose, 
 that serves to grind and polish the diamonds. This is done by 
 means of a i^'ill, which turns a wheel of soft iron, sprinkled over 
 with diamond dust mixed witli oil of olives. The same dust, well 
 ground, and diluted with water and vinegar, is used in the sawina^ 
 of diamonds; which is performed with an iron or brass wire, as 
 tine as a hair. Sometimes, in lieu of sawing tlie diamonds, liieyt 
 cleave them, especially if there be any kirge .shivers therein. But 
 the Europeans are not usually daring, or cxi.ert enough to run llw 
 risk ol cleaving, for fear of breaking. The greatest diamond ever 
 known in the world belongs to the king of Fortugal, and was fouiul 
 in Brazil. It is still uncut; and .Mr. ]Slag'.dlan informs us, tliat it 
 was of a larger size; but a piece was broken off by the ignorant, 
 countryman, who chanced to find tliis great gem, and tried its 
 hardness by the stroke of a large hammer u]<on an anvil. This 
 prodigious diamond weighs IbSO carats; and although it is luicut^ 
 Mr. Rome de I'lsle says 'Jiat it is valued at 2l.'4 millions steiling, 
 which gives the estimation of 79.36, or about SO/, sterling for each 
 carat ; viz. for the multiplicand of the square of its w hoi* weight. 
 But .'ven in case of any em r of the press in this valuation, it we 
 employ the ■icneral rule of valuation, this great gem must be 
 worth at least .5,644,800/. sterling, which are the protluct of ICSO 
 by two pounds, viz mucli above five nii'lions and a half sterling. 
 1 he tamous iliamond, which adorns the inqierial sceptre of Russia 
 under the eagle at the top of it, weighs 779 carats, and is woith at 
 least 4,H3.i,7'i'S/. sterling, although it hardly co,t l3o,4l7 guiueas. 
 Th s diamond was one ol theeyes of a Malabarian idol, named Sche- 
 ringham. A French grenadier, who had deserted from the Indian 
 Service, contrived to become one of the priests ot tliat idol, from 
 which he had the oppoitimity lo steal one of its eyes: lie liien run 
 away to the liuglish atTrichinapi uty, and thence lo Madras. A 
 ship's captain bought it for 20,000 rupees: afterwards a Jew gave 
 17, or 1«, 000/. sterling for it: al last a Greek mercliant, named 
 Gregory Suliras, offered it lo sale at iHnsteriiam, in 170v.>: and the 
 late prince Orlol'f purchased it, as he himself told Mr. Magellan 
 in London, for the empress C'alharine II. The figure and size of 
 this diamond may be seen in the British iilusenm in London: it. is 
 not of a reuular form. For the valuation of diamonds of all 
 weights, Mr. Jeileries lays down the lollowing rules. He first 
 supposes the value of a rough diamond lo be 21. per carat, al a 
 medium ; then to find the value of diamonds of greater weights, 
 multiply the square oi their weight by two, and the product is the 
 value required. E. G. to find the value of a rougli dianiond of 
 two carats, 2x 2 =: 4, the square of the weight ; which, multi- 
 plieil by two, gives 8/. the true value of a rough diamond of two 
 carats. For finding the value of manufactured diamonds, he sup- 
 poses half their weight to be lust in manufacturing them: and 
 tlicrefore lo fiiid tlieir value, we must multiply the sipiare of dou- 
 ble their weight by two, which will give their true value in pounds. 
 Thus, to fiuvl the value of a wrought diamond weighing two ca- 
 rats; we first find the square of double the weight, viz. 4x4:= 
 16; then 16 X 2 = 32. So that the true value of a wrought dia- 
 mond of two carats is 32/. On these principles Mr. Jelferies has 
 constructed tables of the price ol diamonds from I to 100 caiats. 
 
 DiA.MoND, in the glass trade, an instrnnieiil used fur squaring' 
 the large plates, or pieces; and, among glaziers, for cutting their 
 glass. These sorts of diamonds (which are small broken pieces of 
 real diamon<ls) are differently fitted up. Those u^ed tor large 
 pieces, as looking-glasses, &c. are set in an iron ferril, about two 
 inches long, and a tpiarter of an inch in diameter; the cavity of 
 the ferril being filled up with lead, to keep ihe diamond firm: 
 there is also a handle of box or ebony fitted to the ferril, for hold- 
 ing it by. 
 
 Diamond, in heraldry, a term used for expressing the black co- 
 lour in the achievements of peerage. Guillim docs not approve; 
 of lihuoning the coals of peers by precious stones instead of metals 
 and colours; but the Kuglish practice allows it. Morgan says tlie 
 diamond is vn emblem of fortitude. 
 
 DIAMI'LR, or UDEAMPER, a town of India, in the country 
 of Cochin, said to be inhabited by Christians of St. Thomas, 15 
 miles W. of Cochin. 
 
 Dl.ANA, iIk' goddess of hunting. According to Cicero, Ihere 
 were three of this name: a daughter of Jupiter and Proserpine, 
 who became mother of Cupid ; a daughter of Jnpiter and Latoiia; 
 
 and
 
 DIA 
 
 ;-a:.r:^T 
 
 W) 
 
 — _ . fi^tmW. 
 
 DIA 
 
 iliHl a daughkT of Upis and Glauce. Tlio sfcoiid is the mo-t ce- 
 It'hrati'd, and to her all tlio aiicients allude. She was bom ;\l the 
 Same birth as Apollo; and llii,- pa:ns wliich she saw her mother siil- 
 fev during her labour, gave her such an aversion to marriage, that 
 she ol)taine<l of her fatlier to live in perpetual celibacy, and, to 
 preside over the travails of women. J'o shun the society of men 
 she devoted herself to hunting; and was always accompanied by 
 a number of chosen virgins, who, like herself, abjured marriage. 
 Bile is representeil with a quiver, and attended with dogs and 
 ■sometimes drawn in a chariot by l«o white stags. Sometimes she 
 apjieaM with wings, holding a lion in one hand, and a p.mlher in 
 the other, with a chariot drawn by two heifers, or two horses of dif- 
 ferent colours, IS represented as tall, her face has suinethinp; manly ; 
 jier legs are bare, well-shaped, and strong ; and her feet are covered 
 with a buskin worn by huntresses among the ancients. Slie received 
 many surnames, pailicularly from the pla(;es where her wor>hip 
 was eslabliJied, and from the functions over which she presi<led. 
 Hhs was called Lucina, llythia, or Juno Pronuba, when invoked 
 bv women in chiid-bed; and Trivia when worsiiipped in the cross- 
 •/ay?, where her statues were generally erected. She was supposed 
 to be the same as the moon and Proserpine, or Hecate; hence she 
 was called Tiiformis; and some of her statues represented her 
 with three heads, that of a horse, a dog, and a boar. Her pow ers 
 and functions under these three characters have been expressed in 
 these lines: 
 
 Tenet, lusfrat, agit, Proserpina, Luna, Diana, 
 Ima suprema, feras, sceptro, fulgore, sagitt.i. 
 She was also called Agroteia, Orithia, Taurica, Delia, Cynthia, 
 Aricia, &;c. She was reckoned the same as the Isis of theEgvp- 
 tians, whose worship was introduced into Greece with that of Osiris 
 under the name of Apollo. 
 
 DIANiE AUUOR, or ARBOR LUN.E, in chemistry, the 
 beautilul crvstallizations of silver dissolved in aqua-fortis, to which 
 some ipiieksilver is added; and so called from their resembling 
 the ti unk, br re. lies, leases, &c. of a tree. See Arbor Dian;e. 
 
 DIANDKIA, [from i<,-, twice, and r-.y-i;, a mm,] the second 
 class in Liniutu-'> sexual system, consisting of hermaphrodite 
 plants, which have flowers with two male organs. See Botany. 
 
 D1.\N UM, n ancient geography, a town of the Contestani, in 
 the Hither Spa n ; now cjiiled Denia. 
 
 Dl.-^N THEKA, in botany, a genus of tlie monogynia order, 
 and diandria class of plants; natural order, Personatx. Corolla 
 ringent; capsule biloeular, parting with a spring at the heel ; sta- 
 mina, each fiiinished with two anthera; placed alternately. Twelve 
 species. 
 
 DIANTHUS, tlic C'LovE-Gti-LiFLowER, Carnation, Pink, 
 Sweet- AViLLiAM, &:c. ; a genus of the digynia order, and decan- 
 dria class of plants ; natural order, C'arophyllei. Calyx cylindric, 
 one-leaied, with fuur-scales at the b.ise ; petals live, with claws; 
 cap»ule cylindric, one-ctlled. There are thirty species. These 
 beautiful pi. nts are chiefiy herbaceous; some few howevvr are 
 sulfruticose. Most of them are hardy, and perennial or biennial ; 
 some of the smaller wild sorts only are annual ; stalks annual, from 
 one to three feet in height ; leaves ojiposite, narrov,', entire ; 
 flowers terminating, many aggregate, some solitary, or several to- 
 gether, but d.stinct. This numerous genus includes the sweet- 
 will'ams, carnations, and pinks, with their several varieties. * 
 
 DIAPASON, iSm r:a7«."/,'] in music, a musical interval, bv 
 which most authors, who have wrote upon the theory of music, use 
 to express the octave of tl'.e Greeks. See Octavb. The diapa- 
 ion is the lir-t and most perfect of the concords ; if considered sim- 
 ply, it is but one harmonical interval ; though, if considered dia- 
 tonically, by tones and semitones, it contains seven degrees, viz. 
 the three greater tones, two less tones, and two greater semitones. 
 The interval of a diapason, that is the proportion of its grave sounds 
 to its acute, is duplicate, i.e. as 2 : 1. See the article In- 
 terval, and Music. 
 
 DiAPAsos, anions; the musical instrument makers, a kind of 
 scale whereby they adjust the pipes of their organs, and cut the 
 holes of their hautboys, flutes, &;c. in due proportion for perform- 
 ing the tones, semi-tones, and concords, just. 
 
 Diapason Djaex, a kind of compound concord, whereof there 
 are two sorts; the greater, which is in the proportion of 10-3; and 
 the less in that of llj-5. 
 
 DiAPA't n Diapente, a compound consonance in a triple ra- 
 tio, as .3-9. This intcrvalj sajs Martianus Capella, consists of 9 
 vol. 11. — NO. 65. 
 
 tones and a semitone ; 19 semitones, and 38 diesi-s. It is a sym. 
 phony made when the voice proceeds from the iiiot to the Iwelftk 
 sound. 
 
 Diapason Diatussaron, a compound concord founded onlUs 
 proportion of 8 to 3. 'l"o this interval Martianus Capella allows 
 S tones and a semitone; 17 semitones, and 34 dieses. Tliij i{ 
 when the voice proweds from its first to its 1 1th sound. The niu- 
 derns woulil rather call it the 1 !th. 
 
 Diapason* D'itone, a compound concord, whose terms are a^ 
 10-4, or as 5-'J. 
 
 Diapason Se-MIDitoni;, a compound concord, whose termi 
 are in till' proportion of I'J-j.. 
 
 DI.APEntSIS, in medicine, a transudation of the fluids 
 through the sides of the vessels that contain themi, occasioned by 
 the blood's becoming too much attenuated, or the pores too open. 
 
 DIAPENSIA, a genus of the monogynia order, and pentiiu- 
 dria class of plants ; natural order, Precis. Corolla salver-shai;- 
 ed ; calyx live-leaved, imbricate, with three other leaflets ; sta- 
 mina placed on the tube of the corolla; capsule three-celled; 
 There is but one species, vii. D. lapoiiica, a native of the moui.*- 
 tains of l^apland. 
 
 DlAPEN'l E, in the ancient music, an interval marking thfe 
 second of the concords ; and, with the diatessaron, an octavu. 
 This is what in the modern music is called a tilth. 
 
 DIAPERED, or DIAPKE', in heraldry, the dividing of a field 
 in planes, like fret-work, and tilling the same with variety of 
 ligures. 
 
 DIAPHORESIS, in medicine, an elimination of the humours 
 in any part of the body through the pores of the skin. See Per- 
 spiration. 
 
 DIAPHANOUS, [^i»f«x»,;,] an appellation given to all trans- 
 parent bodies, or such as transmit the rays of light. 
 
 DIAPHORETICS, among physicians, all medicines whiclx 
 promote i)erspiration. 
 
 DIAPHRAGM, in anatomy, a large, robust, inusculous mem- 
 brane of skin, placed transversely in the trunk, and dividing the 
 thorax from the abdomen, whence the Latin writers call it septum 
 transversuin. See Anatomy. Plato, as Galen infornis us, first 
 called this muscle diaphragm, from the verb, i'iifj»Tl*y, to separate 
 or be between two. Till his time it had been called f^tvsj, from a 
 notion that an inllammation of this part |)rodiiced phrensy. 
 
 DliVPORESlS, [Jisiiro^iiiri;,] in rlietoric, a ligure used to express 
 the hesitation or uncertainty of the speaker. It is most naturally 
 placed in the exordium of a discourse. See Doubtikg. We 
 have an example in Homer, where Ulysses, going to relate his sut<- 
 ferings to Alcinoiis, begins thus : 
 
 Ti wja'TOV, TI ^'i-s:fi7n.f Ti ^''jfaTiOV, jtitTatXf'^w. 
 
 Quid prinuun, quid delude, quid postremo, alloquar? 
 
 DIARBECK, DIARBEKAR, DIARBEKER, or DIAR. 
 BEKIR, an extensive i>rovinee of Ea-tem Asiatic Turkey, com- 
 prehending, in its latest extent, Diarbekr, properly so" called, 
 I'erack or Chaldea, and Curdistan, which were the ancient coun- 
 tries of Mesopotamia, Cli.ddea, and Assyria, willi B.ibylon. It 
 is called Diaj'beck, Diarbeker, or Diarbekr, as signifying th« 
 duke's country, from the word dhyar, a duke, and bekr, "country. 
 It extends along the banks of the Tigris and Euphrates from N. !s'. 
 W.toS. E.that is, from Mount Taurus, which divides it fromTur- 
 comaniaon the N. to the inmost reces-s of the Persian gulph on the 
 S. about 600 rr\iles ;and from E. to W. ?'. e. from Persia on the E. to 
 Syiia and Arabia Dcsertaontiie W. insome places 200, and in others 
 about 300 miles, but in the southern or lower parts not above 
 150 miles. It enjoys a good temperature of air, as well as, in 
 the greater part of it, a rich and fertile soil. There are indeed, as 
 in all hot countries, some large deserts in it, which produce no sus- 
 tenance for men or cattle, nor have any inhabitants. Being a con- 
 siderable frontier towards the kingdom of Persia, it is very well 
 guarded and fortilied ; but as for those many cities once io re- 
 nowned for their greatness and opulence, they are at present al- 
 most dwindled into heaps of ruins. Bagdad, Mossul, Carahmed, 
 and a few more, indeed continue populous and wealthy; but the 
 rest are sorry places. The rivers Euphrates and 'J'igris have al- 
 most their whole course through this country. 
 
 DiAiiBEKiR, or DiARBECK Proper, Isboundtd oTi the N. bv 
 
 Turcomania, on the \\ . by Syria, on the S. by part of Arabia De- 
 
 serta and Vrack Proper, and on the E. by Curdistan. It waj 
 
 named bv Mosw Padoa-Aram ; the latter being the general name 
 
 2 Q' of
 
 IJIK 
 
 \5() 
 
 D IC 
 
 ol S) ra, p.!k1 llip former signitying fruitful, a proper epithet for 
 tins country, which is really so to a very high degree, especmliy 
 on the N. side, where it yields corn, wine, oil, fruits, and all the 
 necessaries of life, in great abundance. The principal towns are, 
 Diarbekir, Ri!<a, Moussul, Orsa, or Edessa, Elblr, Nisibis, Gezir 
 Werdiii, Zibin, l^r of the Chaldees, Aniad, and Carasara. Diar- 
 bekir, the capital, is 600 miles N. W. of Ispahan, and i40 
 E. S. E. of Constantinople. 
 
 D! ARRfiff/^, ['W?'''^;] in medicine, is a frequent and copious 
 evacuation of liquid excrement, by stool. See ^Iedicine. 
 
 DIARV, [diariitm, Lai.] an account of the transactions, ac- 
 fcidents, and observations, of every day; a journal. 
 
 DIASCHISM, among mn-iciaiis, 'denotes the difference be- 
 tween the comma and enharmonic diesis, commonly called tlie 
 less comma. 
 
 DIASCORDIUM, in pharmacy; a celebrated compesition, so 
 calied from scordiuni, one of its ingredients. 
 
 DIASIA, [^i-«<rir/,,] in antiquity, a festival held at Athens, in 
 ionour of Jupiter. 
 
 DIASTOLE, [ii(«ri»i>i,] among physicians, signifies the dilata- 
 tion of the heart, auricles, and arteries ; and stands opposed to 
 the syslole, or contraction of the same parts. See Anatomy. 
 
 Di.iSTOLE, in grammar, a figure of prosody, whereby a syllabic 
 naturally short is- made long; such is the lirst syllable of Priam- 
 ides, in tlic loHowing verse of Virgil. 
 
 At'uie l-.ic Priamides : nihil o tibi, amice relictum. 
 This figure is used eillier out of mere poetic licence without any 
 necessity for so doing, or througli necessity, for the sake of the 
 ■verse ; "as when three or more short syllables follow each other in 
 hexamder verse. 
 
 DiASlYLE, [Jim and rf>®-', a pillar,] in architecture, a sort 
 ef edifice where the pillars stand at such a distance trom one ano- 
 ther, thit three diameters of their thickness are allowed for inter- 
 columniaiion. 
 
 DIASYAVIUS, in rhetoric, a kind of hyperbole, being an ex- 
 aggeration ol some low, riilicnlous thing. 
 
 DI.-\ TiiSSERON, [of ^i» and t(3-»-!j«, four] an interval in 
 niuMc, composed of one greater, one less, and one greater semi- 
 tone ; its proportion belugas 4 to 3. It is called, in musical coin- 
 position, a ))erfect fourth. 
 
 DIA PH l'".SiS, [ai^8(5-k, ?■. f. disposition] the natural or prav 
 ternalural disposition of the body. " This term, says Mr. Cham- 
 bers, is used by some writers in the same sense with constitution ; 
 and by others,"for a deposition of the blood to a faulty state." 
 
 DIATHYKUM, [from Ji» and 9i/j<», a door,] in architecture, a 
 fence before a door. 
 
 DIA rONI, [JiriTovoj,] corner-stones. 
 
 DIATONIC, in music, is compounded of two Greek words, 
 viz. the preposition ii"-, signifying a transition from one thing to 
 an<,lhLr, and the substantive z\n;, importing a given degree of 
 tension and musical note. It is indifferently applied to a scale or 
 gamut, to intervals of a certain kind, or to a species of music, 
 vdietl er in melody or harmony, composed of these intervals. See 
 Interval. 
 
 DIATRjETjE, in Roman antiquity, a kind of cups and vases 
 made of the purest rock crystal, and esteemed of great value, 
 being engraved with various devices. 
 
 DIATRAGACANTH, in pharmacy, a name applied to cer- 
 tain powders, of which gum tragacanth is the chief ingredient. 
 
 DIATRIBA, or DIATRIBE, a continued discourse ; a place 
 Vrhere disputations are held. 
 
 D1ATR.I15US, a composition of three ingredients. 
 
 DIATYPOSIS, [.iiKtTUTruKri;,] in rhetoric, a lively description of 
 siiY thing. 
 
 Di.'^VOLO, an island in the Archipelago. 
 
 DIA/EUTIC ToKE, [of ha and ^vjyrji«,'] in the ancient 
 Greek music, disjoined two-fourths, one on each side of it ; and 
 vhichbeing joined to either, made a filth. This is, in our nviisic 
 from A to 15. They allowed to this diazeutic tone, which is our 
 La, Mi, the proportion of nine to eight, as being the unalterable 
 difference of the (iflh and fourth. 
 
 DIBliLLC, or DIBBER, a simple but useful implement in 
 gardening, for the purpose of setting out young plants, &c. Within 
 tliese few years, it has been employed for dibbling wheat, and 
 the whole process consists in making perpendicular holes an inch 
 And a half or two inclics deep, in the same in.uiiicr as is usually 
 
 done in planting potatoe- roots. These holes are made by a man 
 who has a proper staff, shod with iron, in each han<l ; ^nd, as he 
 walks backwards, is able, by looking at the part of the row already 
 formed, to keep nearly in a strait hue, and to make two holes at,, 
 once, about four inches distant from set to set in the rows. Tw 
 or more children attend him, and drop two, three, or four seedi' 
 into every hole, which are afterwards covered by drawing nvef 
 them what is called a bush-harrow. This methcd is deservedl 
 considered one of the greatest improvements in a .riculture. It 
 ^-ppears to have originated fiom the pliiiiting of grain in a garden, 
 from mere curios. ty. by persons who neither des'gned, nor liaii 
 any opportunity of extending it to a lucrative purpose. Norwaj 
 it attesitpted on a larger scale, till an indu^lrii.us farmer, in the 
 vicinity of Norwich, began to dibble on less than an acre of land. 
 The success of this experiment induced others to follow his ex- 
 ample, and notwithstanding the ridicule they incurred for adopt- 
 ing so singular a practice, their crops were not only larger, but 
 likewise so much superior totho-e of others, that dibbling' h.is Vie- 
 come the practice of every intelligent agriculturist i-n Norfolk, 
 wdience it has spread into several other countries. 
 
 DICE, among gamesters, cubical pieces of bone or ivorv, 
 marked witli dots on each side of their faces, from one to six. 
 Sharpers have several ways of falsifying dice. 
 
 DICERA, a genus of the polyandria monogynia class and or- 
 der. Pc-tuls ;our or five, ovate and tritid ; nectanum four or five- 
 vuiarginute corpuscules ; anthers two, horned. It has two species, 
 trees of New Zealand. 
 
 DICHONDRIA, a genus of Ihe class and order penlandria di- 
 gynia. Calyx five-leaved; corolla rotate, inferior; capsule dicoc- 
 cous. One species, an herb of New Zealand. 
 
 iJiCilORD, [ii.-, and x^;^"''] ''i^ name given to the two- 
 stringed lyre, said to have been invented by the Egyptian Mer- 
 cury. Apoilodorus accounts for its invention in the following 
 manner. " Mercury," says h(f, "walking on the bank-, of the river 
 Nile, happened to strike his fool against the shell of a tortoise, 
 the Mesh of which had been dried away by the heat of the sun, 
 and nothing left of its contents but the nerves and cartilages; he 
 was so pleased with the sound it produced, that he hence con- 
 ceived the idea of a lyre, which he afterwards constructed in the 
 f^rm of a tortoise, and strung it wilh the dried sinews o£ animals." 
 
 DICHOTOMY, [iixo-o/-i''»,] a term used by astronomers for 
 that appearance on the moon, wherein she is bisected, or shews 
 just hall her disk. In this situation the moon is said to be in a 
 quadrate aspect, or to be in her quadrature, and is thus represented 
 by ashonomers: DO) 
 
 DICKER, [A'crn, low Latin,] in old writers, the quantity of 
 ten hides. It was also applied to other articles; as ten pair of 
 gloves, ten bars of iron, and the like. 
 
 DiCKSONIA, in botany, a genus of the cryptoganiia Alices 
 class and order. Natural order filices, or ferns. Eructifications 
 kidney-shaped, lying under the edge of the frond at the lower 
 surface; outer valve formed of the substance of the leaf itself ; 
 inner membranaceous; involucre double, one from the surface, 
 opening outwards ; the other from the inflated margin of the 
 frond, often embracing the former, opening inwards. There are 
 tiiirteen species. D. arborescens, tree dicksonia, was found by 
 Sir Joseph Banks in the island of St. Helena. It iiowers most 
 part of the winter. 
 
 DICRA, in old records, ten. 
 
 DICRANIUM, in botany, a genus of the class and order cryp- 
 toganiia musci. Capsule ovate, oljlong ; fringe simple, of sixt'cea 
 inflected, cloven teeth. This is a very numerous genus. 
 
 DICRICH, a town of Erance, in the late Austrian Nether- 
 lands, and province of Luxemburg, 15 miles N. of Lnxemburcc. 
 
 DICTAMNUS, White Dittany, or EK/iXixr.LLA, a genus 
 of the monogynia order, and d,'c;mdria class of planls ; ni.tural 
 order, iMultisiliqua'. Calyx penU.phyllous ; petals five, patulous; 
 filaments sprinkled with glandulous points ; the cap-uiesfive, coalit- 
 ed. It has two species. I'iiey are very ornamental plants, and 
 succeed in any ol the common borders. The dittany vhich growfs 
 in Crele, Dalmatia, and tiie Morea, formerly constituted an ar- 
 ticle in the Materia Mcdica. The leaves in smell and taste some- 
 what resemble lemon thyme, but have more of an aromatic fla- 
 vour, as well as a greater degree of pungency'; when fresli, they 
 yield a considerable <piantitv of essential oil. 
 
 DICTATE, [dictamen, X.at.] among schoolmen, a motion, or 
 
 suggestion, 
 
 n 
 
 y 
 
 ft
 
 DTT) 
 
 \r>\ 
 
 DID 
 
 suggeslioii of a man's conscipiice, conlr.iry to which if any action 
 is pi-rfonnecl, it is properly termed a bad one, even if tlie conse- 
 qiiciices slioiiUI prove otherwise. See Conscience. 
 
 Dictate, [ilictdta, Lat.] is also used in the schools for the 
 Ipctnri; of a master, which the scholars fake down in writing ; 
 whence this act of the master is termed 'lictatinrr. 
 
 Die I'ATOK, in tiie polity of the ancient Romans, a magis- 
 trate invw.ed with sovereign and'even arbitrary power. He had 
 p.')wer of life and ileath : also to raise or dsband troops, iirake 
 war or peace, and that widioiit the consent either of the senate or 
 people, or being; account:d)le for his procoedinys. lie was elected 
 by one of the consuls in the ntght-tiine on the frontiers of the 
 coninionwealth, and no where else ; and the ordlna y duration of 
 his ofiici- was only for six months during v hich time all other ma- 
 gistracies ceaseo, the tribiinesliip escepti d. Whenever he ap- 
 peared in public, he was attended by taeiit_\-foiir lictors, or double 
 the numbL'r allowed a consul. However, notwithstandiug all this 
 power, he could not go out of Italy, or even ride on' horse- 
 back during a march, without leave from the people. This ofllce 
 was accounted tlie safeguurd of the co.nmonwealth for four hun- 
 ched ye.u's together, till Sylla and Cafsar, by assuming the title 
 of perpetual dictators, converted it into tyranny, and rendered the 
 very n.-.me odious. 
 
 DICTION, the phrase, elocution, or style, of a writer, or 
 speaker. It is required that the dii tion, or language, of an orator, 
 should be pure, proper (o the subject, rich without ali'ectation, 
 strong and close without dryness, and suiiable to the person, time, 
 place, and audience. 
 
 DtCriONARY, a collection, or catalogue, of all the words 
 of a language, art, science, &:c. with their explanations, ran.j:ed in 
 alphabetical order. A performance of this Kind being a digest of 
 tiie br>d\ of learning, or, rather, of general knowledge, is thought 
 capable qf being made universally useful and instructive; and as 
 the objects of our knowledge grow tiaily more numerous, and ini- 
 provemeiits in arts and sciences are coijtinu.illy nude, a work ot 
 tliis kind is conlinuiUy capable of new improvements. It is far- 
 ther advanced, that besides preventing, in some mteui'e, the ne- 
 cessity and expence of a niuiiilude of books, which loo frequentiv 
 retard rather than promote, and bewilder rather than guide in the 
 pursuit of knowledge, there is no form or metliod ot writing so ad- 
 vantageously disposed lo propagate knowledge through the body 
 of a p ople, or that can be made to comprehend so great a part of 
 the circle of learning, and so well answer the purposes of a librarv, 
 as a dictionary of this nalure. The writer^ of a dictionary of arts 
 and sciences, are exempted from the observation of certain laws 
 concerning property ; never pretending to binld entirely upon 
 their own foundation, or treat at their own expence, being privi- 
 legad to raise contributions for the public service wherever they 
 can do it to the best advantage. In effect, their quality as dic- 
 tionarisls, or collectors, give them a title te every thing that may 
 suit their purpose, without rendering them liable to the imput;itioii 
 of plagiarism. Their merit, therefore, chielly consists in select- 
 ing, abridging, and disposing, their materials, in the most advan- 
 tageous manntr for public utility. 
 
 DICTY.MNTA, or DICI'VNNIA, in antiquity, feasts cele- 
 brated at Lacedi'iTion and in Crete, in honour of Diana, or of ^ 
 nymph taken for her, who, having plunged herself into tiie sea, to 
 escape the pas^ion of Minos, was -caught in a fisherman's nef or 
 <ix7u!v, whence the name. 
 
 DIDACTIC, or DIDACTICAL, [J.J«xV.c©',] in the schools, 
 signities the manner of speaking, or writing, adapted to teach or 
 explain the nature of things. There are many works, an.ient and 
 modern, bodi in prose and ver-e, written after this method : such 
 are Horace " De Arte Poetica,"' Lucretius's poem " De Reruni 
 Natura," Pope's " Essays on Criticism and on Man," &c. &c. 
 
 DIDELPIIIS. the Opossum, in zoology, a genus of the class 
 mammalia, and order ferit. Teeth small and rounded ; upper, 
 ten ; intermediate two, longer ; lower eight ; intermediate two, 
 broader and very short; tusks long; grinders denticulated; 
 tongue fringed with papili.e ; abdominal pouch, in most species, 
 containing the teats. There are 21 species first known since the 
 discovery of America. The female has a bag or pouch in the 
 lower part of the abdomen, which is opened and closed at plea- 
 sure, and to which her young resort for shelter and security in a 
 vaciety of dangers. Some females possess, according to Giueiin, 
 
 two or three of these pouches, and the male is slated also, in th« 
 same author, occasionally to have one. These animals live in tha 
 woods, kmrowiug in the earth, .ind, by means of a prehensile lad, 
 aro alert in climbing trees. Their general motion is slow, and 
 their food consists ot nisects, worms, and vegetables, \ouug birds, 
 and- particularly poultry. They are by no means peculiar to the 
 Western continent, but are to be found in various ether parts of 
 the world. 
 
 D. Cancrivoka, the Crab-eater of BmTon, or the Cavf.knb 
 Opossum, has a long slender (ace : ears erect, pointed, -and short ; 
 the coat woolly, mixed with very coarse hairs, three inches 
 long; tail very long, taper, naked, and scaly. Length 17 Frencli 
 inches; of the tail 15^. The subject measured was young.' it 
 inhabits Cayenne ; is very active in climbing trees, on which it 
 lives the whole day : in marshy places, it feeds on crabs, which, 
 when it cannot draw out of their holes with its feet, it hooks them 
 by means ct its long tail. If the crab pinches its tail, the animal 
 sets up a loud cry, resembling the human voice, which may bs 
 hearri alar ; but its common voice is a grunt like a young plu. 
 It is well furnished wit-li teeth, and will defend itself stoutly agai.n'st 
 dogs^ brings forth four or five young, which it secures in some 
 hoilow tree. The natives eat lliese animals, and say their tiesh re- 
 sembles that of a hare. 
 
 D Caudivolvula, or the New Holland Opossum, has the 
 upper part oi the head, and the back and sides, coveretl with long, 
 soft, glo-^sy hairs, of a dark cinereous colour at the bottoms, 
 and ot a rusty brown towards the ends : the belly is of a dirty 
 white. 
 
 D. Gigantea, the Kanguroo. This animal has a small head, 
 neck, and shouldei-s ; the body increasing in thickn.ess to the rump. 
 'I he head is oblong, formed like that of a fun, and tapering from 
 the eyes lo the nose ; end of the nose naked, hlack ; the upper lip 
 divided. The uo-trilsare wi<leand open ; the lower jaw is shorter 
 than the upper; and the aperture of the mouth small : there are 
 \vhiskei-s on bctli jaws, tho-ie on the upper longest. The bellv ij 
 convex and gre.it. I'ne fore legs are very short, scarcely reach- 
 ing to llie nose ; and useless for w^alking. The hind legs are al- 
 most as long as the body ; and the thighs are very th.ick : on the 
 fore feet are tive toes, with long conic and strong claws ; on the 
 hind feet, only three: the middle toe is very long antl thick, like 
 that of an ostrich ; the two olhers are placed very distinct tiom it, 
 and are small : tlie claws are short, thick, and blunt: the bottom 
 of the feet, the hind part, black, naked, and tnberculated, as the 
 animal re.ts •)itcn on them. The tail is very lung, extending as 
 far as the ears; thick at the base, tapering lo a point. See 
 Plate LKVl. 
 
 D. Macui.ata, tiie QuoLL, or Spotted Opossum, is describ- 
 ed as in length from the nose to the beginning of the tail about 15 
 inches,-and the tail about 9 or 10. The general colour is black, in- 
 clinmgto brown beneatli ; the neck and body, spoiled with irregular 
 I'ouiuli^h pi'.tchesol white; the ears pretty large and erect; the visage 
 pointed, the muzzle furnished w lib long slender hairs; the legs, 
 from the knees downward, always naked, and ash-coloured ; on 
 the fore feet are five claws, alul on the hind, four and a thumb 
 without a claw ; the tail, for about an inch and an half from the 
 root, is covered with hairs of the same length as those on the 
 body, from thence to the end with long ones not unlike those of 
 a sciulrrel. '1 he fem;ile has six teats placed in a circle within ti\e 
 poucfi. See Plate LX VI. 
 
 D. MvRiNA, the Murine Opossu:.r, has Hie face >(nd upper 
 parts of the body of a tawny colour ; the belly of a yellov. isli 
 white: the tail i- slender, and covered with minute scales to tlie 
 very rump : the length ol" the animal from nosetot.iil, is about six 
 inches and a half; the tail of the same length. See Plate LXVI. 
 D. Opossum, the Sarigue of Guffon, or Molucca Opossum 
 of Pennant, has long, oval, and naked ears: the mouth i^ very 
 witle : the lower side of the upper jaw, throat, and belly, is of "a 
 whitish a-h-colour; the rest ot the liair a cinereous brown tipped 
 with tawny, darkest on the back : the tail is as long as the body ; 
 near the "base covered with hair ; the rest naked : the claws are 
 hooked. Maicgrave found six youn" within the pouch (f the fe- 
 male. Over each eye is an oblong w hite spot. . '1 he length of the 
 animal from nose to tail is ten inciies ; and the tail exceeds tb.; 
 length ot the htad and body. Its whoie figure is of a slender and 
 elegant make. This species is found in great numbers in Aroe
 
 DIT3 
 
 J 5-2 
 
 DIE 
 
 ■ms 
 
 sssssss 
 
 as 
 
 and Solor; it U called in the Indies pelandor Aroe, or the Aroe 
 raljbit. They are reckoned very delicate eat'uig ; and are very 
 conimou at the tables of the great, who rear the young in the same 
 places in which they kee^j their rabbits. It inhabits also Surinam, 
 and the hot parts of America. 
 
 D. TiiiDACTVLA, PHiLi.rp's OpossuM, or the Kanouroo 
 Rat, is described as similar, both in the general shape of the body 
 and the conformation of the legs, to the kanguroo ; but the visage 
 having a strong resemblance to that of the rat, and the colour of 
 the whole not ill resembling that animal, it has obtained tlie 
 name of the kanguroo rat. It is an inhabitant of New liol- 
 Jand. 
 
 I). VoLANs, the Flyi.vg Opossum, a beautiful species, and 
 clothed with fur of the most exquisite texture, is an inhabitant of 
 New South Wales. In lejjgth, from the lip of the no>e to the 
 root of the tail, it is 20 inches ; the tail itsell is Iwenly-two inches, 
 at the base quite light, increasing gradually to black at the end: 
 the ears are large and erect: the coat or tur is of a rich and most 
 delicate texture ; appearing, on the upper parts of the body at 
 first siglit, of a glossy black, but on a nicer inspection is found lo 
 be mixed witli grey ; the under parts are white, ani.1 on each hip 
 is a tan-coloured spot nearly as big as a shilling ; at this part tlie 
 fur is thinnest, but at the rout of the tail it is so rich and close that 
 the hide cannot be felt through it. The fm- is also continued to 
 the claws. On each side of the body is a broad or flat membrane 
 (as in the flving stpiirrels,) which is united to both tlie fore and 
 hmd leg.. 'See Plate LXVI. 
 
 Dlbl-ILTA, a genus of the class and order syngenesia polyga- 
 niia frustranea. Calyx expanding; receptacle honey-combed di- 
 Tiding into parts, which retain th« seeds; down chaffy, many- 
 leaved. There are two species, annuals of tlie Cape. 
 
 DIDO, or ELISA, a daughter of Belus king of Tyre, who 
 married Sichanis or Sicharbas her uncle, priest of Hercules. II ir 
 brother, Pygmalion, wh.o succeeded Bclus, murdered Siclurus to 
 get possession of his immense riches; and Dido, di>consoiale tor 
 the loss of her husband, wdiom she tenderly loved, and by whom 
 she was equally e tee:ned, set sail in ((uesi of a settlement with a 
 number ot Tyrians, to whonj the cruelty of the tyrant became odi- 
 ous. According to some accounts, she threw in'o the sea the riche. 
 of her husband which Pygmalion so greedily desired, and by that 
 artilice compelled the sliips to tly with her that had come liy or- 
 der of the tyrant to obtain the jiclies ot Sicha;us. But it is more 
 probable thit she carried the riches along with her, and Ijy tlieir 
 powerful iiitiuenre prevaded on the Tyrian tars to loUow her. 
 During her voyage, Dido visited the coast of Cyprus ; wdiere she 
 carried away fifty prostitutes, and gave them as wives to her Ty- 
 rian followers. A storm drove her fleet on the African coast, 
 where she bought of the inhabitants as much land as could be sur- 
 rounded by a bull's hide cut into thongs. Upon this land she 
 builta citadel called Byr-a; and the increase of popultion, and 
 t:ie rising commerce among her subjects, soon obliged her to en- 
 large her city and the boundaries of her dominions. Her beauty, 
 as well as the fame of her enterprise, gained her many admirers ; 
 znd her subjects wished to conijjel her to marry labas king of 
 ^^auritania,w ho threatened them with a dreadful war. Didobegged 
 three months to give her decisive answer ; and during that lime 
 she erected a funeral pile, as if wishuig by a solemn sacrifice (o 
 appease the manes of Sicha;us, to whom she had promised eternal 
 fidelity. When all was prejjared, she stabbed herself on the pile 
 in presence of her peo))ie ; and by this uncommon action obtain- 
 ed the name of D.do, " valiant woman," instead of Elisa. Ac- 
 cording to N'irgil and Ovid, the death of Dido was caused by the 
 sudden departure of .Eneas ; of whom she was deeply enamoured, 
 and whom she could not obtain as a lui>baiid. Tliis poetical tic- 
 tion represents .^neas as living in tlie age of Dido, and inlrodmes 
 an anachronism of near 300 ye^rs. Dido left Pha>nicia y-l7 year; 
 iifter the age of /Eneas, anil about B.C. 9J.3. This chronolugical 
 error [iroceeded not from the igiioraHce of the poets, but from a 
 voluntary fiction. While Virgil describes, in a beautiful episode, 
 the desperate love of Dido, and the submission of /Eneas to the 
 will of the gods, he traces the origin of the hatred which existed 
 between the republics of Rome and Carthage, from their very 
 fir^l foundation, and pretends that it was kindled by a more re- 
 mote cause than the jealousy uiid rivalship of two flourishing em- 
 pires. Dido after her death was honoinetl as a deity by her suli- 
 jectii 
 
 DIDUS, or DODO, in ornithology, p genus of the order gal- 
 lime. Bill contracted in the middle by two transvei\-.e rugx; each 
 mandible inliecled at the point ; face is bare behind the eyes. It 
 has three species. 
 
 D. Ineptus, the Dronte of Buflbn, or Hooded Dodo, h 
 somewhat bigger than a swan, and near three feet in length, 'i'he 
 bill is strong, large, and hooked at the end; the gape stretches 
 beyond the eyes : the colour is a very pale blue ; except the end 
 of the upper mandible, which is yellowish, and a red spot on the 
 bend ot it ; Ihe end ot the lower is blackisli ; ihe irides are white. 
 The plumage is soft to the touch. The head is large, and seems 
 as it were covered with a black hood or cowl. I he wings are 
 very short, and of a yellov.ish ash-colour: the tail featiiers are 
 curled, stand up on die rump, and incline lo yellow. It inhabits 
 the islands of iSIauritius and Bourbon in the Indian Ocean. See 
 Plate LVIII. 
 
 D. Nazarenus, theNAZARENE Dodo is bigger than a swan. 
 The hill is a little bent downwards and large : instead of feathers, 
 the irvhole is covered over wdth a black down ; but the wings are 
 leathered, and it has some frizzled ones upon the rump, which 
 servo instead of a tail : the legs are long and scaly, and there are 
 three loes on each foot. 
 
 D. SoLiTARius, the SouTAiRE of Buffon, or Solitary Dodo, 
 is a large bird, and the male is said to weigh sometimes 45 pounds. 
 The neck is of a pro|)ortionable length, and the eye black and 
 lively : the liead is not crested, and the general colour of the plu- 
 mage is grey and brown mixed : it has scarce any tail, and the 
 bastard wing swells out into a round knob: the wings are loo 
 short for lliglit ; and the haul parts are rounded like a horse's 
 rump, be'iig clothed with feathers, which may be termed coverts. 
 The females are covered with sometimes brown and sometimel 
 lit-ht yellow feathers, and appear very beautiful. They arc 
 chased in Ihe winter srason, viz. from Match to September; 
 being then fat, and the voung birds are much esteemed for the 
 table. 
 
 DIDYNAMIA, [from ^;, twice, and S-jm/j.!;, power,] the 
 name of the 14tii class in L;nii.eus'3 sexual method ; consisting of 
 plants witii hermaphrodite tlowers, which have four male organs, 
 two long and two short. See Botany. 
 
 DIE, in geogiapuy, a lown of I'Vaiice, m the department of 
 Drome, 24 miles S. E. of Valeuce. 
 
 DIEGEM, u town of France, in tJie department of Dyle, 3 
 miles N. o! Brussels. 
 
 DIEGO DE Ra.mires, an island near the coast of Terra del 
 Euego, S. S. \V. of Cape Horn. 
 
 Diego Garcias, or Chagas, an island of Africa, in the In- 
 dian sea. Loii.fiS. 10. E. Lat. 8. 45. S. 
 
 Diego Rias, or Rodriguez, an island of Africa, in the In- 
 dian ocean, 100 leagues £. from the island of Mauritius. Lon. 
 57.32. E. Lat. 19. 30. S. 
 
 Diego Sourez, an island in the Indian sea, near the £. coast 
 of the island of Madagascar. 
 
 DIE.MEN, a town of Holland, in the province of HolIand> 
 4 miles S. E. of Amsterdam. 
 
 DiEMEN, Straits of, lie between the coast of Asia and the 
 islands of Japan. 
 
 DIEP Bay, a bay on the N. W. coast of the ibland of Si. 
 Christopher. 
 
 DiEP I'owN, or Deep Town, a town of St. Christopher, seat- 
 ed on the bay. 
 
 DIEPHOLT, or DIEPIiOLZ, a county of Germany, in the 
 circle of Westplialia. 
 
 DiEPHoiz, the capital of the above county, situated on the 
 Iluiile, 30 miles S. S. W. of Bremen. 
 
 DIEPPE, a town of France, in the department of Lower Seine 
 and late province of Normandy, with a good harbour, formed by 
 the mouth of the river Arqui s, capable of containing 200 sliins, an 
 old castle, and two piers. It lies 30 miles N. of Rouen. 
 
 Dl ES, [Lai. a ilay,] in doomsday book, signifies one day's eu- 
 tertainmeiit icir the king. 
 
 Dies Datus, in law, days of respite allowed by the court to a 
 defendant. 
 
 Dies Marchi.e was the day of congress or meeting of the 
 English and Scots, annually appointed to be held on the mar. Ues 
 or liorders. in order to adjii.t all differences between them. 
 
 DIESIS, iu music, is the division of a tone less tlmn a srmi- 
 + tone ;
 
 DIE 
 
 l.^l 
 
 DIF 
 
 tone ; or au u.lerval coiisi>tini; oi a K-ss or iiiijjcTlcct semitone. 
 Diesis is tin- s:nalle>t aud sofu-sl cliaiii;i; or iiilk-xion »i tli? voice 
 imaginable ; it is calied a faint, expressed tiiiis (X,) by a St. An- 
 drew 's cross or saltier. 
 
 Dl ESPITER, in antiquity, a name given to Jupiter ; and sig- 
 nityin<:; <liei pater, father of the day. St. Aiigustin derives the 
 ncnni' from dies, <lav, and j'uiius, bringing forth ; Jupiter bieing 
 rcpiiti-d to bring fortli the day. 
 
 DlE.SENllOr'KN, a large and elegant town of the Helvetic 
 ri-public, in the late canton of Schafi hausen, 5 miles S. of SchaO- 
 i:iusen. 
 
 DIEST, a town of France, in the department of Dyle, 15 miles 
 N. E. of Louvain, and 2i VV. of Maestricht. 
 
 DIET, [diata, low Lat. Ji^irre,] in medicine, according to 
 »:iine, comprehends the whole regimen of lifp, with regard to air, 
 ' leat, drink, sleep, w;.tching, motion, rest, the passions, reten- 
 tions, and excretions. Others restrict the term to eating and 
 (drinking alone. Tiie natural constitution of the body of man is 
 i>-.ic!i, tliat it can easilv beai some changes and irrL-gularities with- 
 out much injury. Had it been othern:se, we should be almost 
 e-cnslcmtly put out of order by every slight cause. This aiivan- 
 t.igi-is from those wonderful communications of the inward parts, 
 w hereby, when one part is affected, anrther comes immediately lo 
 its relief. Thus, when the body is too full, nature causes evacua- 
 tions through some of the outlets : and for tiiis reason, ilisea'^es 
 from absolute inanition are generally more dangerous than from 
 r'-pleti^^n, unless the latter be excessive; bec-juse we can more 
 expeditiously diminish than increase the juices of the body. Upon 
 t.ie same account, though temperance be benelicial to all men, 
 le ancient physicians advised persons in good Ivealth, now and 
 . .en to eat and drink more plentifully than usual. But, of the 
 " .0, intemperance in drinking is safer tlian eating. If a man be 
 • ■bl'reed to fast, he ought to avoid all laborious work. From sa- 
 ■ -ly it is not proper to pass directly to sharp hunger, n-jr from 
 jnger to satiety: neither will it be safe to indulge absolute rest 
 :..;mi;diately after excessive labour, nor suddeiii^ to fall to hard 
 ork atlpr long idleness. In a word, all changes in the wav of 
 .i\ ing sliould be made by degrees. The solter and milder kinds 
 of aliment are proper for children, and for youth the stronger, 
 (lid people ought to lessen the quantity of their food, and increase 
 that of their drink : but some allowance is to be made for custom, 
 c;|)ecially in cold climates like ours ; for as in tliese the appetite 
 ii keener, so is the digestion better porformed. Mead's " Mo- 
 r:ta et Preca^ta." ^iilk pottage for breakfast is far more whole- 
 some than tea with bread and butter; and, if made after the fol- 
 lowing manner, is in many respects preferable to milk alone : let 
 eepial quantities of milk and water be boiled up with a little'oat- 
 meal, wliicli will break the viscidity of the milk, and be at the 
 6.;me time more easily digested than the latter in aji undiluted 
 ■tate. Besides oatmeal is a much warmer nourishment than wheaten 
 flour, and agrees better with weak stomachs. 
 
 Diet Drinks, in physic, include all the medicated wines, 
 ales, and wlieys, used in chronic cases. They require continuation 
 to answer any srood purpose. 
 
 Diet of Appear akce, in Scots law, the dav to which a de- 
 fender is cited to appear in court: and every other dav to which 
 the court shall attcrwards atijourn the consideration of the ques- 
 tion. 
 
 Diet, [froin (iVt.?, an appointed day, Skinner: hom diet, an 
 old German word signifying a multitude, Junius,] in inatlers of 
 policy, was used for the general .Tssembly of the states or circles of 
 the empire of Gerinany, and formerly ot Poland, to deliberate 
 and concert measures proper to be taken for the good of the pub- 
 lic. The gei;er.^l diet of the empire was usually held at Ratisbon : 
 . it consisted of the emperor, the ten tieitois^, and the ecclesiastleal 
 princes ; viz. the arclibishops, bisbo}s, abbots, and abbesses ; the 
 secular princes, ^ho were dukes, maniuiscs, counts, viscounts, or 
 barons ; anj the representatives of t!ie imperial cities. U met 
 on the emperor's summons, aud .;ny of the princes might send their 
 deputies t;,ither in their stead. The diet made laws, raised taxes, 
 dcterminerl differencts between the s.-vrral princes and states, 
 and could relieve the" subjects Irom the oppressions of their sove- 
 reigns.^ 
 
 DIETETICS, [JiiiTiirsxii.] the science or pWosophv of diets : 
 that which teaches us to adapt particular foods to particular organs 
 
 VOL. II. wo. ('5 
 
 of digestion, or to partiruiai slates of the same org.ms ; so that the 
 greatest [jossibie portion of nutriment may be extracted from a 
 given quantity of nutritive matter ; or a sulticiejil portion may bo 
 obtained v^itli the least possible quantity of organic action atid ex- 
 liauslion. In ihissen^e the science of dietetics embraces a know- 
 ledge as well of the organs and ecoiioiny of f'lgestion, as of the sub- 
 stances to be digested. See Anatomy, and a-kdicine. 
 
 DIETFITMH, a town of Germanv, in tlio circle of Bavaria, 
 19 miles W. of Ratisbon. 
 
 DIE'IZ, or MASSAU DIETZ, axountv of Germany, in the 
 circle of U))per Rhine. 
 
 DiETz, the capital of the above conntv, 16 milci E. of Co- 
 logne, and 2.> N. of Mentz. ,. 
 
 DIEUETMON DUOIT, [Fr.l'.*<r. God and my rf.g/ir,] the 
 motto of the arms of England, lirst assumed by Richard 1. to in- 
 timate that he did not hold his empire in vas.-afage of any mortal. 
 It w;is afterwards taken up by Edward I'F. and was continued 
 yitiiout interruption to tlie time of king V\ illiam HI. who used 
 the motto Je maintiendray, though Ihe'fornier was stili retained 
 i:pon liie great seal. After him (pieen Anne use<l the uiolto Sem- 
 per eadem, which had been before used bv queon-Elizabelli ; but 
 ever since queen Anne, Dicu et mon Jroit lias been the royal 
 motto. 
 
 DiEU ET Son Actg, in common law, a maxim that the act of 
 God shall hint no man : so that if a house be beat down by a tem- 
 pest, the lessee shall not only be free from au action of ^va^te, but 
 also have a right to take timber to rebuild the liouse. 
 
 Disu, IsLK DE, a small island m the Atlantic, near the coast of 
 Fr.nice, 1.5 miles S. S. VV. of Noirmoutier. 
 
 DIEUSE, or DIEUZE, a town of France, in the department 
 of Meuse, 22 miles N. E. of N ami. 
 
 DiEZ, St. a town of France, in the department of Vosges, 30 
 miles S. 1^. ot Luneville. 
 
 DIEZEUGMENON, [_h,^iuy;jLmt, Gr.] in rhetoric, a figure, 
 whereby several clauses in a sentence relate to one verb. 
 
 DIFF, the name of an instrument in music among tlie Arabs, 
 ser\ ing chielly to beat time to the voice : it is a hoop, sometimes 
 witU pieces of brass fixed to it to make a gingling, over which a 
 piece of p. rchivicnt is distended. It is beat with the fingers, and 
 is the true tympanum of the apcients. 
 
 DIFFARR EATION, in Iloman antiquity, a ceremony whereby 
 the divorce of their priests was solemnized. 'Ihr word comes from" 
 the proposition dis, used, in composition, for division, audfarrcatio, 
 a ceremony with wheat, of far. wheat. 
 
 DIFFEREXCE, in heraldry, a term given to a certiiin figure 
 added to coats of arms, serving to distinguish one family from 
 another; and to shew how distant younger branches are from the 
 elder or principal branch. 
 
 DiFFEithxct, in logic, an essential attribute belonging to some 
 species, and not found in the genus ; being the idea that delines the 
 species. Thus, body and spirit are the mo species of substance, 
 which in their ideas include something more than is included in t!ie 
 idea of substance. In boily, for instance, is found ini|-.enetrabilily 
 and extension ; in spirit, a power of thinking ami reasoning: so 
 that the ditierence of body is impenetrable extension, and the dif- 
 ference of spirit is cogitation. 
 
 DiFFEi^ENCE, in mathematics, is the remainder, when one num- 
 ber or quantity is subtracted from another. 
 
 DiFPEaF.vcF, OF LoN'GiTiDE, of two places on the earth, is an 
 arch of the equator, comprehended between the meridians of these 
 two places. 
 
 DiFFEREMCE OF LATITUDE, of two placcs On the earth, is an 
 arch of a meridian contained between the panillels of latitude of 
 the two places. 
 
 DlFFERENTIAL,DlFFERENTIAI.E,inthehigher geome- 
 try is an inlinitely small quantity, or a particle of quantity so small as 
 to be less iban any assignable one. It is called a djftijrential, or 
 diiierential qu:.niity, because freqneniiy considered as the dif- 
 ference of two qiiaiilities ; and, as such, is the foundation of tiio 
 diflerential calculus: Sir Isaac Newton, and the English, call it a 
 moment, as being considered as the momentary increase of quan- 
 titv. Sec Fluxions. 
 
 DiFi-ERf;NTiAi. Method is applied to the doctrine of infinite- 
 simals, or intinilely small quantities, called the arithmetic of 
 fluxions. It consists in descending from whole quaiuitics to iheir 
 2 R inlioiielv
 
 D TO 
 
 154 
 
 DIG 
 
 nliiiitelv siiihII ilitit rencfs, and coiiipanng together these iiiriiiitely 
 Sinall dilt'ereiices, of what kind soever they be: and from thence it 
 take^ the name of the dilleiential caleiikTs, or anaUiis of inliiiite- 
 sinials. See Calculi's DuFfcUENTiALls, and Fluxions. 
 
 DIFI'T'SE W RiTiNCs, siieli as are wrote in a prohx manner. 
 Among historians, SalUist is reckoned sententious, and Livy diffuie. 
 'IMuis also among the orators, Deinosthenes is close and concise ; 
 Cicero, on the other hand, is dil'fnse. 
 
 DIFFUSION, the disi)rrsion of the subtile etiluvia of bodies 
 into a kind of atmosphere all round tiiem. Thus the light dilfused 
 by the rays of the sun, issues all round from (liat amazing body of 
 supposed (ire. 
 
 DIGAM.MA, [Aiyce;xy.rt, Gr.] the letter F, so called becaitse it 
 seems to represent a double (Jamma r. 
 
 DIGBY Sir Kenelm, an illu'=trious author and statesman of the 
 17th century. He was descended of an ancient family in England. 
 His great-grandfather, anompanied by si\ of his brothers, fought 
 valiantly at Roswortli-field on the side of Henry VII. against t lie 
 iisurper Uichard 1 1 1. But his father, Everard, was belieaded for 
 being engaged in the gun-powder plot against king James I. The 
 son wiped off' that stain, and was restored to liis estate. King 
 Charles I. made him gentleman of the bed-cliamber, conmiissioner 
 of the navv, and governor of Trinity house. He granted him let- 
 ters of reprisals against the \'enetians, by virtue whereof he took 
 several pri/es with a small fleet. He fought the A'enetians near 
 the port of -Scanderoon, and bravely made his way through them 
 with his booty. He was a great lover of learning, and translated 
 several authors into Eiiglish; and his " 'I'reatise of the Nature of 
 )!odies, and the Inimorl.ility of the Soul," discovers great pene- 
 tration and extensive kjiowledge. He applied himself to chemis- 
 try ; and found out several Kseful medicines, which he gave freely 
 away to people of all sorts, especially to the poor. He indulged a 
 whim, however, respecting a sympathetic powder for the cure of 
 wounds at a distance ; his discourse concerning which made a 
 great noise for a while. He had conferences with Des Cartes 
 al)ont tlie nature of the soul. In the beginning of the civil wars, 
 lie exerted himself vigorously in the king's cause ; but he was af- 
 terwards imprisoned, by order of the parliament, in Winchester 
 liouse, and had leave to depart thence in 1643. He afterwards 
 compounded for his estate/. but was ordered to leave the nation ; 
 u'hen he went to France, anri was sent on two embassiis to Pope 
 Innocent X. from the queen, widow of Charles I. whose chancel- 
 lor he then was. On the re-;toration of Charles II. he returned to 
 J.ondon; where he died in 1665, aged 60. 
 
 DIGEST, DIGESTUM, is a collection of the Roman jaws, 
 arranged and digested under ]5roper titles by order of the emperor 
 Justinian. That prince gave his chancellor Tribonianus a com- 
 mission for this purpose ;- who, in consequence thereof, chose 
 sixteen jurisconsuUi, or lawyers, to work upon the same. These, 
 accordingly took out the best and tinest liecisions from the 2000 
 volumes of the ancient jurisconsuUi, and reduced them all into 
 one body; which was published A. D. J33, under the name of the 
 Digest. To this the emperor gave the force of a law, by a letter 
 at the head of the work, \^'hich serves it as a preface. The Digest 
 makes the hrst part of the Roman law, and the first part of the 
 rorinis or body of the civil law. contained in 50 books. It was 
 translated into Greek under the same emperor, and called Pan- 
 decta. Sec PanijEcts. Cujas says, that Digest is a common 
 naineforall books disposed m a good order and econ(uny; and 
 J'.f lire Tertullian calls the Gospel of St. Luke a Digest. 
 
 DIGESTER, an instrument serving to dissolve solid animal | 
 -substances, in a manner similar to that performed by the stomach. 
 This vessel was invented by Papin : alter putting meat into it, 
 together with asutlicient ([uantity of water, a lid is closely screwed 
 on, so as to admit no external air. By a moderate fire," the meat 
 will, in the course of six or eight minutes, be reduced to a perfect 
 pulp: by augmenting tlie heat of the (ire, or extending the time 
 of ciigestion, the hardest bones may be converted into a pulp or 
 jelly. This effect is produced by the most perfect closure of the 
 vessel, which prevents the access or escape of air, so that the 
 reverberations occasioiu^d by the expansion of the aerial fluid, dis- 
 solve the whole into an uniform body, and mix the aqueous, saline, 
 «ileaginous. and other particles so strongly together, that they can- 
 rtot be easily separated ; but, while hot, appear one liquor, and, 
 wheu told, form a jfJly, of a strength proportionate to the quantity 
 
 of tlesh or bones dissolved in the water. Tliis useful instrument 
 has not been hitherto applied to culinary purposes ; though within 
 the last two years an imperfect imitation of it has been veii<!ed iu 
 the shops; and we state with satistaction, that even the latter is 
 incon^parably more economical than tlie various kind? of stew-pans 
 formerly employed. Cast-iron digesters are now manutactured, of 
 various sizes and prices. 
 
 DIGES1"10N, in animal economy, signifies the dissolution of 
 footl taken into the stomach, in order to supply the continual loss- 
 sustained by perspiration, the dilTercnt functions, or by exercise. 
 As soon as the food is taken into the mouth, it is lirsMJroken and 
 divi<!ed by the teeth, being at the same time moistened with a 
 licjiior supplied by the salival glands, and consequently formed in- 
 to a kind of paste. I'hus prepared, it passes into tiie ^lumach to 
 ferment; a process which is eliected, 1. By the salival and gastric 
 juices, which have an effect on aliment similar to that of leaven, 
 or yeast, ondou2;h; '-'. By the vital heat of the stouiacii and vis- 
 cera of the abdomen ; 3. By the remains of tood, wliich adhere 
 to the folds of the stomach, and there becoifie acid and acrimonious ; 
 4. By the agitation arising from the pressure of the abdomen, and 
 the continual pulsation of the contiguous blood-vessels; 5. By 
 the liquor which the repeated compression ot those muscles causes 
 to be discharged from the glands of the stomacli : and, lastly, by 
 air itself, which being mixed with alimentary matter, dilates b/ 
 the heat of the stomach, and separates the particles ot food which, 
 from the concurrence of these causes, are converted into chyle. 
 From the stomach, the chyle descends into the intestines, where 
 it incorporates with the blood; which, by its volatile nature, toge- 
 ther with the saline and nitrous parts of the air, subtilizes the ali- 
 ment, and perfects its digestion. 
 
 DIGJES ri\'ES, in medicine, such remedies as strengthen and 
 increase the tone of the stomach, and assist in the digestion of food. 
 I'o this class belong all stomachics and strengtlieiiers, or corro- 
 borants. 
 
 DIGGING, among miners, is appropriated to the operation of 
 freeing any kind of ore from the bed or stratum in which it lies, 
 where every stroke of tlicir tools turns to account : in contradistinc- 
 tion to the openings made in search of ore, which are called 
 hatches, or essay hatches ; and the operation itself, tracing of 
 mines, or hatching. When a bed of ore is discovered, the beele- 
 men free the ore from the fossils around it ; and tlie s!iovel-men 
 throw it from one shamble to another, till it reaches the mouth of 
 the hatch. 
 
 DIGIT, [diiiitus, Lat.3 in astronomy, the twelfth part of the 
 diameter of the sun or moon, is used to express the quantity of an 
 eclipse. Thus an eclipse is said to be of six digits, when si.x of these 
 parts are hid. ' 
 
 Digit, or Monad, iu arithmetic, signifies any integer under to, 
 35 1.2.3.4.5.6.7.8.9. 
 
 Digit is also a uieaNure taken from the breadth of the finger. 
 It is properly J ot an inch, and contains the measure of four barlty- 
 corns laid breadth-wise. 
 
 DIGI TALIS, Fox Glove : a genus of tlie angiospermia order, 
 and didyiiamia class of plants; natural order, Lurida-. Calyx 
 quinquepartite ; corolla cainpanulated, quinquefid, ventriccise ; 
 capsule ovate, bilocular. Twelve species, chiefly herbaceous, 
 biennial, and perennial plants, which rise two or three feet high, 
 crowned with spikes of yellow iron-coloured or purple tlowers. 
 
 An ointment made of the tlowers of purple fox-glove and May 
 butter, is much commended by some physicians for scrophulous 
 ulcers which run much and are lull ot matter. Taken internally, 
 this plant is a violent purgative and emetic ; and is therefore only 
 to be administered to robust constitutions. 
 
 DIGITATED, among botanists, an appellation given tQ,com- 
 ponnd leaves, each of wiiich is composed of a number of simple 
 foliola, placed regularly on a common petiole; though, strictly 
 speaking, there must be more than four foiiola to make a digitated 
 leaf. See Botany. 
 
 DIGLYPH, in architecture, a kind of imperfect triglyph, 
 console, or the like; 'with two channels or engravings, either cir- 
 cular or angular. 
 
 DIGNAN, or DIGNANT a town of Italy, in I stria, 3 miles 
 from the coast. 
 
 DIGNE, a town of France, in the department of the Lower 
 Alps, 30 miles S by W. of Embrun. 
 
 DIGNITARY,
 
 DIL 
 
 \55 
 
 D IM 
 
 DlGNl I'AK V, ill the canon law, a pcisoii wlin holds a (lij;niiy, 
 that i'i, a hcnelico whiih gives liiiii some pre-eiiiineiKe over mere 
 priests and cunons. Such is a bishop, de;'.n, aich-tle.icon, preben- 
 dary, &.T. See Bishop, Dkan &c. 
 
 DlGNIT"^', as a])plied to the titles of noblemen, signifies ho- 
 Donr and aulhonty. And dignity may be divided into superior ;ind 
 interior; as t!ic titles of duke, maripiis, earl, baron, i"s:e. arc the 
 highest names of dii^niiv: and those of baronet, kiiisjht, serj<?ant at 
 law, &e. the lowest. Ts'obilitv only can give so high a n nnir of 
 dignity as to siip|>ly the want of a surname in legal proceedings ; 
 and a- the omission of a name of dignity may be ))leaded in abate- 
 iiienl Ota writ, he. so it may be where a pot-r viio has more than 
 one name of dignity, is not named by the M xt N..bic. No 
 temporal <lignily of any foreign nation can give a man a higher title 
 here than that of K.S(|uire. 
 
 Dignity, in the human character, the opposite of Meanness. 
 Man is endned with a sense ot th« worth and excellence of his 
 nature: he deems it more perfect than that of the other beings 
 around him ; and he perceives that tlie perfection of his nature 
 consists in virtue, particularly in virtues of the highesl rank. To 
 express that sense, the term dignity is appropriated. Fnither, to 
 behave with dignity, and to refrain from all mean actions, is felt 
 to be, not a virtue only, but a duty; it is a duty every man owes 
 to himself I5y acting in that manner, he attracts love and 
 esteem : by acting meanly, or below hlnself, he is disajjproved and 
 contemned. 
 
 DiCNiTY, in oratory, one of the three parts of general elocu- 
 tion ; consisting of the right use of tropes and tigures. See 
 Ok.\tory. 
 
 DIGRESSION, in oratory, is defined by Quintilian, agreeablv 
 to the etymology of the word, to be, a going oft from the subject 
 we are upon to some ditierent thing, which, however may be of 
 service to it. See Oratory. 
 
 DIGYNIA, [from Ji; twice, and yiv-i a woman,] the name of 
 an order in the first 13 classes, except the ninth, in Linnxus's 
 se.Mial methdd; consisting of plants, which have two female 
 organs. 
 
 DII, the divinities of the ancient heathens, were very nume- 
 rous. Every object which caused terror, inspired gratitude, or 
 bestowed affluence, received the tribute of veneration. Man saw 
 a superior agent in the stars, the elements, or the trees, and sup- 
 posed that the waters which communicated fertility to his fields 
 and possessions, were under the influence and direction of some in- 
 visible power inclined to favour and to benefit mankind. Thus 
 arose a train of divinities which imagination arrayed in different 
 forms, and armed with ditVerent powers. They were supposed 
 to be endowed with understanding, and actuated by the same 
 passions which daily afflict the human race; and to be appeased or 
 provoked, like the imperfect beings whose fears gave them birth. 
 Their wrath was to be mitigated by sacrifices and incense ; and 
 sometimes human victims bled; and thus real crimes were commit- 
 ted, to expiate crimes, whicli superstition alone supposed to 
 exist. 
 
 DIJON, or DIGON, an ancient town of France, in the depart- 
 ment of Coted'Or, 4S miles N. E. of Autun. 
 
 DIJONNOIS, a late territory of France in the late province of 
 Burgundy, now included in the department of Cote d'Or. Dijon 
 was the Capital. 
 
 DIKE a ditch or drain, made for the passage of waters. The 
 word seems formed from the verb to dig ; though others derive 
 il from the Dutch, diik, or dyke, a dam, sea-bank, or wall. 
 
 Dike also signifies a work of stone, timber, earth, fascines, &:c. 
 raised to oppose the entrance of the waters of the sea, a river, 
 lake. &c. The most stupendous works of this kind are the Dikes 
 of Holland. 
 
 DILAITDATION, {^dilapidatio, Latin,] The incumbent's 
 suflering the chancel, or any other edifices of his ecclesiastical 
 living, to go to ruin or decay, by neglecting to repair the same: 
 and it likewise extends to his committing, or sulTering to be com- 
 mitted, any wilful waste in or upon the glebe-woods, or any otiier 
 inheritance of the churcli. 
 
 DILATATION, in physics, a motion of the parts of any body, 
 by which it is so expanded as to occupy a greater space'. This 
 expansive motion depends upon the elastic power of the body ; 
 whence it appears that dilatation is different from rarefaction, this 
 last baling produced by the means of heat. 
 9 
 
 I Dl LATA TORES, in anatomy, a name given to several niusclei 
 j in the hum.m body. 
 
 Dl LA TORY I'LEAS, in law, are such as are put in merely for 
 delay; and there maybe a deniunor to a dilatory plea, or the 
 defendant shall be ordered to plead better, &c. The truth of di- 
 latory pleas is to be made out by alfHlavit of the (act, by stat. 4. 
 and S. Anne. See I'lf.a. 
 
 DILAT'RIS, a genus of the monogv nia order, and triandria class 
 uf plants. No calyx ; corolla six-petaled, shaggy ; stigma simple. 
 'Three species iiati\es of the Cape. 
 
 DILE.MMA \_hy->ty-j'.^t,'] an argument e(pially coHcliisivc by 
 contrary suppositions. A young rhetorician applied to an olil 
 sophist to be taught the art of ph-ading, and bargained for a certain 
 reward to be paid, when lie shouUlgaina cau-e. 'The master 
 sued for his reward, and the scholar endeavoured to elude his claim 
 by a dilemma: If 1 gain iiiv cau<e, I shall withli.dd your pav, be- 
 cause the judge's award will be against you; if I lose it, I may 
 witliold it, because I shall not yet have gained a cause. On the 
 contrary, says the master, if you gain your cause, vou must pay 
 me, because your are to pay me when you gain a cause; if you 
 lose it, you iiiusi pay me, because the judges will award it. 
 
 DILIGENCE, in Scots law, signifies, 1. that care and attention 
 which parties are bound to give, in implementing certain contracts 
 or trusts, and which varies according to the nature of tlie con- 
 tract. 2. Certain forms of law, w hereby the creditor endeavours to 
 operate his payment, either by affecting the person or estate of the 
 debtor. 
 
 DILL, in botany. SeeANF.THUM. 
 
 DILLA, or MOUNT DILLA, a remarkable promontory of 
 Hindostan, on the coast of >Ia!abar, 20 miles N. by \V. of 
 Tellicherv. 
 
 DILLEMBURG, or DILLENBURGH, a country of Ger- 
 many, in Weteravia. 
 
 D'lLLENBURCH, the Capital of the countv, 14 miles N. W. of 
 Wetzlar. 
 
 DILLENGEN, a town of Germany, in the circle of Suabia, 1* 
 miles N. E. of Ulm. 
 
 DILLENIA, a genus of the polygynia order and polyandria 
 class of plants. Calyx pentaphy lions : petals five ; capsule', polv- 
 speriiious, coalited, full of pulp. There are seven species, very 
 handsome trees natives of the East Indies. 
 
 DILOGY, [.iixoyire, Gr.] a rhetorical figure, when a doubtful 
 word signifies two things. 
 
 DILUEN'T, that which has the power to thin and attenuate 
 other matter. 
 
 DILU'TE, to dilute a body is to render it liquid ; or, if it were 
 liquid before, to render it more so, by the addition of a thinner 
 thereto. These things tluis added, are called diluents, or di- 
 Uitors. 
 
 DIMACHjE, [from ^i;, double, and /""-xi, fight,] in antiqui- 
 ty, a kind of horsemen, first instituted by Alexander. Their 
 armour was lighter than that of the infantry, and at the same 
 time heavier than that used by horsemen, so'that they could act 
 as horse or foot as occasion required. 
 
 DIMENSION, in geometry, is either length, breadth, or thick- 
 ness ; hence, a line hath one dimension, vizi length ; a superficies 
 two, viz. length and breadth ; and a body, or solid, has three, viz. 
 length, breailth, and thickness. 
 
 Dimension is used with regard to the power of the roots of an 
 equation, which are called the dimensions of tli;it root. Thus in 
 a simple equation .i = a -j- i, the unknown quantity is only ot one 
 dimension: in a quadratic equation J- ;:= a- -|-^'j 't is ot' two di- 
 mensions : in a cubic x^ = a^ -f- ^■' 't '^ "f three dimensions ; and so 
 on. See Algebra. 
 
 DIMET.t, the name given by the Romans to the ancient 
 Britons, who inhabited the territories now called CaermarthensJiirc, 
 Pembrokeshire, and Cardigan-iiire. 
 
 DIMINUTION, in architetture, a contraction of the upper 
 part of a column, by w hich its diameter is made less than that oi the 
 lower part. See Architecture. 
 
 Diminution, in law, is where the plaintiff or defendant in a 
 writ of error, alleges on an appeal to a superior court, that part of 
 the record is omitted, and remains iii the inferior court not certified ; 
 w hereon he prays that it may be certified by certiorari. Co. F.nt. 
 <joo 242. 
 Diminution, in music, is whcH there arc several words which 
 
 are
 
 DID 
 
 176 
 
 D lO 
 
 ire to make toiie.^, and several 4uick ni'jUuiis in ii eadence, seveal 
 {[uavers, semiquavers, &c. con'e>poudiiig to a crochet or minim, 
 as when a semibreve ii divided into two minims, four crot- 
 chets, &.C. 
 
 Diminution, in rhetoric, the exaggerating of what .you have to 
 fav by an expression tliat seems to dirriinisliit. 
 
 "DIMINL'TIN'E, in grammar, aword foiined from some other, 
 to soften or dimiiiisii tr.e'iorce of it, or to signify a thing is little in 
 its kind. Thus cellule is a diminutive of cell, globule of globe, 
 hillock (if hill. 
 
 DlMfSsoRY LETTERS, LiTERv-E DiMiESORiJB, in the ca- 
 non law, a letter given by a bishop to a candidate for holy ordtrs, 
 having a title in his diocc.-ie, directed to some other bishop, and 
 givino; leave for the bearer to be ordained by him.. 
 
 DLVltERlTiE, [from iia and(.ijisciw, to tiivide,] a name given 
 to the ApoUinarists, who at iir=t held, that Christ only assumed a 
 human Ijody, without taking a reasonable soul ; but being at length 
 convinced by texts of scripUire, they allowed, that he did assume 
 a soul, but without understanding ; the Word supplying that facul- 
 ty. From this way of separating the understanding from the soul, 
 thev were denomiiiatjed Dimoerites, or Separaters. 
 
 DlWORCARPUS, in botany, a genui of the octandria raono- 
 pynia class and order. Calyx" live-cleft; corolla iive-petaled ; 
 berries two, one-seeded, large. . One species, found in Cliiiia. 
 
 DIMOEPHA, in botany, a genus of the diadelphia decandria 
 class and order. Petals one large convolute, in place of the keel; 
 standard and wings none. Three species, natives of the woods of 
 Cuiana. 
 
 UIMOTUC, a town of European Turkey, in Romania, 12 
 miles S.W. of Adrianojde. 
 
 DINA1-;URG, a town of Russia, in the government of Polotsk, 
 on the Dwina; 80 miles N. W. of Polotsk. 
 
 DIXAG EPOUK, atown of Hindostan.in the country of Bengal, 
 85 miles N. of Moorshedabad. 
 
 BINAN, or DINANT, a strong town of Franse, in the 
 department of tlie North Coast, 20 miles S. of St. Malo. 
 
 DiNAXT, a town of Germany, in Westphalia, live miles N. of 
 Chwlemont. 
 
 DINARCHY, [.iivaa-yia, Of.] a government by two. Such 
 was the -knii^dom of Laconia, which had two royal families for 
 several centuries, both descended from Hercules, each ofuhicli 
 afforded a king to the state, both reigning at one time; a 
 mode of government not paralleled in the history of any other coun- 
 try in the world. 
 
 DINASMAWDDWY, DINASMONDY, or DINAS- 
 MOUTHY, a town of N. Wales, in Merionethshire-, 18 nnles S. 
 of Bala. Lou. 3. 40. W. Lat. iS. 37. N. 
 
 DIKCKELSPI L, a town of Germany, inSuabia, 37 miles S.W. 
 of Nuremburg. 
 
 DLNDIGUL, a city of India, in the Mysore country, 51 miles 
 S. W. ofTrichinopoIy. 
 
 DINGL^;, a sea-port of Ireland, in Kerry, Munster, 21 miles 
 W. S. W. ofTralee. 
 
 DINGWALL, an ancient and flouiishing roj-al borough of 
 Scotland, in the countv of Ross, 18 miles W. of Cromarty. 
 
 DINKELSBUHL,' or DUNKELSPUIIL, an imperial town 
 of Germanv, in Suabia, Iti miles S. W. of Ansi)ach. 
 
 DINOCRATES, a celebrated architect of Macedonia, who 
 rebuilt the temple of Ephesus, when burnt by Eroitratus-, with 
 much more nuuniliccnce than before. Vitruviiis informs us, that 
 Dinocrates proposed to Alexander the Great, to convert mount 
 Athos into the figure of a man, whose left hand should contain a 
 walled city, and all the rivers of the mount flow into his right 
 hand, and from thence into the sea I He also conceived a scheme 
 for building the dome of the temple of Areinoe at Alexandria, of 
 loadstone; that should by its attraction uphold her iron image in 
 the centre, suspended in the air! Projects which at least sliewed 
 a vast extent of imagination. 
 
 DIOCESE, [JiK, and o;!4),o-ir,]the circuit of every bishop's juris- 
 diction; for this realm has two divisions, one into shires or coun- 
 ties, in respeet of temporal policy; another into dioceses, in re- 
 spect of jurisdiction ecclesiastical. 
 
 Diocese is also used in ancient authors, for the province of a 
 metropolitan. Diocesis was originally a civil government, com- 
 posed of divers provinces. The first division of the empire into 
 
 (lu.'Ceoes IS oidnK.-.il) ^scribed to Constaiiliiie; who dl^inbuted the 
 whole Roman state into four : viz. those of Italy, lllyria, the Eastj' 
 and Africa. And yet, long before Constautlne, Strabo, who.- 
 wrote under Tiberius, takes notice, (lib. xiii. p. -W2,) that tha,' 
 Romans had divided Asia into dioceses; and complains af tlie 
 confusion such a division occasioneil in geography, Asia being no, 
 longer divided by people, but by dioceses, each whereof had a • 
 tribunal, or court, where JRSlice was administered. ■ ■ 
 
 DIOCLEIA, [i^isuXiia,] in antiquity, a solemnity kept in tbej 
 spring at Megara, in memory of the Athenian hero, who died in 
 thedelence of the youth he loved. 
 
 D'OCLESiANUS, Caius Valerius Jovius, a celebrated 
 Roman emperor born of an obscure family inDalmatia, in A.D,245-. , 
 He wa> hrst a common soldier, and by merit and success he gra- 
 dually rose to the oflice of a general ; and at the death of ~Nume-' 
 rian, in 284, he was invested with imperial power. In this high 
 station he rewarded the iidelity of Maxhnian, who had.sliared with 
 him all the subordinate offices in the army, by making him his. 
 colleague on the throne. He created two subordinate emperors 
 Constantius and Galerius, by the title of Ca-sars, whilst he claimed, 
 for himself and his colleague the superior title of 'Augustus. Dio- 
 clcsian has been celebrated for his military virtues; and though he 
 was not polished by education, vet he was a patron of learnins;. • 
 He was bold, resolute, and active, and well acquainted with- 
 the arts, which made him nespectable even in the eyes of his ene- 
 mies. But his cruelty to*' the Christians has been deservedly 
 branded with infamy. After he had reigned 22 years in tho 
 greatest prosperitv, he publicly abdicated the crawn at Nicomedia 
 in 305, and retired to a private station at Salona. Maximiaji his 
 colleague followed his example, but not from choice; and when 
 he some time after endeavoured to rouse the ambition of Diocle- 
 sian, and persuade him to re-assume the imperial purple, he re- 
 ceived for answer, that Dioclesian took now more delight in culti- 
 vating his little garden, than he formerly enjoyed in a palace, when 
 his power was extended over all the earth. He lived nine years 
 after his abdication in tl>e greatest security and enjoAment at Sa- 
 lona, and died in 314, in the 6Sth year of his age. Dioclesian is 
 the lii-vt on record, except I-ycurgu^ and Sylla, who voluntarily 
 resigned his power. Ills bloody persecution of the Christians 
 forms a chronological era, called the era of Dioclesian, or of the 
 Martyrs. It was long used in theological writings, and is still fol- 
 loweii bv the Copts and Abyssinians. It commenced August 20, 
 A. D. 284. 
 
 DIOCOiSIS, [<ii3»nTi,-, Gr.] See Diocese. 
 
 DIODIA, a genus of the nionogynia order, and tetrandria clasS' 
 of plants; natural order, Stellata-. Corolla monopelalous, funnel- 
 shaped; capsule two-celled, two-seeded. Six species, chiefly na- 
 tives of the West-Indies. 
 
 DIODON, a genus of fishes of the order cartilaginei. Jaws 
 bony and undivided; aperture of the gills linear; body covered 
 on air sides with long moveable spines; no ventral tins. There 
 are three si)i}cles. 
 
 D. HysTRix, or the Sea PoRcuriNE, grows to nearly two feet 
 in length, and inhabits the Indian and American seas. In some 
 of Ihe'West India islands it is used for food, but, in general, is lit- 
 tle valued. Its resemblance to the porcupine and hedge-hog, and 
 likewise to the sea-urchins, is considcrabh", both in appearance 
 and manners. It possesses the faculty of raising and depressing its 
 spines at pleasure, and likewise of flattening its body, or extend- 
 ing it to a globular form, and is often lish:d for witli a rod and 
 line, merely for the sake of the curious spectacle it exhibits by 
 these violent alternations. See Plate LV. 
 
 D, Oblongus, the Obi.ong SuN-nsn, grows to a great hulk; 
 one examined by Sylvianus was above 100 pounds, in weight; and 
 Dr. Borkise mentions anotlier taken at PI) mouth in 1734, tlmt 
 weighed 500. In form it resembles a bream or some deep fish cut 
 oil in the middle. The mouth is very small, and contains in each 
 jaw two broad teeth, with sharp edges. The eyes are little ; be- 
 fore each is a small semiUinar aperture; the pectoral tins are very 
 small, and placed behind Ihein. Thexoleur of the back is dusky, 
 and dappled; the belly silvery: between the eyes ami the pecto- 
 ral tins, are certain streaks pointing downwai'ds. The skin is free 
 from scales. ^^ hen boiled, it lias been observed to turn into a 
 glutinous jelly, resembling boiled starch when cold, and served 
 the purposes of glue on being tried on paper and leather. The 
 
 meat
 
 DIO 
 
 157 
 
 DIO 
 
 meat of tills liali is uDcoinnionlv rank ; it t'eods on sliell-lish. 'I'lio 
 •Ui\-lish of llie Irisli. (See Suualus,) cJillLrs, in all respects from 
 ■•this. 
 
 DIODORUS, surnanied Siculus, or Sicilian, an ancient 
 historian, born at Argyra in Sicily. He wrote a history of Egypt, 
 Persia, Syria, Media, Greece, Rome, and Carthage ; and il is 
 said tliat he visited all the places which he has mentioned in his 
 histoiy. It was the labour of 30 years. He is, however, too 
 jCreilulotis in some of liis narrations ; and often wanders far from the 
 truth. He olten dwells too long upon tabulous reports, and tri- 
 fling incidents ; w hile events uf the greatest importance to history 
 are treated with brevity, and sometimes passed over in silence. 
 He lived in the age of Cxsar and Augustus; and spent much time 
 at Home to procure information, and authenticate !iis history. 
 'Ihis important work, which he composed in Greek, contained 40 
 books, of which there are only 13 remaining. The style is clear, 
 and very suitable to history. '1 he best edition is that of Amster- 
 dam, 1743, in 2 vols, folio. . 
 
 DIOECIA, [i. r: two houses, from ii;, tuicc, and oiki», a 
 housed] the 22d class in Linntus's se.xual system, consisting of 
 plants, which have no hermaphrodite flowers, but produce male 
 and lemale flowers on separate roots. Tliese last onlv ripen the 
 seeds; but reqmre for that purpose the vicinity of a male plant; 
 for the aspersion or sprinkling ot the male dust, from the seeds 
 of the female tiowcrs thus inipregnalie4» are raised, both male and 
 female plants. See Botany. 
 
 DIOGENES of Apollonia, in the island of Crete, held a ron- 
 sUlerable rank among the philosophers who taught in Ionia before 
 Socrates appeared at Athens. He was the scholar and successor 
 of Anaximenes, and in some measure rectified his master's opinion 
 concrrning air being the CEiise of all things. It is said, that he 
 was the lir.st who observed that uir was capable of condensation 
 and rarefaction. He passed for au excellent philosopher, and died 
 about A. C. 4J0. 
 
 DrosENEs, the Ctnic, a famous ancient philosopher, the son 
 of a banker of Sinope. Being banislied with his father for coining 
 talse money, he retired to Athens, where he stutlied i)hilosoph) 
 under Ant.sthenes. He added new degrees of austerity to the 
 sect of the Cynics, and never did any philosopher carry so far a 
 contempt lor the conveniences of life. He was one of those e.Mtra- 
 ordnuiry men who run every thing to extremity, without except- 
 ing even reason itselt; and who conlirm the saying, that" there 
 is no great genius without a tincture of madnes^." He lodged in 
 a tub ; and liad no other moveables besides his statV, wallet, and 
 wooden bowl, which last he threw away, on seeing a boy drink 
 out of the hollow of his hand. He used to call himseU a vaga- 
 bond, who had neither house nor country ; was obliged to beg, 
 was ill ciotked, and lived from hand to mouth: and yet, sa\s 
 iElian, he look as much pride in these things, as Alexander could 
 in the conquest of the svorld. He was not indeed a jot more 
 humble, than those who are clotlied in rich apparel, and fare 
 sumptuously every day. He looked down on all the world with 
 'scorn; he magisterially censured all mankind, and thought himself 
 unqueslionaiily superior to all other philosophers. xVlexander one 
 day paid him a visit, and made him an olTer of riches or any thing 
 else but all that tlie philosopher recpiested of him was, to stand 
 from betwixt the sun and him ; as if he had said, " Do not deprive 
 ine of the b jiiehts of nature, and 1 leave to you those of fortune." 
 'I'Ue conqueror was so altected w ilh the vigour and elevation of 
 bis soul, as to declare, that " if he was not Alexander, he would 
 choose to be Diogenes." Diogenes had great presence of mind, 
 as appears from his smart sayings and quick repartees ; and Plato 
 seems to have hit ort' his true character, when he calleil him a So- 
 crates run mad. He spent a great part of his life at Corinth. As 
 he was going over to the island of /Egina, he was taken by pirates, 
 who carried him into Crete, and there exposed him to sale. He 
 answered the crier, who asked him what he could do, that " he 
 knew how to command men:" and perceiving Xeniades, a Co- 
 rinthian, goins by, he said, " sell me to that gentleman, for he 
 wants a master." Xeniades struck with the singularity of Dio- 
 genes liought him, and carrying him to Corinth, appointed liim tu- 
 lor to his children, and soon entrusted him with the management 
 of his house. Diogenes's friends being desirous of redeeming him, 
 *' You are fools (said he) ; the lions are not the slaves of those 
 who feed them, but they are the servants of the lions." He 
 theretore plainly told Xeniades, that he ought to obey him, as 
 
 VOL. II. — NO. 65. ' . 
 
 people obey their governors ami |)hysicians. He died at Corintli, 
 when he was about yO years old: but authors are not agreed ei- 
 ther as to the time or manner of his death. 
 
 DioGKNF.s, surnanied Laertil's, from Laerla in Cilicia, his 
 birth-place, an ancient Greek author, who wrote ten books of the 
 Li\es of the Philosophers, still extant. In what age he nourished, 
 is not determined. The oldest writers who mention him are So- 
 |)ater of Alexandria, who lived in tiie time ot C'ontaiitine the 
 CJreat, and Hesychius Milesius, who lived under Justinian. Dio- . 
 genes often mentions Plutarch and Phavorinus, with approbation; 
 and therefore, as Plutarch lived under 'I'rajan, and Phavorinus 
 under Adrian, it is certain that he could not llourish before the 
 reigns of those emperors. Mem ge has fixed him to the time of 
 Severus; that is, about A. D. '.'00. Erom certain expressions in 
 his writings, some have fancied him to have been a Christian; 
 but, as Menage observes, the immoderate praises he bestowsYipoa 
 Epicurus, incline us rather to suppose that he was an Epicurean. 
 He divided his Lives into books, likI inscribed them to a learned 
 lady of the Platonic school, as he himself intimites in his life of 
 Plato. Montaigne was so fond of this author, that instead of one 
 Laeftius, he wishes he had a dozen; and \'ossius says, that his 
 work is as precious as gold. \\'ithout doubt we are greatly obliged 
 to him for w hat he has recorded of the ancient philosoi)hers; but 
 if he had been as exact in tiie writing, as he was judicijus in the 
 choice of his subject, we had been still more obliged to him. Bi- 
 shop Burnet, in the preface to his Life of Sir Matthew Hale, 
 speaks of him in the following proper manner: "Tliere is no 
 book the ancients have left us (says he), which might have inform- 
 ed us more tlian Diogenes Laertius's Lives of the I'iiilosophers, if 
 he liad had the art ot writing equal to that great subject which he 
 undei-took: lor if he hacVeiven the world such an account of them 
 as Gassendus has done of "Pieresc, hoiv great a slock of knowledge 
 might we have had, which by his unskilfulness is in a great mea- 
 sure lost! since we must now depend only on hiin, because we 
 have no other, and better author, who has written on that argii- 
 menl." There have been several editions of his Lives ol the Phi- 
 losophers; but the best is that printed in two volumes 4tu, at Am- 
 sterdam, 1693. This contains the atlvautagrs of all the lormer, be- 
 sides some peculiar to itself: the Greek text, and the Latin ver- 
 sion, corrected and aniended by Mcibomius; Ihe entire notes of 
 Kenrv Stephens, both the Casaubons, and of Menage; 24 cop- 
 per-plates, elegantlv engraved : to which is added, The History 
 of the Eeniale Philosophers, written by Menage, and dedicated to 
 Madam Dacier. Diogenes wrote also a book of Epigrams upon 
 illustrious men, called Pammetrus, from its various kinds of metre: 
 but this is lost. 
 
 DiO.MEDES, in fabulous history, a tyrant of Thrace, who is 
 said to have fed his horses with the iiesh ot men. Hercules killed 
 him, and threw him to be eaten by his own carnivorous horses; 
 11 yginus says there were four oi them, and that the hero afterwards 
 killed them', along with Abderus, their groom. 
 
 Diomi;des, king of /Etolia, the son of Tydeiis and Deiphyle, 
 one of the bravest of the Grecian chiefs in the 'Irojan war. He 
 ofien engeiged Hector and jKneas, and obtained much military 
 glory. He went with Ulysses to steal the Palladium from the 
 temple of Minerva, in Troy; and assisted in murdering Rhesus, 
 king of Thrace, and carrying off his horses. At his return from 
 the'siege of Troy, he lost his way in the darkness of the night, and 
 landed in Attica, where his companions plundered the country, 
 and lost the Trojan Palladium. During his long absence, his wife 
 .Egiale had prostituted herself to Cometes, one of her servants. 
 This was attributed to the resentment of Venus, whom Diomedes 
 had wounded in a battle before Troy. He resolved to abandon 
 his native country, which was the seat of his disgrace ; and the at- 
 tempts of his wife to take away his life, hastened his depatiure. 
 He came to that part of Italy w'hic h has been called Magna Gra;- 
 cia, where he built a city, wliich he calle<l Argyrippa, and married 
 the (laughter of Daunus the king of the country. He died there 
 in extreme (lid age; or, according to a certain tradition, he pe- 
 rished hv the hand of his fathep»ia-iaw. 
 
 DIOMlCDlA, in ornithology, a genus of the order anseres. 
 Bill strait; superior inandible,~crooked at the point; lower one 
 tnincated; nostrils oval, open, a little prominent, placed ou the 
 sides. There are four species. 
 
 D. Demersa, has no quill-feathers ou the wings; and the feet 
 
 have four toes, connected together by a mfciiibraue. It is the 
 
 2 S black
 
 DIO 
 
 15S 
 
 DIP 
 
 black penguin of Edwavds, about the size of a goose, and is found 
 at the Cape of Good Hope. It is an excellent swimmer and di- 
 Ter; hut hops and tintters in a strange aukward iiumner on the 
 land, and, if hurr.cd, stumliles perpetually, and frequently runs for 
 some distance like a quadruped, making use of its wings instead 
 of legs, till it can recover its npright^iosture ; crying out at the 
 same time like a goose, but in a much hoarser voice. 
 
 D. ExuLAN's, has peniiated wings, and three toes on each foot. 
 It is the albatrosse of Edwards ; and is about the size of a pelican. 
 These birds are found in tl-.e ocean betwixt the tropics, and at the 
 Cape of Good Hope. They are also often seen in vast flocks in 
 Kamlschatka, and the adjacent islands, about the end of June, 
 vhere they are called great gulls; but it is chiefly in the bay of 
 Penschineiisi, the whole inner sea of Kamtschatka, the Kurile isles, 
 anrl that of Bering; for on the eastern coasts of the lirst they are 
 scarce, a simple straggler only appearing iiow and then. Their 
 chief motive for frequenting these places, seems to be plenty of 
 food ; and their arrival is a sure presage of shoals of fish following. 
 At their first coming they are very lean, but soon grow immensely 
 fat. See Plate LV HI. 
 
 DION/EA, in botanv, a genns of the decamlna monogynia 
 class and order. Natural order, Gruinales. Calyx five-leaved ; 
 petals five; capsule one-celled, gibbous, containing many seeds. 
 One species, viz. D. mucipida,' Venus's fly-trap, a native of 
 North Carolina, in swainpy places. This is a newly discovered 
 sensitive plant, in the construction of which, nature seems to have 
 had -some view towards its nourishment, in forming the upper 
 joint of its leaf like a machine to catch food; and iikacing upon 
 the middle of it tlie bait for the unhappy insect tliat becomes its 
 prey. Many minute red glands that cover its inner surface, and 
 which, perhaps, discharge some sweet liquor, tempt the poor in- 
 sect to taste them ; and the instant these tender parts are irritated 
 by its feet, the two lobes rise up, grasp it fast, lock the two rows 
 of spines together, and squeeze it to death. See Plate XXXV. 
 
 DIOPHANTINE PROBLEMS, in mathematics, certain 
 questions relating to square and cube numbers, and right-angled 
 triangles, &c. the nature of which was determined by Diophantus. 
 In tlie^e questions it is endeavoured to lind commensurable num- 
 bers to answer indeterminate problems, which bring out an infi- 
 nite number of incommensurable ciuantities. See Algebra. 
 
 DIOPHANTUS, a mathematician of Alexandria, who is be- 
 lieved to have lived about the third century. We have iiis woiks, 
 which were published with notes at Paris, in 1G21, by Bachet de 
 Weziriac; and another edition in 1()70, with observations on every 
 question, bv M. Fermat. 
 
 DIOPT'RA, an instrument invented by Hipparchus, for level- 
 ling water-courjes ; taking the height of towers, and determining 
 the distances of planets, &:c. 
 
 DIOPSIS, a genus of tiie class vermes and order diptera. Head 
 with two inarticulate tiliform horns mucli longer than the head, at 
 the lip of which are placed the eyes. It inhabits South America 
 and Guinea, -and reseml«les the ichneumon. There is but one 
 species. See Plate XXXVII. ' 
 
 D!C)P'1"RIC:S, tlie science of refractive vision ; or that part of 
 optics which considers the dilfcrent refactions of light in its passing 
 through <liiVerent mediums, as air, water, glass, &c. and especially 
 lenses. See Optics. 
 
 DIOSCOREA, in botany, a genus of tlie hexandria order, and 
 dicecia class of plants ; natural order sarmentacea-. Male calyx 
 sexpartite, no corolla: female sexpartite ; no cor.Qlla; three styles ; 
 capsule trilocular, compressed; seeds two, membranaceous. There 
 ire fifteen species, of which the only remarkable one is tlie saliva 
 or yam. This has slender stalks, w liich trail upon the ground and 
 extend a great way ; tlic>e frequently put out roots from their joints 
 as thev lie upon the ground, by which the plants are multiplied. 
 The roots are eaten by the iiiliabitants of boh the Indies; and are 
 particularly serviceable in the West India iskwds, where they 
 make the 'greatest part of the negroe's food. 'l"he plant is sup- 
 posed to have been brought from the East to the West Indies ; for 
 it has never been observed to grow^vild in any part of America ; 
 but in the island of Ceylon, and the coast of Malabar, it grows in 
 the woods, and there are in tha^e places a great vaViety of sorts. 
 it is propagated by cutting the root in pieces, observing to pre- 
 serve an eye in ea'cii, as is practised in planting potatoes. One 
 plant vrill produi e three or four large roore. The inside is white, 
 and of the consistence of red beet. It resembles the potatoe in its 
 
 mealiness, but is of a closer texture. When raw, the yams are 
 viscous and clammy : when roasted or boiled, they atlord very 
 nourishing food ; and are often preferred tojiread by the iiihabit-^ 
 ants of the West Indies, on account of their lightness and facility 
 of digestion. 
 
 DIOSMA, African Spir«a, a genus of the monogynia or- 
 der, and pi ntandria class of plants. Corolla pentapetalous, nectarium 
 crown-Jiaped above thegermen: capsules five, coalited. There 
 are nineteen species. 
 
 DIOSPYROS, the Indian Date Plum, a genus of the dicecia 
 order, and polyganiia class of plants, natural order liicornes. 
 C^alyx hermaphrodite, ((uadrifid ; corolla urceolated, quadrifid ; 
 styles quadrifid ; berry octospermous : male calyx, corolla, and 
 stamina, as in the former. There are nine species. 
 
 D. Lotus, is supposed to be a native of Africa, from whence it 
 was transplanted into several parts of Italy, and also into the south 
 of France. The fruit of this tree is supposed to be the lotus with 
 which Ulysses and liis companions were said to have been inchaiii- 
 ed, and which made those who eat it forget their country and re- 
 lations. In the warmer parts of Eurojje this tree grows to the 
 height of thirty feit. 
 
 D. \'ircin1f.nsis. See Plate XXXV. 
 
 DIPHYSA, a genus of the class and order diadelphia decan- 
 dria. Calyx half five-cleft ; legume with a bladder on each side ; 
 seeds hooked. There is onespecies, a small tree of New Spain. 
 
 DIPHTHONG, [iip^^oyf^,] a coalition of two vowels to form 
 one sound. Diphthongs are divided into proper and improper. 
 
 Diphthongs, Improper, are those wherein only one of the 
 vowels is sounded, the other being sunk ; as ir, and a, In the Latin, 
 and ca, ei, eo, ie, oit, ae, ue, and ui, in the Eiiglisli language. The 
 Latins pronounced the two vowels in their diphthongs ae or ce, 
 oe or (X, much as we do; only that the one was heard much weaker 
 than the other, though the division was made with all the delicacy 
 imaginable. 
 
 Diphthongs, Proper, are such as include the original sound 
 of both the component vowels, though still in one syllable; such 
 as uu, cii, and ei, in Latin ; and ai, au, ay, cu, ey, oi, and ou, 
 in Eiighsli. 
 
 DIPLOE, the soft meditullium, or medullary substance, which 
 lies between the two lamina; of the bones of the cranium. 
 
 DIPJ^QMA, \)i-^\i>!{jia.^ a letter or writing conferring some 
 privilege, so called, because the) used formerly to be written on 
 waxed tables, and folded together. , 
 
 Diploma is peculiarly used for an instrument or licence given 
 by colleges, societies, &;c. to clergymen or physicians, to exer- 
 cise tiieir respective professions, after passing examinations, and 
 being admitted to a degree. 
 
 DIPLOMATICS, the science of diplomas, or of ancient lite- 
 rary monuments, public rlocunients, &c. It does not, however, 
 nor can it, absolutely extend its researches to antiquity; but is 
 chielly confined to the middle age, and the first century of mo- 
 dern times. For though the ancients were accustomed to reduce 
 their contracts and treaties into writing ; yet they graved them on 
 tables, or covered them over with wax, or brass, copper, stone, or 
 wood, &c. And all tliat in the lirst ages were not traced on brass 
 or marble, has perished by the length of time, and the destructive 
 events, that have taken place. The word diploma signifies, pro- 
 perly, a letter or epistle, folded in the middle, a:id not open. But, 
 in more modern times, tlie title has been given to all ancient epistles, 
 letters, literary monuments, and public documents, and to all 
 those pieces of writing which the ancients called Syngrapha, Chi- 
 rogiapha, Codicilli, &c. In the middle age, ajid in the diplomas- 
 themselves, these writings are called Littera', Pra'cepta, Placita, 
 Charta; indicula:, Sagilla, and Bulla;; as also Pancharla;, Paiit«- 
 chartae, Tiactoriy, Descriptiones, &:c. The originals of these 
 pieces are named Exemplaria, or Autographa, Charta^ authen- 
 tic;r, Origiualia, &c. and the copies, Apographa, Cc.piie, Parti- 
 cula;, &c. The collections that have been made of them, are 
 called Chartaria, and Cliaitulia. 1 he place where these papers 
 and documents were kept, the ancients named Scriiiia, Tabu- 
 lariuin, or ^"Erarium, words that were derived from the tables of 
 brass, and, according to the Greek idiom, Aicheium or Archivum. 
 To understand tlie nature of these ancient papers, di|)lomas, and 
 MSS. and to distinguish the authentic from the counlerfeit, it is 
 necessary to know that the paper of the ancients came from 
 Egypt, aud was lorjned of tliin leaves or membranes, taken troia. 
 ^ ■ tlie 
 
 I
 
 D TP 
 
 150 
 
 DTP 
 
 tlie brandies of a tre'e named Papyrus, or ISibluni ^I'^^n ptiacuiii, 
 ami which were pasted one over the other witli tlie shnie ot the 
 Nile, and were pressed and pohshed with a pumice-stone. 'I his 
 paper was very scarce ; and it was of various qualities, forms, and 
 price>, which I'hey distinguished by the names of charta hierulica, 
 inria, aiigu^ta, am|>hitlieatrica, saitica, tanirica, cmporelica, &c. 
 They cut this paper into square leaves, which they pasted one to 
 the other, in order to make rolls of them : from whence an entire 
 book was called volumen, fr')ni volcndo : and the leaves of which 
 it consisted, pai^ina'. Sometimes, afso, they pasted the leaves all 
 togedier by one of the extremities, as is now practised in binding ; 
 by this method they formed the back of a book, and these the 
 learned call codices. 'I'liey rolled the volume round a stick, 
 which they named iimbTlicus : and the two ends that came out be- 
 yond the paper, cornua. The title, wrote on parchment, in pur- 
 ple characters, was joined to the last sheet, and served it as a co- 
 ver. They made use of all sorts of strings or ribbands, and even 
 sometimes of locks, to close the book ; and sometimes also it was 
 put into a case. But there is not now to be found, in any library 
 or cabinet whatever, any one of these volumcfs. We have been 
 assured, however by a traveller, that he had seen several of them 
 in tlie ruins ot Ilerctdaneum ; but so much damaged, the paper so 
 stilf and brittle, by the length of time, that it was impossible to im- 
 rol tliem, and consequently to make any use of theni ; for on the 
 first touch the\ fell into shatters. We know not the precise lime 
 when our modern ])aper was invented; and when they began to 
 make use of pens in writing, instead of the stalks of reeds. The 
 ink that the ancients used was not made of vitriol and galls, like the 
 modern, but of soot. Sometimes also theywrote with red ink made of 
 Vermillion ; or in letters of gold, on purple or violet parchment. 
 It is easy for those who apply themselves to this study, to distin- 
 guish the parchment of the ancients from that of the moderns, as 
 well as their ink and various exterior characters ; but that which 
 best distinguislies the original from the counterfeit is, the writing 
 or character itself ; which is so distinctly different Irom one cen- 
 tury to another, that we mav tell with certainty within about forty 
 or lifty years, when any diploma was written. There are two- 
 works which furnish the clearest lights on this matter, and which 
 may serve as sure guides in judging of what are called ancient di- 
 plomas. The one is the celebrateil treatise on the Diplomatic, 
 by F. Mabillon ; and the other, the tirst volume of the Clironicon 
 Golvicense. We there lind specimens of all the characters, the 
 flourishes, and diH'erent methods of writing, of every age. For 
 these matters, therefore, we must referour readers to those works ; 
 :!iid shall here only add, that all the diplomas are wrote in Latin, 
 .iiid consecpiently the letters and characters have a resemblance to 
 each other: but there are certain strokes of the pen which distin- 
 guish not only the ages, but also the different nations; as the writ- 
 ings of the Lombards, Frencli, Saxon, &;c. The letters in the di- 
 ,)lo;nas are also usually longer, and not so strong as those of MSS. 
 I lere has also been introducei.1 a kind of court hand, of a very 
 ■projiortionate length, and the letters of which are called Exiles 
 - ueraria-, crispjp, ac protractiores. The first line of the diploma, 
 the signature of the sovereign, that of the chancellor, notary, &c, 
 are usually wrote in this character. The signature of a d.ploma 
 consists either of the sign of the cross, or of a monogram or cipher, 
 composed of the letter of the names of those who subscribed it. 
 The initial lettei-s of the name, and sometimes also the titles, were 
 placed about this cross. By degrees the ciistom changed, and 
 they invented other marks. They exhibited, added also the date 
 and epoch of the sijjnature, the leasts of the church, the days of 
 the kaleudar, &c. i'he successive corruption of the Latin lan- 
 guage, the style and orthography of each age, as well as their dif- 
 lerent titles and forms; abbreviations, accentuation, and punctua- 
 tion, and the various methods of writing the diphthongs; all these 
 matters united, form so many characters and marks by which the 
 authenticity of a diploma is to be known. The seal annexed to 
 a diploma was anciently of wliite wax, and artfully imprinted on 
 the parchment itself, ft was afterward pendent from the paper, 
 and inclosed in a box or place, which tney called bidla. 'i here 
 are some also that are stamped on metal, and even on pure gold. 
 When a diploma bears all the (diaracters that are rec|ui>ite to the 
 time and place wliure it is supposed to be written, its authenticity 
 is not to be doubte<l : but, at the same time, we cannot examine 
 them too scrupulously, seeing that the monks and priests of 'urmer 
 ages have been very adroit in making counterfeits ; and the more 
 
 so, as they enjoyed the confidence of princes and statesmen, and 
 were even sometimes in possession of their rings or seals. As to 
 MSS. that were wrote belbie the invention of printing, see Ma- 
 
 NUSCRrPT. 
 
 Dll^l'ING, among miners, signifies the interruption or break- 
 ing off the veins ot ore; an accident that gives them a great deal 
 ot trouble before they can discover the ore again. A great deal 
 ol the skill of the miners consists in the understanding of this dip|)ing 
 ot the veins, and knowledge how to manage it. In Cornwall they 
 have this general rule to guide them in this respect ; most of their 
 tin loads, which run from E. to W. constantly dip towards the 
 north. Sometimes they underlie, that is, they slope down to-- 
 wards the N. three feet in height perpendicular. 
 
 Dipping Needle, or iNCLrNAToRV Needle, a magnetical 
 needle, so hung, as that, instead of playing horizontally, and point- 
 ing out N. and S. one end dips, or inc lines to the horizon, and the 
 other points to a certain degree of elevation above it. It is used 
 for observing the quantity ot inclination towards the earth, assum- 
 ed by the magnetic needle. The general method of constructing 
 dipping needles is, to pass an axis quite through the needle itself 
 and to let the extremities of the axis rest upon two supports, like 
 llie beam of a pair of scales, that the needle inay move vertically 
 round ; and hence, wdien placed in the magnetic meridian, it will 
 naturally assume that position which is called the magnetic line, 
 viz. the two ends nearly north and south, and one of them inclineci 
 considerably to the horizon. The degrees of this inclination are 
 shewn upon a graduated circle; and when the instrument is made 
 use of at land, it has a stand, but at sea a ring is necessary to sus- 
 pend it. When furnished with a stand, it has also a spirit-level; 
 and the stand has three screws, by which the whole is adjusted in 
 such a manner as to let the centre of motion in the needle, and the 
 mark of 90° on the lower part of the divided circle, be exactly in 
 the same line perpendicular to the horizon. The greatest imper- 
 fections attending this instrument are the balancing of the needle 
 itself, and the difticulty of knowing whether, after being made 
 magnetic, it be properly balanced or not. The inaccuracy here 
 indeed can be but very small, as arising only from dust or mois- 
 ture. The method recoiomended by Mr. Cavallo, to obviate 
 these inconveniences, is iirst to observe the dip of the needle ; 
 then to preserve its magnetism by the application of magnets, so 
 that the end of it which before was elevated above the horizon, 
 may now be below it; and, lastly, to observe its dip again ; for a 
 mean of the two observations will be pretty near the truth, though 
 the needle may not be perfectly balanced. See Magnetism, and ■ 
 Magnrtical Needle. 
 
 DIFSACUS, Tkazel, a genus of the monogynia order, and 
 tetrandia class of plants; natural order, Aggregate. Common ca- 
 lyx polyphyllous, proper above ; receptacle paleaceous. There 
 are four species ; the most remarkable is the 
 
 D. Carduus FuLLONUM, which grows wild in many parts of' 
 England. It is of singular use in raising the knap uiion woollen 
 cloth. For this purpose, the heads are fixed round the circum- 
 ference of a large broad w beef, which is made to turn round, and 
 the doth is held against them. In the west of England, great 
 quantities of the plant are cultivated for this use. It is propagated 
 by sowing the seeds in March, upon a well prepared soil. About" 
 one peck of seed is sullicient for an acre, as the plants must have 
 room to grow ; otherwise the heads will not be large enough, nor 
 in great qtiantity. 
 
 DIPTERA, [from Ji,-, and ctti^ov, iving,'] in entomology, an 
 order of insects, which have only two wings, and under each winj; 
 a style or oblong body, terminated by a protuberance, and callecl 
 a balancer. 
 
 DIPTYCH, or DIPTYCHA, in antiquity, was a public re- 
 gister, wherein were wrilten the names of the consuls, and other 
 magistrates, among the heathens; and of bi^Ilops, and living as 
 well as dead bielliien, among the Christians. The word is Greek, 
 AiTTTux", the plural oi im-rvx'v, q. d. a book folded in two leaves; 
 though there wef ^ime in three, and others in four, or tive leaves. 
 DIPTERYX, in botany, a geaus ot the diadelphia decandria 
 class and order; n tural order, Papllionaceae, or Leguminosae. 
 Calyx IwOj upper segments winged; legume ovate, compressed, 
 one-seeded. '1 here are two species, viz. D. otlorata, Coumarou- 
 iia, and D. oppositilolia, 'I'aralea, both tall trees; about sixt^' feet 
 high ; very much branihed at 'oj) ; the leaves are hu'ge, alternate, . 
 and pinnate, natives of South .tkuerica. 
 V DIPU3,
 
 DIR 
 
 160 
 
 D IS 
 
 DIPUS. the Jekboa, a genus of tlie class mammalia, order 
 glii'es. Two front teeth in the upper, and in the under jaw; fore 
 legs very short, hind legs very long; clavicles in the skeleton; 
 tail long, and Uifted at the lip. There are six species. 
 
 D. Sagitta, or the Egyptian jerboa of Pennant, is about the 
 size of a rat, and was known to the ancients by ihe name of the 
 two-footed mouse. It is to be met with in various parts of Africa, 
 and in the eastern provinces of Siberia. In its posture and move- 
 ment it greatly resembles a bird. It stands on its fund feet, and 
 rarely places its fore feet to tlie ground, employing them almost 
 exclusively in applying food to its mouth, ui the same manner as 
 the kanj;uroo. See Plate LXV I. 
 
 D. Tamaricinus, the Marsh Jkrboa, or Tamarisk 
 Mouse, of Dr. Pallas, has five toes behind, and three before, with 
 the rudiments of a fourth; the tail is obscurely annulateil. Ihe 
 body and head measure about 5^ inches in lengtli ; the tail is about 
 the same length. This species inhabits tl>e salt marshes near the 
 Caspian sea; and is supposed to feed on the fruit of the tamarix 
 and nitrarium, which grow in these marshes. Under the roots of 
 these trees it forms very deep burrows, which have two entrances. 
 It is a very elegant little animal. See Plate LXv'I. 
 
 DIRjE, the general name of the three Furies in the Pagan my- 
 thology. They were so called, as being quasi Deorum irx, the 
 ministers of divine vengeance in punishing guilty souls alter death. 
 They were the daughters of Acheron and Night. See Furies. 
 
 DIRCA, a genus of the moiiogynia order, and octandria class 
 of plants ; natural order, Vepreculs. No calyx ; corolla tubular, 
 with the limb indistinct ; stamina longer than the tube ; berry 
 monospermous. There is one species, a small shrub of North 
 America. 
 
 DIRECT, in astronomy. A planet is said to be direct when it 
 appears to an observer on the earth to go forward in the zodiac, 
 or according to the succession of the sign'-. See Astronomy. 
 
 Direct, ni matters of genealogy, is understood of the principal 
 line, or the line of ascendants and descendants, in contradistinc- 
 tion to the collateral line. The heirs in the direct lines always 
 precede those in the collateral lines. 
 
 Direct Ray, in optics, is a ray flowing from a point of a visi- 
 ble object directly to the eye, through one and the same medium. 
 Direct East and West Dials, dials drawn upon planes that 
 directly face the east and west points of the horizon, orare parallel to 
 the meridian. See Dialing. 
 
 Direct South and North Dials, are those which face di- 
 rectly the north and south points ol tht; horizon, or parallel to the 
 prime vertical circle. See Dialing. 
 
 DIRECTION, in mechanics, signifies the line or path of a bo- 
 dy's motion, along which it endeavours to proceed according to 
 the force impressecf upon it. See Mechanics. 
 
 Direction, Islands of, four small islands at the W. entrance 
 of the straits of Magellan. 
 
 DIRECTOR, in commercial polity, a person who has the ma- 
 nagement of the affairs of a trading company : thus we say the di- 
 rectors of the India company. South-sea company, ire. See 
 Company. 
 
 Director, in surgery, a grooved probe, to direct the edge of 
 the knite or scissars in opening sinuses or fistula', that the adjacent 
 ■vessel, nerves, and tendons, may not be hurt. See Surgery. 
 
 DIRGE, in music, a solenm and mournful composition, per- 
 formed at funeral processions. The dirge was in very general use 
 with the ancients, and was numerously tilled both by voices and 
 instruments. 
 
 DIRGHAW, or DIRCIIAU, a fortified town of Western 
 Prussia, in tin- province of Poniorellis. 
 
 DIRIBl TORES, among the Romans, ofliccrs appointed to 
 distrilnite tablets to the people at the comitia. 
 
 Dl RIGEN 1, or DIREC IRIX, a term in geometry, signify- 
 ing the line of motion along which the describent line, or surface, 
 is carried in the genesis ot any plane, or solid figure : thus, if the 
 line AB, Plate LIV. fig. 10, "move along the line AC, so that the 
 point A always keeps in the fine AC, a parallelogram, as A BC D, 
 will be formed, of which the side AI5 is the describent, and ih:- 
 line A(^ the dirigenl; so also, if the surface A15CD be supposed 
 to be carried along C E, in a position always parallel to itself in its 
 first situation, the solid ADFII will be tonned, where the surface 
 AD IS the describent, and the line CE llie d'rigent. 
 DIS, aa inseparable |,article used in composition, implying 
 
 coiiuuonly a privative or negative signification of the word to 
 v\hich it isjoine<l; as to arm, to disarm; to join, to disjoin. It 
 is borrowed from des, used by the French and Spaniards in that 
 sense; as desnour to untie; desterar, to banish; from the Latiu 
 de ; as struo, to build ; destruo, to destroy. 
 
 Dis signifies also a separation, detachment, &c. as disposing, 
 distributing. 
 
 Dis, in geography, ^ town of Norfolk, 19 miles S. of Norwich. 
 Dis, in mytiiology, a god of tJie Gauls, tiie same e» Pluto, the 
 god of hell. The ancient inhaijitants ot Gaul supposed themselves 
 descended from that deity. 
 
 DISA, a genus of the gynandria diandria class and order. 
 Spathe one-valved; petals three, the third less, two-parted, gib- 
 bous at the base. 1 here are four species, herbaceous plants of 
 tlie Cape, with beautiful blue flovrcrs. • 
 
 DISABILITY, in law, is when a man is disabled, or made in- 
 capable to inherit any lands, or take that benefit which otherwise 
 he might: have done. This may h.ippen four ways; 1st, by the 
 act of an ancestor ; 2d, of tiie parly ; 3d, by the act of God ; or, 
 4th, of tiie law. 1. Disability by the act ot the ancestor, is where 
 the ancestor is attainted of high Ireascn, Sec. which corrupts the 
 blood of his children, so that they may not inherit his estate. 2. 
 Disability by the act of the parly, is where a man binds himself by 
 obligation, that, upon surrender of a lease, he will grant a new. 
 estate to a lessee; and afterwards he grants over the reversion to- 
 another, which puts it out of his powefto perform it. 3, Disabi- 
 lity by the act of God, is where a man is non sanae memorij}, 
 whereby he is incapable to make any grant, &:c. So that, if he 
 passes an estate out of him, it may alter his death be made void; 
 but it is a maxim in law, " That a man of full age shall never be 
 received to disable his own person." 4. Disability by the act of 
 the law, without anv thing by him done, is rendered incapable of 
 the benefit of the law; as an alien born, &c. 
 
 DISANDRA, a genus of the digynia order, and heptandria 
 class of plants. Calyx seven-leaved; corolla seven-parted, flat ; 
 capsule two-celled. It has two species, natives ot Africa and 
 Madeira. 
 
 DISAPPOINTMENT Bay, a bay on the N. W. coast of 
 North America. Lou. 129. 0. \V. Lat. iiJ. li. N. 
 
 Disappointment, Island of, a cluster of small islands, in 
 the South Pacific Ocean. They were discovered by Conimodore 
 Byron in 17t)5. These islands abound with cocoa trees, and tur- 
 tles are plentiful on the coasts. Loii. from 141. 5. to 141. It). E. 
 Lat. Iroiii 14. 5. to 14. 10. S. 
 
 DISARMING, in law, the prohibiting of people to wear arms. 
 It is an offence by the common law ol England tor persons to go 
 or ride armed with dangerous and uncomiiiun weapons : though 
 gentlemen may wear common armour, according to their cpiality. 
 It is also ordained by statute, that no persons shall fdme before 
 the king's justices with force of arms, on pain of imprisonment, 
 &c. 
 
 DISC, [discus,'] in antiquity, a quoit made of stone, iron, or 
 copper, five, or six fingers broad, and more than a loot long, in- 
 clining to an ova! figure, which was hurled in the manner of a 
 bowl, to a vast distance, by the help of a leathern thong tied round 
 the person's hand who threw it, and put through a hole in the 
 middle. ' 
 
 Disc, in astronomy, the face of the Sun or Moon, such as it 
 appears to us on the earth ; or the face of the earth, such as it ap- 
 pears to a spectator in the Moon. The disc in eclip-es is suppos- 
 ed to be divided into tUelve equal parts, called digits ; in a total 
 eclipse of the luminaries, the whole disc is obscured ; in a partial 
 eclipse, only a part of it. See Astronomy. 
 
 Disc, in'botany, is an aggregate of florets forming, as it were, 
 a plane surtace. 
 
 Disc, in optics, is the width of the aperture of te^scopic 
 glasses, whatever their form be, whether plane, convex, con- 
 cave, &c. 
 
 DISCHARGE, is where a man confined by some legal pro- 
 tpss, perlorms that which the law requires, and is released from 
 tlie matter for which he is confined. It an obligee discharge one 
 obligor w liere several are jointly bound, it discharges the others. 
 See Arrkst, Bond, Payment. 
 
 DISCIPLE, [discipuliis, Latin,] a scholar ; one that professes 
 to receive instructions from another. 
 
 Disciples, in the Chrisliau sense, were the followers of Jesus 
 
 Christ,
 
 D IS 
 
 lf>l 
 
 nis 
 
 C'iirist, in jrciieral ; but in a more rcsLiained sense, tlu- tilli^ is 
 
 tiven to lliose ;ilone wliowere llie inimcHliato followers ami alton- 
 ants on liis person, of vvlioiii there wore 70 or 72. The names 
 disciple and apostle are often synonymously used in the gosi)el 
 liistoi'V ; but somelinies the apostles are distinguished from disci- 
 ples, as persons selected ont of the number of disciples, to be the 
 |>rini'i^:il ministers of liis religion : of these there were only 12. 
 The l.atins ke|it the fe.sLival of the 70 or 72 disciples on July 13, 
 and the (ireeks on January 4, 
 
 llIriCll'LlNE, in a general sense, denotes instruction and jo- 
 vernnient, a^ military discipline, eielesiastical discipline, &c. 
 ICcclesia^tieal discipline consists in putting lliose laws in execution 
 by which tlie churc.li is governed, and intlicting the penalties en- 
 joined by them against the several sort* of offenders that profess 
 the religion of Jesus: the primitive church never pretended to ex- 
 ercise discipline upon any but such a* were within her pale, in 
 the largest sense, by some act of their own profession ; and even 
 unon these slie never pretended to exercise her discipline so far 
 as to cancel or disannul their baptism: all that she pretended to, 
 was to dep-rive men of the benelits of external conmuniion, sucli 
 as public prayer, receiving the eucharist, and other acts of divine 
 worship. The church discipline was only confined to the admo- 
 liitiQii of the parly, and to the less and greater excommuuica- 
 
 DISCLAIMEK, is a plea containing an express denial, re- 
 nouncing or disclaiming ; as if the tenant sues a replevin upon a 
 distre■>^ taken by the lord, and the lord avows, saying that he 
 holds of him as his lord, and that he distrained for rent not paid, 
 or service not performed ; then the tenant denying to hold of such 
 lord, is said to disclaim ; and the lord proving" the tenant to hold 
 of him, the tenant loses his land. Co. on Lit. 102. 
 
 UlSt'ONTlNUANCE op Possession. A man may not 
 toter U|)on his own lands or tenements alienated (such alienation 
 being discontinuance of possession,) whatsoever his right be to 
 tJieni, of his own self or by his own authority, but must 
 bring his writ, and seek to recover possession by law. Co. Rep. 
 lib. 3. 85. 
 
 Discontinuance of Process, is where the plaintilT leaves a 
 chasm in tlie proceeilings of a cause, whereby the opportunity of 
 prosecution is lost for that time, in which case he mu5t begin 
 again, and usually pays costs to the defendant, or the plaintiff is 
 dismissed the court, kc. Every suit, whether civil or criminal, 
 and every process therein, ought to be properly continued from 
 (lay to day, &c. Irom its commencement to its conclusion ; and 
 the sulfering of any default or gap herein, is called a discontinu- 
 ance. 2 Haw. 298, 
 
 Discontinuance of Plea: if where divers things should 
 he pleaded to, when some are omitted, this is a discontinuance. 
 
 DISCOH I), in music, every sound which, joined with another, 
 forms an assemblage dis;igreeable to the ear; or rather, every in- 
 terval whose extreiiK's do not coalesce. Now, as there are no 
 other concords or consonances, except those which form amongst 
 themselves, and with their fundamental sound, perfect chords, it 
 follows, that every other interval nmst be a real dissonance or dis- 
 cord : even the third and sixth were reckoned such among the 
 ancients, who excluded them from the number of consonant 
 chords. The term <lissonance, whicli is synonymous with dis- 
 cord, both in a literal and nielaphorical sense, signifies disagree- 
 ment or disunion, (n reality, that which renders dissonance grat- 
 ing, is, that the sounds which form them, far from uniting in the 
 ear, seem to repel each otiier, and are heard each by itself .is two 
 distinct sounds though produced at the same time. 'J'his repul- 
 sion or violent o^cill,llion of sounds is heard more or less fre- 
 quently coincident. When two vocal strings are gradually tuned, 
 till they approach a consonant interval, the pulsations 'become 
 slower as the chord grows more just, till at last they are scarcely 
 lie-ird, if hejrd at all ; from whence it appears certain that the 
 pleasure produced in us by iiarmony results from the more or less 
 exact and frequent coincidence of vibrations ; thougii the reason 
 why this r'jinci<lence should give pleasure, more than any other 
 r.iodilication or combination of sounds, appears to us inscrutable. 
 The agreeable effects of dissonance in harmony, are no objection 
 to this theory ; since it is allowed, that the sensations excited by 
 discord are liot in lliemielves immediately and necessarily pleas'- 
 ■aig, but only please by auricular dete^jtioii. The ear is siirpnscd 
 
 V«L. II. — NO. tkJ. 
 
 with the shock it receives, without being able lo imagine how it 
 should have happened ; and in proportion as it is harsh and grat- 
 ing, we feci the pleasure of returning harmony enhanced, and the 
 disappointn'ent of being artfully and insensibly extricated more 
 agreeable. The name of dissonance, is given sometimes to tlic 
 interval, ;uid sometimes to each of the sounds which form it. 
 But though two sounds equally form a dissonance between them- 
 selves, tlie name is most frequently given to that sound in parti- 
 cular v.diich is most extraneou-i to the chord. The number of 
 possible dissonances is indetinite ; but as in music we exclude all 
 intervals which are not found in the system received, the number 
 of dissonances is reduced to a very lew : besides, in practice, vvc 
 can only select from those ft.w, such as are agreeable to the sjjc- 
 cics, and the mode in wliicli we compose ; and from this last num- 
 ber we must exclude such as cannot>be used consistently with the 
 rules prescribed. See Music. 
 
 DLSCOUNT, ill commerce, a term used by traders, mei- 
 chanls, and bankers, especially by the two former when they pur- 
 chase commodities on the usual time of credit, with a coniiilioii 
 that the seller shall allow the buyer a certain discount at the rate 
 of so much per cent, per annum, for the time for which the cre- 
 dit is generally given, upon condition that the buyer pays ready 
 money for such commodities, instead of taking the time of credit. 
 Traders and merchants are fre<|uently taking promissory notes for 
 monies due payable to them or order at a certain time, and 
 sometimes having occasion for money before the time is elapsed, 
 procure these notes to be discounted by bankers before the time 
 of payment. Uills of cxcliange are also discounted by bankers j 
 and in this coiiists one article of the profits of banking. See 
 Bank. For finding the discount of any sij-m for any time, see 
 Arithmetic and Interf,st. 
 
 DISCOURSE, \_di.scuriius,'] among logicians, signifies the pro- 
 gressive exercise of reason in tlie search of truth ; as when from 
 self-evident principles it discovers the truth of something it did not 
 know before ; by means of this, a second ; by that second, a third; 
 and so on. See Logic. 
 
 DISCOUS, [from discux, Lat.] broad, flat, wide. Used by' 
 botanists to denote the middle, plain, and tiat part of some flowers, 
 such as the llos soils, &c. 
 
 DISCRETE, or DISJUNCT PROPORTION, is when-the 
 ratio of two or more pairs of numbers or quantities is the same, 
 but there is not the san/e proportion between all the four numbers. 
 Thus, if the numbers 3:ti: : 8: 16 be considered, the ratio be- 
 tween 3:6, is the same as-that between 8 : 16, and tlierefore the 
 numbers are proportional ; but it is only discretely or disjunctly, 
 for 3 is not to 6 as 6 to 8 ; that is, the proportion is broken off be-, 
 tween 8 and 3, and is not continued as in the following continual 
 proportionals, .J : 6 : : 12 : 24. See Proportion. 
 
 Discrete Quantity, such as is not continuous and joined 
 together. Such is a number whose parts being distinct units, can- 
 not be united into one continuum; for in a continuum, there are 
 no actual determinate parts before division, but they are poten- 
 tially infinite. 
 
 DISCRE TIONE, in music, intimates to play or sing with at- 
 tention an<l care. 
 
 DISCRETIVE Propositions, are those where various 
 judgements are made and denoted by the particles InJ, notxiiih- 
 slunding, &c. either expressed or understood. Thus, fortune 
 may deprive me of my wealth, but not of ray virtue, is a discre- 
 tive proposition. 
 
 DISCI'S, in antlc|iiity, an instrument used by tlie ancients in 
 their public games. It is certain it was used in tlie gymnastic art 
 for pre-ierving health and strengthening the constitution ; but as to 
 its front, its dimensions, and various uses, authors disagree. See 
 Disc. l"he same exercise was peiformed with an instiument 
 called CoXo;, which .some distinguish from the discus, because that 
 was made of iron, and the discus of stone ; wliile oth.ei-s distin- 
 guish them by the form, the CoXo; being spherical, and the discus 
 broa<l. 
 
 Discus, in botany. See Rotany. It generally consists of 
 small llorets, with a hollow regular petal. It is comnionlv sur» 
 rounded by large, plain, or Hal, tougue-sha])ed petals, in llie cir- 
 cumference or margin; as in daisy, groundsel, and leopra'd's bane; 
 sometimes the circumlerence is nakgcl, as iu toUon-weed and 
 some species of colts-foot. 
 
 3 T DISCV5
 
 D IS 
 
 162 
 
 DIS 
 
 Discus Folii, tlie suvface of tlie leaf. 
 
 DISCUSSION, in matters of literature, signifies the clear 
 treating or handling of any particular point, or prohleni, so as to 
 •shake off the cliflicalties with which it is embarrassed : thus we say, 
 such a poiit was well discussed, when it was well treated of, and 
 tlearea up. 
 
 DISCUTIENTS, in surgery, are such external remedies a«, 
 by their suhtilty, dissolve or disperse a stagnating or coagulated 
 fluid in anv part of the body. 
 
 DISDIAPASON, or BISDIAPASON, in music, a com- 
 pound concord, described by F. Parran, in the tpiadruple ratio of 
 4: 1, or 8 : 2. 
 
 DiSDiATASoN DiAPENTE, a coucord in a sextuple ratio of 
 1 :6. 
 
 DisuiAPASoN DiTONE, a compound consonance in the pro- 
 portion of 10 : 2. 
 
 DiSDiAPAsoM SEM!-DiArEN'TE, a Compound concord in the 
 proportion of 16 : 3. 
 
 DisDiAPASON' Semi-ditone, acompouud concord in the pro- 
 portion of 24 : 5. 
 
 DISEASE, (hat condition of tlie body, in which it lias declined 
 from a state of health, so that its different functions are either 
 greatly impeded, or performed with difliculty. Of all organized 
 creatures, man is subject to tlie greate t diversity of diseases : some 
 impairing only the use of the part immediately affected ; for in- 
 stance, the palsy, gout, rheumati^n], &;c. ; others disordering the 
 whole body, such as fever, apoplexy, &c. ; again olliers disfmb- 
 ing the mind, as delirium, melancholy, and the lil^e ; and lastly, 
 some attack both mind and body, such as phrenzy, accompanied 
 with fever. Without perplexing the reader with conjectures on 
 the origin and prouagution of diseases, we may observe, that in 
 proportion as men associate together in lanre and populous places, 
 their manners and habits becojne more refined ; while they gra- 
 dually degenerate in bodily strength, and energy of mind, so that 
 they ap' less capable of resisting the noxious agency of the ele- 
 ments, and other external powers. This progress towards refine- 
 ment is always attended with an increase of luxury, the painful ef- 
 fects of which are sooner or later experienced by its votaries. 
 Luxury, indeed, has also afforded the means of lessening the sud- 
 den influence of cold, heat, rain, moisture, and other external 
 causes; for we can occasionally guard against their severity ; but, 
 on their next return, we are lialileto be acted upon with additional 
 vehemence. To this slate of things we owe the introduction of 
 many articles, both of food and dress, the consequences of which 
 too frequently prove to be injurious to our bodily welfare. Thus 
 it mav be safely affirmed, that the number and variety of diseases, 
 in a great measure depend upon the prevailing refinements in the 
 extensive department of luxury. The passions are another fruit- 
 ful source of disorders. Man is perhaps more violently attacked, 
 and more obstinately governed, by them than any other creature. 
 These em jtions variously affect the human body : the most hurt- 
 ful and oppressive of them, however, are terror and grief; the for- 
 mer in particular is often attended with the most fatal effects. The 
 remedies to wliich we resort during the prevalence of passion, too 
 frequently lay the foundation of lingering disorders both mental 
 and corporeal, in which medicine can alibrd but precarious relief. 
 The last source of diseases to which we shall aliude, is a variety of 
 specific contagions ; the greater part of which is probal>ly gene- 
 rated in the atmosphere. Such is particularly the case with re- 
 spect to air that is vitiated by putrid, marshy, or noxious vapours, 
 and by the uiuvliolesome efliuvia of various manufact\iriiig |)ro- 
 cesses, especially those of combustion, fermentation, and pntre- 
 faction. Lastly, there is another and very numerous class of 
 contagions maladies, that perpetually migrate from one individual 
 to another, such as the small-pox, meazles, hooping-cough, in- 
 fluenza, puti'id fevers, &c. Every disease weakens the digestive 
 powers. The diet ought therefore in all cases to be light and 
 easy of digestion. Paying uut^ attention to this circumstance alone, 
 without having recourse to those pernicious nostrums and pre- 
 tended specifics, now in general circulation, will in a very great 
 measure contribute to the recovery o the patient. Medicines are 
 doubtless of consideralile utility, when properly and opportunely 
 administered; but an indiscriminate use of dings (such as pre- 
 ■»ails among the ignorant and fanciful,) cauuot fail to be produc- 
 tive oi the worst conseciueiices. 
 
 Diseases of Horses. See Farrierv. 
 
 Diseases of Plants. See Husbandry. 
 
 DISEMBOGUE, in the sea-language, is said of a ship that 
 passes out of a gulph or bay into the open sea ; a river is also said 
 to disembogue or discharge itself into the sea. 
 
 DISENTIS, one of tlie eight jurisdictions in the superior part 
 of the Grisou league ; situated about the sources of the l\hinc. 
 It is mountainous and fertile. 
 
 DiSENTis, the capital of the above territory, situated near the 
 sources of the llhine. 
 
 DISGUISE, in law. Persons doing unlawful acts in disguise 
 are by our statutes subjected to great penalties, and even declared 
 felons. Thus by an act, commonly called the black act, persons 
 appearing disguised and armed in a forest or grounds inclosed, or 
 hunting tleer, or robbing a warren or a fish-pond, are declared 
 felons. 
 
 DISH, in mining, is a trough made of wood, about 28 inches 
 long, four inches deep, and six inches wide ; by wliich all miners 
 measure their ore. If any be taken selling their ore, not first mea- 
 suring it by the bar-master's dish, and paying the king's duty, the 
 seller forfeits his ore, and4he buyer foi'fei'ts for every such offence 
 40 shillings to the lord of the field or farmer. 
 
 Dl Sn FRISON, a term used in old writers for disinheritnig. 
 
 DISJtJNCT PROPORTION, the same with that otherwise 
 called discrete. See Discrete. 
 
 DISJUNCTIVE, something that separates or disjoins. Thus, 
 nr, neither, &c. which in tonuecting a discourse separate the 
 parts of it, are called disjunctive conjunctions. 
 
 Disjunctive PnoposiTiox, in logic, is that where, of several 
 predicates, we affirm one necessarily to belong to the subject to the 
 exclusion of all tlie rest, hut leave that particular one undetermin- 
 ed. Such is the major of the following disjunctive syllogism; 
 
 The world is either self-existent, or the work of some finite, ' 
 
 or of some infinite being. 
 But it is not self-existent, nor the work of a finite being. 
 Therefore it is the work of an infinite being. 
 
 DISK, or DISC. See Disc and Discus. 
 
 DISLOCATION, in surger)', the same with luxation. See 
 Surgery. 
 
 DISMISSION OF A BILL, in chancery. If (he plaintitr 
 does not attend on the day fixed for the hearing, his bill is dismiss- 
 ed with costs. It may be also dismissed for want of prosecution, 
 which is in the nature of a non-suit at law, if he sulfer three terms 
 to elapse without moving forwards in the cause. 
 
 DISMEMBERED, in heraldry, is applied to birds that have 
 neither feet nor legs, and also to lions and other animals whose 
 members are separated. 
 
 DISMES, [decinuc, Lat.] a term formerly used for tithes. 
 See Tithe. 
 
 DISMOUNTING, in tlie military art, the act of unhorsing. 
 Thus to dismount the cavalry, dragoons, &c. is to make them 
 alight. 
 
 Dismounting Cannon, is the breaking of their carriages, 
 wheels, axletrees, or any thing else, so as to render them unfit for 
 service. 
 
 DISPARACiEMENT, in our law, is properly used for the 
 matching an heir in marriage under his degree, or against de- 
 cency. 
 
 DISPARATES, [disparata, Lat.] things so unlike that they 
 cannot be compared with each other. 
 
 DISPART, in gunnery, is the mark set upon the muzzle ring 
 of a piece of ordnance, so that a sight Ime taken upon the top of 
 the b.ase ring against the touch-hole, by the mark set on or near 
 the muzzle, may be parallel to the axis of the concave cylinder. 
 The common way of doing this, is to take the two diameters of the 
 base ring, and of the place where the dispart is to stand, and di- 
 vide the diil'erence between them into two equal parts, one of 
 which will be the length of the dispart, which is set on the gun with 
 wax or pitch, or fastened there with a piece of twine or marline. 
 By means of an instrument it may be done whh all possible 
 nicety. 
 
 DISPATCH, a letter on some affair cf state, or other business 
 of importance, sent with care and expedition, by a courier ex- 
 press. The business of dispatches lies on the secretaries of state 
 and their clerks. The king gives directions to his ministers abroad 
 
 by
 
 DIS 
 
 ]63 
 
 DIS 
 
 l>v di^ijatrhe^. I ho wuiil is aUo u^L-d for the packet or mail coii- 
 taiiiinfi sucli letters. 
 
 D1SPEN:5.VHY, a kind ot" charitable in^titulion, of late year:* 
 very prevaleiit in Britain; particularly in London, Edinburgh, 
 Newcastle, Dundee, KeNo, X:r. They are dislina;iiished by dif- 
 ferent titles, as the General Dl^pen5ary, the Royal Universal Dis- 
 pensary, &c. They are supported by voluntary subscriptions, 
 have each one or more physicians and surgeons, whose business is 
 to attend at stated times, to prescribe forthi- poor; and, if neces- 
 sarv, to vi^it them at their own habitations. It is in this 
 latter respect, that the patients of a dispensary differ from those 
 called out-patients at an hospital. The poor are supplied 
 gratis with medicines, and many of these in'titutions also alfonl 
 gratuitous assistance to lying-in women. Formerly there were three 
 dispensaries established in London, for sellijig medicijies to the 
 poor at prime cost, undei the direction of the College of Physi- 
 cians. In China, the medicines are not dispensed gratis, but 
 money is given to the poor to purchase theui. The Chinese have 
 a stone, ten cubits high, erected in the public squares of their 
 cities: on this stone are engraved the names of all sorts of medi- 
 cines witli the price of each ; and when the poor stand in need of 
 any relief from phvsic, they go to the treasury, where they receive 
 the price each medicine is rated at. 
 
 Dispensary, or Dispen'satorv, denotes a book containing 
 the method of preparing the various kinds of medicines used in 
 pharmacy. Such are those ofBautleron,Quercetan, Zwelfer, Chara, 
 Mates, ,^iesue, Salmon, Leniery, Quincy, tkc. but the latest and 
 most esteemed, besides the London and Edinburgh Pharmaco- 
 pa-ias, is the Edinburgh Kesv Dispensatory, being an improve- 
 ment upon that of Dr. Lewis. 
 
 DISPENSATION, inlaw, the granting of a licence of doing some 
 certain action that otherwise is not permitted. The greatest dealer 
 in dispensations is the Pope, who claims the office jure divino, and 
 extends it to every thing. The more moderate of the Romanists 
 themselves deny that he can give a dispensation for any thing con- 
 trary to the divine law, or the law of nature ; and confine him to 
 what is contrary to positive laws, or to things relatins to fasts, 
 marriages, holding several benelices, &c. aixl they limit him even 
 in these things. The a}chbishop of Canterbury has a power, by 
 statute, of di pensing in any cause wherein dispensations were for- 
 merly granteil by the see of Rome ; and as well to the king as his 
 subjects ; and during the vacancy of the archl)ishop's see, the 
 guardian of the spiritualities may grant dispensations. 
 
 DISPERSION, in optics, the same with the divergency of the 
 rays of "light. 
 
 Dispersion of Inflammatiov, in medicine and surgery is 
 the reniDvingof the inllammation, and restoring ofthe inflamed part 
 to its natural '•tate. 
 
 . Dispersion, Point of, in dioptrics, the point from which re- 
 fracted rays begin to diverge, where their refraction renders them 
 divergent. 
 
 DISPLAYED, in heraldry, is applied to the position of an 
 eagle, or any other bird, when it is erect, with its wings expanded. 
 
 DlSPONDEE, or DiSPONDEUS, in the Greek and Latin 
 poetry, a double spomJeus or foot, consisting of four long sylla- 
 bles ; as infiniti^, ^«u,ii'i^5v1iv. 
 
 DISPOSITION, in architecture, the just placing ofthe several 
 parts of an edifice according to their nature and office. 
 
 Disposition, in hiiman nature. In every man there is some- 
 thing origin;,l, that serves to liistinguish him from othei-s, that tends 
 to form a character, and to make him meek or fiery, candid or 
 deceitful, resolute or timorous, cheerful or moro-e.' Tliis origi- 
 nal bent, termed disposition, must be distinguished from a piinci- 
 ple : the latter signifyhig a law of human nature, makes part of the 
 common nature of man ; tl-,e former makes part of the nature of 
 this or that man. Propensity is a name common to both ; for it 
 signifies a principle as well as a disposition. 
 
 Disposition, in oratory. See Oratory. 
 
 IDisposiTioN, in painting. See Painting. 
 
 Disposition, in Scots law, a d<!ed or writing which contains 
 the grant of any subject: when applied to heritable subjects, it 
 in some cases gets the name of charter, which differs from "a dispo- 
 sition in nothing else than a few immaterial forms. 
 
 DISPROPORTION, a general term for any kind of irregu- 
 larity, or want of proportion in the parts of a thing. See Pro- 
 portion. 
 
 DIbl'KOV 1-\G, in rhetoric ami logic, tlie same with refuta- 
 tion. See Refutation. 
 
 DISPUTATION, in the schools, a contest, either by word 
 or writing, on some |)o';nt of learning tor a decree, prize, or for an 
 exercise. See Decree and '1'hesis. 
 
 DISQUISITION, a serious and exact exaniination into the 
 circumstances of any alfair, in order to discourse clearly about it. 
 See Reasoning, and Logic. 
 
 DISSECTION, in anatomy, the cuttingiip ofa body, with a 
 view of examining the structure and use of the parts. See Ana- 
 tomy. ^ 
 
 (DISSEISIN, in law, an unlawful dispossessing ofa person of hi* 
 lands or tenements. It is of two sorts, either single disseisin, which 
 is c jmmitted wiihout force of arms, or disseisin by force of arms, 
 more properly termed deforcement. 'I'he disturbing' ofa person from 
 enteringon his laml, or hindering of him from tdling it, ai-e both dis- 
 seisins of land ; and denial of rent, when lawfully demanded, is a 
 disseisin of the rent. If a disseisor, after he lias expelled the right 
 owner, gains peaceable possession ofthe lands five years, wiihout 
 claim, and continues in possession so as to die seised, and the 
 land descends to his heirs, they will have a rigiit to the pos- 
 session till the owner recovers at law ; and here the owner shall 
 lose his estate for ever, if he do not i)rosecute his suit witliin the 
 lime limited by the statute of limitations. 
 
 D1S.SE1SOR, a person who'is guilty of disseisin. 
 
 DISSENTERS, separatists from the service and worship of the 
 church of England. At the revolution a law was enacted, that the 
 statutes of cpieen Elizabeth and king James 1. concerning the dis-. 
 cipline of the church, should not extend to the Protestant dissen- 
 ters. Persons dissenting, however, are to subscribe the declara- 
 tion of 30 Car. II. cap.'l. and take the oaths of fidelity, &:c. Be- 
 sides, they are not to hold their meetings till their place of wor- 
 ship is certified to tiie bishop, or to the justices of the quarter-ses- 
 sions, and regi.^tered. -•^Isothey are not to keep the doors of their 
 meeting-houses locked during the time of divine service. And 
 to secure to them the free exercise of their religion, whoever dis- 
 turbs or molests them in the performance of divine worship, on 
 convii tion at the sc.-sions is to forfeit twenty pi.unds by the statute 
 1 William and M.ry. Unless dissenters conform and receive the 
 sacrament as atlministered by the church of England, they are ex- 
 cluded from holding any public places under the government. 
 Dissenters chosen to any parochial or ward offices, and scrupling 
 to take the oaths, may execute the ofiice by deputy, who shall 
 comply with the law in this behalf. But it seems they are not 
 subject to fine, on refusing to serve corporation offices; for they 
 may object to the validity of their election, on the ground of theic 
 own noii-c nformitv. 
 
 DISSIMILAR, in general, an appellation given to tilings w iiich 
 are unlike : thus the seminal of first leaves of plants, are called 
 dissimilar, as being generally of a different figure from those of the 
 giX)wn plants. 
 
 Dissimilar Parts, in anatomy, tjiose compounded of parts of 
 varieus structure, such are all the limbs of the body. 
 
 DISSIMILI'I UDE, in general, denotes whatever constitutes 
 the <lilTerence between two dissimilar things. 
 
 Dissimilitude, in rhetoric, an argument wherein from dissimi- 
 lar, or unlike things, other dissimilars are deduced, as m tlit 
 following argument from Catullus. 
 
 Soles orcidere & redire possunt. 
 Nobis cum semel occidit bievis lux, 
 Nox est perpetua una doi-micnda. 
 
 Voss. de institut. orator. 
 
 DISSIPATION, in physics, an insensible loss or consumptioiv 
 of tiie minute parts ofthe body ; or that flux whereby they flv oil",, 
 and are lost. See Effluvia. 
 
 Dissipation, Circle of, in optics, is used for that circular 
 space upon the retina, which is taken up by one of the extreme 
 pencils or rays issuing from an object. 
 
 DISSOL\ ENT, in general, whatever dissolves or recTu?es a. 
 solid body into such minute parts as to be sustained in a fluid. 
 
 DISSOLUTION, in chemistry, the sanw? with solution. 
 
 Dissolution, in music, is when a sound iu the enharmonic 
 genus is lowered three dieses ; for thereby that genus is dissolved,. 
 and the music, or that interval at least, is chromatic. 
 
 DISSONANCE, in music, the same with duscord. See Dis- 
 cord. 
 
 DISSYLLACLE.
 
 1 ) I s 
 
 \m 
 
 D I S 
 
 DISSYLLABLE, among grammarian-^, a word cunsislingnnly 
 of two syllables ; s-uch arc luiLure, sck-iice, &c. 
 
 DlSl'AFF, an instrument about which flax is tied in order to 
 be K|Hin. 
 
 DISTANCE, in general, an interval between two things, either 
 with regard to time or place. See Metaphysics. 
 
 Distances, Accessible, in geometry, are siith as may be 
 Bieasnied by ,ll;e chain, c^'c. See Chain, Theodolite. 
 
 • Distances, Inaccessible, are such as cannot be measured bv 
 >ihti chain, &c. by reason of some river, or the like, which ob- 
 structs our passing from one object toaaotiier. See Geometry and 
 Tr I g o.vom ktr v. 
 
 Dlstance, in navigation, the number of minutes or leagues a 
 sliip has sailed from any givcii place or point. • See Navigation 
 and Mensuration. 
 
 DisTA.NCE, in astronomy. The distance of the sun, planets, 
 and comets, is only found from tlieir parallax, as it cannot be 
 found either by eclipses or their dili'erent phages: for from the 
 tlieory of the motions of tlie earth and planets we know, at any 
 time, the proportion of the distances of the sun and planets from 
 us ; and the horizontal parallaxes are in a reciprocal proiiortion to 
 these distances. See Astronomy. 
 
 Distance, Curtate, in astronomy, is the distance of the pla- 
 net's place, reduced to the ecliptic, troni the sun. 
 
 Distance of the Bastions, in fortification, is the side of the 
 exterior polygon. 
 
 Distance of the Eye, in perspective, is aline drawn from the 
 eye lo liie centre of the pictme. See Perspective. 
 
 DISTEMPER is fre(|nently used in the same sense as disease, 
 but is particularly apidicable to cattle. 'Phis term implies a spe- 
 cies of contagious fever, aitended with an inflammation, which is 
 eucceeded by a gangrene in the lungs, liver, or intestines. It is 
 always preceded by a sliivering and trembling of the limbs, which 
 are followed by various febrile symptoms, such as diljicnltv of 
 breathing, a sinking in the Hanks, and a dryness on the tongue, 
 togellier with a loathing of the usual food and drink, great heavi- 
 Jiess and debility. Animals affected with the distemper, frequently 
 shed tears ; their eyes appear sometimes sparkling and inflamed, 
 but at intervals dull and languid. Their food remains crude in 
 the stomach for several days after it has been eaten, from their 
 inability to digest it. 'Phis contagion spread most rapidly in the 
 early part, and about the middle of last century, over several pro- 
 vinces in France, whence it reached this country, and destroyed 
 great numbers of cattle. Various causes of this malady have been 
 assigned, but that most generally admitted, is the turning of cat- 
 tle into rank grass, especially after heavy and frequent showers. 
 Diflerent remedies were then adopted, the best of which appears 
 to be bleeding the infected animal in the earlier stages of the dis 
 order; and the internal use of the Peruvian bark and red wine ; 
 or, if Ihfese should fail lo procure relief, a mixture of that drug and 
 of burdock, about half an ounce of each, pulverized, may be 
 giveu twice nightly, for two or three succeeding nights, in warm 
 vater, which will seldom fail of eifecting a cure. 
 
 Distemper, in painting, a term used for the working up of co- 
 lours with something besides water or oil. If the colours are pre- 
 pared with water, that kind of painting is called limning; and if 
 with oil, is called painting in oil, and simply painting. If the co- 
 Jours are mixed with size, w hifes of eggs, or any such proper glu- 
 tinous or unctuous matter, and not with oil, then they say it is done 
 in distemper. 
 
 Distension, [distensio, Lat.] among ancient miisicians,is used 
 ill a synonymous sense with interval. See Interval. 
 
 DISTICH, [^'i!-<-/,°'>] ^ couplet of verses making a complete 
 sense. Thus he.vameter and pentameter verses are disposed in 
 distichs. 
 
 DISTICHIASIS, in surgery, a disease of the eye-lids, when 
 under the ordinary eye-lashes there grows another extraordi- 
 nary row of hair, which frequently eradicates the former, and 
 pricking the membrane of the eye, excites pain, and brings on 
 a deiluxion. 
 
 DISl ILLATION, a chemical process employed to separate 
 liquids from those parts of bodies which are more fixed, whether 
 solid or lic|Uid : the process by which the solid parts of bodies are 
 separated is called sublimation. See Chemistry. The apparatus 
 ejnployed for distillation are of several varieties, suited to the nature 
 * 
 
 of the volatile bo.ly. 'Phat employed for the distillation of water, 
 alcohol, and essential oils, is called a still. It i:; chiefiy made of 
 copper, and ought to be so constructed, that as groat a"n evapura- 
 ble surface as possible may be exposed. The vapom- which conies 
 from tiie still, it condenseil by causing it to pass through a spiral 
 tube, fitted into the inside ot a tul), which is tilled with cold wa- 
 ter, and so contrived, thai the product of the distillation shall 
 have no communication with tlie external water. This lub, which 
 is called a worm tub, should be supplied with cold water at the 
 bottom, while the warm water, caused by the condensalioji of the 
 vapour, should be made to run off at the top. 'Phe apparatus em- 
 ployed for distilling bodies more casilv condensable, consist cf 
 two parts, one called the retort, containing the substance to be 
 distilled, and the other the receiver, becuse it receives the sub- 
 stance raised from the retort. In the distillation ot bodies which 
 alford permanent gasses as well as condensable mailers, in additiua 
 lo the receiver, a number of connected, ves.^els are employed, con- 
 stituting what, from its inventor is called a Woulfe's apparatus, in 
 which, what is not condensed, or absorbed in the first bottle, 
 passes forward to the second, and so on to the third and fourth, 
 till at length the absolutely incondensable part is received into a 
 vessel called a gasometer. Before the invention of this apparatus, 
 Ihis kind of distiliaiion was attended with great danger, both to 
 the apparatus and the operator ; the receiver being verv liable to 
 burst, and the tunics being intolerably sulfocating. both these 
 inconveniencies are completely obviated by the iinentioa of the 
 \\ oulle's apparatus. See Chemistry, Sometimes an apparatus 
 called an alembic is used for distillation ; it is generallv oi glass, 
 and is used for experiments in the small way ; it" consists of a bot- 
 tle holding the Substance to be distilled, having a dome-like head, 
 furnished w ilh a channel to convey the condensed vapour. There 
 are various modes of applying' heat in distillation, depending upon 
 the nature of the apparatus employed, as well as upon the sub- 
 stance to be distilled. 'Phe conimnn still, which is of metal, 
 is immediately exposed to the naked tire, since from its tenacitv, 
 and its property ot conducting heat with facility, it is not liable to 
 crack, which is not the case with glass and earthen ware. If the 
 vessel holding the substance to be distilled, be of the latter kind, 
 it is essential to apply the heat very gradually and uniformly, and 
 after the process, lo sulier it to cool in a similar manner. 'Phis i« 
 effected in dillerent ways ; the most common of which is the sand- 
 bath. In experiments in the small way, the lamp will answer 
 every purpose of the sand-bath, as the sliding rest containing the 
 retort, admits of its being placed at any given distance from the 
 llame. In addition to this, the Argand "lamp can be adjusted by 
 the rack, to almost any degree of intensity below its maxiniuni. 
 Another method of detending the retort from the too rapid effect 
 of the heat, consists in coaling the outside with a mixture of horse- 
 dung and clay, or loam. \Vhen a limited degree of heat is re- 
 quired in distillation, recourse is had to a bath of some liquid, 
 whose boiling point will give the degree of heat recpiired, such as 
 water, oil, or mercury. If the different bodies subjected to dis- 
 tillation had no chemical affinity for each other, it is probable tliat 
 each substance would put on its elastic form, only at that tempe- 
 rature at which it would, in a separate state, be converted into va- 
 pour. But we frequently find, that one volatile substance will 
 carry along with it other bodies of consitlerable fi.xity. From the 
 affinity which water has to air, we observe the evaporation of th^ 
 ibrmer to take place at all temperatures below its boiling point ; and 
 though it has been thought that water might be freed from saline 
 matter by distillation, it is found by experiment, that several salts 
 are carried over along with the vapour of the water, which in 
 their dry state would undergo decomposition before they would 
 be induced to assume the elastic form. Hence water, by the 
 common mode of distillation, cannot be rendered pure. From the 
 circumstance, that the air is capable of raising water and other li- 
 quids at a low temperature, we are enabled to peiforni the distil- 
 lation of such liquids, by making the shghlest degree of difference 
 of temperature between the retort and the receiver. Water and 
 alcohol may be obtained perfectly pure, by placing the retort in the 
 temperatureof 1 O0°,and the receiver in that ot 60°oft''arenheit's scale. 
 The salts most liable to rise with water in distillation are carbonate 
 ammonia, muriates of lime andiiiagnesia, and nitrate of soda. Indeed 
 this tendency appears to be directly, as the solubility of the salt, or 
 ratlicr as its delitiuesceiit property, which is as its affinity for water.
 
 D IS 
 
 165 
 
 DIS 
 
 The oliJicU of distillation, coiisiikTeil as a trade distinct fnmi 
 the oilier branches of chc-iiii>try, are chiefly --puituou^ li(l>iurs, and 
 those «aler^ impregnated with tlie e--sential oil ol pi ints, coni- 
 iiionly called simple distilled wateii. Tlie disiilling of compound 
 spirits and waters is ret koned a diH'eient brancli of husiness, anil 
 they who deal in that wav are commonly calleil rectifiers. I'liis 
 dirtercnce, however, though it exists among i onnnercial pi-ople, is 
 not ai all founded in the nature of the tinng; compound spirits 
 being made, and simple spirits being reclined, by the very same 
 operations by which they are at tir-t dislilletl, or at least with very 
 tritling alterations. The great object with every disiiller ought to 
 be, to procure a spirit perfectly tlavonrless, or at least as well frccil 
 from any particulav llavour as may be; and in this country the 
 procuring of such a spirit is no easy matter. Tlie only materials 
 for distillation, that nave been used ui large fjuantity, are malt ami 
 molasses, or treacle. Both these, especially the lirst, abound with 
 an oily matter, which, rising along with the spirit, communicates a 
 disagreeable flavour to it, dud from which it can scarce be freed 
 afterwards by any means whatever. To dissipate this essential oil, 
 it has been proposed to inspissate the wort into a thin extract like 
 as\rup; aftcrwartls to thin it with water, and ferment it in tlu.- 
 usual manner. This certainly promises ereat success ; there is no 
 stibject we know of, that is possessed of any kind of essential oil, 
 but what will pan with it bv distillation, or by long boiling. The 
 inspissating of the wort, however, does not seem to be either ne- 
 cessary, or saie to be attempted; for, in this case, there is great 
 danger of ils contracting nn enipvreuma, which never could be 
 remedied. The cpianlity lost by evaporation, therefore, might be 
 occasionally added, with an equal certainty of dissipating the ob- 
 no.vious oil. Whether the vield of spirit would be as great in this 
 case as in tiie other, is a question that can by no means be decided 
 without further experimcnls. Previous to the operation of distil- 
 ling, those of brewing and fermentation are necessary. See 
 Brewing. The fermentation ought always ^o be carried on as 
 slowly as possible, and performed in vessels closely stopped; only 
 having at the bung a valve pressed down by a spring, which will 
 yield with less force than is se.flicient to burst the vessel. It should 
 even be allowed to remain till it nas become perfectly line and 
 franspareni; as the spirit will thus not only be superior in quantity, 
 but also m fragrance, pungency, and vinosity, to that commonly 
 produced. As to the operation of distilling, only one general rule 
 can be given, vi^. to iet the heat, in all cases, be as gentle as possi- 
 ble. Accidents will be elfectually prevented by having the worm 
 of a pr-pvr wideness, and by rectifying the spirits in a water bath; 
 which, it Mitticiently large, will peiform the operation with all the 
 dispatch requisite lor the most extensive business. I'he vessel in 
 uhich the rectilioation is perlormed, ouglit to be covered with wa- 
 ter up to the neck, and to be loaded \Mtli lead at the bottom, so 
 that it may sink in the water. 'I'hus the 0]ier.;tion will go on as 
 quickly as if it was on an optn fire, and without the least danger 
 of a lui.-carriaue ; nor will it ever be necessary to make the water 
 in the batli come to a boiling heat. As the end of reclilication is 
 to make the spirit clean as well as strong, or to deprive it of the 
 essenti.:l oil as well as the aqueous part, it will be proper to have 
 regard to this even in the first distillation. For this purpose,- the 
 spirit, as it first comes over, should be received into a c|uantilv of 
 told water; as the connection betwixt it and the oily matter will 
 thus be considerably lessened. Alter this, it shouhl be again mix- 
 ed with an equal quantity of water, and distilled a second lime. 
 Thus the spint will be freed from most of the oily matter, even 
 though it had been vciv much impregnated with it at first. But, 
 as by using such a quantity of water, a considerable part of the 
 water will be left in the residuum of each rectification, all these 
 residuums, must be mixed together, and distilled on an open fire, 
 with a brisk heat, that the remainder of the spirit may be got out. 
 After the spirit Ij.is been distilled once or twice m this manner from 
 water, it maybe distilled in a water bath without anv addition; 
 £nd this last rectification will free it from most of the water it con- 
 tains. One very great desideratum among the distillers of this 
 country is, a inetiiod of imitating the foreign S|)irits, brandy, rum, 
 gin, &c. to a tolerable degree ot perfection; and notwithstanding 
 the many attempts that are daily made for this purpose, the -uc- 
 cess, in general, has been but very indilTerenf. On this subject, 
 Mr. Copper has the following-observations, in his " Com|)lete 
 System of Distillation;" which, as they are applicable to ali other 
 spirits as well as brandy, we shall lierc quote: " The geiictal me- 
 
 VOI, II. — Hu. t)lj. 
 
 thod of distilling brandies in France need not be formally de-crib- 
 ed, as it dillers in nothing from that practised here in working 
 from malt-wash or mola-sc-s; nor are they in the least more cleanly 
 or exact in the t)peration. 'I'liey only observe more particularly 
 to throw in a little of the natural ley 'into the still along with Ihu 
 wine, as finding this gives their spirit the liavonr, for whicli it is 
 generally atlmired abroad. But, though brandy is extracted from 
 vine, experience tells us that there is a great dillerence in the 
 grajies from which the wine is made. Every soil, every climate, 
 every kind of grapes, varies with regard to the quantity and qua- 
 lity ot the spirits extracted trom them. A large (piantity ol brandy 
 is disuiled in France during the lime of the vintage; for alttiiose 
 poor grapes that prove unfit for w ine, are usuall) first gatiieied, 
 pressed, their juice fermented, and directly di-lilled. This rids 
 tlieir hands ot their poor wines at once, and leaves their casks 
 empty for tlie reception of belter. It is a general rule with them 
 not to distil wine tliat will fetch any pri<-e as wine; for, in this 
 state, the profits upon thein are vastly greater than when reduced 
 to brandies. This large stock of small wines, with w hieh they are 
 almost over-run in France, sulliciently accounts for their making 
 such vast quantities of brandy in that country, more than in otln-r 
 places which lie in warmer climates, and are much better adapted 
 to the production of grapes. Kor is this the only lund ol their 
 brandies: for all the wine that turns eager, is also condemned to 
 Ihe still; and, in short, all that they can neill-.er export nor con- _ 
 sume at home, which amounts to a large quantity; since much of 
 the w ine laid in for their family provision is so poor as not to keep 
 during the time o' spending. Hence many of our F.nglish spirits, 
 with proper management, are convert. ble fnto brandies hardly dis- 
 tinguishable from the foreign in many respects, provided the ope- 
 ration be neatly performed. The best, and indeed llie only me- 
 thod of imitating Fiench brandies to perfection, is by an essential 
 oil of wine; this being the very thing that gives the French bran- 
 ilies their flavour. Bui to use even this ingredient to advantage, 
 a pure tasteless spirit must first be procured ; for it is ridiculous la 
 expect that this essential oil should be able to give the agreeable 
 flavour of French brandies to our fulsome malt spirit, alre.idy 
 loaded with its own nauseous oil, or strongly impregnated w ilh a 
 lixivious taste from the alkal'ne salts used in reclilication. The- 
 method of procuring this essential oil of wine, is this: 'i'ake some 
 cakes of dry wine-lees, such as are used by our halters; dissolvi; 
 them in six or eigiit times their weight of water; disld the liquor 
 with a slow fire, and separate the oil with a separating glass; re- 
 serving for the nicest uses only that which coines over first, the 
 succeeding oil being coarser and more resinous. This fine oil of 
 wine may be mixed into a quintessence with pure alcohol; by 
 w liich means it ma\ be preserved a long time fully possessed of all 
 its flavour and virtues; but, without such management, it will 
 soon grow resinous and rancid. When a fine essential oil of wine 
 is thus procured, and also a pure and insipul spirit, French bran- 
 dies may be imitated to perfection. The essential oil, however, 
 must be drawn from the same kind of lees as the brandy to be imi - 
 fated was procured from. In order to imitate Coniac brandy, it 
 will be necessary to distil the essential oil from Coniac lees; and 
 Ihe same for any other kind of brandy. For, as different brandies 
 have diHerent flavours, and as these flavours are entirely owing to 
 the essential oil of the grape, it would be preposterous to endea- 
 vour to imitate the flavour of Coniac brandy with an essential oil 
 procured from the lees of Bourdeaux wine. When the flavour of 
 the brandy is well imitated l-.y a proper dose of the essential oil, 
 and the whole reduced into one simple and homogeneous fluid, 
 other difficulties are tlill behind; the tiavour, though the essential 
 part, is not, however, the only one ; the colour, ilie proof, and 
 the softness, must also be regarded, before a spirit tli.t perfectly 
 resembles brandy can be procured. AVith regard to llie proof, it 
 may be easily hit, by Using ,i spirit rectified ;-bove proof; which, 
 alter being intimately mixed with the essential O.l of wine, may be 
 let down'to a iiroper standard with fairwiter. And the softness 
 may, in a great measure, be obtained by distilling ami rectifying 
 the'spirlt with a gentle fire; and what is wnnting of this cnterioi) 
 in the liquor when first made, will be supplied by time: for it is 
 lime alone that gives this properly to French brandies; they being 
 at fir-l acrid, foul, and fiery. But, with regard to the colour, a 
 particular method is rciiuired to imitate it to perfection. A smuli 
 quantity of the extract of oak, or the sh:ivings of that wood, pri>- ,^ 
 perh digested, will tuniish us with a tincture capable of givhigthe 
 2 U spirit
 
 DIS 
 
 166 
 
 DIS 
 
 spirit any degree of colovir voqiiireil. There are other methods in 
 -use for colouring brandies; but tlio best, besides the extract of 
 oak, are treacle and burnt sugar. The treacle gives the spirit a 
 fine colour, nearly resembUn;» that of French brandy; but as its 
 colour is ddute, a large quantity must be used: this is not, how- 
 ever, attended with any bad consequences; for notwithstanding 
 the spirit is really \\eakened by this addition, yet the bubble proot, 
 the f^eneral criterion of spirits, is greatly mended by the ten?.city 
 imparted to th.e liquor by tl:e treacle. '1 he spirit also acquires 
 from the mixture ;■. ;weetish or luscious (asle, ainl a lulr.ess in the 
 Tiioulh; both which properties render it very agreeable to many 
 people. A much smaller quantity of burnt sugar than of treacle 
 vill he siifticient for colcuring the same r|uantily of spirits: the 
 taste is also very ilifCerent; for instead of the sweetness imparled 
 bv the treacle, the spirit acquires from the burnt suaar an agree- 
 able bitterness, and by that means recommends itself to nicer pa- 
 latins, which arc oll'ei;ded with a luscious spirit. The burnt sugar 
 is prepared by dissolving a proper quantity of sugar in a little wa- 
 ter, liiui scor.:lr;ng it over the fire till it aet|uires a black colour, 
 r.ither treacle or burnt sugar will nearly imitate the genuine co- 
 lour of old French brandy ; but neither of them will succeed when 
 put to the test of the vitriolic solution. The spirit di>tillcd from 
 molasses or treacle is very clean and pure. It is made from corn- 
 men treacle di^'•■)lved in Water, and fermented in the same maimer 
 as the wash for the common malt spirit, liut if some particular 
 art he not used in distilling this spirit, it will not prove so vinous as 
 malt spirit, but more Hat and less pungent and acrid, though other- 
 wise much cleaner tasted, as its essential oil is of a much less olVen- 
 sivc flavour. Therefore, if good fresh wine lees, abounding in 
 tartar, be added and duly feriiiented with the molasses, the spirit 
 will acquire a much greater vino-itv and briskness, and approach 
 much nearer to liie nature of foreign spirits. W'herethe molasses 
 spirit is brought to the common proof->tren3th, if it be found not 
 to have a siifticient vir.o-ity, it will be very proper to ad<l some 
 good dulcilicd spirit of nitre ; and if the spirit be clean worked, it 
 may, by this addition only, be made to pass on ordinurv judges 
 tor French brandy. Great quantities of this -spirit are used in 
 adulterating foreign brandy, rum, and arrack*. Sluch of it is also 
 used alone in making cherry brandy and other drams bv infusion ; 
 in all which many, and perhaps with justice, prefer it to foreign 
 brandies. Mola-^ses, like all other ipirils, are entirely colourless 
 when first extracted; but distillers always give it as nearly as pos- 
 sible the colour ^ f foreign spirits." If these principles hold good, 
 the imitation of foreign spirits of all khuls must be an easy matter. 
 It M ill only cost the procuring of some of tliose sub^tances from 
 which the spirit is drawn ; and distilling this with water, the essen- 
 tial oil will always give the flavour desired. Thus, to imitate Ja- 
 maica rum, it will only be necessary to procure some of the tops, 
 or other useless parts of the sugar-canes ; Irom which an essential 
 oil being drawn, and mixed w ith clean molasses spirit, it will give 
 it the true flavour. The principal difficully must lie in procuring 
 a spirit totally, or nearly, free of all flavour of its own. 'I'he spi- 
 rit drawn from the refuse of a sugar-house is by our author com- 
 mended as supi rior to that drawn from molasses. 'J'lie only me- 
 thod, therefore, of imitating foreign spirits is, byclioosing such 
 materials as will yield a spirit llavoured as much like them as pos- 
 sible. The materials most recommended by our author in this 
 case, and probably the best that can be used, are raisins. Con- 
 cerning these he gives the following directions: " To extract this 
 S|)irit, the raisins must be infused in a proper quantity of water, 
 and fermented in the m:'.nner already directed. When the fer- 
 mentation is completed, the whole is to be thrown into the still, 
 anil the spirit extracted by a strong fire. The reason wliy we 
 here tlirect a strong lire is, because by that means a greater quan- 
 tity of the essential oil will come over the helm with the spirit, 
 which will rcn<l<'r it litter for the distiller's purpose: for this spirit 
 is commonly used to mix with the common malt goods: aii<l it is 
 surprising how tar ii will go in this respect, ten gallons of it being 
 often suflicient to give a determining ilavnur and agreeable vino- 
 sity to a whole piece of malt spirit.-^. It is therefore well worth the 
 distiller's w hile to endeavour at improving the common method of 
 extracting spirits from raisins ; and perhaps tlie follow ing hint may 
 merit atte;.-.tion. When the fermentation is completed, and the 
 still charged with fermented liquor as above directed, let the whole 
 f^ b^ drawn oil' with as brisk a tire as possible; but, instead of the cask I 
 
 or can, generally used by distillers for a receiver, let a large glass, 
 called by chemists u separating glass, be placed under the nose of 
 tlie worm, and a common receiver applied to the spout of the se- 
 parating glass : by this means the essential oil will. swim upon the 
 top of the spirit, or rather low wine, in the separating glass, anfl 
 may be easily preserved at the end of the operation. 'I'he use o( 
 tills limpid essential oil is well known to distillers; for in this re- 
 sides the whole tlavour, ;;nd consequently it may be used to thei« 
 greatest advantage in giving that distinguishing taste and true vi4' 
 nosity to the common malt spirits. After the oil is separated from 
 the low wine, the liquor m;.y be reclilied in balnco marla" into a 
 pure and almost tasteless spirit', and therefore well adapted to make 
 the linest coni];ound cordials, or to imitate or mix with tlie finest 
 French brandies, arracks, &c. In the same m:niner a spirit may: 
 be obtained from cyder. But as its particular llavour is not so dci 
 sirable as that obtained from raisin>, it should be distilleil in a more 
 gentle manner, and carefully rectilied according to the directions' 
 we have already given." 
 
 Distillation of Compound Spirits. The following general 
 rules are very easy to be learned and practised. 1. i he artist 
 must always be careful to use a well cleansed spirit, or one freed, 
 from its own essential oil. For, as a compound water is noihinsf 
 more than a spirit impregnated with the essential oil of the ingre- 
 dients, it is necessary that the spirit should have deposited its own, 
 2. Let the time gf previous digestion be proportioned to the tena- 
 city of the ingredients, or the ponderosity ot their oil. 3. Let the 
 strength of the lire also be proportioned to the ponderosity of the 
 oil intended to be raised with the spirit. 4. Let only a due pro- 
 .portion of the linest parts of the essential oil be- united with die 
 spirit; the grosser and less fragrant parts of the oil not giving the 
 spirit .-o agreeable a tlavour, and at the same time rendering it uut 
 sightly. I'his may in a grett measure be etiected by leaving out 
 the faints, and making up to proof with tine soit water in their 
 stead. A careful observation of tliese rules will render this part of 
 distillation much more perfect than it is at present. Nor will 
 there be any occasion for the use of burnt alum, while of eggs, 
 isinglass, &c. to fme down cordial waters; for they will presently 
 be line, sweet, :'.nd pleasant t.^sted, without any further trouble. 
 We subjoin a few receipts for making some ot tl ose compound 
 waters, or spirits, that are in the most general estimation. 
 
 Distillation of Anisekd Water. Take of aniseed bruised, 
 two |)ounds; proof spirit, li't gallons; water, one gallon; draw olT 
 ten gallons with a moderate lire. This water should never be re- 
 duced below prool ; because the large quantity of nil w ith which 
 it is impregnated, will render the goods milky and foul when 
 brought down below proof. Fuit If there be a necessity for doing 
 this, their transparency may be restored by hllralion. 
 
 Distillation of Cardamum, or All-fouks. Take of pimento, 
 caraway, coriander seeds, and lemon peel, each 31b. ; oi malt spi- 
 rits, 11 gallons; water, 3 gallons. Draw ot'f with a gentle fire, 
 dulcify w ith common sugar, and make up the strength desired 
 with clear water. 'I'his is a dram greatly used in some coun- 
 tries. 
 
 Distillation' of Cin^namon Water. Take S'b. of fine cin- 
 nanwn bruised, 17 gallons of clean rectitied spirits; and two 
 gallons of water. Put them into the still, and digest them 
 twenty-four hours with a gentle heat; alter which draw olF 
 It) gallons with a pretty strong heat. Cinnamon water of this 
 strength is called strong cinnamon water. A cheaper spirit 
 but of an inferior <|uality, may be obtained by using cassia 
 lignea instead of ciimamon. 'I'o dulcify ciiuiamon water, lake 
 double retlned sugar, about two pounds to a gallon ; and dis.soKe 
 it in the spirit, after making it up proof with clean water. Oneij 
 general caution is here necessary, viz. near the end of the opera-1 
 tion, caret ully to watch the spirit as it runs into the receiver, to 
 prevent the faints from mixing with the goods. This inav be dis- 
 lovered by often catching some of it as it runs from the worm in a 
 glass, and observing whether it is line and tranparent ; for as soon 
 as the faints begin to rise, the spirit will have a blucish cast. As 
 soon as this colour is perceived, the receiver must immediateiv be 
 changed; for if the laints are sulVered to mix with the rest,' the 
 vahie. will be greatly lessened. The distillers call such as arc made 
 up proof, double goods; and those below proof, single. 
 
 Distillation of Citron W ater. Take of dry yellow 
 
 rinds of tilroiis, three pounds; of orange-peel, 2lb.' nutmegs 
 
 9 bruised.
 
 D T S 
 
 167 
 
 DIS 
 
 1' 
 
 i.iscil, i of a pound ; cloaji proof s|nril, 10^ g;iIlon> ; wati-r, out' 
 ^illixii: (ligtst ill a jjontle lioat ; then draw ofi ten gulloiis in bal- 
 ^jco marisK, and dulcify with line sugar. 
 
 .. Distillation of Hoixands Gin. The ingredients used by 
 {tie Dutch are the simewitli those above-nieiilioneil, only, in.stejd 
 of malt spirits, they usi; I'Vench lirandy. But from what ha*; been 
 already observed concerning the nature of the>c; kinds of spirits, il 
 is easy to see, that by the help of a well-rectilicd spirit, Reneva 
 may be made in this country at least nearly ecjual to the Dutch, 
 provided it is kept to a proper age; for all spirituous liquors con- 
 tract a mellowness by age, impossible to be iinilated any other 
 way. The followiiu; is the process of preparing Iloliand gin, ac- 
 cording to the best Dutch distillers, 'their grisl is composed of 
 ten quarters of malt, grouml consiilerably finer than our malt-dis- 
 tillers' barley gri^t,, and three quarters ot rye-meal ; ov, more tre- 
 ouently, of ten quarters of rye and three quarters of niall-meal. 
 iiie ten quarters are lirst mashed with the lea>t quantity of cold 
 svater it is possible to blend it up with; when uniformly incorpo- 
 rated, as much boiling waler is ailded as forms it into a thin bat- 
 ter; it is then put iiito one, two, or more casks, or gyle tuns, with 
 a much less quantity of yeast than is usually employed by our dis- 
 tillers. Generally on the tiiird day they ad.d the malt or rye meal, 
 preyiously made into a kind of lob, prepared in a similar manner, 
 except in not being so diluted ; but not befon- it conies to the tem- 
 perature of the fermenting wash ; at die same time adding full as 
 iiiucii yeast as when at lirst setting the backs. The prim ipul se- 
 cret in the management of the mashing part of the business is, in 
 fn-st thoroughly mixing the malt with the cold water, and in snb- 
 se<uiently adding the due proportion of boiling water, that it may 
 still remain suliSciently diluted after the addition of the tine meal 
 under the form of lob, and in well rousing all togi'ther in the back, 
 that the wash may yet be ddute enough for di'-Villing, without en- 
 dangering its burning to tlie bottom of the still. Thus they conimo- 
 diously reduce tlie business of Inewing and fermenting to one o|)e- 
 ration. By using cold water to uniformly wet the malt, all dan- 
 ger of clogging the spending of the lap would be necessarily avoid- 
 ed ; but here is no occasion to do any thing more, than suliicientiv 
 dilute the wash, consi>ting of the whole of the giain, thin enough to 
 biifermcnted and distilled together, by which means the spirit of 
 the bran and husky part, as well as ot the tlour of the grain, are 
 completely extracted, yet their wash, compared withoui-s, is about 
 three-eighths thinner. J'or these reasons they obtain more spirit 
 from their grain than we do, and of a better quality, with not half 
 the trouble taken by our distillers. Rectihcation into Holland 
 gin. To every twenty gallons ot spirit of the second extraction, 
 about the >trength ot j)roof spirit, take three pounds of jnni|Hr 
 bcnies. and two ounces of oil of juniper, and distil with a slow 
 lire untilthe feints begin to rise, then change the receiving can; 
 this produces the best Rotterdam gin. An inferior kind is made 
 with a still less proportion of berries, sweet fennel seeds, and Slr.is- 
 burgh turpentine, without a drop of jvmi|)er-oil. In Plate LIV. 
 lig. 11, is the representation of the common still. It is a large 
 copper vessel. A, into which the materials are put. 'l"he still is 
 built up in brick-work : the lire is applied underneath, and runs 
 round it in a spiral manner. B is the head of the still, which is 
 connected witji the warm at r. The worm C is a spiral tube, im- 
 mersed ill a vessel of cold water, called the refrigoratorv. The li- 
 quor being condensed in its passage through the" worm, runs out at 
 tlie cock D into the vessel Z, placed there to receive it. 
 
 Distillation ok Lk.mon Water. Take of dried lemon jieel, 
 41b. clean proof spirit, 10^ gallons, and one gallon of water. Draw 
 olT 10 g.illons by a gentle fire, and dulcifv with tine sugar. 
 
 Distillation OF Orange Water. 'Tak.- of the vellow part 
 of fresh or.inge-peel, five pounds; clean proof spirit, I'u^ gallons; 
 water, two gallons: draw otTten gallons witli a gentle tire. 
 
 DL-> I iI.LliR, he who makes di^lUalions, and commonly a 
 tradesman who makes spirits from malt, &c. By slat. 3 Geo. 111. 
 c. .1, s. 1'.^, persons who sell liquors chargeable with iluty, and 
 distil spirits, are deemed common distillers, and are liable to sur- 
 veys, penalties, &c. By the '..! Geo. 111. c. 3, and 14 Geo. 111. 
 c. 73, no distillers, or tho^t who distil spirits for <ale, aie allowed 
 to have any still, or number of stills, vhich, either singly or toge- 
 ther, contain less than 100 gallons, under the penalty of iOO/. ; and 
 the wash-still is to hold at least 400 gall.jns, exclusive of the liead, 
 unrdera ; inular penalty. By the 8 and 9 William III. c. 19, and 
 J!4 Geo. III. c. 40, all distillers are to enter theic warehouses, stills. 
 
 vessels, &r. at the next olTice of excise, on pain of 'JO/. ; and all 
 such persons as occupy the same, if not entered,, shall lorfeit '>0/. 
 and the vessels are to be marked by the gauger. DistiUtrs \vho 
 use privatCj pipes, &c. for the conveying of ilistiiled liquor, incur 
 a forfeiture, of lOt)/. by the 10 and I'l Will. III. c. 4. 'i'hey'are 
 al-o enjoined by the 12 Geo. III. c. 4fi, and 14 Geo. III. c. 73, 
 to make holes in th.e breast of the still, for taking gauges and ^"in- 
 plos; and also to provide locks on the still heads, the holes, and 
 ilischarge-cocks, and fiirnace-doors, under a penalty of 5o/. and of 
 2001. in case such lock or fastening be broken, or wilfully da- 
 maged, after it has been secured by the proper officer. Distillers 
 aic'larther letiuired, by the 24 Cico. II. c. 40, I'J Geo. HI. c. 46, 
 and the 14 Geo. HI. c. 73, to give notice to the oflicer of excise, 
 before they receive any.w ine, cyder, &c. or any kind of ferment- 
 ed wash, on pain of .'•0/. and also before they charge or open the 
 still, exprcishigaiKL describing the marks and numbers of the wash- 
 batclies u-^ed; and they are prohibited from charging the still with 
 any other, under the ]ienalty of UWl. 
 
 Distinct notion; or IDKA, is that wherein the mind 
 perceives a difterence from all oth.er iileas. It will be useful, says 
 -Mr. Locke, to disthiguish iileas as they are perceptions in our 
 minds, from what they are in the bodies that cause such percep- 
 tions in us; for we are not to think, the former exact images and 
 resemblances of something inherent in the subject, most of these 
 of sensation being in the mind no more the likeness of something 
 existing without us, than the names that stand for them are the 
 likeness of our ideas, which yet upon hearing they are apt to ex- 
 cite in US. 
 
 Distinct Base, in optics, is that distance from the pole of a 
 convex glass, in which objeUs beheld tlirough it appear distinct 
 aad well described, so that it is the same with the focus. Sec 
 Tocusand Optics. 
 
 DIS TINCTrON, in logic, is an assemblage of two or more 
 words, whereby ds,)arate things, or their conceptions, are de- 
 noted. There are three kinds of distinctions taken from the three 
 dil'l'erent modes of existence, real, modal, and rational. The lirst 
 is that between two substances, or the modes of two substances. 
 The second, or modal distinction, is that between several things, 
 one whereof may exist without the other, Ijut not vice versa, the 
 other without that. 'The tliinl, or rational distinction, is that be- 
 tween several things which are really one and the same, i.nd 
 whereof one cannot exist without the other; nor vice versa, the 
 other witiiout this, snth is that between a thing and its essence, 
 between the essences and pro])ert'es, &c. 
 
 Distinction, Metaphysical, is the non-agreement of being, 
 w hereby this entity is not that, or one thing i> not another. 
 
 Distinction, [distinctio, or distiiiguo, Lat.] is also used in 
 the schools as an expedient to evade an argument, or to clear up 
 and unfold an ambiguous proposition, which may be true in one 
 sense, and false in another: as we say, The resjiondent was hard 
 pressed, but he disengaged himself by a distinguo. 
 
 DI."j TORSION, in medicine, a contraction of one side of the 
 mouth, occasioned by a convulsion of the muscles of one side of 
 the face: and it is likewise used to denote any part of an animal 
 body, when it is ill placed or ill favoured. It is very justly ob» 
 served, that this terrible malady to the human shape has olle^i 
 been the mere elTect of carelessness and ill habits. 
 
 Distress, in law the distraining any thing for rent in arrear, or 
 other duty unperformed. 'The elfect of this distress is to compel 
 the parly either to replevy the things distrained, and contest tjae 
 taking, in an action of tresjiass against the distrainer ; or rather to 
 oblige hiin to compound and ' pay the debt or duty for which he 
 was so distrained. 'There are likewise compulsory distresses in 
 actions, to cause a person to appear in court; oi wiiicli kind lliere is 
 a distress personal of one's moveable goods, and the prolits of hi* 
 lands, for contem])t in not appearing after summons: tliere is likt- 
 wise distress real, of a person's immove:ible goods. . In these case^ 
 none shall be distrained to answer tor any thing touching iheji' 
 iVeeholds, but by the king's writ. Distress may be either finite 
 or infinite: 
 
 1. Distress, Finite, is that which is limited by law, in reg.ird 
 to the iiiimber of limes it shall be made, in order to bring the party- 
 to a trial of the action. 
 
 -'. DisBESs, Infinite, is that which is without any limitation 
 being made till the person appears. It is larlher applied to jurois 
 that do not appear ; as, upon a certificate of assise, the process is 
 
 venirf
 
 DIT 
 
 163 
 
 DIV 
 
 venire facias, habeas corpora, and distress infinite. It is also di- 
 vided into grand distress and ordinary distress ; of these the for- 
 mer extends to all the goods and chattels that the party has within 
 the county. A person, of common right, may distrain for rents 
 and all manner of services ; and where a rent is reserved on a gift 
 in tail, lease for life, or years, &c. thongh there be no elansi- of 
 distress in the grant or l.ease, so as that he has the reversion : but 
 on a feoffment made in fee, a distress may not be taken, unless it 
 be expresslv reserved in the deed. 
 
 DIS riUBUTION OF Intkstate's F.FFKCTS, after payment of 
 the debts of the deceased, is to he made according to the slat. 23 
 and 53 G. 11. c. 10, in manner following : One-third shall go to 
 the widow of the intestate, and t!ie residue in equal proportions to 
 liis children ; or if dead to their representatives, that is, their lineal 
 descendants : if tliere are no cliildren or legal representatives, tlien 
 a moiety shall go to the widow, and a moiety to tlie next kindred 
 in ecpial degree, or their representatives; if no widow, the whole 
 shall go to tlie children ; if neither widow n«r child, the whole shall 
 he distrli)uted amongst the next kindred in equal degree, and their 
 representatives: l)Ut no rcpres.ntalives are admitted among col- 
 laterals, farther than the cliildren of the intestate's brothers and 
 idsters. The father succeeds to the whole personal effects of his 
 children, if thev die intestate, and without issue; but if the father 
 be dead, and the mother survive, she shall only come in for a share 
 equally with each of the remaining children. 
 
 DisTttiB-JTiON,in architecture, the dividing and disposing of the 
 several parts and pieces which compose a building, as the plan di- 
 rects. See Architecturk. 
 
 Distribution, in printing, the taking ofa form asunder, separat- 
 ing the types, and disposing them iu the cases again, each in its 
 proper cell. See 1'rintinc. 
 
 DisTRiBUTiOM, in rhetoric, a kind of description, whereby an 
 orderly division and enumeration is made of the principal qualitlc* 
 of the subject. Paul supplies us with an example of this kind, 
 vhen, in the heat uf his indignalion against sinners, h-e gives a de- 
 scription of tlieir iniipiitv. See Rom. iii. 10 — 18. 
 
 DISTRINGAS, in faw, a writ commanding the sheriff or other 
 officer, that he distrain a person for debt to the king, &c. or for 
 his appearance nt a certain day. 
 
 Distringas Juratorfs, a writ directed to the sheriff, whereby 
 he is commanded to distrain upon a jury to appear, and to return 
 issues on their lands, &c. &c. for non-appearance. This writ issues 
 for the sheriff to have their bodies iu court, &c. at the return of 
 the writ. 
 
 DITCH, a common fence in marshes, or other wet lands where 
 there are no hedges. They allow these ditches six feet wide 
 against high ways that are broad: and against commons, five feet. But 
 the common ditches about inclosnres, dug at the bottom of the bank 
 on which the quicV is raised, are three feet wide at the top, one at 
 the bottom, and two feet deep. By this means each side has a 
 slope, which is of great. advantage; for where this is neglected, and 
 the ditches dug pei-pendicular, the sides are always washing down ; 
 besides, in a narrow bottomed ditch, if cattle get down into it, 
 they cannot stand to turn themselves to crop the quick ; but where 
 the ditch is four feet wide, it should be two and a half deep ; and 
 where it is five feet wide, it should he three dee|) ; and so in pro- 
 portion. 
 
 Ditch, Foss. See Fortification. 
 
 DITHYRAMBIC^ 1. A song in honour of Bacchus; in which 
 anciently, and now among the Italians, the distraction of ebriety 
 is imitated. 2. Any poem written with wildness and enthusi- 
 asm. ... 
 
 DITHYRAAJBL'S, in ancient poetry, a hymn in honour of 
 Bacchus, full of transport and poetical rage. This poetry owes its 
 birth to Greece, and to the transports of wine; and yet art is not 
 tiuite exploded, but delicately applied to guide and restrain the 
 tiithyrambic impetuosity, wliich is indulged only in pleasing 
 flights. 
 
 DITONE, in musie, an interval comprehending two tones 
 The proportion of tlie sounds that form the ditone is 4 : 5, and that 
 of the semiditone is 5 : 6. 
 
 DITRIGLYH. See Architecture. 
 
 DITTANY, White. Sec Dictamnus. 
 
 DITTO, in books of accounts, usually written D°, signifies 
 Ihc aforemeiitioncd. Tlie woi'd is corrupted from the Italian dHio, 
 
 " the said ;" as in our law-phrase, " the said premises," meaning 
 the same as were before mentioned. 
 
 DIVAL, in heraUlry, the herb nightshade, used by such as 
 blazon by flowers and herbs, instead of colours and metals, for 
 sable or bhuk. 
 
 DIVALIA, in Roman antiquity, a feast held in honour of the 
 goddess Angerona ; also called Angeronalia. 
 
 DIVAN, a court of justice among the eastern nations, particu- 
 larly tho 'lurks. The word signifies the same with sofa in the 
 Turkish dialect. There are two sorts of divans ; that of the grand 
 signior, called the council of slate, which consists of seven of the 
 principal ollicers of the empire; and that of the grand vizir, com- 
 posed of six other vizii;rs or counsellors ol state, the chancellor and 
 ?ecretaries of st;;le, for the distribution of justice. The word is also 
 used for a hall in the private houses of the orientals. 'Ihe custom 
 of China does not allow visits in the inner parts of the house, hut 
 only at the entry, in a divan contrived on purpose for ceremonies. 
 Travellers relate wonders of the silence and expedition of the 
 divans of the liast. 
 
 Divan Beghi, the superiutendant of justice in Persia, whose 
 place is last of the six ministers of the second rank, who are all 
 under the athemadauler or first minister. 
 
 DIVAN DV'KOW, the name of seven islands in the Indian 
 ocean, three miles N. of the Maldives. -• 
 
 DIVF.B, in ornithology. See Coi.ymbus. 
 
 DIVKUGENl', or DIVERGING, Lines, in geometry, are 
 those which constantly recede from each other. They are op- 
 posed to convergent or converging lines, whose distances con- 
 tinually approach nearer to each other, and become still less and 
 less. 'I'liose lines which converge the one way, diverge the 
 other. 
 
 Divergent Rays in optics, are those wliich going from a 
 point of the visible object, are dispersed and continually depart 
 one from another, in proportion as they are removed from the 
 object : in which sense it is opposed to convergent. See Op- 
 tics. 
 
 DIVERGING HYPERBOLA, is one whose legs turn their 
 convexities towards one another, and run contrary ways. 
 
 DIVERSll' YING, in rhetoric, is an accomplishment essential 
 to the character of an orator, and may be called the subject of all 
 his tropes and figures. Vossius lays down six ways of diversifying 
 a subject. 1. By eiilnrgiug on \\hat was briefly mentioned before. 
 
 2. By a concise enumeration of what had been insisted on at length. 
 
 3. By adding sinnething new to what is repeated. 4. By repeating 
 only the principal heads of what hid been said. 5. By trans- 
 posing the words and periods. 6. By imitating them. 
 
 DIVERSION, in military afi'aiis, is, w lien an enemy is attacked 
 in one ))Iace where they are weak and unprovided, in order to 
 draw off their iorces from another place, where they have made, or 
 intend to make, an irruption. Thus the Romans had no other way 
 in liieir power of drivhig Hannibal out of Italy, but by making a 
 diversion, in attacking Carthage. 
 
 DIVESTING, inlaw, is used for the act of surrendering or re- 
 linquishing one's effects. By a contract of donation or sale, the 
 donor or seller is said to be disseised and divested of his property 
 ill such a commodity, and the donee or purchaser becomes invested 
 tiierewiih. See Investiture. 
 
 DIVIDEND, in law proceedings, is taken for a dividing of 
 fees and perquisites between officers of courts, arising from 
 writs, &c. 
 
 Dividend, in arithmetic, the number proposed to be divided 
 into equal parts. See Auitiimetic. 
 
 Dividend OF Stocks, is a share of the interest of stocks erected 
 on public funds, as the south-sea, &c. divided among and paid to 
 the adventurers half-yearly. The term is also applied to the an- 
 nual Interest paid by government on the public debts. 
 
 Dividend, in the university, signifies that part or share which 
 the fellows equally divide among themselves of their yearly sti- 
 pend. 
 
 DIVINATION, in antiquity, was divided by Plato, Aristotle, 
 Plutarch, Cicero, and others, into two species, viz. artificial and 
 natural. 
 
 Divination, Artificial, was so called, because it was not 
 obt.iined, or pretendeu to be obtained, by immediate inspiration, 
 but proceeded upon certain superstitious expeiiments and obser- 
 vations
 
 D IV 
 
 169 
 
 DI V 
 
 Vations arl)irarily ia^itiiteil. Ot lliissort Iheie were vaiioi;9 kinds 
 IP ai bysjcritii-es, ciHrails, Haiiu", cakes, liour, wine, walor, binl^, 
 lots, verses, omens, ire. Divination, wliicli is generally llif oirspj-ing 
 of ciednlity, niu-sed by impostme, and slrenglliened by super- 
 stition, wa^ necessarily an occult science, velained in the hands of 
 the priests and priestesses, the magi, the soothsayers, theangiws, the 
 visionaries, the priests of the oracles, the false prophets, and other 
 like |>rote»sors, till the time of the coming of Jesus Christ. The 
 light o! the gospel dissipated much of this darkness ; but it is more 
 diiricult, than is conimonlv conceived, to eradicate from the human 
 mind a deep-rooted superstition, even though the truth be set in 
 thestronge>t light, especially when the art has been practised al- 
 most from the origin ot the world : so we still iind existing among 
 us the remains of this pagan superstition, in tlie following chimeras, 
 which enthusiastic and designing men liave formed into arts and 
 sciences; though it must be owned, to the honour of the 18th cen- 
 tury, that the pure doctrines of Christianity, and the spirit of phi- 
 losophy, which becomes every day more diffused, concur in 
 baiusliing these visionary opinions. The vogue for these im- 
 pious sciences and arts, is nearly past, at least in the enlightened 
 l)urt< of the world, though most of them are still esteemed and 
 Ijractised in those parts of the globe which are enveloped in the 
 clouds and darkne^s of ignorance and superstition. By enume- 
 rating them here, therefore, ve only mean to shew their impiety, 
 and to mark those rocks upon which the human mind has foundered 
 in almost all ages and covmtries. 1. Aeromancy, the art of di- 
 vining by the air. 2. Astrology ; divided into natural as(rolo;;y 
 and judicial. The former is a branch of llie art of almanack- 
 makers; but bv merely confronting their predictions in the calen- 
 dar, with the weatlier each day produces, every man i f sense w.ll 
 see what regard is to be paid to our modern astrnlogci-s. The lat- 
 ter is St II more illusive: and having been at lirst the wonderl'ul art 
 of visionaries, it afterwards became that of impostors; a very com- 
 ition fate with all these chimerical sciences. 3. Augury consisted 
 in observing the llight, singing, &"C. of birds. 4. Chiromancy, the 
 art whi( h pretends io discover, by inspecting the hand, not only 
 the inclinations of a man, but his future destiny also. The fools 
 or knaves, who prai.tise this art, ])retend, that the lines of the hand 
 have a relation to the internal parts of the body, as some to the 
 heart, others to the liver, spleen, &c. On this false supposition, 
 and on many others equally extravagant, the principles of cl-.iro- 
 mancy are founded. 5. Geoinancy was a divination made by ob- 
 serving cracks or clefts in the earth. It was also performed by 
 ])oints made on paper, or any other substance, at a venture; and 
 they judged of future events from the ligures that resulted from 
 thence. This was certainly very ridiculous : but it is notliingless 
 so to pretend to predict future events by the inspection of the 
 grounds of a didi of tea or coffee, or by cards, and many other 
 like matters. 6. Haruspicy consisted in Ih.e inspection of the 
 bowels of animals, but princij)ally of victims; and from thence 
 predicting grand incidents relative to the republic, and the good or 
 bad events of its enterprises. 7. Horoscopy is a branch of astro- 
 logy, by which they draw a celestial scheme, containing the twelve 
 houses, wherein they mark the disposition of the heavens at the 
 ir.omeni, at which a man is born, in order to foretel his fortune, or 
 (he chief incidents of his life. But as there cannot be any (irobable 
 or possible relation between the constelliitions andtlie human race, 
 all the principles they lay down, and the prophecies they draw 
 from them, are chimerical, false, absurd, and a criminal imposition 
 on mankind. 8. Hydromancy is the art of di\ining by water. 
 The Persians, according to V'arro, invented it ; Pythagoras and 
 Nuina Pompilius made use of it; and some still admire the like 
 wonderful prognosticators. 9. Physiognomy, or Phvsiognomancy, 
 is a science tliat professes to teach the nature, the' temperament, 
 the understanding, and the inclinatinns of men, by the in=pection 
 of their countenances, and is therefore thought by many, to be 
 little less frivolous than chiromancy ; though Aristotle, and a num- 
 ber of learned men after him, and in the present age, the cele- 
 brated l.avater, have -.vritten express treatises concerning it. But 
 as it is an undeniable fact, that our passions, especially when fre- 
 (luently aiid violently agitated, make indelible impressions on our 
 features, liy their repeated action on particular muscles, insomuch 
 that the tempirs of many people may be known at first view from 
 their looks ; and as it is not improbable, that certain habits of vice 
 make impressions eipially uniform, and perhajis equally legible, 
 if we were accustomed to study them, physiognomy appears to be 
 
 VOL. II. — NO. b6. 
 
 woitliv of being rescued from the rubbish of superstition and of 
 imposiure ; of being restored to its place among the useful science-. ; 
 ami cultivated and leduced to fixed principles by those who li^ive 
 leisure fur such invrsligations. See Physiognomy. 10. Puo- 
 mancy is a divination made by the inspection of a llame, either by 
 observing to which side it turns, or Ky throwing into it some com- 
 bustible matter, or a bladder tilled with wine, or any thing else 
 from which they imagined they were able to predict. Thus de- 
 signing men made use of all the four elements to impose upon the 
 credulous. 
 
 Divination', Natural, was so called, because not attained 
 by any rules or precepts of art, but infused or inspired into the 
 diviner, \uthout his taking any further care about it, than to purily 
 and prepare himself for the reception of the divine atilatus. 
 
 DINTNG, the art or act of descending under water^to consider- 
 able depths, and remaining there for some time. The uses of 
 diving are very considerable, particularly in the fishing for pearls, 
 corols, spunges, &c. See Pearl-fishino, Sjc. Various methods 
 have been proposed, and machines contrived, to render the busi- 
 ness of diving more safe and easy. The great point is to furnish 
 the diver with fresh air; without which, he must either make a 
 short stay or perish. Those who dive for spunges in the Me- 
 diterranean, help themselves by carrying down spiiUges dipt in oil 
 in their mouths. But consideri'iig the small quantity of air that can 
 be contained in tlie pores of a spunge, and how ir.uch that little 
 uill be contracted by the pressure ot the incumbent water, such a 
 supply cannot long 5"ub5i>t the diver. For it is found by e.v[)eri- 
 ment,'thata gallon of air included in a bladder, and by a pijie 
 reciprocally inspired and exspired by the lungs, becomes unfit 
 for respiration m little more than one minute. For though its 
 elasticity be but little altered in passing the lungs, yet it loses its 
 vivifying spirit, and is rendered etfete. A nikcd diver, Dr. 
 Halley assures us, without a spunge, cannot remain above a coup'e 
 of minutes inclosed in water, nor much longer with one, without 
 suffocating; nor, without long practice, near so long; persons 
 not accustomed to dive, beginning to stitle in about half a minute. 
 Besides, if the depth be considerable, the pressure of the water in 
 the vessels makes the eyes blood-shottcn, and frequently occasions 
 a spitting of blood. Hence, where there has been occasion to con- 
 tinue long at the bottom, some have contrived double flexible 
 pi|-es, to circulate air down into a cavity, inclo-ing the diver a? 
 with armour, both to furnish air and to bear orVthe pressure of tlic 
 water, and give leave to his breast to dilate upon inspiration; the 
 fresh air being forced down one of the pipes villi bellows, ::nd 
 returning by the other. But this method is impracticable wlien 
 the depth surpasses three fathoms ; the water embracing the bare 
 limbs so closely as to obstiuct the circulation of the blood in them ; 
 and withal pressing so strongly on all the junctures where the 
 armour is made tight with leather, that, if there be the least defect 
 in any of them, the water rushes in, and instantly fills t!ie whole 
 en ■line, to the great danger of the diver's life. 
 
 Divikg-bell, a machine contrived for the safe conveyance of 
 a diver to any reasonable depth, and whereby he may stay a con- 
 siderable time under water. It is most conveniently made in form 
 of a truncated cone, the smaller base being closed, and the larger 
 open. It is to be poised with lead: and so suspended, that the 
 ve>sel may sink full of air, with its open ba>is downward, and as 
 near as may be in a situation parallel to the horizon, so as to ch >e 
 with the surface of the water all at once. Under this covercle the 
 diver sitting, sinks down with the included air tothe depth desired: 
 and if the cavity of the vessel can contain a tun of air, a single man 
 may remain a fiill hour, without much inconvenience, at five or six 
 fathoms deep. But tlie lower he goes, the more tiie included air 
 contracts itself, according to the weight of the witer which com- 
 presses it : so that at 33 feet deep the bcil becomes hall full of 
 water, the pressure of the incumbent water being then equal to 
 that of the atmosphere; and at all other depths the space occu- 
 pied by the compressed air in the upper part of the bell will be to 
 the unrler part of its capacity filled with water, as 33 feet to the 
 surface of the water in the bell below the comm'-n surface theiecf. 
 And this condensed air being taken in with the breath sonn insinu- 
 ates itself into all the cavities of the body, and has no ill elVect, pro- 
 vided the bell be permitted to descenil so slowly as to allow tunc 
 for that purpose. One inconvenience that attends it is found in the 
 ears, u ithin which there are cavities which open only outwards, ami 
 that by pores so small as not to give admission even to the air I'-ilf, 
 o'\ unlets
 
 DIV 
 
 170 
 
 DIV 
 
 unless they be dilatetl and distended by a considerable force. 
 llencp, on the tir?t descent of the bell, a presMire begins to be felt 
 on the ear; which, by degrees, grows painful, till the force over- 
 toniing the obstacle, what constringes the-.e pores yields to the 
 pressure, and letting some condensed air slip in, presently ease 
 ensues. The bell descending lower, the pain is renewed, and 
 again eased in the same manner. But the greatest inconvenience 
 of this engine is, th;it the water entering it, contracts the bulk of air 
 into so small a compass, that it soon heats and becomes unfit for 
 respiratiwn, so that there is a necessity for its being drawn up to 
 recruit it ; besides the uncomfortable situation of the diver ahllo^t 
 covered with water. To obviate these difficulties. Dr. Halkv 
 contrived some further apparatus, w liereby not only to recruit and 
 refresh the air from time to time, but also to keep the water whollv 
 •)ut of it at any depth. The bell he made use of was of wood, con- 
 taining about Co cubic feet in its concavity; and was of the form 
 of a truncated cone, whose diameter at the top was tliree feet, and 
 sithe bottom five. This he coaled with lead so heavy that it would 
 sink empty; and he distributed t!ie weight so about its bottom, 
 tliat it would go down in a perpendicular <lirection, and no other. 
 fn the top w as li.\ed a strong clear glass, as a window, to let in tlic 
 light from above ; and likewise a cock to let out the hot air that hail 
 been breathed : and below, about a yard under the bell, was placed 
 a stage which hung by three ropes, each of whicli was charged 
 with about 100 weight to keep it steady. This machine he sus- 
 pended from the mast of a ship by a sprit, which was sufficiently 
 secured by stays to the mast hea<l, and was directed by braces to 
 carry It overboard clear of tlie ship's side, and to bring it again 
 within board as occasion recpiired. To supply air when under 
 water he caused a couple of barrels of about 36 gallons each to be 
 cased with lead, so as to sink empty ; each of tliem having a bung- 
 hole in its lowest jiart (o let in tlie water, as the air in them con- 
 densed on their descent ; and to kt it out again when they were 
 drawn up full from below. To a hole in the uppermost part of 
 these barrels, was fixed a leatliern trunk or liose well liiiuored with 
 bees wax and oil, and long enougli to fall l)elow the bung-hole, 
 being kept down by a weight appended: so that the air in the 
 upper part of the barrels could not escape, unless the lower ends 
 of these hose were first lifted up. The air-barrels being thus pre- 
 pared, he fated them with tackle proper to make them rise and 
 iall aUernatelv, after the manner of two buckets in a well; wliich 
 was done with so much ease, that two men, with less than half 
 their strength, could [lerforni all the labour recpiired : and in their 
 descent they were directed by lines fastened to the under edge of 
 the bell, which pa^^sed through rings on both sides the leathern ha>>e 
 in each barrel ; so that, sliding down by these lines, they came 
 readily (o the hand of a man who stood on the stage on purpose 
 to receive them, a:xi to take up the ends of the hose into the bell. 
 'I'ln'ough these hose, as soon as tlieir ends came above tlie surface 
 of the water in the barrels, all the air that was included in the upper 
 jiarts of tliem was blown with great force intt) llie bell; whilst the 
 water entered at the bung-holes l;elow, and tilled them : and as 
 soon as the air of one barrel had hoen thus received, upon a signal 
 given, that was <hawii up, and at the sametime the other di^scended; 
 and, by an allernate succession, furnished air so quick, and in so 
 great plenty, that he and four otjiers were together at the bottom 
 in nine or ten fathom water, for above an hour and an lialf at a 
 time, without any ill consequence: and might have continued there 
 as long as they pleased, for any tiling that appeared to the contrary. 
 ]n descending they found it neccs»:iry to be let down iiradujhy at 
 first, as about 12 teet at a time ; and '.hen to slop and drive out the 
 air that entered, by receiving tliree or four barrels of fresh air. 
 But being arrive(lat the depth designed, as much of the hot air 
 that had been breathed, as each barrel vvoulil replenish with cocl, 
 WLis let out by means of the cock at tlie top of the bell; through 
 whose ;iiM>rtHre, though very small, the air would rush with, so 
 miK h violence, as to make the surface of the sea boil, and to 
 rover it with a white foam, notwilhstandiiig the weight of tlie 
 water above. Aad thus by the introduction of air a space at the 
 bottom of the sea as wide as the circuit of the bell, could be made 
 so fir dry, as not to be overshoes thereon. And, by the glass 
 window, so much light was transinitteil, that when the H-a was 
 tlear, and especially when the sun shcnc, they could see perfect- 
 ly well »» write or read; much more to fasten or lay bold on any 
 Sliiii!; that was to be taken up. By an rcUlitiunal contrivance, he 
 fcHijid it not in>practital>le for a diver l-o go out of an engine to a 
 
 good distance from it, the air being conveyed to him with a con- 
 tinued stream, by small llexible pipes; which pipes ma) serve 
 as a clue, to direct him back again when he would return to the 
 bell. Plate LIX. iig. 1, shews Dr. Ilalley's niving-bell, with the 
 divers at work. D B L K R 1 M P represents the body of the bell, 
 D, the glass which serves as a window. B, the cock for letting 
 out the air which has been breathed. LM, the seats. C, one of 
 the air-barrels. P, H,two of the divers. !•', another diver at a 
 distance Irom the bell, and breathing through the flexible tube K. 
 'Ihis diver is supposed to have a head-piece of lead, made to tit 
 ((uite close about his shoulders: this head-piece was capable of 
 containing as much air as would supply him for a minute or two. 
 When he had occasion for more air, he turned a cock at F, by ■ 
 which means a communication was opened with (he air in the bell, 
 and thus he could receive a new supply at pleasure. 
 
 Diving-Bell, Mr. 1'riew alu's. Mr. ^rriewald, F. R. S. 
 and military architect to the late king of Sweden, has invented a 
 diving-bell, (fig. '2,) wliich, for a single person, is thought to be 
 more eligible than Dr. Halley's, and is constructed as follows: 
 All is the bell, which is sunk by lead weights DD hung to its 
 bottom. This bell is of copper, tinned ail over in the in- 
 side, which is illuminated by three strong convex lenses, 
 G, G, G, with copper lids H, H, H, to defend them. The iron 
 plate E, serves the diver to stand on when he is at work ; and is 
 suspended at such a distance from the bottom of the bell by the 
 chains F, F, F, that when the diver stands upright, his head is 
 just above the water in the bell, where the air is much better than 
 higher up, because it is colder, and consequently more fit for re- 
 spiration. But as the diver must always be within the bell, and 
 his head of course in the upper part, the inventor has contrived, 
 that even there, when he lias breathed the hot air as long as he 
 can, he may, by means of a spiral copper tube b c, placed close to 
 the inside of the bell, draw the cooler and fresher air from the 
 lowermost parts : for which purpose, a flexible leather tube, about 
 two feet long, is fixed to the upper end of the c»pper tube at 6 ;. 
 and to the other end of this tube is fixed an ivory mouth-piece, by 
 which the diver drav^s in the air. 
 
 Divi.\g-Bell, Spalding's improved. The greatest im- 
 provement, which the diving-bell ever received, was from the late 
 Mr. Spalding of Edinburgh. A section of his improved diving- 
 bell is re[)reseiited in fig. 3. This construction is designed to re- 
 medy some inconveniences of Dr. Halley's, which are very evi- 
 dent, and of very dangerous tendency. These are, 1. By Dr. 
 Halley's construction, the sinking or raising of the bell depends 
 entirely on the people who are at the surface of the water ; and as 
 the bell even when in the water has a very considerable weight, the 
 raising it not only re(|uires a great deal of labour, but there is a 
 possibility of the rope breaking by which it is raised, and thus 
 every person in the bell would inevitably perish. 2. As there are, 
 in many places of the sea, rocks which lie at a considerable depth, 
 the figure of which cannot possibly be perceived from above, 
 there is danger that some of their ragged prominences may catch 
 hold of one of the edges of the bell in its descent, and thus over- 
 set it before any signal can be given to those above, which would 
 infallibly be atteniled with the destruction of the people in the 
 bell: and as it must always be nnknown, before trial, what kiii<t 
 of a bottom the sea has in any place, it is jitain, that without some 
 contrivance to obviate this last tlanger, the descent in Dr. Halley's 
 diving-bell is not at all eligible. How these inconveniences are re- 
 medied by Mr. Spalding's new construction will be easily under- 
 stood from the following description. — ABCD rejiresents a sec- 
 tion of the bell, which is made of wood; e, c, are iron hooks, by 
 means of whicli it is suspended by ropes QBFe, and QAERe, 
 and QS, as expressed in the figure :. c^c, are iron hooks, to which 
 are appended lead weights, that keep tlie mouth of the licll always 
 parallel to the surface of the water, whether the machine taken al- 
 together i^ lighter or heavier than an equal bulk of water. By 
 thei-e weights alone, however, the bell would not sink : another is 
 iherefore added, represented at L; and which can be raised or 
 low ered at pleasure, by means of a rope jxissing over the pulley tir 
 and fastened to one ot the sides of the hell at M. As the bell de- 
 scends, this weight, called by Mr. Spald.ng the bul;:nce-w eight, 
 hangs down a considerable way below the mouth of the bell. In 
 ease the edge of the bell is cati hed by any obstacle, the balanc*"- 
 weighl ia ininiediately lowered down so that it may re.-t up('n the 
 botleni. By this means the bell is lightened so that all danger of 
 4 overseltinf;
 
 DTV 
 
 17 
 
 1 
 
 DIV 
 
 oversetting is removed ; for being lighter, without the balance- 
 weight, than an equal hulk of water, it is evitlent that tlie bell will 
 rise, as far as the length of the rope atliNed to the bilanre-weiglit 
 will allow it. Thii weiglit, Ih.eiefore, will serve as a kind of an- 
 chor to keep the bell at any particular depth which llie divers may 
 think necessary ; or by pulling it quite uj), tlie descent may be 
 continued to the very buUom. 15y another very ingenious con- 
 trivance, Mr. Spalding rendered it possible tor the divers to raise 
 the bell, witli all the weiglits appended to it, even to the surface, 
 or to stop at any particular deptli, as they think proper ; and thus 
 they could still be safe, even though the rope designed for pulling 
 up the bell was broke. For this purpose tlie bell is divided into 
 two cavities, each ot which is made as tight as possible. Just 
 above the second bottom EF, are small slits in tlie sides of the 
 bell ; through which the water, entering as the bell descends, dis- 
 places the air originally contained in this cavity, which tties out at 
 the upper orifice ol the cock Gil. When this is done, tlic divers 
 turn ttio handle G, which stops the cock; so that if any more air 
 was to gel into the cavity AF.FB, it could not longer l)e discharg- 
 ed through the orifice li as before. When this cavity is full of 
 water, the bell sinks ; but when a consideralile quantity of air is 
 admitted, it rises. If tlierefore the divers have a mind to raise 
 themselves, they turn the email cock g, by which a communica- 
 tion is made between the upper and under cavities of the bell. 
 The consequence of this is, that a quantity of air immediately en- 
 ters the upper cavity, forces out a quantity oi the water contained 
 in it, ami thus renders the bell lighter b\ the whole weight of the 
 water which is displaced. Thus, if a certain quantity of air is ad- 
 mitted into the upper cavity, the bell will descend very slowly ; 
 if a greater quantity, it will neither ascend nor descend, but re- 
 main stationary ; and if a, larger ciuantity of air is still admitted, it 
 will arise to the top. It is to be observed, however, that tlie air 
 which is tlius let out into the upper cavity must be immediately 
 supplied from the air-barrel ; from which tlie air is to be let out 
 very slowly, or the bell will rise to tlie top with so great velocity, 
 that the divers w ill be in danger of being shaken out of their seats. 
 But, by following these directions, every possible accident may 
 be prevented, and people may descend to great depths without 
 the least apprehension of danger; The bell also becomes so easily 
 manageable in the water, that it may be eonducted from one place 
 to another by a small boat with the greatest ease, and with perfect 
 safety to those who are in it. Instead of wooden seats used by 
 Dr. Halley, Mr. Spalding made use of ropes suspended by hooks 
 b bb, and on these ropes tlic? divers may sit w'thout anv inconve- 
 nience. I and K are two windows made of thick strong glass, for 
 admitting light to the divers. N represents an air-cask with its 
 tackle, and OCP the tlexible pipe through which the air is admit- 
 ted to the bell. In the ascent and descent oi this cask, the pipe is 
 kept down by a small weight appemled, as in Dr. Halley's ma- 
 chine. R is a small cock l>y which the hot air is discharged as 
 often as it becomes troublesome. Fig. 4, gives a per-pective view 
 of the whole diving apparatus. 1 wo air-barrels are represented 
 in this figure; but Mr. Spalding was of opinion, that one ca- 
 pable of containing thirty gaflons is sufficient for an ordinary 
 machine. 
 
 Diving Bladder, a machine invented by Boriili, and by 
 him preferred, though without any good reason, to the diving- 
 bell. It is a globular vessel of brass or copper, about two feet in 
 diaineter, wdiich contains the diver's head. It is lixed to a goat's 
 skin habit exactly fitted to his person. Within the vessel are 
 pipes; by means of which a circulation of air is contrived; and 
 the person carries an air-pump by his side, by which he can make 
 himself heavier or lightei- as fishes do, by contracting or dilating 
 their air-bladder. By these means he thought all the objections to 
 ■which other diving machines c^re liable were entirely obviated, 
 and particuhrly that of want of air ; the air which had been 
 breathed, being as he imagined, deprived of its nwcious <;ualities 
 by circulating through the pipes. These advantages, however, it 
 is evident, are only imaginary. The diver's limbs, being defend- 
 ed from the pressure of the water only by a goat's skin, would in- 
 fallibly be crushe<l if he descended to any considerable depth ; 
 and from the <liscoveries now imde by Dr. Priestley and others, 
 it is abundantly evident, that air, which is once rendered foul by 
 breathing, cam.ot in any degree he restored by circulation through 
 pipes. Concerning the use of copper machines in general, Mr. 
 Spalding has remarked, that when a person lias breathed in them 
 
 a few minutes, he feels in his montli a very disagreeable brassy 
 taste, which continues all the time he remains in the vess( 1 ; so 
 that, on this account, copper seems by no means an eligible ma- 
 terial. 
 
 Divis'G Casf, a large case of strong leather, perfectly water- 
 proof, which may hold about half a hogshead of air; invented by 
 a gentleman ot Devonshire. It is so contrived, that, w hen he 
 shuts himself up in this case, he can walk at the bottom of the sea, 
 and go into any part of a wrecked vessel, and deliver out the 
 goods. This metliod, we are told, he has practised for many 
 years, and has tlui) actpiiicd a large fortune. It would be a consi- 
 derable iinprovemenl on this machine to condense the air in it as 
 much as possible before the diver ilescended ; as he would thus 
 be furnished willian almosidiere endued with elasticity sufficient 
 to resist the weight of the water, which otherwise would squeeze 
 his case into much less room than it originally took up. The con- 
 densed air also would serve for respiration a mucii longer time 
 than that w liich is in its ordinary state. A curiou> diving-machine 
 called a submarine vessel, wa-. invented by Mr. Biishnell of Con- 
 necticut ; and of which a description is given in the 'I'ransactions 
 of the American Phihisophical Society. The externjl shape of 
 the submarine vessel bore some resemblance to two upper tortoise- 
 shells, of equal size, joined together ; the place of entrance into the 
 vessel being represented by the opening made by the swell of the 
 shells, at the head of the animal. The inside was capable of con- 
 taining the operator, and air sufficient to support him thirty mi- 
 nutes without receiving fresh air. At the bottom, opposite to the 
 entrance, was fixed a quantity of lead for ballast. At one edge, 
 which was directly before the operator, who sat upriglit, was an 
 oar for rowing forward or backward. At the other edge was a 
 rudder for steering. An aperture, at the bottom, with its valve, 
 was designed to admit water, for the purpose of descending ; and 
 two brass forcing-pumps served to eject the water within, when 
 necessary for ascending. At the top there was likewise an oar for 
 ascending or di;scending, or continuing at any particular depth. 
 A water-gauge, or barometer, determined the depth of descent, a 
 compass directed tlie course, and a ventilator within supplied the 
 vessel with fresh air, when on the surface. The entrance into the 
 vessel was elliptical, and so sm.iU as barely to admit a person. 
 This entrance was surrounded with a broad elliptical iron band, 
 the lower edge of which was let into the wood of w hich the body 
 of the vessel was made, in such a manner as to give its utmost sup- 
 port to the body of the vessel against the pressure of the water. 
 Above the upper edge of this iron band there was a brass crown, 
 or cover, resembling a hat with its crown and brim, which shut 
 water-tight upon the iron band : the crown was hung to the iron 
 band with hinges, so a> to turn over sideways when opened. To 
 make it perfectly secure when shut, it might be screwed down 
 upon the band by the operator, or by a person without. There 
 were in the brass crown three round doors, one directly in front,, 
 and one on each side, large enough to put tlie hand through. 
 When open they admitted fresh air ; their shutters were ground 
 perfectly tight into their places with emery, hung with hinges, and 
 securedin their places when shut. There were likewise several 
 small glass windows in the crown for looking through, and for ad- 
 mitting light in the day-time, with covers to secure them. There 
 were two air-pipes in the crown. A ventilator within drew fresh 
 air through one of the air-pipes, and discharged it into the lower 
 part of the vessel ; the fresh air introduced by the ventilator ex- 
 pelled the impure light air through the other air-pipe. Both air- 
 pipes were so constructed, that they shut themselves whenever the 
 water rose near their tops, so that no water could enter through 
 them, and opened tliemselves immediately after they rose above 
 the water. The vessel was chiefly filled with lend fixed to its 
 bottom ; when this was sufficient, a quantity was placed within, 
 more or less, according to the weight of the operator ; its ballast 
 made it so stiff, that there was no danger of oversetting. The 
 vessel with all its anoendages, and the operator, was sufficient to 
 settle it verv low in the water. About two hundred pounds of the 
 lead, at the bottom for ballast, would be let down forty or fiUy 
 feet below the vessel ; this enabled the operator to rise instantly 
 to the surface of the water, in case of accident. V\ hen the opera- 
 tor would descend, he placed his foot on the top of a brass valve, 
 depressing it,, by whicli he opened a large apciture in the bottom 
 of thfe vessel, throu-h wjiich the watir entered at his pleasure; 
 when he had admitted a sufficient quantity, he ascended very gra- 
 
 di.uillv .
 
 D IV 
 
 172 
 
 D IV 
 
 duaUy : if he admitteil too iiiucli, ie ejected as much as was iie- 
 cessaiv to ohtaiii an cquilibiiuiii by tlie two brasb lorcing-punip^ 
 placed at each hand. W lieiiever liie vessid leaked, or he would 
 ascend to the surlace, he also iiiatle use of the^e forcing-pumps. 
 AVhen the skilful operator had obtained an equilibriiuii, he coidd 
 row upward or downward, or continue at any particular depth, 
 with an oar placed near tlie top of the vessel, formed upon the 
 principle of the screw, the axis of the oar entering the vessel ; by 
 turning the oar one way he raised the vessel, by turning it the 
 other way he depressed it. A glass tube eighteen inches long, 
 and one inch in diameter, standing upright, its upper end closed, 
 and its lower end which was oijen, screwed into a brass pipe, 
 through which the external water had a passage into the glass tut)e, 
 served as a water-gauge or barometer. There was a piece of cork, 
 with phosphorus on it, put into the water-gauge. \A hen the ve>- 
 sel descended the water rose in the water-gauge, condensing the 
 air within, and bearing the cork, with its phosphorus, on Us sur- 
 face. By the light of the phosphorus the accent of the water in 
 the gauge w,^s rendered visible, and the depth of the vessel under 
 water ascertained by a graduated line. An oar, formed upon the 
 principle of the screw, was fixed in the fore-part of the vessel ; its 
 axis entered the vessel, and being turned one way, rowed the ves- 
 sel forward, but being turned the other way rowed it backwani ; 
 it was made to be turned by the ha[id or foot. A rudder, hung 
 to the hinder part of the vessel, commanded it with the greatest 
 ease. The rudder wa^ made very elastic, and niiglit be used for 
 I'owing forward. Its tiller was within the vessel, at the operator's 
 right-hand, fixed at a right angle, on an iron rod which passed 
 through the side of the vessel ; the rod had a crank on its outside 
 end, which commanded the rudder, by means ol a rod extending 
 from the end of the crank to a kind of tiller, fixed upon the lelt 
 liand of the rudder. Raising and depressing the lirst-mentioned 
 tiller, turned the rudder as tlie case required. A compass maik- 
 ed with phosphorus directed the course, above and under the wa- 
 ter: and a line and lead sounded the depth when necessary. 
 Every opening was well secured. The pumps had two sets t>f 
 valves. The aperture at the bottom, for admitting water, was co- 
 vered with a plate, perforated full of holes to receive the water, 
 and prevent any thing from chokmg the passage, or stopping the 
 valve from shutting. '1 he brass valve might likewise be foiced 
 into its place with a screw, if necessary. Tlie air-pipes had a kind 
 of hollow sphere, fixed round the top of each, to secure the air- 
 pipe valves from injury : these hollow spheres were perforated full 
 of holes for the passage of the air through the pipes : 
 within (he air pipes were shutters to Secure them, should 
 any accident happen to the pipes or the valves on their top*. 
 Wherever the external apparatus passed through the body of the 
 vessel, the joints were rountl, and formed b\ brass pipes, which 
 were driven into the wood of the vessel; the holes through the 
 pipes were exactly made, and the iron rods, which passed through 
 them, were turned into a lalhe to fit them ; the joints were also 
 kept full of oil, to prevent rust and leaking. Particular attention 
 was given to bring every part, necessary for performing the oiie- 
 rations, both within and witlimit the vessel, before the operator, 
 and as conveniently as could be devised ; so that every thing 
 might be found in (lie dark, except the water-gauge and the com- 
 pass, which were visible by the light of the phos|)horus ; and no- 
 thing required the operator to turn to the right hand, or to the leU, 
 to perform any thing necessary. The design of this submarine 
 vessel was lo convey a magazine, and its appendages, to the bot- 
 tom of a ship to eflfect its destruction. In the fore-part of the 
 brim of the crown of the bubinarine vessel were a socket, and an 
 iron tube passing through the socket: the iron tube stood upriglu 
 and could slide up and down in the socket six inches: at tin- top 
 of the tube was a wood screw, fixed by means of a rod, whicii 
 passed through the tube, and sciew.'eil the wood-screw fast upon 
 the top of the lube; by pushing the wood-screw up against the 
 bottom of a ship, and turning it at the same time, it would enter 
 the (ilaiiks ; driving would also answer the samckpurpose : whi-n 
 the wood-sorew was firmly lixed it could be cast off by unscrew- 
 ing the rod, which fastened it upon tlie top of the tube. Hehiiid 
 the subniaiine vessel \\'as a place, above the rudder, for carrying 
 a large powder-maga/ine ; this was made of two pieces of oak 
 timber, large eiioiiuji, when hollowed out, to contain 150 pounds 
 of powder, with the apparatus used in firiua it, and was secured 
 ill its place by a screw, turned by the operator. A stroy;; piece 
 
 of rope extended from the magazine to the wood-screw above- 
 mentioned, and was fa.-tened to both. W hen the woo<l-screw was 
 fixed, and to be cast od from its tube, the magazine was to be cast 
 olf likewise by unscrewing it, leaving it hanging to the wood- 
 screw ; it was lighter than the water, tliat it might rise up against 
 the object to which the wood-screw and itself were tas.tined. 
 Within the magazine was an apparatus, constructed lo run any 
 proposed length ot time: it unpmioned a strong lock resembling 
 a gun-lock, which gave fire to the powder. I'his apparatus was 
 so pinioned that it could not possibly move till, by casting oli the 
 magazine from the vessel, it was set in motion. 'I'he skilful ope- 
 rator could swim so low on the surface of the water as to approach 
 very near a ship in the night, without fear of being discovered ; 
 and might, if he chose, approach the stem or stern above water 
 with very little danger. He could sink very quickly, and keep at 
 any depth he pleased, and row a great distance ii> any direction he 
 desired, without coming to the surlace ; and when lie rose to the 
 surface, he could soon obtain a fresh supplv of air, when, if neces- 
 sary, he might descend again, and puisue his course. The fol- 
 lowing experiments were made to prove the use of this vessel. 
 The first experiment was made with about two ounces ot gun- 
 powder, which were exploded four feet under water, to prove to 
 some of the first personages in Connecticut, that powder would 
 take fire under water. 'I he second experiment was made with 
 two pounds ot powder, inclosed in a wooden bottle, and fixed un- 
 der a hogshead, with a two-inch oak plank between the hogshead 
 and the powiler ; the hogshead was loaded with stones as deep as 
 it could swim ; a wooden pipe descending through the lower head 
 of the hogshead, and through the plank, into the powder contain- 
 ed in the bottle, was primed with powdei. A match put to the 
 priming, exploded the powder; which produced a very great 
 ellect, rending the plank into pieces, demolishing the hogshead, 
 and casting the stones and the rums ot the hogshead, with a body 
 of waier, iiiany feet into the air, to the astonishment of the spec- 
 tators. There were afterwards made inanv experiments of a simi- 
 lar nature, some of them with large qui;nlitics ot powdir; they all 
 produced \ery violent explosions, much more than sufficient for 
 tiie purpose proposed. Alter various attempts to find an operator 
 to his wish, Mr. Bushnell sent one, who appeared more expert 
 than the rest, from New York to a fifty-gun ship, lying not far 
 from Governor's Island. He went under the ship, and attempted 
 to fix the wood-screw into her bottom ; but struck, as lie sup- 
 poses, a bar of iron, which passes from the rudder-hinge, and is 
 spiked under the ship's quarter. Had he moved a few inches, 
 which he might have done v.ilhout rowing, he would probably 
 have I'ound wood wliere he might have fixed the screw ; or, if the 
 ship were sheathed with copper, he might easily have pierced it: 
 but not being well skilled in the man igtment of the vessel, in at- 
 tempting to move to another place, he lost the ship; alter sciking 
 her in vain, for some time, he rowed some distance, and rose lo 
 the surface of the water, but found day-light had advanced so lar, 
 that he dur4 not renew the attempt. 1 he adventurer said that he 
 could easilv have fastened the magazine under the stem of the, 
 ship, above water, as he rowed up to the stern, and touched it be- 
 fore he descended. Had he fastened it tliere, the explosion of 
 1 JO pounds of powder (the quantity contained in the magazine), 
 must have been fatal to tlie ship. In his return from the ship to 
 New York he passed near Governor's Island, and thought he" was 
 discovered by the enemy on the island ; being in ha^te to avoid 
 the danger he feared, he cast olTthe magazine, as he imagined it 
 retarded him in tf.e swell, which was very considerable. Alter 
 the m;'.g:izine had been cast off one hour, the time the internal ap- 
 paratus was ^et to run, it hievr up with great violence. Several 
 other machines have been constructed for the purpose of diving, 
 all of them clepend'iig on the same principles. 
 
 DIVINITY. SeeTHEOLOGv. 
 
 DIVIO, DIBIO, or DIVIONENSE CASTRUM, in an- 
 cient geography, a town of the Lingones, in Gallia Belgica, now 
 called Dijon. 
 
 DniSIBlLlTY, in physics, is that property by whicli the 
 particles of uuitter in all bodies are ca|)abU' ol a separation or dis- 
 union from each other. The Peripatetics and Cartesians hold 
 divisibility to be an affection of all maiter. The E|.icureans, 
 again, allow it to agree to every physicil continuum ; but they 
 deny that this alliection agrees to all bodies, for the primarv cor- 
 puscles or atoins they maintain to be perfectly insecable and indi- 
 visible-
 
 DT HaUt'vs IViving; Bell 1 
 
 E-ri-aifrir ^irclf
 
 DIV 
 
 173 
 
 D TV 
 
 visible. Absolutelv to dotcvmino whether the divisihihty <ir mal- 
 t>T may proci-sd v.itliout Hmits, or th.it then- me ulthiiatc |;iiii);iiy 
 corpu'^clos not aihiiilliiii; of further division, does not jjipear us 
 yet to be within tiie reach of philosophy. That all bodies con- 
 tain an infinity of parts is eNceedin^^ly obvious, tlnis any Ijndy 
 which can lie projiosed lias for instance ten parts, each of the ten 
 parts has also ten parts, and again each of these has ten parts, and 
 so on without limit. The same wonlil appear liy supposing any 
 other number of parts as well as ten, and it would be absurd to 
 suppose that the smallest particle has fewer liahs, fjuarters, tenths 
 ]i.irts, &c. than the largest momitain. That any given extension 
 IS divisible ad infinitum in a matheinatical point of view may be 
 tlius demonstrated. See Plate Ll\'. lig. lo. Suppose the line 
 AC perpendicular to 15F ; and another, as Gil, at a small dis- 
 tanco Irom it, also perpendicularto the same line. With the centres 
 CCC, ftc. describe cnxles cutting the hue Gil in the points f c t; 
 &c. Now the greater the radius AC is, the less is the part cG. 
 But the radius may be augmented in infinitum ; so long, tliere- 
 fore, the part cG may be divided into still less portions ; conse- 
 quently it may be divided in infinitum. Or tlius, suppose the 
 line AIJ, (fig. 12,) be rei|uired to be divided, tluough its extvemc 
 points A and B draw EF and CI) parallel to each other ; in one of 
 these lines take a point as L, and trom L draw lines LD to the 
 line CD, cutting A15 in c: it is evident that the further D is taken 
 from B, the part A e will be the le.^s, and since BD may be continued 
 without luiiits, the part A e may be lessened without limiis, or it is 
 divisible ad infinitum. Thus far we have shewn that exten- 
 sion, and consequently that an extended bodv. coiitaiiw an unli- 
 mited number of parts ; but with respect to the limits of the divi- 
 sibility of matter itself, we are peifccllv in the dark. We can in- 
 deed divide certain bodies into surprisinglv fine and numerous 
 particles, and the works of nature olTer m.mv iiuids and solids of 
 wonderful tenuity ; but both our efforts, and tlios^ naturally small 
 objects, advance a very short way towards infinity. Ignorant of 
 the intimate nature of matter, we cannot assert whether it may be 
 capable of infinite division, or whether it ultimatelv consists of 
 particles of a certain size, and of perfect hardness. However, the 
 uniformity and constancy ot the (pialities of the same bodies would 
 lead us to conclude that there are ultimate invariable, indivisible 
 particles which are their true constituents, and which do not adniit 
 of a separation of their parts by any power less than that of Him 
 who formed the.ii. But even these are amazingly small, as will 
 appear from the following instances of the wonderful tenuity of 
 certain bodies, which have been produced either by art, or disco- 
 vered by means of microscopical observations amongst the stu- 
 jiendous works of nature. The spinning of wool, silk, cotton, and 
 such-like substances, afford no bad specimens; since the thread 
 which has been produced by this means, has often been so very 
 fine as almost to exceed the ijounds of credibility, had it not beeii 
 sufftciently well authenticated. Mr. Boyle mentions that two 
 grains and a half ot silk was spun into a thread 300 rards long. A 
 tew years ago, a lady of Lincolnshire spvm a single pound of wool- 
 len yarn into a thread of lt5H,000 yards long, whicli is equal to 95 
 English miles. Also a single pound weight of fine cotton-yarn 
 w.is lately spun, in the neighbourhood of Manchester, into a thread 
 13-1,400 yards long. The ductility of gold likewise furnishes a 
 striking example of the great tenuity of matter amongst the pro- 
 ductions of human ingenuity. A single grain weight of gold has 
 been often extended into a surface equal to 50 square inci es. It 
 every square inch of it is divided into squ.tre particles of the hun- 
 dredUi part of an inch, which will be plainly visible to the naked 
 eye, the number of those particles in one inch sqe.are, will be 
 10,000; and multiplying this number by tiie 50 inches, the pro- 
 duct is 500,000 ; that is, the grain of gold may be actually divided 
 into at least half a million of iiarticlcs, each of which is perfectly 
 apparent to th.e naked eye. Yet, if those particles are viewed in 
 a good mirrosco|-.e, th-;y will .appear like a large surface, the ten 
 tlu)US;;ndth p.irt of wliich might by this nK-ans be easily discerneil. 
 An ingenious artist in London has been able to draw parallel lini's 
 upon a glass plate, as also upon silver, so near one another, that 
 10,000 of them occupy the space of one incli. Those lines can 
 he seen only by the assistance of a very good microscope. Aiio- 
 tlier workman has drawn a silver wire, the diamet"r of which do^^s 
 not exr-ee<l the 750th pavt of an inch. But those prodigies of human 
 Ligenuity willapp-^ar extremely gross and rudg, if they are.^oni- 
 
 VOL. 11. — NO. t)6. 
 
 pared with the immense suhtilly of matter which may everywhere 
 bo observed amongst the works of nature. '1 he animal, ll'.e vej'e. 
 table, and even the mineral kingdom, furnish numerous examples 
 of this sort. What must be the leiniity of the odorileii'es i.arls of 
 musk, when we rind that a piec? of it will scent a whole room in a 
 short time, and yet it will hardly lose, any .sensible jiart ot its 
 weight! I'/ut supposing it to have lo^t one-hundredth part of a 
 grain weight, when this small tuuiiitiiy is divitled and dispersed 
 through the whole room, it must so expand itself a; not to leave 
 an inch stpiare of space where the sen^e of iiiiell mnv not be af- 
 fected by some of iti particles ! The liumaii eye, unassisted by 
 glasses, can fre(|uen(ly perceive insects so small as to be barely 
 discernible. The least reflection must shew, that the- limbs, the 
 vessels, and other parts of such animals, nin;.t infinitely exceed in 
 fineness every endeavour of human art. But the microscope has 
 discovered wonders that are vastly superior, and such indeed as 
 were utterly unkuuw-n to our fore-falliers, before the invention of 
 that noble instrumerit. Insects have been discovered so small as 
 not to exceed the 1 0,000tli part of an inch : so that 1 ,000,000,1)00,000, 
 of them might be cont. fined within the space of one cubic inch ; 
 yet each animalcule must consist of (larts connected with each 
 other; v. itii vessels, with fluids, and with organs necessary tor its 
 motions, for its imi'ease, for its propagation, &c. How incon- 
 ceivably small must those organs be ! and yet they are unques- 
 tionably composed of other jiarts still smaller, and still farther re- 
 moved fror.i ilie perception ot our senses. 
 
 DINTSION, among logicians, is the explication of a complex 
 idea, by enumerating the simple ideas whereof it is composed ; in 
 which sense it is nearly allied to definition, only that tins last re- 
 gards names and tilings, whereas division is employed wholly about 
 idea^. When the parts of an idea are ilivideil, in order to a clarer 
 explication of the whole, this is calleil a subdivision : thus, a year 
 is divided into twelve months, a month is subdivided into weeks, 
 w eeks into days, days into hours, and so on. The rules for a good 
 division are these, that the members entirely exhaust the whole ; 
 that they be opposite ; that subdivisions be not too numerous; 
 that the whole be first divided into its larger parts, and these into 
 the more remote and minute parts. 
 
 Division, in mathematics. See Algebra and Arithme- 
 tic. 
 
 Division, in sea affairs, a select number of ships in a fleet or 
 squadron of men of war, distinguished by a particular il.ig or pen- 
 dant, and usually commanded by a general ofiicer. A squadron 
 is commonly ranged into three divisions, the commanding oflicer 
 of which is always stationed in the centre. When a fleet consists 
 of 60 sail of the line, that is, of ships having at least 60 cannon 
 each, the admiral divides it into three squadrons, each of whicit 
 has its divisions and commanding oificers. Each stpiadron has ilc 
 proper colours, according to the rank of the admiral, and every 
 division its proper mast. Thus in Britain, the first admiral, or the 
 admiral of the fleet, displays the union flag at the main-top-nia.->t 
 head; next follows the white flag with St. George's cross; and 
 afterwards the blue. The private ships carry pendants of the same 
 colour w ith their respective squadrons at the mast of their particu- 
 lar divisions ; so that the last ship in the division of the blue squa- 
 aron carries a blue pendant at her mizen-top-masl head. 
 
 Division, MfcCH.\MCAi., signifies that separation which is oc- 
 casioned in the parts of a body by heip of mechi'.iiica! instruments. 
 The mechar.ical division of bodies does indeed sepjrate/thciii int.i 
 smaller, homogt'neous, simil.ir ]iarts ; tuit this separation cannot 
 extend to the primary integrant molecules of any body ; and coii- 
 sequjiitly is incapable of breaking what is propel ly called their ag- 
 gregation. No union is formed betwixt the divi(lrn<l and dividing; 
 boclies, in which respect division essentially duVers from d.is^r,U.- 
 tioB. Division 's not properly a chemical operation. ^ It is only 
 employed prep;:ratorily to facilitate other operations, and particii- 
 l.arly solution. For tliis purpose it is very useful, as it increases 
 t!ie"(piantity of -nirface, and cons.'queii<ly the points of contact of 
 anv body. ' Diilereut methods are used to divide bodies accord- 
 ing to their nature, as that of cutting, rasping, riling, pounding, 
 bruising, grindii'g, &c. 
 
 Division, inmusic, the dividingof the interval of an octave into 
 a number of less intervals. Thel'ourth aii<l tiftli divide the oc- 
 tave perfectly., though difi'erenlly : when the filth is lielow, and 
 serves as a bass to the fourth, tiie division is called harmonicai ; 
 2 Y !>**
 
 DIV 
 
 174 
 
 DOB 
 
 bui wlien the fourth is below, it is called arithmeliL-al. To run a 
 division, is to pi.iy, or sing, after the niaiiner above-mentioned ; 
 that is, to divide tiie intervals of an octave, (ittii, fourth, £:c. into 
 as many (Kirt'-, and as agreeably ;'.s possible, wliich depends en- 
 tirely upon taste and fancy. 
 
 Division', in rhetoric, the arranj;eincnt of a discourse ini- 
 der several :heads, each of vihich is to be separately spo- 
 ken to. 
 
 Divisions of PRorouTioN. If four quantities be propor- 
 tior.al, as a : b : : c: d; then the assumption of tiie difference be- 
 tween the antecedents a — b, or u — a, to either the antecedent 
 
 a, or consequent/), of the tirst ratio « to 6 ; and the difference 
 between the antecedent c — d or d — c to either the antecedent 
 
 b, or conseqiient'rf. of ttie second ratio c to d ; is called division of 
 proportion. 
 
 Division or an Army, in the military art, the several bri- 
 gades and squadrons into which it is cantoned. 
 - Div^isiONS OF A Battalion are the several platoons into 
 which it is divided in niaiching or tiring, each of which is coni- 
 ij;a;ided by nu olTscer. 
 
 ■ DtViSOR, [t/iv/.TOr, Lat.] the number which sheweth how 
 many parts the diviticnd is to be divided into. See Arith- 
 metic. 
 
 DfUM, in ancient j^eography, the naiiie of several places: 
 viz. 1. A tovifn of Chalcidice in Macedonia, near Mount Athos : 
 2. A promontory of Crete, on the north side of the island : 3. A 
 promontory of Euboea ; or a town of that name in Euboea, near 
 the promontory Cenxum, on the N. W. side of the island, called 
 also Dia : 4. A town of Macedonia, in Persia, on the W. side of 
 the SinusThermaiciis : 5. A town near Fella in the Pira;a, beyond 
 Jordan. , 
 
 DIVORCE, l^dh'nrce, Fr. from divoiiiuin, Lat.] the legal 
 separation of husband and wife. Divorce is a spiritual judgement 
 and is therefore passed in the ecclesiastical court. It is of two 
 kinds : viz. 
 
 1. Divorce a Mensa et Thoro, i.e. from bed and board. 
 In this case the wife has a suitable separate maintenance allowed 
 her, out of her husband's etfects. 
 
 'J. Divorce a Vinculo JNIatrimonii, i. e. from the bonds of 
 matrimony, is strictly and |)ro|;erly divorce. This happens either 
 in consetpJence of criminality, as in the case of adultery, or through 
 some essential impediment, as consanguinity or ailimtv within the 
 degrees forbidden, pre-contract, impoteney, &c. of which inipe- 
 diuKUts the canon law allows no less tlian 14. In these cases the 
 woman receives again only what she brought with h.er. Sentences 
 which release the parties a vinculo matrimonii, on account of im- 
 pubcrtv, frigidity, consanguinity, within the proliiljited degrees, 
 prior marriage, or want of the requisite consent of ])arents or guar- 
 dians, are not properly dissolutions of the marriage contract, but 
 judicial declarations that there n.cver was any marriage; sucli im- 
 pediment subsisting at the time as rendered the celebration of the 
 marriage rite a mere nullity. And the rite itself contains an ex- 
 ception of these impediments. " The law of Moses, says Mr. 
 Paley, for reasons of local expediency, permitted the Jewish hus- 
 band to put away his wile; but whether for every cause, or for 
 what cause, appears to have been controverted amongst the inter- 
 preters of those times. Christ, the precepts of wliose religion 
 were calculated for more general use and observation, revokes this 
 pern)ission, as given to the Jews " for their hardness of heart," and 
 promulges a law which was thenceforward to confine divorces to 
 the single cause of adultery in the wife. (Mat. xix. 9.) Inferior 
 causes may justify the separation of husband and wife, altlnugh 
 tiiey will not authorize such a dissolution of the marriage-contract 
 as wwuld leave either at liberty to marry again : for it is that liber- 
 ty in which tlie danger and mischief of divorces principally con- 
 sist." - The law of this country, in conformity to our Saviour's in- 
 jiinctio!!, conliiies the dissolution of tiie marriage-contract to the 
 single.care'of adultery in the wife; and a divorce, even in that case, 
 eau only be brought about by the operation of an act of parlia- 
 ment.-founded upon a previous sentence in the spiritual court, and 
 a v<>rdict against the adulterer at common law: which proceedings 
 token togetiier compose as complete an investigation of the com- 
 plaint :-.s a cause can receive. It has lately been proposed to the 
 Ugislature to anne.x a clause to these acts, restraining the offending 
 party frciu niarr.ying witii the companion of her criine, who, by 
 the: course cf pioccedijig, is always kno^vn and couvicted : for 
 
 there is reason to fear, that adulterous connections are often form* 
 ed with the prospect of bringing ihem to this conclusion ; at least, 
 when the seducer has once captivated the affection of a married 
 woman, he may avail himself of this tempting argument to Subdue 
 her scruples, and complete his victory ; and tlie legislature, as the 
 business is managed at present, assists by its interposition the cri- 
 minal design of the ollVnders, and confers a privilege where it 
 ought to inllict a punishment. The proposal deserved an experi- 
 ment; but Eoniething more penal, it is apprehended, would be 
 found necessary to check the progress of this alarming depravitv. 
 Whether a law might not be framed, directing the fortune of the 
 adulteress to descend as in case of her natural death ; reserving, 
 liowever, a certain proportion of the produce of it, by way of an- 
 nuity, for lier subsistence (such annuity in no case to exceed a 
 certain sum); and also so far suspending the estate in the hands of 
 die heir, as to preserve the inheritance to any children she might 
 bear to a second marriage, in case there was none to succeed in 
 the place of their mother by the first: wliether such a law would 
 not render feir.ale virtue in higher life less vincible, as well as the 
 seducers of that virtue less urgent in their suit, I would recommend 
 to the deliberation of those who are w-illing to attempt the refor- 
 mation of this important, butmost incorrigible, class of the commu- 
 nity. A passion for splendor, for expensive amusements and dis- 
 tinctions, is commonly found in that description of women who 
 would become the subjects of such a law, not less inordinate than 
 their otlier appetites. A severity of the kind proposed applies, 
 immediately to that passion. And there is no room for any com- 
 plaint of injustice, sin<:e the provisions above-stated, with others 
 which miglii be contrived, confine the punishment, so far as it is 
 possible, to the person of the olfender; suffering the estate to re- 
 main to the heir, or within the family of the ancestor from whom 
 it came, or to attend the appointments of his will." Moral and 
 Political Philosophy, p. ?73. 
 
 DIURETICS, [f;a;!Tix©',] a term applied to those medicines 
 which increase the secretion of urine in the kidneys. Their ope- 
 ration consists in promoting the circulation of the blood towards 
 the renal arteries, rendering that vital fluid more serous, and at the 
 same time stimulating the secretory organs. 
 
 DIURIS, in botany, a ^enus of the gynandria diandria class 
 and order. Nectarv dependent; petals nine; the live outer ones 
 very large; of two shapes; column of the fructilicatioii reversed, 
 with a lid at top. One species only is known. 
 
 DIURNAL, in astronomy, something relating to the day, in 
 opposition to nocturnal, which regards the night. 
 
 Diurnal Arch, the arch or number of degrees that the sun, 
 moon, or stars, describe from their rising to their setting. 
 
 Diurnal Motion of a Planet, is so many degrees and mi- 
 nutes as any planet moves in twenty-four hours. Hence the mo- 
 tion of tl;e earth about its axis, is called its ciiurual motion. See 
 Astronomy. 
 
 DIVUS, and DIVA, in antitpiity, appellations given to men 
 and women wlio had been deilied, or ranked among the gods. 
 
 DIVY Point, a cape of Hindostan, in the bay of Bengal. 
 Lon. 81. 20. E. Lat. 15. 5J. N. 
 
 DIXAN, the first town of Abyssinia, on the side of Taranta. 
 Lon. 40. 7. E. Lat. 14. 57. N. 
 
 DIXMUDE, orDYMUDE, a town of France, in the de- 
 partment of Lys, 1 1 miles S. of Ostend. 
 
 DIZIER, St. a town of France, in the department of L^pper 
 Marne. Lon. 4. 54. E. Lat. 48. 35. N. 
 
 DMITRIEU SUOPA, a town of Rus5ia,in the government of 
 Kursk, 20 miles N. N. \V. of Kursk. Lon. 53. 30. E. Lat. 53. 
 5. N. 
 
 DNIEPER, DNEPER, or NIEPER, the ancient Boris- 
 thenes, a large river of Europe, rising in Smolenskow, running a 
 long course in a S. direction, and falling into the Black Sea, be- 
 twi-en Cherson and Ockzakow. 
 
 DNIESTER, or NTESTER, a fine river of Europe, whicli 
 rises in Gallicia, in Austrian Poland, and falls into the Black Sea, 
 between the mouths of the Dnieper and the Danube. 
 
 DO, in music, a note of the Italian scale, corresponding to ut 
 of the common eamut. See Mvsic. 
 
 DOAB, or DOOAB, a territory ©f Hindostan Proper, be- 
 tween the Ganges and tlie Jmnna. 
 
 DOBBS, a district of N. Carolina. 
 
 DOBELIN,
 
 1 
 
 D GO 
 
 175 
 
 DOC 
 
 DOBELIN, or I^OBLEX, a (owii in tlie duchy of Coiulaiid; 
 ii miles S. \V. of Mittau. 
 
 D015EZ1N, or ]:)OBEZYN, a town of Great Poland, in Cii- 
 iavin, 63 miles X. of Warsaw. 
 
 DOBOV, a small American island, in tlio Atlantic, near the 
 cast of Georgia. Lon. 81.31. W. Lat. 3\. I'S. N. 
 
 D015RAKOTZ, a town of Hungary, 19 miles S. of Synion- 
 
 turiiva. 
 
 IJOBRATA, a town of European Turkey, in the province of 
 Moldavia, 40 miles \V. of Jassy. 
 
 DORRENIZ, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Konigia- 
 gralz: S miles S. W. of Konigingratz. 
 
 DOBUNI, or BODL'Nf, an ancient people of Britain, who 
 possessed the territory which now forms the counties of Oxford 
 and Gloucester. Both the names of this British nation seem to 
 have been derived from the low situation of a great part of the 
 country which they inhabited: for both duvii and hodun signify 
 '• profound" or "low," in the ancient language of Gaul and Bri- 
 tain. The Dobuni are not mentioned among the British nations 
 who resisted the Romans under Julius Cxsar, wliich was probably 
 owing to the distance of their country from the scene of action; 
 and before tlie next invasion under "Claudius, they had been so 
 much oppressed bv their ambitious neighbours the Catlivellauni, 
 that they submitted with pleasure to the Romans, to be delivered 
 from that oppression. 
 
 DOCE, or ERESH WATER RIVER, a river of South 
 America, in Brasil, wliich runs into the Atlantic. 
 
 DOCETjE, [from fy^ay, to appear,] in ecclesiastical history, 
 tlie followers of Julius Cas«ianus, one of the Valentiiiian sect, to- 
 wards the close of the secind century, who revived a notion that 
 had been adopted by a branch of the Gnostics, against wliom St. 
 John, Ignatius, and Polycarp, had asserted the truth of the incar- 
 nation. They believed and taught, as their name imports, that 
 the actions and sntl'erings of Jesus Clirist were not in reality, Init 
 only in ap))i'arance. 
 
 DOCIMASIA, in Greek antiquity, a probation of the magi- 
 strates anil persons emplojed in public business at Athens. 
 
 DOCIMASTIC x\rt, a name given to the art of assaying by 
 operations in small, the nature and (]uantity of metallic or otlier 
 matters which may be obtained from mineral, or other compound 
 bodies. See Metallurgy. 
 
 DociMASTTC Hundred, or Centner, in metallurgy and as- 
 saying, is a weight divisible, first into 100, and tlience into smaller 
 parts; but though the word is the same both with the assayors and 
 metallurgists, yet it is to be understood as expressing a yery dif- 
 ferent quantity in their different acceptation of it. 'ilie weights 
 of the metallurgists are easily understood, being of the common 
 proportion, but those of the assayers are a thousand times smaller 
 thari these, as the portions of metals or ores examined by the as- 
 sayers are usually very small. The metallurgists, who extract 
 metals out of their ores, use a weight divided into 100 equal parts, 
 e;'.ch part a pound; tiie whole tliey call a centner, or hundred 
 weight; the pound is divided into 32 parts, or half ou;:ces: and 
 the half-ounce into two quarters of ounces, and these each into 
 two drams. These divisions and denominations of the metallur- 
 gists are easily understood; but the same words used by assavers 
 express very different quantities; for as the centner of the metal- 
 lurgists contains lOOIb. the centners of the assayers is really no 
 more than one dram, to which the other parts are proportioned. 
 
 DOCIMENOS, in ancient geography, a city of Phrygia, af- 
 terwards called Synaia. 
 
 DOCIMENl M Marmor, a name given by the ancients to a 
 species of marble of a bright and clear white, much used in large 
 and sumptuous buildings, such as temples and the like. 
 
 DOCK, in botany. See Rumex. 
 
 Dock. 1. The stump of the tail, which remains after docking. 
 2. The solid part of the tail. 
 
 Dock, in the manege, is used for a large case of leather, as long 
 as the dock of a horse's tail, which serves it for a cover. The 
 French call the dixk troussequeee. It is made fast by straps to 
 the crupper, and has leathern thongs that pass betwecn'liis Ihigiis, 
 .and along his fl.,nks to tlie iaddle straps, in order to keep the'tail 
 tight, and to hinder it from whisking a!)out. 
 
 Dock, [us some imagine of S^yuov,'] in maritime affairs, abroad 
 and deep ti-ench, formed on the side of a harbour, or on the bank 
 «t' a river, and commodiou'^ly fitted either to build s.'iips in, or 
 
 I reci: ve them to be repa'red. The.-'e docks have ger,er..iiy stioij.; 
 flood-gates, to prevent the riux of the tide from entering tiie dock 
 while the ship is under repair. 
 
 Dock, Wet, is a dock, wliere a sliip can only be cleaned dur- 
 ing the rccevs of the tide, or in'the interval betsvt-en the time when 
 the tide leaves her a-ground, and tlie period wh.en it again reaches 
 her by the return of the flood. The largest and most commodious 
 docks in this country, or perhaps in tlic world, are those con- 
 structed of late years at L'verpool. 
 
 Dock Yard^, magazines containing all sorts of naval stores 
 and timber for ship-building. In England, the roval dock-yards 
 are at Chatham, Portsmouth, Piymoulh, Deptford, \Voolwich, 
 and Sheerness. The ships and vessels of war which belong to the 
 nation, are generally moored at tliese ports during the time of 
 ps-ace; and such as want repairing are taken into the docks, exa- 
 mined, and refitted for service. The principal dock-yards are 
 governed by a commissioner resident at the port ; who superin- 
 tends all the musters of the officers, artificers, and labourers, em- 
 ployed in the dock-yard. He also controuls the payments there- 
 in ; examines the accounts ; contracts, and draws bills on the navy- 
 oliice to supply the deficiency (>f stor(:s; and regulates whatever 
 belongs to tlie dock-yard, maintaining due order in the respective 
 offices. These yards are generally supplied from the: northern 
 states with hemp, jiitch, tar, rosin, canvas, oak-pUink, and several 
 otlier articles. Masts, particularly those of tiie largest size, are 
 usually imported from New England. Of late years plans have 
 been brouglit forward and executed for improving tlie j.ondon 
 docks; making wet-docks for the West India shipping only ; and 
 otiiers for the East India shipping only, these have proved very 
 advantageous to the commerce of the port of London, and to the 
 companies who raised the money for accomplisliing them. 
 
 Dock Company, London. This company was e;;tablished by 
 an act of 39 and 40 Geo. lU. pass:ed the '20th of June, 1300, by 
 w hich they were ivnpowered to raise a capital stock of 1,200,000?. 
 This has since been increased ; so that the total capital stock which 
 tl.e company are authorized to raise, if necessary, is 2,200,00il/. 
 Tlie company is under the management of twenty-four directors, 
 who are elected annually. Two general courts of proprietors are 
 held every year, at which all persons arc entitled to vote who pcs- 
 ^es iiO'il. stock or upwards. Tlie dividends on their stock are re- 
 stricted to 10 per cent, per annum, and arc paid on the 1st of Ja- 
 nuary, and the fst of July. The pre.-ent dividend is 5i per cent, 
 and the company pay the property tax thereon. The dividends 
 arc paid, and transfers made on any day except holidays. The 
 company was reipiired to complete the docks within seven years, 
 ami so early as the close of January, ISOJ, the dock was opened for 
 public Use. 
 
 Dock Company, West India. This company was establish- 
 ed by an act of 39 Geo. 111. passed the 12th of July, 1799, and 
 was impowered to raise a joint ; lock of 5)00,000/. with liberty to 
 increase the same to 600,000/. which has since been increased to 
 1,200,000/. The company is under the management of twenty- 
 one directors, eight of whom must be hiembers of the corpor.''.tion 
 of London. They are elected anuually, five, going out every 
 year for three years, and six the fourth year. Two general meet- 
 ings of proprietors are to be held every year, in January and July, 
 at which all persons are entitled to vole who liold 590/, stock, ur 
 upwards. Votes may be given by power of attorney. The pre- 
 sent dividend is 10 per cent, per annum, and becomes due the 1st. 
 of January, and the 1st of July. l"he dividends are payable every 
 day, and the company pay the property tax thereow. The dock 
 was opened in August, 1S02. 
 
 Dock Company, East India. This company was estahlisli- 
 ed by an aU of 43 Geo, III. passed the 27th of J'uly, 180.1, and 
 was authorized to raise a capital of 200,000/. divided into sharci of 
 10;7. each. They have since been impowertd to increase their 
 capital to 400,000/. nearly the whole of whicii has been raised. 
 Tliey w ere to pay five per cent, interest on tlie money advanced ; 
 and after the docks diould be completed to make di\ idenrls not 
 exceeding 10 per cent, per annum. The cnrnpanv i'; under the'' 
 management of thirteen directors, who must be holders of al least 
 twenty shares of the company's sto( k, and four of them must be 
 directors of the East India compjiiy. They are elected annually 
 in July, and t!ir-ee go out every year. Two general meetings arO* 
 
 at wliicli proj'rietoi-s of live 
 
 Tliey nva-t also l>e di, 
 
 riiclois 
 
 held yearly, in January and Ju 
 shares and. upv ;iv ' 
 
 '.s are entitled to vole. 
 6
 
 DOC 
 
 170 
 
 1)0 D 
 
 tectors of the East India company, or have been so witliin two 
 \oar?, or bo au :'.^cnt, hiisbaud, coiifigi'.ec, or owner, to tlie value 
 of 500/. or iiijw.-.rclr^, of i'.ast (luiia shipping. The pre-fiit divi- 
 ik'ud is at die rate of live per cent, per anmiiii, ami is payable at 
 I.a'ly-;lay i'.i:d Micliaeli'.ias every <iay except Fridays, between 
 tlie liours of eleven a:ul two o'clock. 1 he dock was opened in 
 August, isno 
 
 DOCKEi', a little bill lied fo wares or goods, directed to the 
 person or place tiiey are lo be sent to. 
 
 Docket, or Dogget, in law, signifies a brief in writint^, made 
 on a small piece of ]>aper, or parclnv.eiit, containing the purport 
 and elfect of a large writing. 'I'he rolls of judgement, when 
 brought into the roort of rommoii pleas, are entered on the dockei 
 6f that term: and attorneys keep docket-books, wherein they en- 
 ter judt>enienl^. 
 
 DoCKUM, a river an<! town of Batavia, in the department of 
 I'ems, 10 miles N. !•',. of Lewarden. 
 
 DOCrOU, f-»i"e><7x»,?.3;,] in the Greek church, is a particular 
 oflicer appointed to interpret part of the scriptures: He who in- 
 terpjels the Gospels, is called doctor of the Go^^pcls; he who in- 
 terprets St. J'aul's ICpistles, doctor of the Apo^tle; he who int.rr- 
 prets the Psalms, doctor of Ihe Psalter. 
 
 Doctor is also an appellation adju'ncd to several specific ej)i- 
 thets, expressing the merit of the schoolmen: thus, Alexander 
 Hales is called the irrefragable doctor; Thomas Aquinas, the an- 
 gelic doctor; St. Bonaveiiture, tliC seraphic doctor; John Duns 
 Scotus, llie subtile doctor; Kai)nond Lully, tlie illuminated doe- 
 tor; Roger Bacon, ti.e admirable doctor, &:c. 
 
 DocioROF THE Chuhch, a tilic given to certain fathers whose 
 doctrines and opiiuons have been tlie most generally followed and 
 authorized. 
 
 Doctor of the Law, a title of honour am-^ng the Jews. The 
 invest\lu!e of this ovdi-r was performed. by puU:n:» a key and table 
 book in their hands ; which is what some authors imagine our Savi- 
 our alluded to, when, speaking of the doctors of tlie law, (Luke .\i. 
 5i',) he says, " Wo unio yini doctors of the law, lor \e have 
 taken away the key of knowledge: ye enter hot in yourselves, 
 and them that were entering ye hindered." 
 
 Doctor, Origin of the Degrf.e of. The establishment of 
 the doctorate, such a> now in use among us, is ordinarily at'ributed 
 to Ireneus, who himself drew up tiie tormulary. The first cere- 
 mony of this kind was performed at liologna, in the person of Bul- 
 garus, who began to pnifess the Koniaii law, and on that occasion 
 was solemnly promoted to the doctorate, i. e. installed juris ulri- 
 usque dje.tnr. But the cus'ora was soon transferred from the fa- 
 culty of law to th;t of theology; the iirst instance whereot was 
 given in the universitv of Paris, where Peter I^ombard, and Gil- 
 bert de l.i Portree, the two chief divines of those days, were cre- 
 ated doctors in Iheolop.y, sacnc Iheoiogiae doctores. Spelman 
 lakes the title of doctor not to h.ave commenced til after the publi- 
 cation of Lombard's sentences, about 1 140; and affirms, that such 
 as explalne<l tiiatworkto their scholars were the first that had the 
 appellation of doctors^.- Others go much higher, and hold Bede 
 to have been the first doctor at Camfiri'lge, and John de Beverly 
 at Oxford, which last died A. D. 721. But Spelman will not 
 allow doctor to have been the name of any title or degree in Eng- 
 land, tin the reign of king John, about 1-07. By stat. 37 Henry 
 Vlli. c. 17. sect. 4. a do( tor of the civil law may exercise eccle- 
 ?iastical jurisdiction, though a lay nu;n. 
 
 !D0CT0R, PRfi-REQUISirrS FOR PASSING IN ENGLAND. To 
 
 pass D. D. at Oxford, it is necessary die candidate have been four 
 yeais: bachi'lor of divinity. Kor I,L. D. he mu'-t have been seven 
 years in the university to comm^'nce LL. B. five years after which 
 he may be admitted "doctor. Otherwise, in three years after tak- 
 ing the degree of M. A. he may lake the degree of LL. B. and in 
 /our years mere that of LL. D. wliich. method and time are like- 
 wise required to obtain the degree of M. D. At Cambridge, to 
 take the degree of D. D. it is recpiislte th.'^t the candidate have 
 Ijeen sevfiti years B. D. t'loiigh in several of the colleges the tak- 
 ing of the bachelor's degree is dispeu^ed with, and they may go 
 out persallutn. To conniience LL. D. the candidate must have 
 been five years LL. B. or seven NL A. To pass ^L D. iie must 
 liave been five years B.D. or sevvn years M. A. 
 - Doctors Commons. See Coixf.ge. 
 
 DOCU.Ml'iNT, in law, some uritten monument produced in 
 fioof of any tiding asserted. 
 
 DODAR riA, a genus of the angiospermia order, and didy* 
 namia class of plants ; natural order, Pcisonatie.- Calyx quinque- 
 dentated ; uncier lip of the corolla twice as long as the upper ; 
 capsule bilocular, globose. 'I'wo specie*, natives of India. 
 
 DODBlUH)K,''a town in Devrnshire, li| mile. S.W. of Dart- 
 mouth, and t'lij W. S. \\ of LoiicJon' 
 
 JJODl), Dr. Wii.lia.m, an unfortunite Englidi divine, eldest 
 son of the rev.W . Dodd, v:cxir of Bourne, in Lincolnshire, was born 
 May ','9, \'~9. He was sent to Cambridge, in 174j. In 1749-50 he 
 took tlie decree of B.A. with great honour, bemg upon that occa- 
 sion in the list of wr;:ng!crs. Leaving ihe university, he married 
 Miss Mary Perkins in 1751 ; was ordained a deacon the same 
 year; p^ie^t in 1753, and soon became a celebrat.--d and popular 
 preacher. By the jiatronage of bishop Squire, he, in 1703, ob- 
 tained a prebend of Brecon, and by the. inlerest of son.e city 
 fi lends, was appointed one of the king's chajiLins; soon altef 
 which he had the caie of the education of the earl of Chesterfield. - 
 In 17(5(3 he took the degree of LL.D. At this period, tiie esti- 
 mation in which he was held by the world was sufllcient to give 
 him expectations ot preferment, and hopes of riches and honours; 
 and these he might probably iiave acquired, had he possessed a 
 common portion of prudence. But, impatient of hi- situation, 
 and eager for advancement, he rashly fell upon means which in the 
 end were the occasion of his ruin. VVhen the living of St. George, 
 Hanover-square, became vacant, he wTote an anonymous letter 
 to the chancellor's lady, ohering 3000 guineas if by her assistance 
 lie was piomo'.ed to ii. This being traced to him, comp.iaivt was 
 immediately maile to the king, and Dr. Dodd was dismissed with 
 disgrace from Lis office of chaplain. From this period he lived 
 neglected, if not despised ; and his exlravagance and diliiculties 
 iiureasing, he f.irged lord CMiesterfield's name to a bond for 4'-'00/. 
 in hopes of being able to take it up before it was due, but the 
 fraud was discovered, and he was tried and condemned, Februarv 
 24, 1777. Great exertions were made to save his Ide, but in vain', 
 and he was executed at Tyburn, June 27lh following. lie ex- 
 pressed deep contrition for his crimes, and for the scandal which 
 he had brought on his piofession. He publisiied a translktion of the 
 poems of Calhniachus ; four volumes of sermons on the Miracles 
 and Parables; a collection of Poems ; Reflections on Death, 12mo. 
 Comfort for the Afllicted, Svo, and alter his death appeared his 
 1 houghts in Prison, with his life prefixed. 
 
 DODECAHEDRON, [from «i«r«, twelve, and iV, base,] 
 is one of the Platonic bodies, or five regular solids, and js con- 
 tained under twelve equal and regular pentagons. The solidity 
 of a dodecahedron is found by multiplying the area of one of the 
 pentagonal faces of it by twelve ; and then this latter product by 
 one-third of tne distance of that face from the centre of the dode- 
 caheihon, which is the same as the centre of the circuniscribina 
 Sjihere. 
 
 DODDRIDGE, Philip, D.D. an eminent Presbyterian mi- 
 nister, the s"n of Daniel Doddridge, an oilman in London, where 
 he was born on the 2(jth of June, 1702. Having completed the 
 study o! the classics, he was, in 1719, placed under the tuition of 
 the rev. John Jennings, who kept an academy at Kilworth in Lei- 
 cestershire. He was first settled as a minister at Kilworth, where 
 he preached to a small congregation in an oiiscure village ; but, ou 
 Mr. Jennings's death, succeeded to the care of his a<'ademy ; and 
 soon after was chosen minister by a large congregation of Dissen- 
 ters at Northampton, to which he removed his academy, and 
 vvhere the nunibtT oi his pu]iils increased. He instructed them 
 with the iVeedoni and tenderness of a father ; ?nd never desired 
 that they should bhnilly lollow his sentiments, but encouraged 
 them to judge for themselves. He checked any appearance of 
 bigotry and uncliaritableness, and endeavoured to cure Ihein by 
 shewing wiiat might be said in defence otthose principles tliev dis- 
 liked. W'l while he was thus liberal as to the opinions of others, 
 he was so steady to his own principles th.it he refused a very 
 genteel offer of patroaage made him by the Duchess of Bedforcl, 
 on condition of his turning over to the church of hingland. A 
 pulmonary complaint brought on a con-imipl;oii, for whii h he was 
 advised to try the I!ristol waters, and these proving ineffectual, he 
 went to Lisbon, where liedied in 1751. Though tender in his con- 
 stitution, he published a number of exeelleni works, the principal 
 of which are. his Family I'ixposilor on tlu- New Testament, vols. 
 4to. ; the Rise and Progress of Religion in the Soul, of which nu- 
 merous editions have been printed ; the Life of Colonel Gardiner;, 
 
 acd
 
 DOG 
 
 177 
 
 I) D r. 
 
 ami Semious on llie Evidences of Ciiristianity. His single sei- 
 iiinns and tr.icti were collicU-<l in S vols. U'mo. after liis death: 
 alsoiiis llvmns; Lei lures on Pneunuitology, Elliics, ami Divinity; 
 aiitl a volume of Lis Letters, l)v Mr. Stednian of .Slirewsbury. 
 
 DODi'X'AOYNIA, [from teJsi-t, twelve, and yyvi, a woman,] 
 the (ifili order in the cl.iss dodecandria; consisting of plants, wliieli, 
 along wilh the general cb.aracteristics of the class, have twelve fe- 
 nmU: organs. See Hoi any. 
 
 DODKX'ANDKIA, [from 'a«x'>, twelve, and nv.ij, a man,] the 
 elcvcnih class in Linnxus's sexual system, consisting ot plants with 
 hermaphrodite flowers, that have twelve male organs. It is not, 
 however, limited to ll-.is number. Many genera have sixteen, 
 eighteen, and even nineteen stamina. The essential character is, 
 that the >tamin.i, howi'vcr numeron^, are inserted into the recep- 
 tacle. See Botany. 
 
 DODI'X'A:?), a genus of the frigvnia order, and dodecandria 
 klass of plants. Calyx half-quadrihd having the corolla above; 
 corolla quiniiuefid, capsule unilocular, conjoined with the calyx. 
 One species only is known. 
 
 DODKCATEMORION, [.'u.S£y.«1.,,ao;.»v,] the twelfth part. 
 
 DODKC ATHLON, Media, a genus ot the monogynia order, 
 and peiitandria class of plants: natural order Precia'. Corolla verti- 
 cillated, rellexed ; stamina placed in the tube ; capsule unilocuhir, 
 oblong. It has one species. 
 
 DCJIK), in ornithology. See Didus. 
 
 DODONA, a town ot Thesprotia in Epirus, or, as some sav, 
 in Thessalv. 'I'here was in its neighbourhood a celebrated oracle 
 of Jupiter. The oracles of Dodona were generally delivered by 
 i women. 
 
 DODON.E.'V, a genus of the monogynia order, and octandria 
 class of plasis. Calyx tetraphyllous; no corolla; capsule Irilocular, 
 inflated ; seeds two-fold. It has tw o species. 
 
 DODON.i'.LS, or D0D0N1.\N, in antiquity, an epithet 
 given to Jupiter, becaus'j he was worshipped in a temple bu:lt in 
 the forest of Dodona. 
 
 DODONILS, the priestesses who gave oracles in the temple 
 of Jupiter, in Dodona. According to some traditions the temple 
 was originally inhabited by the seven daughters of Atlas, who 
 nursed Bacchus. '1 heir names were Ambrosia, Eudora, Pasithoe, 
 Pytho, Plexaure, Cotoni^, and Tyche. 
 
 DOIDRANS, in antiquity, three-fourths of the as, or nine 
 uncia-. 
 
 DOE, in zoology. See Cervus. 
 
 DOEG,' [jit, Heb. /. e. careful,] the Edomite, a bloody vil- 
 lain, who acted in the quadruple character ot chief herd--nian, in- 
 former, accuser, and executioner, to king Saul. Plis moni,lrous 
 barbarity in murdering the whole people of Nob, men, women, 
 and children, at the mandate of the enraged monarch, when even 
 his own footmen refused to obey his iniquitous order (1 Sam. xxii. 
 17), artords one ot the numberless instances, with which both sa- 
 cred and profane history abound, of the dreadful eft'ects of despotic 
 power. 
 
 DOESBURG, a town of Holland, in the department of 
 Yssel, 10 miles S. S. W. of Zutphen. 
 
 DOFREFIELD, or DOFRINE, the highest peak of the 
 mountains, which divide Norway from Sweden. 
 
 DOG, in zoology, an animal remarkable for its natui-al docility, 
 fidelity, and affection, for its master; qualities which mankuid are 
 careful to improve for their own advantage. See Cakis. In se- 
 veral parts of Africa and Cliina, dogs are eaten, as well as by the 
 A\ est Indian negroes, and accountetl excellent food ; and we "have 
 the testimony of Mr. Foi-ster, that dogs ilesh, in taste, exactly re- 
 sembles nuitton. They were also used as food by the Romans, and 
 long before them by the Greeks, as we learn from several treatises 
 el Hippocrates. Dogs bred in 15ritaiu are justly reckoned supe- 
 rior to the dogs bred in any other country. The swiftness of the 
 greyhound is am;izing : as are also the steadiness and perseverance 
 of other hounds and beagles; the boldness of terriers in une:n-thing 
 foxes, &c. ; the sagacity of pointers and setting dogs, who are 
 taught a language by signs as intelligible to sportsmen as speech; 
 and the invincible spirit of a bull-dog, which can be conquered 
 onlv by death. All the nations in Europe not only do justice to 
 the'-u|>erior qualities of the British dogs, but adopt" our terms and 
 'names, and ihanklully receive the cri'ature> as presents. It is re- 
 Biarkable, however, that almost every kind of British dogsdegenc- 
 Voi_ II. — x'o. 67. 
 
 rale in foreign countries; nor is it possible to pievenl this dcgeni;- 
 racy by anv art whatever. 
 
 DOG ADO, [llal. i. c. duchy,] a province of Italy, in Venicr, 
 comprehending that part of the state m which the city of Venice 
 lies. 
 
 DOGATE, [Ital. dogadn, from ditcatus, Lat. a duchy,] the 
 lateofticeof dose, in the late aristocracies of Genoa and Venice. 
 DOG-BANE, in botany. See ArocvNUM. 
 DO(j-DAYS, the days in which the dog-star rises and setswilh 
 the sun, vulgarly reputed unwholesome. 
 DoG-DAvs. See C;an'icula. 
 
 Doge properly signilies duke, being formed from the Latin dux. 
 The dogate, or oliice and dignity of doge, was elective; at Venice, 
 he was elected for life ; at Genoa, only fur two years; he was ad- 
 dressed under the title o; Serenity, which was esteenied superior 
 to that of Highness. 
 
 Dog-fish. See SauALUs. 
 
 DOGGEU, a Dutch fishing-vessel navigated in the Ger- 
 man Ocean. It is generally employed in the herring lish.ery. 
 
 DOGGERS, in the English alum works, a name given by the 
 workmen to a sort of stone lound in t!ie same mines with the tiue 
 alum-rock, and containing some alum, though not near so much 
 as the right kind. 
 
 Dt)G.M ATISTS, a sect of the ancient physicians, of which 
 Hippocrates was the founder. They are also called /ogz'c;, logi- 
 cians, from thi-ir u-ing the rules of logic in medical subjects. 
 They laid down delinitions and divisions; reducing diseasi-s to 
 certain genera, and those gem ra to species, and furnishing reme- 
 dies for them all ; supjjosing principles, drawing conclusions, and 
 applyiag those i)rinciples and conclusions to particular diseases 
 under consideration : in which sense tlie dogmatists stand contra- 
 <listinguished from empirics and melhodisls. Thev reject all me- 
 dicinal virtues that they think not reducible to manifest dualities ; 
 Init Galen has long ago observed, that Ihey must either deny plant 
 facts, or assign but very poor reasons and causes of many effects 
 they pretend to explain. See Medicixk. 
 
 DOG-RIBBED INDIANS, a nation ©f North Americans, 
 who inhabit round lake Edlande, in the N. \V. part of North 
 America. They are oiten at war with the Aratha|)(SCow Indians. 
 Both these tribes are among the most savage of the lufsan race. 
 They trade with the Hudson bay company's settlements. 
 
 Dog's Head, a ca])e on the \V. coast of Ireland, in Galwav. 
 Lon. 11). S. W. Lat. 53. 34. N. 
 
 ^ Dog's Island, one of the smaller \'irgin islands, W. of \'irgiii 
 Gord.i, and E. of'l'ortula. Lon. 6'2. J5. W. Lat. IS. 20. N. 
 Dog's Stones, in botany. See Orchis. 
 Dog-Stak. See Cakicula, and Sirius. 
 DOIAGOI, an island of Russia, in tlie Frozen Sea, at the en- 
 trance of the straits of N'agaskoi. 
 
 DOIT, the ancient Scots penny piece, of which twelve were 
 equal to a penny sterling. It was a small copper coin, as thin as a 
 silver penny, and not much larger. 
 
 DOL, a town of I'rance, in tlie department of Ille and \ilaine, 
 and late province of Bretagne, 'J7 miles "\V. of Paris. 
 
 DOLCE AQl.'A, a town of Piedmont, in the county of Nice, 
 16 miles E.N. E. of Nice. 
 
 DOLCINGO, a strong town of European Turkev, in Albania, 
 10 miles S.F.. of Antivari. 
 
 DOLE, a town of France, in the department of Jura, and late 
 province of Franche Conit^, 23 miles \\ .S.W. of Bcsancon. Lou. 
 J. 3S. E. Lat. 47. 6. N. 
 
 Dole, in Scots law, signilies a malevolent intentinn. 
 DOLEGELLV, DOLGELLY, or DOLGETH, a town of 
 Nortli Wales, in Merionethshire, 46 miles S. of Caernarvon. 
 
 Dt^LICHOS, a genus of the decandria order, and diadelphia. 
 class of plants; natural order Papilionace.T. Basis of tiie vexil- 
 lum has two callous knobs,'oblong, parallel, and compressing the 
 ake below. 'I'here are thirty-eight spcch:s, chietiv heroaceous an- 
 nuals, and natives of the Indies. 
 
 DOLIOCARPl'S, in botany, a genus of the polvaudria mono- 
 gynia class and order. Calyx "five-leaved; corolla'three-petaled, 
 |)ia!ted ; stigma subtrifid ; berry globular, croivned with tlie st\le, 
 one-celled, two-seeded. Thee species, shrubs of Cniiana. 
 
 DOLLAR, in this country, is chiellv applied to the Spaiush 
 
 silver coin, olhcrvvisc called' a piece of eiiflit. Dollars are aKo 
 
 - ■'• couicd
 
 DOM 
 
 17B 
 
 1) O M 
 
 coiiipcl in (Ullerent paits of Germany and HoUiind ; and Ivwe llieir 
 subdivisions, intij senii-dollars, qnarter-dollars, &c. See Money. 
 TNey arc of various fineness and WL'iglit. In the Levant the 
 Dutch dollars are called astani, from the iriipression of a lion on 
 them. 
 
 nOLLF.NnORF, a tovn of Germany, in Westphalia. 
 DOLUCKEN, a river of France, in the department of the Up- 
 per Rhine. 
 
 DOLPHIN, in ichthyology. See Delphin'us. 
 Dolphin' of the Mast, in sea langnage, a peculiar kind of 
 vreath, liirnied of plaited cordage, to be fastene<l occasionallv 
 ronnd the inasti, as a support to the puddening, whose use is to 
 sustain the weight of the fore and main yards in case the rigging or 
 chains by which those yards are suspended should he shot away in 
 the time of battle ; a circumstance which migh.t render their sa.ls 
 useless at a season when their aijistance is e.\treinely necessary. 
 
 Dolphin's Island, an island in the straits of Magellan. Lon. 
 71. 41. \V. Lat. :>3. J9. S. 
 
 i^OM, or DON, [an abridgement of domnus, from dor,u?uis,'] 
 a title ot honour, inv<nted and ciiiefly used by the Spaniards, sig- 
 nifying sir or lord. See Don. 
 
 DoM Asu SoM, in old charters, signifies full property and juris- 
 d'ction. 
 DOMAIN. See Demfsnp. 
 
 DOMA'I', John, a celei)rated Fp-nch lawyer, born in 1633, 
 vhf), obervinr* the confused state of the laws, digested them in 4 
 Tols. 4to. undi-r the title of The Civil Laws in their Natural Order: 
 for which Louis XIV. settled on him a pension of 2000 livres. 
 Domat was intimate with the famous Pascal, who left him his pri- 
 vate paper; at Ids death : he died in I(i96. 
 
 DOMAZLIZIi, a town )of Bohemia, in the circle of Pilsen, t7 
 miles S. of Pil-en. 
 
 DOM BACA, a small island near the coast of Ava, in the bay of 
 Bengal. Lon. 94. 35. E. Lat. 17. o>. N. 
 
 DOMBES, a late principality of France, about 24 miles long, 
 and 21 broad, lying on the W. bank of the Soane. Trevoux was 
 the capital. It now forms part of the department of Ain. 
 
 DOMBEYA, in botanv, a genus of the class and order dicrcia 
 monadelphia. Male, calyx of tlie anient ; scales terminated by a 
 leaflet; corolla none ; anthers ten or twelve, without filaments. Fe- 
 male, calyx anient, with many germs ; corolla none ; stigma bi- 
 valve, unequal ; seeds many, in a roundish strobile. There is one 
 species, a tree of Chili. 
 
 DOM E, Idomus, Lat. house,'] in architecture, is a roof of a he- 
 mispherical form, raised over the middle of a building, as a 
 church, hall, pavilion, vestibule, stair-case, &c. by way of crown- 
 ing. Domes are the same with what the Italians call cupolas; 
 or, according to Vilruvius, tholi. Tliey are usually made round; 
 though we have instances of square ones; as those of the Louvre; 
 and others that are polygons, as that of the ci-devant Jesuits church 
 in the Rue St. Anlome at Paris. They have usually columns 
 ranged around their outsider, both by way of ornament, and to 
 support the vault. See a plan and elevation of a circular dome 
 constructed without entering: Plate LIV. hg. 4. The first course 
 consists of the stones marked 1 , 1, of different sizes (the large ones 
 exactly twice the lieight of the small ones,) placed alternately, 
 an<l forming intervals to receive the stones marked 2, which rise 
 half their height above the large ones of the first course, and leave 
 alternate intervals as before for those marked 3 : the other courses 
 £re continued in tiie same manner, according to the order of tlie 
 figures, to the lop. It is evident from She converging or wedge- 
 like form of the intervals, that the stones they receive can only be 
 inserted from the outside, and cannot fall tlirough; therefore the 
 whole dome may be built without centering or temporary support. 
 ■|'o break the upright joints, the stones may be cut of the form as 
 .',t A, and those marked 16, 17, &c. near the key-stone, may be 
 enlarged, as at B. 
 
 DuME, in chemistry, the iijiper part of fm-naces, particularly 
 ijorlabic ones. It has the figure of a hollow hemisphere, or small 
 dome. Its use is to form a space in the upper part of the furnace, 
 the air of which is continually expelled by the hie : hence the cur- 
 rent of ah' is considerably increased, which is obliged to enter by 
 the -ash-hole, and to |;ass through the fire, to supply the place of 
 tiie air d:"iven from die dome. The form of this piece renders it 
 prootr Iv tetlcct or revei'uirate a part of the flame upon matters 
 
 which are in the furnace, which has occasioned this kind of furnace 
 to be called a reverberatory one. See Chemistry. 
 
 Dome, or Doom, signiiies judgement, sentence, or decree. 
 The homagers oath in "the black book of Ilerefor<l ends thus: 
 " So licl|) me God at his holy dome, and by my trowthe." 
 
 DOMESDAY, or DOOMSDAY BOOK," a most ancient re- 
 cord, made in the time of ^\■iUiam I. and centaining a survey of 
 all the lands of England. It consists of two volumes, 'i he fust 
 IS a large folio, written on 382 double pages of vellum, in a small 
 but plam character; each page having adouble column. Some 
 of the capital letters and principal passages are touched with red 
 nik ; and some have strokes ot red ink run across them; as if 
 scratclied out. This volume contains the description of 31 coun- 
 ties. The other volume is in 4to, written upon 4j0 double pages 
 of vfllum, but in a single coluii;n, and in a large but very fair 
 character. It contains the counties of Essex, Norfolk, Suifolk, 
 part of the county of Rutland included in that of Northampton, 
 and part of Lancashire in the counties of York and Chester. This 
 work, according to the rci hook in the exche(|uer, was begun by 
 order of William the Conqueror, with the advice of his parlia- 
 ment, in the year of our Lord lOSO, and completed in the vear 
 lOSCi. ^Fhe reason given for taking this survey, as assigned l>v 
 several ancient recorrls and historians, was, that everv man should 
 be satisfied with his own right, and not usurp with impunity what 
 belonged to another. But, besides this, it is said by others, that 
 now all those who possessed landed estates became vassals to the 
 king, and paid IVun so much money by way of homage, in propor- 
 tion to the lands they held. This appears very probable, as there 
 was at that time extant, a general siirvey of the wliole kingdom, 
 niude by order of king Alfred. For the execution of the survey 
 recoriled in domesday book, commissioners were sent into every 
 county and shire; and juries summoned in each hundred, out of 
 all orders of freemen, from barons down to the lowest farmers. 
 These commissioners were to be informed by the inhabitants, upoa 
 O'ath, of the name of each manor, and that of its owner; also by 
 whom it was held in the time of Edward the C'onfessor; the num- 
 ber of hides ; the quantity of wood, of pasture, and of meadow 
 land ; how many ploughs were in the demesne, and how many in 
 the tenanted part of it ; how many mills, how many fish-ponds, 
 or fisheries belonged to it ; with tlie value of the whole together 
 in the time of king Edward, as well as when granted by king \\ il- 
 liam, and at the time of this survey; also whether it was capable 
 of improvement, or of being advanced in its value: they were 
 likewise directed to return the tenants of every degree, the quan- 
 tity of lands then and formerly held by each of them, what was 
 the number of villains or slaves, and also the number and kinds of 
 their cattle and live stock. These incpiisiticins being first metho- 
 dized in the country, were afterwards sent up to the fving's exche- 
 quer. 1 his survey, atthe time it was made, gave great offence to 
 tiie people ; and occasioned a jealousy that it was intended forsome 
 new imposition. But notwithstanding all the precaution taken by 
 the conqueror, to have this survey faithfully and impartially exe- 
 cuted, it appears from indisputable authority, that a false return 
 was given in by some of the commissioners; and that, as it is said, 
 out of a pious motive. However, the authority of domesd-jy 
 book was never permitted 1o be called in questiim ; and always, 
 when it has been mcessary to distinguish whether lands were held 
 in ancient demesne, or in any other manner, recourse was had to 
 that only, to determine the doubt. From this dehniliye authority, 
 from which, as from the sentence pronoun<-.ed at domesday, or the 
 day of judgement, there could be no appeal, the name of the book 
 is said to have been derived. But Stowe assigns anotlier re;ison 
 for this appellat.oii ; namely, that domesday book is a coi.'uption 
 of domus Dei book; a title given it because heretofore deposited 
 in the king's treasui-)', in a place of the church of Westminster, or 
 Winchester, called domus Dei. F'roni the great care formerly 
 taken for the preservation of this survey, we may learn the estima- 
 tion in which Its importance was held. The dialogue de Scaccaris 
 savs, " Liber iUe (Domesday) sigilli regis comes est individuus in 
 thesauro." Lhitil lately it has been kept under tliree different 
 locKs and keys ; one in the custody of the treasurer, and the others 
 in that of the t'vvo chamberlains of the exchequer It is now de- 
 posited in the chap'er-house at Westminster, where it may be 
 consulted on paying to the jiroper officers a fee of 6s. ttd. for a 
 search, and 4i/.'per line for a transcript. Besides the two vo- 
 lumes
 
 I) O ^1 
 
 179 
 
 DOM 
 
 luines abovc-mpntionf d, UuTe is aUo a third made by order of the 
 same knv; and which dilCeri from the others in form more than 
 matter "There is also a fonrtii called dumesdav, wliich is Jccpt in 
 the exchequer; %vhich, Ihongh a very !ara;e volume, is only an 
 abrid^enient of the others. In llie remcmbr.ricer s oltiee m the 
 exchequer is kept a fiftli book, likewise called domesday, winch is 
 • lie same uith tlic fourth buok alreadv mentioned. 
 
 DOMF-STIC, in antiquity, v\as a particular olhcerm theconrt 
 of Conslantmople. According to some this oflicer was one en- 
 trusted to maiia;;e affaii-s of importance: others sav the Greek 
 domostici were the same with the Roman comiles; and that they 
 beam first to be used when count became a dignity: domestics 
 th'-i'efore were such as served t!ie prince in the administration oi 
 affairs, as well those of the family as the affairs ot justice and the 
 
 church. - , , . 1 • > 
 
 DC)MF.STIC HAPPINESS, the pleasures enjoyed in ones 
 
 family' in' distinction from those found in tlie bustle of public 
 
 lile, or delusively sonjht in the haunts of dissipation. bee 
 
 DO.MFUOXT, a town of France, in the department of Orne, 
 30 mili* N. W. of Alencon. Lon. 0. 43. W. Lut. 48. 3S.N. 
 
 DO.MIFYING, inaslroloiiv, the dividing or dislviouting ol the 
 heaveu' into I'i houses, to erect a theme, by means of six great 
 circles ctlled circl -s of position. Regioniontanus makes the 
 circles 'of position pass through the intersections of the meridian 
 and the horizon : others make thc-m pass through the poles ot the 
 
 zodiac. ... , .,, I- .■ 
 
 DOMINANT, among musicians, is used eituer as an adjective 
 
 or substantive. , ■ .i .. , ■ i • 
 
 1 Do-,tiNAN'T. The dominant or sensible chord is that which is 
 practised upon the domimint cf the tone, and wliich introduces 
 a perfect cadence. Every perfect major chord becomes a dom- 
 inant chord, as soon as the seventli minor is added to it. 
 
 2 Dominant, of the three notes essential to the tone, is that 
 ^hich is a futh from the tonic. The tonic and the dominant tix 
 the tone- in it they are each of them the fundamental sound ot a 
 uarlicnlar chord ; "whereas the mediant, which constitutes the 
 mode, has no chord peculiar to itself, and only makes a part of the 
 chord of the tonic. . , . , . ,, , 
 
 J Do-MINANT, in that species of church music which is called 
 plain cliant, is that note which is most freciuently repeated or 
 beaten, in whatever degree it may be from the tome. In this 
 snecies of music there are dominants and tomes, but no mediant. 
 
 DOMINGO, St, or HISPANIOLA, an island in the Atlantic 
 
 Ocean. See Hispaniola. , , , ■ , i t -a 
 
 Domingo, St. the capital of the above island. Lon. /O. 
 10. W. Lat. 18°. 19' 30". N. r u i^ • • 
 
 DOMINIC, De Gu/.man, the founder of the Dominican 
 order. See Dominicans. r- •, u • i i 
 
 DOMINICA, the last of the leeward or Caribbee islands, 
 takin'^'them from N.W. to S.E. so named by Christoplier Colum- 
 bus from his having discovered it on Sunday, 3rd. November 
 1493 It is situated about half-wav betwixt Guadaloupe on the N. 
 AV and Marlinico on the S. E. ! 5 leagues from each, between 15 
 20'' and 15° 44' 30" l?t. N. and between 6l° 17' and 01 30 lon. V, . 
 It is about 29 miles long; and nearly 16 broad. 
 
 Dominica, a town in the island of Cuba, 4^ mdes VV. ot 
 
 Havannaii. ,. , ^ , • i i 
 
 Dominica, orHEEVAROA, the largest of the Marquesas islands, 
 extending E. and W. IS miles. Lon. 139. 13. W. Lat. 9. 
 
 DOMINICAL LETTER, in chvonology, is that letter of the 
 alohabet which points out in the calendar the Sundays throughout 
 the var thence also called Sunday-letter. Sec Chronology. 
 The' Dominical Letter for any year may he found by the toUowing 
 rule Add tocrethcr the year, its fourth part, and the hgures which 
 remain from the fourth part after rejecting the units and tens ; also 
 reject the units and tens of tlie given year and add one to the re- 
 maining fissures; subtract this from the foregoing sum, and divide 
 the remVinder by seven, and subtract what remains from seven and 
 the last remainder is ihe index of the letter required. N- 'l- 1' 
 the ■^iven year exactly divides by 4, it is leap-year ; and the l)o- 
 iivnxdLe'tterfor January and February will be the one which im- 
 mediately succeeds, in tiie order of the alphabet, that found by 
 ♦he above rule. Thus to find the Dominical Letter tor 1809. 
 
 1 
 
 Therefore the Dominical Letter was A. 
 
 Example 2. I'o find the Dominical Letter for the ensuing year 
 of Christ 1811. 
 
 IS 11 The year of Christ. 
 432 Its fourth part, omitting fraction*. 
 
 4 Theremainingligiireof4j2, after omitting the units 
 and tens. 
 
 2-'67 Sum of the three numbers. 
 
 19 The number ofcenturies in the given year + 1 
 
 7 )2248 DitTerence of the two preceding quantities. 
 
 J21 Quotient of 2267 — 19 after its division by 7, and 1 
 over, wlvich taken from 7, according to the rule, leaves 6, the 
 index of the Dominical Letter; consequently F.thesixth letter in 
 the order of the alphabet, will be the Sunday-letter required. 
 
 E.uimplt 3. 'I'o find the Dominical Letters for the year of Christ 
 2000, it being leap-year. 
 
 2000 
 
 500 
 
 5 
 
 2505 
 21 
 
 7)24S4( 
 
 7 
 
 354-6 
 
 ■ 1 
 
 Therefore BA will be the Dominical Letters; See the article 
 Chronology in this work, pages 713, 7S1, and 782. 
 
 If the day of the month in any particular year on which any 
 Sunday fall's be given, the Sunday-letter may be found thus: 
 divide'the number of days from tlie" first of January to the given 
 Sunday inclusive by seven, and the remainder subtracted from 7 
 is the I'ndex of the Tetter: if nothing remains 7 is the index. 
 
 Example. The liberation of Sir Francis Burdett from the Tower 
 and of Gale Jones from Newgate took place on the prorogation of 
 the late session.of parliament, which was on Thursday, Juue 21, of 
 thepveseiit \ear; ipi.xre the Dominical Letter. 
 
 First, if "the 21st of June, 1810, happened on a Thursday, the 
 preceding Sunday must have taken place on June 17. Therefore, 
 according to the rule, 31, tlie number of days in .lanuary, -f 28, 
 ditto in Febru:iry, -+-31, ditto in March, -f 30, ditto in April, -f 
 31, ditto in May,+ 17, the given Sunday in June, = ItiS. And 
 IfiS divideil by 7 = 24 and nothing over, consequently G is 
 the Sunday-lett"er for this year, for 7 — = 7, the index of the 
 
 letter. , . , 
 
 DOMINICANS, an order of religious, so named Iroin their 
 founder Dominic De Guzman, who preached with grcst zeal 
 a'laiust the Albigenses in Languedoc, where he laid the first 
 foundation of this order. It was approved of in 1215, by In- 
 nocent III, and confirmed in 1216, by a bull of Houoiius III, 
 under the tide of St. Augustin ; to which Dominic added several 
 austere precepts and observances, obliging the brethren to take a 
 vow of absolute poverty; to abandon entirrdy all their revenues 
 and possessions; and to'take the title of Preaching Friers, because 
 the \v.\\iV\c instruction was the main end of their institution. 
 
 DOMllNlON, in the civil law, the power to use ov dispose of 
 
 things as we please. 
 
 Dominion,
 
 DON 
 
 180 
 
 DON 
 
 Dominion, in llieology, the fovirlh order of angels, in the 
 hierarchv, reckoning (Voni the sc-raphini. See Angel. 
 
 DO»\ilN'IS, Mark Anthony De, avchl>ishop of Spaliitro in 
 DahnatiLi at tlie c'ose of llie litlvand bei^inning of the loth ceji- 
 tiirie-, was a man whose lickleness in religion proved l\i.~ uiin. 
 His prefennenl, instead of allachiiig hini lo the church of Konie, 
 rendered liiiii disafi'ected to it. Becoming acquainted with bishop 
 Bedell, while chaplain to Sir Henry WoUon ambassador from 
 James I. at Venice, lie communicated his books " De Kepublica 
 Ecclesiastica to him ; which were afterwards published at London, 
 with Bedijll's corrections. He came to England with Bedell; 
 where lie was received w itii great respect, and preached and wrote 
 against the Romish religion. He is said lo have had a principal 
 han;! in publishing father Paul'-s " History of the Council of Trent," 
 at London, which was inscribed to King Jamc'S, in 1619. Rut on 
 the promotion of Pope Gregory XIV. who had been his school- 
 fellow and old acquaintance, he was deluded by Gondomar the 
 Spanish ambassador into the hopes of procuring a cardinal's hat, 
 by which lie fancied he should prove an in5trunieut of great re- 
 formation in the church. Accordingly he retm'jied to Home in 
 1622, recanted his errors, and was at llrst well received ; but Ik- 
 afterwards wrote letters lo RngUnul, repenting; his recantation ; 
 which being intercepted, he was imprisoned by Pope Urban Vll!, 
 and died in 1625. He was the author of the first philosophical 
 explanation of the rainbow, which bel'cre his time was accounted a 
 prodigy- 
 
 DOaHNIUM, in civil law. See Dominion. 
 
 Dominium Directum, in Scots law, the right which a supe- 
 i-ior retains in his lands, nutwithstLuding the feudal grant to liis 
 vassal. 
 
 DoMiNiu.M E.minens, in Scots law, tluit power which the slate 
 or severeign has over ])rivate property, by which the proprietor 
 in:'.y be compelled to sell it for an adequate price where public 
 ntility requires. 
 
 DoMiNivM Utii.e, in Scots law, the right which the vassal 
 acquires in the lands bv the feuc'ral grant from his superior. 
 
 DO.VIINUS, [Lat.'i. c. a lord or master,] a title anciently pre- 
 fixed to a name, usually to denote the person either a knight or a 
 clergyman. 'I'iie title was sometimes also given to a gentleman 
 not dubbed ; especially if he were lord of a manor. 
 
 DO.M I'rZ, a tovm and fortress of Germany ; in Lower Saxony. 
 Lon. 11. 41. E. Lat. 53. 15. N. 
 
 DOMMART, a town of France, in the department of Somme, 
 12 miles N. W. of Amiens. 
 
 DO.VLMEL, a river of France which rises about the borders 
 of the bishopric of Liege, and, passing by Bois-le-duc, joins the 
 INIeuse, and forms witli that river and the Waal, the island of 
 Bommel. 
 
 DoMMEL AND ScHFi.DT, One of the eight departments into 
 which the Balavian republic was divided, in JSIarch 1798. Her- 
 zogenhusch is the chief city. 
 
 DOMO-D'OSCELA,' DOMO-D'OSCELLO, or DOMO- 
 D'OSSOLA, a town of the late Cisalpine rcpublic,iii the late duchy 
 of Milan, S. W. of Lake Maggiore. Lon. 8. 25. E. L;it. 40. 
 '2. N. 
 
 DOMPAIRE, an ancient town of France, in the department 
 of Vosses. S) miles W. N. W. of Epinal. 
 
 DO.MREMY, a town of France, in the department of the 
 Men^e, 10', miles E. of Bar-le-dnc. 
 
 DOMUS CONSERVORUM, the ancient name of the house 
 where llie rolls are kept in Chancery-Lane. 
 
 DON, [ilominus, Lat.] the Spanish title for a gentleman; as, 
 Don Quixote. See DoM. ^I'his title was first given to Pelayo, in 
 the beginning of the eighth century. In Portugal no person can 
 assume the title of Don without the permission of the sovereign, 
 as it is reckoned a mark of honour and nobility. In France it was 
 formerly used among the n-ligious. 
 
 Don, a river of Russia, anciently called Tanais, which takes its 
 rise from the sniall lake of St. John, near Tula, in the government 
 of Moscow, and falls into the sea of Azof. 
 
 Don, a river of Scotland, in Aberdeenshire, which rises about 
 fnnrmiles N. of the Castle of Brae-Mar. 
 
 DONAGHADEE, a sea-port town of Ireland, in the comity 
 of Down, Ulster; 21 miles \V. of Port Patrick in Scotland. Lon. 
 5. .«!, \V. Lat. 54. 45. N. 
 
 DONAllIA, among the ancients, in its primary signification, 
 5 
 
 was taken for the places where the oblations offered to the gods 
 were kept ; but afterwards was used to denote the ofterings them- 
 selves ; and sometimes, improperly, the temples. 
 
 DONA'l'IA, a genus of the Ingynia order, and Iriandria class 
 of plants. Calyx three-leavec' ; corolla has from 8 to 10 petals 
 of an oblong linear shape, twice as long as the calyx; anlhera- 
 roundi-.h, didvmous, and two-lobed at tiie base. One species. 
 
 DONATION, in law, to be valid and complete, supposes a 
 capacity both in the donor and the donee; and requires consent, 
 acceptance, and delivery. 
 
 Donation Mortis "C.^usa, in law, a disiiosilion of property 
 made by a person in his last sickness, who apprehending his dis- 
 solution near, <lelivers, or cau-es to be delivered to another, the. 
 possession of any personal goods, to keep in case of his decease. 
 If the donor dies, this gift ii(-eds not the consent of his executct;- 
 but it shall not prevail against creditors; and it is accompanied 
 with this implied trust, that, if the donor lives, the property shall 
 revert to himself, being only given in prospect of death, or mortis 
 causa. This method of donation ^eems to have been conveyed 
 to lis from the civil lawyers, who borrowed it from the Greeks.' 
 
 DONy\TISTS, ancient schismatics in Africa, so denominated 
 friim their leader Donatns. They had their origin, A. D. 311, 
 when, in the room of Mensurius, who died in that year on his 
 return to Rome, Ca-cilian was elected bishop of Carthage, and 
 consecrated without the concurrence of the Numidian bishops, 
 by thoseof Africa alone; whom the people refused to acknowledge, 
 and to whom they opposed Majorinus; who, accordingly, was 
 ordained by Donatns bishop of Casa' Nigrae. They were re- 
 peatedly condemned, in diflereiit councils held at Rome and Aries: 
 and parlicularly in one at Milan, in 316, before Constaiitine the 
 , Great, who deprived them of their churches, banished their 
 bishops, and punished some of them with death. Their cause was 
 espoused by another Donatns, called the Great, the principal 
 bishop of that sect, who, with numbers of his followers, was exiled 
 by Constans. Thev are now nearly extinct. They were distin- 
 guished bv other appellations; as Montenses, Campites, Rnpites, 
 &c. Tlicy held three councils, one at Cirta in Nnmidia, and two 
 at Carth;:ge. The errors of the Doiiatists were, 1. That baptism 
 conferred out of the church, that is, out of their sect, was null ; 
 and accordingly they rebaptized those who joined their party from 
 other churches, and reordained their ministers. 2. That their's 
 was the only true, pure, and holy church ; (an error common to 
 bigots of all denominations;) all the rest of the churches they held 
 as prostitute and fallen. Donatns seems likewise to have given 
 into the doctrine of the Arians, with whom he was closely ahied ; 
 and, accoriiinglv, St. Epiphanius, Theodorel, and some others, 
 accused tiie Doiiatists of Arianism ; and it is probable that the 
 charge was well founded, because they were patroni/ed by the 
 \'andals, who were of these sentiments. But St. Augustine (Ep. 
 1 85, to count Boniface, & Ha?r. 69.) affirms, that the Donatists, 
 in this point, kept clear of the errors of their leader. 
 
 DONA ri\'E, in the c^uion-law, is a beiietiee given by the 
 patron lo a priest, without presentation lo the ordinary, and with- 
 out institution or induction. If chapels founded by laymen be 
 not approved by the diocesan, and, as it is called, spiritualized, 
 lliey are not accounted proper benefices, neither can they be con- 
 ferred by the bishop, but remain to the pious disposition of the 
 founders, anil their heirs, who may g'ive such chapels without the 
 bishoi). Gwin observes, that the king might anciently found a 
 free chapel, and exempt it from the jurisdiction of the diocesan ; 
 so may he, by letters patent, give liberty to a common person lo 
 found such a chapel, and make it donative, not presentable; and 
 the chaplain or beneliciarv, is deprivable by the founder or his 
 heir, and not by the bishop. Donatives are within the statute 
 against simony ; and if they have cure of souls, within that against 
 pluralities. If the patron of a donative does not numinale a clerk, 
 there can bo no lapse thereof, unli-ss it be specially provided for in 
 the foundalion ; but the bishop may compel him to do it by spiri- 
 tual censuri-s. But if it be augmented by queen Anne's bounty, it 
 will lapse like other presentative livings, 1 Geo. I. stal. 2. cap. 10. 
 The ordinarv cannot visit a donative, and therefore it is free from 
 procuration,' and the incumbent is exempted from attendance lis 
 visitations. All bishoprics anciently were donative by tlie king. 
 Where a bishop has the gift of a benefice, it is properly called a 
 donative, because he cannot present to himself. 
 
 DONATIVE, or DON ATIVUM, in antiquity, wasproperlya 
 
 gift
 
 DON 
 
 I8T 
 
 D O R 
 
 e'ift made to tlie soldiers, as congiariiim was to the people. The 
 TloiiKins mude hu-ge donatives to thi ir soldiers. Julia Pia, wife of 
 the emperor Si-verus, is called on cerlain nieilals mater castroriini, 
 because o! die caie she took of the soldierv, by interposing for the 
 aiisnientalion of their donatives, &c. 
 
 DONA TO UV, in Scrfts law, that person to whom the king be- 
 stows his right to any f(jrleiture that has fallen to (lie crown. 
 
 DOKANVERT, "a town of Germany, in Bavaria on the frontiers 
 ofSiiahia. 18 miles N. of Augsburg. Lon. 1 1. 5. E. Lat. 4S. 32. N. 
 
 DON AX, a geniH of inserts ot the class and order vermes tCo- 
 tacei. Aiiinial a tellivs ; shell bivalve, genendly with a cremdatf 
 margin, tiie frontal margin very obtuse ; hinge with two teeth, ajid 
 a single marginal one placed a little L.eliind, rarely double, triple, 
 or none. There are nineteen species. D. scortum is a triangular 
 lieart-shaped shell, with a llat frontal margin. It inhabits the In- 
 dian ocean. D. scripta iiiliabils the coast of Malabar, it is elegantly 
 painted with angular re<.ldi^ll, blue, or brown lines.. D. rugosais 
 rejiresented in Plate XXW'II. 
 
 D0> CASriCK, an ancient town, in the W. Riding of York- 
 shire, 37 miles S. of York. Lon. 1. 12. W. Lat. :.3. 33. N. 
 
 DONCUERR Y, (.rDONClIERY, a f.jrlitied town of France, 
 in the department of Ardennes, llnee miles from Sedan. Lon. 5. 
 2. E. Lat. 49. 42. N. 
 
 DONECJAL, a countv of Ireland, in the province of Ulster, 
 bounded on the E. bv Londonderry ; on the S. by Fermanagh ; and 
 on the W, and N. by tli<; ocean It is generally reckoned IjS miles 
 long, and 44 broad. Tlie surface is generally rugged and moun- 
 tainous; in some places marshy, interspersed with several rich val- 
 leys. The principal towns are Donegal, Ballyshannon, KiUibegs, 
 Litlbrd, and St. Johnstown, which send two members each to par- 
 liament, besides two from the county. 
 
 Do.vEG.iL, the capital of the county, 10 miles N. of Ballyshan- 
 non. Lon. 8. 30. W. Lat. .54. 42. N". 
 
 DoNECAi., Bay of, a large bay of the Atlantic, on the W. 
 coast of Ireland. 
 
 DONERAIL, a borough of Ireland, in Cork, 19 miles N. E. 
 of Cork. 
 
 DONETZK, a town of Russia, in U\e government of Ekateri- 
 noslau. 
 
 DONG ALA, DANGALA, DANCALA, orDANGOLA, 
 a town of Africa, in Nubia. Lon. 30. 35. E. Lat. 21. 0. N. 
 
 DONJON, a town of France, in the department of AUier, 24 
 miles S. K. of Moulins. 
 
 Donjon, in Fortilication, commonly signihes a large tower, or 
 redoubt of a fortress ; whence the garrison may retreat in case of 
 necessity, and i-apitidate with gootl advantage. 
 
 DONNE, John, D. D. a poet and divine of the 17th century. 
 His parents were of the Romish religion, and used their utniosi 
 efforts to keep him lirni to it ; but his early examination of the con- 
 troversy between the church of Rome and ihe Protestants, at last 
 determined him to choose the latter. He travelled into Italy and 
 Spain; where he made many useful observations, and learned 
 their languages to perfection. Soon after his return to England, 
 Sir Thomas Egerton, keeper of the gi-eat seal, appointed him his 
 secretary; in which post he continued live years. Marrying pri- 
 vately Anne, the daughter of Sir George Moore, then chancellor 
 of the garter, he was dismissed fi-om his place, and thrown into 
 prison. But he was reconciled to Sir George by the good offices 
 of Sir Francis Woolley. In I(jl2, he accompanied Sir Robert 
 Drury to Paris. During this time, many ot the nobility solicited 
 the king for some secular employment for him. But king James 
 who took pleasure in his conversation, had engaged him in writing 
 his Pseudo-Martyr, printed at London in 1610 ; and was so highly 
 pleased with that work, that, in I6l4, he prevailed with him to 
 enter into holy orders; appointed him one of his chaplains, and 
 
 frocured him the degree of D. D. from the university of O.xford. 
 n 1619, he atten<led the eurl of Doncaster in his embassy into 
 Germany. In 1621, he was made dean of St. Paul's: and vicar 
 of St. Dunstan, in London; the advowson of it having been given 
 to hull long before by Richard earl of Dorset. By these and 
 other preferments, he was enabled to be charitable to the poor, 
 kind to his hiends, and to make good provision for his children. 
 He wrote, besides the above, 1 Devotions upon emergent Oc- 
 casions^ 2. The Ancient History of the Septuagiiit, translated from 
 the Greek of Aristcus, in 4to. 3. Three volumes of sermons, 
 
 VOL. I. — NO. 67. 
 
 folio. 4. A considerable number of poems: and ollur works. He 
 died in 1631; and was interred in St. Paul's catliedial, where .^ 
 monunienl was erecteii to his memory. II is writings shew him to 
 have been a man of wit and learning, and he was, however, liiglily 
 celebrated by all the gre.it men of that age. 
 
 DONNllVGTON, or DUNNING ION, a town in Lincoln- 
 shire, 1 1 miles W. S, W. of Boston. 
 
 DONNOE, a small island in the North sea, near the coast of 
 Norway. 
 
 DONOR, in law, the person who gives lands or tenements to 
 another in tail, &c. as he to whom such lands, &c. are given, is 
 the Donee. 
 
 DONZY, a town of France, in the department of Nievre, 2f 
 miles N. of Nevcis. 
 
 DOOMSDAY BOOK. See Domesdav Book. 
 
 DOOR, in architecture, an aperture in a wall, to give entrance 
 and exit into and out of a building, or any apartment thereof. See 
 
 ARCHllliCTURE. 
 
 DOR, the common black betlle. See Scarab^us. 
 
 DORADO, in ichthyology. See Coryph/tma. 
 
 Dorado, in astronomy, a southern constellation, not visible 
 in our latitude; it is also called xiphias. The stars of this constel- 
 lation, in Sharp's catalogue, are six. 
 
 DOR/LNA, a genus of the monogynia order, and pentandria 
 class of plants. Corolla (ive-cleft ; stigma emarginate : capsule one- 
 celled. One species, viz. D. japonlca, a native of Japan. 
 
 DO RAN, a town of Arabia, in tlie country of Yemen, 2S miles 
 S. of Sana. Lon. 44. 4. E. Lat. 14. 5j. N. 
 
 DOR.\ r, a town of France in the department of Upper Vicnne, 
 24 miles N. of Limoges. 
 
 DORCAS. See Capra. 
 
 DORCHESTER, the capital of DorscUhire, seated on the 
 river P'rome, on a Roman road, 35 miles E. of Exeter. Lon. 2. 
 45. W. Lat. 50. 42. N. 
 
 DoRciiESTER.a town in Oxfordshire, 10 miles S. E. of Oxford. 
 Lon. LO. \V. Lat. 51. 39. N. 
 
 DoRcnESTEK, 3 County of Maryland, in North America. 
 
 DoRCHEsTtR Neck, a peninsula of Massachusetts, in Norfolk 
 county. 
 
 DORDOGNE, a department of France, comprehending part 
 of the late province of Perigord, bounded on the N. E. by that of 
 the L^pper Vienne, on the L. by those of the Lot and Correze, on 
 the S. by that of the Lot and Garonne, on the W. by those of the 
 Gironde" and the Lower Charente, and on the N. W. by tliat of 
 the Charente. Perigueux is the capital. 
 
 DoRDOGNE, a river of France, which rises about 7niilesN. \V. 
 of Resse, and joins the Garonne, near Bourdeaux. 
 
 DORDRECHT, or DORT. See Dort. 
 
 DORE, a river of France, w hich rises in the department of llie 
 Puy-de-dome, and joins the AUier. 
 
 fiORIC DIALECT, one of the five dialects, or manners of 
 speaking, which obtained among the Greeks. It was first used by 
 the Lacedemonians, and particularly those of Argos ; thence it 
 passed into Epirus, Libya, Sicily, the islands of Rhodes and Crete.'- 
 In this dialect, Archimedes and Theocritus wrote, who were both 
 of Syracuse ; as well as Pindar. The Doric dialect is properly 
 the manner of speaking peculiar to the Dorians, after their recess 
 near Parnassus and Asopus ; and wliicli al'terwards came to obtain 
 among the Lacedemonians, &c. Most of the medals of the cities 
 of Gr^cia Magna, and Sicily, favour of the Doric dialect in their 
 incription : e. g. ambI'.akiUt.an, AHOA^nNiATAN, AXEroNTArr, 
 
 AXrriTAN', Hl'.YXAKilTAN, TPAXXNIUN, fe/EPMITAN, KAT.\ONI.\TAN, 
 
 KoniATAN, TATPOMENiT.AN, &c. Which shcws the countries wherein 
 the Doric dialect was used. According to the Doric dialect, tie 
 vowels'!, ', c, u, are cli.anged iure; the diphthong .-i into r<. or ^i ; 
 and the <'X)nsonants fi into y; ^ into 3-5 ; " and ; into t ; r and 5 ifiito 
 X ; y. with a r or •"> following it, into v. Thus for t><}y.i, 'rf'X'"> "''"- 
 
 en;, /3>.ifoipa, &c. they say *!t/xa, rfo-X^, JfAcsfct, yXe^itfn, iicc. They 
 likewise change » into u.-, as /■oyu* tor Xoy«; also s®' into rj;, as 
 Si'.!n>.iij; for /SririXt®- : Id, tti, and asi into >), as Kft; tor xfsat, tysx>ip 
 for lytku!;, and 7rt>)c for y'».a.'i;: witli other transmutations of the 
 like nature. 
 
 Doric Mode, in music, the hrst of the authentic moA<^ of the 
 ancients. Its character is to be severe, tempered with gravity 
 and joy ; and is proper upon religious occasions, as also to be used 
 
 3A ^ >»
 
 D OR 
 
 182 
 
 DOU 
 
 11 war. It begins D, la, sol, ic. Plato admires the muMc of the 
 Doric mode, uiuljudgts it proper to preserve good manners as 
 beini^ ma-cidiiic ; and oil this account allows it in his common- 
 ^■eallh. The ancients had likewise their siibdoric or hypodoric 
 mode, wliich was one of the |>lagal modes. Its character was to 
 be verv grave and solemn: it be^an witli re, a fourth lower than 
 thi DoVie. 
 
 Doric Order, the second of the live ordcis of architecture. 
 It is usually placied upon the Attic base, though originally it had 
 iion;\ See" Architecture. At its lirst invention it was more 
 simple (Ivan at present ; and when in aftertime^ they came to adorn 
 and eniich it more, the appellation Doric was restrained to this 
 richer manner, and the primitive i>imple manner lliey called by a 
 new name, the Tuscan order, wliich was chielly used in temples ; 
 as the former, beijigmore light and dehcate, was for porticoes and 
 theatres. 
 
 DORIS, in ancient geograpliy, a country «f Greece, between 
 Phocis, Thessaly, and Acarnan'ia. It received its name from 
 Dorus the son of Deucalion, who made a settlement tliere. It 
 was called Tetrapolis, from its four cities, viz. Pindus or Dryopis, 
 Erinenm, Cytinium, and Borium. To these foursome add Lila'uni 
 and Cariiiiia, and therefore call it Ilcxapolis. The name of 
 Doris has been common to many parts of Greece. 
 
 Doris, in entomology, a genus of tire class and order vermes 
 testacea. Eody oblong, Hat beneath, creeping ; moutli placed be- 
 low ; vent behind surrounded with a fringe ; teelers two, retractile. 
 Tliere are twenty-four species. 
 
 D.Argo, the Lemon Doris, has an oval body, convex, marked 
 with numerous punctures, of a lemrn colour; the vent beset with 
 elegant ramilicatious. It inhabits dilferent parts of our seas, and is 
 called about Brighthelmstone the sea lemon. 
 
 Doris, in the mythology, the daughter of Oceainis and Tethys, 
 wife of Nereusand mother of the Nereides. 
 
 DOR.VIANT, in heraldry, is used for the postnre of a lion, or 
 any other beast, lying along in a sleeping attitude with the head 
 Oil the fore paws; by which it is distinguished from the couchant, 
 where though the beast is lying, yet he holds up his head. 
 
 DOKMEU, in architecture, signifies a window made in tlie 
 "Toof of a house, or above the cutablature, being raised upon the 
 rafters. ' 
 
 DORMITORY, a gallery in convents or religious houses, di- 
 rid-ed into several cells, in which the religious sleep or lodge. 
 
 Dormitory is sometimes used for a buryiug-place. 
 
 DOUMOUSK. See Mvoxus. 
 
 PORNBEUG, a town of Germany, in the Upper Rhine, and 
 principality of Hesse, eiglit miles N. N. W. of Darmstadt. 
 
 DoRNBiiRG, a town ot GerinaiiY, in Upper Saxony, and princi- 
 pality of Weimar, 14 miles E. of Weimar. 
 
 D'ORNOCil, the county town of Sutherland, on tlie Frith of 
 Dornoch in Scotland. 
 
 DOROBERNIA, the Roman name of Canterbury. 
 
 DOROBOI, orDOROHOI, a town of European Turkey, in 
 Molda\ia, 08 miles N. W. of Jassi, and 142 N. W. of Bender". 
 
 DOllONICUM, Lfopard's Bane : agenus of the polygamia 
 siipertlua order, and syngenesia class of plants ; natural order. 
 Composite. Receptacle naked; pappus simple; scales of tin- 
 calyx in a donlilc row, longer tlian the disc; seeds of the radius 
 iiated without any pappus. It has three species natives of Spain, 
 •Fiance, and Germany. 
 
 DORP'l", a town of Russia, in Livonia, 00 miles S. of Narva. 
 Lon. L'7. 62. E. Eat. 53. 18. N. 
 
 DORSETSHIRE, a county of England, bounded on the N. 
 by Somersetshire and Wiltshire, on the E. by Ilumpshire, on the 
 S. by the English channel, and on the W. by Devonshire. It is 
 for the most part hilly : the soil is in general shallow, over a chalky 
 bottom, but in some of the valleys very rich; the whole is esti- 
 mated at 775, COO acres. The number of sheep kept in tliis 
 ■country is averaged at upwards of 800,000. The chief towns are 
 Dorchester, Lyme, Shaftesbury, Pool, Bridport, Wareham, Corl 
 Castle, W^eymouth, Melcomb Regis, Sherborn, Blandfiird, Cran- 
 born, Beminstcr, Abbof-.bnry, Bere, Evershot, Milton Abbey, 
 Frantpton, Slalbr'.i.'ge, Stjrminster, Cerue, and Winburn; of 
 vhich the lirst nine are borough towns, and send each two mem- 
 ber- to p^trliament. The principal rivers are the Stoiir, the Frome, 
 and tlw; f icWle. f he cliiBate is mild and healtliy. 
 
 DORSTEN, a town of Germany, in the circle of the Lower 
 Rhine, 31 miles S. W. of Munster. 
 
 DORSTEN I A, Contrayerva, a genus of the monogvnia 
 order, and tetrandria class of plants; natural order, Scabrida-. Uc- 
 cep'ade coninioii, inoiiophyllous, fleshv ; seeds lyiiig singly in the 
 fleshy subsUuice. 'I here are eight species, low- herbaieoo- plants; 
 growing in tlie wr.nn countries of America. See Ph.te XXXA'. 
 
 DORSt'M,tli-BACK, in anatomy, compreliendsall tl'.e pus;criot 
 parts of the boiiv ironi the neck to the buttocks. See ANATOM'i% 
 
 DORT, or DORDRECHT, a city of HoHand, in the deport, 
 ment ot Delft, and late province ol Holland, ten miles b. E, 
 of Rotterdam. Lon. 4. 4S. E. Lat. 51. 50. N. 
 
 DoRT, Sykod of, a national synod, summoned by authority of 
 the States General, the provhices of Plollanrl, IHiecht, and Overys- 
 sel excepted, and held at Dort in 1618. The most eminent di- 
 vines of the United Provinces, and deiuities from the churches of 
 Enghmd, Scotland, Switzerland, Bremen, lles'ia, and the Palati- 
 nate, assembled on this occasion, in order todecide th.e controversy 
 between the Gomajists or Calviuists, and Arminiaus: the latter 
 were declared corrupters of the true religion. But the authority 
 of this synod was far from being universally acknowledged either 
 in Holland or in England. The provinces of Friesland, Zea- 
 land, Utrecht, Gucldcrland, and Groningen, could not be per- 
 suaded to adopt their decisions: and they were opposed by kinj 
 James I. and archbishop Laud in Eiiglaii<l. The liberty of pri- 
 vate judgement witli respect to the doctrines of predestination and 
 grace, which the spirit that prevaileil among the divines of Dort 
 seemed^'so much adapted to discourage aivd suppress, acquired 
 new vigour in consequence of the arbitrary proceedings of this 
 assembly. 
 
 DORTMUND, a city of Germany, in Westphalia, 35 miles 
 N. E. of Cologne. Lon. 7. 35. E. Lat." 51. 26. N. 
 
 DORYPHORI, [from iori/, a spear, and 9!«u, to bear,] an ap- 
 pellation given to the life-guard men of the Roman emperors. 
 
 DOSE, [i'jcn;,'] so much of any medicine as is taken at oi>e 
 time. 
 
 DOSITHEANS, or DOSITHEI, an ancient sect among tho 
 Samarilans in the first century. Ihey were named after their 
 leader, Dosilheus, mentioned by Origen, Epiphanius, Jeroin, 
 ,^nd other Greek and Latin fathers : But the learned are not at 
 all agreed as to the time wherein he lived. St. Jerom, in his Di- 
 alogue against the Lnciferians, places him before our Saviour; 
 wherein he is followed by Drusius, who in his answer to Serrarius 
 places him abont the time of Sennacherib king of Assyria. But 
 Scaliger will have him posterior to our Saviour's time : And Ori» 
 gen intimates him to have been contemporary with the apostles ; 
 where he observes, that he endeavoured to persuade the Samari- 
 tans that he was the Messiah foretold by Moses. He had many 
 followers; and his sect was still subsisting at Alexandria in the 
 lime of the Patriarch Eulogius, as appears from a decree of that 
 patriarch published by Phocins. In that decree Eulogius ac- 
 cuses Dositheus of injuriously treating the ancient patriarchs and 
 prophets, and attributing to himself the spirit of prophecy. He 
 makes him contemporary with Simon Magus ; and accuses him of 
 corrupting the Pentateuch iiv divers places, and of composing 
 several books directly contrary to the law of God. Archbishop 
 Usslier takes Dositheus to have been tlie author of all the changes 
 made in the Samaritan Pentateuch, which he argues from th* 
 authority of Eulogius. But all we can justly gather from the tes- 
 timony of Eulogius is, that Dositlieus corrupted the Samaritan 
 copies since used by that sect ; but that corruption did not pass 
 into all the copies oi' tlie Samaritan Pentateuch now in use an^ong 
 us, many of which vary but little from the Jewish Pentateuch. 
 
 DOTHAN, in ancient geography, a city twelve miles N. of 
 Samaria, 44 of Jerusalem, and six W. of Tiberias ; where Joseph 
 vassold to the Ishniaelites, and where Elisha struck the Syriaiis 
 blind. 
 
 DOTTER EL, a bird. See Charadrrius, 
 
 DOUARNENEZ, a sea-port town of France, in the depart- 
 nienl of Mnisterre, 10^ miles N. W. of Quimper. 
 
 DOUAY, a considerable town of France, in the department 
 of Ihe North, and late French Flanders, 15 miles N. W. of Cam- 
 bray. Lou. 3. 10. E. Lat. so. 22. N. 
 
 DOUBLI*^ Cast, in husl'aiii'ry, a term used by the farmers for 
 that method of sowing thai djaes iwt dispense the necessary quan- 
 
 tity
 
 DOU 
 
 183 
 
 DOV 
 
 Itty of seed for a piece of land at one bout, but ic(iuii-es going over 
 every placi' twice. 
 
 Double Kiciif.', or DounLF. Fichy, in heraldry, tlie dinonii- 
 nalion ofa cross, vvliei\ tlie extremity lias two points ; in contra- 
 distinclioii to liche, where the extremity is shapened away to one 
 point. 
 
 DovcLE Lp.tter, in G;rammar, a letter wliich lias the force and 
 ellect ot two. 'liie Greeks have tln-ee of these, viz. 7,,=,*; the 
 Latins liave two X and Z ; and must of the modern languages 
 have the same. 
 
 Double Point, in geometry, is one point considered as two 
 inlinitely near one^, l)eloiu!,iiig to geometrical curve lines. 
 
 DooiiLE Octave, in music, an interval composed of 15 notes 
 in diatonic progression, and which, for that reason, is called a tif- 
 teenth. " It is (says Rousseau) an interval composed of t«o 
 octaves, calleil by the Greeks disdiapasoii." It deserves, however, 
 to be remarked, tliat in intervals less distant and compounded, as 
 in (he third, the tifth, the simple octave, S;c. the lowest and highest 
 extremes are included in the number fiom \vhcnce the interval 
 takes its name. But, in tlie. double octive, when termed a fif- 
 teenth, the simple number of which it is composed gives the name. 
 This is by no means analogical, and may occasion some confusion. 
 We should rather choose, therefore, to run any hazard which 
 iniglit occur from uniformly including all the terms of which the 
 component intervals consist, and call the double octave a si.x- 
 tcenth, according to the general analogy. 
 
 Doi'BLK E.MPLovMCNT, in muslc, a name given by M. Ka- 
 meau to the two difltrent manner.-, in which the choril of the sub- 
 dominant may be regarded and treated, viji. as the fundament.d 
 chord of the sixth superadded, or I'S tUe chord of the great sixtli, 
 Inverted from a fundamental chord of the seventh. In reality, the 
 ^chords carry exactly the same notes, arc figured in the same man- 
 ner, aie employed upon the same chord of the tone, in such a 
 manner, that frequently wc cannot discern which of the two chords 
 the author employs, but by the assistance of the subsequent chord, 
 which resolves it, and which is dillerent in these different cases. 
 To make this distinction, we must consider the diatonic jirogress of 
 the two notes which form the hlih and the sixth, and which, con- 
 stituting between thein the interval of » second, must one or the 
 other constitute the dissonance of the chord. Now, this progress is 
 determined by the motion of tlie bass. Of these two notes, then, 
 if the superior be the dissonance, it will rise by one gradation into 
 the subsequent chord, the lower note will keep its ])lace, and the 
 higher note will be a superadded sixth. If the lower be the disso- 
 nance, it will descend into the subse(|uent chord, the higher will 
 remain in its place, and tlie chord will be that of the great sixtli. 
 
 Double Plea, {diqikx placitu/n, Lat.] is that in which the 
 tlefendant alleges for himself two several matters, in bar of the 
 action, whereof either is sufllcient to eli'ect liis desire in debarring 
 tlie plaintiff'. 
 
 Doublf.-Quaurel, is a complaint made by any clerk or other 
 to the arclibishop of the province, against an infeiior ordinary, for 
 delaying justice in some cause ecclesiastical. The effect is,' that 
 the archbishop directs his letters, under the authentical seal, to all 
 clerks of his province, commanding them to admonish the said or- 
 dinary within nine days to do the justice required, or otherwise to 
 cite him to appear before him or his ofiicial : and lastly to inti.nate 
 to the said ordinarv, that if he neither performs the tiling enjoined, 
 nor appears at the day assigned, he himself will proceed to perform 
 the justice reipiired. And this seetns to be termed a double-quar- 
 rel, because it is most commonly made against both thejudge, 
 and him at whose petition justice is delayed. 
 
 DOUBLET, among lapidaries, implies a counterfeit stone com- 
 posed of two pieces of crystal, and sometimes glass softened, to- 
 gether with proper colours between them: so that they make the 
 same appearance to the eye as if the whole substance of the crystal 
 had been tinged with these colours. See Glass, Colouring 
 
 OF. 
 
 DOUBLETS, a game on dice within tables. 
 
 DOUBLING, among hunters, is applied to a hare, which is 
 said to double, when she keeps in plain fields, and winds about to 
 deceive the hounds. 
 
 Doubling, in the manege, a term used of a horse, who is said 
 to double his reins^ when he leaps several times together, to throw 
 bis rider. 
 
 Doubling, in the military art, is the putting two ranks or filei 
 of soldiers into one. Thus, when the word of commaii'l is, double 
 your r.inks, the second, fourth, and sixth ranks march into the first, 
 ihircl, and filth, so that the six ranks are reduced to three, and the 
 intervals between the ranks become double what they were be- 
 fore. 
 
 Dovbltkg uroN, in naval tactics, the act of iiiflosing any part 
 ofa hostile lleet between two lires, or of cannonading it on both 
 sides. It is usually performed by the van or rear of lliat fleet 
 which is superior in number, taking the advantage of the w ind, or 
 other circu.nstances, ana tacking or veering round the van or rear 
 of tlie enemy, who will thereby be exposed to great danger, and 
 can scarcely avoid being throM n into general ccii'usion. 
 
 Doubling a Cai'E ok Point, in navigation, signifies the 
 coming up with it, passing by it, and leaving it behind the ship. 
 
 Doublings, in heraldry, the linings of robes and mantles of 
 state, or of the inantlings iu au'liievements. 
 
 DOUi'.S, a deixu'tmer.t of France, bounded on the E. by the 
 Helvetic republic. It comprehends part of the late proviiwe of 
 Franche Comte. Besanijon is the capital. 
 
 DouBs, or Doux, a river of France, which rises at the foot of 
 Mount Jura, and runs into the Saone, near Verdun. 
 
 DOUBTING, the act of wiih-htdding our assent from anv pro- 
 position, on suspicion that we are not able peremptorily to decide 
 between the reasons for and ag.iiust it. Doubtirg is distinguished 
 by the schoolmen into two kinds, dubilalio stcrilis, and dubitatio 
 elticax. Tlie former is that where no deteriniiiation en-ues . in 
 this manner the Sceptics and Academics tloubt, who witli-holil 
 tlieir assent from every thing. See ScEf Tics, &c. The latter is 
 followed by judgement, which distinguishes truth from falsehood : 
 such is the doubting of the Peripatetics and Cartesians. The last: 
 in particular perpetually inculcate the deeeitfulness of our senses, 
 an.l tell us that we are to doubt of every one of their reports, lill 
 they have been examined and confirmed by reason. On the other 
 baud, the Epicureans teach, th.it our senses always tell truth ; ami 
 that, if we go ever so little from them, we come within the pro- 
 vince of doubting. 
 
 Doubting, in rhetoric, a figure whereon the orator, aijpears 
 some time llnctuating, and undetermined what to do or s;iy. Tar 
 citus furnishes us with an instance of doubting, almost to a degree 
 of dif!tracJion, in those words of Tiberius written to the senate:- 
 Quid scribam, P. S. aut ciuomodo scrlbain, ;ait quid omniiio non 
 scribam hoc tempore, dii me dexrjue pejus perdanl quam perire 
 quotidie sentio, si scio. 
 
 DOI'CINE, in art hilecture, a moulding concave above art! 
 convex below, serving commonly as a cymatium to a delicate- 
 corniche. It is likewise called gula and cymatium. 
 
 DOUE, a town of France, in the department of Maine and' 
 Loire, 20 miles S. of Angers. 
 
 DOVE, a river in Derbyshire, which falls into the Trent, 4 
 miles N. of Burton. 
 
 Dove, in ornithology. See Columba. 
 
 DOVER, a borough and sea-port town of England, in Kent. 
 The clifl's, which are very high, al'ford a fine prospect of the 
 French coast. Dover lies 13 miles S. of Canterbury, CI niilca 
 N. of Calais, and 72 S. E. of London. Lon. 1. 23. 'E. Lat. 51. 
 8. N. 
 
 Dover, a town and township of the United States, in Stafford 
 county. New Hampshire. 
 
 Dover, the metropolis of Delaware state, in Kent county, on 
 the S. W. side of Jones creek, 76 miles S. S. ^^^ of Philadel- 
 phia. 
 
 Dover, Straits of, the narrow channel between Dover and 
 Calais, which separates Great Britain from the French coast. Bri- 
 tain is supposed by many to have been once peninsulated, the 
 present straits occupying the site of the isthmus which joined it to 
 Gaul. " No certain cause (says Mr. Pennant, in his Arct. Zool. 
 vol. i. Introd. p. ii.') can be given for the mighty convulsion which 
 tore us from this continent ; whether it was rent by an earthquake, 
 or whether it was worn through by the continual dashing of the 
 watei-s." "The correspondency of strata, (he adds) on part of the 
 opposite shores of Britain and France, leaves no room to doubt 
 but that they were once united. The chalky cliffs of Blancnez 
 between Calais and Boulogne, and tho^e to the wp?tw ard of Dover, 
 exactly tally ; tjie last are vast and continued ; the former short.
 
 DOU 
 
 184 
 
 DOX 
 
 tiid Ihe teniiination of tl>e immense bed. Between Boulogne ;Mid 
 Folkhtone (about six miles from the latter) is another memorial 
 vi the junction of the two countries ; a narrow sub\narine hill, 
 called the Kip-raps, about a cjuarter of a mile broad, and ten miles 
 long, extending eastwards towards the Goodwin Sajids. ' its ma- 
 terials are boulder stones, adventitious to many strata. 'J'lie depth 
 of water on it, in \ery low spring tides, is only 14 feet. The lish- 
 ermen from FolUstone have often touched it with a 15 feet oar; 
 so lliat it is justly the dread of navigators. Many a tall sliip has 
 perished on it, and sunk instantly into twenty-one fathoms of wa- 
 ter.. In July 17SC', the Bglleisle of 64 guns struck, and lay on it 
 during three hours ; but, by st;n'ting her beer and water, got clear 
 oli'." These celebrated straits are only 21 miles wide in the nar- 
 rowest part. From the pier at Dover to that of Calais 24. It is 
 said that their breadth is diminishing, and thai they are two miles 
 narrower than thev were in ancient times. 
 
 DovE-TAiLtNG, in carpentry, is the manner of fastening boards 
 ■together by littingone piece into another, in the form ol the tail 
 of a dove. The dove-tail is Ihe strongest of the assemblages or 
 jointings, because the tenon, or piece of wood which is put into 
 the other, goes widening to the extreme, so that it cajinot be 
 drawn out again because tlie extreme or tip is bigger than the 
 hole. 
 
 DOUGLAS, tire capital of the Isle of Man, seated on the 
 easterji side. Lon. 4. 2J. W. Lat. 54. 7. N. 
 
 DOUCjLASSlA, in botany, a genus of the pelyadelphia po- 
 lyandria class and order. Calyx half six-cleft , corolla none ; nec- 
 tary six ; tilanicnt-. none ; germ superior; stigma six-cleft ; berry 
 ovate, one-celled; seed one, with a brittle shell. It has but one 
 species, vi/. D. guianensis, guiana douglassia. 
 
 DOULEI.V, [Jo-jXiin,^ in antiquity, a punishment among the 
 Athenians, by which the criminal was reduced to the condition ot a 
 s! I' e. It was never inflicted upon any but the nTj/ioi, sojourners 
 and freed servants. 
 
 DOULENS, or DOURLENS, a town of France, in the de- 
 partment of Sonmie, and late province ofPicardy, 15 miles N. of 
 Amiciis. Lon. 'J. 23. E. Lat. 50. 10. N. 
 
 DOUR.VK, a town of Persia, near the confluence of the Eu- 
 phrates anil Tigris ; remarkable for the reeds of w hich the Persians 
 make their pens. Lon, "iS. 57. E. Lat. 32. 15. N. 
 
 DOUKDAN, a town of France, in the department of Seine 
 and Oi^e, and late province of the Isle of France, 25 miles S. W. 
 of Paris. 
 
 DOURLACH, a town of Germany, in Suabia, 12 miles S. of 
 Philipsbursh. Lon. o, 28. E. Lat. 49. 2. N. 
 
 DOURO, or DOUERO, a river of Spain, which rises in Old 
 Castile, in the Sierra of Urbion, »nd after crossing Portugal, falls 
 into the Atlantic near (^|)orfo. 
 
 DOUSE, in sea language, is to lower suddenly, or slacken ; 
 and it is applied to a sail in a squall of wind, an extended haw- 
 ser, &c. 
 
 DOUW, Gerhard, a celebrated painter, born at Lcyden in 
 1613. lie received his first instructiojis from Bartholomew Do- 
 lendo, an engraver, and Peter Kouwhoorn a painter on ginss ; but 
 at the age of 15 he became a discipleol Rembrandt. His pic- 
 tures are U5u.ally of a small size, with figures so exquisitely touch- 
 ed, so transparent, so wonderfully delicate, as to excite asfoni^h- 
 inent as well as pleasure. He designed every object after nature, 
 and with an exactness so singular, that each figure appears as per- 
 fect as nature itself, in respect to colour, freshness, and force. It 
 is incredible what vast sums have been and still arc given for his 
 paintings. He was exceedingly curious in finishing them, and pa- 
 tiently assiduous beyond example. Of that patience Sandiart gives 
 a strong instance. Having once, in co.ii|)any with Banitioccio, 
 visited Douw, they could not forbear admiring the prodigious 
 iiratnesK of a picture which he was then painting, in whi(h thev 
 took particular notice of a broom ; and expressing their surprise .it 
 (he excessive neatne-s of the finishing that minute object, Douw 
 told them he should spend three days more on that broom hi fore 
 he should account it complete. In a family picture of Mr<. Spiel- 
 ing, tlie same author says, that the huly had sat five days for the 
 finishing one of her hands that leaned ou an armed-chair. Few, 
 therefore, would sit to him for their portraits; so he indulged him- 
 self moslly in works of fancy, in which hecould introduce objects 
 of still life, and employ as much time on them as suited his incli- 
 
 nation. Houbraken testifies, that his great patron Mr. Spiering 
 allowed him 1000 guilders a year, and Sandrart assures us, that diis 
 pension was paid liini on no other consideration, than that he 
 should give his benefactor the option of every picture he jjaintedi 
 for which he was immediately to receive the utmost of his de- 
 mand. Douw died in 1674, aged (51. He is doubtless the most 
 wonderful in his hnisliing of all the Flemish masters. His colour- 
 ing has exactly the true and lovely tints of nature ; and whatever 
 pains he may liave taken, there is no look of labour or stifJiiess. 
 His |)ictures are also remarkable, not only ftir retaining their ori- 
 ginal lustre, but for liaving the same beautiful eflecl at any dis- 
 tance. ! 
 
 D0\V'AGER, is a title applied chiefly, if not solely, to the 
 widows of princes, dukes, earls, and persons of high rank. See 
 QuKKN Dowager. > 
 
 DOWER, \_Dotarium, Dnarivm, or Dns,"] ia law, a portion of 
 lands or tenements w hich a widow enjoys for term of life from het- 
 husband, in ca.-e the survives him : and which, at her death, de^ 
 sceiids to their children. See Jointure. 
 
 DOWLAS HEAD, a cape of Ireland, on llie coist of Kerry 
 in Munster. 
 
 DOWLATABAD, or DOWLET-ABAD, a province in the 
 Deccan of I lindoslan, formerly called A mednagur, bounded on thff 
 N. by Candeish and Malwa; on the W. by tlie Balagat mouiii 
 tains ; on the S. by Visiapour and Golconda, and oil the E. by 
 Berar. It is also called Balagat. Aurundabad is llie chief 
 city. 
 
 Dowiataead, Dowlet-Abad, or Ambdnagur, a t-awn and 
 fort in (he above province, 15 miles from Aurungabad. Lon. 70, 
 0. E. Lat. 19. 55. N. 
 
 DOWN, in commerce, the fine feathers from the breasts of 
 several birds, partcularly of the duck kind. That of the eidet 
 duck, see Anas, is the most v,-iluablc. Three pounds of this 
 dow n may be compressed into a space scarce bigger' than one's 
 fi.s( ; yet is afterwards so dilatable as to (ill a quilt five feet square. 
 (Salerii. Oni. p. 416.) 
 
 Down, in geography, a county of Ireland in the province of 
 Ulster, bounded on the E. and S. by (he (ri-li sea; on the W. 
 by the county of Armagh ; and on the N. by that of Antrim. It 
 lies opposite to tile Isle uf Man, Cumberland, and Westmore- 
 land ; and the N. part of it fronts the Mull of Galloway in Scot- 
 land, and is about 44 miles from it. '; 
 
 Down, or Down -Patrick, the capital of the above countyj 
 one of the most ancient in that kingdom. It is 74 miles N. E. of' 
 Dublin. Lon. 5. 50. W. Lat. 54. 23. N. 
 
 DO WN HAM, a town of Norfolk, 35 miles N.E. of Cambridge.' 
 
 D(.)WNINGS, a (own of Pennsylvania, in Chester county, 
 33 miles W. by N. <\ Philadelphia. 
 
 DOWNS, [from Dune, Fr. oi Dun, Celt, a mountain,] a bank 
 or elcvrtion of sandj which the sea gathers and forms along its 
 shores ; and which serves it as a barrier. 
 
 Dow NS, a famous road for ships, extending si.x miles along thr 
 E. coast of Kent, between N. and S. Foreland ; where both thft 
 outward and homeward-hound ships frequently make some stay ; 
 ami squadrons of men of war rendezvous in lime of war. It af- 
 fords ext client anchorage ; and is defended by the castles of Deal, 
 Dover, and Sandwich, as well as by Goodwill Sands. 
 
 DOWNTON. orDUNkTON, an ancient borough in Wilt- 
 shire, 84 m:les W. S. W. of London. 
 
 DOWRY, [(/os,] is properly the money or fortune which the 
 w ife brings her husband in marriage : it is otherwise called marita- 
 giuin, marriage-goods, and diliers from dowtr. See Dower. 
 Among the Germans it was customary, in former times for the hus- 
 band (o brhig a dowry to his wife. 
 
 Dowry is also used, in a monastic sense, for a sum of money 
 given along with a maid, upon tnteiing her in some religious 
 order. - , 
 
 DOXOLOGY, ["oJ« zmKy^cyfr",'] a form of giving glory to ' 
 God. 
 
 Doxor.oGV, a hymn used in praise of the Aliniglity, distin- 
 Euished by the title of "reater and less. Both the doxologie^ 
 have a place in the church of England, the former being repeated 
 after every psalm, and the latter used in the communion ser- 
 vice. 
 
 1. Doxoi,OGY, THK Grfater, Or the angelic hymn, was of 
 
 great
 
 D R A 
 
 1H.> 
 
 DRA 
 
 (KC.it noti? in (lie aiu'ienl i-liiircli. It l)ri);iiii with tlic<c word-, 
 wliicli tilt; aiigfis >iiii^ at our Saviour's birlli, Gloi v b>- to (ii>il on 
 Iiif;li, &c. ll was cliiflly used in coniiiiimion service, and in [iri- 
 vate devotions. 
 
 :.'. Doxoi.oGV, THE Lrss, \v;vs ancionllv only a niiiglp sen- 
 tence, uithoiil response, rnnnini; in these words, Glorv be lo the 
 father, and lo the Son, snd lo the Holy Gliost, worlil wilhont 
 cud. Amen. I'art of llie lalti'r tl.'nse, As it was in the hegiiinin'.', 
 is now, and ever shall lie, was inserted some time alter the tirst 
 eomposition. 
 
 J)KAI!A, a genus of the silicnlosa order, and lelr.iilvnamia class 
 of plants ; natural order, Sili(|Uosa-. Silieula entiro, oval oblong ; 
 valves a little plain, parallel to tlie partition; no style. There 
 are nine species. 
 
 PU.'Mil.EU, in the sea language, a small sail in a ship, which 
 is the same to a bonnet, that a bonnet is to a lour-e, and is onl_\ 
 wsed when the course and bonnet are too shoal to clothe the nia-t. 
 
 DKAIU.ING, in angling, is a method of catching barbel. 
 Take a large line of six yards ; which, belore tVtening it to the 
 rod, must be put through a piece of lea<l, that if the liih bite, it 
 may slip to and fro, and that the water may something move it on 
 the ground ; bail with a lobe worm well secured, and so by its 
 motion the barbel will lie enticed into the danger without suspi- 
 uon. 'i'he best places are in running water near |)iles, or under 
 wooden bridges, supported with oak-, lloaled and slimy. 
 
 DKAIjS, in the salt-works, a kind of wooden boxes for holding 
 Uie salt when taken out of the boiling i>an ; the bottoms of whicii 
 are made shriving or inclining forwards, that the brinv moisture 
 uf the salt may drain off. 
 
 DKAC, an imaginary being, formerh much dreadi'd bv the 
 country peo|j|e in many parts of France. The dr.ics were sup- 
 posed lo be malicious or at least tricksome demons ; but which was 
 very rare, if one of them happened to take a fancy to a man or 
 woman, they were sure to be the better for it. 
 
 DK.VC.KNA, a genus of the monogynia order, and liexandria 
 class of plants. Corolla sexpartite. erect ; lilaments a little thicker 
 about the middle ; berry Irdocular, monospermous. It has nine 
 species, natives of the I'.asl Indies. 
 
 DKACHM, a Grecian coin, of (he value of 7|rf. Drachm is 
 also a weight used by our phy^icians ; containing ju^t sixty grains, 
 three scruples, or the eighth part of an ounce. See Coin. 
 
 DILVCl), a celebrated lawgiver of Athens. When archon, he 
 made a code of laws for his fellow citizens, wherein all crimes were 
 made capital ; and even idleness was pnnisheil with death as well 
 as murder. 'I'hese laws were at first enforced, but thel were af- 
 terwards neglected on account of their extreme severity ; and 
 Solon totally aboli-lied them, except that one which punished a 
 murderer w ith <leath. The re-pect of Draco's admirers proved 
 latal lo him. \Vh< n at /Kgina, he appeared on tlu' theatre, hi' 
 was received with repeated applause ; but the people, accordlnir 
 to the cus(oin of the .Xthenians, shewing their respect by throw ing 
 their garments upon him, Ihev did it in such profusion, that Draco 
 was soon hid under tl:em, and smothered. He lived about B. 
 C. 624. 
 
 Dr.\co, a constellation. See Astronomy. 
 
 Draco, the Dkaoon, in zoology, a genus of the class and 
 order amphibia replilia ; legs four; tail cylindrical; wings two, 
 memliranaceou!, radiated like thi- hiiv of a fish, by which he is en- 
 abled to fly, but not to any great distance at a lime. There are 
 two specie-;, both harmless creatures, fceiling on (lies, anlj, and 
 SJnall insects, viz. 
 
 1. DuACo Pr/epos, with the wings fixed to the fore-leg^. It 
 is a native of America. 
 
 2. Draco Volann, the Flying Dragok, with the wings entire- 
 ly distinct from the fore-legs. It is found in America and the East 
 Indies. See Plate I.IV. tig. 14. 
 
 DiiACO N'oLAXs, in meteorology, a fiery exhalation, frequent 
 in marshy and cold countries. It is most common in summer; 
 and though principally seen playing near the banks of rivers, or 
 in boggy places, yc-t sometimes mounts up to a con^iderable height 
 in the air: its appearance being that of a.i oblong, sometimes 
 roundish, tiery body, with a long tail. It is entirely harmless. 
 
 DUACOCKPHALl'M, Dra(;on's HtAU, a genus of the 
 gyninospfrmia order, and didynamia class of plants. Corolla 
 throat iiilh-.ted , upper lip concave. There are (llteen species, 
 most of them herbaceous, annual or perennial phu-ts, froin l*; 
 
 vol.. Jl. — NO. 1)7. 
 
 in( lies to .1 (Vet hi!;li, ((ami hed mostly witheiaire le'aves, and 
 whirleil spijics of -inill inonnpetalous and ringenl (lowers, ot a 
 blue, white, or purple colour. 
 
 DR.\CO\ AK U'S, [.i;iiitsv^.jio; and -i;aixivTin*3-;5.-, j in antiijuity, 
 dragon-bearer. Therer-ians, Parlhiaiis, S< ylhians, &c. hori; dra- 
 gons on their -landards ; whence the itaiuLrdi lilcm^elvel were 
 called Dracone-.. 
 
 DK ACON 1-',S, among the Romans, were fipures of dragor.i 
 painterl in red on (heir (lags, as appears bom Auimiauus Maicel- 
 linus ; but among the I'er-ians and I'arlhians ihey were like (he 
 Roman eagles, ligures in full relievo; sa that the Hoinans were 
 frc(|ii(ntly deceived, and took lliem for real dragons. 
 
 DUACONTIC MoxrH, the time of one revolution of the 
 moon from her ascending node, called caput draconis, to her re- 
 turn thither. 
 
 DR-VCONT'IUM, Dragons ; a genus of the polyandria order, 
 and gynaiulria class of |)lanls ; natural order, Pip'.rit:e. .Spatha 
 ' cymbilorm, or shaped like a boat ; spa<lix covered all oyer ; no 
 cal\x; petals live ; berries polyspcrnious. 1 here are live spe- 
 cies, ;il| natives of the Indies. 
 
 DI{.\CL'NC I. LI, in medicine, small Jong worms whicli breed 
 ill the muscular part of the arms and h'gs, called Ciuiuea worms. 
 Ihe common way of getting out these worms is by the [loint of a 
 needle ; and to prevenl their forming auain, to wash the parts 
 with wine, vinegar, alum, nitre, or common salt, or with a strong 
 lixivium, of oak-ashes, and afterwards anointing them with an oint- 
 ment of the common kiinl used for scorbutic eru()lioiis, with a small 
 mixture of (piicksilver. 
 
 DH.VG, in sea language, is a inachinc consisting of a sharp, 
 sipiarr, iron ring, encircled with a ;>el, and commonly used io take 
 the wheel oil' frtni the platform or bottom of Ihe decks. Ihe 
 word is also used for whatever hangs over the ship in the sea, as 
 shirts, coats, or the like ; boats, when lowed, or whatever else 
 may retard the ship's way when she sails. 
 
 DUAGO.MAN, or DKUti.MAN, a Icrm of general use 
 through the East for an inli-ri)reler, whose oliice is to facilitate 
 commerce between the orientals and uccideiitals. 
 
 DKAGO.X, \_dnicn, I.at.] See Dkaco. 
 
 Dragon Fi.y. See I.ibellula. 
 
 DKAGONE'E, in heraldry, wliere the upper half resembles a 
 lion or other beast, the other half going oil' like the hinder part of 
 a dracon. 
 
 DKAGON.S, in botany. See .Arvm, and Dracontu'M. 
 
 Drac.ons-11i.ood, ;. gummi-resinoiis substance brought from the 
 East-Indies, either in oval drops wrapped up in flag leaves, or iri 
 large masses (Oiiipose<l of smaller tears. It is said to be obtained 
 froin the palmiinncus draco, the calamus rotang, the ilraca-na 
 draco, the pterocarpus draco, and several other vegdables. The 
 writers on the materia inedica prefer the former, tiiough the otiiera 
 are often of equal goodness. The line dragon's blood of either 
 sort breaks smooili, free from any \isible impurities, of a dark red 
 colour, which changes upon being powdered into an elegant bright 
 crimson. Several arlilicial composilions, coloured witli the Iruff 
 dragon's blood, or llra/il wood, are sometimes soUl lor this com- 
 modity. A soluiion ipf dragon's blood inihe spirit of wine is u-ed 
 for staining marble, to whicli it givi:s ;i red tinge, which penetrate* 
 more or le-s deeplv according lo the heal ot (he marble during the 
 lime of a])plicalion. lint as it spreads at the same time that il 
 sinks deep, for tine ilesigivs Ihe marble should be cold. Mr. Dil- 
 I'av savs, that bv adding piUii to this solution the colour may bf 
 rendered deeper. 
 
 Dragons Head and Taii,, [_capnl .V raiula Jnironis] in 
 astronomy, are the nodei ot the planets ; or the twci points wherein 
 the ecliptic is intersected by the orbits of the planels, and part - 
 cularly that of ihe moon ; making wih il angles of .)" is'. 'I Ijf 
 northern is called the ascending node, and llie southern the de- 
 scending node. These points have a retrog'-ade motion in 1)^ 
 zodiac, oil per day ; completing their circh' in IS \ears i'^j 
 days: so that the moon can be but twice in the elliptic during 
 her moiithU period, but Jl all other limes she will have a latitude 
 or declination Irom ihe ecliptic. .'Vboul these points of intersci-- 
 lioii all eclipses happen. They are usually denoted by these cha- 
 racters Q dragon's hcail, and 'Q dr.igon's tail ; thus by Q I) "/y 14" 
 'JO' J!)' -W 17 " is meant that tin- moon's ascending iiotle is in 14" v'9' 
 i!*' 59'" 17"" of Capricorn, cKiisequentU the nioon'a i2 is in 2 14.* 
 1,-^9' :>!>" ;-.9' IT'. 
 
 i B DRAGOON.
 
 1) R A 
 
 18(T 
 
 DR A 
 
 DRAGOON, [from drtiiten, German, to cairv] a kind of 
 SolilivT that serves iiulilierenlly I'itlicr on loot or liorseback. 
 
 Dragoons are dividetl into brigades as the cavah-y ; and each 
 tTginient 'nto troops; each troop having a captain, heuti-nanl, 
 cornel, qiruter-uiabter, two serjeant>, tiirep corjiorali*, and two 
 drunTi. rhey are very iiseUd on any expechlion that recpiires dis- 
 patcii ; for they can keep pare with the eavah'v, and do liic duty 
 of infantry : tliey encamp gen(;rall) on the wings of the army, or 
 at tiie pasi>es leadin;; to the camp ; and 'omi times tliey areln'ought 
 to cover the aeneral's qnarters ; they mai-ch in front and rear of 
 tile ariny. 1 he first regiment of dragoons raised in England was 
 in l6si,and called the regiment of dragoons of North Britain. 
 In battles or attacks they generally fight sword in hand after the 
 first fire. Their arms are, a sword, firelock, and ba\ onet. 
 
 DKAG(;()N1NG, one of the methods nsed liy Papists for 
 converting refractory heretics. The troopers, soldiers, and dra- 
 goons went into the Protestants houses, where they marred and de- 
 faced their lioushold stuff, broke their looking-glasses, and other 
 uten^ils and ornaments, let their wine nm about their cellars, and 
 liirew about their corn and spi/iled it. Tiiose things which they 
 could not destroy in this manner, such as furniture of beds, linens, 
 wearing api)ai'el, plale, &c. thev carried to the market-place, and 
 sold them to the Jesuits and oll'.er Koinan catholics. By these 
 means the Protesiants in Montanuon alone were, in four or five 
 days, stripped of above a million of money. Besides this they 
 exercised upon them the most horrid barbarities that can possibly 
 be conceived. 
 
 DRAGUIGN.AN, a town of France, in the department of Var. 
 Lon. (i. 3:,. E. Lat. 43. 3\. N. 
 
 niiAINS, and DRAINING. See Husbandry. 
 
 DU.\KE, in ornilhologv. See Anas. 
 
 Drake, Sis Frakcis, the renowned English admiral, was the 
 son of ICdmund Drake a sailor, and born near Tavistock in De- 
 t'onshire, in Ii43. He was brought up under the care of Sir John 
 Hawkins, who was his kinsman. In 1570, he made his first expe- 
 dition wrtli two ships; and in 1571, with one only, in which he 
 returned safe, if not with such nJvantagea as he expected. He 
 made another expedition in 1572, wherein hs gained considerable 
 .boi^ties. In these expeditions he was much assisted by a nation 
 of Indians, who then were, and have been ever since, engaged in 
 perpetual wars with the Spaniards. 'I'Jie prince of these people 
 was named Pedro; to whom Drake presented a fine cutlass from 
 bis side, v.'hich he saw the Indian greatly admired. Pedro, in 
 return, gave him four large v^-edges of gold : which Drake threw 
 into the common stock, spying. That he thought it but just that 
 such as bore the charge of so uncertain a voyage on his credit, 
 should share the utmost advantage that voyage produced. His 
 success in this expeditiuji, joined to his honourable behaviour to- 
 wards his ownei-s, gained, him a high reputation ; and the use he 
 made of his riches, a'^till greater. For, fitting out three stout 
 frigates at his ownj?\'pcnce, he sailed with them to Ireland ; where 
 'i/.der Waller earl of Essex, he served as a volunteer, and per- 
 formed many exploits. Sir Christopher Hatton introduced him 
 'o Q. Elizabeth, to whom he proposed a voyage into the South 
 Seas througli tlie Straights of Magellan ; which was what hitherto 
 no Englishman had ever attempted. The project was well received 
 at court : the queen furnished him with means ; and his own fame 
 ♦piickly drew together a sufficient force. The fleet with which he 
 sailed, on this extraordinarv nndertakiiic, consisted only of five 
 vesssH, small when C(v,nparcd with nioilern ships, and no more 
 than 165- able men. lie sailed on the loth Dec. 1577; on the 
 ~'5th fell in with the coast of Barbary, and on the 29th with cape 
 Verd. On the 13th March he passed the equinoctial, made the 
 loast of Brazil on the 51h April, and entered tlie River de la Plata, 
 where he lo?t the companv of two of his ships ; but meeting them 
 again, and taking out their provision, he turned them adrilt. On 
 the a;'(h .May he entered the port of St. Julian's, where he con- 
 tinued two months lor the sake of laving in provisions: on the 
 CiUh .\ug. he entered the Straits of Alagellan, and on the i?5th 
 Sept. passed them, having then only his own ship. On the 25th 
 Nov. he came to Machao, which he had appointed for a place of 
 rendezvous in case his ships separated ; but captain Winter, his 
 vice-admiral, having repassed the Straits, was returned to EuglaiuL 
 Tlience he continued his voyage along the coasts of Chili and 
 pern, taking all opportunities of seizing Spanidi shifis, and at- 
 tacking theui on slijre, till his men were sated w ith plunder ; and 
 
 then, coasting A.merica to the height of 48°, he endeavoured to 
 find a passage that way back into our seas, but could not. How- 
 ever, he landed, and called the country New Albion, taking pos- 
 session of it in the name of c|Uren Elizabeth ; and, having ca- 
 vecnfd liis ship, set sail from thence, on the 29th Sept. 1579, lor 
 the Moluccas. He is supposed to have chosen this passage round, 
 partly to avoid being attacked by the Spaniards at a disadvan- 
 tage, and partly from the latenes; of the season, whence dangerous 
 storms and hurricanes were dreaded. On the 13th Oct. he fell in 
 with certain islands inhabited by the most barbarous people he had 
 met with in all his voyage: on tb.e 4lh Nov. he had a sight of the 
 Moluccas; and, coming to Ternate, was extremely well received 
 by the kiing tiierenf, who appears, from the most authentic rela- 
 tions of this voyage, to have been a wise and pohte prince. On 
 the loth Dec. hi; made Celebes; where his ship unfortunately ran 
 U|)on a rock, the 9lh Jan. following ; fioiu wliich, beyond all ex- 
 jiectation, and almost miraculously, they got off, and continued 
 their course. On the 1 6th March he arrived at Java M:ijor ; and 
 on the 25th began to think of returning home. On the I5th June 
 he doubled th<; Cape of Good Hope, having then on board 57 
 men, and but three casks of water. On the 12th Julv he passed 
 the line, reached the coast of Guinea on the Kith, and there wa- 
 tered. On the 1 1th Se^it. he made the island of Tercera; and on 
 tile 3d Nov. entered the harbour of Plymouth. This voyage 
 round the world was performed in two years and about ten months. 
 Shortly after his arrival, the queen going to Deptford, went on 
 board his ship; where, after dinner, she conferred on him the 
 order of knighthood, and declared her absolute approbation of all 
 he had done. She likewise gave diiections for the preservation 
 of his ship, that it might remain a monument of his own and his 
 country's glory. This celebrated ship, wliich had been contem- 
 plated many years at Deptford, at length decaying, it was broke 
 up, and a chair, made out of the planks, was piesenled to the uni- 
 versity of O.xford. In 15S5, he sailed with a fleet to the West- 
 Indies ; and took the cities of St. Jago, St. Domingo, C'artliagena, 
 and St. Augustin. In I5SS, he went to Lisbon with a fleet of 30 
 sail; and having intelligence of a great fleet assembled in the bay 
 of Cadiz, which was to have made part of the armada, he with 
 great courage entered that |)ort, and burnt there upwards of 10,000 
 tons of shipping : which he afterwards merrily cs.lled burning the- 
 king of Spain's beard. In 1588, when the armada from Sjiain was 
 approaching our coasts. Sir Francis Drake was appointed vice-ad- 
 miral under Charles lord Howard of Eflingham, liigh admiral of 
 England, where fortune favoured him as vemarkably as ever : for 
 he made prize of a very large galleon, commanded by Don Pe- 
 dro de Valdez, who was reputed the projector of this invasion • 
 and who surrendered, as soon as he learned it was Drake who sum- 
 moned him. '^riiis Don Pedro remained about two years Sir 
 Fiaiicis Drake's prisoner in England ; and, when he was released, 
 |)aid him for his own and his captain's liberties, a ransom of 3500/. 
 Drake's soldiers were well recompensed with the plunder of this 
 >hip ; for they found in it 55,000 ducats of gold, which was divid- 
 ed among them. Alter this ne went to the West-Indies with Sir 
 John Haw kins, but the two commanders disagreeing in tlieir plans, 
 little was done by them. Drake died off Nombre de Dios in 
 1596. He was representative for the town of Plymouth, to wliicU 
 he was a great benefactor, hv causing water to be coineycd to it 
 from springs it eig't miles distance. 
 
 DRAM, [Ironi drachm, dradmui, Latin,] the eighth part of an. 
 ounce. 
 
 DRAMA, [i;-7^K,3 a poem acconimod.ited to action; a poem 
 in which the action is not related, but represented ; and in w hictv 
 therefore such rules are to be ob^erved as make the representation 
 probable. The principal species of the drama are two, comedy 
 and tragedy. Some others tiiere are of less note, as pastoral, 
 satire, Iraiii-comedy, opera, &:c. See Poetry. ■ 
 
 DRANK, among farmers, a term used to denote wild oats, 
 wliich never fail to infest worr.-out lands ; so that when plowedi 
 lauds mn to these weeds and thistles, the farmer knows it is hieti. 
 timctofailow them, or else to sow them with hay-seed, and make 
 pa>ture of them. Some, indeed, destroy the drank, by sowing. 
 the lands with beans, snd letting loos.? sheep upon them when 
 young. This must be done in dry weather, and theslieep eat up 
 the drank and other w-.,'c<ls, without touching the beans. 
 
 DRAPERY, 'n sculpture and painting, signifias the i-epresenta- 
 tioni)f the clothing of human figures, and alio hangings, tapestry, 
 
 curtains,.
 
 DRA 
 
 187 
 
 DR A 
 
 cnrtains, am! most other things that ;ire not carnations or landscapes. 
 See Drawing and Painting. 
 
 DRAyriC, [Jjari^®',] in physic, an epithet bestowed on such 
 medicines as are of present eHicacv, and potent in operations ; and 
 is commonly applied to emetics and cathartics. 
 
 DRAVK, a large navigalile river of Germany, which rises in 
 the archliishopric of Saltzbiirg, and falls into the Danube at 
 Ki^eck. 
 
 DRAUGHT, in architecture, or a^ it is pronounced Draft, the 
 figure of an intended building described on jjaper ; wherein ape 
 laid down, by scale and compasses, the several divisions and parti- 
 tions ofthe apartments, rooms, doors, passai^es, conveiiiencies, &c. 
 in their "tUie proportion. It is exceedingly convenient, before a 
 building is begun to be raised, to have draughts ofthe ichnography, 
 or ground plot of each floor ; as also of the form and fashion of 
 e.ich front, with the windows, doors, ornaments, &c. in an ortho- 
 graphy, or upright. Sometimes the several fronts, iScc. are taken, 
 and represented in the same draught, to shew the effect of the 
 whole building: this is called a scenogi'aphy, or perspective. 
 
 Draught, in medicine. See Potion. 
 
 Draught, in trade, called also Cloff or Clouch, is a small 
 allowance on weighable goods, made by th.e king to the importer, 
 or by the seller to the buyer, that the weight may hold out when 
 the goods are weighed again. The king allows 1 lb. draught for 
 goods weighing no less than 1 Cwt. 2 lb. for goods weigliing be- 
 tween 1 and 2 Cwt. 3 lb. for goods weighing between 2 and 3 
 Cwt. 4 lb. from 3 to 10 Cwt. 7 lb. from 10 to' 18 Cwt. 9 !b. from 
 18 to 30 or upwards. 
 
 Draught is also used sometimes for a bill of exchange, and 
 commonly for an order for the payment of anv sum of money due, 
 &c. The person who gives the order is said to draw upon the 
 other. 
 
 Draught Hooks, large hooks of iron, tixed on the cheeks of 
 a cannon carriage, two on each side, one near the trunnion hole, 
 and the other" at the train, di .linguished l)y the name of fore and 
 iiiud. Large guns have drauglil hooks near the middle transom, 
 to which are fixed the chains liiat serve to keep the shafts ofthe 
 Imdn-rs on a march. The fore and hind hooks are used for draw- 
 ing a gun backwards or forwards, by men with strong ropes, called 
 draught rope^, fixed to these hooks. 
 
 Draught Horse, in farming, a sort of coarse made horse, des- 
 tined for the service of a cart or plough. 
 
 Draught, to draw off troops from the main army, or out of one 
 regiment into another. 
 
 DRAW, in the sea-language, a ship is said to draw so much 
 water, according to the number of feet she sinks into it ; so that if a 
 ship sinks into the water IS feet perpendicularly, she is said to 
 draw 18 feet water; and according as she draws more or less, she 
 js said to be of more or less draught. 
 
 DRAWHACK, in commerce, certain duties, either of the cus- 
 toms or of the excise, allowed upon the exportation of some of 
 our own manufactures ; or upon certain foreign merchandise, that 
 have paid duty on importation. The oaths of the mercha.nts im- 
 porting and exporting are reciuired, to obtain the drawback on 
 foreign goods, affirming the truth of the oOicers certificate on the 
 entry, and the due payment of the duties: and these maybe 
 made by If.e agent or husband of any corporation or company ; or 
 by the known servant of any merchant usually employetl in mak- 
 ing his entries, and paying his customs. lu regard to foreign 
 goods entered outward, if less quantity or value be fraudulently- 
 shipped out than what is expressed in the exporter's certificate, 
 the goods therein mentioned, or their value, are forfeited, and no 
 drawback is allowed. Foreign goods exported by certificate in 
 order to obtain the drawback, not shipped or exported, or re- 
 landed in Great Britain, unless in case of distress to save them from 
 perishing, lose the benefit of the drawback, and are forfeited, or 
 their value, with the vessel, horses, carriages, &c. employed in the 
 relanding thereof; and the personsemploved in the relanding them, 
 or by whose privity they are relanded, or into whose hands tlier 
 shall knowinglv come, are to forfeit double the amount ofthe 
 drawback. OlKcers of the cuitoms conniving at or assisting in 
 any fraud relating to certilicate goods, besides other penalties, are 
 to forfeit their ollice, and sufl'er six months im])risonment without 
 bail or mainprize ; as are also masters, or persons belonging to the 
 ships employed therein. Ronds given for the exportation of certi- 
 ficate goods to Ireland must not be delivered up, nor drawback al- 
 lowed for any goods, tilla ccrtificateunderthe hands and seals of the 
 collector or comptroller, &:c.of the customs be prodl.ced, testifying 
 the landing. 
 
 DRAW-BRIDGE, a bridge made after the maimer of a floor, 
 to draw up, or let down, as occasion serves, before the gate of a 
 town or castle. See Bridge. A Draw-bridge may be made after 
 several different ways ; but the most common are made wirh plyers, 
 twice the length of the gate, and a foot in diameter. The inner 
 square is traversed with a cross, wh.ich serves for a counterpoise :. 
 and the chains wliich hang from the extremities of the pUrrs to lift 
 up or let down the bridge, are iron or brass. In navigable rivers 
 it is sometimes necessary to make the midille arch of bridges with 
 two moveable platforms, to be raised occadonally, in order to let 
 the masts and rigging of shi|)s pass througii. This kind of draw- 
 bridge is represented in Plate LIV, fig, 15, where AB is the v\idth 
 ofthemi<ldle arch; AL and BL, the two piers that supi)ort the 
 draw-bridge; one of the platforms of vhichis raised, and the 
 otiier letdown, having the beam Ptjfor its plyer. I'Vom the platform 
 are suspended two moveable braces EH, Ell; which resting on the 
 support E, press themagaiii-t tiie braket iM, and thereby strength- 
 en the draw-ljridge. These braces ;ue conducted to the rest' by 
 means ofthe weight S, pulling the chain SLE. 
 
 DRAWING. 
 
 DRAWING is the art of justly representing the appearance of 
 objeits upon a plain surface, by means of lines, shades, and 
 shadows, formed with certain colouring materials. This art is found- 
 ed on a knowledge of geometry and' [lerspective: the study of both 
 is therefore the first step towards the attainment of the art'of draw- 
 ing. See (lEOMETRY and PiiRspective. Drawing has been 
 cultivated from the earliest antiquity but for its history, see PArNT- 
 
 »NG. 
 
 I. Of Materials and Instruments. 
 To acquire this elegant art, the learner must furnish himself witli 
 proper materials and instruments; such as black lead pencils 
 crayons of black, while, or red <-halk, crow-ipiill pens, a lule and 
 compasses, camels hair |)enciU, Indian ink, Indian rubber, drawing 
 paper, drawing boards,&c. He must accustom himself to hold the 
 pencil farther irom the point than he does a pen in writing ; wliich 
 will give iiim a,bettcr command of it, and contribute to render the 
 strokes more free and bold. The use of the pencil is to draw tlie 
 
 first outlines ofthe piece, as any stroke that is amiss may be easily 
 rubbed out ; and when be has made the sketch as correct as he can 
 with the pencil, he may then draw carefully the best outline he 
 has got, with his crow-quill pen and ink; after which he may dis- 
 charge the pencil lines, by rubbing the piece gently w ith the crumb 
 of stale bread or Indian rubber. The ink' used for this purpose 
 should be Indian ink ; which is much soller than the common, and 
 i does not run. By mixing it with water, it may be made to any 
 I degree of strength, and used in a pen like cominon ink. Having 
 I got the outline clear, his next work is to shade the piece properly, 
 either by drawing fine strokes with his pen where it recinires to be 
 shaded, or by washing it witli his pencil and the Indian ink. As to 
 his rule and compasses, they are very rarely to be used, except in 
 measuring the proportions of figures' alter he has drawn them, to 
 prove whether they be right or not; or in houses, fortifications and 
 oilier pieces of architecture. The best kind of drawing boirds, ara 
 made with a frame and a moveable jianncl, upon w hich the paper 
 is timply put wet, and tUen forced into th<i frame, wliere it is con-
 
 1B8 
 
 DRAWING. 
 
 (ini'il bv wfdges at thu back. A ruler made in the form of the 
 Ifttcr T will be convenient to (iir with the drawing boards lor 
 drawing parallel and pLrpendiciilar lines. 
 
 II. Of Drawing T.inrs, Sa'J.-iREs, Circles, and other 
 
 (Jeowetrical Figvkes. 
 The first practice of a UMrn^r nnist be to draw straight and curve 
 litiei, with ease and frecdcni, upwards and downwards, sideways to 
 the right or left, or in any direction whatsoever. He must also 
 learn to draw liy command of hand, squares, circles, ovals, and 
 t.'her geometrical' figures; for as the alphabet, or a knowledge of 
 the letters, is an introduction to grammar, so is geometry to draw- 
 inn. 1 he practice of dravmg tlnrse simple ligun-s till he is master 
 oflhem, will enable him to imitate, with greater ease and accuracy, 
 many things both in nature and art. I'our general rules may here 
 be l.iid down; 1. Never to be in a hurry ; but to make liimself 
 [lerfeclly master of one ligure before he proceeds to another: the 
 advantage, and even necessity, of this, will appear as he proceeds: 
 •.'. To accustom himself to draw all his t'gures very large, which is 
 the onlv way of acquiring a free bold manner of designing: 3. To 
 practise drawing till he has gained a tolerable conunand of his pen- 
 cil, before he attempts to shade any ligure oT object of '.'ny kind 
 \ihatever: And, 4. Not to lini~li perfectly at first any single part, 
 buttosketch out faintly, with light strokes of the pencil, the shape 
 and proportion of the whole figure; and afterwards to correct it 
 vhere it is amiss. 
 
 III. Of Drawing Eyes, Kars, Flowers, Frvits, Birds, 
 
 Ueasts, Le(;5, Arms, Hands, S.c. 
 The learner niav begin with drawing the outlines of eyes, cars, 
 noses, &c. See Plate LX. He may next proceed with iiowers, 
 fruits, birds, beasts, and the like ; not only as it will be a more 
 pleasing employment, but as it is an easier task, than the drawing 
 of hands and feet, and other parts of the human body, which re- 
 quire not only more care, but greater exactness and nicer juilge- 
 inent. Verv lew instructions arc requisite upon this head; the 
 liest thing the learner can do, is to furnish himself with good prints 
 or drawings, by way of examples, and with great care and exact- 
 ness to copy them. If it is the figure of a beast, begin with the 
 forehead, aiid draw- the nose, the upper and vinder jaw, and stop 
 at the throat. 'I'hen go to the lop of the head, and form the ears, 
 neck, and back; and continue the line till \ ou have given the full 
 shape of the buttock. Then form the breast, and mark out the 
 legs and feet, and all the smaller parts. Sec Plate LXI. After 
 viiich the figure is to be fini.hed with the pro|)cr shadows. The 
 learner mav then proceed to the drawing of legs and arms, by 
 copying cai'etuUv the examples given in Plate L\. but the actions 
 and postures of the hands are so many and various, that no certain 
 rules can be given for drawing them, that will universally hold 
 "ood. Yet as the hands and feet are dillicnlt to draw, it is very 
 necessary to bestow some time and pains about them, care- 
 fully imitating their various postures and actions, so as not ojily to 
 avoid all lameness and imperfection, but also to give them life and 
 spirit. To arrive at this, great care, study, and practice, are re- 
 quisite ; particularly in imitating the be>t prints or drawings that 
 can be got of hands and feet, examples of which are gi\en in Plate 
 T,X ; for, as to the mechanical rules (>f drawing them by lines and 
 measures, they are not onlv pir])lexed and difticult, bvit aUo con- 
 trary to the practice of the best masters. .\nd here the general 
 rule abovcmentioned must be applied, viz. to sketch out laiully, 
 with light strokes, the shape and proportion of the whoh- hand, 
 witli the action and turn of it; and .after considering whether this 
 first sketch be perfect, and altering it where it isam;>s, to proceed 
 to the bending of the joints, the knuckles, the veins, and other 
 small particulars, which w hen the learner has got the whole shape 
 and proportion of the hand or foot, will not only be more easily 
 but aUo more perfectly designed. 
 
 IV. Of Df.i.in eating Faces. 
 The heatl is usually divided into 4 e((vial parts, viz. 1. From the 
 crown of the head to the top of the forehead. 'J. From the to|) of 
 the fon-head to the ese-brows. .3. From the eye-l)rows to the bot- 
 tom of the no^e. 4. From thence to the bottom of the chin. Hut 
 this proportion is not constant; those features in dilVerent nu^n^eln^ 
 oftcii very dilfcreiU as to lenylh and shape. In a well-proportioned 
 
 face, however, they are nearly right. To direct the learner, there- 
 fore, in forming a perfect face, his first bu-iness is to draw an osal, 
 or rather the form of an egg ; in the middle of which, from the to[> 
 to tlie bottom, draw a perpendicular line. Through the middle 
 of this line draw a diameter-line, directly across from one side to 
 the other of the oval. On these two lines all the features of the face 
 are to be placed as follows: Divide the perpendicular line into 
 four equal parts: the first must be allotted to the hair of the head ; 
 the second is from the top of the forehead to the top of the nose 
 between the eve-brows; the third is I'rom tlience to the bottom of 
 tlie nose ; and'the fourth includes the lips and cliin. 'I'he diameter- 
 line, or the breadth of the face, i< always supposed to he the length 
 of live eyes ; it must theretore be divnled into five equal parts, 
 and the eves placed upon it so as to leave exactly the length of one 
 eye betwixt them. This is to be uiiderslood only of a full front 
 face, Plate I,X. for if it turn to either side, the distances are to be 
 lessened on that side which turns from you, less or more in propor-- 
 lion to its turning. The top of the ear is to rise parallel to the eye- 
 brows, at ttie enJ of the diameter-line ; and the bottom of it must be 
 equal to the bottom of the nose. U'he nostrils ought not to come 
 out farther than the corner of the eye in any face ; and the middle 
 of the mouth must always be placed on the perpendicular line. 
 
 V. Of Drawing Human Figures. 
 
 \Vhen the learner is tolerably perfect in drawing faces, heads, 
 liaiids, and feet, he may next attempt to draw the human ligure ill 
 full length. In this performance he ought to attend with great 
 care to the true proportions of tlie body and limbs, for which ob- 
 serve, that in a well-formed person, his arms extended make a 
 distance between the extremities of the middle fingers equal to his 
 length; that the face consists of three exact divisions, from the 
 hair on the forehead to the eyes, from the eyes to the bottom of 
 the nose, and from that to the chin. 'I'he whole figure is ten faces 
 in length; from the chin to the collar-bone is twice the length of 
 the nose, thence to the lowest part of the breast one face, from that 
 to the navel another, to the groin one, to the upper part of the 
 knee two, the knee is half a lace in length, from the lower part of 
 w hich to the ancle is two faces, and hence to the sole of the foot i^ 
 one-half. Measuring from the extremes of the breast, the breadth 
 will be found to contain two faces, and the bone of the arm from 
 the shoulder to the elbow, the same number; thence, including 
 part of the hand, two faces; and from the shoulder-blade to the 
 lioUow between the collar-bones, is one face. The thumb is the 
 length of the nose; from the commencement of the hand to the 
 mi(Idle of the arm is five lengths of the nose ; and from the pecto- 
 ral muscle to the same place is lour. The great toe is of the length 
 of the nose, and the sole of the loot is the sixth jiart of the length 
 of the figure; the hands are double their breadth in length, aiul 
 when extended they are exactly tlie length of the face, 'i'he 
 breadth of the limbs vary accor<nng to the slate of health in the 
 bodv, and the particular situation of the muscles whenever moved. 
 The length cf the whole figure being divided into ten equal parts 
 or faces, the points of division answering to the different parts of 
 the bodv, will appear from the figure inPlate Gl .No.'..', in w hich the 
 divisions are marked and numbered. To draw a figure corredly, 
 the intended length should be m;irked, and all the jireceding ad- 
 measurements strictly adhered to, beginning the sketch with the 
 head, following with the shoulders, the trunk, the leg most in ac- 
 tion, then the other, finishing with the arms, and making the out- 
 line perfect before any part is lini-hed; as we may imagine a liv- 
 ing or plaster model placed before the student, that will serve bet- 
 ter for improving him than any written instructions, but he will 
 find the greatest ditficulty in correctlv topying the eyes, mouth, 
 ears, hands, and feet, ;ind should consequently be parlicularlv 
 careful when employed in those parts. I.ei the learner remember, 
 in whatever he intends to draw, first to sketch its several part-, 
 measuring the distances and proportions between eacli with his 
 finger or pencil, without using the compasses ; and then judging 
 of them by the eye, which by degrees, will be able to judiie of triitli 
 and proportion, and will become his best and principal guide. .And 
 let him observe, as a general rule, always to begin on the li'ft haiul, 
 or the right side of the piece he is copying: for thus he will alw3\s 
 have what he has done before his eyes; and the rest will follow 
 more naturallv, and with greater ease. All the bow ings and benn- 
 "ings that are \n the body, must be taken notice of, uuknig the 
 [ C pait
 
 DRAWING, 
 
 189 
 
 part which is opposite to that wliich htnd^ correspond to it in bend- 
 ing with it. For ins(anc(;: it one side of the l)ody bend in, tlie 
 other must stand out answerablj- to it : if tlie back bend in, the 
 bellv n)U>t stick out ; if the knee bend out, the liani must fall in ; 
 anJ'so of any other joint of the liody. In a word, tlie learner 
 inuit endeavour to form all the parts of the figure with truth, and 
 in just proportion : not one arm or one leg bii^ger or less than the 
 other: not broad Herculean shouhiers, with a thin and slender 
 waist ; nor raw and bonv arms, with thick and gouty legs ; but let 
 there be a kind of harmonious agreemeiit amongst the members, 
 and a beautiful synuiietry throughout tlie whole figure. The pro- 
 portions of children are generally thus: three heads in length from 
 the crown of the head to the groin, and thence to the sole of the 
 foot two, one head and a half between the shoulders, one, of the 
 body between the hips and armpits ; the breadth of the limbs 
 should be ascertained from a healthy child. It is a leading prin- 
 ciple, in which every person conversant in designing has agreed, 
 that without a perfect knowledge of the proportions, nothing can 
 be produced but monstrous and extravagant figures ; and it is also 
 Ui.ivers;illy admitted, tlut the ancient Greek and lloman sculptors 
 attained tlie highest success in producing the most perfect models. 
 It is perhaps impossible to draw a perfectly beautiful figure from 
 any one iK-rson ; the most skilful statuaries and painters, sensible 
 of this fact, liiive composed their finest works from ditrerenl sub- 
 jects. Hence artists who have examined the subject with atten- 
 tion, have never found any man so perfect in all his parts as are 
 some of the figures produced by the ancient sculptoi-s. 
 
 VI. Of the EfFtCTs of the Exertion of the Muscles. 
 
 The most obvious effects of the exertion of those muscles, wliich 
 chietiy demand the attention of a painter, are the following: If 
 either of the mastoid muscles act, the head is turned to the con- 
 trary side, and the muscle which performs that action apjiears very 
 plain under the skin. If the arms arc lifted up, the deltoid mus- 
 cles placed on the shoulders, which perfnrm that action, swell, 
 and make the extremities of the spines of the shoulder-blades, call- 
 ed the tops of the shoulders, appear indented or hollow. The 
 «houlder-blades following the elevation of the arms, their bases in- 
 cline at that time obliquely downward. If the arms are drawn 
 down, put forwards, or pidled backwards, the shoulder-blades ne- 
 cessarily vary their positions accordingly. When the cubitus or 
 fore-arm is bended, the biceps lias its belly very much raised, as 
 appears in the left arm. The like may be observed of the triceps, 
 when the arm is extended, as observed in the right arm. 'l"he 
 straight muscles of the abdomen appear very strong when rising 
 from a decumbent posture. Those parts of the great serratus 
 muscle, whicii arc received in the beginnings of the oblitiue de- 
 Kending muscle inimcfliatelv below, are very much sv»ellcd when 
 the shoulder on the sanie side is brought forwards; the serratus 
 muscle then being in action in drawing the scapula forwards. The 
 long extending muscles of the trunk act alternately in walking: if 
 the right leg bears the weight of the body, and tlie left is in trans- 
 lation as on tiptoe, the last mentioned muscles of the b;ick on the 
 left side may be observed to be tumihed on the other side about 
 the region of the loins, and so on the other side. The trochan- 
 ters, or outward and uppermost heads of the thigh-bones, vary in 
 their positions in such a manner as no precise observations c;in ex- 
 plain their several appearances; but the study after the liie ought 
 to be carefully attended to. If the thigh is extended, as w hen the 
 whole weight of the body rests on that side, the gluteus or buttock 
 muscle makes a very different appearance from wliat it otTers at 
 another time ; but if the thigh is drawn backwards, that muscle ap- 
 pears still more and more tumlied. When the whole leg is drawn 
 upwards forwards, and at the same time the foot is inclined in- 
 wards, the upper part of the sartorius muscle appears rising verv 
 strong; in other positions of the thigh, that muscle makes a fur- 
 rowing appearance in its whole progress. If a man is upon tiptoe, 
 the extending muscles of the leg placed on the fore-part of the 
 thigh, and those of the foot that compose the calf of the leg, ap- 
 pear very strong, and the long perona-us makes a considerable in- 
 dentation or furrowing at that time in its progress on the outside of 
 the leg. Many other remarks might be made on this subject ; 
 but for a knowltdge of these, and the foregoing, the painter ought 
 to study anatomy, and consult with care different anatomical 
 plates, in which the muscles are representeU ; to this must be add- 
 
 VOJ„ H NO. 67. 
 
 ed a due attention to nature which will supi-rscdc an) fu;lher in- 
 struction on this head. 
 
 VII. Or THE Effects OF THE Passions IN Genf.rai.. 
 
 Wlien the student of dr:iv^'ng has made himself acquainted with 
 the various attitudes and muscular c^el1ion^ of tlie liunian body, it 
 will be proper for hi\~.i next to study ihc effects of the passions 
 upon the limbs and features. The passions, says M. Le Brun, 
 are motions of the soul, either upon her puisdiiig what she judgti 
 to l)e for her good, or shunning what she thinks hurtlul to her; 
 and commonly, whrifever causes emolion of passion 111 thejtoul, 
 creates also some action in the body. It is iheicfore necessary for 
 a painter to know whicli are the ditrerenl aclions in tlie body that 
 express the several passions of the soul, and how to delineale tlieni 
 
 M. Le Brun has been extieiiiely happy in expressing imuiy of 
 the passions, and the learfier cannot study any thing better than 
 the examples wliich he iias left us of lliem ; r:nil of which we have 
 given a copy ill Plate LXil. However, a> M. I)e Piles justly 
 observes, it is absurd as well as impossible, to pretend tu give such 
 particular demonstrations of them, a< to fix their expression to cer- 
 tain stokes, which the painter siiould be obliged to make use of, 
 as essential and invariable rules. This, says he, would b? depriv- 
 ing the iirt of that excellent variety of expression, whicli has no 
 otiier principle tlian diversity of imagiiialion, the number of which 
 is infinite. ']'he same passion may be finely expressed several 
 ways, each yielding more or less pleasure in proportion to the 
 painter's understanding, and the spectators discernment. Though 
 every part of the face coi.lriLules towards expressing the senti- 
 ments of the heart, yet liic eye-brow, according to M. Le 13run, 
 is the principal seat of expression, and where the ^lassions best 
 make themselves known. It is criti;iii, says he, that the pupil of 
 the eye, by its tire and motion, very well shews the agitation of the 
 soul, but tncn it does not express tin: kind or nature of such an agi- 
 tation ; whereas the motion of the ey c-brow differs according aa 
 the passions change tiieir nature. To express a simple passion, 
 the motion is simple; to express a mixed passion, the motion is 
 compound : if the passion be gintle, the motion is gentle ; and if 
 it be violent, the motion is so too. \\ e may observe farther, says 
 he, that there are two kinds of elevation in the eye-brows: one, in 
 which the eye-brows rise up in the middle ; this elevation ex- 
 presses agreeable sensations, and it is to be observed liiat then the 
 mouth rises at the corners: the other, in which the eve-brows rise 
 up at the ends, and fall m the middle; this motion denotes bodily 
 pain, and then the mouth falls at the corners. In laughter, all the 
 parts agree; for the e\e-bro\vs, which fall toward the middle of 
 the forehead, make the iiose, the mouth, and the eyes, isllow the 
 same motion. In wee])ing, the motions are comp"""^ '*"^ con- 
 trary ; fur the eye-brows fall toward the nose ar.'.i over the eyes, 
 and the mouth rises that way. It is to be cbseivcii also, that the 
 mouth is the part of the face which more p.r.ticLlarly expresses 
 the emotions of the heart: for when the heart complains, the 
 mouth falls at the corners; when it is at ease, the corners of the 
 mouth are elevated, and when it bus ;in aversion, the imnitli shoots 
 forward, and rises in the middle. " The head (says M, De Piles) 
 contributes more to the expression of the passions, than all the 
 other parts of the body put together. Tliose sc|)arately can only 
 shew some few passions, but the head expresses them all, Sonie, 
 however, are more peculiarly expressed by it than others; humi- 
 lity, by hanging it down; arrogance, by lifting it up; languish- 
 ment, by inclining it on one side; and obstinacy, when with a 
 stitl'and resolute air it stands upright, fixed, and stiti" between the 
 two shouldei-s. The head also best shews our supplications, 
 threats, mildness, pride, love, hatred, joy, and grief. The whole 
 face, and every feature, contributes something: especially the 
 eyes; which, as Cicero says, are the windov^s of the soul. Tlie 
 passions they more particularly discover are, pleasure, languish- 
 ing, scorn, severity, mildness, admiration, and anger; to which 
 one might add joy and grief, if they did not proceed more particu- 
 larly from the eye-brows and mouth; but when those two passions 
 fall in also with the language of the eyes, the harmuny will be 
 wonderful, " But though the passions of the soul are most visi- 
 ble in the lines and features of the face, they often require the as- 
 sistance also of the othei parts of the body. Without the hands, 
 for instance, all action is weak and imperfect; their motion^, 
 which are almost infinite, create numberless expressions : it >« bv 
 3 C ^ Jhein
 
 IPO 
 
 DRAWING. 
 
 them that we cii sirf , hope, promise, cill, send buck ; they are the 
 instrunieuts of threateiihig, prayer, horror, and praise; hy thein 
 \ve approve, coDclemn, retuse, admit, fear, ask; express our joy 
 and grief, our doubts, regrets, pam, and admiration. In a word, 
 it may he said, as they are the language of tlie dumb, tliat tliey 
 contribute not a little to speak a language common to all nations, 
 ■wliich is t!ie lanj-uage of painting. But to say how these parts 
 nuist be dispcwed for expressing the vaiious passions, is impossible, 
 nor tan any exact rules be given for it, both because the ta^k 
 would be infinite, and because every one must be guidet! in tins 
 by his own genius, and the particular turn o! his own studies." 
 According to M. Le Brun, the particular passions produce their 
 action on the body as expressed in thi; following rules: 
 
 I. The effects of Attention are to make the eye-brows sink 
 and approach the sides of tlie nose; to turn the eye-balK towards 
 the objeet that causes it; to open the moutli, and especidly the 
 upper part ; to decline the head a little, and fix it without any 
 other remarkable alten.tion. 
 
 3. AijMiuatiov causes but little agitation in the mind, and 
 there ore alters but very little the part^ ol the face ; nevertheless 
 the eve-brow rises: the eye opens a litLle more than ordinary ; the 
 eye-ball placed equally between the eye-lids appears fixed on the 
 object; the mouth halt opens, and makes no senaible alteration in 
 the cheeks. 
 
 3. The motions that accompany Admiration with Astonish- 
 ment, are hardly different from those of simple admiration, oidy 
 they are more lively and stronger marked ; the eye-brows more 
 elevated; the eyes more open; the eye-ball further from the 
 lower eye-lid, and more steadily fixed: the mouth is more open, 
 and all the parts in a much stronger emotion. 
 
 4. Admiration begets esteem, and this produces Veneration, 
 which, when it h:is for its object something divine, or be)ond our 
 comprehension, makes the face decline, and the eye-bruws bend 
 down; the eyes are almost shut and fixed: the moutli is shut. 
 Tliese motions arc gentle, and produce but little alterations in the 
 other parts. 
 
 5. Although Rapture has the same object as veneration, only 
 considered in a dilf'erent manner, its motions are not the same ; 
 the head inclines to the left side; the eye-balls and eye-brows rise 
 directly up; the mouth half opens, and the two corners are also a 
 Ltlle turned up: the other parts remain in their natural state. 
 
 6. The passion of Desire brings the eye-brows close together 
 and forwards toward the eyes, which are more open than ordinary; 
 the eye-ball is iidiameil, and places itself in the middle of the eye ; 
 the nostrils rise up, and are contracted towards the eyes ; the 
 mouth opens, and the spirits being in motion, give a lively glow- 
 ing colour. 
 
 7. Very little alteration is remarked in the face of those that feel 
 within themselves the sweetness of joy, or jov with TRAN'iuiL- 
 lity. The forehead is serene ; tlie eye-brow without motion, ele- 
 vated in the middle; tlie eye pretty open, and with a laughing air; 
 the eye-ball lively and shining; the corners of the mouth turn up 
 a little; the complexion is lively ; the cheeks and lips are red. 
 
 S. LAt-'GiiTER, which is produced bv joy mixed with surprize, 
 makes the eye-brows rise towards the middle of the eye, and bend 
 towards the sides of the nose ; the eyes are almost shut, and some- 
 limes appear wet, or shed tears, which make no alteration in the 
 face ; the moutii half open, shews the teetli ; the corners of the 
 mouth drawn back, cause a wrinkle in the cheeks, which appear 
 so swelled as to hide the eyes in some measure; the nostrils are 
 open, and all the face is of a red colour. 
 
 9. Acute Pain makes the eye-brows a])proach one another, 
 and rise towards the middle; the eye-ball is hid under the eye- 
 brows; the nostrils rise and make a wrinkle in the cheeks; the 
 mouth h;!lf opens and draws back : all the parts of the face are 
 agitated in p'-op.ortion to the violence of the pain. 
 
 10. Simple bodij.y P.ain produces proportionally the s;ime 
 motions as the last, but not so strong.: the eye-brows do not ap- 
 proarh and rise so much; tlie eye-ball appears fixed on some ob- 
 fcct ; the nostrils rise, but the wrinkles in the cheeks are less per- 
 i-eivable ; the lids are further asunder towards the middle, and the 
 mouth is half open. 
 
 11. The dejection (hut is produced by Sadness makes the eye 
 brows rise towards the middle of the forehead more than tow;mls 
 the cheeks; the eye baU appeaiikfull of perturbation; the white 
 of the eye is yellow; the eye-lids are drawn down, auu a little 
 
 i-welled ; all about the eyes is livui ; the nostrils are drawn down« 
 ward; the moutli is half open, and the corners are drawn down J 
 the head carelessly leaning on one of the shoulders : the face is of 
 a lead colour; the lips pale, 
 
 1'-'. The alterations th;a Weeping occasions are strongly mark- 
 ed : the eye-brows sink down towards ilie iruUdie ot tne forehe;id ; 
 the eyes are almost closed, wet, and dr.ivvn down towards the 
 cheeks; the nostrils sweileu ; the muscles and veins ot the fore- 
 head appear ; the mouth is shut, and tlie sides of it are drawn 
 down, making wrinkles on the cheeks; the under lip pushed out 
 presses the ui>per one: all the face is wrinkled snd contriicted ; iij 
 coioui IS a'd, especially about the eye-brow.-., the eyes, the nose, 
 and the cheeks. 
 
 13. The livelv attention to the misfortunes of another, which is 
 called Compassion, causes the eye-orows to sink towai'ds the 
 middle of tlie forehead; the eye-bail to be fixed upon the object; 
 the sides of the nostrils next the nose to be a iitlle elevated, making 
 wrinkles in the cheeks ; the mouth to be op. n ; the upper lip to be 
 lilted lip and thru>t forwards; the muscles and all the parts of the 
 face sinking down and turning toward.; tlie object which excites 
 the passion. 
 
 14. I'ne motions of Scorn are lively and strong: the forehead 
 is wrinkled; the eye-brow is knit; the side ot it next the nose 
 sinks down, and the other side rises very much ; the eye is very 
 open, and the eye-balls in the middle; the nostrils rise, and draw 
 towards the eves, and make wrinkles in the cheeks; the month 
 shuts, its sides sinkmg down, and the upper lip is pushed out be- 
 yond the upper one. 
 
 15. An object despised sometimes causes Horror, and then the 
 eye-brow knits, and sinks a great deal more. The eye-ball, placed 
 at the bottom of the eye, is half-covered by the lower eye-lid ; the 
 mouth is half open, but do- er in the middle than the sides, which 
 being drawn back, makes wrinkles in the cheeks ; the face grows 
 pale, and the eyes become livid ; the muscles and the veins are 
 marked. 
 
 16. The violence of Terror, or Fright, alters all the parts of 
 the f;;ce ; the eye-brow rises in the middle ; its muscles are marked, 
 swelled, pressed one against the other, and sunk towards the no-e, 
 which draws up as well as the nostrils ; the eyes are very ojien ; 
 the upper eye-lid is liid under the eye-brow; the white of the eve 
 is encomp;issed with red ; the eye-ball fixes toward the lower pait 
 of the eye ; the lower part of the eye-lid swells and becomes liviil ; 
 the muscles oi the nose and cheeks swell, and these last terminate 
 in a point toward the sides of the nostrils; the mouth is very open, 
 and its corners very apparent; the muscles and veins of the neck 
 stretched; the hair stands on end ; the colour of the face, that is, 
 the end of the nose, the lips, the ears, and round the eyes, is pale 
 and livid ; and all ought to be strongly marked. 
 
 17. The effects of Anger shew its nature. The eyes become 
 red and inilained ; the eye-ball is staring and sparkling ; the eye 
 brows are sometimes elevated, and sometimes sunk down equally ; 
 the forehead is very much wrinkled, with wrinkles between the 
 eyes ; the nostrils are open and enlarged ; the lips pressing against 
 one another, the under one rising over the upper one leaves the 
 corners of the mouth a little open, making a cruel and disdainful 
 grom. 
 
 IS. Hatred or Jealousy wrinkles the forehead; the eye- - 
 brows are sunk down and knit ; the eye-ball is half hid under the 
 eye-brows, which turn towards the object ; it should appear lull of 
 lire, as well as the wdiile of the eye and the eye-lid ; the nostrils 
 are pale, open, more marked than ordinary, and drawn backward 
 so as to make wrinkles in the cheeks ; the month is so shut as to 
 shew the teeth are closed; the corners of the mouth are- drawn 
 back and very much sunk; the muscles <.if the jaw appear sunk ; 
 the colour of "the face is partly inflamed and partly yellowish ; the 
 lips pale or livid. 
 
 19. As Despair is extreme, it motions are so likewise ; tlie fore- 
 head wrinkles from the top to the bottom; the eve-brows bend 
 down over the eyes, and press one another on the sides of the 
 nose ; the eye seems to be on fire, and full of blood ; the eye-ball 
 is disturbed", hid under the eye-brow, sparkling and unfixed ; the 
 eve-lid is swelled and livid ; the no-trils are large, open, and : 
 
 up; the end of the nose sinks down ; the muscles, tendons. 
 
 ifted 
 and 
 veins are swelled and stretched ; the upper part of the cheek is 
 large, marked, and narrow towards the jaw ; the niouth <lrawn 
 backwards is more oiicu at the sides thaii in the middle ; tlie lower 
 
 lip
 
 DRAWING. 
 
 191 
 
 )ip is largt* and luriiffl out; the persons gnash tlieir teeth; they 
 > fnam ; tliev bite their lii>:s which are pale; as istlie re-.t ol thetace; 
 " the hnir is strait and stands on end. 
 
 VIII. Of the Distributiok o:-' Light and Shade. 
 
 After the learner has made himseit in some measure perfect in 
 drawing otUlines, his next endeavour most be to shade thein pro 
 pcrly. It is this which gives an appearance of substance, shape, 
 distaii'e, atid distinction, to whatever bod.ies lie endeavours to re- 
 present, whether animate or inanimate. 'Die best rule for doing 
 this is to consider from what point, and in what direction, tht; 
 light falls upon the objects which he is delineating, and to let all his 
 lights and shades be placed according to that direction throughout 
 the whole work. That part ol the object must be lightest which 
 has the light most directly opposite to it ; if the light tails sideways 
 on the picture, he must make that side which is opposite to' it 
 lightest, and tli^it side which is farthest from it darkest. If he is 
 drawiuij; the figure ol a man, and the light be placed above the 
 head, then the top of the head must be made lightest, the shoulders 
 next lightest, and the lower parts darker by degrees. That part 
 of the object, wliether in naked ligures, or drapery, or buildings, 
 that stands farthest out, must be made the lightest, because it 
 coini-s iiearest to the light; and the light lo-eth so mucli of its 
 brightness, by how much any part of the body bends inward, be- 
 cause Iho^e parts that stick out liinJer tlie Iu4re and full brightness 
 of the light troin striking on those parts that fall in. Titian used 
 to say, that he knew no better rule for the distribution of lights 
 and shadows than his observations drawn from a bunch of grapes. 
 Battins and silks, and all other sliining stulfs, have certain glancing 
 reiiectioiis, exceeding bright where the light falls stronge-t. The 
 like is seen in armour, bra-^s pots, or any other glittering metal, 
 where a sudden l>rightness appears in the centre of the light, whicli 
 discovers the shining nature of suclt things. A strong liglit rc- 
 quiiei a strong shade, a fainter light a fainter shade ; and an equal 
 balance must be preserved throughout the piece between lights 
 and shades. Those parts which must appear round require but 
 one stroke in shatling, and that sometimes but very faint ; such 
 parts as should appear steep or hollow, require two strokes across 
 facli other, or sometimes three, whicli is sulficient for the deepest 
 shade Care must be also taken to make the outlines faint and 
 small in such parts as receive the light ; but where the shades fall, 
 the outline must be strong and bold. The learner must begin his 
 shadings from the top. and proceed downward, and use his utmost 
 endeavours, both by practice and ob^ervation, to learn hav to 
 vary the "shadings properly ; tor in this consist a great deal of 
 beauty and elegance in drawing. Another thing to be observed 
 is, that as the human sight is weakened bv distances, so objects 
 mu5t seem more or less confused orclea'r according to the places 
 they hold in the piece : those that are very distant, weak, faint, 
 and confused ; those that are near and on the foremost ground, 
 clear, strong, and accurately finished. 
 
 IX, Of Drapery. 
 
 In the art ef clothing the figures, or casting the drapery pro- 
 perly and elegantly upon them, many things are to be observed. 
 1. 'i he eye must iiei'er be in doubt of its object ; but the shape 
 and proportion of tlie part or limb, which the draperv is sup|)osed 
 to cover, niust appear; or at least so far as art and probability will 
 permit: and this is so material a consideration, that many artists 
 draw first the naked figure, and afterwards put tlie draperies upon 
 it. J. The drapery must not fit too close to the parts of the 
 body ; but let it seem to flow round, and as it were to embrace 
 them; yet so tiiat the figure maybe easy, and have a free mo- 
 tion. 3. The draperies which cover those parts that are exposed 
 to -great liglit, nur-l not be so deeply shaded as to seem to pierce 
 them ; nor should those members be crossed by folds that are too 
 strong, lest, by the two great darkness of their shades, the mem- 
 bers look as if they were broken. 4. The great folds roust be 
 fivawii first, and then stroked into less ones : and great care must 
 be taken that they do not cross one another improperly. 5. Folds 
 in general should be large, and as few as possible. However, 
 they must be greater or less, according to the quantity and qua- 
 lity of the stuifs of wdiich the drapery is supposed to be made. 
 The quality of the persons is also to be considered in the dra- 
 pery. If they are magistrates their draperies ought to be large 
 and ample ; if country clowns or slaves, they ought to be coarse 
 
 and short ; if ladies or nymphs, light and soft. 6. Suit the gar- 
 ments to the body, and make them bend witii it, according as it 
 stands in or out, straight or crooked ; or as it bends one way or 
 another; and the closer the garment fits to the body, the narrower 
 and smaller mu^t be the folds. 7. folds well imagined give uuu h 
 s|)irit to any kind of action; because their moiiuii implies a mo- 
 tion in the acting member, which seems to draw tluin lor<ibly, 
 and makes them more or less stirring as the aition is more or less 
 violent. S. An artful complication ol tolds in a circular manner 
 greatly helps the effect ot fore-shoitenings. 9. All folds consist of 
 two shades, and no more ; which may be turned w ith the garment 
 at pleasure, shadowing the inner side deeper, an;i the outer more 
 laintly. 10. The shades in silk and fine linen are vi-ry thick and 
 small, requiring little folds and a light shatiow. 1 1. Observe tlie 
 motion ol the air or wind, in order to draw the loose a|)parel all 
 Hying one way : and <lraw that part of the garment that adheres 
 clo-est to the body, before you draw the looser part that flies oft" 
 trom it ; lest, by drawing the loose part of the garment first, you 
 should mistake the position of the figure, and place it awry. 12. 
 Rich ornanieiits, when judiciously and sparingly u^ed, may some- 
 times contribute to the beauty of draperies. But such ornaments 
 are lar below tlie dignity of angels or celestial figures ; the grandeur 
 of whose draperies ought rather to consist in the boldness and no- 
 bleness of the folds, than in the quality of the stuff or the glitter of 
 ornaments. 13. Light and tlying draperies are proper only to 
 figures in great motion, or in the wind ; but when in a calm place, 
 and free from violent action, their draperies should be large and 
 llowing; that, by their contrast, and the fall of the folds, they mpy 
 apjiear with grace and dignity. Examples of drapery are given 
 in Plate LXl. See also Painting. 
 
 X. Of Drawing Landscapes, Buildings, &c. 
 Of all the branches of drawing, this is the most useful and ne- 
 cessary, as it is what every man may have occa-ion for at one time 
 or another. To be able, on the spot, to take the sketch of a line 
 building, or a beautiful prospect; of any curious protluction of 
 art, or uncommon apjjearance in nature ; is not only a very desira- 
 ble accomplishment, but a .very agreeable amusement. Rocks, 
 mountains, fields, woods, rivers, cataracts, cities, towns, castles, 
 houses, fortifications, ruins, or whatsoever else may present itselt to 
 I view on our journeys or travels, in our ou nor torwign countries, 
 may be thus brought home and preserved for our future use ei- 
 ther in business ov conversation. On this part, therefore, more 
 than ordinary pains should be bestow ed. All drawing consists iii 
 nicely measuring the distances of each jiart of the piece by the eye. 
 In order to facilitate this, let the learner imagine in his own mind, 
 that the piece he copies be divided into squares. For example : 
 suppose a perpendicular and horizontal line crossing each other, 
 in the centre of the picture you are drawing from; then suppose 
 also two such lines crossing your own copy. Observe in the original, 
 what parts of the design those lines intersect, and let them fall on the 
 same parts as the supposed lines in the copy. To draw a landscape 
 from nature, let him take his station on a rising ground, where he 
 will have a large horizon ; and mark his tablet into three divisions, 
 downwards from the top to the bottom; and divide in liis own 
 mind the landscape he is to take, into three divisions also. Then 
 let him turn his face directly op[)osite to the midst of the horizon, 
 keeping his body fixed, and draw w hat is directly before his eyes 
 upon the middle division of the tablet; then turn his head, but 
 not his body, to the left hand, and delineate what he views there, 
 joining it properly to what he had done before ; and, lastly, do the 
 same by what is to be seen upon his right hand, laying down 
 every thing exactly both witii respect to distance and proportion. 
 Examples are given on Plate LXI. fig. E. The best artists of 
 late, in drawing their landscapes, make them shoot away one part 
 lower than another. Those who make their landscapes mount up 
 higher and higher, as if they stood at the bottom of a hill to take 
 the prospect, commit a great error : the best way is for the artist to 
 get upon a rising ground, make the nearest objects in the piece the 
 higliest, and those tliat are farther off to shoot away lower and 
 lower, till they come almost level with the line of the horizon, les- 
 sening every thing proportionably to its distance, and observing 
 also to make the objects fainter and less distinct, the farther they 
 are removed from the eye. He must make all his lights and 
 sades fall one way, and let every thing have its proper motion : as 
 trees shaken by the wind, the small bows bending more, and the 
 
 large
 
 I9i 
 
 DRAWING. 
 
 lari^e ones It-bs : watt-r agitated l)y Ihc wind, aiui dashing against 
 s'liips or boats ; or falling from a precipice upon rocks or slunos, 
 spirting up again into tlie air, anil sprinkling ail al)oiit : clouds also 
 ill llio air, now gatliered with tlie w luds : now violently condensed 
 into liail, rain, and the like : Always renieniberin;j, that whatever 
 motions are caused by llie wind must be n\ade all to move the 
 same way. I'or lurther particulars on th'.s and the other parts ot 
 drawing, see Painting. 
 
 XI. Of Mechanical Dr.\wing, or Copvi.sg. 
 
 There are various methods by which those who are ignorant of 
 the art of drav.'ing may copy very accurately the outlines of pic- 
 tures, prints, and drawing; and these methods are often Useful to 
 those who can draw, and to engravers, when either great expedi- 
 tion, or great accuracy, is required ; tiiongli none ot them should 
 ever be used by one who is learning to draw. 
 
 Tracinc; AGAINST THF. Light. Hold the drawing you wish 
 to copy against one of the panes of the window ; or have a pane 
 ofgla^s put in a frame, and fitted up like a mus.c-»tand, with a 
 candle behind it. Lay your paper over the drawing, and you will 
 see all the lines of the original distinctly through it, by which 
 means you can easily trace them with a pen, or black-lead' pencil. 
 
 ToMAKt Tracing-paper. Mix together equal parts of oil 
 of turpentine and drying-oil, and with a rag rub it evenly over 
 some tan or tissue-paper, or any other verv lliin pa]5er. Hang it 
 by to dry for a day or two, and it will be fit for use. Lay this 
 over the print or drawing you want to copvj and vou will see 
 every line distinctly through, so that you caii go over it with the 
 hiack-lead pencil. If you wish to do it in ink, you must mix a 
 little ox's gall with the ink, to make the paper take it, which it 
 would not otherwise do on account of the oil. 
 
 To Make Camp-paper. Take some hard soap, mix it with 
 lamp-black ; make it into the consistence of a jelly with water ; 
 vith this, brush over one side of your paper, and let it dry. When 
 you use it, put it between two sheets of clean paper, with'its black 
 side downwards ; and with a pin, or stick w ilh a sharp point, draw or 
 write w hdt you please upon the clean paper ; and w here the tracer 
 was touched, there will bean iinpix'ssion upon the lowermost sheet 
 of paper as if it had been w ritU-n or drawn with a pen. It may be 
 made of any colour, by mixing with the soap, black lead, vermi- 
 lion, &c. 
 
 Stenciling. Lay the print or drawing you wish to have 
 copied over a sheet of paper, and with a pin or needle prick all the 
 outline over with holes, through both the papers. Then take the 
 clean paper with the holes made in it, and lay it upon the paper 
 you wish to havi' the design transferred to, and dust it over with 
 the powder of charcoal in a small muslin bag; the dust will pene- 
 trate through the holes, and leave a correct copy of the original 
 upon the paper. This pricked paper will do again for any num- 
 ber of copit-s. This is very useful for ladies who work 'ilowers 
 upon muslin.— The iiielhod of enlarging and contracting by 
 squares. Divide the sidis of your original with a pair of compasses 
 in:o any number of equal parts, and rule lines across with a black- 
 lead pencil from side to side, and from lop to bottom. Ihen 
 having your paper of the size you intend, divide it into the same 
 number ot sijuares, either larger or less, as you would enlarge or 
 contract it. Then placing your original before vou, draw, square 
 by square, the several parts, observing to make the part of the 
 figure you are drawing iail into the saijie part of the squares in the 
 copy as it does in your original. To prevent mistakes, number 
 the squares both of the original and copy. This method is much 
 used by engravers. To prevent the necessity of ruling across the 
 original, which in some cases mav injure it, take a square pane of 
 crown glass, and divide its sides,";ind also its top and bottom, into 
 c(ju,il parts : then for each division draw lines across the glass with 
 lanip-black ground with giini water, and you will divide the glass 
 into stpiares. Then lay the glass upon 'the original which you 
 w ish to copy, and having draw n the same number of squares upon 
 your paper, proceed to copy into each square on your paper 
 what appears behind each corresponding square of the gl'ass.In^tead 
 Ot a glass, an open frame with threads stretched across will answer 
 tlie same purpose. 
 
 'I HE Pentagraph. The pentagraph is an instrument, by 
 intaiis of which one may copy, enlarge, or reduce, the outlines 61 
 any picture, print, or drawing. It may be liad at most mathemati- 
 
 cal instruiueiu-iiiakers, and is extremely useful for copying plans, 
 maps, and other complicated figures. 
 
 Transparencies The eifecl of this kind of drawing, which 
 has lately become very Ia^hionuble, tiough by no means a modern 
 invention, is very plea>i.'ig, if managed with judgement, particularly 
 in lire and moonlights, where brilliancy of light and strengtii of 
 shade are so very desirable. The very great expence attending 
 the purchase of stained-glass, and the ri;k of keeping it secure from 
 accident, almost prci Uide^ tlic use of it in onianicnling rooms; 
 but transiiarencies lorma sub-^iitute nearly equal, and at a very small 
 expence. The paper upon which you intend to draw- must he 
 fixed in a straining-lrame, in order that you may be able to place it 
 between you and the light, when you see occasion in the progress 
 of your work. After tracing in your design, the colours must be 
 laid on in the usual metliod of stained drawing. \\ hen the tint* 
 are got in, you must place your picture against the window, on a 
 pane of glass framed for the [nirpose, and liegin to strengthen tha 
 sIkuIows with Indian ink, or with colours, according a.s the effect 
 nquires, laying the colours sometimes on both sides of the paper, 
 to give greater force and depth of colour. '1 he last touches for 
 giving final strength to shadows aiid forms, are to be done with 
 ivory-black, or lamp-black, i)repared with gum-water, as there it 
 no pigment so opaque and capable of giving strength and decision. 
 When the drawing is finished, and every part has got its depth of 
 colour and brilliancy, being perfectly dry, you touch very care- 
 fully with -.pirits of turpentine on both sides those parts which are 
 to be the brighle.-t, sucii as the moon and fire ; and those parts re- 
 quiring less brightness, only on one side. Then lay on immedi- 
 ately with a pencil a varnish, made by dissolving one ounce of Ca« 
 nada bal>am in an equal quantity of spirit of turpentine. Yjumust 
 be cautious w ith the varnish, as it is ajit to spread. When the var- 
 nish is dry you tint the flame with red lead and gamboge, slightly 
 tinging the smoke next the flame: the moon must not be tinted 
 with colour. Much depends upon the choice of the subject; and 
 none is so admirably adapted to this species of efl'ect as the gloomy 
 Gothic ruin, whose antique towers and pointed turrets finely con- 
 trast their dark battlements with the pale yet brilliant moon. The 
 effect of rays passing through the ruined windows, half-choked with 
 ivy ; or ot a lire among the clustering pillars and broken monu- 
 ments of the choir, round which are figures of banditti, or others 
 whose haggard faces catch the reflecting light : these afi'ord a pe- 
 culiarity of etVect not to be eijualled m any other species of paint- 
 ing. Internal views of cathedrals aUo where windows of stained 
 glass are introduced, have a beautilul effect. The following is a 
 very easy method of drawing ant* shading objects. Take a sheet 
 of the thinnest, or white-brown paper, and brush it over with oil 
 of turpentine, which will immedialely render it transparent: 
 then, after (Irving the paper in the air, strain it upon a frame, and 
 fix it again4 the object vou design to draw : this done, place right 
 before it a piece of wood with a hole in it, tit for one's eye to look 
 through, and as you meet any outlines of the object on the trans- 
 parent paper, trace them over with a pencil ; by which means you 
 will obtain the just proportion, and true representation of any object 
 in its outlines. To render this still more pleasing, observe the 
 tracings of your draught, wherever the shades are, and mark them 
 w ith your pencil ; for all the art in the world can never dispose the 
 shades so regularly, as one may touch by this method ; but the 
 shades must be drawn tpiickly after the outlines are drawn, not at 
 ditVerent times, because the sun instantly changes them. Here ob. 
 serve, as in certain objects you will have fainter, stronger, and 
 darker shades, in your remark-* of them, to take such memoran- 
 dums as may direct you how to finish them with Indian ink, or 
 other colour, when you sit down to complete your work. To this 
 end the best wav before you trace out your object, is to prepare 
 three shells or gallipots of Indi.in ink, mixed with common water, 
 viz. one of a very faint black, one of a middling black, and one of 
 an intense black, numbering them 1, 2, 3 ; and as you make your 
 obscurat'on on the shadi-s of your object, mark upon your dnught 
 the same numbers as they happen to appear, so that afterwards you 
 may finish with certainty. In this regard the transparent paper 
 is of great use ; for, being laid upon any pap«'r or print in a loose 
 sheet, all the lines will be sfen so perlecilv through it, that you 
 mav copv them w ith the greatest ea^e ; and if the print or picture 
 be (lone by a good muster, you can sec which Unes are strong, 
 which so(t,' and how to inmitate tliem. Some prefer to the trans- 
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 197 
 
 DRO 
 
 ill the province of Na- 
 depaitmeiit of the 
 
 URENGIUIM'H, ;i town of Prussia, 
 lane;en, 44 miles S. E. of Konigsber;). 
 
 D RENTE, ;i district of Batavia, in the 
 Yssel. 
 
 DRENTELBURG, or TRENTELBURG, a town of Ger- 
 many, in the circle of the Upper Rhine, 18 miles N. N. \V. of 
 L'assfl. 
 
 DREPANE, or DREPANUM, in ancient geography, a town 
 of Bithynia, situated between tlie Sinus and Astacenus and the 
 Bosphoriis Thracius ; called ilelenopolis by C'onstantine, in ho- 
 nour ot his mother. 
 
 DuEi'ANF., the ancient name of Corcyra, from the curvity of its 
 Jigure, resembling a sickle. 
 
 DREPANIIM, the name of three ancient towns, viz. 1. on 
 the Arabic Gulf, on the side of Eg}pt: '3. on the N. side of 
 Crete, between Cydonia and the Siims Aniphimallus : 3. on the 
 AV. side of Cyprus. 
 
 DRESDEN, the capital of the late electorate of Sa.Kony, in 
 Germany, 73 miles N. W. of Prague. I.on. 13. 5U. E. Lat. .51. 
 10. N. 
 
 DRESSING, in surgery. The apparatus of dres-.ini}; consists 
 of dossils, tents, plasters, compresses, bandages, bands, ligatures, 
 and strings. See Surgfky. 
 
 DREUX, a town of I'Vance, in tlie department of Eurc and 
 Loire, 48 miles W. uf Paris. Lon. 1. 27. E. Lat. 4S. 4i. N. 
 
 DREVE, or DREIHE, a town of Germany, in the circle of 
 Westphalia, and county of Jlova, 5 miles S. S. E. of Bremen. 
 
 DREYEN, a small island of Denmark, in the Little Beit, 3 
 niilesS. \V. of Middalfahrt. 
 
 DREYGELHAl'SEN, a town of Germany, in the circle of 
 the Lower Rhine, J miles N.W. of Biiigcn. 
 
 DRIESSEN, or DRESNO, a town of Germany, in the New 
 Marche of Brandenburg, 90 miles E. N. E. of Berlin. 
 
 DRIFT, in mining, a passage cut out under the earth betw-txt 
 shaft and sliaft, or turn and turn ; or a jja^sage or way wrou.ght 
 under the earth to the end of a nicer of ground, cr' part of a 
 nieer. 
 
 Drift, in navigation, the angle whicli the line of a ship's mo- 
 tion makes with the nearest meridian, when she tlriveswith her 
 side to the wind and waves, and is not governed bv the power of 
 the helm ; it also implies the distance which the ship drives on 
 that line. A ship's way is only called drift in a storm ; and then 
 when it blows so vehemently as to prevent her from carrying any 
 sail, or at least restrains her to such a portion of sail, as may be 
 necessary to keep her sulFiciently inclined to one side, that she 
 may not be dismasted by her violent labouring produced by tlie 
 turbulence of the sea. 
 
 Drift Sail, a sail used under water, veered out right a-head 
 by sheets, as other sails are. It serves to keep the ship's head 
 right upon the sea in a storm, and to hinder lier ilriviiig too fast in 
 3 current. 
 
 DRILL, or DRILL-BOX, a name given to an inslruiiient for 
 towing land in the new method of horse-hoeing husbaii'dry. See 
 Husbandry. 
 
 Drii.l-sowi.vg, a method of sowing grain or seed of nnv kind, 
 so that it may all be at a proper depth in llie earth, which is ne- 
 cessary to its producing healthful and vigorous plants. Eor this 
 purpose a variety of diill-ploughs have been invented and recom- 
 mended ; but from the expcnce attending the purchase, and the 
 extreme complicalion of their structure, there is not an i.l^trunlent 
 of that kind, as yet discovered, that is likely to lie brought into 
 general use. liiis met hod, however, is greatly recommended in 
 tlie (ieorgical Essays. See liusBANURY. 
 
 DRINKING, is one of the animal functions, essential to the 
 proper solution and digestion of food. Although the proportion 
 of lii|uid to that of dry, or solid food, cannot be precisely ascer- 
 taiiicd ; jet, if the constant secretion of liuids be laid down as the 
 basis of this compulation, we should, perhaps, drink double the 
 quantity ot the solid provisions we daily consume. Kevertheless, 
 c\cn this proportion is but too often exceeded, merely to please 
 the artificial cravings of a corrupted palate. Thus, we' no longer 
 drink with a view to quench thirst only, but at certain hours of 
 the day. whether we are naturally inclined, or not. Nay, we 
 frequently meet with sots in beer, ale, spirits, wine, punch, and 
 even tea. Excessive drink, however, though it distend and op- 
 press the stomach, and thus impede 
 
 VOL. H. — NO, lis 
 
 : digestion, is not nearly so per- 
 
 nicious as gluttony, unless the former be attended with intoxica- 
 tion. It however impoverishes the whole mass of the blood, by- 
 rendering it too thin ;:iid watery ; so that relaxation of the urinary 
 and other canals, at length, general debility of the system, are its 
 necessary concomitants. On the contrary, too little drink dis- 
 poses persons of a sedentary life to indigestion ; because many par- 
 ticles of solid food are, for watit of dilution, passed unassimilated! 
 through the alimentary canal ; and the blood becomes viscid, and 
 inert m its circulation. The active and laborious should, there- 
 fore, drink more than the idle or phlegmatic ; and either of these 
 more in summer than in winter, to supply the great loss of hu- 
 mours exhaled by insensible ])crspiration. Persons, whose natural 
 appetite is not depraved inconsequence of irregular living, may 
 easily regulate the due proportion of their drink to that of dry ali- 
 ment ; as, to them, thirst will be the safe.-.l guide. But those in- 
 dividuals who have become slaves to the libations of Bacchus, are 
 unfortunately deprived of this beneficent instinct, which is the 
 privilege even ot irrational animd.?. If the moral turpitude of 
 committing excess in drinking, afiords no argument to induce the 
 habitual votary to abstain from such pernicious practice, we shall 
 only add, that lie will sooner or later feel the ellects of it in pain- 
 ful and lingering sickues-J. To a reflecting mind, it affords matter 
 of just surprize, how so many persons of worth and character, 
 while sober, can devote themselves to a custom which they can- 
 not but abhor in their friends. Eor the sake of a momentary gra- 
 tilication of the palate, wines ami spirits are indiscriminately swal- 
 lowed, and especiall) by liiose whose age, labours, and merit in 
 society, often enlith: them to neither. Immense quantities of va- 
 luable grain b_\ Nature designed for the support of the poor and 
 indigent, are annually converted into liquid lire, or more properly, 
 poison ! Where is the philanthropist, in our Imperial Senate, 
 who posses.,es virtue and intluence sufficient to stem the torrent ot 
 so extensive a system of mischief? After this involuntary digres- 
 sion, we shall only observe, that large potations are, at all times, 
 and in every constitution, improper ; that they are particularly 
 injurious wlien indulged in previously to the taking of food, and 
 especially before dinner ; that all beverage is more pernicious to 
 the healthy in awaiin, than in a cold state ; that the human sto- 
 mach should never be inundated with immoderate quantities of 
 drink at one time ; and that the most natural drink, and the most 
 conducive to health, without exception, is |nire water. 
 
 DRINO, a river of European Turkey, formed by the junction 
 of the two following : 
 
 Dhino Bianca, or White Drino, which rises near Rechia, 
 on the borders of Dalmatia ; and 
 
 Drino, Ni.Ro, or Black Drin'o, which rises in a lake near 
 Akrida; joining the Drino IVianca, it takes the name of Drino 
 only, and runs into the Adriatic, about S miles S. VV. of Alessio, 
 forming a bay at its mouth, called The Gulf of Drino. 
 
 DRI\"EKS, among sportsmen, a machine for driving pheasant 
 powts, consisting of good strong ozier wands, such as the basket- 
 makers use, set in a handle, and twisted or bound with .-mall ozieis 
 in two or three places. With this instrument the sportsman drives 
 the young powts into his nets. See the next article. 
 
 DRIV'IN'(;, among sportsmen, a method of taking pheasant 
 powts. The sportsman having found out the haunts of tlie<e bird?, 
 and fixed his nets there, he calls upon them together bv a.plieasant 
 call, imitating till." voice of (he dam; after this he makes a noise 
 with his driver, which will make them run a little way forward in 
 aclu-ter; and this he repeals till he has made sure of them, by 
 driving them into his nets. 
 
 Drivin'G, ill metallurgy, is said of silver, when, in the opera- 
 tion of retining, the lead being burnt away, the remaining copper 
 rises upon its surface in red liery bubbles. 
 
 DKiviNG,in die sea language, is sai<l of a ship, when an anchor 
 being let fall will not hold her fast, nor prevent her s.iiliiig ,av»av 
 with the wind or tide. The best help in this ca^e is to let faU 
 more-anchors, or to veer out more cable; for the more cable she 
 has out, the safer she rides. When a ship is a hull, or a-try, they 
 say she drives'to leeward. 
 
 ■DH0GUED\, orTRED.\Il, a town of Ireland, in the pro- 
 vince of Lcinster ami county of Lowlh, ,"i milesW. of the Irish chan- 
 nel, and 03 N. of Dublin. Lon. G. 1. W. Lat. 51. 53. N. 
 
 Droc, heda Bay, a bay of the Irish Sea, on the coast of Louth, 
 Ireland. 
 DROIT, lj!(s, Lat.] signifies right or law, of which some dis. 
 3 E tinsuisU
 
 DRO 
 
 198 
 
 DRO 
 
 tiugiiisii six kiad-i, 1. Jus ri-"cii;jeraudi, right of recovery. 2. Jus 
 eutraiKli, ri^lit of entering. 3. Jus hiibentli, right of liaving. 4. 
 Jiii^ rttirientii, right of jctainiiig. J. Jus percipieiuli, riglit of rc- 
 ceivin!>. 6. Jui [lossideiuli, ri; lit i.f possessing. 
 
 Droit is also tiie liigheat writ of all other real writs, and takes 
 its name of a writ of right, from the greatest regaril Ijeing shewn 
 to it ; anil as it has tlie most assureil and final judgement. Tiiere 
 are several sorts of these writs used in our law, as droit de avowson, 
 droit de dower, droit de garde, droit patent, droit rationahili 
 jiarte, and droit sur disclaimer. 
 
 DROITWICH, ato«nof Worcestershire in England, noted 
 for excellent wliite salt made from the salt springs in its neighbour- 
 hood. It is 6 miles E. N. E, of Worcester. 
 
 DROMFo a river of France, which runs through the depart- 
 ment so named Ironi it, into the Rhone. 
 
 Drome, a department of France, formed out of part of tlie late 
 province of Dauplnn6. It is bounded on the N. and N. E. iiv tl\e 
 (lepailmcnt ot Isere ; on the E. by tliat of the Upper Alps ; ou the 
 S. by tliat of the Mouths of the Rlione, and on the W. by tlie 
 Ehone itself, ^'alence is the capital. 
 
 DKOMFDARY. See Camelus. 
 
 DROMO, asmall island in the Archipelago. 
 
 DROMORF, atownof Ireland, in the county of Down, 17 
 rviiles 1'.. (.f Armag's and 15 S. \V. of Rcllast. 
 
 DRONE, in'nuisic, the largest tube of the bag-pipe; the of- 
 fice of which is to emit one continued deep noie, as an accom- 
 pjiivin,; bass to ihr air or tune played on the smaller pipes. 
 
 Drone. See Hf.e. 
 
 DRONFI FI.D, a town of Derbyshire, 6 miles N. of Cliesler- 
 field, and CS N. ot Derby. 
 
 DRON'TUEIM, a town of Norway, formerly the capital, and 
 the usual residence of tlie kings; situated on a gulf of the North 
 sea. It is 270 miles N. W. of Stockliolm. Lon. 11. 9. E. l.at. 
 Di. i-T). N. 
 
 Drontheim, or Droxthetm IIuss, a province: of Norway, 
 N. of Bergen, extending from S. to N. about 500 miles along the 
 coast of the Northern Ocean, and from the ocean on the \V. to tlie 
 mountains that separate it from Sweden on the E. 
 
 DROPS, in medicine, a rujuid remedy, ihe dose of which is 
 Estimated by a certain number of drops. 
 
 Drops, in nietereolugy, small splierical bodies vyhich tlie parti- 
 cles of fluids spontaneously form themselves into when let fall 
 from any height. This spherical figure, the Newtonian philoso- 
 phers (le'inonstrate to be the effect of corpuscular attraction ; for, 
 considering tliat tlie attractive force of one single particle of a 
 fluid is equally exerted to an equal distance, it mnst follow, that 
 other fluid particles are on every side drawn to it, and will lliere- 
 fore take their place at an equal distance from it, and consequently 
 from a round superficies. See Attraction, Fluidity, Hy- 
 drostatics, Raix, and Physics. 
 
 DROPSY, [liiidrnps, Latin ; whence anciently hi/drojiix'/, 
 thence dropisy, dropsy,'] a collection of water in the body, from 
 too lax a tone of the solid*, whereliy digestion is v eakened, and 
 all tlie parts stnlTed. See Medicine. 
 
 DROPNVORT, in botany. See Spiraea. 
 
 DROSENDORF, a town of Germany, in the archduchy of 
 Austria, 46 miles N. W. of Vienna. 
 
 DROSERA, Ros Sous, or Sun-dew, a genus ofthepenta- 
 gynia order, and pentaudria class of plants ; natural order, Grui- 
 nales. Calyx qninqnelid ; petals five; capsule unilocular, quin- 
 quevalved at top ; seeds veiy nuineroiis. There are nine species, 
 which grow naturally in boggy places, in many parts of tlie king- 
 dom. Thev are named sun-dew from a very striking circum- 
 stance in their appearance. The leaves, wliicli are circular, are 
 fringed with hairs, supporting small drops or globules of a pellucid 
 liquor like dew, wiiich continue even in the hottest part of tlie 
 day, and in tlie fullest expo-ure to the sun. "^I'he whole plant is 
 acrid, and suflkiently caustic to erode the skin ; but some ladies 
 know how to mix the juice with milk, so as to make it an inno- 
 cent and safe application to remove freckles and sun-burn. The 
 juice that exudes from it unmixed, will destroy warts and corns. 
 The plaut has tlic same effect npon milk, that the common bnttcr- 
 wort has ; and like that too is supposed to occasion the rot in sheep. 
 
 DROWNING, the act of being snifocated by a total immer- 
 sioa in water. In some respects, there seems to be a great simi- 
 
 larity between the death occasioned by immersion in water, and 
 lliat by strangulation, sutlocation by fixed air, apoplexies, epilep- 
 sies, sudden taiiitiugs, yioleut siioclss of elei tricily, or even violent 
 tails and bruises. Physicians, however, are noi agreed with re- 
 gard to the nature of tlie injury done to tlie animal system, in any 
 or all ot these accidents. It is indeed certain, that in all tlie cases 
 abovemealioned, particularly in drowning, there is very often such 
 a suspension of tile vital powers, as to lis hath the appearance of a 
 total extinction of them ; wliile yet they may be again set in mo- 
 tion, and the person restored to life, after a much longer submer- 
 sion, than hatli been generally thought capabie of producing abso- 
 lute death. The length of time during which a pei>oii may re- 
 main under water, without being drowned, is yery uneiiual, in 
 ' illerent individuals ; and depends as much on the temperature of 
 the water as on tlie particular constitution of the subject : in ge- 
 neral, however, there is less prospect of recovery, after having 
 continued fifteen miiibites in a watery grave. In such cases, death 
 ensues from impeded respiration, ami the conse(]uent ceasing of 
 the circulation of the blood, by which the body loses its heat, and, 
 with tliat, tlie activity of tlie vital principle. Dr. Goodwyn justly, 
 observes, that the water produces all tlie changes which take place 
 in ihowwiing, only indirectly, by exckiding the atmospheric air 
 h-om the lungs, as they admit but a very inconsideri.ble quantity 
 ot fluid to pass into them, during immersion. Hence we shall 
 find, in the progress of this inijuiry, that inflation of the lungs is 
 one of the principal means of restoring lile. Before we describe 
 the various methods and instruments that have been successfully 
 adopted, for recovering drowi.etl persons, it will be useful to ad- 
 vert (on the plan of Dr. Struve) to tho^e circumstances which 
 deserve to be duly weighed, previously to any active measures 
 being taken on such nuforlunate occasions: l.'lhe season and 
 weather; y. Length ot time the person has continued under wa- 
 ter; 3. The state of his mind when the accident happened : whe- 
 ther he was intoxicated, frigliteneil, &:c. ; 4. Constitution of the 
 body, and whether he was in a state of perspiration ; 5. The 
 height from which he fell, and whether his head plunged fore- 
 most ; 6. Depth of the water ; w liether it was cold or warm, sea, 
 or river water, and how he was dressed. Lastly, 7. The manner in 
 w hieli he was taken out, whether by the legs, and without receiv- 
 ing any injury, or by instruments; and whether he was rolled 
 about in a tub, or what other inelhods were pursued for his resto- 
 ration. F'ew improvements appear to have been made in the 
 treatment of tlie drowned, since this important branch of medi'^al 
 science was first discussed, in a popular manner, by the late Dr. 
 Tissot ; yet the names of CuUen, Goodwyn, Cogaii, Hawes, and 
 Coleman, in Britain, as well as tliose of Unzer, Reimarus, and 
 Struve, in Germany, deserve to be respectfully mentioned; from 
 their various publications, and especially of the two last mentioned, 
 we shall brieify state the principal rules of conduct to be observed, 
 whh respeit to persons in that deplorable situation. 
 
 Drowning, Symptoms of apparent Death by. — Coldness ; 
 paleness of the whi le body ; the lips of a livid hue; the mouth 
 either open or firmly closed; the tongue blue, swelled and pro- 
 truded ; the eye-lids closed, the eyes turned, and their pupils di- 
 l.ited ; the face swelled and blue; the lower belly hard and in- 
 flated. The first signs of returning animation are, convulsive 
 starting of the muscles of the face, or feet ; motion of the eye-lids ; 
 a spasmodic shivering of the body. 
 
 Tredtnietit. — 1. After having been carefully taken out of the 
 water by the arms, so as to prevent the least injury to the head 
 and breast, the body ought to be carried to the nearest house (if 
 possible, in a bier, as represented in Plate LIX. fig. 10,) with the 
 liead somewhat raised ; or, in fine warm weather, the resuscitative 
 process may with more advantage be performed in the open air, 
 espec-ally in sun-shiiie. 2. When the subject is deposited, the 
 upper part of the body should be supported half-sitting, with the 
 head inclining towards the right side. 3. The clothes are to be 
 taken off without delay, but with the greatest precaution; as vio- 
 lent shaking of the body might extinguish the latent spark of life. 
 4. The mouth and nose must be cleansed from the mucus and 
 froth, by means of a feather dipped in oil. 5. The whole body 
 should iiow be gently wiped and dried with warm flannel cleths, 
 then covered with blankets, feather-beds, hay, straw, &c. In cold 
 or moist weather, the patient is to be laid on a mattress or bed, at 
 a proper distance from the lire, or in a room motierately heated ; 
 
 but
 
 DRO 
 
 199 
 
 DRO 
 
 but in the warm days of summer, a simple couch is sufficient. 
 6. If thp patient be very young, or a child, it may be |)laccd in 
 bed bftivri'u t« o .pei-sons, to pioniote natural warmth. See also 
 tiie warinuig machine, dL-Unea(cd in Plate LI X. fig. 11, and de- 
 stiibi'd below. 7. In situation-i where the bath cannot be con- 
 veniently procured, bUKldein lilled with lukewarm water should 
 be applied to difCereiit p.4rts ot the body, particularly to the pit 
 of the stomach ; or a wanninj;-pan wrapped in flannel gently 
 moved along the spine ; or aromatic fomentations frec]uenlly and 
 cuutiuu>lv repe.ited. S. .\s the breathing of many persons in an 
 apartment wouhl render the air impure, and thus retard, or even 
 prevent the restoration of life, not more than live or six assistants 
 »liouUl be sulfered to remain in the room where the body is de- 
 posited. 
 
 Stinialants generally emploi/ed. — 1. Moderate friction with soft, 
 warm tlannel, at the beginning, ami gradually increased by means 
 of brushes dipped in oil, till pulsations of the heart are percepti- 
 ble. 2. Inflation of the lungs, which m.iy be-more conveniently 
 cflected by blowing into one of the nostrils, than by introducing 
 air into the mouth. For the former purpose, it is necessary to be 
 provided with a wooden l)ipp, lilted at one extremity for filling 
 the nostril, and at the other for being blown into by a healthy per- 
 son's mouth, or for receiving the muzzle of a pair of common 
 bellows, by which the operation may be longer continued. At 
 first, however, it will always be more proper to introduce the warm 
 breath from the lungs of a living person, than to commence with 
 cold atmo-pher;c air. During this operation, the other nostril and 
 the mouth should be clo!e<l by an assistant, while a third person 
 gently presses the che^t with his hands, as soon as the lungs are 
 observed to be intfated. For a more effectual method of alter- 
 nately introducing fresh air into the lungs, and expelling thai 
 which is rendered noxiou«, or unlit for respiration, see the de- 
 scription of fig. 8. I'lale LIX, which follows these observations. 
 3. Stimulating clysters, consisting of warm water and common 
 suit; or a strong solution of tartar emetic ; or decoctions of aro- 
 matic herbs; or six ounces of brandy, should be speedily admi- 
 nistered. We do not consider injections of the smoke of tobacco, 
 or even clysters of that narcotic plant, in all in.4ances safe or pro- 
 per. 4. Let the body be gently rubbed with common salt, or 
 with flannels dipped in spirits ; the pit of the stomach fomented 
 with hot brandy ; the temples stimulated with spirit of hartshorn; 
 and the nostrils occasionally tickled with a feather. 5. Persons 
 of a very roliust frame, and whose akin after being dried, as- 
 sumes a rigid and contracted surface, may be put into the sub- 
 tepid bath, of about 6j°, which must be gradually raised to 75 or 
 80°, of Fahrenheit's scale, according to circumstances ; or the body 
 carried to a brewhouse, and covered with warm grains for three 
 OT four hours; but tliese expedients generally rer]uire medical 
 assistance. 6. Violent shaking and agitation of the body by the 
 legs and arms, though strongly recommended, and supposed to 
 have often fon.varded tlie recovery of children and boy-, appears 
 to us a doubtful remedy, which can be practised only in certain 
 cases. 7. Sprinkling the naked body of a drowned person with 
 cold water ; submitting it to the operation of a shower-bath, or the 
 sudden shocks ot the electric fluid ; as well as whipping it with 
 nettles, administering emetics, and blood-letting — are desperate 
 expedients, which should be resorted to only after the more lenient 
 means have been unsuccessfully employed. It is, however, a 
 vulgar and dangerous error, to suppose that persons apparently 
 dead by immer-ion under water, are irrecoverable, because life 
 does not soon re-appear: hence we seriously entreat those who 
 are thus employed in the ser^'ice of humanity, to persevere for 
 three or four houi-s at least, in the application of the most appro- 
 priate remedies above described ; for there are many instances re- 
 corded, ot patients who recovered, after they had been relin- 
 quished by all their medical and other assistants. 
 
 Treatment on the return of life. — .A.ssoon as the llrst symptoms 
 of that h.'.ppy change become discernible, additional care must be 
 taken to cherish the vital action, by the most soothing means. All 
 violent proceedings should, therefore, be immediately abandoned, 
 no farther stimulants applied, nor even the ears of the patient be 
 annoyed by loud speaking, shouting, &c. At that important 
 crisis, moderate friction only is recpiisite. And, if the reviving 
 person happen to be in the bath, he may either remain there, pro- 
 vided his sensation be easy and agreeable, or be removed to a 
 
 comfortable bed after being expeditiously dried with warm flan- 
 nels: tomentations of aromatic plants may then be applied to the 
 pit of the stomach ; bladders hlled with warm water, placed to the 
 I ft side ; the soles of the feet nibbed witii salt ; the moul h cleared 
 of froth and mucus, and a little white wine, or a solution of salt 
 in water, dropped on the tongue. But all strong stimulants, su< h 
 as powerlul electric shocks, strong odoui's of volatile sails, &:c. are 
 at this period particularly injurious. Lastly, the jiatieiit, alter re- 
 suscitation, ought to be ior a short interval resigned to the efforts 
 of Nature, and left in a composed and (piiescent state : as soon as 
 he is able to swallow, without compulsion or persuasion, warm 
 wine, or tea, with a few drops of vinegar, instead of milk, or giuel, 
 warm beer, and the like, should be given in small doses frequenlly 
 repeated. Having stated the leading particulars to be attended to, 
 in the practical treatment of persons who are on the eve of suf- 
 fering from aquatic sulfocation, we shall accompany them with a 
 few directions, addressed to those humane assistants who often fall 
 victims for want of due precaution in the execution of their bene- 
 volent design. As many fatal accidents happen to individuals who 
 wish to rescue others in danger of being drowned, especially when 
 the former are unskilful iii the useful art of swimming, which 
 ought to be learnt at an early ptriod of life, we think it our duty 
 to remind the reader of the two excellent contrivances already de- 
 scribed under the articles AtR-JACKET, and Uamboe Habit. 
 Every family dwelling on the banks of lakes or rivers, or near 
 I)onds, ouglitto be always provhled with two or three such useful 
 articles, to serve in cases of emergency ; as it will generally be too- 
 late to procure them on the spur of the occasion. In Plate LIX,. 
 is given a representalion of instruments employed tor recovering 
 the bodies of drowned persons : and also for their restoration from 
 drowning. 
 
 Fig. .i. A forked instrument with blunt points, for making a 
 superlicial search after the drowned body, and sounding the parti- 
 cular situation in which it lies. 
 
 Fig (>. A ladder with a long, jointed handle. 
 
 Fio-. 7. An extractor, or a linked pair of tongs, which in the 
 plate°appears closed ; but, on immersing it into water, opens by 
 its own weight, as well as by the sliding down of the iron ring o 
 from the part marked x, to that of u. It may again be closed, by 
 pulling the double rope fastened lo the ring o, which is thus shitt- 
 ed upward from u to j : by means of expanding the iron arms n n, 
 which are likewise connected with tliis ring, the mouth or flaps of 
 the instrument r r, may be shut ; and to |)revent their op.ening til! 
 required, the two ropes' are lirnily tied round the iron bolt s s ; in 
 which situation they remain till the body is extracted. 
 
 Fi". S. A pair of bellows with two separate bags, so contrived 
 that by opening them, when applied to tiie nostrils or mouth of a 
 ])atien't, one bag will be tilled with common air, and the other with 
 the air extracted from the lungs; and, by shutting them again,, 
 pure atmospheric air will be introduced into those organs, and that 
 drawn out, consequently discharged into the room. I'hus, the 
 artificial breathing may be continued, while the other operations 
 on the surface of the body are carried on ; which could not be 
 conveniently done, if the muzzle of a common pair of bellows 
 were introduced into the nostril, a. Is an intermediate board, 
 but which admits of no conniiunication between the two bags. In 
 the external board of each side, there is the usual hole, marked b, 
 provided with a valve; and the cylindrical part througli which the 
 air is expelled in conniion bellows, is here soldered to a copper 
 box, within which two other valves are applied to the tubes con- 
 ducting the air. The cover d of this box, which may be unscrew- 
 ed by means of an interposed leather ring, is almost of the shape 
 of a funnel, to the neck of which is fastened a flexible tube e, 
 made of varnished silk cloth, and a spind wire that forms the ca- 
 vity. To the extremity of this tube is attached a small ivory pipe 
 /, the front of which may either be tubular and round, for intro- 
 ducing it into the nostril : or flat like the top-piece of a clarionet, 
 if it be intended for the mouth. The valves consist of stiffened 
 laffetv, and are so arranged, that the corresponding ones stand in 
 an inverted order. If, therefore, both bags of the bellows be ex- 
 panded, two of the valves open themselves towards the inlernal 
 part of the machine: one of these is fixed to one of the side- 
 boards, but the other is within tlie box, on tlie mouth of the con- 
 ducting tube belonging to the opposite bag of the bellows. By 
 this contrivance, the air enters both bags of the bellows at the 
 
 same
 
 D RO 
 
 200 
 
 DRO 
 
 same time, and ia, on compression, again expelled by means of 
 two other -valves, which o])en from within toward the external 
 parts. Both bags of the bellows terminate below the valve in one 
 principal tube of communication; because, though the action of 
 l)oth bellows is simultaneous, the stream of air, contormably to the 
 arrangement before pointed out, can only enter, and escape, alter- 
 nately. In using this machine, the small ivory pipe is applied 
 either to one of the nostrils, or put into tlie mouth: in the former 
 case, the other nostril and the mouth must be closed ; in the lat- 
 ter, l)otli nostrils. When the bellows are set in action, one of the 
 bags receives a column of atmospheric air througliits valve; while 
 the other, by means of its flexible tube and its valve, extracts a 
 portion of air from the hmg-i. But, if the bellows are again shut, 
 oue of the bags parts with the impiue gas drawn out of the inilnio- 
 nary vessels; and the second conveys pure atmospheric air to the 
 or-gans of respiration. By properly repealing this alternate pro- 
 cess, the patient may agam be enabled to exercise the important 
 function of breathing. As, however, a precipitate and irregular 
 method of proceeding might be productive of injury, thi= delicate 
 operation ought to be performed by persons who are acquainted 
 \yith the mechanism of respiration. In some cases, where the pa- 
 tient has, for a considerable time, lain under water, or was after- 
 wards neglected for want of due assistance, it would be desirable 
 to introduce info his lungs oxygen, or pure vital air, instead of 
 that of the common atmosphere; as the latter is generally more or 
 less corrupted on such occasions by the breath of many persons in 
 the same room. For this purpose' may be used a bladder, mark- 
 ed g, which is proviiled with a cock and pipe iitted or screwed to 
 the board of the inspiring valve and bag of the bellows. If, there- 
 fore, after opening the cock, the machine is set in motion, it will 
 extract the pure air contained in the bladder, and, on the subse- 
 quent compression of the bellows, force it into the lungs of the oa- 
 tient. ^ 
 
 Fig. 9. A machine for injecting the smoke of tobacco b^ way 
 of clyster, in those desperate ca^es which recjuire the applicat'ion v( 
 this remedy. It consists of a pair of bellows, to the muzzle of 
 vhicli is fitted a metal box, (i, provided with a ring, in the middle 
 of which it may be unscrewed, and again closed, after being filled 
 with tobacco, and set on fire: the pipe c of the flexible tube /;, is 
 introduced into the fundament ; and lluis, by means of the bellows 
 d, the smoke is forced into the rectum. 
 
 Fig. 10. A bier of wicker work, in the form of a slanting, ob- 
 long basket, for conveying the body of the drowned, in a posture 
 somewhat raisecl. This simple contrivance has the advantage, that 
 the water may easily run off, while the patient is carried: and, as 
 many unfortunate i>ersons are materially injured by rough treat- 
 ment, before they arrive at a house of reception, so that their re- 
 covery is thus often frustrated, we recommend the universal adop- 
 tion of this useful implement. 
 
 Fig II. The warming machine of block tin, or other metal, 
 was originally invented by Mr. Harvev, of London, who suggest- 
 ed it to our Royal Humane Societv, 'and it was subsequenlfv im- 
 proved by M. Braasch, an ingenious mechanic, of Ilambiira-h. 
 Its object is to procure an uniform degree of warmth, throughout 
 tlie apparatus, in the most expeditious manner, by filling the liol- 
 lou, or double bottom and sides of the whole implement, with 
 boiling water, ii is the body of the machine, seven feet long, 
 and made of solid pieces of block-tin, to prevent the necessity of 
 soldering them, and consequently the formation of iron-rust: it 
 »ests on two wooden legs^y; and may be easily carried by the 
 handles gg. The water is poured in through botli funnels il 'd, in 
 order to warm it more speedily; and eacii of those is provided 
 with a stopper as suspended on a chain, represented in the liffure 
 with a view to prevent, if necessary, too sudden evaporatioii\nd 
 cooling of the water: h is the intermediate space between the two 
 metallic plates, producing a vacuum of iU inches, in whicli the 
 fluid is diffused over the whole machine ; 7* is a wooden desk to 
 support the head of the patient, and to protect it from the imme- 
 diate contact with the heated parts; but, on the opposite end of 
 the machine, there is an enlarged intermediate space c, for hold- 
 ing such a tiuantity of water and vapours as will procure an addi- 
 tional, or at least a more permanent, degree of heat towards the 
 lower extremities, than to the trunk of the body. For dischargin" 
 the water, when it is not wanted, or changing it when too cokf^ 
 there i^ a cock at c The hollow sides of this machine are about 
 twelve inches liigh; and in order to ensure an uniform warmth. 
 
 the body apparently dead should be placed on a straw mattress, 
 and tucked in with'blankets. A piailtul of water is required to till 
 the whole machine, as a smaller quantity would warm the sidui 
 only for a short time, by means of the vapour. It deserves to he 
 remarked, that this ingenious contrivance may also be used for a, 
 warm bath ; for whicli |)uipose, the inner space in which the body 
 lies, should be supplied with water. 
 
 DRUGGET, in commerce, a stuff sometimes all wool, and' 
 sometimes half wool half tliread, sometimes cordcti, but usually 
 plain. Those that have the woof of wool, and the warp of thread, 
 are called threaded druggets; and those wrought with the shuttle 
 on a loom of four marches, as the serges of Moui, Beauvois, and 
 other like stuffs, corded, are called corded druggets. As to the 
 plain, they are wrought on a loom of two marches, with tlie shut- 
 tle, in the same manner as cloth, camlets, and other like stufls, not 
 corded. 
 
 DUriDS, DRUIDES, or DRUID/F., the priests or ministers 
 of religion among the ancient Gauls, Britons, and Germans. Some 
 derive the word from the Hebrew D't:'!*."! drussm, wJiich Iht-y 
 translate contenipUitnres. Picard, (Cellopa'd. lib. li. p. is,) be- 
 lieves the druids to have been thus called from Druis, or Ur} ius,' 
 their leader, the fourth or fifth king of the Gauls, and father of 
 Saron or Nauincs. Pliny, Salmas'us, Vigenere, Sjc. derive the 
 name from if:-;, an oak; on account of their inhabiting, or fre- 
 quenting, and teaching in forests; or because, they never sacri- 
 liced but under the oak. Put il is hard to imagine liow the druids 
 should come to speak Greek. Menage derives the word from ' 
 the old Britisli drus. daemon, or magician ; Borel, from the Saxoa 
 dry, magician; or from the old British dru or da-x, "oak," 
 whence he takes the Greek word ic-j; to be derived ; which is the 
 most probable supposition. Gorop. Becanus, lib. i, takes druis to 
 be an old Celtic and German word, formed from trowis or truwis, 
 " a doctor of the truth and the faith.;" which etymology Vossius 
 acquiesces in. ^I'lie druids were the first and most distinguished 
 order among the Gauls and Britons; they were chosen out of the 
 best families; and the honours of their birth, joined with those of 
 their function, procured them the highest veneration among the 
 people. They were versed in astrology, geometry, natural philo- 
 sophy, politics, and geography ; they were the inierpreters uf re- 
 ligion, and the jtidges of all allairs indifferently. Whoever refus- 
 ecl obedience to them was dei lared impious and accursed. M'e 
 know but little as to their peculiar doctrines; only that they be- 
 lieved the imniortalilv of the soul; and, a- is generally supposed,, 
 the metempsychosis ;"thout;h a late author makes it appear highly 
 probable they did not believe this la>t, at least not in the sense of 
 the P)thagoreans. 'J'heir chief .settlement in Britain was in the 
 isle of Anglesey, the ancient Mona, wliich was well stored with 
 spacious groves of their favouiite oak. 'I'hey were divided into 
 several classes, viz. the vacerri, bardi, eubages, semnothii or seni-. 
 nothei, and saronidie. The vacerri are held to have been the 
 priests; the bardi, the poets; the eubages, the augurs; and- the 
 saronid?, the civil judges and instructors of youth. As to the. 
 semnathei, w ho are said to have been immediately devoteil to the 
 service of religion, it is probable they w;ere the same with the va-> 
 cerri. Strabo, however, (lib. iv. ji. 197.) only distinguishes three 
 kinds, hardi, vates, and druids. The hardi were the poets; the 
 vates, KftTti; (probably the vacerri,) were the priests and natu-, 
 ralists; and the druids, besides the study of nature, applied tliem-, 
 selves to morality. Diogenes Laerlius assures us, that the druids 
 were the same among the ancient Britons with the philosophers 
 among the Greeks; the magi among the Persians; the gymnoso- 
 phists among the Indians; and the Chaldeans among tlie Assy- 
 rians. Their garments were remarkably long; and, when em- 
 ployed in religious ceremonies, they wore a white surplice. 'J'hey 
 generally carried a w-and in their hands; and wore a kind of ori);{- 
 mrni enchased in gold about their necks, called tlu' druid's egg. 
 Tiieir necks were also decorated with gold chains, and their hands 
 and arms with bracelets: they wore their hair very short, and 
 their beards remarkably long. The druids ha<l one chief, or arch- 
 driiid, in every nation, who acted as high-iiriest. lie had abso- 
 lute authority over the rest; and commanded, decreed, punished, 
 &c. at pleasure. At his death he w-a,s succeeded by the most con- 
 siderable among his survivors; and, if there were several preten- 
 ders, tlie matter was ended by an election, or else decided by 
 arms. The druids presided at sacrifices, and other ceremonies ; 
 and had the direction of every tiling relating to religion. The 
 
 8 British
 
 1) R U 
 
 201 
 
 D UU 
 
 RriUili and Gaulish vouth were iiistiutted by lliem. 'I'hc cliil- 
 clrcn of tlif nol.ility, ^Iela tells us, they can if a into caves, or tlie 
 most (i. solate part> of forebls, and keijt thim lliere, somelimes lor 
 SO yean;, under tlieir discipline. '1 hey were liere in4rurted in 
 the uioliuii of the heavens, and the CKUirsc of the stars; the magni- 
 tude ol the heavens anil the earth; the power and wisdom of tlie 
 gods, the metempsyciio^i.s, immortahty, &c. They preserved tlie 
 memory and actions of cjieat men in their verses, wh;ch they never 
 allowed to be wrote down, but made their pupils get them by 
 heart. In their conmion course of lei'rnlmj, they are said to have 
 taught them 24,000 iuch vei-si-s. Thus tiiiir doctrines appeared 
 more mysterious by being unknown to all but themselves; and 
 having no book to recur to, lliey were the more c;ueful to fix them 
 in their memory. They woi^shipped the Supreme Being under 
 the name of Esus, or Hesus, and the symbol of the oak ; and liad 
 no other temple than a wood or a grove, where all their religious 
 rites were performed. Nor was any person admitted to enter that 
 sacred- recess, ntdess he carried with him a chain, in token of his 
 absolute dependence on the Deity. Indeed, tlieir whole religion 
 originally consisted in ackwowledgine, that the Supreme Being, 
 who made his abode in these sacred groves, goTernetl the universe; 
 and Uiat every creature ought to obey his laws, and pay him di- 
 vine homage. They considered the oak as the emblem, or rather 
 the peculiar residence, of the Almighty ; and accordingly chi-plets 
 of it were worn botli by the drui<ls and people, in their religious 
 ceremonies; the altars were strewed w illi its leaves, and encircled 
 with its brandies. The fruit of it, especially the misletoe, was 
 thought to contain a divine virtue, and to be the peculiar gift of 
 heaven. It was, thereiore, sought for on the sixth day of tlie 
 moon with the greatest earnestness and anxiety ; and when found 
 w, s hailed witli such rj.ptures of joy, as almost exceeds imagina- 
 tion to conceive. As soon as the druids were informed ot this for- 
 tunate discovery, they prepared every thing ready for the sacrifice 
 under the oak, to which tl;ey festeiied two while bulls by the 
 horns; llien the arch-d.uid, attended by a prodigious number ot 
 people, ascended the tree dressed in white; and with a consecrat- 
 ed golden knife, or pruning-hook, cropped the misletoe, which he 
 received in his sagum or robe, anii<Ut the rapturous exclamations 
 of tl'.e people. Having secured tliis sacred plant, he descended 
 the tree; the bulls were sacriliced; and tlie Deity invoked to 
 bless his own gift, and render it efhcacious in those distempers in 
 which it should be administered. 'I'he consecrated groves, in 
 which they performed their religious rites, were lenced round with 
 stones, to prevent any persiju's entering between the trees, except 
 through the passages lell oijen lor that purpose, and which were 
 guarded by some inferior druids, to prevent any stranger from in- 
 truding into their mysteries. These groves were of different 
 forms ; some quite circular, others oblong, and more or less capa- 
 cious, as the votaries in tlie districts to which they belonged were 
 more or less numerous. 'I he area in the centre of the grove was 
 encompassed with several rows of large oaks set very close toge- 
 ther. Within this large circle were several smaller ones surround- 
 ed with large stones; and near the centre of these smaller circles, 
 were stones of a prodigious size and convenient height, on which 
 the vietims were slain and ottered. Kach of these being a kind of 
 altar, was surrounded w ith another row of stones, the use of whicli 
 caunot now be known, unless they were intended as cinctures to 
 keep the people at a convenient distiincc from t!ie olliciating priest. 
 Suetonius, in his life of Cl;uidius, assures us the diuids sacrificed 
 men ; and Mercury is said to be the god to whom they ol'feied 
 these victims. Diodorus Sieulus, (lib. vi.) observes it was only 
 upon extraordinary occasions they made such olferings ; as, to 
 consult what measures to take, to learn what should befal them, 
 &c. by the fall of the victim, the tearing of his members, and the 
 manner of his blood gushing out. Augustus condemned the cus- 
 tom, and Tiberius and Claudius punished and abolished it. 
 
 DRL'M, Tymp.\nvm, is a marshal musical in-trunjent in form 
 of a C) liiider, hollow witliin, and covercil at the two ends with vel- 
 lum, which is' stretched or slackened at |)leasure by llie means of 
 siiKill crds and sliding knots. Ills beat upon witli sticks. Some 
 drums are made of brass, but they are coninionly of w ood. There 
 are Sfveial beats of the drum, as assembly, chamade, reveille, re- 
 tr'.at, .S.C. 
 
 Dkvms, KETTLf,, arc two sorts of large basons of copper or 
 brass, rounded in the bottom, and covered with vellum or goat- 
 ikin, which is kept fast by a circle of iioii, and several holes fast- 
 
 VOL. II. — KO. 6S. 
 
 cned to the body of the druin, and a like number of screws (• 
 screw up and down. 1 hey arc much used among the hor^^e, as 
 alw in operas, oratorios, concerts, i:c. 
 
 l^KUM OF THE Ear, an elliptical, concave, membrane, com- 
 posed ot two or tliree lamelhv, and furnished with many biood-ves- 
 sels. It is situated oblicpiely inwards, about the middle part of 
 ■tlie ear, at the extremity of the auditory passage. See ^natomy. 
 
 DKIUMLANKIG, a town of Scotland, in Dumfries-shire, 13 
 miles N. of Diimfrics. 
 
 DRUMMER, or DRUM, he that beats the drum; of whom 
 each company of foot has one, and sometimes two. Every regi- 
 ment has a drum-major, w ho has the command over the other 
 drums. They are distinguished from the soldiers by clothes of a 
 dilferent fashion:- their post, when a battalion is drawn up, is ou 
 the flanks, and on march it is betwixt the divisions. 
 
 DRUMMOND, William, a Sotch poet, was the son of sir 
 John Drunimond, of Hawthornden, and born there in 158j. He 
 was destined tor the law, but Parnassus had more charms for hiin 
 than tlie courts. In his retirement at Hawthornden he wrote se- 
 veral beautiful poems ; but the deatli of a lady, to whom he was 
 about to be married, afl'ected him so much, that he wtnt abroad, 
 where he remained some years, and then returned to liis own 
 country. He wrote his History of the Seven Kings of the name 
 of James, and several pieces to promote peace and union in that 
 turbulent time. He died in Ui49, leaving a widow and tliree 
 children. His works were printed in folio at Edinburgh ia 
 1711. 
 
 DRUNKENNESS. See Intoxication. 
 
 DRUPA, in bolany, a species of pericarpium, or seed-vessel, 
 wliicli is succulent or pulpy, has no valve or extemal opening like 
 the capsule and pod, anci contains w ilhin its substance a stone or 
 nut. The cherry, plum, peach, apricot, and all other stone-fruit 
 are of this kind. ' The stone or nut, which in this sort of fruit is 
 surrounded by the soft pulpy llesh, is a kind of ligneous or w oody 
 cup, which contains a -ingle kernel or seed. I'he almond is a 
 drupa, so is the seed-vessel of the elm-trees and the genus rum- 
 piiia. tliough far from being pulpy or succulent; the lirst and third 
 are of a substance like leather, t!ie second like parchment. The 
 same may be said of tlie walnut, the pistachia nut, guetterda, 
 qU(squali>, jack-in-a-box, anVl some others. The seeds oi the elm, 
 schrehera, stagellaria, and the mango-tree, are not contained in a 
 stone. 'Ihe seed-vessel of burr-reed is dry, shaped like a top, and 
 contains two angular stones. 
 
 DRUSENHEI.M, a sm.dl town of France,'in the department 
 ofthe Loner Rhine, 5 miles S.E. of Hagnenau. 
 
 DRl'SSES, n,- DRUZES, a remarkable nation in Palestine, 
 inliabiting t'lic environs of Mount Lebanon. In the year of the 
 Hejira3Sf) (A.D. 996), tlie third caliph of the race of the Fa- 
 teniites, called Hakem B' Amr-Ellah, succeeded to the throne of 
 Egypt at the age of eleven years. He was one of the most mad 
 an"d' capricious princes of whom history has preserved the name, 
 not excepting Caligula himself. He caused th.c first caliphs, the 
 companions of Mohammed, to be cursed in tlie mosques, and af- 
 terwards revoked the anathema ; he compelled the Jews and Chri-- 
 tiaiis to abjure their religion, and then i)ermitted them to resume 
 it. He proliibited the making of slippers for women, to prevent 
 them from coni"ng out of their houses. He burnt one-halt of the 
 city of Cairo for his diversion, w hile liis soldiers pillaged the other. 
 He prohibited the pilgrimage to Mecca, fasting, and the five 
 prayers ; and at length c:'rried his madness so tar as to desire to 
 pass for God him-elfl He ordered a register of those who ac- 
 knowledged him to be so, and the number amounted to 1G,000! 
 This impious pretension was suj'ported by a fal^e prophet, named 
 Mohammetl l?en Ismael, who came from Persia into Eg\ j)!,' and 
 taught that it was not necessary to fast or pray, to practise circum- 
 cision, to make the pilgrimage to Mecca, or observe festivals ; 
 that the prohibition of pork and wine was absurd ; and that mar- 
 riage between brothers and sisters, fathers and children, was law- 
 tul. To ingratiate him-elf with Hakem, he maintained that the 
 caliph wasC'od himself incarnate ; and instead of his name Ihikfin 
 li' AmrtUah, which signifies governing by the order of Cjod, he 
 called him Haktm B' Aiiir-Eh, goveining by his own order. I'li- 
 liK kilv for the prophet, his new god had not the power to protect 
 him from the fury of his enemies, who slew him in a tumult almost 
 in the arms of the caliph, who was himself massacred soon after 
 on mount Mokattam, where he, as he said, had held coiivei-salioii 
 3 E with
 
 DRU 
 
 20-2 
 
 DRY 
 
 with ungels. Tlie death of these two chi^-fs did not stop the pro- 
 gress of their opinions: a disciple of Mohammed Ben Ismael, 
 named Hainzah i3en Ahmud, propagated them with indefatigable 
 zeal lu Egvpt, in Palestine, and along the coast of Syria, as lar as 
 Sidon and Berytiis. His proK-lvtes being persecuted by the sect 
 in po'.<-(?r, they took refuge in the mountains of Lebanon, where 
 they wtre better able to defend themselves; at least it is certain,' 
 that, shordy after this era, we find them established there, and 
 forming an independent society. The difference of their opinions 
 di-iposes them to be enemies; 'but the urgent interest of their com- 
 mon safety forces them to allow mutual toleration, and they have 
 always appeared united, and have jointly opposed, at dilferent 
 times, tlie Crusadc-rs, the sultans of Aleppo, the Mamelukes, and 
 the Ottomans, Tiie conquest of Syria by the latter, made i;o 
 change in their situation. Selim I, on his return from Egypt, me- 
 ditating no less tfian the conquest of Europe, disdained to wasie 
 his time before the rocks of Lebanon. Soliman II. his successor, 
 incessantly engaged in important wars, either with the knights of 
 Rhodes, die Persians, the kingdom of Yemen, the Hungarians, 
 the Germans, or the emperor Charles V. had no time to think of 
 tl'.e Druzes. Emboldened by this inattention, and not content 
 wiUi their independence, they frequently descended from their 
 mountains to pillage the Turks. The pachas in vain attempted to 
 repel their inroads; their troops were invariably routed or re- 
 pulsed. And it wvis not till I58S, that Amurath ill. wearied with 
 the complaints made to him, resolved, at all events, to reduce 
 ihcse rebels, and had the good fortune to succeed. His general, 
 Ibrahim Pacha, marched from Cairo, and attacked the Druzes and 
 Maronites, with so much address and vigour as to force them into 
 their strong holds in the moutjtain^. Dissention took place among 
 their chiefs, of which he availed himself to exact a contribution of 
 upwards of one million of piasters, and to impose a tribute which 
 has continued to the present time. The opinions of Mohannned 
 ben Ismael may be regarded as the substance of the religion of the 
 Dru-ies. They practise neither circumcision, nor prayers, nor 
 fasting ; they observe neither festivals nor proh;bitions. They 
 drink wine, eat pork, and allow marriage between brothers and 
 sisters, though not between fathers and children. From this we 
 may conclude, that the Druses have properly no religion ; but 
 One class of them must be excepted, whose religious customs are 
 very peculiar. Those who compo-:e it are to the rest of the na- 
 tion what the initiated were to the profane ; thev assume the name 
 ofOkkals, which means spiritualists, and bestow on the vulgar 
 the epithet of Djihel or ignorant ; they have various degrees of 
 initiation, the highest oiders of which require celibacy. These 
 are distinguishable by the while turban they affect to wear, as a 
 symbol of their purity ; and so proud are they of this supposed 
 purity, that tliey think themselves sullied by even touching a pro- 
 fane person. If such eat out of their plate, or drink of their cu;-, 
 they break them ; and hence the custom so general in this country 
 of using vases with a sort of cock, which may be drank out of 
 wilhout touching them with the lips. ' 
 
 DRUSIUS, John, a Protestant writer of great learning, born at 
 Oudenarde in FL.ndeis, in ISriS. He was designed for the study 
 of divinity ; but his father being outlawed, and deprived of his 
 estate, they both retired to England, wliere the son soon became ])ro- 
 fessor of the oriental lannuages at Oxford: but upon the pacifica- 
 tion of Ghent, they returned to their own coimtry, where Drusius 
 ■was also appointed professor of the oriental languages. From 
 thence he removed to Friesland, where he was admitted Hebrew- 
 professor in the university of Franeker ; the functions of which he 
 discharged with great honour till his death m I6I6. His works 
 shew liim to have been w ell skilled in Hebrew ; and the states-ge- 
 neral employed him in 1600 to write notes on the most diflicull 
 j)assages in theOldTestanient, with a pension of 400 florins a-y ear: 
 i)ut being frecpiently disturbed in this uiulerlaking, it was not pub- 
 li^lled till after his death. He iHjld very great correspondence 
 with the learned: for besides le'teis in HebreWi Greek, and other 
 languages, there were found 2300 Latin letters among his papers. 
 
 Drusil's, John, the son of the prece ling, was a prodigy of 
 learning. He was born at Franeker in 158S; began to learn La- 
 tin and Hebrew at five years old ; at seven explained the Hebrew 
 PsaltT so e.Mictly, that he astonished a Jewish teacher at Leyden ; 
 at nine he could read the Hebrew without points, and add them 
 where wanted. He spoke Latin as readily as his native tongue, 
 and could niake himsi.df understood iu Englisli. At twelve, he 
 
 wrote in Hebrew extenqjore, in verse and prose, Idie the Jews. 
 At seventeen he matle a speech in Latin to king James I. in the 
 midst of his court, and was admireii by all present. He was en- 
 dued with a lively genius, a strong memory, a solid judgement, 
 an agreeable temper, and an indefatigable ardour for study ; and 
 was also extremely pious. He died ol the stone iu I6O9, aged 21, 
 at the house of Dr. W.Thomas, dean of Chichester, who gave 
 liim a considerable salary. He left several works ; many letters 
 and verses in Hebrew ; Notes on Solomon's Proverbs, iic. and 
 digested into alphabetic.d order Elias Levila's Nomenclator ; to 
 which he added the Greek words, and bad begun some transla- 
 tions. 
 
 DRUYN, DUEVIN PETRI, or GRAND DREVIN, a 
 town of Africa on the Ivory coast. Lon. 4. 5. W. Lat. 5. N. 
 
 DRYAD ES, or DRYADS, in the heathen mythology, a sort 
 of deities, w ho, tlie ancients believed, inhabited groves anU wood.s. 
 They diflered from the Mamadryades ; these latter being attacheil 
 to some )>articular tree, with which tbey were born, and w.lh 
 whicli they died ; whereas the Dryads were goddesses of trees and 
 woods in general. See Hamadryades. 
 
 DRYANDRIA, iu botany, a genus of the dioecia monadel- 
 phia class and order: natural oiderTricocca;. Calyx two-leaved; 
 corolla live- petaled ; or, calyx (ive-leaved, resemiiling a corolla, 
 surrounded by a two or three-leaved calytle ; stamina nine; fruit 
 three (^r four grained. There is but one sjiecies, viz. D. cor- 
 data. 
 
 DRYAS, in botany, a genus of the polvgynia order, and ico- 
 sandria class: natural order Senticosa?. Calyx from five to ten 
 cleft ; petals from five to eight; seeds hairy, tailed. It has two 
 species. 
 
 DRYDEN, John, one of the most enihient English poets of 
 the seventeenth century, descended of a genteel family in Hunt- 
 ingdonshire, born in that comity at Oldwiiikle, 1631, and edu- 
 cated at "\Ve5tminster school under Dr. Busby, from whence he 
 was elected to 'I'rinity college, Cambridgt-, in 1(550. He pro- 
 ceeded to the degree of M.A. and in 1657 removed to Londouj 
 wlieie he wrote, the year following, an elegy on the death of 
 Cromwell; and at the Restoration he complimented the king 
 by a poem, entitled Astrea Redu:;. In 1666 he married lady 
 Elizabeth Howard, daughter of the earl of Herkshire. On the 
 establishment of the Royal Society, he was chosen one of the tint 
 members. In 1662 ap|)eared his first play, called The Wild Gal- 
 lant. Soon after the lire of London he engaged with the king's 
 theatre for an innual stipend, on condition ot furnishing a certain 
 nuTber of plays in each year. On the death of sir William Dave- 
 nant he was mniinated poet laureat ; and about the same time he 
 obtained the place of historiograiiher royal, with a salary of 200/. a 
 year, and a butt of wine. His eminence as a dramatic writer ex- 
 posed him to the envy of several rival wits; the duke of Hue king- 
 iiam held him ni, to r-dicule in the character ot Bays in The Re- 
 hear: al: and the earl of Rochester being offended at somethings 
 in an Essay on S;itire, written jointly by our poet and lord Mul- 
 gravc, caused the former to be cudgelled by some hired rufiians 
 as he came home from a coffee-house. At the accession of James 
 II. Dryden turned Reman Catholic, and, like most converts, en- 
 deavoured to defend Ids new faith at the expenee of the old one,, 
 in a poem, called The Hind and Panther, which was admirably 
 answered by Prior and Montague in The Country Mouse and the 
 City Mouse. At the Revolution he lost his posts, and was suc- 
 ceeded by Sha;Kvell, v. hom Dryden satirised under the name of 
 Mac Flecknoe. Mr. Dryden's circumstances had never been 
 aflluent; but now being deprived of this little support, he found 
 hirnseif 1 educed to the nece^sity of writing for mere bread. From 
 this period, therefore, he was engaged in works of labour as well 
 as genius, viz. in translating the works of others; and to this ne- 
 cessity our nation stan<ls indebted for some of the best translations 
 extant. In the year he lo>t the laurel, he published the life of St. 
 Francis Xavier from tiie French. In lti93, came out a tianslution 
 of Juvenal and Persius; in the first of which he had a considerable 
 hand, and of the latter the entire execution. In I6y5, was pub- 
 lished his prose version of Fies-iioy's Art of Painting ; and the year 
 1697 gave the world that transl.ition of Virgil's woiks entire, 
 which still does ■""1 peihaps ever will, stand foremost among the 
 attempts made on that author. The petite pieces of this eminent 
 writer, such as prologues, epilogues, epitaphs, elegies, songs, &c. 
 are too numerous to specify here, and too much dispersed to di- 
 rect
 
 DRY 
 
 203 
 
 DUB 
 
 red tlie iva;ler to. The greatest part of them, however, are to lie 
 fouiul ill a collection ot miseellaiiies, in tj vols. I'Jnio. I lis hist 
 work is his Fables, whicii consist of many oniie most interesting 
 stories in llo'uer, Ovid, Boccace, and Chancer, translated or mo- 
 dernized in tlie most elegant and poetical manner; together with 
 some original pieces, among which is that amaiiiiis ode on St. Ce- 
 cilia's day, winch, though written in the very decline ol the au- 
 ilior's life, and at a period when old age and distress conspired, as it 
 were, to damp his poetic ardor, aiui clip the wings ol fancy, yet 
 possess so much of both, as would be snllk-ent to have rendered 
 Jiira immortal had he never written a single line besides. His cri- 
 tical prelacis are admirable; and his poetry is correct, harmunioiis, 
 and strong, particularly his sutires. As a dramatic w riter he chielly 
 excelK-d in tragedy. He had three sons: Charles became uglier 
 ol the palace to pope Cleiiieni XI. and was drowned in 1704; 
 John wrote a comedy, called '1 he Husband his own Cuckold ; 
 and Henry entered into a religious order abroad. Though Dry - 
 den was addicted to astr^.lo^jy, yet the -.lory of his predicting tlie 
 fate of his eldest son is not true. He died .i> 1700, and was buried 
 in Westminster abbey ; but had no moiiument erected to him tor 
 several years; to which Mr. Pope alludes in his epitaph intended 
 for Mr. Ivowe, in this line. 
 
 Beneath a rude and nameless stone he lies. 
 
 In a note upon which we are informed, that tlie tomb of Mr. Dry- 
 den was erected by this liint, by SheOield, duke of Buckingham, 
 to which was originally intended this epitaph : 
 
 This Slicflleld rais'd. — The sacred dust below 
 Was Dryden once ; the rest, w iio tlui's not know ? 
 
 Which was since changed inlo the plain inscription now upon it, 
 viz. 
 
 J. DRYDEN, 
 
 Naliis Aug. y, 1631. 
 
 Mortuus NJaii 1, 1701. 
 
 Joliaimes Sheffield, dux liiickinghamiensis, fecit. 
 
 DRYPIS, in botany, a genus of the trigynia order, and pen- 
 tandria class ol plants; natural order, Caryophylles. Calyx 
 quinqnedentated; petals live; opening at the capsule as if cut 
 round horizontally ; monosperinoiis It has only one species, a 
 biennial, native ol Italy and Kia'hary. 
 
 DRY ROT, a disease incipient to timber used for buiklins;, 
 such as llooring-boards, joists, wainscoting, &c. Dr. Darwin is 
 of opinion, that the dry-rot may be entirel> prevented, by soak- 
 ing the timber first in lime-water, till it has ab-iorbed as much of it 
 as possible, and, after it has become dry, immersing it in a weak 
 solution o( vitriolic aci<l in water, whch he supposes will not only 
 preserve it from decay lor many centuries (if it be kept dry), biit 
 also render it less intlammable; a circumstance th^.t meiits consi- 
 derable attention in constructing houses. In the Transaitions of 
 the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, we meet with the fol- 
 lowing account of the cause of the dry rot in timber, and the me- 
 thod of preventing it, communicated by Mr. Batson, of Lime- 
 house. He observes, that the dry rot having taken place in one 
 of his parlours, to such a degree as to recpi re the pulling down 
 part of the wainscot every third year, and perceiving that it arose 
 from a damp, stagnated air, and from the moisture of the earth, 
 he determined, in the month of June, 1783, to build a narrow clo- 
 set next the wall through which the moisture came to the parlour. 
 This expedient had the desired effect. But, tiioiigh the rot in the 
 parlour was totally slopped,, the evil soon appeared in the closet, 
 where fungi of a yellow colour arose in various parts. In the au- 
 tumn of llie year 17S6 the closet was locked up about ten weeks: 
 on opening it, numerous excioceiices were observed about the 
 lower part; a white mould was spreiid by a plant resembling a 
 vine, or sea-weed; and the whole i^f the inside, china. Sec. was co- 
 vered with a line powder of the colour of brick-dust. On clean- 
 ing out the closet, it was discovered that the disease had affected 
 the wood so far as to extend through every shelf, and the brackets 
 that supported them. In the beginning of the year 1787, he de- 
 terni'iied fo strip the whole elost-'t of lining and Moor, not to leave 
 a piinicle of the wood behind, and also to dig, and take away, 
 about two feet of the earth in depth, and leave the walls to dry, so 
 as to destroy the roots or seeds of the evil. When, by time, the 
 
 admission of air, and good brushing, it had become properly dry 
 and cle.. used, he filled it, of suflicient height lor the joist-., wilti 
 anchor-smith's ahes, because no vegetable will grow in them. '1 lie 
 joi-ts being sawed ofi to their proper lengths, and fully prepared, 
 they and their plates were well cfiarred, and laid upon the asfies; 
 particular directions being given, that no scantling or board might 
 be cut or planed in the place, le.^t any dust or shavings might 'hop 
 aincng the ashes. The flooring-boards being very dry, he caused 
 them to be laid close, to prevent tfte dust getting down, which 
 jierhapi, in the course of lime, might bring on vegelation. The 
 framing of the closet was liien fi.xetl up, having all Ine lower pan- 
 nels lei in, to be fastened with buttons only, so that, if any vcj^eta- 
 tioii should arise, the pannels might with ease be laki n out and ex- 
 amined. In some silu^itions it iniglit be expeclient and necessary 
 lo take out a greater depth of earth; and wliere ashe-i cjii be had 
 from a foundry, they may be substituted ior those of aiichor-»m.llis; 
 but house ashes are by no means to be <lepeiided upon. At the 
 expiration of seven years from the period of making this experi- 
 ment the wainscot was removed, and the tlooring-boartls also taken 
 up, when they were found enlirely fiee from any appearance of 
 the rot: two pieces of wood (yellow fir; wiiith had been driven 
 into the wall as plugs, without being previously charred, were 
 alone alleeted with tins disease. 
 
 DSAPKONG, (,r CHAPARANG, a considerable city of 
 Asia, m 1 iiibet. Lon. 78. 42. E. I.at. 34. 0. N . 
 
 DSJABBEL, au island in the Red Sea, lying N. of the Straits 
 of Babel Mandel. 
 
 DSJ EBl, a district of Arabia, in Sana, wherein there are a great 
 number oi schiechs. 
 
 DsitBi, the capital of the above district. Lon. 4J. jO. E. Lat. 
 14. 37 N. 
 
 DSJEDSJAL, a sect of Mohammedan Arabs, chiefly inhabiting 
 Mecran, a maritime province ot Persia. " Its fiibt author, says 
 Mr. Niebuhr, was a venerable ohl man, who was found bv some 
 wood-cutters sluit up in the middle ot a tree, and having a book 
 in his h.a)(l." This miraculous origin, he was iniornied of at Ma- 
 skat, but " each sect," he add-, " tel 
 otiiers to bring them into contempt." 
 
 DSJENNED, a town of Yemen. 
 39. N. 
 
 DSJESAN, a town of Y'emen, on the coast of the Red Sea. 
 Lon. 41. 50. E. Lat. 16. 45. N. 
 
 DSJIDDA, or JIDDA, a city and sea-port of Arabia, in the 
 country of Hedsjas, near Mecca, in the dominions of the sherrifTe 
 of Mecca. 
 
 DSJILIBAT, and DSJIMUM, two districts of Arabia, in the 
 country of Hedsjas, on the coast of the Red Sea. 
 
 DSJOBEL ALA, a town of Arabia, in the province of Y'emen, 
 Lon. 43. 38. E. Lat. 15. 47. N. 
 
 DSJOBLA, an ancient city of Arabia, in the province of Ye- 
 men. Its streets are paved, which is not common in Arabia, 
 Lon. 44. fO. E. Lat. 13. 55. N. 
 
 DSJCERILAMIE, a tribe of Arabs who inhabit between Rama 
 and Jerusalem. 
 
 DSJOE, a large jirovince of Arabia, in the country of Yemen,, 
 exteiuling S. from Nedsjeran to Hadramaiit, and E. from Has- 
 chid-u-Bekil to the Desarl, by which Yemen is separated from 
 Oman. It is full of sandy and desart plains. 
 
 DsJULEAR, a principality of Arabia, in the province of 
 Oman, called also Seer. 
 
 DUAL, {^dualis, Lat.] expressing the number two. 
 
 DUBKl, a town of Russia, in the government of Petersburgh, 
 on the Gulph of Finland, 16 miles N. N. W. of Petersburgh. 
 
 DUBLIN, a county of Ireland, in the province of Leinster; 
 bounded on the N. by the county of Meath, on the E. bv the 
 Irish sea, on the S. by the county of Wicklow, and on the west by 
 those of Meath and Kildare. It is 25 miles long from N. to S. 
 and from nine to 16 broad; and contains about 142,050 acres. 
 The soil is fertile. 
 
 Dublin, the metropolis of Ireland, the second city in his ma- 
 jesty's dominions, and esteemed the fifth for magnitude in Europe, 
 is situated in the province of Leinster, and county of Dublin, at» 
 the bottom of a large bay. The river Liffey, w hich here disem- 
 bogues itself into the ocean, divides the town nearlv into two eoual 
 parts. Dublin issituated 60 miles W. of Holyhead in Wales: and 
 330 N. W. of London. L«n. 6. 6. W. Lat. 53. 20. N. Dublin is 
 
 a place 
 
 ridiculous stones of the 
 Lon. 43. 4y. E. Lat. 15.
 
 DUC 
 
 ?04 
 
 DUC 
 
 a place of great aiiliquitv. It was anciently coiitiniHl to the S. 
 side of tlie Lilk'v. In the lOtli century, after the fortitications of 
 Dublin were rcp'aired l>y the Ostnien, the walls of the city, uicluil- 
 ing those of the castle, dul not occupy more than an lri>h mile. 
 Ptolemv, who nourished about A. D. 140, says, it was anciently 
 called Asclicled. !n li"), Alpinus, whose daughter Aulianawas 
 drowned in the Lilley, chansed tlie name from Aschcled to Au- 
 liana. It was afterwards named Dulilana, and Ptolemy calls it 
 Eblana. Dublana, (whence Dublinuni ajid Dublin,) is evidently 
 derived from Dubleana, the place of the bLick harbour or lake, 
 or rather the lake of the sea; the bay of Dublin being frequently 
 so called. The city has had a variety of names. Th» Irish call it 
 Drom-cboU-coil, '"' the brow of a liazle wood." Li 181, Eogan 
 king of Munster being on a royal tour, paid a visit to this place, 
 which was then culled Atha Cliath-Dubb-Line, " the passage of 
 the ford of hurdles over tf.e black pool." This city has two ca- 
 thedrals, IS parish-churcliei, two chapeU, of ease, 15 Roman ca- 
 tholic chapels, six meeting houses for presbyterians, one for ana- 
 babtisls, four for methodists, two for quakers", a church for French 
 Calvinists, a Danish and a Dutch church, f.nd a Jewish synagogue. 
 Dublin, a town of Pejni^ylvania, in Philadelphia county ; 10 
 miles N. E. of Philadelphia. 
 
 DUBOS, John lUiTisT, a learned i<nd ingenious French au- 
 thor, born at Beauvais in 1(570. He lmi-.hed his stud.es at Paris, 
 and was intru^ted with the management of several important aif'airs 
 in Italy, England and Holland. At his return to Paris, he got a 
 prebeiidarv : afterw ards he had a pension of 2000 livres, and the 
 abbey of Notre Dame at Kessons, near Beauvais. He died at 
 Paris, when perpetual secretary of the French academy, on the 
 23d March, 1742. His princ'ipal works are, 1. Critical Reflec- 
 tions on Poetry and Painting, 3 vols. 12mo. 2 A C'ritical History 
 of the French Monarchy in Gaul, 2 vols. 4to. 
 
 DUCALS, letters patent granted by the senate of Venice, or 
 wrote in the name of the senate, to foreign princes: so named be- 
 cause the name of the duge or duke was prelixed to them. 
 
 DUCAS, a learned Greek, who wrote a history of what passed 
 under the last emperors of Constantinople, till the ruin of that city. 
 This work, which is esteemed, was printed at the Louvre in 1649, 
 with the Latin translation, and notes of Bouillaud. 
 
 DUCAT, a coin chietiy of gold. The origin of ducats is as- 
 signed by Procopius, to Longinus, governor of Italy ; who. re- 
 volting aaainst the emperor Justin II., made himself duke ol Ra- 
 venna^ arid called himself Exarcha, J. f. without lord or ruler; 
 and, to shew bis independence, struck pieces of money, of very 
 pure gold, in his own name, and witli his own stamp, which were 
 called ducati. Du Cange allirms, that the (irst ducats were struck 
 in the duchy of Apulia. The chief gold ducats are, the single and 
 double ones of Venice, Florence, Genoa, Germany, Hungary, 
 Poland, Sweden, Denmark, Flanders, Holland, and 2urich. The 
 douljle ducats weigh from five pennyweights 17 grains, to five 
 pennyweights lO grains; and the single in proportion. The Spa- 
 niard's have no ducat? of gold ; and the silver one, with them, is no 
 real s))ecies, but only aniojiey of account like our pound. It i^ 
 equivalent to 11 rials! The silver ducats of Florence serve there 
 for crowns. 
 
 DL'CATOON, a silver coin, struck cbieily in Italy, though 
 there are also Dutch and Flemish ducaloons. They are valued 
 at about 4s. 8d. or 4s. lOd. according to the rate of bullion. 
 There is also a gold ducatoon, current principally in Holland : it 
 is equivalent to 20 florins, at the rate of Is. 1 l^d. the Horin. 
 
 DUCENARIUS, [.:>»:<.v«jio,-,l in aiititjuity, an officer of the 
 Roman aruiv, who had the command of 200 men. 
 
 DUCFN'TFSIMA, in antiquity, a lax of the SOOdth penny, 
 exacted by the Romans. 
 
 DUCES TECUM, inlaw, a\\rit that commands a person to 
 appear in the court of chancery, and bring with them certain wri- 
 tings, evidences, or other things, whicii the court is inclined to 
 view. 
 
 Dl'CK, in ornithology. See An. -vs and Decoy. This fowl 
 is fui ni-.hed with a peculiar structure of vessels about the heart, 
 which enables it to live a considerable time under water, as is 
 #' - necessary for it in diving. 
 
 * DLICKIKG, a sort of marine punishment, inllicted by the 
 I'rench betore the revolutions on tho e who had been convicted 
 of desertion, blasphemy, or sedition. It wa^ thus performed : The 
 
 criminal was placed astride of a short thick batten, fastened to the 
 end of a rope, which passed through a l>lock hanging at one of the 
 yard-arms. T bus fixed, he was fioi^ted suddenly up to tlie yard, 
 and the rope being slackened at once, he was jjlungetl intu the sea. 
 'I his was repeated several times conformatJly to the sentence 
 against the culprit, who had also several lannon-shol fa>lened to his 
 feet. A gun was also tired to advertise the other ships of the (leel, 
 that their crews might become spectators. 
 
 DucKiNO is also a penally which veteran sailors pretend to have 
 a right to inflict on those who, for the first time, pass the tropic of 
 Cancer, the equator, or the straits of Gibraltar, in consequence of 
 their refusal or incapacity to pay the usual line levied on such oc- 
 casions. 
 
 DUCKSFOOT. See Podophyllum. 
 
 DUCK UP, is a phra-.e used at sea by Ibesteer's nian, when the 
 main-sail, fore-sail, or sprit-sail, hinder his seeing to steer by a 
 land-mark: n[)on which he calls out, duck up the clew-lines of 
 these sails, that is, bale the sails out of the way. Vv hen a shot is 
 made by a chace-piece, if the clew of the sprit-sail hinder the sight, 
 ihevcall out, duck up, &c. 
 
 Due r, DUC'l us, in general, denotes any tube or canal. It 
 is much used by anatomists, who mention the adipose ducts, the 
 thoracic, or chvlilerous duct ; the excretory ducts of the glands; 
 the hepatic duct ; the salival ducts; the lachrymal ducts ; the duc- 
 tus communis choledocbus, ike. The r use is to convey the 
 fluids of the body to the parts to which they belong. See Ana- 
 
 TJMY. 
 
 DUCTILITY, in physics, a property possessed by certain solid 
 bodies, which consisis in their yielding to percussion or pressure, 
 and in receiving different forms without breaking. Some bodies 
 are ductile in all circumstances. Such are metals, partii ularly 
 gold and silver. Other bodies are ductile only when heated to a 
 sufficient degree ; pucli as wax and other sub^ti.nces of that kind, 
 and glass. Other bodies, particularly some kinds of iron, called 
 by the workmen red-shor , brass,and some other metallic mixtures, 
 are ductile only when cold, and brittle when hot. 1 he degrees 
 of beat recpiisite to produce ductility in bodies of the fir4 kind, 
 varv according to their ciii'ferent natures. The great ductility of 
 some bodies, especially gold, is very surprising : tne gold-beaters 
 and wire-drawers furnish us with abundant proois of this property ; 
 they every day reduce gold, uilo lamellae inconceivably thin, yet 
 without the lea-t aperture or pore discoverable, even by the mi- 
 croscope: a single grain of gold niay be stretched under the ham- 
 mer, into a leaf that yvill cover a house, and yet the leaf remain so 
 compact as not to transmit the rays of light, nor even admit spirit 
 of wine to transude. Dr. Halley took the following method to 
 compute the ductility of gold: he le.irned from the wire-diawers, 
 that an ounce of gold is sufficient to gild, that is, to cover or coat, 
 a silver cy finder of forty -eight ounces weight, w hich cy linder mar 
 be drawn out uito a wire so very fine, that two yards shall weigh 
 only one grain; and consequently ninety-eight yards of the same 
 wire, only forty-nine grains: so that a single grain of gold here 
 gilds ninety-ciglit yards; ar.d of course, the ten-thousandth part of 
 a grain is I'lere above one-third of an inch long. And since the 
 third part of an inch is yet capable of being divided into ten less 
 parts visible to the naked eye, it is evident that the hundred thou- 
 sandth part of a grain of gold may be seen witliout the assistance of 
 a microscoiH'. Prt)ceeding in his calculation, he found, at length, 
 that a cube of gold, whose side is the hundredth part of an inch, 
 (ontains 2,433,000,000 visible parts; an<l yet, though the gold 
 with which such wire is coated, is stretched to such a degree, so 
 intimately do its parts cohere, that there is not any a|ipearance of 
 the colour of the silver underneath. Mr. Boyle, examining some 
 leaf-gold, found that a grain and a quarter in weight took up an 
 area of (iffy siiiiaie inches ; supposing therefore the leaf divided by 
 par.illel lilies lUOth part of an inch apart, a grain of gold will be 
 divided into five hundred thousand minute squares, all discernible 
 by a good eye: for the same author shews, than an ounce of gold 
 di'awu out in wire would reach 155 miles and a half'. Hut .Mr. 
 Beaunuir has carried the ductility of gold lo a still greater extent. 
 What is called gold-wire, every body knows, is only a silver one 
 gilt. '1 he cylinder of silver, covered with leaf-gold, they draw 
 through the iiole of an iron, and the gilding still keeps pace with 
 the wire, stretch it lo what length they can. Now Mr. Reaumur 
 shews, that in the common way of drawing gold-wire, a cylinder of 
 4 silvei"
 
 DU E 
 
 505 
 
 D U K 
 
 silver t«i-iily-lw.> hkIk-s long, and iifleeii lines in tliiimelcr, is 
 ijtivtcli>-a lo 1,163320 leet, or is 634,(592 lines longer lliaii bctoiv, 
 which amomits lo about ninely-sevcii leagt;e». To waul this 
 thread on silk lor use, lliev lii-st tlatUn it, in doing which il stretcho-, 
 at lea^l oiie-s.-veiith farther, so lliat the twenly-luo inches arc now 
 111 leL"iie>: but in the llaltenii.p:, instead of- onc-sevcnlh, they 
 could sketch it one-fomth, which would bring it lo 120 leagues. 
 This ai)|)car5 a prodigious exteniion, and yet il is nothing to what 
 this ".-ntlenian has proved gold lo be capable of. 
 
 D'^'criLii-y OF Glass.' We all know that, when well pcner 
 trated wah the heat of lire, the workmen can figure and manage 
 gUss like soft wax ; but what is nio»t remarkable, il may be drawn, 
 or!.punout, into threads exceedingly long and fine. Our ordi- 
 nary spinners do iiol form their threads of silk, flax, or the like, 
 witi) lull tii= ease and evpedition as the glass-spinners do threads of 
 this brittle matter. We have some of ihein used in plumes for 
 ch.ldr.-irs heads, and divert other works, much liner tiian any hai,-, 
 aji.i which bend and wave like hair witii every wind. N'othmg is 
 iiioiv simple and easy than the method of making thein. Tlieie 
 ^0 two workmen cmploved ; the lirst holds one end of a piece ot 
 - -; ;)verthe llame ol a lamp; and, when the heat hassoften-xl it, 
 r -c.id op-Tator applies a glass hook to the metal thus in lusion ; 
 , jidrawin'^ the iiook "again, it iMings with it a thread of glass, 
 1 hdneres lo th- mass: then, titling liis hook on the cir- 
 ■ .ce of a wheel about two feet and a half in dii'meler, he 
 •tu-nsUie wheel as fa-las he pleases: which, drawing out the 
 lhre.'.d, winds it on its rim ; till, after a certain number ot revolu- 
 tions, it 13 covered with a skain of glass-lhread. The mass in tu- 
 tion over the lamp (hminishes insensibly : being wound out like a 
 clue of silk upon the wheel ; .md the parts, as they recede from 
 the llame, cooling, become more coherent to those next to them, 
 and this bv degrees : the parts nearest the fire are always the least 
 coherent,' and, of consequence, must give way to the elfort the 
 rest make to draw Ihtm towards the wheel. '1 he circumference 
 of Ihe.^e tlireads is u»uallv a Hal oval, being three or lour times as 
 broad as liiick : some of "tliem seem scarcely bigger than the threaii 
 ofasi.kworm, and arc surprisingly llexible. If the two ends of 
 sucii threads are knotted togi'lhcr, they may be drawn and bent, 
 till the aperture, or space iirthe middle i;f the knot, does not ex- 
 ceed one-fourll) of a line, or one forty -eiglitii of an inch, in diame- 
 ter. Hence M. Keaiimur advances, that the flexibility of glass 
 increased in proportion lo the (ineuc^.s of the thrjads : and that, 
 nrobahl v, had we but llie art of drawing threads as tine as a spider's 
 web, we might weave stutfs and cloths of lliem for wear. Aceord- 
 diii'jlv, he made some experimenta this way ; and found that lie 
 coulii make threads tine enough, viz. as fine, in his judgement, a$ 
 spider's thread, but he could never make thcni long enough to do 
 aiiv ll-.ing with them. 
 
 DUlillUS TADT, a town of Germany, in the circle of Lower 
 Saxonv, 40 miles >'. E. of Cassel. Lon. 10. 12. E. Lat. 51. 41. N. 
 DUDI-EY, a town of England, in tlie county of Worcester, 
 10 miks W. of IJirmingiiam. 
 
 DUEE, a single combat, :it a time and place appointed, in con- 
 sequence of a challenge. This custom came originally from the 
 northern nations, aniong whom it was usual to decide all their 
 controversies by arms. Both the accuser and accused gave pledges 
 to the judges on their respective behalf; and tlie custom prevailed 
 so far amongst the Germans, Danes, and Franks, that none were 
 excused from it but women, sick jieople, cripjiles, and such as 
 were under 21 years of age or above tiO. Even ecclesiastics, priests, 
 and monks, were obliged to fir.d champions to fight in their stead. 
 The punishment of the' vanquished was either death, by hanging or 
 beheading; or mutilation of members, according to the ciicum- 
 stances of the case. Duels were at first admitted i-.ot only on 
 criminal occasions, but on some civil ones for the maintenance of 
 ri"hts to estates, and the like: in latter times, however, before they 
 were entirely abolished, they were restrained to these four cases. 
 1. That the crime sh.ould be capital. 2. That it should be certain 
 the crime was perpetrf;led. 3. The accused must by common fame 
 be suppoied guilty. And, 4. The matter not capable of liroof by 
 witnesses. 
 
 Duel, at present, is used for single combat on somn private 
 quarrel ; and mu-t be prcmediUitcd, otherwise it is called a Ren- 
 counter. If a person is killed in a duel, both the principals and 
 seconds are guilty, whether the seconds engage or not. See 
 VOL. 11. — so. 08. 
 
 Mup.DEit. U is also a very high ohence to challenge a person 
 either by word or letter, or lobe the messenger of a challciigo. 
 See Law. 
 
 D U ET, in music, a composition expressly written for two voices 
 or ill. Irumeut', with or without a bass and accomp^meiiLs. In 
 good duets the execution is pretty equally distriiiutetTbetwecu thr 
 two pails, and the melodies so connected, iulermingied, and de- 
 pendent on each other, as to lose every effect when separated, but 
 to be perfectly related and concinnous wlien heard together. 
 
 DUEllEN', or DUllEN, a handsome to.ui of Germany, in 
 the duchv of Jidicrs, 12 miles H. S. E. of Julieis. 
 
 JJl.EUS'lADT, or WYCK DE DUET^.STADT, a town of 
 Ratavia, in the department of the Rhine, and late province ot U- 
 trecht, 1 1 miles from I'trccht. 
 
 DUGDALE, Sir William, an eminent English historian, anti- 
 quarian, and herald, born in Warwickshire in 1605. He was in- 
 troduced into the herald's office by Sir Christopher Hallon ; and 
 ascended gradually through all the "degrees, until he became garter 
 lirincipal king aUrms. His chief work is the'-Monasticum Angli- 
 caaum," in 3 vols, folio ; containing tl;e charters and descriptions of 
 all tiie English monasteries, adorned wi'hengruviiigs: in the former 
 of which works he was.assisted-Tjy Mr. Roger Dodsworth. Nor arc 
 his " Antiquities of Warwickshire" less esteemed-. lie wrote like- 
 wise the History of St. Paul's Cathedral ; a History of Embanking 
 and Draining ; 'a Baronage of England ; and completed the second 
 volume of Sir llenrv Spelnian's Councils, willi a second part of 
 his Glossary. He died in l(5s6. His -on, Jclin, was Norroy king 
 at .irms, a"nd ])ublislied a Catalogue of English Nobility. His 
 daughler Elizabeth married the famous Elias Ashmole. 
 
 D L'GINSKOI, a cape of Russian Siberia, in the sea of Ocliot* 
 skoi. Lon. 107. E. Lat. 50. 15. N. 
 
 DUILLl.\ LEX, the DUILLI.AN LAW, a Roman law, 
 enacted by M. Duillius, a tribune, A. U. C. 304. It made it a 
 capital crime to leave the Roman people without its tribunes, or to 
 create any new magistrate without a sufficient cause, 'i'here wan 
 another DuiUian law in 392, regulating the interest to be paid foe 
 money lent. 
 
 DUILLIUS Nefos, Caius, a Roman consul, the fa'^t who 
 obta ned a victory over the naval power of C:arlhage, A. U. C. 492. 
 He took 50 ships and was honoured witli a naval triumph, the first 
 that ever .ppeared at Rome. The senate rewarded his valour by 
 permitting him lo have music playing, and torches lighted, at tli« 
 public expence, every day while he was at supper. _ T here \\ ere 
 some medals struck' in commemoration of this victory ; and 
 liieie stUl exists a column at Rome, which was erected on the 
 occasion. 
 
 DUINA, or DUNA, a river of Russia, which rises from a 
 h.ke, 16 miles N. E. of Toropetz, and falls into the Baltic at 
 
 Riga. 
 
 DUINO, or DOINO, or TYBEIN, a sea-port tov.n of Ger- 
 many, in Carniola, S miles N. W. of Trieste. 
 
 D'UIS BU RG, a town of Germany, in Weslphali;u Lon. 6. 49. 
 E. L:it. .'il. 30. Js\ 
 
 DUKE, DUX, was originally a Roman dignity, denominated 
 a ducendo, leading or cominandihg. Accordingly, the first dukes, 
 duces, were ductores e.-iercituum, commanders of armies. Under 
 the later emperoi-s, the governors of provinces during war were 
 intitied duces. In after-times the same denomination was also 
 giv*?n to tiie governors of provinces in time of peace. The lir-t 
 governor under the name of duke was a duke of the Marchia Rlia:- 
 tica, or Grisons, w hereof mention is made in Cassiodorus ; and 
 there were afterwards 13 dnkes in the eastern empire, and 12 in the 
 western. The Goths and Vandals, upon their over-running the 
 provinces of the western empire, abolished the Roman dignities 
 wherever thoy settled. But the Franks, &c. lo please the Gauls, 
 wlio had long beei» u-sed to that form of government, made it a 
 point of politics liot lo change any thing therein: and accordingly 
 thev divided all Gaul into duchies and counties ; and gave tho 
 names, sometimes of dukes, and sometimes of counts, comites, to 
 the governors thereof. In England, during llietimeof the Saxons, 
 Camden observes, the officers and commanders of armies were 
 called dukes, duces, after the ancient Roman manner, without 
 anv addition. After the Conqueror came in, the title lay dormant 
 tilt the reign of Edward III. who created his son Edward, first 
 called the'^Blact; Prince, duke of Coniwall ; which has ever since 
 3 G ^ce«
 
 D V ISI 
 
 206 
 
 DtJM 
 
 been the peculiar inheritance of the king's eldest son during the 
 lift of his fatlier; so that lie is dux natus, non rreatus. After him 
 there were more made, in such mauiier as that tlicir titles descendeif 
 to their posterity. Thi-y were created with much solemnity, per 
 cincturam gladii, ea|)|).e(iue, & circuli aurei in ca^jite impositio- 
 71' 111. However, in the reign of (jueen Elizalieth, A. D. \b7'2, Die 
 \A(hi)le order became uUerly extinct; but it was revived about 5(1 
 years afterwards by lier successor, in the person of George Villiers 
 <luke of l]uckiiu;'haiii. Though the i-'rent h retained the names 
 -ani term of the ducal government, yet inider their second race of 
 kings there were scarce any dukes: but all the great lords were 
 called counts, peers, or barons; excepting, however, the dukes of 
 Burgundy and Acpiitaip., and the duke of France, wliich was a 
 ilignitv Hugh Capet hiui'-elf held, corresponding to that of niaire 
 de palais, or king's lieuteiiauf. The modern dukes retain nothing 
 of their ancient splendor but the coronet on theirescutcheon, which 
 is tlie onlv mark of their departed sovereignty. They are created 
 by patent cinctuie of tlie sword, mantle of slate, imposition of a 
 cape, and coronet of gold upon the bead, and a verge of gold in 
 their hand. The ehlest sons ofxlukesare by the courtesy of 
 England stvled martiuis^es, thou^they are usually distinguished 
 bv their father's secoud title, whetl^ it i^'C marquis or carl ; and the 
 younger sons lords, with the addition of their Christian-name, as 
 Lord James, Lord Thomas, &e. and they take place of viscounts 
 though not so privileged by law. A duke has the title of grace; 
 and being writ to, he is styled, in the herald's language, most high, 
 potent and noble prince. Dukes of the blood royal are styled mo^t 
 iiigli, most mighty, and illustrious princes. 
 
 Duke is also the title of a sovereign prince, without the quality 
 of king. Such weretlie Dukes of Ilolstein, of Wirtemberg,, &c. 
 The word is liorroned from the modern Greeks who call douca-; 
 -what the Latins called dux. There wenKilso two sovereign5 who 
 bore tlie title of grand-duke ; as the grand duke of Tuscany, and 
 t!ie grand duke of Muscovy, now called the czar or emperor of 
 Kussia. The title of great duke belongs to the heir a|«parent of 
 Russbi; that of arch-duke to all the sons of the house of Austria, 
 and that of arch-duchess to all llie daughters. 
 
 Duke, among Hebrew grammarians, is an appellation given to 
 a species of accents answermg to our comma. 
 
 Dl'KE-Duke, a quality given in Spain to a grandee of the 
 house of Svlva, on accouiit of his having several ducliies, from the 
 iniitini; of two considerable liouses in his person. 
 
 DU LCIt'YlNG, in chemistry, is the swectentng any matter 
 impregnated with salts, by frecpienily washing it in iiure waler. 
 
 J)ULCIGN(), a town'of Albania, 15 miles S. W. of Scutari. 
 
 T>U1^C1.\]ER, ldi)lcriiill-h'] a musical instrument played by 
 strikina; the brass w ires witli little sticks. 
 
 DULDF.RS'i'ADi', a town of Germany, iu the duchy of 
 Brunswick, 15 miles L. of (jottinneu. 
 
 DUElA, [&>,!!«,] an inferior kind of adoration. 
 
 DULL, ill the manege. The marks of a dull horse, called by 
 the French, niar([uis de ladre, are white spots round the eye and 
 on t!ie tip of the nose, upon any general colour v\diatsoevcr. 
 Though some take tliese spots for signs of stupidity, it is certain 
 they are great marks of the goodness of a horse ; and the horses 
 that have them are verv sensible and quick upon the spur. 
 
 DULVEUTON, a town in Sonieiset:iliire seated on a brancli of 
 the E\; S4niile^ E. of Barnstaple. 
 
 DUMARING, a town of the Island of Borneo, on the E. coast. 
 Lon 117. 30. E. Lat. 2. 10 N. 
 
 DUMBNESS, [on he was silent,] is the ])rivation, or want, 
 of the faculty of speech. This unfortunate defect proceeds chietlv 
 from total and native deauiess; if it arise from a deliciencv in llie 
 organs necessary for ntteringsouiids, it is always iHcurable. Several 
 in^itances, )iawever, have occurred of persons born deaf, who have 
 been taught to speak distinctly ; to read, write, understand arith- 
 metic, &c. The most eminent teachers of the duml) in this 
 country, were, 
 
 1. Dr. Wallis, who, in the 6 1st number of the Philosophical 
 Transactions, gives an account of two persons he hnd taught to 
 speak; and, in the ?-iS(h number of the same work, his metiiod is 
 ex(ilained. 
 
 2. Mr. Thomas Braidwood, late of Edinburgh, who is perhaps 
 the lirst who ever l-runght this surprising art to any degree ot per- 
 fection. He began with a single pupil in 1764, and since that 
 petiod, has taught gtreat numbers of people bom deaf lt> speak 
 
 distinctly; to read, to write, to understand figures, the principles 
 of religion and morality, &c. and even to make a rapid progress Ju 
 tliose useful branches of education. Mr. liraidwood's principal 
 difficulty, after he had discovered this art, was to make tiie people 
 believe in the practicability of it. He advertised in the public 
 papers ; he exhibited his pupils to many noblemen and gentlemen; 
 still he found the generality of maukiud unwilling to believi- liim. 
 The lirst thing in Mr. Braidwood's method is, to teach the pupil 
 to pronounce the simple sounds of the vowels and consonants. He 
 pronounces the sound of « slowdy, point. ng out the figure of the 
 h tter at the same time ; makes the pupil observe the motion of his 
 mouth and throat ; he then puts a silver instrument, somew hat re- 
 sembling the shank of a spoon, into the pupil's mouth, depresses 
 or elevates the tongue, and makes him keep the parts in that posi- 
 tion ; he then lays hold of the out-side of the windpipe, and gi\rs 
 it a kind of squeeze, which it is impossible to describe; ail the 
 while lie is pronouncing ((, the pupil is anxiously imitating him, 
 but at first is at a loss to understand what he would have him do. 
 In this manner he proceeds, till the pujiil has learned to pronounce 
 the sounrls of the letters, lie goes on in the same manner to join 
 a vowel and a consonant, till at length the pupil is enabled both to 
 speak and read. 'I'hat his pupils were taught not onlv the mere 
 pronunciation, but also to understand the meaning of what they 
 read, was easily ascertained by a conversation with any of them. 
 Of this Mr. Pennant gives a remarkable instance in a young ladv 
 of about 13 years of age, who had been some time under the c.'.r'e 
 of Mr. Braidwood. " She readily npprehendi-d (says he) all 1 said, 
 and returned me answers witli the utmo>t iacdity. She read ; 
 she wrote well. Her reading was not by rote. Slie could clothe 
 the same thought in a new set of words, and never vary from the 
 original seii^e. I have forgot the book she took up, or the sen- 
 tences she made a new version of: but the effect was as follows : 
 Original passage. ' Loi'd Bacon has divided the whole of human 
 knowledge into history, poetry, and philosophy ; which are re- 
 ferred to the three powers of the mind, memory, imagination, and 
 reason.' \'ersion A nobleman has parted the total or all of man's 
 study or un<ler.-.tanfliHg into. An account of the life, manners, re- 
 ligion or customs, of any people or country; verse or metre; 
 moral or natural knowledge; which are pointed to the three 
 faculties of the soul or spirit; the faculty of remembering what is 
 past, thought or conception, and right Judgement." 
 
 3. Abbe De L'Epee of Berlin who jiractises a new and dilTerent 
 method, eipiallv laborious and successful. He begins his instruc- 
 tions not by endeavouring to form the organs of speech to articulate 
 sounds, but bv communicating ideas to the mind by means of 
 signs and characters : to ctfect this, he writes the names of things ; 
 and, by a regular system of signs, establishes a connection between 
 these -words and the ideas to be excited by them. After he lias 
 thus furnished his pupils with ideas, and a medium of communica- 
 tion, he teaches them to articulate and pronounce, and renders 
 them not only grammarians but logicians. In this manner he has 
 enabled one- of his pupils to deliver a Latin oration in public, ami 
 another to defend a thesis against the objections of one of his fellow- 
 pupils in a scholastic disputation; in which the arguments of each 
 were communicated to the other, but whether by signs or in 
 writing is not said ; for it <loes not appear that the Abb^ teaches his 
 pupils to discern what is spoken, by observing the motion of the 
 organs of speech, which those instructed by Messrs. Braidwoods 
 are able to do with astonishing readiness. There is perhaps no 
 word, says the Abbe, more difficult to explain by signs th;iu the 
 verb croire, " to believe." To do this, he \\'rites the verb with its 
 significations in the following manner: 
 
 Je crois 
 
 r Je (lis oui par I'esprit, Je pense que oui 
 } Je (lis oui par le coeur, J'aime a penser 
 "1 Je dis oui par la bouchi 
 V Je ne vols pas des veux 
 
 penser que oni. 
 
 After teaching these four significations, which he does by as many 
 signs, he connects them with the verb, and adds other signs io e.>c- 
 press the miniber, person, tense, and mood, in which it is used. 
 If to the four signs, corresponding with the lines above-mentioned, 
 be added that of a substantive, the pupil will write the word foi, 
 faith; but, if a sign, indicating a participle used substantively, he 
 adjoined, he will express la croyaiice, bel/'tf; to make him w rite 
 croyable, crtdihlr, Ihe-four signs of the verb must be accompanied 
 with one that iiidic-ates an a Ijective terminating in able; all the-x- 
 siiTiis are rapidly made, and immediately comprehended. 
 ° \, DUMFRIES,
 
 D U N 
 
 20: 
 
 T) IT P 
 
 DUMFRIES, or DUMFUlt:s->iU[l! i',, a counly in tlio S. 
 
 'i -> otl.iiul, compielKiiiliiig (lie di^lnrt of Nitlisdiile, llif .Slcuar- 
 IV of Aiinaiulnle, .mil tlie lorilshi|J of F.vkdalc, exteiidiii;; in Icngtli 
 irom N. VV. to S. E. about 60 miles, and alioiit 30 niiit-s in 
 ireachh wlierc broadest. It is boinuled on thr ^^. W. h\ Galloway 
 and part of Kyi''; on the N. F,. hv the connlies of Koxhnrfjli, 
 Selkirk, and Peel)le> ; on tlie N. \V. by Clydesdale ; and oti the 
 S. E. by Solaay Frith and the inarches between Scotland anil 
 Enifland. 
 
 Dl'mfuies, the capital of the above coimtv, a handsome town, 
 situated on a ridge or rising ground, on the N. E. siile of the 
 river Nith, 7j miles S. S. W. of Fxlinburgh. Lon. 4. L'5. W. 
 Lat. 6j. 8. N. 
 
 Dumfries, a town of the United States, the capital of Pr. U'il- 
 liain < onnty, in Virginia. 
 
 DU.MOS.A, [irom (/;(»/!(.?, a bush] bu^hy plants; tho name of 
 the forty-third order in Liniia.-iis's Fragments of a Xatural Method ; 
 consisting of a number ol shrubby plants, which are thick set with 
 irregular branches, and bushv. 
 
 DUX, [dun, Saxon,] 1. A colour partaking of brown and 
 black. U. Dark ; gloomy. 
 
 l)vs, or liuRGii, the name of an ancient species of buildings, 
 ol' a circular form, common in the Orkney and Shetland isles, the 
 Hebrides, and uorthern parts of Scotland. ' Sci' Plate LIX. tig. IL'. 
 'I'he hitler term points out (he founders, who at the same lime be- 
 stowed on them their nalal uame of bora, a defence or ca-,tle, a 
 Suedo-Golhic word ; and the {Fighlaiiders universally apjily to 
 these places the Celtic name dun, signifying a hill defended bv a 
 a tower, which plainly points out their use. 'Fhcy are conlmed' to 
 (be countries once ■-ubject to the crown of Norway. With few- 
 exceptions, they are built within sight of the sea, and one or more 
 within sight of the other ; so that on a signal by tire, llag, or ti uni- 
 pcl, they could give noise of approaching danger, and yield a mu- 
 tual succour. 
 
 DvN, a river in Yorkshire. 
 
 DUNAMl^ND, or DIAMINTZ, a town of Riga. 
 
 DUNI5AU, a royal borough of Scotland, in I'.ast Lotliian, equi- 
 distant from Edinburgh and Berwick upon Tweed, being L7 miles 
 horn each. 
 
 DUN BARTON, the chieftown of I.enox or Dunbartonshire in 
 Scotland, 58 miles \V. of Edinburgh, I,on. 4. 30 W. Lai. ^i>. u. N. 
 
 DUNBLANE, a town of Scotland 30 miles N. of Edinburgh. 
 
 DUNCAN NON, a town and fort of Ireland, in Wexford, six 
 miles E. of Waterford. 
 
 DUNCAN'S B.\Y, lies on the N. coast of Jamaica. Loii. 77. 
 23. W. Lat. IS. 31. N. 
 
 DUNDALK, a town of of Ireland, in the county of Louth, 
 about 40 miles from Dublin. 
 
 DUNDEE, a town of Scotland, in Angus-shire, 40 miles N. of 
 Edinburgh, Lon. 3. 3. W. Lat. 50. -27. N. 
 
 LJUNEBERG, a town of Livonia, on tlieDwina, 90 miles S. E. 
 of Riga. Lon 27. 0. E. Lat. 59. 8. N. 
 
 DUNEGEL, a fertile island of Ireland, on Baltimore bay, on 
 the coast of Cork. 
 
 Dl^NFERMLINE, a borough of Scotland, in Fifeshire, 15 
 miles N. W". of Edinburgh. Lon. 3. 27. W. Lat. 55. [■>. N. 
 
 DUN(;. See IIUSBA.MDRY. 
 
 pUNGVLA, DONGALA, or DONKALA, a kingdom of 
 Africa, in Nubia, seated on both sides of the Nile, but chiefly on 
 the W. ■' 
 
 DuxGALA, or DoNGALA, the Capital of the above kingdom. 
 Lon. 30. 35. E. Lat. 21.0. N. 
 
 Dl^NGANNON, a town of Ireland, the capital of Tyrone, in 
 Ulster. Lon. 6. 39. ^V. Lat. 54. 38. N. 
 
 DUNGARVAN, or DUNGAKVON, a town of Irelaiid, in 
 tlie county of Waterford, 22 miles S. W. of Waterford. 
 
 DuNGARv AX Bav, on the coast of Waterford. 
 
 DUNG EN ESS, a cape on the coast of Kent, eight miles S. 
 by W. of Romiiey. Lon. I. 4. E. Lat. 50. 52. N. 
 
 DoKGKNESs Pbix-T, a cape in the eastern entrance of the straits 
 of Magellan. Lon. 68. 28. W. Lat. 52. 28. S. 
 
 DUNGEON, in fortihcation, the highest part of a castle built 
 after the ancient mode ; serving as a watch-tower, or place of ob- 
 servation ; and also for the retreat of a g-.irrison, incase of neces- 
 sity, so that they may capitulate with greater advantage. 
 
 DU^G MEERS, ia husbaudry, places where soils and dungs 
 
 an- mixed and tli;;ested tufjellu-r. Th<<-e consist ol pits, |)r''|)are<l 
 al the bottom with stone and clay, that ihey may hold water, nn 
 the moisture of the dung, 'ihey ought to be so Mlualed, that lh<; 
 sinks and drips of the hoiisea and barns may run iiilo them. Into 
 these are cast refuse lodder, litter, dung, weeds, &f. where they 
 lie and rot together, till the farmer have occasion for ihem. 
 
 DUN KELD, a town ol Scotland, m Perthshire, 15 miles N.V/. 
 from Perth, 
 
 DL'NKI RK, a maritime town of France, in the department of 
 the North, -'2 miles S. W. of 0^t.•lld. Lon. 2. 28. E. Lat. 51. 2. N. 
 DUNLEER, a town of Ireland, in Louth ; seven miles N. of 
 Drogheda, and 30 of Dublin. 
 
 D\'N.MANUS BAY, a bay of the Atlantic, on the S. W. 
 coast of Ireland, in the county of Cork; about 14 miles in length., 
 and from one to three broad : S. of Baiilry bay ; affording a safe 
 harbour. 'J'he mouth of this bav lies in Lon. 9. 30. VV. Lat. 51. 
 20. N. . ' 
 
 DUNMORE HEAD, a cape on the W. coast of Ireland, in ' 
 the County of Kerry. 'I'his cape is the Kiost western ])oint ia 
 Europe. Lon. 10. 20 AV. Lat. 52. 6. N . 
 
 DUN. MOW, GREAT, a town of E^scx, 13 milts N. of 
 Chelmsford, and 40 N- E. ef London. 
 
 DL'NN E r HEAD, an ixleusive pruniontory ou the W. coast 
 ol Caithness. 
 
 DUNOOSE, a cape on the S. E. coast of the isle of Wight; 51 
 miles ^V. of Btachy lieiul. Lon. 1. II. W. Lai. 50. 33. N. 
 
 DUNOIS, a late tvrntorv of France in the province of Orlean- 
 nois, and district of Beauce ; included in the department of Eure 
 and Loire. 
 
 DUNSE, a town of Scotland, in the county of Merse. Lon. 2. 
 5. W. Lat. 55. 42, N. 
 
 DUNS, John, commonly called Duxs Scotus, :} famous Fran- 
 ciscan divine, was born at Duii^tance in Northumberlanil. He 
 was educated at Oxhrd, from whence he went to P^iris, where he 
 acquired a great reputation as a disputant, ami was called tlie 
 " subtile doctor " He oppo-eil the nolions of Aquinas, which ■ 
 produced two parties, the I homists and the Scotists. lie dietl at 
 Cologne in 1308. He was a voluminous writer ; his works ii.akiM_i5 , 
 12 vols, folio; as published at L\ons by Luke Wadding, in ll)3y. 
 DUNSTABLE, a t wn in Bedford-hire, 34 miles N.W. of 
 London, Lon. 0. 29. W. Lat. 51. 59. N. 
 
 Dl NS'l'AN, St. archbishop of Canterbury, v-as born in 925, 
 in the reign of Athel-Iaii, who gave him lauds at Cilastonburv, . 
 where he toundcd a m(lna^tery. ' King Edgar. made him bishop of 
 Worcester, and in 959 archbishop of Canterbury. The pope con- 
 firmed the appointment, and made him his legate. Dunstan extendeU • 
 the papal power in a most arbitrary manner, though opposed by tlie 
 English clergy, for which he deprived many of their benefices, and 
 placed monks in their room. On the death of Edgar in 975, he 
 placed his son Edward on the throne, who being a minor, Dunstan 
 assumed the regency. Under his successor EtheUcd, however, 
 he lo-t his iiiHuence and died of grief fn 988. 
 
 DUNSTER, a town in Sjimersetshire ; 20 miles N. W. of 
 Taunton. Lon. 3. 41. W. Lat. 51. 13. N. 
 
 DUNU.M, a Celtic term, denoting a hill or eminence, .which . 
 often concurs to form the namei of touiis, to signit'v their high situ- 
 ation, .places of strength or citiiuels, liills or eminences, being adap- 
 ted to such structures. See Dv.v. 
 
 DuxL'M, inancient geography, a town of Ireland, mentioned by 
 Ptolemy, and supposed to l)e].)owii or Down-Patrick. See 
 Dowx'. 
 
 DUNWICIT; a town in Suffolk, most of which is destroyed by. 
 the encroachments of the sea, and not one church left of eiaht. It 
 is 30 miles N. Fl of Ipswich. Lon. 1. 55. E. Lat. 52. 21. N. 
 
 DUO, in music, a song or composition, to be performed in two 
 parts only, one sung, the other pl.iyed on an iii.-.trunu.'nt, or by two- 
 voices. Also when t\(0 voices sing difl'crtnt partj, as accompanied 
 uithathird, which is a thorough bass. It is seldom that unisons 
 and octaves are used in duos, except at the beginning and end. 
 DUODECIMA, in music, is the twelfth or the fifth doubled. 
 DUOI^ENUM, file first of the small guts, i_o called from its 
 
 J./ ,^ v.* A^ Ivl-^ V- t'*, ll.V tllTLl..! in.. ..Illt.ll j^VLl.-, ..^ ,.(111, VI 1 1 IJ I I I US 
 
 lenatli, which is about twelve lingers breadth. It has its origin at 
 the pilorus, or right orifice oi the stomach. See Axatomy. 
 
 DUODI, [from duo, two, and dies, a day, Lat.] the second 
 day of the decade, in t!ie new French di.trihution of time. 
 
 t)UPIN, Lkwis Elus, a learned doctor of the Sorbcnpe, and 
 
 one
 
 DU It 
 
 208 
 
 DUR 
 
 
 one of tlie2,rfakst fritics of li's time, especially in ecclesiastica! m;it- 
 ti';s, viis l)oni lU Piu-.s, in 16;>7. When iie piiljlishetl the lii-st 
 volume of liis Bu)ru!tliiH]iie Univei-si-lle des Auletn's Ecclcsius- 
 tiijues, in 1036, tli:; libevlv, \v:!li whicli he treatfd some ecclesi- 
 ;\>tic:;l writers, gave such oHViicc, that M. de Harlay, arciibishop 
 of Paris, obliged Dupin to retract many propositions, and sup- 
 ])rt'ssed the work. lie was nevertheless sulifered to contir.ue it, 
 bv altering tlie title from Biblii)tlie(|ue Universelle, to Bibliotlicque 
 Isouvelle. This great undertaking, contiimed in several succes- 
 sive volumes, thoup,li suflicieut to occupy ihe life of an ordinary 
 man, did not hinder M. Dupin from obli!>,ing the world with 
 several other works. lie was a man of i)rodij,ious reading ; and 
 had an easv happv way of v.iiting, witli an uncommon talent at 
 analysing the works of an anlhor; which makes liis Ecclc>;ast cal 
 15iblu>tlieque so valuable. He was prolessor of philosophy in the 
 royal c>>ll;"ge; but was lianished some lime from the chair to 
 C'hatelleram, ' on account of the famous Cas de Conscience; but 
 was restorc-d, and died in 1719. 
 
 DUPI E RATIO, among mathematicians, denotes the r.ttio of 
 2 to 1. Thus the ratio of 8 to 4 is iluple. Sub-duple ratio, is 
 just the reverse, or as 1 to 3. Such is 4 to 8, or 6 to 12. 
 
 DUPLICATE PROPORTION, or RATIO, is a ratio com- 
 jionnded of two ratios: thus, the duplicate ratio of a to b, is 
 the ratio of cia to bh, or of the square of u to the square of /;. Hence 
 the duplicate ratio ought to be well distinguished from double. In 
 a series of geometrical proportion.ils, the lirst term to the third is 
 said (o he in a duplicate ratio of the hrst to the second: thus in 2, 
 4, 8, 16, &c. tlie ratio of 2 to 8 is duplicate of that of 'i to 4, or as 
 the scpiare of 'i to the square of 4. Duplicate ratio is therefore the 
 proportion of scpiares, as triplicate is of cubes, &c. and the ratio of 2 
 to S is said to be compounded of that of 2 to 4, and of 4 to 8. 
 
 Duplicate, among lawyers, denotes a copy of any deed, 
 ■writing, or account. It is also used for the second letters patent, 
 granted by the lord chancellor, in a case wherein he had before 
 done tlie same. 
 
 DUPLICATION, in general, signifies the doubling of any 
 thing, or multiplving cf it by 2: also the folding of any thing back 
 again on ilself. The duplication of a cube is a problem famous 
 in antU|uity : it was proposed by the oracle at Delphos, as a means 
 to stop the plague, to double Apollos's altar, which was cubical. 
 The dilhcnlty of the problem consists in this, to find the side of a 
 cube that shall be double in solidity to a given cube ; wliich is only 
 to be solved by lindnig two mean proportionals between the side 
 of the given cube and double that side. Thus, if the given side 
 be represented by «, its double hy b, and the side sought by 7/ ; 
 
 we shall have aa:t/i/:: y : h ; and m.iking : = :IE, it will be fl : ; :: 
 y. h. So that a 
 
 ij, the side of the cube sought, is the second of two mean propor- 
 tionals lielwifLi (I and b. 
 
 DUPLICATUUE, among anatomists, a tfrm used to denote 
 the fold i of any membrane, or vessel : thus we say, the duplica- 
 tures of the intestines, peritona'um, &c. 
 
 DUPONDIUS, in aniiciuity, a weight of two pounds, or a 
 iDoney of the value of two asses. See As. As the as at first 
 weighed a just po'ulo or libra, the dupondius then weigheil two ; 
 and hence the name. 
 
 DUQUELLA, a fertile province of Morocco in Africa ; 75 
 miles long and tiO broad. 
 
 DLU5A MATER, one of the membranes which surround the 
 brain. See An- atomy. 
 
 DUR AM POUR, a town of Hindoslan, in the country of 
 Gnzeral, 4.v miles S. S. E. of Surat. 
 
 DUR.VNGO, a town of N. America, in the province of New 
 Biscay. Lon. 105. 0. W. Lat. 24. 50. N. 
 
 DUR.\NTA, in botany, u genus of the angiospermia order, 
 and didynamia class of plants ; natural order, Personatte. Calyx 
 quinqnefid, superior; berry tetraspermons ; seeds bilocular. It 
 lias three species, shrubs, with quadrangular branches. 
 
 DURATION. Sec Metaphysics. 
 
 Duration', as marked by certain periods and measures, is what 
 we most proi)erly call time. See ^Fime. 
 
 Duration of Action, according to Aristotle, is confined to a 
 natural day in tragedy; but the epopea, According to the same 
 tiitic, has no fived time. 
 
 DURAZZO, a sea-port town of European Turkey, in Albania, 
 
 anciently named Epidamnus and Dyrrachium. It is 88 miles 
 S. S. E.'ofKagusa. Lon. 19. lit. E. Lul. 41. 54. N. 
 
 DU RBUY, .1 town of France, in the department of Ouvle, and 
 late liuciiy of Luxemburg, 20 miles S. ofLiege. Lat. 50. 18. N. 
 DuRBUY, a late comity of Luxemburg, now annexed to 
 France. 
 
 DlfRCKHElM, town of Germany, in tlie circle of th.e Up- 
 per Rhine, now included in the department of Munt Tonnerre; 
 12 miles N. E. of Ncwstadt. 
 
 DURESS, in law,iswherea man is kept in prison, or restrained 
 of Ids liberty, contrary to tlie order of law ; or threatened to be 
 killed, maimed, or beate.n ; and if such person so in ])rison, or in 
 fear of such threats, make any specialty or obligation by reason 
 thereof, such deed is void in law ; and in any action brought upon 
 such speci:ality, the party may plead that il was made by duress, 
 and so he may avoid the action. Cowel. 
 
 DURHAM, a county of England, commonly called the Bisho- 
 pric of Durham. It is bounded on the N. by Noithuniberland, 
 from which it is separated by the Tync, on the N. E. ; on the E. by 
 the German ocean ; on the S. and S. W. by Yorkshire and the 
 Tecs; and on the W. by Cumberland and Westmorelaii.l. Be- 
 fore the arrival of the Romans it was included in the Llrilish prin- 
 cipality, of the Brigantes, and after their arrival made part ol the 
 pvo\ ince of Maxima C:esariensis. During the Heptarchy, it made 
 part of the kingdom of Norlliuniherland. It is now included in the 
 norlhtrn circuit, in the province of York ; and is a diocese and 
 priucipiility under the government of its own bishop, being a 
 county palatine, the second in raid<, and the richer in England. 
 It extends 47 miles in length from E. to Vf . and 37 from N. to S. 
 Il is 107 miles in circumference, and contains 410,000 scjuare 
 acres or 758 stjuare miles. 
 
 Durham, the capital of the above county, remarkable fortlie 
 salubrity of its air, and the abundance and cheapness of its pro- 
 visions. It was built about 70 years before the Norman conquest, 
 on occasion of bringing hither the body of St. Cuthberl. Il lies 14 
 miles S. of Newcastle. Lon. 1. 27. W. Lat. 54. 50. N. 
 
 Durham, a river of the United Slates, which falls into the 
 Piscatuqua. 
 
 Durham, a town and township of Connecticut in New-Haven 
 county. It is 22 miles S. W. of Hartford. 
 
 Durham, a town of New Hampshire, in Stafford county. Oji 
 the top of a hill in this town is a rock, comimted to w eigh 60 or 
 70 tons, so exactly poised on another rock, as to be easily moved 
 bv one's finger. Its situation appears to be natural. Lon. 70. 54. 
 VV. Lat. 43.5. N. 
 DURIO, a genus of the class aiid order poiyadelphia polyandria. 
 The calyx is rive-cleft; corolla five-petalod"; style one; stamina 
 in five bodies; pome live-celled. There is one species, a tree of 
 the East Indies. 
 
 DURNESS, a town of Scolland 46 miles N. N. W. of Dor- 
 noch. 
 
 DUROCORNOVIUM, an ancient town of Britain; now 
 called Cirencester. Ptolemy called it Corinium. 
 
 DUROCORTORA, or" DUROCORTORUM, an ancient 
 town of the Rhemi, in Belgica; now called Rheinis. 
 
 DUROIA, a genus of the monogynia order, and hexandria class 
 of plants. Calyx above is cylindrical and loped; border six- 
 ))arted ; no' filaments ; pome hispid. It has one species, a tree of 
 Surinam. 
 
 DUROTRIGES, an ancient British nation, seated in Dorset- 
 shire. Their name is derived from t!ie two Piritish words Dut 
 WLiter, and Trigo to dwell ; and they got it from the situation of 
 their country, which lies along the sea coast. It is not certain 
 whether the Durotrigcs formed an independent state under a 
 prince of their own, or were united with their neighbours tlio 
 Danmonii ; as they were reduced by Vesptisian under the domi- 
 nion of the Romans, at the some time, and with the same ease, and 
 never revolleik 
 
 DURSEY', an island about 2nd!es long, and half a mile broad, 
 situated near the S. W^. coast of Ireland. 
 
 Dl'RSLEY, a town of Gloucestershire, telebratecr for i(8 
 manufacture of broad cloth. It is 15 miles S. of Gloucester. Lon. 
 2. 23. W. Lat. 5 1 . 40. N. 
 
 DURSrOLORG, the son of Ilungus, and the 73d king ofth.e 
 Picts, according to Dr. Anderson. fJioijal GciHt.'t.) lie was 
 murdered by his brother Eogan, v.ho thui paved the way for the 
 
 uuiui*. 
 
 \ 
 
 H'
 
 DUU 
 
 ??oo 
 
 D ^V A 
 
 union of tlie ScoU and Picts under Kcimetli II. aboiil A. D. 
 844 
 
 DURSTUS, or DURST, tlic son of Erp, king of (lie Picts, 
 began to reign A. D. 406 according to Dr. Anderson ; and after 
 fis;liting many bjtties, (the Dr. saysnoles^ tlian 100, and tliat he 
 lived 100 years!; died A. D. 4.j). In his reign t lie gospel waj 
 first preached to the Picts hv St. Nimian. lioijal Gtneal. 
 
 DUSDHRUK, a town of Arabia, in Yemen. Lon. 44. 20. E. 
 Lat. 13. 50. N. 
 
 DUSKY BAY, a !)ay oji the S. W. coast of the island Tavai- 
 poenjiuiiioo, tlie most we.,tern oiTe of New Zealand. It is 
 reckoned by Captain Cook to be the most pn.pcr i^lace in New 
 Zealand for the procuring of refreshments. Lon. l6o. 18. E. Lat. 
 45. 40. S. 
 
 DUSSELDORF, or DUSSELDORP, a strong town of Ger- 
 many, in Westphalia, 21 miles N. N. \V. of Cologne. Lon. 6. 52. 
 E. tat. 51. 12. N. 
 
 DUTCH, the people of the late United Provinces, now called 
 Batavia, and Holland. 
 
 DUTCHESS COUNTY, a county of New York, on the E. 
 side of Hudson River. 
 
 DUTCHY, [duche, Fr.] A territory which gives title to a 
 duke, or has a duke for its sovereign. 
 
 DUTCHYCOL^RT, a court wherein all matters appertaining 
 to the dutchy of Lancaster are decided by the decree of the chan- 
 cellor of that court. The origin of this court was in Henry the 
 IV. 's time, who obtained the crown by deposition of Richard 11. 
 and having the duchy of Lancaster, by descent, in right cf his 
 mother, became seised thereof as king, not as duke: So that all 
 the liberties, franchises, and jurisdictions of the said county passed 
 from the king, by bis great seal, and not by livery or attornment, 
 as the earldom of March, and other possessioi'.s, which descended 
 to him by other ancestors than the king's, did. Henry (V. by 
 authority of parliament, severed the possessions, liberties, &c. of 
 the said dntchy from the crown: but Edward IV. restored them 
 to their former nature. The officers belonging to this court are, 
 a chancellor, attorney general, receiver general, clerk of the court, 
 and messenger ; besides assistants ; as attorneys in the exchequer, 
 and chancery, and four counsellors. 
 
 DUTY, in a moral sense. See Moral Philosophy. 
 • Duty, in the military art, is the exercise of those functions that 
 belong to a soldier: with this distinction, that mounting guard 
 and the like, where there is no enemy directly to be engaged, is 
 called duty ; but marching to meet and fight an enemy is called 
 going on service. 
 
 Duty, in polity and commerce, signifies the impost laid on 
 merchandizes, at importation or exportation, commonly called 
 the duties of customs ; also the taxes of excise, stamp duties, &c. 
 See Custom, Excise, &c. The principles on which all duties 
 and customs shouUI be laid on foreign merchandizes which are 
 imported into these kingdoms, a;e such as tend to cement a mu- 
 tual friendship and traffic between one nation and another ; and 
 therefore due care should be taken in the laving of them, that 
 they may answer so good an end, and be reciprocal in both coun- 
 tries. '1 hey should be so laid as to make the exports of this na- 
 tion at least equal to our imports from those nations witli which 
 we trade, so that a balance in money should not be issued out of 
 Great Britain, to pay for the goods and merchandizes of other 
 countries: to the end that no greater number of our landholders 
 and manufacturers should be deprived of their revenues arising 
 from the product of the lands, and the labour of the people, by 
 foreign importations, than are maintained by exportations to such 
 countries. Theie are the nitional principles on which our treaties 
 of commerce with other countries ought to be grounded. 
 
 DUUMVIRATE, the office or dignitv of the duumviri. See 
 the next article. The duumvirate lasted "till A. U. C. 388, when 
 it was changed into a decemvnate. See Dkce.mviri. 
 
 DUUMVIRI, in Roman antiquity, a general appellation given 
 to magistrates, commissioners, and officers, where two were joined 
 togeth.'r in the same functions: such as, 
 
 1. Duumviri Capitales, the judges in criminal causes. From 
 their sentence it was lawful to appeal to the people, who alone had 
 the power of condemning a citizen to death. 
 
 2. Duumviri Mu.vicipales, two magistrates in some cities of 
 the empire, answering to what tlie consuls were at Rome. 
 
 VOL. II, — NO. 69. 
 
 3. Duumviri Navales, two commissaries of the tiect, first 
 created at the request of .M. Decius, tribune of the people, in the 
 time of the war with the Samnites. Their duty consisted in giv- 
 ing orders for the fitting out of ships, giving commissions of ma- 
 rine officers, &c. 
 
 4. Duumviri Sacrorum, two magistrates created by Tar- 
 quiii II. for performing the sacrifices, and keeping the Sibyls 
 books. 
 
 DUX. See Duke. , 
 
 DUYIVELAND, DUYVELAND, or DIVELAND, an 
 island of Batavia or Holland, in the department of the Meuse, in 
 Zealand. 
 
 DWAL, in heraldry, the herb nightshade, used by such as 
 blazon with flowers and herbs, instead of metals and colours, for 
 sable or black. 
 
 DWARF, in general, an appellation given to things greatly in- 
 ferior in size to that which is usual in their several kinds: tlius 
 there are dwarfs of the human species, dwarf-dogs, dwarf-trees, 
 &c. The Romans were passionately fond of dwarfs, whom they 
 called n;mi or nana*, insomuch that they often used artificial me- 
 thods to prevent the growth of boys designed for dwarfs, by in- 
 closing them in boxes, or by the use of tight bandages. Augus- 
 tus's niece, Julia, was extremely fond of a dwarf called Sonopas, 
 who was only two feet and a hand breadth high. We have many 
 other accounts of human dwarfs, but most of them deformed in 
 some way or other, besides the sni:dlness of their size. Many re- 
 lations also concerning dwarfs we must consider as fabulous, as 
 well as those concerning giants. The following, however, which 
 we have reason to believe authentic, is very remarkable. Jefifery 
 Hudson, the famous English dwarf, was born at Oakham in Rut- 
 landshire, in 1619 ; and about the age of seven or eight being then 
 but eighteen inches high, was retained in the service of the dukr 
 of Buckingliam who resided at Burleigh on the hill. Soon after 
 the marriage of Charles I. the king and queen being entertained 
 at Burleigli, little Jeffery was served up to table in a cold pye, 
 and presented by the duchess to the queen, who kept him as her 
 dwarf. From seven till thirty, he never grew taller; but after 
 thirty he shot up to thiee feet nine inches, and diere fixed. Jef- 
 fery became a con^iilerable part of the entertainment of the court. 
 Sir William Davenant wrote a poem called " JelVreidos," on a 
 battle between him and a lurky-cock ; and in l63S,was published 
 a very small book, called the " New Year's Gift," presented at 
 court by the lady Parvula to the lord Minimus (commonly called 
 Little J elfery) her majesty's servant, written by .Microphilus, with 
 a little print of Jelfery prefixed. Before this period, Jeffery was 
 employed on a ncgociation of great importance : he was sent to 
 France to fetch a midwife for the queen ; and on his return with 
 this gentlewoman, and her majesty's dancing master, and many 
 ricli presents to the queen from her mother Mary de Medicis, he 
 was taken bv the Dunkirkers. Jeffery, thus made of consequence, 
 grew to think himself really so. He had borne with little temper 
 the teazing of the courtiers and domestics, and had many squab- 
 .bles with the king's gigantic porter. At last, being provoked by 
 Mr. Crofts, a young gentleman of family, a challenge endued: 
 and Mr. Crofts coming to the rendezvous armed only with aquu't, 
 the little creature was so enraged, that a real duel ensued ; and the 
 appointment being on horseback with pistols, to put them more on 
 a level, Jeffery at the lirst fire, shot his antagonist dead. This 
 happened in France, whither he had attended his misti'ess during 
 the '.roubles. He was again taken prisoner by a Turkish rover, 
 and sold into Barbary, lie probably did not remain long in sla- 
 very ! for at the b(7giiuiing ot the civil war, he was made a captain 
 in the royal army; and in 1644 attended the queen to France, 
 where he remained tdl the Restoration. At last, upon suspicion 
 of his being privy to the Popish plot, he was taken up in 1082, and 
 confined in the Gatehouse of Westminster, where he ended his 
 life in the 63d year of his age. 
 
 Dvvarf-Trkes, a kind of diminutive fruit-trees, frequently 
 planted in the borders of gardens, and so denominated from their 
 low stature. Dwarf-trees were formerly in great request, but have 
 been much neglected since the introduction of espaliers. The 
 method of propagating dwarf-pears, which have been lound to suc- 
 ceed better than any other dwarfs, is as follows ; They are to be 
 grafted on a quince-stock, aboui six inches above the ground ; 
 and, as soon as the bud has sprouted so far, as to have four eves, it 
 
 3 n ■ w
 
 210 
 
 r>YEING. 
 
 is to be stopped, in order that literul brandies may slioot forth. 
 Two years after ijiiddiiig, the trees will be ready to be transplant- 
 ed to the spot where tbay are to remain. They should be set at 
 the distance of 25 or 30 feet S(|uare, and the intermediate space 
 may be sown or planted with culinary herbs, while the trees are 
 young ; but such herbs are not to be placed too near their roots, 
 which would thus be (obstructed in their growth. Stakes are next 
 to be driven around the tree, to which the branches of it are to be 
 nailed with list, while young ; being trained in an horizontal direc- 
 tion, and no branches "being afterwards permitted to intersect each 
 other: in shortening the roots, the uppermost eye should aKva^s 
 be left outwartls. The summer and autumn pears thrive most 
 luxuriantly, when planted in this manner, but the winter pears do 
 not succeed. Apples are also sometimes cultivated as dwarfs ; for 
 which purpose they are generally grafted on paradise stocks. These 
 do not spread their branches so widely as peal's, and therefore re- 
 quire to be set only eight feet apart. Some gardeners also rear 
 
 dwarf-jj.ricots and plums, which, however, being less iiards than 
 either apples or pears, seldom thrive when set accoiduig to this 
 method. 
 
 DWINA, a province of Kussia, in the government of Archan- 
 gel; bounded on the E. bv the province of Condinski, on the S. 
 by Usiing, on tlie W. by Kargapol, and on the N. by the White 
 Sea. Archangel is the capital. 
 
 DwiNA, the name of two large rivers, one of which rises in Li 
 thuania, and, dividing Livonia from Conrland, falls into the Baltic 
 Sea a little below Riga ; the other gives name to the province of 
 Dwina in Russia, discharging itself into the White Sea a little be- 
 low Archangel. 
 
 DYE, in architecture, any square body, as tlie trunk or notch- 
 ed part of a pedestal : or it is the middle of a pedestal, or that 
 part includt'd between the base and the corniche ; so called be. 
 cause it is often made in the fomi of a cube or dye. 
 
 DYEING. 
 
 DYEING is the art of developing and extracting the colour- 
 ing particles of any substance whatever, and of uniting and iixing 
 them afterwards upon cloths, studs, or any other matters, so as ap- 
 parently to const tute but one botly. The object of this art, there- 
 lore, consists in deprivhig one body of Its colouring principle, in 
 order to lix it upon another in a durable manner-V and the ser.es 
 of manipulations which are necessary to produce this eli'ect, con- 
 stitutes the art itself. The word, however, in its most common 
 acceptation, is generally restricted to the art ol tinging silk, wool, 
 cotton, and linen with diltercnt colours : and in ihis sense the 
 art of dveing is practised as a trade, by those who do not 
 meddle with any of the other branches, as staining of lea- 
 ther, &c. 
 
 General History of the Art. 
 
 The origin of tlie art of dyeing, or of imparting to different ma- 
 terials employed for the fal)ricatlon of garments and furniture, 
 those beautiful colours whicli are ahurded by many articles of thr 
 vegetable, animal, and mineral kingdoms, appears to have been 
 ot high antiquity. As most of thes'- materials are, of themselves, 
 either of dark and disagreeable colours, or eUe devoid ot all co- 
 lour, it is probable that, even in the very earliest ages, tlie love ot 
 ornament, whicli is natural to mankind, wotdd induce them to 
 stain their vestments with various colouring ingredients, esi)ecially 
 with Vegetable juices. The ancients also obtained from the coc- 
 cus, now known by the name of kermes, a colour which was al- 
 most as highly esteemed as the purple, and which was sometimes 
 mixed vvilh it. Accordins to Pliny, the Euyptians had discover- 
 ed a mode of dyeing, somewhat re^enlbhng that whicli we use for 
 colouring printed linens ; the stuffs, probably alter having been 
 impregnated with different niorilants, were immersed in vats, 
 where they received various colours. And Mr. Delav.d is of opi- 
 nion, that they were possessed not only of the art of dyeing, but 
 even of that of printing on cloths. The Pha-nicians seem to have 
 yB strong claim to the invention of this art, and they held a decided 
 pre-eminence in it lor many ages: their purple and scarlet cloths 
 were sought after by every civilized nation ; and the city of Tyre, 
 enriched by its commerce, increased to an amazing extent. But 
 her career was stopped by the vanity and folly of the eastern em- 
 perors ; under whose dominion this opulent city had unfortunately 
 fallen. Desirous of monopolizing the wearing of the beautiful 
 cloths of Tyre, these misjudging tyrants issued most severe edicts, 
 prohibiting any one from ai)pearing in the Tvrlan blue, purple, or 
 s<-arlet, except themselves, and their great ofiicers of state. To 
 Ihi-s iiijudlcious restriction Is to be attributed the destruction of the 
 Tyrian dyes. l''or under the impolitic restraint imposed on the 
 consumption of the Plia-nician cloths, the ininufacturers and dyers 
 were no longer able to carry on their trade ; it grew languid, sic- 
 kened, and expired : and, with the trade, the art itself also pe- 
 libhed. Among the Greeks tlie knowledge of dyeing must have 
 
 been very imperfect, and little assisted by science; for the art of 
 dyeing linen appears not to have been known In Greece before 
 Alexander's invasion ot India, where, according to Pliny, they 
 dyed the sails ot his vessels ot liiilerent colours. I'lie (jieeks 
 seem to have borrowed this art from the liul ans. 1 his last coun- 
 try seems to have been the nursmy ot the arts and sciences, which 
 were afterwards spread ami pertected among other nations. Acci- 
 dents, wh:ch had a tendency to improve the art, could not fail to 
 be multiplied rapidly, m a couutry ricii in natural productions, 
 which requires little labour lOr the support ot its inhabitants, and 
 the p. pulation ot which was tavouied by the bounty of jiatnre, 
 and the simplicity of manners, till it was opposed by the tyranny 
 of succeeding conqnerors. But religious prejudices, and ilie un- 
 alterable division ill casts, soon shackled industry ; the arts be- 
 came stationary ; and it would seem, that the knowledge of dye- 
 ing cotton in that country (for silk was then unknown, or at least 
 very scarce) was as tar advanced in the t nie ot Alexander, as It is 
 at the present period. The very beautilul colours, which are ob- 
 servable in some Indian linens, would lead one to suppose, that 
 the art of dyeing had there attained a high degree of perfection ; 
 l)ut we lind by the description which Beaulieu, at the request of 
 Uufay gave of some operations peitormetl under his own eve, 
 that the Indian processes are so complicated, tedious and imper- 
 fect, that they would be impracticable in any other country, on 
 account of the great dlflerence In the price wliich is paid for labour. 
 It is uni|uestionably true, tliat European industry has far surpassed 
 them in correctness of design, variety of shade, and facility of ex- 
 ecution ; and if we are Inferior to them with respect to the liveli- 
 ness of some colours, it is only to be attributed to the superior 
 C(uality of some of their dyes, or perhaps to the length and mulli- 
 pllcity of their operations and processes. Dufay, ilellot, Mac- 
 (|uer, and Berthollet have rendered essential services to this art. 
 Dufay appears to have been the first who obtained just notions of 
 the colouring particles, and shewed how they are naturally dis- 
 posed to adhere more or less hrmly to the filaments which receive 
 iheni ; and has very justly remarked, that without this disposition, 
 studs would never assume any colour but that of the bath, and 
 would always divide the colouring particles equally with it: 
 whereas the liquor of the bath sometimes becomes as liniDid as 
 water, giving oil' all the colouring particles to the stuff; which 
 (says he) seems to indicate that tl.e ingredients have less attrac- 
 tion for the water than for the particles of the wool. Btrthollet's 
 treatise on dyeing is one of the best epitomes on the subject ; and 
 chemistry, and the arts of dyeing, and of bleaching, iiav'e been 
 much indebted to his labours. A translation of this work by Mr. 
 Hamilton was published in 1793, 2 vols. Svo. Also Chaptal, 
 D'Apligny, D'Anibourney, and Haurtinan, in France, have pub- 
 lished treatises on the art of dyeing, which have much contributed 
 to its improvement. In Sweden, Scheffer's work on the subject ; 
 is accompanied with notes by the celebrated Bergman. In Ger- 
 many
 
 DYEING. 
 
 211 
 
 many experiments in tlilVeient processes ot flycing lia\'* beon jMib- 
 lishc'd by Beckniann, I'ocrner, ^'oi^ler, ami l'nMKhe\ lUe. In 
 England' two very valuable essa)S on dyeing have been writlt-n 
 bylielaval and Henry; to which may be added, the excellent 
 treatise on the philosophy of permanent colours, by Dr. Ban- 
 croft. 
 
 Theory of Dveinc. 
 SirTorbern Bergman seein'; to have been tlie first, who referred 
 the phinomuna ot dyeing entirely to cliemical principles. Hav- 
 ing dyed some wiiol and some silk in a solution of indigo, in very 
 dilute sulphuric acid, he explains the ellVcts he observed in the 
 op«ratioii, by attributing them to the precipitation, occasioned by 
 the blue panicles having a stronger attraction for the (larticles of 
 the wool and silk, than for those of the acidulated water: he re- 
 marks, that this attraction of the wool is so strong, as to deprive 
 the liquor eiitirely of the colouring particles; but that tlie weaker 
 attraction of the silk can only diminish the proportion of these par- 
 ticles in the bath: and he shews, that both the durability of the 
 colour, and the degree of intensity it is capable of acquiring, de- 
 pend on these djflerent attractions. This i>, in fact, the true light 
 in which the plia-nomena of dyeing should be viewed; they are 
 real chemical plianomena, whiclt ought to be analysed in the same 
 way as all those dependant on the actions which bodies exert, in 
 consequence of their peculiar nature. It is evident, that the co- 
 louring particles of bodies possess chemical properties, that distin- 
 guish them from all other substances; and that thev have attrac- 
 tions peculiar to tlicm^elves, by means of which they unite with 
 acids, alkalies, metallic oxides, or calces, ami some earths, princi- 
 pally alumiiie or |)ure clav. 1 hey frequently precipitate oxides 
 and aliimine, from the acids whicli held them in solution; at other 
 times they unite with the salts and form supra compounds, or 
 compounds of more than two ingredients, which combine with the 
 wool, silk, cotton, or linen. And with these, their union is ren- 
 dered much more close by means of alumine, or metallic oxide, 
 than it would be without their intervention. The dilierence in 
 the itttractions of the colouring particles lor wool, silk, and cotton, 
 is sometimes so great, that thev will not unite with one of these 
 substances, while tliey combine very readily with another: thus, 
 cotton receives no colour in a bath which dyes wool scarlet. Du- 
 fay got a piece of stuit made, the warp of which was wool and the 
 wool cotton, which went tlirongh the process of fulling, that he 
 might be certain, that the wool and the cotton received exactly 
 the same preparation; but the wool took the scarlet dye, and the 
 cotton remained white. It is this dilierence of attraction, which 
 renders it necessary to vary the preparation and the process, ac- 
 cording to the nature of the substance which is intended to be 
 dyed of a particular colour. And these considerations ought to 
 determine the means to be pursued for the improvement of the art 
 of dyeing. It is highly proper to endeavour to ascertain, what are 
 the constituent principles of the colouring particles. And in this 
 incpiiry, the most essential circumstances are, to determine the 
 aflinities of a colouring substance, first, with the substances which 
 may be employed as menstrua; 'idly, with those which may by 
 their combinations modify the colour, increase its brilliancy, and 
 help to strengthen its union with the stufi" to be dyed; 3dly, with 
 the different agents which may change the colour, and principally 
 with the externa! agents — air and light. The cjualities of the un- 
 ccmbined colouring particles are modified when they unite with 
 a substance; and if this compound unites with a stufI', it undergoes 
 new modiiications. Thus the properties of the colouring particles 
 of cochineal are modified, by being combined with the oxide cf 
 tin, and those of the substance resulting from this combination, are 
 aga'ii modified by their union with the wool or siik; so that the 
 knowledge we may acquire, by the examination of colouring sub- 
 stances in their separate states, can only inform us respecting the 
 preparations that maybe made of them: that which we ac<|uire 
 respecting their combinations with substances which serve to fix 
 them, c-- to increase their beauty, may inform us what processes 
 in dyeing ought to be preferred or tried ; but it is only by direct 
 experiment made with the different substances employed in dye- 
 ing, that we can confirm our conjectures, and properly establish 
 the process. These facts shew, that the changes produced by 
 acids and alkalies on many vegetable colours, such as the chemists 
 employ, in order to discover the nature of dilTerent substances, 
 are owing to the combinations, which take place between these co- 
 
 louring particles, and the acids and alkalies. The compounds re- 
 sulting trom these may be compared to neutral sjlts, which posse.iS 
 qualities difterent from those of their component parts, but in 
 which one of these parts may be in excess, ami its qualities ccnsc- 
 quently predominant. 1 his state of combination is observabl.-: 
 between the colouring particles of cochine.il and acidulous tartrite 
 of potash, or (ream of tartar; by evaporating slowly a solution of 
 this salt ill a decoction of cochineal, crystals are formed, which 
 retain a fine ruby colour, much more bright and ir:tense than that 
 of the liquor wliich tormid them. There are also some acids, 
 particularly the nitric, which, after having combined w\\\\ the co- 
 louring particles, cliaiige the colour which they at first produced, 
 make it yellow , and destroy it. They then act by means of one 
 of their principles, the oxygen, or vital air. Ulue colours are m.t 
 the only ones which become red by the addition of acids, and 
 green by that of alkalies; mo^t red colours, as tliat of Ih.e rose, 
 for instance, are heightened by acids, and made green by i'.lkalies; 
 and some green colours, such as that of the green decoction of 
 burdock, according to the experiments of Mr. Nose, and the 
 green juice of bucklhurn, as is evident from the trials of Mr. 
 oerker, are reddened by acids. This jirnpevty, which is common 
 to most of the orilinary colours of vegetables, seems to prove, that 
 there is a great analogy betwe<n their colouring particles; and it 
 is not without foundation, that Linnaus supposed, thai the red in 
 vegetables was owing to an acid, and indicated its presence; but 
 there are also many vegetables which contain acid in a disengaged 
 state, without their possessing a red colour. It is therefore evi- 
 dent, that the colouring particles have attractions for acids, aika- 
 lies, earths, and metallic oxides, which constitute a part of their 
 chemical properties; and in consequence of which, their colours 
 are more or less varied: therefore these particles torm, with the 
 slulf on which they are fixed, a compound whicn retains only 
 some of their original properties; they are also modified by tiieir 
 union with alumine, or pure clav, metallic oxides, and some 
 other substances; as are also those new compounds, when they 
 are further combined with the stufi': all these modifications are 
 analogous to what is observed in other chemical combinations. 
 
 Of Mordants. 
 
 Mordant is a term that appears to have been first introduced by 
 the French dyeis; and is applied to those substances that serve as 
 intermedia between the colouring particles, and the stnlf to be 
 dyed, either for the purpose of facilitating, or of modifying their 
 combination. Basis would seem to be a more a|)i)ropnate term. 
 Mordants deserve the greatest attention ; as by ilieir means co- 
 lours are varied, brightened, made to strike, and remlered more 
 durable. \\ e shall therefore examine the nature of tiie action of 
 tlie principal bases or mordants, and endeavour to determine how 
 their attractions serve to unite the colouring ]jjrticles with the 
 stufi, and how they affect the qualities of the cnlours. A basis or 
 mordant is not always a simple agent, for new combinations are 
 sometimes formed by the ingredients that compose it; so that the 
 substances employed are not the immediate agents, but the com- 
 pounds which they have formed. Sometimes the morifnt is fix- 
 ed with the colouring particles, and som.etimes the stull is impreg- 
 nated with it ; on other occasions, both the.-e modes are iinileci ; 
 and we may dye successively with liquors ci^nt-'-iiiing dilierent 
 substances, the last of which only can act on thc'particles with 
 which the stuff is impregnated. The principal substances em- 
 ployed as monhuits are, aluminous salts, lime, metallic, oxides, 
 some astringent substances, and animal inatlei's. Tiie an of print- 
 ing linen al'lbrds many processes, in which it is easy to observe 
 the crt'ei ts of mordants: thereture, to elucidate this subject, we 
 shall mention a few examples. The basis employed for linens in- 
 tended to receive different shades of red, is prepared by dissolving 
 in 8lb. of hot water, 51b. of aluin, and lib. of acetile of lead, or 
 sugar of lead, to which -'oz. of potash, ami afterw;:rds 2oz. of 
 powdered chalk are added. The alum is decomposed by the ace- 
 tite of lead, because the oxide or calx of lead CMnbiwes with the 
 sulphuric or vitriolic acid, and forms an insoluble salt which is 
 precipitated; the base of the alum, alumine, at the same time 
 combines with the acetous acid, or vinegar, and produces an ace- 
 tite of alumine; and the chalk and potash answer the purpose of 
 saturating the excess of acid. One of the advantages, which re- 
 sult from the formation of the acetite cf alumine, is, that the alu- 
 mine is retained in it by a much weaker attraction than in the 
 9 alum;
 
 212 
 
 DYEING. 
 
 alum ; so tliat it more easilv quits its menstruum, to combine u ilh 
 tlie stull' and colouring pavlicU's. Another advantiige i>, tbattlie 
 acid liquor, from whirti the alumine is separated, ha? much less 
 action on the colour vhcn it cou>i-ls of the acetous, than when it 
 consists of a stronger acid, such as the sulphuric. In short, the 
 acetite of alumine not having the property of crystallizing, the 
 moidant, which is thickened with starch or gum, tu prepare it for 
 being applied to the block on which the design is engraved, does 
 not curdle, as it would if it contained alum capable of crystalliz- 
 ijig. By attending to the operation ptrformed upon a piece of 
 linen cloth, we lind, that when it has been impregnated by the 
 mordant, in the manner determined by the design, it is put into a 
 bath of madder; the whole of the cloth becomes coloured, but 
 the tinge is deeper in those parts which have received the mor- 
 d:vnt ; tijere the colouring panicles have combined with the alu- 
 mine and the cotton, so that a triple compound has been formed, 
 and the acetous acitl separated from it> basis is carried olf in tin- 
 bath. Thus the cul juring particles, combined with the alumine 
 and the stulf, are nnich more difticidtly allected by external 
 agents, than when they are in a separate state, or combined onl\ 
 With the stuff, without any intermediate bond of union: and on 
 this property the operations, to which the cloth is afterwards sub- 
 jected, are founded ; after it has been maddered, it is boiled with 
 bran, and spread upon the grass ; an<l these operations are alter- 
 nately repeated nntil the ground becomes white. The colouring 
 particles, which have not united with the alumine, are altered in 
 their composition, dissolved, and separated, while those that have 
 combined with it remain, and are preserved, without alteration ; 
 and thus, the design alone remains coloured. It seems that this 
 destruction of the colouring particles, by exposure on the grass, 
 an<l boiling wilh bran, is accomplished in the same manner as that 
 of the colouring particles of llax, and admits ot the same eN|>lana- 
 tion. The only diflerence consists in substituting bran lor alka- 
 lies, because they would dissolve a part of the colouring matter, 
 which is lixed by the alumine, anil would change its colour ; in- 
 stead of which, the bran, having a much weaker action on this 
 substance, affects only the colouring particles, which, by the ac- 
 tion of the air, have been disposed more easily to solution. If, 
 however, instead of the mordant, a solution of iron be employed, 
 the same phanomena takes place; the colouring particles decom- 
 pose the solution of iron, and form a triple compound witli the 
 stuff; but, instead of red, we get from the madder brown colours 
 of different shades, down even to black: and, by uniting these 
 two mordants, alum and iron, we have mixed colours, inclining 
 to red on the one hand, and to black on the other, such as mor- 
 dore and puce colour. Other colours are also procured by sub- 
 stituting dyers weed for madder; anil by means of these two co- 
 louring substances, indigo, And the two mordants above mention- 
 ed, we obtain most of the dilfevent shades that are observable in 
 stutfs which are printed. The substances which compose a mor- 
 dant are sometimes incapable of decomposing each other solely by 
 their own attractions; t)ut the attraction of the stuff for one of 
 their constituent parts brings about a decomposition and new com- 
 binations; and sometimes tills effect is not produced or completed 
 without the aid of the attraction of the colouring particles. This 
 appears to be the caNe in the mixture of alum and tartar, one of 
 the most common mordants employed in the dyeing of wool. 
 I'he attraction ol alumine for animal substances, is not merely in- 
 dicated by uncertaui appearances, nor supposed for the purpose of 
 being employed m explanations, but is proved by direct experi- 
 ment. M. berthollet united them togi-t!ier, by mixing an animal 
 substance with a solution of alum; a double exchange took place, 
 the alkali entered into combination with the acid of the alum, and 
 the alumine, combining with the animal substance, was precipitat- 
 ed. He al.-o proved the attrai tion of alumine for animal sub- 
 stances by another ex|>eiiment ; having mixed a solution of glue 
 with a solution of alum, he precipitated the alumine by an alkali, 
 and the glue with which it had combined fell down along with it. 
 This compound has the appearance of a semi-transparent jelly, and 
 grows dry with difficulty. Thus, in the preceding experiments, 
 the alkali precipitaleil tlie alumine combined with llie animal sub- 
 stance, Irom llie uncrystallizable residue of the alum which had 
 been boiled with the wool. The attraction of alumine for most 
 colouring substances, may also be shewn by direct experiment. 
 If a solulioii of a colouring substance be mixed with a solution of 
 alum, a |)recipitation sometimes takes place; but if to the liquor 
 
 we add an alkali, which decomposes the alum, and >eparate5 the 
 alumine, the colouring particles are then precipitated, combined 
 with the alumine, aw! the liquor remains clear: this compound 
 has got the name of lake. In tiiis experiment, too much alkali 
 must not be added, because alkalies are capable of dissolving lakes 
 in general. No experiment has, however, yet shewn, that alu- 
 mine attracts any vegetable substance except the colouring parti- 
 cles: its attraction for them seems mucli weaker than that which 
 it has for animal substances; hence the acetite of alumine is a bet- 
 ter basis for cotton and linen than alum is, and upon this depend 
 the dilTerent means employed to increase the iixity of the colour- 
 ing particles of niadiler in the dyeing of these substances. The 
 oxides or calces of nielals have so great an attraction for many co- 
 louring subr-tar.ces, lliat they quit the acids in which tliev were 
 dis-olved, and are precipitated in combination with them. On 
 tlie other hand, all metallic oxides have the property of uniting 
 with animal substances; and these diliercnt compounds maybe 
 formed by mixing an alkali saturated with an animal substance, 
 with metallic aoh'.tions. It is not surprising, therefore, that me- 
 tallic oxides .-.hould serve as a bond of union between the colour- 
 ing particles and animal substances; but, besides the attraction of 
 the oxides for tlie colouring particles, and for animal substances, 
 their solutions in acids possess qualities which render them more 
 or less lit to act as mordants: thus, those oxides which easily part 
 with their acids, such as that of tin, are capable of combining with 
 animal substances, without the aid of colouring particles ; it is suf- 
 ficient to impregnate the wool or the silk with a solution of tin, 
 although they be afterwards carefully washed, which is not the 
 case with other metallic solutions. Some metallic substances 
 afford, in combination, only a white and colourle s basis; and 
 some bv the admixture of their own colour, modify that which is 
 proper to the colouring particles; but in many metallic oxides, 
 the colour varies according to the proportion ot oxygen they con- 
 tain, and the proportion of this is easily liable to change. Upon 
 these circumstances their properties in dyeing chiefly depend. 
 The greater or less dispo^itloll of the stufT to unite with the colour- 
 ing particles, must frequently occasion considerable differences in 
 the mode of emplojing the mordant : thus, wdien this disposition 
 is strong, the mordant may be mixed with the colouring sub- 
 stance; the compound then formed unites with the stuff immedi- 
 ately : but if it be weak, the compound formed by the colouring 
 particles, and the substance employed as an intermedium, may se- 
 parate, and be precipitated, before it can be attached to the stufT. 
 To prevent this inconvenience, we must begin by attaching to the 
 stuff the substance which is to serve as the medium of union, be- 
 tween it and the colouring particles. But to judge of the effects 
 of mordants, and of the most advantageous manner of employing 
 them, we must pay attention, first, to the combinations which may 
 be produced, either by the action of the sub>tances which com- 
 pose them, or by that of the colouring particles and the stufT; 
 2dlv, to the circumstances which may concur in bringing about 
 these combinations more or less quickly, or in rendering thenj 
 more or less complete; 3dly, to the action that the liquor in which 
 the stuff is immersed mav have, either on its colour or texture; 
 and in order to foresee w Iiat that action may be, it is necessary ta 
 know the proportions of the principles, w hieh enter into the com- 
 position of the mordant, and what will be left in an uncombined 
 state in the fluids. 
 
 Of the Action of different Substances on Colours. 
 
 The colouring particles have been hitherto considered only as 
 substances capable of forming difi'erent combinations, by which 
 iheir properties are modified; but they may be altered in their 
 composition, either by other external agents, or by the substance 
 witli which thev unite. We shall begin with an examination of 
 the changes produced by external agents, because they are more 
 easily ascertained. The stability of a colour consists in its power 
 of resisting the action of vegetable acids, alkalies, soap, and more 
 especially that of the air or light ; but this power varies exceed* 
 iiigly, according to the nature of the colour and the species of the 
 stuff; for the same durability is not required in the colours of silk 
 as in those of wool. There is not much obscurity in the action of 
 wafer, acids, alkalies, or soap : it is a solution brought about by 
 these agents; and it appears that a small quantity of acid, or of al- 
 kali, sometiuies unites with the compound which gives the co- 
 lour ; because the colour is not destroyed, but only changed, and 
 
 may
 
 DYEING. 
 
 21. 
 
 liiav 1)6 rcstorcil by taking away ibis acid, e. g. by chalk and ain- 
 moiiiac, or volatile alkali. But lliis is not tlie case with iL-sptxt to 
 tiie action of air and liplit. Tlif action of the air on colouring 
 matter is derived principally from the oxygen contained in the 
 atmosphere. M. Berlholiet observes, that the air combining with 
 them, renders litem weaker and paler, and by degrees occasions a 
 slight combustion, by nicins of which the hydrogen which entered 
 into their composition is destroyed ; they cliange to a yellow, red, 
 or fawn colour ; their attraction for the'sttiif seems to diminish; 
 they separate from it, and are carrii-d off by water : all these ef- 
 fects vary, and take place more or less readily, and more or less 
 completely, according to the nature of the colouring particles; or 
 rather, from the nature of the properties which they possess, in the 
 State of conibiiiation into which they have gone. '1 he alterations 
 which occur in the colours, produced the union of the colourmg 
 particles with metallic oxides, are eli'ects compounded of the 
 clumge which takes place in the colouring particles, and of that 
 which is undergone by the metallic oxide. The light of the sun 
 considerably accelerates the distuK tion of colours. It ought, 
 therefore, if this theory be well Ibunded, to favour the combina- 
 tion of oxygen, and tlie combustion thereby induced. M. Sen- 
 iiebicr, who has given inany interesting observations on the effects 
 of light on dirterent substances, and particularly on their colours, 
 attributes these eti'ects to a direct conibniatioti of light with thi- 
 substanccs. And the ellects of light on the colour of wood have 
 long ago been noticed ; it preserves its natural appearance while 
 kept in the dark, but when ever it is exposed to the li'-'ht, it be- 
 comes yellow, brown, or of other shades. M. Sennebier has 
 remarked the varieties which occur in this particular, in diiferent 
 kinds of wood, and has found that the changes are proportioned to 
 the brightness of the light, and that they take place even under 
 water, but that wetted wood underwent th se changes less quickly 
 than that which was dry; that several folds ot ribband were re- 
 tpiired to delend the wood completely, tliat a single leaf of black 
 paper was sufticient, but that when paper of any other colour was 
 substituted, the change was not prevented ; a single covering ol 
 white paper was insufficient, but two intercepted the action of the 
 rays of light. M. Sennebier has also extended his experiments 
 to a great number of vegetable substances, in a manner that may 
 serve to illustrate diiferent phenomena of vegetation, li a well 
 made solution of the green parts of vegetables in alcohol, which 
 has a line green colour, be exposed to the liglit of llie Mn, it very 
 soon acquires an olive hue, and loses its colour in a few minutes. 
 If the light be weak, the elf'ect is much more slow ; and in perlect 
 darkness, the colour remains without alteration, or if anv change 
 does take place, it requires a great length of time. An alkali re- 
 stores the green colour ; l>ut if the change of colour in the liquor 
 has been completed, the alkali has no efiect. No change of colour 
 takesplace in azotic gas, nor in a botllewhich is exactly full. A bot- 
 tle half full of this green solution was inverted over mercury, by 
 M.BerthoUet, and exposed to the light of the sun ; when the colour 
 was discharged, the mercury was found to have risen in the bottle, 
 and consequently oxygen had been absorbed, having united with 
 the colouring matter. Light, therefore, acts by favouring the ab- 
 sorption of oxygen, and the combustion of the colouring matter; 
 at tirst, the marks of combustion are not evident; the liquor re- 
 tains only a slight yellow tinge; but by the assistance of heat, the 
 combustion is completed, the liquor becomes brown, and leaves a 
 black risiduum. if the vessel which holds the li(|Uor contain no 
 oxygenous gas, the light has no effect on tin; colouring matter; 
 azotic gas in this situation does not sutler any diminution. The 
 observation, that ribbands, or a single leaf of white paper, do not 
 prevent the action of light, deserves attention, as it shews that 
 light can pass through coverings which appear to be opake, and 
 exert its force at some way within. Beccaria ar\d Sennebier have 
 compared the affects of light on ribbands of various colours ; but 
 the differences they have observed are rather to be attributed to 
 the nature ot the colouring matters than to the colours ; for a rib- 
 band dyed with Brasil wood will lose its colour much sooner than 
 one dyed with cochineal, though the shade should be exactly the 
 same in each. On the whole,' it is evident that colouring sub- 
 stances resist the action of the air more or less, according as thev 
 are more or less disposed to unite with oxygen, and thereby to 
 suffer more or less quickly a smaller or greater degree of combus- 
 tion. Light favours this effect, which in many cases is not pro- 
 Uu'ced without its assistance ; but the colouring matter, in its sepa- 
 
 VOL, II. — NO. 69. 
 
 rale state, is much more prone to this combustion than when 
 united to a substance, such as alumine, which may either defend it 
 by its own power of resisting combustion, or by attracting it 
 strongly, weaken its action on other substances, which is the chief 
 elfect of mordants. This last coinpound acquires still greater du- , 
 rability, when it is capable of combining intimately with the stuff 
 upon which it is deposited. Thus the colouring matter of cochi- 
 neal dissolves easily in water, and its colour is quickly changed hy 
 the air; but when united to the oxide of tin, it becomes" much 
 brighter, and almost insoluble in water, though it is still easily 
 affected by the air, and by oxygenated muriatic acid ; it resists the 
 action of these better, however, whnn it has formcil a triple com- 
 pound with a woollen stuff. But still it must not be inferred, that 
 all yellow colours are owing to the carbonic part of the colouring 
 substance ; very diiferent coni|)ounds are capable of producing the 
 same colour ; thus, indigo is very diiferent from tlie blue of our 
 flowers, from that of oxide of copper, and from th.it of Prussian 
 blue. 
 
 , Of Astringents. 
 
 Astringents deserve particular attention, nut only from their 
 great use in dyeing, but as possessing a property common to many 
 vegetables. Our itleas respecting tiiis jjroperty have been ex- 
 tremely vague ; some tlight resemblance in taste has frequently 
 been the only circumstance attended to, and, under the name of 
 astringents, alum, as well as many vegetables of very different 
 properties, have been confounded together in the arts, as well as 
 m medicine. Almost every substance, which renders a solution 
 of iron black, has been considered as astringent. This effect has 
 been supposed to be owing to one identical princl|)le, existing in 
 all the substances which produce it, and on which the title astrin- 
 gent has been bestowed. It is still considered r.s a parlicuiar acid, 
 to whieli the name ot gallic acid is given, from gall:., in which it 
 is found to be predominant. The gall-nut is an excrescence 
 found on the young branches of the oak, and produced by the 
 puncture of an insect. ]>ifferent kinds of the gall-nut are met 
 witli, sone inclining to white, yellow, green, brown, or red ; others 
 ash-coloured or blackish. They also difier greativ in magnitude, 
 and are either round or irregular, heavy or light, smooth or cover- 
 ed with protuberances. Those which are small, blackish, knotted, 
 and heavy, are the best ; and are known by the name of Aleppo 
 galls. 'I liese astringent substances are almost totally soluble in 
 svater by long ebullition. Sixteen drams afforded Neumann four- 
 teen of extract ; from the remaining tv.o drains, only four grair.s 
 could be abstracted by alcol-.ol. And the same quantity treated 
 hrst with alcohol, and then with water, alforded twelve drams and 
 two scrii pules of spirit nous extract,and four scruples of watery extract; 
 the residuum weighed half a scruple more than the preceding ex- 
 periment. In the spirituous extract the taste is more strong and 
 disagreeable than in the watery extract. If the astringent pro- 
 perty were owing to an individual principle, which was always the 
 same, distributed in different vegetables, the precipitates obtained 
 by their means, from a solution of iron, would constantly form the 
 same compounds, andexhibitthe same appearances and jiroperties; 
 but the precipitate produced by galls is of a blackish blue ; that 
 by logwood has a different shade of blue ; that by oak is of a fawn 
 colour, or blackish brown; that by quinquina a blackish green. They 
 fall down with different attendant circumstances, and when fixed 
 on stuffs, are discharged by alum and tartar, some much more 
 easily than others; and probably, by multiplying experiments, 
 many other reniarkable dill'erences may be discovered in the pro- 
 perties of these different precipitates. Astringents formvith iron 
 dih'erent species of compounds, and consequently do not derive 
 their properties from one principle ; but there mu't be a property 
 common to diiferent sub-tance^, to enable (hem to act in an uni- 
 form manner on solutions of iron, and to produce precipitates 
 more or less black, and thus appearing of the same nature, and 
 this common iiroperty is called the astringent principle. But, 
 notwithstanding chemists have considered the astringent principle 
 as always the same, experience has taught us, that all astringent 
 substances were not equally i)roper for |)ro(hicing a heautit'ul and 
 durable black : it is of importance to iletermiiie w liich ol them 
 may be employed with the greatest success: it i<, however, very 
 difficult to make comparative experiments on this subject with 
 perfect accuracy, because some substani es require much longer 
 boiling than others to extract their astringcncy; because a diifer- 
 3 I ' ence
 
 2U1 
 
 DYEING. 
 
 eiu-e 111 Iheii' coar^eiK'S> or liiiL-ness, wliL'ii siihjectfd to ebullition, is 
 sulticieiit to produce difrereiicL-s in the results ; and because the co- 
 louriug particles have a nreater or less disposition to conibuie with 
 the stutl', according to tlie proportion ol sulphate of iron that has 
 been made use ot. Solutions of iron in dilt'erent acids may pro- 
 duce dilfcrences in the results, according to the state of oxygena- 
 tion of the iron in them, accordinsr as the proportion of that metal 
 is greater or less, and according to the strong or weak action, 
 which the different acids, when tlisengaged, are capable of exert- 
 ing on the newly formed compound. And, in the dyeing of a 
 stuff, considerable alterations may arise from its greater or less at- 
 traction tor the colouring particles. Wc shall now consider the 
 astringent principle in regard to its property of combining with 
 vegetable and animal substances, particularly the latter, bilk ac- 
 fpiires by galling, which is an operation th.at consists in macerat- 
 ing a stuff in a <lecoction of some astringent substance, a weight 
 wliich cannot betaken from it, or diminished beyond a certain de- 
 gree by repeated washing ; after which operation, the stuff, when 
 put into a Sijiulion of iron, is dyed black, because the astringent 
 principle, decomposing the sulphate of iron, forms a triple com- 
 pound with the oxide of iron and the stuff which is dyed. A gall- 
 stull'ed is likewise capable of coniliiningwith other colouring parti- 
 cles, the colours of which acquire fixity, if they do not naturally pos- 
 sess it ; so that the astringent communicates its duraliility to the 
 triple compound, or perhaps the more complex one which is 
 formed ; but bv this union llie colour generally becomes of a 
 deeper shade. The astringent |)rinciple, by combining with ani- 
 mal substances, renders tliein incapable of corruption, and tends 
 to render their texture more compact ; and in tliis the art of tan- 
 ning consists. To account for the colours, wliicli proceed from 
 the' union of the colouring particles with the basis which a mor- 
 dant gives Iheni, we must attend to the proportion in which the 
 colouring particles unite to tliat basis: thus the solution of tin, 
 wliich produces a very copious iirecipitate with a solution of co- 
 louring particles, and which thereby proves that the oxide of tin 
 enters in a large proportion into the precipitate, has a much greater 
 inUiicnce on l!ie colour of tlie precipitate, by the whiteness of its 
 basis, than the solution of zinc, or that of allum, which geiu>raily 
 produce much less copious precipitates. The precipitates pro- 
 duced bv these two last substances retain very nearly tlie natural 
 tint which the colouring particles afforded. It is, therefore, ne- 
 c'l'ssary to distinguish, in the action of mordants, the combina- 
 tions tliat mav take pl,:ce by their means, between the colouring 
 particles, tlie stuff, and the intermedium; the proportions of the 
 colouring substances and intermedium ; the modilication^ of co- 
 lour, whic'ii may arise from the mixture of tire colour of the co- 
 louring particles, and of that of tlie basis to which they are united; 
 and the changes whicli tlie colouring particles may suller, from the 
 combustion tiial may be produced by the substance that is eni- 
 ploved as an intermedium. It is evident also, that astringents ilo 
 notilerive their characteristic property from an acid, or from any 
 other individual and uniform [irinciple, but from the property 
 which they jiossess, of uniting with the oxide of iron, of reducing 
 it to the statit of a black oxide, and of aci|uiriiig themselves a dark 
 colour, by the combustion they thereby experience. Galls rea- 
 dily undergo a slight combustion, which gives them a deep brown 
 colour; but this combustion, which requires but a small ciuantity 
 of oxygen, soon ceases without their properties being in any degree 
 injured. But galls owe their stability to tlie large proportion of 
 charcoal they contain; and as they have the property of combin- 
 ing with some vegetable sulistances, with several colouring mat- 
 ters, and particularly with animal substances, they serve as inter- 
 media for them, and impart to them that stability which they pos- 
 sess in so very high a degree. In the opinion of Dr. liancroft, an 
 able writer on d_\eing, M. Berthollet, in ascribing the decays of 
 ■vegetable and animal colouring matters in general, to elfects or 
 changes similar to those of combustion, has gone much further 
 than is warrantable by facts. It cannot, he thinks, be his inten- 
 tion, that we should apply the term of combustion to alterations 
 which result from a simple addition of oxygen, to colouring mat- 
 tes, without a destruction or separation of any of their coni])onent 
 parts; though many of the decays and extinctions of these colours 
 evidently arise only from such simple additions of oxygen. The 
 nitric, sulphuric, and other acids, containing oxygen, have the 
 power not only of weakening, but of extinguishing, for a time, the 
 syloius of many luiijent matters ; wot b) any effect which can 
 
 properly be denominated a combustion, but n.ther by a change in 
 their several attractions for particular rays of light; but none of 
 their parts being destroyed, or cairied away, tiie addition of an 
 alkali, or ot calcareous carbonate, will generally undo such altera- 
 tion, and restore the original colour, by decomposing and neutra- 
 lizing the acid or oxygen, which liad caused the alteration. Dr. 
 Bancroft also observes, that until further discoveries shall have 
 been made, we are only authorised to conclude, that the perma- 
 nent colours of natural bodies do not depend upon their thick- 
 nesses, sizes, or the densities of their several parts or particles, but 
 upon certain affinities or attractions (chemical or physical) by 
 which they are disposed to absorb and conceal some of the rays of 
 light, and to reflect or transmit other rays, giving the sensations or 
 perceptions of their respective colours; that the contact of light 
 greatly contributes towards producing these aflinities or attrac- 
 tions; but it only does this (as far as we yet know) either by prc- 
 nioting a combin.ition or a separation of the basis of vital air'in the 
 different coloured or colouring substances. But though most cf 
 the changes of colour, in pennaiienlly coloured bodies, evidently 
 de|)end on changes in their respective portions of oxygen, lie ij 
 far fiom thinking that tiiis cause operates exclusively in all case-, 
 or that chemical knowledge is yet far enough advanced, to juslitv 
 even an attempt towards a complete hypothesis respecting ihr^ 
 most abstruse and most interesting phaniomena. It iray not be 
 improper here to add that the most pei mant dyes we have, ;;ie 
 cochineal and gum-lac, for line red and scarlet colours; indii;j 
 'and woad, for blue; and, when mixed with different propoitions 
 of cochineal, or gem-lac, for purple and violet colours. Dyer^- 
 weed, and some other vegetables, for yellow; and madder tor 
 coarse reds, purples, and blacks. The fading colours are far more 
 numerous and include Brazil-wood, log-wood, red-wood, fustic, 
 turmeric root, anotto, archil, Sec. For further information on the 
 tl'.cory of dyeing we refer to the works of the authors above-men- 
 tioned, and |iarticulariy to BerthoUet's treatise, as being the mo-t 
 complete one as y et offeied to the public on this suijject. 
 
 Oi THE Practice of Dyeing. 
 
 The whole of the operative part of dyeing depends on the ap- 
 plication of certain colours, which the workmen call primitive, 
 and which are five in number, namely, blue, red, yellow, lawn, or 
 root-colour, and black. Each of these furnishes a variety of in- 
 termediate shades, both according to the nature of the ingredient-, 
 and the acid or alkaline substances with whicli they are mixed. 
 Two only of these live colours, should be jirepaied with ingre- 
 dients producing no colour of themselves : but which, by tlu'ir 
 peculiar acidity, and the fineness of the earth they contain, dispose 
 the pores of the substance to receive the dye. The colours 
 which more particularly recpiire such auxiliary process, are red 
 and yellow, together with those derived from them. Black is ob- 
 tained by a particular preparation ; but blue and fawn colour re- 
 (piire none, at least for wool ; it being only necessary to scour 
 and soak this sub>tance well; then to ininiersc it in the dyeing vat, 
 stirring it well about, and permitting it to remain for a longer or 
 shorter time, in proportion as the colour is intended to be more 
 or less deej). '1 he ingredients used in dyeing blue consist of pas- 
 tel, woad, and indigo. 
 
 I. Pastel, llsatis TinclnrUi,'] is prepared by g.ithcring it when 
 ripe, suffering it to rot, and then working it up into balls for dry- 
 ing ; which weigh in general from 150 to COO ])ounds, and resem- 
 ble a collection of small dry lumps of earth, intermixed witli the 
 fibres of plants. In order to extract the colour, it is mcessarv to 
 provide large wooden vats, from li' to It) feet in diameter, and 6 
 or 7 feet high, or ofa magnitude proportioned to tlie quantity in- 
 tended to be used. The preparation of the blue-vat is the "most 
 ditlicult process in the art of dyeing; and llie practical directions 
 given by those who understand it, are either defective, or mis-stat- 
 ed. The copper-cauldron should be placed as near to the vat as 
 possible, and filled with pond-water: to which, if it be not suf- 
 iiciently putrid, may be added two or three pounds of hay, toge- 
 ther with eight pounds of brown madder, or of the b.ivk of tlie 
 root. The fire should be lighted about three o'clock in the morn- 
 ing, and the mixture boil for an hour and a half, or two hours, 
 when tiK' liquor is, by means ofa spout conveyed into the vat, in 
 w liich a peck of wheaten bran is previously infused. The pastel- 
 balls are next to be put in, si-parately, while the liipior is running 
 into the vat, in order that they may be the more easily broken 
 
 8 ■ and
 
 DYEING. 
 
 215 
 
 and stirred with tho ruke, wliitli is a semi-circular woodfii instru- 
 ment, having a huig haiulle. The mixture is occasionally agi- 
 tated, till llie vat has received all the hot liquor; and, as soon as 
 the vessel is nearly half full, it should be covered with a lid, some- 
 what larger than its own circumference. A clolh should be like- 
 wise thrown over it, in order to confine the heal ; after which the 
 whole shoulil be s\nlered to subside for four hours ; when it ought 
 to be uncovered, in order to tdve it air, and to mix il lhorou!;hly. 
 No lime, as is generally though falsely directed by dyers, should 
 be put into the vat, but a small air-hole left on the top : the stirr- 
 ing and agitation may once more be repeated, at the expiration of 
 three or lour hours. If the ingredients, after these operations, be 
 not yet ready and come to, that is, if the blue does not rise to the 
 surface, but continues to foam, it will then be necessary, after 
 working the mixuire well, to let it stand an hour and a half longer ; 
 care being lakei! during that time to observe it minutely, in case 
 it should cast bije. The vat is then to be tilled up with Wnter, 
 and a sutVicient quanlity of indigo, dissolved in a ley of pot-ash, 
 pure water, br.m and madder. 'I'he vat being again covered, at 
 the end of three hours a pattern is to be immersed in the liquor 
 for a similar sjwce of time, when it is to be taken out, to inspect 
 the state of the vat. This pattern, when first taken out, should 
 be of a green colour, but instantly turn blue; if the green be 
 bright and good, the vat is lo be stirred again, and then covered 
 up, with the addition of a lew handfuls of bran. Three hours af- 
 ter, the same operation is to be repeated, with the addition of more 
 bran, if necessary, when it is to be covered up for an hour and a 
 half longer ; and, as soon as it subsides, another specimen is to be 
 immersed in it for an hour, when itnnisl be examined, to ascer- 
 tain the state of the pastel. If the former be of a good green, 
 when taken out, and turn suddenly to a deep blue, on being ex- 
 posed to the air, another pattern is to he put in, to discover the 
 effect of the vat ; which, if the colour be sufliciently high, is to be 
 iilled with hot water, or (which is preferable, if it can be procured) 
 with the lic|Uor of an old mad>!er-vat, and then stirred again. Now 
 the vat is to be once more covered for an hour ; after which the 
 *tufl"s to l>e (h ed should be immersed. 
 
 VVoAD is the next article in the making of a blue colour: the 
 mode of preparing it difli,'!^ in no respect from the preceding one, 
 just described, excepting that it is weaker, and yields less co- 
 lour. 
 
 Indigo is the last ingredient in dyeing blues. The vat is about 
 S feet high, 2 feet in diameter, and somewhat narrower towards 
 the bottom, being surroimded by a wall, and having a vacancy 
 for the embei's. A vat of this size requires fron\ i.' lo j, or eviii 
 6lbs. of indigo ; and this operation is conducted as follows: 1. 
 About Ij gallons of river water are put into a copper to boil for 
 about halt an hour, together v\ith lilbs. of pot-ash, 2 oz. of madder, 
 and a handiul of bran. 'J. Immerse L'Ibs. of indigo in a pail of 
 cold water, in order to separate the solid from the volatile parti- 
 cles, which will immediately rise to the surface. The watery 
 litiuor is then poured otT", and the indigo, settled at the bottom of 
 the pail, should be triturated in an iron mortar, with the addition 
 of a small quantity of hot water, that ought to be shaken from side 
 to side ; and the floating particles of indigo, w hich are those most 
 linely pounded, must be poured into another vessel. In this 
 manlier, the in'.ligo remaining in tlie niorlar is continually reduc- 
 ed, hesh water being repeatedly c;!ded, till the whole is pulver- 
 ized so tiuely as to rise to the surt'ace. The liquor wliich had, 
 during the above stated preparation, been boiling in the copper, 
 is now poured into the vat, together with Ihe indiiin, when the 
 whole is well stirred with a rake, the vat closely covered, and 
 surrounded with embers. If this o|)eration commence in the af- 
 ternoon, the embers must be renewed in the evening, and also in 
 the morning and evening of the following dav, in the course of 
 which it should be twice gently 'Stirred. Similar measures ought 
 to be pursued on the third day, in order to preserve an uniform 
 lieat, and inlimatety mix the ingredients. A brassy scum will 
 then be perceived to rise to the surface, in several detached parts : 
 by conlinuinj the heat on the fcurlh day, thescum becomes more 
 coherent ; and the IroUi, occasioned by stirring the liquor, appears 
 blue, while the latter is of a <leep green. As soon as it as?unies 
 this appearance, the vat should be tilled, for which purpose a freh 
 liquor must be j)repared, byputtingj gallons of water into a cop- 
 per, together with a pound cf pot-ash, and half an oz. of madder. 
 
 Wlicn these ingredients have boiled halt an hour, the decoction 
 is poured into the vat, the whole well stirred, and if it produce 
 much froth, it will be in a proper stale for working the next day. 
 i his may likewise be ascertained by tho brassy or S(,aly crust, 
 which lloals on tiie surface of the liquor ; ami, farther, if on blow- 
 ing, or stirring, the latter with the hand, it assume a deep gi-ecit 
 colour, while the surface appears of a broivnish blue. After the 
 vats have been thus prepared, the dyeing of woollen or silken 
 stufis is very easy ; no other process being required, than immers- 
 ing th.ein in warm water, wringing, and then steeping thein in the 
 vat for a longer or shorter time, according to the deepness of the 
 colour intended to be imparled. The stulTs should be occi\sion- 
 ally opened, that is, taken out ot the vat, wrung over it, and expos- 
 ed to the air for a miinite or two, till it become blue: for it must 
 be observed, that, in all the solutions of indigo, or other dyeing 
 materials above described, the blue colour is i)roduced only by 
 exposure to the air, and the stuti', on being lirst drawn out of the 
 liquor, always appears green, and will retain that tinge, unless it 
 be exposed to the air. In dyeing blue, therefore, it is necessary 
 to let the colour thus change previously to a second immei'sion, 
 that the shade may be the better distinguished, as dark blues re- 
 quire to be repeatedly dipped. The inetliod of dyeing cotton or 
 linen blue, varies so little from that already described, as to render 
 any farther directions unnec essary. When silk is to be dyed blue, 
 there is generally a greater portion of indigo added. 
 
 I'or the TuRKKY Blue, which is the deepest, a very strong 
 archil bath is hrsl given ; and for the Ro val Blue, one of" the same 
 kind, but weaker. Other blues are dvetl witliout anv ground be- 
 ing previously given. There is however a blue made as Jeep a* 
 tUe royal blue, for the ground of which cochineal is used instead 
 of arctiil, in order to render it more permanent, whence the title 
 bleu iin has been given it. A blue of little durability may be 
 given to silk by means of vcrdegris and logwood ; but it might be 
 made more lasting, by lirst giving it a lighter shade than is intend- 
 ed in a balii of this kind, afterwards dipping it in an archil bath, 
 and in the vat after that. 
 
 When Raw Silk is to be dyed blue, that should be cho?en 
 which is naturally white. It should be thoroughly so.iked in wa- 
 ter, and afterwards put into the vat in separate liajiks, in the same 
 manner as the ^coureil silk. In general, raw silk takes the dye 
 more readily, and, if possible, the scoured silk is put into the vat 
 before it. If raw silk require arcl il, or the otiicr ingredients 
 abovementioned, it is to be treated in the same manner already 
 described. 
 
 i?. The next of the primitive colours lobe considered is Red, 
 of which there arc many shades and varieties ; but the principal 
 are scarlet, crimson, and madder-red. The process to be ad.oplcd 
 for obtaining these colours, essentially dillers from that of bli;cs; 
 as the former require a peculiar preparation of the stuffs lo be 
 dved, on t'.ie exactness of which, the goodness of the colour in a 
 great measure depends. These preparatory ingredients consist of 
 alum, tartar, aquafortis, or a solution of tin in this acid. Galls 
 and alkaline salts are also sometimes added, though they do not ma- 
 terially contribute to the colour. There are three kimls of scarlet, 
 nanielv, those dyed with kermes, with cochineal, and with guin- 
 lac. The lirst of these, called Venetian scarlet, is thi' mo^t peyni;.- 
 nent, but the least bright ; it is al-o apt to be IcsS spotted than th« 
 others; but on account of the diliiculty of procuring the insects 
 which afiord the colour, it is very >eldom, if ever, used in this 
 countrv. The second kind of sc.-rlet, namely, that dyed with 
 cochineal, is less permanent th.m tlie \'enetian scarlet, though the 
 drug is procured at a more re;ison;;ble price. It is, however, 
 verv difiicult to dye the true cochiiieal scarlet: the success of thi? 
 operation equallv depends upon the clioice of the mati-rial, the 
 water eniployed, and the melliod of prej.aring a solution of lr«, 
 which is the only ingredient bywhicli that delicate colour c;ui be 
 produced. To eight ounces of spirit of nitre an ei]ual ([uantily of 
 river-water is to be added ; in this mixture are to be gr.idually 
 dissolved half an ounce of the purest and whitest sal-annuoniac, 
 and two drams of purified salt-potre. An ounce of tin, reduced to 
 grains I'V being dropped into cold water while melting, is next 
 to be adtled drop by drop to Ihe liquor thus prepared ; the fust 
 beina: perfectly dissolved before a second i'. introduced. The so- 
 lution resembles that of gold, and, if line tin be employed, wil^ 
 be perfectly transparent, without an v dust or sediment. ^^ itli 
 
 thii
 
 216 
 
 DYEING. 
 
 tliis liquor are to be iiiixeil such proportions of cochineal as may 
 be thought proper, and the stulls dycil in (ho colour will acquire a 
 most beautiful scarlet. The scarlet prodiicecl by sum la<-". though 
 not so bright as cochineal, is more perivianent ; the best lac is that 
 which is of a blackish brown colour on the outside, and wliite 
 vithiu. The process of preparing this colouris very difficult; but 
 the best method, we believe, is that of previously mixing tlie gum 
 with comfrey, or other mucilaginous roots. These should be 
 dried, iinely'pulverized, afterwards boiled for fifteen minutes in 
 the proportion of half a dram to a quart of water, then ^trained 
 throHgii a linen cloth while hot, poured upon levigated gum-lac, 
 and passed through a hair seive. The whole is then digested in a 
 moderate heat fur twelve hours ; :;nd the gum remaining at the 
 bottom should be stirred seven or eight times. The licjuor thus 
 impregnated with a line crimson colour, is afterwards poured into 
 a vessel, sufficiently capacious to liold four times the quantity, 
 and filled up with cold water. On adding a small proportion of a 
 strong solution of alum, the coloured mucilage subsides; and, 
 should any tinge remain in the liquor ; it may be precipated by 
 gradual additions of alum, till it become perfectly colourless. As 
 soon as the crimson mucilage has entirely subsided, the clear water 
 must be carefully decanted, the remainder filtered, and the fluid 
 parts suffered to evaporate. If the whole of the colour should not 
 W extracted by the tirst operation, it ought to be reijcated, till 
 t!ie rc-idumn changes to a pale straw-colour. lu order to dye 
 scarU't with this extract of gum-lac, the requisite proportion of the 
 latter dried and pulverized, is to be put into an earthen or block- 
 tin vessel ; a little hot vi-ater poured upon it ; and, when it is well 
 liioi^ened, a proper quantity of the composition added; the 
 whole being stirred with a gl.L^s pestle. J5y this means the pow- 
 der, which before was of a dark, dusky, purple, acquire-; an ex- 
 ceedingly bright scarlet colour. A solution of the crystals of tar- 
 tar is tlien to be poured into the liquor, and as soon as it begins to 
 boil, the cloth is to be repeatedly immersed in it, according to the 
 eomnion method. The remainder of the operation is to be per- 
 formed in the samemaniier as if cocliineal had been employed. 
 
 • Crimson is the colour produced by cocliineal, with alum and 
 tartar only, Without any solution of tin. Forthis dye, two ounces 
 and a half of alum, v.itli an onnce and a half of white tartar, are 
 to be taken, for every jjoundof wool ; and being put into a caul- 
 dron with a proper quantity of water, the solution should boil he- 
 fore the stuff is dipped. The wool is then immersed into the boil- 
 ing liquor, where it continues two hours; after which it is to be 
 taken out, wrung gently, rinsed in water, and put into a bag. A 
 freslUiquor is next prepared for the dye, in which an ounce of 
 linely-powdered cocliineal is used for every pound of w oo! : when 
 thisdecoction boils, the stuff is immersed, and managed in the man- 
 ner already directed for scarlet. For producing the finest crimson 
 dye, however, thew-ool is again to be dijipeil in a weak lixivium, 
 made of equal parts of sal-ammoniac and pearl ashes. The prepara- 
 tion of the ingredients for madder-red is always with alum and tar- 
 tar, the proportions of w hich are by no means ascertained even by 
 dvers. The more general practice is, to put 5 ounces of alum 
 and one of red tartar to every pound of worsted, a twelfth part of 
 acid water being likewise added, and the wool boiled for two 
 hours in tliis solution, in which worsted i> to be kept for a week ; 
 but cloth will be sufficiently saturated in four days. Afresh li- 
 quor is then prepared for dying this wool ; and wh.en the water is 
 iiearlv boiling, half a pound of the finest madder is to be thrown 
 in for every pound of wool ; being carefully stirred and well- 
 mixed in the copper, previously to immersing the stuff, which is 
 to be kept in the litpior for an hour ; during which the latter must 
 not boil, lest it should tarnish the colour. 
 
 The third primitive colour is Yellow, for obtaining which there 
 are ten different ingredients ; but four of these only yield a good 
 and permanent dye, namely, dyers'-weed, or, as the dyers call it, 
 weld, savory, dyers', green-weed, and fenu-greek. The first of 
 these, namely, weld, in general affords the truest -^'ellow, and is 
 therefore preferred to all the others. Savory and dyers' green- 
 weed, being naturally somewhat green, are more advantageously 
 employed for dyeing that colour ; and the last yields different 
 shades "of yellow. In order to dye worsted and stuffs yellow, they 
 undergo the usual preparation with tartar and alum, of tlie latter 
 *4 ounces are allowed to every pound of wool, or 251bs. to every 
 1 00 ; of the former, one ounce is sufficient for yellow ; after dis- 
 
 solving both, the wool is boiled in the fame manner as in the pre- 
 ceding colour. A fre--h litpior is next to be made for the welding 
 or yellowing, in the proportion of 6 or 6lbs. of dyers'-weed to 
 eveiy pound ofstulf. Some inclose the drug in a clean woollen 
 bag, to prevent it from mixing with tlie cloth to be dyed ; and, in 
 order to keep tiie bag down in thecoppi-r, they lay across of heavy 
 wood over it. Others boil the weld in the liquor, till the water 
 has imbibed all its colour, and the drug sinks to the bottom, 
 when the stuff is suspended in a net; others, again, take the weUl 
 out, as soon as it is boiled. According to tlie shade required, other 
 yegetai)les are occasionally mixed with that drug. By varying 
 the proportions of the salts employe<l, as well as the quantity of 
 colouring ingredients, and the time of boiling, different shades 
 may be produced. 
 
 The fourlh primitive colour is that denominated by dyers, the 
 Fawx, or root colour. It is a kind of brown, and the process 
 for dyeing it is widely different from those just described ; the 
 wool merely reciuiring a simple immersion in water, as already di- 
 rected for blue. 'l"he materials employed consist of the green 
 shell oftlic walnut, the root of the walnut tree, the bark of alder, 
 santal cr saunders-wood, sumach, and soot. The green walnut- 
 shells are collected, when the nuts are thoroughly ripe ; they are 
 put info lubsor casks, which are afterwards filled with water, and 
 are thus preserved till the succeeding year. Saulal, or saunders- 
 wood, is niucii inferior to walnnt-shelis ; because, if used in too 
 large a quantity, it stilfens, and consequcntiy injures the wool. It 
 is in general mixed with galls, sumach, and alder-bark, without 
 which its colour could not be extracted : and though it yields very 
 little with alum and tartar, it is nevertheless used in large quanti- 
 ties, on account of the solidity of its colour, which is naturally a 
 yellow- reddish brown. I'he best of the different ingredients em- 
 ployed in dyeing fawn-colours, is the bark or rind ot the wahuit- 
 tree. Its shades are uncommonly fine; its colours solid ; and it 
 renders the wool dyed in it flexible and soft. A cauldron half 
 full of water is placed over tlie fire ; and as soon as it grows warm, 
 bark is added in pro|)ortion to the (|ucntity of stuii's intended to be 
 dyed, and the lightness or depth ot the shades required. It is then 
 boiled for about a quarter of an hour, when the cloths, being pre- 
 viously moistened with warm water, are immersed, frequently 
 turned, and well stirred, till they have sufficiently imbibed the 
 colour. They are aired, dried, and dressed in the usual manner. 
 Next to the rind or bark, the root of the walnut-tree is the best 
 dye for a fawn-colour : it also affords a variety of shades, similar 
 to those produced by the bark, for which it is frequently substi- 
 tuted, 'i'lie root, however, requires a different process: a caulr 
 dron is filled about three parts full of river-water, into wliich the 
 root is immersed, after being tied up in a bag. M'lien the liquor 
 is very hot, the wool or f tuff is plunged into it, repeatedly turned, 
 and occasionally aired. The lighter stuffs are next to be dipped, 
 till the colour, is completely extracted. During this operation, 
 proper care should be taken to prevent the liquor from boiling, as 
 in such case the first immersed would imbibe the w hole of the co- 
 lour. The process of dyeing with the bark of alder, is nearly the 
 sam.c as that pursued with walnut-roots : the boiling of it is at first 
 not very material, as this drug very freely communicates its co- 
 lour. It is chiefly used fur worsted, imparting shades darkened 
 with copperas ; and for wool that is not required to be very dark, 
 •as it equally withstands the elTects of the sun and rain. Sumach 
 possesses nearly the same properties as the bark or rind of the wal- 
 nut-tree ; its colour is not so deep, somewdiat inclining to green, 
 but is solid and permanent. Where dark colours are required, 
 sumach is frequently substituted for nut-galls, in which case a 
 greater proportion becomes necessary. These different sub- 
 stances, however, are net unfi-equently mingled together, and, as 
 they are of a similar nature, and differ only in degree, it is easy 
 to obtain various shades. With respect to the method of com- 
 pounding the different ingredients with pulverized saunders-wood; 
 41bs. of the latter are to be put into a copper, with half a pound 
 of powdered nut-galls, ISlbs. of alder-bark, and lOlbs. of sumach. 
 The whole is to be boiled, when a small portion of water should 
 be adde<l, to check the boiling: after immersing the cloth, stirring, 
 and turning it repeatedly, it is aired, and washed in river-water. 
 The (luantities of these ingredients may be increased, or diminished, 
 according to the depth of the shade required. The la-t substance 
 employed in ilyeing the fawn-colour, is soct, >\hich is not only less 
 I soliii
 
 DYEING. 
 
 217 
 
 solid than llio olliers, bul ;ilso lunK ns, am.1 inip.iiti a veiv dis- 
 agreeable smell lo tlu- wool, oi- stuli', dyc-d in it: it is therefore 
 seldom, if ever used, unless the other ingredients cannot easilj' be 
 prernred. 
 
 'i'lie fiftli, andlast, of the primitive eolours, is Black, whicli 
 incUides a great variety of shades. In or<ipr to impart a good 
 black to woollen >Uilis,'the_v shoidd be lirsl dyed of as deep a blue 
 aK possible, which is called the ground, and is to be perlormed in 
 tlie manner already directed. As ^oon as the cloth is t.iken out of 
 the vat, it nnuht to be well washed in river-water, and afterward 
 scoured at the fulling-mill. Next, the dyeing process is perform- 
 ed as follows : for every cu't. of cloth, lOlbs. ot loi^'.vood cut into 
 I hips, and an equal quantity of Aleppo gall-nuts pulverized and 
 inclosed in a bap, are to be put into a cauldron of a moderate 
 si/e, where the whole is boiled for twehe hours in a sufficient 
 quantity of water. A third part of this liquor is then to be poured 
 iuio another cauldron, w ith ?lbs. of verdigrease, wlien the cloth is 
 to be immersed for tw o hours, being repeatedly fumed and stirred, 
 the liquorinthc mean time boiling very slowly, or rather, gently 
 simmering. At the CNpiration of that time, the slutl is to be 
 taken out, and the second part (being another third) of the liquor 
 added to the hrst third, togetlier with Slbs. of copperas. The tire 
 beneath the cauldron is then to be diminisheil, and the copperas 
 left for half an hour to dissolve; the liquor being gradually eool- 
 ing: after which the cloth is to be immersed for another hour, re- 
 peatedly turned as before, then removed and cooled. The re- 
 mainder of the liquor is next to be mixed with the first two-thirds; 
 and the bag caretully exprc.-sed ; when lit'tecii or twenty jionnds 
 el sumach are to be added, together with two pounds of copperas. 
 'I'I'.e wiiole is then madc' to boil; and, a small quantity of water 
 being added to cool, the stulT is again iunnersed for two hours; 
 at the end of which time it is to be taken out, cooled, and steeped 
 in the dye for an hour longer, being frequently turned. The 
 cloth is tiien to be carried to the fulling-mill, and well scoured, 
 till the water runs from it perfectly colourless. As soon as this 
 operation is perionned, a fre.'-h litpior should be prepared witri the 
 necessar) (|uantity ot dyers'-weed, which is only once to be boiled, 
 and when cool, the cloth dipped into it. This last decoction sof- 
 t'ns the texture, and renders the colour a most beautiful black. 
 Few dyers, however, take so much pains ; for they are satisfied 
 Willi (iipp.ng the cloth, wlien blue, in a decoction of nut-galls 
 andboihng I he whole for two honre. The slulf is then washed, 
 and afier adding some copperas and logwood to the liipior, the 
 <;lolh is agaui ininiei-scd for two hours, at the end of whicliit is 
 washed, scoured, dried, and pressed. 
 
 For dyeing silk black, different operations are necessary ; as 
 boiling tlie silk, galling it, the preparation of the bath, the opera- 
 tion of dyeing, and sottening the black. The gummy substance, 
 which silk in its natural state contains, does not increase the 
 Strength of the silk, wliicii is tlien called raw : but renders it more 
 liable to wear out, from the stiffness it imparts to it : and though 
 raw silk takes a black colour with more facility, than silk which 
 has been scoured or divested of its gimi, that black is much less 
 perfect, and ressts the reactives calculated to dissolve tl-,e colour- 
 ing matter, ii) a much less forcible manner. To cleanse silk in- 
 tended to be dyed black, it is commonly boiled four or five hours 
 with a fiith of its weight of white soap," after which it is beetled 
 and wash, d carefully. For gaUing the silk, nearly three-fourths 
 of its weight of galls are boiled for three or four hours : but Aleppo 
 galls being dear, a greater or less portion of white galls, or even 
 of an int-rior kind, calleil berry or apple galls, is mixed with them. 
 The proportion comn-.only used in France is two parts ot Aleppo 
 galls to eight or ten of berry-galls. After the boiling, the liquor 
 is left Bt rest about two hours, that the galls niav subside: the silk 
 is put into the bith, and left there from 1'2 to 36 hours : it is then 
 taken out and washed in a running 'stream. As silk is capable of 
 combining with more or less ol th.e asi.ringent principle, its weight 
 receives a considerable augmeulalion, not from tlic weiglit of the 
 astringent principle alone^ but also from tliat of the colouring 
 matter, which fixes in it, in proportion to the (piantity of the 
 astringeiil priiuii.Ie combined with it. The processes for dyeing 
 it are tiit refure varied, according as tlie operator is desirous o'f 
 rendering the silk of a greater or less weight. And this difference 
 const.tuie- the distinction between a light and her.vy black. A 
 pound of silk loses neaily one-fourth ol its weight in the boiling 
 
 VOL. II. --NO. 69. 
 
 w hen com|)lete ; and reco\ ers in the light black, and the gallins 
 whi( h precedes it, I4 or 2 ounces; so that the original pound i^ 
 reduced to about 14 ounces, but in the heavy black this same 
 pound is increased in weight to '20 or 22 ounces, or even more ; 
 so that the buyer, deceivefl by the low price at which it is ofi'ered 
 him, pays in every pound for several ounces of a substance whicli 
 is not merely u-eless, but is even injurious to the beauty of 
 the colour, and the strength of the stuff. The black wdiich is much 
 overcharged is never ol a fine colour; it is therefore generally 
 employed for the woof, and covered with a warp of a fine black. 
 The dirt'erence in the process for obtaining heavy black consists 
 in leaving the silk a longer time in the gall liquor, in repeating the 
 galling and dipping of the silk in the dveoftener ; leaving it in this 
 also a considerable while. 'I'lie first galling is also commonly 
 ])erformed with galls which had been already used, fresh ones 
 being taken form the second. But this method is sufficient to 
 give so great a surcharge as is necessary in some blacks. For this 
 purpose the silk is galled raw, and afterwards rendered supple by 
 wringiui' witli the pin. A vat is preserved by the silk-dyers tor 
 the blac-k; and its composition, greatly overcharged, varies in dif- 
 ferent dye-houses. These vats have commonly been set for many 
 years, and when the black dye is exhausted, it is renewed by what 
 is called a brevet. When tl-.e grounds vN-hich accumulate in them 
 become too considerable in (piantity, they are taken out ; so that 
 after a time nothing remains of several of the ingredients which 
 composed the original bath, bul those whicfi are not used in the 
 brevet. 
 
 To dye Raw Silk, it must be galled cold, in the gall bath 
 which has already been used for scouring silk ; and for this pur- 
 pose, silk with the natural yellow hue is preferred. If it be wish- 
 ed to preserve a part of the gum of the silk, and aOcrward; soften 
 it, the galling should be performed in a v.arm bath, as usual: but 
 when it is intended to preserve the wiiole of the gum, and the 
 elasticity which it communicates to the silk, the galling is per- 
 formed cold. If the gall liquor be weak, the silk must remain in 
 it several days. Silk, thus prepared and washed, readily takes the 
 black dye; and the rinsings, to which sulphate of iron maybe 
 added, are sufficient to communicate it. This dyeing is performed 
 cold ; but it requires more or less time according to the strength 
 of the rinsings. Sometimes three or four davs are necessary; af- 
 ter which it is vvashed, giving it one or two beetlings, and ihat it 
 may not be softened, it is dried without being wrung. But ravr 
 silk may be dyed more speedily, by turning or shaking it over in 
 the cold bath after galling, and airing it, repeating these opera- 
 tions a few times ; after which it must be washed and dried. Dr. 
 Lewiv remarks, tliat though white silk may be dyed a goo<l black, 
 witliout using eitlier logwood or verdegris, the addition of those 
 two ingredients contributes greatly to improve the colour both in 
 silk and in wool. But as the great use of galls in dyeing silk black 
 renders it very expensive, it is of consequence to find some me- 
 thod of diminishing their quantity. M. Angles proposes the fol- 
 lowing process: When the silk has been carefully boiled and wash- 
 ed in the river, it is to be immersed in a ;,troiig decoction of green 
 walnut peels, and left in it till the colour of the bath is exhausted. 
 It is then taken out, slightly wrung with the pin, dried, and wash- 
 ed in the river. The decoction of walnut-peels is made by boil- 
 ing a full quarter of an hour, when it is tskeii from the fire, and 
 suffered to subside before dipping the silk, which has been previ- 
 ously immersed in warm-water. A blue ground is next given by 
 means of logwood and verdigris. For every pound oi silk, an 
 ounce of verdigris is dissolved in cold water; the silk is left in this 
 solution two hours ; it is there dip])ed in a strong decoction of 
 logwood, wrung out slightly, and dried before it is washed at the 
 river. For light blacks, galling may be altogether omitted ; but 
 to a heavy black, half a pound of galls must be em|)loyed for every 
 pound of silk intended to be dyed. To prepare the bath, 2 lb. of 
 galls and 3 of sumach are macerated in "5 gallons of w:ier over a 
 slow fire, for 12 hours. After straining, 3 lb. of sulphate r)f iron, 
 and as much gum Arabic are dissolved in it. In this solution the 
 silk is dipped at two different times, leaving it, in two houisi epch 
 time, taking care to air it alter the first dipping, and to dry it be- 
 fore giving the second fire, when it is to be again aired and dried : 
 it is then beetled twice at the river; after which a third fire is 
 given it, in the same manner as before, except Ihat it is left in the, 
 hath four or five hours. V^ lien drained and dried, it is again 
 3 K beelled
 
 D YN 
 
 218 
 
 DY S 
 
 beetled twice at the river. The heat during the operation must 
 not exceed 122 degrees of Fahrenheit's tliermometer ; and bcl'ore 
 the last two fires, an addition of half a pound of sulphate of iron 
 and as much gum Arabic is to be made. For removing the harsh- 
 ness that silk acquires from the black dye, M. Angles thinks that 
 the decoction of weld should be preferred to that of a solution of 
 soap ; and says, tiiat if silk be dyed blue with indigo previous to 
 its being dipped for black, it will take only a mealy b'ack, but 
 that a velvety black will be obtained, if it be prepared with log- 
 wood and verdegris ; and that green walnut-peels soften the silk. 
 Though a fine black may be procured from green walnut-peels, 
 and the bath above described, he notwithstanding adds logwood 
 and verdegris, tliat he may not be obliged to use a large quantity 
 of sulphate of iron, which weakens the silk too much. lie thinks 
 that galls only serve to give the silk weight, and that sumach is 
 adequate to the dye. Linen and cotton do not easily take a black 
 of any intensity that will resist soap ; therefore to dye them black, 
 a solution of iron is used, which is kept in a cask called the black 
 cask. This solution is prepared with vinegar, small beer, or small 
 wine made from the grapes, after they have been pressed, by add- 
 ing water to them, which is soured with rye meal, to procure an 
 acid liquid at a low price. Pieces of old iron are dirown into this 
 liipior, which is never used in less than six weeks or two months. 
 To this bath astringents are frequently added, particularly the de- 
 coction of alder bark, which of itself has the property of tlissolving 
 the oxide of iron in a pretty large proportion. 
 
 Of Dyeing Compound Colours. 
 
 Compound colours are produced by mixing together two simple 
 ones ; or, which is the same thing, by dyeing cloth first one simple 
 colour, aiid then another. Thcie colours vary to infinity, accord- 
 ing to the proportions of the ingredients employed. They may 
 be arranged mider the foUowiiig classes : iFixtures of, 1. BUut 
 and yellow ; 2. Blue and red; 3. Yellow and red; 4. Black and 
 other colours. 
 
 Mi.xtiire of Blue and Yclhiv. — This forms green; which is dis- 
 tlnguislied by dyers into a variety of shades, according to the 
 depth of tlie shade, or the prevalence of either of the component 
 
 parts. Thus we have sea-green, grass- green, pea-green, &c. 
 Wool, silk, and linen, are usually dyed green by giving them first 
 a blue colcjur, and afterwards dyeing tiiem yellow ; because, when 
 the yellow is first gi\ en, several inconveniences follow : the yel- 
 low partly separates again in the blue vat, and communicates a 
 green colour to it, and thus renders it useless for every other pur- 
 pose, except dyeing green. And of the usual processes for dye- 
 ing blue and yellow may be followed, taking care to proportion 
 the depth of the shades to that of the green required. When sul- 
 phate of indigo is employed, it is usual to mix all the ingredients 
 together, and to dye the clotli at once; this produces what is 
 known by the name of Saxon or English green. 
 
 Mixtures of Blue and Red. — These torm difl^erent shades of 
 violet, purple, and lilac. Wool is generally first dyed blue, and 
 afterwards scarlet, in the usual manner. By means of cochineal 
 mixed with sulphate of indigo, the proce.ss may be performed at 
 once. Silk is first dyed crimson, by uT^ans of cochineal, and then 
 dipped into the incdgo val, C'olton and linen are fii-st dyed blue, 
 then galled, and soaked in a decoction of logwood ; biit a more 
 permanent colour is given by means of oxide of iron. 
 
 Mixtures of Yellow and Ued. — These produce orange. When 
 blue is combined with red and yellow on cloth, the resulting co- 
 lour is olive. Wool may be dyed orange, by first dyeing it scar- 
 let, and then yellow. SV'hen it is dyed'first with madder, the re- 
 sult is cinnamon-colour. Silk is d;.ed orange by means of car- 
 Ihamus ; a cinnamon-colour by logwood, Brazil-wood, and fustic, 
 mixed together. Cotton and linen receive a cinnamon-colour by 
 means of weld and madder ; and an olive-colour, by being passed 
 through a blue, yellow, and then a madder-bath. 
 
 Mixtures of Black iiitk other Colours. — These constitute 
 greys, drabs, and browns. If cloth is previously combined with 
 brown oxide of iron, and afterwards dyed yellow with quercitron 
 bark, the result will be a drab of dilierent shades, according to the 
 prcporlion of mordant employed. When the proportion is small, 
 the colour inclines to olive or yellow ; on the contrary, the drab 
 may be deepened or saddened, as the dyers term it, by mi.xing a^ 
 little sumach with the bark. See Calico-Pkinting. 
 
 DYERS. By Stat. 3 and 4 Ed. VL c. 2, no dyer may dye 
 any cloth with orchil, or with brazil, to make a false colour in 
 cloth, wool, &c. on penalty of 20s. By stat. 23 Eliz. c. 9, dyers 
 are to fix a seal of lead to cloths, with the letter M, to shew that 
 they are well maddered, &c. or forteit 3s. 4d. per yard. By stjit 
 23 "Geo. III. c. 15, several penalties are inflicted on dyers who 
 dye any cloths deceitfully, and not woaded throughout with in- 
 dfgo an'd madder. Dyeing blue with logwood, to forfeit 201. 
 Dyers in London are subject to the inspection of the dyers' com- 
 pany, who appoint searchers. In other places, these are ap- 
 pointed bv the justices, and opposing the searchers incur a penalty 
 of 101. 
 
 Dvkr's Weed, orWF.i,D. See Reseda. 
 
 D^ EING, or Staining of Paper, Wood, Ivory, Marble, 
 8cc. See Ivory, Marble, Paper, Wood, &:c. 
 
 Dyeing of Hats. See Hats. 
 
 Dyeing of Leather. Sec Leather. 
 
 DYKE-REEVE, in old statutes, an officer who had (he care 
 of the dikes, in the fens. 
 
 DYLE, one of the departments of France, formed out of 
 the late Austrian Is'etherlands, and comprehending a great part of 
 the province of Rrabant. The chief city is Brussels. 
 
 Dyle, a river in the late Austrian Netherlands, w hich gives name 
 to the d-vartinent. It rises about 22 miles S. E. of Brussels, and 
 talis into the Scheldt, at Kupplemond. 
 
 I) Y M EL, a river of Germanv, in Westphalia. 
 
 DYMUDE. SeeDiXMUDK." 
 
 DYN.-\, an Indian coin, worth about 30s. 
 
 DYNAMICS [from auv«/j.i,-, Gr. power,] the science of mov- 
 ing powers, particul:;rly of bodies whicii act mutually on each 
 pthcr. See Mechanics. 
 
 DYNASTY, [from avv,t,->i;, Gr. a sovereign,] among ancient 
 
 historians, signifies a race or succession of kings of the same family'.-. 
 Such were the dynasties of Egypt. The Egyptians reckon 30^ 
 dynasties w ithin the space ot 36,525 years ; but the most of chro- 
 nologers look upon them as fabulous. And it is certain, liiat these 
 dynasties were not continually successive, but many of them col-, 
 lateral and cotcmporary. 
 
 DYRRACHIUM, in ancient geography, a town on the coast 
 oflllyricum, before called Epidamnum, or Epidamnus, an inau- 
 spic'cus name, changed by the Romans to Dyrrachium ; a name 
 taken from the peninsula on which it stood. 
 
 DYSAC-OYA, [from ius, difficulty, and o-mw, to hear,] dul- 
 ness of hearing. 
 
 DYS-'E, in the Saxon mythology, inferior goddesses, messen-- 
 gers of Woden, whose province it was to convey the souls of such 
 as died in battle to his abode, called Valhall, i. e. the hall of 
 slaughter ; where ttiey wcr--' to drink with him and their other- 
 gods, cerevisia, a kiu'.l of malt liquor, in the skulls of their enemies. 
 The DySLC conveyed those who died a natural death to Hela, the 
 goddess of hell, where they were tormented with hunger, thii-st, 
 and every kind of evil. 
 
 DYS.ES'i'IlESIA, [from fuf, difficult, and ctisBva;, sensation,] 
 a difficulty or defect in sens.ition. See Medicine. 
 
 DYS/VKT, a borough in Scotland, on the N. shore of the 
 Friih of Forth, 51 miles N. of Edinburgh. Lon. 3. 6. W. Lat. 
 50. 9. N. 
 
 DYSCINESIA, [from iv;, and !<iv>i;i;, motion,] a difliculty of 
 niovinc;. See Medicine. 
 
 DYSC'RA.5Y, [iui-««o-i(i,] an unequal mixture of elements in 
 the blood or nervous juice ; a disteniperatuie, when some humour 
 or quaihy abounds in liie body. 
 
 DYSECCEA. See Medicine. 
 
 DYSENTERIC Fever. See Medicine. 
 
 DYSENTERY.
 
 E AG 
 
 219 
 
 E AG 
 
 DYSEN TERY, [IVom Sumn^^irc,] a looseness, wherein very 
 ill humours How oil' by stool, and are also somctinies attended with 
 blood. See Mkdicine. 
 
 IJYSEI'ULOTICA, [from Sv;, im, and "X,,, a scar,] large in- 
 curabh- iilcrrs. . 
 
 DYSNOMY, [from J-,/; and »c.,u";, law,] the enacting of bad 
 laws. 
 
 D YSOPE\, [from iu; and L..4-, an eye,] depraved vision. See 
 Medicine. 
 
 DYSOREXIA, or DY'SOREXY, [from it/,- and ojeJ.s, ap- 
 petite,] a want of appetite. See Medicine. 
 
 DYSPEPSY, lixjiTnlia,'] a difhculty of digestion, or bad fer- 
 mentation in the stom;'.ch or guts. See Medicine. 
 
 UYSPHONY, [Jycfiuvet,] adiflicnlty in speaking, occasioned 
 bv an ill disposition of the organs. 
 
 'DYSPNOEA, [lur.'nma.,'] a dilTiculty of breathing ; straitness 
 of breath. See Medicine. 
 
 DYSTIIANATOS, [from fi-; and 9OT«7of, death,] among an- 
 cient i)h^'sicians, is used to signify either a disease that occasions 
 a slow painful deatli, or a "perion dying in such a lingering 
 manner. 
 
 DYSTIIERAPEUTA, [from ^A- and flEX4T..t,>,, to heal,] dis- 
 eases ilil'ticult to be cured. 
 
 DYSTOCHIA, [from J./; and tix7^, to bring forth,] dilBcnlt 
 labour. 
 
 DYSURY, [Ji/tr»ji«,] a difticully in making urine. See Me- 
 dicine. 
 
 DYTISCUS, the Water Beetle, in zoology, a genus of the 
 class anil order insecta; coleoptera. Antenna." slender, setaceous ; 
 hind feet hairy, and formed for swimming. Nearly 200 species. 
 
 distinguished by their antennse, the colour of the elytra, &c. The 
 larv.-E of the clytiscus are often met with in water. They are 
 oblong, and have six scaly feet. Their body consists of eleven 
 segments. The heati is large with four filiform antenna; and a 
 strong pair of jaws. Th • last segments of their body have rows of 
 hairs on the sides; and the abdomen is terminated bv two spines 
 charged with the like haiis, forming a kind ot plumes. 1 hese 
 larva' are frecjuently of a greenish variegated brown : they are 
 lively, active, and extremely voracious: they devour and feed 
 upon other water insects, and often tear and destroy each other. 
 The perfect insect is little inferior to its larva; in voraciousness, 
 but it can only exercise its cruelty on the young larva' ; the per- 
 fect larva', like himself, being sheltered by a kind of scaly cuirass 
 with which they are armed. This creature must be touched cau- 
 tiously ; for, besides its power of giving a severe gripe with its jaws 
 it has under the thorax, a long sharp spine, which it will drive into 
 one's fingers by the effort it makes to move backwards. See 
 Plate XXXV U. 
 
 DYVOUR, or BARE-MAN, in Scots law, a person who, 
 being involved in debt, and unable to pay, to avoid imprisonment, 
 makes cession of his efi'ects in favour ot his creditors ; and does 
 his devoir and duty to (hem, proclaiming himself bare-man and 
 indigent, and btcomhig debt-bound to them of all he has. The 
 word is used in the same sense as Bankrupt : see that article ; and 
 Law. 
 
 DZURA, a Tartarian village of Russian Siberia, in the govern- 
 ment of Irkutsch. 
 
 DZWINGROD, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of Kami- 
 niec, 20 miles S. W. of Kaminiec. 
 
 E- 
 
 E 
 
 Has two sounds ; long, as ?cene, and short as men. It also 
 has the pecidiar ciuality of lengthening the foregoing vowel, 
 as, gSj;, gape; tijn, time. Yet it son;etimes occurs (inai, wh>'re 
 the ii.renoing vowel is not lengthened; as gone, knowledge, 
 give. An'.iently almost every word ended with e, as for can, 
 canne ; for year, jeare; for great, greate, &c. It i? probable, 
 that this f final had at first a soft sound, like the female c of the 
 I'rench ; and that allerw'ard, it was in poetry either mute or vocal, 
 as the verse required, 'till at last it became univer>ally silent. — Ea 
 Las the socnd oft long: tiie e is commonly len';thened, rather by 
 the immediate addition of o than by the apposition off to the end 
 of the word; as men, mean ; net, neat. E i-^ the fifth letter of tie 
 A!|)habet, in the modern languages, and in many of the ar.cient. 
 Its form is derived from t"!ie old character g in the ancient Hebrew 
 and Phsenician alpholaets, inverted by the Greeks to this position 
 E, and net from the Hebrew He, n. From the same origin is 
 also I'erived the S;..\on c, which is the lirst letter in that alphabet 
 that dilfers from the Latin one. It is sounded by a narrower open- 
 ing of the hiryn.x than the letter A ; but the other parts of the 
 mouth are nearly in the same position as when sounding that letter. 
 The "^ound of e is obscure in the last syllalile of participles ending 
 with en, as bouuden, chosen, froi^en, 6;c. as well as in some nouns ; 
 sncha^ haven, oxen, &c. and it is silent, or not sounded in a great 
 number of words. ^I'he Greek language has a short E called Ep- 
 silon, and a long one callei! Eta; which differ, in form, ns well a^ 
 in four.d, thus E, .-, and H, u: The Latin has a long and short e, 
 but the Ronrans ina.le no distinction of figure or name, but con- 
 sidered both sounds as one letter. In the French language, c has 
 at least five different sounds hesides being often silent. E in the 
 calendar is the liftii dominical letter; anil in music denotes the 
 Xonc K la >ni. As an Abreviation, E is used in s>. a chart- lo di;- 
 tiiiguithall the easterly poials: thus, E denotes East; E. by S. 
 
 East^ by South ; E. by N. East by North ; &c. E. is also used 
 for Earl ;. as well as for est; thus i.e. id est, " that is." Asa 
 Numeral, E was used in the barbarous ages for 250. As a 
 word, E was used in several ancient languages, with various sig- 
 nifications. Thus in the Greek both Eand II are words, and in 
 Latin E is used both as a verb and preposition ; but in English it 
 does not constitute a word by itself. 
 
 EA., in the Saxon language, like eau in the French, and aa in 
 the Danish, signifies water, whence it makes part of the names of 
 some rivere, lakes, &c. 
 
 EAC HARD, Laurence, an eminent English historian of the 
 ISthcentuiy. He was the son of a clergyman, and was educated 
 at Cambi idge, and presented to the living of Welton and Elsking- 
 ton in Lineolnsliire, where he spent above twenty years, and dis- 
 tinguished himself b) his writings, especially his H'istory of Eng- 
 land, which w;is attacked by Dr. Calaniy aiid by Mr. O'idmixon. 
 His "General Ecclesiastical History, from the Nativity of Christ 
 to the lirst establishment of Christianity by Human Laws, under 
 the emperor Constantine the Great," had pa>sed through several 
 editions. He was inslc-lled archdeacon of Stowe and pa-bend of 
 LiiKoln in 1712. He <lied in 1730. 
 
 EAD, \_ad ed,~] in the compound, and eadig in the simijle 
 names, denotes happinc-s, or blessedness. — Thus Eadward is a 
 happy preserver ;Eadulpl>, happy assistance ;Eadi;ar, happy power ; 
 and Kad may also in some cases be derived from the Saxon eath' 
 v.lr.ch s;:;niiies easy, genile, mild. ' 
 
 EADISH, or EDDISH, [Sax. Edisc,-] the latter grass, that 
 grows after the corn is cut. 
 
 EAGLE, [a/g/c, French; aquitu, L.it. caller, Erse,] in orni- 
 thology. See Fal'co. 
 
 Eagle, in aniiquity, was born by way of ensign by several 
 
 nations. The tirst wlio seem to have assumed the eagle :n-e the 
 
 * • Persian^
 
 EAR 
 
 220 
 
 EAR 
 
 Persians ; according to Xenoplion. Il was afieiwavds assmiicd by 
 the ■Romans; wlio attei- a great variety of standards, at last lixec. 
 on the eagle, in the second year of the consulate of C. Marius 
 Till that tune, they had used indifferently wolves, leopards, and 
 ea-'lei, according to tlie liuniour of the coniniander. 'i he Roman 
 eagles, were not painted on a cloth or Hag ; but were hguves m 
 relievo, of silver or gold, born on the tops of pikes ; the wings 
 being displayed, and frequently a thunderbolt in their talons. Un- 
 der the eagle on the pike, were piled bucklers, and sometimes 
 crowns. This we learn from the medals. Constantine is said to 
 have first introduced the eagle with two heads, to intimate, that 
 though the emi)ire seemed divided, it was yet only one body. 
 
 Eagi.k, in architecture, \'- a figure of that bird anciently used 
 as an attribute, or cognizance of Jupiter, in the capital and friezes 
 of the coiumns of feni'ples consecrated to that god. 
 
 Eagle, in astronomv, a constellation of the northern hemis- 
 phere, having its right'wing contiguous to the equinoctial. See 
 
 AdUILA, and'AsTRONOMY. 
 
 Eagle, in heraldry, is accounted one of the most noble bear- 
 ings in armoury ; and ought to be given to none but such as greatly 
 excel in generosity and courage, or who have done singular ser- 
 vices to their sovf'reigns ; i:i which cases they may be allowed a 
 whole eagle, or an eagle naiffant, or only the head or other parts 
 thereof, in proportion to their exploits. 
 
 Eagle, Black,' an order of knighthood, instituted in 1701, by 
 the elector ot Brandenbiirgh, on his being crowned king of Prussia. 
 The knights wear an orange-coloured ribbon, to which is suspended 
 a black eagle. . . 
 
 Eagle,'^VVhite, a Polish order of knighthood, instituted m 
 1325 by UladislausV. on marrying his son Casimir with a daughter 
 of the great duke of Lithuania. 'The knights were distinguished 
 bv a gold chain, which they wore on the stomach, whereon hung 
 a'silver eagle crowned. 
 
 EAGLESTONE. See.aETiTyE. 
 
 EAGLETS, in heraldry, several eagles on the same escut- 
 cheon. 
 
 EAHEINOMAUWE, an island in the S. Pacific Ocean, the 
 most northern, as well as the most fertile of the two large islands, 
 of which New Zealand consists. Il was believed by the gentle- 
 men who accompanied captain Cook, in his first voyage, that all 
 kinds of European grain, as well as garden plants and fruit, would 
 flourish here in the greatest abundance and perfection ; and from 
 the ve"etables found it was concluded, that the winters are not 
 more severe than those of England; and it was known by experi- 
 ence, that the sunmier was not hotter, though the heat was more 
 equal. Here are no quadrupeds except dogs and rats ; and the 
 latter are so scarce, that they escaped the notice of many on board. 
 Thebirds are not numerous' The gannet is the only one of the Eu- 
 ropean kind that was observed. 'Yhe insects are equally scarce ; 
 but the sea makes abundant recomjience for this scarcity of land 
 animals ; every creek swarms W'ith fish, equally delicious with those 
 in this country. The forests are of vast extent, and filled with e\- 
 cell'Mit timber trees, the largest, straighlest, and cleanest, that cap- 
 tain Cook had ever seen. 
 
 EALDERMAN, or EALDORMAN, among the Saxons, was 
 of the same import with earl among the Danes. It was also used 
 for an elder, senator, or statesman ;\vl.ence tb.e title Alderman. 
 
 EAOOA, EAOOWE, or MIDDLEBUKG, one of the 
 Friendly islands in the South Pacific ocean, which abouiuls wi;h 
 groves of fruit and other trees, interspersed with tracts covered 
 with "rass. It was first dicovcred by Tasman who called it Mid- 
 dlebu?g. Lon. 174. 30. W. Lat. 21. 24. S. 
 EAR. See Anatomy, and Zootomy. 
 
 Ear, in botany, the same with spica. The" flowers and seeds 
 of wheat, rye, barley, lavender, &c. grow in ears. The stem of 
 the ear mean, its tube or straw ; the knot of the ear, the lobes or 
 cells wherein the grains are inclosed, &c. 
 
 Ear, in music, the power of judging of harmony. See Mu- 
 sic. In niu:.ic we seem universally to acknowledge a kind of in- 
 ternal seiijC, distinct from the external one of hearing; which we 
 call a good ear. And the like distinction we sliould probaldy ac- 
 liuowledge in regard to our other senses, were our ideas of the dlt- 
 ferences e<|ually clear. Something like this is univei-sally ac- 
 knowledged wit"h regard lo a critical and accurate perception and 
 judgement of the objects of sight; though by a familiar metaphor, 
 
 these sensations are transferred to a sense that has no connet tion 
 with them. Thus a greater capacity of perceiving the beauties of 
 painting, architecture, &c. is called a fine taste, when it should 
 rather be stiled a fine sight. 
 
 EARL, [for/, Siw. eoryl, Erse,] a title of nobility, anciently 
 the highest of this nation, now the the ihird. An earl ranks be- 
 tween a marquis and a viscount. The title is so ancient, that its 
 original can scarcely be traced out. This, however, is certain, 
 that among the Saxons they were called ealdormen, quasi eider 
 men, signifying the same with senioror senator amongthe Romans ; 
 and also schiremen, because they had each the civil government of 
 a division or shire. On the irruption oi the Danes they changed 
 their names to eorles, which, according to Camden, signified the 
 same in their language. In Latin they are called comites (a title 
 first used in the empire,) from being the king's companions and 
 associates. After the Norman coni|uest they were for some time 
 called counts, from the French ; but they did not long retain that 
 name, though their shires are thence called counties, and their 
 wives countesses, to this day. It is now become a mere title ; 
 they have nothing to do with the government of the county ; whicii 
 is now entirely devolved on the sheritr, the earl's deputy^ or vice- 
 comes. Ill writs, commissions, and other formal instruinenis, the 
 king, when lie mentions any peer of the degree of an earl, usually 
 stales him " trusty and well beloved cousin:" an appellation as 
 ancient as the reign of Henry IV. ; who being either by his wife, 
 mother, or sistere, actually related or allied lo every earl in the 
 kingdom, artfully acknowledged that connection in all bis letters 
 and other public a< ts: wlience the usage has descended to his suc- 
 cessors, though the reason has long ago failed. An earl is created 
 by cincture of sword, mantle of state put upon him by the king 
 himself, a cap and a coronet put upon his head, and a charier in 
 his hand. 
 
 Earl Marshal. See Marshal. 
 
 F.ARNEST, a part of the price paid in advance to bind parties 
 to the performance of a verbal agreement. The parly is then ob- 
 liged lo abide by his bargain, and is not discharged upon forfeiting 
 his earnest, but may be sued for the whole money stipulated, and 
 damages; and b) the statute of frauds '.i'9, c. c. 3, no contract for 
 sale of goods not to be delivered immediately to the value of 101. 
 or more, is valid, unles'^ contraci be made by the parties, or those 
 lawfully authorized by them, or earnest is given. 
 
 EAR-PICK, an instrument of ivory, silver, or other metal, 
 somewhat in form of a probe, sharp at one end, and hollow at the 
 other, for cleansing the ear. 
 
 Ear-Ring, in the sea language, is that part of the- iolt-rope 
 which at tl.e four corners of tlie sail is left open, in the shape of a 
 ring. The two uppermost parts are put over the end? of the yard- 
 arms, and so the sail is made fast to the yard ; and into the lower- 
 most ear-rings, the sheets and tacks are seized or bent at the 
 clew. 
 EARSE LANGUAGE. See Gaelic. 
 
 EARTH, in astronomy, geograpliy, and geology, the globe 
 which we inhabit, being one of the prunary planets. See Astro- 
 nomy, Geography, and Geology. 
 
 Earth, Motions, Revolutions, Velocity, Density, &c. 
 OF THE. See Astronomy. 
 
 Earth, Figure of the. The ancients had various opinions 
 as to the figure of t!ie earth: some, as Anaximander and Leucip- 
 pus, held it cylindrical, or in the form of a drum: but the most 
 general opinion was, that it was (lat ; that the visible horizon was 
 the bounds of the earth, and the ocean the bounds of the liorizon ; 
 that the heavens and earth above this ocean were tlie whole visible 
 universe: and that all beneath the ocean was Hades. Of this 
 opinion w-ere some of the Christian fathers, as Laclantius, St. 
 Augustine, &c. Such of the ancients however as unde'stood any 
 thing of astronomy, and especially the doctrine of eclir,ses, niust 
 have been acquainted with the round figure of the earth; as the 
 ancient Babylonian astronomers, w ho had calcuh'.ted eclipses long 
 before the time of Alexander, and Thales the Grecian, who pre- 
 dicted anerlipse of the sun. It is now indeed agreed on all hands, 
 that the form of this terraqueous fabric is globular, or very nearly 
 so. See Astronomy. 'Ihe round figure of Ihe earlh is evident 
 from the eclipses of the sun and moon ; in all of which the earth's 
 shadow always appears circular upon the face of Ihe moon, what 
 way soever it be projected, whether E. W. N. or S. ; and howso- 
 ever
 
 K A R 
 
 2r?l 
 
 EA R 
 
 CK 
 
 ever its diameter viry, aixorJiiig to the nveatcr ur le<^ dista^co 
 from llie caitli. 'I'lie spliej leal n|»mc ot the earlli ij aho eviiiced 
 I'roii) the rising aii'l settiiu; of llie sum, moon, ami star^; all which 
 happen sooner to Uioai' who live to tlie !i. and later to those livma; 
 to the \\ . and that more or less so, -.leeordinc; to the distance. So 
 also, goiiif; or f ailing to till- N. the nortii i>ol>- and northern stars 
 become more elevated, and thesonUi pole and soiitl-.crji stars more 
 deprci-jed ; the elevation northerly iniaeasin;; Ciiiialiy with the de- 
 pression sonlherlv ; aixl either ot them proportionably to the dis- 
 tance gone. The siiiue thing happens m going to the S. Besides, 
 the obli<iuo ascensions, desceiislons emersions, and amplitudes of 
 the rising and selling of the sun ami stur^ in every latitude, are 
 agreeable to the earth's spherical form : all which could not hap- 
 pen if it were of any other figure. The roundness of the earth is 
 farther conlirined by its having been often sailed round : ll.e first 
 time was in l.">!9, when Kerd. Magellan made the tour of the 
 whole globe in ll'.?l days, (n 15;)7 .Sir Francis Drake performed 
 the same in 10j6<la)s; in I, 'iSG, Sir Thomas CavcJidish performed 
 it in 777days ; Simon Cordes, of Uolterdani. in 1 "'90, in 1 .i" j days ; 
 in 1598, Oliver Noort, a Hollander, in 1077 i'.;:y>; Van Schoiiten, 
 ill 161'), in 74!y days ; Jac. Ileremites anil John Iluygeiis, in 1D.'3, 
 in 80J days ; and m.iny others have since pertormeil the same 
 navigation, ])articul.'.rly Anson, Bougainville, and Cook ; some- 
 times sailing round by the E. sometimes by the W. till at length 
 they arrived again in Europe, from « hence they set out ; an 1 in 
 the course ot their voyage, observed th.it all the pba'iiomena, both 
 of the heavens and the earth, correspond to, and prove this sphe- 
 rical ligure. I'lie natural cause of this sphericity of the globe is, 
 according to Sir Ivaac Newton, the great principle of attraction, 
 with which the Creator has endued all ihe matter in the universe; 
 and by which all bodies, and all the parts of bodies, mutually at- 
 tract one another. This is also the cau;e of the sphericity of the 
 ilrops ot rain, quicksilver, !kc. 'i'hf ineijuality of the surface of 
 the earth, bv mountain^ and valleys, is notlnng considerable : the 
 highest eminence being scarce proportioiiably eiinivalent to the 
 minutest prutuberance on tbesurtace of an orange. It differs how- 
 ever, from a perfect spiiere, its shape being tliat of an oblate sphe- 
 roid, -o that the axis from pole to |)ole is less ihan the ecpiatorial 
 diameter. What gave the tirst occasion to the discovery of this 
 figure of the earth, were the observations of some French and 
 English philosophers in the East Indies, and other parts, who fomid 
 that pendulums, the neiirer they came to the equator, performed 
 their vibrations slower: from whence it follows, that the velocity 
 of the descent of bodies by gravity, is less in countries nearer to 
 the equator ; and consequently that those parts are farther removed 
 from the centre of the earth, or from the common centre of 
 gravity. See the Historv ot the Roval Academy of Sciences, by 
 DnHamel; p. 110, lidj'JOS; and VMist. de I'Acad. Roy. 1700 
 and 1701. — This circumstai'ce put Hnygeiis and Newton upon 
 find ng out the cause, which they altr bnfed to the revolution of 
 the earth about its axis. If the earth were in a fluid state, its ro- 
 tation round its axis wouh' necessarily make it put on such a figure, 
 because the centrifugal force being greatest towards the equator, 
 the tiuid wouhl there rise and swell most; and that its figure 
 really should be so now, seems necessary, to keep the sea in the 
 equinoctial regions from oversowing the earth about those parts. 
 See this curious subject well treated by Huygens, in his discourse 
 De Causa Giavitatis, p. 154, where he states the ratio of the 
 polar diameter to that of the equator, as 577 to 578. And New- 
 ton, in his Principia, lirst published in KiSfi, demonstrates, from 
 the theory of gravity, that the ligure of tlie earth ui\ist be that of 
 an oblate spheroid, generated by the rotation of an ellipse about 
 its shortest diameter, provided all the parts of the earth were of an 
 uniform density throughout ; and that the proportion of the po- 
 lar to the equatorial diameter of the earth, would be that of 6S9 
 to 69'J, or nearly that of '229, to •.^30, or as •995r).'i:'2 to one. 
 This proportion ol the two diameters was calculated bv Newton in 
 the following manner: Having found that the centritugal force at 
 thf equator is one -Sgih of gravity, he assumes, as an hypotliesis, 
 that the axis of the earth is to the diameter of the equ.ilor as 100 to 
 101, and thence determines what must be the centrifugal force at 
 the equator to gire the earlh s«ich a form, and riiuls it to be four 
 503ths of gravity : then, by proportion, if a centrifugal force equal 
 to four 505l!i- of gr.ivity'would make the earth higher at the equator 
 than at the poles by one hundredth of iho whole height at the pole, 
 
 VOL. II.— .NO. 6y. 
 
 \ a centrifug.il force that is one 289th of gravity will make it higher 
 by a proportional evi,-e-,s, which by calculation is one -'.'yth ofthe 
 height at the poles; and llms he iliscovered, that the diameter at 
 the equator is to the di.nueter at the poles, or the axis, a^'JoOlo 
 223. r>iit this eompulaiion supposes the earlh to be every where 
 ot an uniform den-ity ; whereas if the earth is more dense nc.irthe 
 centre, then bodies at the poles will be more attracted by this 
 additional matter being nearer; and therete.re the excess of the 
 semidiameteu^of the equator, above the semi-axis, will be diiferent. 
 According to this proportion between the two diameters, Newton 
 larlher computes, from the dilierent measures of a degree, that the 
 equatorial ihameter w ill excecil the polar by 34 miles and one- 
 tilth. Nevertheless, Messrs. Cassini, both father and son, the one 
 in 1701, ai'd the other in 1713, attempted to prove, in the Me- 
 moirs of the Royal AcadiTny of Sciences, that thecaith was an 
 oblong spheroid: and In 1713 M. Cassini again undertook, from 
 observations, to shew that, on the contrary, the longest diameter 
 passes through the poles ; which gave occasion for Mr. John Rer- 
 nonlli, in his " Essai d'nnc Nouvelle I'hvsique Celeste," prin'ed 
 at Pans in 1735, to triunqdi over the British philosopher, appre- 
 hending tbal these observations would invalidate what Neutonhad' 
 demonstrated. .'Vnil in 1730, M. De Mairan advanced aigumcntJ 
 supposed to be strengthened bv geometrical demonstrations, far- 
 ther to conlirm the as-ertions ot Cassini. But in 173j, tuocoin- 
 panies of mathematicians were employed, one for a northern, and 
 another for a southern expedition, the result of w hose observations 
 and measurement plainly proved that the earlh was Hatted at the 
 poles. The proportion ot the equatorial diameter to the polar, as 
 stated by the gentlemen em|)loved on the northern expedition for 
 measuring a degree of the meridian, is as ltoO.9891; by the 
 Spanish mathematicians as a6i3 to 265, or as 1 to 0.go(i24: by M. 
 Bonguer as 179 to 17S, or as I to 0.9y44l. As to all conclusions, 
 however, deduced from the length of pendulums indifferent places, 
 it is to be observed, that tliev proceed upon the supposition of the 
 uniform density of the earlh, which is a very improbable circum- 
 stance; as justly observed by Dr. Ilorsley in his letter to Capt. 
 Phipps: "You finish your article, he concludes, relating to the 
 pendtiUim with saying', ' thai these observations give a figure of 
 the earth nearer to Sir Isv.ac Newton's comiJUtation, than any 
 others that have hitherto been made ;' and then you state the several 
 figures given, as you imaL.>iiie, by former observations, and by 
 
 , your own. Now it is very true, tiiat if the meridians be ellipses, 
 or if the figure of the earth be that of a spheroid generated by the 
 revolution of an ellip-.is, turning on its shorter axis, the particular 
 figure, or the ellipticity of the generating ellipsis, which your ob- 
 servations give, is nearer to what Sir Isaac Newton saith it should 
 be, if the globe were homogeneous, than any lliat can be derived 
 from former observ.itiou;;. But yi-t it is not what yon imagine. 
 Taking the gain of the pendulum in latitude 79° 50' exactly as you 
 stale it, the difference between the equatorial and the poUir diame- 
 ter is about as much less than the Newtonian computation makes it, 
 and the hypothesis of homogeneity would require, as you reckon 
 it, to be greater. The proportion of '2ia to '211 should in- 
 deed, according to your observations, be the proportion of the 
 force diat acts upon the penttulum at the poles, to the force acting 
 upon it at the tquator. But this is by no means the same with the 
 proportion of the equatorial diameter to the polar. If the globe 
 were homogeneous, the equatorial diameter would exceed the 
 polar by one 230th of the length of the hitter: and the |)olar force 
 would also exceed the equatorial bv the like part. But if the 
 tlid'erence between the polar and equatorial force be greater than 
 one'i30th, (which may be the case in an heterogeneous globe, and 
 seems to be the case in ours), then the dilference of the diameters 
 should, according to theory, be less than one 230th, :ind vice 
 versa. I conless this is by no means obvious at first sight ; so far 
 otherwise, that liie mistake, which you have fallen into, was once 
 very general. .Many of the best mathematicians were misled by 
 too implicit a reliance upon the authoritv of Neuirn, whohiid 
 certainly confined bis investigations to the homogeneous spheroid, 
 and had thought about the heterogeneous only in a lco^e and 
 general way. 'I he late Mr. Clairault was the first who set the 
 matter right, in his ele.gant and subtle treatise on the figure of the 
 earth. ^Ihat work hath now been many yesrs in the hands of 
 mathematicians, an'.ong whom I imagine there are none, who 
 have considered iho subject atttntively, that do uot acciuiescc in 
 3 L the
 
 EAR 
 
 222 
 
 EAR 
 
 Ihf auliior's conclusions. In the second part of that ^!■eal■|^p, it is 
 proved, that putting P lor the polar tovce, n for the equi-itovial ; 
 } (or the true ellipticity of the earth's figure, and c for the ellipticity 
 of the homogeneous spheroid. 
 
 . = 2 < — J . therefore ^ : 
 
 and therefore, according to your observation, iz=:^Xj. This is the 
 jn^t conclusion from your observations of the pendidum, taking it 
 lor granted, that the meridians are ellip'^c'!: which is an hypotliesis, 
 U|ioa which all the reasonings of theory have hitherto proceeded. 
 But pladsible as it may seem, I must say, that there is much reason 
 I'nim experiment to call it in question. If it were true, the incre- 
 ment of the force which actuates the pendidnm, as we approach 
 the poles, should be as thesepiare ofthe sine ui the latitude, or, which, 
 is tlie same thing, the decrement, as we approach the eipiator, 
 should be as the sipi^re ofthe cosine ofthe latitude. But whoever 
 takes the pains to compare together such of the observations of the | 
 pendulum in dillerent latitudes, as seem to have been made with 
 tlie greatest care, will find that the increments and decrements do 
 bv no means follow these )n-oportions", and in those which I have 
 fxamined, I fmda regularity in the deviation which little resembles 
 (hi' mere error of observation. The unavoidable conclusicn is, 
 that the true hgure of the meridians is not elliptical. If the me- 
 ridians are not ellipses, the difference of the dianuters may indeed, 
 or it may not, be propurlional to the difference between the polar 
 and the eqiiatorial force ; but it is quite an imcertaiiity, wliat re- 
 latioji subsists between the one quantity and the other; our whole 
 theory, e.\cept so tar as it relates to the homogeneous spheroid, is 
 built "upon false assumptions, and there is no saying what figure of 
 the earth anv observations of the pendulum give." Dr. Ilorsley 
 tiien lays down the following table, which shews the difhrent re- 
 suits of'observations made in different latitudes; in which the first 
 thrive columns contain the names of the observers, the places of 
 observation, and the latitude of each; the fourth column shews the 
 quantity ofp— ninsuch |)arls as ii is lOOODO, as deduced from 
 comparing the length of the pendulum at each place of observa- 
 tion, with the length ofthe e(|Uatorial pendulum as termed by M. 
 Bouguer, upon the supposition that the increments and decrements 
 of force, as the latitude is increased or lowered, observe the pro- 
 ))ortion which theory assigns. Oidy the second and the last value 
 ofp— n are concluded from comparisons with the pendulum at 
 Greenwich and at London, not at the equator. The fifth colimin 
 shews the value of J corresponding to every value of P — n, ac- 
 cording to Clairault's theorem: 
 
 Observers. Places. I Lat. i p— n i i 
 
 TTs 
 
 Bouguer Equator 0° 0' | 
 
 Bouguer Porto liello 9 34:741.8 
 
 Green Olaheitee 17 20 ! .503.2 
 
 Bouguer San Domingo 18 27 I .iQl-O 
 
 Abbe de la Caille C'apeofGoodHope 33 35 i 731.5 
 
 Paris 4« 50 585.1 
 
 The Academicians Pello <56 48 51)5.9 
 
 CaptainPhipps | 79 50 ! 471.2 ^^t 
 
 " By this table it appears, that the observations in the middle 
 parts ofthe globe, setting aside the single one at the Cape, are as 
 consistent as could rea-onuJily be expected ; and they represent 
 the ellipticity of the earth as about one 340lh. But when we come 
 within ten degrees of the e(|uator, it should seem that the force of 
 "Tavitv suddenly becomes much less, and within the like distance 
 ofthe poles much greater than it could be in such a spheroid." 
 The following problem communicated by Dr. Leatherland to Dr. 
 Pemberton, an<l published by Mr. Robertson, serves to lind the 
 proportion between the axis and the etiuatorial diameter, from 
 measures of a degree of the meridian in two dillerent latitudes sup- 
 posing the earth an oblate spheroid. Let A Pn;) (Plate LIX.fig. 
 15) be an ellipse representing a section of the earth through the 
 axis Pp ; the equatorial diameter, or the greater axis of the ellipse, 
 being A« ; let E and 1' be two places, where the measure of a de- 
 gree has been taken; these measures are proportional to the radii 
 of curvature in the ellipse at those places; and if CQ, CK, be con- 
 juaates to the diameters whose vertices are E and F, CQ will be to 
 C'k in tlie subtriplicated ratio of the radius of curvature at K to 
 
 that at F, by cor. 1, prop. 4, part 6, of Milnes's Coiiic Sections, 
 and therefore in a given ratio to one another; also the angles Ql^P, 
 KC 1', arethe latitudes of E and F: these angles are theretore given, 
 as well as the ratio of CQ to CR. Let QV and RS be drawn paral- 
 lel to pj), and QY W to Ar/ ; then from the property of the ellipse 
 there is given the ratio of N'C-— ZC- tcTRZ- — QV-, this ratio 
 being the same with the ratio of CA'' to CP-; therefore the 
 ratio of CA to CP is given. Hence, if the sine and cosine 
 oi the greater latitude be each augmented in the subtriplicate 
 ratio of the measure of the degree in the greater latitude to 
 that in the less, then llie difltrence ofthe squares of the augment- 
 ed sine, and the sine of the less latitude, will be to the ditierence 
 ofthe s(|uares of the cosine of tlie less latitude, and the augment- 
 ed cosine, in the duplicate ratio of the equatorial to the polat 
 diameler. For C7 being taken in CQ ecjual to CR, and qii. drawn 
 parallel to QV, C'l and nq, CZ and ZR, will be the sines and co- 
 sines of the respective latiluiles to the same radius; and CV, VQ, 
 will be the augmentations oICk and Cij in the ratio named. Hence, 
 to lind the ratio between the two axes of the earth, let E denote the 
 greater, and F the less of the two latitkule.s, M and N the re- 
 spective measures taken in each ; and 
 
 /M 
 let P denote ■" \/ ■55 : then 
 
 cos.'F — P- X coi.° E less axis 
 
 \ 1'^ X sin. 'E —sin. '^ F greater axis 
 
 It also appears from the above problem, tliat wh.en one of the de- 
 grees measured is at the equal'jr, the cosine of the lalitude of the 
 oilier being augmented in the subii iplieate ratio of the degrees, the 
 tangent ofthe lalitude will be to the tangent answering 10 tlie aug- 
 mented cosine, in tf.e ratio of the greater axis to the less. For, 
 supposing E the ))lace out r.f tlie equator, then, if the semi-circle 
 i'lmiiji be described, and IC joined, and me drawn parallel to «C : 
 Co is the cosine ofthe latitude to the radius CP, and CY that cO' 
 sine augmented in the ratio before named ; YQ being to Y/, that 
 is, Ce to C« or CP, as the tangent of the angle YCQ, the latitude 
 ofthe point E to the tangent of the angle YC/ belonging to the 
 augmented cosine. Thus, if M repiesent the measure in a latitude 
 denoted by E, and N the measure at the equator, let A denote an 
 angle whose measure is 
 
 _ y M rri tan. A . less axis 
 
 COS. E X ' \/ xT ^"*" . IT '^= ; - 
 
 ^ N tan. E greater axis 
 
 But M, or the length of a degree, obtained by actual mensura- 
 tion in diO'erent latitudes, is known from the following table: 
 
 Annus 
 
 Maupertnis, Sec 
 
 Cassini ajul ) < . 
 La Caille 5 i . 
 
 lioscovich 
 
 De la Caille 
 
 Juan and I'lloa 
 
 B.ouguer 
 
 Condamine 
 
 f'aliie oj M, 
 
 toises 
 M = 57438 
 M = 57074 
 M = 57050 
 M = 56972 
 M =57: '37 
 M = 5(1768 
 M = 56753 
 M = 56749 
 
 I . 
 
 Now, by cohiparing the 1st with each of the following ones; the 
 adwilh e.ich of the following; and in like manner the 3d, 4th, 
 and 5th, with each of the following ; there will be obtained C5 re- 
 sults, each shewing the relation of the axes or diameters; the 
 ariihmetical means of all of which will give lh;it ratio as 1 to 
 0-995 1989. If the measures of the latitude of 49° 22', and of 45°, 
 which fall within the meridian-line drawn through France, and 
 which have beeufe-examincd and. corrected since the northern 
 and southern expedition, be com))ared with thase of Mau|,'ertuis 
 and his associates in the nortii, and that of Bouguer at the equator, 
 there will result six different values of the ratio of the two axes; 
 the arithmetic al mean of all which is that of 1 to 00953467, which 
 maybe considered as the ratio of the greater axis to the less; 
 whicii is as 230 to 328-92974, or 215 to 214, or very near the ratio 
 as assigned by Newton. Now, the magnitude, as well as the 
 figure of the earth, that is, the pol.u' and equatorial diameters, 
 may be <ledu(.ed from the foregoing problems. For, as half the 
 latus rectum ofthe greater axis Ao is the radius of curvature at A, 
 it is given in magnitude from tlie degree measured there, and 
 
 thenco
 
 EAR 
 
 22'> 
 
 E A n 
 
 tlidice tlif ;i\es themst-lves are given. Tims, the circular arc 
 whose Icngtli is c.nial to llie radius bdn^ JT'-'yj'S degrees, if lliis 
 number be multiplied by J67J0 toises, llie measure ot a degree at 
 the equator, as Uouguer has stated it, the product vill be the ra- 
 dius of curvature lliere, or half the latus rectum of the greater 
 axis; and tliis is to lialf the less axis in llie ratio of tlie less axis 
 to the greater, that is, as 0.99-'>34(i7 to I ; whence the two axes are 
 65338'io and 6564306 toises, or 7913 and 79">0 English miles; and 
 ilie dirterenees between tlie two axes about 37 miles. See llo- 
 b«:rtson's Navigation, vol. ii. p. 2o6, ice. Suite des Mem. de 
 I'Acad. 171S, p. i.'47, and Marlaurin's Fluxions, vol. ii. book 1. 
 chap. 14. And very nearly tlie same ratio is deduced from the 
 lengths of pendulums vibrating in the same time, in diflerent lati- 
 tndes; provided it be again allowed, that the meridians are real 
 ellipses, or the earth a true spheroid, which, however, can only 
 take place in the case of an uniform gravity in all parts of the 
 earth. Thus, in the new Peter^burgh Acts,' for 1738 and 1789, 
 are accounts and calculations of experiments relative to this sub- 
 je<;t, by M. KrafTt. These experiments were made at dilTerent 
 times and in various parts of the Russian empire. This gentle- 
 man has collected and compared them, and drawn the proper 
 conclusions from them: thus, he infers, that the length x of a pen- 
 dulum that swings seconds in any given latitude \, and in a tem- 
 jieralure of 10 degrees of Reaumur's thermometer, may be deter- 
 mined by this equation: .>= 439" 178 -(- 2-321 sine -x, lines of a 
 French foot, or r = 39'0045 -]- 0-206 sine % in English inclics, in 
 the temperature of 53 of Eahrenlieit's thermometer. 'J'his ex- 
 pression nearly agrees, not only w-ith all the experiments made on 
 the pendulum in Russia, but also with those of Mr. Graham in 
 England, and those of Mr. Lvons in 79° 50' north latitude, where 
 be found its length to be 431-38 lines. It al^o shews the augment- 
 ation of gravity from the equator to the p;u-allel of a given lati- 
 tude >.: for, putting g for the gravitv under the equritor, G for that 
 iluder the pole, and i/ for that under the latitude >■, M. Kraflt linds 
 y = (l -f 0-0052848 sine *x)g; and therefore G = I 00528-18 ^. 
 From this proportion of gravity under difTerent latitudes, the same 
 BUthur infers, tlut, in case the earth is a homogeneous ellipsoid, 
 its oblateness must be one 191, instead of one 230th; which ought 
 to be the result of this hypothesis; Ijut on the supposition, that the 
 fartli is a heterogeneous ellipsoid, he finds its oblateness, as deduc- 
 ed froni these experiments, to be one 297th; which agrees with 
 that resulting from the measurement of some of the degrees of the 
 meridian. This confirms an observation of M. de la Place, that if 
 the hypothesis of the earth's homogeneity be given up, then the 
 theory, the measurement of degrees of latitude, and experiments 
 with the pendulum, all agr^e in their result with respect to the 
 oblateness of the earth. See Memoires de I'Acad. 1783, p. 17. 
 Ill the Philos. Trans, for 1791, p. 236, Mr. Dalby lias given some 
 calculations on measured degrees of the meridian, from whence he 
 infers, that those degrees measured in middle latitudes, will answer 
 nearly to an ellipsoid whose axes are in the ratio assigned by New- 
 ton, viz. that of 230 to 229. And as to the deviations of some of 
 the others, viz. tow ards the poles and ec|uator, he thinks they are 
 caused by the errors in the observed celestial arcs. 
 
 E.4RTH, THE Magnetis.m OF THE. The notion of the magne- 
 tism of the earth was started by Gilbert; and Boyle su|)poses 
 • magnetic elBuvia moved from one pole to tlie other. ^ ol. i. p. 
 285, 290. Dr. Knight also thinks that the earth may be consider- 
 ed as a great hjadtoue, whose magnetical parts are disposed in a 
 very strong irregular manner; and that the S. pole of the earth is 
 analogous to the N. pole in \nagnets, that is, the pole by which 
 the magueti<-al stream enteis. He observes, that all the' pha-no- 
 mena attending the direction of the needle, in difierent parts of the 
 earth, iu a great me.isure correspond witli what happens to the 
 needle, when placed u|)on a large terrella; if we make allowances 
 for the didcrent dispositions of the magnetical parts, with respect 
 to each other, and consider the S. pole of the <'arth as a N. ))oIe 
 with regard to ma?netism. See Magnetism. See also Dr. 
 Kniu'ut's Attempt to demonstrate, that all the phsnomena in na- 
 ture may be explained by Attraction and RepuMon, prop. 87. 
 
 Earth, Magnitude of the. See GtociKAPHY aud Astro- 
 nomy. 
 
 Earth, the Structure of. The substances of which the 
 earth is composed, are neither disposi_>d in a regular series, accord- 
 ing to their specific gravities, nor yet thrown together in total dis- 
 «rder, ae if by accident or chance. Human industry has liitherto 
 
 been able to penetrate but a very little way into tlie low cis of the 
 earth, and we can but know little of its interior parts. The depth 
 of the earth, Ii om the surface to the centre, is nearly four thousand 
 miles; and yet the deepest mine in Europe, that at Cottebcrg, in 
 Hungary, is not more tiian one thousand \ards deep; "the greatest 
 dejith, therefore," says an excellent writer, " to which avarice has 
 ever yet penetrated, may be compared to the puncture made in 
 the body of an elephant, by the proboscis of a gnat." See Geo- 
 logy. 
 
 Earths, in chemistry, every body which posscses the follow- 
 ing properties is so denominateJ. 1. Insoluble m water, or nearly 
 so; or at least becoming insoluble when combined with carbonic 
 acid. 3. Little or no taste or smell; especially when combined 
 with carbonic acid. 3. Fixed, incombustible, and incapable, while 
 |)ure of being altered by the lire. 4. A si)ecific gravity not ex- 
 ceeding 4.9. 5. When pure, capable of assuming the form of a 
 white powder. 6. Not altered when heated with combustibles. 
 The earths at present known, are nine in number, namely, 
 
 1. Barytes. 6. Yttria. 
 
 2. Stroiilian. 7. Glucina. 
 
 3. Lime. 8. Zirconia. 
 
 4. Magnesia. 9. Silica. 
 
 5. Alumina. 
 
 Which see under their respective names. Every one of the above 
 characteristics is n(it, perhaps, rigorously applicable to each of 
 these bodies; but all ot them possess a sutTici^-nt riuniber of com- 
 mon properties to render it useful to arnuige them under one class. 
 The discoveries which tlie illustrious professor, Mr. Davy, h-a3 
 lately made respecting the composition of the alkalies, led iiim to 
 suspect that the cjrdis are similar compounds; and from accurat" 
 experiments which he has made, it seems excei;diny,iy probable 
 that the earths are composed of oxygen, and a metallic base. 
 
 EARTH NUTS, or GROUND NUTS. Sec Arachis. 
 
 r^AKTH Nuts, or Pig Nuts. See Bunium. 
 
 Eakth Puci-.rons. See Puceron. 
 
 EARTHQUAKE, a sudden and violent concussion of the 
 earth, generally accompanied with strange noises under ground, or 
 in the air; olteii destroying whole cities at once, throwing dowa 
 rocks, altering the course of rivers, and producing the most terri- 
 ble devastations. Though there is hardly any country known, in 
 wdiich shocks of an earthquake have not at some time or other 
 been felt, yet there are some much more subject to tliem than 
 others. Northern countries, in general, are less subject to earth- 
 quakes than those situated near the equator, or in the southern la- 
 titudes; but this does not hold universally. The islands of Japan, 
 which are situated pretty far north, are nevertheless exceedingly 
 liable to these dreadful convulsions. Islands, in general, are also 
 more subject to them than continents; but neither does this hold 
 without exceptions. Particular parts of continents, and particular 
 islands, are more subject to them than olhei-s lying in the neigh- 
 bourhood, and diltering little from them in external appearance. 
 Portugal is more subject to earthquakes than Spain, and the latter 
 much more than France; Mexico and Peru more than the other 
 countries of America, and Jamaica more than the other Cnribbce 
 islands. EartlK|uakes are fre([ueiit, though not often violent, in 
 Italy; but in Sicily they are often terribly destructive. Asia 
 Minor has been remarkably subject to them trom the remotest an- 
 tiquity; and the city of Antioch in jiarticular has sullered more 
 from eartiK|Uakes than any other in that coualry. Tlie same plia.-- 
 nomeiia are s-aid also to occur very fre(|ueiilly in the extremities of 
 Asia, even in very high latitudes. Although no natural ph.cnome- 
 non is more calculated to iin])ress the human mind with terror, 
 and consequently to be -well remembered and taken notice of, 
 than an earthquake; yet the |)hilosophy of them is but lately ar- 
 rived at any degree ot perfection; and even at this day, the his- 
 tory of earthquakes is very iiicomplete. The destruction occa- 
 sioned by them engrosses the mind too much to admit of philoso- 
 phical speculations at the time they happen: the tair.e thing pre- 
 vents the attentive consideration of the alterations, that take place 
 in the atmo.^phere after the earthquake is over, and which might 
 probably throw- some light on the causes which produced it; aud 
 the :uddeiiness of its coming on prevents an exact attention to those 
 sliglit appearances in the earth or air, wdiich, if carelully observed, 
 might serve as warnings to avoid the destruction. From the ob- 
 servationE that have been made, however, the follow mg pli.Yiio- 
 mena may be deduced, and reckoned pretty cevtaja. 1. Where 
 
 tiiere
 
 E A R 
 
 2-24 
 
 EAR 
 
 thero i:re .iny wlcr.iu.ea or b'jriiiiij; mounUins, an cuithquaku niay 
 rtvhon,.bl) i)u- i-xpeneil more trt-^uciitly than in ollui- coiiiVinc-. 
 2. U tiie Volcano lias been long (niiet, a violent carlliquako is to bi- 
 ftarcd, and vice vi:rsa. l!nt to this Ihf if are many twti'ptions. 
 o. Eai-thiiuakis are jrenevally prcceckd liy long drouglus; but 
 tln'V clo not alwav?; <. oiiio on as sot^n as the tlronght cw-es. 4. 
 'I'hi\ arc also prccodcd by L-U.-c-trical appt-arancfs in the an-; hkIi 
 as tiiV auiora borealis, falling stars, &i-.: but this does m.t hold 
 universally. 5. A short time belore the shock, the sea swells tin 
 and makes a great noise: toimtains are troubled, and send torlh 
 ' muddy water; and the beasts seem frighteil, as it' sensible ol an 
 nppro.xhiiig calamity, (j. The air at the time oC the shock is ge- 
 nerally calni and serene; but afterwards eomn>only becomes ob- 
 scure and cloudy. 7. The shock comt.s on with a rumbling 
 noise, sometimes'like that of carriages; sometimes a rushing noise 
 like wind, and sometimes explosions like the tiring ot canntin are 
 heard. Sometimes the ground heaves perpendicul.irly upwards, 
 and sometimes rolls from side to side. Sometimes the shock be- 
 gins with a perpendicular heave, after which the other kind of nio- 
 tion commences. A single shock is but of very short duiation, 
 the longest scarcely lastiiif, a minute; but they frequently succeed 
 eadi other at sluii t"iiiterval:; for a C'msidcrable" length of lime. K. 
 During the siiock, chasnis are made in the eurth; from which 
 fometiiues llames, but oflcner great quantities of water, an- dis- 
 charged, riame and smoke are also emitted from places of the 
 earth where no i hasms can be perceived. Sometimes tli^ne 
 chasms are but small; bul, in violent eartlupiakes, they are often 
 so large, that whole cities sink down into them at once. 9. 'Phe 
 water of the ocean is allectcd even more than tiiedry land. The 
 sea swells up to a prodigious height ; much more than we could 
 \ suppose it raised by the mere elevation of its bottom by the shock. 
 Sometimes it is divided to a considerable depth ; and great quan- 
 tities of air, (lames, and smoke, are discharged from it. Tlie like 
 irregular agitations liappcn to the v\'aters of ponds, lakes, an<l even 
 rivers. 10. The shock is felt at sea as well as on land. Ships are 
 afifecled bv a sudden stroke, as if tlu y had ruii aground or struck 
 upon a rock. 1 1. 'I'he effects of crthquakes are not conlined to 
 one particular district or country, bul often extend to very distant 
 region^; though no earthquake has yet been known extensive 
 enough to atrcct the whole globe at one time. Tn those places also 
 where the shock is not felt on dry land, the irregular agitation of 
 the waters above-mentioned is perceived very remarkably. All 
 these positions are verified by the account of tho^e earlhcjuakcs 
 »hich has been particulavly'described by witnesses ot the be>.t 
 character. A terrible earthquake happened at Calabria, in 1(538, 
 »hi<h affords an exce|)tion to the second general position above 
 laid down. In Italy, there had been an eruption of Mount Vesu- 
 vius five years before ; anil in Su ily there had been an iruption 
 of iF'tiui only two years before this earthquake. The event, Ikav- 
 ever, plainly shewed, that the cause ol tin: earthquake, whatever it 
 was, had a connectiiai not only with iVIcumt /Ktna, which lies in 
 the neighbourhood, but also with the volcano of Strouiboli, whicli 
 is 60 miles distant, " On the 24th of March (says Kircher) we 
 lanch.cd in a small boat from the harbour of Messina in Sicily, and 
 arrived the same day at the promontory of Pelorus. Our destiii..- 
 fion W.1S for (he city of Knpnemia in Calabria; but on account of 
 the weather, ve were obliged to coutinue three days at I'elorus. 
 At length, weaiiedwith the del.iy, , we lesulved to^prosecute our 
 »ovage ; and although the sea seemed more than usually agilated, 
 \et we ventured forward. The gulph of Chary bdis, which we 
 ap[)roached, 'eemed whirled round in such a manner as to form a 
 v.-ist hollow, verging to a point in the centre. Proceeding onward, 
 ' and turning my eyes to ^lount jV.tna, I saw it cast forth large vo- 
 lumes cf smoke, of mountainous size, which entirely coveri d the 
 island, and blotled out even the shores from my view. This, to- 
 getf.er VMth the dreadful noi^e, and the sulpluueous stench, which 
 was strongly perceived, tilled me with apprehensions that some 
 more dread.lul calamitv was impending. The sea itself seemed to 
 wear a very muuual appearance; those who have seen a lake in a 
 violent shower nt r..;n all covered over with bubbles, will have 
 some idea of its agit.itions. Mv uirprise was still increased by tlie 
 laliuness and serenity of the weather; not a breeze, not a cloud, 
 vhi<h might be supposed to put all nature thus into motion. I 
 Ihi'retore warned my companions, that an earthquake was approach- 
 ing; and, alter some time, making for the shore with all possible 
 . diligence, we l;ii«led alTropa'a. liutwe liad scarce arrive J at 
 
 Ihe Jesuits college in that city, wlien our cais were stuni.ed \\ ith 
 a horrid sound, resembling that of an infinite iiiimber of i hariots 
 driven fiercely forward, the whei Is rattling and the thongi i rack- 
 ing. Soon alter thi-, a n)Ost dreadtul e.iithquak.- ensued; so that 
 the whole track upon which we stood seemed tu vihrule, as if v,k 
 were in the scale of a balance that continued waving. This mo- 
 tion, however, soon grew more violent ; .iwd being no longer able 
 toketpmyhgs, 1 was (hrown |iriistrate upon the ground. After 
 some time, tinding that I temaimd uiilimt amidst the general con- 
 cussion, 1 resolved to venture tor safely ; and running as fast as I 
 conUl, reached (lie shore. 1 ilid not scare h long here, till I louiul 
 the boat in which I had landed, anil my companions also. Leav- 
 ing this seat ot desolation, we prosecuted our voyage along thtr 
 coast ; and the next day came to llochetta, where we landed, al- 
 ihovigii the eartli still continued in violent agitations. Init we were 
 scarce arrived at our inn, vshen we were once more obliged to re- 
 turn to our bo.it; and in about li.df an hour we saw liie greatest 
 put of the town, and the inn in which we bad sel up, dashed to- 
 till ground, and burying all its inhabitants beneath its ruins. Pro- 
 ;;eediiig onward in our little vessel, we at length landed at Lopi* 
 z' 
 
 zium, a castle midway b'etween 'Iiopa'a antl Kuphemia, the city 
 to which we were bound. Here, wheiever I turned my eyes, 
 nothing but seems of ruin ami lic'vror appeared; towns .jid castles 
 levelled to the ground; Stromboli, though at tjO miles distance, 
 belching forth l!,;iiie:i in an uiiu-u;.l ma. ner, and with a noise 
 which I could distinclly hear. Hut my attention was quickly 
 turned from more remote to contiguous dawgi-r. The rumbling 
 sound of an approaching earthquake, which by this time we were 
 grown accpiainted with, alarmed us for the consequences. It 
 every moment seemed to grow louder, and to approach more near. 
 The place on which we stood began to shake most dreadfully ; so 
 that, being unable lo stand, my < oinp.inions and I caught hold of 
 w hale vier shrub grew next us, and supported ourselves in that man- 
 ner. After some time, the violent paroxysm ceasing, wc again 
 s ood up, in order to prosecute our voyage lo Euphemia, which 
 lay within sight. In the mean time, while we were preparing for this 
 piirpo-e, I turned my eyes toward the city ; but could see only a 
 frignifuUy dark i lnud, that seemed lo rest upon the place. T his 
 the more sur|irised us, as the weatlier was so very serene. We 
 waited, therefore, till the cloud was passeil: then turning lo look 
 for the city, it was totally sunk; and nothing but a dismal and pu- 
 trid lake was to be seen where it stood." In l(iy3 an earlhcpiake 
 happtned in Sicily, which may justly be accounted one of the 
 most terrible, of wliich we have any account. It shook the whole 
 isbnd ; and even Naples, and .Malta shared in the shock. It was 
 impossible for any body in this country (o keep on their legs on 
 the tottering earth; nay, those that lay on the ground were tossed 
 from side to side as on a rilling billow: higii walls leaped from 
 their foundations several paces, &c. The mischief it did is amaz- 
 ing; almost all 'he buildings in the countries were ihrown down; 
 j4 ci'ies and towns, besides an incredible luimber ot villages, were 
 either destroyed or greatly damaged. Catania, one of the most 
 famous, ancient, and flourishing cities in the kingdom, had the 
 greatest share in the tragedy. Anthony Serrovita, being on his 
 way thither, at the distance of a few miles, observed a black cloud 
 like night hoveiiiiii; over the citv; when there arose from the 
 mouth of Mont Gibello great spires of flame, which spread all 
 aiouiid. The sea all of a sudden began lo roar ami rise in billows; 
 ami there was a blow, as if all the aitilUry in the world had been 
 at once discharged. The birds ilew abovit, the cattle ran crying, 
 and the horses stopped short, trembling j so that he and his com- 
 panions were forced to alight. They were no sooner off", hut 
 they were lifted from the ground above two palms ; when looking 
 fow^'.rds Catania, he with amazement saw nothing but a thick cloud 
 of dust in the air. Of that niagniricent city, there was not the 
 le.ist footstep to be seen. S. Bon.ijutus as;ures us, that of 18,900 
 inhabitants, 1 S, 000 perishc.J therein. Th.e great eartluiuake, how- 
 ever, which happened rn the 1st of Nov. I'.^.'j, affords the clearest 
 example of all the phinomena above-mentioned, havint; been felt 
 violently in many places both on land and at sea, and extended 
 its el'fects to (he waters in many otlier places where the shock was 
 not perceived. At Lisbon in Portugal its ell'i els were most se- 
 vere, lii 17.')0, there had been a sensible trembling of the earth 
 ielt in this city : for four years afterwards, there had been an ex- 
 cessive drought; insomucti that some springs, formerly very |>len- 
 tiful of water, were dried, and totally lost. The predominant 
 9 « iuds
 
 EAR 
 
 225 
 
 EAR 
 
 viriils were N. aiul N. K. ac-ooiupaiiii'il with varioin, tlioiiiili very 
 mall, Ireinors ot tl\c oartli. TIr' year 17jj |)rt>vLnl very wet and 
 aiiiy : llif siunmor ldoIci' tliaii usual ; and loi- 40 days 1h-Iuic tlu 
 [•arUiqiialo.-, tlii! uinitlicr was tkar, but not remarkably so. 'I'lu- 
 Slst ol' Oclober, Uu> sun WM obscured, willi a ivmarkablf t;loonii- 
 iiuis ill tin; aliiiosplii-ro. On the 1st of Nov. eailyiiillio luorn- 
 iiig, 3 thick log arose, wliicli was soon dissipated by the beat of the 
 un ; no wind was slin-in;;; tbc sea was calm; ami the weatl-'i 
 vas as warm as in June or July in 15rilain. At 33 minutes alliT <(, 
 vithout the least warnnig, e\eVpt a lunibjing noise, like (he artifi- 
 iial thunder in onr theatres, a nio4 dreadfiil earllu|uake shook, by 
 [uick but sliort vibrations, (he loumlatioiis of all llie city, so that 
 luany buildings ijistandy loll. Then, with a pause scarce percep- 
 ibie, the nature of the motion was changed, and the houses were 
 lossed from side to side, with a niolion like that of ;i waggon vio- 
 lently driven over rough stones. This second shock laid almost 
 |hc whole city in ruins, with a prodigious slaugiiter of the jjcople. 
 riic eartluiuake la^ted in all about si\ minutes. At the moment 
 i{ its beginning, some person^ on the river, near a mile Irom the 
 ■ity, heard their boat make a noise as if it had run agr(jund, 
 hough they were then in deep water; auil at the same time they 
 .aw the houses falling on both sides of the river. The bed of the 
 i'iver 'I'aguswas in many places raised to its surface. .Ships were 
 'Iriven from (heir anchors, and jostled together with great violence; 
 lior did their masters know wliether they were alloat or aground. 
 ■V large new quay simk to an inifathomable depth, with several 
 jiundreds of people upon it ; nor was one of the dead ever lound. 
 The bar w as at lirst seen ilry tVom shore to >hore ; but snddeidy the 
 tea came rolling in like a mountain ; and about Belem Castle the wa- 
 fer rose fifty leet almost in an instant, .\bout noon there was an- 
 btlier shock; when tlie walls of several houses that yet remained 
 >pcned /rom (op to bottom more than a quarter of a yard, and 
 afterwards closed again so exactly that scarce anv mark of the in- 
 urv was left. The nnniber ot |)eople who perished in this dread- 
 lul catastrophe is said, a(coid:ng to (he lowest calctdalion, to 
 Amount to more than sixty thousand ; and though (he damage in 
 'Jther ri-spects caimot be computed, y< t some idea may be formed 
 tff it, when we consider, dial this extensive and opulent city was 
 to reduced as (o present nothing but a vast heap ol ruins ; tli.it the 
 rich ami poor were put upon a level; some (hou^allds of familie^ 
 which, tiie day before had been easy in their circumstances, were 
 Blow scaltiTed about in the fields, wanting every eonveniency of 
 Jife, and finding none able to relieve (hem. This was not the only 
 place at which the sliock was experienced. This earthquake was 
 Ivery general, bt. I'be's, a sea-|)Oit near Lisbon, was entirely 
 swallowed u)), by the repeated shocks and the vast surf of the sea. 
 The same eartlu|uake was felt overall S])ain, e.xcept in Catalonia, 
 lArragon, and N'alencia. In many places the sea was agitated in 
 an unusual manner ri-.ing six feet crvery lifteen minutes, and tlien 
 falling so as sometimes to leave the bottom drv. The eartlupiake 
 jwas fi'll almost as severely in Africa as it had been in ICurope. (Jreat 
 !part of .Mgiers was de.--troyed. At Ar/.illa (a town in Fez), lu A.M. 
 Ithe sea suddenly rose with such impetuosity, that it lifted up a ves- 
 jselin the bay, and dropped it wilii s\ich force on the land, that it 
 was broke to pieces ; an<l a boat was founil two musket shot within 
 land from the; sea. At \\/. and Mequinez, great numbers of houses 
 fell, and multitudes of people were buried in the ruins. At Morocco, 
 by the falling of houses many people lost theirjives : and about eight 
 ! eagues from the city the earth opened and swallowed up a villagi' 
 with all the inhabitants, who were known by the naniK of the Soin 
 of Besumba, to the number of about eight or ten Uioiisaiul per- 
 sons, together with all their cattle, &c. and soon after the eartli 
 closed again in the same manner as befcre. In the city of Kuii- 
 chal, in the island of Madeira, a shock of this earthquake was lirst 
 perceived ;il 38 minutes pasty A. M. It commenced with a rum- 
 liling noi^e in the air, like that of (uupty carriages passing hastily 
 over a s( ->iie pavement. The olKcrvers felt the floor inniKfdiaterv 
 after move with a tremulous motion, vibrating very quicklv. 'l"he 
 shock conlinued more than a minute; during which space, the vi- 
 liralions, though continual, were weakened and increased in force 
 twice very sensibly. The increase after the first remission of the 
 shock was tlie most intense. The noise in the air accompanied 
 llie shock during the whole of its continuance, and lasted some 
 seconds alter the motion of the earth had ceased ; dying away 
 U .e a peal of clistant thunder rolling through the air.' At three 
 «juurtevs past eleven, (he sea, which was quite calm, it bcung a liuc 
 
 VOL. II. — NOb' 70. 
 
 day, and no wind sdrring, relired suddenly some- jiiie.; Il.en 
 rising with a great swell without (he least noise, and as sud- 
 denly advancing overflowed (ho r.hore, and entered ll\e c\[j. 
 It io<e li feet per|)endicular .ibove the high water mark, altlioiigii 
 the (ide, which llcnvs there 7 teef, wa; (lu-n ai half cbl). Such 
 were' the phaiiomena fiilli which thii remarkable earlhciuai-o was 
 attended in those places where it was violent. The ellects of it, 
 however, readied to an immense distance; and were perceived 
 chiellybythe agitations ol the waters, or some slight motici; of 
 the earth. 'I'he ulniost boundaries of this earthquake to the soudi 
 are unknown; (he barbarity "f the African nations rendering it 
 impo;-,ible to procure any intelligence from diem, except where 
 the ellects were dreadful. On the noith, however, »c are assure^l 
 that it reached w far as Norway and Sweden. In the foniicf, 
 (he waters of several rivers and hikes were violently agitated. In 
 (he- latter, shocks were felt in several provinces, and all the rivrri 
 and lakes were strongly agitated, esjiecially in Dalocarlia. The 
 river Dala suddenly ove'liowed its banks, and as suddenly relired. 
 At the same (ime a lake tluei; iinles distant, which had no com- 
 municadou with it, bubbled up with great violence. At Fahlum, 
 a town in DaUx-arlia, several strong shoc-ks were (irli. Shocks of 
 this great earthipiake were felt in several places of I'ranee ; parti- 
 culaily at l',i:yunne, IJourdeaux, aiidLyon>: and comiiiotions of 
 the waters were observed at Angonlcsnie, Uleville, Havre tic 
 Grace, &c. In many places of Genn.uiy its effects were very 
 percepdble. Througl.out the duchy of Ilolitein, the waters were 
 vioh-ntly agitated, partic:nlarly those c)f thi; I',lbe and Trave. In 
 Brandenbnrgh, the water o( ;i lake, called Libsec, ebbed and flow- 
 ed six times in half an hour, with a dn-adful noise, the weather 
 being then iierfectly calm. The .same agitation was observed in 
 the; waters cjf the lakes called Mnplgast ainl Netzo; but at (his 
 last place tiicy also emitted an intoh-rable stench In llollanci 
 the agitations were more reinarkabh-. Al Auisterdam, about 1 1 
 X. Nl. Ihi; air being perfectly calm, thi^ waters were suddenly aj;i- 
 talecl ill (heir canals, so (hat si-veral boats liroke looje; chaiuteliersi 
 were observed to vibr.ite ii> the churches; but no motion of the 
 vaith, or concussion of any building, was obsc'rvcd. Al liacrlem, 
 in (he forenoon, for nc^ar tour minu(es to^etiier, not laily the wa- 
 ter ill the rivers, canals, &c. but also all kinds of fluids in smaller 
 qu.mtities, as in coolers, tubs, backs, kc. weresuriirisingly agi(a(ed, 
 and dashed over die sides, though no motion was pc-rcept'ble in 
 the vesscds themselves. Hound the island of Corsica, the sea was 
 violentlv agitated, and most of the rivei-s of the island overflowed 
 their banks. In the city of Milan, and throughout the Mil.inese, 
 shocks were felt. At Turin there was felt a very violent shock. 
 In Switzerland, many rivers turned suddenly mudcly without rain. 
 The lake of Neufchatel swelled near two feet above its natural 
 level for a few hours. An agitation was also perceived in the wa- 
 ter of the lake of Zurich. Al the island ol Antigua, there was 
 such a sea without tlie bar as had not been known in the memory 
 of man ; and after it, all the water at (he wharfs, which used (o be 
 six feel dee)), was not two inches. At r>aibadoes,abont 2 I'.M. the 
 sea ebbed and flowed in a surprising manner ; ran over (he wharfs 
 and streets into the houses, and continued tluii ebbing and (lowing 
 till ten at night. The agitation of the waters was perceived in 
 great numliers of places i.n (rieat Britain. At Barlborougli in 
 Dc;rbyshire, between 11 and \'i A. M. in a boat-house on the W. 
 side of a large body of water called I'lbley dam, was heard a 5ur- 
 jirisingand terrible noise; a large swell of water came in a current 
 from the S. and rose tv/o feet on the sloped damhead al the N. end 
 of the water. It then subsided ; but returned immediately, though 
 with less violence. The water w.^s thus agitated for three quarters 
 of an hour; growing gradually weaker and weaker every time, till 
 it entirely ceased. At Bushbridge in Surrey, at half an hour aftcsr 
 (en in (he morning, die weather being remarkably still, without 
 the least wind, in a canal near 700 feet long, and .J8 fc-et broad, 
 with a small spring cons(anlly ruiining through it, a very unusual 
 noise was heard at the K. end, and the water there observed to be 
 in great agitation. It rose in a heap in the iniddle, between two 
 anci tUree feet above its usual level, and extending lengthways 
 about 30 yards. After this, the heap vibrated towards the N. 
 side of the cuial with gre.it force, and llowc-d above eight feet over 
 the grass walk on that side. On its return back into (he canal, it 
 again rose in (he middle, and then heeled with yet greater force to 
 the south side, and flowed over its grass walk. During this latter 
 motion, the bottom en the ttoiih side wa« left dry for several feet. 
 3 M 'i lii»
 
 E A R 
 
 S26 
 
 E A R 
 
 I'his appi'aruiice lasted for about a (iiiaiter of an hour, after which 
 the watt-r l;ecame smooth and quiet as before. During tiie wliole 
 tfine, the sand at tlie bottom was tl-.rown up and nii.sed with wa- 
 ti'r; and tlierc was a continual noi^e like that oi water turning a 
 mill. AtCi>bham,in Surrey,, betwein ten and eleven o'clock, 
 wliile a mail Wo- watering a horse at a pond fed by springs, the 
 water sudden! V ran awav from him, and moved toward tiie south, 
 with such swiilncss, thai the bottom of the pond was left bare. It 
 reuvrned again with such impetuosity, that the man leaped back- 
 wards to secure himself from its sadden approach. ']'he ducks 
 were alarmed at the 5rst agitation, and instantly Hew all out of the 
 pond. At Dunstall, in Sulfolk, the water of a pond rose gradually 
 f Ji- several minutes in the form of a pyramid, and fell down like a 
 wafer-spout. Other ponds in the neighbourhood had a smooth 
 flux and reflux from one end to the other, and in several other 
 parts of the kingdom effects ctpially surprising were obi^erved. At 
 Loch Lomond, in Scotland, about half an hour after y A. M. all 
 of a sudden, without the least gust of wind, tiie water rose against 
 its banks with great rapidity, but immediately subsided, till it was 
 as low as any person then present had ever seen it in the greatest 
 summer cirought. Instantly it returned towards the sides, and in 
 five minutes rose again as iiigh as before. The agitation continued 
 at the same rate till 15 minutes after 10 .-\. M. taking 5 minutes 
 to'rise, and as many to subside. From 1 j minutes after 10 till 11 
 the height of every rise came somewhat short of that immediately 
 precedijig, still taking 3 minutes to flow, and as many to ebb, till the 
 water was entirely settled. The greatest perpendicular height of 
 this swell w as two feet four inches. A still more remarkable pha-no- 
 nienon attending the earthquake in this lake was, that a large stone 
 lying at some distance from shore, but in such shallow water that 
 it could easily be seen, was forced out of its place in the lake 
 upon dry land, leaving a deep furrow in the ground all alsng the 
 way in which it had moved. In Loch-Ness, about half an hour 
 after nine, a very great agitation was observed in the water. At 
 Kinsale, in Ireland, between 2 and 5 P. M. the w-ealher being 
 very calm, and the tide near full, a large body. of water poured 
 suddenly into the harbour with such rapidity, that it broke the 
 cables of two sloops, each moored with two anchors, and of seve- 
 ral boats lying near the town. But just at the time that a great 
 tleal of mischief was apprehended by all the vessels running 
 foul of each other, an eddy whirled them round several times, 
 ?.nd then hurried them back again with the same rapidity as 
 before. This was several times repeated; and while the current 
 rushed up at one side of the harbour, it poured down with equal 
 violence at the other. A vessel that lay all this time in the pool 
 did not seem to be any ways affected by it ; nor was the violence 
 of the currents much perceived in the deeper parts of the harbour, 
 but raged with most violence oa the flats. From different ac- 
 counts it appeared that the water was all'ected in a similar manner 
 all along the coast of Ireland, west of Kinsale. These arc the 
 most striking ])ha:nomena with v\hich the earthquake of Nov. 
 1, 17j5, was attended on the surface of the earth. Those which 
 happened below ground cannot be known but by the changes ob- 
 served in springs, &c. which were in many places very remark- 
 able. At Colares, on the afternoon of the 31st Oct. the water 
 6f a fountain was greatly decreased: on the morning of the 1st 
 of Nov. it ran very muddy ; and, after the earthquake, returned 
 to its usual state both as to quantify and clearness. On the hills 
 n\nnbers of rocks were split ; and there were several rents in the 
 groimil, but none considerable. In sonic [ilaces where formerly 
 there had been no water, springs burst forth, which continued to 
 run. Some of the largest mountains in Portugal were impetuously 
 shaken as it were from their foundation ; mu^t of them opened 
 a'i^heir summits, split and rent in a wonderful manner, and huge 
 liiasses of t'leni were thrown down into the subjacent valleys. 
 From the rock .'Vlvidar, near the hill Kojo, a kind of parapet was 
 broken olf, which was thrown up from its foundation in the sea. 
 At Varge, on the river Macaas, during the earth(]uake, many 
 springs of water burst forth, some si-.outed up eighteen or twenty 
 feet, throwing up sand of various colours, which remained on the 
 ground. A mountainous point, seven or eight leagues from St. 
 IJbe's, cleft asunder, and threw off several vast masses of rock. 
 In Barbary, a large hill was rent in two; the two halves fell dilier- 
 tnt ways, and buried two large towns. A remarkable change was 
 obicrved on the medicinal waters of Tropl.tz,* a village in Bohe- 
 mia famous for its baths. These watas wei^ discovered in 762; 
 
 from which time the pi'incipal spring of them had constanli- 
 thrown out hot water in the same quantity, and of the same (' 
 lity. On the morning of the eartluiuake, between 11 anx 
 A. M. the principal spring cast forth such a quantity of w ati-r, : 
 in half an hour all the batlis ran over. About halt an lioer bcii> 
 this, the spring had ilowed turbid and muddy ; then having sh j 
 ped entirely lor a minute, it broke forth again with prodigious 
 lebce, driving before it a considerable quantity of reddish oi i, 
 After this it became clear, and flowed as pure as before. 1'. 
 continues to do so; but the water is in greater (|uantity, and I 
 ter, than before the earthquake. At Angoulesme in France, 
 subterraneous noise like thunder was heard; and presently aii- 
 the earth opened, and discharged a torrent of wafer mixed ■■ 
 red sand. Most of the springs in the neighbourhood sunk in -; 
 a manner, that for some time they were thought to be C|uite i.i , 
 In Britain, no considerable alteration was observed in tlie earn 
 except that, near the lead mine in Derbyshire, a cleft was obs> . 
 ed about a foot deep, six inches wide, and ):"iO yards in ki _ 
 'I'he earthquakes, which in 17S3 ruined a great part of Italy .> 
 Sicily, though much more conhned in their extent, than tha; < 
 1755, seem to have been not at all inferior in violence. Sir \\ i 
 liam Hamilton, who wrote a particular account of their effects, in 
 forms us, that " if, on a map of Italy, and with your compass on tin 
 scale of Italian miles you measure oH 22, and tlien fixing the centra 
 point in the city of Oppido, form a circle (the radii of which wil 
 be 22 miles, yon will include all the towns, villages, &c. tli.i 
 have been utterly ruined, and the spots where the greatest mori.i 
 lity happened, and where there have been the most visible alter.: 
 tions on the face of the earth: then extend your compass on I In 
 same scale to 72 miles, preserving the same centre, and form an 
 other circle, you will include the svhole country that has any nurk 
 of having been allected by the earthquake." A circumstance \\;i- 
 remarked, in which this earthcpiake diltiered from others, viz. thai 
 of two towns situated at an equal distance from this centre, one e: 
 the hill, the other on the plain or in a bottom, the latter aKul^- 
 suffered most. From the most authentic accounts received by tin 
 ■king of Sicily's secretary of state, it appeared that the part of ( a- 
 labria which had been most affected by this calamity, was ccm- 
 prchended between 38° and 39° of lat. N. that tlie greatest f. 
 of the earthquake had been exerted from the foot of those nn 
 tains of the Apennines called Dijo, Sacro, and Caulene, extei.d- 
 ing W. to the Tyrrhene sea; that the towns, villages, and farn-- 
 houses, nearest these mountains, situated either on the hills o; 
 plain, were totally ruined by the shock of the 5tl) Feb. about nc 
 that even the more distant towns had been greatly damaged 
 the subsecpient shocks of thceartb.quakes, and effectually by tin 
 of the 7th, 2Glh, and 28th of Feb. and that of the 1st of Marc: . 
 that from the first shock of the 5th of Feb. the earth had been in a 
 continual tremor; and that the motion of the earth had bei ii 
 either whirling like a vortex, horizontal, or by pulsations, or iiy 
 beatings from the bottom upwards. This variety of motions in- 
 creased tlie ap|)rehensions of the miseralde inhabitants, who ex- 
 pected every moment that the earth would open under their feel, 
 and sv.allow them up. These phenomena had been attended with 
 irregular and furious gusts of wind ; and from all these cause.^--, the 
 lace of that part of Calabria, comi)rchended between the 38° and 
 3y° was entindy altered. The number of lives lost was estimated 
 at 32,367; but Sir William Hamilton is of opinion, that, includ- 
 ing strangers, it could not be less than 40,000. The fate of the in- 
 habitants of Scilla was extremely affecting. On the first shock of 
 the earthquake, Feb. 5th, they had fled along with their prince to 
 the sea-shore, where they hoped for safety; but in the niplit a fu- 
 rious wave overflowed the land for three miles, sweeping off in its 
 return the prince and 2473 of the inhabitants, wdio were at that 
 time either on the strand, or in beats near the shore. Various 
 theories have been invented to explain the pl!a?nnmena of earth- 
 quakes. Tiil lately, the hypotheses of modern philosophers were 
 much the same with those of the ancients. Anaxagoras supposed 
 the cause of earthquakes to be subterraneous clouds bursting out 
 into lightning, wdiich shook the vaults that confined them. 
 Olhei-s imagined, that the arches, which had been weakened by 
 continual suhlerraneous,flres, at length fell in. Others derived 
 these double convulsions from the rarelie<l steam of waters, heated 
 by sonie neighbouring fires, (a hypothesis h'tely revived by M. 
 l)olon)ieu,) and some, among whom was Epicurus, and several of 
 the Peripatetics, ascribed them to the ignition of certain inflamma- 
 
 bW
 
 E AIT 
 
 227 
 
 EAR 
 
 bli- exhalations. Tliis last hvpplhesis has been adopted by many 
 dftlu' most celebrated niDderiis, as Gassendus, Kircber, Sfliuttiis, 
 \ arenius, Des t'artes, Dii Haini-l, llonoiius, Fabri. &c. 'I'lie 
 i'.i'.osopber la^t iiienti(}iied, iiuleed supposed, that waters prodi^i- 
 
 ■ Iv rarefied by he.it, might sonietunes occasion earthquakes. 
 
 ■ •' others supposed, lliat tliere are many and vast ca\iti-,s under 
 I'.rid, which have a tomiuunication with one another: some of 
 (h abound wilii waters; others with vajjours and exhalations, 
 
 ■•ing tVoin inll.ui'.nial)le substances, as nitre, bitumen, sulphur, 
 ■. "Tliese combustible exhalations they sujiposed to be kindled 
 liv a subterraneous spark, or by some active flame gliding through 
 a narrow fissure from without, or by the fermentation of some 
 mixture; and when tliis happens, that they may necessarily pro- 
 duce pnl-es, tremors, and ruptures at the surface, according to the 
 number and diversity of the cavities, and the tpiantity and activity 
 ot the inflammable matter. 'I'liis hypiHliesis tliey illustrated by a 
 variety of e.xiieriments, such as nrixtures of irtm lihngs and brim- 
 stone buried in the earth, |)un-'|)owder contincd in'pits, &:c. by all 
 which a shaking of the earth will be produced. Dr. Woodward 
 suggests anolhei livpothesis. lie supposes that the subterraneous 
 heat or fire, which is continually elevating water out of the abyss, 
 which, according to him, occupies the centre of the earth, to fur- 
 nish rain, dew, springs, and risers, may be stojiped in some parti- 
 cular part. U'lien this obstruction happens, the heat causes a 
 great swelling and commotion in the waters of the abyss; and at 
 (lie same time, making the like effort against the superincimibent 
 earth, that agitation and concussion of it is occasioned, which we 
 call an eartliquake- M. Aniontons suggests a hypothesis entirely 
 dirt'erent from all tliese. According to the philosophical princi- 
 ples, which suppose the atmosphere to be about 45 miles high, 
 and that the di^nsity of the air increases in proportion to the abso- 
 lute height of the superincumbent column of iluid; it is shewn, 
 that at the depth of 4j,j'J8 fathoms below tlie surface of the earth, 
 air is but one-fourth lighter than mercury. Now, this depth of 
 43,5^8 f.ithoms is only a 74tli part of the se.ni-diameter of the 
 earth; and the vast sphere beyond this depth, in diameter 
 6,4Jl,53S fathoms, may probably be only filled with air; which 
 will be here greatly condensed, and much heavier than the hea- 
 viest bodies we know in nature. But it is found by experiment, 
 that the more air is compressed, the more does the same degree of 
 heat increase it; spring, and the more capable does it render it of a 
 ■violent ell'ect; and that, for instance, th.e degree of heat of boiling 
 water increases the spring of the air above what it has in its natural 
 state, in our climate, by a quantity equal to a third of the weigiit 
 wherewiiii'it is pressed. Whence we may conclude, that a de- 
 gree of heat, v.diich on the surface of the earth will only have a 
 moderate effect, may be capable of a very violent one below. 
 And, as we are certain, that there are in nature, degrees of heat 
 unich greater than that of boiling water, it is possible there may 
 be some, whose violence, further increased by the immense weight 
 of the air, may be sufficient to break and overturn this solid 
 orb of 4j,52S fathoms; whose weic;ht, compared to that of the 
 included air, would be but a triiie. Though none of these 
 hypcth<'ses w;ere sufficient for explaining the pha-nomena of 
 earthquakes in a satisfactory manner, one or other of them con- 
 tinued to be adopted by almost all pliilosophers till 1749. In 
 March 1749, an earthquake was felt at London and several 
 otllrr places in Britain. Dr. Stukely, who had been much engaged 
 in electrical experiments, began to suspect, that phenomena of this 
 kind ought to be attributed not to vapours or fermentations ge- 
 nerated in the bowels of the earth, but to electricity. In a paper 
 published by him on this subject, he rejects all the above h\ po- 
 theses for tlie following reasons: — 1. That there is no evidence of 
 any remarkable cavernous structure of the earth ; but that, on the 
 contrary, there is reason to presume, that it is in a great measure 
 sclid, so as to leave little room for internal changes and fermen- 
 tations within its, substance; nor do coal-pits when on fire, ever 
 Jjroduce any thing resembling an earthquake. 2. In tlic earth- 
 quake at London, in March 174(), there was no such thing as fire, 
 vapour, smoke, smell, or an eruption of any kind observed, though 
 the shock atl'ected a circuit of 30 miles in diameter. This con- 
 sideiation aloneof the extent of surface shaken by an earthquake, 
 he thought sufficient to overthrow the supposition of its being 
 owing to the expansion of any subterraneous vapours. For, as 
 small fire balls bursting in the air propagate a sulphureous smell to 
 the distance of several miles, it cannot be supposed, that so im- 
 
 mense a force, acting instantaneously, on that compass of ground, 
 should never break the surface ot it, nor become discoverable 
 either to the sight or the smell, be^ides that such fermentation 
 would leipiire a Ion:; time. That such an effect, therefore, should 
 be produced instantaneously, can be accounted for by ele< tricity 
 only, which acknowledges no sensible transition of time, nor any 
 bounds. 3. If vapours and subterraneous fermentations, ex])lo- 
 sions, and eruptions, were tlie cause of eartlupiake-, they would 
 absolutely ruin the whole system of springs and fountains, where- 
 ever they had once been: which is contrary to fart, even when 
 they have been frequently repeated. In the earthquake in Asia 
 Minor, A. 1). 17, which deslroyed 13 great cities, and shook a 
 mass of earth 300 miles in diameter, notiiiiig suliered but the ci- 
 ties ; neither the springs nor the face of the country being injured. 
 4. Tliat any subterraneous power, sufficient to move 30 miles in 
 "liameter, must be lodged at least 15 or 20 miles below the sur- 
 face ; and therefore must move an inverted cone of solid earth, 
 the base of which is 30 miles in diameter, and the axis 15 or 20 ; 
 an ellect impossible to any natural power whatever, except elec- 
 tricity. So in Asia Minor, such a cone must liave been 300 miles 
 in the diameter of the base, and 200 in the axis ; which not all 
 the gunpowder that has been made since the invention of it, much 
 less any vapours generated so far below the surface, could possibly 
 effect. 3. A sufiterraneons explosion will not account for the 
 manner in which ships, far from land, and even fish, are affected 
 during an earthquake. A subterraneous explosion would only 
 produce a gradual swell, and not give so quick an impulse to the 
 water as would make it feel like a stone. From these circum- 
 stances the Doctor concluded, that an earthquake was a shock of 
 the same kind as (hose in electrical experiments. And this hy- 
 pothesis was confirmed by the phenomena attending earthquakes ; 
 jjarticulaily those of 1749 and 1750, which gave rise to his publi- 
 cation. From these phiEnomena, he inferred, that if a non-electric 
 clouil discharge its contents upon any part of the earth, in a highly 
 electrical state, an earthquake must necessarily ensue. As the 
 discharge from an excited tube produces a commotion in the 
 human body, so the discharge of electric matter from many miles 
 of solid earth must needs be an earthquake ; and the snap from 
 the contact, the horrid uncouth noise attending it. Dr. Stukely 
 does not attempt to account for the manner in which the earth and 
 air are put into a state of electricity proper for this purpose. The 
 same hypothesis was advanced by Siguier Beccaria, without know- 
 ing any thing of Dr. Stukely's discoveries. But this learned 
 Italian imagined the electric matter to be lodged deep in the 
 bowels ofthe earth, agreeably to his hypothesis concerning light- 
 ning. Now, as the quantity of electric matter in the simplest 
 thunder-storms is so inconceivably great, that it is impossible to 
 be contained by any cloud or number of clouds ; and as, during 
 the [iiogress of a thunder-storm which he observed, though the 
 lightning frequently struck to the earth, the same clouds were the 
 next moment ready to make a still greater discharge ; it was evi- 
 dent, that they must have received at one place, the moment a 
 discharge was made from them in another. Let ns suppose these 
 clouds over so great, if the lightning proceeded only from them, 
 the (piantity must be lessened by every discharge ; and no re- 
 cruits, that any new clouds might bring, can bear any proportion 
 to the discharge which must ensue, from the collision of so great: 
 a number as combine to form a thunder-storm. It seems there- 
 fore most likely, that the electric matter is continually darting 
 from the clouds in one place, while it is discharged from the earth 
 in another ; and, conseipiently, that the clouds serve as conductors 
 ofthe electric fiuid from tho^e places of the earth which are over- 
 loaded with it, to those which are exhausted. This theory being 
 admitted, he thinks earthquakes may be ascribed to the same 
 cause. For if the efiuilibrium of tlie electric matter be lost in the 
 bowels of the earth ; so that the best method of restoring it shall 
 be by the fluid bursting into the air, and traversing several miles 
 of the atmosphere, to come at the place where it is wanted ; it 
 may be easily imagined, that violent concussions will be given to 
 the earth by the sudden passage of so powerlul an agent. This, he 
 says, was confirmed by the flashes of light, resembling lightning, 
 which have been freipiently seen to ru'sli from the top of Mount 
 Vesuvius, when ashes, &:c. have been carried out of it into the air, 
 and scattered overa large tract of country. And it is well known that 
 volcanoes h;ive a near connection with earthquakes. Dr. Priestley, 
 in his History of Electricity, observes upon these theories, that a 
 
 more
 
 EAR 
 
 ^m 
 
 EAR 
 
 more prohnble hypolhfsis may be foniied out of tliem both. 
 " Suppose {iVL-ys lie) llie electric matter to be aecuinulatetl in one 
 part of tlie surface of the tartli, and on account of the dryness of 
 the season cannot easily difluse itself; it may force its way into the 
 higher regiuns of the air, fornnng clouds in its passage out of the 
 vapours wiiich float in the atmosphere, and occasion a sudden 
 shower, which may further promote the passage of the fluid. l"he 
 vliole surface, thus unloaded, will receive a concussion, like any 
 other conducting substance, on parting with, or receiving a quan- 
 tilv of the electric lluid. The rushing noise will likewise sweep 
 over the whole extent of the country. And upon this supposi- 
 tion aKo the fluid in ils discharge from the comilry, will natnraliy 
 follow the cour>e of the rivers, and also take the advantage of any 
 eminences to facilitate its ascent into the Iiigher regions otthe air." 
 The three last hypotheses, though somewhat dittering, yet agree 
 in (he main ; but if a particular solution of the pha;noniena is re- 
 quired, every one of them will be found deficient. 'I'he editors 
 of the Encyclopiedia Britannica, urge the fnliowiug objections to 
 them, and offer a much more plausible theory, a part of which 
 weshall here quote. " If, accordingto Dr. Stnkely's hypolhesis, 
 the electric matter is lodged only on the surface of the earth, or 
 but a small depth below, how are we to account for those violent 
 effects which often take place in the bov\ els of the earth? In the 
 earthquake at Lisbon, a large quay sunk to any unfathomable depth. 
 \Ve are certain that the cause of the earthquake must have been 
 below this depth, however great it was, and have opened the earth 
 for an immense way downwards. At the same time a hill in Bar- 
 bary clave asunder, and the two halves of it fell dillercnt ways. 
 This shews, that tlie cause of the earth(|uake operated not on the 
 surface of the hill, but on the solid foundation and contents of it ; 
 nor can it be explained bv any superficial action whatever. I'roni 
 what the miners at Eyam' bridge in Derbyshire observed, it is also 
 evident, that the shock was felt at the depth ol 396 feet below the 
 surface of llie ground, more than at the surface itself ; and conse- 
 quently there is all the reason in the world to think, that the cause 
 lay :it a depth vastly greater. Again, though the earthquake at 
 London was supposed to begin with a black cloud and shower; 
 yet in that of 1735, the effects of which were incomparably greater, 
 the air was calm and serene almost in every place where it was felt. 
 It does not appear, that there is at any time a considerable dif- 
 ference between the electricity of the atmosphere and that of the 
 earth, or indeed tliat there can be so. For if tlie earlh is electrilied 
 plus, and the atmosphere minus, there are innumerable points on 
 the surface of the earth, which must be imperceptibly drawing off 
 the supertluons electric matter into the air. The vapours also,with 
 whicli the atmosphere abounds, would always be ready in tlie same 
 service: and thus thunder and lightning might indeed sometimes 
 be produced, but not earthquakes. But lastly neither the air nor 
 the earth do always shew any remarkable signs of electricity be- 
 fore earthquakes happen. For, the summer before the earthquake 
 at Manchester in 1777, there had scarce been any thunder, light- 
 ning, or other signs of elettricitv in the atmosphere, and vegeta- 
 tion had been extremely back\>ard ; and, according to the best 
 accounts, the weather continued remarkably tine. For these rea- 
 sons. Dr. Stwkely's hypothesis seems not to be satisfactory. That 
 ofSignior Beccaria is not indeed liable to the above-mentioned 
 objections; but seems highly improbable on another account. 
 The atmosphere is known to be a substance through which the 
 electric matter inakes its way with the utmost difficulty. It is a 
 vastly worse conductor than water or than moist earlh. If there- 
 fore the equilibrium of this fluid is lost in the bowels of the earth, 
 it is impossible to give a reason, why it should not rather go to the 
 places where it is wanted through the earlh itself, than through the 
 atmosphere. Besides, if this were the case, the shock of an earlh- 
 <iuake could only be felt at those places where the electric lluid 
 issued from the earth, and where it entered. All the int<Tinediate 
 places, ought to be free from any shock, and to be sensible only of 
 a violent concussion in the atmosphere; but of this we have no ex- 
 ample in any liislory of earthquakes whatever. Dr. Priestley's hy- 
 pothesis is liable to the same objections with that of Dr. Stukely ; 
 fur any superlieial operation will never account for those effects 
 above-mentioned, which take place at great depths below the sur- 
 face. His experiment cannot be admitted as any way conclusive 
 with regard to the cause of earthquakes, because no quantity of 
 electric fire is seen to pass over the earth and sea, like the flash at- 
 tetuling the explosion of an electric battery ; and the force of liis 
 
 earth(]uake (Ijeing but just able to throw down a stick that could 
 hardly stand by itself) seems by far too little. To give an ex- 
 planation of the phaenomena of earlhquakes, which shall be free 
 iroin the objections above-mentioned, and from all others, it will 
 be necessary in the lir^t place, to consider those parts of the s\stem 
 of nature, which seem to be be nio.st aflected during the terribttj 
 pha'nomena we treat of. These are, the air, the solid earth, and 
 the water. Of these the two former are electrics per se ; the latter 
 is a conductor, though a bad one. (See Electuicity.) Hence 
 it follows, 1. 'Ihat in proportion to the c|uantity of earth which is 
 mixed with any quantity of water, that mixture will S}/proach 
 nearer to the nature of an electric i)erse, and vice versa. 'J. That 
 whatever quantity of electricity is communicated to the solid 
 earth, will be quickly taken oil' from it by the water which is mixed 
 with it, in the same manner that the electric iiiatter is carried off 
 from an excited globe by a melalhc conductor. 3. The \\ hole 
 earth is moist, and therefore in some degree a conductor. Never- 
 theless, as earth of all kinds, when perfectly dry, is found to be an 
 electric capable of receiving a charge like glass, it is therefore pos- 
 sible, that the electric power of the earth may be excited to such 
 a degree, tliat the moisture of the solid jxirts cannot easily contain 
 the quantity of electricity communicated. 4. In this case, the 
 earlh must either give undoubted signs of its being excited in the 
 same manner that other excited electrics are, or the electricity 
 must be discharged somewhere else. 5. To receive any super- 
 fluous quantity Cif electric matter, tluit may be communicalea to 
 the solid earlh, the waters of the ocean are always ready, 'lliese, 
 being a much better conductor than earth, must be a principal 
 mean of preserving the equilibrium of electricity in the dilTerent 
 parts of the earlh ; and hence we see a natural reason vhy the 
 waters of the ocean should cover so large a proportion of the 
 globe, as they are known to do. See OctAN. 6. Fire is also a 
 conductor of "electricity. Therefore, wherever a quantity of elec- 
 tric matter is collected in any jiartof the solid earth, if it can nei- 
 ther be conveniently received by the moisture which the earth na- 
 turally contains, nor by the ocean in its neighbourhood, it will 
 discharge itself by any volcano that happens to be in an active slate 
 near the place where that collection of electris matter is. 7. The 
 electric fluid being violently resisted by the superincumbent at- 
 mosphere, has always a tendency to discharge itselt in those ph.cej 
 where that resislance is least. 1 he tops ot high mountains, there- 
 fore, where the weight of the atmosphere is greatly diminished, 
 will also alfbrd a ready passage for the electric lluid, when it is 
 collected .in very great quantity in the bowels of the earlh. 8. 
 If, from some natural causes, the electric matter shall happen to 
 be collected in the bow els of the earth in any particular jjlace, and 
 at the same time such obstacles are thrown in its way, that it can; 
 neither discharge itself into the ocean, \ior into the atmosphere by 
 the tops of high mountains, nor by the more open passages of vol- 
 canoes ; the most terrible consequences must ensue : the matter 
 being pent up, and the cause by which it is collected continuing 
 still to act, its impulse becomes at last irresistible. It then flics 
 against every obstacle with inconceivable violence. It breaks out 
 in all those places where there is the least resistance, and therefore 
 the shock is directed a great number of different ways at once. 
 Houses, sfee|)les, trees, S:c. by their height take olf somewhat bf 
 the pressure of the atmosphere ; and tlierefore the electric matter 
 llics against them very violently. The houses and other build- 
 ings being bad conductors, are thrown down ; the trees affording a 
 readier passage to the fluid are not hurl, though even they also ure 
 sometimes S))lit. The height of the irountains renders them tlie 
 objects of the destructive force of this fluid much more than anv 
 buildings whatever. Hence they are often rent, and rocks thrown 
 from them. The wat^r contained in the solid parts of the earlh, 
 being a conductor of electricity, becomes overloaded with it ; and 
 w hen it can receive no more, is forced to yield to the impulse of 
 the rest, and therefore is thrown out ol the earth in great (pianti- 
 ties. For the same reason, the waters on the surface of the earth 
 are most violently agitated. The small quantities contained in 
 wells are thrown out at the topr, of them : the rivers and lakes, 
 which contain loo great a (piantity of water to be thrown off from 
 the earth, rise in billows: the ocean itself, receiving more electric 
 matter than can be immediately dispersed through the whole body 
 of water, or evajiorated into the atmosphere, retreats from thehnuf, 
 and is raised in vast mountains. The solid earlh being unable either 
 to conduct the fluid quietly to tho»e parts where it is wanted, or to 
 
 retaiii
 
 EAR 
 
 229 
 
 EA R 
 
 letaiii it, i'i violently sliakeii or rent in multitiiiles of pUires ; and 
 lliis not only on tlie surface, but to great depths. 'I'lie electricity 
 being now in some measure discliarne<l from the cartli, the ocean 
 rushes forward with fury to discharge in its te.rn the excess of electric 
 matter it just belure received from the earth. If there are volcanoes 
 ill the niighbourhood, the violent discharge of electricity nianilest> 
 itself by setting them in a Hajiie ; and thus, till the e(|uihbrium is re- 
 stored all nature seems to be threatened with dissolution.' — Even in 
 those places where the force of the electric liuid is not able to shake 
 the solid parts of the earth, it manifests its power by agitating the 
 waters in the manner above described. Water beini; a much bet- 
 ter conductor of electricity than earth, this subtile Ihiid, as soon as 
 it can gel out from the solid earth, flies to the water. 'Jhe con- 
 sequence is, that the water immediately swells up, and is attracted 
 by whatever part of the earth has less electricity than itself. Hence 
 those strange irregular motions of the waters in dilferent places, 
 so particularly observed at the time of the eartlu|uake at Lisbon; 
 and which it seems impossible to accoimt for from any other cause 
 than an immediate discharge of electric matter from tiie earth into 
 them. 9. As it is impossible that any part of the earth can be elec- 
 trilied, without couimuuicating a proportionable share of electricity 
 to the anunals that live upon it, it thence follows, that there can 
 be no considerable commotion in the electric mailer lodged in the 
 Ijowelsof the earth, without aiVecting that which is contained in the 
 bodies of the animals. Hence the brutes, wlio seem to be more 
 sensible of such commotions than we, run about, and shew signs of 
 fear, before the eartlujuake comes on ; and hence the giddiness, 
 sickness, Sec. wliich the human race are subject to, during the time 
 of the shock, even though they do not feel it, as was the case at 
 Gibraltar. 10. As the atmosphere hath a communication with 
 the earth, it is scarcely to be supposed that the earth can, for any 
 length of time, contain a considerable quantity of electric matter, 
 witliout communicating to the atmosphere a proportionable quan- 
 tity. Before an earllupiake, therefore, we must suppose the elec- 
 ti-icity of the earth and air to be in perfect equilibrio. Hence the 
 weather is serene, there is no wind, nor any other sign in the zU 
 mos].>here, of the terrible catastrophe that is about to ensue. But 
 the moment the discharge is made from the earth, tiie equilibrium 
 between terrestrial and atmospherical electricity is broken; the 
 air either begins to receive the lluid from the earth, ortheeartli 
 from the air. As there is not then lime for the collection of thunder 
 clouds by which the electricity may be bronght down in suddeji 
 flashes ol lightning, the fluid breaks througli the suhslance of the 
 air itself with dismal and horrid noises, which always accompany 
 an earthquake. 'I'hat this is the case, seems highly probable froiii 
 an experiment of M. de Romas, when, having brought down a 
 vast quantity of electric matttrfrom the clouds bv means of a kite, 
 he heard the noise it made in the air, like the continual blowing of 
 a small forge bellows. In general, a considerable change of 
 weather takes place at the time of an earthquake, though not al- 
 ways. In the earthquake which happened in Kngland in 1777, 
 there was no remarkable change of weather there; but, soon after, 
 there was a great deal of thunder and lightning in tl'.e southern 
 parts of Scotland : which seems to indicate, thai the elci trie fluid 
 discharged from the earth in Englanl had taken its course north- 
 ward, and produced the phanomena before mentioned in Scotland. 
 The same observation may likewise be made with regard to 1789, 
 when there were slight sliocks of an earthquake both in England 
 and Scotland. That in England was followed liy an uisconimon 
 frcqCiency of thunder and lightning in the southern parts oi Scot- 
 land ; by the progress of the eleilric matter northwiird after it was 
 discharged into the atmosphere: but the shot ks which ii.ippcned 
 in the northern part of Scotland (viz. about Crief and Comrie in 
 Perthshire) were not followed by thunder to the southward; be- 
 cause the electric matter, though discharged into the atmosphere, 
 tannot return to the south without first going north, and rising up 
 into the higlier regions." The Encyclopsditts, iiowever, ac- 
 knowledge that, "in the earthquakes in Calabria in 17riJ, there were 
 some circumstances which seem to militate against this tlicorv. 
 "The most remarkable of these is their attacking'the places situated 
 on the plain, much more tlian tlio'^c which stood on the higlier 
 grounds. In a memoir on this earthquake by M. Dolomicu, that 
 author endeavours to exclude electricity from having an- di.ire in 
 the matter : and ascribes tiie whole phxnomena to steam occasioned 
 by the rains of 1782—3, accumulated in caverns under Calabria, 
 and heated by the tires of >Etna. Bui not to mention other evi- 
 
 VOL. 11. — NO. TO. 
 
 deuces, a single circmiist:ince, which M. Dolomieu liimself im-n- 
 tions, is a sufficient prool of electricity being concerned ; and t.'iat 
 is the presentiment which animals had of its afjproach. " '1 he 
 presentiment of animals (says he) at iheapproach ol earthquakes, is 
 a singular iih;rnomeiion, and which cannot fail to surprise us so 
 much the more, as we know not by what organs it i^ communicated 
 to them. Every spicies of animals experience it, especially dogs, 
 geese, and poidtry. The howlings of the dogs in the streets of 
 Messina were so loud, that orders were issued to kdl them." Now, 
 we know, that many animals have a presentim<"nt of a change 
 of weather; wliicli may happen either iroui a change of the den- 
 sity of the atmosphere, or from some alteration in its electricity : 
 but steam pent uji in the liowels of the earth could adert no ani- 
 mal until it began to exert its eiTects. Sir William Hamiltcn like- 
 wise inlorms us, that geese seemed more aflected by tliis cau.se 
 when in the water than out of it ; which may easily be explained 
 upon electrical principles, but not at all, at least not witliout the 
 most extravagant suppositions, by steam |.<ent up in caverns no- 
 body knows where. Again, it is evident, that M . Dolomieu's 
 hypothesis is supported in the worst manner imaginable, viz. by 
 arguing from things unknown to what we see; but tlic true 
 niethoci of argument alu ays is from wdiat we see to things unknown. 
 By this ei ror lie has made clioice of causes which cannot po^sibly 
 answer the purpose. Let any quantity of water be poured into llie 
 focus of mount A'Atvd ; nay, let the sea itself break into it : the 
 consequence could only have been what happenetl in 175!), viz. 
 not an earthquake in Calabria, but a vast elVusJon of boiling wafer 
 from the top of the mountain itself. Nature here made the ex- 
 periment ; and we have no reason to imagine that any other con- 
 se(|Ueiice would have followed, though it had been repeated ever 
 so often. Our author seems also to have forgot, that aqueous 
 steam is capable of condensation, and that when it is admitted into 
 a cold place it instantly loses its expansive power. Let us sup- 
 pose caverns upon caverns extended in any way he pleases: the 
 greater their bulk, the more will lie be embarrassed ; for thus the 
 steam would have room to circulate ; and far from producing those 
 dreadful convulsions, must have returned quietly into water, with- 
 out being able to stir the earlli in the least. It would ap()ear in- 
 deed, tliat the power of aqueous steam is very much over-rated 
 both by M. Dolomieu and other writers. As Nature, or rather 
 the Author of Nature, does nothing m vain, it may not be im- 
 proper to consider, what uses earthquakes may be supposed to an- 
 swer in the general system. As they are tlie effects of the very 
 higliest natural power, it cannot be supposed, that they are pro- 
 duced merely for the purposes of destruction ; and, on the other 
 hand, as they certainly do a great deal of mischief, it seems as dif- 
 ficult to assipn any beie.-voleiit purpose. It is thought, indeed, 
 that earthquakes are the means by which Nature raises mountains 
 and land from the bottom of the sea; but this can never be ad- 
 mitted. We have many instances of mountains being swallowed 
 up and lost by earthquakes, but not a single well attested one of a 
 mount.iin lieing raised by them ; and even when volcanoes are 
 taken into the account, by which some mountaiiis and islands have 
 certainly been raised, the buh:nce appears against them, and more 
 land appears to have been sunk by them than evci was raised. It 
 seems most prrbable, therefore, that earthquakes are accidental, 
 and that the mischief tliey do is only to prevent a greater evil. 
 This we see takes place throughout the whole s_\stem of nature. 
 'i'liUTider and lightning, violent rains, storms of wind, &c. !.re all 
 productive of inucli damage on certain occasions; but we by DO 
 means suppose these pluenomena to take place merely for the de- 
 struction ; and therefore we name such efl<!Cts accidents, 'i'o the 
 same account, on a larger scale, must we place eartbijuakes ; and 
 it only remains to consider, what are the disasters still more terrible 
 than eartliouakes, which we should liave occasion to dread did they 
 not interpose to prevent them. 'I'hese evils are naturally to be 
 dreaded from any general commotion of the electric Ikiid dispersed 
 through tile whole globe of earth. That it does pervade it to the 
 centre, is what we can have no reason to doubt ; but in the inter- 
 nal parts it seems lo lie donnaiit, or to be employed in operations 
 which never manifest themselves to us. Towards the surface it is 
 set in motion by the light of the sun. Tliis produces a constant 
 current througii tiic bowels of the eartli from the equator towards 
 the poles; for as the equatorhtl parts absorti more of the light than 
 those farther S. or N . it mu>t naturally be driven out in the notthem 
 j and southern regions in proportion to tlie quantity absorbed at the 
 ' .i N equator.
 
 EAS 
 
 230 
 
 EBT 
 
 equator. E;irt!H|iukes are the shocks occasioned by its p.issino; in 
 great qiianlitv iVoiii one place where it is prcsseJ and conlined, to 
 another from which it lias a free p.issage ; or from a part of the 
 tartli positively electriiied, to one tliat is negatively so. Let us 
 suppose, however, tiiat such obsti'iictions are thrown in its way, 
 that it cannot get out of the earth by any passage. The conse- 
 quence of this must very slOii b.^, that the motion ol the light 
 acting upon the equatorial pans would be propagated through the 
 whole globe ; and this would be productive of couse<iuences much 
 more terrible t!sa;i any we can conceive. We see that by setting 
 it in motion in a small part of the atnio>phcre or of the earth, the 
 most violent effects ensue; but should this tremendous fluid be 
 obliged to put forth all its strengtli, the earth miist be shaken from 
 the centre. Instead of plantations and little hills removed from 
 their places, as in Calaljria, it is proLable that the largest islands 
 and contiiKUts would be detached from their iiases, or perhaps an 
 universal dissolution ensue. Happily, however, such an cflect 
 can never take place, because tiie electric uialter always vents itself 
 Uy tliL' superficial parts; for the depths to which even tlie causes 
 of eartlu|uakes and volcanoes descend, are undoubtedly superticial 
 in comparison of the vast thickness of the body of ilie earth itself. 
 The great bulk of electric tiuid ihereiore lies quietly in the central 
 pans; and is never moved by the commotions of that which lies 
 on the surfiice, any more than the water at tiie bottom of theoctan 
 is moved by the storms whicii rullle tiie upper pait. 
 
 EARWIG, in zoology. See Fopficula. 
 
 EASEL, among painters, the frame whereon the canvas is 
 laid. 
 
 Easel Pieces, such small pieces, either portraits or landscapes, 
 as are painted on the easel; lluis called to distinguish them from 
 larger pictures drawn on walls, ceilings, &c. 
 
 EASEMENT, in law, a privilege or convei'ience which one 
 neighbour has of another, whether by charter or preicri|;tion, with- 
 out profit : such are a way through his lands, a sink, or the like. 
 These, in many cases, may be claimetl. 
 
 E.\SING, in the sea language, signifies llie slackening of a rope 
 or the like. Thus, to ease the bow -line or sheet, is to let them go 
 slacker; to ease the litim, is to let the ship go more large, more 
 before the wind, or more larboard. 
 
 EASINGWOLD, a town in the N. Riding of Yorkshire; 13 
 miles N. N. W. of York. Lon. 1. 4. W. Lat. 34. 10. N. 
 
 EAbT, [cast, Sa.Kon ; hens, Erse,] one of the four cardinal 
 points of the world ; being that point of the horizon where the sun 
 is seen to rise when in tlie equinoctial. In Italy, and throughout 
 the Mediterranean, the east wind is called the levante: in Greek 
 . (»vef7ox>, and a^?j>.ia'r>!,-, because it comes from the side of the sun, 
 xn' y,>.ii, ; in Latin, ciirus. 
 
 EASTBOURN, a town of Sussex. It lies near Beachy Head, 
 10 miles S. E. of Lewes. 
 
 EASTER, called by the Greeks, naffx»i and by the Latins 
 Pasc/iu, from riDS, a Hebrew word signifying passage, applied to 
 the Jewisli feast ut the passover. It is called Easter in English, 
 from the Saxon goddess Eostre, whose festival was held in April. 
 The Asiatic churches kept their Easter upon the very same day 
 tiiat the Jews observed their passover, and others on tlie first Sun- 
 day after the first fuU moon in the new year. This controversy 
 vas determined in the council of Nice ; when it was ordained that 
 Easter should be kept upon one and the same dav, which should 
 always be Sunday, in all Christian churches in tiie world. See 
 
 ChkOiVOI.OGV. 
 
 Easter Island, an island in the South Sea, thought to have 
 been first discovered in 1686, by one Davis an Englisiiman, who 
 called it Davis's Land. It was next visited by Commodore Rog- 
 gewein, a Dutchman, in 17:~'2 ; who gave it the name of Easter 
 Island. The iNlaiid is extremely barren ; and bears evident marks 
 11. it only of a volcanic origin, but of having been not very long ago 
 tntirely mined by an eruption. It is 36 miles in circumference. 
 Lon. JiJi). 46. \V. Lat. '27. 5. S. 
 
 EAST INDIES. See Hindostan, and lNr>iA. 
 
 Ea5t-ness, or Eastonness, a cape in the German ocean, on 
 the east coast of England, and county of Suffolk, between 
 Southvvold and Lowe.stort'. 
 
 East-ness, on the coast of Yorkshire, near Rydel. 
 
 E.\STON, a town of the United States, in Maryland, the capi- 
 tal of Talbot county, formerly named Talbot Court-IIouse. 
 
 Easton, a town of Pennsylvania, the capital of Northampton 
 couiitv, 70 miles N. of Phil "kluliia. 
 
 E.VST POINT, the N. E. extremity of New Holland. 
 
 EA'l ON, a town of England, in Huckiiighamshire, on the N, 
 side of the Thames, opposite to Wiiulsor ; famous for its collegiate 
 school, founded by Hi-nry VI. being a seminary for King's Col- 
 lege, Cambridge, ihe fellows of which are all from tliis school. 
 
 1C.\U, [f'r.] signihes water ; and hence makes ])artof the names 
 of several compositions in perfumery, pharmacy, &:c. 
 
 EAVES, in architecture, the margin or edge of the roof of a 
 house; being the lowest tiles, slates, or the like, that hangover 
 the walls, or throw off water to a distance from the wall. 
 
 Eavf.s-i.ath, a thick feather-edged board, generally nailed 
 round the eaves of a house for the lowermost tiles, slates, or 
 shingles to rest on. 
 
 EAUSE, or EAUZE, an ancient town of France, in the de- 
 partment of Gersey, aud province of Armagnac, 17 miles S. W, 
 of Condom. 
 
 EBDOMADARIUS, ERDOMAGENES, or HEBDOMA- 
 DARK'S. See Hebdomaoakius, &c. 
 
 E15KNUS, the Ebony 1 ree; a genus of the decandria order, 
 and diadelphia class of plants ; natural order, Papilionaceae, Caly.x 
 with teeth, the length of the corolla ; wings scarcely any ; seed 
 one rough with hairs. It has two species, viz. E. Cretica, Cretan 
 ebony, and E. pinnata, pinnated ebony : the former grows naturally 
 in Crete, and some islands of the Archipelago; the latter is found 
 in Barbary and the Levant. 
 
 EBERBEG, or KBERNBERG, a town of Germany, now in- 
 cluded in one of the new departments on the left bank of the 
 Rhine, five miles S. W^ of Creuznach. 
 
 EBERNSTEIN, a town of (^ermany, in the duchy of Ca- 
 rinthia, twelve miles N. N. E. of Clagenfurt. 
 
 EBERSPERG, a town of Germany, in Bavaria, \9 miles E. of 
 Munich. 
 
 EBERSTEIN, a town of Fiance, in the department of the 
 Lower Rhine, and late province of Alsace, eight miles S. W. of 
 Straslnirg. 
 
 EBERS'l'EIN, a principality and county of Germany, in Sua' 
 bia, between Baden and Wurtemburg. 
 
 Eberstein, a town and fort in the above county six miles S. E. 
 of Baden. 
 
 EBERVIL, or EBERVILLE, a town of Era nee, in the de- 
 partment of Puy de Dome, and late province of Auvergne, eight 
 miles from Riom. 
 
 EBHER, a river and town of Per>i3, in the province of Irak. 
 
 EBION, the author of the heresy of tlie Ebionites, was a dis- 
 diple of Cerinthus, and his successors. To the errors of his master, 
 he had ailded new opinions of his own. He began his preaching 
 inJudea; he tauglit in Asia, and even at Rome. His tenets in- 
 fected the isle of Cyprus. St. John oppose<l both Cerinthus and 
 El)ioii in Asia; and it is thought that he wrote his gospel, in the 
 year 97. particvilarly against this heiesy. 
 
 EBIONITES, ancient heretics, wtjo rose in the very first age 
 of the church, formed themselves into a si ct in the second century, 
 denying the divinity of Jesus Christ. Origen takes (hem to have 
 been so called from the Hebrew word ebion, which signifies poor ; 
 becau>e, they were poor in understanding. E-isebius is of opinion 
 thev were thus called, as having poor thoughts of Jcsu; Christ, 
 taking him for no more than a mere man. It is more probable the 
 Jews gave this appellation to the Christians in eeneral out of con- 
 tempt: because in the hrsl age few but poor people embraced the 
 Chri-lian religion. 1 iiis opinion Origen himself seems to give into, 
 in his book against Celsus, where he says, that they called Ebio- 
 nites, such among the Jews as believed that Jesns was truly the ex- 
 peeled Messiah. There is even some probabilily, that the primi- 
 tive Christians assumed the name themselves, in conformity to 
 their profession. It is certain, Epiphanius observes, they valued 
 themselves on being poor, in imitation of the a])ostles. 1 he same 
 Epiphanius, however, is of opinion, that there had been a man of 
 the name of Ebion, the founder of the sect, contemporary with the 
 Nazarenes and Cerinthians. He gives a long ami exact account 
 of the origin of the Ebionites, making them to liave risen after the 
 destruction of Jerusalem, when the liret Christians, called Na2a- 
 renes, went out of it to live at Pella. The Ebionites seem to liave 
 been a branch of Nazarenes: only they altered aud ( orrupted the 
 
 1 purity
 
 E B li 
 
 2,11 
 
 EC 
 
 puritv of till- tailli lii-Kl among thosi- lirnl adhoii-'nts to Christi.iuiiy. 
 I i'or this reason, Origen cllstinguislies two kinds ot Ebionitcs, ui liis 
 1 answer to Colsiis : the one believed tliat Jesus t'hiist was bom ot 
 a virgin : and tlie otiier, that he was born alter tiie manner of otlicr 
 men. 'I'he lir^t was orthodox in every lliin;;, except that to tlie 
 i Christian doctrine tliej' joined the eerenioiiies of llie Jewisliiaw, 
 I with ttieJtws, Samaritans, and Nazarenes; together \silh the tra- 
 ditions of tlie Pliarisees. They ditfered froiiv the Nazaiines, 
 <.-hiclly as to what regards the authority ol the sacred wril"iii;s ; for 
 the Nazarene^i received all for scripture contained in the Jew i,h 
 canon; whereas the Ebionites rejected all the prophets, and held 
 the very names of David, Solomon, Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Eze- 
 kiel, ill abhorrence. They also rejected all St. Paul's epistles, 
 whom they treated with the utmost disrespect, 'riuy received 
 iiothing ot the Old Testament but the IVntateuch ; which should 
 intimate them to have tlescended rather from the Samaritans than 
 from the Jews. They agreed with the Nazarenes in using the lie- 
 brew gospels of St. Slatthew, otherwise called the Gospel of the 
 Twelve Apostles ; but they had corrupted their copy in many 
 places ; and particularlv, had left out the ijrnealogy of our Saviour, 
 which was preserved entire in that of the Nazarenes, and even in 
 those used by the Cerinthians. 
 
 EBONY, an exceedingly hard and heavy kind of wood, sus- 
 ceptible of a very fine polish, and on that account used in mosaic 
 and inlaid works, toys, &c. There are ilivers kinds of ebony : the 
 most usual among us are black, red, and green, all produced in 
 the island of Madagascar, where the natives call (hem inditVerently 
 Iiazon mainthi, 5.1/. black wood. The island of .St. Maurice 
 likewise furnishes part of the ebonies used in Europe. Authors 
 and travellers give very different accounts of the tree that yields 
 the black ebony. By some of their descriptions it seems to be a 
 sort of palm-tree ; by others, a cytisus, &c. The most authentic 
 is that of M. Flacourt, who resided many years in Madagascar as 
 governor; he assures us, that it grows verv high and big, its bark 
 being black, and its leaves resembling tiiose of our myrtle, or a 
 deep, dusky, green colour. Tavernicr assures us, that the islanders 
 always bury trees, when cut down, to make them the blacker, and 
 to prevent their splitting when wrought. F. Plnmier mentions 
 another black ebony tree, discovered by him at St. Domingo, 
 which he calls " spartium portulaca; foliis aculeatum ebeni ma- 
 teria;. Pliny and Dioscorides say the best ebony comes from 
 Ethiopia, and the worst from India ; but Theophrastns prefers the 
 Indian. Black ebony is much preferred to that of other colours. 
 The best is a jet black, free from veins and rind, very massive, 
 astringent, and of an acrid pungent taste. Its rind, infused in wa- 
 ter, is said to purge pituita, and cure venereal disorders ; whence 
 Matthiolus took guaiacum for a sort of ebonv. It yields an agree- 
 able perfume when laid on burning coals: when green, it readily 
 takes fire from the abundance of its fat. If rubbed against a stone, 
 it becomes brown. The Indians make statues of their gods, and 
 sceptres of their princes, of this wood. It v. as first brought to 
 Rome by Pompey, after he had subdued Mithridates. It is now 
 much less used among us than ancicntlv ; since the discoverv of 
 so many ways of giving other hard woods a black colour. The 
 cabinet-makers, inlayers, &c. make pear-tree and other woods p.ass 
 for ebony, by giving them a black <-olour, by a few washes of a hot 
 decoction of galls ; and when dry, adding ink, and iwlisliing them 
 with a stiti' brush, and a little hot wa.x. Others burn their wood 
 black. 
 
 EBORACUM, in ancient geography, a famous city of the Bri- 
 gantes in Britain, now called York, v liich see. 
 
 EBRBUHARITES.asect among tin- Mohammedans, so named 
 from their founder Ebrbuhar, adiscipleofNacschibendi. Tiiey pro- 
 fess great sanctity, with a total dereliction of all worldly things ; yet 
 are regarded by the other Mussulmans, as little better than here- 
 tics, because they do not go in pilgrimage to Mecca. From this 
 labour they excuse themselves, by i)retending that the purity of 
 their souls, their sublime conlempiations, ccstacics, &c. sjiew 
 them Mecca and Mohammed's tomb without stirring from their 
 cells. 
 
 EBREUIL, or EBREUILLE, a town of France, in the de- 
 partment of Allier, 6 miles W. of Gannat. 
 
 EBRO, a large river of Spain, which rises in the mountains of 
 Santillane, on the confines of Old Castile, and falls with great ra- 
 pidity into the Mediterranean, about 20 miles below Torfosa. It 
 was anciently called Iberus. 
 
 Kr.STOKK, a town ol Gemuinv, in Lower Saxony, 47 miles 
 \V. N. W. of lltzen. 
 
 FBL'I.LITJON, [rhiil!itin,J.iit'] the act of boiling up with 
 hc;a ; any intestine violenl motion of the parts of a fluid. 
 
 Elil'Sl'S, in ancient geoiiraphy, the greater of the two islands 
 called I'ilyura', in the Mediterranean, S. \V. of Majorca. Now 
 called Ivici, lUO miles in compass, without any noxious animals. 
 
 ECASIOK, or MECASl OI{, in anti<iuity, an oath wherein 
 Castor was invoked. It was a custom for men never to swear by 
 Ciistor, nor the women by Pollux. 
 
 EC'AN'ESSADE, in the manege, is used for a jerk of the 
 caves^on, 
 
 ECBATANA, in ancient geography, the royal residence and 
 capital of Media, built by Deioces, king of the Medes, accord- 
 ing to Herodotus: Pliny says, by Seleucus ; but that could not 
 be, because it is mentioned by Demosthenes. It was situated on 
 a gentle declivltv, twelve stadia from Mount Oroiites, and vuis in 
 compass IjO stadia. Here stood the royal treasury and tombs. 
 It was an open unwalled town, but had a very strong citadel, en- 
 comp.assed with seven walls, within and rising above each other. 
 The extent of the utmost WaS equal to the whole extent of Alliens, 
 according to Herodotus; the situation favouring this cor.i.truc- 
 tion, as being a gentle ascent, and each wall was of a dilVerent 
 colour. 
 
 EcuATAXA, another town of Persia, inhabited by the Magi. 
 
 ECCENTRICAL, or ECCENTRIC, [fccentricus,1 1. De- 
 viating from the centre. -. Not having the same centre with 
 another circle : such circles were supposed by the Ptolemaic phi- 
 losophy, 
 
 ECCENTRICITY of the Planets, the di=(ance between 
 the sun and the centre of the orbit in which the planet moves. Sec 
 
 ASTRONO.MY. 
 
 ECCTIELLENSIS, Abraham, a learned Maronite, whom 
 the president Le Jai emplo) ed in the edition of the Polyglott 
 Bible. Gabriel Sionita, !iis countryman, drew him to Pans, to 
 make him his fellow-labourer in publishing that bible. They fell 
 out: Gabriel complained to the parliament, and delamed his 
 associate ; thrir quarrel made a great noise. The coniiregatioii 
 de propaganda lide associated him, in I63t), with those whom tliev 
 employed in making an Arabic translation of the scriptures. Thev 
 recalled him from Paris, and he laboured in that translation : at 
 Rome, ill l6j'J. While he was professor of the Oriental languages 
 at Rome, he was pitched upon by the great duke Ferdinand II. 
 to translate from Arabic into Latin the jth, (jtli, and 7lh of Apol- 
 lonius's Conies ; in which he was assisted by John Alphonso Bo- 
 relli, who added commentaries to them. He died at Rome, in 
 1664. 
 
 ECCHYMOSIS, [from 'yi-x^-'-, to pour out, or from .-f, out of, 
 and x'^l*":', jnice,] an efliision ot humours from their respective 
 vessels, under the integuments; or, as Paulus /Egineta savs, 
 " W hen the fiesh is bruised by the violent cellision of any object, 
 and its small veins broken, and the blood is gradually discharged 
 from them." This blood, when collected under the skin, is call- 
 ed an ecchymo^is, the skin in the mean time remaining entire; 
 sometimes a tumour is formed by it, which is sott and livid, and 
 generallv without pain. If the quantity of blood is not consider- 
 able, it is Usually resorbed ; if much, it supjxiratcs : it rarely 
 hap|)ens that any farther inconvenience follows ; though in a very 
 bad habit of body, a mortification may be the result. 
 
 ECCLESFECIl.VN, a town of Scotland, in Dumfries-shire, 
 Ij miles E. of Dumfries. It has a fair once a month. 
 
 ECCLESIIALL, a town in StatTordshire, 7 miles N. W. of 
 StafCnrd. Lon. 2. 9. W . Lat. 53. 2. N. 
 
 ECCLESIANI, or ECCLESIANS, in church history, a 
 title given by the adherents of the emperors, to those who adhered 
 to the interest of the churcli, during the disputes between the em- 
 perors and popes. 
 
 ECCLESIAS PES, a canonical book of the Old Testament, 
 the design of which is to shew the vanity of all sublunary ihinfs. 
 It was i-omposed by Solomon ; who emimerafes the several ob- 
 jects on which men place their happiness, ami then shews the in- 
 sufficiency of all worldly enjoyments. The Talmudists make 
 king llezekiah to be the author of it: Grotius ascribes it to Zoro- 
 babel, and others to Isaiah ; but the generality of commentators 
 believe this book to be the produce of Solomon's repentance, 
 
 after
 
 ECU 
 
 232 
 
 ECH 
 
 atie.- having experienced all the plea-sures, tollie>, and vanities of 
 l:le. 
 ECCLESIASTICAL Court. See Courts, Ecclesiastical. 
 Ecclesiastical State, in geography, lately the Pope's clo- 
 niiiijons ill Italy. Thi-y consisted of the follow ing provinces: 
 Campagua, Si. Peter's Patrimony, Unibria, Ancona, L rbino, Ro- 
 iiiagna, Bologsia, and FeiTara. Avignon and Venaissin inchided 
 in the French empire, also belonged to the Ecclesiastical State ; as 
 well as the duchy of Benevento, in Naples, which last, was the last 
 that his holiness relaineti of his ancient dominions. The kingdom 
 of Naples and the dnchies of Parma and Placentia also heUl as liets 
 of ilie papal see. Pope Paul 1\'. wlio succeeded Marcelhis II. in 
 1 j.'>."), boasted, that he had 22,800 parishes, 4400 monasteries under 
 his jurisdiction. In obedience to a French imperial decree of May 
 17, 1809, the Ecclesiastical States are now annexed to the empire 
 of France ; and in Feb. 1810, divided into two departments, viz. 
 those of Rome and Trazimene. 
 
 ECCLI'JSIASTICUS, an apocryphal book, so called, from its 
 being read in the church, ecclesia, as a book of piety and instruc- 
 tion, but nut of infallible authority, 'i'he author was a Jew, cull- 
 i;d Jesus, or Joshua, the son of Sirach. The Greeks call it the 
 VVisdom of the son of Sirach. 
 
 F.CCLES TON, a town of Lancashire, 24 miles S. of Lancas- 
 ter. Lon. 2. Sri. W. Lat. 53. 40. N. 
 ECCLISIS, [Ex-oi^if, Gr.] a luxation. 
 
 ECCO, in music books, signifies the repetition of part of a 
 tune, in imitation of an echo. 
 
 ECCOPKO riCS, [ek and x'=r{®',] such medicines as gemly 
 purge the belly, so as to bring away no more than the natural ex"- 
 crements lodged in the intestines. 
 
 ECCRINOLOGICA, [i;oi;.voxoyr«, Gr.] that part of medi- 
 cine, which treats of excretions. 
 
 ECniCI, [!/.Ji:c:i,] among the ancients, patrons of cities, who 
 delended their rights, and took care of the public money. 
 
 ECDYSIA, an ancient fe.^tiral held by the Phocstians, in ho- 
 nour of Latona. 
 
 ECIlALLIiNS, a town of the Helvetic republic, in the late 
 canton of Bern, tJ miles from Lausanne. 
 
 Echallens, a late bailiwic of Switzerland, belonging to the 
 cantons ot Bern and Friburg. 
 
 ECHAPE, [fcliuppc-i: , Fr. a prank,] in the manege, a horse 
 begot between a stallion and a marc of ditVerent breeds and 
 count- ies. 
 
 ECII.APER, [echapper, Fr. to escape,] in the manege, a term 
 used in the academies implying to give a horse a head, or to put 
 on at full speed. 
 
 ECIi l'".NK!S, the Remora, in ichthyology, a genus of the 
 order of thoracici. Head flat, naked, depressed, and marke<l with 
 a number of transverse ridges; it has ten rays in the branchiostege 
 membrane ; and the body is naked. There are si.x species,] na- 
 tives of the Indian ocean. 
 
 ECHEVTN, in the late French and Dutch polity, a magistrate 
 elected by the inhabitants of a city or town, to take care of 
 their coniinon concerns, and the decoration and cleanliness of the 
 city. 
 
 ECHINITES, in natural history, tlie name bv which -au- 
 thors call the fossile centronia, frequently found in our chalk pits. 
 
 ECIIIN'OPIIOIL^, a genus of the digynia order, and pentan- 
 dria class of plants ; natural order, Unibellat.v. Male ilorets late- 
 ral, with the central one hermaphrodite; seed one, sunk into an 
 induratiNl involncrum. It has two species. 
 
 KCIllNOPS, in botany, a genus of the polvganiia scgregata 
 order, and sy agenesia class of plants; natural order, Compositie. 
 Calyx unillonnis ; corolla tubuhited, hermaphrodite; receptacle 
 bristly ; down indistinct. Five species, lierbaceous plants, with 
 alternate leaves. 
 
 ECHiNt)RYN( HUS, in natural history, a genus of the class 
 and order termes intestina. Body roimd ; proboscis cylindrical 
 retractile, and crowned wiili hooked prickles. These animals are 
 found lixed very firmly to the viscera of various animals, generally 
 the intestines ; and often remain on the same part during tlie lite 
 of the aunnal. There are about fifty species, divided into sec- 
 tions : A. infesting mammalia, of this'E. gigas is found in the in- 
 testines of swine. B. infesting birds. C. infesting reptiles. D. 
 infesting lish. 
 ECHINUS, Se.vUrchin, in natural history, a genus of the 
 
 class and order vermes mollusca. Body round^^h, covered with a 
 bony satured crust, and generally furnished with moveable spines; 
 mouth placed beneath, and mostly Mve-valved. Thev are divided 
 into sections, chieily distinguished by the situation of the vent. 
 A. vent vertical ; tcniacula every where simple. B. vent placed 
 beneath; mouth without tentacula. C. vent lateral ; mouth «ilh 
 pencilled tentacula. Each of these sections are subdivided. 
 There are more than 100 species, besides varieties. Tliey are all 
 inhabitants of the sea, and many of them have been found m a fos- 
 sil state ; many are esculent. In old times they were a favourite 
 dish. They were dressed with vinegar, honied wine or mead^ 
 parsley or mint ; and thought to agree with the stomach. 
 
 ECHITES, in botany, a genus of the monogynia order, ai:d 
 pentandria class of plants; natural order, Contortre. Follicles 
 two, long and straight ; seedj downy ; corslla funnel-shaped, witU 
 the throat naked. Twenty-two species, mostly natives of the 
 West Indies. 
 
 ECTIIL'M, Viper's Bugloss, in botany, a genus of the mo- 
 nogynia order, and pentandria class ; natural order, Asperif^jliic. 
 Corolla irregular, with the throat naked. There are twentv-one 
 species. > 
 
 EcHiUM Vulgar E, or Commo.k Bugloss, the flowers of 
 which are very grateful to bees. It is a native of manv pans of 
 Britain. The stem is rough with h.airs and tubercles. 1 he leaves 
 are spear-shaped, and rough with hair. 
 
 ECHO, or ECCHO, is formed from the Greek ix®', «w<«if. 
 The ancients being wholly unacquainted with the true cause of the 
 eclio, ascribed it to several causes sufficiently whimsical. The 
 poets, who Were not the worst of their philosophers, pretended it 
 was a person of that name metamorphosed, and th.it slie atlected 
 to take up her abode in particular places; for they found that sliQ 
 was not to be met with everywhere. But the moderns, « ho 
 knew sound to consist in a certain tremor or vibration in the so- 
 norous body communicated to the contiguous air, and by that 
 means to the ear, give a more consistent account of echo." See 
 Acoustics. A tremulous body, striking on another solid body, 
 maybe repelled without destroying or diminishing ilstrrmor^ 
 and conse(juenlly a sound may be redoubled by the resilition of the 
 tremulous body, to the air. But a simple reilection of the sonor- 
 ous air is not enough to solve the echo : for then every plain sur- 
 face of a solid hard body, being fit to reilect a voice or sound, 
 would redouble it ; which we find dees not hold. To produce an 
 echo, therefore, it should seem, that a kind of concameration or 
 vaulting were necessary, to collect, and by collecting to heighten 
 and increase, and alterwards reilect the sound; as we find is the 
 case in reflecting the rays of light, where a concave mirror is re- 
 ciuired. In fact, as often as a sound strikes perpendicularly on a 
 wall, behind which is any thing of a vault or arch, or even another 
 parallel wall ; so often will it be reverberated in the same line, or 
 other adjacent ones. For an echo to be heard, therefore, it is ne- 
 cessary that the ear be in the line of reflection: for the person w ho 
 made the sound to hear its echo, it is necessary he be perpendicu- 
 lar to the place wiiich reflects it: and tor a manifold or tautological 
 echo, it is necessary there be a number of w alls, and vaults or 
 cavities, either placed behind or fronting each oilier. A single arch 
 or concavity, &c. can scarce ever stop and reflect all the sound ; 
 but if tliere'be a convenient disposition behind it, part of the sound 
 propagated thither, being collected and reflected as before, will 
 present another echo: or, if there be another concavity, opposed at 
 a due distance to the former, the sound reflected from th< one upon 
 the other will be tossed back again by this last, &:c. Many of the 
 ph.Tnoniena of echoes are w ell considered by the bishop of J .eighs, 
 ci:c. who remarks, that any sound, falling directly or obliquely on 
 any dense body of a smooth suiierhcies, whetiier plain or arched, 
 is reflected, or echoes, more or le^s. The surface, says he, must 
 be smooth ; otherwise the air, by reverberation, will be put out ot" 
 its regular motion, and the sound thereby broken and extin- 
 guished. 
 
 Echo, is also used for the place where the repetition of the sound 
 is produced or heard. In echoes, the place where the speaker 
 stands is called the centrum phonicum ; and the object or place 
 that returns the voice, the centrum phonocanipticiim. Echoes 
 are distinguished into two kinds; viz. Single and Tautological, or 
 Muhiple. 
 
 i. Echoes, Single, are those which return the voice but once. 
 Of these some are Tonical, others Polvsyllabical. 
 
 1. ECHOPS,
 
 F, C h 
 
 23 
 
 E C 
 
 
 I . I'.CHOLS, I'oi.vsYi.i.ABiCA!., avf >.',-,' liv wliicli return inniiy 
 •-■. ll:il)lcs, \vor(l<, ;ukI si;iitriu-is. Ot tiiis Uist kilni is tliat liiK- rclio 
 ji'i \V<io(l-slo<k park, wliuli Ur. Plot assures us, in tlio day-time, 
 will ri'luru v<-ry distinctly l"syll;ibl(s, and in the i\ii>lit 'Jn. 
 
 'J. KcHOKs, ToNiCAL, are llio-i" uhn li only return a voice, 
 viien modulated into soi\ie particular musical tone. 
 
 ii. McHOKS, 'lAUToi.of.icAL, or Mvt.TU'i.K, are those that re- 
 ttiiM syllaliU's :miiI words, llic same oftiMilimes repeated. At the 
 -i|)ulel"ire<)f M^-lella, wife otCras^us, was an echo, which rept-ated 
 what a man said live liniei. Authors mention a tower at C'y/icus, 
 whiTe the e< ho repeated seven times. One of tlie lincst echoo 
 wi- read of is that mentioni'd liy Darthins, in his notes on Statiusis 
 Thebaic, lih. vi. ,50, wliich repealed the words a man uttered 17 
 times: it was on the hanUs ol the Najia, between Coblentz and 
 15im;ci). Uarthius assures us, he had proved what he writes; atid 
 had told 17 repetitions, [n common echoes, the repetition is not 
 heard till some tinic alter hearins; the word spoken, or the notes 
 sunt;; hut in this, the persun w ho speaks or sinus is scarce heard at 
 all ; hut the repetition most clearly, and always in surprising va- 
 rieties; the eiho seeminj; sometimes to approach nearer, and 
 sometimes to bi' furtlier oil'. Sometime^ the voice is heard very 
 distinctly, and sometimes scarce at all. ( >ne heai's only one voice, 
 and another several; one hears the echo on theriiiiit, and the other 
 on the left, etc. At .Milan in the late Cis;dpine republic, is an echo 
 Tvhich reiterates the report of a |>istoI ,ili times; and if the report 
 i- verv loud, upwards of tiO reiterations may be counted. The 
 first 'JO echoes arc ])retty distinct ; but as die noise seems to tly 
 away, and answer at a great distance, the reiterations are so 
 doubled, that they can scarce be counted. 
 
 Echo, in architecture, a term applied to certain kinds of vaults 
 and arches, most commonly of the elliptic and par.ibolic tigurcs 
 w-rd to redouble sounds, and produce artilicial eclioes. 
 
 Echo, in ])oetry, a kind of composition wherein the last words 
 or syllables of each vei-se contains some meanini;, which, beinor 
 repeated apart, answers to some question or other malti'r conlaii.eil 
 in the verse ; as in this beautiful one from Virgil : 
 
 C ruilelis ntaler magis, an puer improlnis ille? 
 
 Improbus ille puer, crudelis tu (piociue mater. 
 
 'The elegance of an echo consists in giving a new sense to the last 
 
 words; which revci berate, as it were, the motions of the mind 
 
 and by that means allect it with surprise and admiration. 
 
 Echo, in the mythology, a <laughter of Aer and '1 ellus, \»ho 
 chiellv resided in the vicinity ot the C'epbisus. Slie was once one 
 of Juno's attendants, and became the conlidnnt of .Uipiter's amours. 
 Her lotpiacity however displeased .hipiter, and she was deprived 
 of the power of speech by Jniio, and only permitted to answer the 
 <|uestions which wt-r.- put to her. Echo, after she had been 
 ]>unishcd by Juno, fell in love with Narcissus; hut being despised 
 by him, pined to death, having nothing but her voice left. 
 
 ECIlfiMETEK, [j, 'r/_'sy, sound, and ^-.iT^c'i- to measure,] among 
 musicians, a kind of^cale or rule, with several lines tlereon, serv- 
 ing to measure the duration and length of sounds, and to lind their 
 intervals and ratios. 
 
 ECIJA, or I'.XIJA, a town of Spain, in Andalusia, jj miles 
 E.N. E. of Seville. 
 
 EC'K.Vl<DSBEUf;,\, afown of (lermany in I'pper Sasony, 10 
 miles \V . S. W. of Naundjurg. 
 
 ECKTKKNAC, a town of Erance, in the department of Korets, 
 IR miles N. E. of Lu\emburg. Lon. (i. 33. E. Eat. 49. JO. N. 
 
 ECLECTICS, [from ix>i-/A, to choose,] ancient philosophers, 
 who, without attaching themselves to any jiarticular sect, chose 
 what they judged -jood ami solid from each. Eaertius says that 
 tliey were also denominated Analogetiei ; but that thev call them- 
 selves Philaletlu-s, i. o. Iov,ts of truth. Tlie founder of the 
 F.clectiei was one iPotamon of Ale\aiulria, who lived under .Augus- 
 tus and 'I'iberius ; and who, weary of doubting of all things w ith 
 the Sceptiis and I'vrrhonians, formed the Eclectic sect ; which 
 Vossius calls the Edective. 
 
 I'.CLtcTics were also a certain set of physicians among the an- 
 cients, of whom Archigenes, under Trajan, was the chief, who se- 
 lected f.om th(; opinions of all the other sects, that which appeared 
 to them best and most rational ; hence they were called eclectics, 
 ami their prescriptions medieina eclectica. 
 
 EcLKCTics, or Moiiv.RN- Platonics, asect of Christians, who 
 arose about the end of the second century. 'I'hey professed to 
 make truth the only object of their emjuiry, and "to be ready to 
 
 vot. II, — so. 70." 
 
 atlopt from .ill the ditferent sv-tems and se<t~, sui'h tenets a^ they 
 thought agreeable to it. However, they preterred Plato to the 
 other philosophers, and looked upon his opinion* concerning (Jod, 
 tlie human soul, and things invisible, as conformable to the spirit 
 and renins of the Christian doctrine. 
 
 I'X'Ll'^G.MA, [i/. and >iixi"v,l a form of medicine made by. the 
 incorporatioji of oils with >\riips, and which is to be taken upon a 
 li(|Uorice stick. 
 
 ECM.IPSIC, [lx^si^J..c,J an obscuration of (he Uimir.arit'- nf 
 heaven ; tile sun is etlipsed by the intervi ntion of the moon ; the 
 moon by the interposition of the earth. See Aspxo.v-qmv. 
 
 ECTJPT.V, in hotanv, a genus of the pol} gainia superllua or- 
 der, and syiiiienesia class. Keec'ptacle chafly ; no pappus; 'corol- 
 1 u I. -u of the disk ijuadrilid. It has live species natives of both the 
 Indies. 
 
 ECTJPTIC, [s:'->t'^Tr.!3;,] a great circle of the sphere, passing 
 tlirough the middle of the Zodiac. See i\sTRo.\OMY. 
 
 ECLt^CJL'E, Fi**')'!, Gr. rluiict;'] in poetry, a kind of ])astor.d 
 composition, wherein shepherds are introduced convei-sing lo- 
 getlier. According to the etymology, eclogue should be no more 
 than a select or choice piece ; but custom has de ti-rmined it to a 
 larther signitication, viz. a little elegant composition in a simp.le 
 natural style and manner. Idyllion and eclogue, in their primary 
 intention, are the same thing : thus, the idy Hi?., iiJii>.>.es, of Theo- 
 critus, aie pieces written ])>Tt'ectly in the same vein with the 
 ecloga; of \"irgil. But custom has made a dillercnce butwi-eii 
 them, and appropriated the name eclogue to pieces wherein 
 shepherds are introduced speaking ; idyllion, to th(jse written like 
 the eclogue, inasimjih? natural sty le, but without any shepherds in 
 them. 
 
 ECLl'SE, a town of France, in the department of the North, 
 and late i>rovince of Dutch Flanders. J-on. 3. 1') E. Lat. ;">0. 
 j'J. 'N. 
 
 ECONOM'S', [cixovsfxifi,] a term of extensive signification, an<I 
 it Its meaning he properly understood and practised, the result can- 
 not fail to be atten<led with the happiest etfccts. It is, in particu- 
 lar, applied to rural, domestic, animal, political, and other objects, 
 to denote the regulation and management of them, and the ascer- 
 taining of their uses, advantages, &c. 
 
 ECONOMICS, the art of managing our affairs in an appropri- 
 ate ainl advantageous manner. 
 
 l-.COl' IE', in the manege, a pace or njotioii of a horse, v^'hen 
 lie rides well upon the hands and the heels, is compactly put upon 
 his haunches, and hears or listens to the heels or spurs, and conti- 
 nues duly balanced between the heels, without throwing to either 
 side, 'fhis happens when a horse has a line sense of the aids i>t the 
 hand and he<-l. 
 
 I'X'PIIOlJA, in architecture, commoidy signifies the distance 
 between the extremity of a member or moulding, and the naked 
 of the column, or any other part it projects lioni. Some authors, 
 however, account for the ecphora trom the axis of the column, and 
 define it to he the right line intercepted between the axis and the 
 outermost surface of a member or mouUling. 
 
 ECPIIUACTICS, [fx and ^j'triiu,] such medicines as render 
 ti>ugh humours more thin, so as to promote their discharge. See 
 Atiknuant, Dkobstul'E.s r, and Dh.TEUGKN rs. 
 
 ECST.'VTICl, [i>-.ri"'x", Irom tjiri;.", i "'" fiitrnuccd,'] in an- 
 ticpiity, a kind of diviners who were cast into trances or ecstasies, 
 in which they lay like men dead or asleep, deprived of all sense 
 and motion; but, after some time, returning to themselves, gave 
 strangi- relations of what they had seen and heard. 
 
 EC'I'HESIS, [C;r.]in church history, a confission of faith, in the 
 form of an edict, published A. D.li3y, by the emperor iieraelius, to 
 pacifv the troubles occasioned by the Eutychian heresy in the 
 eastern church. 
 
 EC! 11 EIPSIS, among Latin grammarians, a ligure of |)rosudy 
 whereby the iii at the end of a word, when the following word be- 
 ■jins with a vowel, is elide<l, or cut off, together with the vowel 
 |)recediiig it, for the sake of the measure of the verse: thus, for 
 ".Monstruni horrendum, inlorme, inp;eiis, c iii lumen ademptum" 
 thev read. Moii-tru' horrend' inform' ingens, eui lumen ademptum. 
 
 ECTUOPUM, in surijerv, is when the ive-lids are inverted,, 
 or retracted, ^o that they shew their internal or re surface, anil 
 cannot sufficiently cover the eye. 
 
 ECTYl.OTICS, remedies jiroper or co;isuming callcsities. 
 
 ECTVPE, [!:-.7l;^®',] among Uitiquarians, :iti impression of a 
 3 medai,
 
 1^: D D 
 
 234 
 
 ED T 
 
 iiu ilal, >cnl, or ring, or a iigured copy of an inscr'nitioii, or other 
 aiicicnl moiiiinient. 
 
 J'.Cl', a l-'reiK'h crown. See Coin. 
 
 KDA, one of the Orkney islands. 
 
 EDAM, a town of i5atavia, or Ho!laii(l, in the department of 
 ^^nistel, 1*' miles N. of Amsterdam. Lon. 4. 5S. E. Lat. 52. 
 o2. N. 
 
 KDDA, the system of the ancient Icelandic or Rnnic mytholo- 
 gv, coiit-hning many curious particulars ot the theology, philoso- 
 phy, and manners, of the northern nations of Europe; or of the 
 Scandinavians, who had migrated from Asia, and from wiioni our 
 Saxon ancestors were descended. Mr. Mallet apprehends that it 
 was originally compiled, soon after the Pagan religion was abo- 
 lished, as a course of poetical lectures, for the use of such young 
 Icelanders as devoted themselves to the profession of a scald or 
 poet. It consists of two principal parts; the first containing a brief 
 . system of mvthologv, properly called the Edda; and the second 
 being a kind of ait of poetry, and called Scalda or poetics. Tiie 
 most ancient Edda was compiled by Soenumd Sigfnsson, surnamed 
 the Learned, who was born in Iceland about A. D. 1057. This 
 ■vvas abridged, and rendered more easy and intelligible about 120 
 years afterwards, by Snorro Sturleson, who wa^ supreme judge of 
 Iceland in 1-'15 and \'2'2'2; and it was published in the form of a 
 tlialogne. He added also the second .part in the form of a dialogue, 
 being a detail of dilli-rent events transacted among the divinities. 
 The only three pieces that are known to remain of the more an- 
 cient Edda of Soenumd are the Voluspa, the Havamaal, and the 
 Runic chapter. The V'oluspa or prophecy of Vola or Fola, ap- 
 pears to be the text, on which the Edda is the commejit. It con- 
 tains in 'iOO or 300 lines the whole system of mythology, disclosed 
 in the Edda, and may be compared to the Sibylline verses, on ac- 
 count of its laconic yet bold style, aiid its imagery and ob- 
 scurity. 
 
 EDDISTO, or PONPON, a large river of .South Cai'oKna. 
 
 EDDY WIND is that which returns or is beat back from a 
 sail, mountain, or any thing tiiat may hinder its. passage. 
 
 EDDYSTONE ROCKS, the "name of some rocks in the 
 English Channel, so called from the great variety of contrary cur- 
 rents in their vicinity. They are situated nearly S. S. W. from 
 the middle of Plymouth Sound, their distance from the port about 
 14 miles, and from Ram-Head, the nearest point of land, 12 and a 
 half. 'I'hey are almost in the line which joins the Start and the 
 Lizard Points ; and as they lie nearly in the direction of vessels 
 coasting up and down the Channel, they were very dangerous, and 
 ships were sometimes wrecked on them, before the light-house 
 was established. They are so exposed to the swells of the ocean, 
 from all tlie S. and W. points of the compass, that the heavy seas 
 come uncontrolled and break on them with the utmost fury. 
 Sometii-.ies, after a storm, when the sea in general is, to all appear- 
 ance, quite smooth, and its surface unrutlled by the slightest breeze, 
 the growing swell or under current, meeting the slope of the 
 rocks, the sea beats dreadfully upon them, and even rises above 
 the light-hou-e in a magnificent manner, overtopping it for the 
 moment, as with a canop)' of frothy wave. Notwithstariding this 
 tremendous swell, Mr. Henry Winstanley, in IG96, undertook to 
 build a light-house on the prmcipal rock, for the rest are under 
 water; and he completed it, in 1700. This ingenious mechanic 
 - was so confident of the stability of his structure, that he declared 
 his wish to he in it, during the mo'-t tremendous storm that could 
 blow. Unfortunately he obtained his wish, for he perished in it, 
 during the dreadful storm wITuh destroyed it, on the 27th Nov. 
 1703. In 1 709, another light-house was erected of wood on this 
 rock, but on a different construction, by Mr. John Rudyard. It 
 stood till 1755, when it was burnt. A third one, of stone, was 
 begun bv the late celebrated Mr. John Smeaton, on the 2nd of 
 April 1757, and finislied 24th Aug. 1759: and has withstood the 
 rage of all weathers ever since. 'Ihe rock, which slopes towards 
 the S. W. is cut into horizontal steps ; into which are dove-tailed 
 and united by a strong cement Portland stone and granite: for 
 Mr. Smeaton discovered, that it was impossible to make use of 
 the former entirely, as there is a marine animal that can destroy it: 
 and that he could not use the latter solely, as the labour of work- 
 ing it would have been too expensive. He therefore used the one 
 for the internal and the other for the external part of the structure. 
 Upon tl>e principle of a broad base and accumulation of matter, 
 the whole, to the height of 35 feet from the foundation, is a solid 
 
 ' mass of stones engratted into each other, and united by every kii.d 
 ot a<lditional strength. The light-house has four rooms, one over 
 another, and at the top a gallery and lantern. The stone floors arc 
 ilat above, but concave below, and are kept from pressing agaii- t 
 tH,e sides of the building by a chain let into the walls. The li^f;- 
 house is nearly SO feet high, and withstands the moil violent storn,., 
 without sustaining the smallest iiijury. It has now stood above 3') 
 year^, during which time it has been often assaulted bv all the 
 fury of the elements: And, in all probability, as Mr. Smeaton 
 said, nothing but an earthquake can destroy it. The wooden 
 part of it, however, was burnt in 1770, but renev.'ed in 1774. Lon. 
 4. SI. W. Lat. 50. 3. N. 
 
 EDEN, [Jiy, Ileb. i. e. pleasure,'] a country, with a garden, 
 in which the progenitors of mankind were settled by God himself. 
 It would be endless to recount the various conjectures as to its 
 situation, some of which are very wild and extravagant. Moses 
 says, that " a river went out of Eden to water the garden, and from 
 thence it was parted and became into four heads." This river is 
 supposed to be the common channel of the Euphrates and Tigris, 
 after their confinence; which parted again, below the garden, in- 
 to two different channels: so that the two channels before, and the 
 other two after their contiut nee, constitute the heads mentioned 
 by Moses. This will determine the situation of the garden to 
 have been in the S. of Mesopotamia, or in Babylonia. The gar- 
 den was also called Paradise ; a term of Persic original, denoting a 
 garden. 
 
 Eden, a river of England, in Westmoreland. 
 
 Eden, a river of Scotland, in Berwickshire, and another ia 
 Fifeshire. 
 
 Eden, a town of Germany, in Westphalia. 
 
 EDENTON, a district on the sea-coast of North Carolina. 
 
 Edenton, the capital of the above district, 97 miles N. of New- 
 bern. Lon. 77. 1 1. W. Lat. 36. 6. N. 
 
 EDESSA, a town of European Turkey, in Macedonia, 44 miles 
 W. N. W. of Salonichi. 
 
 EDGAR, the son of Edmund I, one ofdie most fortunate of the 
 Anglo-Saxon monarchs. He succeeded his brother Edwy, A. D. 
 959; and is said to haye been rowed down the Dee by eight kings 
 his vassals. He died in 975. 
 
 EDGARTON, a town of Massachusetts, capital of Duke's 
 county, situated on the east side of the island 01 Martha's Vine- 
 yard. 
 
 EDGCOMB, a county of Halifax district, N. Carolina. 
 
 EDGEFIELD, a town and county of South Carolina, the south- 
 ermnost in the district of Ninety-Six. 
 
 EDGEWARE, a town in Middlesex, 8 miles N. W. of 
 London. 
 
 EDGIHR, a town of Ilindostan, in Golconda, 75 miles S.W. of 
 Hydrahad. 
 
 EDGINGS, in gardening, the series of small but durable plants, 
 set round the edi>es or borders of ilower-beds, &c. '^i'he best and 
 most durable of all plants for this use, is box ; which, if well plant- 
 ed, and rightly managed, will continue in strength and beauty lor 
 many years. The seasons for planting this, are the autumn, and 
 very early in the spring : and the best species for this purpose is the 
 dw.nrf Dutch box. 
 
 EDICT, [cdictum, Lat.] a proclamation of command or pro- 
 hibition ; a law promulgated. An edict is an order or instrument, . 
 signed and sealed by a prince, to serve as a law to his subjects. 
 \\ e find frequent mention of the edicts of theprajtor, in the Roman 
 law. In the late French law, the edicts were of several kinds; 
 some importing new laws or regulations; others, the erection of 
 new offices ; establishments of duties, rents, &;c. and sometimes^ 
 articles of pacification. In despotic govermnents, an edict is much 
 the same as a proclamation is with us: hut with this difference, that 
 the former has the authority of a law from the power which issues 
 it ; whereas the latter is only a declaration of a law, to which it re- 
 fei"s, and has no power in itself. 
 
 EDILE. See jEdii.f. This ancient title was resumed in the 
 late constitution of the Roman republic. 
 
 EDINBl'llGH, the metropolis of Scotland, is situated in the 
 county of Mid- Lothian, about a mile S. from the Frith of Forth. 
 Lon. 3- 0. W. Lat. 56. 0. N. The old town is built upon a steep 
 hill, rising from E. to W. and terminating in a high arid inaccessi- 
 ble rock, upon which the castle stands. At the P.. end or lower 
 extremity of this hill stands the abbey of Ilolyrood house, the an- 
 cient
 
 EDUCATION". 
 
 23/ 
 
 rioai To\d\ [i.ildre, ilislaiU IVoin (lie casllo innvari!< of a mile ; ami 
 bflwixt which aloiigtlie top of the ridge, and alino-t ir) a straight 
 I'.DO, run-i the high ■Jtn-et. The castle stands on a high rook, ac- 
 '■('•iKihle only on tlio E. side. On all others it is very steep, and 
 1 I sonic places perpendicular. It is about 300 feet hig'i from its 
 i.a-c: so that before the invention of artillery, it might have well 
 U.-en deemed impregnable; thou;.;h tlu'; event shewed 1 hat it was 
 ■ .1. 'I'ne entry to tliis fortress is defended bv an outer barrier of 
 ioadoes; witliin this is a dry ditch, draw-bridge, and gate, de- 
 1 luled by two batteries which (lank it; and the whole is com- 
 jiiaiided by a half-moon mounted with cannon, carrying balls ol 
 1.-' pounds. The churches, both presbyterian and episcopal, are 
 ^ 'ry numerous; as are a'so other places of worship of various <le- 
 I .ruinations. The New Town was projected in 175-; but as the 
 iii.igistratesrould not then procure an e\tension of the royaltv, the 
 execution of the design was suspended for some time. In 17()7, 
 an act was obtained, by wdiich the royalty was extended over the 
 iields to tl'.e N. of the city ; upon which advertisements were pub- 
 lislu-d by the magistrates, desiring proper [dans to be given iii. 
 Plans were given in accordingly, and that designed by Mr. James 
 Craig, architect, was adopted. Immediately afterwards, people 
 wrre invited to purchase lots from the town council ; and such as 
 purchased became bouiul to conform to the rules of the plan. The 
 elegance of the buildings, the lineness of the situation, and the re- 
 gularity of the plan of the New Town have rendered it extremely 
 :L;reeable and beautiful. The number of inhabitants is upwards of 
 20,000. In IJSl, a grant was obtained from K. James \l. for 
 founding a college or university within the city of Edinburgh ; and 
 the citizens, aided by various donations, purchased a situation for 
 it, .consisting of part of the areas, chambers, and church of the col- 
 legiate provostry and prebends of the Kirk-a-lield, otherwise called 
 Templum et Prxfectura Sanct.-c Marix in Campis, lying on the S. 
 side of the city. Next year, a charter of conlirmation and erec- 
 tion was obtained, from which the college afterwards derived all 
 the i)rivileges of an university. For several years the college con- 
 sisted oidy of the principal and 4 regents or professors of philoso- 
 phy. Each of these regents instructed one class of students for 4 
 years, in Latin, Greek, logic, mathematics, ethics, and physics, 
 and graduated them at the conclusion of the 4th course. A pro- 
 fessor of Latin was afterwards appointed, who prepared the stu- 
 dents for entering under the tuition of the regents; also professors 
 of mathematics, and another of Hebrew. It was not till about 
 1710 that the 4 regents began to be conlined each to a particular 
 profession; since which time tliey have been cammonly styled 
 Professors of Greek, Logic, Moral Philosophy, and Natural Phi- 
 losophy. The first medical professors instituted at Edinburgh, 
 
 were Sir Hobert Sibbald and Dr. Ar'jhib.i'.d Pitcairn, in l6S5. 
 Such was the nourishing state ot thi? university, that it became ne- 
 cessary to erect a new college, which is a complete and commo- 
 dious edifice. 'i'he university is celebrated througiiout the 
 world ; and its medical school, in particular, is entitled to tl;e 
 first rank, 
 
 K D ITOR, {ediior, Latin,] he that revises or prepares any work 
 for publication. 
 
 EDLANl), Lakf., orSLAVE L^kk, a 1 >keof N. Amcvi- 
 ca, N . of ihe \.\M of Arapescow, near the Arctic Circle. 
 
 ED.MONDSBUKY, ST. «ee Bl-sy. 
 
 EDMUND [, king of England, tlie son of Edward the Elder, 
 succeeded his brother Athelstan, A. D. 941, ;uui exhibited proofs 
 of great courage and abil^ies durir.g a short reign of aboutS ycara. 
 He was murdered by Leolf, a rolilier, A. D, y4o. 
 
 Ed.muxi) II, surnaraed Iroxside, from his strength and va- 
 lour, succeeded his father Ethelred II. A. D. 1016, in th.it i)art of 
 England wliicli was not then possessed by the Danes, lie v..;s 
 endued with great abilities, but was murdered by the traitor, 
 Edric, D. of NIercia, before he had rein;ned a year. 
 
 E DOM, [D11.V, Heb. i. c. ml.,'] or ESAU, t"he son of Isaac and 
 brother of Jacob. The name, Edom, was given him, either be- 
 cause he sold his birth-right to Jacob for « mess of rod pottage, or 
 by reason of the colour of his hair and complexion. Idumea is 
 derived from Edom, and is often called in scripture the land of 
 Edom. 
 
 Edom, or iDCMiEA, in ancient geography, a district of Arabia 
 Petrc-ea. A great part of the S. ofJud.-a was also called Idunia-a, 
 because occupied by the Idumar.ns, ujjon the Jewish captivity, 
 quite to Hebron. i3ut the proper Edom or Iduma;a appears not 
 to have been very extensive, from the march of the Lraelites, in 
 which they compassed it on the S. eastwards, till they came to the 
 country of the Moabites. 
 
 EDkO.M, anciently Etherham, a parish of Scotland in Ber- 
 wickshire, about 10 miles long and 6 broad. The surface is gene- 
 rally flat, the clim.ate healtliy, and the soil mostly fertile, thoush 
 part of it is moorish and barren, or clayey. The populationin 
 1790, stated by the Kev. William Redpafh, in his report to Sir 
 J. Sinclair, was 1336. He does not mention tlie population in 
 t/jS, The number of horses was 280, of sheep 3000, and of black 
 cattle 600. There are a p.Tper mill, a lint mill, and a wheel ma- 
 nufacture in the parish : which employ 66 people. Husbandry- 
 is much improved, and the greater part of the ground is iu- 
 ciose<l. 
 
 EDSAN, a river of Russia, a branch of the Lena, 20 miles S. 
 E. of Zigansk. 
 
 EDUCATION, 
 
 Is the art of rearing, forming, and instructing, of children, 
 according to the most appropriate rules and maxims. Its 
 grand object is the gradual improvement and regulation of our 
 moral, physical, and intellectual faculties. Education affords that 
 series of ineaiis, by which the human understanding is gradually 
 enlightened, and the dispositions of the human heart are formed 
 .and calleii forth to the performance of their proper action. The 
 word Education, among the ancients seems to have had a significa- 
 tion difl'erent from that which is affixed to it by the moderns. 
 Educit obstetrix, says ^'arro, educat nutrix, instituit p;edagogus, 
 docet magistcr. According to this distinction, education, institu- 
 tion, and instruction, are as dili'erent, as the midwife, the nurse, the 
 preceptor, and the master. But these verbal distinctions are now 
 liiid aside. As no subject is of more importance than education ; 
 being in a manner, the foundation, when | roperly considered, of 
 all science, as well as of all virtue ; so many eminent authors, both 
 ancieut and modern, have wrote upon it. Lycurgus and many 
 others of the most eminent legislators of antiquity, considered a 
 proper education as so necessary to form good cili/ens, that they 
 
 incorporated their systems of eihicalion, with tlie codes of hv.% 
 they gave to their countrymen. But among all the legislators and 
 authors of antiquity, of whose works any relicts have come douii 
 to us, none appears to have written wi'tii more propriety on this 
 subject, than the celebrated Quintili.a.s ; who taught rhetoric in 
 l\ome under Domitian, Nerva.and Trajan. Experience and ob- 
 servation have fully evinced, that the future conduct and happi- 
 ness of a child depend in many res)>octs principally on his educa- 
 tion ; hence the necessity of attending to that maxim of heavenly 
 origin. Train up a child in tht: ivay he should go ; and iihcn lie 
 is old, he XL-ill not depart from it. 
 
 I'he limits of our plan will not permit us to expatiate on this 
 im|)ortant and useful article, and therefore it will be necessary to 
 confine ourselves to a few general observations and for further in- 
 tormution, to refer to the treatises, which have been written on 
 this subject. We shall make some selections from Dr. Chapman's 
 excellent treatise on education. 
 
 " Man is eminently distinguished among the inhabitants of this 
 jlobe. He derives this distinction from the structure and. aspect 
 
 CTca
 
 2S6 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 cvt-n oflii-buil'. , i.ruUlill mouMVi.ir. tl)C i'o\v<'r^ ami ;ilTr( lioii* of liU 
 r.iiml. The uuikI iiuleL-d M.'cni.s lo have IniUfw iilcas at liiNl, aiul 
 even to be in'.lcbted tor these lo c.\teinal objects. lUit the iiolile 
 and extensive powers,, 'uilh whieh it is endued, discover llnin- 
 seives bv decrees, and render it hii^hly siisce|itible of ini|)rove- 
 iiient. This improvement is closely connected with the perfec- 
 tion and happiness of mankind : if the mind bi- ilarkened by error, 
 2:id connpled bv vice, we shall be nii-erable, as well a- ini'an ; if 
 if hi enlipiitenifi liv kJiowledge, and tormeil to virtue, we shall 
 more c^asily support the natural evils of life, and we shall oinn to 
 ourselves the truest and the largest sourc-es of happiness. Ilence 
 it appears, that of all the objects which can attract our attention, 
 there is r,one so inlerestinc; as the mind itself. And lience it is, 
 ti'.at those who liave the cliarge of you'.,'i ought, in a particular 
 manner, to study the nature of the iiuuian mind. M'hey should 
 trace it in all its dil'lerent ap|)earances, and observe it, with a still 
 more curious and attentive eye, in the tirst and most incorrupted 
 season of lile. Ihev slioulil ^.ttend to its gradual openings ; thev 
 should a-sist it in its cxcations, ajid supply it with propi-r nialeriai^ 
 ofknowli'ds^e. iJeginnini; with tlie natural objects with « hieh a 
 child is Mirrounded, ihev siiould teach him ho« to di^coviT their 
 more obvious and usetul oualilies ; tin n they shouKI point out the 
 changes niade upon them by human industry, and the purjioscs 
 for uhich such chang.-s are made. Discoveries of tin- kintl, and 
 explanations as the children advance in ago, and as the objects pre- 
 »i nt themselves to their notice, will excite their curiosity, and in- 
 struct as well as employ their minds. This will be a jiroper foun- 
 dation for the languago, the arts, the sciences. The accpiisition 
 of knowledge should, iVe made, as much as possible, the fruit of 
 their own incpiiries,. and ot the miconstrained exertion-, of their 
 mental powers. Thus they will learn to exercise their o" n un- 
 derstanding in tlie pursuit of knowledge, rath.er tlian trust, upon 
 all occasioiis, in a ia/y and implicit manner, to the o))inions of 
 tlirir parents and teachers. I'arents and teachers are surely in- 
 titled to llie higlie-t respect, as well as obedience, from children ; 
 but they shouhl take the most effectual measures to secure this 
 respect; they should take the simplest and most probable me- 
 thods of cherishing those seeds of knowledge which seem more or 
 h'ss to l)e lodge<l in the minds of children, and n (pure only pro- 
 per culture to rear them. Far from |)Ushing children lorwaril in a 
 precipitate manner, by loailing their memories with unexplained 
 words, or by reiiuiring from diiMu tasks above their comprehen- 
 sion, or of little utility in life, they shoulil keep pace with their 
 rising genius, by ailapting their instrucli.>ns to tlu-ir cciuliued 
 idea«, and respective capacities, bv explaining everv word till it 
 be tully uiuli'r4oud, and by teaching with greater care those things 
 which are altcrvvards to be niost usi ful to them. Further, as edu- 
 cation is known to liave a povvertul influence in lorniiut; the tem- 
 pers and characters of men, parents and teacher^ shouUl iiuhavonr, 
 ;is soon as cliiUhen are capable ol compreliending the social tii's, 
 to cherish, with the utmost vigilam e, tlial benevolence whicli is 
 the bond of society, to strengthen that sense of right and wronj; 
 whicli makes a distinguished part of the human constitution, and 
 to prevent those false associations (pf ideas which are destructive of 
 happiness, and wiiich, children inexperienceil in life, and deludeil 
 bv appearances, are apt to torm. Above all, thev should ^tudv to 
 in..pirt; them with sentiments of duly and gratitude to the Supreme 
 Being, considered a'i their parent, beuefaetor, ami judj;e ; and to 
 enforce, by a prudent di-iipline, all those |)rincipli'S which have 
 u tendency to make them happy in themselves, and useful to others. 
 " \\ lull- tliey are thus em|)lo\ ed in 4'uUivating the mind, the bodv 
 i, b\ n<j nu'.ms to be neglt'ct^'tl. Its inlln«*nce over tin' min<l is 
 as great as iti union with it is surprising. The bodv, when sof- 
 tened by indi.leni'e, or by mistaken tenderm^ss, enfeeble^ the 
 mind, relaxes its vigour, and unlits it tor every great or dillicnlt 
 inidertaking; when pampered anil weakened bv luxury, or the gra- 
 tilieatiou ol irrcjular ap|)etite, it subjects the mind to wants not its 
 own, an<l excites tliose passions which are the enemies of liappi- 
 liess ami of life ; but when it is nonri^hi-il bv ti'uiperance, and har- 
 dened by exercise, it enables the niimi to exert its native strength, 
 inspires it with checrl'ulnets, kindles up the benevolent alVections, 
 sets virtue in the most amiable light; and shews it to be the truest 
 liappinesi of man. If we ;-on..iihr the >implicitv of chihlren, and 
 -tuilv (arefully to preserve them from prejudic<-, we sirall lind (hem 
 >*perv to the best iinpr<vssion-, and <K>liglited with e^crv sten thev 
 
 advance in the road to knowledge and to virtue. This encou- 
 rages parents und tutors to cultivate the minds of diildren with 
 the ntmo-t attention; and rinder> them inexcusable, if they suf- 
 fer the noxious wee<U of folly and vice to spring up in a soil so va- 
 luable and so capable of nuprovenient. This attention, as \\m 
 been already observed, should begin with the earliest period of 
 life. Weak and llexible, while destitute of experience, and uii- 
 inii)roved by rellection, children an' ready to adopt tlw -entiments 
 and cojjy the manners of those on whom they depend. 1 his pro- 
 pensity lo imitation, together with the contagion of example, 
 may hurry them into a bliml compliance w ith the vices and follies 
 ot others, and thereby e.x|)ose them to all the inconvenieiicies of 
 i-rror in judgement and in practice. At the same time, this jery 
 propensity, if projurly ilirected, will act like a powerful engine in 
 favour of virtue. I'rom such relfections as these, we may see the 
 dignity of tlie human mind, the importance ofeducation,the manner 
 in which we ought to conduct it at lirst, the great objects we ought 
 always to ha\e in view, the necessity of taking care of the bodv 
 as well as the soul, and the encouragement we have to turn our 
 attention to this >uhiect from tin' innocence and the docility of 
 childn-n. Hence too parents may learn, that if they neglect the 
 education of their childn'u, the riches which thev may accumu- 
 Ute, and till' splendid or lucrative employments, which thev niav 
 proi ure for them, will but inuKase their misery. And heme 
 teachers may see the principfes which tin y ought to inculcate, antl 
 the nature of tlie duties incumbent on them, or rather of the high 
 pri\ ilege conferred upon them. \Vhal occupation is there on earth 
 more \i-el'ul to mankind, or more delightful in itself, llian to im- 
 prove the mind of man.^ And what more probable means of 
 succeeding in so noble an attempt, than te superintend it in tlie 
 tirst exertions of 'Is faculties, and preserve it, through the critical 
 sea-on of youth, in that healthful state in w hicli its happiness con- 
 sists. I he foregoing observations are sufficiently conliinied by 
 the experience of the ancients as well as the moderns. History, 
 that mirror of luimaii life, exhibits to our view the I'ortuni' of man- 
 kind ever varying in proportion to their care or negliL>ence in 
 tin' education of yf.ulh. W here tlii> was atlenile<l to, and |)ro- 
 perly conducted, we see, that not only individuals, but even so- 
 cieties, were virtuous and happy : where this was neglected, or 
 the method of conducting it mistaken, we see likewise, that thev 
 plunged Ihi'mselves into vice ; and felt, at length, its direful an<l 
 un.ivoidable ellects. '1 he errors which are freiiuentlv connnitted 
 in education by jiarents, and those to whom thev transfer the care 
 ot their children, may be reikoned one great source of human mi- 
 sery. A ti-w instances will conhrni tiie truth of this observation. 
 I he mauilold aceidents to which we are continually exjjoscd, the 
 opposite views and different ti-mpers <if mankind, and the precari- 
 ous hold ue have of whatever is exlernal, reipiire that the mind 
 should be lormed, l)\ an early and priulent culture, to bear with 
 tortitude and self-command, the various troubles and misfortunes 
 to which we may be subjecteil. Notwithstanding this, it is no 
 nncommon thing, to see those children whose tempers are warm, 
 and who are susceptible of theline>t feelings, frefpieiitiv neglected 
 in this important point. Instead of teaching them patiently to 
 endure pain aiurdisappointment, and the other eviK of life, which 
 cannot be altogether avoided ; instead of teaching them to 
 govirn their passions, and direct them to proper objects, their 
 parents are often blind enough to allow them lo contract an im- 
 patience under misfortune, and an iin|)etuosily of spirit when 
 thwarted, both which, gathering strength from indulgence, are of- 
 ten productive ot trouble lo others, and of misery to tjiemselves. 
 To sources ol this kind may be traced many ol those outrages 
 v.liich disturb the peace of soi iety, and l]la-t tin' enjoyment of 
 life, [iistead ol being taught (and'idly to acknowledge his laults, 
 the child is sulh-red lo make excuses for them ; and sometimes, 
 b) a direct lie, to disown them. Thus the sacrid regard which is 
 i\r,v lo truth is gradually diminished, ami that fence being broken 
 down, dissimulation, the bane of virtue, establishes an early and a 
 powerful empire in the human heart. Is the child sluggish or 
 lifractory ? it is thought proper to engage him to his duty by a 
 bribe. 'I lins, instead ot (lisinter<'stediiess, and the love of virtue, 
 he ccpntr.acls a sordifl and mercenary liirn, anil a strong attichmcnl 
 to money, which he considers as the great <ibjecl that interests the 
 passions of men, and tlie spring by w hi<h they ought to be moved : 
 and the hirh encomiums on it w Inch he so trc<picntlv hears, the 
 
 pasbtou 
 
 y M
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 2.17 
 
 'Oil Ijf it wliicli lie obiL'rvcs in the geiieralily ofiii:nikiii<l, and 
 respect wiiifh he sees pui(l to the rich, imiopenUent of their vir- 
 , naturally toiui to pervert his taste, aiul teach him to associate 
 idcai ct merit, and ol liappiiiess, with tlie possession of riches. 
 ll lie gets money from his relations or friends, which they design, 
 through a fond hut mistaken aflection, as an expression of tlieir 
 regard or est; em, he is often permitted, or rather encounged, to 
 throw it away in purchasijig those things which will sow the seeds 
 of luxurv and profusion in his tender mind. Hence that unhappy 
 keenness for toys, fruits, sweat-meats, S;c. which we oiisi-rve in 
 youth, and which, like other inlivniilie', is nourished by indiscreet 
 and early indulgence ; and hence maybe derive<l that desire of 
 sunerlhnties, and those numerous artificial wants, with which a vi- 
 tiated appetite, or depraved laste, punishes those who dt-pirt horn 
 the siniplicily of nature. Thus we are so Ibr from cultivating a 
 principle of virtue in children during this early periotl, that we can- 
 iiol fad, by so unwary a conduct, to ingralt vice in tlieir tender 
 breasts, i'eiiceit is that teachers lind it so dillicult a ta^k, to 
 root out of their unfortunate pupils those false notions which they 
 have aheady formed, and to train them up, by virtuous liabits, to 
 be good m n and useful members of society. \\ hen the child 
 arrive-, at 6 or 7 years, and begins now to multiply his amusements, 
 and to extend liisacquamtance, seldom is sulHcient care taken to 
 
 regulate 
 
 diversions, and m;;ke them subservient to the in 
 
 provement of Ins mind, or the health of his boily. Is attention 
 given in proportion to the flexibility of his temper, or his want of 
 experience, to shew him the difference of ch.iracter among tlie 
 living as well as the dead ; to guard him against the infectious ex- 
 ample of any idle or naughty children, with whom he may l-.ave 
 occasion to converse ; and to encourage an intimacy between him 
 and those who are diligent, modest, and virtuous ? Is he taught 
 with proper care, to strive with his equals in the noble contest of 
 making himsiif wiser and better than they ? Is he taught, at the 
 lame time, to suppress the lirst risings of envy, that enemy of hu- 
 man happiness, and so resist the emotions of pride and vanity, those 
 tillv ;'nd sellisii passions which are so apt to steal into the un- 
 guarded breasts ot youth, and especially those of the brightest ge- 
 nius? Is he taught, likewise, to love his companions, to sympa- 
 thize with them iiniler sickness or unfortunate accidents ; to look 
 upon all uiaukind as his bretliren, children of the same common 
 paivnt ; and to consider those to whom he is superior in under- 
 standing, or in any of the advantages of fortune, as intitled, upon 
 all occasions, to Ins advice and assistance? The Author of na- 
 ture, who confers his gifts «ith a liberal hand, and adapts them 
 with a parental foresight to the various exigencies of mankind, of- 
 ten bestows a particular genius upon particular persons, and seems 
 by this wije provision, to have marked out the walk of life for 
 which they were designed. Notwilliitanding this innate and use- 
 ful bias, it seldom happens that either the parents or the instruc- 
 tors of a child apply their sagacity to iliscover the bent of his ge- 
 nius, or direct his -tudies with a view to render it most valuable 
 to himself, and mo^t beii-licial to society. But if his genius be 
 not particular, it would be proper as he advances through youth, 
 and befi;re he chuses his employment, to eive him a just view of 
 the ailvantages and difadvaiiUgf', which attend the dili'erent occu- 
 pations of mankind, and to point out to him bow far any trade 
 or profession, which he may have in view, is useful to society, 
 and how far it may be suited to hi- capacity, his temper, and his 
 constitution. Tiiough such considerations as these ought to have 
 ftreat weight in determining his choice, yet seldom is such atten- 
 tion given to direct him, as the importance of that critical step, and 
 the need he has of advice, seem to require. Inexperienced in 
 life, and ignorant of what qualities are necessary in different occu- 
 pations, he is by no mean> a proper Judge for liimseif : uninstructed 
 by his parents or teachers, he is too ready to determine himself by 
 the taste of his companions, or by the little incidents which mav 
 happen to strike his fancy in the place where he receives his edu- 
 cation. In till- critical period he is ^eldoni instructed, with pro- 
 per care, in the use of Ins time uid hi', monev ; or taught to 
 spend the former as becomes a rational cre-atiire, to divert the lat- 
 ter of the false value stamped upon it by the prejudices of man- 
 kind, and to view it in the true light in which it ought to be view- 
 ed. To accpiire those accomplishments and those habits, when 
 young, which will render us useful in life ; to provide for ourselves 
 vhf-n of age, and for our families, that they may not be burdens 
 
 % OL. 11. — NO. 70. 
 
 tq society ; to give our children a virtuous education ; to relieve 
 the indigent, to encourage modest merit, to promote honest in- 
 dustry and public spirit among men, and in general, to do good lo 
 our fellow-creatures, are the great purposes to which our time and 
 our money sliould be applied, \V'e may observe too, that he is 
 not suliiciently taught to look upon indu.stry in his future employ- 
 ment and upon a faithful performance of the duties ol his station, 
 as a debt v.hic h he owes to the public ; nor is he ivistnicted to 
 value men by tlie decency and propriety with v.hich they acquit 
 themselves in society, rather than by the rank they hold. He 
 ought among other things, to be taught thai, if an employment be 
 u^eUll, however humble, it is never to be treated with riviicnle or 
 contenijit ; andean never be so mean, as to preclude the ptrson 
 who industriously and honestly follows it, from the protection and 
 good opinion of mankind." Of all animals, man comes into the 
 world in the moot feeble and helpless condition. No ether ani- 
 mal, therefore, requires such early, con-tant, and long continued 
 attention as he does. In this early period of his existence, he is 
 much mure an object of care and management than of education. 
 However, it is to be observed, that as " tlie influence of his body 
 over his mind is great, every plan of education ought to pro\ide 
 for the health of the former, as well as the soundness of the latler." 
 The dress of children, but especially of infants should be light, 
 thin, and easy. The practice of binding up their limbs in swad- 
 dling clothes is happily exploded. It is indeed astonishing, that it 
 should ever have been adopted, and still more, tliat it should have 
 so long, and so generally prevailed. " With us," says the Count 
 de Bulion, " an infant no sooner leaves the womb of its mother, 
 and has hardly enjoyed the liberty of moving and slietching its 
 limbs, than it is clapped again into conlinemerit. It is swathed, 
 its head (ixed ; its leg^ stretched out at full length, and its arms 
 placed straight down by the side of its body. In thismanner It is/ 
 bound tight with cloths and bandages, so that it cannot slir a limb," 
 &c. But these barbarous exertions of anxious, but ill-direcied 
 care, are now nearly, if not totally abolished. They were kindly 
 intended to prevent tleforinities, but they operated only to torture 
 the child, and to produce them. The clothes of chiklren should 
 be made so loose and wide, as to leave them the full and free use 
 of all their limbs, without obstructing the circulation of the blood 
 by ligaments of any kind. The dress recommended by Dr. Chap- 
 man is " A thin night-cap, a flannel waistcoat without sleeves, a 
 pettjcoat and gown of light stuff; a thin flannel shirt for the night," 
 and " no shoes or shockings till they are able to run abroad." 
 If too warm clothes are hurtful to children, the custom of sitting 
 near a fire and of sleeping in warm rooms is still more so. Sucli 
 habits tend to relax the mu-cular strength of the body, and evea 
 ill some degree to enfeeble and enervate the powers of the mind. 
 The mother who has milk and strength to nurse her child, and yet 
 gives it up to the care of a mercenary nurse, acts an unfeeling and 
 unnatural part : but >he who carries her maternal affection to ex- 
 cess, though she acts from a better principle, deviates no less from 
 the paths of nature. When she makes an idol of her child; in- 
 creases its weakness, by preventing its sense of it ; and,, as if she 
 could emancipate him from the laws of nature, prevents every ap- 
 proach of pain or distress ; without thinking, that, for the sake of 
 preserving him at present from a few trilling inconveniences, she is 
 accumuL.tiiig on his head a distant load of an>Jielies and misfo.r- 
 tuues ; without thinking that it is a barbarous caution to enervate 
 and indulge the child at the e.xpence of the man. Thetis, says the 
 fable, to render her son Achilles invulnerable, plunged him into 
 the waters of Styx. This is an expressive allegory. The over 
 fond mothers act directly contrary : by plunging their children in 
 softness and efiteminacy, they render thein more tender and vul- 
 nerable ; they lay open, as it were, their nerves to every species 
 of afflicting sensations, to which they will certainly fall a prey as 
 they grow up. The course of nature is quite different. She con- 
 tinually exercises her children, and fortiiies their constitutions by 
 inuring them early to giief and pain. In cutting their teeth they 
 experience the fever ; griping colics throw them into convulsions ; 
 the hooping-cough sullocates, and worms torment them ; and 
 their blood, by throwing off various purulent matte; s, subjects 
 them to dangerous cutaneous eruptions. Almost the whole pe-^ 
 riod of childhood is sickness and danger, half the children, that are 
 born, dying before they are eight years old. In passing through 
 this course of experiments, the child who survives them, gathers 
 3 P str«ngth
 
 238 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 strength and fortitude, rik!, as soon iis lie is capable of enjoying 
 life, the principles of life become le.-s precarions. Experience 
 shews, that children delicately e<lucated die in a greater propurtiun 
 tlian otlierj. Provided they are not ■allowed to exert lln-msclves 
 beyond their powers, less ris<iue is riui by exercising, than indiilg- 
 jiio thoni in ease. Innre them therefore bv decrees to tlioe in- 
 ccnveniencies they must one day suffer. Harden their bodies to 
 the intemperance of the seasons, climates, and elements ; to 
 hunger, thirst, and fatigue ; in a word, dip them in the Slygian 
 flood. Before the body has acquired a settled habit, we may give 
 itanV we please witlioui danger ; but wdien it is once arrived to 
 its full growth and consistence, every alteration is hazardous. A 
 child will bear those vicissitudes which to a man would be insup- 
 portable. The soit and pliant llbres of the former readily yield to 
 impression ; th.ose of the latter are more rigid, and are reduced 
 only by violence to recede from the forms they have assumed. We 
 must dierefore bring up a child robust and hearty, without en- 
 dangerijig either its life or health ; and though even some risk 
 were run in this respect, it would not aiVord sulficieut cause of 
 hesitation. As soon as a child begins to distinguish objects, a pro- 
 per choice should be made in tho^e which are presented to it. 
 Every new object is naturally interestmg to a child. It linds it- 
 self so weak and feeble, that it is fearful of every thing it is not ac- 
 ciuainlcd with. But familiarity, which renders objects unaffecting, 
 destroys tlVH timidity. Children, educated in elegant houses, 
 w h.ere cobwebs are carefully swept away, are always afraid of 
 spiders, and retain the same disgust for ihem as they grow up. 
 What peasant, either man or woman, was ever afraid of a spiilcr? 
 In this view, the education of a child evidently begins before it 
 can speak or understand, since even the choice of objects, pre- 
 sented to its view, is sufficient to render it either tmiid or coiua- 
 geous. They should be habitnat-->tl then to new objects, to ugly, 
 tlisgustful, and uncommon animals; beginning with them, how- 
 ever, at a distance, anil letting them approach bydegrees ; or till, 
 being used to see others handl • them themselves. If a child, dur- 
 ing his infancy", has been used to regard toads, serpents, or cray- 
 fish, with indi'H'erencc, he will look without horror, as he grows up, 
 on any animal whatever. When a child begins to talk, it weeps 
 less. "This progression is natural ; one language being only substi- 
 tuted for ano'her. As soon as he can complain in express term-, 
 vhy should he do it by tears' If a child be of a delicate consti- 
 tution, extremely susceptible, and naturally apt to cry for no- 
 thing, we sliould dry up the source of his tears, by rendering them 
 fruitless. So long as he continues crying, no one ought to go 
 near him; but run to him immedialely on his becoming silent. 
 His manner of calling us to his a--iislance would be then by his si- 
 lence, or, at most, by giving only one cry. It is from the per- 
 ceptible effect of signs, that children judge of their meaning ; they 
 see no other relation between them. Whatever mischief a child 
 3na\ have done to itself, it is very rare tor it to cry, when alone, 
 at least Kit has no hopes of being heard. If a child get a fall, a 
 bump on his forehead, make his nose bleed, or cut his lirigers ; in- 
 stea(l of running to him wiih an air of apprehension, we should re- 
 main i;uile still, at lea^t for some time. The mischief is done, and 
 there is a necessity for his bearing the pain of it ; pur over-solici- 
 tude would only serve to frighten him the more, and increase 
 his sensibility. ' In fact, it is less the pain than the fright, which 
 aifects children on these occasions. We should spare him, at least, 
 the anxiety of the latter ; forhe will certainly judge of his misfor- 
 tune in a great degree as we do. If he sees us alarmed, run ea- 
 gerly to ills relief, console and pity him, he will (hint; himself un- 
 done: but if he see us apparently indifferent, and make light of 
 it, he will soon make as light of it iiimsclf, and think himselt cure<l 
 as soon as the smart ist)ver. Il is at this age children arc|uire tlieir 
 first ^niiiciples of courage ; and by 'being inured to slight incon- 
 veniencies, learn by degrees to support greater. Indeed, so far 
 from being anxious to prevent a child from cutting or hurting him- 
 self, it is belter that tliis shouhl sometimes liappen ; and that he 
 should not grow up without feeling pain. Tlie first thing we 
 ought to learn, and that which is of the greatest consetpience for 
 us to know, is to suffer. It seems as if children were formed little 
 and feeble only to learn tliis important lesson without danger. If 
 they tall uov n, or run against any thing, they neither break a leg 
 nor an arm: if diey wound themselves with any sharp instrument, 
 tlie wound is hardly ever fatal, or very deep. We know, in 
 
 j short, scarcely any instance of a child, when left at liberty, hav> 
 I ing killed, maimed, or done itself any considerable damage ; un- 
 less, indeed, where it has been imprudently exposed to "iumbli 
 down from some high place, to fall into the tire, or water, or within 
 the reach of some deadly weapon. Instead, therefore, of keeping 
 him in the close air oi his nursery, he should be taken out eviry day 
 into the open fields. There he luight run and plav about ; and if 
 he tumbles a hundred times a day, so much the better; he will 
 the sooner learn, when riowji, (o ."et up again. The pleasure 
 of being at liberty will be a sufficient recompencc for his falls. 
 As the child advances in years and unde'i'standtng, it is of the ut- 
 most consequence to inculcatesucii principles ot religion, and con- 
 sequently of morality as are suited to his years and ca-pacity. " The 
 first and nio-t obvious lessi n of morality," says ]>r. Chapman, 
 is, ' Not to do ill ; not to give pain to another.' This is a le:^son 
 wdiich cannot be two frequently inculcated upon children. This 
 is the safest rule for their conduct, and the surest test of their vir- 
 tue. To this the precept of doing good is but subordinate. The 
 aversion from doing ill, when once rooted in the mind, will ac- 
 custom children to exercise the understanding in distinguishing 
 between right and wrong; it will check the violence of tlieir jxis- 
 sions ; it wid teach them, if not the most shining, yet the most 
 u^eful virtues in life ; good nature, justice, and prudence." In 
 order that a child may learn this lesson efiectually and to good 
 purpose, it is necess.;ry to explain to him iti a lamiliar manner and 
 by some easy comparison, or simile w ithin tlie compass of his coin- 
 prehension, that God is his heavenly father, that by him he is pre- 
 served in the use and exercise of ins powers of body and mind, 
 that it is God his heavenly father who supplies his earthly parents 
 widi food, raiment, &c. for his support and convenience. He 
 shotdd then be taught that the highest reverence is due to hh 
 lieavenly father, as is also his utmost love. He should then be in-* 
 formed that as long as he is obedient to his heavenly father he w ill 
 fiiul <lelight and pleasure, but on the contrary when he olfends God 
 he will be sure tosu/Terior it. The child being thus instructed, a foun- 
 dation will be laid, for inculcating not only the above moral lesson, 
 but many others of a simiMr nature with their opposites. It may now 
 be observed to him how exceedinglv displeasing it is to God for any 
 of his creatures to do ill, or to give pain to another, and by this 
 means an abhorrence of this immorality will be fixed in his breast. 
 Children are so susceptible of instructions, that there is no doubt 
 but their ehbrts to put in practice what has been communicated 
 will soon be perceived, and jjeihaps they may sometimes be ob- 
 served to fail in the perlorinancc of tlieir duty ; here the parent or 
 instructor has an o|iportunity to give them another most uselul les- 
 son. Here he may unfold to his opening reason the natural de- 
 pravity and wickedness of the human mind, and letting alone all 
 abstruse reasonings on the subject the proof of it is to be given on 
 the authority of the sacred scriptures, and the observations and ex- 
 perience of good men. He is iurther to be shewn that he originally 
 lirought himself into this state by wilfully doing what was wrong, 
 or forbidden by the Creator, and that in consequence of his crime 
 man was become incai)able of doing any thing (hat is good, and 
 that had it not been for the love and mercy of God m giving a 
 tjavicur to redeem man, he must have been niiserable and wretched 
 for ever. He may now easily be made sensible tiiat the power 
 of keeping from the commission of evil, and of performing what is 
 right comes from God, and also that God will give, and deliglils 
 to give this power to all who ask it in the name of Jesus Christ, 
 and that therefore it is necessary thus to ask his grace and to useit, 
 in order that we may be tiie partakers of real happiness. Lest any 
 should say that these instructions are too diificult for children or 
 not sufficiently important, we shall observe that they are not so 
 difficult as some may imagine. The beauty of our religion is, 
 that it is plain and easyto be understood, especially by those whose 
 minds are not prejudiced by a train of vices, or evil reasonings, and 
 therefore these obvious, essential, and simple, princiiiles of Christi- 
 anity are fit to be presented to the minds of childien. It is also 
 necessary, whenever reason begins to dawn, that the -e divine pre- 
 cepts be taughton account of theirimportance. This will be evident 
 to every one who will suffer reason to speak: reason in conjunction 
 with the sacred oracles informs us that to do the will of God, to 
 have a dependence upon him, and to proceed according to his di- 
 rections, must be the same as to do that which w ill please him, and 
 that because our happiness or misery entirely depends ou his Iieing 
 9 pleaseci,
 
 EDUCATION 
 
 23f) 
 
 j)l used, or tlisplca^ed wiiii u-S on his approbation, licncc Uieii 
 notlMiig can be of such impoiUuiCC as theie uistructiuiis which siiew 
 o;ir obligations to thi^ Deity, and the way to pleaso him. Henct 
 it IS char thallhese subjects cannot be too soon and loo carefully 
 j'liiircssed on the minds 01 clnldren, provided the instruction be 
 . 'Jii\ eyed in terms and by examples &ic. suited to their years and 
 ii.iiierslanding. We tind in general that children are ingenious, 
 and ready to believe whatever is told thfni, they do not naturally 
 i! lo manliest a suspicious temper. And on this account we 
 Miot help laking notice of a very general error — (or rather we 
 say crime,) cornniiUed in the education of most children, by 
 ,.iers, grand-mothers, nurses, servants, and almust all others 
 lit Ihem, who, upon every trivial occasion impose upon their 
 ■nious crednlit\, by telling them the mo-t gross and palpable 
 ...iciioods. 'There is not indeed a more common, or perhaps a 
 more dangerous blunder than this, in tlie management and edu- 
 cation of children. It is attended with various bad consequences. 
 It undermines the first principles of virtue. The child, as soon as 
 it begins to exercise its n.ea, upon the ol)jects around it, linds it 
 has been told many falsehoods. Hence it begins to suspect false- 
 hood m every tiling, and the lessons it afterwards receives from its 
 parents and teaclier.s ag,,inst lying come rather too late. Hesides 
 how cruel it is to impose upun this ingenuous readiness of children 
 to believe whatever they are told, by telling them falsehoods from 
 their very birtli upvvariis? It Is thus that w;- tea< h them falsehood 
 and deceit, and then blame them when we find them aiierwards at- 
 tempting lo deceive us. Upon tlie subject of cx|;ressive indul- 
 gence v\e have to observe that when a chiUI evidences a strong de- 
 sire for any thing, we ought to judge immediately of the propriety 
 of complying with, or retusing it. When a refusal is once given it 
 ought to be absolute and irrevocable. On this head the sentiments 
 of Ai. Rousseau, conta'n some very just observations. "Hut, above all 
 (says he) beware of teaching yc;ur child the ceremonious jargon of 
 politeness, a set of phrases which he employs, like magic syllables, 
 to subject to his pleasure every one that comes near him, and to 
 obtain upon demand, whatever he desires. In the mode of edu- 
 cation adopted by the rich, their children never fail of being ren- 
 dered politely imperious, by being instructed to make use of such 
 expressions as nobody chuoses to resist. Neither in voice nor 
 manner have they any thing suppliant about them : on the con- 
 trary, they are as arrogant, if not more so, in their rccpiests, than in 
 their commands, inasmuch as they are always more certain of 
 being obeyed. One sees immediatelv, that their, [f you please, 
 mean--. It is I please ; and that their, pray, stands for do. Admira- 
 ble politeness this which teaches tlieni only to pervert the mean- 
 ing of words, and not to be able to speak otherwise than with the 
 air of command ! Surely it is a less evil that a chihl should prnve 
 clownish than insolent, and we had much r.ither hear him say in a 
 suppliant tone, Do so or so, than make use of a dictatorial Pray, 
 if you please. It is not the words he makes use of that are of so 
 much consequence, but the acceptance he annexes lo them. Ex- 
 cessive severity, as well as exce.-sive indulgence, should be equally 
 atoided. If you leave children to suffer, you expose their liealth, 
 endanger their lives, and make them actually miserable ; on tin- 
 other hand, if you are too anxious to prerent their being sensible 
 of any kind of pain and inconvenience, you only pave their yvay 
 to feel much greater ; you enervate their constitutions, make them 
 tender and effeminate ; in a word, you remove them out of their 
 situation as men, into wiiich they must hereafter return in spite of 
 all your solicitude. In order not to expose tliem to the few evils 
 nature would iiillict on them, you peovide for tlieni many which 
 tliey wouki otherwise never have suffered. Would you know 
 tlie most infallible way to make your child miserable? It is to 
 accustom him lo obtain every thing he desires: for, those desires 
 still incre.ising from the facility of gratihcation, your incapacity 
 to satisfy them must sooner or later reduce you to the necessity of 
 a refusal ; and that refusal, so new and uncommon, will give him 
 more trouble than even the want of that which he desires. From 
 wanting your cane he will proceed to your watch ; he will next 
 want the bird that Hies in the air, the st.ir that glitters in the firma- 
 ment ; ill short, everything he sees ; nothing less than omnipo 
 fence would enable you to satisfy it. It is natural to man to re- 
 gard every thing as his own, which he has in his power. Could 
 we increase with our desires the means of gratifying them, every 
 one would conceive himself the lord over all. 'fhe child, there- 
 fore, who needs only desire a thing to obtain it, is led naturallv 
 
 to imagine him-elt the proprietor of the universe ; he looks upon 
 all mankind as his slaves ; and when any thing is, at length, re- 
 fused him, he, who conceives not the mipoisibiiity of executing 
 any ot his commands, e.-.leems sucli rttiisal as an act of rebellion : 
 all the reasons that can be given him at an age incapable of reason- 
 ing, appear to him only pretexts. He sees your ill-will through 
 the wdiole: the sense of an imaginary injustice sours his disposition ; 
 he begins to hale every" body ; and, without ever thinking him- 
 self obliged by their conqjlaisance, is enraged at their contradic- 
 tion. How is it possible that children, thus subject to be made 
 the prey of the most irascible pas^ions, can ever be happy ': 'I'l-.eir 
 desires, irritated -bv the facility with which they have usually been 
 gratified, are bent on impossibilities, wliilst they meet on every 
 siile with nothing but contradictions, obstacles, sufferings and sor- 
 row. Always grumbling, fractious, and passionate, iliey pass their 
 time amidst perpetual tears and complaints. How can these bo 
 supposed happy in their situation' Imbecilllly and aulhorily united, 
 generate only folly and misery. But if these notions of tyranny 
 and command make men miserable in their infancy, how mucii 
 more will they do so as they grow up, when tlie relations they 
 stand in to others become more numerous and exiensive ! Accus- 
 tomed to see every thing give way to their desires, how will they 
 be surprised, in entering on the world, to see every thing resist 
 their will, and to find themselves oppressed by the weight of that 
 iiniversi?, which they imagined they could move about at pleasure I 
 However the lawful ami reasonable desires oi chihiren, being sucii 
 as are calculated, to make them happy, should be readily complied 
 with. And in every thing tliey demand, the motive which excites 
 them to make such demand, ought con-taiitly to engage our 
 attention, and determine oiir conduct wilii regard lo the indulging 
 or denying of their request. While the child is preserved from 
 immoderate and improper desires and indulgences the principles 
 of justice and benevolence should be engrafted, the ideas of right 
 and wrong and those of kindness should be instilled with great care 
 into his mind, presenting him with the choicest examples. Parti- 
 cularly by our own conduct, which a child always observes, we 
 should inculcate these princijdes. They may also be incited to 
 benevolence, bv being encouraged to give something, which they 
 possess and esteem, lo relieve or accommodate others. But as M. 
 Rousseau justly observes, we ought not to encourage this to be 
 done, " by returning to children immediately whatever they 
 give ;" for, this tends only " to render a child liberal in appearance, 
 and covetous in fact ;" and can only " teach them the liberality 
 of an usurer, who gives a penny for a pound" in return. No pe- 
 cuniary rewards ought, therefore, to be given for acts of charily 
 and generosity. The child should rather, on such occasions be 
 led to relied on the great good he has done to a poor old man or 
 woman, or to a helpless family of infants, who perhaps, but tor his 
 generosity, would have had nothing to eat ; and whf n such scenes 
 of distress (as are alas! too common) are properly represented lo 
 his feelings, the child may then he askeil, whetiier he has not more 
 satisfaction in thus supplying their necessities out of his pocket- 
 money, than he could iiave had by laying it out upon the finest 
 fruits, or the nicest dainties which the confectioner's shop could 
 afford. Thus he will be taught, and will soon begin to feel, that 
 the exercise of such virtue is in reality its own reward. In short, 
 we are lully persuaded, that lo breed up children in the princi|)les 
 of virtue and morality, they niu->t be taught these principles as 
 early as po.ssible; and thai to inure them to the practice through 
 hie, they cannot too earlv begin. While the heart is young and 
 tender, it is susceptible of every fine feeling and of every good ini- 
 pres-ion ; which by liabit will afterwards take such firm root as 
 never to be afterwards eradicated. But if we wait till the social 
 virtues spring up spontaneously, as M. Bousseau advises, without 
 ever attempting to plant or cultivate them, it is lo be feared we 
 may wait in vain, and discover when too late, that the whole soil 
 is over-run with the weeds of self-love; — a ^(r.nciple, which, how- 
 ever necessary, as the chief spring of action and preservation in 
 every individual, requires nevertheless our utmost exertions to keep 
 it within due bounds, yvithout which, indeed, it becomes the ori- 
 gin of every vice, that disgraces human nature. Mr. Pope in his 
 Essay on Man, lias been at great pains to piove, agreeably to his 
 friend Lord Bolingbroke's opinion, that 
 
 " All self-love and social are the same :" 
 But Zenith and Nadir are not more opposite ; tlie one being tli« 
 fountain of ail that is good, and the otheVj when, not under <iue re- 
 straint.
 
 240 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 straiiit, of all that is evil in iiumaii naturo. A proper regulation, 
 therefore ot self-love ought to be a priiicipal object with parents 
 and teachers in the etiucatioii of children. I'^ciore we conckide 
 this article, it will be proper to take notice of tlie impropriety and 
 inconvenience of not teaching young people to thnik an<l act of 
 iheniselvcs. 1 he art of a governor, and the lessons of a preceptor, 
 change a child into a voiilli ; they infn>e nito him a greater share 
 of knowledge than he conld be naturally supposed to have at his 
 age. But this very child, when he arrives to that stage of life in 
 which he must think, speak, and act, of himself, is stripped all of a 
 sudden of his premature merit. His summer is far from answering 
 the line blossoms ot .his spring. 'I'he loo solicitous education he 
 has received, becomes rather prejudicial to him, by reason of its 
 being the occasion of his falling into the dangerous habit of letting 
 other people thiidv for him. His mind has contracted an internal 
 lazine.is, which makes him wait tor external impulses to resolve and 
 to act. Tlie mind contracts a l.'.ziness with a- much facility as the 
 legs and feet. A man who never stirs williout the a^^istance of 
 some vehicle, becomes soon incapable of the same tree use of his 
 l.'gs, as a person that has been consianllv accustomed to walk. As 
 therefore, we must lend a hand to the one when he walks, so we 
 must help the other to think, and even to will: whereas a child 
 bred up lothe exercise of his own tiioughts and reason, natnrally 
 brings his powers into exertion, and his mind from being accustom- 
 vd to labour becomes active. He learns to reason and determine of 
 liimstif, in the same manner as other things are learned. At 
 length he attains to argue and resolve rightly, by mere dint of 
 re.isoning and reilecting on the cause of his deception, when the 
 ■events convince him of the error of his judgenient. It is not our 
 purpose here to enter into a detail of tlie several particular 
 branches of education and discipline of youth in their dili'erent 
 rising years, and accordiu!; to their different stations in life, 
 and th.e dilferent views of their jjarenls; neither have we room 
 to expatiate on the proper qualilications and reipiisites of 
 tutors, governors, &c. or on the peculiar advantages or disadvan- 
 tages of public schools, and of private or domestic c<luca- 
 tion. For lull information on these subjects, we refer (o the nu- 
 merous treatises, which have been written on education, and of 
 which we shall mention a few of the most remarkable. The 
 most excellent author on education, among the ancients, is 
 tiuintilian, who, when he gave over teaching rhetoric at Home, 
 wrote a Treatise on Rhetoric, and on ths mo>t proper means for 
 educating a boy, so as to render him both an eloquent orator, and 
 a good man. In that work Quuitilian gives a particular detail of 
 all that appears mo^t likely to conduce to those ends. Even from 
 his birth, he would have the greatest care to be used in selecting 
 those who are to be placed about his young orator. Th(> nur>e 
 must have no impediment of speech. If -his parents be not per- 
 sons of sense and learning, his tutor, at least, must possess these 
 Cjualifications. As soon as he c^-n speak distinctly, he must be ini- 
 tiated in the tiist elements of literature. Even at this early period 
 of life, (^uintiliaii proposes, that maxims of prudence and' the (irst 
 principles of morals should he inculcated upon his mind, by the 
 books whieh are put into his hands, and by the lines which he co- 
 pies ni learning to write. The Greek language was to the Romans 
 in (Juintdian's timi-, (like the lyatin, (ireck, and French, to us at 
 present,) indispensably neee-^ary to all who as|)ired to a liberal 
 education; and Quinfilian judged it proper, that the boy should 
 begin his' literary course with the Greek, in preference to' the La- 
 tin language, (iaintilian, after evamining the <piestion, whether a 
 domestic or a i)ublic education is liable to the fewest inconveni- 
 ences, ;.nd hkily to be attended with the greatest advantages; 
 gives his deci'led opinion in favour of the latter, and wishes that 
 parents would place their children in public seminaries of educa- 
 tion. This judicious author declares against severe chastisements 
 of children " According to his temper and dis|)ositioi)S, let the 
 boy be treated with mildness or severity; but never let severity 
 extend to blows. I. it the bov be allured and led, by the mos't 
 artful ::nd insinuating treaimeii't, to do his dutv; there will then be 
 no occadon to punish him for neglecting it." Quintilian's pro- 
 fe sed cbjeet being, not merely to give general directions for form- 
 ing the h'-art and cultivating' the understanding, but to foim a 
 particular character in life, the scholar and the \>rator; he enters 
 iniond.iute details conc<-rning the manner in which the boy is to 
 be insuucted in speaking, writing, grammar, and composition. 
 "Music and geometry, he advises also to m..ke a part of the vomig 
 
 orator's studies; to render him accurate in reasonii'.g, and capable 
 of relishing the beauties of th.e poets. With tender attention, tins 
 eleg,;nt writer accompanies his pupil through the course of his stu- 
 dies;- insists that he be placed under a master distinguislied lor pu- 
 rity of morals, as well as for abilities ; advises his memory to I e 
 stored v.ith the best passages of the poets, orators, and historiai.- ; 
 and reiutes the opinions of those who represent genius asabos ■ 
 industry. Aijjcng the moderns, few names are more justly vein- 
 rated, than that of John Milton. His lile was devoteil to study ; 
 and part of it was employed in instructing youth. Among h s 
 other works we find a 'I'realise on Education. He had himst-lf 
 been educated according to the plan long established in the Eii'^- 
 lish universities. The object of his directions is chiefly to term 
 t'-.e schol-.:r, and to exhibit a plan of " a better education, in ex- 
 lent and comprehension f;'r more large, and yet of time tar shorter, 
 ami of attainment far more certain, than any th.at had \ et been m 
 practice." His treatise contains many useful observations. The 
 name of Jolin Locke is sufficient to excite the attention of every 
 reader to what he las written on the education of youth. He was 
 capable of thinking for himself; but unlike Rous-eau, more desir- 
 ous of rendering himself useful, than of being admired for singu- 
 larity. Mr. Locke had been conversant with the world, had in- 
 cpiired into tiie princi|des of human nature, and had examined 
 without prejudice the efl'ects of those modes of education of which 
 he disapproves. When we consider, that, to render himself useful 
 to mankind, he could descend from the heights of science to the 
 humble task of translating /Esop's Fables, which a philosopher of 
 leSs philanthropv would have disdained; we cannot but lock with 
 veneration on so exalted a character. Mr. Locke's two chief ob- 
 jects in iiis Treatise on Educ.stion, are, 1st, To preserve and 
 strengthen the bodily constitution ; 2dly, To iniorm the un<lef 
 standing with useful knowledge, and to cherish good dispositions 
 in the heart. In his directions on the tirsl of these heads, lie re- 
 commends plain f.ire, simjjle and light clothing, with abstinence 
 frijin pi'.ysic and strong liquore, as tne most judicious means for 
 pres-.rving and continuing the health of children: together with 
 temperance and early rising. In one thing, however, tew parents 
 will be willing to comply with Mr. Locke's advice. He not only 
 directs that the child's feet be fretiuently bathed in cold water; 
 but even wishes that his shoes were always kept in such a condi- 
 tion as to admit water freely. This he thinks likely to fortify the 
 constitution of the body in such a manner, as to render him less 
 liable, in the course of life, to such diseases as arise from any un- 
 usual exposure to wetness or cold, than others whose feet have 
 been more carefully kept dry. Mr. Locke entertained so unfa- 
 vourable an opinion of the ett'ects of medical preparations on the 
 human body, that he insists on the parent to beware of administer- 
 ing any of them to his child, lint whatever may be thought of 
 these advices, or of his plan of invigorating the constitution, by 
 exposure lo hardships, his method of cultivating the understand- 
 ing, and forming the dispositions, deservedly claims the attention 
 ot parents and preceptors. With a virtuous indignation he repro- 
 bates that folly by which we generally corrupt the heart, and spoil 
 the temper of children, in infancy ; so as to render them incorri- 
 gible when they advance in lite. On the other, hand he reckons 
 it neither necessary nor prudent to treat them with harshness or 
 severity. Let them be formed to ol-.e<lience from their earliest 
 years: let Ihem be accustomed to submit implicitly to the direc- 
 tion of those on whom they depend. But beware of souring their 
 tempers, and depressing their spirits by harshness; as well as of 
 ;iccustoming them lo neglect their duty, except when allured to it 
 by the hopes of reward. Mr. Locke's treatise is well deserving 
 the perusal of the judicious parent, or teacher; and though a few 
 things may be found in it exceptionable, yet for the most part it 
 will present and furnish rules and observations, not only appropri- 
 ate, but exceedingly pisoper for practical application.. 'IheUer. 
 Dr. Isaac Walts, whose numerous works upon philosophy, logic,, 
 divinity, &c. are well know n, has also a Discourse on the Educa- 
 tion of Children and Youth; annexed to his excellent treatise on 
 The lmj)rovement of the Mind. It treats of, 1. Instructing chil- 
 dren in religion, which the Dr. thinks slii uld be attempteti "as 
 soon as lhe\ begin to know almost any thing:" 2. The improve- 
 nienl of their u.jtural powers: 3. Self-government, which he (iro- 
 poses children to be early instructed in: 4. Reading and writing: 
 5. An employment: 6. Uules of prudence: 7. Aceouiplishnients 
 ni life among which the Dr. enumerates the (ireek, Latin, and 
 
 French
 
 K D I 
 
 U 1 
 
 E D W 
 
 French laiigviagt-s, logic, matheinatii-s, astronomy , imuir.il pliiloso- 
 pliv, aiul llii-'line arts. With regard to thi- languages, the Dr. 
 reckons " Ihc knowlcdgf of things of much more importance than 
 that of worils." S. (U evil inlhienccs, from terrifying stories, 
 hloody historic?, &c. i>. Of sports and diversions, ;iriiongst which 
 ■ he iiisllv condemns the practice of cock-ligliting,,ns well as plays 
 and inasipierades. lu and 11. IJis two l.ist sections treat of the 
 proper degrees of lihcrty and restraint in sons and daughters. 
 r'rom tiiese general heads, this tract evidently appears to be well 
 .wOTtliy of the altention of C^hri-lian pandits. Dr. 'I'urnhull pub- 
 •lislied' Observations on Liberal l-dncation; at London, in lT4'i. 
 This worls. contains theessmce of wh.it has been written on the 
 Snbj«ct by the ancients; with remarks from Mr. Locke and others 
 of the moderns. The author shews the importance ot e.irly habits 
 of virtue, and recommends alcng with the ac(piisifion of the ver- 
 nacular and learned languages, the study of natural and moral phi- 
 losophy, and the cultivation of a taste for the beauties of nature, 
 and the still greater beauties of virtuf. Dr. Chapman says it 
 " ab(-unds in instructions very useful to parents and children." 
 In 1743, Mr. James Barclay published at Edinburgh a Treatise on 
 Kdu<-ation, in l?nio. containing, says Dr. Chapman, " many use- 
 fiil oijs'Tv.ations on public and private education, the duty of pa- 
 rents and teachers; ijrainniar, history, t.a.^te, poetry," fee. In 
 175t>, Mr. James Ned^on, apolhecarv, published An E-say on 
 the Govern.«ieMt of Children, under three general Heads; Health, 
 Maimers and Ediic.;tii>n, 12mo. Lond. Dr. Chapman recom- 
 nionds ihis work a-; containing " many judicious rules and obser- 
 vation- w'O'.thv tile attention of parents and teachers." In 17d-', 
 the celebrated John James Kous;eau surprised the public with his 
 Einilius; a mural romance in 4 vols. I'Jmo. In this work there 
 are maHy things deserving of the severest censure, while other 
 parts are highly commendable in his system, which is theoretical, 
 and often untit tor practice; he fixes the timi' for connnencing cer- 
 tain instruction bv tar loo late. Even Kousieau himself, notwith- 
 «landing the art with wiiich he lays down his system, cannot avoid 
 aekiiowkdging indirectly, on several ocea^ions, that our social dis- 
 p.)^itiotis, our rational and our moral powers, display themselves at 
 .11 earlier period, than that at which he wislies us to begin the culti- 
 vation of tliem. Hut though the great outlines of his system be 
 merely theory, unsupported by fact?, n?.y, pb.inly contradictory to 
 facts; yet his observations on the improjjrielv or absurdity of the 
 prtevalent modes of education are very oftv-n uist, and many of the 
 particular directions wljieh he aires tor the conducting of educa- 
 tion are jiidic'rous. father Genlil, in his Reflections on Ednca- 
 tioii, published in ITfi'), examines the prineijiles laid down by iSI. 
 
 ■ Hisseau in his Emilius, and shews in opposition to him, that man 
 ■ -lesiuned for a social state, and improved by it ; that children 
 are capable of earl\ instruction, and nniy be taught fables, geogra- 
 phy, iiistorv, and geometry; tliat they may be formed to a taste 
 tr>r true Latinitv; and that the lower, as well as the higher rank 
 ol life, ought to be trained, by early culture, to the fear of God, 
 obedience to parents, and th.e fundamental duties of society- Mr. 
 Sheridan, in his Plan of Education for the young Noliility and 
 f 'iitry of (Jreat Britain, published in 17(!y, censures the methods 
 
 mmoiily |)ursued in the great schools in England, and points 
 t the ends we ought to have in view, and the means and tlie in- 
 iiments we ought to use, in the education ot youth: the cnd> 
 . ■, to make good men, good citizens, and good Christians; tlie 
 pi.'a.ns, a strict atfenlion to their behaviour, and the adapting their 
 •studies to their talents, and to their future professions and offices 
 in life; the instruments, a sense of honour, a sense of shame, and, 
 a'jove all, a sense of delight. The learned and pious author of 
 Lejters, containing a Plan of Education for Rural Academies, 
 
 published in 177.3, com))lains that education does not engage the 
 atti'ntion it merits ; rei>res( iits tlie country as moit favourable frt 
 the health, the safety, the morals, and the religious training, pf 
 youth; recommends a plain diet, and a plain, but neat dress; 
 prescribes a course of education from 7 to 1 1 years cf age, to 
 consist of the principles of ■religion, moral tales, the rudiments of 
 Latin, ami elements of Greek, with writing and aritiimctic ; from 
 II to 15, he enjoins perseverance in tluJ study of the clasSirs, and 
 of history, with tlie elements of rhetoric, algebra, and geometry; 
 sends his |)upil to the university, if he be designed for any of the 
 learned prolessions; tliinks tliat the stiulent sutlers much from dis- 
 continuing his studies during the summer months, and advises 
 hiin to be sent back to the academv through the summer, to pre- 
 vent habits of idleness and dissipation, to revise what he hid for- 
 merly learned, and to prepare for the next course at the univer- 
 sity ; but, instead of sending hiin to the nniveisity at the age of 
 1 ">, he detains him at the academy, if he be designed for the ser- 
 vice of his country in a civil or military capacity ; prescribe; a 
 continuation of his former studies, and introduces him to natiu'al 
 history and philosophy; lays down a course of study at the aca- 
 demy for such as are to follow a mercantile emjilojuient; pro- 
 poses a plan for the education of young ladies at a rural academy ; 
 and concludes with a ])lan of education in parochial schools, laid 
 down by Mr. Fletcher of Salton, who made a figure about the 
 beginning of this century. " This author, says Dr. Chapman, 
 insists much on instilling religious and moral |iriiiei)>les, and on 
 training the youth of both sexes, by virtuous habits, to the difl'er- 
 ent duties of life." In 1777, Dr. Ash published ijcnliments on 
 Education, collected from the best authors, w ith occasional ob- 
 servations: in L' vols. l','nio. Lond. Vol. i. contains instructions 
 and obserrations ; on leaching to read; grammar; writing; draw- 
 ing; arithmetic; geometry; geography; astronomy ; chrono- 
 logy; music; rhetoric; a course of reading; public speaking; 
 trade and coijimerce. Vol. 2 treats of female accomplishments,; 
 ofmod'esty; the pa^^sions ; epistolary correspondence ; subordina^ 
 lion in society ; behaviour in social and civil life ; love and mar- 
 riage ; management of a family ; and religion. The Rev. Mr. 
 Knox-, in his Liberal Education, or Practical Treatise on the Me- 
 thods of ac<]uiring I'seful and Polite Learning, publishcil in 17Sl', 
 prefers public education for boys, and domestic, w ilh little excep- 
 tion, for girls ; condemns the use of translations, and editions of 
 the classics with notes; insists on industry, and llic diligent use.u/ 
 dictionaries in schools ; enjoins tlie rules of Ijilj 's Gr.imniar, and 
 large portions of the best classics to be got by heart, with the writ- 
 ing of exercises, and the composition of themes in English and 
 Latin, and in verse as well as prose, iccording to the practice «jf 
 the best schools of England; advises that there be |)nblic re- 
 hearsals by the elder scholars once every week from the best Eng- 
 lish and Latin authors, and public examinations at 'hort intervals: 
 insists on a judicious and well supported discipline in schooN ; and 
 makes many just and ingenious observations on cultivating thp 
 minds of both sexes, Sjc. Dr. Chapman says, Mr. Knox's stilp 
 is so accurate and elegant, that it may be said to be truly attic. 
 In 1792, Dr. George Chapman published the fifth cfiitio'ii, im- 
 proved and enlarged, of his Treatise on ]'"ducalion, in two part?. 
 With the Author's Method of Instruction while lie taught the 
 School of Dumfries; and a \ lew of other I'ooks on Education. 
 This w frk is one of the best and most complete we have on this 
 subject, ai:d is admirably adapted for jiractice. Strictures on fe- 
 male education, by Mrs. A. More, is a work w i II adapted to give 
 tliosc entrusted with tlie education of young laiiies [iropcr views 
 of this important charge. 
 
 EDITX'ORATIOX, in chemistry, properly signifies the ren- ' 
 deringol substance? more mild. It consists almost alWays in taking 
 away acids and other saline sub-tan<es; and this is effected by 
 washing the bodies, to which they adhere, in a large <piantitv cif 
 water.. The washing of diaphoretic antiinonv, powder of alga- 
 ^th, &c. till the water comes off cpiite pure and insipid, are in- 
 ttances of chemical edulcoration. 1 
 
 VOL. n. — N-o. 71. I 
 
 Edulcor.'^tiov, in pharmacy, is. merely llic sweelrning of ju- 
 leps, potions, and other medicines, by addinc sugar or svrup. 
 
 E!,»\\ARDS, GFORfiK, F. R. A! SS. was born at StVatford, a 
 hamlet of \^'estham in Essex, April 24, I6!)4. I'pon leaving 
 school, he was put apprentice to a tradesman in Fenchureh-streel, 
 who treated him with great kindness; but about tlie middle of his 
 apprenticeship, an accident happened, which kd young Edwards 
 3 Q ■ " t»
 
 EFF 
 
 242 
 
 EFF 
 
 to follow ll;e proper bent of his genhia. Dr. Nicolas, a relation 
 of his master' ;:, liappened to die. The doctor's books were re- 
 moved to an apartment occupied by Edwards, who eagerly rrn- 
 ph.ycd all liis leisure hours, boih in the day and nii;ht, in perusing 
 those on natural history, sculpture, painting, astronomy, and anti- 
 <|uiUes. The reading of these books ejitirely deprived him of all 
 inclination for mercantile business, and he resolved to travel into 
 foreign countries. In 17)6, he visited the principal towns in 
 Holland. Two years after, he took a voyage to Norway, and the 
 next year visited Paris by the way of Dieppe. On liis arrivs.l in 
 England, Mr. Edwards closely pursued his favourite stud}- of na- 
 tural history, applying himself to drawing and colouring; such ani- 
 mals as fell under iiis notice. A strict attention to natmal, more 
 than picturesque beauty, claimed his earliest care: birtis hrst en- 
 gaged his particular attention; and having purchased sonic of the 
 ■best pictures of these sul)jccts, he was induced to make a few 
 drawings of his own; which were admired by the curious, who 
 encouraged our young naturalist to proceed, by paying a good 
 price for liis early labours. Among his first patrons and benefac- 
 tors maybe mentioned James Theobalds, Esq. of Lambeth; a 
 gentleman zealous for the promotion of science. Our artist, tluis 
 unexpectedly encouraged, increaseil in skill and assiduity ; and 
 procured, by his application to his favourite pursuit, a decent sub- 
 sistence and a large acquaintance. However, in 1731, in com- 
 pany with two of his relations, he made an excursion to Holland 
 and Brabant, where he collected several scarce books and prints, 
 and saw the original pictures of several great masters at Aiitv\'erp, 
 Brussels, Utrecht, and other cities. In Dec. 1733, by the re- 
 commendation of the great Sir Hans Sloane, Bart. ■ president of 
 the college of physicians, he was chosen librarian, and had apart- 
 ments in the college. This office was peculiarly agreeable to his 
 taste and inclination, as he had the opportunity of a constant re- 
 course to a valuable- library, filled with scarce and curious books 
 on the subjects of natural history, w hich he so assiduously studied. 
 By degrees he became one of the most eminent ornithologists in 
 this, or any other country. His merit is so well known in this re- 
 spect, as to render any euloginm on his performances unnecessary: 
 he never trusted to others what he could perform himself; aiid 
 often found it So difficult to give satisfaction to his own mind, that 
 he frequently made three or four dr.awings to delineate the object 
 in its most lively character, attitude, and representation. In 1743, 
 the first volume of his History of Birds was published in 4to. His 
 ■subscribers exceeding even his most sanguine expectations, a se- 
 cond volume appe.iretl in 1747. The third was published in 1750; 
 and in 1751, the fourth came out. This volume being the last he 
 intended to publish at that time, he seems to have considered it 
 as the most perfect of his productions in natural history: and there- 
 fore clevoully offered it up to the great God of nature, in humble 
 gratitude for all the good things he had received from him in this 
 world. Our author, in 1753," continued his labours under a new 
 title. Viz. Gleanings of Natural History. A second volume of 
 tlie Gleanings was published in I7liO. The third part, which 
 made the seventh and last volume of his work, appeared in 1764. 
 His collection of drawings, \ihich amounted to upwards of gOO, 
 ■were purchased by the earl of Bute, They contain a great num- 
 ber ot British as well as foreign bird-, and other animals hitherto 
 not accurately delineated or described. Having entered his 
 80th year, emaciated with age and sickness, he died Jul) '23, 1773, 
 much lamented by a 4uimerous acquaintance. 
 
 EDYSTONE" EIGHT-HOUSE. See Eudvstone. 
 
 EEL, in ichthyology. See Mvr,s;na. 
 
 Eki,, in geography, a lake of North America. Lon. 9S. 50. 
 \V. Eat. 49, 0. N. 
 
 EtL-SHtAR, a forked instrument with three or four jagged teeth, 
 used for catching eels, that with the four teeth is best, which 
 they strike into tlie mud at the bottom of the river, and it it strike 
 against any eels, it never fails to bring them up. 
 
 Eti. Town, or kENAPACAMAauA, a town of N. America, W. 
 of the United States. Lon. 86. '25. W. Eat. 40. 30. N. 
 
 EKMS, a department of Batavia, or Holland. Leewarden is 
 the capital. 
 
 Eems, a river of Batavia. 
 
 EFl'ARE', or EilKAYE', in heraldry, a term applied to a 
 beast rearing on its hind legs, as if it were Irighted or (jrovoked. 
 
 EFFKC'l, ijj a general sense, is that which results from, oris 
 produced by, auy caustf. See Cause. 
 
 Effects, in commerce, law, Sec. the goods possessed by any 
 person, whether moveable or immoveable. 
 
 Effects, in llie manege, the motions of the hand that serve lo 
 conduct the hor>e. See Aids. 'Jhere are four effects of the 
 hand, or four ways of making use of the bridle, viz. to push a 
 horse forwards, to give him head, to hold him ui, and to turn the 
 hand either to the right or left. 
 
 EFFECTIONS, in geometry, are used in the same sense with 
 the geometrical construction of propositions, and often of problems 
 and practices, which, yslien they are deducible from, or founded 
 upon, some general proposition, are called the geometrical eflec- 
 tions thereunto belonging. 
 
 EFFENDl, in the '1 urkish language, signifies master: and ac- 
 cordingly it is a title very extensively applied ; as, to the muiti 
 and emirs, to the priests of mosques, to men of learning, and of 
 the law. The grand chancellor of the empire is called reis effendi, 
 
 EFFERDlK'G, or EVERDING, a town of Germany, in the 
 archduchy of Austria, 10 miles "W. of Liiitz. 
 
 EFFE11\'ESCENCE, [trom fffer-ctn, Latin,] in chemistry, is 
 a rapid ciisengagement of gas taking place w ithin a liquid ; in eon- 
 sequence of this, numerous bubbles rise to the surface, forming a 
 head of froth, and bursting with a hissing noise. There is some 
 resemblance between effervescence and fermentation ; the latter 
 is, however, slower and more durable. Heuce chemibts formerly 
 applied the term fermentation to all the phanomena which are 
 at present denoted by elfervescence. 
 
 EFFLORESCENCE, in botany. See Efflorescentia. 
 
 Efflorescence, in chemistry, denotes the formation of a kind 
 of mealy pow der on the surface of certain bodies. Efflorescence 
 is occasioned either by decomposition or drying. The efflores- 
 cence whicli happens to cobalt and pyrites is of the first; and that 
 observed on the crystals of marine alkali, Glanber's salt, he. of 
 the latter kind. An efflorescence is sometimes also a species of 
 crystallization, as the beauliftil vegetations which shoot up from 
 vilriolatedtartaracidulated cither with the vitriolic or nitrous acids, 
 the saline spicula; which are observed to shoot from salt-butter, &c. 
 
 EFFLORESCENTIA, or rather EFFLORESCENTliE 
 TEM PUS, [from eJHorescn, to bloom,] in botany, the precise 
 time of the year and month in which every plant shews its first 
 flowers. Some plants flower twice a year, as is common between 
 the tropics : others oltener, as the monthly rose. The for- 
 mer are called bilera- ; the latter, multifera. The time of flow- 
 ering is determined by the degree of heat which each sjiecies re- 
 quires. Mezereon and snowdrop produce their flowers in Febru- 
 ary ; primrose in the beginning of IVlarch ; the greater number of 
 plants, during the month of May ; corn and other grain in the be- 
 ginning of June ; the vine, in the middle of the same month ; se- 
 veral compound flowers in the months of July and August; lastly, 
 meadow saffron tfowers in October, and announces the speedy ap- 
 proach of winter. Grass of Parnassus always flowers about the 
 time of cutting down the hay ; and in Sweden the difl'erent species 
 of thistle, mountain lettuce, succory, and balsam, seldom flower 
 till after the summer solstice: the countrymen know, as by a ca- 
 lendar, that the solstice is past when these plants begin to produce 
 their flowers. The temperature of the seasons has a great influ- 
 ence both in accelerating and retarding the flowering of plants. 
 
 F^FFLl'VIA, [of fx, from, \x\v\Jii'.o, 1 flow,] in physiology, a 
 term much used by philosophers and physicians, to express the 
 minute particles yvhich exhale from most, if not all, teiTestrial 
 bodies in form of insensible vapours. Nothing can exceed the 
 subtilty of the odoriferous eflluvia of plants and other bodies. Mr. 
 Boyle tells us, that having exposed to the open air a certain C|uan- 
 tity of asaftetida, he found its weight diminished only the eighth 
 part of a grain in six days : hence, ii we suppose, that iluring all that 
 time, a man could smell lliea-afa-tida at the distance of live feet, it 
 will appear that its effluvia cannot exceed the^^-g^-^o-gg^^Ti^ ^, t,a a& 
 part ot an inch in magnitude. The effluvia of mineial suhslances 
 are called steams ; and when collected in mines, or other close 
 places, damps. Malignant effluvia are assigned by physi( ians, as 
 the canst i ot the plague, and other contagious diseases ; as the jail- 
 distem|)er, hosnital-lever, and the like. 
 
 EFFRON'l ES, in church history, a sect of heretics, in 1534, 
 who scraped their forehead with a knife till it bled, and then 
 poured oil into tlie wound. 'Ibis ceremony served them in.tead 
 )t f:iptism. 'I hey are likewise said to have 'denied the divinity of 
 tiie iiolv Spirit. 
 
 EFT,
 
 EGG 
 
 243 
 
 EGY 
 
 EFT, ill zoology. Sec I.acf.kta. 
 
 CGAKl'O, oiiJ of tin; suuilier Kurilc; islamis, in tlic N. Pacific 
 
 OClilll. 
 
 liUli;NBUUG, or liGGENBUUG, a town of GfimaiiY, in 
 llic artlidiicliy of Auslria, 3l3 miles N.W. of N'icmia. 
 
 F.GtlU, olio of llie late praiid coiiinniiiitifs of Swilzerlaiid, 
 wliiih, witli llu' town of /u!^, loniu-il tlic Caiiloii of Zuj;. 
 
 rXjlCKlA, or -EGFIUA, a iiyiiiph lifld iu great veneration by 
 tlic l\oiiiaiij. Slic \*a-. courted by Numa Pompiliii' ; and ac- 
 cording to Ovid, became hi-; wife. Tliis prince to give his laws 
 tlie greater authority, trolemnly declared, before t'le Roman peo- 
 ple, that they were previously sanctified and approved by the 
 iiynipli E»eria. Ovid says, that Egeria was so disconsolate at the 
 death of Nnnia, that >lie'iiielted into tears and was changed into 
 fountain by Diana. 
 
 EGG, in physiology, a body formed in certain females, in 
 M hich is contained an embryo, or fcctus of the same species, un- 
 der a cortical surface or sliell. 'I'iie exterior part of an egg 
 is a shell; which in a hen, for instance, is a white, thin, and 
 friable cortex, including all the other parts. The shell be- 
 comes more brittle by being exposed to a dry heat. It is lined 
 every where with a very thin, but a pretty tough membrane, 
 which dividing at, or very near, the obtuse end of the egg, forms 
 a small bag, where nothing; but air is contained. In new-laid 
 eggs this follicle appears very little, but becomes larger when the 
 egg is ke|)t. \\ ithiii lliis are contained the albumen, or white, 
 and the vilellus, or yolk ; each ofwiiiclihavc their ditferent vir- 
 tues. Tlie albumen is a cold, viscous, white liquor in the egg, dif- 
 ferent in consistence in its different parts. It is observed that there 
 are two distinct albumens, each of which is inclosed in its proper 
 membrane. Of these one is very tliin and li(|uid: the other is 
 more dense and viscous, and of a somewhat whiter colour; but in 
 old and stale eggs, aifer some days incubation, inclining to a yel- 
 low. As this second alljumen covers the yolk on all sides, so it is it- 
 self surrounded by the other external lic|uid. The albumen of a fe- 
 rundated egg, is as sweet and free from corruption, during all the 
 iine of incubation, as it is in new-laid eggs ; as is al^o the vitellus. 
 As the eggs of hens consist of two licpiors separated one from an- 
 jther, and distinguished by two branches of umbilical veins, one 
 )f which goes to the vitellus, and the other to the albumen ; so it is 
 •ery probable that they are of different natures, and con-eiiuently 
 tppointed for dUferent purposes. When the vitellus grows warm 
 vith incubation, it becomes more humid, and like melting wax or 
 at; whence it takes up more space. For as the foetus increases, 
 he albumen inseiiiibly wastes away and condenses ; the vitellus, 
 m the contrary, seems to lose little or nothing of its bulk when 
 he foetus is perfected, and only appears more liquid and humid 
 vheii the abdomen of the fa-tus begins to bo formed. The chick 
 n the egg is first nourished by the albumen; and when this is 
 oiisumetl, by the vitellus, as with milk. If we compare the 
 halaziE to the extremities of an axis passing through the vitellus, 
 ,hich is of a spherical form, this sphere will be composed of two 
 nequal portions, its axis not passing through its centre ; conse- 
 uently, since it is heavier than tiie white, its smaller portion must 
 Iways be uppermost in all positions of the egg. ^I'he yellowish 
 hite round spot, called cicatricula, is placed on the middle of 
 le smaller portion, and therefore always appears on the superior 
 art of the \ ilellus. Not long before the exclusion of the chick, 
 .-.le whole yolk is taken into its abdomen ; and the shell at the ob- 
 tuse end of the egg, fretiuently appears cracked some time before 
 the exclusion of the chick. The chick is sometimes observed to 
 perforate the shell with its beak. After exclusion, the yolk is 
 gradually wasted, being conveyed into the small guts by a small 
 duct. £ggs differ very much according to the birds that lay 
 tliem, as to their colour, form, bigness, age, and the different way 
 of dres-^ing thein : those most used i'l food are hens' eggs ; of which 
 such as are new-laid are best. As to the prescrvatinn of eggs, it is 
 observed that the egg is always quite full when it is first laid by 
 the hen ; but from that time it gradually becomes less and less so, 
 to its decay : and however compact and close its shell may appear, 
 it is nevertheless perforated with a multitude of small holes, 
 though too minute lov the discernment of our eyes, the effect of 
 which i^ a daily decrease of matter wil bin the egg, from the time 
 of its being laid ; ami the perspiration is much <|uicker in hot wea- 
 ther than ill colli. To preserve eggs fresh, there needs no more 
 llian to preserve them full, and stop the transpivation ; the method 
 
 of w hich is, by stopping up those pores with matter wliicli is not 
 soluble in watery lluids : and on this principle it is that all kinds 
 of varnish, prepared with spirit of wine, will preserve eggs fresh 
 for a long time, if they are carefully rubbed all over the shell ; 
 tallow, mutton fat, and even fresh butter are also good lor this 
 purpo^e ; for such as are rubbed over with any of these will keep 
 as long as those coated over with varnish. M. Reaumur observes, 
 that hens eggs are properly a sort of chrysalis. of the animal ; their 
 germ, after they are impregnated by the cock, containing the 
 young animal ahvc, and waiting only a due ilegree of warmth to 
 bo hatched, and appear in its proper form. When eggs have bccu 
 long kept, there is a road found near one of their ends, between 
 the shell and the internal iiiembiaiie; this is a mark of their 
 being stale, and is the effect of an evaporation of part of their hu- 
 midity; the varnish which M.Reaumur used to the chrysalis, 
 being tried on eggs, was found to preserve them lor two years, 
 as fresh as if laid but the same day, and such as the nice- 1 palate 
 could not distinguish from those that were so. 
 
 EGL.VNTIN E, in botany. See Rosa. 
 
 EGLISOW, an ancient town of the Helvetic Republic, intlie 
 canton of Zurich, IJ miles N. of Zurich. 
 
 EGMONl, a town of Batavia or Holland, in the dept. of the 
 Texcl, 3 miles S. of Alcmaer. 
 
 Egmont Island, in the south Pacific Ocean, is 6 miles long, 
 and 4 broad. The land is low and full of trees. Lon. 133. 30. 
 W. Lat. 19.20. N. 
 
 EGOTISM, [from egn, Lat.] the fault committed in writing 
 by the frequent repetition of the word ego or /; too frequent 
 mention (jf u man's self in writing or conversation. 
 
 EGRA, a river and town of Bohemia, 76 miles \V. of Prague. 
 Lon. 12. 40. E. Lat. 50. Q. N. 
 
 EGKEMONT, a town of England, in the county of Cumber- 
 land, y miles S.S.E, of Whitehaven. 
 
 EGY FT, an extensive country of Africa, lying between oC 
 and 36" of lon. E. and between 21* and 3 1° of lat. N . It is bound- 
 ed by the Mediterranean on the N. ; by the Red-sea and Isthmus 
 of Suez, which divide it from Arabia, on the E. ; by Abyssinia or 
 Ethiopia, on the S.; and by the desarts of Barca and Nubiu, on the 
 \V. ; being 600 miles in length from N. to S. and from K'O to CJO 
 ill breadth from E. to \V. Ancient Egypt is by some divided in- 
 to two parts, the L'pper and LowerEgy pt : by others into three, the 
 Upper Egypt, properly so called, orTliebais; theMiddle Egypt, or 
 Heptanomis; and the Lower Egypt, the best part of which was the 
 Delta, or that space encompassed by the branches of the Nile. 
 See Theeais, &c. Egypt may with justice lay claim to as 
 high antiquity as any nation in the world. The country was 
 most probably peopled by Mizraim the son of Ham and grand- 
 son of Noah. By its ancient inhabitants it was called Chemia, 
 and is still called Chemi in the language of the Copts or 
 native Egyptians. This name it is supposed to have received 
 from (lani the son of Noah. In scripture we find it most 
 generally named Mizraim ; though it is styled in the Psalms tho 
 land of Ilam. To us it is best known by the name of Egypt, the 
 etymology of which is more uncertain. Some derive it from 
 .Egyptus, a supposed king of the country: others say it signifies 
 no" more than " the land of the Copts;" aia in Greek signifying 
 a country, and Aikoiti,', Aicoptos, being easily hardened into 
 jEgyptus. The most probable opinion, however, seems to be, that 
 it received this name from the blackness of its soil, and the dark 
 colour both of its river and inhabitants : for such a blackish colour 
 is by the Greeks called a>gyptios from Tv4- and Aiyjjito; a vulture; 
 and' by the Latins, subvultiirlus. For the same reason, other 
 names of a similar import have been given to this country by the 
 Greeks ; such as Aeria, and Melambolus ; the river itself was called 
 Melo or Melas ; by the Hebrews, Shihor ; and by the Ethiopians, 
 Siris ; all of which signify black. The air and climate of Egypt 
 are extremely hot, not only from the height of the sun, which in 
 summer approaches near to the zenith, but Irom tlie want of rain, 
 and from the vicinity of those burning and sandy deserts whirh lie 
 to the S. In July and August, according to M. Volney, Reau- 
 mur's thermometer stands, even in the most temperate a|)artmeiits, 
 at 2-1° or 23° above the freezing point; and in the southern parts 
 it is said to rise still higher. Hence, he says, only two seasons 
 should be distinguished in Egypt, the cool and the iiot, or spring 
 and summer. 1 be latter continues for the greatest part of the year, 
 viz. frora March to November, or even longer; for by the end of 
 
 February,
 
 EGY 
 
 244 
 
 EGY 
 
 Fc'bniarv the sun is intolerable to an Enropean at niin." o'clock in 
 the inoniina;. During the wliole of this season, the air seems to l)e 
 intlanied. the sky sparkles, and every one sweats profusely, even 
 without the leait exercise, and when covered with the lightest 
 dress. This heat is tempered by the inundation of the Nile, the 
 fall of t!ie night dews, and the subsequent evaporation ; so that 
 some of the Kuropean imrchants, as well as the natives, complain 
 of the cold in winter. 'I'lie dew does rot fall regularlv throughout 
 the summer, as with us; the parched state of the country not 
 alVarding a sulficicnt quantity of vapoviv for this purpose. It is 
 first obstrved about June -4tli when the river has be^un to swell, 
 and consequently a great quantity ot water is raised from it by the 
 heat of the sun, which being soon condensed by the cold of the 
 night air, falls down in copious dews. By reason of the great dry- 
 ness of the air, Egypt is exempted from the ph'.rnomena of rain, 
 liail, «now, thunder, and lightning. Earthquakes are also seldom 
 lieard of in this country ; though sometimes they have been very 
 fatal and destructive, particularly one in 111'.?.- In the Delta, it 
 never rains in summer, and very seldom at any other time. In 
 1761, however, «uch a quantity 'of rain unexpectedly fell, that a 
 great number of houses, built witli mud-walls, tumbled entirely 
 down by being soaked witli the water, to which ihey were un- 
 accustomed. In the Higlicr Egypt the rain is still less frequent; 
 but the people, sensible of the advantages which accriK from it, 
 always rejoice when any falls, however insuHicient to answer the 
 purpose. This deficiency of rain is supplied by the inundation 
 and dews. The latter proceed, partly from the waters of 
 the inundation, and partly from the sea. At Alexandria, after sun- 
 set, in- April, the clothes exposed to the air on the terraces 
 are soaked with them as if it had rained. These dews are 
 more or less copious according to the direction of the wind. They 
 are produced in the greatest quantity by the W. and N. W. which 
 blow from the sca; but the S. and S. E. winds, blowing over the 
 deserts of Africa and Arabia, produce none. According to M. 
 Volney, who gives a very particular descriptionof the face of the 
 country, the entrance into Egypt at Bosetta presents a most de- 
 lightful prospect, by the perpetu::l verdure of the palm-trees on 
 each side, the orchards watered by the river, with orange, lemon, 
 and other fruit-treps, which grow there in vast abtmdance: and the 
 same beautiful appearance is continued all the way to Cairo. As 
 we proceed farther up the river, he says, tliat nothing can more re- 
 semble the appearance of the country than the marshes of the lower 
 Loire, or the plains of Flanders : instead, however, of the nu- 
 iTierous trees and country houses of the latter, we must imagine 
 some thin woods of palms and sycamores, with a few villages of 
 inud-walled cottages, built on artificial mounds. All this part of 
 Egypt is very low and ikit, the declivity of the river being so 
 gentle, that its waters do not flow at a greater rate than one league 
 in an hour. Throughout the country nothing is to be seen but 
 palm-trees, single or in chmips, which become more rare as you 
 advance; with wretched villages composed of huts with mud walls, 
 and a boundless plain, which at different seasons is an' ocean of 
 fresh water, a miry morass, a verdant field, or a clusty desert; and 
 on every side an extensive and foggy hori/on, w here tlie eye is 
 wearied and disgusted. At length tow'ards the Junction of the" two 
 branches of the river, the mountains of Cairo are discovered on 
 the E. ; and to the S. W. three detached masses apjiear, which 
 from their triangular form are known to be the Pyramids. We 
 now enter a valley which turns to the S. between two chains of 
 parallel eminences. That to the E. which extends to the Ked 
 Se;», merits the name of a mountain from its steepness and height, 
 as well as that of a desart from its naked and savage appearance. 
 Its name in the Arabic language is Mokattam, or the hewn moun- 
 tain. The western is nothing ijut a ridge of rocks covered with 
 sand, which has been very pri'perly termed a natural mouiid or 
 causeway. In short, that the reader ma.y at once form an idea of 
 this conrrlry, let him im:igine on one side a narrow sea and rocks ; 
 on the other, immense plains of sand ; and in the midille, a river, 
 flowing thiough a valley of 150 leagues in length, and from three 
 to seven wide, which at the distance of 30 leagues from the sea 
 separate? into two arms; the branches of which wander over a soil 
 atmo<it free from obstacles, and void of declivitv. This countrv is 
 itiU divided into two principal parts, called the'Iligher, or I'pper, 
 and Lower Egypt. It is subdivided into SO [irovinces. 
 
 KcvPT^ Hkjhf.k, or Ppper, says M. Savary, is onlv along 
 na^rcw valley begiiming al Sienira, and terminating at Cairo. It is 
 5 
 
 bounded by two chains of nioun ains running from N. to S. and 
 taking their rise from the last cataract of the Nile. On reaching 
 the latitifde of Cairo they separate to the riglit and leit ; the one 
 taking the direction of mount Colzoum, the other terminating in 
 some sand-banks near Ale^iandria; the lormer being composed of 
 high and steep rocks,- the latter of sandy hillocks over a bed of 
 calcareous stone, lleyond these mountains are deserts bounded by 
 the Ked Sea on the east, and on the west by other parts of Africa; 
 having in the middle that long plain wliich, even where widest, is 
 not more than nine leagues over. Here the Nile is confined in its 
 course betwixt these insuperable barriers, and during the time cf 
 its iiutnilation overllows the country all tlie way to the foot ol ! 
 mountains; and Mr. Hruce oljservcs, that there is a gradual si- i e 
 trom the bed of the river to those mountains on both sidrs. 'i I.e 
 baron de Tott says, that the mountains four leagues from tlic Nile, 
 and facing Cairo, "are only a ridge of rocks above 40 or 50 feet 
 high, w Inch divide Egypt from the plains of Libya;w hich ridge accom- 
 panies the courseof theriver,at a greater or Icssdisiance, and seeijis 
 as if onlv intended to serve as a bank to the general inundation." 
 Egyi'T, Lowkr, according to M. Savary, coniprcliends all the 
 country betwen Cairo, the NIediterranean, the Isthmus ot Suez, 
 and Libya. "This immense plain (sa}s he) presents on the bor- 
 ders of its parching sands a stripe of lands, ( ultivsted "aioH:; the 
 canals of the river, and in the middle a triajigular island to which 
 the Greeks gave the name ol Delta ; at the top of tlie angle of 
 which, the Baron de Tolt informs us, the rocks of Libya and the 
 coasts of Arabia open and recede from each other, towards the E, 
 and W. parallel to the Medherranean. This great extent of coun- 
 try, from Barca to Ga7,a, is cither overflowed by the river, or ca- 
 pable of being so ; which thus fertilizes in a high degree a tract of 
 cotmtry, seemingly devoted to perpetual barreimess, on account 
 of the want of rain and the heat of the climate. According to the 
 testimonies of both Mr. Bruce and M. ^"ollley, the coast, of Egvpt 
 is so extremely low, that it cannot be discovered at sea till the ma- 
 riners come within a few leagues of it. In ancient times the -ailors 
 Ijretentled to know when they approached this country, by a kind of 
 ijlack mud brought up bv their sounding lines from the bottom of 
 the sea ; but thii notion, though as old as the davs of Ileroduliis, 
 has been discovered to be a mistake by Mr. Bruce; wlio found 
 the mud to arise while the vessel was opposite to the deserts of Bar- 
 ca. All along the coast of Eirv'pt a strong current sets to the eastward. 
 The river Nile, when swelled by the rains which fall in Abyssinia, 
 begins to rise in Kgvpt about the month ot May ; but the increase 
 is inconsiderable till towards the end of .(une, when it is proclaim- ■ 
 ed by a public crier through the streets of Cairo. About this time 
 it has usually risen five or six cubits ; and when it has risen to si.v- 
 teen, great rejoicings are made, and the people cry out M alfah 
 Allah, /. c. Cod has given abundance. This commonly takes 
 place about the end of July, or before the 90th of Augtist ; and the 
 sooner it takes jilice, so much the greater are the hopes of a good 
 crop. Sometimes, though rarely, the necessary increase does not 
 take place till later. In"l70j, it did not swell to sixteen cubits till 
 'he lyth of September, the con--equence of which was, that (lie 
 country was depopulaterl by famine and pestilence. We may 
 easily imagine, that the Nile cannot overllow the whole country' 
 of it-elf, in such a manner as to render it fertile. There are there'- 
 tore, innumerable canals cut from it across the country, by which 
 the wal^r is conveyed to tlislant places, and almost every town 
 and vill.ige has one of these canals. In those parts of the couiitrT, 
 which the inundation does not reach, and where more water is r'e- 
 (piired than it can furnish, as for the watering of gardens, Sfc. thev 
 have recourse to artificial means for raising it from the river. For- 
 merly they made use of Archimedes's Screw, (see H vDROsr \- 
 Tlcs ;) but now in place of it thev have the Persian wheel. '1 hij 
 is a large wheel turned by oxen, having a rope hung with several 
 buckets w Inch fill as it goes round, aiid eniptv into a ci-tern at the 
 top. Where the banks of tiie river are h'gh, they freqm iitlv make 
 a bason in the side of them, near which they fix an upright pole, 
 and another with an axle across the top of that, at one end of 
 whicli they hang a great stone, and at the other a leathern bucket; 
 this bucket being drawn down into the river bv two men, is raised 
 by the descent of (he stone, and emptied into a civtern placed at a 
 proper height. This kind of machine is used chielK in the iipprr 
 parts of the country, where the raising of wati'r is more diific ii!t 
 tlian in places near the sea. When anv of their gardens or planta- 
 tions watit water, it is conveyed from tlie cisterns into liltl^ 
 
 trenchesill-
 
 EG Y 
 
 2 4. 'J 
 
 E G Y 
 
 hclu-s ;iii(i from tliciici.' coiidiirted :ill romid tlic- beds in various 
 '.'., wliicli tlio gardener easily stops by raising the monid ai;aiiist 
 I'li-ni with his foot, and diverts the rurront another way aylie sees 
 occasion. The ri'-e of Hit inundation is measured by an instru- 
 iivnt adapted lor tlie pur|)ose, called mirea^, wiiich \vc translate 
 ii louieler. ^fr. Hruco inlbnns us, that this is placed betweiii 
 (•■■e/a and Cairo, on the point of an island named Rhoda, about 
 tiie middle of the river, but somewhat nearer to Geeza. It i- a 
 r' und tower with an apartment, in the middle of v liith i-. a cistern 
 f'Mtly lined with marble. The bottom of this ci>tern reaches to 
 ihat of the river, and there is a lart^e openinn;, by which the w;iter 
 ;i ;^ free access to the inside. The rise of Ibe water is indicated 
 hv an octagonal colunm of blue and white marble, on whic h are 
 marked L'O cubits of 'JS inches each. Tlie two lowermost have no 
 subdivi^i(•ns ; but each of ihi' rest is divided into C-i parts called 
 di|»its ; the whole height ol the ]iillnr beiuo; Mi feet 8 inches. 
 M'neu the river has attained its proper beir;ht, all the caiiaU are 
 opened, and the whole country laid imder water. Durino; tlic 
 lime of the inundation a certain vortical motion of the waters 
 takes place ; but notwillistaudinc; this, the Nile is so easily nianaj;- 
 eri, that many fields lower than the surface of its waters arc pre- 
 served from injurv merely by a dam of moistened earth, not more 
 than eia;ht or ten inches in thickness. This method is used parti- 
 C'jhrly in the Delta when it is threatened with a flood. As tlie 
 Kile 3oes not always rise to a height sufficient for the purposes 
 of agriculture, the former sovereigns of Kgypt were at vast pa'iis 
 to cut proper canals to supply the deficiency. Some of these are 
 still preserve'' ; but great numbers have been rendered useie-s 
 tlirouirh the indolence or barbarity of their successors. The arts 
 and all kinds of learning are at a very low ebb among the Kgyp- 
 tians. Even the most sim])le of the mechanical professions are 
 StiU in a state of infancy. The work of their cabinet-makers, gun- 
 smiths, and locksmiths, is extremely clumsy. There are manu- 
 f.ic'.ures of guni)0W(ler and sugar ; but the quality of both is very 
 indilVerent. The only thing, in which they can be said to have 
 nnived at any degree of perfection, is the mannfaciure of silk 
 stulTs ; thoueh even these are far less bighly finish''d than tho^e of 
 Europe. In ancient times, when Egypt was governed by its na- 
 tive sovereigns, it is said to have contained 'JO, 1)00 cities and 
 towns: its armies to have amounted to .300,000 men, and its total 
 population to eight millions. Bv tlie tyranny of the I?eys and 
 ?.Iamelukes, it now hardly amounts to half that number. The 
 inhabitants of Egypt have been long disfinguisheil, into four dis- 
 tinct races of people, viz. Arabs, Copts, Mamelukes, an<l Turks. 
 The Arabs maybe subdivided into three classes: 1. The poste- 
 rity of tiiose who settled here immediately iifter the coni|uest of 
 the country by Aniron Ebn Al As, the khalif Omar's general. 
 1'. The Magrebiaiis, or Western Arabs, who at different limes 
 have misrated from the countries to the westward of Egypt, and 
 are descended from the Saracen conquerors of Mauritania. 3. 
 'l"he Hedouins, or Arabs of the desert, known to the aiiciriils by 
 the name of Sceniles, or dwellers in tents. The Copts ;ire de- 
 scended of those inhabitants of Egypt uhomthe Arabs subdued, ;uid 
 who were composed of original Egy|)lians, Persians, and Greeks. 
 M. Volney is of opinion that their name of Copis is only an ab- 
 breviation of the Greek word .\r/^77Ti5;, an Egyptian. 'I'hey are 
 principally to be met with in the Said, though some aUo inhabit 
 the Delta. They have all a yellowish dusky complexion, pulled 
 up visages, swoln eyes, ilat noses, and thick lips ; and in fact, the 
 evact countenance of the mulatto. The Mamelukes may be con- 
 sidered as the real masters of Egypt; and to secure themselves in 
 the possession of the comilry, they took several precautions. One 
 of the principal was the degradation of the military cor|)sofazabs and 
 janizaries, both of which were formerly very formidable. They ef- 
 fected this only in consequence of the wretched government of the 
 'J'url.s ; for, before the revolt of Ibrahim Kiava, the Turkish troops, 
 which ought to have consisted of 40,000, were reduced to less than 
 lialflhat number through the avarice of tluir officers. Their de^'iada- 
 tion was completed by Ali Bey ; who, having first displaced all 
 the olKcers who gave him any umbrage, left their places vacant, 
 and so reduced the consecjucuce of the whole, that the az;ibs and 
 jani/aries are now only a rabble, who dread the Mamelukes as 
 much as the meanest of the populace. The principal body of the 
 Mamelukes reside at Cairo ; but many of them are dispersed 
 ttirough the country, in order to keep ii'p their authority, collect 
 
 VOL. IT. — .VO. 7i 
 
 the tribute, and oppre:>s the people. They are :dl horsemciv; and 
 as war is ac(ounled tl>e only honourable employment among 
 thrm, it is reckoned disaraceful to walk on foot, nunc but cavalry 
 being by them accounted soldiers. The Turks h;ive the title of 
 being masters of Egypt, but are chiefly to be mot witb at Cairo, 
 where Ihey possess the religious and military en:ploynients. For- 
 merly they po5ses.sed also the posts under govcnuiHnl ; but these 
 were ot late monopoliseil by the .Mamelukej. Ifeiiidcs camels, 
 horses, asses, mules, shee)), black catiio, and oilier domestic qu.v 
 drupeds, there are many wild ahinials in Egypt ; particularly 
 tigers, hyenas, antelopes, crocodiles, apes with h-ads resembling 
 those of dogs, hippopotamuses, .ichneumcns, cliameleons, yellow 
 lizards, and aspeciesofrals resembling feriets, renK'.rkably useful for 
 destroying the crocodiles' eggs. Among the leathered tribe, there 
 are ostriches, eagles, hawks, ])elitans, and water fowls of various 
 kinds, among wh.ich last the most remarkable is the ibis, a bird ©f 
 the duck kind, which was deified by the ancient Egyptians, on ac- 
 count of its usefulness in destroying serpents End noxious insects. 
 1 hese are numerous, and among the dilferenl species of serpents 
 the cerastes, or horned viper, abounds, wliose bite proves mortal, 
 except to thcve who liavc tin: secret of charming it. " It would 
 lequire volumes, (savs John Waikcr, in his " Elen':ents of Goo- 
 gniphy,") to describe the astonishing remains of ancient temples, 
 palaces, columns, statues, paintings, &.'c. thai are so profusely scat- 
 tered over a great part of this once renowned country." Some of 
 tliese we have already described. See Ai.iiXANDK.i.\ and Cata- 
 combs, others will be found in their cider. See LAnvRtNTH, 
 t)nKi,isK, and PvuAMiDS. M. A'olney says, " the soil of Egypt 
 is the most fruitful of the whole earth, the easiest cultivated, and 
 the most certain in its crops. Plenty does not there depend as iu 
 the .\Iorea and ('andia upon the contingeuci- of rain." Egypt was 
 in the earliest ages much celebrated for its fertility. This Volney 
 asuriber to tlie salt wiili which it abounds. So great is the pro- 
 pensity of the Egyptian soil to produce salt, that even when the 
 gardens are overtlowed for the sake of watering them, the surface 
 of the ground, after the evaporation and absorption of the water, 
 appears glazed over with salt. The water found in the wells con- 
 tains miner.il alkali, marine salt, and a little nitre. M. Volney is 
 of o[)inion, that the fertile mould of Egypt, which is of a black 
 colour, duiers essentially from that of the other parts ; and is de- 
 rived from tlie internal parts of Ethiopia along with the waters of 
 the Nile ; but there is no reason to suppose this kind of earth to 
 be of a foreign origin ; it being always the result of vegetation and 
 culti\ation. Even the most barren and sandy spots in the world, 
 if properly watered, and such vegetables planteii in them as would 
 grow there, in time would be covered wilh this black earth as well 
 as others: and of this kind of artificial formation of soil. Dr. Shaw 
 gives a remaikable instance in the garden of the monks at mount 
 Sinai, which they have rendered very fertile, though tlie country 
 is naturally as barren as in any place of the world. On thewiiole, 
 ue may reasonabi) conclude," that the natural fertility of Egypt is 
 not diminished in modern times, provided the same pains were 
 taken in the cultivation of it as formerly. " The Delta, (says M. 
 Savary,) is at present in the most favourable st.Ue for agriculture. 
 Washed on the IC. and W. by two rivers formed by the division 
 ot the N'iie, each of which is as large and mori? deep than the 
 Loire, and intersected by innumerable rivulets ; it presents to the 
 eye an immense garden, all the different compartments of which 
 may be easily watered. During the three months that the The- 
 bais is under water, the Delta possesses iields covered with rice, 
 barley, vegetables, and winter fruits. It is also the only part of 
 Egypt where the same field produces two crops of grain within the 
 year, the one of rice, the other of barley." (Jranges, lemons, ligs, 
 dates, almonds, cassia, plantains, &c. abound in it. But theterrilory of 
 Egypt in general produces every thing that either Europe or Asia 
 lan boast ; as corn, rice, ci)tfon, flax, indigo, sugar, saliion, coffee, 
 sena, rhubarb, aloes, opium, ^.-e. 'J he only cause of all this ferti- 
 lity is the Nile, without which the whole country would soon be- 
 come an unuihabitable desert, as r;iin falls very seldom in this part 
 of the world. 
 
 Er.vrx, Pyramids or. Sec Pyramids. 
 EGYPTIAN, a town of the duchy of Courland, 100 miles S. E. 
 of Mittau. Lon. Cti. 4o. E. Eat. M. 'J. N. 
 
 EtJYPTlANS, the inhabitants of Egypt. See Ecyrx. To 
 
 tlce ditlerenl races mentioned under tUat article, may be added, ii 
 
 3 il considerable
 
 EJE 
 
 246 
 
 EhM 
 
 conbitlgrabli' iimubir ut Jews, Greeks, aiicl Syi'i-ws, who are min- 
 gled w.tli tlic otliur Kqyptians. 
 
 EoyrriAKS, or Gypsies. See Gypsies. 
 
 EcYPTiA.v Thorn. See Acacia. 
 
 EdSNGKN, or EBINGEN, a town of Gt-rmany, inSuabia, 
 on the Danube. Lon. 9 4). E. Lat. 46. 18. N. 
 
 Ehisgen', or Ebincfs', a town in Suabia, on the Neckar, be- 
 long-ing also to Austria. Lon ki. 45. E. Lat. 4>i. iii. N. 
 
 EHLE, a river ot Germany, ir. Upper Saxony, wiiicli runb into 
 the Elbe, near Magdeburg. 
 
 EHREI'IA, a genus ot the monogjnia order, antl pentandria 
 class of plants ; natural ordc;r, A^penfolia.-. Fruit a ndocular 
 berrv ; seeds solitary, bilocular ; stigaia einarginated. Five spe- 
 cies, whieh are tree-> or shrubs. 
 
 EHF.FELDEN',- a town of Gemiaay, in the circle of the Up- 
 per Rhine, 8 nides \V. of D rnistadt, 
 
 - EIIRIEVRTA, in b^itjny, a genus of the monogynia order, 
 and hex.mdiia class of plants. Calyx atwo-valved, abbreviate.!, 
 ■me-flowered glume; corolla a douiile glume, each two-valved, 
 the exterior one compressed, and scymeter-shaped, transversely 
 wrinkled, and gashed at the base ; stigma simple, compressed, 
 four-tufted. It has hve species. 
 
 EHUD, the son of Gcra, a Benjamite. who delivered the re- 
 public of Israel from the oppressions of Eglon, king of the Moa- 
 bitcs, by as5as^i^^ating the tyrant in his own parlour , A. M. i.'57U, 
 according to Alstedius, or as others have it, A. M. '-'679. Ehud 
 is ranked by chronologei-s, as the third judge of Israel after Moses, 
 although he is not expressly mentioned" in scripture as a judge, but 
 oidv as a deliverer. See Judges iii. 15 — 31. 
 
 EIA and EY, in our old writers, are used for an island. 
 IJeiiee the uanies of |)lace3 ending in eij, denote thein to be 
 islands. Thus, Ramsey, the isle of rams; Shepey, iht iale of 
 sheep, &c. 
 
 EiA is also sometimes used for water ; and hence the names of 
 places near waters or lakes terminate in ey. 
 
 EiCHENBUHL, a town of Germany, in the late circle of the 
 Lower Rhine, 1?9 miles of Heidelberg. 
 
 EICHSI'ELD, or EISFELD, a county of Germany in llie 
 lute circle oftlie Lower Rhine. 
 
 EfCHTEKNACH, a town of France, in the department of 
 Forets, and late province of Luxemburgh ; 9 miles N. W. of 
 Treves. 
 
 EJECTA, a term used by lawyers for a woman dellowcred, or 
 cast from the virtu.jus. 
 
 EJECTION, [f/cc^io, Lat.] in Scots law, is the turning out 
 the possessor of any heritable subject by force ; and is either legal 
 «r illegal. 
 
 1. Ejection, Illegal, is one pei-son's violently turning an- 
 other out ot possession, without k.wtul authority. 
 
 2. EjtcrioN, Legal, is where a person having no title to pos- 
 sess, is turned nut by the authority of law. 
 
 EJEC;TMENT,'in English law, a writ or action which lies for 
 the lessee tor years, on his being ejected or put out ol his land, 
 before the expiration of his term, either by the lessor or a stranger. 
 It m.iy al-o be brought by the lessor against the lessee, for rent in 
 arrears, or holding over his term, &c. Eiectment of late is be- 
 come an action in the place of many real actions, as writs of right, 
 forme'lons kc. which are very dii'ticult, as well as tedious and 
 expensive ; and this is now the common action for trial of lilies, 
 »nd recovering of lands, &c. illegally held from the right owner ; 
 yet where entry is taken away by descent, tines, recoveries, dissei- 
 sins, !kc. an f:^ectment shall not be brought ; whereby we find that 
 all titles cannot be tried bv this acti'.n. The method of proceed- 
 ing in the action of ejeetinent is to draw up a declaration, and 
 feign tlierein a lease for three, five, or seven years, to him that 
 would try the title ; and also feign a casual ejector or defendant ; 
 and then deliver the'dei kiration to the ejector, who serves a copy 
 of it on the tenant in pos-e^sion, and gives notice at the bottom, 
 for hint to appear and defend his title ; or that, he the feigned de- 
 fendant uiU suffer judgement by default, whereby the true tenant 
 will be tuiued out of possession ; to this declaration the tenant is lo 
 appear at the beginning of next term by his attorney, and consent 
 -lo a rule to be made (lefendant, instead of the casual ejector, and 
 take upon him the defence, in which he must confess lease, judge- 
 ment, entry, and a.tster, and at the trial stantl upon the title only : 
 
 but in case the tenant in possession doe-, rot appear, and enter into 
 the said rule in time, alter the declaration .-verved, then, on allida- 
 vit being made of the service of the declar.ition, with the notice to 
 appear as atoresaid, the court will order judgement to be entered 
 against the casual ejector by default; and thereupon the tenant in 
 possession, by writ habere facias posses^ione.n, is turned out. On 
 the trial in ejectment, the plaintiff's title is to be set fortli from the 
 person last sei.-^ed in tee, under whom the lessor claims down to 
 the plaintul, proving the deeds, &c. and the plamlili' shall recover 
 only according to the right which be lias ,;t the time oi iiringing 
 his action. An>l nere, another wdio has title to the land, may be 
 defendant in tiie action with the tenant in possession ; for the pos« 
 session of the lands is primarily in que.ition, and to be recovered, 
 ■.vh ch concerns die tenant, and the t.tle thereto is tried collateially, 
 winch may concern some other. 
 
 EIFELD, EICHFIELD, or ELFELD, a town of Germany, 
 in the late circle of the Lower Kiiine and electorate of Mcnlij 
 eight miles N. W. of Menlz. 
 
 EIFFEL, a department of Frince one of the six new ones 
 funned in Dec. 1797, out of the conquered countries on the left 
 bank of the Riiine. It comprehends part ot tiie late duchies of 
 Juliei'S and Areinberg, part oi the electorate of Cologne, with the 
 tow lis of Aix la Chapelle, Coblentz, &c. Coblentz is reckoned 
 the chief town. 
 
 EliMEO.or EIMEEO, one of the Society inlands, in the 
 South Pacilic ocean, almost wholly surrounded wirh rocks, four 
 leagues W. from the N. W. part of '^'taheite. Lat. 17. 30. S. Lon, 
 149. 54. VV. in parts of a degree, and 9Ii. ."i9'n. 3fis. in time. 
 
 EINBECK, orEIMBECK, a town ot Gi rniany, in Lower 
 Saxonv, -is miles S. S. W, of Brunswick. 
 
 F'.iSENACH, a late principality ol Germany, in Thuringia, and 
 circle of Uj'per Saxony, situated on the coiihnes of Hesse. It is 
 mountainous, and hardly produces corn enough for tiie inhabitants. 
 Some wine is made, but of a very indiilerent sort. It has some 
 mines of copper, iron, vitriol, and alum, with some salt s])rings. 
 
 ElSEN.'iCH, the capital of the above country, 26 miles 
 W. S. \V. ot Eriurt. 
 
 EISKOI, a town of Russia, in the government of Caucasus, on 
 the E. roavt of tl'.e sea of Azuph, 50 miles S. W. of Azoph. 
 
 EISLEBEN, a town of Germany, in the late electorate of 
 Saxonv, aiel county of Mansteld. It is \'2 mih s VV. oi Hall. 
 
 EKAl ERINEBURG, or CATHEKIXBURG, a provhiceof 
 Russia, m the government of Perm, about iM miles long, and 
 from 100 to 160 broad. 
 
 Ekaterin'ebuhg, the capital of the above province. It is 148 
 mlK'S S. E. of Perm, and 900 E. S. E. of Petersburg. 
 
 EKAIERINOGRAO, or CA FHERINOGRAD, a town of 
 Russia, in the governmen' of Caucasus, on the Malva. 
 
 EKATERlNOSLAVSKOI.orCATHERINENSLAFSKOI, 
 a province of Russia, m tlie government ot Ekateiinoslaw, com-r 
 prehending what has fornierly been called Budziac Tarlaiy, an<l 
 the Ukraine, now a part of the government of Ekaterinoslaw". 
 
 EKEBERGIA, a genus of the class and order decandria mo- 
 nogynia. Calyx four-parted; petals four; berry contains five 
 obi in" seeds. 'I'here is o-.e species, a tree of the Cape. 
 
 EKEREFORD, or EKRENFORD, a town of Denmark, in 
 the duchy of Sleswick. It is 12 miles S. E. of Sleswdck. Lop. 10. 
 20. E. Lat. 54. 56. N. 
 
 EKESIO, a town of Sweden, in the province of Smaland, 60 
 miles N. VV. of Calmar. 
 
 i'^KIE, a town of Asia, in Thibet, 55 miles S. of Toson Hotun. 
 
 EKRON, a city and government of the Philistines. It fell by ' 
 lot to the tribe of Judah, hi the first division made by Joshua (xv. 
 43,) but was afterwards given lo the trib^^ of Dan. (xix. 43.) It 
 was situated near the Mediterranean, between Ashdod and Jamnia. 
 Ekron wasa powerful city, and it does not a))pear that the Jews were 
 ever sole peaceable pos^essors of it : the F^kronites were the first 
 who said that it was necessary to send hack the ark of the God of 
 Isr.ael, in order to be delivered Iroin those calamities which the 
 piesence of it brought upon tlieir country. 1. Sam. v. 10. The 
 idol Baalzebub was piincipally adored at Ekron. 2. Kings i. 2. &c. 
 
 EKSENIDF2, a town of Asiatic Turkey, in the province of 
 Natolia, 84 miles S. of Det^nizlu. 
 
 ELABOHA'IORV. See Laboratory. 
 
 EL/EAGNUS, the Oleastlr, or Wild Olive, a genus of the 
 9 monogynia
 
 E L A 
 
 247 
 
 ELD 
 
 nioiiogviiia order, ami 'etrmidria class of plants; iKitiiral order, 
 CalvcisLor;e. No corolla; cal\ \ campaimlated, <4iiadrnid, su- 
 perior; d'.upc l)i.low the calyx. It has nine species. ^ 
 
 EL.'tOCARPUS, ill botany, a genus of the moiiogynia onier, 
 and polyanilria class of plan's. Corolla penlapelalous, lacerated; 
 calyx ■^leiitapliyllous ; ilrnpe with a wrinkle<l kernel. It has six 
 Speiies niijstiv n it ves of tlie \'.i.~X Indies. 
 
 EL.-E1)D£N DRUM, ill botany, a geniis of the inoiiOf;ynia 
 order, and pentaii 'fa class of plants. Corolla iive-pelaled . drupe 
 ovate, with a two-celled iiiit. i'heje are two species, ofuliich K. 
 orientale is a moderate-sized twiggy slirub, or tree, a native ol the 
 oriental r^-gions. 
 
 •' EL.'EorHESIUM, in anticpiity, the anointing room, or place 
 where those,wlio were to wrestle orhadbdlhed, anointei.1 themselves. 
 
 ELAIs, in bolany, a geiiiis beloniiin^; to tlie luiUiral order of 
 Palma?. Male caly\ hexaphyllous ; corolla sexlid ; stamina six : 
 lenialecalvx hexaph_\ lions ; corolla hexapetalous; stigmata three; 
 drupe libmus, with a three-vaiveil kernel. It has one species. 
 
 F.LA.M, (aSy, Heb. i. e. a young man,] one oi the sons of the 
 patriarch Sheni. 
 
 ELA^r, in ancient geography, a country frequently mentioned 
 ill Scripture, hnii; S. E. of Shinar. In tae time of Daniel (vii. L'.) 
 Susiana seems to have been |)art of it; and befoie tlie captivitv, 
 it <loes i.ot appear that the Jews called Per>ia by another name. 
 Elyma; and ICIymais are often mentioned by the ancients. Pto- 
 lemy, thoii.;h he mikes Elymais a province of Media, places 
 Elyma" in Susiana, near Hie sea-coast. Stephanus takes it to be a 
 part of .^.ssvria: but Pliny and Joscphns more properly of Persia, 
 V. :io>e inhabitants the latter tells us sprang from the Islamites. 
 
 ELAPtlEIitlLIA, [from !>.a(><i;, a deer,] in Grecian antiquity, 
 a festival in honour of Diana tiie huntres'-. In the celebrati n a 
 cake was made m ti.e torni ot a deer, and olfeied to the god^!e^-. 
 
 ELAPHEBOLIL'M, in Grecian antiquity, the ninth mohth of 
 tiie Athenian year, ansuerng to the latter part of I'ebruarv and 
 beginning of Marcii. It consisted ot 3U days; and took its name 
 from the Elaphebolia, wiiicli was celebrated in it. 
 
 ELASriCAL, EL.\S riC, [from i;»iu,] having the oower of 
 returning to the form from which it is distorted or withheld; 
 springy : liaving the power ol a spring. 
 ELASTIC FLlTDS.See PsEUMArics,Ei.ECTRiciTY,CAs,&c. 
 
 ELASTICITY, alon e in bodies, bv wliich thev endeavour to 
 restore them-elvesto the posture tiom whence they were displaced 
 bv any external force The principal plucnoniena observable in 
 elastic bodies are; 1. That a body p'-rfectly elastic, endeavours to 
 restore itself witli the same force with which it is pressed or bent. 
 2. An elastic body exerts its force equalK towards all Mdes. 3. 
 Elastic bodies in v h;'t manner soever struck, or impelled, are in- 
 flected, and relo'uvl alter the same manner: thus a bell yields 
 the same musical ^Ol•.ld, in what manner or on what side soever it 
 be struck ; the same of a tense or musical chord; and a body Ve- 
 bouiuls from a plane in the same anL;L' in which it mei ts or s'rikes 
 it, whether the intensity of the stroke be gre.iter or less. 4. The 
 elastic properties of bodies seem to diiliT, according to their greater 
 or less density or compactness, though not in an equal degree: thu=, 
 metals are rendered more ''omiiact and elastic by being hammered : 
 tempered steel is mm h more elastic tlian soft steel ; and the den- 
 sity of the former is to that of the lattt r as 7809 to 7738 : cold con- 
 denses solid bodies, and renders them more elastic ; whilst heat, that 
 relaxes them, has the oppo-iitt etTeet : but, en the contrary, air, and 
 other elastic lluids, are expanded by heat, and rendered more elas- 
 tic. For the cause of elasticity, and other phajnomeiia of this 
 property of lindies. See Physics. 
 
 EL.VI'E, in botany, a genus belong'.ng to the natural order of 
 Palma-. Male, calyx three-toothed ; corolla three-petaled ; an- 
 thers six, sessile. Female, calyx one-leafed ; corolla three-petaled ; 
 pistils one ; stigmas three; drupe one-seeded. There is but one 
 specie--, vi.2. E. sylvestris, prickly-leaved elate, native of the East 
 Indies. 
 
 KLATEK, in zoology, a genus of the class and order iii>ecta 
 coleopiera Ar.teniKe setaceous ; an elastic spring or spine pro 
 jects trom the hinder e.xtremity of the breast or under side ol the 
 thorax. By means of this kind of spring, tiie animal, when turned 
 upon his back, contrives to leap up into the air, and so turn itself. 
 About 200 species are enumerated, and divided in two sections, 
 A. feelers hatchet-shaped ; B, feelers clavale, the club round ; of 
 this division there are three Jpecies. When the iuse.t is young and 
 
 newly metam(jr|)!ioseil, its elytra are of a beaulitul deep red ; but 
 in a tew days they change to a much darker hue, and are near.'v 
 ol achesnut colour. In the state of larva; it inhabits the tiunks oV 
 decayed trees, and is there translormed. See Plate XXX\'1I. 
 
 KLAIERIU-M, [Lat.] an inspis»aied juice, light, of a friable 
 textnie, and an acrid and pungent ta>te. 
 
 ELA 1 EKIU.M, [txar-ijiov,] u genus of the monandriaor<l( r niul 
 ir.oiia?cla class of plants ; natural order, (_'uiurl);tace;t. Theie is 
 ne.tlier male nor feniale calyx; corolla salveix l.aped ; ^ap^llle 
 interior, unilocular, and bivalved. It has t\\o species. 
 
 ELA TH, or Ei-0 I'H, in ancient geography, a part of Idimi.Ta 
 sittialed upon the Ued Sea, which David ni Ins conquest of Edom 
 took, (-2 Sam. viii. 14,) and there establi.lied a trade to all parts of 
 the world. Solomon budt ships in Elath, and ^enl them from 
 tiience to Oi'liirtor gold, -' Cliron. viii. 17, IS. 
 
 ELAilNE, ill botany, a e,enus of the tctragynia order, and 
 octandria class of plants: natural order, Inuiuiata-. Calvx four- 
 h-aveil ; petals four; capsule four-celled, tour-valvecl," flatted. 
 'l"«o species, annua! aquatic herbs, very low and spreading. 
 
 EL.VTMA, a town of Uu^-■ia, in the government of Tambov, 
 on the Oka, 132 miles N. of Tambov. 
 
 ELli.A, an l->land in the Mediterranean, near the coast of Tus- 
 cany, eight miles long and two broad, 3ti miles W. of Cape Corso. 
 
 KLKASSANO, a town ot European Tmkey, in Albania; -ij 
 miles S. E. of Dura/zo. Lon. 20. 9. H Lat. 41. 34. N. 
 
 ELBE, a large river in Germany, ancientlv called .Mbis, which 
 rising on the confines of Silesia, runs through Bohemia, Misnia, 
 Lqiper Saxony, Aiihalt, Magdeburg, Brandenburg, and Dan- 
 neberg ; and tails into the German ocean, about 70 miles below 
 Flamburg. It is navigable for great ships higher than any other 
 river m Euroije. 
 
 Elbe, another river of Germany, in the Upper Rhine. 
 
 ELi;ERTUN, a town in Eftiiigham county, Georgia, on the 
 N. E. bank of Ogeechee river. Lon. SO. 30. \V. Lat. i'i. 1«. N. 
 
 ELBEL'F, a town of France, in tlie oepartnient of the Lower 
 Seine, 6j miL-s N. W. of Paris. 
 
 ELBIixCr, a cilyin the duchv of Warsaw, and kingdom of Sax- 
 ony, 30 miles S. E. of Dautzick. Lon. 19. 33. E. Lat. 54. 9. N. 
 
 Elbix'g. a river ot the hue Polish Prussia, in Marieiibiirg. 
 
 ELliOGEN, a circle ot Bohemia 
 
 Elbogex, the capital of the above circle, with a citadel. 10 
 miles X. E. of FZgra. Lon. 13. 0. E. Lat. 50. 16. N. 
 
 liLUOW. T hat eminence whereon the arm rests, isbv the Latins 
 called cubitus, and the G reeks <'v:<ujv, and oXtxjavov. See Anaiomv. 
 
 Elbow is also used by architects, masons, &c. for tm obtuse 
 angle of a wall, building, or road, which diverts it from its ri'jht 
 line. 
 
 ELBURG, a town of Batavia or Holland late in the depart- 
 ment of Yssel, and province of Guelderland, 10 miles N. E. of 
 Ilarderwick. 
 
 ELCATIF, a sea-port of Arabia Felix, on the W. coast of the 
 Gulf of Persia. Lon. S3. 5. Iv Lat. 2(5. 0. N. 
 
 ELCESAITES, in church history, a sect of heretics, who ap- 
 peared in the reign of Trajan. They woi-shipped one God, ob- 
 served t!ie Jewish Sabiiath, circumcision, and the other cerenioniej 
 of the law; Init they lejected the Pentateucii, the propliets, and 
 the writinas of the apostles, particularly those ( f St. Paul. 
 
 ELCIIE, a town ot Spain in \'alencia, in a forest of palm-trees, 
 olives, and vines. Lon. 0. 23. W. Lat. 38. 7. N. 
 
 ELDEN II'^LE, a famous natural cavern in Derbyshire, three 
 miles from Buxton, ranked among the wonders of the Peak. It is 
 a large and deep perpendicular chasm, of which the bottom has 
 not yet been found, whence it is pretended to be unfathomable. 
 Cotton says hesounded to the depth of SS4 yards, yet the plummet 
 still drew. 
 
 ELDER, in botany. See Sambucus. 
 
 ELDERS, or SEN 10 RS, intheancient Jew ish polity, were per- 
 sons the most considerable ibr age, experience, and .■•istlrm. Of 
 this sort were the 70 men whom Moses associated w ith himself in 
 the government ; such, likewise, afterwards were those who held 
 the nrst rank hi the synagogue, as presi<!ents. 
 
 F^i.DEKs, in ciuirth history, were originally those who held the 
 the lirst place in the assemblies of the primiiive Christians. The 
 word presbyter is often used in the New Testament in thissigni- 
 hcaticn: hence the hrst councils of Chiiatkms were called presby- 
 teria, or eouncil of elders. 
 
 £l.DF.KS,
 
 E L F. 
 
 248 
 
 E E I": 
 
 Elders, in the Picjbvteriaii <li5C'|)liiic, are oiriceis, who, in 
 roiijunclioii witli Ur' luiiiistcvs and deacons, coiii|)ose tlie kiik- 
 hOMoii?, who foniierlv used to inspect and rejiidate niatt( rs ol re- 
 ligion and disci|jline ; but vhose principal business now i> (,o take 
 care of the poor's funds, wliich, it is l.ut justice to say, tliey do all 
 over Scotland witii the utmost lidelitv. Tlu-y are choseji from 
 among the people, and are received jjublicly w ith some degree of 
 ceremony. In Scotland, there is an nidelinite luimbtr of elders in 
 each parish; penerally about I'J. 
 
 ELEA, or ELIS, in ancient geography, a district of Pelopon- 
 lie-us, situated between Achaia and Messenia, reachinp; from Ar- 
 <a<lia quite to the west or Ionian sea; su called Iroiu the city of 
 Elis. 
 
 Klea, orVELiA, an ancient town of the Lucaiii, where the Ele- 
 atic i)hilosopliy \\as first taught. 
 
 ELEAliC PIllLUSOl'liY, among the ancients, a name 
 givefi to that of the stoics, because t.uisht at Idea. 
 
 Elf,atic,Sect. Tlie founder of this sect of philosophers is 
 supposed to have been Xeno|)han.?s, wi'.o lived about the jOlh 
 Olympiad, or about B. C. JoO. It was divided into l«o par- 
 ties, wh'ch mav be denominated mctapli'isical ai.d physical ; the 
 one rejecting, and the other approving, the appeal to fact and ex- 
 periment. C)f the former kind were Xenophanes, Parmenides, 
 Melissus, and Zeno of Elea. They are supposed to have main- 
 tained principles similar to tliose ot Spinoza: they hidd the eter- 
 nity and iiimuitability of the world ; that whatever existed was only 
 one being; that 'Jiere was neither any geneialion nor corruptioii ; 
 that this one being was immoveabh', and imnuilable, and v.as th.;' 
 true God; and whatever changes seemeil to liappen in the uni- 
 verse, they considered as mere appearances and illusions of sense. 
 However, some learned men have supposed, that Xenophanes and 
 his followers, speaking metaphysically, uiuler^tooil by the uni- 
 verse, or the one being, not tin- material world, but the originating 
 principles of all things, or the true (Jod, whom they expressly 
 aliirm to be incorporeal. 'Thu-. Slmplicius re]nTsents tliem merely 
 metaphysical writers, \\h > distingni^lled between things natural 
 and supernatnial ; and who made the fornur to be compounded 
 of didi-rent principles. Accordingly, Xenophanes maintained, 
 that the earth consisted of air and hre, that all things were pro- 
 duced out of the earth, and the sun and stars out of clouds and 
 that there were four elemenls. Parmenides also distinguished be- 
 tween the doctrine concerning metaphysical object called truth, 
 and that concerning physical or corporeal things, calleil opi- 
 nion ; with respeei to the former there was one immoveable 
 principle, but in the latter two that were moveable, viz. lire 
 and earth, or heat and cold ; in which particulars Zeno agreed 
 with him. The other branch of the Eleatic sect were the atomic 
 philosophers, wdio formed their system from an atlention to the 
 pluenomena of nature; of these the most considerable were Leu- 
 cii)pus, Democritus, and Protagoras. 
 
 EEECAM PAN E, in botany. Sec Inula. 
 
 ELECT, Electi, among ecclesia-tieal writers, those whom 
 God has chosen, or predestinated to be saved. See Predesti- 
 nation. 
 
 Elect, in matters of polity, is applied to archbishops, and of her 
 ecclesiastic officers, who arc chosen, but not yet consecrated ; as 
 also to secular otrK-'crs before they are invested with their ofllce or 
 jurisdiction: thus the emperor is said to l>e elect, before he is 
 inaugnrate<l ; and the lord mayor, behire his predecessor's mayor- 
 alty is expired. 
 
 Election', a term frequently used in matheniatirs, to sig- 
 nify the several difi'erent ways of taking any number of things pro- 
 posed, either separately, or as comhuied in pairs, in threes, in 
 fours, &c. not as to the order, but only as to the numlu-r and 
 varictv of them. Thus, of the things «,/;, c, </, &c. the elections 
 One thing 'i ( (a) 1 =: L" — 1 
 
 Two things ^ are < a, h, ah) 3 = 2-— 1 
 Thr;:c things ) (a, h, c, ah, ac, he, ahc) 7 =='J'— 1 
 
 And generally of any number n, all (he elections are '2"— 1 ; that 
 ir one less than the ])OWer of 2, whose exponent is ?!, the number 
 of single things to be chosi-n either separately, or in conibination; 
 thus, when n — 12, the answer is 2" — 1 ='409t) — 1 = 409,7. 
 
 Election, the choice that is made of a person, or thing, in 
 ^iret'erence to any other; as in the election of an emperor, of a 
 pope, of a bishop, of memberi of parliament, &c. 
 
 Election, in luw, is w here a person has a choice of one or more 
 
 things which happen upon several occasions; as where he has by 
 law two remedie.1, and must take only one; thus, a creditor, iu 
 cases otbankruptcv, may either prove his debt under tiie commis- 
 sion, or i)roceeil at law; but in this case he is coniinlled to make 
 his election : where aUo a person having obtained a judgement, i« 
 entitled to execution, he may either take his reiiieO) against the 
 go.j(;s or the prison of his debtor; but if he proved aga:nst llie 
 person in the first instance, he cannot afterwards have recourse to 
 the goods ; but iL he take the goods, and these should be found 
 inadequate to his demand, he may afterwards t.^ke the body. 
 Election, in theology. See Predestination, and Grace. 
 Election, in British polity, is the people's choice of their re- 
 presentatives in ])arlianient. See Parliament. In this consists 
 the exercise of the democralical part of our constitution: fr,r in a 
 democracy lliere can be no exercise of sovereignly but li\ sulTrage, 
 which is the declaration ot the people's will. In all democracies, 
 therefore, it is of tlie utmost impoitance to regulate by wh.oni, and 
 in wh^l manner, the suhrages are to be given. And tlie Atljenian» 
 were so ju-tly jealous of this prerogative, that a stranger, who in- 
 terfered in the assemblies of the people, was punished with death, 
 being esteemed guilty of high treason, by usurping those lights of 
 sovereignty to which he had no title. In Britain, says Bhickstone, 
 where the people do not debate in a collective body, 'out by repre- 
 sentalion, llie exercise of this sovereignty consists in the choice of 
 representatives. The laws have therclore vctv strictly giKirdetl 
 again-t the usurpation or abuse of this power, by many salutary 
 provisions; which may be reduced to these three points. 1. Tiie 
 qualilications of the electors. 2. The qualihcatioiis of the elected, 
 j. The proceedings at elections. 
 
 1. Election Laws as to the (Juai.ific.ations of Elec- 
 tors. , The true reason of requiring any quaUtication, with regard 
 to properly, in void's, is to exclude sue h persons as are in so mean 
 a situation, that they are esteemed to have no will of their own. 
 It lhe.se persons had votes, they woiihl be tempted to dispose of 
 them under some undue intluence or other. 'I'his would give a 
 great, an artful, or a wealthy man, a larger share in elections than, 
 is consistent with general liberty. If it were probable that every 
 man would give his vote freely, and without iiilluence of any kind'; 
 then, upon the true theory and genuine principles of liberty, every, 
 member of the commnnity, however poor, should have a vote in 
 electing those delegates to whose charge is committed the disjjo- 
 sal of his proj)erty, his liberty, and li;s life. But since that can 
 hardly he expecfed in persons of indigent fortune-, or such as are 
 under the immediate dominion of otlurs, all pojiular states have 
 been obliged to establish certain qualilications; whereby some, 
 who arc suspected to have no will of their own, are excluded from 
 voting, in order to set other individuals, whose w ill may he sup- 
 posed independent, more thoroughly upon a level with each other. 
 .■Vnd this conslitulion of suffrages is framed upon a wiser j)rinciple, 
 with us, than either of the methods of voting, by centuries or by 
 tribes, among the Komans. In the method by centuries, insti- 
 tuted by Servius Tullus it was iiriiicipally (iroperly, and not num- 
 bers, that turned tlie scale ; in the method by tribes, gradually in-, 
 troduced by the tribunes of the peojile, numbers only were re- 
 !;arded, and property entireh' overlooked. Hence the laws passecj 
 b\ 111- former method had usually too great a tendency to aggran- 
 dize the patrician, or rich nobles ; and those by the latter had too 
 much of a levelling iMinciple. Our constitution steers between 
 the two extremes. Oiilv such are entirely excUuled as can have 
 no will of their ow n : lliere is hardly a free agent to be found, but 
 w hat is intitled to a vote in some place or other in the kingdom. 
 Nor is comparative wealth, or in-i.iperty, entirely disregarded in 
 elections; for ihongli the richest man ha? only one vole at one 
 place, yet, if his pr^'perty be at all diffused, he has probably a right 
 to vote at more places than one, and therefore has many repre- 
 sentatives. This is the spirit of our constitution : not that we as- 
 sert it is in fact quite so perfect as we have endeavoured to de- 
 scribe it ; for if any alteration might be wished or snagcsted in the 
 present form of parliament, it should be in favour of a m*re com- 
 plete rtpresemaiion of the peojile. But to return to the qualifi- 
 cations; and lirst those of electors for knights of the shire. 1. By 
 statute S Hen. VI. c. 7. and 10 Hen. \'I.c. 2. (amended by 14 
 Ge'i. III. c. .'iS.) the knights of the shire shall be chosen of people, . 
 whereof every man shall have freehohl to the value of 40 shillings 
 by the year within the county ; which ;by subsequent statutes) is 
 to be clear of all charges and deductions, except parliamenhu'y 
 
 aii«i
 
 riLE 
 
 240 
 
 ELE 
 
 and parochial taxes. Tlie knights of shires arc Ihe re|ire.senlatives 
 of the landholflfrs, or landed interest ol the kingdom : their elee- 
 tors inu;,t therefore have estates in lands or tenenieirfs within the 
 county represented. Th<'se estates mnst be freehohl, that is, (or 
 term of li!e at least; because benefirial leases for long terms of 
 years were not in nse at the making of liiese statuJes. and c<ipy- 
 hoUlers were then little lietter tlian villeins, absolulelv dependent 
 upon their lords. This freehold nul^t be of 40 shillings arnmal 
 value; because that sum woidd then, with proper industry, furnish 
 all the necessaries of lite, and render the fieeholder, if he pleased, 
 an independanl man. For bi?hop f'leetwood, in his Chronicon 
 Pretiosuui, «rill!'n at the beginning of the ISth centur\, has fully 
 proved 40 sli llings in the reign of Henry \ I. to have been eipial 
 to 12 pounds per ainium in the reign of Qvieen Amie ; and, as the 
 value of money is very considerably lowered sini e the bishop 
 wrote, we may fairly conclude, from this and other circumstances, 
 that what was equivalent to I'J pounds in his days, i« equivalent to 
 25 pounds at present. 'I'he otiicr less important qualihcitiiins of the 
 electing for counties in England and Wales may be collected from 
 the statutes 7 and 8 V\ ill. III. c. 25. 10 Ann. c. 23. 2. Geo. II. c. 
 21. 18 Geo. II. c. 18. 31 Geo. II. c. 14. 3 Geo. III. c. 24, which 
 direct, 2, That no i)erson under twenty-one vears of age shall he 
 capable of voting for any member. This extends to all sorts of 
 nembers as well for boroughs as counties; as does also the ne.\t, 
 VIE, 3. That no person convicted of perjiuy, or subornation of per- 
 jury, shall be capable of voting in any election. 4. That no per- 
 son shall vote in right of any Ireehold, granted to him fraudulently 
 to qualify him to vote. Fratidulent grants are such as contain aii 
 agreement to recovery, or to defeat the estate granted ; wliich 
 agreements are made void, and the estate is absoTutelv ve^letl in 
 the jjerson to whom it is so granted. And, to guard the better 
 against such frauds, it is farther ])rovided. 5, That every voter 
 shall have been in the actual possesMon, or receipt of the profits, 
 of his freehold to his own use for 12 calendar months before; ex- 
 cept it came to him by descent, marriage, marriage settlement, will, 
 or promotion, to a benefice or office, ti. Tliat no person shall vote 
 in respect of an annuity or rent-charge, unless registered with the 
 clerk of tiie peace 12 calendar months before. 7. That in 
 mortgaged or Iru^t-estatcs, the person in possession, under tlie 
 abovementicned restrictions, shall have the vote. 8. That only 
 one pei-son shall he admitted to vote for any one house or tenc- 
 nwnt, to prevent the splitting of freeholds. 9. That no estate sliall 
 <jualify a voter, unless the estate has been assessed to some land-tax 
 aid, at least 12 months before the election. 10. That no tenant 
 by copy of court-roll sh.all be |)ermitted to vole a? a freeholder. 
 Thus much for the electors in counties. As for the electors of 
 citizens and burgesses, tiiese are supposed to be the mercantile 
 part or trading interest of this kingdom. But as trade is of a fluc- 
 tuating nature, and seldom long fixed in a place, it was formerly 
 left to the crown to summon pro re nata, the most flourishing towns 
 to send representatives to parliament. So that as towns increased 
 in trade, and grew populous, they were admitted to a share in the 
 legislature. But the misfortune' is, that the deserted l)oroughs 
 continued to be summoned, as well as those to whom their trade 
 and inhabitants were transferred ; except a few which petitioned to 
 be eased of the expence, then nsual, of inaimaining their menibcrs : 
 four sh.illings a-day being allowed for a knight of the shire, and 
 two shillings for a citizen or burgess ; which was the rate of wages 
 estahlislied in the reign of Edward III. Hence the members for 
 boroughs now bear above a quadruple proportion to those for coun- 
 ties; and the number of parliament men is increased j^ince For- 
 tescue's time, ia tiie reign of Henry VI. from 300 to upwards of 
 500, exclusive of those for Scotland. The universities were, in 
 general, not empowered to send burgesses to parliament ; though 
 once, in 23 Edw. I. when a parliament was summoned to consider 
 of the king's right to Scotland, there were issued writs, which re- 
 quired the university of Oxford to send up four or five, and that 
 ef Cambridge two or three, of their most discreet and learned law- 
 yers for that purpose. But it was king James I. who indulged 
 them ivith the permanent privilege to send constantly two of their 
 own body ; to serve for those students who, though useful mem- 
 bers of the cominunity, were neither concerned in the landed nor 
 tne trading interest ; and to protect in the legislature the rights of 
 tlie republic ot letters. The riuht of election in boroughs is vari- 
 ous, depending entirely on th'^e several charters, customs, and 
 
 VOL. 1. JJO. 71. 
 
 constitutions, of the respective places ; which has occasioned infinite 
 disputes: though now, by statute 2 Geo. II. c. 24. the right of 
 voting for the future shall be allowed according to the last deter- 
 mination of the house of commons concerning it ; and, by statute 
 3 Geo. HI. c. 15, no Ireem.n of any city or borough (other than 
 such as claim by birth, marriage, or servilu<le,) shall be iiililled to 
 vote therein, unless he hath been admitted to his freedom twelve 
 calendar months hel'ore. 
 
 2. Election Laws as to the Qualifications or Pehsons 
 TO BE ELECTED. Some of the (]ualifications to be elected mem- 
 bers of the house o( commons depend upon the law and custom of 
 parliaments, declared by the house; others upon certain stsitutes. 
 And from these it appears, 1. That they must not be aliens born, 
 or minors. 2. That they must not be ^niy of tlie 12 judges, be- 
 cause tiie^' sit in the lords' house; nor ot the clergy, lor they sit 
 in the convocation: nor persons attainted of treason, or felony, for 
 they are unlit to sit any where. 3. That sheriffs of counties, antl 
 mayoi-s and bailills of boroughs, are not eligible in their respective 
 jurisdictions, as being returning officers; but that sheritts of one 
 county are eligible to be knights ot another. 4. That, in strictness, 
 all members ought to have been inhabitr.r.ts ct tlie plaees for v, liicfi 
 they are chosen; but this, having been long disregarded, was at 
 length entirely repealed by statute 14 Geo. HI. c. 58. 5. That 
 no persons concerned in the management of any duties or taiies 
 created since 1692, exce))t the commissionei-s of the trea.-ury, nor 
 any of the offices following (viz. commissioners of prizes, tran- 
 sports, sick and wounded, wine-licences, navy, and victualling; 
 secretaries, or receivers of prizes; comptrollers of the amy ac- 
 counts; agents for regiments; governors of plantations, and their 
 deputies ; ofUcers of Minorca, or Gibraltar ; oflicers of the excise, 
 and customs ; clerks or de|)uties in the several olllces of the trea- 
 sury, excheque:-, navy, victualling, admiralty, pay of the army or 
 navy, secretaries of stale, salt, stamps, ajipeals, wine-licences, 
 hackney-coaches, hawkers, and pedlars,) nor any person that holds 
 any new office under tlie crown created from 1705, are capable of 
 being elected, or sitting as membei-s. 0. That no person having a 
 pension under the crown during pleasure, or for any term of years,, 
 is capable of being elected or sitting. 7. That if any member ac 
 cepis an office under the crown, except an officer in the army or 
 navy accepting a new commission, his seat is void ; but such mem- 
 ber is capable of being re-elected. 8. That all knights of the shire 
 shall be actual knights, or such notable esquires and gentlemen as 
 have estates sullicient to be knights, and by no means of the de- 
 gree of yeomen. This is reduced to a still greater certainty, by 
 ordaining, 9. That every knight of a shire shall have a clear estate 
 of freehold or copyhold to the value of 600/. per annum, and 
 every citizen and burgess of the value of 300/. except the eldest 
 sons of peers and of persons qualified to be knights of shires, and 
 except the members for the two universities ; which somewhat ba- 
 lances the ascendant which the boroughs liave gained over the 
 counties, by obliging the trading interest to make choice of landed 
 men : and of this (pialification the member must make oath, and 
 give in the particulars in writing, at the time of his taking his seat. 
 I'ut, subject to these standing restrictions and distpialifications, 
 every subject of the realm is eligible of common right: though 
 there are instances, wherein persons in particular circumstances 
 have forfeited that ccmmoii right, and have been declared ineligi- 
 ble for that parliament, bv a vote of the house of commons; or 
 for ever, by an act of the legislature. But it was an unconstitu- 
 tional prohibition, wliich was grounded on an ordinance of the 
 house of lords, and inserted in the king's writs, for the parliament 
 hoUlen at Coventry, 6 Hen. IV. that no apprentice or other man 
 of the law should be elected a knight for the shire therein: in re- 
 turn tor which, our law-books and historians have branded this 
 parliament with the name of parliamentum indoctum, or the lack- 
 learning |);trliament ; and Sir Edward Coke observes with some 
 spleen, that there was never a good law made thereat. 
 
 3. Election, Laws respecting the Method of Proceed- 
 ing. The third point, regarding elections, is the method of pro- 
 ceeding therein. This is also regulated by the law of parliament, 
 and by various statutes, all of wliich we shall blend together, and 
 extract out of them a summary account of the method of proceed- 
 ing to elections. As :Oon as the parliament is summoned, the 
 lord chancellor, (or if a vacancy happens during the sitting of par- 
 liament, the speaker, bv order of the house, and without such or- 
 3 S ' der
 
 ELE 
 
 250 
 
 ELE 
 
 tk-r if a vacancy happt-ns by death in llie time of a recess for up- 
 wards of twenty days) sends his warrant to iht; clerk of the crow ii 
 in clianccrv ; wlio thereupon issues out writs to tlie sherills of 
 every county, for the election of all tlie nicmbers to serve for that 
 countv, and everv city and borough therein. X^'itliin three days 
 after the receipt o'f this w rlt, tl>e slievilf is to send his precept, un- 
 der his seal, to tlie proper retvirning officers of the cities and bo- 
 roughs, conniianding thc-in to elect thea- members: and the said 
 returning oiiicers are to proceed to election within eight days from 
 the receipt of the precept, giving four dajs notice of tlie same; 
 and to return the persons chosen, together with the precept, to the 
 sheriff. Hut elections of knights ot the shire must be proceeded 
 to by the sheriiVs tliemselves in person, at the next county-court 
 that shall happen after the delivery of llie writ. 'J'lie county-court 
 is a court held every moiitii, or oflener, by the, sheriff, intended to 
 try little causes not exceeding the value of 40s. in wliat part of 
 the county he pleases to appoint for that purpose", but for the 
 «"lection of knights of the sliu'e, it must be held at the most usual 
 place. If tluL' county-court falls upon the day of delivering the 
 writ, or within si\ days after, the sherilf may adjourn the court 
 and election (o some other convenient time, not longer than Ui 
 flays, nor shorter tlian 10; but he cannot alter the place, without 
 the consent of all the candidates: and, in all such eases, 10 days 
 public notice must be given of the time and place of the election. 
 And, as it is essential to the very being of parliament that elec- 
 tions should be absolutely free, therefore all undue influences 
 ' »ipon the electors are illegal, and strongly prohibited. For Mr. 
 Locke ranks it among those breaches of trust in the executive ma- 
 gistrate, which, according to his notions, amount to a dissolution 
 of the government, " if he employ the force, treasure, and offices, 
 of the society to corrupt the representatives, or openly to pre- 
 engage the electors, and pre^cribe what manner of persons shall be 
 cho'cn : for thus to regulate candidates and electors, and new- 
 model the yyavs of election, what is it (says he) but to cut up the 
 government by the roots, and poison the very fountain of public 
 security?" As soon, therefore, as the time and place of election, 
 either in counties or borcughs, are (ixed, all soldiers quartered in 
 the place are to remove, at least one day before the election, to 
 the distance of two miles or more; and not to retiu'n till one day 
 after the poll is ended. Kiots likewise have been fre(p!ently de- 
 termined to make an election void. By vote also ot the house of 
 commons, to whom alone belongs the power of determining con- 
 tested elections, no lord of ])arliament, or lord lieutenant of a 
 countv, hath any right to interfere in the election of commoners; 
 and, bv statute, the lord warden of the cinipie-ports shall not re- 
 commend any members there. If any ofiicer of the excise, cus- 
 toms, stamps, or certain either branches of the revenue, presumes 
 ts intermeddle in elections, by persuading any voter or dissuading 
 him, be forfeits 100/. and is disabled to hold any oflice. Tlius are 
 the electors of one branch of the legislature secured from any un- 
 due influence from either of the other two, and from all external 
 violence and compulsion. But the greatest danger is that in which 
 themselves co-operate by the infamous practice of bribery and 
 corruption. 'I'o prevent which it is enacted, that no candidate 
 shall, after the date (usually called the teste) of the writs, pr after 
 the vacancy, give any money or entertainment to his electors, or 
 jiromise to give any, either to particular persons, or to the place 
 in general, in order to his being elected, on pain of being incapa- 
 ble to serve for that place in parliament. And if any money, gilt, 
 office, employment, or reward, be given, or jiromised-to be given, 
 to any voter, at any time, in order to intluence him to give or 
 vithhold his vote, as w ell he that takes, as he that offers such bribe, 
 forfeits 500/, and is for ever disabled from voting and holding any 
 oftice in any corporation ; unless, before coiividion, he yvill dis- 
 cover some other offender of the same kintl, and then he is in- 
 demnihed for his own offence. The first instance that occurs of 
 election bribery was so early as 13 Eliz. when one Thomas Longe 
 
 (being a simple man, and of small capacity to serve in parliament) 
 acknowledged that he had given the returning officer and otheri 
 of the borottgli for which iie was chosen four pounds to be rettini- 
 ed member, and was for that premium elected. But for this of- 
 fence the borougli was amerced, the member was removed, and 
 the officer fined and imprisoned. But as lliis practice hath since 
 taken much deeper and more universal root, it hath occasioned 
 the making of these wholesome statutes; to complete the efficacy 
 of which, there is nothing wanting but resolution and integrity to 
 put tliein in strict execution. Undue inliuence being thus guarded 
 against, the election is to be proceeded to on the day appointed; 
 the sheriff or other returning ofticer first taking an oath against bri- 
 bery, an<l for the due execution of IiIm office. 'J he candidates like- 
 wise, if required, must swear to their qualilication, and the electoi'9 
 in counties to theirs ; and the electors, both in counties and borough'^, 
 are also compellable to take the oath of abjuration, and that against 
 bribery and coiTuption. And it might not be amiss, if the memljcfs 
 elected were bound to take the latter oath as well as the former; 
 «hich, in all probability, would be much more effectual than ad- 
 ministering it only to the electors. The election being closed, the 
 returning ofticer in boroughs return his precepts to the sherilt, 
 with the pei-sons elected by the majority : and (he sherilf returns 
 the whole, together with the writ for tiie county and the knights 
 elected thereupon, to the clerk of the crown in ch;uiccry ; before 
 the day of meeting, if it be a new parliament, or wiliiin 14 days 
 after the election, if it be an occasional vacancy ; and tliis under 
 penalty of 500/. If the sheriff does not return such knights only 
 as are duly elected, he forfeits, by tlie old statutes of Henry Vf. 
 100/.; and the returning oflicer in boroughs, for a likef:ilse return; 
 40/. ; and they arc besides liable to an action, in y\ hicli double da- 
 mage's shall be recovered, by the later statutes of king \Nilliam ; 
 and any person bribing the returning officer shall al,-o iorfeit 300/. 
 But the menibei-s returned by him are the silting members, until 
 llie house of cummons, upon petition, shall adjudge the return to 
 be false and illegal. The form and manner of proceeding upon 
 such petition are now regulated by statute Hi Geo. 111. c. Hi, 
 (amended by 11 Geo. 111. c. 42, and made perpetual by 14 Geo. 
 III. c. 15.), which directs the method of choosing by lot a select 
 committee of 15 members, who are sworn well ancl truly to try the 
 same, and a true judgement to give, according to the evidence. 
 
 Election', of Ecclesiastical Persons. Elections for the 
 dignities of the church ought to be free, according to the stat. !' 
 Ed. II. cap. 14. If any persons, that have a voice in elections, 
 take any reward for an election in any church, college, scliool, 
 &c. the election shall be void. And if any persons of such socie- 
 ties resign their places to others for reward, they incur a forfeiture 
 of double the sum; and both the parties are.rendered incapable 
 of the place. Stat. 31 Eliz. cap. G. 
 
 Election, of VtROERORS of the Forest, (cleclione virida- 
 rioruin foresta;), in law, a writ that lies for the choice of a verderor, 
 where any of the verderors of the forest are elead, or removed 
 from their offices. 'I'his writ is directed to the sherilf, and llie 
 verderor is to be elected by his freeholders of the county, in the 
 same manner as coroners. 
 
 ELECTIVE ATTRACTION, the same with affinity, or 
 chemical attraction. See Chemistry. 
 
 ELECTOR, he that has a vote in the choice of any oflicer. 
 See Election. 
 
 ELECTORATE, the territory of an elector. 
 
 ELECTUA, in the pagan mythology, one of the seven daugh- 
 tei-s of Atlas and Pleione, who yvere fabled to have been changed 
 into the constellation, Pleiades. She was the mother of Darda- 
 nus, the first king of Troy, by Jupiter; anil accoriliiig to ITygi- 
 nus, withdrew her light upon the destruction of Troy. 
 
 ELECTRICIAN, one who makes electrical expeiinients, 
 and endeavours to investigate the nature, causes, and eliects, of 
 electricity. 
 
 ELECTRICITY. 
 
 ELECTRICITY, [>i'!xtj«, amber,] is that part of natural phi' 
 losophy which investigates the nature, properties and effects, of a cer- 
 tain subtile tVuid, found to exist in the material world, and denominat- 
 
 ed the electrical fluid. The term electricity is also applied to de- 
 note the phanomena and state of bodies under the inliuence of (he 
 electric fluid. Few or none of the relincmcnts of science af/'ord 
 
 so
 
 ELECTRICITY. 
 
 251 
 
 io agrco.ilile relaxation to llie serious and liberal minJ, as pliiloso- 
 pliical cxpuriiiieiits. The rational entertainment, ami pleasing in- 
 struction, conveyetl by sucb inquiries, are coiistwitly lounil to ex- 
 tend the faculties of the soul with an exulte(i idea of the beauty 
 and sublimity of nature, while the mind is almost irresistibly led 
 on to contemplate and adore its divine source. Few other depart- 
 ments of science yield pluenomena so pleasing, so variou'', and, at 
 the same time, so astonishijig, as that of electricity. The variety 
 of appearances produced by an electrical machine, in a copious 
 current of the lluid, are, inilecd, sometimes so strikingly curious, 
 that the mind seems to be in a manner suspended between admi- 
 ration of the effects, and inquiry into the came. This alfection 
 seems to be natural and rational. The human mind can neitiier 
 cease to admire, nor remain salished with vague appearances. 
 The superior objeits of its desire are knowledge and certainty ; in 
 the pursuit of wiiich its industry is clieerfully e.xerted and fre- 
 quently rewarded with success. 
 
 History of Electricitv. 
 
 Althougli the electric fluid, ever since the creation, has had the 
 same share in all the operations of nature, that it has at prescht, 
 yet the discovery of its action, an<l even of its existence, is of a 
 very late date. ^I'hales the Milesian, who lived about B. C. (300, 
 was the liiM who observed that amber, from which the name elec- 
 tricity is derived, wouUI attract liaht bodies when it was rub- 
 bed. Tlie ancient naturalist, Tlieoplirastus, who flourished 300 
 years later, tells us, that the iMuurium (now called tourma- 
 lin) has tlie jjropertv ot allracliiig light bodies aswfll as amber, 
 from tiiis time there is a chasm in the history of electricity for no 
 less tlian l<JOO years. Indeed, it is scarce to be suppo-ed, that 
 during this long interval any person applied himself to the investi- 
 gation of the subject ; as, for the greatest part of it, science of 
 every kind was almost totally e\tiiii.;uished. 'I'l'.e electrical pro- 
 perties of jet, however, and, according to Mr. Boze, of the agate, 
 were some way or other discovered during this period. But it 
 %vas not till the beginning of the sevcnteenlli century, that electri- 
 city became properly a distinct science, and the foundation was 
 laid of those discoveries which have sincetaken place. Dr. \\ illiam 
 Gilbert, an English physician, who, in ItiOO wrote a book de 
 Magnete, containing various electrical experiments, was the first 
 who properly merits the tille of an electrician. He, like his pre- 
 decessors, however, considered only tlie attractive property of 
 electric substances. Dr. Gilbert's merit consists in his having 
 been at great pains to lin<l a number of such substances, and thus 
 considerably enlarging the number of eh-ctrics ; on which ac- 
 count M. Cavallosays, " he may be justly deemed the father of 
 the jiresent electricity." Sir Francis Bacon also made some elec- 
 trical expiriinents; but no farther discoveries appear to have been 
 made till 1070, except some trilling additions to the catalogue of 
 electrics. About this time Mr. Boyle applicil himself to the study 
 of electricity. He enlarged tiie catalogue of electrics ; and founci 
 that their electric properties were increased by wiping and warm- 
 ing them before they were rubbed. He observed also, that all 
 kinds of bodies were attracted promiscuously ; and imagined that 
 they were attracted in vacuo as well as in air. This last position, 
 however, is denied by Mr. Beccaria ; and .\lr. Boyle must have 
 been mistaken. He also observed the electric light, though only 
 in the instance of some diamonds. The science, however, was 
 much fartherimiJrovedby OtloGuericke.wiio was cotem|iorary with 
 .Mr. Boyle. He made use of a sulphur globe, whuled on an axis 
 , much in tlie same way with our present glass globes. Thus he 
 could excite a vibtly greater power of electricity than any of his 
 predecessors, and try all their experiments to much more advan- 
 tage. He discovered electric repulsion; and not only saw the 
 electric light more clearly tlian Mr. Boyle, but heard tfie hissing 
 sound with which it. is emitted. He also made another remark- 
 able discovery, but which has since been very gijnerally over- 
 looked ; namely, th.at a feather, when repelled by an excited elec- 
 tric, always keeps the same face tov^ar(ls the body which repels 
 it, as the moon does to itie e.ath. '1 he celebrated Sir Isaac New- 
 ton made the next discovery of any moment ; by observing, that 
 . the electric attraction and repulsion penetrated tlirough glass ; and 
 it is much to be regretted that this accurate philosopher did not 
 apply himself to the study of electricity w ith greater assiduity. A 
 Treatise on P^lectricity was publishecl in 17uy, by .Mr. Ha'wkes- 
 bee ; w ho not only far excelled all his predcci ssors and contem- 
 
 poraries, but also made some discoveries which well deserve the 
 attention of the most expert electricians at this day. Besides 
 many new experiments upon electric attraction and repulsion, as 
 well as the light emitted by electric bodies; he found a method 
 of rendering opaque bodies transparent by electricity. He liried 
 more than hall tb.e inside of a glass globe with sealing-wax ; and 
 having exhausted the globe, he put it in motion ; when applying hii 
 hand to excite it, he saw tlie shape ar.d tigurr of all the parts of Ids 
 hand distinctly and perfectly on the concave superlicies of the wax 
 within, iust as if only pure glass without any wax at all had been 
 interposed between his eye and his hand. The lining of wax, 
 where it was spread thinnest, would but just allow the light of a 
 candle through it in the dark ; but in some places the wax was at 
 least an eighth part of an inch thick. Yet even in these places the 
 light and figure of his hand were as distinguishable through it as 
 any where else. The sealing-wax did not adhere to the glass in 
 allplaces; but this made no difference with regard to the trans- 
 parency. Pitch answered the purpi-se equally well with sealing-wax. 
 Mr. H'awkesbee also marie a further improvement by using a glass 
 globe,which acts more powerfully than a sulphur one. After the death 
 of Mr. Haw kesbee, " the science ot electricity," says M. Cavallo, 
 " however hitherto advanced, remained about twenty years in a 
 state of quiescence, the attention of philosophers being at that tune 
 engaged in other philosophical subjects, which on account of the 
 new discoveries of the incomparable Sir Isaac Newton were then 
 greatly in repute. Mr. Grev was the lirst after this period of ob- 
 livion to bring the science again to light. He by his great disco- 
 veries re-;ntroduced it to the acquaintance of philosophers, and 
 from him the true flourishing era of electricity may be said to take 
 its date." Mr. Stephen Grey's capital discovery was the distinc- 
 tion betweeri conductors and non-conductors of electricity. In 
 Fell. 1 729, Mr. Grev , after some fruitless attempts to excite an elec- 
 tric power in metals, recollected a suspicion he had for some time 
 entertained, that as a glass tube, when excited in the dark, com- 
 municated its light lo various bodies, it might at tlie same time 
 possibly communicEte to them a power of attracting light bodies ; 
 wliicii as vet was all that was understood by the word electricity. 
 For this purpose he procured a glass tube, 3 feet 5 inches long, 
 and near one inch and two tenths in diameter, To each end he 
 fitted a cork, to keep out the dust wlien the tube was not used. 
 Mr. Gre\ 's first experiments were made to determine whether the 
 tube would attract equally well with the ends shut as with them 
 open. In this respect there was no dilVerence ; but he found that 
 the corks attracted and repelled light substances as well, and ra- 
 ther better, than the tube itself. He then fixed an ivory ball upon 
 a stalk of lir about four inches long, and thrusting tlie end of the 
 stalk into one of the corks, he found the ball endowed with a 
 strong attractive and repulsive virtue. This experiment he re- 
 peated in manv different ways ; iixiiig the ball upon long sticks, 
 and upon pieces of brass and iron wire, always with the same suc- 
 cess; but he constantly observed, that the ball at the end attracted 
 more vigorously than that part of the wire nearest the lube. Mr. 
 Grey next tried^vhether the ball might be suspended by a pack- 
 thread with a loop on the tube, and the event fully answered his 
 expectation. Having thus suspended bodies of the greatest length 
 he conveniently could, he ascended a balcony -ti leet higli, and 
 fastening a string to Ills tube, found that the ball would attract 
 light bi'dies on the ground below. This experiment succeeiling in 
 the greatest heighis to which he could ascend, he next atteinjjied 
 to carry tlie electricity horizontally ; but in this he taileil, because 
 he suspended his line, which was intended to carry the electriiity 
 horizontally, by a pack-thread; and thus the fluid got off from it. 
 Whereupon he consulted Mr. \\'heeler, and told him of the unsuc- 
 cessful attempt he had made. Mr Wlieider proposed to suspend 
 the conducting line bv silk instead of pack-thread, as being smaller 
 Uian the wther. With this they succeeded jierfeclly well, but by 
 repeated experiments they soon discovered that the silk refused to. 
 conduct the electric lluid, not on account of its smallness, as ihuy 
 had supposed, but on account of some dill'erence in the niattir. 
 'I'lie w ires were smaller than the silk thread, yet the electricity was 
 etlectually carried off by them. This discovery of the con-con- 
 ducting power of silk was made in the beginning of July, 1 "'.';>, 
 and was ([uickly followed by another, viz. tliat the same power I'X- 
 isti'd in many other substances : and thus, in fact, the found.ition 
 of almost all the subsequent improvements in electricity was laid. 
 Not long ;ii"ter Mr. Grey's discovery of the dilference between 
 
 conductors
 
 252 
 
 ELECTRICITY. 
 
 conductors and non-conductors, Mr. Dii Fay discovered the dif- 
 ference between positive and nejrutive, or, as they were for some 
 time, and are still bv some called, the vitreous ami resinous elec- 
 tricities. This discovery was accidentally made in consequence of 
 his observing, that a piece of leaf gold, repelled by an excited 
 glass tube, and which he meant to chase about th(? room with a 
 piece of excited gum coiwl, insteai.! <if being repelled bv it, as it 
 was by the glass tube, was eagerly attracted. The same was the 
 case with sealing-wax, sulphur, rosin, and many other substances. 
 He discovered also, that it was inipossi\)le to -excite a tube in 
 ■which the air was condensed. Mr. Boze, professor of pliilosophy 
 at Wittemburgli, re-introduced the use of glass globes; though 
 pome attribute this to Christian Augustus Hansen, professor of 
 mathematics at Leipsic. He added also a pvinie ccimluctor, 
 which consisted of a tube of iron or-tiii. It was at lirst sujiported 
 bv a man standing upon cakes of rosin; but afterwards suspended 
 by silk lines horizontally before (he globe. A bundle of tliread 1 
 was put into the end next to the globe, which not only prevented 
 any injury to the glass, but rendered the electricity stronger. 
 " The number of electricians," says M. Cavallo, " that liuth been 
 daily nuiltiplying since Mr. Grey, the discoveries made, and the 
 tise derived from those, till the present lime, are mailers really 
 ■woithv of attention, and deserve to be admired by evei-y lover of 
 the sciences, and well-wisher of (he liuman raci\ " Whoever 
 would make himself acquainted" (adds he) " with the particular 
 transactions concerning those advances, shoukl read tlie elaborate 
 llisfory of Electricity compiled by the learned l^r. Priesl'ey, a 
 work that will inform him of whatever had been done relative to 
 the subject till its publication. I shall, in general, only observe, 
 that although the science had, through the indefatigable attention 
 of so many ingenious persons, ami by the discoveries daily pro- 
 duced, excited the curiosity of philosophers, and engaged their 
 attention; yet, as the causes of any thing, whether small or great, I 
 known or unknown, are seldom much attended to, if their ei'l'ects 
 are not striking and singular; so electricity had, till the year 174(i, 
 been studied by none but philosophers. Its attraction could in 
 part be imitated by a load-stone; its light by a phosphorus; and 
 in short, nothing contributed to make electricity the suliii-ct of 
 public attention, and excite a general curiosity, until the capital 
 discovery of the vast accumulation of its power in what is com- 
 monly called tlie Leyden pliial, which was accidentallv made in 
 the memorable year 1745. Then, and not till then, the study of 
 electricity became general, surprised every beholder, and invited 
 to the houses of electricians a greater number of spectators, tlian 
 were before assembled together to behold anv philosophical ex- 
 periments whatever." He adds in a note, " 1 his great discovery 
 Was made bv M. Van Kleist, dean of the cathedral in Camin." 
 Tiie method of giving the electric shock, or the accumulation of 
 the power of electricity in a phial, got its name of the Leyden 
 phial, from Mr. Cunxiis, a native of Leyden, who exl<ibited it in 
 repeating some experiments made by Messrs. Muschenbroek and 
 Allamand, professors in the university of that city. M. Van 
 Kleist, sent the following account of his disc<^ery to Dr. Lie- 
 berkuhn, at Berlin, onthe4tli Nov. 1743. " When a nail, or a piece 
 of thick brass wire, &c. is put into a small apothecary's vial, and 
 electritied, remarkable clfects follow : but the vial must be very 
 dry, or warm. I commonly rub it over beforehand with a linger 
 on which I put some pounded chalk. If a little mercury, or a few 
 drops of spirit of wine, are put into it, the experiment succeeds the 
 better. As soon as this phial and nail are removed from the elec- 
 trifying glass, or the prime conductor to which it hath been ex- 
 poseil is taken away, it throws out a pencil of llame so long, that 
 ■with tliis burning machine in my hand, 1 have taken above sixty 
 steps in walking about my room. When it is electritied strongly, 
 1 can take it into another room, and there fire spirits of wine w iih 
 it. If, while it is electrifying, I put my finger or a piece of gold 
 which I had in my hand, to the nail, I receive a shock which 
 stuns my arras anci shoulders. " A tin tube, or a man placed 
 »ipon electrics, is eletrihed much stronger by this means than in 
 the common way. When I present this vial and nail to a tin tube, 
 which i have fifteen feet long, nothing but experience can make 
 a person believe how strongly it is electrilied. Two thin glasses 
 have been broken by the shock of it." Not long after this the 
 following method of giving the shock was discovered in Holland 
 ky Mr. Cunjeus. Mr. Muschenbroek ami his friends!, observing 
 
 that electrical bodies exposed to the atmosphere, which is always 
 replete with conducting particles of various kinds, soon lost their 
 electricity, and were capable of retaining but a small quantity of 
 it; imagined, that, w'ere the electrilied bodies terminated on all 
 sides by original electrics, they might be capable of receiving a 
 stronger power and retaining it longer. Glass being the most 
 convenient electric for this purpose, and water the most conveni- 
 ent non-electric, they lirst made these experiments with water ia 
 glass bottles : but no considerable discovery was ma<le^ till Mr. 
 Cun:vus, happening to hold his glass vessel in one hand, and en- 
 deavouring to disengage it from the conductor with the other, 
 (when he imagined the water had received as much electricity as 
 the machine could give it,) was surprised with a sudden shock in 
 his arms and breast, which he had m.t in the least expected. The 
 report of such a terrible effect of the electric power immediately 
 raised the attention of all tl>e philosophers in Kurope. Many of them 
 greatly exaggerated theiraccounls ; eitherfrom a natural timidity, or 
 a love of the marvellous. M. Muschenbroek, who tried the experi- 
 111' nt with a very tlihi glass bowl, told M. Keaunuir in a letter wrote 
 soon after thf experiment. That he t'elt himself struck in his arms, 
 shoulder, and lireast, «o that he lost hi-, breath ; and was two days 
 before lie rcroveie'l froiii the effects of the blo.\', and the terror. 
 He added, that he would not take a 2d shock lor the whole king- 
 (lom of France. One of the most important discoveries yet mace 
 in elfctricitv is the iilentity of the electric fluid widi lightning. 
 From almost the fust discovery of the electric light, ami the crack- 
 ling with which it is emitted, a similarity between it and the phe- 
 nomena of tliuudcr and lightning had been observed. This is 
 taken notice of by Dr. Wall, one of the lirst who viewed the 
 electric light in any perfect manner. Tiie Abbe Nollet, Mr. 
 Winckler, and others, also enumerated many resemblances be- 
 tween the plucnomena of electricity and those of thunder ; but they 
 did not think of any method by which their suppositions could 
 be brought to the tost of experience. This was first proposed by 
 Dr. Franklin in 1750. He had before discovered the efft-cts of" 
 pointed bodies in drawing off the electric matter more powerfully 
 than others. This wassuggested to him by one Mr. 1 homas Hop- 
 kinson, who electrified an iron ball 3 or 4 inches diameter wuh a 
 needle fastened to it, expecting to draw a stronger spark from the 
 point of it ; but was surprised to find little or none. Dr. Frank- 
 lin, improving on tliis hint, supposed that pointed rods of iron, 
 fixed in the air when the atmosphere was loaded with lightning, 
 might draw from it the matter of the thunder bolt, without noise 
 or danger, into the body of the earth. " The electric fiuid (said 
 he) is attracted bv points. We do not know 'whether this |)roper- 
 ty be in lightning ; but since they agree in all the particulars in 
 which we can already compare them, it is not improbable, that 
 tliey agree likewise ill this; let the experiment be made." Dr. 
 Franklin's supposition was verified in 1752, and the discovery is 
 almost the only one in the whole science, that has not been the re- 
 sult of accident. The most; active persons were two French gen- 
 tlemen, Messrs. Dalibard and Delor. The former prepared his 
 apparatus at Marly la Ville, .'i or 6 leagues from Paris; the latter 
 at his own house, on soine of the highest ground in that capital. 
 M. Dalibard's machine consisted of an iron rod 40 feet long, the 
 lower extremity of which was brought into a centry-box, where 
 the rain could not come ; while on the outside it was fastened to 
 three wooden posts by long silken strings defended from the rain. 
 This machine was the first that was favoured with a visit of the ethe- 
 real fire. Mr. Dalibard himself was not at home ; but, in his ab- 
 sence, he had entrusted the care of his ajiparatus to one Coissier a 
 joiner, w ho had served 14 years among the dragoons, and on whose 
 courage and understanding he could depend. This artisan had all 
 the necessary instructions given him ; and was desired to call some 
 of his neighbours, particularly the curate of tlie parish, whenever 
 there should beany appearance of a thunder sloriii. At length the 
 long expected event arrived. On Wednesda\, lOtli May, 1752, 
 between two and three P. M. Coissier heard a pretty loud clap of 
 thunder. Immediately he ran to the machine, taking. with him a 
 phial furnished with a brass wire ; and presenting the wire to the 
 end of the rod, a small spark issued from it with a snap like that 
 which attends a spark from an electrified conductor. Stronger 
 sparks were afterwards dra\vn in the presence of the curate and a 
 number of other people. The curate's account of them was, that 
 they were of a blue colour, an inch and an half in length, and 
 
 snielled
 
 ELECTRICITY 
 
 ^.j.*? 
 
 fiiu-llfd siroiii;lv ofsulpluu-. In maUinj; llicm,lio received astroke 
 on lli^ aim a littli' hulow tiic <-ll)ov. ; l)\it lie could not tell whether 
 it;a\:u' from tia- bra^-: wiio inserted into the phial, or IVoni the 
 Iwr. lie did not attend to it at the time ; but tlie pain (ontinu- 
 ing, ho uiioovered his arm when lie went home in the presence ot 
 Coissier. A mark was perceived round it, sucli a; might have 
 been made Iiv a blow witli the wire on his naked skin. Dr. 
 Franklin himself liad an opportunity, abont a month after this, of 
 verifyins; his own hypothesis. He was waiting for the erection of 
 a spire in Philadelphia, not imagining that a pointed rod of a mo- 
 derate heif;ht could answer the purpose. At last it occurred to 
 liim, that by means of a common kite he couUl have a readier ac- 
 cess to the higher regions of the atmosphere than any other way 
 whatever. Preiuiring, therefore, a large silk handkerchief and 
 two cross slicks of a proper length on which to extend it, he took 
 th-.^ oppcM'tunitv of the first approaching thunder-storm to take a 
 walk luto a field w here there was a ,-hed convenient for his pur- 
 pose. 15ut drca<rnig the ridicule which too cominonly attends uii- 
 •-iiecessful attempts in science, he conniiunicated his intention to 
 nobody but his son, who assisted him in raising the kite. A con- 
 siderable time elapsed before there was any appearance of success. 
 One very promising cloud had passed over the kite without any 
 ctlect; when just as he was beginning to despair, he observed some 
 loose threads of the hempen string to stand erect and avoid one 
 another, just as if they had been sus|)cnded by the conductor of a 
 common eleclricul machine. On this he presented his knuckle to 
 a key which was fastened to the string, and thus obtained a very 
 evident electric spark. Others succeeded even before the string 
 wa-i wet ; but when the rain had begun to descend, he collected 
 electric lire pretty copiously. He had afterwards an insulated iron 
 rod to <lraw the lightning into his house ; and performed almost 
 every experiment with real lightning, that had Ijcfove been done 
 «ith t'le artilieial representations of it bv electrical macl'.ines. A 
 IKW and extensive lield was thus opened for philosophers ; but it 
 bassoon found, that experiments of this kind were attended with 
 tlanger. In I'JL', the Abbe Nollet ]iublislied some cautions to 
 those who tried experiments on lightning. He had been inform- 
 ed by letters from I'lorence and Bologna, that some persons in 
 these phtces had received violent shocks, while they drew sparks 
 from an iron bar electrified by lightning. A correspondent in- 
 formed him, that once, as he was endeavouring to fasten a small 
 chain, with a copper ball atone of its extremities, to a great chain 
 which communicated with the bar at the top of the building, there 
 came a (lash of lightning which he did not see, but which allected 
 the chain with a noise like that of wild-fire. The observer in- 
 stantly receiveif such a shock, that the ball fell out of his hands. 
 and he was struck backwards four or live paces. But the most 
 jiieiancholy proof of the danger of these experiments, was the 
 tleath of professor Richman, at Petersburgh. This happened on 
 the bth Aug. l'.")3, as he was making experiments on lightning 
 <lrawn into his own room. He had provided himself with an in- 
 strument for measuring the cpLuUity of electricity communicated 
 to his apparatus ; and as he stood w"ith his head inclined to it, Mr. 
 Solokow an engraver, who was near him, observed a globe of blue 
 tire, as big as his list, jump from the instrument, which was about 
 a foot distant, to Mr. Richman's head. The professor was in- 
 stantly dead, anil Mr. Solokow was also much hurt. The latter, 
 . however, could give no particular account of the way in which he 
 was ulleeted ; lor, ut the time th.e professor was struck, there arose 
 a sort of steam or vapour, which entirely benumbed him, and made 
 him suik down to the ground ; so that he could not even remem- 
 ber to have heard the clap of thunder, which was a very loud one. 
 The globe of lire was attended witli an explosion like that of a pis- 
 tol ; the instrument for measuring the electricity (called by the 
 professor an electrical gnomon) was broken to pieces, and the 
 fr.lpmenls thrown about tlieroom. I'lion examining the effects of 
 the lightning in the professor's chamber, they found the door-case 
 lialf split through, and the door torn off and thrown into 
 the room. A vein was opened in the body twice, but no blood 
 followed; after which, they endeavoured to recover life by vio- 
 lent friction, but in vain: "upon turning the corpse with the face 
 downwards during the rubbing, an inconsiderable C|uantity of blood 
 ran out of the mouth. There" appeared a red spot on the' forehead, 
 from which spirted some drops of blood through the pores, with- 
 out wounding the skin. The shoe belonging to the left foot was 
 
 VOL. II. — NO, 71. 
 
 burst open, and uncovering the foot at tliat part, they found a blui- 
 mark : whence it was concluded, that the electric matter having 
 entered at the head made its way out ag;iin at that foot, llficn 
 the bodv, parlicuUnly on the left side, were several red and blue 
 spots leHinliling leather shrunk by being burnt. Many more also 
 became visible over the whole body, and particularly over the 
 back. 'I'hat upon the foreher.d changed to a brownish red, but tin- 
 hair of the head was not singed. In the place where the shoe was 
 unripped, the stocking was entire; as was the coat everywhere, 
 the waistcoat only being singed on the fore flap wdiere it joined the 
 hinder: but there appeared on the back of Mr. Solokow's coat 
 long narrow streaks, as if red-hot wires had burned off the nap, and 
 whicii could not well be accounted for. Next day, when the pro- 
 fessor's body was opened, the cranium was very entire, having nei- 
 ther fissure nor contra-fissure : the brain was sound ; but the trans- 
 parent pellicles of the wind-pipe were excessively tender, and 
 easily rent. There was some extravasated blood in it, as also in 
 the cavities below the lungs. Those of the breast were quite 
 sound ; but those towards tlie back of a brownish black colou;-, 
 and filled with more of the blood above-mentioned. The throat, 
 the glands, and the small intestines, were all inflamed. The singeci 
 leather-coloured spots penetrated the skin only. In 4S hours the 
 body was so much corrupted that they could scarce get it into a 
 coflin. Since the discovery of the identity of lightning and the 
 electric matter, long rods of iron or other metal have been made 
 use of with a view to protect buildings from the danger or strokes 
 of lightning. A considerable dispute has been carried on whe- 
 ther these rods ought to be pointed or not ; but a committee of 
 tlie Royal Society lately determined it in favour of the former. 
 
 Explanation of Terms used in ELECTRicixy. 
 
 Electric Fluid. On rubbing glass, sealing-wax, sulphur, 
 and several other bodies, with flannel or other proper rubber, and 
 presenting the hand, or any other part of the body to the sub- 
 stance so rubbed ; a fluid passing between the rubbed body, and 
 the part presented is sensibly felt. 'I'liis fluid has a sulphureous 
 smell, and is rendered visible by its luminous appearance espe- 
 cially in the dark. The fluid thus exhibited has received the 
 name of the electric, or electrical fluid. 
 
 Electrical Appear.vnces. It has been known for ages, that 
 amber, jet, and some other bodies, whenfubbed, attract and repel 
 light bodies, as hairs, feathers, down, dust, &c. In more modern 
 times, it was discovered, that glass, resins, silk, dry wood, &;c 
 have the same properties ; and that any of these, wlien dry, and 
 rubbed for a short time, would attract light substances very readily. 
 On darkening the room, and rubbing the glass tube again, sparks 
 of fire will follow the luiiid ; present a finger to the tube, at the 
 distance of half an inch, and these sparks will be formed into pen- 
 cils or brushes of light attended with a snapping noise. 15y. ' ary- 
 ing the experiments other efl'ects of the electric fluid will be per- 
 ceived. The attraction, repulsion, sparkling, &:c. are termed 
 signs of electricity, or electrical appearances. 
 
 Rubbers. The subs-tance that rubs th.e electric to produce the 
 electrical appearances, is termed the rubber. The r jbber makes 
 an essential part of the construction of an electrical machine. 
 
 ExoiTATio:-;. Tiiose bodies, whicli by nibbing are made to 
 exhibit electrical appearances, are said to be excited by the fric- 
 tion or rubbing. 
 
 Electrics. Those bodies which can be excited, or made to 
 produce the electrical appearances, are called electrics, and fre- 
 quently electrics yjfr .ve. 
 
 Non-Electrics. Those which cannot be excited, are called 
 non-electrics, 
 
 Conductors. It is found tTiat some bodies a<lmit the fluid to 
 pass through them on which account they are called conductors. 
 This property belongs principally to ihe non-electrics ; hence the 
 terms conductor and non-electric are nearly synonymous. 
 
 NoN-CoNDVCTORS. It is found that some bodies do not admit 
 or with diilicullv admit the fluiil to pass through tlu;m, and these 
 are called non-conihictois. This property behuigs principally to 
 the electrics, hence the- terms non-conductor and electric are 
 nearly synonymous. 
 
 Insul.\tion. When a body is placed entirely upon non-con- 
 ductors, it is said to be insulated. Insulation prevents the dissipa- 
 tion of the electric fluid, through the surrounding bodies. A per- 
 3 T soil
 
 254 
 
 ELECTRICITY. 
 
 son IS said to be iiibulateil, when he is set with liis feet upon a cake 
 of resiii, or on a stool with gla^s feet, or any other good electric, 
 so that the conmuuiication between his body and llie earth may 
 be thereby cut 'jit'. 
 
 Electrification. Anybody, to whicli the power of attrac- 
 tion and repulsion, <i:c. is coniinunicated, is said to be electrilied. 
 
 Of Conductors and Non-Conductors. 
 
 One of the first principles in electricity is, that all the substances 
 iji nature are either electrics or conductors. Numberless experi- 
 ments prove tliat a substance which is a conductor cannot be ex- 
 cited ; and on the other hai.i, tliat a substance which can be ex- 
 cited is nut a conductor. '1 ids li'.w, however, must not be taken 
 in an absolute sense; for, 'trictly speaking, there is no substance 
 in nature that can be justly stiled a perfect electric, or a perfect 
 conductor. In the be.-,t conductors the electric tluid finds some 
 resistance ; and it is partially transmitted through or along ihe sur- 
 face of most, if not all electrics. These two classes so far ap- 
 proach cacli other's limits, that the less perfect conductors may 
 be excited, and even some that are pretty good conductors. We 
 insert the following lists of electrics and conductors, in the order 
 of their perfection, as they are classed by Mr. C'avallo, who be- 
 gins with the most perfect in each: 
 
 Electrics. I. Glass and all vitrification; whatever. 2. Pre- 
 cious stones ; of which the most transparent are the best. 3. All 
 resins and resinous compounds; or suih consistent oily vegetable 
 productions, us are inllanimable, and not soluble iu water. 4. 
 Amber. 5. Sulphur, li. Baked wood. 7. B.tuminous sub- 
 stances. 8 Wax. 9. Silk. 10. Cotton. U. Feathers, wool, 
 hair, and all other dry animal substances. 12. Paper. 13. White 
 sugar and sugar-candy. 14. Air. 15. Oils. 16. Metallic calces. 
 17. Ashes of animal and vegetable substances. IS. All dry ve- 
 getable substances. 19. AH hard stones. Many of these, when 
 Tery hot, lose their electric property and become conductors ; as 
 fed hot glass, melted resin, hot air, &c. The best vitrified tdass 
 also sometimes becomes a conductor. 
 
 Conductors. 1 Gold. J. Silver. 3. Copper. 4. Brass. .".Iron. 
 6. Tin. 7. Quick-silver. 8. Lead. 9. Semi-metals. iO. Metallic 
 ores. 11. Charcoal, of animal or vegetable substances. I "2. Fluids 
 of animal bodies. 13. All otlier fluids, except air and oils. 14. 'J'he 
 efiluvia of flaming bodies. 15. Ice. IG. Snow. 17. Metallic salts, 
 and most othersalinesubstances. IS. Stony substances. 19. Smoke. 
 20i Steam. Electricity also pervades the vacuum made by an 
 •air-pump. Green vegetables, raw meat, &c. are rendered conduc- 
 tors by the fluids they contain. Hence all electrics before exci- 
 tation should be well dried and some even heated, to free them 
 from every particle of dampness, otherwise they may act as cou- 
 iluctors. We cannot close this part of our subject, without tak- 
 ing notice of the changes made in the same substance by dilferent 
 preparations. A piece of wood just cut from a tree is a good con- 
 tluctor: bake it and it will become an electric: burn it to char- 
 coal, and it is a good conductor again ; reduce it to ashes, and 
 these will be found electrics. Similar changes are observable rn 
 many other bodies. 
 
 Of Positive and Negative Electiucitv. 
 
 If a fine downy feather, or any light body, be tied to a silk 
 thread, and electrified strongly, by touching it with the exciteil 
 glass tube, it immediately flies from, or is repelled by, the glass 
 tube. If we now present an excited slick of sealing-wax, the fea- 
 ther immediately flies towards it. Thus what was attracted by 
 excited wax, is repelled by excited glass. Tills experiment has 
 given rise to a very important distinction in electricity, implying 
 X contrariety of agency. Let two light balls formed of cork, or 
 the pith of elder, be suspended by fine linen threails from small 
 cylinders of wood, and insulated upon a common wine glass, that 
 is wiped dry, and free from dust. Upon electrifying the two balls, 
 tliui suspended, by excited glass, they will repel each other; but 
 we may destroy this electricity only by touching them with the 
 linger. If again we electrify them, but with excited wax, they 
 will again repel each other. But bring the balls electrified by 
 wax towards those electrified by glass, and they immediately fly 
 towards each other. From these and similar experiments, the 
 two electricities were at first specifically distinguished by the 
 names of Vitreous and Resinous. That which was, thought to be 
 
 the constant production of rubbed glass, was stiled the Vitreovs 
 Electricity ; and that which was lirst observed to be produced 
 by wax and other resinous substances was denominated the Re- 
 sinous Electricity. But the vitreous, for reasons which will 
 afterwards appear, is now called by the best electricians. Positive 
 or Plus Electricity, and tlie resinous is denominated Nega- 
 tive or Minus Electricity. Let a person be insulated u|)ua 
 any good eleclric, holding a dry glas-i tube in his left hand, and 
 rubbing it with his right : both the person and the tube will be 
 quickly electrified. )l reathei"s, thread, bits of paper, oranv other 
 light substances, be i)resentcd to his body, they will be at'tracleil 
 and rt'pelled. If another person presents his linger to him, a spark 
 of light will follow the linger v'ith a slight snapping noise. In a 
 word he will exhibit every electrical appearance that tlie tube 
 does. Yet the electricity of the person and that of the tube, are 
 (pute the opposite of each other ; the one attracting what thi' 
 otlier repels. Thus if a small piece of cork or any other light 
 bqdy, insulated or suspended by a silk thread, has been attracted 
 and repelled by the glass tube, if no conducting substance come 
 in contact w ith it in this slate, it will not again be atlracted by the 
 tube. The same happens w illi the insulated person r if the light 
 >ubst;aice has been attracted and afterwards repelled by his bod.-, 
 it will not be again attracted. If, liowever, in this state of repul- 
 sion, the tube be presented to this liglit substance, it will be at- 
 tracted violently by the tube ; and when repelled by the tube, it 
 will be again attracted by the insulated person. If two or more 
 of these light insulated bodies be se|iarately attracted by the tube, 
 and w hen repelled broucht near each other, they will repel each 
 other, and continue in this electrified and repulsive state for some 
 time. The same will happen if they be presented to the insulat- 
 ed person ; after which they will I'diewise repel each other. But 
 if one or more of them be attracted and repelled by the glass tube, 
 and one or more others by the person, and alterwards all of them 
 be brought near each other, they will then mutually attract instead 
 of re[M;lling each other ; and instead of remaining in an electrified 
 state, they will extinguish every appearance of electricity. These 
 two electricities, therefore, ap|)ear to be the oppositcs of eaclx 
 other, and as i tlic one was an afiirmalive or positive power, and 
 the other a negative, they balance each other, and lose every 
 electrical properly and appearance, 'J'here is another character^ 
 istical difference between them too, in the appearance of their 
 light. If a needle, a wire, or any other pointed body, be pre- 
 senti'd to the excited tube in the dark, a small lucid globe, resem- 
 bling a star, will be seen upon the point ; but if the needle, or 
 wire, be presented to the person, a lucid pencil of rays will appear 
 issuing from the point, and diverging towards the person. 'Ihese 
 rays appear bcat when tiie needle is presented to the person, one 
 inch irom his body, while he is rubbing the tube. Another 
 chaiacterislical difference has been observed in some exj)erim'.'nts. 
 The electricity of the tube, when in the act of passing from a body 
 overchargeii with it to another, either not electrified, or possessed 
 of the contrary electricity, shews an indisputable cuneiU from the 
 funiier to the latter ; and the electricity of the insulated person, 
 when in the act of passing from a body overcharged with it to ano- 
 ther, either not electriiietl, or possessed of the contrary eleclri- 
 cily, shews clearly a current from the latter to the former. 'I'hese 
 two electricities are not only observed in the above-mciitioned ex- 
 periment, but in several otlier cases aUo ; and they aUvavs ac- 
 company Cich other ; for when dilTerent clectricsare nibbed, sonve 
 will aciiuiie one electricity, and others will acquire th ■ contrary", 
 the rubber, if insulated, shewing at the same time signs of tiie 
 electricity contrary to that accpnred by tiie excited electric: be- 
 sides this, almost all electrics may be made to shew at pleasure the 
 one or the other electricity, according to the substance used for 9 
 rubber. Hence the iblkiwing corollaries may be deduced ; vi;;. 
 1. Whenever two differeni substances (being both insulated, or 
 onlv that which is a conductor) are rubbed together, cxce|)t they 
 luc both equally gootl coiiduclors, they will be both electrified, 
 and one acquire the electricity contrary to the elecfi'icity of the 
 other. ~. Almost all the electrics may be made to acquire, at 
 pleasure, the one or the other electricity by using proper rubbers. 
 Many causes operate to produce a difference in the electricity. 
 Often tlie same electric, rubbed with the same rubber, exhibits at 
 one time signs of positive and at another of negative electricity. 
 A sfight variation ui the surfacej or in tlie degree of dryness, or a 
 
 difierent
 
 ELECTUICITY. 
 
 
 I 
 
 <lltVeii-nt ;i|)i)lic;itioii oftlicsame substance, otU-ii causes tliis dil- 
 ferriicf. h appeal^ from many <'\perinuiit«, llial vlien twD cl:t'- 
 IVrpiit =;iili<tam-es nrr iiibbod togL-tln-r, tliat v.liose surface is rougli- 
 -1, or wlioso Plfdn.; puurr is strongest, gweraliy aciimies the 
 ^itive, anil tlie other tin- iicirative. And if two electrics every 
 . i\ equal are rubbed to'^itlier, tlie subMance, which ■urlVre the 
 !;rcalest friction, acquires the negative electricity, and llic otkcr 
 
 ike positive, ^\■c t.erc present (lie ijigenions «i(h Mi. Cavallo'-^ 
 Table, which exhibits at one view what kind of '■lectri<:itv will he 
 excitedin the best electric by nibbing with different substann s. 
 " It might have been much extendeil, (he says) iiad he chosen to 
 bring into it all the iiiimitiT as far as is ivupwn.But this lie th'night 
 botii uiincccssarj- aiid impracticable." 
 
 TABLE SHEWING the Kin 
 
 Electrics rubbed. Electricities. 
 
 The back of a cat Positive 
 
 Smooth glass I'ositive 
 
 nil S Po> live 
 
 K°"S'' gl^-^ J Negative 
 
 _. ,. ( Positive 
 
 T°"™''''" JXe,^.ative 
 
 ,, , . . ( Po>itive 
 
 ll^'e*^"^'" I Negative 
 
 ,,., . ... ( Positive 
 
 , , ... ( Positive 
 
 "'-'^■'^ S'"^ jNeoative 
 
 ,. ,. ^ P,i,ilive 
 
 feoahng-wax (Negative 
 
 ,, , , , ( Positive 
 
 b...kedwood J Negative 
 
 OS OF EiEcraicirv rxciTho ix' some ELECTRros by various Substances. 
 
 Si/listuncrs used as rubbers. 
 
 Every substance witli which it has been hitherto tried. 
 
 Every substance hitherto tried, exci-pl the back of a cat. 
 
 Dry oiled silk, sulphur, metals. 
 
 AVoolleii cloth, (luills, wood, paper, sealing-wax, white wax, the human hand, 
 
 Amber, air blnvvn with a pair ot bellows. 
 
 Diamond, the huuiaii hand. 
 
 Metals, silk, loadstone, leather, hand, paper, baked wood. 
 
 Other line tiii-s. 
 
 liiack silk, metals, black cloth. 
 
 Paper, hauvl, hairs, we.isel's skin. 
 
 Sealing-wax. 
 
 Hare's, weasel's, and ferret's skin, loadstone, brass, silver, iron, hand. 
 
 Metals. 
 
 Hare's, weasel's, and ferret's skin, hand, leatker, woollen, clotii, paper. 
 
 .Silk. 
 
 Flannel. 
 
 I Of the Excitation or Electrics. 
 
 It is a well known law in electricity, that all electric substances 
 niav be excited by friction or rubbing. Thi<, however, is not the 
 only method-of exciting elciuics to exhibit electrical appearances. 
 Sev'eral electrics arc excited by melting or pouring a mel!e«l elec- 
 tric into another substance ; by heating or cooling; and by eva- 
 poration or eli'ervescence. These nieliiods are attended with pe- 
 culiar phenomena. Sulphur, nic:ted in an earlhen vessel, and 
 left to cool u]>on conductors, is found strongly elcctriail ; but not 
 at all when left to cool upon electrics. If melted in a glass vessel 
 and left to cool, both the glass and the sulphur acquire a high de- 
 gree of electricity; the former poMtive and the latter negative, 
 whether left to cool upon electrics or conductors. And it is re- 
 markable that the sulphur acquires no electricity till it begins to 
 cool. Melted sulphur poured into a vessel of baked wood, ac- 
 quires a negative electricity, wjiile the wood acijuires a positive: 
 but when poured into ,-cugh g'ass, or sulphur, it shews none. 
 Sulphur melted, and poured into u metal cup, and there left to 
 cool, exhibits no electrical a|)ptarance3 whilst in the cup; IhiI if 
 they be separated both w ill I'ppear strongly electrilied ; the sulphur 
 plus and the cup minus. Ujion rcpl.icing t!ie sulphur in the cup, 
 every electrical sign vanishes; but if, while separate, the electri- 
 city of either be withdrawn, they will bolli appear possessed of the 
 ether electricity, on being replaced. Melted ur.\, poured into 
 wood or glas-, acquires a negative electricity, and leaves the glass 
 or wood pjsitiye. Sealing-wax, poured into sulphur, accpiires a 
 positive electricity, and leaves the sulphur negative, if a slick of 
 sealing-wax be broken in two pieces, the extie'iiities that were 
 ioined Will be electrified, the one positively, the other negatively. 
 'The late Mr. %\'. Ilenly, F. 11. S. dlscovc'rcil, that chocolate fresh 
 from the mill, becomes strongly vlectrical, as it cools in the tin 
 pans. It sr,rn loses this properly, but recovers it once or twice, by 
 Veing melted in an iron ladle and poured into the tin pans. When 
 the mass becomes dry, the electricity cannot be restcred by melt- 
 ing, unless olive oil be mixed wiih it in the ladle ; in which case 
 it completely recovers its electric power. The n'ourmalin, or 
 lapis electricus of Linnxus, a hard -enii-pellucid fossil, was llrst 
 observed to exhibit electrical phwnomeiu, by heating and cooling. 
 This stone is common in the E.ist Indic, and possesses many sin- 
 gular electrical properties. It exhibits, however, no electrical 
 appearances, while kept in an equal temperature ; but by increas- 
 ing its heat, it becomes electrical, and still more so by diminishing 
 it. Its electricity appears, not over its whole surface, but only on 
 two opposite sides, which have been stiled its poles, as they are in 
 
 a line with its centre, and in the same direction with its strata; in 
 which direction it is opa(|ue, though semi-transparent in the other. 
 The tourmalin, while heating, has one of its sides electritied posi- 
 tively, and the other negatively ; but w l.ile cooling, the former be- 
 comes negative and the latter positive. If heated and allowed to 
 cool witliout either side being touched, tl;e former will be positive 
 and the latter negative, all the time it is heating or cooling. If ex- 
 cited by rubbing, each of its side», oi both at once may be rendered 
 positive. If heated or cooled upon an insulated substance, that 
 substance will become possessed of the electricity contrary to that 
 of liie side of the tourmalin, which was laid on it. 'I'lie eleclricitv 
 of botii sides, or of either, may be reversed by beating or cooling 
 the stone, in contact with other bodies. If a tourmalin be cut iu 
 pieces, each piece will have its positive and negative poles, as well 
 as the whole stone. All the above properties are ob^ervable in va- 
 cuo. If this stone be covered over with wax, oil, or any similar 
 electric, it will exhibit the same electric signs, as witliout the co- 
 vering. Mr. Vi'illinm Canton remarked a vivid light upon this 
 stone, while heating in the dark, by which he could determine 
 which end of the tourmalin was posiiive or negative. When ex- 
 cited, it emits very strong flashes in the dark, Ironi the positive to 
 the negative end. Mr. Canton has also observed the Brasilian 
 emerald emit light wliile heating in the dark. Mr. Cavailo " ima- 
 gines th.at every other precious stone will .shew it, if its electric 
 power be sulliciently strong ; since the light is a consequence of 
 the passage of a sufHcient quantity of electricity through the air, 
 or other partly resisting medium." The electrical power of the 
 tourmalin is sometimes improved, sometimes injured, sometimes 
 not in the le.ist affected, by a strong lire. Most of the above pro- 
 perties, which were supposed to be peculiar to the tourmalin, are 
 possessi d by several hard piecioiis stones, which are capable of be- 
 coming electrical by heating and cooling, and have their positive 
 and negative sides lying in the direction of their strata, etc. The 
 method of exciting electricity by evaporation was lately discovered 
 by Mr. Volta; who observed that the evaporation of water, and 
 someothei lluids, as well as certain efierveicences, generated elec- 
 tricity. Ills experiments seem to prove, that fluids, or other bo- 
 dies reduced to vapour, become electrilied positively, and leave 
 tiie bodies from which they evaporated, electrilied negatively ; 
 and that on the other hand, when the vapours are condensed into a 
 fluid, they become electritied negatively, and leave th.e bodies 
 with which liiey were last in contact electrilied positively. 
 
 Of CoMMt'KICATED ELECTRICITY. 
 
 " Under the title of comraunicated electricity, (sa\$ M. Cavallo'i 
 
 faili
 
 5.>G 
 
 ELECTRIC ITY. 
 
 ulb alniQot all lli:U is kiiou u ol tlio subject ; the passage of this 
 virtUL- i'roni one body to anothoi' is what causes its light ; l)v being 
 coniniunicateil to other Ijodies, we see its attraction ; by it's quick 
 transition it melts niet.ils, dcstrov s animal ,md vegetable lite ; and 
 in short it is by this connnuiiieHlion, that tiie science is at all 
 known and cultivated." When electricity is induced on a body, 
 it is confined there by elecUics alone ; and for a longer or shorter 
 time as these are more or less perfect. A glass tube rubbed ac- 
 <iuires a quantity of electricity, whicli remahis, in the glass, be- 
 cause it is surrounded by tiie air, which is an electric. But as the 
 air is never a perfect electric., the glass tube can:iot retain the e- 
 leclrical virtue perpetually, but only for a longer or shorter time, 
 as the air happens to be in a more or less perfect electric state. It 
 therefore impai ts some oftiiis virtue to the air, or to the conduct- 
 ing particles in it, gradually, till it loses it aUogethcr. A linger or 
 any other conductor presenteil to an excited electric, v.iU re- 
 ceive a greater or less part of its electricity ; but cannot receive 
 the whole because the excited electric, being a non-conductor, 
 cannot convey all its electricity to that side to v.hicli the conductor 
 lias been app'lied. Hence a conductor, presented to different 
 parts of an excited electric, will receive at every a]i[)roach a ^park, 
 without repeating the excitation, till the whole po\ver excited is 
 exhausted. When a conductor which communicates with the 
 earth, is exhibited to an excited electric, at a proper distance, it 
 acquires an electricity, on that side, contrary to that of the elec- 
 tric, and which increases the nearer they approach, till by the 
 eager attract ion between the two electricities, the conductor re- 
 ceives a spark from the electric, and thus the equilibrium is re- 
 stored. If the conductor be insuhued, both sides \\ill ap])ear 
 electrified, but with different electricities; the side next the elec- 
 ■tric having accpiired the electricity contrary to that of the electric,- 
 and the opposite side one of the'same kind. These electricities 
 increase as the conductor approaches the electric, but upon re- 
 ceiving the spark, the electricity of the (•()nductor becomes the 
 same with that of the electric throughout. All these effect:-- are 
 similar, though, some other electric, as glass, rosin, wax, &c. be 
 ■interposed between the excited electrics and the conductor; for 
 (he spark forces through the inter))osed electric, as it always does 
 through the air, when it causes the snapping noise, that attends it. 
 AVhen an insulated conductor has received the electricity from an 
 excited electric, it is said lobe electriiied by coiimnmication. It 
 then acts like the excited electric; exceptliig that when touched 
 by another conductor, that communicates with the earth, it dis- 
 •charges its whole surplus of electricity at once. The reason is, be- 
 cause the electricitv belonging to the whole of the conductor is 
 easily coimminicalecl through its own sub^tance to the other con- 
 cluctor. Hence the electricity discharged horn an electrihed con- 
 <luctor i i mtk h more powerful than that discharged from an electric. 
 If an insulated (-onductor be touched with anotlier electriiied con- 
 ductor, it will ac.juire part of its electricity, and each will shew 
 signs of it. It will not, however, bii ecfually divided between 
 lliem, unless they are equal in rcs|ject to their surfaces and situa- 
 tions. The (piantity of electricity in each will be in proportion 
 to their surfaces, and not to the quantity of iiiattcr in each. Mr. 
 Cavallo, specihes these proportions very accur.ately in his Com- 
 plete Treatise, vol. i. p. -iO, 41. Edit. 4111". The dis'tanee towhich 
 an electric spark will go through the air, to reach a conductor, is 
 in proportion to its quantity of electricity, the perfection of the 
 conductor; and to the sharpne-s of the parls from which it Hies off, 
 and on which it strikes. The noise attending it also is in propor- 
 tion to all these. A sharp-pointed body will throw off the elec- 
 tricity to, and receive it from, a greater distance, than a body of 
 any other sha[)e, but the communication is attended with little 
 light and no noise, as the electricity comes by little and little, not 
 in a large body. A current of air is sensibly' felt in these cases at 
 an electrified point, and always in the direction of the point. An 
 electric spark, taken upon any part of a living body, occasio.is a 
 tlisagreeal)le sensation, and more or less so in proportion to the 
 strength ot the spark. Electricity strongly communicated to in- 
 sulat.-d animal bodies, quickens the pulse and promotes perspira- 
 tion. If the face or any part of the body be presented to an ex- 
 cited electric, or an electrified conductor] it will feel as if a wind 
 was blowing, or rather a spider's web drawn over it. If an excit- 
 ed electric is jiresented to the no-e, a smell will be perceived like 
 that of pnosphorus; but communicated electricity does not occa- 
 sion any such sensation, unless a large quantity passes suddenlv 
 
 from one body to another. A pretty large quantity of electricity 
 pervades a long conductor with an astoni-,hing, thougii impercep' 
 lible velocity, but a small ciuantity takes more time. Sllb^UlllCcs 
 posiessed of the s:urie electricity repel, and those possesseil ol tlii^ 
 opposite electricities Kttn'Ct each other. There is no electric ai- 
 tracticn but between bodies possessed of different electricilii ^; 
 nor any electrical repulsion but between those possessed of t!;.- 
 same electricity. Electricity comnuinicaled to insulated fruits, 
 iliiids, and other bodies in a state of evaporation, increases that 
 evaporation. Electricity promotes vegetation by increasing the 
 perspiration of vegetables. Plants otten and long electriiied, 
 liave shewn a more lively appearance than others that were mil. 
 Mr. Kocstlin, however, says, that negative electrization retards 
 both animal and vegetable life. \\ hen electricity is communi- 
 cated to in ulated vessels cor.taining water that is running from a 
 pipe, the electrihed stream is but little accelerated, unless the tiiht- 
 i;c capillary, in which it is accelerated with an impetnousness and 
 velocity, which is increased in prupnrtion to the smallness of ihe 
 lube. The electric power is neither affected by heat nor cold, 
 for an iron bar made red hot, and any conducting fluid bard fro- 
 zen, when electriiied, exhibit sparks, attract or repel nearly as 
 well IS in their natural temperature. And ft neither affects, nor 
 is alf'ected by the magnet. Electricity can be communicated to 
 electrics, alliiougli it is done with dilliculty, as their substance is 
 impervious to it in a great degree. To make an electric acqiiiic 
 electricity, it must be touched several times, and in diffeicnt paiU, 
 with the eleclrilied body. 
 
 Of Charged Electrics, and tarticularly of the Leydem 
 Phial. 
 
 " If to one side of an electric (says M. Cavallo) sufiicienlly 
 thin, as for instance a pane of common window glass, a plate of 
 sealing-wax, &;c. be communicated one electricit), and to the ojj- 
 posite side the comrary, that plate in that case is said to be cliarg-' 
 ed ; and the two electricities can never come together, except a 
 coimnuiiication of conducting substances be made between botli 
 sides, or the electric be broken by the power of electric attrac- 
 tion. ^Vhen the two electricities of a charged electric are by any 
 means united, and therefore llieir power destroyed, that electric is 
 
 lese two op- 
 lid the dilS- 
 
 posite powers is called ihe electric shock. " To avoid 
 culty of communicating electricity to an electric plate, it is ciisto- 
 mary to coat the sides of it w ith some conducting substance, as tia.- 
 foil, gilt paper, &:c. by which means the charging and discharging 
 becomes very easy ; lor when the electricity is communicated to 
 one part of the coating, it is inimedialely spread through all the 
 ]>arls of the electric that are in contact with that coating; and 
 w lien the electric is to be di^charged, it is suflicient to make a con- 
 ducting communication between the coatings of botli sides, to 
 discharge entirely the electricities of that electric." He adds, 
 that " the coatincrs of both sides of an electric should not come 
 very near one another towards the edge of the plate ; for although 
 they do not absolutely touch one another, yet when they are elec- 
 trified, the electricity will easily force a passage through the air, 
 and by passing over the surface of the electric, from one coating 
 to the other, render it incapable of receiving any charge." It is 
 by means of charged electrics, that we become acquainted with 
 the greatest powers of electricity, as we can accumulate these 
 powers, and use them in various experiments with advantage. H 
 a glass plate be properly coated on both sides with a conducting 
 substance, and if to one of these coatings be coniit-mnicated some 
 eli'ctricity, the other coating, while communicating with ti.e 
 earth, or with a sufli<-ient quantity of conducting bodies, acquires 
 by itself an etpial quantity of the contrary electricity ; but if, while 
 one side is acquiring electricity, the opposite side does not com- 
 municate V ith the earth, or the conducting substances, the glass 
 cannot be charged. The reason why, w-hiie one side of the gla»< 
 receives the one electricity, the opposite side acquires the other, 
 is, the property of bodies lo accpiire an electricity, contrary to 
 that possessed by a contiguous elei Irlhed body ; and the cause that 
 hinders these two electricities from mixing, is the attraction be- 
 tween the glass plate and the fluid. It is of little consec|uenc(- ef 
 what lorm the cjiarge-d electric or Leyden jar be, provided the 
 glass be sufficiently thin. " The thinner it is, (says M. Cavallo,) 
 tile greater charge it is capable of receiving ; for the stronger in 
 proportion is the power of the electricity ot one side, to cause a 
 
 contrars'
 
 ELECTRICITY 
 
 257 
 
 ,-oiitraiv electricity on the opposite side. How thick a glass plate 
 iliouhl "be to become incapable of being cliarged, lialli not yet 
 M-eii determined." 
 
 Of AxMosrHERicAi. Electricity, and its ErritCTs; parti- 
 cularly Lightning. 
 
 Electricity is not only to be observed by rubbing an electric 
 3v warming a tourmalin, but has been fonnd to be widely dilTu-^ed 
 hrough tiie atmosphere. It has been discovered that tlie a'r, the 
 ;Iouds, and ei^en the rain, contain it; and that tlunider and light- 
 ling, the anrora borealis, meteors, lirc. are among its various and 
 istonishing elfeets. Tlie great similarity between lightning and 
 he electric ttuid had been for some time remarked by pliilo>o- 
 ihers, particularly by the Abbt- Nollet; bnt it was not suspected 
 Jiat they were the elVects of the same cause, much less that tlie 
 ahxiiomena of lightning could be imitated by electricity, and 
 'hose of electricity by lightning, till the celebrated Dr. Kranklin 
 
 •arded the bold assertion, and advised the e';i)erimeMt to 
 
 made, and till he and the French philosophers proved the fact 
 m 1752. Indeed, all the wonderful phinoniena exhibited by 
 electriciiins are only imitations on a small scale of those great 
 effects which astonish and alarm us; and they depend upon the 
 iame mechanism. The same properties, and i;ig-zag sparks, their 
 similar action on conducting sub-glances, the power of rending, 
 Hillaming, and dispersuig in every direction the substances on 
 which lightning agts w ith power, the giving |)obrltv to ferruginous 
 matter, &c. all concur to shew tlieir identity. IjuI independent 
 of these similarities, the fact is proved by the plainest and clearest 
 evidence; when the atmosphere is charged with tlumder clouds, 
 we can by an electrical kite draw from it the matter of lightning, 
 tind with this imitter perform every electrical experiment with 
 which we are actjuainted. 'J'here is not indeed a single ])h.^'no- 
 nienon of the one, but may be imitated by the other. Lightning 
 destroys edilices, trees, and animals; it goes llironghlhe best con- 
 ductors that it meets w ithin its course, and if its passage be ob- 
 structed by electrics, or less perfect conductors, it rends them, 
 tears them to pieces, and disperses them in all directions. Light- 
 ning melts metals, ;ind burns inilanimable substances, &c. all of 
 which ell'ects can be produced by electricity. The air at some 
 distance from houies, trees, masts of ships, &c. is commonly elec- 
 trified positively, especially in frostv and clear weather.' It is 
 also electriiied in logiiy weather. " Clouds as well as rain, snow, 
 aud hail, says Mr. Cavailo, are almost constantly electriiied, but 
 oftener negatively than positively. How tliey come to be so, is 
 not vet clearly ascertained, unless upon the prmciple of electricitv 
 produced by evaporation and condensation of lightning is the 
 elTect of their electricitr, which darting from a cloud, or a num- 
 ber of clouds, highly electriiied, strikes into another cloud, or 
 upon the earth; preferring the most lofty and pointed places, and 
 thus producing all those dreadful etTects which are known to be 
 occasioned by it," and of w hich it may not be improper to give a 
 description, with an instance or two. When lightning is accom- 
 panied with thunder, it is well defined, and has generally a zig- 
 zag form; sometimes it only makes one angle like the letter V , 
 sometimes it appears like the arch of a circle. Bnt the most for- 
 midable and destructive form which lightning is ever known to 
 assume, is that of balls of fire. The motion ot these is very often 
 perceptible to the eye ; but wherever they fall, much mischief is 
 the result of their explosion. The next to this, in its destructive 
 effects, is the zig-zag kind; for that species, whose llashes are in- 
 distinct, and whose form cannot e.isily be observed, is seldom 
 known to do much hurt. The colour of lightning is also an indi- 
 raiion of its power to do mischief, the palest and brightest flashes 
 iii-ing most destructive in their effects. The zig-zag kind of light- 
 ning, when near, is remarkable for a kind of omnipresent propertv. 
 If two persons be standing in a room, looking different ways, 
 and a loud clap of thunder happens, accompanied with tlie zig-zag 
 lightning, they will both distinctly see the Hash, not onlv by that 
 uidistincl kind of illumination of the almospliere, which is 'occa- 
 sioned by (ire of ain kind, but the very form of the lightning it- 
 self, and ■■very angle it makes in its c'ourse will be as diitinctlv 
 perceptible, as though they had looked directly at the cloud from 
 whence they proceeded. If a person happened at that time to be 
 reading, he would distinctly see the form of the lightning between 
 h.imselt and the book. Lightning usually confines its effects to a 
 .'nU space; seldom exhibiting phKnoniena like thc-e which ac- 
 
 voL. n. — NO. 72. 
 
 company explosions of gunpowder, or ot inflammable air in mnes. 
 Instances, however, of terrible explosions nave occurred. The 
 following is perhaps one of the most remarkable: " August 'J, 
 176.1, about SIX in the evening, there arose at Anderlighl, about a 
 hagi-ie from Brussels, a conllicl ni several w iiids born upon a thick 
 ioi^. Tins conllict lasted four or five minutes, and was attendid 
 with a Irighttul hissing noise, whicli could be compared to nothing 
 but the vellirigs of an inhnite number ot wild I;i-a4s. '1 he (loud 
 then o|)eniiig, discovered a kind of very brijiht lightning, and in 
 .Ji infant the rools of one side of the houses «eie carried oft and 
 dispf-rsed at a distance; ahove lOOt) large trees were broke clt', 
 some near the trouml, others near the top, some torn up by the 
 roots; and many ot the branches anil tops carried to the distance 
 of (lO, 100, or 120 paces. \V|u)le,coppi< es were lad down, as corn 
 is by ordinary winds; and the glass of the windows, situated near 
 the spot, was sinvered to atoms." It is not unusual for thunder- 
 storms to produce most violent whirlwinds, such as are by some 
 pliilosophers attributed to electricity; nay, even to occasion an 
 ag.tation in the waters of the ocean itself ; and all this too after the 
 thunder and lightning has ceased. Ot this tlie lollow ng instenc e 
 liJliprned at Great Malvern, October L't3, 17til : at a quailer past 
 four 111 the alternoon, the people were surprised with a most 
 shocking and dismal noise; 100 forges, all at work at once, could 
 scarce equal it. Lpon tl-.e side ot the hill, about hOU \aids to the 
 b. W. there appeared a prodigious smoke, attended with the jiMue 
 violent noise, as if a volcano iiad buint out of the hill ; it soon de- 
 scended, and passed on within about 100 yards of the south end 
 of tlie hou>e ; it seemed to rise again in the meadow just below it, 
 and continued its progress to the east, rising in the same manner 
 for lour different times, attended with the same di>mal noise as at 
 hrst; the air being filled with a nauseous and sulphureous smell. 
 It gradually decreased till it was ()uile extingui-hed in a turnip 
 lield, about a cpiarter of a mile below the house; tlie turnip leaves, 
 w ilh leaves of trees, dirt, sticks, &c. hlled the air, and flew higher 
 than any of the hills. The thunder ceased before this lia|)pened, 
 and the air soon afterwards became calm and serene." Alter the 
 identity of lightning and the electric fluid was discovered, electri- 
 cians began to describe other phrcnomtna, formerly unaccounted 
 for, to atmospherical electricity. Among ihese the aurora borea- 
 lis was naturallv, and with reason, ascribed to this cause. See 
 Aurora lioictALis. This conclusion was drawn not only from 
 the iniilation of its light by the electrical spark, but also from the 
 observation, that tiie aurora borealis, when very strong, has been 
 known to disturb the polarity of the magnetic needle. (.See Phil. 
 Trans, vol. lix. p. S8.) The late .VIr. Canton made several expe- 
 riments in confirmation of this idea, by collecting considerable 
 quantities of the electric fluid, during the time of lui aurora borea- 
 lis. His apparatus was very simple; it consisted of an in.ulated 
 fishing-rod, with a wire twisted round it, erected on the top of his 
 house. From his experiments performed with the atmospherical 
 electrometer, and the electrometer for the rain, Mr. Cavailo 
 de<luces the following conclusions, respecting the electricity of 
 the atmosphere: 
 
 " I. That there is in the atmosphere, at all times, a quantify of 
 electricity ; for whenever I use the above-mentioned in:.lrument, 
 it always acquires some electricity. 
 
 " 11. That the electricity of the atmosphere, or fogs, is always 
 of the same kind, namelv, positive; for the electrometer is always 
 negative, except when it is evidently influenced by heavy clouds 
 near the zenith. 
 
 " 111. That, in general, the strongest electricity is observable in 
 thick fogs, and also in frosty weather; and the weakest, when it is 
 cloudy, warm, and very near raining: but it does not ^eem to be 
 less by night than hi the day. 
 
 " I'V. That in a more elevated place the electricity is stronger 
 tl'.an in a lower one; for having tried the atmosjijierical electro- 
 meter both in the stone and iron gallerr on the cupola of St. 
 Paul's cathedral, I found that the balls diverged much more in 
 the latter, than in the former less elevated place. Hence it ap- 
 pears, that if this rule takes place at any distance from the earth, 
 the electricity in the upper regions of the atmosphere must be ex- 
 ceedingly strong." 
 
 Of the Advantagus berived from Electricity. 
 I'nder this head, to which M. Cavailo devotes a whole chapter 
 of his excellent treatise, he observes, that " besitk* the field that 
 j U clectriGilj.-
 
 e'iS 
 
 ELECTRICITY. 
 
 eleilricitv has opfnotl lor farther discoveries, ;uid lor tlie satisfcc 
 tion of that ciiriositv, which liefore attended the coiitcnipiation of 
 S8 many wonderfid' phienomena as have been exidained by this 
 science,' there are two -great advantage-, derived from electricity; 
 the one is a defence against tlie <hreful effects of lightning, and the 
 otlier a remedy for many disorders incident to tlie Inmian body. 
 ' In order to «'u;;rd edilices or ships from being damaged by light- 
 ning, it was jiidiciou--ly proj>osed by Dr. franklin, to raise a me- 
 tallic conductor some feet aiiove the highest part of the building, 
 and continue it down the wall till it penetrated some feet into the 
 groimd; by this means the hou-^e could never leceive any da- 
 mage; for whenever the lightning should happen to fall upon it, 
 •it is evident that the conductor, being of metal, and higher than 
 any part of the building, would certainly attract it, and, by con- 
 ducting it to the ground, hinder that building from receiving any 
 olam;;ge; it being well known that electricity always strikes the 
 nearest and best "conductors that it meets within its way. ' The 
 reasonableness and liuth of this assertion has been conlirmed by 
 numberless fact>, and th.e practice of rai--ing such conductors has 
 been found exceedingly useful, particubrly in hot climates, where 
 tliunder-storms are very freipieiit, and the damages occasioned by 
 the same, too often experienced. In regard to the con.,truction 
 of stich conductors, there have been some controversies among 
 electricians; and tlie most advantageous manner of using them 
 has not, without a great many experiments, and but very ktely, 
 been ascertained. Some philosophers have asserted, that such 
 conductors should terminate in a blunt end, that they might the 
 less invile die lightning from the clouds; for a blunt end will not 
 attract cleclricitv from so great a distance as a sharp point. But 
 other philosophers have thought a pointed termination to be much 
 preferable to a blunt one; and their assertion seems, on the fol- 
 lowing accounts, founded on much better reasoning. A sharp- 
 pointed conductor, it is true, will attract electricity iVom a greater 
 distance than a blunt one, but at the same time will attract and 
 conduct it bv little and little, or rather by a continued slream, in 
 which manner a remarkably small conductor is capable of con- 
 ducting a very great cpiantity of electricity; wdiereas a blunt ter- 
 minated conductor attracts tiie electricity in a ftiU separate body 
 or explosion, in which manner it is often made red hot, melted, 
 and even exploded in smoke, and by such a quantity of electricity 
 as perhaps would not have at all atVected it, if it had been sharply 
 pointed. A sharp-pointed conductor certainly invites the matter 
 of lightning easier than a blunt one; but to invite, receive, and 
 conduct it'in small quantities, never endangers the conductor: 
 and the object of tixing a conductor to a house, is to protect the 
 house from the effects of, and not tlie conductor from transmitting 
 the lightning. It is an observation much in favour of sharp- 
 pointed conductors, that such steeples of churches, and edifices in 
 general, as are terminated by pointed metallic ornaments, have 
 very seldom been known to be struck by lightning; whereas others 
 that have Hat or blunt terminations, and have a great quantity of 
 metal in a manner insulated on their tops, are often struck by it, 
 and it is but seldom tiiat they escape without great damage. How- 
 ever, it happened not long ago, that a building furnished with 
 many sharp conductors was struck by lightning. Besides these 
 consideration;, a sharp pointei! conductor, by the same properly 
 of attracting electricity more tlian a blunt one, may actually pre- 
 vent a stroke of lightning, to do which a blunt-ended one is abso- 
 lutely incapable. For an edifice of a moderate size, one con- 
 ductor is perhaps sufficient; but, in order to secure a large build- 
 in" from sustaining any <lamage by lightning, there should be two, 
 three, or more, conductors, in proportion to tlie extent of the 
 l)uilding. In ships a chain has often been used for this purpose, 
 which, on account of its pliableness, has been found very conve- 
 nient, and easy to be managed among the rigging of tlie vessel; 
 but as the electricity finds a great obstruction in going through 
 the several links, for which reason chains have been actually bro- 
 ken by the lightning, so tiieir use has now been almost entirely 
 laid aside; and, in their stead, copper-wires a little thicker than a 
 goo^e-quill have been substituted, and found to answer very well. 
 One ot these wires should be elevated two or three feet above the 
 hi 'best mast in the vessel; this should be continued down the 
 mait, as far as the deck, whore, by bending, it should be adapted 
 to the surface of such parts, over which it may most conveniently 
 be pla-ed, and, by continuing it down the side of the vessel, it 
 should be always niivde to communicate with the water of the sea. 
 
 In regard to person-al security, incase a thunder-storra vere to 
 lia|>pen while a person is in a hou.se not furnished with a proper 
 conductor, it is advisable not to stand near places where there is 
 any metal, as chimnies, gilt frames, iron casements, or the like; 
 but to go into the middle of a room, and endeavour to stand or sit 
 upon the best non-conductor that can be found at hand, as an old 
 chair, a stool, &c. It a storm was to happen whilst a person is 
 in th.e open fields, and far from any building, the best thing he can 
 do is to retire within a small distance of the highest tree or trees 
 he can get at ; he must by no means go quite near them, but 
 should stop at about fiiteen or twenty teet from theii outermost 
 branches; for if the lightning sliould fall thereabout, it « ill very 
 probably strike the trees; and in case a tree was to be split, he is 
 ssfe enough at that distance from it.' We shall conclude this sec- 
 tion w ith a short i;xtract troni the earl of Stanhope's learned work, 
 entitled Principles of Electricity, containing the requisites neces- 
 sary for the proper construction of conductors for lightning, in or- 
 der to preserve buildings from its depredations; and which an; 
 quoted with appmbalion by Mr. Cavallo. These requisites are. 
 " I. That the rods he made of such substances as are tlie be->t con- 
 ductors of electricity. '2.7'h;;t the rods be uninterrupted and per- 
 fectly continuous. 3. That they be of a sufficient thickness. 4. 
 That they be perfectly connected with the common stock. 5. 
 That the upper extremity of the rods be as acutelv pointed as pos- 
 sible. 6. 'I'hat it be very finely tapered. 7. That it be promi- 
 nent. 8. That each rod be carried in the shortest convenient di- 
 rection, from the point at its upper end to the commoli stock. 9. 
 That there be neither large nor prominent bodies of metal upon 
 the top of the building proposed to be secured, but such as are 
 connected with the conductor by some proper metallic commiini- 
 catiou. 10. ^I'hat tiiere be a sufficient number of high and point- 
 ed rods: and, 11. That every part of the building be very suh- 
 stantially erected." He also advises that the upper 15 or i:0 
 inches of the rod should be copper, as iron is subject to rust, and 
 rust is a bad conductor. 
 
 Theory of Electricity. 
 
 The mind of man is not satisfied with a simple knowledge 
 of the facts, which an attention to tlie phacnomena of nature 
 presents to his view. He wishes to account for them; to trarp 
 the causes from thcirelTects; and alt houghphilosophersand sages have 
 been repeatedly, and almost constantly, foiled in their endea- 
 vours to discover first causes, yet the same principle still ex- 
 cites the inqnisitive investigator to build theory after theory, and 
 to erect one hypothesis upon the ruins of another. We cannot, 
 therefore, be surprised that the wonderful pha-nomena of elei tri- 
 cily should have excited this active principle of human nature to 
 account for them, upon the first observation of tin m. In fact, 
 this was even attemiited by Thales, who first observed the attrac- 
 tive power of amber. At this property he was so much surprised, 
 that he reckoned the amber to be animated. W'lth regard to the 
 conjectures oi Theophrastus on this -subject, we are entirely in tlie 
 tiark ; but, among the succeeding electricians, all the phenomena 
 were derived from unctuous ellluvia emitted by the excited elec- 
 tric. These were supposed to fasten upon all bodies in their way, 
 and to carry back with them all that were not too heavy. For. al 
 that time, efiluvia of every kind were supposed to return to th. 
 bodies from which they were emitted ; as nobody could otherwi~t 
 account for the substance not being sensibly wasted by the con- 
 slant emission. W lu-ii these light bodies, on which the unctuou' 
 efiluvia had fastened, were arrived at the excited electric, a ft< ^ 
 emission of the efiluvia was supposed to carry them back ag;. 
 But tlii-; effect of the efiluvia was not thought ottill electric repulsunf 
 as well as attraction, had been fully observed. The discoverN -■ 
 a difference between conducting and non-conducting substance.-, 
 threw considerable di'ficulties in the way of those «lio maintained 
 the hypotheses of unctuous efiluvia. W'hen the Newtonian plii- 
 losopiiy began to be pretty generally received, the terms attrac- 
 tion and repulsion were quickly introduced into electricity, as 
 well as other branches of philosophy ; and the electric efiluvia, in- 
 stead of being of an unctuous n..ture, were said to be of an attrac- 
 tive or repulsive one. At the s.-^me time, the apparent stop ^>liif(i 
 is put to the progress of these elTluvia by any electric substaiic-, 
 introduced a (pie^tion not yet well decided, viz. Whether electric 
 bodies arc penetrable by the lluid or not ? When M. Du Fay 
 discovered the two opposite species of electricity, at that time dis- 
 i tinguished
 
 ELECTRICITY. 
 
 259 
 
 tingiiislieil l>_v tlie iiiinifs of vilnoiis and resiiujii-;, and atUrw,ii-ds 
 by thosf of plus and iiiinm, or positive and lie galivf, lie fornird 
 ' the idea of two distiia t electric lluids. Ijotli ot these were supposed 
 to iiave a repulsive power with respect to thenunlves, but an at- 
 tractive one with regard to one another. As long as electrical at- 
 traction and repulsion were the only phivnomeiia to be accounted 
 for, this theory served the purpose well enough. To accoiuit tcr 
 attraction and repulsion by an attractive and repulsive power, was 
 indeed no explication at all ; but it an'orded a change ot terms, 
 whicli is loo tre(|nontly mistaken for an explanation both in elec- 
 tricity and oilier parts of philosophy. At last, however, M. Du 
 Fay dropped his opinion concern inu the existence of two electric 
 fluids, and thought that all the pha^nomena might be accounleil 
 for from the action of a single one. '1 he vitreous or positive elec- 
 tricity, which was supposed to be the stronger, he thought night 
 attract the neg-.itive, or weaker electricity. It is indeed true, that 
 in many experiments, the positive eleclricitv duth manifest a su- 
 periority in strength over Ihe lugative, somelhing like that supe- 
 rior degree of vigour which is observed in ■mv of the poles of a 
 loadstone over the other. According to i\l. Du Kay's o«n prin- 
 ciples, however, had this been the case, a body positividy elec- 
 trified ouglit to have attracted one electrified negatively more 
 weakly tliau one not cleitritied at all; which is contrary to 
 experience. During all this time, it was imagined that tlie 
 electric matter, whether it consisted of one or more lluids, was 
 produced from the electric body by friction ; but Ivy a disco- 
 very of Dr. Watson's, it became tiiiivcrsully believed that the 
 t;lass globes and tube; served onlv to set the fluid in motion, but 
 by no means to produce it. He was led to this discovery by ob- 
 serving, tiiat, u])on rubbing the glass tube, while he was standing 
 upon cakes of wax or rosin (in order, as he expected, to prevent 
 any di^charge of the electric matter upon the lloor), tlie power 
 was, contrary to his expectation, so much lessened, that no suap- 
 pingcovildbeobserved upon another person'stouching any part of his 
 body; but that, if a person not electrihed held his hand near the 
 tube while it was rubbed, the snapping was veiy sensible. The 
 event was the same when the globe was whirled in similar circum- 
 stances. For, if the man who turned the wheel, and wdio, toge- 
 ther with the machine, was suspended upon silk, touched the floor 
 with one foot, the electric fire appeared upon the conductor; but 
 if he kept himself free from any communication with the floor, 
 little orr.o (ire was produced. He observed, that only a spark or two 
 would appear between the hand and the insulated machine, unless 
 heat thes.nnetimeformeda communication between the conductor 
 and the floor ; but that then there w.as a constant and copious flux 
 of the electric matter observed between them. From these, and some 
 other experimentsof a similar kind. Dr. Watson discovered what he 
 calls the complete circulation of the electric matter. When he 
 found, that by cutting off the communication of the glass globe 
 with the floor, all electric operations were stopped, he concluded 
 that the electric fluid was conveyed from the floor to the rubber, 
 and from thence to the globe. For the same reason, seeing the 
 rubber, or the man who had a communication with it, gave no 
 sparks but when the conductor was connected with the floor, he 
 as naturally concluded that the globe was supplied from tiie con- 
 ductor, as he had before concluded that it was supplied from the 
 rubber. From all this he was at last led to form a new theory of 
 electricity, namely, that, in electric operations, there ivas both an af- 
 flux of electric matter to the globe and the conductor, and like- 
 wise an efllux of the same electric matter from them. Some time 
 atler, however, the doctor retracted this opinion concerning the 
 afflux and elllux, and supposed that all the electric pluenomena 
 might be accounted for by the excess or diminution of the quan- 
 tity of electric matter contained in different bodies. This theory 
 was afterwards adopted by Dr. Franklin, and continues to be ge- 
 nerally received. One g'reat diflicultv with which the first elec- 
 tricians were embarrassed (and which is yet scarcely removed), 
 was to ascertain the direction of the fluid. At first, all electric 
 powers were supposed to reside in the excited globe or glass tube. 
 The electric spark, therefore, was imagined to proceed^t'roni the 
 electrified body towards any conductor that was presented to it. 
 It was never imagined that there could be any ditlerence in this 
 respect, whether it was amber, glass, sealing-wax, or any thing 
 flse that was excited. This progress of the electric niat'ter wa^s 
 thought to be (juite evident to the senses ; and, therefore, the ob- 
 
 servation ol electric appearances at an iiisuluted rubl*er c.i rasioned 
 liie greatest a^lonishim iil. In this case the current could not be 
 sup[)osedlo(low both from tiie rubber and the conduttor,and yet the 
 lir>t appearances were the same. To provide a supply of Ihe elec- 
 tric matter, therefore, philosophers were obliged to suppose, that, 
 notw ilhslanding appearances were in both cases much the s;^ijie, 
 the electric tluul v-as really emiited in one case by tiie eiectriiied 
 body, and receive<l by it in the other. Cut now being coligeii to 
 give up Ihe evuhiicc from sigiit for the iiiaiiiKrof its progress, 
 they were at a loss, whether, in the usual method of electrif', ing 
 by excited gl.is-, the fluid jjiocecdcvl from the rubber to the cor.- 
 ductor, or from tiie conducior to the rubber. It was, hovever, 
 soon louiid that tlie electricity at the rubber was the reverse of that 
 at the conductor, and in all respects the s:tme vith that which had 
 before been produced by the friction of staliiig-wax, tuiphur, ro- 
 sin, &.-c. Seeing, thereiore, tiiat both the electricities were pro- 
 duced at the same time, by one and the same electric, aiidby thesaif.e 
 Iriction, all philosophers were naturally led to conclude, that both 
 were modifications of one liuid ; though in what manner that fluid 
 was modihed throughout Ihe immense variety ctf electric pha?no- 
 meiia, was a matter not easily to be determined. On this subject 
 the Abbe Nollet adopted the doctrine of afllux and efflux. He 
 supposed, that, in all electrical operations, the fluid is thrown into 
 two opposite motions ; that the afllux of this matter drives all light 
 bodies before it by impulse upon the electriried body, and itsetfliij; 
 carries them back again. He was, however, verv much embar- 
 rassed in accounting for facts where both these currents must be 
 considered ; as in the ciuick alternate attraction and icpulsinii of 
 light bodies by an excited glass tube, or other excited electric. 
 To obviate this dilflculty, he supposes that every excited electric, 
 anil likewise every body to which electricity is communicated, has 
 two orders of ijores, one for the emission of the eflluvia, and ai;- 
 other tor the reception of them. M. De Tour improved upon 
 Nollet's hypothesis, ami supposed tliat tlu-re was a ihfl'crence be- 
 tween the aflluent and effluent current, and tluit the particles of tl;e 
 fluid are thrown into vibrations of ilifterent (pialities, which makes 
 one of these currents more copious than the other, according as 
 sulphur or glass is used. It is impossible, however, that suppo- 
 sitions so very arbitrary could be at all satisfactory, or received 
 as proper solutions of electric pha'nomena. V'arious other 
 theories were proposed and maintained by dift<.rent philosophers, 
 but the theory invented by Dr. Franklin, and which had been 
 first suggested by Dr. Watson, is generally received, as it is more 
 simple than any other which lias been projtosed, and better ac- 
 counts -for the most remarkable electrical pha-nomena. This 
 theorv may be resolved into_the following axioms : 
 
 1st. The electric matter is one and the same in all bodies, and 
 is not of two distinct kinds. 
 
 2d. All terrestrial bodies contain a quantity of this matter. 
 
 3d. The electric matter violently repels itself, but altiacts all 
 other matter. 
 
 4ih. Gl.iss and other substances, denominated electrics, contain 
 a large portion of this matter, but are not to be jjciietrated bv it. 
 
 5th. Conducting substances are permeable by it, and do not 
 conduct it merely over their surface. 
 
 0th. A body may contain a superlluous quantity of the electri- 
 cal fluid, when it is said, according to this theory, to be in a posi- 
 tive state, or electrihed plus ; and when it contains less than its 
 proper share, it is said to be negative, or electrified minus. 
 
 7tli. By excitingan electric, the equilibrium of the fluid is brok- 
 en, and tlie one body becomes overloaded w ith electricity, while 
 the other is deprived of its natural share. 
 
 Thus, according to the Franklinean theory, that elcctricitv, 
 which was before called vitreous, is now called positive electricity ; 
 and that which was termed the resinous, is now denominated ne- 
 gative electricity. This theory, however, is not witiiout its de- 
 lects, and many electrical appearances remain as yet unexplained. 
 Wc shall here propose another theory more sim|)le even than that 
 of Dr. Franklin, though in some thing; agreeing with it. And we 
 hope to shew the cause of several electrical phanoinena hitherto 
 reckoned amorg the arcana of eleclricity. The theory which we 
 here speak of, may be expressed in the Ave following articles, 
 which may be considered as axioms in eiectricily. 
 
 1. The ph.rnomena of electricity depend on one extremely sub- 
 tile fluid, called the electric fluid. 
 
 2. The
 
 260 
 
 ELECTRIC ITY. 
 
 2. The electric fluid is attracted by all gther bodies, in some 
 inverse ratio of the di>laiice, and there is a repulsion exerted be- 
 tween its own particles, varying also in some inverse ratio of their 
 distance. 
 
 3. All bodies while undisturbed possess a certain ciuantity of the 
 fluid, calletl their natural quantity, which is in proportion to lljen 
 attraction for the fluid. 
 
 4. Electrics liave a stronger attraction for the fluid than non- 
 electrics ; and each particle of an electric is cai)alile ol receiving a 
 small additional quantity of the fluid without cumniunicaling it to 
 the next particle. 
 
 5. Dodies or parts of bodies having a greater proportion of the 
 fluid than the contiguous bodies, the excess being such that tliey are 
 emitting the tluid, or would be emitting it if an uninsulated con- 
 ductor were presented, are said to be electrified positively ; and 
 if they liave a less proportion, so that they are receiving the lluid, 
 or would be receiving it, were a conductor presented, thev are 
 said to be electrified negatively. 
 
 Hvpotliesis is here excluded as far as the sul)ject will admit. 
 That' there is according to the tlrst article a subtile lluid concern- 
 ed is exceedingly evident to the senses, that there is only one tluid can 
 hardly be called an hypothesis since we see always the same effect 
 produced by it under the same circumstances. 'I'he second arti- 
 cle is founded ou the general |)rinciples of attraction, which are 
 well established by pliysical writers ; and since the electric fluid is 
 a material substance, it must be subject to the general laws: and 
 the force of attraction has always been observed to be less at a 
 greater distance. And that the fluid is clastic, or that its particles 
 repel one another, is evident from its rapid motions and ditlusion, 
 and that the repulsion is greatest when the particle-, are nearest to- 
 gether, appears from the increased intensity of its action when 
 compreiseu. The third article is only a corollary from the two 
 foregoing, for since this fluid is sul)tilc and elastic, it will be dif- 
 fused ; and bodies in their natural state and undisturbed, will each 
 detain a quantity in proportion to its attraclvoji for the (kiid. 
 Electrics have been found to contain a greater cpiantity of the 
 liuid than non-electrics, and therefore, according to the tliird arti- 
 cle, they must have a greater attrL.ction for it ; hence the fourth 
 article is true ; or, its truth appears from this, that electrics retain 
 the lluid they receive more powerfully than non-electrics do; and 
 that dili'erent bodies have ditierent attractions for the same body is 
 T'ell known to chemists. That tile electric lluid is attracted and 
 lield by the particles of glass may be thus shewn by experiment. 
 Take a plate of thin glass, apply a loose coating to each side, and 
 charge it in the coinmon way ; remove the coatings, and apply the 
 knobs of the discharger to the opposite sides, the discliarg? wdl be 
 partial; apply them" to other parts, and tliesel will be likewise 
 partially discharged. Tliis shews that the fluid near the parts 
 where the conductor was applied, finding, as above stated, little re- 
 sistance, was carried through the conductor to restore the equili- 
 brium, but that the more distant fluid was retained there bv some 
 force, which we can .attribute to no other cause than that of the 
 attraction of the glass, for had a conductor covered the whole of 
 the charged surface, it would have been convened away at once. 
 The fifth' article stales, by way of definition, what is to be under- 
 Stood according to this theory by positive and negative electri- 
 city ; awd this, we apprehend, conveys a more accura(e and just 
 idea of -these terms, as applied to this science, than the explana- 
 tions hitherto given; for tlie phivnomena of <'!ectri<ity must de- 
 pend more on the state of bodies in refpect of those contiguous to 
 them, than in respect of their own natural quantity of iluiil. It is 
 in this article chiefly tl.at our tlieory diflers from Dr. Franklin's 
 above-mentioned. I'hat this theory will solve every phanonienon 
 which can lie accounted for on Dr. Franklin's theory is very evi- 
 dent, and tlie following prcpositioLS shew its use in solving those 
 which that theory cannot account for. 'I'he positions here laid 
 down are exceedingly consonant to nature, and are contradicted 
 by no phenomena that we are aci|Uainted with, and are therefore 
 easilv admitted ; indeed the grt-ati r part of them are constantly 
 evinced by eiectrical experiments. \Ve shall here notice, in the 
 way of prop^'sitions, the principal phirnomena not well accounted 
 for' by electricians, and apply our theory to the e,splanation of 
 them. 
 
 Prop. I. Electrics do not admit tho passage of the electric fluid 
 through them, or they admit it very slowly, and with difficulty. 
 
 I.e. they are non-conductors; non-electtics give very little resist- 
 ance to the passage of the fluid, i- e. they are conductors. This 
 
 appears from innumerable experiments. The cause of these pliLV- 
 
 iiomena has not as yet been luUy ascertained; however it has been 
 aid to d'^iiend on the attraction oi the electric lor the fluid. 
 
 t ,13 vc 
 
 on the attraction oi the electric lor the fluid. '1 his, 
 we apprehend, is deticient as it onl\ assigns one pail of the cause; 
 the other p;irt is the elasticity of the fluid, and by considering 
 these johilly we may easily shew the reason why some bodies are 
 cr)nductors and others npn-conductors. Thus when a noH-clectric, 
 communicating with the earth, is presentwi to a body emittiii'' 
 the fluid, (ax. 5,)" very little resistance will be given to its passage 
 along tiie non- electric, that is, it will not detain the fluid, because 
 it- attraction to it is weak, (ax. 4,) therefore it will be propelled 
 through it by its elastic force, (ax. 1 and y,) hi nee non-electrics 
 are cenductcrs, and the reason is, their attraction for the flii.d 
 being weak they are not capable of detainuig an additional dos--, 
 without communication to the next particles. Again, let a non- 
 conductor be presented, it likewise recei\e-. a portion of the fluid ; 
 but since the particles presented by their strong allrac tion for tlie 
 lluid, will retain more than their natural quantity witliout commu- 
 nication to the next particles, suppose them to have received :■:, 
 much as they can thus cunt;-,in, and their increased atmosplieres of 
 fluid will by its repul-^ive force cause the fluid ol the next particles 
 to recede somev. h.it to the opposite side, if an additional quantity 
 ol fluid be throvwi on the tir^l particle---, ll-.e next will begin to re- 
 ceive a |)o:lion of it, and on a still tartlier increase the la-xt to 
 these in order will begin to receive, and ro on in successi(,n, till 
 the intensity of the fluid on the first p'irtichs ; and consequently 
 its elasticity at length becomes so increased tiiat it etfectually pre- 
 vents or opposes the further entrance of the fluid ; il the intensity 
 be increased on the body emitting the fluid, it will also be soon in- 
 creased\ proporlionallv on the present'-d electric, whence its pro- 
 gress is prevented, and tliis fully explains the cause of its being a 
 non-conductor. It is evident from tlvs explanation, that the more 
 perfect the electric is, the less will be the di?taiice that the fluid 
 will proceed before it is arrested ; which will also hajipi n from the 
 iess intensity of the insulated conductor. It is evident also from 
 this, and ax. 4, that conductors and non-conductors, as well as 
 non-electrics and electrics, will be more or less perfect according 
 to their attraction for the fluid. For an account of the order, &c. 
 of the conductors an<l non-conductors see above. 
 
 .ScHOLiuibt. It is very probable that conductors and non-con. 
 ductors of heat depend on similar principles. v 
 
 Prop. II. The electric fluid is receised principally, and in 
 greatest abundance, from the earth. For when the electric and 
 rubber are insulated it will exhibit small signs of the electrical ap- 
 pearances ; and when the communicalicn is made by a conductor 
 having small interruptions, by means of electrics, the tluid will bo 
 rendered visible in its passage between the earth and the rubber. 
 'I he cause of this may be thus shewn. Since the earth is a large 
 body containing in itself a very great number of substances, which 
 have an attraction for the fluid, (a\. 2,) it will constilule a great 
 and general reservoir for the fluid, (ax. 3,; and since the earth 
 contains also a great many conductors ; when the rubber emits the 
 fluid the equilibrium will be restored by means of these conduc- 
 tors, (Prop. I.) to the rubber. When the rubber receives ths 
 fluid it will by the same means he conveyed to the general reser- 
 voir ; when the excited bodies are insulate this supply is cut oil", 
 (Prop. I.) 
 
 Prop. HI. A greater or less quantity of the electric fluid may 
 be contained in electrics or insulated conductors than natuislly be- 
 longs to them. Bodies in returning to their naliiral state after ex- , 
 citation are observed in some cases to be receiving the fluid, and 
 in o'her cases to he emitting it. That this should take place ap- 
 pears from ax. 2 and 4, and Prop. I. 
 
 Prop. I\'. AVhen bodies or parts of bodies arc contiguous, and 
 some of them have a surchare,e, or deficiency of the electric fluid ; 
 or if some of them have a surcharge, and otiieis a deflciencv ; or 
 if one of them be in its natural state : and if there be a consldera- ' 
 ble difference in their proportionate quantity of fluid : then of 
 those contiguous bodies that wdiich has the greater quantity of the 
 fluifl in proportion to its natural quantity will communicate a part 
 of it to the other. This is exceeduigly manilest in nuinv experi- 
 ments ; thus, if the air have more than its natural (luaiitit)-, and be 
 contiguous to a body having less than its natural quantity, or more 
 
 tliaii
 
 ELECTRICITY. 
 
 261 
 
 (liaii its natural quantity, but in a less proportion than the conti- 
 "iious air, ami if (lie diU'erenco of llic |)roportioiiate quaiitUii^s bu 
 Hiiru-ioiitly !;rrat, (lie body will reieivL- p^irl ol' the lliiid from tin' 
 air. 'I'lu'rovi-ric of lliis is also true. The pha-nonienoii i< pro- 
 (Iuc<k1 partly by the attraction of tlie contifruou-; body, and pailly 
 by the r'.'pulsive force of the fluid, (ax. 2,) by which it is projjiUcd 
 towards the part where it is least resisted. 
 
 Cor. I'Voni this, according to ax. 5, it follows thai bodies emit- 
 ting the fluid arc electrified positively, and bodies receiviiig it are 
 clectrihed negatively, and vice versa. 
 
 Prot. y. \Vhcn a body b electrified either positively or nega- 
 tively, the bodies which are near it will be electrified with the 
 coutrary electricity, if the bodies be not insulated. This ii a ph.i - 
 iiomenon exhibited in all electrical experiments. The cause has 
 hitherto been reckoned among the desiderata of electricity. No 
 pha'nomenon in electricity seenisi to be more difficult to selve, 
 than tlic question. Why positive electricity induces the negative 
 kind on any body within its sphere of action, and why the nega- 
 tive kind produces the positive in similar circumstances ? Mr. 
 Tytler pronounces it totally insolvable, unless we give up the idea 
 of accumulation and deficiency of the electric fluid in different 
 bodies. On Dr. Franklin's principles no solution hath been at- 
 tempted. Mr. Cavallo places this among the properties of electri- 
 city, for which he duth not pretend to account, but gives us the 
 causes of otiier pha;nonicna. On the theory here proposed this 
 difiicidty entirely vanishes, for since when one body is emitting 
 the fluid another which is near that body must be receiving it, and 
 vice versa, therefore, (ax..'), and I'roj). IN.) when a body is 
 clectrihed the adjacent bodies vill be electrilied with the contrary 
 power, till its quantity of fluid bears a certain proportion to thi:t 
 of the body, by wliich it is clectrihed. Hence, if the body placed 
 near that which is electrilied be a conductor, it will continue in 
 Clie opposite st;;tc. 
 
 Prop. VI. i'wo bodies, at liberty to move in the air, will, wlien 
 clectrihed either positively or negatively, appear to repel each 
 other ; but when one is positive, and the other negative, they appear 
 to attract each other. This is will known to electricians, but the 
 cause of the repulsion of two bodies negatively electrified has not 
 been well explained. We hope the following will be satisfactory : 
 Let two bodies, as two cork balls, be suspended in the air, and I, 
 let them be electrified positively : tlun since Ihcy are enduing the 
 lUiid tliere will be a re-action of the air against the fluid which is 
 ■leaving the bodies, and the air will be driven outward and react 
 against the balls. It is evident that this re-action will be greatest 
 between the balls, tor since it proceeds from the two adjacent sur- 
 faces the air will be impelled or driven outward from both surfaces, 
 and consecjuenlly will re-act with a greater force, ;uiil thus the 
 balls will be repelled. 2. I.ct the two balls be tlectrifieil nega- 
 tively, tiien the motion of the fluid towards the balls bv its action 
 on the air will cause a pressure ai tlie surfaces of the iiall* on ;dl 
 sides towards the centre, that is, the fluid moving towards the balU 
 V, ill cause some degree of motion in th'' air towards them ; and 
 -mcc this motion is towards both the adjacent surfaces, the force 
 V. ill be increased on each, while the opposite sides remain unal- 
 i''ied, and thus they will be repelled or driven asunder. And here 
 ■'- may be observed, that the repulsion in positive electricity is 
 . ..used by the reaction of the air, which is driven outward, or from 
 1 I'.- balls: but in negative electricity it is occasioned bv the action ' 
 i.l the air, which is ariven inward, or towards the balls. Also other 
 ii.ings being the same, the (fleet will be greater in positive tlec- 
 \ ;icity than in the negative, for that is caused by an excess of fluid, 
 and this by a deficiency of the fluid. 3. Let one of the bodies be 
 • ■lectrihed positively, and the other negatively ; then, at the ::J. 
 iaeent surfaces, the fluid which is given out from one supplies the 
 deficiency of the other, and thus no motion of the air between 
 them is produced either inward or outward ; but the forces re- 
 main on the two opposite sides, and tliercfcre the balls will be 
 driven together, that is, they will apparently attract each other,with 
 considerable force. 
 
 Prop. VII. If an insulated conductor free from points be put 
 witiiin a certain distance of an electrified body, the end presented 
 *, ill be electrified with the contrary power, and the more distant end 
 with the same power. This appearance is observed by all elec- 
 tricians, but no good reason has been assigned for it. We ofler 
 the following on the principles above hid down. Let the body, 
 
 VOL. Jl. — no. ''i. 
 
 to which the insidated conductor is presented, be electrified posi- 
 tively, then the contiguotis air is receiving the fluid, and since tliff 
 air is an electric tlie almo-plicres of fluid on the particles of th.e air 
 will extend on the more distant sides of the jiarticles, as cx|)lained 
 in Propositions 1 and (i, and in like manner will the end of the pre- 
 sented conductor be influenced, but because of its weak attraction 
 for the fluid, its ])aiticle.s cannot retain the atmosphere on their 
 niore distant sides, and thus it is conducted to the further end wdicrc 
 it alfects the panic les of the contiguous air by its endeavour to es- 
 cape ; and thus the nearer end is negatiye and the other positive. 
 The effect is contrary if the body, to which it is presented, be ne- 
 gative. This also accounts for ihe clifects of the elect ropiiorus. 
 
 Prop. A'ill. If one side of the Leyden piiial. or of a thin plate of 
 coated glass, be presented to a conductor electrilied ))Ositivelv, and 
 if the other side communicate by cond.ictors with the earlii, the 
 glass will bc"conie strongly charged, z\.A if the two coatings be then 
 connected by a conductor an explosion will take place. This 
 curious ph:enomenon may be thus explained. Because the coat- 
 ing is a conductor, as it receives the fluid, it disperses it over the 
 coated surface, and the particles of glass at this coating obtain an 
 additional dose of the fluid by which the atmospheres of fluid oh 
 llie next particles stand mere to the (>ther side, and tlius, if the 
 fluid on the |)ositive cenductor be sufficientlv intense, and the glass 
 very thin, the particles at the odier coating will be allccted,~'and 
 since this coating is a conductor and communicates with the eartli, 
 Ihe atmosphere propelled to this side will be carrii'd off, and thus 
 the pressure or resistance is partly removed from the side which is 
 receiving the fluid ; so that it w ill receive still more, and also more 
 will be carried :iway from the side connected with the earth, and 
 tlie operation being continued, the maximum of dilference will 
 be at length attained, and the glass is charged. Now if the tv.o 
 coalings be connected by a conducting substance the fluid will hj 
 means of its elasticity jiass from the positive side to the negative, 
 since there is nothing on either side, or in the discharger. To pre- 
 vent the cquiiibrium from taking place. It is evident from the 
 above principles and propositions tiiat the maximum of dilference, 
 or greatest charge, willdepend on the goodness of the electric ])lale, 
 on its tliickness, and on the intensity of the electrified body bv 
 which it is charged ; thus,). If a worse electric plate be used, other 
 things being the same, the charge will be less, for tlie particles 
 which receive the fluid will not retain so great a qtiantily before 
 lliey comnninicate a portion to ti:e next in order. 2. If the thickness 
 of the electric plate be increased other things remainina: the same 
 the charge will be less, for the fluid on the "side which, receives it 
 will not so much displace the atmospheres of fluid on the other 
 side according to what was explained in Prop. I. 3. If the inten- 
 sity of the electrified cenductor be less, other things being tj-e 
 same, the charge will be less, for the intensity of Ihe sirle of Ihe 
 plate which receives the fluid will sooner eqiial it, and therefore 
 the fluid on the other side will he less affected, and hence the 
 charge will be less. These consequences of tlie above principles 
 arc found to agree with ])lia'noniena. And here we mav observe 
 that an insulated plate is i.'i the case of a very thick electric, and 
 therefore will not recxdve a charge. 
 
 Prop. IX. If the condtictor, to which the coated plate as in the 
 last proposition is presented, be negative, the plate will receive a 
 charge. For a portion of fluid being taken away from the side 
 presented, the pressure is taken from the next particles, aivj the 
 fluid will lie towards that deficient side: now since the at- 
 mospheres of the particles at the coating connected whh the eartli 
 are removed from that coating to the other side of the particles, 
 these particles will receive an additional quantity from the earth, 
 and the operation being continued, a maximum of dilTercnce will 
 take jilace, and the glass w ill be charged. Note, a little reflection 
 will sliew that Ihe whole (piantity of lluid on the glass is less than 
 in the case last mentioned, since this is by an abstraction, and that 
 by a redundancy of fluid. 
 
 Prop. X. While an electric plate is charging positively, both 
 sides will be in a positive stale ; but after It i.s charged, the side 
 which is presented is positive, and the other negative. For the 
 side which is presented receives the fluid at one part, and this fluid 
 being dispersed over the coated surface, it will from its redundaiK y 
 of fluid begin and continue to discharge it to Ihe surrounding air, 
 and is therefore positive. Also the other side by the pressure of 
 the fluid on it, as above explained, ^arts with iome of its natural 
 
 3 ^ * ^uaiitiifj
 
 262 
 
 ELECTRICITY. 
 
 tjuaiUity, aiifi thus it is positive ; but ufter the diarp;i' the litst side 
 continuing to give out tlie tUrul, because of ils rcd>ind;UK-y, is slill 
 positive, but as this is given out, the pri-ssure is taken tVom Uie 
 a,, utherside^ and hence ils deficiency begins to be supplied, or it 
 begins to receive tlie lluit!, or is negative. 
 
 Vrop. X.f. While ail electric plate is charging from a negative 
 conductor, both sides are negative, but after the charge the side 
 which was presented is negative and the other j)Oiitive. For the 
 fluid is taken from one part of the side presented, and hence there 
 13 a deficiency a; far as the coating extends, and hence it begins to 
 receive, or is ncL^ative, and the pressure being taken from the op- 
 posite side it willalso receive or lie negative ; and after the charge 
 the side which liad been presented will continue to receive, or 
 wili still be negative, and hence the pressure will return to the other 
 side wl'.lch wiii begin to give out what it had received, that is, it 
 will be positive, however i'r. a weak charge the positive electricity is 
 scarcely perceptible, because in this case it had received very lit- 
 tle during the charge. 
 
 Prjp. XI [. When a pointed body is strongly electriiied posi- 
 tively the electric lluid is rendered visible in a diverging stream 
 from the eiectriliod i>oint, when negatively electrified the ap- 
 pearance is that of a small star. The electric fluid, when sufficiently 
 dense and in rapid motion through the air, exhibits the electric light, 
 and the air can oppose little resistance to a point.; hen;e the Ihiid 
 will move with rapidity from the positively electrit^,ed point, and 
 from its' elasticity will tend to diverge, it is immediately followed 
 by other fluid from the point, which forces it in ramitiValions 
 through the air and renders the streams visible to some distance. 
 The c1ise is different ai the negative point, for since the fluid is enter- 
 ing from the air the lluid is 'not im|ielled by that whicl^follows, 
 and hence will become visible only near the point, and at an ec|nal 
 distance from all parts, which will give the appearance of the small 
 star. We have thought proper to explain the above phvnomena 
 to elucidate, and sh.ew the utility of our theory, but our limits will 
 not permit us to proceed thus to expatiate upon the very numerous 
 electrical appearances which have been observed, we shall there- 
 fore notice the jn-incipal of them, and leave the explanation for the 
 most part to the ingenuity of the reader. 
 
 PRACTICE OF ELECTRICITY. 
 Of the Electrical Apparatus iS General. 
 The practical part of electricitv naturally divides itself into two 
 branches, viz. the apparatus eniproyed, and the experiments made 
 vith it ; but the use and application of the former being best illus- 
 trated by the latter, we thought it improper to separate them. .Mr. 
 Cavatlo subdivides the fornier into three classes, viz. _ 1. The in- 
 struments necessary to produce electricity : 'i. Those pro- 
 per to accumulate, retain, and employ it: and 3. Those necessary 
 to mea^ul•e its quantity, and ascertain ils quality. The instruments 
 principally used to produce electricity are called by way of em- 
 phasis. Electrical Machines. They are made in so many different 
 forms^ that it would be tedious and dilikult to give only a very 
 short description of them all. We shall therefore first lay down 
 the most necessary rules for constructing electrical machaics in 
 general ; and then give a particular description of those which are 
 most generally useful, and contain the latest improvements. The 
 principal parts of the electrical maciiine are the electric, the mov- 
 111'' engine, the rubber, and (he prime conductor, i. f. an insu- 
 lat'ed conductor, which immediately receives the electricity from 
 the excited eleitric. Electrics were formerly used of (lilfercnt sub- 
 stances, as glas", rosin, sulphur, staling-wax, &c. Their forms 
 were also various, as globes, cylinders, spheroids, &c. 'J'he rea- 
 son of this variety was, 1st, that it was not then ascertained what 
 substance acted most powerfully ; and 'idly to i)roduce a positive 
 "or negative electricity at pleasure. At present, globes, cylinders, 
 and plates of smooth glass, are chiefly used ; for when the machine 
 has an insulated rubber, the operator may produce positive or ne- 
 gative electricity at his pleasure, without changing the electric ; 
 ■which (vlearly proves the falsity of those systems of electricity, 
 which are founded upon the supposition of a specific diiference 
 between vitreous and resinous electricity, as arising from the na- 
 ture of the different substances producing them. The best ce- 
 inent for electrical purposes is made with two parts of rosin, two 
 «f bees-wax, and one of the powder of red ochre. These ingre- 
 
 dients are melted, and mixed together in any vessel ovei- the fire ; 
 and afterwards kept for use. This kind of cement sticks very fast, 
 and is niuch preferable to rosin only, as it is not so brittle, and ; t 
 the same time insulates e<|ually well. The cylinders are made 
 with two necks: they are used "to the greatest advantage with. >;it 
 any axis; and their common size is from four inches diameter ;'nd 
 eight inches long, to twelves inches diameter and two feet long. 
 Very large cylinders should he strengthened by a glass axis, viz. a 
 solid stick of glass from the one cap to tlie other. The glass ge- 
 nerally used is the best flint ; though it is not absolutely deterniiii- 
 edwhicli kind of metal is the best for electrical machines. 'VUe 
 thickness of the glass seem'i immaterial, but perhaps the thinnest is 
 preferable, it has often happened that glass globes and cylinder,-, 
 in whirling, have'b-urst in pieies with great violence, and will; no 
 small danger to the by-?laiiders. Those accidents, are supposed 
 to happen when the globes or cylinders, after being blown, :nc 
 suddenly cooled. The workmen should therefore be enjoined to 
 let thein pass gradually from the heat of the glass-house, to tlitj 
 lemperature of the atmosphere. Electricians are not agreed, whe- 
 ther a lining of some electric substance, as rosin, turpentine, &r. 
 on tlie inside surface of the glass, has any ell'ect to increase il, 
 electrical power; hut it seems pretty well determined, that if it do 
 not increase the power of a glass globe, or cylinder, at least it ct ii- 
 siderably improves a bad one. The most improved composition 
 for this purpose is ma,de with four parts of ^ euice turpentine, one 
 part of rosin, and one part of bees wax. This composition niust 
 be boiled for about two hours over a gentle fire, and stirred vciv 
 often : afterwards it is left to cool, and reserved for use. Whi'ii a 
 globe or cylinder is to be lined with this mixture, a sufficient 
 quantity of it is to be broken into small pieces, and introduced mlo 
 glass ; then, bv holding the glass near the fire, the mixture is 
 melted, and etiually spread over all its internal surface to abuyt 
 the thickness of a sixpence. In this operation, care must be taken 
 that the glass be made hot gradually, and be coiitiiiually turned 
 so that it luay be heated equally in all parts, othi-rrwise it is apt *o 
 break in the operation. As to the eaame wli.ch is to give motion 
 to the electric, multiplying wheels have been generally ucd, 
 which, properly adajited, might give the electric a (piick motion, 
 while they are convenieiidy turned by a winch. However some 
 turn the machine simply with a winch, without any accelei-ated 
 motion; and this method, on acctiunt of its simplicity and easy 
 con>truction, may in most cas« be preferred. 
 
 'Ihc Rubber, as it is now made, (-ays Mr. Cavallo,) is nothirkg 
 more than a silk cu^hion stulfed with hair; and over this is put a 
 piece of leather, on which some amalgam has been rubbed, so as 
 to stick as fast as possible to the leather. Sometime ago it was 
 generally used, and it is now customary also, to make the rubber 
 of red Basil skin stuffed with hair ; but the silk one, as above de- 
 scribed (which is an improvement of Dr. Nootii's) is much pre- 
 ferable. If this silk cushion, on account of adapting it to the su:- 
 tace of the glass, is to be fixed upon a metal plate, then care sliouU 
 be taken to make the plate free from sha^-p points, edges, or cor- 
 nei's, and it should be as much as possible concealed, or covered 
 with silk. In short to construct the rubber properly, it must be 
 niatle in such a manner, that the side ot it, which the surface of the 
 glass enters in whirling, may be as perfect a conductor as it can he 
 m.ide, in order to supply electricity as quick as possible; and the 
 opposite part should be as much a non-conductor as possible, that 
 none of the fluid may return back to the rubber; which has been 
 found to be the case, when the riibi.-er is not made in a proper 
 manner; for which reason a piece of silk is also added to the es.- 
 Iremitv of the leather. Mr. Nairne's rubber consists of silk only 
 put over the leather cushion, and very little amalgam is used with 
 it." The following is still more simi-ile; let a pie; e of wood be 
 fitted to the surface intended to be subjected to friction, and cover- 
 ed first with two or three thicknesses of elastic cloth, then with 
 smooth leather, and lastly with a flap of silk, pasted upon the edge 
 at which the glass in its rotation arrives, and let it pass loose over 
 the face of the cushion, and thence upon the surface of the glass, 
 as far as the commeuceuient of the prime conductor. To the line 
 of coii'act of the rubber and electric, a little amalgam ought to 
 be applied, since it renders the excitation uiucb more active. 
 Any metal dissolved in quicksilver, will do for an amalgam, 
 but the one that has been generally used is made wiin two parts of 
 quicksilver, and oue of tiu-foil, with a small quantity of powdered 
 
 1 rluilk
 
 ELFXTRICITY. 
 
 263 
 
 ekilk mixed togelhcr in a mass lilte pa>.te. The best kind of 
 amalgam is that of Dr. (ligi;iiis, composed of zinc and <niick- 
 silver; if a littlo of tlie lull tr bf added to melted /ir.c, it n'lidcrs 
 it ca<-ily palveial)le, and more quicksilver must be acKied to llie 
 powder, if we want to make a viry soft amalgam. It is apt to 
 crystallize by keet)ing, whicli seems in some measure to be ])re- 
 ■vented b\ triturating it with a small proportion of grease: and it is 
 alwavs ot' advantage lo tritmate it befoie u-iing. The proportion 
 preserib-d by Dr. Iliggins, is one part of ^;nc to four or live parts 
 of mercuiy. Auvum mosaicum, or mosaic gold, will answer near- 
 ly as well, though it is not quite so cleanly. The rubber should 
 be su|)portod by a spring; by which it will easily suit any ine- 
 qualities that may be on the surface of the glass; and by a screw, 
 it may be made to pros more or less as occ;ision reciuires. It 
 should also be insulated in the most perfect manner; as, when in- 
 sulation is not required, it may he easily taken oft' by a chain or 
 wire luing upon it. and thus connnunicate vv.ilh the earth or any un- 
 electrilied body ; but where there is i^o contrivance for insulating 
 the rubber, il is impossible to perform many of the most curious 
 electric, expeiiments. 
 
 The Prsme Conductor, is an insulated conducting snbstance, 
 fiirni-^iud with one or more points at one end, to collect the elec- 
 tricil) immediately from the electric. When it is wanted of a 
 moderate size, il is usual to make it of h(?llow brass ; but when it 
 is intended to be very large, ll.en, on account of the price of the 
 materials, it is made ot pa-teboard covered with tin-foil or gilt 
 paper. It is generally cyhndrical, and should always be made 
 perfectly tree from pomts or sharp edges: and if holes are to be 
 made in It, which on many accounts are very convenient, they 
 should be well rounded, ano made perfectly smooth. That end 
 of it which is at the Greatest dl^tance from ihe electric ought to be 
 made larger than the rest, as the strongest e.\ertion of the electric 
 fluid lo escape from the conductor is always at that end. 'I'lie 
 larger the prime conductor is, the longer and denser a spark can be 
 <lrawn from it, the quantity r,f electricity discharged in a 'park, 
 being nearly proportional to the size of the coni.iiclnr. On this 
 account, the prime conductor is now made much larger than for- 
 merly. Its size, however, may be so large, that the dissipation of 
 the electricity from its surface, may he greater Ihan the electric 
 can supply; in which case, the inneaseof size would cidy render 
 it an unwieldy and unnecessary incuud'rance. I?esi('es the above 
 meatioue<l parts, it is necessary to have a strong frame to sup|!ort 
 the electric, the rul.ber, and the wheel. '1 he prime conduitur 
 should be supported by pillars of glass or baked wood, and not by 
 silk strings, which admit of continual motion. In sh; rt, the ma- 
 chine, the prime conductor, and any other apparatus actually usid, 
 should be made to stand as steady as possible, otherwise muny in- 
 conveniences will arise. Every electrician should be provided 
 vith glass tubes of different sizes, a pretty lar^-e stick of sealing- 
 wax, or a glass tube covered with sealing-wax, for the negative 
 electricity. Heshould, at least, not be without a glass tube about 
 three feet long, and one and a half inch in diameter. This tube 
 shouUl be closed at one end, and at the other end should have 
 fi\ed a brass cap with a stop-cock ; which is useful in case it should 
 be re<piired to conden;e or raretv llie air within the tube. The 
 best rubber for a tube of smooth glass is the rough side of black 
 oiled silk, es|iecially when it has some amalgam rubbed upon it ; 
 but the best rubber for a rough glass tube, a "stick of baked wood, 
 sealin -wax, or sulphur, is soft ne.v flannel. I'he most proper 
 instruments for what is called the accumulation of electricity are 
 coated electrics; among which, glass coated with conductors ob- 
 tains the principal place : on account of its strength, it may be form- 
 ed into any sliape, and it will receive a very great charge. The 
 form of the glass is immaterial with lepect to the charge it will 
 contain; its liiickness only is to be considered : for the thinner it 
 is, the more ea-ily will it receive the utmost charge it can bear ; 
 but it is at the same time more subject to be broken. For this 
 reason, a thin coated jar or plate may be used very well by itself, 
 and it is very convenient for many e.vperimenls ; 'but when large 
 batteries are to be constructed, it is necessary to use glass a little 
 thicker, and care should be taken to have them perfectly well an- 
 nealed. The most useful jars are thin cdindrical glass vessels, 
 about four inches in diameter, and fourteen in height, coated 
 witiiin and without with tin frdl, which is stuck on with gum-water, 
 paste, or wax, excepting two inches of the rim or edge, which is 
 left bare, to prevent the communication between the coatings, A- 
 
 bout four inches from the btttom, within, is a large cork, that re- 
 ceives a thick wire, ending in several ramifications, which touch tWB 
 inside coating ; the upper end of th.e wire termiraling w ith a knob, 
 coiisiditably above tiie mouth of the jar, Plate LX 1 11, iig, 3. When 
 it is required to be cli;.rged, it may be held in the hand, or placed 
 <Mi an uninsulated table, and the knob of Ihe wire applied lO the 
 conductor ; the inside coated surface becomes possessed of the elec- 
 tricity of the conductor, and the external surface acquires the 
 contrary electricity, by means of its un'nsulated coating. When a 
 jar of tliis kind is highly charged, it will discharge spuntaneously 
 over the uncoated surhice, and seldom through the glass, whereas, 
 when the uncoated surface is large, il is more apt to break by that 
 means, and become useless. Yet, there is no certainty ihai ajar, 
 which has discharged itself ever its surface, will not atano'lur 
 time break by a discharge through the gla-.s, as the contrary oiten 
 happens. Ii paj)er covered with tin-foil be used for the coating, 
 with the paper next the glass, the jar will be less lialde to break. 
 Ajar of considerable thickness, w ith a neck like a bottle, in which 
 is cemented a thick lube to receive the wire, will sustain a very 
 high charge, and produce much greater elVects than one of the 
 last descrjpiion. 'riie charging wire being inserted loosely into 
 the tube, will fall out on inverting the jar, and the charge will re- 
 main for several weeks without much loss. A jar thus charged, 
 may be put into the pocket, and applied to many i)i;rposes lliat the 
 common jar cannot be used for. If the inside of thejar be con- 
 siderably damped, by blowing into il, through a tube reaching to 
 the bottom, it will lake a charge nearly one-third greater than in 
 the ordinary state. 
 
 If a Battery be required of no very great power, as contain- 
 ing about eight or nine s<piare feel of coated glass, common pint 
 or half-pint phials may be used. They may be easily coaled with 
 tin-foil, ;heet lead, or gilt paper, on the outside, and brass filings 
 on the inside: they occupy a small space, and, on account of their 
 thinness, hold a very goo'd chcrge. But when a large battery is 
 required, these phials cannot be used, for they bieak very easily ; 
 and for that purpo-e, cyl.nchical gla's jars of about Ij inches high, 
 and lour or live inches in dianuter, are the most convenient, bee 
 PlaieLXlII. tig.-l. In coating glassplatesor jars.which have asutii- 
 cienily large op^i^ning, the hestV.ethod is to coat them with tin-foil 
 on both sides, which n;ay be hxed U|,' on the glass with varnish, gum 
 water, bees wax, book-binder's paste, \c. but if the jars have 
 not an aperture large enough to admit the tin-foil, and an instru- 
 ment to adi!pt it to the surface of the glass, then brass filings nK,y 
 be adviintageously used. '1 hese may be stuck on with gum water, 
 bees wax, &c. but not wilh varnish,' for th.is is apt to be set on fire 
 by the discharge. Care must he taken that the coatings do not 
 come very near the mouth of thejar, tor that w ill cause the jar to 
 discharge its! If. If the coating be about two inches beUnv the top. 
 It will in general do verv well: but there are some kinds of glass, 
 especially tin.ged glass, that when coated and charged, have the 
 property' of discharging themselves more easily than others, even 
 when the coating is live or six inches below the edge. When a jar 
 discharges itself, Ihe electric fluid runs from tlie inside to the cut- 
 side coating ovfr the surface of the glass where it leaves an inde- 
 lible mark all along its path, generally of a zig-zag form. There is 
 another sort of glass, like that of which Florence flasks are made, 
 which, on account of some unvitritied particles in its substance, is 
 not capable of holding the least charge. On these accounts, there- 
 fore, when a great number of jars are to be chosen for a large bat- 
 tery, it is adviseable to try some of them first, so that their quality 
 and pow er may be ascertained. Many attempts have been made 
 by electricians to find some other electric, which might answer 
 belter than glass for this purpose, at least in point of cheapness ; 
 'i)ut, except Father Beccaria's m.'thod, which may be used vci-y 
 well, no remarkable discovery has been iwule relating to this point. 
 lie took equal cpianlities of very pure ^ ou)phonium, and powder 
 of marble, silted exceedingly fine, and kepi them in a hot place a 
 considerable time, where they became perfectly free from moisture: 
 he then mixed them, and milted the composiiion in a proper vessel 
 over the fire;. and, when melted, poured it upon a table, upon 
 which he had previously stuck a piece of tin-foil, reaching within 
 two or three inches of the edge of the table. He then, with a hot 
 iron spread the mixture all over the table as etiua'ly as possible, to 
 the thickness of cne-tenth of an inch: he aftei wards coaled it villi 
 another piece of lin-foil reaching within about Iwo incl.cs of the 
 edge of the mixture : in short, he coated a plate of this nii.xture 
 
 I'.kc
 
 264 
 
 ELECTRICITY. 
 
 like a pLite of glaw. Thh coatpd plale seems to have liad a great- 
 er |)0\vei- tliaii a glass plale of the same dimensions, tvoii when th^- 
 weather was not very dry: and it' it is not subject to break very 
 easily by a spontaneous dis'charge, it may be very conveniently used ; 
 for it doth not very readily attract nioi-ture, and consequently may 
 lioldachargeofelectricitv belter and longer, than glass : besides, if 
 broken, itniav be repaired by a hot iron;which is not lhecasewithgla=s. 
 For discharging a iar, battery, or any coaled electric without re- 
 ceiving the shoc-k, two instruments have been contrived, one call- 
 ed the common Discharging Rod, (Plate LXIII. fig. 5,) whicii 
 is nothing more than a semi-circular brass wire, furnished with two 
 brass balls, one at the end of each wire. The other, which is ot 
 very extensive use in electrical experiments, is called tlie Jointed 
 Discharging Kod, (fig. 6.) It is furnished with a glass handle : 
 the legs are moveable, and may be set to any distance that may be 
 convenient. When the electrician is to use this instrument, he 
 holds it by the handle ; and touching one of the coated sides of the 
 cliarged electric with one knob, and approarhing the other knob 
 to the other coated side, or some conducling substance communi- 
 cating v;ith it, he completes the communication between the two 
 sides, and thus discharges the electric. Henley's universal dis- 
 charger consists of two wires, suijported by glass feet, with a small 
 table between them to support any thing that may be the obicct of 
 the experiment. It is found to be a very useful instrument for a 
 varictv of purposes, and is composed of the following parts : A 
 (lig. 7,) is a llat board, about fitteen inches long, four broad, and 
 one thick. BB are two glass pillars, cemented in tw^o holes upon 
 the board A, and furnished at top with brass caps, each of which 
 has a turning joint, and su])ports a spring tube, through which the 
 vires DD slide. Each of the caps is composed of three pieces of 
 brass, connected so that the wires DD, besides their sliding 
 through the sockets, have a horizontal and vertical motion. Each 
 of the wires DD is furnished with an open ring at one end, and at 
 the other it has a brass ball, which, by a short spring socket, is 
 slipt upon the pointed exlremity, and may be removed. E is a 
 circular piece of wood, having on its surface a sii[) of ivory inlaid, 
 and furnished with a foot, which is fastened in the middle of the 
 bottom A. The instruments for measuring the quantity, and 
 ascerlaining the quality, of electricity, are called Electrometers. 
 The simplest of all is a pair of little balls of cork, or rather of the 
 pith of the elder, which is still lighter, and suspended by silk and 
 sometimes by linen threads. When brought into contact with an 
 electriiied body, the balls will immediately diverge, and accord- 
 ing to the degree of divergence, a judgement is formed of the de- 
 gree in \Thich the body in ([uestion is electrified. A similar effect 
 will be produced by a light and downy feather. The pilli-balls 
 have received the name of Canton's electrometer, from the inge- 
 nious electrician who first employed them for this purpose, and 
 they are founrl useful in many experiments. See fig. 28. For a 
 more accurate admeasuremeni, Henley's quadrant electrometer is 
 in most general use. It consists of a perpendicular stem formed 
 ■M top like a ball, and furnished at its lower end with a brass ferule 
 and pin, bv which it may be lixed in a hole made in the conduc- 
 tor, or at the top of a Ley<len bottle. To the upper part of the 
 Mem, a graduated ivory semicircle is fixed, about the middle of which 
 is a brass arm or cock, to ^upport the axis of the index. The index 
 is a very slender stick, which reaches from the centre of the gra- 
 duated arch to the brass ferule ; and to its lower extremity is fas- 
 tened a small pith-ball nicely turned in a lathe. When lliis elec- 
 trometer is in a perpendicular position, and not electriliexl, the in- 
 dex hangs parallel to the pillar ; but « hen it is electrified, the index 
 recedes more or less, acconling to the quantity of electricity. See 
 fig. S. Lane's discharging electrometer is employed chieily bv the 
 practitioners of medical eieclricity. It is represented by FDlC, in 
 lig. U, and is lixed to the wire thai proceeds from the inside of the 
 jar Z. The ball 15 touches the prime conductor A, which is sup- 
 posed to stand liefore an electrical machine. The electrometer 
 consists in a glass rod l-'D, furnished with brass caps F, D : from 
 the latter proceeds a strong brass wire, to which is attached an ho- 
 rizontal spring-socket: through this, tlie wire CE, having tiie ball 
 C at one end, and the open ring E at the other, may be slided 
 backwards and forwards, so as to jjlace the ball C at any re- 
 qidred distance fiom the ball B. Suppose the distance be- 
 tween 15 and C to be one-eighth of an inch or less, and 
 lijat by means of a chain X, a comniunicatiou be formed from £ 
 
 to the outside coating of the jar. When the jar is charged sa hi-di 
 that the iluid can leap from B to C, the discharge will take place, 
 and the stroke pass through X from the inside to the outside of th.' 
 jar. When the shocks are to be given through any part of the 
 body, as the arm, then, instead of tlie chain X," wires" EL and i!, 
 are to be fastened, one to the ring E, and the other to a hook at 1 
 of tin; stand HI which conmiunicates with the outside of tlvejnr. 
 The other extremities of the wire uiust be fastened to the director* 
 K, L, which consist of brass wires and balls as L fastened into 
 glass handles as shewn at K. The mode of operation is easily 
 ujulerslood from a view of the figure, for when the chain X I's 
 away, the electric flui<l must, in passing from the inside of the jjr 
 to the outside, go through the wire EL ; the brass of the ilirector ; 
 the part of the arm between the balls of the directors ; and Ihrounli 
 the wire Lf. By moving C nearer to, or farlher from B, the 
 strength of the shocks will be regulated to any degree. If a plate 
 of glass be laid upon an uninsulated plate of metal, the upper sur- 
 f.ice may be rendered electric by friction, or by applyint' an elec- 
 trified body successively to its parts. Part of this electricity may 
 be taken olf by touching the upper surface w ilh an uniiisulatetl 
 n-.etallic plate of the same dimensions as that upon which the glass 
 is placol. After this, if a plate of metal, lo uhich a gkiss handle 
 isaflixed, be laid upon the glass, this small tpianlifv of electricity 
 will inlluence the metal, and, without actually communicating the 
 electric matter, will cause it to exhibit a similar state. If this be 
 taken ofl", by drawing the spark, and the metal then removed, by 
 means of the glass handle, it will be found posse-sed of the con- 
 trary slate of electricity, and another spark may be obtained. I'he 
 metallic plate may be then again applied to the surface of the 
 glast;, and the process again repeated, and so on for a great number 
 of times, without any sensible diflerence in the event. For the 
 electricity at the surface of the glass being almost in the natural 
 state, as to condensation, does not disappear for a verv long time, 
 and on the very near approach of the uielal it causes the liuid in the 
 metal lo recede to one side, and thus makes it capable of givin"- or 
 receiving the spark according as the glass is positive or negative ; 
 and hence when it is removed, it is electrified wilhout having af- 
 fected the excited electric. It corisists of two plates, (tig.lO,) 
 made of a circular form, from eight to eighteen inches in diameter, 
 or upwards. Tlie upper plate is generallv made of brass; but a 
 tin plate, with a wire turned in upon its edge, will answer exceed- ' 
 ingly well. At the centre of this plate a glass handle nine or ten 
 inches long is fixed. A thin board, covered with tin-foil, and 
 suspended by silken strijig?, will answer well, when the electro- 
 phorus is wanted of a large diameter. The under plate may be 
 made of glass, sealing-wax, or the following composition, viz. four 
 parts rosin, three parts pitch, three parts shell-lac, two parts Ve- 
 nice turpentine, melted together over a gentle fire. It nrav be 
 poured and spread upon a thin linen cloth, to about one-fourth of 
 an inch thick. The linen cloth must be stretched upon a hoop, 
 and made as tight as possible. If the surface is a little rough, it 
 will be no worse. The manner of using this machine is as fol- 
 lows : Rub the coated side of the under plate with fine new flan- 
 nel, or a hare's or cat's skin ; and when it is excited as much as 
 possible, set it on a table, and place the upper plate upon it, and 
 put your finger on the upper plate; then remove ywir linger, and 
 take hold of the (op of the glass lian<lle, and ai)ply it to the knob 
 of a Coated jar. Repeat this operation for 30 or 40 times, and the 
 jar will become charged. Cavallo mentions one of the above 
 kind made by him, wilh which he charged a coated phial several 
 times, by once exciting, so strong as to pierce a hole through a 
 card at every discharge. In fig. 1 , Plate LXIli. A represents tlie 
 glass cylinder of a machine, turned by P, the handle. Its surface 
 rubs against C, the cushion, from which proceeds D, the silk flap, 
 and the electricity is conveyed to E, the prime conductor. The 
 supports of the cylinder, the cushion, and (indisj)ensablv) of the 
 prime conductor, are niadi' of class or baked wood, in order that 
 llif electricity may not be conveyed to the earth, unless when the 
 operator chooses to make the coinnuinication bv some Ctinducting 
 bodv. A prime conductor is somctimts applied to the rubber. 
 Fig. 2 shews the plale machine, with Nicholson's cylinder im- 
 provements for changing the two states at pleasure, as adapted by 
 Dr. Van Marum, of Hacrlem. The glass jilate GG, is fastened 
 to the axis BB, by means of a screw on the axis passing through 
 a hole in the centre of the plate, and secured bv a nut C, on the 
 
 opposite
 
 KLECTRTCTTY. 
 
 2f)r» 
 
 oppoiile >iilo. I lie axis is sii|)pi)iti;cl by a Mugle pillar A, wii.ca 
 lor tins purpose is provided with a bearing puce K, on whii ii arc 
 two brass collir pieces, that carry Hie axis ; and on the eiul of the 
 axis, oppo-ite tiie f^la^s, is a counterpoise O, of lead, (o prevent 
 too great a Inctlon in tlie collar neare>t the handle. The arc of 
 the condiKtor EE, which carries the two small receiving conduc- 
 tors t'K, is fixed to an axis turning in the ball H. On the other 
 side of the plate is the otiier arc I, of brasN wire, tixeJ in the bear- 
 ■ ine piece K, but so as to admit of being turned round like the arc 
 EE. P is a copper tube, moving like a radius on the stem of llie 
 ball S, which, being screwed into the conductor H, serves to con- 
 fine the arm P, in any position that may be required. The dissi- 
 patiun of electricity along the glass supports is prevented by a l.ind 
 of cap T, of mahogany, wiiich atVords an electrical well or cavity 
 underneath, and likewise efi'eclually covers the metallic cap into 
 which the glass is cemented. The lower extremity of the pillar is 
 guarded in the same manner by a hollow piece or ring of maho- 
 gany V. The three glass pillars are set in sliding pieces WWW, 
 adjustable by screws ; at each e.xtremity of the horizontal diame- 
 ter of the pUte are two rubbers X, one on each side, pressed re- 
 gularly and uniformly against the plate by means of a spring Y, 
 the force of pressure of which is regulated by means of a screw. 
 To these rubliers are attached silk Haps ZZ, those of one pair of 
 rubbers descending, and those of tlie other pair ascending, in the 
 direction in which the plate is worked. A piece of tine dry writ- 
 ing paper, as long as the rubber, and half an inch broader, so as 
 to cover the seam that fastens the silk to the leather, allows greater 
 pressure to be employed by diminishing the friction, and prevents 
 both the glass and silk from being soiled by the amalgam, so that 
 the e.xcitement is more powerful, and the amalgam requires to be 
 renewed less trequentlv. As the semicircular branch of the prime 
 conductor is moveable, it may be made to exhibit tlie flirctricit\ 
 of tlie rubber at any time, by placing the cvlindrical ends in con- 
 tact with the cushions, the semicircular wire I, being at the same 
 tinie turned so as to cross it at right angles, w hich insulates the 
 cushions. When the conductor is required to give electricity from 
 the gla.ss, the arc I must be in contact with the cushions, and the 
 «rc EE perpendicular to the horizon. It may not be improper 
 here to mention the extraordinary large and powerful machine in 
 Teyler's Museum at Haarlem ; which was constructed by Mr. 
 John Cuthbertsoii, an English mathematical instrument-maker. It 
 consists of two circular plates of glass, each 65 inches in diameter, 
 and made to tura upon the same horizontal axis, at the distance 
 of 7J inches from one another. These plates are excited by 8 
 rubbers, each 1 ji inches long. Both sides of the plates are cover- 
 ed with a resinous substance to the distance of lOj mcli.'s from the 
 centre, both to render the plates stronger, and likewise to prevent 
 any of the electricity from being carrieil oli by the axis. '1 he 
 prime conductor consists of several pieces, and is supported by 
 three glass pillars 57 inches in length. The plates are made of 
 French glass, as this is found to produce the greatest quantity of 
 the electricity next to the English tlint, which could not be pro- 
 duced of sufficient size. The conductor is divided into branches 
 which enter between the plates, but collect the fluid by points 
 only from one side of the plate. The force of two men is requir- 
 ed to work this machine ; but when it is required to be put in 
 action for any length of time, four are necessary. At its first con- 
 struction nine batteries were applied to it, each having fifteen jars, 
 every one of which contained about a foot square of coated glass ; 
 so that the grand battery formed by the combination of all these 
 contained 135 square feet. Dr. Van Marum, wiio principallv 
 made experiments with this machine, imagining tliat it was still 
 I apable of charging an additional quantity of coated glass, after- 
 .^■ards added to it 90 jars of the same size with the former ; so 
 tliat it now contains a coated surface of Sl'fe feet, and the effects are 
 found to be proportionable. 
 
 Of the Method of Using the electrical Arp.-^RATus. 
 Young electricians often find cause to complain that the experi- 
 ments described in treatises on electricity do not succeed with 
 ttiem, though possessed of very good apparatus for making them. 
 Besides the want of practice, which time and patience can only 
 supply, this is frequently owing to their not attending to some 
 slight and seemingly trifling circumstances ; such as dust or inois- 
 ■ftire about the instruments ; some small part of them being out of 
 
 -VOL. II. — NO. 72. 
 
 order; the weather being too hot, or rainy, or the like The fol- 
 lowing directions should therefore l>c p.irtitularly attended to by 
 everv student of electricity : Until he has acquired a very consi- 
 derahle degree of perfection by practice and liabit, he should not 
 commence iiis operations in all kinds of weather. When the \vea- 
 ther is clear and the air dry, especially if it b- serene and fiostv, 
 the electrical machine will always work well. In such weather 
 the young electrician will run no risk of being disappointed. But 
 when tlie weather is very hot, the machine is not very powerful ; 
 nor will it work in damp weather, utdess it be brought into a 
 warm room, and the cylinder, stands, jars, discharges, &c. be 
 made perfectly dry. Before the electric:;! macliiiie is put in mo- 
 tion, examine those parts which are liable to wear, either from the 
 friction of one surface against another, or to be injured by llie 
 dirt, that may insinuate itself betv/eea the rubbing surfaces. If 
 any grating or disagreeable noise is hear<l, the ]>lace from wlience 
 it proceeds must be discovered, wiped clean, and rubbed over 
 with a small quantity of tallow; a little of which should also be oc- 
 c.is'onally applied to the axis of the cylinder itself. The screws 
 by which the frame is fixed should also be examined, and if they 
 are loose, they should be made tight. Tiie machine being exa- 
 mined and put in order, the glass cylinder, and the pillars which 
 support the cushion and conductor, should be well wiped with a 
 dry old silk handkerchief, to free them from the n-.oisture which 
 glass attracts from the air ; being particularly attentive to leave no 
 moisture on the ends of the cylinder, as any damp on these parts 
 carries off the electric fluid, and lessens the force of the machine: 
 in very damp weather it will be proper to dry the wl-.ole machine, 
 by placing it at some little distance from the itire. Particular care 
 should be taken that no dust, loose threads, or filaments, adhere 
 to the cylinder, its frame, the conductors, or their insulating pil- 
 lars ; because these will gradually dissipate the electric fluid, and 
 prevent the machine from acting po>verfully. When satisfied of 
 this, rub the glass cylinder first with a clean, coarse, dry, warm, 
 cloth, or a piece of wash leather, and then with a piece of dry, warm 
 soft silk ; do the same to all the glass insulating pillars of the ma- 
 chme and apparatus ; these pillars must be rubbed more lightly 
 than the cylinder, because, being varnished, they may be dairiaged 
 by too much friction. In some cases it is proper to place a hot 
 iron on the foot of a conductor, to evaporate the moisture which 
 would otherwise injure the experiments. After exciting the elec- 
 trical machine, greasing the cylinder, and applying Dr. Higgins's 
 amalgam, &c. as above described, proceed to work it by turning 
 the w inch or handle. When the prime conductors and other in- 
 struments are removed from the machine, it will soon be perceiv- 
 ed, upon holding the knuckle of the fore-finger near the surface 
 of the cylinder, that the electric fluid conies like a wind from the 
 cylinder to the knuckle, and if the motion be continued, sparks 
 Qiid cracklings will soon follow. This indicates that the machine 
 is in good order, and the electrician may proceed with his experi- 
 ments. But if no wind be found upon the knuckle, the fault will 
 probably be in the rubbers. To remedy this, loosen the screws 
 on the back of the rubber, remove it from its glass pillar, and keep 
 it a little near the fire, that its silk part may be dried ; then |)ass a 
 little tallow from a candle over the leather of the rubber, spread 
 a small quantity of the amalgam over it, and force it into the lea- 
 ther as much as possible : after which, replace the rubber upon 
 the glass pillar, and w ipe the cylinder uiue more, and the ma- 
 chine will be fit for use. The following directions of Mr. Adams, 
 relative to exciting the machine, will be found very useful. "To 
 excite your machine, clean tlie cylinder, and wipe the silk. 
 Grease the cylinder by turning it against a greasy leather, till it is 
 uniformly obscured. The tallow of a candle may be used. Turn 
 the cylinder till the silk flap has wiped olT so much of the grease 
 as to render it semi-transparent. Put some amalgam on a piece 
 of leather, and spread it well, so that it may be uniformly bright: 
 apply this against the turning cylinder, the friction wiirimniedi- 
 alcly increase, and the leather nuisl not be removed until it ceases 
 to become greater. Remove the leather, and the action of the 
 machine will be very strong. The pressure of the cushion cannot 
 be too small, when the excitation is properly made." Sometimes 
 the machine will not work well because the rubber is not siifllci- 
 ently supplied with electric fluid. This happens when the table 
 upon which tlie machine stands, r.nd with which the chain of the 
 rubber is connected, is in a i)ad conducting state from bein" too 
 3y 'drv.
 
 266 
 
 ELECrRICITY. 
 
 di'V. Even the floor and tlie walls of the roum are, in very dry 
 Wather, bad conduclors, and cannot supply tlie rubber suffici- 
 ently. In this case, the chain of the rubber must be conuucled 
 by a" long wiri' with some water, moir^t ground, or the iron work 
 of a water-pump ; which will soon supply the rubber with a suf- 
 ficiency of the electric fluid. When the heat of the cylinder ex- 
 ceeds ilO', it will not act properly. If tlie machine does not 
 work well, wiien a sufficient ipiantity of amalgam has been accu- 
 mulated upon the leather uf the rubber, then, instead of adding 
 more anialgani, it- will be proper to take off the rubber, and to 
 scrape a little oif that which is alreaily upon the leather. The 
 cylinder, when used for some time, frequently contracts black 
 spots, occasioned by the amalgam or some foulness of the rubber. 
 These spots must be carefully taken off, otherwise they will in- 
 crease in size, and greatly obstruct the electric power of the cy- 
 linder: which, to prevent contracting thenr, must be often wiped. 
 When anv experiment is to be performed which requires but a 
 small part of the apparatus, the remaijiing part of it should be 
 placed at a distance from the machine, the prime conductor, and 
 even from the table, if that is not very large. Candles, particu- 
 larly, should be placed at a considerable distance from the prime 
 conductor, for the efBuvia of their flames carry off much of the 
 electric fluid.- 
 
 Of Charging .^^;D discharging Electric Jars and 
 Batteries. 
 
 The phial being placed on the table, so that the ball on the top 
 of its wire inav be about one-eigluh of an inch from the ball of the 
 prime conductor, turn the machine, and sparks will fly from the 
 ball of the conductor to the ball of the jar. Continue turning as 
 long as vou ])erceive the fire pass between the conductor and ball 
 of the jar; but when it ceases, you may leave off turning, and 
 consider the jar as charged. Tliis done, take hold of the dis- 
 charger by the middle, and apply one knob to the outside coating 
 near the bottom, and keeping it there, put the' other to the ball ol 
 the jar, and it will be discharged of its fire with a loud snap; but 
 the person who holds the discharger feels nothing from the dis- 
 charge. If you charge the jar again, and touch the out^ide coat- 
 ing with one hand, and then bring the other to the ball of the jar, 
 you will act the part of the wire discharger, and receive a shock 
 through your arms and breast, and the phial will be discharged. 
 -The same will be elfec ted if a large company form a circle by 
 joining their hands, and the person at one extremity of the circle 
 touch the outside coating, while he, who is at the other extremity, 
 touches the ball of the jar. All the persons who lorm this circle 
 are struck at the same time, and with the same degree of force 
 nearly. If you place a Leyden bottle upon the insulated stand, 
 forming a commuiucation between it and the conductor, and give 
 the machine a few turns, both sides of the bottle will be electrified 
 with the positive electricity, as may easily be proved by touching 
 them with down, or a small ball suspended by silk ; for when this 
 )S electrified by touching the outsidt.-, it will be also repene<l by 
 the ball ■which communicates with the inner suri'ace. Having 
 :j)laced an insulated bottle so (hat the ball may comihunicste with 
 the conductor ; let a wire also be connected with tl-ie coating, so 
 as-to form a comtnunication with the table. Next turn the ma- 
 .clune,i and, . I. On applying a cork ball, you will not find any 
 signs of electricity in the coating, but you will find the ball (or 
 iiiside^ electrilied with- the positive power. 'J. Remove the wire 
 c'6'mmunifalhig.wrth the table, and you will find the coating also 
 dIsEtrifitd with the positive [lOwcr ; and this as often as you re- 
 move. the wh-e, till the bottle is full clfarged. 3. When the bottle 
 is full charged, tei'^'Ve its comnnmicatlon both with the conduc- 
 tor and table, -toHCli the coaling, and the coik ball will remain 
 suspended by it, without any sign of being electrified ; then touch 
 ih* knob of the hoUle with your hand, the cork ball will be 
 strongly repelled frou'i the coaling, and be electrified with nega- 
 tjvc-elettricitv. 4. .'Take another cork ball suspended by silk, 
 iwl touch the knob of the bottle therewith, and the cork ball will 
 Jae e-lectriiied with jiositive electricity, and be repelled. 5. Now 
 lt)uch the coatin'g with your finger, and the coik ball will be re- 
 p.elltd inuch,fiu-ther by the ball ; but that which was repelled from 
 ihe coatings nuv; tlics towards it, and remains at rest, till you 
 itoiich the- knob-of the bottle with your finger ; it will (hen be 
 cie'-irU;e<l as at litst, anU be- violently rejielled ;- the ball which 
 
 was electrified bv the knob of the bottle will now lly towards it. 
 This change takes place almost instantaneously as often as the ball 
 or Coating is touched. The knob of the bottle may be made to 
 connect with the conductor by a wire, s\ispending a cork ball ;m 
 ab to touch the conductor ; then, on touching the coating, the ball 
 will be repelled from the conductor, while that next the coating is 
 attracted ; touch the knob of the bottle, and the ball will be re- 
 pelled from the coating, and attracted by (he conductor, and so 
 on as otten as yon please. In charging electric jars in general, it 
 is to be ob.-,erved, that every machine will not chai-ge tlieiii 
 equally high. Those machines which are strongest will always 
 charge the jars highest. If the coated jars, before they are made 
 usR of, be made somewhat warm, they will receive and retain the 
 charge better. If several j-ars be connected together, among 
 which there is one that is apt to discharge itself very soon, then 
 the other jars will also soon be discharged with it, ahhough they 
 may be capable of holding a very great charge by themselves. 
 When electric jars are to be discharged, the electrician must be 
 cautious, lest by some circumstance not adverted to, the shock 
 .■■hould ])ass through any part of his body ; for an unexpected 
 shock, though not very strong, may occasion disagreeable acci- 
 dents. In making the discharge, care must be taken that the dis- 
 charging rod be not placed on the thinnest part of the glass, a& 
 that may cause the breaking of the jar. When a jar. and especii 
 ally a battery, has been discharged, the electrician ought not to 
 touch its wires with his hand, before the discharging rod be ap- 
 plied to its sid s a second and even a third tiaie ; as there gene- 
 rally remains are'^iduum of the charge, which is sometimes very 
 considerable. All the above-mentioned pha;nomena are the more 
 remarkable in proportion to the povs'erof the machine. That used 
 in Teyler's Museum is astonishing in its efi'ects, which are as fol- 
 lows : On presenting a very sharp steel point to the prime con- 
 ductor, a luminous stream ot about half an inch was perceived be- 
 tween them. On fixing the point to the conductor so as to pro- 
 ject three inches from it, streams of light were thrown out from 
 the point six inches long when a ball of three inches in diameter 
 was presented, but only two inches in length on presenting an- 
 ollier point. The sensation, called the spider's web, on the face 
 of the bystanders is often lelt at the distance of eight feet from the 
 prime conductor. This is a sensation always produced by strong 
 electricity, something resembling the creeping of insects or the 
 motion of a light body, such as a spider's web, over the skin. It 
 ^eenis to ])roceed from the attraction and electrification of the 
 small hairs with which the body is covered. A thread six feet long 
 was sensiblv r.ttracted at the distance of thirty feet from the prime 
 conductor, and a pointed wire appeared luminnus at the distance 
 of twenty -eight feet-; a cork ball electrometer diverged at'the dis- 
 tance ol forty feet. A single spark from the conductor melted a 
 considerable length of gold leaf; gunpo-A'der and other combusti- 
 bles, inclosed in a paper cartr^ge, with a shiirp point, in the mid- 
 dle, were fired ; and when another coiid.uctor communicating wiili 
 the earth was placed at the distance of twenty-one, or sometimes 
 twenty-four inches from the prime conductor of the machine, a 
 stream of fire was perceived between them. This was crooked, 
 ami darted out many lateral brushes of a very large size. A Ley- 
 den phial, containing about one square foot of coated surface, was 
 so fully charged, by about half a turn of the winch, as to discharge 
 itself ; and by repeated trials it was found, that in one minute it 
 discharged itselt seventy-six, seventy-eight, and frequently eighty 
 times. Lastly, it was found, that though the conductor, which re- 
 ceived the sparks from the prime one of the macliine, communi- 
 cated with the earth by a wire three-eighths of an ii;ch in diame- 
 ter, this wire would give sinail sparks to any conducting body 
 brought near it, as if even this wire had not been sufficient to con- 
 duct the cpiantity of electricity it received from the machine very 
 readily to the earth. 
 
 EXPERIIWENTS .EXHIBITIN.G ElECTRIC ATTRACTION AND 
 
 Repulsion. 
 The Electrifikd Cork-Ball Electrometkr. Fix at the 
 end of the prime conductor a knobbed rod, and hang on it two 
 small cork-balls suspended by threads of equal length. The 
 balls will now touch one anotlK-r, the threads hanging per-, 
 pendicularlv, and jiarallel to each other. Rut if the cylinder 
 of the machine be whirled by turnhig the winch, then the cork- 
 balls will repel one another, more or less according as the electri- 
 
 ■city
 
 ELECTRICITY 
 
 9J)7 
 
 L-ilv i< mi)ii' or le^s |)owiTful. If tin* electrometer be lumg to a 
 pri'iiw loiuliictor negatively eUxtrilied, i.e. coiiTiectecl willi the 
 insulaleil iubl)er of tlie mach iie, tlie cork l)a!l-> will also rcp-.l 
 iMcli ether, li, ill tl-is state of tlie repulsion, the prime cnuliutor 
 1 toiiclu-d with >oiiie comluctiiig Mibstance not insulaleil, the 
 . tn-k lialls will inimedialely come together. But if, instead of the 
 conducting sul)>t;ince, the prime conductor is .touched with an 
 electric, as a >tick of sealing-wax, a piece of glass, &c. tlien the 
 . >rk halls will conlimie to repel each otlier; because the electric 
 :iid cannot he conchu ted through tli;',t electric ; hence wo h.ive an 
 easy method of del'Miiiinin^ what bodies are conductors and what 
 electrics. This electrical repulsion is ulso shewn by a large downy 
 feather, which will ap])ear beuutifully swelled by die divergency 
 (if its down. 
 
 Attractiok and Repulsion of Light Honiios. Connect 
 with the prime coniUictor, by the hook H, the two parallel brass 
 plates F, (>, lig. 1 1, Plate LXIII. at about three inches from one 
 another: and upon the lower plate put any kind of light bodies, as 
 bran, bits of i)aper, bits of leaf gold, &:e. ; then work the machine, 
 and the ligiit liodies will soon move between the two plates, leap- 
 ing alternalely from one to the other with great velocity. If, in- 
 stead of bran nr irregular pieces of other matter, small figures of 
 men or other thing-; cut in paper and painted, or rathe r made of the 
 pith of alder, be put upon the plate, they will generally move in 
 an erect position, but will sometimes leap one upon another, or ex- 
 hibit different postures, so as to alfurd a pleasing spectacle to an 
 observing company. \\ hen bran or other substances of that kind 
 are made use of, it will be proper to inclose both plates in a glass 
 cylinder, by which the bran will be kept frnni dispersing and flying 
 about the room. The phanomeiia of electric attraction^and re- 
 pulsion may be exhibited also with a glass tube, or a charged bot- 
 tle, and some of them in a manner more satisfactory than with the 
 machine. 
 
 The Elf.ctkical Spider, Fig. 12, Plate LXIII. represents an 
 electricjar, having a wire C D E fastened on its outside, which is 
 bended so as to have its knob E as high as the knob A. — Bis a 
 spider made of cork, with a few short threads run through it to re- 
 present its legs. It is fastened at the end of a silk thread, proceed- 
 ing from the ceiling of the room, or from any other support, so 
 that it may hang mid-way between the two knobs A and E, vihen 
 the jar is not charged. Let the place of the jar upon the table be 
 marked; then charge the jar, by briii'jjng its knob A in contact 
 with the prime conductor, and replace it in its marketl place. The 
 spider will now begin to move from knob to knob, and continue 
 tills motion for a considerable time, sometimes lor several hours. 
 The inside of the jar being charged positively, the spider is at- 
 tracted by the knob A, which commnnicates to it a small (piantitv 
 of electricity ; tiie spider then becoming possessed of the same 
 electricity with the knob A, is repelled by it, and runs to the knob 
 K. where it discharges its electricity, and is then attrac ted by the 
 knob A, and so on. Thus the jar is gradually discharged; and 
 when the discharge is nearly completed, thespiderfinishesilsmotion. 
 The Electrical Jack, is an invemion of the celebrated Dr. 
 Franklin's, and turns with considerable force, so that it mav 
 sometimes be used for the purposes of a common jack. A 
 small upright shaft of wood passes at right angles through a thin 
 round board of aijoiit 12 inches diameter, and turns on a sharp point 
 of iron fixed in the lower end, while a strong wire in the upper end, 
 .passing through a small hole in a thin brass plate, keeps the shaft 
 truly vertical. About .30 radii, of etpial length, made of window 
 glass cut into narrow slips, issue hciizontally from the circimife- 
 rence of the board, the ends most distant (rom the centre being 
 about four inches apart. On the end of every one a brass thimble 
 is lixed. If now the wire of an electrilied bottl-? be brought near 
 the circumference of this wheel, it will attract the nearest thimble, 
 and so put the wheel in motion. That thimble, in passing bv, re- 
 ceives a spark ; and thereby being electrified, is repelled, and so 
 driven forwards ; v.-hile a second, being attracted, approaches the 
 wire, receives a spark, and is driven after the fust; and so on, till 
 the wheel has gone once round ; when the thind)ies before elec- 
 trilied apiiroacliuig the wire, instead of being attracted, as they 
 were at first, are repelled, and the motion presently ceases. Bui 
 if another bottle which had been charged through the coating, or 
 otherwise negatively electrified, is placed near the same wheel its 
 \yice will attract the thimble repelled by the lirsl, and thercbv 
 
 double the force t' at carries the wheel round. The wheel there, 
 fore moves very swiftly, tinning r.' or 15 times in a minute, and 
 wilh such force, that a large lowl s])ittcd on the upper shaft may be 
 roasted by it. 
 
 The Si.LF-MoviKO Wnr.EL. This appears more surprising 
 than the last experiment, though constructed upon the same prin- 
 ciples. It is made of a thin round plate of window glass 17 inches 
 ill diameter, well gilt on both sides, all but two inchts next the 
 edge. 'I wo small hemispheres of wood are then fixed with cement 
 to the mitldle of the upper and untkr sides, centrally opposite ; 
 and in each of them a strong thick wire eight or ten inches long, 
 which together make the axis of the wheel. It turns horizontallv 
 on a poiiil a't the lov.er end of its axis, which rests on a bit of brass 
 cemented within a glass salt-cellar. Tl.e upper- end of its axis 
 passes through a hole in a thin brass plate, cemented to a long ana 
 strong piece of glass ; which keeps it six or eight inches distant 
 from any non-electric, and has a small ball of wax or metal on its 
 top to keep in the fire. In a circle on the table which suppo.-ls 
 die wheel, are fixed 12 small pillars of glass, at about 1 1 inches dis- 
 tance, witli a thimble on the top of each. On the edge of the 
 wheel is a small leaden bullet, communicating by a wire with the 
 gilding of the ujjper surface of the wheel; and about six inches 
 Irom it is another bullet communicating in like manner with the 
 under surface. When the wheel is to be charged bv the upper 
 surlace, a communication must be made from the under surlace to 
 the table. As soon as it is well charged, it begins to move. The 
 bullet nearest to a pillar moves towards the thimble on that pillar: 
 and, passing by, electrifies it, and is then reiielled from it. The 
 succeeding bullet, which communicates with the other surface of 
 the glass, more strongly attracts that thimble on account of its 
 being electrified before by the other bullet; and thus the wheel in- 
 creases its motion, till the resistance of the air regulates it. It will 
 go half an hour; and make, one minute with another, 20 turns in a 
 iiiiiiute, which is 6t>0 turns in the whole; the bullet in the iippev 
 surface giving in each turn 12 sparks to the thimbles, miiLing in all 
 2300 sparks; while the same quantity of fire is thought to be re- 
 ceived by the under bullet. The w hole space moved over by 
 these bullets in the mean time is 2500 feet. If, instead of two bul- 
 lets, you pill eight, four communicating with the upjier, and four 
 with the under surface, the force and swiftness will be greatly in- 
 creased, and the wheel will make about 50 turns in a minute ; but 
 then it will not continue moving so long. These wheels may be 
 applied to the ringing ofchimes.and the moving of small orreries, Sec. 
 The Electrified Bells, Fig. ]i, Plate!, XI I i. represents 
 an instrument having three bells, which are made to ring by elec- 
 tric attraction and repulsion. Bis a brass rod, furnished wilh a 
 ring. A, of the same metal, by which it is suspended from another 
 ro(l fixed in the prime contUictor. The outer bells C and E arc 
 suspended by brass chains ; but l!ie middle bell ]) and the two 
 small brass clappers G and II are suspended bv silk threads. From 
 the concave under part of the bell D a chain proceeds, w hich falts 
 upon die table, and has a silk thread F, at its extremity. When 
 this apparatus is hung to the conductor by the ring A, and the 
 cylinder of the machine gently turned, the clappers will fly from 
 bell to bell with a rapid motion, and the bells will ring as long as 
 they are kept electrified. The two bells C and E being suspended 
 by brass chains are first electrified : hence they attract the clap- 
 pers, comiiuinicatc to them a little electricity, and repel them to 
 the unelectrified bell D ; upon which the clappers deposit their 
 electricity, and move again to the bells CE, from which they ac- 
 (|uire more, and so on. If, by holding the silk tliread F, the 
 chain of the middle bell be raised from the table, the bells after 
 ringing a little while will stop; because the bell D will have no 
 opportunity of conveying the electricity it receives from the dap- 
 P'-rs to the ground, being insulated by the silk thread. In the 
 dark, sparks will be seen between the clappers and bells. Fig. 
 14 represents a set of bells nnre elegantly mcunted, and which, 
 produce a better sounil. In thi^se the knob a must t oimuunicate 
 wilh the conductor when the apparatus is made use of. Fig. 15 
 reprcieiits a set ot eight bells otherwise constructed. i he clapper 
 /( is here suspended by a silken tiiifad from the fiv u l> c d : the 
 axis of the tly rests in a small hole on the top of a ghes pillar ; and 
 its upper part moves freely in, and is confined bv a hole in the bra-<s 
 arm ,g. To make use of the bells these must be applied to tlio 
 cylinder of the machine, or at least brought very near it when the con- 
 9 ductor
 
 f68 
 
 ELECTRICITY. 
 
 ductor is removed : so that the llv abed may be about the height 
 of the centre of the cyliiuler. The letter beiiii; thi-n put ill mo- 
 tion, the electricity from it proceeding to the tly, will cause it to 
 tiini round and the clapper aUracted by each of the bells alter- 
 nately in its rotation ; which, if they are properly tuned, will pro- 
 duce a pleading and harmonious sound. 
 
 Experiments exhibiting Electric Light and Fire. 
 The following experiments require to be made in the dark: for 
 although the electric light in several circumstances may be seen in 
 the day-light, yet its appearance in this manner is very confused ; 
 and that the electrician may form a better idea of its dinerent ap- 
 pearances, it is absolutely necessary to perform such experiments 
 in a darkened room. 
 
 The Star and Pencil of Electric Light. When the elec- 
 trical machine is in good order, and the prime conductor is situ- 
 ated with the collecior sufficiently near the glass cylinder, turn the 
 winch, and you will see a lucid star at each of the points of the col- 
 lector. This star is the constant appearance of the electric fluid 
 that is entering a point. At tlio same time you will see a strong 
 liaht proceeding from the rubber, and spreading itself over the 
 sifrface of the cylinder ; and if the excitation of the cylinder is very 
 powerful, dense" streams of tire will proceed from the rubber, and, 
 darting round almost half the circumference of the c_\linder, will 
 reach the points of the collector. If the prime conductor is re- 
 moved, the dense streams of fire will go cpiite round the cylinder; 
 reaching from one side of the rubber to the other. If tiie chain of 
 the rubber is taken off, and a pointed body, for instance the point 
 of a needle or a pin, be presented to the back of the rubber, at the 
 distance of about two inches, a lucid pencil of rays will appear to 
 proceed from the point presented, and diverge towards the rubber. 
 If another pointed body be presented to the prime conductor, it 
 will api)ear illuminated" with a star; but if a pointed wire or other 
 pointed conducting body be connected with the prime conductor, 
 it will throw out a pencil of rays. 
 
 Dr.\wing Sparks. Let the prime conductor be situated in its 
 proper place, and electrify it by working the machine; then bring 
 a metallic rod w ith a round knob at each end, or the knuckle of a 
 fmner, within a proper distance of the prime conductor, and a 
 sp-dvk will be seen between that and the knuckle or knobbed wire, 
 'i'he longer and stronger spark is drawn from that end of the prime 
 conductor which is farthest from the cylinder, or rather from the 
 extremity of the knobbed rod fixed at its end. This spark appears 
 like a loiio- line of fire, reaching from the conductor to the opposed 
 body, and'often (particularly when the spark is long, and diflerent 
 conducting sul)stances are near the line of its direction) it will have 
 the appearance of being bended to sharp angles in different (jlaces 
 resembling a flash of lightning. It often darts brushes of light side- 
 wise in ever) direction. 
 
 The Artificial Lightning. Let two persons, one slandmg 
 upon an insulated stool, and communicating with the prime con- 
 ductor, and another standing upon the Hoor, each hold in one of 
 his hands a metal ))late, so that the plates may stand back to back 
 in a parallel situation, and about two inches asujuler. Let the 
 winch of the machine be turned, and the flashes of light between 
 the two plates will appear so dense and frequent, that one may 
 easily distinguish any thing ii; the room. By this experiment the 
 electric li«ht is exhibited in a very copio\is and beautiful manner, 
 and bears a striking resemblance to lightning. 
 
 To Fire Inflammable Spirits. The power of the electric 
 spark to set fire to inflammable spirits, may be exhibited easily 
 thus: Hang to the prime conductor a short rod having a small 
 knob at its end; then pour some spirits of wine, a little warmed, 
 into a spoon of metal; hold the spoon by the handle, and place it in 
 such a manner, that the small knob on the rod may be about one 
 inch above the surface of the spirits. In this situation, if, by turn 
 ingthe winch, a spark be made to come from the knob, it will set 
 the spirits on fire. It will generally be found more advantageous to 
 fix the di^h containing the spirits 'upon the prime conductor, as re- 
 presented fig. 10, Plate LXIll. This experiment maybe varied 
 dilferent ways, and maybe rendered very agreeable to a company 
 of spectators. A person standing upon an electric stool, and com- 
 municating with the prime conductor, may hold the spoon with 
 the spirits in his hand, and another person, standing upon the floor, 
 may set the spirits on fire by bringing his finger within a small dis- 
 tance of it. 'instead of his finger, he may fire the spirits will^ a 
 
 piece of ice, when the expi-ninent wdl se-m much more surprising. 
 If the spoon is lieUl by the person standing «|>on tlie floor, and the 
 insulated person brings somi conductnig substance over the sur- 
 face ot ti'.e spirits, the ex;.eriment succectis as well. 
 
 The Luminous Conductor. Fig. 17, Plate LXIII. repre- 
 sents a prime conductor invented by j\lr. HenK, which shev\s 
 clearly the direction of the electric fluid passing tl.roiigh it, from 
 whence it is called the kimuious conductor. The middle part EF 
 of this conductor is a glass tube about 18 inches long and tliree or 
 four iiielies in diameter. I'o both ends of this tt,il)e the hollow 
 brass pieces FD, BF, are cemented air-tight, one of which has a 
 point C", by v.'liich it receives the electric fluid, when set near the 
 e.xcited cjlinder of the electrical machine, and tlie other has a 
 knobbed w ire G, from which a strong spark may be drawn ; and 
 from each of the pieces F D, !5 E, a knobbed w ire proceeds within 
 the cavity of the glass tube. The brass piece FD, or BE, is com- 
 posed of two |)arls ; i. e. a cap F cemented to the glass tube, and 
 bavin? a hole with a valve, by which the cavity of the glass tube 
 is exhausted of air ; and the ball D, which is screwed upon the cap 
 F. The supi-'Orters of this instrument are two glass pillars fastened 
 in the bottom board H, like the supportei's of the prime conductor. 
 When the glass tube of this conductor is exhausted of air by an 
 air-pump, and the brass bull is screwed on, as represented in the 
 figure, then it is fit for use, and may serve for a prime conductor 
 to ail electrical machine. If the point C of tliis conductor is set 
 near the excited cylinder of the machine, it will appear illuminat- 
 ed with a star ; at the same time tiie glass tube will appear all illu- 
 minated with a weak light ; but from the knobbed wire that pro- 
 ceeds within the glass tube from the piece FD, a lucid pencil will 
 issue out, and theopposite knobwill appear illuminated with a star, 
 which, as well as the pencil rays, is very clear, and discernible 
 among the otiier light that occupies the greatest part of the cavity 
 ol the tube. If the point C, instead of being presented to the cy- 
 linder, be in Contact with the rubber of the ni;^chine, the appear- 
 ance of light within the tube will be reversed; the knob which 
 communicates with the piece FD appearing illuminated with a star 
 and the opposite one with a pencil of rays ; because in this case the 
 direction t»t the electric fluid is jusi the contrary ol what it was be- 
 lore ; it then going from D to B, and now coming from B and 
 going to D. If the wires within the tube EF, instead of being fur- 
 nished with knobs, be pointed, the appearance of light is the same ; 
 but it seems not so strong m this as in the other case. 
 
 The coNDi;cTiNG Glass Tube. Take a glass tube of about 
 two inches diameter, and about two feet long; fix to one of its ends 
 a brass cap, and to the other a stop-cock ora valve; then exhaustit 
 of air by an air-pump. It this tube be held by one end, and its other . 
 end be brought near the electrified prime lonductor, it will appear 
 to lie full of light whenever a spark is tLken by it from the prime 
 conductor, ami much more so it an electric jar be discharged 
 through It. This experiment may also be made with the receiver 
 ot an air-pump. Take a tall receiver, clean and dry, and tiirough 
 a hole at its top insert a wire, which must be cemented air-'ight. 
 The end of the wire within the tube must be pointed, but not very 
 sharp ; and the other end must be furnished with a knob. Put this 
 receiver upon the plate of the air-pump, and exhaust it. If now 
 the knob of the wire at the top of the receiver be touched with 
 the prime conductor, every spark will pass through the receiver in 
 a den>e and large body of light, from the wire to the plate of the 
 air-pump. When the air-pump, or any thing not very portable, 
 is to be touched with the prime conductor, the coinmmiication be- 
 tween them may be madeby means of arod furnished with an elec- 
 tric handle. 
 
 The artificial Aurora Borealis. Take a phial nearly of 
 the shape and size of a Florence flask ; (fig. IS, Plate LXIII.) fix a 
 stop-cock or a valve to its neck, and exhaust it of air as much as 
 possible with a good air-puni]). If this glass be rubbed in tlie com- 
 mon manner used to excite electrics, it will appear luminous with- 
 in, being full of a flashing light, wdiich plainly resembles the au- 
 rora borealis or northern light. This phial may also be made lumi- 
 nous, by holding it by either end, and bringing the other end to the 
 prime conductor; in this case, all the cavity of the gl.iss will in- 
 stantly appear full of llashing light, which remains in it for a con- 
 siderable lime after it has been removed from the prime conduc- 
 tor. Instead of the glass phial a glass tube exhausted of air and 
 hermetically sealed may be used, and perhaps with more advan- 
 tage. The most remarTiablc circumstance *f this experiment is, 
 
 that
 
 F.LECTRICITV. 
 
 ^2f)^) 
 
 ti' ■ ■. .• ' « I 
 
 tliat ifllii' ])lii.il, ortiil)!', afuT it iuis bioii i.iiuvfd Irom the priinc 
 c •imliictui- (aiul evoii several hours 1.I It r its flashing Uglit has ceased 
 to appear), he grasped witli the hand, strong flaslics of light will 
 I'liniediuteh- appear within the glass, which olten reach from one 
 ( III ot it 1(1 the other. 
 
 i'he Visible Ei.fctiuc ArMOsriiF.KK, is an experiiiient of 
 _inior Uiccaria. GI, lii:. 11), Fiate LXIII. repre>ents the rc- 
 1 V aer with the plate of anair-piHiip. In the middle cf the plate 
 II F, a snort rod is lixed, having at its top a met;.l hall U nicely 
 Volish.'d, whose diameter is nearly two inches. From the top oi 
 1 r rtceiver, another rod A D, with a like ball A, proceeds, and 
 ^ cemented air-tight in the neck C ; the distance ol the balls from 
 one another being about four inches, or rather more. If, when 
 the receiver i.s exhausted of air, the ball A be electrified positively, 
 by touching the top I) of the rod AD with the jir.me conductor, 
 or an excited glass tube, a lucid atmosphere appears about it, 
 which although it consists of a feeble light, is yet very conspicuous, 
 and very well defined ; at the same time, the ball B has not the 
 j least ligiit. This atmosphere does not exist all round the ball A ; 
 I but reaches from about tlie middle of it, to a small distance be- 
 yond that side of its surface which is next the opposite ball B. If 
 the rod with the hall A be electrified negatively, then a lucid at- 
 mosi>herc, like the above described, will appear upon the ball 15, 
 reaching from its middle to a small distance beyond that side of it 
 that is towaidsthe ball A; at the same time, the negatively elec- 
 tritied ball A remains without any light. ']"he operator in this ex- 
 periment must take care not to electrify the ball A too much ; else 
 the electric fluid will pass in a spark from the one ball to the other, 
 and the experiment will fail. " By this elegant experiment of 
 the celebrated F. Beccaria, says Mr. Cavallo, we have an ocular 
 demonstration of the theory of a single electric fluid. We see 
 j that electricity consists of one uniform homogeneous fluid, and not 
 I of two, viz. the vitreous and resinous, as some have supposed ; for, 
 if the positive and negative electricity were two distinct fluids, at- 
 tractive of one another, there shouUl in the above experiment al- 
 ways appear two atmospheres, /. c one about the ball A, and 
 another about the ball B; for when the ball A is overcharged with 
 either fluid, it should shew that superlluous fluid on its surface, 
 and this lluid should attract towards the ball A an atmosphere of 
 the contrary fluid- from the ball B. But this is not the case, for 
 the lucid atmosphere is always on one ball, namely, that which is 
 overcharged with the electric fluid: thus when the ball A is elec- 
 trified positively, the superfluous fluid is visible on that part of it 
 I which is nearest to the ball B, because B, being in a contrary state 
 ; of electricity, endeavours to attract it ; but when the ball A is elec- 
 : trifled negatively, it will attract the fluid proper to the ball B, 
 which fluid on that account appears on the surface of B, just in the 
 act of leaping to the ball A." 
 
 The SpiralTubes. Fig. 20, Plate LXIII. represents an in- 
 strument composed of two glass tubes C D, one within another, 
 and closed with two knobbed brass caps A and B. The innermost 
 of these has a spiral row of small round pieces of tin-foil stuck upon 
 its outside surface, and lying at about one-30th of an inch from 
 each other. Iftliis instrument beheld by one of its extremities, 
 and its other extremity be presented to the prime conductor, every 
 spark it receives from the prime conductor will cause small sparks 
 to appear between all the round pieces of tin-foil stuck upon the 
 innermost tube ; which in the dark affords a pleasing spectacle, the 
 instrument appearing encompassed by a spiral line of fire. Fig. 
 ri represents several spiral tubes placed round a board, in the 
 middle of which is screwed a glass pillar, and on the top of this pil- 
 l.ir is cemented a brass cap with a fine steel point. In this a brass 
 ivirc turns, having a brass ball at each end, nicely balanced on the 
 wire. To make use of this apparatus, place tne middle of the 
 turning wire under a ball proceeding from the conductor, so that 
 it may receive a succession of sparks from the ball ; then push the 
 wire gently round ; and the balls in the'r relative motions will 
 give a spark to each tube, and thereby illuminate them dov^n to 
 the board, which from its brilliancy and rapid motion affords a 
 most beautiful and pleasing sight. The small pieces of tin-foil are 
 sometimes stuck on a flat piece of glass A B C D, fig. C2, so as to 
 represent various fanciful figures. Upon the same principle is 
 the luminous word light produced. It is formed by the small 
 separations of the tin-foil pasted on a piece of glass fixed in a frame 
 «f baked wood, as represented fig. 33. To »se this, tbc frame 
 voii, 11. — Ko. 72. 
 
 nuHt be held in the liand, and the hall (- jiresented lo the con- 
 ductor. The spark then will be exhil)ited in the intervals cim- 
 l)osing the word ; from wlience it i)asses to the hook at fi, ;i.4 
 thence to the ground by a chain. The brilliancy ol this is e(|u.il 
 to that of (he s|jirals. Asimilar effect will be produced by the jar, 
 lig. 9, Plate LXIV, coated by detached pieces of tin-foil ; it will 
 exhibit the electric light passing from piece to piece, both whi]» 
 charging and <lischargiiig. 
 
 To FIRE A Pistol or C.vnnon by inflammable Air. Fig. 
 24 represents a brass pistol for inflammable air. It consist? prin- 
 cipally of achaniber, to the mouth D of which a cork is fitted: a, 
 glass tube F is crni'-nted into the top of tl;e (hamber, through 
 winch a brass wire passes, and is bent within side so as to approach 
 within an 8th part of an inch of the side. On the outside end of 
 this wire is screwed a brass ball A, which serves to re<eive a sparh 
 from the conductor of the machine, and conduct it in that form to 
 the inside of the pistol. The inflammable air with which the pis- 
 tol is lo be charged may be made in a common stone-ware or glass 
 bottle, by mixing a handful of iron-filings with about two wine 
 glassfuh "of water and near one of oil of vitriol. 'Ihe air, when 
 thus made, should be kept in a bottle corked up. To use the 
 pistol, take out the cork from the bottle, and instantly apply the 
 mouth ot the pistol to the mouth of the bottle ; and in about ten 
 seconds it will be sufficiently charged : then remove it, and cork 
 both the pistol and bottle with the utmost expedition : then bring 
 the ball A near the prime conductor or the knob of a charged jar; 
 and the spark that passes through the ball, and between the end of 
 the wire within the side of the chamber, will fire the inflammable 
 air with a loud report, and drive the cork to a considerable dis- 
 tance. Instruments to fire inflammable air are often made in the 
 form of a cannon with its carriage, as in fig. 25. 
 
 To illuminate Ivory or Box-Wood. Place an ivory ball 
 on the prime conductor of the machine, and take a strong spark, 
 or send the charge of a Leyden bottle through its centre, the ball 
 will appear perfectly luminous ; but if the charge be not taken 
 through the centre, it will pass over the surface of the ball and cor- 
 rode it. A spark taken through a ball of box-wood not only il- 
 luminates the whole, but makes it appear of a beautiful crimson or 
 rather fine scarlet colour. 
 
 To illuminate Water. Connect one end of a chain witii 
 the outside of a charged jar, and let the other lie upon the table. 
 Place the end of another piece of chain at about one quarter of aa 
 inch from the former ; then set a decanter of water on tliese sepa- 
 rated ends ; and on making a discharge, the water will appear per- 
 fectly and beautifully luminous. 
 
 Experiments with the Leyden Phial. 
 
 The Leyden Vacuum is an invention of the late Mr. Henly. 
 Fig. 26 and 27, Plate LXIII. represent two small phials coated on 
 the outside, about three inches up the sides, with tin-foil; at the 
 top of the neck of each, a brass cap is cemented, having a liole 
 with a valve, and from the cap a wire proceeds a few inches within, 
 the phial, terminating in a blunt point. When this phial is ex- 
 hausted of air, a brass ball is screwed upon the brass cap, which is^- 
 cemented into its neck, so as to defend the valve, and prevent any 
 air from getting into the exhausted glass. This phial exhibits 
 clearly thedireUion of the electric fluid, both in charging and dis- 
 charging ; for if it be held by its bottom, and its brass knob be 
 presented to the prime conductor positively electrified, it will be 
 seen that the electric fluid causes the pencil of rays to proceed 
 from the wire within the phial, as represented fig. 25; and if it is 
 discharged, a star will appear in the place of the pencil, as repre- 
 sented in fig. 27. But if the phial is held by the brass cap, and 
 its bottom be touched with the prime conductor, then the point 
 of the wire on its inside will appear illuminated with a star when 
 charging, and with a pencil when, discharging. If it be presented 
 to a prime conductor electrified negatively, all these appearances, 
 both in charging and discharging, will be reversed. 
 
 The Apparatus, represented fig. 7, Plate LXl\'..will be found 
 very convenient for tlie various experiments upon tiie luminous 
 conductor, Leyden vacuum, jars charged positively or negatively, 
 whh their diflerent states of insulation. A is an insulating pillar ■ 
 ef glass, which is screwed to the wooden foot B; and on this pil- 
 lar all the apparatus may be screwed alternately. CU is an ex- 
 hausted tube of 2''iS5, furnished at each end with brais tags; at the- 
 3 A «'i«L
 
 270 
 
 ELECTRICITY. 
 
 end D i-; a valve properly seemed under tiie brass plate ; a brass 
 wire with a ball projects from the upper cap ; a poiiuetl wire pro- 
 ceeds from tlie bottom plate ; and this tube is called the luminous 
 conductor. The tla^k represented at E is called the Leydeii Va- 
 ctmm. It isfurnislied with a valve under tin; ball K; to come at 
 which the more readily, the ball may be unscrewed: a wire, with 
 a blunt end, projects to wiliiiu a little of the bottom of the flask, 
 the latter being coated w ith tin-foil : and a female screw is ce- 
 mented to the bottom, lo screw it on Ihe jiillar A. — F is a syringe 
 to exhaust the air occasionally, either from the luminous conductor 
 or the Leyden vacuum, 'lo do this, unscrew the ball of the Ley- 
 <len vacuum, or the plate of the luminous conductor, and then 
 screw the svringe in the place of either of these pieces, being care- 
 ful that the bottom of the female screw G bears close against the 
 leatb.er which covers the shoulders ab or i J \ theji work the sy- 
 ringe, and in a few minutes the glasses will be sufliciently exhaust- 
 ed. II and I are two Leyden bottles; each of which has a female 
 screw littcd to the bottom, that they may be conveniently screwed 
 on the ])illar A; and the bottle li is furnished with a belt by which 
 it may be screwed sidewise to the same. K and L are two small 
 wires) to be screwed occasionally either into the ball E, the knobs 
 c or,/', the caj) C, or the socket g on the top of the pillar : the balls 
 may be unscrewed from these wires, which will then e.vhibit a blunt 
 point. M is a wooden table to be screwed occasionally on the 
 glass pillar. 
 
 To PIERCK VAIUOUS SUBSTANCES WITH THE ElECTRIC EX- 
 PLOSION. Take a card, a quire of paper, or the cover of a book, 
 and keep it close to the outside coating of a charged jar ; put one 
 kn-ob of the discharging rod upon the card, i|uire of paper, &c. so 
 tluit between the knob and coating of the jar the thickness of that 
 card, or quire of |)aper, only is interposed ; lastly, by bringing the 
 other knob of the <lischarging rod near the knob of the jar, make 
 the discharge, and the electric matter will pierce a hole (or per- 
 liaps several) quite through the card or quire of paper. This hole 
 has a bur raised on each side, except the card, &c. ke pressed hard 
 between the discharging rod and the jar; which shews that the 
 hole is not made in the direction of the passage of the fluid, but 
 in every direction from the centre of the resisting body. If in- 
 stead of paper, a very tliin plate of glass, rosin, sealing-wax, or the 
 like, be interposed between the knob of the discharging rod and 
 the outside coating of the jar, on making the discharge, this will be 
 broken in several pieces. Small insects may also be killed in this 
 manner. They may be held between the outside coating of the 
 jar and the knob of the discharging rod, like the above card ; ,and 
 a shock of a common phial sent tiirougli them, will instantly de- 
 prive them of life, if they are pretty small ; but if larger, they will 
 be affected in such a manner, as to appear quite dead on hrst re- 
 ceiving the stroke ; but will, afier some time, recover : this, how- 
 ever, depends on the quantity of the charge sent through them. 
 
 Effect of the Shock, sent over the Surface of a Caud 
 OR Class. Put the extremities of two wires upon the surface of 
 a card, or other body of an electric nature, so that they may be 
 in one direction, and about one inch distant from one another; 
 (hen, by connecting one of the wires with the outside of a charged 
 jar, and the other wire with the knob of the jar, the shock will 
 be made to pass over the card or other body. If the card be made 
 verv dry, the lucid track between the v\ ires will be visible upon 
 the card for a considerable lime after the explosion. If apiece 
 of common writing paper be used instead of the canl, it will be 
 torn bv the explosion into very small bits. If the explosion be 
 sent over the surface of a piece of glass, it will be marked with an 
 indelible track, which generally reaches fromlhe extremity of one 
 of the wires to the extremity of the other. In this manner, the 
 piece of !;lass is very seldom broken by the explosion. But Mr. 
 ilenlv di^covered a very ingenious method to increase the elVect 
 of the explosion upon the glass, by pressing with weights that part 
 of the glass which lies between the two wires, i. e. the part over 
 which the shock is to pass. He put a thick piece of ivory upon 
 the glass, and placed upon it a weight, from one quarter of an 
 ounce to six pounds. The glass in this manner is generally broken 
 bv the explosion into innumerable fragments, and some of it is ab- 
 solntelv reduced into an impalpable powder. If tlie glass be very 
 thick, and resist tin- force of the explosion, so as not to be broken, 
 it will be marked with the most lively prismatic colours, which are 
 thought to be occasioned by very thin laminic of the glass, partly 
 
 separated from it by the shock. The weight laid u|)on the gin 
 always shaken by the explosion, and sometimes it is thrown (]ii 
 ol'f fron.i the ivory. This experiment maybe most conveniciillv 
 made with the universal discharger, fig. 7,'Plate LXIII. In llifs 
 experiment, Mr. Oavallosays, " if small representations of houses, 
 &c. belaid upon a board, placed on the piece of ivory, that, being 
 shook by the explosion, will give a very natural idea of an earth- 
 quake!" As to the direction of the electric lUiid, the following 
 experiments have been thought to prove directly the passage of 
 the tluid outward from the positive and inward to the negativ* side 
 of the phial. Fig. 8, Plate LXIV. represents an electric jar, 
 whose exterior coating is made up of small pieces of tin-toil placed 
 at a little distance from each other. It is to be charged in the usual 
 manner, when small sparks of the electric lluid will pass from one 
 piece of tin-foil to the oth?r, in various directions, forming a very 
 pleasing spectacle. The separation of the tin-foil is the cause of 
 this visible passage of the fluid from the outside to the table, and 
 the experiment is similar in appearance to that of the spiral tube 
 above-mentioned. If the jar be discharged by bringing a pointed 
 wire gradually to the knob, T, the unsealed part of the glass be- 
 tween the wire and knob will be agreeably illuminated with a 
 crackling noise of the sparks. If the jar be suddenly discharged, 
 the whole outside will be illuminated. The jar, in this experiment, 
 must be very dry when used. Fig. 22 represents two jars, or 
 I.eyden phials, placed one over the other, by which several curi- 
 ous experiments may be made. Bring the outride coating of the 
 bottle A in contact with the prime conductor, and turn the ma- 
 chine till the bottle is charged ; then place one ball ol the discharg- 
 ing rod upon the coating of B, and widi the other touch thekn<'b 
 ot ihejar A, which will cause an explosion ; now place one ball 
 of the discharger on the knob A, and bring the other ball to its 
 coating, and you have a second discharge. Again, a|)ply one ball 
 of the discharger to the coating of B, and carry the other to the 
 coating of A, and it will produce a third discharge. A fourth is 
 obtained by applying the discharger from the coating of A to its 
 knob. The outer coating of the upper jar communicating with 
 the inside of the iqiper one, conveys the fluid from the conductor 
 to the large jar, which is therefore charged positively : the upper 
 jar does not charge, because the inside cannot part with any of its 
 electric tluid ; but when a co.jimunication is formed from the out- 
 side of A to the inside of B, part of the tire on the inside of A will 
 be conveyed to the negative coating of B, and the jar will be dis- 
 charged. The second explosion is occasioned by tjie discharge of 
 the jar A; but as the outside of this communicates, by conduct- 
 ing substances, w ith the positive inside of the jar B, if the ball of 
 the discharging rod remain for a little time alter the discharge on 
 the knob of A, part of the lire of the inside of A will escape, and 
 be replaced bv an equal quantity on the outside from the jar B, by 
 which means A ischarged a second lime; the discharge of this pro- 
 duces the third, and ot B the fourth explosion. Fig. 23 is an electric 
 jar.w hich serveJto illustrate the direction ofthe fluid while charging 
 a Leyden phial. B B is the lin-foil coating; C a stand which sup- 
 ports the jar ; D a socket of metal, carrying the glass rod E, a 
 bent brass wire pointed at each end, and fixed at the end of the 
 rod G ; which rod is moveable in the spring lube N at pleasure: 
 that tube being fixed by a socket on the top of the glass rod E 
 the jar is charged bv the inside wire, which communicates w ith the 
 different divisions ofthe inside coating by horizontal wires. Place 
 the jar lo the conductor us usual ; and, when charging, a luminous 
 speck will appear upon the upper point of the wire at F, clearly 
 shewing, according lo the commonly received- opinion, that Ihe 
 point is then receiving the electric fluid. From the upper ring ofthe 
 coating B, on the outside of the jar, a fine stream or pencil of rays 
 will at the same lime fly olV, beautifully diverging from the lower 
 point of the wire V upon the bottom ring of the coating of Ihe jar. 
 When the appearances cease, which they do when the jar is 
 charged, let a pointed wire be presented towards the conductor : 
 this will soon discharge the jar silently; during which the point 
 will be illuminated with a small spark, while the upper point of 
 the wire will throw off a pencil of rays diverging towards the up- 
 per ring of the coating. 
 
 To Discharge a Jar Silently. 
 
 When a large jar is fully charged, which would give a terrible 
 
 shock, put one of your hands in contact with its outside coating; 
 
 with
 
 ELECTIIICITV. 
 
 271 
 
 ill lhi> otluM' Iiolil a sinirp-pointed iipt'dlc, and ktcniiif; tlic point 
 liri'cteil towards tlie knob of the jar, protei'd gradnallv ncMr it, 
 until lilt- point of tlie needle toutlies tlie knob. 'I'liis operation 
 (li-'uliarges the jar entirely; and you will either receive no shock 
 at all, or so small a one as can liarill) be perceived. The point 
 of the nedle, therefore, has silently and gradually drawn all the 
 iuperlkious fluid from the insido surface of the electric jar. 
 
 '1"hf Elb:ctrifif.d Cotton. 
 
 Take a small lock of cotton, extendeil in every direction as 
 much as conveniently can be done; and by a linen thread about 
 !n'i; or six inches long, or by a thread drawn out of the same cot- 
 ■:i, tie it to the end of the prime conductor: then turn the wuich 
 1 ihe machine, and the lock of cotton, on being electrilied, will 
 immediately swell, by repelling its fdaments from one another, 
 and will stretch itself towards the nearest conductor. In this situ- 
 ation let tlie winch be kept turning, and present the end of your 
 I linger, or the knob of a wire, towards the lock of cotton, which 
 •■/ill then immediately move towards the linger, and endeavour to 
 iirhit; but take with Ihe other hand a pointed needle, and pre- 
 1 its point towards the cotton, a little above the end of the lin- 
 , an<l you will observe the cotton immediately to shrink up- 
 iid, and moae towards the prime conductor. Kcniove the 
 ii^'i-ille, and tli<- cotton will come aga'm towards the finger. Pre- 
 ■,,:it the needle, and the cotton v ill shrink again, which clearly 
 jjrovcs that the needle draws otl'the electric liuid from the cotton. 
 
 I The Electrified Bladdek. 
 
 I. Take a la^ge bladder well blown, and cover it with gold, silver, 
 or bra--s leaf, sticking it with gum-water: suspend it at the end of 
 a single thread, at least six or seven feet long, hanging from the 
 ceiling of the room; and electrify the bladder, by giving it a 
 I strong spark with the knob of a charged bottle: this done take a 
 ' knobbed wire, and present it to the bladder when motionless ; antl 
 you will perceive, that as the knob approaches the bladder, the 
 bladder also moves towards the knob, and, when nearly touching 
 it, gives it the spark which it received from the charged phial, and 
 thus it becomes unelectrilied. Give it another spark, and, instead 
 of the knobbed wire, present the jioint of a needle towards it, and 
 the bladder will not be attracted by, but rather recede from, the 
 point, especially if the needle be very suddenly presented towards 
 It. This ib one of Mr. llenly's experiments. 
 
 The Dancin'c Balls. 
 
 •, Fix a poi'nted wire upon the prime conductor, with the point 
 flutward ; then take a glass tumbler, grasp it with your hands, and 
 present its inside surface to the point of the wire upon the prime 
 conductor while the machine is in motion: the glass in this man- 
 ner will soon become charged; for its inside surface acquires the 
 electricity from the point, and the hands serve as a coating for the 
 outside. This done put a few pith balls upon the table, and co- 
 ver them with this charged glass tumbler. The balls will imme- 
 diately beg'i! to leap up along the sides of the glass as represented, 
 fig. 1,' Plate LXIV. and will continue their motion for a consider- 
 able time. 
 
 'J"ke Electric Flies. 
 
 These (lies are com]josed of small brass wires, (igs. 2 and 3, 
 i'lale LXIV. fixed into a cap of brass, e;isily moveable upon an 
 axis of the same metal, and ex:u-tly balanced, so th;it they may 
 turn with the smallest force. The ends, wdiich ought to be very 
 sliarp, are all bent one way, with regard to one another, as those 
 belonging to a, h, in the figure; though the two sets of points con- 
 stituting the two ilies thi-re repre-iented, are contrary to each 
 "ithor; so that the whole Hies must have a contrary motion. Fix- 
 iiiL' the axle with the (wo (lies upon the prime conductor, ;ind 
 ■,,01 king the machine, both will begin to turn very swiftly, each in 
 ,'1 dirntion contrary t.) that of the points. In this manner, with a 
 puwerful machine, sevend flies in;iy be made to turn either in the 
 >ame or in contrary directions; and liy their gradual increase or 
 decrease in size may represent a cone or other figure; for the 
 (■(iiirse of each will be markerl by a line of tire, and thus the whole 
 will exhibit a beautiful appearance in the dark. The light is said 
 to be more brilliant when the ends are slightly covered with seal- 
 ing-wax, grease, or other electric matter. Tlie (lies, in this expe- 
 
 riment, turn the same way wlielher the electricity be positive or 
 negative; the reason will easily be conceived ironi the theory 
 above laid down, viz. that in positive electricity the lluid issuea 
 from the body electrilied, and that ill negative electricity it enters 
 into il. In ihe former case, the force of the fluid, wliicli acts 
 e(|ually on the air and on the point from wdience it issues, must 
 continually jiut the point tlie contrary way ; and in negative elec- 
 tricity, when the powit solicits a conliuual ilraught of electric mat- 
 ter trom the air, the direct impulse of the former must also pro- 
 duce a motion in the point in the course in which the (luid itself 
 moves. In vacuo no motion is produced ; because there is no air on 
 which the iluid may act when it issues from the point. In like man- 
 ner, when air is inclosed in a glass vessel, the motion of the ejectric 
 fly soon stops; bi.'cause the air and the glass soon becomes so much 
 electrilied, th;it the escape of the fluid from the point is prevented, 
 and therelbre its motions are impeded, and in a little time entirely 
 stopped. On applying a conductor to the outside of the gla>s, 
 the fly renews its motion; because an opportunity is now given to 
 (he (luid to escape, by running through the glass. But this must 
 soon cease, because, when the glass is thus charged, no more can 
 be carried from the outside. I'ig. 4 shews another (iy which 
 turns perpendicularly by the same electric pouer. By means of 
 the stream of electricity issuing from a point, many other amusing 
 experiments have been contrived: such is the electrical orrery, 
 shewing the motion of the sun, earth, and moon. The sun and 
 earth go round the common centre of gravity between them in a 
 solar year; and the earth and moon go round the common centre 
 of gravity between them in a lunar month. These motions arc 
 represented by an electrical experiment as follows: The ball S, 
 fig. J, represents Ihe sun, E the earth, and M the moon, connect- 
 ed by wires « c and 6 (i: bh the centre of gravity between the 
 earth and moon. These three balls, and their connecting wires, 
 are hung and supported on the sharp point of a wire A, so that the 
 whole may turn on the point a. In like manner E and Mare 
 supported ;U the point b, round which they turn. And as E and 
 M are light when compared with S and E, there is much less fric- 
 tion on (lie point b, than on the point a. 'I'he weights of the balls 
 may be adjusted so, that E and M may go twelve times round b, 
 in the time that S and E go once rountl «. This aftbrds an amus- 
 ing experiment in electricity ; Init it is so far from proving that 
 the motions of the planets in the heavens are owing to a like cause, 
 that it plainly proves they are not ; for Ihe real sun and planets are 
 not coiiiiected by wires or bars of metal, and consequently there 
 can be no such metallic points as c and d between them. And 
 without such points, the electric fluid would never cause them to 
 move; for, take away these points in the above-mentioned expe- 
 riment, and the balls will continue at rest, let them be ever so 
 strongly electrified. Fig. (j represents a water-mill lor grinding 
 corn, turned by a stream of electricity. A is the water-aheel, 
 B the cog-wheel on its axis, C the trundle turned by that wheel, 
 and D the rmmiiig mill-5toiie on the top of the axis of the 
 trundle. It may easily be contrived and turned also by electri- 
 city, if instead of the round plate U for the mill-stone, there is a 
 horizontal wheel on the trundle C, with spur-cogs, whicli will 
 turn two trundles placed on its opposite sides: and on the top of 
 each of these trumlles' axis, niay be a round plate representing a 
 mill-stone; so that this model has all the working parts of a dou- 
 ble water-mill, turning two mill-stones. Set the mill near the 
 prime conductor, and |)lace the crooked wire so that its ])oint may 
 be directed towards the ti])permosl side of the great wheel A. 
 Then turn the gUiss globe by the u inch, and the stream of (ire 
 that issues from the point of the wire will turn the wheel, and con- 
 sequently all the other working parts of the mill. Small boats or 
 swans are sometimes made of light wood or cork, and lliey may 
 be attracted and made to swim in any direction, by applying a 
 finger towards them ; or they may have the addition of sails, and 
 will then be made to sail briskly before an electrical gale from a 
 wire held in the hand of the operator. 
 
 The Thunder House. 
 
 Fi^. 9, Plate LXIV. is an instrument representing the side of a 
 house, either furnished with a melallic conductor, or not; by 
 which both Ihe bad effect? of lighlning striking upon a house not 
 properly secured, and the usefulness of melallic conductors, may- 
 be clearly represented. A is u bourd about three quarters of an 
 
 t inch
 
 n-1 
 
 ELECTRICITV 
 
 iiiih thick, auti -liyptd like the stable cjid of a i-.ouse. Tliis board 
 is rixt-il |MTjj>-iic!itiilarl_v upon tlic bottom board B, upon which 
 the perpendicular glass' pillar, CD, is also fixed in a hole about 
 right inches distant iVoni the basis ot tlie board A. A sipiare hole 
 I L M K, about a ipiarler of an inch deep, and nearly one inch 
 wide, is made in the board A, and is tilled with a s<|uare piece of 
 wood; which is made nearly of the same dimensions, because it 
 must go so easily into the hole, that it may drop olf by the least 
 shaking of the instrument. A wire L K is fastened diagonally to 
 this square piece of wood. Another wire IH of the same thick- 
 ness, having a brass ball II, screwed on its pointed extremity, is 
 fastened upon the board A; so also is the wire M N, which is 
 shapid in a ring at O. From the npper extremity of the glass 
 pillar CD, a crooked wire proceeds, having a spring-socket F, 
 through which a double knobbed vs.ire slips perpendicularly, the 
 lower knob G of which falls just above the knob II. The glass 
 pillar DC must not be made very fast into the bottom board; 
 but it must be fixed so as it may be pretty easily moved round its 
 own axis; by which means the brass ball G may be brought nearer 
 or farther from the ball 11, without touching the part E F G. 
 Now when the square piece of wood L M I K (which may repre- 
 sent the shutter of a window or the like) is lixed into the hole so, 
 that the wire LK stands in the dotted reijrcsentation I M, then 
 the metallic communication from II lo O is complete, and the in- 
 strument represents a house furnished with a proper metallic con- 
 ductor: but if the square piece of wood L M I K is fixed so, that 
 the wire LK stands in the direction LK, as represented in the 
 figure, then the metallic conductor H O, from the top of the house 
 lo its bottom, is interrupted at 1 M, in which case the house is not 
 properly secured. Fix the piece of wood L M I K so, that its 
 vire may be as represented in the figure, in which case the me- 
 tallic conductor H O is discontinued. Let the ball G be fixed at 
 about half im inch perpendicular distance from the ball H ; then, 
 by turning the glass jiillar D C, remove the former ball from the 
 latter; by a wire or chain connect the wire E F with the wire Q 
 cf the jar Pj and let another wire or chain, fastened to the hook 
 O, touch the outside coating of the jar. Connect the wire Q w ith 
 the prime conductor, and charge the jar; then, by turning the 
 glass pillar D C, let die ball G come gradually near the ball 11 ; 
 and wlien they are arrived sufficiently near one another, the jar 
 will exjilode, and the piece of wood L M ( K w ill be pushed out 
 of the hole to a considerable distance from the thunder house. 
 Now the ball G, in this experiment, represents an electrified 
 cloud, which, when it is arrived sufficiently near the top of the 
 house A, the electricity strikes it ; and as this house is not secur- 
 ed with a proper conductor, the explosion breaks off a part, /. c. 
 knocks off the piece of wood I M. Kepeat the experiment witli 
 only this variation, viz. that this piece of \\'ood 1 M is situated so, 
 that the wire L K may stand in the situation I M, in which case 
 the conductor H O is not discontinued ; and then the explosion 
 will have no effect upon the piece of wood L M, this remaining 
 in the hole unmoved; which shews the usefulness of the metallic 
 conductor. Again, unscrew the brass ball II from the wire H I, 
 so that this may remairLpointed. With this tlifl'erence only in the 
 apj*aratus, repeat both the above experiments ; and you will find 
 that the piece of wood I M is in neither case moved from its 
 ])lace, nor any explosion will be heard ; which not only demon- 
 strates the preference of the conductors with pointed terminations 
 to those with blunted ones ; but also shews th.it a house furnished 
 vith sharp terminations, although not furnished with a regular 
 conductor, is almost sufficiently guarded against the effects of 
 lightning. This apparatus is sometimes made in the shape of a 
 house, as represented fig. 10, where, for the sake of distinctness, 
 the side and part of the roof next the eye are not represented. 
 The gable end A C represents that of the thunder house, and may 
 be used in the same manner with that above described, or more 
 readily by the following method. Let one ball of the discharging 
 rod touch the ball of the charged jar, and the oUier the knob A of 
 the conductor A C of the thunder house: the jar will then of 
 «ourse explode, and the lluid will act upon the conductor just 
 mentioned. The conducting wire at the windows /( h must be 
 placed in a line. The sides and gable, A C, of the house, arc 
 connected with the bottom by hinges; and the building is kept 
 together by a ridge on the roof. T o use this model, fill the small 
 »u')e a ■with gunpowder, and jam tlie w ir« *a little way into the 
 
 tube; then connect the tube e with the bottom of a large jar, o| 
 battery. When the jar is charged, from a communication from 
 the hook at C, on the outside, to the tep of the jar, by the dis- 
 charging rod ; the discharge will fire the ])owder, and the explo. 
 sion of the latter will throw off the roof, with the sides, back, and 
 front, so that they will all fall dow n together. Fig. 1 1 I'epresenls 
 a small ramrod for the tube a, and fig. li; a pricker for the touch- 
 hole at C. Fig. 13 represents a mahogany pyramid, by means 
 of which the same experiment may be exhibited. It is used in a 
 manner similar to that just now described, the piece at a being 
 tlirown out by the discharge ; by which means the upper part falls 
 down in three pieces. Mr. Jones of Holborn makes the front of 
 the common thunder houses, as well as the powder house above 
 described, with two pieces of wood or windows hh, which, by 
 being place<l in proper situations, the one to conduct and the other 
 to resist the fiuiti, will illustrate by one discharge the usefulness of 
 good conductors for securing buildings or magazines from the ex- 
 plo-^ion of thunder, as w ell as the danger of using imperfect ones. 
 
 lo shew that the Electric Fluid prefers a Short Passage 
 through the air, to a Long one through good conductors. Dr. 
 Priestley invented the following experiment: Bend a wire about 
 five feet long in the form represented in fig. 14, Plate LXIV. so 
 that the parts A and B may approach within half an inch of each 
 other ; and connect its extremities with the hook of the batter)-, 
 and the discharging rod. Upon sending the explosion of a bat- 
 tery through it, a spark will be seen between A and B, which 
 ])roves that the electric iluid, prefers the short passage through the 
 air to the long one througli or along the wire. The whole charge, 
 however, does not run from A to B, but part of it runs througli 
 the wire, whieii is proved by placing a slender wire between A 
 and B ; for with only this addition to the apparatus, the small wire 
 w ill be scarcely made red-hot ; whereas if the large bent wire be 
 cut at C, so as to interrupt the circuit ACB, the small wire will 
 be melted, and even exploded, by the same charge which, before 
 the wire was cut, hardly made it red hot. By this experiment 
 Dr. Priestley says, the different degrees of conducting power in 
 different metals may be tried, by using metallic circuits of equal 
 length and thickness, and observing the dif'fei-ence of the passage 
 in each dirough the air. Dr. Van Marum, by the grand electrical 
 nfachine and battery in TeyleFs Musaum at Haarlem, tried to 
 communicate magnetism to needles made out of watch springs of 
 three, and even six, inches in length ; as well as to steel bars nine 
 inches long, from a quarter to half an inch in breadth, and about the 
 twelfth part of an inch in thickness. The result was, that when the 
 bar or needle was placed horizontally in the magnetic meridian, 
 which ever way the shock entered, the end of the bar that stood 
 toward the north acquired the north polarity, and the opposite end 
 acquired the south. If the bar, before it received the shock, had 
 some polarity, and was placed with its poles contrary to the usual 
 direction, then its natural polarity was always diminished, and 
 often reversed ; so that the extremity of it, which in receiving the 
 shock looked towards the north, became the north pole, &c. 
 VVhenthe bar or needlewas struck standing perpendicularly, its low- 
 est end became the north pole, in any case, even when the bar had 
 some magnetism before, and was placed with the south pole down- 
 wards. All other circumstances being alike, the bars seemed to 
 acquire an equal degree of magnetic power, whether they were 
 struck while standing horizontally in the magnetic meridian, or 
 perpendicular to the horizon. When a bar or needlewas placed 
 in the magnetic equator, whichever way the shock entered, it 
 never gave it any magnetism ; but if the shock was given through 
 its width, then the needle acquired a considerable degree of mag- 
 netism, and the end of it which lay towards the west became the 
 north pole, and the other end the south pole. If a needle or bar, 
 already magnetic, or a real magnet, was struck in any direction, 
 its power was always diminished. For this experiment they tried 
 considerable large bars ; one being 7.08 inches long, 0.26 broad, 
 and O.Oj thick. When the shock was so strong, in proportion to 
 the size of the needle, as to render it hot, then the needle gene- 
 rally acquired no magnetism at all, or very little. To determina 
 whether electricity and fire act upon metals in the same manner. 
 Dr. Van Marum caused wires of different nutals to be drawn, 
 through the same hole, of one-thirty-eighth part of an inch in dia- 
 meter, and observed how many inches of each could be melted by 
 the explosion of his batterv ; taking care, in all these experiments, 
 
 t«
 
 ELECTRICITY. 
 
 273 
 
 to charge it lotlie same <li->;;r>'C asu'-tiTtaiiied hy liH elictroineler. 
 Tlu- re-.iills wfre as tollow : — Ot leatl Iil- iiielli-u 1'20 iuclies ; of 
 tin 1'20; of iron 5 ; olgoldJJ; of silver, crjpper, and brass, not 
 quite a cuiarler oi ;«i inch. 'I'liese diHertnt lengtlis of wire, of llie 
 sanii" diaiUrtiT, melted by equal ex|)Iosion^, ijidicate, the Dr. 
 thinks, tiie degree m which each metal is fusible by the electrical 
 tlischarge. On comparing these with the fusibility of the same 
 niflals by fire, a very con.-iderable dillerence will he observed. 
 By tlie experiments of the academicians of Dijon, to melt tin re- 
 «pi,rr-d a heat ot 170' .if Reaumur's thermometer; lead 230; sil- 
 ver 430 ; gold 6t33 ; copper 650; and iron OOli. Thus tin and 
 lead appear to be equally lusible by electricity, but not by lire : 
 and iron, which by lire is less fusible than gold, is much more so 
 by the electrical e.xplosion. From these and some other e."iperi- 
 iiients ot the same kmd, Ur. Van Marum concludes, that, in melt- 
 ing metals, the electrical liuid acts upon them in a nianiier very 
 dmVTeut from the action of lire, and that the supposed analogy be- 
 tween tliese two powerlul agents .raniiol be proved, either from the 
 fusion of metals, or the ignition of combustible substances. 
 
 Of the Electrical Kite. 
 
 The justly celebrated Dr. Franklin was the first who made use 
 of the elecli ical kite, to draw the electric tluid from tlie clouds. 
 Since ids hrst successful attempt, various methods have been tried 
 by difi'erent electricians to improve the construction of this iiistru- 
 nieiit. The most convenient size is found to be about four feet 
 ill length, and two in breadth : and the best covering is common 
 Tarnisli, or well boiled linlsced oil. Paper for the body of the 
 kite is preferable to silk or linen, both for convenience and cheap- 
 ooss. But, though some eminent electricians cover the b< ck 
 part of the straiter with tin-toil, and fiunisli its upper extremity 
 with a slender pointed wire, to draw the electricity' from the 
 cl..ud~ more tHectually ; yet it is acknowledged, that in genen^l 
 uei her of these improvements afi'ect the electricity at the string, 
 or increase it in the smallest degree. Mr. Cavallo, who has made 
 many ex|)eriments in atmospherical electricity, observes tliat the 
 uliole power of this machine lies in the string. A common school 
 b >y's kite au'-wers the puri)Ose as well as any other. The best 
 method of making the string is by twisting two threads of common 
 twine with one of that copper thread which is used for trimmings. 
 When a kite constructed in this manner was raised, he says, he 
 ahvays observed the string to give signs of electricity, except once. 
 The weather was warm, and the wind so we.ik, that the kite was 
 raised with difficulty, and could hardly be kept up for a few mi- 
 uutes. Afterwards, however, when the wind increased, he obtain- 
 ed, as usual; a pretty strong positive electricity. Concerning the 
 uiaiiagement oi this kite he gives the following directions : " [n 
 raising the k.te, when the we tlier is verv cloudy and rainy, in 
 wh.ch liine there is danger of meeting witli a great quantity ot 
 electricity, I generally u-e to hang upon the string A 15 (Plate 
 LXIV. tig. 13,) the hook of a chain C, ihe' other extremity of 
 which falls on tiie ground. Snmetiiiies I use anotiier caution be- 
 sides, which isto«taiid upon an insulated stool ; in which situatio'', 
 I think, that if any quantity of electricity, suddenly discharged 
 by the clouds, strikes the kite, it cannot miicii atlect any p r- 
 son. As to insulated reels, and other su< h like instruments, that 
 some gentlemen have used to raise the kite without any ilangrt of 
 receiving a shock ; fit tor the purjiose as they may ap|)ear in the- 
 ory, they are yet very inconvenient to be managed. Except the 
 kite be raised in the time of a tlumder storm, there is no ijreat 
 danger for the operator to receive any shock. Allhough I have 
 raised my electrical kite hundreds of times, without any caution 
 whatever, I have very seldom received a few exceedingly slight 
 shocks in my arms. In time of a thunder storm, if the kite has not 
 been raised before, I would not advise a person to raise while the 
 >tormy clouds are just over head ; the danger at such a time being 
 very grea, even with the precautions above mentioned: at that 
 time the electricity of the clouds may be observed, without raising 
 ;he kite, by_ a cork-ball electrometer held in the hand in a open 
 jlace, or, if it rain, by the electrometer for rain, to be described 
 lereafler. When the kite has been raised, I generally introduce 
 Le string throueh a window in a room of the house, and fasten it 
 ) a slrongsilk lace, the extremity of which is generally tied to a 
 leavy chair in the nxim. In Plate LXIV. fig. Itj, AU represents 
 Mi-t of tlie string of tlie kite, which conies within the room ; C re- 
 vot. n. — MO, 73. 
 
 presents the silk lace; DE, a small prime conductor, which, !»/ 
 means of a small wire, is connected with lliestr ng of tlie kite; and 
 F^ represents the tpiadrant electrometer, fixed upon a sland of glai* 
 covered w ilh sealing-wax, which I u.-ed to put near the prime con- 
 ductor, rather than to fix it in a l.ole upon the conductor, lH-cau>e 
 the siring, AB, sometimes shakes so as to pull the prime conductor 
 down : in which case tlie quadrant electrometer remains sate upon 
 the table, otherwise it would he broken, as I have olieii experi- 
 enced before 1 thought of this metho:l. G represents a glass lube, 
 about eighteen inches Ion?, with a knobbed wire ceiiieiited to its 
 exiremity, with which instrument 1 use to observe the quality of 
 the electricity, wlien the electricity of the kite is so strong, liial 1 
 think it not safe to come very near the string. The method it, 
 as follows: — 1 hold tlie inslruinent by that extremity of the 
 glass tube which is farthest from the wire, and touch llie string of 
 the kite with the knob of its wire, which being insulated acquire* 
 a small quantity of electricity from it; which is sufJicient to as- 
 certain its ([uality, when the knob of the instrument is brought 
 near ail electrified electrometer." Mr. Cavallo, however, with 
 all his caution, could not always avoid danger, even when there 
 was no tlumder; as ajipears from the circuiipslances he infonns us 
 attended some of his experiments. And other electricians have 
 in experiments «ilh the kite sometimes been surprised by very 
 singular pluenomena, attended with evident danger, hence the 
 greatest circums]>ectioii is required. The general laws deduced 
 by .Mr. Cavallo, from his experiments with the kitci, arc as fol- 
 low : 
 
 " I. The air appears to be electrified at all times ; its rle<'tricity 
 is constantly positive, and muali stronger in frosty than in waru'i 
 we.ither; but it is by uo means less in the night than in the day 
 time. '- : 
 
 " ir. The presence of the clouds generally lessens ihc electri- 
 city of the kite ; sometimes it has no eliect upon it: and it is very- 
 seldom that it increases it a little." To this the above-mentioned 
 in tance is a most remarkable exception. 
 
 " III. >\ hen it rains, the electricity of the kite is generally ne- 
 gative, and very seKlom positive. 
 
 " I\'. Tl;e aurora borealis seems not to affect the electricity of 
 llie kite. 
 
 " V. The electric spark taken from the siring of the kite, ot 
 from any insulated conductor connected with it, especially when 
 it does not rain, is very seldom longer than a (jnaitcr of an inch ; 
 but it is exceedingly pungent. When the index ot the electrome- 
 ter is not higher thun 20°, the person that takes the spark will feel 
 the effect of it in his legs; it appearing more like the discharge of 
 an electric jar than the spark taken from the prime conductor of an 
 electrical ni. chine. 
 
 " VI. The electricity of the kite is generally stronger or weaker, 
 according as the string is longer or shorter ; but it does not keep 
 any exact proportion to it. I'iie electricity, for in>tance, brought 
 down by a string of a hundred yards, may" raise the index of the 
 electrometer to twenty, when, with double that length of string, 
 the index of the electrometer w 11 not go higher than twenty -five. 
 
 " VII. When t!ie weather is damp, and die electricity is pretty 
 strong, the index of the electrometer, after talking a spark from 
 the string, or presenting the knob of a coated phial to it, rises 
 surprisingly quick to its usual place ; but in dry and warm weather 
 it rises exceedingly slow." 
 
 The principal use of (he electrical kite is to shew the electricity 
 of the atmosphere ; and it is perhap> the only instrument that will 
 do this at alt times with certainty, tjiough several otliers have been 
 invented for that purpose, as will be noticed inthe next section. But 
 another use to which electrical kites have been applied, is to bring 
 down ([uantities of the electric fluid from the upper regions of the 
 atmosphere, for the purpose of supplying th.it deficiency of elec- 
 tricity , which is supposed to be hurtful to vegetation, 'i ise .■^bb^ 
 Bertholon advises for this |)urpose to erect conductors, or lanch 
 paper kites on mouRtains, in order to seek out and direct this liuid 
 towards the surface of the earth. " 'HH>e (he adds"! v i|| imi.ie- 
 diiitely and at all limes obtain an electricity so much the more 
 strong as the height of the atmosphere shall be the more ccnsider- 
 able." With this view he even proposes to dcnible the kite;. 
 "Upon a high mountain (says he) there were lanchcd two elec- 
 tric [>aper kites, one of which was fixed to the inferior extremitv 
 oftheotlrer, thus gaining a doubly advantage in point of .heii-ht'; 
 4 A •• lie 
 
 i
 
 274 
 
 ELECTRICITY. 
 
 the consequence of which was, that the electric ell'ecls were incom- 
 parahly greater than those produced by a single instrument." 
 
 Sc%eral in trunients have been invented lor ascertaining the 
 state of the atmosphere with lespert to the quantity of electricity 
 it may contain, at any i^iven time. The best of them are improve- 
 ments upon Canton's electrometer, which is made by inclosing 
 the pith-balls, or rather iwo slips of gold leaf, in a cylindrical glass 
 vessel, to prevent their benig affected by tlie wijul. Bennet's 
 electrometer, Plate LXl\'. lig. 18, is a very delicate instrument, 
 and capable of distinguishing small quantities of electricity. It 
 consists of two slip^ ot leaf gold A, su-piiitled in a glass li. I'he 
 foot C may be of wood or metal ; the cup L) of metal. The cup 
 is made fl.it on the top, that plates, books, evaporating water, or 
 other things to be electrified, may be cnnvenientl) placed upon it. 
 The cup IS about an inch wider in diameter than the glass, and its 
 rim about three quarters of an inch broad ; which hangs ]rarallel to 
 the glass, to turn off the rain, and keep it sufficiently in>ulaled. 
 VVitnin this is another circular rini, about half as broad as the 
 other, which is lined with^silk or velvet, and fits close upon the 
 outside of the glass; thus the cap fits well, and may be easily 
 taken off to repair any accident happening to the leaf gold. With- 
 in this rim is a tin tuiji', hanging from the centre of the cap, some- 
 what longer than the depth ot tiie inner rim. In the tube a small 
 peg is placed, ami may be occasioualfy taken out. To the peg, 
 which IS made round at one end, and flat at the other, the slips ol 
 leaf gold are fastened with paste, gum-water, or varnish. These 
 slips supended by the peg, and th.it in the tube fast to the centre 
 of the c.ip, hang in the middle of the glass, about three inches long, 
 and a qu.irter of an inch broad. On one side of the cap there is a 
 small hole to place wires in. It is evident, that without the glass, 
 tlie leaf gold would be so agitated by the least motion of the air, 
 that it would be useless: and if the electricity should be comniu- 
 nicated to the surface of the glass, it w ould interfere with the re- 
 pulsion of the leaf gold; therefore two long pieces H 11, of tin- 
 foil are fastened with varnish on opposite sides of the internal sur- 
 face of the glass, where the leaf gold may be expected to strike, 
 and in connection with the foot. The upper end of the glass is 
 covered and lined witii sealing-wax as low as the outermost rim, to 
 make its insulation more perfect. The sensibility of this instru- 
 ment IS so great as even to astonish the most experienced electri- 
 cians who have been witnesses of its effects. The brush of a fea- 
 ther, the throwing of chalk, hair-powder, or dust, against its cap, 
 evince strong signs of electricity. The electricity of vapour is ele- 
 gantly shewn by pouring a tea-spoonful of water on an ignited coal 
 placed in a metallic cup upon the cap of this electrometer; and a 
 very great and pleasing variety of other experiments may be made 
 with this excellent instrument. In performina several atmosphe- 
 rico-electrical experiments about the year 1776, I found," says 
 Mr. Cavallo, " that tlie use of Canton's cork-ball electrometer 
 was much obstructed by the wind, in consequence of which I at- 
 tempted to inclose it in a bottle, and alter a variety of trials and 
 alterations, tlie instrument was, in the year 1777, brought to the 
 ktate which is represented in fig. 19. The tliree parts of the, 
 figure represent the instrument in its case, the same out of the case, 
 and a section of its br.ass cap and neck. CDMN is an open glass 
 vessel narrower at top than at bottom, and cemented into the 
 wooden piece A B, by which part the instrument is iield when it 
 ts to be presented to the atmosphere, or it may be rested u|)on a 
 / table for other experiments. I'his wooden p:ece also serves to 
 screw the inslnimenl iii'o its wooden case O. The upper part of 
 CD.MN is tapering like the neck of a phial; and a short glass 
 tube is cemented into it, so as to project a little above, and a little 
 witliin the neck of the former : then ^he upper part of the instru- 
 ment from C I) to L, is covered with sealing-wax, by means of 
 Iieat, which gives it the appearance of one continuate body. The 
 inner part G of the small glass tube is also covered with sealing- 
 wax. Into this tube a brass wire is cemented, the lower part 1:1 
 of which is flattened, and is perforated with two iioles; the upper 
 part L is formed into a screw, upon which the brass cap E F is 
 screw-eel. The office of this cap is to defend the upper part of the 
 instrument from the rain. The conical, or oval, or globular, corks 
 V of this electrometer, are as small as can be made, and are sus- 
 pended by exceedingly fine silver wires, the upper parts of whicli 
 are formed in rings, which pass through the Iioles at H, and are 
 • hereby so loosely suspended, that they are caused to diverge 
 
 when the brass cap E is exposed to a very slightly electrified at- 
 mosphere. I M and K ]S are two narrow :~li|)s of tin-toil stuck to 
 the inside ol the glass, and communicating w ith the wooden bot- 
 tom AB; they serve to carry off that electricity, which, when 
 the corks touch the glass, is communicated to it, and if accumu- 
 lated would disturb the free motion of the corks." Mr. Cavallo's 
 electrometer for rain is repre>eiited in fig. 17. Of this he gives 
 the following description: " In principlr.it is nothing; more than 
 an insulated instrnment to catch the rain, and by a jjith ball elec- 
 trometer, to shew the quantity ai d quality ol its electricity. A B 
 CI is a strong glass tube about y! feet long, h.iving a tin funnel 
 D E cemented to its extremity, which lunnel defends p.irt of the 
 tube from the rain. 'I he outside surlace of the tube from A to B 
 IS covered with sealing-wax ; so also is the part of it which is co- 
 vered by the funnel. F D is a piece ol cane, round which brass 
 wires are twisted in difl'erent directions, so as to catch the rain 
 easily, and at the same time to make no resistance to the- wind. 
 This piece of cane is fixed into the tube; and a slender wire pro- 
 ceeding from it goes through the bore ot the tube, and communi- 
 cates with the strong u ire A G, w Inch Is thrust into a piece of cork 
 lastened to the end, A, of the tube. The end, G, of the wire 
 A G, is formed in a ring, from which I suspend a more or less 
 s.-nsihie pith ball electrometci as occasion requires. This instru- 
 ment is fastened to the side of the window-frame, where it is sup- 
 ported by strong brass hooks at C B ; which part of the tube is co- 
 vtrreil wUh a silk lace, in order to ada))t it better to the hooks. 
 The part E C is out of the window, w ith the end F elevated a little 
 above the horizon. The remaining part i.f the instrument comes 
 tlirough a hole in one of the lights of the sash within the room, and 
 no more of it touches the side of the window than the part C B. 
 When it rains, especially in passing showers, this instrument, 
 standing in the situation above described, is frequently electrified ; 
 and, by the diverging of the electrometer, the quantity and quality 
 of the electricity of the rain may be observed*'ilhout any danger 
 of mistake. With this instrument I have observed, that the rain is 
 generally, though not always, electrified negatively ; and some- 
 times so strongly, that I have been able to charge a small coated 
 phial at the wire A G. This instrument should be fixed in such a 
 manner that it may be easily taken off from (he window, and rc- 
 ]ilaced again as occasion requires; for it will be necessary to clean 
 it very often, particularly wdien a shower ot rain is approaching." 
 One of the best electrometers, if not the very best hiflierto invent- 
 ed, for measuring artificial electricity, i; that of Mr. A? Brook of 
 Norwich. It is acknowledged by electriciai:s to be constructed 
 on the only true principle on which machines for measuring the 
 cpiantity of electricity can be made. The mere i.t'raction ol any 
 light body shews indied that the substance \vhich attracts it is 
 electrified ; but this property is by no means calculated to disco- 
 ver the comparative strength of it, on account of its continual va- 
 riation. Thus, if we hold any body within the eU>ctrified atmo- 
 sphere of another, though it be first attracted pretty strongly, yet 
 that attraction will be constantly diminishing, and at last changed 
 into a repulsive power; but the latter, alter it has once taken 
 place, cuntinues invariable as long as any degree of electric charge 
 remains. Fig. '20, and 21, Plate LXIV. represent an electrii- 
 meter, or rather two, nearly similar to Mr. Brook's. '^Ihese two 
 instruments are usecl either conjoined or separately. The arms 
 FM//(-, fig. 21, when used, are placed as much as possible out 
 of the atmosphere of a jar, battery, prime conductor, &c. The 
 arm E M, and the ball K, are made ot cupper, and as light as pos- 
 sible. The divisions on the arm F M are each exactly a grain. 
 They are ascertained at first by placing grain weights on a brass 
 ball which is within the ball L ; (tliis ball is an exact counti-rba- 
 laiice to the arm F M, i^jid the ball K, w hen the small slide on this 
 arm is at the first division,) and then removing the slide till it, to- 
 gether with the ball K, counterbalances the ball L, and the weight 
 laid on it. A, fig. 20, is a dial- plate, divided intii 90 equal parts. 
 The index ot this plate is carried once round, whin the arm BC 
 has moved through 90", or a quarter of a circle. That motion is 
 given to the index by the repulsive power of the charge ;;cting 
 between the b..ll 1) and the ball B. (Phil. Trans, vol. I.xxxii. p. 
 334.) The arm BC being repelled, shc>ws when the charge is in- 
 creasing, and the arm F Nl shews what this repulsive power i-. In 
 twc-eii two balls of this size, in grains, according to the number ti 
 weight rests at, when lilted up by the repulsive power of tl, 
 
 chari;:
 
 ELECTRICITY. 
 
 275 
 
 cliari?!'; ;it ilu' s.iik- Uiir- llii: arm 15 C points out the lUimbiM ot 
 degi'ees lo wliicli Uie ball B is rtfpclleJ; so that, by iei)'jaled triatS; 
 the number ot degrees aiHweinig to a given miiiiber of grains, 
 inav l)e ascertained, and a table ionued troui lliesc exi)evimtnts, 
 by "wliieh llie cleclromeler, fig. 20, maybe used vvitlioul that ol 
 fig. '-M. 
 
 MED1C.\L ELECTRICITY. 
 
 Op the Origin, Improvemen't, amd Advantages, of 
 Medical ELBCTmcirv. 
 
 The application of llie electric liuid to medical |)iii)3oses took its 
 ri'e not loui; after liie discovery of the electrical machine. The 
 first idea oi Us prfiliabje ulility, in this respect, appears to liave 
 arisen irom onscrving tlie eiiects produced by it, upun those ulio, 
 from cuiiosilv, subiiiitted to be eleclrilied; although the fear 
 natural to |>-rsoin, wlio (irst venture to make such experiments, 
 doublkss led them to magnify tliese eiiects, and to ascriije to elec- 
 tricity all those cou'-equeni es which probably arose from their own 
 appreheinioiis; such as increase of pul-alion, heat, per^p lutioii, 
 &c. Mr. C'avallo says, that "the number of patients eiectriried 
 at that time is prodigious, an 1 tbe pretended cures etTectcd by it 
 were wonderful indeed. Accounts of those miracles performed bv 
 elerlricilv were publishe ; in various parts of Europe, together 
 with the method of elec'.rifving the patients; to which were add- 
 ed su:l; tlieories as, allo.vance being made for th; infancy of elec- 
 tricity at that time, wouUl seem inipossilile ever to have been pro- 
 posed to the public. Tliese tlieories were usually enlbrced by the 
 account of experiments which often proved false upon exaniinii- 
 tioii. But at present a much belter acquaintance with the science 
 of electricity than philosophers had about M) or 40 years ago, and 
 less faith in the accounts of the generality of those persons, whose 
 interest it is to promote the use of electricity in medicine, has 
 pointed out the effects of that power upon the human body, in va- 
 rious circumstances, and luis shewn how far we may conhde in it; 
 establishing upon indisputable fatts, that the power of electricity is 
 neither that admirable panacea it was considered by some fanatical 
 and interested persons, nor so useless an application as others have 
 asserted ; but that when properly managed, it is a harmless remedy, 
 which sometimes instantaneously removes divers complaints, 
 generally relieves, and often perlectly cures, various dLsordei-s, 
 some of w^ich could not be removed by the utmost endeavours of 
 physicians and surgeon-. When the first rumour occasioned in 
 Europe by the accounts of many pretended, and of a few real 
 wonders, performed by electricity, had in some measure sub-ided, 
 many creditable and experienced physician-, who justly consider- 
 ing it as their duty, had undertaken to examine the power of this 
 new remedy, published some unsuccessful applications «f elec- 
 tricity in divers diseases; in which cases they had not only pre- 
 scribed the electrization, but the operation had been performed 
 cither by themselves or under their in-pection. These publications 
 gave a new turn to the reputation of medical electricity ; and since 
 fit time the generality of piiysicians and surgeons had not the 
 L'ast regard for its medical application; so that the practitioners of 
 It were rather considered as fanatics and impostors. However, an 
 attentive examination of this subject, after several trials, and after 
 overcoming in a great measure the rooted prejudice among pi'.~ 
 sicians, began to establish anew the reputation of medical elec- 
 tricity ; and shewed that many applications of e'.earicity, pub- 
 lished in the above-mentioned accounts, had pro'. e,l unsuccessful, 
 because the operation was not managed properly : so that it had 
 been the abuse, and not the use, of electricity, lh.«t iiad proved 
 unsuccessful, and in some cases even detrimental; for al that time, 
 strong shocks and strong sparks were generally administei'cd, which 
 a long scries of experiments and observations has proved to be 
 generally useless or hurtful. Mr. Lovcl, who practised medical 
 electricity for a long time vvas, as far as I know, the first w-ho pro- 
 tested against the Use of strong shocks; and in an essav of his in- 
 tilled "Subtil Medium proved," asserts, the shocks to be '.^.ed 
 in medical electricity should be very small; by which tr-'atment 
 he hLirdly ever failed of cur'og or at lea-t reiievins, his patients. 
 One tTting, however, appears to be a little remarkable in fi'.vour of 
 electricity, as a medicine, that though it has often f.dlen into the 
 liands of very unskillul and injudicious persons, who have appliei! 
 it at random ia all cases, without being capable of distinguishing 
 
 either the nature of tlie disordi'r, or the degiei' in wliiih it ought to 
 b:' admini-tercd _\ el it hassehlum bei'n known to be .ittended with 
 any bad effects; the patient has generally been relieved, and very 
 friqiiently cured, but the ill con-equences have been even more 
 rare than tho^e of ino ulation. Eleitricily ddlers from other medi- 
 cal applications in tins, thai it ri'(|uires not so nnich a Ihorough 
 knowledge <.t the distempiT, as a peculiiir nicety in conducting the 
 ippcration. !■ or, however p.iradoxical this may appear, it is certain 
 that till' ele. trie shock is by no means pri judicial to persons in 
 hi .dtli, and tlicrefore to electriry a sound part of the body along 
 witli a di-ea>ed isne, cm do no h.;rni. 1 he dearee of electrization 
 inu4 be reguh'ted rather by the patient'-- leelmgs, than by the 
 -pecies of <lisease, and t'rereiore nosology is not an indispensaidy 
 necessary branch of s;ien( e to the medical electrici n. 'I'here can 
 be no doul t, however, that medical electricity will have every 
 chance of being best applied, as well as improved by skilful phy- 
 sicians or surj;eons, wliose knowledge of anatomy, as well as of 
 nosology, Will enalde them to d.rect the eleclr.cul lluid, to the 
 most propi-r part ot the body, and to pass it through ll;e nioat 
 minute ve--els, according to the nature of the disease and llie part 
 of the body affected. And it is to be hoped, that in such skilful 
 hands, ihis useftil branch ot the science may be brought to perfec- 
 tion, by the discovery oi easier and more certain methods of a|>- 
 plvina; the electric fluul with the best effects, in dilfereiit diseases. 
 "The superiority of electricity," says Mr. Cavallo, " over other 
 remedies, in many case-, may appear from consich'ring, that medi- 
 cines in general cannot always be conlimfd to a particular piirt of the 
 body, aiul lo let lliem pass througli other parts is often dangerous^ 
 lor u hich reason they cannot be used ; besides tliat after those me- 
 dicines have exerted their retpiired power, they are with great 
 difficulty, if at all, separated from the body. But it is of noconse- 
 fiuence, whether the power of electricity passes through this or 
 that other part of the body, in order to come at the seat of tlie 
 disease; and after having exerted its action, it is instantly dispersed. 
 Hence it appears why electricity has often cured such obstinate dis- 
 orders as have not yielded to any other treatment." 
 
 Of the Afpar.\tus necessary for the Medical Appli- 
 cation OF Electricity. 
 
 The apparatus for medical electricity, besides the electrical ma- 
 chine, consists of the following articles: 1. An insulating stool 
 witli glass feet, or, what isinueh better, an arm chair, well round- 
 ed at the edges of the wooden parts, and fixed on a large stool 
 with glass feet, which should be at least nineorten inches in length ; 
 for the longer the feet are, ihe better will the insulation be. '(he 
 inside part of the back of the cliair should move on an hinge, that 
 it may be occasionally let down to the stool, and the back of 
 the patient be tlius electrified more conveniently; the arms of the 
 chair should be made longer than ordinary. 2. A Ley den bot- 
 tle with a discharging electrometer. 3. A pair of directors of con- 
 siderable size, with gla.'.s handles and wooden points. 4. A large 
 metallic ball of brass or cop|)er, with a metallic handle to receive 
 the sparks. The ball should be unscrewed, and the wire long and 
 sliarp-pointed to receive the stream of electric fire. 5. A few glass 
 tulies of different bores, some of them with capillary points. C. 
 Several yards of brass virire or chain; or, which is inuch better, 
 several len.t;ths of wires with loops at the end : the part of the wire 
 between these being covered w itli some non-conducting substance, 
 as a silk ribbon, &c. The directors are represented on Plate 
 LXIV. iig. 24, the handles being of gla-s, one of tiiem having a 
 liall on its emi re])resented by A ; the other is without. the b.dl, 
 having its wire bent for the conveniency of conducting the electric 
 stieani on the eye, &c. Either of the b.ills may be un-crewed 
 from the wires, and the wooden point B screwed in its place, or the 
 pointed end of the brass wiie used. The glass handles should be 
 iield as far from the briss work as possible. To convey the elec- 
 tric fluid to the ear or throat, glass tubes with slicling Ijrass wirefi 
 through them should be made use of, such as are represented in 
 Iig. 35, and 26. ^ig. 27 represents the electric forceps, which is 
 thought by some ele'.tricians to be more convenient for giving the 
 shock than the directors. Fig. 9, plate LXlll. is the medical jar, 
 with an elertrometer, above ilescribed, that regulates the strensth 
 of the shock, and enables the operator to give a succession of them 
 of iiearlv eipuil force. In using this medical jar, the ball B must 
 be placed in contact with the conductor of the electrical lu.ictune.
 
 ^i76 
 
 ELECTRICITY. 
 
 or at lei'.st be connected with it by a wire; alter wl-.icli it is to be 
 ' rl'.arged in tlie usual manner. If wires proctrtl Iroui LI., to tlie 
 outside coating, the jar w;ll be inimedialely discharged, as the ac- 
 <'umulation of the electric Hviid is sufticientl_, pov\ertul to pa-^s 
 through the space of air between the two balls: lu'iice a shock may 
 be coniniunicated to the arm by means oi the wire-, and directors as 
 in tlie lisure, and it will be stronger in proportion as the distance 
 of the ball C from B is a'lgmeiiled. This eleclronieter acts in the 
 nianner of the common discharging ro I, and therefore has received 
 the name of the discharging electrometer. 
 
 Ill (ig. 28, Plate LXIV. g represents the BottleDibec- 
 TOR. It is hollow, and coated like a common jar, acting as such, 
 and in some case.^ is looked upon as very convenient. Vv'ith this, 
 as with the common director, it is [iroper to prcs the ends against 
 the part where the shock is to be applieil. The instrument re- 
 presented in lig. 30, has l)een used successfully in the cure of the 
 toolh-ach. i\ is a strong piece of l>o.\-vvoo(l in which the wiics 
 a b eaiid e_/ are Ji\ed and then bent, the tooth and gum are placed 
 between c andy', and theciicuit between the outside and inside of 
 the jar is to be made l)y means of the chains g'and /(. 
 
 A small pocket electrical apparatus is represented on Plate 
 LXIV. fig. i.'9, which may sometimes be of use for other pur- 
 poses as well as medical. It is packed up in a very small size, be- 
 ing only five inches long, two broad, and one deep. It is capa- 
 ble of a tolerably strong charge of electricity, and will give a small 
 thock to one, two, tliree, or a great number of persons. A is the 
 Leyden phial that holds the charge ; B i^ the discharger to dis- 
 charge the jar when retjuired without electrifying the |)erson that 
 hoids it; C is a silk riblion jirepared by a coating o' vainish, so as 
 to be e.Kciled, and communicate its electricity to the jar ; D r.re 
 two hare skin rubbers, which are to be placed on the tii>t and 
 middle fingers of the leit hand, and serve to e.scite the ribbon C. 
 
 In order to chakge the Jar, place the tw o linger-caps, D, on 
 t!;e first and middle finger of the left hand; hold the jar, A, at 
 the same time at the joining of the red and black, E, on the out- 
 side between the thumb and fii-st finger of the siinie hand ; then 
 take the ribbon in the right hand, and steadily ami gently draw it 
 upwards between the two rubbf rs D, on the two hngei's, taking 
 care at the same time the brass ball of the jar is kept nearly close 
 to ihe ribbon while it is passing through the lingers. By repeating 
 this operation 12 or 14 times the electrical fire will pass into the 
 jar, which will become charged ; and by placing die discharger, 
 C, against it, as in the plate, a sensible spark w ill be seen to pass 
 from the ball of the jar to that ol the di^cha^ge^. If the apparatus 
 is dry and in good order, the crackling of the lire will be heard 
 when the ribbon is passing through the lingers, and the jar will dis- 
 charge at some distance. 
 
 Of the different Methods of applying the Electri- 
 cal Fluid to the Hu.man Body. 
 
 It appears somewhat remarkable, that, when a small power of 
 medical electricity is to be used, large machines should be recom- 
 mended ; whereas not long ago when strong shocks were admi- 
 nistered, small machines were used. The reason is, that wlien ■ 
 shocks are given, a very small electrical machine can charge a 
 Leyden phial iiuich sin ngcrthan is necessary ; whereas, when the 
 stream is used, which is now found to be most efficacious in the 
 cure of diseases, then the small machines are mostly useless. In 
 general the power of the machine should be so regulated, as to ap- 
 ply every degree of it with ease and readiness; beginning with 
 the more gentle operations, by astream issuing from a melal point ; 
 next using a wooden point ; then small sparks, stronger S|)arks, and 
 lastly small shocks, in proportion to the strength and constitution 
 of the patient, and the nature of the disease. The common me- 
 thod of electrifying a person is well known. Desire the patient to 
 take the jar in one hand, and with the otiier touch the knob ot it : 
 I*., if divirsion is intended to accompany the medical effect, desire 
 him to smell at the knob. A, in CNpeclation of smelling the »cenl 
 of a rose or a pink. This last methotl has occasioned it to be 
 sometimes called the magic smelling bottle. But the principal 
 Illetllcd^ by which electricity may be applied to the human body 
 with a medical intention, are the follov^ing■. 
 
 \. By placing the patient in an '.nsulatcdchairjandconncctingiiini 
 with the prime conductor. When the machine is in action, he will 
 thus be filled with the electric fluid, which will be continually dis- 
 
 sipated from the points and edgts of his clothes: and though the 
 eilects of this are probably too slow to be rendeietl very advan- 
 tageous, yet a sedentary person may derive soniebenelii from sit- 
 ting in an insulated chair, having befxe him an insulated table, 
 the chair to be connected with the b.'.ll of a large chaiged jar or 
 baltery ; by which means a small qu.iiitity of the liuid will be con- 
 tinually passing through those iniiemerable caiiillaiy vessels, on 
 the right state of whicli our health very much depeiKls. 
 
 II. By throwing the iluid upon, or extracting it from, a pcficiit, 
 by means of a wootlen point. This may be elfected in a twofold 
 manner ; 1st, Bv insulating the patient, and connecting him either 
 with (he cushion or the positive prime conductor, the operator iire- 
 senting the point. i;d. Let the palient st;uid upon the ground, and 
 the wire of the director be connected either with Ihe positive or 
 negative parts of the machine. The sensation produced by the 
 fluid when acting in this manner is mild and pleas'iig, resembling 
 ihe soft bree/es of a gentle wind ; geiurating a genial warmth, and 
 promoting the secretion and dissijiation of tumours, intlainma- 
 tion-, &c. 
 
 III. By the electric friction. Cover Ihe part to be rubbed «ith 
 woollen cloth or flannel. The patient may be sealed in an in^u 
 laled chair, and rubbed with the ball ot a dueclor that is in con- 
 tact with the coiiduclor; or he may he connected with Use con- 
 <hictor, and nibbed with a brass ball which communi.'ates with the 
 ground. The friction thus produced i> evidently more pent trit- 
 ing, more active, and more jjowerful, than that which ,s <;ommu- 
 nicated by the ilesh brush ; «nd there is very little fear cf being 
 thought ton sanguine. This, when used but for a few irinutes, 
 will i)e found more efficacious thaw the other after several hours 
 application. Electricity applies here with ])ecul;ar propriety to 
 spasm, pleurisy, and some stages of the palsy ; and iM every ca-st; 
 answers the end of bli-.tering, wliere the discharge is not wanted, 
 being the most safe and powerful stimulant we know. 
 
 I\'. By taking strong sparks from the patient. Here, as in 
 every other case, the operator may connect the ball of the d. rec- 
 tor with the positive or negative conductor, or iie may connect 
 the patient w itli either of these and llie ball with the ground. Now 
 it is clear from what has been already observed, that it tlie direc- 
 tor be connected with the positive conductor, the ikiid is thrown 
 upon the patient; if with the cushion the fluid is extracted (roin 
 him. Let the patient be insulated, and the action is in some mea- 
 sure reversed ; if he is joined to the negative conductor or cushion, 
 he will receive a spark from a person standing on the floor; but 
 if he communicates with Ihe positive conductor, he will give the 
 spark to the person on the ground. 
 
 V. By causing a current of the electric fluid to pass from one 
 part of ihe body, and thus conlinhvg and concentrating its opera- 
 tic n witiiotit communicating the shock. Place the patient in au 
 insulated chair, and touch one pait of the body wiili a director, 
 joined to a positive cofidnctor ; then with a bra^s ball comnumi- 
 cating with the ground touch another part; and when Uie ma- 
 chine is in adion the fluid will pass through the rci|U,ied pait 
 from the conductor to the ball; the force ot the stream will be 
 dirtirent ai'cording to the strength of the machine, kc. (^r con- 
 nect one director with the cushion, and the other with the posi- 
 tive conductor, and apply these to the part through which the 
 fluid is to iiass, and when the m.-ichine is in action the electric ity 
 will pass from one ball to the other. It is not necessary to iiisnlale 
 the palient in this case. 
 
 VI. By the electrical shock. The shock may be given to any 
 part of the human body, bv introducing that part of the body 
 into the circuit which is" made between the outside and inside of 
 Ihe bottle. This is conveniently elfecled, by connecting one di- 
 rector by a piece of wire with the electrometer, and the other 
 with the outside of the bottle ; then hold the directors by their 
 ^lass handles, and apidy the balls of them to the extremity of the 
 p.irts thiough w hich the shocks are to be passed. 'I'he force of 
 the shock is augmented or diminished by increasing or lessening 
 the distance between ihe two balls, which must be regulated by 
 the operator to the strength and sensibility of the patient. Insteaa 
 of the common bottle, we may have a *uall one with a glass tube 
 proccrdiiig from it, through which p.oceeds a wire and book to 
 iiang it upon the machine, with a longer one from the outside 
 coating, and which is to be carried Iry means of a director to the 
 patient. When this is used as a common bottle, both ^\i^es are to 
 
 be
 
 Kr.r.CTRICITY. 
 
 277 
 
 fciB le'.l thfi-.', ami the siiorlc ii cominunirati'd l)v hvo Oirnclor':, 
 one comiccli'd witli tin" bi.'ttom, the other uith the lop. T he 
 Operator will often liiul hhiiself ombaiTai'sed in f^iviiv.; small shocks, 
 (liR lliiid passina; tVoni the conductor to the ball of ihe ok'ctrunii-- 
 <fr, iiiiU-ad of going tlu-ough tlitr circuits hedcsiros: when tliis 
 h.ippens, wh.icli may be known by the chattering noise of llu- 
 •parks, the rcsistanci." formed to the' discharge is so prrcat, that the 
 riiiij rannot force its way through the circuit: to renieily this, 
 pass two mftallic pins througli tlie cloathiti!!, so llial they may be 
 i.i contact with the skin, which will lessen the resistance, and con- 
 duct the fluid. 
 
 V'll. ^v a sensation between a shock and the spark, whicli does 
 not communicate that disagreeable feeling attending thf common 
 jhock. 'I'h.is is ef('ecte<! l>y taking out the Ion;; wire from the 
 small medic"! boflle, and leaving the shorter one which is con- 
 nected with the tube in its place, the directors to be connected 
 uid u-ed as before. The elt'ect of this species of shock, if it niav 
 be called one, is to produce a great vibration in the muscular 
 fibres, without inducing that pungent sensation which the shock 
 cflects. Tt It therefore applicable to some stages of palsy and 
 rheumatism ; it may also serve as an artilicial means of exer- 
 cise. 
 
 VFir. By the l)ottle director. Insulate the pal'ent, and phsce 
 
 tlie ball §■, '(I'late T^XIV. tig. 23,) in contact with him ; bv «lii'_-h 
 
 means this director is charged. II a wire is conveved from the 
 
 bottom of this to the top of another director, the bottle director 
 
 will be discharged w henever the cllicr bail /* is brought in contact 
 
 ivith the patient ; so that by bringing it down with rapidity, any 
 
 Itiuniber of sm dl shocks may br procured i!i a minute ; or con- 
 
 inect the iiisidated patient with the top or inside of a large charged 
 
 ;ir, and then this apparatus used in tiie foregoiii'; manner will dis- 
 
 . ' from the l.irge jar at each sp.-.rk its own contents, and by 
 
 ■jtion it will discljarge the wdiole jar : thus a number of shocks 
 
 - 1;. lie given without continually turning the machine or emplov- 
 
 ■ 14 an assistant. 
 
 IX. By passing the whole fluid contained in the Levden phial 
 ■hrougli a diseased part without giving the shock. Connect a di- 
 ector, by means of a wire, with the ball of a Leyden jar ; charge 
 he jar either coniph-iely or partially, and then apply the ball or 
 lohit of the conductor to the part intended to be eiectrdied, and 
 he fluid wdiich was condensed in the phial will be thrown on the 
 ■)art in a dense slow stream, attended with a pungent sensation 
 .vhich produces a considerable degree of warmth. If a wire that 
 'oiTimunicates with the ground is placed opposite to the end of the 
 lirector, the passage of the fluid will be rendered more rapid, and 
 he sensation stronger. Or insulate the patient, connect him with 
 lie top of a jar, charge this, and then apply a metal wire or 
 lipce of wood to the part through %vhich you wish to make the 
 hiid pass. It is obvious, that in this case the circuit between the 
 nside and the outside of the jar is not completed, tiierefore the 
 lUock will not be felt. The condensed fluid passes in a dense 
 ilow stream through the required part, wdiile the outside acquires 
 I sufficient quantity from substances near it to restore the eciuilibrium. 
 
 General Rules for the Administration ot Medical 
 Electricity. 
 
 It is impossible to prescribe the exact degree of electri;:ation 
 equisite for various diseases. Pei-sons of difierent constitutions, 
 hough afllictcd with the same di-ea^e, often require dilterent de- 
 jrees of electrifnation. The following general rules for practice 
 •re laid down by that learned electrician Mr. Cavallo: 
 
 " I. It shouUl be attentively observed, to employ the smallest 
 orce of electricity that is suflicient to remove or alleviate anv dis- 
 irder. Thus llie shocks should never be used, when the cure 
 nay be elTected by sparks ; the sparks should be avoided, when 
 'i'- required efl'ect can be obtained by oidy drawing the fluid 
 itli a wooden point ; and even this last treatment ouglit to be 
 ;ii.Ucd. when the fluid drawn by a metal point may be thought 
 uMicient. The djfliculty consists in distinguishing the iiroper 
 'I ■ ngth of electric power that is rcipiired for a given disorder, the 
 V and constitution of the patient being considered. — The surest 
 111 ■ is to begin by the most gentle treatment. When this has 
 cen fovnul iiiclleciual for a few days, which is denoted bv the 
 I'lase nW ab:;ting, and the application of electricity not causing 
 i:\ WLM-mlh, then the operator may gradually increase the force of 
 In tiicity till he linds the pioper deerec of it. 
 " !l. In judging of cases proper to be electrilled, experience 
 
 VOL. II. — NO. 73. 
 
 shews, that in geoer.-l jII kinds of obstructions, whether of motion, 
 o1 circulation, or of secretion, are very often removed, or alleviated 
 by electricity. The tame may also be said of nervous disorders ; 
 both which include a groat variety of diseases. The application 
 of electricity has seldom intirely cured diseases of a long slan<ling, 
 although it generally relieves them. To ))ersoiis afllictcd with the 
 venereal disease, or to pregnant women, electrization lias been 
 thought to be pernicious; but even in those cases it may be u>ed 
 without tear, if judiciously managed. When preginmt women are 
 to be electrihed, the sh.ocks shoidd be forbidden ; and even wluii 
 thi- other more gentle treatments are used, a constant attention 
 should be given to any pba.noinena that may appear in the course 
 of the ehctrization; the nietliod of which'shoidd be increajic^, 
 diminished, or suspended, as circunislances may indicate. 
 
 " III. (n cases of gathering tumours, the best method is to draw 
 the fluid by means of a wooden point ; or, if that prove painful, 
 by a metal point, bparks in these caries, and also shocks, are of- 
 ten hurtful. In stiffnesses, paralysies, and rheumatism, small sjjarUs, 
 especially through a double ilaiuiel, and also very small shocks (as 
 most of on« tenth of an inch) may be used. .Stronger shocks may 
 be sometimes, though seldom, adininislered for a violent tooth-acl!, 
 and f.ir some internal spasm of no long standing. 
 
 " IV. \\ hen an}- limb of the body is deprived of motion, it 
 must be observed, that th.- privation of motion is not always oc- 
 casioned by » contr^iction of the muscles; but that it is often the 
 ert(_'ct of relaxation. Thus for instance, if the hand is bent inwardly, 
 and the patient has no power of straightening it, the cause of "it 
 may bea weakness of the outward muscles, as well as a contraction 
 of the inward ones. In such cases, as it is oiten diflicuit, even lor 
 good anatomists to discover the real cause, the surest method is to 
 electrify not only those muscles, which are supposed to be con- 
 tracted, but also their antagonists; for to electrilv a sound nmsclo 
 is by no means hurtkil. 
 
 " V. When the stream of electric \\wi is thrown either with s 
 wooden or metal point, the length of the operation should be from 
 three to ten minutes, more or less, according as occasion may re- 
 quire. When shocks are administered, their great<->t number 
 should not exceed a dozen or l-i, except when they are to be given 
 to the whole body in dillerent directions. The number of sp. rks, 
 when they are used, may generally exceed the numl)er of shocks 
 mentioned above. 
 
 "VI. Lastly, when children must be electrified upon the in- 
 sulating chair, as it is dillicult to let them remain quiet, the most 
 convenient method is, to let another i)erson sit in the insulating 
 cliair, and hold tlie child while the operator is eleclrif\ iiig him." 
 On the whole, the electric fluid, i-suing from a wooden p'oint (which 
 should not besplit, or too short,) has a power intermediate between 
 that of the stream proceeding from a metal point, and that of the 
 spark ; and is therefore in general the most proper and effectual 
 nietliod of electrilication. It consists of a vast number of exceed- 
 ingly small sparks, accompanied with a little wind, which gently 
 stimulates the part affected, and gives a degree of wainitir vi ry 
 agreeable to the patient. Even lhi> gentle method of electrifying, 
 however, is sometimes too strong when applied to open sores hpow 
 delicatf jiarts. In such cases, therefore, the metal point must l:c 
 used instead of the wooden, and the director mu-,t be kept at a 
 great, r distance, than when the wooden p>ce was upon it. The 
 electric fluid issuing .nit of this pointed wire of the director, oc- 
 casions only a very gentle wind upon the part to which it is <li- 
 rected, which proves agreeable even to person- of the utmost di li- 
 cacy. Mr. Cavallo says, " it might naturally be suspectevl, that 
 so gentle and nearly insensible a treatment could h;,rdly be of auY 
 efllcacy ; but my reader may be assured, that to my certain know'- 
 ledge, deduced from the practice of persons v.dio ha've had long ex- 
 perience in this subject, this method of electrization, vi/,. thetlii(,w- 
 ing of the fluid with a metal point, has often mitigated pains, and 
 cured obstinate and dangerous diseases, which could not be r; - 
 moved by any other remedy that was tried. The stream, (h- 
 adds,) iiisuins; both out of the wooden and of the iin'tal |)oints acti 
 even through the cloEths, if they are not too thick. IJence it may 
 be u,ed without in^onmioding the p.atient; but wlu-n it is con- 
 venient to uncuver the part which is to be electrifiei!, it is niucli 
 preferable to direct the fluid immediately upon the skin." 
 
 Of the Administration of Mldical Electricity in par. 
 
 TICUI.AR DlSEASLS. 
 
 Althoagli it belongs properlv to the sutitle Medicine, to treat of 
 4 U lUe
 
 278 
 
 ELECTRICITY. 
 
 the curt- of diseases by electvicitv, as well r.s by other means, yet 
 there woiikl be a manifest ilefecl in this branch of onr suliject, 
 were we not to mention the particular raetho'l of applying the 
 electric flnid in several of the most common diseases, in which 
 ir.eihcal electricity has been fomul eflicacions. 
 
 " KHEU.MATicdisonlers even of lonji s:aniling, " says Mr. Ca- 
 vallo, " are relieved, and generally quite cured by only drawing 
 tlie electric fluid with a wooden point from tb.e iinrt, or by draw- 
 ing sparks throngh fljiir.el. The operation should be continued for 
 four or five miinites, repeating it once or twice every day. 
 
 " DjiAfNESS, except when occasioned by obliteration, or other 
 improper contii^uration of the parts, is either inlirely or partly cured 
 bv drawing the sparks from tlie ear with the glass tube director, or 
 by drawing the fluid with a wooden jioint. Sometimes it is not 
 improper to send exceedingly small shocks from one ear to the 
 other. Whenever the ear is electriiied, the discharge of the wax 
 is considerably promote'!. 
 
 " The TooTiiAcii, occasioned by cold rheumatism, or inflam- 
 mation, is generally relieved by drawing the electric fluid with a 
 point," immediatelv from tlie part, and also externally from the 
 lace. But when "tlie body of tlie tooth is affected, electrization 
 is of no use. 
 
 " SwEi-Lix'GS, in general, which do not contain any matter, are 
 mostly cure<l by drinving the elec'ric fluid with a wooden point. 
 In some cases oV while swelling;, quite cured by electricity, even 
 tlie bones and cavtilages were disfigured. The operation should 
 be continued for three or four minutes every day. 
 
 " Inflammations of every sort are generally relieved by a very 
 gentle electrization. 
 
 " In INFLAMMATIONS OF THE EvES, the throwing of tlie elec- 
 tric fluid by a wooden point is constantly attended with great 
 benelil ; the pain being quickly abated and the inflammation 
 generally dissipated in a few days. In these cases, the eye of the 
 patient must be kept open, and care taken not to bring the point 
 very near it. Sometimes it is sufficient to throw the fluid with a 
 metal point; for in these cases too great an irritation should be 
 avoided. After throwing the fluid for about half a minute, a short 
 time may be allowed to the patient to rest, and to wipe his te.irs : 
 tlien the operation may be continued for another half minute, and 
 so on for four or live times every day. 
 
 " The GuTTA SiiRENA has been sometimes cured by electri- 
 zation; but electricity has proved ineffectual in many such cases. 
 T'he best method of administering electricity in such casts, is first 
 to draw the fluid with a wooden point for a short time, and then to 
 send aboul half a dozen shocks of one-20lh of an inch, from the 
 back and lower part of the liead to the forehead, very little above 
 the e^ e. 
 
 "Alltheca=es of Fistula Lachrvmalis, as far as i am in- 
 formed, tliat have been eleclrilied by persons of ability for a suf- 
 ficient time, have been entirely cured. I'he niethotl generally 
 practised has been that of dr.iwing the fluid with a wooden point; 
 and to take very small sparks from the part. The operation may 
 becontuiued for about three or four minutes every day. 
 
 •' Palsies aie seldom effectually cured by electricity, Jbut are 
 generally relieved to a certain degree. The method is to draw the 
 fluid widi a wooden point, and to <haw spark? through flannel, or 
 through the usual coverings, if not too thick, for about five minutes 
 per day. 
 
 " liLCEBS or open sores of every kind, even of long standing, 
 are generally disposed to heal by electrization. The general effects 
 are a diminution of the infl.immation ; an.l a discharge of matter, 
 vilnch gradually lessens till the sore is qui(e cured. The gentlest 
 electrization must be used. To draw or throw the fluid with a 
 wooden or metal point, for three or four minutes per day, is quite 
 sufficient. 
 
 " Cutaneous Eruptions have been successfully treated with 
 electrization, but if the wondeii point is kept too near the skin, so 
 as to cause any considerable irritation, the eruption will some- 
 times spread more: biit if kept at about six inches distance, the 
 eruptions will lie gradually dindnished till they are (juite cured. 
 A w.'rmtli abnul the' electrilied part is a sign that the electrization 
 is rightly administered. 
 
 ""Tl;e ap])lication of electricity has perfectly cured various 
 cases of St. Vitus's Dance, or of that diseaie commonly called 
 
 so. Shocks of about one- luth of an inch may be sent through the 
 bodv in various directions, and sparks may be taken. 
 
 " Scrofulous Tumours, when just beginning, are generally 
 cured by drawing the electric fluid with a wooden or metal point 
 from the part. 
 
 " In Cancers, the pains only are mostly alleviated by drawing 
 the electric fluid with a wooden or metal point. I know of one 
 case only, in wliich a most confirmed cancer of very long standnig, 
 on the breast of a lady, has been much reduced in size. This 
 patient was so far relieved by drawing the fluid with a metal point 
 from the put, that the excruciating pains she had suffered for many 
 years, did almost entirely disappear. When the electric fluid was 
 drawn by a wooden point, the pains rather increased. 'I'liis per- 
 son, whe'n 1 heard of her last, was still under the electricity, and 
 the cancer seemed not unlikely to be perfectly cured, contrary to 
 the expectations even of the judicious physician who electiiried 
 her. 
 
 " Abscesses, when beginning, and when there is any tendency 
 lo form matter, electrization dispersed. Lately, in a case in which 
 matter was formed upon the hip, called the lumbar abscess, the 
 disease was perfectly cured by electricity. The sciatica has also 
 been often cured by it. In all such cases the electric fluid must 
 be sent through the part, by means of two directors applied to op« 
 posite parts, and in immediate contact either with the skin, or with 
 the coverings, when very thin. 
 
 " In cases of Pulmonary Inflammations, when beginning, 
 electrization has sometimes been beneficial ; but in confirmed 
 diseases of the lungs, I do not know that it ever afforded any un- 
 questionable benefit. 
 
 " Nervous Head-achs, even of long standing, are generally 
 cured by electrization. The electric fluid must be thrown with a 
 wooden and sometimes even with a metal point, all round the 
 head successively. Shocks can seldom be used, because the 
 nerves of persons subject to this disease are so very irritable, that 
 the shocks, the sparks, Sec. throw them into convulsions. 
 
 " The application of electricity has often been found beneficial 
 in the Dropsy when just beginning, but it has never been of any 
 use in advanced dropsies. The electric fluid i-i sent through the 
 part in various directions ; and sparks are drawn across the flannel, 
 or cloaths, for at least ten minutes. Perhaps 4 sinii>le electrization, 
 (viz. to insulate the patient, and connect him with the prime con- 
 ductor, wiiili- the machine is in action,) continued for an hour ot 
 two, would be more beneficial. 
 
 " The Gout has been cured by electricity in various instances. 
 The pain has been generally mitigated, and sometimes the disease 
 has been removed so effectually as not to return. In those casi$ 
 the electric fluid has been thrown by a wooden point, though 
 sometimes, when the pain was too great, a metal point only was 
 used. 
 
 " Agues very seldom fail of being cured by electricity, so that 
 sometimes one electrization or two have been sufTicient. TIl^ 
 most effectual method is drawing sparks through flannel or the 
 cloaths for about ten minutes, either at the time of the fit, or a short 
 while before it is expected. 
 
 " The Suppression of the Ordinary Periodical Fluxes oI 
 women has often been cured by electricity, even when the disease 
 has been of long standing, and after the most powerful medicines 
 have proved ineffectual. Small shocks of one-'iOlh of an inch may 
 be sent through the pelvis; sparks may be taken through the 
 cloaths from tiie parts adjacent to the seat of the disease ; and the 
 electric fluid may be transmitted by applying the metallicOl 
 wooden extremities of two directors to the hips, in contact witll 
 the cl.iatlis. The number of shocks may be about 12 or 14. Tll« 
 other applications may be continued for two to three minutes, re- 
 peating the operation every day. But strong shocks should 1|< 
 i avoided." _ _ . : .1 
 
 We shall conclude this account of medical electricity with bU 
 seivii.g that there are two general effects of electricity on fh« 
 human body, of which it should seem, that physicians might greatlj 
 avail themselves. These are, that it promotes insensible perspi 
 ration and glandular secretion. The former is eflected by simpk 
 electrification, and the latter by taking sparks from the glands 0: 
 parts contiguous to Uiem on which it acts like a stimulus. 
 •^ ELECTRICS,
 
 ELETTMOTT.
 
 n,Nii/u;i f^yJ-'tii--^ iiiiui.v .ili>i,m rn\rj.LittJrn;iSep .
 
 E LE 
 
 279 
 
 ELE 
 
 ELKCTUICS, substanc-fs wli:ch by riibbiii^f exhibit (.■Ictiiicil 
 appearances, or the picseute ol the electniul fluiil. Sec liLEC- 
 
 TRICITY. 
 
 KLECTRIDES, in ancient geograph)-, islands in the Adriatic 
 SEa, so named from the quantity of aniber whicli they prodined. 
 Tliey wore at tlie nioiitli of the I'o, according to Apollonius ol 
 Khodes, Imt some historians doubt their existence. 
 
 ELECTRIFICATION, or ELECTRIZATION, the state 
 of beine electrified. 
 
 ELEC TRIFY, to communicate to a body tlie powers of at- 
 traction and repulsion, or any other electrical property. To elec- 
 trify a person, signifies to give one a flash, spark, or shock, of elec- 
 tticitv. 
 
 ELECTROMETER, and ELECTROPHORUS, instruments 
 used in eledrical experiments. See Electricity. 
 
 ELECTUARY, a form of medicine made of conserves and 
 powders, in the consistence of honey. V'ossius observes, that all 
 the remedies prescribed for the sick, as well lis the confections taken 
 by way of rea;ale, were called by the Greeks inX!iyfi«™, and 
 ixXcxTfi, of the verb Xtix«'. I lick ; whence, says ho, was formed the 
 Latin electanuni, and afterwards electuarium This conjecture he 
 supports from tiie laws of Sicily. See I'harmaty. 
 
 ELEEMOSYNA AR.^TRI, ELEEMOSYNA CARUCA- 
 KUM, or PRO ARATRIS, in our ancient customs, a penny 
 which king Ethelred ordered to be paid for every plough in Eni^- 
 land towards the support of the poor. It is also called eleemosyua 
 regis, because first appointed by the king. 
 
 ELEEMOSYNARIUS, in old records, the almoner, or ofiic er 
 wlio received the eleemosynary remits and gifts, and distributed 
 them to charitable uses. 
 
 ELEGANCE, in oratory and composition, an ornament of po- 
 liteness and agreeableness, with such a choice of rich and happy 
 expressions, as to rise above the conuiion manners, so as to strike 
 people of a delicate taste. It has been observed, that elegance, 
 though irregular, is preferable to regularity without elegance ; anil 
 that, by being too scrupulous about grammatical construction, we 
 lose certain licences wherein llie elegance of language consists. 
 But, on the other hand, it is to be feared, that an affectation of sui h 
 elegance is in danger of corrupting a language, by introducing 
 ambiguity of expression and other improprieties. 
 
 ELEGIAC, in ancient poetry, any thing belonging to elegy. 
 Elegiac verses are alternately hexameter and pentameter, as irr the 
 following verses of Ovid. 
 
 Flebilis indignos, elegeia, solve capillos: 
 Ah nimis ex vero nunc tibi nojnen erit. 
 Sometimes, though very rarely, the pentameter preceded the hex- 
 aiBcter, as in the following verses of Athena;us. 
 
 Ev^<ctij.wy XaoiTuiv, -xat MEXfiVtTiir^' efu. 
 
 Who was the inventor of elegiac poetrj', is not known. Horace 
 professes himself cpiite ignorant of it. The principal writers of 
 elegiac verse, among the Latins, were Propertius, Ovid, and Ti- 
 bullns, the latter whereof Quinclilian esteems the best elegiac poet; 
 but Pliny the younger gives tlie preference to the first. The chici 
 writers of elegy among the Greeks were Callimachus, Parthenius, 
 and Euphorion. 
 
 ELEGIA, a genus of the dioecia triandria class and order. 
 There is one species, a native of the Cape, which has the habit of a 
 ru^h. 
 
 ELEGIT, inlaw, a writ of execution, which lies for a person 
 who has recovered debt or damages; or upon a recognizance in 
 any court, against a defendant that is not able to satisfy the same in 
 his goods. 
 
 ELEGY, a mournful and plaintive kind of poem. Sec Elegiac, 
 and Poetry. 
 
 ELEMENTS, in astronomy, are those principles deduced 
 from astronomical observations and calculations, and those funda- 
 mental numbers which are employed in the conslniction of tables 
 of the planetary inolions. T lius, the elements of the theory of 
 the sun, or rather of the earth, are his mean motion and eccen- 
 tricity, and the motion of the aphelia. The elements of the theory 
 of the moon are its mean motion ; that of its node and apogee, its 
 eccentricity, the inclination of its orbit to the plane of the eclip- 
 tic, &c. 
 
 Elements, in physics, the first principles of which all bodies in 
 
 1 
 
 the syslcan of nature are composed. These are supposed to be U\r 
 in number, unchangeable, and by their coinbinalions to produce 
 that extensive variety of objec ts to be met with in the works of 
 n.iliire. There seems to be in reality some foundation for lli.s i.uc- 
 tnne; for there aie some (iriiuiples evidently exempted from 
 every change or decay, but which can be mixed or < hanged into 
 different forms of matter. The ancient philosophers generally 
 reckoned four elements, viz. fire, air, water, and eurlli. The 
 former chemists admitted five elements or jjiinciples, viz. 1. Spirit, 
 or mercury. 2. Sulphur, or oil. 3. Salt. 4. \Vater, or phlegm. 
 5. Earth. That both these are wrong is well known to modern 
 chemists, who have decomposed several of the al.iive substances. 
 See Chemistry. Though we have reason to think that thereare 
 in nature a few simple substances, from the comb nations of which 
 the various bodies that surround us are composed, yet what tlie^e 
 elements or principles are is not fully ascertained ; however, con- 
 siderable advances towards such a discovery, have been made by 
 the researches of modern chemistry, and a wide field is now 
 opened in this department, which piomi-es plenlilully to reward 
 the labours of the ex|)erimental philosopher. Chemists have now 
 agreed to consider those substance., which, ir. the present state of 
 the science, they cannot decompose, as elements or princi|)les, 
 until thev shall discover their component parts in case they be 
 compound bodies. For an ennitration of these elements sec 
 Chemistry. 
 
 ELEMI, a resin, commonly called gum elemi, is supposed to 
 be the produce of a large tree, calh d in the Linna;;;!! arrangement 
 amyris elemifera, a native of Carolina, and the warmer parts of 
 America. The true elemi is supposed to come from Ethiopia. 
 It is used in medicine as a liniment, and is employed in the arts as 
 an ingredient in some varnishes. 
 
 EI.,EPIIANT, in zoology. See Elf.phas. 
 Elephant, Knights of the, an order of knighthood in 
 Denmark, conferred upon none but persons of the first qi.ality 
 and merit. It is also called the order of St. Mary. Its institu- 
 tion is said to have been owing to a gentlemau among the Danish 
 croises having killed an ele])hant, in an expedition against the Sa- 
 racens, in 1 184 ; in memory of wliich, king Canute instituted this 
 order, the badge of which is a towered elephant, with an image of 
 the holy virgin encircled with rays, and hung on a watered sky- 
 coloured ribbon, like the George in England. 
 
 ELEPHAN TA, a small island on the W. coast of Hindostan, 
 5 miles from Bombay. 
 
 ELEPHANTIASIS, the Lepra of teje Arabians, in me- 
 dicine, a chronical disease, one of the two species of leprosy 
 which affects the whole body, where even the bones as well as 
 the skin are covered with spots and tumours, which being red at 
 last turn black. 
 
 ELEPHANTINE, in Roman anticpiity, an appellation given 
 to the books wherein were registered the traBsactions of the senate 
 and magistrates of Rome, of the emperors or generals of armies, 
 and even of the provincial magistrates ; the births and classes of 
 the people, and other things relating to the census. 
 
 ELEPHAxNTOPIIAGI, an ancient people of Ethiopia, who 
 are said to have fed on elephants' flesh. 
 
 ELEPHANTOPUS, a genus of the polygamia segregata or- 
 der, and syngenesia class of plants ; natural order. Composite. 
 Calyx four-llowered ; corolla tubular, hermaphrodite ; receptacle 
 naked; down bristle-form. There arc four species. 
 
 ELEPHAS, the Elephant, in zoology, a genus of the class 
 and order mammalia brula. No fore-teeth in either jaw; tusks 
 of the upper jaw elongated, none in the lower; proboscis very 
 long and prehensile ; body with few hail's. This animal is not to 
 be met with in its natural state throughout Europe or America, 
 and is to be found in its greatest perfection of size and strength 
 between the rivi'r Senegal and the Cape of Good Hope in Africa. 
 See Plate LXVl. There is hut one species. The elephant is the 
 largest oi" all h.nd animals. From the front to the origin of the 
 tail he is gent rally about 1(3 feet long, from the end of tlie trunk 
 25 feet, and .ibout 14 feet high. The circumference of the neck 
 is 17 feet, and the circumference cf the body at the grossest part 
 25 feet 10 inches; the tail is about 6 feet long, and S-J- in circum- 
 ference. The circumference of the legs is al)out (> feet. These 
 are the largest dimensions. But the animal diti'ers in size in dif- 
 ferent countries ; in some not exceeding 7 feet in height. The 
 
 eyes
 
 ELE 
 
 530 
 
 ELR 
 
 3=331031 
 
 eyes aro filial! in pra[)orlion to tiic size of the h.ead. The mU7:-'!o 
 is '.'livy dilicrent from tb.it of any otlier quadrupL-d : it is nollVmg 
 IiMt tlie origin of u lojig tmiik which hangi between Ibe two l.irge 
 tu:!<s ; the niriiith apj!eai'.-> beliind the tniiik, which serves in phcc 
 of ail upper lip, and the under lip tenniniitei in a point. The 
 •idn are so large, that from the shoulder of a middic-si/.ed man 
 they will e.'itend to the ground. In a state of tranquillity tl.ese 
 are pendulous, Init during the agitation of pasAio;i they ere erect- 
 ed, and jjointed forwards willi extreiv.e inten^cness. The feet are 
 siiort, round, ckuiisy, and only distinguisliable by the toes. The 
 trunk is, properly speaking, the nose extended, and terniinutcd by 
 a couple of nostrih. But, besides serving as an organ cf .smell, 
 tlie trunk perforins all tlie funciions of a strong and dexterous aririu 
 1 he trunk of an elephant is about S feet lon!>;, .'i^ feet in circum- 
 tVrence near tlie mouth, and one foot and a half near the extre- 
 iiiity : it is a pipe of an irregular conical figure, and widened at 
 ■tlie end : the superior side of the trunk is convex, and furrowed 
 transversely ; and the infeiior side is Hat, and lias two longitudinal 
 rows of small protuberances resembling the lentacula of the silk- 
 worm and most other caterpillais. 'I"he upper part of the trunk 
 CLM'responds with the e.vtremity of the nose in ctlier quadrupet'.s, 
 and answers the same intention ; the inferior part serves as an up- 
 jjer lip, including the nostrils at tlie same time. For tlie trunk is 
 a continued canal, divided into two cavities by a longitudinal par- 
 tition : tliese cavities ascend along the fore-part of tlie upper jaw, 
 where they make a turn inward, and descend into tlie palate, ter- 
 minating in two separate orilires ; Ihev have likewise each a sepa- 
 rate orifice at the end of the trunk. At the place where these 
 cavities make a turn, and before they enter into the bones of the 
 bead, there is a moveable cartilaginous plate situated in such a 
 manner as enal)les the animal to shut the canal, and to prevent the 
 water, with which it occasionally tills the trunk, from entering into 
 the passage of tlie nose where the organs, serving for the sensation 
 of smell, are placed. The elephant can move the trunk in all di- 
 rections ; he can extend or shorten it at pleasure, witliout altering 
 tlie diameters of the two canals within. Ry this means respiration 
 is not interrupted, wdiatever be the situation of tlie trunk ; and the 
 water is allowed to remain till the animal choo-es to throw it out 
 by an expiration. It is by this org.ni that the animal lays hold of 
 food or other substances ; which he manage-; with as much dex- 
 terity as a man does his hand, taking up grains of co.-n, or the 
 smallest piles of grass, and conveying them to his mouth. When 
 he drinks, he thrusts his trunk into the uater, ami fills it by draw- 
 ing in his breath and exhausting the air: when the trunk is thus 
 filled with water, he can cither throw it out to a great distance, or 
 drink it by putting tiie end of the trunk in his mouth. The two 
 large tusks, which some call the horns of the elephant, are of a 
 yellowish colour, and extremely hard. The bony substance of 
 ■Rdiich they .ire composed is known by the name of ivorv, and 
 much used in dil'ferent branches of manufacture. Elephants, even 
 in a savage state, are peaceable and gentle creatures. They never 
 ii?e their weapons but in defence of themselves or their compa- 
 nions. I heir social dispositions are so strong, that they are sel- 
 dom found alone, but march always in large troops: the oldest 
 and most experienced lead the van ; the young and the laine keep 
 in the middle ; and those of the middle age, walk in the rear. 
 The females carry their young on their tusks, cnrliracing them at 
 the same time with their trunk. They seldom march in this re- 
 gular order but when they reckon the journey dangerous, such as 
 an expedition to cultivated lands, where they expect to meet 
 with resistance. On otlier occasions they are less cautious ; some 
 xf them falling behind or separating from the rest, but seldom so 
 far as to be beyond the reach of assistance from their companions. 
 It is dangerous to olf'er them the least injury ; for they run 
 straight upon the offender ; and although the weight of their body 
 be great, their steps are so large, that they easily outrun the 
 swiftest man, whom Ihev cither pierce with their aisks, or seize 
 ■with their trunC, dart him in the air, and then trample liim under 
 thiir feet. Hut they never attack any person unless when pro- 
 voked. However, as they are extremciv delicate with regard to 
 injuries, it is always prudent to keep out of their way. Travellers 
 %vho frequent the^e countries kindle larne fires, and beat drums 
 during tlie night, to prevent their approach. After being once at- 
 tacked i>y men, or falling into any ambush, they never forget the 
 iikjurx , but search (or every opportunity of revenge. As they are 
 probably endowed with a more exquisite sensation of smell tliai) 
 
 any other animal, owing to the great extent of their nose, thev 
 can scent a man at a very gre^t distance, and trace him by hij 
 footsteps. Elephants are peculiarly fond of the banks of 
 rivers, deep valleys, and mai-shy grounds, especially when well 
 shaded with trees. 'I'hey delight in drawing up water into tlirir 
 trunks, even when they do not drink it, and amuse themselves in 
 dashing it around. They cannot endure cold, and are e<iu;;lly 
 averse to heat. To avoid" the srorching heat of the sun, they re- 
 tire to the thickest and most shady part-, of the forest. The Inilk 
 of their bodies is so enormous, that they do not choose to go iiit'» 
 deep waters so frequently as some other <|uadiupeds; aithougl' 
 the length of their trunk, which they can raise stiaigbt up to re- 
 spire, is a great advantage in swimming. Tlieir ordinary food h 
 roots, herbs, leaves, the tender branches of trees, fruits, and grains ; 
 but tney abhor riesh or fish. When any of lliem d;scovei-s a fine 
 pasture, he immediately calls his companions to coine and eatwitii 
 him. As they devour a large quantity of food in a short time, 
 they often shift their pasture ; when they meet with cultivateil 
 grounds, they make a prodigious desolation, and tle.4roy more- 
 plants by their feet than they use for nourishment: which last h 
 very considerable, amounting to 150 pounds of iierbage ererv 
 day : by this means, as they constantly graze in large troops, tlieV 
 lay waste whole fields in an hour. 'l"he Indians and negroes eu!- 
 ploy every art to prevent them from visiting their cultivated lands, 
 making great noises, and burning large fires round their fields. 
 However, these precautions are not always suilicient to prevent 
 the elephants from visiting them. They chase away the domes- 
 tic anim.Hls, put the men to flight, and sometimes even throw 
 down their timber huts. Elephants are hardly susceptible of fear : 
 the only method to stop their course is by fires, squibs, and 
 crackers, the effects of which being sudden and quickly i-epeated, 
 the elephants frequently turn bacK. ; and when one runs, all tlie 
 rest instantly follow him. Although the social disposition in the 
 elephant be exceeding strong ; yet wdienever the females come in 
 season, it immediately gives place to the stronger and more in- 
 terisling passion of love. They observe the greatest delicacy in 
 their amours, abhorring nothing so much as to be seen by their 
 companions. The elephant, when tamed, is the most friendly and 
 obedient of all animals : lie is entirely attMched to the person who 
 feeds and takes care of him. In a short time he understands signs, 
 and the sound of his master's voice. He distinguishes the lan- 
 guage of passion, of command, of satisfaction; and acts accord- 
 ingly. He receives his orders with attention, and executes thcin 
 With alacrity, but without precipitation. He easily learns to bow 
 his knees and lower his body, for the convenience of those who 
 mount him. He caresses his friends with his trunk. He lifts bur- 
 dens with his trunk, and assists those who arc loading him inlay- 
 ing them on Ins back. He delights in shining harness and trap- 
 pings. A\ hen yoked in a cart or waggon, he pulls ci|iially and 
 cheerfully, unless he be abused by injudicious chastisements. His 
 guide is generally mounted on liis neck, with a small rod of iron 
 sharp at the point in his hand; he directs his motion by pricking 
 him on the ears and head ; but for the most part, a word is suffi- 
 cient. A tame elephant will do more labour than six horses, but 
 he requires a proprational quantity of food. They are the prin- 
 cipal beasts of burden in inany p arts of Africa and the East Indies. 
 They carry sacks and bundles of all kiiKU on their necks, backs, 
 and tusks. They nev-si lose or damage any thing committed to / 
 their care: tliey will stand on the edge of a river, take bundles off 
 their necks and tusks, lay them carefully in a boat wherever 
 they are desired, and try with their trunk whether thev 
 are properly situated ; if they be loaded with cssks, they go in 
 quest of stones to prop them, and prevent them from rolling. When 
 tlic elephant is properly managed, he lives very long even in a 
 state of slavery and labour. 1 hat some have lived in this state 
 l.?0 years, is pretty well authenticated. In a natural state, they 
 often exceed 200 yeare, and propagate their species till they are 
 I'~0. It is 30 years before they come to their full growth, 'i'he 
 elephants inhabit India, and some of its greater islands. Cochin 
 China, and some of the |)rovinces of China. They abound in the 
 southern parts of Africa, Irom the river Senegal to the Cape ; and 
 from thence as high as Ethiopia on the other side. '1 hev are 
 found in the greatest numbers in the interior parts, where there 
 are vast forests, near the sides of rivers. The wild elephants af 
 Cejlon live in troops or families distinct and separate from all 
 others, and seem to avoid the strange herds with pecuFar care. 
 Whe
 
 E L E 
 
 281 
 
 ELI 
 
 When a family reniovea from pbce to pljco, tlie largcst-tu--keil 
 males put tliein'-clvi-s ;it the lifail ; and it lliey men witli a lariie 
 river, are llie lirit to pass it. On arriving on the opposite b^iik, 
 they try wlietlier the lamling-place is safe : if it be, they give a 
 sicnal of a note from the triii-.k, as if it «ero the sound of a trum- 
 pet, on which the remaining part of the old elephant^ swim over ; 
 the little elepluuit.-- follow, hoUiinij one another by lotkiiif; their 
 trunks together; and the rust ot the old ones bring np the rear. 
 In the woods is often seen a solil.iry male elejih.-xnl, wanderina like 
 an outlaw banished from the herd and all the race. In this solitary 
 slate, as if in a state of des|)eration, they are very dangerous. A 
 tinele man will put to (light wlioie herds of social elephants: the 
 •.■nlitary one tenrs not his presence, but will stand tiim, putting hi4 
 
 \er to defiance. Elephants ;u'e not domesticated in Africa, as 
 : i the more civilized parts of Asia, although they are much more 
 numerous. In some parts of Africa they swarm so, that the ne- 
 irroes are obliged to make their habitations under ground for tear 
 of them. 'I'hey are killed and eaten by the natives, and the trunk 
 i^ said to be a delicious morsel. All "the teeth are brought from 
 Africa; tbev are frequently picked up in the woods ; so that it is 
 uncertain whether they are slied teeth, or those of dead elephants. 
 The African teeth which come from .Mor-ambi'iue are ten feet 
 long ; those of .Malaliar only three or tour ; the largest in Asia are 
 those of Cochin China, wliich even exceed the size of the ele- 
 phants of Mosambique. 'I'liey are often so large as to weigh 1 jO 
 pounds each. The skin is thick, and, when dressed, proof against 
 a mu>ket ball. The tiesh, the gall, the skin, and the bone>, are 
 said to be used medicinally by the C hinese. Mr. Kerr says some 
 elephants have been found so laige as to weigh 4,500 pounds. 
 Tiiev were formerly used for the purposes of war, but were fre- 
 quently more formidable to their owners than to the enemy, and, 
 when womidcd, exhibited a scene of extreme turbulence and con- 
 fusion : and the invention of gunpowder appears to have preclud- 
 ed that advantage from their elforts in actual combat, which 
 might, in some instuuces, in foiMiier ages, be occasioaully derived 
 from them. Both the Greeks and Romans soon discovered the 
 Way to prevent danger from these monstrous animals, they did 
 not attempt to hurt them, but opened their ranks, and suffered 
 them to pass through, while they employed themselves in throw- 
 ing darts, &c. at iheir guides. 
 
 ELEVATION, [from eltvo, 1 lift up,] the altitude of any thing. 
 
 Elevatiom, Angle of, in gunnery, that comprehended be- 
 Neen the horizon and the line of direction of a cannon or mortar, 
 or it is that which the chase of a piece, or the axis of its hollow 
 cylinder, makes w ith the plane of the horizon. 
 ' Elevation, in architecture, the same with an orthographic, or 
 upright draught oi a building. 
 
 Elev.-vtion of the Host, in the church of Rome, that part 
 of the mass where t!ie priest raises the host above his head for the 
 people to adore. 
 
 ELEVATOR, in anatomy, the name of several muscles, so 
 called from their serving to raise the parts of the body to which 
 they belong. 
 
 ELEV.'V'l'ORY, in surgery, an instrument for raising depress- 
 ed or fractured parts of the skull, to be applied after the integu- 
 ments and periosteum are removed. See iJURGERV. 
 
 ELEUSIN I A, in firecian antiquity, a festival held in honour 
 of Ceres, every fourth year bv some states ; by others every tiflh. 
 The Atlienians celebrated it at Eleusis, wlience the name. Ceres, 
 says Isocrates, wandering in quest of her daughter Proserpine, 
 came into Attica, where some good oftices were done her, which 
 it is unlawful for those who are not initiated to hear. In 
 rclurn she conferred two unparallele<l benefits; to wit, the know- 
 ledge of agriculture, by which the human race is rai>ed above 
 the brute creation ; and the mysteries, from which the par- 
 tikers derive sweeter hopes than other men enjoy, both as to 
 the present life and to eternity. It was the popular opinion, that 
 the Eleusinian goddesses suggested prudent counsel to their vo- 
 ti;ries, and influenced their conduct; that these were respected in 
 th.-' infernal regions, and had precedence in the assemblies of the 
 blessed; while the unhallowed were in utter darkness, wallow- 
 ing in mire, or labouring to fill a leaky vessel. The Athenians 
 Mere solicitous to secure these adrantages to their children, by 
 
 iving them initiated, as soon as was allowed. Ceres was sup- 
 -ed to be particularly partial to EleusiSj aijd its vicinity. There 
 
 VOL. II. — mo. 73. 
 
 stood Ihe memorials of her preence and of I.er bounty ; the well, 
 C'allichorus, by which she h;.d rested, in the reign of Erectheus; 
 the stone on "which she sat, named the sorrowful ; the lUiarian 
 plain, where barley was first sown; and Ihe threshing floor and 
 altar of Triptol.nuis, a herdsman whom she instructed in the cul- 
 ture of that grain, the use of which succeeded to acorns. Her 
 mysteries continued to possess a pre-eminence in holiness, and to 
 be accounted as much superior to all other religious festivals as the 
 gods were to tlie heroes. Even tlie garments worn at die solem- 
 nity were supposed to partake ol their ctficacy, and to be endued 
 with signal virtues. It was usual to retain tlieiii until they were 
 perishing; and then to dedicate them in the temple, or to reserve 
 them for enwrapping new-born cliildren. 
 
 ELEUSIS, in ancient geography, a town in AUiea between 
 Megara and the Pira-u';, celebraled tor the fe^tival5 ot Ceres. 
 
 ELEUTHERA, or ALABASTER ISLAND, one of the Ba- 
 hama inlands. Lon. 7t). 31. W. La(. 23. 14. N. 
 
 ELEUTHEKIA, a festival celebrated at Plalsa, hi honour of 
 Jupiter Eleutherius, or the assertor of liberty, by delegates Ironi 
 almost all the cities of Greece. Its instituliou originated from the 
 victory obtained bv the Grecians under Pausair.as, over Mar- 
 donius the Persian general, in Platiea : an altar and statue were 
 erected to Jupiter Elutherius, who had freed the Greeks from the 
 tyranny of the barbarians. It was further agreed upon in a gene- 
 ral asembly, by the advice of Aristides the Athenian, that depu- 
 ties should 'be sent every fifth year, from tl-.e different cities of 
 Greece, to celebrate Eleutheria, festivals of liberty. The Pla- 
 taans celebrated also an anniversary festival in memory of those 
 who had lost their lives in that famous battle. 
 
 ELGIN, or MORKAYSHIKE, a county of Scotland. 
 
 Ei.GiK, or Elgyk, the capitul of the above county, about t3 miles 
 N. of Ihe Spey, 30 E. of Inverness. Lon. '2. 'J5. W. Lat.57. 4C.N. 
 
 ELI, ['Sy, Ileb. i. e. offering,] high priest of Israel, and the 
 last of the judges, except Samuel, succeeded Samson, about A.M. 
 'iSO:, ; and B.C. 113y. His piety, with the wicke<hie>s cf his 
 sons, and the con^equent misfortunes of his family and the com- 
 monwealth, are recorded in I Sam. iv. xiv. and x-xii. He died 
 in the fortieth year of his government, and ninety-eighth of his age, 
 
 A. M. 2903, a'nd B. C. 1099. 
 
 ELIAS, or ELIJAH, [from S», God, and n», the Lord,] an 
 eminent prophet of Israel, who escaped the common lot of man- 
 kind, by not sutfering death ; being translated about A. M. 3108, 
 
 B. C. 8915. His miracles, persecutions, and final exit, are re- 
 corded in 1 Kings xvii. — \xi. '2 Kings i. and ii. He appears to 
 be the first person on record who made use of that part of rhetoric 
 called irony, 1 Kings xviii. 27. 
 
 ELICIT, [elicitus, Latin,] in ethics, is applied to an act of 
 the w ill immediately produced by, and of, the will, and received 
 within the same : as to be willing, unwilling, loving, hating, &t. 
 Acts of which nature are termed elicit, because that, being bctori- 
 iu the power of th • will, they are now brought forth into act. But 
 tliev are so far intrinsic, .that some authors consider them as the » ill 
 itself, and deny that tliey ought to be distinguished from it any 
 more than light is to be (iistinpruished from Ihe sun. 
 
 ELIHU, [from 'Sn, and K1!l. Ileb. i. e. he is my C4od,] the sou 
 of Barachei the Buzite, a descendant of Buz, the son of Nahop, 
 Abraham's brother, and the youngest of Job's friends who visited 
 him in his affliction. His remarkable speech to Job and his senior 
 friends, is recorded in the thirty-second and five toUcwing chap- 
 ters. From some passages in that speech, particularly m cliapter 
 xxxiii. ver. 4 and 6, as "well as from the propriety of the senti- 
 ments expressed in it, and the signification of the name Elihu, antl 
 more especially from the Almighty himself being introduced iis 
 the next speaker, some commentators have supposed that our Sa- 
 viour is meant by this personage. But the particular mention that is 
 made of Elihu's parentage, and ancestors, seems to carry a de- 
 cisive refutation of this conjecture. Another conjecture, that 
 Elihu was, in fact, the author of the book of Job, apjiears to be 
 much better founded, from the 1 ■th and Kith verses oi chapter 
 xxxii. where he seems to speak of himself as the writer ot the 
 narrative, and of the effect of his words upon Job's three senior 
 friends. These two verges are indeed evidently a parenthesis, and 
 cannot, by any constructionof language, be reckoned a part ol 
 the speech, which precedes and follows thcin, 
 
 ELIJAH. . See Euxs. 
 A C ELIOl T, 
 
 I
 
 ELI 
 
 283 
 
 E L I 
 
 EI. 101 T, or ELLIO r, George Augustus, Lord lieath- 
 iield, was tin- youngest son of (he lute Sir Gilbert Eliott, Bart, of 
 Stolis, ill Roxl)iiri;h~liire ; and was born at Slobs in 17)8. He re- 
 ceived the (:ist rudimer.;, of his education under a private tutor ; 
 and was early sent to the university of I.eyden, where he made 
 considerable iirosr<'Ss in classical learning, and spo.ke with (liiency 
 and ele;;ance the (jerman ajid French languages. Being deiigned 
 for a niihtary life, lie was sent from thence to the celebrated E.oie 
 Royale du Genie Militairc conducted by the great Vaubaii, at La 
 FerL' in I'icardy ; where he laid the lonndation of what he so 
 Gonspicuoudy exhibited at the defence of Gibraltar. He com- 
 pleted his nulitary course on the conlinen! by a tour, for the 
 purpose of seeing in pr.ictice what he had studied in tlieori, . 
 i'russia was the model for discipline, and he continued some time 
 as a volunteer ill that service. He returned to .Scotland in 173'>, 
 h\ the seventeenth year of age. In 174U his uncle Col. Eliott ap 
 pointed him his adjutant of the second troop of horse grenadiers. 
 ^\ itli these troops he went upon service to Germany, and was 
 with tliem in a variety of actions. At the battles of Dettingen 
 •and Eontenoy, he was wounded. In this regiment he bought the 
 rank of captain and major, and afterwards purchased the lieutenant- 
 colonelcy from Colonel Brewerton, who succeeded to his uncle. 
 tSoon after this he was appointed aid-de-camp lo (Jeorge H. and 
 vas distinguished for his military skill and discipline. In March 
 17.i9, he quitted the second troop of horse grenadier guards, being 
 selected to raise, form, and discipline, the lirst regiment of light 
 horse, called after him, Eliott's. As soon as they were raised and 
 formed, he was appointed to the command of the cavalry in the 
 ■expedition on (he coast of Erance, with the rank of brigadier ge- 
 neral. After this he passed into Germany, where he was em- 
 ployed on the start, and greatly distinguished himself in a variety 
 of movemenLi. On the peace in 1763, his gallant regiment was 
 xevieued by the king, when they presented to his majeslv the 
 standard-, which they had taken from the enemy. Gratified 
 'vith their fine discipline and high char.icter, the king asked Ge- 
 neral Eliott what mark of his favour he coulil bestow on his regi- 
 ment equal to their merit? He answered, that his regiment would 
 be proud if his maje.^ty should think, that, by their services, tliev 
 were iiititled to the distinction of Royals. It was accordingly 
 made a royal regiment, with this tlattering title, " The fifteenth, 
 or King's Royal Regiment of Liglit Dragoons." At the same 
 time tliekinge.\pres>ed a desire to confer some honour on the general 
 himself; hut the latter declared, that the honourand satisfaction of 
 his majesty's approbation of his services wa^ his best reward. During 
 the peace he was not idle. His great talents in the various 
 branches of the milit:Ty art s^in'e hiin ample employment. He 
 was appointed to the command of Gibraltar in a fortunate hour for 
 the saiety of that important fortress. 'I'he system of his life, as 
 ■well as his education, peculiarly (|ualifipd him for his trust. He 
 was perhaps the most abstemious man of the age ; neither indulg- 
 ing hiniselt in animal food nor wine. He never slept more than 
 four hour^ at a time ; so that he w as up later and earlier than most 
 other men. He so inured himself to habits of hardiness, that the 
 things which are difVicull and painful toother men were to him his 
 ■daily practice and rendered pleasant by use. It could not be 
 easy to starve such a man into a surrender, nor possible to surprise 
 fiim. J he example ol the commander in chief in a besieged gar- 
 rison had a most persuasive ellicacy in forming the manners of the 
 soldiery. Like him his brave followers came to regulate their 
 lives by the mo>t strict rules of discipline beiore there arose a 
 necessity for -o doing ; and severe exercise, with thort diet, be- 
 came habitual to them by choice. The military system of disci- 
 pline which he introduced, and the preparations which he made 
 for his defence, were contrived with so much judgement, and exe- 
 cuted with so much address, that he was aide with a handful of 
 men to preserve his post against an attack, the constancy of 
 which, even without the vigour, had been sufficient to exhaust 
 anycommonsetof nicn. Collected witliin himself, he in no instance 
 destroyed, bypreniature attacks, the labours which would cost the 
 enemy time, patience, and e.xpence, to complete ; he deliberately 
 observed their approaches, and seized on the proper moment, 
 ■with the keeni'ot perspection, in which to make his attack with 
 ■success. He never spent his ammunition in useless parade, or un- 
 important attacks. He never relaxed frcm his discipline by the 
 appearance of security, nor hazarded liic lives of his garriso'ii bv 
 
 wild experiments. By a cool and temperate demeanour, he main- 
 tained his stali<in for three years <jf constimt investment in which 
 I the powers of Spain were employed. All the eyes of -Europe 
 were -. n this garrison ; ami his conduct has justly exalted him to 
 the most elevated rank in tlie military annals of Britain. Oai his 
 return to England, the gratitude of the Hriti>h senate was as for- 
 ward as the public voice in giving him that distinguished mark his 
 merit deserved. Both houses of parliament voted an unanimous 
 address of thanks to the general. Tiie king confei red on hiui the 
 honour of Knight of the Bath, with a pen:i-on during his own, and 
 a second life, of his own appointment; and on June 14, 17K7, his 
 majesty advanced him to the pccr.tge by the title of Lord Heatli- 
 J.eld, I'aron C Gibraltar, permitting liim to take, in addition to his 
 family amis, the arms or the fortress he had so bravely defended, 
 to perpetuate to futurity his iioide conduct. Lord Ileathijeld 
 died on the 6(h .luly, I'tlO, at his chateau at Aix-la-chapelle. 
 
 ELiriiAZ, [fiomS«. and VS, i. e. the strength of God,] the 
 eldest of Job's tliree uncharitable friends. From his being stiled 
 thcTemanite, it is evident that he was a descendant of Esau, by 
 Tei'-.an, the son of Eliphaz, and grandson of Esau, the lirst duke 
 of Edom ; which contributes to KSsist the chronologist in fixing the 
 perioti when Job lived. 
 I ELlQUA'l ION, in chemistry, an operation by which a more 
 fusible substance is separated from one that is less so, by means of 
 a heat sufiiciently intense to melt the former, but not the latter. 
 Thus an alloy of cop|jer and lead may be separated by a heat ca- 
 pable of melting the latter, but not the foriiier. 
 
 ELIS, or ELEA, in ancient geography, a fertile district of Pe- 
 loponnesus, famous for raising flax, wiiich equalled that of Judar* 
 in fineness, though not so yellow, and grew no where else in 
 Greece. : 
 
 Elis, the capital of the above district, situated on tlie Peueus» 
 which ran through it. It was the counirv of Phjedo the Iriend of 
 Plato, and of Pyrrho the founder of tlic Pyrrhonists. 
 
 ELISIIA, [from S«, and yw, Heb. /. e. the salvation of God,] 
 or Elissus, the son of Shaphat, an eminent prophet of Lrael, the 
 disciple and successor of Elijah. His call, with his various mira- 
 cles and prophecies are recorded in I Kings, xix. xxi. 2 Kings, 
 ii. — viii. and xiii. He died much lamented by Joash, kin^ of I&- 
 rael, about A. M. 31(35. 
 
 ELISHAH, the son of Javan, and grandson of Japhet, is sup- 
 posed by chronok>gists to have been the progenitor of the inhabi- 
 tants of .lEolia, in lesser Asia, and of Elis and Alisium in Pelojioi>- 
 nesus. 
 
 ELISION, ill grammar, the cutting off, or suppressing of a 
 vowel at the end of a word, for the sake of sound, or measure, the 
 next word beginning with a vowel. 
 
 Elisions, are pretty fiecjuently met with in English poetry, but 
 more frequently in the Latin, French, &:c. They are chiefly used 
 in suppressing the a, c, and /; though they may also su[)press any 
 of the other vowels. 
 
 ELIXIR, in medicine, a compound tincture extracted from 
 many efficacious ingredients. The difference between a tincture 
 and an elixir seems to be this, that a tincture is drawn from one 
 ingredient, sometimes with an addition of another to open it, and 
 to dispose it to yield to the menstruum ; whereas an elixir is a 
 tincture extracted from several ingredients at the same time. 
 
 ELIZABE TH, queen of England, was the daughter of Henry 
 VHl. by Anne Ik.leyn, and born in 1533. She was educated in 
 the Protestant religion, and in the reign of Mary was sent to the 
 Tower, from whence she was afterwards removecl to AVoodstock. 
 On the death of her sister in l.').'i8 she was proclaimed queen, to 
 the great joy of the nation. Philip of Spain made her an offer of 
 marriage, which she civilly declined. In restoring the reforma- 
 tion she condut ted herself with gieat prudence and moderation. 
 One of the first measures of her reign w.is to send succours to the 
 reformed party in Scotland, which produced the treaty of Edin- 
 burgh, and the departure of the !• reiich from that country. Ehza- 
 bethwas now considtred as the lieail of the Protestant interest, and 
 she gave her assistance to the French Hugonots, who put Havre 
 de Grace into htr hands. At home rigorous measures were 
 adopted against the Roman catholics and puritans. Dudley, carl 
 of Leicester, became the queen's favourite, and had the auibitioa 
 to aspire to her hand. She, however, made an ineft'ectuai effort 
 to unite him lo Mary, (jiieen of Scots. That unfortunate princess 
 
 t^ook
 
 ELI 
 
 285 
 
 E'UTVI 
 
 ..ok refuge in Eii'^laiul from lifr sulijccts \n l.iD'J, and was kept 
 I oiiliiiemeiit till l.iSO, when >lif was basely trieti and executed, 
 ■ibetli endeavom-ed to clear iurself of the odium of tiiistraiis- 
 1 jn, 1)V causing her secretary, Davison, to lie prosecuted for 
 .in)4 a warrant for the execution without her know ledi>e. 'llic 
 /rcnch and Spaniards having formed a league for the extirpation 
 jf heresy, induced Eli-^abelh to jirotect the Protestants, and tlii^ 
 ihe did so etVectuallv as to separate the I'niU-d Provinces from 
 ;Ue dominion of the latter power. The king of Spain, in return, 
 ient a body of trooj)S lo invade Ireland, but they were all cut ofl 
 by lord Grev, the de|nity. In the mean time various oilers ot 
 marriage were made to tlie (jueen, the most remarkable of which 
 was that of the duke of Anjou, who came to England 'or the pur- 
 pose, but after staying some lime, the affair was broken ofi'. In 
 li'iSS Philip sent aj^ainsl England his famous armada, to whicli the 
 pope gave tlic appellalion of invincible. On this occasion the 
 queen <listinguished her.-elf by her great presence of mind, and iii- 
 tii-xible coinage. She rode on horseback in the camp at Tilbury, 
 and inspired her ))eople with heroism by her deportment and her 
 speeches. The Ennlisli Ifect, however, assisted by the winds, pre- 
 vented the Sjjaniauls from landing, and their boasted armada was 
 de.4roved. On the death of Leicester, Robert Devereux, earl of 
 Essex, became the ((ueen's favourite, w ho was, however, executed 
 for tre•,l^on ill 1(501. licr attention lo government, did not sus- 
 pend her pursuit of leaniirig. Ascham, in his Schoolmaster, tells 
 us, that about 1563, live ^ear.^ a.terher accesMon, she being then 
 at Windsor, besides her perfect readiness in Latin, Italian, French, 
 and Spanish, she read more Greek in one day than some preben- 
 daries of that church read Latin in a whole week. She employed 
 Sir John Fortescue to read to her Thucydides, Xenophon, Poly- 
 l)ius, Euripides, .ilCschines, and Sophocles. .She was also skilled 
 in the art of poetry, as appears from Ihe several scraps which have 
 been preserved, from the testimony of Puttenham, a contemporary 
 writer. Air. Walpole mentions as an instauce of her genius, and 
 knowledge of Latin, her extempore reply to an insolent prohibi- 
 tiou delivered to her from Philip II. by his ambassador, in this te- 
 (rastic: 
 
 Te veto ne pergas bello defendere Belgas: 
 
 Que Dracus eripuit, nunc restiluantur oportcf. 
 
 Quas pater evertit, jubeo te condere cellas ; 
 
 Heligio papa: fac restitiiatur ad unguem. 
 *' She instantly answered him, with as much spirit as she used to 
 return his invasions," 
 
 Ad Gra^cas, bone rex, fient mandata kalendas. 
 Being pressed by a Romish priest, during her persecution, to de- 
 clare her opinion concerning the real presence of Christ's body in 
 the wafer, she answered, 
 
 Christ was the Word that spake it; 
 
 He took the bread, and brake it; 
 
 And what that Word did make it, 
 
 That I believe, and take it. 
 
 Fuller. 
 She died at Richmond, the C4th March 1603, aged 70, having 
 reigned 44 years; and was interred in llie chapel of Henry VII. 
 In Westminster Abbey. Her successor James erected a magnifi- 
 cent monument to lier memory. Several of her letters, prayers, 
 translations. Sec. written with her own hand, are extant. 
 
 Elizabeth, empress of Russia, daughter of Peter the Great, 
 (whence her patronymic title of Pefrowiia,) distinguished herself 
 by her signal clemency. She made a vow, that no person should 
 be put to death in her reign, and she strictly observed it. The 
 example was tollowed, and continued by law, under the late Ca- 
 thaiine 11. Elizabeth died in 1762, in the 2 1st year of her reign, 
 and S'Jd of her age. 
 
 Eliiabfth Islands, 16 small islands of Massachusetts bay, on 
 the S. E. side of Buzzard's Bay, extending S. W. from Barnstable 
 county, and bearing N. W. from Martha's viney.ird. Cattahmik, 
 Mashawn, Nashawenna, Pasqui, and l'inequv^se, are the chief of 
 them. They are situated bttueen Lon. 70. 3S. and 70. 66. W. 
 and between Lat. 41. 24. and 41. 3u'. N. 
 
 Elizabeth-town, a post-town of N. Carolina, capital of Bla- 
 den county, 47 miles N. W. of Wilmington. 
 
 Elizabeth-town, a town of New Jersey, in Essex county, C 
 miles S. of Newark, and 1 j S. W. by W. of New York. 
 
 Eli/abeth-xown, a post town of" Marvland, capital of Wash- 
 
 ington county, formerly called llagar'.- town, seated intiie vale ol" 
 Conecochcaqu'e, 6 miles from the Potom.ic. 
 ELK, in zoology. See Cf.kvus. 
 
 Elk. a navigable river of the Uiiiled Stales in Maryland. 
 ELKUOLM, a sea-port of Sweden, in Ulcklag, oa tlie Baltic, 
 24 miles W. of Carlscroon. 
 
 ELKRlDCiE, a town of Maryland, 8 miles S. W. of Baltimore, 
 and lO N. W . of Annapolis. 
 
 ELlv TON, a town of Maryland, in Cecil county, 47 miles 
 S. W. of Philadelphia. 
 
 ELL, [f/;!. Sax.] a measure containing 43 inches, or.a yard 
 and a ([uarler. 
 
 Ell, is a measure, which obtains, under different denomina- 
 ti(ins, in most cotmtries, whereby clollis, slulfs, linens, silks, &c. 
 are usually measured ; answering nearly lo the yar<l of England, 
 the canna of Italy, the vara of Spain, the palm olSicily, &c. The 
 ells most frequently used with us are the Engl'sh and Flemish; 
 the former containing tlnec feet nine inches, or one yard and a 
 quarter; the latter only 27 inches, or three (piarters of a yard. 
 The ell in Scotland contains 374- English inches. 
 
 ELLEKENA, or ELERENA, a town of Spain, in Estre- 
 madura, 5j miles N. of Seville. 
 
 ELLESDON, a town of Northumberland, Ci miles N. W. of 
 New.astle. Lon. I. 49. W. Lat. 5,"). '20. N. 
 
 ELLESMERE, a town and fertile district, in Shropshire, 16 
 miles N. N. W. of Shrewsbury. 
 
 ELLICHPOUR, a city of Hindostan, and capital of a circar 
 of the same name, in the county of Bcrar, 144 miles N. E. of 
 Aurimgabad. 
 
 ELLIP.SI.S, [from exxti^jc, of ixxhttu/, I Kant,'] in geometry, a 
 ligure produced from the section of a cone. The reason of the 
 name is this; let B A, ED, be any two conjugate diametei's of 
 an ellipsis, (tig. Iti. Plate LI V, where they are the two axes,) at the 
 end A, of the diameter A 15, raise the perpendicular A F, equal to 
 the latus rectum, or parameter, being a tliird proportional to A B, 
 E D, and draw the right line B F; then if any point P be taken 
 in B A, and an ordinate P M be draw n, cutting B F in N, the 
 rectangle under the absciss A P, and the line P N will be equal to 
 the square of the ordinate PM. Hence drawing N O parallel to 
 A B, it appears that this rectangle, or the square of the ordinate, k 
 less than that under the absciss A P, and the parameter' A F, by 
 the rectangle under A P and O F, or N O and OF; on account 
 of which deficiency, Apollonius first gave this curve the name of 
 an ellipsis, from ixxurfiy, to be deficient. " 
 
 Ellipsis, in grammar, a figure of syntax, wherein one or more 
 words are not expressed ; and from this deficiency it lias got the 
 name ellipsis. 
 
 Ellipsis, [!>.>.-i^^i,-,] in rhetoric, a figure nearly allied to prete- 
 ntion, when the orator, through transport of pasvion, passes over 
 many things: which had he been cool, ought to have been men- 
 tioned. In preterition, the omission is designed; which, in the 
 ellipsis, is owing to the vehemence of the speaker's passion, and 
 his tongue not being able to keep pace with the emotion of his 
 mind. 
 
 ELLIPTIC, or ELLIPTICAL, something belonging to an 
 ellipsis. Thus we meet with elliptical compasses, elliptic conoid, 
 elliptic space, elliptic stairs, &c. The elliptic space is the area 
 contained within the curve of the ellipsis, which is to that of a cir- 
 cle described on the transverse axis, as the conjUL'ate <liameter is 
 to the transverse axis ; or it is a mean proportional between two 
 circles, described on the conjugate and transverse axis. 
 
 ELLIPTOIDE.S, ill geometry, a name used by some to de» 
 
 '/!-{- H m 
 note infinite ellipses, defined by the equation a:/ z= bi 
 
 n. 
 {o — j) Of tliese there arc several sorts: thus, if aij':=bx- 
 (« — i) it is a cubical elliptoid; and if ai/' = hx- {a — .r)-, it de- 
 notes a biquadratic elliptoid, which is an ellipsis of the third order 
 in respect of the Apollonian ellipsi.s. 
 
 ELLISIA, a genus of the monogynia order, and pentandria 
 class of plants; natural ordi r, Lurida-, Corolla monopetalous, 
 funnel-shaped ; berry carnous, bilocular; seeds t\TO, niuncated or 
 set with small raised points, the one higher than the other. One 
 species, a native of Virginia. 
 
 ELM, \ulinus,'] iu botany. See Ulmvs. The elm is very- 
 serviceable
 
 EI,0 
 
 284 
 
 ELY 
 
 serviceable ill places where it may lie coatii.ii.illy dry, or«etJn 
 extremes. Acccrtlinfrly, it is proper for ssattr-works, mills, the 
 ladle- ;ind solei of tlu- wlieel-pipes, pumps, aque<'iict^, pales, aiul 
 ship planks beneath the water-lines. It is ;tIso of use lor wheel- 
 wrights, ha'ulles for single saws, axle-tree-, ^nd the like. 1 he 
 clearness of the grain, makes it also fit for all kinds of carved 
 works, and most ornaments relating to architecture. This wood 
 may be propagated by the seed, and by layers or suckers taken 
 from the roots of old trees: those raised from layers always strike 
 better roots, thrive more ijuickly than the other, and do not slioot 
 forth so many suckers; for which reason this method deserves to 
 be more generally practised, 'i'he chn naturally delights in a 
 stiftj strong soil, where it grows comparatively slow, but if it be 
 plaBted in rich, ligh-t land, it vegetates most luxuriantly. In the 
 latter case, however, it; wood is light, porous, and of little value, 
 coirpared with that produced on richer soils: the latter is of a 
 closer and stronger texture, and possesses, near the heart, the co- 
 lour and almost the weight and iiardiiess of iron. On such lands, 
 therefore, the elm becomes very piotitable, and is one of those 
 deciduous trees, which ought to be industriously cultivated. This 
 beautiful tree is of great value; and well adapted for planting 
 shady walks, as it does not destroy the gra^s, and its leaves are re- 
 lished by horses, cows, goats, hogs, and sheep, all of which eat 
 them ea<^rly. Its wood, being hard and tough, is used for mak- 
 ing axle-trees, mill-wheels, keels of boats, chairs, and coflius : it is 
 also frequently changed by art, so as completely to resemble nia- 
 Jiogany ; for this purpose, it is sawed into thick planks, stained 
 with aqua-fortis, and rubi)ed over with a tincture, of which alka- 
 net, aloes, and spirit of wine, are the principal ingredients. Silk- 
 worms eat the leaves with avidity. 
 
 ELM AC IN US, Geouge, author of a History of the Saracens, 
 was born in Egypt towards the middle of the 13th century. His 
 history comes down from Mohammed to they tar of ihellegira 5 12, 
 answering to A. D. 1134; in which he sets down year by year, in 
 a very concise manner, whatever regards the Saracen empire, in- 
 termi.\ed with some' passages relating to the eastern Christians. 
 His abilities must have been considerable; since, though he pro- 
 fessed Christianity, he held an office of trust near the pereons of 
 the Mchanimedan princes. He was son to Yaser AI Almid, secre- 
 tary to the council of war under the sultans of Egypt for 45 \eavs; 
 and in l'J38, when his father died, succeeded Ivm in his place. 
 His liistory of the Saracens was translated from Arabic into Latin 
 by Erpinius; and printed in these two languages in folio, at Ley- 
 den, in 16'25. Erpinius died before the publication; but Golius 
 took care of it, and prefixed a preface. It was dedicated by Er- 
 pinius's widow to Dr. Andrew's, bishop of Winchester. 
 
 ELNIA, a town of Russia, in the government of Smolensko, 
 32 mi!^-■ E. S. E. of Smolensko. 
 
 ELOCUTION, [tlocutio, Lat.] generally speaking, signifies 
 the selecting and adapting of words and sentences, to the things or 
 sentiments intended to be expressed. It is also used to denote the 
 just and graceful management of the voice, countenance, and ges- 
 ture, when speaking: in which sense it is synonymous with what is 
 variously called a goad delivery, eliquence, or the ait of speak- 
 ing aiul writing with accuracy, elegance, and perspicuity. True 
 tloquence depends principally on the vivacity of the imagination; 
 for it not only communicates grace and ornament, but also life 
 and motion to discoul'sc. See Oratory. 
 
 ELOGY, \_elogium,'] a pnii-^e, or panegyric, bestowed en any 
 person or thing, in consideration of its merit. 
 
 Elogy, or Eui.OGiUM, should not have so much as one epi- 
 thet, properly so called, nor two words synonymous: it should 
 itricllv adhere to truth; for extravagant and improbable elogies 
 rather lessen the character of the person crthing they would extol. 
 The beautv of elogv consists in expressive brevity. 
 
 ELOHl, ELOIIIM, or ELOI, [a'n"?», Heb. 'mS«, Svr.] in 
 scripture, one of the names of God. But it is to be observe:!, « that 
 angeji, princes, great men, judges, and even false gods, are some- 
 times calleil by this name. The sequel of the discourse, is what 
 assists us in judgiuL' rightly concerning the true meaning of this 
 word. It is the same as Eloha. The one is the singular, and the 
 other the plural. Nevertheless Elohrm is often constructed in tlie 
 singular nuiiiijer, particularly when the true God is spoken of; 
 but when false gods are sjiokcn of, it is coastrued rather in the 
 plural. o 
 
 ELOINED, ia law, signifies restrained or hindered from doing 
 something: thus it is said, that if those within age be eloined, so 
 that they cannot sue personally, their next friend shall sue for 
 them. 
 
 ELONGATION, in astronomy, the digression or recess of a 
 planet from the sun, with respect to an eye placed on our eaitli. 
 The term is chiefly used in speaking of Venus and Mercurv, the 
 arch of a great circle intercepted between either of these plants 
 and the sun being called the elongation of that planet from the sun. 
 See AsTKONOMY. 
 
 Elon'g.'vtion, Axgle of, is an angle contained underlines 
 drawn from the centres of the sun and planet, to the centre of the 
 earth. 
 
 Elong.\tion-, in surgel-y, is an imperfect luxation, occasioned 
 by the stretching or lengthening of the ligaments of any joint. 
 See SuitGERV. 
 
 ELOPEMENT, is when a married woman of her own accord 
 departs from her husband, and dwells with an adulterer; for which 
 without voluntary reconciliation to the husband, she shall lose her 
 dower by the statute of Westminster, ii. c. 34. If a wife willingly 
 leaves her husband, and goes away and continues with her avuu- 
 terer, she shall be barred for ever of action to demand her dower 
 that she ought to have of her husband's lands, if she is convicted 
 thereof; except that her husband willingly and without coercion 
 of the church, reconciles her, and sutlers her to dwell with him; 
 in which case slie shall be restored to her action. 13 Ed. I. st. i. 
 c. 34. See Adulteuy. 
 
 ELOPS, [iXo>).,] a genus of fishes of the order abdominales. 
 Tail armetl above and beneath; body long, and differing from the 
 salmon in wanting the tlesliy back-fin. Head large, smooth, shin- 
 ing, compressed, and llattened ; eyes half-covered with the skin 
 ot the head ; body slender, covered with large angular scales; tail 
 deepiv clelt, with tl bony scale or spine, above and beneath, be- 
 fore it. It has one species, generally about fourteen inches long, 
 it is found on the coasts of Carolina. 
 
 EI.ORA, a town of Hindostan, in the country of Aurungabad ; 
 13 miles N. of Aurungabad. 
 
 ELOTZ, a town of Russia, in the government of Orloff, 112 
 miles E. N. E. of Orel. 
 
 ELPHIN, a town of Ireland, in the county of Roscommon, S 
 miles N. of Boyle, and Sj N. of Dublin. 
 
 ELKICH, a town of Germany, in Upper Saxony. 
 
 ELSIMBURG, or HELSIMBURG, a port town of Sweden, 
 in the province of Gothland, and territory ot Schonen, 7 miles E. 
 of Elsinore. Lon. 13. 'JO. E. Lat. 56. 2. 'N. 
 
 ELSINEUR, ELSINOOR, ELSINORE, or HELSIN- 
 GOER, a port town of Denmark, seated on the Sound, in the isle 
 of Zealand. Every vessel, as she passes, low ers her top-sails, and 
 pays a toll at Elsinore. Lon. V2. 37. E. I^at. 56. 3. N. 
 
 ELTM.\N, a town of Germany, in Franconia, and bishopric 
 of Wurtsbuig, 8 miles W. N. W. of Bamberg. 
 
 ELTZ, a town of Lower Saxony, 10 miles S. W. of Hilde- 
 sheim. Lon. 10. 5. E. Lat. 50. 5. I>J. 
 
 ELVAS, a large town, an<l one of the most important in Por- 
 tugal, in the province of Alentejo, a few miles fi^m the frontiers 
 of Spanish Estraniadura. It is built on a mountain, and is strongly 
 lortitied with works of free-stone. It is 50 miles N. E. of Evoia, 
 and 100 E. uf Lisbon. Lon. 7. 3. W. Lat. 38. 43. N. 
 
 ELVELA, in botany, a genus of the natural order of fungi, 
 belonging to the cryplogamia class of plants. The fungus is tur- 
 binated, or like an inverted cone. 
 
 ELUL, [S'Ss,] in chronology, the 12th month of the Jewish 
 civil year, and Ihe Cth of the ecclesiastical: it consistetl of only 
 29 days, and answered pretty nearly to our August. 
 
 EL'UTRIATION, in chemistry, an operation performed by 
 washing solid substances with water, stirring them well together, 
 and hastily pouring off the rKjuid, while the lighter part remains 
 suspended in it, (iiat it may thereby be separated from the hea- 
 vier part. By this operation metallic ores are separated froifi 
 earth, stones, and Jther nnmetallic particles adhering to them. 
 
 ELW.'^NGEN, a principality of Germany, in Suabia, border- 
 ing on the late duchy of Wurtemburg. 
 
 Elwangen, the capital of the above late principality, 25 miles S. 
 W. of Anspadi, and 32 N. of Ulm. 
 
 ELY, a city an/I bishop's s-ee of Cambridgeshire, about 17 nnh 
 
 N, 01
 
 F, 1M A 
 
 S3,1 
 
 i; M n 
 
 N. ol C'a:iil)riiii;e. It is ;i county ol' ilsi'lf, iiicliuliDg llic l('nitor> 
 nruiml; and lias ;v judge who delciiniiiCi all caujcj civil and cn- 
 nimal within its limits. 
 
 )",i,v, IsiF, OK, a fenny district in Cainl)ridgf>hir<", near 15(;<1- 
 ford Ia'vcI, wliicli coiiijirtncnds the touii anddiocc-e ot ICly, and 
 is parti V overilowcd by water in winter. Imnieiise nunibtrs (..t 
 wild hnvis are taken in it. 
 
 ELVMAltj, ill ancient geography, the capital of Klain, c 
 Persia. 
 
 KLVMUS, Lyme-Gra^s, ai;ernis of the disTynia order, and tri- 
 aiidria class of plants; nawral order, (iramiiia. The calyx is la- 
 teral, bivalved, aggregate, and niultillorous. It, IkIs eleven spe- 
 cies. 
 
 iCLYOT, Sir Thomas, a gentleman eminent for learning in 
 the iCth century, who was educated at Oxlord, travelled into to- 
 reiim countries. Henry Vlil. coiUi-ired the honour of knii^hlhood 
 on him, and employeef him in several embassies ; particularly in 
 \:-i'J, to Home, about the divorce of queen Catharine, and alter- 
 varils to Charles \', about IJ3G. lie wrote, " The Castle of 
 U'-allli," " The Ciovernor," " Banquet of Sapience," " Ofllie 
 J^ilucation of Children," " De Rebus memorabilibus Anglia?," 
 and other books ; and was highly esteemed by all his learned con- 
 temporaries. 
 
 F.LYSIAN FIELDS. See the next article. 
 I'.LYSIUM, [E>.-j<rio;,] in the ancient niytholocy, was reprc- 
 tfiited as a place in the imeri or lower world, furnished with lieUls, 
 rieads, agreeable woods, groves, shades, rivers, &:c. whither the 
 ^■juls of good people were supposed to go after this lite. Or- 
 p.icus, Hercules, and .Ihieas, were said to have descended into 
 Kiysium in their life-time, and to have returned again: (Virg. lib. 
 Ti. ver. f)3S, &c.) Tibullus (lib. i. eleg. 3,) gives us iine descrip- 
 tions of the Elysian llelds. Virgil assigns Elysium to patriots who 
 died for their country, to those of pure lives, to truly inspired 
 poets, to the inventors of arts, and to all who have done good to 
 jiiaiikind. Some authors take the fable of Elysium to have been 
 borrowed from the l'ha:nicians ; and suppose the name El\ slum 
 formed from the Thceniciaii lbs alaz, or ySn iiliit.s, or dSs "ins, to 
 reioice, or to be in jov ; the letter a being only changed into c. 
 Others derive the word from the Greek >uiu, solvo, I let loose or 
 disengage; because here men's souls are freed or chsincumbcred 
 from the fetters of the body. 
 
 ELZEVIRS, Lewis, Bonaventure, Abraham, Lewis, 
 and Dakirl, five celebrated printers at Amsterdam and Leyden, 
 who greatly adorned the republic of letters by many beaulilul edi- 
 tions of the best authors of antiquity. They fell somewhat below 
 the Stephenses in point of learning, as well as in their editions ol 
 Greek and Hebrew authors; but as to the choice of good books, 
 they seem to have equalled, and in the neatness and elegance ot 
 their small characters, greatly to have excelled them. Their Vir- 
 gil, Terence, and Greek Testament, have been reckoned their 
 master-pieces ; and are indeed so very fine, that they justly gained 
 them the reputation of being the best printers in Europe. The lirst 
 Lewis Elzevir began to he lamous at Leyden in 1595, and was re- 
 markable for being the first who observed the distinction between 
 the V consonant and u vowel, w hicli had been recommended by 
 Ramus and other writers long before, but never regariied. Da- 
 niel died in ItiSU or 16S1 ; and though he left children who car- 
 ried on the business, is esteemed the lust of his family who ex- 
 celled in it. The El/evirs have printed several citalogues of their 
 editions ; but the last, published by Daniel, is considerably en- 
 larged, and abounds with new books. It was printed in ISnio, at 
 Amsterdam, in 1(574, and divided into 7 volumes. 
 
 EMANCII'Al'lON, in the Roman law, the sotting free a 
 son trom the subjection of his father; so that whatever moveables 
 he acquires beloiiu, in property to him, and not to his father, as 
 before emancipation. Emancipation puts the son in a capacity of 
 managing his own aflalrs, and of mariying without his latiier's con- 
 sent, though aniinor. There were two kiudsof emancipation, viz. 
 
 1. Emancit.vtiov, Express, where the father declared before 
 a judge, that he emancipated his son. 
 
 2. EMANCii'.^Tiot.','! ACIT, by the son's being promoted to 
 some dignity, by his coming of age, or by his marrying, in all which 
 cases he became his own master of course. 
 
 F,M.\RG!>i,'\TED, imong botanists, an appellation given to 
 such leaves as havea little indenting on their summits: when this 
 VOL. ii.^so. 73. 
 
 - J . TTffT . .» i fT r , - . TI . ? , 8nrt ' 
 
 indenting is terminated on each side by obtuse points, they ar 
 said to. be obtusely emargmated ; whereas when these joints are 
 acute, they are called acutely emarginated. 
 
 F.MI5ALMING is the ojieningot adead body, taking out offh.- 
 inte?tiiii-s, and iilliiig of the pla< e with odoriferous and doiccative 
 drugs and spices, to prevent its putrefying. The Egyptians e\- 
 celled all other nations in the art of preserving bodies trom cor- 
 ruption; for some, th;it they have embalmed tipwards of 'JliOi* 
 years ago, remain whole to this day, and are oiten brought iiuo 
 other countries as great curiosities. Their maimer of eiuhalming 
 was thus: tinv scooped the brains with an iron scoop out .-t the 
 nostrils, anil threw in medicaments to fill up the vacuum : they ais,> 
 took out the entrails, and having filled the body with myirh, ds- 
 sii, and other spices, except frankincense, proper to dry up the 
 humonrs, thev pickled it in nitre, where it lay soaking for 70 
 days. Till' body was then wrapped up in bandages of line linen 
 anil gums, to make it stick like glue ; and so was delivered to the 
 kindred of the deceased, entire" in all its features, the very hairs 
 of the eve-lids being preserved. They used to keep the bodies 
 of their ancestors, thus embalmed, in little house-, magiiificentW 
 adorned, and took great pleasure in belioldir.g them, alive as it 
 were, without any change in their size, features, or complexion. 
 Tlie Egyptians also embalmed birds, &c. The prices for em- 
 b.dmiug" were different ; the highest was a talent, tiie next 2,<) 
 mine, and so decreasing to a very small matter ; hut they who 
 hnd not wherewithal to answer Ciis expeiu-e, contented themselves 
 with infusing, bv means oi a syringe, through the fundament, a 
 certain licpior extracted from the c-.'dar; and leaving it there, 
 wrapped up the body in salt of nitre; tlie oil thus preyed upon 
 the intestines, so that when they took it out, the inte>tine3 came 
 away with it, dried, and not in the lea>t putrefied : the body be- 
 ing enclosed in nitre, grew dry, and nothing remained besides the 
 skin glued upon the bones. The method of embalming u-ed by 
 the modern Egyptians, according to MaiUet, is to wash the body- 
 several times with rise water, which he elsewliere observes, is more 
 fragrant in that country th;'.n with us; they afterwards perfume it 
 with incense, aloes, and other odours, of\\hich they are by no 
 means sparing; and then they bury the body in a winding sheet, 
 made partly of silk and partly of I'otton, and moisteiK-d, as is sup- 
 posed, with some sweet scented water or liquid perfume, though 
 JSIaiUet uses only the term moistened ; this tliey cover with ano- 
 ther cloth of unmixed cotton, to wl-.ich they add one of the riche-t 
 suits of clothes of the deceased. The expence, he says, on these 
 occasions, is very great, though nothing like what the genuine 
 embalming cost m former times. 
 
 EMBARCADERO, incommeire, a Spanish term, much used 
 along the coasts of America, particularly those on the South Sea ; 
 signitying a place which serves some other city farther within 
 land, as a port, for embarking and disembarking commoilities. 
 Thus Calaino is the embarcadero of Lima, the capital of Peru ; 
 and Arica the embarcadero of Potosi. 
 
 EMBARGO, ill commerce, an arrest on ships or merchandise, 
 by public authority ; or a prohibition of state, commonly ou 
 foreign ships, in time of war, to prevent their going out of port, 
 sometimes to prevent their coming in, and sometimes both for a 
 limited time. The king may lay embargoes on ships, or emjiloy 
 those of his subjects, in tune of danger, for the service and defence 
 of the nation : but they must not be for the private advantage of 
 a particular trader or company ; and therefore a warrant to sisy a 
 single ship is no legal embargo. No inference can be made from 
 em'iaigoes which are only in lime of war, and are a prohibition by 
 advice if council, and not at prosecution of parties. If goods he 
 laden on board, and after an embargo or restraint from the prince 
 orstate comes forth, and tlien the master of Iheship bnaks ground, 
 or endeavours to sail, if ftny damage accrues, he must be respon- 
 sible for the same ; the reason is, because his I'reight is due, and 
 must be paid, even though the good'^ be seized as contraband. 
 
 EMBASSADOR, orAMB.VSSADOK, a public minister sent 
 from one sovereign jirince, as a representative of his perscn, to 
 another. 
 
 ENH5DEN, a comity of Germaiiv, hi the late 'ircle of AVesf- 
 phalia, called also East Fiuesland", containing several towns and 
 villages. 
 
 Emuden, a strong city, the capital of the above county, '-'3 
 miles N. E. of GroniiiL'en. 
 
 AD " EMBER-
 
 E M B 
 
 ^im 
 
 E IM B 
 
 EMRER-pAYS. See Ember-Weeks. 
 
 EMBERIZA, a genus ot Uic class and order aves passeres. 
 Bill conical, the maiulibles recede from each other towards the 
 base ; iiilerior mandible li;.sthe sides narrow e'd inwards, upper one 
 is still narrower. There are al)uut threescore species. 
 
 E. CiTRiNELLA, the "^ t.i-!.o\v-Ii AMMhR, has a blackisi) tail, 
 en!\ the two oiitwaril side-fealhers are luarked on tin; inner edge 
 Avith a sharp M Ivite spot, ll builds its nest on the ground in mea- 
 dows. 
 
 E. IIoRTVLANA, the Ortolan, has bh-.ck wings ; the first three 
 feathers on the tail are white ou the edges, only the two lateral are 
 I)lack outwardly. The orbits arc naked and yellow : the liead is 
 greenish, antl yellow towards the iriterior niaiulible. It teeds prin- 
 cipally upon the panic grass; gro.vs \erv fat ; and is reckoned a 
 delicate morsel by certain e|U(,ares, especially wlieii fattened arti- 
 licially. The.^e birds are found in several parts of Europe, but 
 are nut met with in Britain. 
 
 E. Nivalin, the great pyed mountain finch of Ray, and tlie 
 snow bird of li^dwards, has white wings, but the outer e'dge of the 
 prime feathers are black; the tail is black, with three \vliiie fea- 
 thers on each side. These birds are called in Scotland Snow- 
 Flakes, from their appearance in hard weather and in deep snows. 
 'J iieir appearance is a certain fore-rumier of hard weather, and 
 >tonns of snow, being driven by the cold iVoni their common re- 
 treats. Their progress southward is supposed to be thus ; Spitz- 
 bcrgen and Greenland, Hudson's Bay, the Lapland Alps, Sean- 
 diiijvia, Iceland, the Eerroe Isles, Shetland, Orkneys, Scotland, 
 and the Cheviot hills. They visit at that season all parts of the 
 northern hemisphere, Prussia, Austria, and Siberia, 'i hcv arrive 
 lean, and return fat. In Austria, they are caught and fed with 
 millet, and, like the Ortolan, grow excessively fat. 
 
 E. Orvzivora, or the Rice Bird, is peculiar to America, 
 where its depredations on the rice and maize, subject it to the pe- 
 culiar aversion of the farmer. These birds olten mingle with birds 
 of other species, as the red winged oriole, and the blue jay. They 
 are occa^onally kept -for the sake of their music. See Plate 
 
 Lviii. ; ■ 
 
 EMBER WEEKS, by the canonists are called quatuor annl 
 ten'.pora, the four cardinal seasons, on which the circle of the year 
 turns: and hence Ilenshaw takes the word to have been formed, 
 viz. by corruption, from tempora. They are now chietlv taken 
 notice of, on account of the ordination oi priests and deacons; be- 
 cause the canon appoints the Sundays next succeeding the ember 
 weeks, for tlie solemn times of ordination ; though the bishops 
 Biav ordain on ;inv Sunday or holiday. 
 
 EMBEZZLE.NI [■:Nr, m law, by'stat. 39 G. 3. e. 3.S, for pro- 
 tecting masters against embezzlements by their clerks and servants ; 
 servants or clerks, or persons employed tor the purpose, or in the 
 capacity of servants or clerks, who sliall by virtue of such employ- 
 ment receive, or take into their possession, any money, goods, 
 bond, bill, note, banker's draft, or other valuable security or ef- 
 fects, for or in the name, or on account of their master or eni- 
 . plover ; or who shall Iraudulently embezzle, secrete, or make away 
 with the same, or any part thereof; every such oflender, shall be 
 deemed to have feloniously stolen the same from his master or eni- 
 J>!oyer, for whose tise.or on wiiose account, the same was delivered 
 to, or taken into the possession of such servant, clerk, or other 
 person, so employed, although such money, goods, bond, bill, 
 note, banker's draft, or other valuable security, was or were no 
 otherwise received into the possession of his or their servants, 
 clerk, or other person so employed ; and every such ojlender, 
 liis adviser, procurer, aider, or abetter, being thereof lawfully 
 convicted or attainted, shall be lialiie to be transported beyoii'd 
 ^'as. 
 
 EMBLEM, [.Y.i|S? >i^iai,] a kind of painted s-nigina, which, re- 
 presenting some obvious Iiistorv, with reflections underne.ith, in- 
 structs us in tome moral truth. . See /Entgivia, Devisk, ,tc. 
 Such is tliat very signilicanl image of SclcvoU holding his hand in 
 the fire ; with tiie words, " Agere et pati fort iter Romanum est. 
 To do and sulfer courageously is Roman." The emblem is some- 
 what plainer than the lenigma. Gale defines euiblcm an inge- 
 nious picture, representing one thing to the eye, 'and another^ to 
 the understanding. The Greeks also gave the name Emblems, 
 »/i&.>:,wa, [from [ficmXXfiv, to insert,] to inlay ed or Mosaic works, 
 ami even to all kinds of ornameuts «f rases, moveables, garments, 
 
 &c. And the Latins used eniblema in the same sense. Accord, 
 ingly, Cicero reproaching X'erres with having plundered statues 
 and hue wrought works Ironi the Sicilians, calls the ornaments, 
 lixed to them (and which on occasion might he separated,) emblc- 
 mata. Latin authors frequently compare the ligures and oniainents 
 of discourse to these emblemata. With us, emblem ordinarily 
 signilies no more than a painting, basso-relievo, or other represen- 
 tation, intended to hold forth some moral or political instruction. 
 Wliat distinguishes an emblem from a devise is, that the words of 
 an emblem have a full ccmplele sense of themselves ; nay, all the 
 sense and signilication which they have together with the hgure. 
 But there is a yet further dilfcrence between emblem and devise: 
 for a devise is a symbol appropriated to some .person, or that ex- 
 presses something which concerns him particularly; where;is an 
 emblem is a symbol that regards all the world alike. These dif- 
 ferences will be more apparent, from comparing the emblem above 
 quoted, with the devise ol a candle lighted, and tlie words Aliis in 
 serviendo consunior, " I waste myself in serving others." 
 
 EMBLEMENTS, in law, signify the profits of land sown; but 
 the word is sometimes used more largely, for any profits that ariie 
 and grow naturally from the ground, as grass, fruit, hemp, 
 ilax. &c. 
 
 EMBOLISMIC, or intercalary, [((^SoXiTfio,-] a terra used by 
 chronologists in speaking of the additional months and yeais, 
 which they insert to bring the lunar to the solar year. Since the 
 common lunar year consists of twelve synodic months, or 354 days 
 nearly, and the solar consists of36j days (throwing away the odd 
 hours and minutes) it is plain that the solar year will exceed tliC 
 lunar by about 1 1 days ; and consequently in the space of about 
 33 j-ears, the beginning of the lunar year will be carried through 
 all the seasons, and hence it is called the moveable lunar ycr. 
 This form of tlie year is used at this time by the Turks and Ara- 
 bians ; and because in three years' time the solar year exceeds the 
 lunar by 33 days, therefore, to keep the lunar months in the same 
 seasons and times of the solar year, or near it, chronologists added 
 a w hole month to the lunar year every third year, and so made it 
 consist of 13 mouths; this year they called the embolismic a ear, 
 and tlie additional month the embohsmic, or cmbolimean, or in- 
 tercalary month. This torm of the year is called the fixed lunar 
 year, and it was used by the Greeks and Romans till the time oi 
 Julius Cxsar. 
 
 EMBOSSING, or IMBOSSING, in architecture and sculp 
 ture, the forming orfashioning of works in relievo, whether cut w iili 
 a chissel or otherwise. Embossing is a kind ot sculpture, wherein 
 tbe ligures stick out from the plane whereon it is cut: and ;ic- 
 cordiiig as the ligures are more or less prominent, they are said le 
 be in alto, luezzo, or basso, relievo ; or high, mean, or low, re- 
 lief. See Enchasi.mg. 
 
 EMBOTHERIUM, in botany, a genus of the inonogynia or- 
 der, and telrandria class of plants. No calyx; petals four, Ihie.ir, 
 oblique; follicle, round, unilocular, sharpened at both ends;seeos 
 four or tivc, egg-shap^ d, compressed. It has four species. 
 
 EMBRACE THE ^ OI.T, in the manege. A horse is said to 
 embrace a volt, when working upon volts, he makes a good way 
 every time with his fore-legs. 
 
 EMBRACEOK, among lawyers, a person, who, having re 
 ceived a reward so to do, comes to the bar witli one of the pa: • 
 lies, and speaks in the case ; or privily labours the jury, or slaiie~ 
 in court to over-look them, whereby they are awed or put in tiar. 
 Actions of this kind will be embracery, whether the jun.rs gi\ > 
 verdict on t!ie side of the party or not. The penalty of this el- 
 fence is SO/, and imprisonment of the party at the discretion ii> 
 the court: and may be prosecuted either by indictmint at cor,-.- 
 mon law, as well as by action on the statute. But attorneys and 
 other lawyers are excepted. 
 
 EMBliASURE, in architecture, the enlargement made of tiu 
 aperture of a door or window, on the inside of the wall ; its ii" 
 being to give the greater play for the opening of the door, or ca^i 
 ment, or to admit the more light. When the wall is very thie' 
 they sometimes make embrasures on the outside. 
 
 Embrasure, iu fortification, a hole or aperture inaparapil, 
 through which the cannon are pointed to fire into the moat e-. 
 lield. See For'itkication. 
 
 EMBROCAl ION, in surgery and pharmacy, is an extern 
 kind of remedy, yvhich coiisi:ts ot an irrigation ot the partalfccti a 
 
 will
 
 EME 
 
 SBI 
 
 F M E 
 
 with some proper li(iuor, as oils, spirits '^'C. l)y lUL-aiis ot a woollen 
 or linen cloili, or a spiiiige, liippii! in the same. 
 
 EMBROIDEKY is 'a work in gold, silver, or silk lliread, 
 wrought by the needle upon cloth, stuh's, or muslin, into various 
 ligures. In enil>roi<lernt; stul)>, the work is perlonned in a kind 
 (if loom; beeaiise the more the piece is stretched, the easier il is 
 . worked. As to nuislin, they spread it upon a pattern ready de- 
 signed ; and sometimes, before il is stretelied u|)on the [laUern, it 
 ii staiched, to make it more easy to handle. Endjroidery on the 
 loom is less tedious than the other, in which, while they work 
 flowers, all the threads ol the muslin, both lengtlnvi*e and hreadih- 
 wise, must be continually counted; but, on the other hand, this 
 last is much richer in points, and susceptible of greater variety. 
 Cloths too much milled are scarce susceptible of this ornament, anil 
 in eli'ect wi- seldom see them embroidered. The thinnest muslins 
 are lett for this purpose; and they are embroidered to the greatest 
 perfection in Saxony: in other parts of Europe, however, they 
 cmbro'der very prettily, and especially in France. There are 
 several kinds of embroidery: as, 1. Embroidery on the stamp; 
 where the figures are raised and rounded, having cotton or parch- 
 ment put unilcr them to support them. C. Low embroidery ; 
 where the gold and silver lie low upon the sketcli, and are stitched 
 with silk of the same colour. 3. Ciuimped embroidery : this is 
 performed either in gold or silver ; they tirst make a sketch upon 
 the dotb, then put on cut vellum, and afterwards sew en the gold 
 and silver witli silk thread: in this kind of embroic"¥iT ihey often 
 put gold and silver cord, tinsel, and spangles. 4. Embroidery on 
 both sides, that which appeal's on both sides of thestulif. 5. Plain 
 embroidery; whore the figures are ilat and even, wiUiout cords, 
 spangles, or other ornaments. 
 
 Embroidery, Forkign, Statutes Respecting. By stat. 
 22. Geo. II. c. 36, no foreign embroidery, or gold and silver 
 brocade, shall be imported, U|)on pain of being forfeited and burnt, 
 .and penalty of 1001. for each piece. No person shall sell, or ex- 
 pose to ^ale, any foreign embroidery, gold or >ilver thread, lace, 
 iVinge, brocade, or niake up the same into any garment, on pain 
 of having it forfeited and burnt, and penalty of 1001. All such em- 
 broidery, &e. may be seized and burnt; and the mercer, &c. in 
 vho^e custody it was found, shall fo.'feit lOOl. 
 
 EMBRYO, [r.a.SjK^.] See Ecetus, and Generation. 
 EMBRYO Til LASTES, [from, iu?i-joy, an enibrvo, and 5x«u), 
 to break,] in surgery and midwifery, an instrument "for breaking 
 the bones of a dead child in the uterus, that it may be the more 
 easily extracted, 
 
 ESIBRYOTOMY, [from !|U^j:.cy, and to^i,,, cutting,] the art or 
 act of dissecting a fa'tus. 
 
 EMBRYLTXUS, [from ifxp.-joi, and sXxa, to draw,] in surgery, 
 an instrument for extracting a dead frctus from the uterus. 
 
 EMBS, a river of Germany, which rises in Westphalia; and falls 
 , into Dolart Bay, a little below Embdi-n. 
 
 Ekbs, or lioHEN-tMDs, a small county of Germany, in Sua- 
 bia, S. of the lake of Constance. 
 
 Embs, or Ems, the capital of the above county, ten miles S. of 
 Bregenlz. 
 
 EMERALD, inlithology, a genus of precious stones belong- 
 ing to the order of siliceous earths. The name is derived, accord- 
 ing to some, from the Italian snieraldo, or the Arabian zomorrad. 
 Cromtedt says, tlie emerald is the softest of all the precious stones, 
 but othernaturalists place it the next after the diamond in hardness. 
 It is perhaps the most beautiful of all the gems, ancf according to 
 W'allerius, when heated in the tire, changes its colour to a deep 
 blue, and becomes phosphorescent ; but recovers its green ula-n 
 cold. When jnilverised it has a white appearance, and, with 
 borax, melts to a very thin and colourless glass. It become? elec- 
 ■triciy being rubbed, and some have the property of the tourma- 
 lin, VIZ. of being eleclrihed by heat, and in that state attracting 
 ashes or other light substances ; though alter having attractetl the 
 v^ ashes, they retain them without any signs of repulsion. Hitherto 
 it has been found only crystallized. The primitive form of its 
 crystals is a regular six-sided prism; and tlie form of its integrant 
 molecules is a triangular prisin, whose sides are <;(niares, and ba-es 
 equilateral triangles. The most common variety of its crystals is 
 the regular six-sided prism, sometimes with the edges of tiie' prism, 
 or of tlie bases, or the solid aui^les, or both wai'iting, and small 
 faces in thvir place. (Crystals short; lateral planes smooth, term- 
 isai planes rougii ; toloui- emerald green of all iiilensiiies ; vitreous; 
 
 fracture small, imperfect, conchoidal, with a concealed lohaled 
 fracture, and fourloltl cleavage; fragments sharp-edged; causes 
 double refraction; scratches quartz with diincully. Sp;^ciific str.i- 
 vily from 2.(i00 to 2.77.">5. Emeralds are rlividi d by je« ehi-r- int« 
 two classes or kiixl-, namely, the oriental and the occidental. 1 lie 
 former is at presint extremely scarce, being .ound only in the 
 kingdom 01 Cambay, in India. The occideulal emeralds are 
 chielly imported from Peru, in South Amer ca. A very in.erlor 
 sort u also obtained from Silesia, wliich, however, is little esteem- 
 ed. CJeiuiine emeralds beinjj seldom to be met with, several 
 experiments have been made, and directions given for imitating 
 them ; from which we select the following: Take of natural crys- 
 tal and of red lead, each four ounces ; verdigrease 48 grains; and 
 of crocus martis, prepared witii vinegar, eight grains. The whole 
 is to be finely pulverized, sifted, and put into a crucible, the space 
 of one inch being left empty. It is then to be well luted, set in 
 a potter's furnace, and left for the same space of lime as earthen- 
 ware. When cool, the crucible is to be broken, and these ingre- 
 dients w'ill be found converted into a mass of a 'ine emerald colour ; 
 which, after being cut and set in gold, will at least be equal, if not 
 superior, to genuine oriental emeralds. See also Pastes. 
 
 EMERI'I I, in Roman antiquity, soldiers who served out Uieir 
 time, and had received marks of favour for their merits. 
 
 EMERODS, or EMEROIDS, [corrupted by ignorant pro- 
 nunciation fioiii hemorrhoids, «i(ioM3ii.-,-,] painful swellings of the 
 hemorrhoidal veins ; piles. 
 
 EMERSION, in astronomy, is used when the sun, moon, or 
 other planet, begins to re-appear, after its having been eclipsed, 
 or hid by the interposition of the moon, earth, or other body. 
 The ditVe'rence of longitude is sometimes found by observing^ tlie 
 immersions and emersions of the lii-st of JupiterN ralellites. The 
 immersions are observed from the time of Jupiter's being in con- 
 junction with the sun to hi? opposition ; and the emersion from the 
 "opposition to the conjunction ; wliich two intervals are usually six 
 months each, and divide the year between them. Cut when.Iu- 
 piter is in conjunction with the sun, and 15 days before and after- 
 wards, there is nothing to be observed ; the planet, with his satel- 
 lites, being then lost in the light of the sun. 
 
 Emersion, in physics, the rising of any solid above the surface 
 of a fluid specifically heavier than ilselfj into which it had been 
 violently immerged or thrunt. 
 
 E.MERSON, William, a late eminent mathematician, born in 
 June 1701, at Hurworth, a village about three miles south of Dar- 
 lington; at least it is certain that he resided here from his child- 
 hood. His father Dudley Emerson was a 'luler,.ble proficient in 
 mathematics; and without his books and instructions, perhaps his 
 own genius (most eminently litti d for m.ithematical disciuisilions) 
 would have never been unfolded. He was instructed in the learn- 
 ed languages by a young clergyman, then curate of Hurwoith, 
 who was boarded at his father's house. In the earlier part of his 
 life he altempted to teach a few scholars; but whether from his 
 concise method (for he was not happy in explaining his ideas), or 
 the warmth of his natural tenip'-r, he inside no progress in his school; 
 he therefore soon left it oil ; and, satisried with a mod.rate com- 
 petence left him by his parent^, devoted himself to a studious re- 
 tirement. Towards the close of 1781, he disposed of the whole of 
 his mathematical libraiy to a bookseller at York, and on May '-0th 
 1782, he died of a fingering and painl'u! disorder at his native 
 village, aged 81. In size he was rather short, bv.t strong and well 
 made, with an open countenance ancl ruddy complexion. lie 
 was exceedingly singular in his dress. He had but one coat, 
 which he alway s wore open before, except the lower button ; no 
 waistcoat ; his' shirt quite the reverse of one in comn-.on u^e, no 
 opening before, but buttoi.ed close at the collar behind ; a kind 
 ot llaxen wig which had not a crooked hair in it, and prob; bly had 
 never been lomb.-d from the time it was made. He always walk- 
 ed up to London when he had any thing to publish, revising sheet 
 by sheet himself: To trust no eyes but his own, was always a ta^ 
 vourite maxim with him. He never advanced any miilheniatical 
 proposition that he had not first tried in practice, coiistaiitiy niak- 
 ■ng all the different parts liimielf on asmall scale, so that Ins house 
 was filled with all kinds ot' mechanical instruments together or dis- 
 jointed. He would frequently stand up to his middle in v.-atcr 
 while fishing, a diversion he was remarkably fond of. He used 
 to study incessantly for some time, and then for ridaxatioii takeri 
 rumble to anv alehouse wbero hv could gei any person to drmk 
 Q ' ' witik.
 
 F, :\I F- 
 
 288 
 
 K M O 
 
 witli and talk to. The duke of Manchester was higlily pleased 
 with his coiiipiiny, and often came to him inthe fields, ant! acconi- 
 p.Miied hii-ii home, liut could never persuade liini to get into a 
 tai-ria^e. He was married, and his' wife v,.:pd to spin on an old 
 iiishioii.'d wheel, whereof a very accurate draw ing is given in his 
 ineciiaiiics. lie w;is deeply skilled in music, the liieory of sounds, 
 and the various scales both ai)cient and modcrr:, but' was a very 
 pop performer. lie wrote, 1. The Doctrine of KUixions: 2. The 
 Projeclion ot the Spliere, orlhogr.iphic, slerL-ographic, and gno- 
 iiionical: 3. The Elements of Trisonometry : 4. The Principles 
 of Mechanics: 5. A 'I'realise of Navigation on the Seas: (i. A 
 Treatise of Algebra, in two books: 7. 'Ihe Arilhmelic of Inlinites, 
 and the differential Method, illustrated by e\;\,n|jles: 8. Me- 
 ciianics; or, the Doctrine of Motion : 9. The Elements of Optics, 
 and Perspective: 10. A System of Astronomy. II. The Laws 
 of C'entripelal and Centrifugal Force: 12. The Mallieni:itic;J 
 Principles of Geography: f3. Tracts, Kvo: 14. Cvclomalhesis; 
 or an easy Introduction to the several Branches orSialheniatics: 
 Li. A siiort Comment on Sir I=aac Newton's Primipia ; to wiiich 
 is added, A Defence of Sir Isaac against tlie Objections that have 
 b'een made to several Parts ofhis Works: And,"l6. A .Miscellane- 
 ous 'IVeiilise, containing several IVLithematical Subjects, 8vo. )77(). 
 EMKKY, [imi/rU, Lat. fsmeii'l, Fr.] an iron ore, considera- 
 bly rich. It IS found in the island of tniernsey, in Tuscany, and 
 many parts of Germany. It has a near relation to the ni'agnet. 
 The lapidaries cut the ordinary gems on their wheels by sprinkling 
 the welted powder over them ; but it w ill not cut <lianionds. ft is 
 useful in cleaning and polishing steel. Emery is found in larije 
 masses of no determinate shajie or size, extremely haril, and vcrv 
 heavy. It is usually of a dusky brownish red on 'the surface; but 
 when broken, is of a fine bright iron grev, with some tinge of red- 
 nc'^s; and is spangled all over with shining specks, which are 
 small Hakes of a foliaceous talc, highly impregnated with iron. It 
 is also sometimes very red, and llun usuailv contains veins of miUI. 
 It makes no eJTervescencc witii any of the acid menstruunn. ' Dr. 
 Lewis is of opinion, that some kinds of emery may contain platina. 
 The English are the only people who have the art of reducing 
 emery into powiUr. 
 
 EMESA, or EMESSA, an ancient town of A'^ia, in Syria, 2j 
 miles S. of Hama. h has several line ruins, which give some idea 
 of its ancient magnificence. 
 
 EMETICS are those medicines which are either given with a 
 view to discharge the foul or poisoned contents of the stomach, or 
 to velicale the coats of that organ, and thus to produce certain I 
 changes in other parts of the animal ecoiinniy, not immediately 
 connected with the process of digestion. "With' the latter intention", 
 small nauseating doses arc gene'rally administered, especially in 
 catarrhal and other diseases of the breast. In this place, how ever, 
 we shall but briefiy enumerate the cases in which yomiting may 
 be excited wilii a probability of success; and also, those ins'tai^ce's 
 in which this remedy cannot be safely adopted. Emetics may be 
 of great service: 1. Immediately after swallowing narcotic "and 
 other poisons ; 2. For tlie puroose of evacuating viscid, bilious, 
 and putrid matters, or undigested food from thestom:ich; 3. To 
 assist Nature, when there is a spontaneous effort to vomit ; 4. To 
 expel substances fallen into and obstructing the p;issage of tlie gul- 
 let; r>. To promote the expectoration of mucus and purulent mat- 
 ter, collected in the lunn-- and windpipe; — as well as on many other 
 occasions. On the contrary, the greatest precaution is rt'i|uired 
 in the foUowiivg case*:, where a precipitate use of emetics may be 
 .ittended with fatal elTects, from bursting a blood:ves;eI, &c. I. In 
 all plethoric persons, but cs|'ecially such as perceive a strong pro- 
 puMon of the blood to the head, "hi east, stomach, or liver ; 'J. In 
 actual inllamnialion of the intestines ; 3. In states of extreme lan- 
 guor and debility ; 4. In every species of ruptures, and prolap- 
 ses ; 5. In violent pain proceeding from stones confined in the 
 bilious or urinary passages; (i. In obstructions of the bowels, 
 and other abdominal parts; 7. In persons of very rigid librcs, for 
 instance, the au,ed and emaciated; S. In a very weak or affected 
 state of the lungs, liver and stomach; Q. In a deformed structure 
 of the body, or some particular parts; for which reason emetics 
 jnii;ht prove dangerous to persons troubled with a hump-back, a 
 very short neck, narrow chest, itc. 
 
 KM ILLEGL'E, one of the Pelew islands. 
 
 tNUMS, ancient inhabitants of the land of Canaan beyond 
 
 Jordan, towards the Dead Sea ; who were defeated by Ciieiicrla- 
 omer and his allies. 
 
 EMINENCE, in geography, a little hillock or ascent above the 
 level of the a;'joiniiig champaign. 
 
 E.Ml li, a title of dignity amon.ij the Turks, signifyint; a prince. 
 This title was lirst given to the caliphs; Init when ihcv asiuinej 
 the title ot Sultans, ihatofemir reuKiined to.tliei'r children; a3th;it 
 of Ca-sar among the Eom.-'ns. At length the title came to be at- 
 tributed to all v.ho were descended from .\ioh;(mmed by his 
 daughter Fat'.mah, and who wear the groen tuibau instead of the 
 while. 
 
 EMISS.ViJY Vessels, in anatomy, the same \iitli those more 
 commonly called excretory. 
 
 EMf^'^'', an ancient city of Ireland, in Tipperary, now in ruins. 
 It is 15 miles \\'. of Casliel. 
 
 EMMA, a river of the Helvetic rei-ublic, in the late canton of 
 Bern. 
 
 EMMANUEL, [Vsljcy, Heb. ;. c. God with u-,] one of the 
 names of our Saviour, bee Isaiah yii. 1 i. 
 
 EMMAl'S, ENLVrS, or AMMAl'S, in ancient geography, 
 a village, (id stadia N. W. of Jerusalem, or about 7 miles : it af- 
 terwards became a town, and a Roman colony, called Nicopoli-. 
 Reland mentions a village called Eminaus towards Lydda, "? 
 miles from Jerusalem ; and another, near Tiberias. 
 
 EMM.iUS, in modern geography, a Moravian settlement in Penn- 
 sylvania. 8 miles from IJethlehem. 
 
 EMMENAGC^GUES, medicines so named from sv, in, /,■.,„, 
 month, and «yu.', I lead, becaCise they promote the monthly 'dis- 
 charge. 
 
 E.SlMEKICH, EMMERICK, or EMBRICK, a rich forti- 
 tied town of Germany, in Vcstplialia, on the left bank of the 
 Rhine. 
 
 TIMMET. See Formica and Termes. 
 
 EM Ml US, Ubeo, a very learned professor, born at Grefha iq 
 East Friesland, in Ii47, and chosen rector of the college of Nor- 
 den in i.'i^!'. This seminary llourished exceedingly under his 
 care ; and declined as visibly after he was ejected, in liS7, for re- 
 fusing to ':ul.ecribe the Confession of Augsburg. In IJSH, he was 
 made rector of the college of Leer ; and when the city of Gro- 
 ningen confederated with the United Provinces, the magistrates 
 appointed him rector of that college: which employment he filled 
 with the hinhest repute near 20 years. The college being erected 
 into an univeisity, he vi-as the first rector, and one of thechief or- 
 naments of it by his lectures, till his infirmities prevented his pub- 
 lic appearance. His wisdom was etpial to liis learning ; so that 
 the governor of Friesland and Groningen often consulted him, and 
 sel'lom failed to follow his advice. He wrote " Vetus Gcxci^ 
 iilustrata," 3 vols. ; " Decades Reruni Fresicaruni ;" and many- 
 other valuable woiks. lie died in 1625. 
 
 EMOLLIENTS, those medicines which are supposed to soften 
 and relax the libres of the boily, either by m'*i hanicallv distend- 
 ing such as before were too closely, that is, pretcrnaturally com- 
 bined ; or, by penetrating into the interstices of the elementary 
 fibres, and supplying these particles, from a deficiency of which 
 they were too intimately united. Among the remedies of the 
 former class are cliieHy heat, and all unctuous applications ; such 
 as lard, wax, fat of venison, &:c. : to the latter belong all juicy, 
 mucilaginous, and saccharine substances, serving both as nutriment 
 and medicines. Of this descTiption are the expressed vegetable 
 oils, fresh butler, decoctions of marsh-mallows, infusions of liiilseed, 
 &c. Emollients are indicated ; L When the fibres are in too 
 rigid a state ; 2. When they are spasmodically contraclerl; 3. In 
 all active inflammations; and 4. In obstinate cosliveness, or accu- 
 mulations of fa-ces in the intestines. 
 
 EMOLUMENT is properly ajiplied to the profits arising daily 
 from an office or employment. The Latin, tmnhunentuiii, ac- 
 cording to some, primarily signilies the profit redounding to the 
 miller trom his niill ; from mntn, iiiolcrc, to grind. 
 
 E.MOTION, \_rmnlir>n. Fr] disturbance of mind ; vehemence 
 of passion, pleasing or painful. 
 
 Emotion is thus distinguished from Passion, by the late cele- 
 brated Lord Kaims, in his " Elements on Criticism ;" vol. i. 
 p. 41. " An internal motion or agitation of the mind, when it 
 passeth away without desire, is denominated an emotion ; when 
 desire follows, the motion or agitation is denominated a passion. 
 
 A line
 
 K M P 
 
 280 
 
 EMP 
 
 A fine face, for exaaiple, raisoth in nie a pliMrant fooling: if tiiat 
 /et'ling vanish willionl producing any elii'i-l, it is in proper lan- 
 guage an emolion ; lint if the feeling, l)y reileralod views of th;> 
 ■object, becomes sutVuii'ntly strong to occasion tlcsire, it 1o"ps iis | 
 nanie of emotion, ami acquires tliat of passion. The same holds 
 in all tlie other ])assions. The painful feeling raised in a spectator by 
 a sliglit iiijnry done to a stranger, being accompanied with no de- 
 ■sire of revenge, is termed an emotion ; l)ut tliat injury raiseth in 
 the stranger a stronger emotion, which being accompanied witii 
 desire of revenge, is a passion. E\ternal expressifMis of distress 
 produce in the spectator a painful leeling, which being sometimes 
 so slight as to pass away without any effect, is an emotion ; but it 
 the feeling is so strong as to prompt desire of alfording reliel, it is 
 a passion, and is termed pity. Envy is emulation in excess : it 
 the e.-c.dtation of a competitor be barely disagreeable, the painful 
 feeling is an emotion; if it produce desire to depress him, it is a 
 passion." Sec Passiom. 
 
 EMOUI, EMOUY, or IIIA-MEN, an island and port of 
 China, under the iurisdiction of the province of Fo-kien. 
 
 EMPALEMENT, [from ;;iandpa/«j, Lat. a stake,] an an- 
 cient barbarous punishment, wliich -consisted in thrusting a stake 
 up the fundament. It is mentieued by juvenal. It was ol tea in- 
 flicted under Nero, and continues to lie so in Turkey. 
 Empalemknt of a Flowkr, the same with Calyx. 
 EMPANNEL, \Jvom panne, Fr.] the writing or entering tlic 
 Tiames of a jury into a parchment schedule, or roll of pajier, by 
 the sherilT, which he has summoned to appear for the performance 
 of such public service as juries are employed in. — Cowel. 
 
 E.MPEUOCI.ES, a celebrated philosopher and poet, born at 
 Agrigentum, in Sicily. He followed the Pythagorean philosophy, 
 and admitted the metempsychosis. He constantly appe.ired with 
 a crown of gohl on his head ; to maintain, by this outward pomp, 
 the reputation he had acquired of being a very extraordinary man. 
 Yet Aristotle says, that he was a great lover of liberty, e.vtremely 
 averse to state and comn\and, and that he even refused a kingdom 
 that was offered him. His principal work was a Treatise in verse 
 on the " Nature and Principles of Things." Aristotle, Lucretius, 
 and all the ancients, make tlie mo;t magnificent eulogiums on his 
 poetry and eloquence. He taught rhetoric ; and often alleviated 
 the an.vieties ot his mind, as well as the pains of his body, with 
 music. It is reported, that his curiosity to visit the iiames of the 
 crater of ^Etna proved fatal to him. Some maintain that he wish- 
 ed it to be belii-vfd that he was a god ; and that his death miglit 
 be unknown, he threw himself into the crater and perished in the 
 flames. His expectations, however, were frustrated ; and the vol- 
 cano by throwing up one of his sandals discovered to the world 
 fhat Empedocles had perished by fire. Others reported that he 
 lived to an extreme old age ; and that he was drowned in the sea 
 about B. C. 440. 
 
 EMPERESS, or EMPRESS, denotes either the wife of an 
 emperor, or a woman who governs singly an empire, in her own 
 right. See Emperor and Empire. 
 
 EMPEROK, {inqieratnr,'] among the ancient Romans, signi- 
 ,.;(_ fied a general of an army, who, for some extraordinary success, 
 \ had been complimented with this appellation. Thus Augustus, 
 having obtained no less than twenty victories, was as often saluted 
 with the title emperor ; and Titus was denomiurfted emperor by 
 hii army after tire reduction of Jerusalem. Afterwards, it came to 
 denominate an absolute monarch or supreme conuiiander of an 
 empire. In this sense Julius C;esar was called emperor ; tlie same 
 title descended with the dignity to Octavius, Tiberius, and Cali- 
 gula ; and afterwards it became elective. The title emperor does 
 not, and cannot add any thing to the right* of the sovereignty : 
 -■its effect is only to give precedence and pre-eminence above other 
 sovereigns; and as such, it raises those invested willi it to the sum- 
 mit of all human greatness. It is disputed, if emperors have the 
 power of dispo>ing of the regal title. It is true, thev have some- 
 times taken upon them to erect kingdoms. Thus Bohemia and 
 Poland are said to have been raised to that dignilv ; thus also, the 
 «-mperor Charles II. in 877, gave Provence to Roson, putting the 
 diadem on his head, and decreeing him to be called king," ut 
 more priscoruin im|)eratorum regibus videretur dominari." 
 
 EMPETRl'M, liERRY-BEARixG HEAni, a genus of the tri- 
 andria order, and di«-cia class of plants ; natural order. Miscel- 
 lanea'. Male, calyx three-parted ; corolla three-petaled ; stamen' 
 long: female, calyx three-parted; corblia tliree-petaled ; st-, Ics 
 VOL. n.— NO. zi. 
 
 nine; berry nine-seedeci.. There arc two specie.? ; viz. E. album, 
 
 white-ben'ied heath, and E. nigrum, hiaek-berried hei.lh, crow or 
 crake berrv. These are low shrubs, seldom propagated in gar- 
 dens, unh'si for v:iriely's sake. They are natives ot v;ild mnut:- 
 tains, where flv soil i, heathy and full of bogs. 
 
 Ji.MPH.\SlS, [i,«,v,Ti,-,] a remarkable stress laid upon a word 
 or sentence; particular force impressed bv stile or pronuiicia- 
 tion. Sec Declamation, Oratory, and ftEAUiNf:. 
 
 EMPliRAXIS, [<f.t<);'i;i;,J an obstruction in ai.v part of the 
 body. 
 
 EMPHYSEMA, ['iJ-y-'Tty.fi.,'} a windy tumour, .'generally cc- • 
 casioned by a tiracture of the ribs, and formed by the air insinuat- 
 ing itself, hv a small wound, between tiie skin and muscles, int* 
 the substance of the cellular or adipose membrane, spreading itss-if 
 afterwards up to the neck, head, belly, and other parts, much af- 
 ter the maaner in ivhich butchers blow up tlieir vcai. 
 
 EMPHYTEUSIS, [from n, in, and ^mti-j^, to plant, Gr.] the 
 act of planting, or clearing lands for planting; the tenure of land? 
 on that condition. 
 
 E.MPIRE, r (';«/)£■ izHjn,] in political geography, a large extent 
 of land, under tiie.jurisdietion or government of an emperor. See 
 E,m!'I-:ror. In ancient history we re*! of four great empires, v,z. 
 1. That of the .Assyrians, Chaldeans, and Babylonians; 2. of the 
 Medes and Persians ; 3. of the Greeks ; and 4. of the Roman--. 
 Tlie tirst subsisted from the tiiiic of Nimrod, who founded if A. M. 
 1800, according to the computation of I'ssher, to Sardanapalus 
 their last king, in J'JJT, and consequently lasted about 1450 years. 
 The empire of the Medes conimenced under Ariiacts, A. M. 
 3.'j7 ; was united to that of tie IVabylonians and Persians under 
 Cvrus, A. M. 34t)S, and ended with the death of Darius Codo- 
 mannus in 3674. The Grecian empire lasted only during the 
 reign of Alexander the Great, beginning in A. M. 3674, and ter- 
 minating with the death of this conqueror in 3681, when his con- 
 (piests were divided among his captains. The Roman empire 
 commenced with Julius Cae>ar, when he was made perpetual dic- 
 tator, in A. U. C. 708, A. M. 303fi, and A. D. 4S. The seat of 
 the empire was removed to Byzantium by Con:tantine, A. D. 33i. 
 and tiie east and west were still considered as united under the 
 title of the Roman empire though mostly governed by two dif- 
 ferent series of emperors, till the total overthrow of tlie latter un- 
 der Augustulus, by the Goths, A. D. 476. The Western empire 
 was not revived even in name, till the year SOO, when Charles the 
 Great, of France, was ])roclaimcd emperor by the Romans. From 
 this epoch the east and west formed two separate empires ; that of 
 the east, governed by Greek emperors, commenced A. D. S32 : 
 and being gradually weakened, terminated under Constantine Pa- 
 li'ologus in 14j3. The western empire was afterwards known by 
 the appellation of the empire, or German empire. Antiquaries 
 distinguish between the medals of the upper, and lower or has, 
 empire. The curious only v:ilue tliose of the upper empire, 
 which con.'iiences with C;esar or Augustus, and ends A. D. 2tiO. 
 The lower empire compreliends near 1200 years, reckoning dowij 
 to the destruction oi Constantinople in 1453. They usually dis- 
 tinguish two ages, or periods of the lower empire : the first begin- 
 ning wliere the upper ends, viz. with Aurelian, ending with Anas- 
 tasius, including 300 years; the second beginning with Anastrisius, 
 and ending with the Paljtologi, which includes J BOO years. 
 
 EMPIRIC, [.-a^Tiij.y.©',] a trier ; .-.n experimenter ; such per- 
 sons .-'.s have no true education in, or knowledge o', physi-a! prac- 
 tice, but venture upon hearsay and observation only. — Quincy. 
 
 EM PIS, in zoology, a genus of the class and order insecta; 
 diptera.' Proboscis horny, bivalve, reliexed under the head and 
 breast, and longer than the thorax. 'I'hey live by sucking the 
 blood and juices of othi-r animals, and inhabit fields and gardens. 
 There are al)out 30 species. 
 
 EMPLASTIC, [i,uTj>ar'"-3^, or ■•f.'.^''ir®-',J medicines which 
 constipate and shut up the pores of the body. 
 ^.^".MPLEURUM, in botany, a genus of the monoecia tetran- 
 dria class and order. Male <-aKx foui-clelt ; corolla none; fc- 
 mak- calyx four-cleft, inferior; corolla none; stigma cylindric ; 
 capsule opening at the side ; seed one, arilled. There is one spe- 
 cies, a sliruli of the Cape. 
 
 EMPNEUMA TOSIS, [.^r„...,«c»^,f,,Gr.] the alternate dila- 
 tation of the chest, by \Wiich the air is inhaled and communicated 
 to the blood. 
 
 4 E EM POLL
 
 EN A 
 
 290 
 
 ENC 
 
 EMi-OLI, a town of lUily, in Tuscany, 17 miles S. W. of Flo- 
 reiite. Loii. 1 1. 6. R. Lat.'43. 42. >i. 
 
 EM PON EM A, [from t,;i^3VM, Gr. lo lahouv,] tlie art of im- 
 proving ground by labour. 
 
 EiMPORlyE, u double city of tlie llitlier Spain, near tlic 
 Pyreneos ; separatt^d by a wall. It is Jiow tailed Amptirias. 
 
 EMPORIUM, [i;x7To.-i;v,] a place of niercliandise ; a marl; a 
 town of trade ; a commercial city. 
 
 Emporium, in ancient geography, tlie name of two cities in 
 Italy, near Placejitia. 'J'bey are now tliought to be Ponte Nnra, 
 in Placentia. 
 
 Emporium, in medicine, is often used for the common sfn>ory 
 ill llie brain. 
 
 EMPYEMA, [!,/.ra-i/ii,urt,] a collection of purul:?nt matter in 
 any part whatsoever; generally used to sii^nifv that in the cavity 
 of the breast only, and which sometimes happens upon the open- 
 ing of abscesses, or ulcerations of the lunpjs, or membranes inclos- 
 ing the breast. — Quincv. See Medicine. 
 
 EMPYREAL Air," the name given by Dr. Higgins to that 
 whicii Dr. Priestley calls dephlogisiicated air ; other philosophers 
 vital or pure air, and modern chemists oxygen gas. 
 
 EMPYREUM, a term used by divine's for the liighest heaven, 
 where the blessed enjoy the beatific vision. The word is formed 
 of i-i and nu^, lire, because of its splendor. 
 
 Empyrf.um, or Empyrkuma, {j'/.x^vorjixa,'] the burning of any 
 Blatter in boiling or distillation, which gives a particular otlensivo 
 smell. — Quincy. 
 
 EMULATION, a generous ardour kindled by the praise-wor- 
 ■thy examples of others, which impels us lo imitate, lo rival, and, 
 if possible, to excel them. This passion involves it in esteem of 
 the pcr.iou whose attainments or conduct we emulate, of the fina- 
 lities and actions in which we emulate him, and a desire of resem- 
 blance, together with a joy springing from the hope of success. 
 'I'he word comes originally from the Greek afxiWct., contest ; 
 whence the Latin, (tmului, and thence our cmulatinn. Plato 
 makes emulation the daughter of envy ; if so, there is a great dif- 
 ference between the motl'.er, and the olifsprinc; the one being a 
 virtue, and the other a vice. Emulation admires great actions, 
 and strives lo imitate them ; envy refuses them the praises that are 
 their due; emulatinn is generous, and only thinks of ecpialling or 
 surpassing a rival ; envy is low, and only seeks to lessen him. It 
 would, therefore, be more proper to suppose emulatioa the daugh- 
 ter of admiration: admiration being a principal ingredient.in the 
 composition of it. 
 
 EMULGENT, [ennilgcns, Lat.] in anatomy, two large arte- 
 ries and veins which arise," the former from the descending trunk 
 of the aorta, or great artery ; the latter from the vena cava. They 
 are both inserted into the kidneys; the enuilgent arteries carrying 
 blood with tlie serum to them, and the emulgent veins bringing it 
 back again, after the seram has been separated therefrom by the 
 kidneys. St-e Akatomy. 
 
 EiNlULS-ION, [cmiddo, Lat.] a form of medicine resembling 
 milk, aiwl which is often prescribed with a view to shealh and neu- 
 tralise acrid humours, especiallv in heat of urine and stranguries, 
 as well as for nervous and irritable habits in general. Emulsions 
 are frequently made, by boiling the oily and farinsceous seeds 
 contained iii kernels; iii which case they are soon decomposetl, 
 on standing. See Pharmacy. 
 
 ENSUNCTORIES, in anatomy, are chiefly the kidneys, blad- 
 der, and most of the glands. 
 
 liMUNGS, one of the Pelew islands. 
 
 EN.ALLAGE, [i»«>>a.-/n,] a iigufe in grammar, whereby some 
 r.'-ange is made of the common motles of speech, as when one 
 i;voo:l or tense of a verb is put for another. 
 
 Enallage, is also used when one word is put for another of tlie 
 same part of speech: a substantive for an adjective; as rxeicitus 
 victor, for viclori.osus; scelus, for scelestus: a primitive for a de- 
 rivative; as Dard:inaarma, forDardania: au active for a passive; 
 as noN humida c a;lo pia-cipitat, fo5 precipitatur, &c. 
 
 ENALUUON, in heraldry, according to Guillim, is a bor- 
 <bir« tho-rged-with birds; though others will have it to signify, in 
 orle, or form of a buruure. 
 
 5iMAMEL, in general, signifies a vitrified matter, interspersed 
 witli sonic solid substance; and possessing all the properties of 
 yla:.s, e.vcepl'ng that of transparincy. The basis of enamels is a 
 pure crystal gla^s or frit^ ground together with a line ailx of lead 
 iiad tiuj. prepared for that purpose, with, the addition cf a small 
 
 proporlion of thi.' white salt of tartar. These form the principal 
 in;^rcdient3 of all enamels, which are made by adding various pul- 
 verized colours, and thoroughly incorporating the whole in a fur- 
 nace. For white enamel, it is sufficient to add manganese to the 
 matter which constitutes the basis; for azure, zalVre mixed with 
 calx of brass ; for green, calx of brass with scales of iron, or crocus 
 martis ; for black, zail're, with manganese or crocus martis, or man- 
 ganese with tartar ; for red, manganese, or calx of copper with red 
 tartar; forpiwple, manganese with calx of brass ; for yellow, tar- 
 tar and niangancje ; lastly, for violet coloured enamel, manganese 
 with bra'-s, that has been three limes calcined. Enamels are used 
 either for tlie counterfeiting or imitating of precious stones, and 
 for painting; or by enamellers and artists working in gold, silver, 
 and other metals. That species of enamel which jewellers cm- 
 ploy, is imported from Holland, or Venice, in small cakes of vari- 
 ous sizes, which are in general about four inches in diameter, and 
 have 'he mark of thejiiaker indenteil on them. It pays a duty of 
 .3.y. 8rf. per pound on importation; and is allowed a drawback of 
 Is, C>d. per pound, on being again exported. 
 
 ENAMELLING, is the art of laying enamel upon metals, 
 such as gold, silver, copper, S:c. whether plain or painted. The 
 latter process is performed on plates of gold or silver, but gene- 
 rally on those of copper, prepared with the white enamel; on 
 which certain objects are delineated with the coIouin, and after- 
 wards burnt in the fire, where they acquire a brightness and lustre 
 resembling glass. Painting in enamel is held in greater estimation 
 than any other branch of that art; on account ot its peculiar and 
 permanent vivacity, the strength of its colours not being effaced 
 by time, but always retaining their pristine splendor. It is chiefly 
 employed in miniature, as it cannot be easily performed on a large 
 scale; the enamel being very liable to crack on a plain surface, 
 so that even the smallest plates must be somewhat of a convex 
 form. 
 
 ENANGIOMONOSPERMOUS, [from ev in, ayyn«, a vessel, 
 ft=»o;, alone, and ■rTti^u.a., a seed,] in botany, having but one 'seed in 
 the vessel. 
 
 ENAREA, a province of Abyssinia, conquered by the troops 
 of Negus, at the beginning of the 17th century, situated at the 
 S. W". extremity of the empire. 
 
 ENARGEA', in botany, a genus of the liexandria monogynia 
 ti;vss and order. No calyx; petals six,'oblong, ovale, concave, acute, 
 three outer, tlu'ee inner, green-spotted ; berry three-celled, with 
 four or live globular seed-'. It has one species, viz. E. marginata, 
 a native of lerra del Fuego. 
 
 ENARTHROSIS, [n and nj^jcv,] in anatomy, the insertion of 
 one bone into another, to form ajxiint. It is a species of diar- 
 throsis. Sec Anatomy. 
 
 ENCiENlA, [tyxaivics, Gr.] the name of three feasts celebrated 
 by the Jews, in memory of the dedication, or rather purification, 
 of the temple, by Judas Maccabxus, Solomon, and Zorobabel. 
 The term is likewise used i.i church liistoi-y for the dedication of 
 Christian churches. 
 
 ENCALYPTA, in botany, a genus of the cryptogamia musci 
 class and order. Capsule cylindrical; fringe simple, of sixteen 
 linear erect distinct teeth ; veil campanulale, intlated, lax. I'here 
 are six species. 
 
 ENCAN'PHIS, in surgery, a tubercle arising either from tlie 
 caruncula lachrymalis, or from the adjacent red skin ; sometimes 
 so large as to obstruct not only the puncta lachrymalia, but also 
 part of the sii;ht, or pupil itself. See Surgesy. 
 
 E.NC'ARPIA, [r,)ttijT;;f!, Gr.} in architsctiue, flower-work, or 
 fruit-workiOn the corners of pillars. 
 
 EXCAUM A, [i,x;t:/;.w, Gr.] a burning in any part of tlie body: 
 a hot ulcer. 
 
 ENCAUSTES, [from n in, and >t<i;;i", to burn, Gr.] an ena- 
 meller. 
 
 ENCAUSTIC, [sv>:(«tjrix>i, Gr.] belonging to enamelling, or 
 paintinn; bv fire. 
 
 ENCAUSTIC PAINTING, a method of painting made use 
 of by the ancients, in whicli wax was employed to give a gloss tj 
 their colours, aiitl to preserve tlicni from the injuries of the air. 
 
 ENCEINTE, [l'"r.] in fortification, the wall or rampart which 
 surrounds a place, sometimes, composed of bastions or curtain-, 
 eithtr faced or lined with brick or stone, or only made of Ci^rt':. 
 It is somi-times only tlasked by round or square towers, winch is 
 called a Rgmnn w:all, 
 
 ENCELADt'S, in.anricnt mylliology, the son of Titan and 
 •J- " Terra ;
 
 EN C 
 
 201 
 
 K N 
 
 j: 
 
 Terra ; tlie largest and List of tlie giants who conspired against Ju- 
 piter. 
 
 ENX'EPIIALl, [", aiitl xrfar.n,'] in medicine, worms generat- 
 ed in llie liead, where they cause so gioat a pain as sometimes to 
 occasion distraction. The encephali are very rare; hut tliere are 
 some diseases wlierein tliey s'.varm ; I'roni wlience we are told pes- 
 tilential levers have wholly arisen. Upon the dissection of one 
 wiio died of ihis fever, a little, short, red, worm, was found in tlie 
 head, which malmsey wine, wherein horse-radish had been boiled, 
 could alone destroy. This medicine was afterwards tried on the 
 sick, most of wliom it cured. 'I'he same species of worms have 
 also been taken out by trep.iiininq, and the patient cured. Worms 
 that generate in the nose, ears, and teeth, are also called encephali. 
 
 ENCEl'PIi, in her.ildry, denotes fettered, chained, or girt, 
 about tlie middle, as is U',tial with monkeys. 
 
 ENCHANTER'S MGiirSHADE", in botr.ny. See Cir- 
 
 CXA. 
 
 ENCHAR.AXIS, [fvyyij^fi,-, Gr.] in surgery, the act of lan- 
 cipR or scarifying. 
 
 ENCHASING, INCHASING, or CHASING, the ait of 
 enriching and beautifying gold, silver, and other metal work, by 
 sonic design or hgtires represented tliereon in low relievo. En- 
 cliasiiig is practi^eil only on hollow thin works, as silver punch- 
 bowls, tea-pots, coll'ee-pots, gold or sil^-er watch-cases, cane-hea<!s, 
 tweezer- cases, and the like. It is performed by punishing or 
 driving out the metal, to form a figure, from witliinside, so as to 
 stand out prominent from the plane or surface of the inetal. In 
 order to this, they provide a number of line steel blocks or pun- 
 cheons of divers sizes ; snd the design being drawn on the surface 
 of the inetal, they apply the inside upon the heads or tops of these 
 blocks, directly under the lines or parts of the figures; then, with 
 a small hammer, striking on the metal, sustained by the block, 
 the metal yields, and the block makes an indenture or cavity on 
 the inside, corresponding to which there is a prominence on the 
 ■outside, which is to stand for tlvat part of the' figure. Thus the 
 enchaser proceeds to finish all the parts by the successive applica- 
 tion of the block and liammer to the several parts of the design. 
 By this simple piece of mechanism, the artists represent foliages, 
 grotesques, animals, histories, &c. with the most striking propriely 
 and beauty. 
 
 ENCliELIS, in natural history, agenusofthe vemies infusoria. 
 Worm invisible to the naked' eye, very simple, cylindrical. 
 There are fifteen species. Most of them are described in Adam's 
 Treatise on the Microscope. 
 
 ENCHU VSEN, or ENCKHUYSEN, a town of Balavia, in 
 tlie departmei;t of the 'i'exel, and late province of N. Holland. 
 It is 10 miles N. E. of Iloorne, and 'Ji miles of Amsterdam. Lat. 
 5'2°. 4-J'. N. Eon. 5°. 10'. E. 
 
 ENCHYMOMA, or ENCHYMOSIS, in physiology, a sud- 
 den flow ot the blood, occasioned by any passion, such aS anger, 
 joy, a sense of shame, or the like, "it is also used for that flow of 
 the blood whicli occasions a continued blush. 
 
 ENCLAVE, in heraldry, denotes that one thing is let into an- 
 other, especially when the piece, so let in, is square. 
 
 ENCLITICS, or ENCLITICA, [mMTiX't,] in grammar, par- 
 ticles v^hich are so closely united with other words as to seem part 
 of them, as in virumque, &c. There are three enclitic particles 
 iij Latin, viz. que, ne, ve : but there are a great many in the 
 Greek, as tm, t5, ^«k, ^ot, o-^^ c-oi^ &c. 
 
 ENCOLAPTICE, [jyxoXcfTiTixi), Gr.] in antiipiity, the art of 
 making brass plates, and engraving inscriptions and laws on them. 
 
 ENCRATIT.E, or ENCRATITES, in church history, here- 
 tics who ajipeared towards the end of the second century: they 
 were called Encratites, ©r Continents, because they gloried in ab- 
 staining from marriage, and the use of wine and animal food. 
 
 ENCROACHMENT, in law, an unlawful gaining upon the 
 lights or posse>si()«s of another. It is generally applied to the un- 
 lawful occupation of wastes and commons. 
 
 ENC\ CLOP.EDIA, [^sy^ivx.xsTcai'nn,'] the circle of sciences; 
 the round of learning; a term nearly synonymous with Cyclopa:- 
 •lia. The late learned printer, Mr. Bower, justly observes, that 
 the iireiiosition m makes the meaning of tlie'word more precise: 
 for Cych.p.rdia may denote " the instruction of a circle," as Cy- 
 rop;Ldia is " the instructioii of Cysus," whereas in Eucyclopadia 
 the preposition determines the word to be from the dative of cy- 
 tlus, " instruction in a circle." And Vossiias in his book Do Vi- 
 
 tiis Sermonis, has observed " that Cycloi);vdia is used by somo 
 authors, but Encyclopedia by the be;-t." Aviceniia, tlie cele- 
 brated Arabian physician, appears to have had the merit of being 
 the first who compiled an Encyclopa-dia. 
 
 END FOR End, in the sea-language, is said of a rope that has 
 run cpiile out of the blot k, wherein it was reeved. 
 
 ENDEAVOUR. Where one endeavours aclurdly to commit 
 I'elony, &c. he is punisliable as for a mi-demeanor; and an assdult, 
 with intent to rob, is punished by transportation. Stat. 7. Geo. 
 II. c. Jl. 
 
 Endeavour River, a river on the N. E. const of New Hol- 
 land, witli a bar at its mouth, and not depth of water for vessels to 
 sail more tiian a mile above the bar. Lon. 145. 12. E. Lat. 15. 
 27. _S. 
 
 Endeavour Strait, a narrow sea, between New Guinea, and 
 New Holland. 
 
 ENDECyVGON, [from £vJ««, eleven, and ymia, an angle,] in 
 geomelry, is a plain figure, consisting of eleven sides, and as many 
 angles. 
 
 ENDEIXIS, [nJiifi;, Gr.] in medicine, an indication of tise 
 method of cure. 
 
 ENDEMIAL, ENDEMICAL, or ENDEMIC, [»V'S'.] 
 peculiar to a country ; used of any disease, proceeding from some 
 cause peculiar to the country where it reigns: such as the scurvy 
 to the iiortliern climes. Quincy. 
 
 ENDICTMENT, or ENDITEMENT, a hiil or declaration 
 made ill form of law, for the benefit of the cominon<veallh ; or an 
 accusation for some offence exhibited unto jurors, and by their 
 verdict found to be true, before an officer can have power to 
 punish the same olTence. — Co-.ict. 
 
 ENDIVE, or SUCCORY. See Cichorium. 
 ENDKIOPING, a small town of Sweden, in Upland, 40 miles 
 W. of Stockholm. 
 
 ENDLESS SCREW. See Screw, and Mechanics. 
 ENDORSE, in heraldry, an ordinary, containing the eighth 
 part of a pale, which Leigh says is only used when a pale is be- 
 tween two of them. 
 
 ENDORSED, in heraldry, is said of things borne back to back, 
 more iisuallv called adossee. 
 ENDORSEMENT. See Indorsement. 
 ENDOWMENT, in law is the widow's portion ; being a third 
 part of all the freehold lands and tenements, of which her hus- 
 band was seized at any time during the overture. Of lands not 
 freeliold, her portion varies according to tlie custom in different 
 places. 
 
 ENDYMION, in fabulous history, a shephwd, son of yEthlius 
 and Calyce. It is said that he required of Jupiter to grant to him 
 to be alw:iys young, and to sleep as much as he would ; whence 
 came the proverb of Endyminnis somnum dormire, to express a 
 long sleep. Diana saw him naked as he slept on mount Latinos ; 
 and was so struck with his beauty, that she came down i'roni 
 heaven every night to I'ujoy his company. Endymion married 
 Chromia, daughter of Itonus ; by whom he had three sons, Pa-on; 
 Epeus, and Aeolus, and a daiigfiter called Eurydice. 1 he table 
 of Eiidymion's amours with Diana, or the moon, arose from liis 
 knowledge of astronomy ; and as ho passed the night on some high 
 mountain to observe the heavenly bodies, it came to be reported 
 that he was courted by the moon. Some suppose tliat there were 
 two of that name; the son of a king of Elis, and the sheplierd, or 
 astronomer, of Caria. The people of Heraclea maintained that 
 Endymion died on mount Latinos, .ind the Eleans pretended to 
 shew his tomb at Olympia, in Peloponnesus. 
 
 ENEMY, in law, an alien or foreigner, who in a public capa- 
 city invades any country, and w ho cannot be punished as a traitor, 
 but must he subjected to martial law. An alien residing here, un- 
 der the protection of the king's peace, may be deall with as a trai- 
 tor, because he owes a qualified allegiance. 
 
 ENERGY, [ivifyiw,] a term signitying Ihe pover, virlup, or 
 efficacy, of a thing, it is also usoti, 'figuratively, to denote em- 
 phasis of speech. 
 
 ENERGUMENSi in churc'n history, pej-snns supposed to le 
 po>sessed by the devil, cncerning whom tiiere were many n-o^. 
 lations among the primitive Christian'^. They w ere denied bap- 
 tism and the eiic harist, in-some fliiirches; but thoULih theywervi-- 
 under the. care of exorcists, they were allowed the public prayers 
 of the cl;u:ch, and were permitted to bs present. 
 
 ENEIIVATION^
 
 ENG 
 
 293 
 
 ENG 
 
 ENER^'ATION, is tiie act of destroying tlie force, use, or n 
 office, of tlie nerves, eittier by cutting them, by weakening tlieni 
 with debauchery, or ^y some other violence. Excess of wine, 
 and other ^tfona, hot, spirituous liquors, enervate, or weaken the 
 nerves. Too yredt abstinence has the same elYect. A moderate 
 use of these and other stimuli strengthen them. 
 
 ENFIELD, a town of Connecticut, in Harlford county, 17 
 miles N. of Harford. 
 
 ENFILADE, in the art of war, is used in speaking of trenches, 
 or (5ther places, which may be scoured by the enemy's shot along 
 their whole length. In conductiiiu, the approaches at a siege, care 
 must be taken that the trenches be not eiililaded from any work of 
 the place. See Fortimcation. 
 
 ENI''INE', formerly Antinoe; a city of Egypt, built by 
 Adrian, in honour of his infamous favourite Antinous. It is situ- 
 ated towards the middle of Upper Egypt, and still contains several 
 stately monuments of antiquity. It was ancienUy very niagni- 
 licent. 
 
 ENFRANCHISEMENT, in law, the incorporating of a person 
 into any societv, or body politic: thus, where any person is en- 
 franchised, or made free,' of any city, borough, or company, he is 
 f said to have a freehold therein during life; and cannot, for barely 
 endeavouring any thing against the corporation, forfeit the same. 
 Naturalization is' also another kind of enfranchisement. 
 
 ENGADINA, a territory of the republic of the Orisons among 
 the Alps; extending along the banks of the river Inn, from its 
 source to the Tirolese. It is divided into the Upper and Lower. 
 
 ENGANNO, or DECEIT ISLAND, an island in the eastern 
 sea, a little distant from the S. W. coast of Sumatra. 
 
 Enganno Trompeur, or False Cape, the eastermosf land of 
 Ilisiianiola, 16I nuies N. of Point L'Epee. 
 
 EN GAS TKi MYTH I, in Pagan theology, the Pytliians, or 
 priestesses of Apollo, who delivered oracles from within, without 
 any action of the mouth or lips. The ancient philosophers, &c. 
 are divided upon the subject of the engastrimythi. Hippocrates 
 mentions it as a disease ; others will have it a kind of divination ; 
 others attribute it to the possession of an evil spirit ; and others to 
 art and mechanism. 
 
 ENGELHOLM., a sea-port of Sweden, E. of the Categat, 45 
 miles W. of Christianstadt. 
 
 ENGER, or ENGEKS, a county of Germany, in the late cir- 
 cle of the Lower Rhine, and electorate of Treves. 
 
 Engers, the capital of the above county, 1 1 miles N. of Co- 
 blcnt/. Lon. 7. 3-'. E. Lat. 50. 35. N. 
 
 ENGHEIM, ENGHIEN, orENGIIUIN, a town of France, 
 in the de;)artraenl of Jeniappes, and late province of Austrian 
 Ilainault, 15 miles S. W. of Brussels. 
 
 ENGIA, EGINA, orEYINA, an island of European Tur- 
 key, in a g«df so named, near the coast of the Morea; anciently 
 called Oenoiie, jl-'gina, and Myrniidonia. Many fine relicts of 
 antiquity are still to be seen on it. 
 
 F.NGiA, or Engina, the capital of the above island, 25 miles 
 S. S. \\ . of Athens. Lon. 23. 5y. E. Lat. 37. 42. N. 
 
 ENGINE, m nrechanics, is a conipomid machine, made of one, 
 or more, UiCciianical powers, as levers, pullies, screws, &:c. in or- 
 der to raise, cast, or sustain any weight, or produce any elTect 
 vhich could not be easily effected otherwise. 'I'he word is formed 
 of the French tii,a;iii, from the Latin ingcniion, wit; from the in- 
 genuity cNcrted in the invention of engines to augment the effi-ci 
 of moving powers. Engines are extremely numerous ; some used 
 in war, as the baltering-rani, ballista, waggons, chariots, &c. others 
 in trade and manufaclirres, as cranes, mills, presses, Sec. others to 
 me.isine time-, as clocks, watches, &c. and others for the illustra- 
 tion of some brand; of science, as th.e orrerv, comelariuni, and the 
 like. See BATTEurKG ram, Bai.lista, &c. In general we may 
 observe., concerning engines, that they consist of one, two, or 
 more, of thesim|)le powers variously combined together ; that in 
 most I'f them the axis in peritrochio, the lever, and the screw, are 
 the constituent parts; that in all a certain power is applied to pro- 
 duce an efl'ect of much greater moment ; and that the greatest 
 -effetl, or perfection, is when it is set to work witli t'onr-niuths of 
 that charge which is eciuiva'entto the power, or will but just keep 
 the machine in e<|uil,brio. See Mechanics. 
 
 ICs'GiME FOR ExTiNcuisHiSG FiRES. See Hydrostatics. 
 ENGtNE, Pile, one contrived fior driving piles. See Pile 
 Engine, and IMtcHANics. 
 
 Engine, Steam, a macliine to raise w'ater by the force of 
 steam. See Steam-Engise. 
 
 ENGINEER, Icngingnier, Fr.] one who manages engiueSv 
 one vho directs the artillery of an army. 
 
 Engineer, in the art of war, is conuiionly applied to an offi- 
 cer, whose business is to inspect and contrive attacks, defences, 
 &c. of a fortilied place. He should be possessed of a perfect 
 knowledge in mall.ematics, so as to delineate upon paper, or mark 
 upon the ground, all sorts of forts, and other works projx^r for 
 olfence and defence. He should also understand the art of fortifi- 
 cation, so as not only to be able to discover the defects oi a ^'ace, 
 but to find a remedv proper for th.cm ; as also how to make an at- 
 tack upon, as well as to defend, the place. Engin(ers should, 
 therefore, be brave as well as ingenious. When at a siege they 
 have narrowly surveyed the place, they are to make tlieir repoit 
 to the general, by acquainting him which part they judge the 
 weakest, and where approaches may be made with most success. 
 Their business is also to delineate tiie lines of circnmvallaticji and 
 contravallation, taking all the advantages of the ground ; \o maik 
 out th.e trenches, places of arms, batteries, and lodgements, taking 
 care that none ot their works be tiankcd, or discovered fr jm the 4 
 place. 
 
 ENGLAND, the southern and largest division of Great 
 Britain. Including Wales, it is of a triangular form, and lies . 
 between Lon. 2° E. and 7° W. and between Lat. 40° and 
 56° N. extending about 400 miles in length from S. to N. ami 
 300 on an average in breadth. From the S. Foreland in Kent, 
 which may be termed the E. point of the triangle to Berwii k on 
 Tvveeil, which is the N. its length, in a straight line, is 345 
 miles ; from Berwick to the Lands end in Cornwall, which is its W. 
 it is 425, and from thence to the S. F'oreland, it is 340 miles. It 
 is bounded by Scotland on the N. by the English Channel- on the 
 S. which separates it from France ; by the German Sea on the E. 
 and N. E. by St. George's or the Irish Channel, on the W. At 
 what lime the island of Britain was first peopled is uncertain ; nor 
 do we know whether the southern or northern parts were iirst in- 
 habited. AVe have no accounts that can be depended upon before 
 the arrival of Julius Ca;sar, and it is certain he found the sout'icrn 
 parts full of people of a very warlike disposition. These people, 
 according to Ca:sar, were a 'colony of the Gauls ; and this opinion 
 is embraced by most of the ancient as well as modern writers. It 
 is chieily foun'dcd on the agreement observed by the Romans be- , 
 tween the two nations iu tiieir customs, manners, language, reli- 
 gion, government, way of fighting, &c. The more northern inha- 
 bitants, according to Tacitus, came from Germany. This he in- 
 fers from the make of their limbs; but C:a-5ar simjily calls them 
 Aborigencs. The Britons, according to the Roman historians, 
 were very numerous, at the time of C'Ksar's invasion, and had 
 their country well stocked with cattle. Tiieir houses resembled 
 those of the Gauls ; and they used copper or iron plates weighed 
 by a certain standard instead of money. Their tov ns were a con- 
 fused parcel of huts placed at a small distance from one another, ge- 
 nerally in the middle of a wood, to which all the avenues were, 
 slightly guarded with ramparts of earth, or with trees. All the 
 nations were in a state of the most wretchetl barbarism, even when 
 compared with the barbarous tJauls on the continent. The use 
 of clothes was scarce known in the island. Only the inhabitants 
 of the southern coast covered their nakedness wiUi the skins of 
 wild beasts ; and this rather to avoid giving offence to the strangers 
 who came to trade with them, than out of any principle of decency. 
 It was a general custom among the Britons to paint their bodies 
 with the juice of woad. They shaved their beards, all exceut 
 their upper lip, and wore long hair. They are also said to hi\ve 
 had their wives in common; but this is denied by judicious anti- 
 quaries, who think it cither a slander or a mistake of the Roman 
 (oi-(|uerors, who being themselves addicted to the most beastly 
 vices, thought it impossible for several families to live together 
 withuut having their women in common. The arms of the Britons 
 were a sword, "a sharp lance, and a shield. Breast-plales_ and hel- 
 mets they considered as incumbrances. They Usually lought iu 
 chariots, some of which were armed with scythes iii the wheels; 
 they were fierce and cruel, and exceedingly bloodthirsty. V. hen 
 driven to distress, thev could subsist even on the bark and 
 roots of trees; and Dion Cassius tells us, that th.ey had ready, 
 on all occasions, a certain kind of food, of which, if they took 
 but the quantity of a beau, they were not U-oubled with hunger
 
 '-Eirk Ox>faLi 
 Cin'an 
 
 i>ld. 
 
 'r- 
 
 \^=- ihlr'of3 
 
 R I S H S E 
 
 a>M 
 
 ..MtAt 
 
 
 ■j^e^^ 
 
 fCHESHf 
 
 
 rSv,iHm 
 
 
 
 ^t^h''"^ 
 
 
 ^y^s,, 
 
 7'n;-rti,rr 1 P'-ff'ri'/n'ri "*> 
 
 l/ft ^ 
 
 
 T''si<-l,lmi< ■^'■l'^'^^'" nhtenmKl , AfkOLX, i.^' ■'■.w-i n^'^i < '.^ 
 
 
 S^uiJf^J.oetS TEH I 
 
 ■'■'■'■1,1,/ rii y-^ -, J, '■""nf"",'" 3^2; 
 
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 B5W,;,-fe'""""'' 
 
 ,j!S*^/7J-S HI RE /J,J- ^' '■"-''"' ^ **■ 

 
 ENG 
 
 205 
 
 EN 
 
 G 
 
 t( Ihirst for a li">iig lime alU'r. 'I'lie soiitlnTii nations weiv more 
 
 f;ilizc'd ; anc! tilt; C'atrtii, inoiv So llian any of tne rest. Knf;lancl, 
 
 ludini; Wales, whtrn lir^t invatloil by tia- Komanj, was (lividwJ 
 
 17 |i-tty stativ. 1. TUe Daninonii, nuimionii, or Donmoiiii, 
 
 jliaWtoil Cornwall and Devonshire. 'J. 'I lie Durclrigos possessed 
 
 or.setsliire. .3. 'Ilie Beldgi' Soinersetsliire, Wiltshire, -and tlie 
 
 ealei part of ll,inip-.bire. 4. 'Ihe Ativbalcs inhabited lierkshire. 5. 
 
 he Ro.i^iii iiil-.abUed Surrey, Siisit-x and part of the coast ol llanip- 
 
 Mire. 6. Tlie Cantii inhabited and (;ave name to Kent. 7. '1 lie 
 
 I obimi arc placed by I'toleniy on the N. side of the 'I'hanies, near 
 
 iilKv.d, in Gioiiceslershire and Oxfordshire. 8. 'I'he Catti'-uch- 
 
 fiiii, Catlidiid.ani 1, or Calhicliidani, inhabited Buckinghamshire, 
 
 ladford-shire, and Hertfordshire, y. The 'rrinobanters possessed 
 
 Isifex and Mici He-ex. 10. The Iceni, who-e country conipre- 
 md'ed Snrtblk, Norfolk, Cambridge, and llinitingdonshire, are 
 V Ptolcniv called Sinieni, and by others Tigeni. Cambden is 
 'opinion, 'that they were tlie peo'ple whom Cirsar calls Ceno- 
 -agni. 11. The Coritani inhabited Nertliamptonshirp, I.eices- 
 .shire, Rutland^liire, Lincolnshire, Nottinghamshire, and Derby- 
 ire. 12. 'Ihe Cornavii powcssed Warwickshire, Worcestershire, 
 ilaffordsbire, Shropshire, and Cheshire. 13. The Silures inhabited 
 adnoi-shirc, Brecknock. hire, Glamorganshire, Herefordshire, and 
 loiimouthsliire. 14. The Denieta' inhabited part of Caermar- 
 lenshire, Peir.brokeshire, and Cardiganshire. 15. Tlie country 
 Ijfthe Ordovices compreliended Montgomeryshire, MerioneUi- 
 liire, Caernarvonsliire, Denbighshire, and Flintshire. 1 6. The 
 
 t rigantes possessed Yorkshire, Durham, I/ancashire, Westmore- 
 
 Imtl, and Cumberland. 1 7. Northnmberland was held by tiie 
 ■Utadini, Olla-leui, or Oltalini. 'I'heir country, according to 
 mie, readied from the Tvne to the Forth ; though the most coiii- 
 lon opinion r:, that it reached only to the Tweed. The above 
 amesare plainly Koman, but their c-tyniology is doubtless British, 
 lOUgh any atten.'pts to trace tlieir derivation from words in the 
 1(1 British language, mu-t now be attended with great uucerlainty 
 nd obeurltv. Dr. Aikin, in his England Delineated, observes, 
 bat, " withVespect to climate, lilnglai'id is situated in the N. part 
 fthe teiii|)eratezone, so that it enio_\s but a scanty share of the 
 ,enia! intiuence of the sun. Its atmosphere is inclined to chillness 
 mi moisture, sub'iect tofretpient and sudden changes ; and is more 
 avourablo to the growth, than to the ripe:iing, of the products of 
 he earth. No country is clothed with so beautiful and lasting a 
 crdure; but the harvests, especially in the northern parts, fre- 
 luently sufl'er from unseasonable ra'ins ; and the fruits often fall 
 hort of their perfect maturity. The rigours of winter, however, 
 IS well as theparching heats of sinnnier, are felt here in a much less 
 llegree than in parallel climates on the voniineni ; a circumstance 
 ;oninion to all islands. \\'lule the sea-ports of Holland ami Ger- 
 nany are, every winter, locked up with ice, those ot England, and 
 "ven Scotland, are never known to sulTer this inconvenience. 
 The western side of the kingdom, receiving first tlie great clouds 
 ^om the Atlantic Ocean, w hich are afterwards intercepted in their 
 passage by the middle ridge of iiills, is consicierably more expostil 
 o raiii than tlie eastern ; but the latter is more frequently in- 
 volved in fogs and mists. 'I'he whole country, some particular 
 spots excepted, is sufiieieiilly healthy ; and the natural longevity 
 of its inhabitants is ecpial to that of almost any region." The 
 British constitution, is a limited monarchy, or a government by the 
 united powers of king, lords, and commons. It has lon^ beCH 
 justly celebrated as uniting the sdvantagesand avoiding the incon- 
 veni'cnciesof absolute monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy. It 
 originated among the Anglo-Saxons, and was brought to a high de- 
 gree of perfection by the patriotic monarch, Alfred the Great. It 
 was afterwards, considerably infringed upon by William the Con- 
 •lueror and his successors, but was restored by the Magna Charta; 
 and after repeated encroachments by diflerent nionarchs, was 
 linally ameliorated, established, and conlirmed, by the glorious re- 
 volution in 1688. The executive power is vestta in the king, and 
 i» the ministers, judges, juries, ana other gradations of magistracy 
 untlcr him. The legislative authority is entrusted to the two 
 houses of parliament. See Commons, Kino, Law, Libkrtv, 
 LoRDi, Magn.\ Charta, Parliament, Peers, Rights, &c. 
 Since the reign of Henry \ HI. the sovereign of England has been 
 called, in public writs, the supreme head of the church ; but tliis 
 title conveys no spiritual meaning, as it only denotes the regal 
 power to prevent any ecclesiastical differences, or iu gtlier words, 
 ■*•!.. II.— NO. 74. 
 
 iubbtitutes the king in pl.tce of ih'- pi>po, with ieg..rd to tempo- 
 ralities and the internal economy of the church. The kings of 
 iMiglaiid never intermerldle in ecclesiastical disputes. They only- 
 give a sanction to the legal rights of the clergy. The church of 
 England, under this description of the monarchical power, i< 
 governed bv two archbishops, and 24 bishops, besides the bishop 
 of Sudor and Man, who, not being possesse<! af an Englisli barony. 
 does not sit in the hou^e (,f peers. .See Archbishop aud BisHOr. 
 England contains about CO arch<leacoii^. Subordinate to them arc 
 the rural de.icons, formerly styled aichprfsliyters, who signify the 
 bislujp's plea>uie to his clergy, the lower class of whi<li consists 
 of rectors or vicars, deacons, and curates. See Curate, Dea- 
 con, Parson, and Vicar. The ecclesiastical govcinnitnt of 
 England is, properly speaking, lodged in the convocation ; which 
 is a national representation or synod, and answers pretty near to 
 the i<lca of a parliament. They are convoked at the same lime 
 with every pari i.aiient ; and their business is to consider the state 
 of the church, and to call those to an account who have advanced 
 new opinions, inconsistent with the doctrines of the church of 
 England. Some zealous clergymen during the reign of queen 
 Anne, and in the beginning of tliat of George I. rai-,ed the jvowers 
 of the convocation to a height that was inconsistent with the prin- 
 ciples of religious toleraliou, and indeed of ci\il liberty: so that 
 the crown was obliged to exert its prerogative of calling the mem- 
 bers togetlier, and of dissolving them ; and ever since they have 
 not been permitted to sit for any time, in which they could do bu- 
 siness. Since the Norman conquest, England has been divided 
 into six circuits, each containing a certain number of counties : 
 which are subdivided into Wapentakes, or hundreds, an<! parishc-s. 
 Twojuilges ,>re appointed for each circuit, which they visit in 
 the spring and autumn, for administering justice to sulyects at » 
 distance from the capital. In holding the lent (or spring) assizes, 
 the northern circuit extends only to \ ork and Laiuvster ; the as- 
 sizes at Durham, Newcastle, Carlisle, and Appleby, being held 
 only in the autumn, and distinguishcil by the apiK-Uation of the 
 long circuit. These circuits and counties are as follov^- : l.The 
 Home Circuit contains the counties of Essex, Hertford, Kent,- 
 Surry, and Sussex. S.Norfolk Circuit contains tl.o-e of Bucks, 
 Bcdtord, Huntingdon, Cambridge, Suli'olk, and Norfolk. 3. Ox- 
 ford Circuit, Oxon, Ik-rks, Gloucester, Worce>ter, Monmouth,- . 
 Hereford, S;ilop, and Stalford. 4. Midland Circuit, Warwick, 
 Leicester, Derby, Nottingham, Lincoln, Rutland, and Northamp- 
 ton. 5. W^estern Circuit, Hants, Wilts, Dorset, Somerset, De* 
 von, ami Cornwall, ti. Northern Circuit, York, Durham, Nor» 
 Ihumberland, Lancaster, Weslmorelimd, and Cumberland; Mid- 
 dlesex and Cheshire are not compreliended in any circuit ; the 
 former being the seat of the supreme courts of justice, and the 
 latter a county palatine. Besides tlie 40 counties into which En^ 
 land is dividecl, there are counties corporate, consisting of certain 
 diitricts, to which the liberties and jurisdictions peculiar to a 
 county have been granted by royal charter. Thus the city of 
 London is a county distinct from Middlesex; the cities of York, 
 Chester, Bri-tol, Norwich, Worcester, and the towns of Kingston- 
 upon-Hull. and Newcastle-upon-Tyne, are counties ol themselves, 
 distinct from those in wliich they lie. 'I'he same may be said of 
 Berwick upon Tweed, which has -within its jurisdiction a small 
 territory of two miles on the N. side of the river ; and which, 
 though it lies in Scotland, is considered in law, as distinct from 
 both kingdoms. For particulars respecting the politv, trade, law, 
 civil and" religious anliquities, &c. of England. See Parliament, 
 Privy CoutJcit,. Covrt, Custo.m-Housi;, Admiralty, &c. 
 Tlie lakciof )".nglaud are chiefly intheN.Vi'. counties; and 
 those of Westmoreland and Cumberland, iu particular, exhibit ^ 
 such varieties of beautilully romantic and picturesque scenery, aa ' 
 to have become, for some years past, the fashionable object of 
 summer excursions from tlie metropolis. The chief mountains 
 iu England are the hills of Westmoreland, the Malvern Hills in 
 Worcester, the Peak of Derby, Snowdon, and Plenlimmon. The 
 inhabitants of Engl.'ud and Wales are computed at eight millions. 
 The chief ports of the navy are, PortMiiouth, Plymouth, |Dept- 
 foril, and Chatham. All the most valuable productions, both siii- 
 mal and vegetable, of this country, have been imported from fha 
 continent. Originally nuts, acorns, <.iabs, and a few wild berries, 
 v/eie almost all the variety of vegetable food which oiir woods 
 could boast. To foreign ecu utrics, aad to the tlioit* of culture, 
 4 P v«
 
 E NG 
 
 294 
 
 E i\ G 
 
 we are iiulebted lor bread, the roots niid greens of our table , and ^j 
 all our garden fruit?;. Tlie l)arley and ho\n of our malt liquors, 
 and apples lor rider, are equally the gilts of other lands. The 
 meanest labourer is now fed with more wholesome and delicate 
 aliments, (lian the ancient petty kings of the country coidd obtain 
 in its savage aud uncultivated stated Originally this great island 
 seems to have been like llie wilds olAmerica, alnioit entirely over- 
 run with wood. Mere lormerly roamed the bear, the wolf, antl 
 the wild boar, now totally extii'-pated. Large herds of stags ranged 
 through the woods, , roe-bucks bouJided over the hills, and wild 
 bulls grazed in the marshy pastures. By degrees the woods were 
 destroyed, to make v^'ay for cultivation ','tlie marshes were drained ; 
 and tiie wild animals'uivaded in their refrea s, gradually disap 
 peared. England now pcsses-es no other wild beasts but the fox, 
 the vvild cat, the b.idgev, the n^artin, and othersof the weasel kind ; 
 the otter, the lieJge-hog, the hare and rabbit ; the squirrel, dor- 
 mouse, mole, I'^c.'and several other species of the rat and mouse. 
 On tlie other hand, every kind of domestic animal, imported trom 
 abroad, h;',s been reared to the greatest degree of perfection. The 
 horse ha^ been trained up so as to excel in strength and swiftness 
 tlie same animal in every other country. 1 he horned cattle have 
 been brought to the largest size and greatest justness of shape. 
 The different races of sheep, in F.nglaml,arc variously distinguish- 
 ed, either for uncommon size, goodness of flesh, and plenty or 
 fineness of wool. The rivers are nvmierous ; but the compara- 
 tively small extent of England will not allow them to vie, in length 
 of course, with the great rivers on the continent. The most con- 
 siderable of th( 111 are the 'I'hames, Severn, Mrdway, Trent, Ou-e, 
 Tyne, Tees, Eden, Avon, Derweiit, Dee, Mersey, &c. which, 
 with many others, will be found cU^cribed under their respective 
 heads, 'i'he rivers and seas of England ar.'- stocked with a great 
 variety of fish, which vield a plentiful article of provision to all 
 ranks of people. The river (ish, from the populousness of the 
 country, and the number of fishers, are, in manv parts much di- 
 minished. But tlie sea is an inexhaustible source; and the w liole 
 sea-coast is enlivened by mmierous inhabitants, wb.o gain their 
 chief subsistence froni it.' " The face of the country in England," 
 says Dr. Aikin, in his England Delineated, " affords all that 
 beautiful variety which can he found in the inost extensive tracts 
 of the globe. In some parts, verdant plains extend as far as the 
 eye can reach, watered by copious streams, and covered by in- 
 numerable cattle. In others, the pleasing vicissitudes of gently 
 rising hills and bending vales, fertile in corn, waving with wood, 
 and interspersed with meadows, offer the most delightful land- 
 scapes of rural opulence and beauty. Some tracts abound with 
 pro-.pects of a more romantic kind; lofty mountains, ciaggy rocks, 
 deep narrow dells, and rumbling torrents. Nor arc there wanting, 
 as a contrast to so many agreeable scenes the aloomy features of 
 black barren moors and wild uncultivated heatlis. On the whole, 
 however, few countries have a -^nialler proportion of land abso- 
 lutely sterile and incapable of culture." The richest parts are, in 
 geiK-ral, the middle and southern. Towards tlio N. it is less fer- 
 tile. The E. coast is, in many j)arts, s.;ndy and marshy. A range 
 of rude and elevated land, sometimes rising into loft) mountains, 
 extends from the borders of Scotland to the very heart of Eng- 
 land, running from N. to S. and forming a natural division between 
 the E. and W. sides of the kingdom. Cornwall is also a rough 
 hilly tract, as well as part ot the adjacent counties. The 
 established reli.gion of England i- Ih;^ Reformed or Protectant, and 
 its doctrines are contained in the 39 Article^;. The liturgy, and 
 homilies are eviilenlly formed according to the Luth.eran rather 
 than the rigid CaUinistic doctrines.'Toleration in matters ol religion 
 is alloweito all the inhabitants, so that every one is at liberty to 
 worship God, according to the di; fates of his own conscience. 
 
 F.NGTiVSD New. See New England. 
 
 ENGLECEli!!'., ENGLESHIRK. or ENGMSHERY, an 
 ancient word signifying the l.>eiiig an Enal.simian, which was used 
 in the time of kingCauutus, to distinguish the English from the 
 Danes, especially in the case of murder, and its punishment. 
 
 ENGLISH, or the ENGLISH-TONGUE, the language 
 spoken by the people of England, and, with some variation, by 
 those of Scotland, as well as part of Ireland, and the rest of the 
 J5ritish dominions. "Though, says Dr. .lohnson, thi' Britons or 
 Welsh were the first possessors of I his island, whose names are re- 
 corded, aiid arc thej;efuie in civil history always cousidcted as tlie 
 
 prcdecessois of the present inhabitants; yet the deduction of the 
 Knglish language, from the earliesttimcs of \ihich we fiave anv 
 knowledge to its prcserit state, requires no mention of them ; li r 
 wehaveso few words which can, with any proi;ability, be leferred 
 to British roots, that we justly regard the Saxons and Welsh as iiu- 
 tions totally distinct. It has been conjectured, that when i' 
 Saxons seized this coui.try, they suffered the Britons to live am 
 them ill astate of vassalage, cmplojed in the culture ottlie sruiM, i 
 and other laborious and ignoble services. But it is scarcely | 
 sible, that a iiafinn, however depressed, should have. been uiimci 
 with another in considerable numbers withoci some commui.ica- 
 tion of their tongue, and therefore, it may, w ith gieat reason," ■ 
 imagined, that those, who were not shel;ered in the nicunl. , 
 perished by the suord. The whole fal)ric and scheme ol i 
 English language, is Gothic or Teulon'.c : it is a dialect of lii;:; 
 tongue, which prevails over all the nortl en couiitrles ol Eur"| ■■, 
 except tho»e where the Sclavonian is spol-en. Of these languages 
 Dr. ILckes has thus exhibited the genealogy: 
 
 a o T 11 1 c. 
 
 An'olo-Saxox', Fraxcic, 
 
 Ctmbric, 
 
 Dutch, 
 Frisic, 
 Ena:lish. 
 
 German, 
 
 Islandic, 
 Norwegian, 
 SVedish, 
 Danish. 
 
 " Of the Gothic, the only monument renwrning is a copy of the 
 Gospels somewhat mutilated, whicii from the silver wifli which llie 
 characters are adorned, is called the silver book. If is now |'ie. 
 served at I'psal, and having been twice published before, has been 
 lately reprinted at Oxford, under the iu.-pectie'n of Mr. Lye, the 
 editor ot )unius. Whether the diction of this venerable manu- 
 script be purely Gothic, has been doubled; it seems how ever to. 
 exhibit the most laicient dialect now to be found of the Teutonic 
 race; ami the Saxon, which is the original of the present Eng- 
 lish, w as either derived from it, or both have desctnded from some 
 common parent. 
 
 " The first poetry of the Saxons was without rhyme, and con- 
 sequently must have depended upon the quantify of their sylla- 
 bles: biit they began in time to imitate their neighbours, and 
 close their verges with correspondent sounds. The two passage* 
 vvhi<h I have selected, contain appareutly the rudiments of our 
 present lyric measures, and the writers may be justly considered 
 as the genuine ancestors of the English poets." 
 
 " lie mai Kim sore adreden, 
 
 Tli.rt he fhanne ore bidde iic mugen, 
 
 Vor that bilimftth ilome. 
 
 Tha- is wis that bit and bote 
 
 And bet biyoren dome. 
 
 Death com on this midelard 
 
 TInuth th.X's defies onde, 
 
 And senne and sosge and iswinr. 
 
 On se and on londc." 
 
 "About the year 11.50, the Saxon began to lake a foi-m ia 
 which the beginnuig of tlie present English may be plainly dico- 
 vered ; this change seems nut to have lieeii the effects of thi' Nor- 
 man conquest, for very few French words aie foirnd to have been 
 introduced in tl'.<- first hunilred years nfler it; the language must 
 therefore have been altered by causes like those which, notwith- 
 standing the careof writers and societies instituted to obviate ihem,. 
 are even now (laity making innovations in every living language. 
 I have exhibited a specimen of the language ot this age from the 
 year 1 13'' to 1 140 of the Saxon chronicle, cf which the latter part 
 wa-. apparently written near the lime to which it relates." 
 
 Of this chronicle a few lines may here suflice to gratify tlie an- 
 tiouarian : — " This z.ere for the .king Stephne ofer s.^■ to Nor- 
 maiidi. And ther wes imder-fangvH. forthi that he wenden that . 
 he sculde ben aUuic al-e the eom wcs. And for he hadile- get -his. 
 tresor. ac he to deld it and scateredsotlice. Micelbadde Henri 
 king gadered gold and sylver. and nc god ne ditldo me for his. 
 sauie Uiar of. Tlu the liin^ Stephue to Eiigla-laud coin tli;! macod 
 
 Iw
 
 ENG 
 
 \m- 
 
 anil lo Laii- 
 
 iii "adpiiiij; ;.l Oxoii-lonl. And lliai lie n.uii lli 
 
 1: ies-l;cni. And Alexander biscup ot Linvoln 
 
 , Roi?!'!- liise neves, and dUie adle in pemimtd lu jaten up 
 
 • fjitfes. 'I'lia tlis snike-i under- gffton that lie mililc man «as 
 
 ,otl and g'xl. and na justice lie dlde. t'na dideii lii alle wuii- 
 
 Hi ludden him nianied luaked an(\ allies siieren." &r. 
 Nearly about this time (says tlip Dr.) die following pieces of 
 V sei-'in to liave been wrnteii, of vliidi I liave inserted only 
 ■, 'fra^iiiients : the first is a rutle attempt at llie present r.iea- 
 ,,i ci;;lil syllables, and the second is a iiKlmal introd.iitlio!) to 
 il o7 Gionrester, feeing coni|)nsed in the same measure, 
 1. howcvgr rude and barbarous it may seem, taught t!-.e way 
 ■ AloNandriiies of the I'rtMuli poetry. 
 
 » 
 " l''i!R in see bi wlsI spuynge. 
 It a 'ond thote cokayi;iie. 
 .T-!ier nis lond un<h-r In uenrielie. 
 Of wl! of godnis hit ihche. 
 '1 hov porailis he miri and briyt. 
 C.)kay£;n if of fairir siyt. 
 Whutis Iher in pjiadis. 
 Bet g;ass and time and generis. 
 Thoy ther be ioi and ?ret dule. 
 , • Ther nis met bote Irute. 
 
 Tiier IMS halie bureno bench. 
 
 Bot -.vativ man il tlunsto (iiier.ch. 
 
 Ik-th th.-r no men hut two. 
 
 liely and enok also. 
 
 Clinulicli may hi go. 
 
 W'liar ther ivonith men no mo." kc. 
 
 SAXCTA M.VTIGARETTA. 
 
 ^' Oi.DE ant yonge i preit ou ouve falicf for to htc. 
 *'henOiii t on gocl that yef ou wit cure simnes to bete, 
 lere mai tcllen ou. will wordes feire and swete. 
 .'he vie of one meidan. vas hoten Maregrete. 
 
 Hire fader was a patriae, as ic ou tellen may. 
 II .nmtioge \v;f eihef i the false lay. 
 H-ve goiles ant doumbe. he served nitt ant day. 
 '0 deden mony othere. that singet weilauey. 
 
 Theodosius was is nome. on crist ne levede he iioutt. 
 lo levede on tiie fal-e godes. that w eren will hoiiden urouft. 
 
 Iio that child seiilde cl.'risthie ben. ie com him well in thoutt. 
 ". bed wen it were ihore. to dethe it were ibroutt." 
 
 " In these fragments, the adulteration of the Saxon tongue, by 
 
 mixture of the Norinvn, becomes apparent; ^ct it is not so 
 
 niich changed by tlie admixture of new words, which might be 
 
 mputed to commerce with the continent, as by changes of its own 
 
 qrms and terminations ; for which no reason can be given. 11:- 
 
 ]hcrto the language used in this island, however different in 
 
 ' ii'ccessive time, may be called Saxon ; nor can it be e\- 
 
 V )ccteil, from the nature of tilings gradually changins, that any 
 
 1 Mme can be assigned, w hen the Saxon may be saiJ to cease, 
 
 I id the English to commence. Eobert of Gloucester, however. 
 
 Uio is placed by the critics in the I.Uh century, seems to have 
 
 iscd a kind of intermediate diction, neither Saxon nor Eng!i-,h ; 
 
 i; his work therefore we see the transtion exhibited, and, as he is 
 
 Ar tiiNt of our w rilers in rhyme, of whom any large work remains, 
 
 . iiKire extensive iiuotation is extracted. He writes apparently in 
 
 :.e same measure with the foregoing author of St. Margarite, 
 
 i'iiii polished into greater exactness, appeared to our ance>tors so 
 
 iile lo the genius of tlie English language, tli.it it was coiiti- 
 
 ' il in u-:e almost to the middle of the 17th cenliuy. 
 
 ' Of the batayles of Denemarch, t!ut hii dude in Ihys lor.de 
 I'hat worst were of alle othere, we mote abbe an houde. 
 Worst hi were, vor olhere addc sonuvanne vdo, 
 As Romeyns J<: Siixons, & wel wustt- that lond therto. 
 Ac hii !!•- kepte \t liolde nogi, bote robby, and s-cnde, 
 (\nd di-«nie, & berne, S: sie, an;! lie couthe abbe non ende. 
 And bote lute yl nas woilli, (h»y hii were ouercoine ^ lome, 
 V or myil sspcs and great poer as prest efsone hii come. 
 Kyiig .'\delwulfo! Iivs lond kvng was tiienty /er. 
 The Deueys come by hyui ry nor thdu he dude er," &c. 
 
 >_^ T. yo 
 
 " Thk k\ng Ahitied si t e iho then wey of delh nome, 
 .\s >l v-cT, the vyily /er of ys kynedom. 
 .\t XVvmiioiinie'hewas ybured, as God gef that cas, 
 The g'ode Allied, ys brother, after li\m kyng was. 
 A!fr.-d, llivs noble'man, as in the zer of grace he nom 
 EyAe hondred and syxty and tneliiethe kynedom. 
 .-ViM he adde at Rome yl'ie, &, vor ys grcte.wysdom. 
 The po|:e Leon hym b'les.;eile, Iho he thuder com. — 
 Kvng .Alfred was tne wysosl kyni;, that long w.is bynore. 
 \ 'or They me seuge the lawes betii in worre tyme vorlore, 
 Nas vt iiogt so tills daye. vor they he in worre were, 
 Lasves he made rygtuodore, and slrengore than er were. 
 C'hrc he was god'ynou, and nut, as me tclleth me. 
 He was more than ten zer old, as he couthe ys iibece. 
 Ac vs godemoder olle smale gyftes hym tok, 
 VVato bvletie other pie, and l6ky on his boke. 
 So that by por clergye ys r\ gt lawes he wonile. 
 That nf ucre er nere y mad, to gouerny ys loud. . 
 liys lyf eyate and ti.'enly zer in ys kvncdom ylaste. 
 Allcr "ys dcth iie wo» ybured at VVyr.chestrc atle lasle." 
 
 'liie following is.a quotation from Sir John Mandeville's worRs 
 who wrote, as hiiiiseh informs us, in 'the Ulh century. " In that 
 loncl, ne in many olhere bezonde that, no man- may see the sterre 
 tiaiismontane, that is clept the sterre of the see, that is uniiievable, 
 and that. is toward the Northe, that we clepenthe lode sterre. But 
 men see another sterre, the contrarie to h.ni, lliat is toward the 
 Soullie, that is clept Antartyk. And right as the scliip men taken 
 here avys here, and govern'e hem be the loiie sterre, right so don 
 schip in'en bezonde the parties, be the sterre ot the Souihe, the 
 which sterre apperethe njt to us. And this sterre, that is toviaril 
 the Xortlie, that wie clepen the lode sterre, ne apperethe not to 
 hem. Eor wlilche cause, nu-n may wel perceyve that the londe, 
 and the see ben of rownde schapp and forme. For the partie of 
 the firmament scheWcthe in o contree, that schc-\vetlie not in ano- 
 Ihercontree. And men may well preven be experience and so- 
 tyle compassement ol w ) tt,tiiat zif a man fond pas-ages be schippes, 
 that wold go tosercheii the world, men myglUe gabeschippe alt 
 aboute the world, and aboven and bencthf n." 
 
 ^' The first of our authors, w ho can be properly said to have 
 written English, was Sir John Gower, who, in his Conlession of a 
 Lover, calls Chaucer his disciple, and may therefore be cousider«cl 
 as the father of our pcetry. 
 
 " NowE for to speke of the commune. 
 It is to dreile ot that fortune. 
 Which hath befalle in sondrye londes : 
 But oUc for defaute of bonde* 
 All sodeinly, er it he wist, 
 , A tunne, when his lie arist 
 'J'obreketh, and renneth all aboute,. 
 Which els sluilde noglite gone out." &c. 
 
 Dr. Johnsofi has given several extracts from Chaucer, of whictt 
 we shall here insert the following : 
 
 CHAUCER. 
 
 " .\las '. I wepyrig an* coQstramed to begin verse of sorowfull 
 matter, that whilom' in tlorishyng studie make delitable ditees. 
 for lo ! rendvng nni-es of Poetes eiiditeii to methingesto be 
 writen, and ilrerie teres. At kiste nodrede ne might overcome 
 tlio muses, that the i ne wereii tellowes, ami lolloweden my waie, 
 that is to sale, when I was exiled, tlici that w eren of my youlli 
 whilom weltull aud grene, comlutten now sorowfuU wieiiles of 
 me olile man : for elile is comen uiiwarely upon me, lui--terl by 
 the haniies that 1 have, and son ow hath commaunded his age to he 
 in me. Heres hore aren shad overtimeliche upon my hed : and 
 the slacke skinne irembletlie of mine empled bodie. I hdke delli 
 of men is welet'ull, that he ne Cometh not iu\erestbat be swete, ' 
 but cometli to wretches often icleped." 
 
 Fortescue was chief justice of the Common-Pleas, ia the reiga 
 of kini; Henrv VI. lie rstired in 1471, after the battle ot Tewkes- 
 bury, and probably wrote most ol Ills works in his privacy. The 
 following passage is selected from his book of the " Uiherencc be- 
 tween an absolute aud limited Monarchy. "H\ t mav peraventure
 
 ENG 
 
 205 
 
 E N G 
 
 tie marveliJ by some meu.whyoiie Realnic i-; a Lordsli) p only 
 Koy;;!!, and tlie Prynce thereof rulyth yt h\ hh Lav., t\illid Ju^ 
 Reijiile; and uiiolher Kynt^dome is ii Lordscliip, lloya! and I'oh- 
 tike, and the Prince tliereotrrdyth liya Lnwe, callyd Jus Politi- 
 cum i: R(^ga!e; sythen thes two Princes belh of. egall Aslate. 
 To tliis dowte it may be an^wtryd in this nianni-r ; Tii.< lirst Insti- 
 tution of tlies twoo Uealmys, upon the Incorporation of tlieni, is 
 Hhe cause of this divorsy tf. When IVenibroth by Migiit, for his 
 own Ciorye, made and incorporate the (irst Realme, and subduyd 
 it to liyinself Ijy Tyrannye, he would not liave it governyd by any 
 other Rule or Lawc, but by his own \\'il! ; by which and tor th' 
 accomplishment thereof he made it. Aiid iherfor, though he had 
 thus made a Realme, holy Scripture denyd to call hym a Kyng, 
 Quia Rex dicttur a R^gendo ; V/hych thyng he dyd not, but op- 
 pressyd the People by Myglvt, and theifor he was a Tyrant, and 
 calliJ Primus Tyrann'orum. But holy Writ callith hyni Robustus 
 Venator coram Deo. For as the Hunter takjth the wyld beste 
 for to sale and eate hym ; so Nembroth subduyd to him.lhe Peo- 
 ple witli Might, to have their service and their goods, using upon 
 them the Lordschip that is called Dominium Regale tantum. 
 After hym Belus that was callid first a Kyug, and after hym his 
 Sone Kynus, and after hym other Panyms; They, by Example 
 ■of Nembrotb, made them Realmys, would not "have' them rulyd by 
 ether Lawy« than by th(>iro\vn Wills. 
 
 In the time of Sir Thomas More our language wa^i in a great de- 
 p-ee formed and settled, and it appears from Ben Jouson, that his 
 works were considered as models of pure and slegant style. The 
 toUowing is introduced as a specimen. 
 
 A letter « rittcn with a cole by Sir Tiiomas Jifore to hys doughtcr 
 m.iistres .Margaret Roper, within a whyle after he was jirisouer 
 ill the TowT^ 
 
 ■" Myne own good dougliter, onr lorde be thanked I am in good 
 heltlie of bodye. and in good quiet of minde : and of worklly 
 thyngps i no innre riesyer then I haue. I besechc hym make voii 
 all mery in tlie hope of heauen. And such tliynges as I somowliat 
 longed to taike witii you all, concerning the worlde to come, our 
 Lorde put theim into your myndes, as 1 trusle he dothe and bet- 
 ter to by hys holy spirite: who blesse you and preserue you all. 
 Written wyth a cole by your tender "louing father, who in hys 
 pore prayers forgetteth none of you all, nor your babes nor your 
 nurses, nor your good husbandes, nor your good husbandes shrewde 
 ■^■ues, nor your falliers slirewde wyfe neither, nor our other 
 frenJes. And thus fare je harteiy well for lacke of paper. 
 
 Thomas Moee, knight. 
 '" Of the wits that flourished in the reign of Henry VIII. none 
 lias been more frit|uently celebrated than the earl of Surry ; Dr. 
 Johnson gives among others the following extract. 
 
 Dfscripcinn of Spring, zvherein eche tiling renenes, save onhj 
 thf toTcr. 
 
 "The soote season tliat bud, and bloomc fourth bringes, 
 
 AVitli grene hath cladde the hyll, and eke the vale. 
 
 The Nightingall with fethers new she singes; 
 
 The turtle to her mate hath tokl the tale : 
 
 SomiT is come, for every spray now springes. 
 
 The hart hatii hunge hys olde head on the pale. 
 
 The bucke in brake his winter coate he flynges; 
 
 Tfae fishes ilete with iiewe repayred scale : 
 
 The adder all her slough away she flynges, 
 
 The swift swallow pursueth.the flyessmalle. 
 
 The busy bee her honey how she mynges ; 
 
 M uiter iswome that was the lloures bale. 
 
 And thus f see among these pleasant thynges 
 
 Eche care de<;ayes, and yet my sorrow sprynges." 
 
 -"Barclay wrote about 1550; his chief work is the " Ship of 
 Fooles" of which the following extract will shew his style. 
 
 Of Mockers and Scorners and False yJccustrs. 
 O Heartless fooles, haste hear to our doctrine^ 
 Leaue olfthe wayes of your eiiormitie, 
 Entortcyou to my precept to encline. 
 For here shall I shewe you good and veritie : 
 lEiiclinc, and ye linde shall great prosperilie. 
 
 Ensuing the doctrine of onr fathers olde. 
 And godly lawc-s in valour worth great golde. 
 
 W'lio lliat will lollowethe graces maiiyfolde 
 Wkich are in vertue, -hall liade aua'mcenieKt: 
 M'lierfore ye foulos that ui your sinne are bolde, 
 Ensue ye wisdome, and leaue yourlcwde intent, 
 Wisdome is the way of men most excellent: 
 Therfore hau>- done, and shortly spede your page, 
 To ((uayut yourself and company with grace. 
 
 Learne wliat is vertue, therin is great solacej, 
 Learne what is truth, sadues and prudence, 
 Let grutclie be gone, ;uid grauitie purchase. 
 Forsake your folly and inconuenieiice. 
 Cease to be fooles and ay to sue olfence, 
 I'oUow ye vertue, chiufe roote of godlynes 
 For it and wisedome is ground of clenlynes. 
 
 W isedome and vertue two thinges are doubtle*, 
 Wliiche man endueth witii honour speciall. 
 But suche heartes as slepe in foolishnes 
 Knoweth nothing, and will nought know at all: 
 Rut in tins little barge in principall 
 All foolish mockers I purpose to repreue, 
 Clawe he his backe that teeleth itche or greue. 
 "About llic year 1553, wrote Dr. Wilson, a man celebrated 
 for the politeness of his style, and the extent of his knowledge) 
 .vhat was the state of our laiigirage in his time, the following may 
 be of use to shew: 
 
 riiOM'NciATiow is an apte orderinge both of the voyce, coun- 
 Icnauuce, ami all the whole bodye, accordynge to the w'orthineaof 
 suche woordes and matters as by speache are declared. The vse 
 hereof is sucli for an_>e one that liketh to haue prayse for lellyng 
 his tale in open assemiilie, that hauing a good tongue, and a coine- 
 Ive coiuitenaiuice, he shal be thought to ij^sse all other that haue 
 the like vtterauncc: thoughe they haue much better learning. 
 The tongue geueth a certiiyne grace to euerye matter, and beauti- 
 lieth the e:;nse in like maner, as a swete soundynge lute muche 
 srtteth forihe a meane deuised ballade. Or as the sounde of a 
 good instrumeiile styrreth the hearers, and moueth much delite, 
 so a cleare suundyng voice comforteth muche our deintie eares, 
 vvitli muche swete mclodie, and causeth vs to allowe the matter 
 ratlier for the reporters sake, then the reporter foi the matters 
 sake. Demosthenes therfore, that fanionse oratom-, beyng asked 
 what was the chiefest point in al oratorie, saue the chiefe and onely 
 praise to pronunciation ; being deuiaiiiided, what was the seconde 
 anil the thirde, he still mad aunswere, Pronunciation, and would 
 make none other aunswere, till they lefte askyng, declaryng here- 
 by that arte without vtteraunce can dooe noiliyug, ytteraunce 
 without arte can dooe right muche. And no doubte that man is in 
 outwarde apparaiuice halfe a good clarke, that hath a cleane ton- 
 gue, and a comely gesture of his body. yEschines lykwyse beyng 
 bannished his coiuitrie through Demosthenes, when he had redde 
 to the Rhodians his own oration, and Demosthenes 'aunswere there- 
 unto, by force whereof he was bannished, and all they marueiled 
 much al the exxellencie of the same: then (([Uod .i"schines) you 
 would haue nnirueiled muche more if you had heard hymselfe 
 speake it. Thus beyng cast in miserie and bannished for euer, 
 he could not but geue such great regorte of his deadly and mortal 
 ennemy. — These few extracts may be sufficient to give some idea 
 of the state of our language in different periods, and of its progress 
 toward its present copiousness and elegance. For further infer- 
 jnation see Language, Grammar, Rhetokic, and Logic. 
 
 ENGRAILED, or INGRAILED, in her.ddry, a term de- 
 rived from the French grctc, hail ; and signifying a thing the hail 
 has fallen upon and broke otT the edges, leaving them ragged, or 
 with half-iounds or semicircles struck out of theii- edges. 
 
 ENGRANING, the art of cutting nu-tals, precious stones, 
 woods, &c. and representing tliereon ligin'es, letters, or whatever 
 device or design the artist fancies. Engraving is properly a branch 
 of Sculpture, and is divided intoseveral otIuM' branches, according 
 to the matter whereon it is employed, and the maimer of perform- 
 ing it. Engraving is an art chiefly of modern invention; having 
 its rise no earlier than the middle of the 15th cenluiy. 'I'he an- 
 cients, indeed, practised engraving on precious stones and crystals 
 with very good success; and there are still many of their works 
 remain'uig eijual to anv production of the latter ages. But the art 
 7 ' ef
 
 ENG 
 
 2f)7 
 
 ENG 
 
 of engvaviiic; on plates and blocks of wood, to ai'lord priiUs or im- 
 pressions, was not known till alter the invention of painting in od. 
 . Of tliesc! last, the n)o>t anrient mode is llul on wood ; iIk- Tu>i im- 
 pressions on paper liavini; been taken from carved wooden blocks. 
 For tliis invi-nlion we are indebted to tlie brief-malers, or iiuiker.^ 
 of playing <'ards, who practised the art in Geri'.ianv, about the be- 
 ginning ot the l.'ith century'. I'Voni the same source may perhaps 
 be traced tlie lirst idea of moveable types, which appeared r.ol 
 Ilmi^ after; for liiesc brief malers did not entirely conlinc tliem- 
 > ,'i to the printing and painting of cards, but produced also 
 >;ect3 of a more devout nature ; many of w hich, taken from holy 
 V lit, are still preserved in German libraries, with the explanatory 
 I \t facin!> the llenresj the whole engraved in wood. Thus a 
 species of books was iormed ; such as, " Historia sancti Johanais, 
 ejusque Visioiies Apocalyptica; ;" " liistoria Veteri-^ & Novi Testa- 
 iTienti," known by the name of the " Poor Man's Bible." These 
 short mementos w ere printed only on one side ; and two of them 
 bein.; pasted together, had the appearance of a sin jle leaf. The 
 eailiesl date on any of these vvooden cuts is 1423. The subject is 
 St. Christopiier carrying the infant Jesus over the Sea, preserved 
 in a convent at Buxheini near Mennincten. It is of a folio size, 
 illuminated in the same manner as tlie playing cards ; and at the 
 bottom is this inscription, 
 
 Christoferi faciem die quaecunque tueris. 
 
 Ilia nempe die morte mala non nioriens. 
 
 Miilesimo CCCC XX° tertio. 
 
 r,>on the invention of moveable types, that branch of tlie brief- 
 nialcrs business, so far as it regarded tlie making of books, was gra- 
 dually dis''ontinued ; but the art itself of engraving on wood con- 
 tinued in an improving state; and towards the end of the 1 jth and 
 beginning of tin- Hjth century, it became customary for almost 
 every one sf the German engravere on copper to engras e on wood 
 aUo. The works of Albert Durer in this style of engraving are 
 justly held in the higlie-t esteem. Italy, France, and Holland, 
 have produced many capital artists of this kind; but for boldness 
 anil spirit, we must see the prints of Christopher Jeglier, who 
 worked under the direction of Kiibens, and was without doubt as- 
 sisted by that great master. The invention of that species of en- 
 graving distinguished by the appellation of chiaro-scuro, seems 
 also to be justly claimed by the Germans, and first practised by 
 Mair ; one of whose print^ ot this kind is dated 1499. Many ex- 
 cellent works in chiaro-scuro have been produced in France ; and 
 in Italy it was honouTcd with the pirformanci-s of Titian and Par- 
 megiano ; but the allcnipts of Jackson, Kirkall, and oihi;rs in 
 Englanfl, have not been e(|ually successful. A set of excellent 
 prints in this way have lately been published by J. Skippe, Esq. 
 a connoisseur and dillettante. In Gtnnatiy, aiiout A. D. I4jO, 
 prints from engraved copper first made their appearance. . The 
 earlirst date of a copperplate print is indeed only I4t5l ; but how- 
 ever faulty this print may be with respect to the drawing, or de- 
 fective in point of taste, the mechanical |)art of the execution ot 
 it has by no means the appearance of being one of the tirst pro- 
 ductions of tiie graver. We have also several other engravings, 
 I. evidently the work of the same master; in wiiich the impressions 
 are so neatly taken from the plates, and the engravings so clearlv 
 printed in every pa.rt, tiiat, according to all appearance, they 
 could not be executed in a much better man.ier in the present day, 
 with all the conveniences which the copperplate pririters now pos- 
 sess, and tlie additional kp.owledge they must necessarilv have ac- 
 quired in the course of more than three centuries. Hence we 
 may fairly conclude, that if they were not. the first specimens of 
 the engraver's workmanship, they were much less the lirst efforts 
 of the copperplate printer's ability. It is likewise to be observed, 
 that Martin Schoen, who is said to liave worked from 14tiO to 
 14S6, was apparently the scholar of Stoltz.hirs ; for he followed his 
 style of engraving, and cojiied from him a set of prints, represent- 
 ing the passion of our Saviour. Now, aljowing Sloltzhirs to 
 have preceded his disciple only ten years, this carries the a-ra 
 of the art back to lAjn, as was said above. There is no ground to 
 suppose, that it was known to the Italians till at least ten years 
 afterwards. The earlic-st prints that are known to be theirs area set 
 of the seven planets, and an almanack by way of Irontispicce ; on 
 which are directions for finding Easier from' 1 46.''i to ljl7iiiclu- 
 siv«- ; and we may be assured, that lite engravings were liot ante- 
 vofc. II. — NO. 74. 
 
 dated, as tlu almanack wouUl have thus been less v,iluable. These 
 prints iiuisl therefore have been execiittd in l4ti4, which is only 
 lour yeais later tlian the Italians claim. The three earliest Italian 
 engrave! s are, Finiguerra, l5oticelli, and Baldini. If we are to re- 
 fer these prmis to anv of tiie three, v.e shall naturally conclude 
 them to be the work' of Finiguerra or Baldini; for tiiey arc not 
 e(|ual either in drawing or coinpo>ition to those iiscribed to Boticelli, 
 which we know at least were designed by him ; and as Baldini U 
 expressly said to have worked from the designs of Boticelli, it w;U 
 appear most prolTable that they belong to Finiguerra. AV ith re- 
 spect to the invention of Efclimg, it seems to be not well knowi> 
 to whom it is to be ascribed. One of the most early specimens is 
 the print by Albert Durer, known by the name of the Camion, 
 dated IJIS, and thought by some, with little foundation, to have 
 been worked on a plate of iron. Another etching by the same 
 artist is Moses receiying the Tables of the Eaw, dated IJ','4. It 
 was also practised in Italy soon after this by Parmegiano, in whose 
 etching; we discover the hand of the artist working out a system as 
 it were from his own imagination, and striving to produce the 
 forms he wanted to express. We lee the difticuUy he labourcd- 
 under; and cannot doulM, from the examination of the mechanical 
 part of the execution of his works, that he had no inslruction ; 
 and that it was something entirely new to him. If the story is 
 true, that he kept an engraver by profession in his house, the 
 novelty of the art is rendered so much the nuire probable. He 
 died in l.'i40. As to that species of engraving in which the modes ■" 
 of etching and cutting with the graver are united, it must hav« 
 been found necessary immediately upon the invention ot etching ;. 
 it was, however, lii-st carried to perfection by G. Audian, and is 
 now almost universally practised, whether the work is in strokes or 
 in dots. Engraving in dots, t!ie present fashionable mi tliod, is a 
 very old invention, and the only mode discovered by the Italians. 
 Agoitino dc Musis, commonh called Augustine of Venice, a pu- 
 pil of Marc Antonio, used it in several of his earliest work'',, 
 but conlined it to the tlesli, as in the undated print of An Old 
 Man seated upon a Bank, with a Cottage in the back ground., 
 He flourished from 1509 to 153t5. \\'e also find it in a print of 
 " A single Figure standing, holding a Cup and looking upwards," 
 by Ciiulio Campagnola, who engraved about the year lolti. The- 
 back ground is executed with round dots, made apparently with a 
 drv point. The figure is outlined with a stroke deeply engraved, 
 and hnished with dots, in a manner greatly resembling those prints 
 which Demarteaii engraved at Paris in imitation oi red chalk. 
 The hair and beard are expressed by strokes. Stephen de Lauhie, 
 a native of Germany, followed the steps of Campagnola; and 
 many of his slight works are executed in dots only. John Bou- 
 langer, a French artist, who flourished in the middle of the last 
 century, and his contemporary Nicholas \ an Plattenberg, im- 
 proved gre.itly on this metliod, and practised it with much success. 
 It is onlv, however, of late, that it lias been considered as an ob- 
 ject woitliy of general imitation. Jolm Eutma executed this kind 
 of work with a hammer and a small punch or chissel. Engraving 
 in mezzotiiito was invented about tiie middle 'if the 17th century ; 
 and the invention has generally been attributed to Prince Rupert. 
 Engraving in aquatinta is quite a recent invention, and seems at 
 once to have been carried to perfection by Sandby, and other ar- 
 tists of tlie present age. Engraving with the tool w.is the kind ori- 
 ginally practised, and it is yet letained for many purposfs. For- 
 though etching be more easy, and other advantages attend it ; yet- 
 where great regularity and exactness of lise st-oke or lines are re- 
 quired, the working whh tiie graver is much more eliectual : on 
 which account it is more suitable to the precision necessary in the- 
 execution of portraits ; as there every thing liic most minute must 
 be tv^de out and expressed, according to the original subject, 
 without any licence to the fancy ol tlie designer in deviating froni. 
 it, or varying the effect either iiy tliat masterly negligence and 
 simplicity in some parts, or those bcld s<iHies oi the imaginalioii. 
 and liand in others, which give spirit and force to hi-lory p/intiiig. 
 Ex'GKiVi.vG ON Cci'PER, tlie making,. <()rrespondently to some 
 delineated figure or de^^ign, such concave lines on a smooth sur- 
 face of copper, either by cutting or corrosion, as render it capa- 
 ble, when charged properly wiih any coloured lluid, of imparling 
 by compression an exa< t repre^entation of (t,e iiciire c-r design, to 
 paper or parchment. \\ liether we consider this luancli of eiifrrav— 
 ing, with regard to its utililv, the ple.ise.re it uffiu'ds. or liie ditS- 
 4G ■ ' r-iliv
 
 ENG 
 
 ENG 
 
 culty that aUciuls its CNecution, we cannot but confess, th,\t on all 
 these accounts it merit? a dislinguished rank among the polite arts. 
 Bv this nrt the cabinets of the curious are adorned with the por- 
 traits of the greatest men of all agos and nations ; and thfir nienio- 
 ries, their most remarkable and noit glorious actions, are trans- 
 mitted to the latest posterity. By this art also, the pa'ntiags of 
 the greate^t masters are multiplied to a boundless number; and' 
 the lovers of the polite art?, however widely dillused, are enabled ] 
 to enjoy those beauties, from which their diflant situations would 
 otherwise have for ever debarred them. Persons of moderate for- 
 tunes are hereby enabled to becoine possessed of all the spirit, and 
 all the poetry, contained in those miracles of art, which seemed to 
 have been reserved for the temples of Italy, or the cabinets of 
 princes. When we reflect, that the engraver, beside the beauties 
 of poetic composition, and the artful ordinance of design, is to ex- 
 press, merely by the means of light an<l shade, all the various tints 
 of colours and clair-ohscure; to give a relief to each figure, and a 
 truth to each object ; that he is now to paint a sky serene and 
 bright, and then loaded viith dark clouds ; now the pure tranquil 
 stream, and then the foaming, raging sea; that here he is to ex- 
 press the character of the man, strongly marked in his counte- 
 nance, and there the minutest ornainent of his dress ; in a word, 
 that he is to represent all, even the most diflicult objects in nature; 
 we cannot sufficiently admire the vast improvements in this art, 
 and that degree of perfection to which it is at tids day arrived. 
 There are -several methods of engraving on copper, viz. 1. In 
 strokes cut tlirough a thin wax, laid upon the copjier, with a point, 
 and these strokes bitten or corroded into the copper with aqua- 
 fortis. See Ktchi.sg. 2. In strokes with the graver alone, un- 
 assisted by aquafortis. In this instance, the design is traced witii a 
 sl,arp tool, called a dry point, upon the pUile ; and the strokes are 
 cut or ploughed upon the copper, with an inNtrument distinguished 
 by the name of a graver. 3. In strokes first etched, and alter- 
 wards finished with the graver : by tliis expedient the two fwrmer 
 methods are united. 4. In dots without strokes, which are exe- 
 cuted with the point upon the wax or ground, bitten in with the 
 aquafortis, and afterwards harmonized with the graver, by which 
 instrument small dots are made; or with the graver alone, as in 
 the llesh and finer parts, unassisted with the point. .^. In dots first 
 etched and afterwards liarmonized with the dry point, performed 
 by a little hammer, called opus mallei, or the work of the ham- 
 mer, as practised by Lutma and others. (5. In Mezzotinlo. 7. 
 In Acpiatinta. See these articles. The principal instruments 
 used in engraving with the tool are, gravers, scrapers, a burnisher, 
 an oil-stone, and a cushion for bearing the plates. Gravers are 
 ni.ide S(|iiare, for cutting broad and deep, and lozenge for more 
 delicate and line strokes and hatches. La liosse recommends, as 
 the most generally useful, such as are of a form betwixt the square 
 and lozenge: and he advises, that they should be of a good length, 
 small towards the point, but stronger upwards. The burnisher is 
 used to assist in the engraving on some occasions, as well as to po- 
 lish the plates. It is seven inches long, and made of fine steel; 
 well polished. The burnisher is formed at one end, and a scraper 
 on the other, each about an inch and a half long from the point: 
 betwixt them, about four inches of the instrument is made round, 
 and serves as a handle. The principal application of it in engrav- 
 ing, besides its use in pornhing the plates, is to take out any 
 scratches, or accidental rlefacings, that may happen to the plates 
 during the engraving ; or to lessen the effect of any parts that may 
 be too strongly marked in the work, and require to be taken 
 down. A cushion, as it is called, is generally used for supporting 
 the plate in such a manner, that it may be turned every way with 
 ease. It is a bag of 1-ather filled with sand, which should be of the 
 size that will best suit the plates it is intended to be:!r. The dry 
 point, or needle, which has been of late much used in engraving, is 
 a tool like an etching point, which being drawn hard on the copper, 
 cuts a stroke, and raises a burr ; the burr is scraped off, and there re- 
 mains a stroke more soft and delicate than can be produced in any 
 other way. The cushion being laid on the table, the pi:ite niu--t 
 be put upon it ; and the graver being held in the hand in a proper 
 inanner, the point must be applied to the plate, and moved in llie 
 proper direction for producing the figures of the lines intendi'd: 
 observing, in forming straight lines, to hold the plate steady on the 
 cushion ; and where tliey are to be finer, to press more lightly, 
 iisiag greater forte where they are to be broader iicd deeper. In 
 
 inaking circular, or other curve lines, hold your hand and graver 
 steadily ; and as you work, turn your plate upon the ctisliicn 
 against your graver, otherwise it will be impossible h.r you to 
 nVike any circular or curved line witli that neatness and command 
 of hand you by this means m:jy. After part of the work is en- 
 graved, it is necessary to scrape it with tiie scraper or graver, pass- 
 ed in the most level direction over tlie plate, to take otf the rough- 
 ness formed by the cutting of the graver; but great care must be 
 taken not to incline the edge of the scraper or tool used, in such a 
 manner that it may take the least hold of the copper, as it would 
 otherwise produce false strokes, or scratches, in the engraving; 
 and that the engraved work may be rendered more visible, it may 
 afterwards be rubbed over with a roll of telt dipped in oil. In 
 using the graver, it is necessary to carry it as level as ])ossil)le with 
 thi- surtace of the plate; for otherwise, if the fingers slip betwixt 
 then', the line th:\Mk'iil be produced, whether curve or straight, 
 will become deeper and dee|)er in the progress of its formation; 
 whi(h entirely prevents strokes being made at one cut, that will 
 be line at their extremities, and larger in the middle; and occa- 
 sions the necessity of retouching to bring them to th;it slate. Kor 
 this reason, it is very necessary for those who would learn to en- 
 grave in perfection, to endeavour, by frequent trials, to acquire 
 the habit of making su<h strokes both straight and curving, by 
 lightening or sinking the graver with the hand, according to the 
 oeciision. If, afli r linishhig the design, any scratches appear, or 
 any part of the engraving be falsely executed, such scratclies, «r 
 faultv parts, must be taken out by the burnisher, and further po- 
 lished, if necessary, by die aliove-mentioni'tl roll. The plate be- 
 ing thus engrave<l, it is proper to round oft' the edges, by using 
 first a rough file, and afterwards a smoother; and to blunt the cor- 
 ners a little bv tlic same means: after which, the burnisher should 
 be passed over the edge.; to give it a farther polish. In the con- 
 duct of the grater and dry point consists all the art; for which 
 there are no rules to be given; all depending on the habitude, 
 dis])osition, and genius, of the artist. However, besides the ex- 
 planations alreadv given, some general observations and directions 
 may not be improper. As the principles of engraving are the 
 same with those of painting, a person cannot expect to attain anv 
 considerable degree of perff'ction in this art, who is not a gooj 
 master of design ; and therefore he ought to be well acquainted 
 both with perspective and architecture: for the former, by the 
 proper gradations of strong and faint colours, will enable him to 
 throw backwards the figures, and other objects of the picture or 
 design which he purposes to imitate: and the latter will tench liiin 
 to preserve the due proportion of its several orders, which the 
 painter often entrusts to the discretion of the engraver. In order 
 to preserve cqualilv and union in his works, the engraver should 
 always sketch out the principal objects of his piece before he un- 
 rlertakes to finish them. In working, the strokes of the graver 
 should never be crossed too much in a lozei.ge manner, particu- 
 larly in the representation of llesh, because sharp angles produce 
 the unpleasing eflifct of lattice-work, and take from the eye the 
 repose which is to it agreeable in all kinds of picturesque designs: 
 we should except the c.ise of clouds, tempests, waves of the se .i. 
 the skins of hairy animals, or the leaves of trees, where this me- 
 thod of crossing may be admitted. But in avoidii:g the lozenge, 
 it is not proper to get entirely into the square, whicii would give 
 too much ot the hardness of stone. In conducting the strokes, the 
 action of the figures, and of all their parts, should be considered ; 
 and it should be observed how they advance towards, or recede 
 from the eye ; and the graver should be guided according to the 
 risings or cavities of the muscles or folds, making the strokes wid.r 
 and fainter in the light, and closer and firmer in the shades. Tlui; 
 the figures will not a|)pcar jagged ; and the hand should be light- 
 ened in such a manner, that the outlines may be formed and ter- 
 minated without being cut too hard; however, though the strokes 
 break off where the muscle begins, yet they ought always to have 
 a certain connection with each other, so that the first stroke may 
 often serve by its return to make the second, which will shew the 
 treedom of tiie engraver. In engraving the flesh, the effect may 
 be produced in the lighter parts and middle tints by lona 
 pecks of the graver, rather than by light lines ; or by round 
 dots; or by <lots a little lengtiiened by the graver: or, 
 best of all. bv a judicious mixture of these together. In engrav- 
 ing the hair jiid the beard, the engraver should begin his work by 
 9 laying
 
 ENG 
 
 209 
 
 ENG 
 
 laying tlif principal grountls, and skL'tcliiii|^ tlie chief shadps in a 
 careless manner or witii a few strokes; and he may finish it at lei- 
 sure with liner and tliinner strokes to the extremities. When ar- 
 chitecture or sculpture is to be represented, exce|)t it he old aixl 
 ruinous budilings, the work ounjit net to be made very black ; 
 because, as editices are commonly constructed either of stone or 
 white marble, the colour, being reflected on all sides, does not 
 produce dark or brown shades as in other substances. White 
 points must not be put in the pupils of the eyes of figures, as in en- 
 gravings after paintings; nor must the hair or beard be represented 
 as in nature, which makes the locks appear flowing in the air ; be- 
 cause in sculpture there can be no such appearances. In engrav- 
 ing cloths of different kinds, linen should be done with finer and 
 closer lines than other sorts, and be executed with single strokes. 
 Woollen cloth should be engraved wide, in proportion to the 
 coarseness and fineness of the stutV, and with only two strokes ; and 
 when the strokes are crossed, the second should be smaller than the 
 first, and the third than the second. Shining stutTs, which are gene- 
 rally of silk or satin, and which produce flat and broken folds, should 
 be engraved more hard and more straight than others, with one or 
 two strokes, as their colours are bright or brown ; and between the 
 first strokes others smaller must be joined, which is called inter- 
 lining. Velvet and plush are expressed in the same manner, and 
 should always be interlined. Metals, as armour, ic. are also re- 
 presented by interlining, or by clear single strokes. In architec- 
 ture, the strokes which form the rounding object should tend to 
 the point of sight ; and when whole columns oc< nr. it is proper to 
 
 frouuce the eti'ect as much as possible by perpendicular stroke^. 
 fa gross stroke is put, it should he at right angles, and wider and 
 thinner than the first stroke. In engraving mountains, the strokes 
 ought to be frecpiently discontinued and broken, for sharp and 
 craggy objects; and they should be straight, in the lozenge man- 
 ner, and accompanied with long points or dots ; and rocks should 
 be represented by cross strokes more square and even. Objects 
 that are distant towards the horizon should be kept very tender, 
 and slightly charged with black. Waters that are calm and still 
 are best represented by strokes that are straight, and parallel to 
 the horizon, interlined with tliose that are finer; omitting such 
 places as, in consequence of gleams of light, exhibit the shining 
 appearance of w ater ; and the form of objects reflected from the 
 water, at a small distance upon it, or on the banks of the water, 
 are expressed by the same strokes, retouching more strongly or 
 faintly as occasion may require, and even by some that are per- 
 pendicular. For agiLited waters, as the waves of the sea, the first 
 strokes should follow the figure of the waves, and may be inter- 
 lined, and the cross strokes ought to be very lozenge. In cas- 
 ca<les, the strokes should follow the fall, and be" interlined. In en- 
 graving clouds, the graver should sport when they appear thick 
 and agitated, in turning every way acconling to their form and their 
 agitation. If the clouds are dark, so that two strokes are neces- 
 sary, they should be crossed more lozenge than the figures, and 
 the second strokes should bo rather w ider than the first. The flat 
 clouds, that are lost insensibly in the clear sky, should be made 
 by strokes parallel to the horizon, and a little waving; if second 
 strokes are required, they should be more or less lozenge ; and 
 when they are brought to the extremity, the hand shouhl be so 
 lightened that they may form no outline. The fiat and clear sky 
 is represented by parallel and straight strokes, without the least 
 tummg. In landscapes, the trees, rocks, earth, and herbage, 
 should be etched as much as possible ; nothing should be left for 
 the graver but perfecting, softening, and strengthening. The dry- 
 point produces an elfect more delicate than the graver can, and 
 may be used to great advantage in linen, skies, di>tances, ice, and 
 often in water, especially in small engravings. In most things it 
 is proper to etch tlie shadows, only leaving the lighter tints for the 
 dry point, graver, &c. To imitate drawings with chalk, a mixture 
 h used of varie<l and irregular dots, made more or less soft, so as 
 to resemble the grain produced by the chalks on paper. Every 
 stroke of the chalks on paper may be considered as an infinite 
 number of adjoining points, which are the small eminences of the 
 grain of the paper touched by the chalk in passing over it. When 
 the copper-plate has been polished and varnished, or properly- 
 prepared, as in the common method of engraving, the drawing to 
 be imitated may be ccunterprovcd on the varnish of the plate. If 
 this cannot be coDveniently done, biack lead pencil, m red chalk. 
 
 must be applied to varnished or oiled paper; and by means of this 
 chalk or pencil, all the traces of the original will be transmifled (o 
 the varnish. The outlines of the object must be formed in the etching 
 liy points, who'C magnitude and distance must be determined by 
 the quality of the strokes in the original drawing. The artist may 
 be provided v.'lh pointed instruments or needles of various sizes 
 with single or double points. In lorniing the light and shi:de, he 
 should distinguish between those hatches wIikIi serve to express 
 the perspecti\ e of the object, and those w hicn form the ground of 
 it. The principal hatches should be more strongly marked; the 
 middle tints, if etched, should be marked lightlv, or thev may be 
 left till the varnish is taken off, and be perfecud with a greater de- 
 gree of softness, by needles, or the point ol the graver, a:> the ori- 
 ginal may require. There is nothing peculiar in the method of 
 applying the aquafortis in this kind of engraving; but it may be 
 observed, thai it should not be left so long us;o coirode the lighter 
 parts too much; if the light parts are suificiently corroded, they 
 may be stopped out with turpentine, varnish, and lamp black, 
 mixed together, and tlie aquafortis m.iy be ajiplied again to the 
 stionger parts; for it will be no detriment to lliem, if the ponils 
 which compose the shade burst into one another, provided the ex- 
 treme be avoided. When the w ork of the aquafortis is finished, 
 and the varnish taken oil the copper, it will be necessary in the 
 softest parts, such as tlie fiesli, &c. to interstipple with proper 
 points ; as an effect will be thus produced more delicate than it is 
 possible to attain with the aquafortis only; and the strongest shades 
 will require additional strength to be given them with small strokes 
 of the graver. Drawings made with chalks of difierent colours, 
 may be imitated in this manner, if a plate be provided for every 
 colour. This method ot engraving is intended to form a kind of 
 deception, so that the connoiiseur may not be able, on the first 
 inspection, to distinguish between the original drawing, and the 
 engraving, made in imitation of it: and it is extremely useful, as 
 it serves to multiply copies of drawings left by those masteri who 
 excelled in the use of chalks, and thus to form and improve young 
 artists, who could not have access to the originals in the practice 
 of draw in g. 
 
 ENGRAvmc ON Glass, is performed by the same process as 
 etching on copper; only using the lluoric instead of the nitrous 
 acid. Sec Etching. 
 
 Engraving on Preciovs Stones, is the representing of fi- 
 gures, or devices in relievo, or indented, on divers kinds of hard 
 polished stones. The ancients excelled in this art ; there being 
 divers antique agates, cornelians, and onyxes, w-liich surpass any 
 thing of that kind the moderns have produced. Pyrgoteles among 
 the Greeks, and Dioscerides under the first emperors of Rome, 
 are the most eminent engravers we read of: the former was so es- 
 teemed by Alexander, that he forbad any body else to engrave his 
 head ; and Augustus's head, engraven by the latter, was deemed 
 so beautiful, ttiat the succeeding emperors chose it for their seal. 
 All the polite arts having been buried under the ruins of the Ro- 
 man empire, the art of engraving on stones met with the same 
 fate. It was retrieved in Italy at the beginning of the ]5th cen- 
 tury, when one John of Florence, and after him Dominic of Milan, 
 performed works of this kind no way to be despised. From that 
 time, such sculptures became common in Europe, and particular^ 
 in Germany, whence great numbers were sent into other countries': 
 but they came short of the beauty of those of the ancients, especi- 
 ally- those on precious stones; for, as to those on crystal, the Ger- 
 mans, and after their example the French, &;c. have succeeded 
 well enough. In this branch of engr;iving, either the diamond or 
 emery may be used. 1 he diimond, which is tlie hardest of all 
 stones, is only cut by itself, or witii its own matter. The first 
 thing to be done in this branch of engraving is, to cement twu 
 rough diamonds to the ends of two sticks big enough to hold them 
 steady in the hand, and to rub or grind them against each other 
 till they be brought to the t'orm desired. The dust or powder 
 that is rubbed off, serves afterwards to polish them, which is per- 
 formed with a kind of mill that turns a wheel of soft iron. The 
 diamond is fixed in a br.iss dish; and, thus applied to the wheel, 
 is covered with diamond dust, mixed up with the oil of olives; 
 and w hen the diamond is to be cut facet-wise, they apply first one 
 face, then another, to the wheel. Rubies, sapphires, and topazes, 
 are cut and formed the same way on a copper wheel, and po- 
 lished with tripoli diluted in water. A? to agate?, amethysts, 
 
 emerald?,
 
 EN 
 
 E 
 
 500 
 
 EN O 
 
 emi r.Jds, liyachitlis, ?ranitef, rubier, and others ol' the softer stones, 
 tliey are ciit on a leaden wheel, moistened ^vith emery "atcr, 
 ana polished witli tripoli on a pewter wliecl. Lapis lazuli, 
 opal, &:c. are polished on a wooden wheel. To fashion and en- 
 giave vases of agate, crystal, lapis lazuli, or the like, a kind of 
 iathe, like that ii-ed by'pewterers, is used to hold the vessels, 
 which are to be wrought with proper tpols; thatof the engraver 
 generally holds the tools, wliich are turned by awheel; and tiie 
 vessel is held to them to be cut and engraved, either in relievo or 
 otherwise ; the tools being niois-tened from time to time with dia- 
 mond dust and oil, ~or at" least emery and water. To engrave 
 iig-m-esor devices on any of the^e stones, when polished, s'ueli as 
 medals, seals, S:c. they use a little iron wheel, the ends of whose 
 axis are received within two pieces of iron, placed npriglit, as in 
 the turner's lathe; and to be brought closer, or set further apart, at 
 pleasure; at one end of the a\is are htted the proper tools, being 
 kept ti^ht by a screv.-.' Lastly, The wheel is turned by the foot, 
 and the stone applied bv the iiand to the tool, and is sijifted and 
 conducted as occasion requires. The tools are generally of iron, 
 and sometimes of brass ; their form is various, but they generally 
 bear some resemblance to chisi'ls, gouges, &c. Some have small 
 round heads, like buttons, ot-hers like ferrels, to take the pieces 
 out, and others flat, kc. ^Vllen the stone has bgen engraven, it is 
 pol!>he(l on nhecls of liair brushe-; and tripoli. 
 
 Engraving oh Steki. is chieily employed in cutting seals, 
 punches, matrices, and dyes, proper for striking coins, medals, and 
 counters. The method of engraving with the instruments, Jtc. is 
 the same for coins as for medals and counters: all the difference 
 consists in their greater or less relievo ; the relievo of coins being 
 much less considerable than that of medals, and that of counters 
 still less than that of coins. Engravers in steel commonly begin 
 with punches, wliiclj are in relievo, and serve for making the 
 creuK or cavities of tlie matrices and dyes; though sometimes 
 tl'.ey begin with the creux or hollow ness; but Ihen it is only when 
 tte'intendcd work is to be cut very shallow, 'i'he first thing that 
 is done, is designing the figures; the ne\l is the moulding them 
 in wax, of the size and de)>th they are to lie, and from this wax 
 the punch is engraven.. When the punch is finished, they give 
 it a very high temper, that it may the better bear the blows of the 
 hammer with which it is struck", to give the impression to the 
 mati'ice. The steel is made hot to soften it, that it may the more 
 readily take the impression oi the punch ; and after striking the 
 punch on it in this state, they proceed to touch up or finish the 
 strokes and lines, where, by reason of their fineness, or the too 
 great relievo, they are any thing defective, with steel giavei-s of 
 different kuids, ciiisels, flatter.-., &c. being the principal instru- 
 »wcnts used iji graving on steel. The figure being tlius finished, 
 thev proceed to engrave the rest of the medal, as tlie mouldings of 
 theborder, the engrailed ring, letters, &c. with little steel punches 
 well tempered, and very sharp. 
 
 Engraving om Wood. See (Jutting. It is performed in 
 three different modes, viz. 1. With a single block, on which the 
 design is traced w'lth a pen, and tliose parts which should be white 
 carefully followed out. This block is afterwards printed by the 
 letter-press printei's, in the same manner as they print a book. 2. 
 With two, three, or more blocks; the first having the outlines cut 
 upon it; the second is reserved for the darker shadows ; and the 
 third for the shadows which terminate upon the lights; and those 
 are sub^tituted in their turn, each print receiving an impression 
 from every block. I'liis mode of engraving is called chiaro-scuro, 
 and was designed to represent the drawiiiffs of the old mastei's. 3. 
 On wood and on cojiper: in the-e the outline is engraved in a bold 
 d.uk style upon the copper; and two or more blocks of wood are 
 substituted to produce the lighter and darker shadows, as before. 
 
 ENGUICHE', in heraldry, is said of the great mouth of a 
 hunting horn, wlicn its rim is of a different colour from that of the 
 horn itself 
 
 ENHARMONIC, in music. The Greeks had three diflerent 
 spccii-s of r.nisic ; the Diatonic, the Chromatic, and the Enhar- 
 monic. This last was esteemed ijy much the most agreeable and 
 powerful of tl'.e tl :ee ; but the thffu-ulty of its execution rendered 
 Its duration sho/t, and later artists were upbraided for having sacri- 
 ficed it to their indolence. 
 
 ENKiMA. See /Enigma. _ . 
 
 ENElbEISK, a fortif.cd town' of Russian Siberia, in th« go- 
 vernnitnt of Toboltk^ 400 mdesE. N. E. of Kolivan. 
 
 ENMANv HE', in heraldry, [from innnchc, Er. i, c. a sleeve,] 
 is when imes are drawn from the centre of the upper edge of the 
 chie! to the sides, to about half the breadth of the thief ; sigiiifv- 
 iijg sleeved, or resembling a- sleeve. 
 
 EN NA, in ancient geography, a town of Sicily, situated on an 
 eminence S. ofth.e Chrysas; called the centre of Sicily. 
 
 EKNEAGON, [nvsa and yu.v<ei,] in geometry, a polygon with 
 nine sides. See Polygon. 
 
 ENNE.-lNDIUA, in botany, [from ovia, nine, and n*-;;, a man,] 
 thef'th class in Linna'us's ser.uul system, consisting of plants which 
 have hermaphrodite flowers with 9 stamina or male organs. See 
 Botany. 
 
 ENNERIS, in aiicici-.t ship-building, a galley with ninetircsof 
 oars. 
 
 ENNTS, or CLARE, the capital of Clare countv, in Ireland, 
 It is 112 miles S. VV. of Dublin. Lon. 9. 0. W. Lat. 5a. 42. N. 
 
 ENNISCOUTHY, alown of Ireland, in Wexford, Leinster; 
 5y miles S. oi Dublin. 
 
 ENNLSKERKIES, two islands of Ireland, in Kilmurry Bay, 
 6 miles oil the coast of Clare countv. Lon. 9, 3j. W. Lat. 32. 
 40. N. 
 
 ENNISKILLEN. See Inniskillen. 
 
 ENNUI, a French word introduced into the English language, 
 to express that listless state of insipidity and inactivity of body and 
 mmd, with whiih people in high life are ol'ten tormented, at those 
 intervals of h.abitual dissipation, which lie heavy upon them, when, 
 having -no object that immediately inti rests their passions, tliey feel 
 themselves totally at a loss how to en,;-loy, or, as the fashionable 
 world express it, to kill their time ; antl who, of consequence 
 spend it in drowsy yawnings, till the hour of dissipation or riot re- 
 turns. In a vvord. Ennui is a disease of the mind, wherein the 
 body is in some degree affected, produced by continued habits of 
 indolence, luxury and dissipation, or frivolous amusement, and 
 which greatly detracts from the happiness of those, who, if they 
 wei-i- to em))loy the gifts of fortune in a more rational manner, 
 would have it in their power to fill up every moment of life, in the 
 purest and most perfect happiness thai the present state of luiman 
 nature allbrds, by enjoy ing felicity themselves, and dispensing it 
 to all around them. 
 
 ENO, or ENOS, a town of European Turkey, in Romania, 
 28 miles N. W. ot Gallipoli. Lon. 2ii. 15. E. Lat. 40. 4C). N. 
 
 ENOCH, r-j^Jn, H(-b. i. e. dedicated,] the son of Cain, in ho- 
 nour of V horn 
 
 Enoch, the fir^t city taken notice of in scripture, was so called 
 by Cain, who built it. It was situated E. of Eden. Gen. iv. 17. 
 
 Enoch, the son of Jared and father of Methuselah, was born 
 A. M. 622. At the age of t)5 he begat Methuselah, and lived 
 300 years after, and had several sons and daughters. Enoth walked 
 with God ; and alter that he had lived 303 yetti's, " he was not, for 
 God took him." Some conslrue these last words, as if they inti- 
 mated that Enoch died a natuial death, because in reality he lived 
 not near so long as the other patriarchs of those times ; as if God, 
 to secure him from corruption, had taken him early out of this 
 world. But the generality of the fathers and commentators assert 
 that he died not, but was translated out of the sight of men, as 
 Elijah was. 'i'he aposle Paul shews very clearly that Enoch was 
 translated, and did not see death, Heb. xi. 5. The eastern peo- 
 ple, who called Enoch Edris, believe that he received from God 
 the gitt of wisdom and knowledge; and that God sent him 30 
 volumes from heaven, filled with all the secrets of the most mys- 
 terious sciences. The Rabbins maintain, that when Enoch was 
 translated to heaven, he was admitted into the number of the an- 
 gels, and is the iierson generally known by the name of Michael. 
 
 Enoch, the I'rofhlcv of, an apocrvphal book, ascribed to 
 Enoch. The apostle .hide (ver. 14, 15,) cites a passage from the 
 book of Enoch, w hich has much exercised interpreters. ■ The 
 question is, whether the apostle took this passage out of any parti- 
 cular book written by Enoch, which might be extant in the first 
 ages of the church ? whether he received it by tradition? or lastly, 
 by some particular revelation? It is thought prob.able, that he 
 read it in the book ascribed to Enoch, which, though apocryphal, 
 might contain several truths that St. Jude, who was favoured witlj 
 a supernatural degree of understanding, might make use of to the 
 edification of the faithful. The ancients greatly esteemed this' 
 work. Tertullian expresses liis concern, that it was not generally 
 received. That father, on the authority of this book, deduces the 
 
 orieinal
 
 ENS 
 
 301 
 
 ENT 
 
 riginul of iJolalry, a^troloc;y, and iinlawtul arts, liom the re- 
 plied anael.--, who marneil with the daughters of men. St. Au- 
 
 A\\\ allows, indeed, that Enoch wrote something divine, because 
 
 !■- cited by St. Jude ; bnt he ^a_vs, it vas not without reason that 
 ms book was not inser'.ed in the canon, which was preserved in the 
 emple at Jenisaleni. This father suthciently insinuates that the 
 uthority of this book is doulitful, and that it cannot be proved 
 hat it was really written by Enoch. Indeed the account it gives 
 if giants engendered by angels, and not by men, has manilestly 
 he air of a table, and tlie most jutiicious critics believe it ought 
 lot to be ascribed to Enoch. This book laid a long time buried in 
 larkncss; till the learned Joseph Scaliger recovered a part o*' it. 
 jcaliger, VossiiH, and other learned r.cn, attribute this work to 
 me ot those Jews who lived between the time of tlie Babylonish 
 ap.iviiy 'and that of Jesus Christ. Odiers are of opinion, that 
 t was written after the rise and establishment of Christianity, by 
 3iie of those fanatics w-ith whom the primitive church was tilled, 
 »ho made a ridiculous mi.\ture of the Platonic philosophy and the 
 Jhristian divinity. 
 
 ENOS, the son of Selh and father of Cainan, was born, A. M. 
 235. Moses tell us (Gen iv. Uii,) that then " meji began to call 
 ipon the name of the Lord ;" or, as others iranslaleit, -that " Enos 
 legan to call upon the name of the Lord ;" or was the inventor 
 Df religious rites and ceremonies in the e.xternal woi'ship. '1 his 
 .vorship was kept up and preserved in Enos's family, while Cain's 
 amily was pluiiged in all kinds of immorality and impiety. Se- 
 veral Jews are ot opinion, that idolatry was hrst introduced into the 
 iTOrld at tlie time of Enos. They translate tin- Hebrew thus, 
 ■' Then men began to profane the name of the Lord." Good 
 iiien, todistinguish themselves from tlie wicked, began to take upon 
 
 ill the quality of sons or servants of God; tor which reason, 
 
 u-es, (Gen. VI. I, 2,) says, that the sons of God ; (that is to say 
 ,he descendants of Enos, who had hitherto preserved the true re- 
 ligion), seeing the daughters of men, that they were fair, took 
 them wives of all wiiich they choose. Enos died at the age of 
 003; A. ^L 1140. 
 
 ENOTARU^K, atown of Russia in the government of Cauca- 
 «us, 72 miles N. N. E. of Astracan. 
 
 ENS, [Lat.] any being or existence. 
 
 Ens Positivum, & Ens Reale, terms used in the schools bv 
 metaphysicians, syriOiiym«usly with ens, for entity, as above de- 
 lined, bv way of distinction from 
 
 Ens Rationis, jiii imaginary being, or a thing that exists only 
 in the imagination. 
 
 Ens, among chemists, imports the power, virtue, and efficacv, 
 which certain substances e.xert upon our bodies. 
 
 Ens, in geography, a river of GerniCny, which rises in Salts- 
 burgh, and runs into the Danube. 
 
 Ens, or Enns, a city of Austria, seated on an eminence, at the 
 conttuK ot the Ens and the Danube ; and strongly defendfd by an 
 arsenal and two castles. It lies 90 miles \\\ by S. of Vienna. " 
 
 Ens, a town of Batavia in the department of the Yssel, and 
 island of Schokland, in the Zuyder Zee: 10 miles N. VV. of 
 Cam pen. 
 
 ENS.ATjE, in botany, [from cnsi.?, a sword;] the fitli order in 
 Linnxus's natural method. 
 
 ENS.A.Y, a suwll inhabited island of Scotland, in the county 
 and on the coast of Inverness; four miles E. of Bcrneiay. 
 
 ENSEELED, in falconry, a term applied to a hawk that has a 
 thread drawn throKgh her upper eye-lid, and made ftijt under her 
 beak, to take awav the light. 
 
 ENSEMBLE, [from ni and simul, Lat.] a French term, some- 
 times used in English ; literally signifying together, or onewith 
 another. In architecture, the ensemble, or toiit ensemble, of a 
 building, means the whole work, or composition, considered to- 
 gether, and not in p;irts ; and sometimes also, the relative propor- 
 tion of tne parts to the whole. — "Ail those pieces of building 
 make a fine ensemble." — " This picture is good, talking the parts 
 scpanitely ; hut the tout ensemble is bad." 
 
 ENSEN E, a town of Eavpt, on the E. side of the Nile ; 120 
 miles S. of Cairo. L.:n. 30. 54. E. Lat. 28. 5. N. 
 
 ENSIGN, [c/iscigHt-, Er.] in the "irnary art, a banner under 
 which the soldiers are range<l according to the different compa- 
 nies or parties they belong to. •'^ee Colours, Flag, Standard, 
 iic. 'I he European ensigns are pfcces of taliety wiHi various fi- 
 
 ■VOL. il. — NO, 74. 
 
 gures, arms, and devices, painted on them, in diUerenl colours : 
 tlie Turkish ensigns are horses-tails. 
 
 Ension is also the officer that carries the colours, being tlic 
 lowest commissioned oflicer in a company of fool, suboniiiiate to 
 the captain and lieutenant. It is a very honourable anil proper 
 post for a young gentleman at his first coming into the^iriny : he 
 is to carry the colours both in assault, day of battle, &:c. ami si.ould 
 not quit them but with his life : he mu^t always carry them him- 
 self on his left shoulder : only on a march he may have tiiem car- 
 ried by a soldier. If tbc ensign be killed, the captain must carry 
 the colours in his stead. 
 
 En'sicn, Naval, a large standard or banner hoisted on a long 
 pole erected over the poop, and called the ensign stall'. The en- 
 sigu is used to distinguisii llie ships of dill'erent nations from each 
 otiier ; and to characterise the different squadrons of the navy. 
 The British ensign in ships of war is known by a double cross, 
 viz. that of St George and St Andrew, formed upon a field wliick 
 is eitiier red, white, or blue. ■? 
 
 ENstG.Ns, Ancient. The ensign of the ancient Persians, ac- 
 cording to Xenophou, was a golden eagle on a white flag ; the 
 Corinthians bore a Pegasus, or w inged horee, on theirs ; the Athe- 
 nians an ow 1 ; the Messeiiians, the Greek letter M ; the Laccda;- 
 moiiians, the ^\. The Romans had a great diversity of ensigns; 
 the wolf, minotaurj horse, boar, and at length tlie eaale, w here 
 they stopped : this was first assumed in the 2 J year of tlie consu- 
 late of Marius. A military ensign on a medal oi a Roman colony, 
 denotes it a colony peopled with old soldiers. 
 
 ENSISHEIM, a town of France, in the department of the 
 l^pper Rhine, and late province of Alsace, 10 miles S. W. of 
 Brisac. , 
 
 ENSKIRKEN, a town of Germany, in the late dachy of Ju- 
 liers, 15 miles S. W. of Cologne. 
 
 ENTABLATURE, or ENTABLEMENT, the architrave, 
 frise, and cornice, of a pillar; being in effect the extremity of the » 
 flooring, which is either supported by pillars, or by a wail, if 
 there be no columns. Harris. 
 
 ENTABLER, in the manege, the fault of a horse, whose 
 croupe goes before his shoulders in working upon volts; which 
 may be prevented by taking hold of the right rein, keeping 
 your right leg near, and removing your left leg as far from The 
 horse's shoulders as possible. 
 
 ENTAIL, in law, signifies fee tail, or fee entailed ; that is, 
 abridged, curtailed, or limited, to certain conditions. See Fee, 
 and Tail. 
 
 ENTE', in heraldry, a method of marshalling, used more tte- 
 quent abroad than with us, an«l signifying grafted. AVe have, in- 
 deed, one instance of ent6, in the grand quarter of his m;^esty's 
 roval ensign, whose blazon is Brunswick and Lunenburg impaled 
 with ancient Saxony, ent<5 en poiute, " grafted in point." 
 
 ENTEROCELt, [svrtMxiiXi,] a rupture from the bowels press- 
 ing through or dilating the peritona'um, so as to fall down into the 
 groin. The remedy in such cases, is chiefly by trusses and bol- 
 sters. Quincv. 
 
 ENTERO'LOGY, [ivti^ov and xeyo.-,] the anatomical account 
 of the bowels and internal parts. See Anatomy. 
 
 ENTEROMPHALOS, [i»t«=o» and 0|U.f«Ao;], an umbilical or 
 navel rupture. 
 
 ENTHUSIASM, [r/%<rireirf.to;,] an ecstasy of the mind, 
 whereby it is led to think and imagine things m a sublime, sur- 
 prising, vet probable manner. This is the enthusiasm felt in poe* 
 trv, oratory, music, painting, sculpture, &c. 
 
 Enthusias.m, in a religious sense, implies a transport of the 
 mind, whereby it fancies itself inspired with some revelation, im- 
 pulse, &c. from heaven. Mr. Locke gives the following descrip- 
 tion of religious enthusiasm. " In all ages, men in whom me- 
 lanchnlv has mixed with devotion, or whose conceit of themselves 
 has raised them into an opinion of a great familiaiity with God, 
 and a nearer admittance to his favour than is afforded to others, 
 have often flattered themselves with a persuasion of an immediate 
 iiittrcomse with the Deity, and frequent communications from the 
 Divine Spirit. Their minds being thus prepared, whatever ground- 
 less opinion comes to settle itscltstrongly upon their fancies, Vs an 
 ilhiniinalion from the Spirit of God. And whatsoever odd action 
 Ihey find in themselves .i strong inclination to do, that impulse is 
 cuucluded lo be a call or direcliou from heaven, and must be 
 i U , obeyed. 
 
 I
 
 ENT 
 
 302 
 
 ENT 
 
 obevec). It is a ronimission tVom above, and tUey cannot eir in 
 execntiiis; it. 'I his I take to l)e properly entliusiasin, wliicli, 
 tliongh arising from tlic conceit of awi'.rni and overueennig In-ani, 
 works, when il once gets footin;;;, more powerlully on tUe persua- 
 sions and actions of men, than eitlicr reason or revelation, or both 
 together; men being most forwardly obedient to tlie impulses 
 they receive from themselves." 
 
 ICNTIl Y.ME.VIK, in logic and rhetoric, [from f»5-j,u!i!re'ii, to 
 think, or conceive, a compounil oi -f and ^uij.o;, mind,] is the most 
 simple and elegant of all argumentaln.ns ; being what a man, in 
 arguing closely, commonly makes, wiihout attending to the form. 
 Thus, that verse remaining ot Ovid's tragedy, intitled Medea, 
 contains an enlhymeme; Seivare potui, perdere an possum rogas : 
 " I \'vas able to save vou ; ccnseciuently to have destroyed you." 
 All the beauty would have been lust, had all the propositions been 
 expressed; the mind is displeased with a rehearsal of what is no 
 ways necessary. This Itind of syllogism is perfect in the mind, 
 
 but imperfect in the expression, because one of the propositions 
 is suppressed, as being easily supplied by the understanding of those 
 with whom we discourse, e. g. Every man is mortal ; therefore 
 every king is mortal: where the minor proposition, every king is 
 a man, is omitted as being snflicieutly known. 'Idiere is a paiti- 
 cutar elegance in the enthymeme form of arguing, as leaving some- 
 what totlie exercise and invention of the mind ; for wliich reason 
 it is very frequent, as well in common conversation, as in the most 
 polite writers. It not only shoi tens discourse, and adds a certain 
 force and liveliness to our reasoning, but gives the reader a plea- 
 sure not vmlikethat the author him-elf feels in composing. Heme 
 we are put upon exerting ourselves, and seem to share in the dis- 
 ! covery of what is proposed tons. 
 
 ENTIERTIE denotes the whole, in contradistmction to moie- 
 ty, which denotes the half ; and a bond, damages, &c. are said t* 
 be entii'e when they cannot be apportioned. 
 
 ENTIRE TENANcy, signifies a sole possession in one inan» 
 
 ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 ENTOMOLOGY, [from svroixrt, an insert, and ^oy©-, a dis- 
 course,] the science of insects, a branch of zoology, which treats 
 e.vcliisively of this class of animals, '^fhe name of this science ap- 
 pears to be modern, but the study of the science is undoubtcdls 
 very ancient. Solomon, who is perhaps the most ancient zoolo- 
 gist, as well as botanist on record, is expressly said (1 Kings iv. 
 3.3,) to have " spoken also" (or written) "of creeping things," 
 and may therefore be ranked as the earliest entomologist we know 
 of. It is to be regretted that his works on this, as well as on 
 many other subjects, are lost. But without attempting to enume- 
 rate the various ancient authors, who, since Aristotle and Pliny, 
 have written upon this bumch of natural history, we shall only 
 mention here, that the great Linnams may be justlv considered as 
 the father of Entomology as a distinct branch of science. Several 
 modern authors, however, contributed to pave the way for Lin- 
 jiEUs's improvement of entomology. Among these none has 
 greatermerit than the illustrious Dr. Swammerditm, that great in- 
 qnirer into nature, who, by his ingenious and nice contrivances 
 for dissecting the minutest insects, opened a field of investigation, 
 and a fund of science, formerly quite unoccupied, and unknown. 
 Insects being endowed with the various powers of creeping, fly- 
 ing, and swimming, there is scarce any place, however remote and 
 obscure, in which they are not to be found. The great confusion 
 which appeared to the ancients to arise from their number, made 
 them never attempt to reduce them to any system. Swaminer- 
 dam observed, that their metamorphoses were divided by nature 
 into several states or outers, 'i'heir external appeanince also car- 
 ried with it some mark of distinction : so that entomologists called 
 all those of the coleoptera ordi r. Scarab:?!, or beetles ; those of 
 the lepidoplera, Papiliones, butterflies ; those of the gymnoptera 
 order that had only two wings, Muses, flies; and those of the 
 same order that had four wings. Apes, bees. No farther progress 
 was made in the systematic part of this science till the time of Liii- 
 nsus. He was the first who undertook to determine the genera, 
 and assign them their proper characters, in the " Svsteina Na- 
 tura; ;" and thus re<luced this science to a systematic lorm. This 
 system, in subsequent editions, was consi'derably enriched and 
 amended by him, insomuch that the science of e'ntomology now 
 shines forth in its full lustre. He lirst institute<l natural orders, 
 and reduced them into genera by expressive names ; determined 
 an infinite number of species in the " Eauna Succii a" and " Mu- 
 seum KegiiKE ;" co'lected with incredible pains the synonymous 
 names given by the various authors who had written on them ; 
 and, lastly added their descriptions, and the placi'S in which Urey 
 were to lie lound. So that the system of this illu:^trious author 
 will lead any person, without the assistance of a master, for the 
 most part, i-as,ly to ascertain the name of any insect he may meet 
 ■with. Before his time, scarce more tlian COtV insects were known ; 
 whereas, in the Li>t edition of his sy ,tem, he has determineil the 
 names of nearly 3000 distinct species ; though this is not the sixth 
 
 part of the number that is now known. Notwithstanding the 
 great degree of perfection to which Linna'us had brought ento- 
 mology, several authors have since made considerable alterations 
 in his system. Among these, the most distinguished are Geoffrey, 
 Scopoli, and Sch.Tlfer. The first of these entomologists, in his- 
 " Histoire Abreg^'e des Insectes," jjublished at Paris in 17(14, has, 
 besides changing the orders, or first grand divisions of the Lin- 
 mean "System, formed from different families of Linna'an genera 
 many new genera ; " some of them" (says Mr. Thomas Pattuison 
 Yeats, in the Preface to his " Institutions of Entomology," p. vi.y 
 " very judiciously ; others perhaps without sufficient grounds." 
 — " .Scopoli, (he adds,) in lii^ Kntomologia Carniolica, published 
 at Vienna in 1763, has made lew alterations in the Linna-an system, 
 but those seem every one to be well founded, and his specific cha- 
 racters ecjual those of Linna;us. Schyffer, in his Elementa En- 
 tomologia?, printed at Ratisbon in 176(j, has followed Geotfroy 
 with very few and inconsiderable variations ; but his figures con- 
 vey a pretty good idea of his genera." Mr. Yeats also mentions- 
 the system of Poda, a Jesuit, as " a work much praised by Sco- 
 poli, which alone is sufficient to convey an advantageous idea of 
 it," but adds, that he " had not been able to procure il, nor leara 
 how or in what he differs from Linnanis." On the whole, as the 
 Linna;an system of Entomology is still esteemed to be at least as' 
 perfect as those of any of his successors, it will be sufficient here 
 to give the young entomologist a view of it, with a few of the 
 synonyma ol other authors, whom he may afterwards consult if he 
 inclines. 'I'hose who are desirous of attaining a systematic know- 
 ledge of insects, ought first to acquire the terras made use of in 
 the science, that they may l)e able rightly to denominate every 
 part of an insect. The student should first know^ w hat an ln^ect is, 
 lest he mistake Hippocampi, and other amphibious aiiiirals, for 
 them, as was formerly done ; or confound them with Vcrnn'S,. 
 which Linna'us first dislinguished from insects, and which diller 
 as essentially from them as the class Mammalia i!o froin biids. 
 Every insect is furnished with a head, antenna-, ami feet, cf -all 
 which the vermes are destitute. All insects have six or ni'jre 
 feet; they respire through pores on the sides of their bodies, 
 which are termed spiracula: their skin is estieniely !'aid, and 
 serves them instead of bones, of which they have interiujly none. 
 From this definition, the acns marina is evidently no insect. But 
 the antennie placed on the fore-part ol the heail constitute the 
 principal distinction. These are jointed and movealde in every 
 part, in which they differ from the horns ol other animals: they 
 are organs conveying some kind of sense ; but we have no more 
 i<lea of what this kind of sense is, than a man has, who, without 
 eyes, attempts tu determine the particular action o' the rays of 
 light on the retina ol the eye, or to c'xplaiii the changes whicfv 
 from thence take place in the human mind. T hat tliey are the 
 organs of S(;ine kind of sense, is apparent from thi-ir perpetually 
 tnoving Iheiji forward ; yet the hard crust with wliich ihey are in- 
 jj vested
 
 ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 30.1 
 
 vested, and tlieir ^liorUic^s in Hies and other iiiMcts, would iniliice 
 .•ne to believe ihcni not to be in tlie organs ol' touch : Mr. I^.ivbnt 
 supposes llieni to eoiisiilute or to eontain tlie organs of hearing. 
 'I liat they arc tubular, and filled with air and some kind of 
 liumonr, appears from the antenna; of butterilies immersed in 
 water. 
 
 Of the External Parts op Insects. 
 
 The external parts of tlie bodies of insects, agreeably to the 
 usual anatomical ilivision of those in larger animals, may be divid- 
 ed into the head, trunk, abdomen, and extremities. 
 
 I. Caput, the Head. It is asserted in the " Fundamenta 
 Entoniologi.e," that this part in insects is uilhout brain. The dif- 
 ference between the brain and spinal marrow consists in the former 
 being a medullary part organized. We do not dejiy the existence 
 of a medullary thic-ad in the heads of insects, but we never could 
 discover it to be orsjanized : hence the hipjjijbosca equina, or 
 horse-fly, will live, run, nay even copulate, after being deprived 
 of its head ; to say nothing of many others which are capable of 
 living long under the same circumstances. Insecis not being ap- 
 parently furnished with ears, they have been supposed to be inca- 
 pable of hearing ; as we can no more conceive that sense to exist 
 without ears than vision without c^es. That they are nevertheiess 
 susceptible of any shrill or loud noise, as well as li=hes, is indisput- 
 able ; ^'ut it has been supposed to be in a manner different from 
 that of hearing. Mr. Barbut, however, th.inks thev possess this 
 sense in a very distinct manner. Many insects, he observes, are 
 well known to be endowed with the power of uttering soumls, 
 such as targe bei-tlcs, the bee, wasp, common fly, gnat, &c. The 
 sphinx alropos squeaks, when hurt, nearly as lonil as a mouse. 
 Now, if insects are endoweil with the power of uttering sounds, it 
 certainU must be for some purpose. As they vary their cry oc- 
 casionally, it must certainly be designed eitlier to give notice of 
 pleasure or pain, or some alfeclion in tlie creature who posses-es 
 It " The knowledge of tln'ir somuls (he justly argues) is uu- 
 donbte<lly coniuied to their tiii^e, and is a laiigu.ige uilelligible to 
 tliem only ; saving when violence obliges the animal to exert the 
 voice of n..turc in distress, craving compassion ; then all animals 
 vuulers'and the doleful cry. l''or instance, attack a bee or wasp 
 near the hive or nest, or a few of them : the consequence of that 
 assault will be, the animal or animals, by a different tone of voice, 
 will express his or llii'ir ilisapprobation or pain; that sound is 
 known to the hive to be plaintive, and that their brotlier or bre- 
 thren require tlieir assistance; and the oU'endiug party seldom 
 escapes with impunity. Now, if they had not the sense of hear- 
 ing, they could no* have known the danger their brother or bre- 
 thren weie ill by the akeration of tlieir tone." The organ of hear- 
 ing, in our author's opinion, is situated in the anteniia; ; both from 
 their situation in the part of the head most favourable to such or- 
 gans, their inward structure being moveable, the ears of most in- 
 fcrinr animals being so. He has never considered the antennx as 
 either olfen>:ve or defensive, but has observed them to be endowed 
 with an excpiisite sense of feeling ; that the animal appeared to be 
 in agony when its antenna: were pinched ; and that it takes care to 
 avoid the touching of any hard substance with them roughly. 
 " This tenderness in the organ of hearing fsays he) is common to 
 all animals; and insects seem to be particularly tender in these 
 parts by quickly withdraw ing tliem from the touch." Mr. Barlmt 
 further observes, that the aiilenn;c of all insects are composed of 
 joints varying in size, form, and number. Those who are chiefly 
 Confined to live under water have their antenna' in general shorter 
 than those who live on land. Some who roam at large in the air, 
 have them long and slender, ^ihey are all hollow, and are ren- 
 dered flexible by the joints, which are very visible in the horns of 
 the crab and lobster. This hollowness, in our author's opinion, is 
 to receive the sound communicated to the extremities of the an- 
 tenna bv the repercussion of the air affected by any noise ; and 
 convey It, by means of thejoinls, from one to another, till it ar- 
 rives in that lessened degree of tone best suited to the timid nature 
 of the animal. In this circumstance there may be many varia- 
 tions in point of perfection in those organs; the strength, utility, 
 and degree of power in receiving sound, being proportioned to 
 the necessities of uie animals, different in their nature and requi- 
 sites. In most animals, the entrance to the auricular organ is pa- 
 u'ous; but ill this case the animal would sailer great iiiconveui- 
 
 ince from such an organization, as the org;ai would often be 
 clogged with dirt, &:c. Several enlonudogi^ls have doibt.'-'l, 
 whether insei ts have the sense of smell, no organ being found in 
 them adapted to that purpose : and although ii was evident they 
 had a perception of agreeable and fetid effluvia, it was lhoui>!it to 
 be in a manner altogether unknown to us. M;-. Barl nt is rt^ o,)i- 
 uion, that the organs of smell reside in tl;e pali^i or feelers. Many 
 insects have four and ;ome six, two of which are In gen-ral cheli- 
 form, in order to assist the inject in conveying its food to its 
 mouth, 'i'he palpi are in continual motion, the animal thru-ting 
 them into every kind of matter, as a hog would do his nose, 
 •melling and searching alter food. Insfcts which apparently do 
 not possess palpi or spiral tongues, have undoubtedly some organ 
 concealed within the mouth analogous to them in function and 
 utility ; the fleshy proboscis of the fly is Ihrnst into every sub- 
 stance in which the animal expects to find food ; and when it is 
 extended, nitarly in the n.iiddle are situated, in our author's opi- 
 nion, two upright palpi, which, no doubt, perform in their turn 
 some ofii<e, perhaps that ol smell. 
 
 Tongue. Many insects have no tongue, nor make any sound 
 with their mouth ; but for this purpose some use their (eet, others 
 their wings, and others some elastic instrument with which they are 
 naturally furnished. 
 
 Eyes. Most insects have two ; but the gyiinus has four, the 
 scorpion six, the spider eight, and the scolopendra three. They 
 have no eye-brows, but llie external tunic of their eyes is haril 
 and transparent like a watch-glass ; their eyes have no external 
 motion, unless it be in the crab. They consist for the most part 
 of one lens onlV ; but in those of the butterfly, di|)ter;p, and many 
 of the beetles, they are more numerous. Pugett says, he disco- 
 vered 17,325 lenses in the cornea of a butterfly, and Licuwenhoek 
 SOO in a fly. 
 
 Antennae. Of these there are in general two (unless four be 
 allowed to some species of crabs,) and placed on the fore-part of 
 the head. Tliey are peculiar to insects, and are plainly distin- 
 guishable from the tentafula' of the vermes, in being crustaceous; 
 an<l from the palpi of insects, which are more numerous, placed 
 near the mouth, md are sometimes wanting. As the antenna: are" 
 of great iv.onient in distinguishing the various kinds of insects, we 
 shall enumerate and explain the several different forms of them. 
 1. Setacea?, are those which grow gradually taper touartls the ex- 
 tremity. 'J. Filiformes, such as are of the --ame thickness through- 
 out. 3. Moniliformes, are filiform, like the |)receiling, hut con- 
 sists of a series of round knobs, like a necklace of beads. 4. Cla- 
 vatse, such as gradually increase in size toward the extremity. 5. 
 CapJlata-, are clavat.e, but have the extremity somewhat round, 
 b. Fissiles, are capltata; ; but have the capitulum, or knob, divided 
 longitudinally into three or four parts, or lamina', as in the scara- 
 ba:. 7. Perfoliate, are also capitaf'x; but have the capiUilum hori- 
 zontally divided, as in the demiestes. S. Pectinata', so called 
 from their similitude to a comb, though they more properly re- 
 semble a feather, as in the moths and elateres. This is most ob- 
 vious in the male. 9. Arisl-ata:, such as have a lateral hair, which 
 is either naked or furnished with less hairs, as in the Hy ; Rie-- 
 viores, those which are shorter than the tiody ; longiores, those 
 which are longer than the body; 'iiediocres, those which are of 
 the ,:amc length with the body ; all three of which varieties are 
 disthiguishable in the cerambyces. 
 
 Pai.i'i, or Feelers, resemble filiform, articulated, moveable 
 anteiiiKC. They are most commonly four in number, sometimes 
 six ; they arc sufficiently distinguished fnam antenna;, in being 
 naked, short, and always placed at the mouth. 
 
 Os, the Mouth, is generally placed in the anterior part of the 
 head, extending somewhat downwards. In some insects it is 
 placed under tiie breast, as in the chermes, coccus, cancer (crab,) 
 and cnrculio. 
 
 Rostrum, or Proboscis, is the mouth drawn out to a ria-id 
 point : in many of the hemiptera class it is bent downward toward 
 tl.e breast and belly, as in the cicada, nepa, notonecta, cimex 
 (huff,) aphis, and remarkably so in some curculiones. 
 
 Maxil::;e, the Jaws, are two in number, sometimes four, and 
 at other times more; they are, placed horizontally; the inner 
 edge of them in some insects is sermted or furnished with little 
 teelh. 
 
 LiNGt;A, the Tongue, in some insects is taper and spiral, as in 
 
 the
 
 304 
 
 ENTOMOLOGY. 
 
 the butterily ; in others it is ftehhy, reseailjliiig ;i proboscis, and 
 tubular, as in the tly. 
 
 LAbiuM SupERUis, the Upper Lip, is situated abovo the 
 jaws ; as in the scarabiEiis and giyllus. 
 
 Stemmata, or Crowns, are three smootli hemisplicric dots, 
 pi iced generally on the top of the head ; as in most of the hynie- 
 iioptera, and others. 
 
 II. Truncus, the Trunk, is that part which comprehends the 
 breast or thorax : it is situated between the head and abdomen ; 
 and has the legs inserted into it, that, its parts maybe distinctly 
 determined. It is divided into thorax, scutelluni, and sternum. 
 
 The Thorax is the back part of tlie breast, and is very various 
 in its shape. It is called dentatus, when its sides are armed with 
 points; spinosus, when its back is furnished with them, as in the 
 cerambyx ; and marginatus, when its margin is laterally dilated, 
 as in the silpiia and cassida. 
 
 ScuTELLUM, or EscuTCH^ON, IS the posterior part of the 
 thorax: it is frequently triangular; and appears to be divided 
 from tlie thorax by an intervening suture, as in most of the co- 
 leoplera. 
 
 Ihe Sternum is situated on the inferior part of the tho- 
 rax ; it is pointed behind in the elatercs, and bihd in some of the 
 dytisci. 
 
 III. The Abdomen is in most insects distinct from the thorax ; 
 it is the posterior part of tlie body of the insect; and is composed 
 of a number of annular segments, whicli serve occasionally to 
 lengthen or shorten it, and to contain the organs of chylifica- 
 tioii, &c. 
 
 Spiracula are little holes or pores, jilaced singly on each side 
 of every segment of the abdomen : tlirough these the insect 
 Jircathes; and if oil be applied so as to stop them up, it proves 
 fatal to most of them. 
 
 Tergum, the Back, is the superior part of tlie abdomen. 
 
 Venter, the Belly, is the inferior part. 
 
 Anus, is the posterior part of the abdomen, perforated for the 
 ■evacuation of the excrement. This part also frequently contauis 
 the organs of generation. 
 
 IV. Artus, tlie Limbs, or Extke-mities, are the various in- 
 struments of motion. 
 
 Pedes, the Legs, consist of several parts. The first joints of 
 the leg, whicii is generally thickest, is called femur ; ihc second 
 which is generally of the same size throughout, tibia ; the third, 
 which is jointed, tarsus; and the last, which in most insects is dou- 
 ble, is named unguis. The legs of insects, in general, are named 
 ■from tlie various motions they produce : Cmsorii, from that of 
 running, which are the most numerous ; saltatorii, from tliat of 
 leap iig; natatorii, from that of swimming, &c. — In the saltr.lorii, 
 the tlugiis are remarkably large, by vvliich means they are able to 
 leap to a considerable distance, as in the gryllus, grasshopper, &c. 
 In those of the natatorii, the feet are llat, and edged with hairs, 
 \\ hicli answer the purpose of oars in assisting them to swim, as in 
 the dytiscns. — Mutici, are sucli feet as have no claws. — Chela', or 
 claws, are the fore-feet enlargec^ towards their extremities, each of 
 which is furnished with two less claws, which act like a tliumb 
 and finger ; as in the crab. 
 
 AL,Ti, Wings, the instruments which enable the insect to fly. 
 These are membriinous and undivided, except in the instance of 
 tlie phalaena? alucilie, in which they are in part divided. Most in- 
 sects have lour ; the diptera class, and the coccus, however, have 
 only two. The wing is divided into its superior and inferior sur- 
 faces : its anterior p.irl in a butterfly, is that towards the anterior 
 margin, or next to the head; its posteiior part, that towards Ihe 
 snus; its exterior part, that towards the outer edge; anil the in- 
 terior, thai next the alidomen. 
 
 The AlvE are called Plicatiles, when they are folded at the 
 time the insect is at rest, as in the wasp ; opposite to these are the 
 I'lana', which are incapable of being folded. Erecta', such as 
 liave their superior surfaces brought in contact w hen the insect is 
 at rest ; as in the ephemera. III ellula puella, and virgo, and papi- 
 liones, (butterflies.) Patentes, such as remain horizontally <x 
 tiiK'ed v\hen the ii s ■( t is at rest, as in the phala-na^ geomelra', 
 end most of tf.e 111 el 'ila'. Incunibei^tes, such as cover horizon- 
 tallv the supeiior i ait of the abdomen when the insect is at rest. 
 15eile\a', are inci m'lentes, but nut horizontally, the outer edges 
 de.cliaing toward lliC sides, ileversa", are detiexiC, with this addi- 
 
 tion, that tlie edge of the inferior wings projects from under the 
 anterior part of tlie superior ones. Dentata", are those in wliicU 
 the edge is serrated, or scoUo[)ed ; Caudata", those in which one 
 V)r more projections in the hinder wings are extended into proces- 
 ses. Reticulata, when the vessels of the wings put on the ap 
 pearance of network, as in the hemerobius peria : the two anterior 
 wings generally become superior, and the posterior ones inferior, 
 in moths, when their wings are closed ; butllie anterior wings are 
 called primary, and the interior ones secondary, in butterflies, as 
 none can properly be called inferior, when the wings are all erect. 
 
 Colons, the colours, are sell apparent and various ; but accord- 
 ing to tlieir several shapes, they take the ditferent names of 
 puncti, dots ; maculae, spots ; fascia;, bands, which frequently 
 run across and sometimes surround the edge of the wings; strigi, 
 streaks, which are very slender fascis ; and lineas, lines, which arc 
 longitudinally extended. 
 
 Ocellus, is a round spot, containing a less spot of a different 
 colour in its centre. .Stigma, another term introduced by Lin- 
 n:eus, signifies the spot, or anastamosis, in the middle of the wing 
 near the anterior margin ; it is conspicuous in most of the hyme- 
 Moptera and neuroplera, and even in the coleoptera. The single 
 or double kidney-shaped spot, situated in the same part of the an- 
 terior wings, anil frequently occurring in the phala^n.e, is distin- 
 guished likewise by the name of stigma. 
 
 El:/fi'a, the plural of elytron. Tlie upper wings, which are ofa 
 hard substance, in some degree resembling leather, and which in 
 most insects are ofa very h.u'd texture, but in others flexible, are 
 called elytra; their superior surface is generally convex, their in- 
 ferior one concave. When the insect Hies, they are extended ; 
 and siiut wln-n it rests, closing together, and forming a longitudi- 
 nal suture down the middle of the back, as in the coleopter.i. 
 They are of various sliapes. Abbreviata, when shorter than the 
 abdomen. Truncata, w hen shorter than the abdomen, and termi- 
 nating in a transverse line. Eastigiala, when of equal or greater 
 Icnglh than the abdomen, ami terminating in a transverse line. 
 Serrala, when the exterior margin towards the apex is notched or 
 serrated, as in some of the buprestes. Spinosa, when their surface 
 is covered with sharp points or prickles. Scabra, when their sur- 
 face is so uneven as to grate against the fingers. Striata, when 
 marked with slender longitudinal furrows. PorcataJ when with 
 elevated longitudinal sulci or ridges. Sulcata, when these ridges 
 are concave. Ilemelylra, when the superior wings are of a mid- 
 dle substance betwixt leather and membrane ; either totally so, as 
 in the grylli ; or partially so, as in the cimices, iiepa?, and noto- 
 necta-: these are commonly named hemiptera. 
 
 Halteres, poisers, (a term also introduced by Linna-us,) are lit- 
 tle heads placed on a stalk or peduncle, most frequently under a 
 little arched scale. 1 hey are found only in the class diptera, 
 and appear to be nothing more than the rudiments of tlie hinder 
 wings. 
 
 Cauda, the Tail, in most insects is. Simplex*, simple, capable 
 of being extended, and again drawn back at pleasure. In the crab 
 and scorpion, however, it is Elongata, elongated, or lengthened , 
 out. Setacea, bristle-sha|)ed, or taper; as in the raphidea. Tri- ; 
 seta, consisting of three bristles ; as in the epliemera. Fur- ; 
 cata, foj;ked, as in the podura. Forcipata, resembling a pair of > 
 forceps; as in the forficula. Foliosa, resembling a leaf ; as in the ,. 
 blatta?, urylli, and some species of cancri. Telifera, armed with a ■ 
 dart or sting ; as in th^ scorpion and panorpa. Aculeus, the sting, 
 an instrument with which they wound, and at the same time instil 
 apoi-on; with such the bee, wasp, scorpion, &c. are furnished. 
 
 Kf r fuilhi-r illustration of this subject see the following figures of 
 plate XXWIl. 
 Fig. 1. Anten.vje Pectinat^e, or feathered antenn^'; as in the 
 
 phaheiia", moths. 
 ?. Antenn'/e Perfoliate, or perfoliated ; as in the dennestcs 
 and dvtiscus. 
 
 3. A^n ENNffi F'issiLEs, or fissile, divided into lamina" at the e.x- 
 
 treniity, as in tlie scaraba i, beetles. 
 
 4. Antenx/e Clavat^e, or club-shapeil, as in the pa[iilio, but 
 
 ter \\. 
 
 5. Ani fnn;e Moniliformes, like a necklace of beads; as in the 
 
 ch V ■>inela. 
 
 6. A: ten i ■ SETACE.E, setaceous, or bristle-shaped ; as in maiiy 
 
 of the phalffiir,e, 
 
 7. ANTENN.E ArISTAT.*,
 
 ENTOMOLOGY. 
 
 .^05 
 
 \ MrF.VM.ii AuisTAT^, I'linii-ln'il with ;i latcial hair, as in the lly. 
 
 < ). a Caput, the lieail. 6 Palpi, the let-lers. c AviU-nnx, or 
 honi^. (/ Ociili, the eyes. « Thorax. /Scutcllinn, or cs- 
 ciilcheoii. g Pectus, the lireast. Ii Stenuini, tlu' breast- 
 l)aiie. i Aljdoiiieii, and \U scguients. A' Amis. / Elytra, 
 or shells, m Membranous wings. 71 Pedes, the feet, which 
 are natalorii. 
 
 1 n Foniur, the thigh. /) Tibia, or leg. q Tarsus, or foot, r 
 Unguis, or claw. 
 
 1 (J The anterior part <if the wing. Zi The ])osterior part. cThe 
 exterior part. t/Tlie interior part, c Tiie margin. /The 
 disk, or middle, g Oculus, (he eye. 
 
 1, 13, 14, Ij, Represent the insect in it's egg, caterpillar, pupa, 
 and perfect slate. 
 
 Of the METAMORrnosEs OF Insects. 
 
 All insects, except those of the aptera order, are continually iin- 
 Jrgoing some trannformation. Insects cliange lirsl from the (ovum) 
 ^g, into the (larva) caterpillar or maggot ; then into the (pupa) 
 Jrysalis ; and lastly into the (imago) fly, or perfect state. 
 Juring each of these changes, their appearance dilTers as much as 
 ght and day. The insect, as soon as it came out of the egg, was 
 I- former entomologists called eruca ; but as this is synonymous 
 Ith the botanic name sisymbrium, it was changed by Linna?us 
 T the term. 
 
 Larva; a name expressive of the insect's beins:, in this state, 
 
 it were, masked, having its tru; ajjpearance concealed. L'ndcrthis 
 
 lask of skin the entire insect, such as it afterwards ap])ears when 
 
 ttfect, lies concealed, enveloped only in its tender w ings, and 
 
 fitting on a soft and pulpy appearance; insoniui-h that Swammer- 
 
 [m was able to demonstrate the butterlly with its wings to exist 
 
 a caterpillar, though it bore but a faint resemljlance to its future 
 
 ifection. The insect, therefore, in this state, undergoes little 
 
 .her alteration but the change of its skin. Tlie larva- are, for the 
 
 lost part, larger than the insect wlien perfect, and are very vora- 
 
 ous. The caterpillar of the cabliage butterlly eats double what 
 
 would seem to refiuire from its size ; but its growth is not ide- 
 
 uate to its voracity. 
 
 PvTA. The insect in this state was formerly called clirysalis or 
 urelia: but as the appearance of gilding is conlined to a few but- 
 trfiies only, the term of pupa has been adopted in its stead ; be- 
 Suise the lepidoptera, especially, resemble an infant in ssvaddling 
 lothes ; and in this stale all, e.xcept those of the hemiptera class, 
 like no uourishment. 
 
 I Imago is the third state. This name is given by Linnaeus to 
 his third change, in which the insect appears in its proper shape and 
 ;oloui-s: and as it undergoes no more Iranifornialions, it is called 
 perfect. In this state it ibes, is capable of propagating its species, 
 ^nd receives true antcnn.r" ; which licfore, in most insects, were 
 icarce apparent. As the shape of the pupa is different in different 
 nsects, it assumes different names; thus it is called, 
 
 CoAKCTATA, when it is round, and as it were turned, without 
 ;he least resemblance of the structure of the insect ; as in the 
 iliptera. 
 
 Obtecta, when it consists as it were of two parts, one of which 
 ^urrounds the head and thorax, and the other the abdonien. 
 
 Incompleta, when they have wings ami feet, but are not 
 capable of moving them ; as in most of the hymenoplera. 
 
 Semicompleta, in whicli they- walk or run, but have only the 
 rudiments of wings. ' 
 
 t'oMPLETA, in which they immediatelv obtain the perfect form 
 of the insect, without undergoing anymore change: as in those 
 of the aptera class, except only the ilea. The bed bug also be- 
 longs to this class. The spider undergoes freipient transformations, 
 though only in the colour of its skin. The crustaceous insects, as 
 
 crabs, lobsters, iVc. yearly cast their shells, as tiiifir growth would 
 otherwise be impeded. I'he scolopeudri, when young, have 
 fewer fi.'et than when they are full grown. All insects, a. soon as 
 they undergo the third change, are arrived at their full growth ; 
 nor do we hu<l aiiy dillereuce in the size of the same species of in- 
 sect in the same countries, unless, during its caterpillar stale, it has 
 not had a sufficiency of jiroper food. 
 
 Op the Orders of Insects. 
 The class of insects is divided by Linninis into seven orders : 
 
 1. The Coleoi'Tera [i'ronr xui^.o;, a sheath, and vjh^-'-v, a wing,] 
 are such insects a; have crustaceous elytera or shells, which shut 
 together, and form a longitudinal suture down the back of the in- 
 sect ; as the beetle, bupe>tris ignita, Plate XXXVIl. lig. 10. 
 
 2. Hemiptera [from >iij.itO, half, and OT]to»v,] have their upper 
 wings usually half crustaceous and half membranaceous, not divided 
 by a longitudinal suture, bill incumbent upon each other ; as the 
 cimex, lig. 17. 
 
 3. Lepidoptera [from Xfin,-, a scale, and hjIimv,'] are insects 
 having four wings, covered with fine scales in the form of i)owder 
 or meal; as in the butterlly, papilio antiopa, lig. 18. 
 
 4. Neuroptera [from vt-jjov, a nerve, and sj?^^/,] have four 
 membranous transparent naked wings, generally like net-work; as 
 in the panorpa coa, fig. 19. 
 
 j. IIvMENOPTERA [iVom f^'-'iv, a membrane, and ■n/ltsi'i,'] are in- 
 sects with four membranous wings, tail furnished with a sting ; as 
 in the tenthredo, fig. '20. 
 
 6. DiPTERA [from i^iv, two, and otsjov,] are such as have onlv 
 two wings, and poisers.;- as in the tly, nuisca, iig. 21. 
 
 7. Apter.a [from a,w ilhuut, and ctIijo-/,] insects having no wini^s. 
 This last division contains scorpions, spiders, crabs, lobsters, &c. 
 See Araxea, Cancer, &c. To insert here the characters of all 
 the different generals not necessary, as they will be found in their 
 order in the course of the work. 
 
 Of the Trivial Names of the variols Species of Ih- 
 
 SECTS. 
 
 The trivial names of the various species of insects, subjoined to 
 those of their respective genera occasion little or no controversy. 
 They are current like money, and of the same utility as the proper 
 names of men. lii'-ects living on vegetables should receive their 
 names from the particular plants on which they mostly feed, as 
 that method is preferable to all others, lluisthe names of the coc- 
 cus cacti, phahena mori, &c. are excellent ; and when we are able 
 to give such to ins,:cts, the old ones ought to be discarded. Kutwe 
 must be cautions of not being too hasty in our judgement in this re- 
 spect; as insects, when they cannot get their favourite food, will 
 often eat other plants. Thus the silk-worm, for want of muiberrv 
 leaves, will eat those of lettuce, though it will not be so well 
 nourished by them. Various other instances of the invention of 
 trivial names may be met with in the Systema Natura-, particularly 
 among the butterflies and moths. To prevent confusion from the 
 great number of species which constitute the genus of phatena, 
 they are di>tributed into sections, and distinguished by the terms of 
 bombyces, noctua;, geometra-, torlrices, |n'ralides, tinejc, and alu- 
 citte. 'J'he bombyces, and iioctu;e, whicli are so iniu h alike, that 
 the females of the bombyces are with great difficulty distinguished 
 from the noctua?, are named promiscuously. All the geometrjE 
 have tFieir names terminating in aria and ata, according as their 
 antenna- are setaceous or |)ectinated : The tortrices, in aria ; the 
 pvralides, in alls; the tinn;c, in ella ; and the alucita-, indactyla: 
 so that it is evident from the termination, to what section the insect 
 is to be referred. It were to be wished that similar institutions 
 could be formed throughout the whole science, as liere the name 
 itself serves to di^tin8uish the insect. 
 
 VOL. U.— NO. 75. 
 
 41 
 
 ENTOYER.
 
 ENT 
 
 306 
 
 EPA 
 
 TA'TO^'EU, ia heraliliy, (!_iiutes a borduic charged wholly 
 with things without lite: it seems to l)e a coiTuptiou of the French 
 en'our, iriiind about. 
 
 ENTRE DOURO E MINHO, or ENTRE-DUERO-E- 
 MINHO, a province of Portugal^ so namfd from its situation be- 
 tween the rivers Duero and Muiho; 60 miles long from N. to S. 
 and 35 broLid. The soil is fertile and the air pure. 
 
 EN TKEPAS, in the manege, a broken pace or going, that is 
 neither walk nor trot, but has somewhat ot an amble. 'J'his is a 
 pace or gait of sucii horses as have no reijis or back, -„iid go upon 
 their shoulders ; or, of such ■d< are spoiled in their limbs. 
 
 ENTRE-TAJO-E-GUADIANA, the province of Alentejo. 
 See Ai.ESTF.jo. 
 
 EN'i'RING LADDERS, in a ship, are of two snrts ; one used 
 by the veS3ers sides, in a harbour, or in fair weather, for persons 
 to go in and out of the ship : the other is made of ropes, with small 
 staves for step? ; and is hung out of the gallery to enter into the 
 boat, or to come aboard the ship, when the sea runs so high that 
 they dare not bring the boat to the ship's side for fear of staving it. 
 
 ENTRY, Writ OF, is a writ directed to the sherifi, requiring him 
 (o command the tenant of the land, that he render to the demand- 
 ant the premises in question, or appear in court on such a day, and 
 show wlij he iias not done it. Of this writ there arc four kinds. 
 1. A writ of entry sur disseisin, tli.it lies for the disseisee against 
 the disseisor, upoii a disseisin done by himself; and this is called 
 a writ of entry in the nature of aji a'sise. 2. A writ of entry sur 
 ■dibStisiii in the per, for the heir by descent, who is said to be in 
 tlieper, as he comes in by his ancestor. 3. A writ of entry sur 
 disseisin in the per and cui, where the feoffee of a disseisor makes a 
 feoifment over to another ; and then the form of a writ is, that the 
 ' tenant had ne title to enter but by a prior alienee, to whom the in- 
 truder demised it. A writ of entry sur disseisin in the post, which 
 lies after a disseisin : the lanti is removed from hand to hand, in 
 case of a more remote seisin, whereunto the other three degrees do 
 iiote.Ntend, 1 last. 23S. But all these writs are now disused, as the 
 title of lands ia now usually tried upon actions of ejec-tment or 
 trespass. 
 
 Entry AD Communem Legem. Tlie writ of entry ad com- 
 munem legem lies where tenant in dower, or tenant by the 
 courtesy, or for life, aliens in fee, or for the life of anotiier, or in 
 tail, the' lands which they hold, &c. after their death, he in the re- 
 version who has it in fee, or for life, shall have this writ against 
 whomsoever is in possession of the land. 
 
 Entry adTerminum qui Pr«teriit; awrit of entry ad ter- 
 minum qui prsteriit, lies where a man leases lands or tenements 
 for term of life, or years, and afterwards the term expires, and he 
 to whom the lease was made, or a stranger, enters upon the land, 
 and occupies the same, and deforces the lessor; the lessor or his 
 heirs sliall have the writ. And this writ lies in the per, cui, and post ; 
 for if the lessee holds over his term, and afterwards makes a feoff- 
 ment, the lessor or heirs may have this writ against tlie feoffee in 
 the per; and if the feoffee makes a feoffment over, he may have it 
 against the second feoffee in the per and cui, and against the third 
 feoffee in the post. 
 
 Entry in Casu Consimili. Awrit of entry in casu consimili 
 lies where tenant by the courtesy, or for life, or for another's life, 
 aliens in fee, or in tail, or for life ; now he in the reversion, who 
 has an estate there for life, or in fee simple, or in tail, shall have 
 that writ durinic the life of the tenant for life who aliened. 
 
 Entry in Casu Pboviso. The writ of entry in casu proviso 
 lies where tenant in dower aliens in fee, for life, or in tail, the land 
 which he holds in dower; he who has the reversion in fee, or in 
 tail, or for life shall maintain that writ against the alienee, and against 
 him who is the tenant of thefreeliold of land during the life of the ten- 
 ant in dower, &c.anil the writ may be made in the per, cui, and post. 
 Entry Causa Matrimonii Fr^elocuti, lies where lands or 
 tenements are given to a man, on condition that he shall take the 
 donor to his wife within a certain time : and if he do not espouse 
 her within the limited time, or espouse another, or otherwise dis- 
 able himself, that he cannot take her according to the said con- 
 dition, then the donor and her heirs shall have the said writ against 
 him, or against whoever else is in the said land. 
 
 Entry, Bill op, in commerce. See Bill. In making entries 
 inwards, it is usual for merchants to include all the goods they have 
 «n 'Doard the same ship in one bill, though sometimes tliey may 
 
 of twenty several kin.'s; and in case th 
 goods are short- entered, additional or post-entries are now allow r< 
 though formerly the goods so cnterecl were forfeited. As to brl 
 of entry ouiwards, or including goods to be exported, upon d( 
 livering them, and paying the customs, you shall receive a snia 
 piece of parchment called a cocket, which testifies your pa\i 
 thereof, and all duties forsuch goods. If several sorts ol goon 
 exported at once, of which some are free, and others pay ciil'in 
 the exporter must have two cockets, -.ind therefore must mi'ke tv, 
 entries ; one for the goods that pay, and the other for the goods lli, 
 do not pay custom. Entries of goods on which a drawback is a 
 lowed, must likewise contain the name of the ship in which tli 
 goods were imported, the importer's name, and time of entry ii 
 wards. The entry being thus made, and an oath taken that th 
 customs for those goods were paid as the law ilirects, you mii 
 carry it to the collector and comptroller, or their deputies ; wli, 
 after examining their books, will grant a warrant, wiiich must li 
 given to the surveyor, searcher, or land-waiter, for them to certit 
 tlie quantity of goods ; after which the certificate must be brougl 
 back to the collector and comptroller, or their de|)uties, and oat 
 made that the said goods are really shipped, and not landed agai 
 ill any (lart of Great Britain. 
 
 ENN'ELOPE, ill fortilication, a work of earth, soinetiines i 
 I'orm of a simple parapet, and at others like a small rampart with 
 parapet: it is raised sometimes on the ditch, and sometimes bt 
 yonci it. 
 
 ENVIRONNE', in heraldry, siguilies surrounded with othe 
 things: tlius, they sav, a lion enveronewilh so many bezants. 
 
 ENUMERATION, in rhetoric, a part of peroration ; in whir 
 the orator, collecting the scattered heads ot what had been di 
 livered throughout the whole, makes a brief recapitulatio 
 thereof. 
 
 ENVOY, a person deputed to negociate some affair witli 
 foreign prince or state. Those sent Ironi the courts of Britaii 
 France, Spain, &c. to any petty prince or state, such as the prince 
 of Germany, the late republics of Venice, Genoa, &c. go i 
 quality inferior to that of ambassadors; and such a character oiil 
 cio those persons bear, who go from any of the principal courts i 
 Europe to another, wlien the affair they go U|)oii is not ver 
 solemn or important. There are envoys ordinary and e.xtraoi 
 dinary, as well as ambassadors ; they are equally under the pru 
 tection of the law of nations, and enjoy all the privileges of am 
 bassadors ; only differing in this, that the same ceremonies arc no 
 performed to them. 
 
 EOLIPILE. See iEoLiPiLA. 
 
 EON, or /EON. See .Eon. 
 
 EONIANS, in church history, the followers of Eon, a wild fa 
 natic of the province of Bretagnc, in the 12th century, whose braii 
 was disordered. He concluded from the resemblance betwecj 
 euni, in the form for exorcising malignant spirits, viz. Per euni 
 qui venturus est judicare vivos and mortuos, and his own nann 
 Eon, that he was the Son of God, and ordained tojudge the quid 
 and the dead. He was solemnly condemned by the council a 
 Rheims, in 1148, atwhich Pope Eugenius III. presided, and endci 
 his days in a miserable prison. 
 
 EORIA, in mythology, a feast celebrated by tlie Athenians ii 
 honour of Erigonus, who, by way of punishment, for their no 
 avenging the death of his father Icarus, engaged the gotls toinllic 
 this curse on their daughters, that they should love men who neve 
 returned their passion. 
 
 EOSTRE, in mythology, a goddess of the Saxons, to whon 
 they sacrificed in April, called the month of Eostra ; and thence 
 the name of Easter, which the Saxons retained after their corner 
 sion to Christianity, applying it to the festival celebrated in com 
 memoration of our Savioui-'s resurrection. 
 
 EPACRIS,agenus of the monogynia order, and pentandriaclas- 
 of plants. Calyx five-parted ; corolla monopetalous, tubular 
 roundish, depressed, quinquelocular, quinquevalvular ; capsule 
 gaping; seeds numerous, small. It has four species, natives o 
 New Zealand. 
 
 EPAC T, [iTTaxTii, from mayai, to intercalate,] a number, 
 whereby we note the excess of the common solar year above the 
 lunar, and thereby may find out the age of the moon every year. 
 For (he solar year consisting of 365 days, the lunar but of 354, the 
 lunations every year get 1 1 days before the solar year ; and thereby, 
 8 iii ,
 
 EPA 
 
 307 
 
 EPE 
 
 
 II ly veais, tlie moon coiii|)lft('s L'U liiiK's I'J liiiialioiis, or gets up 
 )iie wIioIl- soLii-year; and having linisht-d lliat circuil, begins 
 i:»ain witli the sun, anil so from 19 to 19 years. For the first year 
 ilterttarils the moon will go before the sun but 11 (lays; the 
 econ<l year -'2 days; the third 33 days : but 30 being an entire 
 niiution, cast that away, and the remainder three shall be that 
 .ear's eiiatt ; and soon, adding yearly 1 1 days. Thus to adjust 
 he lunar year to the solar through the whole oi I9years,12 of tncm 
 iiust con-.lst of 12synodieal months each, and'? ol l3, by adding 
 
 I month of 30 davs'to every year when the epact would exceed 30, 
 md a mouth of 29 d.:ys to the last year of the cycle, which makes 
 
 II all 209 davs, i. c. 19 X 1 1 ; so that the intercalary or embo'.i- 
 mcean years in this cycle are 4, 7, 10, 12, 15, 18, 19. If the new 
 iuoons'returned exactly at tlie same time after the expiration of 
 nineteen years, as the council of Nice supposed the\ would do 
 (when they lixed the rule for the observation of ta^ter, and 
 niaiked the new moons in the calendar for each year of the lunar 
 cycle) then the golden number multiplied by II, would always 
 give the epact. 15ut ui a Julian century, the new moons antici- 
 pate, or happen earlier tliau that council imagined they would by 
 A. of a day. In a Gregorian common century, which is one clay 
 shorter than a Julian centurv, tiiey happen tl of a day later, (1 
 
 Jay ^l<^—^.) TS'ow ll "x 3 = i-^ lor the three common cen- 
 
 'turies, "but -/-^^ being subtracted, on account of the Gregorian bis- 
 sextile centuiv, there will remain i>. 'I'herefore in lour Grego- 
 rian cenluriesj the new moons wdl liappen later by i^- of a day, and 
 the epacts must be decreased accorduigly. At present tl.e Gre- 
 gorian epact is 1 1 days short of the Julian epact ; but the cpiotient 
 (if the number of the centuries divided by 4, which at this time is 
 4, multiplied by 4^-, with the addition of the remainder 1 multi- 
 plied by il, makes in all but '^f, or 7 days + ij, therefore 4f, 
 i. e. 3 days -f- 4* must be added to complete the 1 1 days. Whence 
 we have 'the.follow iiig general rule for finding the Gregorian Epact 
 for ever. Divide the centuries of any yearof the Christian ;vra by 
 4, (rejecting the subsequent figures.) Let the quotient increased 
 by 2 be multiplied by 43, and the remainder nudtiplied by 17; 
 divide the sura of these two products by 25, and subtract the ([uo- 
 tient from 1 1 times the golden number, and the remainder, the 
 thirties being rejected, will be the epact. 
 
 Eiumpk for iB09. 
 
 18 
 
 ■ — = 4, rem. '2 
 4 
 6, (4 + 2) X 43 = 258 
 
 2 X 17 =34 
 
 (25R + 34) -^25 =11 
 
 11X5 (Gold. No.) = 55 
 
 55 - 1 1 
 
 -= 1, rem. 14 = Epact 
 
 30 
 Examp. 2. To find the epact for the ensuing year of Chriit 1811, 
 the golden number for the year being 7. 
 
 18 
 
 — = 4, and 2 over. 
 4 
 6, (4 + 2) X 43 = 258 
 2 X 17 = 34 
 258 + 34 
 
 = 11 
 
 2 5 
 n X 7, ( golden number,) := 77' 
 77-11 
 
 ^ ... =:: 2, and six over, whicli re- 
 
 30 inainderwiU be the epact 
 
 for the given year. 
 Examp. 3. To find the epact for the year of Christ 2000, the 
 noldeft number for that year being 6. 
 
 20 
 
 — =5 and nothing over. 
 
 4 
 
 7,(5 +2; X 43=301 
 
 Ox 17 — 0, 
 
 301 
 
 = 12 - 
 
 25 
 11 X 6 = 66 
 
 (J6 - 12 
 
 ..I ■ .J. 1, and 24 over, which will 
 
 30 be the epact for the year 
 
 required. 
 
 J shorter rule far finding the epact until the year 1900, Sub- 
 tract 1 from the golden number; and multiplying the remainder 
 by 11, reject the thirties, and you have the epact. 
 
 Example for 1809. 
 
 5 (Gold. No.) -1 = 4 
 (4 X 11) — 30= 15 = epact. 
 
 Example for 1811. 
 
 7 (Gold. Number) -1=6 
 (6 X 11) — 60 =6; the epact. 
 
 Example for 1820. s 
 
 16 (Golden Number) —1 = 15 
 (15 X 1 1) — 150 = 15, the epact. 
 
 EPAMINONDAS, a celebrated Theban, the son of Polyni- 
 nus, and one of the greatest heroes of antiquity. He studied phi- 
 losoijhy under Lysis, a Pythagorean philosopher; was taught mu- 
 sic by Dionysiusaiid Olympiodorus : and wa; from his infancy, in- 
 ured to all the exercises' of body and mind. He was learned, ge- 
 nerous, well skilled in war, brave, modest, and prudent; and had 
 such a regard for truth, that he would not tell a falsehood even in 
 jest. He saved the life of Pelopidas, who received in battle 
 seven or eight wounds; and contracted a strict friendship witli 
 that general, which lasted till his death. At his persuasion, Pelo- 
 pidas delivered Thebes from the yoke of the Spartans, who had 
 renderwl themselves masters of "Cadmea, which occasioned a 
 bloodv war between the two nations. Epaminondas being made 
 general of the Thebans, gained the celebrated b.ittle of Leuctra, 
 in which Cleombrotus H. the valiant king of Sparla, was kdled. 
 He then ravaged the enemy's country, and caused the city of 
 Messina to be "rebuilt and peoplwl. At length tlie coimv.and of 
 the armv was given to another, because Epaminondas had kept his 
 troops in the held four months longer than he had been ordered 
 by the people; but, instead of retuing in disgust, he now served 
 as a common soldier, and distinguished himself by so many brave 
 actions, that the Thebans, ashamed of having deprived him of the 
 command, restored him to his post, in order to carry the war into 
 Thessaly, where his arms were always victorious. A war break- 
 ing out between the Elians and the Inhabitants of Mantinea, the 
 Thebans took the part of the former. Epaminondas then resolved to 
 endeavour to surprise Sparta and Mantinea; but not succeeding, 
 he gave the enemy battle, in which he received a mortal w;oiind 
 with a javelin, the bearded iron remaining in the wound. Know- 
 ing that it could not be drawn out without occasioning immediate 
 death, he would lut suffer it to be touched, but continued to giva 
 his orders ; and on his being told that the enemy were entirely 
 defeated, " I have lived long enough (he cried) since I die witii- 
 out being conqueied ;" and at the same time he plucked the jave- 
 lin from his wound, and expired, B. C. 363. 
 
 EPANORTHOSIS, in rhetoric, a figure by which a person 
 corrects, or ingeniously revokes, what he just before alledged, as 
 being too weakly expressed, in order to add something stronger, 
 and more conformable to the passion with which he is agitated. 
 
 EPARER, in the manege, the Hinging ol a horse, or his yerk- 
 ing and stiiking with his hind legs. 
 
 EPAULETTES, a kind ot shoulder-knots. Those for the 
 soldiers are of the colour of the facing, with a narrow yellow or 
 white tape round it, and worsted fringe ; those for the officers are 
 made of gold or silver lace, with a rich fringe; they are badges of 
 distinction worn on one or both shoulders. Those of the dragoon 
 guards, horse, and dragoons, are worn on the left shoulder: the 
 fight dragoons, and officers of grenadiers, have one on each 
 slKJulder; tho;e of the battalion wear one on the right shoulder 
 only, made of embroidery or lace with a gold or silver hinge. 
 Those of the royal regiment of artillery are of gold and embroi- 
 dery, with gold fringe on scarlet cloth, and worn on the right 
 shoulder. 
 
 EPAULEMENT, [French, from epiiiile, a shoulder,] in forti- 
 fication, a sidework made either of earth thrown up, of bags of 
 eartii, gabions, or of fascines and eardi. It sometimes denotes a se- 
 mibastion, and a scpiare orillion, or mass of earth faced and lined 
 with a wall, designed to cover the cannon of a cazemate. 
 
 EPENTHESIS, [ratv-'Jeo-K,] in grammar, the addition of a 
 vowel or consonant in the middle of a word. 
 
 EPERIES,
 
 EP H 
 
 308 
 
 EP H 
 
 El'IiRIES, a town of HiinEtaiv, in the county of Saios, famous I 
 for salt mine-:, JO miles N. of C'assovia. | 
 
 EPERNA'^', an ancient and liandsome town of Fiance, in the' 
 department of Marue, and hite province of Champagne; famous' 
 for it^ wines and cloth manufacture. It is 17 miles N. W. of Cha- ! 
 Ions sur Marjie. I 
 
 EPEUS, a descendant of Endymion, the inventor of tire batter- 
 ing ram, an engine of "Teat service in siCfjes to make a breach. 
 He is said to have built the Trojan horse, and founded the city 
 Metaponluin. 
 
 EPllA, or KPnAH, [nSS, lleb.,] a dry measure among the 
 Jews, ec|ual to three pecks, three pints, twelve and tour-te[Uhs 
 inches. Also a liquid measure ccjual to four gallons, two |)ints, and 
 tifleen inches. 
 
 EPHEB.El'M, in antiquity, the jJafe where the ephebi or 
 youth exerciied. 
 
 EPIIEBI, among the ancient Athenian*?, a designation given 
 to 'their young men when they are arrived at eighteen years of 
 age, at wiiich time they had their names entered in a public re- 
 gister. 
 
 EPHEDR.V, a genus of the monodclphia order, and ditccia class 
 of plants; natural order C'onifera". Male calyx bifid ; no corolla; 
 stamina seven; anlhenc fo\n-, mierior, three superior: female, calyx 
 four, bipartite, live-fold, one upon another; no corolla; jMstilstwo; 
 seed- two, covered bv the calyx, resembling a berry. It has two 
 species, native^ of Russia. 
 
 EPHEMERA, [i5.>i,a;j>i.] 1. A fever that terminates in one 
 day. \i. An insect that lives only one day. 
 
 Ei'HEMERA, the D.vY Fly, ill cnlomologv, a genus of the order 
 iieuroptera. Mouth without mandibles ; leelcrs four, very short, 
 filiform ; anteniKC short, filiform ; above the eye are tw'o or three 
 large slenimata ; wings erect, the lower ones much shorter ; tail ter- 
 minating in long bristles or hairs. These short-lived aaimals, of 
 vhich there are about twenty species, in two divisions, accoriling 
 as they have two or three hairs in the tail, arc found every where 
 about waters in the summer. They take their name from the short- 
 ness of their life, and are distinguished into several species. Some 
 live several days, others do not take lliglu till the setting of the 
 sun, and live not to see the rising luminary. Some exist but one 
 liour, others but half that time; in which short period they com- 
 ply with the call of nature. With respect to those which live several 
 days, there is a peculiarity observed, incident to them alone. 
 They have to cast olf one slougli more, an operation which some- 
 times takes twentv-four hours to complete. 'I'o bring this about, 
 they cling fast to a tree. The epheniene, before they tlutter in air, 
 liave in some respect been fishes. They remain in the slates of 
 larva and chrysalis for one, two, or three years. The chrysalis 
 only differs from the larva by having cases for wings on its back. 
 Both have on their sides small fringes of hair, which, when put 
 into motion, serve them as lins. Nothing can be more curious 
 than the plying of these little oars in the water. Their abdomen 
 is terminated, as well as in their state of flies, by three threads. 
 These larvje scoop out ilwellings in the banks of rivere; small 
 tubes made like siphons, the one serving for an entrance, the 
 other affording them an outlet. The banks of some rivers are 
 often perforated with them. When the waters decrease, they dig 
 fresh holes lower down, to enjoy their element the water. The 
 season and hour, when the chrysalids of the dillerent species of the 
 ephemera' turn into flies, maintain a kind of regularity. The heat, 
 the rise or farll of the waters, accelerate, however, or postpone 
 their linal display. The ^hemeroe of the Rhine appear in the air 
 two hours before suni^et. These flies are hatched almost all at the 
 same instant in such numbers as to darken the air. The most early 
 ofthose on the.Marne andSeine iiiFrance, do not bcginto lly till two 
 hours alter sunset, in the middle of August. They are seen flut- 
 tering and sporting on the brink of their tomb. The glare of light 
 attracts them, round which they perform a thousand circles with 
 amazing regularity. See Plate XXXN'II. 
 
 EPUEMERIS, [i|».;.ii.;i,-.3 1. A journal; an account of dailv 
 transactions. 2. An account of the daily motions and situations of 
 the planets. 
 
 Ephemeris, [iTTi, and i/mjft, a day,] in astronomy, atablecalcu- 
 lated to shew the state of the heavens for every day at noon ; or 
 the places wherein all the planets are found at that time. From 
 these tables the eclipses, conjunctions, and aspects, of the planets, 
 arc determined ; horoscopes or celebtial schemes constructeil, &c. 
 
 Origan, Kepler, Argoli, Heckcru?, Mezzaiacchis, ^Vilig, Dela 
 lliix", Parker, &c. have published epbemerides. S. Cassini has 
 calculated ephemerides of the sidera medica:a, or satellites of Ju- 
 piter, which are of good use in determining the longitude. In 
 England, the Nautical Almanac, or Astronomical Ephemeris, 
 published annually by anticipation, under the direction of the 
 commissioners of longitude, i.i liie most considerable. In France, 
 celestial ephemerides were published by M. Desplaces every ten 
 years, from 1715, to 174J: they were afterwards continued by 
 the Abbe Caille, with many additions ; of which an account may 
 be seen in the History of the Academy of Sciences, for 1743. 
 That academy have likewise published annually, from the begin- 
 ning of the present century, a kind of ephemeris, under the title 
 of Connolssance desTems. White's epiiemeris is also a very u-.e- 
 ful work for the practical astronomer. 
 
 EPHESIA, a festival held at Ephesus in honour of Diana. 
 EPIIESriA, in antiquity, a festival in honour of \'ulcan, 
 wherein three young men ran for a prize. 
 
 EPHESTRIA, feasts celebrated at Thebes in honour of Tire- 
 sias. 
 
 EPIIESUS, an ancient city of Ionia, much celebrated on ac- 
 count of its temple of Diana, and for being the most famouj 
 mart of Asia Minor, as well as the metropolis of all Asia. Ste- 
 phanus gives it the title of Epiphanestate, or most illustrious; and 
 Pliny styles it the ornament of Asia. ^I'he ancient city stood 
 about jO miles south of Smyrna, near the mouth of the river 
 Cayster, and the shore of the Icarian sea, which is a bay of the 
 ^ga'an ; but it has been so often destioyed and rebuilt, it is no 
 easy matter to determine the precise place. Most of our mu- 
 dern travellers are of opinion, that the ancient city stood more 
 to the south than tlie present; which they argue from the ruins 
 that still remain. Ephesus was anciently known by the different 
 names of Alopes, Ortygia, Morges, Smyrna, Trachea, Samor- 
 nion, and Ptela. It was called E|)hesus, according to Heraclides, 
 irom E.p>i<rot, permission ; because Hercules (says he) permitted the 
 Amazons to live and build a city in that |)lace. Others tell us, 
 that Ephesus was the name of the Amtizon that founded the city ; 
 for Pliny, Justin, and Orosius, unanimously affirm that it was built 
 by an Amazon ; while others bestow this honour upon Anilroclus, 
 the son of Codrtis, king of Athens, who was the chief of the 
 lonians that settled in Asia. Put in matters of so early a date, 
 it is impossible to come at the frulh. What we know for certain 
 is, thai the city, which in the Roman times was the metropolis of 
 all Asia, acknowledged Lysimachns for its founder ; for that prince 
 having caused the ancient city to be entirely demolished, rebuilt, 
 at a vast expence, a new one, In a place more convenient, and 
 nearer the temple. F^phesus is now called Ajasaloue, and still ex- 
 hibits many relicts of its ancient grandeur. It is seated near a 
 gulph of the same name, and, according to some modern travel- 
 lers, has still a good harbour, 40 miles S. of Smyrna. Lon. 27. 33. 
 E. Lat. 37. 48. N. 
 
 PT'IIET.E, [from ifiifii, I send forth,] in antiquity, magis- 
 trates among the Athenians, instituted by king Demophoon, to 
 take cognizance of murder, man-slaughter, and chance-medley. 
 
 EPHIELIS, in botany, a genus of the oclandria monog'ynia 
 class and order. Calyx five-parted ; petals five, with claws ; nec- 
 tary ten scales, two to each petal ; capsule oblong, one-celled, two- 
 valved, two-seeded. One species, viz. E. guianensis, a lofty tree, 
 growing in the forests of Guiana. 
 
 EPIIOD, [lISN,] a sort of ornament worn bj' the Hebrew 
 priests. That worn by the high priest was richly composed of 
 gold, blue, purple, crimson, and twisted cotton; and upon thfi 
 part which came over his two shoulders, were two large inecious 
 stones, upon which were engraven the names of the twelve tribes 
 of Israel, upon each stone six names. Where the ephoii crossetl 
 the high priest's breast was a scpiare ornament, called the breast- 
 plate ; in which twelve precious stones were set, with the names 
 of the twelve tribes of Israel engraved on them, one on each 
 stone. The ephods worn by the other priests were of plain linen. 
 Cuhntt. 
 
 EPHORl, in Grecian antiquity, magistrates established by Ly- 
 curgus in ancient Sparta to balance the regal power. The autho- 
 rity of the ephori was very great. They sometimes expelled, and 
 even put to death, the kings, and abolished or suspended the power 
 of the other magistrates, calling them to an account at pleasure. 
 There were five of them, or, as otliers say, nine. They presided in 
 
 the
 
 F P T 
 
 30!) 
 
 E F I 
 
 the (HiMic shrus iind if nv.as. 1 i. ) \^>^t• f.ii.a^icvl wilh the 
 publ 1- iri'.wiirc ; ami uui^le \v;ir and pent" ; ami uiie so ab-ioliilc, 
 that Aiistolle inakos llieir govcnuncjit eiiiial tu the [Jierogativo ot 
 a moil rihy. 
 
 EIMIORUS, an orator ami historian of C'liin.i' in .Lnln, about 
 R. C. J.'>2. He was (lisfi|,l.- to l-oi-rales l>y 'Uio-e ailvic-e hr 
 wrote an li^tory of all Ihe bailies between llie C">reek< «ncl li.ubi- 
 rians, for T.V years. It was great!) esteemed by tlie aiicu-nts ; 
 bnt is now loM. 
 
 EPHRAIM, [a'i3». Heb. i. c. frir.tfiil,] tin secind son of llie 
 patriarch Joseph, and the progenitor of one of tiie tribes of hrael, 
 was born about A. M. '-".'93. 
 
 F.rHUAiM, in ancient geography, one of tiie divisions of Pales- 
 tine by tnb. . Ephranu and 'the lial'-tril)e of Man.iss.li are 
 ilcnded together by the sacred writer ; and it only appear- that 
 Ephraiin occupied llie more soiitlierii, and the hali-lribe of .\Ia- 
 nasseli the more northern p.irls, but both seem to have e.stended 
 from the Jordan to the sea. 
 
 EPHKKM, St. an ancient Christian writer, in the fourth cen- 
 tury, dea(on of Edessa, was born at Nisibe, in Syria, hence styled 
 Syrus. He was greatly esteemed by St. Basil, and St. Ciregorv 
 o! Nice, and other great men. Ho wrote against the opinions it 
 Sabellius, .Vrius, Apullinariu:, the Manichees, &c. and acquired 
 suvh reput ,ti<jn by ids virtue and his works, that he was called the 
 doctor and the prophet of the Syrians. He died in 37S. 'I'he 
 best editions of his works are, that of Oxford, in 170P in folio, and 
 that of Uoiiie, from \73^ to 173u, in Syriac, Greek, and J.alin, 
 6 vols, folio. 
 
 EPHYDOR, in antiquity, an olVicer in the -\thenian courts of 
 justice, who provided the plaintilTand deteiulant with equal water 
 hour-glasses. When the glass was run out, they were not permit- 
 ted to speak any further ; and, therefore, we (ind them very care- 
 ful not to lose or mispend one drop of their water. Whd-t the 
 laws quoted by them were reciting, or if any other business inter- 
 . vened, the glasses were slopped. 
 ■ EPIUA'l'.E, [£T.?re7f.i,] among the Greeks, marines, or soldiers, 
 who served on board the ships of war. They were arnu-il in the 
 same manner as llie land-forces, only that many of them wore 
 heavy armour. 
 
 El'IBATEIUOX, [from tT.'ratw, to go abroad,] a poetical 
 composition, in use among the Greeks, rehearsed at a person's re- 
 turn from a voyage, thanking the immortal gods for Ins prescrva- 
 lion. 
 
 EPIBATERIUM, a genusof the he.\andria order, and mona-cia 
 class of plants. Calvx double, outwsrd one slN-leaved, very 
 small; inner one three-leaved, large; corolla six-petaled ; drupes 
 three, roundish, moiiospermons; seed a kidney-shaped compressed 
 nut, somewhat followed. One species. 
 
 EPIC, [t'p/cHi, Latin; ixn,-,] narrative; comprising narrations, 
 not acted, but rehearsed. It is usually supposed to be heroic, or 
 to contain one great action alchieved by a hero. 
 
 Ei'ic, or Hkhoic,Pof,m, a iioeni es'pi essed in narration, formed 
 upon a story partly real and partly feigned ; representing in a sub- 
 Iniie style,' somesignal and fortunate action, distinguished by a 
 variety of great events, to form llic morals, and all'ect the mind 
 with the love of lieroic virtue. \\\- may distinguish three paits 
 of the definition, namely, the matt, r, the'form, and the end. The 
 matter includes tlie action of the fable, under which are ruii-ed 
 the incident!, episodes, characters, morals, and mariiiiiery-. The 
 form oomi)rchends the way or manner of the narration, whether 
 by the poet himself, or by any persons introduced, whose dis- 
 couises are related : lo ihis'branch likewise belong llie moving cf 
 the passions, the descriptions, cliscourses, sentinieiits, ihonglils, 
 style, and ver>ificalion ; and besides these, the siniilies, tropes, 
 figures, and, in short, all the ornaments ami decorations ot the 
 poem. The end is to improve our morals and increase our virtue. 
 See Poetry. 
 
 EPK:EDI0N, [from i:j<, upon, and x.,Jo,-, funeral,] in Greek 
 and I-atin poetry, a poetical composition, on the death ot a person. 
 At the obse(iuies of any man of lisure, there were three kind- o( 
 discourses Usually made ; that rehearsed at his bustum or fiinend 
 pile, wa. called iienia ; that engraven on hii tomb, epitaph ; and 
 that spoken in the ceremony of his funeral, epicedion. 
 
 EPICHIREMA, ['''ix'V'i.K',] in logic, a mode of reasoning, 
 wliich comprehends tl:e proof ot one or both the premises of a syl- 
 logism, before the coi.cluiiim is drawn. 
 
 VOL II. — MO. 7j. 
 
 El'KHlKO rOM.\v aiiKJUg tin- .Vtluni: ns. It was ordainecl 
 by Solon, that ontC every verr the laws >liould be carefully re- 
 vised and e\;imined ; ;;nif if any of thein were found unsniiable 
 to the present state of allairs, they shouki be repealed. This was 
 called l■x:ix"i''^'^"^'■ '"' vo^xx;, from the manner of giving their 
 sullrages bv holding up their ham's. See PotterS Archxol. Grjrc. 
 l.b. 1. caij." 2l>. toni. i. p. U'J. 
 
 EPK tlRYSUM, in bol.-.ny, a genus of Ihe cryptogamia fungi 
 < l;ss and order. Fungus rounded, conciue ; seeds pU.bnIar; la,!- 
 less, attached to a brai. died thread creeping within. It has one 
 species, viz. E. argeiiteum. 
 
 El'lCGiNE, in grammar, a teim applied to nouns, which, un- 
 der the same gender and termiiiaiion, mark indifferently the male 
 and female species. Sudi in Latin is (Ujuilti, voipfrtiliiy, kc. 
 which signfy eipially a nude or female eagle or bat. Gramma- 
 rians dislliiguislied between epinene ami common. A noun is said 
 lo be common of two kinds, when it may be joined either with a 
 masculine or a feminine arlicle ; and epcane, when it is always- 
 joined to one < f the two article-, and yet signdies both genders. 
 
 EPlCTE'll'S, a cdebrated Stoic philosoplicr, born at Hiera- 
 polisin Phrygia, in the lirsl century, wasth.. alaveof Epaphroditus, 
 a freed man and one of Nero's guard. Doinitian banishing all 
 philosophers from Ivome, about A. D. Qi, Epictelus retired lo 
 Nico|iolis in Epini'^, where he died in very advanced ago; and 
 after his death, the e;:rllien kimp he used ha. I sold tor 300'-i 
 drachmas. He was a man of greiit modesty ; whicli was eminent 
 in his practice, as well as in his recommendation to others ; hence 
 he used to pav, "That there was no need of ailorning a man's 
 iu.use with rich hangings or paintings, -ii'.ce he ino-t graceful fiiiv 
 niliire is temperance anil modesty, whidi are lasting ornaments, 
 and will never be the worse lor wearing." Of all the ancient phi- 
 lo opliers, he si-ems to have made the iieuresl approat lies to the 
 Christian morality, and to have had the most ju-t ideas of God and 
 providence. He always possessed a cool and serene n.<iiid, uiiri!tli.."(.l 
 by pas'ion ; and was'u-ed to say, that the whole of moral philoso- 
 phy was intluded in the<e words, -uppoit and abstain. One (lay 
 ills ni;*-ter Epaphroditus strove in a trobc to wrench his leg; when 
 Epictelus said, with a smile, and free from emotion, " ll yon go 
 on, \ou will certainly break my leg " but tlie former redoubling 
 his efCoit, and sinking it wilh iill his strength, he at last broke tlie 
 bone; when all the return Epu fetus made was, " Did not I tell 
 you. Sir, that you wouUI bri'ak my leg r" No man was more expert 
 at reducing the rigour of the maxims of S'oics into practice. H(» 
 conformed himself strictly, both in his iliscourse and behaviour, 
 lo the manners of Sncrstes ami Zeno. He waged totilinual uar 
 with fancy and fortune ; and it is an excillcnie peculiar to him, 
 that he admitted all the severity of the Stoics without tlicir sour- 
 ness, and reformed Stoidsm as well fs proh-ssed it. Besides v'r>- 
 dicaiin;; the inimort dity r.f the scnl as streiuionsly as Socriiles, he 
 declared openly against suicide, the law full. e-.s of which was maiii- 
 tau.ed by the rest ot the sect .Arri;;n, his di«ciple, wrote a large 
 account of his life ami de. th, which is lo-t ; and preserveil four 
 books of his di-cour>e- r.n I his Enchiridion, of which tliere have 
 been several editions in (ircek and Latin; and, in 17iS, a traii.= - 
 lation of them into English was published by the learncl .ind ir- 
 gcnious Miss Carter. _ ^ 
 
 Epicurean, one who holds the physiological principle; of Ep - 
 curiis. 
 
 EpirvaEAN' PiiiLosorHY, the doctrine or system of philffSAj h-, 
 maintained by Epicurus and his followers. U cc n-isled ot three 
 parts; canonical, physical, and ethirc;d. The hrst was about the 
 canons or rules of judging. The censure which Tnlly passes upon 
 him for his de«pising logic, ■will hold true only with r;gar.l to tho 
 logic of the Stoics, whicli he could rot approve of, as being too I'nll 
 '.f nicety and quirk. Epicurus wa- not acipiainteil with the ana- 
 lytical method of division aufl iirguinentation. nor »n; he so curi- 
 ous in modes and formation as the Stoics. Sonndness and simpli- 
 city of sense, assisted with some natural relledion-, was ill his ait. 
 llisse.uxh after truth proceet'-d only by the senses; to the evi- 
 dence of wliich he gave so great a lertainty, that he considered 
 Ihem as an infalhble rule of truth, and termed Ih. in the lirsl natu- 
 ral light of maiikind. In the second pint of his philosophy, lie 
 laid down at. r;.s, -pace, and gravity, as the i'm t [ii inciples of M 
 thin T^ ; he ri.i nr-t deny the existence of C'od, but w liich i< ecp'ally 
 ah urd and ■■• eked, thought it bene.. ih h'-- niaje-ty lo cor.ce;n hiiri 
 sflt with human aftair'* ; he held him a blessed imraorld I'cing, 
 4 K ..having
 
 EPI 
 
 o 
 
 10 
 
 E p r 
 
 iKwiiio; no alY.'.irs of liis own ;o take can' o', nnct above meddling 
 with llio-f of otlui-3. As to hh tlhifs, he iniide the supreme -ftotul 
 of man tu cojisis! in pleasiu-e, and (.■onscqui-ntly supreme ev.l in 
 pain. Nature itself, says ho, ter.chos u^ tliistnith; and prompts 
 us from our birth to procure whatever g ves us plca-ure, iind to 
 iivoid what gives pain. To this end lie pro|),«es a remedy Hga'ii-t 
 the sharpness of pain : this was to divert ihe mind from it, by turn- 
 ing our wliole attention upon the plea>ures we have fornicrly en- 
 joyed. He held that the wise man must he happy, as long as he 
 is wise: the pa'U, not depriving him of his wisdom,' cannot deprive 
 hini of ills happiness, (iassendus pri tends, tliat the pleasure, ii 
 which this pliilosopher has fixed the soverei,:in good, was nolhiiui 
 else but tlie iughest franquillily of iiihul, in I'oiijunction with tin 
 most perfect health of body : but 'Tnlly, Horace, and Plutarch, as j 
 well as almost all the fathers of the church, give us a very iliflei- 
 ent represent.ttion: indeed the nature of this pleasure, iii which 
 tlie chief happiness is supposed to be seated, is a arar.d problem 
 in the morals of I'.picurus. Hence there were two kinds of I'-pi- 
 cureans, the rigid and tlie remiss: the first were th.ose who under- 
 stood Epicurus s notion of pleasure in the be^t sense, and placed 
 :ill their happiness in tlie |)ure ])leasures of the mind, resulting 
 from the jjraetice of virtue: the loose or remiss Epicureans, tak- 
 ing the words of that philosopher in a gross sense, placed all their 
 Jiappiness in bodily pleasures, or debauVhery. 
 
 KPICURU.S, the greatest pliiloopher of his age, was born at 
 Garijelliuni in Attica, about B.C. 340, in the lOyth Olympiad. 
 He settled at Athens in a fine garden he had bought; where he 
 lived with his friends in great 'tranquillity, and educated a great 
 number of disciples. They all lived in common with their mas- 
 ter. The respect which his followers paid to his memory is ad- 
 niirable: his school w;is never diviiled, but his doctrine was fol- 
 lowed as an oracle. His birth-day was still kept in Pliny's time; 
 the month he was born in was observed as a continual festival; aiul 
 thi-y placed his picture every where. He wrote nip.iiv books, and 
 valued himself u))on making no quotations. He raised the ato- 
 tnical system to a great reputation, though he was not the inven- 
 tor of it, but had only made some change in that of Democrilus. 
 As to his doctrine coiuerniiig the supreme good or happiness, it 
 Nvas very liable to be mi-^rcpresenied, and some ill. effects proceeil- 
 cd from" thence, which discredited his sect. He was charged with 
 'perverting the worship of the gods, and inciting men to clebauch- 
 i.'ry; but he did not forget himself on this occasion: he published 
 his opinions to the world: he wrote some books of devotion; re- 
 commended the vcner.itioii of the gods, sobriety, and chastify; 
 and it is certain that he lived in an exemplarv manner, and ciin- 
 formably to the rules of philoophical wisdom'and frugality. ')'i- 
 mocrales, a deserter of liis sect, spoke very scandalously of him. 
 Gassendus has given us all he could collect from the ancients con- 
 cerning tlie person and doctrine of this philosopher. He died of 
 a suppression of urine, aged 72. 
 
 EP[C\CLR, L'^' ^"'1 w'®',] hi the ancient astronomy, a lit- 
 tle circle whose centre is in the cireimiference of a greater circle; 
 or it is a small orb, orsphere, whicli being fixed in the deferent of 
 a planel, is carried along with it; and yet, by its own peculiar 
 motion, carries the planet fastelied to itVound its proper centre. 
 It was by means of epitycles that Ptolemy and his lollowors 
 solved the various pha'nomena of the planets, but more especially 
 their stations and ret logradat ions. 'Hie great circle they called 
 the eccentric or deferent, and along its circumference the centre 
 of the epicycle was conceived to move ; carrying with it the pla- 
 net fixed in its circumference, which in its motion downwards pro- 
 ceeded according to the order of the "signs, but, in moving up 
 wards, contrary to that order. The highest point of a planet's 
 epicv ■ le they called apogee, and the lowest perigee. See Aroc f.e 
 and Pkricee. 
 
 EPICYCLOID, fr7rufj)i>,ci!i;>i;3 ill geometry, a curve generated 
 by the revolution of the periphery of a circle, ACE, Plate Ll\'. 
 tig. 17, along the convex or concave side of the periphery of 
 another circle, DGB. The length of any part of the curve, "that 
 any given point in the revolving circle 'has described, from the 
 time it touched the circle it revolved upon, shall be to double the 
 •versed sine of half the arch, which all lluUtime touched the circle 
 at rest, as the sum of the diameters of tlie circles, to the semidi- 
 ameter.of the resting circle, if the revolving circle moves upon tiie 
 convex side of the resting circle; but if upon the concave side, as 
 Uie iliifercnce of the diameters to tin* semi-diameter of the resting 
 
 ciri le. Ill tiie Plulosopliical Transactions, No. 218, we iiave a ge- 
 neral proposition for measuring the areas of all cycloids and epi- 
 cycloids, viz. The area of any cycloid or epicyd'oicl is to the aiea 
 ofUie generating circle, as tliesiiiil ofdouble'the velocity of the 
 centre ;-.nd velocity of the circular motion, to the velocity of the 
 circulai motion: an<l, in the same pro|>orlion, are the areas of seg- 
 ments of those curves to those of analogous segnienta of the gene- 
 rating circ le. 
 
 EPIOAIJKUM, EPH^AUKUS, -er EPITAURUM, in an- 
 cient geogr.qihy, a town of Daimatii-i, on the Adriatic. 
 
 EnuALiRWs, in ancient gcograijhy, a town of Argolis, in Pelo- 
 ponnesus, 0)1 the SaiT.iiic bay, S. "of tlie promontory Spir;euiTi ; 
 called sacred, because of the religious veneration paid to .'Escula- 
 pius, whose temple «t<iod five miles from Ihe town. 
 
 i'PlDEMIA, in (irecian antiquity, festivals kept in honour of 
 Apollo and Diana, at Ihe stated seasons, when those deities, who 
 conid not be present every where, were supposed to visit difl'crent 
 places, in order to receive the vows of their adorers. 
 
 EPIDEMICAL, or EPIDEMIC, [:^. and V®-,] in ge- 
 neral, denotes a spreading disorder, which, as is supposed, arises 
 Irom Some corruption or malignity in the air, andjattacks great 
 numbers of jieople at certain se:ison"s. Mankind have always been 
 more inclined to search for the most distant causes, in order to ex- 
 plain physical event<, rather than to avail themselves of those 
 which are within their reach. Thus the yellow-fever, which in 
 I7!)3 ravaged the city of Philadelphia, was"doubtless generated bv 
 tlie immense quantities of damaged cofi'ct, and other putrescibfL- 
 subsiances, exposed in the heat of summer on tlie muddy banks 
 of ihe river. In like manner the plague, wjiich formerly destro\ed 
 great numbers in London, was not always imported, but probably 
 originated at home, where, in those as^es, cleanliness was not so 
 generally attended to as it is at jiresent. Hence this dome^itic 
 virtue lias guarded us against many epidemics, to which other less 
 cleanly nations have been subject. But there is still great occa- 
 sion lor improvements, especially in the houses of the narrow 
 courts and alleys of the metropolis. 
 
 EPlDENDlU'M, a genus of the diandria order, and gynan- 
 dria class of plants ; natural order, Oicliidea-. Nectary turbi"nate, 
 oblique, rellex ; corolla spreading; spur none. Th"ere are 124 
 species. This numerous genus is obscure in its character, dif- 
 ferences, and synonyms; for the flowers in dried specimens can 
 hardly be unfolded. These plants are natives of America, and 
 the East Indies. 
 
 I'^PIDER.MIS, LtCT.Ji-,ui;,] the same with cuticle. See Ax- a- 
 TOMV and Ct'Tis. 
 
 PIPIDICASIA, among the Athenians. Daughters inheriting 
 their parents estate, were obliged to marry their nearest relation ; 
 which gave occasion to persons of the same family to goto hiw with 
 one another, each pretending to be more nearly allied to the 
 heiress than the rest. The suit was called uriJixf-Tire; iix.) , and the 
 virgin, about whom the relations contested, tiriamaf. 
 
 EPIDOTA'!, <leities who presided over Ihe growth of children ; 
 worshipped by the Lacedaemonians, and invoked by those who 
 sup])0-ed themselves persecuted^by ghosts, &c. 
 
 EPIG.EA, in botany, a genus of the monogynia order, and de- 
 caiulria class; natural order, Bicoriies. Calyx, outer three-leaved; 
 inner live-parted; corolla salver-form ; capsule live-celled. Two 
 species, vi/. E. repens, creeping epiga-a, or trailing arbutus, and E. 
 cordifolia, heart-leaved epig.Ta ; the former is a native of Virginia 
 and (.'anada, and the latter'of Guadaloupc. 
 
 EPIGLOTTIS, one of the cartilages of the larvnx or wind- 
 pipe. See Anatomy. 
 
 EPIGRAM, [r-irar«.A,ui,3 Originally signifies inscription. Epi- 
 grams derive their origin from those inscriptions placed by the an- 
 cients on their tombs, statues, temples, triumphal arches, &c. 
 These, at lirst, were only simple monograms: afterwards increas- 
 ing their length, they mad'elhem in vers<'', to be the moie easily re- 
 tained. Herodotus, and others, have transmitted to tis several of 
 them. Such little poems retained Ihe name of epigrams, even 
 after the design of their lirst institution was varied, and the people 
 began to use them for the relation of little facts and accidents, the 
 characterizing of persons, <^c. The point is a <|uality much in- 
 sisted on by Ihe critics, who recjuire the epigram constanlly to 
 close with something poignant and unexpected, to which all' the 
 rest of the composition is only preiiaratory ; while others, on the 
 contrary exclude the point, and require the thought to be equally 
 
 dililiise'd
 
 K PI 
 
 .^n 
 
 EPI 
 
 rliltiised tlirciighout the poem, wilhout l:i\ ing the whole stress on 
 the close; the former is usiuilly Msrtial's practice, and the latter 
 r!uit of CaUilhis. Tiie Greek epigrams iiavi,- scarce any tiling of 
 thif point or bri-kiiess of the Latin ones: those collected in tlie 
 \ntholoav, have mo^t of thrm n remarkable air of ca^e and sim- 
 ' citv, alUnded with someUiing just and witty : such as we llnd in 
 -ens'.hle peasant, or a child that has wit. They have notliing 
 l!ial bites, but somitliin,!; tlial tickles. Thou,i<ii they want the 
 ■alt of Martial,- yet to a good taste they are not insipid; except a 
 lew of (liem, which are (piite flat and spirlllc^-. However the c,e- 
 iirral lamtness and delicacy of the pleasantry in them, has given 
 occasion for a Greek epigram, lor i-piijram a la Ciricqne, to denote, 
 among the French, an (>pi'^ram void of sharpness. The epigram 
 admits of a great variety of siibjects: some are made to praise, 
 and oijiersto satirize; which last are m?ich the Msiest, ill-nature 
 Serving instead ol pomt and wit. Boileau's epigrams are all satires 
 on one or another; those of Des Reax are all in lioiiour of his 
 friends ; tDose of Buchanan are partly satirical, iinrtly panegyrical ; 
 ;\nd those of Mad. hicudery are so many elogie-;. 'I'lie epigram 
 being only a single thought, it would be ridiculous to express it in 
 a great number ot verses. 
 
 I'.PILEl'SY, [!3-i>>i4':,] a convulsion, or convulsive motion 
 of the whole body, or of some of its parts, with a loss of sense. A 
 convulsive motion happens when the blood, or nervous tluid, runs 
 into any part withso great violence, that the mind cannot restrain 
 them. Quincy. 
 
 EPI I,EPSY, or Fallin'c-Sickness, as it is also called, though 
 hitherto considered an incurable disease, has often been relieved 
 bv the conjoint power of medicines and an appropriate diet. 
 Hence, a pure and fresh air, lisilit but nutritive food; cheerful 
 company, and moderate e.\ercise, will be here of greater service 
 than the most celebrated nostrums, which are daily imposed upon 
 the credulous. On the other hand, epileptic patients sljould cart- 
 fuliv avoid all strong and heating, as well as hot liciuors, wdiich 
 equally relax the stomach : abstain from swine's flesh, very fat 
 meat, game, water-fowl, salted or pickled provisions, and likewise 
 from oily and walery vegetables : hence they ought not to eat 
 nuts, nor cabbages, greens, &c. See MEr>iciN'F,. 
 
 EPlf-OBIUM, the Willow-Herb : in botany, a genus of the 
 monogynia order, and octandria class of plants : natural order, Ca- 
 lycanthema". Calyx fonr-cleft ; petals four; capsule oblong, in- 
 ferior; seeds diiwny. There are fourteen species. These plants 
 are hardy perennials, commonly considered as weeds. 
 
 KPILOGUE, in oratory, the conclusion of a discourse, ordi- 
 narily containing a recapitulation of the principal matter delivered. 
 EriLOGUE, The, in dramaiic poetr)', is addressed to the au- 
 dience, after the play is over, by one of the principal actors; and 
 usually contains some rVfiections on certain incidents in the plav, 
 especially those in the part of the person that sjieaks it. Having 
 somew hat of pleasantry, it is intended to compose the passions ex- 
 cited by t'le representation ; a practice which is ridiculed by the 
 Spectator; and compared to a merry tune u]ion the organ after a 
 good sermon, to wipe away any impressions that might have been 
 made thereby. 
 
 EPIXH'.IHUM. R.vrrenAVokt: a genus of the monogynia 
 or<ler, and tetrandria class of plants; natur.\l erder, Cory dales. 
 Nectary four, cupform, loaning on the petals; corolla four-pe- 
 taled; calyx, very caducous; fruit a silicjue. One species, viz. 
 E. alpinum, alpine barrenwort. 
 
 EPIMENTDES, an ancient poet and philosopher, by some 
 stiled a Phestian ; by others said to have been born at Gnossus in 
 Crete. Contrary to the custom of his country, lie always wore 
 his hair long; which, according to some, was because he was 
 ashamed of being thought a Cretan : and indeed he does not seem 
 to have had a high opinion of his countrymen, if that verse cited 
 by St. Paul be, as is generally believed to be, his; " The Cre- 
 tans are always liars, evd beasts, slow bellies." His rcpulation was 
 so great over all Greece, that he was esteemed a favourite of the 
 gods. The Athenian* being afllicted with the plague, and com- 
 manded by the oracle to make a solemn lustration of the citv, sent 
 Nicias the son ofNiceratus, with a ship to Crete, to desire Epi- 
 menides tocome to them. He accepted their invitation, accom- 
 panied the messengers to Athens, performed the lustration of the 
 city, and the plague ceased. Here he Cvintracted an acquaintance 
 with Solon, whvim he priv;itely instructed in the proper method 
 
 for the rcgidation of the Athenian commonwe.iUh. llavnig Unfil- 
 ed his business at Athens, the citizens offered iiim many valuable 
 
 presents and hi?,h honours, and appointed a shi]) 
 
 to carry him back 
 
 to Crete : but he would accept of nothing except a little branch of 
 the sacred olive preserved in the citadel ; and desired the Atiu- 
 inuus to enter into an alliance with th" Cnos.siaiis. Havhig ob- 
 tained this he returned to Crete ; where he <iied soon after, agi d 
 157 years; or as the Cretans, cotisistently with their character, 
 (jretended, eW. He was a great poet, and wrote ."-OOO verses oa 
 the (Tenealogv of the gods, OjOO on the building of the ship Argn, 
 and .lason's i'.xpedilion to Colchis, and 4000 concerning Minos 
 and Rhadamanthus. He wrote also in prose, Concerning Saeri- 
 lices and the Commonwealth of Crete. St. Jerom likewise meii- 
 lionshis Book of Oraclesand Responses. The Lacedemonians pro- 
 cured his body, and preserved it among them by the advice ot an 
 oracle ; and Plutarch tells us, that he Was reckoned the 7lh wise 
 man by those who refused to admit IV'riander into the number. 
 
 EPf.Ml'.TFiEUS, in fabulous history, a son of Japetus and 
 CUmene, one of the Oceanides, who married Pandori, by whom 
 he'had Pyrrha, the wifi- of Deucalion. He had the curiosil'i to 
 open the" box which Pandora liad brought with her, and Irom 
 thence issued a train of evils, which from that moment have never 
 ceased toafllict the human race. Hope only remained at the bot- 
 tom of the box, not having a sufllcient time to escape, and it is 
 she alone which comforts men under misfortunes. Epimelheus was 
 clianged into a monkey by the gods, and sent into the idand Pi- 
 thecusa. 
 
 EPINAL, a town of France, in the department of Vosges, and 
 late province of Lorrain ; 35 miles S. E. of Nanci. 
 
 EPHTIANUJS. St. an ancient father of the church, born at 
 Besanducan, a village in Palestine, about A. D. 332. He ibimded 
 a monastery near the place- of his birth, and presided over it. 
 He was afterwards elected bishop of Salamis; when he took part 
 with Pauhnus in opposition to .VIeletius, and ordained in P.de5- 
 tine, Paulinian the brother of St. Jerom ; ou which a contest arose 
 || between him and John bishop of Jerusalem. He aflerwanls called 
 ll a council in the island of Cyprus, in which he procured a proiiibi- 
 I tion of the reading of Origen's writings; and made use ot all his 
 endeavours to prevail on 'I'heophilus bishop of Alexaridria to en- 
 gage St. Chrysostom to declare in favour of that decree: but not 
 nieeting with success, he went himself to Constantinople, where 
 he would not have any conversation with St. Chrssostom; and 
 formed the design of entering the church of the apostles, to pub- 
 lish his condemnation of Origen ; but being informed of the dan- 
 ger to which he-would be exposed, he resolved to return to Cy- 
 prus: but died at sea, in 403. His works were printed in Greek, 
 at Basil, 1544, in folio; and were afterwards translated into La- 
 tin, in which language they have been often reprinted. Petavais 
 revised and corrected the' Greek text by two manuscripts, and 
 published it together with a nev\- translation at Paris in 1622. This 
 edition was reprinted at Cologne in 1682. 
 
 EPH'HANY, [rai|j(»v!ifi,] a Christian festival, otherwise called 
 the manit'e-^tation ot Christ to the Genlilt-;, observed on the sixth 
 of January, in honour of the appearance of our Saviour to the 
 three inagi, or wise men, who came to adore him, and bring him 
 presents. The feast of epiphany was not originally u distinct le--. 
 tival, but made a part of that of the nativity of Christ, which being 
 celebrated twelve days, the lirst an<l last of which were high or 
 chief days of solemnity, either of these might properly be called 
 epiphany, as that word signifies the appeanince of Christ in the 
 world. The kings of England and S|)ain offer gold, fraiikinrense, 
 and myrrh, on epiphany, or twelfth day, in memory of the oller- 
 ingsof the wise men to the infant Jesus. The festival of epiphany 
 is called by the Greeks the feast of lij'jits, because o'lr Saviour is 
 said to have been baptized on this day ; and baptism is by them 
 called illumination. 
 
 ElMPHOXOMENA. See Acclam-lTion and Orator v. 
 EPH^HOKA, [raijjja,] an inflannnation of any part, but niot-e 
 especi;illy a dclluxion ol humours on the eves. 
 
 EPlPilYLLOSPERMOUS, [from r-'>, ti.?,x»/ and <7«,^a,] is 
 applied to plants that bear their seed on the back part of their 
 leaves. 
 
 EPIPHYSIS, [iiriju^i;,] accretion ; the part added by accre- 
 tion ; one bone growing to another by simple contigOily, without 
 any proper articulation. Sec .\natomy. 
 
 EPILOCE,
 
 EP I 
 
 S\2 
 
 EPI 
 
 EiM I'LOCE, [iTmXo^.i,] a figure of rhetoric, by which one ai;- 
 ^ravatioii, or striking ciicumstante, is added in clue gradation to 
 another ; as, he not only spared his enemies, but continued them 
 in eniplovnient ; not only continued, but advanced them. 
 
 Kl'lPLOCELK, in nieihcine, a kind of hernia or rupture, in 
 ■wfiidi the O'.neiiluin subsides into the scrotum. 
 
 EPU'LOOMPllALON, an hernia umbilicaiis, proceeding 
 from the omenluni falling into the region of the navel.' 
 
 Kl'lUUsi, a district oi ancient Greece, bounded on the E. by 
 Etr,ha, on the W. by the Adriatic, on the N. by Thessaly and Ma- 
 cedon, and on the S'. by the Ionian sea. It was anciently govern- 
 ed by its own princes, in which stale it made a considerable ligurc. 
 According to Josepluis, it was first peopled by Oodaiiini the sou 
 ol Javaii, and grandson of Japhet. 
 
 EPISCOPACY is that lorni ofchurch government, in which 
 dioi e>an bishops arc established as distinct from and superior to 
 ])rievs or picsbyters. The ministers of religion have long been 
 <lisiinguishe(l into different orders ; hut it has been much contro- 
 verted whether the distinction be of divine or human right. 'J'his 
 rontrover-v commenced soon after the Retormation ; and ha^. 
 l)een agit ,ted with great warmth between the Episcopalians on the 
 one side, and the Presbyterians and Independents on the other. 
 
 EPISCtJPALIANb, in church history, an appellation given 
 to those who preler the episcopal government and discipline to all 
 others. By the test act, none but Episcopalians, or members of 
 the church of England, are qualilied to enjoy any office civil or 
 iiiililary: an act wliich every liberal-minded person must allow to 
 be a disgrace to the laws ot England, as long as it remains unre- 
 iieaU-d. "The Inconvenience arising from it, even to the conscien- 
 tious part of the English clergy tlicmselves, has been unanswerably 
 set I'lirth by Mr. Beaulort in Uie House of Conniions, in 17S7. 
 
 EPISJOPIUS, Simon, one of the most Icarnedmen of the 17th 
 <:eMturv, amt the chief suiiporter of the Arminian sect, was born 
 at Amsterdam in 1J83. In ll51'-', he was chosen professor of divi- 
 jiilv at Lev lien, in the room of Gomarus, who resigned; and the 
 fuiiclions ot his olfice, witii his piivate studies, were Ijglit burdens 
 to him, compared with the dilficilties he sustained on account of 
 the Armimaii controversy : which, thougli it began in the 
 vimverMties, soon Dew to the |)ulpits, from whence it spread and 
 intiamed the people. The stales of Holland having invited Epis- 
 coij.us to take his place at the synod of Dort, l;e went thither ac- 
 companied bv some remonstrant ministers; but the synod would 
 not allow Uiein to sit asjudges, nor to appear in any other capacity 
 than as persons summoned lieiore them : they suhir.ittcd, were de- 
 posed, and banished. They tlien retired to Antvserp, but the times 
 growing more favourable, Lpiscopius returned to Holland in lb:.'6, 
 and was made minister of the church of Ueinoustrants at Rotlei- 
 dam. In l(iJ4, he was chosen rector of the college founded by 
 his sect at Ainstcrdam, where he spent (he remainder of his days. 
 He died in 1643, of a retention of urine. His works make two 
 volr.'nes in folio, of which the 2d consists of posthumous publica- 
 tions. 
 
 EPISCOPUS. See Bishop. 
 
 EPISODE, [(-:i<7;i.iV,] an incidental narrative, or digres.^ion in 
 a p.-)em, separable Irom the main subject, yet rising naturally 
 from It. All the particular incidents \\ hereof the action or narra- 
 tion IS compounded, are called episodes. See Poetry. 
 
 EPISPASTIC'S, [iTTi and o-tik*,] in medicine, are topieal re 
 medics, which be ng applied to the external parts pf.tbe body, 
 attract the humours to them. , 
 
 EPISTATE, in the Athenian republic, the president of the 
 Proedvi. 
 
 EPISTEMONARCH, in the ancient Greek church, an of- 
 ficer of great dignity, w ho had the care of every thing relating to 
 faith, in the quality of censor. 
 
 EFljS'i I.E, [iirVo^ii,] a letter. This word is now chiefly used 
 in speaking of ancient v. r. lings, as the epistles of St. Paul, epistles 
 of Cicero, epistles ofPhny, ic. 
 
 Epistlks .^ND Gospels, in the liturgy of the church of Eng- 
 land, are select portions of scripture, taken out of the writings ot 
 the evangelists and apostles, and aiipuintcd to be read, in the 
 coinnui;ii."n service, on Sundays and holidays. They are tiiought 
 to have iieen selected by St. Jeroiit, and by him put in the h'c- 
 fionary. It is certain, they were very anciently appropriated to 
 llie da)S whereon they are now read, as they are. commented upon 
 
 in the homilies of several ancient fathers, |)reaclied upon tliose 
 days, to which these portions ot scripture are now affixed. 
 
 EPISTKOPHE, in rhetoric, a hgure, wherein that which is 
 supposed of one thing, is strongly affirmed of another: thus. Are 
 they Hebrews? so am 1. Are they Israelites? so am I. Are 
 th.ey of the seed of Abraham? so am I, See. 
 
 EPlS'l'YLE, [from f", over, and 9;^>3c, a column,] in the an- 
 cient architecture, is a mass of stone, or a piece of timber laid 
 upon the capital of a column. It is now called architrave. See 
 Architecture. 
 
 EPITAPH, [-" I, upon, and •r«^>of, a sepulchre,] an inscription 
 upon a tomb. It has been disputed whether the ancient Jews in- 
 scribed epitaphs on the monuments of the dead ; but it is certain, 
 some of very ancient ilate are tound amongst them. The Athe- 
 nians put only the name of the'dead, with the epithet y.^n^o;, good, 
 or 'iw,-, hero, and the word x*';'. signifung their good wishes. 
 The name of the deceased's father and his tribe were frequently 
 added. The Lacedemonians allowed epitaphs to none but those 
 who had died in battle. The Romans inscribed their epitaphs to 
 the manes, dies manibus ; and frequently introduced the dead, by 
 way of prosopopoeia, speaking to the living ; of which we have a 
 line instance, worthy the Augustan age, wherein the dead wife 
 thus bespeaks her surviving husband : 
 
 Immatura peri ; sed tu, felicior, annos 
 Vive tuos, conjux optime, vive meos. 
 
 The epitaphs of the present age are too often filled with fulsome 
 compliments which were never merited, characters which human 
 nature in its best state could scarce lay claim to, and expressions 
 of respe<t which were never paid in the life-time of xUe deceased. 
 Hence the proverb, " He lies like an epitaph." 
 
 Epitaph is also applied to certain elogies, either in prose or 
 verse, composed without any intent to be engraven on tombs ; as, 
 Tliat of Alexander, 
 
 Sufhcit huic tumulus, cui non sufficeret orbis; 
 and that of Newton, 
 
 Isaacum Newton 
 (Juem immortalem 
 Testantur Tempiis, NaUira, Coclum, 
 Mortalein lioc marmor 
 Fatetur. 
 
 EPIT.'VSLS, in ancient poetry, the Second part of a dramatic 
 poem, v\ herein the plot, entered upon in the protasis, or first part, 
 was carried on, heightened, anti worked up, till it arrived at it* 
 slate or height, called catastasis. 
 
 Epitasis, in medicine, the increase of a disease or beginning of 
 a paroxysm, particularly in a fever. 
 
 EPri'HALA.MIUM', [sti 0!.x«/.i©',] a nuptial song; a com- 
 pliment upon marriage. 
 
 The Epithalamiu.m among the Jews, was sung at the door of 
 the bride, by her friends and companions, the evening before the 
 marriage. The xlvlh Psalm is an epithalamium. Among the 
 tjreeks it was sung as soon as the marrietl couple were going to 
 bed, and atteniled with slicuts and stamping <if the feet. Thev re- 
 turned in the morning, and with the same song, a little altered, 
 saluted them again. The evening songs were called i-;>reXre|Ui(» 
 Mi.uiilixfi ; the morning salutes tiri^reXnfxia -■-/ij-ruia. This was the 
 practice amongst the Remans also, but thuir epithalaniia were of- 
 ten obscene. 
 
 EPITHAURO. Pec EpiiiACRUS. 
 
 EPIillEiVl, [i?ri^.i|U.«,] in phaimacy, a remedy of a spirituous 
 or aromatic kiml, applied e.xlernally to the regions of the heart, 
 liver, &c. to slrengtnen and comlort, or correct some intempera- 
 ture o( the part. 
 
 EPI I'll ET, [t-Ti^iTov,] in poetry and rhetoric, an adjective ex- 
 pressing some quality ol a suijstaiilive to which it is joined; or 
 such an adjective as is annexed to substantives by way of orna- 
 mei.t and illustration, not to make up an essential part of the de- 
 scription. Nothing, says Aristotle, tires the reader more than too 
 ereat a redundancy ot epithets, or e])ithets placed improperly; 
 aim yet nothing is so essential in poetry as a proper use of them. 
 I'he writings of the best poets are lull of them, 
 
 EPlTONiE, IsTTiTHfj.}!,] abridgment; abbrevir.ture ; compen- 
 dious abstract ; compeiuiium. See AbrjdcmenT- 
 
 6 EPITRITUS,
 
 EPO 
 
 51.'? 
 
 EPO 
 
 and 
 
 ^PITRITUS, in prosovlv, afoot consisting ot Ihret- long u 
 f short syllable. Of tlie;..'', «!ranuii;uMans ri-ckun four kinds: tiie 
 I t con>ist"in<; of an iambus and sponda-iis, as sSlutantes ; tlie .c- 
 ( id of a ti-i'>clix'iis and spoiidanis, as coiui'tati ; (he third ol a 
 , mda-us and an iainbns, as coinniCmicans ; and the lourlli of a 
 inuhfiis aiul trocha-ns, as incantrire. 
 
 KPITKOrUS, a kind ef arbilialor, whom the Greek Chris- 
 ms under the Turks elect to terminate their diHerences and 
 .(lid carrying them before the Turkish niagi-^trates. Anciently 
 if Greeks' used the term i^^Ijott^,- in the same sense as the Latins 
 d nntciiratnr, yiz. for a commissioner or inteiukmt. 
 EITZEUXIS, in rhetoric, a figure which repeats the same 
 ord, without any other intervening; such is that of Virgil, 
 Nunc, nunc, insurgite remis." 
 
 El'OCHA, [.'Trox'i, from fT!x,iv, to contain,] in chronology, a 
 ■rni or lixed point of time, whence the succeeding years are 
 iunbered or accounted. The most remarkable epochas are those 
 lat follow. 
 
 Epocha of the Creation of the AVorlu. Accordmg to 
 he Wil^ate, archbishop I'ssher places this event 4004 yeai-s before 
 le vulgar xra of the birdi of Christ ; Scaliger makes il 39J0, Pe- 
 avius 398-1, and RiccioUis 4184 years before Christ. According 
 o the Septuagint, Fusebius places the creation 5200 years before 
 he nativity of our Lord ; the Alphonsine tables, 6934 ; and Ric- 
 lolus 5634'. The creation, therefore, as we follow the archbishop, 
 uippened in the year 710 of the Julian period. Sir Isaac Newton, 
 igain, makes the' creation of the world later by 500 years than all 
 nlier chronologists ; and tiie proofs by which this illustrious philo- 
 opher supports his opinion are of two different kinds. The Egyp- 
 liaiis counted 341 generations fronj Menes to Setho, allowing a 
 Imndred years for three generations ; and the ancient Greeks com- 
 puted one generation at about forty years. Now, says Sir Isaac, 
 it is true, three ordinary generations may be computed at about 
 120 years ; but generations are longer than the reign of kinjs, be- 
 cause it is evident that mankind in general live longer than kings 
 reign. The duratien of a reign, therefore, taking one yvith an- 
 other, is according to him about twenty years : whence he con- 
 cludes, that the ancients have erred in their calculation in allow- 
 ing forty years for every generation. The second kind of proof 
 is taken from the precession of the equinoxes. According to Cle- 
 mens Alexandrinus, Chiron, who was in the expedition of the Ar- 
 gonauts, tixed the vernal equinox at the lifteenth degree of Aries, 
 and consequently the summer-solstice at the fifteenth degree of 
 Cancer. Meto fixed the summer-solstice at the eighth degree of 
 Cancer, a year before the Peloponnesian war. Now since one 
 degree amwers to the retrograde motion of the equinoctial points 
 in 72 years, there are seven times 72 years from the expedition ot 
 the Argonauts to the beginning of the Peloponnesian war : that is, 
 504 years, and not 507 years, as the Greeks affirm. By combin- 
 ing these two different proofs. Sir Isaac concludes, that the expe- 
 dition of the Argonauts ought to be placed 909 years before Jesus 
 Christ, and not 'l400, as is generally believed : and therefore that 
 the creation of the world ought to be placed about 500 years later 
 than chronologists generally place it. 
 
 Epocha of the Deluge. Accordiag to the Hebrew text, 
 there are 1656 years from tlie creation to the deluge; 1307 ac- 
 cording to the Samaritan ; 2342, according to Eusebius and the 
 Septuagint; 2256, according to Josephus and the Septuagint ; and 
 2262, according to Julius Aincanus, Petavius, and the Septuagint. 
 In following the Hebrew text this epocha begins in the year 2366 
 of the Julian period. 
 
 Epocha of the Olympiads, used principally by the Greeks, 
 had its origin from the Olympic games, which were celebrated at 
 the beginning of every fourth year. This epocha begins 776 years 
 before the incarnation, or in the year 393S of the Julian period. 
 
 Epocha, Varroniav, of the Building of Rome,^ is fixed 
 753 years before our Saviour's birth, and in the year 3961 of the 
 Julian period. 
 
 Epocha of Nabokassar, King of Baijylon, made use of 
 bv Ptolemy, Cciisorinus, and several other authors, began 747 years 
 before the incarnation, and in the year 3967 of the Julian period. 
 
 Epocha, Julian. The first year of Julius Cxsar's correcting 
 the calendar stands 45 years before our Saviour's birth, and coin- 
 cides with the year 466y of the Julian period. 
 
 Epocha of Christ. The Christian worid genersUy reckoB- 
 VOL. II. — NO. 75, 
 
 ed from tJK? epocha of the crealion, the building of Rome, the 
 consuls' register, or the emperor's reign, till about 500 year? after 
 Christ, when the epocha of thejiativilv of our blessed Lonl w;ii 
 introducetl by Dionysiiis Exiguus. lie began liis account from 
 the coiueptio'n or incarnation, property calh-il Lady-day. Most 
 countries in Europe, h<nvever, at present reckon from the first of 
 January next following, except the court of Rome, where th« 
 epocha' of the incarnation still obtains for the date of their built 
 and briefs. But here we are to observe, that there are different 
 opinions respecting the year of our Saviour's birth. Capellus and 
 Kepler fix it at about the 75H(h year from the building of Rome. 
 Deckar and Petavius place the incarnation in the 74yih of Rome. 
 Scaliger and A'ossius make it fall on the 751st of Rome. Diony- 
 sius Exiguus, Bede, ike. t\\ the birth of our Saviour to the year 
 751 of Rome; the diversity of these opinions proceeding from the 
 diliiculty of fixing Herod the Great's death, who, as is evident 
 from the evangelists, was living at our Saviour's birth, the taxa- 
 tion ot Cvrenius, and the time of our Saviour's beginning his mi- 
 nistry. But it is generally agreed, that as to computation and use, 
 the common epocha is to be followed which places the birth of 
 Christ ill the 4713th of the Julian period, altliough the true birth 
 rather corresponds with the 471 1th of the same pcrioil. 
 
 Epocha, Dioclesian, or Epocha of Martyrs, called also 
 the a'ra of the Cophti or Egyptians, because the emperor Diocle- 
 sian made a great many martyrs in Egypt, begins in the year 2S3 
 of our Lord, and the 4997th of the Julian period. 
 
 Epocha of the IIegira, or Flight of Mohammed, is an ara 
 used by the Mohammedans. In obedience to the command of 
 their prophet they make use of the lunar year, which consists of 
 12 complete synodic revolutions of the moon ; so that their year 
 contains 354 and sometimes 355 days. The first year of this 
 epoch happened in the 5335th year of the Julian period, and in 
 the 622d year of the Christian sera. The following is a Table of 
 the Epocha of the Hegira connected with the Christian a?ra from 
 A. D. 1810 to A. D. 1923. N. li. An asterisk prefixed before 
 any particular year of Christ denetes it to be bissextile, and a dag- 
 ger before any particular year of the Hegiraj)oiiits it out to be one 
 of those yerfrs which contains 355 days. The month and day of 
 the mont'h placed after the year of the Hegira is the day of the 
 corresponding year of Christ upon which the said year of the He- 
 liira commences. 
 
 Year of 
 Christ. 
 
 iSlO 
 1811 
 
 *1812 
 1S13 
 1813 
 1814 
 1815 
 
 *1816 
 1817 
 1818 
 1819 
 
 *1820 
 1821 
 1822 
 IS 23 
 
 *1824 
 1825 
 1826 
 1827 
 
 *1828 
 1829 
 1838 
 1831 
 
 *1S32 
 
 1833 
 
 1834 
 
 1835 
 
 *1S36 
 
 Corresponding Year 
 of the Hegira. 
 
 jYear of 
 Christ. 
 
 Corresponding Year 
 of the Hegira. 
 
 1225 
 
 [ 1 226 
 1227 
 1228 
 
 11229 
 1230 
 1231 
 
 tl232 
 1233 
 1234 
 
 11235 
 1236 
 
 tl237 
 1233 
 1239 
 
 1-1240 
 
 1241 
 
 1242 
 
 tl243 
 
 1244 
 
 11245 
 
 1246 
 
 1247 
 
 11248 
 
 1249 
 
 1250 
 
 11251 
 
 I 1252 
 
 L 
 
 February 5 
 January 24 
 January 13 
 January 2 
 December 22i 
 December 12' 
 December 1 | 
 November 19 
 November 9 
 October 29 
 October 18 
 October 7 
 September 26 
 September 16j 
 September 5 
 August 24 
 August 14 
 August 3 
 July 23 
 July 12 
 July 1 
 June 21 
 June 10 
 May 29 
 May 19 
 May 8 
 April 27 
 ApxU 16 
 
 1837 
 1S33 
 1839 
 
 * 1.840 
 1841 
 1842 
 1843 
 
 *1844 
 1845 
 184.5 
 IS 46 
 1847 
 
 *1S48 
 1849 
 1850 
 1S51 
 
 *1S52 
 1853 
 1854 
 1855 
 
 *1856 
 1857 
 1858 
 1859 
 
 *1860 
 1861 
 1 862 
 1S63 
 
 1253 
 
 (-1254 
 1255 
 
 tl256 
 1257 
 1258 
 
 tl259 
 1260 
 1261 
 
 f 1262 
 1263 
 1264 
 
 tl265 
 1266 
 
 1-1267 
 126S 
 1269 
 
 tl270 
 1271 
 1272 
 
 tl273 
 1274 
 
 tl275 
 1276 
 1277 
 
 11278 
 1279 
 1280 
 
 April 5 
 March 25 
 March 15 
 March 3 
 February 21 
 February 10 
 January 30 
 January 19 
 January 8 
 December 28 
 December 13 
 December 7 
 November 25 
 November 13 
 November 4 
 October 25 
 October 13 
 October 2 
 September 23 
 September 11 
 August 30 
 August 20 
 August 9 
 July 30 
 Jul'v 18 
 July 7 
 June 27 
 Juue i6 
 
 Tarn
 
 E P O 
 
 3\A 
 
 SToesz 
 
 EQIJ 
 
 Table nflhe Epncha nf the Hcgira connected ivith tin: C'lris- 
 tian j-Erafrom A. D. 1810 to A. D. l'J23, condudcd. 
 
 Year of 
 Christ. 
 
 Corrcspoiuling Year 
 of tlie IlcKiia. 
 
 *1864 
 
 fiSSl 
 
 18li5' 
 
 1282 
 
 1S66 
 
 1283 
 
 1«67 
 
 tl284 
 
 *lSii8 
 
 1285 
 
 1869 
 
 tl2S6 
 
 1870 
 
 1287 
 
 1871 
 
 12S8 
 
 *18i72 
 
 tl289 
 
 1873 
 
 1290 
 
 1874 
 
 1291 
 
 1675 
 
 11292 
 
 *1876 
 
 1293 
 
 1877 
 
 121>4 
 
 1S73 
 
 1-1293 
 
 187S 
 
 i:96 
 
 1879 
 
 tl297 
 
 *1880 
 
 1298 
 
 1881 
 
 1299 
 
 1SS2 
 
 flJOO 
 
 1883 
 
 1301 
 
 *1884 
 
 1303 
 
 188J 
 
 tl303 
 
 1886 
 
 1304 
 
 1887 
 
 tl305 
 
 *1SSS 
 
 1306 
 
 1889 
 
 1307 
 
 isyo 
 
 fUQS 
 
 1891 
 
 1309 
 
 *I892 
 
 1310 
 
 1893 
 
 + 1311 
 
 June 4 
 
 May 23 
 
 May 14 
 
 May 3 
 
 April 22 
 
 April 11 
 
 April 1 
 
 March 21 
 
 March 9 
 
 FeiKiiary 27 
 
 February IG 
 
 February 5 
 
 January 2j 
 
 January 14 
 
 January 3 
 
 December 24^ 
 
 December 13j 
 
 December 2 I 
 November 21j 
 
 November 10' 
 October 3 1 ; 
 October 19 
 
 Oclober 8 
 September 28 
 September 17 
 September 6 
 August 26 
 August 15 
 Aii;j;ust 5 
 July 24 
 Julv 13 
 
 Year of 
 Chribt. 
 
 Correspondirg Year 
 <jf the Heuira. 
 
 1894 
 
 1312 
 
 1S95 
 
 1313 
 
 *1896 
 
 tl314 
 
 1897 
 
 1315 
 
 1S98 
 
 11316 
 
 1899 
 
 1317 
 
 1900 
 
 1318 
 
 1901 
 
 tl3l9 
 
 1902 
 
 1320 
 
 1903 
 
 1321 
 
 *1904 
 
 1 1 322 
 
 1905 
 
 1323 
 
 1906 
 
 1 324 
 
 1907 
 
 tl3.'5 
 
 *190S 
 
 1326 
 
 1909 
 
 tl327 
 
 1910 
 
 132S 
 
 1910 
 
 1329 
 
 1911 
 
 tl330 
 
 *)912 
 
 1331 
 
 1913 
 
 1332 
 
 1914 
 
 11333 
 
 1915 
 
 1334 
 
 *19I6 
 
 tl333 
 
 1917 
 
 1336 
 
 1918 
 
 1337 
 
 1919 
 
 11338 
 
 *1920 
 
 1339 
 
 1921 
 
 1340 
 
 ltj22 
 
 1-1341 
 
 1923 
 
 1342 
 
 July 3 
 June 22 
 June 10 
 May 31 
 May 20 
 May 10 
 April 29 
 April 17 
 April 7 
 March 57 
 March 15 
 March 5 
 February 22 
 February 1 1 
 February 1 
 January 20 
 January 10 
 December 30 
 December 19 
 December 8 
 November 27 
 November 16 
 November 6 
 October 2 -) 
 October 15 
 October 4 
 September 23 
 September 12 
 September i 
 Augut 21 
 August 1 1 
 
 Epocha, Persian, or Yezdeierd, is the vear of the Julian 
 period 5345, answcrini; to tlie year 632. To reduce the yerrs of 
 one epocha to those of another, observe the following rule ; aild 
 the given year of an epocha to the year of the Julian" period cor 
 respondmg with its rise, and that wd'l give the year of the p^.r^od. 
 For example, if to ISIO, the present year of the Cliristian epocha, 
 we add 4713, the yt^ir of trie Julian period corresponding with its 
 rise, the sum, 0523, will be the present year cf tlie Juliaii' |)eriod ; 
 now if we subtract trom the year tluis found, the year of the Ju- 
 lian period corresponduig with the ri^e of any epocha, tlie remain- 
 der shews the t/ue nv-tho:i of making a just connection betwi\l 
 that epocha and the known year of Chri.it. Again, if we want to 
 find the year of tlic Julian period corresponding to a given year 
 before Christ, we subtract the given ) ear from 4714, and tlie re- 
 mainder is_^the year required. See Chuoxology and ALf.a. 
 
 EPODE, [ekll,J(^,] in lyric poetry, the third or last part of the 
 ode: the ancient otie being divided 'into strophe, antistrophe, and 
 epode. The epode was sung by the priests, standing still be'.ore 
 the altar, after all the turns and' returns of the sirophe and anti- 
 strophe, and was not confined to any precise number or kind ol 
 verses. The epode is now a general "name for all kinds of little 
 verses ti\.\t follow one or more great ones, of wdiat kind soever 
 they be ; and, in this sense, a peiitameter is an epode after an 
 liexameter. And as every little verse, which being put after an- 
 other, closes the ])criod, is called ep'Kle, tience the sixth book of 
 Horace's odes is entitled " Liber lipodon. Book of Epodi« ;" be- 
 cause the verses are all alternately long'and short, -.'ud the short 
 ones generally, though not always, close the sense of the long 
 one. 
 
 EPONA, inniytliology, a goddi-ss mentioned in some ancient 
 
 inscriptions. Keysler supposes, that iier name was derived from 
 
 ivva:, a hsrse, and tjjat she w-as worshipped as the protectress uf 
 
 tlicse animals. 
 
 EPOPEE, or EPOPOEIA, in poetry, the history, action, or 
 
 fable, which makes the subject of an epic poem. The word is dc 
 rived from the Greek ra©',. verse, and vranw, tu make. 
 
 EPSOM, a town of Surrey, about Id miles S. W. of London 
 long famous lor its mineral waters. These were discovered ii 
 1618 ; and are not yet impaired in virtue. The salt made fron 
 them is famous all over Europe, for gently cleansins^ ajid coolii.. 
 the body. The hall, galleries, and other public apartments, an 
 now run to decay ; and there remains only one house on the spot 
 which is inhiibiled by a countryman a.nd his wife, who' carry tli< 
 waters in botUes to yie adjacent places, and supply the deniaiuls oi 
 dealers in London. On the neighbouring down are ainuiallv 
 horse-races; but the inns, sliops, and bowling-greens, are not s., 
 much frefjuented as formerly. The market is on Friday; tho 
 fair, July 25. Epiom has so many liehls, meadows, orchardi, 
 gardens &c. that a stranger would' be at a loss to know whe- 
 ther it were a town built in a wood, or a wood surrounded by a 
 town. 
 
 Epsom Salt, was formerly obtained by boiling down the mi- 
 neral water found in the vicinity of Ep-som. It is at ))n,'seiit pre- 
 pared from sea-water, which after being boiled down, <leposits an 
 uncrystallized brine, that consists chielly of nuirialed magnesia, 
 and is sold in tlie shops, under the iiame'uf bitter purging salt.— 
 It is of considerable service in colics, scurvy, rheumatism, and 
 other chronical complaints. 
 
 Epsom ^\■ATER is easily imHated by art ; i. c. by only dissolv- 
 ing hall an ounce of Epsom salt in a quart of pure water, made 
 somewliat brisk by a few drops of spirit of vitriol and oil of tartar, 
 so as to let the alkali prevail. 
 
 EPULARES, in antiquity, person;, who were admitted to the 
 sacred e])ul;e or entertainments, it being unlawful for any to be 
 present at them who were not pure ami chaste. 
 
 EPULO, ill anticjuity, a ndnister of sacrifice among the Ro- 
 mans. The pontifices, not being able to attend all the sacrifices 
 pertormed at Rome to so many gods as were adored by that peo- 
 ple, appointed tliree ministers, wliom they called cpiiiones, be- 
 came thi-y conferred on them tlie care aiid management of the 
 epnia, teasts'in the solemn games and festivals. 
 
 EPULUM, in antiquity, a holy least prepared for the gods in 
 times of public danger. 'Phe fea'-,t was sumptuous, and tiie gods 
 were formally iuTited and attended ; for the statues were brought 
 on rich beds furnished with soft pillows, called pulvinaria : thus 
 acconimod.ited, their godships were placed on their couches at the 
 most lionouraide part. 
 
 EruLUM also means any solemn feast, e.g. 
 Epulum Ff.i;ale, a funeral entertainment! 
 EPWORTJL a town of England, m the isle of Axholm, Lin- 
 colnshire, 11 miles N. of Gaiiisborc-ugh. 
 
 EQUAPiLlC, an appellation given to such motions as ahvays 
 continue the same in degree of velocity, without being either ac- 
 celerated or retarded. \Vhtn two or more bodies are unifoiinly 
 accelerated or retarded, with the same increase or diminution of 
 velocity in eacii, they are said to be equably accelerated or re- 
 tarded. 
 
 EQUAL, a term of relation between two or more things of the 
 same magnitude, quantity, or quality. 
 
 EQUALrr\', that agreement between two or more things, 
 whereliy they are denominated etpial. The eejuality of two quan- 
 ties, in algebra, is denoted bv two parallel lines placed between 
 them : thus 4-f- 2 = 6,'that is, 4 added to 2, is equal to 0. 
 
 EauALiTY, in a political sense, is a term much used, though 
 not generally understood. All men are or ought to be upon an 
 equality with regard to tlieir rights. Their right to have their 
 r^ersons and their property (whether it be great or small) protect- 
 ed by the government under w hich they live, cannot be dispute<). 
 Neither can the right to do any thing that is not injurious to an- 
 other, which is the only true definition of liberty, be called'in 
 question, let the party exercising it l)e ever so poor. But it is a 
 <langcrous error to suppose, that an equality of propei+v is mear.l 
 by the term ; for that is to suppose, wliat is" not true, th'at all men 
 are equal in merit and in abilities. In fact, if the Almighty were 
 by one act of his power, to make an equal and universal division 
 ot all the ])ropei-ty and productions of tliis world among the whole 
 human race, one week would not elapse before very considerable 
 inequalities of property would arise from the indqleiice and extra- 
 vagance of some, the avarice of others, and the virtuous industry 
 and occoiiomy of others. 
 
 EQUANIMITY,
 
 E Q (J 
 
 
 KQU 
 
 ■;QUANIMI'rY, in 
 o niiiul ami tenipin-, luiik 
 
 I 
 
 I'thics, dunnlcs lliat even ami calm (Vaiiu- 
 r good Or bail foitiino ; ulK-rcby a man 
 a)i'ars Id be iii'itlicr piilTed up, oi- ovi-jjoyed with prosporitv ; nor 
 cipiriti'd, sour<'d, or rendered uneasy, by adversity. See Mouai. 
 1 iLOSoi'HV arid Passions. 
 
 ICQl'AN T, in Uic old aslronomy, a circle described on the 
 citre of the del'erent, for accouiitino; for the eccentricity of the 
 J nets. See ExcF.NTiuc and r.xCKMKiciTV. 
 
 HQUA'l'lON, in ali;ebra,,tiie mutual comparing of two c(,ual 
 tugs of difl'erenl denominations, or the cx|U'ession denoting this 
 iiiality; whicli is done by setting the one in opposition to tlic 
 iier, with the si};n of equality (=) between them : thus .5.s.=:3f)J. 
 I .5 feel = I yard. Hence, if we put a for a foot, and b for a 
 
 id, we shall have the equation 3 a =: b, in algebraical characters. 
 
 I' Algebra. 
 
 I'.Qi'ATioN, Annual, of llic mean motion of the sun, and 
 
 lion's apogee and nodes. 'I'he annual equation of the sun's 
 
 can motion depends upon the eccentricity of the earth's orbit 
 luiid him, and is l6j; such parts, of whicli the mean distance be- 
 
 cen the sun and the earth is 1000 ; whence -some iiave called it 
 
 ■ equation of the centre, which, when greatest, is i° ij' 35". 
 
 no greatest equation of the moon's mean motion is 11' 40"; of 
 ^ apogee, 20' ; and of its node, 9' 30'. These four annual ccpia- 
 oiis are always mutually proportionable to each otiier; so that 
 lien any of tiiem is at the greatest, the three others will also be 
 ivalest ; and when one diminishes, tlie rest diminish in the same 
 itio. Wherefore the annual equation of tlie centre of tlie sun 
 ring given, the other three corresponding equations will be 
 iven ; so that one table of the central equations may serve 
 .r all. 
 
 Equation of Curves, an equation expressing the nature of 
 
 curve, tile relation between an absciss and a corresponding ordi- 
 
 Mle, or the relation of their fluxions. See Curve. When the 
 
 latures or properties of curves are expressed by algebraic equa- 
 
 iii any general absciss is commonly denoted by the letter x, and 
 
 ■ corresponding ordinate by the letter y; the other, or constant 
 nes, b^iiig reprt senled by otlier letteis. Then the equations e.x- 
 ressii.g the natures of different curves will admit of various forms, 
 
 iccording to tiie situation of tlie point at which the absciss is sup- 
 posed to commence, or to the relations of the co-ordinates. Thus, 
 ,1 the abscisses should be estimated from the vertex of the ctirve 
 or from the end of the diameter then the equations are as follow : 
 namely for (lie 
 
 Circle, 2dx — x- = ij-, where 2d is the diameter AB, (fig. 3^, 
 Plate LVII.) ; x is tlie absciss A'P or BP. and y is the ordi- 
 nate PQ. 
 
 Parabola, "px = i/', where p is the parameter. 
 t';f 
 = 2U- — a« 
 
 Ellipse, • 
 
 Hyperbola, 
 
 c- 
 
 : + 2/j: + i" 
 
 ^Where "t is the transverse, 
 and 2c the conjugate axis. 
 
 But if we take the abscisses from the centres, then in the 
 Circle, d- — j - = j/^*, where 2d is the diameter. 
 
 thf 
 Ellipse, — f^-x'- 
 
 (■' V Vi'here 2t and 2c are as be- 
 
 t-i/- i fore. 
 
 Hyperbola, =: a- — f 
 
 We may likewise make use of p the parameter in the equations 
 to the ellipse and hyperbola: thert-in the 
 
 Elfipse, — — = 2i — XX 
 
 p \ When the abscisses are taken 
 
 2i7/^ f from the vertex. 
 
 Hyperbola, = *» i Qtx 
 
 P 
 
 ill ./' > 
 
 Ellipse, = <* - I* f 
 
 p IWiienthe 
 
 2< 2/' ( from th 
 
 ijieibola, = xs — <« \ 
 
 D J 
 
 abscisses are taken 
 
 he centre. 
 
 KiiUATioN, Construction ov, in algcjia, the meliiod at' 
 dirawing a geometrical figure whose properties sliall express the 
 given equation, in order to demonstrate the truth of it geome- 
 trically. 
 
 EuuATioN, A SiMPLF, is constriictcd by resolving the given- 
 sinqile e(iuation into a proportion, or finding a third or fourth pro- 
 portional. Sec. Thus, 1. if the equation be o.r = ic ; tiicii 
 
 be 
 II : I) : : c : X z= — , the fourth proportional to a, h, c. 
 
 2. If o.r=: Zi- ; then a :h : : b: x ■■ 
 
 3 third proportion?.' to 
 
 and b. 
 3. If nr 
 
 a 
 
 will be (/ : i -|- c 
 to a, b -\- c, and b — c. 
 If the equation be x =: 
 
 : b^ — c- ; then, since b'^ — c- =: b -\- c x — c, it 
 (6+c)X(6-c) 
 h — c : X =z , a fourth proportional 
 
 (ib-\-tnn 
 
 I'lrst find a mean proportional 
 
 between a and i, which suppose to be J7, also another mean pro- 
 poitional between wf and «, which suppose to be q, then the equa- 
 
 tion will stand thus .r=: . \\ hich may be constructed 
 
 r— .J ■: 
 
 in the following manner. Let the base AB, (Plate LVII. fig. 26,) 
 of the right-jngled triangle APB be made equal to g, and the 
 perpendicular AP equal to p ; then will PIV^ be equal p" -f- 5", 
 whicli according to the equation is to be divided by r — s. 
 
 Therefore it will be as r - « : PB i=^p^ + (/-) : : PB ta a third 
 proportional, which will give x required. 
 
 EauATiONs, Quadratic, require for their construction lines 
 of the second order; hence it is necessary to shew the n.iture of 
 these lines. See Curve. The general etiuation expressing the 
 nature of the lines of the second order, having all its terms and co- 
 efficients, will be in this form : 
 
 + b'j+dx [=0. 
 
 + ^ y 
 
 \\ here n, b, c, d, c represent any given quantities with their pro- 
 per signs prefixed to them. If a quadratic equation is given, as 
 !/'-}- p!/ -\- g = 0, and by comparing it with the preceding, if von 
 take the quantities a, b, c, d, e, and .r Euch, that fix -\- b = p, "and 
 cx''~\- dx-\- e =: q, then will the values of i/ in the first equation 
 be equal to the value; of it in the second ; and if the locus be de- 
 scribed according to the first equation, the two values of the ordi- 
 nate, when ox -\- ii = p, and ci- -|- f/x -}- e = <y, will be the two 
 roots of the equation y'^' -\- py -\- q =:^0. See Locus. And as 
 four of the given quantities a, h, c, d, c, may be taken at pleasure, 
 and the fifth with the absciss x determined so, that fix -\- b may be 
 still equal to p, and ex' -\- dx -\- e =: q ; hence there are innumer- 
 able ways of constructing the same etjuation. But these loci are 
 to be preferred which are described most easily ; and therefore the 
 circle of all conic sections is to be preferred for the resolution of 
 quadratic equations. Let AB, ilg. 27, be perpendicular to AE, and 
 upon A 15 describe the semicircle BM MA. If AP be supposed 
 equal to x, AB = a, and PM =^y ; then making MRMR perpen- 
 dicular to the diameter AB, since All X KB ±= RiSl-', and 
 AR = y, KB — a — y, RM = x, it follows tliat a — y x y=: x-, 
 and y- — ay -\- x- = 0. And if an equation //- — py -[-5 = be 
 proposed to be resolved, its roots will be the ordinates to the cir- 
 cle, PM and PM, to its tangent AE, if a = p, and x"^= q : be- 
 cause then the equation of the circle y* — tiy -\- x- = will be 
 changed into the proposed equation ?/' — py -j~ y =: 0. We have 
 therefore this construction for finding tlie roots of the quadratic 
 equation y- — py -\- q z=0, take AB=: p, and on AB describe a 
 semicircle : then raise AE perpendicular to AB, and on it take 
 AP=:^/(/, that is, a mean proportional between 1 and q (by 13 
 el. 6,) then draw PM parallel to AB, meeting the semicircle \n 
 MM and the lines PM, PM, shall be the roots of the proposed 
 
 P- 
 equatioits. It appear* from the construction that if 5 = — , or 
 
 4
 
 EQU 
 
 ^Ifi 
 
 EQU 
 
 i^q=i-^p, then AP ;=: |AB, and the ordinate PN touches the 
 curve ill N, the two loots PM, PM, in that case becoming etiiial 
 to one another, and to PN. If AP 1)6 taken t^reater than ^AFS, 
 that is, when the t/l is greater than {p, or g greater than -^p, the 
 ordinates do not meet the circle, and the roots of the eciuatioii be- 
 rome imaginary. The roots of the same equation may be other- 
 wise thus determined. 1. If it be a simple quadratic, it may be 
 reduced to tliis form x- = ah ; and hence a: x: : x : b, or i = 
 \/iih, a mean proportional between a and h. Therefore upon a 
 straight line (tig. 28,) take AB = «, and BC := i ; then \ipon the 
 diameter AC describe a semicircle, and raise the perpendicular 
 'BD to meet it in D ; so shall BD be = x, the mean proportional 
 sought between AB and BC, or between a and b. 
 
 2. If the quadratic be atifected, let it first be x- -{- ^ar r= h'^ ; 
 then form the right-angled triangle whose base AB (tig. 29,) is a, 
 and perpendicular BC is //; and with the centre A and radius AC, 
 describe the semicircle DCE; so shall DBand BE be the two 
 roots of the given quadratic e(]uation j' -|- Jnj' = /;'. 
 
 3. If the quadratic be .i- — 2aj- =: b-, then the construction will 
 be the very same as of the preceding one x'' -(- 2ax =: h''. 
 
 4. But if the form be 2((,;- — ,i- =z i" ; form a right-angled tri- 
 angle wliose hypothennse FG is «, (fig. 30,) and perpendicular 
 GH is, A ; then with the radius FG and centre F describe a semi- 
 circle IGK ; so shall IH and HK be the two roots of the given 
 equation 2a.r — x^ = //', or .r' — 2a.r = — i>'. 
 
 EauATioNS, Cubic and BiauAORATic, may be constructed 
 by means of the conic sections. The roots of any equation may 
 be determined by the intersections of a straight line with a curve 
 of the same dimensions as the equation, or by the intersections of 
 any two curves whose indices multiplied by each other, give a 
 product equal to the index of the proposed equation. Thus the 
 roots of a biquadratic ec[uation may be determined by the inter- 
 sections of two conic sections ; for the equation by which the or- 
 clinates from the four points in which these conic sections may cut 
 one another can be determined, will arise to four dimensions : and 
 the conic sections may be assumed in such a manner, as to make 
 this equation coincide with any proposed biquadratic : so that the 
 ordinates from these four intersections, will be equal to the roots 
 «f the proposed biquadratic. If one of the intersections of the 
 conic section falls iqjon the axis, then one of the ordinates va- 
 nishes, and the equation by which these ordinates are determined 
 will then be of three dimensions only, or a cubic, to which any 
 proposed cubic equation may be accommodated. So that the 
 three remaining ordinates will be the three roots of that proposed 
 cubic. Those conic sections ought to be preferred for this pur- 
 pose that are most easily described. They must not, however, 
 be both circles ; for their intersections are only two, and can serve 
 only for the resolution of quadratic equations. Yet the circle 
 ought to be one, as being most easily described, and the parabola 
 is commonly assumed for the other. Their intersections are de- 
 terniinetl Lii the following manner. Let APE be the common 
 Apollonian parabola, (fig. 31.) Take on its axis the line AB ^ 
 half of its parameter. Let C be anv point in the plane of the pa- 
 rabola, and from it, as a centre, describe with any radius CP a 
 circle meeting the parabola in P. Let PM, CD, be perpendicu- 
 lars on the axis in NI and D, and let CN i>arallel to the axis meet 
 PM in N. Then will always CP-^= CN'-^ + NP^ (47. 1. Euc.) 
 Put CP = «, the parameter of the parabola = 6, AD=::c, 
 
 DC = (I, AM = X, PM = ?/. Tlien CN' =x + c '^ NF^^ = 
 
 ^o.. 
 
 1/ + d '^ ; iind X -^ c '- + tj + d'- = a^. That is .r= ± 2f.r -|- c' 
 J. ^2 J- 2(7^ _)- (/i — «2_ But from the nature of the parabola, 
 
 iP — br, and x^ — — ; substituting therefore these values for j = 
 b'' 
 
 and .r, it will b« — ± — — + '/ + 2(/y -f c"- + d^ _ ^2 _ q. 
 
 b^ _b 
 
 Or multiplying by h^.if ± '2bc + 6^x »/=± 2dA'// -f c^+rf-'-a'X b'^ 
 = 0. Which may represent any biquadratic equation that 
 vauts the second term ; since such values may be found for a, b, 
 C, aiid d, by comparing this with any proposed bicpiadialic as to 
 
 make them coincide. And then the ordinat.-s from the points P 
 P. P. P, on the axis, will be equal to the roots of that proposed 
 biquadratic ; and this may be done though the parameter of tht 
 I parabola, viz. b, he given : that is, if you have a parabola ahead\ 
 made or given, by it alone you may resolve all biquadratic eqiui 
 tions, and you will oidy need to vary the centre of your circle an' 
 its radius. If the circle described from the centre (fig. 32,) pab 
 through the vertex A, then CP^ = CA'^ r= CD^ + AD"; Uiat i- 
 h' = rf'-(- c' ; and the last term of the biquadratic (c= -\- d^ — u^] 
 will vani sh ; ther efore dividing the rest by ij, there arises the cubii 
 )/ -;■; i 2/«- + b- X y ±_ 2db'- = 0. Let the cubic equation pro 
 posed to be resolved be y' -}; ± pi/ J; r = 0. Compare the term; 
 of these two aquations and you will have i 2bc -j- 6- = J; p, ant 
 
 b p r 
 ± 2di' = + r, or ^ c = — ^ — , and d=± . From whicl 
 
 2 2b 2b'' 
 
 you have this construction of the cubic y' -,< ^ p!/ ^r := 0, bj 
 means of any given parubola APE. From the point B, take ir 
 the axis (forward if tlie equation has — p, but backward if n b< 
 
 P 
 positive) the line BD = — ; then raise the perpendicular DC = 
 2b 
 r 
 
 • , and from C describe a circle passing through the vertex A 
 
 2i» 
 
 meeting the parabola in P ; so shall the ordinate PM be one of th( 
 roots of the cubic y^ -)< i py 4: r =z 0. The ordinates that stam 
 on the same side of the axis with the centre C, are negative o 
 afilrmative, according as the last term r is negative or affirmative 
 and those ordinates liave always contrary signs that stand on dif 
 ferent sides of the axis. See Maclaurin's Algebr.a, part iii. cap. 2 
 and Simpson's Algebra, p. 267. 
 
 EauATioN OF Time, in astronomy and chronology, the re 
 duction of the apparent time or motion of the sun, to equable 
 mean, or true time. The difitrence between true and apparen 
 time arises from two causes, the eccentricity of the earth's orbit 
 and the obliquity of the ecliptic. See AsTRoNOMy. 
 
 EQUATOR. See Astronomy and GEocRAPHy. 
 
 EQUATORIAL Sector. See Astronomy. 
 
 EQUERRY, or EQUERY, popularly called Querry, ar 
 officer of the king's stables, under the master of the horse. O 
 these there are seven, who, when his majesty goes abroad, ride it 
 the leading coach, are in waiting one at a time monthly, and havi 
 a table with the gentlemen ushers during the time, and a salary o 
 3001. a-vear each. 
 
 Equerry of the Crown Stable has that appellation, a: 
 being employed in managing and breaking the saddle horses, am 
 prepar'ng them for the king's riding. 
 
 EQUERY, or ECURY, [_Escurie, French, or equile, Lat. i 
 stable, from eqinis, a horse,] a grand stable for horses, furnishet 
 with stalls, manger, rack, &c. Some think the word stable pro 
 perly relates only to bullocks, cows, sheep, hogs, &c. and equery 
 to horses, mules, &c. A simple equery is that provided for om 
 row of horses ; a double equery that provided for two, with a pas 
 sage in the middle, or two passages; the horses being placed heat 
 to head, as in the- little equery at Versailles. Under equery ait 
 sometimes also conqjrchend^d the lodgings and apartments of Ihi 
 equerries, grooms, pages, &c. 
 
 Equery, [^esoiiytr,] is also an officer who has the cai-e of tin 
 horses of a king or prince. 
 
 EQUES, [from cquus, a horse,] in antiquity, a night, or horse- 
 man. Sec EauiTES. 
 
 Eques, Auratus, a knight bachelor; called auratus, i. e. gilt, 
 because anciently none but knights might gild or beautify theii 
 armour with gold. In law this term is not used, but instead of il 
 miles, and soiiiefimes chevalier. 
 
 EQUESTRIA, in Roman antiquity, a place in the theatre whert 
 the e(]uiles or knights sat. 
 
 EQUESTRIAN GAMES, aiT)ong the ancient Romans, horse 
 races, of which there were five kinds, the prodromus or pkiii 
 horse-race, the chariot-race, the decnrsory race about funeral 
 piles, the ludi sevirales, and the ludi neptunales. 
 
 Equestrian Order, among the Romans, signified their cqui- 
 tes or knights ; also their horsemen in the field ;"the first of which 
 
 ordeir
 
 EQU 
 
 31 
 
 T.QIJ 
 
 ordeis stood in coiilrailictiou to the bcnators ; a^ tiic I.1-I (IkI to Ihc 
 foot, niilitarv, or iiit.'iitrv. 
 
 EQUIANGULAR,' in geometry, an p|)itliet applied to fiaures 
 whose angles a.e all equal : sueh are a square, an equilateral tri- 
 angle, &c. 
 
 EQl'lCRURAL, in ffeometry, the same with itosculcs, a term 
 applied to a Irianijlo haviog two etpial vidcs. 
 
 EQU 1 1) ll'l'I^RliNrNuMnKRs, in arillmietic, lunnber-i in arith- 
 metical proj^ression ; they are t)f tsvo kinds, 1. Contir.ually ecpii- 
 dilTerent is wIuTi, in a series ol three numbers, there isthesanv dif- 
 ference bet« i-en the first and second, as there is between the second 
 andtliird; as 3, b, 9. And 2. Discretely equidilleront, is when, 
 in a series of four minihers or quantities, there is the same dif- 
 ference bi-lw',Tii the tirst and second as there is between the.lhird 
 and fourth : sucli are 3, 6, 7, 10. 
 
 EQUIDIS I'ANT, an appellation given to tilings placed at 
 equal distance from some fixed point, or place, wiiich they are re- 
 ferred. 
 
 EQUILxVPF-HAL, in general, soniothiiii^ tliat lulli e(|ual sides, 
 :is an equilateral tii.iMfile. 
 
 EiiuiL\TEHAi, llYeE:iBoLA, One whose Iransvei-se diaiTH t-r is 
 equal to its parameter; and so all the other diainelers ecpial lo their 
 parameters; in such an hyperbv>la, the asymptotes always cut one 
 another at riglit angles in the centre. Its mostsimple equation, wilii 
 regard to the transverse axis, is)/- = a-— «'; and with regard to 
 the conjugate, p- .-= .r* -(" "'' wlu-n a is the si'iii'transverse, or senii- 
 iconjugate. The length ot the curve cannot be found by means of 
 the quadrature o. any space, of which a conic section is any part of 
 the perimetir. 
 
 1'2QUIL1UR[UM, in mechanics, is when the two ends of a 
 IcviT or balance hang so exactly even arid level, that neitiier as- 
 cends, nor descends, but both keep in a position parallel lo the 
 ihorizon ; beingbotlicliargedwith an equal weight. See M.-CH.^X'irs. 
 
 EQUIMULTI PLKS, in arilliineticand geometry, are numbers 
 or <iuanlities inuhiplied by one and tlie same niimbi/r or quaiilily. 
 Hence, equimultiples are always in the same laiio to eacli oilier 
 as the simple quantities before mull iplication ; thus, ifsixand eiglil 
 are multiplied by four, the equimultiples i.'4 and 3.' will be to 
 each other as six to eight. 
 
 EQUINOCTIAL, or /EQUINOCTIAL, \_iFquus and nnx, 
 Lat.] in astronomy, a great and immoveable circle of the sphere, un- 
 der « hich the e(|uator moves in its diurnal motion. It is ordinarily 
 confounded with the equator : but there is a dillerence ; the equa- 
 tor being moveable, and the equinoctial immoveable; and the 
 equator being drawn about the convex surface of the earth, but 
 llie equinoctial on the concave surface of the heavens. The 
 'hadows of those who live under this circle are cast to the south- 
 ward of tliein for one half of the year, and to the northward during 
 ;lie other hah'; and twice in a year, viz. at the equinoxes, the sun 
 It noon casts no shadow, being in their zenitli. See Astko- 
 
 KOMV. 
 
 Enc'iNOCTiAL Dial, that whose plane lies parallel to the equi- 
 "ictial. See Dialing. 
 
 KtluiNocTiAL Points are the two points wherein the equator and 
 i:li|)tic intersect each other: the one, being in the first point of 
 Aries, is called the vernal point or eepiinox ; and the other, in the 
 hiM point of I ibra, the autumnal point or equinox. The equi- 
 aoctial points, and all the other points of the ecliptic, are continu- 
 illy moving backward, or in antecedentia, i. e. westward. Thi^ 
 etrograde motion is that famous and difficult |)hiBnomenon called 
 he precession of the equinoxes. See AsTRONjMy. 
 , EQUINOX, the time when the sun enters either of the equi- 
 noctial points, where the ecliptic intersects tlie equinoctial. See 
 AsTROvoMv, iind Kquinoctial. 
 
 EQU I PAGE, in military art, denotes all sorts ofutensils, artillery, 
 iic. necessary for com.rencing and prosecuting with ease and suc- 
 cess any military Oi'eiations. Camp and field equipage consists 
 of tents, kitchen furniture, saddle horses, baggage, waggons, bat 
 tiorses, &c. 
 
 EQUIPOLLENCE, in logic, is when there is an equivalence, 
 »r agreement, either as to the nature of the thing, or as tothegram- 
 natical sens.- of any two, or more propositions; that is, when two 
 jropositi. lis signify one and the same thing, though they express it 
 kfter dirterent mai'iiieis. 
 
 EQUIRIA, in antiquity, a festival instituted by Romulus, and 
 
 VOL. II. — NO. 76. 
 
 celebrated on the 27th of February, in honour of Mars, at whicA 
 there were horse-races. 
 
 LCH'ISE'l'U.Ni, Horsetail: A genus of the order filiccs, 
 and ci yplogamia cUhs of plants; natural order, Con fene. 'I'here 
 is a spike of peltated or shJeldeil friictific atioiis opening at the base. 
 There are seven species: natives of Europe in woods and shady 
 places. 
 
 EQUITES, amongst the Romans, were persons of tlie second 
 de.;iee of nobility, next to the senator< in point of rank. The 
 e(|uiles or knights were retjuired to be possessed of 4(\0 se>terlia be- 
 fore they could be admitted into that order ; and when they were 
 so reduced as to fall short of the ])rescribed revenue, they were ex- 
 punged out of the equestrian list. This revenue amounted to 
 about U),000 crowns. Part of the ceremony whereby the honour 
 of knighthood was conferred amongst the Romans was the giving 
 of a horse; every eques received also the slpend ot a horseniaii 
 10 serve in the wars, and wore a ring wliich was given him by tiie 
 state. 
 
 EQUITY, in a general sen^e, the virtue of treating all other 
 men according to reason and justice, or as we would be treated 
 ourselves when we Uiiderstand aright what is our due. See Jus- 
 tice. 
 
 Equity, in jurisprudence, is defined a correc! ion or qualification 
 ot the law, generally made in that part wherein it faileth 01 is too 
 severe. It likewise signifies the extension of the words of tlie law 
 to cases unexpressed, yet having the same reason ; so that where 
 one thing is enacted by statute, all other thing- are enacted that 
 are of tiie like degree, e. g. the statute of Gloucester gives action of 
 wMste against liini that holds lands t"or life or years; and by the 
 eipiity thereof, a man shall have action of waste a jams; a tenant 
 th.it holds but for one year, or one half-year, which is without the 
 w ords of the act, but within the meaii.ng of it ; and tl.e words that 
 enact the one, by equity enact the other. So that equity is of twa 
 kinds. The one abridges and takes from the Idler ol the law: the 
 other enlarges and adds to it ; and statutes may be construed ac- 
 cording to equity, especially where the_\ give remeily for wrong, 
 or are for expedition of justice. Equity seems lo be the inter- 
 posing law of reason, exercised by the lord chancellor in extraor- 
 dinary matters to do equal justice ; and by supplying the defects 
 of the law, gives remedy in all cases. 
 
 Equity, in mythology, sometimes confounded with Justice, a 
 goddess among the Greeks and Romans, represented with a sword 
 in one hand anil a balance in the other. 
 
 EQUl.'ALENT PROPOSiriONS, those that signify the 
 same thing differently expressed. 
 
 Equivalext Tekms are where several words that differ in sound 
 have yet one and the same signification ; as every body was there, 
 and nobody was absent; iiildl non, and omne. 
 
 Equivalent Things, are either moral, physical, or statical. 1. 
 Moral ; c. g. the commanding or advi ing a murder is a guilt equi- 
 valent to that of the murderer. 2. Physical; a man who has the 
 strength of two men is said to be equivalent to two men. 3. Sta- 
 tical f a less weight becomes equivalent in force with a greater, 
 by having its distance from the ceiure increased. 
 
 EQUIVOCAL Terms, or Words. Words of doubtful 
 signification. Mr. Locke observes, that the doubtfulness and un- 
 certainty of words has its cause more in the ideas themselves, than 
 in any "incapacity of the words to signify them ; and might be 
 avoided, would people always u-e the same lerni to denote the 
 same idea or collection of ideas : but, adds he, it is hard to find 
 a discourse on any subject where this is the case; a practice which 
 can only be imputed to folly or great dishonesty ; since a man, in 
 making up his accounts, might with as much fairness use the 
 numeral characters sometimes lor one sometimes for another col- 
 lection of units. 
 
 EQUIVOCATIONS are expedients to save telling the truth, 
 and yet withvui telling a falsity. The fathers were too much ad- 
 dicted to etpiivocations. 
 
 EQUULEUS, or ECCULEUS, in antiquity, a kind of rack 
 used tor ext<'rtin.^ a confession, at first chiefly practised on slaves, 
 liut a.tirwards made use of against the Christians. 
 
 Equoleus, Equiculus, or Equus Minor, in astronomy, the 
 horse's head ; a constellation of the northern hemisphere. See 
 Astronomy. 
 
 EQUUS, in zoology, a genus of the class mammalia and order 
 
 4 i\i bcllu*.
 
 E Q U 
 
 i!8 
 
 EQU 
 
 hellu.v. I'liey have si\ eroct ami p.irallrl fon---tfrt'i ui the iippiT 
 ja>v, ami six soiiiew lut iiroiiiiiifiit one! in the midi-r jiiu ; one shovt 
 tusk Oil each sule of both jaws, at a coii-itlerable dr.taiico troiii llie 
 oti-.er toetli ; and the tcet conswl ol' an uiidivide'l hoof. 'I'his genus 
 is the ^iilv race <.'f quadrupeds, in which the nianini.x; are wanting 
 ' on the males. Mt. Kerr enumerates six species, and many va- 
 rieties. 
 
 I. Caballus, the Common Hdrse, has a Innp; flowina; nune, 
 and the tail covered on all [larls w ith long liairs. I'he Ivir-e, in a I'.o- 
 iiv.'>tic slate, is a bold and hery animal ; equally intrepid as his 
 master, lie faces danger and death witii arflonr and magnanimity. 
 He deli.ghis in the noise and tumult of arms, and seems lo feel tne 
 ft'orv of victory: lie exults in the chase ; his eyes sparkle with 
 rmulation in the course. I5ut though bold and intrc^iiid, he is 
 tlutile and tractable; he knows how to govern and rhei k the 
 nalnral vivacity and fire of his temper. He not only yields to me 
 liaiul, but seems to consult the inclination, oi his rider. Constantly 
 obedient to the impressions he receives, his motions are entirely 
 I'egulated bv ih.e will of his master. He in some measure resigns 
 his very existence to the pleasure of man. These eNcellencies, 
 though' ill some di-gree natural to him are principally the efiects 
 of education of which the lioi-se- is remarkably susceptible. In 
 most parts of the worUI the hor'-e is found in a domesticated state, 
 and it is said that in several parts of Asia and Africa they maintain 
 their original independence, and range at pleasure in herds of 
 peveral hundreds, having always one or more as an advanced 
 guard, to alarm against approachnig danger. These alarms are ex- 
 pressed by a sudden snorting, at which the main body gallop off 
 with the mo.-t surprising swiftness. Wild horses are found, accor<l- 
 ing to Dr. Pallas, in the deserts on each side the river Don, to- 
 wards the Palus M.-eotls; but these are supposed to be the otfspring 
 of the Russian horses, which were employed in the siege of A>opii, 
 in the vear lti97, when for want of forage they were tinned loose, 
 and their descendants have gradually relapsed into the appearance 
 of natural wildness. Those which are found in some parts of South 
 America, are well known to be the descendants of the horses in- 
 troduced by the Spaniards on the first discovery of America, and 
 jvhich haveso far relapsed into a state of nature as to exhibit the 
 general characte.s of the wild animals. Of the several breeds of 
 horses in common or general use in Europe, it is remarkable that 
 none can come in competition with those of our own island, either 
 for the strength requited in laboiious services, or for the swillness 
 and elegance of such as are bred for the course. The annals of 
 fsewmarket record instances of horses that have literally out-strip- 
 ped the wind, as is proved from accurate calculations. The crle- 
 brated Childers is commemorated, in particular, as the swiftest 
 horse ever known in the world ; and the instances of his speed m iv 
 be found in various publications. He was known to Irive run near 
 a mile in a minute ; and to have cleared the course at Newmarket, 
 which is onlv 400 yards short of four miles, in six minutes and 
 fortv seconds; running at the rate of eighty-tv.o feet and a half in 
 tlie space of a second. This country has produce<l some others 
 almost e(|ual!y swift with Cliilders. See Plate LX\ I. Draught- 
 hor-es in Great Britain exceed in size and power those of oiiier 
 countries. Yorkshire and Lincolnshire are the most celebrated 
 counties for this breed, whence sever;d have been brought to Lon- 
 don which have each, for a short distance drawn, without diffi- 
 culty, the weight of three tons, half of which is considered as the 
 regular draught. A horse of this class was exhibited as a curiosity 
 in London in the year 1805, no less than twen'y hands in neiglit. 
 For th.e cart-hoise see Plate LX^'I. Mr. Bruce informs us, that 
 the horses of Nubia are of unparalleled beauty ; far su erior, in his 
 opiniou, even to those of Arabia. He observes, however, that 
 from the maniier in which they are fed they are apt to become too 
 fat or corpulent. The colour of the horse is not of very great im- 
 portance, the most b<-autiful general colour seems to be bright bav, 
 wliich gives an air .of pecul.ar neatness an<l elegance to the animal. 
 Black horses are <:ommoniy of large size, and in this country are 
 clUedv useii for the cart and the plough. In some <ountries horses 
 are not the less esteemed for being variegated or ])iebald, as it is 
 commordv termed. This i!, said lo be tiie case in China. 
 
 II. Equus Amnus, tlie Ass. The iss, iiaving been long con- 
 demned to a state of the lowest servitude, and considered as a 
 fpecies of less dignity tl, in tlie horse, has acquired, in most parts of 
 Europe, a character of contempt. Yet in its natural or wild state 
 
 it exaibil- an appearance very far superior uoth m point ot beauty 
 and vivacity. It is a naive ol many parts of Asia, living, like the 
 rest of this genus, in a gregarious manner. It cIneHy oc( urs in the 
 dry and mountainous deserts of Tartary, and in the southern parts 
 ot India and Persia. It is also said lo be fouiut in Ahua, and to 
 occur, though but very rarely, in .-ome ])arts of Syria and Arabia; 
 countries where it was in ancient times extremely common. In 
 ifr^^ls natural stale its colour is saul to be white, or ot a very pale 
 silvery grey, with a slight tinge of straw-colour on tiie sides of the 
 neck and body : along the back runs a deep brown stripe of thick- 
 ish wavy hair, to tue beginninqof the tail : tiiis stripe is crossed over 
 the shouliiers, as in the tame animal, by another of similar colour; 
 but it issaid that this is peculiar to the male. The neck is furnished 
 with a brown mane three or four inches long, consisting of soft 
 woolly hair: llie tail is tufted at the end by dusky hairs of about 
 >ix inches in length : the t'orehead is arched, and the ears erect and 
 pointed. The geneial'ty of European asscs have large slouching 
 ears, a heavy appearance, and are of an ash-colour, more or less 
 deep indifl'erent individuals, with a blackish dor-al stripe, crossed 
 bv anotiier over the shouldeis;, and thus exhibiting the original 
 mark of their species. In their manners they exhib.t no superior 
 marks of s'lgacity, but have the merit of being patient, (piiet, and 
 tractable, and are chiefly employed in the inferior oflices of servi- 
 tude. The ass is observed to be very temperate m his food, and 
 by no meaus delicate in the chiice of it; eat ng thistles, and a va- 
 riety of coarse heritage which the horse refuses. He is said to be 
 pariicnlarlv fond of \)lantain, for which he w ill neglect every other 
 herb of the pasture. In his choice of water he is remarkably nica, 
 anil will dr.nk only of that which is clear. He h;is also an aversion 
 to mud or water in his road, and will pass out of the way rather 
 than wet his feet in a puddle. He is by no means void of docility, 
 as vulgarly supposed; but may be made to practise several exer- 
 cises not u-ual with his race. His voice, as is well known, is a 
 most hideous bray ; a discordant succession of flats and sharps. 
 i'he ass has a verv line eye, an excellent scent, and a good ear. 
 When overloadeJ, he hangs his head, and sinks his ears; when too 
 much teazed or tormented, he opens his mouth and retracts his lips 
 in a disagreeable nv.mner, which gives him an aukward air. If you 
 cover his eves, he will not move another step ; if you lav him on 
 his side, and place his head so that one eye rests on the ground, 
 and cover the other with a cloth, he will remain in this situation 
 without making anv attempt to get up. He walks, trots, and gal- 
 lops, in the same manner as the horse: but all his motions arc 
 slower. Whatever pace he is" going at, if pushed he instantly 
 stop-.. Mules are the offspring of the horse and ass, or the jack-ass 
 and mare. Mr. Pennant mentions a mule produced between a 
 jack-4Ss and a female zebra. The ass, like the horse, continues 
 growing three or four years, and lives till he is 25 or 30 : he slee|» 
 less than the horse, and never lies down but when excessively 
 fatigued. He is more robust, and less subject to disease, than the 
 horse. In America there were originally no asses, but they were 
 carried thither by the Spaniards, and afterwards by other nations, 
 where thev multiplied greatly ; insomuch, that, in some places, 
 there are whole droves of tliein that run wild, and are not easily 
 caught. Asses in general carry the heaviest burdens in proportion 
 to their bulk; and, as their keeping costs-little or nothing, it is 
 surprising that they are not put to more uses than they generally 
 are among us. The flesh of the common ass is never eaten in Eu- 
 rope ; though some say, that ot their colts is tender, and not dis- 
 agreeable. 
 
 111. Eauus BisuLCus, the Chinese Horse, in thesize, num- 
 ber, and arrangement oi tei th, as well as general appearance, re- 
 sembles the horse ; and is therefore ranked by Dr. Gmelin in this 
 cenus, though it differs from all the other species in having cloven 
 hoofs. In its size, hair, colour, nose, eyes, neck, back, tail, legs, 
 and internal structure, it resembles the a^s, but wants tlie dusky 
 cross on its shoulders. It resembles the horse in the figure of its 
 eai-s, and the sound of its voice. Hence Mr. Kerr supposes, it 
 may be onlv a wild horse, degenerated through the inclemency of 
 the niountainous district it inhabits," in the Andes, in S. Ame- 
 rica ; and that " the circumstance of its having cloven hoofc may- 
 be exaggerated, or onlv a mistake." 
 
 I\'. HeiMIONus of Pallas, the 'H,uiovo:, or half-ass, of Aristotle 
 and Pliny, the Czigithai of Bulfon, and the Dshikkelei, Fecund 
 or Wild Mule of Pennant, is of thesize and appearance of the 
 
 common
 
 F. R A 
 
 .^in 
 
 K R I 
 
 1 
 
 r.Muniiiii milk' ; widi a lar'_p lieail, Ikit furelu'ad growiii!; narrow 
 loA-ariMiK' iiOH', cvo^ of a inidtllt.' iiiz<', llu" iruli-s cit -.ii obsiiin- 
 a^li culonr ; -is tcclli in all, licijig tao in imiiibf r iV'vvfr llian in a 
 comiviin I orsi' ; car'* nuuli lon^i-r tli.m those of a tior-e, cinit<- 
 e;Tt:t, lim-d witli a iliick \vliili>h c-urlma; coat ; ne<k '^li-ndi-r, rmii- 
 |)ri'<srd ; ni;.iie ii|)riiii)t, sliorl, soit, ol a ^'rcyi-ii colour ; in place 
 of tlic loi'cli)(), a slioit lull of dowMV liair abont an inth and llirre 
 tliurlcrs lon^. Tliis s;io< icv inlu.hits llu- dcst-ris between tlie ri- 
 xersOnnnand Avi^un in the must --oiidierri paiL of Siberia, and 
 i-xtinds over the va-1 ])lains and deserts of wetcni Hartary, ard 
 till' celebrated sanily desert of (rol)!, which readies even to India. 
 Ill Sil>eria they are seen only in small inir.ibers, as it detaclied 
 from the niinu-rons hei<is to tiie soiiih of the Kii--sian dominions. 
 'I hese animals alwa\s carry their heads horizonlally ; but wl'.en 
 they take to Mglit, hoUi tlieiii iipriglit, and erect their tail. Their 
 neighing is <leeper and louder than that of a hoi>e. '1 llfV fight bv 
 biting and kicking, as usual witli the horse; they are m-rce and 
 untaineable ; and even tliose whicli I'.ave been taken young, are 
 S'l intraclal)le as not to be broken bv any art nhich the wandering 
 Tartars could u^e. lis swiftness exceeas tlr.'t of t!ie antelope ; it 
 is even proverbial ; and the inhabitants of Thibet, from the fame 
 of its rapid spred, mount on it C hammo, their god of fire. 'I"he 
 Mongalians despair of ever taking them by the cliace ; but lurk 
 behind some tomb, or iji some ditch, and shoot them when tliey 
 come to drink or eat the salt of the desert. They are e\cessivciy 
 fearful animals, and provident against danger. A male takes on 
 him the care of the herd, and is always on the watch, if they 
 see a hunter, wlio by creeping aloiii; the ground has got near them, 
 the centinel takes a great circuit, and goes round and round him, 
 as discovering somewhat to be apprehended. As soon as the ani- 
 mal is satisfied, it njoins the herd, which sets oil" with great pre- 
 cipitation. Sometimes its curiositr costs its life ; for it approai hes 
 so near as to give the hunter an opportunitv of shooting it. But 
 it is oli^erve<l, that in rainy or in stormy weather, these animals 
 ieeni verv dull, and less sensilile of the a|)proach of mankiml. The 
 Mongalians and Tungnsi, according to J)u llalden, kill them for 
 the sake of their llesli, which they prefer to tnat of horses, and even 
 to tiiat of tlie wild boar, esteeming it equ^ly nourishing and whole- 
 some. 
 
 V. E. QvAGCA, the QuACHA, is striped like the zebra on the 
 head and body, hut with fewer lines. The flanks are spotted ; the 
 rump is plain ; the ground colour of the heatl, neck, body, and 
 rump, a bright bay : the belly, thighs, and legs, are white, and free 
 from all mark'. 'I his species, till of late, has been supposed to 
 be the female of the zebra ; but recent observations prove that the 
 male an<l female zebra are marked alike. This differs likewise in 
 being thicker and stronger made, and in being more tractable. 
 
 VI. v.. Zkbra has the figure and gracefulness of the horse, 
 joined to the swiftness of the stag. He is about seven feet long, 
 from the point of tlic muzzle to the origin of the tail, and about 
 four feet high. The colour of his skin is beautiful and uniform, 
 consisting of alternate parallel rings of black aind white, disposed in 
 the most regula.r manner, as rr))resented in Plate LXVI. He is ge- 
 nerally less than the horse, and larger than the ass. The zebra is 
 found no where but in the E, and S. provinces of Africa, from 
 Ethiopia to the Cape of Good Hope, and from the Cap<' of Good 
 Hope to Congo. The Dutch have been at great pains to taine 
 and u-e them for <loiii(stic purposes, but with little success. The 
 zebra is hard-moulhed, and kicks when any person attempts to 
 touch or come near him. He is restless and obstinate as a mule: 
 but perha])s the wild horse is naturally as untractable as the zebra ; 
 for it is probable, if he were early accustomed to obedience and 
 a domestic life, he woiilil become as docile asthe horse. 
 
 EU.V. See .Era, Epocha, and Chronology. 
 
 EKAX.VRCA, a public officer among the ancient Greeks, 
 who^e bnsine-is was to preside over and direct the alms and provi- 
 sions made f>ir the jioor. 
 
 ICR AN Til EMl'.M, a gemisof the monogynia order, and dian- 
 dria class of plants. Corolla qniiupiefid, wiili the tube liliform ; 
 anthera- without the tube; stigma simple. It has live species, 
 herbs or undershruhs, natives of the Cape of Good Hope. 
 
 EU.VSMl'S, DEsmF.Rius, born at Rotterdam in 1467. He 
 lost his father and mother at 14 years of age ; and was committed 
 to the care of guardians, who forced him to be an ecclesiastic, 
 which he relused for a long time. However lie was obliged to as- 
 
 sume the religious habit among the canons regidar in the ir.cra?- 
 tery of Stein iiear Tergon ; but alterwardscbtaT.cd a i!ij))eiisatioil 
 from iiis vows. He was tiie nio-t learned man of the age in whicK 
 he lived ; and contributed, by his example and his writings, to 
 the lestoH'tinn of learning in the several countries in which he oc- 
 ca'sioiially resii'ed, viz. Italv, Switzerland, Holland, France, am! 
 England. Wkh the la-t lie was mo-t satisliid ; and foniid the 
 greatest encouragement from Henry VIII, Sir '['homas More, and 
 all the learned Englishmen of those days. He published msny 
 books ; and died at Basil in l.').3(i. He was buried honourably, 
 and his memory is still held in veneration. He had, however, 
 many enemies; and as he difl not embrace the reformation, and 
 V't censured many things in popery, he has been treate<l injt!- 
 riniisly both by Catholics and Protestants. The works of Eras- 
 mus in 10 vols, folio, were published at Leyden in 1706, in a 
 verv handsome manner, under the care of M. Le Clerc. Dr. Jor- 
 tin published his life in one vol. 4to. 17JS. 
 " ERASSED. See Coupf n. 
 
 EliASTIANS, a religious sect whii li arose in Kuglar.d <luring 
 the time of the civil wars in ltj4", thus called from their IcadtT 
 Thomas Erastus, who^e distitigai-hing doctrine it was, that !lii! 
 church had no right to discipline, that is, no regular power to ex- 
 communicate, exclude, censure, absolve, decree, or the like. 
 
 ER.VTO, [from fj"" I love,] in mylhologv, the Mu^e wh« 
 presided over love poetry. There was also a Nereid of this name. 
 
 ERATOSTHENES, a Cvrenean pliiloso|)her, hi-.torian, and 
 poet ; stiled for his learning Plato Minor. He was keeper of I'lC 
 famous library at Alexandria : and w-as greatly in favour with Pto- 
 lemv Euergeles, by whose order he wrote a history of the The- 
 ban kings of Egypt, which succession had been entirely omitted 
 by Manetho. He thus fixed the Egyptian chronology, and his au- 
 thority is by many preferred to that of Manetho. lie wrote many 
 otiier things, a catalogue of which is to be seen in Eabricius, 
 Vossius, Arc. but his only piece now remaining entire is a descrip- 
 tion and fabulous account of the stars. He starved himself in old 
 age through grief for the dimness of his sight, about the 10th or 
 12th year of Ptolemy Eijiphanes, 15. C. 194. 
 
 ERBACH, a mountainous county of Germany, in the circle 
 of Eranconia, 21 miles long, and 18 broad; containing mines of 
 silver, copper, lead, iron, and mercury ; and producing wheat, 
 oats, wood, &c. 
 
 Erbach, the capital of the county, 16 miles N. N. E. of Hei- 
 delberg. 
 
 EREBUS, [Ej^Co;, from 3iy, night,] in mythologv, a term de- 
 noting darkness. According to Hesiod, Erebus was the son of 
 Chaos and Nox, or Night, and the father of Dies, or Day. 
 
 Erebus was also part of the infernal regions among the ancients. 
 Thev had a peculiar expiation for those who were detained in 
 Erebus. It was properly the gloomy region, and distinguished 
 both from Tartarus, the place of torment, and Elysium, the re- 
 gion of bliss. 
 
 EREOR r, or ERFURT, a town of Germany in the late circle 
 of Upper Saxony, the capital of Thnringia, and subject to the 
 elector of Mentz." Lon. 11. ej. K. Lat. 51. 0. N. 
 
 ERGASl'ULUM, in Roman antiquity, a prison, work-house, 
 or house of correction, where slaves by the private authority of 
 their masters were contined and kept for their offences to hard la- 
 bour. The Greeks had a place of confinement of this sort, called 
 
 Eu/jicovici^ov. 
 
 ERICA, Heath t in botany, a genus of the monogynia order, 
 and octandria class of plants ; natural order, Bicornes. Caly.x 
 tctraphyllous ; corolla quadrifid ; filaments inserted into the re- 
 ceptacle ; anthera; bilid ; capsule quadrilocular. It has eighty- 
 four species. 
 
 ERIDANUS, in ancient geography, a river of Attica, fiiHing 
 into the Ilissu;. 
 
 Eridanus, the ancient name of the Padus or Po, an appellation 
 ascribed by Pliny to the Greeks ; followed in this by Virgil. 
 
 Eridanus, in astronomy, a constellation of the southern hemi- 
 sphere, ill form of a river. 
 
 ER I E, an extensive lake of N. America, near 300 miles long, 
 and 40 broad, at its broadest part. Its form is elliptical, but a 
 ])oint of land projects into it from the N. side for several miles to- 
 wards the S. E. It receives its waters on the W. by the Detroit 
 from Lakes Superior, Michigan, and Huron; and on the N. E. 
 
 communicates
 
 ERI 
 
 320 
 
 ERM 
 
 coiiimuiiicak'S with Lake Ontario by the Nia2,ara. '^I'hc line of di- 
 vision, between the United States and Upper Canada, runs 
 through it. Its navigation is rendered dangerous by numerous 
 projections of ])erpendicular craggy rocl;s into the water Iroui its 
 N. shore lor many miles ; and its banks and island on the \V. are 
 €C|ually dangerous to land on, being much infested with rattle- 
 Siiakes, and a peculiar species of poisonous reptile, called the His- 
 sing Snake. 
 
 Erie Fort, a strong fort of Upper Canada, on the N. coast of 
 Lake Erie, and W. bank ^of the Kiagara, 27 miles S. by E. of 
 Fort Niagara. Lon. 78° i'O' 30" W . Lat. 42. 50. N. 
 
 ERIGERON, Fi.rA-BANE, in botany, a genus of the poly- 
 gamia snpertlua order, and syngenesia class of plants; natural 
 order, Coroposjta;. Receptacle naked ; pappus hairy ; Horets ol 
 the radius linear, and very narrow. There are thirty species. 
 
 ERIGONE, in fabulous history, the daughter of Icarus, died 
 of gri;rf for her father's death, was translated into heaven, and 
 made the sign Virgo. 
 
 ERIN, an ancient name of Ireland. 
 
 ERINACEUS, the Hedgehog, in zoology, a genus of cjua- 
 drupeds of the order, Fers. Generic character : two fore-feeth, 
 both above and below, those of the upper jaw di^tant, those of the 
 lower approximated ; live tusks on each side of the upper jaw, 
 thice en each side of the lower ; four grinders on each si<',e, both 
 above and below ; body covered on the upper part with spines. 
 'J'hcre are si.\ species. 
 
 1. E. EuROP^us, Common or European Hedgehog, is found 
 in most of the temperate parts of Europe and Asia, and, according 
 to Mr. Pennant, is also seen in Madagascar, it commonly mea- 
 sures about 1 1 inches in length. Its colovir is generally gvey- 
 browU; but it sometimes is found totally white, or of a yellowish 
 white. It feeds principally on tlie roots of vegetables ; but it also 
 eats worms, as well as beetles and o'.her insects. It wanders about 
 <hiefly by night, and during the day conceals itself in its hole, 
 imder the roots of some tree, or mossy bank. It produces four 
 or five young at a birth, which are soon covered w ith ])rickles like 
 those of the parent animal, but shorter and weaker. 'I'lie ne^t is 
 large, and is composed of moss. The hedgehog, when disturbed 
 rolls itself up into a globular form, and thus presents to its adver- 
 sary an invulnerable ball of prickles. Irom this state of security, 
 it is not easily forced; scarcely any thing but cold water obliging 
 it to inifold itself. It swims perfectly well when thrown into wa- 
 ter. The hedgehog is one of those animals which, during t!ie 
 V inter, are supposed to continue in a state of torpidity. In that 
 season it lies concealed in its hole, surrounded with a bed of mo-,s, 
 secure from the rigours of the most piercing frost, and at the re- 
 tiun of spring recommences its -wanderings. The hedgehog may 
 be rcndeied in a considerable degree domestic ; and has frequently 
 been introduced into houses for the purpose of expelling those 
 troublesome insects the blatta;, or cockroaches, which it pursues 
 with avidity, and is fond of feeding on. It is itself an occasional 
 ar-.icle of food in some places, and is said to be be»t in the month 
 of August. The hedgehog is generally considered as a harmless 
 inolfensive animal, but has been frequently supposed (and to this 
 day the absurd notion prevails in many places) to suck the teats 
 of cows by niylit, and thus cause by its prickles those exulcera- 
 tions wh'ch are sometimes seen on cattle. From this accusation, 
 however, it is completely absolved by Mr. Pennant, who ob- 
 serves, tliat its mouth is by far too small to admit of this practice. 
 See Plate LXVI. 
 
 2. E. AvRiTius, the Lonc-Eared Urchin of Pallas and Gme- 
 l.n, or Siberian Hedgehog of Pennant, has long oval ears, nostrils 
 crested at the «'dges, and all the manm-rs of the Eurojiean. It 
 inhabits Asiatic Russia, near the N'ok'a and Ural, where it is 
 smaller than the European, and beyond lake Baikal, where it is 
 larger. 
 
 3. E. ErAVDATVs, the 'I anrec of BufTon, and Asiatic 
 Hedgehog of Pennant, is nearly as large as a rabbit, and has a 
 very long slender muzzle, but no tail. It inhabits India and Ma- 
 dagascar. 
 
 4. E. Inauris, the White American Urchin of Seba, or 
 GuiaUa Hedgehog of Pennant, is 8 inches long, and has no 
 externril ears. It is a native of S. America. 
 
 5. E. Malaccensis, the Malacca Urchin of Brisson, or 
 SiBO&T-TAiLED Porcupine of Liiioieus, has pendulous ear-, and 
 
 inhabits A-i.i. From this^pccic-^ is procured the Piedra del Porco, 
 formerly much esteemed, supposed by Mr. Kerr, to be a kind of 
 Bezoar. See Plate LXVI. 
 
 6. Setosus, the 'I'endkac, has spines only on the head, neck, 
 tail, and withers; is scarce six inches long, and inhabits India and 
 Madagascar. 
 
 ERINNYS, [Eoivvuf, /. e. an avenger of crimes,] in mUliology, 
 a name common to the Furies. See Fvries. 
 
 EKINUS, in botany, a genus of the angiospermia order, and 
 didynamia class of pl.mts ; natural order, Personata-. Calyx pen- 
 laphyllous ; corolla l-.order iiuincjuelid and equal ; with its lobes 
 emarginated, upper lip very short and rellexed ; capsule bilucu- 
 lar. rhirtcen >pecies cliielly natives of Africa. 
 
 ERIOCAULON, in botany, a genus ot the trigynia order, and 
 triandria class of j)lants ; natural order, Ensata-. The common 
 c.dyx is an imbricated capilulu-' or knob; there are three equal 
 petals ; and the stamina are on the germen. It has six species. 
 
 ERIOCEPHALI'S, in botany, a genus of the polygamia ne 
 cessaria order, and syngenesia class of plants ; natural order, Com. 
 posita?. Rere|)tasle somewhat villous; no pappus ; calvx deca- 
 |)hyllous and ecpial ; the radius has five florets. Tvo species, na- 
 tives of the Cape of Good Ilojje. 
 
 ERIOPIIORU.M, a genus of the monogynia order, and trian- 
 dria class of plants ; natural order, Calamaria-. Glumes palea- 
 ceous, imbricated all around; no corolla; seed one, lurni-hed 
 with a very long down. There are six species. 
 
 ERIOSPEKMUM, in botaiiy, a genus of the hexandria n;o- 
 nogynia class and order. Corolla six-petaled, campanulate, per- 
 manent ; filaments dilated at the base; capsule three-celled ; seeds 
 invented w ith wool. 'I'here are three spicies. 
 
 ERIOSFEMUM, in botany, a genus of the decandria mono- 
 gynia class and order. Calyx live-parted; petals five, sessile; 
 stamina Hat, clliate ; anther;r pedicelled terminal ; st\le from the 
 base of the germ ; capsules five, united, seated on a nectary co- 
 vered with protuberances ; seeds coated. One species, viz. E. 
 australasia. 
 
 ERIPHYLE, in fabulous history, the sister of Adrastus king 
 ofArgo', wife of Amphiaraus, and daughter of lalaus and Lisi* 
 mache. 
 
 EKIS, or ATE, the goddess of Discord among the Greeks, 
 and the Discordia of the Latins. She was represented by Aristides, 
 w ith fiery eyes, a pale countenance, livid lips, and wearing a dag- 
 ger in her bosom. 
 
 ERISICHIHON, in fabulous history, a Thessalian, son of 
 Triops, who derided Ceres, and cut down her groves. '1 his iin- 
 pielv irritated the goddess, w ho ai'llicted him with continual hunger. 
 
 ERI THALIS, a genus of the monogynia order, and pentandria 
 class of plants. Corolla quimpiepartite; caly.x bladder-like; 
 berrv decemlocular, inferior. It has tv\o species. 
 
 ERIN'AN, a city of Persia, in Asia, and capital of Persian Ar- 
 menia. It is a large, dirty, ill-looking place, in which there are no 
 handsome buildings,- the houses being very mean, and raised with 
 earth or mud ; but it is full of gardens and vineyards. Lon. 44. 
 iO. E. Lat. 40. 20. N. 
 
 Erevan, Persian Armenia, or Greater Armenia, a pro- 
 vince of Persiti, Coo miles long, and 180 broad, of which the above 
 citv is the capital. 
 
 Erivak, an extensive lake in the above province, 60 miles in 
 circumference. 
 
 ERKELENS, a town of Germany, 10 miles N. W. of Juliei-s. 
 
 ERLANG, a town of Germany, in the circle of Francoula, 12 
 miles N. VV. of Nuremberg. 
 
 ERMELAXD, a province of Prussia. The chief towns are 
 Frauiiiiiourg, Braunsberg, and Heilsburij. 
 
 ERMINE, in zoology. See Mustela. 
 
 Ermine, or F.kmin, in heraldry, deiuites a white field or fur, 
 poucleied or interspersed with black spots, ci.lled powdering. It 
 represents the skin ot an animal so named. There is, however, no 
 animal whose skin naturally corresponds to the herald's ermiii. 
 'Fhe animal is milk white ; and so lar from having '■pot-:, that tradi- 
 tion reports, it w ill r.:ther die or be taken, than sully its w hiteness : 
 hence its symbolical use. But white skins having for ages been 
 used for the linings of the robes of magi trales and great men, the 
 furriers, to add to tlieir beauty, sewed bits of the black tails of 
 those creatures upon the white skins; which alteration was inlro- 
 7 duced
 
 ERR 
 
 321 
 
 ERU 
 
 need into lirr.ililrv. Tin' s.il)le spots in (niiiiie arc not of any 
 rk-rniinalt' luunlx-r. l)ut may be niuit or less at the pleasnie oi 
 If paiiiliT or iun ior. 
 
 Ermine, an oidi:r of kniglils, instituted in 14J0 by l-'rancis I. 
 uke of Hn'la;;ne, and fornierly subsisting in l'"raiice. 
 
 ICR MINKS, in heraldry, llie reverse of ermine, ?'. e. white 
 )ots on a l)l;'.c;k field. 
 
 KKNODiiA, in botany, a genns of llie tetrandria nionogynia 
 ass and oi'dor. Calyx four-pjrtid ; corolla one-petaled, salver- 
 ,aped ; berry two-eelled ; seeds solitary. Oiie species, viz. E. 
 Itoralis, a native of Jamaica. 
 
 EKODll'M, Cr.^nes-Hill, in botany, a genns of the mona- 
 i'lpl)ia penlandria class and order. Calyx live-leaved ; corolla 
 vc-))etaled ; nectary live scales, alternate with the lilaments and 
 i.uids at the base oftlie stamens; frnit five-grained, willi a spiral 
 luk, bearded on the inside. There are twenty-eight species. 
 
 EKODU'S, a genus of insects of the order coleoptera. An- 
 ■nna moniliforni ; feelers filform ; body roundish, gibbous, im- 
 larginatc ; thorax transverse ; shells closely united, longer than 
 le abdomen ; jaw horny, bifid : lip horny, emarginate. There 
 re four species. 
 
 EKOS, [ijo;, i. e. love,] in mythology, one of the two chiefs 
 \er all the other Cupids, being the cause of love. 
 
 ElU) ri:^UM, a genus of the class and order pentandria mono- 
 ynia. Cal\x live-leaved ; corolla five-pelaled ; the style trifid ; 
 erry jniceless, tiiree-celled, many-seeded. There are two spe- 
 les, natives of Jamaica. 
 
 EUO 1 lA, a festival in honor of Eros, celebrated by the Thcs- 
 iaiis every filth year with sports and games. 
 
 EKOTIC, [ijci'Tixo;, from E=c;, love] of, or belonging to love. 
 
 EROTICUM Delirium, in medicine, a kind of melancholy 
 ontracted through excess of love. 
 
 EKPACH, a county of Germany, in Suabia. 
 
 Erp.^ch, a town and castle in the above county, 8 miles S. E. 
 .fUlm. 
 
 EKQUIKO, a sea-jjort of Africa, on the coast of Abex, on the 
 led Sea; 3^0 milesS. W. of Mecca. Lon. 39. 5. E. Lat. 17. 30.N. 
 
 EKRHINE, [i/V'™,] in pharmacy, medicines which when snuff- 
 d up the nose promote a discharge of mucus. Ihese are more 
 ■iendly to the constitution and r.rrves than sternutatories, by their 
 Libtile, acrid, and volatile salt, gently stimulating the pituitary 
 lembrane, and drawing the imici-.i humour from it. They are 
 Iso much safer. Those prepared of cephalic herbs are of singular 
 .rvice in oppressive pains ot liie head, hermicrania, lethargic dis- 
 rders, weaknesses ol memory, stufiingsof the head, and coryza, 
 lucous delluxions of the eyes, drowsiness, vertigoes, and in cases 
 • here the malignant humours generated by the lues venerea are 
 jdged ill the meir.branes of the nostrils. 
 
 Errhines, Mild, are marjoram, basilicon, thyme, hyssop, sa- 
 ory, marum syriacum, the tops of origanum, flowers of lilies of 
 he valley, and guin benzoia, the resin of guaiacum, fine raspings 
 f aloes wood, dry volatile salt of sal ammoniac, perfumed with 
 111 of marjoram, and white vitriol. 
 
 Errhines, Violent, are, euphorbium, the powder of white 
 lellebore, several sorts of snuffs, precipitate mercury, turbith mi- 
 leral, and pepper. 
 
 ERROUR, or ERROR, in philosophy, a mistake of our judge- 
 nent, giving assent to that which is not true. Mr. Locke reduces 
 lie causes ot error in philosophy, to these four; 1st, want of jjroofs; 
 Idly, want of ability to use them; 3dly, want of will to use them; 
 
 nd, 4t.hly, wrong measures of probability. He observes upon 
 he first ot these, that the greatest part of mankind want conveni- 
 ■iices and opportunities of making experiments and observations 
 hemselves, or of collecting the testimonies of others, being pre- 
 sented by the necessity of their condition. Upon tl.e 2nd, he 
 ibserves, that there are many, who, from the state of their condi- 
 ion, might bestow time in collecting proofs, but yet are not able 
 o carry a train of consequences in tiieir heads, nor weigh exactly 
 lie preponderancy of contrary proofs and testimonies, merely from 
 
 he difference in men's understandings, apprehensions, rnd reason- 
 ngs. lie remarks, 3dly, that though some have opportunities 
 ,nd leisure enough, and want neither parts, learning, nor other 
 lelps, that they never come to the knowledge of several truths 
 vilhin their reach, cither upon account of their attaciimi nt to 
 jleasiire or business; or otherwise because of their kuuiess or 
 iversion to study. The 4th cause of error he imputes, 1. To the 
 
 VOL. 11. — NO. 76,- 
 
 practice of taking for [jriiiciples propositions tli.'.t are not in Uiem- 
 sflves certain and evident, but, on the contrary, doubtful and 
 false. 2. To received hypotheses. 3. To piedomiiu'.nt pa>.s!(,ns 
 or inclinations. And, 4. To autiiority, or the giving up of our as- 
 sent to the common received opinions e.ther of our friends or 
 party, neighbours or country. '1 he causes of error in philosophy, 
 or the reasons whv all former philosopher have through so many 
 ages erred, according to Lord Bacon, are these tollowing: 1. 
 ^Vant of time suited to learning. 2. The little labour bestowed 
 upon natural philosophy. 3. I'"ew entirely addicted to natural 
 philosophy. 4. The end of the sciences wrong fixed. 5. \ 
 wrong way chosen. 6. The neglect of experiments. 7. Ke-. 
 gard to antiquity and authority. 8. Admiration of the works in 
 use. 9. The artilice of teachers and writers in the sciences, ID. 
 Ostentatious promises of the moderns. 11. Want of proposing 
 worthy tasks. 12. Superstition and zeal being opposite to natural 
 philosophy, as thinking pliilosophy dangerous, on account of the 
 school theology; from the opinion that deep natural inquiries 
 should subvert religion. 13. School< and academies proving un-, 
 favourable to philosophy. 14. Want of rewards. And, 15. De- 
 spair, and the supposition of impossibility. 
 
 Error Loci, i. e. Error of Place, a term introduced into 
 medicine by Boerhaave, from the opinion that the vessels were o£ 
 different sizes for the circulation of blood, serum, ai.d I) mph ; and 
 that when the larger sized globules were forced into the le.s ves- 
 sels by an error oi place, they were obstructed. But this opinion 
 is now exjjloded. 
 
 Error, in law, signifies an error in pleading, or in the process V 
 and the writ which is brought for remedy thereof, is called a w rit 
 of error. A writ of error is a commission to judiies ol a sujjerior 
 court, by which they are authorized to examine the record upon 
 which a judgement was given in an inferior court, and on such ex- 
 amin.ition, to affirm or reverse tlie same according to law. Jenk. 
 Rep. 25. For particulars as to the practice of writs of error, see 
 Impey's K. B. and C. P. 
 
 ERSE, or GAELIC LANGUAGE. See Gaelic. 
 ERUCA, the general name of cate.-pillars of all kinds. Tire 
 caterpillar state is that through which every butterfly must pass 
 before it arrives at its perfection and beauty: and, in the same 
 manner, all tlie known winged animals, except only the puceron, 
 pass through a reptile state ; none else being produced in their 
 winged form. The change from caterpillar to butterfly was long 
 esteemed a metamorphosis, a real change of one animal into an- 
 other ; but tliis is not the case. The egg of a butterfly produces iv 
 butterfly, with all the lineaments of its parent; only these are not 
 disclosed at first, but for the greater part of the animal's lite arc- 
 covered with a case or muscular coat, in which are legs tor walk- 
 ing, which only suit it in this state; but its mouth takes in nou- 
 rishment, which is conveyed to the included animal ; and alter a 
 proper time this covering is thrown oft, and the buttertly, whicii 
 all the while might be discovered in it by an accurate observer 
 with the help of a microscope, appears in it's proper form. Before 
 it passes into this state, however, there requires a state of rest for 
 the wings to harden, and the other parts to acquire their proper 
 firmness; this is transacted in a time of perfect rest, when tlie ani- 
 mal lies in what is called the nymph or chrysalis state, in appear- 
 ance only a lump of inanimate matter. There is a determined 
 time for each of these changes in every species ; but, in the seve- 
 ral different kinds, the periods are very diflerent. 'I'here is no 
 sign of sex in the animal while in the caterpillar state : the propa- 
 gation of the species is the business of the creature in its ultimate 
 perfection; and till that, these parts are never ex-cUKled ; one le- 
 male butterfly, when she has been impregnated by the male, will-, 
 produce 300 or 400 eggs, or even more. There is no way ot 
 knowing tiie sexes of these little creatures by viewing the parts; 
 but the whole figure and niannor of the animal shews the dilier- 
 ence. The females are always larger than the males; the.y are 
 also more slow in their motion- ', and some of them liavc no w ings, , 
 or, at the most, only very small ones. The males, however, have 
 a sort of beards, more beautitui than the aiitennic or horns ot the 
 females: the female is much stronger as-.\ell as bigger than the 
 male; and often, in case of danger or di^tuibance, she flies away 
 with him in time of copulation. On dissecting the leniale, her 
 utt rus all'ords an astonisliipg sight. The number of eggs in the 
 tubes is amazing: but these have not all the same tigire; and, in 
 some species, as the silk-worm, &c, the eggs art of a beautitui 
 4 N Wue ;
 
 E R Y 
 
 322 
 
 ESC 
 
 blue; if 3-,iy yellowish ones are seen among them, thfy arc' jvidgcil 
 to, be defective. The care ot all the biittenly tribe to lodi;o their 
 egji ii) safety is surprising. Those whose eg:;s are to be h.itthed 
 in a few weei:s_. and wlio are to live in the caterpillar slate during 
 p.irt of the reniaiiiinp; summer, always lay them on the leaves ot 
 ^urli plants as will afford a proper riourishment , but those, whose 
 pggs are to remain unhalched till the following spring, alwavs lav 
 them on the bram he? of trees and shrubs, and usually s^^lect siitii 
 places as arc lea^t exposed to the rigour of tlie ensuing season, and 
 trtquently cover them from it in an artful manner. Some make ,i 
 general coat of a hairy matter over thcni. taking the hairs fro'.n 
 tlitir own bo.iies for that purpose; others hide themselves in hol- 
 low places in trees, and in other sheltered cells, and there live in 
 a kind of torpid state during the whole winter, that lliev may de- 
 posit their eggs in the succecdinc; spring, at a lime when there will 
 be no severities of weather for them to combat. Tlie clay bulter- 
 illes only do this, and of these but a verv few species; but tlie 
 pi'nalena;, or night ones, all without exception, lay their egiis as 
 soon as they have been in copulation with the male, and die im- 
 »iifd lately afterwards. 
 
 ERUDITION, implies chiefly the knowIe<lgc of history and 
 antiquity, of languages and of books. The Scaligers were men of 
 deep erudition: the writings of M. Launoy, a priest of the Ora- 
 tory, are full of erudition. Mr. Locke says, it is of more use to 
 ■ill the head with reflertions than with points of erudition. M. 
 Balzac calls a heap of ill chosen erudition the luggage of anti- 
 quity. 
 
 LRUPTION, in medicine, a sudden and copious excretion of 
 humours, as pus or blood : it signifies also the same with e\an- 
 tliema, any breaking out, as the pustules of the plague, small-pox, 
 measles, &c. 
 
 ER\'UM, the Lentil; a genus of the decamlria order, and 
 diadelphia class of plants; natural order, Papilionacea-. Calyx 
 rive-parted, the length of the corolla. There are six species ; of 
 which the F.. lens, the common lentil, is cullivated in many parts 
 of England, either as fodder for cattle, or for the seeds which are 
 used in meagre soups. 
 
 Ell^ .NLVNTUrS, in ancient geographv, a mountain, river, 
 and town of Arcadia, w here Hercules is said to have killed a pro- 
 tl-gious boar, which he carried on his shoulders to Eurvstheus ; 
 who w-as so terrified at the sight, that he hid himself in a brazen 
 vessel. 
 
 ERYNGIUM, ERYNGO, or SEAIIOLLY, a genus of the 
 digynia order, and pentandria class of |)lants ; natural order, Um- 
 hellata?. Flowers collected into a round head; receptacle palea- 
 ceous. There ?.re eleven species; most of which are hardy herba- 
 ceous perennials, producing erect st.ilks from one to two or three 
 teet high ; with simple, eiiiire, or divided priikly leaves ; and tiie 
 stalks terminated by roundish aggreg^.te heads of quinqnepetaluiis 
 flowers, of white, blue, or purple colours. Thevall llower mostly 
 in July, and the seeils ripen in September. 
 
 ERYSIMUM, Hedge Mi'stard : a genus of the siliquosa 
 order, and telradynamia class of plants; natural order, Siliquosie. 
 Siliqua long, linear, and exactly tetragonal; calyx close. It has 
 eight -peci»'s-. 
 
 ER YSIPET^AS, [i^us-niVic,] an erysipelas is generated by a 
 hot scrum in the blood, and aCfeets the superficies of the skin with 
 a shining pale red, and citron colour, without pulsation or cirfuni- 
 scribed tumour, spreading from one place to another. See Me- 
 
 DICIVB. 
 
 ERYTHR ?,, in ancient geography, three towns: I. in /Efolin, 
 on the C'orintlii.in ba) : 2. in Bfeotia, near Plat.ra and mount Ci- 
 ih.iTOii: 3. in Ionia, on the peninsula, at its extremity ; with 4. a 
 cognominal port. It was famous for an ancient temple of Her- 
 cules. 
 
 ERY TIIRi'EA, a surname of the Sybil Ilerophile, from her 
 birth-place, F.rytjira- in Ionia. 
 
 -ERi'TlIR.EUM MARE, erroneously called Rubnmi, or the 
 Red Sea, by the Romans. Thus, the ocean th;it v. ashes Arabia 
 and Persia, and extends a great way farther, is denominated. 
 Hence Ilerociotirs says, tluit (he Euphrates and Tigris fall into the 
 Mare Ervthr.rum. It is named from 
 
 ER\ ITIRAS, the son of Perseus and Andromeda, whose 
 kingdom lav on the confines of that sea. 
 
 ERYlliHlNA, CoRAi, Tree: a genws of the decandria or- 
 der, and diadelphia class of plants ; natural order, Papilionaccx. 
 
 Calyx bilabiate, the one lip above, the other below ; vexilhun of 
 the corolla very long and ianceolated. 'I'hcre are seven species, 
 shrubl.iy fiovvermg exotics for the stove, adorned chiefiy with trifo- 
 liate leaves, arid scarlet spikes of papilionaceous flowers. They 
 are natives of the Wiirm parts of Ainca and America; and must 
 always be kept in pots, which remain constantly in stoves in thiii 
 country. 
 
 ERYTHROIDES, in anatomy, the first of the proper coats 
 which cover the testicles. 
 
 ERYTIIRONTUM, Dog's-tooth Violet: a genus of the 
 monogyiiia order, and hexandria class of pli.-.its; natural order, 
 Sarmenlace.T. Corolla hexapctalous, campanulated; with a nec- 
 tariuni, tubercles two, adhering to the inner base of every other 
 petal. There is only one species, *hich, however, admits of se- 
 veral varieties in its flowers, as white, purple, pale red, dark red, 
 crimson, and yellow. 
 
 ERYTIIROXYLOX, in botany, a genu'= of the trigvnia or- 
 der, and decandria class of plants. Calyx turbinate<l ; corolla 
 having each a nectarilerous emarginated scale at the base ; stamina 
 connected at the base; fruit a bilocular plum. It has tive species. 
 
 EKYX, in fabulous history, a son of Dutes and Venus, who re- 
 lying upon his strength, challenged all strangers to fight with him 
 in the combat of the cestus. He was killed in the combat, !>'■ 
 Hercules, who had accepted his challenge. 
 
 ERZERON, or ERZERU.M, a city of Turkey in Asia, the 
 capital of Turcoinania; five days journey from the I'lack Sr.i, 
 and 10 from the frontiers of Persia. Lon. 40. 41. E. Lat. 39 
 5/. N. 
 
 ERZGEBIRG, or ERZGEF.URG, a territory of Germany, 
 in I'pper Saxony, surrtiUiuled by those of Leipsic, Meissen, Vogt- 
 landf, Keustadt, Rohemia, and Altenburgh. 
 
 ESARHADDON, or ASAR-ADDON, the son of Senna- 
 cherib, and his successor in the kingdom of Assyria, about B. C 
 713. He united the kingiloms of Nineveh and liabvlon; con- 
 quered Etinopia and Syria; sent a colony to Samaria ; and his 
 
 nerals took king Manasseh, and carried him in chains to IVabv 
 
 ge- 
 
 He reigned 29 years at Nineveh, from A. M. 3'J94 to 33;'2 ; ami 
 13 at Uabylon;' m all 4'J years. He died A. M. 3336, and wjs 
 succeeded by Saosduchinus. Esarhaddon, in the opinion of Sir 
 Isaac Newton, is the Sardanapalus who died, as Clectarchus says, 
 of old age, after the revolt of Syria ; the name Sardanapalus being 
 derived from Asserhadon Pnl. 
 
 ESAU, [J'i'y, Heb. i. e. doing.] See Edom. 
 
 Esau, a inuuiitain of Arabia, m Yemen, 4 miles N. of Udden. 
 
 ESCACENA, a town of Spain, in Seville, 20 miles \V. of I 
 Seville. 
 
 ESC.ALLONIA, a genus of the nionogynia order, and pentan- 
 dria class of plants. Fruit bilocular, polysperniuus; petals distant, 
 tongue-shaped ; stigma headed. 
 
 ESCALON.V, "two towns of Spain; I. in New Castile, 5i 
 miles S. W. of Madrid ; 2. in Old Castile, 14 miles N. N. E. of 
 Segovia. 
 
 ESCAPE, in Law, a violent or pri%'y evasion out of some law- 
 ful restraint, without being delivered by due course ot law^ 
 There are two sorts of escapes, \oluiitary and neplifeiit. 
 
 Escape, Negligent, is where one is arrisied, and afterward* 
 escapes against the will of the person that arreste;! him, and is not 
 pursued with fresh suit, and retaken before the pcrsiii pui-suing 
 hath lost sight of him. By stat. Sand 9 Will. ill. c. 2(>. the 
 keepers of prisons conniving at escapes shall forfeit 300/. and in 
 civd cases, the sheritif is answerable for the debt. 
 
 Escape, Voluntary, when a man arrests another for felony, 
 or other crime, and afterwards lets him go freely by consent; in 
 which case, the party that permits such escape is held guilty, tom- 
 mitted, and must answer for it. 
 
 ESCAUT, or the SCHELDT, a department of Belgium, coii- 
 tain'ng part of the late Austrian Flanders. Ghent is the capital. 
 
 ESCHALOT. See Allium. 
 
 ESCHAR, in surgrrv, the crust or scab occasioned bj burnt 
 or caustic medicines. See Svrceky. 
 
 F"SCH,\RO TICS, in pharmacy, medicines which produce 
 eschars. See Eschar. 
 
 ESCHEAT, incur law, denotes an obstruction of the course 
 of descent, and a consequent determination of the tenure by some 
 unforeseen oiiti.igencv ; in which ca.se, the laud naturally results 
 back, by a kind of reversion, to the oiiginal grantor, or lord of the 
 
 he.
 
 E S C 
 
 323 
 
 ESC) 
 
 fee. 2 Black. 244. Ksclicat liiippeiis cithtr for viint of licirs of 
 <he person last st-i/cd, or l)y liis auaiiuler for a criino by Iiiin coni- 
 niiUi'il; in uiiirli laltpr cas<', tlic blood is taiiitoc), slaiiicd, or lor- 
 rupti'd, and t\v. inlu'ritable ([iialily of it is thereby pxtiiiguisliod. 
 Tor want of licirs, is where the tenant dies wiliioul any relations 
 on tlie part of any of liis aiuestors, or where lie dies without any 
 relations of those ancestors, paternal or maternal, from whom his 
 estate descended, or where he dies withont any relations of the 
 whole blood. Bastards are also incapable of mlierilante ; and 
 therefore if there is no other claimant than such illegitimate chil- 
 dren, the lafid shall escheat to the lord ; and, as bastards cannot 
 be heirs themselves, so neither can they have any heirs hut those 
 of their own bodies ; ■in<\ therefore if a bastard jjnrchases land, 
 and dies seized thereof withont issue and intestate, the lanil shall 
 escheat to the lord of the fee. Aliens also, that is, persons born 
 ont of the king's allegianci-, are incapable ot taking by de=cenl: 
 and nnlcss natnralized, are also incapable of takins; by purchase; 
 and therefore, if there are no natnral-born subjects to claim, such 
 lands shall in like manner escheat. I'y attainder for treason or 
 other felony, the blood of the person attainted is corrupted and 
 stained, and the- original donation of the fend is thereby determin- 
 ed, it being always granted to the vassal on the implied condition 
 of his well demeaning himself. In consequence of which corrup- 
 tioH and extinction of hereditary blood, the land of all felons 
 would immediately revert to the lord, but that the superior law of 
 forfeiture intervenes, and intercepts it in his passage; in case of 
 treason, forever; in case of other felony, for only a year and a 
 day; after which lime it goes to the lord, in a regular < ourse of 
 escheat. 2 Black, c. i:>. 
 
 ESCIIEATOR, was an ancient ofTicer, so called because his 
 oflice was properly to look to escheats, wardships, and other casu- 
 alties belonging to the crown. This oftice had its chief depend- 
 ence on the courts of wards, but is now out of date. Co. Lit. 13. 
 b. 4. Inst. t'C:). 
 
 ESCHELLES, a town in France, in tlie dep.irtment of Mont 
 Blanc, late Savoy, 10 miles S. W. of Chambery. 
 
 ESCIIEVIN, or ECHEVIN, [Srahinus,' I.at.] in the late 
 French and Dutch polity, a magistrate elected by the inlialiitants 
 of a city, to take care ot their common concerns. 
 
 ESCHRAKITES, or ESRAKI'lES, a sect of philosophers, 
 among the Mohammedans, who adhere to the doctrines of Plato. 
 The word is derived from the Arabic pIB, schntai, which in the 
 tourth conjugation pnW!<, (uchraca, signifies to sliine, or glitter, 
 like the sun ; so that Eschrakite seems to import illumined. 
 
 ESCHWEGEN, a town of Germany, in lle^se, '27 miles 
 E.S.E. of Cassel. Lon. 10. 6. E. Lat. 5l". 9. N. 
 
 ESCHWEiLER, a town of France, in the department of 
 Koer, and late duchy of Juliers, 6 miles S, of Juliers. 
 
 EbCL.'VTTE', in heraldry, signifies a thing forcibly broken, or 
 rather a shield that has been broken and shattered with the stroke 
 of a baltle-a\. 
 
 ESCOR I, in the art of war, the same with convoy. See Cos-- 
 
 VOY. 
 
 ESCOUADE, or SQUAD, is usually the thud or fourth part 
 of a company of foot ; so divided for mounting guards, and for the 
 more convenient relieving of one another. It is equivalent to a 
 brigade or a troop of horse. See Brigade. 
 
 Escrow, among the lawyers, a deed delivered to a third 
 person, to be the deed of the party making it upon a future con- 
 dition, that when a rcrtain thing is performed, it shall be delivered 
 to the party to whom it w.as made, to take effect as the deed of 
 the person first delivering it. 
 
 ESCUAGE, in our old customs, a kind of knight service, 
 called service of the shield, by which the tenant was bound to 
 follow his lord to the wars at his own charge. It is also used for 
 a sum of money paid to the lord in lieu of such service; or even 
 for a -easonable aid, levied by the lord upon his tenants who held 
 by the knight's service. 
 
 ESCURIAL, a royal residence of Spain, 15 miles N.W. of 
 Madrid. It ts the kirgest and mo^t superb structure in the king- 
 dom, and one of the finest in Europe. The v*-ord is Arabic, 
 meaning " a place full of rocks." It is built in a dry barren spot, 
 sirrrounded with rugged mountains, insomucS that every thing 
 which grows there Is owing to art. This place was chosen, it is 
 Viid, for the sake of the stone wherewith the fabric is built, which 
 »5 got from a mouulain just by, and is Tery durable ; and the de- 
 
 sign for erecting it w,i5 to commemorate a victory which Philip 
 11. oDtained over the French (l)ut by tlio assistance of the Eng- 
 lish forces) at St. (Juintin, on St. Laurence's day, in the year 
 lj.-)7. The Spanish description ot Ihi:. structure forms a sizeable 
 quarto volume. Its founder expended upon it si\ millions of du- 
 cats. The apartments are decorated with an astonishing variety 
 of paintings, sculpture, tapestry, oniaments of gold and silver, 
 marble, ja5i>er, gems, and other curious stones, surpassing all ima- 
 gination. This building, besides its palace, contains a dmrch, 
 large and richly ornamented ; a mausoleum ; cloisters ; a convent ; 
 a college ; and a library, containing about thirty thousand vo- 
 lumes ; besides large apartments for all kinds of artists and me- 
 chanics, noble walks, with extensive parks imd gardens, bcautitied 
 with fountains and costly ornameii.s. 
 
 ESCV rCllEON, m heraUlry, is derived from the French 
 rsrus.tion, and that from the Latin snitum, and signifies the shield 
 whereon coats of arms are repre:,emed. Most nations, of the rc-- 
 motest antiquity, were wont to have their shields distinguished by 
 certain marks painted on them ; and to have such on their shields 
 was a token of honour, none being permitted to have Ihcm till 
 they had performed some honourable action. The e-cutcheon, as 
 used at present, is square, only rounded off at the bottom. As In 
 the bearings on shields, they might at first be arbitrary, according 
 to the faiK y of th( bearer; but, in proces3 of time, they came to 
 be the git't of kings and genends, as the rewar<l of boncurablc 
 actions. 
 
 EscuTCiifcON' OF Prftkkck, tluit on which n man carries his 
 wife's coat of arms, being an heiress, ^ud having issue by her. It 
 is placed over the coat ot the husband, who thereby shews forth 
 his pretensions to her lands. 
 
 ESDUAS, or EZU.A, a Jewish priest, and doctor of the law. 
 Arta.yerxes Longimanus, sent him with rich piotents for the use 
 and ornament of the temple at Jerusalem, rebuilt under Zerubba- 
 bel ; he also ordered the neighbouring governors to provide him 
 with what conduced to the pomp ot the Jewish religion, and to 
 exempt the priests from i)aying taxes. Ezra is supposed to have 
 been the collector of the Canon of Scripture ; and that, by divine 
 inspiration, he atlded some things which happened after the deaths 
 of the authors. It is supposed he w rote the Chronicles, besides 
 those books which bear his name ; the two last of which are ex- 
 ploded as apocryphal, even by the church of Rome. 
 
 ESENS, a town of Germany, in east Friesl.md, 34 miles 
 N.N.E. of Emden. Lon. 7. 14. E. Lat. 33. 47. N. 
 
 ESFARIAN, a town of Persia, 90 miles E. of Astrabad. Lon. 
 41. 2.5. E. Lat. 36. 48. N. 
 
 ESIONGABER, ASIOKGABER, or EZIONGEBER, an 
 ancient town of Arabia Petra'a, on the bay of Elath, a part of the 
 Arabian Gulf; the dock or station for the ships of Solomon and 
 Jehosliaphat. It was afterwards called Rernice. 
 
 ESK, a river of England, in Cumberland, which runs into the 
 Iri^h Sea, near Ravin gl.iss. 
 
 EsK, BiACK and White, two rivers of Scotland, in Eskdale, 
 Dumfriesshire. Also two rivers in Angus-hire. 
 
 ESKI SIIEHR, a town of Asiatic Turkey, in Natolia, on the 
 Sakari.i, Uti miles S. E. of Constantinople. 
 
 ESLINGEN, a large imperial town of Germany, in the late 
 duchy of \V irtemberg, 8 miles S. E. of Stutgard. 
 
 ESOX, in ichthyology, the Pike, a genus of fishes of the or- 
 der abdominales. Head flattish above, mouth aiul throat large ; 
 teeth sharp, in the jaws, ]ialate, and tongue ; nostrils dijyble, near 
 the eyes; gill-membrane with from seven to twelve ra\s; body 
 elongated ; dorsal tin near the tail. Gmelin enumerates fifteen 
 species, and Shaw twenty -two: the following are the most im- 
 portant. 
 
 E. Lucius, or the Common- Pike. In Lajiland this i"ish, is fre- 
 quently found eight feet long. It is to be iiu't with iii most lakes 
 and small rivers throughout Europe. Its common colour is a pale 
 olive, but in Holland it ha-^ been seen of an orange colour with 
 black spots. \\ lien in its perfect st.itc its colouis^ire uniformly 
 found to be most vivid. The largest pike ever causht in Great 
 Britain is supposed to have been one which weighed thirty-five 
 pounds. It is a fish of particularly rapid growth, and also of 
 great longevity, having been ascertained, according to one of the 
 natural hiitorians of Poland, to live to the age of ninety vears. 
 The stomach of the pike is particularly slronp, muscular, 'and c\- 
 tenA;d. Its teeth, without including those nearett the throat, are 
 
 na
 
 ESQ 
 
 5U 
 
 E SS 
 
 no fewer thua seven hundred, and those whicli are placed on t lie 
 jaws are alternately mo^-'eable and fixed. It is one of the most 
 voracious of lishes, and is often found to swallow water-rats and 
 young ducks ; it has even attacked the swan, and swallowed the 
 head and great part of the neck of that bird; but being unable to 
 separate these from the body, it became, hi this instance, the victim 
 of its voracity. 
 
 E. Belon'e, tlie Gar, or Sea Needle, sometimes grows to 
 three feet or more. The jaws are very long, slender, and shaip- 
 pointed; the under jaw extends much fartlier than the upper; and 
 the edges of both are armed with numbers of short and slender 
 teeth : the tongue is small : the eyes are large ; the irides silvery ; 
 and the nostrils wide and round. The body is slender, the belly 
 quite llat, bounded on both sides by a rough line. 
 
 K. Stomias, or the Piper-mouthed Pike, is a native of the 
 Mediterranean sea, about eighteen inches in lengUi, and of a 
 greenish brown colour. Its lower jaw is considerably longor than 
 the upper; it has two fore-teeth in the upper, and these with two of 
 the under, project from the mouth w hen shut ; a specimen of it is 
 to be seen in the British Museum. 
 
 ESPALIERS, in gardening, are rows of trees planted about a 
 whole garden or plantation, or in edges, so as to inclose quarters 
 or sepamte parts of a garden ; and are trained up regularly to a 
 lattice of wood-work in a close hedge, for the delence of tender 
 plants against the injuries of wind and weather. They are ot ad- 
 mirable use and beauty in a kitchen-gar<len, serving not only 
 to shelter the tender plants, but screen them from the sight of per- 
 sons in the walks. 
 
 ESPALION, a town of France, in the department of Aveiron, 
 \2i miles N. N. E. of Rhodez. 
 
 ESPAMISCACK, a lake of Lower Canada, 222 miles N.E. of 
 Quebec. Lon. 68. 0. \V. Lat. 50. 0. N. 
 
 ESPLANADE, in fortification, tlie stopping of the parapet of 
 the covered way towards the campaign. It is the same with glacis, 
 but begins to be antiquated, and is more jiroperly the empty space 
 betwixt a citadel and the houses of a town, commonly called a 
 place of arms. See Fortification. 
 
 ESPLEES, in law, the general products which lands yield, 
 or the protit or commodity that is to be tiiken or made of a 
 thing. 
 
 ESPOSENDA, a sea-port town of Portugal, in Entre-Duero-e- 
 Minho, 22 miles N. of Oporto. 
 
 EsposENDA, a town of Spain, in Gallicia, 12 miles S. W. of 
 Orense. 
 
 ESPOUSALS, in law, signify a contract or promise made be- 
 tween a man and a woman, to marry each other ; and in cases wheie 
 marriage may be consummated, espousals go before. Marriage is 
 ternieilan espousal de pra'senli. 
 
 Espousals among the Jews, were either by writing, or by a 
 piece of silver given and received, or by cohabitation. Among 
 the Greeks, .after the parents and friends of the young couple had 
 finished their negociation, the couple themselves pledged their 
 fa'.th to each other, the man swearing that he would be constant 
 and true, the woman that she would marry him, and make him 
 master of all she had. Then they ratified their agreement by a 
 kiss and joining right hands. Among the Romans the espousals 
 eonsisfv-d in an engagement of friends on both sides, whether ab- 
 sent or present, in public or without witnesses. But the common 
 ■way was by writings drawn up by common consent, and sealed by 
 both parties ; the man also sent a ring to the woman, consisting of 
 iron and without a stcne. 
 
 EStiUILL-E, ESQLTLINE, or ESQUILINUS MONS, 
 in .ancient geography, one of the seven hills of Rome, which 
 Varro will have to consist of two, viz. Cispius and Opius. 
 
 ESQUIMAUX, a [leople of North America inhabiting all that 
 v.ist tract of land called Labrador, or N'-w Britain. They dilTer 
 very considerably, both in aspect and behaviour, from the other 
 American nations ; agreeing in most respects with the inhabitants of 
 West Greenland. 
 
 EStiLURE is derived from the French escu, and the Latin 
 scutum, in Greek yxi/r®-, which signifies a hiile, of which shields 
 were anciently made, and alterwards covered: for, in the time of 
 the Anglo-Sa\ons, the shields had a covering of leather. An 
 esfjuire, or Scpiire was originally a pei-son who, attending a knight 
 in time of war, carried his shieUl ; wheutc he was called encuicr in 
 
 French, and escutifer, or arniiger, i. c. armour-bearer, in Latin. 
 This title iias not, for a long time, had any relation to the ofiice of 
 the person, as to carry arms &-'C. Those to whom the title of 
 esquire is now of right due, are all noblemen's younger sons, and 
 the eldest sons of such yomiger sons; the eldest sons of knights, ^ 
 and their eldest sons ; the officers of the king's courts, and of his 
 household: counsellors at law, justices olThe peace, &:c. though 
 Iho^e latter are only esquires in reputation : besides, a justice of the 
 peace holds this title no longer than he is in commission, iu case lie 
 is not otherwise qualified to bear it: but a sherifi' of a county, 
 who i- a superior ofiicer, retains the title of esquire during life, in 
 consequence of the trust once reposed in him: the heads of some 
 ancient families are said to be esquires by prescription. 
 
 ESQ.UIRES OF THE KiNG are such as liave that title by Creation, 
 wherein the form used is, to put about their necks a collar of SS, 
 and bestow on them a pair of silver spurs, &c. 
 
 Esquires of the Knights of the Bath are constituted by 
 these knights, each knight ot the Bath constituting three esquires, 
 at his installation. 
 
 ESQUISSE, [Fr. asketch,] in painting, the first slight sketch or 
 draught of a picture. 
 
 ESSAY, in literature, a peculiar kind of composition, the 
 character whereof is to be free, easy, and natural ; not tied lo 
 strict order or method, not worked up and finished like a formal 
 system. 
 
 Essay-balance. See Balance. 
 
 Essay-hatch is the miner's term for a little trench or hole,which 
 thev dig to search for slioad or ore. 
 
 Essaying, or ASS.\Y1NG, in chemistry and metallurgy. 
 See Assaying. 
 
 ESSEDARII, a sort of gladiators, mentioned by Seneca, Sue- 
 tonius, andTullv, who on some occasions engaged one another out 
 of chariots called esseda. 
 
 ESSEDUM, a sort of heavy chariot from which the Gauls and 
 Britons engaged the Romans. 
 
 ESSEN, three towns of Germany in Westphalia. 
 
 ESSENCE, in chemistry, denotes thepurest, most subtile, and 
 balsamic part of a body; extracted either by simple expression, 
 or by means of fire, from fruits, flowers, and the like. Of these 
 there are a great variety, used on account of their agreeable smell 
 and ta^te, by apothecaries, perfumers, and others. Those extract- 
 ed by means of fire, witli more propriety are to be counted among 
 the essential oils. 
 
 Essence of Bekgamot, is a fragrant essence, extracted from 
 a fruit which is produced by ingrafting a branch of lemon-tree, 
 upon the stock of a bergamot-pear. It is imported from Italy and 
 Sicily, p.articularly from Reggia and Messina. This spirit is ex- 
 tracted, by paring off the rind of the fruit with a broad knife, 
 pressing the peel between wooden pincers against a spunge, and as 
 soon as the spunge is saturated, the volatile liquor is squeezed into 
 a phial. 
 
 Essence of Orange, and Essence of Lemon, are pre- 
 pared in a similar manner, and come from the s;une countries. 
 
 The Essences of Lavender, of Thyme, of Rosemary, 
 of Anise, of Cloves, of Cinnaaion, &c. are obtained by 
 means of fire. 
 
 Essence, in metaphysics, (hat which constitutes the particular 
 nature of each genus or kind, and distinguishes it from all others; 
 being nothing but that abstract idea to which this name is atifixed, 
 so that every thing contained in it is essential to that particular 
 kind. This Mr. Locke calls the nominal essence ; in contradic- 
 tion to the real essence, or constitution of substances, on which 
 this nominal essence depends. Thus the nominal essence of gold 
 is that complex idea the word gold stands for; :is implying a body, 
 yellow, weighty, malleable, fusible, and t\\ed ; but its real essence 
 is the constitution of its insensible parts, on which these (|ualities 
 and all its other properties depend, which is wholly unknown 
 to us. 
 
 EXSSENDI QuiETUM de Theolonio, a writ that lies for citi- 
 zens and burgesses of any city or town, tli.it have a charter on pre- 
 scription lo exempt them from toll through the svhole realm, itit 
 happened to be any where exacted of them. 
 
 ESSENES, orESSENIANS, in Jewish antiquity, one of the 
 three ancient sects among that people. Thev allowed a future 
 state, but denied a resurrection from the dead. 1 heir way of 
 
 iifc
 
 EST 
 
 .•^S.l 
 
 p:st 
 
 life was verv siiii^iilar: tliey tlicl not marry; but adopted tin- 
 cliildrfn ofotluTs, whom tliey bred up iii tlie iii>utiilioii'i of tlicir 
 sect; they despised riclies, and had all thini;s in common, and 
 never cli.i'nucd their cloaths fill they were entirely worn <nif. 
 
 ESSEN 1"1.-\L, something necessarily belonging lo lli. e---ence 
 or nature of a lhins> from wiiich it cannot be conceivetl distinct: 
 tluis the primary qualities of bodies, as extension, ligure, number, 
 &c. are essential or inseparable from them in all their changes and 
 alterations. See Quality. 
 
 Essential Oils are such as are really contained in a plant, and 
 are drawn from it by distillation in an alembic with water; they 
 are thus called, in contra-distinrlion to empyreumatic oils, whicii 
 are raised by a naked tire without water. 
 
 ESSEX, a county ol England, bounded on the N. by part of 
 Cambridgeshire, and by the river Stour, which separates it from 
 Suffolk; on the E. by the German O^ean ; on the S. bv tlie 
 Thames, which divides it from Kent; and on the W. by rierls 
 and Middlesex ; being divided from the former, in one part by liie 
 Stort, and then by the Lea, which separates it likewise from Mid- 
 dlesex. It is 54 miles in length from E. to W.; 4S bruad trom N. 
 to S.; and 2. in circuniierence. Several towns of Essex, have 
 been long di.iinguishcd for the manufacture ol baize, which, how- 
 ever, is far from being so flourishing as formerly. 1 he rivei^s, be- 
 sides the houndarv ones, are the Cheliier, Blackwater, Coin, 
 Crouch, and Uo<ling. Chelmsford is the capital. 
 
 Essex, a county of .Massachusetts, 38 miles long, and Cj broad, 
 bounded on tlie S. and E. by the Atlantic. 
 
 Essex, a county of New Jersey, 2j miles long and 16 broad; 
 bounded on the E. by die Pasaii k and Newark Bay. 
 
 Essex, a counly of Virgiina, 55 miles long and \'2 broad; 
 bounded on liie E. and N. E. by the Rappahannock : S. E. b> 
 Middlesex ; S. and S.W. by King and Queen County ; and N.VV. 
 by Caroline. 
 
 ESSOIN, in law, an excuse for a person simimoned to appear 
 and answer to an action, on account of sickness or ether iust cause 
 of his absence. It is a kind of imparlance, or craving of longer 
 time, and obtains in real, personal, and mixed actions. Thi^re are 
 divers es^ons, as de ultra mare, when tlie defendunt is beyond sea, 
 whereby he is allowed f.-rty days; in an expedition to the holv 
 land, a year and a day ; intirmily, called common essoin, when he 
 is sick in bed; ani, lastly, in the king's service. 
 
 Essoix-D \v, U regularly the first day of every term, though the 
 fourth d y afier is also allowed by way of indulgence. 
 
 Essoin d*; malo Vill.e, is where the defendant appears in 
 court, but before plea-ling, falls sick in a certain village : tins is also 
 allowed, if found true. 
 
 ESSOR.VNT, in heraldry, denotes a bird standing on the ground 
 with its wings expanded, as if it had been wet, and were drying 
 itself. 
 
 EST.\RLISHMENT of Dower, in law, an assurance of dower 
 made to the wife by theliusband, or some friend of his, on marriage. 
 See Dower. 
 
 ESTAIN, a town of France, in the d'?partment of the Meuse, 
 and late duchv of Bar; 10!^ miles E. N. E. of Verdun. 
 
 ES TAMPES, or ETAMPES, a town ot France, in the depart- 
 ment of Seine and Oise, and late province of the isle of France, on 
 the Juine, 15 mile> E. of Chartres. 
 
 EST.^PA, or E.Sl'APE, a town of Mexico, in the province, 
 and on tli - river Tabasco. 
 
 ESTAPLES, a town of France in the department of the Straits 
 of Calais, 12 miles S. of Boulogne. 
 
 ESTAPO, a strong town of New Spain, at the mouth of the 
 Tialiic. 
 
 ESTATE, in law, signifies the interest that a person has in lands, 
 tenements, or other elifects ; comprehending the whole in which a 
 person has any property. Estate? arc eitlifi real or personal ; otlier- 
 .vise distinguished into Freeholds, which descend to heirs ; or 
 Chattels, that go to executors or adniinistratois. A fee simple is 
 the amplest estate our law admits of. See Fee. Estates are 
 obtained several ways; as, by descent from a lather to a son ; by 
 ronveyaiice or gran from one person to another ; by gift or 
 purchase; or by deed or will. See Descent, Succession, 
 Tenure, &:c. 
 
 Estates, in a political sense, is used either to denote the domi- 
 nions of a prince, or the general classes into which Iho people 
 VOL. II. — no. 76;' 
 
 are divided In Britain, liie estates are the king, lords, and 
 commons. 
 
 F.S CE, a fertile district of iMarilimc Austria, in the Padunno. 
 
 ICsTK, the cap:t:d of tlie above (ll^tirict, :',iiciently called Aleste. 
 
 F.S IHER, [irDN, Heb. /. c. secret, or hid,] a'canonical book 
 of the Old Testament, containing the history of 
 
 Esther, a Jewish virgin, whose great beauty raised her to the 
 throne of Persia; whereby she saved h'_'r countiymen from the fa- 
 tal extermination planned by proud Ilaman, prime minister and 
 favorite of king Ahasuerus. 'I he learned r.re not agreed who this 
 Ahiisuerus was. Archbishop Ussiier snjiposes him to be Darius 
 llystaspes, and Artystona to be Esther. Scaliger makes him the 
 same with Xerxes, and his (|ueen Hamnstris to be Esther. Jose- 
 phus, on the contrary, positivelv asserts, th.at the Ahasuerus of the 
 scriptures, is the Artaxerxes Longinianus of profane story ; and 
 the Septuagint, throughout the whole book of Esther, translate 
 Ahasuerus by Artaxerxes. Most autiiors agree in this last opinion; 
 and indeed the extraordinary kindness shewed by Artaxerxes to 
 the Jews, can scarce be accounted for otherwise than by suppos- 
 ing that they had so powerful an advocate as Esthtir to solicit for 
 them. 
 
 F.STOILE'E, or CROSS ESTOILLE'E, in heraldry, a star 
 with only four long rays in lorm of a cross ; and, accordingly, 
 broad in tlie centre, and terniinaliiig in >h-.irp jioiets. 
 
 ESTOPPEL, in law, an impediment or bar to an action, which 
 arises from a pei-son's os\ n fact ; or rather where he is forbid by law 
 to speak against his deed, which he may not (!•), even to plead 
 the truth. Thus where a person is bound in a bond by such a 
 name, and being afterwards sued by that name on the obligation, 
 he shall not be allowed to say he is misnamed, but shall answer 
 according to the bond, tliough it be wrong. Hence the parties in 
 all (leeds are estopped from saying any thing against them. How- 
 ever, a plaintirjf is not estopped from saying any thing against what 
 he had said in his writ or declaration ; and though parties be 
 estopped, yet juries are not so, who may find things out ot the re- 
 cord. 
 
 ESTOVERS, in law, is used by Bracton, for that sustenance 
 which a man committed for felony is to have out of his lands or 
 goods for himself and family during imprisonment. In st^t. 6, 
 Edw. I. it is used for an allowance in merit or clotl-.es. in some 
 manors the tenants have common estovers ; that is, necessary botes 
 or allowances out of the lord's wood : in which last sense, estovers 
 comprehend house-bote, hay-botc, and plow-bote ; so that if a man. 
 iiave in liis grant these^general word-;, de rationabili estoverio in 
 bosris, &c. he may thereby claim all three. 
 
 Estovers is al-o used for alimony, which, if the husband re- 
 fuses to pay, there is, besides the ordinary process of excommuni- 
 cation, a writ at common law, de estoveriis h.-ibendis, in order to 
 recover it. 
 
 ES TRAMADURA. See Estremadvra. 
 
 ESTRAPADE, [Fr.] the defence of a horse that will not 
 obey, who, to get rid of his rider, rises mightily before ; and 
 while his fore-hand is yet in the air, yerks furiously with his hind- 
 legs. 
 
 ESTRAVAYER, a town, fort, and district, of the Helvetic 
 republic, in the canton of Friburg, 13 miles W. of Fnburg. 
 
 ESTRAYS and waifs, in law. Estrays are where any 
 horses, sheep, hogs, beasts, or swans, or any beast that is not wild, 
 come into a lordship, and are not owned, by any man. Kitch. 23; 
 The reason of estray is, because when no person c:;ii make title to 
 the thing, the law gives it to the king, if the owner does not claim 
 it witliin a year and a day. Waifs are goods wiiich are stolen, and 
 waved or lett by the felon, on his being pursued, for fear of being 
 appreliended, and forfeited to the king or lord ot the manor : aiul 
 though waifs are generally spoken of things stolen, yet if a man ij 
 pursued with hue and cry as a felon, and he flies and leaves his 
 own goods, these will be forfeited as goods stolen ; but thev are 
 properly the fugitive's goods, and not forfeited till it is found be- 
 fore the" coroner, or otiierwise of record, that he lied tor the le- 
 lony. 2 Hasv. 450. Waifs and strays were ancii iitlv the pro- 
 perty of the tinders by the law of nature, and alterwaids the pro- 
 perty of the Iking by the law of nations. Dalt. Slur. 79. Waifs 
 and strays not claimed within the year and day nr.- the lord's, 
 For vvhere the lord hus a beast a year and a day, and it has been 
 cried in the church and markets, the property is changed. Kilcii. 
 4 "go.
 
 ETC 
 
 326 
 
 ETC 
 
 
 go. But it must be a year and a day from the time of proclama- 
 lion, and not from the time of seizure ; for it does not liecome an 
 cstray till after tlie tirsl proclamation. 1 1 Mod. S9. 
 
 ESTIlliAl", is a true copy or note of some original writing on 
 record, and especially of iinVs and amercement imposed in tiie 
 rolls of a court, and extracted or drawn out thence, and certified 
 into the court of e.vchequer : whereupon process is awarded to the 
 sheriff to low the same. 
 
 ESTRENi ADliRA, a province of Portugal, near the mouth 
 of the Tajo, hounded on the N. by Beira, on the E. and S. by 
 Alente'io," and on the W. by tlie Atlantic. It is about 8S miles 
 long, and 43 broad. I'his province is divided into six di.tricts, 
 called comarcas, viz. Litria, Lisbon, Tomar, Santaren, A!an(|Uar, 
 and Sctnbal, so named from tl;e principal towns. It abounds in 
 corn, and feeds numerous flocks of sheep. The fruits and the 
 wines are all excellent ; and it was here that the sweet oranges 
 brought from China were first planted, and of which ihere are 
 larp-e cpiantities transported to foreign parts, with the wines and 
 oth'T fruits. 
 
 Esrr.EMADURA, a province of Spain, bounded by New Castile 
 on the E. Leon on ine N. Ajulalusia on the S. and Portugal on 
 .t)ie VV. It is said to be 17.5 mdes long and 100 broad. It^ prin- 
 cipal towns are Calatrava, Menda, Badajoz, Alcantara, Cona, and 
 TIacentia. It has a very pure and healthful air, and its mountains 
 are full of wild and lame animals. It abounds with corn and 
 fruits; and tlie vineyards produce excellent wines of all co- 
 lours. 
 
 ESTREMOS, or ESTREMOZ, a town of Portugal, in Alen- 
 tejo, defended l>y a strong citadel on the top of a hill, surrounded 
 by a large ditch, and 10 bastions. It is 15 miles W. of Ba- 
 daioz. 
 
 E.STREPEMENT, or ESTREPAMENT, the spoil made 
 bv a tenant for life, upon any lands or woods, to the prejudice of 
 the reversioner. Estrepement also signilies a writ which lies in 
 two cases; the one is when the person having an action depend- 
 ing, (as a formedon, or dum fuit infra ilatem, or writ of right, or 
 aiiv other,) wherein the demandant is not to recover damages, sues 
 to inhibit the tenant from nuikiiig waste during the suit, 'i'he 
 other is, for tlie ilemandaBt liiat is adjudged to recover seisin of tlie 
 'land in question, and before execution sued by the writ habere fa- 
 cias sijisinam, fur fear of waste to be made before he can get pos- 
 session : he then sues out this writ. 
 
 ESTUARY, [<estmirium, Latin,] an arm of tlis sea ; the 
 mouth of a lake or river in which the tide reciprocates ; a 
 frith. 
 
 ESUS, the supreme god of the ancient Britons. 
 
 ESWECEN, a town of Germany, in Hesse-Cassel, Similes 
 S. E. of Cassel. 
 
 ESZEK, a town of Sclavonia, with a strong fort, SO miles W. 
 by N. of Belgrade, and 17 S. by E. of \'ienna. 
 
 ETAIN, or ESTAIN. Sec Estain. 
 
 ETANGS, a town of France, in the department of the Moselle, 
 7| miles K. N. E. of Ment/. 
 
 ETAYA, or ETAYAH, a town of Hindostan, in the pro- 
 •vince of Agra, <>3 miles S. E. of Agra. • 
 
 ETC, a contraction of the two Latin words ft cnrlera, which 
 signifies, and so on ; and the rest ; and others of the like kind. 
 
 To ETCH, [elzcn, German,] a way used in making prints, 
 'by drawing with a proper needle upon a copper-plate, covered 
 over with aground of wax, kc. and well blackeil with the snioke 
 of a link, in order to take ofi" tin* figure of the drawing or print ; 
 which, having its back side tinctured with w hile lead, will, by run- 
 ning over the strucken out Hues with a stiff, impress tlie exact 
 figure on the black or red ground; which figure is afterwards 
 wKh needles d:awn deeper quite through the ground, an<l all the 
 shadows and hatchings put in ; -.md then a wax border being made 
 all round tlie pbte, lline is poured on a suiTicieiit quantity of widl 
 tempered aqu:!, foilis, which insinuating into the strokes made by 
 the needles, usually eqls, in about half an hour, into the figure of 
 the print or drawing on tlie coj)pcr-p!ate. Harris. 
 
 E rem KG, a method of engraving on cojiper, in which the 
 lines or strokes, instead of being cut with a tool or graver, are 
 eaten iu with aqua fortis. See Engraving. Etcliing, though 
 n.';t very modern, is a later invention than engraving with the tool ; 
 of wliirn it was at first only an imitation, practitied by painters and 
 
 other artists, wdio could muclr sooner form their hands to, and at- 
 tain a faculty of, vrorkiiig in this way, than with the gi-aver. But 
 being then considered as -a counterfeit kind of engraving, and 
 therefore inferior to the other, it was cultivated in a very confined 
 manner ; the closeness of the resemblance of the work to that pet- 
 formed by the tool, being made the (est of its merit, and conse- 
 quently the principal object or aim in those who i)ursued it. This 
 servile confinement of the art of etching to the imitation of the 
 original kind of engraving, retarded its advancement towards per- 
 fection, as many of the most able masters cramped their talents 
 witli the observance of it : which may be seen in the works of 
 Sadelers, Sv/aneberg, Villameiia, and particularly Le Bosse ; whe, 
 in his treatise on engraving, has laid it down as a principle, that 
 the perfection of etching consists in the close similitude of the 
 work with that done by the tool. This absurd prepossession has 
 since worn out : and elch'mg has been so far improved, that instead 
 of being now deemed a spurious kind of engraving, it is allowed 
 to impart an excellence to many modern works, that could nevei 
 have been produced without it : for though the neatness and uii,- 
 formity of the hatches, made by the tool, are more advantageous 
 with respect to portraits; yet the liberty and facility of etching 
 give a much greater opportunity to exercise the force of genius 
 and fancy in history engraving ; where the effect of the whole, and 
 not the minute exactness in finishing ail the parts, constitutes the 
 principal value. There are two meUiods of engraving in tJiis way ; 
 the one with a hard varnish or ground, the other with a soft. Tlif 
 first was formerly much used, being better accommodated to the 
 intention of imitating the engraving w ilh the tool ; as the firmnes. 
 of the body ot the varnish gave inore opportunity of retouching 
 the lines, or enlarging them with the oval-pointed needles, called 
 by the French ecnopes, as was practised by Le Bosse and others 
 for that purpose. The latter has now almost wholh superseded 
 the use of the other, by the free manner of working it admits of; 
 which aifords a power of expression incoinpatible with the greater 
 inflexibdity of the hard varnish, that confines the lines and hatches 
 to such a regularity and sameness, as gives a stil'fness of manner 
 and coldness of efiect to the work. The inixtnre of the use of the 
 tool and aqua fortis, which are now both employed in many cases, 
 has, however, given that perfection to engraving which it possesses 
 at present. The truth ami spirit of the outline, that the method 
 of working with aqua fortis affords, and the variety of sh.ades which 
 the dillerent kinds of black produce in this way, as well as othtr 
 means of expressing the peculiar a|)pearance and character of par- 
 ticular subjects, furnish what was detective in the sole use of the 
 tool ; while, on the other hand, the exactness and regularity of 
 the lines, which are required for finishing many kuids of designs, 
 are supplied by the graver; and by a judicious application of 
 both, that complete linishiiig is obtained, which either of them 
 alone must necessarily want. The manner by which this art is 
 performed, is the roverine of the surface of the plate with a proper 
 varnish, or ground, as it is called which is capable of resisting aqua 
 fortis; and then scoring or scratching away, by instruments reseni- 
 bliiig needles, the parts of this ground, in the places where the 
 strokes or hatches of the engraving are intended to be: the plr.te 
 being then covered with aqua fortis, the parts that are laid naked 
 by removing the varnish, are eaten away by it ; while the rest, 
 being secured and defended, remain untouched. The difference 
 between the two methods above-mentioned consists as much in 
 the ditfcrence of the varnish, as in that of the aqua fortis, adapted 
 to each kind ; but the general methods of performing (hem ;'.;< 
 alike in both. These varnishes are distinguished by the names ot 
 hard and soft : for in their consistence, or the resistance they give 
 to the needles, lies their essential difference. The hard varnish 
 was not the first in use, but soon took place of the other ; and was, 
 for some time, the most received in practice, on account ot its al- 
 lowing the work to be made more like that of (he graver: the soft 
 lias, however, since, in its turn, prevailed (o the exclusion of the 
 hard in some degree, except in particular subjects ; but not so 
 entirely as to take away the expedience of shewing how it is per- 
 forinea. The manner of etching wi(h (he soft varnish is now, 
 however, one of the most important objects of the art of engrav- 
 ing; ami it is at present in universal use, sometimes alone, but 
 more fretpiently intermixed with the work of the tool, and in some 
 cases with great advantage, even where the whole is intended t.> 
 pass for being performe;! by the graver. The hard, or I'lorciice 
 
 varn;sli
 
 ETC 
 
 oi7 
 
 ETC 
 
 varnish i-: tlui-; prepareil : Take four ounces of (at oil vlt) cliMr, 
 mid mauc of very good linseed oil, like llial used by piiijiteis : 
 heal it in a rlean pot of glazed earthenware, and afterwards put 
 to it four ounces of niastich well powdered: and stir the niixinre 
 LMiskly tdl the whole be well melted: then pass the whole mass 
 through a piece of line linen into a glass boltle with a long neck, 
 tliat can be stopped very securely : and keep it for use. To 
 making the soft varnish, M;. ]^aw rence, an eminent English en- 
 graver at Pari'?, gives the following directions : " Take of virgin 
 wax and iisphaltum, each two ounces: of black pilch and Bur- 
 gundy pitch, each liaif an ounce. Melt the wax and pitch in a 
 new earthenware glazed pot; and add to lliem, by degrees, the 
 asplialtum tinely powdered. Let the whole bod, till such times 
 3S that, taking a drop upon a plate, it will break when it is cold, 
 on bending it double two or three times, betwixt the lingers. 
 The v;-.rinsh being then enough boiled, must bf taken oif the (ire; 
 »nd letting it cool a little, must be poured into w;irni water, that 
 it may work the moie easily with the hands, so as to be formed 
 into balls ; which must be rolled up, and put into A piece of taf- 
 fety for use." Care must be taken, 1st. that the fire be not too 
 violent, for fear of burning the ingi-edients; a sliglit simmering 
 will be buflicicnt : i'diy, that while the aiphaltum is putting in, 
 and even after it is mixed with them, the ingredients should be 
 stirred continually with, the spatula: and, 3dly, that tlie water, 
 jjito which this composition is thrown, should be nearly of the 
 same degree of warmth with it, to prevent a kind of cracking thit 
 happens when the water is too cold. The varnish ought always 
 to be harder in summer than in winter; and it will become so if 
 boiled longer, or if a greater proportion of the asphaltum or brown 
 resin be used. 
 
 Etching, Method op, 1. To apply the soft varnish ; The 
 plate being well polished, burnished, and cleansed from all greasi- 
 uess by chalk or Spanish white, fix a hand-vice on the edge of the 
 plate where no work is intended to be, to serve as a handle for 
 managing it when warm : tlien p;-; it upon a chahng-dish, in which 
 there is a moderate (ire; observing to hold it so that it may not 
 burn : keep the plate over the lire till it be so hot that the varnish 
 being brought into contact with it ujay melt : then cover the whole 
 plate equally with a thin coat of the varnish ; and while the plate 
 is warm, and the varnish upon it in a fluid state, beat every part 
 of the varnish gently with a small ball or dauber matle of cotton 
 tied up in tafiet) ; which smooths and distributes the varnish 
 equally over the plate. When the plate is thus uniformly and 
 thinly covered with the varnish, it must be blackened by a piece 
 of flambeau, or of a large candle which aUords a copious smoke; 
 sometimes two, or even four randies are used togetlier for the 
 fake of dispatch, that (he varnish mav not grow cold : which if it 
 does during the operation, the plate must be heated ag.iin, that it 
 may be in a melted state when that operation is pert'ormed : but 
 great care must be taker, not to burn it ; which, when it happens, 
 may be easily perceived by the varnish appearing burnt and losing 
 its gloss. The following expedient is u-td, for the commodiously 
 blackening the varnish, particularly where the plates are large: 
 a strong hook is lixed in the root of the room, through which 
 passes four pieces of cord of equal length, at the end of which are 
 lixed four iron rings of about four inches diameter, for supporting 
 the corners of the plate. The plate being thus suspended in the 
 air, witJi th.e varnished side downwards, may be blackened with 
 great convenience : but this is not, however, absolutely recpiisite, 
 except in the case of large plates that could not, w ithout difficulty, 
 be held up, unless this or some other such contrivance were made 
 use of. 'I'he flambeau or candle must be kept at a due distance 
 from the plate, lest the wick touch the varnish, which would sully 
 nnd mark it. If the smoke has not penetrated the varnish, the 
 plate mii'^t be again placed for some little time over the chafing- 
 dish ; and as the plate grows hot, the varnish will melt and incor- 
 porate with the bhick which lay above it, so that the whole will 
 be equally pervaded by it. The greatest caution should be used 
 to keep all the lime a moderate fire ; and to move frequently the 
 plate, and change the place of all the parts of it, that, the varnish 
 may be alike melted every where, and kept from burning. - Care 
 jiiust also be taken, that during this time, and even till the varnish be 
 entirely cold, no filth, sparks, or dust, tly on it ; for they would 
 then stick fast, and spoil the work. 'J. 'I he method of applying 
 the hard varnish is precisely the sante as for the soft ; being spread 
 
 ecpially over tlu' warm plate with the lailety ball, and smoked in 
 the same manner: only alter it is smoked, it must be baked, or 
 dried, over a gentle (ire of charco.l, till the smoke from the var- 
 nish begins to decrease ; taking care not to overheat the plate, 
 which would b(>tii soften and burn the varnish. The plate being 
 prepared, and an exact drawing of the outlines of the design made 
 upon thin paper, the other side of the paper must be well rubbed 
 with chalk or Spanish whitening, or, rather with red chalk scraped 
 to a powder. The loose chalk is cleaned off w;th a linen rag: 
 then the stained side of the paper is laid upon the varnish, fixing 
 the corners to the plate w ith wax or wafers, to prevent its shuf- 
 lling; and wi'h a blunted needle or ))ointi r the drawing is slightly 
 tracked, and communicates to the varnidi an exact outline of the 
 design to be etched. A varieiy of pointers is necessary for the 
 work. Those used for the broad large strokes ought to be very 
 blunt, I xceedingly round, and w ell polished at th? point ; the sole 
 of a shoe answei-s very well for poll hing the points. The finest 
 ought to be as sharp as a needle. Il any scratclies or false strokes 
 happen in the working, they must be stopped up w ith a hair pen- 
 ■il dipped in Venetian vaniish, mixed with limp black, by which 
 these places will be defended from the action of the aqua fortis. 
 The next openition is that of eating or corroding the plate with 
 aipia fortis. A border of -Joft wax (being a composition of bee>'- 
 wax melted with a little Venice turpentine and tallow) must be 
 fastened round the plate about an inch high, in the form of a little 
 wall, to contain (he acpia fortis. At a corner of tliis_ border a 
 gutter is made to pour the aqua fortis off the pl.-ife. Take a due 
 quantity of the refiner's aqua foitis ; mix it with iialf its quantity 
 of common water; and pour it gently on, till it rise about a tiii- 
 ger's br^-adth above the surface of 'the plate ; wdicn the acpia 
 fortis will soon exert its action in tiie hatches which have been 
 strongly touched ; but those more weakly engraved will appear at 
 first clear, and of the colour of the coi)])er. The meHstruum 
 must therefore be ".ulfered to continue on the plate till its ellects 
 become visi'ile on the more tender parts: then the aqua tortis 
 ^hou^d be poured off, the plate washed with clean water, and dried 
 before the tire: then lake a small pencil dipped in the Venetian 
 varnish, and cover with it the lighter parts of the plate. 'I'he 
 aqua fortis must then be again iiour'ed on, and continued a longer 
 or shorter time, according to the strength of the menstruum, or 
 the nature of the engraving ; w hen it must be again poured oil', 
 and the plate immediately washed with water. When the aquii 
 foilis is on the plate, a feather should be used to cleanse away the 
 foulness of the venligris that gathers in the hatches, when the aqua 
 fortis operates on them, and to give it more room to exert its ac- 
 tion ; tor by moving the aqua fortis to and fro, on the plate by 
 the feather,' and brihhing away the black saline matter where it 
 appears to he formed, the hatches will iie cleansed, and the aqua 
 fortis exert its whole force e<iually on every part. The plate be- 
 ing thus sulliciently corioded by the aqua fortis, and well washed 
 wi'th water, it must 'be warmed at the lire, and the border of wax 
 removed ; after which, it must be made hotter till the varnish 
 meit; then it must be well wiped with a linen cloth, and after- 
 wards rubbed heartily with oil of olives; when it will be ready to 
 be retouched and finished by the graver. See Engraving. 
 
 Etching on Glass. Glass resists the action of all the acids, 
 except the (luoric acid. By this, however, it is corioded in the 
 same manner as copper is by aqua fortis ; and plates of glass may 
 be engraven in the same manner as copper. There are several 
 methods of performing this. We shall fii-st describe the mode of 
 etching by means of the fluoric acid in the state of gas. Having 
 covered over the gla.ss to be etched with a thin coat of viigln-waK. 
 (which is only common bees'-wax bleached while,) draw the de- 
 sign upon it ui the same manner as in etching on copper. Then 
 take some floor spar, commonly called Derbyshire spar, pound it 
 fine, and put it into a leaden vessel, pouring some sulphuric acid 
 over it, rlace the glass with the etched side lowermost over this 
 vessel, two or tlireeinches above it. Apply a gentle heat to the 
 leaden vessel ; this will cause the acid to act upon the fluor spar, 
 and disengage the gas, which will corrtJde the glass. \Vhen it is 
 sufficiently corroded, remove the wax by oil of turpentine. 'I'his 
 etching may be also performed by raising a margin ol bordering- 
 wax alt round the glass, in the same manner as on copper, and 
 pouring on the liquid fluoric acid, which aits upon the glass. 
 The method oi making tkis acid is de-scribed under fluoric acid. 
 
 A tliic4
 
 ETH 
 
 328 
 
 ETH 
 
 A third methoii of el< hiiig on glass is as follows : Having put the 
 w.iX on the glass, draw youv desi<>n, and raise a margin all round 
 it. Then put pouiuled'tluor spar, with some sulphuric acid dilut- 
 ed with water, upon the glass. The sulphuric acid will disengage 
 the Ikioric, wliich will be absorbed by the water, and corrode the 
 glass. 
 
 ETEOC'LES, in fabulous history, the eldest son of Qidipus 
 and Jocasta. See Creon. Having reigned one year in Thebes, 
 he refused to give up the crown to his brother. Poly nice*, accord- 
 ing to their mutual agreement. Polynices, resolving to punish 
 such a violation of a solemn engagenicnl, implored the assistance 
 of Adra>tus kmg of Argos. He received that king's daughter in 
 marriage, and was soon after assisted witli a strong army headed 
 by seven famous gcjierals. Eteocles chose seven brave chiefs to 
 oppose these, and stationed theni at the seven gates of the city. 
 He placed himself against his brother Polynices, and he opposed 
 A'lenalippus to Tydeus, Polyphontes to tapaneus, Megareus to 
 Eteocles, Hvperbius to Parthenopajus, and Lasth'.-nes to Anij hia- 
 xaus. After" much blood liad lieen shed, it was at last agreed be- 
 tween the two brothers that the war should be decided by a sin- 
 gle combat. Inflamed with the most inveterate fury on each 
 side, they both fell ; and it is said that their ashes separated on the 
 funeral pile, as if still sensible of resentment, and hostile to recon- 
 ciliation. 
 
 ETERNITY, is one of tl;c attributes of God. See Logic 
 and Metaphysics. 
 
 Eternity, in mythology, a divinity among the Tlomans, who 
 had neither temples nor altars. They represeiited it under the 
 figure of a woman, vrho held tlie sun in one hand and the moon 
 in the other: her symbols were a pliccni.K, a globe, and an ele- 
 phant. 
 
 ETESI^., or ETESIAN Wimds, are such as blow at stated 
 times of the year, from what part soever of the compass they 
 come. They are so called from the Gr.'ek word ilo;, year, being 
 anniversary winds, such as our seamen call monsoons and trade 
 winds, w Inch in some parts of the v. orld continue constantly falow- 
 Hig for certain stt'ted seasons of the year. 
 
 ETHER, [(ether, Latin; ai^>ie,j in chemistry. See ^Ether 
 and Pharmacy. 
 
 Ether, in pliysioloey. See .Ether. 
 
 ETHICS, [from I'i®^, manners, because the object thereof is 
 to form the manners,] the science of manners or duty, which it 
 traces from man's nature and condition, and shew,s to terminate 
 in his happiness ; or, in other word<, it is the knowledge of our 
 duty and felicity, or the art of being virtuous and happy. See 
 Moral Philosovhy. 
 
 ETHIOPIA,' a celebrated empire of Africa, whose boundaries 
 have never been exactly delined either by ancient or modern 
 geographers. Mr. Cruttwell divides it into Upper and Lower, 
 some writers of antiquity gave the title of Ethiopians to all nations 
 whose complexion was black: Hence we iukI the Arabians as well 
 as many other Asiatics sometimes falling under this denomination ; 
 besides a mmiber of Africans w hose country lay at a distance from 
 Ethiopia Proper. Thus the Africans in general were by these 
 writers divided into the western or Hesperian Ethiopians, and 
 those above Egypt situ-^ted to the E. of the former ; the latter 
 being much more generally known Uian the former, bj- the com- 
 merce they canied on with the Egyptians. From this account we 
 may easily understand, why there is such a seeming disagreement 
 among ancient authors concerning the situation of the empire of 
 Ethiopia, and likewise why it should pass under such a variety of 
 names. Sometimes it was named India, and the inhabitants In- 
 dians; an appellation likewise a|>plied to many other distant 
 nations. Sometimes it was denominated Atlaijlia and Ethcria, and 
 in the most reinote periods of antiipiity Ceplienia ; but more 
 usually Ahasene, a word resendding its modern names, Habash, 
 Abassia, or Abyssinia. On the other hand, we find Persia, Chal- 
 daea, Assyria, &c. styled Elliiopia by some writers; and all the 
 countries cxtend'ng along the coast of the Red Sea were promis- 
 cuously denominated India and Ethiopia. By th ■ Jews the em- 
 pire of Etiiiopia w.as styled Gush and Ludim. Notwithstanding 
 this diversity of appellations, and vast dil'fusion of territory ascribed 
 to the Ethiopians, Ih.Te was one country to which the title was 
 thought more i^roperly to h.elong than to any cf the rest ; and 
 Which was therefore called £thiopia Propria. This was bounded 
 
 on the N. by Egypt, extending all the way to the lesser cataract 
 of the Nile, and an island named Elephantine ; on the W. it had 
 Libya interior ; on the E. the Red Sea, and on the S. unknown 
 parts of Africa; though these boundaries cannot be fi.xed with any 
 precision. In this country the ancients clistmguished a great va- 
 riety of difiVrent nations, to svhom they gave names either h'oni 
 some personal properly, or from their manner of livmg. Tlie 
 princi|)al of these were, 1. The Blenimyes, seated near the bor- 
 ders of Egypt ; and who, probably from the. shoftness of their 
 netks, were said to have no heads, but eyes, mouths, Sic. in their 
 breasts. Their form, somehow or other, must have been very ex- 
 traordinary, as we learn from Vopiscus, who gives an account of 
 some of the captives of this nation brouglit to Konie. 2. The 
 Nobata;, inhabiting the banks of the Nile near the island Elephan- 
 tine, said to have been removed thither by Oasis to repress the in- 
 cursions of the Blemmyes. 3. The I'roglodytes, by some writers 
 said to belong to Egypt, and described as little superior to brutes. 
 4. The Nubians inf.abiting. Nubia. 5. The Pigmies, by some sup- 
 posed to be a tribe of Troglodytes; but by the most approved 
 writers placed on the African coast of the Red Sea. I). The ■ 
 Aualitu or Abalita-, of whom we know nothing more than that they 
 were situated near the Abalilic gulf. 7. I'hc Struthiophagi, so 
 called from their feeduig upon ostriches, were situated to the S. 
 ofthc Memnones. 8. The Acridophagi ; 9- Cnelonophagi ; 10. 
 Ichlliyophagi; 11. Cynamolgi ; 1:.'. Eleplrantophagi ; 13. Rhi-" 
 zophagi ; 14. Spermatophagi ; 15. Hylophagi; :'nd, lo. Ophi- 
 opnagl: all of wdiom had their names from the food (hey made use 
 oi, viz. locusts, tortoises, fish, bitches milk, elephants, roots, fruits 
 or seeds, siirubs, and serpents. 17. The Hylogones, near to the 
 Elephantophagi, and who were So savage that they had no huuscs, • 
 nor an) otlier places to sleep in but the tops of trees. IS The Pam- 
 phugi, who used almost every thing indiscriminately (or food. 19. 
 i'he Agnophagi, who lived on the flesh of wild beasts. 20. The 
 Anthropophagi, or man-eaters, are now supposed to have been the 
 Caffres, and not anv inhabitants of Proper Ethiopia. 21. The 
 Hippophagi, or lior-e-taters, who lay on the N. ot Libya Incog- 
 nita. 22. 1 he Macrobii, a powerful nation, remarkable for their 
 longevity ; many of them attaining liieageof 120 years. 23. The 
 Sauibri, situated near the city of Tenupsis in Nubia upon the Nile ; 
 of whom it is reported that all tne quadrupeds they had, not ex- 
 cepting even the elephants, were destitute of ears. 24. The 
 Asacha-, a people inhabiting the mountainous parts, and con- 
 tinually employed in hunting elephants. Besides these, there 
 were a number of other nations or tribes, of whom we scarce 
 know any thing but the names ; as the Gapachi, Ptccmphanes, 
 Catadupi, Pechini, Catadra?, &c. The most famous cities and 
 towns of ancient Ethiopia were Abalis, Axum, Caloe, Melis, 
 Mondus, Mosylon, Napata, Opone, and Premis or Preninis. The 
 clitnate of Ethiopia varies, according to the situation and elevation 
 of the ground. On tiie coast of the Red Sea, as well as the open 
 tiat parts of the country in general, the heat is so intense, that at 
 Suakem, an island in the Red Sea, Gregory, the Abyssine, relates, 
 that it was so great, as to excoriate any part of the body exposed 
 to the solar rays, melt hard sealing-wax, and scar a garment like 
 red hot iron. In several districts, however, the heat is mildet 
 than in Portugal, and in Samen the air is rather cold than otherwise. 
 In some other |,TOvinces the winter is very severe, though snow is 
 seldom seen. Hail indeed sometimes falls, and Mr. Bruce men- 
 tions snow having once fallen which lasted three days, and was 
 looked upon as a prodigy, 'i'here are frequent and violent thun- 
 ders, with excessive deluges of rain during part of the year, and 
 violent storms of wind. The missionar'es mention a kind of wind 
 named Sendo, which, according to Gregory, may be seen like a 
 serpent ot vast magftitude with its head on the ground, and the body 
 twisted in vast curls up to the skies. This, in all probability, is that 
 violent species of whirlwind, named Tvphon, trequent in Egypt, 
 America, and otiier w.irm (cuiitnes: and its being vi-ible is owine 
 to the dust which it l.,lves up in its pas-.age. In a country inhabilea 
 by such a variety of ii:i*.i''.iis, as we iiave above enumerated, all in 
 a state of extreme barbarism, it is rather lo be vondered that we 
 have any history at all, than that it is net more distinct. It ii 
 generally agreed that Gush was the great proi'enitor of tlie inha- 
 bitants, "and hence the country has been named Ironi him. Many 
 autliors are ot opinion, tiiat l-Ithicpia received lis iii-st inliabitants 
 from the country lying £. oi the Red Sea ; and Uiat the descendants 
 1 0i
 
 ETII 
 
 29 
 
 ETII 
 
 of Cusli, luivijig si'ttli^d in Arabia, gradually iiiigiatcd to tlic S. E. 
 extremity of thai country; wlieiicc, by an easy passage across llic 
 straits of Babelni.iii;lcl, tliey transported tlicmselves to the AlVican 
 side, and entered the country properly called Ethiopia: a niigra 
 lion which, according to Eusebiiis, took place dnriiig the residence 
 of the Israelites in Egypt ; but, in the opinion of .SyncelUis, after 
 Ihey had taken possession of Canaan, and were govprncd by jtidijes. 
 Mr. liruce nientionsalraditionaniong the Abysulnians, which, they 
 say, lias existed anionp; them from time immemorial, that very soon 
 after th.e iiood, Ciisli the grandson of Noah, with his family, passed 
 tlirongli Albara, then withoiit inhabitants, till they came to the 
 ridge of inoimtains, wiiich separates that oonntry from the iiif!,h 
 lands of Abyssinia. Here, still terrified witli the tlioiighls of the 
 deluge, and apprehensive of a return of the same calamity, they 
 chose to dwell in caves made in the sides of these mountains rallier 
 than trust themselves in the plains of Atlx'.ra ; and our auth.or is of 
 opinion, that the tropical rains, which they could not fail to meet 
 with in their journey southward, and wliici) would appear like the 
 return of the deluge, might induce them to take up their habi- 
 tations in these high places. Be tliis as it inay, he says, it is an \in- 
 doubtcd fact, " that here the Cushites, with unparalleled industry, 
 ynd witli instruments utterly unknown to us, formed to themselves 
 commodious, yet wonderful, h.abitations in the lieart of mountains 
 of granite and marble, which remain entire in great numbers to 
 this day, and promise to doso lill the consummation of all things." 
 The Cushites having once established themselves among these 
 mountains, continued to form similar habiti.t^ons in all the neigh- 
 bouring ones: and thus following thediflerent chains, spread lliea; ts 
 and sciences, which they cultivated, across the African continent 
 from L'le eastern to tlie western ocean. According to the tradilioii 
 abovementioncd, they built the city of Axum, eariy in the days of 
 Abraham, 'i'his city was anciently noted for its superb structures, 
 of wliicli some remains are still visible. The Cushites extended 
 Iheniselvcs along the mountains w hich run parallel to the l?ed Sea 
 ou the Africaji side ; which country, according to Mr, Bruce, has 
 " in all times been called Saba, or Azabo, bodi of which signify 
 South ;" an epithet given it from its lying S. of the Arabian gulf, 
 and which in ancient times was one of the richest and most im- 
 portant countries in the world. " By that acquisition (says Mr. 
 Bruce,) they enjoyed all the perfumes and aromalics in the east ; 
 myrrh, and frankincense, and cassia ; all which nrovv spontaneou-ly 
 in that stripe of ground from the Bay or Bilur W . of Azab to Cape 
 Gardcfan, and then southward up in the Indian ocean, to near the 
 coast of Melinda, where there is cmnamon, but of an inferior kind." 
 As the Cushites advanced still farther S. they met not only with 
 mountains, in whicji they might excavate )jropcr habilations, but 
 likewise with great (piantlties of gold and silver furnisiieil bv the 
 mines of Sol'ala, which, our autliur says, furni>hed " large ipian- 
 tities of both metals in their pure and unmixed state, Iving in glo- 
 bules without alloy or any necessity of preparation or separation." 
 In other parts of this work he proves Solala to have been the Opiiir 
 of scripture. See Ophir. Tims the Ethiopians, for some time 
 after their settlement, according to Mr. Bruce, must have been a 
 nation of the lint importajiec in the world.-. The noithern colonies 
 I from Meroc to Thebes built cities, and made improvements in 
 architecture; cultivated commerce, agriculture, and the arts ; not 
 forgetting the science of astronomy, for which they had an excel- 
 lent opportunity by the clearness of the sky in the Thebaid. 
 According to some ancient authors, the Ethiopians were conijuered 
 l)y Moses; of which transaction tluy give ihe following account. 
 Before the time of that legislator, tiie Eihiopians possessed the 
 country of Thebais in Egypt : but, not content with this, tliey 
 ma<le an irruption into the Lower Egvpt, and penetrated as far as 
 Memphis; where, having defeated liie Egyptians, they threatened 
 the kingdom with total destruction. The Egyptians, bv the ad- 
 vice of their oracles, put Mnses at the head of their forces; who 
 immediately jjreparcd for invading the enemy's country. The 
 Ethiopians imagined that he would march along the banks of the 
 Nile ; but .Moves chose rather to pass through some of the interior 
 ■■■.lunlries, though greatly infested with serpents, am! where conse- 
 quently his march must have been attended with much danger. 'I'o 
 jjfeserve his men, he construcle.t a number of panniers of the 
 Egyptian reed papyrus, which lie filled with the birds named ibis, 
 crlebrated for their antipathy to serpents. As soon as he ap- 
 proached the tract abounding with these reptiles, a sufficient num- 
 
 VOL. II. — NO. 76. 
 
 ber of the birds were Jet out, who presently cleared the way for 
 the army by destroying the ser|)ents. Thu-> the Ethiopians were 
 surprised in their own country where they )iad dri'aded no in- 
 vasion; their forces, being defe;ited in the field, were at last shut 
 up in the capital Mcroe, a city almo.>t imprpgn;d)le, by being sur- 
 rounded witli three rivers, the Nile, Asta|)us, and Astaboras. 'I'he 
 daughter of llieEthiopian monarch, however, hiving an opportuni- 
 ty of seeing Moses from the walls, fell in love w ith him, and ofl'ereJ 
 to deliver up the city , provided he would swear to marry l;er. 
 With this requisition the Jewish legislator complied ; but treated 
 the inhabitants with great severity ; plundering the city, and put- 
 ting many of the people to death. Alter this he ravaged the whole 
 country, dismantling all the places of strength ; and having thus 
 rendered the Ethiopians incapable of attempting any kind of of- 
 Icnsivc operations against otiier nations for a considerable time, he 
 returned in triumph to Egypt, alter an absence of 10 years. From 
 the time of Moses to that ot Solomon there is a chasm in the Ethi« 
 opic history. After this, however, v%e dvc furnished v. ith some kind 
 ot reguiar accounts. The history conniiences with the reign ofthft 
 queen of Sheba, who came to visit the Jewih monarch, and whom 
 'die Abyssinians suppose to have been sovereign of Ethiopia Proper : 
 but iNjr. Bruce is of opinion ll-.at she was only sovereign of that 
 territory on the E. coast of Africa named Saba, which he sayS 
 ought to be her title, instead of Sl;eba. In favour of this opinion 
 he likewise urges, that it was customary for the Sabeans, who in- 
 habited Saba, to be governed l.y women; whereas those who in- 
 habited the opposite side of the Arabian gulf, and v. ho were named 
 Sabc^n Arabs, or Homerites, were not only governed by kingg, 
 but would not allow their sovereigns to go abroad .iiiy where, 
 under ]K\n of being stoned to death. The Abyssinians, however, 
 claim her for their sovereign ; and he informs us, that having re- 
 ceived an account from 'J ameri 11, an Etiiiopian merchant, of the sur- 
 prising wisdom and wealth of Solomon, she undertook the journry 
 mentioned in Scripture, to ascertain the truth of the rojiort. In 
 this she was attended by many other nobility, c.irrying along witli 
 her also maenilicent |)rcsents for the monarch she intendcvl to visits 
 According to the Aiiyssiiuan historians, she was a pagan at the 
 timiitliis journey wa.s undertaken; but being suuck with admira- 
 tion at the sight of Solomon's grandeur, and the wisdom he dis- 
 played, she became a convert to the true religion. 
 
 Ethiopia, LowEk, according to tlie reverend Mr. Crutwcll, 
 in his New Universal Gazetteer, comprehends all the kingdoms 
 south of the equinoctial line ; as Congo, Lower Guinea, Calfraria, 
 Monomotapa, &:c. 
 
 Ethiopia, Modern, or the Upper, or Higher Ethiopia, 
 or, as it is now called, Abvssin'ia, is divided, according to Mr. 
 Bruce, into two parts, named 'l"\yrc and Aiiihara; though this ra- 
 ther denotes a ditierencf in the language than the territory of the 
 people. It is subdivided into twelve provinces. 
 
 Ethiopia, Modern, Boundaries op. Erom the map which, 
 NIr. i'ruce has given of Abyssinia, in his tilth volume, it appeal's 
 tliat this empire is hound.ed on the south by a vast chain of moun- 
 tains, extending with very little interruption from 34° to 44" Eon. 
 E. and between S° and 9" Eat. N. In more prosperous times it 
 exteiuled be) ond these S. into tlie kingclcmi ot Adel ; but the 
 mountains are undoubtedly to be reckoned its natural boundaries 
 on this side. t)n the E. and N.E. it has the Red Sea, and on Ihe 
 S.E. the kingdom of Adel. (>n the \V. and N. its boundaries 
 are less distinctly marked ; I'.aving on both these ([uartcrs the bar- 
 barous kingdom of Sennaar, whose limits frequently vary accord- 
 ing to the fortune of war betwixt tlie two monarchs. From Ar- 
 keeko, situated near the foot of the Basaltes iuountaius, in about 
 1 j" 30' Jyat. N. it extends near 7° Lat. N. where the mountains 
 of Calfa, the most southerly province of Abyssinia terminate. 
 Along the coast of the Red Sea lie the territories inhabited 
 by the Hazorta Shiho, the district of Engana Shiho, and the 
 kingdom of Dancali, including the territory of Azab and the 
 salt-pits. 'J'o the west of these is the kingdom of Tigre, includ- 
 ing the country of the Dobas, part of the kingdom of Bali, 
 ^and that of Dawaro. Still farther west are those of Sire, 
 Lasta, Amhara, the greatest part of Bali, and part of Eatigar, 
 which last reaches beyond the mountains. Proceeding still in the 
 same direction, we come to Tcherkin, Tchelga, Abargale, Sal.io, 
 Begi uK-ler, Xoa, and Ifat ; reckoning always from north to south ; 
 Tchi-rkin, for instance, being nortli of Tchelga, &c. Koa extendi 
 41' a considerable.
 
 E T IT 
 
 530 
 
 ET I 
 
 a coiisilerable way lo the west, so that, besides Ifat, it has to 
 the south ot it also the kingdoms of Iladc and Cambiit ; the latter 
 e\leiKling bejuial ihe south ridge of mouiita'.ns. To the west aie 
 Kas de l-'efl, Diiiihea, (Jojam, and Daniot ; and beyond these 
 are the kingdunis of Demhea, Bizanio, Gooderoo, and Giiraque ; 
 those of Nare, oiEnarea, and Call.i, occupying tiie south-we^t cor- 
 ner of the empiri-. Ancient authors agree, that Ethiopia was very 
 Jiiountainous", but they mentioned no mountains ot any mat;nitni'.e, 
 except Garbato and Klrphas, whose situation ♦; not now easily ascer- 
 tained, though it is thought they answer to tlie mountains of Tigre. 
 The JesLiilswere the lirstwhogaveany inforniationto the Europeans 
 <oncerning ihis country. Ihe provinces of Begemdcr, Gojani, 
 Walaka, Xoa, &c. are one continued cliain of mountains. NJanv 
 of them are said to be of such enormous lieight, that ine Alps and 
 Pyrenees are but molehills in comparison. 'I'hose called Aorni 
 were said to be of this kind ; but \lr. Bruce informs us, that these 
 accounts are exaggerated. Amongst those mountains, and often 
 in the plains, there are many steep and craggy rocks of various 
 and whimsical shapes ; some of tiiem so smooth, that men and 
 oxen are craned up to the top by engines : but wiiat is most sur- 
 prising, the tops of these rocks are covered with woods and mea- 
 dows, fidl of springs and streams of water; of the truth of whicli 
 we have an attestation by Mr. Bruce, in his description of Lar.ial- 
 mon. The names of the twelve provinces of Abyssinia are, Ma- 
 suah, Tigre, Samen, Bcgennler, Amhara, Walake, Goiam, Da- 
 mot, Maisha, Dembea, Kuara, and Narea. See these articles in 
 their order. Abyssinia abounds with a vast variety cf quadrupeds 
 both wild and tame. Immense numbers of cattle everywhere 
 appear, some of them the most beautiful in the world. Some 
 hive monstrous horns, said to be capable of holdi.ng ten (juarts 
 each; but this, says Mr. Bruce, is a disease which proves fatal to 
 them. Buli'alos are numerous, fierce, ancl untractable ; but there 
 are no carnivorous bulls, which have been said to exist in this and 
 other parts of Africa. Antelopes are met with in great numbers in 
 the uncultivated parts; feeding cliiefly on tlie leaves of trees. 
 Ilyxnas, lions, foxes, jackals, &c. aie also found, as well as ele- 
 phants, camelopards, and other more uncommon kinds. Great 
 havoc is made in the cultivated lields bv baboons, a|'.e5, rats, and 
 mice. '^I'here is plenty of hares ; but these being reckoned un- 
 clean, as well as wild boars, are not used as food. The rivers 
 abound with crocodiles and hippopotami, at least the Nile, and 
 those large streams which flow ijito it : but many others have wa- 
 ter in them only during tlie rainy season, and thus have neither 
 lish, nor any animal that feeds U|)on them. The number of birds 
 in this country is immense. Great numbers of eagles, vultures 
 Jiawks, and other carnivorous birds, come punctually every vear 
 after the tropical rains. They feed at first upon the sbell-fish, 
 vhich are found in great ([uantities on the edges of the deserts, 
 vhere they had lived in the salt springs ; but, being forced from 
 their natural habitations when these springs swell by the rains, are 
 afterwards leitlo perish on dry land. When these fail, they feed 
 on the carcases ot the large animals, such as the ele])haiit aiid rhi- 
 noceros, which are killed in the flat countries by the hunters. 
 Theirnext supply is the multitudes of rats and field mice which 
 infest the country after harvest. The vast slaughter of cattle made 
 by the Abyssinian armies, the multilude of jiersons killed, whose 
 bodies are allowed to rot on the field of battle, &c. furnish them 
 also with other resources. There are other birds which feed upon 
 insects, and multitudes which live on grain and seeds of various 
 kinds, v\hich are amply supplied by the immense ciuaiitity of 
 fruits and berries which grow in Abyssinia, and are ripe at all sea- 
 sons of the year. Among the reptiles in Abyssinia, Mr. Bruce 
 describes a kind of lizard, and the cerastes, or horned ser|)eiit; but 
 denies that serpents are numerous in Abyssinia, as almost all au- 
 thors have supposed. He describes very few fishes ; though he 
 says that an account of these, and other marine productions of the 
 Bed Sea, which lie has painted and collected, would occujjy manv 
 large volumes, and the engraving would cc t a sum which he 
 could not by any means afford. He mentions one named biiiny, 
 vhich is good food, and grovis to a pretty large size; that fro'm 
 vth'fh he took the dra%^'ing being about 3-' pounds weight. Its 
 whole body is covered Willi beautiful scales resembling silver 
 spangles. C)f the insect tribe Ihe most extraordinary is the tsalt- 
 iialya, or zinib, a kind of venomous lly, extrenuly destructive lo 
 cattle. Mr, Bruce also mentions a small spccies'of ants, whose 
 bUe is more painful than the sting of a scorpion, and which issue 
 
 out of the ground in such numbers, as to cut in pieces carpets and 
 every thing made of soft materials that they have access to. The 
 three largest rivers in Ethiopia are the Nile, the Tacazze, and the 
 Zebee; but there are many others of inferior size, such as the Ba- 
 chilo, Geslien, Gult, Mai-Lumi, Samba, Temci, &:c. The great 
 variety of climates in Ethiopia, is very perceptible in its soil and 
 productions. 1 he mountains in many places are not only barren, 
 but altogether inaccessible, except by those who make it tht ir 
 constant practice to climb amongst them ; and.even by them duv 
 cannot be ascended without great diiHeully and danger. In lh"e 
 vallies, houever, and flat parts of the country, the soil is exces- 
 sively fruittul, though in the warmest places grain cannot be 
 brought to perfection. Vvine is also made in some places; hut 
 the greatest profusion of fruits of all kinds is to be met with eveiy 
 where, as well as many plants not to be found in other countrii-.. 
 There is a vast variety of llowers which adorn the banks of tii:^ 
 rivtrs, in such a manner as to resemble line gardens. Anioi,.„' 
 these there is a species of roses, which grow upon trees, and ar' 
 much superior in fragrance to tliose which grow on bushes. Sei.a, 
 cardanion, ginger, and cotton, are likewise jiroduced in great cju.i.- 
 tities. All the trees of Abyssinia are ever greens ; and tlieir leavi , 
 are of a thick leathery consistence, and highly varnished, to en» 
 able them to rciiist the violent periodical rains. A very remark- 
 able particular concerning the fruit-trees is, that those which be iir 
 fruit all the year round do not carry it always in the same jjlace. The 
 W.side is that which blossoms lirst, and where, ot consequence, tiie 
 fruit I'iist comes to perfection ; the south side succeeds, and gors 
 lluoughjhe same process ; after which, the norlh blossoms in likf^ 
 manner; and last of all tlie east side, vhich produces iiowers and 
 fruit towards the beginning of the rainy season. A variety ot 
 rare plants are met with in Abyssinia, tliechiel of which Mr. Brure 
 particularly describes. The ancient Ethiopians, who inhabited 
 the country above Meroe made remarkable dwiinctioiis amimg 
 their gods. Some, they said, were of an eternal and incorruptible 
 nature, is the sun, the moon, and the universe; olhei-s, liavin^; 
 been born among men, had acquired divine honoui-s by their vii- 
 tue, and by the good which they had done to mankind. They 
 worsl!ii)pecl Isis, Pan, and particularly Jupittr and Hercules, ficin 
 whom thev supposed they had received most benefits. But some 
 Ethiopians believed that there were no gods ; and when the sun 
 rose, they fled into their marshes, execrating him as llieir most cruel 
 enemy. Circumcision was a rite observed among the ancit-nt 
 Ethiopians, as well as the Egyptians, trom very early anti([uilv; 
 and some 5up))Ose that the lormer received it from the latter, and 
 both from the Israelites ; though others insist, that the Ethiopians fir. t 
 adopted it from the children of Abraham by Keturah. 'Ihe reli- 
 gion of the modern Ethiopians is a mixture of Paganism, Juda- 
 ism, Christianity, and Mohammedanism. Christiaiuty, however, 
 being the established religion, is the one most gent rally profes.-ed. 
 The frontier countries ot Nara, Riisel-Feel, Tchelga, &c. arc 
 wholly inhabited bv Mohammedans. 
 
 E1"I1MG10ES"OS. See Anatomy. The name of this bone 
 is derived Irom i5|U°>'> ^ sieve, and "Jof, form, because it is porous 
 like a sieve. 
 
 ETHNABCII, or ETHNARCIIA, [rfv®-, a nation, and 
 n-yo;, a ruler,] a governor of a nation. There are some medals of 
 lierod tlie Great, on one side whereof is 'lie-in, and on the other 
 E8va.:yov, i. f. Hei'od the Ethnareh. This title has been used sv- 
 nonvmously with 'i'etrarch, though originally difterent. 
 
 I^THNOPHKONES, [from tSvof, a heathen, and fjoviu., to 
 think,] in antiquity, a sect of heretics in the seventh century, who 
 made a jjiolession of Christianity, but joined thereto many of tl,i 
 ceremonies and follies of paganism ; as judicial astrology, sortile- 
 ges, and other divinations. 
 
 ETHOLOGY, [to i9^, manner, and 2 ^o-/©', discourse,] a rs- 
 presenlation of the manners and customs of a people. 
 
 ETIIOPOIA, [from iBo;, manner, and ioi.-d', to do,] a figure 
 in rhetoric, in which the manners of a people are represented. 
 
 ETIII'LIA, in botany, a genus of the polygimia aqualis or- 
 der, and syngenesia class of plants ; natural order Composilic. Bi - 
 ceptacle naked ; down none. It has six species. 
 
 ETIENNE, Sx.or ST. ESTIENNE, a town of France, 
 the cleparlment of Rhone and Loire, 2'.' miles S. E. of Fuers, v.', 
 200 S. bv E. of Paris. 
 
 ETIQ'UE ITE, [Fr. i. e. a ticket, or title, afiixcd to a bun.i 
 of jiapers, expressing its contents,] is used when applied lo tti' 
 
 Sp.lllis!
 
 EVA 
 
 531 
 
 E V A 
 
 J^|i,iiii->li ami some otlu'r touils, to signify a paiticuLir aftouiit of 
 wluil is to be done (hilly in tlu- king's household, and in llie chief 
 ceremonies lelating to it. I'he word is now chiefly used to de- 
 note those forms that regulate the decorum of conduct towards 
 peisoiis of various ranks and stations; a sense very ditl'erent from 
 Its original iiK'anin;;. 
 
 K'I'NA, or .ETNA, a famous burning mountain in Sicily, and 
 llic largest in Kinope. Sec tEtna. 
 
 ETOILE, in foililicalion, a sniall fort, or redoubt, in the form 
 of a star. 
 
 IVrOLI.V, or,ETOLIA,a country of ancient Greece, conipre- 
 lu-udmg all thai tract now called the Dc-spotut, or little Cn-ece. 
 Jt was separated on the east by the River Evanns, now the Fid.ai 
 from the Locrenses O/.oIa; : on the west from Acarnania, by the 
 Acheluiis ; on the north from the country of the Dorians and 
 ]^u'l of Ei)irus; and, on the south it extended to the bay of Co- 
 rinth. 
 
 ErOLIANS, the ancient inhabitants of Etolia ; wlio are said 
 to h.ive been a restless and turbulent jjeople, seldom at pi-ace 
 aiiiung Iheniiclves, and ever at war with their neiglibours. This 
 i^ nut improbable ; hut they are also represented as utter strangers 
 to all sense of i'riendsliip and principles of honour; ready to be- 
 tiay their friends upon the least prospect of reaping anv adv.in- 
 t.ige from their treachery ; in short, they were looked upon by 
 tlie other states of Greece as outlaws and public robbers. 
 
 ETON, or E.\TON, a town of Bucks, £0 miles W. of Lon- 
 clcii. See Eaton'. 
 
 ETRURIA, or IlETRURIA, in ancient geography, a cele- 
 brated counln- of Italy, on the 'I'iber, bounded by that river, the 
 Macra, the Apennine, and the Tyrrhene Sea. The greater part 
 of it is now included in the duc'iy of Tuscany. 
 
 ETTIKGEN, ETILINGEN, orCETtlNGEN, a town of 
 Germany in the circle of Suabia, and nn.ruraviate of BadeJi. 
 
 ETYMOLOGY, [from Hv^j.©', true, and ■hayit, discourse,] tliat 
 pat of grammar which considers and explains the origin and deri- 
 vation of words, in order to arrive ;\t their priman' signi:ication. It 
 is styled by Cicero notatio ad verilocpiium ; tiiougli Quintilian 
 chooses ratliei to call it originatio. A judicious inquiry into ety- 
 mologies is thought by some of considerable use; because nations 
 who value themselves upon tlieir anticpiity, have always looked 
 on the antiquity of Uieir language as one of the best titles thev 
 could plead ; and tlie etymologist, by seeking the true and original 
 reason of the notions and ideas fixed to each word and expression, 
 may often furnish an argument from the traces remaining tliereof, 
 compared willi the ancient uses. But a more profitable use i>, 
 that etymologies are necessary for the thorougli understanding of a 
 language. I' or, to explain a term precisely, there is often a ne- 
 cessity lor recurring to its first origin, in order to speak justly and 
 satisfactorily thereof. The force and extent of a word is generally 
 better conceived when a person knows its origin and etymology. It 
 is objected, however, that the art is arbitrary, and built altogether 
 upon corjectures and appearances ; and etymologists are charged 
 with deriving their words from whence they please. Indeed, it is 
 no easy matter to go back into the ancient British and Gaulish 
 ages, and to follow, as it were, by the track, the yarious imper- 
 ceptible alterations a language has undergone from age to age ; 
 and as tiiose alterations have sometimes been merely owing to ca- 
 price, it is easy to take a mere conjecture for a regular analogy : 
 so thi.t it is no wonder many should be prejudiced against a science 
 which seems to stand on so precarious a footing. It must be own- 
 ed that etymologies are often so far fetched, that one can scarce 
 see any resemblance or correspondence therein. 
 
 EU, a sea-|)ort of France, in the deiiartment of the Lower Seine, 
 and late province of Norman<ly, 15 miles N. E. of Dieppe, and 
 30 of Rouen. 
 
 EVACl'ATION, in animal ccconomy, is the act of diminisli- 
 ing, attenuating, or discharging, the humours. The due evacua- 
 tions of the body, and its proper nourisliment, are equally neces- 
 sary ; and it is an object of considerable importance, that 'nothing 
 remain in the constitution which should be discharged; and tiiiit 
 whatever is conducive to its preservation, may not be uselessly 
 wasted. If the evacuations be disordered, the most rigid adher- 
 ence to dietetic rules will not contribute to the continuance or 
 restoration of health ; these rules, however, may often be dispensed 
 with, 'jrovided the evacuations be regulai-. 
 
 I 
 
 FA'ANDI'.U, in (abulous history, a famou'^ Ai'<adi;in chief, said 
 to have been the son of Mercnrv , on account of his eloqueucc, by 
 the piophete^-s Carmenta. lie lirought a colony of hii pec pie 
 into Italy, about sixty years before the taking of Troy; wIh-h 
 Faunus, who then reigned over llie Aboriginetj gave him a large 
 territory, in which he settled with his friends. 
 
 lev ANGICLIS'F, is derived from the Greek, iMyfi/.iov, formed 
 of lu, good, and a-,rf/.3;, angel or messenger. This title was given 
 in tlie j)riniitive church to suth as preached llie gospel in dilttrent 
 places, without being attached to any ))articular church. In this 
 sense somtinteriiieteiMliink that I'hili]), oneoflhe seven deacons, is 
 called the evangelist, in Acts xxi. 8. St. Paul writing to'I'lniothy, 
 2 l'",ph. iv. j, bids him do the work of an evangelist : and in his 
 epistle to the Epiiesians, iv. 11, he ranks the evangelists after the 
 apostles anrl prophets. 
 
 EN'ANID COLOURS arc such as are of .hort din-ation, as 
 those in the rainbow, in clouds before and after sun-set, &;c. Tliey 
 are al>o call<-<l fantastical and emphatical colours. 
 
 1".\'AN»I1AM, a town ol Virginia, and capital of AVylhe 
 county. 40 miles AV. by S. of Christiansbur!?, and 518 S. W. by 
 \V. of" Philadelphia. 
 
 E\ AN TES, in anticiuity, the priestesses of Bacchus, so called, 
 because in ceUbrating the oigia, they ran about as if distracted, 
 cr) iiig cvan ! tvitn ! oli'c txau ! 
 
 E\'APOKA'l"R)Is',in chemistry, the setting of a liquor in a gentle 
 heat or in the air, to discharge its su])ertluous luimidilv, reduce it 
 to a proper consistence, or obtain its dr) remainder. Evaporation, 
 though generally considered as the el'lect ol the heat and motion of 
 the air, may be ))ro •■..ced by a difi'erent cause. I'iuids lo-.e more 
 by i-vaporation in the severest frost than when the air is mode- 
 rately warm. Thus, in the great frost of I'Ub, it was found that 
 the greater tiie cold the more considerable the evaporation. Ice 
 iticll loses much by evaporation. 
 
 EvAPOKATiON, in natural philosojjhy, is the couversion of wa- 
 ter into vapour, w hich in consecpience of becoming lighter than 
 the atmosphere, is raised considerably above the surface of the 
 earth, and aftcrvards by a partial condensation forms clouds. It 
 differs from exhalation, which is properly a dispersion of dry par- 
 ticles from a body. We are indebted to the experiments of'Saus- 
 sure and Dehic, tor much of our knowledge of the qualities of va- 
 pour. It is an elastic invisible fluid like common air, but lighter; 
 being to common air of the same elasticity, according to Saussure, 
 as 10 to 14, or according to Kirwan, as 10 to 12. \N'hen water is 
 heated to 212°, it boils, and is rapidly converted into steam ; and 
 the same change takes place ia much lower temperatures ; but in 
 that case the evaporation is slower, and the elasticity of the stream 
 is smaller. As a very considerable proportion of the earth's sur- 
 lace is covered with water, and as this water is constantly evapo- 
 rating and mixing witli the atmosphere in the state of vapour, a 
 precise determination of the rate ot evaporation must be of very 
 great importance in meteorology. Accordingly, many experi- 
 ments have been made to d(;teriii!ne the point b)' different (jhiloso- 
 phcrs. No person has succeeded so completely as Mr. Dalloii : 
 init many curious jjarticulais had been previously ascertained by 
 the labours of Richman, Lambeit, Wallerius, Leidenfrost, VVatson, 
 Saussure, Deluc, Kirwan, and others. 
 
 1. The evaporation is coiilined entirely to the surface of tlic 
 water: lience it is in all cases proportional to the surface of the 
 water exi)Osed to the atmosjihere. Much more vapour, of course, 
 rises in maritime countries, or those interspersed with lakes, than 
 in inland countries. 
 
 2. Much more vapour rises during hot weather than during 
 cold: hence the quantity evaporated depends in some measine 
 upon temperature. 'J'he precise law has been happily discovered 
 by Mr. Dalton. This philosopher took a cylindrical vessel of tin, 
 whose diameter was 3;^ inches, and its depth 2-^ inches, filled it with 
 water, and kept it just boiling for some time. The loss of weight 
 in a minute was 30 grains, when the experiment was made in 
 a close room whhout any draught of air; .>j grains when the 
 vessel was placeii over the fire in the usual fire-place, there being 
 a moderate draught of air, and the room close; 40 with a brisker 
 fire and a stronger draught ; and when the draught was very strouf;, 
 he sup])oses the evaporation might amount to 00 grains iu'tlie mi- 
 nute. At the temperature of 180°, tlie (juanlitv evaporated was 
 one half of what «as lost at 212°, 
 
 At
 
 EVA 
 
 132 
 
 EVA 
 
 At 164' it was ^ of thai at 21'J' 
 
 15-' ^ 
 
 144 i 
 
 138 i 
 
 And ill general the quantity evaporated from a given surface of 
 uater per minute at any tempc-rature h to the quantity evaporated 
 from the same surface of 'J 12^ as tlie force of vapour at the first 
 temperature is to the force of vapour at 212". Hence, in order to 
 <liscover tlie quantity wliich will be lost by evaporation, from wa- 
 ter of a given temperature, we have only to ascertain the force of 
 vapour at that temperature. Hence we" see that the presence of 
 atmospheric air obslrucls the evaporation of water ; but this eva- 
 poration is overcome in proportion to the force of the vapour. Mr. 
 Dalton ascribes this obstruction to the vis inerti;i: of air. 
 
 3. 'I'he qu.uUity of vapour which rise? from water, even when 
 the temperature is the same, varies according to circumstances. 
 It is lea^t of all :n calm weallier, greater when a breeze blows, and 
 greatest of all with a strong wind. The following l.ablc drawn up 
 bv Mr. Dalton, shews the tjuantity of vapour raised from a circu- 
 lar surface of six inches in diameter in atmospheric temperatures. 
 The lirst cohnnn expresses the temperature ; the second the ccrrc- 
 sponding force of vapour ; the ofb.er three columns give the num- 
 ber of grains of water that would be evaporated from a surface of 
 six inches in diameter in the respective temperatures, on the sup- 
 position of there being iireviously no aqueous vapour in the at- 
 mosphere. 'I'hes-c colunms present the e.xtremes and the mean of 
 evaporation likely to be noticed, or nearly such ; for the lirst is 
 calculated upon the supposition of 35 grains loss per minute from 
 the vessel ot 3^ inches in diameter ; the secct.d 45, and the third 
 55, grains per minute. 
 
 Force of 
 vapour in 
 
 Tempe- 
 rature. 
 
 212° 
 
 20° 
 
 21 
 
 22 
 
 23 
 
 24 
 
 n~ 
 2fi 
 
 27 
 28 
 29 
 30 
 31 
 32 
 33 
 34 
 35 
 36 
 37 
 38 
 39 
 40 
 41 
 42 
 43 
 44 
 45 
 A6 
 47 
 48 
 
 50 
 51 
 52 
 53 
 54 
 55 
 56 
 57 
 58 
 
 iiiches. 
 30 
 
 .129 
 .134 
 .139 
 .144 
 .150 
 .156 
 .162 
 .16S 
 .174 
 .isn 
 . 1 85 
 .193 
 .200 
 .207 
 .214 
 .2-21 
 .229 
 .237 
 .245 
 .3->4 
 .263 
 .273 
 .283 
 .294 
 .305 
 .316 
 .327 
 .339 
 .351 
 .363 
 .375 
 .3sa 
 .401 
 .415 
 .439 
 .443 
 .45S 
 .474 
 .490 
 
 Evaporating force iu grains. 
 120 154 189 
 
 .52 
 .54 
 .56 
 
 .5S 
 .tiO 
 .63 
 .65 
 
 .67 
 .70 
 _72 
 
 .74 
 
 .77 
 
 .80 
 
 .S3 
 
 .r,G 
 
 .89 
 
 .92 
 
 .95 
 
 .98 
 
 1.02 
 
 1.05 
 
 1.09 
 
 1.13 
 
 1.18 
 
 1.22 
 
 1.26 
 
 1.31 
 
 1.36 
 
 1.40 
 
 1.45 
 
 1.50 
 
 1.55 
 
 1.60 
 
 1.66 
 
 1.71 
 
 1.77 
 
 1.83 
 
 1.90 
 
 1.96 
 
 .67 
 
 .69 
 
 .71 
 
 .73 
 
 .77 
 
 .79 
 
 .82 
 
 .86 
 
 .90 
 
 .93 
 
 .95 
 
 .99 
 
 1.03 
 
 1.07 
 
 1.11 
 
 1.14 
 
 I.IS 
 
 1.22 
 
 1.26 
 
 1.31 
 
 1.35 
 
 1.40 
 
 1.45 
 
 1.51 
 
 1.57 
 
 1.62 
 
 1.68 
 
 1.75 
 
 l.RO 
 
 1.86 
 
 i.92 
 
 1.99 
 
 2.06 
 
 2.13 
 
 2.20 
 
 2.2S 
 
 2.35 
 
 2.43 
 
 2.52 
 
 .S2 
 .85 
 .88 
 .91 
 .94 
 .97 
 1.03 
 1.05 
 1.10 
 1.13 
 1.17 
 1.21 
 1.26 
 1.30 
 1.35 
 1.39 
 1.45 
 1.49 
 1.54 
 1.60 
 1.65 
 1.71 
 1.78 
 1.85 
 1.92 
 1.99 
 2.06 
 2.13 
 2.20 
 2.28 
 2.36 
 2.44 
 2.52 
 2.61 
 2.69 
 2.78 
 2.88 
 2.98 
 3.0.^ 
 
 „ 
 
 Force of 
 
 
 
 
 1 empe- 
 rature. 
 
 vapour in 
 inches, 
 
 Evaporating force in grains. 
 
 212° 
 
 39 
 
 120 
 
 154 
 
 189 
 
 , 1 
 
 59 
 
 .507 
 
 2.03 
 
 2.61 
 
 3.19 
 
 60 
 
 .524 
 
 2.10 
 
 2.70 
 
 3.30 
 
 61 
 
 .542 
 
 2.17 
 
 2.79 
 
 3.41 
 
 62 
 
 .560 
 
 2.24 
 
 2.88 
 
 3.52 
 
 63 
 
 .578 
 
 2.31 
 
 2.97 
 
 3.6.3 
 
 64 
 
 .597 
 
 2.39 
 
 3.07 
 
 3.76 
 
 65 
 
 .616 
 
 2.46 
 
 3.16 
 
 3.87 
 
 66 
 
 .635 
 
 2.54 
 
 3.27 
 
 3.99 
 
 67 
 
 .655 
 
 2.62 
 
 3.37 
 
 4.12 
 
 68 
 
 .676 
 
 2.70 
 
 3.47 
 
 4.24 
 
 69 
 
 .693 
 
 2.79 
 
 3.59 
 
 •4.33 
 
 70 
 
 .721 
 
 2.88 
 
 3.70 
 
 4.53 
 
 71 
 
 .745 
 
 2.98 
 
 3.i^:i 
 
 4.68 
 
 72 
 
 .770 
 
 3 08 
 
 3 91) 
 
 4.84 
 
 73 
 
 .796 
 
 3.18 
 
 4.09 
 
 5.00 
 
 74 
 
 .823 
 
 3.2y 
 
 4-.2.! 
 
 5.17 
 
 75 
 
 .851 
 
 3.40 
 
 4.37 
 
 5.34 
 
 76 
 
 .880 
 
 3. -.2 
 
 4,:.2- 
 
 5.53 
 
 77 
 
 .9 1 
 
 3.135 
 
 4.1)8 
 
 5.72 
 
 78 
 
 .940 
 
 3.76 
 
 4 S3 
 
 5.91 
 
 79 
 
 .971 
 
 3.88 
 
 4.99 
 
 6. 1 
 
 80 
 
 l.OC) 
 
 4.00 
 
 5.14 
 
 6.29 
 
 SI 
 
 1.04 
 
 4.16 
 
 5.35 
 
 6.54 
 
 82 
 
 1.07 
 
 4.28 
 
 5.50 
 
 6.73 
 
 83 
 
 1.10 
 
 4.40 
 
 5.66 
 
 691 
 
 S4 
 
 1.14 
 
 4.56 
 
 5.86 
 
 7.17 
 
 85 
 
 1.17 
 
 4.uS 
 
 6.07 
 
 7.46 
 
 4. Such is the quantity of vapour which wouUl arise in different 
 circumstances, on the supposition that no vapour existed in the at- 
 mosphere. But this is a supposition which can never be admitted, 
 as the atmosphere is in no case totally fi'fe from vapour. Now 
 when we wish to ascertain the rate at wliich evaporation is going 
 on, we have only to find the force of the va|)Our already in the at- 
 mosphere, i.nd subtract it from the (orce ot vapour at the ctiven 
 tempiiature: the remainder gives us the actual force of evapora- 
 tion; from wliich, by the table, we readily find the rate of evapora- 
 iion. Thus, suppose we wish to know tlie rate of evaporation at 
 the temperature 59°. From the table we see that the force of va>' 
 pour at 59° is 0.5 or ^ its force at 212°. Suppose we find by trials 
 that the force of the vapour already existing in the atmosphere is 
 0.25, or the half of .j^. To ascertain the rale of eva|>oratlon, 
 we must subtract the 0.95 from 0.5; the remainder 0.25 givc-SiUS 
 the force of evaporation recjuirecf; which is precisely one-half of 
 
 I what it would be if no vapour had previously existed in the atmo- 
 
 ] sphere. By the table we see that on that supposition a surface of 
 
 I six inches diameter would lose one grain by evapor.afion per nii- 
 
 j nute, instead of two grains, which wouk^have been converted into 
 
 ] vapour if no vapour had previously existed in the atmosphere. If 
 
 the force of the vapour in the atmosphere had amounted to 0.5, 
 
 which is equal to the force of vapour at the temperature of 59°, in 
 
 that case no vapour whatever would rise from the water; and if 
 
 the force of the vapour already in the atmosphere exceeded 0., 
 
 inste:id of evaporation, moisture would be deposited on the surface 
 
 of the water. These general observations, for all of which we are 
 
 indebted to Mr. Dalton, account in a satisfactory maimer for all 
 
 the anomalies which had puzzled preceding philosophers ; and in- 
 
 dude under tliem all the less general laws wiiii. h they liad disco- j 
 
 vered. We mii;i consider the discoveries of Mr. Dultoii as the 
 
 most important additions made to the science of meteorology for 
 
 these many years. ^ 
 
 5. As tiie force of the vapour actually in the atmorphere is sel- I 
 doni equal to the force of vapour of the temperature of the alnfb- 
 sjihere, evaporation, with a few exceptions, may be considered as 
 constantly going on. 
 
 Various attempts have bec^n made to ascertain the quantity eva- 
 porated in the course of a year ; but the difficulty of the problem I 
 is so great, that we can expect only an appioxiniation towards a 
 solution. From the experiments of Dr. Dobson of Liverpool in I 
 the years 1772, 1773, 1774, and 1775, it appears that the mean [ 
 
 1 annua) I
 
 EVA 
 
 .S3 3 
 
 E U C 
 
 January 
 
 February 
 
 MarcU 
 
 April 
 
 May 
 
 June 
 
 Iiic1k-s. 
 i.:.o 
 
 1.77 
 
 .....2.M 
 
 3.30 
 
 4.34 
 
 4.41 
 
 annual evaporation fiom the surface of tlie '.vater iuiiounted to 
 36.78 inches. Tlic jjropoition for every nionlli was the fol- 
 lowing : 
 
 In'.iies. 
 
 July .^.11 
 
 Au!;ust 5.01 
 
 Sepleuiber 3. IS 
 
 October 2..M 
 
 November 1.51 
 
 December 1.49 
 
 Mr. Dalton founil tlie evaporation from tlie sirrfaceof the water 
 !;i one of the drie>t and hottest d.iys of summer rather more than 
 ' of an inch. If we believe Mr. Williams, the evaporali->ii from 
 r surlace of fand covered wilh trees and other vegetables is owe- 
 jihirel greater than from the surface of water; but this lia-; not been 
 'confirmed by other philosophers. From his experiments it ap- 
 •MS, that iu Bradford in New England (he evajjoraiion, during 
 rj, amounted to 4V.6j inches. But frou! the way that Lis ex- 
 perinieiits were conducted, the amount was nrobubly too great. 
 From an exjieriment of Dr. Watson, made on tiie -'d of June 
 — 79, a'ter a month's drought, it appears, that the evaporation 
 ;ii a square inch of a grass plot auiounled to 1.2 grains in an 
 liour, or '-'8.8 i;raiiis in 24 hiurs, which is O.O6I of an inch. In 
 another experiment, after there liad bi'cn no rain for a weeU, the 
 heat of the earth beinc; 110°, tlie evaporation was found almo.il 
 twice as great, or = 0. lOS of an inch in the day. The mean of 
 these two experiments is 0.0S4 inclies, amounting for the w hole of 
 June to 2 (32 inches. If we suppose this to tear the same propor- 
 tion to the w hole year that the evapori'tion in Dr. Dobson's expe- 
 I'liients for June do to the annual evaporation, Wv' shall obtain an 
 iiniual evaporation, amounting to about 22 inches. This is nuicli 
 mailer than that obtained by Mr. ^Villiams. But Dr. Watson's me- 
 thod was not susceptible of precision. He collected the vapour 
 raised on the inside of a driiiking-glass ; but it was impossible 
 that the glass couid condense much more than one-half of what 
 (lid rise, or would liave been raised in other circumstances. Rut 
 ihen th ' experiments were made in the hottest part of the day, 
 ivhen mucli more vapour is raised than during any other part of it. 
 1 he most exact set of experiments on the evaporation from the 
 Mrth was made by Mr. Dalton an>l Mr. Hoyle, during 1796, and 
 ':"two succeeiling years. The method which they adojited vvas 
 lli^ : Having got a cylindrical vessel of tinned iron, ten inches in 
 laineter, and three feet deep, there were inserted into it two 
 ijies turned downwards for the water to run off into bottles : the 
 '' pipe was near the bottom of tlie vessel, the other was an inch 
 in the top. Tlie vessel was filled up for a few inches with gra- 
 I and sand, and all the rest wilh good fresh soil. It was then 
 it into a hole in the ground, and the space around filled up with 
 ;rth, except on one side, for the convenience of putting bottles 
 1 the two pipes ; then some water was poured on to sadden the 
 prth, and as much of it as would was suffen^d to run through 
 lA-ithout notice, by which the earth might be c jusidered as saturat- 
 1 with water. For some weeks the soil was kept above the level 
 the upper pipe, but latterly it was connantly a little below it, 
 iich precluded any water running olf through it. For the first 
 .ir the soil at top was bare ; but for tlie two last year:, it was co- 
 red witii gra^s the same as any green field. Things being thus 
 cumslanced, a regular register was kept of the quantity of rain- 
 iter that ran off from tlie surface of the earth through the upper 
 pe (v.'hilst that tock place,) ;.n;l also of the quantity of that 
 liich sunk down through the three feet of earth, and ran out 
 ■ lOugh the lower pipe. A rain-gauge of the same dianreter was 
 ■.rpt close by to find the quantity of rain for any corresponding 
 'nie. The weight of the water which ran through the pipes being 
 ubtracted from the water in the rain-gauge, tiie remaiiuler was 
 onsidered as the weight of the water evaporated from the earth in 
 he vessel. The following table exiiihits the mean annual result 
 >t these experiments: 
 
 Mean. 
 
 Mean 
 
 Mean 
 
 Uaiii. 
 
 Evap. 
 
 Inch. 
 
 Inch. 
 
 2.468 
 
 i.ons 
 
 1.801 
 
 .aUH 
 
 .902 
 
 .623 
 
 1.717 
 
 1.4i(:i 
 
 4.177 
 
 S.0H4 
 
 2.4S3 
 
 2.VHn, 
 
 4.154 
 
 4.09.-. 
 
 3.554 
 
 3.38f; 
 
 3.279 
 
 2.954 
 
 2.899 
 
 2.G72 
 
 2.934 
 
 •2.055 
 
 3.202 
 
 1.484 
 
 33.560 
 
 25.15a 
 
 I 
 
 VOL. ;i.— NO. 77. 
 
 January 
 
 l'"ebruary 
 
 March 
 
 April 
 
 May 
 
 June 
 
 July 
 
 Augu.ll 
 
 September 
 
 October 
 
 Novemlier 
 
 December 
 
 Kain 
 
 Evapor. 23.725 
 
 From the^.e experiments it appears that the quantity of va|X)'.ir 
 raised annually at Manchester is about 25 inches. If to this we 
 add iwe inches for the dew 'with Mr. Dalton, it will make the an- 
 nual evaporation 30 inches. No\v,'if we consider the situation of 
 Eiij;land, and the greater quantity of vapour raised from water, it 
 will not surely be considered as too great an allowance if we esti- 
 mate thL- mean annual evapor tion over the wl.ole surface of the 
 globe at 35 inches. But 35 inches from every scjuare inch oil 
 the superficies of the globe make 94,450 cubic mdes, equal to, the 
 water annually evaporated ov( r the whole globe. Was this, pro- 
 digious mass of water all to subsist in the atmosphere at once, it 
 would increase its mass by about a twelfth, and raise the barometej" 
 nc;.rly tliree inches. BtU this never happens; no day passes with- 
 out rain in some part of the earth, so that part of the evaporated 
 water is constantly precipitated again. Indeed it would be im- 
 possible for the whole of the evaporated water to subsist in the at- 
 mospiiere at cnce, at least in the state of vapour. 
 
 EVASION, in law, any subtle endeavour to set aside truth, or 
 to escape the punishment of tlie law. Thus, if a person says to an- 
 other that he will not strike him, but will give him a pot of ale to 
 strike him first, and accordingly he strike.s, tlie returning cf it is 
 punishable; and if the ])ersontirit striking be killed, it is murder: 
 fur no man shall evade the justice of the law by such a pretei.ce to 
 cov.T his malice. 
 
 EVATES, a branch of the Druids. Strabo divides the British 
 and Gaulish philosophMS into three sects ; bards, cvates, and 
 druids. He adds, that the bards were the poets and musicians; 
 the evates, the priests and naturalists'? and the druids, moralists as 
 well as naturalists : but Marcellus and Hornius reduce them all to 
 two sects, viz. the Bardo and I>uiids. 
 
 EVAUX, a town of France, in the department of C'reuae, IS 
 miles N. N. R. of Aubup^on. 
 
 EUBAGES, or EUBATES, an order of priests or ph'iloso,- 
 phers among the ancient Cella; or Gauls: some suppose them to 
 be the same w iih the druids and saronida; of Diodorus ; and others, 
 that they were the same with what Strabo calls Evates. 
 
 EUBCjiA, or ABANTIL'S, in ancient geograph)-, an, oblong 
 island, stretching out between Attica and Thessaly. It is now 
 called Negropont, from its principal town, anciently called 
 Chalcis. 
 
 EUCALYPTUS, a genus of the he\an<lria monogynia class 
 and order. Calyx su];erior, permanent, truncate before iioweriiig, 
 covered with an hemispherical deciduous lid ; corolla, none ; cap- 
 sule four-celled, opening at top, inclosing many seeds. There are 
 two species, lofty trees of New Holland ; called also the red-gui<i- 
 tree, from a gummy, matter, in wliich one of them, the resinifcra, 
 abounds. 
 
 EUCH.'VRLST properly signifies giving thanks; the word 
 Evx«;'r"' literally import'ng thanksgiving; being formed of lu, 
 good, and y ■»;';, thanks.. This Si.crament was instituted bv Ciiri--.t 
 himstir, i.nd the participation of it is ca'.led communion. As to the 
 manner oi celebrating the eucharist amoii.T the priniitire Christians, 
 after the customDrv oblations were nude, tlio deacon brought water 
 4 Q ' i-->
 
 E U C 
 
 33 i 
 
 E UD 
 
 to the bishops and presbvlers, standing round llie table, to wash 
 their hsiids. Tlieri the deacon crie;l out aloud, " Mutually em- 
 b race and kiss each other;" which being doiKj, th.e whole con- 
 gregation prayed lor the universal peace and welfare of the church, 
 for the traiKiuillity and repose of the world, for the prosperity of 
 the age, for \^ilole^Olne ueather, and for all ranks and degrees of 
 men. After this followed mutual salutations of the minister and 
 people ; and then the Iiishop or presbyter having sanctilied the 
 elements by a soli mn benediction, he brake the brcaci, and deli- 
 vered it to the deacon, who di^tributed it to co;iiinunicanlJ, and 
 alter that the cup. Their sacramental wine was usually diluted 
 or mixed with water. During the adai;ni>tration, they sang hymns 
 ai.d prahns ; and hr.ving concluded with prayer and thanksgiving, 
 the people saluted each other whh a ki^s of peace. 
 
 EUCUI r.E, or EUCHITES, [EiyiT-^i, Gr. from rjyj,, pray- 
 er,] a sect of ancient heretics, who were hrst tornied into a reli- 
 gious bodv towards the end of the 4th century, though ti-.eir chief 
 <li->/'triiies and discipline sui-.si-ted in Syria, Ef;ypt, and other eas- 
 tern conntries, before the birtii of Christ. They were thus called 
 because ihev praved without ceasing, agreeably to the words of 
 St. I'aul, 1 Ihess. V. 17, imagining that prayer alone was sufliccnt 
 to save tiiem. 
 
 EucHiTiis, anotlier sect of fanatics, who, in the 12th century, 
 infested the Greek and Eastern churches, and who weie charged 
 witn believing a double 1 rinity, rcjeciing wedlock, abstaining 
 Irom flesh, treating with contempt the sacraments of baptism anil 
 tne Lord's v.ipper, an<l the various branches of external worship, 
 and placing the essence of rehgion solely in external prayer, 
 :ind maiutaming the eliicacy of perpetual supplications to the su- 
 premr IJeing for expelling an evil genius, who dwelt in the breast 
 of every ini rial. 
 
 EUGIIOEOGtUM, [e-jx.'^ »y'". Gr. /. e. a discourse on pray- 
 er; t'rom i-'Yji, prayer, and >oy'-,-, discourse,] the Greek ritiuil, 
 wherein are prescribed the order and manner of everything re- 
 lating to the admini-itratiou of their ceremonies, sacraments, ordi- 
 nations, ?iC. 
 
 EUCLEA, a genus of the d'lecia dodecandria class and order. 
 In both male and femvle the c.dy.x is four ni live-toothed ; corolla 
 -lour or live-parted ; male stamina, twelve to tiftein. In the fe- 
 male, the germ is su] i-rior; styles two; berry two-celled. One 
 speces, a branching tree of the Cape. 
 
 EUt'LID OF Alexandria, the celebr.ited matlii'inaticiaii, 
 flourished in the reign ot Ptolfmy Lagus, about B. C. 2.S0. He 
 reduced all the fundamental principles of pure mathemalics, wliicJi 
 liad been delivered down by Thales, Pythagoras, Eudoxus, and 
 other nii'thematicians before him, into regiila: ily and ordi r, and 
 ad.'.cd m, ny others of his own di.^covering ; on which account he 
 ii said to be the lirst who reduced arithmetic and leom'-trv into 
 the lorin of a science. He likewise applied hims'df to the study 
 of mixed niaihematics, and especially to astriMiomy and 0|)tics, in 
 which he also excelled. His works, as ue learn from Pap;His and 
 Proclus, are liie Elcir.tiil> of Geoniefry, Data, Introduction to 
 Harmony, Phenomena, Optics, Catoptrics, a Treat'se ot the Di- 
 vision of Snperhcies, Loci ad lLni;)erliciem, Porisiiis, Eallacies, anri 
 four book^ oi Conies. Ot the^e the most celehiated is his Ele- 
 ments, of which there have been numberless editions in all lai;- 
 euages. A fine edition of all his works now extant was printed in 
 l/OJ, by David Gregory, Havilian professor of a^trononly at Ox- 
 ford. Euclid was greatly esteemed by king Ptolemy ; who onie 
 asking liim, if thi-re was any shorter way ot coming at Geometry 
 than by hi^ Elements, Euclid answered, that " there was no royal 
 path to G.i.melry." 
 
 EucLio OF Mec.\ra, a celebrated philosopher and logician, 
 flouri:,hed about 13. C. 400. 'I'he Athenians having prohibited the 
 Megariaus from entering their city on pain of death, this philoso- 
 pher disgui .ed iiimstlf in women's clothes to altend tlie lectures 
 of Socrates. After the death of Sue rates, Plato aii>! oilier philoso- 
 phers went to Euclid at Megara, to shelter themselves irom the 
 tyrants who governed Athens. Euclid admitteil but one chiei 
 good ; which he sotnetimes called God, sometimes Spirit, and 
 sometimes Providence. 
 
 EUCO.MI.S, a genus of the class and order hexandria mono- 
 gynia. C'al)x inferior, ^ix-parted, p.-rm:inent, spreading; hla- 
 iiu-nts united at the base ii.to a nectary gvowing to the corolla. 
 There are four species, plants of the Ca|je. 
 
 EUDIOMETER, ao inslrumeut for ascertaining the purity of 
 
 the atmospherical air, or the quantity of ox\genou3 gas contained 
 in it, chieriy by means of its diminution on a mixture with nitrous 
 acid, or some similar substance. Alter the composition of the at- 
 •iiosphere was known to philosophers, it was taken for granted that 
 the proportion of its ox%gen varied in diflerent times and in dilicr- 
 ent places; and that upon this variation the purity or noxious qua- 
 lities of air depended. Hence it became an object ol the greatest 
 importance to he in possession of a method of determining readily 
 the quantity of oxygen in a given portion of air. Accordingly, 
 various methods were proposed, si i of them depending upon the 
 property which bodies possess of absorbing the oxygen of ihe air 
 without acting upon its -azote. These bociies were mixed with a 
 certain knoun (juantity ot atmospheric an, in graduated gh:;? 
 vessels inverted over water, and llie proportion of oxvgen was de- 
 termined by the diminution of bulk. 'J liese lesiruments nceivtd 
 the name ot eudiometers, because they werr considered as mea- 
 surers ot thi- purity of air; from •> inSla, serenity ol theatmo«pliere, 
 and Tc fA.irsiv, a measure. The eudiometers proposed by diffeif r.t 
 chemists may be reduced to live. 1. Th.e hrst eudiometer «„■; 
 made in con equence of Dr. Priestley's discovery, that when 
 nilrous gas is niixed with air over water, the bulk ot the mixliii 
 diminishes rapidly, in conse<|UCncc of the ccmbiiiation of the 
 with the o\N gen of the air, and the ab-orptioii ot the nitric a. 
 thus formed by the water. When nitrousgas is mixed witii azoti' 
 gas, no diinintrtion at all takes place. When it is mixed with 
 oxygen gas in proper proportions, the absorption is complth-. 
 Hence it is evident, that in all cases of a mixture of these (un 
 gases, the diminution v\'ill be proportional to Ihe (|Uanlily of i 
 oxygtn. Of course itv.ill indu ale tlur propor:ioii ot ox> gen 
 a.r; and by mixii.g it with different porlicns of air, it will indicate 
 thcd ftVrent (piaiitities of oxygen which tiiey contain, provided the 
 coir.poiienl p.uls oi air are susceptible of variation. Dr. Priestley's 
 method was, to mix together ctpial bulks of air and nitrous gas iii a 
 low jar, and then to transfer tne mixture u.to a narrow graduated 
 glass tube aboutthree feet long, inorder to measure the diniiiiutieii 
 01 bulk. He expressed this diminution by the number ol hun- 
 dredth parts remaining. 'I'luis, suppose he hati mixed togciher 
 ecpial ])arts of nitrous gas and air, the sum total of this mixture was 
 2un (or 2.00): suppose the rcsidv'um when measured in thegradu 
 ated tube to amount to 104 or (1.04), and ot course tha' P6 parts 
 of tiie whole had disappeared, he deiioled tl;c purity oi the air 
 tiius tried by 104. A more convenient instrument was invented by 
 Dr. Falconer of Bath; andpontana greatly improved tins method 
 of measuring the purity of a r. A de.cr,i)tioii of his endinmeter 
 was published by Ingenhouz, in the hrst vcJiinie of his Experi- 
 ments: it was s'lll farther improved by Mr. Cavendish in 1783; 
 i.ikI Humboldt has lately made a \ery laborious set ol expi riinc!'' 
 in order lo bring it to a str.le of coniph-tc accuracy. But afli r 
 thi exertions ot tlicsc philojopliers, the method ot analysing air i 
 means of nilrous gas is liable to so many anjinahes, that it canuni 
 be depended on. Prie-lley and I'ontana nave proved, that tin 
 way ot mixing the two airs occasions a great iiii'fi rence n thr ;■ 
 suit, the lignie OI the vessels is equally important, and so is tl 
 water over which the mixture is made. Ami even w lien allthev 
 things are the same, the impurity oi the nitriAis gas may occasion 
 the most i normous djlferences in the resu.ts. Humbohlt ha 
 shewn that tbe nitrous gas ought to be preparetl i>y means of nitrii 
 aciil of the density 1.170; when a much stronger or weaker arid 
 is employed, the gas produced is always ontaminaled with a great 
 proportion of azotic gas. He has pointed out the solution of siil 
 phaie ot iron as proper to ascer'ain the purity ot the nitrous a,i 
 employed, by absorbing the nitrous g.is, anl leaving the azoi! 
 gas or other loreign gases. He has shewn that v hm nilrous l: 
 of the same degree of purity is made to mix very slowly with ,i 
 the vessel being caiefiilU agitated during the mixture, the resulis, 
 provided the experiment iv periormed with atldress, correspom 
 with each other. And he has made it probable, that v. hen eqiui 
 quanlitu's of air and nitrous gas, so pure as to contain only abti: 
 0.1 of azotic gas mixed with it, are agitated together slowly o\ . 
 water, the dimiiUition divided by 3.3 j, gives tlie qiiantih ofox\ 
 gen contained m the air examined. But nolwithsiand.ing the ia 
 genuity ot his experiments, the anomalies attending this method an 
 still so great as not to render it susieptible of accuracy. For tha 
 leasoii it is unnecessiry to give a particular description of thi 
 dilfereJit eudiometers invented to ascertain the purity of air !>' 
 
 mear.
 
 EUD 
 
 535 
 
 EUD 
 
 means of nitrous ga*. The result of tlie immorous experiment^ 
 whicli have been made wi'.h nitrons gas is, that the proportion of 
 OX) a;en iii atui'spheric air varies in duferent places and at diircrent 
 thne's. The inininumi i-- about 0.22, the niaximuni about O.JO; 
 con-eqiienlly if liiis ir.rtbod of analysing air is to bo depended on, 
 we must consider thai tin id not as a permanent chemical compound, 
 but as a body subjected to all tiie variations to wiiich accidental 
 jnixluies are liable. 
 
 S. The stcoiKi kind of eudiometer was proposed by Volta. The 
 substance employed by that philosopher to separate the oxygen 
 from the air was hydrogen gas. His metliod was, to mix given 
 proportions of the ai to be examined and hydrogen ga-. in a gradu- 
 ated glass tube; to lire the mixture b_\ an electric spark; and to 
 judne of the pur'.ty of the air by the Ijulk of the residuum. l!ui 
 thi^ niet!iod Is uot suscept.i.le of even so grrat a degree of accu- 
 nicv as the preceding, when the object i> to ascertain ihe precise 
 (piaiUiiy of oxygMi gu'^ in a ^.iven bul;\ oi air. For if too l.ttie 
 hvilrogeii gas is mixed w.m tiie a.r, not onh the \\hule of the oxy- 
 gen will not be ab:tnir(ed, inil a por'.i.in oi the azote will dis.ippear 
 in con>et]ueiice of t!ie tormalioii of iiiUic acid. On the other hand, 
 if too nuich liydro^eii is added, part of it will remain atier the 
 tiring 01 the mixliire, and increase tue bulk of the resiriuuni. 
 Volla's eucdoiiieler, t'len, thougii it may have its u^es, is scarcely 
 susceptible of giving u-> the analysis oi air. 
 
 .3. For the tii:rdkind of cudioiiictcr, we are indebted to Scheele. 
 It is merely a gradiL.ted glass ves<e., coiuainiiiu a given quj.ntiiv 
 of air exposed to iinwly prepared liquid alkahne or earthy sul- 
 phurets ; or '.o a mixlure of iroi'-i..i;i^b and sulpluir, lorined into a 
 |)a»le by means ot wai.-r. T'r.e.e siiijslances absorb Hie whole ol 
 the oxvgen or vital principle of the air, wh'ch c nverts a pr 
 tion ut the sulphur into an acu!. Tue oxygen contained in the air 
 thu> ■■xamin.-'i, is judge.: oi h\ the cii/iiinui .<:) or iuilk whicn tlie 
 air has undergone. I'his mediod is not only ex eedingly simple, 
 but it req'iire- very iilde aciiircss, and yet is susceptiile of as gieal 
 accura'V a< I'lv other whatever. The only objrcticji to which ii 
 jj I'ai.ie'i^ iN >iowiie>.; for wlien ti;e qu iiitily of air operattil on is 
 con.-i ... r-ble, -everal days elapse bi fore ihe dimiiuitioii lias ivaclied 
 its I!', xi'iiuhi. Bill (liN ouji'i tion h:w Utcii completely obvialeii 
 by M. l)e -Marti, who has brought Soiureie's eudioirieier to a stale 
 of perection. lie iouiul that a mixture ot ron-lilir.gs and sulphur 
 does 11 it answer well, because it emits a small quantity o! hydn gen 
 g:i-, iiv, lived by t.u' actni.i ;>f the siil,)iiurii- ..nil formed b) the .iIj- 
 sorplion of thcox\geii ot tlie air upon the iron ; but the hyoro- 
 gurete.i »ulpluirets, tornied by boil.ng logeti^er ^u phur uIkI liquid 
 potass or lime-water, ansv.ere I the purpose peril • tly. These sub 
 stances, m.leed, wneii i;eMiy jir'-p-ired, have tiie property otal)sorb- 
 ing a small por ion of aiiotic gaN ; but thry lose t.ds properly w.eii 
 satitralC'i w tli that ga^, winch is easily eiierieo by a.>itati.-.g Ihun 
 for a tew miiuiles with a small port.'-u of atino piierx a'l'. ilib a; - 
 puratus is merely a gla;-s tube, ten niches long, anil rather less than 
 liaii an inc:i in iliametei, open at one end, and lu-rmetically senled 
 at the other. The close end is divided into 100 equal parl.s, 
 having .'.11 interval of one line between each division. ,'i'!ie use ot 
 this tube is to measure the purlioii of air to be employed in the ex- 
 peri- icnt. The tube .s tilled with water; ana i)\ aiiowrng tiu- 
 watirlo run out gradually wii.le the tube is inverteo, and the open 
 end kept shut w.tli the linger, the graduated part is exactly idled 
 with air. 'I liese nimdreii'h parts of air arc iiuroduced hito a glass 
 botif; filled v.ith liquid siilpluirt I ot lime previou-ly satur.iied witi, 
 azotic gas, anil lapab'.e oi nui.i.ng Irom uvo lo luur times li.e bulk 
 of 111'- air ir.t'-e< need. [!■<- buttle is then t.j be corkiti '.vith a 
 ground glass stopper, r..d ■.>"it:Ued for five nitnules. Aft< i t.hs the 
 coik IS 10 be w;llidr.io'h while the mouth i I the piiial is undei uater; 
 and for the greater sei urily, it may be corked and agitaleu ag.iin. 
 Aftei this, the air is to b. again Iranslerreil to the grailuatea glass 
 tube, 11 oriler to ascerlain the dimmul.on ol its bulk. Air ex- 
 amined by this process, suifers precisely the same diminution in 
 wliaiever rirciimsiances the experiments are made: no variation 
 is ohserv. d wheiher the wind is high or low, or from what quart'; r 
 soever it blows; whelher the air tned is moist oc-dry, hot or cold ; 
 whether the baroineti r is high or low. Neither the season of the 
 year, nor the situation of the place, its vicmitv to tl e sea, to 
 marshes, oi to mountains, makes diiTerence. M. De Marti found 
 Ihe diminution always between O.'^'l aiid 0.23. Hence we may 
 WDclude that uir is composed of 
 
 O.TS azotic gas. 
 ' 0.22 oxygen gas. 
 
 1.00 
 Scheele indeed found, that the absorption amounted to 0.27 ; but 
 that was because he neglected to saturate his sulpluiret with azotic 
 gas; for when the portion of azotic gas, which iiiudI have been 
 absorbed, and which has been indicated by de Marti, is subtracted, 
 the portion of oxygen in air, and indicated by his experiments, is re- 
 duced very nearly to 0.22. The trifling variations perceptible in 
 his experiments wire no doubt owing lo the quantities of the mix- 
 ture ot sulphur and iron, by which he abstracted the oxygen, not 
 beinc; exactly the same at difilerent times; the consequence of 
 whicli would be, an unequal absorption ot azotic gas. 
 
 4. In the fourth kind of eudiometer, the abstraction of the oxy- 
 gen of air is accomplislied by means of phosphorus. T his eudio- 
 iiu-ler was first proposed by Achard. It was considerably im- 
 pruv'd by Reboul, ano by 'Seguin and Lavoisier ; but Rerihollet 
 has lately brougiil it lo a state of perfection, as it iseqiiallv simple 
 with the eudiometer of De Marti, and scarcely inferior to it in pre- 
 cision. Instead oi the rapid combustion ot phosphorus, this last 
 [ihilesopher has substituted its spontaneous comixislion, wliii-h ab- 
 -orbs the oxygen of air conqiietely ; and when the quantity of air 
 operated on is .mall, the pro'essi-; over in a short time. The • hole 
 .'pparatus (onsists in a narrow graduated Uibe of glass eoiitaniing 
 tlie air to be examined, into vhicli is inlrodu.ed acvliiider of pios- 
 phorus lixed upon a glass rod, while the iube stands iiverlei't over 
 water. 'Ihe phosphorus should be so long as to traverse .learly 
 the whole ot tne air. Immediately white vapours rise from the 
 pi'Osphoriis and till the tube. These contmu- till the wliole of 
 Ihe oxygen combines with phosphorus. Thi-N consist o! phos- 
 jjiiorous acid, wliicli falls by its weight lo the bo'l')n, of the vi-ssel, 
 
 I'd IS absorlK-ii b\ the water. 1 lie residuum is merely tr.e azotic 
 i.as ol the a r, iiolding a portion of pho phorus in solution, lier- 
 ihollet lii'S asceit.iined, tliat by this foieign body its bulk is in- 
 creased oue-forl.olh part. Consequently, the bulk of the residuum, 
 dimiiiislied by -f^, gives us the bulk ol theazot t 2as of the air ex- 
 aiiiiii. (1 ; wliicli hulk, subtracted irom the original mass of air, 
 gives Us the pr, portion ot oxygen gas cohtained in it. All the 
 diti.r.-nt experiments whicli have bren ii.aih- by means of this 
 eudiometer, .'gree precisely in their result, and indicate that the 
 propi.rt.'jii- of the ingredients of air are always the same, namely, 
 about O.J'J purl of oxygen gas, aiul 0.7S of azotic gas. Ber- 
 Ihollet iouiKl these prr portions in Egv pt and in Fraiice, and Dr. 
 
 t iioiiison f. und them comtaiitly m t-dinburgh m al. the different 
 Seasons o. the y.ar. T hu:. we see that the anal_\ is of air by means 
 ol piK.-piioius, ,;giees precisely with its analysis by means of hydro- 
 -uret d sulplii.rets. 
 
 5. Tne filiii eu(!ioraeter has been lately pio)iosed by Mr. Davy. 
 In il the sub taiice used to absorb the oxygen !r.>m air is a solu- 
 tion ot suipiiate or muriate oi iri;ii in water, and impresnated with 
 hitious gas. A MU.dl gr.duated glass tub'-, tilled with the air to be 
 -xamined, is plunged into the iiilroi s solution, and moved a little 
 backwards and lor'vards. 1 lie whole of the oxygen is absorbed in 
 a tew minutes. The state of greatest absorplinn ought to be 
 marked, as Ihe mixture aiti-rwards emits a litiie ga wl.ich would 
 .ilti r the result. By means ot this and Ihe two preceding eudio- 
 mrli-is, .\ir. Davy ex-mined the air at Brstol, and found it always 
 to contain about 0.2! of oxygen. Air sent to Dr. Beddoes from 
 tiie coast of Guinea gave exactly the saine result. This eudiome- 
 ler, then, cor.e-punds exactly with the two last. In all ;hese dif- 
 ferent method, ot analysing ar, it is neces«-jr_\ to open te on air of 
 a deteniiinale density, and to lake care tiiat the residuum is neither 
 more condensed ni-r dilated thjn the air was when liist operati-il 
 Oh. It these things an' nut attended to, no dependence whatever 
 can be placed ujion the result of the exiierinients, how carefully 
 soever they ni.iy have beer, performed. iNow there ar*" three things 
 which aUer the volume oi air and other elastic tiiiids : 1. A change 
 in the height ot the barometer. 2. An inucse or diminution of 
 their quantity ; the vessel in which tiey are -I'litained remaining 
 the same, ami standing in the s^me quantity ot water or mercurv". 
 3. A change in the tempevaiure of the air. 
 
 EUDOCIA, or EUDOSIA. a celebrated lady, the daughter 
 of Leontins, a philosopher ol Aih ns ; who gave her such a learn- 
 ed education, thai at his death, he lelt her only a small legacy, 
 
 4 the
 
 EVE 
 
 33d 
 
 EV I 
 
 saying she was capable of making her own fortune. Pleading at 
 Athens against her two brothers, for a sliave in her father's estate, 
 without success, she carried her cause personally by appeal to 
 Constantinople; rccomnicnded herself to Pnlcheria, the sister of 
 the emperor Theodosius II. embraced Christianity, w-as baptized 
 by the name of Eudosia, (her original name being Atlienais,) and 
 soon after married to the emperor. Their union lasted a consi- 
 derable tune : but a diflerence at last taking place, on, account of 
 the emperor's jealousy, excited by Chrysapius the eunuch, she 
 retired to Jerusalem, where she spent many years in builthng and 
 adornini; churches and in relieving the poor. Dupin says that 
 she did not return thence till after the emperor's death : but Cave 
 tells us, th:\l she was reconciled to him, returned to Constantino- 
 ple, and continued with him till his death ; after which she went 
 again to Palestine, where she spent the remainder of her life m 
 pious works. She died A. T). 459, or 460. Cave says that on 
 her death-bed she took a solemn oath, by which she declared her- 
 self entirely free from any stain or unchastity. She w-rote a para- 
 phrase on the lirst eight books of the Old Testament in heroic 
 verse ; another in prose on l,)aniel and Zachavias ; a history of St. 
 Cyprian and Justina, and a Life of Christ, in heroics, with many 
 other poems, which are lost. 
 
 EUDOXIANS, a sect of heretics In the 4th century, wlio ad- 
 hered to the errors of the Arians and Eunomians, maintaining that 
 the Son wa^ created out of nothing ; that he had a will different 
 from tJK.t of the Father, &c, 
 
 EUDOXIUS, the founder of the sect of the Eudoxians, was 
 patriarch of Antioch and Constantinople, and succeeded Macedo- 
 nius in the kilter see, A. D. 360. He was a zealous defender of 
 the Arian doctrine ; and died A. D. 370. 
 
 EUDOXUS, a celebrated astronomer of Cnidus, in Caria, who 
 flourished about B. C. 370. He studied geometry under Archy- 
 tas, and travelled into Egypt to learn the other sciences. Th.ere 
 he and Plato studied togetlier for thirteen years, after which they 
 came to Athens; where EudoNus taught with so much renown, 
 that even Plato is said to have envied him. Eiidoxus composed 
 " Elements of Geometry," from which, Pioclus tells us, Euclid 
 himself borrowed liberally. Cicero calls EudoNus the greatest 
 astronomer that ever lived, and Petronius says, he spent the latter 
 part of his life on the top of a high mountain, that he might con- 
 template the stars with more convenience. Strabo says, the re- 
 mains of his observatory were to be seen at Cnidus in his time. 
 He died in his 53d year. 
 
 EVE, [nin. Heb. i. e. she lived,] the mother of all mankind. 
 See Adam. 
 
 EVELYN, JOHN, a most learned writer and natural philoso- 
 pher, born at Wolton in Surrey, the seat of his father, in 1620. 
 After making the tour of Europe, he returned about 1651, and 
 lived very retired at his rural retreat. Say's Court, near Deptford 
 in Kent. He was very assiduous in transmitting to the Royal So- 
 ciety whatever fell within the compass of his inquiries ; and used 
 humbly to style himself pioneer in the service. When the num- 
 ber of books he published is considered, the manv he left behind 
 him untinished and unpublished, and the variety of subjects on 
 which he employed his time, his industry antl application appear 
 astonishing. " His life," says Mr. Walpole, " was a course of 
 inquiry, study, curiosity, instruction, and benevolence. The 
 works of the Creator, and the mimic labours of the creature were 
 all objects of his pursuit. He unfolded the perfections of the one, 
 and assisted the imperfections of the other. He adored from ex- 
 amination ; was a courtier that fluttered only bv informing his 
 prince, and pointing out what was worthy of him to countenance ; 
 and was really the nelglibour of the Gospel, for there was no man 
 that might not have been the belter for him. He was one of the 
 fiist promoters of the Royal Society, a patron of the ingenious and 
 indigent, and peculiarly serviceable to the lettered world ; for, 
 besides his writings and di>coveries, he obtained the Arundelian 
 marbles for the university of Oxford, and the Arundelian library 
 for the Royal Society: nor is it the least part of his praise, that he 
 who proposed to Mr. I?oylc the erection of a philosophical college 
 for retired and speculative persons, had the honestv to write in 
 defence of active life, against Sir (ieorgc Mackenzie's" " Essay on 
 Solitude." He knew that retirement in his own hands was indus- 
 try and benefit to mankind ; but in those of others, laziness and 
 inutility." There are live small prints of his journey from Rome 
 
 to Naples, drawn and etched by him ; and among his published 
 works are, 1. A Character of England ; 2. The State of France; 
 3. An Essay on the lir.^t book of Lucretius De Rerum Nalura ; 4. 
 The French Gardener ; 5. A Panegxric on King Charles II. 's 
 Coronation ; 6. Fumifngum, or the Inconveniences ot the Air 
 and .Smoke of London dissipated ; 7. The History and Ait of 
 fcLngraving on Copper; S. A Parallel between the Ancient Archi- 
 tecture and Mod'jrn ; 9. Sylva, or a Discourse of Forest Trees; 
 and several others. This amiable gentleman died, full of age antl 
 honour, in 1706. 
 
 EN'EN NUMBERS. See Number. 
 
 Evenly even Numbeiis, or Evenly odd Numbers. See 
 Number. 
 
 EVER-GREEN, in gardening, a species of perennials, whicli 
 continue their verdure, leisvis, &c. all tiie year : sncli are hollies, 
 phillyria's laurustinu>.es, bays, pines, lirs, cedars of Leba- 
 non, &c. 
 
 EVERLASTING PEA. SeeLATHvnus. 
 
 liVEUSHO r, a town ot Dorsetsiiire, 12 miles N. V,'. of Dor- 
 ch«4er. 
 
 EVES DROPPERS, in law, persons who stand under the eves, 
 walls, or windows, of a house, by day or by night, to listen afler 
 news, and carry it to others, thereby raising strife and contcnliou in 
 the neighbourhood, 'ihey are punishable in the court-leet, or 
 quarter-sess.ons. 
 
 EVESHAM, a township of New Jersey, in ijurlington county, 
 between the forks of Moore's Creek ; 16 mdes E. of Philadel- 
 phia. 
 
 Evesham, or Evesholm, commonly called Esam, a borough 
 of Worcestershire, seated on a gentle ascent from the river Avon. 
 It is 14 miles S. E. of Worcester, and 95 N. W. by W. of Lon- 
 don. 
 
 EUGENIA, the Ya.mboo;. a genus of the monogynia order, 
 and icosandria class oi plants; natural order, Hesperioea;. Calyx , 
 quadripartite, superior; petals iour ; fruit a mono<penncus quad- 
 rangular plum. There are eleven species, natives of the East or 
 West Indies. 
 
 EVIAN, a town of France, in the department of Mont Diane, on 
 the S. side of the lake of Geneva, 23 miles N. E. of Geneva. 
 
 EVICTION, in law, signilies a recovery of lands, or tenements. 
 W lien lands, &c. are evicted before rent reserved upon a lease becomes 
 due, the lessee is not liable to pay any rent. Likewise, if on an ex- 
 change of lands, either of the parties is evicted of the land given 
 in exchange, the party evicted may, in that case, re-enter his own 
 lands. And a widow being evicted of her thirds, shall be endowed 
 in the other lands of the heir. 
 
 EVIDENCE, in law, signifies proof by testimony of men upon i 
 oath, or by writings or records. It is called evidence, because 
 thereby the' point in issue, in a cause to be tried, is to be made 
 evident. The system of evidence, as now eslabliihed in our courts - 
 of common law, is very full, coniprehensive, and rerined ; far dif- 
 ferent from, and'supcrior to, any thing know n in the middle ages; 
 — as far superior in that as in all other improvements and reiine- 
 ments in science, arts, and manners. As to evidence, the com- 
 mon law re(|uires no certain number of witnesses, though in some 
 cases the statute-law does. The testimony of one single evidence 
 is sufticient for the crown in all causes, except treason or con- 
 s|)iracy against the state, where there must be tw'o: sometimes 
 violent pl•c^umption will he admitted as evidence,without witnesses, 
 as where a person is run through the body in a house, antl one is 
 seen to come out of that house with a bloody sword. In gi ncral, 
 a party interested in a suit, a wife for or against her husband, unless 
 in cases of treason, an alien infijJel, persons non sana' iT'emoria-, such 
 as are convicted of fidony, perjury, 5cc. may "ot be evidence in 
 the cause: but kinsmen, though ever so near, also tenants, servants, 
 masters, attornies for their clients, one of the jurors upon trial, and 
 all others that are not infamous, and who want not understanding, 
 or are no parties in interest, maybe allowed to give e.vidence; 
 though the credit of servants is left to the jury: also the judge 
 going olf the bench may give evidence. Whnesses are ■-uiiinioned 
 by writ of subpcena to attend on penalty of 1001. to the king, and 
 101. to the party, witii charges by statute 5 Eliz. c. 9. All wit- 
 nesses of all religions, who believe in a future state of rewards and 
 punishments are received, but not persons infamous in law by their 
 crimes, nor persons directly interested in the inatlerin issue; and
 
 I' V I 
 
 ^3' 
 
 EUL 
 
 ■o t()uii5i-I or attoriii-v >liall be compelled to disclce llie ^ciicts 
 intrusU-il to liim by his tlient, Init lie may give evklcnce ot' fuct< 
 wliicli Ik' knew bv <itli;T means iIk'.m for tin- purpose of the eaii^e. 
 'I'he oalh ol tlie witiuss is to s|ieali the truth, the wliole truth, anil 
 nothing but llie truth, aiid all evidence is to be i;iven iii open court. 
 The law never gives credit to the bare assertion of any one, how- 
 ever high his rank or pure his moral-. ; but requires (except in par- 
 ticular cases with resjject to quakers) the sanction of an oath, and 
 the personal attendance of the parly in court, that he may be ex- 
 aiiiined ar.d cross-examiruJ by the different parties; and therefore 
 in cases depending on parole or verbal evidence, the testimony of 
 persons who are theijiselves co[iver>ant with tlie facts they relate, 
 must be produced ; the law paying' no regard, except under 
 S|)ccial circumstances, to any hearsay evidence. Thus in soui" 
 cases, the memoramUun in writing made at the time, ' by a person 
 since deceased, in the ordinary way of his business, and wiiich is 
 corroborated by other circumstances, will be admitted as evidence 
 of tlie fact. The general rules of evidence are, I . The best evi- 
 dence must be given that the nature of the thing is capable of. 2. 
 No person interested in the question can be a witness : but to tJiis 
 there are exceptions, as lirst, 'n criminal prosecutions; secojidly, 
 for general usage, for convenience of trade, as a servant to prove 
 the delivery of goods, though it tends to clear himself of neglect. 
 3. \V liere the witness acquii es tlie interest by his own act, after the 
 paity who calls him has a right to his evidence. The third rule 
 is, that hearsay of a matter of fact is no evidence; but of matter 
 of reputation, such, as a custom, it is in some sort evidence. 4. 
 Where a general character is the matter in issue, particular facts 
 may be received in evidence, but not where it occurs incidentally. 
 5. in every issue tlic aftirmative is to be proved. 6. No evidence 
 need be given of what is agreed, or not denied upon the pleadings. 
 In cases of crimes, as of robbery on the liigiivvav, in an action 
 against the hundred, and rapes of women, 4:c. a man or woman 
 may be an evidence in their own cause; so likewi-e in private no- 
 torious cheats, where none else can be witness of the circumstances 
 of the fact, but lie thatsulVers. And in general tiie same rules pre- 
 vail as those above slated, but evidence of the confessions of the 
 party should be received w itli caution, and are rejected when ob- 
 tair.etl through promises or threats. Presumptive evidence should 
 be admitted witli caution, and two excellent rules are given by Sir 
 Matthew Hale, that no one should be convicted of stealing goods 
 of a person actually unknown, unless there is proof of a felony ac- 
 tually committed ; and none tried for murder, until the murdered 
 body be found. When a witness is not liable to any legal objection, 
 he is lirst examined b\' the counsel for the party on whose behalf 
 he comes to give eviilence, as to his knowledge of the fact he is to 
 prove. This examination, in cases of any intricacy, is a duty of no 
 small importance in tlie counsel : for as on the one hand, the law 
 will not allow him to put what are called leading questions, viz. 
 to form them in such a way as would instruct the witness in the 
 answers he is to give ; so on the other, he should be careful that 
 he makes himself sufficiently understood by the witness, who may 
 otlierwise omit some material circumstance nf the case. "^Ihe 
 party examined must depose those facts only of which he has an im- 
 mediate knowledge and recollection ; he may refresh his memory 
 with a copy taken by himself from a day-book ;" and if he can then 
 speak positively as to his recollection, it is suflicicnt; but if he has 
 no recollection further than tinding the entrv in his book, the book 
 itself must be produced. Where the defendant had signed ackow- 
 h'dgements of having received money, in a day-book of the plain- 
 tiff, and the plaintiff's clerk afterwards read over the items to him, 
 and he acknowledged them all right, it was lield, that the witness 
 might refresh his memory by referring to tlie books, althoutrh there 
 was no stop to the items on which the receipt was written, for this 
 was only proving a verbal acknowledgement, and not a written re- 
 ceipt. Written evidence has been divided into two classes: the 
 one, that which is public, the other private ; and this first, has been 
 subdivided into matters of record, and others of an inferior nature. 
 The memorials of the legislature, such as acts of parliament, and 
 ■ other proceedings of tlie twohou-"es, were acting in a legislative cha- 
 racter; and judgement of the Kir.g's superior courts of justice, are 
 denominated records, and are so respected bv the law, that no evi- 
 dence whatsoever can be received in contradiction of them ; but 
 these are not permitted to be removed from place to place to serve 
 a private purpose, ami are therefore proved by copies of them, 
 
 VOL. II — xo. 77. , 
 
 which in the alisciK e of the original, is the next best evulence. 
 A bill in chancery has been adnnllcd as slight evnlenco against 
 the complainant ;'an<l an answer, is evidence .again.it the defen- 
 dant in equity himself, though nut agaii^t otliers, aiiil the w hole 
 may be reaJ by the adverji- parly. Depositions in chancery, 
 may be evidence at law, but not against others, and regularly not 
 if the witness be alive, except when taken in perpeluam ri*i me- 
 nioriam, &c. Mailer in law ougiit not to be given in evidence 
 upon a trial, but only of tact. On the question, how far persons 
 who have been defrauded of securities, or injured by a perjury or 
 other crime, can be witnesses in prosecuting for those ollenccs, llie 
 e\ ent of which ir.icdit possibly exonerate them from an ol)li;jaticn 
 they ate charged to have entered into, or restore to them money 
 which they have been obliged to pay; the general principle now 
 established is this : tlie question in a criminal prosecution or per- 
 sonal act, being the same with that in a civil cause in which the 
 vvitnes.ses are interested, goe^ generally to the credit, unless the 
 judgement in the prosecution where they are witnesses, can be 
 given in evidence in this cause wherein they are interested. But 
 Though this is the general rule, an exception to it seems to be esta- 
 blished ;n the case of forgery ; for many cases have been decided, 
 that a person whose hand-writing has been forged to an instru- 
 ment, whereby if good he would be charged with a sum of money, 
 or one who lias paid money in consequence of such forgery, can- 
 not be a witness on the indictment. In cases where the party in- 
 jured cannot by possibility derive any benefit from the verdict in 
 the prosecution, as in inilictments tor assault, and the like per- 
 sonal injury, his competence has never l>een doubted. It is a ge- 
 neral rule that a party cannot be examined as a witness, for he is 
 in the highest decree inferested in the event of it ; but where a 
 man is not in point of fact interested, but only a nominal party, as 
 where members of a charitable institution are deteudants in their 
 corporate character, there is no objection to an individual member 
 bfuig examined as a witness for the corporation; for in this case 
 he is giviHg evidence for the public body only, and not for liim- 
 
 N. P. Cas. 1! 
 
 Bui. N. P. -'93. 
 
 self as an individual. Peake 
 
 EVIL, in philosophy, &c. is either moral or natural. Mor.al 
 evil IS the disagreement between the actions of a moral agent, and 
 the rule of those actions whatever it is. See Moral Philoso- 
 phy. Natural evil is, whatever destroy?, or any way disturbs, 
 the perfection of natural beings : such as blinclness, diseases,- 
 death, &c. 
 
 EVIL-MERODACH, king of Babylon, succeeded his father 
 Nebuchadnezzar the Great, A. M. 3443. He had governed the 
 kingdom during the lunacy of his father, who after seven years, 
 having recovered his understanding, once more ascended the 
 throne, and imprisoned his son Evil-Merodacli. In this contine- 
 ment, it is supposed, that Evil-Merodach made an acquaintance 
 and friendship with Jeconiah, king of Judah, who hail been carried 
 to Babylon by Nebucliadnezzar. However, it is certain, that, 
 soon after his "succession to the throne, he delivered the king of 
 Judah out of prison, after a conlineiuent of 37 years, heaped many 
 favours on him, and placed him above all the other kings who 
 were at the court of Babylon, {2 Kings xxv. 27. Jer. lii. 31,) 
 Evil-Mcrodach reigned but one year, according to the chronology 
 of archbishop Ussher; but Dr". Prideaux says, he_ reigned two 
 years, and was succeeded by Neriglissar, his sister Nitocris's lins- 
 band, who, having been at the 'head of a conspiracy that put him. 
 to death, reigned'in his stead. Others will have it, that this prince 
 was inimediatelv succeeded bv his son Belshazznr. 
 
 EULER, Lf.oNARD, F. U.S. stiled by Dr. Ilutton, " one of 
 the most extraordinary, and even prodigious, mathematical geni- 
 uses, that the world ever produced," was born at Basil, .\pril l;), 
 1707. He was the son of Paul Euler, and Margaret lirucker, 
 of an illustrious family in letters; and spent the years of his in- 
 fancy, in a rural retreat at the village of Richen, where iiis father 
 was "minister. He received liis education in the university of B^- 
 sil with a view to the church, but he devoted himself principally 
 to mathematical studies under the famous John Berr.ouilli. In 
 1727 he followed his friends Hermann and Daniel Eeniondli to 
 Petersburgh, and was associated with them in the mathematical 
 professorship. In 1730 he was appointed professor of natural phi- 
 losophy, and on the departure ot Daniel Bernouilli he succeeded 
 him in'the mathematical chair. In 173j, a problem yvas proposed 
 by the academy which required expedition, and for the solution 
 4 li of
 
 EUL 
 
 338 
 
 EUL 
 
 of wliich ^cn-eral eminent ii'iathi»ni;itic'uins had clciiiaiuled some 
 months, 'llu' pro'olc-m was solved by Killer in three days, to thr 
 gveat astonidiineiit of tiie academv ; but the violent ano lahorioii'i 
 elVorts it cosi him threw him into a fever, wliich endangered his 
 •lite, and depriveilliim uf the use of his right eve. Tlie academy 
 of sciences at Paris, which in 1738 had adjudged the prize to his 
 mvnioir Concerning tlie Nature and Properties of Fire, proposed 
 ■for the year 17-10 the important subject of Ihe tides; a probk-m 
 whose solution re<|uired the most ariluous calculations. Eider's 
 clisconrse on iWk (juestion was adjudged a master-piece ot analysis 
 and geometry ; and it was more Imnouraljli- for him to share the 
 acailemical prize with such illu-trious competitors as Colin Mac- 
 laurin and Daniel Bernouilli, than to have carried it away from 
 rivals of Ie6c> magnitude. Seldom if ever did such a brilliant com- 
 petition adorn the annals of the academy ; and perhaps no sub- 
 ject, proposed by that U-arned body, was ever treated with such 
 accuracy of investigation and force of genius, as that which here 
 displayed the philosophical powers of this extraordinary triumvi- 
 rate. In 1741 he went to Berlin, at the invitation of the king, to 
 assist in establishing the academv there. He continued at Berlin 
 twenty-five years, and then returned to Petersburg!!, where he 
 soon after entirely lost his sight. Rut still he continued his fa- 
 vourite pursuits, and it was in this distressing situation he dictated 
 to his servant a tailor's apprentice, who was absoluti-ly devoid of 
 vnalheniatical knowledge, his " Elements of Algebra ;" which, 
 by tlieir intriiisical merit, in point of perspicuity and method, and 
 the unhappy circumstances in which they were composed, have 
 equally excited applause and astonishment. This work, though 
 purely elementary, discovers proofs of a most inventive genius ; 
 and it is here alone that we meet with a complete theory of the 
 analysis of Diophantus. About this time M. Euler was honoured 
 by the Academv of Sciences at Paris with the place of one of its 
 foreign members ; and, the academical prize was adjudged to three 
 of his memoirs, Concerning the Inequalities in the Motions of the 
 Planets. The two prize questions, proposed by the same academy 
 lor 1770 and 17712, were designed to obtain tVom the labours of 
 astronomers a more Perlect 'I'iieory of the Moon. M. Euler, as- 
 sisted by his eldest son, was a coin|jetitor for these prizes, and ob- 
 tained them both. lie afterwards reviewed his whole theory, 
 with the assistance of his son and .Messrs. Kraft't and Lexeil, and 
 pursued his researches until he had constructed the new tables, 
 which appeared, togi'ther with Ihe great work, in 1772. Instead 
 of conhning himself, as l)efore, lo the frnittess integration of three 
 (lifterential ecfualions of the second degree, which are furnished by 
 mathematical principles, he reduced Ihem to the thie(f ordinates, 
 wliich determine tlie place of the moon ; he divided into classes 
 all the inequalities of that planet, as far as they depend either on 
 the elongation of the sun and moon, or upon the eccentricity, or 
 the [iarallax, or the inclination of the lunar orbit. All these 
 iiieaus of investioation, employed with such art and dexterity as 
 could only he espccted from an anal)tical genius of the (irst 
 rank, were attended with the greatest success ; and it is impossi- 
 ble to observe, without adniir.ition, such immense calculations on 
 th<- one hand, and on the otiier the ingenious methods employed 
 by this great man to abridge them, andto facilitate their applica- 
 tion to the real motion of Ihe moon. Uut this admiration be- 
 comes astonishment, when we consider at what period and in 
 what circumstances all this was effectuated by M. Euler. It 
 was when he was totally blind, ami consequently obliged to 
 arrange all his computations by the sole powers of his memorv 
 and genius. It was w hen he was embarrassed in his iloniesti'c 
 circumstances by a dreadful hiv, that had consumed great part 
 of his siibstanie, and forced liim to quit a ruined house, of 
 which every corner was known to him by habit, which, in 
 some measure, supplied the place of sight. It was in these cir- 
 cumstances, that Euler composed a work which, alone, was sulli- 
 cieiit to render his name immortal. Some time after this, the fa- 
 mous oculist, Wentzell, by couching the cataract, restored his 
 tight; but the joy that this operation produced was of short dura- 
 tion. Some negligence on the jiart of his surgeons, and his own 
 impatience to use an organ, whose cure was not completed, de- 
 prived him o' his siglit a second time; and this relapse was ac- 
 fompanieil with tormenting pain. He, however, with the assist- 
 ance of his sons, and of NIcsms. Krafft and l.exell, conllnued his 
 labours; iieilhet; thp loss of hs sijjht, nor the infirmities of an ad- 
 
 vanced age, could depress the ardour of his genius, lie had en- 
 gaged to Unnish the academy of Petersburgli with as many me- 
 moirs as would be sufficient to complete its acts hir 20 years after 
 his death. In 7 \earo he transmitted to the academy, by .Mr. Go- 
 lofkin above 70 memoirs, and above L'JO more lelt behind him, 
 were revised and completed by a friend. Such of these memoirs 
 as were of ancient date were separated from Ihe rest, and form a 
 collection tliat was published in 17S3, under the title of Analytical 
 Works. Elder's knowledge was more universal than could well 
 be expected in one, who had pursued, with sueh iinremilting ar- 
 dour, mathematics and astronomy as his favourite studies. He 
 had made a very considerable progress in medical, botanical, and 
 chemical science. What was still more extraordinary, he possess- 
 ed what is generally called erudition in a very high degree. He 
 had read the most eminent writers of ancient Rome; the civil and 
 literary history of all ages and nations was familiar to him; and 
 foreigners, who were only acquainted with his works, were asto- 
 nished to find in the conversation of a man, who seemed solely oc- 
 cupied in mathematical and physical researches and discoveries, 
 such an extensive acquaintance with the most interesting branches 
 ot literature. In this he was doubtless much indebted to a very 
 uncommon memory, which seemed to retain every idea that was 
 conveyed to it, either by reading or meditation. Hecould repeat 
 the A-'.neid of Virgil, from the beginning to the end, without hesita- 
 tion, and indicate the first and last line of every page of the edition 
 he used. Several attacks of a vertigo, in Sept. 17S3, (which, how- 
 ever, did not prevent his calculating the motions of the aerostatic 
 globes,) were the forerunners of Ids mild and happy passage 
 Irom this scene to a better. While he was amusing himself at tea 
 with one of his grandchildren, he was struck with an apoplexy, 
 which terminated his illustrious career at the age of 76. liis con- 
 stitution was uncommonly strong and vigorous; his health was 
 good; and the evening of his life was calm and serene, sweetened 
 by the fame that follows genius, the public respectthat is paid to 
 exemplary virtue, and several domestic comforts which he was ca- 
 pable of feeling, and therefore deserved to enjoy. His works are 
 so numerous that the printed catalogue alone extends to 50 pages; 
 14 of which contain those in M.S. The printed ones consist of 
 w orks published separately, aiul works to be found in the memoirs 
 of several academies, viz. in thirty-eight volumes of the Peters- 
 burgh acts, (from six to ten papers in each volume) ; in several vo- 
 lumes of the Paris acts ; in twenty-six volumes of the Berlin acts, 
 (about five papers to each volume); in the Acta Eruditorum, iii 
 two volumes; in the Miscellanea Taurinensia; in vol. ix. of the 
 Society of Ulyssingue; in the Ephcmerides of Berlin; in the Me- 
 nioires de la Society Oeconomique, for 1766. 
 
 EULOGY, EULOGIA, [from rj, bene, and ^jyu, duo, q. d. 
 beitcdictum, blessed,] a bit of consecrated bread. When the 
 Greeks cut a loaf ol bread to consecrate it, they break the rest into 
 little bits, and distribute them among those who have not yet com- 
 nuinicated, or who are absent ; and these pieces of bread they call 
 eulogies. The Latin church has had something like eulogies for 
 many ages ; and thence arose the use of their holy bread. The 
 name was likewise given to loaves or cakes brought to church by 
 the superstitious to liave them blessed. It passed hence to nune 
 presents, without any benediction. See Gretser. de Benedict, and 
 Maledict. lib. ii. cap. i.'-', &c. 
 
 EUMARIDES, [of iv.a.:i.^<j;, easy,] among the ancients, a kind 
 of shoes common to men and women. The eumarides were used 
 for pomp and delicacy, being neat, and painted with various co- 
 lours. 
 
 EHMENES, a Greek officer in the army of Alexander, son of 
 a charioteer. He was the most worthy of all the ofticers of Alex- 
 ander. He conquered Paphlagonia, and Cappadocia, of which he 
 obtained the government, till the power and jealousy of Antigonus 
 obliged him to retire. He joined his forces to those of Perdiccas, 
 defeated C'rateriH and Neoptolemus, and killed the latter. When 
 Crateriis was afterwards killed, his i-emains received an honourable 
 funeral from Eumenes, who, alter weeping over the ashes of a m.an 
 who once was his dearest friend, sent his remains to his relations il» 
 Macedonia. Eumenes foiiglit against Antipater and conquered 
 him; but after the death of Perdiccas his ally, he was conquered 
 by Antigonus, i hit-fly through the treachery of his ollicers. Anti- 
 rronus ordered Eumenes to be put to death in the prison, B. C. 
 .ili. Eumenes raised himself to ^ov/tt by merit alone. His si^ill
 
 E U N 
 
 5.39 
 
 r: V o 
 
 festivals at Eleiisis; the (ksceiidants of Euniolpiis, king of T 
 EUMOLPl'S, ill fabulous history, a king of 'I'lirace, 
 
 ill iHiblic exercises first reconiniciKlcd liiiii to lUi- notice of Pliiliji ; 
 ami iiiidei' Alexander, liis fidelity and n;ililary aeconiplishnienls, 
 iiiiMiioted him lo the rank of a general. Ev( ii his enemies ievere<l 
 liiiii ; and Antigonus, by wliose orders he perished, hor.oured hi> 
 remains with a splendid tuiieral, and eonveyed liis ashes to his wife 
 and family in Cappadoeia. Emnenes had se.eh influence over the 
 successors of Alexander, that none liuring his lifetime d.tred to as- 
 sume the title of kina;. 
 
 EuMRNES, a historian in Alexander's army. 
 
 l'A'MF.Ni;s \. kins o* I'ergamns, succeeded his uncle Pliiletarus 
 aliout B. C. 2(54. lie made war against Anliochus the son of Se- 
 leueus, and enlarged his possessions by seizing upon many cities 
 of the kings of Sjria. He lived in alliance with the Romans, and 
 made war against Prusias king ol Bitliynia. 
 
 EuMESES II. succeeded his father .Altjlus on the throne of Asia 
 and Perganius. His kingdom was small and poor, but iie render- 
 ed it powerful and opulent; and his alliancewith the Konians con- 
 tributed to the increase of his dominions after the victiries obtain- 
 ed over Antioclnis the Great. He carried his arms against Prusias 
 and Antigonus; and ilied B. C. 100, after reigning 40 yeai's, leav- 
 ing liie kmgdoni to his son Attains II. 
 
 EUMENIDES, a name given to the Furies by the ancients. 
 See Furies. It seems to have been given them hi irony, as 
 ivixniia, instead of vengeance, signifies benevolence. 
 
 EUMENIDIA, festivals in honour of the Eumenides, or Furies, 
 celebrated annually with sacrifices of pregnant ewes, with offerings 
 of cakes made by the most eminent youth-, aud libations of honey 
 and wine. 
 
 EUMOEPIDES, the priesis of Ceres at the celebration of her 
 
 " ~ " ' ' Thrace. 
 
 ■y, a Kmg ot l nr.ice, son of 
 Neptune and Chione. He was thrown into the sea by his mother, 
 who wished to conceal her shame from her father. Neptune ^aved 
 his life, and carried liim into jEth'.opia, where he was brought up 
 by a woman, one of whose daugliters he married. An act of vio- 
 lence to his sister-in-law obliged him to leave iEtliiopia, and he 
 lied to Thrace with his son hmarus, where he married the daugh- 
 ter of Tegyrius the king of the country. This connection render- 
 ed him ambitious ; he conspired against his father-in-law, and tied, 
 when the conspiracy was discovered, to Attica, where he was ini- 
 tiated in the mysteries of Ceres of Eleusis, and made hierophantes 
 or high prie>t. He was afterwards reconciled to Tegyrius, and 
 inherited his kingdom. He perished in battle about B. C. 1380. , 
 
 EUNGMIANS, in church history, Christian lieretics in the 
 fourth century. They were a branch of Arians, and took their 
 name and creed from Eunomius bishop of Cyzieus. 
 
 EUNOMIUS, a famous heresiarcii of the fourth century, the 
 disciple of Aetius, but more subtde than his masler, as well as more 
 bold in propagating the opinions of his sect. He died very old, 
 about A. D. 374. 
 
 EUNUCH, is formed from (i'v>iv rx". q- <!• i^cli ciiram hahet, 
 guardian or keeper of tin- bed. In Britain, France, &c. eunuchs 
 are never made but upon occasion ol some disease, which renders 
 such an operation necessary: but in Italy they make great numbers 
 of children, from one to tliree years of age, eunuchs, every year, 
 to supply the operas and theatres of all Europe with singers. M. 
 De La I.ande, in his Voyage d'ltalie, asserts, that there are pub- 
 lic shops at Naples where this cruel operation is performed, and 
 that over the door of these shops is inscrilied Qui si castrano ra- 
 ffizi\. Yet Dr. Buniey informs us, tlmt he was not only utterly 
 nnab'.e to see or he.ir of any such shops during his resilience in 
 that city, bttt was told, both by the natives aiii'. English settled 
 Ihere, that the la*s against such a practice were so numerous ami 
 •evere, tliat it was never perfnriiied but with the utmost secrecy. 
 Jn the eastern parts of the world, they make eunuchs to be guards 
 on their women. The seraglio of the eastern emperors are chiefly 
 jerved ami guarded by eunuchs; and yet, from good authority", 
 we learn, that the rich eunuchs in Persia and other countries, keep 
 Miaghos for their own use ! There are several severe jnuhibitions 
 in Germany against the making of eunuchs. In Fiance, under its 
 late goverunient, an eunuch could not marrv, uot even with the 
 consent of the woman. Thcugh the practice of castration is de- 
 testable in every point of view, yet there appears no real founda- 
 tion for the injurious opinion generally ente;tained of eunuchs, 
 »iz. that they are all cowards, and devoid of genius for liteiature 
 «r any solnl study. " As to geuius, (says Dr, Burney,) I never 
 
 found those of the first class in music deficient in intellectual abili- 
 ties for more senous studies. ImU'cd I have seen real geni;is and 
 (iisjio-ition tor literary pursuits, iu mere than one grci cpera 
 sini;iT; and as for comp' sition, ami ihe theory of music, not only 
 Ihc best singer» of the Pope's chapel ever since the liegnning of 
 the last ceulury, but the best composers, are among the soprani, 
 ill that service." V\'iili respect to the O])cralion affecting the 
 mind so much as to deprive it of all fortiUule in times of danger, 
 there is great reason to doull the fad: mo-t of the generals of 
 eastern nionarchs having been at all times of this class; and tlie 
 bravest stand that ever was maiie against Alexander the Great was 
 at Gaza, under the coinniand of one ot Daruis's generals, who was 
 an eunuch. Animianus Marcellinus give- an account of Meno- 
 philu-, an eunuch, towhoin .\lithridati:s intrusted his daughter; 
 which proves tli.it >uch uiiii.ilunate persons possess a heroism e'iual 
 to that of the most determue-i Stoic. It is certain, that the an- 
 cients never supposed eunuchs men of inferior inlellecls, or that 
 they possessed less vigour of mind than other niui. At hast the 
 Persians were not of this opinion ; for Herodotus relates, (Lib. vi. 
 32,) that when they had taken some Ionian cities, T.itiia( 'i tk; ij 
 
 tiot^lala; ty.\eyofj.iviii £^iT(i/.tvov,._K'a fnoauv avli ftvat £VO.;^irtf iLVtf^y;. Hc- 
 
 rodotus, in relating the melancholy story of Hermutiniu-, says, 
 
 that Tiaon TOic^i /SarSripaict T(|'A;u.7.--'iot iici it tuvif^otf maho; jivtxa ^nar};, 
 
 Taiv -voj-x^iujv, " among the barbarians, eunuchs, are more valued 
 than other men, on account of (heir universal hdelity." (Lib. 
 viii. p. (JOS.) It appears from this l.'a^sage, that in Pei-sia eunuchs 
 so far from being objects of coiiteniiit, were often promoted to the 
 highest honours. 
 
 El'nuchs, in church history, a sect of heretics in the third cen- 
 tury, who were mad enough to castrate, not only those of their 
 own persuasion, but even all oilier^ they ci;uld lay hold of They 
 took their rise from the example of Origen, who, misunderstand- 
 ing these words of our Saviour, " and eunuchs w-ho m.tde them- 
 selves eunuchs for the kingrlom of heaven," castrated himself, 
 Tliose who, out of similar imprudent zeal, made themselves eu- 
 nuchs, were, by the council of Nice, condemned and excluded 
 ironi holy orders. 
 
 E\'OCAT10N, [evncotin, Lat.] among the ancient Romans, a 
 religion- ceremony always oliserved by theni at the undertaking of 
 a siege, wherein they solemnly called upon the gods and god- 
 desses of the place to forsake it and come over to them. W'ltliout 
 perlbrming this ceremony, they either thought the place could 
 uot be taken, or that it would be a sacrilege to take the gods pri- 
 soners. They took it for granted that their prayer was heard, and 
 that die gods had deserted the place and come over to them, pro- 
 videtl they were able to make themselves master; of it. 
 
 E\'OLI, an ancient town of Naples, in the province of Princi- 
 pato Citra, ir> mile- E.S.E. of Salerno. 
 
 EN'OLVENT, in the higher geometry, a term used by some 
 f'.r the involute, or curve resulting from the evolution of a curve, 
 in contradistinctioii to that evolute, or curve supposed to be open-, 
 ed and evolved. 
 
 EVOLUTE, [from e, out of, and voho, to roll,] in the higher 
 geometry, a curve lirst proposed by M. liuygens, and since 
 much studied by mathematicians. It is any ciirvr svipposed to bf 
 evolved, by having a thread wrapped close upon it, I'astenetl at 
 one end, and beginning (o evolve or unwind t!:e thread from the 
 other end, keeping the pait evolved or wc.uiul off tight stretched ; 
 then this end of the thread will describe .uiotlier curve, calli^d i.hc 
 involute. Sill his the curve BCF, (Plaie LIX. tig. 13;) for if a 
 thread, FCM, be wrapped about, orapjluii to, the said curve, 
 and then unwound again, the point M thereof will describe an- 
 other curve, AMM, c.illed b\ Mr. liuygens, a curve de3Cribe<l 
 from evolution. The part of the thread, MC, is called the radius 
 of the evolute, or of the osculatory circle described on the centre 
 C with the radius MC. Hence, 1, when (h? point B falls in A. 
 (he radius of the evolute WC is equal lo the arch PC ; but it uot, 
 to AB and the arch BC. 2 The Kixlius of iJie evolute CM i; 
 perpendicular. ko tlie curve AM. 3. Because the radius MC oi 
 the evolute continually touches it, it is evident from its genera- 
 tion, that it may be liescrihed through innumer.ible points, if the 
 tangents in the parti of tiie evolute aie produced until they becoiue 
 equal to their corresponding arches. -'I. The evolute uf the coin- 
 moii parabola is a parabola of the second kind, w hose parameter is 
 ■14 c-l' the commoii one. 5. T!,* evolute cf a cycloid is another 
 c)clold equal and siin»ar tv it. 6. AU the. arthe- of evolute 
 
 6 curves
 
 EUP 
 
 3^0 
 
 E U R 
 
 curves are reL-tiliab'.e, if tht- r.u'ii of tlic fVoUite can be expressed 
 geonn'trica)iy. 'I'lio^e who desire a more partieular account of 
 these curves, niav refer to sir Isaac Neulou's and Mac-Lauriu's 
 Fluxions, also Rowe's, Siuip'on's, and N'inee's Fluxions. 
 KVOLU'l'lt)N. bee AiiiTHMETic and Algebka. 
 Evolution, in the art of war, th.e motion n'.ade by a body of 
 troops, when they are cblip;ed to change th' ir form and disposi- 
 tion, iii order to preserve a post, or occupy another, lo attatU an 
 enemy with more advantage, or to be in a cojidition of defending 
 themselves (he better. Sue Tactics and Doubling. 
 
 KVOLVULU;5, a genus of the tetraiiynia order and pentan- 
 dria class of pl.ints; natural brder Ca'.npauaceiE, C'alyx penta- 
 phyllous; corolla (|uin(iuetid, verticillated; capsule triloeular; 
 seeds solitary. It has seven species, natives of the West or East 
 Inihes. 
 
 EVONYMUS, the Spindle Tree : a genus of the monogynia 
 order, and peutaiidria class of jjlants ; natural order Dumosa\ Co- 
 rolla peiitapetalous; capsule pentagonal, ([uiniiuelocular, quinque- 
 valved, coloured ; seeds hooiled. 'I'here are eiglit species, tree?, 
 or >hrubs, with the smaller branches four-cornered. 
 
 EUPAREA, a genus of the class and order pentandria niono- 
 g\nja. C'alyx five-leaved ; corolla, five or twelve-petaled ; berrv 
 superior, one-celled ; seeds many. One species, an herbaceous 
 plant of New Holland. 
 
 EVORA, or ELVOllA, a oiiy of Portugal, capital of the pro- 
 vince of Alentejo; fortilied with twelve bastions, and two lialf-bas- 
 tions. It is sealed among mountains, tii miles E. of Lisbon. 
 
 FVOU'l'S, an island in the South Sea, 15 miles S. of Terra del 
 Fuego. 
 
 EUPATORGIA, a town of Russia, in Taurid.i, on the Black 
 Sea, (jS miles y.W. of Ferekop. 
 
 EUPATORU'M, or EUPATORY, Hemp Acrimony: a 
 genus of the polygamia a-qualis order, and syngenesia class of 
 plants; natural or<ler, C'omposita'. Receptacle naked; pappus 
 feathery ; calyx imbricated, oblong ; style semibifid, long. There 
 are forty-nine spi-cies, many of them herbaceous llowery peren- 
 nials, producing annual stalks from two to three or five feet high, 
 terminated by clusters of compound flowers of ii red, purple, or 
 white, colour. Ths> are cliielly propagated by seeds, or parting 
 tlie roots in autumn or spring. One ottheni, viz. 
 
 E. Cannakinum, or Water Hemp Agrimony, is a native of 
 Britain. It is found wild by the sides of rivers and ditches, and 
 has pale red blossoms. It has an acrid smell, ami a very bitter 
 taste, with a considerable share of pungency. The leaves are 
 much recommended for strengthening the tone of the viscera, and 
 is an aperient ; it is said to have excellent effects in the dropsy, 
 jaundice, cachexies, and scorbutic disorders. 
 
 I'JUPATRIDAC, in antiquity, a name given by Theseus to the 
 nobility of Athens, as distinguished from Geomori and Demiurgi. 
 The Eupafridre, by Theseus's establishment, had the right of 
 choosing magistrates, teaeiiing and dispensing the laws, and inter- 
 preting religious mysteries. 
 
 EUPHEMIA, or ST. EUPHEMIA, an ancient sea-port of Na- 
 ples, 50 vniles N.E. of Reggio. 
 
 EI'PIIEMISM, [from fj, good, and ^'i^ai, to say,] a repre- 
 sentation of i;ood ([tialitie-, a figure in oratory, in whicli a harsh ex- 
 pression is changed for one less offensive. 
 
 EUPHON'IA, or ELT'HONY, [.yf.v.a,] in grammar, an 
 easiness, smoothness, and elegancy, of pronunciation. The word 
 is formed of !i/, good, and 9niv>i, voice. Quintilian calls eiiphonia, 
 " vocalitas ;" Scaliger, " facilis pronuncialio." Euphonia is pro- 
 perly a kind of figure v.herebv we sup|iress a too harsh letter, or 
 convert it into a smoother. There are many examples in all lan- 
 guage. 
 
 FAiPlIORBlA, Spurge, a genus of the trigynia order, and 
 dodecandria class of plants; natural order, 'i'ricocca'. Corolla 
 four or \'\\'k- petaled, placed on the calyx ; calyx one-leafed, b<'llv- 
 ing; c-tipsule trieoccous. There are ninety-eight specie<t. Tliese 
 are milky plants, IU0l^tly herbaceous, a few siirubby upright for 
 the most part, very taw of them creeping. The juice of most of 
 the species is so acrid'; that it corroiles and ulceiv.tes the body 
 wherever it is applied ; so that physicians have seldom ventured to 
 prescribe it internally. Warts, or corns, anointed with the juice, 
 presently disappear. A drop of it put into the hollow of an ach- 
 ing tooth, gives relief, like other corrosives, by destroving the 
 Q'T^'a. Some people rub it behind the ears, that it nwy blister. 
 
 E. Capensis, a native of the Cape of (jood Hope, supplies the 
 Hottentots with an ingredient for poisoning their arrows. Iheir 
 method of makiii!! this poison is by iiret mixing the juice extracted 
 Irom the euphorbia witli the substance of a caterpillar peculiar to 
 amiiher plant. They point their arrows with this composition, 
 whicli is supposed to be the most effectual poison of the whole 
 country. 1 he eujihorbia itself is also used for this purpose, hi 
 throwing the branches into lountains of water frequented by wild 
 beasts, which, after drinking the water thus poisoned, seldom get 
 a thousand yards from the brink of the fountain before tl:ey fall 
 down and expire. No animal escapes which drinks of such w.> 
 ler, though the flesh is not injured by the poison. 
 
 E. EsULA, another of the toreign species, is such a violent cor- 
 rosive, that, if applied to any part of the body, it produces a vio- 
 lent iiiflamination, v\ Inch is soon succeeded by a swell. iig that dege- 
 nerates into a gangrene, and generally proves mortal. See Plate 
 
 FUPHORBIUM, a gum resin, obtained from the euphor- 
 bia officinalis, a native of Ethiopia, by making incisions m the 
 plant. It is brought from Africa in the form of tears, is solublt in 
 alcohol. It has no smell ; alter a time it communicates a burning 
 taste to the tongue. It is regarded as poisonous. 
 
 EUPHRASIA, EUPHRASY, or EVE-BRIGHT: a genus 
 of the angio-permia order, and didynamia class of plants; natural 
 Older, Personata'. Calyx four-cletl, cylindric; capsule two-cell- 
 ed, ovate, oblong; lower anthers have a little thorn at the base of 
 one of the lobes. There are nine species, two are natives of 
 Britain. 
 
 EUPHRATES, a river which all ancient geographers agree 
 rises in Armenia Major; but in what particular spot, or in what 
 direction it afterwards shapes its course, they greatly differ. Mo- 
 dern geographers <lcscribe the Euphrates, as rising from two 
 sources ; the one about a ilay's journey, the other two day's jour- 
 ney from Erzerum. They both lie to the eastward, on high 
 mountains, covered with snow almost all the year round. TI.e 
 plain of Erzerum is inclosed between two line streams, which, 
 when united, aie called the Euphrates, or the Fiat. Jl first di- 
 vidc: Armenia from Natolia; then Syria from Diarbeck; after 
 which it runs through Irac Arabia till it meets the Tigris. It is 
 also the N. E. boundary of the great desert of Arabia. 
 
 Euphrates, a river of Africa, in the country of Whidah, on. 
 the Slave Coast. 
 
 EUPHROSYNE, one of the three Graces. 
 
 EUPLCEA, a name of Venus. 
 
 EURE, a river of France, whicli rises in the forest of Loguy, 
 near Poiutgoin, and falls into the Seine above Point d'Arche. 
 
 EuRE, a department of France, so named from the river which 
 crosses it; bounded on the N. by the dept. of the Lower Seine; 
 on the E. by that of the Oise ; on the S. by those of the Eure and 
 Loire, and the Orne; aiul on the W. by that of Calvados. It in- 
 cludes part of the late province of Normandy. Evreux is the 
 capital. 
 
 Eure, and Loire, a department of France. The rivers Eure 
 and Loire run through it. It contains the late province of Beauce, 
 Chartres is the capital. 
 
 EVREUX, an ancient town of France, in the departini.it of 
 Eure, and late province of Normandy, '2b miles S. of Rouen, and 
 55 N. W. of Paris. 
 
 EURIPIDES, a celebrated Greek poet, who excelled in tra- 
 gedy, born about B. C. 4<)8, in the isle of Salaniis, on the day that 
 Xerxes was defeated. He learned rhetoric under Prodn us, mo- 
 rality under Socrates, and natural philosophy under Anaxagoras; 
 but at 18 vears of age abandoned philosophy, for dramatic poetry. 
 He u'ed to shut himself up in a cave to compose his tragedies, 
 which were extremely applauded by the Greeks. The Athenian 
 army, commanded by Nicias, being defeated in Sicily, the sol- 
 diers purchased their lives and liberties by reciting the verses of 
 Euripides. Euripides freepieutly intei-sperses through them moral 
 sentences, and severe reflections on the fair sex; whince he Was 
 called the woman-hater. He was, nevertheless, married: but -the I 
 scandalous lives of his two wives drew upon him the railleryW 
 Aristophanes, and other comic poets; which occasioned his reftr- [ 
 ing to the court of Archelaus, king of Macedon, where he w'as 
 well received. That prince \\'as fond of learned men, and driw 
 them to him by his liberality. Solinus says, he made Euripides I 
 his minister _of state, and gave him otlier extraordinary proofsef , 
 
 his I
 
 EUR 
 
 o^. 
 
 41 
 
 EUS 
 
 his esteem. Cut a tew years after, an imli:\|)py accitl nt put aji 
 eiul to his lite. He was walking in a wood, in ileep ineditalioii ; 
 when, happening upon Archelau>'s hoiimU, ho was by them torn 
 in pieces. It is not certain whether his dealli happened by chance, 
 or through emv ot some coiirt:ers. Ardielauj buried liini with 
 ereat magnificence; and the Athenians were so much afllicted at 
 his death, that Ihe whole city went into nioiirijing. Of 92 trage- 
 dies which he composed, only 19i'einain: the most valual)le edi- 
 tions of which are those of Aldus, in !i03, 8vo; of Plantin, in 
 1370,' l6ino; of Commeliii, in 1597, 8vo; of Paul Stevens, in 
 1604, 4to; and of Joshua IJarnes, in 1(594, folio. 
 
 EUKIFUS, now the NtcaopoNT, a canal or strait which di- 
 vides the island of Enhoea fioni the continent of Greece. In one 
 place it is so narrow, that a galley can scarce pass through it. The 
 agitations of the F.uri[)ils were much spoken of by the iUicicnts. 
 Some sav that the canal has a Hux and reliux si\- times in 24 
 hours ; others, that it ebbs and flows seven times a-day : but Livy 
 does not allow tiiis flux and reflux to be so regular. Father Babin, 
 a Jesuit of a,reat learning, who maile many obst-rvations on the spot 
 during ills long abode in the island of Negiupont, tells us, that the 
 Euripus is regular in its ebl)ing and flow ing the iirst eight days of 
 thimoon: the same regularity he observed from the l4th to the 
 20th day inclusive, and in tlie three last days: but in the other 
 days of the lunar month, it is not so regular ; for it sometimes ebb> 
 and flows 11, 12, 13, and 14, times in a natural day. In this 
 place, it is said, Ari^toth■ drowned him^elf out of chagrin, for not 
 behig able to account for so unusual a motion. 
 
 Euripus, has since become a general name for all straits, wliere 
 the water is in great motion and agitation. 
 
 EURITHMY, [from tu, easily, and ^-jSixa;, number, or order.] 
 in architecture, sculpiure, painting, &;c. is a kind of majestic ap- 
 pearance, with the exact proportion between all the parts of any 
 huildin?, or picture. 
 
 EUROCLYDON, [of i-m;, the east wind, and x>vaw, a 
 wave,] is a '•pecies of wind, ot w hich we have an account only in 
 Acts- xxvii. 14, and concerning the nature of which critics have 
 been much divided. Bochart, Grotius Bentley, and others, sub- 
 stitute another reading, supported by the Alexandrian MS. and 
 the Vuh-ale, viz. EuonoxJ.yJujv, or Euio-a(piiIo; but Mr. Bryant de- 
 fends the common reading, and considers the Euroclydon, i.e. 
 EwfOf xXuf^'v, as an E. wind that causes a deep sea or vast inunda- 
 tion. l)r. Bentley sujjposes that the mariners in the ship, the 
 voyage of which is recited in this passage, w ere Romans ; but Mr. 
 ~ yant maintains that they were Greiks o! Alexandria, and that 
 the ship was an Alexandrian ship employed iu the traflic of carry- 
 ing corn to Italy; and therefore, that the mariners had a name in 
 their own langu;'.j.'e for '.he particular typhonic or stormy wind here 
 mentioned. He also shews from the passage itself, that the tem- 
 pestuous wind called Euroclydon, beat {■a.-i? auhi) upon the island 
 of Crete; and therefore, ^s this is a relative expression, referring 
 to the situation of the person who speaks of it, who w,is at tliat 
 time to the windward or south of it, tiie w ind blew upon shore, and 
 must have come from llie S. or S. E. which, he adds, is fully war- 
 ranted by the point wliere the ship was, and the direction it ran in 
 aftei^warAs, which was towards the N. and N. W. 
 
 EUROPA, in fabulous history, a daughter of Agenor king of 
 Phcenicia and Telepha<s.a. Jupiter became enamouri'd of her, 
 and to seduce lier, assumed the shape of a bull, and miiigh-d with 
 the I'.erds of Agenor, wliile Europa and her female attendants were 
 gathering flowers. Europa caressed the beautiful animal; and at 
 last had the courage to sit upon his back. The god retired towards 
 the shore, crossed the se.i, and carried Europa in safety to Crete; 
 where, assuming his original shape, he derlared his love. The 
 nvniph consented, and became mother of Minos, Sarpedon, and 
 Bhadamanthus. After this she irtarried A^^erius, king of Crete, 
 who adopted her sons. Some suppose that Europa lived about 
 B.C. 15.V2. 
 
 EUROPE, one of the four general divisions of Ihe world, called 
 b\' the people of Asia, Frankistan, is bounded on the N. by the 
 Frozen Ocean, on the W. by the Western Ocean, on the S. by 
 the Mediterranean, which separates it from Africa; a.nd on the IC. 
 bv Asia. It is situated between Lon. 9. 35. \V. and 72. 25. E. 
 aiid between Lat. 35" and 72° N. Europe is about 3G00 miles 'ii 
 length, from Cape St. Vincent in Portugal, to the Ohy in Russia; 
 ,ind 27UO miles in breadth, from Cape Matapan, in the Morea, to 
 the North Cape in Lapland. It is much less than Asia and Afri- 
 VOL. n.— NO. 77. 
 
 %J 
 
 ca ; but in many respects surpasses llieiii both. Europe, except- 
 ing a small part of Lapland and Russia, is situated in the temperate 
 zone; vv hence its inhabitants neither feel the extremities of heat, 
 nor of cold. It cannot boast of rich mines of gold, silvr, and 
 precious stones; nor does it produce sugar or spices, nor elephants, 
 camels, &c.; but it abounds with corn, wine, fruits, sheep, herse-^, 
 black cattle, and all Ihe necessaries of life. It is mucli more po- 
 pulous, and better cultivated than Asia, Africa, or America; it is 
 more full of cities, towns, and villaf^es, f;reat and small, and its 
 buildings are more solid and commodious Europe may he di- 
 vided into 1 1 great parts, including tlieir d( pendencies: I.Swe- 
 den; S.Denmark and Norway; 3. Russia; 4. Germany; 5. i3a- 
 tavja, or Holland; 6. France; 7. SwisM rland; 8. Spain; 9- Italy; 
 19. Turkey; and II. the Islands. The greatest cities are, 
 London, Paris, Amsterdam, Constantinople, Moscow, and Ron;e. 
 The principal islands are Great Britain, Irelaii'^, tlie Hebrides, 
 the Orkneys, Iceland, the Ferro isles, Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica, 
 Candv, Majorca, Minorca, Funeii, Rugen, Bornholm, Oesel, 
 tiothland, Zealand, &c. The languages are the Italian, French, 
 Spanish, and Portuguese, which are tiie dialects of the Latin ; the 
 GeriT,an, Flemish, Dutch, Swedish, Danish, and English, which 
 proceed from the Teutonic ; the Sclavoniaii, which reigns (though 
 in disguise) in Poland, Russia, Bohemia, and a great part of Tur- 
 key in Eurojje ; liie Celtic, of which there are dialects in Wales, 
 the Highlands of Scotland, Ireland, Bic-tagne in France, and L:ip- 
 IjikI; the modern Greek, and sever..! oth.ers. The popul.ition ot 
 Europe is estimated at 150 millions ; but it is doubliess capi.blc ot 
 supporting a much greater number. There are live principal r^d:- 
 gions in Europe, viz. the Moh.immedan, in Turkey ; ti;e Greek, 
 in many parts of Turkey, in all Muscovy, and in several parts of 
 Polish Russia; the Roman Catholic in Spain, Portugal, and Italy ; 
 and the Protestant, in its two chief divisions of Lutheran and Cal- 
 vinist, but with considerable difl'erenccs, in Great Britain, Den- 
 mark, Sweden, and Norway. There is a mixture of Catholics and 
 Protestants in Ireland, Swiss'erland, Germany, Poland, Hungary, .ind 
 Belgium; besides many Jews, and some Pagans in Lapland and 
 the northern parts of Muscovy. The chief rivers are the Danube, 
 Dniester, Dnieper, Vistula, ^'olga, Dwina, Bog, Oby, Don, 
 Scheldt, Rhine, Rhone, Seine, Loire, G ironnc. Forth, Tweed, 
 Tajo, Thames, Tay, Tiber, Shannon, and Severn, ^ihe principal 
 lakes are those of Constance, Geneva, Lau;ani!e, Wenner, Lndoi,-.;, 
 and Onega. The chief mountains are the Alps, Appennines, and 
 Pyrenees. See the above countries, towns, &c. in their order. 
 
 'EUROPEANS, the inhabitants of Europe. They are all white, 
 and incomparably more handsome than the Africans, luid even 
 than most of the Asiatics. TV.e Europeans surpass boUi in arts 
 and sciences, especially in those called liberal; in trade, naviga- 
 tion, and in military and civil alfairs ; being, at the same time, 
 more prudent, more valiant, more generous, more polite, and 
 mor^- sociable than they. 
 
 EURYx\, in botany, a genus of the dodecandria monogynia 
 class and order. Calyx five leaved, calycled; corolla hve-pe- 
 taled ; stamina thirteen ; capsule live-celled. One species, viz. E. 
 japonica, a native of Japan." 
 
 EUliYANDRA, in botany, agenus of the polyandria trigynia 
 class and order; natural order, Coadunatie. Calyx livi^-leaved ; 
 corolla three-petaled ; rilament much dilated at the ti]), with twin 
 disjoined anthers ; follicles three. One species, viz. E. scandens, 
 a n.itive of new Caledonia. 
 
 EUKYDICE, in fabulous history, the wife of Orpheus, who, 
 flying from Arista'us that endeavoured to ravish her, was slair. by 
 a serpent. 
 
 EURYSTHEUS, in fabulous history. King of Argos mid M\- 
 eeii.T, son of Amphitryon, or, according to ollieri, of 'Mhenelu3 
 and Nicippe, the daughter of Pclops. Juno hastened les birth by 
 two months, that he might come into tlie world l:etore Hercules 
 tne son of Alcmeua, ns the younger of the two «.•.■; doomed by 
 Jupiter to be subservient to the will of the other. 
 
 FA'RYTHMY, [^..'j-.'i,/.®'',] in arciiitccture, painting, and 
 sculpture, is a certain maje-ty, elegance, and ea-ine-s, ;'.ppe.iring in 
 the composition of divers members, or p;i;ts of ;i body, painting 
 or sculpture, and resulting from the fi;ie proportion of it. 
 
 EUSEBIl'S, surnamed Pamphii.vs, one of t!ie most learned 
 
 men of his time, horn in Palestine in the reit;n of Galliemis. 
 
 He wa'> the intimate Iriend of Pan.philus the martyr; and after 
 
 his death took his name. He was oidained bisliop el Ca:sarea in 
 
 4S 313.
 
 EUT 
 
 342 
 
 EX A 
 
 313. He hud a considerable share in the contest relating to An- 
 us ; whose cause he and several other bishops det'eniled, being 
 Ijersiiaded that Arin:- had been iininstly persei ntcd b> Alexander, 
 bishop of Alexandria. He assisted at tiie council ol Nice in 32j ; 
 wlieii lie made a speech to the emperor Conslantine on his com- 
 ing to the council, and was placed next him on hi:, ri^ht hand. He 
 Was present al the council of Antioch, in which Euslalhius, bishop 
 of that city, was deposed ; hut though he was chosen by the bi- 
 shop and people of Antioch to succeed him, he refused it. In 333 
 be assisted at the council of Tvre held against Athanasius ; and at 
 the assembly of bisiiops at Jerusalem, at the dedication of the 
 church there. liy these bishops he was sent to the emperor Con- 
 slautine (o defend" what they had done against AUianasius ; when 
 in* pronounced the panegyric on that emperor, during the public 
 rejoicings, in the thirtietli year of iiis reign. Eusebius died in 33S. 
 He wrote, 1. An K'clesiastical Hist^n-y, of vhicii Valesius has 
 ■^hen a good edition in Greek and Latin ; but the best is the 
 Cambridge edition, 3 vols, folio, 1720: 'J. The Lih- of Constan- 
 line: 3. A ']'rcali?c against Hierocles: 4. Chronicon : ">. Prepara- 
 lioncs Evangeiica- : 6. Demonstralio Evangelica, an invaluable 
 work: the best eilition yet published is that of Eranc. Vigero. 
 (ireek and I.atiii, Rothomag. 1028. 
 
 El'SlWCHlAN 'J'uBF,, in anatomy, begins from the ititerior 
 extremity of the tvmpammi, and runs forward and inwards, in a 
 liony canal, winch ternunatei with a portion of the tempor.il bone. 
 See Anatomy. 
 
 i".UST.V'Hll.-\NS, a uame given to the Catholics of Antioch 
 ill She 4th ccnturv, on occ: sion of their refusal to acknowledge 
 any other bishop beside Si. Eu^tathius, deposed by the Arians. 
 This deiiomination was given th-m durinif the episcopate of Pau- 
 I nus, whom the Arians substituted to St. Eustathius, about A. D. 
 330, when they began to hold their assemblies apart. 
 
 I'.usTAaniAKs, a sect of heretics in the 4lh century, denomin;U- 
 
 ed Iro'.n their founder Eustathius, a monk so foolishly fond ot his 
 
 ■ •ivii profession, that he conden'.ned all other conditions of life. 
 
 A hether this l■2n^lathin, was the same with the bishop of Sebastia 
 
 -;;nd chief of the Semiariatis, is not certain. 
 
 EUS TATl 1 irS, a monk of the 4lh century, who excluded 
 nurried people from salvation; i)roliibited his follower.s from pray- 
 ing in their houses ; and obliged tl'.em to quit all they had as in- 
 compatible with the hopes of heaven. 
 
 EusTATHivs, .\rchhishop o: Thessalonica, in the I'Hh century, 
 under the emperors Emanuel, Alexander, and Andronicus Coni- 
 jicims. He was an eminent granunarian : and wrote commenta- 
 lies upon Homer, auil Dionysius the geographer. The best edi- 
 tion of Ids commi'utaries on Homer is that of Rome, printed in 
 Greek, in 1.542, in 4 vols, lolio. His commentaries on the Pe- 
 rlegesis of Dionysius were ijrinted bv Mr. Hudson at Oxford, in 
 1697, 8vo. Hewas alive in 1 194. 
 
 EUSTATIA, or EUSTA'l lUS, Sr. one of the Caribbee 
 i^lauds, belonging till very lately to the Dutch. It is little else 
 than a huge mountain, which formerly has, in all probability, 
 bein a volcano. 
 
 Ei'ST.tTius St. or Eustati.\ Town, the capital of the above 
 island. Lon. 63. 5. W. Lat. 17. 29 N. 
 
 El'STEFHIA, inbotv'aiy, a genus of the hexandria monogynia 
 class and order. Corolla auperior, tubular, cylindrical, bilid ; 
 nectary six cavities in the tube of the corolla; lilaments, tricuspi- 
 date, distinct. It has one species, vi?. tlie coccinea. 
 
 ETSTYLE, [trom iir--'*®', of t;/, proper, and, ri.x®.-, a co- 
 lunui,] in architecture, is a sort of building in which the pillars arc 
 placed at the most convenient distance one from the other. 
 
 El'l'HYMlA, [from c.., good, and 9://aoc, the miiul,] such a 
 state of the mind, as could not be ruflle.l cither by good or bad 
 fortune, by sickness or health, good or evil. 
 
 FA"1'YCHES, an archimandrite or abbot of a monastery at 
 Constantinople, who began to pmpagate his opinion against iht 
 two natures m Chrint, A. D. 418. He did not, however, seem 
 quite consistent in his sentiments: for he allowed of two natures 
 before the union ; he believed that the soul of Jesus Christ had 
 been united to the divinity before the incarnation ; but he allowed 
 no distinction of natures in Jesus Christ since his incarnation; al- 
 lecin;; that the Divine Nature had swallowed n|)the human. 
 
 EUTYCIIIAN'S, ancient heretics, who denied the two natures 
 In Cln-ist ; thus denominated from Eutyches. 
 
 EuTYCHiANs, another sect, haUWrian, half Eunomian ; which 
 arose at Constantinople in the 4th century. 
 
 EliTYCHl US, the founder of the last mentioned sect, with 
 one Theoijronuis, were the movers of al! the changes made by the 
 Eunomians in th'.' adininis'.ration of baptism ; which consialed, 
 according to Nicephoriis, in oidy using one immersion, and not 
 doaig It in the name of the Trinity, but in memory of the 
 death of Jesus Christ. 
 
 EUXINE, or BLACK SEA, forms part of the boundary he- 
 twist Europe and Asia. It receives the Dnieper, the Danube, 
 and other large rivers; and extends from 2S° to 4i" Lon. E. ar.M 
 from 40° to 4i)° Lat. N. The ancients imagined this sea to lia. 
 been originally only a lake, which broke first in the Propoiv ,, 
 and then into the lEgean, washing away by degrees the eartii 
 which lirst kept it witi.m bounds, and formed tiie two channels ji 
 the iiosphorus 't'hracius and Hellespont, now the Durdai.elies. 
 
 EW'EL, a town of Surrey, 10 miles N. E. by N. of Darkii'.c, 
 and- 13 S. E. by E. of London. 
 
 I'iWRY, an-oftice in ihe king's household, where (liey t^k 
 care of the linen for the king's table, lav the cloth and serve j;j 
 wall r in silver ewers alter du.ner. 
 
 EX, a Latin preposition oflen prefixed lo compounded words . 
 sometimes meaning out, as exliausl, lo draw out ; sometimes only 
 enforcing the meaning, and sometimes producing little altera 
 tion. 
 
 I'.x Officio, among lawyers, signifies the power a person hn, 
 by virtue of his office, to do certain acts without being r.p 
 plied to. 
 
 Ex PosT Facto, in law, something done after another ; tlii> 
 an estate granted may be good by matter ex post fa-'io, that via- 
 not so al first, as in case of election. 
 
 Ex, in geography, a river of Somersetshire, which rises in ,: 
 barien tr.'.t t of land, called Exmoor; runs by Tiverlon, wasl.- 
 the walls of Exeter ; and falls into the Euglisli channel ;.t ) 
 mouth, alter a course of about 40 miles. 
 
 EXAC'l ION, in law, a wrong done by an ofiicer, or a person 
 in pretended authority, in taking a reward or fee that is not al- 
 lowed by law. A person guilty of exaction may be lined aini 
 imprisoui (1. 
 
 EX.VCL'JNL a genus of the mouogynia order, and tetraid. 
 class of plants ; natural order, Rolacea. Calyx four-leayed ; e.- 
 rolla salver-shaped, with an inllaled tube ; capsule tv.o-furrov. cd, 
 two-celled, many-seeded, bursting at the top. There are Wn 
 species. 
 
 EX/l'-RESlS, in surgery, the operation of extracting, or takii.g 
 away, something that is hurtful to the human body. 
 
 EXAGGEILVTION, in rhetoric, a kind of hyperbole, wliere- 
 by things are augmented or ani|)lilied, by saying more than the 
 truth, either as to good or bad. There are two kinds of exagge- 
 ration ; the one ol thiiv's, the other of words. The first is pro- 
 duced, 1. l?y a mullilude of <lelinitions. 2. By a multitude of 
 adjuncts. 3. By a detail of causes and ctVects. 4. By an enu- 
 meration of coiisecjuences. .">. By comparisons. Anil 6. By the 
 contrast of epithets and rational inlerence. Exaggeration by words 
 is effected, 1. Bv using nietaphois. 2. By hyperboles. 3. By sy- 
 nonymous terms. 4. By" a collection of splendid and pnagnilicint 
 expressions. 5. By periphrasis, t). By repetition. And, la-llv, 
 by' confirmation with an oath : as lor example, " Parietes, uiedius 
 lidius, gratias tibi agere gestiunt." 
 
 Ex.igcjEration, in painting, a method by which the artist, in 
 representing things, charges them too much, or makes them tou 
 strong, either in respect of the design or colouring. It differs 
 from caricature, in tiiat the latter perverts or gives a turn to the 
 feaHiresof a face, ic. which they had not ; whereas exaggeration 
 only heightens or improves what they had. 
 
 liXALTATION, in astrology, is a dignity which it is pre- 
 tendeil a planet accpiires in certain signs or parts of the zodiac, 
 which digniiy is supposed lo give it an extraordinary efficacy and 
 influence. 'I'lius liie 15° of cancer is the exaltation of Jupiter. 
 
 Exaltation, in chemistry, signifies an eperalioii by which a 
 substance has its properties changed, and raised to a higher de- 
 gree of efficacy or virtue. 
 
 Exaltation of the Cross, a feast of the Latin church, 
 held on the l4th September in memory of the emperor Heracliiis 
 having brought back the true cross of Jesus Christ on his shoiil- 
 
 der^i
 
 EXC 
 
 ."343 
 
 EXC 
 
 tiers, to the place on moMiit Calvary, from wliiili it had been car- 
 ried away 14 years beloro by t^os'roes king of Persia, when he 
 took Jerusalem, in the reisn of I'hoeas. 
 
 KXAMlNA'l'iON, mi devotion. See SEi.F-EXAMrtJATioN, 
 
 Examination". Ju>tii;es hetore whom any person shall be 
 broiinht for man>l.iii<;litfr or for felony, or for suspicion thereof, 
 befori- they commit sneh prisoner, shall take his examination, and 
 iniormalion of those who bring him, otthc fiet and circnnistance- ; 
 and ai nuieh thereof as shall be niaterial to prove the felony, shall 
 be pnt in writing within two days alter the examination ; and tlie 
 same shall certily in such manner as they should do if such pri- 
 sonerhad been bailed, upon such pain as in the act 1 and '2 P. and 
 M. c. 13, is limited. 
 
 Ex.'iMiKERs, in chancery, two oiTicrrs of that cou.'t, who ex- 
 amine, upon oath, witnesses in causes depending there, wlu-re t;ie 
 witnesses live in LondoJi or near it. In the country, I'bove -0 
 miles front London, on the parties joining in commission, wit- 
 nesses are examined by comniissioui-R, who are usually counicl- 
 lors or attornies not concerned in the cause. 
 
 EXAMPLE, in a moral s.'use, i:, eith.er taken for a precedent, 
 for our admonition, tliat we may be cautioned against the faults or 
 crimes which others have conmiitted ; or, for a pattern for our 
 imitation. In the latter sense, the example of our Saviuur is most 
 proper to form us to holiness. There is no example of a mere 
 man that is to be followed without limitation ; but the example of 
 Chri>t is absolutely perfect ; his conversation was a livlny law. 
 
 JvxAMPi.E, in rhetoric, denotes an imperfect kind of araunien- 
 tation ; whereby it is pleaded, that a thing which happened on 
 some former occasion will happen again on the present one, trom 
 the similitude of the cases. 
 
 EX.IN THEMA, [t^ny^niA.n,'] among physicians, denotes any 
 kind of efflorescence or eruption, as the measles, purple spots in 
 the plague, or malignant fevers, S:c. According to Dr. C alien it 
 is an order in the class pyrexi;c, and includes all contagious dis- 
 eases, beginning with fever, and followed by an eruption on the 
 skin. 
 
 EX.'VRCH, [Ejfi.'-/.o;,3 an appellation given, by the eastern 
 emperore to certain ntfieers sent into Italy, in cjualily of vicars or 
 prefects, to defend that part of Italy, which was yet under their 
 obedience ; particularly the city of Ravemva again-t the Lom- 
 bards, who had made themselves masters of the greatest part of 
 the rest. 
 
 Exarch, in the eastern churcli antiquity, a superior over se- 
 veral monasteries ; the same that we otherwise call Archiman- 
 drite ; being exempted, by the patriarch of Constantinople, from 
 the jurisdiction of the bisl.oj)s. 
 
 ExAKCH also denotes an ofiicer, still subsisting in the Greek 
 church ; being a kind of de|)uty or legate a latere of the patriarch, 
 whose ollice it is to visit the provinces allotted him, to inform 
 liiinself of the lives of die clergy ; take cogni/.ance of ecclesia-^tical 
 causes; tlie manner of celebrating diune service ; the sacraments, 
 particularly confession ; the (observance of the canons ; monastic 
 discipline ; affairs of marriages, divorces, &c. 
 
 EXARCHU5), a title given by Homer, Pliilo, and other an- 
 cient authors, to the choragus or ma-ter of (he singers, in (he an- 
 cient choruses, or him who sung hrst : the word Rfx'" > or«5x'i'-""> 
 signifying equally to begin, and to command. 
 
 EXAUCTORATIO, in the ancient Roman military disci- 
 pline, dilTered from tlie Missio, which was a full discharge, and 
 took place after they had served in the army 20 years ; whereas the 
 exauctoraiio was only a partial discharge, which was granted after 
 seventeen years service. 
 
 EXC,\LCE.\ riON, among the Hebrews, a law, whereby a 
 widow, whom her husband's brother relused to marry, had a right 
 to summon him to a court of justice ; and, upon his refusal, might 
 exialceate him, /. c. pull off one of his shoes, and spit in his face, 
 by way of ignominy. 
 
 EXCELLENCY, a title anciently given to kings and empe- 
 rors, but now to ambassadors, and other persons, w ho are not <|iia- 
 Jiiled for tliat of highness, and yet are to be elevated above the 
 other inferior dignifies. In England and France the title is now- 
 peculiar to ambassadors, but very common in Germany and Italy. 
 Those it was first appropriated to, were the pri.ices of the blood of 
 the several royal houses ; but they ciuitted it for that of highness, 
 upon several great lords assuming excellency. 
 
 EXCENTRIC, or EXCENTRICAL. [trom ,^,ti.*«ri», 
 centrum, the centre,] deviating from a centre. 
 
 ExcENTRK^ Anomaly, in a.tronomy, or Anomaly of the Cen- 
 tre, is an arc AQ of the excentric circle, iiUerc <pted between the 
 aphelion A, and the right line (Jli, drawn t. rou,;ii the centre P 
 I'f the )>la:iet perpendicular to the line of the apsi-; A15. See 
 ri.Me LIX. tig. 14. 
 
 Excentric Ciucle, or Excentric, in llic ancient Ptolemaic, 
 astrononiv* was the very orbit of the phiu-l iliclf, which it was 
 suppo-edto d?^cribe about the earth, and lo be excentric with 
 it; called also tlio deferent, 
 
 ExciiNTRic Circle, in tlu^ new astronomy, is the circle de 
 sc:ibed from the cer.tre of (he orbit of a jilanet, with half the 
 greatest axis as a radius ; or Ihetirclc ihat circumscribes the el- 
 liptic orbit of the planet ; as the circle AQR. Plate LIX. 
 fig, U. 
 
 Excentric Eiuation, in the old astronomy, is an angle 
 made by a line drawn from the centre of the earth, with another 
 hue drawn from the ce:iire of the excentric, to the body or place 
 of any planet. This is the same v^ilh the prosthapheresis ; and is 
 equal to the difference, accounted in an arch of the ecliptic, be- 
 tween the re.tl and apparent plac'e of tlie sun or planet. 
 
 Excentric Place of ^ Planet, in its Okbit, is the helio- 
 centric place, or that in which it ajjpears as seen from tlic sun. 
 
 Excl.ntric Place of a Pl\net, in the Ecliptic, is the 
 point ot the ecliptic to whicli the planet is referred as viewed from 
 the sun ; and wliich coincides with the heliocentric longitude. 
 
 EXCEXTRICITY, in the ancient a.stronomy, is the distance 
 between tlie centre of a planet and the centre of the earth. That 
 the plnjicts have such an excentricilv, is allowed on all sides, and 
 may be evinced from various circumstances; and especially this, 
 that th.ey sonieiinies a[)pc:'r lait'.er and at others less ; which can 
 only proceed Irom hence, that their orbits being excentric to the 
 e.ri'lli, in some parts of those orbits tiie planets are nearer to us, 
 and in others more remote. The cxcentricilies of the sun and 
 moon are sufiiciently proved, bolii from eclipses, from the moon's 
 greater and less |iarallax at the same distance from the zenith, and 
 from the sun's continuing longer by eight days in tlie northern he- 
 misphere than in the southern one. See Astronomy. 
 
 Exckntricity, in the new astronomy, is the distance CS, 
 Plate LIX. fig, 14, between the sun Sand the centreC of a planet's 
 orbit; or the distance of the centre from the focus of the elliptic 
 orbit; called also the simple or s': gle excentricity. When 
 the greatest equation of the centre is given, the exce..irieity 
 of the earth's orbit may be found by the following proportion ; 
 viz. As the diameter ol a ciicle in degrees, is to the di.imetcr in 
 equal parts; so is the greatest etiuation ot the centre in degrees, 
 to the excentricity in equal parts. Or, since it is found that the 
 sun's greatest apparent semi-diameter is to his least, as o2' 43" to 
 31' 38", or as 1!(63" to ISOS" ; the sun's greatest distance from l!ie 
 earth will be to his least, or AS to SB, as^ lf)63 to 1S98 ; of which 
 the half ilif. is 3:\ = CS, and half sum U).Kli-= CI5; wherefore, 
 as 1930^ : 3-2i : : I : -OlOSS.S = CS the excentricity to the mean 
 distance or semi-axis 1 ; which is nearly tiie same a^ before. See 
 Astronomy. 
 
 f^xCEKTRiciTY, DouBi.K, is thc distance between the two foci 
 of the elliptic orbit, ami is equal to double the siiigh; excentri- 
 cilv above given. 
 
 KXCEPIION, in law, denotes a stop or stay to an action ; 
 ami is either dilatory or peremptf;ry, in proceedings at common 
 law; but in cliancery it ij what the pLintitf alleges against the 
 sufliciency of an answer. Sec. An exception is the denial of what 
 is taken to be gooil bv the other party, either in point of law or 
 pleading. 'J'he counsel in a cause are to take all their exceptions 
 to the record at one time, and before the court lias delivered any 
 opinion on it. 
 
 Exception to Evidence, i^ where a demurrer is offered in 
 anx" civil cause, for the insuOlciency of the evidence given, and 
 (he court does not agree to it ; in such case, the court, upon re- 
 quest, is to seal a bill of exceptions to the evid'-uce, wJiich may 
 be heard on a writ of error. A plaintill or defendant may also al- 
 ledgc any exception to the judge's opinion, praying the same to be 
 allowed ; and if the judge refuse it, then the party concerned is 
 to write it down, and, w hen signed by counsel, require tlie judge 
 to seal the same, to be heard atlerwards, 
 
 ExCEPTlOMS
 
 EXC 
 
 44 
 
 EXC 
 
 ExrEPTioKs IN Deeds avd Writings, is the savin.!; of a parti- 
 cular thing out of a general one granted by deed, as a room, shop, 
 or cellar out of a house; a field, or timber trees, out of land, &c. 
 
 EXCESS, in arithmetic and geometry, is the difference be- 
 tween any two unequal numbers or <|uantities, orlhat which is left 
 after the less is taken from or out of the greater. 
 
 EXCIIANGli, in architecture, a place in most trailing cities, 
 wherein the merchants, negociant?, agents, bankers, brokers, in- 
 terpreters, and other persons concerned in commerce, meet on 
 certain days, and at certain hours, to confer together of matters 
 relating to exchanges, remittances, payments, adventures, assur- 
 ances, freightments, and other mercantile negotiations, both by 
 sea and land. In Holland, the late I'la'.uiers, and several cities of 
 France, these places are called burses ; at Paris and Lyons, ]>lacei 
 de change; and in the Hanse Towns, colleges of merchants. 
 These assemblies are held with so much exactness, and merchants 
 imd negotiants are so indispensably required to attend at them, 
 that absence alone makes a man suspected of bankruptcy. The 
 most considerable exchanges in Europe, are that of Amsterdam, 
 and that of London, c.illed the Royal Exchange. Even in the 
 time of the ancient Romans, there were places fur the mer- 
 cha'nts to meet, in most of the considerable cities of the em- 
 pire. 
 
 Exchange, in arithmetic. See Arithmetic. The opera- 
 tions are only dilTerent applications of the Rule of Three, or of 
 Practice ; to perform which, it is necessary to know the value of 
 the coins and monies of account of difterent countries, and their 
 proportions to each other ; for which see the various tables under 
 the articles Money and Coins. 
 
 Exchange, in ancient connnerce, an agreement, whereby one 
 thing was trucked or given for another. The first commerce car- 
 ried on among men was by exchange ; people furnished each other 
 mutually with what things they wanted ; but such exchanges were 
 clogged with two considerable diOiculties. 1. On account of the 
 unequal value of commodities ; and, 2. Because every body had 
 not just what might accommodate the person Viifh whom he would 
 exchange. To remove these inconveniencies, money was invent- 
 ed for a common medium ; and instead of exchanging, buying 
 and selling were introduced. 'I'liere are some nations among 
 whom the primitive way of exchange stdl obtains; and even the 
 most civilized people must sometimes have recourse to this me- 
 thod. Such, e.g. is the tride of several cities of the North and 
 Baltic Sea, where the Frei ■ h exchange their wines and brandies 
 for wood, m.etils, hemp, and furs. 
 
 Exchange, in modern commerce, is the receiving or paying 
 of money in one country for the like sum in another, by bills of 
 exchange. See,BiLL. The punctuality of acquitting these obli- 
 gations is essential to commerce ; and no sooner is a merchant's 
 accepted l)ill protested, tt!an he is considered as a bankrupt. For 
 this reason, the laws of most nations have given very extraordi- 
 nary privileges to bills of exchange. Were the claims of mer- 
 chants to linger under the formalities of courts of law when liqui- 
 dated by bills of exciiange, faith, confidence, and puncUialily. 
 ■would quickly disappear, and the great engine of commerce 
 would be totally destroyed. A regular bill of exchange is a mer- 
 cantile coi^tracl, in which four persons are concerned, viz. I. The 
 drawer, who receives the value, d. His debtor, in a distant 
 place, upon whom the bill is drawn, and who must accept and pay 
 it. 3. The person who gives value for the bill, to whose order it 
 ■is to be paid : and, 4. The person to whom it is ordered to be 
 paid, creditor to the third. By this operation, reciprocal and 
 equal debts, due in two distant parts, are paid by a sort of 
 Iran-.fer of debloi-s and creditors. Thus A in London is creditor 
 to B in Paris, value ino/. C again in London is debtor to D in 
 Paris for a like sum. By the < peration of the bill of exchange, 
 the London creditor is paid bv the London debtor ; and the Paris 
 creditor is paid liy the Paris debtor ; conseciuently, the two debts 
 ;.rc paid, and no money is sent from London to Paris nor from 
 Paris to Lo:idon. la this example, A is the drawer, B is the ac- 
 cepter, C is the purchaser of th" bill, and I) receives the money. 
 Two persons here receive the money, A and D ; and two pay the 
 money, B and C ; which is just what nuist be done when two 
 tlebtoi-s and two creditors clear accounts. This is the plain prin- 
 ciple cf a bill of exchange ; which, among other advantages, pre- 
 vents all risk of loss by shipwreck, robbery, &c. which might hap- 
 
 9 
 
 pen from remitting payment in coin. But when the reciprocal 
 debts are not equal, there arises a balance on one side. Suppose 
 London to owe Paris a balan( e, value 100/. An exchanger, fin<l» 
 ing a demand for a bill upon Paris for 100/. when Paris o\\es no 
 more to London, sends 100/. to his correspondent at Paris in coin, 
 at the expence (suppose) of l/. ; and then, having become crcdi. 
 tor on Paris, he can give a bill for the value of 100/. upon his be- 
 ing repaid his expence, and paid for his risk and trouble. When 
 ineichants have occasion to draw and remit bills for the liquida- 
 tion of their own debts, active and passive, in distant parts, they 
 meet ui)on 'Change; where, (to continue the example,) the cre- 
 ditors upon Paris, when they want money for bills, look out for 
 those who are debtors to it. The debtors to Paris again, when- 
 the}' want bills for money, seek for tho-e who are creditors upon 
 it. This market is constantly attended by brokers, who relieve 
 the merchant of the trouble of searching for those he wants. To 
 the broker every one communicates his wants, so far as he finds it 
 pruilent ; and by going about among all the merchants, the bro- 
 ker discovers the side upon which the greater demand lies, for mo- 
 ney or for bills. This renders secrecy very essential to indivi- 
 duals among the iiierehants. If the London merchants want t» 
 pay their debts to Paris, when there is a balance against London, 
 it is their interest to conceal their debts, and especially the neces- 
 sity they may be under to pay them ; lest those who are creditors 
 upon Paris should demand too high a price for the exchange above 
 par. On the other hand, those who are creditoi's upon Paris, when 
 Paris owes a balance to London, are as careful in concealing what 
 is owing to them by Paris, lest those who are debtors to Paris 
 should avail themselves of the competition among the Paris credi- 
 tors, to obtain bills for their money, below their value at par. A 
 creditor upon Paris, who is pressed for money at London, will 
 abate something of his debt, in order to get money for it. Thus 
 the merchants upon 'Change, from their separate and jarring in- 
 terests, are constantly interested in the stale of balance. '1 hose 
 who are creditors upon Paris, fear the balance due to London ; 
 tliose who are debtors to Paris, dread a balance due to Paris. The 
 brokers determine the course of the day ; and the most intelligent 
 merchants dispatch their business before the fact is generally 
 known. In this complicated operation, the interest of trade ancl 
 of the nation is concerned in the proper method of paying and re- 
 ceiving the balances, and in preservin>; a just equality ef profit and 
 loss among all the merchants, relative to the real stale of the ba- 
 lance. Unequal competition among men engaged in the same 
 pursuit, consetjuently draws along with it bad conseiiucnces to the 
 general undertaking; and secrecy in trade will be found more 
 useful to merchants in their private capacity, than to the trade they 
 are carrying on. This operation of exchange is of such a nature, 
 that it is hardly possible for a merchant to cany on the business of 
 these bills, wlihout the assistance of the brokers upon many occa- 
 sions. When merchants come' upon 'Change, they are so full of 
 jealousies, that they will not open their minds to one another. 
 The broker is a confidential man bet'>\ een parties, and brings them 
 together. Besides the merchants who circulate among themselves 
 their reciprocal debts and credits arising from thrir importation 
 and exportation of goods, there is another set of merchants who 
 deal in exchajige ; by the importation am! exportation of money 
 and bills. Were there never any balance on the trade of nations, 
 exchangers and brokers wouki find little employment : recipro- 
 cal and equal debts would easily be transacted openly between the 
 parlies themselves. But when balances come to be paid, ex- 
 change becomes intricate ; and merchants are so much employed 
 in particular branches of business, that they aie pbliged to leave 
 the liquidation of their debts to a set of men, who make it turn 
 out to the best advantage to themselves. Whenever a balance is 
 to be paid, that payment costs an Z'lditional expence to those of 
 the place who owe it, over and above the value of the debt. If, 
 therefore, this expence be a loss to the trading man, he must 
 either be repaid this loss by those whom he serves, that is, by the 
 nation ; or the trade he carries on will become less profitable. It 
 is therefore plain, that the expence of high exchange upon paying 
 a balance is a loss to a people, not to be compensated by enrich- 
 ing the few individuals among them who gain by conliiving me- 
 thods to pay it off. Whatever renders the profit upon trade pre- 
 carious or uncertain, is a loss to trade in general. 
 Exchange is sonietinies also used for the agio, or profit al- 
 lowed
 
 EXC 
 
 54^ 
 
 EXC 
 
 lowed lor tlie monies, advanced in any one's lu'liaif. Thus it is 
 1 (ixiiia; of llie acUi;il and momenlary value of moiiey. Silver as a 
 metal liai a value like all other merchandise ; and an additional 
 »aliie, as It is capable of becoming the sign of other merchandise. 
 If it was no more than a mere merchandise, it would perhaps lose 
 inucli of its nominal value. As a moiiev, silver lias a value which 
 ;lie prince in some respects can lix, but in othei-s lie cannot. The 
 prince establishes a proportion between a quantity of silver, as a 
 iiielal, and the same cjuaiitity, as money. He lixes the propor- 
 ion between the several metals macle use of as money ; he esta- 
 i!i;hes the weight and standard of every ])iece of money ; in fine, 
 
 gives to every piece that ideal value already mentioned. The 
 ilue of money in all these respects, may be stiled its positive 
 value, because it mav be (ixed by law. The coin of every state 
 iias also a relative value as compared with the money of other 
 countries. This relative value is established by the exchange, and 
 greatly depends on its positive value. It is fixed by the current 
 course of commerce, and by the general opinion and consent of 
 nierclmnts, but never by the decrees of the prince, because it is 
 liable to incessant variations, depending upon the accidental cir- 
 icunistauces of trade, the money transactions between nations, the 
 state of the public credit, &c. Nations in lixing this relative 
 value are chiefly guided by that country which possesses the 
 jgreatcst quantity of specie. If she has as much specie as all the 
 jolliers together, the others regulate theirs by her standard ; and 
 jthis regulation between all the others will nearly agree with the 
 |regulalion made with this principal nation. The relative abun- 
 Idance or scarcity of specie, in different countries, forms what is 
 called the course of exchange, and this plenty or scarcity, on 
 which the mutability of the course of exchange depends, is not 
 ifeal but relative: e. g. when the French have greater occasion for 
 Ifuiids in Holland than the Dutch have for funds in France, specie 
 is said to be connnon in France, and scarce in Holliuid ; and vice 
 Tcrsa. For performing the cases of exchange with dififerent coun- 
 tries, see Arithmetic. 
 
 Exchange, Arbitkatios of. See Ahithmetjc. 
 
 Exchange, Course of. See Arith.metic. When the 
 course of exchange rises above par, the country where it rise;; may 
 be certain, that the balance of trade runs against them. Suppose 
 Ikitain to import from Hamburgh goods to the value of 100,000/. 
 at par, and export only to the value of 80,000/. In this case, bills 
 on Hamburgh, will be scarce in Britain, and consequently will 
 rise in value ; and after the 80,000/. is paid, bills must he procur- 
 ed from other places at a high rate to pay the remainder, so that 
 perhaps 1^0,000/. may be paid for bills to discharge a debt of 
 100,000/. Thougli the course of exchange be in a perpetual flux, 
 and rises or falls according to the circumstances of trade ; yet the 
 exchanges of London, llolland, Hamburgh, and Venice, have 
 hitherto in a great measure regulated those of all other places in 
 Europe. 
 
 ExcHASGF., Dry, Cambium Siccum, or Usurer's Ex- 
 change, consists in giving money at one plac^, to be repaid it 
 after a certain time in the same place, with a certain sum over, 
 which is usually more than common interest. The ceremony of 
 a real exchange is observed in this fictitious kind, which is only a 
 method of borrcwing money. The borrower draws a bill of ex- 
 change on an imaginary person, perhaps at Amsterdam, at the 
 price the exchange then goes at, and delivers it to the lender. 
 After the time fixed, a protest comes from Amsterdam for non- 
 payment, with the re-exchange of the money from thence to Lon- 
 don ; all which, with costs, besides a deduction perhaps at the 
 making of the bargain, the borrower must pay. 
 
 Exchange, Par of. See Arithmetic. When money of 
 the sam<' standard and weight in one country, yields money of the 
 same standard and weight in another, the exchange is then said to 
 be at par. Thus in the year 1744, the par between France and 
 Holland was nearly at i4 gros to the French crown of three livies ; 
 when the exchange is above 54 gros, the French say it is high ; 
 when below 54 gros, it is low. When the exchange is below par 
 between one country .and another, tlvi fofmer loses as debtor and 
 buyer, and gains as creditor and seller. Thus if France owes 
 Holland a certain number of gros, the more of these there are in 
 a crown, the more crowns she has to pay ; and as tfwre mu't be 
 the same number of gros to buy the sanic quantity of merchandise, 
 wlnlc the exchange is low, every French crown is worth fewer 
 gros. On tiie contrarj, if France is creditor for a certain number 
 
 VOL. II.— KO. 78. 
 
 of (^ros, the less of them there are in a crovrn, the more crowtr; 
 ■he will receive; and if I'lance sells her niercliandiie in Hol- 
 land for u certain numlier of gros, the more crowns will 
 slie receive, in proportion as each ciown contains fewer of 
 these gros. The same reasuning will apply, mutatii mutandis, to 
 the commercial intercourse of other countries, and to any par of 
 exchange. A merchant may send his slock iido a foreign coun- 
 try, when the exchange is bWow par, without injuring his fortune ; 
 because, when it returns, he recovers what he had lost ; but a 
 prince, who sends only specie into a foreign country, wl.ich can 
 never return, is always a loser. The par of exchange between 
 Great Britain and the principal jdaces in Europe, witli which, iu 
 time of peace, we have any commercial intercourse, is as fol- 
 lows : 
 
 Pah. 
 
 Amsterdam 1 
 
 Antwerp 1 
 
 Augsbursh 1 
 
 Berlin. ...". I 
 
 Bilboa 1 
 
 Bologna 1 
 
 Bolsenna 1 
 
 Bremen 1 
 
 Breslau 1 
 
 Brunswick 1 
 
 Cadiz 1 
 
 Cologn 1 
 
 Cracow 1 
 
 Dantzic 134 
 
 Denmark 1 
 
 Dresden 1 
 
 Embden 1 
 
 Florence 1 
 
 F'rankfort 1 
 
 Genoa 1 
 
 Hamburgh 1 
 
 Leghorn 1 
 
 Lcipsic 1 
 
 Liege 1 
 
 I^isbon 1 
 
 Lyons I 
 
 Madrid 1 
 
 Malaga I 
 
 Widdlcburg I 
 
 Milan 1 
 
 Naples 1 
 
 Narva 1 
 
 Norway I 
 
 Nuremburg I 
 
 Oporto 1 
 
 0>nabur'-di 1 
 
 Paris I 
 
 Revel 1 
 
 Kiga 1 
 
 Konie 1 
 
 Kolterdam 1 
 
 Rouen 1 
 
 Russia 1 
 
 Seville 1 
 
 Sicily 1 
 
 Stctt'en 1 
 
 Stockholm 34J 
 
 Strasburg 1 
 
 Switzerland 1 
 
 Turkey 1 
 
 Veidce 1 
 
 Vienna 1 
 
 IN Sterling 
 
 rixdollar 
 
 ducat 
 
 florin 
 
 rixdollar 
 
 piastre 
 
 dollar ...........i 
 
 rixdollar 
 
 ditto 
 
 ditto 
 
 ditto 
 
 piastre 
 
 rixdollar 
 
 ditto ■ 
 
 florins , 
 
 rixdollar 
 
 ditto 
 
 ditto 
 
 crown 
 
 florin 
 
 pezzo 
 
 ducat 
 
 piastre 
 
 rixdollar 
 
 ditto 
 
 milrce 
 
 crown 
 
 piastre 
 
 ditto 
 
 rixdollar 
 
 ducal 
 
 ditto 
 
 rixdollar 
 
 ditto 
 
 ditto 
 
 milree 
 
 rixdollar 
 
 crown 
 
 rix<!ollai 
 
 ditto 
 
 crown,. 
 
 rixdollar 
 
 cro.vn 
 
 ruble 
 
 piaslie 
 
 crown 
 
 mark 
 
 dollars 
 
 rixdollar 
 
 ditto 
 
 asper 
 
 ducat 
 
 rixdollar 
 
 L. 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 =,0 
 = 
 = 
 = 
 = 
 = 
 = 
 = 
 = 
 = 
 = 
 
 = 1 
 
 = 
 
 = 
 = 
 
 . = 
 = 
 , = 
 , = 
 , = 
 = 
 , = 
 . = 
 . =: 
 . = 
 , = 
 . = 
 . = 
 . = 
 , = 
 . ::= 
 , = 
 , =: 
 . = 
 . = 
 . = 
 . = 
 . = 
 . = 
 . = 
 . — 
 . = 
 . = 
 . = 
 . =: 1 
 . = 
 . = 
 . =0 
 . = 
 . = 
 
 d. 
 
 M 
 
 3" 
 
 ii 
 
 
 7 
 3 
 A 
 A 
 
 .1 
 a 
 
 7 
 6 
 6' 
 
 6 
 6 
 6 
 
 
 
 fi 
 
 4t 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 n. 
 
 54 
 7* 
 7 
 
 6i 
 7 
 
 4t 
 6 
 6 
 t> 
 
 7^ 
 6 
 5i 
 (}' 
 .6 
 14 
 &{ 
 
 .5 
 7 
 
 
 G 
 
 (i 
 6 
 
 4 6 
 4 
 
 S 
 
 Exchange, Real, is used for the profit which a merchant, 
 negociani, or broker, makes of a sum of money received, and iox 
 which a bill of exchange is drawn, payable in some other place, 
 and by some other person, for the interest of his money, and tho 
 reward of his negoliiition. 'I'his protH is exceedingly various ; 
 being sometimes iwo, sometimes tluic, four, or even ten -and fii- 
 teen per cent, according as the alloy of the species dift'ei's, or ;j 
 4 T ' mou( );
 
 EX C 
 
 346 
 
 EXC 
 
 miiK-y is aioie or k-ss pleiUil'iil, or bills of cxcli'inne more or le^s 
 sciivct-, in t!ie pljces. This kind is sometimes railed mercantile or 
 mixed exchange. 
 
 I'JxcHANGE, Small, is vised to denote the profit allowed for 
 excluiiginc; one species of money for another. Thi; is also called 
 natnral or puve exchange, &c. 
 
 EXCHAKGE WITH AMERICA, FRANCE, GeRMAKY, HoLLAKD, 
 
 &c. See Arith.metic. 
 
 Exchequer, in the r>riti:.h jiirisprndence, an ancient conrt of 
 record, in which .ill causes concerning the revenues and rights ot 
 the crown are heard and determined. It took this name from the 
 cloth that covered the table of the court, which was party-coloured, 
 or ch'-quered. It is said to hive been erected h-y XViliiam the 
 Conqueror, its model being taken from a like cc<urt established 
 in Normandy long before that lime. Anciently iis authority was 
 so gredt, that it was held in the king's palace, and its acts were not 
 to be examined or controlled in any other of (he king's courts ; but, 
 at present, it is tiie lust of the four courts at Westminster. In the 
 exciuiiner, some reckon seven courts, viz. those of plea<, account;, 
 receipts, c\che<iner chamber (which is an assembly of all the 
 judges on ditficult matters in law,) errors in the exche(iuer, errors 
 in the king's bench, and, lastly, tlie court of equity in tlie ex- 
 chequer. But the exchequer, for the dispatch of business, is gene- 
 rallN divided into two parts. Officer; of the receipt may take one 
 ))C!iny in tlie pound, as their fee for sums issued out : and they are 
 obliged, without tielay, to receive the money brought thither; an'l 
 the money received is to be put into chests under three diliercnt 
 Jocks -and keys, kept by three several officers. All sheriffs, bailiffs, 
 &c. are to account in tlie exchequer; and in the lower part, termed 
 the receipt, the debtors of the king, and persons in debt to them, 
 the king's tenants, and tlie officers and ministers of the court, are 
 privileged to sue one another, or any stranger, and to be sued in 
 I lie like actions as are brought in the courts of king's bench and 
 common pleas. The judicial part of the exchequer is a court 
 both of law :ind equity. The court of law is held in the oflice of 
 jileas, according to tiie course of common law, before the barons : 
 in this court, the plaiiuiff ought to be a debtor or accountant to the 
 king; and tlie leading process is either a writ of subpoena, or quo 
 minus which last goes into Wales, where no proces^ out of courts 
 of law ought to run, except a capias utlagatum. The court of 
 i^quitv is held in the exchequer cl'.ambcr before the treasurer, chan- 
 cellor, and barons; but, generally, before the barons only: the 
 lord chief baron bfing the ciiief judge to hear and determine all 
 causes. The proceedings in this part of the exrhequer arc by the 
 ICnglish bill and answer, according to the practice of the court of 
 chancery; with this difierence, that the plaintiff here must set 
 iorlli, that he is a debtor to the king, whether he is so or not. It is 
 in this court ofequitv thit the clergy exhibit bills for the recovery 
 of their tythes, &c. Here too the attorney-general exhibits bills 
 for any n'latters concerning the crown ; and a bill m.ay be exhibited 
 against the klrig's attorney by any person aggrieved in any cause 
 proseculed against him on behalf of the king, to be relieved therein : 
 in which case, the plaintiff is to attend on the attorney general, 
 with a copy of the bill, and procure him to give an answer there- 
 to ; in the 'making of which he may call in any person interested 
 ill the cause, or any officer, or others, to instruct him, that the 
 king be not (jrejudiced thereby, and his answer is to be put in 
 V, ithout oath. Besides the b'usir.ess relating to debtors, farmers, 
 receivers, accountants, &c. all penal punishments, intrusions, and 
 fnieitiires upon popular actions, are matters likewise cognizable by 
 this conrt; where there also sits a puisne baron, who administei-s 
 the baths to high sherillis, bailiffs, auditors, receivers, collectors, sur- 
 veyors, and searchers of all tne customs, &c. The court of ex- 
 chequer in Sco'd.md has the same privileges and jurisdiction as that 
 oi Kngland ; and all matters competent to the one are competent 
 to the'olher. 
 
 Exchequer Bills. Bills or tickets issued by the Exchequer, 
 pnyatjlcout of the produce of a particular tax, arc generally out 
 of the supplies granted for the year, and receivaWe in all payments 
 to the excheqiuT. 'f he frst bills of this kind were issued in 11)97, 
 is anKre conve.iier.f kind of security than the tallies and orders 
 <')r repayment then in u.-.e, and were partly intcnde;l to supply the 
 want of money during the rocoinage then undertaken. AVith this 
 view, of late years the total amount of outstanding Exchequer bills 
 (exclusive ot those charged on specific branches of the revenue) 
 
 has usually been about twelve millions. The interest payable on 
 them has been at rarious rates according to the current rate ot in- 
 terest at the lime they were issued. The daily transactions be- 
 tween the bank and the exchecpier are chiefly carried on by bills 
 of lOOOl. each, which are deposited by the bank in the exchequer 
 to ttie amount of the sums received by them on government ac- 
 count ; the bank-notes and cash thus received by the bank being 
 retained by them, as the detail part of the money-concerns of 
 government is all transacted at the bank. T he instalnients on loans 
 are jiaid into the receipt of the exchequer by these exchequer-bills 
 of lOOOl. each, which are received again uy the bank as ca^li, 
 either for the amount of dividends due, or in re-payments of ad- 
 vances ; and as, while deposited in the exchequer, they are coi- 
 sidered merely as a pledge or security, t! ey of course continue to 
 bear interest, till the advance oil which the bank first received 
 them is paitl off. Exchequer-bills, though the same in their na- 
 ture and solidity, dilTer in their origin from navy-bills in this, that 
 they are issued in anticipation of revenue, and circulated by the 
 hank of England to raise money. During the recess of parliament, 
 there is a sum left to the credit of the chancellor of the exchequer, 
 to serve in cases of exigency. The bank makes advances to the 
 amount voted, for which the exchequer issues bills. There is a 
 standing contract between government and the !»ank for the trouble 
 and cxpence attending the issue and circulation of these bills. 
 Notice is given by public advertisement, and the payment is made 
 at the exchequer-bill office Westminster. 
 
 Exchequer, Black Book of the, an ancient statistical work 
 under the keeping of the two chamberlains of the exchequer ; said 
 to have been composed, in I 175, by Gervais of Tilbury, nephew 
 of king Henry II. and divided into several chapters. Herein is 
 contained a description of the court of England, as it then stood, 
 it., eflicers, their rank, privileges, wages, perquisites, power, and 
 juri diction ; and the revenues of the crown, in money, grain, and 
 cattle. Hero we find, that for one shilling, as imicli bread might be 
 bought as would serve 100 men a whole day ; that the price of a 
 fat bullock was only 12s. and of asheep 4s. &c. 
 
 Exchequer, Chancellor of the. See Chancellor. 
 
 EXCISE, [from the Belgic acc!;Me, tribute;] an inland duty or 
 imposition, paid sometimes upon the consunqition of the com- ■ 
 modity, or frequently upon tiic wholesale, which is the last stage 
 before the consumption. This is doubtless the most o-conomical 
 way of taxing the subject ; the charges of levying, collecting, and 
 managing, the excise duties, being considerably less in proportion 
 than in other branches of the revenue. It also renders the com- 
 modity cheaper to the consumer, than charging it with customs 
 to the same amount would do, because generally paid in a much 
 later stage of it. But, at the same time, the rigour and arbitrary 
 proceedings of excise laws seem hardly conip.lible with the temper 
 of a free nation. For the frauds that miglit be committed in this 
 branch of the revenue, unless a strict w alch be kepi, make it neces- 
 sary, wherever it is established, to give the officers a power of en- 
 tering and searching tlie houses as deal in exciscable commodities, 
 at any hour of the day, and even, in many cases, of the night. 
 And the proceedings, in case of transgressions, are so summary and 
 sudden, that a man may be convicted in two days time in the 
 penalty of many thousand pounds, by two commissioners of justices 
 of the peace: to the total exclusisn of the trial by jury, and dis- 
 regard of the common law. For which reason, though lord Cla- 
 rendon tells us, that to his knowledge the earl of Bedford (who was 
 made lord treasurer by king Charles I., to oblige his parliament) 
 intended to have set up the excise in England, yet it never made 
 a part of that unfortunate prince's revenue; being first introduced, 
 on the model of the Dutch prototype, by the parliament itself after 
 its rupture with the crown. Yet such was the opinion of its general 
 urpopularity, that when in 164'2 " aspersions were cast by malig- 
 nant persons tipon the house of commons, that they intended to 
 introduce excises, the house for its vindication therein did declare, 
 that these rumours were false and scandalous, and that their authors 
 should be apprehended and brought to condign punishment." Its 
 original clabhshment was in 1643, and its progress v.as rradual ; 
 being at iiist laid upon those persons and comnio'lities where it 
 was supposed the hardship would be least perceivable, viz. the 
 makers and venders ot beer, ale, c^der, and perry ; and the royal- 
 ists at Oxford soon followed the example of tiieir brethren at U est- 
 minster, by imposing a similar duty : both sides protesting, that it 
 f ' should
 
 EXC 
 
 ,•^47 
 
 E X C 
 
 slioiilil be coiitiiuied no longer tlian to tlie end o'' tiie war, and tlien 
 111' iittorly aboli-.liod. But the parliament at VVostniinster soon aiur 
 imposed "it on llesli, wine, tobacco, sugar, and such a muUitnde of 
 oilier commodities, that it might be fairly ('.enominated gencr.d : 
 1.1 pnr>iiance of the plan laid down liy Mr. Pymme (who seems (o 
 hive been the father of the exci'ie,; in his lelter to Sir John Ilotham, 
 signifying, " tlial they had proceeded in the excise to many par- 
 licnlars, and intended to go on farther ; but (hat it would be ueces- 
 'arv to use the people to it by little and little." And afterwards, 
 « hen the n.ition had been accustomed to it for a series of years, 
 'le succeeding champions of liberty boldly and openly declared 
 the impost of excise to be the most easy and indilferent levy that 
 >idd be laid upon the |.L>ople ;" ;ind accordingly continued it 
 >;iirg the V. hole usurpation, '-.poi king Charles H's return, it 
 iving then been long established, and its produce well known, 
 >nie part of it was given to the crown, (in 12 Car. II.) by way of 
 i>iircliase for the feudal" tenures and other oppressive part- of the 
 hereditary revenue. A'aiifus additions to the original duties were 
 made at subsequent periods, and the excise being extended to can- 
 lies, soap, starch, hides, and other articles, it became one of the 
 nost productive branches of the public revenue ; the gross pi-o- 
 luce, in the year 1732, being ",9t>4,6 171. About this ti:r.e Sir 
 Robert Wal])ole, who w as of opinion thai taxes on consumable 
 .oniinodities, to which every citizen contributes in proportion to 
 lis consumption, and whi^ h being includ>'(l in the price of the com- 
 iiodity are insoMibly paid, constituted tlie most eligible mode of 
 aisihg the revenue neces-ary for the public service; formed a pro- 
 •■ci tor the gradual abolition not only of the taxes on land, houses, 
 ;.d windows, but likewise the customs, by the substitutien of pro- 
 ..Ktive excise <lutit3. He was iniluenccn in the formation of this 
 clieme by a knowledge of the gross and shameless frauas llien 
 laily practised in the codection of the cu'tnnis; and which, from 
 lie very nature of those frauds, and the extreme facility of coin- 
 nitting liiem, he had no hope to remedy : he thought, therefore, 
 liat to conveit the greater part of the customs into duties of excise, 
 lould be equally advantageous to government and to the fair 
 rader; and that the excise laws might be so ameliorated that, 
 olwithstanding the odium generally attarlied to them as oppressive 
 iid arhitrary, no just ground of complaint should remain. With a 
 iew, thererorc, to the execution of this plan, he obtained a revival 
 f the salt duties, which had been repealed some years before; but 
 pon proposing, in the following year, to transfer the duties on 
 inc and tobacco to the excise, so much clamour was raised against 
 le meastire that the mini.-ter, after s nne perseverance, thought it 
 rudeiit to relincjuish this favourite project. The defeat of this 
 heme was celebrated by general rejoicings, as a deliverance from 
 .-• greatest political danger: had it succeeded, between four and 
 ve millions a year weuld have been raised unvler the excise 
 stem, in addition to the excise duties then subsisting. The 
 a ious additional duties which at ditferent limes have been im- 
 sed, and which the progress of the public expenditure has ren- 
 red necessary, have greatly increased the produce of the excise, 
 id rendered it tlie most important branch of the public revenue, 
 liich now amounts to more than twenty millions annually. The 
 ilies which it comprehends are divided into the perm inent con- 
 'ildated duties, tlie temporary war taxes, ai.d the annual duties; 
 le latter consists of the old annual malt duty, and of an addi- 
 nnal malt-dut\, which withs ime duties on tob.icco and snulf, and 
 ;ne custom duties, have, since the project for selling the land- 
 X, i)een granted annually in lieu thereof. 
 
 Excise Laws. For more easily levying the revenue of the ex- 
 
 -e, the kingdom of England and Wales is divided into about tiftv 
 
 i!!ections, some of which are called by the names of particular 
 
 'Unties, others by the names of great towns ; where one county 
 
 divided into several collections, or where a collection comprc- 
 
 nds the contijiuous parts of several counties, every such col- 
 
 ction is subdivided imo se-.'eral districts, within which there is a 
 
 uiervisor; and eai h district is again subdivided into outrides and 
 
 I'twalks, within each of which there is :i ganger or surveying 
 
 ' icer. '1 he commissioners or sub-commissioners, in their respec- 
 
 ' e circuits and divisions, shall constitute, under their hands and 
 
 *ds, so many gauL;ci-3 as they shall i'lnd needful. 
 
 Arrears nj duties. By several acts of parliament, all artic cs in 
 
 t? possession of persons subject to the excise laws, tnoether witii 
 
 ' the materials and utensils of whatsoever deocription, are made 
 
 i 
 
 liable for the arrears of duties, whether these be tingle or double 
 duties; and if a trader, being in arrears fur the single duties, be- 
 comes a bankrupt, and is convicted after tlic assignment of his ef- 
 fects, the double duties are a l.eu upon the exciseable commodi- 
 ties, utensils, and materials, in the hand- of his assignees, aad the 
 commissioners or magistrates may authorize the penalty to be levied 
 U|)on all such commodities, and all the inaleriaK, preparations, 
 utensils, and vessels for making thereof, in the custody of the bank- 
 ru))t, or any person or persons in trust for him. 2 Doug. 41 1. 
 
 Jlonds, f r the exportation of exciseable commodities, are to be 
 talien by ollicers of excise, and they are to be given generally up^jii 
 all exciseable articles, at the place where exported. 
 
 i'brgfr^ of any stamps, licences, certificates, permits, cr any 
 other excise documents, is by various statutes made u capital 
 felony. 
 
 Licvncc'S. In all cases where licenses are re(iuired, the liccnct? 
 will only sanction the business carried on in that particular place' 
 for which such licence was granted; but when the business is car- 
 ried on by partners, one licence will be suliicicnt to cover the 
 firm. 
 
 Officers of Excise. The officers of excise arc to be appointed, 
 and maybe dismissed, replaced, or altered, by llie commissioners, 
 under their hands and seals; their s.ilaries are allo->\ed and esta- 
 iilished by the treasury; and by 1 AV. & M. c. 'i4. s. l.i, if it is 
 proved by two witnesses, that any olTicer has demanded or taken 
 any money, or other reward whatever, except cf the king, such 
 oliender shall forfeit his office. By several statutes, no process 
 can be sued out against any officer of excise, for any act done in 
 the execution of his oftice, until one montli after notice given, 
 speci'jing the cause of action, and the name and abode ol the 
 person who is to begin, and the attorney who is to conduct the 
 action ; and within one month after such notice, the cfficer may 
 te»der amends, and plead such tender in bar ; and having tender- 
 ed insufficient or no amends, he may, with leave cf the court, be- 
 fore issue joined, pay money into court. Officers of excise are 
 empowered to search, at all times of the day, enter warehouses, 
 or places for tea, colTce, &c. But jirivate houses can only be 
 searched upon oalh of the suspicion before a commissioner or 
 justice of peace, who can by their warrant authorise a search. 
 
 Permits. Persons dealing in exciseable commodities are en- 
 titled to permits for removing the same to difl'erent places in cer- 
 tain quantities, and umler certain regnUtions. These permits are 
 written upon a peculiar species of paper, manufactured expressly 
 forthe purpose; and bv 23 Geo. HI. c. 70. s. 11, no permit pa- 
 per is to be delivered out before it shall be filled up agreeably to 
 the request note of a trader ; and officers knowingly granting any ■ 
 false permit, making false entries in the counter[.art thereof, or 
 leceiving any commodities into stock with a false or forged per- 
 mit, are to be transported for seven years. 
 
 Sainptes. Otficers of excise are, by various acts, empo\\ered 
 to take samples of cxcistable commodities, paying the prices 
 therein regulated for the same. 
 
 Seizures. When an officer makes a seizure of any spirits, or 
 any other articles, he must lay his hand on the casks, vessels, &c. 
 so seized, atid declare that he seizes such spirits, &c. and the casks 
 or vessels containing the same, lor the use of his maje-ty and of 
 himself; but if the officer happen to be alone when he makes such 
 seizure, he must atterwards, in the presence of witnesses, again lav 
 Ills hand upon such ca-k, vessel, &c. and rejicat the same declara- - 
 tion of seizure. All inturmations on seizures must be laid in the . 
 names of the officers making the same. By 41 Geo. HI. c. 96, . 
 commissioners of excise are empowered to make restitution of ex- 
 ciseable goods. 
 
 Scales and ireights. By various acts of parliament,- traders 
 subject to tlie excise laws, arc to keepjust and sul'licient scales and ■ 
 weights, under penalty of 100/. for every such oftence, and the 
 scales and weights may be seized by the olBcer. Traders, manu- 
 facturers, and dealers ha.jleto the excise duties, are to assist the otV • 
 licers in weigliing stock; and iorcibly obstructing, or using anv 
 art or contrivance to p-event or impede the officers from taking 'a 
 true account, incurs a ;■ -.ulty of 100/. 
 
 EXCISION, in a scripture sense, means.thecntting ofT of a 
 person from his people, by way of punishment lor some siu. The 
 Jews, Seidell informs us, reckon up thirty-six crimes, to which they 
 pretend this inin -hment is due- 
 
 E*cjsios^
 
 EXC 
 
 348 
 
 E XC 
 
 Excision, in surgery, the cuUing out, or off, any part of tlie 
 bodv. 
 
 EXCrr ABILITY, lincitahilitas, Lat.] a term literally sisiii- 
 fving a capability of being excited ; first used by the late Dr. 
 IJrown, to express that cpiality, substance, proi)erty, or principal, 
 on which the pha-noniena of life depend. See Brunoni.^n Sys- 
 tem. "We know not," says the Doctor, " what excitability is, 
 or ill what manner it is all'ected by the exciting powers. Hut 
 whatever it be, a certain quantity, or energy, (or as Dr. Beddoes 
 expresses it, in the second edition of Brown's Elements, — " a cer- 
 tain portion,") of it, is assigned to every being upon the com- 
 ihencenient of ils living stale. The quantity, or energy, is different 
 in different animals, and in the same animal at different timet." — 
 " The seat of excitability, in the living body, is medullary nerv- 
 ous matter and mu-cular solid. The excitability is inherent in it, 
 but not dift'erent in different parts of its seat, ^['his fact is proved 
 bv the production (or rousing into exertion) of sense, motion, the 
 Biental functions, and passions, immediately, instantaneously, and 
 not in a scries of successive operations. Different exciting powers 
 are applied to different parts of the nervous system, none to them 
 all at once ; but wherever they are applied, everv one immediately 
 affects the whole excitability." Elem. Med.'XVIll. XLVllf. 
 lirst edition. 
 
 Excitability, Accumulated, Increased, or Superabund- 
 ant, is that slate of the excitability, which is produced by with- 
 holding or withdrawing the usual stimuli for some lime, and hence 
 inducing direct debility. Dr. Brown mentions as a familiar in- 
 stance of it, " that debility which drain-drinkers experience the 
 day after debauch, in consequence of which their hands shake till 
 they are re-excited by their favourite cordial." Elem. Mid. 
 XLIlI.Noten. 
 
 Excitability, Deficient, Exhausted, or Worn-out, isthe 
 opposite of the accunuilated, beini^ that stale which is produced 
 1/y too long continued or excessive applicalion of the exciting 
 powers. Dr. Brown mentions as " an instance of it, that debility 
 which arises from inioxicalioii ;" el,ewhere styled indirect debi- 
 lity. Elem. Med. XLIII. Note n. ' ^ 
 
 Excitation, in electricity. See Electricity. 
 
 EXCITEMEN r, [^incilatio, Lai.] in Dr. Brown's System of 
 Medicine, " the effect of the exciting powers acting uiion the ex- 
 riiability," Elem. Med. XVI. " The excitement," says Dr. 
 Beddoes, " may be too great, too small, or in just measure. By 
 too great excitement weakness is induced, because the excilability 
 becomes defective ; this is indirect debility: \^ilen the exciting 
 powers or stiimilaiits are withheld, weakness is induced ; and this 
 
 is direct debility. Every power that acts on the living frame pro- 
 duces excitement by expending excitability." Elem. Med. 2d 
 
 EXCLUSION, or BILL OF EXCLUSION, a bill proposed 
 about the close of the reign of king Charles II. for excluding Ihe 
 duke of York, the king's brother, from the throne, on account of 
 his being a papist. 
 
 Exclusion, in mathematics, is a method of coming at the solu- 
 tion of numerical problems, by pieviously throwing out of our 
 consideration such numbers as are of no use in solving the question. 
 
 EXCQ^C.\HIA, a genus of the triandria order, and tliocia 
 class of plants; nalural order, Tricocca'. Male amentum, naked; 
 calyx and corolla none; styles three; capsule tricoccous. It hao 
 two ••pecies. 
 
 EXCLAMATION, in rlutoric, a figure that expn-sses the vio- 
 lent and sudden breaking out, and vchenieiice of any passion. 
 Kuch is that in the second book of Milton's Paradise Lost: 
 O unexpected stroke, worse than of death! 
 Must I thus leave thee. Paradise? Thus leave 
 Thee, native soil ; these happy walks ;'.nd shades, 
 Fit haunt of gods. > See Oratory'. 
 
 EXCOMMUNl'C.\TION, an ecclesiasticalinterdict ; exclu- 
 sion from the fellowshii) of the church. 
 
 Excommunication is founded on a natural right which all so- 
 cieties have, of excluding out of their body such as violate their 
 laws; and it was orla,iir,illy instituted for preserving the purilv of 
 tlie church; but ambitious ecclesiastics converted it by (h'grees 
 irtt ') an engine for promoting their own power, and inllicled it on 
 the most frivolous occasions. The power of exconimunicatii^ii, as 
 well as other acts of ecclesiastical discipline, was lotlged in the 
 
 hands of the clergy, who distinguished it into the greater or 
 lesser. 
 
 Excommunication, the Greai er, called xwrtxir; a^io^Tfxo-, 
 i. e. total separation and anathema, consisted in an absolute and 
 entire exclusion from t.he church and the participation of all itsriUs. 
 When any person was thus excommunicated, notice «as given of 
 it by circular letters to the most eminent churches all over the 
 world, that they might all confirm this act of discipline, by rn- 
 fusing to admit the delinquent to their communion. The conse- 
 qnences of this excommunication were very terrible. The ex- 
 communicated person was avoided in civil commerce and out- 
 ward conversation. No one durst receive him into his house, or 
 eat at the same table with hini ; and when dead, he was denied the 
 solemn rites of burial. 
 
 Excommunication, the Lesser, simply called nfooiT/i<»f, j. ,.. 
 separation or suspension, consisted in excluding men from the par- 
 ticipation of the eucharisf, and the prayers of the faithful. Btit 
 they were not expelled the church; for they had the privilege of 
 being present at ihe reading of the Scriptures, the sermons, and 
 the pr.iyers of the catechumens and penitents. This excommuni- 
 cation was inflicted for less crimes; such as neglecting to attend 
 the service of the church, misbehaviour in it, ami the like. 
 
 Excommunication among the Heathen. A seclusion from 
 religious ntes was also in use under paganism. Such as were ex- 
 communicated were forbidden to assist or attend at the sacrifices, 
 or to enter within the temples; and were afterwards delivered 
 over te the dimons and furies of hell, with certain imprecations; 
 which was called among the Romans diris devoverc. See Exe- 
 cration. 1 he Druids among the ancient Britons and Gauls, 
 likewise excomirunicated rebels, and interdicted the communion 
 of their mysteries to such as refused to acquiesce in their deci- 
 sions. 
 
 Exco.mmunication in the Church of England. The 
 form of excommunication in the church of England anciently ran 
 llius: " By the authority of God the Father Almighty, theSon, 
 and Holy Ghost, and ol Mary the blessed mother of God, wc ex- 
 communicate, anathematize, and sequester from the pale of holy 
 mother church, &c." The causes of excommunication in Eng- 
 land are, contempt of the bishop's court, heresy, neglect of public 
 worship and the sacraments, incontinency, adultery, simony, &c. 
 It is described te be twofold. The less is an ecclesiastical cen- 
 sure, .excluding the parly from the participation of the sacraments: 
 the greater proceeds larther, and excludes him not only from 
 these, but from the comp;my of all Christians. But if l!.e judge 
 of any spiritual court excommunicates a man for a cause of which 
 he has not the legal cognizance, the party may have an action 
 against him at common law, and he is also liable to be indicted al 
 the suit of the king. H^avy as the penally of excomniunicatioi 
 is, there are many who would despise the bruUim fulmen of niei' 
 ecclesiastical censures, especially when pronounced by a [lelU 
 surrogate in the country, for railing or contumelious words, foi 
 non-payment of fees or costs, or other trivial cause. The law 
 therefore, steps into their aid, and lends a supporting hand lo ai 
 otherwise tottering authority; imitating herein ihe policy of thf 
 ancient Hrilisli Druids. By the common law, an excemmuiiicnt 
 ed person is ilisabled to do any act that is required to be dene by 
 one thai is probus el legalis homo. He cannot serve upon juries: 
 cannot be a witness in any court ; and cannot bring an action t( 
 recover lands or money iXuc to him. And if, within 40 daysaftei 
 llie sentence has been published in the church, the olfrnder doe: 
 not submit to the sentence of the spiritual court, the bishop nia^ 
 < ertifv such centempt to the king in chancery. Upon w hich lliert 
 issues out a writ to the sherilf of the county, calletl from the bi 
 shop's certilicate a signiticuvit ; or from its effect, awritde tx 
 communicato capiendo; and the sherilf shall thereupon take lh( 
 oltVnder and imprison him in tl.e county jail, till he is reconciled ti 
 Ihe church, and such reconciliation certifn tl by the bishop; iipoi 
 whiili anoll'.er writ do excommunicato deliber.nndo, issues out c 
 Ihe chancery to release him. 
 
 Excommunication in the Church of I?ome. TheRomisl 
 pontifical mentions three kinds of exconununication, viz. 1. Thi 
 minor, incurrrd by those who have any correspondence with ai 
 excommunicated person. 2. The major, which ialis upon liiosi 
 w ho disobey the commands of the holy see, or refuse to subniit b 
 certain points of discipline, in consequence of which they are ex 
 
 cl'.idet
 
 E X E 
 
 345 
 
 EXE 
 
 liulod fioiii tin- cluiivl) niilitaiit ami triunipliLiul, ami ilclivi-rcd 
 vor lo tlic ck'vil and liis a^i^cls. 3. Aiiatlu-nia, \\hic!i is [jiopprly 
 ;iat iironoiiiK-cd by tlic- pope againsl lieretical princes and coun- 
 lios. In lornior ages, tlusc papal I'lilniiiiations were most teiriljle 
 liinys; but at prest-nt they are lonnidable to lew or none. 
 
 I'VXCOIUATION, in medicine and surgery, the galling, or 
 
 iUbing ol'f of llie cuticle, especially of tlie parts between the 
 .liglis and about the anus. In adnlts, it is occasioned by riding, 
 micli walking, or oilier vehement e.\erci«e, and may be cnred by 
 ulnerarv applications. In children theie is often an excoriation, 
 ,i)t oidy ot liie ))arts near the pudenda, chiefly of the groin and 
 iiotuni, but likewise in the wrinkles of the neck and under the 
 mis: proceeding from the acrimony of urine and sweat ; and oc- 
 asiouing itching pains, crying, restlessness, &c. The parts af- 
 ■ ■ctcd should be often washed with warm water, and sprinkled 
 .ith drying powders, asihalk, or hartshorn, but rspecially tntty, 
 ^r lapis calaniinaris, which may be tied loosely in a rag, and the 
 lowder shaken out on the parts; but ceruse, which sonic nurses 
 se in this way, is very dangerous. 
 
 EXCKKMRNTS, are the librous parts of the aliments, mixed 
 vitli the bile, saliva, and other fluids. Urine and the fivces are 
 he gross excrements that are discharged out of the bladder and 
 lelly. Sweat, or tlie matter persj)ired by the pores, in conse- 
 |iience of heat or violent exercise, may also be considered as e.\- 
 rementitious. But wc cannot agree with those who consider as 
 \crement5, those secretions from the blood, w hich answer very 
 iiportant ends in the animal occouomy ; such as the saliva, bile, 
 ancreatic juice, lymph, and semen. Nay even the nails, hair, 
 orns, and hocfs, of animals, have been considered by some as ex- 
 rcmentilious parts. But these are mucli more properly stiled by 
 ithers excrescences. As to the fluid secretions above-mentioned, 
 ticre is this evident distinction between them and the excrcLueiits 
 f the body, that the former are of the highest utility, while the 
 liter are expelled as no longer capable of rendering the aniii.al 
 iiy service, but on the contrary, if long retained, would prove in- 
 irions. See Faeces. 
 
 EXCRE.SCENCE, in surgery, a preternatural tumour upon 
 ic >kin, either in the form of a wart or tubercle. If they are born 
 ith a pei-son, as they fre((uently are, they are called nsvi materni, 
 r marks from the mother ; but if the tumour is large, so as to de- 
 end from the skin, like a fleshy niasiS, it is then called a sarcoma, 
 ee SuRCtRY. 
 
 EXCREllON, or SECRETION, in physiology, a separation 
 f some fluid from the blood by means of the glands. See Phy- 
 
 lOLOCY. 
 
 EXCRETORY DUCTS, in anatomy, a term applied to cer- 
 
 tin little vessels, destined for the reception of a fluid, secreted in 
 ertain glandules, and other viscera, for the excretion of it in the 
 pprnpriated jdaccs. 
 
 EXCL'BI.E, in antiquity, the watches and guards kept in the 
 ■'.y by the Roman soldiers, contradistinguished from the vigila; 
 liich were k«;pt in the night. 
 
 EXCULPATION, Letters of, in Scots law, a writ or suni- 
 lons issued by authority of the court of justiciary, at the instance 
 f a puHiiel, for citing witnesses to prove his dirtences, or his ob- 
 'ctiniis lo any of the jury or witnesses cited against him. 
 
 EXCUSATI, in church history, slaves, who flying to any 
 
 uirch for sanctuary, were excused and pardone<l by their mas- 
 ■'s; but these were obliged to take an oath to that purpose before 
 ii'y could have them again; and, if they broke the oath, they 
 ere puD'ished and lined as pcr.sons guilty of perjury. 
 
 EXECRATION, in anticiuity, a kind of punishment, consist- 
 ig of direful curses and marks of infamy: s\uh was tliat used 
 gainst Philip of .Macedon by the Athenians. A general assembly 
 I the people being called, tney made a decree, that all the statues 
 lul images of that king, and of all his ancestors, should be demo- 
 shed, and their very name razed; that all the festivals, sacred 
 lies, priests, and whatever else had been instituted in honour of 
 ini, should be profaned; that the very places where there had 
 een any mon\iment or inscription to his honour, should be detest- 
 ble ; that ncthing should be set up, or dedicated in them, wliich 
 n\M be done inciean places; and, lastly, that the iirlests, as often 
 5 thev prayed for the Athenian people, allies, armies, and fleets, 
 hoiild as luauy times detest and execrate Piiilip, his children, 
 mgdoni, land and sea forces, and the whole race and name of the 
 .lacedonians. At the taking and demolishing of cities, it was 
 
 VOL. II. — NO. 78, 
 
 usual amongst the Jews, Greeks, and Romans, to j)ronoui;ce cnrseS 
 upon, and load with direful execrations, the rebmlders of them. 
 
 EXi;Cl"i ION, in a general sense, the act of accomplishing, 
 flnisliing, or achieving, any tiling to be di;ne, 
 
 l''.xi'.CL' riox, in law, the completing or linishing of some act, as 
 ol judgement, deed, il-c. :,\u\ i\ usually signifies the obtaining of pos- 
 session of any thing recovered by judgement of law. Sir Edward 
 Coke observes, that there are two sorts of exctutiBiis; the one 
 liiial ; and the other a (]uousi|ue, that tends lo an end. An execu- 
 tion linal, is that which makes money of the <lefendant's goods ; 
 or rxlends to his lantb, and delivers them to llie pl.iintilT', who ac- 
 cepts the same in satisfaction ; and this is the end of the suit, and 
 the whole that the king's writ reipiiics to be done. The writ ot 
 execution with a quoubcpie, though it tends to an end, yet is not 
 linal, as in the case of a capias ad satisfac. where the delVnda.nt'.s 
 body is to be taken, in order that the \)laintill may be .satisfied for 
 his debt. Executions are either in personal, real, or mixed ac- 
 tions. In a persona! action, the execution may be made three 
 ways, viz. by the writ of capias ad satisfaciemium, against the bo- 
 dy of the defendant ; (icri facias, against his goods ; or digit, 
 against his lands. See Elicit, and Fieri Facivs. In a real and 
 mixed action, the execution is by writ of habere facias sasiiiam, 
 and habere possessionem. See IIaiierr. Writs of cxcciition 
 bind tlue property of goods only from the time of delivery of the 
 writ to the sheriff; but the laiid is bound from the day of the 
 judgement obtained: and here the sale of any goods for valuable 
 consideration, after a judgement, aii<i before the execution award- 
 ed, will be good. It is otherwise as to lands, of which execution 
 may be made, even on a purchase after the judgement, though the 
 delendant sell such land before execution, i^ikewise, sherilis may 
 deliver in execution all the lands whereof others shall be seised in 
 tniit for him, against whom execution is had on a judgement, &c. 
 NV'hcn any judgement is signed, the execution may be taken out 
 immedialelv thereon ; but if it be not issued within a year and a 
 day after, where there is no fault in the defendant, as in the case 
 of an injunction, writ of error, Sic. there must be a scire facias, to 
 revive tlie judgement; though, if the plaintiff sues out any writ of 
 execution withm the year, he may continue it alter the year is exr 
 pired. After judgement again;t the defendaul, in an action wherv in 
 special bail is given, the plaintiff is at liberty to have execution 
 against such defendant, or again^t his bail : Init this is understood 
 where the defendant does not render himself, according to law, in 
 safeguard of the bail ; and execution may not regularly be sued 
 forth against a bail, till a default is returjied against the principal: 
 also if the plaintiff take the bail, he shall never take the principal. 
 It is held that an execution may be executed after the death of the 
 defendant: for his executor, being privy thereto, is liable as well 
 as the testator. The execution is an entire thing, so that he who 
 begins must end it: ther.ul'ore, a new sheriff may di:.train an old 
 one, to sell the goods seized on a distringas, and to bring the mo- 
 ney into court. * 
 
 KxECt'TioN OF Ckimixai-S, must be according to the judge- 
 ment; and the king cannot alter a judgement from hanging to bc-- 
 heading, because no exi:cution can be warranted, unless it be pur- 
 suant to the judgement. This, beuig the completion of human pu- 
 nishment, in all cases, as well capital as otherwise, must be |jer- 
 formed by the legal oflicer, the sherilY, or his deputy. jMurderei'S 
 are to be executed the day next but one after conviction, unless it 
 be Sunday, and anatomised; for which rejsoii they are gcnerallv 
 tried on a Friday. 
 
 Execution, in music, a term applicable to every s])ecies of 
 musical performance; but more parlicul.irly used to expres? a faci- 
 lity of voice or linger in running rapid divisions, and other difficult 
 and intricate |)assnges: it includes, in a gpneral sense, taste, feci, 
 iiig, grace, and expression. 
 
 "I'^XECUTOR, is a ])erson appointed by the testator, to carry 
 into execution his will and testament after his decease. The regu- 
 lar mode of appointing an executor, is by naming him expressly 
 in the will; but any words indicating an intention of tlie testator 
 to ajipoint an executor will be deemed a 'ulhcicnt appointment.. 
 Any person capable of m.iking a will, is also capable of being an 
 executor: but in some cases, persons who are incapable of mak- 
 ing a will, may nevertheless act as executors, as i:if;iiits, or married 
 women; lo obviate, however, inconveriences which have occur- 
 red respecting the former, it is enacted by slat. 3S Geo. 111. c: 
 89, that where an infant is sole executor, atiminiitration, with the 
 4 U will
 
 1." 
 
 X i: 
 
 550 
 
 EXE 
 
 will anncNed, shall be granlt^d to tlip guanliar of such infant, or 
 ?iich other penon as the spiritual court i-h.iU think lit, until such 
 Infant shall have attained the age of twenty-one; when, and not 
 before, prohate of the will shall be granted him. An executor de- 
 rives his authoritv from the will and not from the probate, and is 
 therefore authorized to do many acts in execution of the will, 
 even before it is |)rovcd, such as the releasing, paying, or receiving 
 of debts, assenting to licences, &c. but he cannot proceed until he 
 has obtained probate, If an executor die before probate, admi- 
 nistration must be taken out with the will annexed; but if an exe- 
 cutor die, hii executor will be executor to the first teitator, and 
 no fresh probate will be needed. It will be sufficient if one only 
 of the executors prove the wil' ; but if all refuse to prove, they 
 cannot afterwards administer, or in any respect act as executors, 
 if an executor become a bankrupt, the court of chancery will ap- 
 point a receiver of the testator's effects, as it will also upon the ap- 
 plication of a creditor, if he appear to be wasting the assets. If 
 an executor once administers, lie cannot afterwards renounce ; 
 and the ordinary may in such case issue process to compel him to 
 prove the will. 1 Mod. i?13. If an executor refuse to take upon 
 him the execution of the will, he shall lose the legacy therein con- 
 tained. If a creditor co;jstitute his debtor his executor, this is at 
 Jaw a discharge of the debt, whether the executor acts or not, pro- 
 vided, however, there be assets sutTicient to discharge the debts of 
 the testator. The lirst duty of an executor or administrator is to 
 bury the deceased in a suitable manner; .md if the executor ex- 
 ceed what is necessary in this respect, it will be a waste of the 
 substance of the testator. 1 he next thing to be done by the exe- 
 <utor is to prove the will, which may be done either in the com- 
 mon form, by taking the oath to make due distribution, &c. or in 
 a more solemn mode, by witnesses to its execution. By stat. 37 
 Geo. III. c. 9. s. 10, every person who shall administer the per- 
 sonal estate of any person dying without proving the will of the 
 «lcceased, or taking out letters of administration within six calen- 
 dar months after such person's decease, shall forfeit aOl. Upon 
 proving the will, the original is to be deposited in the registry of 
 tlie ordinary, by whom a copy is made upon parchment under his 
 Siral, and delivered to the executor or administrator, together with 
 a certificate of its having been proved before him, and this is 
 tfrined the probate. If all the goods of the deceased lie within 
 the same jurisdiction, the probate is to be made before the ordi- 
 nary or bishop of the diocese, where tlie deceased resided ; but if 
 he had goods and chattels to the value of 5/. in two distinct dio- 
 ceses or jurisdictions, the will may be proved before the metropo- 
 litan or archbisliop of the province in which the deceased died. 
 An executor, by virtue of the w ill of the testator, has an interest 
 in all the goods and chattels, whether real or personal, in posses- 
 sion or in action of the deceased ; and ;ill goods and effects com- 
 ing to his hands will be the assets to maUc liim chargeable to cre- 
 ditors and legatees. An executor or administrator stands person- 
 ally responsible for the due discharge of his duty; if, therefore, 
 the property of llie deceased is lost, or through his wilful negli- 
 gence becomes otherwise irrecoverable, he will be liable to make 
 it good; and also where he retains money in his hands longer tlian 
 is necessary, he will be chargeable not only with interest but costs, 
 if any have been incurred. But one executor shall not 1)6 answer- 
 able for money received, or detriment occasioned by the other, 
 unless it has been by some act done between them jointly. An 
 executor or administrator has the same remedy for recovering 
 debts and duties, as the deceased would have had if living. Nei- 
 ther an executor nor administrator can maintain any action, for a 
 personal injury done to tlre-deceased, when such injury is of such 
 a nature for which damages may be received; in actions, how- 
 ever, which have their origin in breach of promise, although the 
 suit may abate by the death of the party, yet it may be revived 
 either by his executors or administrators, who may also sue for 
 Tent in arrear, and due to the deceased in his lifetime. By the 
 tiisloin of merchants, an executor or administrator may indorse 
 over a bill of exchange or promissory note. An executor or ad- 
 Minii^trator m:.;y also, on Ihc death of a lessee for years, assign over 
 ♦he Itasr, and shall not be answerable for rent after such assign- 
 ritnt ; nor shall he be liable for rent due after the lessee's death, 
 from premises which in his life-time he h.id assigned to another. 
 An executor ur administrator is bound only by such covenants in 
 t Ivase as are said to ran with the land. 'J'lie executor or admini- 
 itwrtvr, j;;ivik)us \o Hic distribution of the property of the deceas- 
 
 ed, must take an inventory of all his goods and chattels, whict 
 must, if required, be delivered to the ordinarv upon oath, lit 
 must then collect, with all possible convenience, all the goods an< 
 efti'cts contained in such an inventory ; and whatever is so reco 
 vcred that is of a [saleable nature, and can be converted into ino 
 iiey, is termed assets, and makes him respon^ible to such amoiin 
 to the creditors, legatees, and kindred of tlie deceased. The exc 
 cutor or administrator having collected in tlie property, is to pro 
 ceed to discharge the debts of the deceased, whicli he must do ac 
 cording to the toUowing priorities, otherwise he will be personal!' 
 responsible. 1. Funeral expences, charges of proving the will 
 and other expenditures incurred by the execution of his trust. 2 
 Debts due to the king on record, or by sjieciality. 3. Debts b' 
 particular statutes, as by 30 C. II. c. 23. Forfeitures for not bii 
 rying in woollen, money due for poor-rates, and monev clue to th 
 posl-oflice. 4 Debts of record, as judgements, statutes, recog 
 nizanccs, and those recognized by a decree of a court of equity 
 and debts due on mortgage. 3 Peere Wins, 401. 5. Debts oi 
 special contracts, as bonds or other instruments under seal, and ak 
 rent in arrear. 6. Debts on simple contract, viz. such as debt 
 arising by mere verbal promise, or by writing not under seal, a 
 notes of hand, servants' wages, &c. The executor is bound at hi 
 peril to take notice of debts on record, but not of other specia 
 contract, unless he n^ceive notice. If no suit be actually com 
 menced against an executor or administrator, he may pay one ere 
 ditor in equal degree the whole debt, though there should be it 
 sufficient remaining to pay the rest; and even after the commence 
 ment of a suit, he may by confessing judgement to other creditoi 
 of the same degree, give them a preference. Executors and ad 
 ministrators are also allowed, amongst debts of ccjual degree, t 
 pay themselves first: but they are not allowed to retain their ow: 
 debt, to the prejudice of others in a higher degree; neither sha' 
 thev be permitted to retain their own debts, in preference to ths 
 of tlieir co-executor or co-administrator of equal degree, but hot 
 shall be charged in equal proportion. A mortgage made by th 
 testator must be discharged by the representative out of the pei 
 sonal estate, if there be sufficient to pay the rest of the creditor 
 and legatees. Where such mortgage, however, was not incurrei 
 by the deceased, it is not payable out of the personal estate. Sc 
 Leg.^cif.s, and Assets. 
 
 Executor de Son Tort, or an executor of his own wrong 
 a person that takes upon him the office of an executor by inlrii 
 sion, without being so constituted by the testator, or appointet 
 by the ordinary to administer. Such a person is chargeable t( 
 the rightful executor, as also to all the testator's creditors am 
 legatees, so far as the goods amount to, which he wrongfully pos 
 sessed. 
 
 EXECUTORY ESTATE. Estates executory, are whet 
 they pass presentlv to the person to whom conveyed, without an'' 
 afteract, 2 Inst. 513; and leases for years, rents, annuities, condi 
 tion, &c. are called inheritances executory. Id. 293. 
 
 Executory Devise, is defined a future interest, which can 
 not vest at the death of a testator, but depends Upon some contin 
 gency which must happen before it can vest. Abr. Eq. )86 
 An executory devise differs from a remainder, in three vcrv mat* 
 rial points : 1. That it needs not any particular estate to suppoi 
 it. y. Tliat by it a fee-simple, or other less estate, may be limit 
 ed after a fee-simple. 3. That hereby a remainder inav be limit 
 ed of a chattel interest, after a particular estate for life created ii 
 the same. 'J Black. 172. 
 
 ExEci'TORY Devises of Terms for Years. If a farmci 
 devises his term A for life, the remainder to another, though A 
 have the w hole estate, (for that is in him during life,) and so n< 
 remainder can be limited ov(>r, at common law, yet it is good b} 
 way of executory devise. I Rol. Abr. tJlO. 
 
 EXEDRjE, in antiquity, halls with many seats, where the phi 
 losophers, rhetoricians, and men of learning, met for discourse am 
 disputation. The word occurs in ecclesiastical writers as a genera 
 name for such buildings as were distinct from the main body o 
 the churches, and yet within the limits of the churcli, taken ii 
 its largest sense. Among tlie exedia; the chief was the Baptis 
 terv. 
 
 tXEGESIS LINEA, or NUMEROSA, [from N«.i).,.-i,-, o 
 i£, out, and ny'^n^i, I lead,] is the lineal or numeral soKitionOi 
 extraction of roots out of the adiected e<|uations in algebra. 
 
 ExtGESis> iu the Scots universities, is ai> exercise among thi 
 •^ student 
 
 w
 
 EXE 
 
 .151 
 
 E X H 
 
 jiudciits in iliviiiilv, ill wliicli a (iiicstion ir. ilatcil by the rcipoii- 
 (lent, wlio is tlien' opposed by other stiuleiits in tlici'r turns ; iliir- 
 iiifj wliicli llie professor solve-- the difficulties which the respoiuKiit 
 tiiMiiot overcomo. 
 
 liXEGETKS, \(Tom i^iyi^iMi, to explani,] nmong tlie Athe- 
 v'm\^, persons learned in the luws, wiiom the judges used to con- 
 sult in fiipilal causes. 
 
 KXEGETICA, in algebra, the art of finding, either in nnin- 
 bers or lines, the roots of tlie equation of a problem, according as 
 t!ie pio'jleni is either numerical or geometrical. 
 
 ES.EMI'J>A1\ denotes the image, conceived in tlie mind of the 
 artist, wheri-by lie conducts his work. 
 
 EXE.MPIJl'ICA'riON OF Eiotters Patent, denotes a 
 copy made from llie enrolment, and sealed with the great seal ; 
 viuch is as effectual to be shewed, or pleaded as the ori- 
 ginal.^ 
 
 EXEMPTIONS,, in law. Peers are exempted from being 
 sworn upon inquests ; and knights, ckr<!ymen, and others, from 
 appearing at the sheriff's turn. Persons of 70 years of age, sur- 
 geons, apothecaries, butchers, &c. are exempted from serving on 
 juries ; and justices of the peace, attorneys, &c. from parish 
 offices. 
 
 EXERCISE, among physicians, is either active or passive. 
 The active is walking, hunting, dancing, playing at bowls, and 
 ithe like ; as also speaking, and other joint txertions of the body 
 'and mind. The passive is riding in a coach or on horseback ; 
 sailing, &c. Exercise may be continued to a beginning of weari- 
 ness, and ought to be used l)eforc dinner in a pure light air. 
 Journeys into the country contribnle greatly to preserve am! re- 
 establish health. Exercise increases the circulation of the blood, 
 attenuates the fluids; promotes a regular |)erspiration, and a due 
 secretion of all the humours ; accelerates the animal spirits ; faci- 
 litates their distribution into all the fibres of the body ; strengthens 
 ithe parts ; creates an appetite, and helps digestion. Boerhaave 
 recommends bodily exercise in diseases of a weak and lax fibre. 
 •13y riding on horseback, says his commentator, the pendulous vis- 
 cera of the abdomen are shaken every moment, and gently rubbed 
 |one against another, while in the mean time the pure air acts on 
 the lungs with greater force. But a weak man should not ride 
 with a full stomach, but either before dinner, or after the diges- 
 tion is near finished ; for when the stomach is distended, weak 
 people do not bear these concussions. Sailing is also an exercise 
 of great use to weak people. To strengthen the botly by muscu- 
 lar motion, running, leaping, and other active exercises, are to be 
 used. In these we should begin with the most gentle, such as 
 walking, and increase it by degrees till we come to running. 
 Those exercises of the body are more especially serviceable which 
 exercise the mind at the same time. The ancieats appointed re- 
 wards for those who excelled in gymnastic exercises that the 
 bodies of their youth might thus be hardened for warlike toils. 
 But, though nothing is more conducive to health than moderate 
 exercise, yet violent exercise dissipates the spirits, weakens the 
 hoily, destroys the elasticity of the fibres, and exhausts the fluid 
 parts of the blood. Great care should therefore be taken, to pro- 
 portion the degree of exercise to the strength of the patient. 
 Swinging has often been found very beneficial to consumptive and 
 uther del)ilitated persons. 
 
 Exercise, in military affairs, is the ranging of a body of sol- 
 ilicrs in form of battle, and making them perform the several mo- 
 ions and military evolutions with dilt'erent management of their 
 irms, in order to make them expert therein. See Manual Ex- 
 
 i-RCISE. 
 
 Exercise, in the royal navy, is the preparatory practice of 
 managing the artillery and small arms, in order to make the ship's 
 rew perfectly skilled therein, so as to direct its execution success- 
 lully in the time of battle. See Navy, and Naval Tactics. 
 
 Exercise may also be applied with propriety to the form- 
 ing of our fleets into orders of sailing, lines of battle, &c. an art 
 Ahich the French have termed evolutions, or tactiques. Sec 
 Naval TAOfics. 
 
 ExERcisfs are also understood of what young gentlemen learn 
 11 the academics and riding-schools, such as feiicinir, drawing, rid 
 iig the great horse, &c. The delicate springs of our frail ma- 
 ;hines loie their activity and become enervated, and the vese'.s 
 ire choked by obstructions, when we totally desist from exercise, 
 
 and the consequences iicccssarL'y affett the brain ; a very sti;d oi e 
 and sedentary life is tlnieforc equally prejudicial to the body and 
 the miiul. All inclinntiun to study is highly commendable: but 
 it ought not to inspire us with an aversion to society. The n;<tu- 
 ral lot of mail is to live among his fellows : and wluitever may be 
 our situ.ition in life, there are a thousand occasions where a man 
 must <le'ire to render hiiu'-clf agreeable. 
 
 EXEKCnOH, in .Scots law, he who employs a ^hip in 
 trade, whether he be owner, or only freights her from the owner. 
 
 EXEUGASIA, or EXPOSITION. See Okatoky. 
 
 EXERGUE, or EXEHGUM, [of <|, from, and <;■/», thfi 
 work,] the circular space between tlie work and edge of a 
 com or medal, on which the inscription or motto is usually 
 placed. 
 
 EXE'HCR, [7. (/. Excester, i. t\ a city upon the Ex,] the ca 
 pital of Devonshire, anciently called Isex, and I-ia Dainnonio- 
 rum. It is l.irge, populous, and wealthy, with gates, walls, and 
 suburbs; the circumterence is about three miles. It is 31 miles 
 N . N. E. of Dartmouth, and 7S S. W. of Bristol. 
 
 Exeter, a bi^liopric of I'liglaiul, comprehending the counties 
 of Cornwall and Devonshire. 1 he bishop's jeat was transferred, 
 to Exeter, from Credilon, by Edward the Confessor. 
 
 Exeter, a town and river of Ne^>' Hamnsiiirf. 
 
 Exeter, a town of North Carolina, in New Hanover cotmty, 
 36 miles N. of Wilmington. 
 
 EXFOLIATION, the scaling of a bone, or its rising into tliiiu 
 lamina^. 
 
 EX GRAVI Ql'ERELA, in law, U a writ, that lies for the per- 
 son to whom any lan'ls or tenements in fee are devised by v. ill, 
 and the heir of the devisor enters thereon, and detains them from 
 the devisee. Also, where a person devises such lauds to another 
 in tail with the remainder over in fee : here if the tenant in tail 
 enter, and is seised by force of the intail, and afterwards he dies 
 without issue, the person in remainder, or reversion, may bring 
 this writ to execute the devise. 
 
 EXHALATION and EVAPORATION are often used sy- 
 nonymously, but accurate writers distinguish them, appropriating 
 the latter to the raising of moist fumes from liquid bodies, and the 
 former to the emission of dry etlluvia from solid bodies, as eailh, 
 fire, minerals, &c. In this sense, exhalations are dry and subtle 
 corpuscles, loosened from hard terrestrial bodies, either by the 
 heat of the sun, the action of the air, or some other cause ; and 
 emitted upwards to a certain height in the atmosphere, where, 
 mixing with the vapours, they help to form clouds, and return 
 back in rain, mist, &c. 
 
 EXHAUSTED Receiver, in pneumatics, a glass or other 
 vessel, applied on the plate of an air-pump, where the air is ex- 
 tracted out of it by the working of the jiump. Things placed in 
 it are said to be in vacuo. See Pneumatics. 
 
 EXHAI'STIONS, in mathematics, or the method of exhaus- 
 tions, is a w.iy of proving the equality of two magniluilcs, by a 
 reductio ad absurdum ; shewing, that if one be suppose d either 
 greater or less than the other, there will arise a contradiction. It 
 is founded upon the exhausting of a quantity by continually taking 
 away certain parts of it. This method was of frequent u-e among 
 thtf ancient mathematicians; as Euclid, Archimedes, &c. It is 
 founded on what Euclid says in his 10th book; viz. that those 
 quantities whose ditference is less than any assignable quantity, arc 
 eoual ; for if they were unequal, be the ilil'/erence ever so small, 
 yet it may be so multipli.'d, as to become greater than either of 
 them ; if not so, then it is really nothing. This he assumes in the 
 proof of prop. 1. book x. whici' imports, that if, from the greater 
 of two quantities, be taken more than its half, and trom the re- 
 mainder more than its half, and so continually, there will, at length, 
 remain a quantity less than cither of those proposed. Thus : two 
 quantities, A and B, are equal, when, if to or from one of them., 
 as A, any other quantity, as d, be subtracted, how ever smuU it be. 
 then the sum or difltreiice is respectively greater or less than the 
 other quantity B, viz. d being an indefinitely small quautitv, 
 if A-\- d be grea er than B, 
 and A — d less than B, 
 then is A etpial to 3. 
 On (his foundation it is demonstrated, that if a regular polygon of" 
 infinite sides be inscribed in, or circumitribed about, a circle ; tlie : 
 >pacc. which is the dtflVrenc? between the clrc'ic atnl the polygon. 
 
 " vUl, 
 
 I
 
 EX O 
 
 3 
 
 
 EXP 
 
 will, by (U'Ri-ees, be quite exliaustid, ami (he circle become equal 
 to the poI>gon. See Arcliimed. de Diaiens. Circuli ; Wallis's 
 Algebra, Ch. 73 ; and Ronayne's Alg. part 3, p. :;()5. Upon the 
 method of exhaustions depends the method of indivisibles inlro- 
 diieed by Cavalerius, which is but a shorter way of expressing the 
 method of exhaustions ; as also VVallir.'s Arithmetic of Inlinitcs, 
 which is a farther improvement of the method of indivisibles ; and 
 lience also the methods of increments, differentials, fluxions, and 
 infinite '■eries. 
 
 EXHEKEDATION, in the civil law, with us ordinarily call- 
 ei\ disinheriting, is the father's act of excluding his son from in- 
 heriting his estate. 
 
 EXHIBIT, inlaw, is where a deed, or other writing, being 
 produced in a chancery suit to be proved by witnesses, the com- 
 missioner, appointed for the examination, certifies on the back of 
 the writing, that it was shewn to the witness at his examination, 
 iUid by him sworn to. 
 
 EXlIIBFi'lON, a benefaction settled for the benefit of scho- 
 lars in the universities, tliat are not on the foundation. 
 
 ExwiEiTioK, in law, a production of titles, and other proofs of 
 a matter in conte-;t. 
 
 liLXHORTATION, in rhetoric, differs only from Suasion, in 
 that tlie latter princi|ially endeavours to convince the understand- 
 ing, and the former to work on the alTections. 
 
 EXHUMATION, [from ex, out of, and Jinnuia, ground,] (he 
 act of digging up a body interred in holy ground, by the autho- 
 rity of the judge. 
 
 EXIDEUIL, a town of France, in the department of Dor- 
 clogne ; 30 miles S. of Limoges. 
 
 EXIGENT, in law, a writ which lies where the defendant in a 
 personal action cannot be found, nor any effects of his williin the 
 county, by which he may be attached or distrained. 
 
 EXIGENTERS, four officers in the court of common pleas, 
 who make all exigents and proclamations in actions where process 
 of outlawry lies. 
 
 EXILE. See Banishment. Among the Komans exilium 
 properly signihes an interdiction or exclusion from water or iire ; 
 the necessary consequence of which was, that' the interdicted per- 
 son must betake hinv.elf into some other country, since (here was 
 no living without tjre and water. Thus Cicero, ad Herenn. ob- 
 ierves that the form of the sentence did not express exilium, but 
 cnly aquE et ignis intt'Tdictio : and that " exile was not properly 
 a ptmislunent, but a vokmlary (lying and avoiding the punishment 
 decreed." 
 
 EXILI'^S, or EXILLES, a town and fort of Piedmont, sealed 
 nn the Doria, h miles W. S. W. of Suza, and 40 N. E. of Em- 
 brun. 
 
 EXILIUM. See Exile. 
 
 EXI?)TENCjp,, that whereby any thing has an actual essence, 
 or is said to be. See Essence. 
 
 P2XITERIA, in antiquity, oblations or prayers to the gods for 
 a prosperous journey : ajso feasts celebrated by the Greeks with 
 sacrilices, when their generals undertook expeditions against an 
 enemy. 
 
 ]",XLUNZA, a town of Spain, 5 miles S. of Leon. 
 
 EXMOUTH, a sea-port on the S. coast of Devonshire, at the 
 siionth of the Ex, !0 miles S. of Exeter. 
 
 EXOACANTIIA, a genus of the class and order pentandria 
 digynia. Involucrum spiny. Flowere all hermaphrodite, with 
 equal iiillexSons ; seeds ovate, striated. There is one species. 
 
 f^XOCCETl'S, or the Flyikg Fish, in ichthyology, a genus 
 of the ord"r abdo:niiiales. Head scaly ; teeth none ; jaws con- 
 nected on each side ; gill membrane, ten-rayed ; pectoral tins 
 verv long and large, and giving, to a certain degree, the poMcr of 
 flight. There are three species. 1 he E. exiliens, or the Mediter- 
 ranean flviiig-tisii, is about lourleen inches long, and is found prin- 
 cipally in the Mediterranean and Atlantic Seas, fre(|nently alone, 
 and sometimes in small companies. By the extraordinary length 
 of its pectoral tins it is enabled to cjuit t lie water, and supjiort a 
 flight, about tliiee feet above the surface, fur the distance of eighty 
 or a hundred yards, after which it is obliged to return (n the water 
 end moisten its fins, svhich, even in this short progress, become 
 hard and dry. See Plate LV. 
 
 EX()DI.\!IY, in the ancient lloman tragedy, the person who, 
 after tiie jjby was euded, sung the Exodiinn. 
 
 EXODIUM, in tiie ancient Greek drama, one of the four 
 divisions of tragedy; (he part that included the calaslroplie and' 
 unravelling of the plot ; answering nearly to our fourth and fifth 
 acts. 
 
 ExoDiUM, among the Romans, consisted of certain humoronj 
 verses rehearsed by the exodiary at the end of the Fabula; Atel- 
 lan;c. 
 
 ExoDiuM, in the Septuagint, signifies the end or conclusion oE 
 a feast. It is particularly used for the Slh day of tiie feast of ta- 
 berr.acles, which, it is said, had a special view to the commemora- 
 tion of the exodus or departure out of Egypt. 
 
 EXODUS, or EXODY, [ffoS®-,] departure; journey from 
 a place : the second book of Moses is so called, because it de- 
 scribes the journey of the Israelites from Egypt. 
 
 EXOMPHALOS, [tf and o/.^j"''^®^,] a navel rupture. See 
 Hernia and Sukgerv. 
 
 EXORCISiSI, Ij^aniTfj.ii;.'] the form of adjuration, or reli- 
 gious ceremony by which evil and malignant spirits are driven 
 away. 
 
 Exorcism means also the power of expelling devils from per- 
 sons possessed, '['he Jews made great pretences to this power. 
 Josephus tells several wonderful tales of the great success of seve- 
 ral exorcists. 
 
 EXORDIUM, in rhetoric, is the preamble or beginning, serv- 
 ing to prepare the audience for the rest of the discourse. Exor- 
 diums are of two kinds, either just and formal, or vehement and' 
 abrupt. The last are most suitable on occasions of extraordinary 
 joy, indignation, or the like. All exordiums should be composed 
 with a view to captivate the good will, or attract the attention of 
 the audience. The first may be done by paying them some com- 
 pliment : thus St. Paul, " I think myselt happy, king Agripp^ 
 because I shall answer for myself this day before thee, touching all 
 the things whereof I am accused of the Jews, especially because I 
 know thee to be expert in all customs and questions which are 
 among the Jews." See Oratory 
 
 EXOS lOSIS, [4 and or"»,] any protuberance of a bone tliat 
 is not natural, as ollen happens in venereal cases. — Quincy. 
 
 EXOTERIC and ESOTERIC, terms denoting external and. 
 internal, ajiplied to the double doctrine of the ancient philoso- 
 phers ; the former public, the latter secret. The exoteric was, 
 that which they openly professed and taught to the world ; the 
 esoteric was confined to a small number of chosen disciples. This 
 method was d(?rived originally from the Egyptians ; who accord-, 
 ing to Herodotus, Diodorus Siculus, Strabo, Plutarch, &c. had a. 
 twofold philosophy, one secret and sacred; the other public and, 
 common. The same practice also obtained among the Persian , 
 Magi, the Druids of the Gauls, and the Braclimans of India. 
 
 EXOTIC, [fjiuTixoj,] an ap|)ellation denoting a thing to be the 
 produce of foreign countries. Exotic plants of the liot climates, 
 are very numerous, and reijuire the utmost attention of the gar- 
 dener to make them thrive with us. 'i"he best method of pack- 
 ing exotic plants for a voyage, especially if they be such as will 
 perish above ground, is to S(;t their roots as closely as possible in 
 wooden boxes, filled with proper soil, and provided willi han- 
 dles : this operation may be performed three weeks before they 
 are ship|-.ed. During fair weather, they should he exposed upon 
 the deck, but in wet or unfavourable seasons, they ought to be 
 removed, or covered with a (arpawlin. If exotics be conveyed 
 to a colder climate, they require very little moisture ; but, if 
 they are sent from a cold to a warmer country, it will be neces- 
 sary to water tliem liberally. 
 
 EXP.'\NS10N, among metaphysicians, denotes the iilea we 
 have of lasting distance, all whose parts exist together. 
 
 Expansion, as genrially employed in science, denotes an 
 increase of the bulk of any body by a power acting from within. 
 It may be laid down as a general r'.ile, to which there is no known 
 exception, that every addition or af.straction of <aloric makes a 
 corresponding change in the bulk of the body which has been 
 subiccleil to this alteration in the quantity of its heat. In general, 
 the addition of heat increases the bulk of a body, and the abstrac- 
 tion of it diminishes its bulk ; but this is not uniformly the case, 
 though the exceptions are not numerous. Indeed these exce))- 
 tions are not only confined to a very small number of bodies, but 
 even in (liem they do not hold, except at certiia particular tem- 
 peratures, while at all other temperatures thest bodies are increased 
 
 i
 
 EXV 
 
 Sj3 
 
 EXP 
 
 1 Inilk. when licatftl, and diminislicd in balk by being coolrd. 
 
 V'r ni.iy tiuTefoi'c tdiisidrr fxpan-sum as one of tin- most gcnti-al 
 
 1-i.ts <if heat. It is certainly one of (he most important, as it 
 
 ,~ fiivnishi'd us witli tlie means of ineasunnp; ail llie ollifis. 
 
 iioii^lli all bodies are expanded by lient and cojilracted by C'ld, 
 
 nJ lli!>i expansion in t!u; same boily is always proportional to some 
 
 .pclion of tlie cinanlilv of crdoric add( d or abstratled ; yet the 
 
 i<oli;to exiwn-iion or conli'ai lion lias been foiuul to dill'er excee<l- 
 
 ..■ly in dillcrcnt bodies. In general, tlie expansion of gaseovis 
 
 jies i> greatest of all ; that of liipiids is much smaller, and that 
 
 solids llie smallest of all. Thus, 100 cubic inches of alnio- 
 
 'lievic air, by beiny heated from the lemperaliire of 32° to that of 
 
 I ;'', are inerc.ised lo 137.5 cnbic inches ; « liile tlie same angmen- 
 
 !ioii of temperature only makes lUO eubic inches of water as- 
 
 luetlie bidk of lO-'l.;) onblc inches; and lOOcubic inches of iron, 
 
 'len heated from 3'i' to 212°, assnme a bulk scarcely exceeding 
 
 ').! cubic inches, f^rom this example, we sec that the expan- 
 
 11 -of air is n)ore than eight times greater than that of water, and 
 
 !■ expansion of water about 4j times greater than that ot iron. 
 
 ; accurate knowledge of the expansion of gaseous bodies being 
 
 ijuently of gp-al importance in chemical rcsearclics, r.iany expe- 
 
 iiients have been made to ascertain it ; yet, till lately, the pro- 
 
 'I'ln was imsolved. 'i'he results of philo>ophers were so various 
 
 111 discordant, that it was impossible lo lorm any opinion on the 
 
 uliject. Tiiis was owing to the want of sufl'icie:!! i are in excUid- 
 
 I.; «aler from the ves-els in which tiie expansion of the gasc'^ was 
 
 itasurcd. The heat which was applied converted portions oftiiis 
 
 ..tor into vapour, which, mixing with the gas, totally di-guiscd 
 
 ■ lYal changes in bulk wh;ch it had undergone. To this cir- 
 
 Miistance «e are to ascribe the dilierence in the detevminations 
 
 de Luc, general l?iiy, ijaussure, d'lvernois, Src. Foriunalely 
 
 , problem has lately engaged the attention of Mr. Ualton of 
 
 .jnclie->ter, and M. Gay Lussac ; and their experiments, made 
 
 di the proper precaution^, have solved tiie problem. Mr. l-)al- 
 
 li's expi'iiments are distinguished by a simplicity of apparatus 
 
 iich adds greatly to their value, as it puts it in the power oi others 
 
 J repeat them without <iilTlculty. It consists merely of a gla-^s 
 
 lihe, open at one end, and divided into equal pi.its ; th.e gas to be 
 
 •\ainiiied vias introduced into it after being propedv dr.ed, and 
 
 iie tuhe is Idled witli mercury at the open end to a given point ; 
 
 lei is then aj)plied, an;'> the dilatation is observed by the ciuaniity 
 
 1 merci TV which is pusluid out. Mr. Gay Lussac's apparatus is 
 
 nore compluated, but eoually precise ; and as his experiments 
 
 lere made on larger bulks of air, their coincidence «ith lho>e ol 
 
 dr. 0.i!ton adds cc.nsiilerably to the conlidence which may be 
 
 '■jced in the results. From the experiments of these philoso- 
 
 Iiers It follows, that all ga>eous botlies whatever undergo (he 
 
 -line expansion by the same addition of heal, supposing them 
 
 l.iced in the vame ciri. um4ances. It is sutlicieiit then to ascer- 
 
 jiii the law of expansion observed by any one gaseous bodv , in 
 
 irder lo know the exact rate ot dilatation of them all. Now, from 
 
 lie experiments oi Gay I.ussac we learn, that air, by being healed 
 
 loni o'2'' to 1'12°, expand from 100 to 137.5 parts ; the increase ol 
 
 lulk on 180° IS then 37.5 parts ; or, supposing the hulk at 32" to 
 
 le unity, the increase is e(pial to 0.375 p;;rti ; this gives us 
 
 ).00'JOH, or s-g^th part, for the expansion of air for I" of the ther- 
 
 nonieler. Mr. Dalton found, that 100 parts of air, by being 
 
 reated from 55° to ■Jl'2'*, expanded to 132.5 parts ; this gives us an 
 
 xpaiision of 0.00207, or ^^J^- part, fori"; which differs as little 
 
 I'om the determination of Lussac as can be expected in experi- 
 
 nenls ot such tielicacy. From the experiments of Mr. Dr.lton, 
 
 t appears that the expansion of air is almost perlectly equable ; 
 
 hat IS lo say, that the same increase nf bulk takes place by the 
 
 anie addition of 'Caloric at aM dillerent temperatures. It is true, 
 
 ndeed, that the rate of diminution appears to diminish as the 
 
 I inperature increases. Thus the expansion from 55* to 133J.', or 
 
 jr the first 77i degrees, was 1(37 parts; while the exjiansion from 
 
 ..U-V to 212°, or for the next 77°-^, was onlv 158 parts, or 9 parts 
 
 cisUian the f)r>l. But this difference, in ail liki lihood, is chielly 
 
 apparent ; for de Luc lias demonstrated that the tlu'rmometer is 
 
 ;ot an accurate meaHue ot (he increase of heat. From the expe- 
 
 iiients ot Gay Lussac, it appears th.at (he steam of water, and the 
 
 >, pour -of ether, undergo the same <lila(ation with air when the same 
 
 idditioB is made to (heir temperature. We may conclude (hen that 
 
 Jl elastic fluids expand equally aad uniformly by heat ; and lliat 
 
 L vol. II. — NO. 78. 
 
 til's exptnsion is nearly equable, though not perfectly s'l. The 
 'ollowmg table gives lis tlic bulk of a given quantity of air at ;ill 
 •eniperatures from 32° loi^l2°. 
 
 Teni. 
 
 nuik. 
 
 Trm. 
 
 Bulk. 
 
 Vein. 
 
 Bulk. 
 
 32° 
 
 1 00000 
 
 59" 
 
 105616 
 
 86' 
 
 1 1 1 232 
 
 33 
 
 1 0020,S 
 
 GO 
 
 105824 
 
 R7 
 
 111440 
 
 34 
 
 i 00410 
 
 (il 
 
 1 0G032 
 
 88 
 
 1 1 1 648 
 
 35 
 
 1001)24 
 
 62 
 
 1 00240 
 
 89 
 
 111S56 
 
 36 
 
 100S32 
 
 63 
 
 10644S 
 
 90 
 
 1 12 )64 
 
 37 
 
 1010^0 
 
 64 
 
 10G656 
 
 91 
 
 112L'72 
 
 38 
 
 1 1 248 
 
 65 
 
 1 06864 
 
 92 
 
 112486 
 
 39 
 
 101456 
 
 66 
 
 107070 
 
 93 
 
 112688 
 
 40 
 
 1 1 664 
 
 67 
 
 107280 
 
 94 
 
 112896 
 
 41 
 
 101872 
 
 68 
 
 107488 
 
 9J 
 
 113104 
 
 42 
 
 ] 02080 
 
 69 
 
 107696 
 
 96 
 
 113312 
 
 43 
 
 I022S8 
 
 70 
 
 107904 
 
 97 
 
 113520 
 
 44 
 
 102496 
 
 71 
 
 1 08 1 1 2 
 
 98 
 
 113723 
 
 45 
 
 1 02764 
 
 72 
 
 10S320 
 
 99 
 
 1 1 393t) 
 
 46 
 
 10.912 
 
 73 
 
 1 08528 
 
 too 
 
 114144 
 
 47 
 
 103120 
 
 74 
 
 108736 
 
 110 
 
 ll&.'24 
 
 4S 
 
 1033'-8 
 
 75 
 
 108944 
 
 120 
 
 118304 
 
 49 
 
 103536 
 
 76 
 
 109152 
 
 130 
 
 1203B4 
 
 50 
 
 103744 
 
 77 
 
 109360 
 
 14© 
 
 122464 
 
 51 
 
 103952 
 
 78 
 
 109568 
 
 150 
 
 12454 i 
 
 52 
 
 104160 
 
 79 
 
 109776 
 
 160 
 
 1 26624 
 
 53 
 
 104268 
 
 80 
 
 109984 
 
 170 
 
 128704 
 
 54 
 
 lO-i-576 
 
 81 
 
 1 1 1 92 
 
 ISO 
 
 130784 
 
 55 
 
 104784 
 
 82 
 
 UO-iOO 
 
 190 
 
 132361 
 
 56 
 
 104992 
 
 83 
 
 ii'^eoa 
 
 200 
 
 134944 
 
 57 
 
 105'J'J0 
 
 84 
 
 110316 
 
 210 
 
 137024 
 
 58 
 
 10j4)8 
 
 85 
 
 111024 
 
 212 
 
 137440 
 
 The expansion of liquid bodies difi'crs from Hiat of the cliistic 
 fluids, not onl\ in <piantity, hut in (he want ot uniformity with 
 whuii they cxp.aid when equal additions are made to the t'cmpe ■ 
 raUire of each. 1 liis dilierence seems to depend upon (he fi.xitv 
 or vol;:(ility of the con^ponent parts of the liipiid bodies ; for iii- 
 ueneral lho>e liquids expand lno^t by a given adtlition of heat, 
 whose boiling timiieratures arc lowest, orv^hich contain in them 
 an ingreiiient w h.cli reaihly assumes ihe gaseous form, i bus mer- 
 cury ex[)ands less when heated to a given temperature than water, 
 winch boJs at a heat iTiuch interior lo mercury ; and alcohol is 
 much more expanded than water, because its boiling temperature 
 IS lower. In like manner nitric acid is mm h more expamlccl than 
 Hilpliuric acid ; not only because its boding point is lower, but 
 beeau^e a portion of it has a (endency to assume the form of an 
 elastic Huid. We may consider it tiierefore as a pretty general 
 fact, that the higher tlie temperature necessary to cause a liquid to 
 lioil, the smaller the expansion is which is produced hy the addi- 
 tion of a degree ot heat; or, in other wor:ls, the expansibility of 
 liquids is nearly inversely as (heir boiling temperature. Anodier 
 cneumstaiice respecting (he expansion ot li(|uiils desenes p.Tr- 
 (icul.ir attention.. The expansibility of every one seems to in- 
 c rease with the (eniperadire ; or, in other words, the nearer a li- 
 quid is to the teiiiper;iliiie al winch it boils, the greater is the ex- 
 pansion produced by the addition of a degree of caloric ; and, on 
 the other hand, (he farther it is from the boiling temperature, (he 
 smaller is the increase ot bulk produced by tiie addition of a de- 
 gree of caloric. Hence it hup|)cns, that the expansion of those 
 liquids approckches nearest to e(|uabili(y whose bo ling (cmpera- 
 tures are highest ; or, to speak more preciscdv, die ratio of the ex- 
 liaiisibility increases the more slowly, the higher the boiling tempe- 
 rature. These observations are sullicient to shew, thai (ho expan- 
 sion of li<piids is altogcdier unconnected with their density. It 
 depends upon the ciuanti(y of heat necessary to cause them to 
 boil, and to convert them into elastic fluids. But we are allo- 
 ifcther ignorant at present of the reason why different rKpiid' re- 
 (piire dillerent temperatures to produce lhi= change, 'Ihe follow- 
 ing table will give the reader a precise noliyn of the ijte ol ex- 
 4 X paiision
 
 E XP 
 
 354 
 
 E X P 
 
 pansion of those liquids which have been hitherto exam-liicil Ij) 
 chemical philosophers. 
 
 ■To, 
 
 nil 
 
 Mer- 
 cury. 
 
 30'^ 
 
 40 
 
 50 
 
 60 
 
 70 
 
 80 
 
 90 
 
 100 
 
 IIQ 
 
 120 
 
 130 
 
 140 
 
 150 
 
 160 
 
 170 
 
 180 
 
 190 
 
 COO 
 
 212 
 
 100000 
 
 100081 
 
 I0OIS3J 
 
 100.504' 
 
 100400! 
 
 100508 I 
 
 100610 
 
 10071 
 
 100813 
 
 100915 
 
 101017 
 
 101119 
 
 101220 
 
 101322 
 
 101424 
 
 101526 
 
 10I62S 
 
 101730 
 
 101835 
 
 Lin- I Sul- 
 '•ed oil phiiiic 
 acid. 
 
 00000- 
 
 9:-t75': 
 
 lOOOOC 
 
 |in027P 
 
 'lOOVi-? 
 
 '10080! 
 
 '101054 
 
 102760 10131: 
 101541 
 101834 
 10209 
 102320 
 102614 
 102893 
 103116 
 103339 
 103587 
 103911 
 
 107250- 
 I 
 
 Nitric 
 acid. 
 
 93514 
 I 00000 
 100486 
 
 Wilier 
 
 1000C3 
 100091 
 
 10U990|100I97 
 
 101530:10033, 
 
 102088 
 
 102620 
 
 103196 
 
 103776 
 
 104352 
 
 105132 
 
 100(19'! 
 100908 
 
 101404 
 
 1020r 
 
 10361: 
 
 104577 
 
 Oil of 
 
 uir))eii 
 
 io;>ooo 
 
 I00i'=0 
 i009.H 
 101471 
 l;i!931 
 102440 
 1 02943 
 103421 
 103954 
 104573 
 
 Alco- 
 hol. 
 
 lOOOOl 
 10053!; 
 1011 05 
 10i68S 
 
 I0289i 
 103517 
 10416 
 
 The e\-pansioii of solid bodies is so small, thnt a micrometer is 
 jiecesiary to detei^t tlie increase of bulk. As far as is known, the 
 ♦■xpansion is equable, at least the deviation from jierfect ec[iialitr is 
 insensible. The follovin;; table exhibits the expansion of most of 
 the solids which have been hitherto e.xaniined. Most of the ex- 
 periments were made by Siaieaton. 
 
 1 
 Temp. 
 
 Plati- 
 
 Anti- 
 
 Steel. 
 
 Iron. 
 
 Cast- 
 
 Bis- 
 
 
 num. 
 
 1111)11 y. 
 
 
 
 iron. 
 
 muth. 
 
 32° 
 
 1 20000 
 
 120000 
 
 120000 
 
 1 
 120000 120000 
 
 120000 
 
 212 
 
 120104 
 
 120130;i20147 
 
 120151] 
 
 120167 
 
 Wliitp 
 
 
 
 
 j 
 
 
 heat. 
 
 
 
 123428 
 
 121500 122571 
 ! 
 
 
 Cop- 
 per. 
 
 Cast- 
 bi'ass. 
 
 32" 120000 120000 
 212 1242041120225 
 
 Bras ■ 
 
 wire 
 
 120000 
 120232 
 
 Tin. Lead. Zinc. 
 
 120000 120000 120000 
 120298 120344 120355 
 
 
 Hammer 
 ed zinc. 
 
 Zinc. 8. 
 Tin 1. 
 
 Lead 2, 
 Tin 1. 
 
 r-iMss 2. 
 Zinc 1. 
 
 Pewter. 
 
 Copper3. 
 Tin 1. 
 
 32" 
 212 
 i_ 
 
 120000 
 120373 
 
 1 20000 
 120323 
 
 1 20000 
 120301 
 
 I JOOOO 
 120247 
 
 1 20000 
 120274 
 
 120000 
 120213 
 
 The pxpan.iou of ^lass is a ]ioint of grrat importance, as it in- 
 fluences tlie result, of most experiments on tenijieralure- It has 
 been examined with nnuh precision by M. dp Luc. The r;\te of 
 its expansion, as settled by that philosopher, may be seen in the 
 iullov. instable : 
 
 Temp. 
 
 1 
 
 r.u Ik 
 
 1 ., 
 
 I enip. 
 
 Bulk. 
 
 100023 
 100033 
 100044 
 
 Temp. 
 
 Bulk. 
 
 32" 
 50 
 70 
 
 100000 
 100006 
 100014 
 
 100° 
 120 
 150 
 
 167' 
 
 190 
 212 
 
 10005G 
 1 00069 
 100083 
 
 From tliis table it appears, that when glass is heated one dcsret 
 it undergoes an expansion wiiich amounts nearly to i^jrjrsu ot' th 
 whole bulk. On the supposition that metals expand equablv, tii 
 expansion of a mass of metal, by being heated a given number c 
 lUgrecs, is as follows: let a =; tlie expansion of the mass i 
 length for ", Avhich iiKist be found by experiment; b = the num 
 ber o; degrees whose expansion is required ; s = the solid cor 
 tents of the metallic mass ; .r=: the expansion sought ; then x = 
 has. The property which bodies possess of expanding, whe 
 heat is applied to them, has furnished us with an instrument f( 
 measuring the relative temperature of bodies. See Thehmomi 
 TER. Having considered the pha'nomena and laws of expansion: 
 far as they are understood, it will be proper to state the exce[. 
 lions to this general eil'ect of heat, or the cases in which expansio 
 is produced not by an increase, but by a diminuiion of temper: 
 tuie. 1 hcse exceptions may be divided into two classes. Tli 
 first class comprehends certain liquid bodies which have a max 
 iiuim of density corresponding with a certain temperature ; an 
 uhicli, if tliey are heated above that tempevature, or cooled dow 
 below it, undergo in both cases an expansion or inci-ease of bull; 
 The second class comprehends certain liquids which suddenly he 
 come solid when cooled down to a certain temperature; and tli 
 solidilicalion is accompanied by an increase of bulk. Wafer fui 
 u:shes us with the mo>t remarkable example of the first class ( 
 bodies. lis maximum of density corresponds with 42".j ( 
 Fahrenheit's thermometer, as has been lately ascertained by Mi 
 Dalfon. If it be cooled down below 42''. 5, if undergoes an expar 
 sion for every degree of temperature which it loses ; and at 32" tli 
 expansion amounts, according to Mr. Dalton, to-.^g of the wliol 
 e,\pansioii which water undergoes when healed from 42^.5 to 2ia' 
 With this more recent experiments coincide very nearly: for b 
 cooling 100000 jiarts in bulk of water, from 42''.5 to 32°, "they wer 
 converted to lOOOSi parts. We are indebted to the ingenuity of Mi 
 Dalton tor the discovery of a very unexpected fact, that the c.^ 
 pansion of water is the same for any number of degrees above G 
 below the maximum of density. Thus if we heat water ten degref 
 al.'ove 42*.5, it occupies preciselv the same bulk as it does whe 
 cooled down ten degrees below -i". 5. Therefore the <lensity c 
 water at 3 2" and at 53" is precisely the same. Mr. Dalton siu 
 ceeded in cooling water down to the temperature of 5" witi 
 freezing, or 37'". 5 below the maximum point of density; and dm 
 ing the w hole of that range, its bulk precisely corresponds with th 
 bulk of v.'ater the <ame number of degrees above 42".5. Thus Ih 
 hulk of water at 5" i^ the same as the bulk of water at 80°. Th 
 scale of expansion, therefore, which has been given for the expar 
 sion of water when heated, answers also for its expansion wVc 
 cooled, provided the table begin at 42°.5, as is done in the table ( 
 the exp.iusion of water. From this table it appears that the expai 
 sion of water, the original bulk being 10000, may be expresse 
 pfelty nearly by the following numbers: 
 
 Temp. Expan. 
 
 S2\5 •i'= 
 
 102".5 S* 
 
 122".5 10^ 
 
 142°.5 12- 
 
 !62'>.5 14-^ 
 
 Tlie greatest deviation from thejc numbers is towards the hegii 
 ning of the scales, w hen owln;; to the suiallness of the expansion, 
 is diOicult to measure it with precision. It leads ys to this n 
 niarkable conclusion, that the squares of the nalu'al numbers In 
 ginning at (5 indicate the inci-ease of bulk which 10000 parts ofw; 
 ter experience for every ten degrees iliey are li(;ated abo\e 82"..' 
 or cooled below 12". 5. This rule will give tlie reader a morepn 
 cise idea of the rate at which wafer expands when heated or coolec 
 than a bare inspection of the table could do. A cousidcrabi 
 
 iiuiiihc
 
 E XP 
 
 
 ).*) 
 
 i: X p 
 
 number of liquids h;i-i hpi-ii trieil to ascertain wlictiier any of them, 
 like water, have a temperature in \vhi<h their density is a inaxi- 
 iini\ii, and which expand when cooled below that lemjierature 
 Sulphniic acid hasnO!.uch point, neither have tlif oily bodies ; but 
 .>me solutions of salt in water begin to expand before they become 
 ..)lid. These solutions, ho'.vever, when cooled down sufficiently, 
 crvstallizo with such rapidity, tliatit is extremely dil'licult to be cer- 
 tain of the fact, that iliey do begin to expand belore they crystallize. 
 Thatclass of bodies which undergo an expansion when theyclunge 
 from a liquid to a solid body by the diminulion of tempeniturc, 
 is very numerous. Not only water when convtrird into ice un- 
 <'.ergoes such an eypansion, but all bodies which by cooling as- 
 Mune tile form of crystals. 'I'lu- prodigious force wilh which water 
 expands in the act o"t Iree/ing has been long known to philosopher.-. 
 <ji,iss i»ottU'S Idled wim water are commonly broken in pieces when 
 tlie water freezes. 'I'ho Florentine acadendcians JHir-l a brass globe 
 wliose cavity was an inch in dianieter, by Idling it with water and 
 freezing it. The force necessary for this eltect was calculateii by 
 Muschenbroek s>t '21120 lbs. Hut the most complete set of ex- 
 periments on the expansive force of freezing water are those made 
 by mjjor Williams at Quebec, and p^.b!i^!led in tlie second volume 
 of the Kdiiiliurgh 'I lansaction;. '1 his expansioH lias been 'cx- 
 ])lained, by supposing it the coiiseiiuence of a tendency which 
 V. ater, in consolidating, is observed to have to arrange its particles 
 in one determinate manner, so as to form prismatic crystals, cross- 
 ing each other at angles of 60' and 120°. The force with which 
 they arrange thernselves in this manner must be enormous, since it 
 enables siNall (juantities of water to overcome so great mechanical 
 pressures. Various methods liave been tried to ascertain die speci- 
 hc gravity of ice at 3'i° ; that which succeeded best was to dilute 
 spirits of wine wilh waier till a inas^ of solid ice put into it remained 
 in any part ofthe liquid ivithout eitiier sinking or ris'ng. Tlie 
 speciiic gravity of such a I'Kjuid is 0.t'2j which of course is the spe- 
 citic gravity of ice, su))p&sing the specilic gravity of water at (iu" 
 to be i . 'i his is an ex|Hmsson much greater than water experiences 
 even when healed to ii 12°. We see from this, that water, when 
 converted into ice, no longer observes that equable expansion 
 measured by Mr. Daltoe, but undergoes a very rapid and con- 
 sidtrable augmentation of bulk. The very same expansion is ob- 
 served during the crystallization of most of the salts ; all of them 
 at least which shoot into prismatic forms. Hence the reason that 
 the glass vessels in which such liqui<ls are left, usuallv break to 
 pieces when the crystals are formed. This expansion of these 
 bodies cannot be considered as an exception to the general fact, 
 that bodies increase in liulk when heat is added to them ; for the 
 expansion is the consequence, not of the diminution of heat, but of 
 the change in their state from liquids to solids, and the new arrange- 
 ment of their particles which accompanies or constitutes thatclianfe. 
 It must be observed, however, that all bodies do not expand when 
 they become solid. There are a considerable numlier wliich di- 
 minish in bulk ; and in these the rate of diminution in most cases 
 is ratlier increased by solidilication. When liquid bodies are con- 
 verted into solids, they either form prismatic crystals, or they form 
 a mass io whicli no regularity of arrangement can be perceived. In 
 the lirst case, expansion accompanies solidilication ; in the second 
 place, contraction accompanies it. Water and all the salts furnish 
 instances of the lirst, and tallow and oils are examples of the second. 
 In these last bodies the solidilication does not take place instantane- 
 ously, as ill water and salts, but slowly and gradually : tliev liist 
 become viscid, ami at last quitit solid. Niost ot the oils, when thev 
 solidify, form very regular spheres. T"he same thing happens to 
 honey, and to some inetals. It has been thought that all t ombui- 
 (ible liquids contnict, when they become solid, while incombusti- 
 ble li(|uids expand ; but there are exceptions to this rule. Sul- 
 phuric acid docs not liy congelation alter its appearance; but cast 
 lion, and perhaps suliihur also, expand in the act of congealing. 
 
 KX PARTE, a term used in the court of clianceiy, wiien a 
 commission is taken out and executed by one side or party only, 
 iipiii the other parties neglecting or refusing to join therein." When 
 both the parties imjceed to^etlier, it is called a Joint commission. 
 
 Ex Parte Talis, a writ that lies for a bailiff or receiver, that 
 having auditors assigned to pass his accounts, cannot procure from 
 them reasonable allowance, but is cast into prison ; in which case 
 the practice is to sue this writ out of the cliancers , .lirecled to the 
 ihunii to take the four mainpernors to bring his body before Uic 
 
 barons of the exchequer, on a certain day, and to warn the lor<l to 
 appear at the same tane. 
 
 EX.PEC1"ANCV, ESTATES IN, are of two sorts; one cre- 
 ateil by act of the parties, (ailed a remainder ; the other, by act of 
 law, called a reversion. 
 
 EXPECTANT, in law signifn s having relation to, or depend- 
 ing on: thus, where land is given to a man and his wife, and to 
 their heirs, they have a fee simple estate ; but il it be given to thcr.i 
 and the heirs of their bodies begotten, tliey havi; an estate tail, and 
 a fee expectant, which is opposed to fee simple. 
 
 EXPECTATION, in the doctrine of chances, is applied to 
 any contingent evei/t, and is capable of being reduced to the rules 
 of computation. Thus a sum of money in expectation, when a 
 particular event happens, has a determinate value before that event 
 liappens ; so that if a person is to receive any sum, e. gv. lOl. when 
 an ( vent takes place, which has an ecpial probability of happeninp; 
 and failing, the value of the exi)ectation is half that sum, or 51. and 
 in all ca;es the expectation ot obtaining any sum i-i estimated, by 
 multiplying the value of the sum exp(cte>lby the fraction which re- 
 inesoiits the probability of obtaining it. T'he exiiectation of a per- 
 son who has three cliances in hve ot obtaining lOOl. is ecpia! to 4 x 
 100 or tjol. and the probability of obtaining lOOl. in this cate ■.; 
 equal to -/y^ = 4- S^*-* CuANCLs. 
 
 I-'>.FF.CT.\TION OF LlfE. See AXKUITIIJS. 
 
 EXl'EC T'OUANTS, in pharmacy, medicines -wliich promote 
 ex))ecloration ; such as squills, &c. 
 
 EXPECTOKATTON, the act of evacuating or banging up 
 phlegm, or oilier matters out of the tivchea, lung^, &c. Ly eough- 
 ing, hanking, spitling, &c. 
 
 EXPEDH'ATTON, in the forest laws, sigiiilies the cutting out 
 of t!ie balls of a dog's fore-feet for the preservation of tlie king's 
 g.mic. Every one living near the park, that keepsany great doc not 
 expeditated' forfeits OS. 4d. to the king. In mastiffs, not the bill 
 of the feet, but the three claws are to be mt to the skin. 
 
 EKPEIUMI'^NT', in philosophy, is tiie trial of the result or 
 effect of the applications and motions of natural bodies, in order to 
 discover some of their motions and relations, whereby to ascertain 
 some of their phjenomena or causes. 
 
 EXPERIMENTAL PHILOSOPHY, that philosophy which 
 proceeds on experiments, which deduces the laws of nature, and 
 the properties and powers c>f bodies, and their actions upon each 
 other, from sensible experiments and observations. TTie liu-iness 
 of experimental philosophy is to inquire into and to invi>stigate the 
 reasons and causes of the various appearances or pha-noniena of 
 nature, and to make the truth or probability thereof obvious and 
 evident to the senses, by plain, undeniable, and adequate experi- 
 ments, representing the several parts of the grand machinery and 
 agency ot nature. In our enquiries inio nature, we are to be con- 
 ducted by those rules and maxims which are found to be genuine, 
 and consonant to a just method of physical reasoning; and these 
 rules of philosophizing are by the greatest master in science, sir 
 Isaac Newton, reckoned four, which are as follows: 1. More 
 cau-^es of natural things are not to be admitted, than are both true, 
 and stiflicient to explain the pha'nomena; for nature does nothing 
 in vain, but is simple, and delights not in super.luoiis causes of 
 things. 2. And, therefore, of natural eifccts of the same kind, the 
 same causes are to be assignetl, .is far as il can be done: as of 
 respiration in man and beasts, of the descent of stones in Europe 
 and America, of liaht in a culinary (ire and Ih tlie smi, and of the 
 retlection of light in the earth and in the planets. 3. T'he qualitiei 
 of natural bodies which cannot be increased or diminished, and 
 agree to all bodies in which experiments can be made, are to be 
 reckoned as the qualities of all bodies whatsoever : thus, because 
 extension, divisibility, hardness, iiiipenelrability, mobility, the vii 
 inertiir, and gr;iVity, are found in all bodies which lall undor 
 our cognisance or inspection, v.e may justly conclude they bo- 
 long to :dl bodies whatsoever, and are therefore to be esteemed 
 the original and universal properties of all natural bodies. 4. 
 [a Experimenlil philosophy, propositions collected trcnji ihe 
 |,)hanomena by induction aie deemed (notwithstsnding contiarv 
 hy[iotheses) eithrn- ex:ictly or very nearly true, till other pl;a>no- 
 melia occur, by which they may be rendered either more accu- 
 rate, or lisble to exception. This ought to be done, lest aigu- 
 meiits of induction should be destrojed by hypotheses. These four 
 rules of philosophising arc pieuitseii by sir Isacc Ncwtoii to hi* 
 
 Ulkd
 
 EXP 
 
 S5(^ 
 
 EXP 
 
 Ihirfl book cf the Principia; and more particularly ?\plainecl by 
 Iiim in his Opl'cs, vlicre he cxiiibiis the nictliod of proceed- 
 ing ill philosophy, the hr>t part of wliicli is as follows : A>, in nia- 
 fheiiiatics, so m natiiral history, the iiivcsligation of difllcult things, 
 bv way of analysis, ought always to precede liie method of com- 
 posisio'il. 'I'hi-." ansivsis consists in iiia'.%in4i experiment's xnd obsor- 
 vations an<l in <lraw"m2 £;er,cral conclusions from them by induc- 
 tion (i. c. reasoning- from the analogy of things by natural conse- 
 quence,) siud adinitinf; no objections aaainst the conclusions, but 
 what are taken Irom experinitnts or cert in truths. And aUhou;!,h 
 tlie arguing from ex[>eriments and ol.re.vation, by induftion, be 
 no demonstration of general conclu'ions, yet it is the best way of 
 arguing which the nature of things admits of, and may be looked 
 on as so much the stronger, by how much the induction is more 
 general; and if no exception occur from phenomena, the conclu- 
 sion may be pronounced generally ; but if at any time after- 
 wards anv exception shall occur from exiierimenl';, it may 
 then be '))ronounccd with such exceptions: by this way ot 
 analysis we may proceed from compounds to ingredients, and 
 from motions to the cause producing them ; and, in general, from 
 elfects to their causes ; and from particular causes to more general 
 ones, till tlie argument ends in the \wryi general: this is tlie me- 
 thod of analysis. And that of synthesis, or composition, consists 
 in assuming caisses, discovered and established as principles, and 
 by tiiem explainin^^ tlie phanomena, proceetling from tiieni, and 
 proving the explanations. See Philosophy, and I'Hysrcs. 
 
 EXPERIMKN'l UM CKUCIS, a capital or decisive experi- 
 ment; thus termed, either on acccunl cf its being like a cross, or 
 direction i)0-t, placed in the meeting of several roads, as guiding 
 men to the true knowledge of the nature of that thing they arc in- 
 quiring after; or on account of its being a kind of torture, whereby 
 the nature of the thing is as it were extorted by lurce. 
 
 EXPIATION, ill a figurative sense, is applied to th.e pardon 
 procured to the sins of the penitent by the merit of Christ's death. 
 Expiation, among the Heathens, was of several kinds ; l)y sa- 
 crifices and religious washing. They were used for effacing a 
 frinif, averting anv calamity, and on munberless other occasions, 
 as purifying towns, temiiles, Jjjc. and armies before and after bat- 
 tle. And thev were peifoiuied for whole cities, as well as parti- 
 r-idar p.ersons. 
 
 Expiation, among the Jews, was chiefly by sacrifice, whe- 
 ther for sins of ignorance, ov to purify themsdves from certain 
 pollutions. 
 
 Expiation, the Feast of, among the Jews, called by our 
 translators the day of atonement, was held on the lO'h day of 
 Tisri, tiie seventh month of the Jewish year, answering to pari of 
 September and October. See Levit. xvi. xxiii. 27, &cc. 
 
 EXPIRA'S'ION, in physic, that part of resjjiration whereby 
 the air is expelled, or drlTen out of the lungs. 
 
 ExPiRATioM, in chemistry, is applied to all sorts of ev.aporation, 
 and subtile ei'ftuvia, tlat go olf into the air. 
 
 ExpiKATiON is also \»sed for the end of any term agreed upon. 
 ■It likewise signifies death. 
 
 EXPLOSION, in natural philo=-ophy, a sudden and violent 
 e>tpansion of an aerial or other elastic iluid, by which it instantly 
 throws off any obstacle, sometimes with incredible force, and in 
 such a manner as to produce the most astonishing effects upon the 
 neighbouring olijecls. Explosion ditiers from expansion, in that 
 the latter is a gradual and continued power, acting uniformly for 
 some time ; whereas the former is always sudden, and only of mo- 
 mentary duration. The expansions of solid substances do not ter- 
 minate in violent explosions, on account of their slowness, and the 
 small space through which the metal, or other expanding sub- 
 stance, moves ; though their strength may be equally great 
 tfkh that of the most active aerial fluids. Thus we find, that 
 though svedges of wood, when wetted, will cleave solid blocks of 
 stone, they never throw them to any distance, as is the case with 
 gunpowder. On the other hand, it is seldom that the expansion 
 of anv elastic fiuid bui'sts a solid substance, without throwing the 
 fragments of it to a considerable distance, the effects of which are 
 nften very terrible. The reasons of the above phenomena are, 
 1. The immense velocity with which the aerial fluids expand, when 
 effected by considerable degrees of heat ; and, S. Their celerity in 
 acquiring heat, and being affected by rt, which is much superior to 
 that of solid substances. Thus air, heated as much as iron, w hen 
 krcMght to a white heat, is expanded to four times its bulk; but 
 
 the metal will not be expanded the ."lOOIh part of the space. In 
 the case ot gun-powder, the velocity with which the flame move* 
 is calculate;' by .Mr. Kobins, in his 'i'reatise upon Guunei v, to he- 
 no less than seven tl-jousand feet in a second, or nearly seventy- 
 nine miles per minute. Hence the impulse of the fluid is incon- 
 ceivably great, and. the obstacles en which it strikes are hurried 
 off with viist velocity, though much less tluiii that just mentioned ; 
 for a c.mnon bullet, with the greatest charge of powder that can be 
 conleiiienlly given, does not move at a greater rate than two thou- 
 sand four hundred feet ))er second, or little more than tweiil)- 
 seven miles per minute. The velocity of the bullet agsiii is pru- 
 nioled by the sudden propag;Uioii of the heat ti rough tlie whole 
 body of c.ir, as soon as it is extricated from the materials of wliilt 
 the gun-powder is made ; so that it is enabled to strike all at once, 
 and thus greatly to augmeiii: the momentum of the ball. It ii 
 e\ident (hat this contributes very much to the force of (ho explo- 
 sion, by what happens when powder is welled or mixed with any 
 substance, which prevents it from taking fire all at once. In this case 
 (he force of the e.\|ilosion, even when the same <iuantity of powder 
 is made u-e of, is vastly interior to that of dry powder. l'poi» 
 these principles we may conclude, that the force of an explosioa 
 depen;ls, 1. On the quantity of elastic fluid tu be expanded. 2. 
 <^ii the velocity it acquires by a certain degree of heat; and, 3, 
 On the celerity with which the degree of heat affects the whole of 
 the exp:,nsible iluid. 'I'liese three take place in the greatest per- 
 hiction where the electric fluid is concerned; as in cases of light- 
 ning, earthquakes, and volc.inoes. 
 
 EXPONENT, [irom ej-jmiio, to shew,] in algebra, is a num- 
 ber placed over any power or involved ipiantily, to shew to what 
 height the root is raised: thus 2 is the exponent of x^, and 4 the 
 ex|)onent of .v', a.r.r.r. See Algebra. 
 
 EXPONENTJAL CALCULUS. See Calculis. 
 
 ExpoNEKTiAL CiRVE is that vvliosc uatiu'e is delined or exr^ 
 pressed by an exponential equation ; as tlie curve denoted by 
 «» = y, or by i^ = ?/. The area of any exponential curve, 
 whose nature is expressed by this exponential equation a" = y 
 
 'l 1 1 
 
 (making 1 -}- r =: x) will be v^ -| v^ v* 
 
 0.1.2 U.1.2.i 0.1.2.3.4 
 
 I I 
 -\ t' v6, &c. 
 
 0.1.2.3.4.3 0. 1.2.3. 4..i.C) 
 
 Exponential Equation is one in which is contained an cx- 
 poueiitial qu:intity : as the equation a^ = h, or .i" := ub, &c. 
 
 Expone.xtjai. Quantity is aquaiility whose power is a variable 
 quantity, as.i% u^. Exponential ipianlities are of several degree* 
 and orders, according as the exponents themselves are more or 
 less involved. If the exiioncnt be a simple tpiantity, as z^, it is 
 called an exjjonential of the hist or lowest degree; but when the 
 
 X 
 
 exponent i' self is an exponential of the first degree as i' it is 
 called an exponential of the second degree. In like mamier, if the 
 
 u 
 
 exponent itself be an exponential of the second degree, aszs', it 
 is called an exponential of the third degree, &c. 
 
 EXPORTAIION. SeelRADE. 
 
 EXPOSING, in the Latin church, the sacrament is.said to 
 be exposed when it is shewn in public uncovered on festival days, 
 and during the time of plenary indulgerees. 
 
 Exposing of Children, a barbarous custom practised by 
 most ancient nations, excepting the Thebans, who had an express 
 law, whereby it v^as made capital to expose chililrcn, and ordain- 
 ed that such as were not in a condition to educate them should 
 bring them to the magistrates, to he brought up at the public ex- 
 pence. Among the other Greeks, when a child was born, it was 
 laid on the ground: and if the father designed to educate his 
 child, he immediately took it up : but if he torbore to do this, the 
 child was carried away and exposed. 
 
 EXPHESSI'^O OILS, in chemistry, cuch oils as are obtained 
 from hollies only by pressing. See Oil. 
 
 EXPRESSION, ill algebra, any algebraical quantity, simple 
 or compound ; as 3a, 2ab, or iitx -f- d, &c. 
 
 Expression, in cliemistiy, or pharmacy, denotes the act of 
 pressing out the juices of vegetables, which is one of the three 
 w ays ot obtaining them ; the ather two being by infusion and de- 
 coction. Sec Pharmacy. 
 
 * Expression,
 
 EXT 
 
 357 
 
 E X r 
 
 ExpRKssioM, in paiiUiujj, is the dmiiicl e\liibitioii of character 
 in thf general obji-ct of the v.ork, or of seiitinK-nl in the iharac- 
 ters i.r persons represented. In the latter ca^e it cunsi.-.ts either in 
 representing the boilv in general anil all its parts severally, in ac- 
 tions nio.-t peculiarly M.utable to the design of the picture, and 
 marking thereby llie emotions of the soul in the various figures, or in 
 poiirtraying in the face the appearances of tlie passions. In this 
 iense the term expression has been frequently lonfonndcd with 
 passion ; but the' former inijiUes a representation of its object 
 agreeably to its nature and character, and to the oflice it holds on 
 the picture ; wliiie the latter denotes merely a particular turn or 
 motion of the body, or of the muscles and features of the face, 
 which maiks any violent agiatioii of the soul: so that every pas- 
 sion is an expression, but not every expression ;i passion. See 
 rAiNTiKG ami Drawing. 
 
 Expression", in rhetoric, elocution, diction, or clioice of words 
 in a discourse, licauliiul expression is the natural and true light 
 of our thoughts : it is to this we owe all the excellencies in dis- 
 icoursc, which gives a kind of vocal life and spirit. As the principal 
 entl of discourse is to he understood, the lirst thing \»e should en- 
 deavour to obtain is a richness ot expression, or habit ol speaking 
 so well as to make our thoughts easily understood. See Ora- 
 tory. 
 
 EXSPUITION, \_e.rps:tn, Latin,] a discharge of saliva by spit- 
 tint;. 
 
 £XTASY, [e<r«-="i;,] a transport which suspends the function 
 of tile seii-,es, by the lulen^f^c6nlcm|>U^til)n of some extraordinary 
 lOr supernatural object, or when God impresses on tlie imagination 
 the extraordinary idea:, ot any thing he would reveal. 
 
 ExTASY, in medicine, a species of catalepsy, when a person 
 perfectly remembers after the paroxysm is over, the ideas he con- 
 ceived during the tine it lasted. In an extasy there must be an 
 unusual t»nsion of the sensory, as isconmion in delirium, &c. 
 
 EX 1 KND, in law, signifies to value the lands or tenements of 
 1 person bound by a statute, S;c. who has forfeited the s.uue, at 
 uch an indilVerent rate, that by the yearly rent the creditor in 
 liie mav be paid his debt. See Extent. 
 
 EXTENDI FAClA.s, a writ to extend lands, &:c. Seethe 
 preceding article. 
 
 EX TENSION, in philosophy, one of the common and essen- 
 tia] properties of body, or that by which it possesses or takes up 
 •me part of universal space, which is called the place of tliat 
 <jdy. Extension is threefold, 1. Either into lengtli only, and 
 ;.ien it is called a line. Or, C. Into length and breadth, w hicli is 
 called a superficies. Or, 3. Into length, breadth, and depth, 
 which is called a solid ; being the three dimensions according to 
 the <|uantity of which the magnitude or bulk of bodies are esti- 
 mated. See LixE, SUPERFICIES) and Solid. See also Physics 
 ind Metaphysics. 
 
 EXTENSOR, an appellation given to several muscles, from 
 llieir extending or stretching the parts to viliich they belong. 
 
 EXTEN'i', in law, is u-ieu for, 1. a writ to the sheritT for the 
 valuing of lands or tenements; and '2. the act of the sliei-ifl", or 
 Commissioner, upon this writ. 
 
 EXTENUATION, a figure in rheteric, the oppoiite of the 
 hyperbole. The Greeks call it t'k'i;. 
 
 EXTEll.MINATION, or EXTERMINATING, in algebra, 
 is used for taking away. Thus algebraists speak of exterminating 
 'urds, fractions, and unknown (piantities, out of equations. See 
 Maclaur. Algebr. part. i. chap. 12, where we have some general 
 Ihcorenis for the exterminating of unknown quantities in given 
 equations. See also .Vi.cebra, in thiswoik. 
 
 EX TERNAL ANC;i.ES, are the angles on the outside of any 
 tight-lined ligure, when all the sides are severally produced, and 
 ■\\ey are all, taken togetlier, equal to four right angles. Sec Geo- 
 metry. 
 
 EXTINGUISHMENT, in law, is a consolidation, where one 
 iias due to him a yearly rent, and afterwards purchases the lands 
 "Jt of which the rents arise; both the property and the rent being 
 thus united in one pos-^essor, tiie rent is said to be extinguished. 
 
 EXTIRPATION E, inlaw, a judicial writ that lies against a 
 person, who, after a verdict found against him for land, &c. mali- 
 .iously overthrows a house, or extirpates anv tree^ upon it. 
 
 Extirpatiom, in surgery, the cutting otV of any part entirely, 
 .N a wen, &c. or the eating of it away, as a wart, &:c. by corro- 
 ■ivc msdicines. 
 
 VOL. 11. — KO. 78. 
 
 EX'll.SPEX, [l-al.] in anfi(|uity,tlie person who drew prciaj^w 
 from \iewiiig the entraiT; of animals olli-red in sacrilite. 
 
 EXTORI"ION, inlaw, is an illegal manner of wresting any 
 thing from a man, either by force, menace, or authority. It is 
 also the exaction of unlawfiil usury, wimiing by unlawful painci, 
 and tiiking more than is due uiulur pretence of right, as i\cessiv<' 
 tolls in mUlers, &:c. At the coimnuii law, extortion is punishable 
 by line and imprisonment; and the statute of i Eli/. 1. c. 30, liai 
 enacted, that ofiicers of justice guilty of extortion fur the expedi- 
 tion of business, &c. shall render to the party treble value. 'I lure 
 are likewise divers other statutes tor punishing extortions of sin— 
 rills, baililTs, gaolere, clerks of the assize, and of the peace, attor- 
 nie.<, solicitors, &:C. ' 
 
 EXTRA, a Latin preposition signifying without, and used in 
 composition with other wurds, as tor instance, I . Exlra-judiiial, 
 where judgement is given in a cause that is not depending in the. 
 court where the same passed; or w hereon the judgement has no 
 jurisdiction. 2. Extra-parochial, which is said of places out of the 
 hounds ot any parish, or freed from the duties ot a parish. '1 he 
 greatest part of the forests in England are extra-parochial. 
 
 EX'TH.\(rTlON, in genealogy, implies the stock or family 
 iroiu which a person is descended. 
 
 Extraction, in surgery, is the drawing of any foreign matter 
 out of the body by the hand, or by the help of instruments. See 
 
 SC'UGERY. 
 
 ExTRiCTioN OF RooTS, ill algebra and arithmetic, the methods 
 of linding the roots of given numbers or quantities. Sec Alge- 
 Bi<A, and Arithmetic. 
 
 EX'TK.VCTOR, in midwifery, an instrument for extracting 
 children by the head. 
 
 EXTRACTS, in pharmacy, are those medicinal preparations 
 obtained by boiling vegetable 'substances in water, and evapor.;ting 
 the strained decoction in broad, shallow vessels, to a thick consist-- 
 ence. Thus the most active parts of the plants are sep.irateii froni 
 the useless insoluble earthy matter. As extraction is a chemical 
 process, generally peifurmetl by the apothecary, we shall only 
 observe, that the following extracts are directed to he kept in the 
 -hojis bv the London college: viz. extract of broom-lops; ofcas- 
 carilla;'of chamomile; of Penivian bark with, and without, its 
 resin; of colocynth compounded with aloes, scaiiimony, &c. ; of 
 gentian; of liquorice ; of black hellebore ; of jalap; of log-wood; 
 of white poppv ; of rue; of savin; of senna; of wild cucumbers, 
 &c. 
 
 EXTRADOS, the outside of an arch of a bridge, vault, &c. 
 
 EXTRAJUDICIAL, in law, is wlien iudgemeut is given in a 
 cause, not depending in tliat court where it is given, or wherein tlie 
 judge has no jurisdiction. 
 
 E'XTRAORDINARII, among the Romans, was a body of 
 men consisting of a third part of the foreign horse, and a fifth of 
 the foot, which was separated from the rest of the forces borrowed 
 from the confederate states with great policy and caution, to pre- 
 vent any design that tliey might entertain against tlie natural 
 forces. .•■ 
 
 EX'TRAVAG.\NTES, decretal epistles publi-hed after the 
 Clementines; so called, because at first they were not ranged 
 w ith the other jiapal constitutions, but seemed to be rletaclied from 
 the canon law. 'They were afterwards inserted in the body of tlie 
 canon law. 
 
 EX'TRAVAS.'VTION, arises from the bursting or breaking of 
 one or more of tWe blood-vessels, after contu.-ions, fractures, and 
 other injuries of the head, as well as other parts of the body : this 
 accident is attended with such a copious discharge of bluod, as 
 frequently occasions the most violent pain, and death itself, un- 
 less the patient be timely reliered. See Medicine and Sur- 
 
 EXTREME, and mean PROPORTION, in geometry, is 
 wheu a line is so divided, that the whoU' line is to the greater seg- 
 ment, as that segment is to the other : or, when the line is s'o <li- 
 vided, that the rectangle under the whole line, and the less seg- 
 ment, is equal to the square of the greater segment. 
 
 Extremes, in logic, denote the two extreme terms of the con- 
 clusion ot a syllogism, viz, the predicate and subject. Thev are 
 called extremes, from their relation to another term, wliidi is a 
 medium or mean between tliem. 'The predicate, as being like- 
 wise had in the first proposition, is called the inajvis exlrrnuini, 
 greater extreme ; and the subject, as being put in the second or 
 4 Y iniiiM
 
 r; V E 
 
 358 
 
 F, 7R 
 
 minor prcijosition, is calletl tlie niiiuis exlremiiin, less extfeme. 
 Tlius, ill the syllogism., man is an animal ; Peter is a man, there- I 
 fore Piter is an animal; the word animal is the greater extreme, 
 I'eter the less extreme, and the man tlie mediimi. See Syllo- 
 r.isM, and Logic. 
 
 Extremes Conjunct, and Extuemes DtsjuNcx, iiispherical ! 
 trigonometrv, are, the former the two circular parts tliat lie next 
 the assumed middle part, and the latter are the two that lie ren^ole ' 
 from the middle part. ']"hese were terms applied hy lord Napier, 
 in his unii'ersal theorem for resolving all right-angled and ()iia- 
 drantal sjilierical triangles, and puhlished in his Logarltlimorum 
 Canonis Descriptio, 1614. In this theorem, Napier condenses 
 into one rule, in two parts, the rules for all the cases of riglit-aniijcd 
 spherical triangles, which liad been se|)aralely demonstrated by 
 ritiscus, Lansbeigius, Copernicus, Regionionlanus, and others. 
 See Trigonometry. 
 
 Extreme Unctions See Unction. 
 
 EXTRI'-MITIES ofFigures in painting, are the head, hands, 
 and feet. These should be drawn with more nicety and exactness, 
 or more terminated than other parts; and thus help to render the 
 action more expressive. 
 
 EXTRINSIC, among metaphysicians, is taken m various 
 senses; as, 1. a thing's not belonging to the essence of another; in 
 which sense, the efficient cause and end of a thing are said to be 
 extrinsic: 2. a thing's not being contained within tiie (.-apacity of 
 another; in which sense, those causes are called extrinsic which in- 
 troduce soinetTiing into a subject from without, as wln'u a lire in- 
 troduces heat : 3. a thing added or appli'd lo another; in which 
 sense accidents and adherents are said to be extrinsic to the sub- 
 jects to which they adhere: 4. the vision is said to be extrinsic 
 from some form which does not exist in that thing, but is ;idjacent 
 t.o it, or by some means or other witliout it. 
 
 EXVE'RKiE, or EXVERULi:, in antiquity, a kind of besom, 
 used in cleansing houses out of which a dead per'^on had been 
 carried. 
 
 EXVERRIATOU, or EVERRIATOR, a title given to the 
 Iieir of one deceased, fiom his being obliged to perform the cere- 
 mony of sweeping with tlie cxverra:. See the last artide. 
 
 EXUVI.E, [^I>at.] cast skins; cast shells; whatever is thrown 
 off, or shed by animals. 
 
 ExiJviiE, is also used for some shells, and other marine bodies, 
 fretiuently found in the bowels oi the earth; supposed to have 
 been deposited there at the deluge, as l>eing the real spoils of once 
 livine creatures. 
 
 EVBENSTADT, or EYRENSTOCK, a considerable mine 
 town of Upper Saxony, seven miles S. W. of Schwartzenberg. 
 
 EYE, [oculus,'] in anatomy, the organ of sight ; or that part of 
 the body, whereby visible objects are represented to the mind. 
 See Anatomy, and Optics. Anew-born child never keeps its 
 eyes lixed on any one object, but continually changes from one to 
 another ; and if a hand is put before them, tlie child will not wink. 
 Hence some have thought that new-born infants have no sight, but 
 this is a mistake. The true reason why their eves are. in pc-rpttual 
 motion is, that they have not yet acquired the habit of examining 
 one thing at once with their eyes: their not winking at the ap- 
 proach ot the hand, arises tVom their want of experience how easily 
 their eyes may be hurt; but in a few il.uys they get the habit of 
 winking, and afteruard^ wink spontaneously at the approach of 
 danger. 
 
 Eye Of A Dome, an aperture at the top of a dome, as that of 
 the I'anlheou at Rome, or of St. Paul's at London: it is usually | 
 .-.overed with a Ian I horn.. ' 
 
 Eve, in agricuUure and gardening, signifies a little bud, insert- 
 ed ij!to a tree l>y wav of ai.iit. Sec Gkaetinc. 
 
 Eye of a Tree, a small pointed knot to which the leaves stick- 
 and from which the shoots or sprigs proceed. See Gem.ma. ' 
 
 Eye, a river of Scotland, which rises in the N. \V, of Berwick- 
 shire, aiul falls into the British ocean at Evemouth. 
 
 Eye, afo«n of SulVolk, near tlie borders of Norfolk, CI miles 
 N. of Ipswich. 
 
 Eye, a town of Norway, 36 miles S. of Rergen. 
 
 Eye, Bull's. See Ai.oebaran, and Bull s Eye. 
 
 Eye of a Block, in naval affairs, that part of the rope-slrop 
 which is fastened to some necessary place in the ship: the strop is 
 a sort of wreath, or rope formed into a ring, and (ixed round the 
 block for tlie double convenience of strengthening the b!ock,_aiid 
 fastening it in any place where it is wanted. 
 
 Eye-Bright.' See Euphrasia. 
 
 Eye-Brows. See Anatomy. 
 
 Eye-Lids. See Anatomy. 
 
 EYE.MOUTIJ, a town of Scotland, at the mouth of the Eve, 
 9 miles N. by W. of I'n'rwick. Lon. 1. :>0. W . Lat. 5,5. 50. S. 
 
 EYERLA'NDT, an island of Batavia, in the department of the 
 Texel, at the entrance into the Zuyder Zee. 
 
 E\ ESDALE, a small island of Scotland, on the coast of Ar- 
 gylcshire, S. E. of Mull ; famous for slates. 
 
 E\ iMOUl'IERS, a tnwn of France, in the department of Dor- 
 dogne; 15 miles N. of Pe/igueux. 
 
 Ey.moutiers, a town of Erance, in the department of Upper 
 Vienne, IS miles N. of Limoges. 
 
 EYNDIIOVEN, or EIENIIOVEN, a town of Batavia, in 
 the department of Douimel and Scheklt, and late province of 
 Dutch Brabant; 17 miles S. of Bois-le-duc. 
 
 EYRAC, or IRAC, AGEMI, the principal province of Per- 
 sia, anciently called Parthia. 
 
 Eyrac, or Irac, Arabia, a province of Turkey in Asia, 345 
 uiiles in length, aiid 100 in breadth. Bagdad is the capital. 
 
 EZ.VGEN, or E/.ACiUEN, an ancient ;ind opulent town in 
 (he kingdom of Fez, and pro\ince of Ilabat, tiO miles S. of 
 Tetuan. 
 
 EZEKIEL, [Vsp|,T, Ileb. i. c. the strength of God,] a cele- 
 brated prophet and priest among the Jews, who was carried captive 
 to Babylon with Jeconiah, and began his prophesies in the fifth 
 year of the captivity. A. M. 3409. He was colemporary with Je- 
 remiah, who prophesied at the same time in Judea. lie foretold 
 many events, jjarticularly the deslruclion of the temple, the fatal 
 catastrophe of those who revolted from Babylon to Egypt, and the 
 hai)py return of the Jews to their own land. 
 
 Ezekiel, a canonical book of the Old Testament, referring 
 chiefly to the degenerate manners and corruptions of the Jews of 
 those times. It abounds with fine sentences and rich comparisons, 
 and shews the author to have had much learning. 
 
 EZEL, an island of Russia, in the Baltic, of a triangular fonn, 
 eight miles in circumference. , 
 
 EZETOVA, a river of Russia, which runs into the Gulf of Ob^ 
 skaia. 
 
 EZRA, [Ni|y, Heb. i. e. a helper,] an eminent author, priest,^ 
 and-Iaw ver, among the Jews, and a chief director of their church 
 and state under Arlaxerxes I. See Esdkas. This illustrious au- 
 thor was also the restorer and publisher of the canon of the Old 
 Testament. 
 
 E/ra, a canonical book of the Old Testament; comprehending 
 the ir^tory of the Jews from the time of Cyrus's edict for their re- 
 turn, to the COth year of Arlaxerxes Longimanus. It specilies the 
 numhi'r of Jews who returned, and Cyrus's proclamation for the 
 rebuilding of the temple, together with the laying of its foundation, 
 the obstruction it met w ith, and the finishing thereof in the reign of 
 Darius. 
 
 F, the
 
 FA B 
 
 359 
 
 FAn 
 
 F. 
 
 Ftlie sixth ]*tVr of till' ;'.1 pliiilu't , ami foiirlh ronsoivjnt, is I)y 
 > some reckoned a mute, ami hy ollicrs a spini-vowel: it has 
 much iIk' --ame soimkI witii the CJii'ol^ 4", or/)//, in Eiigli--li worcN, 
 in<\ is oiilv wntttii in words ol T.atiii orijiin, pit l)oina; iisoil in^lead 
 'I' it in those deriveil iVoni tlip Girok. Siieldniib tells ii<, that tlu- 
 mperor Clamliiis inventeil tUe f, and two other letters; and that 
 ; had the force of v consonant, and wai; wrote inverted .f . I. F, in 
 tt lUisic, ii the fonrth note in ri>ing, in thi> order of the gamut, ut, 
 e, mi, fa. It likewise denote:s one of the Greek keys in music, 
 .e^tined for the hass. II. As an ahbreviation, F, in physical pre- 
 criptions, stands for fiat, i. e. let it be done, or mado up. 'J'hus 
 . s. a. signifies liat secundum artem. F, in the civil law, doubled 
 aus, tT, signifies the pandects. S<'e Pandects. F, in the crimi- 
 •lal law, was a stigma put upon felons with a hot iron, on their be- 
 ng adinitt(.-d to the benefit of clergy; by stat. 4 Hen. 7. c. 13. 
 111. F, as a nnmei-al, asicienlly signified 4i', and when a dasli was 
 iildfd at top, (thus") it stood" for 40,000. 
 
 FA, in music, the fourth note of the gamut. See F. Musi- 
 cians distinguish two fa's, viz. the Hat, marked with a D, or •©■ : 
 Ijodlhe sharp, or natural, marked thus ^, and called also biquailro. 
 
 FAABOUG, a sea-port town of Denmark, on the S. coast of 
 he isle of Funen, 17 miles .S. of Oldeusee. Loiv. 10. 16. E. Lat. 
 55. 12. N. 
 
 FABA, in botany. See Vicia. 
 
 FABFR, a fish of the zeus kind, called in English doree, or 
 Irohn doree. See Zeus. 
 
 FAUI.'VNE, a river of X. America, in Louisiana, which runs 
 |S. E. and falls into the Mississippi, in Lat. 39. 30. N. 
 
 FA151LS, the surname of a powerful p.itrician family at Rome, 
 ■who derived their name from_/((/)(/, a bean, because some of their 
 
 cestors cultivated this pulse. They were once so nninerous that 
 hev took npon themselves to wage a war against the \'eientes. 
 Phev came to a general engagement near tlie Gremera, in which 
 ill the famllv, consisting of 30(5 men, were slain, A. V. C. 577. 
 "There onlv remaincil one hoy, whose tender age had detained him 
 It Rome, and from him descended the noble Fabii of the follow- 
 ing ages. 
 
 Fabius NI.iximus, Quintus, a celebrated Roman, who from 
 a dull and inactive childhood was raised to the highest offices of 
 the slate. In his first consulship he obtained a victory over Lign- 
 ria, and the fatal battle of Thrasymenus occasioned his election to 
 Jie dictatorship. In this important oflice he began to oppose 
 Hannibal, not by fighting him in the open field, like his predeces- 
 sors, but by continually harassnig his army by countermarches and 
 imbuscades, from which he receiveil the surname of Cuiictator, or 
 he Delavor. Hannibal sent him word, that " if he was as great a 
 ;aptain as he would be thought, he ought to come into the plain 
 uid give him battle." But Fabius coldly replied, " that if he was 
 16 great a captain as /le would be thought, he would do well to 
 force him to fight." Such operations for the commander of the 
 Roman armies gave otl'ence to some: and Fabius was -ven accus- 
 ed of cowardice. He, however, continued firm in his resolution ; 
 iiid patiently bore to see his master of horse raised to share the dic- 
 tatorial dignity with himself, by his enemies at home. When he 
 riad laid down his office of dictator, his successors, for a while, fol- 
 lowed his plan; but the rashness of Varro, and his contempt for 
 the operations of Fabius, occasioned the fatal battle of Canna\ 
 I'arentum was obliged to surrender to him after the battle of Can- 
 ny; and on that occasion the Garthagnnians observed, that I'abius 
 was the Hannibal of Rome, ^\'llen he bad made an agreement 
 A ith Hannibal for the ransom of the captives, which was totallv 
 lisapproved hy the Roman senate, he sold all his estates to pay the 
 .noncy, rather than forfeit his word to the enemy. The bold pro- 
 aosals of young Scipio to carry the war from Italy to ."Vfrica, was 
 "ejected by Fabius as chimerical and dangerous. He did not, 
 low ever, live to see the success of the Roman arms under Scipio, 
 ind the conquest of Carthage by measures which he treated with 
 .•ontempt, and heard with indignation. He dieil in the lOtXh year 
 jl his age, after he had been li\ e times consul, and twice lionoured 
 
 I with a frimnph. The Romans wrro so sensible of his great merit 
 I and services, that the expeiice.s of his funeral were delrayed from 
 ! the public treasury. 
 
 Fabius Maxi.mus, Quintus, son of the preceding, shewed 
 himself vorthy of his fatlii'r's virtues. During his consulship he 
 received a visit from his father on hor-ebaek iri«the camp. The 
 son ordered the father to dismount; and the old man cheerfully 
 obeyed, embracing his son, and saving, " I wished to know whe- 
 ther you know what it is to be consul." He died before his fa- 
 ther, who with the moderation of a philosophcf, delivered a fune- 
 ral oration over his son's bodv. 
 
 Fadius Maximus RuLi.tAN'us was the first of the Fabii who 
 obtained the surname of Maximus, for lessening the power of (he 
 populace at elections. He was master of horie, and his victory 
 over the Samnites in that capacity nearly cost him his life, because 
 he engaged the enemy without the command of the dictator. He 
 was (ivi: limes consul, twice dictator, and once ceii'^or. lie tri- 
 umphed over seven ditfcrent nations, and rendered himself illus- 
 trious by his patriotism. 
 
 Fabius Pictor, a Roman general and historian. He first in- 
 troduced painting at Rome; and having causeil the walls of the 
 temple of Health to be painted, some authors have erroneously 
 reckoned him a painter. He died about 15. G. 21t). 
 
 F.^BI.F, [fiihiila, Lat.jatale or feigned narration, designed 
 either to instruct or divert, disguised under the allegory of an 
 action, t^c. Fables were the first pieces of wit that made their 
 a[)pearaiice in the world, and have been still highly valued, not 
 only in times of the greatest simplicity, but among the most polite 
 ages of the world. Jotham's fable of the trees is the oldest that is 
 extant, and 35 beautiful as an_\ that have been made since. Na* 
 than's fable of the poor man is next in antiquity, and had so good 
 an effect as to convev instruction to the ear of a king. \Ve rind 
 .Ksop, in the most distant ages of Greece; and in the early days of 
 the Roman commonwciilth, we read of a mutiny appeased by the 
 fable of the belly and the members. As fables had their ri5e in 
 the very infancy of learning, they never fiourished more than 
 when learning was at its greatest height ; witness Horace, Boileau, 
 and I'ontaine. 
 
 Fable is also used for the plot of an epic or dramatic poem, and 
 is, accoiding to Aristotle, the principal part, and, as it were, the 
 soul of a poem. See Poetky. 
 
 FAIjRETTI, Raphael, LL.D. a learned Italian author and 
 antiquary, born at Urbino, in lOU). He studied at Ciigli, and 
 took his degree at Urbino, in his ISth year. Cardinal Imperial! 
 sent him into Spain, where he continued thirteen years, and was 
 lor some time auditor general of the NunciiUure. On his retnin 
 to Rome, he was appointed juilge of aijpeals, and afterwards in- 
 spector of reliques. Pope Alexander Vlll. appointed him Secre- 
 tary of memorials, and innocent XH. made him keeper of tlie ar- 
 chives of St Angelo. In the midst of all this business he foun<l 
 time to cultivate his favourite study of antiquiiics, and upon « hich 
 he wrote several tracts in Latin, particularly, 1. De Aipiis & Aqu.c 
 Ductibus Veteris Romw: 2. De Cohmina Traiana :■ 3. inscriptio- 
 niim Aiitiquarum Explicatio, &c. He was admitted a member 
 of the academy of Assorditi at Urbino, and of the Arcadi at Rome, 
 and died Jan. 7, 1700. 
 
 FABRIANO, a town of Italy, in the maiquisate of Ancona, at 
 the foot of the Apennines, Itj miles N. of Nocera. 
 
 FABRIC-LANDS, those formerly given towards rebuihlins^ 
 or repairing cathedrals and other churches; for anciently almost 
 every bodv gave more or less, hy his will, to the fabric of the pa- 
 rish-church w here he dwelt. 
 
 FABRICIA, in botany, a genus of the icosandria mnnogynia 
 class and order. C^alyx rive-cleft, half superior; live petals, with- 
 out claws; stigma capitate; capsule many-celled; seeds wiuaed. 
 It has two species: viz. the niyrlifolia, and the l.evigata, natives of 
 New Holland. 
 
 FABKICIUS, Caius, a celebrated Roman, who in his first 
 
 consulship, A. U. C. 470, obtained several victories over the Sam- 
 
 i niti s
 
 FAC 
 
 300 
 
 FAC 
 
 niles and LiRanians, und was lioiioured wilh a Iriumph. Tlie 
 riches acquired in tliose liattles were immense, tlie soldiers were 
 •liberally rewarded, and the treasury was enriched wilh 400 talents. 
 Two vears alter, Fabricius went as ambassador to Pyrrluis, and 
 refused with ronlempt presents and offers, which mit;iit have ror- 
 ruple<l the fidelity of a less virtuous citizen. Pyrrhus admired 
 the magnanijuitv of Fabricius, but his astonishment w as excited 
 -to the highest pitch, when Fabricius discovered to him the vil- 
 ■lany of his ow n physician, who had offered to the Kuuian gc-neral, 
 for a sum of money, to poison his royal master. To this greatness 
 of soul was added the most consummate knowledge of military 
 alfairs, and the greatest simplicity of manners. • Fabricius never 
 used rich plale at his table. A small salt-cellar, the feet of which 
 were of horn, was the only silver vessel whicli a|)peared in his 
 house. This contempt of luxury Fabricius wi^lled to inspire 
 -among the people ; and during his censorship he banished from ,j 
 -the senate Cornelius RuIIihus, who had been twice consul and : 
 dictator, because he kept in his house more than ten lib. weight 
 of silver plate. Such were the manners of the conipieior of Pyr- 
 rhus, who observed tliat he wished rather to command those that 
 had money than possess it himself. lie lived and died in virtu- 
 ■ous poverty ; hi>> body wa> buried at the public charge ; and the 
 ■Roman people gave a dowry to hi» two daughters when they had 
 •arrived to years of maturity. 
 
 Fabricius, George, a learned (rerman, born at Chenmitz in 
 Misnia, in 1510. After a liberal education, he visited Italy in 
 <)ualily of a tutor to a young nobleman ; and examining all the 
 ■remains of antiquity with great accuracy, compared tlieni with 
 their . descriptions in Latin writers. The result of these observa- 
 tions was his work intitled "Roma," containing a description of 
 that city, fie afterwards settled at Misenum, wl\ere he conduct- 
 ed a great school till his death in 1J7I. He also wrote seven 
 botsfe-ofthe " Annals of Misnia," three of the " Annals of Meis- 
 sen," Travels, and meny sacreil poems in Latin. 
 
 FABROT, Charles Hannibai., one of the most celebrated 
 i'ivilians of his time, was born at Aix in IbSl ; and acquired an 
 extraordinary skill in the civil and canon law , and in the belles 
 lettres. FJe published tlie " Basilica', or Constitutions of the 
 Emperors of the East," inGieek and Latin, with learneil notes, in 
 7 vols, folio; and editions of " Cedremis, Nicetas, Anastasius, 
 Kibliothccarius, Constantine Manasses, and Cujas," with learned 
 and curious notes. 
 
 FACADE, [Fr.] the face or front of a building. 
 
 -FACALA, or FACALE, a sea-port of Japan, where the Je- 
 suits formerly had a church ami establishment. 
 
 ■FACE, [fades,'] generally signifies the visage of any animal : 
 it is more particularly applied to the human countenance ; being 
 the only conspicuous part of the body. The human face is called 
 the image of tiie soul, because it is the seat of the principal organs 
 of sense, and the place where the ideas and emotii>ns of the mind 
 •are most obviously displayed. It has always been considered the 
 most comely and expressive part of the frame, so that various lo- 
 tions, powders, &c. have been invented tor beautifying and re- 
 storing ugly or decayed countenances. Such practice, liowever, 
 though sanctioned by the folly and caprice of fashkin, cannot be 
 too severely censured. Tlie face also serves to indicate the sex, 
 age, temperament, health, disease, &c. As the index of the pas- 
 sions, habits, &:c. of the person, it makes the subject of physiog- 
 nomy. See Physiognomy. 
 
 Face, among painters and artists, denotes a certain dimension 
 of the human body, adapted for determining the pro|K>rtion 
 which the several parts shouUl bear to one anotlieii See Draw- 
 ing. 
 
 Face, or Facade, in architecture, the front of a building, or 
 the side which contains tlie chief entrance. Sometimes, however, 
 it is used for whatever side presents to the street, garden, court, 
 &c. or is opposite to the eye. 
 
 P'ace, in fortification, an appellation given to several parts 
 of a fortress, as the face of a bastion, &c. See Fortimca- 
 
 'flON. 
 
 Face, in the military art, a word of command, intimating to 
 turn about : thus, " Face to the right," is to turn upon the left 
 heel a tpiarter-round to the right ; and " Face to the left," is to 
 turn upon the right heel a quarter-round lo the left. 
 
 ■X^'ACE r, or FACETTE, among jewellers, the name of the 
 
 little faces or planes to be found in brilliant and rose did- 
 monds. 
 
 FACTION, in anticpiity, a name given to the different com- 
 panies of combatants iu the circus. They were four; viz the 
 white, the red, the green, and the blue ;' to which Doniitian added 
 another of purple colour. They were so denominaled from tlie 
 colour of the liveries they were ; and were dedicated, accordii.g 
 to M. Aur. Cassiodorus, to the four seasons of the year; the 
 green being consecrated to spring, the red to summer, the white 
 to autumn, and the blue to winter. It appears Irom ancient in- 
 scriptions, that each faction had its procurators and plnsician ; 
 and from history, that party rage ran so high among them,' that in 
 a dissension between two factions, in the time of Justiiiian, almost 
 40,000 men lost their lives in llie ipiarrel. 
 
 FACTITIOUS, any thing maiic by art, in opposition to what 
 is the produce of nature. '1 bus, factitious cinnaliar is opposed to 
 native cinnabar. 
 
 FAC'I OR, in commerce, is an agent or correspondent residing 
 beyond the seas, or in some remote part, coiumissioiicd by mer- 
 chants to buy or sell goods on their account, or assist them in car- 
 rying on their trade. 
 
 Factors are employed by merchants residing at other places, 
 to buy or sell goods, iiegociate bills, &c. on their account ; and 
 are entitled to a certain allowance for their trouble. A super- 
 cargo differs from a factor in this: the business of the former is 
 limited to the care of a particular cargo; he goes along wilh it, and 
 generally returns when his business is completed : the hitter has a. 
 Iixed residence abroad, and executes business for dilTerent nier- • 
 chants. Hut their duties, and the circumstanc'cs for which they 
 are accountable, are the same. The duly ol a tactor is to pro- 
 cure the best intelli'gence of the stale of the trade at his place of 
 residence ; of the course of exchange ; of the quantity and qua- 
 lity of goods at market, their current price, ancl the probability 
 that it may rise or full ; to pay exact obedience to the orders of 
 his cm|)loycrs ; to consult their advaiitai-\e in matters ivlerred to 
 his dirrc lion ; to execulc their business with all the dispatch that 
 circumstances admit ; to be early in his ii',telligence, distinct in his 
 accounts, and iiunctual in his correspondence. A factor's power 
 is either absolute or limited. Though entrusted with ample dis- 
 cretionary powers, he is not warranted to take unreasonable or un- 
 usual measures, or do any thing contrary to his employer's interest ; 
 but it is iiicnnibcnt on the employer, if he challenge his proceed- 
 ings, to prove that he could have done better, and was guilty of 
 wilful mismanagement. AVlien a factor's power is limited, he 
 must adhere strictly to his orders. If he exceed his power, 
 though with a view io his employer's interest, he is liable for the 
 consequence. For example, if he give credit when not em- 
 powered, or longer credit if not cmpow ered, for the sake of a bet- 
 ter price, and the buyer prove insolvent, he is liable for the debt. 
 A factor has no power to give credit unless authorised : but if the 
 goods consigned be generally sold on credit at the place of con- 
 signation, the factor will be vindicated for selling at the usual cre- 
 dit, unless expressly restricted. Although opinion will never jus- 
 tify the factor for departing from orders, necessity sometimes will. 
 If he be limited not to sell goods under a certain price, and the 
 goods be perishable, and not in a situation tor bi ing kept, he may 
 sell them, to prevent their destruction, even under the price limit- 
 ed. A factor is never warranted to deal on trust, except with per- 
 sons in good credit at the time. If the employer challenge the 
 debtors, it is incumlH iil on liim to prove that their bad circum- 
 stances was known at tlie time of sale ; and the factor will be viu- 
 dicated, if he trusted them at the same time for goods of his own. 
 If the factor sell his employer's goods on trust, and, alter the day 
 of payment is elapsed, receive pa\ nient from the [lurchaser for a 
 debt of his own, he becomes liable in equity for the debt. In 
 case of bankru))tcy, the fac'.or ought immediatelv to lay attach- 
 ments, and advise his employers; and he cannot withdraw his at- 
 tachments, nor compound debts without orders. If a factor sell 
 goods belonging to different merchants to the same pei"son, and 
 the buyer prove insolvent, they shall bear the loss in equal pro- 
 portions ; and, if the buyer have paid part before his insolvency, 
 without specifying for which, the payment ought to be distributed 
 in equal proportions ; but, if the ilays of payment be fixed, and 
 part of the debts only due, the payment ought to he applied, in 
 the first place, to such debts as were due. If Ire make a wrong 
 
 entry
 
 FAC 
 
 561 
 
 FAIT 
 
 cut)}' at the custoni-lioii-;o, aiul the goods be seized in coiise- 
 nuciice tliereoC, lie must licir tlie loss, unless tlie error be occa- 
 sioned by a mistalic in tlie invsire, or letter of adviee. The 
 ow iier bears tiie lo-)S of goods seized when attempted to be smng- 
 gled by his orders: but the factor complying wiili an unlavvlel 
 order is liable in such penalties as the laus exact. If a factor save 
 the duty of the goods due to a foreisn prince, he shall have the 
 benehl ; for, if d(terled lie bears the loss. If a factor sell goods 
 bought by his employer's orders for his own advantage, the em- 
 ployer may recover the benefit, and the factor shall be amerced 
 for the same. If a factor receive bad moncyj in [layment, lie 
 bears the loss; but if the value of the money be lessened by the 
 government, the employer bears the loss. A factor is not liable 
 tor goods spoiled, robbed, or destroyed by fire. If a factor re- 
 ceive counterfeit jewels from his employer, and sell them, the 
 employer is liable to indeniiiify him for any penalties he may in- 
 cur. If a factor be ordered to make insurance, and nenlect it, 
 and the subject be lost, lie is liable to make it good, providing lie 
 had clfccts in his hands. If a factor buy goods for his eniplover, 
 his bargain shall be binding on the employer. In case of a factor'^ 
 insolvency, the owner may reclaim his goods ; and, if they be sold 
 on trust, the owner (and not the factor's creditors) shall recover 
 payment of the debts. 
 
 Factor, in multiplication, a name given to the multiidier and 
 multiplicand, because they constitute the product. See Arith- 
 
 MF.TIC. 
 
 FAC rORAGE, called also commission, is the allowance given 
 to factors by the merchants who employ them. 
 
 FACTORY is a place where a considerable number of factors 
 reside, to negotiate for their masters and employers. The most 
 considerable factories belonging to the British are those establish- 
 ed in the East Indies. There were also factories in Portugal, 
 Turkey, and at Hamburgh, Petersburg!!, Dantzic, and Amster- 
 dam, all endowed with certain privileges. The ascenc'encv of the 
 French Emperor, for the present, at least, has put an end to these, 
 or to most of them. However, ve indulge a strong hope that the 
 event will at lingth prove favouralile to our interest. 
 
 FACTUM, [I.at.] in arithmetic, the product of tv\'o quantities 
 niulliplied by each otiicr. 
 
 FACTUKE, [I''rcncli,] the act or manner of making any 
 thing. 
 
 FACUL.'F, [Lat. from ^(r, a torch,] in astronomy, a name 
 piven by Scheiner anti otiiers, to certain bright spots on the sun'» 
 ili^k, that appear more lucid than the rest of his body. Hevelius 
 allirms, that on July 20, 1634, he observed a taenia, whose breadth 
 was equal to one-third of the sun's diameter. Kircher, Scheiner, 
 and others, represent the sun's body, as full of these facula-, which 
 they suppose to be volcanos ; and others contend, that the ma- 
 culs change into facuUe before they disappear. But Huygens 
 and olhcrs of the latest and best observers, finding that the best 
 l<'le5Copes discover nothing of the m;itter, agree entirely to ex- 
 plode the phinomena of facula; ; and attribute the cause of these 
 appearances to the tremulous agiiation of the vapours near our 
 earth. Dr. Hutttm concludes that " the facula; are not eructa- 
 tions of fire and fiamc, but refractions of the sun's rays in the 
 rarer exhalations, which, being condensed, seem to exhibit a light 
 ^;rcuter than that of the sun." Math. Diet. vol. i. p. 466. 
 
 FACULTY, a lerm used to denote the powers of the human 
 mind, viz. understanding, will, memory, and imagination. See 
 Undekstasijij.'l; and metaphysics. 
 
 Faculty, in law, a privilege granted to a pei-son, by favour 
 and indulgence, of doing what, by law, he ought not to do. For 
 granting thcx- privileges, there is a court under the archbishofi of 
 (,'anterbury, called the court of the faculties. The chief officer 
 of this court is styled master of the facidtics, and has a power of 
 granting dispensations in divers cases ; as, to marry without the 
 iianns being lirst published, to eat (lesh on days proliibited, to or- 
 jlain a ileacon under age, for a son to succeed his father in his be- 
 iieftce, a deik to hobl two or more livings, &c. 
 
 Faclty, in the schools, a term applied to the difCerent inem- 
 ber^ o; ar. university, divided according to the arts and sciences 
 tjui^ht there : thus in most universities there are four faculties, 
 -ii". i. Of arts, which include humanity and philosophy. -. Of 
 (i.eology. 3. Of physic. And, 4. Of civil law. The degrees 
 ;!i tlie several faouilies in our universities are tho'e of bachelor, 
 master, and doctor. 
 
 V04, U.~KO. 79. 
 
 Faculty or AnyocATES, a term applied to the ci.lhge i-c 
 society of advocates in Scotland, who pf.'ad in all actions be.brc 
 the court of session. They meet in the beginning of every year, 
 and choose the annual oflicers of the society, viz. dean, trea- 
 surer, clerks, private and ))ublic examinators, and a curator of 
 their libnry. 
 
 Fa.cls, in chemistry, settlings after distillation and infusion. 
 The faeces of wine are commonly called lees. 
 
 F.^iiCFs. See Feces. 
 
 F.I'.CULA, ni chemistry, the substance obtained by bruising or 
 grinding certain vegetables, or grain, in water; the iitcula is that 
 part which after standing some time falls to the botioni ; thiii, in 
 jjlants, appears to be only a slight alteration of their mucilage, for 
 it differs from mucilage in no other respect than in being insolu- 
 ble in cold water. Most plants contain fa-cula, but the seeds ef 
 gramineous and legumineous vegetables, and all tuberose roots, con- 
 tain it in great abundance. 
 
 FAENSA, FAENZA, or FAYENCE, a fortified city of Italy, 
 in Romagna, anciently called Faventia. It is 12 miles S. W. of 
 Ravenna. 
 
 FAGARA, Iron-wood; a genus of the monogynia order and 
 telrandria class of plants ; natural order, DumosK. Calyx quad- 
 rilid; corolla tetrapetalous ; capsule bivalved, monospermous. 
 There are ten species, natives chielly of the warm parts of America, 
 rising with woody stems more than 20 feet high. 
 
 FAGG, in the sea language, a term given to the end of tho^c 
 stands which do not go through the tops, when a cable or rope is 
 closed. 
 
 FAGOKIA, in botany, a genus of the monogynia order, andde- 
 candria class of plants : natural order, Gruinales. Calyx five- 
 leaved ; petals five, cordate; capsula five-celled, ten-Yalved, with 
 one seed in each ell. There are three species, natives of Spain, 
 Crete, and Arabia. 
 
 FACiOT, in times of jiopery, was a badge worn on the sleeve of 
 the upper garment of such persons as had abjured what was tlien 
 termed heresy ; being put on after the person had carried a fagot, 
 by way of penance, to some appointed place of solemnity. '1 he 
 leaving off the wear of this badge was sometimes interpreted a sign 
 of apostacy. 
 
 Fagots, among military men prrsons hired by officers, whose 
 companies are not full, to muster and hide the deficiencies of the 
 company ; by which means they cheat the king of so much 
 money. 
 
 FAG R.EA, a genus of the class and order penliuidria nionocynia. 
 Calyx bell-shaped ; corolla fuunel-shaped ; Lie: ry two-celled, ilesliy-i 
 seeds globular; stigma peltate. One species, a shrub of Ceylon. 
 
 FAGUS, Blech Tree: a genus of the polyandria order, and 
 moncrcia class of plants ; ikUiumI order, Amentacea". Male, caly.v 
 live-cleft, bell-shaped; corolla none; stamina twelve: female, 
 calyx four-tootheu ; corolla none ; styles three ; capsule muricate, 
 fou'r-valved ; seeds two. There are live species, viz. two clies- 
 nut trees, and three of the beech, one of which is a native of 
 Cochinchina. The chesnut tree will thrive upon almost any soil 
 which lies out of the water's way; but disalftcts wet iiioori--h land. 
 It sometimes grows to an immense si.^c. The largest in the known 
 world are those v. hich grow upon Mount .'Etna in Sicily. At 
 Tortworth in Gloucestershire, is a chcsnut-tree 62 feet round. It 
 is proved to have stood there ever since 1 liO, and was then so re 
 markable that it was called the great chesnut of Tortwortli. It 
 lixes the boundary of the manor, an<l is probably near lUOU year-: 
 old. As an ornamental, the chesnut is veil wortliy the gardener's 
 attention. Its uijcs have been highly extolled. As .i substitute 
 for the oak, it is preferable to the ehn : for door jambs, window- 
 frames, and some other purposes, it is nearly equal to oak itself; 
 but there is a deceitful briltleness in it whicii rei.ders it unsafe to 
 be used in beams, or in any other situation VNhere an uncertain load 
 is required to be born. It is excellent for liquor cask? ; not being 
 liable to shrink, nor to change the colour of the liquor, it is also 
 recommended 'as an underwood for hop-poles, >takes, &c. Its 
 fruit too is valuable, n'jt "uly for swine and deer, but .v: a jium:m 
 food : Breatl is said to have been made of it. 
 
 FAHALFAIIAR.V, a town of Tersia, in the province of Mr; 
 cran, 100 miles N. W. of Kidge. 
 
 FAHEU, one of the New Philippine islands. 
 
 FAHLUN, a town of Sweden, capital of Drdegarlia. It is 39 
 miles N. W. of Hedeuiora. 
 
 4Z FAHRAG.
 
 V A I 
 
 5t<ii 
 
 1 ' A r 
 
 FAIIRAG, :i town of Persia, in ihf profiiice of ravsistan, ISO 
 niilei N. E. of Sciiira«. 
 
 FAILLIS, ii) Iier.ilclry, a French term denoting som? faiKire or 
 fraoficn ia an ordinarvj as if it were brokt:ii, or a splinter taken 
 from il. 
 
 FAILURE, a species of bankruptcy, commonly called break- 
 ing;, or stopping pr.yinents. See Bankruptcy. 
 
 Failure of liEcoRD, in law, is where an action is broi^ht 
 against a person, who allejjes, in his plen, matter of record in bar 
 oTthe action, and avers to prove it by the record ; to which the 
 plainlitf replies, N'ed tiel record, viz. There is no snch record : 
 whereupon the defendant has a day given him by the conrt to bring 
 it in ; and if 'lie fail to do it, he is then ;.aid to f.:il of his record, 
 and the plaintiff shall therecln have judgement. 
 
 FAIXr ACTION, in law, a feigned action, or such as, al- 
 though the words of the writ are true, yit, for certain causes, the 
 plaintiff has no title to recover thereby. 
 
 Faint Pleade?., in law, a covinous, false, or coUusory man- 
 ner of pleadnig, to the deceit of a third person. 
 
 FAINTS, in tlie distillery, the weak spirituous llciuor that runs 
 from tlie still in rectifying the low wines alter the proof spirit is 
 taken olK Faints are also the last runnings of all spirits distilled by 
 the alembic. The clearing of the worm of tlie^e ii so essential a 
 point in order to the obtaining of a pure spirit by the subsequent 
 distillation, that all others are fruitless without it. 
 
 FAIU, iu sea language, is used for the disposition of the wind, 
 when it is favourable to a ship's co-arse, in opposition to that wliich 
 is contrary or foul. The term fair is more comprehensive (ban 
 large, and inekides about 16 or IS points in the compass; whereas 
 large is confined to the beam quarter, that is, to a wind which 
 crosses the keel at right angles, or obliquely from the stern, but 
 never to one right a-stern. 
 
 Fair Curve, is a win.'iing line used in delineating ships, whose 
 shape is varied, according to the part of the ship which it is intended 
 to describe. 
 
 Fair Way, in sea language, the path or channel of a narrow 
 bay, river, or haven, in which ships usually advance in their pas- 
 sage up and down ; so tliatdf any vessels are anchored therein, they 
 are said to lie in the fair way. 
 
 Fair, a greater kind of market, granted to a town, by privilege, 
 for the more speedy and commodious providing of such things as 
 the place stands in need of. Il ij derived from the French word 
 foirc, which signifies the same thing; ankl,/'V/'f is by some de- 
 rived from the Lvitin/^)(■«/?^, market; by others from the Latin 
 feriv, because ancienlly fairs were always held in the places where 
 the/crirt.' were held. See Feri^. Fairs are granted to towns by 
 privilege, for the more speedy supplying of whatever they need. It 
 is one privilege of a fair, that persons shall be free from being ar- 
 reted in it for any other debt or contract than what was contracted 
 ia the same, or at least promised to be paid there. Fairs are 
 generally kept onee or twice a-year ; and, by statute, they shall 
 not be held longer than they ought, by the lords thereof, on pain 
 of their being seized into the kuig's own hands, &c. Also pro- 
 clamation is to be made, how long they are to continue ; and no 
 p-.Tion shall sell any goods after tlie time of the fair is ended, on 
 forfeiture of double value, one-fourth to the pro:,ecutor and the rest 
 to the king, There is a toll lisnr.Uy paid iu fairs on the sale of things, 
 and for stillagc, piccage, &c. Iv.irs abroad are either free, or 
 charged with toll and impost. The privdeges of free fairs consist 
 chiellv, first, in that all traders, &c. whether natives or foreigners, 
 are allowed to enter the kingdom, and are under the royal protec- 
 tion, exempt from duties, impositions, tolls, &c. Secondly , that mer- 
 chants, in going or returning, cannot be molested or arrested, or 
 their goods stopped. They are established by letters patent from 
 the prince. Fairs, particularly free fairs, are of great importance 
 in the commerce of Europe, especially in that of the Mediterranean, 
 and inland parts of Germany, &c. The principal fairs of America 
 aie the faii-s of Porto-bello, Vera Cruz, and the Ilavanna, all of 
 which are of very considerable con^etiuence. The two lirst last as 
 Joiig as the (lot?, and galleons continue in those parts ; and the last 
 is opened as soon as the Hota or galleons arrive there upon their re- 
 turn for Spain ; this being the place where the two tieets join. The 
 chief British fairs are, 1. Sturbridge fair, near (^and^ridge, is by far 
 the greate>t in Britain, and perhaps in the world. C. Bristol has 
 two fairs, very near as great as that of Sturbridge. ' 3. Exeter. 4. 
 Westchester. 5. Edinburgh. C. Wheyhill; mid 7. Burford 
 
 fair; both for sheep. F. Pancras, in Stal'fordshire, for saddle 
 horses. 9. Bartholomew fair, at London, for VVelsli black caltli-. 
 10. St. Faith's, in Norfolk, for Scotch runts. 1 1 . Yarinoiuli 
 fishing fair for herrings, the only ri hing fair in Great Britain. I,'. 
 Ipsw.ch butter fair. 13. Woodborough hdl in Dorsetshire, t' i 
 west country manufactures, as kerseys, druggets, &c. 14.Tv, o 
 chee,-e fairs at Chipping Norton. 15. There are eight fairs in 
 Perth; and, 16. A great cattle fair at Falkirk ; besides innumerable 
 other fairs, throughout the island, for all sorts of goods. Among 
 the principal free fairs in France were those of St. Germains, Lyoii'-', 
 Rheinis, Chartre--, Kouen, Bourdeaux, Troycs, Bayoriu", Diejipe, 
 he. The most noted fairs in Germany are those of r'rankfort, 
 Leipriic, and Nuremburg; not only on account of the great trad-, 
 but the vast concourse of princes of the empire, nobility, and peo- 
 ple, who come to them from all parts of Germany to partake of 
 the diversions. 
 
 Fair Isle, or Faro, a small island lying between Orkney and 
 Slietland, 30 miles E. N. E. from the former; and 24 S. W. |rc,i-,i 
 the latter. It is above three miles long, and nearlv twobroad. 
 
 FAIRFAX, a county of Virginia, on the W. bJnks of the Pi>to- 
 mac, -5 miles long and 13 broad. The chief town is Alexanciria. 
 
 f'AIRFIELD, a popidous maritime county of Connecticut, 
 bordering on the Slate of New York. 
 
 Fairfield, the capital of the above county, called Unquowa by 
 the Indians, is seated on the Mill-run, a little above its inllux into 
 Long Island Sound. 
 
 I'^AIRFORD, a town in Gloucestershire, remarkable for its 
 church, which has curious painted glass windows. They represeiit 
 the most remarkable histori(;s in tiie Old and Nev.- Testament. 
 The painter was Albert Durer. It is 25 miles E. of Gloucester. 
 
 FAIR WEATHER, CAPE, a cape on the E. coast of Pata- 
 gonia. Lou. 03. 10, \V. Lat. 51. 45. S. 
 
 F'AIRY, \_fa-hth, Sa\on; fee Fr. ab ija, terra, fit & fej<i Ma- 
 cedonum dialecto; unde Jvfjo' "f!;^!, & Romanis inferi, qui Scoto 
 SaxPnibus dicuntur feries, nostratiq ; vulgo corruptius/n»iV.?, w.n- 
 ^3-ovioi iii.ijj.iyi;, sive dii manes. Baxter's Glossary,] a kind of 
 fabled beings supposed to appear in a dimiHutive human form, and 
 to dance in the meadows, and reward cleanliness in houses ; an 
 elf; a fay. Fairies were most usually imagined to be women of 
 an order superior to human nature, yet subject to wants, passions, 
 accidents, and even death; sprightly and benevolent wliile young 
 and handsome ; morose, peevish, and malignant, if ugly, or in the 
 decline of their beauty; fond of appearing in white, whence ihey 
 are often calle.l the white ladies. Jerveise of Tilleberry, wiar^hal 
 of the kingilcm of Aries, who lived in the beginniag ol the 13th 
 century, writes thus concerning them, in a work inscribed lo the 
 emperor Ollio IV. " It has been asserted by persons of unex- 
 ceptionable credit, that fairies used to choose themselves gallants 
 from among men, and rewarded their attachment with an aillucncc 
 of worldly goods; but if they married, or boasted of a fairy's 
 favours, they as severely smarted for such indiscretion." This idea 
 of fairies has a near affinity with that of the Greeks and Romans, 
 concerning the nymphs of the woeds, mountains, rivers, and 
 springs ; and an ancient scholiast on d'hcocritus says, " The 
 nymphs are demons which appear on the mountain'; in the figure 
 ofuomen. " The Arabs and other orientals have also their ginii 
 and peri, of whom they entertain the like notions. 
 
 Fairy Circle, or Ring, a pha;nomenon pretty frequent in the 
 fields, S;c. long supposed to be traced bv the fairies in their dances, 
 There are two kinds of it ; one of about seven yards in diameter, 
 containing a round bare path, a foot broad, with green grass in tht 
 middle of it. The other is of a different bigness, encompassec 
 with a circumference of grass. Some suppose these circles to b^ 
 made by ants, which are often found in great numbers in theni. 
 Messrs. "Jessop and Walker, in the Philosophical 'I'ransactions, as 
 cribe them to lightning ; which is thought to be confirmed by theii 
 being most frequently produced after storms of that kind, as Wei 
 as by the colour anil brittleness of the grass roots when first ob 
 served. Lightning, like all other fires, moves round, and burin 
 more in the extremity than in the middle: the second circle arise 
 from the first, the grass burnt up growing very plentifully aft^r 
 wards. Mr. Cavallo, however, in his valuable Treatise on Elec 
 tricity, does not think that lightning is concerned in the forniatici 
 of them : " They are not (says he) always of a circular figure ; and 
 as I am informed, they seem to be rather beds of mushixoms thai 
 the tfiiscts of lightijing"." Dr. Wolla'.ton has, in a late \oluinR o 
 
 ihi
 
 FA I 
 
 363 
 
 I ' A I 
 
 KiL- " TiMti aciioiis ot tlie Roy^il Socieiy," given a no'.v and very 
 ingenious Iheorv. '1 hat wliicli lirst attracleil his notice was ti.e 
 position ot ce.t<«ui fungi which are always t'oun<l growing upon 
 tlJCiC circle^, if cxainined in a proper suascn. lie uas intkicfd 
 from the position of the^.' fungi to iina.;ine that the pro^re.-sive in- 
 crease from a central piiinl wa-: the prol)Lil)le mode of formation of 
 the ring: henie he conjectured that the ?oil, uhicli had once 
 contributed to the su|)port ol the fungi, might be ^o exhausted of 
 some peculiar pahuKun necessary for their production as to be ren- 
 dered incapable of proihicing a second crop. Hence tiie second 
 year's crop would appear in a small rng surrounding the original 
 centri" of vegetation, and at every succee.l.iig year the defect of 
 nutriment on one siile would necessarily cause the new roots to 
 extend themselves solely in the opjiosite direction, and would oc- 
 casion the circle of fungi continually to proceed, by an annual eii- 
 largeinent. from the centre outwards. Ai\ appearance of luxuri- 
 ance of the grass would follow as a natural conse(|Ucnce, as the soil 
 of an interior circle would always be enrich>d by the decaye<l roots 
 ol" fungi of the year's growth. 'I'his theory is supported by some 
 observations of Dr. Withering; and Dr. WoUaston says, by way 
 of conhrmation, th.it whenever two adjacent circles are fi.und to 
 interfere, they not only do not cross each other, but both circles 
 are invariably obliterated between the points of con' act: the ex- 
 haustion occasioned bv each ob.-,trncts the progress of the other, 
 and both are starved. 'Phil. Trans. 1S07, Part 11. 
 
 FAITH, \_Joi, Vtench; fede, Italian ; _/i'rfei-, Latin,] in philoso- 
 phy, is that assent w hich we give to a proposition advanced by 
 another, the truth of which we do not imnie<liatelY perceive from 
 our own reason or experience ; or it is that judgement or assent of 
 the mind, the motive whereof is not any intrinsic evidence but the 
 authority and testimony of some other who reveals or rel;;tes it. 
 Hence, as there are two kinds of authorities and testimonies, the 
 one of God, and the other of man, faith becomes distinguished into 
 divine and luinian : 
 
 1. Faith, Divise, is that founded on the authority of God ; or 
 that assent we give to what is revealed by God. The objects of 
 this faith, therefore, are matters of revelation. See Ri;velatio.v 
 and Religion. 
 
 '2. Faith, Human, is that whereby we believe wliat is told us 
 by men. The object hereof is matter of human testimony and 
 evidence. See NIetaphysics. 
 
 Faith, in practical theology and Christianity, is the first of theo- 
 logical viitues or graces. F'aith in God, in this sense, denotes such 
 a conviction of his being, pcrfeclior.s, character, and government, 
 as produces love, tru^t, worsliip, obedience, and resignation. Faith 
 by divines is geneially distingui>hed into four sorts viz. h;ti..rical, 
 temporary, the faith of miracles, and justifying or saving faith. 1. 
 trjjj Historical, win reby we assent to the truths of revelation, as a kind 
 of certain and infallible record: this, when without works, is dead 
 Jam. 2. 17 ; of this kind is the faith of devils Jam. 2. \i). 2. A 
 temporary faith, whereby, with some degreeof affection we receive 
 divine truths as both certain and good; but soon after lose the 
 whole impression, since they were never rooted in the he.,rt : such 
 is the faitli of the gospel-hearers, who are compared to stonv 
 ground, Matth. 11.24. 3. The faith of miracles wherebv, froiii 
 ,1 divine impression, one is persuaded that God will work such a 
 particular miracle by his means, or upon his person ; a faith to re- 
 move mountains is of the lir^t kin<l, and faith to be healed is of the 
 last, 1 Cor. 13. 2. Jets 14. y. 4. Saving or ju>tifyiiig faith is a 
 aving grace wrought in the soul by the Spirit of God, wlieieby 
 we cordially receive Christ, as he iioft'ercd in the gospel, to be our 
 prophet, i)rie>t, and king. By this we, on the testimony of God's 
 ,vord, and liirough the operation of his Spirit, believe, that is, a:-e 
 
 ei(«»^ 
 
 ijOilr' 
 
 iitos' 
 
 jjllj fully persuaded, and conscious to ourselves, that we are utterly 
 iinful, lost, and undone, without Jesns Christ. Hence this exercise 
 of faith renders sin, or the trangressioii of the law of God, exceed- 
 ingly odious, makes us feel the burden of our past otVences to be 
 ntolerable, and insiii^utis us earnestly to seek relief. It is to those, 
 .vho are thus affected, that the Redeemer of men gives the kind in- 
 vitation, " Come unto nie all ye that labour, and are heavv 
 .iden, and I will give you rest," Mat. II. 2S. He is a partaker of 
 ;aving faith, or is a true believer, w ho on the testimony of Christ, 
 uid on other similar testimony, found in the v-ord of God, and 
 hough the inllueoce of the divine .Spirit, ventures on the atonement 
 >C Christ, that is, rsceives Christ in his priestly oflice, and ha\ing 
 
 intirely renounced every idea of merit in hnnself, he tlcp'-nds alto- 
 gether on the merits ol Je-iis Chiist, whom lie now ackncwleii-es 
 as his lord and master. It is this degree of faith whid; i-. properlv 
 called saving or ju tifying faith, tor, to come to Ciiri>t, as ex"- 
 pressed in the above passage, plainly means to depend and rely 
 fully on him, and he that 'loesth.s a'-anedly llnds, because God is 
 true, the rest promised, or deliverance fron! this load of sin ; that 
 is, his sins are remitted, or he is justilied before God. Since thft 
 subject of this article is one ot the most important in the whole 
 compass of science, we conceive.it will not be nnprojxrto present 
 a few additional observations. 1. Since he that has lailh receives 
 Christ as his prophet or teaclier, he, as a disciple or sclmlar, attends 
 to the heavenly instruction of his divine master ; he liearkeus to 
 his precepts, lollows his example, seeks to attain his temper and 
 <h'-positioii, and sets himseit to do the will oi (iod, iind to o rserve 
 all his direclieins. And the more cor<lially he does this tiie stronger 
 IS his faith. 2, Since he that has i.iilii, receives Chr.st as his priest, 
 he, as a sintul, polluted creature, having no merit, imlh:ng to re- 
 commend him to God's favour, relies wholly on the merits of 
 Christ, and this being in accpiiescence with tiie'wili, direction, and 
 purpose of God, he obtain;, as a free gift, the jjardon of his sins, and 
 the approbation ot the Divine Benin:, who accepts ot the merits of 
 Christ on his account. The more cordially a man relies on Christ, 
 the stronger is his faith, and the larger mea.ure does lie obudn of 
 God's favour, for it is done unto hiiu according to his lailh. And 
 iiere it may be oloervcd that it is not for his faith, but bv his faith, 
 that tlie believer obtains this most valuable of all blessiiiis. F.uth 
 is nut the meritorious cause, but tiie instrument bv wlucli we re- 
 ceive the heavenly treasure into earthen vessels. 3'. Since he who 
 has-faith receives Christ as his king, he, as a willing subject, pavs 
 ready obedience, to all his laws and ordinances, conlides in !iim for 
 the supply of all his wants, and for protection from all his enemies, 
 employs liiir.self in supporting the cause of Chiist, and opposes 
 under the standard of his king, the powers of tiie world, the llesh, 
 and the devil, and it is iu consequence of his faitii in Christ that 
 he gains the co.nquest, I Joh:i 5. 4. " and this is tlie victors that 
 overcometh the world even our faitii."_ But though, by tai'th we 
 are made to understand divine tilings, are rendered acci-ptabio ti> 
 God, are made to bear the fruits ot righteousness, anil empow ered 
 to conquer our spiritual enemies, yet we have nothing to boast of, 
 for boasting is excluded by the law of faith, liniii. 3. 27. The 
 reason is thut faith is not the meritorious but the instrumental 
 cause of the blessings which the believer obtains. If a prince bc- 
 hoklinga rebel reduced to a state of t'ne utmost misery, an<l tofaliv 
 unable to extricate himself, should olfer hin pardon, pntectic:;, 
 and every thing calculate i to make him happy, on condition he 
 would come to iiim in the way he had directed, and accept of liis 
 favour. If this man do not lend his ear to the voice of the piince 
 he cannot obtain the only thing which could make him h: ppv ; 
 but if he do lend his ear docs he therefore merit tlie pardon, Sec. ? 
 U he do not come to the prince in the way directed lie cannot re- 
 ceive the bounty ; hut if he do use his feet to come, does he bv that 
 merit the kindness bestowed upon him? In like manner if he 
 stretch out his hand to receive any particular gift, does lie bv that 
 act, merit the gift? Tlius fa'th is the ear by which we attend to the 
 voice ofClirist, and hear the offers of grace, and h-ssons of liMvcnlv 
 wi-dom directing the way in which we sliouhl |;rocced. But it is 
 plain, that faith does nut merit any part of the boundless mercy 
 which that celestial voice proclaims. Again faith is the feet bv 
 which we come to Christ, and move in the path of dutv ; but Ihfs 
 faith or exercise of faitli, does not merit the blessing, which bv 
 this means we enjoy. Also faith is the.haud which takes ot the ihimJ.; 
 of Christ and shews tliem to us, or makes them our own, but it 
 does not on this account merit them. And all the good wi rks, that 
 a man does acceptably to God, being properly acts of faith, can- 
 not have merit in them, but are only the instrument.il means bv 
 which we come to God, and receive the tree gilt of his favour. 
 Therefore boasting is excluded by the law of faith. Faith is said 
 to be of the operation of the Spirit of God, because that Spirit is 
 the author and hni>her of it ; it is said to work by love, because 
 in receiving_ divine tilings it attaclies the mind to the giver, and 
 henve fixes in the soul tiie p.-inciplc of love; it is said "to punfv 
 the heart, because it receives the atonement which removes our sins 
 an<l is that exercise of our <lutv in which righ'eousness coll~i^t^.' 
 Tiie Apostle observes, th'it " fuiih is Ibc '•ub-'.-uic.; of tb'.ngs iioped 
 
 fs..
 
 FAL 
 
 S04 
 
 FAL 
 
 ior, tlie evidonce of thing'; not seen, Ilch. 11. 1, And this it is 
 because it realizes spiritual iliiiigs to the mind. Faith is tlie gift of 
 Gu;l, and St. James, denoting it by the verysignilicant appellation 
 lii.ido/n, savs, " if any of you lack wisdom, let him askof God, tliat 
 ^ivelli to ail men liberally, and upbraideth not; and it shall be 
 given to him.'' Jam. 1. 5. We earnestly entreat our readers 
 above all things to secure this wisdom ; it is this which ditVuses tl;e 
 soul of happiness throughout the whole compass of our pursuits 
 and actions. 
 
 FAKENHAM, a town of Norfolk, 6 miles from the sea-coast, 
 and 2fl X. W. of Norwich. 
 
 FAKIKS, Indian monks or friars. They outdo the severity 
 and mortilication of the ancient Anchorets. Some of them make 
 a vow of continuing all their lifetime in one posture, and keep it 
 effectually. Others never lie down ; but continue in a standing 
 posture all their lives, supported only by a stick, or rope under 
 their arm-pits. Some mangle their bodies with scourges and 
 knives. They prctciid to have conque'cd every passion, and 
 triumplied over the world; and accordingly scruple not, as if in 
 a state of innocence, to appear entirely naked in public. The 
 people of East India are persuaded of the virtue of the fakirs; not- 
 withstanding which, they are accused of committing the most enor- 
 mous crimes in private. There is also another kind of fakirs, who 
 do not practise such severities ; these flock together, and go from 
 village to village, prophesying, and telling fortunes. Tliey are 
 wicked villains, and it is' dangerous to meet them in a solitary 
 place ; iieverdieless the Indian idolaters have them in the utmos't 
 veneration. 
 
 FALAISE, a town of France, in the department of Calvados, 
 and late province of Normandy, with a castle, one of the Iinest 
 towers ill France ; famous for lieing the birth-place of William the 
 Conqueror. It is 20 miles S. I'l oi Caen. 
 
 FALASIiA, a people of Abyssinia, cf Jewish origin, described 
 "by .Mr. Bruce, who was at great pains to acquaint himself with 
 their history, by cultivating the friendship of the mo-t learned per- 
 sons among them. They say, that the first book of .Scripture 
 they ever received was tliat of Enoch; and thev place that of 
 Job immediately after it, supposing that patriarch to have lived 
 soon after the Hood. Tiiey have no copy of the Old Testament in 
 theFalasha language, what they make use of being in that of Geez. 
 This is sold to them by the "Abyssinian Christians, who are the 
 only scribes in t!iat country. No dilierence takes place about 
 corruplions o( the text: nor'do the Falasha know any thing of the 
 Jewish Talmuil, Targum, or Cabala. 
 
 FALCAOE, in the manege, the motion of a horse when he 
 throws himself upon his haunches two or three limes, as in very 
 quick corvels; which is done in forming a stop and half stop. 
 
 FALCATED, something in the form of a sickle: thus, the 
 moon Js said to he falrated when she appeals horned. 
 
 _FALCO, in ornithology, a genus of birds, of the order Acci- 
 pitres. Tlie characters are these : bill hocked at the end, covered 
 at its base with a cere, or naked membrancu.s skin ; head covered 
 with feathers, which lie close on each other : tongue often cleft. 
 This is a rapacious carnivorous race of animals, feeding almost en- 
 tirely on animal food ; they are very quick-sighted, generally tly 
 liigh, and build their nests in lofty 'places. They are not g'rega- 
 rious ; ai:d the i'eniales are generally larger than the males. The 
 legs and feet are scaly ; the claws large, strong, very sharp, and 
 much hooked, ^'here are about 100 species, v ith several varie- 
 ties. Dr. Gmelin divides this genus into four sub-genera, or lesser 
 dK-isions; wlucli Mr. Kerr has. reduced to three, by including the 
 Gyp;vtus Serpentariiis, in his 2d subceniis, because it has some re- 
 lation to the vultures. These three subgenera are, 1. Gypa-ti, 
 Kastard Eagles; 2. Aquite, Eagles; and J. Falcones, Falcons and 
 Hawks. 
 
 F. AauiLA CHRYS.Eros, the Golben Eagle, weighs about 
 J3!b. and is about three feet long, the wings when extended mea- 
 suring seven feet 4 inches. The sight and sense of smeUing are 
 very acute : the head and neck are clothed with narrow, sharp- 
 apuiled feathers, of a deep brown colour bordered with tawney ; 
 rti'.' hind part of the head is of a briplit rust colour. These birds 
 ar:; very destructive to fawn:;, lamljs. ki<ls, xnd all kinds of gnme ; 
 pirli'cularly in the lireediug season, when lln-y bring a vast quan- 
 tiiy of prey to their young. Sni'.tli, in his Hisforv of Kerry, re- 
 lates, that a poor man in that country got a comfortuLde subsistence. 
 
 for his family, during a -ummer of famine, out of an eagle's ne.st» 
 by robbing the eaglets' of the food the old ones brought ; whose 
 attendance |)rotracted beyond the natural time, by clipping the 
 wings and retarding the fhght of the former. It is very unsafe to 
 leave infants in places where eagles frequent; there being instances 
 in Scotland of two being carried off by them; but, fortunately, 
 the thefts were discovered in time, and the children were restored 
 unhurt out ol the eagles nests. In order to extirpate these perni- 
 cious birds, there is a lavv in the Orkney isles, which entitles every 
 person that kills an eagle to a hen out of every house in the parish 
 where it was killed, jiagles seem to give the preference to the 
 carcases of dogs and cats. People who make it their business to 
 kill those birds, lay one of these carcases by way of bait; and 
 then conceal themselves within gun-sliot. They lire the instant 
 the eagle alights; for she, that moment, looks about before she 
 begins to prey. Yet, quick as her sight may be, her sense of 
 hearing seems still more exquisite. If hooded crows or ravens 
 happen to be nearer the carrion, and resort to it (irst, and give a 
 single croak, the eagle instantly repairs to the spot. These eagles 
 are remarkable for their longevity, and for sustaining a long absti- 
 nence from food. Mr. Keyster relates, that an eagle died at 
 \ ienna after a conlinemenl of 104 years. This pre-eminent length 
 of days is alluded to by the Psalnii.st, " Thy youth is renewed like 
 the eagle's." One of this species, which was nine years in the 
 possession of Owen Holland, Esq. of Conway, lived 32 years 
 with the gentleman who made him a present of it ; but what its 
 age was, when the latter received it from Ireland, is unknown. 
 I he same bird also furnishes us with a proof of the truth of the 
 other remark ; having once, through the neglect of servants, en- 
 dured hunger for 21 days without anv sustenance whatever. See 
 PlateLVill. 
 
 F. Halivetus, or the Osprey, is to be found in almost all parts 
 of Europe, on the borders of lakes and rivers, which it frequents 
 for the sake of the fish contained in them, which constitute iji 
 principal sub-istence, and on which it darts with unerring accuracy; 
 it builds on the ground among reeds, and is the most numerous of 
 the larger birds of prey. 
 
 F. BuTEo, or the Common Bijzzard, is abundantly provideil 
 with means of defence, as well as attack; but is sluagish and 
 cowardly with all its strength, and will suffer itself to be brought to 
 the ground by a sparrow-hawk, without at all enijjloving those 
 means, which, if fully exerted, would uniformly and inevitably 
 prove fatal to the assailant. The leiigUi of the common bnzzara 
 is about 20 inches; its food consibts_ of birds, vermin, reptiles, 
 and insects. 
 
 F. AauiLA MiLvus, the Kite, isanative of Europe, Asia, an^ 
 Africa. This spixies generally breeds in large forests or woody 
 mountainous countries. Itsne^t is composed of sticks, lined with 
 several odd materials, such as rags, bits of flannel, ropes, and pa- 
 per. They are white, spotted with dirty yellow. Its motion in 
 the air distinguishes it from all other bird.s, being so smootf 
 and even that it is scarce perceptible. Sometimes it will re 
 main (juite motionless for a considerable space ; at others glidi 
 through the sky without the least apparent action of its uiii»s 
 from tlience deriving the old name of Glede, t'rom the Saxon glida 
 They inhabit the N. of Europe, as high as Jarlsberg, in the S. o 
 Norway ; but do not e.-^tend farther. They are observed in va> 
 numbers about C'airo, where they are extremely tame, and fte( 
 even on dates, probably for want of other food. They appear ii 
 Greece in the spring. In Brf'tain they are found the whole year 
 Lord Bacon observes, that when kites fly higli, it portends fair am 
 dry weather. Mr. Kerr enumerates three varieties of this species 
 viz. the Siberian, Russian, and Jaic Kites. 
 
 F. OssiFKACus, the Ossrey, or Se.\-Eagle, freipients tli' 
 sea-shore, and subsists principally upon fish ; it is nearly of the siz 
 of the golden oagle, and is found in many countries both of En 
 rope and America ; its sight is stated to be equally clear by iiigl 
 and by day. Mr. Barlow relates, that he saw a bird of this spe 
 cies engaged once in a violent conflict in the air with a cat whic 
 he hail lifteil in his talons, wliose efforts, however, were Anally to 
 powerful for him, and brouglit him again to the ground. Martin 
 speaking of the great eagles of the Western Isles, says, tliat the 
 fasten their talons in the l)a<k of the lisli, commonly salmon, whic 
 are otti-n above the water, or very near tlie surface. Those i 
 Greenland will eveji lake a young seal out of the water. Ital; 
 
 t P'"«)
 
 I 
 
 F AL 
 
 56.5 
 
 preys on waler fowl. This species is IVeqiieal in Nortli America, 
 and was met willi in Botany Island by Captain Cook. See Plate 
 LVTII. 
 
 P'ALCONARA, an island in the Grecian Archipelago. See 
 Falconry. 
 
 FALCONRY, the exercise of taking wild-fowl by means ol 
 hawks. Tlie primaeval Britons, with a fondiiess for tli(; exercise of 
 hunting, had al-;o a taste for that of hawking; and every chief 
 among them maintained a considerable number of birds tor that 
 sport. To tlie Romans this diversion w;i3 scarcely known in the 
 days of Wspasian ; yet it was introduced immediately afterwards. 
 Most probably they adopted it from the Britons ; but we certainly 
 know that they greatly improved it by tlie introduction of spaniels 
 into the islanil. In thi^ state it appears "among lire Roman Britons in 
 the sixth century. In al'ler-times, liawkingwas the principal amuse- 
 ment of tlie Enalish . a person of rank scarcely stirred out without 
 his hawk on his hand ; wliich, in old paintings, is almost the cri- 
 terion of nobility. Harold, afterwards king of England, when he 
 went on a most "important embassy into Normsiid), is painted em- 
 barking with a bird oil his finger, and a dog under his arm: and in 
 au ancient picture of the nuptials of Henry VI. a nobleman is re- 
 presented in much the same manner; for in those days, " it was 
 thought sufficient for noblemen to wind their horn, and to carry 
 their hawk fair, and leave study and learning to the children of 
 mean people." The cxpcnce was great thai someiinies attended 
 this sport. In the reign of James I. Sir Thomas .\loii>on is said to 
 have given 1000/. for a cast of hawks : we are not then to wunder 
 at the Vigour of the laws that tended to preserve a pleasure wliich 
 iv.is carried to such an extravagant pitcii. In tlie 34tli of E<hvard 
 III. it was made felony to steal a hawk ; to take its eggs, even in 
 a person's own ground, was punishable witli imprisonment for a 
 vear and a day, besides a tine at the king's pleasure : in queen 
 „lilizabetli's reign, the imprisonment was reduced to three months ; 
 but the offender was to find security for his good behaviour for 
 seven years, or lie in prison till he did. The falcons or hawks 
 that were in use in these kingdoms are now found to breed in 
 Wales, and in North Britain and its isles. The peregrine-falcon 
 inhabits the rocks of Caernarvonshire. The same species, with 
 the gyr-falcon, the gentil, and the gos-hawk, are found in Scot- 
 land, .ind the lanner in Ireland. We may here lake notice, that 
 the Norwegian breed was, in old times, in high esteem in Eng- 
 jfatd : they were thought bribes worthy a king, Jeoffrey Fitz- 
 aierre gave two good Norway hawks to king John, to obtain for 
 ak friend the liberty of exporting 100 cwt. of cheese ; and Nicho- 
 las the Dane was fo give the king a hawk every lime he came into 
 ^gland, for the liberty to trartic throughout the king's dominion-i. 
 falconry, though an exercise now iinich disused among us, yet 
 furnishes a great variety of significant terms, which still obtain in 
 our language. Thus, the parts of a hawk liave their proper names. 
 The legs from the thigh to the foot, zre railed arms ; the toes the 
 petty singles; the claws the pounces. The wings are called tiie 
 sails; the long feathers the beams; the two longest, the principal 
 feathers; those next, the flags. The tail is called the train; the 
 breast-feathers the mails; those behind the thigh the pendant fea- 
 thers. When the feathers are not yet full-grown she is said to be 
 Jinsummed; when they are complete, she is summed: the craw, 
 or crop, is called the gorge; the pine next the fundament, where 
 ttie feces are drawn down, is ralleil the pannel : the slimy sub- 
 stance lying in tlce pannel is called the glut: the upper and crook- 
 ed part of the bill is culled the beak ; the nether part, the clap ; 
 the yellow part between the bt-ak and the eyes, the sear or sere; 
 the two small holes therein, the nares. As to her furniture : the 
 leathers with bells buttoned on her leg=, are called bewits. The 
 leathern thong, whi reby the falconer holdi the hawk, is called the 
 lease or lash ; the little straps, by which the lease is fa^tened to the 
 legs, jesses; and a line or jiackt bread fastened to the lease, in ilis- 
 ctplining her, a creance. A cover for her head, to keep her in the 
 dark, is called a hood ; a large wide hood, open behind, to be 
 worn at t'lrst, is railed a rufter-hoorl : to draw ilie strings, that the 
 hood may be in readiness to be pulleil olT, is called unstriking tiie 
 hood. 'Ihe blinding of a hawk jint taken, by running a thread 
 through her eye-lids, and thus drawing them over the eyes, to pre- 
 pare her for boiug hooded, is tailed seeling. A ligure or resem- 
 blance of a fowl, made of leather and feathers, is called a lure. 
 Her resting-place, when olf the falconer's hand, is called the 
 
 VOL, II. — NO. 79. 
 
 
 FAT. 
 
 perch. The place where her meat is laid, is called the hack ; and 
 that wherein she is set while her fealhei-s fall am! come again, the 
 mew. Something given a hawk to cleanse and |>urgc her gorge, 
 is called casting. Small fealhei-s given her to make; her cast, are 
 called plumage. Gravel given her to help to bring down her sto- 
 mach is called rangle. Her throwing up hith from the gorge after 
 casting is called gleaming. The ])urgiiig of her grease, &c. en- 
 seainiiig. Her being stuired is called gurgiting. The inserting a 
 feather in her wing in lieu of a broken one is called imping. The 
 giving her a leg, wing, or pinion, of a fowl to pull at, is called tir- 
 ing. Tl>e neck of a bird the hawk preys on is called the inke. 
 What the hawk heaves of lier prey is called the i)ill, or pelf. 
 There are also proper terms iiseii tor several actions. When she 
 llutters with her wings, as if striving to gel away, either from tlie 
 perch or fist, she is said to bale. When, standing too near, they 
 light with each other, it is called crabbing. When the young ones 
 quiver, and shake their wings in ubediencc to the elder, it is called 
 cowring. When she wipes her beak alter feeding, she is said to 
 fcak. When she sleeps, she is s,.idtojouk. From the time of 
 exchanging her coat till she turn white again, is called her inter- 
 mewing. Treading is called cawkihg. When she slrelrlies one 
 of lier wings alter her legs, and then the other, it is called mant- 
 ling. Her dung is called muting; when she mutes a good way 
 from her, she is said to slice ; when she does it directly down, in- 
 stead of verking backwards, she is said to slinie; and if it be in 
 drops, it is called dropping. When she sneezes, it is called snit- 
 ing. Wlien she raise> and shakes herself, she is said to rouze, 
 W hen, after mantbng, she crosse; her wings together over her 
 back, she is s'aid to warble. When a hawk sei:'es she ;s said to 
 bind. When, after seizing, she pulls oil' the feathers she is said to 
 plume. When she raises a fowl aloft, and at lenglii descends with 
 it to the ground, it is called trussing. When being aloft, she de- 
 scends to strike her, then it is called stooi>ing. W lie she flies or 
 keeps far from game, she is said to rake. When, forsaking her 
 proper game, she tlies at |)yes, crows, ic. that chance to crois her, 
 it is called the check. W''hen, missing her prey, she betakes her- 
 self to the next check, she is said to liy on head. The fowl or 
 game she flios at is called the quarry. The dead body of a fowl 
 killed by the hawk, is called a pelt. When she flies away with 
 the quarry, she is said to carry. When in stooping slie turns two 
 or three times on the wing, to recover herself ere she seizes, it is 
 called canceliering. When she hits the prey, yet does not truss 
 it, it is called ruti'. The making of a hawk lame and gentle is called 
 reclaiming. The bringing of her to endure company, man.iing her. 
 An old staunch hawk, used to fly and set example to a young one, 
 is called a make hawk. The reclaiming, manning, and brmging 
 up of a hawk to the sport, is not easy to be brought to any precise 
 set of rules. It consists in a number of little practices and obier- 
 vances, calculated to familiarize the falconer to his bird, to pro- 
 cure the love of it, &c. When your iiawk comes readily to the 
 lure, a large pair of luring bells are to be put upon her; and the 
 more giddy-headed and apt to rake out your hawk is, the larger 
 must the bells be. Having done this, and she being sharp-sef, 
 ride out in a fair morning, into some large held unencumbered 
 with trees or wood, with your hawk on your hand; then having 
 loosened her hood, whistle soflly to provoke hertotly; unhooU 
 her, and let her fly with her head' into llie wind ; for by tliat means 
 she will be the better able to get upon tlie wing, and will nalurally 
 climb upwards, flying a circle. Alter she has flown three or lour 
 turns, then lure h'er with your voice, casting the lure about a our 
 head, having first tied a pullet to it; and if your falcon come in 
 and approach near you, cast out tlie lure into ihe wind, and if she 
 stoop to it reward her. You will often find, that when she flies 
 from the fist, she w ill take stanil on the ground : this is a fault 
 which is very common with soar-falcons. 1 o remedy this, fright 
 her up with your wand; and when you have forced her to take a 
 turn or two, take her down to the lure and feed her. But if this 
 does not do, then you must have in readiness a duck sealed, so 
 that she m.-iy see no way but backwards, and that will make her 
 mount the higher. Hold this duck in your liaml, by one of the 
 wings near the body; then lure with the voice, to make the falcon 
 turn her head; and'whcn she is at a reasonable pitch, c.ist your 
 duck up just under her; when, if she strike, stoop, or truss the 
 duck, permit her to kill it, and reward her by giving her a reason- 
 able gorge. After you have practised this' two or three times, 
 5 A ' your
 
 FAL 
 
 FAL 
 
 jour hawk willleave the stanc!, and, dflighlid to be oa the wing, 
 will be very obfilier.t. It is not convenient, for tiie lirsl or second 
 lii-ie, to >ihew your luiwk a large fowl; for it frequently iiiippens, 
 tlvat they escape frcii) tiie liawk, and she, not recoveiing them, 
 rakf aiter tliem: this gives the falconer trouble, and freqiienlly 
 ricCiKions the loss of the hawk. But if she. happen to pursne a 
 fowl, an-.i being unable to recover it, give it over, and tome in 
 ^gain directlv, then cast out a sealed duck: and it she stoop and 
 truas it across tli.e wings, permit her lo take her pleasure, reward- 
 ing hiTiilso with tiie heart, brains, tongue, and liver. But if you 
 \xxri not ^ quick duck, take her down with a dry lure, and let her 
 p'ui'iie, aipullef and feed nnon it. By this means a hawk will learn 
 to <Jive over a fowl that rakes out, and, on hearing the falconer's 
 lure, will make back again, and know ihe better how to hold in 
 the head. 
 
 ^ F.'VLEKn, in ancient geography, a town and territory of Etru- 
 ria, on the W. or ri^ht side of the Tiber. The territory was la- 
 nidus for its rich p:isturi'; hence tie grameii Fahscum in authors. 
 
 F.VLEKNUS AGLR, a district al the f )0t of mount Massiciis 
 in Campania; fa. nous for its generous wines; now called Monte 
 Masiico. 
 
 ■ FALSZ(N, a toAn of Eiuopean Tiirkw, in Walachia, on the 
 Prtirii. Lon. L'n. 40. E. Lat. 45. 15. N. ' 
 
 FALltf, a river of Chinese Tartaiy, which runs into the sea of 
 Japan. 
 
 FALISCI, Ihe people of Falerii, called .'Equi, by Virgil, be- 
 cause they afforded svipplcmental laws to th>' XII Tables. 
 ' FALKENAU, a town of Bohemia, in ihe circle of Saatz, on 
 'tfie I^gcv; tC nnles W. of Prague. 
 
 FAl.KENBEBG, a seaport town of Sweden, in the province 
 of Rallnnd, on the Scaggerac, 52 miles N. of Uelsingoorg. 
 
 FALKENBURG, a town of Germany, in Brandenburg, six 
 miles E. of Drambnrg- 
 
 FALKENHAM, cr FALKINGHAM, a town of Lincoln- 
 shire, 18 miles \V. by .S. of Boston. 
 
 FALKENSTEIX, a townof Gcnnany, in the department of 
 Mont Tonncne ; 21 miles W. of Worms. 
 
 FALKIA, a genus of the trigynia order, and hexandria class of 
 plants. Cal\x bell-Aaped, five cleft; corolla bell-shaped; stig- 
 mas orbicular, peltate; seeds four-arilled. There is but one spe- 
 cies, v\/.. V. rcpens, creeping Falkia. 
 
 FALKIUK, a town ot Scotland, in Stirlingshire, chiefly sup- 
 ported by great fairs for black cattle from the Highlands; 24,000 
 head being annually sold there. It is 8 miles S. E. of Stirling, 
 and 24 W. of E<linburgh. 
 
 FALKLAND, a town of Scotland, in Fifeshire, 15 miles N. 
 of Edinburgh. 
 
 pAtKLA.ND Islands, a range of islands, at the utmost extremity 
 cf South America, not far Ironi the Straits of Vlagellan. 'I'hey 
 we.'e discovered by Sir Rcliard Havvkins in 1594. The soil is 
 bad, and the shores are bfaten b\ perpetual storms. Lon. be- 
 tween 50" and 5b° W. Lat. from 51° to 53" S. 
 
 Falkland Sound, a strait which separates the two largest of 
 the Falklmd isl.mds. 
 
 FALKOPING, a town of Sweden in W. Gothland; 56 miles 
 E. of I'adervalla. 
 
 Fall, hi the seadangiiage, that part of the rope of a tackle, 
 which IS hauled upon. Also when a ship is under sail, and keeps 
 not so near the wind as she should do, they say she falls off; or 
 when a ship is net flush, but hath r.sings of some parts of hei decks 
 more than others, it is called falls. 
 
 Fall, th.e name cf a measure of length used in Scotland, con- 
 taining six ells. 
 
 Fau. OK Man, in sacre.l history, that awful event by which 
 sin and death were introduced into the world. See Theology. 
 
 Fallacy, in philosophy, false appearance^ "^Ihe Epicu- 
 reans deny thr.t theie is any such tiling as a fallacy of the senses. 
 Accordiiig to them, ail otir s<Mi.<ations and perceptions, both of 
 sense and phantasy, are true; whence they make sense the pri- 
 mary crilurion ot truth. The Cartesians, on the other hand, 
 jiiaintiiiii, that we should suspect as false, or utmost as ilubieus, 
 every thing that ^ resents it'-elt to us by means only of the external 
 senses, bi'cause they licqut ntly deceive us; and that our senses, 
 as being fallacious, were never given ns hv nature lor ihediscovcrv 
 «( trutli, or the conieniflaticn of the princijples of things; but onlv 
 
 for pointing out to us what things are conveuiint or hurtful to our 
 bodies. The P-ripatetics kiep a middle course. They say, that 
 if a sensible oliject be taken ui ils conmion or general view, the 
 sense cannot be deceived about it ; but that if the object be takea 
 under its specific view, the sen.^e may be mislaken about it, from 
 the want of the dispositions ntce-sary to a juit sensation, as a dis. 
 order in the organ, or any thing uncommon in the medium : thus, 
 in some disorders of the eye, ail abjccts appear yellow; a stick in 
 water appears liroken or crooked, &c. 
 
 FALEAFAJEEA, one nf the Friendly islands, 
 
 F.ALLLNG SICKNESS, the same with epilepsy. See Me* 
 
 DICINE. 
 
 Fallin-g-star, in nieti orolosy, a phrcnoinenon that is fre- 
 quently seen, and v. bich lias been u^ua!ly supposed to depend on 
 the electric fluid. Others conceive that the} are rather to be at- 
 trihuted to falling stones. ]t is observable that when their appear- 
 ance is frequent they have all the same direction; and it has been 
 fem.irked that they are the ioreiunners ot a westerly wind in our 
 country. See MiVrEoa. 
 
 F.-^LLOPI.'VN TUBES, two canals of a tortuous figure, but 
 approaching to a conic form, joined to the fundus of the uterus, 
 one on each side. See Anatomy. 
 
 FALLOPU'S, C'ABRiaL, a celebrated physician and anatomist,, 
 born at Modena, m 1523, and descended oi a noble family. He 
 made several discoveries in anatomy, one of which was that of the 
 tubes, called from him the Fallopian tuoes. He travelled through 
 the greatest part of Europe; was made professor of anatomy at 
 Pisa, in 1548, and at Padua in 1551, witerc he died in 156i, aged 
 39. His writings, w'lich are iiunierouj, were first printed sepa- 
 rately, and afterwards collected under the title of " Opera geiiuma 
 omnia, tarn practica quam thcoretica, in ties Tomos di^tribnta." 
 They were printed at Venice in 15S5, and in IbuC; at Franklort 
 in 1600, cum operum appendice; and in 160(j, in lolio. 
 
 FALLOWING, in agriculture, is the mode of preparing landi 
 by ploughing it a considerable time before it is ploughed for seed. 
 Lands are laid fallow either lUning the summer, or during the win- 
 ter, according to the nature ol tlie sod, and the judgement of the 
 cultivator. Very able arguments have been alleged as well for, as 
 against summer fallows, by skillul agriculturists. Both summer 
 and winter fallows, however, are occasionally useful on ilifleient 
 soils. The advantages to be d rived Irem tallowing are: 1. By re- 
 jieatedly turning soils over, much catbuiiic acid, or fixed air, is 
 produced in a huid state, which remains uirted with the vegetable 
 recrements, or with volatile alkali, ir calcareous earth. 2. The 
 parts of the soil become better incorporated, and thus reciprocally 
 meliorated; so that ihey may anord more unifonn nourishment 
 to the roots of plants. 3. The pulverized soil is more easily pene- 
 trable, and thus exposes a greater suiface of its cavities to the ve» 
 getable absorbents. 4. All unfrnlitable plants, or weeds, l)eing 
 thus eradicated, or continually ploughed uiuier the soil, while yet 
 young, a considerable proportion ol ve,;etable nutriment will be 
 reserved, and fa-ther increased, by tiie saccharine and mucilagi- 
 nous matter of the young vegetables buried by the plough. Lastly, 
 some plant', during their herbi.ceous state, do not exhaust the 
 ground on which they grow% before the seed-stems arise; as tur« 
 nips, for instance, when pulled up, and carried away for the pur- 
 pose of feeding cattle, or sheep, on other' grounds. This benefit 
 appears to arise from the sod being shaded by the thick foliage of 
 those vegetables, and consetpiently meliorated; for its nutritious 
 properties cannot have suffered by evaporation so much, as if the 
 land had been exposed to the scorching iuihience of the sun. Dr. 
 Uarwin, when treating on this subject, justly observes, that, thoiigli 
 a summer fallo'.y may be of adv.aitage to a poor soil, which has 
 nothing to lose, )et it must be injurious to a rich one, which has 
 nothing to gain. A fallow-cleansing machine was invented by a 
 IVlr. Aaron Ogden, a smith, at Ashton-under-Line, near .Manches- 
 ter, It consists of two large rollers, armed with iron spikes, to 
 which the inventor prefixed a h.,rrow so constructed, that it may 
 be set to go to any depth in a furrow, without weighting; and will 
 pulverize the soil, raise the roots, or weeds, to the surface^ and at 
 the same time not be obstructed by their accumuhition, though it 
 should raise as many weeds as would load a cart within the short 
 space of five yards. There are several other pieces of machinery 
 belonging to this implement; but as they are intricate, we refer 
 the reader to the 3d vol; of tiie work, entitled " Wustum Bnsli- 
 9 . turn
 
 
 FAM 
 
 pans 
 
 3fS7 
 
 FAN 
 
 mimiUlv (icbciil)C(l, 
 
 cum ft C'omnior.i.ilc," wlu'rc 
 anfl i\liisti-,iie(l w iili a plak'. 
 
 FALMOU I'll, a port town of CoruwaH, tiii a fine b;iy of tim 
 Enol^li cli.iiiiK'l, 10 miles S. orTruro. l.oii. ^1. J7. W. Lji. jil. 
 8. N. lli'^h water oji the day of the chapijo r.iul hill ot the moon 
 t/t thirty mimile^ past fn e in the aftc-movni. 
 
 J"'Ai.MnV'TH, a township at Aiitigiia, on tin- H. sliore. 
 Falmouih, a town of Jamaica, called also the Toint, on the S. 
 side oi Martha Hrae harbuur. 
 
 FalMlUth, a town cl the United States, in the district of 
 Maine, Cmnherlainf couiitv, seated on Casco Bav, 120 niile> 
 N. N.E. of Boston. 
 
 Falmouth, a town of Pennsylvania, in Lancaster county, 20 
 IpiU-i \V. of l_,anca-ter. , 
 
 ■ FALSli AC'l'lON, if brought against one, whereby he is cast 
 ittio prison, and dies pendin;; tlie 'suit, the law gives no remedy in 
 tlii.s case, because the truth or faUehood of the matter cannot ap- 
 pear before it is tried : and if the plaintilT is barred, or non-sniled 
 at common law, regnlarly all the pmiisluneiit is amercement. 
 
 False Bay, a bay lynig E. ot the Cape of Good Hope; fre- 
 qticnted bv vessels during th-e prevalence of the N.W. winds 
 Muliich bep>n to blow in Mav, and render it d ingerous to remani 
 ill Table "Bay. Lon. 18. 33. E. Lat. j4. 10. S. 
 
 False C.m-e IIohn, the S. W. point of Terra del Fuego. 
 False Impkison.ment, is a lres|)ass committed against a person, 
 by arre^tillg and impii>oning him without just cause, contrary to 
 la« ; or where a '.nan is unlawfully detained without legal process: 
 aud it is also used for a writ which is brought for this trespass. It 
 a person be any way unlawfully detained, it is false imprisonment; 
 and considerable damages are recoverable in those actions. 
 
 False News, Spreading of, in order to make discord be- 
 :ween the king and nobility, or concerning any great man of the 
 realm, is punishalile by coinmor law with line and imprisonment ; 
 which is confirmed by statutes Westm. 1. 3 Edw. 1. c. 31. 2 
 Rich. 11. Stat. 1. cap. 5. and 13 Rich. U. cap. II. 
 
 FALSI CRIMEN, in the civil law, is fraudulent subornation 
 or concealment, with design to darken or hide the truth, and make 
 Itbings appear otherwise than they are. The crimen falsi is coinmit- 
 led, 1. By words, as when a witness swears falsely. 2. By writing, 
 as when a man antedates a contract, QX the like. 3. By deed, as 
 when he sells by false weights and measures. 
 
 FALSIFY IISG A RECORD, signifies shewing it to be erro- 
 neous. Tlui^ lawyers teach, that a person purchasing land of an- 
 other, who is ilterv\ards outlawed of felony, &c. may falsify the 
 iiecord, not only as to the time wherein the felony is supposed to 
 lave been committed, but al-o as to the point of the oflence. But 
 where a man is knind guilty by verdict, a purchaser cannot falsify 
 as to tile oflence ; though he may tor the time where the party is 
 found guilty generally in the indictment, because the time is not 
 material upon evidence. 
 
 FALS TEK, a fertile island of Denmark, at the entrance of the 
 Baltic, S. of Zealand, 60 miles in circumference. Nyekioping, 
 and Stubbekiop.ng, are the cliicf towns. 
 
 FALSTERBO, a sea-port town of Sweden, in the province of 
 ISchonen, '2'2 miles S. S. VV. of Lund. 
 
 FALUGA, a town of Asiatic Turkey, in the Arabian Irak, 25 
 miles S. E. of Bagdad. 
 
 Fah.'GA, a small island ne.tr the W. coast of Sardinia, 12 miles 
 S. of Cape Argentera. 
 
 F'ALX, in anatomy, a process of the dura mater placed between 
 the two hemispheres of ihe brain, and resembling a reaper's sickle. 
 P'AMA CLAMOSA, in the judicial procedure of the church 
 of Scotland, a grounil of action before a presbytery against one of 
 its members, independent of any regular complaint by a particular 
 accuser. Any person of a good character may give to the presby- 
 tery a.complaint against one of their member'-' ; but the presbytery 
 is not to proceed to the citation of tiie person accused, until the 
 accu-er under his hand giv( s in the complaint, with some account 
 of its probability, and undertakes to make out the libel, under the 
 pain of being considered as a slanderer When such an accusation 
 IS brought before tiien), they are obliged candidly to examine the 
 affair. 
 
 FAMACUSTA. or FAM AGOSTA, a city of Asiatic Turkey, 
 on the E. ( oa-t of Cyprus, anciently called Faina Augusta. It is 
 ;28 miles W. of Tripoli in Syria. 
 
 FAME, in the L'Ciithen ni)tho!ogy, a goddess, celebrated 
 
 chieiiv bv tlie poets. She i-i feigned to 1 ave been tiie last of the 
 race ()f 1'itaiis produced by the Earth, to have her palace in the 
 air, and to have a vast number of eyes, ears, and tongues. She is 
 meniioned by Ilesiod, and parliciilarly described by Ovid atul 
 \irgil. 
 
 F.\MES CANTX.A, an excessive appetite. See BfLiMY. 
 
 FAMIA, orAK.VMIA, the modern name of one of the an- 
 cient A])ameas. 
 
 FA.MILIARS, in the Iiupiisition, persons who assist in ajjpn'- 
 heiuliiig such Qi are accused, and carrying them to prison, 'i hey 
 are assistants to the inquisitor, and called familiars, because- they 
 belong to his faniily. In some provinces of Italy they are called 
 cross-bearers, and in others the scholars of St. I'eter the martyr; 
 and thev wear a cros.s before them on the outside g.irment. They 
 are properly baililf's of the inquisition; ami the vile ofl)ce I3 
 esteemed so honourable, that noble. iien in Portugal have been 
 ambitious of it. Nor is this surpii;.ing, wlien it is considered tl^at 
 innocent 111. granted very large indulgences and privileges to 
 these familiars; and that the same plenary indulgence is granted 
 by the pope to every single exercise of this office, as was grauled 
 bv the Lateral! council to tho;e who succoured the Holy Lf nd. 
 Whi'H several persons are to be t.iken up at the same time, tlu-se 
 familiars are commanded to order mailers so, that they may know 
 nothing of one another's being appreiiended ; and it i- related, th..t 
 a father, with his three son-, and three daughters, who lived toge- 
 ther in the same house, were carried prisoners to the inquisition, 
 without knowing any thing of one another's being there till seven 
 years afterwards, when they that were alive were relea^ed by aii 
 act of faith. 
 
 FAMILY, [^fu 1)1 ilia, Lat.] denotes the persons that live toge- 
 ther in one house, under the direction of one head or chief mana- 
 ger. It also signifies the kinilred or lineage of a person, and i^ 
 used by old writers for a hide or portion of land sulVicient to 
 maintain one family. 
 
 Family, in natural history, a term used by authors to expre>s 
 anv order of animals, or other natural productions of the same 
 clas-. 
 
 Family Lake, a lake of N. America. Lon. 93. 20. W. Lat. 
 52. 35. N. 
 
 FAMINE, or FAM EN E, in geography, a territory in tlie 
 \V. part of the late duchy of Luxemburg; now included in tne 
 department of Forets. Marche and Roche are the cliief towns. 
 
 Famine, Pokt, a bay of South America, in the Straits of Ma- 
 gellan. Lon. 71. 26. Vy. Lat. 53. 43. S. 
 
 Famine, Port, a fortress on the N. E. coast of Patagonia, 
 where a Spanish garrison perished for want: whence the name of 
 the fort and bay. Lo.i. 70. 20. W. Lat. 55. 44. S. 
 
 FAN, a well knovMi contrivance employed chiefly by females 
 to raise wind, cool the air by agitating if, and defend their com- 
 plexion. This kind of toy was introduced into Britain from the 
 East, where it is very generally used for sieading the face from the 
 sun, and guarding it against troublesome insects. Allliougli the 
 practice of fanning be sanctioned by fashion, it does not appear 
 to be conducive to health, nor consi^tent with llu' operations of 
 nature, becai^se the evaporations of perspirable matter on the hu- 
 man skin has a greater tendency to cool the body, than the inces- 
 sant fanning, willing, and rubbing, of the face. Nevcrtlieless fans 
 may be useful lor affording protection against the rays of the siin, 
 for which purpose, however, jiarasols will be more convenient. 
 
 Fan is also an implement of husbandry employed in winnow- 
 ing corn. 
 
 FAN-i-VNO, a town of Modeno, in Italy, 25 iTiil(;s S. of Mo- 
 deiia. 
 
 FANATICS, wild, enthusiastic visionary persons, who pretend 
 to extraordinary revelation and inspiration, above what is written- 
 in the sacred scripture. The ancients called those fanjtici, who 
 passed their lime in faua, temples, and being or preK-nding to be, 
 often seized with a kind of enthusiasm, as if ins|>i:ed by tne divi- 
 nity, shewed wild and antic gestures. Prudentius represents them 
 as cutting and slashing their arms with knives. Shaking the head 
 was also common among the fanatici ; for Lampridius informs us, 
 that the emperor Heliogabalus was arrived to that j)itcli (jf mad- 
 ness, as to sliake his head with the gashed fanatics. Hence those 
 who wish to throw an o))probrium on religion, have^ with equal 
 inju-tire and impropriety, applied the epifhet to anabaptists, cpia- 
 kerc, nietho<iisls, &;c. I'hc conduct of these peonle fully evince 
 
 that
 
 FAR 
 
 368 
 
 FAR 
 
 thit they are not carried away by madmen's dreams, but soberly 
 attend to the revelation of God, as delivered in the books of the 
 Old and New Tebtairent, aud received by all Christians. 
 
 FANCY, [j>cdvracr;»,] imagination, or "the power by which the 
 mind lorni? and represents to itself the images of otjjects. See 
 
 MF.TAPHYbtCS. , 
 
 FANGEAUX, a town of France, in the department of Aude, 
 ,S miles S. S. E. of CuNtlenaudary. 
 
 - FANIONS, in the military art, small flags carried along with 
 • ihe baiTgage. 
 ■ FANO, a sea-port town of Italy, in the duchy of Urbiiio, an- 
 ciently called Faniun Forluna. It is seated on the Adriatic, » 
 .miles S. E. of Pesaro. I.at. 12' 50' 38" E. Lon. 4.3. 51. N. 
 
 FANOE, two small idands of Denmark ; I. in the Little Belt, 
 2- miles S. of Middleiahrt, in Funen : 3. in the German Ocean, 
 fill the coast of Sle&wick, inhabited bv fishfrnien. Lon. 8. 25. E. 
 Lat. 55.C'3. N. 
 
 FANSIIAW, Sir Richard, famous for his embassies, was 
 the tenth son of Sir Ilenrv Fanshaw of Ware Park in Hertford- 
 shire, and was born about lti07. In 16J5, he was employed bv 
 King Charles I. sent resident to the court of Spain ; whence being 
 recalled in 1641, he adhered to the royal interest, and was em- 
 ployed in several important mattei-s of slate. At the restoration 
 lie was made master of the requests ; a station in those times of 
 c.onsider.ible profit. Afterwards, on account of his skill in the 
 Latin language, he was made secretary for that tongue. In l6ti|, 
 he was sent envoy to Portugal ; and in Iti62, with the title of am- 
 bassador ; when he negociated the marriage of Charles II. with 
 the infanta Catlurina. Upon his return he was made a privy 
 counsellor. In lt)()4, he was sent ambassador to botli Spain and 
 Portugal; at which time the foundation of peace betwixt those 
 crowns and England was laid by him. His conduct during his 
 former employments in those courts gained him such esteem, that 
 his reception was magnificent, exceeding all that were before, 
 which those kings declared was not to be a precedent to succeed- 
 ing ambassadors. He died at Madrid in lliilti, on the very day 
 he had fixed for his return to England. Besides some original 
 poems, he published a translation of Bathista Guarini's " Pastor 
 Fido," and another of the " Lusiad of Canioens." Among his 
 posthumous publications are, " Letters during his embassies in 
 Spain and Portugal, with his life prefixed." 
 
 FAN'l'ASlA, in the Italian music, signifies fancy ; and is used 
 for a composition, wherein the composer ties himself to no parti- 
 cular time, but ranges according as his fancy leads, amidst various 
 movements, diflerent airs, &c. This is otherwise called the capri- 
 cious style : before sonatas were used, there were many of this 
 kind, some of which still remain. 
 
 FANTIN, a fertile country of Africa, on the Gold Coast, ex- 
 tending about 30 miles along the shore of the Atlantic. 
 
 Fantin, the capital of the above territory, lies about 12 miles 
 from the coast. 
 
 FANU, a small island of the Mediterranean, 10 miles N. W. 
 of Corfu. 
 
 FANUM, among the Komans, a temple or place consecrated 
 to some deity. The deified men and women among the heathens 
 had likewise their fana ; even the great philosopher Ciciro erected 
 one to his daughter l^illia. 
 
 FAOE, a small i-le of Denmark, N. of Laland. 
 
 FAOUA, or FOUA, a town of Egypt, on the W. branch of 
 the Nile, Iti miles S. E. of Rosetta, and 70 miles N. N. Iv 
 Cairo. 
 
 F.\QUIER, a Bounty of Virginia, 55 mile? long, and 
 broad. 
 
 F.\R Bay, a ba_\ on the N. coast of Sutherlandshire. 
 
 t AKA, two of the smaller Orkney isles. 
 
 FARADEESE, a town of Africa in Tunis, 32 miles S. 
 Tunis. 
 
 FARAND-MAN, a traveller, or merchant stranger, to whom, 
 bv the laws of Scotland, justice ought to be done with all expedi- 
 tion, that his business or journey be not hindered. 
 
 FARCE was originally a droll, petty show, exhibited by char- 
 letans, and their butToons, in the open street to gather the crowd 
 together. The word is French, and signifies literally, stuOing ; 
 from the Latin./i/rc/o, to stull". It was applied to this species of 
 entertainment on account of the viixiety of jests, gibes, tricks, Sic. 
 
 ol 
 
 20 
 
 ot 
 
 wherewith it was interlarded. At present, instead of being per- 
 formed by merry-andrews on the street, it is acted bv comcdirms 
 on the theatre, and becomes the entertainment of the fashionable 
 world ! 
 
 FARCIN, or FARCY, in farriery, a creeping ulcer, a loath- 
 some disease with which horses are sometimes afi'ected. See 
 Farriery. 
 
 FAR Ell AM, a town of Fliigland in Hampshire, on the N. \V. 
 of PovlMiiouth harbour. 
 
 FAREMOUl IICR, a town of 1 ranee, in the dcpurlmei.t of 
 Seine and Marne, 27 miles E. of Paris. 
 
 F.\REWELL, Cape, the S. point of W. Greenland on the 
 N. side of the entrance of Davis's Straits. Lon. 42. 42. VV. Lat 
 .S9.37. N. 
 
 FARGANI, ALFRAGAN, or ALFERGANI, a celebrated 
 Arabian astronomer, who flourished about A. D. 800 ; so named 
 from his birtli-place, Eergan, in Samarcand. Fie is also named 
 Ahmed Ben Cothair, or Katir. lie wrote " Elements of Astro- 
 nomy," in thirty cliaplers, wherein he chiefly adi>pls Ptulemv's 
 hypothesis, using his terms, and ot'ten quoting him. Of this work 
 thei-e are three Latin translations ; the last and best by professor 
 Golius of Leyden, publislicd in 16(59, alter his de.ith. ' It is ac- 
 companied with the x\.rabic original, and with manv learned notes 
 on the first nine chapters, whicli Golius's death pivvented him 
 from continuing to the end ol tlie work. Encyc. Brit. Sup. vol. i. 
 p. 5. 
 
 F.\RGEAU, St. a town of France, in the department of 
 Yonne, with a strong fort; 10 miles S. of Briare, and 82 of 
 Paris. 
 
 FARIM, a town and territory of Africa, S. of the Gambia. 
 Lon, 13. 50. W. Lat. 12. 10. N. 
 
 I'ARIMA, or BANSJL-, a province of Japan, noted for its 
 manufactures of silk, cloth, paper, ikc. 
 
 FARINA, [L.it.] dour of corn, &.-C. 
 
 Farina Fcecundans, among botanists, the impregnating dust 
 on the apices or anthene of llowers. See Pollen. The manner 
 of gathering the farina of plants for microscopical observations it 
 this: gather the Howers in a dry sunshiny day at mid-dav, when 
 the dew is perfectly off; then gently shake otl'the farina, or light 
 ly brush it off with a soft hair pencil, upon a piece of white paper; 
 then take a single talc of isinglass between the nippers, and, 
 breathing on it, apply it instantly to the farina, and the moisture 
 of the breath will make that light powder stick to it. If too great 
 a quantity adhere to the talc, blow a little of it off; and, if too 
 little, breathe upon it again, and take up more. Then, put the 
 talc into the hole of a slider, and, applying to it the microscopi-, 
 see whether the little grains are proprrly laid ; h'....tly, cover them 
 lip with another talc, and fix the ring ; but be careful that the talcs 
 do not press upon tlie lariiia so as to alter its torin. 
 
 F'ARLEU, monev paid by tlie toniints in the W. of England, 
 in lieu of a heriot. [n Devonshire, farleii is distinguished to he 
 the best goods, as heriot is the be^t beast, payable at the death uf 
 a tenant. 
 
 FARM,FARIN. or FERM, IFirmn, L,,t.] in Law, signifies a 
 little country messuage or district ; containing house and land, « itli 
 other couveniencies ; hired, or taken by lease, fither in wrilii;^', 
 or parole, under a certain yearly rent. See LeasE. This m 
 divers parts is differently termed : in Scotland, it is a lack; in 
 I,:;niashire, a fermeholt ; in Ivsscx, a wike, kc. In the corrupted 
 Latin, firma signified a place inclosed or shut in : w hence, in some 
 provinces, Menage observes, they call closerie, or closure, wh.it 
 in others they call a farm. We find locare ad firmam signific^ to 
 let a farm ; probably on account of the sure hold the tenant here 
 has in comparison of tenants at will. Spelman and Skinner, how- 
 ever, derive Ihe word farm from the Sarson Jttirmc, or fiorrnr, 
 provision ; because Ihe country peojde and tenants anciently ))aid 
 their rents in vi<tiials and other necessaries, which were aflirwaivls 
 converted into ihe payment ot a sum of money. ^^ hence a farm 
 was originally a plaee that furnished its landlord w ith provisions. 
 For the management, culture, &c. of a farm, sec Hus- 
 bandry. 
 
 FARMER, in milling, is the lord of the fields, or one that 
 farms the lot and cope of the king. 
 
 FARMINGTON, a rich town of Connecticut, in llarlfor'i 
 ceuntv, 10 miles S. W. of Hartford. 
 
 FA1!N
 
 VA n 
 
 .^O") 
 
 1' A n 
 
 \ T.-r: ■:gsr».c 
 
 iX t ■»a»* i 
 
 I'AHN Isi.ANOs, two ^imips ol liltli' ishm.lR ami tucks, m-vcii- i l-Mio, a [)o|hi1<ius and fcrdlu islaml ol .Si\>ik'ii, .in iiiilvs iii cn- 
 tivn in niinilu'r, opposite (<> iiiiiiiborougli ca>tlL- in NortliunibLT- li cunifoiviae, si'jiaralrd fi-din {jotlil.md liv a narrow rhamicl. 
 jainl. Faro, llii- capital ut tin- aimvc i>liiii(l, M-atcd on llie .S. K. loast. 
 
 i-'ARNlIAM, or riVUNIIANf, a (own ol" Surrey, and cap!- Lon. ID. 7. K. ],,il. oZ. .'.0. N. 
 tal of a district o) ils own iianit;, 41 niile^' froBl London on tlie '| F.\Ko, C'avm;, a promontory of Siciiy, near Mc.nlna, on which 
 U inilii'^ti-r road. 
 
 1 .\lv-NO\ J.VN.S, in ec< Iisia-^lifal hi^torv, a sect of l"llitarian^, 
 whii li arose in llie Ititli tfiilurv, so niiiii'd from I'aniovins ; 
 
 sjlil-liousr. 
 1'auo IsLANiis. Si'e I'r.HRo. 
 Kaiu) Of Mussina, a strait of the Mfdilcrranean, hctwccn Si- 
 
 »\ liosc piincipli'i Ihov adopted, ajid soon alter wlioso deutli tliuy eily and C'alabria, about 7 miles across; so named from Ca|)e 
 
 were dispersed. I Karo ", lenurkablc for iU ti '.e's cUbin^ and flowing wilii ureal ra- 
 
 1 .VtvO, a sea-port of Porlusjal, in tlie i)rovincc ol Algarva, on ! pidily every six boiuv, 
 llie C'lilf of Ca<|iz, '..;o miles S, W. of 1 avira. 
 
 rARRlERY. 
 
 I'AHKIF.KY, [from /crD'crc, Fr. a bau of inslrumenis used 
 ]ii tlie slioeiiie, .'ve. of lioi^es, so named from llie Latin /crr;'»(, 
 iron, of wliiib the instruments were made,] (lie art of preventin;;, 
 luripji, or alli viatine;, the disorders of liorsrs. 'I'lie practice of this 
 o-efuj professioii has, till vitliin the last lift ecn or twenty a ears, 
 been nlmo<t eiitirely confined to a class of nu-n, who were utterlv 
 ignorant of the anatomy of the horse, and the ijenend principles of 
 the art ol healin;». 'I'lieir [irescriptions were as ab-urd as the rca- 
 -■iins they a-sii;iied tor adniinisii-rinir tlieir ilranghts, bohisR<'s, 
 lirenchrt, cvc. An institution has at len;jth been established. 
 where the diseases of that noble animal, the horse, are the sobjeet 
 < ( peculiar attention; we mean the ^'eterina-\■ ('ollepe, which, 
 ue are happy to slate, is patrimizeil by the mo>l respectable of the 
 nobility aru.l "entry. From the manife<t i>reat conseiiuence of tlu- 
 ^ervices of the domestic animals to man, in a state of civilii-ation. 
 diey have, from a very remote period of antiipntv, been the ob- 
 jects of his study and attention, holh as to their ord.narv manage- 
 ment, and that which was retpii-ite for them in a state of disease ; 
 lor the latter a peculiar system wa^ formed, includmt; a materia 
 medica and general mode of treatment considerably distiiict from 
 ilioic in Use with human patieuls. Of tlie author-, of this s■^^tem, 
 whether Greek or lioman, nothing worth notice has been haiid-d 
 down bcMind an occasional citation of names, to be found in Co- 
 leniella the Uoman writer, who liveil in the reiim of 'liberies, and 
 ireated at lar^'.e on the (general manaaemenl of cattle ; and in \'e- 
 v.etius Ivenatus, who lived two Centuries afterward-, and wrote 
 more profes-edly on animal disease-. Both these authors have 
 treated their subject in elegant anil classical Latin ; and tlie latter 
 lost pa.rticolarly has urged, in very idotptent and forcible lan- 
 
 laae. the nece:,-'ty of a iilieral cultivation of the veterinary art, 
 
 • "ell on the score of profit as of htimanitv. It ought to be rc- 
 nembered, however, that neither of these atitliors hadtlie benefilof 
 iiiy profes-ional accpiaiiitance with medicine or surgery, so obscure 
 t.ul imperfect were those sciences in their days; and that no 
 ' icie.'it treati-e on the di-eascs of aniinaU, written bv a prol'es- 
 
 nial man, has de-ceiided to posfc-ritv. Nor i- this i:i the sin.ille-t 
 LTiv- t>) be rcjretted, since we not oidv lind in the aulliors 
 ovt'-mentioned a suUiciiMit field for the satisfaction of our ciirio- 
 '}, but also the most ample proofs of the irrationt^.litv of ancient 
 ■rinciples and practice! and their total inapplit al>ility to modern j 
 "■casioii"!. On veterinary aiiatoaiv and plivsiologv "no attempts 1 
 iliscovery or improvement are to be traced in tiio-c writers, a ' 
 .qular delect, considering ihe piojtre.-s which had been made in ; 
 •vpt and (jrce: e in both the human and comparative anatomv. | 
 elstii 1., the oiil_\ physician of eminence amoiiL' Ihe ancients who 
 rejiorted to have written on veterinary medicine; this part of 
 I- works has not survived, nor is jirobably the loss we have 
 i.rreby snflered very considerable. Xenoplion is the oldest ve- 
 .rinary writer on recor.l ; but his treatise is conhiied to the train- 
 lie and niaiiag'-menl of llie liorsi- for war and the cliace. With 
 
 • ■-pert lo the finjni'i'.t- of aucii'nt (ircolv and Latin veterinary 
 1 liter;, c.illecled im! f ubli4ied by Kuellius, chief marshal, or far- 
 :■ r to Irancis I. kini; of France, they apjiear to have been genc- 
 ,ely the works of military mf=n, rr oilier lovers of the horse ; per- 
 1 iiis none of llum were 'of medical cduc-.tion. We Icurn h om 
 
 y CL. y. — NO. 70. 
 
 ' the work^ of oii(^ oftl.em, ('rheomne-ius,) which is confirmed aho 
 1 by others, that the aiu ients had a knowledge of the disease called 
 } the glaiideri in horses and other cattle, which was denominated in 
 I tiiose d.ivs the moi-t malady. 'Ihe chief merit of the ancient ye- 
 |: terinarv wriu rs c:onsi5|i in their dietetic rtilci and dome-tic ma- 
 j: nagemeiit ; thev were in the habit ci purging their animals, but in 
 jl otlier ri'specta tlicir medical jire-crlption- apjiear lo us an incon- 
 IJ bistent and often discordanl jumble of iiumerous articles, def oid 
 j: either of rational aim, or probable eliicacy. In Ihi! operations of 
 li surgery, pariicukuly in plileboloniy, and indeed in the \ariotis 
 methoils of manual trealtnenl and controiil of their animals tbe 
 ancient- were far more skilful; awd w hat ihey have lelt on the 
 synipbiui- of diseases, if of no consequence in (he )>rcsent ad- 
 vanced stale of science, slill serves lo demonstrate tliat they had 
 not been inattentive observers of animal diseases, lnwe\er inle- 
 rior they might be in their methods of cure. These ,«n- 
 cient writers are yet to be esteemcil superior, not only in learn- 
 ing and elocpience, but in [.'rofes-ional ulility, to the majority of 
 their pupils of the lifteenth, sixteenth, an<l seventeenth centuries. 
 On the revival of learning in I'.urope, at the above periods, (he 
 works of the ancient viterinary writer- were early sought ami 
 tr'aiislaied in Italy and France." At the same dawn of opening 
 light and enthusiasm for the rc-uscitatioH and enlargement of (he 
 bounds of useful science, llie anatomy and physiology of the hu- 
 man bodv bftame the grand Objects of put-uil's in ll e Italian 
 schools. '\'elerinarv anatomy followed in course; and the de- 
 structive laboui-s of Huini and oUums on the body of the horse, 
 have not enlv served for a ground-work and model to all ilia 
 schools of Kurope since ; but succeeding discoveries and improve- 
 ments, notwithstanding tlie va-t adv.uili'ge of a general ditfu-ion of 
 light have not been hitherto sullicienlly considerable to <U-lract 
 in any eminent degree from the w ell_^ arned fame of tlioe early 
 and original anatomists. '\'eterinary niedicii.e was now generally 
 cultivated, and in some instances, under regular medical prole.s- 
 sor;. We iiiid the following names in a list of tlio-e who had 
 writlen on tlie res vcterin ivia in lt«ly during that period : — Lau- 
 rentius Russiu<, Camenirius, Apoiloniiis, Horatio, Albelerio, 
 (Jrill, Ca^-ar Fiaschi, ]".vaiigeli>ta ; and afterwards in (ierniany and 
 I'rance, Gressoii, Libal, Wickerus, La Ih'ove, Vinet. , Kvery 
 branch of the F(]uine n-conomy, whether relative lo harness and 
 trapping-, <'(;iiilalion and ir.llitar) mena;;e, cjr riding ihc great 
 lior-.e, the melltodlcal liealment of the hoof, with )he invention of 
 various forms of iron shoes, ami llu-ir sc.eiililic adaptation, were 
 pursued with general as-iduits ami success. In this hitler deparl- 
 ineiil Casar Fiaschi disliiiguished himself; and either invented or 
 recommended the wclleiUhoe, jiroposinga substitute for calkens and 
 ftcist-nails, which it apfiears wiaetln'n.in use, as well a- the lunelte, 
 or slioit half-moon shoe. Iviaugelisla, of Milan, distinguislud 
 irmi-eli in the breaking or education of the hoise, and lo luin is at- 
 Iribuledthe iiivenlion of the marliie^nle. 'i'ho new veterinary -(i- 
 ence having dillused il>elf over a great jiarl of the conlinenl, coc.ld 
 scarci;lv fail of occasional i ommuaication with this cou,-.lr_\, where 
 ll'.e c.ii't^ of llie di.-ea-cd aninipl- had been cominilled imnicmo- 
 riallv lo letches and farriers, persons generally belonging lo (he 
 most illterale class-of socety. It is prob,.ble that .such coniinuni- 
 :, IJ ' cati'jiii
 
 370 
 
 FARUIERY. 
 
 cations bcc.ime tVcq-.ient tiuring the reign of tlie tirst Tudors ; for 
 we Itani fro!n Eluiideville, who wrote in the time of Elizabeth, 
 that French an'i Genran tarriers and riding-ina?ters were not only 
 employed b} the queen, but in general by the liability and gentry 
 ot the country. Yet our improvements in thi*: coiuiSry, in conse- 
 cjuence of foreign ;.id, with regard to the medical and surgical 
 branches at least", were by no means great, extending oi\i- view 
 from the perio 1 of which we now ■■peak, to the early part of the 
 eij;hteentli century. No medical n^me aj)pears duiing that long 
 interval upon our veterinary list, nor any one of the smallest 
 scientific pretension, we mean as far as respects the medical, ana- 
 tomical, or surgical branches, that of Snape excepted, who was 
 farrier to Charles II. and whose family, it appeai-s by his book, 
 liad served the crown in that capacity upwards of two hundred 
 ■years. Shape's anatomy of the horse proves him to have been a 
 well-informed farrier. Ilis analoniical system, arrangements, and 
 non>cnclature, were in course dra'.vn from the Italian school; but 
 he dissected, and his descriptions were confirmed by his 0'.\n ob- 
 servation. His numerous plates are bold, accurate, and hand- 
 somely e.scculed. Whether or not he published the book of cures 
 ■which he promised, -we are uninformed, but he was doubtless far 
 ■fccfter qualified for that task than these of liis profession upon 
 v»hom that branch of vcterniary art imibrtunately devolved. 
 t)te\ ens, Martin, Clifford, and Morgan, were very early writers 
 ■among the leeches and farriers. The book of Maschal, farrier to 
 James I. is most laughably illiterate, and we cannot help won- 
 dering with a late author, how such a book could possibly pass 
 through numerous edition-, in a learned age, and which even pos- 
 sessed learned and rational books on the same subject. The above 
 list may be concluded with De Grey and the celebrated Gervase 
 Markham, a contemporary of Blundeville, v/hi continued to pub- 
 lish perhaps until after the Restoration, and whose works wpre 
 fluffed with every absurd, barbarous, and abondnable juggling 
 trick, as well as with every useful invention which had is>ued 
 from the brains of either ancients or moderns. As a specimen of 
 the medical part of the horse-leech craft of Markham, he pre- 
 scribes human ordure in certain cases for the horse, both exter- 
 nally and internally. Yet this man's works had a most rapid and 
 universal sale, and contiimed in repute until the days of Gibson, 
 anU even long afterwards among the country leeches and farriers. 
 It must be allowed tir-t Markhani's book contained the fullest de- 
 tail of the practice of the farrier, with a delineation of his instru- 
 ments, not materially di-flVrent from those in present use. Blim- 
 deville wrote sen=iblv and respcctablv on the general subject of the 
 horse, according to the continental, the then fashionable practice. 
 Bare , in the succeeding reign, thatof .lanies I. wrote a learned trea- 
 tise, entitled an Jlipponomie, ortlie Vineyard of Horsemanship, in 
 which he ably, and froni obvious grer.t eNperifnce, discusses all 
 the relative branches, including the principle and practice of the 
 race-cour'jc, and of that system of equitation peculiar to, and so 
 generally prevalent in, this country. The huge folic of the duke 
 oi Newcastle gives us tlie regular manege of the horse Ironi tlie 
 contfnental school-, with an account of the different races of the 
 animal, in which his grace was a connoisseur of high celebrity. 
 In the early part oftlie eighteenth century William Gibson turned 
 Ids attention to horse medicine and surgery. He had acted in 
 «}Ueen Anne's wars as arniy-surpeon, and a|ipears by his writings to 
 have been a man of much practical knowledge and sound judge- 
 ment. He was the first regular professional man who iitlempled 
 to improve veterinary science, which he ejected in a plain and 
 popular way, grounded on the analogy between human and brute 
 ;)hysiology, in course between human and animal medicine. 
 The appearance of C'ibson's book on farriery forms an era in 
 ■veterinary annals; and his system in fundamentals has ever 
 been, and is at this moment, the basis of our superior veterinary 
 practice. He lived to publish a new edition of his chief work, 
 about fix- middle of the eighteenth century. Dr. Bracken, a phy- 
 sician of Lancaster, a vulgar, desultory, captious, and petulant 
 ^vriter, yet a profound and enlightened rea^oner, and of great 
 ability in his profession, in a few years followed the laudable ex- 
 ample of Gibson, and turned liis altention to vcteriniry medicine. 
 He "as an exqidsite practical ju<ige of the animal of which he 
 treated ; and his work on farriery is a standard with respect to the 
 jockey or peculiar Knglish system, a branch w hich had been left 
 untouclied by Gibson. Bartlet, a surgeon in Row-street, Covent- 
 g'ardeo, wAs a roost respectable, intelligent, and useful compiler 
 
 from Gibson and Pracken, \>hose labours he cir( umscriljed and 
 improved. William Osmer, a surgeon, turned his altention to 
 veterinary and surgery, and published an excellent and practical, 
 although whimsically written, book on horse-shoeing. His book 
 has not prubabl_> been hitherto excelled in point of ulility ; and being 
 written in a pi lin and popular way, is adaj led to the canacilv of 
 the shoeing-srniths. 1 he earl ot Pembioke also wrote a short and 
 excellent tieatise on the same subject, practical horse-shoeing and 
 case of the feet, and on the education of the military horse. Heren- 
 ger about the same time, published a respectable work on the grand 
 manege. Mr. Clarke, the king's farrier for Scolfjnd, has published 
 two valuable treatises on shoeing, and on prevention of the diseases 
 of horses. The eighteentii century was abundantly fruithil in ve- 
 terinary pursuits and publications. France took the lead ; but 
 a zeal for this science also pervaded Germany and the northern 
 states and colleges were established in various countries, where- 
 in the science has been since regularly cultivated. Baron Haller 
 collated the various continental writers on black cattle and sheep; 
 another catalogue of them may also be found in the Giournal di 
 Literati of Italy. Since these collections, the number of veleri- 
 nary writers has been immense on the continent. Few or none of 
 them have been translated into our language, excepting detached 
 parts of the works of the eminent French writers. La Fosse and 
 iBourgelat. The French have improved the anatomical and sur- 
 gical branches of the v-eterinary art, rather than the medical; the 
 English have made the greatest improvements in the latter : it is 
 not improbably a parallel case with respect to human medicine. 
 In 179'.; the veterinary college was instituted at St. Pancras, near 
 London. Towards the support of this institution, a sum is allow- 
 ed annually by Parliament; it also derives some aid from the fees 
 of students, and from subscription. The donation of twenty gui- 
 neas makes a subscriber for life, and the payment of tw o guineas 
 yearly gives the same title for that term. In either case the privi- 
 lege of sending two horses to the veterinarv hospital, free of all 
 charges, except for keep, is thus acquired. His majesty has given 
 considerable importance to the institution, by requiring that all ve- 
 terinary surgeons, employed in the army, should have passed e.x- 
 amination at the college, and he has eminently served the whole 
 of the cavalry corps by conferring on those surgeons the rank of 
 commissioned officers. And a great number of veterinary sur- 
 geons, receiving their diploma from thence, have been dispersed 
 in the army and throughout the country, to our gieat national ad- 
 vantage, ill the surgical and medical treatment of hoise*. A num- 
 ber of farriers also annually take the advantage of improving them- 
 selves at this seminiiry; but it is to be lamented that the light o( 
 veterinary science lias hitherto shiiied but dimly and imperlectly 
 on the other domestic animals. Mr. Coleman, the present pro- 
 fessor, is well t|ualified for the important ofiice he holds, and iiii 
 exertions have been of very great advantage to the public, and ol 
 no less credit to himself. A great number of veterinarv publica- 
 tions have issued from the press within this last period; and th< 
 two professors St. Bel and Coleman, with Messrs. White, Board 
 man, Blane, anrl many others, have laudably and usefully distill 
 guislied themselves in this way. Mr. Blane appears to have takei 
 great iiains in a new branch of veterinary science, as it relates ti 
 that useful domestic the dog. He has also published tlie anatom 
 of the horse. But the anatomical drawings and engravings of th' 
 bones, muscles, and mtr.y of the blood- vessels of the horse, of on 
 jusllv celebrated horse-painter Stubbs, are held superior to an; 
 thing v.e possess of tliis kind. The objects of farriery we hav- 
 shewn, are the anatomy, physiology, patliolo.Ty, medical and sui 
 gical care, and shoeing, of the borse. Snape says, thai " in som 
 regards anatomy is more necessary to farriers than to physicians, i 
 order to find out <lisorders ; for besides the pulse and the urim 
 and the pathognomonic signs of each distemper, they (the lattci 
 are assisted in their enquiries, moreover not to say ch.leHy, by th 
 complaints and relations of the patients themselves; whereas a fai 
 rier, having to do with a dumb creature, must be very curious i 
 his knowledge of the parts, with their offices, and of the sympath 
 or consent that one part hath with another; or else, seeing all h 
 information must be of his own hammering out, he is like to mal 
 but a short discovery of the distemper." 
 
 Of riiE Anatomy of the Horse. 
 The anatomy of the horse, in many respects, bears so close 'I 
 analogy to that of the human subject, that the general descriutif [
 
 FARRIFRY. 
 
 371 
 
 ©f llic one will a|)[)ly piclty arciirjfely to tl.e i/lhor. '1 hiis, the 
 horse is an animal coniposetl like tlie luiiiiaii siil;jecl, of soliils and 
 fluids; of bones, cartilages, ligamerts, libiv;, ineinbianfs, arteries, 
 veins, nerves abscri)enl-, niii^ciis, glands, &j. It is thorelore u'li- 
 necessarv Here to rep.'^l ilie (lelinilioiis and deseriijtions of IIk-sc 
 pints already inserted iiiuU r anatomy, wliicli, « itli little variation, 
 vill apply to those of the lior>e ; and for tins reason, we refer the 
 reader to" Anatomy, Zootomy, and the atjove-mentioned works, 
 and shall on this pait of tDe subjett only consider the external de- 
 nominations, the skeleton, the toiitoiils of the chest and belly, with 
 tlie principal parts of the feet. 
 
 Of the External Parts of a Horse. 
 
 " The first ti-.'ng," says Mr. Reeves, " that oilers itself to our 
 ■view, is the coat, or hair, 'i'his has dilTerent denominations in I 
 several parts of the body. The fore-lop is called the topping, or | 
 tuke : the hairs on the under lip are the heard: tho'-e along the j 
 upper part of the neck are called the mane : the part that is most 
 arched, the crest ; and when lli.-.t sinks, a horse is said to be crest- 
 fallen : the tiilt of hair on the lower part of tlie leg behind, above 
 the heel, is termed the fetlock, or feet lock : the hair, that grows 
 round over the top of the hoof, is named the crown, crow net, or | 
 crowt : the hair on the eye-lids is the brills. The us'ial term for i 
 the body of a horse, is the carca-.s. The fore-heail is often called ■ 
 the brow. The two hollows above the eyes, which are most re- | 
 niarkable in old horses, are termed the eye-pits. The mark, 
 which often runs down the face, js the rache : and the white spot 
 on the forehead, the star. The back part of the head, where it 
 joins the neck is the poll : and the juncture of tlie head and neck, 
 the onset, or setting on, of the head. '1 he lips w ith the tip of the 
 nose form the muzzle. The place on the inside of the mouth, 
 where the tongue lies is the charnet. The fleshy rows that run 
 across the upper part of the mouth, and arc very remarkable in 
 .young horses, are called the bars. The top of the shoulder blades, 
 and the highest part of the spine at the setting on of the neck are 
 the withers ; and from the top of these a horse is measured to 
 know his size. From the withers to the hind part of the back are 
 the reins. Ne.\t the reins are the loins, though some call the 
 whole extent, from the withers to the croup, the reins. T!ie ex- 
 tremity of the reins, above the hips, to the tail, is called the croup. 
 The part where the crupper lies is the channel ; and the tail is the 
 dock, or runt. The sinking of the back, if any, is named the 
 sway. The hinder part of tiie belly, next the gen'taN, is called 
 the flank, which reaches from the small ribs to the haunches. The 
 loose skin which covers the yard is the sheath. The belly reaches 
 from the brisket to the sheath. The poii.t from the withers to the 
 top of the thigh, inclosing the whole breast on botir sides, is called 
 the shoulder. The fore-legs, or arms, begin from the shoulder ; 
 and the hind part, pointing towards the brisket, is the elbow. 
 The urKldle joint is the knee, to which the fore-leg reaches. The 
 e.\tent from the knee lo the pastern is called the shank ; and t!ie 
 strong tendon behind the shank, which is inserted into the heel, 
 is termed the back sinew. The place w here tlie shank joins the 
 pastern, is distinguished by the pastern, or fetlock joint. The 
 pastern reaches from the lower part of this joint to the foot, has a 
 joint ill the middle, to facilitate the motion of the foot, which dis- 
 tinguishes it into two parts; the greater pastern, next the shank, 
 and the less, next the foot. The joining of this last with the 
 foot is called the collin-joiiit. The hoof is by some called the ' 
 horn, but most commonly the coflin, because it incloses the bone 
 of the foot. The teiulcr part of the hoof, next the heel, is named i 
 the frush ; and the ballot the foot the frog: though some give i 
 the same denomination lo botli, and thus the frush or frog rises ' 
 from the middle of the foot, and reaches to the heel. The soal is \ 
 the horny part, which covers the rest of the bottom of tlie foot, i 
 and adheres lo the verge of the hoof, where nails are ilriven when \ 
 a horse is shod. I'he sides meeting on the heel are the tpiarles. 
 The haunches begin at the two bones of the back part of a hoisc, 
 which inclose the ham, hock, or hough. The stillc is th.j knee- 
 pan of a horse seated in the middle joint of the thigh ; and is out- 
 wardly that part, which sets out from the thigh towards the belly. 
 The thigh or gascoin, begins at the stifie and re.'ches to the bend- 
 ing of the ham. The ham, or hock, is the bending of the hind- 
 leg ; and the round knob behind is called the heel of the hock, in 
 winch the great master sinew is injerted. 'I'he small of the hind- 
 
 leg is nain-;d ll.e in^ti p. 
 as m the forc-kKs. ') hat 
 
 The pa'.terns aid teet are d;siin, liished 
 side of 11 hone, which we appro, ch to 
 
 moimt him, is called the near side, and the other the ofl siue. 
 
 H( nee come the terms near tool and off foot, the near eye and the 
 
 oil eye, and so of the re:,t." 
 
 Of the Skeleton. 
 
 The skeleton of the horse may be divided into the head, trunk, 
 and extremities. In Ph.ie I.XVUI. fig. 1. the letters Art « a, bhe\«r 
 the OS frontis, or foreheati bone : b b, the parietal, or vertical bone : 
 ccc, the occipital, by some called the knoll bone : dd, the temporal 
 Done, made up of two parts, the squamous and petrous: c e, 
 maxilla superior, or anterior :^,jiigal, or cheekbone; g g, nasal, 
 or bones of tl;e no-e : A, os unguis: z / i, posterioi j , • , i- max- 
 illa inferior: these are all the boiie> torming the head Ihi't appear 
 o!) a side view. The foliowing hgures refer to particular parts of 
 the bones, viz. 1. The petrous portion ol the temporal bone, a 
 hollow process, which lorm». l'. 'i lie meatus auditorius, or open- 
 ing to the ear. 3. The maxillary process of the temporal bone. 
 4. 'J'he cuneiform |)roce.->s of the occipital. 5. '1 he zygom.dic 
 prucess of the temporal, joined to the jugal process, j.n<l form iig 
 the zygoma, or ircli of this part. C. I'he occipital p.olul erai.ce. 
 7. The orbit, or cavity of the eye. 8. The coronoid process of 
 the posterior or lower jaw. 9. Tlie condyloid process ihat arti- 
 culates the posterior jaw with the head. 10. A i.ole, called the 
 superciliary foramen, through which the frontal i.erve and artery 
 pass. 1 1.' A process of Ihe Irontal bone joining with the zygoma- 
 tic process of the temporal. \'2. A hole tr<.nsm.ttiiig a nerve and 
 artery te the face. 13. A third foramen, from which proceeds a 
 branch of the jth pair of nerves, and an artery. 14. The gr nders. 
 15. The tushes. 16. The nippers. 
 
 The Cervical Vertebr.*, or Neck Bones. A A A A A A A, 
 the 7 cervical vetebrre, the hrst of which, b, is called the atlas; 
 the 2cl dentate; c marks the transvei-se process of ihe hr t ; as 
 dddddd, do the same processes of the other six : e ef, &:c. the 
 superior or anticjue oblique processes of the six last; in the first it 
 is wanting : Jff, &c. their inferior or posterior oblique processes ; 
 g gg, &c. the spinous processes of the s:nie. 
 
 The remainder of the bones of the Spi.ve, c. a aaaa, &c. the 
 18 dorsal vertebra:; b, their spinous processes; c, their trans- 
 verse processes; d, liieir upper or anterior oblique processes ;- 
 f, their lower or posterior oblique proceses ; J, the carriage 
 interposed between each dorsal and lumbar vertebra; one on.y 
 is marked, but will serve as a guide for the rest. BC DK 
 F G, the lumbar vertebra', or those of the loins. The same de- 
 scription answers to these as to the dorsal, the great length of their 
 transverse processes only being noticed. The numerals I, II, III, 
 IV, V, mark the five pieces, of which the os sacrum is composed 
 in the young subject, bet which by age become entire bone. The 
 figures, from 1 to IS, denote the 18 bones of the tail. 
 
 Bopes of the Thorax, and SHoiaaER Blades. A A, the 
 sternum: 1, '2, 3, 4, j, (), 7, 8, the eight true ribs, so calk-d as 
 their cartilages are immediately attached to the sternum ; y, 10, 
 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, IS," the false ribs, so called Irom Ihcir 
 cartilages not being inserted into the sternum, but into each other ; 
 a, the head that articulates with the transverse process of the fii-st 
 vertebra of the back ; b, the anterior part of the head that is con- 
 netled to ilie body of the seventh vertebra of the neck ; tiie same 
 description answers for each of the other ribs. A. A. The sca- 
 pula or shoulder blade ; u, the superior, or more properly anterior 
 spinatus fo=sa ; b, the inferior spinatus fossa; c, the spme which 
 di\ ides these two fossa, and from which tliey take their nam;;; d, 
 the upper costa; e, the lower costa;/, the neck ; g, coracoid 
 apophysis: at the upper pari is seco a line, shewiug the extent uf 
 the cartilage of the scapula. 
 
 Bones of thf. Fore-Lkgs. B. The huracnis, or bone of tlic 
 ami; i, its head that articulates with the shoulder blade ; /.its 
 external condyle ; /, the fossa, or cavity receiving the radius; ;«, 
 that which receives tlie cubitus, c, the cubitus or ulna: this i.i 
 tlie young subject is a distiiict bone, but in the grown hoise ii; 
 fastened to the radius ; n, Ihe proce:is called olecranon, forming the 
 elbow. D. the radius ; n, its upper end ; p, its lower extremity, 
 i'orming a part of the knee. L. the carpus, which in the horse is 
 formed of 7 bones ; the tarpesium. which in the hunuii siibjci t 
 forms the Slh, is wauticg in the hgr-c ; this part fcrniing the wrist 
 
 of. 
 
 ^
 
 FAUllTEllV. 
 
 <■-•( a liaii, is h\ Ions; tiHtom c.illcd Ihc knee of tin- imimal. 1''. llie 
 ijictacai-|jus ov "shank Ixme?, to each of whicli aiv joiiu-d two iinpcr- 
 lci:t metr.caipal boiic-i r.iarkf 1 x. calk-iJ 1)_v tlie l'"ix"iirh ep".neii\ ; 
 r, r, the 5e>>aiiioid bniics. G. ll'-e p-.i^tcTii bouis. H. the coro- 
 K!*t, or litlle pastpvii bone';. 1. llio collin bone. 'I'lu'rc is aiiothfr 
 tc<sai; oirt or small lione wilhin tlie curve of the coffni bone; 
 which \\]\\ be tte.icribed afti^rwards. 
 
 "■I'lif. PtLVW AND UoNtS OF THE llrNDER ExTRP-MI TIES. K. 
 
 ihe polvis; composed of lliree liones in l!ie young subject, which 
 are a n ii a a^ the ilium; /; //, the i^chiu^l ; cr, ihe pubis; d, 
 IViranK-n uiagnum, I., the fi-iHur- c, its head, arliciilaliiig v.itli 
 the acelal)idiim, or cavity in ■ the pelvis ; .f,7> the grrat trochan- 
 ter: g, the linea aspcra; k A, the patella, or stiHe, hut more pro- 
 jjerlv the knee bone. M. the tibia. N. the filnila; this, as in 
 the cubitus or ulna, is firmly attached to the tibia, and is an in- 
 considerable bone, compared with that of the lnini;Mi subject. O. 
 the tarsus, con-isting of K bones, the ureat cuneiform bone benig 
 Vv'anting v.liich in the human body form- the 7th; / /, tlie calca- 
 jieuni. I'P, p p, tlu nietalar>us, whicli follows the same descrip- 
 tion as the aiitencr extremities. 
 
 Of THi: CoVfENTS OF THE TuoHAX. 
 
 The chest being opened by raising the sternum, there appears a 
 *iiiooth poli-Iied membrane, the plem-a, attach'-d to its up];ersm'- 
 lace. '1 his membrane i< there double, but luiites about an ini:h 
 above llie stermuil ; and the space between the double rellection is 
 iilled by cellular substance posteriorfv, and by the thymus gland 
 anteriorly. See As.vtomy, and I'i.ite I.XVlH, lig. i?. I his 
 space is called the inferior mediastinum : the two lamin;Ethen sepa- 
 ratinc; pass over the pericardium, and over the vessels, to be re- 
 jleciei! on the lungs. After having passed over the lungs ; one 
 portion goes over the spine on one side, the other portion over the 
 spine on the other side ; leaving in this division a tubular opening, 
 filled by the aorta, vena cava, azygos, thoracic duct, and oso|)ha- 
 gus. This forms the superior mediastinum. Tbere are therelore 
 two retlectioiis of the pleura on each side ; one dose under Ihe 
 ribs, the other in contact with the lungs. A bag is formed by this 
 rellection ; but the lung is not contained within it, a^ it is usually 
 described, but a small quantity of water, the liquor pleura". Jf 
 this bag be cut into, the lung on (hat side is rendered for a lime 
 useless, b\ the air being admitted and preventntg its cNpansion ; 
 but Ihe distinct separation, formed by Ihe rellections of the pleura, 
 preserves the funetion~ and powers of the other lung entire; 
 without which wise provision, accident> and di~~ases of these part> 
 would be more injurious and more frequently fatal. 
 
 'I'he Pleura has few arteries and veins; and but little sensi- 
 bility, if any, when uninflamed ; hut under inllanuiiation, as is 
 feen in pleurisy, peripneumonv. Arc. it has a great degree of it. 
 'J'he mediastinum is simply the junction of (he two lamina" of Ihe 
 jileura, dividing by distinct partitions the cavity of the chest. At 
 the anterior an<l interior divi-'ion of the pleura, is situated the 
 thymus gland. Si.-e Axatomv. 
 
 'J"he i^uN'cs, when intiated, are said to resemble the figure of 
 the cloven foot of Ihe o\. 'I'hey are spongy in their texture, be- 
 ing every where full of little cavities, whicii are the minute rami- 
 licatijii, or distribution of vessels termed bronchial, arising from 
 iMii! common trunk called the trachea. Ky means of these vessels, 
 «ir is received throughout Ihe sub-tance of Ihe lungs ; depoOtiMg 
 its vital part, it i- returned from thence, and fresh air admitted. 
 
 Hetweeii the lungs is placed the Heart, supported in it~ situa- 
 tion by various attachments. It is covered by a membrane called 
 pericardium, and is of an elliptical form : it's anterior and supe- 
 r'or part is called its basis; its posterior and inferior part its apex. 
 TJie basis is confined by vessels; (he ape\ is loose, and strikes 
 »gaiii->t the intercostal muscles, giving the pulse from the heart. 
 »"ee AN-\roMY. Fig. 'J, of I'lalo I.XVlll, represents such of the 
 ;(bdon;iual viscera, as appear immediately on the iiilegMinent^ 
 b'ing removed; and such of the thoracic viscera, or contents of 
 the client, as he^Oiue evident on raising the sternum, nan a a, 
 tlie skin, h I) b b, l!;'> integuments thrown back, consisting of 
 liiii-cle.s, tendons, and p.?ritoiieum. cere, Ihe most e\ten-ive of 
 the large intestines^ called Ihe col.jn. dil «', the lignmei'.t(al^ bands 
 o»'the colon, drawing it into fold., t', oni- of the' small intestines. 
 ,/,•', the duplnagia, a large nni-cle, ilividiiic the che-.t .'Voni the ab- 
 kJunifu. £g- J,-, the lungs. A, the heart, i m", the j)ericardium, a 
 
 bag surrounding the he.Trt, containing a quantity of fluid ; it is heri 
 opened to shew the heart, /t" /.', the ribs. /, the sternum. ». 
 Ihe en^iform cartilage. 
 
 Ov TW. CoNTl \ r- OF THE AbDOMF.N. 
 
 'Jheabdninen i~ dividi-d into 4 regions. 'J'he epigastric, un.bi- 
 lical, and hy|)oga>tric inteiiorly ; and the lumbar superi'irly. '1 ],; 
 epigastric region begins at the ensiform carlTlage, or end of tic 
 breast-bo!ie, and extends to within about six-inches of tiie umbili- 
 cus or navel : within its liniits are situated the liver, the stoma; h, 
 tiie pancreas, ])arls of Ihe colon, of the spleen, of Ihe duodenuni, 
 of the aorta, and vena c:iva. '^I'he mnbilical region begins when 
 the epigastric ends, at about six inclns before the navel, to the 
 same distance behind it ; so that its extent is about 1? inches, li 
 contains great part of the small intestines, the ctvcuni, parts of the 
 colon, of the aorta, and vena cava, with a portion of the mesen 
 tery, and omentum. From the extent of Ihe uuibilical region, th;:! 
 is six inclieS behind llie navel, to thi" bottom of the |)elvis', a:.i; 
 whole posterior pari of the belly, is Ihe hypoga>tric region; cii: 
 taining the rei turn, bladder, part of the colon, the iliac vessel-, 
 and ]>arls of generation. The lumbar region is that which is situat- 
 ed a- it were upon these; and i-, formed from the hollows left en 
 each side of the spine, from the beginning of the abdomen neail, 
 to the end. It includes the kidneys and their appendages, tlie 
 emulgent vessels, parts of the ureters, and greater )>arl of tin- 
 spleen. 'J'he whole of the abdominal cavity is lined by a mem- 
 brane called peritoneum ; it not only lines tin- cavity, but invests 
 the v.liole of it; contents, by lieing retlected over them. It has 
 few vessels or m nres ; when wounded therefore it bleeds little, and 
 has not much pain, except under iidlammation, when it becomes 
 very sensible. It secretes a tluid of a serous nature, for Ihe lubri- 
 cation of the visceia, and for the prevention of adhesions; 
 this may become so much im-rer.sed in quantity a- to cause 
 dropsy. i5y its attachments it jireserves Ihe parts it invests in their 
 proi)er and true situation ; which seems to be its principal use. 
 I'ig. .). Plate IjWIII, represents the Iwo cavilii-s ol the chest and 
 bellv; with such of Iheir contents as are immediately seen, when 
 the parts represented in the former figure (the heart, lungs, and in- 
 testines,) are removed. A, the stomach nearly in its riatural situa- 
 tion; u|)on its surface are seen its vessels. II Pi, Ihe Iul-,es of the 
 liver. C, the omentum or caul, attached to Ihe stomach through- 
 out its V hole length, covering the pancreas entirely, and in part 
 the s])leen. At one part it is held back by a pin, forced into Ihe 
 subst.mee of the spleen, to shew the renal izland. D, the spleen. 
 P' J'", llie kidneys. F, part of (he rectum. G G, the ovaria. If, 
 the uterus or womb. 1, the blade" r distended with urine. K K, 
 the iUa;)hragni, or midrilT. lutc, the aorta descendens, seen in 
 both cavities. 6, vena cava descer.'lens ; it is not seen plainly in 
 this \iew in the chest, therefore is not distinguished, cc, the 
 emulgent veins, emptying their blood into the vena ca\a. dd, 
 the emulgent arteries, arising from the aort.i. cc, the spermatic 
 arteries and veins, united by a cellular substance soon alter Iheir 
 origin, distnbuted to the ovaria. /^/j the ureters, arising from the 
 kidneys, and inserted into the-sides of the bladder rather siipe- 
 riorlv. _gg-, the iliac vessels, being the bifurcations of llie aorta 
 and vena cava. /(//, the cavity of the pelvis. /, part of the duo- 
 deniini, or lirst ii>te-t'ne, with which the <-xpelient orifice of Ihe 
 sloniach is united. /,-, the gall duct, seen arisiiftr from Ihe liver, 
 and iiist-rting itself obliquely into the dncideuiun. /, ligamentum 
 sns|)t iisorium, one of the ligaments att;i(hiiig the liver to the dia- 
 phraL'in. /» w, capsula" reiiales, or renal glands, receiving vessels 
 troiii the eniulg"nt artsry and vein, n ii, Ihe a-sojjhagus, or can;d 
 for Ihe jiassage of the fond into the stomach, o, the ascending 
 aorta. ]>, the ascending vena ca%a. f], the division of lliese ves- 
 sels into branches, the princijjal of which are, ;■)■, the subcostal ar- 
 teries cut olT furnisjjing with blood Ihe fore-legs, s s, subeosl.il 
 veins cut oil', returning the blood from the fo'c-legs. tltlt,}»- 
 gular veins, returning ;lie I'lood from the hc.d. « « » c, carotitl 
 a teries, carrying blood to the Iscad. r, a pipe, supporting these 
 la-l vessels lo riMider them more di'tiii'"'. t:' ;:■, the trachea t)r 
 windpipe; lie" p'irlion entering into the chest i". removed, .r, l!ie 
 n-oiih igus or gullet, brought froni its situation behind Ihe trachea, 
 and supported with a knife. ,'/',"/.'/> Hi^' integuments of the ab- 
 domen thro'.eii b:".ck. The princiiial parts of the foot are shewn in 
 Plate I, Will, lig. 4, j, 0, 7. Fig. 4, shews the horny sole (/, 
 
 ■^ raised
 
 FARftTERY. 
 
 373 
 
 ■ iii« l.iimi 
 
 ibetl fruin the fk-sliy sole eee, roiiiul whicli is the i!in.iiaiinellf:il 
 •shy; placed in the fuU",is of the iiuuT siirl'iice of the hoof g, llic 
 miy part of which is soft ant! wliite. Fig. 5, shews tlie iiiuhn' 
 irt of the Iksliy sole /:, raiscii from the foot bone, (ailed thecol- 
 xhoneiii: k, the coveriu" of the tendo achillis ; n, (he carti- 
 '^c: tn, the edge of the fleshy sole coiitined in tiie furrow of the 
 : Diiek-d horny snhstance. Fig and 7, represent the holldn or 
 ,e of the fool: it a a, llie horny sole: h, ihefiog: c, the roof to- 
 uds its lower edge, called the crust, or wall, of the foot. 
 
 Of the Teeth m^d Age of the IIokse. 
 
 The horse has forty teilh: Iwenty-fonr double teeUi, or grind- 
 s; four tushes, or single teeth; and twelve front teeth, or ga- 
 <'rers. Mares in general have no tushes. The black marks, or 
 ,vi(its, -which denote the age, are to be found in the corner front 
 rlh, adjoining the tushes. Horned cattle have snniiar marks in 
 le teeth. At lour years and a half old, the niark-teelh are just 
 isible above the gum, and the cavity is very conspicuous. At 
 ve, the horse sheds his remaining colt's teeth, and his tushes ap- 
 ear. At six, his tushes are up, and appear while, small, and 
 larp ; near w'hich is observable a small circle of youjig, growing, 
 esh : the horse's mouth is then complete, and the corner tcefh 
 lied up. At seven years old, the t'.\ o middle teeth fill up. At 
 ight, the black marks Vi^ni3]l, nnd the horse's mouth is said to be 
 ill, and himself aged. The French farriers aver that the marks 
 i-main in the teelh of the upper jaw until the horse is twelve years 
 f age; but we believe this to be fortuitous. 
 
 )F THE MANAGEMENT of HORSES, with Regard to 
 FOOD AND MEDICINE. 
 
 Gbnekal Directions relative to Food, Diet, Exer- 
 cise, &;c. 
 
 1. It ought to be laid down as a general rule, to give horses as 
 ew medicines as possible; and by no means to comply with the 
 idiculoiis practice of those who frequently bleed, purge, and give 
 lalls, though their horses be in perfect health, and have no indi- 
 ation that requires sucii treatment. 2. Proper management in 
 heir fccdini!, exercise, and dressing, wdl alone cure many dis- 
 irders, and prevent mo^t ; for the simplicity of a horse's diet, which 
 hielly consists of grain and herbage, when good in kind, and dis- 
 lensed with judgement, secures him from those complicated dis- 
 irders, which are the general elfects of intemperance in the human 
 )ody. 3. In France, Germany, .'uul Denmark, horses are seldom 
 )urgcd; there tuey depend much o;i alteratives; the use of the 
 iver of antimony we have from tne French, which is in general a 
 ;ood mcdiciiie for that purpose, and may, in many cases, be sub 
 tituted for purging. 4. As hay is a inate.ial article in a horse's 
 Viet, great care should be taken to procu.'e the best : when it is 
 lot extraordinary, the dust should be well sliaten out before it is 
 ,it in the rack ; for such hay is apt to breed vermin. 5. Heans 
 iil'ord the strongest nourishment of all grain ; but are fittest for 
 jborious horses, ex..ept on particular occasions. In some seasons 
 .hey breed a kind of vermin called the red bugs, which is tltouj^ht 
 ;o lie dangerous ; the best method in such cases is to procure them 
 .veil dried and split. t3. Bran scalded is a kind of panada to a sick 
 lorse; but a too frequent use of it, either dry or scalded, is hurtful, 
 .> it relaxes and weakens the bowls. The botts in young horses 
 'lay be owing to too much musty bran ar.i> chaff", given with other 
 out food to make them up for sale ; particular care should there- 
 :ore be taken that the bran be always sweet and new. 7. Oats, 
 well ripened, make a more hearty and durable diet than barlev, 
 ind are much better suited to the constitutions of British hor-^es. 
 A proper (juantity of cut straw and hay mixed with them, is some- 
 times very useful to hon.es troublcrl with botts, indigestion, &c. 
 8. Horses, that eat tlieir litter, should particularly have cut straw 
 ind powdered chslk given them withlneir feed; as it is a vjgn of a 
 Ocpr.ivrd stomach. y.The salt marshes arc good pasture for horses 
 who nave been surfeited, .is well .is for these under many other dis- 
 orders; they purge more by luing and urine than any other pas- 
 ture, and make afterwards a firmer flesh ; their water is for the 
 most part br.irkish, and of course, as well as th^; grass, saturated 
 with salts from the sea-water. IQ. A summer's grass is often 
 necesiary ; more particularly to horses glutted with food, and which 
 use little c.\frcise: but running for a month or tv.o is proper ior 
 
 ,,niost; those, especially who have been worked bard, and have still 
 
 ■ VOt. »!.•— NO.SO, 
 
 liinb», swelled legs, or wind galls. iIors<?s whose feet have been 
 impaired by quittors, bad shoeing, or many other accidents, are 
 also best rt paired at grass. Those lamenesses paVlicularly require 
 turning out to gra^s, where the muscles or tendons are contrarled 
 or shrunk ; for by the continual gentle exercise in the lield, with 
 the ass jlanre of a patlcn shoe on ihe oppo^it.e foot, the sliorl- ned 
 limb is krpt on the stretch, the wasted part^ are restored to their 
 ordinary dimensions, and the limb again rectnrrs its u-ual tone and 
 sirenglh. 11. The fields which lie ni'ar great loun-., and an; much 
 dunged, are not |)ro|)er pasture for horse". ; but are found to be 
 very injurious tn them, when fed thereon all the summer. 12, 
 Horses may be kept abroad all the year, where tliey liavea proper 
 slal)lc or shed to shelter them from the weath.er, and iiay at all times. 
 Thus treated, they are seldom sick ; their limbs are ahva\s clean 
 and dry ; and, with the allowance of corn, they will hunt, and do 
 more business than horses kept constantly within doors. 1.3. If 
 horses, when taken from grass, should grow hot and costive, mix 
 bran and chopt hay wilh their corn ; and give tliem sometimes a 
 feed of scalded bran for a fortnighl, or longer: lei their exercise 
 and <liet be moderate for some time, and increase both by degrees. 
 14. When horses are soiled in the stable, care should be iaken that 
 the herbage be young, tender, and full of sap; whether it be green 
 barley, tares, clover, or any thing el»e the season produces ; and 
 that It be cut fresh 'nee every day at least, if not oftener. 15. 
 When horses lose their flesh much in soilings, they should in time 
 be taken to a more solid diet ; for it is not m soiling as in grazing ;. 
 where, though a horse loses his flesh at first, yet alter the grass has 
 purged him, he soon grows fat. 16. Young horses, not fully grown, 
 should be indulged more in their feeding than those come to their 
 maturity ; but if their exercise is so little as to make it necessary to 
 abridge their allowance of hay, a little fresh straw should con- 
 stantly be put in their racks to prevent their nibbling the mangor, 
 and turning crib-bilers ; they should also be sometimes strapped, 
 back in order to cure them of this habit. 17. It is obvious that 
 great care should be taken of a horse after violent exercise, that, 
 lie cool not too fast, and drink no cold water. 18. Most horses 
 fed for sale have the interstices of their muscles so filled with fat,, 
 that their true shapes are hardly known. For which reason a horse 
 just come out of the dealer's hands should at first be gently used. 
 He ought to lose blood, and have his diet lowered, though not too 
 much: walking exercise is most proper at first, two hours in the 
 day ; in a week or fortnight two hours at a time, twice a-day ; after 
 this usage fora month, bleed him again, and give him two or three 
 times a-week scalded bran, which will prepare him for purging 
 physic, that may now be given safely, and repeated at the usual 
 intervals. 19 When a horse comes out of a dealer's liands, his 
 cloatliing nuist be abated by degrees, and care taken to put hiiu in 
 a moderately « arm stable; otherwise the sudden transition would- 
 be attended v. Uh the worst consequences. 
 
 Of Blood-letting. 
 
 Horses, that stand much in the stable, and are full fed, require 
 bleeding now and then ; especially when their eyes look heavy, 
 dull, red, and inflamed ; as also, when they feel hotter than usual, 
 and mangle their hay. Young horses should be bled when they 
 are shet.iluig their teeth, as it takes oft' those feverish heats they 
 arc then subject to. But the cases that chiefly require blecduig, 
 are colds, fevers of most kinds, falls, bruises, hurts of the eyes, 
 slra.ns, and all inflammatory disorders, &c. A horse should be 
 bled when he begins lo grow fleshy at grass; and it is generally 
 proper to bleed before purging. Horses should always be bleil. 
 by mea-ure, that the quantity taken away may be known exactly : 
 two or three quarts are always enough at one time. The disorder 
 aiul the horse's consutution should be considered before repeating 
 it. The fleam and blood-stick liave been long in use lor bleeding 
 horses, but many practitionei-s pre)ertl;e spring fleam as being much 
 safer, others use the lancet. The frequent accidenls consequent 
 on striking witli the blood-stick, and perhaps dividing the vein, and 
 causing a dangerous tumour in the neck, are notorious. But i.T 
 opposition to the use of the lancet, it is said lo require more skill ; 
 and that the hoi-se, on firs; feeling the point, unless Ihe desired cli'erL 
 be ii-istanlaneous, shifts the position of his neck, and prevents suc- 
 cess in the operation. Thus adroitness in the use of the lancet and 
 instant execution, seem the only desiderata, bv which to obtain 3 
 most beijeficial improvement in practice. By some ihic ad' antsce 
 
 5 C h:iS
 
 .^^■ 
 
 FARllIEliY. 
 
 h-i-- "i'tu ii;tl, 311(1 thi'V |Jri.'ii'i' tlic common lancet used in luir.ian 
 ph!('1votniny. Tlii: horse, troni pat experience iif perliaps repeated 
 strokes, i-,ever ?:liy ottlie larner and tlie blood-stick. Hiictly even 
 Irte prick of tlie lancet must occasion IcssaLirin; and were the 
 liiorse iiiodpvately twitched, or even his head nidcle fast, he niii^sht 
 be -held siifficienlly steady. Mr. Clark (see Ins book,) shews the 
 dangf-r in making the ligature round the horse's neck, previously 
 t6 sticking and cl;ttiiig the orifice; but in the use of tlie lancet, 
 this is nut so material, and the lii.>atiire may be slackened, upon the 
 completion of tlic oriiicr. Should it be necessary to pin the wound 
 as usual, care should b'" taken not to rai^e tlie skin tiom the vein, 
 whence tlie hloud may liow into the cellular substance between the 
 vein and tlie skin, and form a Ininp or tumour, commonlv called 
 asweileil neck. Animals should never be bled at random, as is 
 too otlen tlie case at this day, but by measure ; nor is (he practice 
 lately introduced of drawuig such large quantities, amoiintini; to 
 upwards of a gallon of blood, from a horie at one tune, eillier 
 rational or iiltlniaiely beneiicial, in anv case. Tlie most proper 
 place for making the opening in the jugular veins, is wiiere the 
 teguments are thinnest, whicli is about a hand-breadth from the 
 head, and about one inch below the branchins, or joining of the 
 vein which comes from the losver jaw, and which may be distinctly 
 seen when any pressure is made on the main branch of the vein. 
 In general, blood-letting should be reserved for inflammatory and 
 criiical cases, and nothing can be more absurd than the custom ol 
 regular periodical bicetling, wdiether in man or horse; neither 
 bleeding nor dltirelics can be the sulncient substitute for purgatives, 
 when the plain intent is to remove obstruction and inllanimation 
 by unlading the bowels. 
 
 Of Purgivo. 
 
 In gross full horses purging is oftrn necessary, in some disorders 
 of the stomach, liver, &c. but should be directed with caution. 
 Before a pnrge is given to any horse, it is necessary some prepa- 
 ration should be made for it, to render the operation more sate and 
 elhcacions: thus a lior^e that is full of flesh should first be bled, 
 ahd at the same time have his diet lowered for a week, especially 
 those that have been pampered for sale; several nia-hcs of scalded 
 bran should also previously be given, to open the bowels, and un- 
 load them of any indurated excrements, which sometimes prove an 
 obstacle to the working of the physic, by creating great sickness 
 and griping. It should be remembered, that a horse is purged with 
 dillkully ; that the phy.^ic generally lies 1:4 hours in the guts be- 
 I'ore it works; and that the track of bowels it has to pass througli is 
 above 30 yards, all lying liorizontally : consequently resinous and 
 other improper drugs may, and often tlo, by their violent irritation, 
 occasion extensive gripings and cold sweats, shave off the very mu- 
 cus or lining of the guts, and bring on inflammations, which oUen 
 terminate in mortification and death, 'i'he stomach and guts of 
 a horse are but thin, compared to those of some other animals of 
 the same bulk, and therefore must be more liable to inllammatioii 
 ahd irritation. The first purge given to a horse should be mild, to 
 kjiow his constitution. It is 'a mistaken notion, that if a proper 
 prepari"d purge does not ^vcrkTo expectation, the horse will be in- 
 jured by it ; tor though it does not pass bv stool, its operation niav 
 bfmore eiFicaciotts as an alte'ralivc to purify the blood, and it mav 
 pass by urine or other secretions. Purging medicines are very 
 successfully given in small quantities, mixed with others; and act 
 then as alteratives, jf mercurial phvsic be given, care should be 
 taken that it be well prepared ; and warmer cloathiiig and greater 
 circumspection are then re<]uircd. A purge should be given early 
 in the iHorning upon an empty stomach : about three or four horns 
 after the horse has taken it, lie should have a feed of scalded bran ; 
 arwl a lock or two of hay may then be pufinto his rack. The same 
 sfey give him two more maslies; but should he refuse warm meat, 
 he may be allowed raw bran. All his water should be milk-warm, 
 ai)d have a handful of bran squeezed in it ; but if he refuse to drink 
 v/,iite>water, give it him wi:hout bran. Early the next morning 
 gh'e him another mash ; but if he refuse to eat it, give him as much 
 warm water as he will drink: let him be' properly doathed, and 
 rode gently about. This should be done two or three times a-day, 
 unless he purge violently; once or twice will theo be sufficient: 
 at n'tght give him a feed of oats mixed with bran. During the 
 working, a horse shoi\lU drink plentifully ; but if he will not <lrink 
 Atarni water he mast beinriutged with cold, rather than not drink 
 
 at all. It is a very pernicious custom to purge horae; often; for 
 it weakens their constitutions, depraves the blood and humours, 
 and liii.dcrs digestion. Every purge abrades in some degr^re the 
 mucus of the intestines, and procuies an extraordinary s'ecrrtios 
 of the bile and pancreatic juice. The constitution therefore lan- 
 guishes under this loss, when the drains of tliese salutary lluids arc 
 too fiequeiit ; for unless they exist in a sufficient quantity to iiii.v 
 with aliments, the digestion must be weakened, as they are abso- 
 lutely necessary for the elaboration of the chyle. 
 
 Ot Clysters. 
 Mr. Clark observes, that clysters are of greater irBportance.in 
 relieving horses from many acute comi)lainls than it is generally 
 imagined ; and it were to be wished, that, in place of tnc more 
 extensive cordial drenches, &c. which are ijut too frequently 
 given in most of these cases, a simple clyster of warm water, or 
 tiiiii water-gruel, were substituted ; tiie latter proving of great be- 
 ;ielit, whilst the former too frequently prove hurtful. They not 
 only serve to evacuate the contents ot the intcitines, but also to 
 convey very powerful medicines into the system, when it is not 
 practicable to do it by the monlh : for although they are only con- 
 veyed into the larger intestines, and perhaps hardly penetrate 
 into the smaller ; still they are extremely u*eful, by fomenting the 
 latter, and softening the hardened excrement accumulated in the 
 loiiiuT, and renderimj; it so solt as to be e::pelled out of the body, 
 by whicli wind and all offi.'iiding matters pent up in them are like- 
 wise expelled. Besides, bv their warmness and relaxing power 
 they act as a fomentation to the bowels: hence they may be of 
 considerable service in removing spasmodic constrictions in tlie 
 bowels, carrying otf flatulencies, and preventing intlanimation in 
 the intestines, &c. or, by conveying opiates to the parts affected, 
 give speedy relief in colics, &c. &c. I'he use of emollient chs- 
 lers in fevers is considerable. They act by revulsion, and relieve 
 the head when much alfected, ISesides, by throwing in a quan- 
 tity of diluting liquor into the intestines, it not only relaxes and 
 cleanses them, but cools the body in general ; at the same time, a 
 considerable portion of the liquid is absorbed and conveyed into 
 the mass of blood, by which means it is diluted ; and, in particular 
 complaints in the bowels, clysters give almost immediate relief, as 
 the remedies, when judiciously prescribed, pass immediately to 
 the parts afl'ected, with little or no alteration from the powers of 
 the body. In administering clysters, it ought always to be ob- 
 served, that the contents of the clyster be neither too hot nor too 
 cold, as either of these extremes w ill surprise the horse, and cause 
 him to eject it, before it has had any efl'ect. The coirvposition'of 
 clysters should be extremely simple: on that account they will be 
 easily prepared, and as easiiy administered, provided the operator 
 is furnished with suitable instruments for the purpose. The gene- 
 rality of clyster-pipes that are used, are by far too small, and too 
 short. It may appear a kind of paradox, yet it is a fact, that a clyster- 
 pipe which is of a larger size than the ordinary ones, and of a pro- 
 per thickness, is much easier introduced into tiie anus, than one 
 considerably smaller. It is likewise obvious, that when the pipe is 
 too short, it renders clysters of no use, because it cannot ( unvey 
 the clysters so far up into the intestii.es as is necessary tor them (o 
 be retained; a small short pipe of six or eight inches long, is not 
 capable of conveying the injection to the end of the rectnir!, 
 which, in a horse of a middling size, is about 16 or 18 inches long. 
 Tlie smallness of the bag, which is generally proportioned to that 
 of the pipe, is another very material objection to these instrument-, 
 as it seldom contains one ([uart of liquid; from which circum- 
 stance, very little benefit can be derived from the use of them in 
 such large intestines as tiiose of a horse. Dr. Bracken very judi- 
 ciously observes, that " the colon of a hor-e seems to be three 
 guts, liy reason of the two necks of about half a yard each; is 
 drawn up into many cells or purses by means of two ligaments, 
 one of which runs along the upper, and the other on the under 
 side of it, which, with the assistance of a valve or IJap at its begin- 
 ning, hinder the excrements either from returning back into Ihe 
 small guts, or falling too soon downwards, before the chyle or 
 milky substance prepared from the food be sent into its proper 
 vessels. And, indeid, the ca'cum seems to be so contrived in the 
 manner of a valve, to hinder the aliment and chyle from passing 
 too soon into the colon; for, it is evident, that if the aliment and 
 chyle were not in some measure hindered in their passage througli 
 
 these
 
 iarriery: 
 
 .1 /.') 
 
 these large guts, tlic body could not be siifllcienlly supplied willi 
 iioiiri>luiiL'iit. The first of these colons is al)tnit a Y^r(\ aiul ;i half 
 in leiigtli, the second about a yard, and tliethiiu. or that |)arl 
 \(hich ioins the rectum, near six yards in leniith ; so tiiat the colon 
 of a liorsc !4 liands higli, may be sjid to be nearly 8j yards long; 
 and, from it, along the reitum to tlie amis, w lu-rc the cxcn. meiils 
 are discharged, is not aliuve lialf a yard ; so that it is plain, clysters 
 operate mostly in the colon; Ihongh 1 must say tliey are given in 
 too sni.di cpiantities; for what signifies two cpiarls of liquor in a 
 eul nine yards long, and four or live inclies dianieler, in a natural 
 state; but in the colic, it is so distended with llatulencies, that iis 
 diameter exceeds seven or eight inches, as 1 have frequently ob- 
 served in those dying of that distenijier." The most proper in- 
 ;truraent for giving clvsters, is a simple ox's bladder, uliichwill 
 hold two or three qumls, tied to the end of a wooden pipe about 
 14 or 15 inches long, one inch and a half diamiter wlicre the bag 
 is tied, and of a gradual taper to the extremity, \\hi're the thick- 
 ness should suddenly inciease, and be rounded off at the point, 
 and made as smooth as possible; the perforation or hole throuiiji 
 the pipe may be made sufficicnily large, so as to admit the end of 
 a common tunnel, for pouring in tlie liquor into the bag. By the 
 flexibilitv of tlie bladder at the end of this instrument, no danger 
 can happen to the lioise; the clyster is conveyed solar up into 
 the intestines that it will be retained ; it causes no surprise (pro- 
 viding the liquor be neither too hot nor too cold, but milk waini,) 
 as no other force is required to throw it up than the holding the 
 bag a little higher than the level of the pipe; by which means the 
 liquor tlovvs gently into the gut, without any surprise to the horse. 
 Alter using the bag, it may be blown full of wind, a cork put into 
 the pipe, ajul hung up in some dry place to prevent it from rot- 
 ling; by which means it will last a considerable time. 
 
 Of Rowels akd Setoxs. 
 
 Rowelling is an artificial vent made between the skin and the 
 flesh, designed to carry ctV the humours, which are the cause of 
 various diseases, by revulsion and derivation; and serves the same 
 purposes as setons and issues in men. The method of introducing 
 them is by making an incijion through the skin, about three- 
 eighths of an inch long, and then separating the skin from the liesh 
 with the finger, or with a blunt horn, all round the orifice, as far 
 as the finger will easily reach ; then introducing a piece of lea- 
 ther, very thin, shaped round, about the size of a crown-piece, 
 having a large round hole in the middle of it. Previous to intro- 
 ducing the leather, it sliould be covered with lint or tow, and dip- 
 ped into some digestive ointment; a pledget of tow, dipped in the 
 same ointments, should likewise be put into the orifice, to keep 
 out the cold air: the p.-.rts around it soon swell, w-liich is followed 
 with a plenlilul disch.arce, from the orifice, of vellow serum or 
 lymph; end in two or three days at most, the discharge turns into 
 tliick gross white matter: the rowel is then said to suppurate. 
 Rowels should be placed (especially in some particular cases) as 
 near the aficcted part as possible; and, at all times, they ought to 
 have a depending o,'ifice, m order to admit a free discharge of 
 ■natter. The parts where they arc inserted to the greatest advan- 
 tage, are the belly, inside ot the thighs, the breast, and outside of 
 the siiould.rs and liips. Rowels are of great use in many cases, as 
 they empty the surrounding vessels by a regular slow discharge of 
 their contents, and arc even of great service wlien there is a re- 
 dundancy or fulness of humours m general, \\hich may require a 
 gradual discharge, in preference to greater evacuations by |3urgiiig 
 medicines, S;c. But thou-b they are frequently beneficial, yet, 
 like a number of other operations common to horses, thev some- 
 times, by die impro|)er use of them, become hurttui to the consti- 
 tution ; and, in some diseases, they ol'tin, instead of suppurating, 
 turn gangrenous. Thus, in violent fevers, where they are tre- 
 quciitly very injudiciously applieil, they never suppurate pro- 
 perly : whether thi> proceeds troni th.e quickness of the pulse, to- 
 getl.erwith the violent rapidity with which the fluids in grneral 
 are tiien carried tlirough the vessels, or trom tiie violent igitation 
 into which the whole system is llirown, it is difficult to determine; 
 but experience coufirins the observation. In such cases, the sur- 
 rounding parts, whe e the rowel is placed, seldom or never swell 
 (as in the ordinary coui-se, when they suppurate properly,) but ap- 
 pear dry, or much in tlie same state as when they were fir-t jjut 
 in; there is little or no di.scharge from tlje orifice; and tne btlle 
 that does come is thin, ichorous, and bloody. In such cases, they 
 
 ought to be taken out immediately, and the parts well fomented 
 with a strong infusio:i of camomile, or an emollient poultice ap- 
 pl.ed. Se.ons are cords, introdiicetl by long, thin, sh.ap-poinlcd, 
 instruments, or needles, shaped like a dart at die point, and having 
 at the otiier extremity an eye to receive the end of tlic cord, which 
 is to be left in the tumor. The size of the instrument may be de- 
 termined by that of the tumor, and the thickness ol tlie cord which 
 is to follow it, and wbicli ought always to be .smaller than the per- 
 foration made by the point of tlie n.eedle. Every practitioner in 
 farriery should always have a mmiber of these needles by him, of 
 dilierent sizes, tl'.at is, from 6 to li or 15 inches long, a bltle In nd- 
 ed on the fiat, or under side. 'I'he following is the method of ap- 
 plying setons in cases of tumours, &c. Wlien the matter fluctu- 
 ates ill the tumour, the needle, armed with a cord at the other end, 
 is to be introduced at the upper part of it, ami the sliarp point of 
 the instrument directed to, and brought out at ti.e under or lower- 
 most part of the tumour, including the whole length ol it; or, if 
 needful, through the sound musculiT fie b on the under pa Ir, in 
 order to make a depending orifice ior the matter to run freely otl ; 
 the cord sliould be dipped in some digestive ointment, and ihm 
 tied together at both ends with a thread, to prevent itsslippiig out. 
 But if, from the lenglb ol the )/erforation, the cord should i.ot ad- 
 mit ot being tied tOi^el her ;.t tlie eiu s, a small button of wood, or 
 some such substance, may be fixed ;:t each end: only, frcm ib'is 
 circumstance, the cord will require, when sliifled, occasionally to 
 be drawn upwards and downwards; wheie;.s, when the ends ol it 
 are tied tigelher, it forms a circle, and may alv.a\s be shifted 
 downwards to tlie lower orifice. M'hen the needle ior introduc- 
 ing the seton is to pass near any large blood-vessels or nerves, te 
 prevent their being wounded, it may be concealed in a case, open 
 at both ends; and after an opening is made at die upper part of 
 tlie tumour sulTicient to admit tl'.e nee^lle with its case, it may be 
 directed v. ith safety to pass the iilood-vessels, &:c. it may then be 
 pushed forward througli the canula and the ojiiiosite side ol the 
 tumour, and, having only the common tegurnents to perforate, all 
 danger will be avoiiled. When th.e matter in the tumour appears 
 to be wholly discharged or dried up, and no thickness appears but 
 wdiere the cord is, it may then be cut out, and tlie ori-ices suli'cred 
 to heal up. Setons are of great use in carrying olt matter from 
 deep seated tumours or abscesses in difl'ereiit parts of the body. 
 They ought always to be prefeiTed to making deep incisions into 
 the muscular parts, which not only disfigure horses, but are very 
 difficult to heal up. 
 
 Of Alterative Medicines. 
 
 By alteratives are to be understood such medicines as, having no 
 immediate sensible operation, gradually pain u|)on the constitution, 
 by changing the humours or juices from a state of distemperature 
 to health. Many b.ave but an inditTerent oj)iiiion of a medicinr: 
 that does not operate externally, and gratify tlieir sei.ses with a 
 quantity of imagined liumours ejected from the body: but though 
 the dirt'erent secretions may be more or less iiicreased, according 
 to the nature and quantity of the stimulus appli.'d to the secreting 
 vessels, aiul the evacuations by sweat, urine, dung. Sec. in some 
 measure regulated thereby, yet no evacuating medicine has a 
 power of selecting or separating the bad from the good; and coni-^ 
 sequently they are thrown out only in a proportionate quaotfty-. 
 \\ liere a continued use of evacuants is necessary, none are 5o*JJro-. 
 per as alteratives, and what we have said respecting a toe fre^uefit 
 repetition of purges, may be sufficient to convince tiie judicious 
 reader, of the great advantacres arising from this class of medicines ; 
 and the preference due to tlieni in iiio-t cases over purgatives. We. 
 shall therefore recommenfi sume alterative medicine,, v.nich ,ire of 
 general use, and which possess peculiar a^lvajitages, a. '.s found by 
 a proper experience of their good efVects in repeated trials. Tho 
 first is nitre, or purified s-.ilt-petre; which has long been in gre,it. 
 esteem, and perhaps is more to be depended on in all inflamma- 
 tory fevers than any other medicine whatever: but besides this ex- 
 tensive power of allaying inflammatory disorders, it is now otifer.'Mi 
 as an alterative remedy, taken in proper quantities for surfeits, 
 molten-grease, hide-boundncss, grease-heels, &r. And as it has 
 been known to succeed even in the cure of the farcv, yvhat other 
 distempers ill horses, arising from vitiated fluids, mav it not be 
 tried on, with a strong probability of success? This great alvan- 
 tnge \\ ill arise from tlie uspof this medicine over most others, that, 
 ai- iti operation is cliielly by uiiuc, it reuuircs uo ccnfiiiement or 
 
 Cioathiiij:
 
 S76 
 
 FARRIERY. 
 
 cloathiiin; but the l\orse may be worki-il modt-iutely throughout 
 the whole coui'^e. 'Iliis medicine has been Iouik! equally eflica- 
 f\ou? (Ijy many trials inatle in one ot our hospitals) in correcting 
 the acrimony of the juices, antl disposing the most obstinate and 
 inveterate sores to heal up ; and hence probably it came retom- 
 inended as an alterative to our hui-ses. The (piantity of nitre, 
 wlien j^iven as an alterative, should not exceed two ounces in the 
 day; one ounce morning and evening, being sufiicient for a dose. 
 Dfssolv'-d in a pail of water it will he very little perceptible to tlie 
 taste ; and being thus largely diluted «lll occasion no uneasiness in 
 the stomach: but if he refuse it in his water, it may be given in a 
 ball. Anliniony is another capital arlii le in this class of medi- 
 cines. An ounce may be given every morning to a horse, along 
 with his feeil of oats. Crude antimony liiiely levigated, the cru- 
 cu--, precipitated sulphur, and the wine, for internal u.^e; and the 
 butter of antimony tor exti rn,il use, are the only preparations of 
 this mineral necessary to be retained for the puri)oses of farriery. 
 
 Of the Methods used to Preserve the Feet. 
 
 The custom of keeping horses constantly slaiidiiig upon dry 
 litter and hot dung in the stable, is exceedingly hurtful to the 
 feet and legs, p;u'ticularly the former, which are always found to 
 agree best with coolness and moisture. Hence Ihe heofs of the 
 horses that run in the (ields are always in better condition than 
 those that are kept hot and dry in the stable ; which, besides being 
 liable to many disease's, arc hard, brittle, shattered, and often 
 broken. With respect to greasy and oily applications, so often 
 prescribed for the hoofs of horses to preserve them sound, tough, 
 ii:c. Mr. Clark, in his Ob-ervations on the Shoeing of Horses, 
 and (in the Diseases of their Feet, very justly condemns them as ra- 
 ther p<'rnicious than salutary. When young horses, he observes, 
 are first tak'-n from the fields, their hoofs are cool, sound, and 
 tough. These are found from experience to be good qualities. 
 But horses are no sooner introduced into the stable than their 
 hoofs are greased or oiled two or three times a-\veck ; and if they 
 are kept much in the house standing upon h<<t dry litter, without 
 being frec|uently led abroad, and without having an opportunity of 
 getting their hoofs cooUxi .md moist.-ncd in wet ground, their 
 hoofs grow so brittle, dry, aud l::n d, that pieces fre(]tientl\ break 
 oil', like chips from a haril stone ; ■,>i'n\, wdien driving the nails in 
 shoeing, pieces will split oil', even although the nails are made 
 very fine and thin. But if these same horses with brittle shattered 
 hoofs are turned out to graze in the fields, their hoofs in time will 
 become as sound, tough, and good, ai they were at first. Tliis 
 change must undoubtedly be ascrifed to the wet and moisture 
 which the hoofs art' exposed to in the fields, of which water is the 
 pi'inri])al ingredient; and it is a certain fact, of which we have 
 dailv |)ioofs, that when all other means fail, horses turned out to 
 grass will recover their decayed brittle hoofs. The dealers in 
 horses about London, when thev get a bad-footed horse, moisten 
 his hoofs frequently in water; for which purpose, they keep a 
 puddle of water and dung at the watering place, that, when the 
 horse conies to water. Ins fore-feet may sink in the puddle, by 
 which means they are cooled am! moistened twice or thricca day ; 
 SO' that, whilst they are making up his carcase for the market, his 
 hoofs are likewise repaired, and sufficient to stand the test of a 
 trial upon sale. But no sooner do horses with hoofs of this kind 
 come into other hands, their hoofs at the same time being kept dry 
 and greased, &c. than they degenerate into their former state. 
 Hen e the cause of so many complaints that horses turn soon 
 lame after they come from deah-rs, when, in fact, it proceeds 
 from greasy apphcations, and neglecting to cool or moisten the 
 hoofs in water ; t'or the careful groom, when airing his master's 
 Loises, rather than lead them into a puddle, will go about in or- 
 der to keep their le,!;s clean and dry. To preserve the feet of 
 hor-es, the method which nature suggests is, to cool and moisten 
 the hools with water morning and evening: and Jto those who are 
 fond o! stutfins, we v.culil prescribe bran ai:d water, or clay, &c. 
 made into the ccncistency of a poultice; and in particular cases, 
 where hor es stand much in tlie stable, and the hoofs ;re disposeil 
 to be very hard, dry, and brittle, a poultice of tliis kind, or any 
 ether emollient composition in wliich water i; a principal ingre- 
 ili. nt, may be applied all romul the hoof; or, in iniit;.ti»in of some 
 dealer-, to keep a puddle of water at the watering place, which 
 will answer equally well, if not better. From this manner ot 
 tj-eatmcjitj the hoofs will be prescivcil i» their natural stale, and a 
 
 free and equal perspiration kept up, by which the nourishnienl 
 natural to the hoof will have free access to its surface ; as it is this 
 only which causes that cohesion of the parts, which constitutes 3, 
 firm, sound, and lough hoof. 
 
 Of Shoeing Horses. 
 
 The shoes cannot possibly be made too light, provided care he 
 taken that they be ot a thickness so as not to bend ; tor bending 
 would force out the nails and ruin the hoof. That part of the shoe 
 uhicli is next the horse's heel, nuist he narrower than any other, 
 that tie stones may be thereby prevented from getting under it, 
 and sticking there ; which otherwise would be the case; because 
 ihe iron, when it advances inwardly beyoml the bearing of the foot, 
 forms a cavity, wlierein the stones being lodged would remain, 
 and, by pressing against the foot, lame the horse. The part of the 
 shoe which the horse walks upon should be quite flat, and like- 
 wise the inside of it ; only just space enough being left next the 
 foot to put in a picker, (which ought to be used every time the 
 horse comes into the stable,) and al-o to prevent the shoe's press- 
 ing upon the sole. Four nails on each side hold better than a 
 greater number, and keep the hoof in a far better state. Several 
 modern antliors, particularly Osmer, instead of attempting t-o im- 
 prove the horse-shoe, propose to lay aside the use of it altogether, for 
 which they are severely censured by Mr. Taplin. They " seem,". 
 says he, " extravagantly fond of an idea borrowed from antiquity, 
 upon the practicability of horses travelling the road, and doing their 
 constant work, without any shoeing at all." Osmer insists " that 
 horses are adequate to their ditferent services in a stale of nature, 
 without the ofiicious obtrusions of art ;" venturing to afTirm " that 
 they will travel even upon the turnpike roads about London, 
 without injury to their feet." Mr. Taplin, however, observes, 
 that " such a'conomical plan may be admirably calculated for tlie 
 theoretical journev of some literary speculatist, but atTirms that no 
 such excursion can take place of any duration, without material 
 injury to the hoof, unless to the high-bred horses of authors, who 
 enjoy their joiirnics only in imagination." Mr. C'oknian, the 
 present ingenious professor at the X'eterinary College has made a 
 material improvement on the horse-shoe. In his j)ublic lectures 
 he observes, that, for a good natural foot, all that is re- 
 quired of a shoe, is to guard the crust by a small and narrow piece 
 of iron, which should lie attached principally towards the toe, and 
 should not be extended so far back as the heel. The sole itself 
 should not be covered by the shoe ; for dirt and stones will get be- 
 tween, and will t'orm a permanent and partial pressure on the sole," 
 which will produce disease. According to the present mode of shoe- 
 ing, those diseases which iiffect the horse's foot constantly take 
 place on that portion of it which is covered by the extended 
 breadth of the shoe, while the exposed parts rtmain uninjured. 
 The reason is, that the covtved parts, besides being exposed ta 
 permanent pressure from the cause already related, become ten- 
 der by being covered. If these parts, therefore, are exposed, 
 they get hardened and thick ; and if the horse happens to tread 
 on a hard and rough body, the inconvenience is but momentary, 
 and the pain will make him remove his loot, so as to prevent mis- 
 chief. Coniinon shoeing is very liable to produce coins by the 
 hoofs spreading out, and leaving the shoe in close contact with the, 
 sole, wlicre it acts as a lixed point, and will not allow the elasticity 
 of the in-ensible sole to act. The nails of the shoe should not be, 
 placed near the heels, for it disposes the heel to contract, espe- 
 cially when the bars are cut away. Mr. Coleman has the shoes n>ade 
 three times as thick at the toe as at the heels, because they wear 
 more forv.'ard than behind. By this means the heels are less op- 
 pressed with weight, and the frog is allowed to come down to the 
 ground : a matter of extreme importance. The nails are all placed! 
 forward, four on each side, but not approaching too near the heels, 
 that they may not ob truct the elastic powers of those parts. The 
 o\i\ metliod of fullering, i. f. making a groove in the shoe, being 
 found injurious, by ottcn breaking away the heads of the nails, 
 they are now counter-sunk in conical or v\ edge-shaped holes, so' 
 that they may be driven up close to their thickest parts, and he 
 out of the way of accident. By this means the nails and shoes ap- 
 pear as one body, and always wear together. For horses uhiih 
 go in shafts, or are us' d in hunting, it is usual to make shoes with 
 inly one heel, which should be outward. 'Ihe horse's heel must 
 be rather lowered on that si<le, and the inner heel of the shoe 
 somewhat thickened so as to balance and bear equally. By this 
 6 easy
 
 FARKIKTIY 
 
 577 
 
 I 
 
 a»y precaution a gooii fooling is obtained, anil cutting is elV.'c- 
 
 Ijuaily previ-ntcil. The b-.'st bieadtli for the siioe of a ineduiin 
 
 ■izetl horse is said to be one incli at the toe, and tliree quarters at 
 
 lue lieel ; the weipiit about ilglileeu or twenty ounces. Light 
 
 lidtlle horses should not ha\e shoes exceeding sixteen ounces; 
 
 Ind, unless local circnmstanccs prevail, twelve ounces will be i;e- 
 
 il erally found preferable. In order to jit the shoe witlionl causini; 
 
 u": horse to stand too much on his heels, the under part ot the 
 
 rust, or wall of the hoof, is pared away to receive the exci-ss of 
 
 lickncss in front ; for the bottoni of tlie shoe ought to be per- 
 
 i-tly llat, witliout any stubs or culkings in front. Paring away 
 
 ic Keels is a most destructive practice, cvcept in case of absolute 
 
 ccrescence in those parts ; nor should tlic bars (or diagonal ridges) 
 
 ii,il extend from the heels to the frog, or central projection, ever 
 
 le cut more than is ab>olntely proper for the ])urpose of keening 
 
 liem in a clean and heaUliy slate. Fig. S and 9, in Plate LX\ III. 
 
 L'prcscnt the form of modern shoes. When (he roads are covered 
 
 ^■ith ice, it is necessary to have the heels of i horse's shoes turned 
 
 ip, and frequently sharpened, to prevent him from slipping and 
 
 lUing : but this cannot be done without the frequent moving of 
 
 lie shoes, which breaks .'>nd destroys the crust of llic hoof where 
 
 le nails enter. To prevent this, it is recommended to those who 
 
 e willing to be at the expence, to have steel points screwed into 
 
 ■•e heels or quarters of each shoe, which might be taken out and 
 
 iiil in occasiciially. To do this properly, Mr. Clark ndviscs, lirst 
 
 .1 have the shoes fitted to the shape of the hoof; then to make a 
 
 • mall round hole in the extremity of each heel, or iu the quarters, 
 "ibout Ihree-eighihs of an inch in diameter, or more, in proportion 
 
 the breadth and size of tha shoe ; in each of these holes a screw- 
 to be made ; the steel points are likewise to have a screw on 
 
 lieni, exactly lilted to lliat in the shoes. Care must be taken that 
 Ihe screw in the points is no longer, when they are screwed into 
 die shoe, than the thickness of the latter. The steel points are to 
 be made sharj) ; they may cither be made square, triangular, or 
 chissel-pointed, as may be most agreeable ; the height of the point 
 above the shoe should not exceed half an inch for a saddie-horsc ; 
 they may be made higher for a draught lioise. A key for screw- 
 ing them in and out occasionally is necessary, it must have a ca- 
 vity properly adapted to the shape of the steel point, and suffi- 
 ciently large to receive the part above the shoe. To prevent the 
 
 :rew from breaking at the neck, it is necessary to make it of a 
 gradual taper ; tiie same is likewise to be observed of the female 
 screw lliat receives it, that is, the hole must be wider on the upper 
 part of the shoe than the under part ; the sharp points may be tem- 
 pered, cr hardened, in order to [irevent them from growing too soon 
 Mimt; but where tiiey become blunt, they may heshar|)ened as at 
 
 • fst. Tliese points should be unscrewed when the horse is put 
 .'o the stable, as the stones will do them more injury in a few 
 liuutcs than a day's riding on ice. A draught horse should have 
 :ie on the pnint of each snoe, as th.-tt gives him a firmer footing 
 ! drawing on ii >• ; but for a saddle horse, when points are put 
 lere, thev are apt to make him tr p and stumble. When the 
 'iOesare provided with these points, a horse will travel on ice 
 
 ith the greatest security and steadiness, much more so than on 
 causeway or turnpike roads, as the weight of the horse presses 
 them into the ii;e at every step he takes. 
 
 O: I'lRjNG, Cropping, Nicking, and Docking. 
 
 The cautery is al-o an instrument of prime consequence in ve- 
 ■■'riiiary practice ; but the firing the legs of horses is yet per- 
 
 1 jrm;.l by the generality of common farriers in a heavy-handed, 
 rough, and barbarous way ; the old method of drawing cross lines 
 eight to be abolished. Indeed the general rude and unfeeling 
 
 icdes of treating this animal, by whose services mankind are so 
 :aueh benelited, form a proper subject of in-tant inquiry, and at- 
 I'^nipt-: at gradual improvement. Coniinon farriers and grooms, 
 from inveterate hai>il .".nd total abseiK'e of reflection, loi.'k upon 
 the animal, placed by stratagem and force within their power, as a 
 mere jviece of machinery, the feelings of which never disturb the 
 straighl-forwanl aim of the operator, for indeed they never come 
 v.-ithni his coniemplilion : on the contrary, he generally views his 
 victim, bound down to the most infernal and exquisite tortures, 
 *ith a k'nd of triumph, or even strongly-marked features of re- 
 venge, if the wretched beast has given him much trouble. The 
 heavy and bungling methods of common operators increase ten- 
 fold t;-.e necessary siifferingj of the horse. Thus an author, whom 
 Vol. h. — MO. 80. 
 
 we have repeatedly quotefl. r.-laies (hat hcsaiva nv.iro's lip twitch 
 ed Willi such violent force, lliat it hurst a>under: and the agonv of 
 (he twilch being so exalted, its intent was frustrated, .•in<i (lie tiiarc 
 lliiew herself upon the ground. The burning oflwith a lighte,; 
 .candle the h lir of the- horse's lip, beneath the jav,, and within hi5 
 cars, is generally a most terrifying process, and renders niimy 
 horses dangeroiisiy sliy about the head ; be>ides, (iie robbing tiiat 
 delicate organ, the ear. ot the natural protection of its inner pari. 
 is mosl iiiipn.pei, unnecessary, and cruel. Sucli practice should 
 never be permitted for a moinent ; (he scissars will do every thirij; 
 in (he case which neatness and symmetry recpiire. 'J he cruel ope- 
 ration-) of nicking the tails of horses it is 'almost useless to declaim 
 against, from its present general adopdon; but we really can dis- 
 cover no reason why an e'rected tail should be deemed essential to 
 beauty of fioine on the road or field, more than on tiie turf, for 
 which purpoie hors<_-s are never nicked. Yet it seems necessary 
 to dock or abridge tlie tail of the horse destined for the saddle at 
 least ; but as it is alwiys a severe, and often a dangerous, operation 
 to a lull-grown horse, we leconunend Mr. Lawrence's practice of 
 taking oil" a hand's-brfath of the colt's tail while it sucks, at a 
 month or two old. lie says he has repeatedly pcrtbrmed this tri- 
 fling operation with a sharp knife ; the patienl's being so Hide dis- 
 turbed by it as to continue feeding on the same spot : iicr was it 
 always necessary to bind up the wound. Altiiough no friend to 
 cropping, he has been temi)ted (o crop a large, heavy, lopping, ear 
 in a yearling; judging it best to crop early, if at' all. As Mr. 
 Lawrence's treatise contains hints of peculiar uiilily, we will 
 quote certain of them in this place: he strongly recom'niends that 
 all cart-colts may be taught to back w hen tliey are tiist taken in 
 hand ; as a preventative of much future misery aiid barbarity. That 
 the keepers of post-horses would, as far as lies in their i)ovver,'be care- 
 ful to select postilions of light weight ; and that thev would attach 
 a convenient seat to the splinter-bar of their post-chaises, for the 
 use of the postilion, whenever lie can obtain leave of humane 
 passengers to ease his horse, by seating himself on the bar. Mr. 
 Lawrence also recommends a covering for tlie knees, to jiieserve 
 them in case of an accidental fall, or in case of a recent wound by a 
 fall: this is of particular use to race-horses and hunters, or s'ale 
 horses en travel. lie farther counsels, that saddle colts, in their 
 breaking, be taught and accustomed to a steadv canter, a thing 
 generally unthought of. 
 
 OF THE INTERNAL DISEASES OF IIOKSES. 
 Of Fevers in General. 
 
 A fever is a general disease, which aflects the whole nervous 
 system, and disturbs all the functions of tlie body; nor are the so- 
 lids free from its dire effects. Tlie motions of the heart and arte- 
 ries cease to be regular and e(jual; the circulation of the blfujd t© 
 be free and natural; and Ihe secretions and e\cretit:ns are no 
 longer rightly performed. Horses may be allacked b\ this di»- 
 temjisr at all ages, whether running at large in the field's, or kept 
 close in the stable. Sometimes it is e|jidemical, seii-ing great 
 numbers at the same time; sometimes symptomatica!, being a 
 consequence of other diseases, and renderins them more dangerous 
 and difficult to be cured. A fever, properh speaking, doee not 
 consist merely in an accelerate<l piiNe, or a more frequent beatin" 
 of the heart, as this may hapficn (ioin hard riding, or any thitK^ 
 else that puts the blood ami spirits into a commotion. That'oulv 
 can be cidled a fever, which procieds from internal causes, and Is 
 attended witli coldness of the external pails, la men (Ihtc is ge- 
 ner.ally a shivering, ami probably also in horses, though it is seldom 
 or never taken notice of, because it can hardly be discovered till 
 the disease is confirmed. 
 
 I. Simple FeVrr. In a ■•Ircple fever, all the internal parti 
 continue sound, and there is no inllammation, or inflammatorv 
 tumour, that may occasion it. This is the mildest and least dan'- 
 gerous of all fevers, and is generally owing to a suppressed perspi- 
 ration, which increases the quantity ot humours, and then-bv re- 
 quires an increased etfuti of natcre to throw them otf, and to re- 
 move tiie obstnictioiis; whence a feverish habit will follow, which, 
 if taken in time, by assisting the endeavours of natrire, iti;iv go ctl' 
 without any bad con-^cquences. There is nothing so likelv to 
 cauic this fever, as a sudden refrigeration of the bodv, lifier i't has 
 been violently heated. The symptoms of a simple ("ever are, a 
 a D ■ ' jyss
 
 578 
 
 lARRIiaiY. 
 
 loss of appiilit-e, in such a manner, that the horse only nibbles Ins 
 hay, as if he did not like it; and he is so restless as to be continu- 
 ally ranging from one end of the rack to the other: he has a beat- 
 ing of his {lank?, a redness of his eyes, and dryness of his tongue, 
 Avhich is somewhat parched ; and his ears and feet are not cold, as 
 in complicated fevers, but are almost as warm as the rest of his bo- 
 dy. He is not costive, but liis dung by internal heat is dried into 
 small balls, and is seldom or never greasy: his urine is of a high 
 colour, and is sometimes voided with difticulty. He seems to be 
 fond of water, yet drinks but little at a time, and often. His pulse 
 beats full and i.'ard, to 50 strokes and upwards in a minuU-. The 
 indications of cure are, to tVee the vilal parts from the congestt'd 
 blood; to abate the heat of the blood and humours; to allay the 
 inordinate motion of the solids; to discuss the stagnant and cor- 
 rupted humours; and procure a free circulation, by recalling the 
 blood to the external parts. Therefore v.e must begin the cure by 
 taking away a suOicient (juantity of Iilood. 'J'i'.e longer this is 
 neglected, 'the more viscid and acrimonious is the blood rendered, 
 by dissipating its more thin part, condensing the globules, and 
 heating the serum to such a degree, as to turn it into a kind of 
 jelly. The acrimony of tlie oleous and saline parts of the blood 
 viU be increased more and more, insomuch t!iat the blood will be 
 at length liighly contaminated, and so far depraved as to be unfit 
 for the purposes of life. '^I'he (piantity of blood to be taken away 
 must be in proportion to thestrensth nt the liorse, the intcnseness 
 of the fever, the heat, and ihe violence ot (he symptoms. In ge- 
 neral, three pints or uvo quart- may he sufficient; and if the symp- 
 toms are not abated by liie hist bleeding, it shews a necessity of 
 repeating the operation, cspeciallyif lie refuse to feed. However 
 it is safer to take away too little than too much. When the horse 
 is disposed to drink, it will be always proper to let him have a suf- 
 ficient cjuantity to keep his blood well diluted; otherwise, as the 
 preternatvu'al heat dissipates the thinner part, without a suflicient 
 cjuantity of fluid, the serum of the blood will be concreted into a 
 jelly. This should be made with warm milk and water, mixed 
 ■with a liUle oatmeal. He may likewise have the drink, No. 16. 
 His diet should be scalded bran to keep his body open, and he 
 jnay be allowed half a rjunrtern three or four times a-uay, if he wiil 
 eat it. But if he refuse it, let him have raw bran sprinkled with 
 •water. He should never get much hay at a time, but a small 
 quantity of good hay may be given to him frequently. His water 
 needs not lie much wanned, but should be given oflen and in 
 small quantities: hiscloathing should be moder,ite; too much heat 
 and weiglit on a liorse being improper in a fever, which scarce 
 fver goes off in critical sweats (as those in the human body termi- 
 rate,) but by strong perspiration. Besides bleeding and the ni- 
 trous cooling drink, it will be proper to inject cooling, emollient, 
 and hiN'atlve clysters, even at the very beginning, to bring away 
 the hardened farces that are pent up in the intestines, and to dis- 
 charge any bilious acrid matter, which might enter inio the blood 
 through the lacteals. Saline purges are also proper, being cooling 
 and gentle in their operation and preferable to aloetic purges in 
 fevers. I'he drink. No. 14, is as good a gimeral formula as can 
 be contrived, in almost all cases where such medicines arc indicat- 
 fd. The signs of recovery are, the horse eating scalded bran, and 
 picking a little hay, which, when he does, he needs only to be 
 taken care of and well nursed, without troubling him with any 
 iiiore medicines. For though a horse continue to heave at the 
 flaijcs, tliis is no bad sign, especially if he be cool all over, and has 
 a return o'' appetite. He should now be taken out in the air every 
 day, and led about by the hand. He should also have plenty of 
 clean straw to lie down en. 
 
 n. Ix'w, putrid, and malignant fever. This is of a more 
 complicated and irregulai- nature than the former, and if not pro- 
 perly treated often proves fatal. It seldom ris^s to that de'.;ree of 
 heal, ttiat attend? inflammatory fevers, but creeps on gradually, 
 while nature endeavouiv to get rid of her enemy, sometimes bv 
 one outh't, and sometimes by another; insomuch that we are not 
 aide to determine which of the secretions to promote, and this 
 renders the method of cure very precarious and uncertain. These 
 sorts of levers have been often mistaken for severe colds, which 
 lias produced fatal errors. And indeed it requires the higiiest skill 
 in farriery, to treat those diseases in a jirop^r manner, and prevent 
 il-.em from ending in a consumption. All kinds of irregularities, 
 whether in di-t. rest, exercis'*. or labo;ir, when long continued, 
 
 may produce these fevers; as they all tend to generate bad hu- 
 mours, deprave the blood, and depress the spirits. The only 
 wav, therefore, to prevent them, is to keep the horse from ex- 
 cesses of all kinds : for what tends to jireserve his due temperii- 
 ment, is the best means to preserve him from diseases in general, 
 and this kind of fever in particular. When this fever begins to 
 appear, the horse feeds but little, eating a mouthful or two, and 
 then leaving off; he has a constant moisture in his mouth, moves 
 his jaws in a feeble manner, and has a disagreeable grating ot his 
 teeth. The fever is atlended with a depression of spirits, which is 
 at some times more remarkable than at others. His heat is varia. 
 ble ; sometimes none appears outwardly, but rather a remarkah!'? 
 coldness: at other times he is hot all over, but not to a great de- 
 gree. His eyes arc gencrLdly moist and langvjd ; his body i> 
 open; his diuig soft and moist, but seldom giea } . His sta!:n • 
 is irregular; sometimes very profuse, and at other tinies very , 
 tie. His urine is generally pale, without a sediment, andvt 
 seldom high coloured. \\ itii regard to prognostics, if the fev^r 
 sen-ibly abate, and his mouth grow more d:-y, the gratijig of h 
 teelh ceasing at the same time ; if his appetite mend l.'V degrees , 
 if he begin to lie down, (which at first he seldom docs.) for a 
 week, or a fortnight, or longer, these arc promising signs. A 
 horse in these fevers always runs at the nose, but not the kiiidiv 
 white discharge, as in the breaking of a cold, but of a reddish ..r 
 greenish dusky colour, and of a consistence like glue, that sti( U 
 like turpentine to the hair on the inside of the nostrils : if this turn 
 to a gleet of clear thin water, the horse's hide keep open, and he 
 mend in his appetite, there is no doubt of his recovery, unless 
 through bad management. While the disease is in a moderate 
 state, he will feed, though but poorly ; his urine will be pale and 
 thin without any sediment ; his dung will be sometimes loose, aii.l 
 sometimes hard ; his mouth will continue moist, with a redne-s 
 and sponginess about the roots of his teeth ; his skin will some- 
 times feel dry, and sometimes moist and tiamp, with a roughness 
 of his coat. While the horse remains in th.is state, proper medi- 
 cines will in all jirobability work a cure. But if his appetite be 
 constantly upon the decline, and go oif gradually, till at last he 
 for^akcs every kind of food, while his fever continues or increases; 
 if tlie horse be old, with jioor vapid blood, or have lately nut 
 w ith any severe accident, little good is to be expected, unless by 
 the consumniale skill of the person who takes care of him. Tie 
 various and irregular sym|)toms, that attend this slow fever, re- 
 (juire great skill to direct the cure, and more knowledge of the 
 symptoms of the diseases of horses, than the generality of gentle- 
 men are acquainted with. The experienced farrier should there- 
 fore be consulted an<l attended to, in regard to the symptoms; 
 but very seldom as to the application of the remedy, which is ge- 
 nerally above his comprehension ; though it may be readily se- 
 lected, by duly attending to the observations here inculcated. 
 The cure of this disease maybe begun by bleeding; but the 
 qtiantity of blood to be taken away must be regulated according 
 to the symptoms. When the horse is pletiioric, and there is a re- 
 dundancy of blood and humours, two quarts at least may he 
 taken, and that as soon as possible ; if the horse be in a moderate 
 condition, a quart or three pints will be suflicient; but if he bf 
 old, poor and low, it will be dangerous to take away any at all 
 In general, when there is any symptom of iuiiammation, it is ne- 
 cessary that the horse should lose blood, let his condition be wliat 
 it may. The greatest danger in this distemper arises from sun- 
 posing the horse to have lillle or no ailment, till he is loo far gone 
 for a cure, because lie will keep picking and eating his hay, lini 
 iug the first stage of his dise.xse. Afterwards, if he be allowed 
 oats, he will eat nothing else, till his appetite quite forsakes him. 
 Therefore, if his disease be discovered in due time, inste.ad of oats 
 he should have scalded bran ; and if he refuse this, he should per 
 a liltle raw bran sprinkled with elean water, and some good hav 
 put into his rack by handfids. But if he be neither willing nor 
 able to lift his head to the rack, it may be given by the hand, to 
 tempt him to eat. As drinking is absolutely necessary to dilute 
 the blood, if the horse refuse to drink freelv of warm water or 
 gruel, he nnist be indulged with having the chill only taken off 
 by standing in the stable : nor will any inconvenience ensue, but 
 oftencr an advantage ; for the nauseous w armth of water, forced 
 into horses for ;i tune, jialls their stoinachs, and takes away their 
 appeiites, wh.ich the cold water generally restores. Should the 
 
 fever
 
 (fever 
 his u 
 
 FARRIERY. 
 
 37?? 
 
 fever after this tre;Unient increase, the horse ff etl little, stale often, 
 his urine being thin and pale, and his dung sonietinn-s loose, and 
 at other times hard ; should the moisture in his mouth continue, 
 his skin being sometimes dry and at others moist, with his coat 
 looking staring and surfeited : upon thc>e irregular sym]4oms, 
 vhich'denote great danger, the balls, No. 6, or the drink. No. 1", 
 should be given, without delay, for in these cases there is no linn- 
 to be lost. When the horse has so far recovered his strength, tint 
 he is lit to he taken out of the stable, lead him into the open air, 
 which will contribute much to hi-; speedy recovery. Costiveness 
 is bad in all diseases, but particularly in those of the head and in 
 fevers. When therefore the horse is in this condition, recour-e 
 must be had to emolhent clysters or saline purges. If, on the 
 contrary, the looseness should happen, it is often critical, and 
 therefore should not be immedi;itely stopped, if moderate; hut 
 if, by continuance the horse grow feeble, mild astringents and 
 tonic's must be administered. Particular regard should be had to 
 his staling ; which if in too great quantities, so as manifestly to 
 depress his spirits, should be controlled by proper rcstringent?, or 
 by preparing his drinks with lime-water. If, on the contrary, it 
 happen that he is too remiss this way, and stale so little as to 
 occasion a fulness and swelling of the body and legs, mild diure- 
 tics such as No. 5, will be the most proper remedies. The signs 
 of r. horse's recovery are known by his hide keeping open, and 
 his skin feehng kindly ; his ears and feet will be of a moderate 
 warmth, an<l Ids eyes brisk and lively ; his nose grows clean and 
 dry ; his appetite mends, he lies down well, and both stales an<l 
 dungs regularly. If he happen to have eruptions on his skin at 
 this time, it is no bad symptom, but on the contrary, may prove 
 very benelicial. Medicines will now be no longer necessaiy, as 
 tlie completion of the cure depends more on proper attention to 
 supply him with suitable diet and convenient exercise. As all 
 tedious distempers weaken the digestive faculties, we may easily 
 suppose a horse is not able immediately upon his recovery, to 
 concoct the same (pianlity of food as before he was ill. It is 
 therefore obviously improp,er to give him as large feeds in his 
 weak, though convalescent state, as formerly, when he was in per- 
 fect health and strength. This, it is alleged, will bring him to his 
 flesli and strength the sooner ; but it is a great mistake, and is in 
 danger of causing a relapse; for though the horse's stomach be 
 craving, and he appear greedy of food, yet as he will not be able 
 to digest it, so a< to enlarge tiie tiuantity of good chyle, he must 
 necessarily generate crudities, which may occasion a relapse, or at 
 least throw him into a surfeit, which niay prove as bad. Hence 
 ♦he necessity appears of feeding sparingly at (irst, and of giving 
 him provender by little and little, in proportion to his strength. 
 He should also be aired every day ; for fresh air is as necessary 
 to restore all the functions as a proper diet ; as is evident from the 
 speedy effect a change of air has on the health and recovery of 
 the human species. And then gentle exercise, increased by de- 
 grees, will bring him to his wind and flesh, by promoting a (\uc 
 distribution of the chyle, and a regular circulation of the 
 fluids. 
 
 e^" 
 
 I 
 
 Of Colds and Coughs. 
 
 We class these disorders together, because the second is gene- 
 rally the attendant on and consetpience of the tirst. A cold in a 
 horse is the same sort of disease as in a man. It is occasioned by 
 the same exjjosure, and to be avoided by the same sort of cautions 
 we think neci-ssary tor ourselves. To enumerate the various 
 causes of colds would be endless: the most usual are, riding 
 horses till they are hot, and suffering them to stand in that condi- 
 tion where the air is cold and piercing ; removing a horse fr^m a 
 hot stable to a cold one, and too suddenly changing his cloafliiug; 
 whence it is tiiat horses often catch such severe colds after thev 
 come out of the dealers hands, and by not being carefully rubbed 
 down when they come in hot off journies. W'here there is a con- 
 stant attent\on and care, the effects of cold are not only soon dis- 
 covered, but an observation may be very early made to what pait 
 it more Immediately directs it- attack. For instance, if the ner- 
 vous system be the most irritable, the afl'ection is quickly per- 
 ceived in the eyes ; if the glandular, vipon the neck, throat, un- 
 der the eais, or in the head : or if more particularly the sy^tem of 
 circuUition has been affected, the consequences are soon a))parent 
 jpon the lungs ; and will be exerted aiore or less in a cou{;h, cr 
 
 diflicully of breathing, according to- the severity of ..Hack, from 
 the repuhion of respnable matter, and its consequent ubiorplion 
 into the circulation. As soon as the hoi-se is in tills state, a ss mp- 
 lomatic fever attends ; which is to be understood <as no more than 
 a degree of febrile heat or irritability de))endenl on the original 
 cause, which gradually ceases .-iS the primary difcase is found to 
 decline. From an allection of tlie dillereiit parts above ■jpecificd, 
 various disorder-^ en^ue, which are treated of under th<^lr proper 
 heads. Here we have oidy to consider that kind of cold 'fixed oil 
 the lungs, which produces cougii ; ; nd which, if 'taken in its first 
 stage, generally yields to very simple remedies. AVilh regard to 
 prognostics, when the cough is strong, and the horse does rot re- 
 fuse scalded bran or warm water, at liic same lime pricking up his 
 ears and moving briskly in his stall, it is a good sign ; as also 
 when he dungs and stales freely without pain. It is likewise a 
 good sign, wlien his skin feels as in health, and when his mouth is 
 moist with.out being clammy. But when his coat stares, it is a 
 bad oincn : when his moufh is hot, <lry, and parched, and his 
 belly tucked up; there is danger of a fever: when a horse feels 
 hotter than ordinary, w^ith a working at his flanks ; when he w ill 
 not eat his meat or "drink his water ; wdien his eyes are very moist, 
 his mouth slimy, his ears and feet cold, there Is danger of a ma- 
 lignant fever. 'As soon as the attack has been observed, bleeding 
 should be instantly performed, according to symptom-, size, slate, 
 and condition ; and the blood preserved a few hours to ascertain 
 its state: if livid or black, with a coat of si.^e upon it- surface, 
 there is no doubt of its viscidity, and of the obstructed circulation 
 of that Huid through the finer 'vessels of the lungs. In three or 
 f^our hours after bleeding, give a mash prepared as follows : — On 
 equal parts of bran and oats, pour a sufficient quainlty of boiling 
 water, in which two ounces of Spanish juice, and four ounces of 
 honey has been dissolved, and then stir in two ounces aniseed 
 and liquorice powders ; honey four ounces. In two hours after 
 the mash give a gallon or six quarts of soft water moderately 
 warm, in which has been dissolved two ounces of nitre. 'I hese 
 mashes Mr. Taplin directs to be " continued every night and 
 morning, giving a moderate feed of dry oats in the middle of the 
 day, good sweet hay in small quantitfe's, and die same proportion 
 of nitre to be repeated in the w.ater after each mash. To these 
 must be added the necessary regulations of good dressing and 
 gentle e.vercise, which in general soon effect the cure of such colds- 
 as are counteracted upon the first attack." When the disorder 
 has been neglected, and made a rapid progress, should the cough 
 be violent and constant, the horse very dull and refusing his food, 
 and the symptomatic fever run high, the blood will consequenlly 
 prove asbefore described. In this case the symptoms will not 
 perhaps yield to the above plan so soon as may be wished. It 
 will therefore be necessary to repeat the bleeding in two or three 
 days at farthest, according to circumstances. Continue the 
 mashes and nitre as before directed; and give about four ounces 
 of the cordial ],ectoral hall. No. 8, every morning. Malt may 
 be substituted for oats in the mash, if' thought more agree- 
 able. 
 
 Of Asthma, Broken Wind, and Consumttion. 
 The consequences of colds, neglected or injudiciously treated;- 
 are settled habitual coughs, :isthmas, broken wind, and con-^mnp- 
 tions. The asthmatic cough, which is dislinguislied by being 
 short and dry, preceded by a husky hollow kind of wheezing, as 
 if the respirat'ion were obstructed by fragments of hay or corn re- 
 tained in the passage, is not incurable, unless it h.ave continued 
 Ion;;, and the horse be old. Bleeding must be lir,t performed, 
 and occasionally repeated in small quantities, till the glandular in- 
 flammation and irritability are allayed, aifd the blood so attenu- 
 ated by the constant use of nitre, as to render the circukition free 
 tliroUE;h the finer vessels of the lungs, from the obstructions iu 
 which'^all the difTiculties proceed. Bleeding having taken place 
 with the necessary circumspection as to quantity, let tno ounces 
 of nitre be given punctually every night in the water, as particu- 
 larized under the article "Colds, continuing one of the l;alls. 
 No. 9, every morning for a toitnighl or three weeks, that a tair 
 and decisive'trial may be obtained. This tre,:tmeiil, with the as- 
 sistance of open air and moderate exercise proiioriioned to the 
 horse's strength and constitution will bid fair to elVcct a cure ia 
 every ca^e iii which the disease is not too deeply rooted to re-
 
 580 
 
 FARRIERY 
 
 sist such powerful nieaiii of relief. When th'u (listenijjev is so far 
 coiifirnieu, as to become, wliat is properly called a broken wind, 
 the inspirations are always more ilow than tl\e ex^piralions; for 
 they draw in their breath slowly, and their flanks fill up and rise 
 very gradually, but fall again suddenly, because their breath is 
 -forced out througli their mouths and nostrils with great rapidity, 
 which shews a convulsive disposition of the parts designed for re- 
 spiration. Most writers iitfribute tlie cause of tlii-j disorder to in- 
 judicious or hasty feeding of young horses for sale; by which 
 means the growth of the lungs', and all the contents within the 
 chest, are so preternaturally increa^ed, and in a few years so en- 
 larged, that tlie cavity of the chest is not capacious enough for the 
 pertonr.ance of tlie necessary functions. 'J'here is great reason to 
 disljflieve this doctrine altogether : but at least those who consider 
 a broken wind in this light must own, that it ranks among the in- 
 curable diseases of horses ; and that all the boasted |)rclensions to 
 cure are vain and frivolous, since the utmost skill can amount to 
 no more than now and tlien palliating the symptoms, and mitigat- 
 ing thi'ir violence. A much more probable cause of broken vvind 
 lias of late been assigned by the anatomical prol'essor at the Vete- 
 rinary College, and one which is supported by the a]ipearances on 
 dissection. This is the breaking of the air-vessels into each 
 other, so that a number of cells form one common bag, sometimes 
 inearly the size of a hazel nut. Hitherto, unfortunately, no re- 
 medy for this disease has been hit upon ; wc sliall therefore only 
 lay down such metliods as may probably prevent th;s disorder 
 when pursued in time. Hut if they should not succeed, we shall 
 olVervoine remedies and rules for mitigating the complaint, and 
 making a horse as useful as possible under this malady. As a bro- 
 3ien wind seldom or never comes on suddenly, but by degrees, it 
 will be best to prevent, if possible, its coming to'any hciglit. 
 Therefore when a horse has only a dry obstinate cough, and feeds 
 greedily at the same time, eating his'littcr and drinking heartily, 
 h will lie proper to bleed him in tlie plate or neck vein'; then the 
 mercurial ball. No. C, should be given him over night, and purg- 
 ■"d oil next niorni]ig; or it may remain two days before it is purg- 
 ed otf. If given in a morning, he must fast two hours before and 
 three after it : and then get a purge the next morning, or tlie 
 morning following that. The same method may be repeated 
 again in a week or ten days, twice or thrice. On the interme- 
 diate days^ he should iiaye the detergent deob^truent balls, 
 !No. 10. Careful feeding and moderate exercise has greatly re- 
 lieved broken winded horses. Hordes sent to grass to'be cured 
 -of an obstinate cough, have often returned completely broken- 
 winded, w hi re the pasture has been rich and succulent, so that 
 they have iiad their bellies constantly t'ull. As the ill conse- 
 <|ucnces therefore are obvious, where o"nc has not the conyenience 
 of turning out a horse constantly, he maybe soiled for a month 
 or two witli green barley, tares, or any other young herbage. 
 To pursive tiiick-winded horses, Barbadoes and common tar hive 
 often b;,'en given with success, to the qupntity of two spoonsful, 
 mixed with the yolk of an egg, dissolved in warm ale, and given 
 lusting two or tliree times iUweek ; especially on days when he 
 works or '.ravels. Two or three cloves of garlic giveii at a lime 
 in a feed, or three ounces of garlic bruised, an<l boiled in a quart 
 of milk and wat- r, and given every other morning for a fortnight, 
 have been found very serviceable;' for by warming and stimulat- 
 ing the solids, and dissolving the tenacious juices which choke up 
 the vessels of the lungs, these complaints are greatly relieved. 
 But to render broken winded horses of any real service', the most 
 niaterial point is to have a particular regard to their diet, observ- 
 ing a just eeouomy both in that and their exercise ; giving a mo- 
 derate quantity of hay, corn, or w;..ier, at a time, and moistening 
 tlie former, to prevent their requiring too much of the latter, 
 and never exercising them but with moderation. When a con- 
 sumption proceeds from a defect in a horse's lungs or any of ihe 
 principal bowels, the eyes look dull ; the ears and feet are mo-lly 
 liot; he coughs sharply by fits; sneezes much, and frecjuentlv 
 groans with it ; his (kin-ks have a quick motion ; he gleets often at 
 Ihe nose, and sometimes throws out a yellowish curdled, matter ; 
 he lias little appetite for hay, but will" eat corn, after which he 
 generally grows hot. 'I'hese symptoms, or at lea^t most of Ihcni, 
 will aiteiid the abscess or corruption of any of the rest of the 
 bowels, in the same manner as the hectic fev'er in mankind. The 
 c-auses of tliis disease are schirrous tubercles wluch beset tlie 
 
 j lungs, and are hard to be reiiioved on account of their constauf 
 I motion. Tliese tubercles arc full of a viscid matter, and are ge- 
 j nerally the beginning of vomica.' or abscesses of the lungs, which 
 ! are contained in a kind of bag. When these break, they till the 
 i lungs with a purulent maiter mixed with phlegm, and th'en it is a 
 I true consumption. But these tubercles or schirrous knots may 
 sometimes lie dormant a long while, without any other symploim 
 but a dry cough. But if these ulcerate at length, they turn to 
 fistulous and cancerous ulcer.s, which admit no cure. As there is 
 always some degree of an inflammation attends this disca:.e, it ij 
 generally best to begin the cure with bleeding, and this should be 
 but a little at a time, i. c. a pint every eight or ten days, while 
 there is any probability of giving relief. Then make rowels in 
 tlie sides and breast, to draw oti'tiie purulent matter from the part 
 affected. With regard to internals, pectorals, as in colds, may be 
 given to palliate present symptoms; but as dissections have dis- 
 covered both the glands of the lungs and mesentery to be swelled 
 and often indurated, the whole stre.ss lies on mercurial purges and 
 alteratives, given intermediately. There is nothing that will con- 
 tribute more to the cure than good air and gentle exercise in a 
 morning ; anil therefore, the horse should be removed from low, 
 boggy places, when he happens to be kept in such. If he is turn- 
 ed out to grass, it should never be where it is rank, but on some 
 dry common or other place wliere the air is good. Out the best 
 pasture is the salt marshes, where a horse will recover without the 
 use of medicines, if his case is not desperate. 
 
 Of Pleurisy and Inflammation of the Lungs. 
 
 A Pleurisy and Peripneumony, are inflammatory feve-s, 
 whicli arise from the stagnation of the blood and the bronchia of 
 Ihe lungs, or in tiie branches of the vena sine pari in llie pleura. 
 They are attended with a sharp pain in the side, diflicull breathing, 
 immoderate heat, a strong quick beating at the heart, and a cough. 
 The pleurisy generally seize> one side only; but tlie peripneu- 
 mony or inllammation of the lungs, generally seizes both sides of 
 the lungs at once. The symptoms of a pleurisy and peripneu- 
 mony are much the same, only in the former, the horse is mora 
 restless and rineasy, and shifts about from place to place, often 
 turning his head to the affected side. The fever rises suddenly to 
 a very great heiglit in the beginning of this disease, and he often 
 strives to lie doun, but starts up again immediately, ilis ears and 
 feet are l)urning ho', and his mouth parched and dry. As the 
 disease advances, lie does not offer to lie down at all, but runs 
 back as far as the collar will let him, and then stands inimovr^ 
 able, panting, or endeavouring to cough, till he drops down dead. 
 This disease, at its fust onset, has been frequently mistaken for the 
 gripes, but may be readily distinguished from them ; for in the 
 gripes, the horse lies down and rolls, with his eyes turned up, and 
 his limbs stretclied out, as if he w'cre dying with convulsive 
 twitches. II i« ears and feet are not constantly hot, but are sonie- 
 I times almost as hot as fire, and at other times as cold as ice. lie 
 also sometimes falls into profuse warm sweats, and then into cold 
 dam]js ; he stales and dungs with great clifliculty, and ihe san** 
 symptoms continue till he finds reli'.l. In aii inflammation of the 
 lungs the horse is more dull and heavy, and never attempts to lie 
 do-.\ii at all ; when his mouth is opened, a great quantity ofrcpy 
 slime will fall therefrom ; and a reddish or yellow matter sticks to 
 tlie inside of his nostrils, trom a gleet tli.it runs from thence, 
 There is no extraordinary beating in Ids flanks, nor is his belly 
 tui ked up as in the pleurisy. His ears and feet are generally cold, 
 ahd he often falls into damp sweats. The cause may be any thing 
 tlirit impedes the free circalalion of the blood through these parls, 
 either by plenty of thick humours, or by thin acrid humours, 
 uliieli irritale Ihe vessels to a spasmatic constriction, and so hiiv-'iT 
 the free passage of the blood ; especiahy when the anteceu' ii' 
 causes conspire to produce the same effect. Therefore it may I o 
 owiHg to bad or high feeding, want of exercise, being over-heated, 
 haril labour, sudden cold, drinking cold uater when hot, want of 
 bli;edirg when the body is full of blood and humours ; riding a 
 horse deep in cold water when he is hot, or letting hiai stand long 
 in a cold damp air, or when there is a very cold w iiid blov.ing; 
 for all these have a tendency to render the blood and humours of 
 that consist'-ncc, grnerally termed pleuritic. The cure of bclh 
 these diseases is n.uch the same, the intention of which is, to re- 
 move tlie stagnation of the blood, and to promote its equal circd- 
 
 laticn.
 
 FARRIERY. 
 
 381 
 
 Uti.- ►. For this purpose, we must endeavour to prevent the tor- 
 M.'rcongesliou ot the blood, and lo render it more Ikiid. I'liere 
 IN nrthing more proper lo prevent the farther i[itl.uumatioii, than 
 1 tuiig ot blood as soon as pos? ble, taking away three cpiarts at 
 once: ; and it there be no great alleviation of the syniptoin--, two 
 quarts tlie next dav, unle-is they continue violent, and tlien bleed- 
 ing may be repeated sooner ; for speedy, large, ajid tiuiekly re- 
 pealed bleedings are in these eases chietly to be depended on. 
 lUit if the hoi'se were low before he fell ill, or were pretty old, 
 (hen take away a quart atonee, and repeat il in 12 hours, and then 
 the next day if the c:ise re!|uirc it. 'I'his ojicration when used in 
 lime, has often removed the diu'a.se of its(ll'. ''J'he next thin;; lo 
 be done is, to rub the blistering ointment. No. 't', all over his 
 brisket, into tlie toremost ribs, and when it is a pleurisy, into the 
 pained side more particulirly. Rowels also will be of great ser- 
 vice when they digest in time. Therefore he may have one in the 
 belly on the aHected side, and one on each side the breast ; hut 
 , if he have a great motion of the Hanks, that on the side will not 
 come to digestion, and then it will be best to make one on each 
 thigh on the inside. The diet and metlicines should be cooling, 
 atteiuiating, relaxing, and diluting. After the operation of bleed- 
 ing, therefore, Mr. 'I'aplin directs " to have ready some bran and 
 very sweet hav cut small, and scaldeil together ; which place hot 
 in the manger, that the fumes may be imbibed as an internal fo- 
 mentation to relax the rigidity of the glands, and excite a discharge 
 from tiie nostrils as soon as possible. The very nature of this 
 case, and (he danger to which the horse is exposed, surticienlly 
 loint out tlie proi>riely- and consistency of everting all possible 
 ducritv to obtain relief, or counteract the disease in its liist stage : 
 hci;efore let the fumigation of scalded bran and hay be repeat ■ 
 .•d evcrv" four or live hours, and the decoction No. 17, pre|)ared 
 .vithout delay. If relief be not soon o!)tained, and llie horse be 
 ■''<tive, give the clyster. No. 21. Should the symptoms still 
 I'.inue violent, without discovering any signs of abatement ; 
 ..Ilt waiting a proper time for the eil'ect of previous administra- 
 icns, let the bleeding be repeated, in quantity proportioned to the 
 irgencv of symptoms, continuing the decoction and nitre every 
 liree or four hours, and repealing the clyster if plentifid evacua- 
 ions have not been obtained by the former injection. 
 
 Of the Gl.\nders. 
 
 The glandei-s are known by a running of matter from the nos- 
 rils, which is either yellow, or greenish, or tinged with blood. 
 ♦Vheii the disease is of a long standing, the matter turns blackish, 
 tnd becomes very stinking. It is always attended with a swelling 
 )f the glands, or kernels, under the jaws. When there is a swirli- 
 ng which shews that matter is forming Under the ears, jaws, or 
 tboiit the root of the tongue, let every possible method he taken 
 o produce a suppuration and discharge of matter; for, in most 
 :ases, an external evacuation becomes the crisis, and is greatly 
 ' ^referable to the chance of mischiefs that may be produced bv the 
 norbid matter being absorbed into the system. Should a cough, 
 lifficulty of breathing, or a great degree of infianimatory heat, at- 
 ead, dra>v bloor! fro.-n a vcve.otc vein in moderaie quantity, to mi- 
 igate either of those symptom.-; and when the swelluigs about 
 he p.\rls have acquired an evident prominence, foment them twice 
 -clay, for two or three days, with llannels wrung out of warn^ wa- 
 er. In two or three da) 5 a judgement may be formed w hether a 
 uppuration is likely to take place. If so, tlie tumours will increase 
 » sizi , and t'eel soft and yielding in the middle when pressed ; in 
 .hich case apply the ]>oullice, and proceed as directed for the 
 
 rRAS-Gi.r.3. If, on the conlrary, the suell ngs continue hard and 
 nmoveahle, a running coming on at tJie nose; observe whether 
 lie matter is nf a white colour and svithout snudl, or is of dilTerent 
 iges, and streaked with blood. The former is a favourable si'm : 
 ind in that case the treatment may be as tiirected for Colds and 
 
 ouGHS. But if the mutter should prove of the latter description 
 very precaution ought to be instantly used, to prevent ui its in- 
 incy what would soon become a case of so much trouble. To 
 iften the viscid matter in the passages, and relax the inllaninia- 
 jry stricture of the glands, piepare a vapour bath of rosemary, 
 ivender riowers, southernwood and marionmi (each) a handful, 
 oiled in two or Ihree (juarts of water. Put this into a pail, and 
 •t the horse's head he fixed over it as near as can be borne, and so 
 )Cg as the fuines passing iip the nostrils can be supposed to take 
 
 Vol. II. — so. »0. 
 
 efTect as an internal lomentalion. Tiiis operation should be repeat- 
 ed twi -e every dav ; and much of the treatmciil r: comirendecl 
 under coughs and strangles with glandular discharge, from the nos- 
 trils, will at the same time appear proper to be observed, as being 
 applicable to many of the ])icsent symptoms. Let it hp particu- 
 larlv remembered, that, during the whole comw of manaoemeiil, 
 the iiead of the horse is to be kepi ?s warm as possible, and in pro- 
 portion much more so than the body, either in a doid)le kersey 
 hood, or a single external, and a Haiinel one underneath; as no- 
 thing can contribute more to a solution of the humours and promo- 
 tion of their discharge, than a critical relaxation •>! the pores, par- 
 ticularly upon the very seat of the disease. In case the discharge 
 should continue to increase in quantity aud virulence, becomiii,<j' 
 still more discoloured, and its smell very ollensivc; besides coi.- 
 tinuing-lhe fumigation, let lialfagill of the ioUowing injection 
 (milk warm) be throw n up either nostril, or both n the inaller 
 slio'.dd be so discharged with a strong forcible syringe, three or 
 four limes a dav. Linseed, an ounce ; camomile and older flow- 
 wers, each half an ounce ; water, three pints, l^o\\ for a few mj- 
 nules ; then strain off, and add lo ihe liipior 4 oz. of mel ^I'gN ptia- 
 ciiin, mixing well together at each time of u.siiig. If after every 
 eli'orl the mallPr still continue malignant, there will be little hopes- 
 of recovery, and as Mr. Talpin observes, the first loss will be ulti- 
 mately besi, in a resignation of his hide to the collar-maker, awl 
 his remains to the hounds. 
 
 Of the STRAS-cr.Es and Vive^. 
 
 The Strangles is a disease that attacks voting horses, ch'ei'iy' 
 before six years of age ; and is somcvvhat analogous to the quinsey. 
 It is a swelling under the throat betv een the jaw-bones, and its 
 principal scat a|)pears to be the muscles of the tongue, wherein 
 there is an intlammation, and therefore it seem- to differ from a- 
 (piinsey in the seat of the distemper only. The synptoms and 
 progress of this disease are as follow : a heaviness and inactivity, 
 loss of appetite, and a hollow husky cough, occasioned by the ir- 
 ritability ot the inflamed glandular parts in the throat and about 
 the root of the tongue. To excite a degree of moisture in the 
 mouth that may allay this disagreeable sensation, the horse is often 
 picking Ills hay, but eats little or none ; a degree of symptomatic 
 heat comes on, and a consequent clamminess and thirst is percep- 
 tible. As the distemper advances, he becomes proportionally 
 languid and inattentive ; a swelling (with sometimes two or three 
 small tumours surrounding it) is now discovered to have formed it- 
 self between the jaw-bones, which is at firet very hard, exceedinglv 
 painful, and visibly increasing; he now swallows with difficulty, 
 heaves in the flanks, and his whole ajjpcarance gives signs of the 
 greatest distress. With regard to the prognostics, when the swel- 
 ling begins on the inside of the jaw-bone, it shews it will be a 
 long time before it grows ripe or impost humate. When it rises 
 between the jaw-bones in the middle un('er the tongue, it is a sign 
 the disease w ill be mild, and of no dangerous t on^cqne^.ce ; w hen 
 the skin that lies over the tumour is stitf, dijtended and tight, feel- 
 ing hot and dry, a large swelling is portended, which will yield a 
 plentiful discharge when it breaks. When it rises to the glands, 
 and is, as it were, divided into knots, it is a sign that the diseare 
 will be lon^and tedious, because tlie tumours will break in several 
 places, and at different times. When it lies at the head of the 
 gullet or windpipe, the horse will not be able to swallow for se- 
 veral <lays, till the swelling descends more to the outward parts ; 
 but when he has a purulent running at the nose, it portends great 
 danger, and shews it is complicated with some other di-ease which 
 lies lurking in the blood ; but if it goes olf as ihe tumour ripens, 
 the horse mav do well. If the evacuations be regular (as they 
 generally are), and the fevcri-h symptoms moderate, lei the swell- 
 ing he examined, and its uppuration promoted. For this pur- 
 pose (first clipping away all the long or superfluous hairs thslcover 
 or surround the part), toment with small double fl^umels, dipt in 
 hot water, or a strong decoctiin of camomile flowers and marsh- 
 m.iUow leaves, or rosemary, fortcn minutes, as hot as can be con- 
 veniently submitted to; and then apply the emollient poultice, 
 No. 5y, or the turnip poultice, No. 53. Both the fomentation 
 and the poultice mu~t be repeated every iiigl.t and morning till an 
 opening in the swelling is ellected, which gem.T.dly li.ippens in the 
 course of five or six days, l^pou the appearance of disc harue, the 
 aperture may be a little enlarged witb a bi»toiy nr t.Se point of any 
 ^ E sharp
 
 58: 
 
 FARRIERY 
 
 ^hiirp instrmnfiit adeqiiatt to the purpose, tliougii this will be tin- 
 . necessaiy ittlie discharge is miide fi'cely and eiv-^y of itself. The 
 part should then he dressed with the digestive ointment. No. 4j, 
 I, spread on tow ; still continuing the poultice over it to promote 
 the digestion, and prevent any remaining hardness. Some who 
 are never easy ui'.less they are doing something, will often open the 
 swelling bctore it is ripe; not considering that this practice pre- 
 vents tlie due discharge of the matter, which is always most plenti- 
 ful w hen it comes to a head of it^ own accord, and will always be 
 cleansed, and jieal the sooner and better. When tlie tumour bViaks 
 of itself, some think it iiecessLiry to make the orilice widai', by put- 
 ting ill a spunge tent ; but this is altogether superliuous, because 
 there is always room for ruiuiing olflhc matter, wiihout any opera- 
 tion of that kind. However when the horse has fallen into bad 
 hands, and improper applications have been used, so as to drive 
 any part of the humour back, then enlarging the orifice mav not be 
 amiss. Bleeding, when liiis disease is genuine, is alwavs unncce^- 
 sary.aiid coni : oi.ly dangerous; because it mav recal the peccant 
 matter expelled out of it: but when tlie disorder appears with un- 
 common symjjtonis, . ch as a swelling of the neck about the onset, 
 still jaws, and the nostrils turned outward, which are signs of a 
 dangerous iiillammation ; tlien we nia\ venture upon taking awav 
 blood to stop its progress. When the swelling breaks inwardh", 
 the horse's mouth should be kept sweet by washing it with -ome 
 antiseptic lluid. While wine vinegar sweetened with honev, with 
 the addition of a litlle brandy, will be sufficient for this purpose. 
 Ill this disease mashes must be the constant food, in small propor- 
 tions, to prevent waste : in each of width Mr. 'rajilin directs to 
 put of liquorice and aniseed powders half an ounce, and about two 
 oz. of honey, or in lieu of this last a quart of malt: the drink, 
 consisting of warm water imprcg«ate<l with a portion of scalded 
 bran or watei-gi"cl, should begiven in small quantities and often. 
 The Iiead must be kept well covered witli tiannel, as the warmth 
 will greatly tend to assist in proniotitig the necessary discharge : 
 though, unless circumstamx's and weather forbid, the horse needs 
 not be confined, but should have the ailvantSge of air and short 
 gentle exercise. Upon the whole this <listemper is seldom dan- 
 gierous, unless from neglect, ignorant treatment, or cruel usage. 
 It generally terminates with a running at the nose, in a grtaler or 
 le.ss degree ; which should be frequemly cleansed from the inside 
 ot the nostril, Ijy means ofa sponge suiricientl \ moistened in warm 
 \witer, to prevent its acquiring an adhesion to those parts, or a foul- 
 ness and fetor that would shortly become acrimonious. If a hard- 
 ness remain after the sores are healed up, they mav be anointed 
 with mercurial ointment. If a copious and offensive discharge 
 from the nostrils should continue after the aliscess is healed uji, 
 there will be reason to suspect tlie disease called glanders, treated 
 of in the preceding section. 
 
 Tlie Ivi;s or Vivks differ from the strangles only in this ; that 
 the swellings of the kernels seldom gather or come to matter, but 
 by degrees perspire oft' and disp-rse by means of warm cloathing, 
 anointing with the marshmallow ointment, a moderate bleediuf/, 
 and a dose or two of physic. But should the inHammalioii con- 
 tinue nni-.vahstanding these means, a suppuration must In: promot- 
 ed by the methods recommended fi>r the strcjigles. When these 
 swellings appear in an old or full-aged horse, they are signs of 
 great malignity, and often of an inward decay, as well as forerun- 
 ners of the glanders. 
 
 Of the Colic, or Gripes; and Pains in the Bowels, 
 FROM SUDDEN Accidents. 
 
 There seems to be no distemper so little understood by the far- 
 rier as the colic or gripes ii) horses, one general remedy or method 
 serving them in all cases ; but as this disorder miy be produced 
 by very different causes, the methoil of cure must also vary ; 
 otherwise the intended remedy, injudiciously applied, will nut 
 only aggravate the complaint, but make it fatal. We shall divide 
 this disorder into three different species ; the ilatuleiit or windy ; 
 the bilious or iiiflaniir.Htory, and the dry gripes ; each of which we 
 shall dislirigu-sli by their different syinptoms, and then point out 
 the proper remedies. 
 
 I. The Flatulent or Windy Colic may in general be rea- 
 
 * dily distinguished by the rumbling of the contjtied air through the 
 
 intestines: the horse is often King down, and as suddenly rising 
 
 agdin with a spring ; he strikes his belly with his hinder feet, 
 
 stamps witli his fore-feet, and refuses iiis meat ; when the gripes ar3 
 violent, he will have convulsive twitches, turn up his eyes, and 
 stretch out his limbs as if dying, his ears and leet being alternately 
 very hot and cold ; he falls into profuse sweats, and then into colcj 
 damps; strives often to stale, and turns his head freijuently to his 
 flanks ; he then falls down, rolls about, and ottcn turns on his back ; 
 this last symptom proceeds iVoni a stoppage of urine, that almost 
 always atteiuis this sort of colic, w hith may be increased bv a load 
 of dung pressing on the neck of the liUdder. 1 hese are the ge. 
 neral symplcnis of colic and gripea from w ind, ilrinking cold wa- 
 ti r when hot, and when the perspirable matter is retained, or 
 thrown on the bowels by catching cold; in all which cases.thev 
 are violently distended. Cribbing horses are more particularly 
 subject to this complaint, as they are constantly sucking in great 
 quantities of air. The first intention is to empty the bo«els by 
 the turpentine clyster. No. 'J3, or the laxative drink. No. 12. 
 The hardened fieces, and the couhiied wind being discharged, and 
 the neck of the bladder being e.ised, the suppression ol urine ii 
 taken olf , and the horse stales and gets ease. 
 
 II. riie next species of Colic is the BiLiovis or Inflamma- 
 tory, 'i'his, besides most of the preceding symptomv, is attend- 
 ed with a fever, gre.'.t heat, panting and dryness ol the mouth: 
 the horse also generally throHS out a little loose dung, » ith a hot 
 scalding water ; which when it appears blackish, or of a leildisU 
 colour, and fetid smell, denotes an approaching mortification. 
 In this case the hor-.e should iiimu'dialely be bled to the tpiantity 
 of three i|uaits; and it should be repeated, If tiie symptoms do 
 not abate in a few hours. The tmpentme cluster, No. 'Jj, 1. 
 should be thrown up every two boms, till several loose stools are 
 procured. The purging ball, No. 1 I, ma\ be g vrn first, a;;dthe 
 clysters in four hours aftir, if relief be not obtained. As much 
 linseed tea may also be given as the horse will drink, winch will 
 soften the acrimony of the ball, and lend greatly to as=ist the efii- 
 cacy of the other remedies. If this disease be not removed bv 
 the^e means, but the inllammation and fever increase attended 
 witli a discharge of the liesh-coloured water above described, ihe 
 event will most probably be lalal ; and the chief lliing to be {}• - 
 pended on now must be a strung decoction of Jesuit's bark, gi\i'ji 
 to the quantity of a pint every tliree hours, with a gill of red poil 
 wine. 
 
 III. The Spasmodic Colic, or Dry Gripes, as some call it 
 is always attended with costlveness, and the dung that conies j ,■ 
 
 is black and hard; the urine is high-coloured, aiu the horse Ij 
 quick motion with his tail; his looks are ('.ull, and his motions . 
 sluggish. But the disease that is most dangerous, and wh;ci^ 
 olteii mistaken for the colic, is some inward infiammalion, parli- 
 tiilarly of the guts, which is seldom found out till it is too late. 
 As for the inllammation of the lungs, it may be known by llic 
 breath; and the inllammation of Ihe liver by the symptoms o; 
 the jaundice or yellows. Ijut an inllamraatiwi of any part of tin 
 guls has nothing particular to <listiiiguislnt from the dry gripiv 
 This, for want of a timely assistance, generally terminates in . 
 mortification ; and then if any dung ci-.nie away, it is black, wim: 
 is a sign that the horse is past recovery. The way to prevent ih.: ■ 
 fatal accidents, is always to b'^ upon the watch when the horse li.r 
 any symptoms of the gripes, and if he be costive, which is alwsy 
 the case in this inllammation, liis body stiould be opened as soon a 
 possible; not bv purgatives which e.\asper.ite the disease, but b; 
 such things as will correct and fliscuss the offending humour, ani 
 carry it downward.. Gentle emollient clysters and mild laxative> 
 either in the form of balls or drinks will by prudent repetition, ii 
 general, have a good effect. In the llatulent and spasmodic colii 
 alter procuring a free evacuation by stool and urine, the carminj 
 live balls, No. C, may be given with considerable advantagi 
 When a horse has the symptoms of the gripes, wiih a looseness, an- 
 the dung l-.as its natui'al colour, there is never any danger ; bi; 
 when it is blackish and slinking, the bowels are already inorlific! 
 and then all remedies will be given to no manner of purpose. 
 
 Of the Lax and Scouring ; with other Disorders ' 
 the Stomach and Bowels. 
 
 When the body ofa horse is uncommonly open, and he du 
 like a cow, or when he has a purging for a few days only, 1> 
 said to have a lax. But when it continues, he is said to hav. 
 scouring. This may proceed from various catises, as frgm a S' 
 9
 
 FARRIKRY. 
 
 38.^ 
 
 den stoijpu^f of pursiiiration, from raviiinus fi-e>.iing, fioin li.iul 
 rilling or violent e.M-rcisi-. ami llien lli/ri- is a discharge ot slinu- 
 or grea^v nuiUfr; or ironi woini-. Sonifliniis it is ilie roiisi- 
 qoi-nce of oilier (iis-jasc?, •.•:;>i soniftimos it is a cnliLal di^chari^e of 
 noxious liuiiioini. NVitii rogani to tlie proglioblics, ulu ii it pro- 
 ceeds from a SMcliicn stoppage of perspiration, commoiilv callcJ a 
 cold, it is never dangerous ; iioruhcn it is tlie oUVct of voracions 
 feeding. Tlie same may b*- said of that ulilch sucei-eils hard la- 
 bour. \VlH'n sconriiig is liabiliial, it may so off as the limse ad- 
 vances in years, that is when he arrives at 7 or 8. 'i'hatwiiich 
 succeeds or attends other diseases, cannot be judged of, without en- 
 quiring into the aalure of the disease itself. Besides it may lonie- 
 times l>e eritical, and (lien it will carry off I lie disease itaeiom- 
 panies. Wlien a lioser.ess is spontaneous and comes on without 
 any previous evident cause, it is critical, and generally tends to 
 )M-escrvc health and ])rcvent dista-es. And wlien it is from worms, 
 the only way to cure it is to remoie tiie cause. It is sometimes 
 very di|}i<ult to form a projier judaemeiit when to controul or en- 
 courage a looseness ; but tl;ebe rules may be a general direction: 
 if a healthy full horse, on taking cold, or upon hard-riding, over- 
 feeding, eating iiin\liole,ome food, or with a blight fever, should 
 have a moderate purging, by no means stop it, but rather encou- 
 r.ige it with an open diet, and pleni v of warm grui 1 : but if it con- 
 tinue long, with gripings, the mucus of the bowels coming away, 
 and the horse losing his appetite and tlesh, recourse must be had 
 to proper nudicines. Tlie drink. No. 12, may be given three or 
 four tiuun, so as to encourage the evacuation ol the olVenduig mat- 
 ter, before tiie use of astnng nts : or half an ounce of rhubarb 
 andtwo drachms of snake root, ootli in jjowder, nn- , he given him in 
 a horn or two of warm ale, every 34 hours or oltener, for three or 
 four times. If he void great quantities of slime and greasy mat- 
 ter then add one scruple or half a drachm of ic-ecacuanha, and the 
 same quantity ot calomel to each dose -nti make the whole into a 
 ball with a little (.ipiate rtiiUi-rtion ; ■ e given once in 48 lioui-s; 
 or else, give one ball, No. 11, one: . 4S hours, till this state of 
 the fa-ces be altered. (Vhen byi;;' e nvans the stools become le^s 
 offensive, and are no longer atlci detl with griping or pain, but, bv 
 their frequency and CMHsistenee would tontimie to weaken the 
 horse il not checked, astrine i^'s may be proper to conip'ete the 
 cure. A quart of the drink, Xo. 15, or one of the balls, No. 4. 
 II, may be g ven two, tinee, or four times a day, according to the 
 urgency of the coirplaint. If the griping and purging continue 
 notwnh>iaiidaig thi;. treatment, and the discliarge is attended with 
 an acrid mucus or slime, and r.n evacuation of the common lining 
 of the boweU, the starch clyster. No. 24, should be frequently 
 injected w;.rm. 
 
 The Bf OUY Flux is a distemper horses are not very sub;ect to ; 
 however, as it sometime:, does occur, whenever blood is discharg- 
 ed, attended w th f>ri|)ingsand great pain in the bowels, if the flux 
 is not speedily restrained, the hoi-se probably may be soon lo,-t: 
 we recommend tiierelore the astringent clyster. No. 23, to be in- 
 jected whenever the looseness is observed to be severe. 
 
 CosnvEN'ESS in horses is most frequent in hot weather, from an 
 iricrca?ed perspiration, from being kept to hard dry meat, or from 
 want of air and exercise. Sometimes it becomes habitual, and 
 then tlie horse never enjoys full health, but grows lean with a fe- 
 verish heat and a staring coat. When the heat of tiie weather oc- 
 casions this disorder, an opening d;et witii scalded bran will ef- 
 fect a cure, as well as in the other two cases ; at most he needs have 
 nothing more than from two to four oz. of Epsom salt, dissolved 
 in water. But when it is become constitutional it is not so easily 
 vomoved. It may happen, though very rarely, that a slow belly 
 may be no disease, but rather a sign of strengtli'anda good digestion 
 a, id then we have nothing to do but prevent' its increase, with now | 
 :uiJ dien an opening diet. But wliet> it produces the symptoms 
 above-mentioned, we must liave recourse to a constant o|)eninj- 
 diet, together w ith emollients. The best opener is scaliled barlev^ 
 mid he should have the water it was scalded with to drink. All 
 Mioiig uurgesare as bad as poison, and therefore must be carefully 
 avoided. The horse must have such laxatives only as to produce 
 tiieir effect without raising any commotion in the blood. Among 
 these there is nothing more safe or certain than Epsom salt. Four 
 ounces may be dissolved in a pint of water and ijiven him for a 
 dose ; but this may be either increased or diminished according 
 to its operation, and according as it is iutendeU to pur^e cither 
 
 uioif or les^. Fenuiiieek -eeds and linseed, c;i account of their 
 oily niucilaginous ipiality, are very proper to rei.denhe guts slip- 
 pery, and by th..t means to make his dunging regular, lie 
 should have an ounce every day mixed with his teed. 
 
 Of Wokj;s. 
 
 Zoologistf and veteiinary authoi-s have described three differort 
 sorts of worm-. t!ioL allect horse-. ; viz. Bolt-, which young hor-es 
 arc olteii treubled wilii in S|iring ; the Kotuiuli, or those rtsein- 
 liling earth worms ; and A'caride-, or those about tlie size of the 
 largest sewing needle, with Hal heads. The symptoms of woriiii 
 are various. The botts that many horses are troul)led with, in the 
 lieginning of summer, are always seen sticking in the strait gut, 
 and are often lhru^t out with '.he dung, witli a velioivish coloure.l 
 matter like merited sulphur : they are no way daiigeroi:s there ; 
 but are apt to make a horse resth-.ss and uneasy, ind rub his breech 
 against the posts. The season ot their coming is usually in May 
 and June ; after which they are seldom to be seen, and rarely cor- 
 liiiue in any horse above a fortnight or three weeks. 'I'huse that 
 take their lodgment in the stomach, are extremely dangerous by 
 causing convidsioJis ; and are seldom discovered by any previous 
 siau; before they come to lile, when they throw a "horse into vio- 
 lent agonies. Tiie other kinds are more trouMesome than ilanger- 
 ons : but are known by the following signs : tlie horse looks lean 
 and jaded, his hair s'airs as if he were surl'eited, and nothing he 
 eats makes him thrive; he often strikes his hind feet against his 
 belly ; is sometimes griped, but without the violent synijitoms that 
 atteiul a colic and strangury ; for he never rolls and tumbles, but 
 only shew.> uneasiness, and generallv lies down cpiietly on his belly 
 for a little while, and then gels up and falls a feeding ; liut the 
 surest sign is when he voids them with his duns;. For the cure of 
 bolts in the stomach, calomel should be given in large doses ; viz. 
 to the extent of two drachms made up in a ball with one oz. ofani- 
 seed powder, and a sufficient quantity of treacle. This to be put 
 in overnight and wrought oil with a purging ball, No. ) or 7, 
 suited to the horse's strength and constitution ; with the addition of 
 one drachm of oil of savin. 'I'his may be repeated every six or 
 eight days ; and in the interval, let one of the vermifuge powders. 
 No. 18, be given in his corn night and morning. T5otts in tiie 
 rectum may be cured by injecting the vermifuge clyster. No. 2ti, 
 every morning, and Using the powders above-mentiimed. But ; s 
 the source of worms in general proceeds from a vitiated appetite 
 and a weak digestion, recourse must first be had to mercurials, rnd 
 alterwards to such things as are proper to strengthen the stomach, 
 promote the dige-tion, and by destroying the -opposed ova, i;re- 
 vent the regeneration of these animals. For this purpose the 
 tonic drink. No. 16, will be of considerable service. 
 
 Of Apoplexy or SxAcr.FKs, Lemiargy, Epilepsy, and 
 Palsy. 
 
 I'arriers generally inclu<le all distempers of the head under two 
 denominations, viz. staggers and convulsions, wherein they always 
 suppose the head primarily affected. But in treating of tiiese dis- 
 orders, we will distinguish between those that are peculiar to tlie 
 liead, as having tb.cir source originally thence; and those that are 
 only concomitants of soine other disease. 
 
 In an /\poplexv a horse drops drown suddenly, without any 
 other sense or motion than a working at his flanks. ' There arc va- 
 rious degrees ot this disease ; for wh-,n the voluntary motions and 
 animal functions, together with all sensation and consciousness 
 cease, the animal will fall down as if struck v ith a thunderbolt. 
 But soinelimes, though the senses remain unluirt,the voluniery mo- 
 tions and animal functions cease ; or at least the sense of feelin" is 
 either languid or quite abolished. The first case is called an apo- 
 plexy, and the 2d a palsy. 'I'he apoplexy lias three decrees; the 
 first t -kes away all sense and in'ition : Ihe 'Jo the use of the will 
 and all voluntary motions ; the 3d is a 'light degree of the ,'d. ar.; 
 sometimes ends in a palsy. This may be caused by any thing that 
 compresses the vessels of the brain ; by too great a quantity of h.locd 
 when the horse is fed plentifully, with httle exercise ;'bv being 
 very much over-heated so as to expand the blood and render ail 
 the vessels turgid; l:.y any fluid shed outwardly on the mem- 
 branes of the brain, from blo'ws on the head or ial"is : by blood or 
 .-erum poured i.itc the bram it-elf, and by its pressure iiurtin^ tl-.e 
 
 orirvTi
 
 584 
 
 FARRIERY. 
 
 origin of the nerves, which is the- inost common cause of thi> a|)0- 
 plfxy, and may be either blood or serum. Tliis hist most frc- 
 Cjuenlly happens to horses ihat have poor watery l)lood. Tlie pre- 
 vious symptom'; are, drowsiness ; watery eyes, somewhat full and 
 inflamed ; a disposition to reel ; feebleness ; a bad appetite ; the 
 head almost r.ou>taTitiy h.anging, or resting on the manger ; some- 
 times with little or no fever, and scarce any alteration in the ilung 
 or urine ; the horse issomelimcs disposed to rc.ir up, and apt to 
 fair back whqii handled about the head ; which is often the case 
 with young horses, to which it does not su(itlcnly prove mortal, 
 but witli pioper help they may sometimes recover. If the apo- 
 i" I exy proceed from wounds or blows on the head, or nir.ttiM' on 
 the brain: besides the above symptoms, the horse will be trantic 
 by lits, especially after his feeds, so as to start and fly at every 
 V'ing. These cases seldom admit of a perfect recovery ; and 
 V, hen liorses fall down suddenly, and work violently at their 
 C:inks, without any ability to rise after a plentiful bleeding, they 
 ^cldoni recover. All that can be done is to empty the vessels as 
 sptfedily as possible, by striking the veins in several parts at once, 
 bleeding to four or live quarts : and to raise up the liorse's head 
 J^ud shoulders,, supportii;g them with jilenty of straw. If he sur- 
 vive t(ie fit, cut several rowels : give him night pnd morning clvs- 
 ters prepared with a strong decoction of senna and salt, or the 
 purging clyster,- Mo. 2'^ ; blow oncea-day up his nostrils a drachm 
 of asarabacca, or either cf the powders. No. 19, which will pro- 
 mote a great discharge ; afterwards two or three aloelic ])urges 
 should be given ; and to secure him from a relapse, by attenuat- 
 ing and thhining his blood, give him an ounce of e(|ual |)a:ts of 
 antimony, nitre, and gum-guaiacum every night. With regard to 
 the other -hsorders of the head, such as lelluirgy or sleeping evil, 
 epilepsy ur falling-sickness, vertigo, frenzy, ami madne-s, convul- 
 sions, and paralytica! disorders, it may be observed, that most of 
 them are to be treated as the ai)ople.-,y and epilepsy, by bleeding 
 and evacuations, with the alteratives these directed. 
 
 Tn LETHARfiic Disorders, the horse generally rests his head 
 with his mouth in the manger, anil his poll often recliiu'd to one 
 iide; he will shew an inclination to eat, but generally falls asleep 
 witli his food in his mouth, and he frc(|uently swallows it wholi; 
 •without chewing: emollient clysters are extremely necessary in 
 tliis case, with the antisp;ismodic balls reconunended for apo- 
 plexy ; strong purges are not requisite, nor bleeding in too large 
 ipiantities, unless the horse be young- and lusty. 
 
 Of TiiK Yellows, or J.\undice. 
 
 Horses are often affected with this distemper : which is known 
 by a dusky yellowness of the eyes ; the inside of the mouth and 
 lips, the tongue and bars of the roof of the uioutli, looking also yel- 
 low. The horse is dull, and refi'scs all kinds of food ; the lever 
 is slow, yet both that and the yellowness increase together. 
 The dung is often hard and dry, of a ])ale yellow or pale 
 green. His urine is commonly of a dark dirty brown < olour : and 
 when it has settled some time en the pavement, it looks red like 
 blood. He stales with some pain and difficultv : and if the dis- 
 temper be not cheeked soon, grows delirious : v.hich is a sign of 
 an inflammation of the liver. I'lie jaundice is either idiepathic or 
 symptomatic ; the seat of the first is in the liver, and the iid niav 
 supervene to srme other disease ; or it may_be critical when a fe- 
 ver is declining, and then the horse soon recovers his appetite, be- 
 gins to look lively, the fever ceases, and the yellowness soon wears 
 otV. With regard to prognostics, when the horse is young and 
 full of blood, tlie consequence of high fi-eding, and want oi suffi- 
 cient exercise, the cure will not be diliicult. Hut it the disease 
 succeed hard labour, v*hich has hurt the liver by an ahsccrs or 
 otherwise, the cure will be exceeding diflieult. When tin liver 
 is --thlrrius, which may be coiichuled by the swelling of the off 
 side of .the belly, about the region of the liver; the horse nuiy 
 linger a great while before it kills him, but he will grow weaker 
 and weaker till he entirely becomes unlit tor business. But if he 
 retain his strength and vigour, without sickness or loss of appetite, 
 there will be no danger of recovery by proper means. In the 
 cure, we ought first to exainine whether he has a fever, and the 
 degree of it, that we may judge whether the liver be infljmed or 
 not. If it be, we must begin with bk\'ding, and repeat it oeca- 
 sionallv as long as the syuiploms render it necessary, ar,d as soon 
 as possible rub the blistering ointment into the side all about the 
 
 region of the liver. These means alone will remove the iuflam- 
 matioii, when they are administered in time. If any thing more 
 be wanting, it must be laxative clysters to bring away the fa'ce.% 
 lor this disease is always attended with cosliveness. \V hen the 
 fever is gone ot'f, if the jaumiice still remain from the obstruction 
 of the bilious duct, equal parts of aloes, rhubarb, and .-oap, 4- oz. 
 of each, shoukl be made into a ball and given every 3d or 4lh day, 
 washing it down with a pint of the deobstruent decoction, No, 17, 
 when the materials can be procured. 
 
 Of the DiSORDEItS of the KiD.VEVS AND GlADDEP..' 
 
 The kidneys of a horse may be overstrained several ways ; as 
 by drawing too great a weight, by heavy burdens on the loins, and 
 by not permitting him to stale on journeys. This last indeed is not 
 properly a strain, but it has the eli'ects of one, because all the ves- 
 sels being turgid and over-loaded, lliey must of necessity be too 
 much slretclied, and their tone debilitated, which is the case in all 
 strains. The .nine may luii)pen if a horse be hard worked, when 
 lie is full of blond and humours; or lie may rectivc blows on tlie 
 loins or other hurts, which turning to an intlammation, may draw 
 the kitlneys into consent. Wl.en the horse has undergone any such 
 hurts or h.irdsliips, the ali'ection of the kidneys, may be discovered 
 by a weakness of the b.-.ck and loins, by dlflitulty of staling, by 
 tliick foul urine, sometimes bloodv. These symptoms are attend- 
 ed with faiiitness, deadness of tiie eyes, and loss uf appetite. I5ul 
 there is one sign very particular, and that is, he c;ui seldom or 
 never be backed without discovering signs of pain. 'I'he same 
 thing will happen, when a horse has been wrenched in tlic back, 
 but then there is no great alteration in the urine, except its being 
 a little higher coloured than ordinarv, nov does he lose his appe-- 
 tite tr flesh. When the disease has continued a considerable time, 
 it is attended with all the signs of a suifeit. W hen a fever attends 
 a iliflicultv of staling, it is a sign of an inflammation of the kid- 
 neys. With regard to prognostics, diseases of the kidneys arc 
 never without danger, especially when they continue long, and 
 the horse breaks out into scabs and blotches. An inflammation of 
 the kidneys is very dangerous, unless taken in time. When a 
 horse's urine is turbid, and yet comes awav without niucli p.iin or 
 straining, while the ap|)elite is geod and his eyes are brisk and 
 lively, there is no danger: as also when he stales, ^md the thick 
 sediment abates by degrees, till the urine comes to be of a natural 
 colour. But when the urine is thick and ropy, and full of ulcer- 
 ous matter or blood, attended with weakness and want of appetite, 
 the case is dangerous. 'I'he consequences of a disordered state 
 of the urinary organs are principally two ; strangury and dia- 
 betes. 
 
 I. Strangvrv, or an obstruction of urine, may arise from dif. 
 ferent causes. When it is not owing to wind, or hardened dung 
 pressing upon the iitck of the bladder, it may proceed from in- 
 flammation in the blailder or kidneys, ulceratioiin there, or spasms 
 upon any particular part. \\ hen owing to inflammation or spasni, 
 the gcner.il indications of cure are, to hs.en the stricture upon the 
 parts; to reduce the inllammation ; and to promote the evacuation 
 of urine; the first of which intentions may be answered by a mo- 
 derate loss of blood ; the second, by the use of internal einollicntst 
 and the third, by gentle stimulants and mild diuretics. In stran- 
 gury Irom intlamn-ation or sp.isnis in the ])arts, the horse makw 
 Irequent motions to st.;ie, st^inds wide and straddling, appears full 
 in the flaiik, and somewhat dejected. The first meastire is bleed- 
 ing, more or less plentifully according to the urgency of the symp- 
 toms. In a convenient time after this operation, inject the tur- 
 pentine clyster, No. 23, 11; or the <liuretic drink, No. 13, H, 
 may be given twice in the interval of three or four hours. Should 
 neither of these, nor both in conjunction, procure an evacuatioiV, 
 by urine, give the mild .liuretic ball, No. 5, II, repeating it every 
 four hours after the exhibition of the second dose, till relief bo ob? 
 laiiied by a plentilnl evacuation. When the parts designed for the 
 se<retion ot urine are cold and benuinhed, the stimulant cataplasm, 
 No. 54, or the blistering ointment. No. 47, I, may be laid to his 
 loins. 'I he former is a very penetrating composition, and may. 
 reach the c.iuseof the complaint. It must be spread upon flnnnel, 
 and bouiiil on with another piece over that. It may be renewed 
 once in two days, till the horse stales freely. 
 
 II. A DiABtTKS is a greater discharge of urine than the quan- 
 tity of water that has been ilrunk. This generally proceec!-. t'rom 
 
 a laxity
 
 FARRIERY. 
 
 ^81 
 
 o 
 
 a laxity 'if Uh" kiiliicys. Horses subject to this disi>asc, if old, or 
 of a wVaU constilutioii, are seldom cured; they soon lose their 
 Hesh and a|>i>etitc, grow feel)lc, their coat staring, and they die 
 rotten. Of a voung horse there are more hopes; hut he mu^t not 
 be indulged with loo much water, or moist food. '^Ihe he^t me- 
 dicines in this disease are tiiose which slrengthen tiie kidneys, 
 without binding the belly. An oimce and an halt of Peruvian 
 bark, and half an ounce of alum made into a ball, .with a httle 
 treacle, may be ijiven lughl and mornina;, with a p.nt or two of a 
 strong decoction of sassafras after each ilose. 
 
 Op Molten Grease. 
 
 Molten grease is the voiding of greasy matter with the dung; 
 which sometimes happens tn very fal liorses that stand nr.icli la the 
 Stable. Horses of hot constitutions which are apt to be Cii.live, 
 will sometimes void great quantities of slimy niatler like corrup- 
 tion, and the tells of the dung will be covered with a ])ellicle, or 
 thin skin. This is a common symptom whicli allends the reten- 
 tion of the dung. But neither of these can he referred to the 
 melting of the grease, properly so called. Both the»c symptoms, j 
 however, are called by farriers molten giease. A fat iiorse may 
 have ))ii grease mehed by hard usage, but seldom any other; and i 
 this must be done by hard riding, or \vurki;:g in very hot weather. 
 It is always attended with a fever, iieai, restlessness, starting and 
 tremblings, great inward sickne^s, sjiortiiess of breath, and sume- 
 times with the symptoms of a pleurisy. The horse's dnng will be 
 extremely greasy, and he will fall into a scouring. The horse 
 soon looses his I'iesh and fal, which probably is dissolved and ab- 
 sorbed into the blood; and those that survive this shock connnonly 
 grow hide-bound for a time, their legs swelling both before and 
 behind, and continue in this stale till the blood and juices are rec- 
 tified ; and if this is not done effectually, the farcy, or some obsti- 
 nate surfeit, ccnerally follows, very dililcult to remove. In the 
 (irst place bleed plentifully, and repeat it for two or three days 
 successively in smaller quantities, till the bull-coloured pellicle 
 goes oil' the blood. He may also have a rowel in the breast: aiul 
 when the working of the ilanks begins to abate he may have an- 
 other in the bi'llv, and one on the inside of each thigh. I'.molli- 
 t:nt clysters will be of great service to cool the intestines, such as 
 have Leen already prescribed in other cases; taking care that no 
 irritating ingredient enters therein. Bv the month give plenty of 
 warm water or gruel, with cream of tartar or nitre, to dilute ami at- 
 tenuate the blood, which in this case is greatly disponed to run into 
 grumes, and endanger a total stagnation. 
 
 Of HlDEBOUNDNESS, SvRFElT, A'KD Ma\CE. 
 
 J. The signs of hidebonndness are, " a want of flexibility in the 
 •skin, which is pervavled by a general stiffness that seems to t'orm 
 an entire adhei-ion to the ilesli, without the least partial reparation, 
 or distinction. I'Kre is a kind of dusty scurf, plainly perceived 
 xinderncalh the hair, thpt raises it up in dd'ferent parts; and, gi\ iiig 
 it another hue, the coat in many places forms an appearance of two 
 or three coloul•^; conveying, even in this Iriiiing circumstance, a 
 very forcible idea of poverty in both food and raiment. 'I'he 
 horse is generally languid, (lull, heavy, and weak; his excrement 
 is dark, foul, and offensive; he sweats much upon very moderate 
 e.xertions; then his coat stares, the hair turns dilferent ways, its 
 etlRuvium is disagreeable, and affords evident proof of weakness 
 and debilitation. Bad food and want'*<Jf care,are, in general, the 
 only probable reasons that can be assigned' for this com|)laint. 
 Long lank grass in low swampy land in autumn, and musty hay or 
 bad oats at anv sea-on, may in some degree allay the hunger, but 
 without strengthening the body; for, being in itself dcrtitule of 
 the (juality and eil'ect of superior food, no nntrilive contribution 
 ran be conveyed for generating blood, or forming flesh. As to 
 the cure, vi'ry few directions are necessary, the case being only a 
 temporary iiiC'.!u"niei)ce, rather than a disease. Therelore, to 
 afford some iiitle ch;'.r.ge to the circulation, take a very small 
 quantity of blood; an i ,n three or four hours after, increase its 
 impetus by a mash of mail, oats, and bran, equal parts. Continue 
 this mash eve.y ri'ffht for a fortnight, stirring in two ounces of llour 
 of brimstone every other night; and for his other feeds (mornimr 
 and noon) giveeijual parts ot oats and bran, with half a |)iiit of olcl 
 beans in each, to prevent relaxing the body too much by the 
 mashes. At the same time, regidar and substantial dressing, air, 
 vot. II. — NO. 80. 
 
 exercise, sound oaLs, sweet hay, and good soft water, will greatly 
 contribute to promote the cure. 
 
 11. Of .Suiu-hiTs, according to Mr. 'I'aplin, there are two 
 kinds, originating Irom different canse^: one being no more than a ■ 
 very advanced stage of the case last described; which being long, 
 neglected, all its symptoms increa-.e, till the entire mass of blood 
 being at la-.t atfect'ed, the virulence of the disorder displays itself 
 upon the surface of the body. The other kind of surfeit, ffiliering 
 from the tornier in cause, but very little in elVec I, is that, where, 
 from ignorance or inattention, a horse is suffered to drink immode- 
 rately of cold water, v\'heii in violent penpiration, and the blood 
 consequently in the highest degree of circulation. The circulat- 
 ing thud being thus instantaneously checked by the inlluence of 
 the frigid element, and the sudden contraction of tlie solids, tlie 
 crassanientum becomes inimedialely thickened and i-nilained; 
 while the serum, separating from the other, extravasales itself; 
 and, by an effort of nature, is propelUil to the skin for transpira- 
 tion, w hire the pores (having been instantly colhijjsed at the lime 
 of the water's taking effect) are so closely obstructed that its pass- 
 age to the surface is' rendered impracticable. In this situation it 
 hecomestinitcd with the persjiirable matter already confined there; 
 and is, iji tiie course of time, compelled by tlie progress of internal 
 inHammation to make its way through '.he skin; iiponwiiich it at 
 last appeal's in a variety of forms and dill'erent symptoms, assum- 
 ing distinct degrees ot malignancy, according to ihe state, habit, 
 and constitution, of the horse at tlie lime of atlack. Such, in sub- 
 stance, is Mr. Taplin's account of this disorder. The iiuiications 
 of cure are, to resolve the inllammatory crudities, remove cutane- 
 ous obstruction, correct the acrimony of the blood, and gently 
 quickcn^he circulation. '1 he belter to eflecl these, he directs to 
 take away a moderate quantity of blood ; to open the body with a 
 few warni mashes; and according to the mildness or invetcr.icy of 
 its appearance, to give either two or three mercurial purges, 
 (No. '-',) avoiding cold-during their administration. In three days 
 after the last dose, a course of alteratives must be entered u|)on, 
 or they may be given in the intervals of the purges. With each 
 dose, one ounce of nitre mav be given dissolved in a pail of water. 
 HI. Man'ge is a distemper so miiversally known as to render a 
 particular description unuecessary. It proceeds chiefly from poor 
 feeding : hence it is very little seen amongst horses ot any estima- 
 tion ; but is almost entirely conlined to the lower class of stables 
 and proprietors. In a mangy liorse the skin is generally tawny, 
 thick, and full of wrinkle^, especially about the mane, the loins, 
 and tail; and the little hair that remains in those parts sUrnd* 
 almost always straight out or bristly ; the ears are commonly nak- 
 ed and without hair, the eye and eye-brows the same; and when 
 it affects the limbs, it gives them the same aspect: yet the skin is 
 not raw, nor peels olif, as in the surfeit. Where this distemper is 
 caught by infection, if taken in time i! is very easily cured; and a. 
 sulpliur ointment is recommended as most effectual for that pm-- 
 jjose, rubbed in every day. To purify and cleanse the blood, 
 give antimony and ■•ulphur lor some weeks after. '1 here is a great 
 variety of external remedies for this purpose, such as train oil and 
 gunpowder, tobac<-o steeped in chamber ley, &c. most of them 
 evidently improper. Soleseyl recommends burnt alum and borax 
 in line powder, ol each two ounces while vitriol and verdegris 
 powdered, of each four ounces; put them into a clean pot, with 
 two pounds of honey, stirring lill they are incorporated; when 
 cold, add two ounces of stroug aquafortis. But when this disonier, 
 as is generally the case, is contracted by low feeding, and poverty 
 of blood, the"diet must be mcided, -cm', the horse [iroperly indulg- 
 ed with hay and corn. \\'iili this view, there must be .i conslant 
 supply of warm mashes, prepared with half malt and half bran, or 
 etiualparts of oats and bran, with four ounces of honey dissolved 
 in each: let these be given night and morning, with a U-ed of dry 
 corn every dav at noon. During this treatuient (which muii 
 be continued a week, to sKcathe the acrimony of the fluids, and 
 soften the rigidity of the skin) give one ounce of sulphur iu 
 each mash, and one ounce of iiltre in water every night anil 
 morning. In a week or ten days, when the frame becomes 
 more hivigorated, discontinue the mashes, and let the diet 
 be clianged to good oats and sweet hay; giving, in the morning' 
 and evening feeds, the sulphur and antimony as before. In an in- 
 cipient stage of the mange, the lotion, Is'o. '27, will put an etlec- 
 tual stop to it, and being cleaner in its application than a greasy 
 ointment, will be prelcj-able in inan\ casts. When every thing 
 i F ' ehe
 
 386 
 
 FARRIERY. 
 
 else tails, etiual parts of calomel and precipitate'l sulphur of anti- 
 mony nuiy be givei» from one draclim to two every morning, made 
 into Li bokis, with a little conserve of roses. When the horse is 
 freed I'rom his disteinper, the place where he stood shonkl be care- 
 fully cleaned, and washed witii soap suds, as well as his cloathing. 
 
 Ok the Farcy. 
 The Farcy, or Farciv, has been mistaken by many for some 
 one of the distempers already treated of; but is properly a distem- 
 per of the veins, aud when niveterate thickens their coals so as to 
 make them appear like so many cords. Their size always bears a 
 proportioi to the greatness or smallness of the vessels they adect. 
 At first, one or mere small swellings, or round buds, like grapes 
 or berries, spring out over the veins, ana are often exquisitely 
 painful to the touch ; in the beginning thev are hard, but soon turn 
 into soft blisters, wl.ich when broke discharge an oily or bloody 
 ichor, and turn into very fnul and ill-di?posed ulcers. In some 
 horses it appears on the head onlv ; in some on the external jugu- 
 lar; in others on the plate vein, aud runs downwards on the in- 
 side of the fore-arm towards the knee, and very often upwards to- 
 wards the brisket: in some the farcv shews itself on the hind parts, 
 about the pasterns, and along the large veins on the inside of the 
 thigh, rising upwards into the groin, and towards the sheath ; and 
 sometimes it makes its appearance towards the flanks, and spreads 
 by degrees towards the lower belly, where it often becomes very 
 troublesome. As to the progriostics, when the farcy begins on 
 those parts of the head where the muscular tiesh is thin, and the 
 veins small, it may be cured with ease. But when it attacks the 
 loose parts, such as the kernels under the jaws, nostrils, and eyes, 
 and continues so long as to creep to the neck vein, and render it 
 corded, it is more difficult to manage. When it begins on any 
 part, where the veins are small and kept in constant agitation by 
 the motion of the horse, 'and always upon a stretch, such as the 
 outside of the shoulder, and the outside of the hip-, the disease can 
 never take any deeji root; because the action of these parts has a 
 tendency to <lisperse obstructions. It is a great deal worse when 
 it rises on the plate vein, swells and then turns corded, and the 
 more when the glands or kernels, called the axillary glands, which 
 lie under the arm-pit, become tumid w itii the anguish. The cure 
 is still more difficult and tedious when the veins on the inside of 
 the thigh are corded, especially when it rises upwards and atfecls 
 Uie ken, els of the croin-, and the cavernous body of the yard. 
 When the farcy begins on the pasterns, or lower limb':, it often 
 becomes vei-y uncertain, unless a timely stop is put to it; for the 
 swellings in those flependent |)art5 grow so excesaivcly large in 
 some constitutions, and the limbs so much distigured thereby with 
 foul sores and callous ulcerations, that such a horse is seldom lit 
 lor any thing afterw ards but the meanest drudgery ; but it is always 
 a promising sign, wherever the farcv happens to be situa.ted, if it 
 spread no fuither. It is usual to alt'ect only one side at a time; 
 hut when it pawcs over to the other, it shews great malignancy ; 
 when it arises on the spines, it is then for the most part dangerous ; 
 and 1.-, always more so to horses that are fat and full of blood, than 
 to tlujse that are in a more moderate case. This diseaseisattirst of the 
 inflammatory kind, therefore it will require plentiful bleeding, es- 
 pecially when the horse is fat and full of blood and humours, but 
 this must be only in the beginning of the farcy, and while the dis- 
 ease continues in the inHammatory state, for al^terwards when it is 
 ulcerated it wiil do more harm than good. Likewise the bleed- 
 ing nuist be moderate when the horse is low in flesh. Besides, his 
 body must be kept open with the following cooling saline purge : 
 I'wo ounces of Glauber's salts, one ounce of cream of tartar, and 
 one ounce of nitre, dissolved in a (piantity of water, given every 
 day, or every other day, for a month. The sores at the very lirst 
 must be anointed with" the desiccative ointment. No. 44. ' The 
 buds sometimes by this method are dispersed, leaving only little 
 bald spots which the hair soon covers again; but to conlirm tin- 
 cure, and to di'^perse tho;^e little lumps which often remain for 
 some time on the skin v.ithout hair, give crude antimony for a 
 mondi; two ounces a-day for a fortniglit, and then one ounce of 
 the crocus for the largest dose per day for the other fortnight: bv 
 following this method, a farcy which affects only the small vessel's 
 may be stopped in a week or ten <lays, and soon after totally era- 
 dicated. When it appears in the tliigh vein, it will cause a halt- 
 ing, or lameness, ami then it will be soon discovered ; as also by 
 the swelling of the liock. k) this case the liniment, No. 28, must 
 
 be applied to the vein as soon as possible. The aitt-rnate exhibi- 
 tion of the saline jjhysic, and the antimonial medicines, must ac- 
 company this treatment. When there is a disposition in the 
 blood, to a farcy, it may begin from the pricking of a sharp spur; 
 it may likewise arise spontaneously about the spurred part without 
 any pricking at all ; and llien the hair will stand up as a tuft all 
 around the buds and blisters, and the matter that runs from thence 
 will be purulent, and of a clammy, or greasy consistence. If this 
 IS not soon stopped, it will spread greatly. In this case use the li- 
 niment above prescribed, made with equal parts of the ingredi- 
 ents ; and to prevent the swelling of the belly, apply the volatile 
 liniment. No. 30, all over the allected side. The alterative balls. 
 No. 9, II, are proper in every stage of the farcy ; and when the 
 distemper is in its infancy, before the skin is iimch defaced, will 
 often cure it in a week or two, by giving them only once or twice 
 a-day : but in an old farcy they should be given for two or three 
 months together. 
 
 OF EXTERNAL AND LOCAL DISEASES. 
 
 Of Diseases of the Eves. 
 
 In til's very important part of farriery some considerable im- 
 provements have been practised of late at "the Veterinary C oUege. 
 As the diseases of the eye, to which horses are so reinarkablv sub- 
 ject, are, in general, to be attributed to too great a derivation of 
 blood to that organ, the experiment has been made in some cases, 
 of taking up the carotid artery on the sitle ot the affected eye. 
 This has been attended with various success, yet sufficient to re- 
 commend it to the notice of every practitioner, who is desirous 
 of improving the art of farriery in this very material respect. The 
 cases that most frequently occur, requir ng medical aid, or admit- 
 ting of cure, are generally the effects either of cold, or of blows, 
 biles, or other external injuries. In those proceeding immediately 
 from cold, an inflammation is perceived from the globe of the eve, 
 and internal surrounding parts, as the edge of the eye-lids, &c. 
 Instead of its former transparency, the eye has a thick cloudy ap- 
 pearance upon its outi-r covering, and is constantly discharging an 
 acrid serum, which in a short time almost excoriates the parts in 
 its passage. The horse drops his ears, becomes dull aud sluggish, 
 is tiei[uently sliaking his head as if to shake off the tears, and in 
 every action discovers pain and disquietude. In this case, after 
 bleeding, the treatment nrescribed for cokis must be adopte<l and per- 
 severed in ; and to cool the parts, and allay the irritation occasioned 
 by the scalding serum, let the eyes and surrounding parts be gently 
 washed twice or thrice every day with a sponge or tow impreg- 
 nated with the collyrium, N" "9. If the inllammation should not 
 seem likely to abate, but to wear a threatening ap))earance, one of 
 the mild diuretic balls, N° 5, must be administered every morn- 
 ing, using gentle exercise with th'_-m. The effects arising from 
 blows sr bites torin dUTerent appearances, according to the seve- 
 rity of the injury sustained. Should inllaniniatlcii and swelling 
 proceed from eitiier cause, bleeding will be necessary without de- 
 lay, and may be repeated at prcper intervals till ine symptoms 
 appear to abate; and let the parts be plentitully embrocated four 
 times a-day with the saturnine lotion, N" 31, diluted with six or 
 eight times the quantity of water. If a large swelling, laceration, 
 or wound, attend, after washing with the above, apply a warm 
 poultice of bread, milk, and a little of tlie lotion, softened with a 
 very small portion of lard or olive oil. In cases of less danger, 
 or in remote situations where medicines are not easily procured, 
 the following may be used as a substitute, viz. one of brandy, two 
 of water, and four of vinegar. As to tl;e gutta seiena, cataract, 
 film. Sec. Ihe-e are c:.ses in which relief is very seldom obtained. 
 
 The CuTTA Skrena is a partial or universal loss of sight, where 
 no palpable defect or fault appi-ars in the eye, except that the pu- 
 pil Is more enlarge4 than in the natural state. The appearances 
 of t'lis blemish are various, as well as the causes and effects, some 
 of its subjects being totally blind, and others barely enabled to 
 distinguish between light and darkness. The signs are a blackness 
 of the pupil, an alteration of the sire of the pupil, and its not con- 
 tracting or ililating upon a sudden exposure lo any degree of light. 
 For the cure it is necessary to attend to the cause, and to apply 
 such remedies as that may indicate: thimgh, indeetl, it is a disor- 
 der in which, fiom whatever cause originating, no great expect.v 
 tion can be formed from medicine either internally or externally. 
 
 A Cataract is a defect in the crystalline humour of the eje, 
 1 which
 
 FARRIERY. 
 
 387 
 
 which, becoming opaque, prevent; the admi'.sion of those rays 
 upon the retina tli;it constitute just and distinct vision. The 
 disorder, called moon eyes, is only a cataract torniini^. It 
 makes its appearance when a horse is rising at six, at which time 
 one eye becomes clouded, the eye-lids being swelled, and very 
 often shut up ; nnd a tliin water generally runs from the di;ea^e(l 
 eye down the check, so sharp as sometimes to excoriate the skin ; 
 the veins of the ti'mple, under the eye, and along the nose, are 
 turgid and full : tliough sometimes it happens that the eye runs 
 but little. 'I'his diaorder comes and goes till the cataract whitens; 
 then all ])ai]i and rui.ning terminate, and the horse beconici totally 
 blind, which is generally in about two years. During this time 
 some hor^es jiave more tVequcnl returns than others; which con- 
 j, tinue in some a week or more, in others three or four; returning 
 cnce in two or three nionllis.^id they are seldom so long as live 
 without a relapse. 
 
 There is another kind of Moon Blindness, which is also the 
 forerunner of cataracts, wdu-re no discharge of weeping attends. 
 The eye is never shut up or closed, but now and then looks thick 
 and troubled, at wiiicli time the horse sees nothing distinctly, it is 
 not unusual in this case for one eye to escape. In all blemishes 
 or defects, where a thickening of some one of the coats, mem- 
 branes, or humours, of the eye, has formed an appearance of cata- 
 ract or him, it has been an established custom among most far- 
 riers to bestow a plentiful application of corrosive powders, im- 
 gnents, and solutions, for the purposes of obliteration ; without 
 redecting (as Mr. Taplin observes) upon the absurdity ot endea- 
 vouring to destroy by corrosion, what is absolutely separated Irom 
 the surface by a variety of niembranons coverings, according to 
 the distinct seat of di^ciise; with which it is impossibleto bi'ing the 
 intended remedy into contact ; without fust destroying the inter- 
 ■vening or surrounthng parts bv which the inner delicate strucluie 
 is so numerously guarded, lint in all disorders of this sort, whe- 
 Iher moon eyes or conhrmed cataract- with a weeping, general 
 evacuations with internal alteratives can onlv take place. Indeed 
 the attempts to cure cataracts liavc hitherto generally produced 
 ■only a palliation of the symptoins, and sometiines have proved en- 
 tirely destructive. Yet early care, it is said, has iusonie instances 
 proved successful. To tins end rowelling is prescribed, with 
 bleeding at proper intervals, except where the eyes appear sunk 
 and perishing. It is also dircctetl, during the violence of the 
 symptoms to observe a cor>ling treatment; giving the horse two 
 ounces of nitre every day mixed into a ball with honey ; and bath- 
 ing the parts above the eye with verjuice or vinegar, wherein 
 rose-leavesare ii'.fnsed, to four ounces of which half a drachm of 
 sug.u- of lead mav be ailded. The swelling on the lid may after- 
 Mrards be bathed with a sponge ilipt in ecpial parts of lime i'ud 
 Hungtiry water mixed together; and the cooling laxative drink, 
 No. 12, should be given every fourth day, till the eye beconus 
 clear. Tiie haws are a swelling and sponginess that grows in the 
 inner corner of the eve, so large sometimes as to cover a part of 
 the eye. The operation here is easily performed by cutting part 
 ©f it away; but the faiTiers are apt to cut Swav too much: the 
 wound maybe drei^ed with honey of roses; and if a fungus or 
 spongy flesh arises, it should be sprinkled v.-ith burnt alum, or 
 touched with blue vitriol. 
 
 Of .Strains. 
 
 In all strains, it uniformly happens, that the muscular or ten- 
 dinous fibres arc overstretched; and sometimes ruptured or broke. 
 To form, therefore, a true idea of the? e disorders, let us first con- 
 sider everv muscle and tendon as composed of springy elastic 
 fibres, w hich have a proper power of their own to contract and ex- 
 lend themselves; or, to make their nction more familiar, let us 
 compare them to a piece of catgut, that we may the better judge 
 with what propriety oily medicines are directed for their cure. 
 Thus, then, if, by a violent extension of this catgut, vou had so 
 overstretched it as to destroy its springiness or elasticity, and were 
 inclined to recover its lost tone, would you for that purpose think 
 of soaking it iti oil? And is not the method of treating strains, or 
 overstvctchect muscles and temlons, full as preposterous, when you 
 bathe or soak them in oily medicine';, at a time that they want re- 
 strinaents to brace them up? Yet custoin has so established this 
 practice, and fallacions ex)iericnce seeminglv so confirmed it, that 
 it wovdd be a difficult task to conviuve the illiterate and preju- 
 diced of the absurdit\, who, by attributing elVects to wrong causes, 
 
 are led into this error, and the oils usurp the reputation that is due 
 only to rest and quiet: they seem, however, to be aivare of the ill 
 conseipienres bv the'r adding the hot oils, as spike, turpeiit'ne, 
 and origanum ; w hich, tiiourth they in some measure guard against 
 the too suppling quality of the other oil,;, yi t the treatment is slill 
 too relaxing to be of real service. Indeed, in all violent strains 
 of either tendons or muscles, whatever opinion we may entertain 
 of biUhing and anointing w ith favouriie nostrums, which often suc- 
 ceed in sliudit cases, where perhaps bandage; alone would have 
 done; vet it is the latter, with pro|)erl\ resting the relaxed fibres, 
 till they have thoroughly recovered their tone, that are the chief 
 things 'to be depended on ; and some months are often necessary 
 for ellecting the cure. All violent strains of the ligaments, which 
 connect the bones togethcT, especially tho,e of the thigh, require 
 lime, and turning out to grass, to bring about a perfect recovery. 
 External applications can avail but little, the |)arts atlected lying 
 loo deep, and so surrounded with muscles that medicine cannot 
 penetrate to them. The sooner, in these cases, ahorse is turned 
 out to grass, the better ; as the gentle motion in the fieUl will pre- 
 vent the ligaments and svnovia from thickening, and of course the 
 joint itself from growing stiff. When a horse's shoulder is over- 
 strained, he does not put' out that leg as the other; but, to prevent 
 pain, sets the sound toot hardily on the ground to save the other; 
 even though he be turned sjiort on the lame side, which motion 
 tries him most of anv. When trotted in li.and, instead of putting 
 his leg forward in a right line, he forms a circle with the lame leg ; 
 and when he stands in the stable, that leg is advanced before the 
 other. To cure this lameness, the practice is lirst to bleed him, 
 though perhaps this might as well be dispensed with ; as in all 
 cases where tfiere arc no positive inflammatory symptoms, bleed- 
 ing onlv protract; the cure by weakening the system. Next let 
 the whole shoulder be well bathed thrice a-day with hot verjuice 
 or vinegar, in which are sal ammoniac, opodeldoc. No. 32, or tsvo 
 parts of camphorated spirits and one of oil of turpentine mixed. 
 Scjap dissolved in vinegar has been also prescribed ; but this is i;n- 
 practicable as it will not dissolve in thr.t or any other acid. When 
 the strained part is vei-v much swelled, it shoul>l be himented with 
 woollen clothSj large enough to cover the whole, wrung out of 
 boiling water, rmd applied as hot as possible; a little brandy and 
 vinegar, fequal parts of each,') being previously sprinkled upon 
 tliem. They should be kept i.pon the part till they begin to coo!, 
 and then others should be applied as before. This must be re- 
 peated six or seven times. The lat >hould be bound on with a 
 drv one over it, to keep up a constant persjiiration. Sometimes 
 fomentations are made with a strong decoction of aromatic and 
 emollient herbs: such as soulh.ernwr od, wormwood, chamomile 
 and elder flowers, mallows, &c. W'hen the shoulder is much 
 swelled, a rowe! in the point of it often does great service ; especi- 
 ally if the strain has been very violent, and the swelling very 
 large: but as to boring up the shoulder with a hot iron, and after- 
 wards inflating it, it is hotli a cruel and absurd treatment: and the 
 pegging up the sound foot, or setting on a patten shoe, to bring the 
 lame shoulder on a stretch, is a Uiost preposterous practice, and 
 directly calculated to render a horse incurably lanie ; for it can 
 onlv benecessarv in cases the very opposite to this, wliere the mus- 
 cles have been long contracted, and we want to stretch thern out. 
 Where poultices c;in be applied, they are at first undoubtedly very 
 efi'ectual, after bathing with hot vinegar or verjuice; and "aie to 
 be preferred sreatlv to cold charges, which, by drying so soon on 
 the part, keep it stiff and uneasy : let them be prepared with oat- 
 meal, rye-flour, or bran boiled up in vineg.ir, strong beer, or red 
 wine lees, with lard enough to prevent their growing stilT; and 
 when bv these means the inflanunation and swelling are brought 
 down, bathe the part twice a-day with either of the above mixtures, 
 opodeldoc, or camphorated spirit of wine ; and roll the part three 
 or four inches, both above and belo.v, with a strong linen roller of 
 about two fingers width ; which contributes not a little to the re- 
 covery, by bracing up the relaxed tendon ; and perhaps is morf! 
 to be depended on" than tne applicati' us themselves. In strains of 
 the coffin ioint, that have not been discovered in time, the cure 
 will be extremelv difliicult. Strains of the Ijack sinews are very 
 common; and are easily discovered by the swelling, which ex- 
 tends sometimes from the back side of the knee down to the hcfl, 
 but for tlie most part the hor-csets that foot before the other, 'i he 
 tendon sl.ould be well bathed three or four times a-day with hot 
 1 vinegar; and if much swelled, apply the poultices above recom- 
 mended : 
 
 m
 
 388 
 
 FARRIERY. 
 
 tiiendeJ: and when the swelling is down, batlie with tlie mixtures 
 above. Stiaiiis of the knees and piirterns arise treiincntly from 
 kicks or blows: if they are much swelled, apply first the ponl- 
 lices; and wlu-n tlie swelfing is abated, bathe with the enibioca- 
 tion, No. -"li. As great weakness remains in the pasterns after 
 violent strains, tlie best method is to tnrn tlie horse out to grass till 
 he is perfectly recovered ; when this cannot be complied with, 
 the general svay is to blister and fire. A lameness in the whirl 
 bojie and hip is discovered by the horse's dragging his leg alter 
 him, and dropping backward on his heel when he trots. If the 
 nuiscles of the 'hip are only injured, this kir;d of lameness is cured 
 easily ; when the ligaments of the joint are affected, the cure is 
 often very diflicult, tedious, and uncertain. In either case, at lirst 
 bathe the parts well with the coolijig medicines, four or live times 
 a-day : in the muscular strain, this method alone may succeed ; 
 init in the ligamentous, rest and time only can restore the injured 
 jiarts to their proper tone. 
 
 Of Tumours a-cd Imposthumes. 
 
 Tuinou:s or swelling-, may arise either from external injuries or 
 intercuU causes. 
 
 I. 'rumours caused by external accidents, as blows and bruises, 
 should at lirst be treated with restringents. Thus, let the part be 
 bathed trec(uently with hot vinegar or verjuice ", and, where it will 
 admit ot bandage, let a llannel wetteil with thi" same be rolled on; 
 it by this method the suidling does not subside, aj?ply, e>|>ecLally 
 on the legs, a poultice with red wine lees, strong beer grounds, 
 and oatmeal, or with vinegar, oil, and oatmeal: either of tiiese 
 may be continued twice a day, after bathing, till the swrlfng 
 abates ; when, in order to disperse it entirely, the vinegar should 
 be changetl for camphorated spirit of wine, to four ounces ol 
 which may be added one of spirit of sal ammoniac ; or it may be 
 batlied with a mixture of two ounces of crude sal ammoniac boiled 
 in a quart of cinmiber ley twice a-day, and rags dipped in the 
 sa\ne may be rolled on. Fomentations are olten of great service 
 to thin the juices, and fit them for transpiratimi ; especially if the 
 injury has aifecled the joints. But in bruises, where the extra- 
 vasated blood will not by these means be dispersed; the shortest 
 way is to Ojien the skin, and let out the coagulum. Critical tii- 
 iiiours which terminate fevers, should by no nieans be dispersed; 
 except when tliey fall on the pastern or coflin joint, so as to en- 
 danger them : in this ca^e the discutient fomentation should be 
 applied three or four times a-day, and a clotli ur llannel, fre(|uentlv 
 wiimg out of the same, should be bound on, to keep the joint in 
 continued per-jiiiation. I5ul all tumours teiiding to certain matu- 
 ration (from whatever cause they originated) should be expedi- 
 tiously assisted by fomentation ; and, after each time of using the 
 fomentation, the ripening encouraged by suppurating poultices, 
 wherever they can be applied; oatmeal boiletl soft in milk, to 
 whicli a proper quantity of oil and lard is added, may answer this 
 jiurpose; or the cmoliicnt poultice, N° .'li?. These applications 
 must be regularly continued till the matter is perceiveil to lluc- 
 tuate under the lingers, when it ought to be let out: for which 
 jjurpose let the tumour be opened with a knife or strong lancet, 
 the wliole length of the swelling, if it can be done safelv ; for no- 
 thing contributes so much to a kind healing as the matter having 
 a free discharge, and the opening big enough to dress to the bot- 
 ^ toin. Pledgets of tow or lint spread uilli the digestive ointment, 
 IS" 45, II. and dipped in the same, melted with a hfth part of oil of 
 turpentine, should be applied to tlie bottom of the sore, and tilled 
 up liglitly with the same, without cramming: it may be thus drc-scd 
 once or twice a-day, if the discharge is great, till" a pro])er diges- 
 tion is procured ; when it should be changed for pledgets spread 
 vith the red precipitate ointment, N''4j,'lll. applied in the same 
 manner. Should the sore not digest kindly, but run a thin water 
 and look pale, foment, as often as you dress with the above fomen- 
 tation ; anil a|)ply over this dressnig the strong beer poultice, and 
 rontinue this nu-fhod till the mafter'grows thick, and the sore flo- 
 rid. Wounds that look florid and till up favourably while dressed 
 with lint, will probably need no other application. ' If dressed too 
 long with digestives, the ilesh will rise fast, and if the sore is on a 
 part where bandages cannot iie applied, with compresses of linen 
 cloth, these methods will be necessary to keep the granulations 
 down, and to encourage the growth of "the skin. The vulgar no- 
 tion respecting proud flesh in healthy wounds, is a mischievous and 
 vulgar erfor, which lias led, both in tlie human and brute subject. 
 
 to an absurd and cruel practice, of employing eschajotie and caus- 
 tic dressings where they were-not necessary. Writers on farriery 
 have giyen in general very proper receipts to aiisutr every inten- 
 tion of this kind by medicines ; but as they haye not laid down suf- 
 ficient rules for iheir ap])licat'on in those cases where they are 
 most wanted, the following general chrections maybe acceptable 
 as the difficulty in healing some kinds of sores arises frcc|uentlv 
 from the unskiU'el manner of d:es>inc; them. AVe may then ob- 
 serve, once for all, that the cuvts of most sores are effected by the 
 simplest methods ; and that it l^ ottcn of much more consequence 
 to know how to dress a sore, tnan what to dress it with. In this 
 indeed consi>ts the chiet art of thi^ branch of surgery ; for the most 
 eminent in that profession liave long ago discovered, that variety 
 of ointments and salves is not necessary in tlie cure of most 
 wounds and sores; and they iu>-. e accordingly discarded the great- 
 est part formerly in repute lor tiiat purpose; repeated observations 
 having taught them, that, after the digestion, nature is generally 
 di>posed to heal up the wound fa>t enough herself; and that the 
 >urgeon's chief care is to j)revent that luxuriancy cidled proud 
 llesTi; which all ointments, wdiereiii lard or oil enters, are apt to 
 encourage, as they keep the fibres too lax and supple ; and", liich 
 dry lint alone, early aiiplied, as easily prevents, by its absorbing 
 (luality, and light compression on the spreuliiig libres. Thus, 
 ff a liollow wound or sore be crammed with tents, or the 
 dressings be apjilied too hard, the tender shoots of iiesh from 
 the bottom are prevented from pushing up; and the sides ' 
 of the sore by this distention may in time grow liorii)'' ' 
 and fistulous ; nor has the matter by this ir.e'hod a free discharge. 
 On the other liand, if sores of any depth be dressed superticiallv, ' 
 the external parts being more disponed to heal and come together 
 than tlie internal, they will fall into contact, or heal too soon ; and 
 the sore, not lilling up properly from the bottom, will break out 
 afresh. Hence we may justly conceive how little sti'ess is to be 
 laid on famous ointments, or family salves, unskilfully applied ; for 
 unless this due medium be observed, or obtained in tlie dressing, 
 no hollow sore can heal up ]>roperly. As soon then as a good di- 
 gestion is procured, (which is known by the thickness and white- 
 ness of the matter discharged, and the ilorid red colour at the bot- ' 
 torn of the sore,) let the dressings be changed for the precipitate 
 medicine ; or the sore may be tilled up with dry lint alone, or dip- 
 ped in limewater, with a little linney and tincture of myrrh, or 
 brandy, about a fifth part of the latter to one of the former : a 
 pledget of lint dipped in tliis niixture, should also be ajiplied to 
 the bottom of the sore, which should be tilled up with others tothe 
 surface or edges : but neither crammed in too hard, nor apjilied 
 too loosely. By this method, the sore would heal up properly, 
 and soft s|)ongy fiesh would be prevented or suppressed in lime ;'. 
 whereas v. lien ointments, or salves, are too long continued, a fun- 
 gus, or i-roud flesh, is thereby so encouraged in its growth, that it 
 ie(|Uires some time to destroy and eat it down again ; a proper,, 
 compress of cloth, and a linen-roller, is absolutely neces-aiv both 
 for this purpose ami to secure the dressings, wherever they can 
 convenient^- be ajiplied. If any eschar of consequence should re- 
 main, ami the hair ijot follow kindly, rub the part gently every 
 nin;lit with a small (piantity of camphorated s])ermaceti omimeiu, 
 the best article known to promote the return of the hair upon the 
 knees or any other part. 
 
 II. Tumoms arising from lN'Tf,RN.M. Caulks that require lobe 
 here noticed, are the scrofulous, encysted, and steatomatous. 
 
 1. Scrofulous Tumours are such as originate in scorbutic or 
 hereditary taints, and increase or iliminish according to the state or 
 acrimony o* the blood. For these the principal ap|)lication is the 
 strong mercurial ointment, Ko. 7, whicli must be assisted by a 
 course of mercurial and antimonial alteratives. 
 
 '■!. Encysted Tumours are such as originate in a cyst or bag, 
 containing a kind of ichor, or gelatinous fluid ; which being eva- 
 cuated, thi? cyst does not always submit to digestives or escharo- 
 tics, but must be extirpated with the knife, and cured as a com- 
 mon wound. 
 
 3. Stkatomatous Tumours, are those that form under tlie 
 skill, on ditTerenl parts, and p.-.ss under the denomination of Wen's, 
 though in tact they aNo are cysts: containing, when opened or 
 extracted, a substance not unlike suet when hardly cold. Neither 
 of the above are expected to submit to any topi(;al application, 
 unless upon the very first observation ; when an attempt may be 
 made by a small portion of the above mercurial oiiAment rubbed
 
 lAKRIERV. 
 
 389 
 
 I 
 
 11 cviTV ninlu for a coiisiiicrablc loiigtli of timt- ; but no rarlical 
 :uie cim be in general obtained bnt by exliriiation, which gene- 
 allv succeeds ilwell peilornied, aii<l the voinul be alterwards 
 rated rationally. A selon ii a gootl renu'dy for the cine of en- 
 \vled Imnoiirs of considerable size. It slioidd be pa?>ed <iiiite 
 lirongli, from the hii^hebt to llie lowest part, and siitTereU to remain 
 ill the sides of tlie e\>l are united, after which it shculd be with- 
 Jrawii. 
 
 Ok ^\■ouND3. 
 
 As tlie blood llierefore is the best balsam of Natin-e, and in cases 
 of frc>h wounds in a lu-allhy system, is endued with the vis niedica- 
 ;.rix Natura-, it bec.mies aji important object in the veterinary 
 irt, toadopl the speedie-t and nio-t ei't'ecUi.d means of preventini^ 
 iMV great loss of it, by the use of tlie best styptics, in cases where, 
 iVoni anv siiddtii accii'.ent, a horse has been wounded in a large 
 vein or artery, and in asiliialion where ])erhaps the aid of no sur- 
 geon or skilful farrier can be readily procured. On tliis sub- 
 lect a memoir v*'as presented to the Itoyal Academy ot Sciences 
 by M. La Fosse, wherein he gives an account i^f the success he 
 Ihad met with, in slo])p;ng the bleedings of very considerable ar- 
 iterics in hordes, by -applying the powder of puli'balls, the arteries 
 icicatrizing bv this means only, without any succeeding hanior- 
 rhage. In the dressing of wounds, sores, &c. the following general 
 rules ought carefully to be attended to by every practitioner: 1. 
 To remove all foreign bodies (if it can be done with safety), all 
 lacerated or torn parts, whether of the flesh or of the hoof, &c. 
 which, if left in the wound might possibly impede the cure. 2. 
 All wounds should be carefully in--pected at every dressing, ob- 
 Iserving attentively whether any alteration has been made on their 
 surface, whether tliey be clean at the bottom, and free from any 
 extraneous substance that may hin<ler or retard the cure. 3. 
 Cramming wounds with hard tents, and syringing them frequently 
 witl) spirituous tinctures, are extremely hurtful. The former in- 
 creases the pain and inflammation, &c. ; the latter produces a 
 callus upon the internLd surface of the wounds, which prevents 
 their healing. 4. The dressing of wounds should lie smooth and 
 easy upon the part"-, j. Over-tight ligatures or bandages should 
 be carefully avoided. 
 
 In all Fresh Wounds made by cutting instruments, there is 
 nothing more requiied, than to bring the lips of the wound into 
 ■contact by suture or bandage, provided the part will allow of it ; 
 for on wounds of the hips, or other prominent parts, and across 
 some of the large muscles, the stitches are apt to burst on the 
 horse's lying down and rising up in the stall. In such cases, the 
 lips shoul<l not be brought close together : one stitch is sufficient 
 for a wound two inclies long ; but in large wounds, they should 
 be at an inch or more distance ; and if the wound is deep in the 
 ■Tiuiscles, care should be taken to [lass the needles proportionably 
 deep, otherwise the wound will not unite properly from the bot- 
 tom. If the wouml should bleed much from an artery divided, 
 the first step should be to secure it, by passing a crooked needle 
 underneath, au<l tying it up with a waxed thread : if the artery 
 cannot be got at this way, apply a button of lint or tow to the 
 mouth of the bleeding vcs-els dipped in a strong solution of blue 
 vitriol, styptic water, oil of vitriol, or hot oil of turpentine, pow- 
 tlered vitriol, orcolcothar, &c. and remember always to apply if 
 close to the mouth of the bleeding vessels, and take care that it is 
 kept there by a proper eninprest and bandage till an eschar is 
 formed; otherwise it will elude your expectations, and frequently 
 alarm you with fresh bleedings. In sl-ghter bleedings we would 
 recommend a pledget of lint dipt in oil, or rather lightly greased, 
 to be laid over the wound ; and above it a piece of S|)onge dipt 
 either in melted wax, or strong glue, or mucilage of gum Arabic; 
 and pressed till it hardens. This, secured with a lirm bandage, 
 will, in many cases, be ell'ectual ; for as the sponge dilates by heat 
 or moisture, (according as it is prepared), the compression will not 
 readily give way. 
 
 Of Ulcers in general. 
 
 Simple ulcers, that are not attendeil with any particular obstacle 
 to their healing in the general state of the system, require much 
 the same treatment with wounds; but as all ulcers, difficult to heal, 
 proceed Irom a parti<;ular iudispo.ition of the blood and juici's,, 
 before the former can be brought into any order, the latter must 
 
 VOL. 11 — NO. 81. 
 
 be corrected by alteratives. Tin- first intent;. jii in the cure ot 
 ulcers is to biing them to dige-t, or discharge a thitk while ni|.t- 
 ter; which will, generally, be elVecled by the ointment, No. 43. 
 111. but should tlie ,ore'not dige-t kindly by these means, but 
 discharge a gleety thin matter, and look pah-, we must then have 
 leouirseto wanner dre>,-,ngs, such as bal-am, or oil of tnrpenliric, 
 meltol down with common digestive. No. 45, 1, :.nd a strong beer 
 poultice over them. It is proper also in the-e knu'is ot sores, 
 where the ciiculaton is languid, and the natural heat i.bated, to 
 warm the part, and quicken the motion of the blood, by tomenl- 
 ing it well at the time of dressing. 'I'his will ihii ken the matter, 
 and rouse the native heat of the [lart, and then the former dress- 
 ings may be re-applied. If the lips of the ulcer grow hard or cal- 
 lous, toment strongly with a <iecoction of camomile and mal- 
 lows, as liol as can be conveniently ajiplied : then -carity superh- 
 cially the whole part, both longit'udui.dly and transversely with a 
 fleam or abscess lancet, so as eiilirely to penetrate the callous sub- 
 stance upon the surface: after which it must be dressed with di- 
 gestive oiiilnient twice a-day ; the fomentation nnd scarifications to 
 he repeated occasionally, tdl the callosity is quite sloughed olfaiid 
 comes away with the dressings. As soon as the callosity is re- 
 moved, and the discharge comes to its projter consistence, dress in 
 general with a small portion of lint thinly covere<l with citlur of 
 the hasilicons, placed under a pledget of tow s()read with the sim- 
 ple digestive: or softened with oil of turpentine, where a coj'ions 
 discharge is required. Should the wound incarnate too ta^t, and 
 lill with fungous flesh, treat it as directed for woundr. 
 
 Of .\ Bone Spavtn. 
 This disorder is a bony excrescence, or hard swelling, growing 
 on the inside of the hock of a hor>e's leg. A spavin, that begins 
 on the lower part of the hock, is not so dangerous as that wh.ch 
 puts out higher, between the two round processes of the log bone ; 
 and a spavin near the edge is not so bad as that which is more in- 
 ward toward the middle, as it does not so much atfect the bending 
 of the hock. A spavin that comes by a kick or blow, is at fust no 
 true spavin, but a brui-c on the bone, or membrane which covers 
 it ; therefore not of that consequence as when it proceeds from a 
 natural cause : and those that put out on colts and young horses, 
 are not so bad as those that liappen to horses in their full strength 
 and inatinitv ; but in very old horses ihey are generally incmabie. 
 The usual method of treating this disorder is by bh-^tera and lirin;;- ; 
 without any regard to the situation, or cause whence it proceeds. 
 Thus, if a fulness of the fore-part of the hock comes upon hard 
 riding, or any other violence, which threatens a spavin; in that 
 case, such coolers and rcpellers arc proper as are recommended 
 in strains and bruises. Tho^e happening to colts and young horses 
 are generally superficial, and require only the mililer applications; 
 for it is better to wear them down by degrees, than to remove them 
 at once by severe means. A second application of the blistering 
 ointment, will, in coits and young horses make a perfect cure. 
 But when the spavin has been of long standing, it will require ta 
 be renewed, perhaps five or six times : but -'' .,r the second appli- 
 cation, a greater distance of time must bt .Mowed, otherwise it 
 might leave a scar, or cause a baldness ; to prevent w hich, once a- 
 fortnight or three weeks is olten enough ; and it may in this man- 
 ner be continued six or seven times, without the least blemish, and 
 will genenilly be attended with success, I'lit the spavins that put 
 out on older or full-aged horses are apt to be more obstinate, being 
 seated move inward : and when they run among the sinuosities of 
 the joint, they are for the most part incurable. 'I'lie best and safest 
 method, is to apply the blistering ointment. No. 47, III, and con- 
 tinue it according to the directions for some months, if iieccss;iry ; 
 the horses in the interrals working moderately : the hardness will 
 thus be dissolved by degrees, and wear way insensibly. 
 
 Of Cl'RBs, Jardons, and Uinc Bones. 
 
 I. As a spavin rises among the bones on the fore-part of (he 
 hock, so a curb takes its origin from the juiu tiires of the same 
 bones, and rises on the hind part, forming a pretty large tumour 
 over the back part of the bind leg, attended with stillness, and 
 sometimes with pain and lameness. 
 
 A Curb pioceetls from the same causes that produce .spavins ; 
 viz. hard riding, strains, blows, or kicks. The cure at first is ge- 
 nerally easily enougli eftccled by blistering, tepealed two or thre<! 
 5 G tJHiee
 
 sno 
 
 FARRIERY. 
 
 tiim-5, or ullmcr. It it ilut-s not submit to llti. ti-eatim-nt, l)Ul 
 gn)\v.< fcXCi.'Sjivi'lv l.arcl, tin: q!lic^t'^t ami smebt way is ;o tire uitii 
 a tliin iron, inakinp; a iiiie ilovvii the middle trom top to lioltom, 
 ;\iid drawiiig'several liacb prottydee|j crosswise cm eacti side like a 
 fcjtlu-r; and then to apply a iiiilii blibtering planter or ointment 
 over it. 'lliis melliod wili entirely remove it. 
 
 II. There is another sMeiiniji; on tiie outside of the hock, which 
 is called a Jaudon. This coniiunidy proceeds from hluws and 
 Kicks of otiier horses ; but fret|u'.'iitly happens to munt-ge hor>es, 
 by seltina; thein on their haunches; it is seldom attended Tiilh 
 much lamenc-s, imless it has been nesjiected, or some little pro- 
 cess of the bone broke. It should lirst be treated with coolers 
 and repellers ; but if any sw ellinfr continues hard and in^ensillle, 
 the best way is to blister or (iro ; but the mild blisters alone ge- 
 nerally succeed. 
 
 III. The I'.iMG-BoNF. is a hard swelling on the lower part of the 
 pastern, which s^enerally reaches half way round the fore-part 
 thereof, and has its name from its resemblance to a ring. It oiten 
 arises from strains, &:c. and, when behind, from putting young 
 horses too early upon their haunch.es ; for in that attitude a horstr 
 throws his whole weight as much, if not more, upon his pasterns, 
 than on his hocks. When it ap|)ears distinctly rqund the pastern, 
 and diics not run downwards towards the coronet, so as to a(fe(t 
 the cotfin joint, it is easily cured: but if it take? its origin from 
 some strain or defect in tiie joint originally, or if a callosity is 
 found under the round ligament that covers that joint, the cure is 
 generally dul/ious, and sometimes impracticable ; as it is apt to 
 turn to a (piittor, aii'l in the end lo (orm an ulcer upon the hoof. 
 The ring-bones that appear on colts and young horses, will oiten 
 insensibly wear off themselves, without any application ; Ijiit when 
 the substance remains, no other remedy is nece>sary but blistiMing, 
 unless whrn by long continuance it is grown to an obstinate hard- 
 ness, and then it may require botii blistering and firing. 
 
 Of Splents. 
 
 A Splf.nt is a hard excrescence that grows on the shank bone. 
 They are of various shajjc-s and sizes. Some horses are more sub- 
 ieot to splents than others; but yourig horses are moil liable to 
 these inliriiiities, which often wear offaii<l disappear of themselves. 
 Few horses put out splents after they are seven or eight years old, 
 unless they meet with blows or accidents. Si)leiits that arise in 
 the middle of the shank bone are nowise dangerous ; but those 
 tliat arise on the back part of it, w hen tiiey grow large and press 
 again t the back sinew, always cause lameness or stit'fiiess, by rub 
 bing against it ; the others, unless they are situated near the joints, 
 sehlom occasion lameness. As to the cure of splents, the best 
 nx'thod is not to meddle with them, unless they are so large as to 
 tSisligme a horse, or so situutfd as lo endanger his becoming lame. 
 Sjileuts til their infancy, and on their lirst appearance, should be 
 well bathed with v!neg:ir, or old verjuice ; which, by strengtheninL' 
 the libres, often put a stop to their growth ; for the membrane 
 covering the bone, and not the bone itself, is here thickened ; and 
 in some constitutions purging, and afterwards diuretic drinks, will 
 be a great means to remove the humidity and moisture about the 
 limbs, which often give rise to such excrescences. 
 
 Of the Poll-Evil; Fistula and Bruises om the Withers ; 
 Warbles, and Sit-Fasts. 
 
 I. The PoLi-KviL is an abscess ne.ir the poll of a horse, form- 
 ed in tjie siiiusis between the poll-bone and the uppermost verte- 
 l>r»of iheueck ; which when it breaks spontaneous! v, or is opened, 
 (Kschargfs- great fiuantitU-s of viscid matter, ii"t unlike dirty glue. 
 It gcn.-rally pro'eeiis from blows or strains, or hurts in diawiug ; 
 or from airitii-..! transk,tion of mritter in a fever, NN'hi'u the poll 
 swells trom. ;i bl w or bruise, it m.y be easily c uretl by f.isteii'nu 
 an ear-liand lo the c )lfir, to prevent its pressing on the part, ann 
 iKithiiig it 'w I or three times a day with warm vinegar, and il ther 
 fif an oozing through. the skin it nuist t)e mixed with an e(|U.il 
 f|ii;mtiiy of -puit M win>-. In this state the abscess ui.y bv these 
 means le previiited.. liut wiien ther** is a t.eat m the part with in- 
 flammation, il will lie proper to bleed, and then apply a poultice 
 et bread ,ir'. i ik; ort.ie disculient cataplasm. No. 5.^ ; eitlur cf 
 which must be reptated onee or Iwictta day till the itching is gone, 
 aiul the swelling abated. This method with laxative ph)sic nia\ 
 
 „,, J 
 
 prevent an abscess ; but when it is tornied, l)leeding and purging 
 are unnecessary, and it must be brought forward witli liie sujjpu 
 rating cataplasms, till it burMs of itself; and then the niatter niiis 
 be squeezed out gently once or twice, alter which it may be lair 
 open, keeping as much as possible according lo the diredion of da 
 libres of the muscles, w illiout culling the tendinous ligament, tlia 
 runs along the neck under the mane. And theielore, if the mat. 
 ler is gathered on both sides, the best wa\ will be to open it or 
 both sides. This done, a leaden probe must be introduced a; 
 gently as possible, and by these means the oritice must be made 
 so wide as lo introduce the linger ; or it may be better done with 
 a short spunge tent, and a bit of dry spunge will do well enough 
 for this use without any prepaiatioii. If the matter be white, ami 
 of a good consistence, il may be heated with turpentine, honey, 
 and Jhe tincture of my rrh. When proud llesh arises, strew a littlf 
 red precipitate on it. If the matter flow in gri'at quantities, re- 
 semble melted glue, and be of an sily consistence, il will require 
 a second incision, especially if any cavities be discovered by the 
 linger or probe ; these should be opened by the knite, the oritices 
 made depending, and the wound dressed with the comniou di- 
 gestive of turpentine, honey, and lincture of myrrh ; and, after 
 digestion with the pri'cipitate ointment, lo inject a little of the de- 
 tergent lotion. No .-.li, made warm ; and till the woundup willi 
 tow moistened with the same; but it must lie very loose, lest it 
 should hinder the growth of good flesh. Sometimes bathing it with 
 this liquor alone will do, if it be filled with dry lint, and covci-e<i 
 with tow to keep it trom the air. In some cases once or twice a 
 day may be necessary till the running decreases and the sore grows 
 better. Then the sore should be ballied with spirit of wine alone, 
 and it should be covered with tow dipt in vinegar and whiles o£ 
 eggs beat together, which will serve instead of a bandage. This 
 should be covered with a piece of woollen cloth, with two loops of 
 list round his ears, and it may be tied underneath by tape fastened 
 thereto. 'I'he latest practice however in the cure of the ooll-evil^ 
 and certainly the best, is that of passing a seton through the ca- 
 vity, in surii a way as to make a depending opening ; and this- 
 will generally cure without any other remedy. 
 
 II. Bruises on the Withers frecpienily imposthumate, and- 
 for want of cure turn fistulous. They arise often trom pincbes o£ 
 the saddle, and should be treated with repellers, as the lotions and 
 embrocations. No. 37, 3S. These will often preven. impost- 
 liumes ; w hen the swelling is attended with heat, smarting, and lit- 
 tle hot watery pimples, the saturnine liniment. No. 40, II, will he, 
 the best application. Bui when the swellings are critital, the coiit 
 sequence ol a fever settled on this p.irt, we must avoid the repel- 
 ling method, an<l assist in bringing the swelling to matter, by sup-. 
 purating poultices : experienced farriers advise, never to opea 
 these tumours till they bieak ol themselves: for if they are opened 
 before they are ripe, the whole sore will be spongy, and dischargei 
 a bloody ichor, which soon degenerates into a scnilid ulcer. 
 
 III. Warbles are small hard tumors under die saddle-part of 
 the horse's back, occasioned by the heat ol the saddle in Iravelling^ 
 or its uneasy situation. As soon as the saddle is taken oil' after a 
 severe chase or hard journey, a good groom or hostler will be 
 very minute in his examinations, to discover whether any injury 
 has been sustained in this part or any other. He will instantly 
 perceive, by the horse's wincing, w hi-ther there is any defect from 
 which a warble may speedily ensue ; if so upon the first appear- 
 ance, or earliest discovery, bathe thr^e or four times a-day with 
 ihe vegeto-miiieral water. No 3J. 
 
 IV. A Sit-Kast proceeds generally from a warble, and is the 
 hor-e's hiile turned horny or callous. In some little time the hair 
 comes oil, and it bears tiie appearance of a foieign solid substance,, 
 fixed in the centre of w hat seems to be a superficial wound. For 
 this simple and^■el■y trilling complaint, there is but one certain and 
 expeditious cure, namely, extirpation ; which may be performed 
 uith a ciinmon penknile. But the most ready and least piiinfnl 
 method of taking it ofl' is by just r.iising either edge, till it can be 
 taken hold of with a pair of common pincers; when, by leaning 
 Ihem to any side, you have an immediate fulcrum, or lever, and 
 separate it iiistanlaneously without pain or inconvenience. After 
 tlie extirpation, it may be treated as a slin|)le supe.rlicial lacera- 
 tion, and inay in general "C healed by a frequent application nf 
 Friar's balsam, tincture of myrrh, or even with a little coninic ii 
 brand V. Due care, however should always betaken lo guard 
 
 the
 
 FAURIKRY. 
 
 V^Ol 
 
 Ue (.a-atrix in its inl'aiK v, aii.l privoiit llu- Inicklt- ol the Riilli fi-oir. 
 
 omiiig into direct contact with iho injured p.;rt, not onl\ till the 
 ,,irljce i> siil'liciciKty hardened to reader a repetition unlikely. 
 but upon all future necasion*. 
 
 Of Wimd-Gall-.; and of Ulood and Bog Spavins. 
 
 I. A Wis-p-Gall isa flatulent swellmi;, wliicli yields to Ihc pres- 
 sure of the linger, an<l recover^ ilsshapeon the renunal tliereol ; the 
 tumor is visi[>le to the eye, and olten seated on l)otliside><)f the back 
 sinew, above the fetli.c ks, on the fore legs, bnt most frei|uently oi: 
 Ijic hind legs ; though the\ are met with on variou^ parts of tin 
 bpdy, wherever membrane^ can be so separated, liir.l a ijiiantity 
 l>f air and serositiea may be included within their du])licatiires. 
 W'hen wiiid-i;alls appear'near the joints and tendons, lliey are ge- 
 nerally caused by strains or bruises on the sinews, or the sheath 
 lliat covers them ; which, by beinf; over-strelched, have some of 
 tfceir fibres ruptured ; wlience probably may ouze out tiiat fluid 
 which is commoiilv found with the includi-d air : though, where 
 these swellings shew theni^elve^ in the inter-tues of laige muscles, 
 which appear blown up like l)laddei>, air alone is the i hief lluid ; 
 and these may safely be opened, and treated as a common wound. 
 On the fir>t appearance of w md-galls, their cure shoiild be at- 
 teeipted Dy restrmgents and balldai^e^ ; for which purpose, let the 
 swelling be baihec' twice a-da\ wiili vinegar, or verjuice alone; or 
 rfitti the repellent embrocation. No. 37 ; or let the part be lo- 
 Aiented with the restringcnt fomentation, No. j(3; binding over it, 
 (ViUi a roller, a woollen clotn soaked m the sniiie. Some, tor this 
 purpose, use red wine lees ; others curr.er?' shavings wetted with 
 [he same, or vinegar, bracing the part up with a lirm bandage. 
 tf, after a proper trial, this method siioiild not succeed, authors 
 Save advi-ed the swelling to be pierced with an awl, or opened 
 ivithaknife; but milil blistering is in general prelened to these 
 ncthods ; tne included fluids being thereby diawn olt, the im- 
 jacted air dispersed, and the tumour gradually diminished. 
 
 II. A liI.QOD-SI'AVl^ is a swelling and dilatation of the vein 
 hat runs along the inside of the hock, forming a litte soft swell- 
 ng in the hollow part, and is olten attended with a weakness aud 
 ameness of the hock. The treatment is the same as that above 
 ecomniended. 
 
 III. A Bog Spavin ii an enc-ysted tumour on the inside of the 
 lOugh ; or, according to Dr. Bracken, a colle'tion oi brownish 
 jelatiiious matter, contained in a bag or cy?t, which he thinks to 
 
 ' ie the lubricating mattej- of the joint altered, the common mem- 
 '"" irane that incloses it forming the cyst. 'I'his case he lias taken 
 "I jams to illustrate in a young coll of his own, where he says. When 
 '!' he'spavin was pressed hard on the 'inside of the hough, there wasa 
 "1 imall tumour on the outride, which convinced him the lluid was on 
 V he inside oi the JO nt lie accordingly cut into it ; discharged a 
 arge quantity of this gelatinous matter ; dressed the sure with dos- 
 ils dii>ped in oil of turpentine; putting into it, once in three or 
 6ur days, a powder made of calcined vitriol, alum, and bole. Bv 
 ™ his method of d essing, the bag sloughed off, and came away, and 
 '"■he cure was suci esstully completed w.thout any visible scar. If, 
 
 i^ 
 
 hfouah the pain attending the operation or dressings, the joint 
 llouUT swell aiMl intlanie, foment it twice a-day, and apply apoul 
 ice over the dressings till it is reduced. 
 
 i li ng of the hough, and occasion a lameness behind. Both these (lis 
 
 0» Mallendees and Sallekders. 
 
 ft Mallenders are cracks in the bend of the horse's knee, that 
 iischarge a sharp indige ted matler ; they are often the occasion 
 rf lameness, stiffness, and the horse's tumbling. 
 
 II. Sallekders- are the same distemper, situated on the bend- 
 
 irders are cured by washing the parts with a lather of soap warmed, 
 ir old chamber ley; and then applying ovin- the cracks a strong 
 sercuvial ointment spread on tow, v ith which they shouUl be 
 l/Cssed night ami morning, till all the scabs fall off; it this should 
 M succeed, anoint them night and morning with a little ol tljr" 
 mitmenl of nitrated i|uick-silver ; No 4S ; lo one oz. of whit'h 
 wo drachms of the extract of lead is ai'ded; or else with an oint 
 iK'nt of cjjrrosive sublimate, in the pr«portion of one dru hm to 
 ae 07.. of lard. It may be mixed with the lard by itsell, after 
 eing nibbed into fine powder ; or it may be previouslv dis'olved 
 1 a little marine acid. 
 
 Ov Lampas, Barbs, Wolves Tketh, and othlic Diseases of 
 THE Mouiii. 
 
 I. The La.mtas is an excrescence in the roof of the horse'*- 
 mouth, which is sometimes so luxuriant, that it grows above ilu; 
 teeth, and hinders his feeiling. The onlinary nu thod of cure i.s 
 lightly cauterising the flesh w ith a hot iron, taking care lliat it does 
 not penetrate loo deep so as to scale o!t the tliiii bone that lies 
 nmler tlie upper bars ; the part may be anointed with burnt alum 
 and honey, wliich is proper for most sores in the mouth. '1 his 
 operation is by some justly thought to be quite unnecessary ; it 
 l)eing a g.Mieral observation, that all _>oung horses have their 
 mouths more or less full of what are called lampas ; and that sonu- 
 limes they ri-^e higher than the fore teeth. It is furlher oij-erved, 
 111 proportion as a horse grows older, the roof fl.itteiis of itself, and 
 ■.he teeth then appear to ri>e. \Ve are obliged to the ingenious 
 .\1. La Fosse for this remark, which we hope will produce an abo- 
 lition of thii barbarous and useless operation. 
 
 II. Uahbs are small excrescences under the tongue, which may 
 be discovered by drawing it aside, and arc i ured by cutting closC 
 off', and wa>hing with brandy, or salt and water. ,, ■ 
 
 ill. A horse is said to have \Nolves Teeth, when the teeth. 
 grow m such a manner, that their points prick or wound either tlie 
 tongue or gums in eating. Old hoi-ses are mo-st liable to this in- 
 lirmitv, and whose upper overshoot the under teeth in a great de- 
 gree. ' The remedy is to file down tjie superlluous parts of the. 
 teeth till they be sufficiently wasted. 
 
 I\. Besides these disorders of the mouth, there are often ob- 
 served on the inside of the lips a'>d palate, little swellings or blad- 
 ders, called giggs. Slitting them 0])en with a knife or lancet, and 
 washing them afterwards with salt and vinegar, is in general their 
 cure; but when thev degenerate into what are called cankers, 
 which are known bv little white specks, that spread and occasion 
 irregular ulcers, the be-t method then is to touch them daily with 
 a sii'iall flat cautery, moderately healed till the spreading ib stop- 
 ped, and to rub the sores three or four limes a-day with nicl 
 -liijypliacum, and tincture of myrrh ; or borax and honey of roses. 
 When by this dressing the sloughs are separated, they may be. 
 washed frequently with a sponge dipped in a strong solution of. 
 blue vitriol and alum. 
 
 \'. A Relaxation and Swelling of the Palate, some- 
 times happens to horses on catching cold. To remedy this disor- 
 der anoint the pari with honey of roses, acidulated with marine 
 acid; or b.ilhe it with the restringent fomentation, No. oG, cold,. 
 either applied with a sponge, or thrown into the mouth with i 
 syringe. 
 
 0F THE Grease. 
 
 The Grease is a disease, of the nature and causes of which au- 
 thors have given a very imperfect account. '^I he name is proba- 
 bly derived from llie discharge Ihrown oul from the. skin of tlie. 
 pari affected, which is of a greasy or unctuous nature. The part 
 in which it always begins is the fetlock of one of the hm<l legs. It 
 scarcely ever is seen in the fore leg; and the reason why it allects 
 the hind leg exclusively, is probably its greater distance fn m the. 
 centre of the circulation, the vessels actiiin more an<l more wtakly 
 in proportion to their gieater distance from the heart, from this 
 cirmnisfance, it seems to be a disease prini.rlly arising from Ucal 
 delnlity, and from an inert stale of the circulating ves els. V\ hen 
 a horse becomes affected with the grease, several transverse cluips 
 or fissures take place at d'tferent distance- above the heels. W hen 
 tl^ese exist, thev are greatlv aggravated by the motions of the 
 librae, which are continually var>ing; so thai if therf existeil in 
 the^e fissures a di^po-ition to unite, ii would still be counteracted 
 bv the parts being repeatedly put on the stretch, and the union, if 
 anv had taken place, would be forcibly lorn asunder, ^'et^rina- 
 rian aiitttors have usually considered Ihis disease as arising from 
 two different causes : Jst, a fault or relaxation. in the vessels; or 
 ■Jdl\, a bad disposition in the blood and juices. They obsrrvr, 
 that the blood is brouglil to the e\lrenic parts bv the arteries, ami 
 returned by the veins; in which lalter, the blood is to rise in jier- 
 pendicnlar columns, to return the circulating fluids from the ex- 
 tremities; hence swellings in the legs of horses ma\ easily be ac- 
 counted for, from an inadequate motion of the venous blood in 
 the finer vessels, where the circulation is n>o:t languid ; and espe-
 
 30:2 
 
 FzXRRIERY 
 
 cially wlu'ii lIuMO is want of duo cxeicise, and ;i poper imi^ciilar 
 compression on tlve vessels; in short, tlicy representj that the 
 blooil in siicli cases cannot so readily ascend as descend, or a 
 greater quantity is brought by the arteries than can be returned by 
 the veins. 'Ine grea'-e then, considered in this liglit, must be 
 treated as a local complaint, where tlie parts allecled arc alone 
 concerned, and the constitution actually takes no part; or as a 
 disorder where they are both complicate{l ; but when it is an at- 
 tendant on sonii- other distemper, as the farcy, janndice, dropsy, 
 &c. such diseases must first be cured before the grease can be re- 
 moved. In the former case, moderate exercise, proper dressing, 
 cleanliness, and external applications, will answer tiie pur|)0>e: in 
 the latter, internal medicines must be employed. ^ When a horde's 
 heels are tiist observed to swell in the stable, and sidiside or go 
 tlown on exercise, let care be taken to wash tliem verv clean everv 
 time he conies in, with soap suds, chamberley, or vinegar and 
 water; which, with proper rubbing, will freipientiv jjrevent or re- 
 move this complaint: or let them be well bathed twice a-day with 
 old verjuice, or the vegeto-mincral water, which will brace up the 
 iT'laxcd vessels; and if rags dipped in the same are rolled on, with 
 a proper bandage, for a few ilaj s, it is most likely the swellings 
 will soon be removed by this method only, as the bandage vill 
 iiipporl the vessels till they liave recovered their lone. 'I'o an- 
 swer this end also, a laced stocking made of strong canvas or co.trse 
 cloth, neatly fitted to the part, would be found of great use. Hut 
 if cracks or scratches are observed, which ooze and run, let the 
 hair be clipped away, to prevent a lodgement which mav become 
 oliensive, and to give room for washing out dirt or gravel, which, 
 if sulfcred t-o remain, would greatly aggravate the disorder. Wlicn 
 this is the case, or the heels arc full of hard scabs, it is necessarv 
 ■to begin the cure with poultices, made either of boiled tmi'ips, 
 with a handful of linseed powdered; or oat-meal and rye-tiour, 
 with a little connnon turpentine, boiled up with strong beer 
 groundsj or red wine lees. The digestive ointment being applied 
 to the sores for two or three days, with cither of these poultices 
 over it, will by softening them promote a discharge, unload the 
 vessels, and take down the swelling; when they may be dressed 
 with the ointments recommended for the niallenders; particularly 
 with the first of them. In obstinate cases, if the horse be full and 
 fleshy, tlie cure must be begun by bleeding, rowelling, and purg- 
 ing; after which diuretics are frequently given with success. The 
 Isgs should also be fomented twice a-day with the discutient fo- 
 mentation, No. 38, in which a handful of wood ashes has been 
 boiled. If the sores be very f«ul, they must be anointed with 
 equal parts of oil of turpentine, tincture of myrrh, and .Fiiyptia- 
 ciim ; or two parts of burnt alum, and one of red precipitate nib- 
 bed to a fine powder and sprinkled over them previous to the 
 dressing. 
 
 Of RvPTURi:s, AND Colt Evil, or GoNoaRttcfA. 
 
 ■I. Though ruptures are generally divided into particular classes, 
 *-Ke shall only observe, that by violent efforts of the horse, or other 
 accidents, the intestine or omentum, or a portion of each, may be 
 forcc^d betWL'en the muscles of the belly at the navel, or through 
 the rings of the muscles into the scrotum. These swellings are 
 generally about the size of a man's fist, sometimes much larger, 
 descending to the very hock; (hey are frequently soft, and yield 
 to the pressure of the hand, when they will return into the cavity 
 of the belly with a rumbling noise: and, in most, the aperture may 
 be felt Ihrovigh which they passed. Every method should be tried 
 on their first appearance, to rel-nin them by the hand; but if the 
 swelling should be hard and painful, in orc^er to relieve the stric- 
 ture, aiid relax the parts through which the gut or caul has passed, 
 let a large quantity of blood be immediately taken away, and the 
 part fomented twice or thrice a-day, applying over it a poiillice of 
 oat-meal and vinegar, which should be continued till the intlam- 
 mation subsides, and the gut can be returned. In the mean time, 
 throw up emollient oily clysters twice a-day, and let the horse's 
 chief diet be boiled barley," with scalded malt, or bran. Should 
 the swelling afterwards return, the restringent applications, usually 
 recommended on these occasions, will avail nothing without a sus- 
 pensory bandage ; so that an ingenious mechanic in that art is 
 chietly to be relied on for any farther assistance. It has neverthe- 
 less been observed, that with moderate feeding, and gentle exer- 
 cise, some horses have continued to be very useful under this com- 
 plaiut. 
 
 11. The Colt Evil is supposed to arise from stoned colts at- 
 tempting to copulate with mares before they are able: whence 
 treipientlv ensues an excoriation or frettimj on the glands, and i 
 swelling on the sheath. This last disorder fre(iuenlly proceeds too 
 from dirt or filth hxiging there, and is often removeil by washing 
 the part clean wHh butter and beer; but when the yard itself is 
 swelled, foment it twice a-day with a decoction of marshmallows. 
 Dre:.s the excoriation with simple ointment, or wa-h it with :\ 
 s])onge dipped in lime water, to a pint of which may be added two 
 drachms of sugar of leafl. T he penis should be tied up to the 
 belly; and if the swcUiiig sliould increase with the inllunimation, 
 bleed, give some cooling physic, and apply a ))oullice of bread 
 aiul linseed meal made with Goulard's water. No. 35. If a sim- 
 ple gonorrho'a, or seminal gleet, flows from the }ard, (which ii 
 often the case in high led young horses, wliere relaxation has l;con 
 brouglit on by frequent emissions,) let the horse be plunged every 
 day into a river or pond ; give him two or three doses ol rhubarh, 
 at proper intervals ; and afterwards some balls prepared with rhu- 
 barb and turpentine; two drachms of the former to half an ounce 
 of the latter. They siiould be given every night till the complaint 
 goes olT. 
 
 Of Wounds in the Feet. 
 
 Wounds in the feet ha|)pen frequently ; and we may add chiefly 
 from inattention or neglect ; and from injudicious tiejtment, they 
 often become serious. The most approved and rational method 
 of treating recent wounds is, to endeavour to bring theni to a sup- 
 puration, or discharge of laudable matter; for whicJi purpose, 
 poultices are most eligible, as they may be easily niaile more or 
 less of a digestive quality, by melting anil mixing any proper di- 
 gestive oinlmei.t, with the poultice whilst warm. Alaiiy people 
 are indeed prejudiced again^t the use of poultices, from a notion, 
 that they (as the |)hrase is) draw lumiours to the wounded ])ait; 
 but the absurditv of this way of reasoning will be evident to those 
 who are in the least acquainted with the healing art. Poultices 
 may be continued till the wound appears to be well digested, by a 
 kindly suppuration of white well concocted matter, and looks 
 smooth and e(|ual, free from cavities or excrescences of proud 
 flesh ; in that case, the use of poultices may be left off, and the 
 surface of the wound may be sprinkle<l over with a mild escharo- 
 tic, prepared by irixing one ounce of Armenian bole, wiih three 
 ounces ol quick-lime, that has fallen to powder by exposure to the 
 air, and then passing them together through a fine sieve. After 
 the wound is sprinkled with this powder, a pledget of dry lint 
 may be fixed gently over it ; and when the suiiace of the woujid 
 is nearly ecpialivith the skin, the powder will be suflicient, with- 
 out any cloth or covering. There is a species of wounds to w hich 
 the feet are much exposed, called punctures, on account of their 
 small orihce, as the parts immediately alter the wound is inflicted 
 readil} close up, whereby it becomes difficult to know the depth 
 ol the wound. They are generally occasioned by treading upon 
 sharp stones or bones, broken glass, nails, &c. and likewise by 
 nails ill shoeing ; any of which ])trforating the sole or frog, nsiy 
 wound the internal parts of the foot. These from their situation 
 and confinement within the hoof, are attended with the most vio- 
 lent pain and inflammation, which are frequently increased by the 
 injudicious method generally obserred in treating these wounds 
 w hen first inflicted ; viz. by pouring hot corrosive oils into the re- 
 cent wound, to deaden it (as the phrase is,) which is productive of 
 the worst of consequences. Punctures from nails in shoeing, are 
 comnionlv said to proceed from ignorance or blundering. This 
 may fre(|uently be the case ; but, at the same time, it is an acci- 
 dent that may, anil inileed does, happen to the most expert artist; 
 and it is surprising, considering the narrow space there is in some 
 hoofs for driving nails, that it does not happen oftener. When 
 discovered in time, it is easily cured, by opening a passage for the 
 matter downwards, and dressing it with any digestive ointment or 
 poultice, and keeping the foot moist, by apiilying an emollient 
 poultice all round the hoot". Put when it is overlooked, or a frag- 
 ment of the nail remains in the wound, the inflammation increas- 
 ing, it at last suppurates. 'I'he matter accumulating, and not 
 finding a passage downward.s, from the natural formation of the 
 hoof, it moves upwards to the coronet or top of the hoof, and 
 forms a round tumour, which afterwards breaks out, and degene- 
 rates into a most malignant ulcer, commonly termed a <|uittor. 
 This tumour is usually attended with^reat pain and inriammation, 
 
 and
 
 FARRIERY 
 
 50.1 
 
 liid a coiisiderabUt swelliiig round its basis. 'I'lic nielluitl of ciut f 
 xiiimionly praclised, ami roconiineMded liy aiilliois, is llu" ;!(.-tiial 
 •.Hilery, or somt; very active- caustic. Punctiirrs dill'i-r little or 
 lolliiiig, ill the ir.aiincr ol treating lliPiii, troni woiiiids; only the 
 •olo or i'ro,^ sliould be strapc-d tiiiii all round tlic orilice of tlit- 
 voiind, wluch, at the same time, if too small, should be enlarged, 
 iiid an eniollieiil poultice ap|>lie<l, taking cart* that no fragmenl ol 
 
 \traiieous substance remain in the wound, and kcepinj; the whole 
 u)of moist and soft with similar poultices around it ; and, in cases 
 
 Uended with violent pain, recourse nilist be had to such remedies 
 is are pro|)er in iiUlammalory cases ; particularly moderate doses 
 ]( nitre, given as before du-ected. Contusions or bruises happen 
 Vc(]ueiitiy on the coronet or top of the hoof, from the treading oi 
 )lhiT horses feel, which will occa'-icn lamcnes-; although at the 
 unie time no external mark of violence will appear on the coronet 
 arlher than a little swelling; but the horse will sh: \v a sense of 
 ;).iin when the alTected part is touched or pressed U|)on. The dis- 
 . utient poultice. No. 5j, may be applicil with success, if conti- 
 auetl lor some time. 
 
 Of Foundkrkd FEtr. 
 
 The term foundered is frequently applied to lame horses in a 
 very vague manncfr, and without any determined or fi.\ed mean- 
 ing; for, when a horse shews any defect or impedinunl in moving 
 liis fore feet, he is then pronounced to be foundered, whether he 
 really has been so or not ; that is, according to w hat is commonly 
 understood by that term, owing to the want or neglect of not mak- 
 ing proper distinctions of the dilferent diseases in the feet. If we 
 consult authors who have treated upon this subject, we shall lind 
 their accounts of it very dark and imperfect; they bewilder the 
 reader, and convey but a very indistinci idea of the nature of the 
 disease : hence many errors are committed in practice, to the de- 
 .-truction of a number of valuable horses, which otherwise, bv 
 proper management, might have Ijeen rendered sound and useful. 
 When a horse is fu-st attacked with the disorder, he shews a great 
 restlessness, is hot and feverish, heaves much at the lianks, breathes 
 quick, has a quick strong pulse, and groans much when moved 
 about; at the same lime, he shews symptoms of the most violent 
 pain, sometimes in one, but more frequently in both fore feet; for 
 wliich reason, lie lies down much ; bul, when forced to move for- 
 wards, he draws himself together, as it were into a heap, by bring- 
 nig forward iiis hind feet almost under his shoulders, in ordei lo 
 keep the weight of his body as much as possible from resting upon 
 liis fore feet. It is alnl0^t univer>ally allowed, that the cause of 
 this disease proceeds from too violent exercise, such as riding very 
 hard upon stony grouiuls or turnpike roads, and that young horses 
 are most liable to it ; and to these we may likewise add, unequal 
 pressure upon the internal parts of the foot, fr.jin the concave or 
 hollow form of the coniinouslioes. All these causes combined to- 
 ge.lier, when a horse is of a plethoric or full habit of bodv, and 
 not accustomed lo violent exercise, occasion this disease in a 
 (greater or less degree. To form some taint idea of this malady in 
 horses, we may in a great measure appeal to what we experience 
 ourselves in running upon hard grouiul; for we lind, that it occa- 
 sions a great heat, attended with a smart pain in uur feet, which 
 would be greatly increased from uneasy shoes, especially if com- 
 pelled, like llor^es, to contLiuie the running for any considerable 
 time. The feel likewise become turgid and painful after a long 
 day's journey, especially if the peison is not accustomed to travel ; 
 and this inflammation tre(|ucntly terminates in blisters upon the 
 soles of the feet. Hence it is evident, that, in proportion to Ihe 
 habit of body the horse is in at the lime, and the violence of ti:e 
 labour or exercise he h;is undergone, the innaniination in the in- 
 ternal parts of the foot will be more or le-s violent ; and be-ides 
 being attended witii all the symplams of fever in general, particu- 
 lar local symptoms will indicate the seat of the disease to a cer- 
 tainty. In stepping forward he draws his leg backward, before 
 setting his foot to ihe ground, setting down hi? heel with great 
 caution, on which he rests most, the toe being turned a little up- 
 wards, as if afraid of touching the ground. fVom this svmplom 
 only, we may judge with ceitainly, even though at a distance, 
 upon seeing a horse walk, whether he has ever been foundered or 
 not. The hoofs at the same time are exceedingly hoi ; and if wa- 
 )st»]ter is thrown upon Iheni, they dry instantly : 'if any attempt is 
 •o«H niade to pull oif any of the shoes, tiie horse shews great uneasiness 
 aflHjtpon the least twist or pressure made ui)on any part of the foot, 
 )H VOL, II. — MO. SI, 
 
 and a great unwillingness to support the weight of Ids body upon 
 the other foot, esix^eially wiien they are both alike allecieil. 
 Since the circulation is greatly increased, and the current ol blood 
 clnelly determined towards tlie fore feel, atleiu:eil wi'h symptoms 
 of the mo--t violent p«in, we may thence conclude, that there is an 
 inllainmation in the^e parts; therefore, the cure must first de at- 
 tempted by diminishing the circulation of the blood, by topical 
 bleedings m some of the veins of the leg; by giving cooling sa- 
 line purges; clysters, an opening iliel, and plenty of dduting li- 
 quor lour or live times a-day, together with eniiU'enl poultices 
 applied warm all round Ihe lioofs, lo soften them, and keep up a 
 free and e(|ual perspiration ; observing, that his shoes be easy upou- 
 his feet, bill by no means to pare the sole or frog to that excess 
 which is commonly done in casts of this kind, faither than clean- 
 ing away the hard'eneil surface of the sole and frog, in order that 
 the pouilice may have the desired eflect, by increasing llie p.-r- 
 spiration Ihi-oiigli the pores; and to avoid all manner ol greasy or 
 oily applic.tions to the liools, for the reasons airead) given. 
 
 Of IIoof-boundness. 
 
 This complaint affects the hoofs dilTerently, according to their 
 natural shape, and thetieatment they are e.\po-ed to, whether it 
 bi- injudicious shoeing, keeping the hoofs too hot and dry. or par- 
 ing the sole and bintlers al every time they are shoed. Some are 
 aliecled with a circular conlra<;t,un of the' crust, compressirig the 
 whole foot. In others the crust is contracted at the coronet only, 
 compressing the annular ligament, &c. A third S()ecies is, w hen 
 either one or both heels are ctntraited ; heme, therelore, in pro- 
 portion to the degree of conlraclion, the internal p;:rts ot tlie foot 
 are comprc'^sed, and tlie horse becomes more or less lame. As to 
 any method of cure, all that can be said is, that, as this disease is one 
 of thai kind which comes on gradually, yet perce))tiblr, it may by 
 proper care and management, when early attended to, be prevented, 
 r.ul when it once becomes confirmed, it never will admit of a 
 thorough cure. It may be so far palliated, however as to render a 
 horse in some degree sounder, by peeping the hoofs cool -and 
 moist; as, in this case, they are apt to be very hot, dry, and hard, 
 his shoes should be llat, narrow, and open heeled ; the hoofs never 
 greased nor oiled ; the soles never pared. When it is considered 
 how much the elastic |>ower »f llie heels depencis on the bars, 
 whicli act as a spring between them and the frog, it must appear 
 unreasonable that they should be shaved away, as is loo often done 
 by farriers, under the idea of preventing corns; though by such a 
 process corns are created. A good open heel is the indication of a 
 powerful foot. But as the crusts of the heels in these hoofs are 
 preternaturally high and strong, they should always be pared down 
 till Ihey are lower than the frog, that if possible it may rest upon 
 the ground. 
 
 Of Corns. 
 
 In Ihe hnmim body, corns in the feet, are properly so termed, 
 from their horny substance; but what are called corns in the feet 
 of horses are very improperly named, as they are quite of an op- 
 posite nature, rather resembling contusions, not unlike those 
 l.>ruises which happen in the ii.dnis of the hands and lingers lo 
 workiiiLi jieople, where tlie skin is thick, and appears of a blackish 
 red colour ; being exceedingly painful at first, and containing 
 blood, but in the end the seruni"beiiig absorbed, the red particles 
 app ar when the dead skin is removed, like red powder. In like 
 manner coins, or rather bruises, appear red and foxy, as the phrase 
 is. Tliey are situated in the sharp angle of the sole at the extre- 
 mity of 'the liecls, where the crust reflects inward and forward, 
 forming the binders. But they are more frequently met with in 
 the inside heel, from the manner of the horse's standing, together 
 with the pressure or iveight.of the bcJdy, which is greater upon the 
 inside of the hoof than tiie outside. Bruises of this kind are ex- 
 cc«eding painful, insomuch thai the horse shrinks and stumbles 
 w lien any thing touches or presses upou that quarter of the hoof; 
 hence lameness. This complaint arises from, different causes, ac- 
 cording to the natural formation, of the hoofs, together with the 
 treatment they arc exposed' to. Tor the cure cut aw ay as far as 
 tile extravasation, and apply a pledget of lint, dipped in tincture 
 of myrrh, or in balsam of Pern. Wh.en the corn has bct-ii cut, 
 the h'or^e should be turned out to grass, without shoes if practica- 
 ble; or, if his labour cannot be dispensed willi, let a ciianibeved 
 j II i^lioc
 
 .S04 
 
 rARRIERY 
 
 ■ I — ■ ■ ,. _ I .I .■ . ; . ^ i,.i i._o . 1, 1 , 1, l u M il I ,i,tl,V , Li \, ,.j h , ilAJt 
 
 tlie rungti.-; so weakens the force of tlie strongest oils, IliaC tlicy 
 have litllc or no ell'ect. \V'lrcn these bliarp clrcssinf^s seem to gain 
 upon tlie canker, il may be dressed witli cciual parts of red prccj. 
 pitale and bnrnl alum pounded and mixed together, till the new 
 sole begins to grow; the puri^ing or diuretic medicmes being 
 givfn at proper intervals till the cure is completed. 
 
 Of P'alse Quarters and Sandcracks. 
 
 I. A kV-e. rpiarter in the foot of a horse is a cleft or chink in the 
 side or quarter of the hoof, cunning in a slanting direction wit!} 
 the homy fibres of the hoof, from the coronet to its basis, by 
 which the horny substance of (he crust is tlivided ; one part of the 
 hoof being in a manner detached troni the other, and rendered 
 unable to sustain its share of the weight of the limb, &c. and 
 hence the name of false (iu;uter : for, when the horse sets his foot 
 on the ground, the chink widens : but, when it is lifted up, the 
 hardened edges of the divided hoof take in between them tlie soft 
 parts, and squee/e them so as to occasion frc(|uent bleeding at the 
 chink. I'his is oftoij attended with intlanimatiun, a discharge of 
 mailer, and of course lameness. Hor-es with this defect should 
 be caretully observed ; antl when the thick hardened edges of the 
 chink grow too high, by which it is so much the deeper, and, of 
 course, lodges the "realer quantity of sand, &c. these edges should 
 i)C rasped, or pared with a crooked knife, till the seam disappears.. 
 But wherever there remains a blackness, or appearance of giavel, 
 that must be traced farther ; always observing, if possible, to avoi(t 
 drawing blood. 
 
 II. A Sand-crack a perpendicular fisssure extending nioreoj 
 less from above downwards, or from below upwards, but in alj 
 instances penetrating to the sensible parts, and thus causing lanie-i 
 ncss w hen the animal puts bnnself in motion. Where tliis hap 
 pens there is a preternatural brillleness ar.<l dryness of the hoo^ 
 VI hich should be counteracted, either by turning the horse out 
 upon wet ground, or by applying moist poultices to his feet when 
 in the stable. 'J'o cure this disease, the sides of the crack must be 
 pared through its whole length, and the transverse incision also 
 made; after which the reproduction of the hoof from the coronet 
 must be watched, and when favourable, it must be secured from 
 splitting in consequence of motion communicated from the ol4 
 crack, by another transverse cut or incision in the crust. 
 
 A COLLECTION OF MEDICINES. 
 The following prescriptions are accommodated to the diseases- 
 of the horse, and the cases in which they may be applied arft 
 easily known by the references to the numbers prefixed. 
 
 Balls. 
 
 Ralls and pastes are the most convenient form for the exhibU. 
 tion of such medicines as require the dose to be ascertained with 
 exactness ; as opiates, cathartics, mercurials, &c. And likewise 
 for disguising the taste of those that are nauseous, as the fetid 
 gums, itc. As balls dissolve more slowlv in the stomach, they 
 are capable of producing more gradual and lasting etiects, tliail 
 any of the other forms ; which, in most cases, is a considerable ad» 
 vantage, where the medicine is not recjuired to exert its influence 
 immediately ; otherwise a drink is preferable. Balls should be of 
 an oval shape, and not exceeding the size of a pullet's egg. When 
 the dose is larger, it should be divided into two; and they should 
 be dipped in oil to make them slip down the more easily. Th« 
 following is the most accurate formula: for making them up, at*- 
 cording to the most improved modern practice, in the different 
 diseases for which they are prescribed.. 
 
 No. 1. PuRGiNc Balls. 
 I. Take socotorine aloes six ounces, Castile soap and vitriolateij 
 tartar, three ounces each ; jalap and ginger, two ounces each ; oil ot 
 aniseeds, one ounce ; syrup ot buckthcru, eno\igh to make a mass. 
 The socotorine aloes should always be preferable to the BarbadoeS- 
 or plantation aloes, though the latter may be given to robust 
 strong horses ; but even then should always be well divided by 
 some neutral purging salt, as vitriolated tartsr, or the cream of tai^ 
 tar ; but with this ingredient soap should not be admitted into the 
 compound, as all acids decompose it. Any of these additions, by 
 destroying the tenacity of the aloes, prevents its adhesion to the 
 coats ot the stomach and bowels, from wheocc horrid griping?, 
 and even death itself, have often ensued. This caution is well 
 worthy of being attended to, as manv horses have fallen sai rilicej 
 to the' neglect of i^, -See Aloes. '^The :ibove mass may be di- 
 
 vided 
 
 shoe be put on ; so as to avoid pressing the part. Corns or bruises 
 in the feet of horses niij-'ht, by taking proper care of thtm, be 
 easily avoided; lor 'n those countries where the horses go mostly 
 barelcjuled, Ihis n.uilady is not known ; neither are horses that go 
 constantly at cart and plough subject to it. ilence it is oftenest to 
 be met with in great towns, where horses go much upon hard 
 causeway, having their shoes turned up with high cankers on the 
 litels, anil frequently renewed; their hoofs at the same time being 
 kept too dry and hard, from stantling too much upon hot dry 
 liner. Ilence there is an evident necessity of coolness and mois- 
 ture, together with using such a form of shoe as will press e([uallv 
 upon llic circumference of tiie crust, without giving it any unna- 
 tural shape. 
 
 Of the Runkis'v Thrush anp Canker. 
 I. A Running Thrush, or Frush, is a discharge of ichorous 
 matter, from the clett in the middle of the frog, ati'ecting one, 
 often two, and in some cases all the four feet. But, generally, the 
 fore-teet art most subject to tliis disease. In most cases, it seldom 
 admits of a radical cure ; but is subject to frequent relapses, occa- 
 sioning lameni.'^s, from the rawness and tenderness of the parts af- 
 fected on being exposed to sand, gravel, &c. or in rough ground, 
 from the heeis treading on sharp stones, &c. and wh'-n the horse 
 hapijens to be in a bad habit of body, they degenerate into what is 
 commonly called a canker. As to the cure, m most cases wh«re 
 <he disease has been of long standing, alVecting all the frogs niore 
 or less, it is impracticable to eradicate it by any assistani-e from 
 art. But in ihoie b.oofs which are wide and open at the heels, 
 where the complaint is recent, one or both of the fore feet only 
 being affected, and where there is reason to suspect that it pro- 
 •cceds from the use of liollow shoes, or keeping the hoofs too hot, 
 dry, and hard, the cure may be completed with ease and safety, 
 by laying aside the use of concave shoes, washing the frogs clein 
 after e.xercise, and dressing them witii mel /Egyptiacum, or a so- 
 lulion of blue vitriol, in the proportion of one ounce to a quart of 
 water, keeping the hoofs cool and moist. At- the same time, re- 
 course must be had to internal remedies by way of revulsion, or 
 diuretic medicines, bleeding being tirst premised : if the former is 
 made (choice of, twice or thrice will be sullicient, repeated at pro- 
 per iirtervals ; but if the latter, which seems preferable, they may 
 be continued for some time with great safety, without losing one 
 day's work of the horse. 
 
 II. In horses of a bad habit of body, especially (he heavy 
 draught kind, running thrushes sometimes degenerate into what is 
 call-cd a canker. In this case the horny substance of the frog is 
 soon thrown off; the fleshy parts grow to an imrnoderate size, the 
 luxuriant substance or spongy flesh having a great numlier of pa- 
 pilla: or tubercles, which Mr. Gibson compares, not improperly, 
 to cauliflower, the colour only excepted, which is of a pale red, 
 srimetimes variegated with blood ; attended with a copious dis- 
 charge of a thin ichorous fetid humour, having a most offensive 
 smell. If its progress be not speedily stopped, the fleshy sole, 
 from its vicinity becomes likewise affected; the horny sole rots, 
 decays, and fills off ; the whole foot turns intoakind of bog, in 
 warm wvather full of maggots, which it is almost impossible to pre-- 
 vent, even with the most corrosive dressings ; the tendons become 
 likewise atfected, the bones carious, the hoof falls off, and the 
 horse is rendered useless. To prevent these consequences, as soon 
 as a running thrush begins to shew the least malignant disposition, 
 proper ineans must be used to correct the habit of bodv, arid to 
 divert this discharge to some other outlet, either by purging or 
 diuretic remedies, continued for some time, bleeding being lirst 
 used. As to external applications, the first thing neccssarv to be 
 done, is to pare down the crust till it is lower than the fungus, or 
 growth of the canker, and to remove any hard pieces of the hoof 
 or sole wherever it presses upon the tender parts ; the circular 
 part of the crust should be kept soft with an emollient poultice. 
 For dressings the mildest escharotic powders maybe first tred; 
 as a mixture of blue vitriol and burnt alum, one part of the for- 
 mer to two of the latter. But when it degenerates into a canker, 
 the strongest corrosive applications will be nescssarv, and some- 
 times hardly sufficient to keep down the Uixnriancy of the fungus. 
 The concentrated mineral acids are preferable, or butter of anlii- 
 niony : eitherof thesemay beapplied once every d.iy ; otherwise, if 
 neglected dressing too long, or to every other d.iy, which is the 
 *OJj»n«n practice, the great humiditj; and moisture issuing from 

 
 FARFtir^KY. 
 
 30.5 
 
 am 
 
 V 
 
 viiled into from four to cii^lit doses, according totheagt?, alreiigtli, 
 constitution, of tin: liorso ; or the ingredients may be separately 
 )ri.i)ortioned to the like rirciini'-tances, for a single (lose. 
 II. Take Socotorine aloes, six ounces; gum guuiacum [Hiwder- 
 . half an ounce; dia|)hi>rc-lic antimony and powder of niyrrli, 
 .ii two drachms; sjrup ol bucLthorn, sullicient to make a ball. 
 lhe^eball^«ill seldom lake a horse from business above two or 
 three days in a week: nor will he lose his appetite or llesh by 
 usini^ them, but will rather be improved in botii. These advan- 
 tages cannot beobtained.bv any other method of purging, ;uid hence 
 this is preferable in most cases. 
 
 No. 2. MF.KcuitiAL Purging B.\LL. 
 This ball is made by adding one-half or three drachms of ca- | 
 loniel, to a dose of the above pur^mg bull, No. 1 ; ob-ierving that 
 this addition will alloaa pro|iurtional diminution of the other in- 
 gredients, ami being caretul to adjust them to the strength of the 
 subject, and the degree ot evacuation reijuire<l. 
 
 No. 3. Febrifuge Balls. 
 
 I. Take contrayerva root and snake root, half an ounce each ; 
 inurh, two drachms ; camphor, one drachm ; opiate conleclion, 
 three drachms; honey sullicu-nt lo make a bjll. In slow fevers, at- 
 tended with irregular symptoms, ami especially in those of the 
 putrid kin<l, this ball should be given twice or thrice a-day, wash- 
 ing it down with about one pint of ivd port, and as much vinegar 
 inixed together. One drachm of camphor, and as much castor, may 
 be added to this ball as occasion reipiires. 
 
 II. Take Peruvian bark, one ouHce ; snake-root and winter's 
 bark, half an ounce each; honey, sufficient to make a ball. To be 
 given in the decline of i'evers, and in those of the intermittent 
 kind, every six hours, till the horse's recovery is pretty well esta- 
 blished, as die da'nger of a relapse will thus be prevented, and the 
 care sooner completed. 
 
 No. 4. ASTRINGKNT BaLLS. 
 
 I. Take prepared chalk, one ounce; tormen'Jl and gum arable, 
 three drachms each ; cassia two drachms ; conserve of roses, as much 
 as will make a ball ; to which may be added, as occasion requires, 
 
 ' twelve or twenty giains of opium. When a purge does not set in 
 the usual time, and the horse is much depressed by the continuance 
 of its operation, this ball may be given with the opium, and re- 
 peated every SIX or eight hours till the purging be stopped. 
 
 II. Take catechu, kino, and cassi;t, each two drachms; clialk 
 prepared, two onnces; mucilage of gum Arabic, enough to form a 
 ball. 
 
 No. 5. DiuRf.Tic Balls. 
 \. Take nitre, one ounce and a half; Castile soap, one ounce ; 
 filings of iron in tine powder, half an ounce; squills in powder, 
 two drachms; honey or treacle as much as will make a ball. 
 
 Mild Diuretic Lath.- 
 U. Take jalap, six drachms; vitriolated tartar and nitre, one 
 ounce each ; soap, two ounces ; oils of aniseed and juniper, each 
 one drachm : mix. 
 
 III. Take of Castile soap and nitre, one ounce and a half each ; 
 camphor, two drachms; oil of juniper, one drachm and a half ; 
 aniseed powder, two ounces ; treacle, enough to make a mass : di- 
 vide into two balls, one to be given six hours after the other. 
 
 No. 6. Carminative Balls. 
 
 I. Take bay berries, cummin steds, and caraway seeds, each 
 four ounces; ginger and long pepper, each two ounces ; essential 
 oils of peppermint and pennyroyal, each one drachm ; treacle, 
 enough to make a mas5. Of this mass three or four ounces may 
 he given with advantage in the windy colic, alter emptying the 
 bowels with a clyster, or the laxative drink. No. 12. If relief be 
 not obtained upon repeating this twicj; or thrice within a lew hours, 
 then give the following: — 
 
 II. Take of the above mass, three ounces; asafatida, half an 
 ounce ; oil of amber and tincture of opium, each one ounce and a 
 half; and make a ball with treacle or common syrup. 
 
 No. 7. Stomachic Laxative Bai-l. 
 TaVe socatorine aloes, six drachms; rhubarb powdered, three 
 drachms; myrrh, two drachms: make into a ball with syrup of 
 jingtr. 
 
 No. 8. Deobsthuent Balu 
 Tj'm CastUe soap, eight ouuces ; Indian i)iubarb, two oupces; 
 
 Ion 
 musi 
 
 i pcpppr, 
 s; (UviUe 
 
 or honey, suHicient to inuke a 
 
 one ounce ; syrup 
 into ten balls. 
 
 No. y. Altrrativi. Bau.5. 
 
 I. Take quicksilver, one dr.ichm; rub it, till it be perfectly ex- 
 liiiguivlu-d, with tvvo drachms of manna, sotteiied with a little mu- 
 cilage ol gum Arabic ; then add levigated antimony and rust of 
 iron prepared, tjne ounce each, with us much honey as will make 
 ab.ill. in obstinate chronic jaundice, thn ball given once a-day 
 till the muuth i>econies affected, and the horse begins to slaver. 
 Will be of considerable .service, and may be hud recourse. to when 
 there is reason to 'uspecl a sehiirous liver. 
 
 II. Take precipitate sulphur of antimony and calomel, each one 
 ounce ; gum guiacuni in powder, tour ounces ; aniseed powder, six 
 ounces; honey ami muiilage of gu.n Arabic, equal parts ol each, 
 suflicienl to make a mass: to be divided into twelve balls. 
 
 No. 10. Detergent Deobstruent Balls. 
 
 Take precipitated sulphur of antiniony, two ounces; garlic, four 
 ounces; orris root and eleeampi'ue, three ounces each; gum am- 
 moniac, mvrrh, and asafa-lida, two ounces eacli ; honey and bal- 
 sam of sulphur, each as much as will make a mass: to be divided 
 into eighteen balls. One to be given every moining for asthmatic 
 cough and broken wind. In many cases they will at'ford consi- 
 derable relief. 
 
 No. 11. Camphorated Pcrgikg Ball. 
 
 Take calomel, opium, and camphor, eacli one drachm ; jalap 
 half an ounce ;sC.immony, one ounce aiid a hall ;soap, one ounce; 
 syrup, as much as lo form a ball. 
 
 DRINKS. 
 
 As horses more willingly take sweet and palatable things than 
 those that are bitter and ot an ill taste, care shuuld be taken that 
 the latter be given in balls, and that their drinks be always con- 
 trived to be as little nauseous as jiossible, and sweetened either 
 with honev or liquorice. Those that are prepared with grass 
 powders are by no means so agreeable lo a horse as Iho^e made by 
 infusion ; as the former often clam the mouth, irritate the mem- 
 branes about the palate and throat, and frequently occasion the 
 cough they are intended to prevent. 
 
 No. \2. Laxative Drimk. 
 Take senna, two onnces; coriander seeds bruised, one ounce 
 and a half; ginger, two drachms: inluse in one pint and a half of 
 boiled water till cold : strain the infusion and dissolve in it three- 
 ounces of cream of tartar, and one ounce of salt of tartar ; and 
 then add four ounces of syrup ot buekthorn. The cream of t;ir- 
 tar, in the proportion set down in this drink, forms a neutral salt; 
 called soluble tartar, which it is not necessary to have read\ niadt>, 
 when it is intended to be given in a dissolved st.ite. Instead of 
 Ihis, four ounces of Glauber's or Kpsom salt may be used at the 
 discretion of the prescriber. In all inilamraatory disorders this 
 drink mav be given with the utmost safety, and is greatly prefer- 
 able in such cases, to all other purges, as it passes into the blood, 
 and operates also by urine. It may be repeated as circumstances 
 require, and its effects assisted by opening clysters, or its operation 
 <|uickened by the addition of another ounce of senna, or tv\o 
 drachms of jalap. 
 
 No. 13. Diuretic CoitiiiAL Drink. 
 
 I. Take juniper berries bruised, four ounces; caraway seeds 
 and aniseed, one ounce each ; hntseed, two ounces; boiling wa» 
 ter in sufficient quantity to strain otf two pints; to which add spi. 
 rit of nitre and camphorated spi.-it of wine, one ounce ei'.di. Tlik 
 drink, given in two portions in the course of an hour, will be of 
 considerable service in procuring an evacuation by urine, when the 
 horse seems to be griped in consequence of a purge that does nol 
 operate freely, bvvl makes him swell and refuse, his meal and wa- 
 ter. It is also very proper in the flatulent colic. 
 
 Mild Diuretic Drink. 
 
 II. Take salt of tartar, half an ounce ; distilled viiiegarj' as 
 iijuch as may be necessary to make a neutral mixture; spirit of 
 nitre^two ounces; strong infusion of jui.iper berries and liBtseed, 
 one pint. Mis. 
 
 No. 14. Cooling Febrisuce Drikk. 
 Take of baum and sage, each a handt'ul ; liquorice root "sliced, 
 half an ounce ; salt pruncl oi nitre, thite ounces, infuse .ji two 
 quarts of boiling water ; when cold, stiain »ft, ar.d squeeze ifito it
 
 :W^ 
 
 lARRFERY. 
 
 the juice of two or llirtee !enioiis, or add lialf a pint of vinegar. As 
 the ingredient cliielly to be depended on in this drink is thf nitre, 
 it may perhaps be as well Given in water alone ; bat as a horse's 
 stoinacli is easily palled, and he re<|uires palatable medicines, the 
 ollit r ingredients may be iiseiul in this respect. 
 
 No. li. AsTRiNGENT D.1IKK. 
 
 Take logwood, half a pound; poniegrnnate peel, four oinccs ; 
 cassia, halt an ounce; iuuseecl, two ounces. Boil in three (|U:irt4 of 
 water to two, and strain oli'. Where it can be afforded, hall a pint 
 of port vine may be added to each dose. 
 
 No. Ifi. Strengthening Dbink. 
 
 Take gentian, calanuis, and orange-peel, two ounces each ; 
 chalybeate or snMthy water made boiling hot, two (]uaits: infuse 
 till cold ; then strain, and add equal (pianlities of lime-water fresh 
 made, one pint, or one and a hair, to be given once or hvice a-day 
 for some week'. 
 
 No. 17. Df.obstruent Decociion. 
 
 Take parsley root, madder, and turmeric, foin' ounces each ; 
 burdock root, half a pound; liquorice root, two ounces; boil in 
 a gallon of smithy or forge wiiter to three quaits. 
 
 POWDERS. 
 Powders are a form of medicine not well adapted for internal 
 use, in any ether way than in a mash or corn ; and for the reason 
 assigned in the preccd'ng section, every thing of a disagTceable 
 flavour, w hether in smell w taste, should be rejected, when the 
 medicine is to be given in this form. 
 
 No. IS. Vermifuge Powders. 
 Take yEthiops mineral, and powdered tin, four ounces each; 
 prepared steel and India ))ink in powder, each two ounces. Mix, 
 and divide into twelve doses. 
 
 No. 19. Sternvtatorv Powders. 
 
 I. Take while hellebore, three ounce?, lavender, bctony, and 
 marjoram, each one ounce. Mix. 
 
 II. U'ake turbith mineral, one drachm ; powdered befony, or 
 marjoram, two oiuices. Mi.\. These powders are given with 
 success in cases of apojilexy or staggers. 
 
 No. 20. Alterative Powder, 
 I. Take guin guaiacum, four ounces ; levigated antimony, eight 
 ounces; sulphur, six ounces. Mix, and divide into sixteen doses; 
 one to be given at night and morning. 
 
 CLYSTERS. 
 
 Clysters are differently denominated, according to the cinali- 
 tie; of the ingredients composing (hem. There are many cases in 
 which they may be hdministered with great success. 
 
 No. '2\. Laxative Clyster. 
 Take two or three quarts oi (hin water-gruel ; Glauber's sails, or 
 common salt, eight ounces ; salad oil, six ounces. 
 
 No. 22. Purging Clyster. 
 
 Take two quarts of gruel; coarse sugar, six ounces; Glauber's 
 salts, four ounces ; tincture of jalap, two ounces ; and halt a pint of 
 olive oil. To be repeated every twenty-four hours, or oftener, if 
 necessary. 
 
 No. 23. Turpentine Clysters. 
 
 L Take Venice turpentine, twoouiiccs: dissolve it in the volks 
 e'f eggs, and add opiate confection, two ounces ; Epsom salt, four 
 ounces ; thin gruel, two pints. Mix. 
 
 Diuretic C/'/stem. 
 
 IT. Take two or three pints of thin gruel ; dissolve it in one and a 
 half ounce nitre ; then add tlrree ounces of Venice turpentine pre- 
 viously incorporated with the yolks of two eggs ; and likew ise half 
 a pint ot lintsecd oil. When a clvster is designed to promote urine, 
 this is very well calculated for the purpose, and should be thrown 
 up moderately warm. 
 
 No. 2i. Starch Clyster. 
 _ Take thin starch, or tripe liquor, two quarts ; oil of olives, half a 
 pint; the yolks of six eggs well broken, and two or three ounces 
 of coarse sugar. Mi-c the oil by degrees with the yolks Of the 
 eggs, and tlien gradually add the 'starch or tripe liquor, in which 
 the sug.ir has been previously dissolved. 
 
 No. '2'>. ASTRIX-G! NT Cl.VSTERS. 
 
 Take oak bark, lour ounces ; tormentil root, two ounces; burnt 
 
 harts-horn, three ounces. Boil in three quarts of smithy water to 
 two; strain off, and add four ounces of starch, previously softened 
 with a little warm water, towards the end of the boiling ; and in 
 the strained liquor while warm dissolve half a drachm of opiuin. 
 No. 26. Vrrmift-'ge Clyster. 
 In a pint of very strong decoction of two parts of common 
 wormwood and one of rue, dissolve half an ounce of aloes, and 
 add one pint of lime-water, and half a pint of lintseed oil. Let 
 the whole be well incorporated and administered fur a dose, in 
 case of worms. 
 
 LINIMENTS, EMBROCATIONS, andLOTION.S. 
 
 A Liniment dilfers from an embrocation or lotion, by having 
 some un( tuQus ingredients in its composition ; though this dis- 
 tinction is not nnitormly regarded. It differs from an ouitment by 
 being of a much thinner consistence. 
 
 No. 27. Lotion for the M^nge. 
 Take corrosive sublimate, one ounce ; common salt, three ounces ; 
 boiling water, one gallon, tobacco liquor, half a gallon. Mix. 
 
 No. 28. Styptic Balsam, or Liniment por the Farcy. 
 
 I. Take oil of turpentine, three ounces. Put it into a pint bot- 
 tle, and drop into it two ounces of oil of vitriol ; adding tlic latter 
 gradually, tu prevent a gi'eat and sudden effervescence, which 
 might burst the bottle. To avoid this, let the iirst small quantity 
 that is dropt in, (which must not exceed a tca-'jioonful at once,) 
 have done smoking, before dropping in any more. Wiicn tl>e 
 farcy alfects the larger blood-vessels, after bleeding, the parts must 
 be lirst rubbed with a woollen cloth, and tliis liniment must (hen 
 be ap])lied over the buds and swellings twice a-day. It abates tlie 
 acrimony of the humours, prevents the rising of fungous ilesh, and 
 makes the sores run. But when the disease lies loose in the titshy 
 parts, there must be equal quantities of the oils of vitriol and tur- 
 pentine. Tills method may be continued a fortnight, or till the 
 sores vuA plentifully and begin to dry : and till the lips and edge» 
 are no way thick and callous. Then mix equal parts of ointment 
 of elder and honey, to promote the growth of the hair; or dresj 
 them with Turner's cerate, or any other soft ointment. This treat- 
 ment must be accompanied with the internal use of alteratives. 
 The alterative powder. No. 20, is the best for this purpose. 
 
 II. Take salad oil, three ounces, spermaceti, six drachms : bees- 
 wax, four drachms: Melt them over a gentle fire, and stir them 
 till quite cold. 
 
 No. 29. Cooling Collyrium. 
 Take sugar of lead, one drachm; white vitriol, two scruples; 
 camphorated spirit, one ounce ; water, eight ounces. Mix. 
 
 No. 30. Volatile Llniment. 
 Take-ueat's foot oil, two ounces ; strong spirit of sal ammoniac, 
 and one ounce and a half tincture of cantharides, half an ounce. 
 Mix. Tills is an useful applicition in various topical intlanima- 
 tions, especially where there is a tendency to suppuration. 
 
 No. 31. Saturnine Lotion. 
 
 I. Take extract of lead, two ounces ; camphorated spirit, eight 
 ounces; distilled vinegar, one pint. Mix. 
 
 II. Take extract ot lead, one ounce ; distilled vinegar, seven 
 ounces ; water, eight ounces. Mix. In recent bruises, strains, 
 and sw^ellings occasioned by external accidents, the purt affected 
 may be bathed frequently with this lotion; and where it will ad- 
 mit of bandage, let a double or triple fold of flannel be wxtted wilh 
 it, and rolled on. 
 
 No. 32. Soap Liniment, or Opodeldoc. 
 Take Castile or v;hite soap, four ounces; cgmpiior, two ouncW, 
 Dissolve the soap in a pint of proof spirit, and tl'e camphor in J» 
 much rectilied spirit : Then mix the two solutions, and add half an 
 ounce of essential oil of rosemary. Opodeldoc is often siiccest- 
 fully u^ed against strains, bruises, &:c. but its efficacy is increased 
 by the addition of the ingredients which form the anodyne balsam. 
 See No. 33. 
 
 No. 33. Anodyne Balsam. 
 Take crude opium, one ounce ; vinous spirit of sal ammoniar, 
 (or spirit of wine and spirit of sal ammoniac e<|ual parts of eauli 
 inixcd,) half a pound ; snap liniment, one pound and a half. D^i- 
 gest the opium in the vinous spirit of sal ammoniac till it be dis- 
 solved ■ then add the solution to the soap liniment, and strain the 
 6 whole
 
 rARlUFRV. 
 
 J'.)? 
 
 ihnlcl'iir ii^c. Tliis is a very pfiietiMting cml)rocatioii, an. I is 
 jhlv ii-tuil in all.iyiiii; pain aiul 3\v<-lling, by rclaxing tli.- initatiil 
 iies, and promoting Ihe pirspiratirm of the obstnictod nialtci ; 
 • ertily restoring lliL-aliccti-d part lo its former state-. It s)iuiiUl 
 plciitiluUy applied and dili^intly rnbbid in, tli.it its cflicacy 
 iKiy be proporly excited to proiiiue the desired cll'ei.t. 
 No. 34. DiscuiiENT Emi;rooation. 
 I. Take opodeldoc, lour ounces; spirit of ^al ammoniac, one 
 iuiice. .Mix. 
 J No. 3j. Vf.c,kto-mikfk\i,\Vatkr. 
 
 I. Take extract of load, one ounci- ; tanipliorated spirit, two 
 bunces; spring water, one quait. Mix. 
 
 Gnultnd's Ufgetn-viintral ivntcr. 
 
 II. Take extract of lead and camphorated spirit, one ounce each ; 
 .istilled vinegar, two ounce-. ; spring water, one pint and a half. Mix. 
 
 No. 3(i. DKTtRGENT LoTIONS. 
 
 I. Take rectified spirit of wine and wliite wine vinegar, each 
 lalfapint; white vitriol, half an ounce. ]3i.ssolve the vitriol in 
 
 he vinegar; and add tincture of myrrh, four ounces. Mix these 
 ogetUer, and shake the bottle before u^ing. 
 
 II. Take white vitriol and sugar of lead, three ounces each ; tinc- 
 ure of myrrh, one ounce ; spring water, half a pint. Mix. 
 
 No. 37. RF.PtLI.ENT F..MI!ROC.\TICNS. 
 
 I. Takcextr.ictof leail, and camphorated spirit, two ounces each ; 
 .inegar, one pint. Mix. 
 
 II. Take Nlindererus's spirit and camphorated spirit, each four 
 junces. Mix. 
 
 No. 3S. Repfllf.kt Lotions. 
 
 I. Take white vitriol and alum, one ounce each ; vitriolic acid, 
 llfan ounce ; vinegar, one pint. Mix. 
 
 II. Take crude sal ammoniac, three drachms; distilled vinegar, 
 bur ounces; French brandy, two ounces. Mix. 
 
 No. 39. Extract of Lead. 
 Boil one pound of litharge in two qnarts of vinegar, to one quart. 
 Jet it aside till it settle ; and then decant what is clear for use. 
 No. 40. Saturnine Liniments. 
 
 I. Take camphor rubbed to powder with a little spirit of wine, 
 talf an ounce. Dissolve it in half a pint of green oil, and add half 
 !» ounce of extract of lead. 
 
 II. Take extract of lead one ounce; olive oil tliree ounces. 
 KAA the oil gradually to the extract, and rub them well together in 
 
 I marble mortar, till the whole be mixed. Two drachms of cam- 
 ihor rubbed to powder, with spirit of wine, may be added to this. 
 This is the most proper liniment that can be used for the grease, 
 riacked heels, and similar complaints. After having washed the 
 >arts perfectlv clean with a strong latlier of soap, and drieil them 
 
 'W, if they are very foul, tiiey siiould, before u-ing the liniment, 
 ■ gently bathed with tincture of myrrh, and when that is dried Ln, 
 he liniment is to be rubbed over the whole. 
 
 TINCTURES. 
 
 No. 41. TiN'CTUKE OF MVRRH. 
 
 Take mvnh. one ounce and a half ; hepatic al'i'-s, one ounce; proof 
 pirit, two pounds ; rectilied spirit, half a pound. Digest the myrrh 
 
 II biith spirits for three days with a gentle heat ; afterwards add the 
 :oes, and digest again for three days longer, frequently shakins 
 lie bottle. Then strain otT the tincture. This tincture is well 
 
 iiown for its use in healing slight wounds and deterging ulcers 
 1 hen foul. Gentlemen who travel should never ride aiiroad with- 
 uit it, as it is a spcedv and ellicacious remedy, (eitlier alone, or 
 nixed with an equal ([uantity of oil of tui'pentinp,) for warbles and 
 imenesses in the feet, occasioned by n lils, thorns, gravel, or any 
 4her extraneous substance*. The partalfecled should be frequently 
 
 I'tted with it, after the oU'ending body has been extracted. 
 
 Iiougli much cheaper, it will amply supply the place of a more 
 
 ■stly composition, called Turlington's balsam, to which it is not 
 
 1 the least interior, for external application. 
 
 No. 42. Tincture of Opium, orL^UDAN•UM. 
 Takecrnde opium, two ounces ; and proof spirit, one pound. Di- 
 est four days, and strain otT the tincture. The virtues of opium 
 le as extensive as those of any other arti'Ie whatever in the nia- 
 'ria medica. As .answering the purposes of mitigating pain, 
 II, lying inordinate action, and diminishing sensibililv, no nif<licine 
 .111 be enqdoyerl with greater aiKantago in a variety of difleivnt 
 
 V OL. II. — NO. 81. 
 
 diseases than opium ; and though, in sf>n;e iiiilamniatory cases, thi; 
 premature use of it may not hc-^ altogether proper, yet as it aflord>- 
 a temporary relief in the violence of an acute complaint ; and Iu> 
 a verv quick elTect upon the whole system, in all cases ol cxtnnia 
 pain it ought on such occasions to be had immediate recourse to. 
 No. 43. Nervous Tincturf. 
 
 Trke valerian, mustard seed, ami horse-radish, two ounces each ; 
 louii pe])per, two draclims. infuse in three pints of port wine, and 
 strain oil the tincture ; then .idd lour ounces of compound spirit of 
 lavender. This tiiictun? is given inlernally with success, in para- 
 lytic and nervous disorders; and may also bo administered w.ith 
 much advantage in cases of scouring, to thu^extenl of three or four 
 pints a day. 
 
 OINTMENTS. 
 
 Ointments are used with various intentions in fa-riery ; some 
 for mollify ing and moistening; others for drying the parts they are 
 ap|iliedto; some for digesting tumours and callosities ; others lor 
 stimnlatiiiL!, and blistering particular 'parts. Hence they are distin- 
 guished b\ various names, accnrding to tiieiv nature and operation, 
 as well as from the articles of which they are composed. 
 No. 44. Desicc.\tive Oint.mvnts. 
 
 I. Take oil of turpentine, two ounces; ointment of elder, four 
 ounce? ; sugar of lead, haU an ounce; white vitriol, two drachms. 
 Mix them in a gallipot, after reducing the sugar of lead and the 
 vitriol to a line powder. The buds anil swellings in the farcy must 
 be anointed with this ; and as often as they become dry, the oint- 
 ment should be repeated, till the sores begin to run. If the matter 
 be tliick and well digested, the disease will soon termimite. 
 
 II. Take simple liiachylon plaster and olive oil, three ounces 
 each. Melt them togetli'er, and add sugar of lead «nd camphor in 
 hne powder, each three drachm*, and -tir the ointment Irequenlly, 
 till it is cold. This is a very proper ointment for the gr«-ase, and 
 cracked heels. The p^rts should be well washed with a strong 
 soap lather, before applying Ihe ointment. Il they are very (oul, 
 they must also be previously bathed with a mixture of vinegar 
 and tincture of myrrh, equal parts each. 
 
 No. i'l. Digestive Ointments. 
 
 I. Take yellow rosin, two pounds ; common turpentine, one 
 pound ; lard', one pound and a half; bees wax, h.ilf a pound. Mix. 
 
 II. Take yellow rosin, diree pounds ; linseed oil, one pint ; wax, 
 I'i ounces. Mix. 
 
 Red Dfgcitite Ointment. 
 
 III. Take digestive ointment, (No. 1,) four ounces; red preci- 
 pitate, half an ounce. Mix them cold with a knife, or sp.itu!a. 
 This last, applied earlv, will prevent a fungus, or proud fle-h, from 
 shootiftg out: for if dressed loo long with the above digestive, the 
 fungus will rise fast, and give some trouble to suppress it; when it 
 will be necessary to wash the sore, as often as il is dressed, with a 
 «olutio.i of blue" vitriol in water, or to sprinkle it with burnt alutn 
 and precipitate. 
 
 No. 4C. Ointment for the Mancif,. 
 Take sulphur vivum, eight ounces ; white hellebore ])0wder, 
 four ounces; sal ammoniac, one ounce ; hog's lard and oil, each 
 eight ounces'. Mix. 'lliis ointment generally succeeds in curing 
 the nninge ; but where the disease is inveterate, it must be ac- 
 companied with proper alteratives ; and the yellow mercurial oiul- 
 meiil. No. 48, applied to the sorest parts. 
 
 No. 47. Biisn.RiNG OiNi.Mr.NTs. 
 
 I. Take Venice turjjentine, two ounces; hog's lard, one ounce; 
 caiuharides and euphorbiuiii finely powdered, eacli half an ounce. 
 Mix. 
 
 II. Take of the above, and strong mercurial ointment, (No. 49.) 
 each two ounces; corrosive sublimate, one diachm. Mix. 
 
 III. Take ointment of elder, or any other soft ointment, four 
 ounees; canthaiides and euphorhium in powder, half aa ounce 
 each ; oil of origanum, two ounces. Mix. 
 
 I\ . To make it verv strong, add tu this last, one ounce or one 
 ounce and a half of strong mercurial ointment, or two drachms of 
 sublimate in powder. The hair is to be cut as close as possible, 
 and then the ointment applied pretty thick over the part. This 
 should be done in the morning, and the horse kept tied up all day 
 without any litter tiU night; when he may be untied, in order to 
 lie down ; and a pitch or any sticking plaster may be laid over it, 
 and bound on with a broad tape or bandage to keep all close. 
 Alter the blister.Jias done running, and the scabs begin to dry ;'ud 
 
 5 i ' pc«d
 
 398 
 
 lARRiriRY. 
 
 |>e<'l rtt', it ni:iy br applifd a 'ccomi tune, atul in the same nianiitr | 
 a tliird, fourth, or as many more tunes as ilic case may vetjuire, I 
 
 No. 48. OlMTJMKNT <iF NiTHATF.D ( JUICKSILVEK, Of YttLOW 1 
 .MkRCV1U,>L OtNlMEST. 
 
 Dissolve one oiinci- ol (iiiltks.lver In an equal <iiuintity of nitrous 
 acid ; add to it one ounce ot lard, and as nuuli oli\e oil previously 
 melted, slirriag tlitm Irequeiitly together, till cold. 
 
 No. 49. Strong Mercurial Ointmen'T. 
 
 Take quiiksdver, four ounces; hog'-, lard, three ounces ; tal- 
 low, one ounce. M'-lt a litUe of the lard, keepini; A en the fire 
 till it bf somewhat burnt; with this rub the quit ksilvt-v till it be 
 e.vtinguished. Then add to it the rest of the lard ami the tallow, 
 nieMed t.igether. 
 
 No. 50. Mel .Kgyptiaci'M, Egyptian Honev or Oi.nt- 
 
 MENr. 
 
 Take verdigrise in fine powder, I wo ounces ; honey, six ounces ; 
 vinegar, four ounces. Boil thein over a gentle fire till they ac> 
 quire a rediiish colour. 
 
 POULTICES and CAT .'VPLASMS. 
 " Poultices, >ays Mr. Bartlett, are of such real and extensive use 
 in farriery, -that we thought the composit'on of Iheu; could not be 
 too general, plow simple soever the ingredients may appear to 
 sonij (which are generally at hand,) yet they will be found to an- 
 swer moit intentions, where present' ease is to be obtained by 
 warmth, softening, and relaxing, the injured part. Many are the 
 cases which demand such assistance, as recent swellings, inllani- 
 mations, treads, bruises, cracked and swelled heels and feet, burns, 
 scalds, bruised and lacerated wounds from stumps, thorns, glass, 
 nails, iScc. which last are much better treated with such simple 
 emollient applications, than by hot oils or scalding plasters dropt 
 into the wounds ; which, under the absurd notion of drawing, hut 
 too often sear up the moutits of the vissels, hinder digestion, and 
 consequent ly'iucrcase both pain and intlaunnation. In sliort, it is 
 certain that very great services are daily done by the use of poul- 
 tices, not only in those disorders to which the huinan body is inci- 
 dent, but also in those w herewith the brute jjart of the creation is 
 atilicted. One advantage which they hav<' over most outward ap- 
 pHcations is peculiar to "them, that t'iiey convey and retain an ad- 
 ditional heat, besiaeswhat is oltcn in the ingredients ; and as most 
 of them have also something emoUieiit in their composition, they 
 must necessarily solten and relax the skin and vessels, abate tension, 
 attenuate and Ihiu viscid and obstructed juices, so that their return 
 into the common course of circulation, or discharge bv the pores 
 ol the skin, mu-,t in general be nuicli better answered by poultices 
 than by other niethodb." 
 
 ■ ■■ i I 'l l ii I i ' TTTh 1 . I ~ I > i ■ i ~-* ii i ii >i-i i i i irirts 
 
 No. J). MVSTAUD Pot LUCE. 
 
 Take flour of mustard, four ounces ; canlharides, half an ounce; 
 linseed powilcr, halfa pt)und ; vinegar, enough to niake a poultice. 
 I'hii is a powerful stimulant iu rheuniatic swellings, whero blistering 
 can be dispensed with. 
 
 No. 5L'. Emollient Pol'ltice. 
 
 Take coarse bread, barley meal, and camomile or elder flowers, 
 each a handful ; boil over the (ire in a sullicieut cpiautily of milk, 
 or in the decoction fortlie fomentation; into which stirabout j 
 third (of the whole <iuantity) ot white lily root, washed clean and 
 pounded to a paste ; adding linseed and fenugreek in powder, of 
 each an ounce; stirring in, while hot, of turpentine, two ounces, 
 and of lard, ibur ounces; laying it on moderately warm, and 
 bandaging lirmly. 'Jo serve for two poultices. 
 
 No. 53. Turnip Poultice. 
 Take boiled turnips and brown bread, or linseed meal, one 
 pound each ; mash them well over a fire, adding by degrees a 
 proper quantity of stale strong beer to bring them to due consist- 
 ence ; then stir in one ounce of the best tlour of mustard ; two 
 ounces of oil of turpentine, and four ounces of hog's lard. Thij 
 poultice is useful for the grease. ', 
 
 No. 54. Stimulant Cataplasm. ' 
 
 Take mustard seed pounded small, or mustard ready made, g 
 pint; garlic, six heads; camphor, two ounces; soap, enough to 
 make a poultice. 
 
 No. 55. DiscuTiENT Cataplasm. 
 
 Take crumb of white bread, eight ounces ; while hard soap, one 
 ounce; milk, a sufficient quantity to make a poultice. Boil the 
 whole together for a little time. j 
 
 FOMENTATIONS and PLASTERS. 
 
 No. 56. Restringent Fomentation. ' 
 
 Take oak Wrk, one ounce; pomegranate rind, half an ounce; 
 
 smithy water, three pints. Boil them to two pints, and add two 
 
 drachiv.s of rock alum. Dip fianuel in this decoction, and bind it 
 
 about the parts, while the horse stands in the stable. 
 
 No. 57. Strengthening Plaster. 
 Take black rosin, and Burgundy pitch, four ounces each; di- 
 achylon plaster, two pounds; colcothar of vitriol, one pound. Mix. 
 No. j8. Discutient Fomentation. 
 Take burnt alum and white vitriol, two ounces each; mel 
 .'Egyptiacum, one ounce ; lime water, three pints. Mix and foment 
 with it three times a day. Those who wish to pursue the study ol 
 farriery further would do well to consult the works of Messrs, 
 Clark, Talpin, Lawrence and Blane, on this subject.. 
 
 FARRINGDON, a lovv-n of England, in Berks, N. W. of Ox- 
 ford. 
 
 I'ARSA, a town of European Turkey in Thessaly, anciently 
 called Pliarsalia. It is 14 miles S of Larissa. 
 
 FAUISTAN or r'ARS, a province of Persia, bounded on the 
 N. bv a desert, which separates it from Chorasan ; on the E. by 
 tlie Giilf(,f Persia; and W. by Clmsistan. It is 4'20 miles long 
 from N. to S. and 3ti0 broad trom E. to W. The S. part of it is 
 hot, sandy, and barren ; the N. mountainous, and abounding in 
 wild boars, falcons, Ike. The centre is fertile. Its chief i)ro- 
 ductioiis are rice, fruits, wood, mastic, and emeralds. 
 
 FARTACM, FAR TAK, or FARTAQUE, a sea-port of Ara- 
 bia Felix, in tiie province of Hadramaxt. It is 480 miles E. ol 
 Mocha. Lou. 68. 10. E. Lat 14. 40. N. 
 
 FARTHING, [Jeoithliuq, Sax. from feoiuer, (our, that is, the 
 fourth part of a penny,] the fourth of a penny; the smallest 
 i-nglish coin. 
 
 Iarthinc of GriLD, a coin used iu ancient times, containing 
 in value tlie farthing or fourth part of a noble, or 20d. silver. It 
 is mentioned in slat. 9 Hen. V. cap. 7, where it is enacted, that 
 there shall be good and just weight of the noble, half-noble, and 
 farthing of gold. 
 
 Farthing of Land, seems to differ from farding-deal. For in 
 a survey book of Ihe manor of West Hapton in Devonshire, there 
 IS an entry thus: " A. B. holds six farthings of land at l'i6l. per 
 aun." So that the f.ulhiiig of land must have been a considerable 
 iiuaniity, lar more than a rood. 
 
 FARTREY, a river of Ireland, which runs into the Irish sea, 
 It is nine miles N. of W icklow. 
 
 FASCENINA, FASCENNIA, or FASCINATA, [low Lat.] 
 pahs, fascines, &c. used to inclose ancient castles. 
 
 FASCES, in Roman antiquity, axes bound up together with rods 
 or staves, and carried before tlie Roman magistrates as a badge ol 
 their authority and office. The use of the fasces was introduced 
 bv tlie elder Tarqnin, as a mark of sovereign authority : in aftei 
 times they are were before the consuls, but by turns only, eacli 
 his day. They hail twelve of them carried by so many lictors. 
 After the consuls, the pra-tors assumed them, and Censorinus ob- 
 serves they hail only two, though Plutarch and Polybius give then; 
 six. In the goveriment of the decemviri, it was the practice al 
 hr^t for only two of them to have the fasces. Afterwards, each ol 
 them had twelve, in the same manner as the kings. 
 
 FASCETS, in the art of making glass, are the irons thrust intc 
 the mouths of bottles, in order to convey theui to the annealins 
 tower. 
 
 FASCIA, in antiquity, a thin sash which the Roman womer 
 wrapped round their bodies, next to the skin, to make them slender. 
 Something of this sort seems also to have been in use among the 
 Grecian ladies. See Terence. Eun. Act. 2. Sc. 4. 
 
 Fascia, in architecture, signifies any flat member having a con- 
 siderable br'-adth and but a small projcdure, as the band of at 
 architrave, larmier, &c. In brick buildings, the juttings out O' 
 the bricks beyond the windows in the several stories except th< 
 highest are culIeU fuscis. 
 
 FASCIiF
 
 FARKIERT.
 
 FAS 
 
 son 
 
 FA S 
 
 »«■ 
 
 I n tiji' ii I • o . i 
 
 [ TH • W 
 
 FAHCI.E, in astronomy, certain p;\ils on Jiipitt-rN body re'-rnib- 
 liiig bells or ^Wati-.es. 'liiey aro iiioic liieid than tl)e nbt ot that 
 nluiiet, and arc termiiialeil by (larallcl lims, sometimes broadfr 
 aod sometimes narrower. M. ilnygens oliseived a fascia in ^]ars 
 nuicli broader than tiio>e of Jupiter, and possessing tlie middle part 
 of histlisk, but very obscure, ^jee Astkonomy. 
 
 l'"ASCl NATION, [from the Greek ,'3.-£<T:taiv!iv, to fascinate or 
 bewitcii,] a sort of witclicraft which Ojierates eitlier by the 
 eye or the tongue. Ancient writers distinguisli two sorts of fasci- 
 nation, one perfurnied bv lookins:, or the efficacy of tlie eye. 
 Jjncli is lliat spoken of by Virgil in his third eclogue : 
 
 Nescio quis teneros oculu.i mihi/rtyr /;i«f agnos. 
 
 Tiie second by words, and especially maligant praises: Such is 
 that mentioned in his seven h eclogue : 
 
 Aut, si ultra placitum laudirit. baecarc fronleni 
 Cingite, ne vali noceat main lingua ful'uro. 
 
 Horace touches on both kinds in his lirst book of epistles: 
 Non istlc oblii/iio oculo mea commoda quisquam 
 Limat, non odio ohscuro, morsuqnc veiienat. 
 
 rASCINEg, in fortification, faggots of small wood, of about a 
 foot diameter, and six teel long;, bound in the miildle, and at both 
 ends. 'I'hcy are used in raising l)atteries, making chandeliers, in 
 filling up the moat to facilitate the passage to the wall, in binding 
 the ramparts where the earth is bad. and in making parapets ol 
 trenehc-ito screen the men. Some of them are dipjied in melted 
 pitch or tar; and, being set on lire, serve to burn the enemy's 
 lodgments or other works. 
 
 KASCIOl^A, in zoology, the Fi.ukf. orGouRD Worm, a genus 
 of insect-, of the order of vermes iulestina. liody flattish, with a 
 vent-hole at the extremity ami on the belly. See'Plate XXXVII. 
 There are about fifty sjiecies: 
 
 F. I?ARBiVTA, is white, with transverse papilla- in the mouth. It 
 is of an oblong shape, and about the size of a cucumber seed. It 
 is found in the intestines of sepia loligo. 
 
 F. Hepatica, the Liver Fluke grows to two-thirds of an inch in 
 length, though it is more usually met with not half that size; and 
 its breadth is nearly e<inal to two-tliirds of its length : it is flatlish, 
 but somewhat rounded on the back, and has about eight deep lon- 
 gitudinal furrows in two series ; its skin is soft and vv'liitish, with a 
 tinge of brown. The hinder part is rounded, the fore part is furn- 
 ished with a large mouth; it bears some resemblance to the seed 
 of the common gourd, whence it has acquired the name of the 
 gourd worm. It is found in fresh waters, in ditches, at the roots of 
 stones, sometimes in the intestines, and often in the substance of 
 the other viscera in quadrupeds, h often infests the livers of sheep, 
 and on that account is called hepatica. Hags with salt in them 
 should be placed in the fold that the sheep may lick them, which 
 ts the only remedy. 
 
 F. Infestinalis, or intestinal fluke, of along slender form, 
 when extended ; when contracted, of a subeval form. It inhabits 
 the intestines of fresh water fish, particularly breams. 
 
 FASHION-PIECES, in tlie sea-languase, the aftmost timbers 
 of a ship, vvhich terminate the breadth, and form the shape of the 
 stern. 'I'hey are united to the stern-post, and to the extremity 
 of the wing-transom, by a rabbit, and a number of strong nails or 
 spikes driven from without. 
 
 FAST, or FASTING, in general, denotes the abstinence from 
 food ; but is more particularly used for >uch abstinence on a reli- 
 gious account. Solemn fasts have been observed in all ages and 
 nations, especially in times of mourning and affliction. Among 
 ♦he Jews, the calamities for which fasting was enjoined, were a 
 siege, the sword, pestilence, locusts, the caterpillar, diseases, fu- 
 mine, and the like. Upon these <lays, they wore sack-cloth next 
 the skin, their cloaths were rent, and they wore no shoes : they 
 likewise sprinkled ashes upon their heads, and neither washed their 
 Jiands, nor anointed their bodies with oil, as usual. The neigh- 
 bouring heathens, vix. the Egyptians, Pha-nicians, and Assyrians, 
 also had their fasts. The Egyptians, ;iccording to Herodotus,\i. 
 orificed a cow to Isis, after having prepared themselves bv fasting 
 and prayer : a custom which he likewise ascribes to the women ot 
 Cyrene. Porphyry affirnis, that the Egyptians, before their stat- 
 ed sacrifices, always fasted many days, sometimes six weeks ; and 
 that the least behoved to be for sevea days ; during all which 
 
 time the priests and devotees not only abstained Irom liesh, fish, 
 wine, and od; but even from bread, and sonic kieos of pulse. 
 These austerities were communicated by llirm to the (ireek^, who 
 observed thcr fasts much in the same nu.nner. 'The Allu jiians 
 bad the Eleusinian and 'Thesmoplir.nan fasts, tlie ('b>ervatiou of 
 which was very rigorous, especially among the women, who spent 
 one whole day sitting on the ground in a momnlul die^s, without 
 taking any nourishment. In the island ol Crete, the priests of 
 Jupiter were obliged to abstain all their lives from lisli, llesh, aiul- 
 baked meats. Apuleius informs us, that whoever had a mind to 
 be initiated ill the mysteries of Cybele, were oldigcd to preparii 
 lliemsehxvs by fastii.g (en days ; and, in short, all the Tagan ileities, 
 whether male or temale, required th.is duty of those tiiat desired 
 to be initiated into the mysteries, ol their priests and prieslessts 
 that gave the oracles, and of those that came to consult them. 
 Among the heathens tasting was also practiced before some ot llieir 
 niilitaiy enterprises. Aristotle informs us, that the Lacedemo- 
 nians having resolved to succour a city of the allie-., ordained a 
 fast throughout the whole extent of their dominions, without ex- 
 cepting even the domestic animals : and this they did lor two 
 ends ; one to spare provisions in lavour ol the besieged ; the other 
 to draw down the blessing of heaven upon their enterprise. The 
 inhabitants of Tareutum, when besieged by the Romans, demand- 
 ed succours from their neighbours of Uhegium, who immediately 
 commanded a fast throughout their whole teiritories. 'Their en- 
 terprise having proved successful by their throwuig a supply of 
 provisions into the town, the Romans were obliged to rai;e the 
 siege; and the 'Tarentines, in memory of this deliverance, insti- 
 tuted a perpeiual fast. Fasting has lor ages been reekoiiel a par- 
 ticular duty among philosophers and religious people, some of 
 whom have carried their abstinence to an nitredible lenuih. At 
 Rome it was practised by kings and emperors themselves. Numa 
 Pompilius, Julius Cxsur, Augustus, Vfspa<ian, &c. had their stat- 
 ed last days; and Julian the apostate was so exact in this obser- 
 vance as to outdo the priests themselves, and even the most ri^id 
 philosophers. 'The Pythagoreans kept a continual lent ; but w'lth 
 this dilfereiice, that they believed the use of lish to be equally un- 
 law ful with that of llesh. Besides their constant temperance, they, 
 also frequently fasled rigidly for a very long time. 'The gvnino- 
 sopliists, or Brachmans of the east, are also very ren;arkable for 
 their severe fastings; and the Chinese, according to father le 
 Comte, have alo their stated lasts, with forms of prayer for pre- 
 ser\ ing them from barrenness, inundations, earthquakes, &:c. 'The 
 Mohammedans too, who possess so large a part ot Asia, are very, 
 remarkable lor the strict observance of their fasts ; and the exact- 
 ness of their dervises in this respect is extraordinary. 
 
 FASTERMANS, or FASTING-MEN, [q. d. homines ha- 
 litiitts,'] was Ured in our ancient customs for men in repute and 
 substance ; or rather for pledges, sureties, or bondsmen, who, ac- 
 cording to the Saxon polity, were fast bound 'to answer for one 
 another's peaceable behaviour. 
 
 FAS'Tl, in Roman antiquity, a chronicle or register of lime, 
 wherein the several years were denoted by tlie respective ccuisuls, 
 with the principal events that happened during their consulates ;, 
 these; were called also 
 
 Fasti C'onsulares, or Consular Fasti. 
 
 Fasti, or Dies Fasti, also denoted the court days. Tlia 
 word fasti is formed oi the verb^aci, " to speak," because during 
 those days llie courts were opened, causes might be hc^rd, and the 
 prxtor was allowed fari, to pronouncs the three words, do, dico 
 uddico : 'The other days wherein this was prohibited, were called 
 liefasti ; thus Ovid, 
 
 lile nejhstiis erit, per quem tria verba silentur : 
 Fastus erit, per qiiem lege licebit agi. 
 
 These dies fasti were noted in the. calendar by the letter F: but 
 there were some days ex. parte fasti, partly fasti, partly ncfasti^ 
 /. c. justice might be distributed at certain times of the day, and 
 not at otliers. 'i hese davs were called mtercisi, and were marked 
 in the calendar thus, F. P. fasto primo, wh.ere justice mi.tjht be de- 
 manded during the t'.rst part of that day. 
 
 Fasti signihed also the calendar wherein were exprefsed the 
 several days of the year, with their feasts, games, and other cere- 
 nion es. There were two sorts of fasti, the magijtrales, and caleii- 
 dare-, or the greater and less.
 
 FAT 
 
 400 
 
 FAT 
 
 1. Fasti Calendared wliicli were what was propeily ami 
 primarily called fasli, are deiiiied by Festus Poinpeius to be books 
 iMnlaiiiing a description of tlie whole year : i. c. Ephemeridei, or 
 <liaries, dijtiiiguijhing the several kinds of days, testi, profesli ; 
 fasti, nefasti, &c. 
 
 '2. Fasti Magistrales, the greater fasti, expressed the seve- 
 ral feasts, with every thing relating to the gods, religion, and tlie 
 in-jgistrates ; the emperors, tlieir l)irth-days, offices, da_\s cnnse- 
 cralod to them, and feasts and ceremonies established to tlieir ho- 
 nour, or for tlieir prosperity, &c. Willi a number of such circum- 
 stances did tiatlcry at lengdi swell the fasti ; when they becann- 
 denominitt'd Magui to distinguish them from the bare calendar, 
 or fasti calendaves. 
 
 FA r, an oily and sulphureous matter, secreted from the blood, 
 and deposited in the cells of the membrana adiposa, from the in- 
 numerable little vessels which are spread amongst them. Tlie fat 
 is to be found immediately under the skin, in most parts of the 
 body. There are two sorts of fat; one yellow, soft, and lax, 
 easily melted ; another firm, white, brittle, and not so easily melt- 
 ed, called suet or tallow. Some reckon the marrow of tlie bones 
 for a third sort of fat. See Anatomy. 
 
 Fat, in the sea language, signifies the same with broad. Thus 
 a ship is said to have a fat quarter, if the trussing in or tuck of her 
 quarter be deep. 
 
 Fat, [perhaps properly vat, from vas, a vessel,] likewise de- 
 notes an uncertain measure of capacity. Thns a fat of isinglass 
 contains from 3^ hundred weight to 4 hundred weight; a fat of 
 unbound books half a maund or four bales ; of wire, from 20 to 
 23 hundred weight; and of yarn, from '2C0 to 221 bundles. 
 
 FATA MORGANA, a very remarkable ai?rial phaJHomenon, 
 which is sometimes observed from the harbour of Messina, and 
 adjacent ])laces, at a certain height in the atmosphere. The name, 
 which signifies tlie Fairy Morgana, is derived from an opinion of 
 the superstitious Sicilians, that the whole spectacle is produced by 
 fairies, or such like visionary invisible beings. 'l"he populace are 
 delighted whenever it appears ; and run about the streets slioulinij 
 for joy, calling every body out to partake cf the glorious sight. 
 This singular meteor has been described by various authors : liiit 
 the first who mentioned it with any degree of precision was Father 
 Angelucci, whose account is tiius quoted by Mr. Swinburne in 
 his " Tour through Sicily :" " On the 1.5th of August 1643, as I 
 stood at my wimlow, I was surprised with a most wonderful de- 
 lectable vision. The sea that washes llie Sicilian shore swelled 
 up, and became, for ten miles in length, like a chain of dark 
 mountains ; while the waters near our Calabrian coast grew <|uite 
 smooth, and in an instant appeared as one clear polished mirror, 
 reclniing against the aforesaid ridge. On t!iis gla>s was depicted, 
 in chairo scuro, a st-ing of several thousands of pilasters, all equal 
 in altitude, distance, and degree of light and shade. In a moment 
 they lost half their height, and bent into arcades, like Bomau 
 aqueducts. A long cornice was next formed on the top, and 
 above it arose castles innumerable, all perfectly alike. 'I'liese 
 soon split into towers, wiiich were shortly after lost in colonnades, 
 then windows, and at la--t ended in pines, cypresses, and other 
 trees, even and similar. This is the Fata Morgana, whicli for 'JO 
 years I had thought a mere fable.'' — To produce this ])leasing de- 
 ception, many circumstances must concur, wliicli are not'knowii 
 to exist in any other situation. The spectator must stand with his 
 back to the east, in some elevated place behind the city, that lie 
 may command a view of the whole bay ; beyond which the moun- 
 tains of Messina rise like a wall, and darken the liack ground of 
 the picture. The winds must be hushi'd, the surface quite 
 smoothed, the tide at its lieiglit, and the waters pressed up bv 
 currents to a great elevation in the middle of the channel. All 
 these events coinciding, as soon as the sun sunnounts the eastern lulls 
 behind Keggio, and rises high enough to foi ni an angle of 4j de- 
 grees on the uater before the i itv, ever) object existing or mov- 
 ing .it Keggio will be repeated lOOO fold upon this marine look- 
 ing-glass; which, by its tr'-iiiulous motion, is as it were cut into 
 facets. Each image will pass rapidly olf in succession as the day 
 advances, and the stream carries down the wave on which it ap- 
 peared. Thus the parts of this moving picture will vanish in the 
 twinkling of an eye. Sometimes the air is at that moment so iiii- 
 pregnated with vapours, and undisturbed bv winds, as to retlei t 
 objects in a kind of aeri-.d screen, rising about thirty teet above 
 the level of the sea. In cloudy heavy weajher, they are drawn 
 
 on the surface of the water, bordered with line prismaiical colours. 
 To the above account we shall add the following, given by M. 
 Houel, whose juiigeinent and veracity render his authority highly 
 respectable. " In line summer days, when the weather is calm, 
 there rises above the great current a vapour, which acipiires a cer- 
 tain density, so as to lorni in the atmosphere horizontal prisms, 
 whose sides arc disposed in such a manner, that when they come 
 to their proper degree of perfection, they reflect and represent 
 successively, for some time ^like a moveable mirror,) the objectj 
 on the coa-.t or in the adjacent country. They exhibit by turns 
 the city ami suburbs of Messina, trees, animals, men, and moun- 
 tains. They are certainly beautiful aerial moving pictures. There 
 are somi times two or thrci- pi isms, equally perfect; and they 
 continue in this state eight or ten minutes. After this, some 
 shining inecpialities are observed U])0n the surface of the prism, 
 which render confused to the eye the objects which had been be- 
 fore so accurately delineated, and the picture vanishes. 'I'he va- 
 pour forms other combinations, and is dispersed in air. Different 
 accounts havp been given of this singular appearance ; which for 
 my part 1 attribute to a bitumen that i-sues trom certain rocks at 
 the bottom of the sea, and which is often seen to cover a part of 
 its surface in the canal of Messina. The subtle parts of this 
 bitumen being attenuated, combim-O, and exhaled, with the aque- 
 ous globules that are raised by the air, and formed into bodies of 
 va|>our, give to this condeiiM'il vapour more consistence ; and 
 contribute, by their smooth and polished particles, to the forma- 
 tion of a kind of aerial crystal, which receives the light, rc.lects it 
 to the eye, and transmits to it all the luminous pouits which co» 
 lour the objects exhibited in this pha;nomenon, and render them 
 visible." An account of this appearance is given from a treatise 
 by Menasi, in Nicholson's " Journal," 4to. vol. i. p. 225, with a 
 large engraving. See Priestley's " Optics for Atmospheric Phe- 
 nomena," Huddart and \'ince in the " Philosophical Transac- 
 tions, 1797 and 1799." These are also in Nicholsonfs "Journal." 
 
 FATAGAR, a country of Africa, S. E. of Abyssinia. Lon. 39. 
 0. E. Lat. 9. 0. N. 
 
 FATE, denotes an inevitable necessity depending upon a su- 
 perior cause. The word is formed from fori, J'utum, to speak ; 
 and primarily implies the same v.\\h effatum, viz. a word or de- 
 cree jironouuced by God ; or a fixed sentence whereby the Deity 
 lias prescribed the order of things, and allotted to every person 
 what shall befal him. The Greeks called it iiiJ.nifj.in, as' it were 
 a chain or necessary series of things indissolubly linked together. 
 It is also used to express a certain unavoidable destination of 
 things, I>y which all agents, both necessary and voluntary, are 
 swayed and directed to their ends. See Necessity. In this last 
 sense, fate is distinguished into Astrological and Stoical, by the- 
 ancients ; but by later authors, into Divine and Physical. 
 
 1. Fate Astrological, tliat arising from the influence and 
 position of the heavenly bodies, whicli were supposed both to 
 give laws to the elements and mixed bodies, ami to the wills of 
 men. 
 
 2. Fate Stoical, is defined by Cicero a series of causes, 
 whei'ein, cause being linked to cause, each produces another, and 
 thus all things flow from one prime cause. To this fate the Stoics 
 suhjecled even the gods. 
 
 3. Fate, Divine, is what is more usually called Providence. 
 See Providence. 
 
 4. Fate, Piivsical, is an order and series of natural causes 
 appropriated to the etfects. Ry this fate it is that lire warms, bo- 
 diis communicate motion to each otiier, &c. and the effects of it 
 are all the events and pha'nomena of nature. 
 
 FATEMITES, F.VFHFM ITFiS, or FATIIIMITES, (he 
 descendants of Mohammed by Fatlienia, or Fatima, his daughter. 
 They never enjoyed the khalif it of Mecca or l>agdad, but reign- 
 ed in Barbary and Egypt. 
 
 FATF.S, in mytlio'logy. See Parc;e. •> 
 
 F.VniEK, \_futlicr, Saxon. This word is found likewise in 
 the Persian language,] a well-known term of relation. See Pa'- 
 rSjt. By the laws of Honiulus, a father had an unlimited power 
 over his children. Amongst the I/'cedemoiiians, as we learn from 
 ;Vrislotli-'s politics, (he father of three chiUtren was excused from 
 the duty of mounting guard for the security ot the city ; and a la- 
 ther of four children was exempted from every i)ublic burden. 
 The Poppa;an law, amongst the Romans, granteil many valuable 
 privileges to the fathers of three children ; amongst which Ohe 
 
 was
 
 FAIJ 
 
 401 
 
 FAY 
 
 was, lliat lii! slioiiUl he excu-icd from civil ollices, ami that tlu' 
 mother >lioiiKl liave libi-rt), in Ikt tathi-r's lifL-time, to make a 
 will, aiiil maiume her estate without the authority of Uitors. 
 
 Fathkk, ill theology, i^ used in speaking o; the iirst Person of 
 the ever-lilessed Trinity. Sec Trinity. 
 
 l-"ATHEii is aNo u^ed in speakini; of spiritual and moral things. 
 Thi s, .\I>rah,n-,i is railed the father of tiie faithful. 
 
 rAfiiEU, in eiuMcli history, is applied to ancient authors who 
 have pri-served in liieir writings the tradition of the cluircli. Thus 
 St. Chrysostoin, St. 15a-.il, Sec. are tailed (ireek fathers, and St. 
 Augustiiie ami St. A-.iihrnse Latin fatliers. No author who wrote 
 later than the twelfth centurv is dignified with the title of 
 Father. 
 
 F.VTiitR is also a title of honour given to prelates and digni- 
 taries of the ehureli, to tlie superiors of convents, to congregations 
 and ecclesiastics, and to persons venerable for tlieir age or cjuality. 
 Thus we say the right reverend father in Goii, the fatiier general 
 of the beneclictiiiesi the fathers of the council of Nice, father of his 
 country, Sjc. 
 
 FA'lHOM, [/(cdiii, Saxon,] a measure of length containing 
 six feet, or two yards; the space to which a man can extend both 
 amis. 
 
 Fatness. See corpulency, it is said, that for one fat 
 person in Fiance or Spain, there are 100 in England and Hol- 
 land. 
 
 FATSISIO, an island of Japan, barren and almost inaccessible, 
 SO miles from the S. coast ol Isiphon. 
 
 F.\ riENlNG OF CoLOL'RS, is a term employed by painters, 
 and signiiies a coagulation of the oil, wliieh is otcasioned by mix- 
 ing it widi several kiixls of pigments: hence, when it has been 
 kept for a considerable time, It becomes so viscid and glutinous, 
 as to be wholly incapable of being worked, either with the brush 
 or pencil. In tiiis stale, a due proportion of fresh oil should be 
 added. 
 
 FA'i riPOUR, or FATEPOUK, a town of Hindostan in the 
 province of Agra, 25 miles \V. of Agra. 
 
 FA'I UA,' ill mythology, the wife of the god Faunus, who was 
 supposed to in-ipire women with the knowledge of futurity, as Fau- 
 nus himself did the men. — Fatua had her name from _/u;/, q. d. 
 vaticinari, to prophesy. See Fauna. 
 
 FA'l'UAKli, in antiquity, uhere persons who, appearing in- 
 spired, foretold things to come. 
 
 FAVAGNANA, or FOVOGNANA, a fertile island on the 
 W. coast of Sicily, 15 miles in circumference, with a fort. Lon. 
 12.25. E. Lat. 38. 16. N. 
 
 ■ FAVANl, a river of Naples, which runs into the sea, 9 miles 
 S. S. E. of Squillace. 
 
 FAV'ARA, a river of Sicily, which runs into the Mediterra- 
 nean, 5 miles S. of Modiea. 
 
 FAUCiGNY, or FAUSSIGNY, a late province of Savoy, 
 BOW annexed to France, and included in the department of Mont 
 Blanc. 
 
 . FAVERNEY, a town of France in the^departmcnt of I'pper 
 Saone, 8 miles N. of Vesoul. 
 
 FAV1SS_E, in antiquity, were, according to Festus and Gel- 
 liu'!, cisterns to keep water in. 
 
 . FAULQUJilMONT, a town of France, in tlie department 
 ef Moselle, sealed near the Nied, 16 miles E. of Melz. 
 ■FAUNA, a deity among the Romans. She was daughter to 
 Picus, and was originally called Manca. Her marriage with Fau- 
 Bus procured her the name of Fauna, and her knowledge of futu- 
 rity tliose of Fatua and Falidica. It is said, that she never saw a 
 man alter her marriage with Faunus, and that her uncommon 
 chastity occasioned her being ranked among the gods after her 
 death. She is the same, according to some, with Bona Mater. 
 
 FAI'N.ALIA, in antiipiity, Rouiaii feasts celebrated in honour 
 of the goti !''aunus, who was' the same among the Romans w^ith 
 Pan of the Greeks. The Faunalia w ere held on the nones or 5th 
 of Deceinb, r. The principal sacrifice was a roe-buck ; or rather, 
 according to Horace, a kid, attended with libations of wine and 
 burning of incense. It was propi-rly a country festival, being [ler- 
 formed in the fields and villages wi"th peculiar joy and devotion. 
 Horace gave a very gay description ot it, in Lib. ili. Ode 18. 
 
 .FAUNI, or F.\UNS, among the ancients, were a species of 
 demi-gods, inhabiting tlie forests ; called also Sylvani, and little 
 "VOl II. — NO. 8S. 
 
 diU'ering from the Satyrs. They were said to deligiit in vine 
 yards: an. I generally appear as attendants of Bacchus, in the re- 
 presentations of IJacchanal feasts and processions. They were re- 
 presented as half men, half go^ts, having the horns, cars, icet, aiu! 
 tail, of a goat, a very flat nose, and the rest human. 
 
 FAUNUS, in fabulous history, the son of Piciis, who reigned, 
 in Italy, about 1 300 years before the Augustan age. His bravery, 
 as \M-11 as wis<loni, gave ri^e to the tradition, lliat he was the sou 
 of Mars. His great popularity, and his fondness for agriculture, 
 made his subjects revere him as one of their country deities after 
 his death. He was represented with all the equipage of the satyrs, 
 and was consulted to give oracles. 
 
 FA\'ONTUS, among the Romans, the wind which blew direct- 
 ly from the west. 
 
 FAVORITO, in music, as choro favorito, a chorus in which 
 are employed the best voice* and instruments, to sing the recita- 
 tives, play the ritornellas, Sec. ; this is otherwise called the little 
 chorus, or choro recitante. 
 
 FAUSSEBU.VYE, a small mount of earth, four fathoms wide, 
 erected on the level round the foot of the rampart, to fire upon 
 the enemy, when he is so far advanced that you cannot force him 
 back ; and also to receive the ruins which the cannons make in 
 the body of the place. 
 
 FAUSSIGNY. See Faucigny. 
 
 FAWKES, Francis, an ingenious poet, who was educated at 
 Leeds, wkence he was transplanted to Jesus College, Cambridge, 
 where he took the degree of M. A. Entering into orders, he set- 
 tled Iirst at Ijramliam in York^iiire, near Mr. Lane's elegant seat', 
 which he celebrated in verse in 1745. His first poetical publica- 
 tions were, " Gawin Douglas's Description of May and Winter 
 modernised." Removing aflerw.irds to Croydon in Surrey, he re- 
 commended iiiniself to the notice of Archbi.ihop Herring, to whom 
 he addressed an Ode on his recovery in 1754, printed in Dods- 
 ley's Collection ; and wlio collated him in 1755 to the vicarage of 
 Orpington. Mr. Fawkes lamented his patron's death in 1757, in 
 a pathetic Elegy, entitled " Aurclius," Iirst printed in 1763. He 
 married at this time Miss Purrier of Leeds. In Ajiril 1774, he 
 exchanged his vicarage for the rectory of Hayes. He was also 
 cue of the clK;plain5 to the Princess Dowager of Wales. He pub- 
 li-'hed a volume of Poems by subscript on in S\o. 1761; the 
 Poetical Calendar in 1763; and Poetical Magazine, 1764, in con- 
 junction with Mr. Woly ; Partridge-shootiug, an Eclogue, 1767, 
 4to. ; and a Family Bible, with notes, in 4to. a compilation. But 
 his great strength lay in translation, in which feu, since Pope, 
 have equalled him. A\'itness his fragments of Menander, his 
 ^Vorks of Anacreon, Sappho, Bion, Moschus, and Musa'us, 
 ISmo. 1760 ; his Idylliums of Theocritus, Svo. 1767, and his Ar- 
 gonautics of Apollonius Rhodius ; lioth by subscription, but the 
 latter posthumous, and completed by the Rev. Mr. Meen, in Svo, 
 17S0. He died Aug. 1'6, 1777. 
 
 FAWN, among sportsmen, a buck, or doe, of the first year ; or 
 the young one of the buck's breed in its flr^t year. 
 
 FAYAL, the most western of the Azores. It is about 27 miles 
 long aix! 9 broad ; and abounds in cattle, fowls, tish, and beech.-' 
 trees. I'lie chief town is Villa Horta. 
 
 FAYENCE, a town of I'rance, in the department of Var, 10 
 miles N. E. of DraguignaiL Lon. 7. 0. E. Lat. 43. 3S. N. 
 
 FAYETTE, a^counly of Kentucky,^ surrounded by Clarke, 
 Bourbon, Scott,' Franklin, Woodford, Maddison, and Mercer 
 counties. Lexington is ihe capital. 
 
 Fayltte, a county of Pennsylvania, bounded on the N. by 
 Westmoreland, E. by Somerset, S. by the States of Maryland and 
 Virginia, and W. by the Monongahela. The western parts are 
 tertile; the easteru mountainous, abounding in iron ore. Two 
 iron manufactories are established in it. 
 
 Fayette, a district of North Carolina, com]irehending six 
 counties, bounded on the N. by- Hillsborough, 9. E. by Wil- 
 mington and Newbern, S. by South Carolina, and W. by Salis- 
 bury. 
 
 I' AYETTEVTLLE, a flourishing town of North Carolina,. 
 the capital of Cumberland county, and of Fayette district: seated 
 in a settlement of Scots Highlanders, on the N. \V. branch of 
 Cape Fear river, 55 miles N. W. of Campden. 
 
 FAYOUM, or FEIUM, a province of Egypt, on the W. 
 
 side of the Nile, extending from that river to Moeris, now Bir- 
 
 ■"' K kit
 
 F R A 
 
 402 
 
 F EA 
 
 Vet cl Kltuii. It was anciently called Ars'uioe, aiul ir.tcrccted 
 \)v can;(l?, tut by the ancient Egyptians ix twccn the riser and 
 the Lake of Moeri.-. ; but tliouijh funneriv very wealthy and 
 fertiie, it is gre.itiy declined, through tlie oi)i're35ions of the Ma- 
 Hii hikes. 
 
 J AYOi'M, the capital of the above jirovint:o, i'? sealed on Jo- 
 seph's Canal, whicli runs through it, and surrounded by gardens ; 
 4y miles S. S. W. of Cairo. 
 
 FE, FO, or FO-HI. See Fohi. 
 r\, Saxta. See Santa Fe. 
 
 FEAL Dikes, a cheap sort of fence coiniiion in Scotland ; 
 built ^vi'h feal or sod dug up %y the spade, from the surface of 
 grass ground, consisting of the upper mould rendered tough and 
 coherent by the malted roots of grass thickly interwoven 
 with it. 
 
 FEALTY, in law, an oath taken on the admittance of any te- 
 nant, to be true to the lord of whom he liolds his land: by tliis 
 oaih the tenant holds in the freest manner, on account that all who 
 have fee hold per tidem et fiduciam, that is, by fealty at least, 
 T his fealty at the first creation of it, bound the tenant to litielily, 
 the breach of which was the loss of his lee. It has been divided 
 into general and special : general, that which is to be performed 
 by every subject to his prince ; and special, reipiired only of sucli 
 as, in respect of their fee, are tied by oath to their lords. Lo all 
 tenures, except tenancy at will and frank almoign, fealty is inci- 
 dent, though it chielly belongs to copyhold estates held in lee 
 and for life. The forn'i of this oalh by stat. 17 Ed. II. is lo run 
 as follows. " I A. li. will be to you my loril D. true arjd failh- 
 ful, and bear to you faith for the lands and tenements which 1 
 hold of you, and' I wiii truly do and perform the customs and ser- 
 vices that I ought to do to you. So help me God." 
 
 FEAR, \_fearan. Sax. lo fear; vmr, Du[. fetikle, Erse,] in 
 scripture, is used in various senses. The fear ol God is either 
 filial or servile. Filial fear is a gracious habit in the soul, where- 
 by it is inclined to obey all God's commands, and to hale and 
 avoid evil. Slavish or servile fear is the consequence of guilt ; it 
 is an alarm within that disturbs the rest of a sinner; though it of- 
 ten proves preparative to faith and repentance. 
 Fear, in the mythology. See Payor. 
 
 Fear, in scripture is also frequently taken for a painful ap- 
 prehension of da)iger ; a dejection of mird ; anxious concern for I 
 some object ; that which causes fear ; and the person or thing 
 which is feared. The fear of God is used in three senses. 1. For 
 a terror which arises from a consciousness of guilt and of the jus- 
 lice of God in punisliing sin : this fear is removed by accepting 
 the reconciliation made by .'csus Christ the Redeemer, and it 
 preserves us from every other dependence. 2. For that awe, or 
 reverential dread, which arises from the consideration, that God 
 alone possesses all power to communicate happiness or to inflict 
 misery, as seemeth right to him. Thus, Jer. x. 7. " Who 
 would not fear thee, O king of nations? for to thee doth it apper- 
 tain." This fear directs us to avoid whatever God has forbitlden, 
 and tfi attend with care to his commandments. 3. For that con- 
 cern and solicitude, lo keep at the utmost distance from sin, 
 which arises from a iletestation of any breach of God's law, and a 
 consciousness of the weakness and insufficiency of human nature, 
 and of the danger of being led astray without the greatest care 
 and watchfulnevs. '1" his fear is stiled the beginning of wisdom, 
 that is, one of the principal points of sound wisdom ; it makes us 
 circumspect and diligent, and directs us to place an entire depen- 
 dence on God. 
 
 Fear, one of the passions of the human mind. It is defined, 
 an apprehension of impending evil, attended with a desire of avoid- 
 ing it. Fear in the extreme is called fright, or terror. See 
 Drawing and Frioiit. 
 
 FEAST, or FESTIVAL, [Lat. fistnm,'] is derived by some 
 fromferiari, to keep holiday ; by others from tViKiu, to feast or 
 entertain; by others, particularly M. Huet, ivomfestiimre, which 
 is used by Origen in the same sense, in his Comment on Matthew. 
 Social or civil feasts were also expressed by the words ci>n\-hiuvi, 
 eompniatio, or conrir-niitio. Cicero observes {hsiconxivium means 
 " people assembled at table," which is more significant Ih^n the 
 Gi'eek words KToTo;, or (7v^mcioy, the Latin term expressing the 
 »nion of body and mind, which ought to take place at an enter- 
 tainment: the" Greek denoting only what relates to the body. Wtt 
 U'*Hi from Herodotus, that the jsncients had neither cups nor 
 
 bowls, at tlieir feasts, but they drank out of little h.orns tipt with 
 silver or gold. 'The Greeks and KomJns kept a domestic for the 
 purpose of reading during their meals and leasts. Sometimes tiie 
 ciiief ofihe family himself performed the office of reader; and his- 
 tory iafornis us, that the Emperor Severus often read while his 
 family ate. The time of reading was generally at supper ; and 
 guests were invited to a reading as tliey are now a-days to play 
 cards. The Greeks, in their flourishing times, did not prolane, 
 (according to their own expression.) the holiness of the table ; but 
 rather adorned it with ingenious and elegant conversation : they 
 proposed moral topics, of which PUiiarch ii.is preserved a collec- 
 tion. Heroes rarely assembled convivially without bringing af- 
 fairs of conseqneijce into discourse, or deliberating upon those that 
 regarded either present e\ ents or future contingencies. The Scy- 
 thians, while at meat, used to make the sirings of their hews le- 
 sound, lest their warlike virtues might be enfeebled or lost in the 
 season of [sleasure. People of rank among theShodians, by a fun- 
 damental law of the slate, were obliged to dine daily with thosa 
 who had the management of affairs, in order to deliberate with 
 thein concerning sucli things as were necessiiry or useful for the 
 country; and on this account the princi|xil ministers of the king- 
 dom Were obliged to keep open taljle lor all who could be of use 
 to the state. The Persians also generally deliberated on business at 
 table, but never determined, or put their determinations in execu- 
 tion, excei'l in the morning before having eaten. Among the l\o- 
 mans, the place where liiey supped was generally the vestibule, 
 that a mcje retired part of the house might not encourage licen- 
 tiousness and disorder. There were several laws that restricted 
 their meals to thesi- vestibules. \\ lien luxury reigned in Rome, 
 they had su|>eib halls for their entertainments. Lucullus had many, 
 each of wliich bore the name of some deity ; and this name was a 
 mark which indicated to the servants the expence of the enter- 
 tainment. The expence of a supper in Lucuilus's hall of Apollo 
 amuunted to 50,00U drachmas. Singers, dancers, musicians, stage- 
 players, jesters, and buffoons, were brought into these halls to 
 amuse the guests. Plutarch informs ns, that Cicsar, alter hisi 
 triumphs, treated the Roman people at 22,000 tables ; and by cal- 
 culation it w ould seem, that there were at these tables upwards of 
 -00,000 pcrssns. Feasting seems to have been the chief delight of 
 the Britons, Germans, Gauls, and all the other Celtic nations; \n 
 which they indulged themselves to the utmost, as often as they 
 had opportunity. " Among these nations (;a}s M. Pelloutier, in- 
 Ills Hist. Celt. I. 2. c. 12. p. 463,) there is no public assembly, 
 either for civil or religious purposes, duly held ; no birth-day, mar- 
 riage, or funeral, jiroperly celebrated ; no treaty of peace or al- 
 liauce rightly cemented, without a. great feast." When the Ger- 
 mans, says Tacitus, wajited to reconcile enemies, to make al- 
 liances, to name- chiefs, or to treat of war and peace ; it was dur- 
 ing the repast, that thev took counsel ; a time in which the niinck 
 is most open to the impressions of simple truths, or most easily 
 animated to great attempts. These artless people during the con- 
 vivialitv of the feast spoke without disguise. Next day they 
 weighed the counsels of the fonner evening: they delit>erated at a 
 time when thev were not dis])osed to teign, and took their resolu- 
 tion when thev wei-e least liable to be deceived. It wasby.fre* 
 quent entertainments of this kind that the great men or chiel'lains 
 gained the al'I'ections and rewarded the services of their followers, 
 and those who made the greatest feasts were sure to be most po- 
 pular, and to have the greatest retinue. These feasts (in which, 
 plenty was more leganled than elegance (lasted conniionly several, 
 days,' and the guests seldom retired until they had consumed alfc. 
 the provisions. Athen^ens describes an enterlaiunient that was 
 given by Arcamnes, a very, wealthy prince in Gaul, which con- 
 tinued a wliole year with'out interruption, and at which all the- 
 people of Gaul, and even all strangers who passed through Ihab 
 country, were made welcojiie. 
 
 Feasts, or Fbstivais, in a religious sense, arc ceremonies o?-' 
 feasting by way of thanksgiving. S«ch feasts i.ave made part ofi 
 the religion of' almost all nations and sects ; witness those of the- 
 Greeks, Komans,, Hebrews, Christians, and Mohammedans. 
 
 Feasts, Ancient Grecian, The first feasts among tlie Greeks, 
 were celebrated in solemn assemblies of the whole nation, on oc- 
 c;isi()n of their games, as the Olympic, the Pythian, the Isthmian,, 
 and Nem.Tan ; in process of lime they had many others, the prin- 
 cipal of which are ('numerated in the course of this work. 
 Feasts, A.xcient Roma.v. The Romans had also abundance' 
 
 of.
 
 I- E A 
 
 403 
 
 FEC 
 
 -tjted ff.uts ill lioii'jur ofllieir <!i-ities and heroes ; such were the i 
 
 uiiualia, d-rejlia, Lupercalui, Lil)Riali:i, Keptiuiai'ii, Consual:a, 
 
 i:iiuuiialiu, \ ulc.uialia, P.ihl:a, Divalia, &c. See Uu-se arliiMes. 
 
 Ury U.kI also !ea.-;(s iiisliuileil oicasiunally ; as Cariiuntalia, 
 
 (Kilia, Teiiiiiiialia, t'loiialia, CiimpiUlia, l.eiiiuria, Vcrnalia, 
 
 I ■^ oilier moveable aiitl occasional ones ; as to give thaiiUsto 
 
 , l;ihIs forbencllts received ; toiiiii)lore tlieir a-sistaiice or to ap- 
 
 ,.-c llieir «ralii, ^c. as the I'agar.alia, l-'eix.iia, Dacchaiiulia, Ain- 
 
 :lia, Aiiibiirbalia, Siiovetaiiriiia, and (iivers others, |iarlicii- 
 
 • leijoiniiK'.lcd I'cr'iE ; as S'eineiuiiia', l.atiii;e, &c. bee these 
 
 s. 'riw leasts were divided into da_>s ot sacrilice, and days 
 
 nqiietiiig and teasting : days of games, and days ot rest or 
 
 'I'liere being but little history wrillen, or at least published, 
 
 ilio>e davs, one end ol leasts was to keep up the remeiubrante ol 
 
 ; .'ccurreuccs. 
 
 vsTs, CmstsF.. The C'hinesc have two solemi relii^ious 
 .innually, ia memory of Ooiilucius, besides several others of 
 i nature, in honour of agricukure, &c. 
 
 \ST5, Jewish." 'J lie principal feasts of the Jews .were the 
 
 of trumpets, that of tlie expiation, of t:ibernacles, of the iJe- 
 
 on, of tl:e passover, of penteco^t, and that of purificalion. bee 
 
 \iiATioN, ike. 'I'lie modern Jews have other feasts marked in 
 
 I -ir cdendar of modern institution. 
 
 l-EASTs IN THE Chvrch OF ENGLAND. The four leasts which 
 
 -^: English laws take particular notice of are, tiie Annunciation of 
 
 <• blessed Virgin Mary, or Lidy-day, the 'J.ilh March; liie iia- 
 
 l;tv of St. John the Baptist, held on the 24: h of June ; the feast 
 
 1 M. Michael the Archangel, on the L'9th of September ; and that 
 
 1 St, Thomas th.e Apostle, oa the 'i 1st of December ; on wliich 
 
 I iiterly days rent on leases is usually paid, {.b andb Edw. VI. 
 
 '. 3 Jiic. I. cap. 112. Car. 11. cap. 3u.) IJesides these leasts 
 
 i .ire general, and enjoined by the cluirrh, there are others 
 
 and occasional, enjoined by the magistrate, or voluntarily 
 
 i toot by the people ; such are the days of thanksgiving for 
 
 : es, delivery Irom wars, plagues, &r. Such aUo are ihe 
 
 ur wakes in commemoration ot the dedications of particular 
 
 lies. See N'iGii-, &c. J he feasts of the church of England 
 
 ther Immoveable or Moveable : 
 
 1'kasts, Immoveable, are those constantly celebrated on 
 me day of the year ; the principal of these are Christmas or 
 .itivity, the Circumcision, Efiiphany, Candlemas or the Pu- 
 "U ; the Annunciation, called also ti.e Incarnation and Con- 
 n ; All Saints, and All Souls; besides the days ot the se- 
 '.jiQstles, St. Thomas, St. Paul, &:c. which in the church of 
 • J,, are feasts though not Feria;. See these articles. 
 ' KASTS, Moveable, are those which are not conlined to the 
 ■ lay of tile year. Of tlie>e the principal is Easter, which 
 1 ■. law to all the rest, all of ihein lollowing and keeping their 
 1 ijitr distances from it ; such are Palm Sunday, Good Friday, 
 I Wednesday, Sexagesima, Ascension-day, Pentecost, and | 
 .;iv Sunday. See Easter, Pentecost, Sexagesima, TRir | 
 i:v,"&c. I 
 
 I tAsTs IN THE Church of Dome.. The prodigious increase' 
 (ti-asi days in the Bomish cluirch commenced towards the close | 
 < the 4lh century, and was occasioned by the discovery that was : 
 ♦ •n made of the remains of martyrs and other holy men, for the I 
 ( niuemorationof whom they were established. Tliese, instead of : 
 ! ! J set apart for pious exercises, were abused in indolence, vo- 
 lusness, and criminal practices.- Many of them were insti- \ 
 on a Pagan model, and pervevled to similar purposas. j 
 
 >-.Ts, Mohammedan. 'i"he Mohammedans, besides their feast 
 .■ath, whicli is kept ou Friday, have two solenni feasts, the | 
 'I wiiich is calletl the Feast ot \'ictims, and celebrated on the j 
 .:ay of the last month of their year4. and the second called ! 
 1 \:m. See Bairant. I 
 
 I [ A^^s OF THE Deap, solemn religions ceremonies in use among 
 t American Indians. By some nations they are celebrated 
 ? ry eight years ; by others, as the Hurons andlroquois, every 
 
 -i THER, in physiology, a general name for-tlie cov<'rtng of 
 - ., ; it being common to all the animals of this class to have 
 t-ir whole body, or at kast the greatest part of it, covered with tea- , 
 trs or plumage. There are two sorts ot <'eathei-s found on birds, I 
 
 ;he strong and hard kind, called ipiilis, found in the wings and 
 , and the oUier plumage, or soil feathers, serving for the Ue- 
 
 fence and ornament of the whole body. All birds, so far as yet 
 known, moult the feathers ofllieir whole body yearly. 
 
 I'EAVHER. See OR.N'iTHor.OGY. Feathers make a considera- 
 ble article in commerce, particularly those of ostriches, herons, 
 swans, pi-acocks, geese, hens, &;c. for plumes, orname.ts ol the 
 head, (illing of bed>, writing pens, &c. Geese are plucked some- 
 times in Gieat Britain live times in the year, and in cold seasons 
 many of them die by this barliaroiis custom. 'J'hc tealhers that 
 are brought Irom Somersetshire are esteemed the best, and those 
 from Ireland tlie worst. Eidi'r down is iniporlcd hum Denmark; 
 the ducks that supply it being inliauitants of Hudson's Bay, 
 Greenland, Iciland, and Norway. See Down. Our own N^'est- 
 ern Islands breed numbers of these birds, whicli turn out a profit- 
 able branch of trade to the poor inhabitants. Hudson's Bay also 
 furnishes very fine feathers, sujiposed to be of the goose kind. 
 The ilown of the sv.an is brought from Dantz'c, a? well as great, 
 quaiilities of the feathers of the cock and hen. The London poul- 
 terers deal largely in the feathers of tho,se birds, and of ducks and 
 turkies: those of ducks being weaker, are inferior to tho^e of the 
 goose; and turkies feathers are the wcrst of any'. '^Phe best me- 
 thod of curing feathers is to lay them in a room, in an exposure to 
 the Sim ; and when dried, to put them in bags, and beat them well 
 w ith poles lo gel the du^t off. 
 
 FtATHERs are chielly used for the stuffing of beds, which are 
 certainly less wliolesome than wool or horse hair maltre^^es, and 
 tend greatly to relax and enervate the human body. Within the 
 last two or lin-ee years, they have bei-n manufactured into hats; a 
 mode of employ ing them far preferable to that we have juil men- 
 tioned. See Plvme. 
 
 P'eather, m the manege, a sort of natural fiizling of the hair,, 
 which in some parts rises above the rest, resembling the tip of an- 
 ear of corn. 'J his happens most Irequently between the eyes;, 
 and if lower, it is a sign of a w eak sight. 
 
 Mid-Feather, in the salt-works, the partition in tlie middle of 
 tlie furnace, which it divides into two chambers. 
 
 Feather-edged, among carpenters, an appellation given to 
 planks or boards, which have one side thicker llian the other. 
 
 FEBRIS, [Lat.] Fever, was worship|)ed as a goddess by the 
 ancient Komans. She had a temple on mount Palatine, and in 
 other two places in Rome. The lollowing inscription to this lod- 
 dess is still extant. Febri, Diva;. I'ebki. Sancta;. Febri. 
 magnje. Camilla, amata. pro. filio. male, affecto. 
 
 FT'.BRUA, a feast of atonement held by the ancient Romans 
 for \'2 days together, in February. 
 
 Februa, f ebrualis, and Feeru.wa, names of the goddess 
 Juno. 
 
 FEBllL'ARY, in chronology, was the second month of 
 Kuma's year, and under the protection of the god Neptune. It 
 was not in the calendar of Romulus, being added to Ihe year by 
 Noma. It had lis name from Februa, a name of Juno, wlio pre- 
 sided over the purifications of women ;. and in this month the Lu- 
 percalia were held in lionour of Juno, and women were purilied 
 by the priests of Pan Lyceus at that le5tival,, See Lyi'ercalia. 
 February, in a common year, consists only of 2R days ; but every 
 bissexlile yean it has "9, by the addition cl the intercalary dav. 
 
 P'ECANIP, an ancient sea-port of France, in the department of 
 Lower Seine, liaving 1000 houie-, and a Benedictine abbey 
 long tamed for its riches. The church is one of the largest in 
 France. The chief trade of the inhabitants is iu linens, serges, 
 laces, hats, and leather. Many vessels are employed in the her- 
 ring hshery.- It is -7 miles S.W. of Dieppe,, and Ij N.N. E. of 
 Moutvilliers. 
 
 FECES. The excreraentitious matter of animals, evacuated 
 per aiuim, consists of all that food which cannot be empl.>vfd tor 
 purposes of nutrition, considerably altered, at least in pait, and 
 mixed or united with various bodies employed during digestion to 
 separate the useless part of the food I'rom the nutritious. 
 
 FECIALES, or FOECIALES, an order of piiests or ofllcers, 
 con^isling of i.'0 persons among the ancient Romans, appointed to 
 proclaim war,, negociate peace, &(.. Festus derives the word 
 Irom^fWo, I strike; as, ferire licdus signiiies "to (ouelude a trea- 
 ty:" and accordingly, instead of ./ecw/w, he would Iwve it yvrit- 
 len fcrititts. Others derive \t num Jadus, which was anciently 
 written ./i: (/;,',?; or irom ./zV/<.«, " faith." Others lri)ni./rtc;o, ^cc/, I 
 make, &c. because they made war and peace. Vtissius derives it 
 
 from.
 
 FEE 
 
 404 
 
 FEE 
 
 iromfatu, of tin- veil) Jurr, " to S|jtt\k ;" In whitii beiisc the fe- 
 ciales sliuiiJd be the same with oratores ; \\h:ch sentiments is aKo 
 contirniecl liy Varro, who sa_')S they were called inililierenlly te- 
 ciales unci orctores, 'I'iie leeiales were a soi't of herakU, who, 
 ivhen the llomani had any dispule with their neiglibours, were sent 
 iirst to demand tiie thing pretended to be usurped, or recpiire the 
 <ati_;faotion for the injury alleged to be done. If an an-^wer was 
 not returned by them, tlut was satisfactory to the people and the 
 senate, they were dispatched again to declare war, and the like in 
 treating of peace; the t'eclales being the only persons api-'ointed 
 to nefiociate brtween the s<Mialc, &e. and the enemy. 
 
 FEE, [Jcoli, Sax. Jfc, Danish, cattle; fciidum, low Lat.] in 
 law, all land tenements tliat are h.ekl by any acknowledgement of 
 superiority to a higher lord. All Ir.nd.s and tenements, wherein a 
 man hath a perpetual estate to him and his heirs, &c. are divided 
 into allodium and feudum; allodium is every maTi's own lantl, 
 which he pi ssesses merely in Ins own right, wilhout acknow- 
 ledgement of any service or p;iyment of any rent to any other. 
 Feudum, or fee, is that which we liold by the benefit of another, 
 and in name wlicreof we owe services, or pay rent, or both, to a 
 superior lord. 
 
 Fee Absolute, or Fee Simple. A tenant,' says Blackstone, 
 in fee simple, (or, as lie is frequently styled, tenant jn fee,) is he 
 that hath lands, tenements, or hereditaiiicnli, to hold to him and 
 his lieirs for ever; generally, absoUilely, and simply; without 
 mentioning what heirs, tnit referring that to his own pleasure, or 
 to till- dispobition of tiie law. 'i'he true meaning of the word lee, 
 (feodum,) is the same with that of feud or fief, (See FtUDAL Sys- 
 tem ;) and in its original sense it is taken in contradistinctim to 
 allodium; which is property in its highest degree; and tiic owner 
 thereof hath absolutum et directum dominium, and therefore is 
 said to he seised thereof absolutely in dominio suo, in his own 
 deme^ne. But this allodial properly no subject in Britain has ; it 
 being a received and now undeniable principle in the law, that all 
 the lands are hoKlen mediately or immediately of the king. A 
 subject therefore hath onlv the usufruct, and not the absolute pro- 
 perty of the soil. And hence in the mo-t solemn acts of law, the 
 strongest and highest estate tliat any subject can have is expressed 
 by these words, " he is Seized thereof in his demesne, as of fee." 
 It is a man's demesne, dominium, or property, since it belongs to 
 him and his heirs for ever: yet this property or demesne, is strictly 
 not ah olute or allodial, bul qualihed or feodal ; it is in his de- 
 mesne, as of lee; that is, it is not purely and simply his own, since 
 it is held of a superior lord, in whom tlie ultimate property resides. 
 This is tl:e primary sense and acceptation of -he word fee. But (as 
 Sir M.ulinW'righl very justly obsi-rves) the doctrine, " that all lands 
 are holden," having been for so many ages a fixed and undeniable 
 axiom, the Englisfi lawyers do very rarely (of late years esjjeci- 
 all)) use the word fee in this its primary original sense, in contra- 
 (listincton to ullodiuin or absolute property, with which they liave 
 no concern; but generally use it to express the continuance or 
 <]uantity ot estate. A fee therefore, in general, signities an estate 
 of inheritance; being the highest and most extensive imprest tiiat 
 a man can have in a feud : and when the term is used simply, 
 without any other adjunct, or has the adjunct of simple annexed 
 to it, it is used in contradistinction to a fee conditional at the com- 
 mon law, or a fee-tail by the statute; importing an absolute inhe- 
 ritance, clear of any condilioK, limitation, or restrictions, to paili- 
 tular lit irs, but descendible to the heirs general, whether male or 
 female, lineal cr collateral. And in no other sense than this is the 
 king said to be seised in fee, he being the feudatory of no man. 
 Taking therefore fee in this its secondary sense, as a state of inhe- 
 ritance, it IS applicable to, and may be had in, any kind of heredi- 
 taments either corporeal or incorporeal. But there is this distinc- 
 tion between the two species of hereditaments; that of a corporeal 
 inheritance a man shall be ;.aid to be seised in his demesne, as of 
 fee ; of an incorporeal one he shall only be said to be seised as of 
 fee, and not in his demesne. For as incorporeal hereditaments 
 are in iheir nature collateral to, and issuo out of, lands and iiouses, 
 their owner hath no property, dominium, or demesne, in the thing 
 itself, but hath only something derived out of it; resembling the 
 !>ervilu<les, or services, of the civil law. The dominium, or pro- 
 perty, is frequently in one man, while the appendage, or service, 
 is in another. Thus (iaius may he seised as of fee, of a way going 
 ever the land, of which 'I'ilius is seised in his demesne as ot fee. 
 
 The fee simple Oi inheritance ot lands and tenements is gener., 11- 
 vested and resides in some per c.n or other; though divers mli 
 r.or estates may be caned out of it. As if one grants a lea?;- Id; 
 'J I year?, or for one or two lives, the fee simple remains vested ii 
 hiui and his heirs; and after the determinaiion ot those yeai~ui 
 lives, the land reverts to the granter or his heirs, who shall \\w\ \ 
 again in fee simple. ' Yet sou.etimes the fee may be in abeyance 
 that is (as the word 'S.gmiies) m expectation, remembrance, ww 
 Contemplation, inlaw-; ti.ere being no person iu esse, in win' 
 can vest and abide, though tne law considers it as ahva) s ])■ 
 tially existing, and ready to vest wlienever a proper ouner a,) 
 pears. 'I'lnis, in a grant to John for life, and aUerivards lollu 
 heirs of Richard, the inheritance is plainly neither granted to J( !,i 
 nor Kichard, nor can it veal in the heirs of Ricnard, till his deaili, 
 num nemo est hares viventis : it remains therefore in waitiiic, n 
 abeyance, during the life ot Richard. I'his is likewise the ca i- > 
 a parson of a church, who hath only an estate therein for the ti.iii 
 ot his life; and the inheritance remains in abeyance. And no! 
 only the fee, hut the freehold also, may be in'abeyance; as, when 
 a parson dies, the freehold of his glebe is in abeyance until a suc- 
 cessor be named, and then it vests in the successor. Theuoid 
 heirs is necessary in the grant or donation in order to make a fcf 
 or inheritance. 
 
 Fkes, l^i.MiTED, or such estates erf inheritances as are clo 
 and conlined with conilit.cns or qualitications may be divided 
 two sorts, viz. I. Qualihed or base fees: and, 2. Fees condhiu:i,.i, 
 or fees tail. 
 
 1 Fee Q'JALiFina, or Base Fe£, is such as hasa qualificafio! 
 subjoined, and vhich must be determined v^■ilencver the quaiil^L:: 
 tioii annexed to it is at an end. As, in the case of a grant to X ami 
 his heirs, tenants in the manor of Dale ; in this instance, whenever 
 the heirs ot A cease to be tenants of that manor, the grant is cnluely . 
 deleated, 
 
 2. Fee Tail is so called in consequence of the statute de donis, 
 or lee conditional, as it is called at loinmon law, is an estate re« 
 strained to some particular heirs, exclusi\eot others; as to the 
 heirs of a man's body, or to the heirs male ol his body : in winch 
 cases it w.as held, that as soon as the grantee had issue born, the 
 estate was thereby converted into fee simple, at least so iar as to 
 enable him to sell it, to lor'eit it by treason, or to charge it with 
 incumbrances. But the statute de donis having enacted, that 
 such estates so given, to a man and th.e r.eirs of his bodv, should at 
 .,11 events go to the issue, ii thefe were any, or if none, should re- 
 vert to tlie donor ; this was by the judges denominated an estate in 
 tail. Plowd. 251. 
 
 I' ee alsosigniries a certain allowance to physicians, barristers, 
 attorneys, and other officers, as a reward for then pains and labour. 
 If a person reuise to pay an officer his due fees, the court will 
 yrant an attachment against him, to be committed till the ti'es 
 are paid ; and an attorney may bring an action on the case for his 
 tees, against tlie client that retained liiin in his cause. 
 
 Fee also denotes a settled perquiste of public officers, payable 
 by tl•:o^e who employ them. The fees due to the officers of the 
 custom-house, are expressly mentioned in a schedule, or table, 
 wl.ich IS hung up in public view in the s;ud ofiice, and in all other 
 places where the sairl fees are to be paid or received. And if any 
 ■ fticer shall oflend, by acting contrary to' the regulations therein 
 contained, he shall torfeit his office and place, and be for ever 
 ..iter incapable oi any office in the cusloin-liouse. The other i)iih- 
 1h ofiices have likewise their settletl tees, fur the several branches 
 ot business transacted in them. 
 
 FEE-FARM, is a tenure without homage fealty, or other ser- 
 vice, except tliat mentioned in tlie feoffment, which is usually the 
 the lull rent, or at least a fourth part of it. The nature of this te- 
 nure is, that if the rent be behind, ami unpaid hir two years, then 
 the feotier and Ins heirs may have an action for the recovery of 
 the Ian !s. 
 
 P'EELERS, the horns, or antenna^, of insects. 
 
 FEEFING IS one of the hve external senses, by which we ob- 
 tain the ideas of solidity, hardness, softness, smoothness, roughness, 
 lie;;t, colli, wetness, dryness, and i^ther tangible qualities. 'I'liis 
 sense, though the coar-est, is the surest and most universal of all 
 others, iuid is indeed the basis of all other si-usations. 
 
 FEET-BE,\RER, an oflicer in the courts oi the ancient Anglo- ' 
 Saxon and Welsh kings. He was a young gentleman whose duty 
 
 it
 
 F E t. 
 
 Am 
 
 FEL 
 
 lit was lo sit oil tilt; floor, witli liis back towai\Is tlie fire, and hold 
 'tlie king's tVet in his liosoni all thf time he sat at table, to keep 
 them warm and conn'ortuljle : a piece of state and luxury unknown 
 in modern times. I,eges Walliir, p. 58. 
 
 Ft'.IlRENB.\C'£l, a town of Suabia, Id miles E. of Friburg. 
 
 FlillKENLLlN, a town of Upper Saxony, in liie Middle 
 Mark of Brandonburc!, 28 miles N.W. of llerlin'. 
 
 l''EJKK, one ot tlie Friendly Islands, three days sail N.W. by 
 W. of Tongataboo. It abounds, in hogs, dog5, fowls, roots, and 
 fniits. 
 
 FEINT, in fencing, a mere motion of the wrist, without stir- 
 ring the foot. 
 
 i'Kl RA, a town of Portugal, in the province of Beria, 10 miles 
 S. of Oporto. 
 
 FEFAPTON, in logic, one of the six first modes of the third 
 ('mure of syllopiims ; whereof the tirst proposition is an universal 
 nru;ative, the second an universal allirmative, and the third a par- 
 ticular nes!;ative. 
 
 FELDKIKCH, orFELDKIRK, a county of Gei many, for- 
 merly in Suabia, now annexed to the Tyrolese. It is bounded 
 on the north by the county of Montfort ; east by Pludentz ; south 
 by the Grisons ; and west bv the Rhine. 
 
 FiLDKiRCH, the capital of (he above county, seated on the 111, 
 near the Rhine, 15 miles E. of A|)penzel. 
 
 FELDSIUCRG, a town of C'arinthia, belonging to the archbi- 
 shop of Saltzbur;^, 4 miles N. of Saxeiil.iurij;. 
 
 FELDSBL'RG, a towiiof Austria, t'8 miles N.N. E. of Vienna, 
 and 32 N.E. ofTulln. 
 
 FELICI IAS, Felicity, or Happiness, was deified by the 
 ancient Pagans. Luciillus built a temple to her. She had an- 
 other erected by I.epidus. 'The Greeks woi'shipped her under 
 tlie name of Mac aria. This deity is often represented upon 
 medals, and generally with a cornucopia in one hand, and a ca- 
 duceus in the other. The incriptions are, Felicitas TfiMro- 
 KUM, Felicitas Avousti, Felicitas Publica, &:c. 
 
 FELICUDI, one of the Lipari inlands, 28 miles W. of Li- 
 pari. 
 
 FELIS, Cat, in zoology, a genus of (he class mammalia, order 
 Ferx. Front teeth, six ; the intermediate ones equal ; grinders, 
 three on each side ; tongue aculeated backward ; claws retractile. 
 The feet are provided with sharp-hooked claws, which are lodged 
 in a sheath, and maybe e.Ktended or drawn in at pleasure: the 
 head is mostly round, and the visage short. Animals of this ge- 
 nus are ferocious, generally temperate, very agile in cliiiibing 
 trees ; aliglit on liieir feet wiien falling from a height. The females 
 bring a considerable number at a birth, and have all eight paps. 
 They dart on their prey with astonishing rapidity, wliich they eat 
 slowly, growling almost perpetually, as (hoiigli afraid of losing it: 
 ti.ey have little relish for vegetable food. There are twenty-three 
 species, witii varieties. The following are the most remarkable. 
 See Plate LXIX. 
 
 I. F. Catus, the Common Cat, inhabits the woods of Europe 
 and Asia, and is domesticated almost every where. Of this spe- 
 cies there are many varieties, of which are the following: 
 
 1. F. Catlis An-uorensis, the Angora Cat, with'hair of sil- 
 very whiteness and silky texture, and very long, especially about 
 the neck, wliere it forms a tine rutf. It is a large variety ; found 
 : '• lit Angora, the same country which produces the fine-haired 
 1^ It degenerates after ihe (irst gem ration in our climate. 
 .'. F. Caius Aureus, the Lung-headed Cat, is of a reddish 
 
 I low colour, and has a long-shaped head, sharp snout, sliorl 
 
 Li, with weak claws, and round ilat ears. It inhabits New 
 Sjiain. 
 
 3. F. Catus C^ruleus, the Blue ot Cyprus Cat, is of a 
 lilue-grey colour, or greyish black. It is much cultivated in Si- 
 rieria, on account of its (ine fur. 
 
 4. F. Catus Domesticus, the Domestic or Tame Cat, is of 
 a smaller size, and iiai the hair shorter and thicker than the wild 
 <.^ts. It is an uselul, but ileceitlul, domestic. Although when 
 youns they are playful and gay, they possess an innate malice and 
 perverse disposition, which increases :is they grow up, and which, 
 troni education, they learn to conceal, but never to subdue. Con- 
 stantly bent upon theft aiid rapine, though in a doniesiic state, 
 they are full of cunning and dissimulation; they conceal all their 
 designs; seize every opportunity of stealing, and then fly from 
 
 VOL. !I. — NO. 82, 
 
 punishment. They easily take on the habils of society, but n.evcr 
 lis manners ; for tliey have only the ajifiear.nce of fri ndship and 
 alti'.chment. 'lliis disingenuity of cl'.aracter is betraved b>, the 
 obli(|uity of their movements, and the ambiguity of their looks. 
 In a word, the cat is totally destitute of friendship ; he thinks and 
 acts for himself alone. lie loves ease, and searches for the soitest 
 and wariTie>t places to repose in. The cat is extremely amorous ; 
 aiul which is very singular, the female is more ardent than the 
 male: she not only invites, but searches alter and calls upon him 
 to satisfy the fury of her desires; and, if the male disdains or flies 
 from her, she pursues, bites, and in a manner compels him. The 
 cat is incapable of restraint, and consequently of being educated 
 to any extent. However, we are told tiiat the Greeks in the 
 islantl of Cyprus trained this animal tu c.a(cli and devour serpents, 
 wilh which Uiat ishmd was greatly infested. This, however, was 
 nut the etfcct of obedience, but of a geniral taste for slaughter; 
 for he delights in watching, attacking, and destroying all kinds of 
 we^k animals indifl'erently. He has no delicacyof scent, likethe dot; 
 he hunts only by (he eye : neither does he properly ]Hirsue ; he onjy 
 hes in wait, and attacks animals by surprise ; and after he has 
 cauglit them, he sports with and torments them a long time, and 
 at last kills them (when his beliy is full), purely to gratify his san- 
 gu-nary appetite. The eye of the cat differs greatly from that of 
 most oUier animals. Tlie pupil is capable of a great degree of 
 contraction and dilatation. It is narrow and contracted like a line 
 during the day, round and wide in the dark. It is from this con- 
 formation of the eye tliat the cat sees best in the night, which gives 
 him a great advantage in discovering and seizing his prey. Al- 
 though cats live in our houses, they enjoy full liberty; for they" 
 never act but according to their own inclination. Beside-, a great 
 part of theiii are half wild : they do not know their masters, and 
 frequent only '.he barns, out-houses, &c. unless when pressed with 
 hunger. Cats have a natural antipathy at cold and wetness. 
 They likewise hate bad smell> ; but tliey are fond of certain aro- 
 malics, and particularly of mariin, catmint, and valerian. The fur- 
 ol the cat readily yields electric sjiarks when rubbed; aiuKifa 
 clean and perfectly dry domestic cat is placed, in frosty weather, 
 on a stool witli glass feet, or insulated by any other means, and 
 rubbed for a certain space in contact with tTie wire of a coated 
 vial, it will be effectually charged by this method. 
 
 5. F. Catus Ferus, the Wild Cat, is three or four times as 
 large as the house cat ; the head larger, and the face flaltcr. The 
 teeth and claws are tremendous : its muscles very strong, as being 
 formed for rajjine: tlie tail is long and very thick, marked with 
 alternate haik of bhuk or brown, and white, the end aU^avs 
 black : the hips and hind part of the lower joints of the leg are 
 black : the fur is very soft and line. The general colour is a yel- 
 lowish white, or yellowish brown and whitish, mixed with deep' 
 grey or blackish stripes. 
 
 H. F. TiGRiNA, Makoay. The margay is a native of South 
 America, and is about the size of a common cat. The ground- 
 colour is a bright (awny ; the face striped downwards with black ; 
 the shoulders and body marked both with stripes and large oblong- 
 black spots ; on the legs the spots arc small ; the breast, belly, and 
 insides of tlie limbs, are whitish ; the tail H long, and marked with 
 black, grey, and fulvous. It resides principally on trees, preying 
 on birds : it is said to breed in the hollows of trees, antl to bring 
 but two young at a birth. It is very fierce ;ind untanieable. 
 
 III. F. Coni'oi.or, the Puma, the couguar of Bul'fon, has a 
 very small head, ears a little pointed, and eyes large. According 
 to some zoologists, the back, neck, rump, and sides, are of a pale 
 brownlsli red, mixed v.itli dusky hairs ; tlie breast, belly, and in- 
 side of the legs, cinereous : the tail is dusky and ferruginous, the 
 tip black ; and the teeth are of a v.ist size. It is as big as a large 
 wolf, beinsj long bodied, and high on its legs; the length from 
 nose to tail five feet three inches ; that of the tail two feet eight. 
 This animal inhabits the continent of America, from Canada to 
 Brasil: in South America it is called puma, and by the F^uropeans 
 is mistaken for the lion. It is the scourge of the colonies of the 
 hotter parts of America, being fierce and ravenous to the highest 
 degree. It swims over the broad rivers, attacks the cattle in the 
 very inclosures, and wlieu pressed wilh hunger spares not even 
 mankind. 
 
 IV. F. DiscoLoRf the Black Tiger, or CoVguar Noir of 
 Bullon, is covered witfi short very glossy hairs of a dusky or 
 
 5 L ' - brownish
 
 F ]:l 
 
 40(1 
 
 FE I. 
 
 hrosMiMi black colour; the throat, bell)-, and iusldi.' of the le^, 
 v.'hitish. It grows to tlie size of a heifer of a year old, and has 
 vast strength in its limb^. It inhabits Brasil and" Guiana; and is'a 
 criu^l and lierre beast, l)ut happily is a scarce specie?. 
 
 ^'. F. JuBATA, tlie lluNTiNci Leotaiid, IS of the sizP of a large 
 greyhound, of a long make, uitli a narrow chest and long legs. 
 The colour of the body is of a light tawny brown marked with 
 mniibers of small round black spots; the neck is shaggy, having a 
 mane four or five inches long; the hair on the belly is of the'^anie 
 length, and thv tail is longer than the body. It inhabits India, 
 wiicre it is tamed and trained for the chace of antelopes. 
 
 VI. F'. Leo, the J^iok, is principally an mhabitant of i\frica, 
 but is also found, though far lcs,> jjlcntitu!, in tise iiotter regions of 
 Asia. It is, however, in the interior of Africa tliat he e.verts his 
 (greatest ravages, and attaii..- hi~ highest perfection. A lion of the 
 largest size has been found to measure about eight feet from the 
 nose to the tail, and f'lc tail itself about four feet; the general co- 
 lour is a pale lawny, still paler or more inctining to white beneath ; 
 tlie head is very large, the ears rounded, the face covered with 
 short or close liair, the upper part of the head, the neck, and 
 shoulders, coated with long shaggy hair, forming a pendent mane; 
 on the bodv tlie hair is short and smooth; the tail is terminated 
 I'v a tuft ot blackish hair. The linnes-;, which is smaller than the 
 
 -lion, is destitute of the mane, and is of a whiter cast beneath. The 
 .lion, like the tiger, Ircriueatly conceals himself in order to spring 
 on his prey, bonmling to the di'tance of a great many feet, and 
 seizing it with his claws. 11 is strength is prodigious : it has been even 
 aftirmed, that a single stroke of his paw is suflicient to break the 
 back of a lior,e; and that he carries off with ease a middle-sized 
 OX" or bulifalo. He does not often prey in opeti sunshine, but com- 
 mences his depredations at the close of day. Ti'e roaring of 
 the lion, when in (]uest of prey, resembles the sound of distant 
 thunder; and, being re-echoed by (he rocks and mountains, appals 
 the whole race of animals, and puis (hem to sudden iliglit; but he 
 frequently varies Ids voice iiilo a hideous scream or yell: he is 
 supposed to be destitute of a line scent, and to hunt tiy the e}"e 
 
 ' Xilone. ^riie lion is commonly said to devour as much as will serve 
 him for two or three days, and wdien satii'ted with food, to remain 
 in a state of retirement in his den, which he seldom leaves except 
 for the purpose of prowling about for his prey. His teeth are so 
 ftrcng that he breaks tlie bones with ])erfect ease, and often swal- 
 lows them together with the fh-sh ; his tongue, as in other animals 
 of this genus, is furnished with reversed prickles ; but they are so 
 large and strong in the lion as to l>e capable of lacerating the skin. 
 The lioness is said to bring forth in the spring, in the most seques- 
 tered places, and to produce but one brood in the year. The 
 young are fi)ur or five in number, which the parent nurses with 
 great assiduity, and attends in their first excursions for prey. When 
 broil iht into Europe lions have been known to breed even in a 
 state of confinement ; instances of which are recorded by some of 
 the older naturalists. In the Tower of London also, examples of 
 a similar nature have occurred. The young animals are scarcely so 
 large as small pug dog--, and are said to continue at the teat about 
 the space of a year, and to be five years in coining to maturity. 
 Lioiii have sometimes constituted a part of the established pomp 
 of royalty in the eastern viorld. The monarch of Persia, as we 
 are informed by Mr. Bell, in his travels, had, on days of audience, 
 two large lions cliained on each side the passages of the hall of 
 state, being led thither, by proper officers, in chains of gold. The 
 llomans, struck with the magnificent o.ijpcarance of these animals, 
 imported them in vast numbers from Africa, for their public spec- 
 tacles. Quintus Sc;uvola, according to Pliiiy, was tlie first in 
 Rome who exhibited ?. combat of lions; but Sylla the dictator, 
 during his prxtoi-ship, exhibited n hundred lions; and after him 
 I'ompey the Great exhibited no less than 500 in the grand circus, 
 viz. 31 j males, and the rest females; and C.^sar the dictator 400. 
 TneKnman;, says Mr. Shaw, brought many more lions out of 
 Libya for their public shows, than are now to be found in that 
 country. The lions in Turl.ey, Persia, and the Indies, are al-o 
 sai(i to be less numerous than {.jrnierly. As this formidable and 
 courageous animal makes a prey of most other animals, anil is him- 
 self a prey to none, this diminution in the number of the specirs 
 can be owing to nothing but an increase in tiie nuir.bcr of man- 
 kind: for the strength of this king of beasts-is not a match for the 
 di-xicnty and address of a negro or Ilottciitof, who will oflen dare 
 to attack him face t*i fae-e, and with very slight v fiipons. 'I'he 
 
 ingenuity of mankiiui augments with their number; that of othei 
 animals continues always the same. All the noxious animals, as 
 the lion, are reduced to a small number, not only because mam 
 kind are become more huukmous, but likewise becau^e thev have 
 become more ingenious, and have invented weapons winch no- 
 thing can resist. This superiority in the numbers and industry ot 
 mankind, at the same that it has broke the vigour of the lioii, 
 seems likewise to have enervated his courage. This quality, 
 though natural, is exalted or lowered according to the good or bad 
 success with which any animal has been accustomed to employ 
 his force. In the vast desarts of Zaara, in those which separate 
 the Negroes and Moors, between Senegal and the boundaries of 
 Mauritania; in those uninhabited regions above the country of the 
 Hottentots; and, in general, all the meridional parts of Africa and 
 Asia, wiiere mankind have disdaiued to dwell, lions ;Te still as nUt 
 merous and ferocious as ever. Accustomed to measure their 
 strength by that of all otheranimals which they encounter, the h»- 
 bit of conquering renders them haughty and intrepid. Having 
 never experienced the strength of man, or the power of his arms, 
 instead of discovering any signs of fear, they disdain and set liiinat 
 defiance. Wounds irritate, but do not terrify them: they are not 
 even disconcerted at the sight of numbers. A single lion of the 
 riesart has been known to attack a whole caravan ; and if, altera 
 violent and obstinate engagement, he found himself weakened, lie 
 retreats fighting, always keeping his face to the enemy. On the 
 other hand, the lions which live near the vill.tges or hut's of the In- 
 dians or Africans, being acquaiiitetl with man and the force of his 
 arms, are so dastardly as to 11 y and leave Lheir prey at the sight ot 
 women or children. This soitening in the temper and disposition 
 of the lion, shews that he is capable of culture, and susceptible, at 
 least to a certain degree, of tlie impressions that he receives: ac- 
 cortlingly, historv informs us of lions yoked in triumplul chariot", 
 trained to war, or the chace; and that, faithful to tiieir masters, 
 they never employed their strength or courage bat against taeir 
 enemies. It is certain, that a lion taken young, and brought up 
 among domestic animals, will easily be accustomed to live and 
 sport with them; that he is niild and caressing to his master, espe- 
 cially when he is young; and that, if his natural ferocity some- 
 times breaks out, it is rarely turijed against those who have been 
 kind to him. But, as his [lassions are inqietuous and vehement, it 
 is not to be expected that tlie impressions of education will at all 
 times be sulficient to balance them: for this reason it is dangerous 
 to h't him suffer hunger long, or to vex lum by ill-timed teazings: 
 bad treatment r.ot only irritates him, but iie remembei-s it long, 
 and meditates revenge. On the other liand, he is exceedingly 
 grateful, and seldom forgets benefits received. He has been olten 
 observed to disdain weak or insignificant enemies, to despi^e their 
 insults, and to pardon their otiensive liberties. When led into 
 captivity, he will discover symptoms of uneasiness, without anger 
 or peevishness: on the contiary, his natural temper softens, he 
 obeys his master, caresses the hand that gives him food, and some- 
 times gives life to such animals as are thrown to him alive for 
 prey: by this act of generosity he seems to con>ider h'mself as for 
 ever bound to protect them ; he lives peaceably with them ; al- 
 lows them a pari, and sometimes the whole, of his food; and will 
 rather submit to tlie Jiangs oi hunger, thi'.n fill his stomach with the 
 fruit of his beneficence. The lion is not a cruel animal: he kills 
 rather from necessity than choice, never destroying more than he 
 eats; and whenever his appetite is satisfied, he is mild and peace- 
 able. For his ordinary subsistence, he requires about 15 pounds 
 of raw fiesh each day. The aspect of the lion corresponds with 
 the noble and generous qualities of his mind. His ligure is re- 
 spectable; his looks are determined; his gait is stately, and his 
 voice tremendous. In a word, the body ot the lion appears to be 
 the best model of strength joined to agility. The lorce of his mus- 
 cles is expresseil by his prodigious leaps and bouiuis, often 20 feet 
 at once ; by the brisk motion of ^his lail, a single sw eep of w Inch is 
 suliicieni to throw a man to the ground; by the ease with which 
 he moves the skin of his face, and particularly of his forehead,; 
 and, lastly, by the faculty of erecting and agitating the hair of his 
 inane when initaled. .See Pl;.le LXIX. 
 
 VII. r'. Leoi'akdai.is, the Lesser Lcopard of Pennant, re- 
 sembles the Leopard, but is not half so large; the tail is sliorter in 
 proportion to its size, and tapers to a point; it h.is a large black 
 sjjot on each side of the upper lip; the b:ck sides and rump are 
 covered ivith brioht ytllow hair, marked witji.small, circular com- 
 f. pound
 
 I • i: L. 
 
 407 
 
 1- E L 
 
 ))ouiul spots; the face is spoiled; the chin white ; the bieast is 
 ni;iik('(l with small spots, ai;<l the belly is white spotted with black. 
 One of this speeie-i fiom the V.. Indies, was kept in the tower of 
 J.cmdon several years ago. 
 
 VIH. F. I.EOi'ARDL's, the I.EOP.^i^r), differs from the panther 
 r.nd the omicc, in the b'^auty of Ins colour, which is a lively yel- 
 low, with smaller spot* than those of the two latter, and disposed 
 in "roups, lie is larper tl.an the oimce, and less tlian the panther, 
 l^eilig al.oiit four feci long, and the tail Ironi two to two and a half 
 feet. He inhabits Senefjal and Gnineu; and spares neither man 
 ror beast. When beasts of chate fail, the leopards descend from 
 tie internal parts of Africa in crowds, and make ijreat havoc 
 .inioiig the numerous herds that cover the ricli meadows of the 
 lower tjii.nea. It tears its prev to pieces with both claws and 
 teeth; l)nt is always thin, thovig!i ptr|)ctnally devoin'isig. The 
 p;;nlher destroys nnmbers of them. 
 
 IX. F. Lyvk Can.mjf.nsis, the Canadian' Lynx, has pale 
 '. eliow eve<, and erect ears tutted with lonq black hair. The bo- 
 dy is covered with solt and long fur, cine.coiis tinged with tawny, 
 t/i' grev mi.ved wliii wiiite, and marked with black or dusky spot^, 
 more or Ie;s visible in d'.fl'erent snbjei t>, dependent on tl>e age or 
 
 ason in whicli the animal is kill"d: the legs are strong and thick; 
 ■ claws large, (t is about three times the size of a cat; though 
 ily al)ont a toot high, and the tail is four inches long, tiptwith 
 !.:ck. This species inhabits the vast forests of North America. 
 It is called in Canada le chat ecrvier, or le loup cervier, on ac- 
 count of its being so destructive to deer; wiiich it drops on from 
 the trees, like the puma, and, fixing ou the jngular vein, never 
 quits its hold till the exhausted animal talN through loss of blood, 
 'i he English call it u wild cat. It is very de^l^uctive to the 
 Tonng p'gs, poultry, and all kind of game. The skins are in high 
 esteem lor the soilness and warmness of the fur ; and great numbers 
 are anntiaily imported into Europe. 
 
 X. V. LvN'x Chals, the 1 aspian Lynx, has a round head, a 
 lillle more oblong tl;an that of the common cat; shinijig restless 
 eves, will) a mo^t brilliant golden pupil; cai-s erect, oval, and lin- 
 ed with white hairs ; their outside redoi^h, their summits tufteil 
 with black. The hairs are coarser than those of the cat or com- 
 mon lynx, but less so than those of the wolf. They arc shortest 
 on the head, but on the top of the back above two inches long. 
 The colour of the heud and body is a yellowi-h brown ; the breast 
 and belly of a bright brown nearly orange. The tail reaches only 
 to tlie flexure of tlie leg; is thick and cvlindric; of the same co- 
 lour witli the back, tipped with black, and thrice obscurely annu- 
 laied with i)lack near the end. In general appearance it h3s the 
 form of the domest.c cat. 
 
 XI. F. Lynx Vulgaris, the Commov Lynx, is about two 
 fcit and a hall long, and ) j inche:. high. He has a grea' resem- 
 blance to tiie common cat; but his ears are longer and tufted, and 
 his tail much shorter: his hoad and body are of a greyish colour 
 tinged « ith red ; his hair is stre.iked w th y dlow, white, and black, 
 colours. The lynx inliabits the vast fore<-ts of the north of Europe, 
 Asia, America, and Japan. His eyes are brilliant, his aspect is 
 solt, and hi^ air is gay and sprightly. Like the cat, he covers his 
 urine with earth; he howls something like the wolf, ami is heard 
 at a'consideralile di-tance ; he does not run like the dog or wolf, 
 but walks and haps like a cat; he pursues his prey even to the 
 t jps of trees; neither wild cats nor squirrels can escape him; he 
 lies in wail lor stags, goat.!, hares, weasels, birds &c. and darts 
 suddenly upon them ; he seizes them by the throat and sucks their 
 blood, then opens the head and eats the brain ; after tiiis, he fre- 
 ipicntly leaves them and goes in search of fresh prey. The colour 
 o( his skin ch-nges according to tiie season or the climate; the 
 winter fui> aie more beautiful than those of summer. These lurs 
 are valuable for their soilness and warmth: nnmbers are annually 
 •le.poited from North America, and the north of Europe and 
 A!.ia; the farther north and east they are taken, the whiter they 
 ire, and the mon: distinct the srots. 
 
 XII. F. On'ca, American Iicer, theJACUAR of Buflon, is of 
 a bright tawny colour; llie top of the back marked with long 
 stripes of black; the sides with rows of eye like aimular spots, 
 o|)en in the middle, which is of the ground colour of the hair: the 
 •highs and legs are marked witli full ^pots of black, the breast and 
 
 irlly vvhitish ; the tail is half the length of the body. This species, 
 .ihich grow's to the size of a wolf, and even lariier, inh.tbits the 
 h.ittcst parts of South America, from the isihimi? of Darieu to 
 
 Ruenos .Ayres. It is fierce, and destructive to man and beast. 
 Like the tiger, it plunges it's head into the body of iij prey, and 
 sucks out ihi- blood helore it devours it. it niake* a great noise 
 in the night, like the howling of a iumgry dog; and is verv 
 cowardly. It is easily put to lligiit, eiUi -r by'lhe shepherds" dogs 
 or by a lighted torch,' being very leaiful of l"re. It lies in anibiish 
 near the sides of rivers; and there is sometimes spen a singular 
 combat between tliis animal and the crocodile. \V'hen the jaguar 
 comes to drink, 'he crocodile, ready to surprise any animal lliai 
 ap|)roaches, raises its head out of tiie water: upon whicli the form- 
 er in>tantly strikes its claws into tlie eyes of this dreadful reptile, 
 the only penetrable part, who immediately dives under the water, 
 pulling his enemy along with it, where' they conimcnly both 
 perisli. 
 
 XIII. F. Pahdalis, the Mexican Pakther, or Ocelot of 
 Buffon, has it^ iiend, back, upper part of the rump, and tail, of a 
 i)right tawny ; a black str'pe extending along the top of the baek, 
 Irom head to tail ; and Irom the nostrils to the corners of the eyes, 
 there also runs a stripe of bl.a k ; the sidts arc wl-.ilish, marked 
 leiigthway- with long stripes ol bla( k, hollow and tawny in the 
 middle, in which are sprinkled some small black spo's ; "the legs 
 are whitish, varied with small black spots; and the tail is also va- 
 ried with small spots near its base, and larger near the end, which 
 is black. It is above tour times the size c.f a larae cat, and strong- 
 ly made. It inhabits Mexico, California, the ^neighboiuhood of 
 Carthagena, and Brasil. 
 
 XIV. F. Pap.dus, thePANTKEP, is about the size of a large dog, 
 and has a great resemblance to a domest;c cat. T he tcjiigue is 
 rough, and remarkably red ; the teeth are strong and sharp '; the 
 skin is exceedingly beautiful, being of a yellow or bright tawny 
 colour, variegated with roundish black spots, and the hair is sliort. 
 Each ^pot is composed of four or live small S))0t3, with a single 
 spot in the centre. He has a cruel and ferocious a-p'ect ; his ino- 
 lions are brisk and lively; his cry resembles the growl of an en- 
 raged dog, but is more strong and rough. The panther inhabits 
 Africa, from Barhary to the remotest parts of Guinea. The spe- 
 cies is next in size to the tiger ; next to it in cruelly, and in its ge- 
 neral enn.ity to ti:e animal creation; it is to Africa what the for- 
 mer is to Asia, with this alleviation, that it prefei-s the lh>li of 
 brutes to that of mankind ; but when preised with hunger, attacks 
 every living creature without distinction. 
 
 X\'. F. Sehval, the Serval, has the upper jiart of the body 
 ofadu-ky bro-vn, interspei^ed with round black spots; the belly 
 and the orbits of the eye^ are white. This animal, which is very 
 tierce and iintameable, inhabits the woods in the mounlainous parts 
 of India and 'i iiibet ; where it lives in trees, and breeds in them. 
 It scarcely ever descends on the ground ^ but leaps wilh great 
 agility from tree to tree. 
 
 XVI. F. TiGKis, the Tiger, according to some authors, is 
 larger, and, according to others, somewhat less, than the lion. M. 
 de la Landcmagon assures us, that he has seen a tiger in the East 
 Indies fifteen feel long, including undoubtedly the length of the 
 tail, which, 'Opposing it to be four feet, makes the body of the 
 tiger about eleven feet in length. 'I he skeleton preserved in the 
 kite royal academy at Paris, indicates that the animal was about seven 
 feet long from tlie po.nt of the inuzzle to the origin of the tail ; but 
 then it must be considereil lliat iie was caught young, and lived all 
 his days in conlincment. The head oi.the tiger is large and round- 
 ish ; and the ears are short, and at a great di^tL..ce from each 
 other. The form of the borly has a great resemblance to that of 
 the panther. The skin is of a ilarkish yellow co'our, striped witli 
 long black streaks ; the hair is short, excepllng on tlie sides of the 
 head, where it is about four inches long. 'I!;e point of the tail is 
 black, and the re^t of it is interspei-sed with black rings. His leg* 
 and claws resemble Iho-e of a lion, only the legs arc much shorter 
 in proportion to the size of the anin)al. The tiger is more fero- 
 cious and savage than the lion. Although gorged with carnao-f, , 
 his lhir>t for blood is not appeased; he seizes and tears in pieces a 
 new prey willi eijual fury ami rapacity, the very moment aher de- 
 vouring a fnnner one; he fjys waste the country he inhabits; he 
 nether dreads the aspect nor tlie weapons of 'n5en; slaughters 
 whole troops of domestic animals; and attacks young elephants, 
 rliinoceroses, &c. and sometimes even braves the lion himself. 
 Tin' tiger seems to have no other iiistitu t, but a constant thirst 
 after blood, a blind fury which knows no bounds or distinction, 
 and which often stimulates bim to-devour. hts own young, and to 
 
 te+vr .
 
 FEL 
 
 408 
 
 FEL 
 
 tear ihe niotlier in pieces for endeavouring to defend them. He lies 
 ill wait on tlie banks of rivers, &c. where the heat of tiic climate 
 oljiiges other animals to repair for drink. Here he seizes his prey, 
 or rather multiplies his massacres; for he no sooner kills one ani- 
 mal tliau lie (iies with etnial fury upon the next, phinges his head 
 into their bodies, and drmks their blood. However, wherNhe kills 
 a large animal, as a horse or buffalo, he sometimes does not tear 
 out tlie entrails on tlie spot, b\it, to prevent any interruption, drags 
 off the whole carcass to the wood, with incredible swiftness. This 
 is a sufiicient specimen of the strength of this rapacious animal. 
 Neither force, restraini, nor violence, can tame the tiger. He is 
 equally irritated with good as with l)ad treatment: h« tears tlie 
 huid which nourishes him with et|ual furv, as that which admini- 
 sters blows: he roars and is enraged at the sight of every living 
 creature. Almost every natural historian agrees in this iiorrible 
 character of him. There is a sort of cruelly in his devastations, 
 unknown to the generous lion; as well as a cowardliness in his 
 sudden retreat on any disappointment. " I was informed (says 
 Mr. Pennant) by very good authority, that in the beginning of 
 this century, some gentlemen and ladies, being on a party of plea- 
 sure, under a shade of trees, nn the banks of a river in Bengal, ob- 
 served a tiger preparing for its fatal spriQg: one of the ladies, with 
 amazing presence of mind, laid hold of an lunbrella, and furled it 
 full in the aninial's face, which instantly retired, and gave the 
 company an opportunity of removing from so terrible a ne.ghbour. 
 
 XVTi. K. Uncia, llie Ol'Nc-e, is less than the panther; the 
 tail is longer; the hair is likewise longer, and of a whit sh grey co- 
 lour, marked with i'regular black spots. The ounce ia ea-ily 
 tamed; and is employed in hunting in several parts ot A'ia, where 
 dogs are very scarce. He has not the delicate scent ot a dog; 
 does not trace other animals by the smell: neither can he inn 
 them down in a fair chace; but lies in wait tor their approach, and 
 ihcn darts upon them unawares. He leaps so nimbly, thut he 
 easily clears a ditch or a wall several feet high; besides, he often 
 climbs trees, waits till some animal passes, and instantly leaps i.poii 
 them. This method of catching their prey, is practised by the 
 panther and k»opard, as well as by the ounce. 'I'lie ounce inhabits 
 iiarliary, P,>rsia, Hyrcania, and China. It is under as much com- 
 iTiand as a setting-dog ; returns at the least call, and jumps up be- 
 hind its ma>ter. This animal is supposed to be tlie naioVxi; 
 o>i;oT;w.,.or h'sser panther of Oppian, and the panther of Pliii). 
 
 I-'ELIU dp; QUIXOLO, a port of Spain in Catalonia, on the 
 *ea-coast, Jl miles S. of Gerona. 
 
 VF.LIX, St. an island in the Pacific Ocean, N. N. \X. of Juan 
 Fernandez. 
 
 I'^ELL, Dr. John, a very learned English divine who entered 
 a ^l^!dellt at Christ church at Oxford in 1036. In lt)4S, he was 
 ejected by the parliamentary visitors, being then in orders: and 
 from thut time to the restoraVion lived at Oxford a retired and stu- 
 dious life. He was installed canon of Christ church, in July 
 IdW ; and dean in 1661 ; in which places he did great services to 
 the college, and reformed several abuses. He was consecrated 
 bishop of Osford in 1675; and Ii.hI leave to hold his deanry in 
 comniendam, that he might continue his services to t!ie college 
 :ind university. He published several works, and died in KiSG. 
 
 FELLA, Cape, a cape of Naples, on the W. coast of Calabria 
 Cilrn. 
 
 FELLEN, a town of Livonia, S. E. of Revel. Lon. G'l. 5. E. 
 L;it. 58. ec. N. 
 
 FELLETIN, a town of France, in the department of Crcuse, 
 and late province of Marche, 21 miles S. S. E. of Guerct. 
 
 FELLOWSHIP, or COMPANY, in arithmetic, is when two 
 or more join their stocks, and trade together, dividing their gain, 
 or loss, proportionably. See Arithmhic. 
 
 FELO DE SE, in law, one who is felon of himself; /. c. being 
 of sound memory, and of the age of discretion, or 14 years, kills 
 himself. A felo de je forfeits all chattels real an<l perso'nal, w hich 
 he has in his own right; and aljo all such chattels real whereof he 
 is possesicd, either joailly with his wife, or in her right; and also 
 all bonds anil other personal things in action, belonging solely to 
 himself; and also all personal thmgs in action, and entire chattels 
 in possession, to wliich he was entitled jointly with another, on any 
 account, except that of merciiindcze; but 'it is said that he shafi 
 forfeit a moiety only of such joint chattels as may be severed, and 
 nothing at all of what he was possessed of as executor or admini- 
 strator. Stamdf. P. C. li>S, isy. Plow. 243, 26'>. 3 Inst. 55. 
 
 FELONY, a crime denounced capital by the law. Felony 
 (says Judge Blackstone,) in the general acceptation of the law, 
 coiiipriies every species of crime, which occasions at coinmcn law 
 the torfeiture of lands or goods. This most frequently happens in 
 those crimes for which a capital punishment either is or was to he 
 inliicted : for those felonies that are called clergyable, or to which 
 the benctit of clergy extends, were anciently punished with death 
 in all lay, or unlearned, oll'enders ; thougli now, by the statute 
 law, that punishment is for the first offence universally remitted. 
 Treason itself, says Sir Edward Coke, was anciently comprised 
 under the name of telony ; and in conlirmation of this we may ob- 
 serve, that the statute of treasons, 25 Edw. HI. c. 2, speaking of 
 some dubious crimes, directs a reference to parliament ; that it 
 may there be judgevi, " whether they be treason or other lelony." 
 All treasons, therefore, strictly speaking, are felonies ; though all 
 lelonies are not treason. And all otlences, now capital, are iu 
 some degree cr other felony : but this is likewise the case with 
 some other offences which are not punished with death ; as sui- 
 cide, where the party is already dead ; homicide by chance-med- 
 ley, or in self-defence ; and petit larceny, or pilfering; all which 
 are (strictly speaking) felonies, as they suliject the c'ommitters of 
 them to fort'eitures. So that, upon tlie whole, the only adequate 
 dehnition of lelony seems to be, an offence which occasions a total 
 torfeiture of either lands or goods, or both, at the common law ; 
 and to which capital or other punishment may be superadded, ac- 
 cording to the degree of guilt. To explain llu.s farther: the word 
 felony, or felonia, is of undoubted leodal or.ginal, being fretpiently 
 to be met with iii the book ot lends, &c. but the derivation ot it 
 has much puzzled tiie juiidical lexicographer^, Prat;cus, Calvi- 
 i.us, and the rest : some denvuig it fmni the Greek, ^"iAo,-, an im- 
 postor or deceiver; others from the Latin, Jcdlo, JeJtUi, to conn- 
 tinance whence they would have it cJleil felonia. Sir Edward 
 Coke has given us a still stranger etym 'logy ; that it is crimen 
 anaiio felleo perpetratum, " with a bitter or a gallish inclination." 
 But all of them agree in the description, that it is such a crime as 
 works a forleiture ot all the ollcnder's land- or goods. And this 
 gives a gre;it |)robability to Sir Henry Spelman's Teutonic or 
 G rmaii derivation of it : m which language indeed, as the word it 
 clearly of teodal original, we ought rather to look for its significa- 
 tion, than among the Greeks and Romans. Fi-lon then, accord- 
 ing to him, is derived- from two iiortiiern words ; ftt, which 
 signifies the lief, ieud, or benehciary es.atc ; and Inn, which sig- 
 nifies price or value. Felony is therefore tne same as pretiuin 
 feudi, the consideration for which a man gives up his lief; as we 
 say in coirmion speech, such an act is as much as your life, or 
 estate, is worth. In this sense it will clearly signify the leodal for- 
 feiture, or act by which an estate is forfeited, or escheats, to the 
 lord. To confirm this, we may observe, that it is in this sense, of 
 forleiture to tlie lord, that the feodal writers constantly use it. 
 Felony may be without inflicting capital puuishmcnt as in the 
 cases instanced of sell-murder, excusable homicide, petit larceny: 
 aiul it is possible that capital punishments may be inliicted, and 
 yet the oifei.ce be no felony ; as in case of heresy bv the com- 
 mon law, which, though capital, never worked any Forfeiture of 
 lands or goods, an inseparable incidi nt to felony. Ami of the 
 same nature was the |)'jnishment of standing mule, without plead- 
 ing to an indictment; which at the conimoa law was capital, hut 
 uilh.out any forleiture, there:ore such standing mute was no felony. 
 In short, the true criterion of felony is forfeiture: for, as Sir i",d- 
 ward Coke justly observes, in all felonies which are punishable 
 with death, the offender loses all his lands in fee simple, and also 
 his goods and chattels ; in such as are nut punish, ble, his goods 
 and chattels only. The idea of felony is indeed so generally con- 
 nected with that of capital punishment, that we lind it hard to se- 
 parate them ; and to this usage the interpretations of the law do 
 now conform. And therefore, if a statute makes any new oifence 
 felony, the law implies that it shall be punished with death, viz. 
 by hanging as well as with forfeiture : unless the ofi'ender prays lh« 
 beneht of clergy ; which all felons are entitled once to have, un- 
 less the same is expressly taken away by statute. Felonies bv 
 statute are very numerous; they are set foilh in alphabetical order 
 in the Table o! the 4to. edition of the Statutes. 
 
 FELT, a kind of stulf, which derives its consistence merely 
 from being fulhd or wrought with lees and size, without being 
 either spun or woven. The mechanism of felting is equally sim- 
 ple and curious; though its theory is littW understood, even i)v 
 • professional
 
 FEN 
 
 409 
 
 FEN 
 
 proffSsi'jiKil liaUers. As the siirlace of lu.ir iii.l wool 's l)_v no 
 ., .Ills sinooUi, but formed uither of plates res<>m))!ing the ?<ales 
 
 • tisli, or of zones pla.:i'il ov(;r i-;u;h otlicr, as \vi- fimi in tlic stri.c- 
 tiiii; of iioriis, it follows thai liair or wool, when promiscuously ci\- 
 lanj;le(l, cannot be easily disengaged, on aecouiit of its rough 
 si(lc>, which may be readily perc\-ived, by drawing a hair belv-een 
 llie lingers aJ^ain^l the root-end. riius, eacii inequality of siirtace 
 aeconiniodalei itself to that of another h.i;', and tonus at length a 
 natural texture. Kelt is made either of wool alone, «r of a ini\- 
 : i:re of that article with camel's or other hair, and is used princi- 
 |i,,llv in tlie manufacturing oi hats. 
 
 FiCLTKI, a town of Austria, capital of^he I'ellri^ 38 miles N. 
 of I'adiia. Lon. 1 1 . 5S. K. Lit. 46 J. N . 
 
 KELI'HIA, ii) ancient geouMa])liy , a town on the borders of 
 Rha-ti:! towards Italy ; now calleii Fcllri. 
 
 FKLTKIN, or VEL'flU.NO, a mountainous district of Ma- 
 ritune Austria, in the '1 revisan, at the foot of the Alps, 28 miles 
 long and 11) broad. 
 
 !• KIA'CCAS, [/e/ca, P"r. f-ikon, Arab.] small open boats 
 with sx oars ; they arc common in llie Mi'diterranean, and have 
 this pcculiai ity, that the helm may be applied either in the head or 
 stern, as occasion requires. 
 
 FEMEREN, or FE.MERN, a fertile island of Denmark, in 
 the Raltic, three miles fr.m the coast of Holstein ; c. ntiiniiii^ 
 the town of Burj;, and several villages. Lon.11.5. E. Lat. 54.30. N. 
 
 FENJlNEU.S FLOS, a fem-.'.e flower. Linnaeus thus deno- 
 minates a llower which is furui.shcd with the pistilUiin, or female 
 organ of generation, bi.t wants the stamina or male organ. Fe- 
 male (lowers may be prot'ii ei.l ui:>art from tlie male, either on the 
 same root, or on distinct plants. Tiie birch and mulberry are 
 examples of the lir^t case ; willow and poplar of the second. See 
 Botany. 
 
 FEMINIXE, ii\ grammar, one of the genders of nouns. See 
 GENDtR. The feminine gender is that which denotes the noun 
 or name to belong to a female. 
 
 FEMME COV'ERTE, in law, a married woman. See Cover- 
 ture. 
 
 Femme Sole, an unmarried woman, whose debts, contracted 
 bffore marriage, become those of her husband after it. A femme 
 s( le merchant, is where a woman, in London, uses a trade alone, 
 V. ithont her husband, on which account she shall be charged with- 
 out hiin. 
 
 FEMOE, a small island of Denmark between Zealand and La- 
 
 • n I. Lon. 11.32. E. Lat. 55. 1. N. 
 
 FEMORIS Os. the thigii bone. See An.\T0xMV. 
 
 FEMUR, the thigh. See As.ato.mv. 
 
 FEN, a place overHowed with water, or abounding with bogs; 
 i.lie term is also applied to such boggy lands as are naturally dis- 
 posed to produce coarse ve^:etables from the retention of water, 
 ill many p:irts of the kingdom since the introduction of a laudable 
 spirit of improvement in agriculture, much valuable land has been 
 redeemed both in Engl.;nd and Ireland from bogs and fens. Se- 
 veral statutes have been made lor the draining of fens, chiefly in 
 Kent, Cambridgeshire, Berlfordshire, and Lincolnshire ; and by 
 uH act, 1 1 Geo. II. conimissiuners shall be appointed for the effec 
 tual draining and preserving of the fi ns in the isle of Ely, who 
 are authorised to make drains, dams, an>l proper works thereon : 
 and ihey may charge the lanJliolders therein with a yearly acre- j 
 lax, and, in default of payment, sell the defender's lands." The 
 fens in Lincolnshire anrl elsewhere in England, bring many advan- 
 tages to the inhabitants. P'owls and ti.di are very plentiful in 
 them. The pikes and eels are large and easily caught, but they 
 are usually coarse. Ducks, mallards, and teals, are in such plenty 
 as is sc.uce to he conceived. They are taken by decoys in [iro- 
 digious flocks at a time, and sent to London market twice a week 
 during the season. 
 
 FENCE, iii gardening and husbandry, a wall, ditch, bank, or 
 other inclosure, made round gardens, field-;, woods, &c. In hot 
 climates, where they have no occasion for walls to ripen their 
 fruit, their gardens lie open, where they c.<n have a water fence, 
 and prospects ; or else they are bounded with groves, which are 
 nuich niore pleasing to the sight than dead walls; but, in cold 
 countries, we are obliged to have walls to shelter and ripen our 
 fruit, aUhough they take away much from the pleasant prospect ol 
 the garden. Brick walls are accounted the be-t aiul warmest for 
 fruit: and these being built pannelwise, with pillars at eipial dij- 
 
 VOL. M. — NO. 32. 
 
 t;'iices, -ave a gre:tt deal of exptnci-, as llu-y can lie Iniilt Ihn.mr 
 than if tliev were made plain without the p.miiels ; and, besi-.es, 
 these paiineK, make the walls look the handsomer. Stone walls, 
 liowever, on account of tlieir durability, are to l)e preferred to 
 brick, especially tiio>e of sipiare hewn stones. Tho^e that aie 
 made of rough s'tones, thougli tiiey arc very dry anl warm, yet, 
 by their imev(niie.ss, are inconvenient to nail up trees to, unless 
 |;ieces aflimber be laid in them here and tliere for that purpose. 
 But, in large gardens, it is belter to have the piosin-cl open to 
 the plea-ure garden; which should be surrounded witii a fo-^e, 
 that I'rom the garden the adjacent country may be vi<-wed. 
 Where th" los^es are made round a garden sitn.-.ted in a park, thev 
 are extremely proper ; beiau-e hereby ttie prosjject ot the p nk 
 will be obtained in liie ;i,ai'den, wl-.ich renders these gardt lis mu<li 
 i.iBre agreeable than tiiose that are contined. In places where 
 there are no good pros])ects lo be obtained troin a garden, it is 
 common to make tiie inclosure ot park-paling ; which, if well 
 pert'ormcd, will last many years, and has a much better appear- 
 ■iire than a wall : and this pale may be hid from the sight w;thin, 
 by plantations of shrubs and evergreens ; or there may be a quick 
 hedge planted within the pale, which may be trained up, so as to 
 be an excellent fence by the time the pales begin to decay. 
 Fe.ices round parks are generally of paling ; which, if well made 
 of winter fallen cak, will .ast many years But a principal thing 
 to be observed, is not to make them too heavy, eUe their owi; 
 weight will cau^e them to decay : therefore the pales should be 
 cleltthin; and the rails should be cut triangular, to prevent the 
 wet lodging upon them ; fnd the posts should be good, and not 
 placeil too far asunder. One of these pales will ihu, last upwards 
 of forty years. Dr. Anderson, in his " Es;;ays on Agriculture, 
 &c." observes, that, "The fences that are most universally em- 
 |)l<)yed, are eitlier stone dikes or hedges. Dikes, if well built, :is 
 ellectually preserve a field from the intrusion of domestic animal.;, 
 as any other kind of fence w liatever ; but they atTord little w:irmlh 
 or shelter to the fields : whereas hedges, if good, answer both these 
 purposes equally well. But the most material distinction between 
 dikes and hedges is, that dikes are in tlieir highest degree cf \!:x- 
 fection as soon as they are reared, and from that moment begin to 
 tend towards decay ; so that the person who builds this kind of 
 fence immediately receives the full beiieht thereof; whereas 
 hedges, being at ('irst weak and tender, stand in need ot attention 
 and care, and do not become a fence for several years after they 
 are planted ; anil, as they continue to increase in strength, and 
 gradually ac(]uire a higlie'r and higher degree of perfectron, it is 
 long before they begin to fall towards decay ; so that they are, in 
 general, intinitely more durable than dikes, although they arc 
 longer in becomirig of wt to the person who plants tlieni. VV liich 
 of these two kinds of fences may, upon the whole, be mast elia,i- 
 ble, must, in general, be determined by the circumstances and 
 views of the possessor of the ground to be inclosed. Various 
 kinds of plants have been recommended (or constructing the com- 
 mon fences, of which we shall point out the principal: 1. The 
 White-Thorn is the mo^t proper for fences, as it grows quickly, is 
 very durable, and makes a very handsome appearance. It thrives 
 on any soil, where a ditch and a new bank are prepared for its re- 
 ception, unless the soil consist entirely of sand or gravel : it will 
 nevertheless grow even in such situations, it the planting be suc- 
 ceeded by heavy rains. -'. Black-Thorn is another excellent 
 shrub for' a fence: it is, however, much inferior to the while- 
 thorn, as its growth is not so certain ; and, where it thrives, its 
 roots spread, "and are i^pt lo run in loo much upon the land. For 
 dead hedges and mending open places, the bushes of this plant 
 are superior even to the white-thorn ; they ;;re likewise less liable 
 to be cro[)ped by cattle. 3. The Holly, which is indeed preferable 
 to eUlier of the plants above-mentioned ; for, though its growtli is 
 slower, and more uncertain, yet where it succee<ls, it amply com- 
 pensates for the delav and expence iiu'urred, by its thickness, 
 height, and strength." The best mode of making a fence with 
 these trees is, to plant ti.em with the quick or white-thorn, in the 
 proportion of one of the fcunier lo four of the kilter. Both will. 
 Iloiirish ; and, a.s the hollies increase in size, the white-thorns may- 
 be pulled up: so that when the trees have attained their full 
 growth, they will require the whole of the space occupied by the 
 (horns, and will make a most durable fence. If any vacancies 
 >houl<l intervene, they may oe easily closed, by btndmg down, 
 ,;rid covering the lower brandies with earth : ihu-, they will shoot 
 5 M fottli
 
 FE N 
 
 410 
 
 FEO 
 
 forth in the i-iHuinii year, aiiu tonn ;i liarritr iiiipenctiable to cat- 
 (!c. Uesiiie ilu'.-e, aider, and even I'ldf r, maki-, in certain siiua- 
 ti'ins, excellent fences. If sticks or truncheons of the latter, from 
 ten to twelve feet in length, be set in a slojiing direction each 
 way, so as to form a kind of chequer work, they will grow 
 speeililv, and cnnlinne lor several years. Yiiis plant is excellently 
 adapted to watery ])laccs, as its lowest roots are continnally spread- 
 ing, and thus prevent the banks on which thry stand, from beint; 
 nivlcnnined, or washed away by the cmTPiit. The last tree which 
 we shall mention is the Horn-Beam. It Is chielly used in Ger- 
 many for the purpose ot fencing land-- ; and is propagated from 
 sets or slips, which are planted on a parapet of earth, with a ditch 
 on each side, in such a direction that every tw o plants may inter- 
 sect each other. The bark is then scraped olf the place where 
 they meet, and wliich is covered wilii bands of straw: in conse- 
 rpience of this operation, the two plants become conjoined, and 
 put forth horizontal slantinj^ shoots, forming a kind of palisade ; 
 wliich, if lopped annually, will render every part of the fence 
 equally iinpi iietrahle to men and cattle. 
 
 Fen'CE-Month, the month wherein deer begin to fawn, during 
 which it is unlawful to hunt in the forest. It commences 15 days 
 before midsunmier, and ends 1j days after it. This month, by 
 ancient ioresters, is called defence-month. 
 
 FENCING, the art of making a proper u^e of the sword, 
 either lor attacking an eneniv, or defending one's self. 'I'his art is 
 acquired by practi.-ing with foils, called in Latin nides: whence 
 fencing is also denominated gladialura rudiaria. It is one of Ihe 
 exeiciscs learnt in the academies- Pvrard assures us, that the art 
 ol fencing is so highly esteemed in the East Indies, lliat none but 
 princes and noblemen are allowed to teach it. They wear a 
 badge or cognizance on their right arms, called in their language 
 csaru ; which is put on with great ceremony, like the badges of 
 our orders of knighthood, by ihe kings themselves. Fencing is 
 divided into two parts, simple anil compound. ■ 
 
 1. Fencing, CoMioVNi), includes all the possible arts and in- 
 ventions to deceive the enemy, and make him leave that part, we 
 have a design on, bare and unguarded, upon finding ne cannot 
 come at it by force, nor by the agility of the simple play. The 
 principal means hereof are, on the olfensive side, feints, appeals, 
 clashings, and entanglinus of swords, half thrusts, &c. ; and, on 
 the defensive, to pu-.h in parrying. Of these a detail would be 
 here useless, as they are only to be understood and acquired from 
 personal instructions conjoined w ith practice. 
 
 2. Fencing, Simple, is performed directly and nimble , on 
 the same line ; and is either offensive or defensive. '] he princi- 
 pal object of the liret, is whatever may be attempted, in pushing 
 or making passes, from (his or that jioint, to the mo^t uncovered 
 part of the enemy. The second consists in parrying and repelhng 
 the thrusts aimed bv the enemy. 
 
 FEN-CKICKET. Sec Grvlius. 
 
 FENELON, Francis de Salignac de la Mottf,, was of 
 an ancient and illustrious family, and born at the castle of Fene- 
 lon in Perieord, in 1651. In it>89, he was appointed tutor to the 
 dnkes of Iiurgundy and Anion; and, in ItiOj vvas consecrated 
 Archbishop of C'aiubray. After this, a storm rose against him, 
 that obliged him to leave the court for ever, occasioned by his 
 work entitled, " An p'xplication of the Maxims of the Saints 
 concerning the Interior Life ;" in which he seemed to favour th.e 
 extravagant notions of Madam Cjuyon, and tlio principles of 
 Quietism. A controversy on this occasion was "for some time car- 
 ried on between him and M. Bosstiet, bishop of Meaux ; which 
 tcntiina'ed in an appeal to the pope, who condenmed the book, 
 March \'2lh, Hi99. Some allege that there was more of c«urt 
 policy than religious zeal in this affair ; but be this as it may, the 
 archbishop submitted patiently, and retiring to his diocese, per- 
 formed the duties of his station, and led a most exemplary life, 
 'i'he work that gained him the greatest reputation, and which will 
 ri'udcr his memory iimnortal, is his •' Adventures of 1 elema- 
 chns ;" the style ot which is natural, the fictions well contrived, 
 the moral sublime, and the political maxims tending all to the 
 liappiness of mankind. Hence it is thought, as the printing of this 
 work was stopped at Paris, that the prelate's heresv was rather in 
 politics than religion ; and though his disgrace was prior to this 
 work, he had, whil^e he was tutor to the young princes, taught 
 tliein llic same principles asserted and exemplilied in Telciua- 
 
 chus. Fei'.ei n died in i;ij ; and a collectn-n of all liis religious 
 works w;'> afterwirds prints u at Uotteidani, uiuier llie lare of th« 
 Marquis Fenelon his grand nephew, when ambassador to the 
 State>-(ieiieral. 
 
 FENl'^'vI, the capital ofChiainpa. 
 
 FENESFRELLE, a town of Piedmont, in the Vaudois, 18 
 mihs \V. ot 1 urin. 
 
 FENNEL, ii! botany. See. Anethum. 
 
 Fennel Flower. See Ntgella. 
 
 FENL'GKEKK. See TutsoNtLLA. 
 
 FEOD, or t EUD, is detinei! to be a riglit which a vassal lialli 
 in lands or some immovtable th ng ol his lord's, to hep the same, 
 and lake the profits thereof hereditarily, lenciering unto the lord 
 such fendardiities and services as belcng to mi)!ta;y tenure, &c. 
 and the property of the soil aKvays remaiii:ng to the lord. Pon- 
 toppidan says, tliat odh in tise northern languages is the same 
 with proprUtiis, and all with totum in the Latm : hence, odhall 
 signifies riglit ; and hence we may cc.ijecture, that the uilal nght 
 in I'lnland is derived. By transposing the^e two syllables, we 
 form the word allodh ; whence we have the etymology of the' 
 allodium or absolute properly claimed by the holder, of fiefs or 
 feuds ; and combining cxi/j, iignifying propc riy, with the word Jce, 
 signifying, a conditional stipend or reward, we have the word 
 feod/i, signifying, a property given by way of stipend or reward 
 upon a certain condition." See Feodal System. 
 
 Feodal System, th.e constitution of P'lel's or Feuds. About 
 12 centuries ago, this system was so univers illy received in Eu- 
 ro) e, that Sir Heiiry Siielman calls it " the law of nations in our 
 we^tcrn world." Hence it deserves our attention in a particular 
 manner; aknowledeeof the diilerent leuds being indispensably 
 reqnis.le for a proper Understanding either of the civil government 
 ot our own country, or the laws by wh:cli its landed property is 
 regulated. I'he military policy of the Geltic or northern nations, 
 known by the names of Goths, Vandals, Franks, IIunn<, and i^om- 
 hards, furnished the original constitution or systen, ol Kuds. 1 hese 
 |)eople pouring out in vast multitudes from the same oflicina gen- 
 tium, or store-house of nations, o\er-ran all the European coun- 
 tries on tiie declension of the Roman empire. Thev brought the 
 feudal system along with them from the countries out of which 
 tiicy emigrated ; and, supposing it to be liie most proper me- 
 ihod of securing their neiv concpiests, they introduced it into their 
 more southerly colonies. Accordingto this system, the vietorious 
 gen.-ral allotted considerable tracks of land to his principal olucers ; 
 while they, in like nianner divided their possessions among the in- 
 ferior officers, and the common soldiers wlio were thought to l)e 
 the most deserving. Allotments of this kind wen* named tcoda, 
 fiefs, fees, or feud-, from a combination of words, in the lan- 
 guage of these barbarians, signifying a reward or stipend bestowed 
 on certain conditions. The condition upon which these rewards 
 were given was, that the po-.M*ssors should faithlully serve tiic per- 
 son from wli'ini they were received, both at home and abroad, iu 
 the mditary way. To this they engaged themselves by ajura- 
 meiitum iidelit.itis, or oalh of tVally, in the event of a breach of 
 which, either by not ])erformiiig liic service agreed upon, or by 
 deserting their lord in time of battle, &c. the lands were to reuirn 
 to their original possessor. Th.e possessors of icodal allotments 
 thus became interested in the defence of lliem ; anil not only the 
 receivers, but those who gave them, were equally and mutually 
 bound to defend their possessions, none of them being able to pre- 
 tend any right but th.at of conquest. For this purpose, govern- 
 ment and subordination were absolutely necessary ; it being im- 
 possible to conduct any system of defence where every thing was 
 tumultuous and irregular. Every person, therefore, who was a 
 fi'iidatory, i. c. who had received hinds, was bound to do every 
 thing in his power to defend the lord of his fee ; wh.ile, on tiie 
 other hand, the latter was no less subordinate to his immediate su- 
 perior ; and so up to the prince himself. In like manner a reci- 
 procal bond of defence existed doMii fiom the prince to the lowest 
 feodists. Such were the foundations on wdiich the feodal system 
 was properly established : and the ni-tiiral conse(|uence was, a mi- 
 litary subjection throughout the whole community. The prince 
 could always collect an army ol feudatories ready to defend noi 
 only the kingdom in general, but the particular possessions of 
 each person ; and the propriety of this constitution was soon ap- 
 parent in the strength uliich these newly erected kingdoms acquir-
 
 FEO 
 
 411 
 
 Y F,0 
 
 '.A, and the valour with wliiili tiK-ir conq^le^ts were dofeu led. !?(•- 
 ides these feoilnl -rsiUs, hu«cvi-r, «!\;c-h w.-re held only on the 
 erms of Tnilitary service above mentioned, there were others called 
 i\lodijl, which were given upon more eiilarjred principles. 'I'o 
 hese every freeman Mad a title; and could not only claim his 
 :erritory a': well as ir.e rest, bnt dispose of it at his pleasure ; and 
 his freedom was ilenominaled ..liodialily. These allodials. hovv- 
 .■ver, were not exempted from military st-rvice. A part of their 
 reedom consisted in liberty to !;o to the wars ; for this, in the bar 
 jarous times we speak of, was the only way loaccjuire any degree 
 }f renown. Only the slaves were ilestined to follow the arts ot 
 jeaee; while every free person was not only at lioerty to defend 
 lis covuitry, hut under an obligation to do it in case of any urgent 
 lece-sity. Thus there was a feodal and a national militia. Tlie 
 "ree people only were allowed to possess projjerty ; tlie feudal vas- 
 sals constituted the army, properly so called ; wiiile the national 
 militia was composed of the allodial proprietors. This alloifal.ty, 
 liowever, was not confined to landed property, but included like- 
 wise moveable estates or money ; cO that pr^iprietors of the latter 
 kind were oblised also in times of d;ir.;jer to bear arms and ap- 
 pear in the held. Between the feodal and allodial proprietors, 
 however, there was this farther di.'ference, that tlie latter had no 
 :oucern with any private quarlv!^ whieli miglit take pl.!ce among 
 rhe lords themselves ; so tli/, tiiey were never obliged to appear in 
 the field unless when called forth by the sovereign against the ene- 
 mies of the nation at large. Tliij circumstance we m:ght suppose 
 to be an advantage, but it ultimately operated otherwise; becom- 
 ing the means of changing the allodial right into a feodal tenure. 
 For some time tlie holders of fiefs had an eminent advantage over 
 Llie alio lia! proprietors. This was owim; to tlie imperfection oi 
 government in tliose da^s: so that the nobles had it in their power 
 to revenge their own quarrels, while the weak were equally ex- 
 posed to the insults of both parties. The lord and liis vassals 
 therefore were aUvaJ's formidable; but the allodial proprietoi-s had 
 scarce any means of defending themsel?cs. The reasons of this 
 were, 1st, that the law did not allow tiiem to commit any hostili- 
 ties; and2dly, they were too distant an*! unconnected to form 
 any proper league for mutual defence ; and hence proceijjied the 
 necessity of convertmg allodial property into feudal tenure. This 
 was indeed owing in a great me.asure to the absurdity and violence 
 of the times, by which giits of property, burthened with service, 
 and which might return to the person who granted them, were ren- 
 dered superior in value to the absolute and uncontlilional posses- 
 sion of a subject. Other considerations likewise contributed to 
 produce the same effect. As in those dark ages no right existed 
 but what had its origin in conquest, it thence followeil, that the 
 greatest conqueror was the most honourable person. The king, in 
 whom the whole exploits of the comnuinity ceiitred, as, being their 
 head, was the most honourable person ; all others derived from 
 him that (lorlion of honour which they enioved, and which was 
 most nicely a.lju ted in proportion as tliey a|>proached him. Al- 
 lodial proprietors therefore liaving no pretensions of this kind, were 
 treated with contempt as a kind of poltroons. From this disagree- 
 able situation they wished to free themselves, by converting their 
 allodial property into feudal tenures ; while tiie princes, supposing 
 ittheir iiuerest to extend those Ipiiures as much as possible, discour- 
 aged the allodial possession... As the feodi-ts supported the im- 
 portance of the nation and dignity of the monarch, it was not 
 thought proper to allow the allodial proprietors any greater com- 
 pensations tiiaii what were given to vassals in similar eases. Thus 
 they were exposed to continual mortihcations in the courts of jus- 
 tice ; they were neglected by the king; deiiietl sullicient protec- 
 tion fro.n the laws; exposed not only to continual insults, but to 
 have their properly on all occasions destroyed by the great; so 
 that they were without resource except from the feodal tenures, 
 and were obliged even lo solicit the privileges, winch were be- 
 stowed_in other cases on vassals. In these uiihoppv circumstances, 
 they were glail to yield up their lands to any superior whom they 
 thougiit most agreeable, and to receive tlieiii back from him as "a 
 feodal gift. Thus the landed property was everywhere changed 
 into feudal tenures, and liefs became univei-sjl. See Feod, FiV.f, 
 and Tenure. tor some time the feodal system was not onlv 
 useful in itself, bnt honourable in its principles ; but this continued 
 -longer than while the importers of it into Europe a<lhered to 
 eir original simple and noble maxims. DurWig that period, the 
 
 C 
 
 lord exercised his bounty to the vassal, wliicli the lattir repaid by 
 acts of gratitude : so that the intercourse betwixt them was of Ih? 
 most afiectionale kind ; ami this gave rr-.e to what are called tic 
 Feod:! Incidents. The expectLnls ol lielswere educated in the 
 hall of the superior, while the tenures were precarious, or only for 
 life; and even when they became heredil;fry, the lord toek rare of 
 the son and estate of his dt-ceased vas-a! ; not only protecting his 
 person, but taking charge of his education, and diiecting the nia- 
 nagcment of lii^ afhiirs. He took pleasure m ob.^erving his ap- 
 proach to maturity ; and when he came ot age, never iidled to deli- 
 ver to him the lands, with the care of which had licb^ii entrusted, 
 and which he had been careful to improve. This was called Wie 
 incident of ward>i:ip. The incident of relief was founded upon 
 the gratitude of the vassal ; wl i, upon entering on his fief, brought 
 a present to his lord, as an acknowledgmei.t of his care of him 
 during th.e early part of his life, and in order to conciliate Ids fu- 
 ture regard. The inciilenl of marriage jiroccedi d also upon the 
 principle of gratitmie OH the part of the vassal. The latter, con- 
 scious of the favours he had n-ceived, (fut n</t choose to ally him- 
 self with a family inimical to his chief ; while t'le superior himself, 
 ambitious to aggrandise and augment th.e importance oi ins family, 
 sought the most advaut.igeoiis match for liis vassal. .Sometime^ 
 the superior himself was reduced in his circumstances by war or 
 other accidents : but from whatever cause his distre-.s proceeded, 
 even though it had arisen from ids own extravagance or prodi- 
 gality, or when only de;,t;tule of means to support his ambition or 
 grandeur, his vassals were bound to siqjpoit and relieve him ac- 
 cording to their circumstances ; and this was called the incident of 
 aid. The incident of escheat took place on the part of the vassal, 
 when, through cowardice, treachery, or any remarkable misbe- 
 haviour, he rendered himself unworthy of his lie). In that case, 
 the taking of it from him, and giving it to one more worthy, was 
 called an escheat. While the lords and vassals thus vied with one 
 another in mutual acts of friendship and benevolence, universal 
 happiness, liberty, and activity, were diffused through the society. 
 The vassals behaved courteously towards the retainers, who were 
 immediately b'*low them ; while they again were courted by the 
 lords aJ~t'oiistituting their import.ince and sirength ; the loi-ds, 
 lastly, giving a like importance and dignity to the sovereign him- 
 self. Thus a regular, powerful, and compact system of govern- 
 ment took place ; an unanimity and attentinn pervaded the various 
 departments of state ; so that while the subjects were free, the na- 
 tion at large was formidable. During this happy stale of alfairs, the 
 members of the 'national assembly in every country in Europe ap- 
 peared there in arms, whether they came personally, or by llieir 
 representatives. Such particularly w'as the case under the Anglo- 
 Saxon government ; and the happiness they at that time enjoyed 
 nia'e the oppression and tyranny of the Normans appear the more 
 intolerable. In process oi time, the state of society beg;Hi to suf- 
 fer a remarkable alteration. The high and disinterested notions, 
 from whicli the happiness above mentioned, took its origin, de- 
 clined ;- the romantic ideas of chivalry ceased ; and much more 
 interested notions of properly came in their stead. The separa- 
 tion of the interest of the lords from their vassals was the first step 
 towards the destruction oi the feodal system. Thu> the incidents, 
 which had hitherto promoted their happiness, now did the very re- 
 verse. Properly being looked upon as a distinction superior lo 
 personal merit, introduced the mo^t mercenary views. In conse- 
 quence of tliese, the infant ward, the care of whom was wont to be 
 considered as a sacred and honorary trust, was now only looked 
 upon as a mean of procuring emolument to the superior. The 
 latter regarded the profits of his vassals as so many diminutions of 
 his own wealth. Instead of taking care to improve the state of his 
 ward as formerly, he impoverished it ; not only neglecting the edu- 
 cation of tlie heir, but olfering insults to himself; in-'umuch tliat 
 the relations of the unfortunate vassal were otteii obliged to ransom 
 from the avaricious superior both his person and ell'ects, By mer- 
 chandise of this kiu-<l the colfers of princes were Idled, and ward- 
 ships let out to strangers, who might exercise their »apac:ty with 
 greater freedom. When the vassal at last attained the years of 
 maturity, he came to the posses-ion ol his lands without any of 
 that joy and festivity which usually took place on the occasion, 
 lie received an inheritance wasted and impoverished, while new 
 grievances daily presented, to augment ti.c horrors of his situatioB. 
 All the incidents, which formerly were io ip;iiiy expressions of 
 
 gratitude
 
 FEO 
 
 41 i 
 
 FEO 
 
 gratitude on the [jart of tlie vassal, were now chunged into taxi'3 
 exacted at liie pleasure ot the lord. Heiore the vassal was invest- 
 ed ill his land, the superior exacted from him a certain sum or 
 gift, lobe measured only by his own rapacity; and in case of de- 
 lay or inal)ility to pay this dicniand, tlie superior continued in pos- 
 session of the estate. SMch scandalous 0|)pression could not but 
 produce the greatest discontent arid clamour. Applications were 
 jiiaiie to the law without success ; nor were even the laws rei^arded 
 which were fabricated on purpose for their relief. The incident 
 of niarriac;e now proved a source of the most dreadful oppre^sion. 
 The lord assumed a right of marrying his vas:-al to wliom he 
 pleased ; and he not only exerted this risht jiimseif, but would 
 sell it to a stranger, or allow the vassal to buy it himself; wliile the 
 penalty annexed to a marriage without the consent of the sn|)erior 
 involved no less punishment than the loss of the estate itself, or 
 some such grievous inlliciiun as for a crime of the tirst magnitude. 
 The case was still worse with a female ward ; whose beauty and 
 accomplishments became a source of gain to the superior, or were 
 sacriliced to pleise his whim or caprice.-; so that her relations were 
 frequently obliied to buv from him the privilege of marrying her 
 to the person she or Ux-y thought most proper. In like manner 
 the aid, which was fornicrlv a voluntary gilt from the vassal in 
 cases of distress happening to liis lord, now became an unavoid- 
 able tax. All aid tormerl) was demanded when the superior's 
 cUlest daughter was married, wlien his eldest son was knighted, or 
 when he himself was taken prisoner in battle. Tlie.-e were the 
 only legal causes of making a demand of this kind ; but in the 
 subsequent times of degeneracy, th(,' most frivolous pretences were 
 very frequently made use of by the prince to oppress the lord-, 
 and by the lords to oppress their vassals ; demanding sub- 
 sidies at pleasure, which their inferiors were always obliged to 
 comijly with. Lastly, the escheat, which in former times took 
 place (July in cases of cowardice, treachery, or some other heinous 
 crime, was now inllicted on the most tritling occasions. If the 
 ■vassal happened to be too long in attending the court of his su- 
 perior to take the oath of fealty ; if he committed any acUon 
 wiiich could in the least be construed an infringement of the oath ; 
 jf he neglected to give h.is lord waining of any misfortune which 
 he might suppose was about to befal hira ; revealed any thing 
 concerning him ; made love to his sister or daughter, &c. or 
 even it he should grant a tenure of land to another person in form 
 diU'ereiit from that in which he held his own ; all these, nay others 
 still more ridiculous, were judged sufKcient reasons for the superior 
 to seize on the estate of the vassal, and involve him and his family 
 in ruin. Notwithstanding these oppressions, however, the vassal 
 was still obliged to submifto his lonl ; to own him as his superior ; 
 andeven, in appearance, to pay him the same resspectas formerly, 
 Vrhen unainimity and cordial affection subsisted between them. Still 
 he was obliget! to perforin the same military service ; because failure 
 jii that respect would hive subjected him to forfeiture of lands ac- 
 cording to the original agreement. A vast difference, however, 
 now took plate in the valour and activity which inspired the army. 
 The vassals, forced into the field with desponding hearts, were in- 
 <Iiffereiit as to the success of the cause in which they were engaged, 
 and frequently ob^trut-led instead of forwarding the operations of 
 the field. Hence the sovereign found himself embarrassed ; and, 
 though nominally at the head of a maitial and powerful people, 
 was frequently unable to effect any thing by reason of the mutual 
 hatred and dissension which every where prevailed. Thus the 
 feodal states of Europe became uniiaturally weak: a remedy was 
 necessary ; and it is remarkable, that the same remedy was applied 
 all over the continent. This was, the making fiefs hereditary, 
 yhich till now had only been granted for a long term 
 oi years; and, in return, burdening the lands with a certain num- 
 ber of soldiers, which were not to Ije refused upon any pretence 
 whatever. Hence was derived the tenure of knight-service. A 
 certain portion of land, burthened with the service of one soldier or 
 knight, was called a knight's fee ; and thus an estate, furnishing any 
 number of soldiers, was said to contain as manv knight's fees; so 
 that now the manors, baronies, &c. became powerful according to 
 the number of soldiers they were bound to furnish. In the grants 
 from the crown, the nobility were obliged to furnish a certain num- 
 ber for tlie service of the sovereign ; and in those from the nobility 
 to their vassals, the like service was required. Even the commons 
 who had grants from the crown furnished a certain proportion of 
 
 knight". The force of the nation was called into action bv grant; 
 111 capite, or from the sovereign and nobility. A numer'cus am 
 powerful army was instantly assembled, auiJ at once reaJy foi 
 action. Gf this army the king was the general, the iiobihty tlv 
 officers, and the vassals soldiers ; the whole b?iiig exactly arraneed 
 and c.pable of entering upon any expedition without the least"de 
 lay. Thus a remedy was found In some nv. aiure ior the weaknes' 
 ot the feodal sovereigns, but though tlie knights tenure could ar 
 com|)lish this, it could not bring l>ack the former afi'ection and cor 
 diality, which had subsisted bi'tween the various ranks of people 
 On the contrary, by uniting them more lirmiy to one anotner by 
 legal ties, it rendered mutters rather worse. The oppression ori- 
 ginating from the operation of the feodal incidents, still continued 
 with unremitting violence. The graiHs of kniglits tenure were al 
 tended with the same oaths of homage and feaity; tlie same inci- 
 dents of relief, wardship, marriage, aid, and escheat, widi the feo- 
 dal tenures. The princes promised to abate somewhat of tlui: 
 rigour in demanding the feodal perquisites, but did not keep then 
 word. Laws were cccaiionally promulgated, and for some tiim- 
 had an effect; but palliatives soon became inefi'ectual, and a nev 
 state of weakness began to commence. The two remarkable erin 
 in the feodal history are, the time before the invention of knislit- 
 serviee. (See Knight,) and that during which it continue!', 
 fiefs were in a slate of fluctuation from the destruction of the Roman 
 empire till the ninth century ; but they were rendered perpetual in 
 France about A. D. 877, and were generally become so in every 
 couiilry ill Europe about the beginning of the tenth. Du Cange. 
 voce Militia, gives us an example of a knight-fee in A. D. Smi, 
 By the year 087, when Hugli Capet was raised to the throne c: 
 t'rance, knigh-service was become general all over Europe, aim 
 was introduced into England after having made its appearance in 
 other countries. Dr. Stuart informs us, that it appears from the 
 records of Malcom IV'. in lli3, that knigiit service was known in 
 Scotland, and that it was a novelty at that time. He thinks it even 
 probable, that it was known in the time of David I. In England, 
 however, there have been several doubts and inquiries among the 
 learned concerning the introduction of the feodal law s. Many are 
 of opinion, that they were introduced by William the Conqeert-r 
 and, consequently, that they were entirely unknown to the An.ai 
 Saxons: but others think, that they existed among the latter iii , 
 t!ie same form under which they were continued by the Normans. 
 Dr. Stuart is of opinion, that the Saxons wiio settled in England 
 could not be strangers to fiefs. He supposes the conformity of 
 manners, \viiich undoubtedly prevailed between the Saxons and 
 other Barbarians, a sufticient proof th.it Ihe hereditary grant of land, 
 as well as thefiuctuatingstate of feudal tenures which preceded it, 
 were known to the former. Collateral proofs are deriveu hum the 
 spirit and tenure of the Anglo-Saxon laws, but especially from the 
 grants of hereditary estates on condition of military service. The 
 condition of the liefs under the Anglo-Saxons was very different 
 from what it A\as alterwards. In their times we find no mention 
 made of those oppressions of whii li so much notice has already been 
 lakeii ; and this may easily be accounted for from the alteration of 
 the feodal spirit in dili'erent ages. During the time that a warm 
 and generous affection subsisted between the feodal superiors and 
 vassals, the incidents were marks of generosity on the one part, and 
 gratitude on the other; but as soon as a variance had t.iken place, 
 by reason of the interested disposition which the introduction of 
 luxury prodv.ced, the same incidents became sources of the most 
 tlagrant oppression. Tiiis was renvarkably the case in the time of 
 William the Conqueror ; and, during the reign of king John, matters 
 were come lo such a crisis, that the people every where com- 
 plained loudly, and demanded the restoration of the laws of Ed- 
 ward the Confessor. " What these laws of Edward the Confessor 
 were (says Mr. Hume,) which the English every reign during a 
 century ami an half desired so passionately to have restored, is 
 much <lisputed by antiquarians; and our ignorance of them seems 
 one of Ihe greatest defects of the English history." Dr. Stuart has 
 offered an explanation, in a conjecture, that " by the laws or cus- 
 toms ol the confessor, that condition of felicity w;is expressed w hich 
 had been enjoviid during the fortunate state of the feodal associ- 
 ation. The cordiality, equality, and independence, which then 
 prevailed among all ranks in society, continueil lo be remembered 
 in less prosperous times, and ot casioned an i.rdent desire for the 
 revival of tj)0se laws and usages vvhicli were the sources of so much 
 9 happiness
 
 I 
 
 V E O 
 
 4i.S 
 
 FEO 
 
 •ni)jiips5." Uesiclui till' greiit (li>liiiclion between the state of fiefs 
 • i>r (lie Anj/lo-Saxons anil iitult-r the Noriiians, tliey were no 
 ^ il:>tingiiislu-(l by tlie iutrofUittion of knight-scrvico. HilluMto 
 
 ■ reticiPinont of iho Knglisii hud bi'ci) obstrtulfvl by the invasion 
 \hf Danes, and the in'^ular siliiation of (lie kiiiftdoni ; but alter 
 
 • N'onnan corniest the in-h were iiiaric perpetual. Still, how- 
 •r, the kniglit-fee and kiiiv^ht-seivice were altogether unknown. 
 
 !\ illiam, the sixth duke of Kormriiidy, was vvil acquainted with 
 ery tiling relating to tiefs; for that duchy had experienced all 
 variety incidental to them from the lime of its beiiif; r^ranted to 
 ilio by 'Charles the Simple A. D. 913, to 10G6, when William 
 lettered EMi:;Iand. On this event, a nnmbor of forfeilnres tfiok 
 i-e among those who had followed the fortune of Harold II. 
 
 . '.ir e.states were to be dispo-^ed of at the pleasure of the con- 
 iTor; and it was natural to suppo^se that he would follow the 
 thotl practised in his own country. Hence the origin of knight- 
 vice in England. A grant of land, to any person whatever, was 
 imated at a certain nnmlier of knights fees; and each of these 
 liiirecl the service oi' a knight. Th.e grants of lands were even 
 ;ewed to the old tenants under this tenure; so that by degrees 
 
 ■ whole military people in the kingdom acquiesced in it. To 
 -complis!) this, Domesday Book is supposed to have been com- 
 piled, wiiicli contained an exact accoimtof all the landed property 
 of the kingdom. Hence it is to be concluded, not that William 
 introduced tiefs into England, as some have imagined, but that he 
 brought them to their ultimate state of perfection by the introduc- 
 t on of knight-service. This is evident from the laws enacted 
 durins; his reign. In these it is not only mentioned that knight- 
 vice was enacted, but it was done expressly with the cousL-nt of 
 
 conmion council of Uie nation ; which at that time was equi- 
 jnl to an art of parliament. The invention of knight-service 
 ived generally agreeable; for as only a few of the Anglo-Saxon 
 i vs were hereditary, the atUancemcnt of the rest to perpetuity, 
 undiT tlie tenure of knight-service, must hr.ve been accounted an 
 ■tjiiisilioa of some importance ; as not only augmenting the gran- 
 ;r and dignity of t'le sovereign, but securing the independence 
 ._. .he subject, and improving his property. In the happy st.ite of 
 I lie feodal association, there was indeed no necessity for the knight's 
 ' o; liut when the discordance and oppression so often mentioned 
 ID to take place, it became llien necessary to point out particu- 
 y every duty of t':i<" vassal, as well as of the lord ; and this was 
 iy done by the invention of knight service. The nobles pos- 
 •M'd duchies, baronies, ajid earldoms ; wliich extensive possessions 
 were divided into as many fees, each of them to furnish a 
 knight fur the service of the king, or of the superior: so that 
 every feudal stale could command a numerous army and militia 
 to support and defend it in case of any emergency. The knights 
 were also bound to assemble in complete armour whenever 
 the >u|)erior thought proper to call, and to hold themselves 
 in readiness wlienever the king or superior fomid it conve- 
 niL-nt to take the field; so tliat thus the militia might be marched 
 a; the shortcut notice to defenil or support the honour of the na- 
 tion. The knights were usually armed witl\ a helmet, sword, 
 lance, and shield ; and each was obliged to keep a horse. This 
 Ijst r;>quisile was owing to the contempt into which the infantry 
 h.id fallen, through tlie prevalence of tournaments and luxuries of 
 lious kinds, though it was by means of the infantry that the bar- 
 ians had originally distinguislied themselves in their wars with 
 
 ■ Roman?, and become able to cope with these celebrated war- 
 rs AH |)roprietors of fees or tenants by knight service fousht 
 
 1 fool: the cavalry were distinguished by tfe name of battle; 
 
 d the success of every encounter was supposed to depend on 
 
 in alone. They only were completely armed ; the infantry, 
 
 :ig furnislied by the villages under the jurisdiction of the barons, 
 
 .1 at (irst only bows and slings; though afterwards they were 
 
 lid worthy of nuich gr:'ater attention. While the ienikil asSdci- 
 
 • in remained in perfection, the superior could at any lime com- 
 : id the military service of his vassals ; but in the subsequent de- 
 
 j^ f.:- ;.eracy this service cuuM neither be de[.ended upon when w.uit- 
 ed, nor was it of the saiue advantage when obtained ",s lormerly. 
 The ii.vention of kniglit-servke tended in a great degree to reme- 
 dy this inccliveniencc. Those who were po-scsscd of knights fees 
 were now obliged to remain 40 days in the field at their ow n ex- 
 pjence; and this without exception, from the great crown vassals 
 to the smallest feudatories; but if longer service was required, the 
 grince was obliged to p:'.y his troops. In those liuies, however, 
 VOL. n. — so.t;2. 
 
 when the fate of n;'.tinns was frequently deiuieii by a single baltle, 
 a continuanci in the fiel'l for -lO day- was sufTicient for ordii : ry 
 occasions. ^I'luis matters seemed oiice moie to be restored nearly 
 to their former state. It was now, as much as ever, ine interest 
 of the nation to act with unanimity In its deltMice, not only apainst 
 icri ign enemies, but against the tyranny of ll-.e prince o^er his 
 subjects, or of one part of tlie subjects over the ol! cr. New iii- 
 coDveniencies, however, soon began to take place, owing to the 
 gradual improvements in life and the refinement of manners. I'roni 
 the first institution of inilltsry service, a fine had been accepted 
 instead of actual appearance in the field. In liie times of b:'rba- 
 rily, however, when men accounted rapir^e and bloodshed their 
 only glory, there were but lew who made an oiler of this compen- 
 sation ; but as wealth and luxury increased, and the mimners of the 
 people became softer, a general unwillingness of following the 
 army into tlie field became also iircvalent. A new tenure, cJled 
 escuagc, was therefore introduced; by which the vassal was only 
 obliged to p;iy his superior a sum of money annually instead of at- 
 tending him into the held. See Escuagf.-, and Kkight-servick. 
 Hence originated taxes and their misap|)li(alion ; for ;:s llie king 
 was lord paramount of liic whole kingdom, it thence happened, 
 that the whole escuage money collected throughout the nation cen- 
 tered in him. The princes then, instead of recruiting their armies, 
 frequently tilled their coffers with the money, or dissipated it 
 otherwise, hiring mercenaries to defend their territories when 
 threatened with danger. These being composed of the dregs of 
 the people, and disbanded at tlie end of every campaign, filled all 
 Europe with a disorderly banditti, who frequently proved very 
 dangerous to society. To avoid such inconveniencies, standing 
 armies were introduced, and taxations began to be raised in every 
 European kingdom. New inconveniencies however arose. The 
 sovereigns in most of these kingdoms, having acquired tke right of 
 taxatio.i, ks well as the command of the military power, became 
 completely despotic : but in England the sovereign was deprived 
 of this right by Magna Charta, which was extorted trom him, so 
 that, though allowed to conmiand his armies, lie could only pay 
 them by the voluntary contributions of tlie people, or their sub- 
 mitting to such taxations as were virtually imposed by themselvtJ. 
 I'he author of A View of Society in Europe, has traced the re- 
 mote sources of the feodal laws in an elegant and spirited manner. 
 (Book F. Chap. H. Sect. I.) Tacitus intonns us, that the indivi- 
 duals of each of the German nations cultivated bj turns a track of 
 land proportionable to their number, for the use of tlie whole; 
 after which each iuJividual received such an allotment of the cul- 
 tivated track as h'S dignity requii'ed. These nations had not alter- 
 ed their political principles at the time they overran ihe Roman 
 empire ; and hence the provinces of it were then divided after the 
 same manner. The most considerable allotment was bellowed on 
 the king, as the most dignified person in the community, and this, 
 allotment was styled his domain ; while the shares of citizens and 
 warriors, which were likewise in proportion to the merit or dignity 
 of each, constituted what was called allodialily. Cut as it ollen 
 happened that all the land was not exhausted by these partitions,, 
 what remained was considered as the properly of the community, 
 and in the barbaric codes was called the lands of the fisc. In sucli 
 German nations as had thus obtained a settlement, it was necessary 
 that there should be a more close connection betwixt tlie sovereign 
 and the chiefs, as well as between th.e chiefs and people, thanin 
 others. This was efiected by means of the lands of the fisc; for 
 of these the sovereign took possession, dealing them out to the 
 chiefs under the burthen of appearing in arms whenever l.e should 
 please to call ; while the chiefs in like manner dealt out lands to 
 these called their retainers, who were also obliged to supply them 
 with military assistance In cases of necessity. Hence a political 
 system vas founded, which h.ad a prodigious effect on society in 
 all those countries v. here it prevailed. The intention and tenJcu-. 
 cy of this system was to render the nation independent bo'h at 
 home and abroad; for while the people were all armetl in their 
 common defence, individuals were also properly guarded against 
 the attacks of despotism. The. power of the chiefs, who t'onned a. 
 regular nobility, was a counterpoise to that of the sovereign ; wlule- 
 the number of the retainei-s and vassals, constituting t'.ie greatness . 
 and power of the nobility, was a proper barrier agamstariotocrati-. 
 cal oppression; for a chief who oppressed his vassals evidently, 
 acted against his own interest. 
 J-'.EOFFMENT, in law, [Worn fco fare, to give one" a feud,! is.
 
 F E 11 
 
 414 
 
 FER 
 
 still directed and govL-riied In- tlic Teodal rules; insoniucli that the 
 piiiicipal ruU- relaliug to llie^teut and eliectof the k'odal grant, 
 tenor eit qui legem dat feudo, is the maxim of tlie law witii rela- 
 tion to feolVmeiits, niodii,> legem dat donation!. And therefore, as 
 in pure t'eodal donation^, the lord, from wliom the feud moved, 
 must exjires>l_v limit and declare the continnance or quantity cl 
 estate which he r.ieant to confer, ne quis plus dona<;se prasumatur, 
 quam in donalione expresserit ; so, if one grants by leoi'Aneut 
 lands Or tenements to anotlier, and limits or expresses no estate, 
 (lie grantee (due ceremonies of law being p; rforined) hath barely 
 an_ ejtatc for life. For, as the personal abilities of the feoffee were 
 originally presumed to be the inunediale or principal inducements 
 to the teolfnient, the feolilee's estate ought to be confined to his 
 person and stibsist only fc^r his life; unless the feoffer, by express 
 jirov'siou in the creation and constitution of the estate, hath given 
 It a longer continuance. 'J'hese express provisions are indeed ge- 
 nerally made; for this was forages tl-.e only conveyance, whereby 
 an estate was created in fee simple, by giving the land to the 
 feoffee, to hold to him and his heirs for ever; though it serves 
 equally well to convey any other estate of freehold. But by the 
 mere words of the deed the feoffment is bv no means perfectea : 
 a very material ceremony remain- to Ih: performed, called livery 
 of seizing; without which the fcolJee has but a mere estate at will. 
 See Seisin'. ] 
 
 FEOFFOK, and FEOFFEE. Feoffor is he wlio infeotTs or 
 makes a feoffment to another of lan.'s or tenements in fee sinqjle; 
 and feotf'ee is the person infeoffed, or to whom tlie feoffment is 
 made. See ]''EorFMENT. 
 
 FER DE i'OrKCIIETTK, in heraldry, a cro^s Isaving at 
 •each end a forked ircin, like that fo -merly used by soldiers to re.-t 
 their muskets on. 
 
 Fer de Moumn, Milrind, or In-ke de Moulin, in heraldrv, 
 is a bearing supposed to represent the iron ink, or ink of a mill, 
 which sustains the moving wheel. 
 
 FEUA15AD, or FEUAliAT, a town of Persia, in the province 
 of Me/.aiideran, ]'_' miles from die Caspian sea, seated among the 
 mountains which bound its S. coast. 
 
 FEIIABAD, or FERADAT, a town of Persia, one mile and a 
 half trom Fpahan, extending nearly three miles along the banks of 
 .^endcroad. 
 
 t ER/E, in natural history, an order of quadrupeds, of which 
 the distinguishing characters are, fore-teeth conic, usually six in 
 each jaw; tusks longer; grinders with conic projections; feet with 
 daws; claws subulate; food carcasses and preying on other ani- 
 mals: this ord*r comprehends the following genera: 
 Canis, Phoca, 
 
 Didelphis, Sorex, 
 
 Krinaceus, Talpa, 
 
 Felis, Viverra, 
 
 Mustela, Ursus, 
 
 which see. 
 
 FER.K Naturae. Animals of a wild nature are those in which 
 a man has not an absolute but only a (jualilied and limited proper- 
 ty which sometimes subsists, ;ind at other times does not subsist. 
 And this <]ualified property is (jbtained either by the art and indus- 
 try of man, or the im|)oteiue of the animals them -elves, or by special 
 privilege. A qualilied properly may -ubsist in animals 'fera' na- 
 tuix, by the art and industry of man, either by his reclaiming and 
 making them tami-, or by so coidining them that they cimnot 
 escape and use their natur.il liberty; such as doer in a park, hares 
 or conies in an enclosed warren, doves in a dovehouse, pheasants 
 or partridges in a mew, hawks I hat are fed and commanded by the 
 owner, and fish in a private pond or in trunks. These are no 
 longer the property of a man than while they continue in his keep- 
 ing or actual possession; but if at any lime'they regain their natu- 
 ral liberty, his property ijjstajitly ceases, unles-'thev have animuni 
 revertendi, which is only to be known by theii usual cu>toni of re- 
 turning. A man may liave a f]ualified "property in animals fera" 
 iiatura:, by special privilege; that is, he may have tl'.e privilc'^e 
 of hunting, taking, and killing them, in e\clus"ion of other persons; 
 under which heati maybe i-oii-idered all those animals which come 
 under the denomination of game. Here a man may have a tran- 
 sient property ill these aninials, so long as they contiiuie within 
 his liberty, and may re-train any stranger- Irom lakin- them there- 
 in; but tlie instant they depart 'into iinotlier libert\, this (lualilied 
 property ceases. ^ Black. .591. Larceny cannot be committed 
 
 of things fera; nalura-, w hile at their natural liberty ; but if they art 
 made lit for food, and reduced to tanu-ne-s, and known by tin 
 taker to be so, it may be larceny to take them. 1 Haw. y4. Set 
 Game. 
 
 FERALIA, in anli(]uity, a festival observed among the Konuwi 
 on Feb. 'Jl, or, according to Ovid, on the I7th Feb. in honour o: 
 the manes of their deceased friends and relations. 'N'arro derive: 
 the word from injti-i, the shades, or from Jciu, to carrv ; on ac- 
 eoimt of a repast carried to the sepulchres of such as tJie last offices 
 were that day rendered to. Festus derivet it fVom,yir;c, on ac- 
 count of the victims sacrillced. Vossius observes, that the Ro- 
 mans called death./cca, cruel, and that the word feralia might arise 
 thence. 
 
 FICRCALA, or FORCUEA, a town of Africa, in Biledulgerid, 
 .")() miles W. of Segilmts-a. Eon. 4. 30. W. Lat. 31. 40. IS. 
 
 FERDINAND" V. king of Spain, who married Isabella, ol 
 C'a-.tile, whereby that kingdom was united to the Spanish crown, 
 'I'his illustrious [)air laid the foundation of the glory and power ol 
 Spain. 'I'he conquest of Granada, and the discovery of America 
 by Christoplier Columbus, make their reign a celebrated era in 
 history. He died in IJlG, aged 03. 
 
 Ferdina.nd Naronka, an island of South America, on the 
 coast of Brasil. Lon. 32. 43. W. Lat. 3. j6. S. 
 
 FERE, a town of France, in the department of Aisne, and late 
 province of Picardy, famous for its powiler-miU and school of ar- 
 tiilerv. It is seated at the conflux of the Serre and Oisc, 75 miles 
 N.E'. of Paris. 
 
 FEKl'NTARll, in Roman antiquity, were auxiliary troops, 
 lightly armed ; their weapons being a sword, bow, arrows, and a 
 sling. 
 
 FERENTINO, oi FIORENTINO (the ancient Fi^rentinum), 
 a city of Italy, in the Caiiipania of Rome, 44 miles S. E. of 
 Rome. 
 
 i''ERENTINUM, in ancient geography, a town of the Her- 
 nici in Latium, which the Romans, alter sulnluing that nation, al- 
 lowed to be governed by its own laws : now called Ferentino. 
 
 FEREIRIUS, a surname of Jupiter, from./c;-c«<fo, because he 
 h.ad a-sisted the Romans, orj'cricndo, because he had conquered 
 their enemies under Romulus. He had a temple at Rome, built 
 bv Romulus, to which the spolia opiina were always carried. 
 
 FER ETRUM, among the Romans, the bier used in carrying 
 out the bodies of the dead, which duty was performed by tho 
 nearest male relations of the deceased : thus sons carried out their 
 parents, brothers their sisters, &:c. 
 
 FERGl'SON, James, an. eminent experimental philosopher 
 and mechanic, born in Scotland, of poor parents. At the earliest 
 age his extraordinary genius began to exert itself. He first learn- 
 ed to read by overhearing his father teach his elder brother: and 
 he Iiad made this aci|uisition before any one suspected it. He 
 soon discovered a |jeculia-r genius for mechanics, on seeing his fa- 
 ther use a lever. He pursued this study a considerable length, 
 even whilst very young; and made a watch in wood-work, from 
 having once seen one. As he had no instructor, nor any help 
 from books, every thing he learned had all the merit of an original 
 discovery ; and such he believed it to be. As soon as his age 
 would i)ermit, he went to service; in which he met with hardships, 
 which rendered his constitution feeble through life. W hilst he 
 was sirvant lo a farmer (whose goodness he acknowledges in the 
 modest and humble account of himself, which he prefixed to his 
 last publication), he frecpientlv contemplated the stars ; and began 
 the study of astronomy, by laying down, from his own observa- 
 tions only, a celestial globe. His kind master, observhig these 
 nnuks ol his ingenuity, procured him the countenance an(l assist- 
 ance of his superiors. By their help and instructions, he went on 
 gaining f.-.rlher knowledge, and was sent to Edinburgh. There he 
 beg.in to take portraits ; an employment by which he supported 
 himself and family for several years, both in Scotland and Eng- 
 land, whilst he was pursuing more serious studies. In 1743 he 
 came lo London, where he published some astronomical tables and 
 calculations, aiul gave lectures in experimental philosophy, which 
 he repealed tvilh success throughout the kin:;(U;m. In 17j4he 
 puMi lied a brief description of the solar system, with an a-tronomi- 
 cal account of the year of our Saviour's Crucifixion, Svo. ; ;dso an 
 IJe.i ol llie .Malerial Universe, fleduced from a Survey of thi; So- 
 lar S\stem. Hut his greatest work is his " .\strononiy explained 
 upon Sir Laac Newton's Principles, and made easy lo those who 
 I have
 
 r E 11 
 
 41.3 
 
 F E II 
 
 liave not sliulit-H Mntlieiuatics." It lirst appeart-d in 17i(5, 4to. 
 ami lias been sev^nil limrs ro[)riiilcd in Svo. On thu acci'ssion of 
 llu' piv^eiit l^iiifl, to wlujin he had read Kcliires, Mr. l''i,'i\mison oh- 
 t, lined a pension ot lil(y poinuU a year, in 17(i3 he was elected 
 o fellow of the Uoyal Society, without |)aying the admission lee, or 
 tlie aiinii:;! subscriptions: the same year appe.ni'd his Astronomical 
 'I'ablesand Precepts, Svo. In 1767 he jiublished Tables and Tracts 
 icdativc to several .\rts and Sciences, Svo. ISesides these works 
 lie was the author of Select Mechanical Exercises; the ^ oinig 
 (.Jentlenian ami Lady's A>trononiy ; an Easy Introduction to As- 
 tronomy ; an Introduction to I'-lectricity ; the Art of Drawini.'; in 
 Perspective made easy ; and several tracts of papers m the I'hilo- 
 ^ophical Transactions. Me was aman of the ckare^t judgement, and 
 (he most unwearied application to study ; benevolent, meek, and 
 innocent in his manners as a child : lunidjh', courteous, and coui- 
 inniiicative; inste.id of pedantry, philosophy seemed to produce in 
 him only dilUdencc and urbanity, — a love lor mankind and for 
 his Creator. He died in 1776, aged 6lj. His friends had (gene- 
 rally considered him as iiosses^ing very little wealth, however he 
 lelt behind about the sum of six thousand pounds. 
 
 El'Jll.E, in Roman antiquity, holidays, or days upon which 
 they abstain frojn work. I'roclamation was generally made by 
 the herald, by command of the Uex Sacrorum, or Elaniines, that 
 all should abstain from business ; and whoever transgressed the or- 
 der was severely lined. — The feria; were of two kinds, public and 
 private. 
 
 i. Fkri.t; PnivATjE, the Piiiv.\TE Feri;e, were holidays ob- 
 M-rved by particular persons or families on account of birth-days, 
 tunerals, &c. These belonged to, and were one division of, the 
 dies festi. See Festi. 
 
 ii. FERr.»; Publice, the Public Fei<i;e, were of four kinds, 
 viz, 
 
 I. 1Tri,e Cokceptivje were moveable feasts, the days for 
 
 tile celebration of wliicli were fixed by the magistrates or priests ; 
 
 .of this sort were the Feria; Latinx-, Paganalia, Coiiipitalia, &c. 
 
 twiiich happened every year, but the days for keejjing tlu-ni .were 
 lelt to the <liscretion of the magistrates or priests. Of these the 
 '5 Feri.e L.\tin'.s; were feasts at which a white bull was sacrificed, 
 Sj and the Latin and Roman towns provided each a set (juantitv of 
 i\ meat, wine, and fruits ; and during the celebration, the Romans 
 - and Latins swore eternal friendship to each other, takmg home a 
 I piece of the victim to every town. The festival was instituted by 
 farquinius II. when lie overcame the Tuscans, and made a league 
 with the Latins, propo^ng to build a common temple to Jupiter 
 Latialis, at which both nations might meet and olVer sacrifices for 
 their common safety. At lirst the solemnity lasted but one day, 
 but it was at ditl'erent times extended to ten. It was held on the 
 Alban mount, and celebrated with chariot races at the capitol, 
 where the victor was treated with a large draught of wormwood 
 drink. 
 
 ~. Ferije Imperativ.*: were fi.xed and instituted bv the mere 
 command of consuls, prxtors, or dictators, upon the gaining of 
 some victory or other fortunate event. 
 .^. I''eri,b Nundinales. See NL'XDiv.ii. 
 4. I'eri^e ST.ATiv/t were k^pt as public feasts by the whole 
 cily upon certain moveable days appointed in tlieir calendar ;— 
 >ucli were the Compilalia, Carmentalia, Lupercaha, &c. See 
 Agoxali.a, Carmentalia,- &c. 
 
 FEKi.t, in the Homish breviary, is applied to the days of the 
 \\<ek; thus Monday is the feria secunda, Tuesday the fcria tertia. 
 I'he occasion of tliis was, that the first Christians used to keep tlie 
 ICastcr-week holy. They have also extraordinary feriie, viz. the 
 till ee last ilays of passion-week, the two tollowing Easter-days, and 
 the see<ind feria- uf rogation. 
 
 I'ERIKA, the ancient cityofThala in Africa, t.-iken and de- 
 ftroved by .Melrllns in the war with Jugurtha. It was visited by 
 Mr. Iiriice in liis late (ravels through Africa, who expected to have 
 loiind many magnificent ruins in the place, but was di-:ippoinled. 
 (lie only rem.irkable objects he met with were the baths, which 
 .;r>' e\<-(''sively warm. 
 
 l-'h-RMAN .\(TI, a county of Ireland, in the province of I'l- 
 ■ t -r ; hounded by Cavan on the S. Tyrone on (he N. and N. E. by 
 i yrconncl on the N.V\ . Leitrim on the S.W. ;ind Monaghan r.n 
 tlii.-W. It is .IS miles loiig;.ii(l J-i broad. A great part of it is taken 
 lip with bogs, and the great lake, called Lough Lame. . - 
 
 FEllMEN'l', in chemistry, any body which being a|iplied to 
 another, jinjikices tenm ntatiou. l''ermi"iils are either mailers al- 
 ready in the act of fermentation, or tl);it "-oon run into this act. 
 (•t the lirst kind are tin- llnwers of wint-, yest, fermenting beer, or 
 iermeiiting wine, tkc. ami of the second arc; the new expressed v.-- 
 gel.ible juices of summer fruit, Among distillers lerments are all 
 tlio^c bodies, which, when added to the Ii(]Uor, only correct spihg 
 tacit therein, and by removing some obilacle to fen-.ieiitation, 
 lorwarcl it by secondary means: as also such as, being added in 
 time ol fermentation, make the lic(Uor yield a larger proportion of 
 -pirit. and give it a lini-r llavour. 
 
 I' EKMF.NTATION, a sensible internal motion of tl.e consli- 
 tnent |)art'cles of a moist, fluid, mixed, or compound body ; by 
 the conlinuai.ee cif which motion these paiticles are gradually rc-- 
 inoved Ironi their fornier siUiation or coniliination, aiul again, after 
 some visible si-paration is macle, joined together in a dirierc-nl <n-- 
 deraiid arrangement ; so that a new compound is formed, having 
 c|u;ililies very sen.sibly different from tliose of the original fkiici. 
 I'ermenlation, pioperly so c;ille(l, i,, confined to the vegetable and 
 animal kiii!;duins ; for the cfVervc^cences between the; acids and 
 alkalies, however much Ihey ma\ resemble the fi.'nnenlalion of 
 vinous liquor-, arc nevertheless exceedingly dilierent. it is di- 
 vided into three kinds ; or rather, there are ll'.ree dilierent ttages 
 ot it, viz. the vinous, the acetous, and the putrelaclive. O: ihe 
 first, vegelables alone are susceptible : the lle-h of young aiiimals 
 is in some slight degree susceptible of the second. 'J lie fact re- 
 l.ited by M. Grosier, respecting the lamb, wine, and mut'on spi- 
 rit ot the Chinese, seem to shew that animal substances are also 
 capable of the vinous fermentation: unless we suppose that the 
 flesh of these anim;ils had been previously mixed wiihrice or some 
 other vegetable substance. Hul animiil substances are particularly 
 susceptible of the third, which vegetables do not so easily tall into 
 without previously undergoing the lirst and second, 'ihe pro- 
 duce ot the lirst stage is wine, or some other vinous liquor; of th(> 
 second, vinegar ; and of the third, ammonia. See Bah.m, Beew- 
 i.N'G, Chemistuv, NiXEGAR, &:c. Fermenlation is one of the 
 most obscure processes in nature and no attempt h;is been made to 
 solve it with any degree of probability. All that we know with 
 regard to it is, that the liquor, however clear and transparent at 
 lirst, no sooner begins to ferment th.in it becomes turbid, deposits 
 a sedimeiil, emits a great cpiantity of fixed air, and (hrows up i 
 sc-um to the top, accpiiring at the same time some degree of heat. 
 The heat of the vinous stage, however, is but moderate, seldom 
 or never exceeding that ot the iuiman body. The h.eat of the 
 acetous is considerably greater; and that of ihe putrefactive is the 
 greatest of all, insomuch that putrefying sub-lanccs, when heaped 
 together in great quantities, will sometimes break forth into actual 
 Hanie. The s|)Onlancons decomposition of bodies is retarded by 
 extreme cold, by the sudden drying of the parts, or by preservation 
 in closed vessels. The two first circumstances necessarily retard 
 the chemical effects by depriving the parts of that fluidity which 
 is almost indispensably necessary in chemical processes." It will 
 c:i-ily be understood that the third condition will retard the spon- 
 t.nieous decom|)osition of bodies; when it is considered that the 
 atmosphere itself is the soh\.'nt, or at least the receptacle of many 
 ot the component parts ol bodies, with which it is disposed to unite. 
 In well-closed vessels (he parts of organized bodies, which are dis- 
 posed to fly off in the clastic state, are prevented from escaping; 
 and such parts as might form new combinations, by absorbing ei- 
 ther the contents or the component p.irts cf the atmosphere, arc? 
 lirevcnted tor want ot a free communication. The three conditions 
 for the ace. iinplisliment of fermentation ;ire, therefore, lluidity or 
 moistere, moderate he.it, or a due temperature, and the acce's,s of 
 the :rr; the termenl.itioii will likewise be modified accor^lin'. to the 
 vn-icus 1 o upoiient parts of bodies. In the vinous ferinciitiitiiiii, the 
 vegetable malter being held in solution by a considerabh* cuianlilv 
 of water, and a small quaiitily of yeast being added, (he llnid be- 
 c-oincs (urbid and frothy ; oxygen is absorbed, bubbles ol larbonic 
 ;icid gas are disengaged, wlii'ii rise to the surface and break. The 
 disengagement becomes more and more abundant ; irucilace is 
 separ.ited, part of v\'luch subsides to the bottom; and pari being 
 expanded into froth by ihe elastic llnid forms veaat. Diirii-Jt 
 the course of several days, these elfeet- gradually" tome to llieir 
 height, and diminish again very s-lowly, and thus we obt:;;n 
 wine, brandy, cyder, beer, .'xc. from grapes, apples, pears, and 
 
 other
 
 F E R 
 
 416 
 
 FER 
 
 o(V,er fri'ii, fivvii every species of corn, as well ;is lioin sacfli:;- 
 riiie a:i-l mealy routs, 'i'heir produtlions, however, so far differ 
 from CAth other, tliat wine contains a greater proportion of spiritu- 
 ous, aiul less of nuicilaginoiis p-.'Tticles, ttwn beer; and tliat dis- 
 tilled spirits are d'-prived of all earthy i;nd \i5c011s ingredients. 
 But, as all fermfntable bodi>'s, beside the inlininniable spirit, pos- 
 sess a portion of acid and saline particles, which are not disengaged 
 during the tirst, or vinom stajje oi terinentation, anotlier separation 
 of constituent parts takes place, immediately after the former i-; 
 etTected, without any farther discharge of air-bubbles, or intestine 
 commotion of the 'iUiid ; though a volatile elastic vapour i; ob- 
 served to escape: thus, the spirituous parts, unless they have been 
 previously drawn olf by distillation, are communicated to the at- 
 mosphere, and thi^ stage is termed the acetous iermentation ; be- 
 cause its productions are the different sorts of vinegar obtained 
 from wine, beer, fruit, corn, &c. Although, in most of the fer- 
 mentable substances, these two stages naturally exceed each other; 
 ,\et, by improper treatment, the acet<}ns fermentation sometimes 
 appears betore the vinous can possibly conuiieuce, especially 
 where the process is mismar.aged by too great a heal; or, m those 
 bodies which possess little or no inflammable matter in their ele- 
 ments. On the contrary, such vegetables .as originally contain a 
 sufficient proportion of aerial and tiery con>'.ltuenls, will easily ler- 
 iiient, by the simple nicans of warmth ai:d water. But, if those 
 elementary ingreilients be in a manner deprived of their activity, 
 by too many crude and viscid particles being combined with them, 
 it will then be nece.^sary to make certain additions, partly nalm'al, 
 and partly artihcial, in order to dispone them more readily to fer- 
 ment. These means, or additions, are such as have either already 
 undergone fermentation : or are easily disposed to ferment; of llie 
 former kind are yeast and leaven; of the latter, hcncy, sugar, 
 especially in a state of molasses.-and other sweet substances, Avbieh, 
 however, but slowly promote fermentation; nay, if they be previ- 
 ously diluted or dissolved in too hot water, and in that state addetl 
 to the fermetitable materials, they will entirely check that process. 
 There are, besides, other means of promoting it ; for instance, the 
 dried leaves of the vine in a state cf powder; creanr of tartar, 
 e^pecialiy after it has been repeatedly moistened with strong vine- 
 gar, and afterwards dried; the cnnnb of bread prepared in a si- 
 milar manner, and reduced to powder, &c. If fluidity, warmth, 
 and fresh air, forward the t>rmentalive process, the contrary of 
 these, namely, dryness, cold, and exclusion ot air, inevitably tend 
 to prevent it. Tiiere are, however, cases in which it may beccmf 
 necessary to in^pede its progress; and we may then safely resort 
 to the means above allmled to. But a certain degree of heal, 
 such as we have before stated, appears to be indispensably neces- 
 sary to conduct that process with success: an undue continuance, 
 or the least increase of heat, proves detrimental, while an appro- 
 priate temperature, in a remarkable degree pioniotes fermenta- 
 tion. These difl'erent points of heat should be accurately noted 
 and settled by the thermometer, or other certain methods; though, 
 for common, or all economical purposes, they may be limited to 
 what is in general termed a- tepid and a fervid heat: the former 
 is the bane of all vinous fermentation; the latter, or imperceptible 
 warmth, is the great promoter of it. And if, notwithstanding a 
 due attention to a proper tentperature and all other circumstances, 
 the liquor will not work of itself, it should then be assisted by sucli 
 substances as are called ferments, and of which we have already 
 given some account. In the Memoirs of the Philosophical Socie- 
 ty at Manchester, Mr. Henry stales the result of some experi- 
 ments, in which he produecu a fermentation both in bread and 
 wort, and even in punch and whey. Conjecturing, therefore, 
 veast to be simply a <iuantity of lixed air detained among the mu- 
 cibginons parts of the fermenting litpior, he boiled some v beaten 
 iTour and water to the consistence of a thin jelly, which he put in 
 tlie middle of Dr. Noolh's machine for commtmicating fixed air 
 to water. A considerable portion of gas wa.s absorbed; and the 
 .next <lay the mass was in a slate of fermentation. The third day 
 it bore so great a resemblance to y^ast, that an experiment was 
 n)ade on some paste for bread; f<;r which purpose it answered to- 
 lerably well, alter being baked four or five hours. Mr. llemy 
 made anotlier experiment with somewort onlv; part of which was 
 impregnated with air in the same manner as tlie flour and water, 
 and when poured into the remainder, a biisk fermentation ensued 
 in '.:4 hours; a strwg Ittvd of yeast began to collect cut the sur- 
 
 face, which en the third dav was fit for tuiming. In the course of 
 the experiment, good bread was made with the yeast taken off the 
 surliue. The di^jjiite uhich has arisen concerning Mr. Henry's 
 mode of producing fernient.alion, may be easily decided by a coin- 
 piirative trial. Let two gallons of wort be put into a separate ves- 
 sel, and kept in a moderate heat fer a certain time: let also two 
 other gallons be impregnated, either wholly or in part, accor<ling 
 to Mr. Henry's method, be put into a similar vessel, and depisit- 
 ed in the same place. If the termenta ion commence in the li- 
 qnor impregnated with fixed air sooner than in the other, the air 
 may be ra'iinnidiv conjectured to induce such fermentation. At 
 all events, Mr. Henri's experiments, with respect to bread, are 
 certainly decisive, and those relative to liqu. rs may thus be easily 
 ascertained ; an object cf the utmost importance to the publie. 
 
 FEU.MKNTEI) UQI'DRS, are those obtained by the pro- 
 cess described in the jneceding arliclo. See also Beeh, Brew- 
 ing, C'vDiiR, Wine, &c. All liquors which have undcrgoue the 
 vinous fermentation, are considered as great antidotes to putrefac- 
 tion: hence the total ab,stinence from them is assigned as one of 
 the chief causes why the Turks are more liable to the plague, and 
 other contagious diseases, th.an those nations among whom beer or 
 wine is the common beverage. It has farther been remarked, and 
 perhaps with justice, that since the custom of brewing and distil- 
 ling liquors has prevailed in Europe, many of those cdtanecus as 
 well as pulriil diseases, with w liich our forefathers were afllicted, 
 have been less severe, and less frequent than they occuired in 
 former ages. On the other hand, it is certain that all lermented 
 liquors contain a considerable portion of air, which appears to 
 combine the spirituous with the viscous parts, and which nin^t ne- 
 cessarily be disfngagfd, before tliey are carried through the dili'er- 
 ent organs of secretion. The developement and discharge of these 
 ai-rial particles, however, is not etlected without considerable ef- 
 forts: hence it maybe safely asserted, that fermented liquors ar? 
 less conducive to a sound and vigorous digestiim of food than plain 
 'water. Yet, with respect to their inllueiice on the human mind, 
 it cannot be denied that such liquors in general have the el'lect of 
 enlivening and exhilaratiuj the spirits, especially of those who are 
 naturally delicicnt in nieiual energy, or possess a weak and debili- 
 tated flame. Some writers, however, are of opinion, that they 
 al.'O have a strong tendency to corrupt the morals of mankind ; an 
 eltect which they evidently produce, even in temperate climates, 
 when taken to excess. 
 
 FERMO, a citv of Italy, in the marquisale of Ancona, on the 
 coast of the Adriatic, 17 luiles S. E. of Macerata. Lon. 13. 50. 
 E Lat. 43. 6. N. 
 
 FERMOS.V, or BENIN, a river of Africa, which runs into 
 the Atlantic, near Loubo, on the coast of Benin. 
 
 FEHN, in botany, Fn.ix. See Filices. Fern is very com- 
 iTion in dry and barren places. It is one of the worst weeds for 
 land, and very hard to destroy where it has a deep soil to root in. 
 In some grounds, the roots are found. to the depth of eight feet. 
 One of the most elfectual ways to destroy it is often mowing the 
 grass ; and, if the field is ploughed up, plentiful dunging is good ; 
 but the most certain remedy is urine. However, fern, cut while 
 the sap is in it, and left to rot upon the ground, is a very good ma- 
 nure. In some places of the north, the inhabitants mow it green, 
 burn it, and make the ashes up into balls with water ; which, 
 when dried in the sun, they use to wash linens with, and find to 
 be nearly as good as soap for that puipose. 
 
 FEKNANDO d.v i-oronh.\, a mountainous, but fertile 
 islaiul in the .Atlantic, three miles long, near the coast of Brasil. 
 Lon. 32. 33. \V. Lat. 3. ;-)S. S. 
 
 Ffsnando Po, or Fkkn.wd Pao, an island of Africa, in the 
 Atlantic, inar the coast of Benin, 60 miles in circuit. It is fertile 
 in rice, manioc, sugar-canes, fruits, and tobacco. Lon. 10. 43. E. 
 Lat. 3.20. N. 
 
 FEHN EL, or FERNELIt'S, Johk. physiciaii to Henry IL 
 of !■ 'ranee, was born in Picardy, about the end of the 13th cen- 
 tury. Being sent to Paris to study rhetoric and philosophy, he 
 ajjplied himself in a most intense manner. All other pleasure was 
 insipid to him. He cared neither for play, walking, enteitain- 
 me:it-;, nor even for conversation. He read Cicero, Flato, and 
 Ari^totle. 'I'lie reading of Cicero procured him this advantage, 
 that the lectures he afterwards read on philosophical subjects were 
 as elociuent si those of the other masters were barbarous. He also 
 t) a|>plie(l
 
 FER 
 
 417 
 
 I K S 
 
 ()()lii-d liinisulf earnestly to the inatliematics. 'I'liis toiitiiiual 
 
 1 udy (hew upon liim a lung fit of sickness, wliiih obli(;cil li'im to 
 
 ■ave Paris. On liis reeoverv, he leturned and studied physic, 
 
 ul at the sanif lime taui;lit philosophy in the college oi St. Tiur- 
 
 ua. Alter taking the degree of M. U. he improved himself ni 
 ,e mathematics; as far as the business of his profession wonUI al- 
 tw him. Henry 1 1, danpliin, ort'ered him the place of first phy- 
 ;rian to him ; but Fernel prelcrring his studies to the hurry ot a 
 ourt, declined the employment. When Henry came to the 
 ir.ine, he renewed his oilers vvhich Fernel still declmed, but was 
 ! Ia,^t prevaileil on to accept of the olfice. He died in l.'>38, 
 ■aving behind hin\ several works, as, De Vena: riectioue, a trea- 
 i-te on Physiology, De abilitis Rerun\ Causis, seven books of Pa- 
 hology, a book on Remedies, &c. which have been reijeatedly 
 irinted, with his life prefixed, written by William Plantius, his 
 lisciple. 
 
 l-'EUN'S, a town of Ireland, in \\'exl'ord, 1 5 miles X. of Wcx- 
 ord. 
 
 I'EROE Islands. See Ferro. 
 
 I'EROL, a sea-port of Peru, with a good harbour, 70 miles S. 
 «. E. of Truxillo. 
 
 I'ERONIA, in ancient geography, a tovs'n of Italy, with a 
 lood, sacred to the goddess Eeronia. 
 
 1'kronia, the goddess of woods and orchards, so named 
 rom the town, where was a wooil and temple consecrated to 
 
 UN'. 
 
 Ekroma, in botany, a genus of the decandria nionogynia class 
 
 i/id oriler. Calyx five-parted; petals live; berry globular, co- 
 
 ered with a hard, rough, woody shell, one-celled; seeds numer- 
 
 HiN. One sjiecies; viz. F. clephantum, elepiiant apple-tree, 
 
 ■ iNid in the East Indies. 
 
 lERRANDlNA, or FERRENDINA, a town of Naples, 
 '■. miles S. W. of .\Iatera. 
 
 I'lCKRVRA, an ancient and large (ity of Italy, capital of the 
 liichy of Ferraru, 1.'4 miles N. E. of Bologna, and J8 N. W. of 
 iRavemui. 
 
 Fkrrara, or the Ferrarese, a durhv and province of Italy, in 
 :hc late pope's territory, bounded on thcN. by the state of ^'enice, 
 m the \V. by the iluehies of Mantua and Mirandola, on the S. by 
 III- liolognese and Roniagna, of which it was formerly a part, and 
 on the E. by the Adriatic. It is jO miles long, and 43 broad 
 ilong the coa^t; but grows gradually narrower towards the Man- 
 uian. It i^ almost surrounded by the branches of the Po. 
 
 I'ERRARIA, in botany, a genus ot the gynandria trigynia 
 class and order. Natural order En<ala,\ One-styled ; spathes 
 nne-rtowered; petals six, waved and curled; stigmas cowled; 
 lapsule three-celled, inferior. There are two speaies, natives of 
 the Cape of Good Hope. 
 
 FERREOLA, in bot:aiy, a genus of t!ie dio^cia hexandria class 
 and order. Calyx one-leafed, three-cleft ; corolla one-petaled, 
 three-cleft: male, filaments six, inserted into a send-globose re- 
 ■ ipiacle: female, germ oval ; berry round, smooth, two-seeded. 
 There is but one species ; \\/.. F. buxifolia. 
 FERRET, in zoology. See Mustela. 
 
 Ferret Island, a small island on the E. coa--t of Labrador. 
 I, nil. .'i:). 40. W. Lat. jJ. 40. N. 
 
 Ferrets, among glass-makers, the iron with which the v.ork- 
 iiien try the melted metal, to see if it be fit to work. The Aord 
 i> also used for those irons which i»ake the rings at the mouth of 
 I'le bottles. 
 
 FERRO, or HIERRO, the most westerly of the Canary 
 Islands, near the African coast. The first meriilian was formerly 
 reckoned in mo-t maps from its western extremity ; but now, the 
 i; ographers of almost every kingdom make their respective capi- 
 i.iU Uie firnt meridian, as we do London. It atlords very little 
 water, except what is supplied in a very surpri:^ing manner by a 
 tiLe which grows in it. Lon. 17. 46. W. Lat. 27. 47. N. 
 
 1'erro, Faro, Farro, or Feroe Islands, a cluster of inlands 
 HI the Northern ocean, between li" and 8" Lon. VV. and between 
 01' and lij" Lat. X. They belong to Denmark. There are 17 
 which are habitable ; each of which is a lofty mountain arising 
 out of the waves, divided from the others by deep and rai)id cur- 
 rents. 
 
 FERRC>L, a sea-port tow n of .Spain, in the province of Gal- 
 Jicia, •:?l miles JN. '.E, of Coruuna, Lon. 8. 4ti, W. Lat, 43. 
 ^L'S. N. ' ■ ■ • , ■" 
 
 VOL. II. — NO. 83. '' 
 
 FERRUCJINOl'S, anything partaking of iron, or that con- 
 tain^ particUs of ih.it metal. See Ikon. It is particularly ap- 
 plied to certain niincral springs, whose waters are impregnated 
 Willi the particles of iron, generally termed chalvbeates. 
 
 FKRUl'GO, Rust. S.>(« Iron and Rust. 
 
 1 ERRUM, InoN. See Ikon. 
 
 I'T.RRY is a liberty by prescription, or by the king's grant, to 
 have a boat for passage, on a frilii or river, for carryii.g passengers, 
 horses, .'^c. over it for a reasonable toll. 
 
 FERTILITY, that cjualily which denominates a thing fruitful 
 or prolific. Nothing can produce fcjiility in cither sex, but what 
 promotes perfect health ; and therefore, all means and medicines, 
 all nostrums and specifics to procure fertility, ditterent from those 
 which procure good blood and spirits, are errant quackcn'y. To 
 increase the fertility of vegetable, says Lord Bacon, we uuist not 
 only increase the vigour of the earth and of the plant, but also 
 preserve wluit would otherwise be lost: uhejice he Inlers, that 
 there is much saved by setting, in comparison of sowing. Evelyn's 
 Sylva, the Philosophical Trarisactions, the French Memoirs, anrl 
 tlie works of the latest and best writers on Agriculture, maybe 
 consulted on this subject. 
 
 I'ERULA, [from ftrirc, Lat. to slrike,] a little wooden pallet 
 or slice, repiiteil the schoolmaster's sceptre, wherewith he chastises 
 his pupils by striking them en the palm of the hand. 
 
 Ferula has also been used to denote the prelate's crosier and 
 staff. 
 
 1''erula, in the eastern empire, was the emperor's sceptre, as 
 is seen on divers medals ; if consists of a long stem, or shank, and 
 a fiat square head. The u.se of the ferula is very ancient among 
 the Greeks, who used to call their princes >aj9woj)oMi, q. d. " fe- 
 rula-bearers." 
 
 Fervla, in the ancient ea^tel■n church, signified a place sqja- 
 rated from the church ; wherein the penitents, or the catechumens 
 of the second order, called auscultimtcs, axwas.uarixoi, were kept as 
 not being allowed to enter the church ; whence the name of the 
 place, the i>ersons therein being under penance or discipline : sub 
 ferula crant ecclesii. 
 
 Ferula, Fennei.-Giant, in botany,, a genus of tlie digynia 
 order, and pentandria class of plants ; natural order, UmbellatSE. 
 I-Vuit oval, compressed, (ilane, with three stria; on each side. 
 There are nine specie^ ; all herbaceous perennials, rising from 
 three to ten or twelve feet high, with yellow flowers. The drug 
 assaletida is obtained from a species of ferula, though not peculiar- 
 ly ; being also produced by some other plants. See Plate 
 
 ' FESCAN, or FESCIIAMP, a town of France, in the de- 
 partment of Lower Seine, 28 miles N. W. of Rouen. 
 
 FESCENMA, or FESCENNTUM, in ancient geography, 
 a town of Etruria, above Falerii, near the Tiber, where the Fcs- 
 ceiinine verses were first invented: now called Gale>e. 
 
 FESCENNINE Verses, in antiquity, were a kind of satiri- 
 cal verses, full of wanton and obscene expressions, sung or rehears- 
 ed by tlie company, with many indecent gestures and dance-, at 
 the solemnization of a marriage" among the Koinaiis. (Hor. ep. i. 
 lib. v. 14j.) The word is borrowed, accordiug to Macrobius, 
 from fasiiniini, a charm ; the people suppoMiig songs proper to 
 drivL''away witches, or preveul tlnur effect ; pul its more probable 
 origin is from Fescennia. ..... J) •• . ;;, 
 
 FESCIIAMP. SeeFESCAX. ' ■' ' 
 
 FESCUE, [vtfif, Dutch ; fcstii, Fr.] a small wire by whicV 
 those who teach to read point out the letters! 
 
 FESSE, iH heraldry. Tiie fesse, so called of the Latin word 
 fiisciu, a band or girdle, jw^sessing the third part of the escutcheon 
 over the middle : it i> one of the nine honourable ordinaries, con- 
 sisting of a line drawn directly across ilie shield, from side to side, 
 and containing the third part of .it, -between tlie honour-point and 
 the nombril. See IIiRALDRy. '. ' ' ... 
 
 Fesse, Party per, implici a parting across the middle of the 
 shield, from sidt to side, througii ihe fe-se point. 
 
 Fesse I'oisr,. is the exact centre of the escutcheon. See 
 Point and Hera'liirv. ,.' - . 
 
 Fesse Ways, or is Fesse, denotes' any thing borne alter 
 tlie manner of a fesse ; that is, iaa rankatross the middle of ^he 
 
 s-l"'-l(l- '..■„. ,^', 
 
 FESl'ENBERG, a town of Silcsi9,;iiJ5 the principality W Q^ls, 
 
 14 miles X. W. of "Wurtciubeig. ' ' ** ■- • ■ „«,.t~, 
 
 J () FESH
 
 FEV 
 
 418 
 
 F i: z 
 
 FESTI Dies, in Roman antiquity, certain days in tlie ytar, 
 devoted to tlie honour of tlie gods. 
 
 FESTINO, in logic, the third mood of the second figure of 
 the syllogism, the first proportion whereof is an universal nega- 
 tive, the second a particular afiirniative, and the third a particular 
 negative ; as in the following example : 
 
 I'ES No bad man can be happy. 
 '11 Some rich men are bad men. 
 NO Ergo, some rich men are not happy. 
 FESTOON, Ifeston, French,] an ornament of carved work in 
 the form of a wreath or garland nl tlowers, or le.ives twisted toge- 
 ther, thickest at the middle and suspended by the two extremes, 
 where it hangs down perpendicularly. 
 
 I'estoovs are now chiefly used in friezes, and other vacant 
 places which want to be filled up and adorned; being done in 
 miitation of the long clusters of flowers, which the ancients 
 placetl on the doors of their temples and houses on festival occa- 
 sions. 
 
 FESTUCA, or FESCUE, in botany, a genus of the digynia 
 order, and triandria class of plants ; natural order, Gramina. Ca- 
 lyx bivalved; spicula or partial spike oblong, roundish; glumes 
 acuminated. There are iJb sptcies ; of which, the 
 
 F. Fluitans, Floating Fescue, so called from its growing 
 in wet ditches and ponds, is remarkable for the uses made of its 
 seeds, which are small, but very sweet and nourishing. Tliey 
 ^re collected in several parts of Germany and Pol.md, under the 
 name of manna seeds ; and are used at the tables of the great, in 
 soups and gnie! :, on account of tlieir nutritious quality and grate- 
 ful flavour. When ground to meal, they make bread very little 
 inferior to that in common use. 1 he bran, separated in preparing 
 the meal, is given to horses that have worms. Geese are also very 
 fond of these seeds. Mr. Lightfoot recommends this as a proper 
 grass to be sown in wet meadows. 
 
 FETE, a French word, signifying a feast, festival, or holidav, 
 half adopted into the English language, but which, witli niaiiy 
 others, it stands in no need of. 
 
 FFVniARn, a borough of Ireland, iiiTipperarv, 8 miles S. E. 
 of Cashel, and 8t) S. S. \V. of Dublin. 
 
 Fethard, a town of Wexford, on the coast, 81 miles S. of Dub- 
 lira. Lon. 6. 45?. W. Lat. i>'J. in, N. 
 
 FETLOCK, in the manege, a tuft of hair grow inq behind the 
 pastern joint of many horses ; for those of a low size have scarce 
 any such tuft. 
 
 i'ETlT, or AFFETU, a small kingdom of Africa, on the Gold 
 Coast, E. of Commendo. It is naturally fertile, abounding in 
 corn, fruits, trees, palm wine, oil, and cattle. The Dutch have a 
 fort in it. 
 
 FETUS. See Fcetus. 
 
 TEU, the tenure by which lands are held. See Fee, Fee- 
 F,\RM, Feu-holping, and Tenure. 
 
 FEUD, in our ancient customs, is used for a capital quarrel or 
 enmity, not to be satisfied but with the death of tlie enemy ; and 
 thence usually called deadly feud. Feud, called also feida, and 
 faida, in the original German signifies guerram, i. e. war. Lam- 
 bert writes it /c-ciA, and says, " it signilles capitutts inimicitia.':, 
 implacable hatred." In Scotland and the north of EngLtnd, feud 
 is particularly used for a combination of kindred, to revenge the 
 death of any of their blood, ag-ainst the killer and all his race, or 
 anv other great enemy. 
 
 IFeui), [Feodii,'] in law, the same with Fief, or Fee. See Feod 
 and Feodal Svstent. 
 
 FEUDAL, or FEODAL. See Feodal. 
 FEUDA TOR Y. See Feodm. and Tenure. 
 FEUDF.RSDORF, a townof Upper Saxonv, in Brandenburg, 
 7 miles W. N. W. of Slorkow. 
 
 FEU-DUTY, in Scots law, the annual rent or duty which a 
 vassal, by the tenure of his right, becomes bound to pay to his 
 superior. 
 
 FE/ER. See Medicime. The ancients deified the diseases 
 as well as th'- passions and alTections of men. Virgil places them 
 in the entrance into hell, yEn. vi. 273. 
 Fever, in Tiriiery. See Farriery. 
 FEVERFEW, m botiny. See Matricaria. 
 Feverfew, Bastard. 'See Parthenhj.m. 
 FEVEKSUAM, or FAVERSHAM, a townof England in 
 
 Kent, seated on a branch of the Thames, 9 miles W. of Cantt 
 birrv, and 47 E. of London. 
 
 FEU-IIOLDING, in Scots law, that particular tenure b 
 which a vassal is bound to pay an annual rent or feu-diity to h 
 superior. 
 
 FEVILLEA, in botany, a genus of the pentandria order, an 
 diacia class of plants ; natural order, Cucurbitaces. Male, c: 
 lyx iive-clelt ; corolla live-cleft ; stamens live ; nectary five coi 
 verging lilamciits : female, calyx live-cleft ; styles three ; pom 
 hard, three-celled, corticose. 'I'herc are two species. 
 
 l-'EVRE, Ja.mes le, or Jacobus Faber, as he stiled himsel 
 in his Latin works, " was, says Bayle, a very little man, but 
 great genius, and of much learning." He was born in Picard) 
 and was i>ne of those who began to expel barbarism from the uir 
 ver-ity of Paris. Being suspected of Lutheranisnv he retired t 
 Meaux, and afterwards to lilois, Guientie, and Navarre, in whici 
 kingdom he enjoyed the protection and favour of Queen Marga 
 ret. Like his friend Erasmus, though he disapproved of the error 
 of the church of Rome, yet as he also censureil some things in tli' 
 conduct of the reformers, he never outwardly left it, which is sai( 
 to have given him great remorse before iiis death. He juihlishei 
 translations, notes, and commentaries, on Paul's epistles in 151!.',aB( 
 on other parts of the N\w Totamcnt in 1 jy2. 
 
 Fevre, Tanegui le, an excellent scholar in the Greek am 
 Roman learning, born at Cam in Normandy, in 1()15. C'ardina 
 Richelieu gave him a pension of 'JOOO livres to inspect all thi 
 works published at Louvre, and desigiiL'd to have made him pria 
 cipal of a college he w is about to erect at Richelieu. But thi 
 cardinal's fleath cut oil his hopes ; and Cardinal Mazarine havini 
 no great relish for learning, his pension was ill paid. Some tinii 
 alter, the Marquis de Franciere, governor of Langres, took liin 
 along with him to his goverimient, where he embraced the PrO' 
 testant religion ; after which he was invited to Sauniur, where h« 
 was chosen Greek professor. He there taught with extraordinary 
 reputation. Young men were sent to him from all the province; 
 in the kingdom, and even from foreign countries, w hile divine; 
 and professors themselves gloried in attending his lectures. Ht 
 was preparing to go to Heidelberg, w hither he was invited by th« 
 Prince Palatine, when he dieil, aged 57. He wrote Notes on 
 Anacreon, Lucretius, Longinus, Phiedrus, Justin, Terence, Vir- 
 gil, Horace, .'Klian, Eutropius, Aurelius Victor, Dionysius, Jtc. 
 A short account of the lives of the Greek jjocts. Two volumes 
 of letters ; and many other w orks. He left a son, and two 
 daughters, one of whom was the celebrated Madame Dacier. Jii 
 his Latin works he assumed the name of Tanaquil Faber. 
 
 FEURS, an ancient town of France, in the department of 
 Rhone and Loire, and late province of Forez ; seated on the 
 Loire, '23 miles S. W. of Lyons. 
 
 FEZ, a country of Africa, in Barbary, formerly a very extensive 
 kingdom, but now united to (he empire of Morocco. It is 
 bounded on the E. by Algiers, on the S. by Morocco and Tasilt, 
 on the W. by the Atlantic, and on the N. by the Mediterranean 
 and the Straits of Gibraltar. It is divided into nine provinces. 
 The climate is temperate, and the soil, though badly cultivated, is 
 fertile ; producing corn, lemons, oranges, figs, olives, citrons, 
 dates, almonds, raisins, sugar-canes, cotton, and flax. The country 
 abounds with honey, wax, salt, gums, &c. as well as with \'ariely 
 of wild and domestic animals. The lions are reckoned the most 
 daring in all Africa, and the horses are the finest in Barbary. 
 Camels, ostriches, goats, sheep, hares, &c. are numerous. The 
 chief exports are skins, furs, wool, Morocco leather, gold dust, 
 ostrich feathers, and the productions mentioned above ; the im- 
 ports, arms, ammunition, steel, iron, brass, quick-silver, spiceries, 
 cochineal, Vermillion, alum, opium, tartar, English woollen cloths, 
 linens, muslins, calicoes, fustians, damasks, brocades, velvets, 
 silks, paper, combs, watches, looking-glasses, and earthenwares. 
 Though Fez is the capital, Sallce is the chief port for the 
 |)irates. 
 
 Fez, the capital of the above kingdom, is described as a very 
 large pla< e, surrounded with high walls, within which there are hills 
 and valleys, only the middle being level and tlat. 'The river, which 
 runs through the city, is divided into two streams, from which 
 canals are cut into every part of the town; so that the mosques, 
 colleges, palaces, and the houses of great men, are amply supplied 
 with water. It contains about 80,000 inhabitants; and is seated 
 5 on
 
 FIC 
 
 4ic> 
 
 FIC 
 
 in tli« Cel)ii, COO niile-i N. N. E. of Morocco, and 160 S. of 
 ;il)r.ilt;ir. Lon. :.. V \V. I,at. 34. 4. K. 
 
 I'liZ/AN, .\ Country of Aliica, forming a small circular domain 
 II llic v.i<t «ikK'rn(s<, l]OuiicK-d on the N. by Tripoli ; on the K. 
 IV the (lesert-i whidi diviili- it Iroiri l-^yjjt ; on tlit' S. by Boriiou : 
 iixl on tlitr W. by tliu desi-rl* of Zuara ; lying bitwcen 'J j° ami 30" 
 ,at. N. It is an fxtensive plain, surronndod by mountains, cx- 
 ,-i)t on the W. litre, as in l'|>per EgNpt, lain is liarcMy known ; 
 lit the springs are so abnmhuil, anil there is sucli an ample store 
 .1 siibterrajiean waters supplied t'roni the neighbouring heii^hts, tliat 
 ew regions exhibit a rielier vegetation. 
 
 FlA.N'ON.\, a borough and castle of Maritime Austria, in tlie 
 r .viiice of Istria, and district of Albona. It is four miles from 
 \lbona. and \'J E. of Rovigno. 
 
 FIASCONE, or .\U).\ TK FI.ASCONE, a town of Italy, on 
 I mountain, I'iniilesN. \V. ofN'iterbo. 
 
 KI.\'r, [Lat. i. ':. let it be done,] in law, a short warrant signed 
 ly a judge, for nial<iug out and allowing certain processes. 
 
 I'lURAKI.E, a cla«s of fossils. See Asbestos. 
 
 FIBRE, [Jibrc, i'r.jilirn, Lat.] in an.itomy, a perfectly sitnple 
 joily, or at least as simple as any thing in the human structure ; 
 jeiiig fine and slender like a thread, and serving to form other 
 i.irt-^. Some are hard, as the bony fibres ; others soft, as ttiose 
 A huh form all the other parts. The fibres are <livided, accordi,-ig 
 
 their situation, into straight, oblitpie, transverse, annular, and 
 piial ; being foimd arranged in all these directions in diti'erent 
 arts of the body. See As.vTOMY. 
 
 FiunE is also used to denote the slender filaments which coin- 
 jose otiier bodies, wtietlier animal, vegetable, or mineral ", but 
 nore especially the capillary roots of plants. 
 
 FIBRIN, is that substance wliieh coiistitutes the fibrous part of 
 .he muscles of animals. If a (piantitv of blood, newly drawn from 
 in animal, be allowed to remain at rest for some time, a thick red 
 -lot gradually forms in it, and subsides. Separate tliis clot from 
 :lic rest of the blood, put it into a linen cloth, and wasli it re- 
 .eatedly in water till it ceases to give out any colour or taste to the 
 u[uid; the substance wliich remains after tliis process is denomi- 
 
 1 lied fibrin. It has been long known to iiliysiciaiis under the 
 lUiue of the fibrous part of the blood, but has not till lately been 
 iccurately described. It may be procured also from the muscles 
 ■f animals. The properties of libriii are the following : 1. It is 
 a>teless, of a white colour, fibrous, el.astic, and resembles gluten. 
 . . It is insoluble in water and in alcohol. 3. It is not dissolved by 
 dkalies. 4. But acids dissolve it without difficulty. 5. Witii 
 nitric acid it gives out much azotic gas. Ci. AVhen distilled it \ields 
 much carbonate of ammonia and oil. 7. It soon putrefies; when kept 
 moist, becomes green, but does not acquire any resemblance to 
 I'lieese. See Gluten. 
 
 EIBROLETE, a mineral, of the topaz family, first observed 
 ly Bournon, in the matrix of the imperfect corundum. Colour 
 uliite or dirty grey ; specific gravity 3,214; texture fibrous; cross 
 racture compart; internal lustre glossv ; infusible by the blow- 
 pipe. Usually in shapeless fragments. It is composed of 
 58,25 alumina 
 38,00 silica. 
 3,75 a trace of iron, and loss. 
 
 100,00 
 
 Fibrous Root. See Botanv. 
 
 FIBULA, [I-at.} the outer and less bone of the leg, nuich 
 mailer than the tibia: it lies on the outside of the leg; and its up- 
 per end, which is not so high as the knee, receives the lateral knob 
 of the upper end of the tibia into a small sinus, which it has in its 
 nner side. Its lower end is received into the small sinus of the 
 libia, and then it extends into a large process, which forms the outer 
 jnkle. See Amatomy. 
 
 Fibula, in antiquity, was a sortof button, buckle, or clasp, used 
 hy the Greeks and Romans for keeping close or tying up some 
 part of their doaths. They were of various forms, and often 
 idonied with precious stones. Men and women wore then* in 
 Ihi-ir hair and at their shoes. 
 
 F'iBULA, in surgery, an instruraent used among the ancients !pr 
 closing wounds. 
 
 FICAKI, a town and river of the French empire, in the island 
 »nd department of Corsica, It is 12 milej W. of Bonilatio. 
 
 FICHEKULOI.O. or FlCHEKt'OLO, a town of Italy, in 
 the Feirare*.', on the I'o. It is 13 miles \V. N. W. of J'errara. 
 
 FIC iri'F'LHF'.RG, a mountain, or rather a ridge of mountains, 
 in Franconia, extenifing nearly from Bareulh to F'.ger in Bohemia, 
 Iti miles in length from E. to \V. and as much in breadth Iroin 
 N. to S. 
 
 FICOIDF'.S, a name given to several distinct plants, as the 
 mysembrytmthemum, niusca, and opuntia. See MYsiMimy- 
 
 .VN THKMU.M, ?v'C. 
 
 FICTION. See Ali.egokv, Fablk, Poetry, iVc. 
 
 FicriON OF Law, is allowed ot in several cases; but it must be 
 framed according to the rules of law ; and there ought to be equity 
 and possibility in every legal fiction. F'ictions were invented to 
 avoid incouveni-'nce; audit is a maxim inv.riably observed, that 
 no fiction shall extend to work an injury, its pro|ier o])eration 
 being to prevent a mischief, or renieily an inconvenience, that might 
 result from the general rule of law. 3 Black. 434. 
 
 F'lC'l S,llie Fig-tree: a geiuis of the triacia order, and poly- 
 gamia class of plants; natural order Scabrid-.e. Receptacle com- 
 mon, turbinated, fleshy, coiinivent; inclosing the liorets either in 
 the >ame or in a ilistiiict one. Male calyx tripartite ; no corolla; 
 three stainina : female calyx quiiupiepartitc ; no corolla ; pistil one: 
 seed one. There are 5t> species, of vvhicli the following are the 
 most remarkable. 
 
 1. F'icus Carica, the Commov Fig-trek, with nn upright ^tem 
 branching 1 5 or 20 feet high, and garnished with large palmated 
 or hand-shaped leaves. Of this there are many varieties ; as, 1. 
 The common fig-tree, with large, oblong, dark purplisii blue fruit, 
 which ripens in August either on standards or walls, and of which 
 it carries a great quantity. 2. The brown or chestnut fig ; a large, 
 globular, chestnut-coloured fruit, having a purplish delicious pulp, 
 ripening in July and .August. 3. The Black Ischia fig ; a middle- 
 sized, shortish, flat-crowned, blackish fruit, having a bright pulp; 
 ripening in the middle of August. 4. Tlie green Ischia fig ; a 
 large, oblong, globular headed, greenish fruit, slightly stained by 
 the pulp to a reddish brown colour; ripens in the end of August, 
 i. The brow n Ischia fig ; a small, pyramidal, bro\ini--h yellow fruit, 
 having a purplish very rich pulp; ripening in August and Septem- 
 ber. 6. The Malta tig : a small ilat-topped brown fruit, ripening 
 in the middle of August or beginning of September. 7. The ronnil 
 brown Naples fig ; a globular, middle-sized, light brown fruit, and 
 brownish pulp; ripe in the end of August. 8. The long, brown, 
 Naples fig; a long dark brown fruit, having a reddish pulp; ripe 
 in September. <). Tlie great blue fig; a large blue fruit, having 
 a fine red pulp. li"i. The black Genoa fig; a large, pear-shaped, 
 black-coloured fruit, with a bright red pulp; ripe in August. The 
 carica is frequently cultivated in this country, and is the enlv 
 species which does not require to be kept in a stove. It may be 
 propagated «ither by suckers arising from roots by layers, or by 
 cuttings. Tlie sucker- are to be taken ofifas low <low n as possible ; 
 trim off any ragged part at bottom, leaving the tops entire, especi- 
 ally if for standards ; and |)lant them in nursery lines at two or 
 three feet distance, or they may at once be planted where thev are 
 to remain; observing, that if they are designed for walls or espa- 
 liers, they may be headed to six or eight inches in March, the 
 more effectually to force out lateral shoots near the bottom ; but, 
 if intended for standards, they must not be topped, but trained with 
 a stem, not less than 15 or 18 inches for dwarf standards, a yard 
 for half-standards, and four, five, or six feet for full standards, 
 'r hen they must be suffered to branch out to form a head ; observ- 
 ing, that, wliether against walls, espaliers, or standards, the 
 branches or shoots must never be shortened unless to procure a 
 necessary supply of wood • for the fruit is always produced on the 
 upper parts of the young shoot' ; and if these are cut off, no fruit 
 can be expected. The best season for propagating these trees by 
 layers is in autuirin; but it may be also done any time from Oc- 
 tober to M.Ti h or April. Choose the young pliable lower shoots 
 from the fruln'ul branches; lay them in the u.~iial way, co\ering the 
 body of the lavers three or four Inches deep in ll^e ground, keep- 
 ing the top entire, and as upright as possible; aiul they will be 
 rooted and fit to fparate from the parent in auttmin ; when they 
 may be planted eittwr in the nursery, or where they are to remain. 
 The time for propagating by cuttings is either at the fall of the 
 leaf, or in M.irch: choo-e well ripened shoots of the preceding 
 summer; short, and of robust growth, from about 12 to 1.1 ii cues 
 
 long ;
 
 FI1E 
 
 UO 
 
 FI F 
 
 long;, luiviiigaii iucli <ir two of tlie two years wood at their base, 
 the tops left entire; and |)Uint them six or eiglit incl;es deep, in a 
 l)i'd or border I -i c;ood earth, in I'ows two feet asviiider. \V hen 
 planteil in antinini, it \\i\\ be eligible to protect their tops in time 
 of luird fro^t, the (ir>t wiiiter, wilh anv Uind of lung loo?e liltt-r. 
 The caprifrication of the (ig-tree, which for many age.- was soenig- 
 matieal, is particularly worthy of attention, not only as a singnlar 
 plutnomenon in it-elf, but as it furnishes one ot the most convinc- 
 ing proofs of the reality of Uie sexes of plants. The flowers of the 
 lig-tree arc situated within a pulpy receptacle, which we call the 
 tig. Of tln-se receptacles, in the wild fig-tree, soim-, as the capri- 
 lii-us, have male llouers only ; and others, as the erinosyce, have 
 male and female, both distinct, lliougli placed in the same recep- 
 tacle; but in the cultivated tig, these contain onlv female lloweis ; 
 which are frcundatid Uy means of a kind of gnat bre<l in tSie fruit 
 of the wild lig-trees, which pierces that of the cultivated, to tle- 
 po-'it its eggs within ; at the same time diflusing within the recep- 
 tacle the farina of the male tlowers. ^\ ilhuut this operation 
 the fruit may ripen, but no eirective seeds are produced. Hence 
 the garden lig can only be propagated by lavers and cuttings, in 
 those countries where the w ild lig is not known. The |)rocess of 
 thus ripeningthe fruit, in the oriental countries, is not left to nature, 
 but is managed with great art, and ditl'erent degrees of dexterity, 
 so as to reward the skilful husbandman with a much larger increase 
 of fruit than would otherwi'^e be produced. A tree of the same 
 size,whici), in the S. of France, where caprification is not practised, 
 may produce about 'J.'i pounds tif fruit, will, by that art, in the 
 Greciau jslands, bring ten times that tpiantitv. 
 
 '_'. I'lrus Caprificl's, tlie wild fig-tree, has male flowers onlv ; 
 tlie farina of •which is used to impregnate the female tlowers of the 
 common fig-tree. 
 
 3. I'lcus Erinosyce, another species of wild fig-Uee wUich has 
 male and female flowers distitict. 
 
 4. I'icus Religiosa, the Ban-ian Tree, or IsniAN Fig, is a 
 native of several parts of the Ea-t-lndies. It hath a woodv stem, 
 branching to a great height and vast extent, with lu'art-shaj)ed en- 
 tire leaves ending in acute |)oints. Of this tree .Milton has given 
 a description eijually beautiful and just, in his Par. Lost. B i\. 
 1. 1100. 
 
 FID, l/ilia, Italian,] a pointed iron with which seamen untwist 
 their cords. 
 
 Fids or Fidds, are likewise used at sea to splice or fasten ropes 
 together. 'Jhere are also fidds of wood, made tapering at one 
 end, but mii-cli larger than the iron oni-s. Tlie pin in the heel of 
 the topmast, which bears it upon the chess-tree, i> likewise called 
 a lidd. 
 
 FID.V, a kingdom of .\lrica. See\VHii)\H. 
 I'IDO-ll.VM.Ml'.R, a hammer the handle of which is a lidd, 
 or made tapering into that form. 
 I'luDLK. Sec A'lous. 
 
 I'lDF.I COMMISSUM, in Roman anticjuity, an estate left in 
 trust with any person, for the use of another. 
 
 I'iDE-JussoR, in the civil law, is a surety, or one that obliges 
 himself in the same contract with a principal, for the greater se- 
 curity of the creditor or stipulator. 
 
 1''1DE>>, Faith or Fidelity, one of the virtues deified bv the 
 Romans, had a temple near the (.'apitol, founded liy Numa I'om- 
 jjilius; but no animals were olVered, or blood spilt', in her sacri- 
 lices. During the performance of her rites, her priests appeared 
 in white vestments, with their heads and hands covered with linen, 
 to shew that fidel'iiy ought to be sacred. 
 
 FIDIUS, in 4'agan worship, a god who i>resided over alliances 
 and promises. This deity, whom the Romans Imrrowed from the 
 Sabines, was also called Sanctiis, Semon, and .Send pater. 
 F11.)U1E, an inland of .Scotland, in the I'rith of Forth. 
 FIECIll'ACIl, a town of Germany in llavaria ; six miles N. 
 of Ketz. 
 
 FIF.F; See Fee, Feop, and Fhopai. System. It has been 
 an object of emiuiry among the learned, in what nation of barba- 
 rians li.fs had their origin. It is probable, that they took place 
 in the dinVrL-nt nations of Fairope, nearly about the same time, 
 on the same printi-pjes, and were c^jiitinued by siniilarilv of man- 
 ner-, coiKpieMs, ^c so that we canjwt ascribe the |)revalen( e of 
 thejn to imitation. In France, we Jind fiefs mentioned as early as 
 the HQG of Gh'Ulebirl L 'I'hey weie introduced into Italy by the 
 
 Lombards; among whom the customs and laws'relating to fiefs 
 seem very early to have made rapid advances. Giannune lli^t. 
 of Naples, b. iv. They were introduced into Spain before the 
 invasion of the .Moors, A. D. 710. 
 
 FII'.LD, in agriculture, a piece of ground used for tillage or 
 pasture. 
 
 Field, in heraldry, is the whole surface of the shield, or, con- 
 tinent, so called, because it contains those atcliievemenls anciently 
 acquired in the field of battle. It is the ground on which the co- 
 lours, bearing, metals, furs, charges, &c. are represented. Among 
 the moilern heralds, field ia less frequentlv used in blazoning than 
 shiekl or escutcheon. SeeSHiELU and Heraldry. 
 
 Field, Richard, D. D. an eminent divine of the church of 
 England, born at Hempstead in Hertfordshire, in litil , and ad- 
 mitted ;.t Magdalen college, Oxford, in 1577. In 1!>9S he was ap- 
 pointed chaplain to <}. I'lizabeth, and on the accession of K. 
 James I. was made chaplain to that monarch. In 1004, he was 
 appointed canon of Windsor, ami in IGuy dean of Gloucester. He 
 was much esteemed by K. James, who, in his usual punning way, 
 stiled him " a Field for God to dwell in ;" — an expression im- 
 proved by Fuller, who in cpiotingone ol his works, stiled him " a 
 Field which the Lord had blessed." He died Nov. 21, l6lt), 
 just when James was intending to appoint him bishop of Oxford. 
 He wrote live Hooks on the Church, and several other tracts on 
 religion. 
 
 I lELD Rook, in siirveving, that wherein the angles, stations, 
 distances, &c. are set ilown. 
 
 Field Colours, in war, are small flags of about a foot and a 
 half square, which are carried along with the quarter-master ge- 
 neral, for marking out the ground tor the squadrons and batta- 
 lions. 
 
 Fieldfare, in ornithology. SeeTuRous. 
 
 Field Marshal, a commander of an army in the field, an of- 
 fice now disused in the Hritish armies, though still of high rank in 
 other European armies. Lord 'I'vrav. lev, apjiointed in 17(i3, was 
 the last liritish Field Marshal. 
 
 Fikldpiece, small cannon used in battles, but not in sieges ; they 
 are from three to 12 pounders. 
 
 I IKLD Staff, a weapon carried by the gunners, about the 
 length of .1 halbert, with a spear at the end ; h.iving on each side 
 ears .screwed on, like the cock of a match-lock, where the gun- 
 ners screw in lii;hted matches w hen they are «pon command ; and 
 then the field-staffs are said to be armed. 
 
 l'ii:i.D \\ orks, in fortification, are those thrown up by an army 
 in beaieging a fortress, or by the be-ieged to defend the place. 
 Such are thi' fortifications of camps, highwavs, &c. 
 
 1''1ELE\VEKR, an island of Norway, on the W. coast, 2J miles 
 long, and four broad. 
 
 II I'.RF.NZO, St. a sea-port town of France, in the island and 
 department of Corsica. 
 
 I'll'^RENZL'OLO, a town of Italy, in Parma, on the Larda ; 
 12 miles S. E. of Pl.-icentia. 
 
 I'lERI I'ACIES, in law, a judicial writ, that lies at all times 
 w-ilhin the year and da) , for him that has recovered in an action 
 of debt or damages, to the sherilV, to tommand him to levy the 
 debt, or the damages of his goods, against whom the recovery 
 was had. 
 
 FIESOLA, FIESOLT, orFlEZOLI, a town of Italy, i,n 
 Tuscany, between Florence and Pralolino, anciently called Fx- 
 suIt, 3 miles N. E. of Florence. 
 
 FIFE, orFIFESHIRE, a county of Scotland, bounded on 
 
 the W. by Clackmannan, N. by Perthshire, E. by the German 
 
 j ocean, and" S. bv the Frith of I'orth. It is above 3-' ndles long, 
 
 and from seven to 17 broad; but along the coast, from Cniil to 
 
 j Culross, it exten<ls about 40 miles in length. 'I'he face of the 
 
 country is various. Towards the W. it is mountainous, having 
 
 1 the Lomond hills rising to a great height ; to the E. it is flat, well 
 
 cultivated, and produces grain of all kinds in great plentv. 
 
 Fife, in music, a wind instrument i-onsisting of a small pipe. 
 
 FiKE-R.Aii.s, in a ship, are those placed on banisters, on each 
 side of the top of the poop, and so along with hauncers or falls. 
 They reach down to the quarter-deck, and to the stair of the gang- 
 wav. 
 
 Fifteenth, an ancient tribute or tax laid upon cities, bo- 
 roughs, ii.c. ihrou'ih all F.ngland, and so termed because it 
 
 amounted
 
 FIG 
 
 421 
 
 FIG 
 
 amounted to a titteeiith part of what each city ov town had been 
 valiKfd at ; or it was a tilteenth of every man's personal istate ac- 
 cording to a reasonable valuation. In Doom-day tjook, there 
 are certain mentioned for levying this trituUe warly ; but biiice, 
 anv siitli tax cannot be levied out by ijarliamint 
 
 l''il- TH, in music, one of the liannonical intervals or concord*. 
 See In TERV.AL. The fifth is tlie second iu order of the coiirords, 
 the ratio of the chonl that affords it is 3 : 'J. See Chord and 
 CoN'coiu.). It is called fifth, as contiiinint! five terms or sounds 
 between its extreme?, and four degrees, so that in the iiat;Mal 
 scale of music, it comes in the fifth place or order from t!ie funda- 
 mental. The ancients cali«d this fifth diapcnte. 1 he imperfect 
 and defective fifth calleil by the ancients semi-diapente is less than 
 the fifth by a less semitoJie. 
 
 Fig, or Fig-Tkee. SecFicus. Figs are a considerable arti- 
 cle in tlie materia me<iica, chiefly imployed in emollient cata- 
 plasms and pectoral decoctions. 1 lie best are those which come 
 from 'J'urr;.---. 
 
 FIGARL:)L0, an isLnd of Maritime Austria, on the coast of 
 Istn'a. 
 
 FIGEAC, a town of France, ;n the department of Lot, 27 
 mile- E. o! Cahors. 
 
 FicG.-AT, in entomology. See CuLtx. 
 
 FltjflKi, a town of Africa, in Bileduiscrid, S. of Atlas, 240 
 mile- L. S. E. of .Meijunjez. Lon. 1. b. \V . L;it. 32. 20. N. 
 
 Fio- 1 REE Bay, a bay on the X. E. coast of J.ii:iiica. 
 
 FfG-TREK Bay, a bay on the S. W. coast of St. iCitfs. 
 
 FIGUKIRO Dos \'iNno-, a town of Portugal, m Estrema- 
 tlura, 20 nides N. of 'ihomar. 
 
 FIGUERA, FIGUERAS, or St. FERNANDO DE FI- 
 GUERAS, a strong town of Spain in Catalonia, which \» as es- 
 teemed impregnable, till the 27iii Ni.v. 1794, wlien i was taken 
 by the French, tliouu^h garrisoned with 9107 mt-ii, and defended 
 hy 171 pieces ot cannon. The military chest, 200,0001b. of pow- 
 der, ami a vast ciuautity of provisions, fell into the hands ot the 
 republicans. During the sie^e, the generals on both sules were 
 killed; viz. citizen Dugommier on the 17th and Count de La 
 Union on the 20th. It lies 10 miles VV. of Rosas. Lon. 2. 46. 
 E. Lat. 42. la. N. 
 
 FIGUUABILITY, [fioni.,%ura4/e,] the qnality of being ca- 
 pable of a ceitaia and stable form. 
 
 FIGURAL, FIGl'R.VTE, or FIGURATIVE, a term ap- 
 plied to v,h::tcver is expressed by obscure resemblances. The 
 word is ciiictiy applied to the types and mystciies of the Mosaic 
 Jaw ; as also to any expression which is u'ot taken in its pi imary 
 and literal sense. 
 
 FicURAL, or FfGi RATE NuMBEfis, arc such as do or may re- 
 prestiU some gi'ometncal tigme in relation to which thev are al- 
 ways cojisidered, as triangular numbers, pentagonal numbers, py- 
 ramidal numbers, &c. 
 
 FiGvuATE Numbers, are distinguished into orders according 
 to their place in the scale of their generation, beaig all produced 
 one from another, viz. by adding continually the terms ot any one, 
 the successive sums are tiie terms of the next order, beginning 
 from t!ie first order, which is that of equal units 1, 1, I, 1, &c." 
 then the 2d order consists of the successive sums of those of the 
 Jn-st order, forming the arithmetical progression I, 2, 3, 4, &r. ; 
 those of the 3d order the successive sums of those of the 2d, and 
 are the triangular numbers 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, frc. ; those of tlie 4th 
 order are the successive sums of those of the 3d, and are tlie pv- 
 jamidal numbers 1, 4, 10, 20, 35, &c. : and so on, as below. ' 
 
 Order. Name. Numbers. 
 
 L Equals 1,1, j, ], i, ^^c. 
 
 2. Arithmetical 1,2, 3, 4, 5, &:c. 
 
 3. Triaiigulaii 1,3, 6,10, 13, &c. 
 
 4. Pyrnmidals I, 4, 10, 20, 35, i-c. 
 
 r.. 2d Pyramidals 1, 5, 15, 35, 70, &c. 
 
 0. 3d Pyramidals 1, 6, 21, 56, 12G, &c. 
 
 7. 4tli Pyramidals 1, 7, 28, 84, 210, &c. 
 
 The above are all considered as dilVerent sorts of triangular num- 
 bers, bsing foi-Hiied from an arithmetical progression, whose com- 
 mon difference is i. If/ibeput for thcnumher of terms in a 
 vci. n.— wo. 83, 
 
 series of any order, and from the expression — X 
 
 n + I 
 
 « -f 2 n -f- 3 n 
 X • X — 
 
 + 4 
 
 &c. a number of factors be taken 
 3 4 5 
 
 equal to the number which denotes the order, there will be had 
 the sum of n terms of that ortler, or, which is the same thing, the 
 
 n 
 nth term of the succeeding order ; thus if n be e(iual to 5, — =: 
 
 1 
 n « -f- 1 71 n -\- I n -{- 2 
 
 5, — X =1^, — X X = 35, kc. which 
 
 12 12 3 
 
 are ihe sums of 5 terms of the 1, 2, 3, &c. orders, or the 5th 
 term of the 2, 3, 4, &r. orders as in the above table. If the 
 common ditlVrence of the generating arithmetical series be 2, the 
 successive sums will be the series oi scpiare numbers; if it be 3, 
 the series will be pentagonal numbers, or pentagons; if it be 4, 
 the series will be hexagonal numbeti, or iiexagons, and so on. 
 Thus : 
 
 Arithmetica 
 
 1st. Sums or Polygons 2d. Sutn= 
 
 f 
 
 or 2d Poly- 
 gons. 
 
 1, 2, 3, 4, Tri. 1, 3, 6, 10, 
 
 !, 3, 5, 7, j Sqr=. 1,4, 9, 16, 
 
 1, 4, 7, 10. Pent. 1, 5, 12, 22, 
 
 1, i, 9, 13, i Hex. 1, 6, 15, 2S, 
 
 1, 4, 10, 20, 
 1, 5, 14, 30, 
 1, 6, IS, 40, 
 1, 7, 22, 50, &c. 
 
 And the reason of the names triangles; squares, pentanons, hexa- 
 gons, &c. is, that those numbers may be placed in the forfii of 
 these regular hguresor polygons. 
 
 FIGURE, in phviics, expresses the surface or terminating ex- 
 tremities of any body ; and cunsiJered as a property of bodv af- 
 fecting our senses, is dehiied a quality which may be perceive'd by 
 two of the outward senses. Thus a' table is kji'ow.n to be square 
 by the sight and by the touch. 
 
 FicuRts, in anthnielic, are certain characters wbcrebv we de- 
 note any number which may be expressed by any combiuation of 
 the nine digits, Sec. See ARfTH.MEric. 
 
 FiGUiiE, in architecture and sculpture, signifies the represen- 
 tation of thing* made in solid matter, as statues, &c. 
 
 Figure, in astrology, a description ot the disposition of the 
 heavens at a certain hour, iu vvlfu h tf.e places of the planets aad 
 stars are marked in a figure of Iw elve triavigles, called houses. 
 
 Figure, in conic sections, according to Apollonius, is the 
 rectangle made under the latus rectum and traiisversum in the 
 hyperbola and ellipsis. 
 
 FiGUKt OFTHE Diameter; tiierectangle under any diameter, 
 and its proper parameter is, in the ellipsis and hyperbola, called 
 the figure of that diameter. 
 
 FfGURE, in fortification, the plui of any fortified place, or the 
 interior polygon, which, when the sides and angles are equal, is 
 called a regular, and when uneqiuii, an irregular figure. 
 
 Figure, in geometry- ; the superficies included between one or 
 more lines, is denominated either rectilinear, curvilinear, or 
 mixed, according as the extremities arc bounded by right lines 
 curve lines, or both. 
 
 Figure, in grammar, a deviation from the natural rules of ety- 
 mology, syntax, and prosody, either for brevity, elcguice, or 
 harmony. 
 
 Figure, in dancing, denotes the several steps which the dancer 
 makes in order and cadence, considered as they mark certain fi- 
 gures on the floor. 
 
 i■■i^;uRE, in designing and painting, denotes the lines and co- 
 lours which form the representation of any animal, but more par- 
 ticularly of a human ptvsonage. See Painting, and Drawing. 
 
 Figure, in logic, denotes a certain order and ifsposition of the 
 
 middle term in any syllogism. Figures are fourfold. I. When 
 
 the middle term is the subject of the major proposition, and the 
 
 ^ P- predicate
 
 FIG 
 
 422 
 
 FIG 
 
 prcdicaU- of tlie minor, we have wluit is called the first figure. 2. 
 When the middle term is the predicate ot both the premises, the 
 svllogism is said to be in the second figme. If the middle term 
 is' the siiljject of the two premises, the syllogism is in the thinl 
 figure; and lastlv, by making it the predicate of the major, and 
 subject of the minor, we obtain syllogisms in tlie fourth figure. 
 Each of these figures has a determinate number of moods, in- 
 cluding all the possible ways in which propositions dilf'ering in 
 cpiantity or (|uaUly can be combined, according to any disposition 
 of the middle term, in order to arrive at a just conclusion. See 
 Logic. 
 
 Figure, in manufactures, is applied to the various designs re- 
 presented or wrought on velvets, damasks, taffeties, sattin^, and 
 other stut'fs and cloths. 'I'lie most usn.il figures for such designs 
 are flower.-, imitated from the life; or grotesques, and compaiti- 
 nients of pure fancy. Representations of men, beasts, birda, and 
 landscapes, have only been introduced since the tri,4e for the Chi- 
 nese stuffs, particularly those called smee':, began to prevail. The 
 woof forms the figures ; the w arp only serves for the groimd. 
 
 Figure, in rhetoric and poetry, is a manner of speaking dif- 
 ferent from the ordinary and plain way, and more emphatical; ex- 
 pressing a passion, or containing a beauty. See Allegory, 
 AvosTRorHE, Comparison, IIyi'Erdole, Metaphor, Ora- 
 tory, Personificatiom, Poetry, Sec. 
 
 Figure in which the Instrument is conceived to be 
 THE Agent. When we survey a number of connected objects, 
 that which makes the greatest "figure employs chiefly our atten- 
 tion ; and the emotion it raises, it lively, prompts us even to ex- 
 ceed nature in the conceptions we form of it. Examples ; 
 
 For Neleus' son Alcides' rage had slain. 
 A broken neck ihe force of Pirus threw. 
 
 In these instances, the rage of Hercules and the force of Pirus, 
 being the capital circumstances, are so far exalted as to be con- 
 ceived the agents that produce the effects. In the first of the fol- 
 lowing instances hunger being the chief circumstance jn the de- 
 scription, is itself imagined to be the patient. 
 
 Whose hunger has not tasted food these three days. 
 
 Jane .Shore. 
 
 As when the force 
 
 Of subterraneaii wind transports a hill. 
 
 -As when the potent rod 
 
 Par. Lost. 
 
 Of Amram's son, in F.gypt's evil day 
 
 Wav'd round the coa,-.t, upcall'd a pitchy cloud 
 
 Of locusts. Par. Lost. 
 
 Figure, in which the Properties of one Object are 
 extended to another. This ligure is not diginfied with a 
 propel/ name, because it h;is been overlooked by writers. Giddy 
 brink, jovial wine, daring wound, are examples of this figure. 
 Here are adjectives that cannot be made to signify any quality of 
 the substantives to which they are joined: a brink, for example, 
 cannot be termed giddy in a sense, either proper or figurative, 
 that can signify any of its <|uaiities or attributes. When we ex- 
 amine attentively the expression, \ve discover, that a brink is 
 termed giddy from producing tiiat etVect in those who stand on it : 
 in the same manner, a wounil is said to be daring, not with re- 
 spect to itself, but with respect to the boldness of the person who 
 inflicts it; and wine is said to lie jovial, as inspiring mirth and 
 jollity. Figures are highly servii-ea!)le to clear difficult trutlis, to 
 make a stvle pleasant and patlulical, and to awaken and fix at- 
 tention, but as, in order to obtain these ends, they are to be used 
 with prudence and caution, the lollowing directions ought to be 
 '>bser\ed. I. Let the discourse always be founded on nature and 
 sense, supported with strong reason and proof, and then add the 
 ornaments and heighteiiings of figures ; for a man of clear under- 
 standing will despise the flourish of figures withont sense, and 
 pomp of words that wants truth and substance of things. 2. Be 
 iparing in the use of figures. A passion described in a multitude 
 of words, and carried on to a disproi)ortionate length, fails of the 
 end proposed, and tires instead of pleasing, 3. Figures must not 
 be over adorned, nor affectedly laboured, and ranged into new 
 and scrupulous periods ; for by afleelation and shew of art, the 
 orator betrays and exposes himself, and it is apparent, that he is 
 4 
 
 rather ambitious to set ol'f his parts and wit, than to express his 
 sincere concern and passion. This figure can never have any 
 grace, but where the relations are of the most intimate kind. 
 
 Figures, in theology, mysteries represented under certain types 
 or actions in the Old 'f estament. 11ms manna is lield a figure or 
 type oi' tlie Lord's supper ; and the death of Abel, a figure of the 
 sul'leriiigs of Christ. See Type. 
 
 Figures, in the pagan mythology, and antiquities, signify the 
 emblems, enigmas, fables, symbols, and hieroglyphics, of the an- 
 cients. 
 
 FIGURED, marked with figures. The term is chiefly ap- 
 plied to stuifs, whereon the figures of flowers, and the like, are 
 either wrought or sta;nped. 
 
 Figured, in music, is applied either to simple notes or to har- 
 mony; to simple notes, as in these words li cured iiass, to exnress 
 a bass whose notes carrving chords are subdivided into manv other 
 notes of less value ; to harmony, when, by supposition and in a 
 diatonic procedure, other notes tiian those which form tiie chord 
 are employed. See Music. 
 
 FIGWOR T. See Schrophularia. 
 
 FILACCIANO, a town of Italy in the patrimony of St. Pe- 
 ter, nine miles S. of Cilia Castellana, 
 
 FILACER, [filazuriu-'i, low Lat. _/ii''i/.m,] an oflicerin the Com- 
 r;ion Pleas, so called because he files those writs whereon he mal.es 
 process. 
 
 FILAGO, in botany, a genus of the polygamia superflua or- 
 der, and syngenesia class of plants ; natural order, Com])ositE. 
 Receptacle naked ; no pappus; calyx imbricated ; female florets 
 placed among the scales of the calyx. It has seven species. 
 
 FILAMICNT, in anatomy and natural history, is used in the 
 same sense with fibre. See Fibre. 
 
 Filaments, Vegetable, are substances of great rise in the 
 arts and manufactures; furnishing thread, cloth, cordage, Arc. For 
 these purposes the filamentous parts of the Cannabis and Linum, 
 or Hemp and Flax, are employed. See these articles, and Cot- 
 ton. But dilli.-rent vegetables have been employed in dilferent 
 countries for the same uses. Putrefaction destroys the pulpy or 
 fleshy matter, and leaves the tough filaments entire. By curiously 
 putrefying the leaf of a plant in water, we may obtain the fine flexile 
 fibres, w hich constituted the basis of the ribs and minute veins, and 
 which now form as it were a skeleton of the leaf. Alkaline lixi- 
 via, in some degree, produce similar effects to putrefaction. Sieur 
 de Flacourt, in liis history of MaiUtMscar, relates, that dilferent 
 kinds of cloth are prepared in that island frpm the filaments of the 
 bark of certain trees boiled in strong lie; that some of these cloths 
 are very fine, and approach to the softness of silk, but in durabi- 
 lity come short of cotton : that others are coarser and stronger, 
 and last thrice as long as cotton ; and that of these the sails and 
 cordage of his vessel were made. The Sieur adds, that the stalks 
 of nettles are used for similar purposes in Fiance, And Sir Hans 
 Sloane relates in a letter to Mr. Ray, that he has been informed 
 by several, that muslin and calicoes, and most of the Indiai) linens, 
 are made of nettles. In some Swedish provinces, a strong kind 
 of cloth is prepared from hop stalks ; and in the " Transactions of 
 the Swedish Academy for 1750," there is an account of an expe- 
 riment made on them. Of the stalks, gathered in autumn, about 
 as mr.ny were taken, as equalled in bulk a quantity of fi:'x that 
 would have produced a pound after preparation, i lie stalks were 
 put into water, and kept there covered during the winter. Iii 
 March they were taken out, dried in a stove, and dressed as flax. 
 The prepared filaments weighed nearly a pound, and proved fine, 
 solt, and white: they were spun and woven into six <!lls of fine 
 strong cloth. The author, Mr. Shisler, observes, that hop stalks 
 take niach longer time to, rot than flax ; and that, if not fully root- 
 ed, the woody part will not separate, and the cloth will neither 
 prove white nor fine. The filaments of bean stalks have been 
 found to furnish an excellent substitute f'or hemp. Hemp, flax, 
 and all other vegetable filaments', and thread or cluth prepared 
 from them, differ remarkably from wool, hair, silk, and other ani- 
 mal productions, not only in the principles into which they are 
 rci.oluble by fire, but likewise in some of their more interesting 
 properties, ptirticularly in their disposition to imbibe colouring 
 matters; sundry liquors, which give a beautil'ul and durable dye 
 to animal subsiauces, giving no slain at all to vegetables. -Sea 
 Dyeing. 
 
 FjI.AMENrs,
 
 FTL 
 
 A2^ 
 
 F T 1. 
 
 FiLAMKNTS, among botanists, is jnirlicularly used for the sta- 
 mina. S"o Botany. 
 
 KILANDEHS, in entomology and falconry, arc worms a^; 
 small as thread, and ahoiit an incii long, that lie wrapt up in a thin 
 skni or net, near the reins of an hawk, apart from either !;nt or 
 gor^e. 'I'liis malady is known by Ihi hawk's poverty ; by her 
 ruflling her tail ; by straining the li^t, or perch, with her pounces ; 
 and, lastlv, bv eroakin<T in tl;e night, when the (danders prick her. 
 The disease proceeds Ironi bad food ; and mu- 1 be remedied ear- 
 Iv, to ])revent its spreading over the wliolo body, and destroying 
 the bird. 
 
 Fil..\NDERS, in falconry, are also the name of another disease 
 in hawks, S:c. coiisistii.g of fdaments or strings of blood coagulat- 
 ed ; arid occasioned by a violent rniHure of some vein, by which 
 ■ the blood extravasating, hardens into these figures, and incom- 
 modes tlie reins, hips, &;c. 
 
 FILAHIA, in natural history, a genus of the vermes intestina 
 class and order. Hody round, filiform, etpial, and quile smoolh ; 
 month dilated, with a roundish concave lip. There are about IS 
 species, divided into four sections : viz. A. infesting tlie mamma- 
 lia ; B. infesting birds ; C. infesting insects in their perfect state ; 
 D. infecting the ljrv;E of insects. F. medinensis is feund both in 
 tlie East and West Indies, and is frecinent in the morning dew, 
 from which it enters the naked feet of the slaves, and creates the 
 most troublesome itching, frequently accompanied with inllamma- 
 tion and fever. 
 
 FILBKR T, the fmit of the coryUis, orha;!il. SeeCoRVLUs. 
 
 FILE, in law, a record of the court; and the fding of a pro- 
 cess of a cotirt makes a record of it. An original writ mav be 
 filed after judgement given in the cause, issued lorlh before ; de- 
 clarations, &c. are to be tiled, and afiidavits must be tiled, some 
 betbve they are read in court, some immediately after. Before 
 filin.; a record removed by certiorari, the justices of 1'. R. may 
 retuse to receive it, if it appears to be for delay, See. ; and remand- 
 ed back for the expedition of justice ; but if the certiorari be once 
 filed, the proceedings below cainiot be revived. An indictment, 
 &c. cannot be amended after it is filed. 
 
 File, in the art of war, is the depth of the battalion or squa- 
 dron. The files of a battalion of foot are generally three deep; 
 as are sometimes those of a squadron of horse, 'llie files must be 
 straight and parallel one to another. 
 
 FiLK, a tool employed by smiths and others, for the purpose of 
 smoothing, polishing, or cutting met.ils. 'I'his instrument is of 
 iron," or forged steel, cut in little furrows, with chisels, and a ni.il- 
 let, in a certain direction, anil of a certain depth, according to tlie 
 grain or toucli required, .\fler cutting the file, it must be tem- 
 pered with a composition of chimney soot, very hard and dry, di- 
 luted, and wrought up with urine, vinegar, and salt ; the wiiole 
 being reduced to the con-istence of mustard. Tempering the files 
 consists in rulibing them over with this composition, and covering 
 them in loam ; after which they are put hito a charcoal fire, and 
 taken out by the time they have acquired a cherry-colour, which, 
 is known by a small rod uf the same steel put in along with them. 
 Being taken out of the fire, tliey are thrown into cold spi ing-wa- 
 ter, and when cold, they are cleaned with charcoal and a rag, and 
 being clean and <lry, are kept from rust by laying tli.'m up in 
 wheat bran. Iron liles reciuire more heatitig than steel ones. 
 Files are of different forms, sizes, cuts, and degrees of fineness, in 
 proportion to the various uses and occasions for which they are 
 •lesigned ; such are the common square, flat, tri;Migular, or round 
 files ; the rough-toothed files, wiiich are intended to cut more 
 speedily than any other ; and the fine-toothed file, wliich cuts more 
 slowly, and is appropriated to finer workmanship. Tin; be^t and 
 most durable instruments of this description arc manufactured at 
 Hhefiicld. 
 
 FILIAL PIETY, the affectionate attachment of children to 
 their parents ; including in it love, reverence, obedience, and re- 
 lief. These are duties prompted ecpially by nature and by Rr.iti- 
 tude, independent of the injunctions of religion. For where ^hall 
 ■we find the i)erson who has received from any one benefits so 
 preat or so many, as chihlren from their parents? And it has been 
 justly observed, that those who are undutiful to their parents, sel- 
 dom' prove good to any other religion. 
 
 FILICES, [fvomjilian, a thread, qnasi fJatiin incisa,'] Ferks ; 
 «jje of the seven Iribies or families of the vegetable kingdom. See 
 
 BoTA.vv. Thiy conslitut? llie first order in the class cryptoga- 
 mia. In Toumefort's Method they are the sixteenth class; and 
 in Ray's the fourth, uiuler the name of Capillares. Ilaller dcrio_- 
 minates them Epi|)hyllosperma;, that is, plants that be.ir their ?te'l 
 on the back of the leaf: others term them Acaules, beraifse th&y 
 have properly no stem. 'I'hcse plants in figure approach the moVt 
 pi-ifcct Vegetables, being furnished, like ibem, with roots ana 
 leaves. 'I'lie roots creep, and extend themselves horizontally un- 
 der the earth, throwing out a number of "efV slender fibres on all 
 sides. The stem in these pkmts is not to be distinguished fron'i 
 the common foot-stalk, or rather middle rib of (he leaves; so that 
 in strict propriety the greater number of ferns may be said to'ht; 
 Acaules, that is,'to want the stem altogether: in plants of the se- 
 cond seclion, however, the middle rib, or a stalk proceeding froni 
 the root, overtops the leaves, and foriH-s' a .stem upon whicli tll'e 
 fiowers are supported. The leaves are winged, or hand-sh.ipeu, 
 in all the genera, except in adder's-loftgue; pepper-grass, and 
 some species of spleen-wort. "^I'lie (lovers in the greater number 
 of genera are fastened on the b ick of tlie lea'cs ; iu sonie Ihey are 
 supported on a stem, wliicdi rises above the leaves. 
 
 I'li.TCKS also constitute a class or order of plants in the natural 
 melliod. See BoTany. 
 
 FILIGRANE, FILIGREE, or FILLAGREE VVOBK, 
 [from Jilum, Lat. a thread, and gniiinni, a grain,] a kind of en- 
 richment on gold or silver, wrought delicately, in manner of small 
 threads or grains, or both intermixed. In Latin it is called " fila- 
 lini elaboralum opus, argenleum, ameum." There is no manu- 
 facture ill anv part of tlie world that has been more admired and 
 celebrated, tlian the fine gold and silver filigree of Sumatra. And 
 what renders it a matter of greater curiosity is the coar-eness of 
 the tools employed in the workmanship, an<l which, in the hands 
 of an European, would not be thought sufliciently perfect for the 
 most ordinary purposes. 
 
 FILING,' one of the principal operations in sriiithery, &c. suc- 
 ceeding to forging. The coarser cut files are always to be suc- 
 ceeded' by finer; and in all the kinds the rule is, to lean heavy on 
 the file in thrusting it forward, because the teeth of the file art; 
 nude to cut forwards. But in drawing the file ba<:k again for a se- 
 cond stroke, it is to be lightly lifted just above the work, because 
 it cuts not coiiiing back. See File. 
 
 FILLAGKEE Work. See Fiugrane. 
 
 FILLET, or FILET, in architecture, a little square member, 
 ornament, or moulding, used in (fivers places, and upon divers 
 occasions, but generally as a crowning over a greater moulding. 
 See ARCHtXECTURE. It is the ^ame with what the French call 
 regli-t, bande, and bandelette; and the Italians lista or listella. 
 
 Fillet, in heraldry, a kind of orle or bordure, containing only 
 a third or fourth part "of the breadth of the common borduie. It 
 is supposed to be withdrawn inwards, and is of a different coloiir 
 from the field It runs quite round, near the edge, ;is a lace ovA- 
 a cloak. Fillet is also used for an ordinary drawn like the'b:ir 
 from the sinister jioiiit of the chief across tlie shield, in manner of 
 a scarf; though it is sometimes likewise seen in the situation of a 
 bend, fesse, cross, Arc. According to Gniilim, the fillet is 'a 
 fourth part of the ch.iei", aiul is jilaced in the chief point of the es- 
 cutcheon. 
 
 Fillet, among painters, gilden, &c. a little reglet of leaf gold, 
 drawn over certain mouldings ; or on the edge of frames, pannels. 
 See. painted while by way oT enricliment. 
 
 Fillets, in the I'nanc'ge, are the loins of a horse, which begin 
 at tlie place where the hinder part of the saddle rests. 
 
 FILTER, or FILTRE, [filtrum, Latin,] in chemistry, ice. 
 a piece of woollen cloth, linen, paper, or other matter, some of 
 which are in form of hollow inverted cones, used to liltrate or 
 strain liquors tlirough. The filtre has the same use and effect with 
 regard to liquids that the sieve or scarce ha^ in dry matters. See 
 Filtration. 
 
 Filler, or Filtre, [from Jix^jiv, of ou.im, I love,] is also a 
 clidrm, supposed to have a virtue of inspiring love. Tlie Greeks^ 
 when Iheir love was without success, used several arts to procure 
 the alVections of the beloved. The Thessalian women were fa- 
 mous for their skill in this and other magical pract ces. The 
 means whereby H was affected were of divers sorts ; it was some- 
 times done by potions called ?c'.';-;re, which are-oftcu mentioned 
 both bv Greek and Latin authors. Juvenal savs. 
 
 Hie
 
 FIL 
 
 424 
 
 FIL 
 
 Hie nugiciis ufi'crt cantiis, liic Tlicssalia vciulit 
 Philtia, (uiibus vuleant lutiitem vcxare niariti. 
 FILI R ATION , in chemistry, as well as in iloincstic oeconomy, 
 is the process of straining or filtring liquors by means of woollen 
 cloth, cotton, linen, paper, or other materials. It deserves to be 
 previously remarked, that in every attempt at purifyint; lluitls in 
 tl'.e nmnnei liere alhuled to, wu can divest them only of tlwie fo- 
 reign ingredients which are mixcrl with them, and not oi such as 
 they hold in solution. The former may be separated from them, 
 by proper liltration; but the latter must be diseiigage'l, either by 
 preripitation or distillation. Although the utility of tiltratioi) is 
 thu> limited to the noxious particles mixed with litjuid bodies, 
 such as foul water, >et it is sufficiently imporlant to deserve some 
 attention. The c'bmmon filters are of two sorts ; namely, simple 
 pieces of paper, or cloth, through whieh the lluid is pu.>>ed ; or 
 similar materials twisted up in llie same maniter :,■: skeins or wicks ; 
 tlK'y are tirst wetted, then squeezed, and one end put into t!".e ves- 
 sel, which contains the liquor to be fihrated ; the other end is to 
 be suspended beneath the surface of the liquor, the purest inrts of 
 which drop gradually out of the vessel, leaving behind the coai-ser 
 particles, 'i'hese filters, however, are not calculated for domestic 
 tiS'j: hence different machines have been invented for the purpo-c 
 of purifying turbid w.iter. But amons these various contrivances, 
 few api)ear to possess the advantagi' of simplicitv, comiiined with 
 that of atTordi^ig an ample supi)ly of a fluid so essentially neces- 
 sarv to the i>«>servation of heallli. .•V. patent has lately been 
 granted to Mr. James P'-acock, of Finsbury-square, for a filtering 
 machine, which is st.ited to be superior to anv iiitherto invented. 
 It completely acconiplishes the purpose of filtration, by causing 
 the tui bid fluid to ascend through a medimn of line gravel, by 
 progressive ilegrees of tinencss, b)- which nu'ans the foulest water 
 or other fluid becomes perfectly freed from all (mi.xed) iuipurities, 
 without any noxious mineral quality, wliich pumice or other com- 
 mon filtering stones are suspected to communicate. Should, from 
 continual use, its operation become in any degree impeded, it 
 may be coinpletely cleansed with the greatest facility in the sliort 
 space of one uiitiule: an advantage posses ed by none of the com- 
 mon machines that operate by descent. Beside these usefid pro- 
 perties, Mr. Peacock's filtering macliine does not occupy more 
 roOHi than a large drip-stone witli its apparatus, and yields a con- 
 stant and pure stream of more than 300 gallons in "4 hours. A 
 spscimen of this machine is dep^^ited for inspection at (Juildhall, 
 London. We sliall here recommend a very simple and effectual 
 machine for purifying water. It is on the plan of the celebrated 
 filtering niachifie, erected at Paris, by means of which the f.jul 
 water of the river Seine is so completely purified, as to be divert- 
 ed of all its laxative properties; its construction is also simple ami 
 easy. When we reflect on the metliod which nature pui-sue? in 
 the tiltr.-.tion of water, we find that such waters as descend from 
 hills, though passing through sand and rocks, are seldom perfectly 
 pure ; but ihat those are tlie nicist limpid, which by ascending, 
 ooze out on the side of a mountain. The cause of tliis dilVcr- 
 cnce appears to be owing to the circumstance, that if the water 
 only descends through sand, the finest and most weighty foreign 
 panicles gradually penetrate through the sandy strata ; on the 
 contrary, when it is forced to rise through sand, all such ponder- 
 ous ingredients settle at the bottom ; because, from their greater 
 specific gravity, they cannot ascend to the top. The lighter par- 
 ticles of Ouids, consequently, in both cases remain in the upper 
 strata of the earth or saiul. From these considerations. Professor 
 Parrot, jun. of Paris, was induced to give his tiUering machine 
 the form lepvesented in fig. I, Plate LXX. The principal part 
 of the machinery consists of a square vessel, bent in the t'orm of 
 an inverted syphon. The curve may be circular, elliptic, or in 
 any other direction. This vessel is nllcd with line, pure sand, till 
 7iearly the height of the dotted line j', ;/, which denotes the ascent 
 of the water to D, wJience it flows into the receiver. The part 
 jnarked A, 11, should always project above this line, according to 
 the size of the filtering machine. To A, B, there is attached a 
 woollen bag, which is open at the tqj, and the lower part of which 
 ouches the sand. It serves the purpose of collecting the coarsest 
 impurities, a;id thus preserves the sand •for a longer tune from be- 
 'commg foul. The !)ag, therefore, may occasionally be removed, 
 snd rinse^d jn cle;ui water, it is evident, that the water flow's at 
 A lluougr. the bag i;ito the filtre, and rises at the place marked 
 
 D, which is considerably lower than the former. It ali'ordsa very 
 agreeable sight to observe the most limpiil fluid penetrating the 
 uppermost stratum of s;md, perfectly similar to that oozing from 
 the purest natural sprine. Professor Pan ot remarks that he pro» 
 cured a filtering machine made of block-tui, for ascertaining by 
 experiments the purity and quality of water, that may thus be ob- 
 tained in a given time. It consisted of the following dimensions: 
 tlie small diameter B, E, was eight Paris inches ; the large of the 
 whole machine, eleven inches; consecpiently the thickness of the 
 vessel A, B, was one inch and a half; the breadth of it, two 
 inclic-s and seven-eigiiths. The perpendicular height of the lower 
 side, from C, its basis, to the rim D, whence the water issues, was 
 four inches and one-twelfth — the opposite height of the mouth A, 
 B, eight inches and three-fourths ; and the height of the sand on 
 the side marked D, was three inches and one-sixth. Althouah, in 
 e.\periments of this nature, much depends on the relative si,;e and 
 purity of the sand, which necessarily aiTord ditlerenl results, yet 
 Professor Parrot has, after repeated trials, deduced the following 
 conclusions, which appear to be well-founded. 1. That tiie dif- 
 ference of the niveau, or water-!ev>'l, has an essential influence oa 
 the quantity of the purified water tlius obtained ; 2. That a pro- 
 longation of the stratum of sand does not con>iderably diminish 
 the product of the filtre, but remarkably coiitribules to the purity 
 ot the fluid. 3. That it the water be forced to pass through the 
 sand with increased velocity, it will be less pure than by allowing 
 it a proper time for its passage ; and, 4. T. hat a machine of thje 
 dimensions above described, will furnish about three quarts of wa-' 
 tcr in an hour, or eighteen gallons in twenty-four hours. This 
 ciuantity, however, being too large in proportion to the size of the 
 machine, it is adviseable, eill'icr to lessen the difference of the wa- 
 ter-fall ; or, which is still better, to prolong the stratum of sand, ia 
 order to reduce the filti-ation of the water to half the quantity 
 above stated, and to obtain it in greater purity. Tim», a filtering 
 appaiatus.^i2hteen inches long from A to D, two inches th'ck, 
 and four broad, would alibrd every hour six piifts of very pure 
 water. If, therefore, so small a machine, containing a very mo- 
 derate stratum of sand, and requiring only a difference of .wo or 
 three inches in the height of the water, furnishes a clear and pure 
 fluid, it follows that an apparatus on a larger scale, provided witk 
 a bed of sand from five to six feet long, and admitting of a dilTer- 
 ence from tsvelve to eighteen inches in the fall of the water, migljt 
 be usefully employed in public welis, hydraulic machine,-, and 
 even in cam|>s, for the supply of an army. In the construction of 
 large filtering inachines. Professor Parrot justU observes, that 
 they should not be extended in the direction A, C, D, to d greattT 
 length than is absolutely necessary ; as, in this case, they will not 
 require any considerable difference in the tail and rise of the wa- 
 ter: on the ottier hand, their breadth and thickness may be ac- 
 cordingly increased. Thus, the diameter of such a machine would 
 still more resemble that of a sviihoii, as is represented in tig. 'Z. 
 This form might also be adopted for smaller machines, especially 
 such as are designed for travellers, two of whom mig.ht be amply 
 provided with pure water, and in a very short time, bv a vessel of 
 file following dimensiens: from P to Q, eight inches long ; from 
 P to R, twelve inches high ; and the whole fov.r inches in breadth. 
 If the form last delineated be employed on an extensive scale, 
 there shoidd be a trap door in the lowermost pari marked R, so 
 constructed that it may tit exactly, and admit no passage to the 
 water: this aperture would serve only lor the removal of the 
 sand, when it is n idered loui by long use. In the smaller ma- 
 chines, intended for travelling, such a door is unnecessary, as they 
 may be easily emptied of th.eir contents thrcugh either of the ori- 
 fices P, or Q. Instead of thi- addition to the latter, the upper 
 room, (which in fig. 1, is circumscribed with the letters B, F, E\ 
 might serve as a reser\ oir of ),ure water, that could either be de- 
 canted, or drawn off by means of a cock applied to the centre of 
 the machine, marked I. AVe think, however, this latter arnuigc- 
 ment, which is propo-ed by M. Parrot, in many respects objec- 
 tionable, and therefore advise the reader to make use of the more 
 simplitifd construction. Hence we shall c nly add, that every 
 filtering machine ought to be provided with a doth cover, to pre- 
 vent the dust from rising with the water, without impeding its fil- 
 tration. The great advantages of filtering machines in the dif- 
 ferent processes of dyeing, baking, bieuiiig, itistilling, and all the 
 domesiie arts, is exceedingly evident. As no particle of real 
 
 nutriment
 
 r I N 
 
 42' 
 
 ]• I NT 
 
 luilriiiuMit can be a;>imiluteil (o llii' luimi'.n tlu'uU, v.-ll'oul lH-in;» 
 )iii'vJoiisly niacprcU'd and ifduccri by water (whf tlicr Ibis lluid 
 be introduced into tbe stomach, in llie form nf beer, uine, spirit-, 
 lea, etc.) it will be easily iinderteod that impure water cannot 
 fail to produce, lio\vever slowly, many dangerous, and often iii- 
 riiiuble diseases — tlie source ot w liicii is seldom suspected. See 
 
 WAftR. 
 
 I'IMI)1U.F,, or I'RIN(jES, a name formerly given to l!ie ex- 
 tremities or boniers of the tuba- Fallopiana^ ; llie word signifying 
 R frinced bord.'r, which that part rcseniljles. 
 
 FlSlUUIA'l El), in lun'ldry, an ordinary with a narrow bor- 
 der, or hem of anolher tincture. 
 
 FIN, l_pi'miii,'] in n.Uural history, a well known part of fishes, 
 consisting ol a niembrane supported by ray«, or little bony or car- 
 tilaginous ossicles. '1 he number, situation, figure, and size, of 
 tins, are ditl'erent in difi'erenl lishcs. They areiound from one to 
 ten, or more ; with respect to situation, they stand either on the 
 back only, the belly only, or on both. 'I'he office of the tins lias 
 commonly been supposed to be analogous to that of ving-s and 
 featliers in fowls; and to assist the tisb in swimming: but later 
 naturalists say this is a mistake. The tail is tbe great instrument 
 of swimming: the fuis only serve tp keep the fish upright, and 
 prevent vacillation or wavering. Sec Ichthyology. 
 
 FINAL CAUSE is theend forwl-.ich any thing is done. The 
 final cause is tlie first thing in the intention of a person who does 
 a tiling; and the last in the execution. See Cause. 
 
 Final Letters, among the Hebrew grammarians, five letters 
 so called, because they have a different ligtire at the end of words 
 from wlu'.t they have in any ether situation. 
 
 FINALE, in geography, a sea-port town of Italy, 31 miles S. 
 W. of Genoa. 
 
 FiNAi.E, a marquisate of It;\lv, surrounded by the dominions of 
 Genoa. It is fertile and ))opuh us. 
 
 Finale, a town of Italy It is IS miles N. N. E. of Mo- 
 dena. 
 
 FINANCES, [from ./?«(!>;<!, Germ. i.e. scraping, or usury ; 
 or financia, low Lat. pecuniary payment,] in the late French 
 policy, denoted the revenues of the king and slate : much the 
 same with the treasury or exchequer of the English, and the fiscus 
 of the Uomans. In general the term is applied to the monies bor- 
 rowed by governmeiit for the purpose of defraying extraordinary 
 expences, and interest of tliis mtney is paid out of the amount ot 
 the taxes, or by taxes levied for this |)iirposc. 
 
 FINCH, in ornithology. See Fringilla. 
 
 FINE, in metariursy,' pure and without mixture, is chiefly 
 used in speaking of gold and silver. 
 
 Fine, [,/A«, Cimbr.] amulet; a pecuniary punishment. The 
 killing of an Irishman was not punished by our law as manslaugh- 
 ter, which is felony and capital; but bv a fine or pecuniary pu- 
 nislunent, called an ericke. — Davies on Ireland. 
 
 Fine, inlaw, ba< divers applications: as, 1. A formal convey- 
 ance of lands or tenements, or of anything inheritable, being in 
 esse temporis linis, in order to cutoff all controversies: a final 
 agreement between persons, concerning any lands or rents, c^c. 
 ct which any suit or writ is depending between them in any court. 
 3. A Slim ot money paid for entering lands or tenements let bv 
 lease: and, 4. a pecuniary mulct for an olTence committed against 
 the king and his laws, or against the lord of the manor. 
 
 Finis fo« Alienation, in fcndal law, one of the attendants or 
 consequences ol tenure by vassalship. Knicht service, was (hat of 
 fines (lue to t!ielor<l for every alicnalion, whenever the tenant had 
 occasion to uKike his land over to another. This depended on the 
 nature of the feoilal connection ; it not beinn reasonable nor al- 
 lowed, that a feudatory slmuld transfer his lortl's gift to another, 
 and substitute a new tenant to do the service inhis own steul, 
 without the consent of the lor<l : and, as the feodal oblisialion was 
 consitlered as reciprocal, the lord also could not alienate his seign- 
 ory without the consent of his tenant, which consent of his was 
 called an alornment. This restraint upon the lord soon wore 
 away ; that upon the tenant continued longer. For, when every 
 thing came in process of time Xi be bought and sold, the lords 
 would not grant a licence to their tenants to aliene, without a line 
 being paid ; apprehending that, if it was reasonable for the heir to 
 pay a line or relief on the renovation of paternal estate, it was 
 much more reasonable tliat a stranger should make the same ac- 
 knowledgement on his atlmission to a newly-purchased feud. In 
 
 VOL. 11. — NO. S3. 
 
 Eiu-'l md, ihi'se fines seem oii'y lo have b(;en evaded fn.in thi; 
 king's ti'nants in capite, who were never abb- to olicne wiihoul a 
 licence: but as to common persons, th"y were at liberty, by 
 magna cltarta, and the statute Of quia emjitores (if not earlier), tv> 
 alien.' (he whole of their estate, lo be hoklen of llie sanie lord a* 
 they lliemsi Ives held it of before. I>ut tfie king's teiiunls in fa- 
 pilv, not being included under tlie general words of these sta'.ute*, 
 could iiol aliene without a bctiice ; for if the}' did, it was in an- 
 cient strictness an absolute ferfcHure of llie land ; though soni^ 
 have imaginv'd otherwise. ISutthis severity waj mitigated by slal. 
 1 Edw. 111. c. 112, wliich ordained, that m such case the 'b.iuiJ 
 fhonld not be forfeited, but a reasonable fine be psi.l to tiie king. 
 I'pon which statute it was settled, that onn-lhird ol the yearly va- 
 lue should be ])aid for a licence of alienation ; but, if the (eniiit 
 ])resumpd to aliene wit hoiit a licence, a full year's value slioeli! le 
 paid. These tines were at last totally taken away l-y stat. Vi Car. 
 11.C.24. _ " ■ , . 
 
 Fines p'oR Writs, .are paid in divers cases for orginal writs. 
 Thus for every writ of plea of land, if it be not of light patent, 
 which is for tlie yearly value of \\\-p niai'ks;. and all original writs 
 in debt and trespass, where the debt ordamaw!- is 40/. a iine is dur 
 to the king of (}.«. Sf/. and more proportionsnlv y.lien aiiy writ is 
 for thinss of greater value. 
 
 FlNECHloLAUO.asmall i-Imdof France^ near the N.E. 
 coast of Corsica, 7 miles N. of Bastia. 
 
 FINE-DKAWING, or RENTERING. See Rentkrikc. 
 It is piohibited to line il raw pieces of loreign iiianufactuie iipoB 
 those of our own, as has tormerlv been practised. 
 
 FINEUS, orKEFlNEKS OF GOLD AND SILVER, per- 
 sons who purify and part those metals from coarser ones by lue 
 and acids. Thev are also called parters in our old law-books, scdl 
 sometimes departers. 
 
 I'lN EU V, or FINAR Y, in the iron work, one of the forges at 
 which iron is hammered and fashioned into v. Iiat tliey call a bloom 
 or scpiare bar. 
 
 I'lNESSE, [French,] signifies literally the same with tlie Eng- 
 lish word fineness; but among tis it is chiefly used to denote that 
 kind of subtilty used for the purposes of deception. It is likewise 
 used for that peculiar delicacy perceived in wo'.'ks of the mind, 
 ;nd the nicest and most secret and sublime parts of any science or 
 art. 
 
 FINE-STILLING, that branch of the art of distilling, whic!. 
 is employed in distilling the spirit from treacle, or other prcpari- 
 tions or recrements of sugar. It is so called by way of disUnction 
 from malt-stilling. This operation is the same with tl.at used in 
 making the mall spirit ; a wash of the saccliarine matter being made 
 with water from treacle, ftc. and fermented with yeast. It is 
 usual to add in this ca-e, however, a considerable portion of malt, 
 and sometimes powdered jalap, to the fermenting backs. The 
 malt accelerates the fermentation, and males the spirit come out 
 the cheaper, and the jalap prevents the rise of any musty l-.ead 
 to the surface of the fermenting liquor, so as to leave a greater 
 opportunity for the free access ot the air, and thus lo shorten the 
 work, by turning the foamy into a hissing fermentaticn. 
 
 FINGAL, king of Morven, in ancient Caledonia. He flou- 
 rished in the third century ; and according lo llie Irish histories 
 diedA.D. 2s3, although there is some reason Irom Ossian's Poems 
 for jjlacing his dealh a few years later. Fingal was descended 
 in all probability from ll.os;- Cellic (ribes who were the first mfa- 
 bilants of Britain. Tradition, and the poems of C)ssian, give him 
 a long line of royal anteslors, such as Combal, Tr< nniore, Tra- 
 thal, ^'C. who had all reigned over the same territory. Whe- 
 ther this territory was bonndisl by the Caledonian forest, or ex- 
 tended somewhat farther south, towards the Roman province, is 
 uneerlain ; but il doubtless exteiuied over all the noilli and west 
 Highlands, comprehending the Hebri<los, whose petty chiels were 
 all subject to llie king of Morven. His piincipal place of resi- 
 dence was Selma, which was probably in ihc neighbourhood of 
 Glenco, supposed lo be the C'ona of Ossian ; though some iiria- 
 gine il lo have been in Stralli-Conan in Moray. '1 he triilh seems 
 to be, that as Fingal and his people liveii bv hunting, they often 
 shifled their habitation. Hence in all parts »f the Iligulandswe 
 find, in the names of (jlacis, buildings, &('. such monuments at 
 justify iheir several claims for the honour of Fingal's residence. Fin- 
 gal accjuired great tame by his prowess in arms. ■ He made many 
 successtul incursions into the Roman province, from whence be 
 i Q carried
 
 FIN 
 
 426 
 
 FIR 
 
 «irrif d uway those spoils which his son so often inentlons, under the 
 names of the wine of the stranger, and the wax of the stranger. 
 By sea we liiid him freqnentlv making voyages to Scandinavia, 
 the Orkneys, andlrehind; cahed by Ossian Lochlin, Jnnistore, 
 and Ldlin. 
 
 FINGERS, [digiti, Lat.] in anatomy, the extreme part of the 
 hand divided into hve nienibc-rs. The names of the finders, reck- 
 oning from the thumb, are, l.Pollfx: 2. Index: 3. Medius: 4. 
 Am.V.bcis: j. Anricularis. In eacli of these there are tliree bones, 
 which make three phahm^es, the upper of wliich are much larger 
 than the lower. See AsatoMY. 
 
 FINING OF LIQUOKS. See Clarification. 
 
 FINISH, an island on the west coast of Ireland, a mile E. of 
 Minith island. 
 
 FINISHING, in architecture, is frequently used for crowning, 
 acroter, &c. raised over a piece of building, to terminate, com- 
 plete, or finish it. 
 
 FINISTFRKK, W^t. finis tcTra:, i.e. land's end,] a depart- 
 ment of France, bounded "on the N.W. and S. by the sea, and on 
 the E. by the dejiartmcnts of the nortli coasts and Morbihan. It 
 comprehends the west part of the late province of Bretagne. 
 
 FiNisTEKRE, or FiNisTLKRA, u towu of Spain iu Gahcia, near 
 *.!ie Cape. 
 
 FiNisTERRE, Cape, the most western promontory of Spain and 
 of all Europe. I.on. 9. I^. W. Lat. 4'.'. 5L'. N. 
 
 FINITE, iJiiiitus, Lat.] something bounded or limited, in 
 ccntiv.distinctioH to infinite. See Infinite. The schools distin- 
 guish linite into two kinJs, viz. linile in perfection, and linite in 
 «xlension. See Perf ectlon and Extension. 
 
 Finite in Perfection, i-i applied to tilings which have not all 
 possible perfection, but such only as may be comprehended by 
 the mind. Thus the world, though supposed by the Cartesians 
 inlintte in point of extension, is yet finite in point of essence or 
 perfection. In order to arrive at an idea of a thing finite in per- 
 fection, we must hrst conceive the thing as having certain perfec- 
 tions, and then conceive some other perfections which it has not ; 
 cr some perfections in a greater degree. Thus when I say that 
 there is a finite numbir, I first conceive a number consisting of 
 three units, then conceive other units beyond these three. I 
 conceive my mind to be finite, by observing certain perfections 
 beyond those I find in niy mind. 
 
 Finite in Extension, is applied to things which have not all 
 possible or conceivable extension. To arrive at an idea of a thing 
 linite in extension, we must first conceive the thing as having a 
 certain extension, and then conceive some other extension which 
 it has not; thus I conceive a room to be finite in extension, by 
 having; an idea of extension beyond what is contained therein. 
 
 FIN no, in music, a canon or fugue is said to befinito, when 
 it is not perpetual, but when, at some certain place, all the parts 
 join or unite, alter having followed one another for a certain time. 
 
 FINITOU, in astronoiiiy, the same with horizon, so called be- 
 cause it terminates the sight or prospect. See Horizon. 
 
 FINKENSTEIN, a town of Germanv, in Carinthia, 16 miles 
 S.W. of Clagenfurt. 
 
 KiNKENSTEiN, or Haherspore, a town of Prussia, in Ober- 
 and, 73 miles S.S.W. of Konigsberg. 
 
 FINLAND, or FINNLAND, a country of Europe, bounded 
 on the north bv Lapland, on the east by Russia, on the souih by 
 a gulf to whicli it gives name, and on the west by the gulf of 
 Bothnia, i'b.e land is fertile, but badly cultivated, and thinly in- 
 habited. t)n a tract of mure than eight' thousand scjuare leagues, 
 hardly a million of soids are to be found. The pastures are ex- 
 ceedingly good, but the cattle are small. The forests of firs fur- 
 nish the jirincipal articles of commerce, in wood, charcoal, tim- 
 ber, and pl.inks, which are sent to Stockholm for exportation. 
 Game is abundant of various kinds. The lakes and rivers abound 
 in variety of lisli, and pearls are found on the coasts. At the bot- 
 tom ol the morasses earth is dug, from which iron is extracted. 
 There are also some mines of lead. Along the coasts lie a great 
 iiimiber of small rocky islands. The inhabitants are in general 
 l»rave and warlike, but have sulfered much from the ravages of 
 war. The corn principally culliv.-itcd is rye, barley, and buck 
 wheat ; the poorer sort of inhabitants, for want of better food, dry 
 even straw, bruise and mix it with some nie.il to make bread. 
 Finland is diviiied ialo seven provinces, Finland Proper, Aland, 
 
 III ' . . i - i I - "• , ■■ I -| ' i-"in; 
 
 East Bothnia, Tavastia, or 'lavastland, Nyland, Savalux, and 
 Kymmenegards Lehn. The religion is Lutheranisni. 
 
 P'iNLAND Proper, a province of Sweden, situated on the 
 southern part of Finland. Abo is the capital. 
 
 Finland, Russian. Sie Carelia^ Kexuolm, and Wi- 
 
 BURGH. 
 
 FIN MARK, a province of Norway, I)ounded on the north bv 
 the northern ocean, on the cast by the northern ocean and the 
 territories of Russia, on the south by Swedish Lapland, and on the 
 west by the northern ocean. It has neither towns nor villages, 
 though the coast is pretty well inhabited. The inhabitants subsist 
 chielly by fishing, and the best salmon of any in Norv\uy are caught 
 in this province. 
 
 FINNI, or FENNI, the ancient people of Finningia, " whos? 
 ferocity (says Tacitus) was cNtraordinary, poverty extreme, herbs 
 their food, skins their covering, and the ground their couch: re- 
 gardless of man and of gods, liny attained to a very dillicult thing,, 
 not to have a single wish to l«;ni." 
 
 FINNINGIA, orFENNTNGIA, in ancient geography, the 
 proper reading, for Eningia in Pliny, which he makes an i:.land, 
 but is more truly a peninsula: now called Finlaiid. 
 
 I''INNIS BAY, abay otocolland, cui the east coast oftlie island 
 of Harris. 
 
 FINNS, the people of Finland. See Finni. 
 
 FINO, a small island in the Baltic, near the east coast of Swe 
 den. Lon. Iti. 42. E. Lat. 58. 9.. N. 
 
 FINOVV, a town ot Germany, in the late circle of Upjier Sax- 
 ony, and Ucker Mark of Brandenburg, 3y miles N.E. of Berlin. 
 
 i'lR, or FIR-TREE. See PiNti's. 
 
 I'lR Club Moss. See Lycopodium, 
 
 FIRE, in chemistry, that subtle invisible substance by wliicH 
 bodies are expanded or enlarged in bulk, and become hot to the 
 touch ; fluids are rarefied into vapour ; solid bodies become iluiiS, 
 and in like manner are at last dissipated, or, il incai)able of being 
 carried olf in vapour, are at length melted into glass. It is now 
 denominated caloric, or the matter of heat. See Caloric. 
 
 Fire, in thefilogy. See Hell. We read of the sacred fire 
 in the first temple of Jerusalem, which came down from heaven: 
 it was kept with the utmost care, and the Jews were forbidden to 
 carry any strange fire into the temple. I'his lire is one of the five 
 things which the Jews confess were wanting iu ths second tem- 
 ple. 
 
 F'tre, in the Pagan mythology. Fire was the supreme god of 
 the Chaldeans ; and the Persian Siagi were worshippers of fire. 
 
 Fire, Balls of. See Balls of Fire, and yEROLiTHS. 
 
 Fire, the Extinguishing of, Though designed to be sulv- 
 servient to the most useful purposes, fire frecjueutly becomes a 
 scourge to mankind; and, unless it be timely discovered, lays 
 whole streets and towns in ashes. Hence the securing of houses 
 and other buildings against this devouring element, has ever form- 
 ed an important object of iiKpiiry, while it has. exercised the inge- 
 nuity of intelligent men; we shall brietly state a few ot the most 
 remarkable experiments, together with the result or success which 
 has attended them. Dv. Hales first proposed a plan of covering 
 the floors of houses with earth. The thicker the mould is laid on 
 the floore the greater is the security. He supposes that tlie deptk 
 of an inch will be amply sufficient; though he recommends to lay 
 a deeper coat on the stairs; because lire, in general, ascencis 
 by means of stair-cases with the greatest velocity.. M. Hartley 
 made several trials iu 1775 and 177f>,. to evince the efficacy of a 
 method which he had invented for restraining the spreading of fire 
 in buildings. For this purpose thin iron plates are well nailed 
 to the tops of the joists, &c. the edges of the sides and ends being 
 hipped over, folded together, and hammered close. Partitions, 
 stairs, and floors, may be defended i;i the same manner ; and 
 plates applied to one side have been found suP.icient. ^Plie plates 
 are so thin as not to prevent the tloor from being nailed un ti;e 
 joists, in the same manner as if ih\> preventive were not used: 
 they are kept from rust by being painted or v,.rnished with oil 
 and turpentine. The expence ol this addition, when extending 
 through a whole building, is estimated at about 5 per cent. Mr. 
 Hartley got a patent for this invention, and parliaii-ient voted a.- 
 sum ot money towards defraying the expence of his numerous 
 experiments. The same preservative may also be applied to 
 ships, furniture, &c. Lord Mahon has likewise invented a very 
 7 simple
 
 F I R 
 
 427 
 
 F I R 
 
 simple and etl'ertual mode of st'ciiiinp every kind ot building 
 ataiiist all d;'.iiu,er ot firi': he divides it into tnree parts, naiiicl.\, 
 nndcr-liooriiig, extra-latliing, and ijiler-M-ciiring.. T lie fnst |)art 
 or nu-tliod is either single or double. In single underflooiiiig, a 
 coniiuon strung lalli, one (|Uarter of an inch thick, s-lmulii be 
 nailed again>t each side of every joist and main timber, siipportini; 
 the tloor which i.s to be secured. Similar laths are then to be 
 nailed on the wliule b^nglh of the joists, the ends of which al)iit 
 against each other. The top of each lath or fdlet, ought to be an 
 inch and a half below the top of the joisls or timbers, against whicli 
 they are nailed, so as to form a small ledge on every side. W hei, 
 tl<cse iillels are nailed on, they should be laid in a rough plaster, 
 which thould be laid on the tops of such fillets, so as to leave no 
 vacant space between them and the joists. Short pieces of com- 
 mon hulls are nc\t to be nailed closely log':'lher, in a direction 
 contrary to that ol the joists ; the ends of Ihe former are to rest on 
 the fillets, and to be well bed.ded in rough plaster, but not fasten- 
 ed with nails. They are next to be coaled once with the plaster, 
 which is to be spread over theni to the tops of the joists. In 
 ilouble-llooring, the fillets and short pieces of laths are applied in 
 the manner already described ; the coat of rough plaster ousJit, 
 Iifuvcver, in this method, to be somewhat more than half as thick 
 as that in single-llooring. While the rough plaster is laying on, 
 some additional short pieces of laths are to be inserted between 
 ihe joists upon the first coat, as closely to eacli other as possible, 
 and in the same direction as the first layer of laths. Over this se- 
 cond layer of short laths another coat of rough plaster shotdd be 
 sjjread, wdiich ought to be trowelled level with the tops of the 
 joisls. As soon as the plasler-work between the joists is per- 
 fectly dry, it shoidd be inspected, in order fo ascertain whether 
 tliere be any sin;ill cracks, especially next to the joists- Should 
 any occur, it will be reiiuiMte to close them, by washing them over 
 with a brush wetted with mortar-wash, wluch may be prepared by 
 liii.xing two measures of ipiick-linie and one of sand in a pail, and 
 tempering the whole with water till it acquires the consistence of a 
 thick jelly. Previously to laying down the tlooring-boards, a 
 small quantity of dry common sand should be strewed over the 
 plaster work, and struck smooth with a hollow rule in the same 
 direction as the joints are laid, so that it mav lie rounding between 
 each ))air of joisls. I'articular attention should be paid to the 
 plaster-work and sand, that they be perfectly dry before the boards 
 are laid, lest the latter beconie inlecled witli'the dry-rot, "J'lie 
 mode ot under-llooring may be successfullv apjilied to a wooden 
 stair-case ; but no sand is tlien to be laid upon the plaster-work. 
 'J'he methods of extra-lathing may be practised on ceiling-joists, 
 sloping-roofs, and wooden partitions. The third method, namely, 
 inter-securing, is similar to that of under-flooring; but no sand is 
 afterwards to be laid over it. Inter-securing is applicable to the 
 same parts of a building as the method of extra-lathing ; but it is 
 seldom necessary to be employen. Lord Malion made several 
 experiments, which shew tlie utility of this invention; but we can 
 only refer tlie inquisitive reader lo'the sixty-eighth volume of the 
 Phdosophical Transactions of the Koyal Society," for 1778; 
 where he will fin<l a satisfactory account of the manner of prepar- 
 ing the moitar, as well as the result of numerous trials made bv the 
 inventor. See also Arckitecturk an<l Fire-Proof. The 
 most expeditious way of extinguishing lire is a matter of equal im- 
 portance, as the security of buildings Irom that destructive agent. 
 llence various machines, and chemical preparations, have been 
 invented by ingenious men, in order to promote so useful an ob- 
 ject ; one of the earliest contrivances was a barrel filled with cer- 
 tain ingredients, first proposed by M. Fuglis, a German physician, 
 in the \ ear 1734; and which effectually answered the purpose for 
 which it was designed. A similar invention was introduced into 
 this country by a Mr. Zachary Greyl, whose machines were made 
 of wood, and contained only water ; they were exhibited before 
 several of the nobility, but it did not meet with encouragement. 
 In the year I7tjl, Dr. Godfrey produced certain vessels which in 
 every respect succeeded. They are supposed to have been an 
 
 • improvement on ^ir. Grey I's, were coiistrucied with wood, and 
 filled with a chemical liquor, consisting of water, oil of vitriol, and 
 sal-ammoniac. When tlirown into rooms and other places that were 
 purposely set on fire, they burst, and by their explosion com- 
 pletely extinguished the flames: it is to' be observed, that they 
 
 _ vere useless after the roof had fallcu in. 'I'bese contrivances, 
 
 liowever, are evidenlly iiioic ■ alculated for ships, ihan to le (Mii- 
 ployed on land ; as they would be of great service for suppressing 
 fires in vessels at sea, and might be considered as necessary a p^rt 
 of their cargo as naval stores, or ammunition. In the twemy-tliird 
 volume ol Annals of Agriculture, .Mi. \'i illiani Knos, a merchant 
 of Golheiibing, in Sweden, states that he had made a v.iriety oC 
 expennienls ior extinguishing lire by means of sucn snbsunces as- 
 are cr.eap and easily procured. He divides them into simple and 
 conip.iund solutions. In the former class, he pvOj^o^es to add to- 
 seventy-five gallons ol water nine gallons of the stronge-t solution, 
 of wood-ashes; or six gallons of the finest pulverized pol- ashes ; or 
 eight gallons and a half of common salt well dried, and finely 
 beaten ; or eight gallons and a half of green vitriol or copperas, tho- 
 luughly dried, and finely pulverized ; or eleven gallons and a 
 quarter of the stiongest herring pickle ; or nine gallon.? alum re- 
 tluced to powder; or nineteen gallons of clay, pertectly dried,, 
 well beaten, and carefully sifted. Among tl-.e coml)oinid solu- 
 tions, Mr. Knox recommends to mix seventy-five gallons of wa- 
 ter with ten quarts of clay, ten quarts of vitriol, and ten quarts of 
 common salt; or a similar quantity of water, with eighteen quarts 
 of the stron«est solution of wood-ashes ami eiglileeii cinarts ol fine 
 clav reduced to powder; or the same proportion of water, with 
 fifteen quarts of red-ochre, or the residuum of aquafortis, and fif- 
 teen quarts of common salt ; or, lastly, to mix lifteen quarts ot the 
 strongest herring-pickle, and fifteen (juarts of n d-oehre, with se- 
 venty-five gallons of water. All these dilierent solutions, Mr. 
 Knox remarks, are eqiially efficacious in extingni-hing fire ^ but 
 he pi efers the compounds, as being the " surest and mo:,t power-- 
 ful for that purpose." Another of the various inventions for e.x- 
 tinguishing fire by chemical means, deserving of police, is the 
 composition prepared by M. Von Aken, and wiiich consists o£ 
 the following ingredients: 
 
 lbs. 
 
 Burnt alum 30 
 
 Green vitriol in powder 40 
 
 Cinabrese, or red-ochre, jjulverized. 20- 
 
 Potters, or other clay, finely pounded and sifted COO 
 
 Water .' .' - tJ30 
 
 With 40 measures of this liquor an artificial fire, which would 
 have re(]uired the hibour of twenty men, and liOO me.-isures of 
 common water, was extinguished, under the direction of the ia- 
 ventor, by three persons. The price of this compound solution is 
 estimated at one lialfpenny per pound. 
 
 I'iRK, Water Engin'es for extixguishin'c. These are either 
 forcing or lifting pumps ; and as they are nuule lo move witli great 
 velocity, their execution principally depends on the length of 
 their levers, and the force with which they are worked. Various- 
 engines have been contrivetl, from which we have selected the lol- 
 lowing, as they are the most ingenious, and at the jame time cal- 
 culated to protluce the greatest eftects. In the year 17S3, the sil- 
 ver medal and twenty guineas were conferred by the " Society 
 (or the Encouragement of Arts," &c. on Mr. I'ur. t, as a reward 
 tor his contrivance to increase the effect of engines in extinguish- 
 ing fires; of which the following is a short description .. from a. 
 platform rises an upright pole or mast, of such heifjiit as may be 
 judged necessary ; a gafi slides upon it in an •ascending direction,, 
 and along both is conveyed the leather liose from the engine, 'i'he 
 branch, or nose-pipe oi the eiej'.ne, projects at the extremity of 
 the gait ; towards which an iron trame is ti\i,-d, whence two cha ns 
 are suspended ; and Irom these hang ropes, which serve to give aU' 
 liorizoiital direction to the branch; while other ropes that nm 
 through proper piillies, and are thus conveyed down the mast, 
 serve likewise to coumuinicate a vertical motion to it. By these 
 means, the braiuh or no-^e-pipe of the engine is conducted iiiio- 
 the window of any rO( m where the fire more immeiiiately rages; 
 and the elVect of the water discharged is applied in the mo^t ef- 
 ficacious manner to the extinguishing of the tlames. A patt nt was 
 granted in Janiiary 1790, to Nlr. .'osepli Brah.im, of I'icadillv, 
 and to Mr. Thomas Dickenson, of Uedworth Close, in tliecouruv 
 of Warwick, for a new improved engine on amtadve principle. 
 The merits of this luachinc depend on its having two wheels 
 or cylinders of Inass, or any otlier metal ; one of wl.ich is of a. 
 greater, and the other of a smaller diameter, in any proportion 
 required ; both are nearly of equal length, but may be increased 
 
 OT. 
 
 •
 
 FIR 
 
 428 
 
 FIR 
 
 or (lecrea^eil, accordin!; to the pui-posc to wliicli the machine is I 
 applied. As soon a=! the largfr wheel U lixed, the smaller one is | 
 ])laced within it, and is fastened on an axis, so as to turn in a rota- 
 live direction round its centre ; the smaller wheel being thns sta- 
 tioned, may be occM-ionally fixed, and the larger one moved in 
 the same d'lriction round the smaller one: the former of these, 
 however, is prelerahio in all cases. At each end of (lie larger 
 wheel there is a flanch, to which are screwed two plates, or Ci.ps 
 inclosing its ends, and into which tlie extremities of t!ie smaller 
 wheel aie inserted, so as to render the jnnction water-tight: 
 through these caps pas'ies the axis of the inner cylinder, in order 
 (o cc>tnniuiitcate motion from wiihout. Or the inner wlieel may 
 fce applied so as to give motion, by its exl<rnal end or ends, to 
 any otiier eni^ine or machine crnuectcd witli it. These are the 
 •component parts of Messrs. Braliam's and Dickenson's patent eji- 
 gines; for a more particular account of wiiich, we refer tiie reader 
 to the 2d vol. of the Repertory of Arts and jSkuuifacturcs, wh.ere 
 he will find a minute account ot ll-.e machinery, and the ef- 
 fects it is calculated to produce. A patent was h.kewise granted 
 in December 1792, to Mr. Charles Simpkin, of Oxford-street, 
 engine-maker; for his improvements' in all kinds of machines tor 
 €xtina;uisl)iTig (ire. This invention consisis in exploding or re- 
 movin<^the valves both from tliat part of the cylinder, wncre the 
 vacuum is mad.e by the piston or liy, lUid from beneath the air- 
 vessel ; and in making use of valves, by tiu' application of certain 
 filtering chambers, with partitions or divisions, to preserve the 
 elifect of the valves, during t!ie use of any improper fluid. These 
 filtering clr.imbers are to be placed between the drawing valves, 
 and the strainer in common use, on tlie suction-pipe. Tlie par- 
 titions in the chambers may be of tine wire-work, or of any other 
 substitute, that wdl act as a tirst and second filtration in the cham- 
 ber. 'I'he design oi this invention is, to render the valves more 
 free of acce-s, and to prevent the neces^-ity of opening r.ny otner 
 parts of the engine, except the chambers cont.iimng the valves ; 
 by which means the effect of the machine is increased, and con- 
 secpiently the lire may be more easily exlinguished. 1 o these 
 different contrivances we shall add the .American lire engine, of 
 which we have given an accurate engraving. It was invented by 
 Mr. Benjamin i3earborn, who communicated it to the American 
 Academy of Arts and Sciences, from whose Memoirs tor 1794, 
 we extract the following description. In fig. 3, Plate LXX, AB, 
 and C D, are the edges of two planks, confined together by four 
 bolts.— a .'), and c d, are two cylindrical barrels, in each of which 
 a piston, with a valve, is fastened to the spear c, and is moved up 
 and down altrrnately by the motion of tlie arms E E. Beneath 
 each barrel a hole is made through the plank AB, which is covered 
 with a valve. -The arms E E, are suspended on the common cen- 
 tre/; there are also arms parallel to these on the oppesile side ; 
 gg are the ends of handles which are fastened across the ends of 
 the arms. At k, a bolt goes across, from arm to arm, to which 
 the piece ?/v, is affixed, and on wdiich it plays ; the lower end of 
 this piece is fastened to the top of the spear e. — G, t,f, is a stand- 
 ard for the purpose of supporting the arms, to which there is a 
 correspondent one on the opposite side ; both are notciied into the 
 edges of the planks, where they are secured by a bolt, which 
 passes through iliem at /, and has a nut or fore-lock on the oppo- 
 site side, lit, li I, are square br.ices, answering the purpose of 
 ducts, t puigh which the water ascends from the barrels passing 
 through ilie plank*at ?ii. K L, K L, are irons in the form of a 
 staple, in order to co'iline the braces: the lower cwU of these 
 irons meet, and are secured by a bolt passing throng!) them, and 
 M N, no, which is a piece that goes up through a mortice in the 
 centre of the planks. This piece is stjuare from the lower end, 
 till it .roaches tlie lop of the braces ; whence tiiey become 
 <-ylindrical to-the top, the upper end being perforated sufiicienlly 
 low down, ill order !o communicate with the braces. O, P, is an 
 iron ring, that .surrounds the tube, an<l has two shanks which as- 
 cend through '.he head, which screws ou the top at /), q : — r, .9,is a 
 ferule n.iiled ri-und the tube. Fig. 4, is the same engine; the 
 arms and standards being taken ofl', in order to delineate more 
 <rlcarly the mode of s. curing the braces ; 'an object which is com- 
 pletely effected by a wedge driven into the mortice u : beneath 
 the upper plank b, is a hole for admitting a passage to the bolt, 
 which secures the st;'.ndard<. In this figure, a side-view of the 
 head rs given, with the pipe in a perpendicular direction. The 
 
 machine is confined within a box, set on wheels, as in the common 
 fire-engines. Tiie whole is made of wood, excepting the spears 
 of the i)umps, and a few bolts, &c. The advantages of this ma- 
 chine isre, that it can be made in any place where common pumps 
 are nianufaclured ; the interior weik will not exceed one-fourth 
 of the price o' those which are constructed on the usual plan ; and 
 that they are incompanibly mere easy to work, than the common 
 ones ; circumstances which 'trongly reconmieiided the American 
 fire-engine to the attention of tne public. The fire-engine is in all 
 ca^es, a very ineffecluv.l machine, v.h-jre it cannot sii))ply a very 
 large t|uantitv of water in proportion totli'e fire to be estinguishecl. 
 f)n tlie breaking out of a tire, all constables are enjoiuv d, by se- 
 veral acts of parliament, to repair to the place ; to use every ex- 
 ertion for extinguishing the flames ; and to cause tije people to 
 work, Src. Bv the 10 Ann. c. 14, no action sliaH be commenced 
 against any person in whose house or chamber a fire shall break 
 out accidentally ; but, if such fire happen through the negligence 
 of any servant, the latter incui-s a penally of 100/. to be dislri- 
 buted among the suflijiers; and in delaiilt of payment, he is lobe 
 im|>risoned for 18 months during w hi(di time lie is to be kejit to 
 hard labour. The wiliul setting of fire to any liouse, out-house, 
 or other building, is felony without benefit of clergy. 
 
 FiRE-A;;.M5 are those which are charged with powder and 
 ball ; such as musquets, carbines, jiisloh, c: nnoiis. Sec. In De- 
 cember 17fO, a j>ateiit was granted to Mr. Juhi: Aithen, of Edin- 
 burgh, surgeon, for his invention of a new melhoil of loading iire- 
 arins, of wli,,tevrr dinensions or forms, w ith tvo or more charges 
 of powder and bail, and of discharging them in succession, bv lire 
 communicated ihrt.ugli correspon<lent peifcrations, or louch- 
 iioles. ' This consists in lodging several cliarges o! powder and shot 
 in the fire-arms, whether cylmdricil, ccnical, chambered, or 
 otherwise ; the hindmost extremity, or breech, being closed, 
 while tlie anterior one, or muzzle, is OjjT-n. The extension of the 
 fire, in a posterior diiection from the charge next the muzzle that 
 i> first inllair.ed, is intercepted bj intermedia (daced between the 
 several charges, which are firmly lainnied about or above the shot; 
 and which are formed of any substance that possesses sufficient re- 
 si-.t;ince, is compact, incombustible, and properly shaped. In 
 ihe smaller fire-arms, namely pistols, mustpiets, blunderbusses, 
 &c. the jiatentee chiefly employs leadier, or other thick stuffs. In 
 the larger ones, such as cannons, mortars, I'Vc. he makes u^e of 
 various pastes, as being more comn-.odious, and more easily pro- 
 cured, 'llie charges are ignited thrcugli touch-holes by the lock, 
 or UK'tch, as occasion may demand, according to the size and 
 condition of the lube. 
 
 Fire-Arrow, in naval artillery, is a small iron dart furnished 
 with springs and bars, together with a mat^-h impregnated with sul- 
 phur and powder, which is wound about its sliaft. It is intended 
 to fire the sails of the enemy, and it is for this purpose discharged 
 from a niusqueloon or swivel gun. The match being kindled 
 by the explosion, communicates the flame to the sail against which 
 it is directed, where the arrow is fastened by means of its bars and 
 springs. This weapon is peculiar to hot climates, particularly 
 the West Indies, u here the sails being extremely dry by reason 
 of the great heats, they instantly take fire, and of course set fire 
 to the rigging, masts, and vessel. 
 
 Fire-Ball, in artillery, a composition of powder, sulphur, salt- 
 petre, pitch, &c. about the bigness of a hand grenade, coated over 
 with flax, and primed with the slow composition of a fuze. This 
 is to be fhrouu into the enemy's works in the night-time, to dis- 
 cover where they are ; or to fire houses, galleries, or blinds of the 
 besiegers; but they are then armed with spikes or hooks of iron, 
 that they roll not off, but stick or hang where they are desired to 
 have any effect. See Bali-. 
 
 Fire-Eater. A great number of mountebanks have attracted 
 the attention and wonder of the public by eating fire, walking 
 on fire, wnshing their hands in melted lead, and the like tricks. 
 The most celebrated of these was our toun'.ryman Kichardson, 
 much talkerl of abroad. His secret, as related in the Jmirnal des 
 Sc.ivaus, of IGSO, consisted in a pure spirit of sulphur, v\l:ere\vilh 
 he rubbed his h:^nds, nnd tlie [larts that were to loucli the five ; 
 which burning and cauterizing the epidermis, hardened and ena- 
 bled the skin to resist the fire. Indeed this is no new thing: 
 .■\iub. Pare assures us that he had tried it on himself: that alter 
 v.ashing the bands in urine, and with an unguentum aureum, one 
 
 BKlY
 
 FTR 
 
 429 
 
 FIR 
 
 mav safi'ly wash \hcin in mclled lead, lie adds, th.it by wasliing 
 his hands in the Juice ot onions, liu could bear a hot ihovcd on liuMn 
 whili' it nicltfd kntd. 
 
 FiRE-C'ocKs, are contrivances for admitting water into pi|)c> or 
 reservoire ; chnndiwardfiis in J^ondon, and within tlie bills o! 
 iiiortalily, are enjoined to fix them at proper diNlaitces in ^t^l•(■ts, 
 tojTCtlicr with painted characters on the op|)osite wall, pointing out 
 such distance. 'I'hey are also ordered to di posit in every house 
 thus marked, an instriniient or key ior opening a plug, and like- 
 vise a large engine, and an hand-engine, under tlie penalty often 
 pounds. 
 
 1' ire-Engine. See Steam-Engine. 
 
 Eire-Escape, a contrivance for the purpose of rescuing per- 
 sons in imndnenl danger from fire. In the Animal Uegisler for 
 1775, an account is given of a machine for saving persons and ef- 
 fects from the flames. It consists, 1. Of a pole of fir, which may 
 be of any convenient length, being about five inches in diameter 
 at the bottom, and at the top or smallest end, about three inches. 
 At the distance of three feet from the top, is a mortice throiii>h the 
 pole, to which a pulley is fixe<l, that is nearly of the same diame- 
 ter as that part of the pole. 2. A rope about tliree-fouiths of an 
 inch in diameter, and twice the length of the pole, at one end of 
 whicli is a spring-hook, to pa^s through the handle of the basket, 
 when used ; it is put through the mortice over the pulley, and 
 drawn tight on each side, nearly to tlie bottom of the pole, wliere 
 it is secured till wanted. 3. A basket which ought to be of strong 
 wicker-work, three and a hah feet long, tw^o and half feet wide, 
 rouiuled olf at the corners ; and four feet deep, rounding every 
 way at the bottom. To the top of the basket is fixed a strong iron 
 curve, or handle, with an e\e or ring in the middle : a small cord 
 about the length of the pole, is likewise fastened to one side of the 
 basket, near the top. I'hese being the principal parts, there are 
 also several straps, &c. for seeming the poles from sliding ; of 
 which the reader will Hiul a minute account in the volume before 
 quoted. This contrivance can be raised, and two or more per- 
 sons may be taken out of the upper windows of a house, and let 
 tlown safely in the street, within the space of thirty-five seconds, 
 or in little more than half a minute. W'e cannot on this occasion, 
 omit to point out the great utility of those fringed ropes wliich 
 should be fastened to the foot of a bedstead, and extend to a suf- 
 ficient length, to descend by them, in case of fire, through a win- 
 dow : they are sold by several rope-manufacturers in town, gene- 
 rally at two shillings per yard. 
 
 EIRE-PLACE, a .contrivance for communicating heat to 
 rooms, and also for answerijig various purposes of art and manu- 
 facture. See Furnace and Stove. In the construction of fire- 
 places for domestic purposes, the chief object is the saving of 
 fuel : with this intention, several ingenious artists have invented 
 difTerent kinds of grates, more or less adapted to that useful end. 
 The fire-places in general use are, 1, The large open ones, which 
 were commonly adopted in former limes, and are still retained in 
 the country, and in kitchens: they require a wide fimnel, con- 
 sume a great quantity of fuel, and generally smoke, unless the 
 door, or a window, be left open. 2. The mo<lern fire-places ge- 
 nerally ado[)led in towns, are constructed" with low breasts and 
 hearths, narrowed by jambs. These being more contracted than 
 the aiui(|uated chimnies, easily keep the room free from smoke ; 
 but the tunnel ncCessarilv occasions a considerable draught of air, 
 which rushing in at every crevice, renders the situation of tliose 
 who are exposed to it verv uncomfortable, and even dangerous : 
 for it is uiKiuestionable, fl-.at most of the diseases that proceed from 
 colds may be justly attributed to the strong draught of chim- 
 nies, by whi< h, in severe weather, persons are scorched before, 
 while they are freezing behind. Such fire-places, therefore, are 
 of little service in heating rooms, as (he surrounding air, which is 
 warmed by the direct rays of the fire, does not remain in the aijart- 
 ment, but is continually collected in the chininev, by the current 
 of coUl air which surrounds it, and by which it is in a short time 
 carried off. Nor is this the only inconvenience attendant on such 
 inq)roper contrivances; for the greatest part of the fire is lost, in 
 consequence of its being absoibed by the back,jand)s, and hearth, 
 which are dark and obscure, and reflect ver^ little, so that the 
 heat flies directly up the chimney. 3. To remedy this inconve- 
 jiience, an ingenious Fiencluiian, named Ganger, in the year 1709, 
 -proposed seven tlitferent constructions of a new kind ot chimnies, 
 in which, there are hollow cavities, forn^ed by ineaivs of iron plates 
 vot. II. — NO. 84. 
 
 inserted in the hack, jambs, and hearth ; tliroiigh Ihe-e flu- lieat 
 passes and warms the air in those cavities, wliic-h is thus conlinii- 
 ally communicated to the room. Althouah many advantasM 
 arise from this airangcnn'iit, yet the expence necessarily incurred, 
 must ever be an in-u|)epable ob-lacle to its general adaption. 4. 
 Another kind of lire-place is the llolland iron-stove, which has a 
 flue proceeding from the top, and a small iron door that opens uitu 
 Ihe apartment. They serve to warm a room, lessen the consump- 
 tion of fuel, and to |)roduce a constant chanue of air ; but, as the 
 fire is too much conlined, it is neither sulficientiv cheerful, nor 
 calculated for culinary purposes, and is therefore employej 
 chiefly in work-shops. 5. The German stove consists of live iVoii 
 plates, which are screwed closely together in such a manner, that 
 the fuel may be put into it from 'another room, and even from the 
 outside of the house. This stove warms rooms with little fuel, 
 and is not allended with any danger from the irruption of col'.l 
 air ; but it admits of no change or draught of air in the room, and 
 the fire is likewise concealed. Such are the inconvenieiicies at- 
 tending the fire-places in gcneial use; and, thou-h we by no 
 means, wish to deiireciate Ihe inventions of Count lUimford, yet 
 we are of opininn that the Pennsylvania fire-|)lace, which was origi- 
 nally co«trired by Ur. F'rankliii, is eminently adapted to domes- 
 tic purposes, both for its economy in tlie consumption of fuel, 
 and on account of its eiricacious mode of impaitiiu; heat. Eroin 
 these considerations, we have been induceti to present the reader 
 with some account of this machine, which consists : 1. Of a bot- 
 tom plate or hearth-piece, as shewn in the fimire, with a rising 
 moulding in front, for a lender. See Plate LXX. fig. 5. At the 
 sides are attached two perforated ears, E. G, for receiving two 
 screw-rods; a long air-hole ii a, ihrounh which the outward 
 air passes into the air-box ; and three smoke-holes rei>resented by 
 the dark squares in BC, through which the smoke descends aiul 
 losses away ; besides, double ledges for receiving between tliein 
 tiie lower edges of the other plates. 2. A back plate without 
 holes, and furnished with a pair of ledges to receive. 3. The two 
 side plates, each of which has a pair of ledges to receive the side- 
 edges of the front plate, with a shoulder oiiWhich it rests two pair 
 of ledges to receive the side edges of the two middle plates whicli 
 form tlie air-box, and an oblong air-hole near the top, through 
 which the air warmed in the box is discharged into the room, and 
 a wing or bracket as H, and a small hole as R, for the axis of the 
 register to turn in. See fig. 6, which represents one of these 
 plates. 4. An air-box, composed of the two middle plates DE 
 and EG, fig. 7 and 8. The first has five thin ledges or partitions 
 cast on it, the edges of which are received into so many pair of 
 ledges cast in the other: the tops of all the cayitics formed by 
 these llvn deep ledges are also covered by a ledge of the same 
 form and depth cast w ith them ; so that when the plates are put to- 
 gether, and the joints luted, there is no conmuinication between 
 the air-box and the smoke. In Ihe winding passages of this box, 
 fresh air is warmed as it passes into the room. 5. A front plate, 
 which is arched on the under side, and ornamented with fohat'es, 
 &c. 6. A top plate, with a pair of ears .\1, N, fig. 9, answerable 
 to those m the bottom plate, and perforated for the same purpose. 
 It has also a pair of ledges running round the under slue to re- 
 ceive the top edges of Ihe front, back, and side plates. The air-box 
 does not reach up to the top plate by '2\ inches. All these plates 
 are of cast iron ; and when they are all in their proper places, they 
 are bound firmly together by a pair of slender rods of wrought 
 iron with screws, and the maciiine appears as in rig 9. There are 
 also two thin plates of wrought iron, \ iz, 7. The shutter, which 
 is of such a length and breadth as to close w ell the opening of the 
 fire-place, and serves to blow up (he fire, and to secure ii in the 
 night. It is raised or de|nesse(l by means of two brass knobs, and 
 slides in a groove left between the foremost ledge of the side plates 
 and the face of the front plate. S. The register, which is placed 
 between the back plate and air box, and furnished with a key ; so 
 that it may be turned on its axis, and made to lie in any position 
 between level and upright. The operation of this machine, and 
 the method of fixing it, may be understood bv obierviiig the pro- 
 file of the chimney and fire-places in fig. 10. M is tiie mantle 
 piece or breast of the chimney ; C the funnel; B the false back, 
 made of brick work in the chimney, four inches or moie from the 
 true back, from the top of which "a closing is made over to the 
 breast of the chimney, that no air may pass into the chimney ex- 
 cept that which goes under the false back, aud up behind it ; T 
 ^ ^< the
 
 FT R 
 
 430 
 
 FIR 
 
 sfeas: 
 
 the truL- back of the chimney ; K the lop of the hre-plact- ; F the 
 fj-oiit ol' h ; A the place where the fire is made ; D the air-box ; 
 K the liole in the side |)late, tlirough wliich tlic warmed air is dis- 
 charged out of the air-box into the room ; II llie hollow, formed 
 by removing some bricks from the liearth imdor tlie bottom plate 
 li'lled with fresh air, entering at the passage I, and ascending into 
 the a-r-box through the air-hole in the bottom plate near G, the 
 partition in the hollow, designed to keep the air and smoke apart ; 
 P the passage under the false back, and part of the hearth lor the 
 smoke. The arrows shew the course of the smoke. The hre be- 
 ing made at A, tiie flame and smoke will ascend, strike the top 
 T, and give it a considerable heat ; the smoke w-ill turn over the 
 air-bo\, and descend between it and the back ])late to the holes 
 near (i in the bottom plate, healini? in its passages all the plates of 
 the machine ; it will then proceed under and behind the lalse 
 back', and rise into the chimney, The air of llie room contiguous 
 to the several plates, and warmed by them, becomes specilically 
 lighter than the otlier air in the room, and is obliged to rise ; but 
 being prevented by the closure over the (ire-place Irom going up 
 the chnniipy, is forced out into the room, and rising by the man- 
 tle-piece to the ceiling, is again driven down gradually by me 
 tteani of newly warmed air that follows : and thus the wliule room 
 becomes in a lilHe lime eLjiially warmed. The air also, warmed 
 under the bottom plate and in the air box, rises and comes out ot 
 the ho'.es in the side plates, thus svarming and continually changing 
 the air of the room. In the closing of the chimney a sipiare 0))en- 
 ing for a trap door should be left for the sweeper to go up: the 
 door may be made of slate or tin, and so placed, that by turning 
 up agaiiiit llie back of the chimney when open, it closes the va- 
 cancy behind the taUe back, and shoots die soot that fall- in sweep- 
 ing out upon the hearlh. It will also ba convenient to have a 
 small hole, about live or eiic inches scpiare, cut near the teilui'; 
 through into the funnel, and providetl with a sluitter ; by occa- 
 sionally opening which, Ihehe'.ted air of the room and smoke of 
 tobacco, ic. may be carried otf without incommoding the com- 
 pany. For a further account of the nu.niicr othxmg and u-nig 
 this tire-place, see Franklin's Letters and I'l.pers on I'lnlosopln- 
 cal Subjects, p. 284— 3 IS, edit. ITtiQ. 
 
 FiRK-Pi-ACEs, C'oL'.N'T Rvwi'Ord's Improvements of. Tlie 
 ingenious Count Rumford has lately published a vaUuible Essay 
 on the most beneficial lorm in which common lire- places may be 
 constructed ; so as not only to prevent smokiiiii, out also to im- 
 prove ihcin in all other respects. See Smokisi;. 
 
 FiKE-PoTS, in llie military art, small earthen pots, into which 
 is put a charged grenade, ana over that powder eno-gh to c-ver 
 the grenade ; then the pot is covered with a piece of parchment, 
 and two pieces of match across lighted ; this piecr being thrown by 
 a handle of matches where it is designed, it breaks and (ires the 
 powder, and binni all that is near it, and likewise (ires the powder 
 ill the grenade, which ought to have no fuse, that its operations 
 may be the (juicker. 
 
 fiKK-ltEEns, reeds UEed in fire-sliips. They are rnade up in 
 small bunilles of about afoot in circumference, cut even at both 
 «nds, and tied together in two places. 'I'hey are distinguished 
 into two kinds, viz. the long and short ; the former of which are 
 four feet, and the latter two feet live inches in length. One part 
 of them are singly dipped, i, v, at one end ; the rest are dipped at 
 both ends in a kettle of melted composition. Alter being ini- 
 jnersed about seven or eight inches in iliis preparation, and then 
 diaiiied, ihey are sprinkled over with pulverised sulphur upon a 
 tanned hide. 
 
 FiriF.-SHip, in tlic navy, a vessel charged with artilicial fire- 
 works, which having the wiucl oi an enemy's ship, grapples her, 
 ami sets her on (ire. 
 
 FiRE-iiTONE, See Pvp.ite?. 
 
 F'lKE-W'oRKs, preparations made of gunpowder, siilplmr, and 
 other inOammabie and combustible ingredients, used on occasion 
 of public rejoicings and otlfr solemnities. Tlie invention of hre- 
 works is by M. Mahudel attributed to the Florentines and people 
 of Sienna ; who found out likewise the method of adding decora- 
 tions to tlieiii ot statues, with lire issuing Irom their eyes and 
 moiillu. I'he art of preparing and managing thete is called py- 
 rotecliny. See Pvroiechny. 
 
 FIRING, in the nnlitarv art, denotes the discharge of the fire- 
 stuis; antl its «bj<>ct is to do the utinott execution to the enemy. 
 
 Tiie prcaenl melliod of tiring by platoons is said to have been 
 invented by Gustavus Adolplins, and first used about 1018 : the 
 reason for this method is, that a constant fire may be always kept 
 up. There are three dillerent ways of platoon tiring : viz. stand- . 
 ing, advancing, and retreating. I5ut previous to every kind of 
 tiring, each regiment or battiuion must be told off in grand divi- 
 sions, subdivisions, and platoons, exclusively of the grenadiers, 
 which form two subdivisions or tour platoons of themselves. lit 
 liriiig standing, either by divisions or platoons, the 1st fire is from 
 the division or platoon on the right ; the 2d fire from the left ; 
 the 3d from the right again ; and so on alternately, till the firing 
 comes to the centre platoon, which is generally called the colour 
 platoon, and does not tire, remaining as a reserve for the colours. 
 I'lring advancing is peiiormed in the same manner, with this addi- 
 tion, tliat before either division or platoon fires, it advances three 
 paces forward. Firing retreating varies hoin either of the former 
 methods; for before either division or platoon fires, if ihcy are 
 marching from the enemy, it must go to tiie right about, and alter 
 firing, to the left about again, and continue the retreat as slow and 
 orderly as possible. In hedge-firing the nien are drawn up two 
 decj), and in that order both ranks aie to hre standing. Obli(|ue 
 firing IS either to the right and lelt, or from the right and left to ti.e 
 centre, according to tde situation of the oliject. The Prussians 
 have a particular contrivance fur this purpose ; if they are to level 
 to the right, the rear ranks of every platoon make two (juick but 
 small paces to the left, and the body of each soldier turns one- 
 eif^hth of a circle, and vice versa. P.irapet firing depends on the 
 nature of the parapet over which the men are to hre, and also 
 upon that of the atl.ick made to possess it. '1 his method of firing 
 Is sometimes performed by single ranks stepping on the banquctic 
 and liraig ; each man instantly handing his aruis to the centre rank 
 01 the same file, and taking Ins back m the room of it ; and the 
 centre rank giving it to the rear to load, and forwarding the arms 
 ol Uk- lear to the froi.t rank ; by which means the front rank men 
 can fire six or seven rounds in a minute with exactness. Parapet 
 firing niay also be executed two deep, when the banquette i« 
 llnve feel broad, or in fi-'ld works, where no banquettes are made. 
 rjquare firing is perlormed bv a regiment or body of men drawn 
 up in a hollow square, in wli en case each frmit is generally di- 
 vided ii. to lour divisi.ns or firings, and the flanks of tlie square 
 Deiiig the weakest (lart, are Kjvered by four platoons of grena- 
 diers. The firat fire IS from the right division of each face ; the 
 2d Irom the left division of each face, &c. and the grenadiers 
 make the last (ire. Sireet-firing is practised in two ways; cither 
 by making the division or plaioon that has fired to wheel by half 
 rank to the right ami leit onlwards from the centre, and to inarch 
 in that order by half divisions down the flanks on each side of the 
 column, and to diaw up in the rear, and go on with iheir priming 
 andio.iding; or, lo make thedivisum or platoon, after firing, to 
 face to (he right and left oiitwunls from the centre, and one half 
 rank to follow the other; and in lliai order to march in one centre 
 hie down on each side of the column into tlie rear, and there 
 drav; up as before. 
 
 FiRi.s'o, in farriery. See Farriery. 
 
 FiaiNG Iron, an'instrumcnt used by farriers, resembling the 
 blade of a knife, which being made red-hot is applied to a iiorse's 
 skin, to disi-uss (imiours, knots, &:c. 'I'lie practice is justly con- 
 demned by Osmer. See Faiuiierv. 
 
 i-'lllKlN, an English nie;isure of capacity for tliiags liquid, 
 being the fourth part of the barrel ; it contains eight gallons of 
 ale, soap, or herrings ; and nine gallons of beer. 
 
 FlllLO T, a dry measure used in Scotland. The oat firlot con- 
 tains Jl^th pints of that country; the wiieat lirlot contains about 
 2,'..' 11 cubical inches; anil the barley fir'.ot, 31 standarvl pints. 
 Hence it appears that the Scotch wheat firlol exceeds the English 
 bushel by thirl y-tline cubical inches. 
 
 FFRMAMl'.NT, in the ancient astronomy, the eighth heaven 
 or sphere ; being th;it wherein the fixed sairs were siqipo ed to be 
 placed. It is called the eiglilh, with respect iv the seven heavens 
 or spheres of the planets which it surrounds. It was -upposed to 
 have two motions; a diurnal motion, ^i\en it liy liie priinuiii 
 mobile, from K. to W. about the iioles of the eclijitic ; and ano- 
 ther Opposite motion from W. to K. ; which last it fiiiishes, ac- 
 cording to Tvcho, in 2.J,4I2 years; according to Ptolemy, in 
 3t),000 •, and according to Copuniicus, in 258,000 ; in which time 
 
 th«
 
 F[S 
 
 431 
 
 FIS 
 
 the lived suiM return to thr same preci'ie poijits wliPreiii ll.ry wirif 
 at the b'-giiining. This period is commonly called I'lato'i year, 
 or the ijreat year, lii various places of Scripture firmament is 
 used for the middle region of the air. Many of tlie ancients al- 
 lowed, with the moderns, that tlie firmament i' a lluid niatler ; 
 though they, who gave it the denomination of firraanieut, nuisl 
 have taken it for a solid one. 
 
 FIKMAN, 3 pa.ssport or permit granted by the Great Mogul 
 to foreign vessels, to trade within his territories. 
 
 I'i R .\I N ESS, in physiology, the consistence of a body, or that 
 stale wherein its sensible parts cohere in such a manner, that the 
 motion of one part induces a motion in the rest. 
 F'IRO, a species of Acarus. See Acarus. 
 FlKSl'-BOKN. See Pkimogeniturk. This word is often 
 used in Scripture in a figurative sense for that which is first, most 
 excellent, most distinguished in any thing. Thus it is said of 
 Clirist (Col. i. 13,) that he is " the first-born of every creature;" 
 and in the Revelation (i. 5,) he is called " the fi rst-hegotten of 
 the (lead ;" that is, ixcordnig to the commentators, Begotten of 
 the Father betore any creature was produced; and the first who 
 rose from the dead by his own ))ouer. " 'I' he first-born of the 
 poor," (Isa. xiv. 30,) signifies, The most miserable of all the poor; 
 and in Jol) (.wiii. 13,) "The first-boru of death; that is, The 
 most terrible of all deaths. 
 
 First-fruits, Ipnmilia, Lat.] among the Hebrews, were obla- 
 tions of part of the fruits of llie h.'rvest, ollered to God as an ac- 
 knowledgment of his sovereign dominion. The first of these fruits 
 were offered in the name of the whole nation, being either two 
 loaves of bread, or a sheaf of barley which was thretlied in the 
 court of the temple. Every private person was obliged to bring 
 his nrst-ti^uit-J to the temple'; and these consisted of wheat, barley, 
 grapes, figs, apricots, olives, and dates. There was another sort 
 of tirst-fruils winch were (jaid to God. When bread was kneaded 
 in a family, a portion of it was set apart, and given to the priest or 
 Levile wlio dwelt in the place : if there was no priest or Levite 
 there, it was cast into the oven, and consumed by the fire. "I'hese 
 ott'erings made a considerable part of the revenues of the Hebrew 
 priesthood. 
 
 FiRST-paoiTS are frequ^ntlv mentioned bv ancient Christian 
 writers as one part of the church revcnui-. t)ne of the councils 
 of Carthage enjoined, that they should consist onlv of grajjes and 
 corn ; which shews, that this was the practice of the African church. 
 First-fruits, in the church of England, are (he profits of 
 every spiritual benefice for the first year, according to the valua- 
 tion ihercof in the king's books. 
 
 I'lUUZABAD, a lown ot^Pcrsia, in the province of Faristan, 
 73 miles S. S. \V. of the Schiras. 
 
 FISC, or FISCT'S, [from ^iths.-, Gr. a great basket,] in the 
 civil law, the treasury of a pru)tc or state ; or that to which all 
 tilings due to the public fall. By the civil law, none but a sove- 
 reign prince has a right to have a' fisc or public treasury. 
 
 FISCAL, in the civil law, something relating to the pecuniary 
 interest of tliC [jrince or people. 
 
 Fiscal, a town of Spain in Arragon, 15 miles N. W. of Ainsa. 
 FlJjCHA, a river of Germany, in Austria, which runs into the 
 Danube, at Fischamund. 
 
 FlSCl ADVOCATI, and FISCI PROCURATORES, 
 oiVuers appointed tor the man.igement of the fisc. 
 
 FISH, in natural history, constitutes a class of animals which 
 have no feet, but always li'ns ; add to this, tliat their bodv is either 
 altogether naked, or only covered with scales; and that they are 
 aquatic animals, which live mostly, if not always, in water. See 
 Pisces. 
 
 Fish, in a ship, a plank or piece of timber, fastened to a ship's 
 mast or yard, to strengthen it ; which is done by nailing it on with 
 iron spikes, and windmg ropes hard about tliem. 
 
 Fishes, in heraldry, are the emblems of silence and watchful- 
 ness ; and are born either upright, imbowed, extended, endorsed 
 respecting each other, surmounting one another, fretted, &.c. In 
 blazoning fishes, those boin feeding, should be termed devour- 
 ing ; all fishes born upright and having fins, should be blazoned 
 hai.riant ; and those born transverse the escutcheon, must be 
 termed naiant. 
 
 Fishes, Blowing op, is a practice similar to that of blov^-ing 
 fie>h, p«uttr)', and pip, and adopted for the wme d<-ceiifiil puf- 
 
 poses. The method ol blowing fish, especially cod a:.d '.vhiting-i, 
 IS by placing the end of a quill or tobacco-pipe at the vent, and 
 pricking a hole with a pin under iIjc fin wliicli is next llie gill; 
 thereby making the fish appear to the eye large and full, wliich 
 when dies.ed will be llabby, and little else than skin and boni-s. 
 But lliis imposition may be discovered Ly placing the finger and 
 thiniib on each side of tlie vent, and squeezing it hard ; the wind 
 may be perceived to go out, the kkin will fall in, and tlie lisli seem 
 lank, and of little value. 
 
 FisHts, Feeding of. When (hey are fed in large pools or 
 ponds, either malt boiled, or Iresh grains, is the best lood ; thus 
 carps may be raised and fed like capons, and lenchfs will feed as 
 well. The care of feeding them is best coiiimitted to a pardener 
 or the butler, who should be always at hand. When ted in a 
 stew, any sort of grain boiled, especially peas, and malt coarsely 
 ground, are proper food ; also the grains alter brewing, while fresli 
 and sweet ; but one bushel of malt not brewed, will go as fir srs 
 two of grains. 
 
 ]"isH, Gold. See Cyprinus. 
 
 I'lsH, Preserving of, for Cabinf.ts. Linna;us's method 
 i-, to expose them to the air ; and when they acquire such a de- 
 gree of putrefaction that the skin lose* its cohesion to the body of 
 the fish, it may bo slid otl' almost like a glove: the two sides of 
 tills skill mav then be dried upon pauer like a plant, or one of the 
 sides may be filled with plaster of Paris to give the subject a due 
 plumpnes's. A fish mav be prepared, after it has actjuired this de- 
 gree of putrefaction, by making a longitudinal incision on the 
 belly, and carefully dissecting the fieshy part from the skin, which 
 are but sliglitly attached to it in consequence of the putresceiicy. 
 The skin is th-,-n to be filled with bottom and the antiseptic powder 
 as directed for birds ; and, lastly, to be sewed up where the inci- 
 sion was made. See Bird. 
 
 Fish, The Right and Propertv of. It has been held, 
 that where the lord of the manor has the soil on both sides 
 of the river, it is good evidence that he has the right of fish- 
 ing ; but where the river ebbs and flows, and is an arm of the 
 sea, there it is common to all, and he who claims a privilege 
 to himself must prove it. In the Severn, the soil belongs to the 
 owners of (he land, on each side ; and the soil of the river Thames 
 is in the king, &-c. but the fishing is common to all. 1 Mod. 105. 
 Any person who shall unlawfully break, cut, or destroy, any head 
 or dam of a fish-pond, or wronglully fish therein, v^ith intent (o 
 (ake or kill fish, shall on conviction at the suit of the king, or of 
 the party, at the assizes or sessions, be imprisoned three months, 
 and pay treble damages, and alter the expiration of the thn-e 
 months, shall find sureties for his good behaviour for ieveH years, 
 or remain in prison (ill he does. 5Eliz. c.2l. It any person 
 shall enter into any park or paddock, fenced in and enclosed, or 
 into any garden, orchard, or yard, adjoining or belonging to any 
 dwelling-house, in or through which park or paddock, garden, or- 
 chard, or yard, any stream of waler shall run, or wherein shall be 
 any river, stream, ponil, pool, moat, stiw, or other water, and by 
 any means or device whatsoever, shall steal, take, kill, or destroy. 
 any fi>!i bred or kept in it, without the consent of the owner, or 
 shall be aiding therein, or shall receive or buy any surh fisli, 
 knowing them to be so stolen or taken as aforesaid, and shall be 
 convicted thereof at the assizes, witliin .-ix calendar monllis after 
 tlie offence shall be committed, he sliall be transported for seven 
 years. And any offender, surrendering himself to a justice, or 
 being apprehended or in custody for such ollence, or on any other 
 account, who shall make confession thereof, and a (rue discovery 
 on oath of his accomplice or accomplices, so that such accomplite 
 may be apprehendetl, aiul shall on trial give evideacc, so as to 
 convict such accomplices, shall be discharged of the offence, so 
 bv him confessed. And if any person shall take, kill, or de?tToy, 
 or attempt to take, kill, or destroy, any fish in any river, 
 or slream, pond, pool, or other water, (not in any park nt 
 paddock, or in any garden, orchard, or yard, adjoining or 
 belonging to any 'dwelling-house, but in any other inclos- 
 ed n;round, being private property) he shall, on conviction 
 before one jusiice/on the oath of one witness, forteit 51. to the 
 owner of the fishery of such river, pond, or other water : and such 
 justice, on complaint upon oath, may issue his warrant to bring 
 the person complained of before him ; and if he shall be convictea 
 before such justice, or any other of the county or place, he shall 
 .}• imintdiatcly
 
 F I S 
 
 432 
 
 FIS 
 
 iuineil'u>tc!y pav the saul penalty of o\. to siicli justice, i'oi' the 
 «se of the person, as the sainc is ajipointed to be paid unlo ; and 
 in default thereof, shall be committed by such justice to the house 
 of correction, for anv time not exceeding six months, unless the 
 forfeiture shall be sooner paid : or such owner of the fishery niav, 
 within six calendar months afcer the ofi'ence, bring an action for 
 the penalty in any of the courts of record at Westminster, o G. 
 III. c. 14. " 
 
 Fish-ponds, those made for the brecdinc; or feeding of (i»h. 
 Fish-ponds are no small improvement of watery and boggy lands, 
 many of which are fit for no ol her use. In the making of a pond, its 
 head should be at the lowe>t part of the ground, that the trench of 
 the Hood-gate or >luice, having a good fall, may not be too long 
 in emptying. The best way of making the head secure, is to 
 drive in two or three rows of stakes above six feet long, at about 
 lour feet distance from each other, the whole length of the pond- 
 head, of wliich the first row should be rammed at least about fern- 
 f.-et deep. If the bottom be false, the foundation may be laid 
 with quicklime, which slacking, will make it as hard as a stone. 
 Some lay a layer of lime, and another of earth dug out of the 
 pond, among the jiiles and stakes ;- and when these are well cover- 
 ed, drive in others, as they see occasion, ranniiing in the earth as 
 beiore, till the pond-head is of the height designed. The dam 
 should be made sloping on each side, leaving a wa^te to carry otT 
 the over-abuiidance of water in times of floods or rains ; and as to 
 the depth of the pond, the deepest part need not exceed six feet, 
 rising gradually in shoals towards the sides, for the lish to sn[) 
 themselves, and lay their spawn. Gravelly and sandy bottoms, 
 especially the latter, are best for breeding ; and a fat soil, with a 
 white fat water, as the wasiiings of hills, commons, streets, sinks, 
 &c. ii best for fattening all sorts offish. For storing a pond, carp 
 is to be preferred for its tpiick growth, and g-eat increase, as 
 breeding five or six times a-year ; hnt tench for its goodness. 
 The onantity of hsh to be supplied obviously deiiends upon the 
 quantity of.water, which should be divided, where it conveniently 
 can, into live i)oik1s. Number five is intended for breeding, and 
 should be double or treble the size of any of the other ponds. Or if 
 this be inconvenient, there may be two for this purpose. Tiiis pond 
 may likewise be the most distant from the house. If the breed- 
 ing-pond should fail to answer this purpose, it will at least serve as 
 a conservatory for fish of small size, to be obtained elsewhere : and 
 indeed, fresh stores in any case will be found desirable. The con- 
 tents of this pond in carp and tench, or the greatest part, should 
 be taken out annually in September or October, counted in 
 braces, and such as are from live to seien inches long tlirown into 
 the pond called No. 4. The contents of No. 4, wdien grown one 
 year from the length of five or seven inches, must be put into 
 No. 3. The contents of No. .3. having grown one year from 
 No. 4. must be removed into No. 2. And in like maimer, the 
 contents of No. S, after one year, must be remove<l into No. 1, 
 which is to contain onl'; such lish as are lit lor the table. It is ob- 
 vious that this pond lor safety and convenience, should be the 
 nc^arest to the house. As No". 5 is to be the largest water, so 
 No. 1 is to be the least ; the rest of sizes between the two. The 
 shape of No. 1 should be oblong, for the convenience of the net, 
 an<l tlie less disturbance of the lish in taking out what are wanted 
 from time to time. A book should be kept of the number and 
 size of each kind in every pond. Carp are fit for the table from 
 three to seven pounds each. Tench from one pound and a half 
 to three pounds each. Perch from three quarters of a ijoniul to 
 one or two pounds, itc. It is supposed that none of the ponds 
 have a strong cuvrrnt of very cold, acrid, innutritions water. 
 Cue acre of swater upon a loam, clay, or marl, or any of these 
 with a mixture of gravel, has been stated to be capable of siipp. jrl- 
 ing 2000 pounds weight of hsh; the number of lish making that 
 weight being immaterial. Carp and tench breed most fri ely in 
 pciiJs, or pits newly made. Tench likewise in almost any ponds, 
 where cattle are admitted. It is evident that perch and pike should 
 not bo admitted in any degree in No. 5 ; but in all the other 
 munbers, besides their own value, they are of important service, 
 provided that they are strictly confined to a size greatly subordi- 
 nate to that of the carp, or tenVli. For they tlestioy not only the 
 a.-cidental spawn of (isli which breed, but" also several animals, 
 whose food is the same with that of carp and tench, as frogs, 
 niv.t5, fic. Pike above the weight of enc or two pounds must 
 
 not be admitted even amongst carp of the largest size and weight. 
 W itii regard to the absolute weight of lish, which any particular 
 pond will support, this can only be determined by observation 
 and experience ; as it depends on the different degrees of nutrition 
 in diflercnt waters. It is said, that carp and tench in waters which 
 feed well, will before they are aged, douhle their weight in one 
 year. The third part of an acre in No. 1 would probably be suf- 
 hcient for the demand of any family. For, upon the calculation 
 above given, it would support near 700 pounds of lish, which might 
 be divided thus. l''iliy brace of carp of three pounds each and up- 
 wards. Fifty brace of tench of two pounds each and upwards. 
 Fifty brace of perch of one pound each and upwards. That is, 
 tiiree brace of fish., weighing at least twelve pounds, for the use of 
 every week. Allowing one acre for No. 5, one-third of an acre for 
 No. 1, and one acre and two-thirds for the intervening numbers, 
 the whole water would be three acres. Upon this calculation the 
 stock of No. 1 at Sd. per pound, would be worth 031. 6s. 8d. per 
 annum, and the exp^nce annually of changing the fish from No. 5 
 to 4, ,'vc. will not exceed 1 1. tis. s'd. So that the value of each acre 
 would be at lowest 71. (is. 8d. annually. No. 1 being su|iposed to 
 be near the house, and at no great distance from the garden, if the 
 lish should not thrive suffirientiv, which will be seen by the dis- 
 proportioned size of the head, and the whiteness or paleness of the 
 scales, they may easily be supplieil with more food by loose peas 
 from the garden, the sweeping cf the granary, worms saved by the 
 gardener in digginsr, and the ol'fal of the poultry killed for the 
 kitchen ; or by letting down the water about two feet, in the 
 spring or summer, where there is a sullicient supply, and sowing 
 the sides with oats, barley, rye, or wheat, very lightly raked in, 
 and then stopping the sluice again. In poiuls alrea<iy stocked, 
 but not accurately regulated, it would be adviseable to begin with 
 that which has the most pike, otherwise with No. 4, or what is in- 
 tended for No. 4, and throw all the hsh under five inclies length 
 into No. 5, and the larger, according to their sizes, into the other 
 numbers : and so on with Nos. 3, '2, 1. Store-fish procured else- 
 where, if taken in summer, should be movetl in the night in clean 
 straw, wetted occasionally after they are packed : except perch 
 and pike, which can only be carried in clean pond or river water. 
 Ill moving lish from one pond to anotlier, they should be first put 
 iiito tubs of water already prepared for them, and afterwards car- 
 ried in buckets without water. In taking \i\ke or perch, great 
 care must be observed to avoid raising mud in the water. In 
 breeding-ponds, all water-fowls, as geese, ducks, &c. should be 
 discouraged; and herons carefully destroyed. If any white fish, 
 as roach, dace, &:c. should be found, they are to be taken out; 
 and if there is a spare piece of water for large pike they sliould be 
 put into it as food for the pike. J{els may he put with advantage 
 into any except the breeding-])onds, in lieu of perch. The most 
 ea«y way of taking thein is by trimmers laiil overnight, baited 
 with small lish, not with worms ; otherwise they may catch the 
 carp ; or a small thief-net may be baited with white fish. Com- 
 mon sewers and drains from the laundry are prejudicial to fish : so 
 are the leaves falling from trees in great quantities. The use of 
 grains should likewise be avoided in large quantities, as having lit- 
 tle nutriment whilst they are thus washed with water. Il i^eems 
 better for the use of the table, as well as more hnm?.ne, to kill fish 
 designed for food by an incision with a sharp-pointed pen-knife, 
 or punctures made with a pin longitudinally into the brain, about 
 half an inch or an inch, according to the size of the fish, above the 
 eyes. As this produces an instantaneous effect, it would probably 
 save the cruel operation of crimping or flaying fish while alive, as 
 in the case of pike and eels. It is obvious, that this method of re- 
 gulating fidi will a|. ply with its full el'l'ect in larger spaces of water: 
 It will likewise apply in a considerable degree to smaller pieces, 
 even where the change is but from a pond for the use of cattle to 
 a single canul in a garden. -In situations near the great inland ma- 
 nufactures, and near the turnpike roads leading from an easy dis- 
 tance to the metropolis, water may be made by this kind of ma- 
 nagement, with little trouble or expcnce, to produce a large aii- 
 nual rent. 
 
 FISHER, John, an English prelate, was born at Beverly, in 
 Yorkshire, in 1459, and educated at Cambridge. He became 
 confessor to Margaret, countess of Richmond, mother to Hen- 
 ry VTI. who by his advice founded St. John's and Clirist's col- 
 leges, Cambridge. He was afterwards clioseja cliancillor of that 
 
 oiiiversily, .
 
 FIS 
 
 43.'^ 
 
 FIS 
 
 university, and was a liberal encouragcr of learning. In 1504 lie 
 was niaile bishop of Rochester, from which he would never re- 
 move to a better see. He v;as a zealon-i 0])j>onent of the Refor- 
 mation, and of the king's divorce from (iiieen Catherine. Great 
 ertorts were made to brnig him to acknowleflge the king's bin)re- 
 maey, which |)roving inelJl-ctual, he «as sent to the Tower. 
 While in confinement the pope made him a cardinal, which so 
 enraged the kino, that he caused him to be tried for liigh treason, 
 condemned, and beheaded in \'>35. He was a man of considera- 
 ble learning, strict integrity, and fervent piety. He wrote a com- 
 mentary on the Penitential Psalnn : a Defence of the King's 
 Rook against Lutlier; a Funeral Sermon for the Lady Marga- 
 ret, &c. 
 
 FISHERMEN. Tliere shall be a master, wardens, and assist- 
 ants of the fislnnongcrs' company in London chosen yearly, at the 
 next court of the lord mayor and aldermen alter the lOlh of June, 
 who are constituted acourtof assistr.nts ; ;.nd they shall meet once 
 a montli at tiieir common liall to regulate abuses in lishery, regis- 
 ter tlie names of lishermen, and mark their botes, &:c. 
 
 FISHERY, a place where great numbers of lisli are caught. 
 The principal fisheries for salmon, herring, mackarel, pilchards, 
 &c. are along the coasts of Ens^land, Scotland, and Ireland ; for 
 cod, on tile bunks of Newfoundland ; for whales, about Green- 
 land ; and for pearls, in the East and West Indies. 
 
 Fishery, Imiee, inlaw, or an e.Kclusive right of fishing in a 
 public river, is a royal franchise ; and is considered as such in all 
 countries where the feodal polity has prevailed : though the mak- 
 ing of such grants, and by tiiat means appropriating, what it seems 
 unnatural to restrain, the use of running water, was prohibited for 
 the future by Magna Charta ; and the rivers lliat were fenced in 
 King John's time were directed to be laid open, as well as the fo- 
 rests to be disforested. Tliis opening was extended by the second 
 and third charters of Hemy HI. to those also that "were fenced 
 inider Richard I. ; so that a franchise of free lishery ought now to 
 be as old at least as the reign of Hrnry II. This differs^ as judge 
 Blackstone observes, from a several of piscaiy, because he that 
 lias a several fishery must also be the owner of the soil, which in a 
 free fishery is not requisite. It ditTers also from a conmion fi?lierv, 
 in that the free fishery is an exclusive right, the common is not so ; 
 and therefore, in a tree fishery, a man has a pro])erty in the fi^h 
 before they are caught ; in a common piscary, not till afterwards. 
 Some indeed have considered a free fishery not as a royal fran- 
 chise, but merely as a private grant of a liberty to fish in the seve- 
 ral fishery of the grantor. But the considering of such right as ori- 
 ginally a Hower of prerogative, till restrained by Magna Charta, 
 and derived by royal grant (previous to the reign of Richard I.j 
 to such as now claim it by prescription, may remove some dif- 
 ficulties in respect to .this matter with which our law-books are 
 embarrassed. 
 
 Fishery, denotes also the commerce of fish, more particularly 
 the catching of them for sale. Were we to enter into a very minute 
 consideration of the fisheries established in this kingdom^ this ar- 
 ticle would swell beyond its proper bounds; since fisheries, how- 
 ever, if successful, are not only objects of great commercial im- 
 portance, but also contribute materially to our naval strengtii, by 
 becoming permanent nurseries for seamen, we shall take notice of 
 some of the most considerable of the British fisheries, and the in- 
 stitutions set on foot for their support. The situation of the Bri- 
 tish coa'its is the most advantageous in the world lor catching fish : 
 the Scottish islands, particularly those to the north and west, lie 
 most commodious for carrying on the fishing trade to perfection. 
 Of these advantages the Scots seem indeed to Iiave been abund- 
 antly sensible ; tor their traffic in herrings is even noticed in 
 history so early as the ninth century. The frequent laws which 
 were enacted in the reigns of James III. IV. and V. discover a 
 steady determined zeal for the benefit of the country, and tlie full 
 restoration oi' these fisheries which the Dutch had found means to 
 engross. 1 he Scottish fisheries were, however, niore pariicularlv 
 indebted to the zealous encouragement of James V. and VT. ; the 
 former having planned, and the latter carried into e.\ecution, va- 
 rious projects for their extension. The well-meant effort of James 
 VI. were impeded, and at iast wholly suspended, by the disputes 
 which prevailed in the kingdom at that jeriod concerning the suc- 
 cession. Nevcrtlieless the plan was resumed bv Ch.arles I. who 
 «• ordained an association of the tjiree kingdoms, for a general fish- 
 
 VOL II. — NO. 84. ., 
 
 ing within the seas and coasts of his majesty's said kingdoms ; and 
 for the government of the said association, ordaineJ, that there 
 should be a standing committee chosen and nominaied by bis ma- 
 jesty and his successors Irom time to time," &c. Several persons 
 of distinction embarked in the design, which the kin" honoured 
 with his patronage, and encouragid by his boimty. He also or- 
 clered Lent to be more strictly observed ; prohibited the importa- 
 tion of fish taken by foreigners ; and agreed to purchase from the 
 company his naval' stores, and the fish for his fieets. Thus the 
 scheme for establishli'g a fisr.ery in the Hebrides began to assume 
 a favourable asj)ect ; but all the hopes of the adventurers were 
 frustrated by the breaking out of tlie civil wars, and the verv tra- 
 gkal dcatli of tiieir benefactor. In iCOl, Charles II. the duke of 
 "\ ork, lord Clarendon, and other persons of rank and fortune, re- 
 sumed the kusiness of the fi-heries with greater vio;our th:m any of 
 their predecessors. For this purpose the most salutary laws were 
 enacted by the parliaments of England and Scotland; in virtue of 
 which, all materials used in, or depending upon, tlie fisheries, were 
 exempted from all duties, exci.ses, or imposts whatever. In Ene- 
 laijd, tlie company were audiorised to set up a lottery and to havea 
 voluntary collection inall parish churches. Houses of enterlaiiimeiu 
 as taverns, inns, ale-houses, were to take one or more barrels of her- 
 rings, at the stated jjrice of 30.9. per barrel : also '3s. 6d. per barrel 
 Dutch was to be paid to the company on all imported fish taken 
 by foreigners. Some families were also invited, or permitted, to 
 settle at Stornaway : the hnrrings cured by the royal English com- 
 pany gave general satisfaction, and, as mentioned above, brought a 
 high price for those days. Every circumslarice atter.ding ihis^new 
 establishment seemed the result of a judicious plan and thorough 
 knowledge of the business, when the necessilics of the kin" oblitred 
 him to withdraw his subscription or bounty ; which ga\esaich uin- 
 brage to the parties concerned, that they soon after dissolved. In 
 1677, a new royal company was established in F.noland, at the 
 head of which were the uuke of York, the earl of" Derby, &c. 
 Besides all the privileges which former companies had enjoyed 
 the king granted this new company a perpetuity, with power to 
 purchase lands ; and also 20/. to be paid them annually out of the 
 customs of the port of Loudon, for every doggtr or buss they 
 should build and send out for seven years' to come. A stock of 
 10,9S0/. was immediately advanced, and afterward 1600/. more. 
 This small capital was soon exhausted in purcliasin;; and fitting out 
 busses, with other incidfiital e.>.'pences. The company made 
 however, a successful beginning ; and one of their busses' or cIot- 
 gers actually took and brought home 3-',000 cod-fish ; other ye% 
 sels had also a favourable fishery. Such ilattering be«inninss 
 might have excited fresh subscriptions, when an unforeseeli event 
 ruined the whole beyond the possibility of recovery. Most of the 
 busses had been built in Holland, and manned with Dutchmen • 
 on which pretence the French, who were then at war with Hoi' 
 land, seized six out of seven vessels, with their cargoes and fishing- 
 tackle: and the company being now in debt, sold in KJSO the re- 
 maining stores, &-C. A number of gentlemen and merchants raised 
 a new subscription of 60,000/. under the privileges and immunities 
 of the f'lrmer charter. This attempt also came to nothing, owing 
 to the death of the king, and the troubles of the subsequent reign. 
 Soon after the revolution this business was :igain resumed upon -1 
 more extensive scale; the proposed capital being 300,000/. of 
 which 100,000/. was to have been raised by the surviving paten- 
 tees or their successors, and 20,000/. bv ne\s' subscribers. Copies 
 of the letters patent, the con>;itution of'the company, and terms of 
 subscription, were lodged at sundry places in Loudon and West- 
 minster for the perusal of the public, while the subscription was 
 filling. It is probable tliat king AVilliam's pailiality to the Dutth 
 fisheries, the succeeding war, or both of these circumstances, frus- 
 trated this new attenipt ; of which we have no. further account in 
 the annals of that reign or since. The Scottish parliament had 
 also during the last three reians, passed various acts for erectiu'v 
 companies and promoting the fisheries; but the intestine commo^ 
 tions of that country, and tlie great exertions which were made for 
 the Darien establishment, enteebled all other altmipls, whether 
 collectively or by individuals, within that kingdom. In 1749, his 
 late majesty, having, at the opening of the pail anient, warmlv re- 
 commeiu'ed the improvement of the fisheries, the house of com- 
 mons appointed a committee to inquire into the state of herrin" 
 and white fisheries, and to consider of the most probable means of 
 ^ -^ extendias
 
 IIS 
 
 43A 
 
 F IS 
 
 •"-xtending the same. All ranks of men were elevated w itii an idea 
 of the boundless riches that woidd flow into the kingdom from 
 this source. A subscription of 500,000/. was immediately filled 
 in the city, by a body ot nien who were incorporated for twenty- 
 one years by the name of'i'he Society of the Free Britisli Fishery. 
 Every encouragement was lield out l)y government, both to the so- 
 ciety and to individuals, wliomiglit embark in this nalional business. 
 A bounty of 3t)J. per ton was to be |)aid annually out of the^customs 
 for fourteen years, to the owners of all decked vessels or busses, 
 from twenty to eighty tons burden, which should be built alter 
 the commencement of the act, for the use of, and hlted out and 
 employed in, the said fisheries, whether by the society or any 
 other persons. At the same time numerous pamphlets ?nd news- 
 paper-essays came forth ; all pretending to eluciilate the subject, 
 and to convince the public with wliat facility the herring-iisheries 
 might be transferred from Dutcli to British liands. This proved 
 h'0'.rever, a more arduous (ask than had been foreseen by stiperfi- 
 cial s])(CMlators. The Dutch were frugal in their expenditures 
 and living; perfect masters of the arts of fishing and curing, vhich 
 tliey had carried to the greatest height and perfection. They 
 were in full possession of the European markets ; and their fish, 
 wliether deserving or otherwise, had the reputation of superior 
 qualities to all others taken in our seas. With such advantages 
 the Dutcli not only maintained the'r ground against this formi- 
 dable companv, butliad also the pleasure of seeing the capital gra- 
 dually sinking, without having procured an adequate return to the 
 adventurers; notwithstanding various aids and efforts of govern- 
 ment from time to lime in their favour, particularly in 17j7,' when 
 an advance of 20*. per ton was added to the bounty. In I,7S6 the 
 public attention was again called to the state of the British fish- 
 eries, by the suggestions of Mr. Dempster in the house of com- 
 mons, and by diiferent publications that appeared upon the sub- 
 ject: in consequence ol which, the minister su.ffered a committee 
 to be named, to inquire into this great source of national wealth. 
 'I'o that committee it appeared that the best way of improving the 
 fisheries was, to encourage the inhabitants living' nearest to the 
 seat of them to become fishers. And it being found that the 
 north-western coast of the kingdom, though :ibounding with iish 
 and line harbours, was utterly destitute of towns, an act was passed 
 for incorpurating certain persons therein named, by the style of 
 " The British Society for extending the lislieries, and improving 
 the sea-coasts oftliis kingdom ;" and to enable them to subscribe 
 a joint stock, and therewith to purchase lands, and build thereon 
 free towns, vill.iges, and fishing-stations, in the Highlands, and 
 islands in that part of Great Britain called Scotland, and lor other 
 purposes. The Isle of Mull, Loch Broom, the Isles of Sky and 
 of t'anay, have alreadv been marked as proper situLUions for some 
 of these towns. 'J'he progress of such an undertaking from its na- 
 ture must be slow, but ^lill slower wlieii carried on with a limited 
 capital arising from the sal)Scr:ptions of a few public-spifsted indivi- 
 duals. But it is not to be doubted that it will ultimately tend to the 
 increase of our fisheries, and to the improvement of tlie Highland 
 part of this kingdom. Its tendency is also to lessen the emigrition 
 of a brave and industrious race of inhabitants, too many of whom 
 have already removed with their families to America. 
 
 Anchovv-Fis.mlry. The anchovy is caught in the months of 
 May, June, and July, on the coasts of Catalonia, Provence, &c. 
 at which season it constantly repairs up the straits of Gibraltar 
 into the M-diterranean. Collins says they are also found in p!entv 
 on the western coasts of Engkiiid and Wales. The fishing for them 
 is chielly in the night-time ; wlien a light being put on the stern of 
 their little fishing-vessels, the ancliovies lluck round, and are 
 caught in the nets. But then it is asserted to have been lound bv 
 experience, that ant liovies lakin thus by fire, are neitlier so gooti, 
 so firm, nor so proper for kecjiing, as those that are taken without 
 lire. When the fishery is over, they cut off the heads, take 
 out their gall and guts, and then lay them in barrels, and salt 
 them. The common way of eating ani'hovies is with oil, vinegar, 
 fxC. in order to which they are first boned, and the tails, (ins, &c. 
 slipped olf. Being put on the fire, they dissolve almost in any 
 fqaor. Or they arc made into sauce by mincing them with pep- 
 per, &c. So.ne also piikle anchovies in small dellt or earthen 
 j.ots, miiiie on purpose, of , two or tliree pounds weight, more or 
 ],-.K, which they cover with pluister to kee|i them the better. Au- 
 riivvies s&ould be clioseu small, freth p'ckled, white on the out- 
 
 I side and red within. If genuine, they have round backs; for 
 I those which are Hat or large are often nothing but sardines. Be- 
 j sides these qualities, the pickle, on opening the pots or barrels, 
 should be of a good taste, and not have lost its llavour. 
 I CoD-FisHERY. There are two kinds of cod-lfsh ; the one green 
 I or w Idle cod; the other dried or cured cod; though it is all thcsanie 
 liah dilfercntly prepared ; tlie former he;ng sometimes sailed and 
 barrelled, then taken out for use; and the latter having lain for a 
 I competent time in salt, and then <lried in the sun or smoke. ']"lie 
 I ciiief iTsheries for green cod are in the bay of Canada, on tlie great 
 j bank ol Newfoundland, and on the isle of St. Peter, and the isle of 
 S.ible; to which places vessels resort from many parts bothof Eurcjie 
 and America. They are from 100 to 150 tons burthen, and will 
 catch between 30,000 and 40,000 cod each. The most essential 
 part of ihe fishery is, to have a master to know how to cut up the 
 cod, one who is skilled to take olf the head properly, and above 
 all a good oalter, on which the preserving of tliem, and conse- 
 quently the success of the voyage, depend. Tiie best season is 
 from the beginning of February to the end of April ; the fish, 
 which in the winter retire to tlie deepest water, coming then on the 
 banks, and fattening extremely. What are caught from March to 
 h\ne keep well ; but those taken in July, August, and September, 
 when it is warm on the banks, are apt to spoil soon. Each fisher 
 lakes but one at a time, jet the most expert will lake from 330 to 
 400 in a day ; l.nit that is the most, the weight of the fish and the 
 gre^'t coldness on the bank fatiguing very much. As soon as the 
 cod are caught, the heads are taken otf ; they are opened, gutted, 
 and salted ; and the sailer stows tliem in the bottom of the hold, 
 head to tail, in beds a fathom or two square; putting layers of salt 
 and fish alternately, but never mixing fish caught on different 
 days. When ihey have lain thus three or four days to drain olf 
 the wafer, they are placed in another part of the ship, and salted 
 again, where they remain till the vessel is loaded. Sometimes 
 Ihey are cut in thick pieces, and put in barrels tor the greater con- 
 venience of carriage. The principal fishery !or dry cod is, from 
 Cape Rose to the Bay des Exports, along the coast of Placenlia, 
 in which compass there are several commodious ports for Ihe fish 
 to be dried in. These, though of the saiiie kind with the fresh 
 cod, are much smaller, and therefore filter to keep, as the salt pe- 
 netrates more easily into them. The fishery of both is mucli 
 alike; only this latter is most expensive, as it takes up more time 
 and employs more hands, and yet scarcely half so much salt is 
 spent in this as in the other. The bait is herring, of wliich great 
 quantities are taken on the coast of Placentia. When several 
 vessels meet and intend to fish in Ihe same port, he whose shallop 
 first touches ground, becomes entitled to the quality and privi- 
 leges of atlmiral :' he has the choice of his station, and the refusal 
 of all the wood on the coast at his arrival. As fast as tlie masters 
 arrive, they umig all their vessels, leaving notliing but the shrouds 
 to sustain the masts ; and in the mean time the mates provide a 
 tent on shore covered with branches of trees, with sails over them, 
 with a scaffold of great trunks of pines, twelve, fifteen, sixteen, 
 and often twenty feet high, commonly from forty to sixty feet 
 long, and about one-third as much in breadth. While the scaffold is 
 preparing, the crew arc lisliing ; and as fast as they catch, Ihey 
 bring their fish ashore, and open and salt them upon moveable 
 benches ; but the main salting is performed on the scaffold. When 
 Ihe fish have taken sail, they wash and hang them to drain on rails ; 
 when diained, Ihey are laid on a sort of stages, which are snull 
 pieces of wood laid across, and co\ered with branches of trees, 
 liaving the leaven stripped off for the passage of the air. On these 
 stages they are disposed a fish thick, head against tail, with the 
 back uppermost, ami are turned carefully every twenty-four hoinj. 
 When they begin to dry, they are laid in heaps ten or twelve 
 thick, iu order to retain tlicir warmth ; and every day the heaps 
 are enlarged, till they become double their first bulk; then Ivio 
 heaps are joined together, w liich they lurn every day as before ; 
 lastly, they are salted again, beginning with those first salted ; aud 
 being laid in huge piles, they remain in that situation till they are 
 carried on board ihe ships, where they are laid on the branches of 
 trees disiJOacd for that purpose, upon the ballast, and round liie 
 ship, with mats to prevent their contracting any moisture. The 
 cod supplies four kinds of commodities, viz. tlie sounds, tlie 
 tongues, the roes, and lh<- oil which is extracted from its liver. 
 The first are salted at thfe fishery, together with Uie fish, and put 
 
 a ifl
 
 F IS 
 
 435 
 
 FIS 
 
 ill liarn-li of from tiOO to 700 pouirls. The toMp;uf5 are cured in 
 like iiiaiiner, and ln-ou;!lit in barrels of from 4U0 to 500 pounds. 
 The roes are alio salted in barrels and serve to cast into the sea to 
 draw li^h together, and parluuUrly pilchards. The oil conies in 
 barrels of from 400 to 520 poniuls, and is used in dressing leather. 
 In Scotland thev catch a small kind of cod on tliw coast ot lUichan, 
 and all along the Murray I'rilh on both sides ; as also in the l'"rith 
 of Forth, Civdi', &■'•. which is much esteemed. They salt and dry 
 tlicm in the sun upon rocks, and sometimes in the chimney. 
 
 HERUiNG-FisHr.RY. Our great stations for this fishery are olT 
 the ShetUmi! and Western isles, and oil' the coast of Norhilk, in 
 which '!■:■,■ Dutch also shnre. See the article Clupea. 'I here 
 are t'.'. o seasons for lierring lishing : the first fron> June to the end 
 of August; the second in autumn, when llu- fogs become very fa- 
 vourable for this kind of fishing. The Dutch begin tlieir herring- 
 fishing on the 'J 1th of June, and employ a vast number of vessels 
 called busses, between tifty-foiir and si.\ly tons burthen each, and 
 carrying three or four small guns. They never stir out of port willi- 
 out a convoy, unless there are enough to make about eighteen or 
 twenty cannon among them, in which case tliey are allowed to go 
 in company. Before they go out they make a verbal agreement, 
 v.'hich has the same force as if it was in writing. The regulations 
 of the admiralty of IloUaMd have been partly followed by the 
 French and otlier nation?, and partly improved and augmented 
 with new ones; as, that no tislier shall cast his net within 100 
 fathoms of another boat: that whde the nets are cast, a light shall 
 be kept on the hind part of the vessel : that when a boat is by any 
 accident obliged to leave ofi' fishing the light sliall be cast into the 
 sea : that when the greater part of a fleet leaves ofl' fishing, and 
 casts anchor, the rest shall do the same, &e. In. the late king's 
 reign very vigorous efforts were made, and bounties allowed, for 
 the encouragement of the British herring fisheries: the Hist was 
 of 30.J. per ton to every bnss of 70 tons and upwards. This 
 bounty was afterwards raised to 50s. per ton, to be paid to such 
 adventurers as were entitled to it by claiming it at tiie place of 
 rendezvous. The busses are Irom twenty to ninety tons burthen, 
 but the best S'ze is eighty. A vessel of eighty tons ought to take 
 ten lasts, or li'O barrels of herrings, to clear e.\pences, the price of 
 the fish to be admitted to be a guinea a barrel. A ship of this 
 size ought to have eighteen men, and three boats ; one of twenty 
 tons should have six men and every five tons above require an 
 additional hand. To every ton are 250 yards of net ; so a vessel 
 of eighty tons carries 20,000 square yards; each net is twelve 
 yards long, and ten deep ; and every boat takes out Irom twenty 
 to thirty nets, and puts them together so as to form a long train ; 
 they are sunk at each end of the train by a stone, which weighs it 
 down to the full extent : tlie top is supported by buovs made of 
 sheep skin, widi a hollow slick at the mouth, fastened tight; 
 through this the skin is blown up, and then stopped with a peg, to 
 prevent the escape of the air. Somelimes llle^e buovs are placed 
 it the top of the nets; at oilier times the nets are sufiered to sink 
 deeper, by lengthening the cords fastened to them, every cord 
 being for that purpose ten or twelve fathoms long. But tlie best 
 fisheries are generally in more shallow water. Of tlie Scots fish- 
 ery in the western isles, the following account is given by Mr. 
 Pennant: " The fishing is always performed in the night, unless 
 by accident. 'J"he busses remain at anchor, and send out their 
 boats a little betore sun-set; which coijiinue out, in v\ inter and 
 summer, till day-light ; often taking up and emptying their nets, 
 which they do ten or twelve tiihes in the night, in case of good 
 success. During winter it is a most d:ingerons and fatiguing cm- 
 ploy, by reason of the greatness and Irequency of the gales in 
 these seas, and in such gales are the ni..-i successful captures ; but 
 by the providence of Heaven, the fisher^ are seldom lost, and what 
 is wonderful, few are visited with iilness. Thev go out well pre- 
 pared with a warm great coai, boots, and skin ajiroiis, and a good 
 pruvisioH of beef and spirits. The same good fovlune attends the 
 'Uusses, wldrh in thetenipestuous season, and in the darkest niflUs, 
 are contimi-.iUy shii'tiiig in these narrow seas from harbour to har- 
 bour. Somrtimes eighty barrels of herrings are taken in a night 
 t>y the boats of a single vessel. It oner happened, in I.och-Slap- 
 pan, in Skie, that a buss of eighty tons might have taken yOO bar- 
 rels in one night, with 10,000 sfpiare yards of net ; but the master 
 ^•as obl.ged t" desist, for want of a sufficient number of hands to 
 pi-«;erve the capture. Tlic heirings are pre>erved by salting after 
 
 the entrails are taken out. The last is an operation performed by 
 the country people, who get three-halfpence per barrel for their 
 trouble, and sometimes, even in winter, can gain lifteen-pencc a- 
 ilay. This employs both women and children; but the sailing is 
 only entrusted to the ciew of the bussc;-. The fish are laid on 
 Iheir backs in the b.irrels, and layers of s;ilt between them. The 
 entrails are not lost, for they are boiled into'an oil ; 8000 fish will 
 yield ten gallons, valued at one shilling the gallon. A vessel of 
 eighty tons takes out 244 barrels of salt ; a drawback is allowed for 
 each barrel used by foreign or Irish exportation of the lisli; but 
 there is a duly per barrel for the home ct nsumption, and the same 
 for those sent to Ireland. The baiTels are made of oak staves, 
 chiefiv from Virginia ; the hoops from several parts of onr own 
 island, and are either of oak, birch, betel, or willow ; the last from 
 Holland, liable to a duty. The barrels cost about 6.s. each ; thev 
 hold from 500 to 800 fish, according to tf.esize of llie fi^h ; and art; 
 made to contain thirty-two gallons. The barrels are inspecled bv 
 proper officers: a cooper examines if they are statutable and good"; 
 if faulty he destroys them, and obliges the maker to stand to the 
 loss." Herrings are cured either white (i.e. pickled), or red. 
 Of the first, those done by the Dutch are most esteemed, being 
 distinguished into four sorts, according to their sizes, and tlie best 
 are those that are fat, fleshy, firm, and white, salted the saine day 
 they are taken with good salt antl well barrelled. The Britisli- 
 cured herrings are liltle inferior, if not ecjual, to the Dutch; for 
 in si^ite of all their endeavours to conceal the secret, their method 
 of curing, lasting, or casking the herrings, has been discovered, 
 and is as follows. After they have hauled in their nets, which 
 they drag in the stern of their vessel backwards and forwards in 
 traversing the coast, they throw them upon the ship's deck, which 
 is cleared of every thing for that purpose: the crew is separated 
 into divisions, and eacii division has a peculiar task; one part 
 opens and guts the herrings, leaving the melts and roes; another 
 cures and salts them, by lining or rubbing their inside with salt ; 
 the next packs them, and between each row and division thev 
 sprinkle handfuls of salt ; lastly, th.e cooper put, the filli^hing hand 
 to all, by heading the casks very tight and stowing them in the 
 hold, lied herrings must lie 24 horns in the brine, inas;inRh as 
 they are to take all their salt there ; and w hen thev are taken oi't, 
 they are spitted, that is, strung by the head on little wf^oden spits, 
 and then hung in a chimney made for that purpose. Alter which, 
 a fire of brush wood, which yields much smoke but no flame, be- 
 ing made imder them, they remain there till sufficiently smoked 
 and dried, and are afterwards barrelled up for keeping. 
 
 Lobster Fishekv. Lobsters are taken along the British chan- 
 nel, and on the coast of 'Norway, whence they are brought lo 
 London for sale ; and also in the frith of Edinburgh, and on tin- 
 coast of Northumberland. See the article Cancer. By 10 and 
 1 1 \y. 111. c. 24, no lobster is to be taken under eight inches in 
 lenslli, from the pe.ik of the nose to the end of the iiiiiidle fin of 
 the tail; and by 9 G. II. cap. 33, no lobsters are to be taken on 
 the coast of Scotland from the lirst of June to the firet of Sep- 
 tember. 
 
 M ackarel Fishery. The mackarel is a summer fish of i)assaue, 
 found in large shoals, in different parts of the ocean, not far north ; 
 but especially on the French and English coasts. The fishing is 
 usually in the months of April, May, and June, and even Julv, 
 according to the place. See Scomeer. They enter the English 
 channel ui April, and proceed up tu tlie straits of Dover as the 
 svimmer advances; so that by June they are on the coasts of Corn- 
 wall, Sussex, Normandy, I'icardy, &c. where the fish is most con- 
 siderable. They are an excellent food I'resh ; and not to be de- 
 spised when well prepared, pickled, and put up in barrels; a nie- 
 tliod of preserving them chiefly used in Cornwall. The fish it 
 t.;ken in two ways; either witli a lino or nets: the latter is the 
 more considerable, and is Usually performed in the niglil-tinie. 
 The rules observed in the fi-hing lor mackarel are much thesami 
 with those already mentioned in ihe fishery of herrings. There 
 are two ways of pickling them : tlie first is by opening and gutting 
 them, and filling the belly with tall, crammed in as hard as |>ossi- 
 ble with a stick ; which done they range them in strata or rows, :it 
 the bottom of the vessel, strewing salt between the lavers. In 'he 
 second way lliey put them imniediati l\ into tubs full of brine, 
 ir.ade of fresh water and salt, and leave them to steep, till the\ 
 have imbibed salt enough to make ihem lecp; aiier which ihev
 
 FIS 
 
 4r3f) 
 
 F IS 
 
 •are Ua-.i i. out, aiMl banellicl ii|), takiiip tare to press tliLin clo-e 
 riown. iMatkarf-l are not cured or exported as iiiertliandlze, ex- 
 cept a ft.-w by the Yarmouth and Leo-,toJT merchants, but are 
 generally consumed at home; e>pecially in the city pt London 
 and the sea-ports between the Thames and Yarmouth east, and the 
 Land's-enU m <!ornwail west. 
 
 Oyster-Fishery. This fishery is principally carried on at 
 Colchester, in Essex ; Feversham and Milton, in Kent ; the Isle 
 of Wight ; the Swales of the JSIedway ; and Tenby on the coast of 
 Wales. From Fevershian, and the adjacent parts, the Dutch 
 have sometimes loaded a luuidred large hoys with oysters in a year. 
 They are also taken in large quantities near'Portsinouth, and in all 
 the creeks and rivers between Southampton and Chichester: 
 many of which are carried about by sea to London and to Col- 
 chester, to be ted in the pits about Wavenlioe and other places. 
 See OsTREA. 
 
 PiiCHARD-FisHERY. The chicf pilchard-fisheries are along the 
 coasts of Dalmalia, on the coast ot Brcta;.;ne, and along the coasts 
 of Cornwall and Devonshire, ^fliat of Dalmatia is very plentiftil; 
 tluit on the coast of Bretagne emploi|-s annually about 300 ships. 
 Oi tile pilchard-lishery on the coast of Cornwall, the following ac- 
 count is ijiven by Dr. Borlase: " It emplovs a great number el 
 men on the sea, training them to naval atiairs ; employs men, wo- 
 men, and children, at land, in salting, pres>ing, washing, and clean- 
 ing ; in making boats, nets, rojjes, casks, and ■•11 the trader de- 
 peniling on ti.eir construction and sale. The poor are fed with 
 the ort'als of the captfnes, the land with the reluse of the lish and 
 salt ; the merchant Imds the gains of commission and honest com- 
 merce, the lis ermen the gains of the lish. Ships are often freight- 
 ed hither with salt, and into foreign countries with the fish, carry- 
 ing oil" at the same time part of our tui. Ot the usual produce of 
 the great number of hogsheads exported each year for ten years 
 from 1747 to I'jt) inclusive, from the four ports of Fovvey, Fal- 
 mouth, Penzance, and St. Ives, it appears that Fowey has export- 
 ed yearly 1732 hogsheads; Falmouth, 14,631 hogsheads and two- 
 thirds : I'enzance and Mount's Bay, 12,i49 hogsheads and one- 
 third; St. Ives, 1J82 hogsheads; in all amounting' to 29,'9j hogs- 
 heads. Every hogshead for ten years last past, together with the 
 bounty allowed for each hogshead exported, and the oil made out 
 of each hogshead has amounted, one year with another on an ave- 
 rage, to the price of 1/. 13s. 3d. so that the ca^h paid for pilchards 
 exported has, ?.t a medium, annually amounted to 4y,532/. iOs." 
 Tire numbers that are taken at one shooting out of the nets are 
 amazingly great. Mr. I'ennant says, that Dr. Borlase assured 
 him, that on the 5th of October, 1767, there were at one time in- 
 closed in St. Ives' bay 7000 hogsheads, each hogshead containing 
 35,000 lish, in all 245 millions. The pilchards naturally follow 
 the light, which contributes much to the facility of the fishery : 
 the season is from June to September. On the coasts of France 
 they make use ot the roes of the cod-fish as a bait, which, thrown 
 into the sea, makes theni ri~e from the bottom, and run into the 
 nets. On our coasts there are persons posted ashore, who, spying 
 by the colour oi the water where the shoals are, make signs to the 
 boats to go among them to cast their nets. When taken, they are 
 brought on Shore to a wan-house, where they are laid up in broad 
 pile-, supported with backs and sides; and as they are piled they 
 salt them with bay-salt ; in which lying to soak for thirty or forty 
 days, they run out much blood, with dirty pickle anil bittern ; 
 then they wash them clean in sea-water; and when dr\ , barrel and 
 press them hard down to stpieeze out the oil, which issues out at a 
 hole in the bottom of the cask. 
 
 Salmon-Fishery. The chief salmon-fisheries in Europe are in 
 England, Scotland, and Ireland, in the rivers and sea-coasts adjoining 
 to the river-mouths. The most (list ingiiishcd i'or salmon in Scotland are 
 the river Tweed, tne Clyde, the 'Fay, the Dee, the Don,theSpey, 
 the Ness, the Bewly, &c. in most of which it is very common, 
 about the height of summer, especially if the weather happens to 
 be very hot, to catch four or five score of salmon at a draught. 
 The chief rivers in England for salmon are, the Tyne, the Trent, 
 the Severn, and the Thames. The fishing is performed with nets, 
 and sometimes with a kind of locks or weir? made on purpose, 
 which in certain places h.ive iron or wooden grates so disposed, in 
 an angle, that being impelled by any force in a contrary direction 
 to the course of the river, they'may give way and open a little at 
 the point of contact, an<l immediately shut again, closing the angle. 
 The sahiion> therefore, coming up into the rivers, are admitted 
 
 mto these grates, which open, and suffer them to pass through, but 
 shut again and prevent their return. The salmon is also caught 
 with a spear, which they dart into him when they see him swim- 
 miiig near the surface of tiie water. It is customary likewise to 
 to catch them with a candle and laiithorn, or wisp of straw set on 
 fire : for the fislyiaturally following the light, are uruck wit'i the 
 spear, or taken in a net spread for that purpose, and lifted with a 
 sudden jerk from the bottom. The capture of salmon in the 
 '1 weed, about the month of July, is prodigious. In a good 
 lishery, often a boat-load, and sometimes near tivo, are taken in a 
 tide : some few years ago there were above 700 fish taken at one 
 haul, but from 50 to 100 is very frequent. The coopers in Ber- 
 wick then begin to salt the salmon thoroughly in pipes and other 
 large vessels, and afterwards barrel them to send abroad, having 
 then far more than the London markets can take off their hands. 
 Most of the salmon taken before April, or the setting in of the' 
 warm weather, used to be seat fresh to London in baskets bvit ape 
 now conveyed in large square boxes with ice. It is also sciU up 
 boiled, pickled, and kitted. At the beginning of the season, 
 when a ship is on the point of sailing, afresh clean salmon will sell 
 from a shililiig to eighteen pence a pound ; and most of the time 
 that this part of the trade is carried on, the prices are from five to nine 
 sliilhngspor stone ; tlievaluerising and fallingaccordingto the plen- 
 ty ollish, or the prospect of a fair or foul wind. Some fish are sent 
 in this manner to London the Fitter end of September, when the 
 weather grows cool ; but then the fiJi are full of large roes, grow 
 very thin-bellied, and are not esteemed so palatable. The season 
 for fisliiug In the Tweed begins January 10, and euds October 10; 
 yet the corporation of Berwick (who are conservators of the river) 
 indulge the fishermen with a fortnight past that time, on account 
 of the change of the style. There are on the river 41 considerable 
 fisheries, extending upwards, about 1 i miles from the mouth (the 
 others above being of no great value,) wliich are rented for near 
 51001. per annum ; the expence attending the servants' wages, 
 nets, boats, &c. amouiits to 50001. more ; which together makes 
 up the sum 10,4001. Now, in consequence, the produce must de- 
 fray all, and no less than 20 times tliat sum of fish w ill effect it ; 
 so that 208,000 salmon must be caught there one year with another. 
 Scotland possesses great numbers ot fine fisheries on both sides of 
 that kingdom. The Scotch in early times had most severe laws 
 against the killing of this fish : for the third offence was made capi- 
 tal, by a law- of James l\'. Before that, the offender had power to 
 redeem his life. They were thought in the time of Henry VI. a 
 present worthy of a crowned head ; for in that reign the queen of 
 Scotland sent to the duchess of C'larence 10 casks of salted salmon, 
 vihich Henry directed to pass duty-free. The salmon are cured 
 in the same manner as at Berwick, and a great quantity is sent to 
 London in the spring; but after that time, the adventurers begin 
 to barrel and export them to foreign countries ; but we believe 
 that commerce is far less lucrative than it was in former times, 
 partly owing to the great increase of the Newfoimdhmd fishery, 
 and partly to the general relaxation of the discipline of abstinence 
 in the Romish church. Ireland (particularly tne north) abounds 
 with this fi;.li; the most considerable fishery is at Cranna, on the 
 river Ban, about a mile and a halt from Coleraine. \\'heii I made 
 the tour of tliat hospitable kingdom, says .Mr. IV-nnanI, in 1754, it 
 w as rented by a gentleman for 6201. a year ; who assured me that the 
 tenant, his predecessor, gave 16001. per annum, and was a much 
 greater gainer by the bargain, for the reasons before-mentioned, 
 and on account of the number of poachers who destroy the li.Nh 
 in the fence- months. The mouth of the river faces the north ; and 
 is finely situated to receive tiie fish that roam along the coast 
 in search of an inlet hito seme fresh water, as they do all along that 
 end of the kingdom which opposes itself to the northern ocean. 
 \N'e have seen near Ballicastle, nets placed in the sea at the foot 
 of the promontories that jut into it, which the salmon strike into 
 as they are wandering close to shore ; and nnmbei-s are taken by 
 that method. In the liann they fish with nets IS score yards long, 
 and are continually draw ing night and day the whole season, which 
 we think lasts about tour months, two sets of 1 6 men each alter- 
 nately le'ieving one another. The best drawing is when the tide 
 is coming in ; we were told, that in a single draught there were 
 once S 40 fish taken. A few miles higher up the river is a weir, 
 where a considerable number of fish that escape the nets are taken. 
 We were lately informed, that in tlie year 1.760, about 320 tons 
 were taken iu' the Crauna fishery." VVilh regard to the manni-r 
 
 of
 
 FIS' 
 
 Ar: 
 
 V I s 
 
 of curing salmon wlicn llie li^ii are laken, tlioy are opened along 
 the hack, th(» gtits anil gills, and the greatest part ol the bones re- 
 moved, so as to niakc the inside as smooth as possible. They 
 tlun salt the lish in large tubs tor the purpose, where they lie a 
 considerable time soaking in brine; and about October, tlu-y 
 pack them clo-ie up in barrels, and send them to London or up the 
 Aiediten-mcan. I'hoy have also In Scotland a jreat deal of sal- 
 mon salted in tlie common way, which after soaking m brine a 
 competent time is well pressed, and then drifd in smoke: this is 
 called kipper, and is chielly made for home consumption; and if 
 properly cured and prepared, is reckoned very delicious. 
 
 SruKCEON-FisHi:RV. The greatest sturgeon-lishery is in the 
 niouU) of the Volga, on tlie Caspian sea; where the "Muscovites 
 employ a great nir.nbir of h.ands, and catch them in a kind of in- 
 closure formed liy huge stakes representing the letter Z repealed 
 siveral times. The.e iisheries are opeu on the side next the sea, 
 and close on the ot.ier, by which means the fish ascending in its 
 season up the river, is embarrassed in these narrow angular re- 
 treats, and is easily killed with a harping-iron. Sturgeons, when 
 fresh, eat deliciuusly ; and in order to make them keep, they are 
 salted or pickled in' large pieces, and put in cags of from 3C) to 50 
 pounds. But the great object of thi- tishery is the roe, of which 
 the Muscovites are extremely fond, and of wliicli is made the 
 cavear, or kavia, so much esteemed by the Italians. See 
 Kavia. 
 
 Tunny-Fishery. The tunny (a species of Scomber, which 
 see) was a fish well-known to tiie antients, and made a great arti- 
 cle of commerce; and there are still very considerable tunny- 
 fisheries on the coasts of Sicily, as well as several other parts of the 
 Mediterranean. 'I'lie net^ are spread over a large space of sea by 
 means of cables fastened to anchors, and are divided into several 
 compartments. The entrance is always directed, according to the 
 season, towards that part of the sea from which theiidi are known 
 to come. A man placed upon the summit of a rock high above 
 the water, gives tlie signal of the lish being arrived ; for he can 
 discern Irom that elevation what passes under the waters inlinitely 
 better th.-.n any person nearer the surface. As soon as notice is 
 given that the'sho.d of fish has penetrated as far as the inner com- 
 partment, or the chamber of deaili, the passage is drawn close, 
 and the slaughter begins. 'I'hf^ undertakers of these Iisheries pay 
 an acknowledgement to the king, or the lord upon whose land they 
 fix the main stay or foot of the tonnara ; they make the best bar- 
 gain they can; and till success has crowned their endeavours, ob- 
 tain this leave for a small consideration ; but the rent is afterwards 
 raised in proportion to their capture. ^Ihe tunny enters the .Me- 
 diterranean about the vernal ecpiinox, travelling in a triangular 
 phalanx, so as to cut the waters with its point, and to present an 
 extensive base for the tides and currents to act against and impel 
 forwards. These fish repair to the warm seas of Greece to s|)uwn, 
 steering their course thither along the European shores, but as 
 they return, approach the African coast ; the young fry is placed 
 in the van ol' the scjuadron a-< thev (ravel. They come back from 
 the east in May, and abound on the coast of Sicily and Calabria 
 about that time. In autumn they steer northward, and frequent 
 the neiglibourhood of Amaisi and Naples; but during the whole 
 season stragglers are occasionally caught. W'hf n taken in Mav, 
 the usu il lime of their appearance in the Calabrian bays, ihey are 
 full of spawn, and iheir llesh is then esteemed unwholesome, apt 
 to occasion head-achs and llatulency ; the milts an<l roes are par- 
 ticularly so at that season. To prevent these bad effects, the 
 7iatives tVy them in oil, and al'terwards salt them. The ((Uantilv of 
 thi-i fish consumed annually in the two Sicilies almost exceeds'the 
 bounds of calculation. From the beginning of May to the end of 
 October it is eaten fresh, and all the rest of the year it is in use 
 sailed. The most delic;ite pait is the rtiiizzle. The belly salted 
 w.H called tarantalliiin, and accounted li ereat delicacy bv the 
 Koinans; its present name is surra, 'i'he rest of- the body is cut 
 into slices, an<l put into tubs. . ' 
 
 luRBOT-l'isHKRV. Turbots glow to a large size, viz. from Ti 
 to 30 pounds. They are taken chie.ly oil' the north coalit of Hiig- 
 laiul, and others off the Dutch coast. Tlie large tnrbot las well as 
 several oti.er kinds of tiat lish) are taken b\ the hook and line, for 
 they lie in deep water; the method of taking thein in weirs or 
 staked nets bt-ing very precarious. Mhen the^ fishermcngo out 
 to Sea, each iK-i-'on is provided with three lit>es,i which '»r? coiled 
 
 VOL W. — No. 84. 
 
 on a Ikl ijbl',:ig. piece of wicker-work; the hooks beinjj baited, and 
 placed regularly in the centre of the coil. Eacii line is furiitshed 
 with I 4 S((xe of hooks, at the distance of six feet two inches n om 
 each other, 'ihc hooks are fa>teiit'd to the lino upon sneads of 
 twisted hoi-schair 27 inches in length. When fishing, there are 
 always three men in each coble, and consequently nine oi llie=<" 
 line^' aie fasteneil together, aii<l used as one lit"', extending in 
 lengtli near tliree miles, and furnisiied with 23^0 hooks. An 
 anchor and a buoy are fixed at the first end of the line, and one 
 more of each at the end ol each man's lines; in all four anchor:.,_ 
 which are commonly perforated stones, and four buoys made of 
 leather or ccrk. The Ine is always laid across the current. The 
 tides of llood and ebb coutimit an eipial time upon our toast, ■.'inA, 
 when undisturbed b\' winds, run each way about six hours ; they 
 are so rapi.l tluit the'fishi-rmen can only shoot and haul their lines 
 at the turn of the tide, and therefore tiie lines always remain upon 
 the ground about six hours; during which the myxine glulino.-a 
 of Linnaius will fiC(|ueiUly ijenetrate thf lish that are on the hocks, 
 and entirely devour them, leaving only tlieskin and hones. '1 l;e 
 same raji'dity of tides presents their using hand-lines: and Ihcre- 
 \:<re two of tlie people commonly wrap themselves in the saii, aii<l 
 sleep, while the otliir keeps a sd'xt lonk-out, for fear of l)eing run 
 (low u bv ships, and to observe the weather. For storms often rise 
 sosuddenlv, that it is with extreme didiculty they can sometimes 
 escape to tiie shore, leaving tiieir lines behind. Uesidcs the cobk\ 
 the fisiiermen have also a live-men boat, which is forty feet long 
 Slid fifteen broad, and twenty-five tons burden ; il is so tailed, 
 though navigated bv six men and a boy, because one of the men is 
 commonlv iiired to cook, &.c. and does not share in the profits 
 with tiie olherfive. This boat is decked at cacii enil, but open 
 ill the middle, and has two large lug-sails. All our sihle fishermen 
 go in these boats to tlie liernng-fishery at Yarmouth in the end 
 of September, and return abj.it the middle of November. The 
 boats are then laid up till the beniimng of Lent, atwhi<h timo 
 tlievgo off in them to the edge ot the Dogger, and other plates, 
 to listi for turbot, cod, ling.'skatts, &c. 'I'liey always take tw o 
 cobles on board; and when they come upon their ground, anchor 
 the boat, throw out the cobh-s, a'ud fish in the same manner as those 
 who do go from the sliore in a coble; with this dilitrence only, 
 that here each man is provided with double the quantity of lines, 
 and instead of waiting the return of the tide in the coble, they re- 
 turn to iheir boat and bait their other lines; thus bawling one set 
 and skooting another every turn of tide. They commonly run into 
 harbour twice a week to deliver their fish, 'fhe best bait is fresh 
 herring cut in pieces of a proper size : the five-men boats are al- 
 ways turnishcd with nets for taking tliein. Next to herrings are 
 the' lesser lamprevs. The next baits in esteem are small haddoi ks 
 cut in pieces, san'd-wonns, and limpets, here called fiidders ; and 
 when none of these can be h.id, they use bullock's liver. The 
 hooks are two inches and a halt long in the shank, and near an 
 inch wide between the sluink and tiie point. The line is made of 
 small cording, and is always tanned bef')re it is used. Turbots are 
 extremely delicate in their choice ot baits; for if a piece of her- 
 ring or iiaddock lias been twelve hours out oi the sta, and then 
 used as bait, they will not touch it. ■ 
 
 Fishery, W'hai.e. For Uie natural history of tiie whale, tlie 
 importance ot the whak-fishery to Bril;iin, and other particulars, 
 seethe article Bal.ek.x. \Ve shall here only remark, that the 
 legislature, justly considering that trade as of great national im- 
 portance, bestow'ed on it at diifcrent periods very considerable 
 entouraaemetit. In particular, every Hrilish vessel of 200 tons or 
 upwards'; bound to tlie Ciieenland se.'.s on the whale-tt-hery, if 
 found to he duly qualified according to tlie act, obtained a licence 
 from the commissioners of the customs to (jroceed on such voyage ; 
 anion the ship's. return, the master aiuiiiiale making oatli that 
 they proceeded on such voyage and no other, and used all their 
 endeavours to take whale?, iSic. and that .all the whak-iins, biub- 
 bcr, oil. Sec. iiiipoiled in tl-.eir ship, were taken by their crew in 
 those seas, there .uis allowed 40s. for every ton, according to the 
 ai<nicasuremeni ot the ship. It was afierwards- found, i'owever, 
 th; £ so great a bounty was neither nt->,ets.r.y to tiie suc«.esS of the 
 tra'.e, nor expedient wiiU regard , to the ;tubUc. In ITSd, there- 
 fore, the act, conterring the siud empipiiieiits being upon th.e point 
 of expiring, the subject was brought under the consideration ol 
 iiariiunieiif, atlii.it was proposed to cwiinue.ihe former measures, 
 5 'f • but
 
 FIS 
 
 438 
 
 FIS 
 
 but with a i( lUictioii of the bounty from 40^:. to 30s. In |iioii05ing 
 this alteration, it was stated, " that tlie sums which this country 
 liad paid in bounties for the Greenland fishery amounted to 
 1,?65,4611. ; that in the last year we had paid 94,8581. ; and that, 
 from the consequent reduction of tlie price of the lish, the public 
 at present paid tjD per cent, upon every cargo. In the Greenland 
 fishery there were employed 6000 seamen, and tliese seamen cost 
 government 131. lOs. per man per annuui, tlinu];h we were never 
 alije to obtain more than 500 of tliat number to serve on board 
 our ships of war. riesides, llie vast encourau'enient given to the 
 trade had occasioned such a glut in the market, that it was fotmd 
 necessary to export considerable cpiantities; and thus we paid a 
 large share of the ])urchase-nioney tor foreign nations, as well as 
 icr our own people, besides supjilying them with the materials of 
 
 several important manufactures." 'J'liis proijosition was opposed 
 by several members, but was finally carried ; and the propriety of 
 the measure became veiy sopn apparent. At that lime (ITSti/the 
 number of ships employed llom Eni^land in the whale-tishery to 
 Davis's Straights and the Greenland seas amounted to 139, besides 
 13 from Scotland. The proposed alteration took place the ne.xt 
 year (^1787) ; and notwithstanding the diminution of the bounty, 
 tlie trade increased ; the nuuiberof ships employed the same rear 
 from England amounting to 217, and the next year (178S) to isC. 
 The whale-fishery has ot late years been consitlerably indebted to 
 the introduction of a new kind of harpoon, callc-' the gun-liarpoon, 
 which the Society fur the Encouragement of Arts, have e.xerted 
 themselves to bring into general u e 
 
 FISHING. 
 
 FISHING, in general, the art of catcliing fish, whether bv 
 means of nets or spears, or of the line and hook. Tliat which is 
 performed by the net, spear, or harpoon, for lish lliat go in shoals, 
 has been explained in the preceding articles. That performed b^ 
 the rod, line, and hook, is usually termed angling ; sec that article: 
 and for the particular manner of angling tor the ditfercnt kinds of 
 fish, see their respective names, and the following articles : 
 
 I. The barbel, so called on account of the barb or beard that is 
 tmder his chaps (see Cvprinl's,) though a coarse fish, gives con- 
 siderable exercise to the angler's ingenuity. They swim together 
 in great shoals, and are at tiieir worst in April, at which time they 
 spawn, but soon come in season : the ))laces whither they chiellv 
 resort, are such as are weedy and gravelly rising grounds, in which 
 this lish is said to dig and root with his nose like a swine. In the 
 summer he frequents the strongest and swiftest currents of waters ; 
 as deep bridges, weirs, S^r. and is apt to settle hiniaeH amongst the 
 jiile^, hollow places, and moss weeds, and will remain there im- 
 moveable: hut in winter he retires into deep waters, and helps the 
 female to make a hole in the sands to hide her spawn in, to kinder 
 its- being devoured by other fi^h. He is a very curi'ais and cun- 
 ning fish ; for if his baits are not sweet, clean, well scoured, and 
 kept in sweet moss, he will not bite; butiftliose are well-ordered 
 anil carefully kept, he will bite with great eagerness. The best 
 bait tor iiim is the spawn of a saliiion, trout, or anv other fish ; or 
 a piece of chandler's greaves wliich has been boiled and washed; 
 lie will also take a large lob-worm ; and if you would have good 
 sport with him, bail the places where you intend to fish with it a 
 night or tw o before with tallow chandler's greaves ; and the earlier 
 ill the morning, or the later in the evening, that you fish, the bet- 
 ter it w ill be. Your rod and line must be both strong and long, 
 villi a running plumnitt on the line ; and let a little bit of lead be 
 placed a foot or more above the houk, to keep the bullet from fall- 
 ing on it: so the bait will be at the bottom, where thev always 
 bite ; and w hen the fish takes the bait, your |)Kimmet will lie and 
 not choke him. By the bending of vour rod you may know v. lien 
 he bites, as also with your hand you will feel him make astrom; 
 snatch ; then strike, and you will rarely fail, if you play him well ; 
 but if you manage him not dexterously lie yyill break your line. 
 The best time for fislung is about nine in the morning, and the 
 most jjroper season is the latter jiart of May, June, July, and the 
 beginning olAugust. 
 
 ". Tlie bleak is an eager fish, caught with all sorts of woriiis 
 bred on trees or plants; as also with flies, paste, shecjj's Ijlood, 
 |Wc. lileak may be angled for with hall a score of hooks at once, 
 if tliey can be all fa-lencd on: he will also in the evening take a 
 natural or artificial fly. It the day is warm or clear, there is no 
 fly so goi'd for him as the small (ly at the top of the water, wliicli 
 )ic will take at any time of the day, especially in the evening. 
 Rut if the day be cold and cloudy, gentles and caddis are the best ; 
 about tvo feet witter water, But the best «ictkwd is with a drab- 
 
 ble, tlius : lie eight or ten small hooks across a line, two inche^ 
 above one another ; the biggest hook the lowehnost, (whereby 
 you may sometimes take a belter fish,") and bait them with gentles, 
 llies, or some small red worms, by which means you may take half 
 a dozen or more at a lime ; but when vou have them they are not 
 worth catching, except as a bale for a pike, trout, &c. 
 
 3. For the bream observe the following unections, which vill 
 also apply to carp, tench, or perch fishing. Procure about a quart 
 of large red worms: put them into fresh moss well washed and 
 dried every three or four days, feeding them with tat mould and 
 chopped fennel, and they will be thoroughly scoured in about 
 liiree weeks. 
 
 Let your lines be silk, and silk-worm gut at the bottom ; let the 
 fioals be either swan-quills or goose-quills, l^et your plumb be a 
 piece of lead in the shape of a spear, with a small ring at the point 
 of it ; fasten the lead to the line, and the line-houk to the lead ; 
 about ten or twelve inches space between lead and hook will be 
 enough ; and lake care the lead be heavy enough to sink the fioat. 
 Having baited your hook well with a strong worm, the worm will 
 draw the hook up and down in the bottom, which will provoke 
 tlie bream to bite the more eagerly. It will be best lo fit up three 
 or four rods and lines in this manner, and set them as will be di- 
 rected, and this will alCord vou much the better sport. Find the 
 exact depth of tlie water if possible, that your fioat may swim on 
 its surface directly over the lead ; then provide the lollowing 
 ground-bait. Take about a ])eck of sweet gro-,s-ground-malt, aim 
 having boiled it a very little, strain it hard through a bag, and 
 cany it to the water-side where you have sounded ; and into the 
 place where vou suppose the fisii resort, there throw in the malt 
 by handfuls scjueezed hard together, or rather mixed with a little 
 clay, that the stream may not separate it before it comes to the 
 bottom; and be sure lo throw it in at least a yard above the place 
 where you intend the liook shall lie, otherwise the stream will 
 carry it down loo far. Do tins about nine o'clock at night, keep- 
 ing some of the malt in the bag, and go to the place about three 
 tlie next morning, but approach very w;u'ily, let you should be 
 seen bv any ot the lish ; lor it is said that they have their sentinels 
 watching on the top of the water, while the rest are feeding he- 
 low, llaving baited your hook so that the worm may crawl to 
 and fro, the better to allure the fish to bite, cast it in at the place 
 where yon find the fish to stay most, which is generally in the 
 broadest and tleepesl |);ut of the river, so that it uiav rest about 
 the midst of your ground-bait. Cast in your second line so that 
 It may rest a yard above that, and a third about a yard below it. 
 Let your rods lie on the bank with some stones lo keep them down 
 at the great ends; and then withdraw yoiirsilf, yet not so far but 
 that YOU can have your eve upon all the floats: anil when you 
 sec one bitten and earned away, do not be too hasty to run in, 
 but give time to the fish to lire liimself, and then touch him gent- 
 ly. "When you perceive tlie lloat sink, creep to the water-side, 
 
 a and
 
 FISHING. 
 
 A39 
 
 'g' 
 
 he 
 
 it as much line as you can. If it is a lircam or ci.rp 
 run to lliP other side. '.Strilie him gcntiv, and iiold yonr roc 
 
 aiu: 
 
 at a bend a liltlo wliilr, but <lo not pull, for tiion rou will spoil 
 all ; but you must tire them before thfy can be landed, for they 
 are very "shy. If there arc any ( 'rp in the nver, it is an even 
 chance that von lake one or more of them ; but if there are any 
 pike or perch, they will be sure to visit the ground-ti.iit, though 
 they will not touch it, beinc; drawn togethci by the great resort of 
 the small fi-h, and until you remove them, it is in vain to think of 
 taking the bream or carp. In this case, bait one of your hooks 
 with a small bleak, roach, or gudgeon, about two teet deep Ironi 
 your lloat, with a little red worm at the point of your hook, and if 
 a pike is there he will be sure to snap at it. This sport is good 
 till nine o'clock in the Tnorning, and in a gloomy day till night ; 
 but da not frequent the placi- too much, lest the tish grow shy. 
 
 4. The carp. A person who angles for carp, must arm himself 
 with abundance of patience, because of their extraordinary sub- 
 tilty ami shyness: they always choose to lie in the deepest places 
 either of ponds or rivers, where there is but a small running 
 stream. Further, observe, that they will seldom bite in cold wea- 
 ther ; and you cannot be too early or too late at the sport in hot 
 weather ; yet if he bite you need not fear his hold, for he is one 
 of those leather-mouthed fish that have their teelh in the throat. 
 Neither must you forget, in angling for him, to have a strong rod 
 and line ; and since he is so verv wary, it will be proper to entice 
 him, by baiting the ground witii a coarse paste. lie seldom re- 
 fnse> the red worm in March, the caddis in June, or the grasshop- 
 per in July, April, and September. This fish, however, does not 
 only delight in worms, but also in sweet paste, of which there is 
 great variety ; the best is made of honey and sugar mi.xed up 
 with flour, some veal minced fine, and a little cotton or white 
 wool to make it adhere to the hook. Some of it ought to be 
 tlirown into tlie water a few hours before you begin to an- 
 gle ; neither will small pellets thrown into the water two or 
 three days before be worse for this purpose, especially if 
 chickens' guts, garbage, or blood mixed with bran and cow- 
 dung, arc also thrown in. If you fish with gentles, anoint 
 tliem with honey. Honey and crumbs of wheat-bread, mi.x- 
 ed together, make also a very good paste; or pellets of 
 wheat-bread alone will answer very well. In taking a carp either 
 in a pond or river, if the angler intends to add profit to his plea- 
 sure, he must take a peck of ale-grains, and a good quantity of 
 any blood to mix with the grains; baiting the ground with it 
 wh'ere he intends to angle. This food will wundi'riullv attract the 
 scale-fish, as carp, tench, roach, dace, and bream. Let him an- 
 gle Ih a morning, plumbing his ground, and angling for carp with 
 a strong line : the bait must be either paste or a knotted, red worm : 
 and by this means he will have sport euougli. 
 
 5. The pike is a very long-lived creature, and if we may credit 
 Sir Francis Bacon, or Gesner, that famous naturalist, he outlives 
 M other fish ; and is a tyrant of the fresh-w aters, as the salmon is the 
 king thereof. The larger the pike, the courser the faod, the 
 smaller being ever best ; contrary to the nature of eelj, which 
 improve their goodness by tlieir bulk and age. He is a melan- 
 cholic fish, because lie never swims in slioals, but rests himself 
 alone ; and he is as bold as any li>h whatever, if we mav believe 
 report, which informs us a pike hath been known to fight with an 
 otter for a carp he had taken, and was canying out of the water. 
 Another bit a mule by the lip as he was drinking, and stuck 
 thereunto =o fast, that by that means the owner ot the mule took 
 him. Another bit a maid by the foot as she was washing. He 
 will frequently devour his own kind; from whence we suppose lie 
 may obtain the name of a fresh-water wolf. As the pike is in na- 
 ture like the haw k, a bird of prey, so he is like her in generation, 
 neither of llieui bretdina but once a year; the pike spawns be- 
 tween February and March. The best pikes are found in rivers, 
 the worst in meres or ponds. His comni-.m food is ether pickerel 
 weed, frogs, or what tish he can proc ire. Tliis pickerel weed 
 some say, both feeds and breeds them. Tliere are two wavs of 
 fishing for the pike ; first bv the ledger, se<-ondlv l)v the walking- 
 bait. The ledger-bait is fiNed in one certain place, whilst the 
 angler may be absent ; and this must be a living bait, either fi^li 
 or frog. Of fish the best are a dace, roach, or perch : for frogs, 
 the Yellowest are the best. How to keep them alive on vour 
 hoot, your own ingenuity will inform you. ^\'hen -, ou iiileiid to 
 use the ledger-bait, if it be a lishj slick your hook through his up- 
 
 per lip; and then fastening it to a strong line at least twelve or 
 fourteen yards in length ; tie tlie other enrl of the line eilli< r to 
 some stake in the ground, or to some bough of a tree near the 
 pike's usual haunt, or where vou think it i~ hkely lie may come. 
 Then win<I your line on a forced stick, (liig enough to keep the 
 bait from drawing it under water) all excejU about half a yar<l or 
 somewhat in-ie ; and your stick having a small ch-u at the end, 
 fasten your line therein; but so, that when the pike comes, he 
 mav c.isilv draw it loith, and h.ive line enough to go to his hold 
 and pouch. If vour bait be a frog, ])iil llie arming-wire in at his 
 mouth, and out at his gills ; ami then with a fine iiei-dle and silk 
 ^ow tlie upper part of his leg vvith one stitt li only to your arming- 
 wire, or tie his leg above the iip|)er joint to the wire; hut as 
 gently ns vou can, lest you hurt him. I'.xeellent sport is made 
 with living baits tied about the bodies of two or three couple of 
 ducks, driven over a place where store of pikes have frequented. 
 The pike is often observed to >trike so violently at the living bait, 
 that being hung he hath drawn the duck clear under water. 'I he 
 like miv be done with such baits tied to bladders, suffering them 
 to lloat down the river, whilst you mind your sport walking on its 
 banks. The next way of angling for a pike is with a trov.i with a 
 winch to wind it U|) withal. As this tisli i> very strong, so iij. 
 proportion must be your tackle ; and your rod must not be very 
 slender, where must be pl.ued a ring for your line to run tlirough. 
 Your line must be composed- of silk two yard> and a 
 (|uarter next the hook, which must be double, and stlOll^ly armed 
 with a wire about seven inches: the rest of your line m.iy be 
 strong shoemakers-thread. Upon the shank of the hook fasten 
 some smooth lead ; and having placed ymir le nk iiijthe mouth of 
 a minnow, dace, or roach; with your lead sink your bait «ith hi- 
 head downward. Having so done, cast your bail up pnd down : 
 if vou feel him at the hook, give him length enough to run away 
 with the bait and pouch it ; which when you tliink he hath done, 
 strike him with a smart jerk, and so continue your sport with him 
 as long as you shall think lit. A pike will bite at all baits, ex- 
 cepting the flv, and bites best about three in the afternoon in clear 
 water with a gentle cale, hom the middle of summer to the end of 
 autumn ; he then biles be^t in still places or a gentle stream : but 
 in wiiitt.-r he bites all the day long. In the hitler cwd, and begin- 
 ning of the spring, he biles liio-t eagerly early in the morning, and' 
 late in the evening. 
 
 (). Salmon and" trout li-tiiiig are nearly alike. The trout is 
 caught with a worm, a ininnow, or a fly ; but the only elegant 
 sport of this kind is that with the arlificiaf fly. 
 
 7. 'I'lie gudgeon is a small fish, of very delicious tasle. It 
 spawns three or four times in the sunitner seison, and leeds iu 
 streams, slighting all kinds of flies, but is easily t.iken with a small 
 red worm, nulling near the ground ; and being a leather-mouthed 
 fish, wilt nol easily Lut ort" the hook when struck. The gui.lg.'on 
 may he eitlier tished wiUi a lioat, the hook being on the erouiKi» 
 or by haii<l, with a running line on the ground without cork or 
 float. He will l>ite v\-ell al wasps, gentles, and cadworms ; and a 
 person mav fish with two or'lhree hooks at the same time. Before 
 you angle for gudgeons, stir up tiie sand or gravel with a long 
 pole, which will make them gather to the place, and bi'e the 
 faster. 
 
 8. The tench is a fine fre-h-water fidi, having very small scale.s, 
 but large smooth tins, with a red circle abuiil the eyes, and a lit- 
 tle barb hanging at each corner of the mouth. It takes more de- 
 light among weeds in poiuU than in clear rivers, and loves to feed 
 in fi ul water. His slime is said to have a healing quality fur 
 wounded tisti, upon which he is call'-d the fishes' physician. 
 When carp, pike, &c. are hurt, it is said they find rehef by nib- 
 bing themselves against tlie tench. Tne season for catching this 
 fish~is June, July, and Augu>t, very early and late, or even all 
 niaht, in the still part of the rivers. The bait is a large red worm, 
 at will, h he bites eagerly, especially if dipped in tar. He de- 
 lights in all sorts of paste made of strong-scented oils or tar, or a. 
 paste of brown-bread and honey; nor does he refuse the cad- 
 wprm, lobworm, llagworm, green gentles cod bait, or io't boiled- 
 bread-grain. 
 
 t(. Smelts are caught at high-tide during the suminer ar.d au- 
 tumn months, with a hook aiut line, about i.imehoiise and I'oplar. 
 'I'hey hsh with about ten hooks on the same line, a; dilferenV 
 depths, each bailed with a 'iniall piece of smelt, •vid.ioiiietiii.iei two 
 or three iirc caught al once,.
 
 4-10 
 
 FrSFIING. 
 
 An Epitome of the whole Art of FrsiuNc, wlievein are -'hewn at one view, tlie Hariiouis, Seasons, and Depllis, fur catching all sorts 
 offish usually angled for ; also the various Baits for each, so digested as to couUfni the Essence of all the Tn. allies ever written on 
 tlie snhjecl, exempt from the superHuities, which tend more to perplex tlun insvnict. 
 
 Names. 
 
 Bream . 
 Barbel- 
 Bleak .. 
 Carp ... 
 
 Chub or.. 
 Chevin ... 
 
 Dace. 
 
 Gudaeoii .., 
 Pike 
 
 Perch.... I 
 
 Pope.. 
 Kuach. 
 
 Salmon . 
 Smelts ., 
 Trout... 
 Tench.. 
 
 Umber or 
 
 Grayling 
 
 Where found. 
 
 rough str. river or mid. poEid. 
 
 jravel-banks in currents under 
 
 bridges 
 
 sandy bottom, deep rivers, 
 
 ships' sterns 
 
 till deep mud-bottom, pond 
 
 or river 
 
 ditto 
 
 sandy bottom, deep rivers, 
 
 ships' sterns 
 
 gravel shoals 
 
 near clay-banks 
 
 river in stream ") gravel 
 
 > or weedy 
 
 pond deepest part ) bottom 
 
 deep lioles in rivers 
 
 sandy bottom, deep rivers, 
 
 ships' sterns 
 
 deep rivers 
 
 ships' sterns and docks 
 
 purling stream, and eddies of 
 
 stony-bottom river 
 
 mud-bottom, river or pond 
 
 clay-bottom, swift stream 
 
 Seasons. 
 
 Time to ans 
 
 April to Mich 
 April to Aua 
 May to Oct. 
 Maj' to Aug. 
 
 May to Dec. 
 
 May to Oct. 
 
 May to Oct. 
 all the year 
 
 May to Aug. 
 
 Aug. to May 
 May to Oct! 
 -May to Oct. 
 
 Mar. to Sept 
 Apr. to Oct. 
 
 Mar. to Mich 
 all the year 
 
 all the year 
 
 sun-rise to 9 
 3 to sun-set 
 verv early or 
 
 ' late' 
 
 all day 
 
 sun-rise to 9 
 3 to sun-set 
 
 ditto 
 
 all day 
 
 ditio 
 ditto 
 
 S.-rise to 10 
 
 2 to sun-set 
 mid-day 
 
 all day 
 ditto" 
 
 Stop, 3 to 6 
 
 all d.iy 
 
 ditto 
 
 sun-rise to 9 
 
 3 to sun-set 
 
 all day ) 
 
 Depth from ground. 
 
 Proper Baits. 
 
 Elies 
 No. 
 
 touch ground 
 
 ditto 
 
 6 inches from bottom 
 
 3 inches from bottom 
 hot weatlier, mid-water 
 
 ditto 
 
 6 to 12 inches from bottom 
 
 near, or on ground 
 mid-water 
 
 ditto 
 
 6 inches from bottom 
 
 ditto 
 
 C to 12 inches 
 
 mid-way to the bottom 
 
 mid. way to the bottom 
 
 variable 
 
 cold weather, 6 inches to<t 
 
 hot weath. top to mid-wal 
 
 cold wea. 3 inch from hot 
 
 hut weather, mid-water 
 cold weather, 6 to 9 inch, 
 hot weath. top toniid-wat. 
 
 1 2 
 
 1 to 5 
 ditto 
 
 «n.->tro. 
 andsiva]> 
 
 .5 
 1 2 4 J 
 
 ill large 
 
 all sma 
 
 I to :> 
 
 I 1 to .■■ 
 
 Pastes. I\\ orms. 
 No. No 
 
 1 3 
 
 1 3 4 
 
 2 
 
 3 4 
 
 ditto 
 line float 
 look iixl 
 
 1 
 
 3 4 
 
 1 to 7 
 
 3 6 7 
 
 23 8 
 
 12347 
 
 1245 
 
 lto5&S 
 
 2 8 
 
 1 3 4 
 
 onshori 
 
 3 5 7 8 
 
 all 
 ditto 
 
 15 6 7 
 
 1 2 5 
 
 1 2 5 to S 
 
 134to7 
 
 all 
 
 Fish A: 
 Insects. 
 No. S 
 
 7 8 
 
 2 3 4 
 i67 
 
 1 6 
 
 1 
 
 bits of 
 
 smelts 
 
 1 8 
 
 1 8 
 
 Description of proper Baits for the several sorts of Fish rrftrred 
 to in the foregoing .Table. 
 
 Flies. 1. Stone-ily, found under hollow stones at the side of 
 rivers, is of a brown colour, witli yellow streaks on the back and 
 belly, has large wings, and is in sea>on from April to July. 2. 
 Green drake, found among stones by river-sides, has a yellow 
 l)odv ribbed with green, is long and sh-nder, with wings like a 
 IjutierOv, his tail turns on his back, and from May to Midsummer 
 is very useful. 3. Oak-lly found in the body of an old oak, or 
 ash, with its head downwards, is of a brown colour, and excellmt \ 
 from May to September. 4. Palmer- fly or worm, r.ither a hairy 
 caterpillar, found on leaves of plants, and when it comes to a tlv 
 is excellent for trout. 5. .\nt-tly, f<;und in ant-hills from June to 
 Se|)tember. 6. The May-Hy is to be found playing by the river- 
 side, especially against rain. See Ephkmera. "7. Tlie black-fly 
 is to be found upon every hawthorn alter I he buds are fallen off. 
 Almost the only sport in (i--hing that may be called so, is tty-fish- 
 ing. The fly is either natural or artilicial. 
 
 1. Natural flies are innumerable. The most usual for this pur- 
 pose are mentioned in the above lines. There are two ways to 
 fish with natural flies ; either on the surface of tlie water, or a little 
 imderneLith it. In angling for chevin, roach, or dace, move not 
 your natural fly swiftly, wiien vou see the fish make at it ; but ra- 
 ther let it glide freely towards hiiii with the sireiim : but if it be in 
 a still or slow water, draw the fly slowly sideways by him, which 
 will make him eagerly pursue it. 
 
 (f. The artilicial fly is best used when the waters are so trou- 
 bled by the winds, that the natural fly caniiot be seen nor rest 
 upon them. Of artificial flies there are reckoned no les> than 
 twelve sorts, of -which the following are the principal: I. For 
 Xlarch, the dun-fly, made of dun-wool, and the feathers of the 
 partridge's wing, or thp body made of black wool, and the fea- 
 
 thers of a black drake. 2. For April, the stone-fly, the body 
 in.ide of black wool, with a little yellow under the wings and tail. 
 3. For the beginning of May, the ruddy fly, made of red wool, 
 and bound abou'. with black silk, with the leathers of a black ca- 
 1)011 hanging d.angling on his sides next his tail. 4. For June, the 
 greenish fly, the body m.ide of black wool, with a yellow list on 
 either side, the wings taken off the wings of the buzzard, bound 
 with black broken hemp. 5. The moorish fly, the body mad..- of 
 duski^h wool, and the wings made of tlie blacki-h n.ail of a drake. 
 6. The ta'.vny fly, good till the middle of June, the body made of 
 tawny wool, the wings inade contrary one against the other, of the 
 whitish mail of a white drake. 7. For July, the wiisp-fly, the 
 body made of black wool, cast abcut with yellow silk, and the 
 wings of drakes' feathers. 8. The steel-fly, good in the middle of 
 July, the body made with g-eenish wool, cast about with thiii fea- 
 thers of a peacock's tail, and the wings made of those of the buz- 
 zard. 9. For August, the drake-fly, the body made with black 
 wool cast Libout with black silk, his wings of the mail of a black 
 dral.e with a black head. The May-lly is also excellently imi- 
 tated by the tackle-makers. 
 
 The best rules for artificial fly-fishing are, 1. To fish in a river 
 some\\h.U disturbed With rain : or in ;. cloudy day, when the wa- 
 ters are moved by a gentle breeze ; the south wind is best ; and 
 if the wind blows hii;h, yet not 50 out that you ma)' conveniently 
 guard your tackle, the fish will rl,e in plain deeps: but if the 
 wind IS small, the best angling is in swift streams. 2. Keep as far 
 Iroiii the water-side as may be ; fish down the stream with the sun 
 at your back, and do not disturb the water with your line. 3. 
 Ever angle in clear nvers with a small fly and slender wings ; but 
 in nuidily places use a larger. 4. When alter rain the water be- 
 comes brownish, use an orange fly ; in a cle.ir day, a light-cohmr- 
 ed fly; a dark fly for dark waters, kc. 5. Let the 'line be at 
 
 least
 
 FISHING. 
 
 4U 
 
 least twice as long as the rod, unle'js the river ■is-enciimbcriHl with 
 tixTS. C. l'"or eviTV sort of liy, Ivave several of tlif same, dillV-r- 
 iiig ill colour, to suit with 'lie <ii;i'.Mxnt coiii[)Ie\ioni of SL'vcral wa- 
 turs and weatliiirs. 7. Have a nimble e\e and active hand, to 
 ;.lrikc presently willi the rising of thelish, or else he will bt; apt to 
 llirow out tiie liook. 8. Let tlic fly fall lir^t into the water, and 
 i.ol the line, wh:cii will scare the fish. 9. In slow river.i, or still 
 ])laces, cast the lly across thi". river, and let it >ink a little in the 
 water, and draw it ^er.tly back with the cnrreiit. Salnion-llies 
 should be nuide witii tlieir wings slandine; one behind tlie other, 
 wlu; her two or four. This iish delights in the gaudiest colours 
 th.il can be ; chiefly in tlie wings which must be long, as well as 
 the t lil. The be^t wiiii> is the hackle of the golden pheasant. 
 
 1'astes. — 1. Take the blood of a sheep, and mix it with honey 
 and lii^ur to a pro[)er eonsi.^leiue. 2. Take old cheese grated, a 
 liiile butter sullicient to woik it, and colour it with saffron ; in 
 winter use rusty b:u on instead of butter. 3. Crumbs of , bread 
 chewed or worked uith honey or suaar, moi>tened with gum-wa- 
 ter. 4. lirtatl chewed, and worked in the hand till it becomes 
 stilV, which with a little cotton woul to make it stick on the hook 
 is the best of all. 
 
 W'oHMS. — 1. Tin; earth-bob, found in sandy ground after 
 ploughing ; it is white, with a red head, and bigger than a gentle ; 
 another is foiiiul in heathy ground with a blue liead. Keep them 
 in an earthen vessel well covered, and a sufficient ipiantity of the 
 mould they harboin- in. Tlu y are excellent from April to No- 
 vember. 2. Gentles, to be had from putrid flesh ; let them lie in 
 wheat-bran a few days before used. 3. Flag-worms, found in the 
 roots of tlags : they are of a pale yellow colour, are longer and 
 . thimier than a gentle, ajid must be scoined like them. 4. Cow- 
 duHg, bog, or clap-bait, found under cow-dung from May to Mi- 
 
 chaelmas ; it is like a gentle, but larger. Keep it in its native 
 earth like the earth-bob. j. Cadis-worm, or cod-bait, found un- 
 iler loo-e stones in shallow rivers : tliey are always covered with 
 a ease of sticks or small gravel, and when drawn out of their case 
 are yellow, biggi.r than a gentle, with a black or blue head, and 
 are in seasnn hum A|)rir to July. Keep them in flannel bags, 
 fl. l^ob-worm, found in gardens: it is very large, and has a red 
 head, a streak down the back, and a fiat broad tail. 7. Marsh- 
 worms, found in inaishv ground ; keep them in moss ten day- be- 
 fore you use them : their colour is a blueish red ; are a good bait 
 from' March to Michaehnas. 8. Brandling or red worms, found 
 in rotten dunghills and tanners' bark; they^are red or rather strip- 
 ed worm;, very good IVt all small fish, have sometimes a yellow 
 tail, or a smaller sort are called tag-tails or gill-ta-ils, they have not 
 the annular stripe of the brandling. 
 
 Fish ,\\d Insects. — f. Minnow. 2. Gudgeon. 3. Roach. 
 4. Dace. j. bnielt. 0. Yellow frog. 7. Snail slit. 8. Grass- 
 ho|)per. Floats, are little appendages to the line, used for lishing 
 at bottom, and serving to keep the hook and l.'ait suspended at the 
 pn'jirr depth, to discover when the fish have hold of tiieni, &c. 
 Of these there are many kinds: some made of quills, which are 
 the be-t lor slow waters ;" but for strong streams sound cork, with- 
 out Haws or holes, bored through with a hot iron, into wliich is 
 put a quill of a fit proportion, is preferable ; the cork should be 
 sl-.aped to a pyramidal tovni, and made smooth. The fishing-hook, 
 in general, ought to be long in tiie shank, somewhat thick in the 
 circumierence, the point even and straight ; the bend shotdd be 
 ui the shank. For setting the hook on, use strong but small silk, 
 la\ing the hair on the inside of the hook ; for if it is on the out- 
 side, the silk will fret and cut it asunder. 
 
 FISHIKG-LINE, a line made either of hair twisted, or silk ; 
 or the Indian grass. The best colours are the sorrel, white, and 
 grev ; the two hist for clear waterr, the first for muddy ones. The 
 j)ale watery green colour is given artificially, by steeping the hair 
 in a rupior made of alum, soot, and the juice of wahr.it leaves, 
 boiled togeth.cr. 
 
 FisHiNG-itoD, a long slender rod or wand, to whicli tlie line is 
 fastened, for angling. Of these there are several sorts ; as, I. A 
 troller, or trolling rod, which has a ring at tlie end of the rod, for 
 the line to go through when it runs off a reel. J. A whipper, or 
 vhijiping rod ; a tO])-rod, that is weak in the middle, and top 
 heavy, but all slender and fine. 3, A dropper ; which is a strong 
 rod and very light. 4. A snapper, or snap-roil ; which is a strong 
 pole, peculiarly used for the pike. 5. A bottom-rod ; being the 
 same as the dropper, but somewhat more pliable, fi. A snigeling 
 or procking stick ; a forked slick, having a short strong line, with 
 a needle, baited witli a lobe worm : this is only for eels in their 
 holes. 
 
 FlStl-RIVER, Great, a river of Africa, which divides Caf- 
 I'raria from ihe country of tlie Hcttentots, and falls into the Indian 
 Ocean, in I. at. 30. 30.'S. 
 
 FISMES, a town of France, in the department of Marne, on 
 the Vesle, 15 miles N. W. of Rheiins. 
 
 FISSATO, a town of Africa, in Tripoli. 'jO miles W. of Tri- 
 poli. Lon. 12. 0. E. Lat. 33, W. N. 
 
 FISSURE OP A Bone, in surgery, is when it is divided 
 either transversely or longitudinalfy, not ((uite through, but 
 cracked alter the manner of glass, by any external force. See 
 
 SuRGhRY. 
 
 F'issuREs IN THE Earth, Certain interruptions, that in an ho- 
 rizontal or parallel manner divide the several strata of which tlie 
 body of our tTresirial globe is composed. 
 
 FiSTEL[-.V, or FEEZA, a fortitied town of Morocco, in the 
 province of Tedcia, 135 miles N. E. of Morocco. 
 
 F'ISTULA, in the ancient music, an instrument of the wind 
 kind, rescmlding our tlulc or flageolet. The [.'rincipal wind in- 
 struments of the ancients, were the tibia and the iiAula. 
 
 FiSTL'LA, in tarriery. See Farriery. 
 
 Fistula, in surgery, a deep, narrow ulcer, generally arising 
 frou. abscesses. It differs from a sinus, in being callwus, tlie latter 
 not. See Surgery. 
 
 VOL. II — NO. a4. 
 
 FISTULARIA, the Tobacco-pipe Fish, in natural history, 
 a genus of fishes of the order abdominales. Snout cylindrical ; 
 jaws distant from the eyes ; gill-membrane with seven rays ; body 
 tapering from the jawsto the tail. There are three species, i. 
 tabacar'ia, or the slender fistularia, grows to the length of three 
 feet, and is fouiul on the coasts of Brazil, by the inhabitants of 
 which it is eaten, though not much esteemed. It lives principally 
 upon smaller fishes, insects, ;.nd worms. 'Ihe two other species 
 are natives of the Indian seas. 
 
 FIT. See Paroxysm. 
 
 F'lTACm, a kingdom of Japan, E. of the isle of Niplion. 
 
 FITCH, in husbandry, is more generally known by the name 
 of chick-pea. See Cicrr. Fitches are cultivated either for feed- 
 ing cattle, or improving the land. They make a wholesome and 
 nourishing food, whether given in the straw or threshed out. 
 Wjien sown only to improve the soil, they are ploughed in just as 
 they begin to blossom, by which means a tough still' clay soil is 
 nnicii enriched. 
 
 FITCHET, FITCHEW, or FITCHAT, in zoology. See 
 .Mlstela. 
 
 FlTCilY, [from.A'.vAc, Fr. i. e. fixed,] in heraldi-y, a term ap- 
 plied to a cross when the lower branch ends in a sharp point. Tlu; 
 reason of it Mackenzie supposes to be, that the Christians were 
 wont to carry crosses with them wherever they went ; and when 
 they stopped' on their journey at any place, they fixed those port- 
 able crosses in the ground lor devotion's sake. 
 
 FITZ, [Norman, Ironi.ftV.v, a son, Fr.] a son. Only used in 
 law and genealogy: as Fitz-herhert, the son of Herbert; Fit/^ 
 thomas, the son ot 'Thomas ; Fit/roy, the son of the king. Ills 
 commonly used of illegitimate children. 
 
 FIT/HERBEK T, Sir .Anthony, a very learned lawyer in 
 the reign of king lienrv \' 11 1, descended ot an ancient family, aiid 
 born at Norhury i" Derbyshire. He was made a judge of the 
 court of common pleas in 1523; and distinguished himself by 
 many valuable works, as well ;is by such an honourable cli-charge 
 ot the duties of his office, as made him esteemed an oracle ot Ihe 
 law. His writings are, The Grand .A.briilgment : 'i"he Office and 
 Authority of Ju-lices of Peace: The Office of Sheriils, Bailirts of 
 Liberties, Escheators, Constables, Coroners, Ivc. ; Of the Diver- 
 sity of Courts : The New Natura Bievium : Of the Surveying of 
 Lands: and The Book of Husbandry. He died in 1.^3S. 
 
 5 U FlTZSi'EPHEX,
 
 FLA 
 
 442 
 
 FLA 
 
 FITZSTEIMIKN, ^V^.I,!AM, a learned monk of C'aiiti-rbury, 
 of Norman extraction, bin bnrn of respectable parents in London, 
 in the ri'.li cc-nUiiV. Being attached to Archbishop Becket, lie 
 was present at the lime of his murder. See Becket. la 1174, 
 lie wrote in Latin, " The Life of Saint Thomas, Archbishop and 
 Martyr;" in uhicli, as liecket was a native of the metropolis, he 
 introdace.^ a description of London, v.ith a detail of the manners 
 and nsa^es of tlie citizens, which is deservedly considered as a great 
 cnriosity, beinf; the earliest professed account of London extant. 
 lie died in 1191. 
 
 FIVE CHUUCHE?;, a town of Hungary. 85 miles S. of Bnda. 
 l*!vn fsLAND Harbol'r, a bay on the W. coast of Antigua. 
 Lon. 0!. 3j. W. Lat. 17. 13. N. 
 
 Five-leaved Grass. See PorENTlLLA. 
 IT\ELGO, or FIVELINGO, a district of Groningen. in 
 rinllaiid ajid the department of the Ecms. 
 
 FIL'ME, or St. VEIT, a populous sea-port of Carjiiola, on 
 the Adriatic, 38 mdes S. of Capo of Ltria. 
 
 FiUME Freddo, a town of Naples, in the province of Calabria 
 Citra, 1 1 miles W. S. \V. of Cc-en^Ta. 
 
 FIX.'VTION, in cliemislry, the rendering of any volatile sub- 
 stance fi.Ked, so as not to fly oft' upon being exposed to a great 
 heat. See Fixed Bodies. 
 
 FIXED-AIK, an aerial fluid which is disengaged from all sub- 
 stances liable to undergo the vinous fermentation, as well as by 
 ini.ving alkaline salts and earths with acids. It is a gas which Is 
 essentially ditierent in its properties from atmospheric air, as the 
 former is unfit to support either the respiration of animals, or the 
 burning of a candle ; being likewise specifically heavier than the 
 common air we breathe. From its acid properties, it has been 
 variously denominated aerial acid, cretaceous acid, or carbonic 
 acid : aiid Iroiu its noxious (|ualitie>, it has received the name of 
 niephetic gas. The appellation of fixed air has been applied to it 
 from its readily losing its elastic properly, an<! fixing itself in va- 
 rious bodies, especially those which are of a calcareous nature. 
 Fixed air was first discovered bv Dr. Black, who, in consequence 
 of various expeiiments, found lliat chalk, and the other earths re- 
 ducible to quick-lime by calculation, consist of an alkaline earth, 
 ■which is soluble by itself in water; but which, when conibined 
 with a Large cju.iiitity of lixed air, becomes insoluble; losing the 
 proi)erlies of (juick-lime, and assuming the appearance those earths 
 naturally have, when not reduced to a calcareous state. It is now 
 generally called carbonic acid gas, which see. 
 
 Fixed Bodies, are iliose which bear a considerable degree of 
 heat without evapur.uing, or losing any of their weight. Among 
 these, the most fixed are diamonds, gold, &c. See Diamond, 
 Gold, &c. 
 
 Fixed Stars are such as constantly retain the same position and 
 'distance witli respect to each other; by whicii they are contra- 
 dlstinguidicd from erratic or wandering stars, which are continuallv 
 shifting their situation and distances. '1 he fixed stars are what we 
 properly and absolutely call stars ; the others are either planets or 
 comets." See Astronomv. 
 
 FLACCUS.Caius X'aleuius, an ancient Latin poet, of whom 
 we have very imperfect accounts lemaining. He wrote a poem 
 on the Argonautic expedition ; of which, however, he did not live 
 to finish the eighth book, tlying at about 30 years of age. John 
 Baptista Pius.'an Italian poet, completed the eighth book of the 
 Araonautics ; and added two more, trom the fourth of .\pollo- 
 iiius; which supplement was first added to Aldus's edition in 
 1523. 
 
 FLACOL'RTIA, in botany, a genus of th.i class and order diec- 
 cia polyandria. .Male calyx five-parted; corolla none ; stamina 
 vf rv numerous. F'-male calyx many-leaved ; cor.illa none ; i)er 
 men superior. Styles from 5 to 9. Berry many-celled. There 
 is one species, a sui-ill tree of Madagascar, bearing an eatable fruit 
 in some degree resembling a plumb. 
 
 FI.,ADSTR.\ND, a sea-port of Denmark, on the E. coast of 
 N. Jutland, in the diocese of Aalborg, 30 miles N. N. E. of Aal- 
 borg. Lon. 10. 19. E. Lst..'.7. 33. N. 
 
 FLADUNfil'.N, a town of Germany, in the bishopric cf 
 \Vnr:^burg, 30 miles N. of Wurzl.urg. 
 
 FLAG, in the aimy, a small banner of distinction, stuck in the 
 baggage-waggon, to disiiiiiiuish the baggage of cne brig.'de from 
 another, and of one battalion from another ; that they may be mar- 
 
 shalled bv the waggon-n-.aster general according to the rank 
 of their brigades, to avoid the confusion that might otherwise 
 arise. 
 
 Flag, in the marine, a certain banner or standard, by which an 
 adm ral is distinguished at sea from tlie inferior ships of his scpia- 
 dron ; also the colours bv which one nation is dislingtiislicd trom 
 another. See Plate LXXI. In the British navy, tlags are either 
 red, white, or blue ; and are displayed from the top of the main-mast, 
 I'ore-mast, or mizen-mast, according to ll'-e rank of the admiral. 
 Whenallagis displayed from tlie flag-staff on the main-mast, the 
 officer distinguished thereby is known to be an admiral ; when 
 from the fere-mast, a vice-admiral; and v.'lien from the mizer.- 
 m.>t, a rear-admiral. The hvit Hag in Great Britain is tlie royal 
 standard, which is only to behoisted when the king or cjueen is'on 
 board the vessel : the second is tliat of thear.clior of hope, which 
 characterises the lord high admiral, or lords commissioners of the 
 admiralty: and the third is the union flag, in whicli the crosses 
 of St. (Jv-orce and St. Andrew are blended. This last is appro- 
 priated to the admiral of the lleet, who is the first military oflicer 
 under t!ie lord liiph-admiral. The next (lag after the union is that 
 of the white squadron, at the main-iiiast head ; and the last, which 
 characterises an admiral, is the blue, at the same mast liead. For 
 a vice-admiral, thelirst Hai; is the red, the second the white, the 
 third the blue, at the flag stulf on the fore-mast. The same order 
 proceeds with regard to the rear-admirals, whose flags are hoisted 
 on the top of the mieen-mast : the lowest flag in our navy is ac- 
 cordingly the blue on the iiiizcn-mast. Besides the national fiar, 
 merchant-ships frequently bear less flags on the inizeii-ma»t, 
 with the arms of the city where the master ordinarily resides: and 
 on the foie-inast, with liie arms of the place where the person who 
 freights then) lives. 
 
 Flag, io hang out the White, is to ask quarter; or it 
 shews, when a vessel is ariivcd on a coast, that it has no hostile 
 intention, but conies to trade, or the like. Tlie red Hag is a sign 
 of defiance, and battle. 
 
 Flag, to heave out the, is to put out or put abroad the 
 flag. 
 
 Flag, to lower, or strike the, in the marine, is to pull it 
 clown upon the cap, or to take it in, out ot respect, or submission, 
 due from all ships or. fleets inferior to those any way justly their 
 superiors. To lower or strike the flag in an engagement is a sign 
 ofyiehling. The way of leading a ship in triumph is to tie the 
 flags to the shrouds, or the gallery, in the liind part of the sliii), 
 and let them hang down towards the water, and to low the vessels 
 by the stern. Livy relates, that this was the way the Romans used 
 those of C^arthage. 
 
 Flag-Officers, those who command the several squadrons of 
 a fleet, such as 'the admirals, vice-admirals, and rear-admirals. 
 The flag-ofiicer.s in our pay are the admiral, vite-adniiral, and 
 rear-admiral, of the white, red, and blue. 
 
 Flag-Ship, a ship commanded by a general or flag-ofScer, who 
 has a right to carry a flag, in contradistinction to the secov^dary 
 vessels under its commaiul. 
 
 I'^lag-Staves, are staves set on the heads of the top-gaUanV 
 masts, serving to let fly, or unfurl, the flag. 
 Flag, in butanv. see Iris, and Acorus. 
 
 FLAGELLAN TES, a sect of wild fanatics who chastised and 
 disciplined themselves with whips in public. This sect rose in 
 Italy, in ISSO. Its author was one Rainier a hermit ; and it was 
 propagi.ti'd through almost all the countries of Europe. It was 
 piobalilv no more lli.'n the eft'ect of an indiscreet zeal, foiinderl en 
 erroneou,-. ideas of the Deity. A great number of persons of all 
 aces and sexes made proces^iolls, walking two by two with their 
 shouldeis bare, which they wliipped till the blood ran down, to 
 obtain mercy from God, and appease his indignation against the 
 wickedness of the age. They were then called the devout ; and 
 having esi.;bli>hed a superior, he was called the general of the de- 
 yolion. 
 
 FLAGEIT.ARI.'X, a genus of the hexandria moiv gvnia c'a"? 
 and ordi r of plants: petals none; perianthium divided into 
 six segm-nts; fruit a roundish berry, containing a sinyir seed. 
 There I'.re two ^pceies, shrubs of the Eist Indies. 
 
 FLAGEOLEl", or FLAJEOLET, a little flute, used ch.eily 
 
 by shepherds, and country people. It is made of box, or any 
 
 other hard wood, and somctiuies of ivory ; and has six holes be- 
 
 i sides
 
 FJLAG So 
 
 '*i9f-^fe 
 
 Veuife 
 
 a*^,. 
 
 0'. 
 "a" 
 
 I 
 Navies'" 
 
 1 
 
 1- 
 
 :: 
 
 3 
 
 /"uhhihi-d /iy./>ntn:r thti.li-t\ Athton fW^sM'n>t,m .i-to^ .
 
 FLA 
 
 443 
 
 FLA 
 
 ^ides that at tlu- bultoin, tlie mouth-piece, anil that behind the 
 neck. 
 
 Flag-Flowkr. See Acorus and Iris. 
 
 FI^AIL, [Jidgciltiiii, LiUn ; Jiegcl, Connan,] the in'^tnimeiit 
 with which grain is beaten out of the ear ; tlie tool of tlie thresher. 
 Flails consi.vt ot tiie follow ing parts: 1. The liaiul-slaff, or 
 piece held in the thresher's hand. '2. The swiple, or th.it part 
 which strikes out the corn. 3. The caplin*, or strong double 
 ieatiiers, made fast lo tlie tops of the hand-slafl'and s liple. 4. 
 The middle baud, being the leather thong, or lish-skin, that ties 
 the caplms together. 
 
 FLAIR, in sea language, the seamen say, that tlie work doth 
 flair over, when a shi|) is housed in near the water, so tliat the 
 work hanus over a liule too iimch, and thus is let out broader aloft 
 than the due proportion will allow. 
 
 FLAKE, ill the cod li^herv, a sort of scaffold or |ilatforiii, inade 
 of hurdles, and supported by stanchioiK, useil for drying cod-li^h 
 in Newfoundland. 'I'hese Hakes arc usually placi;d near the 
 shores of fishing harbours. 
 
 Flakk, in gardening, a sort of carnation, wliich is of two co- 
 lours only, and has very large stripes, all of them going quite 
 through the leaves. 
 
 Flakk, White, in painting, lead corroded by the pressing of 
 ^apes, or a ceruss prepared by the acid of grapes. It is brought 
 here from Italy ; and far surpasses, both with regard to the punly 
 of iti whiteness, and the certainty of its standing, all the ceruss or 
 white lead made willi us. It is used in oil and varnish pair.ti'ig, 
 lor all purposes where a very clean white is required. It should 
 be procured in lunip^, as brought over, and levigated by those 
 • who use it ; as that which the colourmen sell in a prepared state is 
 L-vigated and mixed up with starch, and often with white lead, 
 iind worse sopliislications. 
 
 FLAMAN\' ILLE, a sea-port of France, in the department of 
 the C'nanncl, 10 miles S. W. of Clierbourg. 
 
 FLAMBEAU, a kind oi large taper, made of hempen wicks, 
 bv pouring melted wax on their top, and letting it run down to 
 the bottom. This done, they lay them to dry ; after which they 
 roll them on a table, and join four of them together by means of 
 a led-hot iron ; and then pour on more wax, till tlie flambeau is 
 brought to the size required. Flambeaus are of different lengths, 
 and made either of white or yellow wa.\. They serve to give 
 light in tiie streets at iiiulit, or on occasion of illuminations. 
 
 FLAMBOROUGlt, a town of Yorkshire, seated on the N. 
 side of ihc cape, chiefly inhabited by fishermen. 
 
 Flambokovch Head, a cape on the E. coast of Yorkshire, 
 five miles E. of Burlington, and 206 from London. It was tlie 
 Fleamburg of the Saxons ; so called from the flames or lights 
 made on it to direct the landing of Ida, who in A. D. 547 joined 
 his countrvnien iu Britain, with a large reinforcement from Ger- 
 many, and founded the kingdom of Nortliumberland. Lon. 0. 4. 
 E. r,at. 54. 9. N. 
 
 FLAME, [Jluinma, Lat.] in physiology, the small parts of an 
 inflammable body, that are set on (ire, and throw oil' a quantity of 
 light in every direction, or according to .Sir Is;uic Newton the 
 flame of a body is only the smoke thereof heated red hot ; and the 
 smoke is only the volatile part of the body separated by the lire. 
 When oxygen gas is decomposed slowly, the heat is impercep- 
 tible, because the caloric is dissipated as soon us generated. When 
 the decomposition goes on faster, the bodies concerned become 
 sensibly warm. A quicker decomposition of the gas heats the 
 bodies so as to render them red hot, w hich state is called ignition : 
 and when the process is attended with the production of certain 
 fluids, as hydrog-'n, Jtc. and tiie decomposition of oxygen air af- 
 fords a suflicient developemcnt of caloric, then the fluids them- 
 selves are ignited, and decomposed, which constitutes flame, and 
 is thence termed inllammation. VV'hen a candle is first lighted, 
 which must be done by the application of actual flame, a degree 
 of heat IS given to the wick snliitient to destroy the affinity of 
 its constituent parts; some of the tallow is instantly melted, vo- 
 latilized, and decomposed, its hydrogen t^ikes lire, and the candle 
 melts. As this is destroyed by combustion another portion melts, 
 rises and supplies its place, and undergoes a like deconipo^ition. 
 In this way combustion ismaintiined in a candle. Thi' most bril- 
 liant liame is exhibited ia oxygen gas, and in this llamos of dif- 
 ferent colours may be produced : thus a mixture of nitrate ef 
 
 stronlia and charcoal powder, previously ignited, burns with a 
 rose-coloured flame ; cne part ot boracic acid, and three of char- 
 coal mixed, will burn green: one .part of nitrate of ba'ytes and 
 lour ol charcoal powder burn with a yellow flame : equal paits of 
 nilrate ol lime and charcoal powder burn orange-red. Combus- 
 tion is more perfect, und the light more intense, when the air has a 
 freer access lo every part of the llame. 
 
 FL.VMEK, in Uoman antiquity, an order of priest^, in'^tituled 
 by Uomiilusor Numa. They were originally only three, viz. the 
 I' lamen Dialis, Martialis, an'd Quirinalis. 'i'lie two last, though 
 of hloh authority, were much inferior to the Flamen Dialis. All 
 the three were chosen by the people, and consecrated by the Pon- 
 tifex Ma:'.inuis. In latter times several priests of the same order 
 were added to them, but inferior in power. The whole number 
 at last aiiiomited to 15: the three first of w horn were senators, and 
 called I'lamiiies majores; the other 12 taken from among the peo- 
 ple, being denominated Flamines minores. 
 
 FLAMINIUS, or FLAMING, Mark Anthony, one of the 
 best Latin poets in the 16lh century, ol Iniola in Italy, son and 
 grand»on of very learned men. The pope had chosen" him secre- 
 tary to the council in 1545 ; but he refused that enqiloyment, as 
 he favoured I he new opinions, and would not emplos his pen in 
 an assembly where he knew these opinions were to be condemned. 
 He wrote notes on the Psalms ; paraphrased 30 of them in Latin 
 ver.'-e ; and wrote letters and poems which are esteemed. He 
 died at Rome in 1550. 
 
 F'L.'\M.S TED, a town of England, in Hertfordshire, five miles 
 from St. Alban's and Dunstable, on the Vcrlam, anciently called 
 N'eriamstede. 
 
 F'LAMSTEED, John, an eminent English astronomer, born 
 in Derby in 1646. He had early read a great deal of civil and 
 ecclesiastical history ; but happening to see John De Sacrobosco's 
 book, De Splii-ra, he acquired a turn for astronomy, w hich he af- 
 terw.iids prosecuted with great vigour. In UJ74, he wrote an 
 ephemeris, in which he shewed the falsity of astrology ; and gave 
 a table of the moon's rising and setting, with the eclipses and ap- 
 pulses of the moon and planets to fixed stars. This fell into the 
 hands of Sir Jonas More ; for whom he made a table of the 
 moon's true southings. In 1674, Sir Jonas having informed him, 
 that a true account of the tides would be highly acceptable to the 
 king, he compo^ed a small ephemeris for his use ; and when Sir 
 Jonas shewed the king and duke of York Flamsteed's telescopes 
 and micrometer, he procured a warrant to be king's astronomer, 
 with a salary of 100/. a-year. His " Doctrine of the Sphere" was 
 published in 16S1, in a posthumous work of Sir Jonas More, in- 
 titled "Anew System of the Mathematics." In 1684, he wa.s 
 presented to the living of Burstow in Surry, which he enjoyed till 
 he died in 1719. His " Historia coelestis Britannica" was publish- 
 ed at London in 1725, in three vols. He likewise composed the 
 British Catalogue of the fixed stars, wdiich contains twice the num- 
 ber that are in the catalogue of Hevelius ; see AsTEO.vot.iY ; to 
 each of which he annexea its longitude, latitude, right ascension, 
 and di-tance from the pole, together with the variation of right 
 a*cension and declination, while the longitude iiici eases a degree, 
 This catalogue, together with most of his observ.itions, were 
 printed on a fine paper and character, at the expence of prince 
 George of Denmark. 
 
 FLANDERS, a country of the Netherlands, formerly a con- 
 siderable county, governed by its own hereditary sovereigns ; but 
 now forming part of France. It was bounded on the N. by the 
 United Provinces ; on the E. by the late Austrian provinces 
 of Brabant and Hainault ; on the S. by Hainault and Arlois: and 
 on the W. and N. W. by the German ocean ; extending 60 miles 
 in length, and 50 in breadth. It contained 30 cities, a great num- 
 ber of market towns, 1 154 villages, and 48 abbevs ; besides many 
 colleges, monasteries, &c. The towns arc situated so near eacli 
 other, that, the Spaniards, who followed Philip II, supposed the ' 
 whole country to constitute but one great city. Since that period, 
 it has suflered greatly from the ravages of various wars; and par- 
 ticularly during the present. The climate is temperate and 
 healthy ; Hie soil is very fertile, being watered by many rivei-s and 
 canals, and producing all kinds of corn, flax, and other vegeta- 
 bles; and the surface is yery level, there being not a single hill or 
 rising ground in it. The pastures are excellent, and rear great 
 numbers of fme horses, sheep, and black cattle. The Fltming^ 
 
 were
 
 FLA 
 
 44-1 
 
 FLA 
 
 WL*re formerly the priiii'ipal niLiniit.icti.iicrs in Europe, and either I 
 invented or improved several important arts; particularly wcav- I 
 ing figured l-nans ; d\e;ng cloth-; ; [lainling in oil colours ; cur- 
 ing herrings, &c. Silk cotton and woollen stuli's, camblets, bro- 
 cadi-s, liiiens, laces, aiid tapestry, are still manufactured in great 
 <|uantitie.s. ^I'he laces are reckoned supc-rior to all otl-.ers. I'lie 
 chief rivers are the Scheldt and tlie Lys. Before tlie I'rench re- 
 volution it was divided into Frenci;, Austrian, and Dutch Flan- 
 ders. 
 
 FLANK, [^Jliinc, Fr ] in the manege, the side of a liorse be- 
 tween the ribs and liaunches. A well flanked horse, is one that 
 has wide and well made ribs, and a good body. 
 
 Flanks of an Army, are the troops encamped on the right 
 and left, as Uie tlanks of a battalion arc the liles on the right and 
 left. . 
 
 Flank of a Bastion, in fortification, that part v. hick joins the 
 face to tlie cnrtin. See Bastion and Fortiiicaiton. 
 
 Flank, OsLiiiUF., or Second Flank, that part of the curtin, 
 from wlience the face of the opposite bastion mr.y be disco- 
 vered. 
 
 Flank, Retired, Low Flank, or Covered Flank, one 
 of the platforms of the cazemate. These retired flanks are a great 
 defence to the opposite bastion, and to the passage of the moat, be- 
 cause the besiegers cannot see nor easily dismount their guns. 
 See Fortification. 
 
 FLAN KFD, Iflmiqiicf,'] in heraldry, is used by the French to 
 express our parti per saltier. Coats, however, makes it to be the 
 same with tlanch. See the article Flanch. 
 
 Flanked Angle, in fortification, that formed by the two faces 
 of a bastion. 
 
 Flanking Angle, or Angle of the Tenaille, that com- 
 poied of the two lines of defence, and pointing towards the cur- 
 tin. See Tenaille and Fortification. 
 
 FLANNAN ISLANDS, or SEVEN HUNTERS, a g.oup 
 of small islands, in tlie North sea, about 17 miles N. W. of the 
 isle of Lewis. 
 
 FLANNEL, or FLANEL, [gt;'M«fn, Welsh ; from giilan, 
 wool, Davies,] a kind of light, porous, woollen stuff, woven on a 
 loom with two treddles, in a manner similar to blaze. This i? un- 
 tjuestionably one of the most useful articles of wearing apparel ; 
 and it is much to be regretted, that it is not more generally 
 ■worn, as we are fully persuaded, that it would be the means of 
 preventing many diseases. The principal objection to the wear- 
 ing of flannel appears to l«e, that it irritates the skin, and occasions 
 disagreeable sensations : these, however, continu.' only for a few 
 days, and the subsequent advantases, thence re ulling, amply com- 
 pensate for sucii tempoi\;ry uneasiness. Both young and aged, 
 would derive from it equal advantages. W'e do not, however, 
 mern to insinuate, that fiinnel ne.\t the skin should be universally 
 and indisc'.inuiiately worn by infants and joung persons; though 
 it is an ill-founded assertion of its adversaries, that it has a ten- 
 dency to produce evuptibns ; as it evidently opens the pores, pro- 
 motes perspiration, and thus removes the pr;ncif)al cause of cu- 
 taneous diseases that originate from an obstructed and irregular 
 state of the skin. But we are fully warranted to assert, from d;uly 
 experience, that the haiyitual use of this beneficent texture, lias es- 
 senliaily .contributed to the recovery of numberless ricketty chil- 
 dren, not fe^s than to the saving of others who were born of' feeble 
 and enervated parents. In short, there is every reason to believe, 
 that u ni.;re general adoption of thi« salutif'erous cJotl- might pre- 
 vent many fatal intJ:i4nnKitions of the throat, breast, lungs, &c. to 
 which the poorer cla£. 6t people are remarkably liable ; ar;d thus 
 presLTve the lives of multitudes who now become a prey to our 
 <lan-ip and variable ciiniate. 
 
 FLAT, in li-.e sea-language. To flaX in the fore-sail, is to hail 
 if in by tin! sheet, near the ship's side as possible; which is done 
 wiien ashijj will not fall off from th.e wind. 
 
 P'L.ATS, in music, a kind of additional notes, which, to;retlier 
 witii sharps, serve'to remedy the defects of musical inslruriients, 
 wherein temperament is lequiretl. 
 
 FLAT-l'O) NT, a capeof Borneo, on the S. coast. Lon. 1 12. 
 0. E. Lat. 2. 4J. S. 
 
 Flat-Poist, a cape of Sumatra, at the S. extremity of the 
 islaiid. Lon. i02. 38. E. Lat. 0. .^0. S. 
 
 FLATTA, a small island of Scotland, one of the Ilebrlde; ; 
 two miles E. of Burra. 
 
 FLATTERY, CAl'E, a cajie on tiie \V. coast of North 
 America.. I,on. 135. 30. E. Lat. 48. 1 J. N. 
 
 FLATULENCY, a very common disorder, ai'ising from va- 
 pours genet'-atcd in tlie stomach and intestines. It occasions dii- 
 tensions, disagreeable sensations, and frequently a considerable 
 degree of pain. Sedentary person-, and those who are of a deli- 
 cate constitution, especially women, are verv liable to attacks Oi 
 this complaint, which is generally induced liy the eating of peas, 
 beans, and other leguminous food. Animal fats, especially those 
 of mutton and veal, if modi-iately used, with large draui;hts of li- 
 quor immediately after eating them, are apt to tun) rancid on ilic 
 stomach, and to be accomiianied with flatulency. The drinking 
 of turbid or feculent liquors, whether new or old, as well as exces- 
 sive potations of hot lea, jiroduce a similar ellecf. The habit of 
 the patient likewise contributes towards the grneration of these 
 causes ; so that in phlegmatic constitutions, w here the bowels are 
 of a dry and costive disposition, this complaint is most frequent 
 and painful. See Medicine. 
 
 Im.atus. See Medicine. 
 
 FL.AVEL, John, an eminent nonconformist minister, was edu- 
 cated at LTniveraity college, Oxford ; and became minister of 
 Diptford, and afterwards ot Dartmouth in Devonshire, where be 
 resided the greater part of his life, and was much admired. 
 Though he was generally respected at Dartmouth; yet, in l68i, 
 the aldermen of that town, allen<led by the rabl)le, carried 
 about a ridiculous efligy of him, to which were affixed the Rill of 
 Exclusion and the Covenant, lie therefore thought it prudent to 
 withdraw from the town; not knowing what treatment he might 
 meet with from a riotous mob, headed by magistrates who were 
 themselves among the lowest of m;uikind. Part of his Diary, 
 printed with his Remains, give a high idea of his_piety. He died 
 in 1691, aged 6!; and after his death, his works, consisting of 
 many pieces of practical divinity, were pxinted in two vols, folio. 
 Among these, the most famous are, 1. Naviralion Spiritualized; 
 3. Divine Conduct, or the Mysteries of Providence ; and, 3. 
 Husbandry Spiritualized ; of all wdiich there have been many edi- 
 tioi.s in Svo. * 
 
 PT^AX, in botany, [y/cd.r, flex, Saxon ; vi'as, Dutch,] the fi- 
 brous plant of which the finest thread is made. The fibres of fiax 
 cleansed and combed for the spinner. See Linl'm. This valua- 
 ble plant thrives most luxuriantly on ground newly broken up ; 
 which it ameliorates, if it be sown only every sixth year. Tile 
 beSf preparatory crops for flax are those of hemp and potatoes. In 
 the fens of Lincolnshire, hemp is sown the first vear, on a good 
 tVee open loam, that has been well tilled, tlie soil being properly 
 manured with pigeon's dung ; the second year again hemp is cul- 
 tivated Kvithout any manure ; and, in the succeeding year follow- 
 ed by I- lax. With respect to the <]uality of linseed, from which 
 flax is propagated, that imported from Riga is generally supposed 
 to be the best, and is sown broad-cast witn clover, in the propor- 
 tion of S?, or 2^ bushels per aiie. Experience, however, iias 
 evinced, that any other seed would be equally successful, if it 
 were properly keiit for six or seven years, before it is sown ; for 
 the merchants of- Riga frequently im])ort linseed from Germany 
 and other countries, which, after several years, they again furnish 
 the same seed, but at an advanced price. It would farther be an 
 useless practice, to exchange linseed among farmers li\ing at some 
 distance ; as it has been observed that it improves, when cultivat- 
 ed in a difT'erent soil and climate. See also Linseed. In order 
 to prevent the depredations of birds on this valuable seed, cir- 
 cumspect farmers sow it after sun-set on land well pulverized, an<l 
 harrow it in early the next morning, before the sun rises. Thus 
 the seed, being moistened by the night's new, is easily enveloped 
 witli earih. anil rendered invisible to birds, .'\nother great enemy 
 to t'le )>rosperity of the flax-plant, is the parasitical weed calleU 
 tlie Great Doihler (which see), or Cuscuta Europiea, L. Hech- 
 sleiii communicates the following remedy, bv which it may be 
 easily and completely extirpated. To every bushel of linseed, 
 taketwo drachms of camphor reduced to powder, by adding flftecn 
 drops of spirit of wine ; and mix it well with the seed on tiie even- 
 ing when it U to be sown. As soon as the crop attains the height 
 of iou.r inches, it will be. requisite to weed it ; an operation which 
 oii.;lit to be performed with the greatest caie, that the flax may 
 not be trodden down. If it be allo.\eil to grow longer, the stalks 
 will bo so mucli bent and broken, that they never regan their 
 former straightncss. 'When the weeds are cartiully eradiciUed 
 
 they
 
 FLE 
 
 445 
 
 FLE 
 
 tliey sliould be carriwl cut tlie lield, and on no account be sulicird 
 to lie in lilt: lurioas, boraiisf tlif) often stiikf root again, and 
 thus injure tlu" i;routli of tlio llax. I'lii- phnl b?toiiios npc when 
 it s in mil i)lo .-.Oin ; l^nt, it' il be intindcu to stand (oi seed, it will 
 lioi uiiin to matmity till the niilkv jiiicc wlntli it aliorck is dried 
 U|> ; al wliicli time it i-s to be pulled, in order to be preijarcd for 
 the niui.iifacturer. The lirst process which lia\ undergoes, is that 
 of raling, or steeping it in water to loosen and separate the rind 
 from the slalk. 'I'hc carlv tlax is generally watered by laying il 
 in bundles, in a pond or re>ervoir ot soft water, where it is pressed 
 down bv Mones, it other heavy bodies, [n the cour<e of a week, 
 the rind will be sutiii.ieiitly loosened, when the (lax ought lo be 
 itniovcd from llie water, spread out in the air, a:ul dried. Great 
 skill and precaution are necessary in this part of the operation ; 
 for should the llax be letl too lon^ in the water, the lilanients or 
 threads will beccine rotten and useless : it will tiierelore be prt'fer- 
 able to take it out ratlier at an earlier period, than to leave it too 
 long in the pits. Anotiier process is tiuil of dew-ripening; ; which 
 is pertornied by spreadiii;^ the (lax on the grass, so thai the joint 
 action of the rain and dew produces an ellect similar to that of 
 rating. In some parts of Germany, it is never steeped in water, 
 but only exposed (or several weeks to the air, rain, and •^nn ; by 
 which it is said to become liner and softer than bv any other 
 method. To these operations may be added that of ri])pling, 
 namely Ibe separ^iting of the seed from the stalk, by p.assing the 
 tlax tiirough a kind of eonib belore il is rated or watered. '1 licae 
 tombs are made ol iron, the teeth of which are so closely set to- 
 gether, that the lieacls cannot pass through, and consetjuently are 
 pulled oir. Some cultivators, however, beat the seed out in the 
 lield wle^'re it grew, instead of rippling, by means of a heavy piece 
 of wood fastened to a bundle ; alter which it is sifted clean into a 
 large siieet. Many attempts have been made by ingenious per- 
 sons, to improve (lux, or to render it hner, softer, and equal to 
 silk in spinning. In Ireland, tliis object has, in a great measure, 
 been attained by boiling it for several hour; in sea-wat'-r, with the 
 addition of a I^e made of nn^lacked lime, aiitl two or three pans 
 of pot-ashes : thus we have seen the coarsest part of (lax, or tow, 
 considerably changed in its texture, so as to resemble the finest 
 lint. In the Oytli Report of the Economical Society of Leipzig, 
 printed in 1797 (in German), we meet with the following process 
 of converting (lax into a silky substance, communicated by Count 
 Hari-sch, director of the mines in Russia: take pure combed flax, 
 tie it up into rollers covered with white buckram, fasten them w ith 
 packlliread, and deposit thi-in for a fortnight in a damp cellar. 
 Then open the llax, and place it under the cylinders of a common 
 mangle, where it sliould be rolled overlive or six times, in a 
 manner similar to that pursued with liuen. Next, the dav ?hould 
 be passeil through a line bra>s comb. This process of mauLding 
 and combing must be repealed a second and th rd time, but the 
 combs ought to be progressively finer. By such treatment (the 
 Count inlorms the Society) a very line, tender, and glossy (lax, 
 may be obtained, scarcely inferior to China silk ; and thougii it 
 loses more than one-thircl of its substance, yet the refu>e, or tow, 
 is uncommonly fine, and still useful for the manufacture of ordi- 
 nary linen. He farther ooserves, that, after -each combing, parti- 
 cnUirly the lirst, the filaments appear (lat and compressed, but 
 that Ihty recover their roundness by the subsecpient operation. 
 V'lax thus |)repared cannot, by mere contact, or tlie sense of feel- 
 ing, be distinguished Irom silk, and is lit to be inanufarUired into 
 the finest cambric, and Brabant lace. The utility of tlax or lin- 
 seed, in *allening cattle, is also considerable. Besides these va- 
 rious purposes, (lax may also be considered as a manure : for the 
 land on which it is spread, in order to prepare it for l.onsing, is 
 thus in a con-iiderable degree ameliorated: and, if rited flax be 
 laid on a coarse, sour pasture, the nature of the herbage will be 
 totally changed ; and the sweetest grasses will in future grow on 
 such indifl'erent soil. The water, too, in whii h th.e flax is im- 
 inersed, if properly sprinkled on land, by means of watering carts, 
 will produce a very fertilizing ciTect, and increase its value ten or 
 fifteen sliillings per acre. But this water is of so poisonous a na- 
 ture to cattle, that the practice of maceri ting or steeping ilav, in 
 any pond or running stream, is, by the 33d Henry VIII. c. 17, 
 prohibited under very severe penalties. 
 
 Flax, Toad. See Antihrhimum. 
 
 I'LEA, in entomology. See Pulex. Children and females 
 
 VOL. II. — NO. 85, 
 
 ire remaikably liable to the attacks of this little enemy ; a cir- 
 cumst.uice which must be attributed to tlitir more tender skin, 
 tiieir purer blood, longer clothes, and, in some individuals, per- 
 haps to a peculiar stale of per^pl^aion. Cleanliness, and tioijaei.t 
 sprinkling of the room with a simple ilecoction of wormwood, will 
 soon exiciiuinite the whole breed of these troublesome vermin ; 
 and (he best veniedv to expel ihein from bed-clothes, is a bag 
 Idled Willi dry mo-s, ihe odour of which is to them extremely ot- 
 lensive. Others cover the floors of the rooms w here Ueas aboundi 
 wi h the leaves of the alder-tree, while the dew is on the foliage, 
 to which these insects fondlv adhere, ai.il thus may be easily de- 
 stroyed. iMercurial ointiuent, sulphur, and fumiiration with thft 
 leaves of penny-royal, or the Iredi-irathered foliage of that plant, 
 sewed up in a bair, and laid in the bed, are also remedies pom'.id 
 out for till- expulsion of tleas. Dogs and cats may be effectually 
 secured from the persecutions of these vermin, by occasionally 
 anointing their skin witli sweet oil. 
 
 1'T^KAM, [corrupted from ^jx./SoTo/xoy, the instrument used in 
 phlehotomy,] an iiisirumenl used to bleed tattle, which is placed 
 on the vein, and then driven by a blow. 
 
 Ki-EAMS, A CAst OF, in farriery, comprehends six sorts of in- 
 strument ; two hooked ones, called drawers, used for cleaniii^ 
 wounds; a pen-knife; a sharp-pointcil lancet for making incisions; 
 and two fleams, one sharp and the oilier broad-jjointcd. These 
 last are somewhat like the point of a lancet, fixed in a (iat handle, 
 and no longer than is just necessar) to open the vein. 
 
 FLI'X'HK, a town of I'lance', in the department of Sarte, 
 seated on the Loir, t'l miles S. S. \V. ol Mans. 
 
 FLECHIEK, Esprit, bishop of Nismes, one of the most ce- 
 lebrated preachers of his age, was born at Perne in Avignon, in 
 1632. He was nominated bishop of Lavaur in l(i8j, and trans- 
 lated to Nismes in 1C«7 ; where he founded an academy. His 
 palace w.is also a kiiul of academy, where he trained up young 
 oratoi-s and authors. He published I. Cursus Uegius, a Latin 
 poem; 2. An History of Tlieodosius the Great, and Cardinals 
 Ximenes and Coniniendon. 3. Several Sermons, 4. Miscel- 
 laneous Works. 5. Letters, funeral orations, &c. He died in 1710. 
 
 FLECKEREN, an island near the S. coast of Norway, L^n. 
 8. IS. E. Lat. 58 4. N. 
 
 I'TEECE, the covering of wool, shorn off the bodies of sheep. 
 See Wool. 
 
 1'leece, Order of the Golden, an order of kiiighthooj 
 instituted bv Philip 11. duke of Rurgmidy. Tliese kniglits aHirst 
 were tweiitv-four, besides the duke himself, wiho reserved the no- 
 mination of six more: but Charles V. increaseil themtc (ifty. H-c 
 gave the giiardiaiishi)) of this order to l>is son Phdip king of^Siiain, 
 since which the Spanish monarchs are chiefs of tlie order. The 
 knights had three different mantles ordained them at the grand so- 
 leninitv, the collar and lleece. 
 
 FLEECV-HOSIERY, a very useful kind of manufacture, in 
 which fine fleeces of wool are interwoven into a cotton piece of the 
 common stocking texture. The manufacture is thus described i.i 
 the specification "of the patent granted to Mr. Holla,T<l, oi Broad- 
 street, Ulooiiisbury, in the coun'ty of Middlesex. " Having in the 
 common stockin'g-fivme, twisted silk, cotton-yarn, flaxen or 
 hempen thread, vvoisted or woollen yarn,, or any such like twist- 
 ed or spun materials, begin the work in the common manner 
 of manufacturing hosiery, and having worked one or more 
 course or courses in the common way, begin to add a coating, thus: 
 draw the Irame over the arch, and then hang wocd or jers(^y, raw 
 or unspuii, upon the beards of the needles, and slide the same off 
 their beards upon their steins, till it come* exactly under the nibs 
 of the sinkers ; then sink the jacks and sinkers, and bring forward 
 Ihe frame, till the wool or jersey is drawn uiv».-r the beirds of the 
 needles, and having done this, "draw the frame over the arch, and 
 place a thread of spun materials upon the needles (under the nib; 
 of tlie sinkers), and proceed in finishing the course in the usual way 
 of manufactui'ing hosiery with spun materials. Any tiling manu- 
 factured in tills way, lias, on the one side, the appeaiv.nie of 
 common hosiery, and on the other side the appearance of ra-.v nool. 
 
 FLEET, commonly implies a company of ships of war, belong- 
 ing to any prince or stale: but, sometimes it denotes any number 
 of trading ships, employed in a particular branch of commerce. 
 In sailing^ a fleet of me"ii of war is usually divided into thiec 
 squadrons: the admiral's,. tlie vice-admiral's, and the rcar-admlial's 
 5 X squadron.
 
 FL E 
 
 446 
 
 FLE 
 
 squadron, all whkii, beiiis; disl'mguished by tliuir flags and pen- 
 dant?, are to put tliemselves, and, as near as may be, lokeeptlieni- 
 selves in their customary places, viz. I'lie admiral, with his 
 K|uadron, to sail in the van, that so he may lead the way to all the 
 rest in the day-time, by the sight of his flag in tlie main toji-mabt- 
 liead ; and in the night-time, by his lights or lanterns. The vice- 
 admiral and his squadron, is to sad in the centre, or middle of the 
 tleel. The rear-admn-al, and the ships of his squadron, to bring 
 up the rear. But sometimes other divisions are made, and those 
 composed of tlie lighter ships and the best sailors, are placed as 
 wiiu;s to the van, centre, and riar. See Squadron, Admiral, 
 Flag, &c. Merchant-fleets generally take their denomination 
 from the place they are bound to, as the Turky fleet, East- India 
 fleet. Sec. These, in time of peace, go in fleets for their mutual 
 aid and assistance : in time of war, besides this security, tliey like- 
 wise procure convoys of men of war, either to escort them "to the 
 places whither they are bound, or only a part of the wa\, to a 
 certain place or latitude, beyond which they arc judged out of dan- 
 ger of privateers, &c. See Convoy. 
 
 Fleet is also a noted prison in London, where persons are com- 
 nntted for contempt of the king and his laws, [larticularly ofliis 
 courts of justice : or for debt, where any person will not, or is un- 
 able to pay his creditors. 'I'here are large rules and a warden be- 
 longing to the fleet prison, which had its name from the float or 
 lleet of the river or ditch, on the side where it stands. 
 
 FLE.MINGIANS, or FLANDRIANS, in ecclesiastical his- 
 tory, a sect of rigid Anabaptists, who acquired this name in the 
 Ibth century, because most of theni were natives of Flanders, bv 
 way of distinction from the VValerlandians. In consequence of 
 some dissensions among the Flemingiaiis relating to the treatment 
 of excommunicated persons, they were divided iutotwo sert^, dis- 
 tinguished by the appellations of Vlandrians, and Frieslandcrs, who 
 differed from each other in their manners and discipline. 
 
 FLEMINGS, the natives of Flanders. 
 
 FLEMINGTON, a post town of New Jersey, in Ilunterdown 
 county, 53 miles N. E. by N. of Philadelphia. 
 
 I'LEMISH BRICKS, a neat, strong, yellow kind of bricks, 
 brought from Flanders, and commonly used in paving yards, stables, 
 (tc. being preferable for such purposes to the common bricks. See 
 Brick. 
 
 FLEN, a town of Sweden, in the province of Sudermania ; 22 
 miles N. N. W. of Nykoping. 
 
 FLENDSBURG, or FLENSBORG, a sea-port of Denmark, 
 on the K. coast of Sleswick, of which it is the capital. It has a 
 good harbour, a strong citadel, and considerable trade. It lies Hi 
 miles N. of Sleswick. Lon. 9. 47. E. Lat. 34. 53. N. 
 
 FLESH, [cam,'] in anatomy, a fibrous part of an animal body, 
 soft and bloody, being that whereof most of the other parts are 
 composed, and whereby they are connected together: or more 
 properly, it is such parts of the body where the blood-vessels arc so 
 small, as only to retain blood enough to preserve their colour red. 
 Bv chemical analysis it is found that miiiicular llesh is composed 
 «t a great number of fibies or threads, commonlv of a reddisii or 
 V. hitish colour ; but its appearance is too well know n lo require any 
 description. Hitherto it has not been subletted to a perlecllv ac- 
 curate chemical analysis. l''rom a variety of e.xperinunts and 
 facts, .iscerlained bv 'I'liuuveiiel and Fourcroy, it appears that the 
 inu>cles are composed chiefly of librin, lo which they owe llieir 
 fibrous structure and their form (see Fibkin) ;. and (hat they 
 tonlain also 
 
 2. Albumen 
 
 3. Gelatine 
 
 4. Extractive 
 
 5. Fhnsphate of soda 
 
 fi. Phosphate of ammonia 
 
 7. Phosphate of lime and carbonate of ditto. 
 For the discovery of the last ingredients we are indebted to Mr. 
 Ilatchett, who found that 500 parts of beef muscle left, alter com- 
 bustion, a residuum of 25. (j pails, consisting chiefly of these salts. 
 When nui-.cles are long boiled in water, Mr. ilatchett found that 
 the greater part ot the pliosphale of lime, as well as of the alkaline 
 [ihosphates, was dissolved ; for the muscle, after this treatment, 
 when dissolved in nitric acid, yielded scarcely any phosphate of 
 lime ; whereas if it s\as dissolved directly in nitric acid, a precipi- 
 tate of phosphate of lime was thrown down by ammonia. Hence 
 
 it would appear, either that the phosphate of lime is united to ge- 
 latine, or that it is rendered soluble by means of it. The car- 
 bonale of lime still remains after the action of water, and is con- 
 verted into oxalate when the muscle is treated with nitric acid. 
 When meat is boiled, it is obvious that the gelatine, the e.\trac(ive, 
 and a portion ot the salts, will be separated, while the coagulated 
 alliumcn and fibrin will remain in a solidstate. Hence the flavour 
 and the nourishing nature of soups is derived from the extractive 
 and gelatine. Wlien meat is roasted, on the other hand, all these 
 substances continue in it, and the taste and odour of the extractive 
 are greatly heightened by the action of the lire. Hence the su- 
 perior flavour of roasted meat. In a work entitled "Miscellanea 
 Curio.Na," by Mr. Jones, we find an easy method of preparing 
 llesh-meat, without spices, and with very little salt ; yet so as lo 
 keep goo'.l, and alw.iys ready for eating, for two or three years, and 
 in the warmest climates, lie gives us this account of (he Moorish 
 ElchoUe, made of beef, mutton, or camel's flesh, but chiefly of 
 beef; which is uniformly ml in long slices, well salted, and sii'lfer- 
 ed to lie twenty-four hours in the pickle. It is then removed from 
 those tubs or jars, into others tilled with fresh water; and, when it 
 has lain a night, it is taken out, put on ropes, in the sun and air lo 
 dry. When thoroughly dried and hard, it is cut into pieces of two 
 or three inches long, and throw n into a pan, or cauldron, w Inch is 
 kept ready with boiling oil and suet suliicient to cover it : thus it 
 is boiled, till it be very clear and red on cutting it ; when it is 
 again takes out and set to drain. After having undergone this pro- 
 cess, it stands lo cool, while jars are prepared tor storing it ; at the 
 same lime pouring upon it the li(]uor in wliich it was frieel ; and, 
 as Soon as it is thoroughly cold, the vessels are closely stopped. 
 Pi<-served in this manner, it will remain hard, and keep two years; 
 indeed, the hardest is consideriKl as tlie best and most palatable. 
 I'hus it is brought lo table by the Moors, who sometimes Iry it 
 w ilh eggs ami garlic, sometimes stew it and squeeze on it the juice 
 of lemon. It is affirmed to be a very good dish, eilher hot or cold. 
 Another method of preserving flesh-meat, especially veal and 
 lamb, is pr.iclised in Germany, and consists simply iu innnersing 
 lliem in skimmed milk, so as to covei the whole joint. In warm 
 weather, the milk should be changed twice the first day, and once 
 In 24 hours; but, in a cool temjierature, it is sufficient to renew it 
 every two or three days. Thus, the meal may be kept in a sweet 
 state for several weeks ; but it ought to be washed in spring water 
 before it is dressed. — Game and beef, however, cannot be pre- 
 served in the same manner, and therefore should be wrapped in a 
 clean linen cloth, ami buried in a bo\ filled with dry sand, where 
 it will remain sweet fur three weeks, it deposited inan airy, dry, and 
 cool chamber. 
 
 Flfsh is sometimes used by botanists for the soft pulpy sub- 
 stance of an) fruit, inclosed between the outer rind or skin and 
 the seeds or'stone ; or for that part of a root, fruit, &c. lit to 
 be eaten. 
 
 FLETCHER, Andrew, a political writer, was the son of sir 
 Robert Fletcher, of Saltoun, in Scotland, and born in 1653. He 
 was bred up under the care of Dr. Burnet, afterwards bishop of 
 Salisbury, alter which he went abroad. ()n his return to hi> own 
 couiUrv, he became commissioner for East Lothian in the Scotch 
 parliament, in which he so strongly opposed the court measures, 
 thai he found it expedient to withdraw to Holland. In 1685 he 
 landed in the west of England with the duke of Monmouth, but 
 was dismissed for shooting a gentleman who had remonstrated with 
 him for stealing his horse. One of Fletcher's biographers says, 
 that " he was a man of bree<ling and nice honour, in whose con- 
 stitution anger was extremely predominant," and this is all the re- 
 flection he makes upon the murder. However this murder is de- 
 nied in a M. S. memoir of the family. After this he \Vas engaged 
 in the Hungarian service against the Turks. At the Revolution 
 he returned to his own country, ar.d was a member of the conven- 
 tion for settling ihe government of .Scotland. He died in London 
 in 171C. His publications, whicli are w holly political, and filled 
 with the boldest extravagances, were tollecled into one volume, 
 8vo. 1732. 
 
 Fr'ETCHER, -Xbraham, an ingenious mathematician, was born at 
 Little Brouglilon, in Cumberland, in 1714, and bred lo his father's 
 business, which was that of a tobacco-pipe-maker. He learned to 
 reail and write bv his own application, after which he taiijrht him- 
 self arithmetic, mathematics, aud botany. At the age of thirty he 
 9 tmncd
 
 FL E 
 
 447 
 
 FLO 
 
 turned sclioolnuster, to which profession he added those of astrolo- 
 ger and <loetor, bv wliicli means he acquired ,5001)1. He died in 
 179J. He publislied a compemruim of practical mathematics un- 
 der the title of the Universal Measurer, 1 vol. Svo. a work of con- 
 eiderable merit. 
 
 Flrtcher Joiix, a pious divine, was a native of Switzerland, 
 and educated a( Geneva. Ire came to England, and was appointed 
 president of lady Iluntingdon'sseniinary of education at 'I'revecka, 
 111 South ^\'alt•s,' but was dismi>sed from that situation ior denying 
 the doctrine of absolute election. lie afterwards obtained the vi- 
 carage of Madely in .Shropshire, where he died in 1'8.>. Mr. 
 Fletcher v^'rote several excellent tracts against tlie Calvini-.ts in 
 which he manifests a spirit of meekness, wisdom, and Christian 
 love. 
 
 Fletcher's Nook, a cape of the Ignited Stales, in the dis- 
 trict of Main. Lon. 70. 59. W. Lat. 43. 25. N. 
 
 FLFIKWOUD, William, an eminent I'.nglish lawyer and 
 recorder of London, in the reign of cjuecn Elizabeth. He was 
 very zealous in suppressing mass-bouses, and conmiilting Popish 
 priests; but once rushing in upon mass at the Portuguese aml)as- 
 sador's house, he was committed to the Fleet tor breach of privi- 
 lege, but soon released. Mr. Wood says, " he was a learned 
 man, and a good antiquarian." He was a good popular speaker, 
 and wrote well upon government. His principal works are, I. 
 Annalimii tain Regum EdwardiV. Richardi HI. and Henrici Vll 
 quain Henrici \ 111. 2. A Table of the Reports of Edmund 
 Plowden. 3. The Office of a Justice of Peace. He died about 
 1593. 
 
 FLEVILLEA, in botany, a genus of tiie he.xandria order, and 
 dia'i la class of plants. Male calyx and corolla quinipiehd ; sta- 
 mina five ; the nectarium five converging filaments. I'emale ca- 
 ly .\ quinquetid ; styli three; apple hard, trilocular, barkv. 
 
 FLEURANCE, a town of France, in the department of Gers, 
 13 miles N. of Audi. 
 
 FLEUUl, or FLEURY, Claude, one of the best French 
 critics and historians of his age, was born at Paris in ItJ-iO. He 
 applied himself to the law, was made advocate for the parliament 
 of Paris, and attended the bar nine vears : he then entered into 
 orders, and was made preceptor to tlie jjrinces of Conti. In 16S9, 
 Lewis XIV. made him sub-preceptor to the dukes of Burgundy, 
 Anjou, and Berry; and in I'Otj, he gave him the priory ot Ar- 
 genteuille. In 1716, he was chosen counsellor to Louis XV. and 
 died in 17i3. He was the author of a great nun.ber of esteemed 
 French works ; the principal of which are, 1. An Ecclesiastical 
 History, in 20 volunies, the last of which en<ls with the vear 1414. 
 2. 'I he Manners of the Israelites. 3. The Manners of the Chris- 
 tians. 4. Institutions of Ecclesiastical Law. 5. An Historical 
 Catechism. t>. On the Choice and Method of Study. 7. The 
 Duties of Masters and Servants, &c. 
 
 Fleury, a town ef Fiance, in the department of Saone and 
 Loire, and late province of Biirgunily, 30 miles N. of Chalons. 
 
 Fleury, a town of France, in the department of the Straits of 
 Calais, ■i'j m;les N. W. oi St. Pol. 
 
 FLEXIBLE, in physics, a terin applied to bodies capable of 
 being bent or diverted I'rom their natural (igure or direction. 
 
 FT>EXION, in anatomy, is applied to the motion by which the 
 arm or any other member cf the body is bent. It is also applied 
 to the muscles, nerve.^, iVc. 
 
 FLEXOR, in anr.tomy, a name applied to several muscles, 
 which are so called iVom their ofhce, which is to bend the part to 
 which they belong, in opposition to the extensors, which open or 
 stretch them. See As'atomy. 
 
 FLEXURE OF Curves, in the higher geometry, is \iscd to 
 signil) that a curve is botli concave and convex, with respect to 
 a given right-line Ap, or a fixed point P, (Plate LXX. lig. 11.) 
 Tlius the curve CMP, having the part CM ( oncave towards Ap 
 or P, and the part MD convex to the same, is said to have a 
 flexure : and the point M which limits the concavity an<l con- 
 vexity, is called the point of inlleclion or contrary flexure. 
 
 FLICJHT, is evading the course of justice, bv a man's volun- 
 tarily witndrawing himself. On an accusation of treason or fe- 
 lony, or even of petty larceny, if the jury find that the parly fled 
 for the same, he shal'l forfeit his gcod's and chattels, althougli he 
 be acquitted of the tfience ; for the very flight itself is an offence, 
 carrying viith it a strong prcaumption oi guilt, and is at least an 
 
 endeavour to elude and st:lle the course of juitice prescribed by 
 the law. But now the jury very seldom find the flight; such for- 
 feiture being looked upon, since the vast increaH' <.f personal pro- 
 perty, as loo large a penalty tor an olfence, to which a man is 
 prompted by the natural love'of liberty. 4 Black. 3.S7. 
 
 Flight, is also used for the manner, duration, &i . of flying. 
 .Almost every kind of bird has its pariictilar llight : the eagle's 
 flight is the h'ighe-l ; the llight of the sparrow-hawk and vulture is 
 noble, and fit lor high enterprize and combat. The (ligiit of some 
 birds is low, weak, and transient; the llight of the partridge and 
 pheasant is but of short continuance; that of tin- dove is l.iboiir- 
 cd ; that of the sparrow undulalory, Ikr. The augurs pretend- 
 ed to foretel future events Irum the lliglit of birds. See Au- 
 gury. 
 
 FLINT, in geography, tlic capit,d of Flintshire, in North 
 Wales, 195 miles N. W. of Lomlon, and rj| W. N. W. of 
 Chester. 
 
 Flint Island, an inland of North Ameiica, in the Gulph of 
 St. Lawrence, near the E. coast of Cape Bieton. Lon. 59. 40. W. 
 Lat. 4ti. 10. N. 
 
 Flint River, a river of Georgia. 
 
 Flint, a stone of the siliceous kind, found in pieces of different 
 sizes, and usually of a ligure more or less globular, cominon'y 
 among chalk, and often arranged in order. Its texture is com- 
 pact. Its hacture smooth, coiichoidal. The stones are .iKvay ; 
 covered by a wliite crust. Specihc gravity from 2.58 to 2.1)3. 
 Colour varies from lioiiey-yellow to biownish-black. Very brit- 
 tle, and splits into splinlers in every direction. Two pieces of 
 llint rubbed smartly together phosphoresce, and emit a peculiar 
 odour. When heated it di-crepitates, and becomes white and 
 opaque. When exposed long to the air it often becomes covered 
 with a white crust. A specimen of llint analysed by Klaproth 
 contained, 
 
 98.00 silica, 
 .50 lime, 
 .25 alumina, 
 0.25 oxide of iron, 
 1.00 water. 
 
 100.00 
 Vauquelin obtained from another, 
 97 silica, 
 1 alumina and iron. 
 
 98 
 Another specimen analysed by Doloniieu was composed of, 
 97 silica, 
 
 1 alumina, and oxide of iron, 
 
 2 water. 
 
 1 00 
 
 The whole crust with which flint is enveloped consists of the 
 same ingredients, and a little carlionate cf lime. Water is e^sell- 
 tial to llint ; for when it is separated by heat, the stone loses lU 
 propeities. See Silica. 
 
 FLI\, in geography, a town of Spain, in Catalonia, on the 
 Ebro, 20 miles S^ of L'erida. 
 
 FLOAT OF A FisHiNG-LixE, the Cork or quill that floats ot 
 swims above water. See Fishing. 
 
 F'loat also signilies a certain quantity of timber botind toge- 
 tlier with rafteis, athwart, and put into a river to be conveyed 
 <lown the stream ; and even, sometimes, to carry bmxlens down a 
 river with the stream. 
 
 FLOATAGES, all things floating on the surface of the sea 
 or any water : a word much used in the commissions of water- 
 bailitls. 
 
 FLOAT-BOARDS, boards hxed to water-wheels of under- 
 shot mills, serving to receive the impulse of the stream, whereby the 
 wheel is carried round. See .Mill and Wheel. It is no advantage 
 to have too great a number ot float-boards ; because, when they 
 are all struck by the waler in the best manner that can be brought 
 to come againsi them, the sum of all the impulses will be but 
 equal to the impul.^e made against one float-board at right angles, 
 by all the waler coming out of the penstock through the opening, 
 so as to take place on the float-board, The best rule in this case
 
 FLO 
 
 448 
 
 FLO 
 
 is, to have ju^t so mtinv, Uiat each of them may come out of the 
 water as soon us possible, alter it has received and acted with its 
 full impulse. As in the length of the float-board, it may be regu- 
 lated aciordiiip to the l>readth of the mill. 
 
 FLO.'VTING Bodies arc tho^e which swim on the surface of 
 3 fluid, the mo^t interesting of which are ships and vessels eniplo\ - 
 ed in war and commerce, and it is of llic utmost consetiuence to 
 ascertain tlie stability of such vessels. However operoe and dif- 
 ficult (.says 3H able meclianic) the calculations necessary to deter- 
 mine the stability of nautical ves^els may, in some cases, be, vet 
 they all depend upon the four following simple and obvious llii-o- 
 rems, accompanied >vit!i other well known slereomelrical and sta- 
 tical principles: 
 
 'fhconm I. Every lloaling body displaces a quantity of the 
 fluid in which it tioals, e()U;d to its own weight ; a)>d conse(|Uent- 
 ly, the specific gravity of the fluid will be to that of the floating 
 body, as the magnitude of the whole is to that of the part im- 
 mersed. 
 
 Theorem 2. Every floating body is impelled downward by its 
 own essential power, actius; in the ilirectton of a vertical line "pass- 
 ing through the centre of gravity of thn whole; and is inipcdled 
 upward by llie re-action of the'tkiid which ■supports it, acting in 
 the direction of a vertical line passing tluough the centre of gra- 
 vity of the p.u't immersed ; therefore, unless these two lines "are 
 coincident, the floating body tluis impelled inuLt revolve round 
 an axis, either in motion or at re^t, until the equilibrimn is le- 
 >tored. 
 
 Theorem 3. If by any power whatever a vessel be deflected 
 from an upright position, the perpendicular distance between two 
 vertical lines passing through the centres of gravity of tiie whole, 
 and of the part immersed respectively, will be as the stability of 
 pie vessel, and which will be positive, nothing, or negative, accord- 
 ing as the inetacentre is above, coincident with, or below the 
 centre of gravity of the vcs-el. 
 
 Theorem -1. 'I'iie common centre of gravity of any system of 
 bodies being given in position, if any one of these liodies be mov- 
 ed from one part of the system to another, the ( orresponding mo- 
 tion of the common centre of gravity, estimated in any given 
 direction; will be to that of the afore-'aid body, estimated in the 
 same direction, as the weight of the body moved is to that of 
 the whole system. From whence it 's evident, that in order to 
 ascertain the stability of any ve-isel, the position of the centres of 
 gravity of the whole, and of that pnrt immersed, must be deter- 
 mined ; with which, anil the dimensions of the veisel, the line of 
 floatation, and angle of deflection, the stability or power either to 
 right itself or overturn, may be found. 
 
 Floatincs, in husbandry, thedrowningor watering of meadows. 
 
 Floativg of C:heese, among h:;ii.-.ewives, separating the 
 whey from the curd. See Cheese. 
 
 FLOOD, a deluge or inundation of waters. See Deluge. 
 
 Flood, among seamen, is when the tide begins to come up, or 
 the '.vater begins to rise, then they call it young" flood; sfterwhich 
 it is quarter-llood, half-llood, and high-llood. 
 
 Flood-mark, the mark which the sea makes on the shore, at 
 flowing water, and the highest tide: it is also called high-water 
 mark. 
 
 Flood, Henry, an eminent orator, poet, and politician, of t|ie 
 I8th century, the s.in of tlie Riglit Hon. Warden Flood, lord cliiel 
 justice of the King's neiuh in Ireland, was born in 1732, and edu- 
 cated in Duiilin. In 1749, after attending Dublin college for 
 three years, he spent other two with much advantage under the 
 tuition of Dr. Markham, now Archbishop of York. Rc>sides the 
 acquisition of mathematics and otiier sciences, he became so- com- 
 plete- a inaster of the Greek, that he read it with as much facility 
 as English. In 1739 and 17C1, he was chosen a member of the 
 Irish Parliament, and soon rendered himself conspicuous as the 
 grciit leader of opposition. The first i'.nport;mt measure which 
 he ittcmptcd was, an expiiination of Povnin^^fcv, by a niiscon- 
 stiuctioii of which, the privy council had jlwiiied a degree of 
 power so uncai titutional, as to render the Irish parliament a mere 
 cypher. By his repeated efforts, the obnoxious part of that law 
 was rcpi-ale!. lie ne\t introduced a hill f.ir limiting the duration 
 of the Irish parliament, which till then had always continued dur- 
 M^ the hfe of the king. This measure, alter much opposition, he 
 St ;an elfccted, under the administratiou of Lord Townslietid, in 
 
 1769, when the octennial bill was jjassed, w'lich fir;t gave Ireland 
 a constitution somewhat resembling the liiili-li. In 177.5, he was 
 appointed a privy counsellor in both kingdoms, and a vice-trea' 
 surer of Ireland ; but resigned this ofiice, in 1781; upon wincli his 
 name was struck out of the list of the (irivy council. In I7S2, the 
 British parliament having repealed this act, b Geo. 1. c. >, declar- 
 ing Ireland siil>or<linate to, and dependent on, the imperial crt>\vii 
 ot Great Britain, Mr. Flood in two able speeches, insisted, that 
 the simple repeal of this .let was no security against similar future 
 claims; and, though he was sup()orted by only three members, in 
 the Irish parliament, yet his doctrine was soon after adopted and 
 ratifii-d by the British parliament, « lio pav,cd an act renounciugihe 
 claim lor ever. In November 17S3, a vio'ent alterc-.ition took 
 place between Mr. I'lond and Mr. (irall.in, in the course ol wliich 
 Mr. I'lood gave a detail of his whole politicallile, and shewed 
 that he had never oiiii; departed from the great principles he had 
 always maintained. lie was soon alter elected a member of tlie 
 British parliament for Winchester ; and in the subsequent one, 
 for Sealord, which he continued to represent till its dissolution in 
 1'9U; Soon alter which, he died of a pleurisy. His first known 
 production was " Veres on the Death of Frederick Prince of 
 Wales ;" in the ONford collection, 17.t1. He also wrote an Ode 
 to Fame, translated the 1st Pythian Ode of Pindar, printed in 
 I7S.'); aial several ovations of Demosthenes, ..Fschines, and Ci- 
 cero ; still in MS. Several of his speeches are extant ; the last of 
 which, delivered March 4lh, 1700, on a parliamentary reform, 
 was celebrated by Mr. Fox, as containing the most raiional scheme 
 ever proposed on the subject. He mairieil Laily Frances Beres- 
 ford, daughter of the Earl of Tyrone, in 1762, but had no issue. 
 
 FLOCK, or FLUKE. See Anchor. 
 
 FLOOU, in building, that part of a room we walk on. Floors 
 are of several sorts ; some of earth, some of brick, others ot stone, 
 of boards, &c. See Pavement. Carpentcis never flour their 
 rooms with boards till the carcase is set up, and also inclosed with 
 wails, lest die weather should injure the flooring. Yet they gene- 
 rally rough-plane their boards tor flooring belore they begin aHv 
 thing else about the building, that they may set them by to dry 
 and season, which is done in the most careUil manner. The best 
 wood for flooring is the hue yellow deal well seasoned, which, 
 when well laid, will keep its colour for a long while ; whereas the 
 white sort becomes black by often washing. 
 
 Floor of a Ship, strictly taken, is only so much of her bot- 
 tom as slie rests on wlien ;;grouiid. buch ships as have long, and 
 uithal broad llooi-s, lie on the ground with most security, and are 
 not apt to heel, or tilt on one side ; whereas others, w hieli are nar- 
 row in the floor, or, in the sea-phrase, cranked by the ground, 
 cannot be grounded witliout danger of being overturned. 
 
 Floors, Earthen, are commonly made of loam, and some- 
 times, especially to make malt on, of lime, and brooksand, and 
 gun-diibt, or anvil-dust trom the forge. Ox blood and hue clay, 
 tempered togi-ther. Sir Hugh Plat says, make the finest floor "in 
 the world. The manner ol making earllien lloors lor plain coun- 
 try luihltations is as follows : Take two-thirels of lime, and one of 
 coal-ashes well sifted, with a small quantity of loam clay ; mi.\ the 
 whole together, and temper it v'ell with water, making it up into 
 a lieap : let it lie a week or ten days, and then temper it over 
 again. After this, heap it up for three or four days, and repeat the 
 tiinpering very high, till it Ixcoinc smootli, yii;lding, tough, and 
 glut y. The ground being then levelled, lay the floor therewith 
 about two and a iialf or thiee inches tliick, making it smooth with 
 a trowel : the hotter the season is, the better ; anil wlun it is tho- 
 roughly dried. It will make the best floor for houses, especially 
 malt-houses. Those who would have their floors look better, let 
 them take lime made of rag-stones, well tempered with wliites of 
 eggs, covering the floor about half an inch thick wiih it, before the 
 under flooring is too dry. If this be well done, and thoroughly 
 dried, it will look, when rubbed with a little oil, as tran,!parei>t a< 
 metal or glass. In elegant houses, floors of tliis nature are made 
 of stucco, or of plaster of Paris beaten and sifted, and mixed with 
 other ingredients. 
 
 Floor Timbeks, In a ship, are those parts of a ship's timbers 
 wliicli are placed immediately across the keel, and upon which 
 the bottom of the ship is framed ; to these the upper parts of the 
 timbers are united, being only a cQiitinuation of llcor timbers 
 upwards.
 
 FLO 
 
 449 
 
 FLO 
 
 FI,0 R A, tlie reputed gotUloss of flowers ; she was, accortliiig to 
 the poets, the wife of Zepliyrus. Her image in llie temple ol 
 Castor and Pollux was dressed in a elose habit, and she hi'ld in 
 her hands the Howers of pease and beans. 
 
 Flora, among bo'.anist!', i' used for a catalogue of the plants 
 and trees growing spoiilaneously in any particular country or dis- 
 trict. 
 
 FLORAC, a town of France, in the department of Lozere, 
 near the Tarn, 13! miles S. of Mende. 
 
 FLORAL GAMES, or FLOKALKS LUDI, in antiquity, 
 were games held in honour of Flora. They were celebrated wilh 
 shameful debaucheries. 
 
 FLOR;\LIA, in aniiipiity, a general name for the feasts, 
 
 fames, and other ceremonies, held in honour of the goddess 
 lora. 
 
 FLOREN, or FLORENCE, [so named, says Camden, be- 
 cause made by Florentines,] a gold coin of Edward Id. in value 
 «ix bhiUings. Every pound weight of standard gold was by art 
 18 Edw. IIL to be coined into 30 Florences, to be curient at six 
 shillings each ; which made in tale Ij pounds; or into a |)r<ipor- 
 tionate number of halt Florences or quarter-pieces, by indenture 
 of tlie mint. 
 
 Florkns, St. a tc^vn of France, in the department of Maine 
 and Loire, on the Loire, i?0 miles S. \\'. of Angers. 
 
 FLORENCE, the capital of ilie duchy of 'I'usrany, and one 
 of the finest cities in Italy, it is surronnded on all sides but one 
 with high hills, which rise insensibly, and at last join with the lofty 
 Apennines. The city is divideil into two une(|ual parts by the 
 Arno, over which there are no fewiT than four i)ridges in sight of 
 each other. Tlie bridge of the Trinita is uncommonly elegant, 
 being built entirtly ot white maible, and ornamented wilh four 
 ieautiful statues representing the Seasons. The (luays, the build- 
 ings on each side, and the bridges, render that part of F'lorence 
 through which tlie river runs by far the fmest. Tlie streets, 
 squares, and front of the palaces, are adorned with a great number 
 of statues; many of them by Michael Angelo, Bandinelli, Dona- 
 tello, Giovanni of Bologna, Benvenulo, Cellini, &c. Some v( 
 the Florentine merchants formerly were men of vast wealth, and 
 lived in a most magnificent manner. One of them, about the mid- 
 dle of the 13th century, built that noble fabric, which, from his 
 name, is still called Uie Palazzo Pitti. He was ruined by the 
 prodigious expence of this buililing, which was purchased by the 
 Medici family, and has continued ever since to be the residence 
 of the grand dukes. The gardens belonging to it are on the de- 
 x;livity of an eminence. On the summit there is a fort called 
 Belvidere. From this, and some of the higher walks, there is a 
 complete view of the city, and of the beauteous vale of Arno, in 
 which it stands. This palace has been since enlarged. The furni- 
 ture is rich and curious, particidarly some t.ibles of Florentine 
 work, which aj-e much admired. l"he most precious ornaments, 
 ^however, are the paintings. The walls of the Imperial Chamber 
 are painted in fresco, by various painters ; the subjects are allego- 
 rical, in honour of Lorenzo of Medicis, surnamed the Magnificent. 
 The famous gallery attracts every sirangtr. One of the most in- 
 tere.'ttug parts of it is the series of Roman emperors, from Julius 
 C«sar to Gallienus, with a considerable number of their em- 
 presses. This series is almost complete ; but wherever the bust 
 •of an emperor is wanting, the place is filled up by that of some 
 other distinguished Roman. The celebrated Venus of Medicis, 
 which is esleeuied the standard of taste in female beauty and pro- 
 portion, stands in a room called the Tribunal. The inscription 
 on its base mentions its being made by Cleomeiies an Athenian, 
 the son of Apollodoiuis. It is of wliite marble, and surrounded 
 by other master-pieees of sculpture, some of wjiich are said to be 
 the works of Praxiteles and other Greek maslei-s. In the same 
 room are many valuable c<Mio-;ities, besides a collection of admir- 
 able pictures by the best njasters. There are various other rooms, 
 as the Cabinet of Arts, of /Astronomy, of Natural History, of Me- 
 dals, of Porctdain, of Anliquilies' &c. It lies 43 miles S. of 
 Bologna, Mu\ 1C3 N. of Rome. Lon. 11. 13. E. Lat. 43. 47. N. 
 
 FLORENNES, a town of France, in the department of the 
 Ouite, 10 miles S. of Charleroy, aii<l 16 S. \V. of Namur. 
 
 FLORENS.VC, a town of France, in the department of He- 
 ranlt, on the Herault, lOV miles S. of Bezieres. 
 
 FLORENTIA, in ancient geography, a town of Etruria, now 
 
 VOL. II.— TJO. 85. 
 
 called Florenza, or Fioreiiza, by tlie Italians, and Florence by the 
 Eiiuli^h. S.'e Florence. 
 
 FLORENTIN, or S P. FLORENTIN, a (own of France, 
 in (he department of Yonne, and late duchy of Burgundy, 15 
 miles N. E. of Auxcrre, ?.i:t\ SO S. E. of Paris. 
 
 FLOREN'ilNO, one of the three provinces of Tuscany. The 
 capital is Florence. 
 
 FLO RES, one of the Azores, so named from the multitude of 
 lloweri feund growing spontaneously on it. Lon. 31° 1 1' 2'.i" W. 
 from Greenwich, Lat. 39" 26' 20" N. 
 
 l''LOREr, ffleiirilic, Fr.] a small imperfect flower. 
 
 FLORID Si'YLE, a style too much enriched with figures 
 and llowers of rhetoric. Tlii-i seems to be the fault of many au- 
 thors and orators of the present age. 
 
 FLORIDA, a country of N. America, bounded on the N. by 
 Georgia, on the E. by the Atlantic, on the S. by the Gulfs of 
 .Mexico and Florida, and on the W. by the Mississippi. The cli- 
 mate in summer is extremely hot ; in w inter commonly temperate, 
 thongli sometimes the rivers are covered with ice. The soil is 
 ferlilr. and the country abounds with fruit-trees, many ot" wliicli 
 being ill tlowerat tlie time of its discovery gave rise to the name of 
 Florida. Oranges, peaches, plums, mulberries, cocoa-nuts, 
 melons, viies, olives, chesntits, cabbage-trees, &c. grow naturally 
 in great plenty ; as well as cotton, flax, hemp, sassafras, oaks, palms, 
 pines, cellars, cypres es, &c. Cochineal and indigo also abound; 
 and tlie coasts lurnish great quantities of fish, oysters, &c. The 
 forests abound with most of the wild beasts common in America. 
 Tile original Indians are numerous and active. Florida is 600 
 miles long, and 130 broad; lying between 82° nnd 9'2" Lon. 
 W. and between 25° and 31°. Lat, N. It is divided into East and 
 \\'est. 
 
 Florida, Gulf of, liei on the S. E. coast of Florida, bclweea 
 the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic. 
 
 FLORILEGIUM, or FLORILEGE, aname the Latins hava 
 
 jiven to what the Greeks call <nSijxoynv, Anthology; viz. a col 
 ect ion of choice pieces, containing the finest and Brightest thing 
 
 gs 
 
 lect 
 n their kind. 
 
 FLORILEGIUM, or ANTHOLOGIA, is particularly used 
 for a breviary, in the Eastern church, compiled by Arcadius, for 
 the conveniency of the Greek priests and monks, who cannot carry 
 with them in their travels and pilgrimages, ail the volumes wherein 
 their ofiice is dispersed. It contains the general rubrics, psalter, 
 canticles, the horologium, and the office of the feri*, ^c. 
 
 FLORIN, a term sometimes used for a coin, and sometimes 
 for a money of account. As a coin, it is of diflerent values, ac- 
 cording to the different metals, and different countries where it is 
 struck. The gold florins are most of them of a very coarse alloy, 
 some of them not exceeding 13 or 14 carats, and none of them 17|. 
 As a money of account, it is used by the Italian, Dutch, and C>er- 
 man merchants and bankers, but adinits of diflerent divisions in 
 different places. See Money. 
 
 Florin, a town of Sardinia, eight miles S. of Saffari. 
 
 FLORINIANI, or FLORIANI, a sect of heretics, of the 
 second century, so named from its author Florinus. Philastrius 
 says, that they were the same with the Carpnphurians. He adds, 
 that they were also called soldiers, militcs, quia de militaribus fue- 
 runt. St. Irenirus calls them Gnostics; St. Epiphanius, Phibio- 
 iiites; and Theodorel, Borborites, on account ot tlie impurities of 
 their lives, &c. though for what particular reasons it is not easy to 
 say, nor perhaps would it be worth an inquiry. 
 
 "FLORINUS, or FLORIANUS, a heretic of the second cen- 
 tury, and a priest of the Roman church, depo-ed for his error* 
 along with Blastus. He made God the author of evil ; or rather 
 assertetl, that the things forbidden by God are not evil. 
 
 FLORIST, a cultivator of flowers; also applied to an author 
 v/ho writes what is called the flora of any particuh.r place. Ste 
 Flora. 
 
 FLORY, FLOWRY, or FLEURY, in her.Mdry, a cross that 
 h;is the llowers at the end circumflex and tinning down ; diifering 
 from the poteiice, in as much as the latter stretchts out more like 
 that which is called the patee. 
 
 FLOS, a Flower, in botany. See Botany, and Flowlr. 
 
 Flos Fcemikeus, a flower which is furmsln-d with the poinfal or 
 female organ of generation, but wants the stamina or male organ. Fe- 
 male flowers may be produced apart from the male, either on the 
 5 Y sam«
 
 FLO 
 
 450 
 
 FLO 
 
 same motor on distinct plants. Birch and mulberry are examples 
 of the fust case ; willow and poplar of the second. 
 
 Flos Masculus, a male Hower. By this name, Linnaiis and 
 the sc.Mialists distinguish a llower whitli contains the stamen, <;r 
 male organ of generation; but not the stigma or femaleorgan. 
 See Botany, DicECiA, and MoNCECiA. 
 
 Flos, in chemistry, the most subtile part of bodies separated 
 from the more gross parts by sublimation in a dry form. 
 
 FLOSCULOS, in rhetoric, a liower or ornament of speecli. 
 See Flower. 
 
 FLOTA, orFLOTTA, a Fleet; a name given by the Spani- 
 ards to the ships which they send annually from Cadiz to the port 
 of Vera Cruz, to fetch thence the merchandizes gathered in Mexi- 
 co for Spa;n. 
 
 FLOTILLA, a name given to a number of ships, which get be- 
 fore thereit in their return, and give information of the departure 
 and cargo of the llota and galleons, 
 
 FLOTSON, or FLOTSOM, signifies go .ds lost by shipwreck ; 
 vhich, with ietson and lagan, are generally given to the lord ad- 
 miral, wiien the owners are not known. See Jetson and Lagan. 
 FLOUNDER, FLUKE, or BUT, in ichthyology. See 
 Pleuronectes. Flounders may be fished for all day long, 
 either in a sv,if'l stream, or in the still deep water; but best in the 
 stream, in April, ^'Iay, June, and July ; the most pruper baits are 
 all sorts of worms, wasps, and gentles. 
 
 FLOUR, St. a town of France in the department of Cantal; 
 Tt is 45 miles S. of Clermont. Lat. 45° 1' 53" N. Lon 3° 5' 24' E. 
 from Greenwich. 
 
 Flour, the meal of wheat, rye, &c. finely ground and sifted. 
 We have already stated, that corn is the .prey of a variety of in- 
 sects : when converted into flour, it is subject to the deprecations 
 of another race of destroyers, which multiply in it so rapidly, tliat 
 in a very short time they wholly consume its substance. These 
 insects are of an oblong, slender form ; their heads arc provided 
 with a kind of proboscis or snout, with which they take in their 
 food; their body is composed of several rings. They do incal- 
 culable damage to the fiour deposited in magazijies for armies or 
 other public uses ; and after they have insinuated themselves into 
 any parcel, the only method that can be adopted for saving the 
 whole quantity is, "to convert it immediately into bread. Iji 
 order to prevent such noxious vermin from breeding in ilour, this 
 valuable commodity should be kept thorouglily dry, as well as the 
 barrels into which it is packed : with such precautions, if the flour 
 be placed in a cool and airy room, it will be elTectually preserved. 
 Sometimes, however, it happens, that though every attention be 
 bestowed on it, Slour becomes spirit, or damaged, and thus ac- 
 quires an unpleasant flavour. 1 his may be remedied by mixing 
 2 quantity of ground rice (in proportion of one pound to ten of 
 flour) with the usual quantity of yeast and water ; keeping the 
 mixture before the lire for the space of two hours; at the expi- 
 ration of which time, the whole may be wrought into bread, in the 
 common manner: thus it will be totally divested of its disagree- 
 able flavour. See Baking. The proportion of flour, which a 
 bushel of grain affords, greatly vaiies. A bushel of Essex wlieat, 
 Winchester measure, weigh upon an average about 601bs., which, 
 when ground, will yield (.exclusive of the loss incurred by the 
 grinding and drying)' 45ilbs. of the tlour cailed seconds, v'hicii 
 alone is used for b:ikmg throughout the greater part of Englar.tl, 
 and which affords t!ie most wholesome, thou;:;h not the wdiitest 
 bread. Besides the seconds, such a bushel of wheat yields 131bs. 
 of pollard and bran; the total loss in grinding seldom exceeds one 
 pound and a li'alf. And when the grinding is performed with 
 care, and the corn of a good quality, the loss is considerably less, 
 as has been evinced by various experiments niade to ascertain 
 this point. A corresp(mdent of the Editors of the Supple- 
 ment to the F.ncyclopxdia Britannica (Art. Bread,) states, that 
 he weighed two bushels, Wincheoter measure, of white and red 
 wheat, the whole of which amounted to 1221bs. This wheat was 
 ground under his own inspection, and yielded I'Jl Jibs, of meal, so 
 that the waste or loss in grinding the two bushels, amounteil only 
 to half a pound. 'J'he meal was also dressed in his presence, and 
 produceil <)3'lbs. of seconds, and SSiibs. of pollard and bran, so 
 that t'le whole lt>ss in the two bushids, t)i,-th by grinding and dress- 
 ing, did not exceed tivo pounds and a half. The bran and pol- 
 brd v.'ere i'lso dressed in a bolting mill, and produced. 
 
 ib.i. oz. 
 
 Sharps (j o 
 
 Fine Pollard j 8 
 
 Coarse ditto 7 g 
 
 Broad Bran... 5 a 
 
 2^ 3 
 One pound only was thus lost in the boiling, and if the sharps had 
 been sifted, they would have afforded three pounds of good 
 tlour. ^^ e are inclined to think, from these and sini.ilar data, if the 
 price of wheat were given, that of flour might be easily ascer- 
 tained, and those frauds which are now practised with im'punitv, 
 could be effectually prevented, 
 
 FLOWER, FllOa, among botanists and gardeners, the most 
 beautiful part of trees and ptar.ts, contalnmg the organs 01 gene- 
 ration and frurtilication. See Botany, and Flos. Flowers, de- 
 signed for medical use, sho'jld be plucked when they are mode- 
 rately blown, and on a cieai- day before noon : for conserves, roses 
 must be taken in the bud. Flowers were in great request at the 
 entertainments of the ancients, benig provided bvthe master of the 
 feast, and brought in before the second course ; "or, as some think, 
 at the beginning of the entertainment. They not only adorned 
 their heads', necks, and breasts, with llowers, but often "bestrewed 
 the beds whereon they lay, and all parts of the room with them. 
 But the head was ctiietly regarded. See Garland. Flowers 
 were likewise used in bedecking tombs. 
 
 Fiower de Lis, or Flower de Luce, in heraldry, a bearing 
 representing ll)e lily, called the queen of flowers, and the true 
 hieroghphic of royal nwjesty ; but ot late it is become more co(n- 
 mon, being borne in some coats one, iji others three, in others 
 live, and in somcscniee or spread all over tiie escutcheon in great 
 numbers. The arms of France, under monarchy, were three flowev 
 de lis, or, in a f.eld, azure. 
 
 P'lower de Luce, in botany. See Iris. 
 Flower, Gentle. See Amaranthus. 
 
 Flowers, Methods of Preserving. A method of preserving 
 flowers in tlieir natural beauty through the whole year has been 
 much sought after. Some have attempted it bv gathering theilx 
 when dry and not too much opened, and burying them iji dry sand; 
 but this, thougii it preserves their ligure well, takes off from the 
 liveliness of their colour. L iSluntingius prefers the following 
 method to all others. Gather the llowers, when they are not yet 
 thoroughly open, in the middle of a dry day : piit them into a good 
 earthen vessel glazed within; fill the vessel- up to the top with 
 them ; and when full sprinkle them over with some good French 
 wine, with a little salt in it; then set them in a cellar, tying down 
 the mouth of the pot. After this they may he taken out at plea- 
 sure ; and, on setting them in the sun, or within reach of the fiie, 
 they will open as if growing naturally ; and not only the colour, 
 but the smell also will be preserved, Tie flowers of plants are 
 bv much the most dilficult parts of them to preserve in any tole- 
 rable degree of perfection; of which we have instances in all the 
 horti sicci, or collection", of dried plants. In these the leaves, 
 stalks, roots, and seeds, of the plants appear very well preserved ; 
 the strong texture of these parts making them always retain their 
 natural form, and the colour in many species naturally remaining. 
 But where these fade, the plant is little wovse for use as to the 
 knowing the species by it. But it is veryniuch otherwise in re- 
 gard to llowere : those are naturally by much the mo t beautilul part?: 
 of tiie plants to which they belong ; but they arc so much injured 
 in the common way of drying, that they not only lose but 
 change their colours or.e into another, by which means they oc- 
 casion many errers: and they usually also wither up, so as tolos;e 
 their very form and natural shape. ^I he primrose and cowslip 
 afford remarkable instances of the change of colours in the flowers 
 of dried specimens : for those of this class of plarits easily dry in 
 their natural shape ; but they lo:,e their yellow, and, instead of it, 
 acquire a fine green colour, much superiorto that of the leaves in 
 their most perfect state. The flowers of all the violet kind lose 
 their beautifid blue, and become of a dead white : so that in diird 
 specimens there is no difference between the blue-tlowered violet 
 and the white-flowered. II. Sir Robert Southwell has communi- 
 cated to the worUl a method of drying plants, by which this defect 
 is proposed to be in a great measure remedied, and all flowers pre- 
 served in their natural shape, and many in their natural colours. 
 
 4 Vov
 
 FLU 
 
 451 
 
 FLU 
 
 For tl)i3 jMiipose two plates of iion are to be prepared of llie size 
 of a large half-sheet of paper, or larger, for particular occasions: 
 these plates imist be made so thick as not to bend ; and there must 
 be a hole near every corner for a screw to fasten them close to- 
 gether. When these are prepared, lay in readiness several sheets 
 6f paper, and then gather the plants with their (lowers when (piile 
 perfect. Let this be always done in the middle of a dry day ; and 
 then lay the plant and its" llower o[i one of the sheets of paper 
 doubled in half, spreading out all the leaves and petals as nicely as 
 possible. If the stalk is lliiek, it nuisl be pared or cut in half, so 
 that it may lie ll.it ; and if it is woody, it may be peeled, and only 
 the bark left. When tlie pUmt is tiuis"eNpaiided, lay round ahoe.t it 
 some loose leaves and petals of the (lower, which may serve to 
 complete any part that is deficient. When all Is thus prepared, 
 lay several sheets of paper over the plant, and as many under it ; 
 then put the whole between the iron plates, laying the papers 
 smoothly on one, and laying the other evenly over them : screw 
 them close, and put them into an oven after the breiid is drawn, 
 and let them lie there two hours. Alter that, make a mixture of 
 etjual parts of aquafortis and brandy ; shake these well together, 
 and when the ilowers are taken out of the plates, rub them lightly 
 over with a camel's-hair pencil dipped in this litiuor; then lay 
 them upon iVesh bro\ui paper, and covering them with som'i other 
 sheets, press them between this and other papers with a handker- 
 chief till the wet of these liquors is dried wholly away. When the 
 plant is thus far prepared, take the bulk of a nutmeg of gum-dra- 
 gon ; put this into a pint of pnre water cold, and h-t it stand 24 
 hours; it will in this time be wholly dissolved : then dip a Jine hair 
 pencil in this liquor, and with it daul) over the back sides of the 
 leaves, and lav them carefully down on a half-sheet of white 
 paper fairly expanded, ami press them down with some more 
 papers over these. When tlic gum-water is fixed, let tlie pressure 
 and papers be removed, and the whole work is finished. The 
 leaves retain their verdure in this case, and the flowers usually 
 keep their natural colours. Some cai"e, however, must be taken, 
 that the heat of the oven be not too great. When the ilowers are 
 thick and bulky, some art may be used to pare off their backs, 
 and dispose the petals in due order; and after this, if any of them 
 are wanting, their places may be supplied with some of the super- 
 numerary ones dried on purpose; and if any of them are only 
 faded, it will be |)rudenl to take them away, and lay down others 
 in their stead: the leaves may be also disposed and mended in the 
 same manner. III. Another method ot preserving both flowers 
 and fruit sound throughout the whole year, is also given by the 
 same author. Take saltpetre one pound, Armenian bole two 
 pounds, clean common sand three pounds. Mix all well together ; 
 then gather fruit of any kiml that is not fully ripe, w ith the stalk to 
 each; put these in, one by one, into a witle-mouthed gla^s, lay- 
 ingthem in good order. Tie over the top with an oil cloth, an<l 
 carry lliem into a dry cell.ar, and set the whole upon a bed of the 
 prepared m.atter, of two inches thick, in a box. Fill up the re- 
 mainder of the box with the same preparation ; and let it be four 
 inches thick all over the top of the glass, and all round its sides. 
 Flowers are to be preserved in the same sort of glasses, and in the 
 same manner; and they may be taken up after a whole ye;ir as 
 plump and fair as when they were buried. 
 
 Flowers, in chemistry, g-nerally imply dry bodies reduced 
 into very tine p;irts, either spoiitaneouMly, or by some operation 
 of art; but the term is chielly applied to vol.itile solid substances, 
 reduced into a kind of fine meal by sublimation. Some (lowers 
 are nothing else than the bodies themselves, which are sublimed 
 entire, witliout suffering any alteration or decomposition ; others 
 are some of the coustituent parts of the body subjected to sublima- 
 tion. 
 
 Flowers, in heraldry. They are much used in coats of arms; 
 and in general signify hope, or denote human frailty and momen- 
 tary prosperity. 
 
 I'loweks, in rhetoi'ic, \_JioscuH, Lai.] figures or ornaments oT 
 language. See Comparison', Figuue, Oratory, &c. 
 
 FLOWN bU EETS, in the sea laniiuage, a ship is said to sail 
 with down sheets when her sails are not haled home, or close to 
 the blocks. The sheets are flown ; that is, they are let loose, or 
 run as far as they will. 
 
 FLX'ATES, in chemistry, saltsfirst discoveredby Schecle ; they 
 arf distinguished by the following properties: 1. When sulphuric 
 
 acid is ])oured upon them, they emit acrid vapours of liuoric acid, 
 which corrode glass. V. When heated, several of them phospho- 
 resce. 3. 1 hey are not decomposed by heat, nor altered by com- 
 lubtibles. 4, They combine with silica by means of heal. Most 
 of them are sparingly soluble in water. 
 
 Fluaxk of Lime, Fluor Spar. This mineral is found abund- 
 aiillv in diflerent countries, particularly in Derbyshire. It is both 
 amorphous and crystallised. The primitive torm of the crystals is 
 the regular octahedron ; that of its integrant molecules the regular 
 tetrahetlron. The varieties uf itscrystals hitherto observed amount 
 to nine. 'J'hese are the primitive octahedron ; the cube ; the 
 rhomboidal dodecahedron ; the eubo-octahedron, which has both 
 the faces of the cube and of tlie octahedron: the octahedron want- 
 ing the edges; the cube wanting the edges, and either one face qr 
 two faces in place of each. According to Pellctier, it is com- 
 posed of 
 
 21 lime 
 1 j alumina 
 31 silica 
 28 fluoric acid 
 1 phosphoric acid 
 1 muriatic acid 
 1 oxide of iron 
 1 water 
 
 i)9 
 
 FLUELLIN, the herb Speedwell. See Anttrrhinum. 
 
 FLUENT, in fluxions, the flowing quantity, or that which is 
 continually either increasing, or decreasing, whether line, surface, 
 solid, &:c. See Fluxion. 
 
 FLUID, in physics, is a term applied to all bodies whose par- 
 ticles easily yield to the least partial pressure, or force impressed. 
 See Fluidity and Hydrostatics. 
 
 Fluid, in physiology, an appellation given to all bodies whose 
 particles easily yield to the least partial pressure, or force impress- 
 ed. See Hydrostatics, and the next article. 
 
 FLUIDITY, is that state or affection of bodies in which their 
 parts easily move one among another. All substances in nature, 
 as far as we are acquainted with them, occur in one or other of the 
 three following states; namely, the state of solid;:, of liquids, or of 
 elastic fluids or vapours. It has been ascertained, that in a vast 
 number of cases, the same substance is capable of existing succes- 
 sively in each of these states. Thus sulj)hur is usually a solid 
 body; but when heated to 21'/ it is converted inte a liquid; and 
 at a still higher temperature (about 570°), it assumes the form of an 
 elastic vapour of a deep-brown colour. Water also in our climate 
 is usually a liquid ; but when cooled down to 32° it is converted 
 into a solid body, and at 2 12' it assumes the form of an elastic fluids 
 Most solid bodies may be converted into liquids by heating them 
 suliiciently, and on tlie other hand, every liquid, except spirit of 
 wine, is convertible into a solid body, by exposing it to a snfii- 
 cient degree of cold. All liquid bodies may, by heating them, 
 be converted into elastic fluids, and a great manv solids are ca- 
 p.able of undergoing the same change; and, lastly,' the number of 
 elastic fluids which by cold are condensable into" liquids or solids, 
 is by no means inconsiderable. These facts have led philosophera 
 to form this general conclusion, " that all bodies, if placed in a 
 temperature suflicienfly low, would assume a solid form ; that all 
 solids become lic|uids when sufticiently heated; and that allliquids, 
 when exposed to a certain temperature, assume the form of elastic 
 nui<ls." The state of bodies then depends upon the temperature 
 in which they are placed; in the lowest temperatures they are all 
 solid, in higher temperatures they are converted into liquids, and 
 in the highest of all they become elastic fluids. The particulai' 
 temperaliires at which bodies undergo those changes are ex- 
 ceedingly various, but they are always constant for tlie same bo- 
 dies, Thus we see that heat produces changes on the state of 
 bodies, converting them all, iirst into liquids, and then elastic 
 fluids. 
 
 I. Wlten solid bodies are converted by heat into liquids, the 
 change in some cases takes place at once. There is no interval 
 between solidity and liquidity ; but in other cases a very gradual 
 change maybe perceived; the solid becomes first soft, audit 
 passes slowly through all the degrees of. softness, till at last it be- 
 comes perfectly fluid. '! he conversion of ice into \\atcr is an in- 
 stance.
 
 FLU 
 
 452 
 
 FLU 
 
 itance of the first change ; for in that substance there is no inter- 
 vening state between solidity and fluidity. The melting of glass, 
 of wax, and of tallow, exhibits instances of the second kind of 
 change ; for these bodies pass through every possible degree of 
 softness before they terminate in fluidity. In general, these solid 
 bodies which crystallise or assume regular prismatic figures, have 
 no interval l)etween solidity and fluidity, wliile those that do not 
 usually a5^ume such shapes have the property of appearing suc- 
 cessively in ail the intermediate states. Solid bodies never begin 
 to assume a licpiid form till thry are heated to a certain tempera- 
 ture ; this temperature is constant in all. in the first class of bo- 
 dies it is very well defined ; but in the second, though it is equally 
 constant, the exact temperature of fluidity cannot be pointed out 
 with such precision on account of tlie infinite number of shades of 
 softness through which tlie bodies pass before they acquire their 
 greatest possible fluidity. But even in these bodies we can easily 
 ascertain that the same temperature al«ays produces the same 
 degree of fluidity. The temperature at which this change from 
 .solidity to liquidity takes place, receives dilferent names according 
 to the usual stale of the body thus changed. Wken the body is 
 usually observed in a liquid state, we call llie temperature at which 
 it assumes the form of a solid, its freezing point, or congealing 
 point. Thus the temperature in w hich water becomes ice, is call- 
 ed the freezing point of water ; on the other hand, when the body 
 is usually in tlie state of a solid, we call the temperature at which 
 it liquefies its melting point ; thus 313° is the melting point of sul- 
 phur, 442° the melting point of tin. The following table contains 
 a list of the melting points of a considerable number of solid bo- 
 dies: 
 
 Substance. Melting point 
 
 Lead 394° 
 
 Bismuth 576 
 
 Tin 442 
 
 Sulphur 212 
 
 Wax 142 
 
 Spermaceti 133 
 
 Pliosphorus..,., 100 
 
 Tallow 93 
 
 Oil of anise 30 
 
 Olive-oil 36 
 
 Ice 32 
 
 Milk 30 
 
 Vinegar 28 
 
 Blood 25 
 
 Oil of bergamot 23 
 
 Wines 20 
 
 Oil of turpentine 14 
 
 Sulphuric acid 36 
 
 Mercury 39 
 
 Liquid ammonia 46 
 
 Ether 46 
 
 Nitric acid 66 
 
 Before Dr. Black began to deliver his chemical lectures in 
 Glasgow in 1757, it was universally supposed that solids were con- 
 verted into liquids by a small addition of heat after they hail been 
 once raised to the melting point, and that they returned again to 
 the solid state on a very small diminution of the quantity of heat 
 necessary to keep them at that temperature. An attentive view 
 of the phsnoniena of liquefaction and solidification gradually led 
 this sagacious philosopher to observe their inconsistence with the 
 then received opinions, and to form another, which he verified by 
 direct experiments, and drew up an account of his theory, and 
 the proofs of it, which was read to a literary society in Glasgow on 
 April 'JM\, 1762 ; and every year after he gave a detailed account 
 of the whole doctrine in his lectures. 'I'he opinion which he 
 formed was, that when a solid body is converted into a liquid, a 
 much greater quantity of heat enters into it than is perceptible 
 immediately alter by the thermometer. This great quantity of 
 heat does not make the body apparently warmer, but it must be 
 thrown into it in order to convert it into a liquid; and this great 
 additioii of heat is the princijial and most immediate cause of the 
 fluidity induced. On tlio olher hand, when a li<iuid body asbumes 
 the form of a solid, a very great quantity of heat leaves it without 
 sensibly diminishing its temperature ; an'd the state of solidity can- 
 
 not be induced without the abstraction of this great (juantity of 
 heat. Or, in other words, whenever a solid is converted into a 
 fluid, it combines with a certain dose of caloric, without any aug- 
 n-.entation of its temperature ; and it is this dose of caloric which 
 occasions the change of the solid into a fluid. When the fluid is 
 converted again ituo a solid, the dose of caloric leaves it, without 
 any diminution of its temperature; and it is this abstraction which 
 occasions the change. Thus the ccmbinaticn of a certain dose of 
 caloric with ice causes it to become water, and the abstraction of a 
 certain dose of caloric from waier causes it to become ice. Water 
 -llien is a coinpouiui of ice and caloric; and in general all Ihiids 
 are combinations of the solid, to which they may be converted by 
 the application of cohl, and a certain dose of caloric. Such is the 
 opinion concerning the cause of fluidity taught by Dr. Black as 
 early as 1763. Its truth was established by the following experi- 
 ments: 
 
 J-'ir.it. If a lump of ice, at the temperature of 23°, is brought 
 into a warm room, in a very short time it is heated to 33°, the 
 freezing point. It then begins to melt; but the process goes on 
 very slov.'ly, and several liours elapse before the whole ice is melt- 
 ed. During the whole of that time its temperature continues at 
 3'2°; yet as it is constantly surrounded by warm air, we have rea- 
 son to believe that caloric is constantly entering into it. Now as 
 none of this caloric is indicated by the thermometer, wh;.t he- 
 comes of it, unless it has combined witli that portion of the ice 
 V hich is converted into water, and unless it is the cause of the 
 melting of the ice? Dr. Black took two thin globular glasses, 
 four inches in diameter, and very nearly of the same weight. 
 Both were filled with water; the contents of the one were frozen 
 into a solid mass of ice, the contents ot the other were cooled 
 down to 33°; the two glasses were then su-pended in a large room 
 at a distance from all other bodies, (he tenqjcrature of the air be- 
 ing 47°. In half an hour the thermometer placed in the water- 
 glass rose from 33° to 40°, or 7 degrees; the ice was at first 4 or j 
 degrees colder than melting snow, but in a few minutes the ther- 
 mometer applied to it stood at 32°. The instant of time when it 
 reached that temperature was noted, and the whole left undisturb- 
 ed for ten hours and a half. At the end of tliat time the whole 
 ice was melted, except a very small spongy mass, w hich floated at 
 the top, and disappeared in a few minutes. The temperature of 
 the ice water was 40°. Thus 10-J- hours were necessary to melt 
 the ice, and raise the product to the temperature of 40°. During 
 all this time it must have been receiving heat with the same cele- 
 rity as the water-glass received it during tlie first half-hour. The 
 whole quantity received then was 21 times 7, or 147°; but its tem- 
 perature was only 40°: therefore 139 or 140 degrees had been ab- 
 sorbed bv the melting ice, and remained concealed in the water 
 into which it had been converted, its presence not being indicated 
 by the thermometer. Thit caloric, or heat, is actually entering 
 into the ice, is easily ascertained by placing the hand on a thermo- 
 meter under the vessel containing it. A current of cold air may 
 be perceived descending from it during the whole time of the pro- 
 cess. But it will be said, perhaps, that the heat which enters into 
 the ice does not remain there, but is altogether destroyed. This 
 opinion is refuted by the following experinitnt. 
 
 Second. If, when the thermometer is at 22°, we expose a ves- 
 sel full of water at 53° to tlie open air, and beside it anollicr vessel 
 full of brine at the same temperature, with thermometers in each, 
 we shall find that both of them gradually lose caloric, and are 
 cooled down to 33°. After this the brine (\\ hich does not freeze 
 till cooled down to 0°) continues to cool without interruption, and 
 gradually reaches 22°, the temperature of tiie air, but the pure 
 water remains stationary at 32°. It freezes, indeed, but very 
 slowly ; and during tlie whole process its temperature is 32 . 
 Now, why should the one liquid refuse all on a si.dden to give out 
 caloric and iv t the other' Is it not much more probable that the 
 water, as it ficezes, gradually gives out the heat which it had ab- 
 sorbed during its liquefaction; and that (his evolution maintains 
 the temperature of the water at 3I\ notwithstanding what it partp 
 with to the air during the whole prucess? V\'e may easily satisfy 
 ourselves that the «ater while congealing is constantly imparting 
 heat to the surrounding air; for a delicate thermometer suspended 
 above it is constantly afl'eded by an ascending stream of air less 
 cold than the air around. Tlie following experiment, first matfe 
 
 bv
 
 FLU 
 
 453 
 
 FLU 
 
 by KalireiiHi-it, ami .illerwards often rcpLMlcil l)_v ]-)r. Ulack and 
 otiiers, aiiorUs a palpable evidence, that such an evolution of ca- 
 loric actually takes place (Uuing coiigflalion. 
 
 Third. If, wlun the air is at 'Ji'", we expose to it a quantity of 
 water in a tall lu;pr-glas->, with a ihemionietcr in it and covered, 
 the water gradually cools down to '22° without freezing. It is 
 tlierefore 10" Ijelow the freezing point. 'Ihinfis heiu'^ in this situ- 
 ation, if the water is shaken, pait of it inslanlly freezes into a 
 sponiiy mass, aiid the tenip;'r.iture of tiie whole instantly rises lo 
 the freezing poii.l, so that tlie water has act|uire;l ten dei^rees of 
 caloric in an instant. Now wiiencecame tliese ten degrees? Is it 
 not evident that it must have conio from that part of the water 
 which was frozen, and consequently liiat water in the act of freez- 
 ing gives out caloric? From many e.\peri;ncnts niade on water 
 in the<e circumstances, it is found that the quanlily of ice which 
 forms suddi-nly on the agitation of water, cooled down below the 
 freezing point, bears always a constant ratio to the coldness oi the 
 liquid before agitation, lluis when water is cooled down to i-'" 
 very nearly tj of I'lc whole freezes ; when the previous tempera- 
 ture is 27"^, about i'^- of the whole freezes. In all cases when wa- 
 ter is cooled down below 32", it lo^es a portion of the caloric 
 which is necessary to constitute its liquidity. 'I'lie instant that 
 such water is agitated, one portion of the liquid seizes upon the 
 quan'ity of caloric in which it is delicient, at the e.vpeuce of an- 
 otlier portion, which of course becomes ice. Thus when water is 
 cooled down to 22", every particle of it wants lb° of tlie caloric 
 necessary to keep it in a stale of liquidity. Thirteen pnrts of it 
 seize 10 degrees each from tin? fourteenth part. These thirteen of 
 course acquire the tempevature of 3'i'; and the other part, being 
 deprived of 10 x 13 = 1.50, which with the ten degrees that it 
 had lost before constitute 140°, or the whole of the caloric neces- 
 sary to keep it Iknd, assumes of con>ei|uenee the form of ice. 
 
 fnurlli. If these experiments should net be considered as sulli- 
 cient to warrant Dr. Black's conclusion, the following, for which | 
 we are indebted to the same philosopher, puts the trutli of his opi- 
 nion beyond the reach of dispnie. lie iiii\i-d togetlier given 
 weights of ice at 32°, and water al 190° of temperature. The ice 
 was melted in a few second^, and tiie temperature produced was 
 
 5.r. 
 
 The weight of the ice was 1 19 half-drachms; 
 That ot the hot water 133 
 
 of the inixture 254 
 
 of the glass vessel 16 
 Si.steen parts of glass have the same effect in iieating cold bodies, 
 as eight parts of e(juall\ hot water. Therefore, instead of the 16 
 half-cirachms of glass, 'eight of water maybe substituted, which 
 makes the hot water amount to 143 half-diachms. In this experi- 
 ment there were 158 degrees of lieat contained in the hot water, 
 to be divided between the ice and the water. Had thev been di- 
 vided equally, and had the whole been afterwards sensible to the 
 thermometer, the water would have i-etained \tl parts of this 
 heat, and the ice would have received -iif parts: tint is lo say, 
 the water would have retained 86", and tlie ice would have re- 
 ceived 72°; and the temperature after mixture would have been 
 104°. But the temperature by experiment is found to be onlv 
 53°; the hot water lost 137°, and the ice only received an addition 
 of temperature equal to 21". But the loss of 18° of temperature 
 in the water is etiuivalent to the gain of 21° in liie ice. 'I'iierefore 
 15S°— 18°= 1-10' of heat have disappeared altogether from the 
 hut water. These 140° must have entered into the ic-*, and con- 
 verted it into water without raising its temperature. In the same 
 manner, if we take any quantity of ice, or, which is the same thing, 
 snow at 3.'°, and mix it wilh an equal weight of water at 172', the 
 snow instantly melts, and the temperature of the mixture is only 
 22°. Here the water is cooled 140°, while the temperature of the 
 snow is not incn-ased at all; so that 140° degrees of caloric have 
 <lisappeared. '1 hey must have combined with the snow; but 
 they have only melted it, without increasing its temperature, 
 ileiice it follows irresistibly, that ice, when it is converted into 
 watir, absorbs and eombines wilh 140° of caloric. Water, then, 
 alter being cooled down to 32°, cannot freeze till it has parted wilh 
 l4o°of caloric; and ice, alter being healed 10 32°, cannot melt 
 till it lias absorbed 140° of caloric. This is the cause of the ex- 
 treme slowness of these operations. With regard to water, then, 
 there can be no doubt that it owes its' lluidity to tlic caloric which 
 VOL. 11. — so. 85. 
 
 it contains, and that the caloric necessary to give liui<lity lo ice is 
 eoual 10 140°. To the quantity of caloric which thus occasions 
 the lluidily of solid bodies by combiuiiig wilh them. Dr. Ijl.ick 
 gave the liame of latent heat, because its presence is not indicated 
 by the thermometer; a term sudiciently expressive, but other 
 philosophers have rather chosen to call it calorie of lluidily. Dr. 
 iSiack and his friends ascertained also, by experimeiil, that the 
 lluid.ty of melted wax, tallow, spermaceti, and metals, is owing to 
 the same cause. Landriani proved, thai this is tiie case with sul- 
 phur, ahmi, nitre, and several of Ihe metals; and il has been found 
 to be the ( ase with every substance hitlierlo examined. We may 
 consi<ler it therefore as a general law, that whenever a solid is con- 
 verted into a lluid, it combines with caloric, and that this is the 
 cause ol its lluidily. from the experiments of Dr. Irvine, it ap- 
 pears that the caloric ot lluidity of spermaceti is 145° 
 
 Bees- wax 1'5 
 
 Tm 500 
 
 These are the only substances in which the quantity of caloric, 
 absorbed during tusion, has been asL-crlanied. In ail of tliem we 
 see this rule to hold, that the caloric of lluidily increases with the 
 lempcraUire at which liquidity takes place. Dr. Black has ren- 
 dered it exceedingly piohable also, or ratiier he has proved by his 
 experiment* and obseivalions, that the softness ol su(h bodies as 
 are rendered pL.slic by heat, depends upon a (luanlily of latent 
 heat which combines with them. Metals also owe tlieir m.ilhabi- 
 lity and ductility lo the same cause. Hence the reason why they 
 become hot and brittle when hammered. 
 
 II. Tluii it appears, that the conversion of solids into liquids, is 
 occasioned by the combination of a dose of caloric with the solid. 
 But tliere is another change of state still more remarkable, lo 
 which bodies are liable when exposed lo the action of l-.eat. Al- 
 most all liquids, when raised to a certain temperature, gvadnaliy 
 assume the form of an elastic fluid, invisible lit.e air, ami [)o^sessed 
 of the same mechanical properties. Thus water, by boil ng, is 
 converted into steam, an invisible lluid, ISOO times mon- bulky 
 than water, and as elastic as air. These fluids retain their elastic 
 form as hiug as their temperature remains suHiciinlly high; but , 
 when cooled dov.'ii again, they lose that form, ami are converted 
 into li(|U;ds. All liquids, and even a considerable number of so- 
 lids, are capable of undergoing this change when sufficiently heat- 
 ed. With respect to the temperatures at which liipuels undergo 
 this change, they may be all arranged under two divisions. There 
 are some liquids which are gradually converted into elastic lluids 
 at every temperature, while others again never begin to assume 
 that change till their temperature reaches a certain point. Water 
 is a well-known example of the first class of bodies. If an open 
 vessel, filled wiih water, is carefully examined, we find that the 
 water diminishes in bulk d.ay after day, and at la-t disappears alto- 
 gether. If the experiment is made in a vessi! sufficiently large, 
 and previously exhausted of air, we shall lind that the water will 
 fill the vessel in the state of invisible v.ipaur, in whatever tempera- 
 ture il is placed. Alcohol likewise, and ether, and volatile oils, 
 gradually assume the form of an elastic (luid in all temperatures. 
 But sulphuric acid and the fixed oils never begin lo a>sume the 
 form of v.ipour till they are raised to a certain temperature. 
 Though left in open vessels they lose no perci-plible weight ; nei- 
 ther does sulphuric acid lose any weighl, though kept ever so long 
 in the temperature of boiling water. When liquids gradually as- 
 sume the torn) of elastic liuidsiii all teniper..tures, Ihev are said to 
 evaporate spontaneously. The second class of liquids want that 
 property altogether. \A'hen all other circumstances are the same, 
 the evaporation cf 'i<|uids increases wilh tin ir temperature; and 
 after they are heated to a certain lenq)eralure, thev a.smne the 
 form of elastic fluids with great rapidity. It ihe heat is applied to 
 the bottom of the vessel containing lli<- licjuids, as is usnallv the' 
 case, after the whole liquid has acquncd tliis temperature, those 
 paitich s of it which are in xl the bolloni become an ehislic lluid 
 liisl: they rise up, as they are forim-il, lhr..ugh the liouid, like 
 air-bubbles, and throw the whole into viulenl agitation. The li- 
 (|uid is then said to boil. Every particular Ii.|uid has a lixed 
 point at which this boiling commences (oilier !hin';s beiii^' ihe 
 same), aiul this is called the boiling point of the liquid. Thus 
 water begins to boil when raided lo 21 2\ It is jvmarkable, that 
 after a liquid has begun to boil, it' never becomes anv holier, 
 however strong the fire to wh'ali it is expoaed. ,\ slrong heat ni- 
 5 Z deed
 
 FLU 
 
 454 
 
 FLtJ 
 
 deed makes it !)oil more rapidly, but does not increase its tempe- 
 rature. 'I'liis was first o\)-erved by Dr. Hooke. It was observed, 
 when treating of the melling point of solids, that it is capable of 
 being varied considerably by altering the situation of lb? bo''v- 
 'I'hui water may be cooled down considerably lower than 33'', 
 without freeziiitc' The boiling point is still less h\ed, depending 
 entirelv on the degree of pressure to which the liquid to be boiled 
 is e.^cpo'sed. If we diminish the pressure, the liquid boils at a 
 lower temperature; if we increase it, u higher temperature is ne- 
 cessary to produce ebullition. From die experiments of professor 
 Uobisoii, it appears that, in a vacHUin, all liquids boil about l-i5° 
 lower than in the open air under a pressure ot 60 inclies of mer- 
 cury ; therefore water would boil in vacuo at 6'% and alcohol at 
 04".' In a Papni's digester, the temperature of water may bf raised 
 to 300°, or even 4iiO', without ebullition : but the instant tliut this 
 great pressure is removed, the boiling commences with prodigious 
 violence. 'I'he ela>ticity of all the elastic lluids into which liquids 
 are converted liv heat, "increases with the temperature; and the 
 •vajiour fornii'd, when the liquid boils in the open air, po^sesses an 
 elasticity just e(|ual to that of air, or capable at a medium of ba- 
 lancing a culumn of mercury 30 inches high. The following very 
 important t.ibl'', drawn up by Mr. Ualtoii from his own experi- 
 ineiits, exhibits the elasticity of steam, or the vapoiff of water of 
 everv temperature, from— 40' to 3'2j". The elasticities ©f all the 
 temper.',tures from 32° to 212- were ascertained by experiment ; 
 llie rest were calculated by observing the rate at which the el.isti- 
 eity incre..sed or diminished according to the temperature. 
 
 TABLE OF THE ELASTICITY OF STEAM. 
 
 
 I'orce ot Vap. 
 in inches of 
 Mercury. | 
 
 a; 
 
 I'orce ot V ap. 
 in inches of 
 Mercury. 
 
 
 A ! 
 
 '^■~ ! 
 
 '' ° . . 
 
 O IJ t- 
 
 e 
 
 1' orce ot V ap. 
 in -inches of 
 Mercury. 
 
 c-' 
 
 HI 
 
 —40= 
 
 .013 
 
 32 
 
 .200 
 
 70" 
 
 .721 i 
 
 103= 
 
 2.39 
 
 146° 
 
 6.70 
 
 —30 
 
 .o;o 
 
 3.i 
 
 .207 
 
 71 
 
 .745 
 
 109 
 
 2.46 
 
 147 
 
 6.87 
 
 —20 
 
 .030 
 
 34 
 
 .214 
 
 72 
 
 .770 1 
 
 110 
 
 2.53 
 
 148 
 
 7.05 
 
 —10 
 
 .043 
 
 35 
 
 .221 
 
 73 
 
 .796, 
 
 HI 
 
 2.60 1 
 
 149 
 
 7.23 
 
 
 
 30 
 
 .229 
 .237 
 
 74 
 
 .823 ' 
 
 1 12 
 
 2.68 
 
 150 
 
 7.42 
 
 
 
 .064 
 
 37 
 
 75 
 
 .851 
 
 113 
 
 2.76 
 
 151 
 
 7.61 
 
 1 
 
 .Ofit) 
 
 38 
 
 ,245 
 
 76 
 
 .880 
 
 114 
 
 2.84 
 
 152 
 
 7.81 
 
 2 
 
 .06S 
 
 39 
 
 .254 
 
 77 
 
 .910 
 
 115 
 
 2.92 
 
 153 
 
 8.01 
 
 3 
 
 .071 
 
 40 
 
 .263 
 
 78 
 
 .940 
 
 116 
 
 3.00 
 
 154 
 
 8.20 
 
 4 
 
 ,074 
 
 41 
 
 .273 
 
 79 
 
 .971 
 
 117 
 
 3.08 
 
 155 
 
 8.40 
 
 5 
 
 .070 
 
 42 
 
 .233 
 
 80 
 
 1.00 
 
 118 
 
 3.16 
 
 156 
 
 8.60 
 
 6 
 
 .079 
 
 43 
 
 .294 
 
 81 
 
 1.04 
 
 119 
 
 3.25 ! 
 
 157 
 
 8.81 
 
 7 
 
 .032 
 
 44 
 
 .305 
 
 82 
 
 1.07 
 
 120 
 
 3.33 ' 
 
 158 
 
 9 02 
 
 ,S 
 
 .OS.T 
 
 4J 
 
 .316 
 
 83 
 
 1.10 
 
 121 
 
 3.42 
 
 159 
 
 9-24 
 
 9 
 
 .0S7 
 
 46 
 
 .3JS 
 
 84 
 
 1.14 
 
 122 
 
 3.50 i 
 
 160 
 
 9.46 
 
 to 
 
 .090 
 
 47 
 
 .3.59 
 
 85 
 
 1.17 ^ 
 
 123 
 
 3.59 
 
 161 
 
 9,6S 
 
 11 
 
 .093 
 
 48 
 
 .351 
 
 86 
 
 1.21 
 
 124 
 
 3.69 ■ 
 
 162 
 
 9.91 
 
 J2 
 
 .096 
 
 49 
 
 .363 
 
 87 
 
 1.24 
 
 125 
 
 3.79 ■ 
 
 163 
 
 10.15 
 
 13 
 
 .100 
 
 iO 
 
 .375 
 
 88 
 
 1.28 
 
 126 
 
 3.89 
 
 164 
 
 10 41 
 
 14 
 
 .104 
 
 .51 
 
 .388 
 
 89 
 
 1.32 
 
 127 
 
 4.00 
 
 165 
 
 I0.6S 
 
 1.-. 
 
 .108 
 
 52 
 
 .401 
 
 90 
 
 1.36 
 
 128 
 
 4.11 
 
 166 
 
 10.96 
 
 16 
 
 .112 
 
 53 
 
 .415 
 
 91 
 
 1.40 
 
 1 29 
 
 4.22 
 
 167 
 
 11.25 
 
 17 
 
 .116 
 
 54 
 
 .429 
 
 92 
 
 1.44 
 
 130 
 
 4^34 
 
 168 
 
 11.54 
 
 It) 
 
 . 1 'JO 
 
 55 
 
 .443 
 
 (13 
 
 1.48 
 
 131 
 
 4.47 
 
 169 
 
 11. S3 
 
 19 
 
 .124 
 
 51) 
 
 .458 
 
 94 
 
 1.53 
 
 132 
 
 4.60 
 
 170 
 
 12.13 
 
 20 
 
 .I2f) 
 
 57 
 
 .474 
 
 95 
 
 1.58 
 
 133 
 
 4.73 
 
 171 
 
 12.43 
 
 21 
 
 .134 
 
 5S 
 
 .490 
 
 96 
 
 1.63 
 
 134 
 
 4.86 
 
 172 
 
 12,73 
 
 22 
 
 .13ii 
 
 .H) 
 
 .507 
 
 97 
 
 1.68 
 
 135 
 
 5.00 
 
 173 
 
 13.02 
 
 . 23 
 
 .144 
 
 60 
 
 .524 
 
 93 
 
 1.74 
 
 136 
 
 5.14 
 
 174 
 
 13.32 
 
 24 
 
 . 1 ;,0 
 
 61 
 
 .542 
 
 i,9 
 
 1.80 
 
 137 
 
 5.29 
 
 175 
 
 13.6? 
 
 •_'.') 
 
 .156 
 
 62 
 
 .560 
 
 100 
 
 1.86 
 
 138 
 
 5.44 
 
 176 
 
 13.92 
 
 56 
 
 .162 
 
 63 
 
 .578 
 
 101 
 
 1 .92 
 
 139 
 
 5.59 
 
 177 
 
 14.22 
 
 27 
 
 .168 
 
 64 
 
 .597 
 
 102 
 
 1.98 
 
 140 
 
 5.74 
 
 17S 
 
 14.52 
 
 28 
 
 .174 
 
 ()5 
 
 .616 
 
 103 
 
 2.04 
 
 141 
 
 5.90 
 
 179 
 
 14.83 
 
 ay 
 
 .ISO 
 
 66 
 
 .635 
 
 10 i 
 
 2. 1 1 
 
 142 
 
 6.05 
 
 ISO 
 
 1 5. 1 5 
 
 30 
 
 . 1 .S(i 
 
 67 
 
 .655 
 
 105 
 
 2.18 
 
 143 
 
 6.21 
 
 ISl 
 
 15.50 
 
 31 
 
 .193 
 
 68 
 
 .676 
 
 106 
 
 2.25 
 
 144 
 
 6.37 
 
 182 
 
 15.86 
 
 _ 
 
 
 69 
 
 .698 
 
 107 
 
 2.32 
 
 145 
 
 6.53 
 
 it;3 
 
 16.'<,'3 
 
 Mr. Dallon has discovered (hat the elasticity of every other va- 
 pour or steam is precisely the same with that of the steam of wa- 
 ter at the same diytance from its boiling point. Thus water boils 
 at 212°; its ela^lici(y at the temperature of 182°, or 30 under its 
 boiling poini, we see from the table is 15.86. Alcohol boils at 
 176°;'the elasticity of the steam of alcohol at 146", or 30° under 
 its boiling point, is likewirc 15.86. This very important disco- 
 very enables us to ascertain the elasticity cf the vapours of all li- 
 quids whatever at any temperature, provided their boiling points 
 are know n. We have only to find how many degrees the tempe- 
 rature at which the elasticity requiied is dis'tant from the boiling 
 point of this liquid. The same number of degrees, added to or 
 subtracted from 212°, gives us a temperature, o)i|)osite to wliich in 
 the above table we shall find the elasticity required. Such are the 
 phxnomena of the conversion of liquid into clastic fluids. Dr. 
 BU'.ck applied his theory of latent heat (o this conversion with 
 great sagacity ; and deiiionstrited, that it is owing to the very 
 same cause as the conversion of solids into liquids ; namely, to the 
 combination of a certain dose of caloric with tlie liquid, without 
 any increase of temperature. The truth of tliis very important 
 point was e^ablished by the (ollowiiig experiments : 
 
 First. When a vessel of water is put upon the fire, the water 
 gradually becomes hotter till it reaches 212°; but afterwards its 
 temperaiure is not increased. Now caloric must be constantly 
 entering from the fire and combining with the water. But as the 
 w.iter does not become hotter, the caloric must combine with tliat 
 part of it which flies off in the form of steam ; but the temperature 
 of llic steam is only 212"; therefore the caloric combined with it 
 does not increase its temi)erature. We must conclude, then, that 
 the change of water to steam is owing to the combination of this 
 caloric; for it (n-oduccs no oilier cliange! Dr. Black put some 
 water in a tin-plate vessel upon a reil-liot iron. Thewaler was of 
 the temperature 50'^; in four minutes it began to boil, and in 20 
 minutes it was all boiled off. During the lirst four minutes it had 
 received 162'", or 40" per minute. If we suppo>e that it received 
 as much per minute during the whoh- process of boiling, the ca- 
 loric «hicli entered into the water and converted it into steam 
 would amount to 40^ x 20 =:: 81()\ This caloric is not indicated 
 by the thermometer, for (he temperature of steam is only 212° j 
 tlierefore Dr. Black called it latent heat.
 
 FLU 
 
 4.55 
 
 FLU 
 
 Second. Water niny be heated in :i Papiiv's digester to 400' 
 ■without boiling; l>ecaiise tlie steam is forcibly comjjresscd, and 
 prevented from making its esc^jH'. If tlie mouth of the vessel is 
 suddenly opened v\hile things are in this siate, part of the wati-r 
 rushes out in tlie form of steam, but the greater part still remains 
 in the form of ^\ater, and its temperature instantly sinks to 212" ; 
 con^equently ISS" of caloric have sudileiily disap[)eared. 'J lii^ 
 caloric must have been carried olf by the steam. Now as only 
 about ona-fifth of the water is converted into steam, that steam 
 nmst contain not only its own ISS", but also the 188° lost by each 
 of the other four parts; that is, it must contain IBS'" x 5, or about 
 940'. Steam therefore is water combined with at least 940° of ca- 
 loric, the presence of which is not indicated by the thermometer. 
 This experiment was lirst made by Dr. 31ack, and afterwards w itli 
 more precision by Mr. \N att. 
 
 Third. When hot li(|uids are put under the receiver of an air- 
 pump, and tlie air is suddeidy drawn oil', the liquids boil, and tlieir 
 temperature sinks w ilh '.^reat rapidity a considerable number of dc- 
 prees. Thus water, however hot at lii-st, is very soon reduced to 
 the temperature of 70", and ether becomes suddenly so cold, that 
 it freezes ^^at^r placed round the vessel which contains it. In 
 tliese eases the vapour undoubtedly carries oH' the heat of the li- 
 (juid: but the temperature of the vapour is never greater than that 
 of the liquid itsilf; the lieat therefore must combine with the v.i- 
 pour, and become latent. 
 
 Fourth. If one part of steam at 212° is mixed with nine parts 
 by weight of water at (tf, the steam instantlv assumes the form of 
 water, and the temperature after mixture is 178. t)°, consequently 
 each of the nine parts of water has received 1 16.0° of caloiic; of 
 course the steam has lost 9 X 1 10.6''= 1049.4° of caloric. But as 
 the temperature of the steam is diminished bv 33.3°, we mustsub- 
 tract this sum. There will remain rather more than 1000°, which 
 is the ([uanlity of caloric which existed in the steam witliout iji- 
 creasing its temperature. Tins experiment caimot be made di- 
 rectly; but it may be made by passing a given weight of steam 
 thiough a metallic worm, surrounded by a given weight of water. 
 The heat acquired by the water ijidicates the caloric v\'hich the 
 steam gives out during its condensaticn. From the experiments 
 of Mr. SVatt made ill this manner, it appears that the latent heut 
 of steam amounts to 941)°. The experiments of M. Lavoisier 
 make it rather more than 1000°. By tlie experiments of Dr. 
 Black and his friends, it was ascertained, that not only water, but 
 all other liquids during their convei-siou into vapour, combine with 
 a dose of caloric, without any change of temperature; and that 
 every kind of elastic tlxnd, during its conversion into a liquid, 
 gives out a portion of caloric without any change of tenqierature. 
 Dr. Black's law tlu-ii is very general,' and comprehonds every 
 change in the state of a body. The cause of the conversion of a 
 solid into a liquid is the combination of the solid with caloric; 
 that ot the., conversion of a liquid into an elastic lluid is tiie combi- 
 nation of the li(|uid willi caloric. Liquids are solids combined 
 with caloric. 'I'his law, iji its iiuist general form, may be stated as 
 follows: whenever a body changes its state, it either combines 
 \< ith caloric, or separates from caloric. No person will dispute 
 that this is one of the most important discoveries hitherto made in 
 I)hilosopliy. Science is indebted for it entirely to tl-.e sagacifv of 
 Dr. Black. Other philosophers indeed have laid claim to it; "but 
 these claims are <-ither without anv foumlation, or their notion^ 
 may be traced to Dir. Black's lectures, as their opinions originated 
 many years posterior to the public explanation of Dr. Black's the- 
 ory ill the chemical chairs of (il.isgow and Ldiiiburnh. 
 
 IH. A very considerable number of bodies, both solids and li- 
 uids, may be converted into el.istic fluids hv heat; and as long as 
 the teuqierature continues suiiicienlly high, thev n lain all the me- 
 chanical ))roperties of gaseous bodies. It is exceedinglv probable, 
 that if we could command a heat sufiiciently inten-e, the same 
 change iiiiglit be produced on all bodies in nature. This accord- 
 ingly is the o|)iiiion at present admitted bv p'nilosophers. But if 
 all bddies are convertible into ela^tii- lluids by heat, it is exceed- 
 iiii;ly probable that all elastic lluids in their turn iriglit be convert- 
 ed into solids or li(|uids, if we could expose them to a suiricicnllv 
 low temper.iture. In that case, all the, gases must be supposed to 
 owe their elastiidty to a certain dose of caloric: they mu-l be con- 
 sidered as compounds of caloric with a solid or liquid body. Tiii> 
 epiniou was lirst stated by Amontoiis, and it was supported wi'h 
 
 :i 
 
 much ingenuity both by Dr. Bla( k and Lavoisier,, and his assocr 
 ates. It is at present the prevailing opinion; and it is certainly 
 supported i,ol only by analogy, but by several very striking facts. 
 If Its truth be admitted, we must consider all the gases as capable 
 of losing their elasticity by depriving them of their lieat : they dif- 
 fer merely from the vapours in the great cold which is necessary 
 to produce this < hangc. Now the fa( t is, that several of the gases 
 may be condensed into li(|uids by lowering their temperatures. 
 Oxymuriatic acid gas becomes liquid at a temperature not niucli 
 under 40°; and at 32° it even forms solid crystals. Anamoniacal 
 gas condenses into a liquid at — 45°. None of the other gases 
 have been hitherto condensed. It is well known, that the con- 
 densation of vapours is greativ assisted by pressure; but the effect 
 of pressure diminishes as the temperature ol vapours increases. It 
 is very likely that pressure would also contribute to assist the con- 
 densation ot gases. It has been tried without elfect indeed in se- 
 veral t)i them. Thus air has been condensed till it was heavier 
 than water; yet it shewed no di>positioii to lose its elasticity. But 
 this may be ascribed to the high temperature at which the experi- 
 ment was made relative to the point at which air would lose its 
 elasticity. At the same time it cannot be deiiie<l, that there are 
 several ph.^iiomena scarcely reconcilable to this constitution of 
 the gases, ingenious and plausible as it is. One of the most strik- 
 ing is the sudden soliilification which ensues wlien certain gases are 
 mixed together. Thus when aiiimoniacal gas and muriatic acid 
 gas are mixed, the product is a solid salt; yet the heat evolved is 
 very inconsiderable, if we conqjare it with the difticulty of con- 
 densing these gases separately, and the great cold which they en- 
 dure before losing their elasticity. In other cases too, gaseoui 
 bodies unite, ami form a new gas, which retains its elasticity as 
 powerfully as ever. Thus oxygen gas and nitrous gas combined 
 torm a new gas, namely, nitric aciil, which is permanent till it 
 comes into contact with some body on which it can act. 
 FLUKE. See Pleuroxectls. 
 Flcke, in entomology. See Fasciola. 
 
 Fluke of a.v Anchor, that part of it which fastens in the 
 ground. See An-chor. 
 
 Fluke- \VoKM. See Fasciola. 
 
 FLU M FT, a town of France, in the department of Mont 
 Blanc, 30 miles N. F. of Chambcry, and 31 S. L. ot Geneva. 
 
 FLUM.MERY, a kind of jelly made of oatmeal, in the follow- 
 ing manner: steep three large table-spoonfuls of finely ground oat- 
 meal for 24 hours in two quarts of pure water, then pour off the 
 clear fluid, and replace it by three pints of fresh water ; strain it 
 through a fine hair-sieve, add to it tuo spoonfuls of orange- flower 
 water, and one of sugar; boil the whole to the consistence of a 
 hasty pudding, stirring it continually wliilc boiling, till it become 
 perfectly smooth. This preparation alfords a grateful and nutri- 
 tive breakfast to persons liable to costiveness, in consequence of a 
 sedentary life. 
 
 FLU()U-SPAR. See Flu ate of Lime, and the next article. 
 The fluates are iiriiicipally used for smelting ores, being foand to 
 act .as verv noweilul fluxes. 
 
 FLUOUIC ACID. The mineral called fluor, or fusible spar, 
 and in this country Derbyshire spar, was not properly distinguish- 
 ed from other spars till Nlarcialf published a dissertation on it in 
 the Berlin Transactions for ITbb. lie first proved, that it con- 
 tained no ;idi)hiiric acid, as had been formerly supposed: he then 
 attempted to decomi>ose it, by mixing together e(|nal qtiaiitities of 
 I his mineral and sulphuric acid, and distilling them. By this me- 
 thod he obtaini'd a white sublimate, which he supposed to be the 
 lluor itself volatilized by the acid. He observeci with astonish- 
 ment, liiat the glass retort was corroded, and even pierced with 
 holes. Nothing mrire was known concerning fluor till Scheele 
 published his experiments three years alter, by which he proved 
 th.at it i.^ composed chiefly of lime and a particular acid, which 
 h;is beefi called fluoric acid. The • composition of fluoric aciil is 
 equ;illy unknown with that of muriatic acid. Mr. Henry tried in 
 vain to decompose it by means of electricity. It is always obtain- 
 ed frtiiii fluor spar, in whirh mineral it is found in abundance. For 
 the investigation of the properties of this acid, we are indebted 
 rhietl) to Scheele and Priestley. I. It ma\ he obtained by put- 
 ting a (|uanlity of the spar in powder into a retort, pouring over it 
 ■M\ e(|iial quantity of sulphuric acid, and then applying a very gen- 
 tle heal. A gas iss'ies Irom the beak of the retort, which may be 
 
 leccivad
 
 F L U 
 
 4.56 
 
 FLU 
 
 receivtcl in thi^ usual manner in glass jais standing over mercury. 
 Tii\< 'fiii IS lluonc acid. 'J'he acid may be obtained dissolved in 
 Water by kuing to Uie retort a receiver containing water. ^Iiie 
 distillation is to l)e conducted with a very moderate heat, not only 
 to allow the gas to comlense, but also to prevent tiie.tiuor itself 
 from subliming. After tlie [trocess, provided a sjlass retort has 
 been employed, a crust of white earth is found in the receiver, 
 whicii has all the properties of silica. Scheele supposed that the 
 silica produced was formed of iluoric acid and water; and Berg- 
 man adopted the same opinion. But Wiegleb and IJucrholz 
 shewed tliat tlie quantity of silica was e.vactly equal to what the 
 retort lost in weiglit; and Meyer completed the proof that it was 
 derived from the glass, by the following experiment. He put 
 into each of three equal cylindrical tin vessels a mixture of three 
 ounces of sulpliuric acid anri one ounce of lluor, which had been 
 pulverized in a mortar of metal. Into l!ie f)r>t he put one ounce 
 ef pouniied glass; into the second the same quantity of quartz in 
 powder; and into tlie third nothing. Above each of the vessels 
 he hung a spunge nv.islened with water, and having covered (hem, 
 he exposed them to a moderate heat. 'I'he sponge in (he lirst cy- 
 linder was covered with tlie crust in half an hour; the sponge in 
 tiie second in twolioiirs; but no crust was formed in the third, 
 thougii it was exposed several days. In consecpieiice of tins deci- 
 sive experiment, Bergman gave up his opinion ; and wrote an ac- 
 count of Meyer's experiment to Morveaii, who was em|)loyed in 
 translating his works, to enable liini to correct the mistake in his 
 notes. Soon afttr the discovery of this acid, dinicullies and 
 doubts concerning its existence as a peculiar acid were started by 
 some French chemists. To remove tliese objections, Mr. Scheele 
 instituted and puljlished a new set of experiments; which not only 
 completely established the peculiar nature of the fluoric acid, but 
 once more displayed the unrivalled abilities of the illustrious dis- 
 coverer. 2. I'luoric acid gas is invisible and elastic like air; it 
 does not maintain combustion, nor can animals breathe it without 
 deaih. It has a pungent smell, not unlike tliat of nmriatic acid. 
 It is heavier than common air. It corrodes tile skin almost in- 
 stantly. 3. Neither taloric nor light produces any alteration on 
 it. 4. AVIien water is admitted in contact with this gas, it absorbs 
 it rapidly ; and if the gas has been obtained by means of glass ves- 
 sels, it deposits at the same time a (]uaiitity of silica. \\ ater ab- 
 sorbs a considerable proportion of this gas, but the precise quan- 
 tity has not been determined. The compound is usually termed 
 fluoric acid by chemists. It is specifically heavier than water, 
 has an acid taste, reddens vegetable blues, and does not freeze till 
 cooled down to 23°. "When heated, the acid gas is easily expel- 
 led, except the last portions of it, which adhere with great obsti- 
 nacy. 5. Neither oxygen gas nor any of the simple combusti- 
 bles or inconibuslibles. produce any change on iluoric acid, either 
 in the gaseoiis or liquid state. Ci. Fluoric acid gas does not act 
 upon any of the metals, but licpiid fluoric acid is capable of oxici- 
 ing iron, zinc, copper, and arsenic. It does not act upon gold, 
 platinum, silver, mercury, lead, tin, antimony, cobalt. 7. It 
 combines with alkaliej, earths, and metallic oxides, and forms with 
 them salts w'hich are denominated fluates. See Flvate. The 
 most singular property of Iluoric acid is the facility witli which it 
 corrode- glass and siliceous bodies, especially when hot, and the 
 ease with wliich it holds silica in solution even when in the stale of 
 gas. This aliinity i'or silica is so great, that the tliickest glass ves- 
 sels can only withstand its action lor a short time; and the greatest 
 precautions are scarcely sufiicient to obtain it entirely free from 
 siliceous earth. S. It produces no change, as far as is known, upon 
 any of the acids already described. 9. Its affinities ;ire us follows: 
 Lime, 
 Barytes, 
 Stron'iian, 
 Magnesia, 
 Potass, 
 Soda, 
 Ammoniaj 
 Ghicina, 
 Alumina, 
 Zirronia, 
 Silica. 
 10. A' liuoric acid produces an insolubl 
 it may be emidoyed with great advantage, 
 ed, to delect the presence of thai carth\v!i 
 
 compound «itI-T lime, 
 IS I'elletier has observ- 
 II held in solution. A 
 
 drop or two of the acid causes a milky cloud or precipitate to ap- 
 pear, if any lime be present. The property which this acid has oi 
 corroding glass, has induced several ingenious mea to attemj)t, b^ 
 means of it, to engrave, or rather etch, upon glass. The glass i- 
 covered completely with wax ; and then that part wdiere the letters 
 or figures are to appear is laiil bare, by reinoxiiig the wax. Thi; 
 wiiole is then exposed for some time to the hot vapours of fluoric 
 acid. This simple process is employed with advantage in writing 
 labels on glass vessels, and in graduating theiniometcrs, and other 
 similar instruments. T!ie discovery is by no means new; it has 
 been shewn by Beckman an l Accuni, that this acid was employed 
 for that purpose by Henry Swanhard, an artist of Nuremberg, as 
 early as 1670. He seems to have kept his art for some time se- 
 cret, but the receipt was made public by i'auli in 17i?j. See 
 
 F.TCHINO ON Cl..ASS. 
 
 FLUSHING, FLF.SSINGUK, or VLISSINGEN, a stroig 
 sea-port tovMi of Holland in the islund of VVahheren, and depart- 
 ment of the .\Ieuse, 4mi!esS.\V'. of Middlebura, and JS N.E. of 
 O^teiul. ^I'his towntogelher with the wliole islaiiiiwas annexed to 
 France by an imperial iiecree of Dec. £.'7, ISO'". Lat. 5r26'37 aS. 
 Lon. 3° 34' y F. from Greenwich. 
 
 FIT'S IKA, a genus ol worms of the order zoophyta. Animal 
 a polype pioceeiling from porous shells ; stem fixed, foliaceou-, 
 membranaceous, consisting of numerous rows of cells united in- 
 gether, and woven like a mat. There are about IS ^pecies. Tl. • 
 vcrticillata is found in the Mediterranean, adi'.ering to t'uci. 
 
 FLUFF, \_iixli(la,'] an instrument of music, (he simplest of all 
 those of the uindkind. It is played on by iilnwing it with (he 
 mouth, and the tones or notes are changeii by slopping and oper.- 
 ing the holes disposed for (hat i)urpose along its sitie. The ancici.' 
 fistula-, or llutes, were made of reeds, alterwards of wood, and la : 
 of metal. 
 
 Flute, German', is an instrument entirely different from tor 
 common fiute. It is not, like tha', put into ihe nioulh to be pla\- 
 ed, but tlie end is stopt with a tampion, or plug, and tlie lower lip 
 is applied to a hole about two inches and a hall, or three inches, 
 distant from the end.' Although playing the fiute is on the Ccn- 
 tineiit more generally practised than in Britain, yet we think it 
 useful to observe, that this exercise is by no means compatible 
 with either young or weak lungs. Indeed, all wind-instruments 
 are in many respects oiijectionable, because, alter blowing forci- 
 bly, a large portion of air is suddenly inhaled, and afterwards 
 liartially expelled from the lungs, so that they are by this de- 
 bilitating action continually expanded and relaxed, in a manner 
 very dil'ferent from tljat whicli Nature pursues in the piocess of re- 
 spiration. 
 
 Flute, or Fluvt, (originally pcrhaps./?o«0 is a kind of long 
 vessel, with fiat ribs, or floor timbers ; round behind, and swelled 
 in the middle ; serving cliiefly for the carrying of provisions in 
 fleets, or squadrons of ships, tliough it is also used for merchandize. 
 FLU'I'FS, or FLUTINGS, in archileclure, perpendicular 
 channels, or cavities, cut along the shaft of a column, or pilaster. 
 See Architecture. 
 
 FLUX, in medicine, an extraordin.ary issue, or evacuation, of 
 some humours of the body. See Medicine. 
 
 Flux, in metallurgy, is sometimes used synonymously with fu- 
 sion : for instance, an ore, or rather matter, is said (o be in liquid 
 flux, when it is completely fused. But the word flux is generally 
 used to signify certain saline matters, which facilitate the fusion of 
 ores, and other substances which are difficultly fusible in assays, 
 and in llie reductions of ores. \Ve shall here describe tlie fluxes 
 recoinmendei;' by Bergman, in vol. ii. 1. 'Fhe phosphoric acid, 
 or rather the microcosmic salt, as it is called, whicli contains that 
 acid partly saturated with mineral, partly with ammonia, and 
 loaded besides with much water. 'Ibis salt, when exposed to the 
 flame, boils and foams violently, with a continual crackling noise, 
 until the waler and ammonia have flown off; afterwards it is less 
 agit:'ted, sending foilh something like black scoriie arising from the 
 burnod gelatinous pari : these, however, are soon dispelh-il, and 
 exliibit a pellucid sphericle encompassed by a beaulilul green 
 cloud, wliich is occasioned by the ditiagration of the phosphorus, 
 arising from (he extrication of the acid by means of the inliamnia- 
 ble matter. Tlie clear globule which remains, upon ihe removal 
 of the flame, continues longer soft than (hat formed by borax, and 
 therefore is more fit for tlie addition of the matter to be dissolved. 
 The ammonia is expelled by the fire ; therefore an excess of acid 
 
 4 remains
 
 FLU 
 
 457 
 
 FLU 
 
 re-mains in what is left behind, wliicli readily attracts iiioisliire in a 
 cool |>lace. 2. Sotb, when put upon charcoal, melts siiperfi- 
 ciallv, penetrates the charcoal with a crackling noise, anJ thin 
 disappears. In the spoon it yields a permanent and pellucid splie- 
 ricle, aslongas it is kept lluid by the blue apex of the flames, but 
 when the heat is diminished, it becomes opaque, and assumes a 
 milky colour. It attacks several earthy matters, particularly those 
 of the siliceous kind, but cannot be employed on charcoal. 3. 
 Crystallized borax, exposed to the tlaine urged by llie blow-pipe 
 or charcoal, lirsl becomes opaque, white, and excessively swelled, 
 with various protuberances, or branches proceeding out from it. 
 When the water is expelled, it easily collects itsell into a mass, 
 which, when well fused, yields a transparent sphencle, retaming its 
 transparency even after cooliui^. If <alcined borax be employed, 
 the clear sphericle is obtained the sooner. Having provided every 
 thing necessary, the follow hig directions, are next to be attended 
 to. l.A common tallow candle, not too thick, is generally ])re- 
 ferable to a wax candle, or to a lamp. The snuff must not be cut 
 too short, as the wick should bejid towar<ls the object. 2. The 
 weaker exterior flame must first be directed upon the object, mi- 
 til its effects are discovered ; after which the interior flame must 
 be applied. 3. We must observe with attention whether the mat- 
 ter clecrepitates, splits, swells, vegetates, boils, &:c. 4. The piece 
 exposed to th^ tianie should scarcely ever exceed the size of a 
 pepper-corn, but ought always to be large enough to be taken up 
 by the forceps. 5. A small piece should be added separately to 
 each of the fluxes ; concerning which it must be observed whether 
 it dissolves wholly or only in part; whether this is effected with 
 or without effervescence, quickly or slowly ; w hetlier the mass 
 is divided into a powder, or gradually and externally cotxoded ; 
 with what colour the glass is tinged, and wliether it becon)es 
 opaque, or remains pellucid. Having given these directions, Mr. 
 Bergman proceeds next to consider the subjects proper to be ex- 
 amined by the blowpipe. These he divides into four classes: i. 
 Saline; 2. Earthy; 3. Inflammable; and 4. Metallic. These 
 subjects are treated at considerable length, in Mr. Bergman's 
 writings, to which we refer the reader. Fixed alkalies," nitre, 
 borax, tartar, and common salt, are the saline matters of which 
 fluxes arc generally composed. But the word flux is more par- 
 ticularly applied to mixtures ofdiflerent proportions of only nitre 
 and tartar; and these fluxes are called by particular names, ac- 
 cording to llie proportions of these ingredients, as in the following 
 instances : 
 
 I'Lux, White, is made with equal parts of nitre and of tartar 
 detonated together, by which they are alkalised. The residuum 
 of this delonatjon is an alkali composed of the alkalies of the 
 nitre and of the tartar, both wliich are absolutely of the same 
 uature. As tljc proportion of nitre in this mixture is more than 
 
 is suflicient to consume entirely all the inflammable matter of 
 the tartar, the alkali remaining after the detonation is perfectly 
 white, and is therefore called white flux ; and as this alkali is made 
 very quickly, it is also called extemporaneous alkali. When a 
 small quantity only of white flux is made, as a lew oimces for in- 
 stance, some nitre alwavs remains undecomposed, and a little of 
 the acid of the tartar, which gives a red, or even a black coltmr, 
 to some part of the flux ; but this does not ha|)pen when a large 
 quantity of white flux is made, because then the heat is much 
 greater. This small (|uantity of imdccomposed nitre and tartar 
 which remains in white llux is not hurtful in most of the metallic 
 fusions in which tliis flux is employed: but if the flux is re- 
 quired perfectly pure, it might easily be disengaged from those 
 extraneous matters by a long and strong calcination, without 
 lusion. 
 
 Flux, Crude. By crude flux is meant the mixture of nitre and 
 tartar in any proportions, without detonation. Thus the mixture 
 of c([ual parts of llie two salts used in the preparation of the white 
 flux, or the mixture of ojie part of nitre and two parts of tartar for 
 the preparation of the black flux, are each of them a crude flux 
 before detonation. It has also been called white flux, from its 
 colour; but this might occasion it to be confounded with the 
 white llux above described. The name, therefore, of crude flux is 
 more convenient. Crude flux is detonated and alkalised during 
 the reductions and fusions in which it is employeil ; and is then 
 changed into white or black flux, according to the proportions of 
 which it is composed. This detonation produces good effects in 
 these fusions and reductions, if the swelling and extravasation of the 
 detonating mattei-s are guarded against. Accordingly, crude flux 
 may be employed successfully in many operations; as, for in- 
 stance, in the ordinary operation for procuring the regulus of anti- 
 mony. 
 
 Flux, Bl.^ck. Black flux is produced from the mixture of 
 two parts of tartar and one part of nitre detonated together. As 
 the quantity of nitre which enters into the composition of this 
 flux is not suflicient to consume all the inflammable matter of the 
 tartar, the alkali which remains after the detonation contains much 
 black matter, of the nature of coal, and is therefore called black- 
 flux. This flux is designedly so prepared, that it shall contain a 
 certain quantity of inflanunable matter; for it is thereby capable, 
 not only of facilitating the fusion of metallic earths like the white 
 flux, but also of reviving these metals. From this property it is 
 also called reducing flux ; the black flux, therefore, or crude 
 flux made with such proportions of the ingredients as to be con- 
 vertible iuto black flux, ought always to be used when it is re- 
 quired that metallic matters are at once to be fused and reduced. 
 See Fusion. 
 
 FLUXIONS. 
 
 History of Fluxions. 
 
 (I.) The doctrine of Fluxions comprehends the arithmetic and 
 analysis of fluxions, and Fluents or flowing quantities. It consists 
 of two principal parts, one called the direct, and the other the in- 
 verse method of fluxions ; the first of these being the same in ef- 
 fect with the dilferential calculus, and the last the sauie with the 
 integral calculus of the foreign mathematicians. 
 
 (2.) It has been a matter of much dispute among mathemati- 
 cians, who was the flrst inventor of this method of calcula,tion ; and 
 two of the most celebrated pliilosophersof the seventeenth century, 
 have laid claim to the honour of the discovery, viz. Sir Isaac New- 
 ton, and Mr. Leibnitz. It appears however certain, that Sir Isaac 
 Newton was the first inventor of the method of fluxions, that he 
 had coiiiplt-ted his discovery about the year 1669, and had made 
 use of the method in his Compendium of Analysis and Quadra- 
 ture of Curves, before that time. His attention seems even to 
 Lave been directed to the subject before the year 1663. ,But it 
 VOL. II. — NO. 86. ■ ■ 
 
 was M. Leibnitz that first printed any Ihing relative to this branch 
 of calculation ; for in 1684, he gave the rules of the method in the 
 Leipsic Acts of that year, but without demonstrations. These 
 however were soon found out by the two brothers John and James 
 Bernoulli, w ho applied the calculus with considerable success to a 
 number of difiicult problems. 
 
 (3.) In 1687, Sir Isaac Newton's Principia was published, a 
 work which is almost wholly founded upon the same calculus. The 
 common opinion then was, that Newton and Leibnitz had each 
 invented it about the same time ; and in confirmatioji of this opi- 
 nion, it was observed, that neither of them made any mention of 
 the other, and that though they agreed in the substance of the 
 thing, yet they differed in their ways of conceiving it, calling it b3- 
 differcnt names, and using, each, a different notation. However, 
 foreign mathematicians having first learned the method by means 
 of M. Leibnitz's publication, became accustomed to look upon 
 him as the sole, or principal inventor, and were ever after strongly 
 prejudiced in, favour of irh uotatioii, sml jnftde of conceiving. 
 
 « A ■ • " " ■ " (4) Ab6ut
 
 458 
 
 FLUXIONS. 
 
 B» 
 
 (4.) Aboirt the year l6t)9, Mr. Fucio, in a Treatise on the Line 
 nf Swiftest Descent, declare J that lie was obliged to own Newton 
 35 ihe first inventor of the differential calculus, and the first by 
 inanyy^ars; and that he left the -world to judge whetlier Leib- 
 nifz, the second inventor, had taken any thing from him. This 
 precise diifihction between the first and second invcntdr, witii 
 the suspicion it uisinnated, raised a controversy betwei-n M. Leib- 
 nitz, supported by the editors of the Leipsic Acts, and the English 
 matheniatirians, who declared for Newton ; but Sir Isaac himself 
 never appeared on the scene. Writing succeeded each other, at 
 fifst but slowly on either side, probablv on account of the dist-ance 
 of places, but the controversy grew still hotter aitd hotter, iiil at 
 length, in the year 1711, Mr. Leibnitz complained to the Royal 
 Society, that Dr. Keil had accused him of publishing the method 
 effluxions invented by Sir Isaac Newton, under other nanu-s and 
 characters. He insisted, that nobody kneVv better than Sir Laar 
 himself, that he had stolen nothing from him : and required that 
 Dr. Keil should disavow the ill construction that iili^ht be put 
 upon his words. 
 
 (5.) The society referred the matter to a committee, who, after 
 due consideration, gave in fheir report as follows : " That M. 
 Leibnitz was in London in i(i73, and kept a correspondence <vith 
 Mr. Collins, by n^eans of Mr. Oldenburgh, till Sept. 1676, when 
 he returned from Paris to Hanover, by way of London and Am- 
 sterdam : that it did not appear that M. Leibnitz knew any thing 
 of the differential calcuUis before his letter of the 2Jst June, 1677, 
 which was a year after a copy of a letter w ritten by Newton in 
 1672, had been sent to Paris to be communicated to him, and 
 above four years after Mr. Collins began to communicate that let- 
 ter to his correspondents ; in Which the method of fluxions «-as 
 sufTicieutly explained, to let a mau of his sagacity into the whole 
 matter ; and that Sir Isaac Newton had even invented his method 
 before the year 1669, and consequently 15 years before M. Leib- 
 nitz had given any thing on the subject in the Leipsic Acts." 
 From which they concluded, that Dr. Keil had not at all injured 
 M. Leibnitz in what he said. 
 
 (6.) It seems beyond doubt, that Newton was the first inventor, 
 but some have been of opinion, that notwithstanding the decision 
 given by the Royal Society, there are strong presumptions of M. 
 Leibnitz having found the method for himself, without being pre- 
 viously acquainted with Newton's invention. 
 
 (7.) As the method of fluxions was invented by Sir Isaac New- 
 ton, so it was carried by him to a considerable degree of perfec- 
 tion, as may be seen in his Fluxions, and in his Quadrature of 
 Curves. The same has been since farther prosecuted and improv- 
 ed by Maclaurin in his Treatise of Fluxions; by D'Alembert in 
 the Memoires de 1' Acad, de Berlin ; by Euler in his various 
 writings, as svell as his Institutio Calculi Integralis ; by Cotes in 
 his HarmoniaMensurarum ; byWalmesley in his Analyse dcs Me- 
 sures des Rapportes et des Angles, &c. and by difl'erent authors, 
 both of this and other countries, as Emerson, Simpson, Landen, 
 ^Varing, Vince, &c. also, L'Hopital, the Bernoullis, Herman, 
 Riccati, La Grange, Cousin, and many others. 
 
 Definitions, Principles, and Notation of Fluxions. 
 
 (8.) In the method of fluxions, magnitudes or (|uantities of every 
 kind, are considered as generated by continued motion, by means 
 of which they increase or decrease ; as a line by the motion of a 
 point, a surface by the motion of a line, a solid by the motion of a 
 surface, and an angle by the rotation of one ox the lines which 
 contain it: the flux of time being supposed to be always uniform ; 
 and since all quantities, when w€ consider their magnitude only, 
 without regarding their position, figure, and other affections, may 
 be represented by lines, it follows, that cjuantities of every kind 
 may be considered as generated by motion. 
 
 (9.) Any variable i|uantity thus generated, is called a Fluent or 
 Flowing Quantity ; and the rate, or proportion, according to which 
 any flowing quantity increases at any position or instant, is the 
 fluxion of that qu.intily, at that position or instant. This rate of 
 increase is proportional to the magnitude by which the flowing 
 ouantity would be unil'orraly increased in a given time with the ge- 
 nerating celerity continued during that time, sVhich magnitude 
 nwy therefore be taken as a measure of the fluxion of the variable 
 •ijuantity. 
 
 ^10.) To illustrate (heie definitions, suppose a point ra, Plate 
 
 LXXII, fig. 1, be conceived to move from the position A, and 
 to generate a line AP, by a motion any how regulated ; and sup- 
 pose the celerity of the point m, at any position P, to be such, at) 
 would, if ffoin thence it should become, or continue uniform, be 
 siifTicient to cause the point to pass uniformly over, the distance 
 V p in the time allowed for the fluxion, then will the said line Ppt 
 represent the fluxion of the fluent or flowing line AP at that p0^' 
 
 sitlOM. 
 
 (I I ■) Again, suppose tlie right line m n, fig. 3, to move, from 
 the positior. AB, continu-ally parallel to itself with any continued' 
 motion, so as to generate the fluent or flowing rectangle ABQP,- 
 whilst the pouit m describes the line AP ; also let the distance Pp 
 be taken, as before, to represent the fluxion of the line, or bas^ 
 AP, and complete the I'ectangle VQqp ; then, like as Pp is tli* 
 fluxion of the line AP, so is P 5 the fluxion or flowing parallelo- 
 gram AQ ; for if the line V p be supposed to be generated with 
 an uniform celerity, in a given time, the parallelogram P 5 will 
 also be generated with an uniform celerity in the same time. 
 
 (12.) In like manner, if the solid AE'KP, fig. 3, be coile^iv^dfJ 
 to be generated by tlic plane PQK moving, from the positiol» 
 ABE, always parallel to itself, along the line AD, and if Pp de- 
 note the fluxion of the line AP : then, like as the rectangle PQ qp 
 expresses the fluxion of the tlo%ving rectangle ABQP, so also shall 
 the fluxion of the variable solid, or prism ABERQP, be expressed 
 by the prism PQR r qp. And in both these last two cases, it ap- 
 pears that the fluxion of the gerieratetl rectangle, or prism, is equal 
 to the product of ttie generating line, or plane, drawn into the 
 fluxion of the line along \vhich it moves. 
 
 (13.) Hitherto the generating line or plane has been considered 
 as of a constant or invariable magnitude; in which case the fluent, 
 or quantity generated, is a rectangle or a prism, the former being 
 described by the motion of a line, and the latter by the motion of 
 a plane. So in like manner are other figures, whether plane or 
 solid, conceived to be described by the motion of a variable mag- 
 nitude, whether it be a line or a plane. Thus, let a variable line 
 PQ, fig. 4, 5, and 6, be carried with a parallel motion along the 
 line AP, so that while the point P generates the line AP, the line 
 PQ may generate the area APQ ; by this means the point Q will 
 generate the line AQ, which will be a straight line when PQ as 
 well as AP, flows uniformly, otherwise it will be a curve. Here 
 therefore, there are several fluents or flowing quantities, namely, 
 the absciss or base AP, the perpendicular or ordinate PQ, the 
 area APQ, and the straight line or curve AQ. 
 
 (14.) In order to exhibit the fluxions of these quantities : let 
 P p, as before, be the fluxion of the base, complete the rectangle 
 PQr/), this rectangle will be the measure of the fluxion of the 
 curvilinear area APQ. For if the generating line were supposed 
 to become invariable at the position PQ, it is evident that while 
 the linePp,was described bv the point P with an uniform celerity, 
 the parallelogram P r would also be generated by the line PQ 
 uniformly, and with the very celerity with which the area APQ 
 was increasing at the position PQ. Next suppose that the variable 
 line PQ increases uniformly, after leaving the position PQ, with 
 the verydegvee of celerity of increase it had when in that position; 
 it is evident that the point Q will now describe a straight line 
 Q q, which, as in fig. 5 and 6, will be a tangent to (he curve at Q, 
 this line will also be generated with an uniform celerity, viz. the 
 very celerity with which the generating point was moving in the 
 curve at the position Q. Hence it appears, that as P pis the 
 measure of the fluxion of the base, or absciss A P, and Prof the 
 fluxion of the area APQ, so is the line r q, the measure of the 
 fluxion of the ordinate, or generating line PQ, and Q q the 
 measure of the fluxion of the curve line A Q. 
 
 (15.) In the doctrine of fluxions, the initial letters of the alpha- 
 bet, (I, b, c, d, &c. are commonly used to denote constant or in- 
 variable quantities ; and the last letters z, ?/, ,r, tc, &c. to denote 
 variable or flowing quantities. Thus, the variable line AP, fig. 
 3, may be represented by x, and the constant line P(i by 11 ; also, 
 in fig. 5 and 6, the variable absciss AP may be represented by x, 
 the ordinate PQ by j/, and the curve line A Q by :. 
 
 (16.) The fluxion of a variable quantity (ienoted by a single let- 
 ter is represented by the same letter with a point over it. Thus, 
 the fluxion of x is represented by x, the fluxion of v by j.', &c. 
 therefore in fig. 5. the line Pp or Q r will be represented by x, 
 the line r (^ by j>, aiulQ^ by x. For these flu.xions areas their 
 
 measures
 
 FLUXIONS. 
 
 4.59 
 
 iiioasures, and tlierefoi-o may be used instead ot'thcm. When tlie 
 liuxion of a qiianlity is itself variable its tluxioii is called the se- 
 cond fluxion ofllie lirst (numlity, and is denoted by two dots oyer 
 it; if the second rinxion be variable, it» fluxion is the third fluxion 
 
 and is denoted by three dots over it, &c. .v,.r, .r, .v, &c. represent 
 the first, second, third, fourth, &c. llnxion of x. The higher 
 ordew of (Uixioiis may be illustrated by fig. 4, 5, and 6; where if 
 X denote AP and i/, I'Q, and if PQ flow along A? uniformly, the 
 fluxion of the absciss Al' or i is constant, or always the same, or 
 .V, ^ o, in all the figures, if AQ be a right line, as in fig. 4, then 
 y =zrq, is also constant, for the angle 5 Q r = the angle A being 
 constant, and the angle Q r 17, a right angle, also Q r, constant, r q 
 i% always the same, or> = 0. But in rig. 5, rq. otJ continually 
 increases; and in fig. tj, decreases more and more, hence in both 
 cases y has a second fluxion, which is positive in fig. 5, and nega- 
 tive in fig. 6. 
 
 To Find the Fluxiovs of Flowing Quantities, called 
 The Direct Method. 
 
 (17.) If a variable quantity x be multiplied by a constant quan- 
 tity a, the fluxion will bee X-. f^or if JT increase uniformly, ax 
 wiil increase uniformly, and a times as fast, hence the fluxion will 
 be a.x, and llius in all cases the constant multiplier must be re- 
 tained. 
 
 (18.) The fluxion is not altered when a constant quantity is 
 connected to tlie variable one by the sign plus or minus ; thus the 
 fluxion of X ^ a is .V. For since a is constant and only to be 
 added or subtracted, it does iiot affect the increase or decrease 
 ofx. 
 
 (19.) The fluxion of the product of two variable quantities, as 
 xy, is the sum of the products of each into the flu.xion of the other, 
 2,ixj+yx. LetAP, fig. 7, = x, andPQ^;/; thenBP = 
 X 1/ := the flowing or variable rectangle, and let AD so move on 
 AC, and AC on AD, that the intersection Q may describe the 
 curve AQ, and let Pp represent the fluxion of AP, and Bi of AB 
 or PQ, then xy = the fluxion of the trilinear space ABQ, and »/.t 
 that of the space AQP, therefore .r >' -|- // .v =1 the fluxion of tlie 
 whole rectangle PB, by art. 14. Otherwise. Let the factors of 
 the product x and y, by flowing become x + x', and ;/ -j- y', then 
 the new or contemporaneous value of the flowing product will by 
 multiplication be found equal to x ;/ -{-x 1/ -\- y x' -j- .r' ;/' ; and sub- 
 tracting the original product x y, the remainder x y' -J/- y x' -[- x' if 
 will be the increment of the product generated in the same time as 
 x'ory': but this increment is not uniformly generated, for the part 
 of it denoted by x' y' arises from an increase added to that by which 
 the product is uniformly augmented, as may be thus shewn. Let 
 some part as half of tlie time be taken, then the quantities are 
 x' y' 
 
 x-\ and y -\ , and, as above, the increment of the product 
 
 2 2 
 
 xy' yx' x'y' 
 
 in the same time will be found 1 ( ; in i of the time 
 
 2 2 4 
 
 xy' yx' x'y" xy' y x' x'y' 
 
 it is 1 1 , in I it is 1 1 &c. Hence it is cvi- 
 
 4 4 16 8 8 64 
 
 dent that the part of the increment i y-f-)/ •>;'-)- x'7' has arisen from 
 an uniform increase, and the part x' ?/' has wholly proceeded from 
 an augmentation to that increase, for it continually rises from 
 to xy in a duplicate ratio ; hence had there not been an accele- 
 rated increase, the quantity x' y' would not have been generated ; 
 therefore if we write the fluxionsj/ and x instead of their measures 
 y and y, we have x> -|- 1/ .<• for the fluxion of xy. 
 
 (20.) By means of the above, the fluxions of the continued pro- 
 duct of any number of flowing quantities may be found as ofx^;, 
 wxyz, &c. Put o = Xi/t, and iv =: x y, then v =z w z, and v 
 = ti) i -j- 2 xo; and -i,, —xy -f ;/ i (art. 19.) ; and by substituting 
 the values of w and w, wc have 7c = xy » -j- t X7 -f-sy .v, and in 
 a similar manner the fluxion of xv x y z will be found equal to 
 tuxyi^ -\- zxi: I y -\- iwy x -\- ly x'to ; and thus for any num- 
 ber of factors. 
 
 I 
 
 (2J .) The fluxion of a fraction — is easily determined from that 
 
 y 
 
 of a product. Put — = », then x =vy, and i = r j/ + y » 
 
 X Vy 
 and y i =z .i — X y, and r = , and by substituting the 
 
 !f y 
 X xy y X — xy x 
 
 value of V, we have r = = , the fluxion of — • 
 
 r 
 
 y 
 
 (22,) From art. 19, and 20, the fluxion of the powers of flowing 
 quantities are also determined, for if x anAy (art. 19,) be equal, 
 then the product xy becomes x' and the fluxion 17 +?/ i- be- 
 comes I* -J-^'* =2 Jf •*) and thus the fluxion of x ji z (art. 20,) 
 is etiual to 3 x*;r when each of the factors is equal to x. And in 
 
 general the fluxion of X 'by the same article is evidently equal to 
 
 X ' ~ X repeated as often as there are units in n, that is equal to 
 
 n - 1 . 
 n X X. 
 
 (■i3.> Hence the fluxion is found when the index isafraction as 
 
 n _ , 
 
 of X "'.which put equal;/, then y"' = i", and in fluxions otj;' > 
 
 n— 1 . 
 n — ) . „ J . nx X 
 
 m—l 
 
 = (by substituting the value 
 
 o(y) 
 
 71-1 
 
 nx X 
 
 my 
 _ tl X" - 1 
 
 mx 
 
 (24.) In like manner is the fluxion obtained when the index k 
 _ 1 J, 
 
 negative, as ofi = — , which put equal y, then is ?/x = 1, 
 
 n 
 
 , . „ . n. , n — 1 
 
 and m fluxions x y -^ y nx 
 
 X 3: 0, andjJ = — 
 
 yni 
 
 n -1 
 
 yni 
 
 (by substituting the value of i/) 
 
 :r"+l 
 
 I 
 n X — n — 1 . 
 
 X . 
 
 (25.) The fluxion of the hyperbolic logarithm of any quantity x 
 
 X 
 
 is equal to — , that is the fluxion of the quantity divided by the 
 
 X 
 
 quantity itself. Let L be the principal verte.x of an hyperbola 
 LV, Plate LXXII. fig. 8, OR and OS the asymptotes, and OA 
 = AL =1, the parameter, and PM an ordinate parallel to AL. 
 Then from the nature of the hyperbola and of logarithms, the space 
 ALMP is known to be the hyperbolic logarithm of OP ; put OP 
 := X, and PM = y, then the fluxion of the space ALMP is equal 
 J/ + the fluxion of A P, orofx— I = y i-, (art. 14, and 18,) = 
 "the fluxion of the logarithm of x: but from the nature of the curve 
 
 1 
 OA -}- AL = OP + PM ; hence 1 — xy, and^= — , therefore 
 
 X 
 X 
 
 y X ■= — = the fluxion of the hyperbolic logarithm of x, 
 
 X 
 
 (26.) Let m be the modulus of any other system of logarithms, 
 and let c be the hyperbolic logarithm of any quantity x, then it is 
 well known that in z is the logarithm of x ii> the proposed system ; 
 
 X 
 
 but the fluxion of m z is equal to m %, (art. 17,) and is = — , (art. 
 
 X 
 
 m X 
 25,) hence m i = , hence the fluxion of the logarithm of any 
 
 X 
 
 quantity in any system of logarithms is equal to the fluxion of that 
 quantity multiplied by the modulus of the system, and divided by 
 the quantity itself, 
 (27.) By means of logarithms the iluxions ef exponential quan- 
 
 tiSts
 
 460 
 
 FLUXIONS. 
 
 titles are found, as ofy^wliich put equal to r, then by the proper- 
 ties of logarithms the log. z = x x log. y, hence by taking the 
 
 fluxions — = .V X log. y -\- X X — (art. 25, and 19,) therefore » 
 
 s y 
 
 = 2 i- X log. y -| = (by puling y for its equal :) y' ■<■ X 
 
 y 
 
 log. ?/ + r!/^~ / = the fluxion of the exponential y' ', 
 wiiich consists of two terms, and it is evident that if either of the 
 quantities r or y be constant, the term into whicli its fluxion enters 
 will vanish, the fluxion being equal to nothing : hence when the 
 
 i9o\. y is constant, tlie fluxion of the exponential quantity ;/ is 
 equal jr'*^jf X log. y. If rbe constant it ceases to be an exponen- 
 tial, and the fluxion is x y' ~ ^y as in articles 22, 23. and 24. 
 
 (28.) The second fluxion is derived from tlie first, and the third 
 from the second &:c. in tlie same manner as the first from tlie flowing 
 quantity. Thus the fluxion of I'is 3 r-A- ; (art. 22,) its second 
 fluxion is6.r .v- -fS-v^T , (art. 19, and 22,) &c. If .v be con- 
 stant, X =■ 0, and the second fluxion of x^ is 6 x x- 
 
 (29.) In the foregoing articles, it has been supposed that the 
 fluents increase, and tliat tlieir fluxions are therefore positive ; but 
 wlien it happens that the fluents decrease, then tlie fluxions are 
 negative and must be written with a contrary sign to that deter- 
 mined by those articles ; thus if in-the product i y, y decrease 
 while X increases, the fluxion of y is — y and the fluxion of the pro- 
 dtict is!/.v — xy. 
 
 (30.) From wliat has been advanced we may easily collect the 
 following practical rules for finding the fluxions of quantities. 
 
 1st. For the fluxion of any pozver oi- root of aflov.ing qvantify. 
 Multiply by the index and by the fluxion of the root, and diminish 
 the index by unity, (art. 22, 23, 24.) 
 
 2nd. For the fluxion of a product. Multiply the fluxion of 
 each quantity by the product of all the rest, and connect them by 
 tlieir proper signs, (art. 19, 20.) 
 
 3rQ. For the fluxion of a fraction. From tlie fluxion of the 
 numerator multiplied into the denominator, subtract the fluxion of 
 the denominator multiplied into (he numerator, and divide by the 
 square ofthe denommator, (art. 21.) 
 
 4th. For the fluxion of a lognrithni. Divide the fluxion of the 
 quantity by the quantity itsclt^and muitiply the result intothe mo- 
 dulus of the system of logarithms, (art. 25. 26.) 
 
 5th. For the fluxion of an exponential i/wnitity. Multiply llie 
 given quantity into the fluxion of its exponent and into the hyp. 
 log. of the root, and add the fluxion of ihe given quantity, found 
 by tlie first rule, as if the root only were variable. The last part 
 vanishes, and therefore need not be tound when the root is constant, 
 (art. 27.) 
 
 Cth. Li complex cases the preceding rules are to be used 
 jointly. Or the following general rule will be found useful when 
 there' are several variable quantities. Take the fluxion of the 
 given quantity as often as there are variable letters or symbols in it, 
 suppoMng fir^t only one ot ihem variable, ajid the rest constant ; 
 then ancflier variable, and tlie rest constant ; aiidsoonlill each has 
 been considered as variable, and connect all these fluxions by their 
 proper signs. 
 
 A'oie. When the given quantity consists of several terms, find 
 the fluxion of each term separately, and connect them all together 
 by their proper signs, The following example is added to illus- 
 trate the rules, particularly the sixth. 
 
 2 a ,r' )/' 
 Examp. To find the fluxion of' h l^.vp- log. i: — 
 
 ey z^' where r, i/and : are flowing (piantities. Proceeding as di- 
 rected in the first i)art of rule 6, the fluxion will stand thus ; 
 
 Aax^yy 6ay^. 
 
 2 a x' y- 
 
 + - + - 
 
 X . 
 -cz y 
 
 cyz 
 
 z z z^ z x 
 
 X hyp. log. : — cr ?/: i, which is the same as the foregoing. 
 
 The second, third, &:c. fluxions are found by the same rules (art. 28.) 
 
 Tlius the fluxion of a^ is 3a ^v ; its second, 6x.v'-+3x-a- ; and so 
 
 on : but ifi- be invariable, i- = 0, and the second fluxion of a'=: 
 
 Prob. 1. To DETERMINE Maxima and Minima. 
 
 (31.) When a quantity increases, its fluxion is positive ; when 
 it decreases, it is negative ; therefore wlien it is just betwixt in- 
 creasing and decreasing, its fluxion is =r 0. 
 
 Jiule. Fuid the fluxion, make it =: 0, whence an equation will 
 result givhig an answer to the question. 
 
 (32.) Examn. 1. To determine the dimensions of a cylindric 
 measure AliCD, fig. 9, open at the lop, which shall contain a 
 given quantity under the least internal superficies possible. 
 
 Lei the diameter Ali = .r, the allilude AC = y, the given" 
 quantity, or content = c, and i of Ihi; circumference of a circle 
 whose diameter is unitv — /' =,78539, &c. Then p x^y = c, and' 
 
 4c 
 4pxt/ = — , but ipxy =: the concave superficies, therefore 
 
 X 
 
 4 c 
 
 ^ p x'^ =: the whole internal superficies, which is to be a mi- 
 
 X" 
 
 4c i 
 nimum, therefore, its fluxion \- 2 p x x =z 0, hence pi' 
 
 4ax^yy -|- (5 o //'= j ' i x i— 2rt.v'iy'» xa -f- i. 
 
 + 
 
 cz y - 
 
 f;""^*- X hyp. log. i -f x ; '^ ) ^ ^y- Or, proceeding accord- 
 
 ing to tlie latter part of the 6th rule it will stand as follcvs, viz. 
 
 = 2 c, and 
 
 = 2 p x°-y 
 
 . = \/tl. 
 
 Since p x' = 2 c, and p x^y =z c, p l' 
 
 P 
 and X = 2 y ; whence y is also known, and the dia- 
 meter of the base must be just double tiie altitude. 
 
 Examp. 2. Let ABC represent a cone, AC the diameter of the 
 base ; to inscribe in it the greatest cylinder DFGl, fig. 16. 
 
 Putp =,78539, &c., then since A C = n . B H = 6 . B E 
 p «'- x^ 
 = X, =: the area of the end D E F of the cylinder ; hence. 
 
 l>' 
 
 the content of the cylhider 
 T^x —hx 
 
 pn- 
 
 b- 
 
 X b—x = max. or x^ x 
 
 3 x^ . 
 
 : ; hence, x =: 
 
 v^ = max. .-. 2ix.v 
 1 
 therefore E H = — /'. 
 3 3 
 
 F-camp. 3. Given x -{- y -\- z= a, and x ?/' ; ' a maximum, to 
 find X, y, and :. 
 
 As X, I/, z, must have some certain determinate values to as- 
 swer these conditions, let us supjiose such a value of;/ to remain 
 constant, whilst x and : vary till they answer (he conditions, and 
 then X 4" » = '^. anf^ :' i + 3 xi- a = ; hence, x : 
 
 3 X Z- 21 3 X ii 
 
 = , .: I = 3 X. Now let us suppose the value «£ 
 
 z to remain constant, and x and y to vary, so as to satisfy the con- 
 ditions ; then v -f> = 0, !/'•' .i- + 2xyyz= ; hence, x =—y =i 
 
 2 X !/.y ~ ^'J 
 
 =: , .-.!/ = 2 X ; substitute in the given equa- 
 
 '/' y •: 
 
 tioii these values of y and z in terms of x, and r-\-2x-\- 3x 3:0,. or 
 
 1 1 1 
 
 6 X = a ; hence, x —— a; :.y = — a;z = — a. In like man- 
 
 C 3 2 
 
 ncr, whatever be the number of unknown quantities, nnake any 
 one of them variable with each of the rest, and the values of each 
 in terms of that one quantity will be obtained ; and by substitu- 
 ting the values of each in terms of that one, in the given equa» 
 tioii, you will get the value of that qu>antity, and hence the values 
 of the others. 
 
 (33.) Fig. 10. To find the longest and shortest crdinates of any 
 curve, DEF, whose equation is known. 
 
 4 Make
 
 FLUXIONS. 
 
 4(51 
 
 Miiko AC l!ic' ali.cissa = .r, aii<l CE Uk- ordinule = y ; take l).v 
 means of ihe (.■i|iialion of ihe cuive a value of// in terms of j, and 
 linil its ii'ixion ; wliicii making = 0, an equation will result whose 
 roots <»ive the value of r when y is a nuxinunii or miirunum. 
 
 (34.) To determine when it' is a niaxinuun and when a mini- 
 nnim, take Ihe vaUie of ,;/, when .r is a litlle more than the root 
 of the equation so found, and it may be perceived whether it ui- 
 treases or decreases. 
 
 Prob. II. To DRAv/ A Tangent to anv Curve. 
 
 (3.1.) If TQ q he a tangent at Q to the curve AB, fig. .5, and 6, 
 and P/) or Q r tin- lluxion of the absciss, then r <■/ is the tlu.vion 
 of the ordin^itePQ, and since llio triangles (iriyandTPQ are 
 gimihir, r 9 : r Q : : Q P : P T ; hence we have thi^ 
 
 Rule. As the lluxion of the ordinate in terms of the abi^ciss, is 
 to the tiuxion of the absciss, so is the ordinate, to the subtangent 
 PT, and from T thus found, and through Q, the tangent is to be 
 drawn. 
 
 Examp. To draw a right line CT, fig. 1 1, to touch a given cir- 
 cle BCA in a point C 
 
 Let CS be perpendicular to the diameter AB, and put AO = 
 OB =a, BS =.», and SC =y: then, by the property of the 
 
 a ^ — X X 
 
 circle, y = y'^'a.i — a^ and J = 
 
 V 2-ax— x- 
 
 : : .y/Sa x — x- 
 
 2 ax—x- 
 
 = ST, the subtangent ; wliich we also know fro 
 
 a — x 
 other principles. 
 
 Prob. III. To determine Points of contrary Fle.xure 
 ♦ IN Curves. 
 
 (30.) Fip;. 10. Supposing CE to move uniformly from A to B, 
 the curve E)EF will be convex towards AB when the fluxionof the 
 ordinate increases, anil conc:ive when it decreases (art. 16.) ; there- 
 fore at the point VI here it ceases to bo convex and begins to be 
 concave, CK will have no second fluxion. And from this it is 
 evident, tliat if we suppo.se the ordinate CEto increase uniformly, 
 or its Ikixion to be constant, the curve will be convex while the 
 tiuxion of the aijsciss decreases, and concave wiiile it increases ; 
 iience, in the point of intiexion, the second fluxion of the absciss 
 will vanish ; therefore, we have this 
 
 Rule. Find the second fluxion of either the ordinate or absciss, 
 supposing the tiuxion of the other constant, and put it = 0, then 
 from this equation, and the equation of the curve, the value of 
 the absciss is determined. 
 
 Exnmp. 1. Letlhe nature of the curve be defined by the equa- 
 
 a .v2 
 tion, fi .x^ = a''!/ + x-y, then y = — , and > = 2 a^x x 
 
 u- -\- x ■ 
 
 (.(^4-.r-)' 
 
 hence, since x is constant, y = 2«'.v- X 
 
 -3x-2 
 
 {n' + x'Y 
 
 = ; therefore 3 j' = «', and .r = a f/} = A F ; from whicli we 
 a X - i a-i 
 
 determine FGory=:— — - = = -i a. 
 
 II- •\- X- u- -f- }a- 
 Examp. 2. To find the point of intlection or contrary flexure 
 in the conchoid of Nicomedes, lig. 1 J, putting AB= j, and DC 
 =: y, also AG := 0, and AP = n, then the equation of the curve 
 
 a4-y / " 
 
 is X = X v/i'— y^; hence .<■ —j x ( x ^b'-ij' — 
 
 , !/ ^ y' 
 
 — -■ j, and considering J/ constant, x z=.y^p^b''— y'^ X 
 
 • 0'/-\-y^\ 
 
 2a X O^-y' + ay'^-y^ )= 0, 
 
 (/,3 _ ,,2) / 
 
 2i(i-, .from whicli y and x are easily found. If. 
 
 sidered constant, we should have had ; = 
 
 J = - XX 
 
 or ?/' -j- 3 a ^/' = 
 
 had been con- 
 
 voL. n. — NO. 86. 
 
 ai'+!/3 
 
 .<■ I/ i^tr — y- . 
 
 hence> = '■ ^ X (£ b'~3if X o //- + !/'-3 (>^ j/' -f 
 
 3 «■•) = 0, from which (/= -f 3 « ;/« = 2 (J i- as before. 
 
 Prob. IV. T(i find the Kadii ok Cukvatcke. 
 
 (37.) The curvature of a circle is uniform in every pmnt, th;^t 
 of every other curve continually varyinj; : and it is measured :-.l 
 any point by that of a circle whose radius is of such a length that 
 the circle shall coincide with it in curvature in that point. 
 
 Thus if the circle SQD. and curve .UiB, (fig. 13,) have th™ 
 same curvature at the point Q, and CQ be the radius of the cir- 
 cle, it will also be the radius of curvature of the curve at Q, and 
 if the curve be genen^tcd by the evolution of a line from tin- 
 curve ICE, so that the radius of curvature CQ is always equal to 
 the part CIA, then is the curve ICE called the evolute', of which 
 the curve AQB is the involute. 
 
 Draw the diameter SI) parallel to the absciss AP, dr.iw the 
 ordinate QPF, and the tangent TQ </, also draw Q r parallel to 
 .\P or SF, and r q parallel to QP, and put AP = i, PQ = .'/, and 
 QC = )•, =: radius of curvature. Isiow, since the curves SQl), 
 AQB, have tlie same curvature at Q, they have a common tan- 
 gent TQ 7, at right angles to QC ; hence they have the same 
 fluxion » measured by Q 9, also the lluxions of their abscisses 
 and ordinates are the same ; that is x and y measured by Q r, 
 and r q are also the fluxions of SF and FQ, but from the similar 
 
 ;■ V ry 
 
 triangles Qrj and QCF, QF = , and FC=-^, or 
 
 ry 
 SF = r ; therefore taking the fluxions, r x i. — r i x, = 
 
 ?'.vi — »-> ryi,-\-i.''x 
 
 ■ •y, and — ry ii-\-ryii =»'' i-, hence » =- 
 
 xy—yx 
 
 . Any of the quantities x, y, or » may be supposed 
 
 .vj;->-.v ^^ 
 
 constant, if x be constant, or a-= 0, it will become •, if y 
 
 — xy 
 
 be constant, or>' =0, it will be , and if i be constant it will 
 
 J X 
 
 iy 
 be = QC, for .v--|-j;2 = x,2, and by taking the fluxions 
 
 .V ' ' 
 
 X .V i' 
 
 2xx + 2yy = 0, or, > = - 
 
 y ft' y « 
 
 j/A- + £^ fi^x-lXx X 
 
 y 
 
 From these several values of the radius of curvature QC, here 
 found, the corresponding values of AK and KC, will be obtained, 
 by means of the equations above. 
 
 ry »«i 
 
 Thii3AK = AP-|-FC=xH = x-i -, andKC 
 
 :QF-QP = --2/ = 
 
 i y :i — xy 
 
 y X — xy 
 
 — y. Hence if x be con- 
 
 stant, AK=x-{ , and KC = y. \i y be constant, 
 
 — '^y -> 
 
 i- i.°-x 
 
 AK = x-| , andKC= 7. Lastly, if » be constant, 
 
 .V y :< 
 
 6 B then.
 
 46^ 
 
 fluxions: 
 
 (hen, r Ixing = , 
 
 AK = X + ; 
 
 and KG : 
 
 -V- 
 
 And thc5c evpre^sions will serve as so many llieorcms for deter- 
 mining the curvature, ajid the evoliites of given cnrves. 
 
 E.iump. To tind the radius of curvature, and the evolute of the 
 conniion cycloid. 
 
 Let AQIS, (fiK- l-iO he the given curve, and ACIl its evolute, 
 
 and letQD and EC be |)arallel, and QF and KC perpendicular to 
 
 AG; put AQl5 = rt(=2BG), AQ = ;, AP = j;, and QP =: -■/. 
 
 And hy the properly of the curve AB-: BQ- : : BG : BD, or 
 
 2a3-r- (7i-:i 
 
 therefore y =^ . 
 
 y — • 
 
 2a 
 
 - ; I 
 
 
 
 '2az-i;^Xi.- 
 
 
 
 and 
 
 a- 
 
 K- X « 
 
 — z 
 
 
 i^>^/'J,a : — c- 
 
 hcnce QC : 
 
 
 And makiniT ~, constant 
 
 y 
 
 ■ — ^/'2az~ Z-, and KC 
 
 or AK = . 
 
 ■-.V 
 
 , which when z^^ a, or QCH 
 
 ACH = BH=o, 
 
 coincides with BH, ACH = BH=o, and hence Gil = 4a, 
 therelore because AH= (a-) : AC- (V» : - -J) : : AO {\a) : : AE 
 
 I " 1 which is the property of the cycloid, the evolute 
 
 \ 2a y 
 
 ACH is also a cycloid, equal and similar to the involute AQB. 
 
 PrOB. V. To DEMONSTRATE THE BiNOMIAL TlIEOKEM. 
 
 (3S.) It is well known, tliat by the continual multiplication of 
 I + .V, a series is produced with all the powers of .r regular! \ 
 ascending ; tlte first term being 1, and that the coefficients are not 
 alfected by the value of x, so that if x be made to vanish, they are 
 
 unaltered : let 1 + x\' — i -|- a .,■ + i x- -j- c x' + d x< + cVc. 
 Now, to detennine the values of a, h, c, d, &c. take the fluxion 
 of both sides of this equation, omitting x, which is found m every 
 term; then take the tiuxion of the resulting eqiiation, and so oil 
 continualh', whence the following equations : 
 
 71 X I -f j1" ^ — a + 2/u- + 3cx"- -f idx^ + &c. 
 
 ri'J-2 
 
 nxn-lx l+xl" =26 + 2.3cx + 3.4Jx-^-|-&c. 
 
 « X n — 1 X « — 2 X 1 + . 
 &c. 
 
 •^=2.3c + 2.3.Wx-f&c. 
 &c. 
 
 Now make j: = 0, and from the first equation, n = a ; from 
 
 Ihc second, n.n — 1 = 2i ; from the third n.n — l.« — 2= ~.3c, 
 
 n— \ n — \ n — 2 
 tiC. hence a = n; b:=n. , c = « . . , &c. 
 
 1 n~ \ 
 
 — X- -f- )( 
 
 Hence T+71" =\-\- nx-\-n. 
 
 2 2 J 
 
 *'-}- &c. which investigation holds whether n be a wliole number 
 or fraction, positive or negative. It is evident, that if x be 
 negative, the odd powers in tlie series will be negative. See 
 Algebra. 
 
 The Inverse Method, or the finding of Fluents. 
 
 (39.) The fluxion of any flowing quantity may be easily found in 
 all cases ; but it is difficult to find the lluents of man-v given 
 fluxions, and frecjuently it cannot be done at all, except by means 
 of the qiiadratiire or n^ctihcation of curve lines, or by logarithms 
 or by infinite series ; for, as there is no method for deducing the 
 fluent from the tiuxion a priori, by a direct investigation ; there- 
 fore we can onlylay down rules for those particular forms of fluxions 
 7 
 
 tliat we know, from the direct method, belonging to such kinds of 
 flowing quantities. 
 
 1. 1 o find tlie fluent of anv simple fluxion, vou need only write 
 the letters w ithout the dots over them : thus,' the fluent of'.v is .t, 
 and that of a x ■\- by, is u x -\- h ?/. 
 
 2. To assign tlie fluent of any power of a variable quantity, 
 multiplied by the tiuxion of the root ; first divide by the fluxion 
 of the root, add unity to tlie exponent of llie power, and divide 
 
 by the exponent so increased: for dividing the fluxion )ix ~ x 
 by A- it becomes nx ; and adding 1 to the exponent ('i— 1) 
 
 we have «x ; which, divided by n, gives x", the fluent of 
 nx .i. Hence, by the same rule, the fluent of 2j[^i=; 
 
 x^ ^ a+Tl' N 
 
 of a -f zY X « = ; and that ofa"' + t"M"x 
 
 4 
 
 that 
 
 .m-L 
 
 _|. J"\n+ i 
 
 When the root under a vinculum 
 m X ?( -|- 1 
 is a compound quantity, and the index of the part or factor without 
 the vinculum, increased by 1, is some multiple of that under the 
 viiiculiiin, put a single variable letter for the compound root, 
 and substitute its powers and fluxion instead of those of tlie same 
 value, in the given quantity, so will it lie rcLfucfd to a more sim- 
 ple form, to wiiicli tlie preccd.ng rule can then be applied. Let 
 «2 -j- .i-| J x'x be proposed, put z =^u- -\- x-, then x- z=z—a-, and 
 
 z 
 
 » = 2 X A- ; hence x^ .<■ =: 4. x- & = f » (z — a'), and (a'-j-x')^ -x^ 
 
 Z 5 2 8 
 
 X =z\ z'^ a (3 — a"), or -J :~ » — t «^ 2^ =. its fluent = -,'5 z-> — 
 ^a^ii^, and by substituting the value of i, the fluent becomes 
 ^ X a- + J-^T X x- — 1 lA . 
 
 3. To And the fluents of such fluxionary expressions as involve 
 two or more variable quantities, substitute, instead of such fluxion, 
 its respective flowing quantity ; and if every term be the same 
 quantity, that quantity will be the fluent. If the terms differ iii 
 the signs, it shews that some of the factors increase while others 
 decrease. Thus the fluent of x>j-\-yx, ox x y — y x =^ x y ; in 
 the latter case y decreases while x increases, and the fluent of 
 
 iy — xy 
 xyz-\-ixz-\-i,yxz=xyz, also the fluent of , or 
 
 iy xy X 1 
 
 := — , where x increases, 'jvhile — decreases, aad 
 
 ir y- ,'/ y 
 
 .<.-y-\-xy X 1 
 
 = — where both factors x and — increase or decrease 
 
 together. But it seldom happens that tliese kinds of fluxions, 
 which involve tw o variable quantities in one term, and yet admit 
 of known and perfect fluents, are to met with in practice. 
 
 4. When the tiuxion of a quantity is divided bj the quantify it- 
 self, the fluent is the hyperbolic logarithm of that quantity, or 
 which is the same, the common logarithm multiplied into2.30'^i8, 
 
 .V 
 
 &C. Thus the fluent of— is the hyperbolic logarithm of x, 
 
 X 
 
 ai 
 and the fluent of — is a X hyperbolic logarithm of x. On the 
 
 ,r 
 same priciple the fluents of the four following flu.xionary forms 
 are obtained : 
 
 '2 ah X 2a X 
 
 First form. The fluent of , or i X , is i X hy- 
 
 u'- — X- a' — x^ 
 a -\- X fl + X 2 a X 
 perbolic logarithm of ; for the fluxion of = 
 
 a + X 2a. 
 which divided bj- , gives 
 
 forms arc shewn in the same manner. 
 
 The lu'th «f the oth«* 
 
 Sfcima
 
 FLUXIONS. 
 
 4^.5 
 
 Second form. The fluent of 
 
 rithm of .r + y'jc^ui. 
 
 Third Form. The fluent oi 
 
 b.i 
 bx 
 
 ./; 
 
 is 6 X hyperbolic loga- 
 is i X hyperbolic loga- 
 
 \/j2 a X 4- .1 
 
 rithm of a + J + v^'i u x -\- .r*. 
 
 2 a h V 
 /■o«r<A Form. The llutnt of -— is i X hyperbolic lo- 
 
 x V a- 
 
 ^/ a'- ± x^ 
 
 garithm of 
 
 (7 + v^ "■' i ' " 
 5. Cfrt;;in fluenls may be found by iiicarH of circular arcs of a 
 circle to the railiu< 1. 
 
 Let AU, lig. J5, be a circular arc, put AT, its lan-reiit = t, T>\\ 
 the sine = ;/, AB = x, CT =.?. tiie r.uUus CD = «, and the arc 
 AD == z ; 'al>o let the tangent D s represent i, D n parallel to 
 AB, sn to DIl will express ;f anclj. Tlicn from the similar Iri- 
 
 ti''i ay 
 
 angles TAC, DllC'.and D n s, we obtain i = = — ^^^^^^j 
 
 >A1 
 
 ^v/J 
 
 -, anil thus four forms of fluxion-, 
 
 Forms. 
 
 Fluxio.vs. 
 
 FtUEKTS. , 
 
 
 a-^"-'x- 
 
 2 
 
 V. 
 
 — logarithm of ^/ jt" + y'i '^ + ^* 
 
 
 
 v/±rt+j" 
 
 n 
 
 VI. 
 
 X^ .V 
 
 2 . . /.r« 
 
 — X arc to sine V — 
 
 
 
 .^/a — i" 
 
 ;i a 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 VII. 
 
 .v^/-«.>' — .V- 
 
 — circ. scg. to rad. a and vers, i 
 '2 
 
 V'J a^r — 1 
 
 which differ oidv in the sign> from those found by logarithms, 
 riav be found bv ilu-an- of circular arcs, whose lengths are given 
 in a table, to a circle, Uie radius of which is 1, thus, 
 
 /. a t 1 
 
 First Form. The fluent of =b x arc to tang. — . 
 
 u--\-i- a 
 
 by y 
 
 Second Form. The fluent of — ■ = i X arc to sine — . 
 
 \^a'->j- " 
 
 b i X 
 
 Third Form. The fluent of — = b x arc to vers. — 
 
 v\'«.T-.r= " 
 
 ^ bas s 
 
 Fourth Form. The fluent'of =b X arc to ?cc. — . 
 
 ^\/ s^ - a' " 
 
 To the above we add the following, which are easily investigated ; 
 the hyperbolic logarithm is to be understood, and the radius of 
 the circle is 1. 
 
 (40.) Wlien the given fluxion is so complex that its fluent can- 
 not be found by any of theae means, it is then to be determined 
 bv the method of infinite scries ; thus, expand the radical or frac- 
 tion in the given fluxion by division, extraction of roots, the 
 binomial tlieorem, &c. and multiply the series by tlie fluxionai 
 Iftler, if it nad been left out in tlie ojieration, and such variable 
 -implf factor as the gi\L-n fluxionai exi)ression may contain ; then 
 lin.J th'j fluent of each term, by tiie foregoing rules for the fluents 
 required. 
 
 ai- 
 
 Thus, if it were [jroposed to find tlie fluent of , it bc- 
 
 FORMS. 
 
 II. 
 
 Fluxions. 
 
 «-l 
 
 a^x" 
 
 -1 . 
 
 1' X 
 
 a± I" 
 
 Flven'ts. 
 
 i — logarithm of u i j" 
 
 71 
 
 III. 
 
 IV. 
 
 ;-«-! 
 
 .1,1-1, 
 
 a-f i" 
 
 1 J" 
 
 — logarithm of 
 
 iia a ±_ r" 
 
 a — X 
 comes necessary to tlnow tlie fluxion into an infinite series, by 
 
 .v.v x-x 
 
 dividing a.i by a — x : thus, u.i -^ u — x := <■ -{ 1 
 
 + 
 
 a 
 
 «' 
 
 X'X 
 
 .r'v 
 
 + 
 
 -(-, &c. Now tlie lluent of each term of this series. 
 
 1= x' .X' 
 
 may be found by the foregoing rules to be x -\ 1 \ 
 
 2u 3(1- 4(1^ 
 
 ^* 
 
 n . 
 
 XXX 
 
 -j 1-, &c. Again, toapproximate the fluent of- 
 
 i«' c-^~x-\i 
 
 we first find the value of 
 
 expressed in a series to be 
 
 a a 
 
 + 
 
 C 2c^ 
 
 2iic 
 
 X X'' + 
 
 ill. 
 
 1 
 
 X J'-f 
 
 ■ja 
 16c' 
 
 ItiaC 
 
 16a\-^ 
 
 l6«'"c 
 
 A(tc'^ 8«V 
 
 X x^ -|-, &c. which value 
 
 1 v'« + v/' " 
 
 logarithm of 
 
 \ a~ x<* 
 X arc to cosine 
 
 being multiplied by .r .;•, and the fluent taken by the rules above 
 laid dov.n, we get 
 
 ar ' a 1 a ■ 
 
 ____ + X 
 
 n+lXC ^^ 2«c «+3 
 
 + 
 
 3« 
 St- 
 
 1 
 
 4<ic3 
 n+7 
 
 n+5 
 
 Sa-c 
 
 «+5 
 
 16c' 
 
 Itxic^ Ib'aV ItifiV 
 
 X h. &(•• 
 
 (41.) The fluent found from a given fluxion by the foregoing 
 rules will frequently require a correction, for though a fluent laii 
 have but stat iluyi«ii, yet a fluxion may have an infinite ntrmber 
 
 cf
 
 4b4 
 
 F-LUXIONS. 
 
 of fliier.ts •, thus the fluent of .<• is .r, or .r + c, (art. 18,) w hatever 
 be tlie value of the constant part c, callecl tin; correction. 
 
 To determine the correction, consider whether the fluent be- 
 comes equal to nothing, or of a known value at tiie time it ought ;■ 
 if not SUCH a quanlily must be annexed as will bring it to its pro- 
 per value. Or proceed by the following rule : 
 
 In the general equation of the fluents, wi-??e for each quajitity 
 the value it is known to have at any one certain time dr position, 
 and subtract tlie sides of the resultuig equation from the corres- 
 ponding side of the general one, and the remainder will give the 
 correction sought. 
 
 Let a =: 4((.i'.v, the general fluent is 3 = ax*, and let fx=d 
 when X =: i ; then, 
 
 For the gei'.eral equation z = o.v'; substitute d for z, and b for .r, 
 then d=ah', and by subtracting t — d-=:ax*~ab^, or2=a.T' 
 — ab'-{-d the correct fluent, the correction being equal to 
 W— ai':=c, it Is evident that If (Z=::0, the correction is 
 c — — (ib\ and if 6 = 0, it is c = d, if. rf = 0, and 6 = 0, the cor- 
 rection vanishes, or is equal to nothing. 
 
 PSOB. I. To FttJD THE AkEA OF AKY ClRVR. 
 
 (42.) Rule. Multiply the ordinate by the fluxion of the ab- 
 sciss, and the product gives the fluxion of the figure, whose fluent, 
 corrected if necessary, is the area of the fij^ure. 
 
 Examp. 1. Fig. 17. Let the curve AK. VI H be the common 
 parabola. Let u represent the area, and « lis fluxion. 
 
 l/=a'- 
 
 therefore zi 1= K m H15 {^^yi) = 
 
 i' x^ .V : whence u 
 
 4 i 
 X a' x^ 
 
 i 'J ■'■■■■ 
 
 X AB X BR : hence a 
 
 parabola is ^ of a rectangle of the same base and altitude. 
 
 Examp. 2. Lei the proposed curve CSUR (lig. IS,) be of such 
 a nature, tliat (supposing AB unity) the sum oi the areas CSTBC 
 and C'liGl'C', whose abscisses are AT' and AG, shall be equal 
 to the area CRN BC, whose corresponding absciss AN is equal 
 to AT X AG, the product of the measures of the two former 
 abscisses. 
 
 First, in order to determine the equation of the curve (which 
 niu'st be known before the area can be found,) let the ordinates 
 GD and NR move parallel to themselves towards II F ; and then 
 having put GD =^, NR=;:, AT = «, AG = .s, ami AN = «, 
 the fluxion of the ai-ea CDGB will be represented Ijy i/s, and that 
 of the area CENB by~z«; which two expressions must,, by the 
 nature A)f the problem, be equal to each other; because the latter 
 area CS IB, which is here considered as a constant (]uantity : and 
 it is evident that two expressions that diiler only by a constant 
 quantity, must always have equal fluxions. 
 
 Since, therefore, ys is := zu, and u = as, by hypothesis, it fol- 
 lows, that !t = as, and that the-'first equation (by substituting for 
 u) will become i/s = azs, or i/ := az, or lastly 1/* = '^('s, that is, 
 GDxAG=NRxAN: therefore, GD:"NR : : AN : AG ; 
 whence it appears, that every ordinate of the curve is reciprocally 
 as its corresponding absciss. 
 
 Now, to lind the area of the curve so determined, put AB = 1, 
 BC = 6, and BG = a- : then since AG, (1 +x): AB (1) : : BC 
 
 (6) : GD (y) \vc have ?/ = , consequently « (=i/A) = 
 
 i + x 
 
 X-x — .f-v 
 
 &c. Whence BGDC, 
 
 &c. 
 
 1 -^x 
 
 .1' X-' X' .l- 
 
 the area itself, will be =b X : x 1 [- — 
 
 2 3 4 5 
 which was to be found. •■» 
 
 (43.) Hence it appears, that as these areas have the same pro- 
 perties aslogluiihius, this series gives an easy method of comput- 
 ing logarithms ; and tl;e fluent may be found by means of a table 
 of logarithms; and ever) tUixion whose fluent agrees with any 
 known logarithmic expression, miy be found the same way. 
 
 PnOB. II. To DETERMINE THE LeNGTH «? Cl'RVES. , 
 
 (iA.) Fig. 19. Because C cd is a right-angle, C J/ =: C t--\- 
 d c- ; wherefore the fluxions of the abscits and ordinate being 
 
 scjuared, their sum gives the square of the fluxion of the curve ; 
 whose root being extracted, and the fluent taken, gives the icuglii 
 of the curve. 
 
 Examp. To find the length of a circle froni its tangent. Make 
 the radius AO, fig. 19, = a, the tangent of AC = (,■ and its se- 
 cant = s, the curve = z, and its fluxion » ; because Ihr triangles 
 OTC, OCS, are similar, OT : OC : '! OC : OS ; whence OS =: 
 li- a- <fl u'-ti 
 
 ^, and SA = « — a — ; whose fluxion is ■ — - { 
 
 s s ./TTi-r. „-q:p - 
 
 and because the triangles OTC, dCe are similar, TC (=0 : -I'O (= 
 
 (i-t't \ u-i 
 
 j • C (i = ~ = fluxion of 
 
 a^T^'iJ «' + ('• 
 
 the curve. Kow by converting this into an infinite series we haw 
 
 (4 i't tH 
 
 (he fluxion of the curve = < 1 , &c. and conse 
 
 «'^ a* (fi 
 f' P fi 
 
 quently z=z t 1 ] , &c. = AR. 
 
 3a* '/a'' ya'^ 
 
 s/a- -f- t-) •.-.Ce — 
 
 . 3a"- 
 
 (45.) Other series may be deduced from the versed sine, so- 
 cant, &c. and these are of use for finding fluents which cannot be 
 expressed in linite terms. 
 
 Prob. III. To riND THE Content of a Solid. 
 
 (46.) Let the surface of the generating plane be multiplied by 
 the space it passes through in any time, the product will give a 
 solid which is the fluxion of the sohtl required : the surface must 
 be computed in terms of .x', which represents the line or axis on 
 which it moves, and by its motion on which the fluxion is to bo 
 measured-, and the fluent foimd will give the content of the solid. 
 
 Exainp. I . Let it be proposed to lind the content of a cone 
 ABC, fig. 20. 
 
 i'ut the given altitude (AD) of the cone = a, and the semi- 
 diameter (BD) of its base =::: h, the solid = .s, its fluxion = s and 
 the area of a circle, whose radius is uni_tyj =:p: then the dis- 
 tance (AF) of the circle EH, from tlie vertex A, being denoted 
 
 bx 
 by .r, we have by similar triaiigles» as a : & : : r : EF (y) = — . 
 
 a 
 pb-i-i- 
 Whence in this case, .s (=;>;-<) = ; and consequently * 
 
 ■obh' 
 
 3a- 
 
 -; {—p X BD' X 3 AD) for the content of the whole 
 
 cone ABC : which appears from hence to be just ^ of a cylinder of 
 the same l>ase and altitude. 
 
 Examp. ■2. Let it be required to find tJie solid content of a sphe- 
 roid, AFBII, fig. '21. Let the axis AB, about which the solid is 
 generated, he ^= a, p =: area of a circle to the radius I , and the 
 other axis FH of the generating ellipsis = b\ then, from the pro- 
 perty of the ellipsis, we have a^: is :.- AD x BD (x X a — ,r) : DE^ 
 
 b^ 
 
 iy''). Hence y- =: — x a x— xx ; and thefluxion of the solid, i 
 a- 
 
 pb-_ pis 
 
 (= p y- x) =: — -X ax'x — x-.i- and the solidity s= — x 
 
 «' rt^ 
 
 i« i-.T — 4 .1' = the segment AIE ; which, when AD (r) = AB 
 pb' 
 
 (a) becomes I x in''—^u^)ipab- = ihe content of the 
 
 V-o- 
 whole spheroid. \\ here, if b (FH) be taken = a (AB), we shall 
 also get 6 />■« for (he l! ne content 'of the sphere, whose diameter is 
 u. Hence- a splvere or spheroid is 5 of il!> circumscribing cyliu- 
 
 ' pb' 
 der : for the aiiea of the circle FH being expressed by — , the 
 
 4 
 content
 
 r p 
 
 Q ■/ r 
 
 -jal J, 
 
 1* P 
 
 E ■•' » -< 
 
 H : Q 
 
 
 •1 
 
 \ \ 
 
 \ 
 
 
 A B T G :iS 
 
 )'tihh*hf.i i'vJtvnf^ itinHft-.Mil'.i FtfM.Loruhtt i3i>o.
 
 FLUXIONS. 
 
 46: 
 
 ;> 
 
 contni! ol tlu; cvliiulur, wliosc iliainitei' is FA, aiul altitude AB, 
 
 ♦ ill be ; of wliicl) ipah' is cvidiiUlv Hie two tlnrd [witi. 
 
 4 
 
 Trob. IV". To compute the Surk^ce of any Solid Rody. 
 (47.) Tlic fluxion of tlie surface of tlie so!i<l is equal to tlie jieri- 
 plipiy of tlie surface, by whose motion tlie solid is geiieialcd, mul- 
 tiplied by itj velocity on tlie edge of the solid, and tlie computa- 
 tion is made as in the lorcgoiiig. 
 
 Examp. J. Let it be jjroposed to determine the convex super- 
 ficies of a cone ARC, lis;. 20, then tlie seinidianieler of the base 
 (IJDorCO) beini-iMil = 6, the slanting line, orbypothenuse, AC 
 = <-, and KH (parallel to DC) = y, All — z, the surface = v:, 
 its fluxion = w, and p ~ the periphery of a circle, whose diameter is 
 unity, we shall, from the similarity of the triangle; ADC and 
 
 Ilm/i, have i:c ::> (/rtt) . i (11 /() = — : whence xv (2/i!/i) 
 
 b 
 
 -Vyy 
 
 -; and consequently \i 
 
 This, when y = «, bc- 
 
 coiiie» r^ /) c /i =/) X DC X At^ ::= the convex supi-rfities of th~ 
 whole cone ABC : whicii then-tore is etjuil to a rei:tanglc under 
 halt the circunifeience of the lja,e ami the siaiitmg line. 
 
 F.xauip. 'Z. To (ind the surfa<^ ^-nerated by the cvcloi-.lal curve. 
 
 Put BE, fig. 22, = z, I'D = V. liF = r, liD — a. s = the sur- 
 face, and p ;= ti.2S31H, &c. then from the properly of the cycloid 
 i _x . i — i 
 
 it will appear that i = a'-x *.v; therefore s =^Tj^ ^^ PI/^'* "''' 
 
 X _X 1 _i X X 
 
 = /> X « — X X 1^ T ^.i = pa '^x *.v — pa »r ^a ; hence .y 
 
 3 -X ^ i 
 
 =:'2pa^ r'- — ^pa ■'a'', the surface generated by BE.whicli needs 
 no correction, since when s :=. o, jt = o ; when x = a, we have 
 
 .5 = 4 /) (J* 
 
 , equal to tlie whole surface generated by BA. 
 
 3 
 
 (4?) The method o.'fluxions is also applied to find the centres 
 of gravities, and oscillation of diil'erenl bodies; to determine ihe 
 p.illis described by projectiles acted on by central forces, the re- 
 sistances to motions in resistini; media, the attractions of bodiei 
 under dilfereiit forms, the directions of wind w hicii has the greatest 
 eflect on an engine, and to solve many curious and useful problems, 
 as may be seen in the authors on diis -ubject above mentioned. The 
 treatise by Simpson, and that by Vince, deserve particular notice. 
 
 FLY, in entomology, a large order of insects, the distinguishing 
 characteristic of which is, that their wings are transparent. By this 
 they are distinguished from beetles, butterflies, grasshoppers, &c. 
 Flies are subdivided into those which have four and those which 
 tavetvro wings. See Aris, Formica, Culex, Musca, &c. 
 
 Fly, in mcclianics, a cross wiln leaden weights at its eiuls ; or 
 rather a heavy wheel at right angles, to the axii of a windlass, jack, 
 or the like ; by means of which, the force of the power, whatever 
 it is, is not only preserved, but equallv distributed in all parts of 
 the revolution of the machine. See SIechanics. Tiie liy may 
 be applied to several sorts of engines, whether moved by men, 
 horses, wind, or water, or any other anima'e or inanimate power; 
 and is of great use in those parts of an engine which have a quick 
 circular motion, and where the power of the resistance acts une- 
 qually ni the different parts of a revolution. This has made some 
 people imagine, that the fly adds a new power; but though it may 
 (be truly said to facilitate the motion, by making it more uniform, 
 yet upon the whole it causes a loss of power, and not an increase : 
 for as the fly has no motion of its own, it certainly requires a con- 
 stant force to keep it in motion ; not to mention the friction of the 
 pivots of the axis, and the resistance of the air. The reason, there- 
 fore, why tlie fly becomes useful in many engines, is not that it 
 adds a new force to them ; but becaibe, in cases w here the power 
 acts uneqniilly, it serves as a moderator to make the motion of re- 
 volution almost every where equal : for as the fly has accumulated 
 in itself a great degree of power, which it equally and gradually 
 exerts, and as equally and gradually receives, it makes the mo- 
 tion in all parts of the revolution pretty nearly equal and 
 uniform. The very manifest consequence of this is, that the 
 engine becomes more easy and convenient to be acted on and 
 moved by the impelling force ; and this is Ihe only bcneflt ohtained 
 by the fly. The best form for a fly, is that of a heavy wheel or 
 circle, of a fit size, as this will not only meet with less resistance 
 from the air, but being continuous, and the weight every where 
 equally distributed through the perimeter of the wiieel, the motion ' 
 .•ill be more easy, unitorni, and regular. In this t'onii, the flv is' 
 nost aptly applied to the perpendicular drill, which it hkewise serves 
 to keep upright by its cenlriiiig-.il force : also to a uindlass or com- 
 mon winch, where the motion is quick; for in pulling upwanis , 
 from the lower part, a person can e.xeirise more power than in 
 thrusting forward in the upper quarter : where, of course, part of 
 his force would be lost, were it not accumulated and conserved in 
 i\v: equable motion of the fly. Hence, by this means, a man may 
 •vork all day in diawiiig'up a weight of 4()lb. whereas 301b. 
 voiild create him more labour in a day without the fly. 
 
 Fly, ill the sea language, that part of the mariner's compass on 
 ivbich the several winds or points are drawn. . " Let fly the sheet," 
 
 VOL. 11. — NO. 86. 
 
 is a w ord of command to let loose the sheet, in ca-r of a gost of 
 wind, lest the ship should overset, or spend her top-sails and masts ; 
 which is prevenied by letting the sheet go amain, that it may 
 hold no wind. 
 
 Fi.v-BoAT, a large vessel with a double brow, carrying from four 
 to six hundred tons. 
 
 FLYERS, in architecture, such stairs as go straight, and do not 
 wind round ; nor have the steps made tapering, but the fore and 
 back pait of each stair, and the ends, respectively parallel to one 
 another; so that if one flight do not carry you to your intended 
 ' height, there is a broad luJf space, from whence you begin to fly 
 with steps every where of the same length and breadth, as before. 
 Fly-Fishi.\g, the act, or art, of catching fish with a fly. 
 The fly w ith which the hodk is baited may be either natural or ar- 
 tilicial ; they are made of various sizes and colours according to tlie 
 sort of fish or the season. See Fishing. 
 
 Fly Honeysuckle. See Lonicera, No. 10. 
 Fly Honeysuckle, African. See Halleria. 
 FLYING, the progressive motion of a bird, or other winged 
 animal in tlie air. The parts of birds chiefly concerned in flying 
 are the wings and the tail : by the former, the bird sustains and 
 wafts himself along; and by the latter, he is assibicd in ascendinjr 
 and descending, to keep his body poised and U|)riglil, and to ob- 
 viate the vacillations thereof. It is by the largeness and strength 
 of the pectoral muscles, that birds are so well disposed for quick, 
 strong, and continued flying. These muscles, which in men are 
 scarce a 70th part of the muscles of the body, in biids exceed and 
 outweigh all the other muscles taken together; upon whichTMr. 
 Willoughby remarks, that if it be possible for a man to fly, his 
 \yings must be so contrived and adapted, that he may use his legs, 
 and not his arms, in mauagingthem. Tlw tail, Mes'si-s. WiUounh- 
 by, Ray, and many others, imagined to be principally employed 
 in steeling and turning tiie body, as a mil ier; but Borelli has put 
 it beyond all doubt, that this is the least use of it. Its chief use is 
 to assist the bird in its ascent and descent in the air, and to obvi- 
 ate the vacillations of the body and wings ; for, as to lurnin" tlie 
 body to tills or that siile, it is peiformeil l)y the wings ;ni;l fncji- 
 nation of the body, and but very little by the help of Ihe tail. 
 The flying of a bird, in fact, is quite a ditTerent thing horn the row- 
 ing of a vessel. Birds do not vil)rate their wings towards the tail 
 as oars are struck towards the stern, Init wall Ihcm do>v :,w:,rds ; nf,r 
 <loes the tail of the bird cut the air at riuht augU s. ;;> the ruddpr' 
 does the water; but is disposed hori.ontiillv, anti preserves the 
 same s.ituation what way soever the bird (urns. In eflptt, as a 
 vessel is turned about tm its centre of gravity to the riohl, by ^ 
 brisk application of the oars to the left ; so ;i bird in beating t'hg 
 air w ith its right wing alone, towavd? Uif tail, v, HI turn its fory^parf 
 CC" ,j-
 
 FOD 
 
 466 
 
 FOI 
 
 s«» 
 
 to tlie lert. 'I'liiis p.geons clnnging their course to the U It would 
 labour it with their rigiit wing, keeping the other almost at rest. 
 Biid, of a long uerk alter tlieir course l)y the incHnation of their 
 heud and neck, which alterina: the course of gravity, the bird will 
 proceevl in ;i new direction, ^fhe act ol' flying is thus pert'onned: 
 The bird tir-l bends his legs, and springs with a violent leap from 
 the ground; then opens and expands the joints of his wings, so as 
 lomake a r ght line perpendicular to the sides of his body : thus the 
 uings, with all the feathers therein, constitute one continued la- 
 mina. Being now raised a little above the horizon, and vibrating 
 the wings with great lorce and velocity perpeudicuUirly against the 
 subject air, that lluid resists those successions, both from its natural 
 inactivity and elasticity, by means of which the whole body of the 
 bird is protruded. The resistance the air makes to the withdraw- 
 iiig of the v.'ings and consequently the progress of the bird, will be 
 so much llie gre.iter, as the stroke of the fan of the wing is longer: 
 but as the force of the wing is continually diminished by this re- 
 sisl.uice, when the two forces continue to be in e(iuilibrio, the bird 
 will remain susper.ded in the same plrxe ; for the bird only ascends 
 so long as the arch of air the wing describes makes a resistance 
 equal to the excess of the speciiic gravity of the l)ird above the air. 
 If the air, tlierefore, be so rare as to give way with the same velo- 
 city as it is struck withal, there will be no resistance, and conse- 
 quently the bird can never mount. Piirds never liy upwards in a 
 perpendicular line, but always in a parabola. In a direct ascent, 
 the natural and artificial tendency v.'ould oppose and destroy each 
 other, so that the progress would bo very slow. In a direct descent 
 thev would aid one another, solliat the fall would be too precipitate. 
 Flying, Artificial, that attempted by men, by tlie assistance 
 of mechanics. The art of flying has been attempted by several 
 persons in all ages. The Leucadians, out of superstition, are re- 
 ported to h.ive had a custom of precipitating a man from a high 
 clirf into the sea, first fixing feathers, variously expanded, round 
 his body, in order to break the fall. Friar Bacon, not only affirms 
 the artofilying ]jossible, but assures us, that he himself knew how 
 to make an' engine wherein a man sitting might convey himself 
 through the air like a bird ; and further adds, that there was then 
 one wlio had tried it with success. The secret consisted in a couple 
 of large thin hollow copper globes, exhausted of air; which being 
 much lighter than air, would sustain a chair whereon a person 
 might sit. Fa. Francisco Lana, in his Prodromo, proposes the 
 same thing as his own thought. But Dr. Hook proves that this is 
 impracticable. The philosophers of King Charles II's reign were 
 mightily buried about this art. Bishop Wilkins was so confident 
 of success in it, that he savs, he does not question but in future ages 
 it will be as usual to hear a man call for his wings, w hen he is going 
 a journey, as it is now to call for his boots. 
 
 Flying- Army, a small body under a lieutenant or major- 
 general, sent to harrass the country, intercept convoys, prevent the 
 enemy's incursions, cover its own garrisons, and keep the enemy 
 in continual alarm. 
 
 Flying Fish, a name given to several species of fish, which, by 
 means of their long fins, keep themselves out of water a consider- 
 able time. See Exocoktus. 
 
 Flying Pinion, a part of a clock, having a fly or fan to gather 
 air, and so bridle the rapidity of the clock's motion, when the 
 weight descends in the striking piece. 
 
 FLY-TRAP, VENUS's, in botany, a singular sensitive plant, 
 lately discovered. See DioN.tA. 
 Fly-wort, in botany. SeeSiLENE. 
 
 FO, or FOE, an idol of the Chinese, originally worshipped in 
 the Indies, aHd transported from thence into China, together with 
 the tables wiih wliich the Indian books were filled. He is said to 
 have performed most wonderful things, wdiich the Chinese have 
 described in several -volnines, and represented by cuts. 
 
 FOCHIA, NOVA, orFOUCHEA, a sea-port town of Asi- 
 atic Turkey, in Natolia, on the Gulf of Smyrna. It is 32 miles 
 S. S. »V. of Pergamo. 
 
 FOCUS, [Lat.] in optics, the point from which rays diverge, 
 or to which they converge. Sec Optics. 
 
 Fociis, in conic sections. See Conic Sections. 
 FODDICK, [fnthre, father, Sax.] dry food stored up for 
 cattle against winter. 
 
 Fodder, in the civil law, is used for a prerogative that the prince 
 has, to be provided of corn and other meats for his vei'ses, by the 
 ■tubjccts, in his warlike expeditions. 
 
 Fodder, in mining, a measure containing 2'.' hundred aud att 
 half weiaht, though in London only 20 hundred weiglit. 
 FfENl'GllEEK. See Triconella. 
 
 FtENUS NAU TICUM. M'here money was lent to a mer- 
 chant, to be employed in a beneficial trade upon condition to be 
 repaid, with extraordinary interest, in case such voyage was safely 
 pirformed, the agreement was someiimes called foinus nauticuni, 
 sometimes usura maritima. But, as this gave an opening for usu- 
 rious and gaming contracts, 19 Geo. II. c. 37, enacts, that all 
 money lent on bottomry, or at respondentia, on vessels bound to 
 or from the East Indies, shall be expressly lent only upon the ship 
 or merchandise: the lender to liave the benefit of salvage, &c. 
 Blacksione's Com. II. 450. Mo!, de Jur. Mar. 361. 
 
 FG'>Tl'S, the young of all viviparous animals whilst in the 
 womb, and of oviparous animals before being hatched. The name 
 is transferiTd by botanists to the embryos of vegetables. Till the 
 young is perfectly formed, it is more properly called Embryo. 
 In the human fodus there exist several peculiarities not to be found 
 in the adult: I. 'Ihe arteries of the naval stiing, which are con- 
 tinuations of the hypogastrics, are alter the birth shrivelled up, and 
 form the lower umbilical ligament. 2. The veins of the navel- 
 string are formed by the union of all the venous branches in the 
 placenta ; and, passing into the abdomen, become the falciform 
 ligament of the liver. 3. The lungs, before being inflated with 
 air, are compact and heavy ; but alter one inspiration they become 
 light, and as it were spongy : and it may be noted here, that the 
 notion of the lungs sinking in water before the child breathes, and 
 of llieir swimming after the reception of air, are no certain proofs 
 that the child had or had not breathed, much less that it was mur- 
 ilered : for the uniaflated lungs become specifically lighter than 
 water, as soon as any tlegree of putrefaction takes place in them ; 
 and this soon happens after the death of the child ; besides, where 
 the utmost care has been taken to preserve the child, it has breath- 
 ed once or twice, and then died. 6. The thymus gland is very 
 large in the f<etus, but dwindles away in proportion as years ad- 
 vance. 7. The foramen ovale in the heart of a foetus is generally 
 closed in an adult. 
 
 FOG, or MIST, a meteor consisting of gross vapoui's floating 
 near the surface of the earth. Fogs have a considerable influence 
 on the winter. In the summer of 1783, an uncommon fog pre- 
 vailed all over Europe, and great part of North America. It was 
 dry, of a permanent nature, and the rays of the sun had but little 
 efiect in dissipating it, which they easily do in moist fogs arising 
 from water. 'i"he ellect of the rays in heating the earth was ex- 
 ceedingly diminished: hence its surface was frozen early, the first 
 snows remaineil on it undissolved, and received continual additions; 
 the air was more chilled, and intensely cold, and the winter of 1783 
 and 1784 was exceedingly severe. The spring fogs are most de- 
 trimental to such young fruit, and other trees, as are planted in 
 low situations; because they moisten the young shoots, and thus 
 render them more liable to the injuries of the frosty nights suc- 
 ceeding them, but which they escape when placed in more ele- 
 vated situations. 
 
 FOGAGE, or FOGAGIUM, in the forest law, rank grass not 
 ealen up in summer. 
 
 FOGAUAS, a town ofTransylvtnia, on the Alauta, the see of 
 a Greek bishop. It is 26 miles N. E. of Hernianstadt. 
 
 !• OGO, a small island near the coast of Newfoundland. Lon. 
 54. 10. \V. Lat. 50.2, N. 
 
 FO HI, FO, or FE, the chief god of the Chinese, whom they 
 adore as the sovereign of heaven. Thev represent him shining all 
 in light, with his hand^ hid under his robes, to shew that his power 
 does all things invisibly. He has at his right hand the famous 
 Confucius, and at his lett Lanza, or Lanca, chiet of the second sect 
 of their religion. 
 
 Fo-Hi is also the name of the first emperor of China, according 
 to the most credible and authentic histories. Some suppose hiin 
 the same with Noah ; others place him 200 years after the deluge. 
 The Chinese sav hi- reigned 1 15 years. 
 
 FOHU, or For A, a fertile island of Denmark, on the coast of 
 Sleswick ; 12 mile> in circuit. Lon. 8. 31. E. Lat 54. 44. N. 
 
 FOIL, among glass-grit dr-., a sheet of tin, with quicksilver, 
 ■or the like, lai<l on the back side of a lookii>g-glass, to make it re- 
 flect. See Foliating, 
 
 P'oiL, among jewellers, a thin leaf of metal placed under a pre- 
 cious stone, in order to make it look transparent, and give it an 
 
 agreeably
 
 FOL 
 
 4(17 
 
 FOL 
 
 agieeably dilliTPiit colour, eilhcr dcrp or jiale ; tinn, if a sloiu; be 
 wanted io be of a pale colour, pul a pale-colourfii (oil iiiitkr it, 
 or if deep, a <lark one. 'I'liese foils are niad<? eitlicr of copper, 
 gold, or gokl and silver to;!;etlier. The copper ffwis are common- 
 ly known by the name of Nureml>erj5, or German foils. 
 
 FOIX, a late county of France, anciently independent, but 
 united to that kingdom by Henry IV. and now included in the 
 department of Arrie^e. 
 
 FoFX, a town of France, in the department of Arriege, S miles 
 S. of Pamiers. 
 
 FOKIKN, a province of China, bounded on the N. by that of 
 Tche-Kians; ; E. by tlie sea; S. by Quang-lonp;, and \V . by 
 Kiang-Si. It is conniiodiously situated for navigation and com- 
 merce. 
 
 FOLD-NET, among sportsmen, a sort of net with which small 
 birds are taken in the night, of wliicli there are two sorts ; the less 
 may be managed by one nran only, but the greater must be car- 
 ried by two, and used thus : let the net be fixed on both sides to 
 two strong, straight, and light poles about twelve f-et long, each 
 man holding one of them ; let there be one behind fliem, at the 
 distance of two yards, to carry lights : the nets must be carried 
 between the wind and the birds, which all naturaiiy roost on their 
 perches with their breasts agaiiist the wind ; by reason of this, he 
 that beats the bushes on the other side of the hedge, will drive 
 them out that way towards the light. 
 
 FOLI.\GE, {folium, Lat. fcitiUiige, Fr.] leaves; tufts of 
 leaves; the apparel of leaves to a plant. 
 
 Foliage, in architecture, used for the represenlations of flowers, 
 leaves, branches, rinds. Sec. whether natural or artificial, as are 
 used for enrichments on capitals, friezes, pediments, &c. 
 
 FOLIATE, in the higher geometry, a name given bv M. de 
 Moivre to a curve of the second order, evpressed by the equation 
 K^ -\- y^ ^=. an/ ; being a species of defecti^'e h\ perbol.ns with one 
 asymptote, and consisting of two infinite legs cros:,ing one another, 
 and forming a sort of leaf. 
 
 FOLIATING OF Guss Plates for Mirrors, the sjiread- 
 5ng liie plates over, after they arc polislied, willi (juicksilver, &c. 
 to make tliem refiecl iniagcs. It is performed thus : A thin ijlol- 
 ting paper is spread on the (able, aud then a fine lamiira or leaf of 
 tin callfd foil, is laid over the paj;er ; upon this is poured mer- 
 cury, which is to be di^itnouted equ.dly over the leaf willi a hare's 
 foot or cotton : over this is laid a clean pa|)er. and over that the 
 glass plate, whi'h is presNcd down with the right hand, and the 
 paper drawn genily out with the left : this being done, the plate is 
 covered with a thicker paper, and loaded with a greater weight, 
 that the superfluous mercury may be driven out an I the tin ad- 
 here more closely to I he gkiss. When it is dried, the weight is 
 removed, and tiie looking-glass is complete. Some add an ounce 
 of marcasile, melted by the tire, and, lest the mercury should 
 evaporate in smoke, they pour it into cold water ; and when cool- 
 ed, squeeze through a cioth, or through leather. Smne add a ipiar- 
 ter of an oimre of tin and lead to the niarca^ite, that the glass may 
 dry the sooner. 
 
 Foliating of Globe Glasses for Mirrors, is done as 
 follows : Take five ounces of (piicksilver and nne ounce of bis- 
 muth ; of lead o.nd tin, half an ounce each : lir'^t put tlie lea<l ;.nd 
 tin into fusion, then put in the bismuth ; and wlu-n that is also in 
 fusion, let it stand till it is almost cold, and pour the quick^il^ er 
 into it : after this, take the glass globe, whicli must be verv clean, 
 and the inside free from dust : make a piper luniu'l, which put 
 into the hole of the g'obe, as near the glass ,is po'isible, so Mrit the 
 amalgam, when poured in, may not plash, and cause the glass t^i 
 be full of spots ; pour it in gently, and move it about, so that the 
 amalgam may tourh everywhere: if the amalgam heoin to be 
 curaly and fixed, hold it over a gentle fire, audit will easily flow 
 again ; and if it be too thip, add a little more lead, tin, aiid bis- 
 muth, to it. The finer and clearer the globe i«, the better will the 
 looking-glass be. Dr. Shaw observes, that this oper.ition ha^ con- 
 siderable advantages, as being performable in the cold ; aud that 
 it is not attended with the danger of poisonous fumes from arsenic, 
 or other unwholesome matters, usually employed for this purpose. 
 How far it may be applicable to the niore commodious foliating of 
 the common looking-glasses, and other speculums, he thinks, de- 
 serves to be considered. 
 FOLIFERO-FLORI^EROUS PLANTS, plants that pro- 
 
 duce both leaves and flowers. Some plants, as ll.c Almis, pro' 
 duce leaves only : others, as the Populus, Fraxinus, &c. bearlcavM 
 and flowers di4inct. 
 
 FOLIGNl, FOLIGNO, or FULIGNO, a town of Italy, in 
 the duchy of Spoleito, aiKiciitly called Fulginium. It contain* 
 eight churches, and twenty-three convents ; and is famous for it* 
 p.ipei-mills and silk maniilactures. It is sealeil on the side of a 
 iiii'iintain, 15 miles N. of S|)oleto, and 09 N. ot Rome. 
 
 FOLIO, among primers and b oksellers the largest form of 
 books, when each, sheet is so printed, that it may be bound up iti 
 two leaves only. This form is only used in large works ; but the 
 (juarto or octavo forms are much more handy. 
 
 Folio, in merchant's book , denotes a page, or rathiT both the 
 right and left hand pages, these being expressed by the same fi' 
 gure, and corresponding to each other. See Book-keeping. 
 
 FOLIS. SeeFoLLis. 
 
 FOLIUM, or LEAF, in botany. See Leaf. 
 
 FOLKES, Martin', an English antiquary, mathematician, 
 and philosopher, born at Westminster about 1690, greutly distin- 
 guished as F. I\. S. London, and of the Aciidemy of Sciences at 
 Paris. He was admitted into the former al 1.'4 years of age ; made 
 one of their council two ye.u's after; named by Sir Isaac Newton 
 himself as vice-president; and, after Sir Haiis Sloan, became pre- 
 sident. There are ntimerous Memoirs of his in the Philosophical 
 1 ransactions. Coins, ancient and modern, were his ^reat object: 
 and his last production was a book upon the " English Silver 
 Coin, from the Conquest to his own Times." He died at Lon- 
 don in 1754. Dr. Birch drew up materials for his life, which are 
 preserved in the Anecdotes of Bower, p. 562, et seq. 
 
 P'OLKESTONE, a town of Kent, between Dover and Hythe, 
 appears to have been a very ancient place, from the Roman coins 
 and r,ritish bricks often found in it. It is 7 miles S. W. of Dover, 
 and 7'J E. S. E. of London. 
 
 FOLK-LANDS, or FOLC-LANDS, [Sax.] copyhold lands, 
 so called in the time of the Saxons, as charter-lands were called 
 hoc-laiifls, Kitch. 174. Fulklaiid was terra vulgi or popularis ; 
 the land of the vulgar people, who had no certain estate therein, 
 but held the same, under the rents and services accustomed or 
 agreed, al the will only of their lord the thane ; and it was there- 
 lore.not put in writing, but accounted prjcdium rusticum et igno- 
 bih'. Speliu. of Feuds, c. 5. 
 
 FOLKMOTE, or FOLCMOTE, \_Folcgemoi, Sax. i. e. a 
 meeting of the people,] is compounded of Jo/A-, the jieople, and 
 mote, or gemote, to meet ; and signified originally, as Somner in 
 liis Sa\on Dictio ary informs us, a general assembly of the peo- 
 [)le, to consi<ler of and order matters of the commonveallh. And 
 Sir Henry Spelman says, the folcmote was a sort of annual parlia- 
 ment, or convention of the bishops, thanes, aldermen, and free- 
 men, upon every May-day yearly ; where the laymen were sworn 
 to defend one another and the king, and to preserve the laws of 
 I lie k.ngdom ; and then consulted the common safety. Rut Dr. 
 Brady infers from the laws of the Saxon kings of England, that it 
 was an inferior court, held before the king's reeve or steward, 
 eveiy month, to do folk right, or compose smaller differences, 
 from whence there lay appeal to the superior courts ; Gloss, p. 48. 
 S',|uire seems to lliink the folcmote noi distinct from the shiremot, 
 >r common general meeting of the county. See his Angl. Sax. 
 Gov. 155. M. 
 
 FoLKMOTE was also used for any kind of popular or public 
 meeting; as of all the tenants at the comt-leet, or court-baron. 
 
 FOLLICLE, [Jhlticiilits, Latin,] in botany, the seed-vessels, 
 capsula seminalis, or case, wl ich some fruits and seeds have over 
 them ; as that of the alkengi, ped Cularis, &c. 
 
 FOLLICITLI are dehned by Linnanis to be small glandular 
 vessels distended with air, which appear on the stirface of some 
 plants ; as at the root of w.iter milfoil, and on the leaves of aldro- 
 vanda. In the former, the vessels in question are roundi'h with 
 an appearance IJKe two horns ; in the latter, pot-shaped, and semi- 
 circular. 
 
 FOLLTCULUS, [(mmfollis, Lat. a bag,] is also a species of 
 seed-vessel, first mentioned by Linna;us, in his " Delineatio 
 Planfa-." 
 
 FOLLIS, or FOLIS, ancienllv signified a little bag or purse ; 
 whence it came to be used for a sum of money, and very different 
 sums were caUe<l In" that name. 
 
 FOMAHANT,
 
 FON 
 
 46& 
 
 FO O 
 
 FOMAIIANr, ill abti-onomy, a sUr of tlie )ii»l magiiitiide in 
 the iiiDUtii of the Soiitliern Fisii. 
 
 FOMENTATION, in medicine, tlie bathing of any part of t!ie 
 body with a convenient liquor; which is iBuaily a decoction of 
 herbs, water, wine, or milk ; and the applying of bags stiift'ed wilh 
 herbs and other ingredients, which is commonly called dry fo- 
 mentation. 
 
 FoMFNTATioNs are usually applied as- warm as the patient can 
 bear, in the following manner: Two fTmnel-cloths are dijiped into 
 the heated licjuor, one of which is wrung as dry as the n(-ccssarv 
 speed will admit, then immediately applied to the part alfecle'l ; 
 it lies on until the heat begins to go olf, and the other is in readi- 
 ness to apply at the- instant in which the tivst is removed: thus 
 these flannels are altern.'.tely applied, so as to keep the alft-cted 
 part constantly supplied willi tliem warm. This is continued lit- 
 teen or twenty minutes, and repeated two or three times a-day. 
 Every intention of relaxing and soothing by fomentations may be 
 answered as well by warm water alone, as when the whole tribe of 
 emollients are boiled in it ; but when discutients or antiseptics are 
 required, such ingredients must be called in as are ad«\pted to that 
 end. The degree of heat should never exceed that of producing 
 a pleasing sensation ; great heat produces eifects very opposite to 
 that intended by the use of fomentations. 
 
 FONDI, 1. a town, and 2. a lake of Naples in the province 
 of Lavora ; 50 miles S. E. of Rome. 
 
 FONG-YANG, a city of China, in tlie province of Kiang- 
 nan, situated on a mountain, which iiangs over the Yellow river, 
 and incloses with its walls several fertile little hills. Its jurisdic- 
 tion is very extensive, comprehending 18 cities; five of which are 
 of the. second, and 13 of the third class. 
 
 FONS, a town of France, in the department of Lot, 4^ miles 
 N. W. of Figeac. ;. , 
 
 FONT, among ecclesiastical writers, a large bason, in which 
 water is kept for the baptizing of infants, or oilier persons. It is 
 so called probably because baptism was usually performed among 
 the primii'ive Christians at springs or fountains. In process of time 
 the font came to be used, being placed at the lower end of the 
 church, to intimate, perhaps, that baptism is the rite of admission 
 into the Christian church. 
 
 - Font, in the art of printing, denotes a complete assortment of 
 types for letters, accents, &c. See Fount. 
 
 FONTAINBLEAU, a town of France, in the department of 
 Seine and Marne, 35 miles S. E. of Paris. Lon. 2. 47. E. Lat. 
 4S. 25. N. 
 
 FONTAINE, John de la, a French poet, was born at Cha- 
 teau-Thierry in 1621. He was educated first at Rheims, and af- 
 terwards under the fathers of the Oratory. He was a man of ex- 
 cessive simplicity of manners, credulous, learful, and uncommoidy 
 absent. He lived for some time with the superintendant Fouc- 
 quet, who allowed him a pension. Afterwards lie was in the ser- 
 vice of Princess Henrietta of I'Ingland, and next lived with Ma- 
 dame de la Sabliere. He was married, but his wife h:ul as little 
 knowledge of a-conomy as himself. He died in iGOj, and on 
 being laid out, a hair shirt was found next his skin. HisTales are 
 very licentious, but his Fables are usually put into the hands of 
 young people. They are very natural, poetical, and entertaining. 
 He also wrote " Les Amours de Psyche," a romance; some co- 
 medies; Letters, &c. to be found in his miscellanies. 
 
 Fontaine, E'Eveqc'e, in the department of the North, and 
 late province of H.iinaull, 3 miles VV. of Charleroi, and 10 E. of 
 Mons. 
 
 FONTAINES, Peter Francis,, a French critic, born at 
 Rouen in lt)85. At 15, he entered into the society of the Jesuits, 
 and at 30 t|uilted it, though he was a priest, and had a cure in 
 Normandy. Having excited some attention at Paris by his criti- 
 cal productions, the Abb6 Bignon in 1724 committed to him the 
 " Journal de Sravans." He was peaceably enjoying the ap- 
 plauses of the public, when his enemies, whom he had raised by 
 his critical strictures in hi^ Journal, accused him of a most abomin- 
 able crime, and procured him to be imprisoned. He was set at 
 liberty in fifteen days ; (lie magistrate of the police justified him 
 in a letter (o the AbbO Bignon ; and he was unanimously re-esta- 
 blished in his former credit, in 1726. In 1731, he began a work 
 entitled " Novelliste du Parmisse, ou Reflexions sur les Ouvrages 
 liouveaux.;'' but only proceeded to two volumes ; the work hav- 
 
 ing been suppressed by , uliiority, iroiu the incessanl i uinplaints ' 
 »t authors ridiculed therein. In 1735, he obtained a new privir. 
 le.ie for a perlodicil production, entitled, '.'Observations sur les, 
 Ecrits Moderncs;" which, after coniujuing to 33 volumes was 
 suppressed in 17^3. Yet in 1744, he pubiidied another weekly 
 paper, called, "Jugemens sur les Ouvr.iges Nouveaux," which 
 proceeded to 1 1 volumes: the.lwolast being dene by oliier hands. 
 In 1745, he was attacked with a disorder in the breast, which end- 
 ed in a dropsy that proved fatal in five weeks. " He was (says 
 M. Freron) born a sentimental person ; a philosopher in conduct 
 .as well as in principle; exempt from ambition, and of a noble' 
 firm spirit, wliich would not submit to sue for prelernients or titles. 
 In common conversation h," appeared only a common iiian ; but 
 when any thing out of the o.dinary way wa"s :igit;ited, he discover- 
 ed great force of imagination and wit'." He was the author of 
 many other works ; his biograplier mentions 17 articles ; many of 
 them critical, some historical, and so.iie translations from Pope, 
 Swift, Fielding, &c. 1 he Abbe de la Porle, publl:!hed in 1757, 
 " L'Kspiit de i'At)l)e des Foiitaine.s," in four volumes 12mo. ; 
 with his Life, a catalogue of his works, and of writings against, 
 liim. 
 
 FONTANELLA, in anatomy, tji^ quadrangular aperture be-, 
 twixt the OS fiontis and ossa sincfpitis, iu cfiildivn just born; also 
 called foils pulsatilis. . 
 
 f'oNTANELLA, ill geography, a rich town of Italy, in the Cre-- 
 inonese. , ' 
 
 FON f'ANESI.'i, in botany, a genus of the diaudria monogy- 
 nia class and order. Natural order, Sepiaria:. Calyx four-part- 
 ed, inferior; petals two, two-parted; c^ip-..iile meiiibranaceous, 
 not opening, two-celled ; cells one-seeded. J I has one species. 
 
 FONTARABIA, a sea-port town of Spain in Biscay, asd in 
 the territory of Guipuscoa. Lon. I. 47. W. l^all 43. 22. N. , / 
 FONTJilNELLE, Ber.vai-.d de, a celebrated Fienclv.authpr,r. 
 born in 1057. He discharged the oliice of perpetual secretary to 
 the Academy of Sciences above forty years wilh universal ap-. 
 plause; and his History of that Academy throws great light upon 
 their memoirs. T he elogieshe pronounced on the deceased mem-- 
 bers of the Acanemy excite a respect for the sciences, as well as 
 for the author. In his poetical performances, and his •' Dialogues 
 of the Dead," tlie spirit of Voiture was discernible, though more, 
 extended and more pliilosophical. His " Plurality of Worlds," 
 is a singular v;ork, the design of which was to present that part of 
 philosophy to view in a pleasing ch"ess. He died in 1756, near 
 100 years'old. 
 
 FON'f'ENOY, a town of France, in the department of Je- 
 mappes, late Austrian Netherlands, and province of Hainault, 4 
 miles S. S. E. of Tournay. 
 
 FONTES, a town ol France, in the departiwent of Ilerault, 5 
 miles N. \V'. of Monlagnac. 
 
 FONTEVRAULD, a town of France, in the department of, 
 Maine and Loire, and late province of Anjou. It is 6 miles S.E. . 
 of Saumiir, and 160 S. W. of Paris. 
 
 FoNTEVRAULD, or Fron'te VAUx, Okderof, in ecclesiasti'^. 
 cal history, a religious order instituted by Robert d'Arbrissel, 
 about Hie end of the lllh century; taken under the protection of 
 the holy see, by Pope Pascal 11. in 1 lOli ; confirmed bv a bull in 
 1113, and Invested by his successors with exlraonlinary privileges. 
 The chief of this order is a female, who is appointed to inspect botli 
 the monks and the nuns. 
 
 FONTINALIA, or FONTANALIA, in antiquity, a reli- 
 gious feast held among the Romans in honour of the deities whq 
 presided over fountains or springs. 
 
 Ft)NTIN.\LIS, in botany, a genus of the crypto.gamia muscj, 
 or Mosses. Capsule oblong, with the mouth ciliate ; opening with 
 an acuminate lid ; covered wiili a sessile, smooth, conical veil; in- 
 cluded in a pitcher-shaped, imbricate peiichietium. Only four 
 species are known, they are natives of England; three of them 
 are water-mosses, and one grows upon trees. Professor Marlyn 
 •says, that several new species have been discovered by Swaru in 
 the West Indies. 
 
 FOOD, [/a-d-i>\, 3ax. vocdnt, Out. to feed,] in the most «x- 
 .tensivc signification of the woi-d, implies all almients taken into 
 the body, whether solid or fluid ; but, in common language, it is 
 ge:ierally used to signify only the solid part. J^ord Monboddo . 
 
 rt J ■•■ - ,, — J — J -■■- ..~.... [ -- -. 
 
 and, other authors, who are fond of representing iiiaiikind as ori 
 
 nal 
 
 'if;
 
 FOO 
 
 Am 
 
 FOO 
 
 nally vory little, if at all, wiser tlian brutes, tell u^;, tliat, in the 
 lir>t ages, men lived iiiv>n acorns, berries, and siuli fruits as the 
 earth ppoiilaiieously jiroduces ; that they next proceeded to eat 
 the flesh of wild a'niiuils taken in hunting; but the number of 
 these decreasing, aiid mankind iiudtiplyin'j, necessity taught them 
 the art of cultivaling the ground, suwiiig com, &c. Tiiat after 
 this, reason sugf;r.-<ts the exjiedient of domesticating certain ani- 
 mals, both to as,i>t them in their labours and supply them with 
 food: that hogs were the til St animals of the domestic kind that 
 
 a 
 cle 
 
 ppeared upon their tables; that they h.eUrit to lie ungrateful to 
 levour the beasts that assisted them iu their labours, &c. I>u(. all 
 this is at best coiijec lural, unsupported by any better authority, 
 than that of the fabulous Ilerodotus. Nay the fact seems to be, 
 that animal and vegetable food, such as we now use, were both 
 made use of in the very first age of the world. Moses, the most 
 ancient, as well as the I'uost authentic of historians, informs U'^, that 
 " Abel was a keeper of sheep, a:id Claiti a tiller of the ground :" 
 whence we niav fairly presume, that sheep were then kept and 
 fed, as they now are, V.ir the sake of their mutton ; for we cannot 
 suppose tlie woollen manufacture to have been among t!:e most 
 early inventions, thou;_-h llie skins untanned might serve for cloath- 
 ing. As to cookery, it is sui)|)05ed, and seems not improbable, 
 that all animal food was at lirsl only roasted, and that boiling was 
 a later invention. Even in the present age the inliabitants of 
 Otaheite are said to have been entirely unacquainted with it, till 
 the Europeans visited them. The eating of ii-.h too seems also to 
 have been of a much later dale than that of tlesh. Homer makes 
 Menelaus complain that they had been constrained to eat ihein. 
 Though originally designed' to be a blessing to mankind, as well 
 as their support, Tood may, in many cases, by our abuse of it, be 
 justly considered as a curse : for we do not hesitate to afllrni, that 
 the injudicious conduct of parents and nurses, durini; infancy, and 
 the early years of childhood, lays the foundation ol those numer- 
 ous diseases, which, at a maturer age arise from indigestion, and 
 have, in many families, become hereditary. The aliment of chil- 
 dren ought to be ailapted to their age, and the strength of their 
 digestive powers. Hence they ought by no means to be fed im- 
 nioderatelv, and promiscuously with every kind of food: as, by 
 this indulgence, the lirst passages are distended, and their stomachs 
 gradually ac(|uirc an unnatural craving for victuals, before the pre- 
 ceding meal is properly assimilated. Such conduct is particularly 
 injurious during the hist year of their age: for, when their sto- 
 machs become more vigorous, they may be enabled, by slow de- 
 grees, to digest different kinds of victuals, the nature and properties 
 of which are extremely opposite ; though excess in quantity is al- 
 ways hurtful. No food whatever, that has been prepared for 
 many horn's, should be given to children, especially after being 
 warmed up, as it generates flatulence, heart-burn, costiveness, and 
 a variety of disorders which are equally painful and dilTicult to re- 
 move. Sudden changes from li<iuid to solid food are equally dan- 
 gerous : one kind of aliment only, should be given at each meal, 
 in moderate portions ; and not a multiplicity of incongruous mix- 
 tures, in immediate succession, such as broth or soup, meat boiled 
 or roasted, alter taking milk, fruit, &:c. All stimulating <iishes, 
 prepared for adults, as well as beer, wine, spices, cofiee, and other 
 heating liquors, should be carefullv with-held from children ; as 
 they often occasion the most afllictive complaints, for instance, 
 eructations, vomiting, spasms, and convulsions, especially during 
 dentition ; and, if the hapless victims of indulgence survive that |)e- 
 riod, they become liable to other tormenting diseases, the most 
 fre(|uent of which are the scurvv, scrophula, and consumption. 
 There is another abuse in the feeding of children, which cannot 
 be too seriously reprehended, namely, to introduce chewed vic- 
 tuals into their mouth, a practice equally disgusting and unwhole- 
 some. Young and health)' mothers, it has been said, may safely 
 ])erform this office tor their children : but, in such case, it is re- 
 quisite that the parent be in a complete state of health, that she 
 be provided with sound teeth, and rinse her inouth previously 
 with pure water. Under these circumstances, she may venture to 
 perform mastication, though it would be more adviseable to lelin- 
 qui-h this practice, and to give infants such food only as they are 
 alile to chew and digest. Vegetables are, with a few exceptions, 
 more dilTicult of digestion than animal food ; but a due propor- 
 tion of both, with the addition of acids, during the summer 
 ■■' ■ months, is alike grateful and conducive to health. On the whole, 
 
 VOL. II. NO. 8tj. 
 
 the flesh of voung quadrupeds is less nutritive than after they have 
 attained a pi'opei-'age; though it will, in genend, be more easily 
 converted into aliiuentarv matter. In a salted st..te, mrat n.t 
 onlv loses a considerable part of its gelatinous and spirituous par- 
 ticles, but it likewise becomes oppressive to the digc.-tive organ, 
 and imparts a degree of acrimcny to the human fluids, which has 
 a remarkable tendency to generate putrid diseases, such as the 
 scurvy of mariners. "Hence it would be a desirable object to as- 
 certain, by accurate experiments, whether beef, polk, ^:c. might 
 not be ke'pt fresh at sea for many menths, merely by buryinp it 
 in charcoal-powder, of which it could be easily dive^led liy pro- 
 per ablution. Such is our decided opinion, and we venture to 
 recommend this important subject to the farther researches of pa- 
 triotic inquirers. With respect to the (|Uanlity i>f food, there i; 
 one general rule, which ought never to be di^regarded ; namely, 
 to cease eating, when the hrst cravings of ap))etite are satislied. so 
 as to renovate the waste which the body ha- app;:rently sustained. 
 By a strict adherence to this principle, many of those distressing 
 complaints arising from intemperance, might be elfectui.Uy obvi- 
 ated ; and our fashionable watering-places would not be so fre- 
 ciuentlv crowded by the victims of luxury. 
 
 Food of Plaxt's, an expression in agriculture and gardening, 
 by which is understood whatever tends to increase the growth, or 
 affords nourishment to veiretable productions. The proper 
 choice and distribution of this food, in such manner as to ensure 
 the greatest advantage to vegetation, is an object deserving the 
 most'attentive exertion of every skilful husbandman. The com- 
 ponent parts of the nourishment of plants are supposed to be air, 
 heat, water, earth, and nitre ; but it is by no means ascertained, 
 which ot these ingredients princiirally coniributes to their growth 
 and reproduction. \'arious opinions have been held respecting 
 the existence of an aerial acid spirit ; but, from the late ilisco- 
 veries in chemistry, this invisible agent appeal's to be no other 
 than what is now termed oxvgen gas, or the acidifying principle, 
 by the powerful iniluence of which even iron is oxidated, or con- 
 verted into rust : and, as this vital gas is an essential constituent 
 of the atmosphere, all plants necessarily partake of its animating 
 properties. Thus nitre is said to nourish them ; because it con- 
 tains a large portion of oxygen ; though it is certain that saltpetre 
 only prepares other substances to effect that jwrpose : thus, if ' 
 nitre, in a solid or liquid state, be applied to the root of a plant, 
 it will destrov it ; but if it be placed at a distance, it attenuates, 
 and decomposes, the viscous and naturally pernicious matters con- 
 tained in the earth, so as to render them ht for sup])lying vegeta- 
 bles with nutriment. Water contributes to the growth of plants 
 in a very material degree : hence arose the art of floating laml in 
 dry seasons, without which vegetables would perish for want of 
 nloi^tul•e. See Irrigation. Air, on account of its elasticity, is 
 absolutely necessary to the increment of vegetables; warmth is 
 of equal importance, because no plant can tluive without some 
 degree of heat. Mut, doubtless, the chief article is earth ; which, 
 being prepared by the nitrous, and other volatile salts, such a? 
 are generated in diing, not less than by water and air, is assimilat- 
 ed to the nature of "plants; constitutes a part of them ; and is in- 
 sep'Jrable from them : but, if water, air, and heat, be taken away, 
 the plant will still exist; though, from the want of those ele- 
 ments, it has ceased to vegetate. The excess of nitre, air, water, 
 and heat, however, is a jiroof that these articles do not constitute 
 the proper, or only food of plants. Thus, too great a propor- 
 tion of nitre, or other salts, corrodes, and deprives them of vege- 
 table life ; too much water drowns them ; too great a degree of 
 air dries their roots : and too much heat shrivels and burns 
 them ; but there cannot be too large a proportion of earth, uiile>s 
 the plant be too deeply buried under it, so as to exclude the sa- 
 lutary intiucnce of the other elements ; in which case it must ne- 
 cessarilv perish. Many experiments have lately been maile with 
 factitious gases, in order to ascertain whether the growth of plants 
 might be forwarded by such artificial agents; but, though some 
 of these elastic airs, such as oxygen have been found remarkably 
 to promote vegetation, yet the expence and trouble, which these 
 ai)plications would occasion in the great way, will ever be insu- 
 perable objections to their general introduction. From recent at- 
 tempts to fertilize and stimulate the soil itself, as the growing 
 medium, with chemical solutions, it api)cars that water verv 
 slightly impregnated with camphor, or, according to others, with 
 
 6D 
 
 tUi;
 
 FO O 
 
 470 
 
 TOO 
 
 the piiciplioric acid, has produced uncommon effects on the earth 
 of vegetables, and accelerated Iheir rapid growth in a very evi- 
 <lent manner. Farther experiments, however, vill decide how 
 far sxich mean; are pnxticable, and whether the nature of plants 
 thus lorced, is materially changed or affected. 
 
 FOObHT, an island in the Red Sea ; situated, according to 
 the ohservations of Mr. Brute, in N. hit. 15° 59' 43'. 
 
 F'OO r, that part of the body on which animals stand and walk. 
 The ijrincipil cause of the lameness and cistortion observable 
 amojig nianv cliil iren, especially of the poorer class, is owing to 
 an improper management of them, during their infancy. In^lead 
 of beinu; carried on the nurses' arms, in a posture whicli con'.racts 
 and pal-'ies the lower extremities, they ought to be supported in 
 such a direction, that the legs and feet may be at liberty. Nor 
 should they be conlined too early in narrow shoes, with a view to 
 render their feet small and taper : those necessary parts of our 
 dress oasht to be wide enou;;ii to allow sufiicient room for motion, 
 arid might be fastened with strings, which are preferable to 
 buckles. It will also l>e proper to adapt the shoes to the form of 
 each foot, by means of separate lasts ; in the same manner as those 
 of the fashionable classes are made at present. A kind of lialf- 
 boots, how ever, such as rai!y be laced above the ancles, are supe- 
 fi or to shoes, as tliev not only have the advanlag-e ot filling the 
 leg. but are likewise not easily trodden dow n at the heels ; besides 
 children are enabled to w;i!k more firmly >n them than in shoes. 
 With respect to the feet of adulls, we would recommend always 
 to adapt the shoe to their si/e and shape, and utterly to disregard 
 the prevalence of an absurd fashion, which is often attended wiih 
 inconvenience. Animals are ilistinguished, with respect to the 
 number of their feet, into bipedes, two-footed; sucli are men 
 and birds : cpiadrupedes, four-footed ; such are most land-animals: 
 and multipedes, or many-footed, as insects. The reptile-kiinl, as 
 serpents, &c. liave no feet ; the crab-kind of fish have got ten feet, 
 but most olher fishes have no feet al all ; the spider, mites, and 
 I)olypu3es, have eight ; flies, grasshopjjers, and butterflies, have six 
 feet Animah destined to swim, and waterfowl, have their toes 
 vebbed together, as the phoca;, goose, duck, &c. 'I'lie fore-feet 
 of the mole, rabbit, &c. are wonderfully formed for digging and 
 scratching up tlie earth, in order to make way tor their head. 
 
 Foot, in anatomy. See Anatomy. 
 
 Foot, in the Latin and Greek poetry, a measure, composed of 
 a certain number oilong and short syllables. 'I'hev are commonly 
 reckoned 28 : of these some are simple, as consisting of tw o or 
 three syllables, and therefore called dissyllabic or trissyllabic feet ; 
 others compound, consisting of four syllables, and therefore called 
 letrasyllabic feet. The dissyllabic feet are four in number, viz. 
 the pyrrhichius, spondeus, iambus, and trocheus. See Pyrrhi- 
 CHius, &c. The trisyllabic feet are eight in number, viz. the 
 dactylus, anapsstus, tribrachys, molossus, amphibrachys, amplii- 
 macer, bacchius, and antibacchius. See Dactylus, &:c. The 
 telrasyllabic are 16 in number, viz. the procleusmaticus, dispon- 
 deus, choriambus, antispastus, diambus, dichoreus, ionicus a ma- 
 jore, ionicus a minore, e|)itritu3 primus, secundus, tertius, et 
 <iuartus, pa;on primus, secundus, tertius, et quartus. See Pro- 
 
 Cl-EUSMATIOUS, &C. 
 
 Foot, a long measure containing 12 inclies: it is divided by 
 geometricians into 10 digits, and the digit into 10 lines. See 
 Measure. 
 
 Foot of a Horse, in the manege, the extremity of the leg, 
 from the coronet to the lower part of the hoof. See Farriery. 
 
 Foot, Solid or Cubic, is the same measure in all the three 
 dimensions, length, breadth, and depth or thickness, containing 
 1728 cubic inches. 
 
 Foot, Square, is the same measure both in breadth and length, 
 containing 144 square or suiierficial inches. 
 
 FOO'l E, Samufl, an English dramatic writer and actor, was 
 born al Truro, in Cornwall, in 1722. His father was a justice of 
 peace for that county, and his mother sister to Sir John Dinely 
 Goodere, of Herefordshire. Foote was educated at Worcester 
 college, Oxford, from whence he removed to the 'I'emple: but as 
 the dryness of this study did not suit the liveliness of his genius, 
 he soon relinquished it. He married a young lady of a good fa- 
 mily and some fortune ; but their tempers not agreeing, harmony 
 did not long subsist between them. He now launched into gam- 
 ing and all the fashionable follies of the age; and in a few years 
 spent his whole fortune. His necessities led him to the stage, and 
 
 he made his first api.earajice in Othello, in 1747 he opened the 
 liUle theatre in the llaymarket, with a dramalic piece <il his own, 
 called, The Diver-ions of the Morning, which suci eeiied ver\ well. 
 The exhibilioii next season, was called An Amlinn of Pitlnres, 
 in which lie took off some of the most noied characters of the day. 
 He still continued lo play at one or the other ot th.' ihealres, aiid 
 hequently (jroduced new pieces. In 1760 he broULjht out the 
 Minor at Isis own house in the Haymarket. In 17t>6 he had the 
 niislortune to break his leg, which was obliged to be aniputi'ted. 
 J he duke ol "*! ork, out if compassion, procured for him a patent 
 for lile for tl;e theatre in the Haymarl- r-t. In 177(1 he allai ked 
 tlie duchess ot Kingston in a piece, which was suppressed by au- 
 thority. Soon after this a man-servant, w hom he had dismissed, 
 charged him with an unnatural olfence ; of which hewas honourably 
 acquilled. He died at Dover, on his way to b'rance for his health, 
 in Oct. 1777. His remains were interred in Westminster abbey. 
 Foote had an infinite fund of comic humour, both in writing aiid 
 conversation ; but he took umvarranlable liberties in taking off 
 persons merely on account ot natural tailings and peculiarities of 
 manner. His farces have procured him the title of the Engli-h 
 Aristophanes. 
 
 Foot-Halt, a disorder incident to sheep. It takes its source 
 from an insect, which, when it comes to a certain niafuriiv, re- 
 sembles a worm oi 2, 3, or 4 inches in length. 'Die first ap])eai- 
 ance of this malady is, when the sheep gives signs of l.mieness, 
 which increase to so high a degree as to prevent grazing ; when, 
 with want of suflicient food, and pain, the jioor aniiijal sufi'ers 
 greatly, and lingers till it dies, it not cured by extractma the insect 
 or worm. The sooner this is done the better, as it is easily per- 
 formed. As soon as the lameness is perceived, let the foot that is 
 lame be examined between the close of the daws, and it will be 
 tound that in the skin where the close separates is a small hole 
 (not natural,) through which the insect, when yet small, gets its 
 entrance, and by degrees has worked itself upwards along the leg, 
 between the outward skin and bone, and obtains its largest magni- 
 tude. Proportionally it linds its nourishment, when it is left un- 
 disturbed. I'his worm must be extracted bv moving the daws 
 backward and forward in contrary directions: when the i nder 
 [lart of the worm will soon make its appearance ;:t the above- 
 mentioned siv.all hole, and continuing the same operation of mov- 
 ing the claws, the whole worm w ill work itsell out. This is bet- 
 ter than at its first a|)pearance to draw it uut with danger of break- 
 ing olf ; lest part of it should remain in the sheep's leg, and, by 
 rotting there, prove hurtful. This easy operation will be eflectual 
 without any application whatever, and the channel, which the 
 worm hath made along the leg, w ill cure of itself. This malady is 
 in some years more prevalent than in others, particularly in wet 
 seasons ; and is ofteiier observed to begin in spring and autumn 
 than in summer and winter ; notwithstanding sheep sulfer more by 
 the wet in winter than in any of the other seasons. In high 
 grounds, they are less liable to it than in low marshy and meadow 
 grounds; from all which circumstances it may be supposed, that 
 this insect, in its first state, has for its most natural element either 
 the earth, water, or air; and only gets accidentally between the 
 close of the claws of the shee]), and finds there what is siiflicient 
 for its nourishment and security. 
 
 FooT-GiiLD, or Faut-Geld, in our old customs, an amerce- 
 ment laid upon those who live within the bounds of a forest, for 
 not lawing or cutting out the ball of their dog's feet. To he free 
 of a foot-geld, was a privilege to keep dogs unlawed, within the 
 bounds of a forest. 
 
 1''oot-Level, among artificeif, an instrument that served as a 
 foot-rule, a s(piare, and a level. See Level, Kuli-:, and Square. 
 
 Foot-Pace, or Half-Pace, ainong carpenters, a (lair ol stairs, 
 whereon, after four or six steps, you arrive at a broad place, w here 
 vou may take two or three paces before you ascend another step. 
 The design of which is to ease the legs in ascending the rest of the 
 steps. 
 
 Foot- Rot, a flisease to which sheep are subject, and which is 
 said to be contagious. The first symptom of the disorder is ma- 
 nifest, when the animal alVectcd begins to limp; though no in- 
 jury will be perceptible on examining the foot, which is extreme- 
 ly hot. The second stage of the distemper is a yellowish-while 
 spot, that appears in the cleft of the hoof, spreads gradually, and 
 becomes livid ; destroying the hair, wdiich in sound animals covers 
 the foot. At this period, the diseased part acquires a tlisagreeable 
 
 smell.
 
 r o R 
 
 47 
 
 T' (> IX 
 
 SiiU'll, aiulthe IniiK-nPs^imreascs. In the third st;isi*, the iivil.idy 
 sinks into the fvog oCtlie foot ; tlie shell of the hoof loosens, anil 
 thi.' frojT is filU'il with IVtid matter, (hat oozes ont when prcsM-d by 
 the hind : a small nimor sonu'times breaks nut in the front of 
 the Iei», ubonl one inch above the hoof, which, however, is easily 
 di^pers-d. In the Ia4 •■tage, the fool is so c mijiletely nioriitied 
 l)v the cancerous hnmonr corrodin;; every part of it, as to become 
 in'jin-ablc ; in which case, the skin is the only valuable part of the 
 animal. 'l'hrou!;h these difli^rfnt periods, the slieep affected re- 
 tani their appetiti', anil feed apparently as wi-ll as when in health; 
 bnt tiiev very soon fall away, ;;iid continue to doeiine, till tb.ey 
 Iia.ve lost all their fat. Nolvvi(listani.'iiig tlieir rapid decay, at the 
 end of the second and the commencem.'nt of t!ie third stage, they 
 are so e;'g;er for lood, that thry even crawl on their knee-, for suste- 
 nance. l"or tlie cure of this infectious disorder, diilerent remedies 
 liave been i)rescribed ; from which we select the follmving : the 
 first was invented by ihe late Mr. Bakewell, the otiier by Mr. 
 George Culley, of Kenton, Northumberland. 1. Take .'5 oz of 
 vcrdigrease ; of vitriol, and connnon alum, 4 oz. each ; while 
 mercury 1^ oz. an I while copperas, 1 oz. The whole is to be 
 finely pulverized, and dissolved in a (piart of while-wine viiie^ar. 
 2. Let 4oz. of the best honey ; r? oz. of burnt alnm reduced to 
 jjowder, and lib. of pulverized Armenian bole, be mi\ed in as 
 much train or lish-oi! as w ill convert these ingredients into the con- 
 sistence of salve: the honey oujht first to be gradually di^Sl)lved, 
 when tlie Armenian bole shoidd be properlv stirred in, alter which 
 (he alum and train-oil are to be added. The parts affec'ed ni'v 
 be rubbed with either of these compositions ; unless Ihe distenipt-i- 
 has become incurable; but in the opinion of Mr. Arthur Young, 
 (he red salve of Mr. Culley, is more clilcacious uuui .\Ir. Hake- 
 well's liquid; having c\ned one or two diseased feel, wdiere the | 
 latt.-r had failed : yet Mr. Young always employs the liipiid, 
 previously to anoinling the animals with the salve. This makidv, 
 in general, arises from long grass in wet seasons; but, if sheep be 
 suliered to lie upon their own dung, a fermentation will take place, 
 and occasion cither the foot-rot, or Ihe foot-halt: to prevent which 
 fatal disorders, those animals should be well littered, and kept with 
 ;l strict altention to cleanliness. 
 
 FOR AD AD A, a small island in tlie Mediterranean, near Ma- 
 jorca 
 
 FORAGE, in military alTairs, implies h:ay, straw, and oats, for the 
 subsistence of the army horses. It is divided into rations, of which 
 one is a'dav's allowance for a horse, and contains 2Qlb. of hav, 
 lOlb. of oats, and jib. of straw. When cavalry is stationed in 
 barracks in Great Ijiitain, the number of rations of foraRC is, to 
 (leld-oflicers four, supposing them to have four ellcctive horses; 
 to captains three ; to stafl'-officers two ; to quarter-masters, non- 
 commissioned ollicers, and privates, each one. On foreign ser- 
 vice, ihis article is governed by circumstances. 
 
 FORAMEN, in anatomv, a name given to several apertures or 
 perforations in divers jjarls of the body ; as, 1. The CNlcrnal and 
 inlernal foramina of the cranium or skull. 2. 'l"he foramina in the 
 upper and lower jaw. 3. Foramen lachrymale. 4. Foramen 
 niembrarix tynipani. See Anatomy. 
 
 FORBES, Duncan', Esq. of Culloden, an eminent Scots 
 lawyer and judge, born in 1685. In his early life, he was brought 
 up in a family remarkable for hospitality ; which, perhaps, led 
 liim afterwards to a free indulgence in social pleasures. His na- 
 tural disposition inclined him to the armv, but, as he soon dis- 
 covered a superior genius, by the advice of his friends he applied 
 himself to the civil law ; in which he made a cpiick pro^io-s, and, 
 in 1701), was admilted an advocate. From I7-'2 to 17o7, here- 
 presented the boroughs of Inverness, Fortrose, Nairn, and Forres. 
 In 1723, he w;is made king's advocate ; and in 1737, Lord Presi- 
 dent. In 1714 and 1745 he espoused the royal cause, but con- 
 ducted himself with so much prudence and moderation, that not a 
 whisper was at any time heard to his prejudice. Tlie glory he ac- 
 quired in advancing Ihe prosperity of his country, and in contri- 
 buting to re-establish peace and order, was his only reward. lie 
 died in 1747. His lordship wasa man of great piety and learning, 
 and well versed in the Hebrew scriptures, as appears from his Let- 
 ter to a Bishop on Hutchinson's Writings and Discoveries, in 
 1732 ; Thoughts concerning Religion, natural and revealed, 1735 ; 
 and Rellections on Incredulity ; the whole collected into one vo- 
 lume, 12mo. 1750. His works have since been published in two 
 vols. 8vo. 
 
 FoHBEs, Patrick, bishop of Aberdeen, was born in 1554, 
 when th ' affair^ ol the church of Scotland were in much conlii- 
 sion ; lo the seltUnieiit of which he greatly contributed. As 
 chanceUor of the univer-ity of .'\b"rd<'en, he iin|)i'>ved that seat of 
 learning bv rep; iriiic Ihe fabric, augmcnling the library, and re- 
 viviiif^ the professorships. He published a Commentary on the Re- 
 velation at London, \(i\3; and died in Hi35. 
 
 Fo.tBEs, John, the son of Patrick, but of much more exten- 
 sive learning than his father, was perhaps excelled bx none of his 
 age, which will be allowed by those who read his ll.^lorical and 
 Then ogical Institutes. He was also bishop of Aberdeen ; but was 
 e\-pi lied by the Covenanters, and forced lo tly beyond sea. He 
 c hlinued in Holland two ) ears ; and, upon his relmn, lived pri- 
 v.iii-ly on his estate at Co'se, till he died in l(i48. His works were 
 printed in two vols, folioat Amsterdam in 1703. 
 
 FORCALQUIER, a town of France in the department of the 
 Lower Alps, on the Laye, 20 miles N. E. of Ai.\. 
 
 !• ORCE, in philosophy, denotes the cause of the change in the 
 state of a body, when bein:; at rest, it begins to move, or has a 
 motion which is either not uniform or not direct. While a body- 
 remains in the same state, either of rest or of uniform and rectili- 
 near motion, the cause of its remaining iu such a state is in the na- 
 ture of the body, and it cannot be said ihat anv e.xtrinsic force has 
 acted on it; if two eciual and opposite forces be ajiplied, they de- 
 stroy each ether. Thi^ internal cause or principle is called Inertia. 
 Mechanical forces may be reduced lo two sorts ; one of a body 
 at resl, the other of a body in motion. The force of a body at rest, 
 ii that wh;ch we conceive Iu be in a body lying still, on a table, or 
 hanging by a rope, or supported by a spring, &c. and this is called 
 by the names of pressure, tension, force, or vis mortua, solicitalio, 
 cunatui movcnili, conamen, &c. To this class al o of forces we 
 must refer Centripetal, and Centrifugal forces, though they reside 
 in a bodv in motion ; because these forces are homogeneous lo 
 weigUts, pressures, or tensions of any kind. 'Ihe force of a body 
 in motion is a power residing in that body so long as it continues 
 its motion ; by means of which il is able to remove obstacles lying 
 in its way ; to lessen, destroy, or overcome, the force of any elher 
 moving body, wlvch meets il in an opposite direction ; or lo sur- 
 mount anv dead pressure or resistance, as tension, gravity, fric- 
 tion, cSiC. for some time; but which will be lessened or destroyed 
 bv such resistance as it lessens or destroys the motion of the body. 
 This is called vis motrix, moving force, and by some late writers 
 vis viva, to distinguish it from the vis mortua spoken of before ; and 
 by lhe<e appellations, however dillereni, Ihe same thing is under- 
 stood bv all mathematicians, viz. that power of dls|)lacing, of 
 wilhstanding oppo./ite moving forces, cr of overcoming any di-ad 
 resistance, which resides in a moving boilv , and which, in whole 
 or in part, continues to accompany it, so long as the body moves. 
 See Mechanjcs. 
 
 Force, Comparative of Men and Horses. There are se- 
 veral curious as well as iise'ul observ.itions in Desagulicr's Expe- 
 rimental Philosophy, concerning the comparative forces of men 
 and horses, and the best way of ap])lying them. A horse draws 
 w illi the greatest advanlage whi-n the line o! direction is level with 
 his breast ; in such a situation, he is able to draw 200lb. S hours 
 a-day, walking about two niHes and an half an hour. And if tlic 
 same liorse be made to draw 2401b. he can work but six hours a- 
 dav, and cannot go ciuite so fast. On a carriage, indeeil, where 
 friction alone is to be overcome, a middling horse will draw 
 1000 lb. But the best way to try a horse's force is by making liiin 
 dr'a^v-up out of a well, over asin!;le [nilley or roller ; and in such a 
 case, one horse with another will draw 2001b. Five men arc 
 found lo be equal in slrenglh to one horse, and can, with as much 
 ease, push round the horizontal beam of a mill, in a walk 40 feet 
 w ide ; whereas three men will do it in a walk only ly feet wide. 
 The worst way of applying the force of a horse, is to make hmi 
 carry i)r draw up hill ; for if the hill be steep, tinee men will d. > 
 more than a horse, each man climbiiig up faster with a burden of 
 1001b. weight, than a horse that is loaded with 3001b. a dilierence 
 which is owing to the position of the parts of the human body, 
 being better adapted to climb than those of a horse. On the oilier 
 hand, the best way of applying the force of a horse, is in an Iiori- 
 zontal direction, wherein a man can exert least force ; thus a man, 
 weighing l40lb. and drawing a boat along by means of a rope 
 coining over his shoulders, cannot draw above 27lb. or exert 
 above oue-seyentl) part of the force of a horse employed on the 
 
 sarae
 
 FOR 
 
 47^2 
 
 FOR 
 
 same purpose. The very best and most efl'ectual posture in a | 
 niiii), is tliat of rowing ; \vherein he not only acts wiUi more mus- 
 cles at once for overcoming the resistance, tiian in any other posi- I 
 tion ; but as he pulls backwards, the weight of his body assists liy 
 .way of lever, bee Desasnliers, Exp. Phil. vol. i. p. 241, where 
 we have several other observations relative to force acq'iiired by 
 certani positions of the body, from which that author accounts for 
 most feats of strength and activity. See also a Memoir on this 
 subject by M. de la Hire, in Mciii. Koy. Acad. Sc. I6'i9 ; or in 
 Desagulicrs, Exp. &c. p. 267, &c. who has pubhshed a transla- 
 tion of part of it with remarks. 
 
 Force, AccELERAiivE, or Retaruive Force, is that which 
 >respe^t^ tlie vehu ity of the motion only, accelcraling or retarding 
 it; andii is denoted by the quotient of the motive force, divided 
 by the mass or weight of the body. So, if^rt denote the motive 
 furce, and h the body, or its weight, and/ the accelerating or re- 
 
 m 
 tarding force, then is/ as — . Again, forces are either constant or va- 
 
 b 
 rial)le. Constant forces are such as remain and act cnnlinuaily the 
 ame for some determinate time. Such, for example, istlie lorce of 
 gravit\-f which acts constantly the same upon a body, while it con- 
 tinues' at the same distance from the ctjntre of the earth, or from 
 tlie centre of force, w luaever that may' be. In the case of a con- 
 stant force F, acting upon a body b, for any timej, we have these 
 following theorems; putting./ = the constant accelerating lorce 
 := F-f-i; r r= the velocity at the end of the time / ; ■s= the space 
 passed over in that time, by the constant action ol that force on the 
 body: and ij = Ifi/j feet,' the space generated by gravity in 1 
 second, and" call'uig the accelerating force of gravity I ; tlien is 
 
 r- - »■ II 
 
 s = 4 iv = gjr- ^ ; V = 2gft = = v/ ^gf^ ; i = — , 
 
 2 J .5 l> s c' 
 
 s/ -gt s'- ^g^ 
 
 Forces, Variable, are such as are continually changing in their 
 elTect and intensiiy; such as the force of gravity at dit'ferent dls- 
 •tances from the centre of the earth, which decreases in proportioji 
 as the s(|uare of the distance increases. In variable forces, theo- 
 rems similar to those above may be exhibited, by using the tiux- 
 ions of qunntitiis, and afterwards taking the fluents of the given 
 lluxional equations. And hereiji consists one of the great excel 
 lencies of tlie Newtonian or modern analysis, by which we are 
 enabled to manage and compute the effects of all kinds of variable 
 forces, whether accelerating or retarding. Thus, using the same 
 .notation as above tor constant forces, viz./, the accelerating force 
 at any instant ; /, the time a body has been in motion by the ac- 
 ■fion of the variable force; r, the velocity generated in that time; 
 «, the space nm over in that time; and §= 16.^ feet; then is 
 vv 2 gfs s' V V xi 
 
 ■^gj 
 
 ■^gj 
 
 In these four theorems, t!ie force/, thoi>gh varialile. 
 
 ■gt- 
 
 supposed to be constant for the indefinitely small time t; and they 
 are to be u.-ed in all cases of variable forces, iis the former ones in 
 contant tijrces; viz. from the circimistances of the problem under 
 conideralion, deduce a general expression for the vaUie of the force 
 /, at any indelinite tim* ' ; tl.en substitute it in one of the'e theo- 
 rems, which shall be proper to the case in hand ; and the equation 
 thence resulting will determine the corresponding values of the 
 other (|uantitics in the probK m. It is also to be observed, that the 
 foregoing theorems equally hokl good for the destruction of mo- 
 tion and velocity, by means of retarding or. resisting forces;, as 
 for the generation of the same by means of accelerating forces. 
 
 Force, in law, signifies any nnlawti.d violence ollered to things 
 or persons, and is dividi .1 iniu simple and compound. 
 
 1. Force, Compound, is wdiere Siinie other violence is com- 
 mitted with such an act winch of itself alone is criminal ; as if one 
 enters by force into anotlier's liouse, and there kdls a person, or 
 ravishes a woman. There is .likewise a force ini|ilied in law, as in 
 ever.v trespass, rescue, or disseisin, and an actual force with 
 weapons, ixuniber of persons, &c. — Any peisons may lawfully en- 
 
 ter a tavern, inn, or victualling house; so may a landlord his ten- 
 ant's house to view repairs, &c. But if, in these cases, the person 
 that enters commits any violence or force, the law will intend that 
 he entered for that purpose. 
 
 11. P'oRCE, Simple, is what is so committed, that it has no 
 other crime attending it; as where a person by force enters on 
 anotlier's possession, without committing any other unlawful act. 
 
 FORCELLAR, a town of Naples, in the province ofAbruxzo 
 Ultra, 3 miles E. ofTeramo. 
 
 FORCEPS, a pair of nippers, or pinchers, for laying hold of 
 and pulling out any thing forced into anotlier body. 
 
 Forceps, in surgery. Sec. a pair of scissars for cutting off, or 
 dividing, the fleshy or membraneous parts of the body. See Sur- 
 gery. 
 
 FORCER, or FORCING-PUMP, in mechanics, is a kind of 
 pump in which there is a forcer or piston without a valve. See 
 Pump., 
 
 FORCIBLE DETAINER, in law, is where one by violence 
 withholds till; possession of lands, fkc. so that the person wlio has a 
 right of entry is barred, or hindered, therefrom. 
 
 Forcible Entry is, a violent and actu.il entry into houses or 
 lands. At common law, any person that had a right to enter into 
 lands, &c. nught retain possession of it by force. But this liberty 
 being abused, to the breach of the peace, it was therefore foimd 
 necessary that the same should be restrainetl : Though, at this day, 
 he who is wrongfully dispossessed of goods may by force retake 
 them. By stattite, no persons sliall make an entry on any lands or 
 tenements, exce|)t where it is given by law, and in a peaceable 
 manner, even though they have title of entry, on pain of imi)rison- 
 ment: and where a forcible entry is committed, justices of peace 
 are authorized to view the place, and enquire of the force by a 
 jm'y, summoned by the shenlf ot tlie county ; and they may cause 
 the tenements, &c. to be restored, and imprison the offenders till 
 they pay a fine. A w rit of forcible entry also lies, wliere a person 
 seised of a freeliold, is by force put out thereof. 
 
 Forcible Marp.iac;e, of a woman of estate, is felony. Forby 
 the statute 3 Hen. 7. c. 2, it is enacted, " That if any persons shall 
 take away any woman having lands or goods, or that is heir appa- 
 rent to her ancestor", by force, and against her will, and marry or 
 defile her; the takers, procurers, abettors, and receivers, ot the 
 woman taken awav against her w ill, and knowing the same, shall be 
 deemed principal felons; but as to procurers and accessories, 
 they are, bel'ore the otTence be committed, to be excluded the 
 benefit of clergy, by 39 Eliz. c. 9. The indictment on the statute 
 3 H. 7, is expressly to set lorth, that the woman taken away had 
 lands or goods, or was heir apparent ; and also that she was mar- 
 ried or defiled, because no other case is within the statute ; and it 
 ought to allege that the taking was for lucre. It is no excuse that 
 the woman at first was taken away with her own consent; for if she 
 afterwards refuse to continue with the offender, and be forced 
 against her will, she mav from that time properly be said to be 
 taken against her will; and it is not material whether a woman so 
 taken away be at last married or defiled with her own consent or 
 not, if she were under force at the time; the ottender being in 
 both ca-cs equally within the words of the act. Those persons 
 who, alter the fact, receive the olfender, arc but accessories after 
 the otVence, according to the '.ules of common law ; and those that 
 are oidy privy to'dlie damage, but not parties to the forcible taking 
 away, are not within the act, II. P. C. 119- A man may be in- 
 dicted for taking away a woman by force in anclher country ; for 
 the continuing of the lorce in any cotmtry amounts to a forcible 
 taking llierc. Ibid. Taking away any woman-child mider the age 
 of 16 years and unmarried, out ot the custody anuwitliout the con- 
 sent of the father or guardian, &c. the ollVnder shall suffer fine 
 and imprisonment ; and if the woman agree to any contract of 
 matrimony with such person, she shall forfeit her estate during 
 life, to the next of kin to whom the inheritance should descend, 
 &c. Stat. 4 i^ .5. P & M. c. 8. This is a force against the parents: 
 and an information will lie for seducing a young man or woman 
 from their parents, against their consents, in order to marry them, 
 &c. See Marriage. 
 
 FORCING, in gardening, a method of producing ripe fruits 
 from trees before their natural season. The method of doing it is 
 this: A wall should he erected ten feet high; a border must be 
 marked out on the south side of it, of about four feet wide, and 
 some stakes must be fastened into the ground all along the edge of 
 
 the
 
 FOR 
 
 475 
 
 F O U 
 
 tlic buriU'i" ; these < lioulil bo luur inches thick. 'I'hcy nii- inlpixlcil 
 to rest the glass lights iipo;), which aie to slope l)ack\vards to the 
 wull, to shiMterthi." fruit as lliere shall be occasion; and there must 
 be, at each end, a door to open either nay, according as the wind 
 tlows. The frame shonid be made moveable along tlie wall, that 
 when a tree has been forced one year, the frame may be removed 
 tn another, and so on, that the trees may each of them be for<cd 
 only once in three years, at which rate they will la^-t a loni? time. 
 Thev ninst be always well-grown trees that are chosen (ur lurc- 
 tn^ ; for young ones are soon dctroyd, and the fruit that is pro- 
 diiced from them is never so well t:'<tcd. The fruits most proper 
 for this management are the avant or small while nutmeg, tlic al- 
 bermarle, the early Newingtowii, and the brown nutmeg peaches; 
 Mr. Fairchild's earlv, and the elmgo and Newingtown nectarines; 
 the masculine apncot, and the may-duke and may-chrrry. For 
 grapes, the white and black sweet-water are the properest; and of 
 gooseberries the Dutch white, the Dutch early greoji, and the walnut 
 goose-berry ; and the largeDulchw liite and large Dutch red currants. 
 1 he dung, before it is put to the wall,shouldbelaidina heap for five 
 or six days, that it may heat thoroughly ; and when thus prepared 
 it must be laid four feet thick at the base of the wall, and go 
 sloping op till it is two feet thick at the top. It must be laid at 
 least within three or four inches of the top of the wall; and when 
 it sinks, as it will sink two or three feet, more dung must be laid 
 on ; foi»the first heat will do little more than just swell the blossom 
 buds. The coveringof the troeswith glasses is of great service; but 
 they should be taken ofilto admit the bcneht of gentle showers to 
 the trees, and the doors at the ends should be either left cntirelv 
 open, or one or botli of them opened, and a mat hung before 
 them, at once to let the air circulate and keep off the frosts. 'I'he 
 dnng is never to be applied till towards the end of November; 
 and three changes of it w ill be suflicient to ripen the cherries, 
 wliich will be very line in February. As to the apricots, grapes, 
 nectarines, peaches, and plunil)s, if the weather be milder, the 
 glasses are to be opened to let in sunshine or gentle showers. If a 
 row or two of scarlet strawberries be planted at the back of the 
 frame, they will ripen in February or the beginning of March; 
 the vines will blossom in Ajiril, and the grapes will ripen in June. 
 It should be carefully observed, not to place early and late ri- 
 pening fruits together, because the heat necessary to force the 
 late ones will be of great injury to the early ones after they have 
 fruited. 
 
 Forcing, in the wine trade, a term used by the wine coopers, 
 for the lining down wines, and rendering them fit for immediate 
 draught. 
 
 FOHDSAND, a small island of Denmark, near the coast of 
 Sleswick. Lon. 8. 3j. E. Lat. 35. 1. N. 
 
 FORDVVICH, a town of Kent, called in the Doomsday Book 
 " the little Borough of Fordwich," is u member of the port of 
 Sandwich, and was anciently incorporated by the style of the ba- 
 rons of the town of Fordwich, but more lately bv the name of the 
 mayor, jurats, and commorndty, who enjoy t!ie same privilege^ as 
 the cinque-ports. It is famous for e.xcellent trouts, taken in the 
 Stour. 
 
 P'DRDYCE, Da\'ID, an elegant and learned writer of the 
 IRth century, was professor of philosophy in the Marischal college, 
 Aberdeen. He was originally de.igned for the mini.-trv; to pre- 
 pare himself tVir which was tlie whole aim of his ambition, and for 
 a course of years the wliole purpose of his studies. How well he 
 was ipuililied to appear in tliat character, appi-ars from Iris Theo- 
 do'.us, a ilialogue concerning the art of preaching. AtVr having 
 (iniihed tliis work, he went abroad on his travels, to obtain fresh 
 stores of knowledge: but after a snccesstul tour through several 
 parts of Europe, he was unfortunatelv cast away in a storm on the 
 coast of Holland. He wrote also Dialogues on Education, 8vo. 
 and a Treatise of Moral Philosophy, published in the Preceptor. 
 '1 he third edition of his Theudorus was published in London, after 
 his uiuimely death, by his brother, the Kev. Mr. James Fordycc, 
 an eniinent dissenting minister, in l'j5. 
 
 FOKf!, applied to a ship, denotes that part of her frame and 
 maclunery wiiich lies near (he stern. 
 
 FoKE AND All is used for the whole ship's length, or from end 
 to end. 
 
 Fouf.-Castle of a Ship, that part where the forc-masf stands. 
 It is divided from the rest by .i bulk-liead. See the aitide' (ifjiil-. 
 
 VOL. H.-T-NO. b". 
 
 —r~ . ,. — -'-t- ; s7-:t , ---^ n — r — " -rr-' i -n— nx 
 
 Fo.''K-CLOsEii, in law, signilie.s the being simt out, and exclud- 
 ed, or barred, the e(|uily of redemption on n.ortgage.s, Arc. 
 
 Fore-foot, m the sea-langiiape, sjgnilics One ship's lyinu, or 
 saihng, ( ross another's way: as it two sinp's being (md"r »ail, and 
 in ken one of another, om; of them lying in her course with lief 
 stem so niuch a weather the other, tliat holding on t hi ir several 
 ways, neither of them altering their courses, the windward ship »ilt 
 run a-head of theotlier: then it is said, such a ship lies with the 
 other's lorefoot. 
 
 F(-)RE1GN, in the Knglish law, is used in various sigmlications. 
 Thus, 
 
 1. FoKKicN Attachment, is an attachment of the goods of 
 foreigners louiid within a city or liberty, lor the sallsfa<tion of 
 some citizen to whom the foreigner is ii'.deUed ; or it signifies an 
 attachment ot a foreigner's money in t!ie hands of another |n:rson. 
 
 2. Foreign Kingdom, a kiiigdom under the tiominion of a 
 foreign prince. At the instance of an ambassador or consul, any 
 olleuder again>t the laws here may be sent for hither from a foreign 
 kingdom to which he hath tied. Aiul, where a stranger ol Hoi- 
 land, or any foreign country, buys goods at London, tor inst nee, 
 and there gives a note under his hai.d for payment, and then goes 
 away privately into Holland; in tliat case, the seller may have a 
 certificate from the lord mayor, on tiie proof of the sale and deli- 
 very of such goods, w hereupon a process will be executetj on the 
 parly in Holland. 
 
 3. FouriGN OrposER, or Appcsrr, air officer in the exche- 
 quer that opposes or make< a charge on all sheriifs, ^c. of their 
 green wax; i. t. lines, isaue", amerciamenls, recognizances. Sec. 
 
 4. Foreu;n 1'i.ea, signifies an objection It) the judge of the 
 court, by refusing him as incompeteni, because the matter in 
 (|uestion is not within his jurisdiction. 
 
 5. Foreign Seamen, serving two years on board Rritish ship', 
 whether of war, trade, or privateers, during the time of war, shall 
 be deitmed nalural-born subjects. 
 
 FOREIGN ERS, though made denizens, or iiaturalize<l, are 
 disabled to bear any office in government, to be of the privv 
 council, or members of parliament, fic. This is by the acts of 
 the settlement of the crown. Such persons as are not freemen of 
 a city or corporation, are also calli'd foreigners, to distinguish 
 them from the members of the same. 
 
 FOREJUDGEK, a judgement whereby a man is deprived, or 
 put out, of the thing in (luestion. 
 
 FOREJUDGED THE COURT, is when an officer or attor- 
 ney of the court of common pleas is exiiclled the same for some 
 otience, or for not appearing to an action by bill filed aaainst him v 
 and in the latter he is not to be ri'-admitteil till he shall appear. 
 By 2 Hen. IV. c. 8, lie shall lose his office and be forejudged 
 the court. 
 
 FORELAND, North, a promontory of England on (he 
 N. E. extremity of (lie isle of Tlianet, in Kent, ascertained by- 
 act of parliament to be the most southern pail of the port of Lon- 
 don, which is thence extende<l N. in a right line to the point, 
 called the Nase on the coast ol Essex, and forms the mouth of (he 
 Thames. A rouiul brick tower near SO feet high, was erected 
 here, as a sea-mark, by the Trinity House corporaiioii. It has a 
 light house on its top, in which lights are kept burning i \ ery 
 night. The sea gains so much upon the land here bv the v.inds 
 at S. \y ■ (hat, within tlie memory of peisons slilj living, about .■?'> 
 acres ot land have been lost in one place. It is 2j miles S. E. of 
 ■Margate. Longitude of the liglit house, 1° 2(5' 22" E. from Green- 
 wich. Latituih- of the same, ^5 1° '.'2' 40" N. 
 
 FoREi.ANn, SouTii; a promoiitary of England on (he E. coast 
 of Kent, between Dover and De.il, which forms the east point of 
 the Kentish shore, and is called South, in respect (o its bejiring 
 from the other I'on-hind, and is about six miles to the N. Their 
 siluation is of great security (o the noted road between them, 
 called the Downs, which would be very d.mgerous for ships. Hid 
 not (his poin( bre.ik (he sea off, that would otherwise come rolling 
 up from the W. to the Flats or sandbanks, which for three leagues 
 together, and a taboul a league and a half from theshore, run pa- 
 rallel with it, an<l are dry at low water. Lon. 1° 22' 6' E. Lat 
 ^V S' 21' N. 
 
 Foreland, Sjuth, a cape on the W. coast of North America, 
 in Cook's river. Lon. 121. 20. \V. Lat. 60. 'M. N. 
 
 FORELOCKS, in the sea-languajje, little flat wedges made 
 C E with
 
 FOR 
 
 474 
 
 FOR 
 
 With ii-<;n, usLtl al the ends of bolts to keep tlieiu fiom Hying oulB 
 of their liolcs. 
 
 FOUt'.-MAST OF A SHIP, a large roinnl piece of timber, 
 placed ill lier tore-part, or tore-eastle, and carrying the fore-sail 
 and fore-top bail yards. Its length is usually eight-ninths of the 
 main-nuisl, and llie fore-top-gallaiit-nia^t is one-halt the length of 
 t le fore-lop. 
 
 FuRE-MAST Men, are those oii board a ship that take in the 
 top sads, shng the yards, furl the sails, bowse, trice, and take their 
 turn at the helm, &:c. 
 
 Fork-reach, mi the sea-language: a ship is said to fore-reach 
 vpon another, when both sailing together, one sails better, or out- 
 goes the other. 
 
 FOIiESCHOKE, in our old authors, signifies the some with 
 forsaken, aud is particularly used in or.e of our statutes foi lands or 
 tenements seised by the lord lor waul of services perloriued by his 
 tenant, and <iuii tly held by such lord above a year and a day, 
 ■without anv due course of 'law taken by the tenant for recovery 
 thereof; here iie does in presumption of law disavow or forsake all 
 the rights he has thereto, for which reason those lands shall be 
 called foreschoke. 
 
 FOKF,-SKlN, in anatomy. See Prepuce. 
 FOREST, iii geography', a huge wood ; or, a large e.Ntent of 
 ground covered with trees. T'le s^ord is formed of the Eatin.fb- 
 rcsta, which hist occurs in the ca|)itulars of Charlemagne, and 
 which itself is derived from the German frost, signifying the same 
 tiling. Spelman derives it from the L:\i\n forts restat, by reason 
 forests arc out of towns. Others i.\m\-e Jon-staiiomfcris, q. d. 
 Fortsta, (juoad xit lata statioft-rarum, as being a sale station or 
 abode lor wild beasts. . 1 he principal forests in this country are 
 those of Sherwood, Windsor, the New I"ore4, that of Dean, on 
 tlie north of the river Severn, and Epping Forest, in the county 
 of Esse.v:. There are, besides, several smaller forests, the total ex- 
 tent of which, together with those just enumerated, amounts to 
 about 300,000 acres. The utility of forests, to a commercial na- 
 tion, is very great; as, by the quantity of timber they afibrd, a 
 considerable expence may be saved, w'hich mu-t otherwise be in- 
 curred bv the importation of materials for ship-tjuilding. Iiide- 
 pendentlv of these considerations, forests of a moderate extent are 
 a naiiona"! ornamenl, especially if they do not occupy such lands 
 as could be more usefully employed'in agriculture. Formerly, 
 England abounded with woods, a'ncl was celebrated for its lofty 
 and in.ije-lic oak, which, however, of late years has become 
 scarce. On the contrary, various large tracts of uncultivated 
 ground niigh.t now be advalltageou^ly planted with larch, iir, and 
 other trees; but, as these expensive undertakings are beyond the 
 ability of private individuals, it is to be Imped that the commis- 
 sioners of the land revenue will be able speedily to carry so patri- 
 otic a measure into etTect. 
 
 Forests, in law, are waste grounds belonging to the king, re- 
 plenished with all manner of beasts of cliace or venery, which are 
 under the king's protection, for the sake of his royal recreation 
 and delight; and to that ei.d, and for preservation of the king's 
 game, there are particular laws, privileges, courts, and officers, be- 
 longuig ta the king's forests. 1 Black. 279. The forest-courts 
 are, the courts of attachments, of regard, of swa'nmote, and of jus- 
 tice-seat. 'Flie court of attachments is to be held beiore the ver- 
 derers of the forest, once in every forty days, to enquire of all of- 
 fenders against the king's deer, or fsovert for the game, w ho may 
 be attached by their bodies, if found in the very act of transgres- 
 sion, otherwise by their goods; and in tliis court the foresters are 
 to bring in their attachment, or presentments of vert and venison: 
 and the verderers are to receive the same, and to iurolbthem, and 
 to ccitifv tiiem under their sea's, to the court of justice-seat, or 
 swainniot'e ; for this court can only inquire of, but not convict, of- 
 fenders. The court of regard or survey of dogs is to be holden 
 every third year, for the lawing or expeditatiiig of m:istifl':;, which 
 is done by cutting off the claws of the fore-feet, to prevent them 
 from running after deer. No other dogs than mastiffs were per- 
 mitted to be kept within the king's forests, it being sups>osed that 
 the keeping of these, and these only, was necessary for the defence 
 of a man's house. 'I'Ue court of swainmote is to be holden before 
 the verderers as judges, by the steward of the swainmote, thrice in 
 every year, the swains or freeholders within the fore.>t composing 
 the jury. '1 iie jurisdiction ol this court is, to encpiire into the op- 
 |:ieksious and grievances committed by the oflicers of the forest, 
 
 and to receive and try presentments certified from tlie court of at- 
 tachments, against the olTcnders in vert aud venison; and thie 
 court niav not only enquire, liut convict also, which convictioQ 
 shall be-certitied to thecouit of justice-seat, under the seals of the 
 jury, for this court cannot proceed to judgement. The court of 
 justice-seat, is the prmcipal court; which is held before the chief 
 justice in eyre, or chief itinerant judge, or his deputy, to hear and 
 determine all tresiiasses widiii' the forest, and all claims of fran- 
 cliises, liberties, and privileges, and al! pleas and causes whatso- 
 ever Iheiein arising. It may also proceed to try presentments 
 made in the inferior courts ot the fore-t, and to give judgement 
 upon the convictions that have been made in the swainmote courts. 
 It mav be hcUl every third year. 'J'liis court may line and impri- 
 son, it being a court of record; and a writ of error lies to thecourt 
 ot king's bench. 1 Black. 289. 2 Clack. 38. 3 Black. 71. But 
 the forest-laws have long ago ceased to be put in execution. I 
 Black. 289. 
 
 Forests, Antiq,ujty oe. Forests are of such antiipiity in 
 England, that, excepting the New Forest in Hampshire, erected 
 by \\ illiam the Conqueror, and Hampton Court, erected by 
 lienry VIII. it is said, that there is no record or history whicli 
 makes any certain mention of their erection, though they are men- 
 tioned by several writers and in several statutes. Ancient histo- 
 rians tell us, " that New forest was raised by the destruction of 
 22 |)arish-churches, and many villages, chapels, and manors, for 
 the space of 30 miles together, which was attemled with divers 
 judgements on the posterity of William 1. who erected it. 
 
 Forest, Black, or Schwartzwai.d, an extensive forest of 
 Germany, in Suabia, on the right side of the Rhine, consisting 
 chietiy of mountains, which run across the greatest part of Suabia 
 from X. to S. and from E. to W. This forest lies chiefly between 
 the late Helvetic republic, the Rhine, and the kingdom of Wur- 
 temberg. 
 
 Forest Towns, in geography, four towns of Germany, in 
 Suabia, lying along the Rhine, and the conlines of Switzerland, 
 and subject to the house of Austria. Their names are Rhinelield, 
 Seckingen, Lausenburg, and Waldshut. 
 
 Fore-staff, an instrument used at sea for taking the altitudes 
 of heavenly bodies, so called, bec;uise the observer, in using it, 
 turns his face towards the object; in contradistinction to the back- 
 staff, where he turns his back to the object. The fore-stalT, or 
 eros<->talif, represented in Plate LXX, lig. 13, consists of a straight 
 square stuff, A B, graduated like a line ot tangents and four crosses 
 or vanes, F F, E E, DD, C C, which slide thereon. The first 
 and shortest of these vaues, F F, is called the ten cross, or vane, 
 and belongs to that side of the instrument whereon the divisions 
 begin at 3" and end at 10'. The next longer vane, E E, is called 
 ihe thirty cross, belonging to that side whtre the divisions begin at 
 20° and "end at 30°, catled the thirty scale. The next vane, U D, 
 is called the sixtv cross, and belongs to that side where the divi- 
 sions begin at 20° and end at 60°. The last and longest, C C, 
 called the ninety-cross, belongs to the side whereon the divisions 
 begin at 3u° and end at 90°. The great use of this in-trnment is to 
 take ihe height of the sun and stars, or the distance of two stars: 
 and the 10, 30, 60, or 90, crosses, are to be used according as the 
 altitude is greater or less; that is, if the altitude be less than 10°, 
 the ten cross is to be used; if above ten, but less than thirty, the 
 thiity cross is to be used, &c. For altitudes greater than 30°, this 
 instrument is not so convenient as a quadrant or semicircle. To 
 observe an altitude by tliis instrument, apply the Ikit end of the 
 staff to your eye, and look at the upper end of the cross for the 
 centre of the sun or star, and at tlie lower end for the horizon, as 
 represented in lig. 13. If you see the sky instead of the horizon, 
 slide the cross a little nearer the eye : and if you see the sea instead 
 of t!ie horizon, slide the cross fartlier from the eye : and thus con- 
 tinue moving till you see exactly the sun or star's centre by the 
 top of the cross, and the horizon by the bottom thereof. Then 
 the degrees and minutes, cut by the inner edge of the cross upon 
 the side of the stall" peculiar to the cross you use, give the altitude 
 of the sun or star. If the meridian altitude be wanted, continue 
 your observation as long as yau lind the altitude increase, still 
 .moving the cross nearer to the eye. By subtracting the mtridian- 
 altitude thus lound from 90°, you will have the zenith-distance. 
 To work accurately, an allowance must be made for the height 
 of the eye above the surface of the sea, viz. for one English foot, 
 1 minute ; for J feet, 2-^ ; for 10 feet, 3^ ; for 20 feet, 5 ; for 40 
 
 feet,
 
 FOR 
 
 475 
 
 FOR 
 
 fed, 7, &:c. 'I'hesi- mimiles subliat tfd fiiiin tlie ali.itiKlc. and 
 adiloil to tlie zenitli-(li--tance ol^t-rvt-d, j<ive the true alutude and 
 zcnitli-distaiice. To ubserve tliu dL-taiice of two stars, or lliat of 
 tlie 1110011 troin a star, apply the iiistriiniciit to the cyi', and look- 
 ing to botli ends of tin- (.Ti)ss, move it nearer or fartiier from the 
 eye till you see the two stars, the one on the one end, and the 
 other on tlie other end of the cm-,-; ; then the deytes and minutes 
 cut by the cross, on the side proper to the vane in use, give the 
 Star's distance. 
 
 t'oRE-STALLiN'G, is the buying of, or bargaining for, corn, cat- 
 tle, or other merchandize, in its [lassage to fairs, or markets, for 
 sale, with an intent to dispose of tlieni again at an advanced price. 
 The punishment for this olTeiiec, on coiivicliou by two or more 
 witnesses is, lor the first time, two months imiirisonment, and for- 
 fi-iture of the goods, or their value; for the second, theoH'endrr 
 incurs an imprisonment of six mouths, and loses double the value 
 of the articles; and, for the third olVeiice, he is liable to imprison- 
 inent during the king's ph.asurc; to a forfeiture of all his proper- 
 ty; and is to be sentenced to stand ia the pillory. Severe, how- 
 ever, as these regulations ap|)ear, they have hitherto not been at- 
 tended with the desired elfeet. Notwithstanding all the arguments 
 and invectives th.at have been eiiiplo)cd aL;aiiisl this growing evil, 
 in printed works, and in the courts of justice, we are persuaded 
 that it will never be crushed, till national councils adopt proper 
 and ellectual measures for preventing this inicpiitons practice. 
 
 FOKESTEKs, ot'licers of the fonst, a|>pointed by the king's 
 Ittters patent, and sworn to walk the forest at all hours, and watch 
 over the vert and venison; also to make attachments and true pre- 
 sentments, of all trespasses comniilLed within tlie forest. If a man 
 comes into a forest by night, a forester cannot lawfully beat him 
 before lie makes some resistance; but in case such a person resists 
 the forester, he may justify a battery. And a forester shall not 
 be que^ioned for killing a trespasser t'.iat, after tlie peace cried to 
 him, will not surrender himself, if it be not done on any former 
 iiKilice; though, where trespassers in a forest, &c. kill a person 
 that opposes them, it is murder in all, because they w Cre engaged 
 in an unlawful act, and tiierefore malice is implied to the peisoji 
 killed. 
 
 r'ORETS, a department of France, formed out of the late pro- 
 vince of Austrian Luxeiiiber^. Luxemberg is the chief city. 
 
 FORFZ, a late province^ of France, bounded on the N. by 
 Burgundy and Bourbounois, E. by Ly oniioi.s, S. by VeUis aiiij 
 Vivarois, and W. by Aiivergne. It now forms, with the Lyonnois, 
 the deoartment of Rhone and Loire. 
 
 FOilFAU, ANGUS, or FORFAR-SIIIRE, a county ot 
 Scotland. See Angl";. 
 
 FoRF.AR, an ancient royaf burgh of Scotland, capital of the 
 county. It lies 14mil« NV. of Montrose, and 14 X. ot Dundee. 
 Lon. I'. 54. W. Lat. jQ. 35. N. 
 
 FORFEITURE, originally signifies a transgression or offence 
 against some penal law. The word is formed of the base Latin 
 forisftictum: whence forjailtiru auHfarJiiiciura, and the French 
 J'orjuit. I'orhfactara comi;^ oijnrisjdccre ; wliich, according to 
 Isidore, signifies to hurt or oilend, J'aci-re contra ratioiiem ; and 
 which is not improbably derived of Joris, out, ■dndfacere, to dii, 
 q. d. an action out of rule, or contrary to the rules, Borel will 
 liJive forjliit derived from the using of force or^ violence: Lo- 
 bincaii in his glo-sury will have Jhritfutt properly to signify a 
 mulct or amend, not a forfeit ; which last he derives trom the biise 
 British ujttjed, a penally. But it is now more liequently used for 
 the eii'ect of such tranv^rcssion ; or the losing some right, privi- 
 lege, etate, honouij odice, or effects, in conseciuence th.-reof, 
 than for the tra'iigression itself. Forfeiture dilVers from conlisca- 
 tion, in that the former is more general ; while confiscation is par- 
 ticularly applied to such things as Ijecame forfeited to the king's 
 exchequer; and goods confiscated are said to be such as noboily 
 claims. Kprleituves may be either in civil or criminal cases. 
 
 i. FoRFRiTjjp.E IS Civil Cases. A man who has an estate 
 for life or years, may forfeit it many ways, as well as by treason 
 cr felony ; such as alienation, churning a greater estate tlian lie 
 kath, or aOirming the reversion to be in a stranger, &c. When a 
 t<-nant in tail makes leases not warranted by statute; a copyholder 
 commits waste, refuses to pay his rent, or do suit of court ; and 
 where an estate is granted upon condition, on non-perforin::nce 
 tteteof, ice, thejr will make a forfeiture. Entry for a forfeiture 
 
 ought to be by him wlio is next in revi jsion, or remainder, after 
 the estate forteited. As if the tenant tor life or year:; commits a 
 forfeiture, he who has the immeiliate reversion or remainder ought 
 to enter, though he has the fee, or only an estate tail. 
 
 ii. FoRFtnuRE IN Criminal Casks, is two-fold; of real, and 
 personal estates. 
 
 I. FoKFtiruRE OF Pf.ksonal Estates. The forfeiture of 
 goods .uul chattels accrues in every one of the high kinds of of- 
 leiice; ill high treason, or misprision thereof, petit tieasoii, felo- 
 nies of all sorts whether clergyable or not, self-murder, or felony 
 de sc, petty larceny, standing mute, &c. For (light also, on an 
 accusation of treason, felony, or even petit larceny, whi-therthe 
 parly be found guilty or acquiited, if the jury find the flight, the 
 party shall forfeit his goods and chattels; fur the very flight is aa 
 olleiice, carrying with it a strong presumption of guilt, and is at 
 least an endeavour to elude and stifle the course of justice pre- 
 scribed by the law. But the jury very seldom find the flight; 
 forfeiture being looked upon, since the vast increase of personal 
 |jioperty of late years, as loo large a penalty for an offence to 
 uhichamanis prompted by the natural love of liberty. There 
 is a remark.ible dilfi-reiice or two between the Ibrfeiture of lands, 
 and iif goods and chattels. (1.) Lands arc forfeited upon attain- 
 du', and not before ; goods and chattels are forfeited by c<iinic- 
 lion. Because in many of the cases w lieru goods are forfeited, 
 there never is any attainder; which happens only where judge- 
 ment of deatli or outlawry is given; therefore, in those cases, the 
 forfeiture must be upon conviction, or not at all; and being ne- 
 cessarily upon conviction in those, it is so ordered in all other 
 eases, for the law loves miilormify. (2.) The forfeiture of lands 
 has relation to the time the fact was committed, so as to avoid all 
 subsequent sales and incumbrances: but the forfeiture of goods 
 and chattels has no relalioi: backwards; so that those only wliich 
 a man has at the time of conviction shall be forfeited. Therefore 
 a traitor or felon may bona fide sell any of his chattels, reid or 
 personal, for the sustenance of himself and family between tlie 
 fact and conviction; for personal property ii of so fluctuating ;^ 
 nature, that it passes through many hands in a short time ; ami no 
 buyer could be safe, if he were liable to return the goods which he 
 had fairly bought, provided any of the prior vendors had commit- 
 ted a treason or felony. Yet if they be collusively and not bona 
 title parted with, merely to defraud the crown, the law (and parti- 
 cularly the statute 13 Eliz. c. ^,) will reach them ; for they are all 
 the while truly and subtantially the goods of the olfender; and 
 as he, if acquitted, might recover them himself, as not parted with 
 for a good consideration ; so, in case he happens to be convicted, 
 the law will recover them for (he king. 
 
 2. Forfeiture of real Estates. By attainder in high trea- 
 son, says Blackstonc, a man forfeits to the 1- ing all his Luids and 
 frnemeiits of inheritance, whether fee-simple or fee-tail; and all 
 iiis rights of entry on lands and tenemenls, which he liad at the 
 lime of the offence coniinitted, or at any time afterwards, to b? 
 tor ever veiled in the crown ; and al'^o the profits of all lands and 
 tenements, which he had in his own right for life or year=, =o lori^ 
 as >e.ch intereil ^hall subsist. This forfeiture relates backwards to 
 the time of the treason committed ; so as to avoid all intermediate 
 sales and incumbrances, but not thoie before the fact; and there- 
 fore a wife's jointure is not forfeitable for the treason of her hus- 
 band ; because settled upon her previous to tlie treason commit- 
 ted. But her dower is forfeited, by the expres-. provision of sttitufc 
 5 and ti Edw. VI. c. 1 1. Ami yet the husband shall be tcnuiit by 
 the courtesy of the wife's lands, if the wife be attainted of treason; 
 for that is not pro'iibited by the statute. But, though, after r.t- 
 tainder the forfeiture relates back to liie time of the treason ccr.i- 
 miucd, yet it docs not take elfect unless an attainder be had, of 
 which it is one of the fruits; and the.elbre, if a traitor dies be'ore 
 judgement pronounced, oris killed in open rebellion, cr is hange.'l 
 by martial law, it works no torl'eiture of his lands: for he never 
 was attainted of treason. But if the chief justice of the kmg's 
 bench (the supreme coroner of all England) in person, upon the 
 view oi the body of him killed in open rebellion, teeords it and 
 returns the record into his own court, both lands and goods shall 
 be forfeited. The natural justice of forfeiture or confistation af 
 property, for treason is foundctl on this consideration: that he 
 who hath thus viohteU the fun^lamental principles of guvernmenl:, 
 and broken his part ot the origitwl contract ^«(w««ii kii.g and peo- 
 § pie,
 
 F O R 
 
 476 
 
 FOR 
 
 ** rj i f i " ' 
 
 u\c, hath abandoned liis connections with society, and hath no 
 longer any right to those advantages wliich before belonged to 
 him purely as°a member of the community ; among which social 
 advantage's, the right of transferring or transnihting property to 
 others is one of the chief. Such forfeitiu-es, moreover, whereby 
 his posterity must suffer as well as himself, will help to restrain a 
 man, not only by tlie sense of his duty, and dread of personal pu- 
 nishment, but also by his passions and natural affections; and will 
 interest every dependent and relation he lias to keep him from of- 
 fending: according lo that beautiful sentiment of Cicero, "nee 
 Vero me fui^it tiuam sjl acerbum, parentum scelera liliornm pa-nis 
 Jui : sed hoc prjeclare le<;ibus comparatum est, ut raritas liberoriim 
 amiciores parentcs reipublice redderet." And therefore Auhis 
 Cascellius, a Roman lawyer in the time of the triumvirate, used 
 to boast that he had two reasons for despising the power of the ty- 
 rants; his old age and his want of children: for children are 
 pledges to the prince of the father's obedience. Yet many na- 
 tions have thought, that this posthumous punishment savours of 
 hardship to the innocent ; especially for crimes that do not strike 
 at the very root and fuuiidalioii of society, as treason against the 
 government expressly does. And therefore, although contiica- 
 tions were very frequent in the times of the earlier emperors, yet 
 Arcadius and Honnrius, in every other instance but that of trea- 
 son, thought it more just, ibi esse pKiiani, ubi ct noxa est; and or- 
 dered, tliat " peccata suos leneant auctores, nee ulterius progre- 
 diatur nietus cpiam reperiatur delictum:" and Justinian also made 
 a law to restrain the puniihnient of relations; which directs the 
 forfeiture to go, except in the case of crimen majestatis, to thc 
 next of kin to the deliiaineut. On the other hand, the Macedo- 
 nian laws extended even the capital punishment of treason, not 
 only to the children, but to all tlie relations of the delinquent; 
 ind of course their estates must be also forfeited, as no man was 
 left to inherit them. .\nd in Germany, by the famous golden 
 bull (copied almost verbatim, from Justinian's code), the lives of 
 the sons of such as conspire lo kill an elector are spared, as it is 
 expressed, by the emperor's particular bounty. But they are de- 
 prived of all their effects and rights of succession, and are render- 
 ed incapable of any honour ecclesiastical and civil: to the end 
 tliat, being always poor and necessitous, they may for ever be ac- 
 companied bv the infamy of their father; may languish in conti- 
 nual indigence; and may find (says this merciless edict) their pn- 
 nisliment in living, and their relief in dying." In England, for- 
 feiture of lands and tenements to the crown for treason is by no 
 means derived from the leoilal ijolicy, but was antecedent to the 
 establishment of that system in this island; beingtransmitted from 
 theit- Saxon ancestors, and forming a part of the ancient Scandina- 
 yian constitution. But in certain treasons relating to the coin 
 (which seem rather a species of the crimen falsi than the crimen 
 l.Tsa; majestatis,) it is provided by some of the -.nodern statutes 
 which constitute the offence, that it shall work no forfeiture of 
 lands, save only for tlie life of the oflenders; and by all, that it 
 shall not deprive the wife of her dower. And, in order to abolish 
 such hereditary punishment entirely, it was enacted by statute 7 
 Ann. c. 21, that, after the decease of the laie pretender, no at- 
 tainder for treason shouUI extend to the disinheriting of any heir, 
 nor to I lie prejudice of any person, other than the traitor himself. 
 By which the law of forfeitures for high treason would by this time 
 have been at an •tnd, h;id not a subsequent statute intervened to 
 give them a longi'r duration. 
 
 KOKFEX, in Uoman antiquity, a way of drawing up an army 
 in the form of a pair of shears. It was intended to receive the 
 cniieus or wedge, if the enemy should make use of that (igure. 
 For when the forfex opened to admit the wedge, they had an op- 
 portunitv of defeating their de-ign, and cutting them in pieces. 
 
 FOUFICIIL.I, the Kak-wig, in zoology, a genus of insects ot 
 the order coleoptcra. Antennx bristly; leelers unequal; elytra 
 dimidiated; wings covered ; tail forked. This genus of insects is 
 one of the best known, the forceos at the extremity of their abdo- 
 jnon forming a very distiixtive character. It is this seeming wea- 
 that has occad'oned those insects to be called forlicuhe ; and 
 
 poll 
 
 the 
 
 fovniidable name of ear-wigs has been given the 
 
 in in Eiigli'^li, 
 
 uently introduces itself into the 
 
 cveii deat'li. Mr. Burbut, however. 
 
 (pi 
 
 from a notion that the in-.ect 
 
 Pars, causing great pain and 
 
 assures us, that the forceos which the ear-w-ig carries at his tail, and 
 
 ^•ith which he secnis provideiVfor his defence, is not so formida- 
 
 IWS 
 
 an 
 
 bl 
 
 ble as it at first npptars, being deotilnte of strength sufiicient to 
 produce the least sensible impression. The larva ditTers very littls 
 ironi the perfect insect. Ear-wigs are very mischievous vermin 
 in gardens, especially where carnations are preserved ; for they are 
 so lond of these flowers, that if care be not taken to prevent them, 
 they will entirely destroy them, by eating olV tlie sweet parts at 
 the bottom of the leaves. To prevent which, most people have 
 stands erected, wdiich have a bason of earth or lead round eacii 
 su|iporler, which is constantly kept filled with water. Others 
 hang the hollow claws of crabs and lobsters upon sticks in diver* 
 parts of the garden into which those vermin get; ai;d by often 
 searching them, one -will destroy them without miicli trouble, 
 which will be of great service lo the wall-fruit. I'his genus has 
 eighteen species. 
 
 FOBGE, properly signifies a little furnace, wherein smitlis and 
 other artificers of iron or steel, &c. heat their metals red-hot, to 
 soften them, and render them more malkahle and manageable oa 
 the anvil. An ordinary forge is nothing but a pair of bellows, the 
 nozzle of which is directed upon a smooth area, on whicii coals are 
 placed. Tlie nozzle of a pair of bellows may be also directed to 
 the bottom of any furnace, to excite the combustion of the coals 
 placed there, by which a kind of forge is formed. In laboratories, 
 there is genenilly a small furnace consisting of one cylindrical 
 piece, open at top, which has at its lower side a hole for receiving 
 the nozzle of a double bellows." This kind of forge furnace is 
 very convenient for fusions, as the operation is quickly performed, 
 and' with few coals. In its lower part, two inches above the hole 
 for receiving the nozzle of the bellows, maybe placed an iron 
 plate of the same diameter, supported upon two horizontal bars, 
 and ])ierced near its circumference with four holes diametrically 
 opposite to each other. By this disposition, the wind of the bel- 
 lows, poshed forcibly under this plate, enters at these four holes ; 
 thus the heat of'tlie fire is equally distributed, and the cruci- 
 in the furnace is equally surrounded by it. This contrivance 
 is used ill the forge furnaces for melting copper, with this dill'er- 
 ence only, t'nat, these furnaces are square, w liicli is a matter of no 
 consequence. As the wind of bellows strongly and rapidly ex- 
 cites the action of the lire, a forge is very convenient when a great 
 heat is to be ajiplied quickly: but it is not suitable when the heat 
 is to be gradually increased. The forge, or blast of bellows, is 
 used in several operations in small ; as to fuse salts, metals, ores, 
 &c. It is also much used in works in the grate, which require 
 strong heat, without much management; and chiefly in the smelt- 
 ing of ores/ and fusion of nittallic matters. 
 
 FoKGF., is also used for a large furnace, wherein iron ore, taken 
 out ol the mine, is melted down: or it is more properly applied to 
 another kind of furnace, wherein the iron ore, inclttd down and 
 separated in a former furnace, and then cast into sows and pigs, is 
 heated and fused over again, and beaten afterwards with large 
 hammers, and thus rendered more soft, pure, ductile, and fit lor 
 use. 
 
 FoKGE, in the train of artillery, is generally called a travelling 
 forge, aiul may not be iiriproperiy called a ])ortable smith's shop: 
 at this forge all manner of smith's woik is made, and it can be used 
 upon a march as well as in camp, t'ormcrly they were very ill 
 contrived, with two wheels only, and \vo(<len aipportcrs to prop 
 the foige for working when in the park. Cl late they are made 
 with lour wheels, which answers thtir purpose much belter. 
 
 Forge for Kedhot 1',mxs, is a place where the balls are 
 made red-hot before they are (ired off: it is built about five or six 
 feet below the surface of the ground, of strong brick-work, and an 
 iron grate, upon which the balls are kiid, with a very large fire 
 under tliem. 
 
 FOBGEBY, inlaw, is the fraudulent imitation of a name, or 
 alteration of a writing to the prejudice of another man's right. By 
 statute i Fliz. c. 14, to forge or malce, or knowingly to publish 
 or give in evidence, any forged deed, court- roll, or will, with in- 
 tent to .iflect the right of real property, cither freehold or copy- 
 hold, is punished by a forfeiture to the party aggrieved of double 
 costs and damages; by standing in the pillory, and having both 
 his ears cut olC, and his nostrils slit, and seared; by forfeiture to 
 the crown of the profits of his lands, and by perpetual imprison- 
 ment. For any forgery relating to a term of years or annuity 
 bond, obligation, acquittance, release, or discharge, of any debt, 
 or demand of any personal chattel>-i the same forfeiture is given to 
 
 the
 
 FOR 
 
 477 
 
 FOR 
 
 111'.- parly iTiievetl ; a;i'l on the olVeiidor is inilicleil llie piiloiy, loss 
 of out ot his ears, and half a year's in)|)risL>nmcnt : llie second of- 
 ("eiice, in both cases, hcinfr felony without benclit of clL-rgy. He- 
 sides this general act, a niiiltitiide of othci-s, since t!u: revolution, 
 when paper credit was first e-tahlished, have inflicted capital pu- 
 Iiisiuiient on the loinins;, altering, or uttering, as true, wlien forg- 
 ed, of any bauk bills or notes, or oilier seriu-ilies ; ot bills of cre- 
 ciit issued from the exche<|;ier; of south-sea bonds, &c. ; of lot- 
 tery tickets or orders; of army or navy debtniures; of East India 
 bonds ; of writings under the seal ol the London or royal ex- 
 change assurance ; of (he hand of tlie receiver of tl-.e prefines, or ot 
 the accountant-general and certain other oliiccrs of the chancery ; 
 «>f a letter of attornev or other power to receive or transfer stock or 
 annuities ; and on tlie personating a proprietor tliereof, to receive 
 or transfer such annuities, stock, or dividends: also on the person- 
 ating, or procuring to be personated, i;ny seaman or oilier person, 
 inlitled to wages or other naval eniolunieiits, or any of his personal 
 representatives ; and the taking, or procuring to be taken, any 
 false oath in order to obtain a probate or letters of administration, 
 in order to receive such payments; and the forcing, or procuring 
 to be forged, and likewise the uttering or publishing, as true, of 
 any counterfeited seaman's will or power: to which may be added, 
 though not strictly reducible to this head, the counterfeiting of 
 Mediterranean passes, under the hands of the lords of tlie admi- 
 ralty, to protect one from the piratical states of Barbary ; the forg- 
 ing or imitating of any stamps to defraud the public revenue : and 
 the forging of any marriage register or licence: all which are, by 
 distinct acts of parliament, made felonies without benefit of clergy. 
 By statutes 13 Geo. III. c. 5J and 59> forging or counterfeiting 
 any stamp or mark, to denote the standard of gold and silver plate, 
 and certain other oti'ences of the like tendency, are punished with 
 transportation for fourteen years. By statute 12 Geo. HI. c. 48, 
 ceriain frauds on the stamp duties, therein described, principally 
 by using the same stamps more tlvan once, are made single felony, 
 and liable to transportation for seven years. And the same pu- 
 nishment is inflicted by statute 13 Geo. III. c. 3S, on such as 
 counterfeit the comnfbn seal of the corporation for manufacturing 
 plate glass (thereby erected), or knowingly demand money of the 
 company by virtue of any writing under such counterfeit seal. 
 There are also two other general laws w ith regard to forgery ; the 
 one 2 Geo. II. c. 25, whereby the lirst oft'ence in forging or pro- 
 curing to be forged, acting or assisting therein, or uttering or pub- 
 lishing as true, any forged deed, will, bond, writing obligatory, 
 bill of exchange, promissory note, indorsement, or assignment 
 thereof, or any acquittance or receipt for money or goods, with in- 
 tention to defraud any person (or corporation), is made felony 
 without benefit of clergy. And by st.itute 7 Geo. II. c. 22, it is 
 equally penal to forge, or cause to be forged, or utter as true, a 
 counterfeit acceptance of a bill of exchange, or the number of any 
 accountable receipt for any note, bill, or any other security for 
 money, or any warrant or order for the payment of money, or de- 
 livery of goods. So tliat through the number of these general and 
 special provisions, there is now hardly a case possible to be con- 
 ceived, wherein forgery that tends to defraud, whether in the 
 name of a real or ticlitious person, is not made a capital crime. 
 , FORGES, a town of France, in the department of the Lower 
 Seine, famous for its medicinal springs, 60 miles N. \\ . of Paris. 
 
 FORGIXG, in law, tlie act of forgery, which see. 
 
 FoRGTXG, in smithery, the beating or hammering of iron on the 
 anvil, after having first made it red-hot in the forge, to extendit 
 into various forms, and fashion it into works. .See Forge. 
 'j'iiere are two ways of forging and hammering iron. One is by 
 the force of the hand, in which there are usually several persons 
 employed, one of them turning the iron and hammering likewise, 
 and the rest only hammering. The other is by the force of a wa- 
 ter-mill, which raises and works several huge hammers bevond the 
 force of man; under the strokes whereof the workman present 
 large lumps of iron, which are sustained at one end by the anvils, 
 and at the other by iron chains fastened to the ceiling of the toige. 
 See Mill. This last way of forging is only used in the largest 
 vorks, as anchors for ships, &c. which usually weigh several thou- 
 sand pounds. For light works, a single man holds, beats, and 
 turns, with one baud, while he hammers with the other. Each 
 purpose the work is designed for requires its proper heat; for if it 
 l-e too cold, it will not feel the w eight of the hammer, as the 
 smiths cad it, when it will not batter under the hammer; luid if it 
 
 vot. II. — NO. 87. 
 
 be loo hot, it will red-*ear, that is, break orcivck under the ham- 
 mer. Tl-.e several degrees of heat the smiths give their iron are, 
 1. a blood-red heat; 2. a white flame heat; and 3. a sparkling or 
 welding heat. 
 
 FOKISFAMILI.\TE, or I'ORISFAMILIATION, in law. 
 When a child, upon receiving a portion from his father, or othe-- 
 wlse, renounces his legal title to any further share of his father's 
 succession, he is said to be forislamiliated. 
 
 FORK, Ifurcd, J^it.ffhrcli, \Y ehh ; fourche, Fr.] an instru- 
 ment divided at the end into two or more poiuls or prongs, used 
 on many occasions. 
 
 FoiiKS, though now indispensal-.le, did not coine into use in 
 England till the reign of James 1. as we learn from a remarkable 
 I)assage in Coryat; wherein he describes with no small solemnity, 
 the manner of using them " in all parts of Italy;" and adds, 
 " Hereupon I myself thought good to imitate the Italian fashion 
 by this forked cutting of meat, not only while I was in Italy, Init 
 also in Germany, and oftentimes in England since I came home.'' 
 
 Forks, in geography, the branches of a river, divided and pro- 
 jecting, like the prongs of a fork. 
 
 FORLI, a town of'ltaly, in the province of Roniagna, 10 miles 
 S. E. of Faenza, and 45 K. E. of I'lorence. 
 
 FoRLi, a fertile and healthy territory of Romagna, of which the 
 above tow n is the capital. 
 
 FORLIMPOPOLI, a town of Italy, in the province of Ro 
 magna. 
 
 iORLORN-HOPE, in the miliiary art, signifies men detach- 
 ed from several regiments, or otherwise appointed, to make die 
 first attack in day of battle, or at a siege, t<» storm the counterscarp, 
 mount the b-reach, Sec. 
 
 FORM, I forma, Lat.] denotes the external appearance or 
 surfaceof a body, or the disposition of its parts, as to the length, 
 breadth, -and thickness. 
 
 Form, in law, the rules established and requisite to be observed 
 in legal proceedings. The formal part of the law, or method of 
 proceeding, cannot be altered but by parliauu it; for if once 
 these outworks were demolished, there would be an inlet to all 
 manner of innovation in the body of the law itself. 
 
 Form, among mechanics, a sort of mould whereon any thing is 
 fashioned or wrought. Thus, the 
 
 l.FoRM, Hatter's, is a large block or piece of wood, of a 
 cylindrical figure: the top thereof rounded, and the bottom quite 
 flat. Its use is, to mould or fashion the crown of the hat, after the 
 matter thereof has been beaten and fulled. 
 
 2. Form, Paper-maker's, is the frame or mould wherein the 
 sheets are fashioned. See Paper. 
 
 3. Form, Printer's, an assemblage of letters, words, and lines, 
 ranged in order, and so disposed into pages by the compositor; 
 from w'liicii, by means of ink and a press, the printed sheets are 
 drawn. Every form is enclosed in an iron chase, wherein it is 
 firmly locked by a number of pieces of wood; some long and nar- 
 row, and others like wedges. There are two forms re(|uired for 
 every sheet, one for each side; and each form consists ot more or 
 fewer pages, accor<ling to the size of the book. 
 
 Form, in physics, denotes the maimer of being peculiar to each 
 botly ; or that which constitutes it such a particular body, and i-is- 
 tinguishes it from every other. Mr. Harris uses the term form 
 likewise in another sense, as an eflicient animating principle; 
 "These animating forms (says he) are of Ihems^^lves no objecU 
 either of the ear or of the eve ; but tlieir nature or character is un- 
 derstood in this, that were they never to exert their proper ener- 
 gies on their proper subjects, the marble on which the sculptor 
 exercises his art would remain for ever shapeless, and the harp 
 from which the harper calls forth sounds would remain for ever 
 silent:" that is, in plain language, the former would have no pecu- 
 liar form and the latter no sound. Then why wa.ste words and 
 render language unintelligible, by such an ambiguous use of the 
 w ord form ? Philosophy, we humbly apprehend, can never be ad- 
 vanced by confounding cause and effect, as Mr. Harris seems to 
 do in the following definition : " The animating form of a natural 
 body is neither its organization nor its figure, nor any other of 
 those inferior forms which make up the system ot its visible quali- 
 ties : but it is the power, which is yet able to produce, preserve, 
 and employ these." If words conveying so very dirlerer.t and op- 
 posite ideas, as form and power, are to lie thus used synonymou.-ly, 
 there will soon be an end of all accuracy in philosophical language. 
 6 f ' Philosopher
 
 roR 
 
 478 
 
 FOR 
 
 Philosophers srenerally allow Uvo [irinciples of bodies : mr.tter, as 
 tlie common basis or substratum of all; and form, as lliat whieli 
 ' specifics and distinguishes each ; and which, achled to a quantity 
 of common matter, determines or denominates it tliis or that ; 
 vo:j(i, or fire, or ashes, 8oc. Substantial forms seem to have been 
 first broaehetl by the iollowers of Aristotle, who thought matter, 
 under diffeniit modes or modifications, not sufficient to couititule 
 d;ii'erent bodies; but that sometliing substantial was necessary to 
 set them al a greater distance : and thus introduced substantial 
 forms, on the fooling of souls, which specify and distinguish ani- 
 mals. What led to this erroneous notion was the circumstances of 
 life and deatii : For observing, that as soon as tiie soul was de- 
 parted out of a man, all motion, respiration, nutvitionC, &c. im- 
 mediateh' ceased, they concluded, that all these functions de- 
 pended on the.soul, and consequently that the soul was the form 
 of the animal body, or that which constituted it such: that the soul 
 vas a substance, independent of matter, nobody doubted ; and 
 hence the forms of oth.er bodies were concluded equally substantial. 
 But to this it is answered, that though the soul be that by which a 
 man is nTan, and consequently is the form of the human body, a^ 
 human; yet it does not follow, that it is projierly the form of this 
 body of ours, as it is a bodv; nor ofthe several parts thereof, con- 
 sidered as distinct from each other: For those several parts have 
 their proper forms so closely connected with their matter, that it 
 remains inseparable therefrom long after the soul has quitted the 
 body; thus, llesh has the term of tiesh, bone of bone, &c. long 
 lifter the soul is removed, as well as before. The trulh is, the body 
 does not become incapable of performing its accustomed f\lnction^ 
 because the soul has deserted it ; but the soul takes its leave, be- 
 cau-e the body is not in a condition to peiform its functions. The 
 ancient and modern corpuscular philosophers, therefore, with the 
 Cartesians, exclude the notion of substantial forms; and shew, by 
 many arguments, that the form is only the modus, or manner of 
 the body it is inherent in. And as there are only three primary 
 modes of matter, viz. ligure, rest, and motion, ' with two others 
 arising therefrom, viz. magnitude and situation, the form of all 
 bodies they hold to consist therein ; and suppose the variations 
 these modes are capable of, sufficient to present all the variety ob- 
 servable in botiies. Forms are usually distinguished into essen- 
 tial and accidental. 
 
 1. Forms, Accidektal, are those really inherent in bodies, but 
 in such a manner a* that the body may e.\ist in all its per- 
 fection without them, ijuch is whiteness in a wall, heat in water, 
 a figure of a man in wax, &c. 
 
 2. Fokms, Essential. Though the five modes above men- 
 tioned, generally taken, be adventitious ; yet to this or that body, to 
 eg. fire or water, they are essential : thus, it is accidental to iron, to 
 have this or that magnitude, figure, or situation, since it might ex- 
 ist in different ones: yet to a knife or hammer, the figure, magni- 
 tude, and position of parts which constitute it a hammer or knife, 
 are essential ; and they cannot exist or be conceived without them. 
 Hence it is inferred, that though there be no substantial, there are 
 essential, forms, whereby the several species of bodies become 
 vphat they are, ami are distineui-hed from all others. 
 
 Form of Syi.logisjis, or Syllogistic Form, among logicians, 
 a just di.po-ition both of the terms, in respect of predicate and sub- 
 ject, and of the propositions, in respect of quantity and quality ; 
 by which is only meant a disposition wherein tl'.e conclusion fol- 
 lows duly and Ifijitiinalely from the two premises ; there being no 
 form, where there is no conclusion. See Syllogism, and 
 Logic. 
 
 Form, in theology, is said to be one of the essential parts of 
 the sacraments ; being that which gives them their sacramental 
 nali'.re and efficacy, and consisting in certain words, which the 
 priesi pronounces in administering them. 
 
 Form is also used, in a moral sense, for the manner of being or 
 doing a thing according to rules: thus we say, a form of govern- 
 ment, a form of argument, &c. 
 
 Form, in carpentry, is used to denote the long seats or benches 
 if) the choirs of churches or in schools, for th.e priests, prebends, 
 religious, or scholars, to sit on. At schools, the word form is fre 
 qnently applied to what is otherwise termed a class. 
 
 FORM.A, [Lat.] a form or shape. See Form. In the life of 
 St. William of Roschild, fornia is used for a seat of an ecclesi- 
 aitic in a choir. 
 
 Forma Pauperis, is when a person has just cause of suit, but i<! 
 so poor that he cannot defray the usual charges of suing at law or 
 in equity ; in which case, on making oath that he is not worth five 
 pounds in the world, on all his debt> being paid, and producing a 
 certificate from some lawyer that he has good cause of suit, the 
 judge will admit him to sue in forma pauperis; that is, without 
 oaying any fee to counsellors, attorneys, or clerk : the >latute 1 1 
 lien. Nil. c. 12, having enacted, tliat counsel and attorneys, &c. 
 shall be assigned to such poor persons gratis. Where it appears 
 that any pauper has sold or contracted for the benefit of his suit, 
 whilst it is depending in court, such cause shall be thenceforth 
 totally di-niissed; and a person suing in fornia pauperis shall not 
 have a new trial granted lum, but is to acquiesce in the judgement 
 ,of the court. 
 
 FOK.M ALITIES, in m.itter of law, are frequently used for the 
 formulas themselves, or the rules prescribed for judiciary procerd- 
 ings. In contracts of strict law, ad the formalities must be strictly 
 observed; an omission of the least formality nray ruin the whole 
 convention. 
 
 Formality, as defined in the schools, is any manner wherein a 
 thing is conceived ; or a manner in any object, importing a rela- 
 tion to the understanding, wliereby it may be distingui^hed from 
 another object. Thus, animality and rationality arc formalities. 
 
 FORMATION, in grammar, signifies the manner of forming 
 one word from another: thus accountantship is formed from ac- 
 countant, and this last from account. 
 
 FORM EDON, in law, (lireve de forma donationis,) a wTit that 
 lies for a person who has a right to lands or tenemenf^, by viitueof 
 any entail, arising from the statute of Westm. 2 Ch. II. 'I'his 
 writ is of three kinds, viz. 
 
 1. FoRMEDON i.v Descevder lies where a tenant in tail in- 
 feolis a stranger, or is disseised and dies, and the heir may bring 
 this writ to recover the lands. 
 
 2. FoRMEDON IN REMAINDER lies where a man gives lands, 
 &c. to a person in tail, and, for default of issue of his body, the re- 
 mainder to another in tail: here if the tenant in tail die without 
 issue, and a stranger abates and enters into the land, he in remain- 
 der shall have this writ. 
 
 3. FoRMEDON IN REVERTER lies where lands are entailed on 
 certain persons and their issue, \fith remainder over for want of 
 i%iue ; and, on lh;it remainder failing, then to revert to the donor 
 and his heirs: in tliis case, it the tenant in tail dies without issue, 
 aad also he in remainder, the donor and his heirs, to whom the re- 
 version returns, may have this writ for the recovery of the estate, 
 though the same be alienated, &c. 
 
 FORMERIE, a town of France, in the department of Oise, 9 
 miles W. of Grandvilliers. 
 
 FORMIA, or FORMLE, in ancient geogr.iphy, a maritime 
 town ofthe Adjected, or IS'ew Latium, on the S. E. of Cajeta; 
 now in ruins, near Mola. 
 
 FORMIANI, the people of Formia, who were admitted to 
 the liberty of the city the very vear in which Alexandria was 
 built ; but not to the right of suffrage till long after the second 
 Punic war. 
 
 FORMIC ACID. It lias long been known that ants contain 
 a strong acid, which they occasionally emit ; and which mav be 
 obtained from the ants either by simple distillation or by infu-^ion 
 of them in boiling water and subsequent distillation of as much of 
 the water as can be brought over without burning the residue. 
 This has now lost its rank ,as a separate acid, and it has been shewn 
 by Fourcroy and Vauqucliii to be a compound of the malic and 
 acetic. 
 
 FORMICA, in natural history, the Ant or Et.imet, a genns 
 of iii>ects ofthe order liynienoptera. Feelers four, nnc(|ual, with 
 cylindrical articulations, placed at the tip of the lip, which is cy- 
 lindrical and nearly membranaceous ; antenn.'E filiform ; a small 
 erect scale between the thorax and abdomen ; females and neuters 
 armed with a concealed sjing ; males and females with wings, but 
 neuters have no wings. According to Linna;us the.-e are eighteen 
 species. The insects of this genus live in large societies, some- 
 what in the manner of bees and wasps, and are like them divided 
 into males, females, and neutrals, v-'iiich latter constitute the great 
 or general assortment, and appear to conduct the business of the 
 nest, which is usually placed at a small distance from the surface 
 in some slight elevation either prepared by the insects themselves.
 
 r o R 
 
 479 
 
 I O II 
 
 cr prcvimisly t'ormeJ hy some otlier aninials, as moles, &c. 'I'hey 
 feed bolli on animal and vef^otabie substances, <!evomM.<; the 
 smaller kind of insects, caterpillars, &c. as well as frnits of ililfei- 
 cnt kinds. They are particularly attracted by sweets; aiul for 
 tills reason they ascend such trees as are infested with aphides, in 
 order to obtaiii the saccharine substance discliaraed by those ani- 
 Iii:ds ; and hence seems to have arisen the idea of their enmity 
 against the genus aphis. Some species of ants are furnished wilh 
 a'sting, while others are destitute of that part. The largest ot the 
 European ants is the I'ormica herculanea, or great wood-ant, of a 
 cliesnut-colo(n',-\vith the abdomen measuring two Inies or more in 
 length. This species is chieily found in dry \vt)ods of pir.e or 
 fir.'whcre it inhabits a large conical jiest or hillock, composed oi 
 dry vegetable fragments, chiefly of fir-leaves : the nest is inler- 
 nally distributed into several paths or tubes, conxerging towards 
 the central part, and openina, externally : in the middle or centre 
 reside the young, or larva;, which are nui-sed by the neutral ants, 
 and are occasionally brought to the surface, in order to be more 
 within the ijiliuence of the air aud sunshine for a certain lime, af- 
 ter v\'hich they are again conveyed to the botton) or centre. \\'hen 
 full-grown, tliey envelo)) themselves in oval, while, silken cases, 
 in whicl) they undergo their change into ^-Jiryali-, and at length 
 emerge in their complete form. Tl'.e males ar.d females are wing- 
 ed, and the females are nuicli larger, than the males. The coni- 
 jiion or black ant, formica nigra Lin. is a well-known inhabitant of 
 our I'lelds and gardens, residing in great numbers beneath mole- 
 liills and otherVlevated spot>. It is of a brownish-black colour, 
 and of a glossy or polished surface. Ants are very industrious in 
 collecting" and'laying up hoards of wheat and other corn ; and le^l 
 the corn should s"proiit by the moisture of the subterraneous cells, 
 they gnaw olVthe end which would produce the blade. The ants 
 are oftai seen pushing along grains of wheat or barley much 
 larger than themsehes. The stores thus obtained are lor their 
 evening repasts, and for their support during a rainy season, &c. 
 About tlie beginning of August the males and females may be ob- 
 served in the nests: these'differ from the neutrals in being fur- 
 nished willi wings, and the female is far larger than the male, the 
 body equalling in size that of the commoji window-lly, and the 
 upper wings being very long and l^rge. At this time of the year 
 tlie males and females emigrate in vast numbers ; sometimes fly- 
 ing at a considerable height, and sometimes creeping along the 
 surface. It is not uncommon to see them enter houses at this pe- 
 riod, attracted by sweets in particular, either moist or dry. After 
 the breeding season the males live but a very short time, and the 
 females return to their nests in order to deposit their eggs. Dur- 
 ing the winter this species, like the rest of the European ants, re- 
 mains in a state of torpor, without laying up provisions for that 
 season, as erroneously supposed,; and during the spring emerges 
 from its concealment, and recommences its labours. Antj feed 
 both on animal and vegetable substances of various kinds. Their 
 fondness for animal substances is often turned to good account by 
 anatomists, wiio, when they wish to oblain the skeleton of any 
 animal too snnill or delicate to admit of being prepared the uiual 
 way, dispose the animal in a |)roper position in a small box, with 
 perforations in the lid, and deposit it m a large ant-hill ; in conse- 
 quence of which, after a certain space, the w hole of the softer 
 parts are ealen away by these insects, and the skeleton remains in 
 its proper position. It is thus that very elegant skeletons of trogs, 
 snakes, &c. may be obtained. The formica rufa is black ; thorax 
 compressed ; and with legs ferruginous. See Plate LXXV'I. 
 
 FORMING A Siege, is the making lines of circumvallation 
 to fortify the camp, and disposing things for the attack of a place 
 in form. 
 
 FoKMiNG A Squadron or Battalion is to range the sol- 
 diers in form of a squadron, &c. 
 
 FoiiMiNO THE Line, is drawing up inT-ntry, cavalry, and ar- 
 tillery, into line of battle. 
 
 FORMOSA, an island of the Pacific Ocean, about 100 miles 
 E. of Canton in China, separated from the provli-.ce of Fokien by 
 a strait about 60 nnles broad. It is subject to the Chinese ; who, 
 however knew not of its existence until 1430. It is about 85 lea- 
 gues long, and 2b bread. Tliis island presents extensive and fer- 
 tile plains, watered by great nundier of rivulets that fall from the 
 eastern mountains. The air is pure and wholesome, and tlic soil 
 produces in alnmdance corn and rice, with most other grains, and 
 Lidiiui fruits ; sucli as oianges, banaxias, pijie-apples, guavas, pa- 
 
 paws, cocoa-r.uts ; as well as many of Europe. Tobacco, sugar, 
 pepper, camphire, and cinnamon, are also common. Hor>os, 
 shei p, goats, and hogs, are very rare in this island. Domestic 
 fowls, geese, and ducks, are in great plenty ; plieasaius A-o are 
 sometimes ?een ; but monkeys ancl stags have multiplied so nmeli, 
 Ihi't they wander through tlie country in large flr)cks. The inha- 
 bitants rear a great ninnber of oxen, which they use for riding, 
 from ;i want of hijiNcs and mules. Formosa lies between 1 19' ancl 
 122" Lou. E. and between 22° J' and 'Jj" 28' Lat. N. 
 
 Formosa, an 'sland in tlie Atlantic, near the coast of Africa, 
 about G miles long, and 3 broad. The soil is fertile and covered 
 with trees, but the island is delicient in good water. Lon. 14 20. 
 VV. Lat. U.29. N. 
 
 FORMULA, or FORMULARY, a rule or model, or cer- 
 tain terms prescribed or decreed by authority, for the form ancl 
 manner ot an act, instrument, procei ding, or the like. 
 
 Formula, in church history and theology, signifies a profes- 
 sion of faith. 
 
 Formula, in medicine, imports the con-itilution of medicines, 
 either simple or compound, both with respect to their prescrip- 
 tion and consistence. 
 
 Formula, a theorem or general rule or expression for rcjolv- 
 
 .s d 
 ing certain particular cases of some problem, &c. So — -|- — 
 
 2 2 
 
 is a general formula for the greater of two quantities whose sum is 
 
 i d 
 s and ditTerence d; and is the formula, or general value 
 
 for the less quantity. Again ^rtf — .r- is the formula or general 
 value of the ordinate to a circle, whose diameter is d, and ab- 
 
 FORNACALIA, or FORNICALIA, in Roman antiquity, 
 a festival instituted by Numa, in honour of the goddess Fornax ;. 
 wherein certain cakes were made, and ottered in sacrifice belore 
 the ovens. 
 
 FORNAX, the goddess of oven=. 
 
 FORNICATION, IJornicatio, Lat. from the fornices i» 
 Rome, where the lewd women prostituted tliemselves for money. J 
 I'ornierlvcourt-leets had power to incphre of and punish fornication 
 and aduftery ; in wliicli courts the king had a fine assessed on the 
 offenders, as appears by the book of Domesday. In 1650, not 
 only incest and wilful adultery were made capital crimes, but also 
 tile repeated act of kee|iing a brothel, or ccmmitting fornication, 
 was (upon a second conviction) made felony without benefit of 
 clergy. But at the restoration, it was not thought proper to renew 
 a law of such unfashionable rigour. And these offences have been 
 ever since lelt to the feeble coercion of a spiritual court, accord- 
 ing to the rules of the canon law ; a law which has treated the of- 
 fence of incontinence, nay, even adultery itself, with a great de- 
 gree of tenderness and lenity ; owing periiaps to the constrained 
 celibacy of its first compilers. The temporal courts therefore 
 take no cognizance even of the crime of adultery, otherwise than 
 as a private injury. See Adultery. The evils of fornication, 
 which too many wish to consider as no sin, may be juc'ged of 
 from the following particulars: 1. The malignity and moral qua- 
 lity of each crime is not to be estimated by the particular effect 
 of one otl'ence, or of one person's offending, but by the general 
 tendency and consequence of crimes of the same nature. Let 
 the libertine consider, wliat would be the coiise([uence, if the same 
 licentiousness in which he indulges were universal ? or what should 
 hinder its becoming universal, if it be innocent or allowable in 
 him ? 2. Fornication supposes prostitution ; and l;y pronilutiou 
 the victims of it are brought to almo>t certain misery. Jt is no 
 small quantity of misery in the aggregate, which between want> 
 disease, and insult, is suffered by those outcasts of human society 
 who infest populous cities ; the whole of which is a general conse- 
 quence of fornication, and to the increase aud continuance of 
 which every act and instance of fornication contributes. 3. For- 
 nication produces habits of ungovernable lewdness, which intro- 
 duce the more aggravated crimi s of seduction, adultery, violation,. 
 S-'c. The criminal indulgences between the sexes prepare an easy 
 admission for every sin that seeks it: they arc, in low life, usually 
 the first stage in men's progress to the most desperate villanies ; 
 and ia Ugh life, to that lanjeotcd dissolulcucss pf principle, which 
 
 manifests
 
 FOR 
 
 480 
 
 I O II 
 
 uiaiiifests itself in a profligacy of public condrKt, ami a contempt j 
 ot tlie obligations of ivligion and moral probity. 4. Fornicatioji | 
 perpetualts a dioejse, which may be accounted one ot the surest 
 maladies of human nature, ar.d the effects of which are said to 
 visit the constitutions of even distant generations. The passion 
 being natural, proves that it was intended to be gratified ; but un- 
 <ler what restrictions, or whether without any, must be collecletl 
 from different considerations. In the Scriptures, fornication is 
 ab.^olutely and peiemplorily condemned. ' Out of tlie heart pro- 
 ceedeth evil thouglits, murSers, adulteries, fornication?, &c. these 
 aie the things '.v hich defile a man.' These are Christ's own words ; 
 .au'l one word horn him upon the subject is final. The apostles 
 arc more lull upoii this topic. One well-known passage in the 
 Epi.-t!e to the Hebrews may suffice, because, admitting the autho- 
 rity by wliich the apostles wrote, it is decisive. ' Marriage and 
 the bed undcliled is honoiu'able amongst all men, but whoremon- 
 gers anil adulterers God will judge;' which was a great deal to 
 bay, at a time when it was not agreed even amongst philosophers 
 that fornication was a crime. Mr. Paley adds the following just 
 observations, in his " Moral and Political Philosophy," p."24(). 
 " The Scriptures give no sanction to those austerities which have 
 been since imposed upon the world under the name of Christ's 
 religion, as the celibacy of the clergy, the praise of perpetual vir- 
 ginity, the prohibitio concubitus cum gravida UKore ; but with a 
 juft knowledge of, and regard to, the condition and interest of the 
 iiuman species, have provided in the marriage of one man witli 
 *)ne woman an adequate gratification for the piojiensities of their 
 nature, and have restrained them to that gratification. The avow- 
 ed toleration, and in some countries the liceri-.iiig, taxing, aud re- 
 gulating, oi public brothels, has appeared to the people, an autho- 
 rizing of fornication, and has contributed, with other causes, so far 
 to vitiate the publicopinion, tliat there is no practice of which the 
 immorality is so little thought of, or acknowledged, altliough 
 there are. few in which it can more plainly be made out. The 
 legislators who have patronized receptacles of prostitution ought 
 to have foreseen this effect, as well as considered, that whatever 
 facilitates fornication, diminishes marriages. And as to the usual 
 apology for this relaxed discipline, the danger of greater enor- 
 mities if access to prostitutes were too slrictlv watched and prohi- 
 bited ; it will be time enough to look to th't, after the laws and 
 tlie magiatrale; have done "their utmost. The greatest vigilance 
 of both will do no more, than oppose some bounds and some dif- 
 licullies to this intercourse. And after all, tiiese prelended fears 
 are without foundation in experience. The men are in all re- 
 spects the most virtuous in countries where the women are most 
 chaste. If fornication be criminal, all those incentives which lead 
 to it are accessaries to the crime ; as lascivious conversation, whe- 
 ther expressed in obscene, or disguised under modest phrases; 
 also wanton songs, pictures, books; the writing, publishing, and 
 circulation of which, whether out of frolic or for some pitiful pro- 
 lit, is productive of so extensive a mischief from so mean a temp- 
 tation, that few crimes within the reach of private wickedness 
 }iave more to answer for, or less to plead in their excuse. Inde- 
 cent conversation, and by parity of reason all the rest, are forbid- 
 den by St. Paul, Kph. iv. 29, ' Let no corrupt communication 
 in'occed out of your mouth ;' and again, Col. iii. 8, ' Put lilthv 
 communications out of your mouth.' The invitation or volun- 
 tary admission of impure thoughts, or the suH'ering them to get 
 possession of the imagination, falls vdthin the same description, 
 and is condemned by Christ, Matt. v. -?S, ' Whosoever looketh 
 on a woman to lust after her, hath committed adultery villi lier 
 already in his heart.' Christ, by thus enjoining a regulation of 
 the thought, strikes at the root of the evil." 
 
 FORNIX, in anatomy, part of the corpus callosum in the 
 brain ; so called, because of a distant resemblance it hath to the 
 arches of ancient vaults when viewed in a paVticular manner. 
 
 FOKSKOHLEA, in ootaiiy, a genus of the pentagynia order, 
 and decan<lria class. Calyx tour or five-leaved, longer than the 
 corolla ; petals ten, roundish before, with a linear base. Tliere 
 are three species. 
 
 FORSTER, JotrN 'Reinhold, a celebrated naturalist, was 
 born in Prussia in 17'.,'9. Ih- made, when young, a great progress 
 in file learned and modern languages. In 1748 he enterecf the 
 tmiversily of Halle, where he >tudied divinity : from thence he 
 reinoved to Dautzic, and commenced preacher. He afterwards 
 
 went to Russia, in expectation of considerable preferment; but 
 being disappointed, lie proceeded to JMigland, where for sonic, 
 time he was tutor in the French and German languages at \Vav- 
 rington. In 1772 he accompanied Captain Cook on liis voyage 
 round the Worid. He returned to England in 1773, and was ho- 
 noured by the university of Oxford with the degree of LL. l3. 
 Having published, contrary to the engagement entered into with 
 government, a botanical account of plants discovered in this voy- 
 age, he was treated with such coolness, that he quitted Englai^d 
 and went to Halle, where he was made profes>or of natural his- 
 tory. He died in 1798. He was the auth'.)r of Observations 
 made in a Voyage round the World ; History of A'oyages and 
 Discoveries in the North ; on the Byssus of the Ancients ;" several 
 Papers in the Philosophical 1 ransactions, &c. 
 
 FORSTA, a town of Lusatia, on the Neiss, 54 miles N. N. E. 
 of T)resden. 
 
 FORSTl'TiA, in botany, a genus of the diandria order, and 
 gynandria class of plants. Perianthium double ; e.xterior one be- 
 neath, three-leaved ; interior one above, six-cleft ; corolla tubular. 
 
 FC>RS TEll'S Hakhoub, a bay in Hudson's Strait, Hudson's 
 Bay. Lnn. 73. 30. W. Lat. 6,^ IS. N. 
 
 FORT, in the military art, a small fortliied place, environed 
 on all sides with a moat, rampart, and parapet. Its use is to se- 
 cure some high ground, or the passage of a river, to make good 
 an advantageous post, to defend the lines and quarters of a siege, 
 kc. Forts are made of different ligures .".iid extents, according as 
 the ground requires. Some are fortified with bastions, otheis 
 with demi-bastions. Some again are in form of a square, others of 
 a pentagon. A fort differs from a citadel, as this last is built to 
 command some town. 
 
 FORTALICE, in Scots law, signified anciently a small place 
 of strength, originally built for the defence of the country; and 
 which on that account was formerly reckoned inter regalia, and 
 did not go along with the lands upon which it was situated, with- 
 out a special grant from the crown. Now, fortalices are carried 
 by a general grant of the lands ; and the word is become synonyv 
 nious with manor-place, messuage, &c. 
 
 FOinESCl'E, Sir John, lord high chancellor of England, 
 under Henry \l. was descended from an ancient family in De- 
 vonshire. He studied the municipal law in Lincoln's Inn, of 
 which he was made a governor, in the fourth and seventh years of 
 Henry VI. In 1430, he was made a serjeant at law, and, in 144), 
 king's Serjeant. In 1442 he was made lord chief justice of the 
 king's bench; and afterwards lord high chancellor. During the 
 reign of Edward IV. he was many years in exile with Queen Mar- 
 garet and Prince Edward her son. When they returned to Eng- 
 land, Sir John Fortescue accompanied them, but soon after the de- 
 cisive battle of Tewksbury, he was thrown into prison and attaint- 
 ed, with other Lancastrians; but was pardoned by Edward IV. 
 He wrote, 1. A Commentary on the Politic Laws of England ; to 
 one edition of which Mr. Selden wrote notes. 2. The dilf'erence 
 between an absolute and a limited Monarchy, as it more particu- 
 larly regards the English Constitution (wliich was published, with 
 some remarks, by John I''ortescue, afterwards Lord Fortescue, in 
 Svo. in 1714; and a second edition was published, with amend- 
 ments, in 1719 ;) and several works which still remain in MS. 
 He died, near <)0 years of age, and was buried in the parish- 
 church of Ebburton, where a monument was .erected to his me- 
 mory in 1677. 
 
 FORTH, in geography, one of the finest rivers in Scotland. 
 It takes its rise near the bottom of Lomond hills; and rumiini^ 
 from \V. to E. receives in its passage many considerable streams, 
 deriving their waters from the eminences in the niidhmd counties 
 of North Britain. Below Alloa the river expands itself to a great 
 breadth between the counties of Lothian and Fife, till at Queens- 
 berry it is contracted by promontories shooting into it from both 
 coasts ; so that, from being four or live miles broad, it is not a- 
 bove two miles. 
 
 Forth ano Clyde Navigation. By these rivers, Scotland 
 is almost divided into two parts. The Forth falls into the E. sea 
 below VCdinbuigh, aud the Clyde fails into the Atlantic Ocean, be- 
 low (.rlasgow-, and the neck of land between them amounting 
 scarcely lo 24 miles, gave rise to the idea of a junction, so as to open 
 a cominunication across the kingdom, an object ot vast utility, and 
 which was at last happily completed, on the 28th July, 1790.
 
 FOR 
 
 481 
 
 ro R 
 
 FORTIFICATION. 
 
 FORTIFICATIOX, may be defined the scionce of military 
 aivliilectiirc ; ami wlieii applied to a cily, town, or oilier place, il 
 consists in the art of putting any of these in >uih a (losiure of pre 
 paration bv niean^ ol ranip.u'ts, parapets, ditches, and oniworks, 
 that each n>(iiv..lnal part defend"^, and is defende ! by, some other 
 parts, so that a small number of men within may be able to defend | 
 tlii.-inselves, lor a considerable time, a^aiirvt the as-iaults of a nu- 
 merous army without. ']')ie origin of tortiluation is doubtless to 
 be ascribed to lliat rapacious principh-, which has inllnenced too 
 many of mankind in all ages and naiiDiis, to invade tin- rights and 
 properties of those whom iliey considrred as wi-ak or defenceless. 
 In the first ages of the world, men were dispersed over the earth 
 ill separate families, as is recorded in the patriarchal histories of 
 the Jews and Scythians, who v.antlered from place to place, in 
 search of pasture for tln-ir cattle. 'I hese families hecaine so nu- 
 merous as to form large communities, which settled all together in 
 one place; from whence villages and towns had their origin: hut 
 they found it necess.ry, for the common security, to surround 
 those towns with walls and ditches, to prevent all' violences and 
 sudden surprises from their neighbours. This was sutficient for 
 some time, till olfensive weapons were invented, and concpiering 
 became a fashion. Then walls with loop-holes were made at pro- 
 per distances, in order to screen the drler.ders against the arrows 
 of the assuiiants: but iiuding that, as soon as the enemy got once 
 close to the walls, they could fiom no part be discovered or re- 
 pulsed ; for tills reason they added sipiare ioweis at proper dis- 
 tances from each ether, so that every part of the wall might be 
 defended by the adjai ent sides of the towers. However, this man- 
 ner of the inclosing of towns was found to be imperfect, because 
 there remained still one of the faces of the towers which fronted 
 the held that could not be seen from any other part, and there- 
 fore could not be defended. To reinedy this, they made the 
 towers round instead of s<iuare, imagining' this figure to be the 
 Strongest to resist the battering engines, as well as to be better de- 
 fended from the other parts of fhe wall. Notwithstanding the 
 superiority of this method above the former, there still remained a 
 part of these towers unseen and incapable of being defended; 
 which made them change the figure of liie towers again ; i. c. 
 they made them square as before ; but, instead of presenting a face 
 to the field as formerly, they pre-sented an angle; and tlius they 
 effectually found out sucli a disposition of their works, that no 
 part could be attacked without being seen or defended from some 
 other part. This last method was long in use, and would in all 
 probability have continued to this day, if gun-powder had not 
 been invented : but the violence of the guns aiul mortars soon 
 convinced the world, that such towers and walls were but a weak 
 defence against these thundering engines; and that, as the na- 
 .ture of the attack was entirely changed, it was also necessary to 
 change the mode of defence. " Ramparts were therefore added to 
 the walls ; the towers enlarged into bastions, and all sorts of out- 
 works have been since added ; such as ravelins, counterguards, 
 horn and crown works, aud'otliers of the like nature, to render the 
 defence in some measure et|uivalent to the attack. But in spite 
 of all the improvementr, which have been made in the art of for- 
 tifying, since the invention ot gunpowder, that of attacking is 
 still superior to it : engineers have tried in v.iin to render the'ad- 
 vantages of forlilication e<iual to those of the attack ; the supe- 
 rrority of the besiegers' fiie, together with the greater number of 
 men, generally obliges the besieged to submit sooner or later. 
 The greatest iinprovement made in the art of attacking happened 
 in 1697, when M. Vnuban first made use of ricochet firing at the 
 siege of Ath, whereby the besieged placed behind the parapets 
 were as much exposed to the fire of the besiegers as if there had 
 been no parapets ; whereas, before, they had been secure aslong as 
 the parapet was not demolished : and the worst is, that there can 
 be no remedy found to prevent this enfilading, without falline 
 iiito inconveniences almost as bad as those which we endeavour 
 to avoid. 
 
 VOL. II. — NO. 87. 
 
 Difiiiiti m.i. 1. In the plan and profile, Plate I.XXIII. fig. 1, 
 the part N C D V. V represents a bank oi earth ( allrd the parapet, 
 its use is to cover the troops from the fire of the enemy. '2. 'rhe 
 part \) !•" i-. called the talus .r plunge, and is a little ^lopingto\vard 
 the further side ; it does not rise perpendicularly but siopcs on 
 each side as represented by C U and E F. 3. SVhen the height 
 of the parapet exceeds 41 feet which is generally tiie case, a pait 
 ABC is raised to elevate the men sufficiently to fire over the. 
 parap"t ; this is called the bancpielle or foot-bank, it rises to the 
 llat part B C by a gentle slope .\B ; sometimes there are two ban- 
 quuHes. 4. HI represents the ditch behind the parapet, having 
 the slope Gil, tow.cril-, the par.ipet, called the scarp, and I K on 
 the opposite side called the counterscarp. .">. The flat part FG is 
 (ailed berme, and serves to lodge the loose earth that may fall 
 from the parap^-t. b. K L represents tiie glacis, which is generally in 
 a linewilh tiie talus OF. 7. In Plate LXXIV. fig. 1, the part FEA 
 LN is called the bastion. S. AE, A L, the faces of the bastion. 
 9. EF, LN, the Hanks. 10. FG, the curtm. 11. FN, the 
 gorge of tlie bastion. 12. AG, BF, the tines of defence. 13 AB, 
 the exterior side of the polygon. 14. CD, the perpendicular. 
 15. Any line which divides a work into two equal parts is called 
 the capital of that work. 1(>. a, b, r, the counterscarp of the ditch. 
 17. A, M, the llanked angles. IS. H, E, L, the angles of the 
 shouliler, or shoulder only. 19. G, F, N, the angles of the tlank. 
 JO. .Vny angle vvlio-e point turns from the place is called saliant 
 angle, such as A, M : and any angle whose point turns towards the 
 place, re-entering angle, such as h, F, N. 21. It there be drawn 
 two lines parallefto the principal or oulline, the one at three toises 
 distance, and the other at eight from it, then the space y x inclu- 
 ded between the principal one and that farthest distant is called the 
 rampart. And the space x, contained by the principal line and 
 that near to it, and which is generally stained black, is called thw 
 parapet. There is a line line drawn within four feet of the parapet, 
 which expresses the step called banquette. All works have a para- 
 pet of three toises thick, and a rampart of from S to 10, besides 
 their slopes. The rampart is elevated more or less above the level 
 of the place, from 10 to 20 feet, according to the nature of the 
 ground, and the particular constructions ot engineers. 22. The 
 bodv <jf the place is all that which is contained williin this first 
 ramjjart ; for which reason it is often said to construct the body of 
 the place: which means, properly, the construction of the bastions 
 and cuitins. 23. All tiie works which are constructed beyond 
 the ditch, before the body of the place, are called outworks. 
 
 Gen ER.^L Principles, or M,\xi.-ms. 
 
 1. The plan of every place that is to be fortified, ought first to 
 be circnmscribed with one of the most convenient polygonal fi- 
 gures, that can be titled to that place, and this polygon u to be for- 
 tified. 
 
 2. The more regular the circumscribing polygon is, the belter. 
 
 3. It is a disadvantage, to be necessitated to extend the works 
 about a fortress. 
 
 4. Every side of the polygon, as much as is possible, should bi 
 eijually fortified, that the enemy may not have it in his choice to 
 attack a part more weak than the rest. 
 
 ■). All works ought as much as possible to be easy to build, hard 
 to destroy, and not difficult to be repaired. 
 
 6 The' works about a fortress should be so contrived, as to cover 
 the defendants, discover the approaches to tlie enemy, and adapted 
 to the common weapons of defence. 
 
 7. Each work should be defended from as many as may be and 
 liable to be attacked from as few places as possible. 
 
 8. These works, made to defend one another, should be sutli- 
 ciently large to contain the troops and cannon necessary for that 
 delence. 
 
 9. Works which are to flank one another ought not to be at a 
 greater distance than the point bank flight of a musket-shot. 
 
 10. 'I'he works farthest distant from the body of the place 
 e G sliould
 
 482 
 
 FORTIFICATION". 
 
 ilioiild be lowcbt, that tlicy may be coniinandcd by those tliat are 
 iKurer. 
 
 1 1. None of the v. oiks shoiiUl, if it can l)e helped, be beyond the 
 point bank reach of the cannon within the town. 
 
 I '2. Wet ditches are preferable for iniall places, dry ones for 
 large places. 
 
 13. Bastions with large flanks and large gorges are much es- 
 teemed. 
 
 1 i. The flanked angles of bastions should not be much less than 
 a nght one, but are better when obtuse not exceeding I'iO or 130 
 degrees. 
 
 13. The faces of bastions should in length not differ much from 
 i 00 yards. 
 
 1 6.A curtin should not be nuicli longer than 1 80 yards, nor muih 
 shorter than 100 yards. 
 
 17. The angle of the curtin should be between the limit^of 90 
 a:i(l 100 degrees. 
 
 I he art of fortilication is divided into two parts ; regular and 
 irregular. 
 
 OF REGULAR FORTIFICATION. 
 
 Regular Fortification is that built in a regular polygon, the sides 
 and angles of which are all etjual, bcini; commonly .ibout a mus- 
 ket-shot from each other. Altliongh authors agree as to the ge- 
 neral form in the present manner of fortifying, yet they mostly dif- 
 fer in particular constructions of the parts. As it would be su- 
 perfluous to treat of all the different methods hitherto proposed, 
 we shall esplain those only which are most esteemed by the best 
 judges, and have been most generally practised. 
 
 Construction of the Mean Fortific.\tion, according 
 TO M. V'auban's Method. 
 
 Vauban's method is divided into litlle, mean, and great ; the 
 
 little is chiefly used in the construction of citadels, the mean in that 
 
 of all sorts ot towns, and the great in particular cases only, ^^'e 
 
 shall give the construction of the mean, as being most useful; and 
 
 refer the reader to the following table, for tliose dimensions which 
 
 are different in these several foilitications. Inscribe in a circle a 
 
 polygon of as many sides as tin- fortification is designed to have 
 
 fronts; let AB, tig.' 1. Plate LXXI\', be one of the sides of Haifa 
 
 hexagon, which bisect by the perpciulicnlar CD ; divide half of 
 
 it AC into nine equal parl>, and one of tliese into 10 others; then 
 
 tliesi- divi?!ons will jerve as a scale to construct all the parts of the 
 
 fortilication, and each of them is supposed to be a toi^e or fathom, 
 
 that is, six French feet, or sonicw h.it more than 'j\ English feet ; 
 
 and therefore the whole <ide AH is supposed to be ISOtoises. As 
 
 the dividing of a line info so many equal parts is very troublesome, 
 
 it is much easier to have a scale of equal parts by wiiich'the works 
 
 niav be construct(?d. If therelore, in this case, the radius is taken 
 
 ecpial to 180 toises, and the circle described with that radius being 
 
 divided into six equal parts, or (he radius being carried six timo6 
 
 round, we will have an liexagon inscribed; Ali being bisected by 
 
 the perpenilicnlar CD as before, set ofT 30 toises from C to D, 
 
 and draw the indefinite lines AD(i, BDF ; in which take the parts 
 
 AE, UH, each equal to 50 toises; from the centre E describe an 
 
 arc through the point U, meeting AD in G, and from the centre 
 
 I II <lescribe an arc through the point E, meeting BD inF; or 
 
 ' which is the same, make each of the lines EG, IIF, equal to the 
 
 I distance EH ; then the lines joining the points A,E,F,G,H,B, will 
 
 ' be the principal or outline of the front. If the same construction 
 
 [be perlbrmed on the other sides of the polygon, we will have the 
 
 I principal or outline of the whole fortilioaiion. If, with a radius of 
 
 I 20 toises, there be described circular arcs, from the angular points 
 
 1!,.\,M,T, and lines are drawn from the opposite angles, E,I1, &c. 
 
 so as to touch these arcs, their parts <j /-, !> c. Sec. together withthcsc- 
 
 arcs, will represent the outliiieoflhe ditch. 
 
 Table of Dimensions. 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 Forts. 
 
 
 
 Little Fortification. | 
 
 Mean. 
 
 (ir 
 
 eat. 
 
 Sines of Polygons, 
 
 80 
 
 i^O 
 
 100 1 UO 
 
 1 
 
 1 20 
 
 130 
 
 140 
 
 150 
 
 160 
 
 170 
 
 180 1 lyo 
 
 200 
 
 260 
 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 124 I'i 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 20 
 
 21 
 
 23 
 
 25 
 
 30 
 
 31 
 
 25 
 
 22 
 
 
 Faces of Bastions, 
 
 22 
 
 25 
 
 2S 
 
 30 
 
 33 
 
 33 
 
 40 
 
 42 ■ 
 
 45 
 
 47 
 
 30 
 
 35 
 
 55 
 
 60 
 
 Capital of Ravelin, 
 
 2.5 
 
 28 
 
 30 
 
 35 
 
 38 
 
 40 1 
 
 45 1 50 
 
 50 
 
 52 
 
 35 55 
 
 60 
 
 50 
 
 In the first vertical column are the numbers expressing the 
 lengths of the exterior sides from 80 to 260. In the >econd, the 
 perpendiculars answering to these sides. In the third, the lengths 
 of the faces of bastions ; and in the fourth, tlie lengths of the ca- 
 pitals of the ravelins. The forts are mostlv, if not always, squares : 
 for which reason, the perpendiculars are made one-eighth of the 
 exterior sides ; because it they were more, the gorges of the bas- 
 tions would become too narrow. The little fortilication is chiefly 
 designed for citadels, which are commonly pentagons; the perpen- 
 diculars are made one-seventh ot the exterior side : the mean is 
 used in all kinds of fortifications, from an hexagon upw ards to any 
 number of sides ; and the great is seldom used but in an irregular 
 fortilication, where there are some sides that cannot be made less 
 without much expence ; or in a town which lies near a great river, 
 where the side next the river is made from 200 to 260 toises: and 
 as that side is less exposed to be attacked than any other, the per- 
 pendicular is made shorter, which saves much expence. The 
 laces of the bastions are all two-sevenths of tin* exterior sides, or 
 nearly so, because the fractions are neglected. In creneral, in all 
 squares the perpendicular is one-eighth of the exterioi side, and all 
 pentagons one-seventh, and in all the rest upward one-sixth. 
 
 Ok the Construction of Oriu.ons and retired 
 Flanks. 
 
 Describe the front MPQRSTas before, and divide the flank 
 nto three e(|ual parts, of which suppose Sr to be one ; from the 
 opposite flanked angle M draw a Inie Mr, in which take the part 
 »ir of five toises; take likevN'ise Rn >a tlie line of defence MR, 
 
 'produced, e(|ual to five toises, and join ?!;», upon which as a 
 t base describe the equilateral triangle n p m, and from the angle p, 
 j opposite to the base as centre, is described the circular flank ii ni. 
 And if Sc be bisected by a perpendicular, and another be erected 
 1 upon the face ST, at ^ ; tie intersection of these two perpendicu- 
 lars will he the centre of the arc which forms the orillon. The 
 I orillons are very Useful in covering the retired flanks, which can- 
 ! not be seen but directly in the front ; and as these orillons are 
 round, thev cannot he so easily destroyed as they would lie if tlie}~ 
 were of any other figure. ^ 
 
 Construction of Ravelins or IIalf-moons. 
 Fis;. 1. No. 1. Set of1'55 toises, from the re-entering angle O of 
 the counterscarp, on the capital OL, or on the perpeiulicular 
 produced ; and from the point L draw lines to the shoulder- AB; 
 whose parts l.M, LN, terminated by tlie counterscarp, will be 
 the faces, and ,\IO, ON, the semi-gorges of the ravelin required. 
 This is Mr. Vauban's method of constructing ravelin'., according 
 to !ome authors: and others will ha\e the faces of the ravelin to 
 temiinafe on those of the bastions within three toise- of the should- 
 ers ; which seems to be the best way, for these ravelins cover the 
 flanks much better than the others. T'.e ditch before the ravelin 
 is l2toi-es, its connter-carp parallel to the fa< es of the ravelins; 
 and is i-.iadein a circular arc, before the saliant anitle ; as likewise 
 all ditches are in general. When the ravelins are made with flanks, 
 as in fig. 2, the faces should terminate on those of the bastions, at 
 lea-t five toiws from the shoulders. The ttanks are made by set- 
 ting off 10 toises from tlie extremities of tht faces, from J" to A', and 
 9 froHJ
 
 FORTIFICATION. 
 
 4Sfi 
 
 from jn to I ; ami from the points /(, /, tlic il.mks lik,lp, are drawn 
 parallel to the capital LO of the ravelin. There are sometimes 
 redoubts made in the ravelin, sueli as in fig. 1. No. !. which is 
 done by setting oil' 10 toises from the extremities of the faces on 
 the semi-gorges from N to h, and from M to a ; an<l from the 
 points h, a, the faces are drawn parallel to tliooe of the ravelin ; the 
 ditch before the redoubt is six toises, and its coiinterscai[) parallel 
 to the faces. 
 
 Construction of Tf.naii.i.ks. 
 
 A tenaille' is a work made in the ditch before the curtins, the 
 parapet is only two or three feet higher than the level ground of the 
 ravelin. There are three ditfereMt sorts; tln! lirst are those, as in 
 fig. 3, which are made in the <lirection of the lines of defence, 
 leaving a passage ot three toises between their extremities and the 
 flanks of the bastions, as likewise another of two in ihe middle for 
 a bridge of c<nnmunication to the ravi^lin. Tlie second sort are 
 those, as in lig. 4. Their faces are in the lines of defence, and It) 
 toises long, besides the passage of three toises between them and 
 the flanks of the bastion ; their flanks are found by describing arcs 
 from one shoulder of the tenaille as centre through the other, or on 
 which are set 10 toi--es for the flanks desired. The third sort are 
 those as in fig. 5. 'I'heir faces are lo toises, as in the second sort, 
 and the flanks are parallel to those of the bastions. The use of 
 tenaillcs in general, is to del'end the bottom of the ditch by a graz- 
 ing fire, as likewise the level ground of the ravelin, and especially 
 the ditch before the redoubt within the ravelin, whicli can be de- 
 fended from no where else so well, as from them. The fir^t sort 
 do not defend the ditch so well, as the others, as being too oblicpie a 
 defence; but as they are not subject to be enfiladed. M. Vauban 
 has generally preferred them in the fortifying of pKices, as may be 
 seen in the citadel of Lille, Landau, New Brisac, and in many 
 other places. The second sort defend the ditch much better than 
 the first, and add a low flank to those of the bastions ; but as these 
 flanks are liable to be enfiladed, they have not been much put in 
 practice. This defect might however be remedied, by making 
 them so as to be covered by the extremities of the parapets of the 
 opposite ravelins, or by some other work. As to the third sort, 
 they have the same advantage as the second, and are likewise lia- 
 ble to the same objections; for which reason, they may be used 
 with the same precautions which have been mentioned in the se- 
 cond. Tenailles are esteemed so necessary, that there is hardly 
 snv place fortified without them; and with reason: For wlien 
 the ditch is dry, the part behind the tenailles serves as a place of 
 arms, from w Inch the troops may sally, and destroy the works of 
 theenemy and the ditch, oppose their descent, and retire with safe- 
 ty ; and the communication from the body of the place to the rave- 
 Im becomes easy and secure, which is a great advantage; for by 
 that means the ravelin may be a much better defence, as it can be 
 supplied with troops and necessiiries at any time. And if the ditch 
 is wet, they serve as harbours for boat's, which may carry out 
 armed men to oppose the passage over the ditch whenever 
 they please; and the communication from the tenailles to the 
 ravelin, becomes likewise much easier than it would be without 
 them. 
 
 Construction ok Lunettf.s. 
 
 Fig. I. No. 2. Lunettes are placed on both sides of the ravelin, 
 such as B, to increase the strength of a place: they are construct- 
 ed, by bisecting the faces of the ravelin with the perpendicular 
 LN ; on which is set oft" 30 toises fronv the counterscarp of the 
 ditch, for one of its faces ; the other face, PN, is found by making 
 the semigorge, TP, of '.'5 toises ; the <litch before the lunettes is 1 '2 
 tciisei, the parapet three, and the rampart eight, as in the ravelin. 
 TlH:re is sometimes another work made to cover the saliant angle of 
 tT»e ravelin, sucS as A, called bonnet, whose faces are p.irallel to 
 those of the ravelin, and when produced, bisect those of the lu- 
 nettes ; the ditch before is 10 toises. There are likewise lunettes, 
 such as D in fig. 6, who<e faces are draw n perpendicular to those 
 «f the ravelin, within a third part from the saliant angle ; and their 
 semi-gorpes are only 20 toises. These kinds of works ma\ make a 
 good defence, and cost no very great expejice; for as they are so 
 near the rarelin, the conununication with it is very easv, and one 
 camiot well be maintained till they are all three taken. 
 
 Consthuction of T^nah.i.ovs. 
 Fig. t. N«; J; Produce «he faces of the ravelin beyond the 
 
 counterscarp of the ditch, at a distance MN of 30 toises, and take 
 on the counterscarp of the great ditch 15 toises from the re-entering 
 angle 7 to p, and draw N}); then pN'NU/ will be the tenailles ru- 
 (juired ; its ditch is 1 J toi>es, that is, the same as that of tlie ravelin. 
 Sometimes a retired battery is made in the front of the tenaillons, as 
 in B ; this battery is 10 toises from the front, to which it is paralli'l, 
 and l.S toises long, Keireiirhment> ;neconnnonly made m Ihe 
 tenaillons, such as O ; their parapets are parallel to the fronts MN, 
 and bisect the side /)N; the ditch before the retrenchment is tliree 
 toises; and there is a banquette befin- the parapet next to the ditch 
 of about eight feet, called berm ; winch serves to prevent the 
 earth of the parapet (which seldom has any revetment) from falling 
 into the ditch. 'Fhe nivelin, before which ten.iiUons are construct- 
 ed, must have its saliant angle much greater than the former con- 
 struction makes them ; otln-rwise the saliant angles of the tenail- 
 lons become too acute; for which reason «e made the capital of 
 this ravelin 4j toises, and tlie laces terminate w ithin three toises of 
 the shoulders. 
 
 Construction of Counter-guards. 
 When the counterguard is placed before the ravelin, fig. 7, set 
 oft" 40 toises on the capital of the ravelin from tlie saliant angle A lo 
 the saliant angle B, of the counterguard ; and 10 from C to D ; on 
 the counterscarp of the ditch. When the counterguard is before 
 the bastion, such as in fig. 8, its saliant angle F is iO toises from (he 
 saliant angle E of the bastion, and the breadth near the ditch of llu- 
 ravelin 10 toises as before. The ditch before the counterguards is 
 1 3 toises, and its counterscarp parallel to the faces. Counterguard^ 
 ate made before the ravelin on some particular occasions only ; but 
 are fre(iuently constructed before the bastions, as covering the 
 flanks wonderfully well. Some authors, as Mr. Blondel and Mr. 
 Coehorn, will have them much narrower than they are here. 
 
 Construction of Horn-\vorks. 
 
 Fig. 1 . No. 4. Produce the capital of the ravelin be3ond the 
 saliant angle A, at a distance AB of about 80 toises; draw DUE at 
 right angles to AB ; in which take BD, BE, each etjual to i5 toises ; 
 and on the e.xterior side DE, trace a front of a polygon in the 
 same manner as that of the body of the place, making the perpen- 
 dicular BF 10 toises, and the faces 30. The branches Da, Ed, of 
 the horn-work, when produced, terminate on the faces of the l)as- 
 tiuns, within five toises of the shoulders. The ditch of the horn- 
 work is U toises, and its counterscarp parallel to the branches ; aad 
 in the front terminates at the shoulders, in the same nninne r as the 
 great ditch before the bastions. The capital of the ravelin before 
 the front of the horn-work is 3.5 toises, and the faces terminate on 
 the shoulders, or rather two or three toises beyond them : and the 
 ditch before the ravelin is eight toises. Retrenchments are some- 
 times made within the horn-works, such as S, S; which are con- 
 structed by erecting prrpendiciilars to the faces of the ravelins, 
 within J.S toises of their extremities. This retrenchment, like all 
 others, has a parapet turfed only with a berni of eight feet before 
 it; as likewise a ditch from tliree to five toises broad. When a 
 horn-work is made before the bastion, the distance. No. 5, of 
 the front from the saliant .angle of the bastion is 100 toises, and the 
 branches terminate on tiie faces of the adjacent ravelins within five 
 toises from '.heir e.xtreinities ; all the rest is the same as before. 
 
 Construction of Crown-Wok ks. 
 
 From the saliant angle, A, fig. 9, of the ravelin, as a centre, de- 
 scribe an arc of a circle with a radius of about I'JO toises, cutting 
 the capital of the ravelin produced at C ; from tjie point C, set oil' 
 the chords CB, CF, each of them equal to 1 10 toises ; anil on each, 
 of which, as an exterior side, construct a front of polvgon of the 
 same dimensions as in the horn-work ; that is, the perpendicular 
 should be 18 toises, the faces 30, and the branches terminate on the 
 flies of the bastions within '2i toises of the shoulders. The ditcli 
 is 12 toises, the capital of the ravelins 35, and its ditch 8 ; that is, 
 the same as in the horn-work. Sometimes tli^ crown-work is m:ulp 
 before the bastion, as in fig. 10. The arc is described from the 
 saliant angle A of the bastion, with a r.idius of 1 JO toises, as be-, 
 fore ; and the branches terniiniite on the faces of the adjacent, 
 ra\elins within "5 toises of their e\treiiiities : (he re-t of thedimeii-. 
 sions and constructions are the same as before. H orn- works, :a^ 
 I well as crown-works, are never made but when a large spot of 
 ^ ground
 
 AM 
 
 FORTIFICATrON. 
 
 ground falls l)(.-youd the fortificalion, which might be advantageous 
 to an ciicniv in a siege, or to coveVsonie qate or entrance into a 
 town. 
 
 Construction of Covert-Ways and Glacis. 
 Although we have not hitherto mentioned the covert-«ay, ne- 
 vertheless all fortilications wliatsoever have «ne ; for they are es- 
 teemed to he one of the most essential parts of a modern lortilica- 
 tion ; and it is certain, llie taking of the covert-way, when it is in good 
 condition and well defended, is generally tlie most bloody action 
 of the siege. After liaving constructed the body of the pliice, antl 
 all the outworks which are thought necessary, lines are drawn pa- 
 rallel to the utmost couuterscaip of the ditches, at six toL^es dis- 
 tance from it; and the space mn, inn, Plate LXXV, lig. 1, in- 
 cluded between that line and the cttuaterscarp, will he the cuvert- 
 \vay required. There is in every re-entering angle of the counter- 
 scarp a place of arms, in : which is foiuid by setting off i-'O toises 
 from the re-entering angle a, on both sides from a to b, amJ from 
 a to c ; and from the points /), c, as centres, arcs are dcscribi'd with 
 a radius of '2j toises, so as to intersect each other in (/ ; then the 
 lines drawn from this intersection to the point b, c, will be the 
 faces of the places of arms. If lines are drawn parallel to the lines 
 which lermin-ate the covert-w ay, and the places of arms, at 20 toises 
 di.-tant from them, tlie space .T, .r, .i, between these lines and tJiose 
 which terminate the covert-way, will be the glacis. At the ex- 
 tremities of the places of arms, are traverses made, such as r, 
 which serve to inclose them ; these traverses are three toises thick, 
 and as long as the covert-way is broad, and a passage is cut in the 
 alacis round them, of about six or eight feet, iji order to have a 
 free communication with the rest of the covert-way. There are 
 also traverses of the same dimensions before every sallajit angle of 
 the bastion and out-works, and are in the Siime direction as the 
 faces of those works produced ; and the thickness lies at the same 
 side as the parap«ts. The passages round these last traverses are 
 likewise from six to eight feet wide. In each place of- arms are 
 two sally-ports :, :, which are 10 or 12 feet wide, for the troops to 
 sally out ; in time of a siege they are shut up, with barriers of 
 gates. 
 
 Construction of Arkows aND detached Kedoubts. 
 
 An arrow is a work made before thesaliant angles of the glacis, such 
 as A, lig. 1 It is composed of a parapet of three toises thick, and 40 
 long ; and the ditch before it live toises, terminating in a slope at 
 both ends. The communication from the covert-way into these 
 arrows is four or five toises wide ; and there is a traverse, ;•, at the 
 entrance, of three toises thick, w ith a passage of six or eight feet 
 round it. A detached redoubt is a kind of work nmch like a 
 ravelin, with Hanks placed beyond the glacis ; such as B ; they are 
 made to occupy some spot of ground which might be advantage- 
 ous to the besiegers; likewise to ohlige the enemy to open their 
 trenches fartlier off than they would do otherwise. Their <listance 
 from the covert-way ought jiot toexceed 120 toises, that it may he 
 iWended by muskct-shot from thence, 'i'he gorge ii b is 40 toises; 
 tire llanks « c, bf, which are perpendicular (o the gorge, 10; and 
 the faces cd, f d, 30: the ilitcli before it is six toises, ending in 
 slopes at both en<ls ; the covert-way lour ; the branches of the co- 
 vert-way 42 toises long, or thereahonls ; the faces of the places of 
 arms//,//, whicli are perpendicular to the branches, 10; and the 
 otljer, which IS piiiaflel to theui, 14. The couniiunication from 
 the covert-way into the redoubt, is live or six toises wide ; a tra- 
 verse is made just at the entrance, and another ii), the middle when 
 It is pretty long. The parapets of this communication terminate 
 m a slope or glacis. If these redoubts are above 50 toises distant 
 from the covert-way, the besiegers carry their trenches round, and 
 enter through the gorge ; by which means the troops that are in 
 them are made prisoners of war, if they do not retire betimes ; to 
 prevent which, some otiier outworks shoidd be made to support 
 ttiein . 
 
 Construction of Second Ditches and Covert-Ways. 
 
 Plate LXXV, tig. 2. When the ground is low, and water to he 
 found, there is often a ditch about 10 or 12 toises made round the 
 f^lacis; and opposite to the places of arms are constructed lunettes, 
 beyond the ditch ; such as D, whose breadth on the counterscarp 
 «f the ditch is 10 toises, from b to a and from c to d; and the faces 
 <i L, liL, aie parallel to these of the places of arms ; the ditch be- 
 
 fore them is from eight to ten toises wide. The second covert-way 
 is four toises, the semi-gorges of the places of arms, w, about la, 
 and the faces perpendicular to the counterscarp ; the second glacis 
 is from \'t to 1 S toises broad. This second covert-vfay has tra- 
 verses every where, in the same manner as the first. 
 
 Construction of Profiles. 
 
 A Profile is the representation of a vertical section of a work ; 
 it serves to shew those dimensions which cannot be represented in 
 plans, and is necessary in the building of a fortiljcalioii. Profiles 
 are generally t.onstnicted upon 30 feet to an inch. It would be 
 endless to describe all their particular (hnicnsions ; v\e shall there- 
 fore lay down the principal rules only, given by M. Vauiian, on 
 this subject. Every work ought to be at least six feet higher than 
 that betore it, so that it may command those before it ; that is, that 
 the garrison may lire horn all the works at the same time, with 
 great and small arms, at the besiegers in their approaches. Nut- 
 withstanding this specious pretence, several authors object against 
 it. l''or, say they, if you can discover the enemy from all the 
 works, they can discover, by the same reason, all the works from 
 their batteries; so that they may destroy them without being 
 obliged to change their situation, and thereby dismount all the guns 
 of the place before they come near it. But if all the works were 
 of the same heiglit, those within cannot be destroyed, till such 
 time as those before them are taken : guns might be placed in the 
 covert-way and outworks to obstruct the enemy's approach ; and 
 when they come near the place, they might be transported into the 
 inner works: and as the body of the place would be much lower, 
 the expence would be considerably diminished. But when works 
 are low, they are easily enfiladed by the ricochet batteries, which 
 is a kind of firing with a small quantity of powder, by giving the 
 gun an elevatiim of 10 or 12 degrees: this might, however, be 
 partly prevented, by making the parapets near the saliant angles, 
 forthe space of eight toises on each side, five or six ieet higher 
 than the rest of the works. 2. The covert-way should be lower 
 than tiie level gionnd, otherwise the body of the place must be 
 raised very high, especially where there are several outworks : this 
 is to be understood only when the works exceed each other in 
 height, otherwise it need not be below the level. 3. The bases of 
 all inward slopes of earth should be at least ecjual to the height, if 
 not more. 4. The bases of all outward slopes of earth, two-thirds of 
 their heights. 5. The slopes of all walls or revetments should be 
 one-fifth of their height ; or one-6th might perhaps he sufficient; 
 the height of a wall is estimated from the bottom of the ditch, and 
 not from the lieginning of its foundation. 6. The slopes bf all pa- 
 rapets and traverses are one-sixth of their breadth ; that is, three 
 feet towards the field ; or the inside, where the banquettes should 
 be three feet lygher than the outside. 7. When the revetment of 
 a rampart goes quite up to the top, four feet of the upper part is a 
 vertical wall of three feet thick, with a square stone ;it the top of 
 it projecting six inches; and a circular one below, or where the 
 slope bi gins, of right or ten inches diameter: they go quite round 
 the rampart, and the circular projection is called the cordon, 
 Wliere the straight part of the wall ends and the slope begins, the 
 wall is always made five feet thick; and the counterforts or but- 
 tresses reach no higher than that place. S. When the rampart is 
 partly walled and partly turfed, then orc-fiilhof the height which 
 is turfed must be added to five feet, to get the thickness of the wall 
 above. And having the thickness of any wall above, by ad- 
 ding one-liflh of its height from the bottom of the ditch, the sum 
 will be the thickness ot the wall at the bottom ; but if asixth part 
 is only taken for the slope, then a sixth part must be added. For 
 instance, suppose a rampart of 30 feet high from the bottom of 
 the ditch, and that 10 of these are to be turfed, then the fifth jjait 
 of 10, which is 2, added to 5, gives 7 for the wall above;' 
 and as this wall is 20 feet high, the fifth' of v.hich added is 4, 
 and 4 to the thickness 7 above, gives 1 1 for iho thickness near 
 the foundation. In fig. 1, Plate LXXIII, AL represents the' 
 horizontal line of a profile, in which the principal elevations and 
 depressions are exhibiterl as explained in the dchnilions ; fig. 2, 3,- 
 and 4 represent, in military perspective, the proliles of the body 
 of a place, the ravelin and covert-way ; which gives a clear idea 
 of what is meant by a profile, and fioiu which those of all other 
 works may be easily conceived. i .• ^ 
 
 'of
 
 FORTiri CATION 
 
 h\V) 
 
 OF lUUECULAU rORTlFICA ITON. 
 
 Ikregular I'oRTiFicATioM is that vvlierc tlio sidos and angli's 
 ari" not uiiilc.nii, ('(|lndl^lant, orr<|iuil; o\vin<^ to tlio incs^iilarity 
 of the ground, lulls, vallevs, I'ivers, and tin- like. Tlie nio'it cs- 
 seiilial |)iinti|>le in forlilicatiun consists in making all tluMronts 01 a 
 place t(|iially strone, so thai the enemy may lind no advantage in 
 attaekini; eithrr of Iheside;. This can liappen no otherwise in a 
 regular lortilication .sitnated in a ])lain or e\ en groniul : but as 
 there are but lew places which are not irregnlar either in their 
 works or situation?, and the natni-e of the ground niav be such as 
 makes it inipracti'-able to buiki th in regular without too great ex- 
 pence ; it is so much the more ne< essary to shew in what consists 
 the strength or weakness of a tow.n irrei^ularly fortified, so that the 
 weakest part nvay be made stronger by additionaJ outworks ; as 
 iiki-wisc, if such a place is to be attacked, to know, which is the 
 Strongest or weakest part. 
 
 Construction of .\n' Irregular Place ix an oi'en 
 Country. 
 
 If the place to be fortified is an old town inclosed by a wall or 
 rampart, as it most frequently happens, the engineer is- to consi- 
 der ytell all the dill'ereut circumstances of the I'lgure, situation, 
 and (lature, of the ground; and to regulate his plan accordingly, 
 so aJ; to avoid the disadvantages and gain all the advantages pos- 
 sible; he should exanuue, vvhetlirr by cutlingoffsomt- parts ot the 
 old wall or rampart, and taking in some ground, the place can be 
 reduced into a regular foim, or nearly so; for if that can be done 
 without increasing the expence considerably, it shoulil by no 
 means be omitted. Old towns have often towers placed from dis- 
 tance to dislanic, as Douay, Tournay, and many other places, 
 which are generally made use ot, and mended when it may be 
 done. If there be a rampart without bastions or towers, it must be 
 well considered whether bastions niav not be added, or it it is not 
 better to make only some outworks ; if the ditch about this ram- 
 part is not loo wide and deep, it woulil be advantageous to make 
 detached bastions ; otherwise ravelins and counterguards iiiu^t be 
 constructed. Special care must be taken to make all the sides of 
 the polygon as nearly equal as possible, and that the length of the 
 lines of defence do not exceed the reacli of a musket-shot; bwt if 
 that cannot be done, those sides which are on the narrowest part 
 sliould be made the longest. If some of the sides be inaccessible 
 or of very difl'icult approach, eitlier on account of some preci|)ice, 
 marshy ground, or inundation, they may be made much longer 
 than the others which are easy of access, and the flanks need not 
 be so large as the rest ; by doing so some expence w ill be saved, 
 which may be used in making the other sides strongerby adding 
 more outworks. There are few situations but what are more ad- 
 vantageous in some parts than in others; it is therefore die busi- 
 ness of an engineer to distinguish them, and to render those sides 
 strong by art which arc not so by nature. If the situation be low 
 and watery, lunettes or tenaillons, and such other small outworks, 
 should be constructed ; because they are not of any great expence, 
 and may make a very good defence. But if one side of the 
 place only be low-, and running water is to be had, a second ilitch 
 and covert-way with lunettes may be made, by observing, that if 
 the first glacis is made to slope, so as to become even with the 
 level of the water in the second ditch; or if tlie water can be 
 swelled by means of dykes or sluices, so as to overllow the best 
 part of the glacis, it should be done : for by doing this these works 
 will be able to make very good <lefence, since the besiegers will lind 
 it a difficult matter to lodge themselves upon this glacis ; which 
 cannot be done but within a few toises of the tirst covert-way, 
 where the besieged are ready to receive them, and to destroy their 
 works with great advantage ; whereas the em my cannot support 
 their workmen but from the second covert-way, which is too far 
 olf to be of any great service to them. But if the situation be 
 dry, without any water about it, caponiers should be made in the 
 great ditch, from the curtins to the ravelin, and batteries raised 
 III the entrance of the ditch before the ravelin, whose parapet 
 mu^t slope oil' into a glacis, so as to afford no cover for the enemy 
 behind lliem. Arrows and detached redoubts are likewise verv 
 proper to be used in such a case ; and sometimes horn or crown 
 works, if it should be thought convenient ; but these works should 
 never be constructed without an absolute necessity, either to oc- 
 voi. n. — NO. 88, 
 
 cupy a spot of ground wliicii might he advantageous to the enemy,- 
 or to cover some gate or entranfe in the town ; for they are of great 
 expence, and their dctcii' e seems not to be answei-al)le to it. .NIosl 
 of the |)laces in Flanders are forlilied with liorn-woik~, such as 
 Ypres, lournay, Lille, and others. If the place to be fortified is 
 new, and the situation will not admit of a regular construction, 
 particular care must betaken in choosing siu h a spot ot ground as 
 IS most advantageous, and least liable to any disadvantages either 
 in the .building or in niaintnining it. All lulls or rising grounds 
 should be avoided, which might command any part of the works ; 
 marshv grounds, because such situations are unwholesome; or 
 lakes and standing waters for the same reason, excepting a lake is 
 or inav be made navigable. Good water should be bad either- 
 within the plate or near it, for it is absoliilt ly lu eessary for men and 
 cattle: the air should be wholesome; otherwise the continual sick- 
 ness that may reign in such a plate might prevent people from 
 coming to live in it, and the garri-nn woulil not be in acomlition. 
 to flefend themselves as thev ought to tlo. In short, all the dit- 
 fcrcnt circunistancos alteniling sucli an uiKlertakiiig should be ma- 
 turely considered before a resolution is taken to fortify any place. 
 W heii a situalion is lixed upon, the next thing to lie coiisitlered is, 
 lliL- bigness of the town antl the number, of its outworks; which' 
 must absolutely tlepentl upon the consecpience such a place is of 
 to a nation. If it is onlv to guard a pass or entrance mto a coun- 
 try, it need not be so large : but if it is to be a place either to pro- 
 mote or to protect trade, it shtxild be large antl commodious; 
 the streets shoulil be wide, and the buildings regular and conve- 
 iiient- As to w iiat regards the fortilitation, its construction should 
 tlepend on the n.iture oi the situation, and the num-ber of works ■ 
 on the funtls or expence a prince or nation will be at; which, 
 liowever, ought to be according to the benelit arising from such a-- 
 place : for as such undertakings are of very great expence, an 
 engineer cannot be too sparing in his works; on the contrary, the 
 greatest occonomy shoultl be used both in regartl to the number of: 
 works ami to their construction. The body- of the pjacemay have • 
 revetments quite up to the top, or only in jiarl, and the rest 
 turfeil ; but as to the outworks they should have half-revetments, 
 or they may be made with turf only; -as being not so necessary 
 to prevent the place from being surprisetl, whicli may neverthe- 
 less make a good tlefc-nre. Plate LXXl II. tig. ^y is the plan of;m 
 octagon, one-half of which is similar and equal to the other half. 
 The exterior sides are each 180 toises, and the works are con- 
 structed according to our method ; but because the sides AK, EF, 
 are weaker than the rest, we have added tenailles, redoubts in the 
 ravelins, and lunettes, to rentier them nearly equal in strength- 
 w ith the others ; an:l if counler-guartls were made before the bas- 
 tions A and B, it would effectually secure that front. Instead of ■ 
 lunettes, any other works may be inatle, as may be thought con- 
 venient and accortling to the' nature of the ground. If it should 
 bejutlged necessary to add other t-)utworks to the ravelins all round 
 the" place, care must be taken to add likewise more to the fronts 
 AB, EF, in order to render the advantages and disadvantages of- 
 attacking on either side equal. 
 
 Construction of an Irregular Fortification Ous; a Hill. 
 OR Rock. 
 
 In the construction of such places, care must -be taken that no 
 neighbouring hill commands any part i^if tiie works. The town 
 should always be built on the highest part ; but if it should be 
 thought more convenient to place it lower, then the upper part 
 must be fortified widi a fort. The situation shouUl be made as . 
 nearly level as possible, by removing the earth from some places 
 to till up others ; antl if it cannot wt-ll be levelletl without ex- 
 traordinary expeni e, works must be made on the highest part, so 
 as to comi'nantl antl protect the lower. The works ought to oc- 
 cupy all the upper part of the hill ; but if it should be too exten- 
 sive to be all inclosed, or so irregular as not to be fortified without 
 great Inconvenience, the parts which fall w-ithout shoulil be fortilietl 
 wilh some detachetl works, and a communication with the place 
 must be made either above or below the grountl. There should 
 be no cavity or hollow roads within cannon-shot rountl about the 
 place, where the enemy might be able to approach under cover. 
 It there be a spring near the top of the hill, it should he inclosed 
 in the fortification ; or if that cannot be done, by some work. or 
 other; for there is nothing more necessary, and at the same time 
 tj 11 more
 
 486 
 
 FORTIFICATION. 
 
 •more scarce, in such siUiatloiis, tliaii water for vvliich reason they 
 tanjiot be too much care taken to provide it: several cisterns 
 should be made to receive the rain-water, and to preserve it ; wells 
 should be dug likewise, thouf^h ever so deep, the water of which 
 will serve for common use. Fortified towns built on hills or rocks 
 should never be large ; for their use is generally to guard passes or 
 ■inlets into a country, as they are seldom useful in traflic ; and it 
 is a difHcult matter to provide for a large garrison in such situa- 
 tions, neither should any such place be built without some very 
 material reasons : but when it is absolutely necessary, great care 
 and precaution should be taken to render the works as perfect as 
 the situation will admit of, and at the same time to be as frugal in 
 the expence as }>ossible. 
 
 Construction of Irregular Fortifications near Rivers, 
 Lakes, or the Sea. 
 
 As the intent of building these kinds of places is chieily to fa- 
 cilitate and protect trade, they are of more importance than any 
 other kind, especially in maritime countries, where the principal 
 strength and pow er of the state depends on them : for which rea- 
 ■son We shall treat of this construction the more largely. The first 
 thing to be considered is their situation, which ought to be such 
 as to afford a good harbour for shipping, or a safe and easy entrance 
 in stormy weallier ; but as it is hardly possible to tind any harbour, 
 where ships may go in and lie secure with all winds, care shoukl 
 he taken to inake them safe to enter with those winds which are 
 most dannerous: but it is not surticient that the harbour is sate 
 against stormy weather ; it should likewise be so against an enemy 
 t)Oth by land and water ; for it often happens that ships are de- 
 stroyed where it was iinagined they were secure, which is of too 
 great consequence not to be provided against ; for which iea»on, 
 iorls or batteries must be built iu the most convenient places, t( 
 prevent the enemy's ships from coming too near, so as to be able 
 to cannonade those in the harbour, or fling shells amongst them ; 
 and if there is any danger of an enemy's apiMoach by land, high 
 ramparts and ediiiccs nuist be built, so as to cover them. V.'heii 
 a river is pretty large, and it is not convenient to make a harbour 
 without great expence, the ships may vide along the shore ; which, 
 for that reason, must be made accessible for ships of burden ; this 
 may be done by advancing the quay into the river if the water f-. 
 too shallow, or by digging the river sufiiciently deep for that pur- 
 pose. And to prevent an enemy from coming up to the river, 
 forts must be built on both sides, especially when there are any 
 tm-iiings or windings. Antwerp is such a place : for the Scheld is 
 sufficiently deep to carry ships of great burden, which may come 
 quite near the town-wall ; and several forts are built below it on 
 both sides, so that it would not be an easy matter for an enemy to 
 ■come up the river. When the river is small, so that no ships of 
 burden can come through it, it is sufficient to make it run through 
 some of the works, where proper landing places are contrived, 
 from whence the goods may be carried into the place : as at Sarre- 
 Louls, where a horn-work is built beyond the Sarre, in the George 
 of which the goods are landed. If the breadth of the river do 
 ijot exceed 200 yards, it cominonly passes through the middle 
 of the town, and proper quays are made on each side ; in such a 
 case, the I'ortificiition is so contrived, as that the river passes 
 through tlie curtain, in order to have a bastion on each side to 
 
 defend the coming in and going out. When M. Vauhan fortified 
 near rivers, he made always the exterior side near the w aler much 
 longer than any of the others ; such as Iluninguen on the Rhine, 
 and Sarre- I.ouis on the Sarre ; but for what reason he fortilird these 
 places in that manner, has not been told by any author. But it 
 IS plain that the sides which terminate at the river are the weakest; 
 because the besiegers' trenches being secured by the river, tliey 
 may draw not of their troops off, and aetlheiefore with more 
 vigour and strength on the other side: besides, as the strength of a 
 side increases in proportion as tlie angle of the polygon is greater, 
 by making the side next the river longer, the angles at its extre- 
 mities become wider, and consequently the adjacent sides stronger. 
 There are other advantages, besides those mentioned, wliich arise 
 from the lengthening of that side; for if the river is deep so as not 
 to be fordable, that side is not liable to be attacked ; and by in- 
 creasing its length, the capacity of the place increases much more 
 in proportion to the expence, than if more sides were made; the 
 centre of the place will be likewise nearer the river, which makes 
 it more convenient for transporting the goods from the water-side 
 to any part of the town. To illustra(e this method of M. Vau- 
 ban's,we have given the plan of Iliuininguen. See Plate LXXIII. 
 fig. t). This place was built for the sake of having a bridge over 
 the Rhine, for wliich reason he made it only a pentagon ; the side 
 ABnext to the river is "iOU toises, and each of the otliLis but 180, 
 .\bout the space a b c, which lies before the front AB, is a stone- 
 wall ; and the passages are shut up with sluices, to retain the water 
 in the ditches in the dry seasons : and to prevent an enemy from 
 destroying the sluice near the point c, whereby the water would 
 run out and leave the ditches dry, the redoubt y was built in the 
 little island hard by, in order to cover that sluice ; without which 
 precaution the place might be insulted from the nver-side, where 
 the water is shallow in dry seasons. The hornwork K beyond the 
 Rhine was built to cover the bridge ; but as this work cannot be, 
 well defended, across tlie river, the hornwork H was made to 
 sup|)ort the other. Before finishing the description of this plan, 
 we sliall shew how to find the long side AB. After having inscribed 
 the two sides GE, GF, in a circle, draw the diameter CD, paral- 
 lel to the line joining the points EF. On this diameter setoff 
 100 toises on each side of the centre ; Jrom these pohits draw tec 
 iiidelinite perpendiculars to the dianiefer : then if from tlie points 
 EF, as centres, two arcs are described with a radius of 180 toises, 
 their intersections A and B with the said perpendiculars, will de- 
 termine the long side AB, as likewise the other two FB an« EA. 
 In like manner may be found the long or short side of any polygon 
 wdiatsoever. AVhen a town near a river is to be fortified for the 
 safety of commerce, particular care should be taken in leaving a 
 good space between the houses and the water-side, to have a key 
 or landing-place for goods brought by water ; it should also be 
 contrived to have proper places for ships and boats to lie secure in 
 stormy weather, and in time of a siege ; and as water-carriage is 
 I very advantageous for transporting goods from one place to ano- 
 ther, as well as for bringing the necessary materials, not only for 
 building the fortifications but also the place itself, the expences 
 will be lessened considerably when this cmvenience can be had ; 
 for which reason, places should never be built any where else but 
 near rivers, lakes, or the sea; excepting in extraordin-ary cases, 
 where these advantages cannot he obtained. 
 
 FOftTINS, FORTELETS, or FIELD-FORTS, are little 
 forts, whose flanked angles are generally 120 fathoms distant from 
 one another. The extent and figure of fortius are different, ac- 
 cording to the situation and nature of the ground ; some having 
 whole bastions, and others demi-bastions. They are used only for 
 a time, either to defend the lines of circumvallation, or to guard 
 some passage or dangerous post. 
 
 FORTISSIMO, in inusii, sometimes denoted by FFF, orfff, 
 signifies to sing or play vcTy loud or strong. 
 
 FORTITUDE, is generally considered as the same with cou- 
 rage, but in a more accurate view they are cleariy distinguishable. 
 Courage may be a virtue or vice, according to circumstances : 
 
 fortitude is always a virtue : we speak of desperate courage, but 
 not of des|ierate fortitude, A contempt or neglect of <langcr, 
 without regard to consequences, may be called courage; and this 
 some brutes have as well as we: in them it is the eflert of natural 
 instinct chiefly; in man it depends partly on habit, partly on 
 strength of nerves, and partly on want of con.<iderafion. But for- 
 titude is the virtue of a rational and considerate mind, and is 
 founded in a sense of honour and a reganl to duty. There may 
 be courage in fighting a duel, though that folly is more frequently 
 the effect of cowardice ; there may be courage in an act of piracy 
 or robbery : but there can be no fortitude in perpetrating a crime. 
 Fortitude implies a love of equity and of public good; for, as 
 
 riato
 
 F OKTIFI CiOriOI^ o 
 
 4-. 

 
 ^f
 
 ' (U)lK.lll"Jlli;\Jll<lDI"i
 
 7*iMjii£J iyjiaiuv iUnUei,^Ilhum 2»T*t.ZimJim.iifCjf-
 
 FOR 
 
 4a7 
 
 FOS 
 
 Plato ami Cicero observe, courage exerted for a scltisli purpose, 
 or witlioul a regard to justice, ought to be called audacily rather 
 than fortitude-. This virtue takes diirereiit names, accoi ding as it 
 acts ill opposition to dilTerent sorts of evil ; but some of tliosc 
 names are applied with considerable latituile. With respect to 
 danger in general, fortitude may be termed intrepidity ; with re- 
 spect to the dangers of war, valour ; witli respect to pain of body 
 or distress of mind, patience ; with respect to labour, activily ; 
 with respect to injurv, forbejrance ; with respect to our condition 
 in general, magnanimity. The motives to fortitude arc many and 
 powerlul. Tins virtue'tends greatly to the happiness of the indi- 
 vidual, by giving composuro«ind presence of mind, and keeping 
 the other passions in due snUordination. 'I'o public good it is es- 
 sential ; for williout it, the independence and liberty of natioiH 
 would be impossible. It gives to a cliaracter that elevation wliich 
 ])oets, orators, and historians, have in all ages vied with one ano- 
 ther to celebrate. Nothing so effectually inspires it as rational 
 piety; the fear of God is the best security against every other 
 fear. A true estimate of human life ; its shortness and uncertain- 
 ty ; the numberless evils and temptations to whicli by a long con- 
 tinuance in this world we must unavoidably be exposed ; with 
 many similar considerations which Christianity affords, and espe- 
 cially the assurances of the Divine favour, are the only certain 
 foundations of genuine fortitude in all CNigencies. 
 
 FORTROSE, a town of Scotland in Ross-shire, on the Frith 
 of Moray, nearly opposite to Fort George, 10 miles N. E. of In- 
 verness. 
 
 FORTUNA, a goddess worshipped with great devotion by 
 the ancient Greeks and Romans ; who believed her to preside 
 over human aflairs, and to distribute wealth and honour at her 
 pleasure. Sec Fortune. 
 
 Fortunate Islands, in ancient geogi-aphy, certain islands, 
 concerning the situation of which autliors are not agreed ; famous in 
 the mythology, for the golden apples of the Hesperides. Tlie 
 common opinion is, that they are the Canary Islands. 
 
 FORTUNE, [Ty^'i.] a name which among the ancients seems 
 to have denoted a principle of fortuity, wliereby things came to 
 pass, without being necessitated thereto: but what and whence 
 that principle is, tliey do not seem to have ever precisely thought. 
 Hence their philosophers often intimate, that men only framed the 
 phantom Fortune to hide their ignorance; and that they call For- 
 tune whatever befals a man without his knowing for what purpose. 
 Hence Juvenal (Sat. x. ver. 366,) affirms, they were men who 
 made a deity of Fortune: and Mr. Spence says, that he has seen 
 .m ancient gem, in w Inch Cybele, the mother of the gods, is repre- 
 sented as turning away her iiead from Fortune, in attitude of dis- 
 owning and rejecting her ; (I'olymetis, p. 1 30, li4, &c,) In the 
 opinion of the heathens, therefore, fortune was only the arrival of 
 things in a sudden and unexpected manner, without any apparent 
 cause or reason : so that the jihilosophical sense of the word coin- 
 tides with what is vulgarly called chance. But in religion it had 
 a farther force ; altars and temples in great numbers were consecra- 
 ted to Fortune, as a deity. Tliis intimates, that the heathens had 
 personilied, and even deilied, Chance ; and conceived her as a sort 
 of goddess, who disposed of the fate of men at her pleasure. 
 Hence that innovation of Horace, O diva, gratumquae regis Antiuni, 
 in the 3Jth ode of the first book, where he recommends Augustus, 
 then preparing for a visit to Britain, to her protection. From tliese 
 different sentiments it may be inferred, that the ancients at one 
 time took Fortune for a peremptory cause, bent upon doing good 
 to some, and persecuting others; and at utiiers for a blind incon- 
 stant cause, without any view or determination at all. If then, the 
 word fortune had no certain idea in the mouth of those who erected 
 altars to her, much less can it be ascertained what it denotes in the 
 minds of those who now use the word in their writings. Horace 
 paints Fortune preceded by Necessity, holding nails and wedges 
 in her hands, with a cramp-iron and melted lead to fasten it; rarely 
 accompanied with Fidelity, unless when she abandons a family'; 
 for in that case Fidelity never fails to depart with her, as well as 
 friends. She is disrespectfully spoken of by most of the Roman 
 writers, and represented as blind, inconstant, unjust, and delighting in 
 mischief. The most celebrated temple of Fortune was at Pra'neste. 
 Statins speaks of several Fortunes there, and calls them the Prx- 
 nestiiKi; sororcs. Lib. i. Sylv. iii. ver. SO. 
 
 Fortune Island, or Good Forti.ne Island, an ifelefinthe 
 Indian sea, S. \V. of Sumatia. Lon.20. 25. E. Lat. 1. 35. S. • 
 
 FORTUNETELLER, one who cheats common people, by 
 pretending to the knowledge of futurity. Fortuiie-tellei-^ are to be 
 ])unished with a year's imprisonment,' and standing four times on 
 the pillory. Stai. 9 Geo. H. cap. 5. 
 
 FltlirV-DAYS COURT, the court of attachment or wood- 
 mote, held before the verderors of the forest once every 40 days, 
 to inquire concerning all offenders against vert and venison. See 
 Attach Mi-.NT. 
 
 FORIUVI, in Roman antiquity, was a public place within thR 
 city, where causes werejudicially tried, and orations delivered to 
 the people. 
 
 FoKuM was also used for a place of traffic, answering to our 
 market-place. These were generally called fora veiialia; in con- 
 tradiction to the former, which were called fora civilia. Tlie 
 (jivciaii Al'jjai exactly corres|Mjnd with the Roman f)ra, being 
 places where courts iiiid markets were held. At Alliens they had 
 many fora, but the chief ot them were the old and the new. 
 
 Forum is also uscd among casuists, &c. for jurisdiction ; as. In 
 foro legis, &c. The following metaphorical uses of the word are 
 also common in the Classics, as Cicero, Suetonius, Florus, &c. 
 
 1. Forum Agere, denoted die bringing on causes out of Rome, 
 in a Roman provhice ; signifying the same with agere conven- 
 tum. 
 
 2. Forum Indicere, was the act of the prictor appointing the 
 place in Rome where causes were to be tried. 
 
 Forum, in ancient geography, prelixed to a proper name, de- 
 noted a market-town or borough. 
 
 Forum Appii, a town of the Volsci, in Latium, on the Via Ap- 
 pia, a little beyond the Tres Taberna; ; mentioned by St. Luke, 
 as well as liy Cicero. 
 
 Forum Domith, a town of Gallia Narbonensis ; now Frontig- 
 nan, or Frontigniac, in Languedoc. 
 
 Forum Fulvii, a town ot Liguria, surnamed Valentinum ; from 
 which it is conjectured that it is now Valenza in the duchy of Mi- 
 lan. 
 
 Forum Tiberii, a town of Gallia Belgica, on the left or W. 
 side of the Rhine: Now called Kavsersthul. 
 
 Forum VuLCANi, the Cam]ii Phlegraei of Pliny: a place in 
 Campania, near Puteoli, and distant from it two miles towards 
 Kaples. It is now called Solfatara. 
 
 I'OS, a marquisate of Italy, in Tuscany. 
 
 Fos Di NovAj the capital of the above marquisate : four miles E. 
 of Sarzana. 
 
 FOSS, in fortilication, a hollow place, commonly full of water, 
 lying between the scarp and counterscarp, below the rampart ; and 
 turning round a fortilied place or a post that is to be defended. 
 
 FOSS.-\, in our ancient customs, was used to signify a ditch full 
 of water, wherein women, convicted of felony, were drowned. 
 
 FUSS-WAY, one of the four principal high-w ays of England, 
 that anciently led through the kingdom ; supposed to be made by 
 the Romans, having a ditch upon one side. 
 
 FOSS AN O, a town of Italy in Piedmont, seated on the Stiira; 
 famed for its medicinal springs, whence its ancient name Fons 
 Sanus, since corrupted into its modern one. It lies five miles E. 
 of Savigliano. 
 
 FOSSARH, in antiquity, officers in the eastern church, whose 
 business was to inter the dead. 
 
 FOSSE; in geography, a town of Germany, in Westphalia, 
 lately in the bishopric of Liege. It is seven miles W. of Na- 
 mur. 
 
 I'osse, the name of two rivers of England ; viz. 1. hi Lanca- 
 shire, running into Level! Sands: 2. in Yorkshire, running into 
 the Ouse near York. 
 
 FOSSIL, \foss:l:.f, l^at. fossile, Fi.] in natural history, denotes 
 ill general all things dug out of the earth: wlietherthey be natives 
 thereof, as metals, stones, salts, earths, and oilier minerals ; or ex- 
 traneous, reposited in the bo.vels of the earth by some extraordi- 
 nary means, as earthquakes, the deluge, &c. See Metal, 
 Stoke, Shell, &c. 
 
 FOSSOMBRONE, a town of Italy, in the duchy of Urbino, 
 16 miles S. W. of Pesaro. 
 
 FOSTER, James, D. D. a most distinguished and popular 
 dissenting minister, born at Exeter in 1697. He began to preach 
 in 171S ; and strong disputes arising soon afteE, among the dissenters, 
 concerniug the Trinity and subscription to tests, his judgement 
 determining him to the obno.xious opinions, tlie clamour grew 
 
 loud
 
 !■ ( ) U 
 
 488 
 
 OU 
 
 loud against liiiu, am! occasioned more than one removal. ■ His 
 lalents were liid among oljsciire country congregations, until 17'J4; 
 when lie was clioscn lo succeed Dif. Gale in Barbican, where he 
 laiii.iired as pastor above L'O vears. The Sunday evening lecture, 
 be^un in the Old Jury nieetuij^-house in 17J8, wijich he conducted 
 with unconimoM applause for more tlian twenty years, indispulalily 
 sliewi'd his abilities as a preaclier. Persons ol all persuasions and 
 ranks in life (locked to hear liim : and Mr. Pope lia~. honoured him 
 with a commendatory couplet to his satires ; which, however, lii:> 
 oominenlator laboured to destroy the intention of, by a frivolous 
 note. In 174(ihf attende<l Lord Kilmarnock, at his execution on 
 Tower-hill ; an olijce which his friends thought had made too deep 
 an impr'^ssion on his sympathizing s|>irit, as his vivacity abated 
 from tJKit time. lie died in 17o.> ; alter havinc; imblished sevi-ral 
 valuable compositions and sermons ; particularlv, 1. A Defence of 
 Christianity, agamst Tindal's Christianity as old as the Creation. 
 '2. An Essay on Fundamentals. 3. tour volumes ol Sermons. 4. 
 Discourses on Natural Religion and Social Virtue, in 4to. 
 
 FosTiiR, Samuel, an ingenious mathematician of the 17th cen- 
 tury, and astronomical prolessor in Gresham coU'jge, was one of 
 that learned association which met for cidvivatin^ tiie new pbilu.jo- 
 phy, during the political confusions, and which Charles H. estab-, 
 lislied uito the Uoyal Societv. He died, howev'-r,' in 1G.')2, be- 
 fore this incorporation took place: but wrote several malliemati- 
 cal and aMnmomi" al treatises. 
 
 l-'U rUI'.KGlLL, John, an eminent physician, borninl7!C; 
 at Car End m \'orkshirc of repul.ible parent, who were quakers. 
 He iHijk his doi tor's ilep.ree at liAlinburgh, in 17.^1). In the same 
 year he became a pupil in St. 'I'homas's hospital, and in 1740 went 
 abroad. On his return he settled in London: and in 1748 ac- 
 quired a great reputation, by a tract, intituled, an Account of the 
 Sore Throat attended with Clcei-s. This disease was at that time 
 very prevalent and fatal. In 1754 he became a member of the 
 Edinburgh College of Physicians; and in 1703 a fellow of the 
 Koyal Society. \Vhen the dililerences broke out between this 
 country and the American colonies, he laboured much to prevent 
 hostilities, and had conferences w ith Dr.Franklin for that purpose. 
 Dr. Fothergill was a man of amiable manners, a skilful physician, | 
 3 great cncourager of learning, and an exi. client botanist. He died j 
 in 17S0. His works have been printedin3 vols. Svo. with hislifeprc- j 
 fixed. He was at the e.xpence of printing Purver's translation of 
 the Bible, and an edition of Percy's Key to the New Testament, 
 for a seminary of Quakers in Yorkshire. His brother Samuel was 
 a considerable preacher among the Quakers, and ilied in 1773. 
 
 FOTIIERGILL.'V, in botany, a genus of the polyandria digynia 
 class and order. Calyx amcnt, ovale; scales one-llowered ; co- 
 rolla calyx-form, one-pel;iled, five-cleft. There is but one 
 species. 
 
 FOTHEKING, a peculiar method of endeavouring to stop a 
 leak in the bottom of a ship while she is atloat, either under sail or 
 at anchor. A basket is filled with ashes, cinders, and chopped 
 rope-yarns, and loosely covered with :i piece of canvas; to this 
 is fastened a long pole, by which it is plunged repeatedly into the 
 water, as close as possible to the place where the leak is conjec- 
 tured to be. The oakhum or chopped rope-\urns being thus 
 giadually shaken through the twigs, or over the top of the basket, 
 are frequently sucked into the hole along with the water, so that 
 the leak becomes immcdiatily choaked ; and the future entrance 
 of the water is thereby preventeil. 
 
 FOTHEIHNGA^, a town of Norlhamptonshire, about four 
 miles from St;incford, situated on the Avon. 
 
 FOUAN, a town of Asia, in Corea. 
 
 FOU-CHAN, a townofChina, in the province of Chang-tong; 
 5 J miles S. E. of Teng-tcheou. 
 
 FOL'CHARMONT, a town of France, in the department of 
 the Lower Seme ; nineteen and an halt miles S, of Dieppe, and 
 three N. E. of Neulchatel. 
 
 FOUE, a large town of Egypt on the Nile, '2'> miles S. of Ro- 
 .sctta, and 4u E. of Alexandria. 
 
 F'OUESNANT, a town of France, in the depaitinent of Finis- 
 terrc, seven and a h;ilf miles S. of Quimper. 
 
 FOUGADE, [French,] in the art of war, a sort of little mine 
 in the manner of a well, scarce more than tei: feet wide, and twenty 
 deej), dug under somw work of fortification, and charged with bar- 
 rels or sacks of gunpowder to blow it up, and covered over with 
 earth. 
 
 5 
 
 . F'OUGERES, a town of France, in the department of Maine 
 and Loire. It is 24 miles N'. E. of Rennes. 
 
 FOUL, in sea-language, is used when a ship has been long rin- 
 trinmied, so that the grass weeds, or branches, grow on her sides 
 iiinler water. It is also used for the running of one ship against 
 anolher. This happens sometimes by the violence of the wind, 
 andsomelimes by the cavelesness of the peo|ile on board, to ships 
 in the same convoy, and to ships in port by means of others coming 
 in. The damages occasioned by running foul, are ot the nature of 
 those in which both parties must bear a share. Thev are usually 
 maile half to fall upon the sufferer, and half upon the \ essel which 
 <li<l the injury ; but in cises where it is evidently the fault of the 
 master of the ves-el, tie akme is to bea^the damage. 
 
 Foul, in husbandry, a disease in cattle, proceeding from blood, 
 and a waterish rheum that falls dow n into the legs, and makes them 
 swell. 
 
 I'OUL Water. A ship is said to make foul water, when, being 
 imdersail, she comes into such shoal-water, that though her keel 
 do not touch the ground, yet it comes so near it, that the motion 
 of the water umler her raises the mud from the bottom. 
 
 FOIXA.orFOUL ISLAND, one of the Slieiland isles, lying 
 (between six and seven leagues W. from the main land. 
 ' ; F'OULXESS, in geography, an island of England the S. E. 
 coast of Essex, six miles E. of Rochford. 
 
 FOULNEY, an island onthe coast of Lancashire, S. W. of the 
 Sands. 
 
 FOULOU-SOUSOU, a town of Chinese Tartary, on the Sag- 
 halien, nine miles N. E. of Telden. 
 
 . FOULSHAM, a town of Norfolk, 16 miles N. W. of Nor- 
 wich. 
 
 FOCNDATION, in architecture, is that part ofa building which 
 is under ground. See Architectcre and" Builiiin'G. 
 
 Foundation, denotes also a donation or legacy, either in money 
 or lands, for the maintaiiumce and support of some community, 
 hospital, school, &c. _ 
 
 FOUNDER, in a general sense, the person who lays a foun- 
 dation, or endows a church, scliool, religions-house, or other chari- 
 table institution. The founder ot a church may preserve to him- 
 self the right of patronage, or presentation to the living. 
 
 Founder, also implies, an artists who cast metals, in various 
 forms, for different uses, as guns, bells, statues, printing characters, 
 candle-sticks, buckles. Sec. whence they are denominated gun- 
 founilers, bell-founders, figure-founders, letter-founders, founders 
 of small works, 8cc. See Foundry. 
 
 Founder, ib glass-making, a term appropriated to the green 
 glass, and is the person there who in the same office in the white- 
 glass-making is called conciator. 
 
 Founder, [/onrfee, Fr.] in sea-langua'je is used, when a ship, 
 by an extraordinary leak, or by a great sea breaking in upon her, 
 is so filled with water, that she cannot be freed of it; so that she 
 can neither veer nor steer, but lie like a log ; and not being able 
 to swim long, will at Uist sink. 
 
 FOUNDERED FEET. See Farriery. 
 
 I'OUNDIIRY, a place where figures are formed of melted 
 metal ; a casting-house. 
 
 FouNDERY, or Foundry, signifies also the art of casting all 
 sorts of metals into different forms. 
 
 Fovnderv of Bells. The metal, it is to be observed, is dif- 
 ferent for bells from what is for statues ; there being no tin in the 
 latter; but there is one-fifth, and sometimes more, in the bell- 
 metal. The dimensions of the core and the wax for bells, if a ring 
 of bells especially, are not left to chance, but must be measured on 
 a scale, or diapason, which gives the height, aperture, and thick- 
 ness, necessary for the several tones required. It is on the wax 
 that the several mouldings and other ornaments and inscriptions, 
 to be represented in relievo on the outside of the bell, aie formed ; 
 the clapper or tongue is not properly a jiart of the bell, but is fur- 
 nished from other hands. In Euriipe, it is usually of iron, with 
 a large knob at the extremity ; and is suspended in the middle 
 of the bell. In China, it is only a huge wooden malltt, struck by 
 force of arm against the bell ; whence they can have but little of 
 that coiisonancy so mu<h admired in some of our rings of bells. 
 The Chinese have an extraordinary way of increasing the sound of 
 lluir bells, viz. by leaving a hole under the cannon; which our 
 bell-founders would reckon a defect. The proportions of our bells 
 differ vrrv much from those of the Chinese, as well as their sizes. 
 
 In
 
 FO U 
 
 48?) 
 
 FOU 
 
 W ',■ r . a , , • - . = 
 
 ,In our-, tliL* iiio:ierii proportions arc, to make tlie diameter 15 
 timt-s till- tliickiKss ot lliebiim, and the height 12 limes. Ihe 
 ^ailsof abell are, 1. Tiie souiKlinf; bow, tcrmtnaleil by an inferior 
 circl' , whii h j^rows thinner s.itl thinner. 2. The brim or that part 
 ,oi a bell whereon the clapper strikes, and which i-i thicker than the 
 rest. 3. The outward sinkiDp; ot the middle of the bell, or the point 
 imder which it grows wider to the brim. 4. The waist or furniture, 
 and the part that grows wider ;ind thicker quite to the brim. 5. The 
 upper vase, or that part whiih is alcove the wai'^t. (J. The pallet 
 whirl) support- the staple ofthe clapper wiihin. 7. The bent and 
 hollow brancluis of metal uniting with the cannons, to r^-ceive the 
 iron keys, whereby the bell is hung up to the beam, which i< its 
 support ami coimlcrpoi-e, when runs; out. I'he business of Uell- 
 foundery is reducible to three particulars. I. The proportion of a 
 bell. S. I'he forming of the mould. And, 3, The moiling of the 
 metal. There arc two kinds of proportions, viz. tlie simple and 
 the relative ; the foimer are those proportions only tliaf are between 
 the several parts of a bell to render it sonorous ; the relative pro- 
 portions establish a requisite harmony between several bells. The 
 method of forming the profile <if a bell, previous to its being east, 
 in which the proportion of ihe several parts may be seen, is as fol- 
 lows: the thickness ol the brim, Ct, Plate l.XX. tig. 14, is the 
 foundation of every ot'-.er measure, and is divided into three equal 
 parts. First, draw the line IID, which represents the diameter cf 
 the bell ; bisect it in F, and erect the perpendicular F f ; let DF 
 and HF be also bisected in E and G, .".nd two other perpendiculars 
 Ee, Ga, be erected at E and (i : GE will be the diameter ofthe 
 top or upper vase, i. e. the diameter of the top will be half that of 
 the bell ; and it will, diereforc, be the diameter of a bell which will 
 sound an octave to the other. Divide the diameter ofthe bell, or 
 the line HD, into l.j equal parts, and one of these will give Ci, the 
 thickness of the brim ; divide aa,ain each of these 15 equjl parts 
 into three other equal parts, and then form a scale. From this 
 scale take 12 ofthe larger divisions or two-1 jths of the whole scale 
 in the conijiass, and setting one leg in D describe an arc to cut the 
 line Ee inN ; draw ND, and divide tliis line into 12 equal parts; 
 at the point 1 erect the perpendicular 1 C =; 10, and C I will be 
 the thicknes of the brim =: ojie- loth of the diameter: draw the 
 line CD: bisect DN ; and at the point of the bisection erect 
 the perpendicular OK = liof the larger divisions on the scale. 
 With an opening of tlie compass equal to twice the length ofthe 
 scale or 30 brims, setting one leg in N, describe an arc of a circle, 
 and with the same leg in K and the same opening, describe ano- 
 ther arc to intersect the former; on this point of intersection as a 
 centre, and with a radius equal to 30 brims, describe the arc KK ; 
 in b K produced lake KB=: i ofthe larger measure ofthe scale or 
 ■J of the brim, and on the same centre with the radius 30-j- brims de- 
 scribe an arc AB parallel to NK. For the arc BC, take 12 divi- 
 sions of the scale or 12 brims in the compass; tind a centre, and 
 from that centre, with this openins, describe the arc RC, in the 
 same manner as NK or AB were d.escribed. There are various 
 ways of describing the arc K p ; some describe it on a centre at 
 the distance of nine brims from the i)oints p and K; others, as it is 
 done in the figure, on a centre at tlie distance only of seven brims 
 ■from those points. Cut il is necessary lirsl to find the point p, ami 
 to determine the rounding of the bell pi. For this purpose, on 
 the point C as a centre, and w itii the radius C 1 , describe the arc 
 1 pn; bisect tl>e part 1, 2, of ihe line D n, and creeling the per- 
 pendicular p m, this perpendicular will cut the arc 1 p n in m, 
 which terininales the rounding 1 p. Some founders make the 
 bendlngs K a third of a brim lower than the middle of the line 
 DN ; othei-s make the part C 1 D more acute, and instead of 
 making C 1 perpendicular to DN at 1, draw it one-sixth of a 
 brim higher, making it still eijual to one brim ; so that the line i 
 D is longer than tlie brim (i 1. In order to trace out the toi)-part i 
 Na, take in the compass eight divisions ofthe scale or eight brims, 
 and on the points N and D as centres, describe arcs to intersect 
 each other in 8 : on this point 8, with a raoius of eight bjims, 
 describe the arc N b ; this arc will be the exterior curve of the top 
 or crown : on the same point 8 as a centre, and with a radius equal 
 to 74 brims, describe the arc A e, and this will be the interior Ij 
 curve of the crown, and its whole thickness will be one-tliird of 
 the brim. As the point 8 does not fall in the axis of the bell, a 
 centre M may be found in the axis by describing, with the interval j 
 cf 8 brims on the centres D and H, arcs which will intersect in M ; 
 
 VOL. II. — NO. fcb. 
 
 and this point may be mi'de the centre fit the inner ami cute'" 
 curves ofthe crown as before. Ihe thickness of the cap, which 
 strengthens the crown :it Q, is about oik- li.rd of the thickness of 
 the brim; and the hollow brani hes or eai^ about one-s:Nth el the 
 diameter ofthe beil. '1 he he ght of the bell is in proi;Orlion to its 
 diameter as 12 to 15, orin the proportion of ihefundaii'enlai sound 
 to its third major: whence it ti^llows that the sound o; a be.i is 
 principally composed of the sound of its extremity or brim, as a 
 fundamental of the sound of the crown which is an octave toit, 
 and of that of the height which is a third. 'Ihe p irlictilars 
 necessary for making the mould of a bell are, !. Theeartti: 
 the most cohesive is the best: it must be well ground and 
 sifted, to prevent any chinks. 2. Brick-stone; wliich must be 
 used for the mine, mould, or core, aud for the lurnace. 3. Horse- 
 dung, hair, and hemp, mixed with the earth, to render Ihecenient 
 more binding. 4. The wax for inscriptions, coats of arms, SiC. 
 5. The tallow equally mixed wilii the wax, in order to put a slight 
 lay of it u]!on the outer mould, before anv letters are applied to it. 6. 
 Ihe coals to dry the mould. For making the mould, they have a 
 scali'old consisting of four boards, ranged upon tres«els. Upon this 
 they carry the earth, grossly diluted, to mix it with hoi'se-dting, 
 beating the whole w ith a large spalula. The compasses of con- 
 struction are the chief in.strie.nent for making the mould : They 
 consist cf two dilferent legs joined by a thinl piece. And last of 
 all, the founders' slielves, on which are the engravings of the let- 
 ters, cartridges, coats ef arms, ^rc. They first dig a hole of a suf- 
 ficient depth to contain the mould of the bell, together with th« 
 case or cannon, under ground ; and ab.nit six inches lower than 
 the terreplain, where the work is performed. The hole mii-t tw; 
 wide enough for a free passage between the mould and walls of 
 the hole, or between one niuuld and another, when several bells 
 are to be cast. At tlie centre ofthe hole is a stake erected, that is 
 strongly fastened in the ground. This supports an iron peg, cti 
 which the pivot of the second branch of the compasses turns. 
 The stake is encompassed with a solid brick work, perfectly round, 
 about half a foot high, and of the proposeil bell's diameter. This 
 they call a miil-stone. The parts of tine mould are, the core, the 
 model of the bell, and the shell. When the outer surface of the 
 core is formed, they begin to raise the core, which is made of 
 bricks that are laid in coui-ses of equal height upon a lav of plain 
 earth. At the laying of e;'ch brick, they bring near it the branches 
 of the compasses, on which the curve of the core is shaped, so as 
 that there may remain between it and the curve the distance of a 
 line, to be afterwards tilled up with layers of cement. The work 
 is continued to the top, only leaving an opening for the coals to 
 bake the core. This work is covered with a layer of cement, 
 made of earth and hoi-se-dupg; on which thev move the compas- 
 ses of construction, to make it of an even smoothness every- 
 where. The fii-st layer being linished, they put the fire to the 
 core, by filling it half with coals, through an opening that is kept 
 shut during the baking, with a cake of earth that has been sepa- 
 rately baked. The first fire consumes the stake, and the fire is 
 lett in the core half, or sometimes a whole dav: the first layer be- 
 ing thoroughly dry, they cover it with a sectind, third, and fourth; 
 each hein:!; smoothed by the board of the compasses, and tho- 
 rougiily dried before they proceed to another. The core being 
 completecl, they Uikc the compasses to pieces, with inlent to cut 
 ol) the thickness ofthe modal, and the compasses are immediately 
 put in tiieir place to begin a second piece of the mould. It con- 
 sists of a ini.xture of earth and hair, applied with the hand on the 
 core, in several cakes that close together. This work is finished 
 by several layers of a thinner cement of the same matter, smooth- 
 ed by the compasses, and thoroughly dr ed before another is laid 
 on. The first layer of the model is a mixture of wax and grease 
 spread over the whole. After which are applied the inscriptions, 
 coats of arms, &c. besmeared with a pencil dipped in a vessel of 
 wax in a chafing-dish: this is done for every letter. Before the 
 shell is begun, the conqxisses are taken to pieces, to cut olV all the 
 wood tliat fills the place of the thickness to be given to the shell. 
 The fi ret layer is the same earth with Ihe rest, sifted very fine; 
 whilst it is tempering in water, it i- mixed with cow's hair to make 
 it cohere. The whole being a thin cullis, is gently poured on the 
 model, that fills exactly all the sinuosities of ihe /igiires, &.-C. and 
 this is repeated till the whole is tw'o lines thick over the model. 
 When this layer is thoroughly dried, thev cover it with a second 
 6 1 ■ of
 
 r o 
 
 490 
 
 F O U 
 
 of tlie same matlcr, but somewhat thicker ; vlicn tliis second layer 
 becomes of some consistence, they apply the compasses again, and 
 light a fire in the core, so as to melt olf tiic w;.x ot the inscriptions 
 &c. Alter this, they go on witli the other layers oi tlie sliell, ijy 
 means of tlie compasses. Here they add to the cow's hair a quan- 
 tity of hemp, spread upon the layers, and afterwards smoothed by 
 l!ie board of the compasses. Tljc tliickness of the shell come< to 
 fonr or five inches lower than the mi!l-stone before observed, and 
 ■surrounds it c|uite close, which prevents the extravasation of the 
 metal. The wax should Ije tak^>n out before the melting of the 
 metal. The ear of the bell re(|niris a separate work, which is done 
 (luring the drying of the several incrust.;tioni of cement. It has 
 ■seven rings: the seventh is called the bridge, and unites the 
 others, being a perpendicular support to strengthen the curves. It 
 has an aperture at the top, to admit a large iron peg, bent at the 
 'hotlom ; and this is introduced into two holes in the beam, fasten- 
 ed with two strong iron keys. There are models made of the 
 rings, with masses of beaten earth, that are dried in th.c lire, in or- 
 <ler to have the hollow of them. These rings are gently pressed 
 jLipon a layer of earth and cow's hair, one-half of its depth; and 
 then taken out, without breaking the mould. This operation is 
 repeated 12 times for 12 half-moulds, that two arid Iavo tmited 
 may make the hollows of the six rings; the same they do for the 
 hollow of the bridge, and bake them all, to unite them together. ' 
 Upon the open place left for the coals to be put in, arc placed 
 the rings that constitute the ear. They first ))ut into this open 
 place the iron ring to support the clapper of the bell; then Ihev 
 make a round cake of clay, to till up the diameter of the thick- 
 ness of the core. This cake, after baking, is clapped upon the 
 opening, and soldered with a thin mortar spread over it, which 
 binds the cover close to the core. The hollow of the model is 
 filled with an earth, sufficiently moist to fix on the place, which 
 is strewed at several times upon the cover of the core; and they 
 beat it gently with a peslle, to a proper height; and a workman 
 smooths the earth at top with a wooden trowel dipped in water. 
 Upon this cover, to be taken off afterwards, they assemble the hol- 
 lows of the rings. When every thing is in its proper place, Ihey 
 Etivnglheii the outside of the hollows with mortar, in order to bind 
 them wjih the bridge, and keep them steady at the bottom, by 
 means of a cake ot the same mortar, which fills U|) the whole 
 apirliire of the shell. This they let dry, tkat it may be removed 
 vithout breaking. To make room for the metal, Ihey pull off the 
 hollows of the rings, through which the metal is to pass, before it 
 enters into the vacuity ot the mould. The shell being unloaded 
 of its ear, they range under the mill-stone five or six ])ieces of 
 wood, ab'iiut two feet long, and thick enough to reach almost the 
 lower part of the shell; between these and the mould, they drive 
 in wooden wedges with a mallet, to shake the shell off the" model 
 whereon it rests, so as lo be pulled up and got out of the pit. 
 When this and the wax are removed, they break the model and 
 the layer of earth, through which the metal must run, from the 
 hollovv of the rijigs, between the sh.ell and the core. Tliey smoke 
 the inside of the shell, by burning straw under it, that helps to 
 sinootii the surface of the bell. 'J'hen (hey jnit the shell in the 
 place, it) as to leave the same interval between that and the core; 
 and before the hollows of the rings or the cap are put on again, 
 they add two vents, that are united to the rings, and to eacli other, 
 by a mass of baked cement. After which they put on this mass 
 of the cap, the rings, and the vent, over the shell, and solder it 
 with Ihin cement, which is dried gradually by covering it with 
 burning coals, 'i'hen they /ill up the pit with earth, beating it 
 strongly all the time round (he mould. The surface has a pface 
 for the fire, and another for the metal. The fire-place has a large 
 chimney w'ith a spacious ash-hole. 'I'he furnace which contains 
 the metal is vaulted, 'whose bottom is made of earth, rammed 
 down; the rest is built with briik. It has four apertures; the 
 first, through which the tlamc revibrates; the second is closed with' 
 a stopple that is opened for the metal to run ; the others arc to se- 
 parate the dross or scoiijc of the metal by wooden rakes: through 
 ll'.ese last apertures passes the thick smoke. The ground of the 
 furnace is built sloping, for the metal to run down. 
 
 2. FotiNDEHvoF <;re,\tGuxs, and Mortar-Pieces. The 
 method of casting these pieces is dilferent from that of bells: they 
 are run massy, without any core, ^ring determined by the hollow 
 of the sliell; and they arc afterwards bored with a sti;cl trepan, that 
 
 is worked either by horses or a water-mill. For the metal, parts, 
 proportions, &c. of these pieces, see Gunnery. 
 
 3. FOUNDERV OF Le'TTERS, OR CASTING OF TyPES FOR 
 
 Printing. In the business of cut;ing, casting, &c. letters for 
 printing, tlie letter-cutter must be provided with a vice, hand-vice, 
 liammers, and files of all sorts such as watcli-makers use; also 
 gravers and s:culptors of all sorts, and an oil-stone, &c. suitable and 
 sizeable to the several letters to be cut: a fiat gauge made of box 
 to hold a rod of steel, or the body of a mould, &c. exactly per- 
 pendicular to the fiat of the using file: a sliding gauge v(hose use 
 is to measure and set off di^tances between the shoulder and the 
 tooth, and to mark off from the end, or from the edge of the w ork, 
 a face-gauge, which is a square notch cut with a file into the edge 
 of a thin plate of steel, iron, or brass, of the thickness of a piece of 
 common tin, whose use is to proportion the face of each sort of 
 letter, vi/. long letters, ascending lettei-s, and short letters. Ha 
 there must be three gauges, and the gauge for the long letters is 
 the length of the wdjole body supposed to be divided into 42 eiiual 
 parts. The gauge for the ascending letters Roman and Italic are 
 five-sevenths, or 30 parts of 42, and 33 parts for the English face. 
 The gauge for the short letters is three-sevenths, or 18 parts of 42 
 of the whole body for the Roman and Italic, and 22 parts tor the 
 English face. The Italic and other standing gauges are to measure 
 the scope of the Italic steins, by applying the top and bottom of 
 the gauge to the top and bottom lines of the letters, and the other 
 side of the gauge to the stem; for when the letter complies with 
 these three sides of the gauge, that letter has its true shape. The 
 next care of the letter-cutler is to prejiare good steel punches, well 
 tempered, and quite free from all veins of iron; on the face of 
 which he draws or marks the exact shape of the letter with pen 
 and ink if the letter be large, or with a smooth blunted point of a 
 needle if it be small ; and then with sizeable and proper-shaped 
 and pointed gravers and sculptors, digs or sculps out the steel be- 
 tween the strokes or marks he made on the face of the jjunch, and 
 leaves the marks standing on the face. Having well-shaped the 
 inside strokes of his letter, he deepens the hollows with tiie SLime 
 tools; for if a letter be not deep in proportion to its width, it will, 
 when used at press, print black, and be good for nothing. This 
 work is generally regulated by the depth of the counter-punch. 
 Then he works the oiilsiile with pro)jer tiles till it be fit tor the 
 niatrice. Before we proceed lo the sinking and justifying of the 
 matrices, we must provide a mould to justify them by. See Plate 
 LXX, fig. 15 and |6. Every mould is composed of an upper 
 and an under part. The under part is delineated in fig. 15. 'I'he 
 upper part is marked fig. 16, and is in all respects made like the 
 under part, excepting the stool behind, and the liow or spring also 
 behind; and excepting a small roundish wire between the body 
 and carriage, near the break, where the under part hath a small 
 rounding groove made in the body. This wire, or rather half- 
 wire, ill the upper part makes the nick in the shank of the letter, 
 when part of it is received into the groove in the under part. 
 These two parts are so exactly fitted and guaged into one another 
 (vis. the male-gauge marked c in fig. 16, into the female marked 
 g in fig. 15,) that when the upper jiart of the mould is properly 
 placed on, and in the under part of the mould, both together 
 make the entire mould, and may be sliil backwards for use so far, 
 till the edge of either of the bodies on the middle of either car- 
 riage comes just to the edge of the female gauges cut in each car- 
 riage: and they may be slid forward so far, till the bodies on ei- 
 ther carriage touch each other: and the sliding of these two parts 
 of the mould backwards makes the shank of the letter thicker, be- 
 cause the bodies in each part stand wider asunder; and the sliding 
 lli(-m forwards makes the shank of the letter thinner, because the 
 bodies on each i>art of the mould stand closer together. The parts 
 of tin mould are as follows: viz. a, The carriage, b, The body, 
 c. The male gauge, d e. The mouth-piece, f i. The register, 
 g. The female gauge, h. The hag. a a (i a, The boitom-plate. 
 i> h b. The wood on which the bottom-plate lies, c c c, The 
 mouth. (Id, The throat. e d d, The |)allat. f, The nick. 
 '^ g, The stool, h h, The spring or bow. Tlien the mould must 
 be justified: anc' first the founder justifies the body, by casting 
 about 20 proofs or samples of letters; which aie set up in a com- 
 posing stick, with a'l their nicks towards the right hand ; and then 
 by comparing these with the pattern-letters, set up in tlie.:ame man- 
 ner, be finds tlic exact measure of the body to be cast. He also tries 
 
 t '^
 
 FOU 
 
 491 
 
 F O U 
 
 if thf tAO siik-s of IIk- body ;iri' parallel, so tluit the bo<l_v bi- no 
 bi.ngor at tli« lu-ad lliaii al the toot, by taking lialt the miiiiber ot 
 Ills prools and liiroiiig tlii-iii with their hiaiis to the feet ol llie 
 other hall; and if then llie heads and the leet be foiuul exatti) 
 (;v(ii iipoii each other, and luitlier to drive oiit nor g.t m, the two 
 s:df>5 may be pronounced parallel. He farllief tries whether the 
 two sides of the thii kiiess ot the letter be parallel, by lirst n'ltiiig 
 his proofs in the coniposing-st ek with their nicks npwards, and 
 Ihen lurninq one-halt with their heads to the ftel of the other hall; 
 and if the heads and feet lie exactly upon each i.ther, and neither 
 (hive out nor get in, the two sides of the thickness arc parallel. 
 'I'he mould thus jnstihed, the next business i-* to prepare the ma- 
 trices. A niatrice is a piece of brass or copper of about an inch 
 and a half long, and of a thickness in proportion to the size of the 
 letter it is to contain. In this metal is sunk the face of the letter 
 iiitei»K'd to be cast, by striking the letter-punch about the depth 
 of an II. .'Vfter this the sides and face of the malriee must be jus- 
 tified, and cleared with files of all bunchings made by sinking the 
 punch. Every thing thus preparetl, it isbioughtto the furnace; 
 which is built of brick uprij^ht, with four square sides, and a stone 
 on the top, in which stone i^ a wide round hole for the pan to stand 
 ill. A fuundery of any extent has several of the^e furnaces in ii. 
 As to the metal ot which the types are to be cast, this, in exten- 
 sive foiinderies, is always prepared in large quantities; but cast 
 into small bars, of about 'iO pounds weight, to be delivered out to 
 the workmen as occasion reipiires. In the lelter-foundery which 
 lias been long carried on with reputation under the direction of 
 Dr. Alex. Wilson and sons at Glasgow, we are informed, tliat a 
 stock of metal is made up at two diflerent times of the year, siifh- 
 cient to serve the casters at the furnace for six months each time. 
 For this purpose, a large furnace is built under a shade, furnished 
 with a wheel-vent, in order the more ecjually to heat the sides of a 
 strong pot of cast iron, which holds, wlieii full, 1 j cwt. of the me- 
 tal. 1 he fire being kindled bi'low, the bars of lead are let softly 
 down into the pot, and their fusion [iromoled by throwing in some 
 pitch and tallow, which soon intlaiue. An outer chimney, which, 
 is built so as to project about a foot over the farthest lip of the pot, 
 catches hold of the flame by a strong draught, and makes it act 
 very powerfully in melting lead ; whilst it serves at the same time 
 to convey awav all the fumes, Sec. from the workmen, to whom 
 this laborious part of the business is committed. When the lead is 
 thoroughly melted, a due proportion of the regulus of antimony 
 and other ingredients are put in, and some more tallow is iiiflained 
 to make the whole incorporate sooner. The workmen, having 
 mixed the contents of the pot very thoroughly by stirring long w ith 
 a large iron ladle, next proceed to draw the metal off into the small 
 troughs of cast iron, which are ranged to the number of SO upon 
 a level platform faced with stone, built towards the right hand. 
 In the course of a day 15 cwt. of metal can be easily prepareil 
 in this manner; and the operation is continued for as many days 
 as are necessary to prepare a stock of metal of all the various de- 
 grees of hardness. After this, the whole is disposed into presses 
 according to its quality, to be delivered out occasionally to the 
 workmen. The founder must now be provided willi a ladle, 
 whicdi diil'ers nothing from other iron ladles but in its size: and 
 lie is provided always with ladles of several sizes, which he uses 
 according to the size of the letters he is to cast. Before the caster 
 begins to cast, he must kindle a tire in the furn;ce to melt the 
 metal in tl'.e pan; therefore he tak^s the pan out of the hole in the 
 stone, and there lays in coals and kindles them ; and, when they 
 aie well kindled, he sees the pan in again, and puts in metal into 
 it to melt : if it be a small-bodied letter he casts, or a thin letter 
 of great bodies, his metal nii.st be very hot ; nay sometimes red- 
 hot, to nuike the letter come. Then having chosen a ladle that 
 will h'lld about as much as the letter and break are, he lavs it at 
 the stokiiig-hole, where the llame bursts out, to heat. Then he 
 tiei a thin leather, cut with its narrow end against tlie face to the 
 leather groove of the matrice by whipping a brown thread twice 
 about the leather groove, and fastening the thread with a knot. 
 Then he puts both halves of the mould togcth(;r, and puts the 
 matrice into the matrice-chcek, and places the foot of the matrice 
 on the stool of the mould, and the broad end of the leather upon 
 the wood of the upper half of the mould ; but not tight up, lest it 
 mi:;ht hinder the foot of the matrice from sinking closedown upon 
 tlii^ -tool in a train of work. Then l.jvin;; a litt'e rosin on the up- 
 
 per wood of the mould, and having hii casling-ladlc hot, he vvi'.ll 
 llie Ijoil.iig side of it me. Is the rosin ; and, when it is yet melted, 
 presses the broad end ot the leather hard do«n on llie'wood, and 
 ■o jastens it to the wood ; all this is the preparation. Now he pro- 
 ci eds to c-aslmg; placing the under hall of the mould in his lelt 
 hand, whhthe liook or hag forward, he clutches the ends of its 
 wood between tiie lower part of the l;all ot his tlnimb and his 
 three hini.-tingeis ; then he lajs the upper l.alf o* the mould upon 
 tiie under hull, so that the male gauges may tall into the female 
 gauges, and at the ame time the foot of the nialriec places itself 
 upon the stool; and clasping iiis left hand thumb strojig over llie 
 u|)uerhalfof the mould, he nimbly catches hold cf the bcw or 
 s])niig with hi.> right band fingers at the top of it, and liis thumb 
 under it, and places the point of it against the middle of the notcli 
 in the b.ick side of the matrice, pressing it both forwards towards 
 the mould, 'and downwards by the shoukh-rol the notch close upon 
 the stool; while at the same time with his hinder fingers he draws 
 the under hall of the mould towards the I'all ol his ihumb, and 
 ilirusts by the ball of his thumb the upper part towards his lingers, 
 that both the registers of the mould may pros against both sidei 
 ot the matrice, and his thumb and fingers press both halves of ihi; 
 mould close together. Then he takes the Iiandle of bis ladle in 
 his right hand, and with the boll of it gives a stroke, or two cr three, 
 eutwards upon the surface of the melted metal, to scum or clear 
 it from the film or dusl that may swim upon it ; tlnn he takes up 
 the ladle lull of metal, and having his mould, as aforesaid, in his 
 left hand, he a little twists the left side of lus body from tlie fur- 
 nace, and brings the geat of his ladle (full ot metal) to the mouth 
 ol the mould, and twists the upper part of his right hand towards 
 him to turn the melal into it, vshile at the same moment of time 
 lie jilts the mould in his left hand forwards, to receive the metal 
 with a strong shake (as it is called) not only into the body of the 
 mould, but while the metal is yet hot, running swift and s'trongly, 
 into the very face of the matrice, to receive its perfect form there, 
 as well as in the shank. Th.en he takes the upjier half of the 
 mould off the under half, by- placing his right hand thumb on the 
 end of the wood next his left hand thumb, and his two middle 
 fingers at the other end of the wood; and finding the letter and 
 break lie in the under half of the mould (as inost^ commonly, by 
 reason of its weight, it docs) he throws or tosses the letter, break 
 and all, upon a slieet of waste paper laid for that purpose on the 
 bench, just a little beyond his left hand, and is then ready to cast 
 another letter as before; and also the whole number that is 
 to be cast with the matrice. A workman will ordinarily cast 
 about 3000 of these letters in a day. When the casters at the 
 kirnace have got a sulfcient number of types upon the tables, a 
 set ol boys coiiie and nimbly break away the jets from them : the 
 jets are thrown into the pots, and the types are carried aw-ay.iii 
 parcels to other boys, who pass them swiftly under their fingers, 
 delended liy leather, upon smooth Hat stones, in order to polish 
 their broad sides. This is a very dexterous operation, and is a re- 
 markable instance of what may be elfected by the ))ower of ha- 
 bit and long practice ; for these boys, in turning up the oliier side 
 Ol the type, ('o it so ciuickly by a mere touch of the fingers of the 
 left hand, as not to re(|uire the least perceptible intermission in the 
 motion of the right hand upon the stone. 'I'he types, thus finely 
 smoothed and flattened on the broad side.s, are ne.xt carried to 
 another set of boys, who sit at a scjuare table, two on each side, 
 and are there ranged up on long rulers, or sticks, filled with a 
 small projection, to hinder them from sliding olf backwards. 
 When these sticks are so tilled, they are placed, two .?nd two, 
 upon a set of wooden pins fixed into the wall, near the dresser, 
 sometimes to the amount of an hundred, in order to undergo the 
 finishing operations. This workman, who is always tlie most ex- 
 pert and skilful in all the dilVerent branches carried on at the 
 f'oundery, begins by taking one of thoe sticks, and, with a pecu- 
 liar address, slides the whole column of tjpes oil' upon the dress- 
 ing-stick : this is made of well-seasoned mahogany, and furnished 
 with two end-pieces of steel, a little low er tlian the body of the 
 types, one of which is moveable so as to approach the ether by 
 means of a long screw-pin inserted in the end of the stick. The 
 types are put into this stick with their faces next to the back or 
 projection ; and after they are adjusted to one a:icther so as to- 
 stand even, they are then bound up, by screwing home the move- 
 able end-piece. It is hire where the grcil and requisite ..ccurac^*
 
 r ou 
 
 492 
 
 v o u 
 
 o; the mould.^ comus to be porccivL'd ; for in lliis case the whole 
 coliimii, so bound up, hes IhU and true upon the stick, tlie two 
 extreme types being quite parallel, and tlie wliole has tlie ap- 
 pearance of one solid continuous plate of metal. The least in 
 •ccuracy in the exact parallelism of the individual type, when 
 muliiphed so many times, would re.ider it impossible to bind 
 them up m this manner, b_\ disposing them to vise or spring 
 trom the slick bf the smalle>t pressure from the screw. Now, 
 vhen lying so conveniently with the narrow edges uppermost, 
 wliicli caiuiot possibly be smoollieil in the manner before men- 
 tioned by the stones, the workman does this more effectually by 
 scraping tl;e surface of the coUnnn with a thick-edged but sharp 
 ra/ur, which at every stroke brings on a very line smooth skin, 
 like to polished silver ; and he thus proceeds till in about half a 
 nniuite he comes to the further end of the stick. The other edges 
 of the types are next turned upwards and polished in the same 
 manner. It is whilst the types thus lie in tlie drefsing-stick that 
 the operation of bearding or barbing is performed, which is ellecl- 
 ed by running a plane, faced with steel, along the shoulder of the 
 body nexttotiie face, which takes more or less off the corner, as 
 occasion may require. Whilst in the dressing-stick they are also 
 grooved, which is a very material operation. To understand this, 
 it must be remembered, that when the types are lirst broken oil 
 from the jets some superlluous metal always remains, which woulil 
 iiialie tiiem bear very unequally against the paper, whilst under 
 the printing-press, and effectu.illy mar the impression. That all 
 these inequalities may, therefore, be taken away, and that tlie bear- 
 ings of evii'iy type may be regulated by the sluulders imparted to 
 Iheni all alike lioiii the mould, the workman or dresser proceeds 
 in the following manner. 'I'lie types lieing screwed up in the 
 stick, as beiore mentioned, with the jet-end outermost, and pro- 
 jecting beyond tlie wood about one eighth of an inch, the stick is 
 put into an open press, >o as to present the jet-end uppermost, and 
 tlien every thing is made fast bv driving a long wedge, which bears 
 upon a slip of wood, which lies close to tlie types the w hoh- length; 
 then a plane is applied, which is so constructed as to embrace the 
 jirojecting part of tin: types betwixt its long sirles, whiiii are ma(l<' 
 of polisheil iron. When ti.e plane is thus a|)i)lied, Iho steel cutter 
 bearing upon that part between the shoulders of the types wdiere 
 the ineciualities lie, the dresser tlexterousl\ glides it along, and by 
 this means strips olf every irregular part that comes in the way, and 
 so makes an uniform groove the wliole lengtli, and leaves the two 
 shoulders standing ; by which means every type becomes precise!\ 
 like to another, as to'lhe height ag.iinst paper. The t^ pes being 
 uo\»' linished, llie stick is taken out of the press, and' the wliole 
 column replaced upon the other slick ; and after the whole are so 
 dressed, he proceeds to pick out the bad letters, previous to put- 
 ting them np into pages and papers. In doing this he takes the 
 stick into his left hand, and turning the faces near to the light, he 
 examines them carefully, and whenever an imperfect or damaged 
 letter occurs, he nimbly plucks it out with a sharpbodliin, wiiicli 
 he holds in the right hand for that purpose. Those letters which, 
 from their form, iiroject over the body of the type, and wliich 
 c.iiiuot on this account be rubbed on the stones, aie scraped en 
 tile broad sides w ith a knife or lile, and some of the metal ni'xt 
 the face pared away with a penknife, in order to allow the 
 type 10 come close to any other. This operation is called kern- 
 ing. The excellence ot printing-types condsts not only in the 
 due performance of all the op.erations above described, biit also in 
 ihe liardni-s of the metal, form, and fine proportion of the cha- 
 racter,, and in the exact bearing and ranging of the letters in 
 relation to one another. 
 
 4. FouNDEHY ofS.mall Works, or Casting in Sand. The 
 sand used for casting small woiks is at lirst of a pretty soft, yellow- 
 ish, and clammy nature ; but it being necessary to s{rew charcoal- 
 'hist in the nioidd, it at length bpconves of a quite black colour. 
 The red-hot metal, by burning part of the sand, contributes also 
 to blacken it. 'J'his sand is worked over and over with a roller, on a 
 board pl.iced across a chest to receive it, after it is bv tliese means 
 suflicienlly inepared, and freed from small stones or hard lunqis 
 of sand. 'I'liis done, they take a smooth wooden board of a length 
 and breaddi proportional" to the things to be ca;t, and laying the 
 first half of an open mould, or wooden frame, upon it, they place 
 within it, u])on the boai-d, either woo !en or metal models of what 
 they intend to cast, and then till it up with the prepared sand, a 
 Hitle moistened to make it cohere properly, pressing it upon the 
 
 patterns with the roller, so as to leave their impression in it. 
 Along the middle of the mould is also laid half a small brass cylin- 
 der, to make an impression for the chief canal for the metal to 
 run through, when melted, into the models or patterns; and from 
 this chief canal are drawn several others, which extend to each 
 model or paltern pkiced in the frame. Then pkicing the other half 
 of the mould over the one with the patterns in it, so that the pins 
 enter into the holes thai correspond to ihem in the other, they pro- 
 ceeil to w ork it in the same manner, so as to make the two cavities 
 of the pattern fall exactly on each other. After both frames of the 
 mould are thus iinislicd, and their backs scraped smooth, they 
 take out the patterns, lirst loosening them gently all round, that 
 the sand may not give way. I'lie moulds are then carried to the 
 nu Iter ; who, alter strewing mill-dust over them, dries them in a 
 kind of oven for that ptuiiosc. Both parts of the mould being 
 dry, they are again joined together by means of the pins; and to 
 prevent their giving way, by reason of the melting metal pass- 
 ing through the chief cylindrical canal, they are screwed or wedged 
 up in a pair of wooden screws, like a kind of press. When the 
 moulds are thus prepared, the metal is melted in a crucible, of a 
 size proportionate to the quantity of metal intewded to be cast, and 
 when brought to a proper heat, is poured into them at the mouth 
 of Ihe cliiet canal. When the moulds are coolish, the frames are 
 unscrewed, and the cast work taken out of the sand, which is wet 
 and worked over again for other castings. 
 
 5. FouNDERY OF Staiues. The casting of statues depends 
 on the due preparation of the pit, the core, the wax, the outer 
 mould, the interior lurnace to melt off the wax, and the upper to 
 fuse the metal. The pit is a hole dug in a dry place something 
 deeper than the intended figure, and made according to the pro- 
 minence of certain parts thereof. The inside of the pit is com- 
 monlv lined with stone or brick ; or, when the figure is very large, 
 they sometimes work on the ground, and raise a proper fence to 
 resist the impulse of the melted metal. The inner mould, or core, 
 is a rude mass, to which is -given the intended altitude and con- 
 tours. It is raised on an iron grate, strong enough to sustain it, 
 and is strengthened within by several bars of iron. It is generally 
 made either of potter's ciay, mixed with hair and horse-dung, or 
 of plaster of Paris, mixed with brick-dust. The use of the core 
 is to support the wax, the shell, and lessen the weight of the metal. 
 The iron bars and the core are taken out of the brass figure 
 through an aperture left in it for that purpose, which is soUlered 
 u]) afterwards. It is necessary to leave some of the iron bars of 
 the core, that contriinite to the steadiness of the projecting part, 
 Within the brass figure. The wax is a representation ol the in- 
 uii'led st.itue. If it be a piece of sculpture, the wax should be 
 all of the sculptor's own hand, who usually forms it on the core: 
 though it may be wrought separately in cavities, moulded on a 
 model, and atterwards arranged on the ribs ot iron over the grate ; 
 filling the vacant space in the middle with liquid plaster and brick- 
 dust, whereby the inner core is proportioned as the sculptor car- 
 ries on the wax. AN hen the wax, which is the intended thickness 
 of the metal, is finished, they fill small waxen tubes perpendicular 
 to it from top to bottom, to serve both as canals for the i onvey- 
 ance of the metal to all parts of the work; and as vent-holes, to 
 give passage to the air, which would otherwise occasion great dis- 
 order when the hot metal came to encompass it. The work being 
 brought thus far, must be covered with its shell, which is a kiiKl 
 of crust laid over the wax, and which being of a soil matter, easily 
 receives the impression of every part, which is afterwards com- 
 municated to the metal upon its taking the place of the wax, be- 
 Iwei'U the shell and the mould. 'Ihe matter of this outer mould 
 is varied according as different hi) ers are applied. 'J'he first is 
 generally a composition of clay, and old white crucibles well 
 ground and sifted, and mixed up with water to the consistence of 
 a colour lit for painting: accordingly they apply it with a pencil, 
 laying it seven or eight times over, and letting it dry between 
 whiles. For the second impression they add horso-dung and earth 
 to the former comjiosition. 'Ihe third impression is only horse- 
 dung and (arth. La^tlv, the .shell is finished by l;i\:r,g on several 
 more impressions of tins last niatter, made very ihick with tiie 
 hand. Tlie shell, thus finished, is secured by several iron girlh^, 
 bound round it, at about half a fool distance from each other, and 
 fastened at the bottom to the grate under the statue, and at top to 
 a circle of iron where they all terminate. If the slatue be so b;p 
 Dial it would not be easy to move the moulds with safetv, lliey mibt 
 
 be
 
 row 
 
 401 
 
 FOX 
 
 he vrrought on ti\c. spot wliere it is to be cast, Tliis is pL'rI'oiiiifd 
 two WLiys : in tlic fir4, a sniuire liolc is ilug under Rronnd, niiicli 
 bigqcr tlian llie mould to be niadi; tlierein, and its inside lined 
 witii walls of free-stone or brick. At the bottom is made a hole 
 of the same materials, with a kind of furnace, liaving its aperUire 
 outwards; in this is a fire made to (h'y tiie mould, and afterwards 
 melt the wax. Over this furnace is plated the grate, and upon 
 this the mould, &c. formed as above. Lastly, at one of the edges 
 ofthescjuare pit, is made a large furnace to melt the metal. In 
 theolhervay. it is sufficient to work the mould above ground, 
 but with the like precaution of a furnace and grate undernealh. 
 When finished, four walh are to be run around it, and by the side 
 tliereof a massiv<' made for a melting turnace. For the rest the 
 method is the same in both. The mould being fmished, and in- 
 closed as described, whether under ground or above it, a moderate 
 fire is liglited in the furnace under it, and the whole covered with 
 planks, that the wax may melt gently down, and run out at pipes 
 contrived for that |)urpose, at the foot of the mould, which are 
 afterwards exactly closed with earth, so soon as the wax is carried 
 off. This done, the hole is (llled up with bri<.ks thrown in at ran- 
 dom, anil tlie lire in tiie furnace augmentefl till such time as both 
 the bricks and mould become red liot. After this, the tire being 
 extinguished, and every thing cold again, they take out tlie bricks, 
 and till up their place with earth moistened, and a little beaten to 
 (he top of the mould, inorderto make it the more lirm and steady. 
 These preparatory measures Ueing duly taken, there remains no- 
 thing but to n\elt the metal, and run it into the mould. This is the 
 ofi'ice of the furnace above described, m iiich is commonly made in 
 the form of an oven with three apertures, one to put in the wood, 
 another for a vent, and a tliird to run the metal out at. From this 
 last aperture, wiiich is ke|.)t very close, while the metal is in fusion, 
 a small tube is laid, whareby the melted metal is conveyed into a 
 large earthen bason, over the mould, into the bottom of which all 
 the big branches of the jets, or casts, which are to convey the me- 
 tal into all the parts of the mould, are inserted. These casts or 
 jets are all terminated with a kind of plugs, which arc kept close, 
 that, upon opening the furnace, the brass, which gushes out witii 
 violence, may not enter any of tliem, till the hason be full enough 
 of matter to run into them all at once. Upon which occasion they 
 pull out th:' I'lugs, which are long iron rods with a head at one 
 rnd, capable of tilling the whole dianu'ter of each tube. 'I'hu 
 whole of the furnace is opened with a long piece of iron fitted at 
 the end of each pole, and the mould tilled in an instant. Tliis 
 completes the work in n^lation to the casting pan ; the re~t being 
 the sculptor's or carver's bu^iness, who, takin> the figure out of the 
 mould and earth wherewith it is encompassed, saws off the jets 
 with which it appears covered over, and repairs it with cliLssels, 
 gravers, puncheons, &"c. 
 
 FOURMONT, Stephen, professor of the Arabic and C'liinese 
 languages, and one of the most learned men of his time, wa^ born 
 at Herbelai, a village 12 miles from Paris, in 168.5. He studied 
 in Mazarine college, and al'lerwar<ls in the Seminary of Thirtv- 
 three. He was at length professor of Arabic in the Uoyal College, 
 and was made a member of the Academy of Inscriptions. In 
 )73S, he was chosen V. K. S. in London, anil of that ot Rerlin in 
 1741. He was often consulted by the duke of Orleans, who 
 •freatly esteemed him, and niaile him one of his secretaries. He 
 Wrote a great number ot hooks. Tiie cliief of those which have 
 b'^en printed are, 1. 'I'he Roots of the Latin Tor.gne, in verse. 2. 
 Critical Retlections on the Histories of Ancient Nations, 2 vols. 
 4to. 3. Meditationes .Seneca-, folio. 4. A Cliinese Granunar, in 
 Latin, folio. 5. Several Dissertations printed in the Memoirs of 
 the Academv of Inscriptions, I'tc. He die'! at Paris in 1745. 
 . FOURNKAUX ISLAND, a small circular island in the S. 
 Pacific Ocean. Lon. 143. 2. W. Lat. 17. U.S. 
 
 tOU-lCHFOlT, a city of China of the first rank in tlie pro- 
 vince of Fo-kien, 870 miles S. of Pekin. 
 
 Fou-TCHHoi', a city of China of the first rank, in the province 
 of Kiang-si ; 73,''> mihs E. of Pekin. 
 
 FOWFY, l''AWEY, or FOY, a populous and flourishing town 
 of Cornwall, with a commodious haven on the Hritish Channel. 
 It lies 3'J mil 'S S. of Launceston. I>on. 4. 23. W. Lat. ;S0. H). N. 
 
 FowFY, Faw EY, FoVTH, Or FoY, a river of Cornwall. 
 
 FOWL, among zoologists, denotes the larger sorts of birds, 
 whether domestic or wild: such as geese, pheasants, partridges, 
 tmkies, lUu ks, kc. Tame fowl make a necessary jiart of the 
 
 voL.«. — KC. ys. 
 
 stock of a country farm. See Poultry. Fowls are again distin- 
 guished into two kinds, viz. land and water fowls, the.se last being 
 so called from their living much in and about water: also into 
 tliose which are accounted game, and those which arc not. See 
 Game. 
 
 FOWLING, the art of catching birds by means of binl-lime, 
 decoys, and other devices; or the killing of them by the gun. 
 See I5iRi)-c.\TCHiN'(;, I?ird-lime, Dtcoy, Shooting, and the 
 names of the dill'erent birds in their oriler. 
 
 Fowu.xG, is also used for the pursuing and taking of birds with 
 hawks, more properly called falconry, or hawking. See these 
 articles. 
 
 I'owLivG-prECEs, guns for birds; tliey are reckoned best, when 
 they have a long barrel, from five feet and a half to six feet, with 
 a moilerate bore. But every fowler should have them of different 
 sizes, suitable to the game he designs to kill. The barrel should 
 be well polished and smooth witliin, and the hereof an equal big- 
 ness from one end to the other; which may be proved, by putting 
 in a piece of pasteboard, cut of the exact roundness ofthe top: 
 for if this goes down without stops or slipping, you m.iy conclude 
 the bore good. I'he bridge-pan must be somewhat' above thfr 
 touch-hole, and ought to have a notch to let down a Uttle powder: 
 this Will prevent the j)iecc from recoiling, which it would other- 
 wise be apt to do. 
 
 FOX, George, the founder of the sect of Quakers, was a 
 shoemaker in Nottingham. As he wrought at his tra-dc, he used 
 to meditate much on the scriptures: and conceiving that he was 
 inspired, he began to |ireach. He proposed but tew articles of 
 faitli; insisting chiefly on moral virtue, mutual charity, the love of 
 (iod, and a deej) attention to the inward motions and secret opera- 
 tions of the Spirit: he recommended a plain simple worship, and a 
 religion without ceremonies, making it a principal point to wait in 
 profound silence the directions of the Holy Spirit. Fox met with 
 much rough treatment for his zeal, was often imprisoned, and se- 
 veral times in danger of being killed. But in spite of all discou- 
 ragements his sect prevailed much, and many great men em- 
 braced his tenets; among whom were Barclay and Penn. He 
 died in 1681. See Frie.vds. 
 
 Fox, John, the martyrologist, was born at Boston in Lincoln- 
 shire, in 1517. At 16 he was entered a student of Brazen-nose 
 college, Oxford; and in i:)43, he proceeded M. A. and was cho- 
 sen tellow of Magdalen college. He discovered an earlv genins 
 tor poetry, and wrote several Latin comedies, on Scriptural siib- 
 P'cts, which his SOB assures us were written in an elegant stvle. He 
 now applied himself with uncommon assiduitv to divinity, particu- 
 larly church-history ; and, iliscovering a premature propensity to 
 the doctrine of rctormation, he was expelled the college as an hej 
 relic. His distress on this occasion was very great ; but he soon 
 found an asylum in the house of Sir Thomas Lucv of Warwick- 
 shire, who employed him as a lutoi to his children. Here lie 
 married the daughter of a citizen 'of Coventry. Sir 'I'homas's 
 children being grown up, after residing a short time with his wife's 
 father, he came to London; wdiere finding no imniejiate means of 
 subsistence, he w;i3 reduced to the utmost degree of want; but as 
 he was one day silling in St. Paul's church, emaciated « ilh hun- 
 ger, a stranger accosted liini fainiliarlv, and, bidding him be of 
 good cheer, put a sum of money into Iiis hand; telling liim at the 
 same time, that in a few days new hope^ were at hand. He wa"? 
 soon after takin into the tamilv of the thiche^s of Richmond, as 
 tutor to the earl of Surrey's children. In this family he lived, at 
 Ryegate in Surrey, during the hitter part of the reign of Henry 
 ^ 111. the entire reign oi Edward VI. and part of that of ipieen 
 Mary I: but at length, ))ersecuted by his implacable eiiemv Bi- 
 shop Gardiner, he was obliged to seek rcluge abroad. Ikisil in 
 Switzerland was the place ol his retreat, where he subsisted bv cor- 
 recting the press. On the death of Mary he returned to England; 
 where he was graciously received by his tormer pupil the duke of 
 Norfolk, who retained him in his family as long as he lived, and 
 bec|ue.ithed liini'a ]5eiision at hi; death. Mr. seerelarv Cecil also 
 obtained for him the rei tory of Shipton near Salisbury; and he 
 might have had considerable preferment, had he been willing to 
 stibscribe to ihe laiums. He died in IJ87, ;iged70; and was bu- 
 ried in the chancel of St. Giles's, Cripplegale. He was a iinm of 
 great industry, and considerable lei.riiiiif!;; a zealous, but not a vio- 
 lent reformer; a non-conformist, but not an enemy to tiie churcU 
 of England. He left two sons; one of \\ ')0i« was bred ii divine, 
 OK the
 
 F O X 
 
 ?i94 
 
 TOX 
 
 lB= 
 
 lie other a physician . He wrote iii.iny pieces: but his piiiuip.il 
 work is, the Acts and Monuments of the Church, &c. commonly 
 called Fox's Book of Martyrs. 
 
 Fox, Chari.es J.\.vies, one of the !>reate^t statesmen in Eu- 
 rope, was the third son of Henry, the lirst Lord Holland, and 
 ■Ladv Gforaiana Carolina Lenox, daughter of the late Duke of 
 Kldimond. Hewas born Jan. 24, 1749; and tiie union of his parents, 
 conferred on him a descent from rival kings. To po'urlray any thing 
 like the character of this most distinguished senator, the limits of 
 a volume would scarcely suffice. .\t the early period of nine years 
 of age, the dawn appeared of that vast genius, which has since 
 proved the admiration of the world ; his father, who was a man of 
 superior capacity, was then prime-nunister ; and having left in Ids 
 study a political treaty whicli was for the approbation of a foreign 
 power, Chiles having! eagerly perused it, threw the document 
 into the lire, declaring it was unfit for the purpose intended. When 
 about fifteen, he was permitted during the vacation month from 
 college to visit the gay and luxurious city of Paris, but to return 
 upon the expiration of that time ; he immediately entered into all 
 the gaiety of the scene which that capital affords with the ardour 
 of a fashionable amateur ; but quitted those fascinating attr.ittions 
 ^vithout reluctance, and once more returned to the seat of learn- 
 ing, where his industry was ecpially prominent: there it was ob- 
 served, he had " no coteinporary so erudite in knowledge, none 
 so elegant in mirth, and that to haVe seen him in either one or the 
 other, it must have bjen supposed, tliat each was his peculiar 
 study;" and from his fellow-student, the Earl of Carlisle, he re- 
 ceived the following pleasing anticipation of his future abilities : — 
 How will my Fox alone, by strength of parts 
 Shake the loud senate, animate the hearts 
 Of fearful statesmen ' while around you stand. 
 Both peers and commons, listening your command ; 
 While Tully's sense its weight to you affords. 
 His nervous sweetness shall adorn your words : 
 What praise to Pitt, toTownshend, e'er was due. 
 In future times, my Fox, shall wait on you. 
 His father never suffered him to be contradicted, that his towering 
 genius should follow its own bent, in 1768, about twelve month's 
 before he had attained his C 1st } ear, he took his seat in parliament 
 under the banners of the Mini-tcr, as lepresentative of Nlidhurst, in 
 Su.-Sc'x ; but soon (luilted the ' I'ory side, to join the animated standarri 
 ofa Burke and ijunnirig, imbibing those Whig principles which 
 ])roduced that strong an(i la-ting attachment to the Britiali Consti- 
 tution, tliat has immoilalized his memory. Mr. Fox's coalition 
 with Lord North for a hng tune obscured his political integrity, 
 and occasioned him nnu h ul)lo(|uy. Power, it should seem, was 
 never long in his possession ; and the transcendant abilities of his 
 great rival .Mr. Pitt, placed him as the honorable leader of the 
 Opposition for manv years ; and he was looked up to as the " Man 
 of the People." His memoi-able bill upon the administration of 
 affairs in India, which he inlrodiKed into the House of Commons 
 oji the 18lh of November, 178.3, drew from the celebrated Mr. 
 Burke, the following h gh eulogium: " I must say, then, that it 
 will be a distinction honorable to the age, that the rescue of the 
 greatest number of the human race that ever were so grievously 
 oppressed from tlie greatest tyranny that was ever exci-cised, has 
 fallen to the lot of abilities and dispositions equal to the task ; that 
 it has lallen to one who had the enlargement to comprehend, the 
 spirit to undertake, and the elocjuence In support, so great a mea- 
 sure of hazardoiH benevolence. I5ut he has put to hazard his ease, 
 his security, his interest, his power, even his darling popularity, tor 
 the l)enrtits of a ))e' pie whom he has never seen. IJe has faults; 
 butthi-yaie fault- wiiith though they may in a small degree tar- 
 nish the lustre, and s»>m^tlmes impede the inarch, of his abilities, 
 liave nothing in them ft) exti-nguish the tire of great virtues. In 
 thoselaults there is no mixturc'of deceit, of hypo'crisv, of pride, of 
 f<'rocity, of complexiona! despotism, nor a w'ant of feeling for the 
 d.stresses of mankind;" and again, in 17!}0, upon the Armv Esti- 
 mates, that illustrious man, alter those wide and iir|)orta'nt dif- 
 ferences of opinion had been observable, which dissolved the long 
 and clo-e connexion of those two celebrated persons ; he thus ex- 
 pressed himscll—" he wished, as among the greatest benefits he 
 could wish the country, ;.n eminent share of power to the Right 
 Hon. Gentleman (Mr. Fox) because he knew lluit, to his srreat 
 auU inaolerly uf.dcrstau;liiig he had joined the greatest possible share 
 
 i 
 
 of tliat natural nioderation, which is the be^t corrective of power 
 that he was of the most open, artless, candid, and benevolent (lis 
 position^ disinlcrestea in thi: extreme; of a temper miW and pla^ 
 cable even to a lault ; without one (hop of gall in his w hole coni' 
 position." On Mr. Fox's avowing his intention ot letinng Iron 
 office, Mr. Pitt observed, " he could not think his retreat war 
 rantablc ; and that his abilities marked him to be [lublic property.' 
 No man ever received the stamp of public approbation more thai 
 he did ; his fame travelled far before him ; and if he was the ])ar 
 ticular object of attention in his own country, he was no less sn in 
 other nations. In Russia, Catherine the Great, animated by )ii; 
 lively interference to prevent a war, and improve the relation be- 
 twren the two countries, requested Mr. Fox to sit for a bust ol 
 white marble to be placed between those of Demosthenes and Ci- 
 cero at Petersburgh. During his tour through Switzerland, the 
 peaceful natives ot that once liapjiy soil, tho-.e brave defender^ ot 
 their liberties, came out for miles in myriads to behold this pro- 
 digy of a man, and hail this great cliampion in freedom'.s cause, 
 which the elegant author of the " Decline and Fall of the Uomaii 
 Empire," thus pleasingly describes: — "Mr. Fox (Sept. 17SS) 
 gave me two days of free and i)rivate society. He seemed to feel, 
 an<l even to envy, the happiness of my situation ; while I admired 
 the powers of a superior man, as they are bleuijcd in his attrac- 
 tive character, with all the sottness and simplicity of a child. Per- 
 haps no human being was ever more perfectly exempt from thfe 
 taint of malc^voleiice, vanity, or falsehood." In France, (Sept. 
 iS02,) when Mr. Fox was jnescnted to the First (Consul (Bona- 
 parte), he publicly declared, " that he was extremely liappv in 
 having the honor of seeing a man, whose fame asa statesman filled 
 ail Europe ; and in being the enlightened friend of peace and con- 
 ciliation between the two countries." He had been through lile 
 the most intimate and confidential Iriend of the heir apparent to 
 the crown ; and on one particular occasion received the most 
 heart-felt thanks from the king lor that sound and constiiulional 
 advice he had given his son; his conversation, it should seem, 
 had made a ileep and lasting im|)ress:..m upon the mind of his rnyal 
 highness, for on his late birth-day (18 10) u|)on the health of his 
 daughter being drank, he most eloquently expressed hi<nself tothe 
 following etf'ect : " that he had made it liis first care to instil into 
 the mind and heart of his daughter the knowledge and love of the 
 Uue principles of the British Constitution ; and he had pointed out 
 to her young understanding, as a model for study, the political 
 conduct of his most revered and lamented friend, Mr. Fox, who 
 had asserted and maintained, with such transcendant force, the just 
 principles upenwhich the governmeiit, under this excellent Consli- 
 lution,uuglutobeadminislereil for the true and solid dignity of the 
 crown, and tlie real security, freedom, and liappiness, of the peo- 
 ple." The French Revolution by its alarming progress struck a 
 panic amongst the great men of this couiitiy, and Mr. Fox was de- 
 serted by many of his friends, but the secession of Mr. Burke af- 
 fected him even to tears, and he candidly acknowledged in the 
 House of Conmions, " that during the conversation of only a 
 twelvemonth with that distinguished senator, he hud gained more 
 usel'ul knowledge, than by all hisexpeiience,leurning, and books;" 
 yet notwithstanding he remained inllexlble in his opinions ; and 
 during tlie extraordinary convulsions of a neighbouring nalior», and 
 the political feuds and animosities that agitated this country; se- 
 dition at home, and mutiny in the fleet ; a rebellion in Ireland, by 
 whom he lost one of his dearest connections ; the voting away the 
 Irish parliament, and the measure of a Union — an »ra, the most 
 dilliciilt and dangerous for a leader to steer clear ; but he preserved 
 the true dignity of his great chaiacter, triumphed at length over his 
 I'licmicSjWas sought as the land-mark for the nation to rally round, 
 and once more (Jan. 31, IBOtJ,) became the servant of his king. 
 I'nfortuiKitcly for tlie nation, he enjoj ed this station but for a few 
 months ; when he was deprived of serving that country, the first 
 and neaii'sl object of his heart. Yet it must not be forgot that 
 during that siiort period, the abolition of the Slave Trade, (the 
 l)ill respecting which was introduced intoparliameiit so long back 
 as 1791,) was accomplished ; a tratticso disgraceful to an enlighten- 
 ed and free people I His last scene \ias marked w ith tbrtitude and 
 composure ; in speaking to a friend who anxiously hung over his 
 pillow, about the state of the soul after death, he observed, " It is 
 immorlal, I am convinced ; the existence of the Deity is a proof 
 tliat spirits exists, why not therefore the soul of man ? and it s,uch
 
 
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 "^ 
 
 C^ifft ^o/M/fid^- 
 
 
 
 >. . J'r.r 
 
 
 1i^//?nn^ ^HfaltL'. 
 
 !k ■ \. 
 
 h 
 
 i 
 I 
 
 ■ , ( 
 
 \ 
 
 
 •
 
 i
 
 FR JE 
 
 495 
 
 F R A 
 
 nil es-encc as tlie soul exists, by ib nature it may exist for over. 1 
 thoiiUl have believed in (lie imiuortalily ol llie soul, tliougli Chris- 
 tianity luid never existed ; but how it acts as se|)aiate(l lioni llie 
 bodv is beyoiul my tapatity of juilgemeiit 'Ibis liouevir 1 sliall 
 know by next C'hiistmas. 1 am liappy, lull of eonlidence, I may 
 say of certainty ; God's will be done I i have livculong enou;;li, 
 iukI shall (lie h;ii)|)y." He cxpiieil without a gr-an, on the 13tii 
 of Se|)t(n\ber IKUO, in the .")8tli jear of his age, and wasburittl in 
 \V'e,^^,^ln^ter Abbey on the lOthof October lollowing, exactly op- 
 posite the monument of tile illustriiais Chatham ; and within 18 
 inches of his political opponent Mr. Pitt, llis funeral was si)len- 
 clid in the extreme, ami attended by most of the distinguished 
 characters ill the kingdom; but the afllictiims pourtrayed uv the 
 people upon this public calamity, made a more lasting impres- 
 sion than all the magnihcent pav.ipheinalia of escutcheons, or the 
 reliiied execution ot tie sculptor's art. With the stntiments of 
 such men, who have been the leading features of society, little is 
 left more than (n observe, that as a statesman, it might be urged 
 lie was without a competitor, as his warnings proved almost pro- 
 phetic ; as a scholar, supremely distinguished ; as a poet, harmony 
 breathed through every line that found its way to ihe public ; as 
 ii critic, profound, with a taste as refined as decisive ; as a friend, 
 tlisinterested ; asan orator, though he might want the elegance of 
 a Cicero, yet the powerful reasoning of a Demosthenes was con- 
 spicuous, simplicity was its eliaracteristic, and I'.is auditors never 
 departed witiiout being convinced of the truth of his arguments ; in 
 reply, he stood unequalled ; as a literary cliaracter, his time was 
 too mucli occupied to produce any thing more than a few political 
 pami'hlets, a small collection of poems, and a posthumous work, 
 entitled, " A History of tl-^ early part of the Heign of James II." 
 with an animatetl likeness of ihe author, engraved from a bust by 
 Isollekens, under which the following lines appear, written by his 
 most intiniiite friend, General Fitzpatrick : — 
 A Patriot's even course be steered, 
 JVlid' Faction's wildest storms, unmoved; 
 By all, who mavk'd his mind, revered, 
 By all, who knew his heart, beloved. 
 It was published, with an introductory chapler,under the direction 
 of his nephew. Lord Holland ; who has already given proofs of that 
 classic excellence, whic h cannot fail of adiling fresh laurels to this 
 ilistinguished family. In short, his demise, has left in the political 
 hemisphere an awful chasm; and the application ot the poet was 
 never more appositely quoted, than to " take him for all in all, we 
 shall not look upon his like again !" 
 
 Fox, in zoology, an animal of the dog kind, which much re- 
 sembles the common dog in form, and is of the size of a spaniel: 
 it is chieily distiiiguis)ie<l by its long and straight tail, with the tip 
 wliite. See Canis. 
 
 Foxglove, in botany. Si'e Digitalis. 
 
 Fox Island, an island in the Atlantic, on the west coast of Ire- 
 land; 7 miles E. of Slyme-head. 
 
 Fox Islands, or Lyssie Ostrova, a group of lO islanils situ- 
 ated between the E. coast of Kamtschatka, and the V\'. coast of 
 America. Lat. between 5J° and -.53' N. 
 
 FOY, Sr. a town of France, in the department of Lot and Ga- 
 ronne, 35 miles E. of Bourdeaux. 
 
 FOYLE, a river of Ireland in Derry, which runs by London- 
 derry, into Lough Foyle. 
 
 l-'oYLE, Lough, a laree bay of Ireland; at the mouth of the 
 Foyle, four miles below Londonderry. 
 
 FKACHES, in the glass trade, are the Hat iron pans into which 
 the glass vessels already formed are put when in the tower over the 
 working furnace, and by means of which they are drawn out 
 through tlie leers, that they may be taken gradually from the fire, 
 and cooled by degrees. 
 
 FRACTION, in arithmetic and algebra, a part or division of 
 an unit or integer; or a number which stands to an unit in tlie re- 
 J.Uion of a part to its whole, 'llie word literally imports a broken 
 
 •n ot a part to 
 iber. Fractir 
 
 numijer. fractions are usually divided into decimal, sexagesimal, 
 and vulgar. See Algebra, and AiuXHMEnc. 
 
 FRACTURE, in surgery, a rupture of a bone, or a solution of 
 continuity in a bone, when it is crushed or broken by some exter- 
 nal cause. See Surgery. 
 
 FR.'FNUM, or FRENUM, Bridle, in anatomv, a name 
 given to divers ligaments, from their ofiice in retaining and curb- 
 ing the motions of the parts they are littcd to; asj 
 
 Franum Lingu.'e, or Uridie of the Tcwgue, a luembraTi- 
 ous ligament, which ties the tongue to the os liyoides, larynx, 
 lances, and lower paits of the mouth. 
 
 FK.VG.A, a stroni; town of Spain in the kingduin of Arragcn, 
 J3 imle^ E. S. E. ot Saragossa. 
 
 FRAGARIA, the Stkawberry, a genus of the jiolvgynia or- 
 der, and icosandria class ol plants; natural order. Si iiticos;c. 
 Calyx decemlid; petals live; receptacle ot the seedsoyate, in the 
 lorn'i of a berry. It has three species and several vaiieties. 
 
 FRAGNINO, and FRAGNriELLO, two towns of Naples, 
 in the province ot Principato I'ltta ; the former tight miles, and 
 the latter si.\', froiri Beiie\cnto. 
 
 FRAGOA DE S. PEDRO, a town of Portugal, in U\c pro- 
 vince of Beira; 13 miles S. S. W . of Lamcgo. 
 
 F'UAIL, s:gniiies7i pounds of raisins. 
 
 FRAISE, in fortilicatioii, a kind of defence, consisting of point- 
 ed stakes, six or seven feet long, driven parallel to the horizon into 
 the retrenchinents of a camp, a half-moon, or the like, to prevent 
 any approach or scalade. Fraises differ from palisades chii-tly in ■ 
 this, that the latter stand perpendicular to the liorizon, and the 
 former jut out parallel to it, or nearly so, being usually made a 
 little sloping, or with the ))oints hanging down. Fraises are chiefly 
 used in entrenchments and other w orks thrown up of earth ; sonie- 
 timestheyaie found under the paraiiet of a rampart, serving in- 
 stead of the cordon of stone used in stone-works. 
 
 F^RAisE A Battalion, is to line the musqueteers round with 
 pikes, that in case they should be charged with a body of horse, 
 the pikes being presented may cover the soldiers from the shock, 
 and serse as a barricade. 
 
 FRAME, a sort of loom, whereon artihccrs stretch their linen?, 
 silks, stuffs, &:c. to be embroidered, quilted, or the like. 
 
 Frame, among founders, a kind of ledge, which, being filled 
 with wetted sand, serves as a mould to cast their works in. See 
 
 FoLiNDERY. 
 
 Fkame, in joinery, a kind of case, wlierein a thing is set or in- 
 closed, or even supported; as a window -frame, a pictuic- 
 frame,"&c. 
 
 Frame, among painters, a kind of square, consisting of four 
 long slips of wood joined together, whose intermediate space is di- 
 vided by threads into several little squares tike a net; and hence 
 sometimes called reticula. It serves to reduce iigures trom sreat 
 to small; or, on the contrary, to augment their size from small ti> 
 great. 
 
 Frame, among printers, is the stand which supports the cases. 
 
 FRA.M LING HAM, a large and ancient town of Suffolk, 1« 
 miles N. E. of Ii)swich, and 87 N.N. E. of London. 
 
 FRAMPTON, or FROMETON, a town of England, in Dor- 
 setshire, ti miles W.N.W. of Dorchester, and IC N. W. of Wey- 
 mouth. 
 
 FRANCAVILLA, the name of five towns of Naples. 
 
 FRANCE, an extensive country of Europe, for many ages a 
 kingilom, but now one of the most powerful emjiircs in the world. 
 Before the present war, it was bounded by the English channel and 
 the Austrian Netherlands on tlie N.; by Germany, the Alp--, 
 Switzerland, Savoy, and Piedmont, on tlie E. ; by the Mediter- 
 ranean sea and the Pyrenean mountains, which sejiante it from 
 .Spain, on the S. ; and by the Atlantic ocean on the W' . 'llie air 
 of France is pure, temperate, and healthy. It is so hap|)ily situ- 
 ated in tlie middle of the temperate zone, that some reckon it 
 equal to Italy, both with regard to its fine landscapes and the ferti- 
 lity of the soil. I'he climate is undoubtedly much more salubri- 
 ous. The soil produces corn, wine, oil, tlax, fruits, &:c. in great 
 abundance. The monarchy was absolute before the revolution in 
 I78y; and the subjetis were extremely devoted to their prince, 
 even under the greatest acts of oppresiit n. The parliaments, lot' 
 a long series of years past,' had little or no share in ttie goverii- 
 menl ; and their business was conlinod to the passing and register- 
 ing the arrets or laws which the king sent them. However, they 
 did not always pay a blind obedience to the king, and there have 
 been frequent instances of tlieir making a very spirited opposition. 
 In civil causes they were the last resort, prcvulcd the i:ourt di>i 
 not interpo.e. The parliament of Paris was the most considerable, 
 where the ki"S "^''^^ often to come in person to sec hi^ royal acts 
 recorded. It consisted of the dukes and peers of France, besides 
 the oidlnary members, who i>urchased their places; and they only 
 took cognizance of oufes btlon"in!j to the crown. The revunue* 
 
 i- »f
 
 Fit A 
 
 49^ 
 
 FRA 
 
 of the cruwn arose from ihe laiUe or land-lax, and the aids which 
 proceeded from the (-ustoms and duties on all merchandize, except 
 salt, tlie tax upon uhich commodity was called the gabelles. See 
 Gabel. Besides these, there were other taxes, as, tlie capitation 
 or poll-tax; the tenths of all estates, offices, and employments; 
 be,ides tl-.e 131h penny, from vvhich neither the nobility nor cleijiy 
 were exempted; the tenths and free-gifts of the clergy, who were 
 allowed to tax tliemselves; and, lastly, crown-rents, lines, and for- 
 feitures, which brought in a considerable sum. All lliese are said 
 to have amounted to 1.1,000,000/. sterling a-yeai'. But the king 
 had other resources and ways of raising money, whenever neces- 
 sity obliged him. France was originally possessed by the Celtes 
 or Gauls; a very warlike people, who often checked the progress 
 of the K juiau arms: nor did they yield till Julius Ca-sar totally 
 subdued their country, and reduced it to the form of a Roman 
 province. In the reign of Valerian, the ancient Roman >alour 
 and discipline liad begun to decline, and (he neighbouring nations, 
 began to make frequent incursions; and among the rest the 
 Franks, a German nation, inhabiting the banks of the Rhine, 
 proved particularly troublesome. After this period the country 
 underweiU various revolutions, but was moie settled in the abso- 
 lute monarchical form of government from the coronation of 
 Charlemagne, (ill the late revolution in 1789, after which it be- 
 came a republic. But the unparalleled successes of general Bona 
 parte induced him to take the reigns of government into his own 
 hands ; he was created first consul, Dec. 15, 1799, and afterwards 
 assumed the title of emperor. May 1?0, 1804. France, before the 
 revolution, was divided into Uie following inilitary governments, 
 or province^.: Alsace, Angomnois, Anjou, Armagnai;, Artois, 
 Aunis, Auvergne, Barrois, Basciues, Beam, Berry, Bigorre, Bla- 
 s'ois, Boulotmois, Bourbonnois, liiesse, Brittany, fiurguiuly, Cam- 
 brcsis, Champagne, Couserans, Dauphiny, Forez, Foix, Franclie 
 Comtfe, French Flanders, Gascony, Gevaudaii, Guienne, French 
 llainault. Isle of France, Languedoc, Liniosin, Lorrain, Lyonnois, 
 Marchc, Maijir, Marsan, Navarre, Nivernois, Normandy Orlea- 
 nois, Perche, Perigord, Picartly, Poitou, Provence, Qiiieici, Kuo- 
 ergue, Roussillon, Saint<.nge, Soissonnois, Toiiraine, Vclay, and 
 X'ermandois. These varied much from each oliicr in point of ex- 
 tent and importance, and there were others of still ii.feiior consi- 
 deration. France, in consequence of tiie revolution, was divided 
 by the lirsl legisl.ilivc ass<-mblv into 83 department-, and these 
 were subdivided inte districts, caiitons, and niunicipalities. 'Fne 
 names of the departments are, Ain, Aisne, Allur, Ali)S Lower, 
 Alps Upper, Ardeche, Ardennes, Arriege, Aube, Aude, Aveiron, 
 Calvados, Caiilal, Charente, Charente Lower, Che;, Cortezr, 
 Corsica, Cote d't)r, Creu^e, Dordogiie, Doubs, Drome, Eure, 
 Enre and Loire, Finistenv, Gard, Garonne Upper, Gers, Gi 
 ronde, llerault, Iiuire, Imhc and I^oire, Isere. lib- and \'il. line. 
 Jura, Landes, Loire and Cher, I-oire Lower, J^oire Upper, Loi- 
 nt. Lot, Lot and Garonne, Lozcre, Maine, Maine and Lone, 
 Manclie, Marne, Marne Upper, Meurthe, Meuse, Morbihan," 
 Moselle, Mouths of the Rhone, Nievre, Nord or North, North 
 Coasts, Oise, Onie, Paris, Puy de Dome, PM'enees Eastern, Py- 
 renees i>ower, Pyrenees Upper, Rhine Lower, Rhine Upper, 
 Kiioneand Loire, Saone Ui)per, Saone and Loire, Same, Seine 
 and Oi>e, Seine Lower, Seine and Marne, the Two Sevres, 
 Somine, Straits of Calais, Tarn, Var, Vendee, ^'icnne, Vienne 
 Upper, Vosges, and Yonne. About IS new depaitinents have 
 been since erected out of the conqueretl territories. The chief 
 niiiuiitains of Franc c, are tlio^c of the Alps, Pyrenees, Cevenues, 
 and Auvergne: Mount Blanc, &c. The population of France, 
 before the revolution, was stated by the French at 2i millions; 
 but from the great extent of territory acquired since the com- 
 mencement of the present war, the total population is supposed 
 to be now increased to more than 3.) millions. Resides all the ne- 
 cessaries of life, France produces many of its luxuries; as silk, 
 ficrfumes, lemons, oranges, olives, prunes, peaches, &c. 'Fhe fo- 
 rests abound with wood, anil the mountains with irines of copper, 
 jead, tin, iron; and some gold and silver. Gold in grains is also 
 found ;:mong the sands of some rivers. The established religion 
 of France, from the reign of Clovis I. to the revolution, has been 
 the Uom.-Mi Catholic; and though it was never accompanied by 
 that dreadt'iil engine of ecclesiastical tyranny, the inquisition, yet 
 no countiy in ICurope has exhibitHd n'lore iiarbaroiis and bloody 
 proo'i'sof the intolerant spirit of th.tl system of superstition than 
 
 France. Vet, though universal lilit'rty of conscience was esta- 
 blished upon the revolution in 1789, the Roman Catholic system 
 was not attempted to be abolished. So far from this, the kingdom 
 was divided into 10 archbishoprics (formerly IS), and 73 bishop- 
 rics (tcirmerly 113), an episcopal liierarchy; an episcopal town 
 being allottecl to each department. But Danton and his atheistical 
 asssociates, in the convention of 1793, endeavoured to overthrow 
 all religion whatsoever. Upon the fall of Danton, Robertspierre, 
 affecting an abhorrence of the impiety of Atheism, did his utmost 
 to recommend Deism, in its steafl. But since his death, Christia- 
 nity has been again o])tniy professed; the churches have been re- 
 stored to the use of all w)io incline to attend them; and people of 
 all religions persuasions are allowed to worship God in the way 
 most agreeable to themselves. France is watered and fertilized 
 by a great number of rivers, many of which afford names to the 
 new de|)artmeiits. The principal of these are the Seine, Loire, 
 Garonne, and Rhone. 'I'he French in time of peace carry on a 
 great trade with Spain, Italy, and the East Indies. Before the 
 war, a trade very advantageous to liritain was established by the 
 Commercial Treaty. "^J'hey have very extensive manufactures of 
 linens, woollens, silks, laces, paper, china, soa]), fic, and particu- 
 larly wliat is called Castile soap. France before the war, was said 
 to contain 400 cities or walled towns, and 43,000 small towns and 
 villages. Paris is the capital. 
 
 France, Isle of, a late province of France, so called, because 
 it was formerly bounded by the rivers Seine, Marne, Oise, Aisne, 
 and Ourque.' It comprehended the Beauvoisis, the Valois, the 
 county of Seiilis, the Vexin, the Hurcpois, the Gatinois, the Mul- 
 tien, the Goele, and the Mantois. Paris was the capital. It is 
 now divided into four departments; viz. Oise, Seine and Oise, 
 Seine and Marne, and Paris. 
 
 France, Isle of, or Mauritius, an island in the Indian 
 Ocean. See Mauritius. 
 
 FRANCFORTON THE MAINE, an Imperial and Haii- 
 seatic town of Germany, in Franconia, where the emperors were 
 formerly elected. It is a handsome, strong, and rich place, and 
 lias a great deal of commerce. It is 20 miles E. of Mentz, and 
 3jO W. by N. of ^'ienna. Lon. S" 35' 4o;^ E. Lat. 50" T 40" N. 
 
 Francfort on the Oder, a town of Gernumy, in the middltf 
 iMarche of Brandenburgh, 43 miles S. E. of Berlin. Lon. 14. 43. 
 E. Lat 5?. 2:i. N. ^ 
 
 FRANCHE COMPTE, a late province of France, bounded 
 on the S. hy Brcsse; on the W. by Burgundy; on the N. by Lor- 
 rain ; and on the E. by Alsace and Switzerland. It is now divid- 
 ed into ilii'e departments; viz. Douhs, Jura, and I'pper Saone. 
 
 FKANCIl E.MONT, or FRANCHIMONT, a town and dis- 
 trict of C^eniijiiv , in the kite Inshopric of Liege; now included in 
 France, in the (ieparlineiit of Oinlc. 
 
 FRANCHISE and LIBERI Y, in law, are used as syno- 
 nymous terms; for "a rosal privilege, or branch of the king's 
 jjrerogative, subsisting in "the hands of a suliject." Being 
 iherefore derived from the crown, they hiiist arise from the 
 kirig's griiiit ; or, in some cases, may be held by prescription, 
 which presupposes a grant. The kinds are numerous and vari- 
 ous. We shall briefly mention some of the principal ; premis- 
 ing only, that they mav he vested cither in natural persons or 
 bodies politic ; in one iium, or in many : but the same identical 
 franchise, that has before been granted to one, cannot be bestow- 
 id on aii'ither, for that would "prejudice the former grant. A 
 County Palatine is a franchise vested in several persons. It is 
 likewise a franchise for a number of persons to be incorporated 
 and subsist as a body politic; with a power to maintain perpe- 
 tual succession, and do other corporate acts: and each indivi- 
 dual member of such corporation is also said to have a franchise. 
 Other franchises are to hold a court-lect ; to have a manor of 
 lordship; or, at least, to have a lordship paramount: to have 
 «aifs, wrecks, cstrays, treasure-trove, royal fish, forfeitures, and 
 d( odan(K : to have a court of one's own, or liberty of holding 
 pleas and trying causes : to have cognizance of pleas ; which is 
 a still greater liberty, being an exclusive right, so that no other 
 court shall try causes arising within that jurisdiction : to have a 
 bailiwic, or iiberly exempt from the sheriff of the county ; 
 wherein the grantee only, and his oHicers, are to execute "all 
 processes: to have a fair or market; with the right of taking 
 toll, either there or at ^ly other public places, as at bridges, 
 
 wharfsj
 
 FR A 
 
 407 
 
 F R A 
 
 whurt's, or till' like ; wliitli tolls inu>t have a a-asomil)le cause of 
 I oiiiiiiLMR'iiiuMit, (as in coii>i(leiatioii of repairs, or ihc l.ke,) else 
 llie franchise is ilh.'gal ami vciiil : or lastly, to iiavc a tores',, ihase, 
 |;ark, wariei), or li-lier\ . emiowed with jnivil^gL-s ol io_>aUy. See 
 Chase, I'orest, &l-. 
 
 I'uAN'cmsE is also used for ati asylum or sanctuary, wlicrc 
 peo|)le are secure of their per-ons, &c. Chunlies aiul uionas- 
 leries lU Spain are franchises for criminals ; so >\ere Ihey anciently 
 in EijglantI, till they were ahiis.'U to such a ili-(^ree tiw I there was 
 a necessity for abolishing the custom. 
 
 l-'uANCUisE OF QvARTEKS is a Certain space or district at 
 Koine, wherein are tlie houses of the unih.is.^ador.s uf the princes 
 of r.urope ; and wliere such as retire cannot be arrL':le'.i or seized, 
 nor prosecuted at law. 
 
 I'RANCIS, St. the foumlcr of the society of the Fr.uniscans, 
 was the son of a niercliant of .\s-isi, in tlir province ot Unibria. 
 llavini; led a dissolute life, he was leclaimed by a lit of sickness, 
 and alterwards fell into an extravacanl kind of devotion, that 
 looked less like re!ic;ion than alienation of mind. In I'iOs, hear- 
 ing the p.^s-age (pioled, (.Matt. x. i), 10,) " Provide neither gold 
 nor silver," &c. he \vas led to consider a voluntary and abolute 
 poverty as the essence of ti.e gospel, and to prescribe it as a sa- 
 cred rule to hijiiself and those who followed him. See Fra.vcis- 
 CANs. lie died in I2'2tj. 
 
 KRANCISCANS, in ecclesia.tical history, religious of the or- 
 der of St. Fr.incii, founded by liiin in 1209. This society, which 
 appeared to Innocent 11 1. extremely adapted to the state of the 
 church, was soleundy ajiproved and conlirnieil by Honorius III. 
 in \'22i. Francis, through an excessive hnniditv, would not suf- 
 fer the monks of his oidertobe called fralrcs, i.e. brethren or 
 friars, but Fratercuh, f. e. little brethren, or friars minor, by w hich 
 denomination they still continue to be distinguished. They are 
 also calleii grey friars, on account of the colour cf their clothing, 
 and C'lrdeliers, &c. The Franciscans and Doiuinicans were zea- 
 lous and active friends to the papal hierarchy. In 1287, Matthew 
 of Aqua Sparta, being elected general of the order, discouraged 
 the ancient discipline of the Franciscans, and indulged his monks 
 in abandcning even the appearance of poverty. This conduct 
 raised the indignation of the spiritual or austere Franciscans; so 
 that from I'JfKi, schisms arose in an order that had l)een famous for 
 its pretended disinterestedness and humility. Such was the enthu- 
 siastic frenzy of tin' Franciscans, that they impiously maintained, 
 that St. Fr.ait;s was a second Christ, in all respects similar to the 
 first ; and that their institution and discipline were th'- true gospel 
 of Jesus. Atcordingly, Albizi, a Franciscan of I'isa, published a 
 book in 138.'), with the appl.uiseot his order, intitied, "The Book 
 of the Contorniities ot St. Francis with .lesus Christ I" In the be- 
 ginning of tlio ISlli cenlurj, the whole Franciscan ouier was divid- 
 ed into two parties ; the one called Spirituals, who endjraced,the 
 severe discipline and absolute poverty of St. Francis ; and tlu- 
 other, brethren of the Conimimity, who insisted on mitiealing the 
 austere injunctions of tlieir lounder. 
 
 FRANCOIS, Cafe, a town m the N. part of Hispaniola. 
 Lon.72. 18. W. Lat. H). -iti. N. 
 
 FRANCOiSE, a town of France, in the dep:irtmcnt of Lot, 
 74 miles N. \V. ot Montauban, and 2Q-'- S. S. W. of Cahors. 
 
 FK.VNCONIA, a circle of Germany, bounded on the >.. By 
 Meissen and Tluinngia, on the S. by Havaria and Suabia ; on the 
 E. by Bohemia ami the Upper Palatinate, and on the W. by Ihe 
 Lower, ami the electorate of .Viciitz ; bi.'ing SS miles I'rom N. to S. 
 and y5 from E. to \V. The middle is very fertile in corn, wine, 
 and fruits ; but tl-.r borders are full of woods and barren moun- 
 tains. The majonty of the pt'ople are Lutherans; but there are 
 also many Calvinists, Uomaii ('atlnihis. and Jews. The Franks, 
 who coiu|uered and ga\c name to France, caine from thi^ pro- 
 vince. Nuremberg is the capital. 
 
 FUAM:KKI{, FKAXr.tn-KR, or FRANKER, a to'.ui of 
 France, m tlie department of Kenis, aii<l late province of North 
 I'Vit-daiid. 9 miles W. of Lewarden. 
 
 Flv.'VNK, or r'R;\NC, in the ancient p'nglish customs, sig- 
 nif ei lueiatly free from charges and in)positi(.'ns, or exempt from 
 public taxes: it is used in various senses; sonu times compoundedi, 
 au'l sonieliiues not ; Ihougli the latter is doubtless mot proper. 
 Thus, 
 
 Fkaxk Almoicnk is a tenure, whercl)y a religious corpora- 
 tion, aj'.giegate or sole, holdeth lauds of the donor to them and 
 
 Vl>L. II. — NO. SS. 
 
 tlieir successors for ever. The service which they were bound to 
 render for these lands was not defined: but only in general to 
 pray for the souls of the donor and his heirs, dead or alive; and 
 therefore they did no fealty (which was inrideiit to all otlu 1 sry- 
 vice-,) because this divine service wa.i of a more exaltc-d nulun-. 
 This is the tenure i)y which almost all the ancient niouasteriis aii'l 
 religious houses held tlie.ir lands; and by which the parochi:d 
 clerg\, and very many eccleiastical and eleemosynary foniida- 
 tio IS, still hoUl iiiem ; the nature of the service being upon the 
 reformation altered, ;:iul made conformable to the purer doc'riie-j 
 ol the ihurcli of Engl;;m!. It w;'.s an i>'il Saxon tenure; i^ud con- 
 tihued under the Ni.rm.ui revolution, tiuough the great respct 
 tliat was shewn to religi'ii and religious men in ancient liuir \ 
 This is also the reason that tei'.ants In frankalmoigiie were dis- 
 charged of all other services except the trinoda neces.>ila>, of re- 
 pairing the highways, building castles, and repelling inv.l^iotlS ; 
 jiist as the druids, among the am lent Ikitons, had " omnium n- 
 rum immunitatem." And even at present this is a tenure ot a 
 very dili'erent nature lioiii all others; being not in the least feo- 
 dal, but merely spaitu.l. For, if the servile be neglected, tlie 
 law gives no remedy by distress, or otherwise, to the lord of whom 
 the lands are hohlen ; but merely a complaint to the ordinary or 
 vi^itor to correct it. 
 
 '2. Fu.\NK Chace is a liberty of free chace, whereby persons 
 that have lands witliiii the compass of the same, are prohibited to 
 cut down any woods, &.c. out of the vieu of the forester. 
 
 3. Frank Fke signilies the same thing as holding lands and 
 tenements in fee simple ; that is, to any person and his heirs, aivJ 
 not by such service as is retpiircd by ancient demesne, but is 
 pleailed at comnicn law. See Fist. 
 
 Frax'K Law, the free and common law of the land, or the 
 benefit a person has by it. He that for any otVence loseth tlds 
 frank law incurs the inconveniences which the law al'fords. 
 
 FuA.VK Marriage, in law, is where tenements are given by 
 one man to another, together with a wile, who is the ilaughter or 
 cousin to the donor, to hold in frank marriage. By such gift, 
 though nothing but l"raiik marriage is ex|)ressed, the donees shall 
 have the tenements to them, and the heirs of their two bodies be- 
 gotten; th.:t is, they are tenants in special tail. 
 
 FRANKPLEDGF.. a pledge or surely lor frtenien. For the 
 ancient cusloni cf I'^lngland, tor the preservation of the public: 
 peace, was tli.it every freehorn man at 14 ycar> of age, religious 
 persons, clerks, knights and their eldest sons excepted, should 
 find security for his lidelity to the kmg, or else be kept in prison : 
 whence it became customary tor a certain number of ueiglibour? 
 to be bound for one another, to see each man of their pledge 
 forthcoming at all tim-s, or to answer the transgression of any one 
 a!)sentlng himself. This was called frankpledgf', and the circuit 
 thereof '.vus called decenna, because it commonly consisted often. 
 households; and e\ery particular person, thus mutually bound, 
 was calleil deccnnier. 
 
 Fra.vk, or Franc, an ancient coin, either of goh^ or silver, 
 struck and current in France. The value of the gold irciiik was 
 somewhat more than th:it of the gold crown ; the silver frank was 
 a third of the gold one : th.is coin is long out of u-e, though tl>.' 
 term is still retain^'d as the name of a money of account ; in which 
 sense it is eipiivalent to the livre, or twenty sols. 
 
 -Frank Language, or Lingua Franca, a kind of jargon 
 s|)oken on the Meiiitcrranean, and particularly (Inoughcut the 
 coasts and ports of the Levant, conip.ised ol llaliiui, Spanish, 
 I-'rcnch, vulgar Gr<-ek, and other languages. 
 
 FR.VNKED LEITEHS. The privilege of leltus oming 
 free of postage to and from members of parliament wa> claimed 
 bv the House of Coinnnnis in UibO, when the lir t legal settle- 
 ment of the present post-clVue was made; but alterwards drop- 
 ped, upon a private assurance from the cruun, Iha' this privilege 
 should be allowed tlie members. Accordiiu;iy a wariant «as con- 
 siantly issued to the postmaster-general, duecting tiie ;illo«ar.(ro 
 thereof to tlie extent of two ounces in weight: till at lengili it was 
 expressly confirmed by 4 Geo. 111. c. '24, which added many new 
 regulations, rendered necessary by the great abuses in iVai.king ; 
 whereby the annual amount ot franked letters had increased from 
 J.3,600r. in the year 171.i, to 170,7001. in the year l?t)J. Other 
 regulations afterwards took plare ; in particular, franks were re- 
 (prred to be dated (the montli written at length.) and put into ihc 
 oirice tlie same day ; notwithstanding which, the revenue itill lost 
 L . btj
 
 F R A 
 
 /jP8 
 
 FR A 
 
 bv tliis privilege above 80,0001. per annum. Tlie following arc 
 tlii- regulations of traTiking recjuinTl by 3j Geo. 111. and now in 
 Torce. No letter directeifby or to any M. P. shall be exempted 
 from postage it it exceeds one onncc in weight. No letter direct- 
 ed bv iinv member sliall he exempted, unless he shall actually be 
 in tlie piiSt-fown, or within the limits of its delivery of letters, or 
 within CO miles of it on the day, or the day before it, on which 
 the letter sh;dl be put into tlie o'ifice. No member shall be. en- 
 titled to send free from postage more than ten letters in one day, 
 nor to receive more th.-^n 15. Whenever the number of letters 
 sent or received bv such member in one day shall exceed the 
 nnuiher exem[>ted, and the postage upon any of them shall differ, 
 the letters chargeable with a higher posl.ise shall be included 
 ill the number exempted, in preference to any charjceable with a 
 lower postage, and the remainder shall be cliargeable with the 
 postage to w hich common letters are now chargeable. Persons 
 « ho may now in right uf their offices send and receive letters tree 
 mav continue so to do. 
 
 t'RANKENDAL, a strong town of Germany, now included 
 •m France, in the department of Mont 'ronm-rre, 8 miles N. W. 
 of -Manheim, and 8 ii. ot Worms. Lon. 8. 1'9. li. Lat. 49. 
 >'j. N. 
 
 FRANK I-.NIA, in botany, a genus of the monogynia order, 
 and hexaiidria class of plants ; natural order, Calycantliem;c. Ca- 
 lyx ([uincpietid, funnel-shapeil ; petals live; stigma sexparlite; 
 capsule unilocular and trivalvular. It has three species. 
 
 FHANKF.NS TEIN, a town of I'rance, in the department of 
 Sarre and Mo=ellc, 20 miles S. E. of Oeux Pouts. 
 
 FR.\NKl'ORlJ, a town of \irgiuia, the capital of Pendleton 
 countv, ISO miles N. \V. of Richmond. 
 
 FRANKFORT, a town of the United States, on the river and 
 in the slate o! Kentucky. 
 
 FRAN KlNCf.NSE, is a gunnny resin, the product of the 
 i'unipe.us l\cia, consi>tiug of ei[ual parts of gum and resin; the 
 "first is soluble in water, tlie otlier in alcohol. It is brought Irom 
 Turkey and the East Indies, but is principally collected in Ara- 
 bia. It usually comes to us in drop-, but in a very impure slate, 
 u hundred pounds not yielding iiore than from lorty to hlly pound:, 
 of pure frankincense. 
 
 FRANKLAND's Islands, a cluster of islands in the South 
 Sea ; 6 miles from the N. E. coast of New Holland. Lon. 146. 
 0. E. Lat. 17. i.3. S. 
 
 FRANKLIN, Rexjamik, LL. D. and F. R. S. one of the 
 most celebrated philosophers and politicians cf the 18th century, 
 was born at Hoston, 6lh Jan. 170(3. He was the son of Josias 
 Franklin, a tallow-chandler, descended from an ancient Englisli 
 family, who had resided upwards of three centuries at Eaton in 
 Nortliamptonshire, possessing a small freehold estate of .30 acres. 
 Beniamin was placed under him ; but a difference happening be- 
 tween them, he removed to New York, irom whence" he went to 
 Philadeli)hia, where after serving as a journeyman some time, he 
 attracted the notice of Sir William Keith, the governor, who per- 
 suaded him to set up for himself. Accordingly he came to Eng- 
 land to procure printing materials, but on his arrival he found th.it 
 the governor had deceived hlui bv false promises, on which he 
 worked as a iourneyman printer in Londfui, and in l7-'6 returned 
 to Philadelphia, where he became clerk t:j a merch.,nt. He next 
 entered into partner-hip with a person named Meredith, in the 
 printing-business, which he aflerwarfls conducted alone. In 1730 
 he was united to a widow lady, wliom he had lourted before her 
 first marriage, .'\bout this period he cr)ntrilnited to the forming 
 of the public libr.ny at Philadelphia, and in 1732 h.e publi-hed his 
 " Poor Richard's Alniaiiack," in which hi' inserted some usetul 
 aphori>ms or maxims of prudence. In 173(> he was appointed 
 'lerk to the general assembly at Pennsylvania, and the year fol- 
 lowing post-master of Philadelphia. In the French war in 1744 
 lie proposed and carried into elfect a plan of association for ti'e 
 defence ot that province. About this time he commenced his 
 electrical experiments of which he published an account. He had 
 the honour of making several discoveries in tin- branch of philoso- 
 phy, the principal of which was the idenlitv of the electric tire 
 and lightning. In 1747 he was chosen a representative of the ge- 
 neral assembly, in which siUiation he <listingui>hed himseli' by se- 
 veral acts of public utility. Ry his means a militia bill was 'pa-s- 
 i-d, and he was appointed colonel of the Philadelphia regiment. 
 In 174'7 he was sent to England as agent for Pennsylvania. At 
 
 this time he was chosen fellow of the Royal Society, and honour- 
 ed witli the degree of doctor of laws by the universities of St. An- 
 drews, Edinburgh, and Oxford. In 1762 he returned to Amt 
 rica, but two years afterwards he again visited F^ngland, in in . 
 former capacity as agent, and it was at this period that he 
 was examined at the bar of the house of comiKOns concern- 
 ing llie stamp act. In 177J he returned home, and was elect- 
 ed a delegate to the congress. He was veiy active in the 
 contest behveen England and the colonies, and was sent to France, 
 where in 1778 he signed a treaty of alliance offensive ami defen- 
 sive, which produced a war between that ccuniry and England, 
 in 1783 he signed the delinitive treaty of peace, and in 178.5 re- 
 turned to America, where he was cliosen president of the supreme 
 council. He died in 17!;10. Besides liis political,- miscellaneous, 
 anil philosopliical pieces published in 4to. and Svo. he wrote seve- 
 ral papers in the American Transactions, and two volumes of Es- 
 says, with his life prelixed, written by hiin-elf, 2 vols. 12nio. The 
 following epitaph on himself was written by Dr. Franklin many 
 years before his death : 
 
 The Body of 
 
 Benjamin Franklin, Printer, 
 
 Like the cover of an old book. 
 
 Its contents torn out. 
 
 And stript of its leltering ami gilding, 
 
 Lies here food for worms. 
 
 Yet the \TORK itself shall not he lost; 
 
 For it will (as he believed) appear once morej 
 
 In a NEW and moke BEAt.lTlf ul euition. 
 
 Corroded and amended 
 
 By THi Author. 
 
 Franklin, a county of CJeorgia, in the Upper District, sealeii 
 on the Tngulo. 
 
 Franklin, a populous and well-cultivated countv of Ken- 
 tucky. FVankfort is the cajjital. 
 
 Feanklin, a county of North Carohna, in Halifax district. 
 
 Franklin, a fertile county of Pennsylvania. Chambersburg 
 is the caj)ital. 
 
 Franklin, a county of \'ermont, containing twenty townships. 
 
 Franklin, a countv ot N'irginia. 
 
 FRANKS, FRANCS, FRANKIS, or FRANQUIS, a name 
 which the Turks, Arabs, Greeks, &c. give to all the people of the 
 western p.uts of Europe. The appellation is commonly supposed 
 to have had its rise in Asia, at the time of the croisades ; when 
 the French made the most considerable figure among the crois- 
 sees: from which time the Turks, Saracens, Greeks, Abyssinians, 
 &;c. used it as a common term for all the Christians of Eurojie, 
 and called Europe itself Frankistan. Du Cange says, that about 
 the time of Charlemagne, ihey distinguished F'a-tern France, 
 Western France, Latin or Koman France, and German France, 
 which was Ihe ancient France afterwards called FraiK'onia. 
 
 FR.\NZliURG, a town of Upper Saxonv, in Swetlish Pome- 
 rania, 14 miles S. of Slral-und. 
 
 I'RAPPING, in naval afl'airs, the act of crossing and drawing 
 together the several [larts of the tackle, or other complication of 
 ropes, which had been alreadv strained to their utmost extent ; in 
 diis sense it resembles the operation of brai ing a drum. The I'rap- 
 ping increases tension, and consequently adds to the security ac- 
 (juiied hv the purchase. 
 
 FRAS'KRr,UR(;H, or FR ASERSRURGH, a small sea-port 
 town in Aberdeenshire, seated on the S. exirtimly of'the Murray 
 I'rith, called Kinnaird's Head, 16 miles E. of BanlV, and 40 N. of 
 Aberdeen. 
 
 FR.VI ERNAL -AFFECTION is the love and attachment 
 'subsi-tinu; among, or due to one another by, children of the same 
 faniilv. A hearty benevolence, an ardent concern for each 
 other's wiltare, anil a readiness to serve and promote it, are the 
 peculiar olllces of this relation. 
 
 FRA^FRN^I^', in the Roman Catholic system, signifies a 
 ^ociely for the impmvement of devotion. Of lliese theie are se- 
 veral sorts; as, I. The fraternity of the rosary, founded by St. 
 Dominic. It is tlividcd into two branches, called the common 
 rosary, and the perpetual rosary ; the former of whom are cbliged 
 to conless and communicate every first Sunday in the month, and 
 the latter to repeat the rosary continually. 2. The fraternity of 
 the scapularv, whom the blessed Virgin, according to the sabba- 
 I tine bull of pope John XXll. has promised to deliver out of In 11 
 " 9 the
 
 FRA 
 
 409 
 
 V n E 
 
 the fiisl Sunday after their death. 3. The fraternity of St. 
 Francis's girdle are clothed with a sack of a grey colour, which 
 they tic with a cord ; and in processions wall; l)are-footed, carry- 
 ing in their hands a wooden cro^s. 4. That of St. Austin's lea- 
 thern girdle comprehends many devotees. Italy, Spain, and P»r- 
 lusal, are the countries wliere the greatest number of these frater- 
 nities, some of whicli assume the name of arch-fraternities, are to 
 be found. Pope Clement \ H. instituted the arch-fraternity of 
 charity, which distributes bread every Sunday among the poor, 
 and gives portions to forty poor girls on llie feast of St. Jerome 
 their patron. 5. The fraternity of death buries such dead as are 
 abandoned by their relations, and causes masses to be celebrated 
 for them. 
 
 FRATRIAGE, the partition smong brothers or coheirs, com- 
 ing to the same inheritance or succes;ion. It more particularly 
 signifies a yoimt;er brotiier's inherilLUiec; or whatever the younger 
 sons possess of the father's estate, which, in our ancient law, thev 
 are said to enjoy ratioue fratriagii ; and were to do homage for the 
 same to the elder brother, he being bound to do homage to tiie 
 superior lord for the wl.ole. 
 
 FRATRICFLLI, or FRATELLI, [Ital. q. d. fraterculi, 
 little brothers,] in ecclesiastical history, an enthusiastic sect of 
 Franciscans, which rose in Italy, particularly in Aucona, about 
 A. D. 1294. The word was used as a terra of derision, as they 
 were most of them apostate monks. For this reason the term, as 
 a nick-nanic, was given to many other sects, as the Catharists, 
 Waldenses, &c. however dillerent in their opinions and in their 
 conduct. But this denomination, applied to the austere part of the 
 Franciscans, was considered as honourable. 
 
 FRAUD, in law, signifies deceit in grants, or conveyances of 
 lands, &c. or in bargains and sales of goods, (tc. to the (Ciniagc of 
 another person. A fraudulent conveyance of lands or goods, to 
 deceive creditors, as to creditors is void m law. And a fraudulent 
 conveyance, to defraud pnrcliasers, is also to such purchasers 
 void ; and the persons justifying, or putting ofT such grants as 
 good, shall forfeit a year's value of lamis, and the full value of the 
 goods and chattels, and likewise shall be imprisoned. 
 
 FRAUENBOURG, a town of Prussia Royal, in Poland, on 
 the river Frisch-haft', six or seven leagues from Elbing, to the 
 N. E. 
 
 FRAUENFELD, a town of the Helvetic republic, the capital 
 of the late bailiwic of Thurgau. It lies 20 miles N. E. of Zu- 
 rich. 
 
 FRAUSTADT, a town of Silesia, on the frontiers of Poland, 
 70 miles N. VV. of Rreslau. 
 
 P'raustadt, or Wschowa, a town of Poland, on the frontiers 
 of Silesia, 48 miles W. of Posen. 
 
 FRAXINELLA, in botany. See Dictamnus. 
 FRAXINUS, the Ash ; a genus of the diojcia order, and poly- 
 ganiia class of plants ; natural order, Sepiari;e. Hermaphrodite; 
 calyx none, or four-parted ; corolla none, or four-petaled ; sta- 
 mens two; pistil one; seed or capsule one, lanceolate. There 
 are four species. If a wood of these trees be rightly managed, it 
 will turn out greatly to the advantage of the owner: for, by the 
 underwood, which will be fit to cut ever)' eight or ten vears, 
 there will be a contimial income, more than sufiicient to pay the 
 rer.t of the ground and all other charges; and s(ill there will be 
 a stock preserved for timber, which in a few years will be worth 
 40s. or 50s. per tree. This tree dourishes best in groves, ixit 
 grows very well inrich soil in open fields. It bears transplanting 
 and lopping. In Lancashire they lop the tops of these trees to 
 feed the cattle in autumn when tiie grass is <in the decline ; the 
 cattle peeling ot'f the hark as food. The wood has the singular 
 property of being nearly as good when young as when ohl. It is 
 hard and tough, and is mucli used to make the tools employed in 
 husbandry. Tiie ashes of the wood afford very good potass. 
 The bark is used in tanning calf-skin. The season' for felling this 
 tree, is from November to February ; (or if cut down too early, 
 or too late, it is liable to the worm. The asii is hurtliil to cirii- 
 lands, and tiierefore should be planted either in hedges ur clumps, 
 at about nine or ten feet distance. 
 
 P'REA, or FRIGGA, the wife of Odin, or Woden, was, next 
 to him, the most revered divinity among the Heathen Saxons, 
 Danes, and other northern nations. As Odin was believed to 
 be fathtr, Frea was esteeujcd the mother of all lUe other gods. 
 
 goddcs 
 by tlie 
 
 thus, or Earth, who was so devoutly woishippcd by t'le Aiigli 
 and other German nations. But when Odm, the conqueror of 
 the north, usurped the honours due only to the true Odin, his 
 wife Frea usurped those wliich ha<l been formerly paid to mother 
 Earth. She was worshipped as the goddes~ of love and pleasure, 
 yvho bestowed im her votaries a variety of delights, particularly 
 happy marriages and easy births. To Frea the sixth day of the 
 week was consecrated, which still bears her name, Friday, or 
 i'rea's day. 
 
 FREAM, in husbandry, ploughed land worn out of heart, and 
 laid fallow till it recover. 
 
 I'RECKLES, Lektigi.ves, are spots of a yellowish colour. 
 of tlie bigness o( a lentile seed, scattered o\er the face, neck, and 
 Jiands. Freckles are either natural, or proceed from the iaundice, 
 or the action ot die sun upon the part. Heat, or a sudden cliangc 
 ol weather, will often make the skin ai^pear of a daiker colour than 
 is natural, and thereby produce what is called tan, sunburn, and 
 morphew ; which seem to differ only in degree, and vsuallT dis- 
 appear in winter. Persons of a fine complexion, and those whose 
 hair is red, are most subjeit to treckles, especially in parts expos- 
 ed to the sun and air. 'I'o remove treckle>, put 'juice of lemons 
 in a glass vial, and, mixing it with sugar and borax linely pow- 
 dered, let it digest eigiit clays, and tiion use it. According to 
 Homberg, one ot the best apiilicalions for dispersing freckles, is a 
 mixture ol bullock's gall with a solution ot alum, which, after liie 
 latter has subsided, must be digested in the sun for three or four 
 months in a close phial. Another prepmalion is made by taking 
 four ounces of lemon-juice, and mixing with it two drachms ot 
 sugar, and one of borax, finely [)owdi;red ; and, after these ingre- 
 dients have stood a week or fortnight in a glass bottle, the liquor 
 will be fit fur use. As, however, freckles generally vanish dur- 
 ing the winter, and have been observed to re-appear in earlv 
 spring, the sharp inorning-air of which, though salubrious, is said 
 to be uncommonly favourable to their re-production, perhaps the 
 most easy method of preventing them would be a careful atten- 
 tion to this circumstance. 
 
 FREDBERG, or FREDEBERG, a rich and strong town of 
 Germany, in Misnia, on the river Mulla. 
 
 FREDEBURG, or FKEDENBURG, a town of Germany, 
 in Westphalia, i'J miles E. of Cologn, and 30 W. of Cassel. 
 
 FREDERICA, a town of Georgia, on the island of St. Si- 
 mons. Lon. 81. L'j. W. Lat. 31.0. N. 
 
 FREDERICIA, a strong sea-port town of Denmark, in 
 North Jutland, seated on the Little Belt. Lon. 9. 4. E. Lat bj 
 37. N. 
 
 FREDERICK, the name of several Euroi)ean monarchs. 
 FREDERICK I., king of Prussia, tlie son of Frederick-Wil- 
 liam the Great, elector of Biaiulenburg, was born in 1657 ; and 
 succeeded his father in the electorate, A. D. lOSb. In 1700 he 
 entered into a negociation w ith the emperor, Leopold I., to get 
 I'russia erected into a kingdom: which he at last obtained by a 
 singular accident. While appearances were rather unpromising, 
 he received a letter from his iiiini:,ter written in ciphers, advising 
 him to use the interest of a certain prince ; but, he mistaking the 
 ciphers, applied to tlie emperor's confessor; who, being a Jesuit 
 was so much struck with the honour done him by a Protestant 
 elecjor, that he exerted his whole interest, and that of his order, to 
 procure him the ilesired object. Frederick was accordingly crown- 
 ed king of Prussia, Jan. 18, 1701. He was endued with many 
 virtues. He was magnilicent, generous, constant to his marriage- 
 vows, and studied the true interest of his subjects, by pre-erving 
 his dominions in peace. He was three times married:' his second 
 queen was sister to king George I. He founded the university of 
 Halle, and the royal academy at Berlin. He died in 1713. 
 
 Fredekick H. surnamed the Great, king of Prussia, one of 
 the greatest warriors the present age has produced, was the son of 
 IVecleriek- William, then hereditary prim e of Brandenburii, anil 
 princess Sophia Dorothea, daughter of king George I. lie was 
 born in 1712, the year before his father mounted tlie .throne, who 
 was so far from being a patron of litertine, that he regarded 
 nothing but what related to the military art; and most of his 
 generals scarce knew how to sign their names. He obtained but 
 a scanty education, owing to his father's contempt of letters and 
 predilection for military discipline. On growing up, the youiiJ 
 
 prince
 
 FRE 
 
 r^C',0 
 
 FRE 
 
 
 pvince ^I'eweil so slroit» an incliuatiou to liU'ViiUirc' ami music as 
 to incur liis fathtr's lii^pleasure. The severe tri.'aUnent luj re- 
 ceived, leil Isim, ill 1730, to altempt aii escajjc iVom rrussis, l-,ul 
 the scheme bein;!; discovered, the prince was couhned in the caslli! 
 of Custrin, and his voiuig companion Katte executed before his 
 face. Alter a Confinenient of some months lie obtained his par- 
 don, and in l'.i3 married the princess of ISruiiswick Wolfenbuttlo, 
 in ebedifuce to hisfather's commanci, but \v never cohal)iled with 
 lier. In 1740 lie succeeded lo tlie tliroue, and takin.^ advantage 
 of the defenceless slate of Maria-'l'heresa, ijueni of Hungary, he 
 marched into .Silesia, which was added to liis <ioniinions by tlie 
 treatv of Breslaw. In 1744 the war was renewed asjainst Ihequeen 
 of Hun^arv, and the same year Frederick took Praeiie, which 
 however he was forced to quit by the approacli of a Saxon army 
 under die princt- of Lorraine. In 1 74.i he defeated tiiat prmci-, 
 at Kripiiburgli, and then marched into iiohenua, where be de- 
 feated an Austrian army which was superior to hi-, ctvu. Shortly 
 after he took D.resden and laid it nn<ler heavy exactions. A treaty 
 of peace wiS concluded at the end of this year by the mediation 
 oftlie Eui^rKli minister; and the interval of tramiuillity was em- 
 ployed by i'rederick in regulating his dominions, forminji; a body 
 of laws, and in coniposin;; some literary works. In 17J0 Voltaire 
 visiied Prussia, -md was received with the most flattering marks of 
 aU..'ntion by the king-, but the friendship at last ended in a violent 
 quarrel, an<l the Fri'iicli philosopher quitted Prussia abruptly, and 
 in disgrace. In 1750 a treaty w is concluded between England and 
 Prussia, which produced another between France, Auilria, and 
 I'ussia. The seven years war, as il is called, begiui by the march 
 of Frederick into Sa\onv and taking the camp of Pirna. The lol- 
 lowliig vei.r he gaineil the battle of Prague over the Austrians, on 
 which lie laid siege to that city : but after reducing it to great >ti aits, 
 he was compelled to ret real by marshal Daun, and retire into Saxony. 
 Frederick was now surrounded by enemies, the French entered 
 Hanover, the Russians and Swedes advanced towanls Prussia, and 
 the Imiierialists pursued him into Saxony. Still undaunted, he 
 attacked and defeated the French and Austrians at Uosebach ; then 
 marching into Silesia, he beat another army at Lissa. The Rus- 
 sians and Swedes retreated precipitately from Prussia; and the 
 Hanoverians took the tiehl under the prince of Brunswick. In 
 1758 he received a large subsidy from England ; and the tame year 
 he entered Moravia, where he laid siege to Olmutz, which was 
 relieved by m.irshal Daun. lie then marched against the Rus- 
 sians, who had laid siege to Custrin, and defeated them after a 
 bloody battle at Zorndoff. But not long after he was surprized 
 a[id beat by Daun, at llockkirchcn. The next year the king was 
 defeated alter a very obstinate and doubtful engagement, at Cun- 
 nersdolf, by the Russians; and in 1701, the confederates entered 
 •Brandenburg, and took Berlin. Frederick, however, by defeating 
 Daun at Torgau, gave a turn to his affairs, and the Russians and 
 Swedes quitted his territories. In 17(5'J peace was restored be- 
 tween hiin and Russi.i and Sweden, and in 17t>.5 a treaty much in 
 bis favour was conclufled with the empress iiueeri, by which Sile- 
 .sia was corilirmed to Prussia. Still interit upt.'U aggrandisement, he 
 planned die partition of Poland in 1772, and obtained for his share 
 Western Prussia. In 1778 be opposed tiie design of the emperor 
 Joseph to dismember Bavaria, and inarched in person against that 
 nionari 1 1, V. ho was assisted by the fanmns general Laudohn. But 
 no action took place, and by the treaty ofTeschen, in 1779, the 
 Austrian court renounced tlie design. After a long and active 
 life, Frederick died in 1781). He was courteous in his manners, 
 lively in conversation, an acute politician, and in general fond of 
 justice and liumandv. But be was an avowed infidel, and actu- 
 ated by-no belter principle than pleasure and self-interest. He 
 never bad any issue. His works published in his UiVtime are in 
 four vols. 8vo. ; and since hisdi ath fiiteen more have been printed. 
 The pruicipal are, tli'" Memoirs of the House of Brandenburg: a 
 poem oij the Art of War : the History of hi* own Time : and the 
 History ol the Seven Years War. 
 
 Krehfrick V. kin; of Denmark, reigned 30 years, and on his 
 death-bed, expressed bis satisfaction to bis son (.'hrislian VII. in 
 a circiijiistance, which few iiionarchs can boast who have reigned 
 so long. " It is a great eonsolatioii to me my son, (said he) in 
 my last moments, that I have not injured any person, and that niv 
 hands are not stained with one drop of blootl." 
 . Frederick, a county of Maryland, bounded on the N. by 
 
 b,^^— >.T-:r' ; . , i" ' ' -, ,.' - ■•; i^^ 
 
 Pennsylvania, E. by Ballimore, S, W. Uy the Potomac, and W, 
 by Wa>biugton. 
 
 Fi'.KDtiucK, a county of Virginia, bounded on the N. by 
 Berkley, E. and S. by ihe Shanandoah, and W. by Hanipslihe, 
 Winchester is the chief town. 
 
 Frederick, a town of New Brunswick, on the N. side of St. 
 John's river. I.on. 06. 4.'). W. Lat. 4ti. 3.. N. 
 
 FREDERICKSBURG, a Danish fort on the Gold coast of 
 Guinea, in Africa, near Cape Threepoints, O'J miles from Cape 
 Coast Castle. Lon. 1. j. W. I.at. 4. 30. N. 
 
 I'Rf:i)UU!rK3Fci!<G, a town of Vifginia, in Spotsylvania county, 
 50 miles S. S. W. of Alesandr'a. Loh. 77. So. \\ . Lat. 38. 22. Nt 
 FHrtCDEM ICKSll .'i LL, a (own of Norwiy in the province of 
 Aggeriiuys, on the frontiers of Sweden, iuid on the extremity of 
 the Swiiiesnnd, 31 miles S. E. of ChtislidQia. and iO N. of Ud- 
 devalla, Lon. tO. j<J. E. Lat. 59. 2. N. 
 
 FREDERKKSODE, a town of Denmark, in Jutland, 50 
 miles N. of Sfcswick. 
 
 FKEDERICKS-SUND, a sea-port of Denmark, in the isle of 
 Zealand, 10 miles N. W. of Couenluiaien. Lon. 1.2. 13. E. Lat. 55. 
 50. \T ' 
 
 FRKDRRICKSTADT, a town of Denmark, 17injles W. S^ 
 W. ol Sleswick. 
 
 P'REOERicKST.XDT, a town of Norway, in the province of Ag- 
 gerliuvs. 2t) miles W, of Freilericksliall. 
 
 FR'EDERICKS'i'DWN, a flourishing town of Maryland, 47 
 mil.'-s W. by N. of Baltimore. 
 
 FREE, or IMPERIAL CITIES in the late German conslilu- 
 tion, are those not subject to any particular prince; but governed, 
 like repuiilics, by their own magistrates. 
 
 FrebiBench, signifies that estate in copyhold which the wife, 
 being espoused a virgin, has after the decease of her husband for 
 her dower, according to the custom of the manor. In regard to 
 this free-bench, dillVrent manors have diflereut customs. Jn the 
 manor of E. and W. Enhournc in Berkshire, and other jjarts of 
 England, there is a custom, that when a copyhokl tenant dies, the 
 widow shall have her free-bench in all the deceased husband's 
 lands, dum sola & casta fuerit, " whilst she lives single and 
 cliaste;" but if she shall be guilty of incontmency, he shall forfeit 
 her estate. Nevertheless, upon her coming into the court of the 
 manor riding backwards on a black ram, with his tail in her hand, 
 rehearsing a ridiculous and imlelicate form of words in doggerel 
 rliynies, characteristic of the' times in which they were composed, 
 tlie steward is bound by the custom to restore her to her free- 
 bench. 
 
 FREEBOOTER, or FLIBUSTKR, was originally a name 
 given to the pirates who scoured the American .ieas, and made 
 war against the Spaniards. 
 FREED-MAN. See Libertus. 
 FREEDO.M. See Liberty. 
 Freedom of Conscience. See Toleration. 
 Freedom OF THE Will, that jiower or faculty of the mind, 
 whereby it is capable of acting or not acting, choosing or rejecting 
 whatever it judges proper of'impropev. Of this every man must 
 be sensible, who finds in himself a pov.er to begin or forbear, con- 
 tinue or end, several actions, barely by a thought or preference of 
 the mind. See iNIet.vphysics. 
 
 FREE-IIOLD, signifies lands or tenements which a person 
 holils in fe<.--siniph', fee-tail, or for term of life. Freehold is dis- 
 tinguished into freehold in deed, and freehold in law ; the first of 
 which signifies the real possession of lands, &.c. in fee, or for life ; 
 the other is the right that a person Ikk to such lands or tenements 
 before his entry. 
 
 Free-hoi.d is also extended to such oltlces as a man holds in 
 fee, or during life. A freehold, by the common law, cannot com- 
 mence in futuro, but it must take effect presently, either in posses- 
 sion or reversion, or remainder ; anil w here a person pleads liberum 
 teneinentum, or freehold, generally the law intends he has an 
 estate in fee, and not barely for life. V/hatever is part of the 
 freehold, goes to the heir ; and things fixed thereto, may not be 
 taken as a distress for rent, or in execution, &c. Nomanshidl 
 be disseised of his freehold by slat. Magna Charta, cap. 29, but 
 by judgement of his peers, or according to laws of the land : nor 
 shall any disti'ain freeholders to answer for their freehold, in any 
 thing concerning the same, without, the king's writ. Freehold 
 
 estates.
 
 THE 
 
 501 
 
 FR E 
 
 estalL'S, ot ccrlaiii v;ilin-, aiv ie(|uiieil bv slatutc^ to ijiialit) juroi^, 
 elerto'-s of (lie kniglils ol tlif shire in parlianuMit, &c. 
 
 KREKMAN, Susan'NAN, afterwards Mrs CAKROLaiulMr 
 Centlivre, a celebrated coniie writer, daiigliter of Mr. I'Vce 
 man ol H'llbeacli, id l^iiicoliislure. Slie had Mich ;im early Uini 
 for poetry, tliat it is said slie wrote a song beltue she was seven 
 years old. 15eforc she was twelve, she could not only read 
 Moliere in French, but enter into the spirit of all the character-. 
 Her latlier dyiiip;, left her to the care of a step-mother, wlio^e 
 treatment bcini^ harsh, she deterinined, thoimh alinnsi destitute o: 
 every necessary, to 150 up to London to seek a belter fortune. As 
 she was procirdiiisj on foot, she was met bv the noted libertine, 
 Anthony Hammond, Esc). who was so struck with her lieauly, that 
 he instantly fell in love with lur; and inf|niring into her story, 
 soon prevailed upon her inexi)erienced innocence to go with him 
 to Camlnidge. After some months' cohabitation, he persuaded 
 her to come to London ; where, in a short time, she was married 
 to a nephew of Sir Stephen Fox. Hut lie dyins about a y e^r after, 
 her wit and beauty soon procured her a second husband, one Car- 
 rol, an oliicer in the army ; but he being killed in a duel about 
 eighteen months after, she became a votary of the Muses, and un- 
 der this name of Carrol, some of her earlier pieces were published. 
 Her first attempt was a tragedy, the Perjured Ilusbanil ; but her 
 natural vivacity leading her to comedy, we find but one more 
 attempt in the buskin, an'ong eighteen dramatic pieces which she 
 afterwards wrote. In 1706, Mr. Joseph Centlivre, principal cook 
 to queen Anne, married her ; and, after passing several vears ha])- 
 pilv together, she died at his house in Spring Garden, in Dec 
 17-3. She for many years enjoyed the intimacy and esteem of 
 the most eminent wits of the times, viz. Sir Richard Steele, Rowe, 
 Budgell, I'arquhar, Dr. Sewell, &c. and few author^ received more 
 tokens ot esteem and |)atronage from the great. Her plays do not 
 abound with wit, and the language is sometimes poor; but hei 
 plots are well conducted, and her characters natural. 
 
 FREE-STONE, a whitish stone, dug up in many parts of 
 Britain, that works like alabaster, but is more hard and durable; 
 being of excellent use in building, ^-c. It is a species of tl: e grit- 
 stone, but finer sanded and smoother. The qualities of the several 
 kinds of free-stones used in the different parts of Europe vary 
 much. Tiiey all agree in this general property indeed, that they 
 are softer while in the quarry, than when they have been some 
 time exposed to the air: but even this general property dill'eis 
 greatly in degree. 
 
 FREETHINKERS. See Deism, and Deist. 
 
 FREEZE, FRIEZE, or FRIZE. See Frieze. 
 
 FREEZING, in philosophy, the same with congelation. See 
 Cold, Cokgelation, Frost, and Toe. Freezing may be de- 
 fined the fixing of a fiuid body into a solid mass, by the action of 
 cold. Water and some other fluids suddenly dilate and expand in 
 the act of freezing, so as to occupy a greater space in the solid than 
 in the liqui<l state: in consequence of which ice is specifically 
 hghter than water and floats upon it. Water also loses of its weiglit 
 by freezing, being found lighter after it is thawed, than before it 
 was frozen. And it even evaporates nearly as fast while frozen, as 
 while it is fluid. Water which has been boiled freezes more readily 
 than that which has not been boiled; and a slight disturbance of 
 the fiuid disposes it to freeze more speedily ; having sometimes 
 besn cooled several degrees below the freezing point, without con- 
 gealing when kept quite still, but suddenly freezing into ice on the 
 least motion or disturbance. Water, covered over with a surface 
 of oil of olives, does no' freeze so readily as without it ; and nut-oil ab- 
 solutelv preserves it under a strong frost, when olive-oil would not. 
 Rectified spirit of wine, nut-oil, and ail of turpentine, seldom 
 freeze. The surface of water, in freezing, appears all wrinkled ; 
 the wrinkles being sometimes in parallel lines, and sometimes like 
 rays, proceeding from a centre to the circuinference. Fluids 
 standing in a current of air grow much colder thiin before. F'ah- 
 renheit had long ago observed, that a pond, which stands quite 
 calm, often aciiuires a degree of cold much beyond what is suf- 
 ficient for freezing, and yet no congelation ensued : but if a slight 
 breath of air happens in such a case to brush over the surface of 
 the water, it freezes the whole in an instant. It has also been dis- 
 covered, that all substances grow colder bv the evaporation of the 
 fluids which they contain, or with which tlicy are mixed. If both 
 these methods, {herefore, be practised upon the same body at the 
 
 VOL II. NO. 80. * 
 
 ■■ainc lime, they will increase Ihe cold to almost any degree ol in- 
 lenseness we please. Although cold, in general, conlia. t> inott 
 bodies, and heat expands them, yd there aresonu; instances to the 
 contrary, especially in the extreme cases or stiles of thoe qualities 
 of bodies. Thus, liiough iron, in common with other bodies, cx- 
 p.inds with heat, yet, wnen melted, it is alvavs found to expand 
 in cooling again. Tlius also, though w aler expands gradually as it 
 IS healed, and contracts as it cools, yet in the act of freezing it sud- 
 ilenly expands again, and that with an enormous force, capable of 
 rending rocks, or bursting the very thick shells of metal, &c. A 
 computation of the force of Irerzing water has been made by the 
 Florentine Academicians, from Ihe burstinf^ of a very strong brass 
 globe or shell, by freezing water in it; when, from the known 
 thickness and tenacity of the mclal, it wasfiniiid lliat the cxpaiisive 
 power of a spliernle of water only one inch in diameter was suffi- 
 cient to overcome a resistance of more thm 27,000 pounds, or 13 
 tons and a half. See the experiments on bursting Ihick bonib-sliells, 
 by freezing water in them, by Major F^dward Williams of the 
 Royal Artillery, in the Edin. rhilus. Trans, vol. 2. Such a pro- 
 digious power of expansion, almost dniible that of the most power- 
 ful steam-engines, and exerted in so small a mass, seemingly by the 
 force of cold, was thought a very material argument in favour of 
 those who supposed that cold, nke heal, is a positive substance. 
 Dr. Black's discovery of latent heat, however, has afforded a very- 
 easy and natural explication of this phenomenon. He has shewn, 
 that, in the act of congelation, water is not cooled more than it was 
 before, but rather grows warmer: that as much heat is discharged, 
 and passes from a latent to a sensible state, as, had it been ajiplied 
 to water in its fluid stale, would have heated it to 135°. In this 
 proces-, the expansion is occasioned by a great number of mimite 
 bubbles suddenly produced. Formeily these were supposed to 
 be cold in the abstract ; and to be so subtile, thai, insinuating 
 themselves into the substances of the fiuid, they iiusniented its bulk, 
 at (he same time that, by impeding the motion ol its particles upon 
 each oilier, they changed it from a fluid to a solid. But Dr. 
 I'lack shews, that these are onlv air extricated during the conge- 
 h'.tion ; and to the extrication of this air he ascribes the prodigious 
 expansive force exerted b\ freezing water. The only question, 
 therefore, is. By w hat means this air comes to be extricated, and 
 to take up more room than it naturally does in the fluid.' To this 
 it may be answered, that perhaps part of the heat, which is dis- 
 charged from the freezing water, combines w ilh the air in its un- 
 elaslic state, and, by restoring its elasticity, gives it that extraordi- 
 nary force ; as is seen also in the case of air suddenly extricated in 
 the explosion of gun-powder. The degree of expansion of water, 
 in the state of ice, is by some authors computed at about -j-'^ of its 
 volume. Oil and quicksilver shrink and contract after freez- 
 ing. 
 
 Freezing Mixtures, preparations for the artificial congelation 
 of water, and oiher fluids. See Cold, and Ice. 
 
 Freezing 1'oint denotes the poiui or degree of cohl, by amer- 
 cmial thermometer, at which certain fluids begin to freeze, or, 
 w hen frozen, at which they begin to thaw again, (hi Fahrenheit's 
 thermometer, this point is at -|- 32'M"or water, and at — 4-0° for 
 quicksilver, these fluids freezing at those two points respec- 
 tively. 
 
 Freezing Rain, or Raining Ice, a very uncommon kind of 
 shower, which fell in the west of England, in Dec. 1072 ; whereof 
 we have various accounts in the Philos. Tranj. This rain, as soon 
 as it touched anv thing above ground, asa bough or the like, im- 
 mediately settled into ice ; and, by multiplying and enlarging the 
 icicles, broke all down with its weight. The rain that fell on the 
 snow immedi.itelv fj-oze into ice, without sinking into the snow at 
 all. It made an incredible destruction of trees, beyond any thing 
 ill all historv. " Had it concluded with some gust of wind (savs 
 a gcntlemaii who was on the spot,) it might have been of terrible 
 consequence. I weigheil the sprig of an ash-tree, of just three 
 quarters of a pomid, the ice on which weighed .16 pounds. Some 
 were frighted with the noise in the air ; till they discerned it wastiie 
 clatter of icy bougln, dashed against each other," Dr. Beale ob- 
 serves, that there was no considerable frost observed on the ground 
 during the whole time; whence he concludes, that a frost .may 
 be verv inten'i' and dangerous on the tops of some hills and plains ; 
 while in other places it keeps a.3, or 4 feet distant above the 
 ground, rivers, lakes, &c. and inav wander about very furiously 
 6 .M .."...., ill
 
 FRE 
 
 50'2 
 
 FR E 
 
 in some places, and remiss in others not far off. The frost was lol- \ 
 lowed by glowing heats, and a wonderful forwardness of flowers 
 and frii'ts. 
 
 FRElGhT, or FRAIGHT, in navigition and commerce, is 
 the toll^lde^ation ol money agreed to be paid for th.- use or hire 
 of a ship, or in a hirger sense, the burthen of sucli ship. Tlie 
 freight is mo-t frequently determined for the wliole voyage, with- 
 out respect to time: sometimes it depends on time ; in the former 
 case it is either fixed at a certain sain for the whole cargo, or so 
 much per ton, barrel, bulk, or other weight or measure, or so 
 much per cent, oh the value of the cargo. If a certain sum is 
 agreed on for the freight of the ship, it must all be paid, allhougli 
 the ship when measured should prove less, unless tiie burllien is 
 warranted. If the ship is freighted for transporting cattle or slaves 
 at so much per head, and some of them die on the passage, freiglit 
 is only due for sucli as are delivered alive ; if for ladmg them, it Is 
 due for all put onboard. When a whole ship is freighted, if the 
 master suffers any goods besides those of the freight to be put on 
 board, he is liable for damages. If tlie voyage is completed ac- 
 cording to the agreement, without any accident, the master has a 
 right to demand tlie freight before the delivery of the goods; but 
 if such delivery is prevented bv negligence or accidents, the par- 
 ties will be reciprocally re-jponsible in the following manner. If 
 the merchant shouUl not load the ship within the time agreed on, 
 the master may engage with anoUier, and recover damages. If 
 the merchant recalls tlie ship after she is laden and sailed, he must 
 pay the whole freight ; but if he unloads before the ship has ac- 
 tually sailed, he will in such case only be responsible for damages. 
 If the merchant loads goods which are not lawful to export, and 
 the siiip is prevented from proceeding on that account, he must 
 nevertheless pay the freight. If llie master is not ready to proceed 
 on the voyage at the time stipidated, iIih merchant may load the 
 whole or part of tlie cargo on board another ^hip, and recover 
 tlamages ; but any real ca^ualties will release the master from all 
 damages. If an emban!;o is laid on the ship before she sails, the 
 charterparty is dissolved, and the merchant pays the cxpence of 
 loading and unloading; but if the embargo is only for a short 
 limited time, the voyage shall be performecl when it expires ; and 
 neither party is liable tor damages. If the master sails to any other 
 port than that agreed on, without necessity, he must sail to the port 
 agreed on at his own expence, and is also liable for any damages 
 in consequence of it. If a ship is taken by the enemy, and retaken 
 or ransomed, the charterparty continues in force. If the master 
 transfers goods from his own ship to another, without necessity, 
 and they perish, he is responsible for the full value, and all charges ; 
 but if his own ship is in nnminent danger, the goods may be put 
 on board another ship at the risk of the owner. If a ship is freight- 
 ed out and home, and a sum agreed on for the whole voyage, 
 nothing becomes due imtil the return of such ship. If a certain 
 sum is specified for the homeward vu)age, it is due, although the 
 correspnndent abroad should have no goods to send home. A ship 
 was freighted to a particular port and home, a particular freiglit 
 agreed upon for the homeward voyage, with an option reserved 
 for the correspondent to decline it, unless the ship arrived before a 
 certain day. The master did not go to the port agreed on, and 
 therefore became ii.ble to damages; the obligation being absolute 
 on his part, and conditional only on the part of the freighter. If 
 the goods are damaged without fault of the ship or master, the 
 owner is not obliged to receive them and pay the freight, but he 
 ifiust either receive or abandon the whole; he c;mnot receive 
 those that are not damaged, and reject the others. If the goods 
 are damaged through tlie insufiiciency of the ship, the master is 
 liable for the same ; but if it is owing to stress of weather he is not 
 accountable. If part of the goods is thrown overboard or taken 
 by the enemy, the part delivered pays freight. The master is 
 .iceountable for all the goods received on board by himself and 
 mariners, unless they perish by the act of God, or the king's ene- 
 mies. The master is not li;>ble for leakage of liquors, nor accounta- 
 ble t T (-.intents of packages, unless packed in his presence. 
 
 FREIND, John, a learned English physician and author, born 
 at C'roton, ni Norlhampton^hire, in ll)75. In I696, he pub- 
 lished, in conjunction v/ilh Mr. P. Foulkes, an edition of two 
 Greek or;'.tioyis, viz. of ^'Eschine^ against Ctesiphon, and Demos- 
 thenes de Corona, with a new Latin version. In 1699, he wrote 
 a letter to Dr. Sloane concerning an Hydrocephalus, published 
 in the PLilosaphical Transactions, and another letter in Latin to 
 
 the same gentleman, De Spasnii rarioris, Historia, printed in the 
 same Transactions. In 1703, his Emnienologia appeared ; which 
 gained him great reputation. In 1704, he wai chosen professor of 
 chemistry in the university of O.xford. In 1705, he attended the 
 earl of Peterborough to Spain, as physician to the army tliere; aiKl 
 upon his return in 1707, published an account of the earl's ex- 
 pedition. In 1709, he published his Chemical Lectures. In 
 17 1-, he attended the duke of Orniond in Flanders, as his physi- 
 cian. In 17 IG, he was admitted a fellow of the college of physi- 
 cians in London. This year he published the tirst and third 
 books of Hippocrates De .Morbis popularibus, with a Commen- 
 tary on Jievers, written by himself, lie sat M. P. for Launceston 
 in Cornwall in 17C?, where In* distinguished himscit by his opposi- 
 tion to the ministry. In March 17^2, he was conuiiitted to the 
 tcwer on a charge of high treason: and while he was under con- 
 finement, he wrote a Latin epistle to Dr. Mead, De quibusdam 
 \'ar olarum Gencribus ; and began his History of Physic, the first 
 part of w liich was published in 17'i5, and the second in 1726. 
 Upon the accession of George II, he was appointed plixsician to 
 the queen, who shewed the utmost esteem tor him. He died at 
 London m I7'i8. His workj were published together in Latin 
 at London by Dr. Wigan, in folio, in 1733, and dedicated to the 
 queen. 
 
 FREJULS, or FREJUS, a town of France, in the depart- 
 ment of Var, anciently called Forum Juliuni, or Julii. Itis seated 
 near llie Argens, 40 miles N. E. of Toulon. 
 
 FRENAV E, two towns of France, in the department of Sarte; 
 1. six miles E. of Alen^on: 2. nine miles S.S.W . of Alengon. 
 
 FUENCIl BEAN, m botany. See Pn.\sEOLUs. 
 
 French Broad, a navigable river ofTenessee, which joins the 
 Holstein 11 miles above Knoxville. 
 
 French Langliage, the language now spoken in France, 
 which, like the English, is not an original language, but a medley 
 of several. Those that prevail moit, and are the basis of it, are, 
 1. The Celtic; whether that were a particular language itself, or 
 whether it were only a dialect of the Gothic, as spoke in tiie West 
 and North: 2. The Latin, which the Romans carried with them 
 into Gaul, when they conquered it : And, 3. The Teutonic, or 
 that dialect of the I'eutonic spoken by the Franks, when they 
 passed the Rhine, and established themselves in Gaul. Of these 
 three langtiagcs, in the space of about 1300 years, was the mo- 
 dern French gradually formed. Its progress was very slow. Both 
 the Italian and Spanish were regular languages long before the 
 French. One character of the French language is, that it is 
 natural and easy. The words are ranaed in it much in the same 
 order as the ideas in our mintis, in which it differs exceedingly 
 from the Greek and Latin, where the invirsion of the natural 
 order of words is reputed a beauty. The Hebrew surpasses even 
 the French in this point, but comes short of it in copiousness and 
 variety. But, as to the analogy of grammar, and the simplicity 
 whcre-with the moods of verbs are formed, the English has the 
 advantage not only over the French, but overall the known lan- 
 guages in the worUI ; though the peculiar expressions and idioms of 
 the English are sometimes so quaint and txtraordiniay, that it 
 loses a good deal of the advantage which its grammatical simpli- 
 city gives it over the rest. The I'rench has few compound words, 
 wherein it dilleis widely from the Gieek, High Dutch, and 
 English. This the French authors acknowledge to be a great 
 disadvantage; the Greek and Dutch deriving a great part of 
 their force and energy from the composition of words, and fre- 
 quently expressing that in one sounding word, which the French 
 cannot express but by a periphrasis. The diminutives in the 
 French are as few a", the compounds, the greatest part of iho.ie in 
 use having lost their (iiminutive significatitn. I'lie French is 
 chielly admired for its justness, purity, accuracy, and flexibility. 
 It is the most universal and extensive language in Europe. The 
 policy of states and courts has remlered it necessaiy for the minis- 
 ters of princes, &c. and the discoveries and iminovcments maile 
 bv the French in arts and sciences have had the same effect among 
 the learned. In Germany, and elsewhere, the princesses and per- 
 sons of distinction value themselves tn understanding Fiench; and 
 in several courts of Europe, French is almost as much used as tlie 
 lanuuage of the country. 
 
 FRESCATl, or FRASCATI, a smaU town of Italy, on the 
 brow of a hill, 10 miles S. E. of Rome. 
 
 FRESCO,' a nif-tliod of pniiiting in r«iievo on walls, so as to 
 
 endure
 
 THE 
 
 503 
 
 FRI 
 
 eiiiliire till- weatlicr. It is porforined will) wat.M -colours on Iresli 
 plast r, or on a wall laid \\ 'th hiortar not yet dry. Tliis sort of 
 painting has a gnat ad\ jnfage by its incorporating with the mor- 
 tar, ano, drying along witli it, becomea very diMMble. The Ita- 
 lians,, from whom we borrow the term, call it Irr^co ; because it is 
 ■fVeqiiently used for walls, alcoves, and othfr buildings in the 
 open air. Vilruvius, (lib, vii. cap. 4,)calls it udo tectorio. Paint- 
 ing in fresco is very ancient, having been practised in the earliest 
 ages of Greece and Rome. See Painting. 
 
 FRESH DISSEISIN, in law, such a disseisin, as a man may 
 defeat of hnnself, as where it is witli.n 1 j days. 
 
 Fresh Force, a force newly done ; as where a man is deforced 
 of lands after the death of his ancestor, the person having rght 
 •may within 40 days bring his bill ot Iresh force and recover tlie 
 lands. 
 
 Fresh Shot, in sea-language, the falling down of any large 
 river into the sea, whereby the sea has fresh watera great way from 
 its movith. 
 
 FRESHES, in spa-language, denote the impetuosity of an ebb 
 tide, increa-M-d by heavy rains, and tlowiiig out into the sea, often 
 discolouring it to a considerable distance, and torniing a line tiiat 
 separates the two colours, and which may be distinctly perceived 
 fora great length along the coast. 
 
 Freshes, a local term signifying annual inundations, from the 
 rivers being swollen by the melted snows and other fresh waters 
 from the uplands, as is the Nile, Sec. from periodical or tropical 
 rains. As a sailor's term, it is opposed to marine or salt water 
 floodings, tides, &c. The word is of common use in Avnerica, 
 ■ where the inunda'ions so called are of great service. 
 
 FRESNE, Charlf.s Oe, Sieur Du (;:amge, on« of the most 
 learned writers uf his time, was born at Amiens in 1610, and stu- 
 died at the Jesuits' college in that city. Ai'terwards he studied the 
 law al Orleans, and gained great reputation by his works ; among 
 which are, 1. The history of Constant;nople under the French 
 emperors. 2. Jolin Cinnamus's History of the affaii-s of John and 
 Manuel Comnenus, in Greek and Latin, witli historical and 
 philological notes. 3. Gloss.irium ad Scriptores medi« & infimae 
 Latinitatis 6 vols, folio. 4. A Greek Glossary, consisting of 
 curious passages from rare M. S. S. 2 vols, folio. He died in 
 1688, aged 78. I^ewis XIV settled pensions on his four children. 
 
 FRET, or FRETTE, in architecture, a kind of knot or orna- 
 ment, consisting of two lists or small fillets variously interlaced 
 or interwoven, and running at parallel distances etjual to their 
 breadth. 
 
 Fret-Work, work adorned with frets. It is sometimes used 
 to fill up and enrich Hat empty spaces ; but it is mostly practised in 
 roofs, which are fretted over with plaster-work. 
 
 Fret, in heraldry, a bearing composed of six bars, crossed and 
 variously interlaced. Some call it the true lover's knot. See 
 Heraidry. 
 
 Fret, in music, a kind of stop on some instruments, particu- 
 larly bass viols and lutes. Frets consist of strings tied round the 
 neck of the instrument, at certain distances, within which such 
 and such notes are to be found. 
 
 FRETOY, a town of France, in the department of the Oise, 5 
 miles N. W. of Noyon. 
 
 FRETTS, in miner;.logy, a term used by miners to express the 
 worn side of the banks of the rivers in mine-countries, w here tliev 
 search for the shoad stones or grewts washed down from the hills, 
 in order from thence to trace out the ruiuiing of the shoad up to the 
 mine. 
 
 FREUDENBERG, the name of three towns of Germany: 
 viz. 1. in the circle of Bavaria, four mdes E. of Ainberg: 2. in 
 that of Franconia, 8 miles N. of Wertheim ; 3. in A\ estphalia, 5 
 miles W. N.W. of Siegen. 
 
 FREUDENSTAirr, a fortified town of Suabia, with a citadel, 
 in the kingdom of Wivtemberg: 24 miles S. E. of Stra^burg. 
 
 FR EVEN r, a town of France, in the department of the Straits 
 or Calais ; 7| mile' S. of St. Pol, and 6 W. of Arras. 
 
 FREYA, FRIA, or FRIGGA, the Venus of the Saxons. 
 See Frea. The tollowing German towns appear to have been 
 named from her : 
 
 FREVBERCior FRIDBERG, a town of Upper Saxony in the 
 margraviale of Meissen, ]<) miles W. S. VV. of Dresden. 
 
 FREYBORG or FHIBOR, a town of Moravia, 23miIesE.N.E. 
 of Prerauj 2>id36 E. cfOlmutz, 
 
 FRF.> Bl'RG, a town ol Silesia, in Schweidnitz, near the Pols- 
 nitz, 7 miles \V ot Schweidnitz. 
 
 Frevbi;rc, or Friburc, a town of Upper Saxony, 16 miles S. 
 of Halle, and 4 N. N. W. of Naumburg. 
 
 FREYE-AMTER, a territory of the Helvetic republic, sur- 
 rounded by the cantons of Zurich, Bern, Lucerne, and Zug ; an- 
 cientlv called Ror. and Waggenthal. 
 
 FR'EYENS'l ADT, a town of Bavaria, 20 miles S. E. of Nu- 
 remberg, nixl 31 N. W. of Ratisbon. 
 
 FREYENTiJl.RN, a town of Carniola, on theKulp, 7 miles 
 S. of Rudolfsworth. 
 
 FREYEN\\ ALD, a town of Brandenburg, on the Oder, 24 
 miles N. W. ol Custrin, a'ld 3? N. E. of Berlin. 
 
 FREYSINGEN, or FRIESINGEN, an ecclesiastical princi- 
 pality in Bavaria, between Munich and Landshnt. It com- 
 prehends the counties of I maning and W'erdenfels, and the lord- 
 ship of Burgkrain. 
 
 Fbevsin'oen, the capital of the above bishopric. 
 FREYSTADT; two towns ot Silesia : 1. in the principality of 
 Glogau, 14 miles N. E. of Sagan: 2. in that of Teschen, 7 miles, 
 N. N.W. of Teschen. 
 
 FRIAR, or FRIER, [Lat./r«<er, Ital./ra, and French/rere, 
 i. e. brntlier :} a term common lo monks of all orders ; founded 
 on this, that there is a kind of brotherhood presumed between the 
 religious persons of the same monastery. Friars are generally dis- 
 tinguislied into these four principal branches, viz. 1 Franciscans, 
 Minors, or grev friars: 2. Augustines: 3. Dominicans, or black 
 mars: 4. Carmelites, or white friars. From these four the rest of 
 the orders descend. See these articles. 
 
 Friar, in a more peculiar sense, is restrained to such monks as 
 are not priests; for those in orders are usually dignified with the 
 appellation of father. 
 
 FRIARS OBSERVANT,[/rafrM observantes,'] were a branch 
 of the Franciscans; thus called, because not combined together in 
 any cloister, convent, or corporation, as the conventuals are, 
 but only agreed among themselves to observe the rules of their 
 order. 
 
 FRIBURG, or FREYBURG, a large town of German^', in 
 Suabia capital of Austrian Brisgaw, 10 miles E. of Brisach, and 34 
 S. S. E. of Strasburg. Lon. 7. 57. E. Lat. 43. 4. N. 
 
 Fribukg, a town oi Germany, in Upper Bavaria, 15 miles S. S. 
 E. of Branau, and 18 of Burkhausen. 
 
 FuiEi'RG, or Freyburg, a town of the Helvetic republic, capi- 
 tal of the canton seated on the Sane, 15 miles S. W. of Bern, and 73 
 of Zurich. Lon. 6. 53. E. Lat. 4t). 48. N. 
 
 Friburg, one of the cantons of Switzerland. It is surround- 
 ed on all sides by the canton of Bern. The land is fertile in corn, 
 fruits, and pastures: and the canton can send 18,000 men into the 
 field. 
 
 FRICENTJ, or FRICENTY, an episcopal town of Naples, 
 in Principato Ultra, near the Tripalto : 12 miles N. W. of 
 Coiiza. 
 
 FRICTION, Ifriclion, Fr. frictio, from frico, Latin,] the 
 rubbing of bodies together called also attrition. 1 he phenomena 
 arising upon the friction of divers bodies, under different circum- 
 stances, are very numerous and considerable. Mr. Hawksbee 
 gives a number of experiments of this kind ; particularly of the at- 
 trition or friction of glass, under various circumstances, the result 
 of which was, that it yielded liglit and became electrical. All bo- 
 dies by friction are brought to conceive heat ; many of them to 
 emit light; particularly a cat's back, sugar, beaten sulphur, mer- 
 cury, sea-water, gold, copper, &c. but, above all, diamonds, 
 which when briskly rubbed against glass, gold, or the like, yield a 
 light equal to that of a live coal when blowed by tlie bellows. See 
 Electrtcitv. 
 
 Friction', in mechanics, t'le rubbing of the parts of engines and 
 machines against each other, by which means a great part of their 
 eftect is destroyed. It arises from the roughness or asperity of the 
 sur'ace of the body moved on, and that of the body moving: for 
 such surfaces consisting alternately of eminences and cavities, either 
 the eminences of the one must be raised over those of the other, or 
 they must be both broke and worn off; but neither can hap- 
 pen without motion, ner can motion be produced without a force 
 impressed. Hence, the force applied to move the body is either 
 wholly or partly spent on this effect; and consequently there 
 arises a resistance or friction which svill be greater, cateiis ari- 
 
 bus«
 
 FRI 
 
 504 
 
 FRT 
 
 bus, as the eminences are the greater and the substance the harder- 
 and as the body, by continual friction, becomes more and more 
 polished, the friction diminishes. Messrs. Aniontons, De La 
 Hire, Camus, Desaguliers, Musclienbroe%, Ferguson, Euler, and 
 other mechanicians, have made a number of ingenious experi- 
 ments to settle a principle for the exact calculation of the qflantity 
 of friction. But the most successful set of experinionts, made on 
 this subject, are those of the Rev. Samuel Vince A. M. of Cam- 
 bridge ;' published in the 73th Vol. of the Philosophical- 'Trausac- 
 actions, p. 165. Mr. Emerson, in his Principles of Mechanics 
 has also made several important remarks on the friction of wood 
 and metals. See Mechanics. 
 
 Friction, in medicine, is the act of rubbing a disEBsed part 
 with oils, unguents, and other matters, in order to ease, relieve, 
 and cure it. Friction is also performed with a tlesh-brush, a linen- 
 cloth, or with flannel ; which last is the most eUgible. It is a 
 kind of exercise that remarkably contributes to the health of se- 
 dentary persons ; for it excites and kindles the natural warmth ; 
 diverts defluxions; promotes perspiration; opens the pores: and 
 tends to dissipate stagnant humours. This operation is particular- 
 ly beneficial to the nervous, debilitated, and studious ; being an 
 Hseful substitute for other exercise. Hence we recommend to 
 such individuals to spend half an liour every morning and evening 
 in rubbing their whole body, especially their limbs, with a clean 
 piece of flannel. It ought, however, to be observed, that this 
 practice will be of the greatest service when tlie stomach and 
 bowels are empty. Lastly, we venture to affirm, that the most 
 important purposes to whicli friction may be rendered subservient 
 in the animal economy, have hitherto been almost entirely neg- 
 lected: we are, however, convinced from experience, that medi- 
 cated frictions, or the introduction of the most active medicines 
 into the human system, by rubbing them in properly on the sur- 
 face, might be attended with the most happy (fleets, especially in 
 all chronical diseases. Common sense appears to Ijave long since 
 pointed out this excellent method of administering medicines, even 
 to the Indian savages, though it is little practised in cnlightenedEu- 
 rope, wlierethe stomach is doomed to he the field of battle, for de- 
 ciding commotions and irregularities in our complicated frame. 
 But who is harfly enough to maintain, that the digestive organ 
 was by Nature destined to be the exclusive vehicle of drugs, and 
 to serve as their common laboratory. 
 
 FRIDBERG, a town of Germany, in Bavaria, 4 miles S. E. of 
 Aiigsburg, and 28 W. N. W. of Munich. 
 
 Fridberg, an impeiial town of Germany, in Weteravla, 12 
 miles N. E. of Frankfort, and 28 E. N. E. of'Mentz. 
 
 Fridberg, a town of Germany in Stiria, 32 miles E. of Pruck, 
 and 42 S. of Vienna. 
 
 FR ID BURG, a town of Germany, in Upper Saxony, 30 miles 
 W. of Leipsick. 
 
 FRIDECK, a town of Silesia, 10 miles W. S. W. ofTeschen, 
 and 10 S. of Odelberg. 
 
 Frideck, a town of Prussia, 12 miles E. of Culm. 
 
 FRIDING, a town of Germany, in Suabiai'SO miles N. E. of 
 Constance. 
 
 FRIDLAND, a town of Bohemia, 55 miles E. of Dresden. 
 * FRIDSTOL, one of the ancient immunities granted to 
 churches. The word signifies a seat, chair, or place of peace and 
 ■security, where criminals might find safety and protection. Of 
 these there were many in England; but tlfe most famous were 
 those at Beverly, and in St. Peter's church at York, granted by 
 charter ofking Henry I. 
 
 FRIEDBERG, orFRIEDENBURG, a town of Silesia, in 
 the duchv of Jauer, on the Quiess ; 1 1 miles W. of Lowcnlierg. 
 
 Friedberg Hohen, ato«/n of Silesia, in tlie duchy ofSchweid- 
 aitz ; 5 miles S.W. of Striegau. 
 
 FRIEDEBURG, a town of Westphalia, in E. Friesland, 22 
 miles' E. N. E. of Embden. 
 
 FRIEDERICKHT/KD, atown on the W, coast of Santa Cruz. 
 Lon. 03.25. W. Lat. 17. 48. N. 
 
 FRIEDLINGEN, or FRIDLINGEN, a town and fort of 
 Suabia, 3 miles E. of the Rhine, and 4 N. of Basle. 
 
 •FRIENDLY ISLANDS, a cluster of 60 islands, in the Pa- 
 cific Ocesn, so named by Capt. Cook in 1773, on account of the 
 friendship which appeared to subsist among the inhabitants, and 
 from tiieir courteous behaviour to strangers. The chief of these 
 
 4 
 
 islands are Aimamnoka, Tangataboo, Lefooga, and Eaooa, or 
 Middleburg. The natives of these islands seldom exceed the 
 cummou stature, but are very strong and well made. These 
 islands lie between 170° and ISO" Lon. W. and between 20° aiid.23" 
 Lat. S. 
 
 PTIIENDS, or QUAKERS, a numerous and respectable reli- 
 gious sotielVi which took its rise about the middle of the I7lli 
 century; and spread very ijuickly into the British colonies in 
 North America, as well as inio various countries in Europe. Tlie 
 members called themselves at first Seekers, from their seeking, the 
 truth; but after their society was formed, assumed the.nanje.of 
 Friends. The name of Quakers was given them in derision. 
 George Fox, a shoemaker, (see Fox,) is generally allowed to have 
 been the founder of this Society. They were soon after joined by 
 a number of learned, iiigeniuus, and |)ious men. The chief of 
 these were George Keith, the justly celebrated William Pifnn, 
 (see Penn.) and Barclay of Ury. 'I'hey believe in one eternal 
 God, the Creator and Preserver of the universe; and in Jesus 
 Christ bis Son, the Messiah, and Mediator of the new Covenant, 
 (lieb. xii. 24.) To Christ alone they give the title of the Word 
 of God, (.liihn i. 1.) '1 hey hold, that the scriptures are able to 
 make wise unto salvation, tiirough iaitli in Christ Jesus, (2 Tim. 
 iii. 15.) They reverence the precepts of our Lord, and believe 
 that in the life to come every man will be rewarded according to 
 his woiks, (Matt. xvi. 27.) And that, to enable mankind to 
 practise these sacred precepts, many of which are contradictory to 
 the iniregenerate will of man, (Jolin. i. 9,) every man coming into 
 the world is endued with a measure of the light, grace, or good 
 Spirit, otChrist; by which, as it is attended to, he is enabled to 
 disthiguish good from evil, and to correct the disorderly passions 
 and corrupt propensities, of his nature, which mere reason is alto- 
 gether insuflicient to overcome. They consider as obstructions to 
 pure worship, all forms which divert the attention of the mind 
 Irom the secret influence of tliis unLtion from the Holy One, 
 (1 John li. 20, 27.) They meet often together, (Heb. x."25,) in 
 testimony of tlieir dependence on die heavenly Father, and for a 
 renewal of their spiritual strength : nevertheless, in worship they 
 do not depend for acceptance with him, on a formal repetition of 
 the words and experiences of others; but they believe it to.be 
 their duty to cease from the activity of the imagination, and to 
 wait in silence for a true sight of their condition: believing even 
 a single sigh, (Rom. viii. 20,) arising from such a sense of their in- 
 firmities, to be more acceptable to God, than any performance?, 
 which originate in the will of man. They believe the renewed 
 assistance of the light and power of Christ to be indispensably ne- 
 cessary for all true ministry; and that this holy influence is not at 
 our command, or to be procured by study, but is the free gift of 
 God to his chosen and devoted servants. Hence they object to 
 preaching I'or hire, (Matt. x. 8,) and consequently to the payment 
 of tithes. As male and female are one in Christ, they allow such 
 of the female sex as have a right qualification to exercise their 
 gifts in the ministry : and this liberty they etteem to be a peculiar 
 mark of the gospel dispensation, as foretold by Ihe prophet Joel, 
 (Joel ii. 28. 26,) and noticed by the apostle I'eter, Acts ii. l(i, 
 17.) They hold that baptism is one in nature and operation; that 
 nothing short of it can make living members of Christ's mystical 
 body; and that the baptism with water, administered by John, 
 belonged, as the latter confesses, to an inii-rior and decreasing dis- 
 pensation, (John iii. 30 ) They therelorc practise it not. They 
 believe that communion between Christ and his church is not 
 maintained by the Lord's Supper nor any other external perform- 
 ance, but only by a real paiticipation of his divine nature, (2 Pet. 
 i. 4,) ihrongh faith; that tli;s is the supper alluded to in the Reve- 
 lation, (See Rev. iii. 20,) and that where the suDstance is attained, 
 it is unnecessary to attend to the shadow. W ith respect to oaths, 
 tliey abide literally by Christ's positive injunction, " Swear not at 
 all." Wars and fightings they consider in their origin and eflects, 
 utterly repugnant to the Gospel. They inculcate submission to 
 the laws in all cases wherein conscience is not violated. But as 
 Christ's kingdom is not of this world, they think the magistrate 
 ought not to interfere in matters of religion; but to maintain the 
 external peace and gooil order of the coimniinity. They are care- 
 ful in retjiiiring their members not to be conctriied in illicit trade, 
 nor in any manner to detruud the revenue. The society, from its 
 first appearance, disused those na^ws of the months an<l days 
 
 which,
 
 FR I 
 
 )05 
 
 F li I 
 
 whicli, having been ^ivni in honour of tliu heroes or f.il^L' t^oils of 
 till' hcallicns, originate il in Ihcir llattcry or snpcrstition; and Ihc 
 ciistiini of spt-aking to' a single person in the plural number, as 
 liaving ari«i'n also from motives of adulation. Coin])linients, sii- 
 pcr.'initv of appari-1 and furniture, outward shows of rejoicing and 
 'inoiu'iiing, and observation of days and times, they esteem incom- 
 ■patible with the simplicity and sincerity of the Christian life; and 
 public diversions, gaming, and other vain amusements of the 
 world, thev condemn, 'i^hcy think that a true and living faith is 
 not produced in the mind of man by his own etTort; but is tl.e 
 free gift of God, (Eph. ii. S,) in Christ Jesus, nourished and in- 
 creased bv (he progressive operation of his Spirit in our hearts, and 
 our proportionate obedience, (John vli. 17. ) They recpiire no 
 formal subscription to any articles, either as the conditicn of mem- 
 ber hip, or to qualify for the service of the church, but prefer 
 judging of men by their fruits. In the practice of discipline, they 
 think it indispensable thai the order recommended by Christ him- 
 self be invarial.ily observed: (See .Matth. .wiii. 15, to 17.) for 
 the purposes of discipline, meetings were appointed, at an early 
 period of the society, which, from the times of their being held, 
 were called quarterly meetings. It was afterwards I'ound expedi- 
 ent to divide the districts of those meetings, and to meet oftcner; 
 whence arose monthly meetings, subordinate to those held quar- 
 terly. At length, in lOfiO, a yearly meeting was established, to 
 superintend, assist, and provide, rules for the whole; previous to 
 wdiicli general met'tings had been occasionally held. A monthly 
 meeting is usually composed of several particular congregations, 
 situated within a convenient distance of each other. Its businiss 
 is to provide for the subsistence of their poor, and for the educa- 
 tion of their olVspring; to judge of the sincerity and (itness of per- 
 sons desiring to be admitted into membership; to excite due at- 
 tention to the discharge of religious and moral duty; and to deal 
 with disorderly members. Monllily meetings also grant to such 
 of their members as remove into other monthly meetings, certifi- 
 cates of their membership and conduct. Each monthly meeting 
 is required to appoint overseers, to take care that tl.e rules of dis- 
 cipline be put in practice. In disputes between individuals, mem- 
 bers should not sue each other at law. They are enjoined to ap^ly 
 to arbitration, agreeable to rules laid down. If any refuse he is 
 disowned. To monthly meetings also belongs the allowing of 
 marriages. Those who intend to marry, appear together and [iro- 
 pose their intention to the montlily meeting; and if not attended 
 by their parents or guardians produce a written certificate of their 
 consent, signed by witnesses. The meeting then appoints a com- 
 mittee to inquire whether they are clear of other engagements re- 
 specting marriage; and if at a subsequent meeting, to which the 
 parties also come and declare the continuance of their intention, 
 no objections are reported, they have the meeting's consent to so- 
 lemnize their intended marriage. This is done in a public meet- 
 ing for worship ; towards the close whereof the parties stand up, 
 and solemnly take each othei for liusband and wife. A certificate 
 of the proceedings is then publicly read, and signed by the par- 
 ties, and afterwards by tlie relations and others as witnesses. Of 
 such certificates the monthly meeting keeps a record ; as also of 
 the births and burials of its members. A certificate of the date, 
 of the name of the infant, and of its parents, signed by tliose pre- 
 sent at the birth, i- the subject of one of these last-mentione(i re- 
 cords; and an order for the interment, countersigned by the 
 grave-maker, of the other. The naming of children is without ce- 
 remony. Burials .ire also conducted in a simple manner. The 
 Body, followed by the relations and friends, is somclinics, previ 
 ously to interment, carried to a meeting; and at the grave a pause 
 is generally made; on both which occasions it frequently falls out 
 that one or more friends present have soinewhat to express for the 
 edilicalion of those who attend : but no religious rite is considered 
 as an essential part of burial. Several monthly meetings compose 
 a quarterly meeting. The yearly meeting has the general super- 
 intendence of the society in the country in which it is established 
 Appeals from tlie judgement of quarterly meetings are here tinr.lly 
 determined ; and correspondence is maintained with other yearly 
 meetings. The women have (luarterly and yearly meetings, of 
 the. r own sex, held at the same time and in the same place with 
 Ijiose of the men ; but separately, and without the power of mak- 
 ing rules. Elders are selected of either sex, who, by their expe- 
 jience in the work of religion, are (puitilied for that service. 
 "Tii'ese, aiid ministers approved by their monthly meetings, have 
 VOL. II. — NO. 80. 
 
 meetings peculiar to thffiiiselves, called meetings of mui.iler., and 
 elder ;' in which they have an ouporunily of exciting esch other 
 
 to a discharge of their several duties. 'I'hc yearly meeting he,d 
 in London,' ill Iti7i, apptinted a meeting to be held in th.il <it). 
 for the purpose of advising and assisting in cases of sulh-ung lor 
 conscience sake, which hath continued to this day. It is t^in- 
 posed of friends under the name of corrc.-pondciits, chosen by the 
 several quarterly meetings, and who reside in or near the city. 
 The same meetings also appoint members of their own in the 
 country as correspondents, who arc to join (heir brethren in Lon- 
 don on an emergency. There is not in any of the meetings u prcsi- 
 d.ent, as they believe that Divine AVischjii'i alone ought to preside. 
 The office o'f clerk, with a few exceptions, is undertaken volunta- 
 rily by some member; as is also the keeping of the records. 
 Where these are very voluminous, and-rcquire a house for their 
 deposite, a clerk is liired to have the care of them; but except a 
 lew clerks of this kind, and persons who have the care of meeting- 
 houses, none receive any stipend or gratuity for their servicer in 
 the society. 
 
 FR I ESAC H . a town of Carinthia, in the archbishopric of Saltz- 
 burg, 50 miles S. E. of Saltzburg. 
 
 FRIESINGEN, FUEISINGEN, FREYSTNGEN. or fUl- 
 SINGEN, a town of Ravaria, 17 miles N.N. E. of Munich. 
 
 FRIESLAND, or NOR TH FKIESLAND, one of the late 
 United Provinces, ni.w included in the French empire. It vas so 
 named from the Frisons, and ivas bounded on the E. by the- 
 T^auvers, which separates it from Groningen, on the S. by Overys- 
 sel, on the W. by the Zuyder Zee, and on the N. by the German 
 ocean. It is 30 miles from N. to S. and 2B from E. to W. The 
 land is very fertile in corn and pasture ; the horses are large and 
 the cows and sheep prolific. 
 
 Frieslaxd, East, a late province of Germany, in the ci-devant 
 circle of Westphalia, near the German ocean. The principal towns 
 are Embden, Norden, Leer, Essens, Whitemunde, and Aurick. 
 
 Friesland, West, a name given to that part of Batavia, lately 
 called North Holland; now included in the department (Sf the 
 Texel, and united to the French empire. 
 
 FRIEZE, [drop dcfrise, Fr.] a coarse warm cloth, made per- 
 haps first in Fricsland. 
 
 Frieze, in commerce, a coarse kind of woollen stuff, or cloth, 
 for winter-wear: so called, as being friczed or naped on one side. 
 
 Frieze, or Frize, in architecture, a large fiat member which 
 
 separates the architrave from the cornice; of which there are as 
 
 many kinds as there are orders of columns. See Architecture. 
 
 FRIGATE, among seamen, a ship of war, light built, and that 
 
 is a good sailer. 
 
 Frigates, are usually of two decks, light-budt, designed for 
 swift sailing. When smaller, with but one deck, they are called 
 light frigates. Those mounting from 'JO to 44 guns are esteemed 
 excellent cruisers. The name was formerly known only in the 
 Mediterranean, and applied to a long kind of vessel navigated in 
 that sea with sails and oars. The English were the first who aji- 
 peared on the ocean wUh these ships, equipped for war as well as 
 for conuiicrce. 
 
 FRIGATOON, a ^Vnetian vessel, commonly used in tlic 
 .Adriatic, built with a square stern, and without any fore-mast, 
 having only a main-mast, mizcn-mast, and bow-siirit. 
 
 I RIGHT, or TERROR, sudden fear; it is freiinently produc- 
 tive of very remarkable effects upon the human system. Of this 
 many instances occur in medical writings. In general, the efli-cts 
 of terror are a conti action of the small vessels and a repulsion of 
 the blood in the large and internal ones: hence proceed general 
 oppression, trembling, and irregularity in the motions of the heart; 
 while the lungs are also overcharged with blood. Frights ofteji 
 occasion incurable diseases, as epilepsy, stupor, madness, &c. In 
 this way they have killed many, by the agil:U;on into v.hicli they 
 have thrown' the spirits. We' have also accounts of persons abso- 
 lutely killed by terror, when in perfect health at the time of re- 
 ceiving the shock. Persons ordered to be led to exet utiim, but 
 with pnvate orders to be reprieved on the scall'old, have expired 
 at the blo( k without a wound. Out of many instances of the fe- 
 tal etiects of fear, the following is selected as one of the most sin- 
 gular: " George Grochantzy, a Polander, who had inlisted as a 
 soldier in the service of theking of Prussia, (les;;rted during the 
 la^t wair. A small party wa'i sent in pursuit of hhn, and, when he 
 least expected it, surprised liiin singing and dancing among a com- 
 6 N pany
 
 FRI 
 
 506 
 
 FRI 
 
 (j;.n_v ot ])i-a6aiit-', in aji iiui. 'I'iiis evi'iit so sikUIcii and so dri'iii',- 
 ful 111 lU consecini-nce^, ^Initk him in siicli a niaiintr, that, givinfj 
 a great cry, lii.' bccmu' altogelhiT stupid and insensible, and nas 
 seized wiihciit tlie lea<t resi-tance. 'I'hey carried liini away to 
 Glncan, where he v.a< hiviighl before tiie coniicil of war, and re- 
 ceived -.eiilence as a deserter. IJe sviliered liiniselt' to l)e led snd 
 disposed of, at the wdl ot those abont him, without ut'.ering a 
 wtM'd, or giving the least sign thai he knew what had happened, or 
 would liapi)en lo him. lie remained inuiioveable as a statue 
 wherever lie was placed, and was wholly passive \uth respect to all 
 that was done to him or about him. Durin}» all the time that he 
 was in custody, he neither eat, nor drank, nor slept, nor had any 
 evacuation. Some of his connades were sent to see hini; alter 
 that he wasvisited by some oilicers of Ins corps, and by somt: 
 priests; l)ui he still continued m the same state, without discover- 
 ing the least signs of sen>ibdity. Fromi^es intreaties, and thrcat- 
 enings, were equally inelieclual. The physicians were of opinion, 
 til it lie was ill a slate of hopele-s idiocy. It was at first sus|)ected 
 t!ut those appearances were feigned; but ti ese suspicion^ i;ave 
 way, when It was known that he took no su,-.U-uance, and that the 
 involuntary functions of nature were in .1 great measure suspended. 
 After some time they knocked oil' his fetters, and left him at li- 
 berty to go whither he would. He n-ceived his liberty with the 
 same inseiidbility that he had shewn upon other occasions; he re- 
 mained ti\ed and immoveable; his eyes turned wildly here and 
 there without taking coL'iiizanee of any object, and tlie muscles of 
 his face were fallen and (l.\cd like those of a dead body. Being 
 left to him^elf, he passed twenty days in this condition, without 
 eating, drinking, or anv evacuation, and died on the twentieth 
 day. He had been sometimes heard to fetch deep sighs; and 
 once he rushed with great violence on a soldier, who had a mug 
 of liquor in Ins hand, forced the mug from him, and having drank 
 the luiuorwith great eagerness, let the mug drop to the ground." 
 ^^'hcn a person is al'Cected with lerror, the principal endeavour 
 should be to restore the circulation to its due onlcr, to promote 
 perspiration, ami to allay the agiiation of the patient. For dice 
 [uirposes he may drink a litllt warm licjuor, as camomile tea, &c. 
 the feet and legs may be put into warm water, the legs rubbed, 
 and the camomile tea repeated every si.\ or eight minutes; and 
 when the skin is warm, and there is a tendeiu y to perspiration, 
 sleep may be promoted by a gentle opiate, Yet frights have been 
 known to cure, as well as to cause, diseases. Mr. Boyle mentions 
 agues, gout, and sciatica, thus cured. Among the ludirrons 
 effects of fear, the following instance, cpioted from a I'lcnch au- 
 thor by Mr. Antlrews in his volume of Anecdotes, shews upon 
 what slight occasions ihis passion mav be sometimes excited in a 
 very high degree, and even in persons the most unlikely to enter- 
 tain fear. " Charles (justavus (ihe successor of Christina, queen 
 of .Sweden) was besieging Prague, when a boor.of most extraordi- 
 nary visage desired admittance to his tent; and being allowed c-n- 
 trance, offered, by way of amusing the king, to devour a whole 
 hog of 100 weight in his presence. The old general, Konigsmarc, 
 who stood by the king's side, and w ho, soldier as he was, had not 
 got rid of the prejudices of his childhood, hinted lo his royal mas- 
 ter that the peasant ought to be burnt as a sorcerer. ' Sir, said 
 the fellow, irritated at Ihe remark, if your majesty will but make 
 that old gentleman take off his sword and his spurs, I w ill eat him 
 immediately belore I begin the lifig.' Konigsmarc (who had, at 
 the head of a body of Swedes, performed wonders against the Aus- 
 trians, and who was looked upon as one of the bravest men of the 
 age,) could not stand this proposal, especially as it was accompa- 
 nied by a most hideoun and i)reteriiatiiral expansion of the IriLilulul 
 peasant's jaws. Without uttering a word, the veteran su<ldenlv 
 turned round, ran out of the court, and thought not himself safe 
 iiiilil he had arrived at his quarters; where he remained above 
 twenty-lour hours locked up securely, before he had got rid of the 
 piiiiic w hich had so severely affected him." The ingenious Dr. 
 Hi attie ol'.serves, in his lilemeutj of Moral Science,'lh;it " tear 
 should not rie higher than to make us attentive and cautious; 
 when it gains an ascendency in the mind, it becomes an insupport- 
 able tyianny, and ren(lers"life a burden. The object of fear is 
 evil; and to be exempt from fear, or at least not enslaved to it, 
 gives dignity to our nature, and invigorates all our faculties. Yet 
 there are evils which we ought to fear. Those that arise from our- 
 nelycs, or which it is in our power to prevent, it '*'Ould be madness 
 
 lo despise, and audacity not to guard against. External evils, 
 whic h we cannot prevent, or could not avoid without a breach of 
 duty, it is manly and honourable to bear with fortitude. Insensi- 
 bility to danger is not loiliunle, no more than the incapacity of 
 feeling pain can be called palieiue; and to expose ourselves un- 
 neces>arily lo evil is worse than iolly, and very blameable pre- 
 sumplion. It is commonly called toul-hardiness; that is, such a 
 dciiree of harihness or boldness as none bul fools are capable of. 
 FKKillJ ZONE. SeeZo.xE. 
 
 I'KILAZIN, a class or rank of people among the Anglo-Sax'ons, 
 coiisibling ot those wiio had been slaves, but had obiained their 
 libi-ily, eilher by purchase or otherwise. 
 
 EKINGtLLA, the I'lX'cii, in crnithology, agenusof Ihe class 
 aves, order passeres. Bill conical, straight, sharp-poinled. There 
 arc a hundred and eight species comprehended under this genus, 
 distinguished principally by varieties in their colour. 
 
 F. C/iiLEiis, the Cii'vFMNCH, has black limbs, and the wings 
 while on both sides; the three lirst feathers of the tail are wilhout 
 -pots, but the two chief ones are obliquely spotted. It has its 
 name (Voin its delighting in chaff This species entertains us 
 agreeably with its song very early in the year, bul lowards the end 
 ol summer assumes a chirping note: both sexes continue with us 
 llic whole year. In Sweden the females quit that country in Sep- 
 tember, migrate in flocks inlo Holland, leaving their mates be- 
 hind, and return in spring. 
 
 F. Can-aiu.\, the Canary-Biud, hath a whitish body and bill, 
 with Ihe prime feathers of the wings and tail greenish. It was ori- 
 ginally peculiar to those isles to which it owes its name. See 
 Canary. It is supposed to have been first brought to Europe in 
 the fourteenth century. At a still later period Canary-birds were 
 more generally introilured into Germany, where the greatest at- 
 tention is paiil lolhe breeding and rearing of these beautiful crea- 
 tures, which are much celebrated for their song, and docility ia 
 imil;.ling niu->ical notes. Hence they are become a source of consi- 
 derable emolument to the 'I'yrolesc, who export vast numbers to 
 various parts of Europe, ami also to England. If treated with 
 proper care they will breed, and become as vigorous and heallli- 
 t'ul in this country as in thtir native islands. U'hese delicate birds 
 are subject to a variety of diseases ; to prevent which, the greatest 
 care should be taken to provide them with pure water and simple 
 food. During tiie time of moulting, which often proves fatal to 
 many of them, a little white wine dropped on a piece of biscuit, 
 or sugar, will be of considerable service. The Canary-bird will 
 prove fertile with the siskin and goldfmch ; but in this case the 
 produce for the most ])art proves sterile: the pairs succeed best 
 when the hen is the Canarv, and the cock of the opposite species. 
 She will also prove prolific with the linnet, yellow-hannner, chaf- 
 finch, and even the house-S|jarrovv ; but the male Canary-bird will 
 not assimilate with the female of any of these sjiecies ; the hen 
 must be always of the Canary specic-s, and the young generally 
 prove males. Canaries are said by some to live fifteen years, by 
 others eighteen. 
 
 F. I'arduelis, the Goi.nFix'CH, with the quill-fcathcrs red 
 forwards, and the outermost without any spots; the two outermost 
 are while in Ihe middle, as Ihe rest are at the point. The young 
 bird before it moults is grey on the head ; and hence it is termed 
 by the bird-catchei-s a grey-pate. I'heir note is very sweet, aijd 
 they are much esteemed on that account, as well as tor their great 
 docililv. Towards winter they assemble in flecks, and feed on 
 various seeds, particularly those of the thistle. They are fond of 
 on h:irds, and often build in ajjple or pear-trees. '1 heir nests are 
 very elegantly formed of fine moss, liverwort, and be:its, on the 
 outside ; lined fir>t will) wool and hair, and then with Ihe goslin or 
 cotton of the sallow. Goldfinches often alt lin the age ot twenty 
 years. Thev abound thioughout Europe; and are also met with 
 in Asia and Alrica, but less commonly. 
 
 1''. DoMEsricA, the Sparrow, has the prime feathers of the 
 wings and lad brown, the body variegated willi grey and black, 
 and a single while streak on the wings. '1 hcse birds are prover- 
 bially salacious, and have three broods in the year. They are 
 every where common about our houses, where they build in every 
 place thev can find admittance; under the root, coiner of Ihe 
 brick-work, or in holes ot the wall. They make a slovenly nest-; 
 generally a little hay ill put logellicr, but lined w ell with feathers ; 
 where they lay live or six egijs of a reddish-white colour spotled 
 
 with
 
 FRI 
 
 507 
 
 F RO 
 
 villi l>ro\vii. 'I'licy soiiK'limes buiUl in trcts, in wliich case Uu?y 
 take more pa ns wiili Ihe ni'st ; iukI often txpt-l tin- martins Inuii 
 theirs, to savi' tlie troiililt- iVom constructinn one of llieirowii. Spar- 
 rows, from freiiiKiitini; only li.iliitjlions aii'l pails ailjaeeiit, may be 
 said to lie cliiiilv led horn human iiidusUy; tor in spite ot every pre- 
 '-■aulion ihey will parlakp uitli llie pi^^eon-, poultry, &c. in llie food 
 tlirown out to Iheui, ^raiii of all kinds being most ai^reeahle to 
 llieir taste, tliou^h thev will eal r>-fiise fiom tin; kitchen of mo^t 
 kinds. They are tamiliar but crafty, and do iiat so easily come 
 into a snare as many others. In autumn they often collect into 
 flocks, and roost in numbers on the neighbouring trees, when they 
 may be sliol by dozens, or cauj^ht iii gieat numbers at iiij^lit by a 
 bat fowliiig net. The sparrow has no song, only a chirj) or two 
 frequently repeated. Tliis species is found every where through- 
 out Europe ; and is also met uilh in Egy|)t, Senegal, Syria, and 
 otlier parts of AtVica and Asia. 
 
 !•'. Li.N'OTA, the l^iNNhT, has the bottom of the breast of a !inc 
 blood-red, which heiglilens as the spring advances. These bird> 
 are much esteemed lor their song. 'Ihey teed on seeds of dill'er- 
 ent kinds, wliicli Uiev peel before they eat ; the seed of the linum, 
 or flax, is their favourite food; from whence the name. They 
 breed among furze ami while thorn ; the outside of their nests is 
 made with moss and bents, and lini'd with wo,<l and liair. Ihey 
 lay five whitish eggs, spotted like those of tlie goldlinch. 
 
 !•'. SriNus, the Siskin, has the prime I'eathei^i of the wings yel- 
 low in the middle, and the four hrst chief t.iil featliers williout 
 spots; but they are yellow at the base, anil black at the points. 
 It visits these islands at very uncertain times, like the gross-beak, 
 Sec. It is to be met with in the bird-sho|)s hi London ; and being 
 rather scarce, sells at a higher price than tlie merit of its song de- 
 serves ; it is known there by the name of the aberdavine. It is 
 very tame and docile, and is often kept and paired witli the Ca- 
 nary-bird, with which it breeds freely. Dr. Kramer informs us, 
 that this bird conceals its ne.^t with gieat art ; and though lliere are 
 inlinite numbers ol young birds in the woods on the banks of the 
 Danube, w huh seem ju-t to liave taken flight, yet no one could 
 discover it. See I'late LVl 1 1. 
 
 KRISEI, FUISII, ITIISIONES, orFRlSONES, an ancient 
 people of Germany, so caiietl either from their ardent love of 
 freedom, or from the fresh and unbroken lands they occupied. 
 
 I'RISORT, a town of Germany, in the bisliopric of Muiister, 
 14 imles S. W. of Oldenburg, 
 
 FRIT, in the glass-manulacturc, is the mailer or ingredients 
 whereof glass is to be made, when tliey have been calcined or 
 baked in a furnace. A salt drawn from the ashes of tlie plant kali, 
 or from fern or other plants mixed with sand or flint, and baked 
 together, make^ an opatpie mass, called by glassmen frit ; proba- 
 bly from tlie Italian _/;-i/t(/;v', to fry; or because the frit, wlien 
 melted, runs into lumps, like [ritter>, called by the Italians frilelii. 
 Frit, by the ancients, was called animonilrum, o( rifj.jj.!§', saml, and 
 iiTjov, nitre; tmder wliich name it is thus described by I'liny : line 
 sand from the Volturnian sea, mixed with three times the ciuan- 
 tily of nitre, and melted, makes a mass called ammonitriim, 
 wliich being rebaked ciakes pure glass. There are three kinds of 
 frits: 1. Tlie crystal frit, or that for crystal metal, made with salt 
 of pulverise anil sand. '2. The ordinary frit, made with bare ashes 
 of puUerinc or barilla, yyitliout extracting the salt from them. 
 This makes the ordinary white or civstal metal. 3. The frit for 
 green gla-ses, made of common ashes, without any preparation. 
 Tiiis la-t requires ten or twelve hours baking. The materials in i 
 t-ach are to be hnely powdcied, washed, and searced ; then equally- 
 mixed, and frequently stirred together in the melting-pot. 
 
 I'Ri'ITI, usually sienitics the oiiciiing of a river into the sea; 
 suih ate the Fritli of Forlli, or of Edinburgh, the I'ritli of Clyde, 
 &c. 
 
 FRl-TILL.4iRLA, Eritii.l.vry, a genus of the monogynia or- 
 drr, and hexandriaciass of plants; natural order Coronari-e. Corolla 
 liexapetalous, campaiuilated, with a nectariferoiH cavity above 
 the heel in each petal ; stamina as long as the corolla. There are 
 hve species, all bulbous-rooted flowery perennials, having many 
 varieties. 
 
 FRITZL.'VR, a town of Italy, in the kingdom of Westphalia, 
 on the Eder, 13 niiU-sS.S.W. ofCassel. 
 
 FRIULI, a pro\iace of in the late republic of Venice, 
 Jkjui 4eii on the porUi by the Tirol and Carinthia ; cast by 
 
 C'arniola and Gradisca ; south by the Adriatic, an<l west by the 
 'i revisaii, Fellriii, and liellunese. It is divided into the iliotesc of 
 Udirni and Concordia, (.'dina is the capital. 
 FKI/E, 111 archiie<ture. See I'mtzF. 
 
 FmzE, in commerce. See Friezk. O fii/.C'S, some arc crossed, 
 others not: the toriiicr are chietlj of JOnglisii niaHiifactiirc ; the 
 lator ol Iri-^li. 
 
 I'RI/jlNG OF CLOTH, a term in the woollen maniifaclorv, 
 applied to the fiirniing of the iiaji of sttiiV into a immber of lillle 
 liard burrs or prominences, covering almo.^t the whole jjround 
 thereof. 
 
 !■ UOI5ENIL"S, John, a famous and learned printer of the six- 
 teenth century, bom at llamelhurg in Francoiiia. He studied in 
 the university of I'a^l, wliere he acipiired great repulalioo for 
 learning, anil setting up a printing-house in tlia. city, was the tir-t 
 of the CJerman printers who brouj^ht that admirable art to any de- 
 gree of perlection. lieing a man of pieat probity and piety, he 
 would never, for the sake ot profit, suffer lilicls or any tiling that 
 would hurl the reput;Uiun of another, to go llnotigU his press. 
 I he great eharacler ol this printer, was the principal motive whic'i 
 induced Era-mus to reside at Basil, in order to have his own 
 works printed by him. \ great numbi.r of valuable books wen; 
 printed by him with care and accuracy. He died in l.i27. 
 Erasmus wrote his epitaph in Greek anil Latin. John IVobenius 
 left a son named Jerome Frobenius and a daughter married to 
 Niiholas Episcopius; who, joining in partiiershi(i, continued I-Vo- 
 benius's ])ri,iiling-liouse with reputation, and printed correct edi- 
 tions ol the Greek fathers 
 
 FROBIStIEK, or FORBISIIER, Sir Martin", an excellent 
 navigator and sea-oflicer in the sixteenth century, born at Din- 
 caster ill Yorkshire, and from his youtli brought up to iiavigatiiu. 
 lie was the first Englishman who attempted to find a N. \V . pas>- 
 age to China, and in 1 J7f), he sailed with two barks and a pinnaic 
 lor that purpose. In this voyage he discovered a cape, to which 
 he gave the name of Queen Klizabelli's Foreland, and the next 
 day discovered a strait to which he gave his own name. This 
 voyage proving unsuccessful, he attempted the same passage in 
 I J77; but discovering some ore in an island, and liis commission 
 directing him only to search for ore, he returned to England with 
 it. He sailed aijain with fifteen ships and a great number of ad- 
 ventureis, to form a settlement; but being obstructed by the ice, 
 and driven out to sea by a violent storm, they, after encountering 
 many difficulties, returned home, without making any settlen.ent; 
 but w itii a large quantity of ore. He afterward- conimamled the 
 Aid in Sir I'fancis Drake's expeiluion to the West Ill('ie^, iit 
 which St. Domingo, Carthagena, and Santa Juslina, in Florida, 
 were taken and sacked. In IJSS, lie bravely exerted hiiiisett' 
 against the Spanish armada, when he commanded the Triumph, 
 one of tlie largest ships in that service: and as a reward for his dis-, 
 tinguislieil bravery, received the honour of knighthood, from the 
 loril lugh-admiral at sea. He afterwards commanded a squailron. 
 wliich cruised on the Spanish coast; and in liy.', took two valu.i- 
 ble ships and a rich carrac. In 1 ">94 he was sent to the assistance 
 of Henry IV. king of France, against a body of the Leaguers and 
 Spaniards, who liad strongly eiitrcncbed themselves at Croyzorv 
 near Brest; but in an as.-ault upon that fort, on the seventh of No- 
 vember, he was unfortunately woui;Jed with a ball, of yyhich he 
 died soon after he had brought back the fleet to Plyinouth, and 
 was burieil in thai town. 
 
 Froeisher's Straus, a narrow se,i, S. of Cape Washingham;. 
 W. of Davis's Strait, and N. of Cape Fiirewell in West Green- 
 land. 
 
 FRODIXGIIAM, or FRODLINGHAM, a town of York- 
 shire, 3L) miles E. of York. 
 
 FHODSHAM, a town of Cheshire, noted for its ancient castle. 
 It is 10 miles N. E. of Chester. 
 FIK^G, in zoology. See Rama. 
 
 FROME, a river of England, that rises from several springs in 
 the S. W. of Dorsctsivire, and talks iiUo Poolhaven, near W areham. 
 Frome, or Fromk Selwood, a town of Somereetshire, and the 
 chief town of this part of Ihe country, which was anciently" one 
 great forest, called Selwooilshire. It is thirteen miles S. of l!alh. 
 FKOMIST.'V, a toun cf Jtpain, in the province of Leon, 13 
 miles N. of \'alencia. 
 FKONDESCENTIA, [from/raw, a lea'",l iii bstanj", the un- 
 ci luUing;
 
 r R o 
 
 508 
 
 FRO 
 
 (oliiins of lliL- lenvcsof pbi.ts. Il is ;ilbO iiseJ, by ellipsis, for the 
 tiiiif of mifoldipg. 
 
 FRONSAC, a town of Fi-ance, in llie department of the Gi- 
 ronilc, and lale pro\ iiice of Guieniie, 22 miles N. E. of Bour- 
 dcaitx. 
 
 FRONT, in anatomy, the forehead, or that part of tlie face 
 above the eyt-lirows. The \^-ciVinjrons, is derived by Martinius 
 from the Greek 4>;jv(iv, to think, or perceive: of 'f';>iv, the mind or 
 thought. 
 
 Front, in architectnre, denotes the principal face or side of a 
 building, or that presented to their chief aspect or view. 
 
 FRONTAL, in architecture, a little front on, or pediment 
 sometimes placed over, a small door, or window. 
 
 Fron'Tai., FiioNTi.ET, Or Brovv-eavd, in the Jewisli ceremo- 
 nies, consists of tour several pieces of velUnii, on each of which is 
 "vvritten some text of scripture. 
 
 FRONTIERS, the extremes of a kins^dom or country, which 
 tlie enemies lind in front when they would enter it. 'I'hey were 
 ancientlv called Marches. 
 
 FRONTIGNAC, FRONTIGNAN, or FRONTIGNIAC, 
 a town of France, in the department of Herault, and late province 
 of Languedoc, famous for its excellent wines. It is \~ miles 
 S. S. \V. of Montpelier. 
 
 FRONTINAC, Fort, a fortress of Canada, on the N. W. 
 side of Lake Ontario, three miles from its month, and 300 frojn 
 Quebec. 
 
 FRONTINUS, Sextus Julius, an ancient Roman author, of 
 consular dignitv, who flourished under Vespasian, Titus, Domi- 
 tian, Nerva, and Trajan, lie commanded the Roman armies in 
 Britain; was made city-prxtor when Vespasian and Titus were 
 consuls; and curator of the aqueducts by Nerva, which occasion- 
 ed his writing De Atpr.cciuctibus Urbis Roma% He wrote fovu' 
 books upon tiieGreek an<l Uoman art of war; a tract Ue Re Ajra- 
 ria, and another De Limitibus. These have been often separately 
 printed; but vvere all collected together in a neat edition at Ani- 
 slcrdam, in 1661, wilh notes by Robert Keuchen. He died un- 
 jlcr Trajan. 
 
 FRONTIS OS, in anatomy, called also os coronalc, the bone 
 ■of the forehead. See Anatomy. 
 
 ■ FRONTISPIECE OF A BOOK, an ornament with an en- 
 ■graved tith- on the lirst page, or more properly an emblematical 
 engraved device fronting the title-page. 
 
 FRONZELLA, one of the 17 almost inaccesssible passes 
 through the mountains of Vieenza, in Maritime Austria, com- 
 mencing in the valley of Brenta. 
 
 FROSE, a town of I'pper Saxonv, in the duchy of Magde- 
 burg, 10 miles S. of M.igdibuigh. 
 
 FROSSAY, a town of France, in the department of Lower 
 Loire, 4|- miles S. E. of Painbanif. 
 
 FROS r, or FREEZING, in physiology, is such a state of 
 ♦he atmosphere, as occasions the corigilatinn or freezing of water 
 and other fluids. See Freezing. Under the articles Cold, 
 C^on-gelation, Evaporation, Fluidity, and Freezing, it is 
 shewn, that water and other fluids are capable of containing the 
 ■element of fire or heat in two very different states. In the one, 
 they seem to imbibe hre in such a mimner, that it eludes all the 
 methods by which we are accustomed to observe it, cither by our 
 ■sens-ation of feeling, or the thermometer ; in the other, it manifests 
 itself obviously to our senses, either by the touch, the thermo- 
 meter, or the emission ot light. In the first of these states, we call 
 •the body cold ; and are apt to say that this coldness is occasioned 
 . by the absence ot heat. But this mode of expression is not stricllv 
 just, for even those fluids which are coldest to the touch contain a 
 vast deal of heat. Thus vapour, which is colder to the touch 
 than the water from which it was raised, contains an immense 
 quantity of tire. The same may be said of common salt, and 
 snow, or ice. Ifacjuantity of each f>f these substances is separ;itely 
 reduced to 28° or 30° of Fahrenheit's thermometer, upon mixing 
 .them together, the heat which could have raised the thermometer 
 to tlie degree above-mentioned, now enters into the substance of 
 them in such a manner that the mercury falls down to 0. Here 
 an exces>ive degree of cold is produced, and yet we are sure that 
 ■the substances conlain the very same <|uantity of heat that they 
 formerly did; nay, they will even sei>m exceedingly cold, when 
 they most certainly contain a great deal more heat "tlian they ori- 
 
 ginally did; for tiicy absorb it from all bodies around them ; and 
 it a small vessel full of water is put in die middle of such a mix- 
 ture, it will in a short time be full of ice. It appears, therefore, 
 that our senses, even when assisted by thermometers, can only 
 judge of the state in which the element of fire is with relation to 
 the bodies around us, without regard to the cpiantity contained in 
 them. Thus, if heat tlows from any part ^•i our body into any 
 substance actually in contact with it, the sensation of cold is excit- 
 ed., and we call that substance cold ; but it it flows from any sub- 
 stance into our bod), the sensation of heal is excited, and we call 
 that substance hot, without regaril to the absolute (piantity con- 
 tained in either case. See Caloric. Of all known substances, 
 the atmosphere either ab-orbs or throws out heat with the most re- 
 markable facility : and in one or other of these states it always is 
 « ith respect to the surface of (he earth, and such bodies as are 
 placed on or near it ; for these, jiroperly speaking, have no tem- 
 perature of their own, but are entirely regul.iled by that of the at- 
 mosphere. When the air has been for some time absorbing the 
 heat from terrestrial bodies, a frost must be the undoubted conse- 
 quence, for the same reason that water freezes in a vessel put into 
 a freezing mixture : and were this absorption to continue for a 
 length of time, the whole earth would be converted into a frozen 
 mass. There are, however, certain powers in nature, by which 
 this el'fcct is always prevented ; and the most violent frost we can 
 imagine must always, as it were, defeat its own purposes, and end 
 in a thaw. To understand this subject, we must observe, I. In 
 that state of the atmosphere which we denominate frost, there is a 
 most intimate union between the air and the water it contains; and 
 therefoie frosty weather, except in verv high latitudes, is generally 
 clear. 'J. Wlien such an union takes place, either in winter or 
 summer, we observe the atmosphere also inclined to absorb heat, 
 and consequently to grow fro-ty. Thus in clear settled weather, 
 even in summer, though the day be excessively hot by the con- 
 tinued sunshine, yet the mornings and evenings arc remarkalUy 
 cold, and sometimes even disagreeably so. 3. The air being 
 ther^fere always ready in the time of frost or in clear weather, to 
 absorb heat from every substance which conies into contact with it, 
 it follows that it must also absorb part of that v liich belongs to the 
 vapours contained in it. 4. Though vapour is capable of becom- 
 ing much colder than water vvihout*being frozen, yet by a con- 
 tinued absorption it must at l.ist part with its latent heat, i. c. that 
 which essentially constitutes it vapour; and without which it is no 
 longer vapour, but water or ice. No sooner, therefore, does the 
 frost arrive at a certain pitch, than the vapours, everywhere dis- 
 persed through the air, give out their latent heat : the atmosphere 
 then becomes clouded : the frost either goes off, or becoines 
 milder, by the great quantity ot heat discharged into the air; and 
 the vapours descend in rain, hail, or snow, according to the parti- 
 cular aispositioB of the atniosiihere at the time. 5. Even in the 
 polar regions, where it may le thought that the frost must increase 
 beyond measure, there aie natural means lor preventing its run- 
 ning to extremes. The principal cause here is, the mixture of a 
 gr:_-at quantity of vaiiours from the temperate regions of the globe 
 with the air in those dreary climates. It is well known, that 
 atpieons vapour always Hies iron* a warm to a colder place. For 
 this reason, the vapours raided by the sun in the more temperate 
 legions of the earth, must continually lly northvrard and south- 
 ward ill great quantities. Thus they furnish nvaterials for those 
 immense c|uanlities of snow and ice which are to be found in the 
 neighbourhood of the poles, and which we cannot imagine the 
 weak influence of the sun in these parts capable of raising. It is 
 impossible that a quantity of vapour can be mixed with frosty air, 
 without communicating a great deal of heat to it ; and thus there 
 are often thaws of considerable duration even in those climates 
 where, from the little iiiiluence of the sun, we should suppose the 
 frost would he perpetual. 6. We may now account with some 
 probability for the uncertain duration of frosts. In Britain they 
 are sildoin of a long continuance; because the vapours raised 
 from the sea with which our island is surrounded, perpetually mix 
 wilh the air over it, and prevent a long duration of the frost. For 
 (he same reason, trosts are never of such long duration in mari- 
 time places on the continent as in the inl.ind ones. 1 here is no- 
 thing, however, more uncertain than the motion of the vapours 
 with v(iiich the air is constanllv lilleu ; and therefore it is impos- 
 sible to prognosticate the duration of a irost with any degree ©f 
 
 certainty
 
 FRIT 
 
 509 
 
 FRIJ 
 
 Certaint). In general, we may always be certain, that if a quanti- 
 ty ef vapour is actiniuilateil in any place, no intense froit can 
 subsist iu thai place fur any length of time; and by whatever 
 causes tlic vapours are driven from place to place, by the same 
 causes the frosts are regulated throughout the whole world. See 
 Vapour. Frost, being derived from tlie alniosjihere, naturally 
 proceeds from the U])per parts of bodies downwards, as the water 
 and the earth : so, the longer a frost is continued, the thicker the 
 ice becomes u|)on the water in ponds, and the deeper into the earth 
 the ;Tiound is frozen. In about Hi or 17 days frost, Mr. Boyle 
 found it had penetrated 14 inches itito the ground. At Moscow, 
 in a hard season, the frost will penetrate two feet deep in the ground ; 
 and Capt. James found it penetrated 10 feet in Charlton island, 
 and the water in the same island was frozen to the depth of .six 
 feet. Schetf'er assures us, that in Sweden (he frost pio.'ces two cu- 
 bits or Swedish ells into the earth, and turns what moiature it finds 
 there into a whitish substance, like ice ; and standing waters to 
 three ells, or more. The same author also mentions sudden cracks 
 in tlie ice of the lakes of Sweden, nine cr ten leet deep, and many 
 leagues long ; the rupture being ni.:<iv; with a noise not less loud 
 than if many guns were discharged together. I)y such means, 
 however, the lislies are furnished with air ; so tlu'.t they are rarely 
 found dead. The natural history of t'rosts uirni;h very extraordi- 
 nary elVects. ']' he trees are often scorched and I urnt up, as with 
 the most excessive heat, in consequence of the separation of water 
 from the air, which is therefore very drying. In the great frost in 
 ll383, the trunks of oak, ash, walnut, &c. were miserably split 
 and clelf , so that they might lie seen through, and the cracks of- 
 ten attended with dreadfid noises like tlie explosion of fire-arms. 
 Philos. Trans. Number l6j. The close of the year 1 70S, and the 
 beginning of 1709, were remarkable throughout the greatest ])art 
 of Europe, for a severe frost. Dr. Derhain says, it was the 
 greatest in degree, if not the most universal in the memory of man ; 
 e.xtending through most parts of Europe, though scarcely felt in 
 Scotland or Ireland. In very cold countries, meat may be pre^ 
 served by the frost six or seven months, anti prove tolerably good 
 eating. See Captain Middleton's observations made in Hudson's 
 Bay, in the Philos. Trans. Number 463, sect. C. In tiiat climate 
 the frost sei-ms never out of the ground, it having been found hard 
 frozen m the two summer-months. Brandy and spirits, set out in 
 the open air, freeze to solid ice in three or four hours. Lakes and 
 standing vtaters, not above 10 or 12 feet deep, are frozen to the 
 ground in winter, and all their fish perish. But in rivers where 
 the current of the tide is strong, the ice does not reach so deep, 
 and the fish are preserved. Id. ib. 
 
 FROTII-SPIT, or CUCKOW-SPIT, a name given to a white 
 froth, or spume, very common in spring and the first months of 
 summer, on the leaves of certain plants, particularly on those of 
 the common white field Ivchnis, or catchfly, thence called by some 
 spatling-poppy. It is formed by a little leaping animal, called by 
 some the Ilea- grasshopper, by applying its anus close to the leaf, 
 and discharging thereon a small drop of a white vl»cous lluiti, 
 which, coutaininc; some air in it, is soon elevated into a small 
 bubble : before this is well formed, it deposits such another drop ; 
 and so on, till it is every way overwhelmed with a quantity of 
 these bubbles, which form the white froth which \vc see. Within 
 this spiinio it is seen to acquire four tubercles on its back, wherein 
 the wings are inclosed : these bursting, from a rcjitile it becomes 
 a winged animal ; and thus rendered perfect, it files to meet its 
 male, and piop.igate its kind. It has an olilong ol)lu>e body ; a 
 large head with small eyes ; four e.xlernal win.-is of a dusky brown 
 colour, marked with two white spots : the head is black. It is a 
 species of Cicada. 
 
 FRUCTESCENTIA, {(romfnictus, Lat. fruit,] in botany, li- 
 terally signifies the growth of the fruit, but is used elliptically for 
 the precise time in which, after the fall oi the fiowcrs, the fruits 
 arrive at maturity, and disperse their seeds. Jn general, jjlanls 
 which flower in spring ripen their fruits in summer, as rye ; those 
 which llower in summer have their fruits ripe in autmiin, as the 
 ■vine ; the fruit of autumnal flowers ripens in wintei, or the follow- 
 ing spring, il kept in a stove or utlierwise defended from excessive 
 frosts. These iVosts, says M. Adansoii, are frequently so perni- 
 cious and violent, as to destroy the greatest part of the peieiinial 
 plants of Virginia and Mississippi, th;it are cultivated in P'rance, 
 even before they have e.xJiibiltd their fruit. The plants which flower 
 
 VOL II. — NO. fc9. 
 
 during our winter, such as those of the Cape of Good Hope, 
 ripen their fruit iu spring, in our stoves. 
 
 FRUCTIDOK, [i. c. the fruit-month, homfruclvs, Lat.] (he 
 name of the li'th month, in the late French Revolutionary Calen- 
 dar. It began Aug. 19, .and ended Sept. IC. 
 
 FRUCl UTCATION OF PLANTS, is defined by Linns-us 
 to be the temporary part of a vegetable appropriated to genera- 
 tion, terminating the old vegetable, and beginning the new. See 
 Botany. 
 
 FRUIT, in its general sense, includes whatever the earth pro- 
 duces for the nourishment of animals, expressed by the Latins un- 
 der the name/ri;,gr.?, as herbs, grain, hay, corn, &c. 
 
 Frl'it, in botany, called by the CJrecks, x<«;t^, in the Linniau 
 system, is one of the parts of fructification, and is distinguished 
 into three parts, viz. the pericarpium, seed, and receptacle, or rc- 
 ceptaculum seminum. See Botany. Fruit, more properly, sig- 
 niiies the production of a tree, or plant, for the propagation of its 
 kind, in which sense the word takes in all kinds of seeds, with their 
 furiiiti:re. 
 
 Fruits, in commerce, are distinguished into recent or fresli, 
 and dry. 
 
 1. Fruits, Dry, are those dried in the sun, or by the firp, 
 with other ingredients sometimes added lo make them keep; im- 
 ported chielly beyond sea, and sold by the grocers. Such are rai- 
 sins, currants, figs, capers, olives, cloves, nutmegs, pepper, and 
 other spices; which see in their order. Under the denomination 
 of dry fruits are also frequently included apples, pears, almonds, 
 lilberds, &c. 
 
 2. Fruits, Fresh, or Recent, are those sold just as they are 
 gathered from the tree, without any farther preparation ; as are 
 mo-t of the productions of our gardens and orchards, sold by the 
 fru itcrers. 
 
 Fruit, Preservation of. In the Philosophical Transactions, 
 No. 237, we have a receipt for preserving fruit and flowers for a 
 whole year, which is as follows. Take saltpetre, one |)Ound ; 
 bole armoniac, two pounds ; common clean sand, three pounds : 
 mix them together; and, in dry weather, take fruit or flowers of 
 any sort, not fully ripe, each with its stalk, and put them singly in- 
 to an open glass, till it be full ; cover it close with oil-cloth ; and 
 in a dry cellar, put each of these glasTcs four fingers-deep under 
 gi'ouiid, so that quite round above, as well as below, there may re- 
 main two fingers-thick of the mixture. One of tlie most easy me- 
 thods of preserving fruit, is that of depositing it in ice-houses, 
 where it may remain in a frozen state for a considerable time. 
 And, if the fruit be afterwards gradually thawed, by covering it 
 with melted ice, or immrrsing it in cold spring-water, it will lose 
 but little of its flavour, provided it be consumed on the same day. 
 Fruit may also be preserved, by keeping it in pits dug in a dry 
 soil, or ill dry cellars, or even in barns, if the temjieralure be be- 
 tween 32° and 48° of Fahrenheit's thermometer; tliat is, such as 
 will neither induce frost nor vegetation. These pits or iT!;:ga- 
 zines, 111 i\\ ever, ought to be covered with such materials as are 
 calculated to repel heat, and to absorl> any accidental putrid exha- 
 lations, and thus retard the progress of putrefaction. Hence l^v. 
 Darvv in recommends the fruit to be covered first with pulverized 
 charcoal, one or two inches thick, over which is to be laid a strn-' 
 turn of saw-dust, and over the latter, a thick, impenetrable thatch 
 of straw : thus, seeds and fruits may be stored up for ages, without 
 vegetating or decaying. He likewise mentions anollier mode of 
 preserving fruit, by heat. As fermentation will not commence iu 
 the heat of boiling water, or 212°; and, as that degree of tempera- 
 ture can be easily procured by steam, or by tlic vicinity of ves- 
 sels containing boiling water, he is of opinion, that such fruits as 
 ai'e used for culinary purposes throughout the year, may be kept 
 in a fresh state, by putting them into bottles, and expoiihg theiii 
 to the wasted steam of engines; or, by immersing them in the 
 hot water that flows from such steam when condensed ; or, by' 
 iilacingthe bottles near the boilers which are fixed beside kitcheri- 
 fires. 
 
 FRUITERY, a place for the keeping of fruit; a fruit-house of. 
 fruit-loft. A fruitery should be inaccessible to any Ihiiig of mois-. 
 ture, and should be as much as possible so, even to frost. 
 
 FRUIT-TREES, are such as bear fruit, namely, Apple, Cher- 
 ry, Pear-trees, Sec. With regard to fruit-trees it may be observed, 
 1. The cutting or pruning them wheu young hinders their beai* 
 6 in^
 
 FRU 
 
 510 
 
 FRU 
 
 iii;j, thoiis^h it contributes to the richness and flavour of the fruit as 
 well as to ih'.' beauty of the tree. 2. Kernel fniit-trees come later 
 to bear than stone fruit-trees : the time required by the first, be- 
 fore they come to any fit age for bearing, being on an average five 
 \ears; but when they do begin, they bear in greater plenty than 
 stone-fruit. 3. Stone-fruit, iigs, and grapes, commonly bear con- 
 siderably in three or four years, and bear full crops the fifth and 
 sixth years; and hold it for many years, if well ordered, 4. Fruit- 
 trees in the same neighbourhood will ripen a fortnight sooner in 
 some grounds than in others of a different temperature. 3. In tin- 
 same coiuitry, liot or cold summers set considerably forwards, or 
 ])ut backwards, the same fruit. 6. The fruit on wall-trees gene- 
 rally ripen before those on standards, and those on standards before 
 those on dwarfs. 7. The fruit of all wall-trees planted in the S. and 
 E. quarters, commonly ripen about the same time, only those in 
 the S. rather earlier than those in the E ; those in the W. arc later 
 by S or 10 days; and those in the N. by 15 or -0. While young, 
 no trees should be suffered to bear a large quantity of fruit : and, 
 if they abound with blossoms, the fruit should be gathered as soon 
 as it is formed; leaving only half a dozen of the produce, to as- 
 certain its size and quality. By this measure, the trees will not 
 only produce larger and iincr fruit, but, by being kept clear, the 
 leading and collateral branches will every year become more vi- 
 gorous. Nor ought any young plant, or newly-engrafted tree, to 
 be permitted to run mopheaded, as it will make no ])rogress, till 
 each branch has" acquired a determined leader: for, if the growth 
 of a tree be prevented, it will be e.xtremely difficult to throw such 
 energy into the system, as to enable it to grow freely. As long as 
 fruit-trees continue in the nursery, it will be requisite to cut down 
 the head, in order to give strength and symmetry to the stem: it 
 will also be useful to shorten most of the grafts, lest they should be 
 blown out bv the wind : these operations likewise contribute to 
 swell the buds. The ingenious Mr. Bucknall particularly recom- 
 mends, not to place the rows of trees in a situation either directly 
 north or south, but rather inclining to the east, as the sun will then 
 shine upon them in the earlv part of the day during the spring, and 
 thus di',sipate the vapours collected in the night ; which if sutl'er- 
 eu to condense, will stint the fruit in the earlier stages of its 
 growth. He farther observes, that if the shaws (or shades) be pro- 
 perly attended to, the trees being placed in this position, will be 
 enabled to withstand the power of the winds; nor wull they be 
 affected by blight. The shaw will also | rotect the fruit from the 
 autumnal winds, by wlvch half the crop of fruit is not unffequently 
 blown down, before it is ripe: and, as the heads are at that season 
 of the year laden with fruit and leaves, many trees are torn up from 
 the ground, or so lacerated as to be completely spoiled ; a misfor- 
 tune that might be effectually prevented by a proper disposition of 
 the shades. In the Transactions of the Economical Society of 
 Leipzig, we meet with a communication from the Rev. Mr. Ger- 
 mershausen, on the means of promoting the growth of young fruit- 
 trees, especially in grass-land. This method simply consfsts in 
 spreading flax-shows, or the refuse of (lax, after it has been comb- 
 ed, on the soil contiguous to the trunks of the trees, as far as the 
 roots extend ; by which means their size as well as their fertility is 
 remarkably increased. He mentions an instance, where an old 
 plum-tree which, being in a languishing state, in a grass-field, was 
 treated in the manner above-directed, and thus not only acquired a 
 new bark, but produced larger, and better-tasted fruit: the young 
 shoots also, which formerly grew up around the stem, were pre- 
 vented from sprouting forth, because the refuse of the fiax exclud- 
 ed the access of air to the trunk, and imparted additional nutri- 
 ment to the loots. The leaves falling from the trees in autumn, 
 may bj subslituted for tlje flax-shows, if these cannot be easily 
 procured ; but it will lie necessary to dig a small trench for the re- 
 ception of the decayed leaves, and also to cover them with tiles, 
 flat stones, or a log of wood, to prevent their dispersion by the 
 wind. This precaution, however, is not required with the refuse 
 of flay, which adheres so closely to the soil, as to withstand the 
 most vit'lent storm. Although ganleners bestow the strictest at- 
 tention on orchards, it sometimes happens that the bark of trees is 
 strippfd off by sheep, or by other accidents. In this case, it has 
 been recommended by Mr. W. Fairman, of Miller's House, 
 Lynsted, Kent, to takeoff the -^rms of such trees as are damaged; 
 to cut slips off the rind, about two or 'hree inches in width, and to 
 place four or five of them perpendicularly round the naked pail. 
 
 The damaged rind is previously to be cleared away, the sound 
 bark somewhat raised, and the slips inserted beneath it, to pro- 
 mote the circulation of the sap. These dressings are next to be 
 bound very tight with rope-yarn; and a composition of loam and 
 cow-dung, together with a small proportion of drift-santl, should be 
 applied, over which some old sacking, or similar stuff', ought to be 
 f.istcned. Mr. Fairman adds, that he made an experiment with 
 this mode ot treatment, in the sprhig of 1794, on some trees which 
 had beer, much damagrd by sheep, and that it completely succeed- 
 ed, the slips adhering closely, and being full ot sap. Fruit-trees, 
 like the rest of tlie vegetable creation, are the prey of a var.ety of 
 insects, of which few are more destructive than those infesting ap- 
 ple, pear, cherry, oak, white-thorn, and similar trees. They de- 
 posit their black eggs in clusters, resembling withered leaves, and 
 which are twisted by a cobweb round the uppermost branches. 
 These notorious insects are hatched in the spring, when tliey as- 
 sume the form of very diminutive caterpillars, which destroy every 
 thing before them, and rai)idly propagate in the most unfavouiable 
 weather. They damage oaks very materially ; devour the white- 
 thorn, and kill the plant: a|)ples and pears, likewise, receive great 
 injury. The only remedy hitlierto known of exterminating such 
 noxious vermin, is to cut ott all the tw igs or shoots of every tree 
 on wliich these nests of insects appear ; to collect them in aheap, 
 and burn them as soon as the weather will pernut; for, where this 
 necessary operation is deterred till the sumnu-r a|>proaches, the in- 
 sects increase prodigiously, and commit irreparable damage. The 
 disorders to which fruit-trees are subject, are various ; the most 
 fatal are Blight, Canker, Mildew,,Moss, &c. to which we refer. 
 The effects of frost are likewise often fatal, especially to the more 
 tender fruit-trees. With a view to obviate ^uch damage, difl'erent 
 methods have been suggested. In a communication from a Swe- 
 dish agriculturist to a respectable ))eriodicaI work, published on ihi/ 
 Continent, the following expedient is stated to have been suc- 
 cessfully employed, to protect fruit-trees from the vernal frosts. 
 As soon as the weather begins to grow cold in autumn, large q'.an- 
 tities of water are to be poured on the trunks of such trees, so that 
 they may receive an early impression of the cold. In tiie spring, 
 snow is to be accumulated round their stems; which retards vege- 
 tation, and prevents them from blossoming too early. Inconse- 
 quence of this irrigation, the buds shoot forth at a period, when no 
 apprehension need be entertained from the attacks of the frost that 
 frequently happens during the nights of spring. — Such practice of 
 watering the borders of trees, is said to increase the heat in them, 
 by accelerating the motion of their juices, if the soil of such bor- 
 der has been prop( rly opened and prepared. It is i.irther recom- 
 mended, to acid one ounce of common salt to every gallon of water, 
 where those borders are old, and have been impoverished by pro- 
 ducing many successive crops; or if they have been m.murcd with 
 dung not sufficiently putrefied. The following method of making 
 fruit grow, during winter: is abstracted from ihe ninth vol. of the 
 Annu.d Register for 17ti3: Li't the trees be taken up by the roots 
 in the spring, at the time they are about to bud ; carefully preserv- 
 ing some of their own soil among the roots. These are to be 
 placed upright in a cellar till Michaelmas, when they are to be 
 put into vessels with the addition of fresh earth, and deposited in 
 a stove or hot-house, being regularly moistened every morning 
 with rain-water, in which sal-ammoniac has been dissolved, in the 
 proportion of one ounce to a quart. Thus, in the month of Febru- 
 ary, the fruit will appear. The same method is applicable to 
 rose-trees, and flowers; which last, when sown in pots at or before 
 Michaelmas, and watered in a similar manner, will blow towards 
 the end of December. In order to ascertain wlicn fruits, for in- 
 stance, apples and pears, are suflicicntly ripe to be gathered, it is 
 requisite to attend to tiie colour of the skin inclosing the seeds. 
 During their infant state, there is no cavity round the kernels, but 
 they are in contact with the seed-vessel. In a subsequent period, 
 when Ihefruit has exhausted tlie nutritious matter, the cells contain- 
 ing the seed? become hollow, and the latter assumes a dark colour. 
 This, Dr. Darwin observes, is the proper criterion by which la 
 judge when such fruits siiould be ga'hered; as it indicates that 
 they will not continue to increase in size, but waste and be- 
 come holhiw, by absorbing the mucilaginous particles from the 
 centre. Among the various distinct publications which have ap- 
 peared on this subject, the foUowinu are allowed to possess con- 
 siderable meiil: "A Treatise on Fruit-trees," &c. by Thomas 
 I Hitt;
 
 FRIT 
 
 ,511 
 
 FU E 
 
 Hilt; 8vo. 2(1. edition, 17GS ;— and "The British Friiit-Gardencr, 
 and Art of Pruning," &;c. by Tiionias Ahercrombie; 8vo. 1779. 
 
 FRUirs, CoLoi'RS FROM. The red juices of currants, mulber- 
 ries, eWer-berries, black-cherries, and other fruit, impart their ting- 
 ing particles to water, but more conipletelv to rettihcd spirits ; and 
 the tincture acquires a briglitcr colour. The red water) solutions, 
 as well as the juices, are sometimes rendered dull, and sometimes 
 more lively, by means of acids; they generally ar(|uire a |)urplt4i 
 hu.-, by the addition of alkalies. The greater part of the colours ot 
 these juices is perish.ible, though they strongly resist fermentation, 
 and conli[iue almost unchanged, when the liquor is converted 
 into wine. If the juice be thinly spread upon other bodies, exsic- 
 cated, and exposed to the air, the colour speedily decays; the 
 bright red fades sooner than any other; but the dark dull red ob- 
 tained from the juice of the black-clierry, is of considerable dura- 
 bility. The ripe bi-rries of the buck-thorn tinge paper oi a green 
 colour: when green, thoie beni s afford a yellow, and if ripe, 
 a purplish pigment. The ijijudicious practice of promiscuously al- 
 lowing fruit, whether ripe or unrpe, to children and infants, is very 
 reprehensible. On account of its acidity, they are not able to 
 bear it in excess ; an'! tli.-iv di.^estive powers become so freipient- 
 ly impaired at til.- exj •!:_« oi other secretions; such as insensible 
 perspiration, and die isch iires by stool, both of which are thus 
 nnnaturally pronio'e :. A ' fruit given to young people, ought 
 to be perfectly ripe ; mo'' rs and nurses should likewise bestow 
 especial attention on li" c manliness ot the peels, or shells, which, 
 as they generally pass tm >M;.h different hands, or may have been 
 stored in improper places, recjuire to be previously wiped or 
 washed. 
 
 FRUiMENTACEOUS is applied by botanists to all such 
 plants as have a conformity with wheat, in their fruits, leaves, ears, 
 or the like. 
 
 FRUMENTARIF, a kind of soldiers or archers under the 
 western Uu.iian empire. The fust mention we liiid made of these 
 officers is in the reign o! the emperor Adrian, w ho made use ot them 
 to inform himself ot whatever passed. 
 
 FKUMKXTA IION, in Roman antiquity, a largess of corn 
 bestow id (.11 the people. 
 
 FRUSH, a sort of tender horn that grows in the middle of the 
 sole, and at some distance from the toe: it divides into two 
 branches, running towards the heel, in the form of a fork. See 
 Farriery. 
 
 F'RUSTUM, in mathematics, a part of some solid body separa- 
 ted from the rest. Thus, 
 
 1. The Frustum of a Coke is the part that remains when the 
 top is cut olt'by a plane, parallel to the base ; and is otherwi-e called 
 a truncated cone. 
 
 2. The Frustum of .». Globe, or Spherf,, is any part thereof 
 cut otTby a plane, the solid contents of which may be found by 
 this rule: To three times the square of the semidiameter of the 
 base add the square of its height; then nniltiply that sum by the 
 height, and this product multiplied by -o^Jt) gives the solidity of 
 the frustum. 
 
 3. The Frustum of a Pyramid is what remains after the 
 lop is cut off" by a plane parallel to its Ijase. As a general theo- 
 rem : in the frustum of any solid, generated by the revolution of 
 any conic sectio:i about its axis: if to the sum of the two ends be 
 added four limes the middle section, then the last sum divided by 
 six will be the mean area, and being drawn into the altitude of the 
 solid will produce the content : That is A and a being the areas 
 of the ends, and M equal the middle section ; then wt have 
 
 A + a+ iM 
 
 X h = solid content. 
 
 Tills theorem holds good for complete solids as well as frustums, 
 whether riglit or oblique, and not only of the solids generated 
 from the conic sections, but also of all pyramids, cones, and in_ 
 short of any solid, whose parallel sections are similar hgures. See 
 
 M'iMSURATION. 
 
 FKUTF.X, a Shrub. Shrubs, according to IJnnseus, make a 
 bni'i'-h ci the seventh family in the vegetable kingdom ; and ise 
 disi nguished from trees, in that they come up without buds. Hut 
 this distinction is not universal, though it be generally just with 
 regard to tl-.ose of Europe, Nature has made no absolute distinc- 
 
 tion between trees and shrubs. Frutex, in its general acceptation, 
 is a plant whose trunk is perennial, gemniiparous, woody, dividing 
 and subdividing into a great miinber of branches. In short, it is 
 the epitome of a tree, exemplified in the rose-bush. 
 
 FRU riNGEN, a town of the Helvetic republic, in the late 
 canton of Bern, 30 miles S. E. of I'riburg. 
 
 FRU lis, [from//«o>r, to enjoy,] a name of Venus. 
 FUCHSIA, in botany, a genus of the octandria monogynia 
 class and order. Calyx one-leafed, coloured, bearing the corolla, 
 very large ; petals four, small; berry inferior, four-celled, with 
 many seeds. 'lAere are five species. 
 
 FUCINUS, in anciLut mythology, the god of the lake so nam- 
 ed. His temple stood on its banks. 
 
 FuciNus Lacus, in ancient geography, a lake of Italy in the 
 country of the Marsi, now calleil Celano, from a cognoniiiial cita- 
 del, in the S. of Abriizzo Ultra. 
 
 FUCUS, in antiquity, a name given to certain dyes and paints ; 
 particularly to a purple sea-plant used to dye woollens and linens 
 of that colour. The dye, says Theophrastus, w as very beautiful, 
 but not lasting; for it 'soon began to change, and in time went 
 v\'holly olf. T he, women also used something called fucus, to 
 stain their cheeks red; and many have supposed, from the same 
 word expressing both, that the same substance was used on both 
 occasions. But this, on a strict inquiry, proves not to be the 
 case. The Greeks called every thing i-^xo; that would stain or 
 paint the Hesh. But this peculiar substance used by the women 
 to paint their cheeks, was distinguished from the others by the 
 name of rizion among the more correct writers, from j'^a, a root ; 
 and was indeed a root brought from Syria into Cireece. 
 
 Fucus, in botany, a genus of the cryptogainia alga:. Male 
 vesicles smooth, hollow, with viUose hairs within> interwoven : fe- 
 male vesicles smooth, hlled with jelly, sprinkled with immersed 
 grains, prominent at the tip. Seeds solitary. This genus com- 
 prehends most of those plants which are commonly called sea- 
 weeds ; more than seventy species are enumerated ; they may all 
 be used to manure land, or burnt for alkali. Some of the species 
 are e;iten, eith.r tresh out of the sea ; or boiled tender, with but- 
 ter, pepper, &c. If the F. saccharinus is washed in spring-water, 
 and then hung up in a warm place, a substance like sugar exudes 
 from it. 
 
 F. CiLiATUS, the Cii-iATED or LiGULATED Fucus, is found on 
 the shores of lona and other places, but is not common. The colour 
 is red, the substance membranous and pellucid, without rib or 
 nerve ; the ordinary height of the whole plant about four or five 
 inches. It is variable in its appearance, according to the different 
 stages of its growth. It is eaten by the Scots and Irish promiscu- 
 ously, with dilse. 
 
 F^Palmatus, thePALMATEn or SweetFucus, commonly called 
 dulse or dilse, grows plentifully on our sea-coasts and islands. Its 
 substance is membranaceous, thin, and pellucid; the colour red, 
 sometimes green with a little mixture of red ; its- length gent rally 
 about live or six inches, but varies from thne to twelve: it is 
 fan-shaped, or gradually dilated from the base upwards. Its divi- 
 sions are extremely vaVious. The inhabitants both of Scotland 
 and England take pleasure in eating this plant : and women of 
 weak habits often recover an appetite by eating it raw. 
 
 FUEGO, or FOGO, one of the Cape de Verd Islands, in the 
 Atlantic, so named from its volcano ; and called also St. Philip, 
 from its having been discovered on St. Philip's day. Lon. 24. 20. 
 W. Lat. Id. io. N. 
 
 FuEGo, or Terra del Fuego, a large island, separated from 
 the S. extremity of America, by the Straits of Magellan. It con- 
 sists of a chain of stupendous mountains, some of which are vol- 
 canoes, covered with perpetual snow; notwithstanding which the 
 inhabitants go naked, and paint their bodies, which are naturally 
 fair. 
 
 FUEL. Dr. Black divides fuels jnlo five classes; the first 
 comprehends the lluid inllaiiimable bodies; the second, peal or 
 turf; the third, charcoal of wood; the fourth, pit-coal charred ; 
 and the hftli, woml, or pit-coal, in a crude state, and capable of 
 yielding a copious and bright flame. The lluid inflanimables are 
 considered as distinct from the solid, on this account, that they 
 are capable of burning upon a wick, and become in this way the 
 most manageable sources of heat; though, on account of their 
 price, they lire nevei; employed Jor producing it in great quanli- 
 • -^. . tiesj
 
 FUE 
 
 512 
 
 FUG 
 
 lies ; and are only used when a genlle degree, or a small quantity 
 6f heat is sufficient. Tlie species whicli belong to tViis class are 
 alroliol and different oils. Alcohol, when pure and free of water, 
 IS as convenient and manngeable a fuel for producing moderate or 
 gentle heat^ as can be desired. Its flame is perfectly clean, and 
 free from any kind of soot ; it can easily be made to burn slower 
 or faster, mid to produre less or more heat, by changing the size 
 01 nmnbtr of the wicks upon which it burns ; for as long as these 
 are fed with spirit, in a proper manner, they continue to yield 
 flame of precisely the same strength. The cotton, or other mate- 
 rials, of which the wick is composed, is not scorched or consumed 
 in the least, liecause the spirit with which it is coiistaiilly soaked 
 is incapable of becoming hotter Ihan 174", Fahrenheiti which is 
 Coujiderably below, tin*, heat of boiling water. U is only the va- 
 pour that arises -from it which is hotter, and tins too only in its 
 outer parts, that are most remote from tliK wick, and where only 
 the combustion is going on, in consequence of, communication and 
 contact with the air. At the same time, as the alcohol is totally 
 volatile, it does not leave any fixed matter which, by being accu- 
 iTiulated on the wick, might render it foul and fill up its pores. 
 The wick, therefore, continues to imbibe the sjiirit a~ freely, after 
 some time, as it did at the first. T he second kind of fuel men- 
 tioned., peat, is so spongy that, compared with the more solid fuels, 
 it is uiifit' to be employed for producing very strong, heals. It is 
 too bulky for this ; we cannot put into a furnace, at a time, a quan- 
 tity that corresponds with the quick consumption that must' neces- 
 sarily go on when the heat is violent. However, when we detire 
 to produce and keep up, by means of clienp fuel, an extremely 
 mild gentle heat, we can hardly use any thing : better than peat, 
 liut it is best to have it previously charred, that is, scorched, or 
 burnt to l-.lack coal. The nc.\t fuel, in order, or the charcoal of 
 wood, is the chief fuel used by the chemists abroad; and has many 
 good properties. Tt kindles quickly, emits few watery or other 
 vapours wh'le burning, and w hen consumed leaves few ashes, and 
 those very light. They are, therefore, easily blown away, so that 
 the fire continues opi-ii, or pervious to the current of air which 
 jiiust pass through it to keep it burning. This sort of fuel, too, is 
 capable of producing as intense a heat as can be obtained by any ; 
 but in those violent heals it is quickly consumed, anti needs to be 
 frequently supplied. Fossil-coals charred, called cindtrs, or 
 coaks, have, in manv respects, the same properties as charcoal of 
 ■wood ; as kindling more readily in furnaces than when they are 
 not charred, and not emitting watery, or other gross smoke, while 
 they burn. This sort of charcoal is even greatly superior to the 
 other in some properties. The fifth and la't kind of fuel is wood, 
 or fossil-coals, in their crude state, which it is proper to distinguish 
 from the charcoals of the same sub-tances. Tlie difference con- 
 sists in their giving a cof^ious and bright flame, when plenty of air 
 is admitted to them, in consequence of which they must be consi- 
 dered as fuels very different from, charcoal, and adapted to ditiler- 
 ent purposes. Sec Flame, riiefnel generally used for com- 
 mon purposes in Britain is pit-coal: it is attended with considera- 
 ble expence, which is nol a little increased by the enormous waste, 
 arising from the injudicious manner in which the fires are usually 
 managed. Hence different compositions have been proposetl, 
 among which that cantrivcd by Count Btmiford more particu 
 larly claims our attention. . It is known by Jjie name of kindhng- 
 balls, which are composed of equal parts of coal, charcoal, and 
 clay ; the two former are reduced to a fine powder, well mixed 
 and kneailed together wilh the clay moistened with water; and 
 then formed into balls of the size of hens eggs, which are tho- 
 rouL>,hlv dried. These balls may be made so intlaniniable as in- 
 stantly to take fire from the smallest spark, after they have been 
 dipped in a strong solution of nitre, and then dried. With those 
 three ingredients, Count Rumford is of opinion, that a certain 
 proportion of straw, cut very SLiiall, or rf chaff, or even of saw- 
 dust, may be advantageously incorporated. Tlie e.\cellence of 
 the fuel thus prepared consists in its ccconomy and cleanliness ; 
 circumstances of the utmost importan<-e, and u.hich are calculated 
 greatly to improve the apartments of the C|.iulent. 
 
 I'UENHOA, acity of China, hi the province of Pe-tcheli, cele- 
 brated for lis extent snd the number of its inhabitanls, as well as 
 for the beauty of its streets and Iriumphal arches. 
 
 FUEN-TCIIKOU, or FL EN-'l CHEOU FOU, a city ol 
 China, of the fii-sl rank, in the proviuce ol Chansij on the Fuen, 
 280 miles S. W. of Pekiii. 
 
 FUENTE GiriALDO, a town of Spain, in Estremadura, 16 
 miles N. ^^'. of Coria. 
 
 FUERTEVENTURA, or FORTAVENTURA, one of the 
 Canar)- Islands, consisting of two peninsulas, joined by an isthmus 
 12 miles broad, 
 
 FUESSEN, or FUSSEN, a town of Suabia, in the bishopric 
 of Augsburg, on the Lech, 47 miles E. of Augsburg. 
 
 J'UCtALIA, in Roman antiquity, a feast supposed by some to 
 be the same with the Kegifugium, held on the i!4th of February, 
 in memory of the e.xpulsion of the kings, and the abolition of mo- 
 narchy. 
 
 iUGAM FECIT, is where it is found by inquisition that a 
 person fled for treason or felony ; as to which it is agreed, that 
 whcresoevi*r A person found guilty by such inquest, either as a 
 principal or as an accessary before the fact, is found also to have' 
 tied for the ^amc, he forfeits his goods' absolutely, and the issues of 
 his lands, till he is pardoned or acquitted. But wherever the in- 
 dictment against a man is insufficient, tlie 'finding a fugam fecit 
 will not hurt him ; and that in all cases tlie particulars of the 
 goods found to i)e forfeited may be travcTsed. L^Haw. 460. 
 
 FL'GI FIVE, a person obliged to lly his country, or remove 
 from a place where he had some abode, or estabhslunent, on ac- 
 count of his crimes, debts, or other occasions. 
 
 Fugitive Piti ks, in literature, essays, poems, or other short 
 compositions, inserted in newspapers, luaaazines, or the like pe- 
 riodical ]Hiblications ; or printed on loose slieets or half-sheets ; so 
 called, because easily lost and .soon forgot. 
 
 Fl'gitjve's Goods, are the proiier goods of him that flies, 
 which after the flight lawfully found, belong to the king or lord of 
 the manor. 5 Co. Rep. iOg. See Felon's Goods. 
 
 FUGUE, [from^i/£;a, a flight,] in music, a composition either 
 vncal or instrumental, or both, in which one part leads off some 
 determined succession of notes called the subjtct, which, after 
 being answered in the fifth and eighth by the other parts, is inter- 
 spersed through the movement, and distributed amid all the parts 
 in a desultory manner, at the pleasure of the composer ; some- 
 times accompanied by other adventitious matter, and sometimes 
 by itself. These are the princij'al rules of the fugue ; of which 
 some are peculiar to itself; and others common to it with what 
 the French call imitation. 1. The subject proceeds from the to- 
 nic to the dominant, or from the dominant to the tonic, in rising 
 or descemling. 2. FLverv fugue finds its response in the part im- 
 metliately following thai which commenced. 3. That response 
 ought to resume the subject in the interval of a fourth or fifth 
 above or below the key, and to pursue it as exactly as the laws of 
 harmony will admit ; proceeding from the dominant to the tonic 
 when the subject is introduced friini the tonic to the dominant, 
 and moving in a contrary direction when the subject is introduced 
 from the dominant to the tonic. One part may likewise resume 
 the same subject in the octave or unison of the preceding ; but in 
 that case, it is a repetition rather than a real re-"|)onse. 4. As the 
 octave is^divided into two unequal parts, of which the one contains 
 four gradalions descending from the tonic to the dominant, and 
 the other only three in continuing the ascent from the dominant 
 to the tonic ; this renders it necessary to have some regard to this 
 change in the expression of the subject, and to make some altera- 
 tions in the response, that we may not quit the cords that are 
 essential to the mode. It is a diifereiit case when the composer 
 intends to alter the modulation ; for there the exactness of the re- 
 sponse itself, when taken in a dityerciit tone, produces the altera- 
 tion iiroper for this change. 5. 'I'he fugue should be planned in 
 such a nninner, that the response may commence before the close 
 of the be^t air, so that both the one'and the other may be in part 
 heard at tlie same time : that, by this anticipation, the subject 
 may be as it were connected with itself, and that the art of the 
 composer may discover itself in this concourse. It is absolute 
 mockery, instead of a fugue, to impose upon the hearers the same 
 air, merely transposed, from one key (o another, without any other 
 restraint than an accompaniment afterwards formed at pleasure. 
 This deserves at best no better name than what the French call 
 imitation. See Imitation. Resides these rules, which are fun- 
 ilamental, there are othei-s, which, though prescribed by taste 
 alone, are nut less essential. Fugues, in gener.d, render music 
 more noisy than agreeable ; for this reason they are most agree- 
 able in the chorus. There are distinct descriptions of fugues ; the 
 simple fugue, the double fugue, and the counter fugue. The 
 
 Fugue,
 
 FUL 
 
 515 
 
 FUL 
 
 FvGL'E, Simple, L'oitt.(in« liHt one subject, is the least elaborate 
 in its coiislructioii, and tlie easiest in in composition. 
 
 FucuE, Doi'Bi.E, coiisisU ef two siilijects, occasionally inter- 
 mingled and moving logetber ; and the 
 
 FucuE, CouKTBR, IS that fuguc in which the subjects move in 
 a direction i ontrary to each oth^r. In all the difl'erent species of 
 fugues, the i)art3 fly, or run alter each other, and hence the deriva- 
 tion ot the s^neral name fugue. 
 
 FUIRENA, In botany, a genus of the triandria nionogynia 
 class and order; natural order, Calamaria;. Ament iinbncati-, 
 vith awned scales ; calyx none ; corolla with three petal-shaped 
 obcordate gluniL's, ending in a tendril. One species, F. panicu- 
 lata, a lofty grass of Surinam and Jamaica. 
 
 FULCRliM, in meclianics, the prop or support by which a 
 lever is sustained. See Mechanics. 
 
 Fulcrum, in botany. See Botant. 
 
 FULDA, or FULUE, a late episcopal principality of Ger- 
 many, in tlie Upper Rhine. 
 
 FuLDA, a river which joins the Werra at Minden ; they form 
 the Weser. 
 
 FuLDA, or FuLDE, the capital of the above late principality, 
 seated on the river, 55 miles S. of Cassel. 
 
 FULGORA, in zoology, a genus of the class insectx, order 
 hemiptera. Head liollow, inllatctl, extended forward ; antennx 
 short, seated beneath the eyes, consisting of two joints, the outer 
 one larger and globular ; snout elongated, intlected, four-jointed ; 
 legs formed for walkii'g. There are about 25 species, almost all 
 inhabitants of hot climates. F. Europa-a, has the body green ; 
 wings hyaline, reticulate ; front conic. This is a small insect, and 
 destitute of the shinmg quality, by wiiich foreign species are dis- 
 tinguished. F. lanternaria, or Peruvian lantern-fly is a very curi- 
 ous and beautiful insect of Surinam, and other parts of South Ame- 
 rica, which diffuses a very brilliant phosphoric splendor ill the 
 dark from its head. 
 
 FUUCA, in ornithology, the Gallinule and Coot, a genus 
 of birds of the order gralis. Generic character : bill strong, 
 thick, and sloping to the point; upper mandible arched over the 
 lower at the edge, and reaching far up the forehead ; nostrils near- 
 ly oval; front bald; toes four, long, and furnished with broad 
 scalloped membranes. There are twenty-five species. 
 
 F. Atrv-Coot, is distinguislied from the gallinule by pinnated 
 feet. It inhabits Europe, Asia, and America, and is about the 
 size of a small fowl. It feeds on small tish and water-insects, is 
 common in some parts of this country at all seasons, but in the 
 breeding season is seen almost always in pairs, about the borders 
 of ponds and lakes well fringed with rushes, of which it mats itself 
 a large nest, said to be often observed lloating on the water. Tliese 
 bfrds are devoured when young by the buzzards, which infest 
 their haunts, and prevent them from that great multiplication which 
 might be otherwise expected. See Plate LVIII. 
 
 F. Aterrima, the Gkeater Coot, is of a larger size than the 
 common coot, and its plumage is blacker. This species is found 
 in Lancashire and Scotland ; but^is more plentiful on the Conti- 
 nent, being found in Russia and the W. of Siberia very common ; 
 also at Sologne and the neighbouring parts, wliere they call it ju- 
 delie. Its tlesh is much esteemed. 
 
 FULIGO, in botany, a genus of the cryptogamia fungi class 
 and order. Fungus with a cellular fibrous bark ; the fibres pene- 
 trating in a reticulate manner through the seminal mass. 
 
 FULLER, Thomas, D. D. a learned English historian and 
 divine, born at Alvinkle, Northamptonshire, in ItiOS. He studied 
 at Cambridge, and was chosen minister of St. Rennet's there. 
 Upon the restoration, he was appointed chaplain extraordinary to 
 Charles 11. and created D. D. His memory was so amazingly te- 
 nacious, that he could repeat a sermon, verbatim, if once he 
 heard it. He once undertook, in passing to and Irom Temple- 
 bar to the Poultry, to tell at his return every sign as it stood in or- 
 der, on botli sides of the way, repeating them either backwards or 
 forwards: and this task he actually performed He wrote, 1. A 
 Hi>tory of the Holy War. -'. The Church History of Britain, in 
 folio. 3. Androni( us, or the Unfortunate Politician, in 8vo. 4. 
 A Pisgah sight of Palestine. 5. A History of English Worthies ; 
 and other works. He died in August l6til. He was fond of 
 punning ; but once attempting to play off a joke upon a gentleman 
 named Sparrow hawk, he met with a retort in his own stile. 
 
 vou II. — .N'o yo. 
 
 " What is the difference, said the \)r. (\0io was very lorpulint) 
 between an owl and a sparrow hawk .'" " It is, replii-d the other, 
 iullcr in the head, fuller in the body, and fuller all over." Thus 
 he retorted the owl upon him ( oiupletely. 
 
 Fuller, a workman emplo\ed in the wonllen manufactories, to 
 mill, or scour, cloths, serges, and othi r stuffs, in order to render 
 them more thick, compact, and durable. 
 
 Fuller's Earth, or Terra Fullos-ica, in natural history, 
 a soft, greyish, brown, dense, and heavy maile : when dry, it is of 
 a greyish, ash-coloured brown, in all degrees from very pale to 
 almost black, and it has generally something of a greenish cisl ; it 
 is very hard and hrin, of a compact texture, of a rough and some- 
 what dusty surface, that adheies sliglitly to the tongue; it is very 
 soft to the touch, not staining llie hands, nor breukuu; easily be- 
 tween the fingei-s : it has a little hai-shness between the irctli, and 
 melts freely in the mouth : thrown into the water, it makes ii« 
 ebullition, or hiising, but swells gradually in bulk, and falis into a 
 fine solt powder. It makes no ert'ervescence with atjua-fortis. 
 The greatest quantity, and of the finest quality, is dui> in the piU 
 at Wavedon, near Woburn in Bedfordshire. The strata ii> tliese 
 pits lie thus . From the surface to the depth of six feet, there art- 
 several layers of sand, all reddish, but some lighter coloured than 
 others. Under these there is a thin stratum of a sand-stone, which 
 they break through, and then they find the luUer's earth. A spe- 
 cimen from Hampshire, analysed by Bergman, contained 
 51.8 silica, 
 33.0 alumina, 
 
 3.3 lime, 
 
 3.7 oxyd of iron, 
 
 0.7 i.iagnesia, 
 15.5 water. 
 
 100.0 
 
 This earth is used by fullers to take grease out of their cloth be- 
 fore they apply soap. It is essential to fuller's earth that the par- 
 ticles of silica should be very fine, otherwise they would cut the 
 cloth. Any clay possessed of this property may be considered as 
 fuller's earth ; for it is the almnina alone which acts upon the 
 cloth, on account of its strong affinity for greasy substances. 
 
 Fuller's Thistle, Fuller's W'eed, or Teazle, in botany. 
 See DipsAcus. 
 
 FULLERTON Point, a cape on the \V. coast of Antigua. 
 Loii. 61.35. W. Lat. 17. 13. N. 
 
 FULLING, is the art of cleansing, scouring, and pressing 
 cloths, stutfs, and stockings, to render them stronger, closer, and 
 firmer : it is also sometimes called milling. The fullins; of cloths, 
 &c. is perfonncd by a kind of water-mill, thence called a fulling, 
 or scouringmill. Without describing the mechanism of this ma- 
 nufacturing process, we cannot omit to remark that urise is some- 
 times employed, as well as soap and fuller's earth, to prepare the 
 stuffs for receiving the first impressions of the pestle. 'I'hey are 
 first steeped in urine, then in a solution of fuller's earth and water, 
 and lastly in soap, dissolved in hot water. Soap alone w ould fully 
 answer this purpose, but it is too expensive, especially as, accord- 
 ing to the present mode of dressing, fuller's earth is of equal effi- 
 cacy. Urine is certainly prejudicial, and ouglit entirely to be 
 abandoned here, both on account of its disagreeable smell,' and its 
 sharp, saline properties, which frcciiiently render the cloths dry 
 and harsh. '1 he scouring of cloth, however, is not the only ob- 
 ject in fulling it ; the alternate pressure communicated by the pes- 
 tles, or stampers, to the stulfs, occasions in its advanced stages an 
 eliect analogous to that produced upon bats in the operation of 
 felting. Thus, the fibres of wool which compose one of the 
 threads, whether of the warp or the woof, assume a progressive 
 motion, first introducing themselves among those of the contigu- 
 ous threads, then into tliose which follow, so tluit gradually all the 
 threads, both of the warp and tlie woof, become coinph telv felt- 
 ed. The cloth, after having by this process become contriKted 
 and shortened in its dimensions, partakes in a great measure of tiit; 
 nature of felt : hence it may be cut without being liable to unr.'- 
 vel ; and consequently there is no necessity to ^|i em its edp^e";.' 
 Farther, as the threads ot both tlie warp and woof are more inti- 
 mately combined, the web, which acquires a greater decree of 
 thickness, likewise forms a wanner clothing. The process of full- 
 ing stockings, caps, &c. is performed in a manlier soniev.h.it dvt- 
 C P tercp.t
 
 FTJ-N 
 
 514 
 
 FUN 
 
 fereiit tioiii tliat in nulls ; nami*l\, fiitlier with the feet or hands ; ^ 
 or a kind of rack or wooden machine, armed with teeth of the 
 same materials ; or, wlijch is still better, horses' or bullocks' teeth 
 may be substituted. In this operation, m-ine, green soap, white 
 soap, and tidler's earth, are employed ; but the first of these ini^re- 
 ihents, for the reas(.ns before stated, is here also delriniental to the 
 texture. Stockings manufactured in a loom, should he fulled with 
 soap alone ; but, tor dressing such as have been knit, earth may 
 likewise be added. Lastly, knit-worsted is by this proces.s ren- 
 dered less suliject to run, if a stitch should happen to drop in the 
 stockings. 
 
 FULMINATION, in the Romish canon law, a sentence of a 
 bishop, official, or other ecclesiastic, appointed by the pope» by 
 \\ hicli it is decreed that some bull sent from the pope shall be exe- 
 cuted. 
 
 ruLMiNATioK, in chemistry, dilTers from detonation only in 
 degree, they are both the effects of rapid decomposition accom- 
 panied by a loud noise, eitlier with or without flame. See Gold, 
 MtRCURY, Powder, and Silvhr. 
 
 FUMARI A, in botany, English Fumitory, a genus of thedia- 
 delpliia hexandria class and order. Natural order, Corydales. 
 Calyx two-Ieaved ; corolla ringent ; filaments two, membranace- 
 ous, with three anthers on each. There arc fifteen species. 
 
 F. Ofucinalis, or Common Fumitory, grows naturally in 
 shadv cultivated grounds, and produces spikes of purplish tlowers 
 . in May and June. It is very juicy, of a bitter taste, witliout any 
 remarkable smell. Its medical eli'ects are, to strengthen the tone 
 of the bowels, geiitly loosen the belly, and promote the natural 
 secretions. : 
 
 FUMIGATION, in medicine, denotes the artificial impregna- 
 tion of the atmosphere, with the fumes or smoke of any vegetal)le 
 or aromatic substance. By the subtik; futnes produced by burn- 
 ing certain substances, much benefit or prejudice may be produc- 
 ed, according to the nature of the case, and the constitution on 
 which the effects are to be exerted ; as is evident from the palsies 
 produced among metal-gilders, workers in lead-niines, Stc. and 
 also from the benefits received in many ca.ses when the air is im- 
 pregnated witli salutary materials. Catarrhs and colds, for in- 
 stance, are relieved by fumes received with the breath ; by the 
 same means, expectoration is as:-,isted in the asthma ; and even ul- 
 cers in the lungs have been relieved by this method. 
 
 PUNAMBULUS, among the Romans, was what we call a 
 rope-dancer, and the Greeks schcrnobatcs. 
 
 FUNARIA, in botany, a genus of the cryptogamia musci 
 class and order. Capsule obovate ; fringe double ; outer, of six- 
 teen oblique wedge-form teeth, cohering at the tips; inner, a 
 membrane dividetl into sixteen flat teeth ; veil square. There are 
 three species. 
 
 FUNCHAL, or FUNCHIAL, the capital of Madeira, a 
 large, strong, han<!some, and populous town, with two castles, ami 
 several fine churches. Lon. Hi. 49. W. Lat. 3y. 32. N. 
 
 FUNCTION, in algebra, denotes any compound quantity; 
 and uhen one of the component quantities is variable, it is said to 
 be a variable function. Functions are formed either bv addition, 
 subtraction, multiplication, division, involution, or evolution; a> 
 also by the resolution ol ecjuations. But besides tliese, which are 
 called algebraical functions, tliere are others calle<! transcendental, 
 arising from the management of exponents, logaritlnns, &c. For 
 a farther account of functions, the reader may consult Bernoulli, 
 Oper. T. 3, also Filler's Analys. Iiifinitor. 
 
 Fu.sjcTio.v, in the animal cKconomy, is by physicians divided 
 into vital, animal, and natural. 
 
 1. Functions, Animal, include the senses, memory, judge- 
 ment, and voluntary motions; without any or all of which an ani- 
 mal may live, but not very comfortably. The animal fimctions 
 perform the motion of the body by the action of the muscles ; and 
 this artion consists chiefly in the shortening the fleshy fibres, which 
 is called contraction, the principal agents of which are the arteries 
 and nerves distributed in the fleshy fibres. All parts of the body 
 have their own functions, or actions, peculiar to themselves. Life 
 consists in the exercise of these functions, and health in the free 
 and ready exercise of them. 
 
 2. FuNcrioNs, Naturai,, are such as it cannot subsist any 
 consideiable time without ; as the digestion of the aliment, and iN 
 conversion into blood. 
 
 3. Functions, Vital, are those necessary to life, and without 
 which the individual cannot subsist ; as the motion of the heart, 
 lungs, &c. 
 
 rt^NUS, Public, the taxes or other public revenues appropri* 
 ated to the payment of the interest or principal of the national 
 debt. When the practice wa-^ first adopted of borrowing money 
 of individuals for defraying the extraordinary cxpences of tU* 
 state, the produce of some particular tax was generally appropri- 
 ated as the fund out of which the principal and interest of the 
 debt was to be discliarged. The possession of the acknowledge- 
 ment given by geverniiient for the money adfanced, establishing 
 a right to receive the payments from tlie fund originally agreed 
 upon, the sale of these securities was considered as a sale of the 
 claim upon the fund ; and as the acknowledgements given were of 
 different kinds, the general appellation of the provision on whicli 
 they rested was found more convenient for purposes of business; 
 thus the sale and purchase of the government securities was com- 
 monly called the sale or purchase of the public funds, till at length 
 the expression has so far varied from its original signification, that 
 instead of meaning the revenue out of which public debts or the 
 interest of them is payable, it denominates the capital of sach 
 debts, in wliicli sense it is generally used. Hence the term isnovc 
 used to signify those large sums which have been lent to govern- 
 ment, and constitute the nationatdebt; and for which thelenders» 
 or their assignees, rdeive interest from revenues allotted for that 
 purpose. The term stock is used in the same sense, and is also 
 applied to the sums which form the capital of the bank of Eng- 
 land, the East India and South Sea companies; the proprietors 
 of which are entitled to a siiare of the profits of the respective 
 companies. The practice of funding was introduced by the Ve- 
 netians and Genoese in the sixteenth century, and has been adopt- 
 ed since by most of the nations in Europe. Princes had often 
 borrowed money, in former times, to supply their exigencies, and 
 sometimes mortgaged their territories insecurity: but these loant 
 were generally extorted, and their payment was always precarious;' 
 for it depended on the good faith and success of the borrower, and 
 never became a regular burden on posterity. 7 he origin of fund* 
 is derived from the peculiar manners and circumstances of modern 
 Europe. Since the invention of gunpowder, and the progress of 
 commerce, the military occup'atiou has become a distinct employ-» 
 ment in the hands of mercenaries ; the apparatus of war is attended 
 with more expence; and the decision ot national quarrels has ofr 
 ten been determined by command of money rather than by na- 
 tional bravery. Ambitious princes have therefore borrowed mo- 
 ney, to carry on their projects with more vigour. Weaker states 
 have been compelled, in self-defence, to apply to the same re- 
 source ; the wealth introduced by commerce has afforded the 
 means; the regularity of administration, established in conse- 
 quence of the progress of civilization, has increased the confidence 
 of individuals in the public security; the complicated system of 
 modern policy has extended the scenes of war, and prolonged their 
 duration; and the colonics established by the mercantile nations 
 have rendered them vuhierable in more poijits, and increased the 
 expence of defending them. When a greater sum has been re- 
 : quired for the annual expence, than could easily be supplied by 
 annual taxes, the government have proposed terms, to their own 
 subjects, or foreigneis, for obtaining an advance of money, by 
 mortgaging the revenue of future years for their indeninification. 
 This mortgage may eithtT be for a limited perio<l, or perpetual. 
 If the sum allotted aniiuallv for the benefit ot those who ailvance 
 the money, be considerably greater than the interests of tiie sums 
 advanced, they may agree {o accept of such allowance, for a limit- 
 ed time, as a full ecjuivalent. Thus, they .may either agree for 
 the casual produce of the revenue assigned; or a fixed annuity 
 for a greater or less numl>er of years; era lite-annuity to them- 
 selves or nominees; or an annuity tor two or more lives; or an 
 annuity, with the benefit of survivorship, called a tontine, in which 
 scheme, the whole sum to which the original annuitants were inti- 
 tled continues to be distributed among the survivors. 'J he esta- 
 blishinent of the funds was introduced in Britain at the Revolu- 
 tion ; and has since been gradually enlarged, and earned to an 
 amazing extent. The various methods above-mentioned have 
 been used in their turns, but perpetual annuities have been granted 
 for the greatest part : and, even when the money was originally 
 advanced on other conditions, the lenders have been sonietimei; 
 ti induced,
 
 ■ ■■*— ^ m,»,^^ n 
 
 V r N 
 
 515 
 
 TUN 
 
 iiidiici'd, by subjcqiiciit otTers, (o ;iccei)l of perpetual aniuiitio':, 
 instead of llie fornu-r terms. The debt, for wliiili perpetual an- 
 nuities arc granted, is called the redeemable debt, and the other 
 is caileil the irredeemable debt. Although the debts thus con- 
 tracted by government are seldom ))a!d for a long term of years; 
 yet any creditor of the public m-.iy obtain money for what \s due 
 to him when he pleases, by tnmsferring his property in tin' funds 
 to another; and regular methods are ajipointed for transacting 
 Siese transfei-s in an cas^' niamier. By these jiieans, the stock*; be- 
 come a kind of circulating capital ; and have the same effect, in 
 some res])ects, as the circulating inoney in the nation. When a 
 slockiioldcr transfers his share, he may sometimes be able to ob- 
 tain a greater price than the original value, and at other tinre' be 
 Oblige(l to accept of a less one. The value of the funds depends 
 on the proportion between the interest they bear, and the benefit 
 which may be ol)tained by a|)plying the money to other purposes. 
 It is influenced by the plenty or scarcity of money, aiid by the 
 greatness or smallncss <if the public debt; and it is impaired by 
 «ny event which threatens the safety, or weakens the credit, of the 
 government. The business of stock-jobbing is founded on the 
 variation of the prices of stock. Persons possessed of real pro- 
 perty may buy or sell -tock, according to their notion that' the va- 
 lue is likely to ri>e or fall, in expectation of making prolit by the 
 ditTei'ence of price. And a practice has taken place among per- 
 isons who often possess no property in the funds; to contract for the 
 salf of stofk against a future day, at a price now agi-eed on. For 
 instance: A agrees to sell B 1000/. of bank-stock, to be trans- 
 ferreil, in twenty days, for 1 ,'00/. A has, in fact, no such stock; 
 hut, if the price of bank-stock, on the dsv appointed for the trans- 
 fer, should be only 118 per cent, A mnv purchase as much as will 
 enable him tofulftl his bargain for 1180/. and thus he gains 20/. 
 by the transaction; on the contrary, if the price of bank-lock bi- 
 ll's per cent, he will lose 50/. The business is generally settled 
 \*'ithout any actual purchase or transfer of stock, by A paying to 
 B, or receiving from him, thoidifrerence between the curreiit price 
 of the stock, on the day appointed, and the price bargained for. 
 This practice, which is really nothing but a wager concerning the 
 price of stock, is contrary to lav» ; yet it is carried on to a great 
 extent, In the language of Exchange-alley, where matters of this 
 Rind arc transactecf, the buyer is called a bull, and the seller a 
 Sear. As neither party can be compelled by law to implement 
 these bargains, their sense of honour, and the disgrace and loss of 
 future credit, wliich attend a breach of contract, are the principles 
 by which the business is supported. When a person declines to 
 pay his loss, he is called a lame duck, and dare never afterwards 
 appear in the alley. This opprobrious appellation, however, is 
 riot bestowed on those whose failure is owing to want of ability, 
 providing fhey make the same surrender of their property volun- 
 tarily, which tlie law wo.ild have e\acted if the debt had been en- 
 titled to its sanction. The interest or dividend on the stock is 
 paidhalf-yearly; and the purchaser has the benefit of the intereU 
 due on the stock he buys, from the last term to the time of pur- 
 chase. The principal funds established at different periods are, 
 rtle Aggregate Fund, the South Sea Fund, the General Fund, the 
 Sinking Fund, and the Consolidated Fund. The Aggregate Fund 
 was establibhedin the year 1715, and had this nam« given to it, 
 because it corisisted of a great variety of taxes and surpluses of 
 faxes, which were in that year consolidated, and given as thesecu- 
 ritv for discharging the interest and principal of all the Exch-vpier 
 l)if)s then o'-il!>randiiig, and of some other public debts: and like- 
 wise for the payment of ll'0,000/. per animm to the civil list. Tlie 
 ■South Sea Fund was established in 17 It), and was so called bc- 
 *ciuSe api>ropriated to pay the interest and allowance for manage- 
 AVeiit on the capital of the South Sea Company. The tiencral 
 Fund was also ealablished in 1716, by making perpetual various 
 iJulies wi.ich had been granted for the term of thirty-two years, 
 Iffid consolidating theiVi with some other duties into one fuud. It 
 'fcas appropriated cliiedy to the payment of the interest on various 
 Sfims raided by lotteries during the reign of Queen Anne. The 
 Sink'ng p'lUul consisted of the surpluses of the three fund's just- 
 mentioned, whenever the produce of the taxes composing them 
 should be greater than the charges upon them. The t>stablish- 
 ment of these funds formed part of a plan for a general reduction 
 of the inlertst payable on the public debts, and this being efiectcd, 
 the charge on each of the three funds was of course lessened con- 
 
 siderably, and thefutm'e overplus was directed to be rarrie:! into 
 a lourlli fund, to wliich was given the name of the Sinking Ftind, 
 bet ause appropriated to the purpose of redeeming or sinkuig Ihe 
 public debts. The ad of parliamenl liy which this fund was esta- 
 blished, expressly ordained that it should be applied to tire- dis- 
 charge ot tl^e pu!)lic debts, and " ti> or for none other tise, intent, 
 or purpose whatsoever;" yet in the cour>e of a few years many 
 cncrouchmeuts were made iipon it, and ulLiraalcly ii Jactfatne a 
 mereinominal distinction, the whole produce of it being usually- 
 taken! towards the supplies of the cumiit year. The Con-olidated 
 Fundi was established in cotlseciuence of a new arrangement ef the 
 j)tdj|ic accounts in tlic year '1786, -^en'thc fnnxls above-mention- 
 ed were abolished, and <he 'whole of the public revenue, (cfvcept 
 the annual ;gTantsj inclnded' under this general head. Out df this 
 funel are paid the Sutere;.t aifd expences of management of all the 
 public fleut^, the interest oh Exchequer bills, the civil list, pen- 
 sions to the royal faniily and others, saUrirs and allowances to va- 
 rious public officer;, and some miscellaneous annual expences. 
 The surplus of the prodticc of the fund, alter satisfying all these- 
 charges, is annually granted by parliament as part of "the ways and 
 means for raising tlie'supplies voted. The debts bearing a certain 
 rate 61 ilitcrobf payable till the principal shall be redeeniert, are 
 ilcnoiiiinated, in the language of finance, perpetual annuities, or- 
 redeemable annuities; bnt, n the common course of business, they 
 are called fundi dr stock's : a small part of the public debts consist 
 ot annuities for a certain tehn of years, commonly called Idng or 
 sliort annuities: there are ajso some life and tonlilie annuities still 
 existing; bnt the whole of 
 
 "o' 
 
 the terminable annuities bears a very 
 small;proportion f(. the permanent debts. The perpetual annui- 
 ties ate distinguished aocorqing totha rate of interest they pay, or 
 the tilne or purpoJe df their creation ; and when bv J new lofii go- 
 vermhent Contracts an addfioual debit, bearing a'cettain fi.xiedin- 
 teresti the capital liuis created is addeil to the amouifl of that part 
 of tht public <lelit which bears the same nde. of interest, awd the 
 prodttcef of the talxes iiVrpo^ed for payment of the interest of such 
 new debt being cferried to the fund established for paying the in- 
 terest! of the termer capital, the old and new debts are' consolidat- 
 ed, dnd the whole interest made payable oult of the general i)ro- 
 duce;of the fund; hence we have three or four per cent, con^oli- 
 dateej annitities, according to the rate of interest pavable on the 
 capital. The interest on all the public debts was formerly paid at 
 the Exchetjuei-; but the hank being found a niuch n. ore conveni- 
 ent place for this purpose, nearly the whole is now- payable there, 
 the company receiving a certain allowaiue froii-i governihent for 
 managing all business relative to the public funds. The different 
 denominations of the funds transferable at the Bank of Englaiid, 
 w ilh the days on which the transfers are made, and the times » hea 
 the iiiterest or dividend becomes due, are at present as follows: 
 
 Funds 
 
 Tratisfer days 
 
 Divid. due. 
 
 Consolid. 3 pet C. Arj....Tues. Wed. Th. and Fr. ■) , , , 
 
 Three per C. An. 1726...Tues. and Thufs y^']- ?' 'i"^ 
 
 Navy 5 per C. An Mon. Wed. and Fr ) ^^ ^" 
 
 BankStixk ^Fues. Th. and Fr.... 
 
 5 per C. An. 17tt7, lSO'-'..Tues. Th. and Fr.... 
 4 per C. Consolid. An....Tues. Th. and Sat.. 
 Reduced 3 (ler C. An. ...Tues. Wed. 'I'h. and 
 
 Long .Vnnuities Mon. Wed. and Siat. 
 
 Imperial 3 per C. An Mon. ^^ ed. and Fr.. 
 
 Imperial An. 25 years ....Tues. Th. and Sat.. 
 
 Irish .f> per C. An T/ies. Th. and Sat } March 25, and 
 
 Irish Terminable Afi Tues. Th.-^and Sat 5 Sept. 2 
 
 ::::J 
 
 April 5, and 
 Oct. 10. 
 
 May I, and 
 Nov. 1. 
 
 Transferai)le at the South Sea House, 
 South Sea Stock Mon. Wed. and Fr V'^ 
 
 New ^^outh Sea An Tues Th. and Sal... 
 
 Three per Ceut. An Tues. and Thurs 
 
 Old South Sea An Mon. Wed. and Fr. 
 
 an. 3, and 
 July 5.' 
 i' ( Jan. 5", and 
 .'< July 5. 
 
 S April 5, and 
 ■ I Oct, 10. 
 
 A-- the prices of the several funds arc continually fluctuating, 
 and there is frequently a considerable diirereiice in the intpie'st 
 produced by investing money in different funds, the following 
 tabic of the prices which eacli fund should be at to produce an 
 
 equal
 
 F V N 
 
 516 
 
 FUN 
 
 pqual iiiterei-t, will lir fo'.ii 
 rnonej iiithes'' securities. 
 
 id very useful to perioias investing th«ii 
 
 TABLE, 
 
 ShexBin^ the cnmparati-ce Falue per Cent, nf the severni Public 
 f.ina<>, and the AnnuaL Jiiteretl produced bij lOOl. invested at 
 dijftrent J'nces. 
 
 
 
 
 Hank- 
 
 lud. St. 
 
 
 3 per 
 
 4 per 
 
 5 per 
 
 Stock, 
 
 10{ per 
 
 Annual 
 
 Cent. 
 
 Cent. 
 
 Cent. 
 
 7 per c. 
 
 Cent. 
 
 Interest. 
 
 43 
 
 60 
 
 75 
 
 105 
 
 I57i 
 
 6 13 4 
 
 ■iH 
 
 61 
 
 76^ 
 
 lObi 
 
 1 6()-i 
 
 6 11 1 
 
 4(ii 
 
 63 
 
 77i 
 
 108i- 
 
 1621 
 
 6 9 
 
 •»7! 
 
 63 
 
 78i 
 
 110^ 
 
 165-1 
 
 6611 
 
 48 
 
 64 
 
 SO 
 
 112 
 
 168 
 
 6 5 
 
 48 i 
 
 65 
 
 81T 
 
 113J 
 
 170i 
 
 6 3 
 
 m 
 
 66 
 
 82} 
 
 I1.H 
 
 \'3i 
 
 D 1 '..' 
 
 50« 
 
 67 
 
 83j 
 
 117| 
 
 i'H 
 
 5 19 4 
 
 r,i 
 
 6S 
 
 85 
 
 119 
 
 17Si 
 
 5 17 7 
 
 iii 
 
 69 
 
 86{ 
 
 120 J 
 
 I8ii 
 
 5 15 11 
 
 52t 
 
 70 
 
 87i 
 
 IV'V^ 
 
 l.S3i 
 
 3 14 3 
 
 iH 
 
 71 
 
 88i 
 
 124i 
 
 18(4 
 
 5 12 8 
 
 54 
 
 72 
 
 90 
 
 126 
 
 18i) 
 
 5 11 1 
 
 54^ 
 
 73 
 
 -9li 
 
 1271 
 
 19H 
 
 5 9 
 
 5,H 
 
 74 
 
 92i 
 
 1204 
 
 194-J 
 
 5 8 1 
 
 5fvl 
 
 75 
 
 m 
 
 13li 
 
 196J 
 
 5 6 7 
 
 57 
 
 76 
 
 95 
 
 133 
 
 199t 
 
 5 3 3 
 
 57i 
 
 77 
 
 96i 
 
 134J 
 
 202f 
 
 i 3 10 
 
 58-J 
 
 78 
 
 97i 
 
 136i 
 
 204} 
 
 5 2 6 
 
 59i 
 
 79 
 
 98i 
 
 138| 
 
 207| 
 
 5 1 3 
 
 eo 
 
 80 
 
 100 
 
 i4o 
 
 210 
 
 500 
 
 60| 
 
 81 
 82 
 
 lOli 
 
 1025. 
 
 14U 
 U3| 
 
 21 2f 
 215| 
 
 4 18 9 
 4 17 6 
 
 6i-'i 
 
 83 
 
 103 J 
 
 145| 
 
 217| 
 
 4 16 4 
 
 63* 
 
 84 
 
 105 
 
 147* 
 
 220* 
 
 4 15 2 
 
 WJ 
 
 85 
 
 106| 
 
 1484 
 150| 
 
 223i 
 
 4 14 
 
 li3i 
 
 86 
 
 107i 
 
 225| 
 
 4 13 
 
 (i5i 
 
 87 
 
 1084 
 
 152J 
 
 228| 
 
 4 11 11 
 
 66 
 
 88 
 
 110 
 
 154 
 
 231 
 
 4 10 10 
 
 tifVJ 
 
 sg 
 
 llli 
 
 1551 
 
 233i 
 236J 
 
 4 9 10. 
 
 t)7i 
 
 00 
 
 112i 
 
 157-^ 
 
 4 8 10 
 
 Ofe| 
 
 91 
 
 I13J. 
 
 159t 
 
 238J 
 
 4 7 10 
 
 »i9 
 
 92 
 
 IIj 
 
 161 
 
 2411 
 
 4 6 11 
 
 'iOJ 
 
 95 
 
 lH>i 
 
 162i 
 
 244i 
 
 4 6 
 
 70^ 
 
 94 
 
 117i 
 
 I64i 
 
 246J 
 
 4 5 1 
 
 7I5 
 
 95 
 
 Ilgj 
 
 166J 
 
 2494 
 
 4 4 2 
 
 7^ 
 
 96 
 
 120 
 
 168 
 
 252 
 
 4 3 3 
 
 7'Jl 
 
 •97 
 
 icii 
 
 169i 
 
 254} 
 
 4 2 5 
 
 "1 
 
 98 
 
 122f 
 
 171i 
 
 257^ 
 
 4 1 7 
 
 74i 
 
 99 
 
 123^ 
 
 173t 
 
 259i 
 
 4 9 
 
 75 
 
 100 
 
 125 
 
 175 
 
 262i 
 
 4 
 
 Tables of all the iiitcrnicdiale pricc>, and for comparing the 
 value of llie terminable annuities willi the other fumis are given in 
 Fairmun's Guidi; to Purchasers in the Public Funds. Some use- 
 ful information respecting the funds, and the mode of transacting 
 business at the bank and stock excliange, will also be found in 
 Mortimer's " Every Man liis Own Broker." 
 
 FL'ND.'VMEN'r, in anatomy, the lowest part of the intestinum 
 rectum, called by anatomists the anus. See Anatomy. 
 
 FUNDA.MEK'IAL NO IE, in music, the principal note in a 
 song, or composition, to which all (he rest are in some measure 
 ac'apfed, and by wliich they are swayed: it is otherwise called the 
 Key to I lie song. 
 
 FUNDI, ill ancient geography, a town of Latitim, on the Via 
 Appia, n<arCajeta; now railed fundi. 
 
 FUN 1) Y, a hay of North America, between New England and 
 Nova Si otia, remarkable for its tides, which rise to the height of 
 fifty or sixty feet, and flow so rapidly as to overtake animals which 
 feed upon ihi; ^hore. It lias a pood fishery. 
 
 Fl'NEN, FIONIA, or FYEN, a considerable island of Den- 
 mark, in tlic B.illic stu, separated from Jutland by a strait called 
 the Lesser Belt, and from the island of Zeal: nd by the Great Belt. 
 It is 340 miles in circuit; is fertile m wheat and barley, and 
 
 ^ abounds in grain, cattle, horses, game, and fish. Odensee is thd 
 capital. LoD. trom 9. 40. to 10. 50. E. Lat. 55. 7. to 55. 4S. N. 
 FUNERAL KITES, ceremonies accompanying the interment 
 or burial of any person. See Bukial. These rites diflered 
 among the ancients, according to the ditl'erent genius and religioiv 
 of each country. The Egyptians, among the rest of their funeral 
 rites, embalmed their dead. Among the ancient Greeks it was 
 usual sometimes, before the intennent, to put a piece of money 
 into the mouth of tlie deceased, which was thought to be Charon's 
 fare for wafting the departed soul over the infernal river. This 
 ceremony was not used in those countries which were supposed to 
 be situated in the neighbourhood of the internal regions, and to 
 lead thither by a ready and direct road. The corpse was likewise 
 furnished with a cake composed of tlonr, honey, &c. which was 
 designed to oppose tlie fury of Cerberus, the door-keeper of hell, 
 and to prcx;ure the ghost a safe and ipiiet entrance, louring the 
 time the corpse continued in tiie house, there stood before the 
 door a ve.ssel of water, the design of which was, that those con- 
 cerned about the body might purify themselves by washing ; it being 
 the opinion of the Greeks as well as ofthe Jews, that pollution was con- 
 tracted by touching a dead body. The ceremonies by whicli Ihcy 
 expressed their sorrow for the death of their friends were various; but 
 it seems to have bi en a constant rule to recede as much as possible 
 in habit and behaviour from their ordinary customs. For this 
 reason they abstained from banquets and entertainments; they di- 
 vested themselves of all ornaments; they tore, cut olf, or shaved 
 their hair, which they cast into the funeral-pile, to be consumed 
 with the body of their deceased friend. Sometimes they threw 
 themselves on the ground, and rolled in the dust, or covered their 
 head w itb ashes ; tiiey beat their breasts, and even tore their flesh 
 with their nails upon the loss of a person they much lamented. 
 When persons of rank, such as public magistrates, or great generals, 
 died, the whole city put on a face of mourning: all public meet- 
 ings were intermitted ; the schools, baths, shops, temples, and all 
 places of concourse, were shut up. Interring or laying the dead 
 in the ground, seems to have been the most ancient practice among 
 the Greeks; though burning came afterwards to be generally usea 
 among them. It was customary to throw into the funeral-pile 
 those garments the deceased usually wore. The pile was lighted 
 by one of the dead person's nearest relations or friends, who niada 
 prayers and vows to the winds to assist the flames, that the body 
 might quickly be reduced to ashes; and during the time the pile 
 was burning, the dead person's friends stood by it, pouring liba- 
 tions of wine, and calling upon the deceased. When Numa re« 
 formed the religion of Rome, he ordered that the pontiffs should 
 have the care of tlie funeral ceremonies; which, in most respects, 
 were like those of the Greeks already described. The funeral- 
 rites among the Hebrews, were solemn and magnificent: when 
 any person was dead, his relations and friends rent their clothes J 
 which custom is hut faintly imitated by the modern Jews, wha 
 only cut oil a bit of their garment, in token of aflliction. It was 
 usual to bend the dead person's thumb into the hand, and fasten it 
 in that posture with a siring; because the thumb then having the 
 figure of the name of God, they thought the devil would not dare 
 to approach it. When they came to the burying-place, they 
 made a speech to the dead in the following terms: " Blessed be 
 God, who lias forme<l thee, fed thee, maintained thee, and taken 
 away thy life. O dead! he knows your numbers, and shall one 
 d.iy restore your life, &c." Then they spoke the eulogiuni, or 
 funeral-oration, of the deceased; after which they said a prayer, 
 called the righteousness nf judgment ; then turning the face of the 
 deceased towards heaven, tliey called out, " Go in peace." The 
 ancient Christians teitilied their abhorrence ofthe Pagan custom of 
 burning the dead; and always deposited the body entire in the 
 ground: and it was usual to bestow the honour of embalming 
 upon the martjrs, at least, if not upon others. They prep:ired the 
 body for burial, by washing it with water, and dressing it in a fu- 
 neral'attire. The exportation, or carrying forth of the body, was 
 performed by near relations, or persons of such dignity as the cir- 
 cumstances of the deceasetl required. Psalmody, or singing of 
 psalms, was the great ceremony used in all funeral-processions 
 among the ancient Christians. In the Latin church, when A 
 person is dead, they wash the body, and put a crucifix in its hand. 
 At its feet stands a vessel full of holy water, and a sprinkler, that 
 they who come in may sprinkle both themselves and the deceased. 
 In the mean time some priest stands by the corpse, and prays for 
 
 the
 
 FUR 
 
 17 
 
 FUR 
 
 ,the Uecea3<»d till il is laiJ in the earth. In tin; fuiieral-pioccssion, 
 .the exorcist walks (iist, carrying tlii; holy \v.ilcr; next the cross- 
 bearer, alterwards llic rest of the clergy, and hisloi'ull the olliciat- 
 iiig priest. They all sing the miserere, and some otiier ijs.ilnis; 
 ■mud at the end of each psalm a reijuivni. We leain Ironi Alet's 
 ritual, that the faces of deco.ised laymen must be turned towards 
 the altar, when they are placed in the church; and lliose ol the 
 iClergy, towards the people. The cor|)se is placed in the church 
 surrounded with lighleil ta|!ers: after the ollice lor the dead, ula^s 
 as said; then the otliciating priest sprinkles the corpse thrice with 
 holy water, and as often throws incense on il. Tlie body being 
 laid in the grave, the friends and relations of the ileceased sprinkle 
 :the grave with holy water. 
 
 Fu.vFRAi. Exi'EiVCKs, iu law, are allowed previous to all otlier 
 debts and charges; but if the executor or administrator be extrava- 
 gant, it is a species of devastation or waste of the substance of the 
 (leceasecl, and shall only be prejudicial to himself, and not to the 
 creditors or legatees of the deceascHJ. But, in strictness, no lune- 
 ,ral-expences are allowable against a creditor, e.scept for the shrouds, 
 cpflin, ringing the bell, parson, clerk, grave-digger, and bearer's 
 .fees, but not for |iall or ornaments. 
 
 FUNGI, [from r^nyy:,;, fungus,'] in botany, the fourth order of 
 the twenty-fourth class of vegetables, in the Linna:an system; 
 comprehending all those which are of the mushroom kind, and 
 which in Tourncforl's constitute the second, tliird, fourth, lifth, 
 si.xth, seventh, and eighth, genera of the lirst section in the class 
 seventeen. This order contains ten genera. See Agaricus, Lo- 
 
 I.KTUS, C1.AVARIA, LyCOPERDON, &C. and UoTANY. 
 
 Fungi, an order of plants in the Fragmenta Method! Natiiralis 
 of Linns^us. 
 
 FUNGlTiE, in natural history, a kind of fossile coral, of a co- 
 nic hnure, though sometimes ll.Utcd and slriateil hmgitudinally. 
 
 FUR, or FUKR, iiicommerce, signifies tlieskinsof wild beasts, 
 dressed in alum with the hair oji ; and used as a part of dress, bv 
 princes, magistrates, and others. The kinds most in use are tjiose 
 of the ermine, salile, castor, hair, coney, ^"^c. See Castor, Ca- 
 viA, Lf.ri-'s, Mi'STF.i.A, Sec. It was not till the later ages that the 
 furs of beasts became an article of luxury. 1 he rehnetl nations of 
 antiijuity never jnade use of thf-m ; those alone who were stigma- 
 tized as barbarians were clothed in the skins of animals. Those at 
 present used are importixl chielly from North America, and 
 Russia. 
 
 I'URCA, in anticiuitv, a piece of timber resembling a fork, 
 Usfiil by the Romans as an instrument of punishment. 
 
 FURCU li, in lieraldry, a cross forked at the ends. 
 
 FUUIA, in natural history, a genus of the class and order ver- 
 mes intestina, having a body linear, ec|ual, tiliform, and ciliate, 
 each side with a single row of rellccted prickles, pressed close to 
 the body ; oni: species only is mentioned by Gmelin, viz. the I', 
 infernalis, which inhabits the vast marsliv plains of Bothnia and 
 Finland, where it crawls up shrubs and sedge-grass, and being car- 
 ried forwards by the wind, penetrates suddenly into the exposed 
 parts of men and cattle, where it quicklv buries itself under the 
 skin, leaving a black point w liere it had entered, wliich is frequent- 
 ly succeeded by excruciating pains, inflammation, and even 
 death. This fatal termination takes no length of lime, a few hours, 
 or a day, being sufticicnt for the whole process, unless the animal 
 be almost instantly extracted by means of the knife, or a milk- 
 poultice. 
 
 FURI^E, or FURIES, in Pagan mythology, goddesses, whose 
 offices it was to puni^h the guilty after death. They sprang from 
 the blood of the wound svhich Cains received Irom his son Sa- 
 turn. According to others, they were daughters of Earth, and 
 conceived from the blood of Saturn. Some make them daughters 
 of Acheron and Night, or Pluto and Proserpine. According to 
 the more received opinions, they were three in number, Tisi- 
 pbone, Mcg<era, and Alecto, to which some add Nemesis. Plu- 
 tarch mentions only one called Adrasta, daughter of Jupiter and 
 iNccessity. They were supposed to be the ministers of the ven- 
 geance of the gods; stern and inexorable; always employed in 
 punishing the guilty upon earth, as well as in the infernal regions. 
 J'hey were also called Eunienides and Krinnydes. The Athe- 
 nians styled Iheni tr'/j-iai Siti, venerable goddesses. Their worship 
 was almost universal; and people dare'l not to mention their 
 names, or tix their eyes upon their tcniples. 
 
 VOL. II. — NO. 90. 
 
 FURLING, in the sea-language, signifies the wr.i()|.'ing uji iiml 
 binding any sail close to the yard ; wliich is done by iiawling upon 
 the dew-hnc-s, bunt-lines, &c. which wraps the sail cloac together, 
 and being bound fast to the yard the sail is furled. 
 
 FURLONG, [./J/r/a/ig-, Sax.] a long measure, equal to one- 
 eiglith of a mile, or forty poles. It is also used, in some law-books, 
 for the eiphih part of an acre. 
 
 FURLOUGH, in the milit.uy language, a licence granted by 
 an oliicer to a soldier, to be absept for some time from his 
 duly. 
 
 I'UUNACE, an utensil to raise and maintain a vehement lire in, 
 whether of coal or wood. In order to ajiply lire, to nnmage and 
 to direct it where it is to act, furnaces are convenient, and they are 
 the most necessiiry and indispensable instruments to chemists. The 
 materials of whicli tliey are constructed ought to be sulliriently 
 proof against that degree of heat, which thev are intended to be e.\- 
 posed to. Commonly they ar(; built of bricks, made of sand and 
 cl.iy, or of cast-iron, or ot'iron plates, which, the better to be de- 
 fended against the iire, are coated (in the in.sidc) to the thickness 
 oi an inch with Windsor loam. According to Lewis, various 
 kinds of tire-prool luinares, for small experiments, may be prepared 
 hom black-lead crucihles. The burning of the fuel'is kept up in 
 the furnace either by a natural current oi air, which is caused b_r 
 the lire itself, and such a furnace is called an air wind-furnace ; or 
 it is done by compressed air, <onve)ed to the furnace by a large 
 bellows, as in blast-furnaces. In all furnaces the principal things to 
 be attended to are, 1. To conline the heat as much as possible to 
 the riiattertobeopL-ratedupoii ; i'. To prevent its being dissipated; 
 3. To jn-oduce as much heat with as little fuel as possible ; anti, 4. 
 To have it in our_j)ower to regulate the degree of heat according 
 to our pleasure. To answer the fu'st intention, the lire is usually 
 confined in a chamber or cavity built on purpose for it, and lur- 
 wished with a door for putting iii the fuel ; a grate for supporting if, 
 and allowing air to pass thnnigh, as well as the ashes to drop down 
 into a cavity proviiled on purpose, and called the a^h-pit. Thus 
 the heat produced by the inflamed fuel is conhnedby the sides pf 
 tlie furnace, and obliged to spend great .part of its force upon the 
 subject inclosed. The second intention, viz. to prevent the dis- 
 sipation of the heat, is obtained by sliutting the door of the fur- 
 nace ; taking caiv that the chimney be not too wide, and Lliat the 
 matter to be acted upon be placed' in such a manner, that the fire 
 may have its full effect upon it as il goes up the chimney. The 
 third intention, which is the most iinportanl, is at the same time 
 the most diflicult to answer, and depends entirely upon tire pro- 
 portion betwe<Mi the spaces betwixt the furnace-bars and the widc- 
 ness and height of the chinmey. This will appear from a con- 
 sideration of the principles on which the degrees of iuliammalioa 
 are produced. 'J'hese depend entirely on the current of air whicli 
 passes through the inflamed fuel. As soon as the fuel is set on fire, 
 a certain dcgri'e of heat is produced ; but unless a constant influx of 
 air is admitted through the burning fuel, the lire is instantly e;c- 
 tinguished ; nor is it possible by any means to renew the inllam- 
 mation until we admit a stream of fresh air among the fuel. When 
 this is done, a rarefaction connnences in the air of the lire-place 
 of the furnace : so that it is no longer a counterpoise to the ex- 
 ternal air, and is therefore driven up the chimney by that which 
 enters at the ash-pit. This again passing through ihe'fuel, is rare- 
 fied in its turn ; and giving place to "fresh quantities, there is a 
 constant flow of air up the chimney. In proportion to the rare- 
 faction of the air in the lire-place, the greater is the heat. But by 
 a certain construction of thcr furnace, tlie under part of (he chim- 
 ney will become almost as strongly heated as the fire-place ; by 
 w hich means, though a very strong current of air is forced through 
 the fuel, yet as great part of the heat is spent on tlie chimney, 
 where it can be of no use, the fuel is wasted m a very considera- 
 ble degree. To avoid this, we have no other method than to con- 
 tract the throat of the chimney occasionally by a sliding-plate ; 
 which when put quite in, shuts"up the whole vent ; and bv being 
 drawn out more or less, leaves a larger or smaller vent at pleasure. 
 'Hiis plate ought to be quite drawn out till the fuel is thoroughly 
 kindled, and the furnace well heated, so that a current of air may 
 flow strongly through the fuel. After this the plate is to be put in 
 a certain length, so as just to prevent the smoke from coming out 
 at the dor>r of the furnace. The rarefaction of the air in the li re-place 
 will solicit a very considerable draught of air, which will keep the 
 ^^ fuel
 
 I UR 
 
 518 
 
 FUR 
 
 Aul inriaiTied to a great degree ; at tlie'sasne time tlnil the lieat, 
 lieiiig- reflected from every part of tlic lurnace excepting that nar- 
 row' passage where the smoke goes up, becomes very intense. A 
 l.'.rgc tjiwiitity of fuel may be put in at once, which will consume 
 slowly, .and'tluis require but little attention in compari'^nn with 
 tiiose furnaces where no such precaution is used. The slidiiig-plate 
 niaf he made of cast iron in thuse furnaces where no great heat is 
 e.xc'ifed ; but in others fire-clay woultl be more convenient. The 
 contrivance, however, is scarce applicable to those furnaces wliere 
 ereat quantities of metal are to be melted; and accordingly the 
 waste of fuel tiierc is immense. It is computed, that the iron 
 works o'f Carron in Stirlingshire consume annually as many coals 
 ?.; would be sufHcient for a city containing 700,000 inhabitants. 
 The fourth intention, viz. that of regulating the heat, is accom- 
 plished by allowing only a certain quantity of air to pass through 
 the fuel. " For this purpose, says Dr. Black, it is nece'sary to have 
 tlie command of the furnace below ; the paits above being frequently 
 tilled with small quantities of soot. Tlie best method of managing 
 this is to shut up tlie door of the ash-hole perfectly close, and to 
 have a set of round holes beariiig a certain proportion to one 
 another; and their areas being as 1, 2, 4, 8, 15, S;c. Seven or 
 eight of these ought to be made in the door of the ash-pit, which 
 will give a sufficient command over the (ire. When the hre is to 
 be increased to the utmost, all the passages both above and below 
 are to be thrown open, and the height of the vent augmented , 
 which, by increasing the height of tlie colunm of rarefied air, in- 
 creases aisothemolionof that through the fuel, and of consequence 
 also the lieat of the furnace. Macquer recommends another tube 
 applied to the ash-pit, widest at the end farthest from the furnace, 
 and tapering gradually towards it. The intention of this is to 
 augment the current and velocity of the air, by its being made to 
 pass from a wider into a narrower vent ; but though this is no doubt 
 true, the air will not ultimately move with greater velocity tlrjn 
 if the tube we're not there, ft can only be useful therefore in 
 cases where the furnace is placed ina small room, and the tube 
 itself has a communication with the external air. 
 
 Furnace, Cupelling, or Furnace, Essaying, described in 
 Cramer's Art of Essaying. See Plate LXX\'II. fig. 1. Make with 
 iron plates a hollow quadrangular prism, 11 inches broad and nine 
 inches high, lui bb, ending at top in a hollow quadrangular pyra- 
 mid, bb cc, seven inches high, terminating in an aperture at top 
 seven inches square. This i)rism must be closed at bottom with 
 
 ■ another iron plate, which serves as a basis or bottom to it, aa. Q. 
 Ts'ear the bottom make a door, e, three inches high, and five 
 inches broad, that leads to the ash-hole. 3. Above this door, and 
 at the height of six inches from the basis, make another door, J', of 
 the hgure of a seginent of a circle, four inches broad at its basis, and 
 
 ■ 3\ inches high in the middle. 4. Then fasten Ihiee iron plates 
 on the fore-part of this furnace. l,ef the first of them, gg, 11 
 inclies long, and half an inch high, be fastened. So that its lower 
 ed^e shall rest against the bottom of the furnace, with three cr 
 four rivets: awd in such a manner, that tlure may be between the 
 upper edge of the said plate and tlie side of the turnace a groove 
 
 ' so wide, as that the sliders of the lower door, kk, may be put into 
 it, and freely move backwards and forwards therein ; these must 
 he made c/ a thicker iron plate. The second iron plate, lih, 1 1 
 inches long, three inches high, and perfectly parallel to the fore- 
 going plate, must be fastened in the space between the two doors, 
 in such manner, that both the upper and the lower edges of it may 
 form a hollow groove with the side of the furnace. One of these 
 grooves, which is turned downwards, serves to receive the upper 
 eiUre of the sliders that shut the lower door. No. S. The other, 
 that turns upwards, is to receive the inferior edges of the shders of 
 the small door above. No. 3. 'J'he third plate, ii, which is like 
 the first, must be riveted close above the upper door, in such 
 manner that it may form a groove turning downwards, and con- 
 tiguous to the upper edge of the uppi-r door. No. 3. 5. To shut 
 'both doors, No. 2 and 3, adapt to each of them two sliders made 
 of iron plates, that they may move within the above-mentioned 
 grooves, kk, It. But the two sliders belonging to the u|)per door, 
 No. 3, must have each a hole near the top ; that is, one a sinall 
 hole one-fifth part of an inch broad, and one inch and a half long, 
 m ; and the otiier a semicircular aperture, one inch high and two 
 inches broad, n. I.et, besides, each slider have a handle, that they 
 may be laid bold of when they are lo be removed. 6. Moreover, 
 
 let five round holes, one inch broad, be bored in the furnace ; two 
 of which must -be made in tiie fore-part of the furnace, oo, two 
 others in the back part ; all at the height of five inches from the 
 bottom, but .5 J inclies distant from each side of the furnace; and, 
 finally, a tilth hole, p, at the height of one inch above the upjicr 
 edge of the upper door, J'. 7. In short, let the inside of the fur- 
 nace be armed with iron hooks, jutting out half an inch, and about 
 three inches distant from each other, to fasten the lute with which 
 the furnace is to be covered over within. 8. Let then an iron,' 
 moveable, hollow, quadrangular pyramid, q, three inches high, be 
 adapted to the upper aperture, d, of the furnr.ce, at the basis seven 
 inches broad, ending upwards in a hollow tube, r, three inches in 
 diameter, two inches high, almost cylindrical, though somewhat 
 convergent at top. This prominent tube serves to support a fun- 
 nel or flue, which is almost cylindrical, hollow, made of iron platei, 
 and two feet high ; and whicli, when a very strong lire is required, 
 is put perpendicularly upon the shorter tube, in such a manner, 
 that it enters close into it, one and a half or two inches deep, and 
 may again be taken off at pleasure, when there is no need of so 
 strong a lire. This pyramidal cover, q, must have two handles, 
 ss, adapted to it, that it may be laid hold oi', and thus be taken off 
 or put on again: and that this, being put on the aperture, d, of the 
 furnace, may not be easily thrown down, let an iron plate be 
 riveted to the right and left upper edge of the furnace, cc, and 
 be turned down towards the in>ide, so as to make a furrow open be- 
 fore and behind, into which the lateral edges of the cover may 
 enter :md be fastened, and at pleasure be moved backwards ana 
 forwards, whenever it must be put on or moved. 9. Let a square 
 ledge, made of a thick iron plate, be fastened at the top of the 
 upper edge of the lower door, <r, to support the grate and the lute ; 
 but it must be made of two pieces, that it may be easily introduced 
 into the cavity of the furnace. This assay-oven must afterwards 
 be covered over on the inside with lute, as follosvs. : — That tfie 
 hre may be better conlined, and that the iron may not be destroved 
 by growing red hot, the whole inside of the furnace must' be 
 covered over with lute, one finger or one finger and a half thick. 
 The lute fit for this is described under Chemistry. But before 
 using this lute, first put within the furnace small iron bars, equal 
 in length to the diameter of the oven, quadrangular, prismatical, 
 half an inch tlijck, having their extremities supported by a square 
 iron ledge, and three-fourths of an inch distant from eacli other; 
 and fasten them so, that their Hat sides may be obliipie with regard 
 to the transverse section of the furnace, and that the two opposite 
 angles may look one upwards and the other downwards: the bars 
 must not be laid flat, but edgewise; by which situation tlie ashes of 
 the fuel are prevented from being detained too long between the 
 interstices ot the iron bars, and from making an obstruction that 
 would oppose the free draught of the air. 'Flie furnace being then 
 covered over with lute, and dried up by a gentle heat, is' at last fit 
 for docimastical operations, and especially for such as must be per- 
 formed in the assay-oven. When an operation is to be made in 
 this furnace, let through the four lower holes above described, oo, 
 before and behind, and directly opposite to each other, two iron 
 bars one inch thick, and long enough that their extremities oi\ 
 every side may jut a little out of the holts. These serve to sup- 
 port the nuifile and its bottom. Then intioduce the muffle through 
 the upper aperture of the furnace, d, and place it upon the above 
 described iron bars, in such a manner that tlie open lore-side of it 
 maybe contiguous to the inward border of the upper door, y. 
 The fuel is introduced through the top of the furnace, d; the 
 cover of which, (], on this account, must be moveable, and not 
 verv heavy. The best fuel is charcoal made of the hardest wood, 
 especially "of beech, broken into small pieces of the bigness of an 
 inch, wherewith the niullle must be covered over some inches 
 high. Large pieces would not answer, because they could not fall 
 through the narrow interstices, between the sides of the niuflle and 
 those of the furnace, and of course could not sufficiently surround 
 the circumference of the muflle; so that there would be on every 
 side places void of fuel, and the fire would be either not strong 
 enough or unequal. Ihit if, on the contrary, coals too small were 
 used, then a gre.at part would fall immediately through the inter- 
 stices of the grate into the ash-hole ; the smallest parts of thera 
 would turn too soon into ashes, and by increasing the liea|) of ashes, 
 oljstruct the free draught of the air, which is here very requisite. 
 A perfect management of the fire is necessary in performing ope- 
 rations
 
 F II 11 
 
 510 
 
 F U R 
 
 ratiotK ill th'j Uiiiime; tln'rctorc llu; chcniical reador imist give 
 iittentioii to wluit lullow^. If llie iluor ot' tl'.o a>lvlioli-, c, is <|uitc 
 open; nnd the sliders of llie iippor door, f, ilriwn towards each 
 ».thcr, so a-i to toiicli one aiiollier in the luiddk- of llie door; and if, 
 besides, tlie cover, 7, and llie fiinnid ada|)led to its lnl)e, r, are 
 v.pon tht; top, d, ufllie furnaee; tliefire will be then in llie hii;he>l 
 fiegree possiljle ; though, in the mean time, it is hardly ever neces- 
 sary to put the funnel on, except in a very cold season: but if, 
 after having disponed the furnace in the manner just described, red 
 burning coals are put into the open upper door,./i of it, the fire 
 H still more increased tlierehy: however, this is very seldom or 
 never necessary. When the' upper door is shut with only that 
 ■slider that has a narrow oblong hole in it, ot, then the heat be- 
 comes a little less; but it diminishes still more when shut with the 
 other slider, that has it in a semiciicular jiole, n, which is larger 
 than that of the first sli<ler: nay, the heat again is less wdien the 
 funnel put at the top of the cover is taken away. Finally,-the door 
 of the ash-hole being either in part or totally shut, the heat is still 
 diminished ; because the draught of air so necessary to excite thi' 
 fire is iherehv hindered: but if, besides all these, the upper door 
 be opened wide, tlien the cold air rushing into themufile, cools 
 the bodies puf under it, that are to be changed, to a degree incom- 
 patible with any operation, as it will entirely hinder the boiling ol 
 the lead. If, during the operation, the fire begins to decay, or to 
 grow unequal, it is a sign' that there are places void of coals between 
 the sides of the furnace and those of the muffle; therefore, in this 
 case, the coals must be stirred on every side with an iron rod, in- 
 troduced through the upper hole, p, of the furnace, that they may 
 • fall together, and thus act e<iu:illy and in a proper manner. How- 
 ever, the effect does not always iiuifornily answer, even wdieii the 
 . ajjparatus has been made with all the exactness mentioned. The 
 .cause of this ditference has most commonly its origin in the various 
 tlispositionsof theair: for as every fire is more excited, in propor- 
 tion as the air, more condensed, and more quickly agitated, strikes 
 the fuel more violently («hich the effect of the bellows plainly 
 shews;) it thence appears, that in warm and wet weather, when 
 the atmosphere is light, the fire must be less eliicacious in furnaces, 
 . that likewise, when several furnaces, situateil near each other, are 
 burning at the same time, the fire is in part suffocated, because 
 the circum-ambient air is thereby rendered more rai'e and lighter. ; 
 The same etil'ect is produced by the sun, eipeciatlv in summer, 
 when it shines upon the place where the furnace is situated. The 
 atmosphere, on the contrary, being heavier in cold dry weather, 
 excites a very great fire. The heal of theJire acts tlie stronger 
 upon the bodies to be changed, as the mullle put in the furnace is 
 ■ less ; as it has more and larger segments cut out of it ; as its sides 
 are thinner ; in short, as there are more vessels placed in the hinder 
 part of it; or the contrary. In this case, when many of the con- 
 ditions requisite for the exciting of fire are wanting, the arlilicer, 
 with all his skill, v.ill hardly be able to excite the fire to a suffi-, 
 cient degree, to perform operations well, in common assay-ovens, 
 even though he uses bellows, and puts coals into the upper door of 
 the furnace. For this reason, the grate ought to be put almost 
 three inches below the mut/le, lest the air, rushing through the ash- 
 hole, should cool the bottom of the mutlle, which happens in com- 
 mon assay-ovens; and again, that the smaller coals, almost already 
 consumed, and the ashes, may more easily fall through the inter- 
 stices of the grate, and the larger coals still fit to keep up the fire 
 be retained. Lastlv, the above-mentioned tunnel is added, that 
 the blowing of the lire being, by means of it, increased as much as 
 possible, this may at la^t be carried to the requisite degree; for 
 the fire may always be diminished at pleasure, but cannot always 
 be increased, without the assistance of a propctr apparatus. 
 
 Furnace, Mr. Watt's Steam-engise. Tiie steam-engine 
 furnace is described in the specification of the patent obtained for 
 the invention by Mr. Watt of Birmingham. His " im|)roved 
 methods of constructing furnaces, or fire-places, consist in causing 
 the smoke or fiame of the fresh fuel, in its wav to thi- tlues or chim- 
 ney, to )xiss, together with a current of fresh air, through, over, or 
 among, fuel which has already ceased to smoke, or which is con- 
 verted intocoaks, charcoal, or cinders, and which is intensely hot; 
 by which means the smoke and grosser parts of the tiame, bv 
 coming into close contact with, or by being brought near unto, the 
 said intensely hot fuel, and being mixed with the current of fresh 
 or unburnt air, are consumed, or converted into heat, or into pure 
 tlame free from smoke." This is done, " first, by stopping up 
 
 every avenue or passage to the chimney or flues, except such as 
 are kit in the interstices of the fuel, by placing the fresh fuel above, 
 or nearer to the external air, than that which is already converted 
 into coaks or charcoal ; and by constructing the fire-places in'such 
 a manner that the Ikinie, and the air which animates the fire, must 
 pass downwards, or laterally, or horizontally, through the burning 
 fuel, and pass from the lower part, or internal end or side, of the 
 lire-place, to the flues or chimney. In some cases, alter the flame 
 has passed thruiigh the burning fuel, it is made to pass through a 
 very hot funnel, llue, or oven, before it comes to the bottom of 
 the'boiler, or to the part of the furiiac e where it is proposed to 
 melt metals or perform other otTices, by which means the smoke is 
 still more effectually consumed. In other cases, the flame is car- 
 ried immediately from the fire-place into the space under a boiler, 
 or into the bed of a melting or other furnace. Fig. 2, Plate 
 LXXVTI. shews a section of a fire-engine boiler, and its furnace, 
 which has been chosen for an example of the application of this 
 new metliod to the heating and evaporating of water. A A is the 
 boiler, which mav be made of any form suitable to its use. BB is 
 a llue, surrounding the boiler as usual. C is the uptake, or pas- 
 sage from the space under the boiler to the lines. D D is a funnel 
 or flue for the tlame to come from thq fire-place to the boiler. EE 
 is a place to contain theashes; and F is a door to take them out at, 
 which must be kept continually shut during the time ot working, 
 G H is the fire-place : the fresh fuel is put in at G, and gradually 
 comes down as the fuel below comsumes. The part at H is very 
 hot, being filled with the coaks or coals which have ceased to 
 smoke. I is an opening or openings, to admit fresh air, and regu- 
 late the fire. K is a door into the sp;ice under the boiler ; and 
 which being opened, admits air, and stojjs the draught of the chim- 
 ney when the operation is wanted to cease. Fig. 3 is a section of 
 the same fire-place in the other direction; in which M M is the 
 back of the fire-place; L the brick arch on which the fuel lies; 
 and E the ash-hole. Fig. 4 is a;i outside view of the same fire- 
 olace, shewing t)ie air-holes 1 1, and the ash-hole door E; and fig. 
 ■">, is a plan of the same, w ith part of the boiler seated ; taken in tin; 
 line Z of fig. "J. 't'he dotted lines represent'the tlues, anil th« 
 darts point out the direction of the flame. The lire is first kindled 
 upon the brick arch L, fig. 2 ; and when well-lighted, more fuel 
 is gradually added until it is filled up to G. Care is taken to leave 
 proper interstices for the air to pass, either among the fuel, or be- 
 tween the fuel and the front-wall N ; and as much air is admitted 
 at 1 I, as can be done without causing the smoke to ascend per- 
 pendicularly, which it will always do if too much air is admitted at 
 1 1. 'l"he (fimcnsions of this fire-place are shewn bv the scale, and 
 are properly adju-ted for burning about S4lb. of coals in an hour; 
 where greater or less quantities are recpiired to be burnt, the fur- 
 nace must be enlarged or diminished; or, if much greater, more 
 filrnaces than one must he emjiloyed. Fig. tj. represents thisnevv 
 lire-place as applied to a furnace for melting iron and other metals, 
 and constructed without the funnel, or perpendicular flue D m 
 fig. 2. The same lettei-s refer to tile same parts in all these figures. 
 Mr Watt also const ructs these new fire-places so that the part G H 
 lies sloping, or lioriEontal, and otherwise varies the figure or form, 
 aiiil proportions ; but in all cases the principle is the same; the 
 fresh or raw fuel being placed next the external air, and so that the 
 smoke or flame passes over drlhro'ugh the coaked or cliarred part 
 of the fuel. He also occasionally covers the opening G, and 
 causes the air to enter only, or principally, at 1 1. . In partici;'''i' 
 cases, he places the fresh'luel 011 a grate as usual, as at A lig. /, 
 and beyond that grate, or near at the; place where the flame 
 passes into the tlues or chimneys, he places mother smaller grate 
 15, on which he maintains a fire of charcoal, coaks, or coals, which 
 have been previously burnt until they liave ceased tosmoke ; which, 
 by giving intense heat and admitting some fresh air, consumes the 
 smoke of the fast fire. J-aslly, he states his new invention to con- 
 sist only in the method of consuming the smoke, and increasing 
 the heat, by causing the smoke and tlame of the fresh fuel to pass 
 through very hot funnels or pipes, or among, through or near, fuel, 
 which is intensely hot, and which has ceased tosmoke; and by 
 mixing it with fresh air when in these circumstances ; and in 
 the foim and nature of the fire-places above mentioned : the boilers 
 and other parts of the furnaces being such as are in common use. 
 These new invented fire-places are also applicable to furnaces for 
 almoct every other purpose. 
 
 Furnace, Mr. \V'. Thompson's Steam-Engine. In vol. iv. of 
 
 the
 
 FUR 
 
 520 
 
 FUR 
 
 of tliL- Repertory is given tlic folloNviij-r account of a furnace of 
 tliis sort by Mr. W. I'liompson, wlio describes liis invciilioii to l>c 
 " a..liirnacf wliicli will clicctually consume the smoke arising freni 
 .it, witlioui requirinc; more coals than usual, as lia^ been the case 
 Avith Itiiiiier contrivancos lor that purpose. It may be adapleil to 
 any boiler or copper already set up, and at a very small e.xpeuce. 
 Fig. 8, is a section of an oblong boiler and fne-place. aaaa, 
 'I'he brick-work in »hich boilers are u.^ually .set. A A, The 
 boiler. 'J'wo iron dues run through this boiler, and also go roinul 
 it. 15 B, The (ire-place ; which must be al)<)Ut i longer tlian they 
 -are generally made. An arch is constructed across the fire-place, 
 two inches lower than the bollom of the line under the boiler, and 
 about the middle of the lire-place. UDD, Flues through which 
 the hot air asccmh, and spends its heat upon the boiler. E, the 
 door of the lire-place; which must have a small shutter in it. 
 'i'hiough tliis shutter the coals must be gently stirred up, by the 
 dice or poker, taking care not to injure the arch, nor to raise too 
 greata C)iiantity of coals at once. F is a small space left behind 
 the lire tor a current of air to come through, as in the ijatent lamps. 
 A brick is placed \\h\\ its whole length across the lire-place, to 
 iliinder the coals from falling down the space F, and choking it. 
 Fig. 9, is a front-view of the same boiler and lire-place, in which 
 the same letters represent the same parts. HH are two slides, the 
 one shilling backwards, the other forwards, to make the S])ace F, 
 for the current of air, largeror smaller, as by practice may be found 
 best. The manner in which tliis furnace operates is this : the 
 arch liinders the smoke from going up the chimney, aiKloblige> 
 it to pass throujdi the fire behind it ; which has a very strong 
 draught, and burns the smoke as it passes through it. The air 
 .which c&ines up through the space F gives fresh vigour to the 
 flame, which consumes any smoke that may be left.. Too murli 
 air will have a very bad effect, as it will cool llie flame : therefore 
 the slides IHI must be regulated in such manner as the operator 
 may find most advantageous. The shutter in the door II must 
 also be of a proper size ; as its being too large or too small will be 
 prejudicial. 
 
 Furnace, Hefining, a furnace for lefming metals. See Me- 
 tallurgy, and Refining. Fig. 10, Plate LXX\'II, represents 
 a longitudinal section of this furnace. 1,1, The masonry of the 
 pillars and walls surrounding the furnace. 2. The channels for 
 carrying olf the moisture. 3. Other small channels which join in 
 the middle of the bar-on. 4. The bason made of bricks. 5. A 
 bed of ashes. (5. The hollow or bason in which the metal is melt- 
 ed and refined. 7. The great flame-hole. 8, 8. The two open- 
 ings for the entry of the tuyeres of the bellows. 9. The vault or 
 dome of the furnace. 10. The fire-place. 11. 'I'he grate. 12. 
 The draught-hole. 13. A hole in the vault, which, being opened, 
 serves to cool the furnace. 
 
 FURNACK, RevERBERATORY, FOR SMELTING OrES. Fig. 11, 
 
 Plate LXXVIl, represents a longitudinal section of this furnace. 
 l.The masonry. 2. The ash-hole. 3. A channel for the evaporation 
 of the moisture. A. The fire-place .5. The grate. 6. The inner part 
 of the furnace.' 7. A bason formed of sand. 8. The cavity where 
 the melted metal is. 9. A hole through which the scoria is to be 
 renlftVed, JO. The passage of the flame and smoke, or the lower 
 part of the cisimney i which is to be carried up to a height of 
 about 30 feet. II. A hole in the roof, through which the ore is 
 thrown into the furnace. This furnace is IS feet long, 12 feet 
 broad, and 9^ high. For the purpose of melting large quantities 
 of ore at a time, it was formerly necessary to use bellows of an 
 immense size, which proved inconvenient in several respects. 
 This however has been remedied by a new method of blowing uj) 
 fires by means of water, which we shall here describe. It de- 
 pends on the following principle, viz. That a stream of water, 
 running through a pipe, if by any means it is mixed with air at 
 its entrance into the pipe, w ill carry that air along with it, and part 
 with it again as soon as it comes out of the pipe ; and if the air is 
 then collected by a proper apparatus, it may with success be used 
 for exciting the most violent degrees of heat. Machines of this 
 kind art called water-bellows, and are represented Plate LXX\'ll, 
 fig. 12. In the right hand machine, AI5 represents a stream of 
 ivatflr falling into the funni-1, whose throat is contracted at B ; 
 after which lue stream runs through the perpendicular pipe EF, in 
 the upper part tif wliich there are some small holes represented 
 hycdcj'. Through ihcjc holes the air has access to mi.\ itself 
 
 with the descending water, which, being <lashed against the sidt'» 
 of the pipe, is reduced to froth, and thus fills the whole cavity of 
 the pipe E F, which is con^ideral.ily larger than the throat of the 
 funnel 15. When this frothy stream enters the vessel C, the air 
 e.vlracis itself from the water ; and as it cannot return through the 
 pipe EF, because it is continually filled with a stream of liquid 
 matter, it (lies off with considerable force through the smalh.T pipe 
 D, bv which it is conveyed to the furnace. '1 he principal thing, 
 to be kept in view in the construction of these machines, is to mix 
 the descending stream of water, with as great a quantity of air ds, 
 possible. For this purpose the contrivance represented in the left 
 hand machine answers much better than the (ornier. By this the 
 water ilcsceiiding from the reservoir A falls into a kind of cullen- 
 der B, perforated with a great number of holes in its sides. Thus 
 the water being forced out in a number of small streams, is very 
 effectually dashed against the sides of tin; wide descending I>ipe, 
 when it enters the condescending vessel C, i.iKi is sent oft by the 
 pipe D, as in the former. In some machines of this kind tlie 
 constructors seem to have been of opiilion, that a great heiglit was 
 required in the water-fall ; but Dr. Lewis, who has made a great 
 number of e.\perinients upon the subject, shews, that an excess in 
 height can never make up for a deficiency in the quantity of tlie 
 water. Four or live feet, he thinks, is a sullicient height for llje 
 water-kill; where there is a greater Inight, however, it may.be 
 reiideied useful, by joining t«o or more machines together in tlu" 
 manner represented in the plate ; where the water, alter having 
 onc:e endtted its air in (he condensing vessel C, flows out into a 
 new reservoir E. From thence it descends through another cul- 
 lender F, and descending from it in(o a condensing vessel G, the 
 air is extricated, and carried offthrouu,h the pipe li. 'i he upper 
 figure, I, represents the cullender with the shapes of the holes 
 and their |iroportioiud <listaiices according to Dr. Lewis. Thus, 
 with very little expence, where there is a sufiicient quantity of 
 water, as strong a blast of air as can be desired may be readily ob- 
 tained ; for several machines may be con>triicted, and joined to- 
 gether in a manner somewhat similar to that above mentioned, un- 
 til all the quantity of water is employed. Bui, as by this metlio<l 
 the air is loaded with moisture, it is pro])er to make ihe condensing 
 vessel as high as conveniently may be, that the air may arrive at 
 the furnace in as dry a state as possible. The long slender pipes 
 in the lelt hand maciiines represent a guage filled with mercury or 
 water, bv which the slrengtli of the blast may be determined. In 
 the large iron founderies another method is used for blowing up 
 the fires by means of a kind of air-pumps. These consist ot cast 
 iron c\ liiulers of about three feet diameter, exactly fitted with-a 
 piston moved up and down by means of a water-wheel. In the 
 bottom of the c\ linder is a large valve like that of bellows, which 
 rises as the piston is lifted up, and thus admits the air into tlie ca- 
 vity of the cylinder from behiw. Immediately above the bottom 
 is a tube which goes to the furnace; and as it proceeds from (he 
 C) linder is furnished with a valve opening otitward. 'i'hus, when 
 the piston is drawn up, (he valve in the bottom rises and admits the 
 air that way into the cylinder, while the Literal valve shuts, and 
 prevents any air from getting into it through the pipe. AVlien the 
 piston is thrust down, the valve in the bollom shiit5, while the air 
 being compressed in the cavity of the cylinder is violently forced 
 out Ihrough the lateral tube into the furnace. For other furnaces 
 used in chemical operations, see Chemistry. 
 
 FURNEAUX, an inhabited island in the S. Pacific Ocean, 
 first discovered by Bmigainville, and afterwards by captain Cook. 
 Lon. 143. 7. W.'Lal. 17. U.S. 
 
 I'URNES, or VURENES, a town of France in the depart- 
 ment of Lys, and late province of Austrian Flanders, 12 miles E. 
 of Dunkirk. 
 
 FURRUCKARAD, adistrict of Hindostan Proper, in tlie circar 
 of Rohileiind, about 30 miles longj, on the VV. bank ot the Ganges. 
 Fl'kruckabad, the capital of the above district, 75 miles E. 
 of Agra. 
 
 FURRUCKABA, a town of Hindostan, in Bengal, 42 miles 
 N.N.W. of Mooi-shedabad. 
 
 FURS TEN BERG, or FURSTENBURG, a county of Ger- 
 many in Suabia. 
 
 Fuusteneerg, or Furstenburg, the capital of the above 
 county, 30 miles K. W. of Constance. 
 FU'RSTENFELD, two towns of Germany, 1. in Brandcn- 
 
 bui«,
 
 TF^NATE. 
 
 10 
 lii'tuutio Vuriitl,-!'
 
 F IT S 
 
 r,^\ 
 
 F YZ 
 
 borg, 10 mills N. of Custrins: 2. In Stiria, near IliiiigarVi 3^^ 
 mill's K. ol Gratz. 
 
 FUKSl'KNVVAI.DF,, two towns of Ui)pcr Saxony; I. In 
 the margaviate ot Meissen, two miles S. of Laneiisteiii. '->.. In 
 the miililli' Marck of Bramlenburg, '-'(> miles IC. of IJcilin. 
 
 Fl'R'I'll, a town of T'laiiconia, in Anspacli, four miles W. of 
 Nurenil)eig. ^ 
 
 I'DRTllCOMINfi, inlaw, the name of an action competent 
 to any person who has usid arrestment in the hands of his ileb- 
 tor's creditor, for having the subject arrested declared his pro- 
 
 ^'*^I-tRUNCLK, FUHUNCULE, or BOIL, a small resisting 
 tumour, with inflamn.ation, redness, and great pain, arising in 
 the adipose niemhiaiii-, under the skin. 
 
 Fl'HUSl'N'O, an island ol Sweden, in. the Baltic. Lon. IR. 
 45. K. L.tt. .H). 4(j. N. 
 
 I- L'KZK, in botinv. See Ulex. 
 
 Fl'SANUS, in hotany, a genus of the nionn;ris order, and 
 polygamia class of plants. 'I'he herinaprodit.i calyx (piinqueful ; 
 no ci>iolla ; stamina tour ; gernien Ixaieatli ; iruit a pimn. One 
 specie^. 
 
 FUSAUOLE, in architecture, a moulding or orn.imi'nt p'aced 
 iniuK (liatcly under the echinus, in the Doric, Ionic, and Com 
 po:.ile f apitals. 
 
 FU.SEF., {^fustau, French,] in clock-work, is that conical pan 
 d:awn hy ihe spring, and about which the chain or string is wound ; 
 for tile tise of whicii see Clock and Watch. 
 
 FUSIGNANO, a market-town of iialy ihe late duchy of Fer- 
 rara. 
 
 FUSIL, in heraldry, a bearing of a rhoniboidal- figure, longer 
 than the lozenge, and having its upper and fjwer angles more 
 acute and sharj) than the other two in the nnddle. It is called in 
 Latin /»SM.«, " a spindle," from its shape. 
 
 Fi;sri-iF.Ks, Fusukers, or Fu/ii.f.k.rs, are armed as the re I 
 of the infantry, but wear caps I ke the grenadiers-, though some- 
 what shorter. There are three loval regiments of fusiliers in the 
 British service : vi^. those of the Scotch fusiliers raised in lt>78; 
 of English fusiliers, in 168i ; ami of Welsh fusiliers, in 108S-9. 
 
 Fl SION. See Chemistry and Fluidity. 
 
 FL'S T, or FAUS 1 US, a goUUmilh of Mentz, and one of the 
 three earliest printers, to whom the invention of this most useful 1 
 art has been ascribed. Some say, he only assisted Gutteniberg at i 
 Strasburg, in his attenipts to make moveable types, in 1444. Fust, 
 in partnership with I'eter SchoelVer, having, in 1462, printed a 
 considerable number of copies of the Bible, to imitate those whicli i 
 were sold in MS., Fust undertook the sale ot them at Paris, where 
 the art of printing was theu unknown. At iirsl he sold his copies ! 
 
 for so hi;!;h a sum as 500 or (iOO crowns, the prices usually de- 
 manded by the transcribers. He afterwards lowered his ))rice to 
 60 crowns, which created universal astonishment ; but when he 
 produied copies as fast as they were wanted,' and lowere<l the 
 price to 30 crowns, all Paris vms agitated. 'I'he uniformity of 
 the copies increased the wonder ; informations were given into 
 the polii-e against him as a magician ; his lodgings were searched ; 
 and a great number of copies being found, they were seized : the 
 red ink with which Ihey were embellished, was said to be his 
 blood ; it was seriously adjudged that he was in league with the 
 devil ; and il he had not tied, most probably he would have shared 
 Ihe fate of those whom ignorant and superstitious judges con- 
 demned in those d.iys for witchcraft. Fust is said to have died of 
 tlic plague at Paris, about 14C6. 
 
 Fl'S I IAN, in commerce, a kind of colfon-stulil', which seems 
 as if it were whaled on one side. Fustians should be altogether 
 made of cotton-yarn, both woof and warp ; but many piece-, are 
 made, the warp of which is lia\, or even hemp. Fustians are 
 nia.le of various kinds, wide, narrow, fine, coarse ; with sjiag or 
 nap, and without it. 
 
 FU.Sl ICK, in the arts, is the wood of the morns tiiictoria, a 
 
 ir-e tiiat grows to a considerable size in tlie West Indies. It is 
 
 iniicli used in d>eing yellow, and produces a large quantiiy ol co- 
 
 >uiing nidlter. It ia not very hard, and its colour is yellow with 
 
 orange veins. 
 
 FUS IIGA TIO, in the Roman customs, a punishment inflicted 
 by beuiing with a cudgel. 'I'his puni>liment was peculiar to free- 
 men ; the slaves were scourged with whips. 
 
 FUl rOCKS, in a ship, tlie linibi is raised over the keel, or 
 ihc encoinpasing timbers thai make her breadth. Of these there 
 are the first, second, ihird, and fourth, denominated according to 
 tlieir distance from the keel, those next it being called first or 
 ground fuitocks, and tlie others upper fultocks ; thuae timbers being 
 put lo^ctlicr, make a frauie-hend. 
 
 FUIT VPOUR SlCKl. a coiniderable town of Hindostan Pro- 
 per, in th" province of Agra, -i'J iii.les W. of Agra. 
 
 FUl UK E, o.r l'"U 1 L'RE TEXSE, in grammar, denotes an 
 inilexion of verbs, wheieby Ihey denote, that a thing will be in 
 some lime yet to come. See Grammar. 
 
 I'YAL, one of the Azores, it is well cultivated, and yields 
 corn, garden-stuffs, and various fruits. It has several kinds of do- 
 mesticated Euiopean animals: the ])eople are cleanly, diligent, 
 iiid laiier than those ot Madeira. The chief town is Villa de 
 Ilorta. Lon. 28. 36. W. Lat. 38.32. N. 
 
 FVZABAD, a city of liindostan Proper, in the territory of 
 Oude ; 80 miles E. of Lucknow. 
 
 r 
 
 G 
 
 G 
 
 "^ is the seventh letter of our alphabet, and the fifth conso- 
 9 nant. In the alphabets of all the oriental languages, the 
 Hebiew, Phoenician, Chaldee, Syriac, Samaritan, Arabi( , and 
 even theCireek, it is the thiril letter. The Hebrews call itgA»/(c/, or 
 gimel, i. e. camel, because it resembles the neck of that animal ; 
 and it bears the same appellation in the SainaHtan, Pha'ni(-ian, 
 Chaldee ; in the Syriac it is called gamcl, in Arabic g/zm, and in 
 Greek gumma. The gamma (r) of the Greeks i> evidently (he 
 gimel I J) of the Hebrews or Samaritans. The chief ditfer'-nce 
 between the gamma and gimel consists in this, that the one is 
 turned to the ri^lit, and the other to the left, according to the dif- 
 ferent manners of writing and reading which obtained among those 
 nations: though Salmasius, on Sulinus, vainly attempted to" prove 
 
 VDU II. — NO. 90. 
 
 that the G was derived from the Greek kappa. It is clear tliat 
 the Latins borrowed their form of this letter from the Greeks ; 
 the Latin Ci being only a variation of the (Jreek gamma, r; as 
 might easily be shewn, had our prinlers all the forms of this letter, 
 which we meet with in the Greek and Latin MSS. through which 
 it has p.assed from r to G. G has tw o sounds, one called that of 
 the hard G, before «, n, ?/, /, r;as, gate, go, gall. The other 
 sound, called tliat of the solt G. resembles that of /, and is com- 
 monly, though not always, found before e, / ; as, gem, gib'iet. 
 Before n, at the end of a word, g is commonly melted awav as in 
 the French, from which these words are commonly deriveil : thus, 
 lor htiiign, malign, condign, we pronounce binine, malitic, con- 
 dine. It is often silent in the middle of words before h ; m, 
 6 R might.
 
 GAB 
 
 r>u 
 
 G AD 
 
 iHi.^iU. 'i'lit Sa\ou G,!^, seems Id iv.ive had neutrally ll* suiuid 
 of ij coiisonuiU ; wlience gate i^ by rustics btiU pi'oiioim<:t:J f/utv. 
 'ihe nv'iicni G takes its turm fruiii tlial ol' ibe I..;lins. It is a 
 nuile, a 111 r.uinot be sounded at all witliout the help of a vowel. 
 lis lian! <o;ind is formed by tlie rellection of the air against the 
 (jalate, made bv the tonijuc as the air passi>s, out of the throiit ; 
 winch M;uii,.iius expresses thus, G ^piritvs cii'ii piihilo; so 
 tlsat G ii a p.iiaul letter. G oUeu soujidi hard before i, as '^ive, 
 &c. and souiLU;iies before f, n^gti, &:c. It is also hard in deriva- 
 tives Iro-u words ending in g, d^ siNging, itroiigtr, &c. and ge- 
 nerally liefore er, at the ena of words, a$ finger. G is mute be- 
 fore 71, ki^ gii'tsh, sign. Gh has the sound of haril G in the begin- 
 ning of a word, mghostli/; sometimes at the end it is quite silent, 
 as though. But at l;lie end of many other words Gh has the sound 
 o(J, as taiigh. rnngh, tough, fzi^. As an abbreviation, G. stands 
 tor Gaiui, GeUiu.i, genu, genius, &c. G. G. for gtminii, gtssit, 
 gt. 'iscrunt, &c. G. C. lor gcnin cirilntus or Casarin. G. L. 
 for Gums lihcrtus, gcnio loci. G. V. S. for gcnio urhis sacrum. 
 G. B. (ov gcnio bono. And G. T. for gen io tuielari. In nuisie, 
 G istlie character or mark of the lrel)le cleff; and from its beiUjj 
 placed at the head, or marking the lirst sound in Gnido's scale, 
 the whole scale took the name Gamut. As a numeral, G w.< 
 
 anciently used to denote 400 ; and w ith a dash over it, tiius G, for 
 40,00U. 
 
 GAAL, [Syj, llebre>v,?'. f. an abomination,] the son of Ebed, 
 the leader ot the conspiracy of the Shechemites ajjainstthe usurper 
 Abimelerh, the son ot Gideon. See judges, i\. 26 — 41. 
 
 GABALE, in mythology, a deity worshipped at Heliopolis 
 Under the tiijure of a lion, with a radiant head ; and it is thus re- 
 pre-entcdon manv medals of Caracalla. 
 
 GABARA, or GABBARA, in antiquity, the dead bodieswhkh 
 the Eg\ ptians embalmed, and kept in their houses. 
 
 GABARET, a town of France, in the department of Landes, 
 15 miles W. of Condom. 
 
 GABEL, [Lat, Gahe/la, G<ibium, GnUagium, i. e. J'cctigal,'] 
 has tiie same signification among ihe ancient Englisli writers, that 
 Gabelle had in France, before the revolution. It has been vari- 
 ously used, for a rent, custom, service, &c. \Vhei"e it was a 
 payment lor rent, those who (Xiid it were termed Gablatores. 
 Foniierly when mentioned without any addition, gabel sig- 
 nified tlietaxon salt, though afterwanls it was applied to all other 
 taxes. In the late French customs, the gabelle, or tax on salt, is 
 said to have had its rise in lC8t>, under Phdip IV. It was after- 
 wards so a;reat I y advanced by the succeeding kings, that at length 
 it was estimated to constitute -J of tlie whole revenue of the king- 
 dom : so ihat aminot of salt at last paid a duty of 52 livres, 8 sols, 
 and 6 deniei-s. Philip VI. first established granaries and officers 
 of the gab. -lies, and prohibited all others from selling salt. From 
 that period, the commerce of salt for inland consumption conti- 
 nued whollv in the kind's hands, every grain of it beins sold by 
 his farmers. This very odious and oppressive tax was early abo- 
 lished by the National Assembly. 
 
 Gadel, in geography, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of 
 Boleslaw, 45 mile^ N. of Prague. 
 
 GABFLLE. See Gabei.'. 
 
 GABINIAN LAWS, in Roman antiquity, laws instituted upon 
 several occasions bv persons of the name of Gabinus. 
 
 GABINUS CiS'CTUS, in Rom.m antiquity, a particular way 
 of tucking the gown, by drawing it forwards on the breast, ancl 
 tying it into a Knot : as the people of Gabii did at a solemn sacri- 
 fice, on the sudden attack of an enemy, in order to be fitter for 
 action. 
 
 Gabion's., in fortification, are baskets made of rizicr-tn'igs, of a 
 cylindrical form, six feet high and four wide; which, being filled 
 with earth, serve as a shelter from the enemy's fire. 
 
 Gable, or Garle-End, of a house, is the upright triangular 
 end from the cornice or eaves to the top of the house. 
 
 GABUES, or GAVRES, a religious sect in Persia and India ; 
 called also Gebres, Gnebres, Gevres, Gaurs, &c. See Magi. 
 Those of this sect are dispersed through the country, and said to 
 be the remains of the ancient Persians, or followers' of Zoroaster, 
 being worshippers of fire. 
 
 Gabres is also a name given by the Turks to the Christians, 
 signifying infidels, or people of a false religion. 
 
 GABRIELITES, ia ecclesiastical history, a sect of anabap- 
 
 tists th„t ai'peareii in Pomer.mia, in 1530; so named I rom Ga- 
 briel Scherling ; who, after having been for some time tolerated iu 
 that country, was obliged to remove, and died in Poland. 
 
 GAD, [IJ, Ileb. i. c. a troop,] one of the 12 patriarchs, the 
 son of Jacob by Zilpali, and progenitor of the tribe of the 
 Gadites. 
 
 (;\Li, in ancient geography, a district of Transjofdan Palestine,. 
 situated between Gilead and the kingdom of Bashan on t])8 N. 
 and that of the Amorites to the S. having the Jordan to the W, 
 and bounded by various nations on the E. so called from thetribe 
 ol that name. 
 
 Gad, among miners, a small punch of iron, with a lon^ wooden 
 Handle, used to break up the ore. One of the miners holds this 
 ill his hand, directing the point to a proper place, while the other 
 diives it into the vein, by striking it with a sicdge-hanuner. 
 
 G.-VDARA, in 3'icient geography, a strong town of the Persea, 
 in Decapolis, restored by Pompey after its demolition bv the 
 
 GAD-REE, or GAD-FEY. See Oestrus. 
 GADEBL'SCH, a toun of Germany, 16 miles AV. N. W. of 
 ?>chwiriii. 
 
 GADEMIR, or GADEMIS, a country of Africa, W. of Fez. 
 .'.an, containiui^ 9-' towns and villages. 
 
 Gadsmis, or Gademir, the capital of the above country, lies 
 300 miles from the sea-coast- 
 
 G.VDES, or G.VDIRA, in ancient geography, a small island 
 in the Atlantic, on the Spanish coast, 25 miles fiom the Pillars of 
 Hercules. 
 
 GADOLINITE, a mineral first found in a white felspar in 
 the quarry ol ^'iterby in Sweden, and was called gadolinite, from 
 Gadolin who first ascertained its composition. Colour perfect 
 black, passin^: sometimes to brown. Found in ni;iss. I'racture 
 conchoidal. Suatche> quartz. Brittle. Specific gravity 4.0497. 
 Gelatinizes with hot diluted nitric acid. Before the blow-pipe de- 
 crepitates, an<l assumes a whitl^h red colour, but does not melt. 
 With borax it melts into a topaz-yellow glass. Afl'ects Ihe mag- 
 nt tic needle. A new earth called Yttria, from the place where 
 it is formed, has bei-n discovered in it. According to the analysis 
 of Vauquelin, it is competed of : 
 35.0 yttria 
 25.5 silica 
 25.0 oxide cf iron 
 2.0 lime 
 
 2.0 oxide of manganese 
 10.5 water and carbonic acid 
 
 100.0 
 
 Klaproth, on the other hand, found 
 59.75 yttria 
 21.25 silica 
 18.00 oxide of iron 
 0.50 alumina 
 
 99.50 
 
 GADONA, orGADUA, a country of Africa, S. of the Sene- 
 gal, containing mines of gold, iron, and nitre. 
 
 GADl'S, in ichthyology, the Cou, a genus of fishes of the or- 
 der jugulares. Generic character: the head smooth; gill-mem- 
 brane, seven-rayed ; body oblong, covered w ith deciduous scales ; 
 fins all covered by the common skin ; more than one dorsal fin, of 
 w hich the rays are unarmed ; ventral fins slender and ending in a 
 point. There are twenty-three species ; the most remarkable arc 
 these, 
 
 G. BARBATUS,the Pout, never grows to alarge size, seldom ex- 
 ceeding a foot in length. It is distinguished trom all others by its 
 great depth ; one of the size above-meutioned being near four 
 inclies deep in the broadest part. The colour of the body is white; 
 but more obscure on the back than the belly, and tinged with 
 yellow. It is called at Scaiborough a kleg, and is a very delicate 
 iish. 
 
 G. Eglesinus, the Haddock, has a long body; the upper 
 part of a dusky brown colour, and the belly and lower part of the 
 sides silvery. On the back arc three fins resembling those of the 
 common cod-fish ; the lateral line is black ; and the tail is forked. 
 
 The
 
 GAD 
 
 .52.^ 
 
 G^R 
 
 The lie.vd slopes down lo the nose ; on the chin is a short braid ; 
 wild on each side beyond the gill-: is a large black spot. The tish- 
 erniiNi assert, that in rougli weather haddocks sink down into tlie 
 sand and ooze in the bottom of the sea, vhei-e they shelter them- 
 selves till the storm is over; lor in stormy weather they take none, 
 and those that are taken immediately after a storm have mud mi 
 thwr backs. In summer they live on yoniig lierriiigs and other 
 small lish ; in winter on the stone-coated worms, a species' of Ser- 
 pula, which the lishermen call haddoek-nieat. The grand shoal of 
 haddocks comes periodically on the Yorkshire coast. It is remark- 
 able that they appeared in 176(5, on itie lOlh of December, and 
 exactly on the same day in I7ti7 : these shoals extended from the 
 shore near three miles in breadth, and in length from Flamboroiifrb 
 head to 'linmonth castio, and perhaps mucli farther northwarcls. 
 An idea may be given of their numbers l)y the following fact: 
 Tiiree fishermen, within the distance of a mile from Scarborough 
 Jiarbour, frequently loaded their boat with them twice a-day, taking 
 each time about a ton of fish ; when they put down their lines be- 
 Jond the distance of three miles from the shore, they caught no- 
 thing but dog-tish, which shews how exactly these lish keep their 
 limits. The best hadd'icks were sold at from 8d. to Is. per score, 
 the smaller sort at a penny and even a halfpenny per score. 
 
 G. Lota, the Bun hot, in its body has some resemblance to an 
 eel, only shorter and thicker; and its motions also resemble those 
 ofthattish: ihey are besides very smooth, slippery, and slimy. 
 The head is very ugly, being Hat, and shaped like tliat of a toad: 
 the teeth are very small, but numerous. On the end of the nose 
 are two small beards; on the chin another. 
 
 G. Mkrlan'gus, the Whiting, is a fish of an elegant make: 
 the upper jaw is the longest; the eyes are large, the nose is sharp: 
 the teeih of the up])er jaw are long, and ap.pear above the lowi-r 
 when closed. The colour of the head and back is a pale brown ; 
 the lateral line while, and crooked; the belly and sides arc silvery, 
 the last streaked lengthwise with yellow. These fish appear in 
 vast sivials in spring, keeping at the distance of about half a mile 
 to that of three from the shore. Tliey are caught in vast nunib-rs 
 bv the line, and artbrd excellent divei'sion. They are the most deli- 
 cate, as well as the most wholesome, of any of the genus : but they 
 do not grow to a large size, tlie biggest not exceeding 20 inches ; 
 the usual length being lO or 12. 
 
 G. Mf.rlucius, the H\ke, is found in vast abundance on 
 many of our coasts, and tho^e of Ireland. There was Ibrmerlv a 
 vast stationary fishery of hake on the Nymph Bank otl' Waterford ; 
 immense quantities appearing there twice a-year; the first shoal 
 coming in June, during tlie ncickerel-'eason ; the otiier in Septem- 
 ber, at the beginning of the herring-season, probably in pursuit of 
 those fish: it was usual for six men with hooks and lines to take 
 a 1000 hakes in one night, besides a considerable tpiantity of 
 other fish. These were salted and sent to Spain, particularly to 
 Bilboa. 
 
 G. MoLVA, the Live, is usually from three to four feet long, 
 but have been caught seven feet long. The body is very slender; 
 the heatl fiat: the upper jaw is longest; the teeth in that jaw are 
 small and very numerous ; in the lower, tew, slender, and sharp : 
 on the chin is a s.nall beard. Tliev vary in colour, some being of 
 an olive hue on the sides and back, others cinereous : the bellv 
 white. The ventral fins are white: the dorsal and anal edged with 
 ■white. The tail is marked near the end with a transverse black 
 bar, and tipt with while. Its English name ling is derived from 
 its length, being a corrnption of long. It abounds about the Scillv 
 Isles, on the co:ists of Scarborough, Scotland and Ireland, and 
 forms a great branch of trade. 
 
 G. Mo:!HUA, or tJie Common Cod, inhabits the northern seas, 
 both of Europe and America, in innumerable shoals, and consti- 
 tutes an important article of human subsistence. Its general length 
 is from two to three feet, and its common wi ighl trom fourteen to 
 thirty pounds. It has occasiohally, however, been known to weigh 
 upwards of seventy. Its food consists of small fish, worms, crabs, 
 and other testaceous fishes, and its voracity is extraordinary. It is 
 prolific in the extreme, no less than a million of eggs having been 
 counted in a single roe. Its sound, or air-bladder, is preserved 
 ■with salt, and considered as a luxury ; it is also converted into a 
 sort of isinglass, in preparing which the inhabitants of Iceland are 
 particniailv skilful. Off the coasts of Cape Breton, Novia Scotia, 
 and New England, and, more especially, on the great sand-bank off 
 8 
 
 NewfouiuUand, this fisli is found in iBcvhauslible abundance ; I'le 
 neighbourhood of the Polar Seas, where they return to deposit 
 Iheirspawn, and the immense number of worms to l)e found in 
 these sandy bottoms being the grand inducements lo their prefer- 
 ence of these situations. They are abundant also on the southern 
 and wc'stern coasts of Iceland, but proceed towards the south only 
 in very diminished numbers, and are rarely seen in that direction 
 beyond the,Straiglils ol Gibraltar. Before the discovery of New- 
 foundland, in I4y6, Iceland was (he principal scene for the cod- 
 fishery, which was speedily after that event transferred to New- 
 foundland, where it is conducted to such an extent, merely by the 
 hook, baited with the herring and other small fishes, as to furnish 
 employment for fifteen thousand British seamen, an^l to a more 
 numerons portion of population at home, occupied on tlie various 
 articles of manufacture, indispensable for:i concern ot such vast e.\- 
 tent and importance. 
 
 G. Poi-LACHius, the PoiLACK, has the under jaw longer than 
 the U|)per; the head and body rises pretty high, as far as the first 
 dorsal fin. The side-line is incurvated, rising towards (he middle 
 of the back, tlien sinking and running straight to the tail ; it is 
 broad and of a brown colour. The colour of the back is dusky, 
 sometimes inclining to green: the sides beiie;ith the lateral line ate 
 marked with lines ofvellow; and the belly is white. 'I'his species 
 is common on many of our rocky roasts: during sunnner they are 
 seen in gre;it shoals frolicking on the surface of the water, and Hing- 
 ing themselves into a thousand forms. They will then bite at anv 
 thing that appears on the top of the waves, and are often takeij 
 with a goose-feather fixed to the hook. They are very strong, 
 being observed to keep their station at the feet ol the rocks in the 
 most turbulent and rapid sea. They are good eating. Tiiey do 
 not grow to a very large size ; the biggest seldom exceeding six or 
 seven pounds. 
 
 GAEL, a town of France in (he department of Ille and Vilaine, 
 1 mile S. of St. Maen, and U) W. ofMontfort. 
 
 GAELIC, belonging to the Gaels, Celtes, or ancient Scots 
 Highlanders. 
 
 GaELICK LANGUAGE, the language of the ancient and 
 modern Highlanders of Scotland. It is esteemed the most ancient 
 as well as the purest dialect of the Celtic, now spoken. It has all 
 tlie marks of an original language. IVIost of its words are expressive 
 of some property or quality in the objects which they denote. 
 This, with the variety of its sounds, (many of which, especially 
 those that express the soft and mournful passions, ;ire peculiar lo 
 it,) renders it highly adapted for poetry. It was the language of 
 the Scottish Court, till the reign of Malcolm Canmore, and was 
 even spoken so late as that of Robert Bruce, particularly in a par- 
 liament held by him at Ardchattan. Its alphabet con-ists of 18 
 letters, of which five are vowels. "Those who understand it, 
 (says the Rev. Dr. James Robertson, of Callander,) know its 
 energy and jjower ; the case with which it is compounded; the 
 boldness of its figures; its majesty in addressing the Deity, and its 
 tenderness in expressing the finest feelings of the human heart. 
 But its genius and constitution, the structure of it^ nouns and 
 verbs, and the afEnity it has to some o(her languages are not so 
 muchaCended Vt. '1 hese point at a very remote a;ra, and seem lo 
 deduce its origin from a very high antic|uity. The verbs have 
 only three tenses, which is the simplest and most natural division 
 of time. The persons of each tense are distinguished, by adding 
 pronominal particles to each person. The third person singular c)f 
 each verb has genders, or admits of a masculine and feminine par- 
 ticle affixed. The moods are the indicative, imperative, and in- 
 finitive. The subjunctive differs from the indicative only by the 
 addition of one syllable to the verb, and a conjunction before it. 
 The imperative has only the second pei-son in both numbers. The 
 infinitive is often used as a subslanlive noun, expressive of the ab- 
 stract signification of the verb. There is only one coniugatinn, 
 aiifl one declension. The cases of the nouns are marked by diliVr- 
 ent particles, or by a ch;inge of the last vowel. The degrees of 
 comparison are formed by placing certain syllables before the 
 adjective; and the superlative frequently by a repetition of thi 
 ■positive." 
 
 GiERTMERE, a genus of the decandria monogynia class and 
 order. Tlie taly.x is five | arted ; corolla five-petalecl: seed-vessel 
 
 nearly globose, with wings. 
 East Iiuliej. 
 
 1 here is one species, a shrub of ibe 
 GAETA,
 
 G AG 
 
 524 
 
 G A G 
 
 GAKI A, an ancient, and strong town of Naples, in La-'oro, 40 
 miles ol Na|)le>. 
 
 GjKi'VL\, the people of Gaetulia, were anionf; the earliest in- 
 Ii-dbitants of Africa. They were disliiiguiahed by dil'ferent epithets; 
 as Nii^ri, Autolotes, Dara;, and Baninra;. (Pliny.) 
 
 G.L'i I'LIA, in aniicMit gi'MgrJjiliy, a country of Africa, ly- 
 ing S. of Mauritania, divided into Clxtulia Propria, and Gxtulia 
 Vctiis. 
 
 (iAKF, a sort of hooni or bole, fri-tiuently used in small ships, to 
 extend tlie upper edge of the niizcn ; and always employed for the 
 same pur|)0se on those sails, whose foremost edges are joined to 
 the mast liv hoops or lacings, and which are usually extended by 
 a l>ooni l)elow. Such arc tlic main-sails of all sloops, brigs, and 
 bchooners. 
 
 GAGE, in our ancient customs, is o«ly properly used in speak- 
 ing of moveables; -for immoveables, Ilypolheca is used. If the 
 gage perish, the person who received it is not to answer for it, but 
 only for extieme negligence, iS;c. 
 
 Gage is also used lor a challenge to combat. It was a pledge, 
 wiiieh the accuser or challenger cast on the ground, and the other 
 took up as accepting the challenge ; being usually a glove, gaunt- 
 let, cliaperoon, or the like. 
 
 Gage, among letter-founders, a piece of box, or other hard 
 wood, variously notched: used to adjust the dimensions, slopes, &c. 
 of the dilferent sorts of letters. 
 
 Gage, in joinery, an instrument made to strike a line truly 
 parallel to the straight side of any board or piece of stuli'. Its chief 
 use iji for the gaging of tenons true, to lit into morti»es; and for gaging 
 stuli' of an e(|ual thickness. It is niadb of an oval piece of wood, 
 titled upon a square stick, to slide up and down stitliy thereon, 
 and with a tooth, at the end of a staff, to score, to strike a line upon 
 the stuff at any distance, according to the distunce of the oval 
 from it. 
 
 G.^GE, in the sea-language. When one ship is to the windward 
 of another, she is said to have the weather-gage of her. They like- 
 wise call the number of feet that a vessel sinks in the water the 
 ship's gage; this they find by driving a nail into a pike near the 
 eiul, and putting it down beside the rudder till the nail catch hold 
 under it ; then as many feet as the pike is under water is called tlie 
 sliip's gage. 
 
 Gage, Aqueo-mercurial, an apparatus contrived by t)i-. 
 Hales and applied in various forms to the branc lies of tree^, to de- 
 termine the force with which they imbibe moisture. In Plate 
 LXXVllI. fig. 1, f, r, is a cylindric glass, e. g. of an inch diame- 
 ter within, and eight inches long. Into this ghiss is introduced the 
 branch of a young thriving apple-tree, b, about three feet long, 
 with lateral branches; the diameter of the transverse cut i being 
 throc-lourtlis ot an inch. Having titted the joint r to the tube atr, 
 by folding a piece of sheep's skin round the stein, it is cemented 
 with a mixture of bees-wax and turpentine melted together, in such 
 proportion as to make a very stiff clammy paste when cold, and 
 over the cinnent folds of wet bladders are bound firmly with pack- 
 thread. To the lower end t of the large tube, a smaller tube c f 
 is cemented, being about \- of an inch diameter, and 18 inches 
 Jong, and in substance full .J ot an inch thick. These tubes are ce- 
 mented together at c, with common hard b-ick-dusl, or powdereil 
 chalk cement, an<l the joint is farther secured with the cement of 
 bees-wax and turpentine, over which a wet bladder is bound. The 
 apparatijs being thus prepared, the branch is turned downwards, 
 and the glass-tubi' upwards, and then both tubes are filled with 
 water; with the finger applied to the open end of the small tube, 
 it is inverted and iinmer-.ed in the glass-cistern a, lull of mercury 
 and water. In this situation the lower end of the branch was im- 
 mersed six inches in water, viz. from ?■ to i ; the water was im- 
 bibed by the branch at its transverse cut i; and during its ascent 
 into the sap-vessels of the branch, the mercury ro^e in the tube c: 
 from the cistern x', so that in half an hour it was risen 5^ inches 
 high, as far as z. The height of the mercury indicated, in some 
 measure, the force with which the sap was imbil)ed, though not the 
 whole force ; because, while the water was imbibed by tiie branch, 
 its transverse cut was covered with innumerable little hemispheres 
 of air, and many air-bubbles issued out of the sap-vessels, which 
 paril) filled the tul« cr, as the water was drawn out of it : and 
 tJieretore the height ol the mercury could only be proportionable 
 to the excess of the quantity of water drawn oil", above the quanti- 
 
 ty of the air which issued out of the wood. If the quantity ofairis. 
 suing from the wood had been equal to the quantity of water im" 
 bibed, it is plain that the mercury Could not rise at all, because 
 there would be no room for it in the tube: but if 9 parts in 12 
 of the water be imbibed by the branch, and only three such parts 
 of air issue into the tube in the s.une time, ' the mercury must rise 
 near six inches, and so jiroporiionably in other cases. Dr. Hales 
 observed, that the mercury rose highest, in most cases, when the 
 sun was clear and warm, and that it subsided three or four iiichci 
 towards evening, but rose again the next day as it grew warm, 
 though seldom so high as at first. He adj;)ted the size and shape 
 of the glass apparatus to a great variety of branches of several sizes 
 and oi dilferent kinds of trees, and repeated the experiment above 
 descrileil, mutatis mutandis, in a variety of instances. See his 
 Vegetable Statics, vol. i. chap. ii. p. S4, ice. 
 
 Gage, Bucket Sea, an instrument contrived by Dr. Hales to 
 find the different degrees of coolness anil saltness of the sea, at 
 dilferent depths, it consists of a common household pale or buck- 
 et, with two heads; whicli have each a'round hole in the middle, 
 about four inches in diaine'er, covered with square valves opening 
 upward ; and that thej may both opeji and shut together, there is a 
 small iron rod fi.xed to the ujiper part of the lower valve, and the 
 otherend to the lower side of the upper valve. So that as the buck- 
 et descends with its sinking weight into the sea, both the valves 
 may open by the force of the water, which thus has a free passage 
 through the luu ket, Init when the bucket is drawn up, then both 
 the valves shut by the force of the water at the upper i)art of the 
 bucket ; so that the bucket is drawn up full of the lowest sea-water 
 to which it has descended. AVhen the bucket is drawn up, the' 
 mercurial thermometer fixed in it is examined ; but great care must 
 be taken to ob-erve the degree at w hich the mercury stands, before 
 the lower pan of the tlurmometer is taken out of the water in the 
 bucket, lest it be affected by the different temperature of the air. 
 To keep the bucket in a right position, there are four cords fixed 
 toil, reaching about three f-et below it; to which the sinking 
 weight is fixetl. The result of several trials with this gage was, 
 that when it was let down to diircrent depths, from 366 ieet to 
 .■>,346 feet, in laf. 25. 13. N. and Ion. 25. 12. W. it was discovered 
 by the thermometer, that the cold increased gradually in pro- 
 ])()rtioii to the depths till it descended to 3,900 feet, viz. near three- 
 fourths of a mile, whence the mercury in the thermometer canii; 
 up at .'lS"; and though it afterwards sunk to 3,3 iti feet, /. e. a mile 
 and 6G feet, it came up no lower: the warmth Of the water upon 
 the surface, and that of the air, was all that time 84° When the 
 water in the bucket was become of thi- same lemperature with that 
 on the surface of the sen, equal quantities of both were weighed 
 and tried by the hydrometer; that from below was found to be 
 the heaviest, and consc(iuently t!u: saltcst. Dr. Ilah's was proba- 
 bly led to the construction of this sea-gage from an instrument in- 
 venteil by Dr. Hook, and d;-signed for the same purpose. See 
 Plate LXXN'III, fig. 2. This consists of a square wooden bucket 
 C, whose bottoms are so contrived, that as the weight A sinks the 
 iron 15, to which the bucket C is fastened by two handles D, D, on 
 the end of which are the moveable bottoms or valves E E, and 
 thereby <lraws down the bucket, the resistance of the water keeps 
 up the bucket in the posture C, whereby the water, whilst the 
 bucket is-descending, hath a free passage through it; whereas, as 
 soon as the bucket is pulled upwards by the line V, the resistance 
 of the water to that motion beats the bucket downwards, and 
 keeps it in the posture (>, whereby the included water is kept 
 from getting out, and the ambient water kept from getting in. 
 Phil. Trans. N° 9, p. 1-J9, and N° 24, p. 447, or Abr. vol. n. p. 
 260. 
 
 Gage, Sea, an instrument invented by Dr. Hales and Dr. 
 Desagnliers for finding the depth n| ihe sea; the description whcr<"- 
 of is this: AH, Plate LXXN'lll. fig. 3, is the gage-bottle, in 
 which is cemented the eage-tube, Vf, in the brass cap at G. The 
 upper end of the tube V is hermetically sealed, and the open lower 
 end./'is immersed in mercury, marked C, on which sivims a small 
 thickness or surface of treacle. On the top of the bottle is screwed 
 a tubi: of brass HG, pierced with several holes to admit the water 
 into the bottle AI5. The body K is a weight hanging by its simnk 
 L, in a socket N, with a notch on one side at ?«, in which is fixed 
 the catch / of the spring S, and, passing through the hole L, in the 
 shank of the weight K, prevents its fallijis out when once hung 
 
 on.
 
 GAG 
 
 5i! 
 
 GAG 
 
 on. On tlie top, in tlic npper part of the brass tube at II, is fixed 
 a largo i-mpty ball, or full blown bladJer I, which niuit not be so 
 hirgL' but that the weight K may be able to sink Ihn whole under 
 water. The iii^lrunient thus constructed is used in the fullowing 
 manner. The weight K being hung on, tlie i^age is let fall into 
 deep water, and sinks to tlio boUoni ; the socket X is somewhat 
 longer than llie shank L ; and therefore, after the weight K comes 
 lolhe bottom, the gage will continue to descend till the lower 
 part ol the socket strikes against the weight ; this gives liberty to 
 the catch to fly out of the hole L, and let go the weight K : when 
 this is done, the ball or bladder I instantly buoys up the gage to 
 the top of the water. NVhile the gage is underwater, tlie water 
 having free access to the treacle and mercury in the bottle, will bv 
 its pressure force it up into the lube Vf, and the height to which it 
 has been forced by the greatest pressure, vi/.tliat at the bottom, will 
 be shewn by the mark in the lube which the treacle leavi;5 behind 
 it, and which is the only use ot the treacle. Tliis shews into what 
 Sj)acc the whole air in the tube I''y is compressed, and consetiuent- 
 )y the height or deplh of tht; water which by its w eight produced 
 that compression, which is the thing requireil. If the gage-tube 
 F/beof glass, a scale might be drawn on it with the pmnt of a 
 diamond, shewing, by inspection, what height tlie water stands 
 above the bottom. But the length of ten inches is not sullicient 
 for fathoming depths at sea, since that, when all the air in such a 
 length of tube is compressed into half an inch, the deptli of water 
 is no more tlian 634 feet, which is not half a (piarter of a mile. If, 
 to remedy this, we make use of a tube lifty inches long, w hich for 
 strength may be a musket-barrel, and su|)pose the air compresse<l 
 into a liundreddi part of half an inch ; then bv saying, 1 : 99 : : 400 
 : 39t)00 inches, or 3300 feet ; even this is but" little more than half a 
 mile, or L'o40 feet. But since it is reasonable to suppose the ca- 
 vities of the sea bear some proportion to the mountainous parts of 
 the land, some of which are more than three miles above the 
 earth's surface ; therel'ore, to explore such great depths, the doctor 
 contrived a new form for his sea-gage, or rather for the gage-tube 
 in it, as follows: BC'DF, Jig. 4, is a hollow metalline globe com- 
 iiumicating on the lop with a long tube, AB, whose capacity is a 
 ninth part of that globe. On the lower part, at D, it has also a 
 short tube Dl"., to stand in the mercury and treacle. The air 
 contained in the compound gage-tube is comiiressed by the water 
 as before; but the degree ot compression, or height to which the 
 treacle has been forced, cannot there be seen through the tube; 
 Iherel'ore, to answer that end, a slender rod of metal or wood, with 
 a knob on the top of the tube AB, will receive llie mark of the 
 treacle, and shew it when taken out. If the tube AB be fifty 
 inches, and of such a bore that every inch in lengtli should be a 
 cubic inch of air, and the contents of the globe and tube together 
 500 cubic inches; then when the air is compressed within a hun- 
 dredth part of the whole, it is evident the treacle will not approach 
 nearer than five inches of the top of the tube, which will agree 
 to the depth of 3300 feet of water as above. Twice this depth will 
 compress the air into half that space nearly, viz. two inches and a 
 half, wliich correspond lo titJOO, which is a mile and a ipiarter. 
 Again, half that space, or one inch and a quarter, will sliew 
 double the former depth, viz. 13200 feet, or two miles and a half ; 
 which is probably very nearly the greatest dejith of the sea. 
 
 Gagk, Wind, an instrument for measuring the force of the 
 wind upon any given surface. !t was invented by Dr. Lind, who 
 gives the following description of it. Philosophical Transactions, 
 vol. Ixv. .See Plate LXXX'Ill. fig. 5. This instrument consists 
 of two glass-tubes, AB, CD, of live or six inches in length. 
 Their bores, which are so much the better for being equal, are 
 about four-tenths of an inch in diameter. Th.cy are connected 
 together like a siphon, by a small bent glass-tube, a h, the bore of 
 which is about one-tenth of an inch in diameter. On the upper 
 end of the leg Ali there is a tube of latten bra>s, which is kneed, 
 or bent perpendicularly outwanI<;, and has its mouth open to- 
 w-ards F. Ou the other leg CD is a cover with a round iiole 
 \.i in the upper part of it, two-tenths of an inch in diameter. This 
 cover and the kneed tube are connected together by a slip of 
 brass c d-, -which not only gives strength to tlie whole iiistrmnent, 
 but also serves to liold the scale 111. The kneed tube and cover 
 are fixed on with hard cement, or sealing-wax. To the same 
 tube is soldered a piece of brass c, with a round hole in it to re- 
 ceive the steel spindle KL ; and at/ there is just anotlicr piece of 
 
 VOL. II. — SO. yo. 
 
 I brass soldered to the brass hoop g It, wliich surrounds both legs of 
 the instrument. Theie is a small shoulder on the spindie at 
 f, upon which the iiislrument rests, and a small nut at i, to pre- 
 vent it from being blown off the spindle by the wind. The whole 
 instrument is easily turned round upon the spindle by the wind, 
 so as always to present the moi^lh ol the kneed tube" towards it. 
 The end of the sjiindle has a screw on it ; by which it may be 
 screwed into the top of a post or a stand made on purpose. It has 
 aUo a hole at L, to admit a small lever for screw ing it iiito wood 
 with more readinev. and facility. Athinplaleuf brass/.-, is sol- 
 ilered to the kneed tul;e, about half an inch round the liole G, so 
 as to prevent rain from falling into it. There is likewise a crooked 
 tube AB, fig a, to be put occasionally ujioii the mouth of the 
 kneed tube F, to prevent rain from being blown into the mouth 
 of the wind-gage when it is left out all night, or exposed in the 
 time of rain. I'lic force or momentimi of the wind may be ascer- 
 tained by this instrumeut, by fillii).; the tubes half full of water, 
 and |>usliing the scale a liille up ordo«ii, till the of the scale, 
 when the iiislrument is held up perpemhculaily, be on aline with 
 the surface of the water in both legs of the w'lnd-gage. The in- 
 strument being thus adjusted, hold it up perpendicularly, and 
 turning the mouth of the kneed tube towarils die wind, observe 
 how imichthe water is depressed by it in the one leg, and raised 
 in the other. The sum of the two is the height of a column of 
 water which the wind is capable of sustaining at that time; and 
 every body that is opposed to that wind will be pressed upon by 
 a force equal to the weight of a column of water liaving its base 
 eijual to the altitude of the column of water sustained by the 
 wind in the wind-gage. Hence the force of the wind upon 
 any body, where the surface opposed to it is known, may be easily- 
 found, and a ready comparison may be made betwixt the strength 
 of one gale of wind and that of another. The force of the wind 
 may likewise be measured willi this in^trument, by filling it until 
 the water runs out at the hole G. For if we then hold it up to 
 the wind as before, a qnaiitity of water will be blown out ; and if 
 both legs of the instrument are of the same bore, the height of the 
 column sustained will be ecpial to double the column of w-ater in 
 either leg, or tliif sum of what is wanting in botn legs. But if the 
 legs are of unequal bores, neither of these will give the true height 
 of the column of water which the wind sustained. ]3ut the true 
 height may be obtained by tlie following formulx. Suppose that 
 after a gale of wind which had blown the water from A to B, H". 
 7, forcing it at the same time through the other tube out at E, the 
 surkue of the water shouUl be fouml standing at some level DG, 
 and it were retpiiied to know what was the lieight of the column 
 ICF or AB, which the wind sustained. In order to obtain this, it 
 is only necessary to find the height of the columns DB or GF, 
 which are constantly equal to one another; for either of these 
 added to one of the equal columns AD, EG, will give the true 
 height of the column of water which the wind sustained. I. Let: 
 the iliameters AC ,FII, of the tubes be resijectfully represented 
 by c d; and let a = AD, or EG, and x = DB, orGF : tlien it is 
 evidentth.it the column DB is to the column EG, as c'-x to d-u. 
 But these columns are equal. Therefore c-x=zd-a; and conse- 
 
 d-a. 
 qkiently .T = . II. But if at any instant of time wliilst tiie 
 
 wind was blowing, it was observed, that, when the water stood at 
 E, the top of the tube out of which it is forced, it was depressed 
 in the other to some given level BF, the altitude at whicli it would 
 have stood in each, had it immediately subsided, may be found in 
 the following manner: Let i = AB or EF. Then it is evident 
 that the column DB is equal to the dilitrence of columns EF, 
 GF: But the difliLTence of these columns is as d'-b—d-c; and 
 d^b 
 
 consequently .V = . For the cases when the wind blows 
 
 c- -\- d- 
 in at the narrow leg of the instrument: Let AB = EF =: b, EG 
 or AD = a, GF =: DB = r, and the diameters EH, GA, respec- 
 tively = d, c, as before, Then it is evident that the column AD 
 is to the column GF as «c' to d-x. But the columns are equal ; 
 
 (IC- 
 
 therefore d'x = ac- ; and consequently .v =: . It is also evi- 
 
 d- 
 dent that the column AD is equal to the difference of the columns 
 6S AB,
 
 GAL 
 
 rrid 
 
 GAL 
 
 AB, DB; but the 
 'I'herefore, d-x : 
 
 difference of thei>e columns is as bf'-~c-x, 
 
 he"- 
 
 ■■ bc^ — c-.r. Wlionce we get x = . Tlie 
 
 rf-' + c2 
 
 use of the small t;ibp of rommiiiiicat-ion ab, fig. 5, is to check the 
 inidulation of the wnter, so that the height of it may be read off 
 from the scale with ease and certainty. Snt it is particularh de- 
 signed to prevent tlie water from being thiown up to a mucli 
 greater or less altitude, than the true height of the column which 
 the wind is able at that time to sustain, from its receiving a sud- 
 den impulse whilst it is vibraiinc; in its ascent or descent. As in 
 some cases the water in this instrument might be liable to freeze, 
 aii<l thus break the tubes. Dr. Lind recommends a saturated solu- 
 tion of sea-salt to be used instead of it, which does not frecvc till 
 Fahrenheit's thermometer fails to 0. 
 
 GAGO, a fertile kingdom of Africa, in Negroland, abounding 
 in corn and gold. 
 
 Gaco, the capital of the above kingdom. 
 
 GAHNIA, in botany, a genvis of the monogynia order, and 
 he.vandria class of plants. Calyx, an involucruni with two or five 
 llowcrs ; corolla tvvo-valved ; anlher.t; linear, sharp-pointetl at the 
 ape.x, as long as the corolla ; seed single and oblong. There are 
 two species. 
 
 GAIA, or GAJA, a town of Italy situated, 20 miles S. of 
 Modena. 
 
 GAILLAC, a town of France, in the department of Tarn, 8 
 milesN.N.W. of Castres, and 27 N.E. of Toulouse. 
 
 GAILI.ON, a town of France, in the department of Eure, 
 7V miles S. E. of Louviers, 9 N. W. of Vernon, and 22 from 
 Rouen. 
 
 GAIN, in architecture, is the workmen's terms for. the bevclling- 
 slioulder of a joist or other timber. It is used also for the lapping 
 of the end of the joist, c'^c. upon a trimmer or girder; and then 
 the thickness of the shoulder is cut into the trimmer, also bevelling 
 upwards, that it may just receive the gain ; and so the joist and 
 trinmicr lie even and level with the surface. This way of working 
 is used in floors and heartlis. 
 
 Gain THE Wind, in sea-language, is to arrive on the weather- 
 side or to windward of some other vessel in sight, when both are 
 plying to windward, or sailing as near the wind as possible. 
 
 'GAINAGE, or GAINAGIUM, in ancient writers, signifies 
 the draught-oxen, horses, wain, plough, and furniture, forcarrying 
 on the work of tillage by the sokemen and villains. Gainage is 
 the same with wainage. 
 
 Gainage, is also used for the land itself, or the profit raised by 
 cultivating it. 
 
 GAINSBOROUGH, a town of Lincolnshire, 18 miles N. W. 
 of Lincoln. Lon. 0. 40. W. Lat. 53. 27. N. 
 
 GALACTOl'HAGI, and GALACTOPOT.T,, [from y^\a., 
 ya\a.-A^, milk; fttriiy, to cat; and Tori; of nm, 1 drink,] in anti- 
 quity, persons who lived wdiolly on milk, without corn or any 
 other food. Certain nations in Scythia Asiatica, as the Geta;, 
 Nomades, &c. are famous in ancient history, as galactophagi. 
 
 GALACZ, GALASl, orG.VLATZ, a town of European Tur- 
 key, in Bulgaria, near the Danube, 20 miles S. S. W. of Bender. 
 
 (jALANGAL. See K/Empferia. 
 
 GALANTRUS, the Snow-drop ; in botany, a genus of the 
 monogynia order, and hexandria class of plants ; natural order, 
 Spathacea?. Petals three, concave; nectavium consists of three 
 cmarginated petals; stigma simple. There is but one species, G. 
 Nivalis, a bjlbous-rooled flowery perennial, rising but a (ew 
 inches in height, and adorned at top with small tripetalous flowers 
 of a white colour. There are three varieties, vi/. the common 
 single-flowered snow-drop, the semi-double snow-drop, and the 
 double snow-drop. They are beautiful little plants ; and are 
 much valued on account of their early appearance, often adorning 
 tne gardens in January or February, w hen scarce any otlier flower 
 is to be seen. 
 
 GALAKDIA, a genus of the class and order syngenesia poly- 
 gaiTiia frustranea. The receptacle is cliafl'y ; seed crowned with 
 a five-leaved calycle; calyx, two rows of scales, almost equal. 
 There is one species ; an annual of Louisiana. 
 
 GALATA, an island near the coast of Tunis. Lon. 9. 30. E. 
 Lat. 3e.. 15. N. 
 
 GALAT.T;A, or GALATIL-EA, in mythology, a sea-nympU, 
 
 daughter of Nereus and Doris. She was beloved by the Cyclops 
 Polypheinus, whom she treated with disdain; while Acis, a shep- 
 herd of Sicily, enjoyed her affection. 
 
 GALAIIA, the ancient name of a province of Asia Minor, 
 now called Amasia. It was bounded on the I'2. by Cappadocia, 
 on the S. by Pamphylia, on the N. by the Euxine sea, and on tlie 
 W. by Billiynia. 
 
 GALAX, in botany, a genus of the monogynia order, and 
 pentaudria class of plants. Corolla salver-shaped; calyx deca- 
 phylhjus; capsule undocular, bivalved, and clastic. One species,. 
 viz. G. aphylla. 
 
 GALAXIA, a genus of the monodelphia triandria class and or- 
 der. Spatha one-valved ; corolla one-petaled, six-clel't; tube ca- 
 pillary ; stigma many-parted. There are two species, herbs of the 
 Cape. 
 
 Galaxy, that long white Itmiinotis track, wdiich seems to en- 
 compass the heavei:.^ like a girdle ; and is easily perceivable in a 
 clear night, especially when the moon does not shine. The 
 Greeks called it rra.a^'ia^, of riiXa, ya>.n,-j.'i!^, milk, and the Romans- 
 via lactea, the milky way, on account of its colour and appearance. 
 And their poets told many fables about the spilling of Juno's milk, 
 &c. as the cause of its whiteness. It passes between Sagittarius 
 and Gemini, and divides thespiiere info two parts; it is unetinally 
 broad ; in some parts single, in others double. The ancient poets, 
 and even philosophers, speak of the Galaxy as the road by which 
 the heroes went to heaven. Aristotle supposed it a kuidof me- 
 teor, formed of a crowd of vapours, drawn into that part by certain 
 large stars disposed in the region of the heavens answering hereto. 
 Others, finding that the Galaxy was seen all over the globe, that it 
 always corresponded to the same fixed stars, and that it transcend- 
 ed the height of the highest planets, set aside Aristotle's opinion ;. 
 placed the Galaxy in the firmament, or region of the fixed stars, 
 and concluded it to be nothing but an assemblage of an infinite 
 number of mintite stars. Since the invention of the telescope, this 
 opinion has been abundantly confirmed. By directing a good te- 
 lescope to any part of the milky way, where before we only saw a 
 confused whiteness, we now descry an innumerable multitude of 
 little stars, so remote, that a naked eye confounds them. See- 
 Astronomy. 
 
 GALBANUM, a gum-rcsin vihich issues from the stein of an, 
 umbelliferous plant, growing in Persia, and many parts of Africa- 
 See BuBON. The juice is semi-pellucid, soft, tenacious; of a 
 strong smell, and a bitterish warm taste ; the better sort is in pale- 
 coloured masses, composed of clear white tears. Galbanum agrees 
 in virtue with gum ammoniac, bat is generally accounted less effi- 
 cacious in asthmas, and more so in hysterical complaints. It is an 
 ingredient in the gum-pills, the gum-plaster, and some other offi- 
 cinal compositions. 
 
 GALBULAR, the Jacamar, in natural history, a genus of 
 birds of the order Pica". Bill straight, very long, (juadrajigular, and 
 pointed; nostrils situated near the base of the bill, and oval; 
 tongue pointed and short ; legs feathered before, down to the toes ; 
 feet formed for climbing. There are four species. G. alccdo, is 
 about the size of a lark, and is of a most elegant and brilliant plum- 
 age. It is found in the damp places of the woods of Guiana and 
 Brazil. 
 
 GAT..E, Thomas, D. D. and F. R. S. a learned divine, born at 
 Scruton, in Yorkshire, in 163C. He was educated at Cambridge, 
 and afterwards chosen head master of St. Paul's school, London; 
 and wrote those elegant inscriptions on the monimient erected iu 
 memory of the conflagration in 16G(>. In 1676, he was made a 
 jjrebendary in St. Paul's; and being elected a F. R.S. presented 
 a Riimau m-n to the society. About 16y7, he gave to the new li- 
 brary of Trinity college, in Cambridge, a great number of Arabic 
 MSS. ; antl in 1697 was admitted dean of York. He died iii that 
 city iu 1702; and was interred in the cathedral, where a monu- 
 ment was erected to his memory. He was a great historian, one 
 of the best Greek scholars of his age, and corresponded «ilh the 
 most learned men at home and abroad. He published, 1. Histo- 
 ric Poetics Antiqui Scriptores, Svo. 2. Opuscula Mytliologica,. 
 Ethica et Physica, in Cireek and Latin, Svo. 3. Herodoti His- 
 toria, in folio. 4. Historia" Auglicana; Scriptores Quinque, in fo- 
 lio. 5. Historic Britaimica?, Saxonies, Anglo-DanicE, Scriptores 
 Quindecim, in folio. C. Rhctores Selecti, &c. 
 
 Gale, in sea-language, a term of various import. When the 
 
 5 wind
 
 GAL 
 
 :>ii 
 
 GAL 
 
 Wtii'l blows not so liiird but that a sliip may (.airy licr top-3;'ils 
 a-trip, (tliat is, lioisteil up to the liiglicst,) tlicy say it is a loom gaU'. 
 When it blows very strong, it is a still', strong, or fVt'sli gale 
 
 GAi.t. \\ hen two sliips art' near one another at sea, and there 
 being but little wind blowing;, one of tlieni finds more ol it than 
 tiie other, they say that the one ship gales aviay from the other. 
 
 GALEA, in anti(|nily, a lijjlit easciue, head-pieee, or morrion, 
 whieh came down tn the shouhlers, eomnionly of brass. 
 
 GALKASSK, a large Knv-buill vessel, using both sails and oars, 
 and the largest of all tin; vessels that make use of the latter. It 
 may carry twenty guns, and has a stern capable ol lodging a great 
 number uf uiarines. It has three masts, which are never to be 
 lowered or taken down. 
 
 GALEGA, in botany, a genus of the decandiia order, and dia- 
 delpl'.ia class of plants; natural order, Papilionacca-. Caly.x com- 
 posed of subulated nearly equal dents or segments; legume has 
 obliipie striw, and seeiJs lying between them. It has nineteen 
 species. 
 
 GALEN, Clai-'dius, prince of the Greek physicians after 
 Hippocrates, was born at Pergamus, in Asia Minor, A. D. 1.31. 
 His father being possessed of a fortune, and well versed in philo- 
 sophy, astronomy, geometry, and architecture, instructed his son 
 in the first rudiments of learning, and afterwards procured him the 
 greatest masters of the age. Galen, having finished liis stmlies, 
 chose physic for his profession, studied the works of Hippocrates, 
 and at length resolved to travel, to converse with the must able 
 physicians in all parts, and totakee\erv opportunity of inspecting 
 on the spot the jilants and drugs of the countries through w hicli he 
 passed. With this view lie went to Alexandria, where he staid 
 some years; thence he travelled through Cilicia, Palestine, Crete, 
 Cyprus, J>emnos, and the Lower 'r_\ria; in which last places he 
 obtained a thorough insiglit into the nature of the Lemnian earth, 
 and the opobalsamum; alter which he returned home by Alexan- 
 dria. Galen had been four years at Pergamus, where his practice 
 ^vas attended with extraordinary applause, when some commotions 
 induced him to go to Rome, where he resolved to settle: but the 
 proofs he gave of his superior skill, added to the respect shewn 
 Iiiin by several persons of very high rank, created him so many 
 enemies among his bretliren of tlie faculty, that he was obliged to 
 quit Rome, after having resided there four or five years. He had 
 not long returned to Pergamus, when he was recalled by the em- 
 perors Aurelius and Verus. After tlicir death, he retired to his 
 native country ; where he died, about A. D. i^OO. He wrote in 
 Greek; and is said to have composed 200 volumes, v^hlch were 
 unhappily burnt in the temple of Peace. The best editions of 
 those that remain, arc, those printed at Basil in li3S, in live vols, 
 and at Venice in 1625, in seven. Galen was of a weak and delicate 
 constitution, as he himself asserts; but lie nevertheless, by liis 
 temperance and skill in physic, arrived to a great age. One ofhis 
 rules was, always to rise from table w ith some degree of appetite. 
 He is justly considered as the greatest physician of antiquity, next 
 to Hippocrates; and he performed such, surprising cures, that he 
 was accused of magic. 
 
 GALENL\, in botany, a genus of the digynia order, and octan- 
 dria class of plants; natural order, Succulenta?. Calyx trilid; no 
 corolla ; capsule roundish, dispermous. It has two species. 
 
 GALENIC, or GALENICAL, in medicine, is applied to that 
 manner of considering and treating diseases, foundeci on the prin- 
 ciples of Galen, or introduced by Galen. 
 
 Galenical, is more frequently used as contradistinguished 
 from chemic;d. The distinction of galenical and chemical was 
 occasioned by a division of the practitioners of nietlicine into two 
 sects, Galenists and Chemists, on the introduction of chemistry 
 into medicine. The chemists, arrogating to themselves every 
 kind of merit and ability, stirred up an opposition to their preten- 
 sions, founded on the invariable adherence of the other party to 
 the ancient practice. 
 
 Galenical Mepicines, arc those which are formed by the 
 easier preparations of herbs, roots, &:c. bv infusion, decoction, 
 &c. and by combining and multiplying ingredients; while those 
 of chemistry draw their mure intimate and remote virtues by 
 means of fire and elaborate preparations, as calcination, digestion, 
 fermentation, &c. 
 
 GALEN ISTS, a denomination given tosuch. physicians as prac- 
 tise, prescribe, or write, on the Galenical principles. They stand 
 opposed to the chemists. 
 
 (iALENiSTS, or Galenitls, ill cliurcli-historv, a branch of 
 Mennonites or Anabaptists, who take in several ot the opinions of 
 the Socinians, or rather Arians, touching the divinity of our Sa- 
 viour. 
 
 GALEOPSIS, in botany, a genus of the gymnospermia order, 
 and didynamia class of plants; natural order, Verticillata. Co- 
 rolla, upper hp a little crenalcd or arched ; the under lip biden- 
 tale, two teeth above. There are four species. 
 
 G.\LERICULL'M, in Roman anli(piity, a cap worn both by 
 men and women, consisting of a skin, so neatly dressed with hu- 
 man hair, that the artificial covering could scarcely be distinguish- 
 ed trom the natural. 
 
 (;ALFALLY, a town of Ireland, in Tipperary, 32 miles S. E. 
 of Limerick. 
 
 GALICIA, a province of Spain, bounded on the N. and W. 
 by the ocean, on the S. by Portugal, and on the E. by Asturia^ 
 and Leon. The air is temperate along the coast, but in other 
 places, cold and. moist. 
 
 Galicia, or Guadalaxara, a country of Mexico, containing 
 seven provinces. It has mines of silver and copper, and abounds 
 with corn. The climate is temperate. Guadalaxara is the ca- 
 pital. 
 
 Galicia, the modern name given to a large country in the S. 
 of Poland, which was seized on by the late emperor Joseph II, 
 and annexed to the Austrian dominions. It comprehends a part 
 of Red Russia and the palatinate of Lcinberg; and is separated 
 from Hungary by the Carpathian mountains. 
 
 GALILEE, in ancient geography, a province of Judea, bound- 
 ed by mount Lebanon on the N . by the Jordan and the sea of 
 Galilee on the E. by the Chison on the S. and by the Mediterra- 
 nean on the W. It was the scene of many of our Saviour's mira- 
 cles ; but the bounds of the country are not now well known, nor 
 tlie places where many of the tow'iis stood. It belongs to the 
 Turks. 
 
 GALILEANS, a sect of the Jews. Their founder was one 
 Judas, a native of Galilee, who, esteeming it an indignity for the 
 Jews to pay tribute to strangers, raised u|) his countrymen against 
 the edict of Augustus, which had ordered a taxation of all the 
 subjects of the Roman empire. They insisted that God alone 
 should be owned as Lord. In other respects they were of the 
 opinion of the Pharisees; but, as they judged it unlawful to piay 
 for infidel princes, they separated from the rest of the Jews, and 
 performed their sacrifices apart. As our Saviour was supposed to 
 be a native of Galilee, and his apostles were mostlyGalileans, they 
 were suspected to be of this sect ; and it was on this principle, as 
 St. Jerome observes, that the Pharisees laid a snare for him ;. by 
 asking, whether it was lawful to give tribute toCwsar; that in 
 case he denied it, they might have an occasion of accusing him. 
 
 GALILEO, Galilei, the famous mathematician and astrono- 
 mer, was the son of a Florentine nobleman, and born in litJ4. 
 He had from his infancy a strong inclination to philosophy and 
 mathematics; and made prodigious progress in these sciences. In 
 1 j92, he was chosen professor of mathematics at Padua. In 1609, 
 having heard that Jaiisen had invented a glass by which objects at 
 a distance were rendered as visible as if near, he turned his atten- 
 tion to the subject, and constructed a telescope, by means ol 
 which he discovered various [ihsnomena in the heavens, not be- 
 fore heard of. In 1611, Cosmo II, grand duke of Tuscany, sent 
 for liim to Pisa, where he made him professor of mathematics, 
 with a handsome salary; and soon after inviting him to Florence, 
 gave him the office and title of principal philosopher and mathe- 
 matician to his highness. He had been but a few years at Flo- 
 rence, before he was convinced, that Aristotle's doctrine, however 
 ill-grounded, was held too sacred to be called in question. Having 
 observed some solar spots in Uil'J, he primed that discovery in 
 1013, at Rome; in which, and in some other pieces, he ventured 
 to assert the truth cf the Copernican system, and brought several 
 new arguments to confirm it. For these he was cited before the 
 inquisition ; and, after some months' imprisonment, was released 
 upon a simple promise, that he would renounce his heretical opi- 
 nions, and not defend them by word or writing. But having after- 
 wards, in Ki32, jiublished at Florence his " Dialogues of the two 
 greatest Systems of the World, the Ptolemaic and Coperni an," 
 he was again cited before the inquisition, and committed ,.) the 
 prison of that dreadful court at Rome. On June 22, N.S. 1633, 
 j^ the congregation convened ; and in his presence pronounced sen- 
 tence
 
 GAL 
 
 .5^3 
 
 GAL 
 
 L'lice ami ri'- 
 loss ni'ithcr broke 
 Uesi 
 
 ■'■ a liirjie 
 
 teiice against lihn and liis books, obliging liim to abjure his errors 
 in llie most soU'iim manner; committed him to the prison of their 
 olVice during iileasure; and enjoined him, as a saving penance, for 
 ihree vears,~lo repeat onee a-week the seven penitential \jsalms: 
 l-e>ervnig to then:sclves, however, the pouer of moderating, 
 changing, or taking away altogether, or in part, the above-men- 
 tioned pnni-^hment and penance. On this sentence, lie was de- 
 tained y pri>oner till lb34: and his Dialogues of the System of 
 tlie \Vorld were, burnt at Kome. He lived ten years after this, 
 seven of whicli were employed in making still further discoveries 
 with his telescope. But by the cnntinnat application lo that in- 
 strnmeiit, added to the damage he received in his sight from the 
 iioclnrnal air, his eyes grew gradnally weaker, till he became to- 
 tally blind in 1(5.59. lie bore this calamity with pati' 
 sigiialion, worthy of a grvat philosopher. 
 
 his spirit, nor hindered' the course of his studies. He supplied the 
 defect by constant meditation: whereby he preparec' 
 ipiantity of materials, and began to dictate his own conceptions ; 
 w hen, waiting away by degrees, he expired at Arcetti near Flo- 
 rence, in January, '1(342, N. S. aged 78. His discoveries and 
 writings have rendered essential service to philosophy. Krom the 
 time of Archimedes, as M. Leibnitz observed, there had been no- 
 tliing done in mechanical geometry, till Galileo, who possessing 
 an e.vcellent judgement, and great skill in the most abstruse points 
 of geometry, lii>t extended the boundaries of that science, and 
 began to reduce the resistance of solid bodies to its laws. As ob- 
 served by Dr. Hutton, " He made the evidence of the Coperni- 
 can system more sensible, when he shewed from the phases of Ve- 
 nus, "like to the monthly phases of the moon, that Venus actually 
 revolves about the sun. He proved the revolution of the sun on 
 his axis, from his spots; and thence the -diurnal rotation of the 
 earth became more credible. The four satellites that attended 
 Juijiter, in his revolution about the sun, represented, in Jupiter's 
 less system, a just image of the great Solar System, and rendered 
 it more easy to ccmccive how tlie moon might attend the earth, as 
 a satellite, in her annual revolution. By discovering hills and ca- 
 yilies in the moon, and spots in the sun constantly varying, he 
 shewed that there was not so great a difference between celestial 
 and sublunary bodies as the philosophers had vainly imagined. 
 " He rendered no less service to science by treating, in a clear 
 and geometrical manner, the doctrine of motion, which has been 
 justly called the key of nature. The rational part of mechanics 
 liad been so much neglected, that scarcely any improvement was 
 made in it for almost 2000 years; but Galileo has given us fully 
 tlic theory of equable motions, and of such as are uniformly acce- 
 lerated or retarded, and of these two compounded together. 
 He first demonstrated, that the spaces described by heavy bodies 
 from the beginning of their descent, are as the squares of the times ; 
 and that a body, projected in any direction that is not perpendicu- 
 lar to the horizon, describes a parabola. These were the begin- 
 nings of the doctrine of the motion of heavy bodies, which has 
 been since carried to so great a height by Sir Isaac Newton. In 
 geometry, he invented the cycloid, or trochoid, though the jiro- 
 perties of it were afterwards chielly demonstrated by his pupil 
 Torricelli. He invented the simple pendulum, and made use of 
 it in his astronomical experiments: he had also thoughts of apply- 
 ing it to clocks, but did not execute that design. The glory of 
 that invention was reserved for his son Vincenzo, who made the ex- 
 periment at Venice in 1(349; and Huygens afterwards carried the 
 invention to perfection. Of Galileo's invention also w:is the ma- 
 chine with which the Venetians render their laguna iluitl and navi- 
 gable. He also discovered the gravity of the air, and endeavour- 
 ed to compare it with that of water; and opened several other 
 nuiriesin natural philosophy. He was not esteemed and ■" " 
 by philosophers only ; but was honoured by persons of the greatest 
 distinction of all nations. Galileo had scholars worthy of so great 
 a master, by whom the gravitation of the atmosphere was fully 
 established, and its varying pressure accurately and conveniently 
 me;isured, by the column of quicksilver of equal weight sustained 
 by it in the barometrical tube. The elasticity of the air, by which 
 it perpetnally'en<leavoiirs to expand itself, and while it ailmits of 
 condensation, ixsists in proportion to its density, was a phanome- 
 lion of a new kind, (the common llnids having no such property), 
 ;uul of the utmost importance to philosophy. Tliese principles 
 opened a vast field of new and useful knowledge, and explained a 
 
 in- 
 followed 
 
 great variety of ph.cnomena, which had been accounted for in an 
 absurd manner before that time. It seemed as if the air, the Huid 
 in which men lived from the beginning, had been then lirst disco» 
 vered. Philosophers were every where busy, eiuiuiriug into the 
 various properties and tlieir eflects; and valuable discoveries re- 
 warded their industry. Of the great nunil)er who distinguished 
 themselves on tills occasion, we cannot but mention Torricelli and 
 Viviani, in Italy; Pascal, in France; Otto Guricke, in Germany; 
 and Boyle, in F.ngland." Galileo wrote a number of treatises, of 
 wliich the principal publislied during his life-time were, " A 
 Treatise on Mechanics," " On the Balance," and " Dialogues on 
 tlie Solar System ;" " The Operations of the Compass, geometrical 
 ;ind military," 1606; " A Discourse, addressed to the Most Se- 
 rene Cosmo II. Grand Duke of Tuscany, concerning the Swim- 
 ming of Ijodies upon, and their Submersion in, Water," 1612; 
 " Nuneius Sidereus," l(3in, of which a " Continuation," or "An 
 F.ssay on the History of Galileo's last Observations on Saturn, 
 Mars, V'enus, and the Sun, &:c." vvas afterwards collected from 
 letters between Galileo and his corresjjondents; " A Letter Con- 
 cerning the Trepidation ot the Moon, lately discovered, inscribed 
 lo Alpli'inso Aiitonini, with Antonim's Answer," 1638; " A Dis- 
 course of the Solar Spots, ivc. witli Predictions and Ephemerides 
 of the Medicean Planets," It3l3; the famous Italian piece, enti- 
 tled, " II Saggialore," written in defence of Guiducci's " Dis- 
 course on Comets," and containing a complete account of the 
 physiology and astronomy of our author, prhited in 1623; " A 
 Letter to Prince LeopoUl of Tuscany, Examining the hftietU 
 ciuipter of l.,icetus's Letheosphoros ; "A Letter to Christopher 
 Greinbergerus, Concerning the Montuosity of the Moon," loll ; 
 " Mathematical Discourses and Demonstrations Concerning two 
 new Sciences, Uelating to Mechanics and Lod«h, Motions, toge- 
 ther with an Appendix Concerning the Centre ot Gravity in some 
 Solids, 1()3S, &c. The preceding articles, together with some 
 other treatises, written either by Galileo, or by some of his disci- 
 ples, in defence of his doctrines and observations, were collected 
 and published by Menolcssi, in 16j6, under the title of" L',Opere 
 de Galileo Galilei Lynceo, nobile Fiorentino," Sec. in two vo- 
 lumes (piarto. Several of th.ese pieces were translated into Eng- 
 lish, and published by Thomas Salisbury, in his " Mathematical 
 Collections," in two vols, folio. A volume also of his " Letters" 
 to several learned men, and solutions of a variety of problems^ were 
 published at Bologna, in quarto. His last disciple, Vincenzo \'i- 
 viani, w ho proved a very eminent mathematician, methodised a 
 piece of his master's, and published it under the title of " Quinto 
 Libro de gli F.lemcnti d' Euclid," &:c. 1674, quarto; and he also 
 published some other pieces of Galileo, including extracts from 
 his " Letters to a Learned Frenchman," in w hicii the author gives 
 an account of the works wliich he intended to have published, and 
 an extract of a letter to John Camillo, a mathematician of Naples, 
 concerning the angle of contact. Many other of Galih-o's writings 
 were unfortunately lost to the world, owing lo the superstition of 
 those to whom they were left. 
 
 GALIPAGO Isles, several uninhabited islands in the South 
 Sea, on both sides of the equator, near Terra I'irma, belonging 
 to Spain. Lon. between 83. 4(). and 89. 30. \V. Lat. from 3° to 
 5° S. 
 
 (j ALITSCH, a town of Russia, in Kostrom, 5G miles E. N. E. 
 of Kostrom. 
 
 GALIUM, in botany, a genus of the monogynia order, and 
 tetrandria class of [ilants ; natural order, Stellatie. Corolla mono- 
 petalous, plain ; seeds t« o, roundish. There are forty-eight 
 species. 
 
 G. AiT.RiNE, Clivers, or Goose-Gr.\ss, has a square, very 
 rough, jointed, weak stem, two, three, or four feet long, and ad- 
 hesive : the brandies are opposite; the joints hairy at the base: 
 the seeds aiM; rough; tlowers white, small, few, on slender foot- 
 stalks on the tops of the branches. It is common in fields by the 
 sides of hedges, &:c. The expressed juice of this plant taken in- 
 ternally, and the bruised leaves applied by way of poultice, are 
 said to have been used with success as a cure for the cancer. 
 
 G. Verum, the Yellow Lady's Bed-straw, has a firm, 
 erect, brown, square, stem ; the leaves generally eight in each 
 whirl, linear, pointed, brittle, and often reflex; branches short, 
 generally two from each joint, terminating in spikes of small yel- 
 low flowers. It grows commonly iu dry ground, and on road- 
 sides-.
 
 GAL 
 
 5ii9 
 
 GAL 
 
 sides. The flowers coagulate I)()ilini5 '"i"^ y ■'"<' ''i^ l"^*' Clieshirc 
 cheese is said lo be prepared vvilli tliem. 'I he roots dye a red not 
 interior to madder. In the I'.dinbiirgh Mcdieal C'oinnniiilaries we 
 have accounts of some violent srorbvitic complaints being cured 
 by the juice of this plant. 
 
 GALL, in the animal oeconomy, the same with l<ile. See BitE 
 and An ATOM V. 
 
 Gam., in natural history, signifies anv protuberance, or tumor, 
 produced by the punctures of insects on plants and trees of vari- 
 ous kinds; but e>pecially the tiuer<'us, or oak ; cistu^ or roek- 
 rose ; glechoma hedcracea, or groimd-ivs ; salix, or willow ; hie- 
 raceuni, or hawkueed ; salvia, or clary ; veronica, or speedwell, 
 &c. Insects deposit their ecjgs in the leaves or tendei branches 
 of plants, the jirice of which exude;, and in a short tmie forms tu- 
 mors around the punctures or holes. The external coat of this 
 excrescence is dried by the air, and during the winter affords a 
 secure shelter to the inclosed insect, while the soft inner (lulp fin'- 
 iiislies it with sustenance till the spring approaches, when the fly 
 perforates the shell or rind, and departs. The best of these palls 
 are those tound on oak-trees, and which are Iheiice called oak- 
 galls; they are deposited by the cvnips querCus genimse, or oak- 
 bud-cynipi. Sec CvKipi. A small |)ortion of galls infused in a 
 weak solution of vitriol in water, imparts to it a purple or violet 
 tint ; whiih, after the whole of the colouriiig matter is extracted, 
 becomes perfectly black. Considerable quantities of this drug are 
 used in Britain, tor the making of ink. 
 
 Gall, Sr. or St. (jallkn, a considerable town in Switzer- 
 land, in the Upper Thurgau, 37 miles N. li. of Zurich. 
 
 GALL.A, a nation ot Kthiopia, originally dwelfiig, as Mr. 
 Bruce supposes, under the line, and exercising the profession of 
 shepheids, whiotothey still continiu" to do. For many years, he 
 says, they liaveTjeen constantly ndgrating northwards, though the 
 cause of this migration is not known. At (irst they had no horses ; 
 the reason of which was, that the coimtry they came from did not 
 allow these anim^ds to breed: but as they proceeded northward 
 and conquered some of the Abvsinian provinces, they soon fur- 
 nished themselves with such nundiers, that they are now almost 
 entirely cavalrv, and make little aci ount of infantry in their armies. 
 
 Galla, a town of Arabia, 04 miles S. E. of 'J'aas. 
 
 GALL.'\.\i, a kingdom of Airica. 
 
 Gallam, the capital of the above kingdom, is seated on the 
 Senegal. Lon. 9. 55. W. Lai. 14. 25. N. 
 
 GALLE, or PUR T GALLE, a sea-port town and fort on the 
 S. VV. coast of Ceylon. 
 
 GALLEON, Igulion, Fr.] a large ship with four or sometimes 
 five decks, employed in the Spanish West India trade. The Spa- 
 niards send amiu,'.lly two lleels ; tlie one for Mexico, which they 
 call the tiota ; and the ot er for I'eru, which they call the galleons. 
 By a general regulation made in Spain, it has been established, 
 that there should be twelve men of war and five tenders annually 
 fitted out for the arma<la or galleons ; eight ships o( 600 tons bur- 
 den each, and three tender>, one of lOO tons, tor the island Mar- 
 garita, and two ot 80 each, to follow the armada ; for the New 
 Spain tltet, two ships ol tijO tons each, and two teiiflers of 80 
 each ; and tor the Honduras lleet, two ships ot 500 Ions each : 
 and (a ca^e no fleet happened to sail any year^, three galleons and 
 a tender should be sent to New Spain for the plate. They sail 
 from Cadiz in January, that they may arrive at Porto Hello in 
 April ; where, the 'air being over, they may lake aboard the 
 plate, and be at ILivaiuiah with it about the middle of June; 
 where they are joined by the (lota that they may return to Spain 
 with the greater safety. 
 
 GALLEO r. See (iAi.i.iOT. 
 
 GALLERY, in tardening, an ornnment made with trees of 
 difi'erent kjnds. Galleries are very common in the FremJi gar- 
 dens, but are sel.'lom introduced into the British ones, especially 
 since the taste lor clipping trees has been exploded. 
 
 Galleky, m a ship, tlial be.uitiful frame, which is made in the 
 form of a balcony, at l he stern of a ship without board ; into which 
 there is a passage out of the admiral's or captain's cabin, and is de- 
 signed lor the ornamenl of the ship. 
 
 GaU-Rky, in iortilicaiion, a covered walk across the ditch of a 
 town, mii<le of strong beams covered with planks, and loaded with 
 earth: sometimes it is covered with rawhides, to defeiiil it from 
 the artificial (ires of the besieged. 
 
 VOL. II. — NO. 1)1. 
 
 Gallrry of a MiNii is a narrow passage or branch of a 
 mine carried on under ground to awoik desiguKd to be blown 
 up. 
 
 GALLEYS, low flat-built vessels, furnished with one deck, 
 and navigated with sails and oars. '1 he largest sort are employed 
 only bv the Venetians. '1 hev are commonly 162 feet long above, 
 and" 133 feet by the k"el : 32 feet wide, with 23 feet length of 
 stern-post. They arc furnished with three masts, and 32 banks of 
 oars ; every bank contain'ng two oars and every oar being ma- 
 naged by six or seven slaves, who are usually chained thereto. In 
 the fore-part they have three little batteries of cannon, of which 
 the lowest is of H\o 36 pounder^, the second of two 24 pounders, 
 and tlie uppermost of tv\o 2 pounders : three 18 pounders are also 
 planted on each quarter. 'I'he com|)lement of men for one of 
 these galleys is 1000 or 1200. I'hey are esteemed very conveni- 
 ent for bombarding or making a descent upon an enemy's coa^t, 
 as drawing but little water ; and having by their oars trequently 
 tin; advantage of a ship of war, in light winds or calms, by caii- 
 nf. hading the lalter near the surface ot the water ; by s( ouring her 
 whole length with their shot, and at the same time keeping on her 
 quarter or bow, so as to be out of the direction of her cannon. 
 Galley is the name also of an open boat, rowing six or eight oars, 
 and used on the Thames by Custom-house-oflicers, press-gangs, 
 and also for pleasure. The same word denotes the kitchen of a 
 ship of war, or the place where the grates are put up, fires lighted, 
 and ihc victuals generally dressed. 
 
 (Jallev-Slave, a person condemned, in France, to work at 
 the oar on board a galley, being chained to the deck. 
 
 Galley-Worm, in zoology. See Ivlus. 
 
 Gall Fly, in entomology. See Cynips. 
 
 GALLI, in antiquity, a name given to the priests of Cybele, 
 from the river Gallus in Phrygia. They were Eunuchs and Phry- 
 gians, and in their solemn processions danced, bawled, drummed, 
 cut and slashed themselves, playing upon timbrels, pipes, cym- 
 bals, &.C. and driving about an ass loaded with the sacred trum- 
 [jery of their goddess. 
 
 Galli, five small desolate islands on the coast of the Princi- 
 )iato Citia of Naples. ^Ihey are supposed to be the Syrenuss, 
 or islands once inhabited by the Syrens, which Ulysses passed with 
 so much caution and hazard. 
 
 (iALLIA, in ancient geography, a large country of Europe, 
 called Galatia by the Greeks. The inhabitants were called GjIII, 
 Celt3P, Ccltiberi, ami Celtoscythie. Ancient Gaul was divided 
 into four different parts by the Komans, called Gallia Belgica, 
 Narbonensis, Aquitanica, and Celtica. Besides these grand divi- 
 sions there is often mention made of Gallia Cisalpina or Citerior, 
 and Tiaiisalpiiia or I'lterior, which last comprehended the whole 
 ol Gaul, properly so called, as ))0sscssed by the ancient Gauls. 
 The inhabitants were great warriors, and overcame the Roman 
 armies, took the city of Rome, and invaded Greece in different 
 ages. 
 
 1. Gallia Aquitanica contained the late provinces of Poitou, 
 Saintonge, Guienne, Berry, l^imosin, Gascogny, AuvcTgne, &c. 
 and was situated between the Garumua, the Pyrenean mountains, 
 and the ocean. 
 
 2. Gallia Belgica was the largest province, bounded by 
 CJermaiiy, Gallia Narbonensis, and the German ocean ; and con- 
 tained the modern counhies of Alsace, Lorraine, Picardy, with 
 piTt of the Low Countries, ot Champagne, and ot the isle of 
 France. 
 
 3. Gallia Celtica, or LucnuNENsis, was bounded by Bel- 
 gium, Gallia Narbonensis, the Alps, and the ocean. It con- 
 tained the countries heretofore known by the names of Lyonnois, 
 Touraiiie, Franche Comte, Seiienois, Switzerland, and part of 
 Normandy. It was also called Comata, because the people suf- 
 fered their hair to grow to an uiu (inimou length. 
 
 4. (JALLiA CisALPiN'A, or CirKRioH. By these n.imes the 
 Romans understood ihat jjart of (jaiil which lies in Italy, on this 
 side ot the Alps, in regard to the inhabilants of Rome, 'ihey also 
 stiled it Gallia Togata, because the Roman gowns called toga; were 
 worn by the people. 
 
 5. Gallia Cispadana in ancient geography, was applied to 
 a part of Italy conquered by some of the Gauls ; and meant 
 llie country on this side of the Po, with respect to Rome. See 
 Cispadana. 
 
 (i T 6. Gallia
 
 GAL 
 
 530 
 
 GAL 
 
 6. Gallia NARbONENSis, which contained tlie provinces lately 
 called Langnedoc, Provence, Daupliine, and Savoy, was bound- 
 ed by the Alps and Pyreneau mountain*, by Aquitania, Belgium, 
 and the Mediterranean. Gallia Narbonensis was called Braccata^ 
 on account of the peculiar covering of the inhabitants for their 
 thighs. 
 
 7. Gallia Tbansalpina, or V'lterior, was the name given 
 by the Romans to that part of Gaul, which lay beyond the Alps, in 
 regard to Rome. 
 
 S. Galli.y TRAN'srADAVA, was the name given to that prt ol 
 Italy, conquered by the Gauls, which lay lieyond the To, in re- 
 .spect of Rome. 
 
 GALLIARD, or GALLIARDA, a sort of dance anciently 
 in great request, consisting of very dillerent motions and actions, 
 sometimes proceeding terra a terra, or smoothly along, some- 
 times capering, sometimes along the room, and sometimes 
 across. 
 
 GALLIAMBIC VERSE, in ancient poetry, a verse consist- 
 ing of six feet, viz. an anapa'st or spondee; an iambus, or an 
 anapa>st, or a tribrach ; an iambus ; a dactyl ; an anapaest. 
 
 GALLIC ACID, in chemistry, an acid obtained from t!ie mil- 
 gall. In an infusion of galls made with cold water, a sediment is 
 formed which on examination is found to have a crystalline form 
 and an acid taste. By letting an infusion of galls remain a long 
 time exposed to the air, and removing now and then the mouhly 
 skin which formed on its surface, a large quantity of this sediment 
 was obtained; which being edulcorated with cold water, retlis- 
 solved in hot water, liltrated and evaporated very slowly, yielded 
 an acid salt in crystals as fine as sand. Mr. Davy obtained the 
 gallic acid in a state of considerable purity by the following me- 
 thod : Boil for some time a mixture of carbonate of barytes and 
 infusion of nut-galls. A bluish green Tniuid is Obtained, whith 
 consists of a solution of gallic acid and barytes. Filter and satu- 
 TAl'e. with dilute<l sulphuric acid. Sulphate of barytes is deposited 
 in the state of an insoluble powder, and a colourless solution of 
 gallic acid remains behind. Gallic acid, when pure, is in the 
 form of transparent plates or octahedrons. Its taste is acid, and 
 somewhat astringent ; and when heated it has a peculiar and ra- 
 ther unpleasant aromatic odour. It is soluble in one and a half 
 parts of boiling water, and in twelve parts of cold water. When 
 this solution is heateil, the acid undergoes a very speedy decom- 
 position. Alcohol dissolves one-fourth of its weight of this acid at 
 the tempjcratine of the atmosphere. When boiling hot, it dis- 
 solves a quiUitily equal to its owii weight. It is insoluble in ether. 
 When exposed to the action of heat, it is sublimed ;iithoHt altera- 
 tion : but a stiong heat decomposes it in part, and converts it into 
 an acid water, carbureted hydrogen gas, carbonic acid gas, oil, 
 and charcoal. It combines with alkaline bodies, making with 
 them compounds called gallates. It occasions a precipitate when 
 poured into solutions of glucina, yttria, and zircon, in acids, which 
 distinguishes these from the other earths, none of which are preci- 
 pitated from, their solutions by gallic acid. Upon the metallic 
 solutions gallic acid acts with great energy, changing the colour, 
 and producing precipitates in many of Ihein. Hence it is fre- 
 quently used as a re-agent to detect the presence of metallic 
 bodies. It is composed of oxygen, carbon, and hydrogen, but the 
 pioportioi-'s of each have not been accurately ascertained. 
 
 GALLlN.t, in ornithology, the hfth order of birds : the up- 
 per mandible is channelled, extending with a margin above the 
 lower, and a little bowed ; the nostrils are covered with a cartila- 
 ginous membrane; they live upon grain, dust themselves, make 
 an artless nest, and lay many eggs. Under this order are com- 
 prehended the peacock, pheasant, turkey, the common dunghill- 
 cock, partridge, grcus, dodo, curissoa, &c. 
 
 GALLINARA, an island on the coist of Genoa, 10 miles S. 
 of Finale. 
 
 GALLING OF A IIoKSF.'s Back, a disorder, occasioned by 
 heat, and the chafing or pinciiing of the saddle. To prevent it, 
 some take a hind's skin wi'll garnished with hair, and fit it neatly 
 under the paiinel of the saddle, so that the hairy side may be next 
 the horse. When a hor-i's back is g.illed upon a journev, take 
 out a little of the stuliiiig of the pamiel over the swelling, and 
 •ew a piece of soft white leatlier on the inside of the pannel : 
 anoint the part with salt butler, and every evening wipe it clean, 
 rubbing it till it grow soft, anointing it again with butter, or, for 
 
 want of that, with grease: wash the swelhng or hurt every even 
 ing with cold water and soap; and strew it with salt, which should 
 be left on till the hurse be saddled in the morning. 
 
 GALLIOI'OLIS, or GALLIl'OLIS, a post-town of the 
 United States, in the North Western 'Territory, seated on tiie 
 Ohio, 140 miles E. cf Columbia, and 359 S. W. of Phila- 
 delphia. 
 
 G.VLLIOT, l_galliotti', French,] a small galley designed only 
 for chace, carrying only one mast, and two or three pattereroes ; it 
 can both sail and row, and has sixteen or twenty oars. All the 
 seamen on board are soldiers, and each has a musket by him ou 
 quitting his oar. 
 
 CALLIPOLI, a sea-port town of Naples, in the province oi 
 Otranto, 21 miles W. ol Otrai.to. 
 
 Gallipoli, a sea-port town of European Turkey, in the pro- 
 vince of Romania, seated at the mouth of the sea of Marmora. 
 Lon. 26. 59. E. Lat. 40. 24. N. 
 
 GALLIU.M, in botany. See Galium. 
 
 GALLO, an island of the South Sea, near the coast of Peru. 
 Lon. K8. 0. W. Lat. 2. 30. N. 
 
 GALLO-GR.ECIA, a country of Asia Minor, near Bilhynia 
 and Cappadocia. . 
 
 GAL]^0N, a measure of capacity both for dry and liquid 
 things, but diU'ers according to the quality of the thing measured ; 
 For instance, the wine-gallon contains 231 cubic inches, and holds 
 S lb. avoirdupois of pure water; the beer and ale gallon contain-i 
 2k I solid inches, and holds 10 lb. 3;J ounces avoirdupois of water ; 
 and the gallon for corn, meal, &c. 272| cubic inches, and holds 
 9 lb. 13 ounces of pure water. 
 
 G.VLLOON, ill commerce, a narrow thick kind of ferret, or 
 lace, used to edge or border cloaths, sometimes, made of wool, 
 and at others of gold or silver. 
 
 GALLOP, \_g<tlopcr, Fr. from xcsXT^cjf.r,,] in the manege, a 
 motion of a horse that runs at full s|)eed, in wliich making a klwd 
 of leap forwards, he lifts both his tore-legs almost at "the same 
 time ; when these are in the air, just upon the point of touching 
 the ground, hi' lilts botii his hind legs almost at once. 
 
 GALLOPER, ill artillery, is the name of a carriage, which 
 serves for a pound and a halt-gun. This carriage has shafts so as 
 to be drawn without a limber, and is thought by some to be more 
 convenient and preferable to other field-carriages ; and it may 
 likewise serve for our light three and six pouiidei-s. 
 
 GALLOWAY, in geography, a county of Scotland, which is 
 divided into two districts ; the western, called the Upper, and the 
 eastern, Lower. 
 
 1. Galloway, Lowf.r, or the Stewartry of Kirkcudbright. 
 
 2. Galloway, Upper, or the county of Wigtoii. 
 Gall3wav, Mull of, the south cape or promontory of all 
 
 Scotland, in the county of Galloway, on the Irish sea. 
 
 GALLOWS, [gi'eiigo, Sax. gtilgc, Dut. which some derive 
 from naj, high, others from gullu, Welsh, power: but it is proba- 
 bly derived like ^v;//'nr, to fright, from iigalwaii, the gallows, be- 
 ing the great object of legal terror,] a b;ani laid over two 
 posts, on which malei'aclors are hanged. 
 
 Gallows, among our ancestors, was called J'urcii, fork ; a 
 name by which it is still denominated abroad, particularly in 
 France and Italy. In this latter country, the reason of the name 
 still subsists ; the gallows being a real fork drove into the 
 i>round, across Uie legs w hereof is laid a beam, to which the rope 
 i^ tied. 
 
 GALLY, in printing, a frame iirto wliich the compositor 
 empties ihe lines out of liis composing-stick, and in wliich he ties 
 up the page when it is completed. The gaily is formed of an ob- 
 long square board, with a hrlge on three sides, and a groove to 
 admit a false-botlom, calli'd a gally-slice. 
 
 (j.\LOPINA, in botany, a genus of the tetrandria digynia 
 class and order. Calyx none ; corolla fuur-cleft ; seeds two, nak- 
 ed. Tlir-re is one species, viz. G. circxoides, a native of the 
 Cape of C4ood Hope. 
 
 GALW AY, a county of Ireland, in the province of Con- 
 iiaugiit, bounded by Clare, Tipperary, King's t'ounty, Rosconi- 
 moii, and llie sea. 
 
 (JALWAY, the capital of the above county, 90 miles W. of Dub- 
 lin. Lon.9° W. J^it. :..'/ IS'N. 
 
 GALVANI, Lewis, an eminent physiologist, born at Bo- 
 logna
 
 GAL 
 
 511 
 
 GAL 
 
 lii;^na in 1737. I'roni liis yoiilli lie was strongly altaclied to the 
 Kuinau Calliolic roligioii. Ho stiuliod modiciiie iiiuU r Deccari, 
 Jacconi, Galli, and professor Galcazzi, wiiose daughtf i' lie mar- 
 ried. He was created ledurer on anatomy in tlie university of 
 15ologna in 1762. He soon acquired a very liigli reputation as an 
 anatomist and pliysioloKist, and great crowils attended his lectures. 
 His extensive knowledge, and industry in making experiments 
 led to a discovery, from wliich he had the honour of giving his 
 name to a new subject of philosophical iatpiiry. Happening to 
 have some tVo*s lying on the table of his laboratory, skinned for 
 the purpose ot making soup as a restorative for his wife, who was 
 in a declining slate of health, one of his a-.sistants chanced to bring 
 the point of a scalpel near the crural nerves of a frog, which was 
 near the conductor. Instantly the muscles of the limb were agi- 
 tated \Tith stroiig convulsions. This was observed by Ma<l.'ime 
 Galvjni, a woman of quick uudei'standing, and a scientific turn, 
 and she immediately mentioneil it to her husljand. He repeated 
 
 the experiment ; and soon found that the convulsion only took 
 place when a spark was drawn from tlie conductor, at the time the 
 scalpel was in contact with the nerve. This induced him to go 
 through a aeries of experiments, which have laid the foundation of 
 (iaivanism. Galvani was a man of an amiable character in pri- 
 vate life, and possessed of great sensibility. The death of his wife 
 in 1790, threw him into a profound melancholy. On rel'usiiig to 
 take the civic oath exacted by the new constitution of the Cisal- 
 pine Jtepublic, hi; incurred the deprivation of his posts and dig- 
 nities. A prey to melancholy, and reduced almost to indigence, 
 he retired to the house of his brotlier James, a man of very n:- 
 spectable chiU'acter, wliere he indul!;ed his grief. The repuhlicaa 
 governors, probably ashamed of their conduct towards such a mail, 
 passed a decree for ins restoration to his protessional chair and its 
 emoluments; but it was then too lute, lie died in 17!>f, on No- 
 vember j, aged jixty, being nmcli lamented by his frieuds and tlie 
 4 public. 
 
 GALVANISM. 
 
 GALV.-VNISM, (so called from Dr. Galvani, the discoverer,) 
 th.it branch of philosophy which investigates and explains the 
 ph;enomena arising from the action or intlucnce of certain bodies 
 so disposed as to form a continued chain, or circle of communica- 
 tion with each otlier. Dr. Galvani was led to the discoveries, 
 which gave rise to this department of scieiice, by an incidental 
 circumstance, mentioned in the last article, which shewed the 
 effects of a small quantity of electricity on the nerves and muscles 
 of a frog. From a series of experiments on this subject, principally 
 performed on dead frogs, he founrl tiiat a small (piantity of elec- 
 tricity is c ipable oi bringing the muscles into action, even after 
 the animal has been de.id a considerable time. He also found 
 that inde(>endent of any apparent electricity, tlie same motions 
 may be produced in the di-ad animal, or even in a detached limb, 
 merely by making a communication bi'tween tlie nerves and the 
 muscles, witli substances that are conductors of electricity. If the 
 circuit of communication consists of non-conductors of electricity, 
 as glass, sealing-wax, and the like, no motion will take place. 
 Similar experiments were also successfully instituted upon otiicr 
 animals ; and as the power seemed to be inherent in tlie animal 
 parts, those experuneiits, or t)ie power which proiluces the motion 
 of the muscles in those experiments, were denominated animal 
 electricity, lint it being now fully a-cerlained, that by the mere 
 contact of metallic and otiier conducting substances, some elec- 
 tricity is generated, it is evident that tlie muscular motions in the 
 above-mentioned experiments are produced by that electricity. 
 Dr. Galvani, in making his experiments, used to skin the legs of 
 a frog receiiily dea<l, and to leave them attached to a small part of 
 tKe spine, but separated from the rest of the body. Any other 
 limb may be prepared in a similar manner ; viz. the limb is de- 
 prived of its integuments, and the nerve which belongs to it is part- 
 ly laid bare. If the limbs thus preparetl, for instance the legs ot 
 a frog, are situated so that a little electricity may pass tlirmigh 
 them, be it by the imme.liate contact of an electrified body, or hv 
 the action of electric atmospheres (as when the pieiiaiation is 
 placed within a certain distance ot an electrical niaihiin', and a 
 spark is taken from the prime conductor) ; the prepared leas will 
 be instantly alTected with a kind of spasmodic contraction, some- 
 times so strong as to jump a considerable way. When the elec- 
 tricity is cau-^eil to pass through the pre|)ared frog bv tiie immedi- 
 ate contact of tlie electrilieil body, a nuich siiiailer (|uantity of it 
 is sufficient to occasion tlie movements, than when it is made to 
 pass from one conductor to another, at a certain dMance from the 
 prepared amni.il. 'I'lie movements are much strnnge.- when the 
 electricity is caused to pass through a nerve to the muscle or iiuis- 
 cles, than through any other part. The sensibility of the prepar- 
 ed animal is greatest at first, but it diminishes by degrees till it 
 
 vanishes entirely. Animnls with cold blood, and especially frogs, 
 retain that seiis;bility for several hours, sometimes even for a riav 
 or two. \V'itli other animals the sensibility does not la-t long af- 
 ter <leath, and sometimes not above a few minutes. The like 
 movements may be produced in the prepaied animal without the 
 aid of any apparent electricity. In .•>n animal recently dead, de- 
 tach one end of a nerve from the surrounding parts, taking care to 
 cut it not too near lis insertion into the muscle ; remove the inte- 
 guments from over the muscles which depend on that nerve ; take 
 a piece of metal, as a wire, and touch the nerve with one extre- 
 mity of it, and the muscles with its other extremity ; on doing 
 which you will find that the prepared limbs move in the same 
 manner as when some electricity is passed through them. This, 
 how ever, i? not the most elfectual way of forming the commnni- 
 cation ; yet it will generally succeed, and the experiment will an- 
 swer whether the preparation be laid upon conductors or upon 
 electric s. If the conimunication between the nerve and the mus- 
 cle be formed by llie interposition of non conductoi-s of electri- 
 city, such as glass, sealing-wax, &c. then no movements will take 
 place. When the application of the metal or metals is continued 
 upon the parts, die contractions will cease altera certain time, and 
 on removing tlie metal, seldom, if ever, any contraction is observ- 
 ed. The coiuhicting communication between the muscle and 
 the nerve may consist of one or more pieces, and of the same, or 
 much better, of dilTerent bodies connected togetln-r, as metals, wa- 
 ter, a number of persons, and even wood. Miit it must be ob- 
 served, that the various bodies, which form this circuit, must be 
 placed in lull and perlect contact with each other, which is done 
 by pres-uie, or by the interposition of water, &c. T he less per- 
 fect condiH tors will answer only at first, when the prepared animal 
 is vigorous ; but when the power begins to diminish, then the 
 more perfect conductors will only answer, and even these will 
 prochu e various effec Is. The most elfectual way that has hitherto 
 been <liscovered of producing those movements in jirejiared anir 
 inal parts is by the application of two metals, of which silver ami 
 zinc seem upon the whole to be best, though silver and tin, or 
 copper pud zinc, and other combinations, are not much inferior to 
 them. If part of the nerve proceeding from a prepared limb is 
 w rapped up in a bit ot tin-foil, or only laid upon zinc, and a piece 
 of silver laid with one end upon the bare muscle, and with ti.e 
 other upon the above-mentioned tin or zinc, the motion ot the ]u'e- 
 pared limb will be very vigorous. The two metals may he placed 
 not in contact with Ihe preparation, but iu any other pan ol the 
 circuit, which may be completed by means ol other conductors, 
 as water, &c. The best prep irjtion for tliis • sprriment is niaile 
 in the following manner. Sejiarate with a )i".ir of scissirs ihe head 
 and upper extremities of a frog from the rest of the body. Open 
 
 a I'he
 
 532 
 
 GALVANISM. 
 
 tlie integimients and nuiscles of tlie abilomeii, and remove tlie en- 
 trails, by M Inch means vou will lay bare tlie crural nerves. Then 
 pass one blade of the 'cissars under the nerve, and cut off the spine 
 with the Hesh close to the tliighs, by which means the legs will re- 
 main attached to the spine by the nerves alone. T his done, leave 
 a small bit only of the spine attached to the crural nerves, and cut 
 off all the rest. Thus you will havetiie lower limbs G, H, tie. 1, 
 Plate LXXIX, of the frog adhering to the bite of spine A C, by 
 means of the crural nerves C, D. These legs must be flayed in 
 order to lay bare the nnncles ; and a bit of tin-foil should be wrap- 
 ped round the spine A B. With this preparation ihe experiinent 
 may be performed in various ways, but the two which follow are 
 the best. Hold the prepaiation by the extremity of one leg, the 
 other leg hanging down, with the armed bundle of nerves and 
 spine lying upon it. In this situation interpose a piece ot silver, 
 as a half-crown, between the lower thigh and the nerves, so thalit 
 may touch the former with one surface, and the metallic coating 
 of the latter with the otiier surface, or with its edge ; and you w ill 
 find that the hanging leg will vibrate very powerfully, sometimes 
 so far as to strike against the hand of the operator, which holds the 
 other leg. Otherwise, place two wine-glasses, both full of water, 
 contiguous to each other, but not actually touching. Put tlie 
 thighs and legs of the preparatioji in the water of one glass, and 
 laying the nerves over the edges of the two glasses, let the bit of 
 spine wifli its armour (viz. tin-foil) touch the water of the other 
 glass. Things being thus prepared, if you form the communica- 
 tion between the waters of the two giassc-5, by means of silver, or 
 put the lingers of one hand into the water of the glass that contains 
 the legs,and holdijig a piece of silver in the other,you touch the coat- 
 ing of the nerves with it, you will find that the prepared legs move 
 so powerfully assometimestojunip fairly out of theglass. Differcjit 
 metalsjproperly diyjosed were soon found to affect several of the 
 senses in a remarkable manner. Let a man lay a piece of metal, 
 as zinc, upon his tongue, and a piece of some other metal, assilver, 
 under the tongue ; on forming the communication between those 
 two metals, either bv bringing their outer edges in contact, or by 
 thf interposition of some other piece of metal, he will perceive a 
 peculiar sensation, a kind of irritation, accompanied with a sort of 
 cool and subacid taste, not exactiv like, and yet not much dif- 
 ferent from, that which is produced by artificial electricity. 'J'he 
 sensation seems to be more distinct when the metals are of the 
 usual temperature of the tongue. The silver or gold may be ap- 
 plied to any other part of the mouth, to the nostrils, to the ear, or 
 to other sensible parts of the body, whilst the zinc is applied to the 
 tongue; and on making the communication between the two metals, 
 the taste will be perceived upon the tongue. The effect is rather 
 more remarkable when the tongue touches the zinc in a small part, 
 and the silver in a great portion of its surface, than vice versa. In- 
 stead of the tongue, the two metals mav also be placed in contact 
 with the roof of the mouth, as far back as possible; and on com- 
 pleting the coninumication, the taste or irritation will be perceived. 
 Dilferent perst)ns are variously affected by this application of 
 metals; with some the sensation or taste is so slight as to be 
 hardly perceived, whilst with others it is very strong, and even dis- 
 agreeable. .Some persons feel merely a pungency, and not properly 
 a taste. In order to affect the sense of sight by means of metals, 
 let a man in a dark place put a slip of tin-toil upon the bulb of one 
 of his eyes, and let him put apiece of silver, as a spoon or the like, 
 in his mouth. On completing the coinmunication between Ihe 
 spoon and the tin-foil, a faint tlesh of white light will appear be- 
 fore his eyes. This expiTiment may be perlormed in a more con- 
 venic-.iit manner, bv placing a piece of zinc between the upper lip 
 and the gums, as high Mp as possible, and a silver piece ol money 
 upon tlv tongue; or el-e by putting a piece of silver high up in 
 one of the nostrils, a.id a piece of zinc in contact with the upper 
 pirt of the tongue ; for in either case the flash of light will appear 
 whenever the two metals are made to communicate, eitlier by the 
 immeiliale contact of their eiiges, or by the inlf rposition of other 
 good conductors. By continuing the contact of the (wo metals, 
 the appearance of liglit is not CwUlinuetl, it being only visilile at 
 the moment of making the contact, and som^-tinies, though rarely, 
 at the instant ot separation : it may therefore be repeated at plea- 
 sure, by disjoining, and again connecting, the two metals. W'jien 
 the eyes are in a state of inflammation, the appearance of ligiit is 
 much stronger. When the science was advanced no farther than 
 
 the knowdedge of the above-mentioned facts, it was doubtfu} 
 whether the convulsions of prepared animal limbs, and the sen- 
 sations which are produced by the application of metallic sub- 
 stances, were owing to some electrical pi^jperty peculiar to the 
 animal parts, which mighi perhajis be conriiicled through the metals 
 from one p^irt to the other ; or to a small C|uanlity of electricity; 
 which might be supplied by the metals themselves. The latter 
 supposition however was soon verified by the result of various ex- 
 lieriments, which prove in the most convincing manner that elec- 
 tricity is pro<luced by the mere contact, not only of metallic sub- 
 stances, but likewise of other bodies. The electricity thus pro- 
 duced i)Y the mere contact of two bodies is so very small as not 
 to be perceived without great care, and without using some of 
 those artilices for discovering small quantities of electricity, which 
 have been mentioned above. I'ut tlie discoveries of the ingenious 
 Mr. Volta have shewn a method of increasing that electricity to a 
 most extraordinary degree. The action of metallic substances 
 upon the organs of living, or of recently dead animals, has been 
 I idly manifested by the aliove- mentioned discoveries of Galvani 
 and others : but, previously to those discoveries, a variety of facts, 
 frequently asserted, imperfectly known, and often disbelieved, in- 
 dicated a peculiar action arising from a combination of dilferent 
 metallic bodies in certain cases, it had been long asserted, that 
 when porter (and some other liquors also) is drunk out of a pewter- 
 pot, it has a taste different from what it lias w hen drunk out of glass 
 or earthenware. It has been observed, that pure mercury retains 
 its metallic splendour during a long time ; but its amalgam with 
 any other metal is soon tarnislied or oxidated. The Etruscan in- 
 ^criptions, engraved upon pure lead, are preserved to this day; 
 whereas some medaK of lend and tin, of no great antiquity, are 
 much corroded. Works of metal, whose parts are soldered to- 
 gether by tlie interposition of other metals, soon tarnish about the 
 places where the ddferent metals are joined. When th(f copper- 
 sheeting ot' ships is fa^tened on by means of iron nails, those nails, 
 but particularly the copper, are readily corroiled about the place 
 of contact. It had been observed that a piece of zinc might be 
 kept in water for a consideiable time, w ith hardly oxidlrtin^ at all ; 
 but that the oxidation would soon take place if apiece of silver hap- 
 pened to touch the zinc, whilst standing in water. The discove- 
 ries of Galvani induced many able philosophers to repeat the ex- 
 periments on this subject ; among wdiom Volta, Aldini, Valli, and 
 Dr's. Monro, Fowder, and Creve, particularly distinguished them- 
 selves, and fully confirmed the truth of the effects. Galvani had 
 supi)osed that these pha'noiiiena were produced by ihe electricity 
 of the animal convesed between the nerves and muscles through 
 the conductor applied. This hypothe>is was successfully opposed 
 by Volta, w ho made it evident, that the electricity is excited by 
 means of the contact of the different substances, antl that they do 
 not act merely as coniluctors. This view of the subject led the in- 
 genious Volta to the discovery of the pile, called the Voltaic pile, 
 by which the Galvanic influence may be extended to almost any 
 degree. Volta invented two forms of this instrument represented in 
 fig. lb, and 17, and to be described in this article. Volta trans- 
 mitted an account of this truly admirable discovery, tp the Royal 
 Society Lond.on, soon after it was made. Several experiments 
 were soon made with this apparatus, by the philosophers of this 
 country ; the first of any note were perlormed by Messrs. Nicolson 
 and Carlisle. Mr. Criiickshank of Woolwich, paid considerable 
 attention to this subject, and to him we are indebted for the disco- 
 very of the Galvanic battery or trough, fig. 19, being a much more 
 convrnient form of the Voltaic pile. It was soon louiul from re- 
 peated experiments that the pile or battery performed the parts of 
 a powerful agent in diemislry, and water, sulphuric aciil, &:c. 
 were decomposed by it. Mr. Davy, profesvor of chemistry at the 
 Royal Institution, discovered that the electricity is produced by 
 a chemical action of the different substances on each other, and 
 ihat the effect is greater or less as this action is so, and that there- 
 lore two dissimilar metals are not essenli.d to the Galvanic pro- 
 cess. This ingenious and truly indefatigable philosopher has at 
 length, by the application of his principle, succeeded In the de- 
 compcsitiun of the fixed alkalies and some of the earths, wliich ha<i 
 before been ranked among the simple bodies. This brilliant dis- 
 covery appears to open an extensive field fiir turther investigations 
 ,iid ac(|Uisitions to our stoc k of knowledge. 'J he identity, however, 
 of the Galvanic and electric fluid had been disputed by many phi- 
 losophers,
 
 GALVANISM. 
 
 OJ3 
 
 losnphers, till all doubt was removed by llie experiments of Dr. 
 AVollastoii, wiio decomposed watei:, and produced sevei\il otluv 
 G.iUanic ellVcts, by common elecUicily, wiiicli before bad not 
 been attempted, and which had been consider'd as objections to 
 the theory which considers tlie Galvanic and electric tkiidsto be the 
 same ; so that lire principal dilTerence between eleclricily and 
 Galvanism consists in tlieiiiodeof exciting, accumulating, and ap- 
 plying tlie lluid. From the various researches ot philosophers the 
 lollowing principles have been established: 
 
 1. In conunon electricity the iiuid is excited by the rubbin;;; of 
 an electric or non-conductor, and without the electric no eilect 
 of this nature can be produced: in G:ilvanisn) the lluid is exciteil 
 by the conductor alone, without die intervention of electrics, being 
 evolved by the chemical ai;ency of the different sub»l.U)c<'s em- 
 ployed. l'"or the more easily understanding of Galvanic opera- 
 tions, the conductors of elec'tricity have been divided into two 
 classes. 1. Dry and good conductors as met.ils and charcoal. 2. 
 \Vater and other oxidating fluids, and the substances which con- 
 tain those fluids, being the less perfect conductors ; this second class 
 may be subdivided into species. 
 
 -'. To produce tie Gidvanic action, three different substances at 
 least, which are conductors of electricity, must be placed in con- 
 tact', so as to form a circuit from one to another ; for no sensible 
 efTect is j.n-udnced from two conductors, nor from tinee when the 
 communiration between any tw o of them is broken by an electric ; 
 lienci' such a combination of three dilTerent conductors is called a 
 simple Galvanic circle. This circle may be variously formed : 
 tliu- italiquid, as diluted muriatic acid, be pntinto thevcsscl A li, 
 lig. 2, and two wires inserted through the cork at 15 as the wire 3 
 of zinc, and the wire t of platina, silver, or copper, while the wires 
 remain separated at the top no action takes place on the wire c, 
 but as soon as the circuit is completed by bringing the wires into 
 contact at the lop, the Galvanic action is perceived by the evolu- 
 tion of gas from the wire c; separate the wires the elfect ceases, con- 
 nect them again and it is renewed. Thus we see that the circuit 
 must be completed, in order to occasion these striking; ph;enomena, 
 as here the wire; communicates witli the liquid, theliiiuid with the 
 %Kirec, and the wire c again v\'ith the wire :, forming, as above 
 stated, a simple Galvanic circle. In like manner if the tube A B, 
 fig. 3, be filled with a licpiid, and wires of different metals be in- 
 serted through the cuiks A and li, and diese be made to communi- 
 cate at C G, the circle will be formed, and the like appearances 
 will ensue. These eftects will likeu isetake place if the wires, instead 
 of being brought into contact, be connected by any good con- 
 ductor, which has no particular chemical action on the others. 
 When thecirch- is formed as above by two conductors of the first 
 class and one of the second, it is called a Galvanic circle of the first 
 order, but when two of the conductors are of the second class, anil 
 one of the first, a G.ilvanic circle of the second ortler. Thus let one of 
 the glass-vessels, A B, llg. 4, be filled with diluted nitrous acid, and 
 the other with water, and connected by the copper wireai, a simple 
 Galvanic combination is formed of the second order. If one ex- 
 tremity of a prepared frog be placed in one of the vessels, when 
 the other cMremity is brought into contact with the litpiid of the 
 other vcssi'l, convulsions will take place. The combination would 
 be more powerful if a solution of the sulphuret of potash be put hi 
 the glass-vessel 15 D, tig. '20, and a silver cup, or suit-cellar A, 
 jiearly filled with diluted nitric acid, be placed within it, the com- 
 munication between the liquids being formed by the prepared frog, 
 tUeconvulsions are strongly excited by the Galvanic influence. Ifthe 
 three conductors be all of the tirst class, or all of the second, then the 
 effect is seldom sensible, in this case such conductors of the 
 second class as differ more from each other, are more likely to pro- 
 duce a sensible effect than liiose of the first class, liut a proper 
 active simple combination must, consist of three different bodies; 
 viz. of one conductor of one class, and two dil'ferent cunductors of 
 the other class. Thus (denoting the bodies of the first cla-s by 
 means of large capital letters, and those of the second class by 
 small letters) the combinations of lig. 3 and 6, are active ; but those 
 of fig. 7, 8, 9, 10, and 11, are not active ; because that of fig. 7, 
 8, or 9, consists of two bodies only, and that of fig. 10, or 1 1, con- 
 sists of three bodies, of which two are of the siime sort, :uul of 
 course act as a single body. In a^ingle active Gidvanic combi- 
 nation, or as it is commonly callcil, in a simple Galvanic circle, 
 the two bodies of one class must touch each other in one or more 
 vol. II. — NO. 91. 
 
 points, at the same time tliat they are connected togclhei at other 
 points by the bodv of the other class. Thus, when a prepared frog: 
 is convulsed by the contact of the same, piece of metal in two ditr- 
 Icrent jdaces ; then the fluids of those parts, which must be some- 
 what diffeieiit from each other, are the two conductors of the se- 
 cond class, and the metal is the third body, , or the conductor of 
 the first class. If two metals ar(; used, then the fluids of the pr^;- 
 parod ;mimal, differing but little from each other, may be consi-' 
 dered as one body of tne second class. 1 bus also, when a persua 
 drinks out of a pewter mug, the saliva or moisture of his, under li]> 
 is one fluid or one conductor of the second cUiss, the liquor in the 
 mug is the other, and the metal is the third body, or conductor ot' 
 the lirst class. 
 
 3. It seems to he indispensably reqiiisile. that in a simple 0.il- 
 vanic circle, the conductor or conductors of one class should havK 
 some chemical action upon the other conductor or conductors ; 
 without which circumstimce the combination of three bodies will 
 have either no Galvanic action at all, or a very slight one. Far- 
 ther, the Galvanic, lection sterns to be proportionate to the degree 
 of chcuiical agency ; which ,-eems to slitw that such chemical ac- 
 tion is the primary cause of the electric phaiiiomena. The mo^t 
 active circles of the first order, are two solids of dilierent de- 
 grees of o.xidability and a fluiti capable of oxidating at least 
 one of the solids. Thus gold, silver, and water, do not form an 
 active Galvanic circle ; but llie circle u ill become active if a lil'ie 
 nitric acid, or any fluid decomposable by silver, is mixed willi 
 the water. A combination of zinc, silver, and w:iler, forms an 
 active Galvanic ciicle; and the water is found to oxidate the zinc, 
 provided thewater holds some atmoipherieal air, and especially if it 
 contains oxygen gas. But zinc, silver, and water containing a little 
 nitric acid, form a more powerful Galvanic ciicle, the fiuid being 
 capable of acting both upon the zinc and upon llie silver. 'I'he 
 mo.st powerful Galvanic combiiKitions of the second or<ler,. are 
 when two conductore of the second class have dilierent chemical 
 actions on the conductors of the first class, at the same time that 
 they have an action upon each other. Tims co[)per, or silver, or 
 lead, with a solution of an alkaline sulphuret, and diluted nitrous 
 acid, forms a very active Galvanic circle. 
 
 The following tables contain a list of the best combination, be- 
 ginning with the most powerful, and proceeding in order. 
 
 Table of Galvanic circles of the first. order, viz. which consist of 
 two conductors of the first class, and one of the second. 
 
 Zinc with gold, or charcoal, or silver, orco|)per, or tin, or iron, 
 or mercury; and water containing a small (juantity of any of the 
 mineral acids. 
 
 Iron, with gold, or charcoal, or silver, or copper, or tin, and a 
 weak solution of any of the mineral acids, as above. 
 
 Tin, with gold, or silver, or charcoal, and a weak solution of 
 any of the mineral acids, as above. 
 
 Lead, with gold, or silver, ami a weak acid solution, as above. 
 
 Any of the above metallic combinations, and common water, 
 viz. water containing atmospheric air, or especially water contain- 
 ing oxygen air. 
 
 Copper with gold, or silver, and a solution of nitrate of silver 
 and mercury ; or the nitric acid ; or the acetous acid. 
 
 Silver, with gold, and the nitric acid. 
 Table of Galvanic circles of tlie second order, viz. which consist of 
 one conductor of the lirst class, and two of the second. 
 
 Charcoal, or with water, or with 
 
 Copper, or a solution of any 
 
 Silver, or hydrogenatcd alk;i- 
 
 Lead, or line sulphurets, ca- 
 
 Tin, or pable of acting on 
 
 Iron, or the first three me- 
 
 Zinc, tab only ; 
 
 The action of a simple Galvanic circle seems to be in some mea- 
 sure dependent upon the f|uantity of surface of contact between 
 the acting bodies. A higiier tempe-ature, within cert;iin limits, 
 renders ll e activity of the circle greater than a lower temperature. 
 The activity of a G;dvanic circle is not altered bj the interposition 
 of such conductors as have no action upon the adjoining conduc- 
 tors of the circle. 1 bus if a circle consists of zinc, gold, and war 
 ter; and if yoii interpose a piece of iron, or of silver, or. both, 
 ft U ■ betw eeii. 
 
 and a solution of ni- 
 trous ac'd, or oxyge- 
 nated muriatic acid, 
 &c. capable of act- 
 ing upon all the me- 
 tals.
 
 534 
 
 GALVANISM. 
 
 between tlie zinc and the gold ; llit activity of the circle will not 
 be altered. Iltnceit appears that the-aclion of a Galvanic circle 
 may be conveyed through extran('Oii>- conductors to a considerable 
 distance; but it must be obnTved, that the activity is weakened 
 by the great length of the conductors, especially il they are of an 
 imperil cl nature. 4. When 'he three bodies which lorni a Gal- 
 vanic c J t le of the first order are laid one upon (he other, but the 
 low.r and the upper one do not touch each other ; then 
 these two extremes uie in opposite electric states, viz. the extre- 
 mity which is next to that met:iilic surface that touches the body 
 of the second class, is po.itivc. :.;ul the opposite extremity is nega'- 
 tive. Thus let copper, zinc, and moistened leather, be laid one 
 upon the other, as in fig. 12, a:id the upper end W, viz. the wetted 
 leatner, will be fotnid p•^ssc'.^ed of positive electricity ; whilst the 
 lower end C, or the co;/per, will be found neg Uive. " 5. 1 lie Gal- 
 vanic effects may l)e increased to almost any degree, by connect- 
 ing several of the above-mentioned active combinations, or by a 
 repetition of the same simple Galvanic combination (the most ac- 
 tive sinple combinations forming the most powerful batteries, 
 and vice veraa) provided the simple combinations are disposed so 
 as not to counteract each other. Those batteries are said to be of 
 the first o: of !he second order, according as the simple combina- 
 tions, of which they consist, are of the first or of the se.'ond order. 
 Thus, if a piece of zinc is laid upon a piece of copper, and a piece 
 of moislened card upon the zinc ; then a similar arrangement of 
 tliree odier such pieces laid upon them, and a third arianp,emenl 
 upon this, &c. all in the same order ; the w hole will form a battery 
 of the first order. But if the arransiemcnt be made by connecting a 
 piece of copper with a piece of cloth moistened with water ; the lat 
 ter w ith a piece of cloth moistened with a solution of sul|)hurate of 
 potass, and this again with another piece of copper, &c. the whole 
 will form a battery of the second order. 'I'he above-mentioned 
 restriction, viz. that the parts of a battery must not counteract 
 •each otlier, will be easily understood by considering that every 
 simple, but interrupted Galvanic combination, has a positive and 
 a negative end ; or that in every complete Galvanic circle, the 
 electric fluid circulates in one way only Thus, if two simple 
 combinations are disposed as in tig! 14, this arrangement will not 
 have any Galvanic power, because the actions of the two simple 
 combinations, or the two currents of electricity, are opposed to 
 each other; the two positive ends being called/), and the two ne- 
 gative ends n. But if those fixed bodies are disposed as in fig. 15, 
 then the combination will be very active ; because, according to 
 tlie hypothesis, the direction of the electric fluid in each simple 
 arrangement (ends the same way, and probably the one accelerates 
 the other. What has been said above of the arrangement of two 
 simple Galvanic combinations, must be likewise understood to 
 hold good with respect to the connectiou of any number of the 
 same; viz. that they must not counteract each other ; or if a cer- 
 tain number of them counteract each other, then the remaining 
 only form the active part of the battery. For instance, if abattcry 
 consists of 40 simple combinations, and it 12 of them are placed 
 ia a direction contrary to the others; then these Vi will counter- 
 act 12 others, and of course the whole battery will have no more 
 power than if it consisted of 16 simple combinations properly dis- 
 posed. TIrs points out a method of comparing the powers of 
 two batteries ; for if those batteries are connected in an inverted 
 .order, viz. the positive end of one to touch the negative end of the 
 other; then, on connecting the two other extremities, or on ap- 
 plying them to pro])er instruments, the whole power will be anni- 
 j filiated, if the separate batteries ha<l equal power ; otherwise the 
 power of the whole will be the excess of the power of the most 
 powerful battery above that of the weakest; and the direction, viz. 
 its being positive or negative, will shew to which battery it be- 
 foiigs. It must be oliserved, with respect to the inactive arraiige- 
 mentoffig. 14. 'hat if one of the separate bodies Z, is removed, 
 then the remaining five bodies will form an active combination ; 
 for in that case, W, \V, become one body, and S, S, likewise act 
 as one body. It is almost superfluous to observe, that (as has 
 been said with respect to simple circles) in a Galvanic battery the 
 interposition of conductors that have no particular action, or of 
 the conductors of the same class as 'the adjoining bodies, does not 
 alter the etl'ect of the battery. These simple arrangements being 
 well unilerstood, the efiFect of uniting two or more simple Gal- 
 anic circles, it will be easy tocojisttuct the battery several wavs. 
 
 We shall here describe the two niethods first used and invented by 
 Volta, fig. 16 and 17, and that of Mr. Cruickshaiik now generally 
 employed, fig. 19. The construction, fig. .16,Volta denominati s, a 
 couronne de tasses, consisting of glass-tumblers, or china-cups, 
 partly tilled with water, or salt and water, &c. and two plates un- 
 connected with each other, viz. a plate of zinc and a plate of sil- 
 ver, are plunged in the lluid of each cup, excei'ting the fir'^t and 
 last cups ; but each of tliose jjlates must have a soi . of tail or pro- 
 longation, by which t'ley are so connected that the silver pluie of 
 one cup communicates with the zinc-plate of the next, and so on ; 
 or they may be connected by some other conductor. The bat- 
 tery, fig. 17, consists of pieces of silver, about as big as half- 
 crowns, pieces of zinc, of an ei|ual size to those of silver, and 
 pieces o\ card, or cloth, or leather, or other bibulous substance, a 
 little smaller in diameter than the metallic pieces, and soaked in 
 water or in other proper fhiiil. Those pieces are disposed in the 
 orilcr of silver, zinc, and wet cloth, &:c. as ii.iiicatcd by the let- 
 ters, S, Z, »V. Tlie pieces of card, or cloth, &:c. must be well 
 soaked in the tiuid ; but before they are applied, the) should be 
 squeezed, in order that the superfluous fluid may not run down 
 the outside of the pile, or insinuate itself bctw cen the contiguous 
 pieces of silver and zinc. Those pieces, especially if soaked iu 
 plain water, lose their moisture pretty soon, so that they can 
 hardly serve longer than for a day or two ; after which lime the 
 pile must be decomposed, the metallic pieces cleaned, those of 
 cloth or card soaked again, atid the v liole arranged as before. The 
 fhree roils R, K, K, are of glass or of baked wood ; and the piece 
 of wood, C), slides freely \\\i, or down the rods. This serves to 
 prevent the falling of the pieces. When such battery is to be very 
 powerful, viz. is to consist of nuinerous pieces, the best way Is 
 to form two or three or more piles, and to join them by jjieces of 
 metal, as cc in fig. IS, where two ])iles are joined together, so 
 that It is the negative e.xtreniity, and b is the other or positive ex- 
 tremity of the whole arrangement, or of the two piles considered 
 as one. 'Ihe battery, fig, 19, consists of a wooden box, or trough, 
 the depth and breadth of which corresponds with the size of the 
 plates. It is of surli a length, in general, as to contain fifty plates, 
 allowing a space of about three-eighths of an inch, between each 
 pair of plates. The spaces between the plates are formed by 
 grooves, which are to receive the plates. The plates are fir>t sol- 
 dered together in pairs, one of copper or silver, and the other of 
 zinc, making one plate of the two. The trough being lined with 
 a cement, formed of bees'-wax and resin, the plates which are pre- 
 viously warmed, are pressed into the grooves, in such order, that 
 the zinc-side of each compound-plate may fiace one way, and the 
 copper or silver the other. The pair of plates of zinc and silver, 
 which, in the pile, are simply laid upon each other, are in the 
 trough, soldered together, and cemented into the grooves ; and 
 the cavity or ceils formed by the spaces between each pair of 
 plates, in the trough, being filled wiih a solution of salt or otner ap- 
 propriate liquid, stands in the stead of the pieces of moistened 
 cloth, between the plates of the pile. Two or more of such bat- 
 teries may be joined, as has been said of the preceding battery. 
 See fig, i;4. ft need hardly be observed, that instead of zinc, cop- 
 per, and water, other combinations may be made according to the 
 table. At present the last-described batteries are i onstructed with 
 co])per, zinc, and water mixed with a small proportion of nitric or 
 muriatic acid. For the construction of such batteries it is imma- 
 terial whether the metals are quite pure or slightly alloyed. 'j"he 
 wood of which the trough is made should be the oldest and hardest 
 mahogany that can be procured, as being less liable to warp, and 
 it ought to be well put together to prevent leaking. The plates 
 should be of copper and zinc, for though silver be somewhat better 
 than copper, it is not so in proportion to the price. The zinc- 
 plates mav be cut out of sheets of malleable zinc, and the copper- 
 plates may be so thin as one ounce to twenty-four square inches of 
 surfar e.'I'hey may be made a little larger than the zinc to lap over 
 the edge at the top, where it may more conveniently be soldereil; 
 the other edges need not be soldered, they being sufficiently se- 
 cured by the cement in the grooves. The length of a trough 
 should be about two feet ; they become unwieldy when larger. 
 After fhe plates are inserlcii bv warming them sufficiently to nitlt 
 the cement in the grooves, aisl the whole is polished up, by ap- 
 plying a hot iron, the parts may be varnished with copal, or with 
 common spirit varnish. The action of all these batteries is greatest 
 
 •whca
 
 GALVANISAt. 
 
 .').i.> 
 
 when they are first coniplelej or filled with llie fluid; ;iml it de- 
 clines in proportion as inr metal is oxidated, or the lUiid loses its 
 power. Hence, after a certain time, not onl\ the fluid must be 
 changed, but die metalhc nieces must be cleaned by reiii'<ving 
 the ox.dated surface ; whicli is done eitlier by fiMng or by rubbing 
 them with sand or sand-paper, or by immersing them for a sliort 
 time in diluted muriatic aci' I, and then wiping them with a coarse 
 cloth. Tlie metallic pieces of t!'e battery, fig. I!), may be cleaned 
 by the last metliod, and ma\ i)e \vi[)ed by introducing a stick 
 with a rag into the cells. When ex riment- nre to be made ail 
 the cells of tiie trough must be :• '"d, ai^iun about h.df an inch of 
 the top, with a liquid, compose., o. water, widi about one twenty- 
 fiflh part of the muriatic or 'he ..itric acid. Tlie plate> of the 
 trough are shorter than tlie (Lyih of the trough, by about three- 
 fourths of an incli ; so that the tr ^h may be leaned on one side 
 in the filling, for the purpose ci letting 'he li(iuid run equally 
 into all the cells. If a luimuer of troughs are to be connected 
 together, the communication must be "lade liy pieces o. metal, 
 which are inserted into the liquid of one cell of each trougii, as 
 represented in fig. -i, at a, h, c. In making the connection, it is 
 to be observed, that the zinc-surface of one trouffh must corres- 
 pond with the copper one of another, and the z;..c of the latter 
 » ith copper of a diird, and so on, for the connecting metals arcs 
 of strong wire answer very well. After all the troughs are con- 
 nected together, let the two unconnected ends, at which tlie ex- 
 periments are to be made, be as near together as possible. 
 A connection being now formed between the two ends, one 
 of which we shall term the zinc-end, and the other the cop- 
 per-egd, the united energy of the whole will be transmiUed 
 through the connecting medium. We ma_\ now proceed to 
 notice some of the more striking elTects ot these combinations. 
 Tlie chemical action of bodies upon each other is increased by llie 
 Calvanic arrangement so much, th.it some of them are by that 
 ■means enabled to act upon bodies that olhcrwise they would have 
 no action upon. Fig. 3, represents a glass-tulie about four inciies 
 long. Two cork> are thrust into its apertures A and B. An ob- 
 long piece of zinc, CD, is fixed into one of the corks, and is made 
 to project within and without the tube. EFG is a silver wire, 
 which being fixed into the other cork, projects with the extremity 
 E, within the tube ; and its other extremity i- bent so as to come 
 near the projecting part of the zinc C. Remove one of tho-e 
 cocks, and fill the tube with water, in which you must mix a 
 drop or two of muriatic aciil ; then replace the cork, and you w ill 
 finci that the zinc is acted upon by the diluted aciil, is oxidated 
 by it, and bubbles of gas are evolved from it ; but the silver wire 
 E remains untouched, and no gas whatever is evolved from it. 
 Now, if you bend the silver wire, FG, so that i!s end G may 
 touch the zinc at C, then the Galvantic circle of silver, zinc, and 
 diluted acid is completed, in consequence of which the diluted 
 acid is enabled to act stronger upon the zinc D. w liich is mani- 
 fested by the more copious evolution of gas, and is besides ena- 
 bled to act upon the silver wire; for now you will observe tlie 
 evolution of gas from the silver E also. Break the contact be- 
 tween G and C, and the silver E will cease to \ield a;as. Form it 
 again, and gas will again proceed from the silver. Instead of sil- 
 ver, zinc, and diluted muriatic acid, vou max in the s.inie niari- 
 rer use gold, tin, and diluted nitric acid; and bv completing tlie 
 circle, the acid will be enaliled to act upon the gold. It has been 
 observed, that wlienever an oxidating inlluence is exerted atone 
 of the places of contact of the perfect and imperfect conductors, a 
 deoxidating action appears to be produced at the other place. 
 Thus when iron, which oxidates rapidly when forming a circle 
 with silver and common water, is arranged with zinc ancl common 
 water, it remains perl'ectly unaltereil, whilst the zinc is rapidly 
 acted upon. Fig. L', represents a more convenient metliod ot per- 
 forming this experiment. The muscular parts of anim.ils recentlv 
 dead, and making part ot the circuit, will be convulsed as above 
 described. Tlie elfects thus produced bv a single galvanic circle, 
 become abundantly more striking and iiuerestiug from tlie proper 
 combination of several that is from the action of the Galvanic bat- 
 tery. The battery not only convulses the prepared limbs of a 
 frog, or produces the appearances of a flash of light before the hu- 
 man eye ; but it shews all the ph;eiK>mena of electricity in a verv 
 considerable degree. It gives the siiock ; it atfects the electrome- 
 ter; shews a luminous spark, accompanied with an audible report ; 
 
 it bums metallic and other combustible bodies; and continues iti 
 action for a very long time, viz. until the chemical action be- 
 tween the comp.ment parts of tiie battery is qmte oxh.ui ted. 
 The following conlain a mme particular, yet coii'jise, enur.erali'.ii 
 of those Mondertul elfecls. \vhen tlie C/alvamc battery of the first 
 order consists of tw eiity repetitions of simple combinations, if you 
 touch with one hand one extremity of the battery, as at A, in any 
 one of the above.', scribed b.itteries (see hgs, 17, 18, iQ), and 
 apply your other hand to the other extremity ot ih'- I ..ttery, as at 
 a, you will feel a very sligiit sliock, like that whi. n is communi- 
 cated by a Leyden piiial weakly charged, and it will be hardly 
 felt beyond the hiigeis, or at most the w rists. This shock is felt 
 as often as you renew the contact. I; you ci..iitiiiue the hi-.nds in 
 contact with the extremities b and «, you will perceive a slia'.t but 
 continued irritalioii ; ai..l, when the hand or other part o. the 
 body, which touches the extremity of the battery, is excoriated or 
 wounded, this sensat'on is disagreeable, and ratlier p;i,..ful. The 
 dry skin of the human bod\ is seldom capable of corK'ncting this 
 shock; therefore the toiRiiing linger should be well moistened 
 with water, or salt and water. It will be belter to immerse a wire 
 tl it pro eeds from one extremity of the battery, in a bason of 
 water, wherein you may plunge one of your haiifls ; then gra ping 
 with your oilier han<l well moistened a laig.:- piece ot metal, for 
 ii'.st.ince, a large silver spoon, touch the oilier end of the Ixittery 
 with it, and the shock will be *elt more distinctly. Uy this means 
 tlie shock has been felt w lieu the batter) consisted of less than 
 twenty repetitions. Instead of one person, several pei"sous may 
 join hands (which must be well moistened with water,) and on 
 coiijpletii.g the circuit, they will all feel the siiock at the same iii- 
 stani. But the strength oi tlie siiock is much uiniinished by its 
 pass'iig through the several persons, or, in general, by passing 
 through less perfect conductors. The shock from a battery con- 
 sisting of fifty or sixty repetitions of the most active coiiibu.ations 
 ol the first order may be felt as tar as the elbows; and the com- 
 bined force of five or six such batteries will give a shock perhaps 
 muchstronger than most men would be willing to receive. '1 lie 
 prepared limbs of a frog or olln r animal are violently convulsed, 
 but soon exiiausted of their irrital/ility by the action of a Galvanic 
 batt'-ry. This shock is similar to that of a large common electri- 
 cal battery weakly charged, and not to tliat of a sni'll Leyden phial 
 fully discharged. The dillerence consists in this, viz. that the- 
 latter contains a small quantity of electric fluid higlily comlensed ; 
 hence its tlischarge will force its wav through perhaps an inch of air ; 
 wliereas the former contains a vast (|Uaiitity of electricity, but little 
 condensed ; hence its spark, viz. its course through the air, is so 
 very short, that the fingers must be hrou'.;ht almost into perfect 
 contact in order to receive the shock ; and such is the case witli the 
 Galvanic battery ; for the shock from a very poweifiil battery of 
 this sort will hardly ever force its way through the air, when tlie 
 extremities of the circle of communication are more than the for 
 tietli of an inch dist;,iit, even when those extremities consist of per- 
 fect conductors. In this case a small, but very vivid, spark is 
 seen at that extremity, accompanied with an audible, but not 
 strong, leport. There is no perceptible dilTerence of appearance 
 between t.ie spark of the positive and tiiat of the negative end of 
 the battery. The first effect of the shock seems to be proportional 
 to the number ot plates nearly, without regard to th.eir size. 'I'hus 
 if the number of plates be the same, the hrst perceptible action is 
 nearly llie sam.-, though the jil.'.tes of the one battery be several 
 times laiger than the other; but, in the latter case, the elVect is 
 c.iiitinued with less interruption, as the plates are larger, till at 
 Icnglh a constant tremor is produced. If a wire, proceeding; from 
 one extremity of . I pretty strong battery, be made to cmmuiii- 
 cate with the inside coating, and a wire, which proceeds from the 
 other extremity of the battery, be made to comiiiuuic;ire Wiili tiie 
 outside coating ot a common lar;;e jui or electrical battery: the 
 hitter will become weakly, but almost instantaneou-ly, clurged,. 
 in the same manner as if it had been charged bv a few turns if a 
 common electrical machine; and .vl'h that charge you may either 
 give the shock or aitect the electrometer, &c. From this and 
 several oUier experiments it appears that a Galvanic battery 
 produces a vart quantity of electric fluid, but which is little 
 condensed; and indeed it cannot be supposed that the elec- 
 tric fluid could proceeil in a very condeuse.i state from an ar- 
 rautjement of bodies, which, w hether more or less, are, however, 
 
 a»
 
 f)5d 
 
 GALVANISM. 
 
 iiU good toii-iuctors ot ek-ctricily ; tuv .1 the {l\:\<\ v.<-t\- muili toii- 
 (lenseil at one extremity ot ilie battery, imd inucli rarelii-d at the 
 other extremity, the coiidinisation would soon be made tiir'ii;^h 
 the pile itsoii. Indcc-d, it is difiUuil to comprehend how r1ii> 
 comptnsatiou does not IjUe piuce in all cases, llaving mei. tinned 
 above, tiiat the charge of ;•. battery may be comminiicattfd to a com- 
 Dion electrical battery, it u almost sii|)crfluo'js to observe, thai the 
 bame maybe comniuiiicati^ to a candenser, or to a nmliiplier, 
 and from" it to the electromefor. If the battery consist of two 
 Itimdred ripetilions, the electrometer will bo atlected \iy the 
 simple contact. The sjjark, o'r the di^c!-iargl■ of a Galvanic bat- 
 tery, wl'.ni ;^erit Ihrough'iiiin inllitiiimalile bodies Ihafare in con- 
 tact with common or oxygcri'iiir, sets them on fire, aiid coiifniues 
 then) with wonderful activiiy. It fires aunpO'Vder, hydrogen 
 jgas, pliosjshorus, and other combusliblos ; it rf;nders "red-hot, 
 fuses, and consumes very sirnder metallic wires and nutallic 
 leaves. The mode of applying the power of the battery 
 for such piirfKj:-es is shewn In fig. 21, where AB represent^ a pow'- 
 trfvil Galvaiiio battery; ACDF is a wire whicli comnumicates 
 with the last plate of "^tlic battery at A; UK IMG is anotlier wire 
 w'liich communicates with the last plate at 15. DE, HI, are two 
 g!a.ss-tube», thr<nigh which those wires jjass, and into which they 
 arc fastened siil'liciently steady. Those tubes serve to move llie 
 wires by ; lor if the operaSor applies his (ingei-s to the middlemost 
 parts ot those tubes, he may mo>'e the wires wherever lie pleases, 
 without the fear oi receiving a shocii. If the two extremities -F, 
 O, are broii-jht suniciendy near to each otiier, the spark will be 
 Seen between ihein. It is between those exti-eniities that the com- 
 liuslible substances, or metallic leaf, kc. is to be placed, in order 
 to be fired or consumed. Tliis figure represents the situation of 
 the wires in tlie act of irlhming gunpowder. A l)attei-v consisting 
 of two hundred pairs of metallic plates (viz. copper and zir.c, each 
 five inches stjuare) melted twenty-three inches of very (ine iron 
 wire. A ))latiiia-wire about ^f^- inch in diameter, was melted into 
 a globule. Tig. 34 is the representation of a compoun<l battery of 
 the same kind, fastened together wiUi the ccnductois n, /;, c' A 
 JTiore convenient method is, to fasten the wires to the ends of the 
 imivcrsal dischargers E and F, !ig. ?j, and placing the substances 
 between the points ST on th.e table IIG ; also to the ends ST 
 may be adapietl spring-sockets for receiving bits of charcoal, or 
 vires of diffen nt sorls, &c. AVJien charcoal is to be deflagrated it 
 must be jnepared with groat care from boxwood, lignuiii vita", or 
 bcrch, sniali bitJ niay lia>'e the outsiile taken of!', and be put 
 among sand in a crucible, and heated till the wood be cliared. It 
 is best to let it remain in the .sand till it is wanted for use, when a 
 
 Ijiece may be lixed to eacii rod of the discharger connected with the 
 >attery. ' \V hen the contact is made, a most brilliant deilagration 
 takes place, and may be continued a considerable time, by moving 
 the charcoal as it burns. 'When oils, alcohol, &c. are to be in- 
 flamed, it is best to cover thin metallic substances or charcoal witli 
 them. Under the exhausted receiver of the air-pump, the Gal- 
 vanic battery acts less powerfully than in the open air; but in 
 oxygen air it acts wiih increased power. The flash of light v hicli 
 itppears before the eye of the expi-rimenter, when the eye itself, 
 or some other part not very remote from it, is put in the circuit of 
 a Galvanic combination, does not an],ear much greater when a 
 battery is employed than when two plates are employed in the 
 manner which has been already mentioned ; but when the battery 
 is used, the sensation of a tiash may bt- produced in various ways. 
 If one iiand or both be placed in p'erfect contact with one extre- 
 mity of the battery, and almost any part of the face brought into 
 contact with the other extremity of the buttery, llie llash will ap- 
 pear very distinctly ; the experimenter bring in the dark, or keep- 
 ing his eyes shut. This fla^h appears i i.ry strong, when a wire 
 which proceeds from one extremity of th'- battery is held between 
 the teeth, and rests upon the tongue, wlii!rt the clher wire is held 
 in the hand. In this case the lijjs and. the tongue are convulsed, 
 the Hash appears before the eyes, and a \erv pujigeiit t.iste is per- 
 ceived in the nuHiiii. If any- part of the fiuman body, formins 
 part of the circuit of a Galvanic battery, be k-pt soiiie time in 
 that situation, the irritation or numbnes' is more or less distinct, 
 iind more or less painful, accordiii|; to the sensibility of the parts 
 coucerned. This application Is hkely to prove most useful, as a 
 
 IS appii 
 as disoi 
 
 remedy in various disorders. !t is said that it has alre.i'ly proveii 
 beneficial in deafnesses and in liieumatisms. It highly deserves to 
 
 be tried by.nv.-dical |)i,r-.ons. 'i'hu iiio>t cxtr.ior. iir..:y pha-iionieua 
 of a Galvanic batti ry arc the chemical ellects and the rnodifica- 
 tions which are produced by it upon the bodies conceriied, oi 
 upon such as are placed in the circuit, some of which. we shall here 
 exhibit. Ail, lig. i;2, represents a gla-^-uibe,- full of distilled wa-r 
 ter, and having d cork, at each extremity. EF Is a brass or cop^ 
 per Wire, which |)ro> eeds fronr one extremity of a Galvdnic bat-| 
 tery,and, passuig through the cork A, projects within the tul/o'. ,176 
 IS a similar w ire, which proceeds from the other extremity of file 
 b.ttery, aud comes with us extremity G within the distance of aboiit 
 an inch or two from the wire F. In this siiuation of things, you' will 
 find ihat bubbles of gas proc ed in a constant stream from the' sur 
 face G of the wire which proceeds from the negative end bf the 
 battery; these bubbles of gas, ascending to the upper part of tlie 
 tube, accumulati; by derives, 'i'nis j'.as is pure hydrogen, and 
 may be inflamed. At the same time tiie oll:er wire F deposits' ail 
 oxide in th- form of a stream or cloud, -which gr'dualh accunu:- 
 lates in a greenish form in die water, or ori the sides 'of' the' tubt?, 
 and is a prrfect oxide of tiie brass. The wire F iS readily disco- 
 loured and corroded. If you Uilerrupt the circuit, the producti'oh 
 of gas and of oxide ceases iimnediatelv. Complete the cii'cultj 
 and the production of gas re-appears. This produciidn of gas may 
 be observed even where the battery tonsists-of not more than six 
 or eight repetitions of silver, zinc, and water. • In short, if the 
 power of the battery be sutVic'ent to o.iidate one of the wires of 
 communication, the other wire will aflbrd hydrogen gas; both 
 extremities of the wires being in water. In this experiment it 
 seems that the hydrogen is separated from the water, and is con- 
 verted into a gaseous state by llie wire connected with the nega- 
 tive extremity of the b-attery ; v.hilatlhe ox)-gen unites with and 
 oxidates the wire connected with the positive end of the batlervi 
 If you connect the positive end of the battery w ith the lower wire 
 of 'ihe tube, and the negat:ve with, the njiper, then the iiydrogen 
 proceeds from the upper wire, and the lower wire is oxidated. If 
 two wires of gold or platinum are u-cd, which are not oxidable ; 
 then the stream of gas issues from each, tiie water is diminished; 
 and the collected gas is tound to be a mixture of Iiydrogen and 
 oxygen. It explodes violenliy. A little hole iiiu^l be made ill 
 (he lower cork Is, to let out the water as the gas evolves. A more 
 suitalde apparatus for these experiiiu-ii'.s, is slu-v ii in lig. 33. AB is 
 a gla;^-cllp, having tv,-o plalina-wires. F: and K c, passing through 
 two perforations in the bottom of the vessel AI5; this vesbci is 
 jKirtly Idled with water, and there is iijtrouuced the tube D, clostj 
 at the top, and filled witii water, in ^onie otiier vessel from which 
 it istran-fernd, with the mouth downward, by means of a small cup 
 1 ontaining water ; this iulieii put over the wires 2 and c in the vessel 
 .-VB, and tlie whole put on the stand GHl, which has a glass-top 
 GH, made to receive AB, and liavmg two notches at /«, and n to 
 rtcrive the wires F ; and E c. 'llie-e wires being connected with 
 the two ends of the battery, the gas will be given out by the wires, 
 and collected in the tube D ; if a tube be placed over each, the 
 gases will be obtained separately. Or vessels may he suspended 
 over a cup of water, thvy being tilled with water. See lig. ^7. 
 In all the balleries of the iirst orilt r, when tlie connection is com 
 pleted, changes take pla- c, which denote the evolution of influ- 
 ences capable of producing irom common water oxygen and hy- 
 drogen, acid and alkali, m different parts of the body. Thus in 
 the battery with a series of zinc-plates, silv'-r-wires, and common 
 water, oxide of zinc is formed on all the plates of zinc, whilst hy- 
 drogen is producc<l from the silver-wires ; and if the water in con^ 
 tact with ttier.i be ting'-d witii reii cabbage-juice, it becomes green. 
 .'\r.-.l in tiie battery with silver, gold, and weak nitric acid, ihe sil- 
 ver is dissolved, whilst the acid i -comes green, and slowly evolves 
 gas at its points of contact with the gold. The chemical agencies 
 I xerted In the compound bi.iuries of the Iirst order can lie best 
 observed by the sul)stitu'ion of single metallic wires for some of 
 the plates ; for, in this c.se, tlv il\.nges taking place in the se- 
 ries with wires, will be ex;'tdy analogous to those produced in the 
 series with plates; silver, and all the more o.xidahle metals, oxir 
 dating in water, in the usual place, and gold and platina evolving 
 oxygen gas. Thu<, wdien into two small glass tubes, connected 
 by a moist animal substance, and tilled v.iUi distilled water, two 
 gold wires arc introduced from a large battery in the proper order, 
 oxyg- 1> is produced in one quantity of water, ami hydrogen in the 
 other, nearly in the proportions in which they are iei|uired to 
 
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 GALVANISM. 
 
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 GALVANISM. 
 
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 form water by combustion: and if the process be contimicrl for 
 some time, tlie apparatus being exposed to the atmosphere, tlie 
 water, in the oxyiien-givinf; tube, will become iniprefrnated with 
 an acid (apparently tlie nitrons'); whiNt that in (he hv<lro;4en- 
 giving tube will be found to hold in solution a lixed alkali. Let 
 the glass-vessel A, ti<<. 'Jt3, have the two tubi-s, Z and C, ;;rounfl 
 into its two necks. At the ends, Z and C of the tubes, are tied 
 bits of bladder, so that any licpiid in the tubes mav have no ten- 
 dency to enttr the vessel A. The vessel being previously fdled 
 with some licpiid, the tubes are so inserted that no air may exi-t 
 between the en<ls of the tubes; the tubes arc also provided with 
 two sm.dl caps of ivory or wood, through which the, platina-wires, 
 pp, are passe<!, reacliinc; the bnttoni so near as not to p'erce the 
 bladders. The tubes being hlled with water, and the wire from 
 tlie zinc-end of the battery connected with the wire of the lube Z, 
 whilelhat of the copper is attached to that of thetubeC, the decom- 
 position of water will speedily commence, the wire in Z affording 
 ONVgen _!;as, while that of C alfords hydrogen i;as. In a very short 
 time, the liquid of the tube Z, will be found to contain nmrialic 
 acid; or rather, the oxy-mnriatic ; and the tulie (', will at the 
 same time be found to contain a lixed alkali. If the tubes be (ill- 
 e<l with infusion of cabbage, the signs of alkali and acid are very 
 soon observed, from the litpiid of Z becoming red, and that of C 
 f^'een. if the connection be reversed, the hcpiids repass to the 
 blue colour, and if the process be continued, that of Z becomes 
 green, and C red. From some experiments it would appear pro- 
 bable, that the ([uantities of hydrogen, produced in series, are 
 small, and the quantities of alkali great, in proportion as the sur- 
 faces of contact of the least oxidable metals with the water are 
 more extended. All the oxygenated solutions of bodies possess- 
 ing less afiinity for oxygi-'n than nascent hvdrogen, are decfmipos- 
 ed when exp05e<l to the action of the metal occupying the place 
 of the least oxidable part of the series in the compound circle. 
 Thus, sulphur may be ])roduced from sulphuric acid ; and copper 
 and other metals precipitated in the metallic form from their 
 solvents. It is well known tliat hydrogen gas, in its nascent state, 
 reduces tlie oxides of metals. Accordingly when the tube, lig. 
 
 2'2 or 23, is tilled with a solution of acetite of lead in distilled 
 water, and a comiriunication is made witji the battery ;!S above 
 described, no gas is perceived to issue from the wire which pro- 
 ceeds t'rom the neaative end <it the battery ; but, in a few nunute--, 
 beantitul metallic [leedh-s arc perceived on the extremity of this 
 wire ; these soon increase, and assume the form of a fern or other 
 vegetable. The h-ad thus se|)arated is in its perfect metallic state, 
 and very brilliant. When a solution of sulphate of copper is em- 
 ployed, the copper is precipitated in its metallic state ; but instead 
 of appearing in crystals, it forms a kind of button, which adheres 
 (irndy to the i-nd ot the wire. On making the experiment with a 
 ii.lntioii ot nitrate (jf silver, the silver is precipitated in the form 
 of a beautiful metallic brush, the metal shooting into line iieedlc- 
 like crystals. If iron be immersed in a solution of sulpliate of 
 copper, the latter metal will be precipitated into a metallic form, 
 and will adhere to the surface ol the toimer. Upon silver merely 
 immersed in the same .solution, no such ellect is produced : but as 
 soon as the two metals, viz. the silver and the copper, arc brought 
 into contact, the silver receives a coating of copper. A measure 
 of the intensity of the power in Galvanic batteries, producing che- 
 mical changes, may be derived Irotn the quantitv of gas it is ca- 
 pable of evolving from water in a given time. By the powerful action 
 of a large (ialvanic battery, the illustrious Mr. Davy, professor at 
 the Royal Institution, effected the decomposition of the lixed al- 
 kalis, which had hitherto been attempted in vain. A small bit of 
 alkali is laid on a plate of platina connected with one end of the 
 battery, and bringing another piece of platina connected with the 
 other end of the buttery into contact with it. A portion of black 
 matter is soon formed, in which is found imbedded small metallic 
 globules; which substance is found to be the base of the alkali, 
 and has been deprived of its oxygen by the Galvanic agency. 
 This base is found to be a metal : liiat obtained from potass is de- 
 nominated potasium, anil that wliich constitutes tiie base of soda is 
 called sodium. These metals are very inliammable, and decom- 
 pose water, with aliright Mash and slight explosion. The same in- 
 genious philosopher has also in some degree succeeded in decom- 
 posing the alkaline earths. 
 
 GAMBIA, a great river of Africa, whicli, running from E. to 
 W. falls into the Atlantic ocean, S. of Cape Verd. It overllows 
 annually like the Nile, and is navigable for ships of liO tons, 500 
 miles Irom its mouth. 
 
 CAM15EZ0N, or GAMBA, in antiquity, a kind of soft quilt- 
 ed waistcoat, worn under the coat of mail to prevent its hurting 
 tJie body. It is made of wool or cotton, quilled between two 
 stutfs, aiid was also called counterpoint. 
 
 G.VMBOGE, a concreted vegetable juice, partly of a gununy, 
 and partly of a resinous, nature. It is brought to us either in form 
 of orbicular masses, or of cylindrical rolls of various sizes, and is 
 of a dense, compact, and linn texture, and of a beautiful yellow. 
 It is chiefly brought to us from Cambaja, in the East Indies, call- 
 ed also Cambodja and Cambogia ; and thence it has obtained its 
 names of cambad um, cambogiuin, and gambogium. It is ob- 
 tained from the stalagmites cambogioidcs, a tree ot the East Indies, 
 by wounding the shoot. It is a very rough and strong purge ; it 
 operates both by vomit and stool, and botii ways with much vio- 
 lence, almost in the instant in which it is swallowed, but yet with- 
 out griping. It requires caution and judgement in administtring 
 it; but those who know how to give it properly, find it an excel- [ 
 lent remedy in dropsies, cachexies, jaundice, asthmas, catarrhs, ' 
 and in the worst cutaneous eruptions. Its dose is from two or 
 tliree grains to six, eight, or ten; four grains generally operate 
 briskly without vomiting, and eight or ten grains usually vomit 
 briskly, and utterwards purge downwards. It is at present much 
 more esteemed by painters in water-colours than by physicians. 
 
 GAME, in law, sagnilies birds, or prey, taken or killed by 
 fowling or hunting. The proiierty of such'atiimals fene natiira- as 
 .ire known under the denomination of game, with the right of pur- 
 Eiiing, taking, and destroying them, is vested in the king alone, 
 und from him derived to such of his subjects as have received the 
 grants of a chace, a park, or free warren. By the law of nature, 
 indeed, every man, from the prince to the peasant, has an equal 
 VOL. 11. — .vo. 91. 
 
 right of pursuing, and taking to liis own use, all such creatures as 
 are fera' naturae, a?id tlierelort the property of nobody, but liable 
 to be seized by the first occupant. But it follows, (says Black- 
 stone,) from the very end and constitution of society, that this na- 
 tural right, as well as many otiiers belonging to man as ,;n indivi- 
 dual, may be restrained by positive laws enacted for reasons of 
 state, or tor the suiiposed beiielit of the coiumuiiitv. This re>iric- 
 tion may be either with respect to the place in which this right 
 may, or may not, be exercised; with respect to the aidieals that 
 are the subjects of this right; or with respect to the persons allow- 
 ed or fnrbiilden to exercise it. And, in consequence of this au- 
 thority, we find, that the municipal laws of many nations have ex- 
 erted such power of restraint; nave in genetal forbidden the en- 
 tering on another man's grounds, for anv cause, without the owu- 
 er's leave; have extended their protecti>in to such particular ani- 
 mals as are usually till; objects of pursuit; ami have invested the 
 prerogative of hunting and tak'ng such animals in the sovereign of 
 the state only, and sucli as he shall authorise. .Many reasons have 
 concurred for making these constitutions: ;is, I. For the encou- 
 ragement of agriculture and improvement of lands, bv giving every 
 man an exclusive dominion over his own soil. V. I' or the preser- 
 vation of the sevcr.d species of these animals, which would soon be 
 extirpated by a general liberty. 3. For prevention of idleness and 
 dissipation in husbandmen, artificers, and others of lower rank • 
 whichwoiild be the unavoidable consequence of universal licence. 
 4. For prevention of popular insurrections and resistance to the 
 government, by disarming the bulk of the people: which last is a 
 reason oftener meant than avowed, by the makers of forest or 
 game laws. Nor, certainly, in these prohibitions is there any na- 
 tural injustice, as some liave weakly enough supposed : since as 
 PulTendorf tibserves, the law docs not hereby tike trom any man 
 
 ' his present property, or what was already his own; but barely 
 abridges him of one means of acquiring a futuie |)ropertv, that Jf 
 
 , occupancy ; which indeed the law ot nature would allow' iiim, but
 
 GAM 
 
 53* 
 
 D 
 
 GAM 
 
 ot wliicli the laws of soriety havL" in most instances very justly and 
 reasonably deprived him. Yet, however dciensible these provi- 
 sions in general may be, on the footing of reason, oi justice, or ci- 
 vil policy, we must, notwithstanding, acknowIed,;;e, tliat, in their 
 present shape, they owe their immediate original to slavery. It is 
 not till after the irruption of the northern nations into the Roman 
 empire, that we read of any other prohibitions, than that natural 
 one of not sporting on any private grounds withcnt tiie owner's 
 leave. With regard to the ri?e and original of our present civil 
 prohibitions, it will be found, that all loreat and game laws were 
 introduced into Europe at the same tune, and by the same policy, 
 Ihat gave birth to.thc feodal system; when those swarms of barba- 
 rians issued from their northern hive, and laid t!ie foundation of^ 
 most of the present kingdoms of Europe on the ruins of the west- 
 ern empire, p'or when a concjnering general came to settle the 
 •economy of a vanquished country, and to part it out among his 
 soldiers or feudatories, who were to render hinr military service for 
 such donations; it behoved him, in order to secure his new acqui- 
 sitions, to keep the rustici or natives of the country, and all who 
 were not his military tenaiits, in as low a condition as possible, and 
 especially to prohibit them the use of arms. Nothing could do 
 this more effectually than a prohibition of hunting and sporting: 
 and therefore it was the policy of the conqueror to reserve this 
 right to himself, and such on whom he should bestow it; which 
 were only his capital feudatories, or greater barons. And, accord- 
 ingly, we find, in the feodal constitutions, one and the same law 
 prohibiting the ruistici.in general from carrying arms, and aUo pro- 
 scribing the use of nets, snares, or other engines for destroying the 
 game. This exclusive privilege well suited the martial genius of 
 the troops, who delighted in a sport, which in its pursuit and 
 slaughter bore some resendjiance to war. Vita oimiis (says Ca;sar, 
 speaking of the ancient Germans) in venationibns atijue in studiis 
 rei inilitaris consistit. And Tacitus in like manner observes, that 
 quoties bella non inennt, multum venatibus, plus perotium transi- 
 gunt. And indeed, like some of their modern successors, they 
 had no other amusement to entertain their vacant hours; they de- 
 spising all arts as efleminate, and having no other learning than was 
 couched in such rude ditties as were sung at the solemn carousals, 
 which succeeded these ancient huntings. And it is remarkable, 
 that in those nations where t!ie feodal policy remains the most un- 
 altered, the forest or game laws continue in their highest rigour. 
 In France, before the revolution, all game was properly the king's; 
 and in some parts of Geriiiany if is death for a peasant lo be found 
 hunting in the woods of the nobility. With us in Britain, also, 
 hunting has ever been esteemed a most princely diversion and ex- 
 ercise. The whole island was replenished with all sorts of game 
 in the times of the Britons; who lived in a wild and pastoral man- 
 ner, without inclosing or improving their grounds; and derived 
 much of their subsistence from the cbace, which they all enjoyed 
 in common. But when husbandry took place under the Saxon 
 government, and lands began to be cnUivaied, improved, and in- 
 closed, the beasts naturally lied into the woody and desert tracts, 
 which were called the forests; and, having never been disposed of 
 in the first distribution of lands, were therefore held to belong to 
 the crown. These were fdled with great plenty of game, which 
 o\ir royal sportsmen reserved for their own diversion, on pain of 
 pecuniary forfeiiure for such as interfered with their sovereign. 
 But every freeholder had the full liberty of sporting upon his own 
 territories, provided he abstained from the king's forests. How- 
 ever, upon the Norman conquest, a new doctrine took place; and 
 the riglit of pursuing and taking all beasts of chace or venary, and 
 such other animals as were accounted game, was then held to be- 
 long to the king, or to such only as were authorised under him. 
 And this, as well upon t!ie princi|)les of the feodal law, that the 
 king is the ultimate proprietor of all t!ie lands in the kingdom, 
 they being all held of him as the chief lord, or lord paramount of 
 the fee, and that therefore he has the right of the universal soil, to 
 enter thereon, and to chase and tiike such creatures at his pleasure: 
 as also upon another maxim of the common law, that these animals 
 are bona vacantia, and, having no other owner, belong to the king 
 by his prerogative. As therefore the former reason was lieUI to 
 vest in the king a right to pnrsv.e and take them anv where, the 
 latter was supposed lo give the king, and such as he s'hould autho- 
 rise, a sole and e.\clusive right. This right, thus vested in the 
 «rown, was exerted with the utmost rigour, at and after the time of 
 
 the Norman establishment; not only in the ancioit forests, but iu 
 the new ones which the Conqueror made, by laying together vast 
 tracts of country, depopulated for that purpose, and reserved 
 solely for the king's royal diversion ; in which were e.xercised the 
 most horrid tyrannies and oppressions, under colour of forest-laws 
 for the sake of preserving tlie beasts of chace ; to kill any of which, 
 within the liinits of the forest, was as penal as the dealh'of a man. 
 And, in pursuance of the same principle, king John laid a total in- 
 terdict upon the winged as well as the four-footed creation ; captii- 
 ram avium per totam Angliam interdixit. The cruel and unsup- 
 portable hardships, which these forest-laws created to the subject, 
 occasioned our ancestors to be as zealous lor their reformation, as 
 tor the rela.xation of the feodal rigours and the other exactions in- 
 troduced by the Norman family; and accordingly we find the mi- 
 ni nnilii.s ot charta de foresta as warmly contended for, and extort- 
 ed from the king with as much ditiicuity, as those of magna cliarla 
 itself. By this charter, confirmed in parliament, (9 Hen. HI.) 
 many torests were disalibrested, or stripped of their oppressive pri- 
 vileges, and regulations were made in the regimen ot such as re- 
 mained; particularly killing the king's deer was made no longer a 
 capital ofleuce, but only punished by a fine, imprisonment, or ab- 
 juration, of the realm. And by a variety of subsequent statutes, 
 together with the long acquiescence of the crown without exerting 
 the torest-laws, this prerogative is now become no longer a griev- 
 ance to the subject. But as the king reserved to himself the fo- 
 rest for his own exclusive diveision, so he granted out from time 
 lo time other tracts of land to his subjects under the names of 
 chaces or parks; or gave them licence to make such in their own 
 grounds; which indeed are smaller forests in the hands of a sub- 
 ject, but not governed by the forest-laws; and by the common law 
 no person is at liberty to take or kill any beasts of chace, but such 
 as hath an ancient chace or park; unless they be also beasts of 
 prey. As to all inferior species of game, called" beasts and fowls of 
 warren ; the liberty of taking or killing them is another franchise, 
 or royally, derived likewise from the crown, and called free war- 
 ren; a word which signifies preservation or custody: as the exclu- 
 sive liberty of taking awd killing fish in a public stream or river is 
 called a tree fishery ; of which, however, no new franchise can at 
 present be granted by the express provision of magna charta, c. 
 16. The principal intention of granting a man these franchises, or 
 liberties, was in order to protect the game, by giving him a sole 
 and exclusive power of killing it himself, provided he prevented 
 other persons. And no man but he who has a chace or free war- 
 ren, by grant from the crown, or prescription, which supposes one, 
 can justify hunting or sporting upon another man's soil; nor in- 
 deed, in thorough strictness of common law, either hunting or 
 sporting at all. However new this doctrine may seem, it is a re- 
 gular consequence Irom what has been before deliveied, that the 
 sole right of taking and destroying game belongs exclusively to 
 the king. This appears, as well from the historical deduction here 
 made, as because he may grant to his subjects an exclusive right 
 of taking them; which he could not do, unless such a right was 
 first inherent in himself. And hence it will follow, that no person 
 whatever, but he who has such derivative right from the crown, is 
 by common law intitled to take or kill any beast of chace, or other 
 game whatsoever. It is true, that, by the acquiescence of the 
 crown, the frequent grants of free warren in ancient times, and the 
 introduction of new penalties of late by certain statutes for pre- 
 serving the game, this exclusive prerogative of the king is little 
 known or considered; every man that is exempted from ihese mo- 
 dern penalties Isoking upon himself as at liberty to do wdiat he- 
 pleases with the game: whereas the contrary is strictly true, and 
 that no man, however well qualified he may vulgarly be esteemed, 
 has a right to encroach on the royal prerogative by the killing of 
 game, unless he can shew a particular grant of free warren ; or a 
 prescription which presumes a grant; or som.e authority under an 
 act of parliament. As to the latter, there are but two instances 
 wherein an express permission to kill game was ever given by sta- 
 tute ; the one by 1 Jac, I. c. 27, altered by 9 Jac. 1. c. II, and 
 virtually repealed by 22 and 23 Ca. H. c. 2i, which gave autho- 
 rity, so long as they remained in force, to the owners of free war- 
 ren, to lords of manors, and to all freeholders having 40/. per aim. 
 in lands of inheritance, or SO/, for life or lives, or 400/. personal 
 estate, (and their servants), to take partridges and pheasants upon 
 their own, or their masters free warren, inheritance, or freehold ; 
 
 ' the
 
 G A M 
 
 ^.-lO 
 
 (i A M 
 
 tiie other by 3 jVjid. c. 14, which eiiipowyn lords and ladies ol 
 niaroi'S to appoint i^ami'-keopers, to kill i;ame for the use of such 
 lord or laily; wUith with some alteration still subsists, and plainly 
 supposes such power not to have been in Ihem before. The truth 
 oi the matter is, that these game-laws do intleed (jualil'v nobody, 
 except in the instance of a game-keeper, to kill game: but only 
 to save the trouble and formal process of an action by the person 
 injured, wlio perhaps too might remit the otl'ence, these statutes 
 inflict aiWitional penalties to he recovered either in a regular or 
 summaryway,by anyof the kiiii>'s subjects, from certain persoiisof in- 
 ferior rank w ho may be found offending in this particular. But it 
 does not follow that ])erson3 excused from these additional penal- 
 ties arc therefore authorised to kill game. The circumstance of 
 having 100/. per aim. and the rest, are not properly tjualiiications 
 but exemptions. And these persons so exenipted from the penal- 
 ties of the game-staMiles, arc not only liable to actions of trespass 
 by the owners of the land; but also, if tliry kill game within the 
 limits of any royal franchise, they are liable to the actions of such 
 who may have the right of "chace or free warren therein. Upon 
 tlie whole, it appears, that the king, by his prerogative, and such 
 pei^sons as have, under his authority, the royal franchise of chace, 
 park, or free warren, (see these articles,) are the only persons who 
 may acquire any property, however fugitive and transitory, in 
 these animals terse natura;, while living; vhich is said to be 
 vested in them propter privilegiun'. Ami such persons as may 
 tJnis lawfully hunt, lish, or fowl, ratione privilegii, have only a 
 qualilie<l property m these animals: it not being absolute or per- 
 manent, but lasting only so long as the creatures remain within tne 
 limits of such respective franchise or liberty, and ceasing the in- 
 stant they vohmtarily pa.ss out of it. It is held indeed, that if a 
 man starts anv game within his own grounds, and follows it into 
 another's, and kills it tliere, the property remains in himself. And 
 this is grouniled on reason and natural justice; for the property 
 consists in tiie possession; wliich possession commences by the 
 finding it in his own liberty, and is continued by the immediate 
 pursuit. And so, if a stranger starts game in one mail's chace or 
 li'ee warren, and hunts it into anotiier liberty, the pro|)erty conti- 
 nues in the owner of the chace or warren; tiiis propejty arising 
 from privilege, and not being changed by the act of a mere 
 stranger. Or if a man starts game on another's private grounds, 
 and kills it there, the properly belongs to him on whose grounds 
 it was killed, because it was also started there ; this property aris- 
 ing ratione soli. Whereas if, after being started there, it is killed 
 in the grounds of a third person, the property belongs not to the 
 owner of the tirst ground, because the property is local ; nor yet 
 to the owner of the second, because it was not started in his soil; 
 but it vests in the person who started and killed it, though guiltv 
 of a trespass against both the owiiei's. See Law, respecting 
 Game. 
 
 Games, in antiquity, were public diversions, exhibited on so- 
 lemn occasions. Such among the Greeks were the Olympic, Pi.- 
 thian. Isthmian, Neniean, &c. games; and, among the Uonians, 
 the Apollinarian, Circeiisian, C'apitoline, &c. games. SeeApoL- 
 UNARiAN, Olympic, Pythiav, !kc. 
 
 Games, Modern, are usually distinguished into those of exer- 
 cise .'.nd address, and those of hazard. To the first belong chess, 
 tennis, billiards, &c. and to the latter those performed with cards, 
 or dice, as back-gammon, ombre, picquet, whist, &c. See these 
 articles. 
 
 GAMELIA, in Grecian antiquity, a nuptial feast, or rather sa- 
 crifice, held in the ancient Greek families on the day before a 
 marriage. 
 
 GASI ELION, in the ancient chronology, was the eighth month 
 of the Athenian year, containing twenty-nine days, and aasweriiiu 
 to the end of .'aiuiary and beginning of February. 
 
 GAMF.LOKA, an island in the Me<literraneaD, near the N. li. 
 coast of Tunis, three miles K. ol Cape Zibecii. 
 
 GAMET, an island of Denmark, three miles from the Conti- 
 nent, and eight W. S. W. of Ripen. 
 
 GAMING, the art of playing or practising any game, particu- 
 larly those of hazard; as car(!s, dice, tables, &c.' Gaming h:is at 
 all times been considered as of pernicious consequence to the coni- 
 monweallh; and is therefore severely prohibited by law. It is 
 esteemed a practice intended to supply, or retrieve, the e,\peiice« 
 occasioned by luxury ; it being a kind of tacit confession, that the 
 company therein engaged do, in general, exceed the bounds of [ 
 
 t 
 
 their respective fortunes; and then-lore they cast lots to determine 
 upon whom the ruin sliall at present fall, that the rest may be sav- 
 ed a little longer. But, taken in iny liphl, it ij an olfcnce of the 
 most alarming nature ; tending, by necessary consequence, to 
 promote public idleness, tliefi, and debauchery, among those of a 
 lower class ; and, among persons of a superior rank, it has fre- 
 (jiienily been att-'iided v. ith the sudden ruin and desolation of an- 
 cient and opulent families, an abandoned prostitution of tverv 
 firinciple ot lionour and virtue, and too often iias ended in suicide. 
 To restrain this pernicious vice among the inferior sort of people, 
 the statute 33 lien. Vlll. c. 9, was made; which prohibits to all 
 but gentlemen, the games of tennis, tables, cards, dice, bowls, and 
 other unlawful diversions there specified, unless in the time of 
 Christmas, under pecuniary pains and imprisonment. And the 
 s:ime law, and al^o tiie statute 23 Geo. 11. c. 24, inllicl pecuniarv 
 penalties, upon the master of any public house, wherein servant's 
 are permitted to game, as well as upon servants themselves wlio 
 are iound gaming there. But this is not the iirincipal ground of 
 complaint; it is the gaming in high lite that demands the attention 
 of tlie magistrate; a passion to which every valuable consideration 
 is sacririced, and which we seem to have inherited Ironi our an- 
 cestors, the ancient Germans ; whom Tacitus describes to have- 
 been bewitched with the spirit of play to a most exorbitant de- 
 gree. " They addict themselves (says he) to dice (which is won- 
 derful) when sober, and as a serious employment; with such a 
 mad desire of winning or losing, that, when stript of every thing 
 else, they will stake at last th.eir liberty, and their very selves. 
 Ihe loser goes into a voluntary slavery ; and, tliough younger and 
 stronger than his antagonist, suffers himselt to be bound and sold. 
 And this pei-severance in so bad a cause they call the point of ho- 
 nour; ea est in re prava pervicacia, ipsi fidem vocant." One 
 would almost be tempted to think Tacitus w^s describing a mo- 
 dern Englishman. When men arc thus intoxicated with so frantic 
 a spirit, laws will be of little avail: because the same false sense of 
 honour that prompts a man to sacrifice himself, will deter him 
 horn appealing to the magistrate. Yet it is proper that laws 
 should be, and be known publicly, that gentlemen may consider 
 what penalties they wilfully incur, and what a conlidcnce tliey re- 
 pose in sharpers; who, if successful in' play,, are certain to be 
 paid w ith honour, or, if unsuccessful, have it in their power to be 
 still greater gainers by informing. 
 
 Gaming,. Chance in. Hazard, or chance, is a matterof mathe- 
 matical consideration, because it admits of more and less. Games- 
 ters either set out upon an equality of chance, or are supposed to 
 do so. This equality may be altered in the course of the game, by 
 the greater good fortune or address of one of the gamestei-s, where- 
 by he comes to have a better chance, so tliat his share in the stakes 
 is proportionably better than at first. This more and less runs 
 through all the ratios between equality and infinite difference, or 
 from an infinitely little difference till it cohie to an infinitely great 
 one, whereby the game is determined. The whole game, there- 
 fore, with regard to the issue of it, is a chance of the proportion the 
 two shares bear to each other. The probability of an event is 
 greater or less, according to the number of chances by whidi it 
 may ha[)pen, compared with all the chances by which it may either 
 happen or fail. M. de .Moivre, in a treatise de Mensura Sortis, has 
 computed the variety of chances in several cases that occur in 
 gaming, the laws of which may be understood by what lollows. 
 Supposep the number of cases in which an event may happen, and 
 r/ the number of cases wherein it may uothapfjen, both sules have 
 the degree of probability, which is to each other as p to rj. If two 
 gamesters, A and IS, engage on this footing, that, if the cases ;> 
 happea, -A sbsill w iu; but if 5 luippen, B shall win, and the stake be 
 
 pa q a 
 a; the cfaanceof -A. will bc^ , and t-liat of B, ; consetiuent- 
 
 /' + ? P + 1 
 
 ly, if they sell the expectancies, they should liave that for them 
 ropeclivelv. If A and B play witii a single die, or. this condition, 
 that, if Athrow two or more" aces at eight tl.rows, he shall win ; olber- 
 wi-e B ^hall win ; What is the ratio of their chance^? Since there- 
 is but one case wherein an ace may turn up, and five whereui it 
 ma) not, let a= 1, and 4=5. And again, since there are eiglit 
 throws of the die, let n = 8; and you will have a-j-pl"— 6"— 
 «ai"—', to /"' -f- ««/)"—' : that is, the chance ot A will be to that 
 of B as()()3<j9l to lDi;;GJ5, or nearly as two to three. A and Bare 
 engaged at siiiglc c^uoit* ; and, after playing some t inc.. A wants
 
 GAM 
 
 540 
 
 GAM 
 
 four of bciiin; tr,>, and I? 6 ; but 15 is so niucli the better game>ter, 
 tlial lii^ rli-.ini:e agiihist A upon a sin;^le tlirow would be as three to 
 two ; What is tlie ratio of their chances ? Since A wants four, and 
 Bsiv, the game will be ended at nine throw.^ ; therefore, raise 
 „ _|_ I) to the nintli power, and it will be «'■' -\-9 »*/' + 36 iph- + s4 
 ((S/jJ^l'jtj aV)'+ lit) «'/>■' +S4(r'i'*+36 u^h' -\-<j «/)«+fr': call 
 a 3, and/j 2, and tou will have the ratio of chances in numbers, 
 viz. 1750077 to 19404s. A and 15 play at single <pioits, and A is 
 the best iramester, so that he can give B'two in three: What is the 
 ratio of their clianoes at a single throw? Suppose the chances as 
 z to 1, and raise : -)- I to its cube, which will he ;^-|-3 ;-+ 3 :-{- I. 
 Now since A could give 15 two out of three, A might undertake 
 to will three throws running; and consequently the chances in 
 this casewill beasi'to 3:'+3 s+ 1. Hence i^ = 3 := -f 3: + 1 ; 
 or 2 i^ = c3 4- 3 1'^ + 3 : + 1 . And therefore 1^/2=1+1 ; 
 
 and conseiiuently, : = ■•>^2 - 1 • The chances, therefore, are 
 
 t 
 
 sy-i — 1, and 1, respectively. Again, suppose I have two wa- 
 gers depending, in the first of which I have three to twotlie best 
 of the lay, and in the second, seven to four; What is the proba- 
 bility I win both wagers ? !. The probability of winning the hrst 
 is -I, 'that is the nundier of chance^ 1 have to win, divided by the 
 iumiberofall the chances: the probability of winning the second 
 is Jf : therefore, nudliplving these two fractions together, the pro- 
 <luct will be 2|, which, is the proliability of wiunuig both wagers. 
 Now, tills fraction being subtracted from 1, the remainder is 4#, 
 which is the pruhabilily I do not win both wagers : therefore the 
 odd^ against me are 34 to 21. 11. If I would know what the pro- 
 bability is of winning the first, and losing the second, larguetlnis; 
 the probabilitv of wmning the first is -|, the probability of losing 
 the second is\v : therefore multiplying i by -r-V, the product f^ 
 will be the probability of mv wicming the first, and losing the 
 second ; which being subtracted from 1 , there will remain fl, 
 which is the probability I do not win the first, and at the same 
 time lose the second. III. If I would know what the probability 
 isof winning the second, and at the same time losing the first, I say 
 thus: The probability of winning the second k-^ ; the probability 
 of lo^in," the first is |: therefore^ multiplying th.ese two tractions 
 togethel, the product it '' 'he probability I win the second, and 
 also lose the first. IV. If I would know what the probability is of 
 losin" bolli wagers, I say, the probability of losing the first is -f, 
 and ill e probability of losing the second -/^ : therefore the proba- 
 bility of losing tlicm both is J,: which, being subtracted from 1, 
 there remains 4'; : therefore, the odds of losing both wagers is 47 to 
 S. This reasoniug is applicable to the happeni\ig or failing of any 
 events lliat may fall under consideration. Thus if I would know 
 what the probability is of missing an ace four times together With 
 a die this I consider as the f.iiliiig of four different events. Now 
 the probability of missing the first is i, the second is also i, the 
 third 4 and the fourth i ; therefore the probabilitv of missing it 
 four tunes togedier is ^ x i X -^ X -^ = fiVc i "hich being snb- 
 tracied from 1, there will remain t\'^ for the probability of 
 throwing it once or oftener in four times; therefore the odds of 
 throwiu" an ace in four times, is 671 to 625. But if the flinging of 
 an ace was undertaken in three times, the probability of missinE; it 
 tl'.ree times would he |; X -f; X ^ = ili; which being subtracted 
 from 1, there will remain ^^-^ for the probability of throwing it 
 once or oftener in three times: therefore the odds against throw- 
 ing it in three times are ISfi to ill. Again, suppose we would 
 know the probability of throwingan ace once in four times, and no 
 more: since the probability of throwing it the first time is J, and 
 of missing it the other three limes, is A x ^ X i, it follows, that 
 the probability of throwing it the first time, and missing it the 
 other three successive times, is ^ X | X -^ X ^ = ^1^; because it 
 is possible to hit every throw as well as the first, it follows, that the 
 probability of throwing it once in four throws, and missing it the 
 other liiiee, is ■'Ti>U = -ri5-5 • "'liicli being subtracted from 1, there 
 will remain 5-i^ for the probability of throwing it once, and no 
 more, in fourlini-es. Therefore, if one undertake to throw an ace 
 •once, an<l no more, in four times, he has 500 to 7tlG the worst of 
 the. lav, or five to eight very near. Suppose two events arc such, 
 that one of them has twice as many chances In come up as the 
 other ; what is the prob.ibility that the event, w hich has the greater 
 number of chances to come up, docs not happen twice before the 
 
 other happens once, which is the cast of flinging seven with two 
 dice before four once? Since the number of chances is as two to 
 one, the probability of tlie first happening before the second is -|, 
 but the probability of its happening twice before it, is but i X "^ 
 or ^: therefore it is five to four, seven does not come up twice be- 
 fore four once. Hut, if it were demanded, what must be the pro- 
 portion of the facilities of the coming up of two events, to make 
 that which has the most chances come up twice, before the other 
 comes up once? The answer is 12 to 5 very nearly : whence it 
 follows, that the probability of throwing the first before the second 
 is -j-i, and the probability of throwing it twice is {-i v \i, or4-f4 ; 
 therefore the probability of not doing it is^-i : therefore the odds 
 against it are as 145 to 144, wliicli comes very near to an equalitv. 
 Su]ipose there is a heap of 13 red cards, and another heap of 13 
 black cards, What is the probability, that, taking one card at a 
 venture out of each heap, I shall take out the two aces .> The 
 probability of taking the ace out of the first heap Is-j-'t-, the proba- 
 liilily of takvng the ace out of the second heap is -^■^•, therefore the 
 prohabiliiy of taking out both aces is -^x-^-^=: -;j^' which being 
 subtracted from 1, there will remain \%^: therefore the odds 
 against me are l68 to 1. In cases where the events depend on one 
 another, the manner of arguing is somewhat altered. Thus, sup- 
 pose that out of one single heap of 13 cards of one colour I should 
 undertake to take out first the ace; and, secondly, the two: though 
 the probability of taking out the ace be ^ij, and the probabilityof 
 taking out the two be likewise -j!^ : vet, the ace being supposed as 
 taken out already, there will remain only 12 cards in the heap, 
 which will make the probability of taking out the two to be Jj ; 
 therefore the probability of taking out the ace, and then the two, 
 will be -fj X Ti- I" this last ipiestion the two events have a de- 
 pendence on each other; which consists in this, that one of the 
 events being supposed as having happened, the probabilitv of the 
 other's happening is thereby altered. But the case is not so in the 
 two heaps of cards. If the events in question be n in number, and 
 be such as have the same number a of chances by which they may 
 happen, and likewise the same number b of chances by which they 
 may fail, raise n -|- i to the pow er h. And if A and 15 play toge- 
 ther, on condition that if either one or mere of the events in ques- 
 
 tion happen, A 
 
 hall win, 
 
 and B lose, the 
 
 probability of A's win. 
 
 ning will be i ■ . n ; and that of B's winning will be JTjTJj" 
 
 raised to the power n ; the only term in 
 the last h": thtretore all the terms but 
 the last are favourable to A. 'i'hiis if n=i:3, raising a -|-i to the 
 cube a^-{- 3a-b-\- 3i('j- -^-i''. all the terms but b^ will be favourable 
 to A; and therefore the probability of A's winning will be 
 
 for when n -f i is actually 
 w hich a does not occur is 
 
 I -)- 3 u-h + 3 i/A- 
 
 u + b\' 
 
 ( 1 -\- 6p — 6' 
 or „ 1 1.13 
 
 and the probability of C'swin- 
 
 .,, , ■ n,,t if A and B play on condition, that if 
 
 iiing will be„ I ^|3- ""'■ " -^ """ I J ' < 
 
 either two or more of the events in question happen, A shall win ; 
 but in case one only h appen , or none, B shall win ; the probability 
 of A's winning will iie a-\-b\ "—mb"-'—b " , . , 
 
 ° ,1 ; lor the only two terms 
 
 n-\- b\ 
 
 in which aa does 'not occur are the two last, viz n«6"-' and b«. 
 See Chances. The reader may also consult " Clarkes laws of 
 Chance," and " Sinqison's Nature and Laws of Chance." 
 
 Gaming, L.'iws ag.mnst. By stat. 16. C;ir. II. c. 7, if any 
 person by placing or betting shal'l lose more than inol. at one 
 time, he shall not be compellable to pay the same ; and the winner 
 sliall forfeit treble the value, one moiety to the king, the 
 other to the informer. The statute 9 Ann. c. 1 4, enacts, that all 
 bonds and oilier securities, given for money won at play, or 
 money lent at the time to play withal, shall be utterly void: that all 
 mortgages and incumbrances of lands, made upon the same con- 
 sideration, shall be and enure to the heir of the mortgager: that, 
 if any person at one time loses 101. at play, he may sue the winiitr, 
 and 'recover it back by action of debt at law; and, incase the 
 loser does not, any other person may sue the winner lor treble the 
 sum so lost; and'the plaintiff in either case may examine the de- 
 fendanl himself upon oath ; and that in any of these suits no pri, 
 
 v liege
 
 GAM 
 
 541 
 
 6AO 
 
 vilegi- iJi |)arliamei)t sli.ill bt* allowed. ThestoUite tarllicr t'liacts, 
 thai it' any person chi.-ats at |)la\ , and at one time wnis more tliuii 
 101. or anv valuable tlinig, lie may be indictr-d lliOrenpon, ami 
 shall lorleit five times the value, shall be deemed infamous, and 
 suliersueh corporal punishment as in case ol wiU'nl perjury. By 
 several statutes ot the reign ot kiiej; George II. all private lotteries 
 by tiekcts, cards, or dice (particularly tiie games of iaro, basset, 
 ticc of hearts, hazard, passage, roily-poll) , and all other games 
 with dice, except backgammoi.), are pruhibileil under a penalty 
 of 2001. for him that sl'.all erect sneii lotteries, an<l iOI. a-time tor 
 the players. I'ubhc lotteries, unless by authority of parliament, 
 and all manner of ingenious devices, under tlie denomination of 
 sales or ollierwise, wliicli in the end are equivalent to lotteries, 
 were belore prohibited b> a !;ieat variety of statutes under heavy 
 pecuniary penalties. IKit particulai descriptions will be ever lame 
 and deticicnt, unless all ijames of mere chance are at once pro- 
 hibited: the invention ot sharpers being swifter than the punish- 
 ment of the law, which only hunts them from one device to 
 another. The statute 13 Geo. Il.c.19, to prevent the multipli- 
 tily of horse-races, another fund of gaming, directs that no plates 
 or matches under iOl. value slull be run, under peiuiltv of 2001. 
 to be paid by the ov.ner of each horse running, and lOul.' by ¥uch 
 as advertise the plate, liy statute 18 Geo. 11. c. 34, the statute 9 
 Ann. is fartlier enforced, and some deficiencies supplied : the for- 
 feitures of that act may now be recovered in a court ofetpiitv; 
 and, moreover, if an\ man be convicted, upon information or in- 
 dictment, of winning I'r lobing at anv sitting 101. or '201. within '2i 
 hours, he shall forfeit five times the sum. Thus careful has the 
 legislatuie been to prevent this destructive vice: which may she« 
 that our lawa againr.t gaming are not so deficient, as ourselves and 
 our mag'strates in putfing-those laws in execution. 
 
 GAMMON. See Back-g-vmmo.v. 
 
 GAMMONING, among seamen, a term denoting the several 
 turns of a rope wiiich are taken round the bowsprit, and reeved 
 through holes in knees of the head, for the greatc" security of the 
 bowsprit. 
 
 GAMMUT. See Gamut. 
 
 GAMPS, a town of the Helvetic republic, partly in the can- 
 ton cf Schweitz, and partly in that of Claris ; 6 miles S. of Ap- 
 penzel. 
 
 GAMUT, [ga»i«, Ital.] the scale of musical notes. 
 
 Gamut, Gammut, or Gam-ut. See Music. The inven- 
 tion ot this scale is owhig to Guido Aretin, monk of Arez^o, in 
 Tuscany, about A. D. 1009; though it is not so properly an in- 
 vention, as an improvement on the diagram or scale of the an- 
 cients. See Aretin. Several alterations liave been made in the 
 gamut; M. le Maire, particularly, has added a 7th note; viz. si ; 
 and the English usually throw out both ut and si, and make the 
 oilier live serve for all. 
 
 GAtsl, a city of China, of the first rank ; capital of the pro- 
 vince of Se-tchuen. 
 
 Gam, a town of France, in the department of the Lower Py- 
 renees, 4j miles S. of Pau. 
 
 G.-VNARA, a populous and fertile country of Africa, on the 
 banks of the Niger. 
 
 Ganara, the capital of the above country. Lon. 16. O.E. 
 Lat. IJ. 20. N. 
 
 (;.\NDELU, a town of France, in the department of Aisne, 8 
 miles \\. N. VV. of Chateau Thierry. 
 
 GANDKU, in ornithology. See Amas. 
 
 G.^.NDIA, a sea-port of bpain in Valencia, 28 miles S. of Va- 
 kmia. 
 
 GAND.IA, or GANGEA, a town of Asia, in Georgia, 15 
 nttles N. \V. of Baku, and 100 S. E. of Teflis. 
 
 GANDK;()r, or GANDICOTTA, a town and fort of Hin- 
 dostan, in the circar of Cuddapa, on a mountain near the Penner, 
 87 miles N. W. of Nellore. 
 
 GANDINA, or GANDING, a populous town of Italv, 
 10 miles N. W. of Bergamo. 
 
 GANET Islands, a cluster of sm.iU isles, near the E. coast of 
 Labrador. Lon. 56. 10. AV. Lat. 54. 0. N. 
 
 GANG, in si'a-alfairs, a select number of a ship's crew ap- 
 pointed on any particular service, and commanded by an officer 
 suitable to the occasion. 
 
 Gang-board is a plank with several steps nailed to it, for the 
 
 VOL. JI NO. 92. 
 
 convenience of walking into, or out of, a boat upon the shore, 
 where the water is n.jl deep enough to float the boat dose to the 
 lanfling-place. 
 
 Gang-way, a narrow platform, or range of planks, laid hori- 
 zontall) along the upjjcr part of a ship'- t-ide, from the quarter- 
 tleck to the torecastle, ami is -peculiar to ships that are deep-v, aiit- 
 ed, for the convenience of walking more expeditiously fore and 
 alt than by descending into the! waist: it is fenced on the outside 
 by iron stanchions; and ropes or rails, and in vessels of war with a 
 netting, in part of wliich the hammocks are stowed, fn mer- 
 chant-men it is frequently called tlie gang-board. The same term 
 is applied to that part of a ship's side, both within and without, by 
 which persons enter and depart ; it is provided with steps'nailed 
 upon the ship'* side, nearly a- low as the surface of llie water, and 
 somi-timi's furnished with a railed accommodation ladder. 
 
 GANGELT, a town of (Jermany, in Westphalia, now in the 
 department of the Koer, 12 miles S. S. E. of lUiremond. 
 
 GANGES, a large and celebrated river of India. It rises in- 
 the mountains wliicli border on Little Thibet, in 9fi° lon. E. and 
 35° 45' lat. N. It crosses ■several kingiloms, running from N. to 
 S. and falls into the bay of Bengal by several mouths. The wa- 
 ters are lowcot in April and Way, and highest before the end of 
 September. It overflows yearly like the Niie ; and i-cnder> Ben- 
 gal as fruitful as the Delta in Egypt. The people in these parts 
 hold the water of this river iu high veneration ; and it is visited 
 annually by a prodigious number of jMlgrims from all parts of In- 
 dia. The British have several settlements on this river. Tl;e 
 i^reatcst happiness that many of the Indians wish for, is to die iu 
 this river. 
 
 Ganges, a town of P'ranco, in the department of Herault, 20 
 miles N. E. of Lodeve, and 21 N. of Montpellier. 
 
 Ganges Islands, two small islands between Borneo and the 
 Gulf ot Siam. Lon. lOC. 45. E. Lat. 4. 55. N. 
 
 GANGLION, [y«-/rMoy,] in anatomy, a knot frequently found 
 in the course of the nerves, and which is not morbid ; for where- 
 ever any nerve sends out a branch, or receives one from another, 
 or where two nerves join together, there is generally a ganglion or 
 plexus, as may be seen at the beginning of all the nerves of the 
 medulla spinalis, and in many other places of the body. 
 
 Ganglion, in surgery, a hard tubercle, generally moveable, 
 in the external or internal part of the carpus, upon the tendons 
 or ligaments in that part; usually without any pain to the pa- 
 tient. 
 
 GANGRENE, is a very great and dangerons degree of inr- 
 tlammation, wherein the parts alfected begin to corrupt. See 
 Medicine and Surgerv. 
 
 GANT, or COLLOR, a town of India, 131 miles E. of Bag- 
 nagar. 
 
 GANJAM, a town of Hindostan, on the bay of Bengal. Lon. 
 85.20. E. Lat. 19.22. N. 
 
 GANTLOPE, in sea-affairs, commonly pronounced gantlet, is 
 a race which a criminal is sentenced to run in a vessel of war for 
 felony, or seme other heinous ollence. The whole ship's crew is 
 disposed in two rows, standing face to face on both >ides the deck, 
 each |)erson being furnished with a small t\vi>ted lord, having two 
 or three knots in it ; the dcluKjueut is then stripped naked above 
 the waist, and obliged to pass Ibrward between the two rows, a 
 certain number of times, rarely exceeding three, during which, 
 every person is enjoined to give him stripes as he runs along : 
 this is called " running the gantlet," and is seldom inflicted 
 but for crimes which excite general antipathy among the sea- 
 men. * 
 
 G.\NYMEDES, in mytholor;y, a beautiful youth of Phrygia, 
 sou of Tros and brother to lliis, kings of Troy ; or, acidrding to 
 Lucian, the son of Dardanus. Jupiter was char.ued with him ; 
 and carrying him away, made him his cup-bearcM- in the room of 
 Hebe. 
 
 GAOL, [ijc'o/, Welsh ; gtolc, Fr.] a prison/ or place of leg-al 
 conlinenient. Every county has two gaols, one for debtors, 
 which may be any house where the slieritV pleSses ; the other for 
 the peace and iiiatti rs of the crown, which is the county-gaol. If 
 a gaol be out of repair, or inMiflicient, &:c. justices ol peace, in 
 their quarter-ses-sion?, may cnutraet with workmen for the rebuild- 
 ing or repairing of it: and by their warrant order the sum agreed on 
 for lliat purpose to be levied ou the several hundreds, and other 
 b Y divisioni
 
 GAR 
 
 542 
 
 GAR 
 
 ■■■* ■ ■ 
 
 divisions in the county by a just rate, 11 ami i'-J Will. ill. c. 19. 
 Set' Prison. 
 
 Gaul-delivery. The administration of ji.i-.lice being origi- 
 iialiy in the crown, in former times our kings in person rode 
 througli the realm once in seven years, to judue of and determine 
 crimes and offences ; after\v,:rds jn^tices in eyre were appointed; 
 and since, ji:-4icci of assize and gaol-delivery, &c. A comniissioji 
 of gaol-dehvery is a patent, in natnre of a letter Ironi the king to 
 certain persons, appointing tiiem his justices, or two or three of 
 them, and autiioji^ii.!; them to deliver his gaol, ai such a place, of 
 the prisoners in it: for which purpo~c it commands them to meet 
 at such a place, at the time they themselves siiall appoint ; and 
 informs them, that, for the same purpose, the king hath appointed 
 his sherill'of the jaiiie county to brnig all the prisoners of the gaol, 
 and their attachments, hefoie them at the (la\ appointed. The 
 justices of gaol-delivery are empowered by the common law to 
 proceed upon indictments of feloiiy, trespass, &c. and to order to 
 Lxecution or reprieve: they may likewise discharge such pri- 
 soners, as on their trials are acquitted, and those against whom, on 
 procl.amation being made, no evidence has appeared: tjn'v have 
 authority to try offenders for treason, iuid to iHinish many parti- 
 cular olleiices, by statute 2 Hawk. 24, 2 Ilale's Hist. 'Placit. 
 Cor. .3j. 
 
 GAOLER, the keeper of a gaol or prison. Sheriffs are to 
 make such gaolers for whom they will be answerable: but if there 
 be any default in the gaoler, an action lies against him for an es- 
 cape, &c, yet the sheriff is most usually charged ; 2 Inst. J92. 
 Where a gaoler kills a prisoner by hard u'iage, it is felony ; 3 Inst. 
 52. No fee shall be taken by gaolers, but what is allowed by law, 
 and settled by the judges, wdio may determine petitions aganist 
 their extortions, &c. 2 Geo. II. c. 22. 
 
 GAON-S, a certain order of Jewish doctors, \vho appeared in 
 the East, after the closing of the Talmud. The word Gaons signi- 
 ficB excellent, or sublime ; as in tl-.e divinity-schools we for- 
 merly had Irrefragable, Sublime, Resolute, Angelic, and Subtile 
 doctors. 
 
 G»'VP, in geography, a town of France, the capital of the de- 
 partment of the Upper Alps, 15 miles S. of Grenoble. Lat. 44° 
 33' 47" N. Lon. from Greenwich 6' 4' 47" E. 
 
 GAPENCOIS, a late county of France, of which Gap was 
 the capital. It is now included in the dcp.ulmeiit of Upper 
 Alps. 
 
 GARAI5USA, an island in tlie Mediterranean, near the W. 
 coa-t of Candia. Lon. 4!. 8. E. Lat. 3j. 36. N. 
 
 GARAM.V, in ancient geography, the capital of the Gara- 
 mantes in Lybia Interior; near the spring of the Cinyphus, now 
 in ruins. 
 
 GARBE, in heraldry, a sheaf of any kind of grain, borne in se- 
 veral coats of arms, and said to represent summer. 
 
 GAR BOAR D-STRAKE, the plank next the keel of a ship, 
 *ne edge of which is run into the rabbit made in the upper edge 
 «f the keel on each side. 
 
 G.^RCINIA, in botany, a genus of the monogynia order, and 
 dodecandria class of plants ; natural order, Bicornes. Calyx four- 
 leaved, inferior; petals four; berry eight-seeded, crowned with 
 the peltate stigma. There are three species. 
 
 GAHD, in geography, a department of P'rance, comprehend- 
 ing part of tlio late province of Languc<luc. Kisnies is the 
 capital. 
 
 Gard, an ancient Roman aqueduct in P'raiice, 9 miles N. E. 
 ef Nismes erected, it is supposed, by Agrippa, in the time of 
 Augustus C.spsar, to convey to Nismes the water of the spring of 
 Enre, which rises near Ifzes. 
 
 GARDA, an open town of Maritim* Austria, in the Veronese, 
 
 N. of Lacize. 17 miles N. \V. of Verona. Lat. 4r>. 34. N. Lou. 
 from Greenwich 10. 58. E. 
 
 GAKDANT, or GUARDANT, in heraldry, denotes any 
 
 beast full-faced and loekmg right forward. 
 
 GARDEIAIl, a town oi Africa, the capital of Bcni-MeEzab. 
 Lon. 2. 30. E. Lat. 32. 15. N. 
 
 GARDEN, ijie Gardenivl;. 
 
 G'-RDtN Bay, a hay on the E. coast of Newfoundland. Lon. 
 :)4. JO. W. Lat. 49. 42. N. 
 
 Gardens. Flo.\ting. Abh6 Clavigero, in his History of 
 .Mexico, says, that when the Mexicans were brought under sub- 
 jection to the Colhuan and Tepanecan nations, and conlined t* 
 the miserable little islands on the lakeof Mexico, llity had no 
 land to cultivate, until necessity compelled them ta torn) move- 
 able fields and gardens, wiiicli floated on tiie waters of tile lake. 
 The method svhich they ado|jled, to make these, and which they 
 still practise, is extremely simple. Tliey plait and twist toyetiier 
 willows and roots of marsh-plants or ciher ni:ilerials, which arc 
 light, but capable of supporlma the earth ririnly united. Upon 
 this fouitdation they lav the light huahes which Hoat on the lake ; 
 and over ali, the mud ami dirt which they draw up from the bot- 
 tom. ^J'heir regular figure is auadrangular ; tlicir length and 
 breadth various ; but generally they are about eight perches long, 
 and not more than three in breadth, and have le;3 than a foot of 
 elevation above the surface of the water. '1 heso were the first 
 fields which the Mexicans had after the founda'ion of Mexic<j ; 
 there they first cultivated maize, pepper, and otiicr plants. . In 
 time, as these lields became numerous from the industry of the 
 people, they cultivated gardens of (lowers and odoriferous plants, 
 which they employed in the worship of their gods, and for tl;e 
 recreation of their nobles. At present they cultivate flowers ajid 
 every sort of garden-herbs ui^on them. Every day at sun-rise, 
 innumerable vessels loaded with various kinds ot fiowen and 
 herbs, cultivated in those gardens, arrive by the canals, at the great 
 market-place of that capital. All plants thrive in theni surprising- 
 ly ; the inud ol the lake alVords a very fertile soil, and requires 
 no water from the clouds. In the large gardens there is com- 
 monly a little tree, and even a little hut to shelter tlje cultivator, 
 and defend him from rain or the sun. When the Cliinampa, or 
 owner of a garden, wishes to change his situation, to remove 
 from a disagreealjle neighbour, or to come nearer to his own fa- 
 mily, he gets into his little vessel, and by his own strength alone 
 it tlie garden is small, he tows it after him, and conducts it where- 
 ever he pleases. That part ot the lake, where these fioating gar- 
 dens are, is a place of high recreation, w here the senses receive all 
 possible gratification. 
 
 Gardens, Hanging, in antiquity, gardens raised on arches 
 by Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, to gratify his wife Amyc- 
 tis, daughter of Astyages, king of Media. Q. Curtius makes theia 
 eipial in height to the walls of the cily, viz. 50 feet. They con- 
 tained a square ot 4o0 feet on every side, and were carried u|) into 
 the air in several terraces laid above one another, and the ascent 
 from terrace to terrace was by stairs ten feet wide. The arches 
 sustaining the whole pile were raised above one another, and it 
 was strengthened by a wall, surrounding it on every side, of 22 
 feet in thickness. The mould or earth was of such a depth as to 
 admit the laraest trees to take rout an>i grow : .'IkI it was covered 
 with various kinds of trees, plants, and flowers. In the upper ter- 
 race there was an engine, wiiereby water was drawn up out ol the 
 river for watering the whole garden. 
 
 GARDENIA, in botany, a genus of the pentandria monogy- 
 nia class and order; natviial order, Contortu". Corolla oner 
 petaled, contorted or twisted ; stigiua lobed ; l)erry inlerior, two 
 to four-celled, many-seeded. Tliere are fifteen species. 
 
 GARDENING. 
 
 GAT-DENING, is a branch of agricHlture applied to the ma- I 
 
 nagemem and cultivation of gardens. j 
 
 History. 
 Gardening, says Mr. Walpole, in his History of Modern Gar- i 
 deiiing, was probably one of the first arts that succeeded to that of ] 
 
 building houses, and naturaify attended property and individual 
 jiossesiiun. Culinary, and afterward' medicinal herbs, were the 
 objects of every head of a family : it became convenient to h.ive 
 iheni wUhin reach, without eekiiig them at random in wood^, in 
 meadows, and on mountains, as often as they were wanted. When 
 the earth ceased to furnish' sponkaneously all those primitive luxu- 
 9 ries.
 
 GARDENING. 
 
 545 
 
 ries, and culture became re(|iiisite, separate inclosures for rearing 
 herbs grew e\|)L(.lient. Fruits were in llie s.iiue predicament; and 
 those most in use, or that demanded attention, must have entered 
 into and e\tended tlie donieslic inclosurc. Noah planted a vine- 
 yard, and ilrank of the wine. I'hus we ;u-.quiied vineyaid<, as 
 well as kitchen-gardens, and orchards. No doubt tlie prototype 
 of all these sorts was tlie garden of Eden ; but as Paradise was a 
 great deal larger than any i^ardens vve read of afterwards, being in- 
 closed by the rivers Pison, Ciihun, Iliddekel, and Eupluates ; ;is 
 every tree that was pleasant to the sight .ind good ior food £;rew 
 in it; and as two otln'r tree-; were likewisi' found tliere, of wnich 
 not a slip or sucker remains ; it does not belong to tlie prescui. 
 discussion. After (he Fall, nobody was sulirred to enter into the 
 garden ; and the poverty and necessities of our firbt ance-turs 
 hardly allowed them time to make improvements in imitation ol 
 it, supposing any plan had been preserved. A cottage and a slip 
 of ground for a cabbage and a gooseberrv-bush, such as we see by 
 the side of a common, were in all probability tlie earliest seats and 
 , gardens : a well and bucket succeeded to tlie Pison and Euphrates. 
 As settlements increased, the orchard and vineyard followed ; and 
 the earliest princes of tribes possessed just the neces>aries of a mo- 
 dern larmer. The eastern gardens appear to have been planted ad- 
 joining to the house or palace to which tiiey belonged. Thus, king 
 Ahasuerus went immediately from the banquet ot^ wine to walk in 
 the garden of the palace. Esther vii. 7. 'J'he garden of Cyrus, 
 at Sardis, mentioned by Xenophon, seems to have been coiuipu- 
 ous to the palace; as was that of Attains, mentioned by Justin, 
 1. 36, c. 4. The hanging-gardens at Babylon were not so much 
 adjacent to the palace as a part of the palace itself, since several 
 of the royal apartments were beneath them. Diod. lib. 2. We 
 are not certain what the ta-te for gardening was among the Greeks. 
 The Acadenius was a wooded shady place; and the trees appear 
 to have been of the olive-species, 'U w^s situated beyond the li- 
 mits of the walls, and adjacent to the tombs of the heroes; and 
 though we are not informed of the particular manner in whicli this 
 grove was laid out, it may be gathered Irom Pausanius's Attica, 
 that it was elegantly oinamented. At the entrance was an altar 
 dedicated to- Love. Within the Acailemus, were the altars of 
 Prometheus, the Muses, Mercury, Minerva, and Hercules; and 
 at a small distance was the tomb'ot Plato. So that, in ail proba- 
 tiility, it was hignly adapte<l by art, as well as nature, to philoso- 
 phic rellection and contemplation. A taste for gardening does 
 not appear to have prevailed among the Romans, otherwise than 
 as a matter of litility, till a very late period; at least the writers 
 oil husbandly, Cato, Varro, Columella, and Palladius, make no 
 jnention ot a garden as an object of pleasure, but solely with re- 
 'spect to its production^ of heriM anil fruits. The gardens of Lu- 
 Cullus are the lirstwe liiul mentioned of remarkable magnilicence ; 
 though indeed irom tlie e.Ktvavagance to which these were arrived, 
 it is evident, they could not be the first. Plutarch speaks of them 
 as incredibly expensive, and equal to the magnificence of kings. 
 They contained artificial elevations of ground to a surprising 
 height, ot buildings projected into tlie- sea, and vast pieces of wai- 
 ter upon land. In sliort, his extravagance was so great, that he 
 acquired the a])pell.alion of the Roma.i Xerxes. It is not impro- 
 bable, from the consideration of Eucullus having spent much time 
 in Asia, in a situation wherein he had an opportunity of observing 
 the most splendid constructions of this kind, that these gardens 
 might he laiil out in the Asiatic style. The vast masses ot build- 
 ing said to have been erected, might liave borne some resemblance, 
 in the arringement and style, to llie Babylonian gardens. In the 
 paintings found at Heiculaneum are a few traces of gardens, as 
 may be s?en in the second volume of the prints. They are small 
 square inclosures, formed by trellis-work and espaliers, and regu- 
 larly ornamented wiih vases, fountains, and careati<les, elegantly 
 symmetrical, anti proper for the narrow spaces allotted to tlie gar- 
 den of a house in a capital city. From these remarks, it appears 
 how naturally and iurensibly tlie idea of a kitchen-garilen slid into 
 that which has for so many ages been peculiarly termed a ganlen, 
 and by our ancestors in this country distingui>hed by the name of 
 a pleasure-garden. A square piece of ground w;Vi parted otV in 
 early ages for the use of the family :— to exclude cattle, and ascer- 
 taiu the property, it was separated from the fields by a hedge. 
 As pride and design of privacy increased, the inclosure was dig- 
 Htlied by walls; aijd k» climes where fruits \»cre not lavished bv 
 
 the ripening glow of nature and soil, fruit-trees were assisted and 
 sheltc-red from surrounding winds by the like expedient; tor the 
 inundation of hixmies, which have swelled into general iieressili's, 
 have almost all taken their source from the simple idunlani of rea- 
 son. When nattire and ])rospect were thus excluded, by llie cus.> 
 tom of making square gardens inclosed with walls, pomj) and soli- 
 tude combined to call tor somethini; that might enrich and oidivcn 
 the insipai and in.inimated partition. I'ouuiains, first invented 
 for u-e, \> iiich grandeur lovca to disguise and throw out of si'dil, 
 received eml'.ellislimenta from cotiy marbles, and at la-t, to con- 
 tradict utility, as it were, (os-.ed their waste of watei-s into air in 
 spouting columns. Art, in (lie hands ot rude man, had at lir^t 
 been made a succedancuni to nature ; in thi; hands of ostentatious 
 weaiUi, it became the nnans of opposing nature ; raid tlie more it 
 traversed the march of the latter, tlie more nobility thought its 
 power was demonstra'ed. Canals iiu-asiirc<i by the line were in- 
 troduced in lieu oi meandering streams, and teriaccs were lioii>ted 
 aloft in opposition to tl\e f.icile slopes tiiat imuerceptil>iy unite the 
 valley to the hill, iialusirades defended these precipitate and 
 dangerous elevations, and (lights of steps rejoined them to the sub- 
 jacent rlat from which llie terrace had been dug. \'aies and 
 sculpture were added to the unnecessary balconies, and statute 
 furnished the lifeless spot with niimic representations of the cc- 
 cJuded sons of men. Tlius difficulty and expenco were the con- 
 stituent i)arls of those sumptuous and selli^h sohtuiles; and every 
 improvement tliat was made, was but a step farther from nalmc. 
 The tricks of water- works to v/et the unwary, not to refresh tne 
 panting spectator, and parterres embroidered in patterns like a pet- 
 ticoat, were but the chikiish endeavours of fashion and novelty to 
 reconcile greatness to what it surfeited on. To crown these im- 
 potent displays of false Laste, tlie sheers were applied to the lovely 
 wildness of form with which nature has distinguished each various 
 species of tree a.ud sliriib. The venerable oak, the romantic 
 beech, the useful elm, even the aspiring circuit of the lime, the 
 regular round of the chesnut, and the almost moulded orange-tree, 
 were corrected by such fantastic admirers of symmetry. The 
 compass and square were of more us.' in plantations than tlie nursery-, 
 man. The measun d walk, the quincunx, and the etoile, imposed 
 tlieir unsatisfying sameness on every royal and noble g irden. 
 Trees were headed, and their sides pared away ; niony French 
 groves seem green chests set upon poles. Seats of marble, ar- 
 bours, and summer-houses, terminated every vista ; and symme- 
 try, even where the space was too large to permit its being re- 
 marked at one view, was so essential, that, a.i Pope observed, 
 
 cacli alley has a brother. 
 
 And half the garden just retiects the other. 
 
 In Kip's Views of the Seats of our Nobility and Gentry, we see 
 the same tiresome and reiuriijiig nnifoniiity. Every house is ap- 
 proached by two or tliree gardens, consisting perhaps of a gravel- 
 walk and two grass-plats or borders of llow ers. Each rises above 
 the other by two or tliree steps, and as many walli and terraces, 
 and so many iron gates, that we recollect those ancient romances 
 in which every entr^rice was guarded by giants or dragons. Yet 
 though these and such preposterous inconveniences prevailed from 
 age to age, good sense in this country had perceived the want of ■ 
 sometliiiig at once more granti and more natural. And different . 
 authors gave descriptions of gardens wliich tliey considered as the .• 
 models of perfection. But as no succeeding generation in an 
 opulent and luxurious country contents itself with the perfection 
 established by its ancestors, more perfect perfection was still 
 sought; and improvements had gone on, till London and Wise 
 had stocked all our garden^ w ith giants, animals, monsters, coats 
 of arms, and mottoes, in yew, box, and /lolly. Absurdity could 
 go no farther, and the tide turned. Bridgnian, the next fashion- 
 able designer of gardens, was far more chaste ; and whether from, 
 good sense, or that the nation had been struck by the admirable 
 [laper in the Guardian, No. 173, he banished verdant sculpliire, 
 and did not even revert t« the square precision of the foregoing 
 age. He enlarged his plans, disdained to make every division 
 tally to its opposite ; and though he still adhered much to straight 
 walks with high-clipped hedges, they were only his great lines; 
 the re>t he diversified by wilderness, and with loose groves of o.Jc, 
 though still within siirimmding hedges. As his reformation gaiu- 
 ed footing;, he ventured, in the royal garden at Kichinoud. to in-, 
 
 trod^Jcr
 
 6AA 
 
 GARDENING. 
 
 roduce cultivated fields, and even morsels of a forest-appearance, 
 bv the sides of those endless and tiresome walks that stretched out 
 of one into another without intermission. But this was not tdl 
 other innovato's had broke loo-,e' too from rigid symmetry. 
 " But the capital stroke, the leading step to all that lias follow- 
 ed, was tlie destruction of walls for boundaries, and the invention 
 of 'tosses— ail attempt then deemed so astonishing, that the com- 
 mon people called them Ha ! lla's ! to exiiress their surprise at 
 Undinga sudden and unperceived check to their walk. A sunk 
 fence may be called the leading step, for these reasons. No 
 sooner was this simple enchantment made, than levelling, mow- 
 in", and rullinff, followed. The contiguous ground of the park 
 without the sunk fence was to be harmoni/ed with the lawn within ; 
 and the garden in its turn was to be set tree from its prim regiila- 
 rity, that it might assort with the milder country without. The 
 sunk fence ascertained the specific garden ; but that it might not 
 draw too obvious a line of distinction between the neat and the 
 rude, the contiguous out-lying parts came to be included in a kind 
 of general design ; anil when nature was taken into tlie plan, under 
 )m\!rovements, every step that was made pointed out new beau- 
 ties, and inspired new ideas. At that moment appeared Kent, 
 painter enough to taste the charms of landscape, bold, and opi- 
 jiionative enough to dare and to dictate, and born with a genius 
 to strike out a great system from tlie twiliglit of imperfect essays. 
 He leaped the fence, and saw that all nature was a garden. He 
 felt the delicious contrast of hill and valley changing impercepti- 
 bly into each other, t.isled the beauty of the gentle swell or con- 
 cave scoop, and remarked how loose groves crowned an easy emi- 
 nence with happy ornaments ; and while they called in the distant 
 view between their graceful stems, removed and extcnded_ the 
 perspective by delusive eoiuparison. Thus the pencil of his ima- 
 gination besto'wed all the arts of landscape on the scenes he han- 
 dled. The great principles on which he worked were perspec- 
 tive, light, and sliade. Groups of trees broke too uniform or too 
 extensive a lawn ; evergreens and woods were opposed to the 
 glare of tlie chami)aign ; and where the view was less fortunate, or 
 so much exposed as to be beheld at once, he blotted out some 
 parts by thick shades, to divide it into variety, or to make the 
 richest 'scene more enchanting by reserving it to a farther advance 
 of the spectator's step. Thus, selecting favourite objects, and 
 veiling deformities by screens of plantations ; sometimes allowing 
 the rudest waste to add its soil to the richest theatre : he realized 
 the compositions of the greatest masters in painting. Where ob- 
 jects were wanting to anim.ite his horizon, his taste as an architect 
 could bestow immediate termination. His buiUlings, his seat.., his 
 temples, were more the works of his pencil than of his compasses. 
 We owe the restoration of Greece and the ditfusion of architec- 
 ture to his skill in landscape. But of all the beauties he added to 
 the face of this beautiful country, none surpassed his management 
 of water. Adieu to canals, circular basons, and cascades tumbling 
 down marble steps, that fast absurd magnificence of Italian and 
 French villas. The forced elevation of cataracts was no more. 
 The wntle stream was taught to serpentize seemingly at its plea- 
 sure Tapd wliere discontinued by diflerent levels, its course ap- 
 peared to be concealed by thickets properly interspersed, and 
 glittered again at a distance," where it might be supposed naturally 
 to arrive, 'tis borders were smoothed, but preserved their waving 
 irre'^ularitv. A few trees scattered here and there on its edges 
 sprinkled 'the tame bank that accompanied its meanders; and 
 when it disappeared among the hills, shades descending from the 
 heights leaned towards its progress, and Iramed the distant point 
 cf li'fht under vhich it was lo-t, as it turned aside to either hand 
 of llie blue horizon. Thus, dealing in none but the colours of na- 
 ture, and catching its most favourable features, men saw a new 
 ireation opening' befori' their eves. The living landscape was 
 chastened or polished, not tran.lormed. Freedom was given to 
 the forms of trees: they extended their branches unrestricted; 
 and where any em'nent oak, or master-iieech, had escaped maim- 
 uiff, and survived the forest, bush and bramble was removed, and 
 ali'its honours were restored to distinguish and shade the plain. 
 V.'here the united plumage of an ancient wood extended wide its 
 itiidulalin? canopy, and stood vener.ible in its darkness. Knit 
 tl.inned tlie foremost ranks, and left but so many detached and 
 scattered trees, a; softened the approach of gloom, and blended a 
 rUt-qiiered light with the thus lengthened shadows 6i tlie remain- 
 
 ing columns. Succeeding artists have added new master-strokes 
 to these touclies; perhaps, improved or brought to perfection 
 some that have beeii named. The introduction of foreign trees 
 and plants, which we owe principally to Archibald D'Argyle, 
 contributed essentially to tlie richness of colnuring so peculiaT to 
 our modern landscape. The mixture of various greens, the con- 
 trast of forms between our forest-trees and the northern and West 
 Indian firs and pmes, arc improvements more recent than Kent, 
 or but little known to him. The weeping willow, and every llo- 
 rid shrub, each tree of delicate or bold leaf, are new tints in the 
 composilion of our gardens." 
 
 GAunENiNC, in the perfection to which it is now brought in 
 Britain, is entitled to a place of considerable rank among the li- 
 beral arts. " It is," says Mr. Whcatley, " as superior to landscape- 
 painting as a reality to a representation : il is an exertion of fancy ; 
 a subject for taste ; and being realized now from the restra'nt of 
 regularity, and enlarged beyond the purposes of domestic con- 
 venience, tlie most beautiful, the most simple, the most noble 
 scenes of nature, are all within its province. For it is no lon- 
 ger confined to the spots from which it takes its name ; but regu- 
 lates also the disposition and embellisliments of a park, a farm, a 
 forest, iVc. and the business of a gardener is to select and apply 
 whatever is great, elegant, or characteristic, in any of them; to 
 discover, or to shew, all the advantages of the place upon which 
 he is employed ; to supply its defects, to correct its faults, and 
 in<prove its beauties." But though all these encomiums are justly 
 due to gardening, upon the large scale of an ornamental gardea, 
 including a pariv, farm, foiest,"&c. yet our limits here require, 
 that we treat on that part of gardening whieli regards usefulness 
 and convenience more than ornament. 
 
 Of the Choice of Ground for a Garden. 
 In the choice of a place proper for a garden, the most essential 
 points to be considered are, the situation, the soil, the exposure, 
 water, and prospect. 
 
 I. The situation ought to be such as is wholesome, and in a 
 place neither too high nor too low ; for if a garden be too higli, 
 it will be exposed to the winds, which are very prejudicial to 
 trees ; and if it be too low, the dampness, the vermin, and the 
 venomous creatures that breed in ponds and marshy places, will 
 add much to its insalubrity. The best situation is on the side of 
 a hill, especially if the slope be easy, and almost imperceptible ; 
 if a good deal of level ground be near the house ; and if it abound 
 with springs of water ;" for, being sheltered from the fury o( the 
 winds and the violent heat of the sun, a temperate air will be en- 
 joyed ; and the water that descends from the top of the hill, either 
 from spriiif^ or rain, will not only supply fountains, canals, and 
 cascades for ornament, but, when it has pcrtoruied its office, will 
 water the adjacent valleys, and, if it be not allowed to stagnate, 
 w'lll render lliem fertile and wholesome. 
 
 II. A good soil is next t» be considered ; for it is scarce pos- 
 sible to make a fine garden in a bad soil. There are indeed me- 
 thods of meliorating ground, but they are very expensive ; and 
 sometimes, when the" expence has been bestowed of laying good 
 earth three feet deep over the wdiole surface, a whole garden has 
 been ruined, when the roots of the trees have reached the natural 
 bottom. To judge of the quality of the soil, observe whether 
 there be any heatii, thistles, or such like weeds, growing spon- 
 taneoush in it ; for they are certain signs that the ground is poor. 
 Or if tliere be large trees growing thereabouts, observe whether 
 they grow crooked, ill-shapX-d, and grubby ; and if they be of a 
 faded green, and full of moss, or infested w ith vermin ; in all such 
 cases, the place is to be rejected. But if it be covered with grass 
 lit for pasture, the depth o'f the soil may be tried. To know this, 
 dig holes in several places, six feet wide and four deep ; and if 
 there be three feet of good earth it will do very well, but less than 
 two will not be sutlicient. Tlie quality of good ground is neither 
 lobe stony nor too hard to work ; neither too dry, too moist, nor 
 too saiuly luid light ; nor too strong and clayey, which is the 
 worst of alM'or gardens. _ . 
 
 HI. The next requisite is water; the want of-which is one of 
 the greatest inconveniences thtit can attend a garden, and will 
 bring a certain niortalitv upon whatever is planted jn it, especially 
 in tlie greater droughts "that often happen in a hot and dry siflia- 
 tion in summer ; besides its usefulness in fine gardens for making 
 
 fomitain^.
 
 GARDENING. 
 
 5 4. 5 
 
 foiintuiii?, canals,, cascades, S:c. which are the greatest ornaments 
 ot' a garilfii. 
 
 l\'. Tlie last thing to be considerc.l, is the prospect of a fine 
 country; ;ind tiioiigh this is not al)soliitclv necessary, yet it i< one 
 of the most agreeable bi-aul'es of a line garden : besides, if a garden 
 be planted in a low place that has no kind of prospect, it will not 
 ©idy be disagreeable but unwholesome. 
 
 Of Laying our and PtANTiNO Gardens. 
 
 Gardens are usually distinguished into Flover-Gardens, Fniit- 
 Gardcns, and Kitclieii-Gardens. The hr^t being designed for 
 pleasure and ornament, should be placed in the most con>picuous 
 part, that is, next to the back or Iront of the house ; and the two 
 latter, being designed for use, sl\ould be placed less insiglit. But 
 though t!ie fruil and kitchen gardens arc here mentioned as dis- 
 tinct, yet they arc now usually united ; as they equally require a 
 good soil and exposure, and should both be placed out of the view 
 of the house. In the laying out and planting of gardens, the beau- 
 ties of nature should always be studied ; for the nearer a garden 
 approaches to nature, the longer it will please. According to Mr. 
 Miller, the area of a handsome garden niav take up 30 or 40 acres, 
 but no more ; and the following rules should be observed in the 
 disposition of it. There ought always to be a descent of at least 
 three steps from the hou^e to the garden; this will render the 
 house more dry and wholesome, and the prospect on entering the 
 garden more extensive. The hrst thing that ought to present itself 
 to view should be an open lawn of grass ; which ought to be con- 
 siderably broader than the front of the building ; and if the depth 
 be one-half more than the width, it will have a better eltect : if 
 on the sides of the lawn there are trees planted irregularly, by 
 way of open groves, the regularity of the lawn will be broken, 
 and the whole rendered move like nature. I'or the convenience 
 of walking in damp weather, this lawn should be surrounded with 
 a gravel-walk, on the outside of which -should be borders three er 
 four feet wide for flowers ; and from the b^ck of these the pros- 
 pect will be agreeably terminated by aslope of ever-green shrubs; 
 which, however, should never be sufl'ered to exclude agreeable 
 prospects, or the view of handsome buildings. These walks may 
 lead through the different plantations, gently winding about in an 
 easy natural manner; which will be more agreeable than either 
 those long straight walks, too frequently seen in gardens, or those 
 serpentine windings that are twisted about into so many short turns 
 as to render it diflicult to walk in them ; and as no garden can be 
 pleasing where there is a want of shade or shelter, these walks 
 should lead as soon as possible into plantations, where persons may 
 walk in private, and be sheltered from the wind. Narrow rivu- 
 lets, which have a constant stream, if they are judiciously led about 
 the g.irden, have a better effect than large stajjnating ponds or ca- 
 nals so frequently made in large gardens. AVhen wildernesses are 
 intended, they should not be cut into stars and other ridiculous 
 figures, nor formed into mazes or labyrinths, which in a great de- 
 sign appear tritlijig. In a word, the several parts of a garden 
 should be diversified ; but in places where the eye takes in the 
 ■whole at once, the tuo sides should he always the same. In de- 
 'signs, the aim shouUl be always at what is natural. The grueral 
 disposition of a garden and of its parts ought to be accommodated 
 to the dilTerent situations of the ground, to humour its inequali- 
 ties, to proportion the number of sorts of trees and shrubs to each 
 ■part, and to shut out from the view of the garden no objects that 
 may become ornamental. But these extended views of the sub- 
 ■jecf.are not to our present purpose. A pr.ictical attention to a 
 garden, is by some esteemed a degrading employment. It is 
 true, indeed, that pastoral and agricultural manners, if we may 
 forma judgement from the dignified descriptions of Virgil, arc 
 greatly degenerated. The employments of the shepherds aud hus- 
 bandmen are now become mean and sordid. The work of the 
 garden is usually left to a peasant. Nor is it unreasonable to as- 
 sign the labour, which wearies without amusement, .to those who 
 are sxifficiently amused by the |)rospect of their wages. But the 
 operations of grafting, of inoculating, of pruning, of transplanting, 
 are curious experiments in natural philosopliy ; and that they are 
 pleasing as well as curious, those tan testify who remember what 
 they felt on seeing their attempts in these branches of practical 
 ■gardening attended with success. Among the employments suit- 
 able to old age, Cicero has enumerated the supwintendance of a 
 
 VOL II. — NO. 9C. - - 
 
 j garden. It requires no great exertion of mind or body ; and i's 
 
 satisfactions are of that kind which please without violent agitation. 
 Its influence on health is an aildltional reason for an attention to it 
 at an age when infirmities abound. But it is not the extensive gar- 
 den alone that calls our attention, or yii'Ids us i)leasurc. The pos- 
 sessor of an acre, or a small portion, may receive a real pleasure, 
 from observing the progress of vegetation, even in a plantation of 
 culinary plants. A very limited tract, properly attcndtd to, will 
 furnish ample employmcHt for an indiudual. Nor let it be 
 thought a mean c.ire ; for the same hand that raised the cedar, 
 forjned the hyssop on the wall, l^ven the orchard, cultivated 
 solely for advantage, exhibits beauties unequalled in shrubbery ; 
 nor can the greenhouse produce an appearance to excel the blosj 
 som of the apple and the almond. Tlie kitchen-garden ought to 
 be situated on one side of the house, near the stables, from whence 
 the dung may be easily conveved into it; and after having built 
 the wall, borders should be made under them, wliich, according 
 to Mr. Miller, ought to be eight or ten feet broad. Upon these 
 borders, exposed to the south, many sorts of early plants may be 
 sown ; and upon those exposed to the north, may be sown some 
 late crops, taking care not to plant any decji-rooling plants, espe- 
 cially beans and pease, too near the fruit-trees. Next proceed 
 to divide the ground into quarters ; the best figures for these are a 
 square or an oblong, if the ground will admit of it ; otherwise 
 they may be of lliat shape wiiich will be most advantageous. The 
 size of these quarters should be proportioned to that of tiie garden ; 
 if too small, the ground will be lost in walks, and the t|uarlers 
 being inclosed by espaliers of fruit-trees, the jilants will draw up 
 slender, for want of a more open exposure. The walks should 
 also be proportioned to the size of the ground ; these in a small 
 garden should be six feet broad, but in a large one ten, and on 
 each side of the walk there should be allowed a border three or four 
 feet wide between it and the espalier. In these borders may be 
 sown small sallads, or any other herbs that do not take deep root 
 or continue long ; but they should not be sown or planted with 
 the same plants two years together. In the quarter nearest to the 
 stables, and best defended trom the cold winds, should be the 
 liot-beds, for early tucumbers,-nielons, &rc. and to these there 
 should be a passage from the stables, and a gale through which a 
 small cart may enter. The most important points of general cul- 
 ture consist in well digging and manuring the soil, and giving a 
 proper distance to each plant, according to their dift'erent growths : 
 as also in keeping them clear from weeds: for which purpose, al- 
 ways observe to keep the dunghills free from them, otherwise 
 their seeds will be constantly brought in and spread with the 
 dung. 
 
 The Gardi-.s"er's Calendar. 
 
 Under this head we proceed to point out what is proper to be- 
 done in the dilferent months of the year, in the Kitchen-Garden, 
 Flower-Gatden, Orchard, &e. It is necessary, however, (o men 
 tion here, that the arrangement in the loilowiiig Calendar was 
 originally drawn up lor the climate ot England ; but will suit those 
 parts of Scotland where the climate is mild equally well, upon 
 allow iiig a dilference of ten or twelve days later tor sowing or 
 planting. M'here the seasons are still more backward, a propor- 
 tional allowance will be made by the judicious gardener, or p.'ac- 
 titioner in this pleasant art. 
 
 JANUARY. 
 
 Kitchf.n-Gardfn. Cauliflower-plants under glasses and frames 
 should be covered with pea-straw, or mats, to defend them from 
 the frost, (,'eleiy and endive should be digged up as soon as the 
 frost begins, for daily use, and the other covered with straw. Cu- 
 cumbers for the fust crop, to come in early in March, should now 
 be sown. As soon as they are three or four days old put each 
 into a small pot, and every week sow more to have plenty of 
 plants. Dung should be wheeled into the kitchen-garden in 
 tVosty wcatlier, when other work cannot be done. Ground lying 
 vacant shouUl he digged up, if omitted in October, and thrown up 
 into ridges. Hotbeds and loam should be prepared for asparagus, 
 cucumbers, and melons. Lettuces under glasses shouhi be ex- 
 amined, and if they be killed, sow more on a hotbed. Mushroom- 
 beds will require regular atleiidaiice, and frost and rain must be 
 
 Z kept
 
 5A6 
 
 GARDENINC 
 
 liolbeils, caii'ols ;uul cucumbers for the firsl crop. Cress, 
 radisi], aiul n.pe lor sali.ids: sow likewise turneps. 
 
 kept out by dry straw and mats. Oiiioii'-, to draw youiif;, should 
 be sown oil auarm border. Peas under the south wall, tor the 
 first crop, should have the earth drawn up to them in a dry day, 
 and sticks placed lo them to delcnd them from the violence of'the 
 winds ; and sow the second crop. , Plant asparagus for the fourth 
 crop. Beans for the second crop of inazagans. Beets, cabbages, 
 carrots, fiarsneps for seed. Mint and potatoes on a hotbed. 
 Onions for eschalinns and seed. Radishes for the second crop 
 sow in a warm situation, and the first crop on a hotbed. Small 
 sallading, as cress, mustard, rape, radishes, sow every week on a 
 lietbed. Sow carrots for the lir^t crop, and the second of peas. 
 
 Sou on linlhi"[l 
 
 iiinstard 
 
 FLo\^■E^-C.^RDE.v and Shrubbery. Anemones wiucli wtr*" 
 planted in the autumn will reiiaire to be covered with pea-straw, 
 rotten tan, ur mats. Auricula aiul polyanthus seeds may now be 
 sown in boxes or pots in mikl weather. Auriculas should be shel- 
 tered from violent rains and frost by mats ; and at the end of the 
 month fresh earthed. Reds for bulbous roots which have not been 
 planted in October or November, should be tligijed and thrown up 
 into ridges, that they may be planted thetirst hue weather. Car- 
 nations must be sheltered from violent rains and frost by mats. 
 Pbnt all 01 ts of bulbous roots, crocuses, as jonciuils, narcissuses, 
 poly anthus-narcissuses, snow-drops, tulips, &c. Plant tiowering- 
 shrubs which are hardy, and (lower early, as almonds, double- 
 llowering cherries, honey-suckle-;, lilacs, luezereons, roses, &:c. 
 Trench', 5 should be cut to carry off the water, if it stand any 
 vhere, aierUeavy rains. 
 
 Fruit-Garden and Oecharu. Apple-trees should be pruned 
 as soon as the violent fronts are over. Espaliers ought always to 
 be repaired before the buds of the trees begin to open. The fruit- 
 room should be often examined, to pick out all fruit which be- 
 gins to decay ; and nail mats before the windows to keep out the 
 frost. Ground lor planting should be prepared by digging the 
 holes ready ; and if wettish, a cart-load of good loam should be 
 brought for eacii standard-tree, and formed into a little hill before 
 the tree be planted. Scrape off the moss from all fruit-trees. 
 Orchard; in general are much neglected, by not cutting out the 
 dead wood and branches that cross each other. Pear-trees retpii re 
 pruning, both -tandards, espaliers, ami against walls, as soon as the 
 weather becomes mild. Prune currants, gooseberries, and rasp- 
 berries in pots may be placed on hotbeds for forcing. Vines, 
 should not be pruned till towards the end of the month. 
 
 Greenhouse. Air may be given to the plants, if the weather 
 be mild. Fire must be made if it freeze, and particularly when it 
 begins to thaw, or if it be foggy weather to dry the house ; for 
 dajnpness is as prejudicial as cold. Succulent plants, such as 
 aloes, ficoides, &c should not have any water this month. Water 
 for all sorts of pUvits should be the softest that can be got ; rain- 
 water is the best; the cliillness should be taken off by letting it 
 stand in the house some days before it is used ; and this montii it 
 should be given very sparingly. . Windows in frosty weather 
 should be kept very close, by .pasting strips of paper where the 
 wind blows in ; if the vsindows must be covered with mats, take 
 them down in the d.iy-time to admit the light. 
 
 FEBRUARY. 
 
 KixeHEN'-GARDEN. Sow meloiis at the beginning of the 
 month for the first crop, and wl^cn about three (lays old, plant 
 each HI a small pot. Plant mint in pots on a hotbed. Defend 
 iiuishroom-beds from wet. Sow parsley for edgings, and some 
 furled, very thin on a bed, to grow large for garnishing of 
 dishes, and the largo-rooted. Sow pnrsneps on ground dig- 
 ged vcr[) deep. Peas should be earthed in dry W(;athcr, 
 and will require sticking. Sow marrowfats and other large 
 sorts, and the third crop, of hotspurs. Plant asparagus for forcing, 
 for the last crop. Beans for a third crop : Windsors, for the first ; 
 Cauliriowers from under the glasses ; endives for blanching and 
 seed : eschalots, garlic, and rochainbole ; horse-radish, lettuces, 
 from under glasses ; leeks, onions, and parsl-cy for seed ; potatoes 
 on hotbeds, for the first crop. Uncover radishes in mild weather, 
 and put the straw on again at night. Sow beets, cabbages, carrots, 
 caulillowers, colcworts, fennel, leeks, lettuces, mustard, onions, 
 parsley, parsneps peas, radishes, spinach. Sow on hotbeds, cauli- 
 llowers, celery, cress, cucumbers, melons, mustard,' radish, rape 
 tgi-sallads. bow spinach, the first crop, and hoe the winter-crop 
 
 if it be too thick. ^\ ater should be carried away, if it stands after 
 heavy rains, b\ cultmg treriches. 
 
 Flowek-Garden and SHRt'BBERV. Plant anemoiies and ra- 
 nunculuses : box for edgings at the end of the month; bulboitt 
 and tuberous roots of all sorts ; liowerin.g shrubs ;uid ornamental 
 trees: forest-trees of all sorts, except evergreens. Shrubbery 
 should be digged over and raked smooth, to destroy the young 
 weeds heginiiing to shoot ; but the trees should first be pruned. 
 Shrubs of all sorts should have the suckers taken olf, and, if small, 
 be planted in beds a foot asunder until th<'y are stronger ; and any 
 sorts may now be [ilaiited. Sow at the end of the month hardy 
 annuals and mignonette. 
 
 Fuun-CiAKDKN AND Orchahd. Ajipleand pear trees should 
 be finished pruning the fir?t mild weather. Plant cuttings of cur- 
 rants and gooseberries. Prepare grafts of ai>|iles and pears. Place 
 hurdles against peaches, nectarines, and apricots, in the beginning 
 oi the month; they should be about two feet higher than the walls, 
 that they may be set slo|)iiig; and must be fastened with stakes, 
 and remain there till the fruit is set. Sow kernels of apple-, and 
 pears, for stocks. Blaiiting all sorts of fruit-trees should be finish- 
 ed early in the month, and the roots covered with mulch. Prun- 
 ing wall-trees should be finished. Strawberries may be planted 
 at the end of the month, and the old beds dressed ; those on hot- 
 beds must be frequently watered. \'ines, finish pruning before 
 they biccil. Wall-trees, as apricots, nectarines, peaches, plums, 
 pears, should be finished pruning in the month, and those done 
 in October must be examined, and the dead ends cut off. 
 
 Greenhouse. Admit air, very freely in mild weather. Earth 
 the lop of the pots, but first take out the old an inch deep. Fire 
 must be made in foggy weather to dry the house. Leaves this 
 month decay very fast ; therefore they will require picking offal- 
 most every day, but especially from the geraniums. Myrtles, 
 oranges, winter-cherries, and some others, water frequently, but 
 not too much at a time. Succulent plants, as aloes, ficoides, &c. 
 must not have any water given them in this month, for it will 
 cause thein to rot. Water the plants which require it frequently, 
 but very sparingly ; for too much moisture in the house will in- 
 jure the plants. Windows may be opened for a few hours in the 
 middle of the day, but should be shut again about two o'clock, or 
 whenever it begins to be foggy. 
 
 MARCH. 
 
 Kitghen-Garden. Atisanders sown in autumn, should be 
 hoed to a foot asunder, and more seed sown. Aromatic shrubs and 
 herbs on beds, weed and fresh earth, early in the month ; sow and 
 plant more ot all sorts. Dre^s artichoke^, and take the suckers off 
 for a fresh plantation. Plant artichokes, asparagus, beans, cives, 
 cucumbers, Jerusalem artichokes, lettuces, melons, mushrooms, 
 potatoes, and tarragon. Plant aromatic herbs and shrubs ; as 
 balm, camomile, lavender, mint, pennyroyal, rosemary, rue, sage, 
 savory, thyme, &c. Pot and sweet-herbs should now be sown. 
 Slip pot-marjoram, savory, and thyme. Weed potatoes, and 
 plant the principal crop. Sow radishes, the fourth crop, and 
 rampions. Sow alisanders, angelica, asparagus, basil, beets, bo- 
 rage, boorecole, broccoli, burnet, cabbages, capsicums, carrots, 
 caulitiowers, celery, ccleriac, chardons, chervil, clary, corian- 
 ders, ores-, cucumbers, dill, fennel, hyssop, kidney-beans, leeks, 
 lettuces, marjoram, marigolds, melons, mustard, nasturtiums, 
 onions, parsley, parsueps, peas, purslane, radishes, ranqiions, sal- 
 >afy, savory, scor/onera, sea-kale, skirrets, sorrel, spinach, taiTa- 
 gon, thyme, tomatoes, turneps, water-cresses. Weed spinach, 
 and sow the second crop. Turneps, sow the first crop. Sow wa- 
 ter-cresses, in a moist place, or where it may be constantly sup- 
 plied with waste water from the pump. Destroy weeds, while 
 small, which will save future trouble. 
 
 Fi.ower-Garden AND SHRUBBERY. Anemones and ranun- 
 culuses, if any remain unplantcd, must not be deferred longer thalt 
 the first mild day. Anemones in flower shotdd be covered with 
 mats in windy or rainy weather. Annual flowers of all the hardy 
 sorts in the Catalogue at the end of the calendar may be sown 
 about the middle ol the month in small patches where they are to 
 remain ; hollow the earth out m the form of a bason, fifteen inches 
 over, and an inch deep, and sow tne seeds very thin all over it, 
 and not a small patch in the uiii'.ille, as is too frequently the cus- 
 tom, Bo,\ for edgings, in mild weatlier. Bulbous roots in beds 
 
 shouU
 
 GARDENING. 
 
 .047 
 
 »lioiil<l be coveivil with mats in rainy or t-loniiy wfatl-.tT, and llie 
 eiirtli stirred gcntiv iip « itli onw's fiii^ors to destroy tlio weeds. C'ar- 
 natioii-i shiudd be potted. Evergreen slind)S, and trees of all sorts, 
 jiiay be planted in mild weather ; tlieji cover the roots with turf 
 tiH-ned dovviiuar<ls, moss, fer.i, jr.-a-nlraw, or some such things, to 
 keep the ground moist, whieh is better, and gives less trouble than 
 watering. Plant flowerinc; shrubs and i'oresl-trees of all sorts, early 
 in the month, and cover tlie roots. Mignonette, sown last month, 
 should bo tran planted, and more of it sown. Myrtles, winler- 
 clierries, and other hardy greenhon~epla!its, planted against walls, 
 sbould have the mats rolU'd up in fine weather, and tlic dust washed 
 ofl from tlie leaves, but covi-red a^ain at night. I'erennial and 
 biennial (lowers must be sown on beds, very tliin, that they may be 
 strong; those sown last year should be transplr.nted, and the old 
 roots of the jjerennials divided. Plant annuals from the first hot- 
 bed : Biennialiand perennials from the seedbed : Bov for edgings: 
 Evergreens of all sorts : Perennials, l)y dividing thi-ir roots, and 
 seedlings of la^t year's sowing: Shrubs and trees early in the month : 
 StrawbeiTies and thrift for edging. Shrubberies should be pruned 
 early in the month : the suckers taken off, and planted a foot at 
 least asunder, and the rows two feet apart; the ground hoed oi 
 digged, and then raked over, that it may appear neat and 
 clean. 
 
 Fruit-G.'VIvDEN and Orchard. Apricot, nectarine, and peach- 
 trees, should have hurdles placed before them, to defend the blos- 
 soms from hail ; or else stick branches of yew, fern, or fir, amoiigst 
 them, but hurdles are the best. l''ig-trees which have mats nailed 
 over them should have them taken awav by degrees, towards the 
 end of the month. Graft trees, and cut (lown the biidfled ones. 
 Planting and pruning trees of all sorts •-houUl be finished at the be- 
 ginning of tlie month. Strawberry-beds should now be attended 
 to; hoe them and stir up the earth between them ; then spread 
 some very rotten dung and earth over them. Tiiose on hotbeds 
 want frequent watering, and the dead leaves should be constantly 
 picked olf, to let the sun come to the fruit. New plantations may 
 now be made. Vines inay now be layered ; plant cuttings. 
 
 Greekhouse. Give air freely in the middle of the day, ex- 
 cept the w ind be very cold. Earth the tops of the pots, but take 
 the old earth out an inch deep. Place geraniums near the w indows 
 to prevent their being drawn up weak. Myrtles, winter-cherries, 
 and other hardy plants, will want fresh potting, and, if the weather 
 be mild, may be taken out to make more room, but set tlieni in a 
 sheltered place at first. Sow kernels in pots, good strong seed, 
 and if they are set an inch asunder, they will grow faster. Suc- 
 culent plants may now have a little water, but not inuch at a time. 
 Water the plants in the middle of the day, ami only when the sun 
 ^hines. 
 
 APRIL. 
 
 Kitchen-Garden. April being the latest time for sowing the 
 prin'ipnl crops of the kitchen-garden, if any thing directed to be 
 performed last mojith were omitted, or the weather would not per- 
 mit, let it be done early in this. Aromatic herbs and shrubs of all 
 the following sorts should now be planted, as balm, camomile, 
 pennyroyal, peppermint, spearinint, tansey, lavender, rosemary, 
 rue, sage, sontheinwood, wormwood. Sec. Finish both sowing and 
 pfanting asparagus early in the monlii. Let the beds be forked 
 and raked smooth, and watered twice a week with drainings of a 
 dunghill. Cutoff every bud, however small ; for, if thev be left 
 Bn, they weaken the others; this method is in general otilv prac- 
 tised by the London kitchen-gardeners. Never sutler any weeds to 
 remain after they are in an inch high, for they weaken the aspara- 
 gus very much. Beans in flower'should have their tops cut off; 
 and draw the stalks of the first crop close to the wall by strings, and 
 earth them up. Plant the third crop of Windsors. Kale and 
 brocoli shonlil htive the first crop pricked out, and the second 
 sown. Cabbages of t!ie early sort should have their leaves tied up 
 to forward their cabbaging. Prick out from the seedbed the third 
 crop of sugarloal", the second of red, and the liret of savoys. Pick 
 OHt capsicums, from the seedbed, to prevent their growing weak, 
 tipon another hotbed. Weed carrots, thin the first'crop, and sow 
 the second to drjw young. Search for caterpillars upon cabbages 
 and apple-trees particularly. Sow cress and mustard, every week. 
 Cucumber-beds must be attended to, and plenty of air given them, 
 when mild ; au.d, if the heat dcclioes, fresh. dung must be added to 
 
 ■ the sides. Sow kidney-beans, the secon<l crop, and the first of the 
 scarlet-iioweiing. Tie up lettuces, to assist their cabbaging ; those 
 in beds should be thinned to a foot distance; o^her.^ planted out, 
 and the fourth crop sown very thin in an airy place. Melon-beds 
 will require to be kept up to a good heat, and the second and third 
 crop planted out. Thin Parsley for garnish'.ng dishes, and leave 
 those plants which have the best curled leaves. Sow the large- 
 rooted. Earth U]> pens frequently, and stick them as soon as any 
 tendrils appear. Sow the third crop of marrow lat- . Plant beans 
 and mushrooms. 
 
 ELOWER-CiARDEM AND Shrl'Hberv. Anemones in stormv 
 weather will still reipiiie covering with mats. Annual flowers ori 
 hotbeds will rf(|uire Ihimiini;, and some of the strongest must be 
 planted into single pots. Hardy annuals, if not alrei.dy sown as 
 directed in March, should be deferred no longer, and sown very 
 thin. Auriculas in bloom must be con-lanllv attended to, and dt- 
 leiuled from violent winds, but yet have plenty of air in mild 
 weather; the seedbeds will want frequent and gentle waterings. 
 Balm of gilcad may be sown or slipped, but the strongest plants 
 will be raised fiomseed. Biennial and perennial llowers finish sow- 
 ing early in the month. Bulbous-rooted Jlowers, whi( h were plant- 
 e<l in boxes or glasses, as soon as the llowers are <lecaved, --hould be 
 planted in the ground, to strengthen the roots. Carnation-seed 
 may now be sown, and stir up the earth frequently of those in pots. 
 Crocus-leaves are by many persons cut oil ; but it greativ weakins 
 llie young roofs, for the old ones decav, and new roots are forined 
 every year; if they hang over in the walks, tie them up in a knot. 
 I'lnish planting evergreen-trees and shrubs, and sow the seed. 
 Plant annuals from liie hotbeds into ])ots, and plunge them imo 
 another hotbed : Biennials and perennials on the borders: Myrtles, 
 heaths, and other hanly grecnhou^e-J)l3ntb: Hollies and quick for 
 hedges : Straw berries and thrift for edgings : Shrubs and trees of 
 ail sorts early in tlie month : Tuberoses in p'^ls on a hotbed. Water 
 seeding-heads of llowers, shrubs, and trees, often, but very little at 
 a time. Shrubberies should be linished tligging and raking, and 
 frequently hoed when any weeds appear. 
 
 Fruit-Garden and ORCHAUn. Apricots commonly growing 
 in clusters require to be thinned three tHlJerent times": as soon, 
 therefore, as they are the size of a horse-bean, it isproper to begin. 
 Budded fruit-trees, such as apricots, clierries, nectarines, peaches, 
 plums, nuist be eNamined to pull off all the shoots which come 
 from the stock. Caterpillars may now be readily found in their 
 webs, but mare particularly on apple-trees. Gratted fruit-trees, 
 as apples, cherries, pears, must often be examined to put off the 
 sliools below the grafts ; and replace any clay whiclj has cracked 
 or fallen ot'f. -^pply liog's-<lnng to "any fruit-trees which are 
 blighted. Take away hurdles- when the fruit is set. Finish plant- 
 ing and pruning nectarines and peaches. Plantinc and priijiiiig 
 should be entirely finished early in the month; aad if any trees 
 l)e removed so late, it should be those whicii have been phiiitf d in 
 baskets and trained. Search for snails in the holes of walls. Finish 
 dressing and planting strawberry-beds, but plant only strong run- 
 ners of the last year. 
 
 Greenhouse. Give air, very freely, by keeping the windows 
 open ail d.iy, except in storms of hail. ' American aloes mav have 
 water very wften, and should be fresh potted. Earth the tops of all 
 the pots, with the comi)0it which each plant requires : and shift 
 those which are in too small pots. Geraniums should be removed 
 as near as possible to the windows, to prevent their being drawn up 
 weak ; branches which begin to rot must be cut olf, and decayed 
 leaves constantly pulled olf. Inarch-orangeand lemon-trees. C'on- 
 ilantly pull off' decayed leaves from alTiilants, but esi)ecially the 
 geraniums. Myrtles, if prevented from being set out last month, 
 may be removed in this, but it should be in a sheltered place. 
 Prune and fresh-pot any plants that may need it. Orange-trees 
 must be fre^h-potted alter the myrtles are taken out ; leaves wdiich 
 are mildewed must be cleaned with a spunge and water a littl« 
 warm, and the stems well brushed. 
 
 ^L^.Y. 
 
 Kitchek-Garden. Aromatic herbs- and shrubs may still be 
 sown and i)Ianted. Artichokes should have the young shoots 
 pulled otf, lest they rob the principal one. Asparagus-becls on^ht 
 to be frequently weeded, and in very dry weathifr watering Iheni 
 will be proper. Beans will require to have their tops cut otf' as 
 
 tjcv
 
 348 
 
 GARDENING. 
 
 tliey eonie into llower, and the eartli drawn Uj) to their stems, 
 i'rick out the socoiid crop of kale, and be .sure to have plenty of 
 plant-^, for ill all long frosty winters its utility isfuUj proved. Cab- 
 l)ai>eo will olleji want hoeing and earthing up. Plant the second 
 crop, and the iirst of red. Sow the fourth crop, and the second 
 of savoys. Cabbage-turneps, turneprooted-cabbages, American 
 and white Scotch cabb.;ges, and Anjou boorcole, must now be 
 V)Wn ; whether they are uitended for feeding cattle, or for eating. 
 'J'hey are most prohtable v. lien vejy large, therefore sow the seed 
 very tliiii. Sow cress and mustard every week on a cool bonier; 
 and hoe that which is intended for seed. Cucumbers for the fourth 
 tro|) niav hi- planted out, and let some be against walls, botli lor 
 seed and superior flavour. Sow now ni the open ground. If 
 plants be attacked with black flies, iuniigate them with tobacco- 
 smojce. Endive, thin the first crop and sow the second. Escha- 
 lots, garlic, and rocambole, may have a few roots taken up for 
 present use. Hoe or weed the beds of beets, carrots, leeks, let- 
 tuces, onions, parsley, parsnips, turneps, &;c. and thin them before 
 they are too much crowded. Sow kidney-beans the third crop ol 
 dwarls, and the second ot runners. Thin lettuces in beds, and 
 then sow the fifth crop. M'lons on the tan-bed must be 
 thinned, 
 
 Flower-Garden and Shrubbery. Bulbous roots, which 
 flower early, as aconites, anemones, crocuses, irises, snow-drops, 
 and several others, should be taken up as sooji as the leaves are 
 vilhered, and before they enluclv disappear, for then they are 
 ntore readily found. Those iji boxes or glasses, which have done 
 jtlowering, should be put into the ground to strengthen the roots. 
 Carnations will require sticks to be placed to them as soon as they 
 begin to spindle, and the earth should be often stirred up. Ever- 
 green-shrubs and trees lately planted must be frequently watered, 
 and they may also be layered. Weed, roll, and mow, the grass- 
 walks, often. Gravel-walks will retiuire frccpient rolling, llya- 
 cinths, as soon as the leaves begin to decay, should be taken up, 
 tlien laid on aiidg of earth with their leaves downwards, and 
 covered vv'ith earth two or three inches thick, to harden and ripen 
 the roots. Insects of various sorts, as tarwigs, caterpillars, snails, 
 &p. should be searched or and destroyed. Mignonette niav he 
 sown in the open grotind, for a succession in the autumn. Mvr- 
 tles, heath:,, and other hardy greenhouse-plants against walls, will 
 often require watering. .Plant bulbous rools .vhich have been 
 forced, in boxes, or glasses, into the open ground, to strengthen 
 the roots. Rannncuhises sho.uld be weeded, and the earth gently 
 stirred with the fingers. Rose-trees infected with green (lies or 
 grubs must be constantly examined; wash off the flies with water, 
 and pinch those leaves which have grubs in them with the finger 
 and thumb. To have ro>es late in autumn, cut off every fiower- 
 bud which now appears, frcm two or three trees, and water them 
 Well for about ten days afterwards. Seeds of every sort of flowers 
 which are ripe should be gathered. 
 
 . Fruit-Garden and Orchard, Apricots should be thinned 
 for the second time, and all forenght shoots pulled off, Bliglited 
 trees should have hog's dung spread over the border ; then fork 
 up the ground and water it well. Pull off curled leaves, water tiie 
 trees all over, and >trew tobacco-diist on the leaves ; or funiig-ate 
 them with«tobai:co-smoke, which will greatly help to destroy the 
 insects. Examine budded trees often, and pull off impi-oper 
 shoots. Caterpillars must be searched for upon apple-trees, and 
 destroyed. Disbud all the wall-trees, by pulling olf buds which 
 poine out ill improper places, E-palier-trees should be examined 
 to disbud them and train in the shoots. Grafted trees should have 
 the clay taken off, if properly united. Nectarines and peaches 
 will re(|uire thinning for the first time, and Ihelrees to be disbudded. 
 Forced strawberries should have the dead leaves pulled off, and 
 be fre(|ucntly watered, 'i'iiose which are beginning to flower, or 
 have lately been planted, must be often walered in dry weather. 
 It i^ not generally known that hautboys and C'hili strawberries do 
 noV lil^*' a" other species, produce hermaphrodite flowers, but 
 male and female flowers on separate plants; and persons ignorant 
 of this fact, allege their hautboys are blind; wlicreas those tlowi-rs 
 which turn black in the middle are male plants, and never will 
 produce fruiU To n.ake a plantation properly, let a person skilled 
 in Uotauy examine them when in flower; he will then easily dis- 
 tinguish them by the male stamina above a iiuartcr of an inchliigh. 
 Most of theiii shonld.be pulled up, and the malt; ones marked wUh 
 
 a stick ; for they cani.ot be distinguished when out of flower. 1 he 
 females indeed will produce fruit, but neither so large nor well 
 flavoured, and o ten iil-diaped ; and the seed will not grow, unless 
 impregnated by the male flowers. In making a new plantation, 
 do it in the following manner : 
 
 The male plants may be transplanted when in flower, if covered 
 with a flow cr-pot for a few days after : three males will do for every 
 fourteen females. 
 
 Greenhouse. Air must be given freely except on cold nights. 
 American aloes must be often watered, and placed near the win- 
 ilows. Take geraniums towards the end of the month, except 
 those with variegated leaves,. Turn nnrtles which are small out 
 of the pots, and plant them in a bed of light rich earth. Orange- 
 trees must be fresh-poltcd, if not done last month ; and as soon a 
 the leaves of mulberry-trees are the size of a half-crown, it shews 
 that the weather is settled, and they may safely be set out, Win- 
 dows may be kept open all day, anci, towards the end of the mouth, 
 all night, to mure the plants by degrees to the open air. 
 
 JUNE, 
 
 Kitchen-Garden, Plant the first crop of kale, and sow the 
 third. Broccoli, plant the first, prick out tiie third, and sow the 
 fourth crop. Cabbages, plant the third crop, prick out the fourth 
 and sow the fifth, Eed cabbages, plant the second crop, and sow 
 the third. Savoys, plant the first, prick out the second, and sow 
 the third. Cress and mustard intended to stand for seed, should 
 now be hoed for the last time; the cress left at six inches distance, 
 and the mustard at eight. Nail up or stick cucumbers against 
 walls. Sow the sixth crop of lettuces in a cool place, and thin 
 those for seed to a foot distant. Cover melons in frames with mats 
 in the middle of the day, and lay pieces of broken earthen plates 
 or dishes under the Iruit, Sow the last marrowfat pease in a cool 
 place. Plant lettuces and melons. Weed pot-herbs and sweet- 
 herbs often, and gather for drying, just before they begin to 
 flower; then tic them up in small bunches, and hang tiiem across 
 hues in a sliady room to dry. Prick out broccoli, cabbages, cau- 
 .illowers, and celery. Sow turneps and turnep-radishes. Sow 
 radishes, the seventh crop, and turnep-rooted, and black Spanish, 
 in a cool place. Rape and coleseed may now be sown. Seeds of 
 all sorts must be gathered as they ripen, and defended from birds. 
 Flower-CIarden and Shrubbery, Take up anemones be- 
 fore their leaves are quite withered, and they will be more readily 
 found. Annuals from the hotbeds will require fresh potting, and 
 may be placed in the open air if it be settled and warm, but will 
 want frequent watering. Annuals on the borders should have the 
 earth stirred up with a hoe, and be often watered, and more sown 
 to flower in autumn, as described under last month. Biennials 
 and perennials, transplant Irom the seedbeds. Hoe and rake bor- 
 ders of the flower-garden and shrubbery frequently. Box may be 
 rlipped, but always do it in moist weather. Bulbous-rooted 
 flowers of Jevcry sort, whose leaves are nearly withered, should 
 be taken up before the leaves entirely disappear, and put into shaU 
 low wooden boxes, as directed for hyacinths, as soon as dry. Car- 
 nations require to be examined frequently and tied up to Ihesticks, 
 Search for earwigs. Evergreens may be clipped in moist weather 
 Myrtles, and other greenhouse-plants against walls, should be ef- 
 ten watered, all fore-right shoots pulled off while small, and the 
 otliers nailed to the walls with long narrow shreds of fine cloth. 
 Plant out peiennials and biennials from the s-eed-beds in showei"y 
 weather; and, if the sun should be very hot soon after, cover each 
 plant witii a llower-pot, until they have taken root. Pinks may 
 now be increased by making pipings or cuttings, but a glass must 
 be placed over them. Plant out all annuals from the seed-beds 
 and hot-beds: biennials and perennials from the seed-beds. Shrub- 
 beries ouk,ht frequently to be looked over; all straggling branches 
 should be cutofl or tied up; and the grounds stirred with a IJiitch 
 hoe. Shrubs in pots may be set in pans, and watered ofti n. Sow 
 annuals, as described under last month, to flower in auluinn, in 
 anv vacancies that may be on the borders of the shrubbery ot 
 flower-garden, Tulipsshould be taken up before their leaves are 
 J quite decayed, that they may be found more readily.
 
 GARDENING. 
 
 5-1 Q 
 
 I'ruit-Garden, and Orchard. Applo-trocs in espaliers must 
 be often cxumiiu'd ; ;iil luie-rif^lit siioot^ sliouUI lie taken ul'l' wliilc 
 small, and llie otlier» regiilail> trained to tlieir proper distances. 
 Search fur caterpillars. If the standard apple-trees be infected 
 witli caterpillaiN, light some ilanip straw, and with a fork ilirect 
 the smoke tiirnus;h the tree, and they will soon be sullocated, and 
 instantly drop down. Apricots must be thinned tor the thinl and 
 last time, and the shoots frequently nailed up. IMighted trees 
 must be constantly attended to, as directed last month. Bud apri- 
 cots, cherries, and peach trees. Nail up lig-trees with very stnm.: 
 shreds. Nail up every week shc^ots of wall-lrees. Vines nnpure 
 const, ,nt attendance, in rubbing otl' improper buds, and nailing up 
 the siiools. Water those trees freciuently vihich are blighted: all 
 newly planted trees in dry weather; and strawberries in Hower. 
 
 GREhSHOUse. Air may now be given very freely in the 
 gn-enliouse, and the windows niav be kept open all night. Plant 
 cuttings of various sorts under bell or hand glasses, at the end of 
 tlie month. Earth all the plants every month at top, if not shift- 
 e<l. It makes them look neater, and grow better. Geranium- 
 seedlings sown in Marcii will now require pricking out, and cut- 
 tings planted under glasses. Inarch jessamines, lemons, and 
 oranges. Layer jessamines, oleanders, &c. Plant myrtle-cut- 
 tings at the end of the month under glasses, but never take them 
 off till ihey hare grown two inches. Orange-trees, if not taken 
 out at the end of last month, will requiie it at the beginning of 
 this. Clean well the leaves which are mildewed, or have insects 
 on them, with a spungc and warm water. Inarching may now be 
 performed. 
 
 JULY. 
 
 Kitchen-Garden. Aromatic herbs, flowers, and siinibs, ga- 
 thered last month, if hung on line>, will soon be dried. It is then 
 better to strip otf the leaves and llowers from tlie stalks, and put 
 them into paper-bags, which will preserve their flavour better, and 
 keep them free from dust. Continue to gather them before their 
 flowers are too much opened. Asparagus if wished for in autumn, 
 must be attended to at the beginning of this month ; the stalks 
 must be tut down, and, if it be dry weather, the beds must be 
 very well watered with the draining from a dunghill. Ne.vt day 
 fork them up lightly, and rake tliem smooth ; if the weather con- 
 tinues dry, water them every night for a week, and in about eight 
 or ten days they will be fit to cut. PlajU the second crop of kale, 
 prick out the third, and the tirst of Anjou. Plant out the third 
 crop of broccoli, and prick out the fourth. Plant the fourth rro|) 
 of cabbages, and prick out the filth. Prick out the third crop oi 
 red cabbages. Plant the second crop of savoys, and prick out the 
 third. Cabbage-turneps, &c. for cattle, prick out the first crop. 
 Sow carrots to draw young, the third crop. Earth up, and often 
 water, capsicums. Plant out the fourth ciop of caulidowers. 
 Plant the second of celery, and prick out the filth. Finish sowing 
 coleseeds, coleworts, iiiul rape. Prick out the second crop of cole- 
 w^rts. Stick cucumbers on the open ground, with branches of 
 elm, or other sticks. Lay tiles on endive, or tie up the lirst crop ; 
 plant the second, thin the third, and sow the fourth very thin. 
 Take up some eschalots and garlic for present use. Sow finocliio, 
 the fourth crop. Sow kidney-beans, on a south border, the fifth 
 and last crop. Still plant lavender and rosemary cuttings. IMant 
 red cabbages, rosenuiry, and savoys. Gather |)(.>t-herbs and sweet 
 herbs for drying; and, as soon as dried, strip off the leaves, and 
 put them into paper-l.^ags. 
 
 Flower-Garden and Shrubbery. Seeds nearly ripe must 
 be watched and gathered, else many sorts will be lost. Annuals, 
 to flower late in autumn, may still be sown. Auriculasand polyan- 
 thuses from the seedbed should be transplanted upon a shady bor- 
 der, and, if possible, in rainy weather. Finish cutting l)ox and 
 evergreen shrubs. Bud the curious sorts of jessamines, roses, &c. 
 Mignonette should now be sown to Hower in winter, and more put 
 into pots. Myrtles, and other greenhouse-jjlants against walls, 
 will require frequent nailing and watering. Finish planting peren- 
 nials and biennials from the seed-beds. Pinks, finish making pipe- 
 ings or cuttings. Plant auricula and polyanthus seedlings: bien- 
 nial and perennial seedlings: cuttings of scarlet lychnis and pinks: 
 evergreens, if the weather be rainy: mignonette into pots: offsets 
 ofhlies: plTsets of autumnal-flowering bulbs: prpeings of carna 
 tions and pinks : saffron-crocus. Ranunculuses must be taken up, 
 and laid iu the shade to dry ; then well cleaned from earth, an ' 
 
 vol., IJ. — NO. 9'2. 
 
 ■4 
 
 laid in shallow boxes, or put into paper-boxes. Finish layering 
 and bu<lding rose-trees Seedling trees, shrubs, and flower-, 
 must be properly shaded and watered Seeds now begin to 
 ripen very fast; therefore must be constantly attended tr, and 
 gathered. Shrubberies will reijuire frequent attention in pruning or 
 hoeing. 
 
 GaRden-I'rcit Avn Orchard. Destroy ants, flies, and wasps, 
 as soon as they appear, by hanging bottles half lilled witli sugar, 
 or honey and water. Olten look over apricot-trees; pull oil all 
 lore-right shoots, and nail those which are lo remain. Attend to 
 blighted tree-., and water the holders o en. Budding of apricoLs, 
 cherries, and peaches, linish. Currants inlendi-tl to he preser\ed 
 till autumn, should now l)e covered with mats. Ol'len examine es- 
 palier-trees^ ami irain in the shoots. Fig-trees re:;Uire nailing up as 
 they shoot, with strong nails and long shreds. Fruit should be 
 gathered in the morning, as soon as the sun has dried the dew from 
 It, and before it is heated, and then laid in a cool room. Destroy 
 nsecls of all sorts. Water strawberries in flower constantly in dry- 
 weather, and pull ofl'decayed leaves. Tie up the fruit of tlie haut- 
 boys and other large Sorts to sticks. Cut oil all runners after the 
 first, and these shouhl be planted out as soon as some rain falls. 
 Vims must be very often attended to, to nail ifp the slioots, and 
 pull ofi'all improper buds. Wall-frees require constant attention, 
 to nail up ami wa er in very dry weather. 
 
 Greenhol'se. African aloes, and other succulent greenhouse- 
 plants, may now be set out in the open air. Cuttings' of asters, 
 geraniums, grewias, myrtles, &c. should now be planted under 
 bell or hand glasses, wiiich should not be taken off until tliey ha\e 
 grown an inch. Earth the tops of all the pols, first taking a little 
 out. Plant gerauium-ciitlings, and prick out the seedings before 
 they are too thick. Tiiose with variegated leaves do best in alcoves 
 or under a little shelter. Paint and wliite-wash the greenhouse. In 
 arching and layering various sorts may still be performed. Plant 
 stocks, when four inches high, in separate ])i>ts. Pans should be 
 placed under all the pols, as if is better for the plants, and saves 
 much trouble in watering. Shade, water, and prick out, scedlinj; 
 plants. Succulent plants, as aloes, cereuses, ficsidea, and Indian 
 tigs, torch-thistles, &c. may now be set abroad. 
 
 AUGUST. 
 
 Kitchen-Garden. Sow alisanders, angelica, and chervil. 
 Sow corn-sallad on beds. Cucumbers for pickling, either large or 
 small, to have them fine, should now be gathered; and they will 
 be free from spots, and save much trouble in greening. Lettuces, 
 for standing through the winter, and lor forcing, must now be 
 sown very thin at three different times in the month: and plant 
 out those last sown on a south border. Melons, in rainy weather, 
 must bi: defended from wet by putting hand-glasses over them; 
 and slicks placeil for the pickling melons to run up. Prepare 
 nnishroom-beds, by having dung and spawn ready for the next 
 month. Onions must be frequ.:ntly turned, that they may be 
 well dried. Sow the second crop of Welsh omens. Gatr.er pep- 
 permint for distilling, as soon as it begins to flower. Sow some 
 liotspur-peas, on a south bonier for the fifth and last crop. Plant 
 celery, endive, leeks, and lettuces. Prick out Anjou, Brussels 
 boorcole, cabbage-turneps, and turnep-rootcd cabbages. Sow ra- 
 dishes, the ninth and last crop. Sretls, nearly ripe, must be 
 guarded from birds, particularly radish seeds. Sow cress, fennel, 
 mustard, and sorrel. Sow the second crop of prickly broad-cast 
 spiujch, and then, at spring, hoe it into beds four feet wide, with 
 paths of eighteen inches between the beds. 
 
 Flower-Garden, and Shrubbery. Plant bulbous roots, 
 that flower in autumn, early in the month. Bulbous roots of all 
 sorts shoulil have their offsets planted at the end of the month. 
 Take off carnations' layers, and plant out the pipings from under 
 the glasses. Finish the clipping of evergreen irees and shrubs. 
 Grass-walks and lawns require freciuent mowing. Gravel-walks 
 must be weeded and rolled. Take up lilies, if their leaves be de- 
 cayed ; but the offsets must be planted again directly. Plant mig- 
 nonette in pets to flower in winter, and place them under a south. 
 wall. Myrtles and greeniiouse-t)lants against walls must be prun- 
 ed and n.iiled, and toiistanth watered. 
 
 Fruit-Gardfn, and Orchard. Destroy ants, flies, and 
 
 wasps, by supplying fresh bottles of sugar, or honey and water. 
 
 Apple-trees on espaliers will require frequent examining. Bunding 
 
 of all trees finish, and pull uH buds and shoots from the sto< k'. 
 
 7 A Curraul*
 
 5-50- 
 
 GARDENING. 
 
 Ciinanti iiUended U> be jn'oeiveil, linisli covering wilh mats. 
 Isail up evtry week tlie triiit-trces. Kail up nectaiines aiul 
 pi'Qches tVequiMitly. Auend lo pear and pluni-lrei-s, botli on walls 
 and agaitibt espaliers, constantly. Transplanlstrawbeiry-rnnners, 
 if rooted, in rainy weather, and cut oil' all llie others as tiiey shoot. 
 Greenhouse. Take off the oltsets of aloes, both Alrican and 
 Americaii, and plant thtnii in separate pols. Often water the cut- 
 tings of niyrtle->, peraninnis, Sjc. Kaith the top> of all the pots. 
 A\'ater geraniums and myrtles constantly, but pour on the water 
 gently. Oranges, !,till bud till the ninMle of the month. Prime 
 any which require it, as this is the season of their shooting. 
 
 SEPTKMBER. 
 Kttchf,k-G.\rdkn'. So\? cress and mustard every week, and 
 
 at the end of the month under glasses. Cucumbers for pickling 
 sliould be linis'ied gathering; which will shew the advantage of 
 sticking til ni, and pickling early. Plant out a little of the fourth 
 crop of endive to thin it, and give the rest more room. Tie up 
 some to Idanch. Eschalots, garlic, and rocambole, should have 
 the offsets and small roots planted. Lettuces must be thiimed 
 early in the seed-beil, if sown thick, and pricked out on a south 
 border to about four or live inches asunder. Melons for pickling 
 will now be tit to gather. Make mushroom-beds at the beginning 
 'of the month. Gather nasturtiums for picklinp.. Finish sowing 
 onion'i, early in the month, the second crop of Welsh. Weed 
 those sown last month before the weeds are high. Plant water- 
 ciesscs. Prick out cabbages, caulillowers, and lettuces. Gather 
 seeds constantly as they ripen. Sow cress, mustard, furneps, and 
 water-cresses. Finish sowing spinach for spring use, and hoe that 
 sown last month. Plant tarragan-rools. Hoe and thin turneps, 
 turnep-radisiies, and black Spanish radishes. Water in drv wea- 
 ther any crops lately planted out. 
 
 Flower-G AUDEN, AND Shrubberv. I'laiit anemones, single- 
 flowered, at the end of the month to llower early. i\nnuals in 
 pots must be frequently watered to ripen the seeds. Kcmove au- 
 riculas, that they may have the morning-sun, anil finish slipping 
 them. Balsams, cockscombs, egg-plants, or other curious annuals 
 in pots, which are wishe<l to raise seeds from, must be placed un- 
 der shelter in an alcove, greenhouse, or room, fronting the south, 
 and then the seeds will ripen. Prep.ire beds for planting bulbous 
 roots, early in the month. Plant bo\ for edgings, at the begin- 
 ning of the month, or as soon as any fain falls. Plant bulbous 
 roots of all sorts-, earlv in the month; but the ol(>ets and lilies, 
 and crown-imperials first. Plant evergrt ens at the end of the 
 month, if the ground be moist. Grass walks may now be repaired, 
 or new ones made. Weed and roll gravel-walks olten. Plant 
 hyacinths, jonijuils, lilies, narcissuses, polyanthus-narcissuses, &c. 
 at the end of the month. Plant laurel-cuttings, in the shade. 
 Layer laurustinuses and other shrubs. Take up lilies which llower 
 late, as soon as their leaves are decayed, but jjlant the ollsets again 
 dlrfctly, ami all other sorts of lilies. Place mignonette in pots, 
 under shelter. Myrtles and greenhouse-plants against walls must 
 be constantly watered in dry weather. Plant out perennial seed- 
 lings, and divide the old roots. Plant box for edgings, ever- 
 greens, crown-imperials, and lilies, early in the month ;' cuttings 
 of laurel, honeysuckles, jessamines, shrubs, and trees, of all sorts; 
 but not until after there has been ^ome rain. Strawberries and 
 thrift for edgings. Gather seeds in the middle of the dav. 
 
 Kruit-Gakdev, and Orchard. Destroy ants, flies, wasps, 
 and in-ects of all sorts, cunstautiy. Sow cherry-kernels on beds. 
 Plant currant and gooseberrv cuttings and trees. Nail up fig-tree> 
 frequently with strong shrids. Attend to the fruit-room, ami jjick 
 out the rotten pears, or anv other sorts which begin to decay. Put 
 grapes into bags of crape, gau/e, or paper. Plant currants, goose- 
 berries, raspberries, strawberries. Str.iwberries shouhl be planted 
 early in the month, and then they will be well rooted before the 
 frost begins. Dress the beds, and phut some strong roots in pots 
 to force. 
 
 Grehnhouse. Remove aloes into the greenhouse in the be- 
 ginning of the nioiUli, but leave out the American ones to the end. 
 Plant cuttings and seedlings in separate pots, and earth the tops 
 ol all the pot-;. Set in ger.iniums with variegated leaves, early in 
 the month, and leave off watering the leaves. Take myrtles out 
 of the ground, and pot them. Fre.di earth orange-trees, thin the 
 fruit, crmost of it will fall off, and lake them into the house at the 
 
 eiul of the month. Take in succulent plants of all sorts, early iu 
 the month, and give them very little water. Water iu the morn- 
 ing, and keep the windows open all lUijht; leave oli' watering the 
 geraniums over the leaves. 
 
 OCTOBER. 
 
 Kitchen'-Garde.v. Cut down asparagus-stalks, hoe theweeds, 
 and spread e-arth from the path> on them, but lir>t a little rotten 
 dung. Prepare hotbeds, for forcing, and plant three-year old 
 plala^ tor the lirsl croj). lieaiis, the earlv mazagan, mu>t be plant- 
 ed on a south border, for the first crop. Plant ont Anjou boorcole, 
 the second crop, early in the month, and hoe the ground around 
 the others. Plant out broccoli,nhe rest of the fourth crop. Plant: 
 out half the cabbages, sow n in August, of the early sorts, ii) a warm 
 situation. Pljant cabbage-turneps, early iu the month, and earth 
 up the other,-<. Finish hoeing carrots, sown in July. Attend to 
 eaulitiowers, beglniiing to flower, by breaking down the leaves. 
 Those intended for glasses will want planting out; let there be 
 si\- to each glass, and tl-.e rest in a frame, or under a south wall. 
 Pl.'.nt out celery, the fifth and Ia4 cro)), and earth up the second to 
 l)lauch. Finish planting coleworts. Sow cress, mustard, and ra- 
 dish, under glasses, and on a hotbed at the end of the month. Tie 
 u]) endive, to blanch, or lay tiles on it, and plant more. Plant 
 eschalots, garlic, and rocambole. Throw up vacant ground into 
 ridges. Sow ])eas, the early hotspurs, on a south border near the 
 wall, for a fir^t crop. Plant on hotbeds asparagus for the lirst 
 crop, and lettuces and mint. 
 
 I-'eowkr-Garden, and Shrubbery. Remove auriculas and 
 carnations into shelter, and in wet weather cover them with mats. 
 Balsams, cocksco;ubs, egg-plants, &:c. intended to raise seed from, 
 niu-^t be constantly attended to, 'o hasten the ripening of the seed, 
 'lurn over beds and composts for bulbous roots, frequently. Fi- 
 nish jjlanting box for edgings, earlv in the month. Pf.mts bulbous 
 roots for forcing, in pols or boxes, and lini^h planting all others 
 before the rain sets in. Plant crocusi-s, aconites, snow-drops, and 
 any bulbous roots which llower early in the spring, at the begin- 
 ning of the mouth. Plant evergreens of all sorts, early in the 
 month. I'lant bulbou^ roots early in the month ; asaconites, amarvl- 
 lises, corn-tlags, crown-imperials, dallodils, garlic molly, irises, 
 martagons, pancratiuns, ranmiculusijs, snow-drops, star of Bethle- 
 hem, tulips, &c. J'lant also peremiials at the beginning of the 
 month: shrubs and trees of all sorts: strawberries and thrift for 
 edgings: place seedlings in pots, under a south wall in the ground; 
 and weed and eartli seedlings in beds. Gather seeds in the middle 
 of the day. 
 
 FKuir-GARDEN, AND ORCHARD. Gather apples and pears in 
 the middle of fine dry days. Plant a))ple-trees at the end of the 
 month. I'lant c urrants, gooseberries, ami i-a--pberries. Examine 
 grapes in bags, to see that they are not mouldy or <lecayed. Ga- 
 ther nectarines and jjeaches, in the middle of the day. Orchards 
 or fruit-tiees intended lo be planted, should have the ground pre-' 
 pared, and the holes diggi-tl >ome weeks before-haiul ; it the soil 
 be very gowl, some loam and rotten dung should be mixed toge- 
 ther, and the trees planted in it. If the orchard be wet, bring a 
 cart-load of earth at least foreath tree: form the earth into a Httle 
 hill, about a foot high, and plant the tree upon it, but dig up the 
 tuft lirst a foot deej) iu a circle of four or five teet over. Gather 
 pei.ches in the middle of the day, and, if not ripe, lay them in the 
 sun for a few days in a window; they are iiiuch improved by 
 roasting gently like -apples, and eating ihrm w ilh sugar and wine. 
 Plant peach-trees, at the end of the month. Plant fruit-trees of all 
 sorts. Prune all sorts of wall-trees, but sweep off all the leaves 
 tirst with a birch broom. Fini>h dressing strawberry-beds, and 
 water the al|)ines frequently under the trames. \'mes in |)ots 
 shoulil be Iransplaiiti d; make the holes ready, pour water into 
 ihein, and then gently turn them out of the pot, or place the pot 
 in the hole and break it, ami then the roots cannot he di^turbed, 
 and you will have fruit the next year. Finish pruning and plant- 
 ing wall-trees, early in the month. 
 
 GuEEKiioi'SE. Give air very freely in the day-time, and leave 
 some of thcwinilows open at night until the end of the montb. 
 ' [iarth the tops of the pots. 'I'ake in geraniums early in this month, 
 if not ilone the last ; water them >paringly, <ir they will begin lo 
 shoot afresh, and pic k off constantly all .decayed leaves. Clean 
 leaves well before the plants are set in order, and pick off dead 
 
 oi.es.-
 
 GARDENING. 
 
 551 
 
 ones, 'lake in myrtles towards tlie end of tlie nionlli. Orange- 
 trees sliould nut reni.iin out tliis month; examine llic leaves before 
 Sellilii; them in, for insects, vvliich fasten tliemselves uiidenieatli, 
 and pick them oil"; if any leaves be niiUlewed, w;uh them with 
 warm water and a s])nnge. AVaU-r succnlenl pUmts s|)arin:;ly. 
 Water myrlle.s orange-trees, wiuter-clicrries, and all woudy plants 
 often. Cipen the windows e\ ery line day, but keep them fiiut in 
 foggy weatlier. 
 
 NOVEMBER. 
 
 Kitchen-Garden. Finish pkniling beans for tlic first crop. 
 Plant beets, cabl)ages, and carrots, for seed. Take up carrots and 
 lay them in sand. Give some air to cauliflowers nnder glasses 
 and frames, in the middle of Tine dayS. Karth np celery, when 
 dry, to blanch. Sow cress, mustard, and radishes, on hotbeds. 
 Prepare hotbeds for forcing asparagus iand lettuces. Sow early 
 short-topped radishes, and spread wheaten straw over the beds. 
 
 I'lower-Gakden, and Shrubbery. Bulbous roots, intended 
 for blowing in water early, may now be placed on the glasses, and 
 let all others be iini>heci planting at the beginnin;f of the monlli. 
 Those in pots oi boxes must be frequently watered, and placed iis 
 much in the sun aiid light as possible; for iit the shade they will 
 draw up weak. Composts wanted for flowers in spring shouk. 
 now be collected; such as loaui, sand, willow-eaith, rotten tan, 
 dung, &c. Let them be laid in dry suuny places, and be fre- 
 quently turned over, but by no means in cold wet places. Plant 
 early in the month all bulbous roots; paiticularly those for forc- 
 ing. All sorts of shrubs and trees shoidd be liuished planting eaily 
 in the month ; and long litter, straw, or turf, turned downwards, 
 should be laid over the roots to keep out the frost. 
 
 I-'airiT-GAKDEN, and Orchard. Finish any tiling ordered 
 last month, that has been omitted, early in this. Place strawbet- 
 ries in pots for forcing, under frames ; and attend to the alpines. 
 Finish the pruning and planting of wall-trees. 
 
 Greenhouse. Earth the lops of any of the pots, when any 
 mould appears on them. Constantly pick off all decayed leaves, 
 as they corrupt the air of the house very much. Succulent plants, 
 as aloes, fic\)ides, &c. will require but very little water; large 
 aloes the most. Water woudy plants often, but give them only 
 little at a time; as dampness is more prejudicial in a greenhouse 
 than cold. 
 
 DECEMBER. 
 
 Kitchen-Garden. Asparagus must be planted for the third 
 crop, and give it both light and air to colour it. If the beds be 
 not warm enough, line them w ith fresh dung. Boorcolc, broccoli, 
 and cabbages, must be well earthed vip, to keep them upiight, and 
 all decayed leaves picked oil'. Cauliflower-plants must have air 
 while the weather is mild, and pick otf dead leaves. Earth up 
 celery when dry, for blanching. Sow cress, mustard, and radishes, 
 on hotljeds e.vei'y week. Weed and turn over dunghlHs in frosty 
 weather. Tie up endive for blanching. Hotbeds must be at- 
 tended to, and plenty of hot dung and loam provided lor cucum- 
 bers and melons, ilrtluces under glasses, must have air given 
 them ill the middle of mild days. 
 
 Flowek-Garden, and Shri.'BBKry. Examine auriculas fre- 
 quently, and pick off all decayed leaves. Carnations in pots 
 should be plunged into the groun.l; but, if ashes or sand be put 
 between the pots, it will keep them ilryer than earth. Shrubs and 
 trees may still be pruned ; ami long litter, &c. laid over the roots 
 of those lately planted. Trenches and drains should be made 
 wherever the water stands. 
 
 FRt'iT-GARDfiK, AifD Orchvrd. Examine apples and pears 
 in the fruit-room; pi', k out such a* appear the soundest of the 
 best sorts, and wrap each in a piece of paper. This will cause 
 them to kei'p several wceivs longer. Repair espaliers ; piiine the 
 trees; spread some rotten;duiigon the border, and fork it in. Fi- 
 nish pruning (ig-tree<. (ruard Uhe fruil-roDm from frost, but give 
 it some-air, when the weatlier is not very damp nor frosty. 
 
 Gkeeniiouse. Air mu.st be given whenever the weather >■. 
 mild, and will permit it. Earth the tops of the pots, but first take 
 out a little of the old. Frost must he guarded against, by keeping 
 the doors and windows close, when it begins to freeze. Constantly 
 pick off decayed leaves. Myitles and other greenhouse-plants 
 agaicst wails will require to have mats placed before thein, and, in 
 
 the middle of line days, before tl.c frost is ~et in, rolled up, but let 
 down again at night.' Water those plants which require it very 
 sparingly. Open the windows for three or tour lioiirs in the mid- 
 dle of the day. , 
 
 A Tableshrwikg the Number of Crops required of Jiach 
 Sort of Vegetables, to have a Regular Succession 
 
 THROUGH Tilt .YEAR; WITH TH.E 1 1.ME OP SowiNG- AI+» 
 
 Planting. 
 
 Kitchen-Garden Plants, Seeds, and Uoots. 
 No. of Crops. Time of Sowing, 4'C- 
 
 Alisander 2 
 
 Angelica 2 
 
 Artichoke ' 
 
 .\sparag us I 
 
 tbrced '' 
 
 in autumn 1 
 
 Balm... 1 
 
 Basil 1 
 
 Beans, early 5 
 
 late 4 
 
 Beets 1 
 
 Buorcole or kale 3 
 
 Anjou 2 
 
 Borage 1 
 
 Broccoli 4 
 
 Burnet 1 
 
 Cabbages, earlv 1 
 
 — late^ , 4 
 
 red J 
 
 Savoy - 
 
 forca'ttle 3 
 
 for seed 1 
 
 Cabbage-turneps 2 
 
 Camomile 1 
 
 Capsicums 1 
 
 I Carrots to draw young 3 
 
 principal crop 1 
 
 lor seed 1 
 
 Cauliflowers 4 
 
 Celery 5 
 
 Chardons 1 
 
 Chervil 2 
 
 Cives 1 
 
 Clary 1 
 
 Coleseed '. 1 
 
 Coleworts 2 
 
 Corn-sallad 2 
 
 Cress for seed 1 
 
 for sallad 
 
 on hotbeds 
 
 Cucumbers. 
 
 -on hot-beds 3 
 
 -for bell-glasses 1 
 
 - on open ground....! 
 
 Dill 1 
 
 F'jidives 4 
 
 Escalions t 
 
 Eschalot 2 
 
 Fennel 2 
 
 Finochio 4 
 
 Garlic 2 
 
 Horse-radish 1 
 
 Hyssop 1 
 
 Jerusalem artichokes 1 
 
 Kidney -beans 5 
 
 Runners 2 
 
 Lavender i 
 
 Leeks 1 
 
 Lettuces 7 
 
 M arj Oram 2 
 
 .Mary golds 1 
 
 Melons 3 
 
 for autumn 1 
 
 Mar. Aug. 
 Mar. Aug. 
 Mar. or Apr. 
 Mar. or Apr. 
 
 Oct. Nov. Dec. Jail. Feb. 
 July, if cttt down. 
 War. or Apr. 
 Mar. or Apr. 
 
 Oct. Jan. Feb. Mar. July. 
 April or July. 
 Fi'b. or Mar. 
 Mar. Apr. June. 
 May, June. 
 Feb. or Mar. 
 Mar. Apr. May, June. 
 Mar. or Apr. 
 Aug. 
 
 Feb. Mar. May, June. 
 Feb. Mar. June. 
 Mar. May, June. 
 May, June. 
 Oct. or Nov. 
 May, June. 
 Mar. or Apr. 
 Mar. or Apr. 
 Jan. Apr. July. 
 heb. or iSLir. 
 Feb. 
 
 Aug. Feb. Mar. May. 
 F'eb. Mar. Apr. May, June.- 
 Mar. or Apv. 
 Mar. Aug. 
 Mar. or Apr. 
 Mar. or Apr. 
 June or July. 
 Feb. June or July. 
 Mar. Aug. 
 Mar. or Apr. 
 Mar. to Sept. 
 Oct. to Mar. 
 
 Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. 
 Jan. I'eb Mar. 
 Apr. 
 
 May or June. 
 Mar. or Apr. 
 Apr. May, June, July. 
 Jan. or Feb. 
 Feb. Sept. 
 Feb. Aug. 
 
 Apr. May, June, July. 
 Feb. Sept. 
 Feb. or Mar. 
 Mar. or Apr. 
 Feb. or Mar. 
 
 Mar. Aiir. May, June, Julv, 
 Apr. May. 
 Nlay or June. 
 Feb. or Mar. 
 Feb. to .Aug. 
 Mar. Apr. 
 Feb. to Apr. 
 Feb. Mar. Apr. 
 May. 
 
 Wjnt
 
 55t 
 
 GARDENING. 
 
 Mint 1 Mar. or Apr. 
 
 Mushrnoms 2 Mar. Sept. 
 
 Mustard, for seed i 1 Mar. or Apr. . 
 
 for sallad Mar. to Sept. 
 
 • — en hotbeds Oct. to Mar. 
 
 Nasturliums 1 Mar. or Apr. 
 
 Onions to draw young 4 Jan. Apr. May, July. 
 
 principal crop 1 Feb. or Mar. 
 
 foL seed ..1 Feb. or Mar. 
 
 • Welsh 2 Jidy, Aug. 
 
 Parsley 3 Feb. Mar. July. 
 
 ^ (arge-rootod 2 Feb. Apr. 
 
 Parsnips 2 Feb. Mar. or Apr, 
 
 Peas, hot-spurs 5 Oct. Jan. Feb. July, Aug. 
 
 Marrowfats .....5 Feb. Mar. Apr. May, June. 
 
 Pennyroyal 1 Mar. or Apr. 
 
 Potatoes 3 Feb. Mar. Apr. 
 
 ■ ; — on hotbeds :....l Jan. orFeb. 
 
 Purslane 3 Mar. Apr. May. 
 
 Kadishes 9 Jan. to Aug. and Nov. 
 
 ■■ — - on hotbeds 2 Jan. Feb. 
 
 • for sallad Mar. to Sept. 
 
 'i for seed 1 May 
 
 Rnnipion 1 Mar. or Apr. 
 
 Rape 1 June or July 
 
 for sallad Mar. to Sept. 
 
 Rocambole 2 Feb. Sept. 
 
 Rosemary .. I May or June 
 
 Rue ". 1 Mar. or Apr. 
 
 Sage 1 Mar. or Apr. 
 
 Salsafy 1 Mar. or Apr. 
 
 Savory 1 Mar. or Apr. 
 
 Savoy cabbage 3 Mar. May, June 
 
 Scorzonera I Mar. or Apr. 
 
 Scotch kale 3 Mar. Apr. June 
 
 Sea-kale I Mar. or Apr. 
 
 Skirrets I Mar. or Apr. 
 
 Sorrel 2 Mar. Aug. 
 
 Spinach 6 Feb. to July 
 
 Winter 2 July, Aug. or Sept. 
 
 Tansey ...1 Mar. or Sept. 
 
 Tarragon I Mar. or Sept. 
 
 Thyme 1 Mar. or Apr. 
 
 Tomatoes I Mar. or Apr. 
 
 Turneps 6 Mar. or Aug. 
 
 for seed 1 F"eb. 
 
 Tnrnep-cabbage 3 May, June 
 
 Turnep-radish 2 June, July 
 
 Water-cress 2 Mar. Sept. 
 
 Catalogue ok Flowers, Shrubs, and Trees, usually Cul- 
 tivated. 
 
 I. Tender Annual Flowers. 
 To be sovpn on a strong hotbed the last week in February, or 
 Arst in March, transplanted afterwards upon another at four inches 
 distance; then planted in small pots in May; afterwards in larger, 
 
 ;ind at the end of June placed in the open air. 
 
 1 Amaranths. 6. Mumble plant. 
 
 2. Balsams. 7. Ice-plant. 
 
 3. Cockscombs P. Sensitive plant. 
 A. Egg-plants 9. Strajnoniums. 
 5. Glocest amaranths. 
 
 II. Anni.'AL F'lowrrs. 
 
 To be sown on a moderate hotbed in March or April, trans- 
 planted afterwards before they are too thick, in rich light earth, 
 
 and covered with mats; and in a month or six weeks into pots, or 
 borders of the flower-garden, 
 
 1. African marygold. 7. Chrysanthemum. 
 
 2. Browallia, blue. fl. French marygold. 
 
 3. Capsicum. 9. Marvel ot Peru. 
 
 4. Cape-marygold 10. Mignonette. 
 
 5. Chinese aster. 11. Nolana. 
 
 fi. Chinese or Indian 12. Palnia Christ!, 
 piuk. 
 
 13. Stock Julyflower, 13. Zinnia. 
 
 14. Sultau, yellow. 
 
 In sowing them, fix numbers to them, corresponding with these, 
 to distinguish each sort when they appear. 
 
 HI. Hardy Annual Flowers. 
 
 To be sown in March or April on the borders of the flo\ver-gar- 
 den. Those marked thus f , being very hardy, may be sown in 
 the beginning of February, to tlower early. Hollow the earth out 
 in form of a little bason, about a foot over, and two inches deep; 
 draw a circle near the edge half an inch deep, and drop a few 
 seeds in it; thin them soon after they ai)pear, and leave them at 
 six inches distance, but the large sorts wider. In dry weather, 
 they will want frequent watering. Gather the seeds ;is they ripen, 
 and you may save tlie expence of buying any in another season. 
 
 1. 
 
 Adonis flowerf. 
 
 23. 
 
 Mallow. 
 
 y. 
 
 Alkekengi. 
 
 24. 
 
 Mignonette. 
 
 3. 
 
 Alvsson. 
 
 25. 
 
 Nasturtiumt- 
 
 4. 
 
 Amaranth. 
 
 36. 
 
 Nigella, or devil in a 
 
 5. 
 
 Amethvstea. 
 
 
 bushf. 
 
 ii. 
 
 Balm, Moldavian. 
 
 07. 
 
 Pansey, or hearts- 
 
 / . 
 
 Jtelvidere. 
 
 
 ease. 
 
 8. 
 
 Candy tuflf . 
 
 28. 
 
 Peas, sweet-scentedf . 
 
 9. 
 
 C.atchlly, Lobel'sf. 
 
 29. 
 
 Persicaria.f 
 
 10. 
 
 Caterpillar trefoil. 
 
 30. 
 
 Poppyf. 
 
 11. 
 
 Clarv, red and white. 
 
 31. 
 
 Sahlovver, or bastard 
 
 12. 
 
 Convolvulus. 
 
 
 sallVon. 
 
 13. 
 
 Cornbotllef . 
 
 32. 
 
 Snail-trefoil. 
 
 14. 
 
 Cucumber, spurting. 
 
 33. 
 
 Snap-dragon. 
 
 \b. 
 
 Fnmatorv, yellow. 
 
 34. 
 
 Stock July-fiowerf, 
 
 It). 
 
 Hedgehog trefoil. 
 
 35. 
 
 Sunflower. 
 
 17. 
 
 Hone^wort. 
 
 36. 
 
 Sweet sultan. 
 
 18. 
 
 Indian corn. 
 
 37. 
 
 Tobacco. 
 
 19. 
 
 Ketmia. 
 
 38. 
 
 Venus's looking- 
 
 20. 
 
 Larks purf. 
 
 
 glassf. 
 
 21. 
 
 Lavatera. 
 
 39. 
 
 Venus's navelwort. 
 
 22. 
 
 Lupine. 
 
 40. 
 
 Xeranthemura. 
 
 I 
 
 n July, sow again annual slock, candr-tuft, convovulus minor' 
 
 cornbottles, Lobel's catchfly, 
 
 and yellow lupines, and they wil* 
 
 flower until the frost kills them 
 
 
 
 IV. Biennial Flowers. 
 
 To be sown in March or April in beds very thin ; as soon as 
 the plants touch one another, thin them, and leave them at tour or 
 six inches asunder; those drawn out, plant at the same distance. 
 In July transplant them all upon bed.s, at eight inches asunder; 
 there to remain till the end of September, when they must be 
 planted upon the borders of tlie flower-gardea, and they will pro- 
 duce their flowers the next summer, after which they will perfect 
 their seeds and die. 
 
 1. Canterbury bell. 
 
 2. Colutea, jtthiopian. 
 
 3. French honeysuckle. 
 
 4. Globe-thistle. 
 
 5. Honesty, or moon- 
 
 wort. 
 
 6. Mallow-tree. 
 
 7. Poppy, yellow-horned. 
 
 8. Rocket. 
 
 9. Scabious. 
 
 10. Stock July-flower. 
 
 11. Sweet-william. 
 
 12. Tree-primrose. 
 
 13. Wall-flower. 
 
 V. PERENNrAL F'lOWEUS. 
 
 Which, if sown in the same manner as the biennials, and trans- 
 plaiited into the borders of the flo-ver garden, w,ll continue for se- 
 veral years. 
 
 1. Alysson. 1 1. Ox-eye daisy. 
 
 2 Auricula. 12. Pea, everlasting. 
 
 3. Bee-larkspur. 13. Pinks. 
 
 4. Campanula. 14. Polyanthus. 
 
 5. Carnation. 15. Rhubarb. 
 
 6. Columbine 16. Rose-campion. 
 
 7. Flax. 17. Snap-dragon. 
 
 8. Fox-glove. 18. Valerian. 
 
 9. Hawk-weed. V9. Greek valerian. 
 10. Hollyhock. 
 
 VI. Peren.vial
 
 GARDENING. 
 
 J5.3 
 
 \l. I'ekennial Flowers. 
 
 Which are propagated by dividing Iheir roots in spring, in 
 March or April; or in the autumn in Si ptcnibcr. 
 
 I 
 
 A<li)nis flower 
 
 s 
 
 Anemone 
 
 3 
 
 .\sphodcl 
 
 A 
 
 Aslers 
 
 5. 
 
 Bachelors bnttons 
 
 6 
 
 Bean-caper 
 
 7. 
 
 Bears-brecch 
 
 8. 
 
 Borage 
 
 9. 
 
 Bu gloss 
 
 10. 
 
 Campanula 
 
 11. 
 
 Campion 
 
 IJ. 
 
 Cardinal-tiower 
 
 13. 
 
 Christmas rosf 
 
 14. 
 
 Cowslip 
 
 15. 
 
 CrancabiU 
 
 !6. 
 
 Crowfoot 
 
 17. 
 
 Daisies 
 
 IS. 
 
 Dog-tooth violet 
 
 19- 
 
 Dragons 
 
 i'O. 
 
 Dropwort 
 
 21. 
 
 Eternal (lower 
 
 22. 
 
 Fennel-giant 
 
 S3. 
 
 Feverfew 
 
 S4. 
 
 Flag 
 
 25. 
 
 Fo\-glove 
 
 26. 
 
 Fraxmella 
 
 27. 
 
 Fumatory 
 
 28. 
 
 Garlic 
 
 S9. 
 
 Gentianella 
 
 30. 
 
 Golden-locks 
 
 31. 
 
 Golden rod 
 
 32. 
 
 Greek valerian 
 
 33. 
 
 Hellebore 
 
 34. 
 
 Hepatica 
 
 55. 
 
 Herb bennet 
 
 36. 
 
 Houseleek 
 
 37. 
 
 Ladies mantle 
 
 38. 
 
 Ladies slipper 
 
 39. 
 
 Ladies smock 
 
 40. 
 
 Lily of the va'ley 
 
 41. 
 
 Lion's t.iil 
 
 42. 
 
 London pride 
 
 43. 
 
 Loose-strife 
 
 44. 
 
 Lupine 
 
 
 VH. BVLBOUS 
 
 1. 
 
 Aconites 
 
 o_ 
 
 Amaryllis 
 
 3. 
 
 iVnenione 
 
 4. 
 
 Bulhocixlium 
 
 '5. 
 
 Cornflagi 
 
 6. 
 
 Crocuses 
 
 7. 
 
 Crown Imperial 
 
 8. 
 
 Cyclamen 
 
 y. 
 
 Daflodil 
 
 10. 
 
 Garlic .\loly 
 
 11. 
 
 Hyacinth 
 
 12. 
 
 Joi.ipiil 
 
 4J. 
 
 46. 
 47. 
 48. 
 49. 
 50. 
 51. 
 52. 
 53. 
 54. 
 55. 
 5ti. 
 
 5f>. 
 
 Lychnis 
 
 Lychnidea 
 
 MacKvort 
 
 M.unIi Marygnld 
 
 Meadow-sweet 
 
 Milfoil 
 
 Milk-vetch 
 
 Mint 
 
 Moth-muUeH 
 
 Navelwovt 
 
 Peony 
 
 I'ilewort 
 
 Plantaiii 
 
 Primrose 
 
 Uagged Uobin 
 
 60. Ranunculus 
 
 61. Reed 
 
 62. Rhubard 
 
 63. Saxifnigc 
 
 64. Skullcap 
 6."i. Sncezewort 
 60. Side-saddle-flower 
 67. Soapwort 
 63. .Solomon's seai 
 
 69. Spidcrwcrt 
 
 70. Spurge 
 
 71. .Stonecrop 
 
 72. Snnllower 
 
 73. Swallow-wort 
 
 74. Thrift 
 
 75. Throatwort 
 
 76. Toadflax 
 
 77. True love 
 
 78. A'alcrian 
 
 79. Vervain 
 
 80. Veronica 
 
 81. Violet 
 89. Viper's buglosj 
 
 83. Wake-robin 
 
 84. Willow-herb 
 
 85. Wolf-bane 
 
 86. Wormwood and some others; 
 but with very little beauty 
 to reromniend (hem. 
 
 AVD Tl-'BEROVS-ROOTED FlOWEKS. 
 
 13. Iris 
 
 14. Lily 
 
 15. Martagon 
 
 16. Narcissus 
 
 17. Pancratiums 
 
 18. Polyanthus Narcissus 
 
 19. Ranunculus 
 
 20. Sis) rinchiunr 
 
 21. Snowdrop 
 
 22. Star of Hetlilehem 
 
 23. Tuberoses 
 
 24. Tulips 
 
 To be taken tip in .\pril, May, and.hnie, as soon as their leaves 
 are withered, antl planit-il again in September or October, but their 
 c:ftets in August. Tlie ranunculuses and anem.jnes not to be 
 planted till February. The seed to be sown in February, iii 
 bo.\es. 
 
 VIII. ButBOUS-KOOTED FlOWERS. 
 
 1. Amaryllis 
 
 3. Colchicum 
 
 3. Crocus 
 
 4. Cvclanieii 
 
 These flower in .r.;ti'.mn. 
 VOL. II. — KO. 02. 
 
 5. Daffodil, sea 
 «>. Lilv, lielladona 
 7. — li'uernsey 
 
 8. SatTron 
 They reijuirc to be planted in Au- 
 
 gust, and to be taken up in April or May, as soon as their leave* 
 are decayed ; bwt their ollacts ui July. 
 
 IX. 
 
 Dkciduovs Flowering Shrubs and ORS'Ai-iENTAb 
 'Frees. 
 
 1. 
 2, 
 3. 
 4. 
 5. 
 6. 
 7. 
 8. 
 9. 
 10. 
 
 11. 
 
 12. 
 13. 
 14. 
 15. 
 
 16. 
 17. 
 18. 
 19. 
 20. 
 21. 
 
 23. 
 
 24. 
 25. 
 26. 
 27. 
 
 28. 
 29. 
 30. 
 31. 
 32. 
 33. 
 34. 
 35. 
 36. 
 
 To be planted in March, 
 Acacia, rose-flowering. 
 AInioud-trce. 
 Allspice. 
 Althx'a. 
 Ash, mountain. 
 Annona, or papaw. 
 Azalea . 
 Berberry-tree. 
 Bigonia or Trumpet-flower. 
 Bladder-sena. 
 Bramble. 
 Buckthorn. 
 Caragana. 
 Cassioberry-bu«h. 
 Catalpa, or 'i'ruu-.pet- 
 
 flower. 
 Ceanothns 
 Cephalaiithus. 
 Cheiiy '! ree. 
 Cin<|uefcil, sliruUby. 
 Cletlna. 
 
 Corml. 
 
 Crab Tree. 
 
 Cytisus. 
 
 Diervilla. 
 
 Dogwood. 
 
 Fothcrgilla. 
 
 Gingo, or Maideohair 
 
 1 ree. 
 Gueldres Rose, 
 Halcsia. 
 Haniamclis. 
 Hawthorn. 
 Hickery Nijt. 
 Honeysuckle, 
 Honeysuckle, upright. 
 Hypericum. 
 Jasmin. 
 
 .April, Scptcmbev, and 0( (olicr. 
 
 37. Jesuito-baik Tri-e, falie. 
 
 3S. Indigo, Ba-lard. 
 
 3:v. Ironwood Trac. 
 
 40. Judas 'Iree. 
 
 41. Kidney-beun TrcPi 
 
 42. Laburnum. 
 
 43. I. ac, or Varnish Tree, 
 
 44. l>eatnerwood. 
 
 45. Lilacs. 
 
 46. Miv.ereon. 
 
 47. Nivjitsliade. 
 
 48. 0!,ve Tree, wild. 
 
 49. Passion Flower. 
 
 50. Peach Trees. 
 
 51. Periploca, or Vii-einiaa Silk. 
 
 52. Plum Trce.v 
 
 53. Poison Trees. 
 
 54. Pomegrana'e Tree. 
 r.ri. Privet. 
 5(j. Raspberry. 
 
 57. Reslharraw. 
 
 58. Rose Tree, 80 varieties. 
 
 59. St. Peter's Wart. 
 
 60. .Sassafias. 
 
 61. Service Tree. 
 
 62. .Sr.ow drop, or Fringe Tree. 
 .Spindle Tree. 
 Spirxa. 
 Sumach. 
 
 63. 
 64. 
 65. 
 66. S> 
 
 67. 
 08. 
 69. 
 70. 
 71. 
 7'. 
 
 rmga. 
 
 '1 anuu'isJc. 
 Tea Tree. 
 Toolhach Trce< 
 Traveller's Joy^ 
 Tupelo Tree. 
 Viburnum. 
 
 73. Weeping Willow. 
 
 X. Decidtous Forkst Trees. 
 
 To be planted from the middle of February till the begmninr «f 
 
 April, and from September tdl December. 
 
 1. Acacia. 13. Horse-Chesnut. 
 
 2. Alder. 14. Lirch. 
 
 3. Ash. Ij. Lime. 
 
 4. Beech. 16. Mamiolia. 
 
 5. Birch. 17. .Maple. 
 
 6. Chesnut. 18. Nettle Tree. 
 
 7. Crab Free. 19. Oak. 
 
 8. Cypress. 20. Plane. 
 
 9. Elder. 21. Poplar. 
 
 10. Elm. 2>. Tulip Tree. 
 
 1 1. Hickery. S3. Walnut, 
 le. Hornbeam. 24. Willow. 
 
 XL Evergree.v Flowerint. Shrubs and Ors'amekt.ii. 
 Trees. 
 
 To be planted in March, April, September, and October, 
 
 1. 
 
 Alateriuis. 
 
 
 10. 
 
 Cistus, 01 Rock-rose. 
 
 2. 
 
 Andromeda 
 
 
 n. 
 
 Crab Tree. 
 
 3. 
 
 Arbor \'it;e 
 
 
 12. 
 
 Cvlisus, Hairv Evir^recn. 
 
 4. 
 
 Arbutus. 
 
 
 13. 
 
 (Groundsel Tree. 
 
 :>. 
 
 Bay. 
 
 
 1 (. 
 
 liollv. 
 
 6. 
 
 Bignonia. 
 
 
 15. 
 
 1 li'ne\~uckle. 
 
 7. 
 
 Box. 
 
 
 l(i. 
 
 Juniper. 
 
 H. 
 
 Brooms. 
 
 
 17. 
 
 Ivv. 
 
 9. 
 
 Cassine, or 
 
 'Free. 
 7 B 
 
 South Sea Tea 
 
 IS. 
 19. 
 
 Katmia. 
 Lavender. 
 
 CO Laurel
 
 55A 
 
 OARDENING. 
 
 20, 
 
 Laurel. 
 
 28. 
 
 R(ise Tree. 
 
 21. 
 
 Laui-ustiiiu9. 
 
 29. 
 
 ilosemary. 
 
 22. 
 
 ■ Ma!»iiolia. 
 
 30. 
 
 Rue. 
 
 S.t 
 
 Phillwea. 
 
 31. 
 
 Savin. 
 
 24. 
 
 Privet. 
 
 32. 
 
 Spindle Tree 
 
 25. 
 
 Purslane Tree. 
 
 33. 
 
 Sweet Brier. 
 
 26. 
 
 Pyracantha. 
 
 34. 
 
 Tea Tree. 
 
 27. 
 
 Khododendron, 
 
 35. 
 
 Widow-wail, 
 
 XII. Evergreen Forest Trees. 
 
 To be planted from the middle of Felvruary till the end of Apri 
 and from September till December. 
 
 1. Cedar. 5. Oak. 
 
 2. Cork. ■ 6. Pine. 
 
 3. Cypress. 7. ^eiv. 
 
 4. Fir. 
 
 Xin. Fruit Trees. 
 To be plf iited in February, March, October, and November. 
 
 \. Almond. 
 
 2. Apple. 
 
 3. Apricot. 
 
 4. Berberry. 
 
 5. Cherry. 
 
 6. Crab Tree. 
 
 7. Cuirant. 
 
 8. Fig. 
 
 9. Filbert. 
 
 10. Gooseberry. 
 
 11. Medlar. 
 
 Nectarine. 
 Xut Tree. 
 Peach. 
 Pear. 
 Plum. 
 
 17. Quince. 
 
 18. Raspberry. 
 
 19. Service. ^ 
 
 20. Vine. 
 
 21. Walnut. 
 
 12. 
 13. 
 14. 
 15. 
 1(5. 
 
 XIV. Hardy Greenhouse Plants. 
 To be planted against a south wall, in the oipen ground, the 
 roots covered with tan or long litter. These will not be killed 
 
 except ■ill very severe frosts, and then they generally shoot up 
 afre.-h from their roots. By this method, many curious plants, 
 formerly only kept in greenhouses, will now ornament the walls, 
 where they will appear in greater vigour and beauty, and many 
 may produce both ilowers and fruit, which they will n«)t do whca 
 confined in pots in a greenhouse. 
 
 Myrtle. 
 
 1 . Bay Tree. 
 
 roliniaii. 
 
 2. Boxlhorn. 
 
 Blue-berried Ca- 
 
 3. Broom. 
 
 African. 
 
 4. Cedar Tree 
 
 Starry. 
 Montpelier. 
 
 Bermudian, 
 Goa. 
 
 Portugal. 
 ' Upright Italian. 
 
 10. Magnolia, Evergreen. 
 
 11. Oleander. 
 
 Red. 
 
 Wliite. 
 
 12. Olive Tree. 
 
 Box-leaved. 
 
 Provence. 
 
 Pibtachia Nut Tree. 
 
 G. 
 
 9. 
 
 l''ig, Indian. 
 Heath. 
 
 Many-flowered. 
 
 Mediterranean. 
 
 Three-flowered. 
 
 Jasmin, Catalonian. 
 Laurel, Alexandrian. 
 Myrtle. 
 
 Broad-leaved Ro- 
 man. 
 
 Double-flowered. 
 
 13. 
 14. 
 15. 
 16. 
 
 Pomegranate, Dwarf. 
 Ragwort, Sea. 
 Rose Tree, Ciiinese. 
 
 17. Rosemary, Silver-leavccL 
 
 18. Sopiiora. 
 
 19, 
 
 20, 
 21 
 
 heite. 
 Strawberry Tree. 
 Tea Tree, Green. 
 Winter Cherry. 
 
 Small-leaved Ota- 
 
 For the particular operations in gardening, see Espalier, 
 Fruit-trees, CJrafting, Green-house, Hotbid, Inarch- 
 tNG, Inoculating, Orchard, Planting, Pruning, Trees, 
 &c. &c. and the culture of the different plants under their re- 
 spective generic names. 
 
 » 
 
 GARDINER, Colonel James, a brave. and pious officer 
 in the army, the son of Captain Patrick Gardiner, of the family of 
 Torwood-tlead, by Mrs. Mary Ilodge of Gladsniuir. His lather 
 had served in the army under king William 111. and queen Anne, 
 and died in Germany, after tlie balLle of Ilochstet. His maternal 
 uncle, colonel Hodgi?, was killed at the battle of Steenkirk, in 
 •1692 ; and.bii eldest brother, Robert Gardiiier, at the siege of Na- 
 miif, in 1595. Our hero was born at Carriden, Jan. 10th, 1688. 
 He was educated at Linlithgow, and made a very considerable 
 progress in the languages ; but having a kind of hereditary at- 
 tachment to the military life, he served very early as a cadet; 
 and at fourteen years of age bore an ensign's commission in a 
 Scotch regiment in the Dutch service, wherein he continued till 
 1702 ; when he received a similar commission in a British regiment 
 from queen Anne, which he bore in the famous battle of Ramillies. 
 In this memoral)le action, being sent on a desperate service, with a 
 party of what is called»the Forlorn Hope, he very nartowly 
 iscaped with his life. Wliile calling to his men, a musket-ball 
 entered his mouth, and without touching his tongue or his teeth, 
 ■\vent through his neck, and came out about an inch and a half on 
 the Uft side of the vertebne. Kot feeling the pain at fii-st, he be- 
 gan to suspect he had swallowed the ball, till he fell with loss of 
 blood. After this he pasied two nights and all next day in the 
 open air, in extreme cold weather, and had his wound dressed at last 
 by an ignorant barber-surgeon ; in spite of all which he recovered. 
 In IVOti, he was raised to a lieutenancy, and soon after was iTia<le a 
 ccrii<t in lord .Stair's regimeut of Scotch greys; and in 1715, a 
 captain-lieutenant of dragoons. When the eati of Stair went am- 
 bar.sador to France, he appointed him his master of horse. In 
 ■1V'15 he was promoted to a captaincy, and in 1717 to a majority. 
 In 1724, he was made major of an older regiment; in 1730 he was 
 advanced to the rank of lieutenant-colonel, and in 1743 to that 
 of colonel of a regiment of dragoons ; at the head of which he fell, 
 (ighting biavely foe his countrv, at the battle of Preston pans, on 
 theSlatSepl. 1745; inthe tilty-eighthyear of hisage. In his person he \ 
 
 was tall, graceful, strong-built, and well-proportioned. And being 
 endowed withastrong constitution, he in hib yodnger years plunged 
 so deep in every fashionable vice, that his companions styled Iuhi 
 the hapjiy rake. But in this vortex of vice and dissipation, he was 
 suddenly arrested in a manner almost, if not entirely, miraculous. 
 Our limits permit us not to quote the full acciiunt of this ))hatno- 
 meiion given by Dr. Doddriiige, in his work entitled Remarkable 
 Passages in the Life of Colonel Gardiner; but the substance of it 
 isaslollows: In July, 1719, major Gardiner, having spent the 
 Sabbath-evening wiih some gay company till eleven, and having 
 an assignation with a married woiKan at twelve, in crtler " to kill 
 the tedious hour," took up a book, left by his mother or aunt in 
 his chamber, entitktl ^Fhe Christian Soldier ; wherein he expectefl 
 to find some aiiiusemeut from the aufhor's spiritualizing the terms 
 of his profession. But while reading it vareiessly, he was surprised 
 by a sudden and extraordinary blaze of light; and upon looking 
 up, beheld to his astonishment a visible representation of otir Sa- 
 viour on the cross, suspended in llie air, and surrounded with 
 glory ; while at the same time he thought he heard a voice, say- 
 ing, " Oh sinner, did 1 suffer this for thee, and are these thy re- 
 turns?" Struck with this amazing pha'nomenon, he sunk down 
 in his arm-chair, and cuiitinued for some time insensible; from 
 which circumstance Dr. Doddridge ollen suggested to him, that 
 hewas perhaps all the time asleep, and dreaming ; buthehim»elfcon- 
 sideied it not as a dream, but a real waking vision. Be that as it 
 may, it was without question a message of God unto hiin, and the 
 conse(|ueiices w ere as salutary as if an angel had been sent express 
 from heaven to convert him ; and from that time to his death he 
 became as eminently distinguished for piety as lie had formerly 
 been for profanity. In July, 1726, he married lady Francis Er- 
 skine, daughter of the earl of Buchan, by whom he had thirteen 
 children. From the numerous anecdotes recorded ot this great 
 and good man by Dr. Doddridge, we shall only add one more, 
 u hieh may afford an useful example to others in an age wherein 
 duelling is so frequent, . He had been so much addicted lo this 
 8 fashionable
 
 GAR 
 
 r>5! 
 
 OAR 
 
 fasliionable folly in liis yoiiiiger years, tliat he had fought ihrce 
 duels, before he was quite a iiiau ; but being ch^illeiiged to light a 
 fiiurth aitet- his C0MveI•^ioM, he made this cahii reply : — " I fear 
 siniiiH!;, though vou know I do not fear fighting." Dr. Dod- 
 dridge has ?uninied up his cljaracler in few words, in tlie quota- 
 tion from Virgil prelixed a> a nioHo to his work: 
 
 " Justinr alter 
 
 Nee pietate fuit, iu;e bello major & arniis." 
 
 Gardiner, Stephe.v, bishop of Wuichcster, and chancellor of 
 England was burn at 15ury St. lidmnnds, in 1483. He wa':. natu- 
 ral son to Richard WoodviUe, the brother of (jucen Elizabeth, wife 
 to Edward IV, and was educated at Cambridge. He signed the 
 thvorce of Henry VI [|. from Katharine of Spain; abjured the 
 pope's supremacy ; and wrote " l)e vera et falsa Obedientia," in 
 behalf of tlie king: yet in Edward Vl's reign he opposeil tlie re- 
 formation, and was imprisoned; but was liberated bycpieeu Mary. 
 He drew up tlu- articles of marriage bi-lween her and Phili;' H. of 
 Spain. He was violej:t agaijist the reujrmers, but on his tieath- 
 bed often repealed these words, Jirravi cuin Fttro, sid nov flevi 
 cum Pctro; " I h.ave sinned with Peter, but 1 liave not repented 
 like Peter " He died in 1555. 
 
 GAR EI", a town of !5arbar\, in Fez. 
 
 GARFETE, a town of Portugal, in Alentejo. 
 
 GAIIGANO, a town of Naples, se\en ndlcs N. of Mount St. 
 Angelo. 
 
 GAUGANVILLARD, a town of France, in the department 
 of Landes, v;even miles N. \V. of Riviere Verdun. 
 
 G.\RGAR[SM, [yaoj-ajiT^ua;,] a li(|uid form of medicine to 
 wasli tlie mouth with, 
 
 Gargarisms, aic used when tlie mouth and throat are inflam- 
 ed, or ulcerated. A small quaiitily may be taken into the mouth, 
 and moved bi\sklv about, and then spat out; or if the ])atient can- 
 not do this, tlie liquor mav be injected bv a syringe. Wlien gar- 
 gles are required, their use shnukl be more irequently repeated 
 than is done in common practice. See MEniciKE. 
 
 GARGET, a distemper in cattle. It consi>t3 in a swelling of 
 the throat and the neighbouring parts ; to prevent which bleeding 
 in the spring is recommended. 
 
 GABGIL, a distemper in geese, which by stopping the head 
 frequently proves mortal. Three or four cloves of garlic, beaten 
 in a mortar with sweet butter, made into little balls, and given 
 fasting, are the ordinary means of cure. 
 
 GARGILESSE, a town of France, in the department of ludre, 
 live miles S. E. of Argenton. 
 
 GARGLE, a liquid with which the throat is washed. See Gar- 
 
 GAKISM. 
 
 GARGfJON, anexsudation of nervous juice from a bruise, or 
 the like, which indurates into a hard immoveable tumour. 
 
 GARIDELLA, in hoCai.-y, feiiuel-Hower of Crete, a genus of 
 the trigynia order, and dodecandria class of plants; natural order, 
 Multisili(iu:e. Calyx pentaphyllous, with leaves resembling 
 flower-petals; nectariabilid, five, bilabi;ite; capsules polyspermous, 
 adhering lo.^-ellier ; seeds numerous. It has but one species. 
 
 GARL/VND, in naval affaii-s, a sort of net exten'led bv a 
 wooden hoop, of sufiicient size to admit a bowl or platt'-r, and is 
 used by sailors as a locker or cupboard, toccntaiii their provisions. 
 
 Garland, [derived by Hicks from prirdci handa, wiiich in llie 
 northern languages signify a nosegay artfully v.roHght with the 
 hand,] ornaments of flowers, fruits, and leaves, inlermi.xed ; an- 
 ciently much used at the gates of temples, where feasts and so- 
 lemn reji/icings were held; or at any other place where marks of 
 public joy or gaiety were require<l, as at triumphal arches, tourna- 
 ments, .l-c. 
 
 C'ARLAND, is also used for a chaplet made of feathers, or some- 
 times of precious stones, worn on the head in the manner of a 
 crown. 
 
 GARTjIC, in botany. See Ai-LitJM. ' 
 
 6ARNE'r, \_,iirumitui,'] in natural history, a verv beautiful 
 gem of a red colour, with an admixture of biuehsh. When pure 
 and free from blemishes, it is little inferior, in appearance, to liie 
 oriental ruby, tlioiigli only of a middle <legree of hardness between 
 the sapphire and common crystal. It is fiunu of various sizes, 
 from that of a pin's head to an inch in diameter. Among our lajii- 
 daries and jewellers, genuine garnets are known by (hlfeient 
 names, according to their different degrees of colour, 1. The 
 
 garnet, simply so called, is the finest and most valuable kind, be- 
 ing of a very deep blood red, with a faint admixture of blue. 2. 
 The rock-ruby, a name very impropi'rly givi-n to the garnet, 
 when it is of a' very strong but" not deep red, and has a tairer cast 
 of the blue ; this is" a very beautiful gem. 3. The sorane or serain 
 garnet, that of a yet brighter red, approaching to the colour of na- 
 tive cinnabar, wiili a faint blue tinge. 4. The almaudine, a garnet 
 only a htlle paler than that called the iock-rub\ . Garnets are 
 (h^tinguished into the oriental and occidental kind-, as being found 
 in Europe as well as the Bast Indies. The oriental ones are prin- 
 cipally brought from Calicut, Canaiior, and Cambay; and the 
 European are common in Italy, Hungary, and Bolu-mia. It is 
 found in great plenty in inaiiy mountains, and is usually crystal- 
 lized. The primitive form of its crystals is a dodecahedron, whose 
 sides are rhombs with angles of ?»" "31' and l'A)°28'. The inclina- 
 tion of the -rhombs to each other is ISO". This dodecahedron 
 may be considered as a four-sided prism, terminated by four-sided 
 pyramids. It is divisible into four parallelopipcds, w hose sides are 
 rhombs; and each of these mey be divided into four tetrahedrons, 
 wliose sides are isosceles triangles, e<iual and similar to either of 
 tlie halves into which tlie rhoiiiboidal faces of the dodecahedron 
 are divided by their shorter diagonal. The integrant molecules 
 of garnet are similar tetrahedrons. The texture of garnit, as 
 liergman first shewed, is foliated, lis fracture commonly con- 
 rhoidal : causes single refraction: specific gravity 3.75 to 4.15?. 
 Colour usually red, often green: brittle: often 'attracted by the 
 magnet: fusible per se by the blow-pipe into a black glass. 
 
 Variety 1. Noble garnet. Specific gravity 4 to 4. 188 : colour 
 deep red inclining to violet: almost always in crystal?. 
 
 Variety 2. Common garnet. Found in mass and disseminatefl, 
 sometimes in crystals: fracture uneven, inclining to the conchoi- 
 dal : s|)ecific gravity 3.75 to 4: colour various; shades of grei-n 
 and brown ; sometimes hvacinlli-ied and brown-red ; rarely orange- 
 yellow:. A specimen of oriental garnet, analysed by Klaproth, 
 contained 
 
 35.75 silica 
 
 27.25 alumina 
 
 36.00 oxide of iron 
 0.'J5 oxide of manganese. 
 
 99.25 
 A specimen of veJ garnet analysed bv Vauquelin, contained 
 52.0 silica 
 20.0 alumina 
 17.0 oxide of iron 
 7.7 lime. 
 
 96.7 
 And a specimen of black garnet, 
 43 silica 
 ItJalumina 
 20 lime 
 
 16 oxide of iron "» 
 4 water and volat. matter.' 
 
 99. 
 
 Garn'ets, Coi'NTEKFEiT, are made as follows : take prepared 
 crystal, two ounces; retl lead, six ounces; manganese, sixteMl 
 grains; zaifre, three grains: mix all well, |)ut lliein into a crucible, 
 cover it well with lute, and set it in a potter's kiln for twenty-four 
 hours. Or take crystal, two ounces; minium, tive ounces and a 
 half; njaiigauese, ti'fteen grains; irnd zaffVe, four grains. Mix and 
 bake tliem as above. 
 
 Garnet, in a ship, is a tackle having a pendant coming down 
 from the mainmast, with a block well seized to tiie maiii-slay, just 
 over the hatch-way, to whi< h a guy is fixed to keep it steady; 
 and at the other end is a long tackle-block, in wliicii the tall is 
 reeved, that so by it anv goo<ls or ca<ks may be hauled and hoist- 
 ed into or out of the ship. When this garnet is not used, it is fast- 
 ened along the stay. 
 
 GAKNJSH, in law-books, signifies to warn ; in whidh sense, to 
 garnish the heir, is mentioned in stat. 27 Eliz. c. 3. 
 
 (GARNISHEE, is use<l for the third person or parly in whose 
 hands money is attach; d wilhiii the liberties of ilie city of Loiu on, 
 in the 'dierifi's court there; and lie is so called, because he his ha.l 
 
 gavui.hii.eut
 
 GAR 
 
 556 
 
 GAR 
 
 garnisliiiieiit or warniiic; not to pay tlie mui.ey, but to appeat and 
 ^iswer to the pUiintiil crc-tliloi's suit. 
 
 GARNISIiMENT, i;; a warning given to a person for his ap- 
 pearance, for the better fmni^hing of the can^e and conrt ; a- where 
 a person is biied for detaining cliarters or other writings delivered 
 him by the plainliiV, and another person, \ipon some certain con- 
 ditions ; and therefore he prays that the other person may be 
 warned to plead with the plaintiff, whether the conditions are or 
 are not performed, which is the praying of garnishment; and inter- 
 preted to be either a warning of that ollu'r, or a fnrnishnig the 
 court with parties sufiiclent to determine the cause. 
 
 GAKONNF., a fine river in the S. of France, which rises in 
 the Pyrenees, and taking a K. W. direction, waters Toulouse antl 
 BourdeauN, below wliich it is joined by the Dordogne, and 
 thence to its entrance into the bay of Biscay is called the Girond.-. 
 Garonne, Upper, a department of France, bounded on the 
 >J. by that of Lot. It contains part of the late province of Lan- 
 guedoc. The Garonne runs througii it. Toulou-e is the cai ;al. 
 GAUR.\CilICA, a sea-port town of the isle of Tencrilfe. 
 G.\RKlir, or GARRET DENNIS, an island in the P.'cific 
 ■ocean, about forty-two miles in circmnference, N. of New Ire- 
 land. Lon. 151. 25. E. Lat. 2. .30. S. 
 
 GARRICK, David, a celebrated actor, was descended from a 
 Trench familv, who being Protestants, fled to England on the re- 
 vocation of lli'e edict of Nantes. His father, Peter Garrick, was a 
 f.iptain in the armv, and generally resided at Litchlield; but bc- 
 iiia on a reconnoitring partly at Hereford, David was born tlicre in 
 1716. lie received his echication partly at the grammar-school at 
 I.itclifieUl, and partly under Dr. Johnson, with whom he visited 
 London in 1735. lie was for sonte time under Mr. Colson, an 
 eminent malliematician, and afterwards went into partnership with 
 j-ns brother in the wine-trade. This business lie soon quitted lor 
 the stage. His first attempt was at Ipswich in 1741, umSir the as- 
 sumed' name ef Lyddal- ami the spplan-e he met with, induced 
 him to make his appearance at the theatre in Goodman's-helds, in 
 the charactir of Richard III. The other theatres-were tpnckly 
 deserted, and Goodman's-fieUls became the resort of people of 
 fashion, till that theatre was shut up. Garrick then formed an en- 
 gagement with Fleetwood, the patentee of Drnry-lane. In the 
 sunnner of 174.> he played in Dublin, to such full houses, that the 
 heat o" the weatiier and the crow ds occasioned a fever, which was 
 called tlie Garrick fever. In 1747 he became joint-patentee of 
 brurv-lane theatre; and in 1749 he marrieil Mademoiselle Vio- 
 ietti, "an Italian stage-dancer. In 1703 he and Mrs. Garrick made 
 a visit to Italy, .nd at P, ris he saw the celebrated Madtmoiselle 
 Clairon, who've future emineULe he predicted. He returned to 
 England in 1765, and in 1766 he brought out the Clandestine 
 MaVriage, a coinedv, written in conjunction with the elder C:olman. 
 In 1769 he celebrated a lete in honour of Siiakespeare, called the 
 Jubilee at Stratford-upon-Avon. It was afterwards made an en- 
 tertainment at Diurv-lane, under the same t'tle, and had a prodi- 
 gious run. In 1 776 he gave up hi^ concern in the theatre for .3:>,0U0/. 
 The last character he performed was Don Felix in the \\'onder. 
 He died in 1779, and w.is buried in Westminster Abbey, where a 
 handsome monument has been erected to his memory by private 
 friendsni|). Mr. Garrick was hospitable and generous, but vain 
 and fond of flattery. Hewrote several dramatic |)ieces, prologues, 
 epilogues, songs,' and epigrams; in the last he excelled. 
 (Waikins.) 
 
 GARKiHON, ill the art of war, a body of forces, disposed in a 
 fortress, to defend it against the enemy, or to keep the inhabilants 
 in subjection; or even to be sub»irted during the winter-season : 
 hence,' garrison and winter-quarters are sometimes used indifler- 
 enllv, for the same thing; and sometimes they denote ihlferent 
 tlnn'gs. In the latter case, a garrison is a place wherein for< es are 
 maintained to secure it; and where they keep r.-gular guard, as a 
 iVontier-town, a citadel, castle, tower, i<;c. '1 he .>arrl-o!i should 
 always be stronger than the townsmen. AV inter-quarters signily a 
 place where a number of forces are laid up in the winter-^eason, 
 without keeping the tegular guard. Du C'ange derives the word 
 from the corrupt Latin gurnixio, which the latter writers use to 
 iignify all manner of munition, arms, irictuals, is:c. necessary for 
 the dcteece of a place, uiul sn^taining of a siege. 
 
 G.vRiuso.M, a town of Ireland, in Fermanagh, ten miles S. E. of 
 Ballvshannon. 
 G'ARROWS, a county of Asia in India, E. of Bengal. 
 
 GaR.SI ANG, a populous town of Lancashire, in the post-road 
 between Preston and Lancaster. It is seated on the Wyre, which, 
 by the late inland navigation, communicate^ with the Mersey, 
 l5ee, Ribble, Ouse, Irent, Danvent, Severn, Ilumber, Thames, 
 Avon, &c. which navigation, including its windings, extends 
 above 500 miles, in the counties of Linci'vhi, No'tingham, York, 
 AVestmoreland, Chester, Statlord, Warwick, Leicester, Oxford, 
 Worcester, &c. Garstang is ten miles S. ot Lancaster, Lon. i.'. 
 53. W. Lat. 55. 56. N. 
 
 GAR PER, in heraldry, a moiety, or the half of a bend. 
 Garter, Order of the, a military order of kriiglilhood, the 
 most noble and aiicicnt of any lay-order in the world, mstituted by 
 Edward 111. 'I he knights companions are generally princes and 
 peeiN ; and the kir.g of England is the sovereign of the order. The 
 number of knights was origuially -6 ; but six were added in 1786, 
 on account of the increase of the royal family. They are a cor- 
 pora' ion, ha\ing a great and little seal, &c. Their otlicevs are a 
 prelate, chancellor, regi^le]•, king at arms, and usher of the black 
 rod. 1 hey have also a dean, with 12 canons, and pttty-canons, 
 vergers, and 26 pen-ioners or poor knights. '1 he prelate is the 
 head. 'I'his ofiice has always been vested in the bishop oAVinchej- 
 ter. Next to the prelate is the chan( elior ; which ollice is vested 
 in the bishop of Salisbury, w ho keeps the seals, R:c. The next is 
 the register, who by his oath is to enter upon the registry, the 
 scrutinies, elections, penalties, vi..l other acts of the order wi'li all 
 hdelity ; The dean of Windsor la alwavs register ex officio. I'he 
 fourth officer is Garter and Kinj; at arms, being two distinct oflkos 
 united in one person. He is the principal oliicer w ithin the col- 
 lege of arms, and chief of the heralds. All these officers, except 
 the prelate, have fees and pensions. The college of Die order is 
 seated in liie castle of W iiidsor, within the chapel of St. George, 
 and the charter-house, erected by the founder for tliat purpose. 
 The liabit and ei-.aign ot the order are a gaiter, mantle, cape, 
 geoige, and collar. The tlnee first wereas igned the kniglits com- 
 panions by the founder ; and the gcorge and collar by Henry VHI. 
 The garter challenges pre-eminence over all tht other part's of the 
 dress, as from it the order is denominated. It is the hr^t part of the 
 habit presented to foreign iirinces and absent knights, who, as well 
 a^ all otl'.er knights elect, are therewith first adorned ; and it is of so 
 great honour and grandcr.r, tliat by the bare investiture with this 
 i.oble ensign, the knights are esteemed comp.anions of the greafcst 
 military order in the world. It is »<irn on the left leg between the 
 knee and calf, and is enamelled with this motto, Honi soit «vi 
 MAL Y PENSE. The mantle is the chief of these vestments made 
 use of upon all solemn occasions. The colour ot the mantle is by 
 the statutes appointed to be blue. The length of its train only dis- 
 tinguishes the sovereign from the knights companions. '1 o tlie 
 collar of the mantle is fixed a pair of loi.g strings, ancientU wov- 
 en with blue silk only, but now twisted round, and made of Ve- 
 nice gold and silk, of the colour ot the robe ; with knobs or buttons 
 and tassids at the end. The Kit shoulder has from the in t.tntioii 
 been adoined with a large garter, with the dev:ce, UoNi SoiT, &c. 
 Within this is thecioss ot the order, which wa-. ortlained to be worn 
 at all time- by king Charles 1. At lcni;lh the star was introduced, 
 being a sort of cross iriadiated w th bi ams of silver. 'I he collar is 
 appointi'd to be composed ot pieces (;f gold m fashion of garters, 
 tie ground eiiamclled blue, ai.d the motto gold. In 1551, Ed- 
 ward \'l. made some alterations in lln- riinal of this ortler: that 
 printe composed it in Latin, the original whereof is still extant in 
 his own hand-writing. Hetliere ordLiiiied, that (heorder>hould no 
 longer be called the order of St. George, but the order of the 
 gaiter; and, instead of the George, hung at the collar, he snhsti- 
 luted a cavalier, bearing a book on the |)oint ot his sword, with the 
 word, protectio craven on the >word, and verbum Dei en the 
 book: with a buckle in the letf Iv.md, and the word hdes thereon. 
 ^VIlen the knights do not wear their robes, tlu y are to have a 
 Mlver star on the left side ; and they comnumly bear the picture of 
 St. George, enamelled on gold, and beset with dianioiuis, at the 
 end of a blue ribbon, crossing the body from the left shoulder. 
 The\ are not to appear ;,broad without the garter, on penalty of 
 tis. 8(1. paid to the ri'gister. The manner of electing a knight 
 companion into ilfb nost noble order, and the ceremonies of in- 
 vestiture, are these : \\'hen the sovereian designs to elect a com- 
 panion of the garter, the chancellor of the order draws iiii the let- 
 ters, which, passing both under the sovereign's sign maiuial and 
 signet of the order, arc sent to the person by Ciartcr principal king 
 
 at
 
 GAS 
 
 .5,57 
 
 GAS 
 
 at arms. The garter, which is of blue velvet honlcrcd with line 
 gold wire, liavini; the letters ol tl.e motto, is, ;it the time of elec- 
 tion, buckled upon the left leg, by two of the senior compiuiions, 
 who receive it from the sovereign, to whom it was previously pre- 
 sented upon a velvet cushion, by Garter king at arms, with the 
 usual reverence, whilst ihe chancellor reads the followins; admoni- 
 tion, enjoined by the statutes: " To the honcjur of God omnipo- 
 tent, and in memorial of the blessed martyr St. George, tie about 
 thy leg, for thy renown, this noble garter; wear it as the symbol of 
 the most illu-^trious order, never to be forgolteji or laid aside ; that 
 thereby lliou mavest be admonished to be courageous; and hav- 
 ing undertaken a just war, in which ihou slialt be engaged, thou 
 inayest stand firm, valiantly tight, and successively conquer." 
 The princely garter being then buckled on, and the word of its 
 signincLition prou'iunced, th;; knight elect is brought before the 
 sovereign, wlio puts about h'.s neck, kneeling, a dark blue ribbon, 
 tvhereunto is appendant, wrought in gold within the garter, tlie 
 image of St. George on horseback, with his sword drawn, encoun- 
 tering with the dragon. In the mean time, the chancellor reads 
 the following admonition: ''Wear this ribbon about thy neck, 
 adorned with the image of the blessed martyr and soldier ol Christ, 
 St. George, by whose imitation provoked, thou mayest so over- 
 pass both prosperous and ail verse adventure;, tliat having stoutly 
 vanquished thy enemie:-. both of body and soul, thou mayest not only 
 receive tlie praise oflhis transient combat, but be crowned with the 
 palm of eternal victory." Then the knight elected kisses the sove- 
 reign's hand ; thanks his majesty for the great honour done him ; rises 
 up, and salutes all the companions severally, who return tlieir con- 
 gratulations. Since the institution of this order, tlicre have been 
 8 emperoi-s and 2S kings, besides numerous sovereign princes, en- 
 rolled as companions. The origin of the order is variously related 
 by historians. The common and not improbable account is, that 
 the countess of Salisbury happening at a ball to ilrop her garter, 
 the king took Hup and presented it to her in these words, " Honi 
 soit qui mal y pense ; i.e. Evil to him that evil thinks. This 
 accident gave rise to the order and the motto ; it being the spirit 
 of the times to mix love and war together. In the original statutes, 
 liowever, diere is not the least hint of allusion to such a circum- 
 stance, farther than is conveved in the motto. C'amden, Fern, 
 &c. take the order to have been instituted on occasion of the vic- 
 tory obtained by Edward over the French, at the battle of Cressv. 
 That prince, say some historians, ordered liis garter to be displayed, 
 as a signal of battle ; in commemoration whereof, he made a 
 garter the principal ornament of the order erected in memorv of 
 this signal victory, and a symbol of the indissoluble union of the 
 knights. And they account for the motto, that K. Edward having 
 laid claim to the kingdom of France, denounced shame and de- 
 fiance upon him that should dare to think amiss of the just enter- 
 prise he had undertaken for recovering his lawful right to that 
 crown; and that the braveiy of Uiose knights whom he had elected 
 into this order was such as would enable him to maintain the quar- 
 rel against those that thought ill of it. This interpretation, however, 
 appe:-.is to be rather forced. A still more ancient origin of this or- 
 der is given in Kastel's Chronicle, lib. vi. c[U0ted by Granger, in 
 the supplement to his Biographical History : viz. that it was de- 
 Tised by Richard I. at tlie siege of Acres, when he caused 26 
 knights, who lirmly stood by him, to wear thongs of blue leather 
 about tlieir legs; and that it was revived and perfected in the lyth 
 year of Edward III. 
 
 GAKTH is used in some parts of England for a little back-yard 
 or close. It is an ancient British word. Gardd, in that language, 
 signifies garden, and is pronounced garth. It is also used for a dam 
 or wear. Sec. 
 
 Garth-man, in the old English statutes, one who catches fish 
 by means of fish-garths, or wears. 
 
 GARTZ, a town of German v, in Prussian Pomerania. Lon. 14. 
 IS. E.Lat. 53. 13. N. 
 
 GAS is a general name for all lluids of the aerial kind, except 
 common air. It is derived from the German grisclit or gast, sig- 
 nif)ingan irruption of wind, or the ebullition attending the ex- 
 pulsion ofelp.-tic lluids from substances in a state of fermentation or 
 eliervcscence. It was originally given by Van Ilelmont to the 
 vapour of charcoal, the san;c with the fluid" afterwards called fixed 
 air, nowf carbonic acid, and also to some other factitious airs. 
 From him tlie term gas has been employed by modern philosophers, 
 
 VOL II,— NO. 93. 
 
 as a general one lor all the elastic fluidi, which ret lin th' ir aerial 
 tbrm in the common temperature of the atmosphere. (Tall the 
 modern discoveries, lbo«e relating to air, or the substances de- 
 noininatixl gases, arc the most important and interesting. 
 
 OxvGKN Gas. 'I'his gas was fii-st obtained by the ingenious 
 Dr. Priestley in 1 774 on the first day ol August. Soon after the 
 5:mie discovery was made by Scheele and Lavoisier. It has be<'n 
 called dephlogisticated air, pure air, vital air, fire-air, empyreal 
 air, and oxygen g.is which name it retains. Oxygen is combined 
 in abundance in many metallic substances from which the gas niay 
 be ol)taine<l by the application of heat. It is most generally pro- 
 cured by adding good sulphuric acid to about the same bulk'ofthe 
 black oxide of manganese. The tlame c.i a taper or lamp is ap- 
 plied, and the gas by means of a brick-tube is received in a glass in- 
 verted over water. The properties of this air has been fully examin- 
 ed and arc now generally known. It is remarkable for its puritv, and 
 for its power of maintaining combiution and respiration. ' Any 
 combustible substance, previously ignited, being introduced into 
 this gas burns rajiidiy and vividly. A bit of iron-wire or watch- 
 spring with a small bit of phosphorus and lint lighted at the end, 
 burns brilliantly, emitting s])arks. It is insipid, inodorous, highly 
 elastic, and heavier than common ;.ir, being to it as 103 to 100. By 
 the application of heat it is expanded ; bythe abstraction of heat it 
 is contracted, in the same manner as atmospheric air, but in a 
 ditferent ratio. In the first 45° above tliefreezing point it expands 
 less tlian atinosijberic air ; in higher temperatures it expands much ' 
 more. This gas has been found of use medicinally in cases of de- 
 bility, serofula, rickets, palsy, nervous affections,' &c. It forms 
 about 27 parts in 100 of atmospheric air, constituting that 
 part which supports animal life. It also gives to acids their 
 acid properties, and hence has been called the acidifying prin- 
 ciple. 
 
 Gas, Azotic, or Nitrogen, it is also called mephitis, and is 
 a substance unlike the former, being incapable of supporting ani- 
 mal life. It extinguishes flame, and is only characterised by pos- 
 sessing none of the distinguishing qualities of the other known air?. 
 It is lighter than common air, in the proportion of 9S5 to 1000. It 
 may be considered indeed as the residue of common air, when 
 vitiated by combustion. It is easily disengaged from animal mat- 
 ters, by a slight increase of temperature ; but difTerent parts of 
 animals afford diflerent proportions of it, and the concrescible fib- 
 roiis matter the most. The portion of it they in general aftord is 
 proportioned to their quantity of volatile alkafi. Azotic or nitrogen 
 gas, may be procured by mixing equal w eights of iron filings Sid 
 sulphur into a paste with water, and placing the nrixture in a 
 proper vessel over water. Then invert over it a jrvr full of common 
 air, and allow it to stand exposed to the mixture a dav or two. 
 The air contained in the jar will gradually diminish, as will appear 
 from the ascent of the water within the jar, till at last only about 
 three-fourths of its original bulk remain. This gas isnot absorbed 
 by water: it immediately extinguishes a lighted candle, and other 
 burning substances: it is fatal to animals confined in it: plants; 
 however, live and flourish in it: by it delicate blue colours are 
 slightly reddened ; and when mixed with oxygen gas, in the pro- 
 portion of three or four parts of azotic gas to one of oxygen, it 
 composes a mixture resembling atmospheric air. Its basis is ni- 
 trogen, an elementary substance, w hicli is also the basis of nitrous 
 acid or aquafortis. Its combination with oxygen gives it the acid 
 character. In this state it is combined with that substance. In the 
 slate of atmospheric air it is only mixed. 
 
 Gas, Inflammable, or HvnROGKN. This air, named also fire- 
 damp, is peculiarly distinguished by its great levity and inflamma- 
 bility. It is the lightest substance whose weight we are able to esti- 
 mate. When pure, it is thirteen times lighter than atmospheric 
 air, and it immediately explodes on mixture with oxygen and 
 ignition. It is formed by the union of hydrogen and caloric. Its 
 lightness is parucularly evinced by its "use in balloons. Plants 
 grow in this fluid wi'.liout impairing its inflammability. Water im- 
 bibes about one-thirteenth (lart of it ; and when again expelled, it 
 is as inflammable a'' ever. Hydrogen gas is thus procured: let 
 sulphuric acid, diluted with five or six times its weight of water, 
 be poured on iron filings or zinc in a glass-bottle or small retort. 
 An etilervescence will ensue, and the gas which escapes is inflam 
 mable air or hydrogen gas. This efl'ect is procured by the decom- 
 position of the watery parts of the acid; the oxygen is absorbed 
 7 C by
 
 GAS 
 
 558 
 
 GAS 
 
 by the metal, and with the sulphur forms a solid saUne mass fmar- 
 tial vitriol or copperas). The li\ drogen which enters into the 
 composition of the water is disengaged in the torm of hydrogen 
 gas. According to M. Lavoisier, water is composed ot eighty- 
 five parts of oxygen and fifteen parts of liydrogen. This philoso- 
 pher lias instructed us in the following method of obtaining this gas 
 by heat only. Let water pass drop by drop through the barrel of 
 a gun, while it remains red-hot amidst burning coals ; let a crookt-u 
 tube be placed at the end of thi-. iron, and bent, so that it may be 
 passed into a glass-vessel full of water inverted in the pneumatic ap- 
 paratus. There will llien pass into the glass-vessel an aeriform 
 Huid, which is inflammable air or hydrogen gas. In this process 
 the water sufl'ei's a decomposition, and while the hydrogen pa-^ses 
 into tlie glass-receiver, the oxygen unites with the substance of the 
 gun-barrel, and oxidates or rusts its internal surface. Metals are 
 very easily revived or reduced from a calx or oxide to the metallic 
 state when heated in a receiver lilled with this air. This also 
 arises from its attraction for oxygen, which in this case is expelled 
 from the calx; and, uniting with the hydrogen ia the receiver to 
 form water, leaves the metal pure, and in its natural state. In a 
 strong phial mix equal parts of hydrogen gas and common air, and 
 apply to the mouth a lighted candle, and it will produce a sudden 
 and loud explosion. One part of oxygen gas, and two or three of 
 hydrogen gas, will give a report equal tn that of a pistol. Hydro- 
 gen gas has an unpleasant smell; il extinguishes burning bodies; 
 and is fatal to animals. I'Vom these three simple or origin d gases, 
 variously modified, all the rest are produced. 
 
 Gas, Cakbonic Acid. This is the first of the elastic fluids that 
 appears to have been distinguished from common air. Dr. Black 
 investigated its nature. From its existing in the inelastic state, ui 
 water. Dr. Black called it fixed air. Bewley termed it mephilic 
 air; it has also been termer! cretaceous and calcareous acid, but lias 
 retained the name carbonic acid, since it appears to have been as- 
 certained, that its radical is carbon. Of this, or rather of charcoal, 
 according to the experiments of Lavoisier, it contains twenty-eight 
 parts by weight, to seventy-two of oxygen. Guytou Morveau 
 considers it as composed of 17. 8S pure carbon, and 8'-'. IS of oxy- 
 gen. Carbonic acid gas exceeds every other in specific gravity, 
 except the sulphurous. Hence the vapour in the Grotto del Cano, 
 lises but a little above the surface ; and the ciioak-danip ol miners, 
 ivhich is this gas, lies on the ground. Thus, too, when it is emit- 
 ted from a fermenting liquor, it first fills the ennpty portion of the 
 vat, displacing the lighter atmospheric air; and then flows over 
 the sides, almost as water would do. For the same reason, if a 
 bottle filled with it be inverted over the tianie of a candle at some 
 distance, it will descend, and extinguish it. According to the 
 experiments of Mr Cavendish, one part of this, mixed with 
 nine of atmospheric air, renders it incapable of supporting com- 
 bustion. 
 
 Gas, Carbonic Oxide. This is a mixture of carbonic acid 
 gas, and carbonic oxide;; it was first made known by Mr. Cniick- 
 sliank. This gas freed from carbonic acid by washing with lime- 
 water is somewhat lighter than common air in which it docs 
 not explodi- when fired, but does in oxygen gas. Pure alka- 
 lies do not absorb it, but water takes up aliout a fifth part of its 
 bulk. It is noxious to animals. The purest oxide ot carbon is 
 obtained, by passing the carbonic acid gas through red hot char- 
 coal. 
 
 Gas, Atmospheric, or. Common Air. This is a mixluie of 
 ©xygen and azotic air, witli carbonic acid, and this mixture is in 
 the proportion of 27 parts of oxygen air, 72 of azotic, and I of 
 carbonic acid gas. The proofs of this composition of atmospheric 
 air were first offered by Mr. Scheele, who found, on its exposure 
 to Certain substances, that it suffered a diminution of volume, and 
 that by this diminution it was rendered unfit for the support of 
 life. This abitractod part, therefore, could not fail to be oxvgen 
 or vital air ; and from this mixture of oxygen and azote, he 
 naturally inferred that atmospheric air came to be formed. This 
 he further confirmed by restoring oxygen tu it, in con-icciuence of 
 which it regained all its properties of atmospheric air. On the 
 same subiect he was nucceeded by Lavoisier, who, in addition to 
 these facts, shewed that the oxygen, or attracted part, was received 
 by the substance producing the change, and could be often re- 
 covered again from it. But though tlie composition of atmos- 
 pheric air has been thus ascertained, something still remains want- 
 
 ing to ct'iiipU-le it; and this is the nianuer uf combining by ex- 
 periment its parts. Hence it is doubled whether its parts exist 
 naturallv in a state of chemical comljination, or of mechanical 
 mixture; iiowever the latter appears most proljiible. From this 
 knowledge of the composition ol atmospheric air, an attempt has 
 be< II made to ..-.certain its purity, or its relative capability ol sup- 
 poiting animal life in ditferent situations. This is effected by 
 euuiomelry, or measuring tlie exact quantity of oxygen the air 
 contains. See Eudiometer. 
 
 GJas, Alkali.ve, or Ammoniacal. This air possesses a strong 
 pungent smell, and is even capabie of inflaming the skin of ani- 
 mals. Us lightness is next to thai of inflammable air. and its spe- 
 cific gravity is to that of atmospheric air, in the proportion of t)00 
 to 1000. It is capable of supporting animal life, or combustion, 
 though the tlame ofacaiuile enlaiges before it is extinguished by 
 it. It is a compound of azote and hy.'rogen, 1000 parts of it con- 
 taining 807 of azote, and 193 of hytfrogen. This air has a strong 
 attraction for water, and is rajiidly absorbed by it. When dis- 
 solved with water it produces heat; and when dissolved with ice it 
 products cold. Dr. Priestley first noticed this gas ; it is not found 
 in a natural state. To obtain it, put into a retort a certain quantity 
 of liquid ammonia, and heat the bottom of the retort, and having 
 suffered some air to escape from tiie retort and the tube, the gas 
 may be collected in vessels filled with mercury. This gas, which 
 seems to be nothing but ammonia deprived of water, is perfectly 
 absorbable by water, and the solution forms liquid ammonia (the 
 same which is vulgarly called sal volatile and spirit of hartshorn). 
 It is the ligiitest of all the saline gases, has a penetrating odour, and 
 gives a strong tint of green to blue vegetable colours. It com- 
 bines rapidly with carbonic, muriatic, and sulphureous acid gases, 
 and forms neutral salts, throwing out a great deal of heat, which 
 arises from the free state of the caloric that had been combined 
 witli these gases. Ammoniacal gas sulibcates raiinials, and extin- 
 guishes burning bodies ; but it is so far inllammable, that it in- 
 creases the flame of a taper before it extinguishes it. 
 
 Gas, Carburetted Hydrogen. There are several varie- 
 ties of this gas, the hydrogen holding ililTerent proportions of car- 
 bon in solution, according to the process by which it is obtained. 
 The gas of stagnant water, which may be procured by stirring the 
 mud at t!ie bottom with a stick, and collecting the gas, as it rises in 
 bubbles, in an inverted bottie, is this compound, as is also the fire- 
 damp of coal-mines. The vapour of water passed through a tube 
 containing ignited charcoal, consists of this gas and carbonic acid, 
 whicfi may be separated by agitating the mixture with lime diffused 
 in water. ^Ihe vapour of ether, or of alcohol, passed through a 
 red-hot tube of porcelain, coated with clay, affords the same pro- 
 ducts. If three parts of concentrated sulphuric acid, and one of 
 alcohol, be distilled in a glass-retort with a gentle heat, a carburet- 
 ted hydrogen comes over. This is distinguished by tlie name of 
 olefiaiit gas, because when it comes in contact with oxygenated 
 muriatic acid gas, it forms an oil. Several varieties of this gas 
 were examined by Mr. Henry, in order to-ascertain their power of 
 affording light. The following results were determined : 
 
 Oxygen gas Measures 
 required to of carbonic 
 
 saturate 100 I acid pro- 
 measures, duced. 
 
 Pure hydrogen 
 
 Gas from moist charcoal. 
 
 ■ — oak 
 
 dried peat 
 
 coal , 
 
 lamp-oil 
 
 stagnant water., 
 
 wa\ 
 
 Pure defiant gas . 
 
 .^0 to 54 
 
 60 
 
 54 
 
 68 
 
 170 
 
 190 
 
 200 
 
 220 
 
 284 
 
 
 
 35 
 
 33 
 
 43 
 
 100 
 
 124 
 
 !00 
 
 137 
 
 179 
 
 The light evolved appeared to be in proportion to the oxygen 
 consuim d, so that the first tour in the f^t yielded very liule ; but 
 the la-t much exceeded all the rest. Of ilicse varieties the olcti- 
 
 4 ant
 
 GAS 
 
 559 
 
 GAS 
 
 anl ^a^ is tlie liL-avicst, aiul with oxygen detonulcs more violtiilly 
 llian any of the rest. 
 
 Gas, Sulphurated Hydrogen. Tliis has the properties of 
 an aiul ; lor « hmi absorbed by vv.iter, its sohitioii reddens vegeta- 
 ble l>liies. It coiiibiNes aKo with alkalies, earths, and with several 
 nielalilc oxides. It has an extrem ly oll'ensive odour, resembling 
 tliat of putrid eggs. It kills anmials, and extinguishes bnrnuig 
 biKiies. When mixed witli oxygen gas, or atiiiospluric air, it i-. 
 inliammable. To obtain it, take dry sulplmret ot potass, put it 
 into a tubulated retort in a san -bath ; or, supported over a lani|), 
 direct the neck of the rt-tori under the receiver placed in a pneti- 
 niatic trough ; then pour giadually upon the sulphuret diluted 
 sulphuric aiid : a violent eli'crvoscence will take place, and sul- 
 phurated hydrogen gas will be disengaged. \\ hen no more gas is 
 produced, apply he..t by degrees till it boils, and gas will again he 
 procured ahunilan'.ly. 1 iie water cuiployetl for receiving it 
 should be heated to about SO or 90 degrees : at this temperature 
 it dissolves Utile of the gas ; but if cold water be used, a vast 
 quant-.ty of it is absorbed. Water impregnated with sulphurated 
 hydrogen gas, slightly reddens blue vegetable colours. It is this 
 g.is which gives to the m.neral-w Liters of harrowgate and .\ix-la- 
 C'liapelle tlieu' peculiar smell. Such waters may therefore be arti- 
 ficially imitateu, by impregnating common water with this gas, and 
 adding the other consiitueiit parts to it. This gas acts strongly on 
 most metallic o.xides. Dip a slip of paper into a solution of lead, 
 and expo-e it to the action of sulphurated hydrogen gas ; and the 
 paper will instantly become blackened. \Vriting performed with 
 this solution is invisible when dry, but becomes visible when im- 
 mered in a bottle filled with this gas. 
 
 Gas, Phosphorated Hydrogen, consists of phosphorus dis- 
 solved in hydrogen gas. It is the most combustible substance in 
 nature. It is distinguished from all other gases by the property 
 of taking lire immediately when brought in contact with atmo- 
 spheiic air. When mixed with oxygen gas, or with oxygenated 
 muriatic acid gas, it burns with great violence. When bubbles of 
 it are sufTeied to pass through water, they take fire in succession 
 as they reach the surface of the fluid. It has an insupportable 
 odour, similar to that of putrid fish. To obtain it, take a small 
 retort, put into it one part of phosphorus and ten of concentrated 
 solution of potass ; make the mixture boil, and receive the gas 
 over mercury, or, if it be intended for immediate use, it may be 
 collected over water. Iii this process a decomposition of the wa- 
 ter takes place. Its oxygen unites to part of the phosphorus, 
 forming phosphoric acid, which joins to the potass, anil forms 
 phosphate of potass. The hydrogen of the water dissolves ano- 
 ther part of the phosphorus, ai\d is converted into phosphorated 
 hydrogen gas. In preparing this gas the body of the retort should 
 be tilled as nearly as possible with the mixture, otherwise the first 
 portion of gas w'hicii is produced inflames in the retort, a vacuum 
 is formed, antl the water is forced up into the retort, which endan- 
 gers the bursting of it. Phosphorated hydrogen gas is also formed 
 by nature. The air which burns at the surface of certain springs, 
 and form- what is called burning springs, and the ignis fatuus 
 (jack o' lantern), which glides along burying-grounds consist of this 
 gas. If the bubbles of air which come from the retort are suffer- 
 ed to escape into the atmosphere, they wdl burst with a slight ex- 
 plosion, and produce flashes of fire. A circular dense white 
 smoke rises like a ring, enlarging itself continually in an extreme- 
 ly beautiful manner, if the air be perfectly tranquil. This gas 
 burns with a green light, in nascent oxygenated muriatic acid gas, 
 under the surface of water. Put into a deep glass some phospho- 
 ret of lime, broken into pieces of the size of a pea, and add half as 
 much oxygenated muriate of potass. Fill the vessel with water, 
 and bring into contact with the materials at the bottom of the fluid 
 some concentrated sulphuric acid. This may be most conveni- 
 ently done, by letting the acid fall through a long funnel reaching 
 to the bottom of the vessel. As soon as the decomposition of the 
 wafer, and that of the oxygenated muriate takes place, flashes of 
 fire dart from the fluid, and illuminate the bottom of the vessel 
 with a beautiful green light. A ribbon, impregnated with solu- 
 tion of gold, may be gilt by the action of phosphorated hydro- 
 gen gas. 
 
 Gas, Nitrous. This name is given to an aeriform fluid, con- 
 sisting of a certain quantity of nitrogen gas and oxygen : first de- 
 scribed by Priestley, but in some measure known before to Hales. 
 
 It is colourless, having no sensible taste, and is neither acid nor 
 alkaline: it caimot be respired. The greater number of combus- 
 lible bod es cannot burn in it. It is nevertheless capable of sup- 
 porting the combustion of some bodies. Phosphorus burns in it, 
 when introduced in a state of inflammation ; pyiophorns lake«! fire 
 in it spontaneously. To obtain it, put into a small retort fome 
 pieces of copper, and pour on them nitric acid diluted with water ; 
 an effervescence takes place, and nitrous gas will be produced. 
 After having suffered the gas to escape for a few minutes, on ac- 
 count of the conmion air contained in the retort, collect the gas 
 in the water apparatus as usual. In order to obtain this gas in a 
 pure state, it shoulit be shaken for some time in contact with wa- 
 ter. In this process the acid undergoes a partial decomposition ; 
 the metal robs the nitric acid of the greatest part of its oxygen, 
 and becomes oxydated. This gas has the property of absorbing 
 the oxygen of tlie atmosphere ; on this property Priestley formed 
 his eudiometers. See Eudio.meter. 
 
 Gas, Nitrous Oxide. This is sometimes called the gaseous oxide 
 of nitrogen,a compound of nitrogen with a still less proportion of oxy- 
 gen than the preceding gas. It is a permanent gas. A candle bums 
 in rt with a brilliant flame and crackling noise: before its extinction 
 the white inner flame becomes surrounded with a blue one. Phos- 
 phorus introduced to it in a state of inflammation burns with in- 
 creased splendour, as in oxygen gas. Sulphur introduced into it 
 when burning with a feeble blue tlame, is extinguished ; but wheH 
 in a state of vivid inflammation it burns with a rose-coloured 
 flame. Lighted charctal burns in it more brilliantly than in at- 
 mospheric air. Iron wire with a small piece of wood affixed to 
 it, and introduced inflamed into a vessel filled with this gas, burns 
 rapidly, and throws out bright scintillating sparks. Nitrous o.xide 
 is rapidly absorbed by water which has been boiled; a quantity of 
 gas equal to rather more than half the bulk of the water may be 
 thus made to disappear : the water acquires a sweetish taste, but 
 its other properties do not differ perceptibly from common water. 
 The whole gas may be expelled again by heat. It does not 
 change blue vegetable colours. It has a sweet taste, and a faint 
 but agreeable odour. This gas is produced when substances, hav- 
 ing a strong affinity with oxygen, are added to nitric acid, or to 
 nitrous gas. It may therefore be obtained by various methods, iu 
 which nitrous gas or nitric acid is decomposed by substances capa- 
 ble of attracting the greater part of their oxygen. Tlie most com- 
 modious and expeditions, as well as the cheapest mode of obtain- 
 ing it, is by decomposing nitrate of ammonia by heat in the fol- 
 lowing manner : Put into a glass-retort some pure nitrate of am- 
 monia, and apply to, it an Argand's lamp; the salt will soon li- 
 quefy, and when it begins to boil gas will be evolved. Increase 
 the beat gradually, till the body and neck of the retort become 
 filled with a milky white vapour. In this state the temperature 
 of the fused nitrate is between 340 and 480 degrees. After the 
 decomposition has proceeded for some minutes, so that the gas, 
 when examined, quickly enlarges the tlame of a taper, it may be 
 collected over water. Care should be taken during the whole 
 process never to sufler the temperature of the fused nitrate to rise 
 above 5<iO degrees Fahrenheit, which may be easily judged of 
 from the density of the vapours in the retort, and from the quick 
 ebullition of the fused nitrate ; for if the boat is increased beyond 
 this point, the vapours in the retort acquire a reddish and more 
 transparent appearance, and the fused nitrate begins to rise ; at 
 700° or S00° it explodes. ."Vfter it is obtained it should stand over 
 water several hours to render it fit for respiration, or other expe- 
 riments. To experience its effects in breathing it, put about a 
 gallon into a large bladder, or oiled silk-bag, having a tube attach- 
 ed to it of three-fourths of an inch in diameter. First, the com- 
 mon air must be expelled from the lungs, before the tube is re- 
 ceived into the mouth, and the nostrils must be accurately closed 
 with the hand. It must then be breathed backwards and forwards 
 into the bag for a minute or two ; some have gone as far as four or 
 five minutes. It generally produces a pleasant thrilling, particu- 
 larly in the chest and extremities, frequently with an inclination 
 to laugh, and somelimes an irresistible propensity to gesticulation 
 and muscular exertion. 'Ihe mind meanwhile i^ often totally ab- 
 stracted from all surrounding olyects. Sometimes its etTects arc 
 not entirely dissipated for some hours ; and it is remarkable, that, 
 how ever strong they may have been, no sense of debility or lan- 
 guor is induced after they have subsided. Ob a few individuals, 
 
 howcv;,
 
 GAS 
 
 560 
 
 GAS 
 
 however, its fffecls have been \iiiple25aiit am! depressing ; in some 
 it has produced con\ iilsions, and otlier nervous sj mptoms ; and on 
 iome it lias had no sensible effect. 
 
 Gas, Fluoric Acid. The radical of fluoric acid gas is un- 
 known. It may be obtained by deconiposins fluateof lime (Der- 
 byshire spar), by means of sulphiu'ic acid. For this purpose, put 
 one part of powdered filiate of lime into a leaden retort, and pour 
 over it two or three p.irts ot sulpliuric acid. A violent action en- 
 sues, and fluoric acid ga': is extricated, which must be collected 
 over mercury, either in a leaden or tin vessel, or in a glass-re- 
 ceiver covered wilhiu with a coat of varnisli or wax. When no 
 more gas is produced, the action of the acid iiiu>t be assisted by a 
 gentle heat. I'he most remarkable property of this gas is its 
 power of dissolving sile.\ : it therefore dissolves glass-crysials, and 
 various precious stones. It is heavier th;ui common air. it does 
 Jjot maintain combustion, nor can animals breathe it. It i-s ab- 
 sorbed by water, and forms witli it liquid fluoric acid. It has a 
 penetrating odour. It corrodes animal and vegetable substances. 
 Liglit has no effect upon it. It emits white fumes, when in con- 
 tact with moist atmospheric air. Jt redilens blue vegetable co- 
 lours. With ammonia, it forms a concrete body. It has nonac- 
 tion upon plalina, gold, silver, mercury, tin, lead, anlimony, co- 
 balt, nickel, or bismuth ; but it corro<ies iron, arsenic, and man- 
 ganese. The jiroperly of dissolving silex has caused it to lie ap- 
 plied to etching on glass, wliich is done either by means of the 
 tluoric acid gas, or liipiid fluoric acid. 
 
 Gas, Muriatic Acid is obtained by exposing to heal fuming 
 inuriatcd acid, put into a retort, the beak of v-hich is introduced 
 below a bell lilled with mercury, and placed on the shelf of a 
 mercurial pneumatic apparatus. You may obtain it also with the 
 same ai)paralus, if, instead of muriatic acid, you expose to heat a 
 mi.xuire of muriate of soda, or marine salt and sulphuric acid ; the 
 sulphuric acid combines w ith the soda the base of the marine salt, 
 and the muriatic acid remaining free, passes into the state of mu- 
 riatic acid gas. Muriatic acid gas is perfectly soluble in water, 
 and in a very short time. If you therefore introduce into the 
 bell, in which the ga: ha-> been collected, a small quantity of water, 
 jLhe latter, by its relative lightness, will rise to the surface of the 
 mercury ; the gas will be immediately absorbed entirely, and dis- 
 solved in the water ; the m: rcury will ascend towards the top of 
 the bell ! at"' 'lis liquor found above the mercury will be real 
 muriatic acid, more highly concentrated, according as there is 
 more gas and less water. Muriatic acid gas, therefoie, is nothing 
 else than the muriatic acid itself deprived of water ; that is to say, 
 as much concentraled as possible, and combined with caloric, 
 which causes it to assume the gaseous form. Muriatic acid gas 
 has a sharp pungent odour. If a little of it be mixed with atmo- 
 spheric air, it produces, like the muriatic acid, white fumes or va- 
 pours, occasioned by the combination of the gas with the moisture 
 of tiie air. This gas is much heavier than atmospheric air. It 
 gives the same signs of ascidity as the muriatic acid itself; and 
 this indeed ought to be the case, as it is tlie same substance. It 
 reddens blue vegetable colours, but it de troys neither them nor 
 any of the other colours, as the oxygeualed muriatic gas does. It 
 combines witli all the alkaline bases, and forms with them muria- 
 tic salts. Ir it is mixed with ammoniacal gas, it combines with it, 
 and fonns muriate of ammonia. It sulfbcates animals immersed 
 ill it, and extinguishes a lighted taper; but it first enlarges its 
 ilame, and makes it appear of a green or bluish colour at the 
 edges. 
 
 Gas, Oxygenated Muuiatic Acid. The dephlogi^iiicated 
 muriatic acid of Scheele, under a gaseous form, is the muriatic 
 acid gas surcharged with oxygen. This gas is obtained by ex- 
 posing the muriatic acid to heat and evaporation, whilst it is act- 
 ing on a substance which contains oxygen ; such, for example, as 
 the iialive oxide of manganese: if you therefore put black oxide 
 of manganese and muriatic acid into a glass-retort, and expose 
 them to heat, a strong fermentation will be exdled, during which 
 the muriatic acid will be converted into g?.-, but- surt liarged with 
 oxygen, winch is taken from the oxide of tlie manganese, be' ause 
 it has a greater aliinity for that substance. It may be prepared 
 in tlie water-apparatus, ihough it is absorbable by water. This 
 gas destioys vegetable colours entirely. All (lowers, and the 
 green leaves of plants, are rendered white by it, and alkali is not 
 iapable of restoring their colours. This effect can only be ascrib' 
 
 ed to the absorption of oxygen. This gas, which contains oxygen 
 in excess, gives up a part, which vegetable subitances absorb witli 
 avidity, and by this absorption lose their colour. The oxygenat- 
 ed nuiriatic acid gas thea becomes converted into common mu- 
 riatic acid gas. 'I'his property has given rise to a new methoti of 
 bleacliing, which has proved successlul. See Bleaching. Other 
 gases of less importance will be npticed under their respective 
 bases, and the properties of these further noticed. For the speci- 
 tic gravitv of the gase-, see Sfecific Gravity. 
 
 GASCOiN, or GASCOIGN, is the hinder thigh of a horse, 
 which begins at the stille, and reaches to the ply or bending of the 
 iuVri. 
 
 GASCON Y, a late province of France, bounded by Guienne 
 on the N. by Langucdoc on the E. by the Pyrenees on the S. and 
 by the Bay of Biscay on the W. It had its name from the Ga,s- 
 coons, its ancient inhabitants. It now forms along with Armagnac 
 the department of Gers. 
 
 GASPEiSIA, a tract of country, in Lower Canada, S. of the 
 Lawrence, and N. of Coraleiii's Bay. 
 
 GASSENDI, one of the most celebrated philosophers France 
 luis i)roduce(l, was born at Chanterfier, about three miles from 
 Digiie in Provence, in 1J92. When a child, he took delight ia 
 gazing at the moon and stars in clear unclouded weather. This 
 frequently drew him into bye-places, to feast his eyes undisturbed ; 
 by which ifieans his parents had him often to seek, with many 
 anxious fears. 'I'liey tlieielore put him to school at Digne ; 
 where he soon made such extraordinary progress in learning, that 
 some persons, v.ho had seen specimens of his genius, resolved to 
 liave him removed to Aix, to study philosophy under Fesay, a 
 learned minor friar. He was afterwards invited to be professor of 
 rhetoric at Digne, before he was qnite sixteen years of age ; and 
 he had been engaged in that office but three \ ears, when Fesay 
 dying, he was made professor in his room at Aix. 'I'here he com 
 posed his " Paradoxical Exercitations ;" which, coming to the 
 hands of Nicholas Peiresc, that great patron of learning joined 
 with Joseph Walter prior of Valette in promoting him ; and he 
 having entered into holy orders, was lirst made canon of the 
 church of Digne and ID. D. and tlu?n obtained ihe rectorship of 
 that church. Gasseudi's fondness for astronomy grew up with his 
 years; and his reputation daily increasing, he was, in 1645, ap- 
 pointed royal professor of mathematics at Paris. This institution 
 being chiefly designed for astronomy, he read lectures on that 
 science to crowded audiences. However, he did not hold this 
 place long; for a dangerous cough and inflammation of the lungs, 
 obliged him, in 1647, to return to Digne for the benefit of his na- 
 tive air. Gassendi v rote against the metaphysics of Descartes ; 
 and divided with that great man the philosopher of his time, al- 
 most all of whom were Cartesians or Gassendians. He joined to 
 his knowledge of philosophy and the mathematics an accjuaint- 
 ance with the languages and a profound erudition. He wrote, 1. 
 Three Volumes on Epicurus's Philosopliy ; and six others, which 
 contained his own Philosophy. 2. Astronomical Works. 3. The 
 Lives of Nicholas de Peiresc, Epicurus, Coj^ernicus, Tycho 
 Brah^, Pucrbachius, and Regiomonlanus. 4. Epistles, and other 
 Treatises. All his works were collected together, and printed 
 at Lyons, in 1638, in 6 vols, folio. He dierl at Paris, in 1655, 
 aged 63. 
 
 GASSENIIO\'EN, a fn-A-n of France, in the deuartment of 
 the Dyle, and late Austiiaii Netherlands, 3 miles N. L. of Tirle- 
 mont. 
 
 GASTEIN, a (own of Bavaria, in the archbisiiopric of Saltz- 
 burs, 36 miles S. of Saltzburg. 
 
 GASTEROSTEUy, (he Stickle-eack, in ichthyology, a 
 genus of fishes of the order thoracici. Body cariuate on each 
 side, soniew'.iit lengtheneil, and covered witli bony plates ; dorsal 
 (in single, with distinct spines between it and the head; ventral- 
 fins behind the petvoial, but above the sternum. There are thir- 
 teen species. 
 
 G. AcuLEATUs, Stickle-back, Bansticle, or Sharpling, 
 is common in many of the British rivers. In the fens of Lincoln- 
 shire and some rivers that proceed from thera, tliey are found in 
 prodigious quantities. At Spalding, once in seven or eight vcars 
 amazina; shoals appear in tlie Welland, and come up (he river in 
 form ofa vast column. The quantity is so great, that they are 
 used to manure the land, and trials have been made to obtain nil 
 
 from
 
 G A T 
 
 )ni 
 
 G A U 
 
 from tlii-m. 1 1 U <a'nl thai a m;iii Ix-ing cinpleycl by tin- fanm-r 
 to take them, has got lor a coiniderable time 4^. a-ciay b\ >tlliiig 
 them fur a hiiltpeiinv per bushel. 
 
 GASTKIC JUICK, a thill pellucid lienor, v(hiclMiistils from 
 certain glands In the stomach, lor the diliitcon, &c. of llie 
 food. 
 
 GASTROBRANCHUS, in natural history, a {;l■llll^ of li>hes, 
 of the order cartilaginei. Mouth biui-ath, furnished with pecniii.d 
 teeth m a double row on each side ; body et-l-shapcd, <:ar:niitc be- 
 neatii by a soil tin, tvio ventral spiracU-^. G. cai u-, or the liug- 
 fisli, is about five inches in lengl'i, in the European se;is, bu', in 
 those of (ndia attains tiie lengtii of a common eel. Is appcai.inee 
 is very sinnlar to that of the lamiirey. It is charade; ized by the 
 circurnstance of cxliibiting no traces of tlie existence of such an 
 orcan as the eye. 
 
 GASrRtJMANCY, or GA>iTROMAKTrA, [from >n!.--ij, 
 the belly, and n*ivl!ia, divination,] a kind of divination practised 
 among the ancii'iits, by ineaiiiof winds coming or sei niing to 
 come out of the belly. Tlii-re is anotiier kind of gastroniaucy, 
 whicli is perfoinied by me;!ns of glasses, cr other round transpa- 
 rent vessels, within which certain tigures appear by magic art. It 
 is thus called, becnuse the figure appears as in the belly of the 
 vessels. 
 
 GATAKER, Thomas, a learned cri'.ic and divine, l)orn at 
 London, in 1574. He studied at St. John's college, Cambridge, 
 and was afterwards chosen preacher at Lincoln's Inn; which he 
 quitted in 161I, for the rectory of Rotherhithe. In ItiJO, he 
 made a tour through the Low Countries ; and in l6.'-i, published at 
 London a book, entitled, " Tran^nb-tantiation declared by the 
 Confession of the Popish Writers to have no necessary Founda- 
 tion in God's Word." He wrote also a defence of this discourse. 
 In 1642, he was appointed one of the assemblv of divin-'s, and w a= 
 engaged -.Mlh them in writiu!^ annotations upon the Bible. He 
 died in July 11534, in the SOtli year of his age. - He published 
 also, I A Dissertation upon the Style of the New '1 estament. 
 2. De Nomine Tetragrammata. 3. De Diphlhjngis, sive Bivo- 
 calibus 4. An Edition and Trah-lalion of Marcus Antoniniis's 
 Meditations. 5. A Collection of Sernions, in tolio ; and manv 
 other works. His piety and charty were very esemplary ; and 
 hi^ mocesiy was so great, that he <leclined all ecclesiastical dig- 
 nity. Ills extensive learning was mucli admired ; his house was a 
 private seminary, and many toreigners resorted to him to receive 
 advice in their stud es. 
 
 GATE, in arcniiec'nre, a large door, leading, or giving en- 
 trance, into a city, town, castle, palace, or ether con-iderable 
 building : or a pluce givmg passage to persons, horses, couches, or 
 waggons, ice. See Architecture. 
 
 G.\TE, or Gait, in the manege, called in French tiain, is used 
 for the going or pice ot a hoise. 
 
 Gates, hi a milit.iry sense, are made of strong planks, with iron 
 bars, to oppose an enemy. They are generally made in liie mid- 
 dle of the cnrtin, from whence tliev are seen, and defended by 
 the two Hanks of the bastions, 'fliey should be covered witi> 
 a good ravelin, that they may not be seen or enfiladed by the 
 enemy. See Fortification. 
 
 Gates of Hell, an expression used in Scripture figaratively 
 to denote either tlie grave or the powers of darkness, 2. e. the devil 
 and his angels. The Mohammedans use it literally, and suppose- 
 that hell has seven gates. 
 
 Gates, a county of North Carolir.a, in Edcnton district, 
 bounded on the N. by Virginia, and S. by Chowan county. 
 
 GA'l EHOl'SE. a town of Scotland, in Kiikcudbrlgiits'l.ire, 1,3 
 miles W. of Kirkcudbright. 
 
 GATH, or GElil, in ancient geography, a city of the Phi- 
 listines, and one of their live satrapies. It is famous for having 
 given birth to Goliath. 
 
 G.\TlNOlS, or GASTINOIS, a late province of France, 4.-. 
 miles lung antt 30 broad. It now forms part of the departments 
 of the Seine and Marne, Seine and Oise, and Loiret. 
 
 GATIA, a level district of Maritime Austria, in Dalmatia, in 
 the province of Poplizza. 
 
 GA IT EN-TREE. See Cornu". 
 
 GAI'l INARI, a town of Italy, 13 m'il« N. ofVercelli. 
 
 CATrON. a borough of Surrey, 19 miles from London, on 
 tlie side of a hill on the road to Ryegate. 
 
 VOL. II. — Mo 93. 
 
 G.VV.-VLS, a town of Russia, 28 miles S. ol Viiiorg. 
 
 GAVARiK), GO\ARI)0, or GTAROO, » district of the 
 late Cisalp ne rejiuldic, in the department of Mela, and late pro- 
 vince ot Bresciano. 
 
 (Javarpo, Govardo, or Guabdo, a tnv n of the l;'.te Cisal- 
 pine npu'dic, in the above district, 10 mile N. E. ot Bieseia. 
 
 C;.-\Ul)tNS, St. a town of France, in the de|jarlnieiit of Up- 
 per (jaronne, and late province ol Langucdoc, 8 indesN. E. of 
 Bertiand. 
 
 G.WEL, among builders. See-GAn.F. 
 
 Gavel, in law, iril)uie, toM, ciist.mi, or yearlv revenue; of 
 which we had in oil time several kinds. See Gab-'l. 
 
 GA\tl.Er, in law, an ancient and special cessavit n«rd in 
 Kent, where the custom ot gavel kind cnntinues, by which the 
 tenant, if he withdraw his rent and services due to tlie lord, for- 
 feits his land and tenements. 
 
 G.welet is also :i writ used in the hustings, given to lords of 
 rent in London. 
 
 Gavelkiijd, a tenure belonging to lands in the county of Kent, 
 and formerly univei-sal in Ireland. 'I'he word is said by'Lambard 
 to l-.e compounded of llnee Saxon words, giif, ail, ki/n, " nmni- 
 bu.i cognationc prox/nii^ data." Verstegaii" calls it" gavelkind, 
 quasi " give all kind," tliat is, to each child his p;,rt: and Tay- 
 lor, in his history o( gav(l,':iiid, derives it from the British gavel, 
 i. e. a hold or tenure, ■i\-n\ cenncd, " generc.lio M\\.J'umilia ; and 
 so gavel ccnned miglit signify tnura geiicrutionis. It is well 
 known what struggles the Kentish men made to preserve their an- 
 cient liberties, and with how nitich success those struggles were at- 
 tended. And as it is principally here th.ij we nvet with the cus- 
 tom of gavel-kind (liioiigh it was and is to be f,.ui.d in some other 
 parts of the kingdom), we may conclude, that this was a part of 
 those liberties; agreeable to Mr. Selden's opinion, that gaveikinrf, 
 before the Norman concpie.t, was the general custom of the realm. 
 The distinguishing properties of thistenureare prnripuliy these : I. 
 'i'lie teniint is ot age suhicienttoiilienate hisctateby feollinent, at the 
 age of IJ. 2. 'J'heeslato dues not escheat in case of anattaimlerand 
 e.xcciitioD for felony ; tlieir maxim being, " the father to the 
 bou^h, the son to the plough." 3. In most pfares he had a 
 power of devising lands by will, before the statute for that purpose 
 was made. 4. The lands descend, not to the eldest, youi-.gest, or 
 any one sou only, but to all the sons together ; which was indeed 
 anciently the most usual course of descent all over England, 
 though in particular places iiarticular customs prevailed ; and it 
 must be allowed, that it is founded on strict justice, however con- 
 trary to the present general practice. 
 
 GAVELLO, a town of the late Cisalpine republic, in the de- 
 partment of Benaco, on the road to Ferrara. 
 
 GAliG.AMELA, in ancient geography, a village of Aturia, 
 lying between the rivers Lycus and Tigris ; famous lor Ale.xan- 
 lier's victory over Darius. 
 
 GAL'GF.-POINT of a solid measure, the diameter of a circle 
 whose area is equal to the solid content of the same measure. 
 
 G.^UGER, a king's olBcer, who is aiipoinli-d to examine all 
 tuns, pipes, hogsheads, and barrels, of wine, beer, ale, oil, honev, 
 &c. and give them a ni.irk of allowance, before they are sold in 
 any place within the extent of his office. 
 
 GAUGING. See Mensuration. 
 
 Gaugts'G-Rgd, an instrument used in gnaging or measuring the 
 contents of any vessel. That usually employed is the four-foot 
 guaging-rod. It is commonly made of box, and consists of four 
 rules, each afoot long, and about three-eighths of an inch square, 
 joined together by three brass joints; by which means the rod is 
 rendered four feet long, when the four rules are quite opened, 
 and but one foot when they are all folded together. See Plate 
 LXXVllI, fig. 8. On the lirst face of this rod, marked four, are 
 placed two diagonal-lines; one for beer .-.nd the other for wine: 
 by means of which the contents of any common vewel in beer or 
 wine gallons may be readily found by putting the rod in at the 
 bung-hole of the vessel till it meets the intersection of the head cf 
 the vessel with the staves opposite to the bung-hole. For distinct 
 tioii ol this line, there is written thereon, be»r and wine gallons. 
 On tlve second face, 5, are a line of inches aixl the gn.ige- line ; 
 whiii» is a line expressing the areas of circles, who-e diameters are 
 the turrespondeiit inches in alegalloivs. At the begiimiiiL; is writ- 
 tea ale area. On the tliir<l face, 6, are three scales of lines ; the 
 
 U 
 
 hrsl.
 
 G A U 
 
 r)C^2 
 
 GAY 
 
 first, Lit the fiid of wliich is written lii,gi,heai!, is lor liiuiiiig hov 
 many gallons Uiert are in a hoijsluaJ when it is not tuli, lyinp 
 ■fl'itli its axis paKillel to tlic lioii/oii. Tiie second line, at the enil 
 of which is written B. L. sifjnifyini; ahiUt lyini:;, is for the same use 
 as that for the hngsheaci. '1 lie tliircl line is to lind how much h- 
 qtjor is wanting to till up a liull when it is standing : at tlie eiul ol 
 it is written ij. S. signifying a but .-tanding. In the half cf the 
 fourth fai'C of the gau.:^ing-rod, 7, theie are three scales of liiiis, 
 to find the 'vaiits in a firkni, kilderkin, anil harril, lying with then- 
 areas parallel to the horizon. Tiiey are distingnir-hed l>y the let- 
 ters, F. K. B. signifunga hrkiii, kilderkin, ami barrel. 
 
 GUAGING-KOD, Use Of THE DlAGuN .VL-I.INES ON TIIK. To 
 
 find the content of a vessel in beer or wine gallon^, put the brazed 
 end of the giiagii;j;-rod inlo tile buiiQ;-hole of the cask, with tne 
 diagonal-line^ i.ip«aid>, and ihru^t this brazed end to the ineetin;; 
 ot tne head and slaves ; tlKMi with chalk make a mark at the mid- 
 dle of the bung-hole of the vessel, ami also on the diagonal-hues 
 of the rod, right against, over one another, when the blazed end 
 is thrust home to the head and staves : then turn the guai;ing-rod 
 to the other end of the vessel, and thrusl the brazed end home to 
 the end as before. Lastly, see ii the mark made on the gu;'giiii;- 
 rod come even with tlie mark made on the bung-hole wlien the 
 rod was thrust to the other end ; winch if it be, the mark made on 
 the diagonal-lines will, on the same lines, shew the whole content 
 of the cask in beer or wine gallons, it the mark ma<le on the 
 bung-hole be not right against that made on the rod when yeu |)iil 
 it the other way, then right against the mark made on the bung- 
 hole make another on llie diagonal lines ; and the division on the 
 diagonal-line between the two chalks will shew the vessel's wlioK' 
 ronteiitsiii beer or wine gallons. Thus, e. gr. if the diagonal-line 
 of a vessel be i'8 inches four-tenths, its contents in bei'r gallons will 
 be near al, and in wine gallons (j'>. if a vessel be open, as a 
 half-barrel, tun, or copper, and the measure fVom the middle on 
 fme side to the head and staves he 3S inches, the diagonal-line 
 gives I'2'^ beer gallons : half of whicli, viz. 6l, is the content of the 
 open half-tub. If you hjve a large vessel, as a tun orcopi)er, and 
 the diagonal-line taken by a long rule proves 70 inches ; the con- 
 tent of that vessel may be found thus : every inch at the begin- 
 ning-end of the diagonal-line call ten inches. Thus ten inches 
 becomes 100 inches; and every tenth of agdlon call 100 gal- 
 lons; and every whole call 1000 g lions. Exmnplc. At 44.8 
 inches on the diagonal beer-line is COO gallons : so that four inches 
 48 parts, now called 44 inches eight-tenths, is just two-tenths of a 
 gallon, now called 200 gallons; so also if the diagonal-line be "G 
 inches and seven-trnths, a close ca--k of such diagonal will hold 
 1000 beer gallons ; but an open cask but half so nuich, viz. 300 
 beer gallons. 
 
 Gauging-Rob, Use of the Gauge-Line on thf. To 
 iind the content of any cylindrical vessel in ale-gallons ; seek the 
 diameter of the vessel in inches, and just against it on the guage-line 
 is the quantity of ale gallons contained in one inch deep : this 
 niiiltiplie<l by the length of the cylinder will give its content in ale 
 gallons. £. Gr. Ijupposc the length of the vessel 32,0t), and the 
 diameter of its base 25 inches : to Iind what is the content in ale- 
 gallons. Right against C5 inches on the gnage-line is one gallon 
 and 745 of a gallon ; whicli multiplied by 32,06, the length, gives 
 55.0447 gallons for the content of tiie vessel. ']'ho bung-diame- 
 ter of a hogshead being ^^ inches, the head-dianelcr 2'j inches, 
 ifld the length 32.00 inches; to find the cpiantity of ale-gallons 
 contained in it. — Seek 25, the bung-diameter, on the line of 
 inches ; and right against it on tlie guage-line you will find 1.743 : 
 take one-third of it, whiih is .5i>0, and set it down twice: seek 
 22 inches in the head-diameter, and again-.t it you will find on 
 the g.iugedine 1.35t); one-third of which ad(le{1 to twice .5S0. 
 gives l.t)0<J(); which multiplied by the length 35. Ot), the produd 
 will be 51.003776, the content in ale gallons. Note, this opera- 
 tion buppases, that the aforesaid hogshead is in the figure of Ihe 
 middle frustum of a spheroid. 'l"he use of the lines on the two 
 other faces of the rod is very easy ; you need only put it down- 
 right into the bung-hole (if the vessel yon desire to know the 
 ^piantity of ale-gallons contained therein be lying) to the opposite 
 staves ; and then where the surface of the litiuor cuts any one of 
 the lines appropriated to that vessel, will be the number of gallons 
 contained in that vessel. 
 
 GAUL, the English translation of Gallia, the ancient name 
 given by tlie Romans to the country now called trance. Tie 
 
 original inh;.b;lants were de^cendillg from the Geites or Gome- 
 rians, by wliom.lhe greatest oar* oi EuiOjie was peopled; the 
 name ot Galli, cr Gaul<, be.ug probably given them long after 
 their selllement in that country. See Galua. 
 
 GAUL'l ilERlA, in botany, a genus of the nionogynia order, 
 and (lecandna class of pl.Tiits; inUurul order, l5icorne.i. Exterior 
 calyx (liphylloiis, interior quinquefid ; Corolla ovate; nectarium 
 Consists ot ten subulateil points; capsule qulnquelocular, covered 
 w ith the interior calyx formed in the siiape of a berry. There are 
 twi^ species. 
 
 GAUNERS])ORIT, a town of Austria, 16 mile's N. N. E. 
 of Vienna. 
 
 GAUN I'-BFJ.LinD, in the manege, a term applied to a horse 
 wlio-e belly sUriiks up towards his iianks. 
 
 r,,\\(yV, GA\OiTA, orGAVOTTE, a kilul of dance, the 
 air ot wlilch ha.^ iwo brisk and lively strains in conitnon time, eacii 
 ot which is twice played over, 
 
 GAt H, a country of Asia, between Balk and Caudahar. Also 
 the naiiic of the capital. 
 
 GAURA, in botany, Vxrclvtan Loose-StKife, a genus of the 
 inonogyi!iaor<li-r, an(ioctandriacla>s of plants ; natuial order, Calv- 
 canthemx. Calyx quadnlid, tubular ; corolla peiitapetalous, the 
 petals lUiiig upw'ard:.; nut inferior, monospermous, quadrangular. 
 It has but one species. 
 
 GAGJS or 1ND!.VN APPENINES, a stupendous wall of 
 mounlaini, extending from Gape Comorin, the b. e.xtreinity of 
 ihe penin'^ula of Hindostan, to tiie Tapiy, or Sural river, at ane- 
 qiial distance^ from the coast; seldom more than 60 miles, com- 
 nioiily about 4U, and in one part it approaches within six uiiles. 
 
 GAUZE, GAUSE, o! ti.WV.SE, ia commerce, a very slight, 
 thin, open kind of siulf, m.uie of silk, and sometimes of tliread ; 
 there are also figured gawzes, and some with gold or silver llowert; 
 on a silk ground. 
 
 fJAY, JojiN, a celebrated English poet, descended from an 
 ancient tsniily in Devonshire. He was born at Kveter, and edu!- 
 cated at the free school of Barnstaple, under Mr. Kayiier. in 
 1712, he became secretary to tlie duchess of Monmouth. In 
 1714, he accompanied the earl of Clarendon to Hanover. On 
 <iueen,Aniic's death, he returned to England, where he lived in the 
 highest estimation and frien'.Wilp with maiiv persons of the first dis- 
 tinction. He was particularly noticed by Queen Caroline, to whom 
 he read in MS. his tragedy of the Captives ; and in 1726 dedicated 
 his Fables, by permission to the duke of Cu.mberland. From this 
 countenance shewn to him, and numberless promises of prefer- 
 ment, it was supposeil, that he would have been genteelly provided 
 for in some office suitable to his inclination and abilities. But 
 instead of this, in 1727, he was oll'ered the place of gentleman- 
 usher to one of the youngest princesses. Considering this as ra- 
 tlier an indignity to a man of his talents, he thought proper to re- 
 fu-.e it ; and some pretty warm remonstrances were made on the 
 occa>ion by his sincere triends and patrons the duke and duchess of 
 (iueensberry, who withdrew from court in disgust. Mr. Gay's 
 depcntlencies on the (lelu^ive [iromises ol the great, he has figu- 
 ratively and humourou^lv described in his fable of the Hare with 
 many trieiuis. The profits of his poems he lost in 1720 in the 
 South Sea scheme. But the very extraordinary t ncouragement 
 he net with from the public soon made ample amends for those 
 private disappointments. For, in 1727 — S, appeared liis Ueggar'g 
 Opera ; the vast success of which was not only unprecedented, 
 but almost incredible. The satire ol this piece was so striking, and 
 so perfectly adapted to the taste of all ranks th.,1 it overthrew the 
 Italian opera, that Dagon of the nobility and gentry, which they 
 had so long idolized, and which Dennis anil many other writers 
 had in vain, by the force of reason alone, endeavoured to drive 
 from the throne of public taste. The profits were so very great, 
 both to the author and .\lr. Rich the manager, that it gave rise to 
 a popular pun, viz. 'Ilitit it had iiiudc Rica fay, and Gav rich, 
 lie wrote several other dramatic pieces, and many valuable ones 
 in verse. Among the latter, his Trivia, or the Art of walking the 
 Streets of London, though his first poetical attempt, reconiniei)ded 
 him to the esteem and l'rlend>hip of Mr. Pope: but as, among 
 'lis dram. itic \' orks, his Heggar's Opera will perhaps ever stand 
 as an uiirival!e<! cia^terpiece ; so, among bis poetic.il works, his 
 Fables hold the same rank of estimation, Mr, Gay's disposition was 
 sw eet and affable, his tempi r generous, and his conversation agree- 
 able. Ita died ill Dec. 1732, 
 
 GAZA,
 
 G E H 
 
 5m 
 
 O E L 
 
 GAZA, 'rHEODoBE, a famous Greek in the Ijth century, boinn 
 in 'I'liL'bsalonica, in 1398. His country being invaded by tin- 
 Turks, he retired into Italy ; wliere he at lirst supported Inmself 
 by transcribing ancient authors. His uncommon parts and Itr.rn- 
 i Pig soon recommended him to public notice. In 14.'iO, he was 
 invited to Rome by Pope Nicholas V. ; and on his death, in 
 1 4 Jfi, to Naples, by king Alplionso : who dyina; in 14jS, he re- 
 turned to Home, where cardinal Hessnrlon |>rocured hin: .i bene- 
 fice in Calaln'ia. He was one of those to wdioni the revival ol 
 learniniv in Italy was principjlly owinp;. He trimslated from the 
 Greek uito Lalin, Aristotle's History of Animals, 'i'iieonhrastus on 
 plants, and Hippocrates'? Aphorisms; and put into Greek, Sii- 
 pio's Dream, and Cicero's J'l-eatise on Old Age. He wrote a 
 Grammar and several other works in Greek and Latin ; and died 
 at Rome in 1478, aged 80. 
 
 GAxTA, in ancient geography, a principal city and one of the 
 fire satrapies of the Philistines. It was situated about 100 stadia 
 from the Mediterranean, on an artiiicial mount, and strongly wall- 
 ed round. 
 
 GAZE-HOUND, or GAST-HGUND, one that makes more 
 use of his sii;ht than of his nose. Such dogs are much used in 
 the north of England : they are fitter in an open champaign coun- 
 try, than in bushy and woody places. 
 
 GAZETTE, [gdzetla, is a Venetian halfpenny, the price of a 
 newspaper, of which the first was published at Venice,] a paper of 
 public intelligence. With us it is confined to that paper of news 
 published by authority. 1 he first English gazette was publi^licd 
 at O.\ford, the court being there, in a folio half-sheet, Nov. 7, 
 1065. On the removal of the court to London, the title was 
 changed to the London Gazette. The Oxford Gazette was pub- 
 lished on Tuesdays, the London on Saturdays: and these iiave 
 continued to be the days of publication ever since. 
 
 GAZETTEER, in literature, a title for Geographical Dictiona- 
 ries, giving a brief account of the various countries, kingdoms, 
 cities, towns, republics, &c. in the world, in alphabetical order. 
 
 G.'VZNA, a city of Asia, once much celebrated, and the capital 
 of a very extensive empire; but which is now either entirely 
 ruined, or become of so little consideration, that it is hardly taken 
 rotioe of by geographers. This city was anciently an empory an.d 
 fortress of Zablestan, near the confines of India. 
 
 GAZONS, in fortification, pieces of fresh earth, covered with 
 grass, cut in the form of a wedge about a foot long and half a foot 
 thick, to line parapets and the traverses of galleries, 
 
 GDOV, a town of Russia, in the government of Petersbiirgh, 90 
 niiles S. S. W. of Petersburgh. 
 
 GECCO, in natural history, a name given by the Indians to 
 their terrible poison, the smallest quantity of which kills when 
 mixed with the blood. They say that it is a venomous froth or 
 humour vomited out of the mouths of their most poisonous ser- 
 pents ; which they procure in this fatal strenglh, by hanging up 
 the creatures by the tails, iuid whipping them to enrage!lhom : they 
 collect this in proper vessels as it falls ; and when they would use 
 it, thev either poison a weapon with it, or wounding any part of 
 the flesh introduce the smallest quantity imaginable into it ; which 
 is said to cause immediate death. 
 
 GEDERN, a town of Germany, 24 miles E. N. E. of Franc- 
 fort on the Maine. 
 
 GEEONG, a t«wn in the island of Borneo. 
 
 GEELE, a river of Sweden, in the province of Gestricia which 
 runs into the Gtilf of Bothnia. 
 
 (JKPLK, or GiAWLE, an ancient and populous town of Sweden, 
 in Gestricia, (50 miles N. of Upsal. 
 
 GEHENNA, or GEHINNON, \r„nr,, Gr. of D'>:nK'j, Hcb. 
 the valley of Hinnom,] a scripture-term which has given some 
 trouble to the critics. It occurs in St. Matthew, v. 22, 29, 30. x. 
 28. xviii. 9. xxiii. l.S,33. Mnrk, ix. 43, 4'), 47, Luke, xii. 5. James. 
 iii, 6. The authors of the Louvain ^m\ Geneva versions retain 
 the word gehi;nna iis it stands in the Gretiv; the like does M. Si- 
 mon: the English traivslatois r'-nder it by hell and hell- fire, and 
 so do the translators of Mons and Falter Buhours, In the valley 
 of Hinnom, near Jerusalem, there was a plate named Topht t, 
 «i'here the idolatrou-; Jews sacrificed their childr'n to Moloch, by 
 fire. K. Josias, to render this place for ever aboininable, made a 
 common sewer of it, where all the filth and carcases of the city 
 were ca-t; and where a continual fire was kept up, to burn those 
 earcases; for which reasou.as-the Jews li.idno proper term in tl-.ir 
 
 language to signify hell, they made uscof gehenna orcehinnGti.lo 
 denote a (ire unextinguishable. ' 
 
 (iEI.SINGEN, town of Germany, in Suabia.in theprincipality 
 of i'mstciiberg, '-'!) miles N. rt . of (.'onstaiicc. 
 
 GEI.'jLINGEN,, an imperial town of Suabia, on the Cocher, 
 12 miles W.of Ulm. 
 
 G E I S-ilvl AJx , a town of Hesse-Cassel, 22 miles \V. ofGottin- 
 geit. 
 
 GELA, in ancient geography, a city of great extent on the S. 
 of Sicdy, so named from the Gel^s. It is now called Tcira 
 Nuova. 
 
 (JFJ.ATINF,, in chemistry, a semitranspaient and colourles-i 
 jelly, ohiained from animal substances, ll a piece of the skin of un 
 ummal be well cleaned, and repeatedly soaked and washed in cold 
 wafer, till the water ceases to be coloured, and the skin be then 
 boiled for some time in pure visiter, some of it will be dissolved, ami 
 on evaporation will yield gelatine. It is the same wilii glue only 
 that the glue is not quite free from impurities, or extraneous matter. 
 On being exposed to dry air it obtains its hardness, and breaks 
 with a glassy fiacture. (ielaline has neither taste norsmeJl; it is 
 soluble in hot acids and alkalies; but there is no action between 
 any of the earths and this substance. Some of the metallic oxides 
 and salts form precipitates with gelatine in its solution in Vf. ter, 
 .md the compound thus formed is insoluble. Gelatine forms a 
 copious white precipitate with Ian, which is brittle and insoluble 
 in water, and is not changed by exposure to the air. It is com- 
 posed of carbon, hydrogen, azote, and oxygen, with small portions 
 of phosphate of lime and of soda. It is a principal part both of the, 
 solid and fluid parts of animals, and is employed in the slate of 
 glue, size, and i-in,^ass. 
 
 GELD, in the English old customs, a Saxon word signifyin^^ 
 money, or tribute. It also denoted a compensation for some crime 
 committed: hence wergeld, in their ancient laws, was used for 
 tiie value of a man slain ; and orfgeld, of a beast. 
 
 GELDKRS. See Guelders. 
 
 GELDING, the operation of castrating any animal, particti- 
 larly horses. A colt may be gelded at nine or hfleen days old. If 
 the testicles have come down ; as the sooner he is gelded the better 
 it will be for his growth, shape, and courage; though the operation 
 may be perfornu d at any age, if proper care be taken in ihemanaoe- 
 ment. I'he manner of iloing it is usually this: The beast bting 
 ca^t down on some soft place, the operator takes the testicles be- 
 tween his foremost and his great finger, and, slitting the scrotum, 
 presses the stones forth ; then taking a pair of nippers made very 
 smooth, either of steel, box, or Hrazil wood, he claps the chord to 
 the testicles between them, a vevv little above where the stones 
 are set on, and presses them so hard that the course of the blood 
 through the uitcry is interrupted ; then with a tlim, drawing, cau- 
 terising n on, he stars away the tevticle. This done, he takes a hard 
 plaster, maiJe of rosin, wax, and turpeuline, well dissolved together, 
 and melts it on the seared part, till he has laid a good thickness of 
 it upon the cauterized edge. When this is (;one to one testicle, the 
 nippers are loosened, and the like is tloiie to the other; ami the 
 two incised edges of the -.('rotum are brought close together, and 
 kept in that situation by pieces of sticking plaister. If the part in- 
 flames violently, the horse shouhl be hU-d, and a poultice of rye 
 meal, linseed-incal, and water, should be ajiplied. A consider- 
 able improvement, however, on this oi'cration, wouhl be to per- 
 form it either by applying a strong ligature round the chord of the 
 testicle, or by taking up the blooilvessels separately; for the 
 method commonly used is sometimes lalal to the hoise, owing to 
 the violent inllammation brought on by the actual cautery. The 
 manner of gelding a hog is as folluws : — The operator, after having 
 made two cross-slits or incisions on the midst of the stories, presses 
 them out, and takes ofl' the stone. But another gen4'ral method, 
 yet sonieu hat more ditllcull, is, lir^t, to cut on the side of one .s|on^, 
 and after having drawn and cut it u(V, the oper.itor puis in his (iii- 
 g<:rs at the »am« slit, and with a lancet cuts the skin between the 
 two stones, and by that slit presses out the other stone ; and thus 
 there is but one incision made in the cod. Boar-pigs ought to b« 
 gelded about six months old; yet they are commonly gelded 
 about three or four weeks olil. 
 
 (iELENHAl'SRN, a small town of Germany, in Wetter- 
 avia. Lon. 8. 13. E. Lat. iO. 20. N. 
 
 GELENIUS, SiciSMUKD, a learned ,iiid excellent man, born 
 of a good family at Prague, about 14??. Erasmus, conceiving-yii 
 
 esteem
 
 GEM 
 
 56i 
 
 G EIM 
 
 e>tei-iii toi- nun at i5-i~il, rcconiiiicnJ-cl him to John P'robenius as a 
 coiTi'Ctoi- for his i.ri.itiiig-houNi-; wivclii laoorious charge he accept- 
 etl, aiul ha,l a ;-;ri-'at number of Mi'l)rew, Grt-ek, and Latin books 
 l- I correct : In- al^o tran^hitoil nuiiy works hiniself from the Greek 
 into Litiii ; niid iJiiblishcd a diclionarv in luur languages, Greek, 
 I, ilin, German, anil Sclavonjan. ProlitaMe and hououralile cin- 
 p,.jvinent^ w re offered ii ni in other place-, but nothins; could 
 tenipt him to quit his pt-aceful situation at iJusil. He died in 
 1555. All his translations are highly eatccmeil. 
 
 Gt-^LIIEIM, a town of Gcnaany, lately in the principalily of 
 N'assau 'iNCilinnv, now included in the dcpailmcnt of Moiil 'I'on- 
 nerre, 13 miles \V. of W ornis. 
 
 GELLlBlvAN IJ, llExn.y, a laborious astronomer of the 17th 
 cenlurs, burn at London, in 1597. lie became so enamoured 
 vitli mall e iij^i al '■tndies, thalo*i the death of his lather, he entered 
 a studi-nt at 0\tord, and di-votc<l hifiiself solely to them. On the 
 ileatii oi Mr. Ounter, lie recnimended Mr. Briggs lo the trustees of 
 Ciresham cjllege, for a>tronomiial profe-sor^hip there ; to which he 
 waselecti'd in 1617. His frientl .Mr. Bri^gadying in 1630, before he 
 had finijiied hi^ Tngoiiometria liritannica, it waslinishcd by Gel- 
 libraiid at his rceiuesl. Htr wrote several other works, chiefly tend- 
 ing to the improvement of navit;ation ; and died in l03d. 
 
 (jLLl^ll'S, AuLUS. a celebrated grammarian, who lived in the 
 second century under Marcus Aureliut and some succeeding em- 
 peroi-s. He wrote a celleclion ol observations ou authors, tor the 
 use of his cliildren ; and called it Noctei Attica-, because composx'd 
 in the nights of a winter he spent at Athens. 'I'he chief value of 
 it is for preserving manv facts and moiumietits of antiquity not to 
 be fou:.ul elsewhere. Critics and grammarians have bestowed iinich 
 pains on this writer. 
 GELNU.VUSLN, a town of Germany, 12 miles E. of Hanau. 
 GE\L u general name applied to all precious stones, which are 
 divided into two clarses; 1. The pellucid, or such as are clear, 
 elegmt and beautiful fossils, extremely har<l, an, 1 of uncommon 
 lustre ; 2. The <emi-pelhicid gems, w hich are found in small detach- 
 ed pieces, and are composed of crystalljne matter debased by earth: 
 they are, nevertheless, of great beauty and brightness, and some- 
 ■uvhat transparent. The value of gems depends principally on their 
 hardness and colour. With rcpt-ct to the former, the diamond is 
 allowed to be the firmest, and can only be polislied, or cut, by its 
 own powder: next to it, tlie ruby, sapphire, jacinth, enienld, 
 amethyst, garnet, onyx, jasper, agate, porphyry, and marble, are 
 classetl in the order we have enumerated. See these articles. 
 The same classification prevails in point ot colour : the iliamond is 
 universally esteemed on account of its brilliancy; the ruby for its 
 purple; the sapphire lor its blue; the emei alii for its green ; the 
 jacinth for its orange; the amethyst for its carnation ; the onyx for 
 its tawny ; the jasper, agate, &c. for their vermillioii, green, and 
 variegated colours ; and the garnet for its transparent red. 
 
 GEMARA, or GHEMARA, the second part of the Talmud. 
 The Hebrew word moa, geniara, is commonly supposed to de- 
 note a supplement ; but in strictness it rather signifies complement, 
 tir perfection: beiug formed of the Clialdce noj, gemar or greniar, 
 " to finish, perfect, or complete, any thing." The rabbins called 
 the Pentateuch simply tlie law: the lirst part of the Talmud, 
 which is only an explication of that law, or an application thereof 
 t,-i D:irticuiar cases, with the decisions of the ancient rabbins thereon, 
 tiiey call the Mischna, i. e. " second law:" and the second part, 
 which is a mo' e extensive explication of the same law, and a col- 
 Ifcf.on of decisions of the rabbins posterior to the Mischna, they 
 call Gemara, f/. d. "perfection, completion, finishing;" becau.se 
 tl.fy esteem it tlie finishing of the law, or an explication beyond 
 which there is nothing farther to be desired. 
 
 GEMBLOURS, or GIBLOU, a town of France in the depart- 
 ment of Dyle, and lateprovirKe of Austiian Brabant, seated on the 
 t)rne. U is 'JC miles S. E. of Brussels. 
 
 GEMINGEN, a town of Germany in the late palatinate of the 
 Rlair.e, six miles N. \V. of Heilbronn. 
 
 GEMINI, in astronomy, the twins; a constellation or sign of 
 the zodiac, the third in order, representing Castor and Pollux ; 
 and marked thus, n . See Astronomy. 
 
 GEMMA, or BUD, in botany, bee Bota.sy. Ruds, aswell 
 ar. bulbs, which are a species ot buds, constitute that part of the 
 herb called by Linaxus Hybernaculum, or the winter-cpiarters of 
 t!-.e future vegetable: a very proper appellation, as it is during 
 that scvcie season that tiic tender rudiments are protected. Plants, 
 
 considered in analogy to animals, maybe reckoned viviparous and 
 oviparous. Seeds are vegetable eggs; buds, living foetuses, or infant 
 plants, w hich renew the species as certainly as the seed. Buds are 
 placed at the extremity of tlie young shoots, and along the branches, 
 being (i\ed by a short footstalk upon a kind of brackets, the re- 
 mainder of the leaves, hi the wings or angles of which the buds in 
 question were formed the precedi.ig year. They are sometimes 
 placed -ingle; sometimes two by two, either opposite or alternate; 
 souietiiites collected in greater luimbei-s in whirls or rings. \Vitli 
 respect tu their construction, buds are composed of several parts 
 artificially arranged. Externally, we find a number ot scales that 
 are pretty hard, frec|uently armed with hairs, hollowed like a spoon, 
 and placed over each other like tdes. These scales ar<; fixed into 
 the inner plates of the bark, of which they appear to be a prolonga- 
 tion. Their use is to defenil the internal parts of the bud ; which, 
 being unfolded, will produce, some, llowers, leaves, and stipule ; 
 others, footstalks and scales. All these parts, while they remain in 
 the bud, are lender, delicate, tolded over each other, and covered 
 with a thick clammy juice, which is sometimes resinous and odori- 
 ferous, as in the tacaUamac tree. This juice serves not only to de- 
 fend the more tender parts of the embryo-plant from cold, the 
 assaults of insects, and other external injuries; but likewise from 
 excessive perspiration, which, in its young and infant state, would 
 be very destructive. It is conspicuous in the buds of horse-ches- 
 nut, poplar, and willow-trees. In general, we may tlistinguish 
 three kinds of buds; viz. 1. Florifera, that containing the 
 flower; 2. Folifera, that containing the leaves; and 3. Foliferofiori- 
 fcra, that containing both leaves and flowers. 
 
 1. Gf.mm.^ Florifera, termed by the French bouton fieur, or & 
 fruit, contains the rudiments of one or several flow ers, folded over 
 each other, and surrounded with scales. In several trees, this kind 
 of bud is commonly found at the extremity of certain small 
 branches, which are shorter, rougher, and less garnished with leave* 
 than the rest. The external scales of this species are harder than 
 the internal; both are furnished with hairs, and in general more 
 swelled than those of the second sort. This species too is com- 
 monly thicker, shorter, almost square, Icssuniiorin, and less pointed; 
 being generally terminated obtusely. It is called by Puny ocultis 
 gemma; ; and is employed in that species of grafting called inocu- 
 lation, or bud<hng. 
 
 2. GfcMMA Folifera, termed by the French bouton ^ feuilles, 
 or a bois, contains the rudiments o. several leaves, wliich aie vari- 
 ously folded over each other, and outwardly surrounded by scales, 
 from which the siuall siipuljc, seated at the loet of the young 
 branches; are chiefly produced. Tl;esebuds are commonly more 
 pointed than tlie former ort. In the hazel-nut, however, they are 
 perfectly round ; and in borse-chesmit, verv thick. 
 
 3. Ge.mma Folifera et Florifera, or Gemma Folifero- 
 Florifera. The third sort of bud is smaller than either of the 
 preceding; and produces both flowers and leaves, though not al- 
 ways in the sa:ne manner. Sometimes the floviers and leaves are 
 unfolded at the same time. This mode of the flower and leaf-bud 
 is termed by Linnaeus gemm:^ folifera et florifera. Sometimes 
 the leaves proceed or emerge out of this kind of bud upon a small 
 branch, which afterwards produces flowers. This mode of the 
 flower and leaf-bud is termed by Liiiiiius gemma folifero-Horifera, 
 and is the most common b.id ot any. Such biids as produce 
 branches ,idiiriieil only with leaves, are called barren ; such as con- 
 tain both leaves and llowers, fertile.- From the bulk of the bud we 
 m.iy oltenwilh ease foritel whether it contains leaves only, or 
 leaves and flowers together, as in cherry and pear-trees. Neither 
 the Ini 1- [irocliu ed on or near llie root, called by some authors 
 turioi.es ; nor those produced on the trunk, and from the angles or 
 wings ot the leaves, contain, in strict propriety, an entire deline* 
 atieii of the pi, lilt; since the roots are wauling: and in various 
 bud-, shoots are loiitained with leaves only, and not with flowers; 
 but as a branch m.iy be considered .is a part similar to the whole 
 plant, and, ii planted, would in process of revegetalion exhibit or 
 produce roolSuivl flowers, uc may in general allow, thai the bud 
 coiiiams thewho'e pKint, or the principles of ihe wliole plant, which 
 may be unfolJed ad libituiii ; and thus resembles Ihe seed in con- 
 taining a delineation of the .ulure plant in embryo: for although 
 the hud wants a radicle, orplumuhi, of which the seed isposses.sed, 
 yet it would uu.lonbtediy term one, if planted m tlie earth. But 
 as the meduliary part adi'.ering to the bud is too tender, and by 
 the abundance of juice flowing into it from the earth would be 
 
 9 disposed
 
 GEN 
 
 .56.'> 
 
 GEN 
 
 dispo.ed to putrefaction, the buds are not planted in tlie soil, but 
 generally inserted within the bark of another tree ; yet placed so 
 utatthe production of the marrow or pith, adhering to them, may 
 be inserted into the pith of ihclnantli in whicii the fissure or cleltis 
 made; by wliich means there is a large communication of juice. 
 This propagation by gems or buds, called inoculation, iscomnioiily 
 practiced with the fin-t sort of budsabove clestribed. From the 
 obvious uses oftlie buds, we ma;, collect the reason why the Auth.or 
 of nature has granted this sort of protection to most of the trees 
 that are natives of cold clinialei: and, on the other hand, denied 
 it to such as, enjoying a warm benign atmosphere, have not the 
 tender parts of their enibryo-sliootJ exposed to injuries and de- 
 predations from the severities of the weather. 
 
 GKMONL.EsiCAL.^, or GE.\iONll GRADUS, in Roman 
 antiquity, was much the same as gallows or gibbet in Uritain. 
 Some say they were thus denominated from the person who rais- 
 ed them ; others, from the first criminal that suffered on them { aiul 
 others, from the verb gemo, " I siajh, or groan." 
 
 GEMUND, or GEMUNDIiN, a town in Franconia, ."57 
 miles E. of Francfort. 
 
 Gemuno, or Gkmuvde, late a town in the duchy of Juliers, 
 now included in the department of the Roer. It is seated oa the 
 Roer, 2t miles S. W. of Cologne. 
 
 Gkmund, or Gmund, in Suabia, on the Reims, 24 miles E. of 
 Stulgard, and 30 N. by W. of Ulm. 
 
 GEN AP, or GENEPPE, a town of France in the department 
 of the Dyle, 15 miles S. E. of Brussels. 
 
 GENDARMES, or GENS D'ARMES, in the French armies, 
 a denomination given to a select body of hor^e, on account of 
 their succeeding the ancient gendarmes, who were thus called from 
 their being completely clothed in armour. 
 
 Gend.'^rmf.s, Gk ajjd, were a troop composed of SiO gentle- 
 men ; the king himself was their captain, and one of the fust peers 
 their captain-lieutenant, who has under him two lieutenants, three 
 ensig^^, three guulons, and other ofiicers. 
 
 GENDER, or GENUS, among grammarians, a division of 
 nouns, or names, to distinguish the two sexes. Nouns denoting 
 th^'inale are called masculine, and those denoting females, femi- 
 nine. This v.as tlie original intention of gender: but afterwards 
 other words, wdiich had no proper relation either to the one sex or 
 the other, had genders assigned them, rather out of caprice than 
 reason ; which is at length established by custom. Hence genders 
 yary according to the languages, or even according to the words 
 introduced from one lauguaoe into another. Thus, arbor, a tree, 
 .in Latin is feniuiine; but arhrc in French is masculine ; and dtmi, 
 o tooth, in I/.uiii is masculine; but dent in French is feminine, 
 though the meaning is the same. The oriental languages frequentlv 
 neglect the use of genders, and the Prussian has none at all. The La- 
 tins, Greeks, &c. generally content themselves to express the diflcr- 
 ent genders by ditierent terminations, as bonus eqiius, a good horse ; 
 bona equa, a good mare, &c. But in English we frequently go 
 further, and express tlie difference of sex by different words: as 
 boar, sow; boy, girl; buck, doe; bull, cow; dog, bitcli, &c. We 
 have also some feminines distinguished from the masculines by the 
 Tariation of the termination of the male, as abbot, abbess; prince, 
 princess ; executor, executrix, &c. which is all that our language 
 knows of any thing like genders. The Greek and Latin, besides 
 themasculineand feminine, havetheneuter,conimon,and thcdoubt- 
 ful gender ; and likewise the epicene, or promiscuous, which un- 
 der one single gen^iir and termination includes both the kinds. 
 See Gra.mmar. 
 
 GENEALOGICA ARBOR, or TREE OF CONSANGU[- 
 NITY, signifies a genealogy or lineage drav.'n out under the 
 figure of a tree, with its root, stock, branches, &c. The genea- 
 logical degrees are usually represented in circles, ranged over, 
 under, and aside, each other. This the (ireeks called stemmu, a 
 word signifying crown, garland, or the like. SeeCoKSANGUiNixy 
 and Descent, and the plate there referred to. 
 
 GENEALOGY, [y.ia and 'oy®-,] history of the succession 
 of families ; enumeration of descent or order t>f succession. 
 
 Genealogy, comprehends a summary account of the relations 
 and alliances of a person or family, both in the direct and collate- 
 ral line. In divers military orders, it is retpiired that the candi- 
 iiates produce their genealogy, to shew that they are noble by so 
 many descents. 
 
 VOL. 11. — NO. 93. 
 
 GENEP, or G t:NN EP, a strong town of G rniany, in West- 
 phalia, now included in the dej)artment uf Roer. It is 5 n,ile« 
 S.W. of Clleves. 
 
 GEN ERAL, an appellation given to whaterer belongs to a 
 whole genus. See genus. Thus we sa)' general geography, diet, 
 council, averment, issue, &c. Sec the articles GEOCKAfny, 
 Diet, &c. 
 
 Ge.skral Officers, in the Tiijy. See Officer. 
 
 General Teems, among loj^iciaas, those which are made the 
 signs of general ideas. See Logic. 
 
 General of an Army, in the art of war, he who commands in 
 chief. See army. A general ought (o he a man of great courage 
 and conduct, to have great experience, and to be of good qualiiy. 
 lE's conduct appears in eslabli^hiig his magazines in convenient 
 places; In examining the country, that he may not engage his 
 troops too far, while he is ignorant of the means of bringing them 
 off; in subsisting them, and in knowing how to take the most ad- 
 vantageous posts, eitlier for fighting or shunning a battle. Ilis ex- 
 perience inspires his army with confidence, and an assurance of 
 victory; and his quality, by creating respect, augments his autho- 
 rity. By his liberalil} he gets intelligcnie of the strengdi and 
 designs of the enemy, and by tiiis means is enabled to take tiie 
 nioit successful measures. A general ought likewise to be fond tA 
 glory, to have an avei-sion to flattery, to render himself beloved, 
 and to kee)) a strict discipline. The otlice of a general is to regu- 
 late the march and encampment of the army ; in the day of battle 
 to choose out the most advantageous ground ; to nTske the disposi- 
 tion of the army ; to post the arlilh ry ; and, where there is occa- 
 sion, to send his orders by his aides-de-camp. At a siege, he is to 
 cause th(' place to lie invested ; to order the approaches and at- 
 tacks; to visit the works, and to send out detachments to secure 
 his convoys. 
 
 General of IIorse, and General of Foot, are posts un- 
 der the general of the arm)', and these have upon all occasions 
 an absolute authority over all the horse and foot in the arm v. 
 
 General is also used for a particular march, or beat of drum ; 
 being the first which gives notice, commonly in the morning early, 
 for the infantry to be hi readiness to march. 
 
 General is also used for the chief of an order of monks; or of 
 all the houses and congregations established under the same rule. 
 Thus we say, the general of the Franciscans, Cistercians, &c. 
 
 (;ENER'ALISSIM0, [generalissimo, Fr. from general,] the 
 supreme commander. It is often rather a title of honour than 
 office. Generalissimo is called also captain-general, and simply- 
 general. He coiiuiumds all the military powers of a nation ; gives 
 orders to all the other general officers ; and receives no orders him- 
 self but from the king. M. BaUac observes, that cardinal Riche- 
 lieu first coined the word, of his own absolute authority, upon his 
 going to command the French army in Italy. 
 
 GENERATE, in music, is used to signily the operation of that 
 mechanical power in nature, which every sound has in prorlucir.g 
 one or more dirterent sounds. Thus any given sound, however 
 simple, produces along with itself, its octave, and t^'o other sounds 
 extremely sharp, viz. its tweltth above, that is to say, the octave of 
 its fifth ; and the other the seventh above, or, in other words, the 
 double octave of its third major. Whether we suppose this procrea- 
 tion of sounds to result from an aptitude in the texture and mag- 
 nilude of certain particles in the air, for conveying to our ears vi- 
 brations that bear those proportions one to another, as being deter- 
 mined at once by the partial and total oscillations of any musical 
 string ; or from whatever a:conomy of nature we choose to trace it, 
 the power of one sound thus to produce another, when in action, 
 is said to generate. The same word is applied by Siguier Tartini 
 and his follow ers, to any two sounds which, simultaneously heard, 
 produce a third. 
 
 GENERATED, or GENITED, is used, by some mathe- 
 matical writers, for whatever is produced, either in arithmetic, I>y 
 the multiplication, division, or cstr.clion of roots; or in geonie- 
 try, by the invention of the coiilfiiti, areas, and sides; or of ex- 
 treme and mean proportionals, without aritlnuetical addition afi<(« 
 subtraction. 
 
 GENERATING LINE, or FIGURE, in geometry, is that 
 which by its motion produces any plane or .>olid tiguie. 
 Thus a right line moved any way parallel to it-elr. generatfj u pa- 
 rallelogram ; round a point ih the s^iine plaie, witii ouc cud fasl- 
 7 E eae<*
 
 G EN 
 
 556 
 
 GEN 
 
 cned in that point, it cencrates a circle. One entire revolution ot 
 a circle, in the san\c plane, generates the cycloid; and the revolu- 
 tion of a semi- circle round its diameter, generates a sphere. See 
 Genesis. 
 
 GENERATION, in physiology, implies the propagation of 
 the species, whether in plants, insects, fishes, or other animals. 
 See Physiologv. 
 
 Generation, in mathematics, is used for the formation or 
 produ<:tion ot any geometrical figure ; as of equations, curves, so- 
 lids, &c. 
 
 . GENERATOR, in nuuic, signifies the principal sound or 
 sounds by wliich others are produced. Thus the lowest. C for the 
 treble of "the harpsichord, besides its octave, will strike an atten- 
 tive ear with its twelfth above, or G in alt, and with its seven- 
 teenth above, or E in alt. The C, thc-refore, is called their gene- 
 rator, the G and E its products or harmonics. 
 
 GEN ERIC AL, or GENERIC, NAME, in natural history, 
 the word used to signify all the species of natural bodies, whicli 
 agree in certain essential and peculiar characters, and therefore 
 com|)rchending all of the same genus, family, or kind ; so that the 
 word used as the generical name etpially expresses every one of 
 the genus, and otlier words expressive of the peculiar qualities or 
 figures of each species are added, in order to denote them dis- 
 tinctly, and make up what is called tlie specilic name. See Bo- 
 tany and Zoology. 
 
 GENESIS, [■ysv-^i; ; genrsf, French,] Generation', the first 
 book of iMose';, which treats of the production of the world. It 
 contains the history of the creation, and the lives of the first patri- 
 archs. This book stands at the head of Pentateuch. Us author is 
 held to be Mo-es : it contains the relation of i.'3t>y years viz. from 
 the beginning of the world to the death of Joseph. The Hebrews 
 called it n>li'"i3, Bcrtschith, because it beginswith that word, 
 which in their language signifies " in the beginning." The Greeks 
 gave it the name tniai;, q. d. production or generation, because it 
 bcijins with the history of the pra<luction or generation of all 
 beings. This book, besides the history of the creation, contains 
 an account of the original innocence and fall of man ; the propa- 
 gation of mankind ; the rise of religio:; ; the general defection and 
 corruption of the world ; the ileluge ; the restoration of the worhl ; 
 the division and peopling of the earth ; and the history of the first 
 patriarclis to the dead) oV Josi-ph. It was easy for Moses to be sa- 
 tisfied of the truth of wliat he relates in this book, because it came 
 down to him through few hands: for from Adam to Noah there 
 was one man, viz. Methuselah, who lived so long as to see them 
 both: in like manner Shem conversed with Noah and Abraham; 
 Isaac with Abraham and Joseph, from whom tlie facts recorded in 
 this book might easily be conveyed to Moses by Amram, who was 
 contemporary with Josepli, 
 
 Genesis, in geometry, denotes the formation of a line, plane, 
 or solid, by the motion or flux of a point, line, or surface. See 
 .Kluxions'. The genesis or formation, e. gr. of a globe or sphere, 
 is conceived by supposing a semicircle to revolve upon a right 
 line drawn from one extreine thereof to the other, called its axis, 
 or axis of circumvolution : the motion or revolution of that semi- 
 circle is the genesis of the sphere, &e. In the genesis of figures, 
 he. the line or svnface that moves is called the describent ; and 
 the line round which, or, according to which, the revolution or 
 motion is made, the dirigent. 
 
 GENESSEE, a large tract of land in New York, bounded on 
 the N.VV. and N. by lake Ontario. 
 
 Genessee, a river of New York, which runs into lake On- 
 tario. 
 
 GENET, GENNET, or JENNET, in the manege. To ride 
 a-l3-genette, is to ride after the Spanish fash'on, so short that the 
 spurs bear upon the horse's flank. 
 
 GENETHLIA, in antiquity, a solemnity kept in memory of 
 some person deceased. 
 
 GENETHLIACAL, [-/.■y.-^Mfix®',] pertaining to nativities, as 
 calculated by astronomers, to shew the configurations of the stars at 
 any birth. 
 
 (jENETHLIACI, in astrology, [from riw9xn, origin, genera- 
 tion, or nativity,] persons who erect horoscopes, and pretend to 
 foretel what shall befal a man by means of the stars which presid- 
 ed at his nativity. The ancients called them Ch.aUhei, and Ma- 
 tliematici. Hence the several civil and canon laws, made against 
 iDathematicians, only respect the genethliaci or astrologers. 
 
 GENE\ A, a late republic of Europe, on the con fines of France, 
 Savoy, and .Swil/erlaiul, long in alliance with tlie Swiss cantons, 
 but annexed to France in i7'jS. It now forms the department 
 of Lac Leman. 
 
 Geneva, a city of Switzerland, on the confines of old France, 
 and the late duchy of Savoy, now the capital of the department ot 
 Lac Leman. It is seated on the banks of the Rhone, just at its 
 eillux from the lake of Geneva; and part of it is built on an island 
 in the river. It is handsome, well fortified, and pretty large; the 
 streets in general are clean and well paved, but the principal one 
 is encumbered with a row of shops on each side betw(;en the car- 
 riage and foot-paths. This city lies forty miles N. E. of Chani- 
 bery. Lon. 5. 55. E. Lat. 46. II. N. 
 
 Geneva, Lake of. This lake, which was anciently called 
 Lemanus, (whence the present name of the. department, Lac Le- 
 man,) is in the shape of a crescent ; Switzerland forms the concave, 
 and the department of Mont IJIanc, (Savoy,) the convex part; the 
 greatest breadth being about twelve miles. The greatest depth of 
 this lake, found by ^i. de Luc, is ItiO fathoms. Tlte Rhone runs 
 tiirough its whole extent from its E. to its S. W. extremity; after 
 which it passes through the. city and divides it into two unequal 
 parts. 
 
 Geneva, a lake of Upper Canada, which forms the W. ex- 
 tremity of Lake Ontario, to which it is joined by a short and nar- 
 row strait. 
 Geneva, a post-town of New York, in Onondago county. 
 Geneva, or CJin, is an ordinary malt spirit, distilled a second 
 time, with the addition of some juniper-berries. Originally, the 
 berries were added to the malt in the grinding; so that the spirit 
 thus obtained was flavoured with the berries from the first, and 
 exceeded all that could be made by any other method. At pre- 
 sent, they leave out the berries entirely, and give their spirits a 
 flavour by distilling them vith a proper (piantity of oil of turpea- 
 tine; which, though it nearly resembles the llavour of juniper- 
 berries, has none ot their valuable virtues. 
 
 GENEVIEVE, St. Fathers, ok Religious of, a congregation 
 of regular canons, established in France, in the seventeenth century. 
 It was a reform of the Augustine canons, begun by St. ChaWes 
 Faure, in the abbey of St. Vincent de Senlis, in 11318. In 1634, 
 the abbey was made eleelive; and a general chapter, composed of 
 the superiors of fifteen houses, who had received the reform, chose 
 F. Faure coadjutor of the abbey of St. Genevieve, and general of 
 the congregation. 
 
 GENEVOIS, or the Duchy of Geneva, a late province of 
 France, bounded on the N. by Switzerland. It is now included 
 in the department of Mont Blanc. 
 
 GENGENBACH, an imperial town of Germany, in Suabia, 
 on the Kinzig; fifteen miles ii. E. of Strasburg. 
 
 CtENGOUX, St. late Le Royal, a town of France, in 
 the department of Saone and Loire, and late province of Burgun- 
 dy, seventeen miles S. W. of Chalons. 
 
 GENIAL GODS, in the Pagan mythology, deities who were 
 supposed to preside over generation. The genial gods, sayi Fes- 
 tus, were earth, air, fire, and water. The twelve signs, together 
 with the sun and moon, were sometimes also ranked in the 
 number. 
 
 GENIEZ, St. a town of France, in the department of Aveiron, 
 and late province of Rouergue. It is twenty-four miles N. E. of 
 Rliodez. 
 
 GENII, in the Mohammedan theology, a sort of intermediate 
 beings, supposed to exist between men and angels. They are of 
 a grosser fabric than the latter, but much more active and power- 
 ful than the former. Some of them :ire good, others bad, and 
 they are capable of future salvation or damnation like men. The 
 Orientals suppose several ranks and degrees or different species 
 ■unong this kind of beings; some being peculiarly called Jin, or 
 genii; some Peri, or fairies; some Div, or giants; and others 
 Tacvvins, or fates, of whom they relate many romantic stories. 
 
 CiENIOGLOSSL and GENIO-HYOlDEUS, in anatomy. 
 See Anatomy. 
 
 GENIOSTOMA, in botany, a genus of the monogynia order, 
 and jientandria class of plants. Calyx turbinated, quinquefid; 
 corolla monopetalou-, tubular; antherie oblong; seeds very nu- 
 merous, subangulated, placed on a filiform receptacle. 
 GENIS, or ST. GENIS, a town of France, in the department 
 
 of
 
 GEN 
 
 557 
 
 GEN 
 
 of Mont Blanc, anJ the late duchy of Savoy; 12 miles \V. of 
 ChambiTV. ^ 
 
 GENISTA, Broom, or Dyer's-wef.d, a genus of the 
 decaiuiria order, and cliadi'lphia class of plants; natural order, 
 Papilionacea;. C'aly\ bilal)iate ; upper lip hulcntate, nncU-r one 
 tritleiitate; vexiliuui oblong, rctlcxed. '1 here are seventeen spe- 
 cies. 
 
 G. TiNCTOKi\, is a native of Britain. It rises wilh shrubby 
 stalks three feet high, garnished with spear-shaped kaves jjlaced 
 alternate, and terminated by several spikes of yellow (lowers, suc- 
 ceeded by pods. 'Ihe branches are used by dyers for giviuf; a 
 yellow colour; from whence it is called dyer's-broom, green- 
 wood, -wood-waxen, or dyer's-weed. A drachm and a half of the 
 powdered seeds operate as a mild purgative. A decoction of the 
 j)lant is diuretic; and, like the former, has proved serviceable in 
 dropsical cases. Horses, cows, goats, and si'.eep, eat it. 
 
 GENITES, among the Hebrews, those descended from Abra- 
 ham, « ilhout any mixture of foreign blood. 
 
 GENITIVE, the second case of the declension of nouns. The 
 relation of one thing considered as belonging in some manner to 
 another, occasioned in llie Greek and Latin, a peculiar termina- 
 tion of nouns called the genitive case. 
 
 GENIUS, a good or evil spirit, or dKuion, whom the ancients 
 supposed set over each person, to direct his birth, accompany him 
 in life, and to be his guard. See D.^mon. Among the Romans, 
 Fcstus observes, the name genius w.is Riven to the god who had 
 the power of doing all tilings, deum qui vim obtineret rcrnm om- 
 nium gerendarum; which \'ossius, de Idol, rallier chooses to read 
 genendarum, who has the power of producing all things ; by rea- 
 son Censorinns frequently uses gerere for gignere. The ancients 
 had their genii of nations, of cities, of provinces, &c. Tlie fol- 
 lowing was a veiy conmion inscription on their medals, genius 
 POPULI ROM. " The genius of the Roman people;" or genio 
 POP. ROM. " to the genius of the Roman people." In this sense 
 genius and lar were the same thing; as Censorinus and Apuiius 
 aflirm tliey were. See Lares, and Penates. 
 
 Genius, tliat aptitude which a man has received from nature, 
 to perform well and easily that which others can do but nuhlTer- 
 ently, and with a great deal of pains. To know the bent of nature 
 is the most important concern. Men come into the worUI wilh a 
 genius determined not only to a certain art, but to certain parts of 
 that art, in whicli alone they are capable of success, ll they quit 
 their sphere, they tall even below inediorrily in their piotosion. 
 Art and industry add much to natural endowments, but cannot 
 supply thcni where they are wanting. Every thing depends on 
 genius. A painter often pleases without observing rule-, ; whilst 
 another displeases though he observes them, because he has not 
 the happiness of being born with a genius for painting. A man 
 born with a genius for commanding an army, and capable of be- 
 coming a great general by the help of experience, is one whose 
 organical conformation is such, that his valour is no obstruction to 
 his presence of mind, and his presence of mind makes no abate- 
 ment of his valour. Such a disposition of mind cannot be acquir- 
 ed by art : it can be possessed only by a person who has brought 
 it with him into the world. \\ hat has been said of these two arts 
 may be equally applied to all other professions. The administra- 
 tion of great concerns, the art of putting people to those employ- 
 ments for which Ihey are ir.iturally formed, the study of (jhysic, 
 and even gaming itself, all require a genius. The Deity has 
 thought fit to allot peculiar talents to different individuals in order 
 to render all men necessary to one another; the wants of men be- 
 ing the very first link of society. He has therefore given to some 
 particular persons, an aptitude to perform rigiitly some things 
 vhich he has rendered diflicult or impossible to otliers; and the 
 latter have a greater facility granted them for other things, which 
 facility has been refused to the former. He seems indeed to have 
 made an unequal distribution of talents among his creatures; yet 
 he has disinherited none ; and (cases of naturariunacy ex'cepted) a 
 man divested of all kinds of abilities is as great a ph.cnomenon as 
 an universal genius. From this diversity of genius arises that dif- 
 ference of inclination in men, who are led to those employments 
 for which Providence designs them, with more or less impetuosity 
 in proportion to the gre.Tter or le^s number of obstacles they 
 have to surmount, to ren<ler themselves capable of ansv\ering this 
 vocation. Thus the inclinations of men are so very different, be- 
 cause they follow the same mover, that is, the impulse of their ge- 
 
 nius. This, (as with the painter,) is what renders one poet pleas- 
 ing, even when he trespasses against rules; whilst others are dis- 
 agreeable, notwith'tanding their strict regularity. Aristotle men- 
 tions a poet who never wrote so well as when his poetic fury hur- 
 ried him into a kind of frenzy. The admirable pictures in Tasso 
 of Armida and Clorinda are alleged by some to have been drawn 
 at the expence of a disposition he had to real madness, into whit h 
 he fell before he died. " Do you imagine, (says Cicero,) tiiat 
 Pacuvius wrote in cold blood? Ko, it was inipossib'e. He must 
 have been inspired with a kind of fury, to be able to write suclj- 
 admirable verses." 
 
 GENNICSARETII, in ancient geography, a lake of Lower 
 (Jalilee, called also Cinnereth, 140 stadia in' length, and forty in 
 breadth ; abounding in fish. St. Matthew calls it the Sea of Ga- 
 lilee, and St. John the Sea of Tiberias. 
 
 GENOA, the Genoese Republic, or the Ligurian 'Repub- 
 lic, a late small democratic state of Italy, which extended 
 along that part of the Mediterraiuan, which from it is called ths 
 Gulf of Genoa, for about 152 miles, but varied in its breadth from 
 eight to twenty miles. It was bounded on the N. from VV. to E. 
 by PiedmcMit, Montferrat, the late Cisalpine republic, Pla.centia, 
 Parma, a small terwtory belonging to Tuscany, and the late re- 
 public of Lucca. This country was a part of tiie ancient Liguria, 
 whence its modern name of the Ligiirian republic. It now forms 
 a part of Uie kingdom, of Italy, and lies between 7. '2'. and 9. ij, 
 Lon. E. and between 43. 40. and 4"). 0. Lat. N. 
 
 Genoa, the capital of the late Ligurian republic, is seated on 
 the coast of the Mediterranean sea, at the bottom of the gulph. 
 It is 62 mile> S. E. of Turin, and 63 S. of Milan. Lon. 8. 41. E. 
 Lat. 44 23. N. 
 
 GENTIANA, or GENTIAN, in botany, a genus of the di- 
 gynia order, and pentandria class of plants ; natural order, Rota- 
 cese. Corolla monopetalous ; capsule superior, two-valved, one- 
 celled, with two longitudinal receptacles. There are fifty-three 
 species. 
 
 G. Centai'reum, the Lesser Centaury, of the shops, is a 
 native of many parts ot Britain. It grows on dry pastures ; and 
 its Iveight is commonly proporlioned to the goodness of the soil, as 
 ill rich soils it grows to the height of a foot, but in poor ones not 
 above three or four inches. 'I'he plant cannot be cultivated in 
 gardens. The tops are an useful aperient bitter, in which view 
 thev are often used in the present practice of medicine. 
 
 G. Lutea, the Common Gentian of the shops. It is a native 
 of the mouhtainous parts of Germanv; whence the roots, the onlv 
 part used in medicine, are brought to this country. These have a 
 yellowish brown colour, and a verv bitter taste. The roots of this 
 pl.iiit are often used in medicine as stomachic bitters. In taste 
 Ihey are less exceptionable than most of the substances of this 
 class. Infusions of gentian-root flavoured with orange-peel, are 
 surticiently grateful. Some years ago a poisonous root was disco- 
 vered among the gentian brought to London; the use of which 
 occasioned violent disorders, and in some cases death. This root 
 is easily distinguished from the gentian, by its being internally of a 
 while colour, and void of bitterness. 
 
 GENl'ILE, means a Pagan, or worshipper of false gods. The 
 Jews called all those wlio were not of their race n"lJ go/Vm, i. e. 
 gcntes, which in the Greek translations of the did 'I estament is 
 rendered 7n iS-.,,; in which sense it often occui-s in the New Testa- 
 ment ; as in iSIatth. vi. 32. "All tlsese things do the Gentiles 
 (or nations) seek." Whence the Latin church also used gentcs 
 in the same sense as our Gentiles, especially in the New Tcsta- 
 ment. But the word gentcs soon got another signification, and no 
 longer meant all who weiQ not Jews; but those only who were 
 neither Jews nor Christians, but followed the superstitions of the 
 Greeks and Romans, &c. In this sense it continued among the 
 Christian wrilei-s, till Uieir manner of speech, together with their 
 religion, was publicly and by authority received in tiie empire; 
 when gentiles, from gentcs, came into u-e: and then bolh words 
 had two signific.itious, viz. in trea'iscs or laws concerning religion, 
 they signified Pagans, neither Jews nor Christians; and in civil 
 affairs, they were used for all such as were not Romans. 
 
 Gentile, in the Roman law and history, sometimes expresses 
 
 what the Romans otherwise called barbarians, whether tl.ey were 
 
 allies of Rome or not: but this word was used in a more particular 
 
 sense for all strangers not subject to the Roman empire. 
 
 GENTLEMAN, originally comprehended all above the rank 
 
 8 «{
 
 GEN 
 
 568 
 
 GEO 
 
 of yeoiiiea; win reby even noblemen were truly called gentle- 
 men. See Commonalty. A gentleman is usually defined 
 among heralds, to be one, wlio, without any title, bears a soat of 
 arms, or whose ancestors have been freemen: aud by the coat that 
 a gentleman giveth, he is known to be, or not to Ue, descended 
 from those of his name who flourished many hundred years before. 
 The word is formed of the French genlil, '" fine, fashionable, or 
 becoming ;" and the Saxon ?nan. 
 
 Gentlemen of the Chaiel, officers wliose duty and attend- 
 -ance is in the royal chapel, being in number thirty-two. Twelve 
 of them are priests: the other twenty, commonly called clerks of 
 the chapel, assist in the performance of divine service. 
 
 GENTOOS, in modern history, according to the, common ac- 
 ceptation of the term, denote the professors of the religion of the 
 bramins or brachmans, who inhabit the country called liindoostan, 
 or Indostan, in the East Indies, from the word stau, a region, and 
 hind or hindon: which Ferishleh, as we learn from colonel Dow's 
 translation of his history, supposes to have been a son of Ham, the 
 son of Noah. 
 
 GEN US, in metaphysics and logic, denotes a number of beings 
 which acree in certain general properties conimon to them all ; so 
 that a geims is nothing else but an abstract idea, expressed by some 
 general name or terui. See Logic and MErAPHYSics. 
 
 Genus, in music, by the ancients called genus melodii, is a 
 certain manner of dividing and subdividing the principles of me- 
 lody, i. e. the consonant and dissonant intervals, iiito Iheir concin- 
 nous parts. See Mi'sic. 
 
 Genus, in natural history, a subdivision of any class or order 
 of natural beiiigs, whether of the anim ,1, vegetable, or mineral 
 kingdoms, all agreeing in certain coinmoi\ characters. See Bo- 
 tany and Zoology. \ 
 
 Genus, in rhetoric. Authors distinguish the ;irt of rhetoric, as 
 well as orations or discourses produced thereby, uito three genera, 
 demonstrative, deliberative, and judiciary. To the demonstrati ve 
 kind belong panegyrics, gcnethliacons, epithalamiums, funeral-lia- 
 rangues, &c. To the deliberative, persuasions, dissuasions, 
 commendations, &c. To the judiciary, accuijatious and de- 
 fences. 
 
 GEOCENTUIC, [yn and xi»t»ov, gcncentrique, Fr.] applied 
 to a planet or orb considering the earth as its centre. 
 
 Geocentric Latitude of a Planet, is its distance front 
 the ecliptic as it is seen from the earth, which even though the pla- 
 net he in the same point of her orbit, is not constantly the same, but 
 alters according to the position of the earth in respect to the 
 plani't. 
 
 Geocentric Place op a Planet, the place wherein it ap- 
 pears to us Irom the earth, supposing the eye there fixed : or it is 
 a point in the ecliptic to which a planet seen from the earth is re- 
 ferred. 
 
 GEOD.ESIA, ^■/laii^i'TM, geodesie, Fr.] that part of geometry 
 which contains the doctrine or art of measuring surfaces, and find- 
 ing the contents of plain rigures. See Mensuration. 
 
 GEOFFREY of .N!onmouth, bishop of St. Asaph, called by 
 our ancient biographers (Jallofridus Monumentensis. Leland 
 coiijt'ctures that he was educated in a IJeuedictiiie convent at 
 Monmouth, v\'here lie was born; and that he became a monk of 
 tliat order. Bale, and after him Pits, call him archdeacon of 
 Monmouth; and it is generally asserted, that he was made bishop 
 of St. Asaph, in 1151 or 1152, in the reign of King Stephen. His 
 history was probably finished after 1 I3S. It contains a fabulous 
 account of British kings, from Brutus the grandson of-.^neas the 
 Trojan to C'adwallader, in &'M\. But Geoffrey, though we may 
 blame his creduhtv, was not the inventor of the legendary history. 
 It is a translation from a MS. written in the British language, and 
 brought to England from Armorica by his friend Gualter, arch- 
 deacon of Oxturd. But the achievements of King Arthur, Mer- 
 lin's prophecies, and many speeches and lettei-s, were cliietly his 
 own additions. In excuse for this historian, Mr. Whaiton judici. 
 ously observes, that fabulous histories were then the fashion, and 
 popular traditions a recommendation to his book. 
 
 GEOFFRCEA, or GEOFFROYA, in botany, a genus of th» 
 decandria order, and diadelphia class of plants ; natural order, Pa- 
 piliojiacef . Calyx quinquefid ; fruit an oval plum ; kernel com-* 
 pressed. There are two species. See Plate LXV. 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 GEOGRAPHY, [from yia. or v>i, the earth, and y«-fNv, to de- 
 scribe,] signifies simply a description of the earth. Geography 
 as a science, denotes thiit science which describes and explains the 
 nature and properties of the earth, as to its figure, place, magni- 
 tude, motions, celestial appearances, &c. with the various lines, 
 real or imaginary, on its surface. Geography is distinguished 
 from Cosmography, as a part from the whole ; tiiis latter consider- 
 ing the whole visible world, both heaven and earth. And from 
 Topography aud Chorography it is distinguished, as the whole 
 from a part. 
 
 " Gohiitz considers geography as either exterior or interior: 
 but Varenius more justly divides' it into general and special, or 
 universal and particular. 
 
 " General or Universal Geography is that which considers tlio 
 earth in general without any regard to particular countries ; or the 
 alfections common to the whole globe, as its figure, magnitude, 
 motion, land, sea, &:c. 
 
 " Special or Particular Geography is that which contemplates 
 the constitution of the several particular regions, or countries, 
 their bounds, figure, climate, seasons, weather, inhabitants, arts, 
 customs, language, &c." 
 
 From this it appears that the earth is the proper object of geo- 
 graphy : but as It i« also the object of other sciences, it is to be 
 considered in what sense it is the object of geography. About 
 this there is great dissension among authors ; some including the 
 consideration of its .animals, others of its atmosphere, elements, ice. 
 but because they are the province of other sciences, the object of 
 
 feoo'iaphy is more justly restrained to the exterior parts of the earth. 
 Iei?ce we consider it not as an element, but chiefly as a large 
 spherical surface, variously diversified. General geography is 
 aow to be considered; the pai'icular geography of tlie various J 
 
 countries, kingdoms, cities, towns, fee. being to be found in their 
 order, under their respective names througliout this work. 
 
 History. 
 
 It is generally agreed that geography was fir/t studied as « 
 science by the Egyptians and Babylonians, but by which of these 
 nations it was first cultivated is not so well determined. Hero- 
 dotus tells us, that the Greeks first learned the poles, the gnomon, 
 and the twelve divisions of the day, from the Babylonians. Pliny, 
 and Diogenes Laertius, liowever, tell us, that 'I hales of Miletus 
 first found out the passage of the sun from tropic to tropic ; which 
 he could not have done without the assistance of a gnomon. He 
 is said to have been the author of two books, the one on the tro- 
 pic, and the other on the eo^uinox : bt)ih of which he probably 
 detenniued by the gnomon ; and thus he was led to discover the 
 four seasons of the vear, which are determined by the solstices 
 and equinoxes. Thales also divided the year into 365 days; 
 which \.;'s undoubtedly a luethod discovered by the Egyptians, 
 and comniunicated by them to him. The Babylonians began to 
 apply to this si ience in the time of Belus, w henever that was ; or 
 about the time they first made astronomical observations. But it 
 mav be questioned whether they brought it to any tolerable per- 
 fection till the Naboiiassarean Aa'a, 747 years before Christ. 
 However, it may be presumed, that the Greeks were beholden to 
 them for the astronomical rudiments of it, as well as astronomy 
 itself, and other sciences, which the Babylonians cultivated till the 
 destruction of their monarchy by the Persians ; although it does 
 not appear that the Greeks had any obsevvatioi>s of the latitude oj- 
 longitude from them, relating to their dominions or other parts. 
 The Egy|)tians are acknowledged to have cultivated geography, 
 and had tables or maps, as caily as the time of Sesostris ; but 
 
 wb ether
 
 i
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 5C)f} 
 
 wlietliLT Uu'V liad astronomical gcogiapliy, or to what degree they 
 improved it, ue know not, since tlic Greeks either siij)i)iessi d or 
 attributed to tlieniselvca the learning of other rations: and it i; 
 likely, lliat they gave over the pursuit of the sciences from the 
 time ttiey became subject to foreign yokes ; as at present we find 
 them involved in tlie grossest ignorance under the power of tlie 
 Turks. Geography began to be cultivated among tlie Jews 
 urfder Moses and Joshua, of which, the books written by those 
 leaders, as is connuonly believed, is a proof. Geography, with- 
 out doubt, was cultivated by the Persians, duriiig their several 
 empires. They had it probably Ironi the B.ibyloiiians : in leed, 
 how far they improved it, or whether they made any astronomical 
 observations, does not appear: but we lind that they and the Par- 
 thians kept registers of the public roads tlu'ough their dominions, 
 for the service of the state, which looks as if llicy had surveyed, 
 pr at least measured them. They had also maps as appears by 
 that of the world, or at least of the Persian empire, whicli Arista- 
 goras brought from tlience, and another of Manes the founder of 
 the Manichean sect. Of those monuments, however, none re- 
 main at present ; having been destroyed in some of the revolu- 
 tions that befel their empire, probably in that remarkable one 
 made by the Arabs, who destroyed all their records, and perhaps 
 tlieir libraries, as they did the remains of the famous Alexandrian 
 in Egypt. The Greeks began to lay the foundation of geography 
 about the time of Homer, who is reckoned the first geographer 
 among them : or rather to the time of Anaximander, 550 years 
 before the Christian xra. They after that improved it much by 
 applying astronomy to it, with great success, as to the theory ; 
 discovered the ways of finding the latitude and longitude of places 
 by observations of the stars and eclipses; invented accurate me- 
 thods for projecting globes and maps, which were very common 
 among them. The first Grecian map on record is that of Anaxi- 
 mander, mentioned by Strabo, lib. i. p. 7. It has been conjec- 
 tured, that tliis was a general map of tlie known world, and it is 
 supposed to be the one referred to by Hipparchus under the name 
 of the ancient map. However it was Hipparchus, the Bythinian, 
 who first taught a regular method of making maps ; lie flourished 
 about 160 years before Christ. That prince of ancient astrono- 
 mers taught more expressly, that geography could not be put 
 upon a tolerable footing, nor the situation of places determined 
 without astronomical observations. He invented the planisphere, 
 whereby he laid his foundation of a true projection for maps, 
 which hath since been much improved by optics : and it is Iiigiilv 
 probable, he first introduced the terrestrial globe, inscril,>ed with 
 meridians, parallels, and other celestial circles, according to which 
 places were to be ranged thereon. The honour, therefore, of re- 
 ducing geography to its present form, seems to be due to Hip- 
 parchus; for though Ptolemy has been thought by some of the 
 ancients, as well as most of the moderns, to have given the astro- 
 nomical form to geograpliy ; yet that mistake has been corrected 
 by Agathemeres, an ancient geographer near his time, who in- 
 forms us, Ptolemy invented nothing of his own, but in what he 
 did followed the opinion of the ancients. It even appears from 
 Ptolemy himstlf, that Marinus Tyrius, befoie him, regulated his 
 maps by meridians and parallels; ai^d adjusted the bounds of the 
 earth by astronomical observations. However, Ptolemy, by his 
 collections and elucidations greatly advanced the science of geo- 
 graphy, and seems to have fixed its ne plus ultra »mong them. 
 ¥'or afterwards it appears to have been at a stand for some ages : 
 and, during the distractions of the empire from civil wars, and 
 foreign invasions, declined daily till the utter destruction thereof 
 by the Turks ; since when the' .sciences have been the least of 
 their care. The llonians borrowed their geography from the 
 Greeks. It does not appear that they made any observations of 
 the latitude or longitude, or added any thing to the theory. 
 However, in the geometrical part, they improved it greatly, by 
 measuring or surveying the whole empire, in the time of Juliti's 
 Ca;sar and Augustus; and making n-ads througliout the same, a 
 thing which the Greeks never thought of. They hud also globes, 
 but especially maps in great plenty, which were" much improved 
 by their itineraries. The Arabs, who, at their first setting out to 
 conquer, after Mohammed's death, despised learning, or at least 
 •any but their own, became smitten about 8y3, with tl-.at of their 
 jieighbours, especially the Greeks ; whose geography, (with the 
 rest of the sciences,) they cultivated, and much imorovcd hi the 
 ' VOL. n. — NO. 94. 
 
 practicid part, by means of observations, (chiefly of the latitude 
 taken as well with the quadrant as gnomon,) and itineraries. 
 They also invented new instruments, particularly the quadrant, 
 and some think the mariner's compass, which was in use with 
 them at least very early. But their knowledge of the earth ex- 
 tended very little bevond the bounds of their own empire ; which 
 at length being brolu;n to pieces, and confined to its original 
 limits, Arabia, they neglected the sciences by degrees, so that 
 at present geography is little minded by them. The Turks, so 
 long as they continued in Turkestan, their original seal, seem to 
 have been strangers to all learning; but as soon as those of the 
 race of Seljuk liad made themselves masters of Persia, under 
 Toghrul I'leigh, about 1037, they took the sciences, which then 
 flourished in that country, under their protection, and continued 
 the improvement of tliein so long as the three dynasties of Fars, 
 or proper Persin, Kerman, and Rum, or Anatolia, held the sove- 
 reignty. But we are as yet ignorant in what degree they ad- 
 vanced geography. The Moguls and Tartars having over-run 
 the sftutheni parts of Asia in the beginning of the thirteenth ceu- 
 tury, cherished learning wherever they found it. Kublay Kaan 
 in China, Hulaku Khan in Persia, and afterwards Vlugh Beigh 
 in Great Biikharia, or Trausoxana. Geography, in particular, 
 received considerable improvement from their ol)servations of 
 the latitude of places: but civil distractions and foreign vsar, 
 which ( nsued, left them no leisure to think of the sciences, their care 
 for which abated as their power declined. At length being dric 
 ven out of all which they possessed in the lower Asia, they return- 
 ed to their ancient ignorance, wherein they, for the most part, still 
 continue, excepting the ManchewTartars, at present lords of China. 
 To discover the magnitude of the earth is a problem which hw 
 probably engaged the attention of astronomers and geographers 
 ever since the globular figure of it was known. Anaximander is 
 said to have been the first among the Greeks who wrote upon this 
 subject. Archytas of Tarentum, a Pythagorean, famous for his 
 skill in mathematics and mechanics, also made some attempts in 
 this way ; and Dr. Long conjectures, that these are the authors of 
 the most ancient opinion, that tlie circumfirence of the earth is 
 400,000 stadia. Anstarchus of Samos is thought to have consider- 
 ed the magnitude of Uie earth, as well as of the sun and moon. 
 .Archimedes mentions, that the ancients held the circumference of 
 the earth to be 30,000 stadia; but it does not appear what methods 
 were made use of by these ancient geographers to solve the prob- 
 lem. Perhaps tliey attempted it by observations of stars in the 
 zenith or in the liorizon, and actual mensuration from some part 
 of the circumference of the earth. Aristotle, in his treatise De 
 Ca'lo, atTords a proof of this. In that work he says, that ditter- 
 ent stars pass through our zenith, according as our situation is mora 
 or less northerly ; and that in the southern parts of the earth stars 
 come above our horizon, which, if we go northward, are no 
 longer visible. Hence it appears, that there are two ways of 
 measuring the circumference of the earth ; one by observing staif 
 which pass through the zenith of one place, and do not pass 
 through that of another ; the other by observing some stars which 
 come above the horizon of one place, and are observed at tlie same 
 time to be in the horizon of another. Eratostiienes, made use of 
 the former method, which is the best, at Alexandria iu Egypt, B. 
 C. C50. He knew, that at the summer-solstice the .-un was verti- 
 cal to the inhabitants of Syene, a town on the conlines of Ethiopia, 
 under the tropic of Cancer, wlierc they iiad a well built for that 
 purpose, on the bottom of which the rays of the sun fell jserpen- 
 dicularly on tlie day of the suminci^solstice. He observed by the 
 shadow of a wire set perpendicularly in an hemispherical bason, 
 how much the sun was on that <lay at noon distant trom the zenith 
 of Alexandria; and found that distance to be the SOth pait of a 
 great circle in the heavens. Then supposing Syene and Alexan- 
 dria to be under the same meridian, he concluded the distance be- 
 tv.een them to be the 50th part of a great circle upon the earth ; 
 and this distance being by measure 5000 .stadia, he concluded Ih.e 
 circumference of the earth to be 250,000 stadia; but as this num- 
 ber <livide<l by 3(!0 would give C94 * stadia to a degree, either 
 lOr.iloslhenes himself or some of his followers assigned the round 
 number 700 stadia to a degree ; which multiplied bv 360, makes 
 the circumference of the earth C5-', 000 stadia; whence both these 
 measures are given by dilTerent authors as that of Eratosihenes, 
 In the time of Pouipey the Great, Possidonius made an attempt to 
 7 F mejstire
 
 570 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Vneasurethe circniiifejenceof (hccartliby Aristotle's si-cond m'.-tliotl, 
 yiz. horizontal observations, made tlie measure of the earth to'be 
 180,000 stadia, at the rate of 500 stadia to a ilegree. The reason 
 of this difference isthonj^lit to be, that Eratostliciies ine;'sured the 
 distance between Rhodes and Alexandria, and found it only 3,7 JO 
 stadia. T;ii;in|j this for a 4Sth part of the earth's circunifireuce, 
 which is the measure of Possidonius's, the whole circumference 
 will be 180,000 stadia. This measure was received bj- Marinus of 
 Tyje, and is usually ascribed to Ptolemy. Possidonius's method, 
 however, is fouittl to be exceedingly erroneous, on account of 
 the f real refraction in the stars near the horizon, the ddFicuRy 
 of measuriug the distance at sea between Whodcs and Alexandria, 
 and from his supposing these places under the same meridian, when 
 they are really very different. Several geographers, after the time 
 of Eratosthenes and Pos>ldonius, made use of the different heights 
 of the pole in distant places under the same meridian, to find the 
 dimensions of the earth. About A. D. 800, the khalif Alniauiuji 
 had the distance measured of two places tv.o degrees asundtr, and 
 under the same meridian, in the plains of Sinjnr near the Xii^d Sea. 
 The result was, that the niathematicians found the degree at one 
 lime to consist of 56 miles, and at another of 56j, or 564.^^ Snellius, 
 an eminent Dutch mathematician, by taking the heights of the 
 pole at Alcmaer and at Bergen op Zoom, found the difference to 
 be 1° 1 r 30". He next measured the distance betwixt the ])aral- 
 lels of these two places, by taking several stations and forming 
 triangles ; by means of which he found the degree to consist of 
 341,676 Leyden feet. Hence lie assigned the round number 
 342,000 Leyden feet to a degree: which, according to Picard, 
 amounts to 55,021 French toises. In 1635, Mr. Norwood, an 
 Englishman, took the elevations of the pole at London and at 
 York ; and having measured the distance betwixt the two paral- 
 lels, assigned 69f miles and two poles to a degree; each pole being 
 reckoned 16{ feet. After 1654, Ricciolus made use of several 
 methods to determine the circumference of the earth; from all 
 which he concluded, that one degree contained 64,363 liylogna 
 paces, which are equivalent to 61,650 French toises. The most 
 remarkable attempt, however, was that of the French mathema- 
 ticians, who employed telescopic sights lor the purpose, which 
 had never been done i>eforc. These are much the best ; as by 
 them the view may be directed to an object at a greater distance, 
 and towards any point with more certainty ; wdience the triangles 
 for measuring distances may be formed with greater accuracv than 
 otherwise can be done. In consequence of this improvement, the 
 tundumental base of their operations was much longer than that 
 made use of by Snellius or Ricciolus. The distance measured 
 was between the parallels of Sourdon and Malvoisine; between 
 which the difference of the polar altitude is somewhat more than 
 one degree. The result of the whole, as related by Picard, was, 
 that one degree contained J7,0C0 French toises. As thisprolilem 
 cm be the more accurately determined in proportion to the length 
 of the meridian-line measured, tlie members of the Royal Academy 
 prolonged theirs quite across the kingdom of France, measuring 
 it trigonometrically all tlie way. This work was begun in 16S3, 
 and hnished in 171S. Tjiey used Pieard's fundamental base, as 
 b;-ing measured with suflic'ient accuracy; and an account of the 
 whole was pnbli-hod by Cassini in I'CO.' In tliis work some mis- 
 take^ were delected in the calculations of Snellius ; vnd it was 
 likewise shewn, that there are errors in those of Ricciolus owin<T 
 principally to the latter having taken too short a fundamental hase"^ 
 and not liavuig paid sufficient attention to the effects of refraction. 
 Professor .Muschenbroek was imluced to make jiew calculations 
 and form triangles upon the fundamental base of Snellius, which 
 he did in 1700; and from these he assiirns 57,033 toises to a de- 
 gree, which is only 27 less than had been done by the academi- 
 cian!.. In Consequence of various opinions being entertained con- 
 cerning the true figure of the caith, and the macnitudoofa degree 
 upon its surface, Messrs.Mauperluis,ClairL:ult,Canuis, andOullieir, 
 of France, were sent by Lewis XV, to measure an arch of the 
 men iian in the northern regions of the earth. They began their 
 operations assisted by M. Celsus, an eminent astronomer of Swe- 
 den, in Swedish Lapland, in July 1736; and finished them by the 
 end of May lollowing. They obtained the measure of that de- 
 gree whose middle-point was in lat. 66° 20' N. and found it to le 
 57,439 toises when reduced to the level of the sea. About the 
 same time another company of philosoplu'rs were sent to South 
 America,viz. Messrs. Gotlin,Couguer, and L'ondamine, of Fj;mcc ; 
 
 to whom were joined Don Jorge Juan, and Don Antonio de 
 Ulloa, of Spain. They left Europe m 1735, and began their 
 operations in the province of Quito in Peru, in October 1736, and 
 liuished them after many interruptions in about eight years. 'I'he 
 S])anish gentlemen published a separate account, and assigned for 
 a measure of a degree of the nieridiiin, at the equator, 56,763 
 toises. M. Rouguer makes it 56,753 toises, when reduced to the 
 level of the sea ; and M. Condamine states it at 56,749 toises. M . 
 LaCaille, being at the Cape of Good Hope in 1752, found the 
 lengdi of a degree of the meridian in lat. 33" 1 8' 30' S. to be 57,037 
 toises. In 1755, Father Boscovich found the length of a degree 
 in lat. 4.3° to be 56,972 toises, as measured between Rome and 
 Rimini in Italy. In 1740, Messrs. Cassini again examined the for- 
 mer measures in France; and, after making all the necessary cor- 
 rections, found the measure of a degree whose middle-point is ia 
 lat. 49° 22' N. to be 57,074 toises; and in tlie lat. of 45° it was 
 57.050 toises. In 1764, F. Beccaria, having measured a portion 
 of the meridian near Turin, found the length of a degree whose 
 middle-point was 44° 44' N. to be 57,0-'4 toises. At Vienna three 
 degrees of the meridian wci'e measiu'ed, from which it may be 
 concluded that a degree in lat. 47° 40' >I. may be reckoned to be 
 57,091 Paris toises. In 1766, Messrs. Mason and Dixon mea- 
 sured a part of themeridianin Maryland and Pennsylvania, and found 
 that the length of a degree whose middle-point is 39" 1'-" N. was 
 363,763 English feet, or 56,904f toises. The improvements in 
 geography, which, have taken place in the more modern times, 
 were owing to the great progress made in astronomy by Co|)erni- 
 cus, Gahleo, Newton, and other eminent men who lived within 
 these three last centuries. More correct metiiods and instruments 
 for observing the latitude were found out ; and the tliscovery of 
 Jupiter's satfllites afforded a much easier method of finding the 
 longitudes than was formerly known. The voyages also made by 
 celebrated navigators of different nations, w liich w ere now become 
 much more frequent than formerly, brought to the knowledge of 
 the Europeans a vast number of coiuUiies totally unknown to 
 them before. The late voyages of Captain Cook, made by order 
 of his Britannic Majesty, have contnbuled more to the improve- 
 ment of geography, than any thing that has been done during the 
 ISth century. To these may be added the voyage made by Van- 
 couver to explore the N. W. coast' of America; and that of the 
 unfortunate La Perouse in the South Sea: as well as the late im- 
 portant additions made to geographical know ledge by the dis- 
 coveries made by Mr. Mungo Park, in his Travels in the in- 
 terior Parts of Africa. On the whole th.e geography of the utmost 
 extremities of the globe is now in a fair way of being much better 
 known to the moderns, than that of the most adjacent countries 
 was to the ancients: at least with regard to the ^ea-coasts of the!« ■ 
 countries; for, as to their internal geography, it is less known 
 now than before, except in a very few places. Still however, it 
 mu-.t be owned, that geography is a science even yet far from per- 
 fection. The maps of Anierica and the eastern parts of Asia are, 
 perhaps, more unfinished than any of the rest. Even the maps of 
 Great Britain and Ireland till very lately were imperfect; and 
 the great numl)ers of them, that are varied and republished, with- 
 out any real improvement, confirm an observation made by Lord 
 Bacon,' that an opinion of plenty is one of the causes of want. 
 The late Dr. Bradley was of opinion, that there were but two places 
 in England whose longitude miglil he depended upon as accurate- 
 ly taken ; and that these were the observatory at Greenwich, and 
 Serburn castle, the seat of the earl of Macclelield in Oxfordshire; 
 and that their distance was one degiee in space, or four minutes in 
 time. Even this was found to be inaccurate, the distance in time 
 being observed by the late transit of \'enus to he only three min- 
 utes and 47 seconds. Before the late Trigonometrical Survey of 
 Cireat Britain, the result of which is ))ublishetl in the Philoso))h'ical 
 Transactions, hardly any two geographers agreed in the loiigitudt 
 of the Lizard; some making it" 4' 40' from London; others 5°, and 
 others j'' 1 4': while some enlarged it to ()°. Our best ma|)s of foreign ■ 
 countries are therefore still to be considered as imperfed, where 
 there will always be many things to be added and corrected, as 
 future geographers nvj.y find time and opportunity. The chief 
 works oil geography ainong the moderns are Johannes de Sacro- 
 bosco, <or John HaI!ifax,y'De Sphera ; Sebastian Munster's Cos- 
 mographia Universalis; Clavius, on the Sphere of Sacrobosco ; 
 Riccioli's Geographia et Ilydrographia Reformata; Weigelius's 
 Speculum 'ienu'; De Cbales's Geography, in his Mundus 
 
 Mathematicus;
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 571 
 
 Matheniaticus ; Cell;.ruii's G<'0(Traphy; Cluverii Tnlrotliirlio in 
 UniviTsain Gtographiain ; Leibiieclit's Klcmenta (icograpliix 
 Generalis; Sti-veniiis's Conipciidiiiin Geographicuin ; W'olfii 
 Geographia, in liis Klenienta Mallirscos; Biisching's New Systrni 
 of Geograpjiv ; (ionloii's, Suliiion'3, ami (nilhrie's Grammars; 
 Fiiikertoii's Geography; and, above all, Vaniiiiis's Geograpliia 
 Geiioralis, witli jiirin's additions, tlii; uw^l scientific ami iystc- 
 niatical of any geograpiiical work. 
 
 Gk.verai. Geography. 
 The proper object of g<!ogiaphy as above stated is llie surface of 
 the terraqueous globe, being a superficies nearly spherical, divi- 
 iled into a variety of parts denominated places, wliicli are distin- 
 gui-^bed by characteristic properties. Geography then is the science 
 by which places and their properties are ascertained. By places 
 we understand the p^rts large and small, of which the surface of the 
 earth consi-ts, or into whicli it is divisible, Irom the largest con- 
 tinent, or ocean, kingdom, or state, to the smallest hill, house, or 
 individual point, or spot of ground. The properties ot places, or 
 accidents, by which ihey are alVected, are either terrestrial or 
 celestial. The terrestrial properties are ligure, dimensions, and situ- 
 ation. The llgiuc or form of places is various. 'J'he dimensions 
 threefold; circumference, length, and breadth. The situation ot 
 places is likewise tiinetuld. The first sort regards the province 
 and country to \vliicli it belongs, and the particular mountain, 
 plain, river,'or lake, whereon itstandj: and this we call the histori- 
 cal situation, a knowledge of which may be obtained barely from 
 history or report. The second kind is that which places have, con- 
 sidered in respect of one another, whence it is calleil the relative 
 or mutual situation. The third sort regards the particular spot of 
 the earth where any place stands independent of other places, 
 whence it may be called the absolute situaflon. Of these two sorts 
 of situations, the absolute is most excellent, because that being ob- 
 tained you liave the relative also : whereas, the knowleilge of the 
 relative situation does not make known the absolute. '1 he abso- 
 lute is known from the latitude and longitude. The whole of 
 geography, in ellect, turns upon the situation of places; for what 
 is a representation or descrip'ion of the earth, but a combination of 
 situations, exhibited to view? What are the figure and dimension* 
 of countries, but the result of particular situations? The celestial 
 ])roperties or affections are, the rising or setting of the s.tars, vicissi- 
 tudes of light and darkness, lengths of days and niglils, variety of 
 shadows, cold and heat, seasons ot the year, and otlier pha:iioraena. 
 Geography may be divided into Ma'thematicalj Historical, and 
 Technical. 
 
 1. Mathematical Geography, comprises that part of geo- 
 graphv which it borrows from mathematics. The matliematical 
 part is derived from Geometry and Astronomy, by the help of 
 which places and their properties, especially the absolute and re- 
 lative situations, are determined. Hence matliematical geography 
 may be subdivided into Geometrical, by which distances and 
 places are measured and their relative situations are tixed ; and 
 Astronomical, by which the absolute situations, and celestial pro- 
 perties, are determined. 
 
 2. Historical Geography comprizes the particulars which 
 geography takes from liistcry, or those accounts of places, wliich 
 turnish a notitia of them, in whole or in part, as travels, voyages, 
 chorographical and topographical descriptions, astronomical ob- 
 servations, geometrical admeasurements, &c. This part of geo- 
 graphy serves to exhibit the divisions of the earth, and hence is 
 divided into Natural, which considers the natural divisions, as 
 contiiients,oceans, peninsulas, seas, islands, Sec. and Political, which 
 considers the different countries, and their divisions, whether civil 
 or ecclesiastical. 
 
 3. .Techn'ical Geography, is that part which regards the 
 form or manner of the description, asd is subdivided into Repre- 
 sentatory, when places are represent' <1 on maps, or globes, &c. 
 Synoptical when tlie description is alphabetically arranged byway 
 of geographical tables, and Explanatory, when the description is 
 given ill regular treatises for that purpose. 
 
 1. Mathematical GEOGHApny. 
 
 This, as alreadv observed, is either geometrical, or astronomi- 
 cal. Geometrical geography, is chiefly employed in ascertaining 
 the d'uBeusions, dist.'uces, and idative situations, of places, and i- 
 
 of excellent use in dcliiurating roads, and the windings, and course 
 of rivers, measuring the magnitude; of mountains, taking surveys 
 and plans of particular parts of countries, and determining a va- 
 riety of similar matters, vwhich laiinot be done by astronomical 
 methods, and tluis it includes surve>iiig, and the measuring of 
 heights and distances. See MiNSiR.\noN'. 'I'his part of Geo- 
 graphy is also employed in the construe Hon of maps and globes, of 
 which" wc shall treat i'n this aiticle. For the dilfVreut measures em- 
 ployed, See Me.\sure. 
 
 Astronomical Geography, is an important branch of thij 
 science, since by it the absolute situations of places are hxed, the 
 form and magnitude of the earth determined, and the celestial pro 
 perties of places exhibited : we shall therefore consider this part 
 under separate heads as follows : 
 
 Op the Figure and Magnitude of the Earth. 
 
 The Earth is one of the great bodies which compose the plane- 
 tary system. It moves round the sun in an orbit nearly circular, 
 and completes its revolution in the course of a year, while at the 
 same time it revolves continually upon its own axis, which is in- 
 clined to the plane of its orbit at an angle ot tiOjV degrees; the 
 time of a revoluiion being 23 hours and iOy'j minutes. The revolu- 
 tion of the earth round the sun is called its annual motion, and the 
 rotation it performs on its own axis is called its diurnal motion. 
 Wh;le the earth revolves round the sun in the course of it^ annual 
 motion, its axis, round which the diurnal motion is constantly 
 performed, moves always parallel to itself. It is by the parallelism 
 of the axis, and the annual motion of the earth, that the changes of 
 the seasons are produced. Ste Astronomy, where this subject Is 
 treated at large, and the figure of the earth shewn to be that of an 
 oblate spheroid excepting a few ineciualities which are inconsider- 
 able in comparison of the bulk of the earth. Wc shall only add, there- 
 fore, on this head the following Table of the dimensions of the eailh 
 which is given by Dr. Ilutton: 
 
 The diameter 7,9J7J English miles. 
 
 The circumference 25,000 English miles. 
 
 A degree contains &J^ English miles. 
 
 The superficies 198,944,206 square miles. 
 
 The solidity 263,930,000,000 cubic miles. 
 
 Of the Circles supposed to be hescribed on the 
 Earth's Surface. 
 
 In geography the circles, w hich the sun apparently describes in 
 the heavens, are supposed to be extended as far as the earth, and 
 marked on its surface. In like manner we may imagine as many 
 circles as we please to be described on the earth, and their planes 
 to be extended to the celestial sphere, till they mark concentric 
 ones on the heavens. The most remarkable of those supposed by 
 geographers to be described in this manner are the following : 
 
 The Axis of the earth is that imagiui.rly line passing through the 
 earth's centre, round which it continually revolves, from west to 
 east. 
 
 'ilie Poles of the earth aro-lhe points at which the axis meets 
 the earth's surface. One of these is called the north pole, and 
 the other the south ])ole. These correspond to the poles of the 
 heavens, or the points where the earth's axis, when produced, 
 meets th.e starry sphere. 
 
 The Equator is a great circle on the earth's surface, equally 
 distant from both ])oles, and corresponds to the equinoctial circle 
 in the heavens. It divides the eartli's surface into two equal por- 
 tions called the northern and southern hemispheres. The equator 
 is also sometimes called the Line, or Equinoctial Line. 
 
 Th.e distance of any place, northward or soutluvard from the 
 equator, is called its Latitude, and is reckoned in degrees and 
 miiniies, &c. The disiance between the poles and ecpiator, which 
 is a quadrant of a great circle passing through the poles, has by all 
 geographers hitherto been 5up|)0sed to be divided into 90 degrees; 
 and each of these again subdivided into 60 intnufcs, &c. I?ut 
 some French astronomers, and in particular La Place, in his Ex- 
 position du Systeme du Monde, as well as in his Traits de Meca- 
 nique Celeste, has adopted the decimal division of the meridian. 
 They have supposed the distance between the equator and the 
 poles to be divided into 100 degrees, and each degree to be sub- 
 divided into 100 minutes, each minute into 100 seconds, and so 
 on. All places lying ou the north side of the equator are said to 
 
 have
 
 572 
 
 GEOGRAPHY 
 
 have north latitude: on the contraiy, all places oa the south siiie 
 of the equator are said to have south latitude. 
 
 Parallels of Latitude are less circles upon the earth's 
 surface parallel to the equator. They may be considered as in- 
 definite in number ; all places that lie directly east or west from 
 each other, are said to lie in the same parallel of latitude. 
 
 The Tropics are two less circles on the earth, parallel to the 
 equator, and 23-/^ degrees distant from it. That which lies on the 
 north si<le of the equator is called the Tropic of Cancer; and that 
 which lies on the south side is called the Tropic of Capricorn. 
 These circles correspond to the circles of the same name, which 
 limit the sun's north and south declination from the equinoctial in 
 the heavens. 
 
 The Polar Circles are two lesn circles upon the earth's sur- 
 face, parallel to the equator. They are as far distant from the 
 poles, which they surround, as the tropics are from the equator. 
 That wiiich lies toward the north pole is called the Arctic Cifcle, 
 and that which lies next to the south pole is called the Antarctic 
 Circle. To these there are corresponding circles, bearing the 
 same names, in the heavens. 
 
 Great circles passing through the poles of the earth, and there- 
 fore perpendicular to the equator, are called Meridians. The 
 rieridian passing through any particular place, lies in the plane of 
 tlie celestial meridian of that place. It also divides the surface of 
 the earth into two equal portions, called the eastern and western 
 hemispheres, in respect of that place. The meridians may be con- 
 sidered as indefinite in number; and all places lying directly 
 north and south from each other, arc upon the same meridian. 
 Sometimes by the meridian of a place is understood the half of a 
 great circle, passing througli that place, and extending from the 
 one pole to the other ; and the other half of the circle is called 
 the opposite meridian. If we suppose \2 great circles, one of 
 which is the meridian of a given place, to intersect each other at 
 the poles of the earth, -and divide the equator into 24 equal parts, 
 these are the Hour or Horary circles of that place. These are by 
 the poles divided into 24 semicircles, corresponding to the 24 
 hours of the day and night. The distance between each two of 
 these semicircles is 16°, being the S4th part of 360. 
 
 The LoKGiTUDE of any place on the earth is an arc of the equa- 
 tor intercepted between the meridian passing through that place 
 and some other meridian previously agreed ut)on, which is called 
 the first meridian. The longitude is reckoned eastward and west- 
 ward from the first meridian, by which means all places lying in 
 the hemisphere to the eastward of that place, through which the 
 first meridian passes, will have east longitude; and all ])lace3 lying 
 in the hemisphere to the we.4ward of that place, will have west 
 longitude. Geographers at different periods, snd in different 
 countries, have fixed upon ditTerent places for the first meridian. 
 The rule among the ancients was to make it pass through the 
 plac farthest to the west that was known. But the moderns, 
 knowing that no place on the earth can be considered the 
 iiiOst westerly, have laid aside that method of reckoning the lon- 
 gitude. Ptdiemy assumed the meridian that passes through the 
 tarthest of the Canary Islands, as his first meridian. After him, as 
 more countries were discovered in that quarter, the first meridian 
 was removed farther oil'. The Arabian geographers fixed the first 
 meridian upon the utmost shore of the western ocean. Some fixed 
 it to the i>land of St. Nicholas, near Cape Verd ; Hondius to the 
 isle of St. James ; others to the isle Del Corvo, one of the Azores, 
 because there the augnetic needle pointed due north at that time, 
 and it was not then known, tliatthe deviation of the needle from 
 the true north is itself subject to variation. The latest geographers, 
 particularly the Dutch, have pitched upon the Peak of Tencrifii; ; 
 others on the Isle of Palm, one of the Canaries; and lastly the 
 Freju h, by order of the king, on the island of Ferro, another of 
 the Canaries. But without regarding any of these rules, geogra- 
 phers and map-makers oitcn assume the meridian of the place 
 where they live, or the capital of their own country, or its chief 
 observatory, for a first meridian. Hence in Great-Britain, we 
 reckon the longitudes of ])laces eastward and westward from the 
 meridian of London, and sometimes those of places in Scotland 
 from that of Edinburgh. 
 
 The HoRtiON of a place is either sensible or rational. Tlie 
 Sensible HoRiiON of any place is a circle of the sphere, the 
 plane of which touches the spherical surface of the earth at that 
 .place. 
 
 The Rational Horizon is a great circle of the sphere, the 
 plane of which passes through the centre of the earth, and is |;.-i- 
 rallel to the plane of the sensible horizon. Although the sensil)le 
 and rational horizons have been defined as two distinct circles of 
 the sphfe-re, yet seeing that their planes, when produced to the 
 sphere of the fi.\ed stars, are only distant from each other by the 
 earth's semidiameter, it is evident that these circles of the sphere 
 may be supposed, as to sense, to coincide ; for not only the earth's 
 semidiameter, but even the orbit it describes round the sun, sub- 
 tends no sensible angle at the distance of the nearest of the fixed 
 stars. The horizon divides the celestial sphere into two equal 
 portions or hemispheres ; one of these is visible, but the other, by 
 reason of the interposed body of the earth, Is invisible. 
 
 By the Slusible Horizon of a place is also sometimes under- 
 stood a circle, which determines the segment of the surface of the 
 eartli, which is visible to the eye; called also the Visible Horizon. 
 It is evident that this circle will be most accurately defined at 
 sea, and equally distant every where from the eye of an observer, 
 but below the level of his eye. It will also be so much the more 
 extensive, as tlie eye is raised above the eartli's surface. 
 
 Tlie Zenith of a place is the point of the heavens directly 
 over the head of an observer; and the Nadir is the point in the 
 opposite hemisphere, directlj- under his feet ; or the zenith and 
 nadir are the podes of the horizon. 
 
 Great circles of the sphere passing through the zenith and nadir 
 are called X'ertical Circles, or Azimuths. They are also 
 sometimes called Secondaries of the horizon ; and in general any 
 great circle passing through the poles of another is called its se- 
 condary. That vertical circle, which has its plane perpendicular 
 to the plane of the meridian, is called the Prime Vertical. The 
 meridian and iirinie vertical, by their inlerncctions with the hori- 
 zon divide it into four equal parts. The points of their intersec- 
 tion are called the Cardinal Points. The meridian cuts the ho- 
 rizon at right angles in the north and south points, and the prime 
 vertical cuts it at right angles in the east and west points. 
 
 Less circles of the sphere parallel to the horizon are called 
 Parallels of Altitude oi Almacanters. These parallels, as 
 well as the vertical circles, may be considered as indefinite iii 
 number. 
 
 Tlie circles in the heavens, which correspond with these are 
 particularly described under the article Astronomy, by a refer- 
 ence to a figure. See Astronomy, Index. 
 
 Of the Methods of finding the Latitude and Longi- 
 tude OF Places. 
 
 The figure and magnitude of the earth being known, it next 
 becomes a problem of the utmost importance in geography, to de- 
 termine the position of any assigned place upon its surface. This 
 is done by finding its latitude and longitude : for by the first of 
 these is determined the position of the parallel of latitude which 
 passes through that place ; and by the second the position of its 
 meridian ; and thus the position of the place itself becomes 
 known. Let PZEQ, Plate LXXXI. fig. 1, represent the celes- 
 tial meridian, P the pole of the heavens, EQ tlie equinoctial, and 
 HO the horizon ; letp L e represent the ten-estrial meridian, p the 
 pole, and eq the equator : let L be any place on the earth, tlie la- 
 titude of which is to be found, and Z its zenith : the arch c L, 
 wliich is the latitude of the place, evidently contains the same 
 number of degrees as the arch EZ, which is the distance of the 
 equinoctial from the zenith. Now ZO and P^E are both quad- 
 rants ; wherefore the arches, PC and ZE, are equal ; but the arch 
 PO is the elevation of the pole above the horizon. Thus it appears, 
 that the latitude of a place is equal to the elevation of tlie pole above 
 the horizon of that place. And hence by observing the altitude of 
 the pole, the latitude of the place is ascertained from the obser- 
 vation. There is no star exactly in tlie pole of the w orld ; but the 
 elevation of the pole may be found by the pole-star, which is very 
 near the pole, or by any other circumpolar star in this manner: 
 let the altitude of the star be taken when it is on the meridian, both 
 above and below the pole, by means of a (juadrant or other proper 
 instrument, making the proper corrections for the refraction uitlie 
 atmosphere; then, half the sum of these altitudes, reckoned from 
 the north, will be the elevation of the pole, or the latitude of the 
 place at which the observation is made : for let S be the place of 
 the star when above the pole, and * its place below the pole, then 
 since PS = P s, it is evident that PO is equal to half the sum of 
 4 OS
 
 GKOGRAPHY 
 
 573 
 
 OS ami O s. AiioUier luelliod i^ liy iikmii? oI llie dfcliiiation ol 
 tlte sun, or a star, ajiil one nuMiiliau-ultitinle of the same : tliiis : 
 having, bv means of a <|uaihant or oilier in^tnnnelll, foiiiul the zc- 
 ■itli-dial; lice, Zrf, of llic hiiiihiary, or else its alliliKle, 11 (/, and 
 taken its eoiii|)kMiieut, Zd; then, to this distance add the decli- 
 nation d E, as found by astronomical tables, when the huiiinary 
 *nd [jlaco aie on the same side of the equator, or subtract it when 
 they are on different sides, and the sum or dillercnce will be the 
 latitude li/ songlit. liy either of these methods, and by many 
 others that could be mentioned, the latitude may be found very 
 accurately. W'liiletlie earth revolves on its axis from VV. to K. 
 the different terrestrial meridians, which are considered as fixed to 
 its surface, aretunied in succession towards the suu ; and it is noon- 
 day at any place when tlie plane of the mcridiau of that place 
 passes through his centre ; at which time the sua, as seen from 
 that place, appears to be due S. or N. according as the place 
 liappens to be situated to the N. or S. of the parallel of 
 declination, which he describes that day in the heavens, 
 iience it aijpears, that all places situated on the same meri- 
 dian will have their noon at the same iii4ant of time ; and that it 
 will be forenoon to all places situated to the W. of that meridian, 
 teeing tl'.at tlie meridians cf these places have not yet passed the 
 sun's centre ; while on the contrary, it will be afternoon to all 
 places situated to the E. of the meridian passing through the sun, 
 seeing that the meridians of these places have already passed hi^ 
 centre. Since the planes of all the terrestrial meridians pass, one 
 ilter another, through the sun in 24 hours, it follows that in one 
 hour the meridians of two places, wiiose dilVerence of lon.:;itude is 
 one-'Jlth of 360°, or 1 j', will have arrived at the sun's centre ; and 
 tliercfore, when it is noon at any place it will want one hour froiu 
 noon at all places upon the n-.eritlian lj°totheW. of the meri- 
 dian of that place, and two hours at all places 30° to the W. and 
 so on till we come to the opposite meridian ; where the difl'erence 
 of longitude is 180", at which place it will tlien be midniglit. The 
 contrary haiipens with respect to places si uated to the eastward of 
 the i^iven meritlian; for at tliese places it is ])ast noon, by the same 
 part of 24 hours that the dili'erence between their loni;itudes, and 
 tliat of the meridian where it is then noon, is of 3t)0". 'I'he dif- 
 ference between the times of noon, and therefore of all the other 
 hours of the day, at dilt'erent places of the earth, is the founda- 
 tion of the methods by which the longitude cf any place is found. 
 Suppose tliat some remarkable pha-nomenon were to be seen in 
 the heavens, at the same instant of time, throughout all places in 
 that hemisphere of the earth from which the phanomenon was then 
 visible; it is evident from what has been saitl, that the time of its 
 appearance would be dilTerent at dilierent places, according as 
 •ihese meridians happened to be sitiiate.l in respect of tliat ph.eno- 
 inenon ; and that if we knew the longitude of any place, as 
 reckoned from some given meridian where the pha;nomenon was 
 visible, we should be able to tell the difference between the time 
 of its appearance, as reckoned at tliat place, and upon the given 
 nieiidian. Suppose, for example, that the phsnomenon was vi- 
 sible at 10 P. M. at some place upon the given meridian, and 
 that another place was 30° of longitude W. from that meridian; 
 then the phenomenon would be seen at S P. M. as reckoned at 
 that place. Hence it follows on the contrary, that if we know the 
 times of the appearance of the phenomenon, as reckoned at both 
 these places, we shall also know how many degrees of longitude 
 the one place is eastward or westwar<l from the other. If, for ex- 
 ample, it is seen at 9 P. M. at any one place, and at midnight at 
 anotl'.er place, we may be assured, that the latter place is 4i° of 
 longitude E. from the former. In this way may the longitudes of 
 all plac<!s ui-.un the earth's surface be found. The celestial pli;eno- 
 tnena to be observed at these places are eclipses of the sun and 
 moon; eclipses of Jupiter's satellites, and particularly of his lirst 
 satellite; occnltations of the tixed stars by the moon and the pla- 
 nets; and lastly, the angular distance cf the moon from the sun, 
 ■and from the fixed stars. 
 
 The eclipses of Jupiter's Satellites, which freijuenlly hap- 
 pen, and which may be observed on shore, would ■.ifCoid to the 
 navi,y-ator an easy method of finding his longitude, if it were also 
 possible to observe them at sea ; but the attempts that have been 
 vnade to overcome the difficulties attendant on such observations, 
 by reason of the motions of the vessel, have been hitherto unsuc- 
 cessful. Navigation and geography have however received great 
 
 yoL. II. — NO. y4. 
 
 advanUiges irom these eclip-e , more e.-)>ecially from liie ecnpses 
 of the lirst satellite, the commencement and the end of which can 
 be observed with precision. It is Indeed necessary to know al'io 
 (he hour at which any obsoi-ved eclipse may be seen under a 
 known meridian ; seeing that it is by the difference of these h'-jurs 
 that the longitude is fv)un<l : but the table.-, of the first satellite are 
 now brought to such a degree of perfection, as to give the times 
 of these eclipses with a precision almost equal to that of the obser- 
 vations themselves. The greiit ditliculty of observing these eclipses 
 at sea has rendered it necessary to recur to other celestial phxn<^- 
 niena ; and of these the motions of the moon are the only ones 
 that can be generally useful for the determination of the longitude. 
 The position of the moon, as it would appear if seen from the cen- 
 tre of the earth, may easily be found at any time, by taking its an- 
 gular distances from the sun or stars by a proper instrument. Tliesa 
 being found, the tables of her motion givetiie h<)jjr as rcckoni'd at 
 the iirst meridian, when she ought to have had that position : by 
 a comparison of this time, with the time as reckoned on board of 
 the vessel when the ol.scrvatlcjn was made, the navlg-^tor is enabled 
 to determine his longitude. i5y such observations the longitudes 
 and huitudes of a great number of places have been determined, 
 and the position and extent of many countries accurately delineil, 
 concerning which the most erroneous opinions formerly were en- 
 tertained. Much, however, yet remains to be done: the interior 
 parts of .'VtVica and America are yet in a great measure entirely un- 
 known, and even many places frequently visited by navigators 
 may have their positions more accurately determined than has 
 been liitherto done. Beside-- the methods of iin<iing the longitude 
 already treated of, there is yet anotlier much used by navigators; 
 to whom an exact knowledge of their position, when at sea, and 
 witliout any other guide than the stars and compass, is of the ut- 
 most importance. It has been already observed, that in order to 
 know the longitude of any place, it is only necessary to know the 
 dil'ierence between the time of noon, or of any other hour, at liiat 
 place, and th.e time of noon, or of the same hour, at any place 
 upon the first meridian; for from this difference of time the lon- 
 gitude mav be found, by allowing 1 j° of longitude for every hour 
 of time, and so in proiiortion for any period less than an hour. 
 Hence it appears, that if a traveller, or navigator, set out Irom the 
 first meridian, and carry with him a watch, or time-ki eper, so re- 
 gulated as to shew exactly the hours as reckoned at the fir^t meri- 
 dian ; by comparing the time shewn by his watch with the time as 
 reckoned at anv place he may visit, or as found by means of pro- 
 per astronomical observations at that place, it is evident he may 
 immediately find its longitude. If instead of departing from the 
 first meridian, he had departed from any other meridian whose 
 longitude from tlie first meridian was known, siill it is obvious, that 
 the longitude is to be found by the same method of observation. 
 This method of finding the longitude would be the inost simple of 
 any, were it not a matter of great diflicul1:y to construct time- 
 kee|)ers that shall go with perfect regulaiity ; more especially on 
 board of a ship, where they are continually exposed to changes of 
 temperature as well as continual agitation. 1 he difHculties that 
 occur have however been overcome by perseverance and inge- 
 nuity ; and watches have been constincted that have gone witk 
 great uniformity for many mouths. See Longitude. 
 
 Of the different Position's of the Sphere. 
 
 If we could suppose an inhabitant of the earth capable of living 
 at either of the poles, he would iiave always one of the celestial 
 poles in his zenitii end the other in his nadir, the equator coincid- 
 ing with the horizon. Hence all the celestial parallels are also 
 parallel to the horizon ; and h.ence a person, or people, are said t(J 
 live in a parallel sphere, or to have a parallel horizon. Those 
 wiio live under the equator have both poles in the horizon, all the 
 celestial parallels cutting the horizon at right angles ; whence they 
 are said to live in a right sphere, or to have a right hoiizon. Those 
 wholive bftwcen cither of the poles and the equator are said to 
 live in an oblique sphere, or to have an obli(iue horizon; because 
 the celestial equator cuts their horizon obliquely, and all the pa- 
 rallels in the celestial sphere h.ave their planes obliipie to that of th«! 
 horizon. In this sphere some of the parallels intersect the horizon 
 at oblique angles some are entirely above it, and some entirely 
 below it ; all \=>f them, however, so' situated, that they would if ex- 
 tended obliquely iHtersect the plane of Hie hotizou.' The largest 
 7 G pvalleV
 
 574 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 =aa« 
 
 parallel, wliicli appear^ entire above the liorizon-cf any place in 
 M. latiuule, is called by the ancient astronomers, the Arctic cir- 
 cle of that place. \\ ithiii this circli-, i. c. between it and the arc. 
 tic pole, are comprehended all the jtars which never set in that 
 place, bnt are tarried perpetually round the horizon, in circles 
 parallel to the ecjuator. The largest parallel, which is hid entirely 
 below the horizon of any place in N. latitude, was called the An- 
 tarctic circle of that place by the ancients. This circle comprehends 
 all the stars which never iise in that place, but are carried per- 
 petually round below tbeliorizon, in circles parallel to the equator. 
 In a parallel sphere, however, the equator may be considered as 
 both arctic and antarctic circhs ; for being coincident with the hori- 
 zon, all the parallels on one side are entirely above it, and those 
 on the other entirely below It. In an oblicpie sphere, the nearer 
 any place is to either of the poles the larger are the arctic and an- 
 tarctic circles, as being nearer to the celestial equator, which is a 
 great circle. Iri a right sphere, the arctic and antarctic circles 
 have no place; because no parallel appears either entirely above 
 or below it. By the ancients the arctic circle was called maximus 
 semper appaventium, and circulus perpetnic apparitionis; the an- 
 tarctic circle on the other hand, being named maxinuis semper oc- 
 cultorum, and circuUis perpetui occnltationis. By the arctic and 
 antarctic circles, however, modern geograj)hers in general under- 
 stand two fixed circles, at the distance of 23/^ degrees from the 
 poles. These mark out the space ull round the globe where the sun 
 appears to touch the hfrizon at midnight in mid-summer, and to be 
 entirely sunk below it in winter. According to the different po- 
 sitions 'of the globe with regard to the sim, Ihe celestial bodies e.\hi- 
 bit different pha-nomeiia to the inhabitants. Thus, in a parallel 
 sphere, they appear to move in circles round the liorizon ; in a 
 right sphere, thev appear to lise and set as al present, but always 
 in circles cutting" the horizon at right angles ; but in an oblique 
 sphere, the angle varies according to the degree of obhquity, and 
 the position of the axis of the sphere with regard to the sun. The 
 pha;nomena thence arising will be suliicienlly understood fvoni 
 what is said under the articte Astronomy. From thence we may 
 easily perceive the reason of the sun's continual change of place in 
 the heavens : but though it is certain that this change takes place 
 every moment; it is iniperceptihle for some time, unless by very 
 nice astronomical observations. Hence we may generally sup- 
 pose the place of the sun to be the same for u day or two together, 
 though in a considerable number of days it becomes exceedingly 
 obvious to every body. When he appears in the celestial equa- 
 tor, his motion seems for some lime to be in the plane of that cir- 
 cle, though it is certain that his place there is only (or a single mo- 
 ment ; and in like manner, when he comes to any other point of 
 the heavens, his apparent diurnal motion is in a parallel drawn 
 Ihrounhout. Twice a year he is in the e(iuator, and then the days 
 and nights are nearly equal all over the earth. This happens in 
 March and September: after which, the suiv- procccd ing either 
 northward or south, according to the seasoji of the year, and the 
 position of the observ'T, the days become longer or shorter than i 
 the ni"lits, and summer -or winter comeJ on, as is fully explained ] 
 under the article Astrono.my. The recession of the sun from 
 the equator either northward or soulhwtird is called his Declina- 
 tion, and is eithernorth or south according to the season of the vear ; 
 and when this declination is at its greatest height, he is then said to 
 be in the tropic. The space between the two tropics, called the 
 Torrid Zone, extends in breadth 47 degrees of latitude all round 
 the globe; and throughout the whole of that space the sun is vertical 
 to some of the inhabitants twice a year, but to those who live di- 
 rectly under the tropics only once, ''i'hroughout the whole torrid 
 zone" also there is little difference between the length of the days 
 and nights. The ancient geographers found themselves con- 
 siderably einbarrassed in their attempts to fix the northern tropic; 
 for though they took a very |)roper method, namely, to observe 
 the most northerly place where objects had no shadow on a cer- 
 tain day, yet they found that on the same day no shadow was cast 
 for a space of no less than 300 stadia. The reason of this was, the 
 apparent diameter of the fun ; which being about half a degree, 
 seemed to extend himself over as much of the surface of tlic earth, 
 and to be vertical every where within that space. When the sun 
 is in or near the equator, he seems to change his place in the hea- 
 vens most rapidly ; so that about the equinoxes one may very 
 tabily perceive the difference in a day or two : but as he ap- 
 proaches the tropics this apparent change becomes gradually 
 
 slower ; so that for a number of days he scarce seems to move at 
 all. The reason of this may easily he understood from a globe or 
 any map on which the ecliptic is delineated: lor by drawing lines 
 through every degree of it parallel to the equator, we sliall per- 
 ceive them gradually approach nearer and nearer each other, until 
 at last, when we approacn the point of contact betwixt the ecliptic 
 and tropic, they can for several degrees scarce be distinguished. 
 
 Method of finding the Length of the Day, and the 
 Beginning and Ending of the '1 wiught. 
 
 As it is of considerable importance in geography to know the 
 length of the day at any assigned place upon the earth, it will 
 therefore be proper to shew the manner of fin<ling the time of Ihe 
 rising and setting of the sun, or any other of the celestial bodies. 
 Let I'ZES, Plate LXXXl. lig. 2, represent the celestial meritlian 
 of any place, P and S being the poles of the sphere ; let EQ be the 
 equator, and IIOR the horizon, storeograpliically projected upon 
 the pl.uie of the meridian ; let PCS represent the six o'clock hour- 
 circle, and 7)1 O n the parallel of declination describedby the sun 
 or a star at any given day of the year ; the point O being that in 
 which it cuts the liorizon ; then m O rqnescnts half the arch de- 
 scribed by the sun when above the horizon, and O -i/t the half of 
 the arch described when below the horizon. Let POS represent 
 an hour-circle passing through the sun or star when in the horizon, 
 and meeting the ccjuator EQ in A ; the arch E.\ of the equator 
 intercepted between the meridian and hour-circle, being ftund, 
 and converted into time (allowiag lb" to an hour), will evidently 
 give half the lime that the sun or star remains above the horizon, as 
 the arch AQ will give half the time it remains below the horizon. 
 As the arch EC contains uo' and corresponds to six hours, it is 
 only necessary to find the arch CA, which is called tiie sun's as- 
 censional ditVerence, it being the dilierence between his right as- 
 cension and his oblique ascension; and having converted it into 
 time to add it to, or subtract it from six hours, according as the 
 latitude of the palace and of the sun's declination are of the same 
 or of contrary names, that is, both N. or both S.; or the one N. and 
 the other S. and the sum or dilference shall be half the length of 
 tlie day, as re<iuired. In the spherical triangle CAO, right-angled 
 at A, we have AO, the complement of the sun's declination, to be 
 found from astronomical tables, and the angle ACO the comple- 
 ment of the latitude of the place, in order to find AC, the right 
 ascension. Hence from tlie principles- of spherics we have the 
 following proportion : As radius to the tangent of the latitude, so 
 is the tangent of the sun's declination to the sine of the sun's ascen- 
 sional ;lilierence reciuired. When the sun is in the same hemis- 
 phere with any place, and his declination is e(|ual to the comple- 
 ment of its latitude, which can only happen to places within the 
 polar circles, then mn the parallel of declination will not cut the 
 horizon, and consequently the sun will not set in those places dur- 
 ing the time his declination exceeds the co-latitude ; but when the 
 sun and place are in opposite hemispheres, then he will never rise 
 at that place so long as his declination exceeds the co-latitude, and 
 hence it is easy to see how to find the time when the sun begins 
 to shine constantly upon any given place within the polar circle ; 
 and also the time when thot place begins to be wholly in the dark 
 for a considerable time together. It nas been observed in astro- 
 nomy, that the twilight commences in tin; morning and ends in 
 the evening, when the sun is 1S° below^ the horizon. The time of 
 its commencement, or ending, may be found by spherical trigono* 
 metry as follows: let Z be the zenith, P the pole of the sphere, 
 and T the place of the sun, IS" below the horizon H R. In the 
 spherical triangle P Z T, we have P«Z the distance of the pole 
 from the zenith, which is equal to the co-latitude ot the place, and 
 PTthe complement of the sun's declination; also Z T, the dis- 
 tance of the sun from the zenith, which, in this case, is always 90* 
 --f- 18'^ or 108°. From these we are to find the hour-angle, ZPT, 
 which may be had by the following proportion : Let V — ^ peri- 
 meter of file triangle". Then as sine Z P X sine PT is to radius 
 square, so !s sine (V — Z P) X sine (V — PT) to the square of 
 the sine of -J Z P T. The angle Z P T being turned into time will 
 give the time from noon of the beginning or ending of the twilight. 
 
 Of the Division of the Earth's Surface into CtiriATES 
 
 AND Zones ; and the Direction of the Shadows o^ 
 
 Bodies. 
 
 Fiom observijjg the diversity bx Uie length pf the tlays and 
 
 Bight,
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 575 
 
 niRhts, the risir>g and setting oi" the sun, with the other ph^'nomena 
 already mentioned, the ;ine:eiit (joographers <iivid('d Ihesiu-raee of 
 (lie emJh into crtain districts, wiiieh tliey called clim'ates; and in- 
 stead of tlie nielhotl of dcscrihiiig the situation of plaees by tluir 
 latitnde and longitude as we do now, they contented tlieniselv.s 
 with mentioning the climate in \»hich they were situated. Wlieu 
 more accuracy was rei.|uued, they mentioned also the beginnini;, 
 middle, and ending, of the clmiates. This distinction, liowever, 
 was certainly very vas^ue and inaccurate: tor the only metliod 
 tliey had for determniing the difference was by the length of the 
 day; and a climate, according to-theni, \Tas sucli a space as had 
 the day in its most nortlierly jiart lialf an liour longer than in the 
 most soullierly. For the bi-ginning of their first climate, they took 
 that |)aralh'l under which the day is tweU'e hours and three quar- 
 ters long ; those parts of the world which lie nearer the eipjator not 
 being supposed to be in any climate; either because in a loose 
 sense they may be considered as in a right s|)liere, or l)ecause they 
 were unknown, or thought to be uninhabitable by reason of the 
 ))eat. The nortliern climates were generally suj)posed to be seven ; 
 which must have an equal number of southern climates corre- 
 sponding with them. The norUiern climates, according to the an- 
 cients, were as follows: I.Meroe. 'J. Sytne in Egypt. 3. Alex- 
 andria in Egypt. 4. Rhodes. 5. Rome; or, according to others, 
 a parallel drawn through the Hellespont. 6. Tlie parallel passing 
 through the mouth of the river Boristhenes. 7. The Riphean 
 mountains. Each of tliese places was supposed to be in the mid- 
 dle of the climate ; and as the southern parts of the globe were 
 then very little known, the climates to the S. of the equator were 
 supposed to be as far distant from that circle as the northern ones; 
 in consequence of whicli they took tlieir names from the latter. 
 A parallel was said to pass through the middle of a climate, when 
 the day under that parallel is a quarter of an hour longer than that 
 which passes through the most southerly part. Hence it does not 
 divide the space into two equal parts, but that part next the equa- 
 tor will always be the larger of the two ; because the farther we 
 recede from that circle, the less increase of latitude will be suffi- 
 cient to lengthen the day a quarter of an hour. Thus, in every 
 climate there are three parallels; one marking the beginning, the 
 second the middle, and the third tlie ending, of the climate; the 
 ending of one bein^; always the begimiing of another. - Some of 
 the ancients divided the earth by these parallels ; others by a pa- 
 rallel did not mean a mere line, but a -.pace of some breadth: and 
 hence the parallel may be understood as the same with half a cli- 
 mate. This method of dividing the surface of the earth into cli- 
 mates, though now very much disused, has been adopted by seve- 
 ral modern geographers. Some of these begin their climates at 
 the equator, reckoning them by the increase of half an hour in the 
 length of the day nortliward. Thus they go on till they come to 
 the polar circles, where the longest day is twenty-four hours: be- 
 twixt these and the poles tliey count the climates by the increase 
 of a natural ihy in the length of time that the sun continues above 
 the horizon, until they come to one where the longest day is fif- 
 teen of ours, or half a month ; and from this to the pole they count 
 by the increase of half months or w hole months, the climates end- 
 ing at the poles where the days are six months long. The cli- 
 mates betwixt the ecpialor and the polar circles are called hour- 
 cliinates, and those between the polar circles and the poles month- 
 climates. But in common language, we usethe word climateiuavery 
 differeut sense ; so that, when two diiTerent countries are said to be 
 in different climates, we understand oidy that the temperature of 
 the air, seasons, &c. are different. The division of the earth into 
 zones has arisen from the various appearances of the sun, and the 
 effects of his light and heat upon different parts of if. These are 
 live in number: 1. The torrid zone, lying between the two tro- 
 pics for a space of 46° -f | of latitude, or 23° -Jj on each side of the 
 equator, it being divided into two equal parts by the equator; and 
 thi; inhabitants have the sun vertical to them twice a-year, except- 
 ing those who dwell under the tropics, to whom he is vertical only 
 once. 2. The two temperate zones lie between the polar circles 
 and the tropics, containing a space of 43° 4' of latitude. Ami, 3. 
 The two frigid zones lie between the polar circles and the poles. 
 In these last the longest day is never below twenty-four hours; in 
 the temperate zones it is never quite so much, and in the torrid 
 aone it is never above 14. The zones are named from the de- 
 gree of heat they were supposed to be subjected to, 'j'he torrid 
 gone was supposed by the ancients to be uniuhabilable bj rcascu 
 
 of its heat; but this is now found to be a mi>take, and many ])arts 
 of the temperate zones are more intolerable iji this respect than 
 the torrid zone itself. Towards the polar circles, also, these zoiies 
 are intolerably cold during winter. Only a small jiart of the 
 northern frigiil zone, and none of the southern, is inhabited. Sojne 
 geographers reckoned six zones, dividuig the ton id zone into two 
 by the equator. When any parts of the heaven or earth are said 
 to be on the right or left, we are to understand the expression dif- 
 ferently according to the profession ol the person who makes use 
 of it ; because according to that, his face is supposed to be turned 
 towards a certain quarter. A geographer is supposed to stand 
 with his face to the north, because the nortliern part of the world 
 is best known. An astronomer looks towards tiie south, to ob- 
 serve the celestial bodies as they come to the meridian. The an- 
 cient augurs, in observing the liighl of birds, looked towards the 
 east; while the poets look towards tlie Fortunate Isles. In books 
 of geography, therefore, by the right hand we must understand 
 the east: in those of astronomy, the west ; in such as relate to au- 
 gury, the south; and in thewrithigs of poets, the north; according 
 to the following verses: 
 
 Ad Boream Terra;, sed Coeli niensor ad Austrum: 
 Pr.TCo Dei Exortum videt, Occasumque Poeta. 
 From the diflerence in the length and positions of the shadows 
 of terrestrial objects, ancient geograjjhers have given diilerent 
 names to the inhabitants of certain places of the earth ; the reason 
 of which will be easily understood from the following considera- 
 tions. 1. As the sun in his apparent annual revolution never re- 
 moves fartlier from the etpiator than twenty-three degrees and a 
 half, none of those who live without that space, or beyond the 
 tropics, can have that luminary vertical to them at any season of 
 the year. 2. All who live b^'tween the tropics have the sun verti- 
 cal twice a year, though not all at the same time. Thus to those 
 who live directly under the equator, he is directly vertical in 
 March and Sept. at tlie equinox. If a jilace is in 10° N. lat. the 
 sun is vertical when he has 10° north declination; and so of every 
 other place. 3. All who live between the tropics, have tlie sus at 
 noon sometimes N. and sometimes S. of them. Thus, thev who 
 live in a place situated in 20° N. lat. have the sun at noon to the 
 northward when he has more than 20° N. declination, and to the 
 southward when he has less. 4. Such of the inhabitants of the 
 earth as live without the tropics, if in the northern hemisphere, 
 have the sun at noon to the S. of them, but to the N. if in tire 
 southern hemisphere. 5. When the sun i« m the zenith of any 
 place, the shadow of a man, or any upright object, tails directly 
 upon the place where they stand, and consequently is invisible; 
 whence the inhabitants of such places were called Ascii, or with- 
 out shadows : those who live between the tropics, and have the 
 sun sometimes to the N. and sometiHies to the S. of them, have of 
 consequence their shadows projecting N. at some seasons of the 
 year, and S. at others; whence they were called Amphiscii, or 
 having two kinds of shadows. They who live without the tropics 
 have their noon-shadows always the same way; and are tlier<'i'ore 
 called Heteroscii, that is, having only one kind of shadow. If 
 they are in N. lat. the shadows are always turned towanls the N. 
 and if in the southern hemisphere, towards the S. When a 
 place is so far distant from the equator that the days are twent\- 
 four hours long or longer, the inhabitants were called Periscii, be- 
 cause their shadows turn round them. Names have likewise been 
 given the inhabitants of different parts of the earth, from the pa- 
 rallels of latitude under which they live, and tbeir situation with 
 regard to one another. Thus, wlien two places are so near each 
 other, that the inhabitants have only one horizon, or at least thai 
 there is no perceptible difference between them, the inhabitants 
 were called Syno'ci, that is, near neighbours ; the seasons, davs, 
 nights, 5cc. in both places being perfectly alike. Those who lived 
 at distant places, but under the sajne parallel, were called Perireci» 
 that is, living in the same circle. Those who are on the same side 
 of the etpiator have the seasons of the year at the s.,nic time; but 
 if on ditterent sides, tlie suminer-se.ison of the one is the winter of 
 the other; as explained under astronomv. Some writers, how- 
 ever, by the name of Peria-ci, distinguish those who live under ojj- 
 posite points of th'c same parallel, where the noon of the one is I lie 
 midnight of the other. When two places lie under parallels 
 equally distant from the equator, but in opjiosite hemispheres, the 
 inhabitants were called Antoeci. These have a similar increase of 
 days and nights, and similar seasons, but la opposite months. Ac 
 
 ctidin^
 
 575 
 
 GEOGRAPTIY. 
 
 bucli as 
 lay and 
 
 (1 iuiuer tlie siimc n 
 il at the ^am'^ time 
 
 cording to some, tiii.' Autac i were 
 CPOgraphical meridian, and had > , „ 
 
 If two i)U;ces are in parallels e<iuaily distant from the equator, and 
 in o|)i)osile mi-ridian<;, ih.e inhabitants were called Antichthones, 
 with respect to one another, that is, living on opposite sides of the 
 earUi; or Antipodes, having their feet opposite to one another. 
 Wlien two persons are Antipodes, the zenilli of the one is the na- 
 dir of the other. Thc'V have a like elevation of the pole, but it is 
 of different poles: tliev have also days and nights alike, and simi- 
 lar seasons of the year'; but they have opposite hours of the da)' 
 and night, as well as seasons of the year. Thus, when it is mid- 
 ciay with ns, it is midriight with oiu- Antipodes; when it is summer 
 vi'iih lis, it is winter with them, &c. 
 
 H. Historical Geography. 
 
 Since the divisions of tl'.e siiriiice of the earth, concerning which 
 this part of geography is principally employed, are either natural 
 or political, this branch divides itself into "two parts, natural and 
 political ; the first regarding those divisions formed by nature, -tliat 
 is, to speak proj;erly, by the hand of the eternal Creator and Pre- 
 server oi all things ; the second regarding those divisions made by 
 the inhabitants for the sake of government and order among the 
 different communities of men. 
 
 NATbRAL Geography. 
 The natural division of the surface of the globe is into sea and 
 land ; about three-fourths of tlie whole being occupied by water, 
 although probably no where to a depth comparatively very con- 
 siderable, at most of a few miles on an averag"e. The remaining 
 fourth consists of lands, elevated more or less above tlie level of tlie 
 sea, interspersed in some parts with smaller collections of water, at 
 various heights, and in a few instances somewhat lower than the 
 general surface of the main ocean. Tlius the Caspian Sea is said 
 to be about three liuiuhed feet lower than the ocean. 1 he sea 
 and land is each of them again variously divided into parts: the 
 names and dcHnitions now follow ; 
 
 A Continent is a largi: portion of the earth, which comprc- 
 liends several countries that are not separated by any sea ; such 
 are Europe, Asia, Africa, and America. 
 
 An Island is a part of the earth which is entirely surrounded 
 by water; as Great Britain. 
 
 A Pekinsul/v is a tract of land almost surrounded with water, 
 and is joined to a continent only by a narrow slip or neck ; such 
 is the lilorea in Greece. 
 
 An Isthmus, or Neck of Land, is that part by which a pen- 
 insula is joined to a continent, or two continents together ; as the 
 isthmus of Suez, which joins Africa to Asia. 
 
 A Promontory, or Capf., is a high part of land which 
 stretches into tlie sea ; thus the Cape of Good Hope is a promon- 
 tory. 
 
 An Ocean is a vast collection of waters surrounding a consider- 
 able part of the continent ; as the Atlantic. 
 
 A Sea is a smaller collection of waters ; as the Black Sea. 
 A Gulf is a part of the sea which is nearly surrounded by land ; 
 as the C'ulf of Venice. 
 
 A Bay has a wider entrance than a gulf; as the Bay of Bis- 
 cay. 
 
 A Strait is a narrow passage that joins two seas; as the Strait 
 of Gibraltar, which joins the Meditf-rranean to the Atlantic. 
 
 A Lake is a large collection of water entirely surrounded by 
 land, ha':ng no visible communication with the sea; as the Cas- 
 pian Lake :n Asia. 
 
 A Kivf,r is a stream of water that has its source from asprins;. 
 whicii keeps constantly running till it falls into some other river, iSr 
 into the sea. 
 
 There are two continents, the old and new, divided into four grand 
 parts, or quarters. The old continenf, or that known to the an- 
 cients, comprehends Europe, Asia, and Africa ; and the new con- 
 tinent, or that lately discovered, is denominaled America, which 
 is divided into North and South America. Of these grand divi- 
 sions of the eartli we find E.urope, Asia, North America, part of 
 Africa and South America, in the northern hemisphere, the seas 
 occupying almost all the southern. Some [jJace Australasia, or 
 New Holland, among the grand divisions, and very properly, as 
 its great extent demands this distinction. If the whole earth be 
 
 conceived to be divided into one hundred parts, I'^urope contain, 
 two; Asia, seven; Africa, six; America, six ; and /viistralasia- 
 two ; the remaining seventy-seven being sea; although some au, 
 thors assign seventy-two parts only out of one hundred to the sea 
 and twenty-eight to the land. 'I'hese proportions may be ascer' 
 tained with tolerable accuracy, by weighing the paper made for 
 covering a globe, lirst fntire, and "then cut out according to the 
 terminations of the different countries ; or, if stlU greater precision 
 were required, the greater part rf the continents might be divided 
 into known portions of the whole spherical surface, and the re- 
 maining irregular portions only weighed. Or, in square miles, the 
 whole earth' contains nearly two hundred millions, the seas and 
 parts imperfectly known "contain about one hundred and iifty- 
 lour millions V Kuro|>e, four millions ; Asia, fourteen millions; 
 Africa, twelve millions; America, twelve millions; and Austra- 
 lasia, four millions. These several divisions of the earth, and their 
 principal parts, dependent islands, &c. will be found treated of in 
 alphabetical order in the course of this work. The waters are di- 
 vided into live oceans, namely, the Northern, the Atlantic or 
 Western, the Pacific or Eastern, the Indian, and the Southern. 
 l"he Northern Ocean stretches to the northward of Europe, Asia, 
 and America, towanls the north pole. The Atlantic Ocean lies 
 between the continents of Europe and Africa on the east, and Ame- 
 rica on the west, and is usually divided into two parts, one called 
 the North Atlantic Ocean, and the other the South Atlantic or 
 Ethiopic Ocean, and is three thousand miles w'nW. The Pacific 
 Ocean, or, as it is sometimes called, the Great South Sea, is 
 bounded by the western and north-west shores of America, and 
 by the eastern and north-east shores of Asia, and is ten thou- 
 sand miles wide. The Indian Ocean washes the shores of the 
 easlern coasts of Africa, and those of the south of .Asia, and is 
 about three thousand miles wide. The Southern Ocean e.vtends 
 to the southward of Asia and America towards the South pole. 
 Captain Cook penetrated farther towards this pole than any other 
 circumnavigator of the globe. The general inclinations and levels 
 of the continents are discovered bv The course of their rivers. Of 
 
 these the principal are the following, with the length of each, ac- 
 cording to major Kennel's calculation, taking the length of the 
 Thames for unity ; the Amazon is fifteen and three-<iuarters ; the 
 Kian Kew, in Cliina, fifteen and a half; the Hoango, thirteen and a 
 half; the Nile, twelve ;md a half; the Lena, eleven and ahalf ; the 
 Amur, eleven ; the Oby, ten and a half; the Jenisei, ten; the 
 Ganges, its companion" the Burrainpooter, the river Ava, and 
 the Volga, each nine and a half; the Euphrates, eight and a half; 
 the Mississippi, eight; the Danube, seven; the Indus, five and a 
 half; and tlie liliinc, five and a quarter. The principal chain of 
 mountains in the eastern continent first constitutes the Pyrenees, 
 and divides Spain from France, then passes through Vivarais and 
 Auvergne, to join (he A.lps, and through the south of Germany to 
 Dalmatia, Albania, and Macedonia; it is found again beyond the 
 Euxine, under the names of Taur'is, Caucasus, and Imaus, and 
 goes on to Tartary and to Kamschatka. The peninsula of India 
 is divided from north to south by the mountains of Cnite, extend- 
 ing from the extremity of Caucasus to Cape Coinorin. In Africa, 
 Mount Atlas stretches from Fez to Egypt, and the mountains of 
 the moon run nearly in the same direction : there is also a consi- 
 derable elevation between the Nile and the Red Sea. In the 
 new world, the neighbourhood of the western coast is in general 
 the most elevated; in North America the Blue Mountains, or 
 Stony Mountains, are the most consiilerable ; and the mountains 
 of Mexico join the Andes orCordelicrs, w hich are continued along 
 the whole we>t oast of Soudi America. There are severalpoints iu 
 both hemispheres, from which we may observe rivers separating to 
 run to ditferent seas; such as Swisserland, Bjclosero, Tartary, 
 Little Tiliel, Nigritia or Guinea, and Quito. The highest moun- 
 tains, are Chimboracoa, and some others of the Cordeliers in Pern; 
 or peril ips Descabesado in Chili, Mont Blanc, and the Peak of 
 Tenerilfe. Chimhoiacao is about seven tliousand yartls, or nearly 
 four miles, above the level of the sea ; Mont Blanc, five thousand, 
 or nearly three miles; the Peak of Tenerifie about four thousand, 
 or two miles and a (luarter ; Ophir, in Sumatra, is said to be live 
 or six hundred feet higher. It has, however, been asserted,, that 
 some of the snowy mountains to the north of Bengal, are higher 
 than any of those of South America. On the tops of some of the 
 mountains cf Quito, in Peru, the barometer stands at the heigkt of 
 fifteen inches only, and the air is reduced to lialf its uiual density, 
 6 Utit
 
 Gi:0(,RAFTIV 
 
 577 
 
 TTi't — ;& 
 
 But none of these heights is e<iual to a tliousandlh part of llic earth's 
 semidiameter, and are no more than so nuuiy specks in respect of 
 the whole. I'or an account of the situations, and other particulars 
 relating to these general heads, we refer to the articles themselves. 
 
 1'OI.ITICAL Gr.OGRAPHY. 
 
 The artificial divisions of the earth, or those made for the regu- 
 lation of society, are suljject to continual chan^ps on account of 
 the revolutions, new regulations, Sec. which are almost always go- 
 ing on in some parts of tlic earth. 'I'he natural divisions, it is true, 
 are also continually changing from various canoes, but the^e 
 changes are slow, jireserving a sort of regularity, and proceedin 
 by almost imperceptible degrees. But witli reg.ird to ])olitical ch- 
 vi^ions, the case is cpiite otherwise, so that we frequently hear of 
 the boundaries of an empire or kingdom being extended, or con- 
 tracted, or of its being destroyed altogether, and some otlu-r erected 
 ill its stead. The political divisions are either civil or ecclesiasti- 
 cal. The civil divisions are primaiy, as monarchies, which are 
 either empires or kingdoms ; and common-wealths, or republics, 
 wliich are either aristocracies or democracies. These dili'erent di- 
 visions are so denominated from the knid of governmest exercised. 
 in the country, or fruiu that form w hich predominates ; for tlie se- 
 veral kinds are frequently mixed : 'S. Secondary, as electorates, 
 principalities, dukedoms, counties, markgraviates, or marquisate-, 
 palatinates, laudgraviates, baronies, free-cities, archbisiioprics, bi- 
 shoprics, abbeys, &c. The ecclesiastical governments have tlie 
 cemmon name of hierarchies, tliat is, holy principalities; but astliis 
 kind of jurisdiction extends only over the conscience-, not tlie 
 bodies or properties, of people, they cannot jjropeily be called 
 dominions, except such as have temporalities annexed to them ; 
 they are denominated patriarchates, primacies, arcnbishoprics, bi- 
 shoprics, deaneries, &:c. An explanation of the several terms per- 
 taining to civil and ecclesiastical geography w ill be found in their 
 regular alphabetical order. We shall here only add a g-.'neral re- 
 view of the grand divisions of this class, which are treated of, and 
 their subdi\«isions noticed in this work. 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 Nations. 
 
 Chief Cities. 
 
 1 § 
 
 Religion. 
 
 
 Government. 
 
 Sweden 
 
 Kussia 
 
 Denmark... 
 
 Prussia' . ... 
 
 Stockholm ... 
 Petcrsburgh.. 
 Copenhagen.. 
 
 Berlin 
 
 3 
 
 30 
 
 3 
 
 G 
 
 23 
 8 
 
 40 
 
 7 
 t) 
 
 4 
 11 
 
 Ij 
 
 A 
 
 10 
 5 
 
 60 
 
 30 
 
 17 
 
 5 
 60 
 10 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 Lutheran. 
 Greek church 
 Lutheran 
 Protestant and 
 Roman Cath. 
 Roman Cath. 
 Mohammeda- 
 nism 
 Roman Cath. 
 Protestant and 
 Roman Catli. 
 Roman Cath. 
 Roman Cath. 
 Roman Cath. 
 Roman Cath. 
 
 Protestant 
 
 SIA. 
 
 Mohammed. 
 Greek church 
 
 Shamanism. 
 
 Polytheism. 
 
 Brahmins. 
 
 Brahmins. 
 Brahmins. 
 Mohammed. 
 Mohammed. 
 
 Mohammed. 
 
 u 
 
 10 
 
 li 
 
 3 
 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 30 
 
 1 
 2 
 
 O 
 
 33 
 
 9 
 
 28 
 
 160 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 MoiKircliv. 
 Despotism. 
 Monarcliy. 
 
 Austris 
 
 Vienna 
 
 Monarchy. 
 Despotism. 
 
 Turkey in 
 
 Europe... 
 
 France, 
 
 Switzerland 
 
 Constantino- 
 ple 
 
 Paris 
 
 Bcnic 
 
 Milit. Desp. 
 
 Aristocracy. 
 
 Monarchy. 
 Monarchy. 
 Monarchy. 
 .Monarch r. 
 Limited .Mo- 
 naiciiy. 
 
 Despotism. 
 Despotism. 
 
 Monarchy. 
 
 Despotism. 
 
 Despotism. 
 
 Despotism. 
 
 Various. 
 
 Despotism. 
 
 Hierarchy, 
 
 Italy 
 
 Milan 
 
 Naples 
 
 Portugal.... 
 
 Spain 
 
 Great Hrit. 
 and Ireland 
 
 Turkey .... 
 ■Russia 
 
 China 
 
 Japan 
 
 Birman 
 
 Naples 
 
 Lisbon 
 
 Madrid 
 
 London 
 
 Aleppo 
 
 Astracan 
 
 Pekin an<l 
 
 Nankin 
 
 Jeddo 
 
 Ava 
 
 Empire.... 
 
 Siam 
 
 Hindostan.. 
 
 Persia) 
 
 Tartary 
 
 Arabia 
 
 TOL. u.— 
 
 Calcutta 
 
 Ispahan 
 
 Samarcand.... 
 Mecca and 
 Medina 
 
 -NO. 94. 
 
 
 
 AERICA. 
 
 
 iSations. 
 
 Chief Cities. 
 
 
 Religion. 
 
 Keveiiue III 
 Millions. 
 
 o 
 
 < 
 
 3^ 
 
 Abyssinia... 
 
 ^n>P' 
 
 Morocco... 
 
 Goiulyr 
 
 Cairo 
 
 Morocco 
 
 o 
 
 ■ )X 
 
 - 2 
 
 2 
 
 0' 
 
 Ch^l^tlan. 
 
 Moiuimmed. 
 
 Mohammed. 
 
 Monarchy. 
 
 1 Aristocracy. 
 
 Desjiotism. 
 
 Despotism, 
 
 Despotism. 
 
 Despotism. 
 
 J'miis 
 
 Tunis 
 
 Oi Mohammed. 
 O'i.Mohammed. 
 
 Tripoli 
 
 
 
 AMERICA. 
 
 -V. Americii 
 United, Stat 
 Spanish Do- 
 minions... 
 British Pos- 
 sessions... 
 
 S. Americd. 
 SjjaiiishDo- 
 minions... 
 Portuguese 
 Dominions. 
 
 Washington. 
 Salvador .... 
 
 Quebec 
 
 Lima 
 
 Rio Janeiro. 
 
 Protestant. 
 Roman Cath. 
 
 Roman Cath. 
 
 Roman Cath. 
 Roman Cath. 
 
 3 Republic. 
 
 , Si)anish Vice- 
 
 'British Consti- 
 ■""i tutioii. 
 
 . Spanish ^'ice- 
 
 I Portuguese 
 ■■■■| ViceiOY. 
 
 I 
 
 III. Tf.chnic.,\l Geography. 
 
 This part of tlie'science relates to the method of exhibiting geo- 
 graphical descripti-.-iiis, which is, 1. By means of geographical ta- 
 bles, giving an analytical view of the whole earth, or of some part 
 of it. 2. By treatises giving a sy-tematical account of the science, 
 or describing places in alphabetical order. J. By delineations of 
 the earth, or of some part of it on plane or curve surfaces ; these 
 graphical representations are of considerable importance, and are 
 called maps and globes, of which we shall now treat. 
 
 Of the Covstruction and Use of Maps. 
 
 A Map is a plane figure representing the surface of the earth, 
 or some part of it ; being a projection of its globular surface, ex- 
 hibiting countries, seas, rivers, mountains, cities, &c. in their due 
 positions, or nearly so. Maps are eitlier universal or particular. 
 
 Universal, or General Maps, are such as exhibit the whole 
 surface of the eaith, or the two hemisjjheres. 
 
 Particular, or Partial Maps, are such as exhibit some par- 
 ticular part or region of the eartii. 
 
 Both kinds arc usually called Geographical or Lakd-Maps, 
 as distinguished from IlYrmoGRAPHirAL, or Sea-.Maps ; which 
 represent only the seas and sea-coasts, and are properly called 
 charts. 
 
 Maps are constructed by making a projection of the globe, or a 
 part of it, either on the plane of some particular circle, or by the 
 eye placed in some particular point, according to the rules of per- 
 spective, &c. of wliich there are several methods. 
 
 I. Construction or Genebal Maps. A map of the world 
 must represent two hemispheres; and both nuist be drawn upon 
 the plane of that circle w iiich divides the hemispheres. 
 
 i. riie tirst method is to project each hemisphere upon the 
 plane of some particular circle, by the rules of orthographic pro- 
 jection; (see Projection of the Sphere) forming two hemi- 
 spheres on one common base or circle. When the plane of pro- 
 jection is that of a meridian, the maps will be the E. and W. he- 
 mispheres; the other meridians will be ellipses; and the parallel 
 circles will be right lines. Upon the plane of the eipiinoctial, the 
 meridians will be right lines, crossing in the centre, w hich will re 
 present the pole ; the parallels of latitude will be circles having 
 that common centre ; and the maps will be the northern and 
 southern hemispheres. Fig. 1, Plate LXXX, is an 'orthographic 
 projection of one of the hemispheres upon the plane of the meri- 
 dian : and fig. 2, an orthographic projection of the northern hemi- 
 sphere upon the plane of the equator. The fault of this way of 
 7 H drawing
 
 578 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 cVrawing maps is, thai towards the outside the circles arc too near 
 each other; and therefore e(iual spaces upon the earth are repre- 
 sented by very unequal spaces in the map. 
 
 ii. Auotlier method is to project tlie same hemisphrres by the 
 rules of stereograpliic prnjectioii : in whicli way all the parallels 
 will be represented by circles, and the meridians by circles or 
 light lines. (For thenji'.ire and properties of these projections, 
 see Projection of the Sphere.) But here the coiurary fault 
 occurs; viz. the circles towards tlie outsides are loo far asunder, 
 -and about the middle they are too near together. Fig. 3, is a ste- 
 jeographic projecliou of one of the hemispheres on the plane of the 
 meridian : and (ig. 4, of one on the plane of the equator. 
 
 iii. A third method is therefore adopte<l to remedy the faults of 
 bolli tlie foviner methods: viz. 1. For the E. and W. hemispheres, 
 de-.cribe the circle PP^NQ, fig. 5, Plate LXXX, for the meridian, 
 or plane of projection; through the centre of w'hich draw tlie equi- 
 noctial EQ, and axis P N perpendicular to it, milling P and N 
 the north and south poles. Divide the quadrant P E, E N, N Q, 
 and Q P, into nine equal parts, each representing ten degrees, be- 
 ginning at the equinoctial EQ. Divide also C P and C N into 
 nine equal parts, heL;inning at E Q ; and through the correspond- 
 ing points draw the parallels of latitude. Again divide C E and 
 C Q into nine equal parts; and tlirougli the points of division, and 
 the l»»o poles P and N, draw circles, or rather ellipses, for ihe 
 .meridians. Thus the map will be prepared to receive the names 
 of the principal countries, kingdoms, cities, &c. in the world. 
 For the N. or S. hemisphere, draw A Q B E, fig. 6, for the equi- 
 jioctial, dividing it into the four quadrants E A, A Q, Q B, and 
 T! E ; and each quadrant into nine ecpial parts ; and through these 
 points, from the centre C, draw lines for meridians, and the pa- 
 rallels oflatilude; eciuidistant as in the figure. In tliis last method, 
 equal spaces on the earth are represented by equal spaces on tiie 
 jiiap, as near as any projection will bear; for a spherical surface 
 can no way be represented exactly upon a plane. Then the seve- 
 ral countries, kingdoms, cities, seas, Ulands, sea-coasts, towns, &c. 
 are to be marked in the map, according to their latitudes aiul lon- 
 gitudes. In hlling up the map, all places representing land are 
 filled with such cities, towns, rivers, hills, &c. as the countries 
 contain; but the seas are left white ; the shores adjoining to them 
 being shaded. Large rivers are marked by strong or doulile hues, 
 drawn winding in the form of tliose they represent; and small ri- 
 vers are expressed by small lines. Dilferent countries are best 
 distinguished by ilill'erent colours ; at least the borders of them 
 should be so distinguished. Forests are represented by small 
 trees ; and mountains are shaded to make them appear. Sands 
 are denoted by numerous small points; and rocks vuider water by 
 small crosses. The mariner's compass, with the thirty-two points 
 representing the winds, is drawn in any void space. 
 
 IF. Construction of Particular Maps. 
 
 To draw a map of any particular country, its extent must be 
 known as to latitude and longitude : as, suppose Spain, lying be- 
 tween the N. latitude 36° and 44°, and ejctending from 10° to C?3° 
 of longitude ; so that its extent from N. to S. is S° and from E. 
 to W. 13''. I. Draw the line AB, fig. 7, for a meridian passing 
 tlirough the middle of the country ; on this, set oft' 8° from B to A, 
 taken from any convenient scale ; A being the north and B the 
 south point. Through A and B draw the perpendiculars C D, EF, 
 for the extreme parallels of latitude. Divide AB into eight parts 
 or degrees, through which draw the other parallels of latitude, pa- 
 rallel to the former. For the meridians, divule any degree in AB 
 into 60 equal parts, or geographical miles. Then, because the 
 length of a degree in each parallel decreases towards the pole, (as 
 appears from the annexed Table,) take the number of miles an- 
 swering to the latitude of B, which is 48i nearly, and set it from B, 
 seven times to E, and six times to F ; so is EF divided into de- 
 grees. Again, from the same table take the number of miles of a 
 degree in the latitude A, viz. 43j nearly ; which set off, from A, 
 seven times to C, and six times to D. Then from the points of 
 division in the line CD, to the corresponding jioints in the line 
 EF, draw so many right lines for the meridians. Number the de- 
 grees of latitude up both sides of the map, and the degrees of lon- 
 gitude on the top and bottom. Also in some vacant place make 
 a scale of miles ; or of degrees, if the map represent a large part of 
 4he earth ; to serve for finding the distances of plates upon the in.ip. 
 
 Then make the proper divisions and subdivisions of f he country 
 and having the latitudes and longitudes of the principal places, it 
 will be easy to set them d-'Wn in the map ; for any town, &c. must 
 be placeil, wnere the circles of it> latitude and longitude intersect.- 
 For instance, Gibraltar, whose latitude is 36° 4' 44" and Ion. 12° 27' 
 "ill be at G; and Madrid, whose lat. is 40° 25' 18° and Ion. 14° 44', 
 will be at M. In lik^- m inner, the mouth of a idvcr must be set 
 down ; but to describe I'lr whole river, the lat. and Ion. of every 
 turning must be marked down, and the towns and bridges by and 
 under which it runs. And <o tor woods, forests, mountains, lake-, 
 forts, &c. The boundaries will I'O described by setting down the 
 ost remarkable places on the sea-coast, and drawing a coutinued, 
 
 This method is very proper for* 
 
 doited line through tliem all 
 small countries. 
 
 A TABLE, 
 
 Sheviing hozv many minutes or geographical miles of the equator 
 tc (I dtgree ofior.t^itude, at ex-cry degree of latitude. 
 
 D. L. 
 
 MILES. 
 
 D. L-|MlLfc,S. 
 
 I). L.'MILES. 
 1 
 
 D. L. 
 
 MILES. 
 
 U. L.;.MILES.( 
 
 f 1 
 
 1 
 
 59,9!) 
 
 19 {56,73 
 
 37 
 
 47,92 
 
 55 
 
 34,41 
 
 73 
 
 17,54 
 
 o 
 
 59,97 
 
 20 
 
 56,38 
 
 38- 
 
 47,28 
 
 56 
 
 33,55 
 
 74 
 
 16,53 
 
 o 
 
 59,92 
 
 21 
 
 56,01 
 
 39 
 
 46,62 
 
 57 
 
 32,67 
 
 75 
 
 15,52 
 
 4 
 
 59,86 
 
 22 
 
 55,63 
 
 40 
 
 45,95 
 
 58 
 
 31,79 
 
 76 
 
 14,51 
 
 5 
 
 59,77 
 
 23 
 
 55,23 
 
 41 
 
 45,28- 
 
 59 
 
 30,90 
 
 77 
 
 13,50 
 
 (0 
 
 59,67 
 
 24 
 
 54,81 
 
 42 
 43 
 
 44,75 
 
 60 
 
 30,00 
 
 78 
 
 12,48 
 
 7 
 
 59,56 
 
 25 ! 54,38 
 
 43,88 
 
 61 
 
 29,09 
 
 79 
 
 11,45 
 
 8 
 
 59,42 
 
 26 53,93 
 
 44 
 
 4.3, u; 
 
 62 
 
 28,17 
 
 80 
 
 1 0,42 
 
 y 
 
 59,20 
 
 27 53,46 
 
 45 
 
 42,4.; 
 
 63 
 
 27,24 
 
 81 
 
 9,38 
 
 10 
 
 59,0S 
 
 28 52,97 
 
 46 
 
 41,68 
 
 64 
 
 2C,30 
 
 82 
 
 8,35 
 
 1 1 
 
 58,89 
 
 29 52,47 
 
 47 
 
 40,92 
 
 65 
 
 25,36 
 
 83 
 
 7.32 
 
 13 
 
 58,68 
 58, i6 
 
 30 51,96 
 
 48 
 
 40,15 
 
 66 
 
 24,41 
 
 84 
 
 6,28 
 
 31 51,43 
 
 49 
 
 39,36 
 
 .67 
 
 23,45 
 
 85 
 
 5,23 
 
 i4 
 
 58,22 
 
 32 50, S 8 
 
 50 
 
 38,57 
 
 68 
 
 22,48 
 
 86 
 
 4,18 
 
 15 
 
 57,95 
 
 33 50,32 
 
 51 
 
 37,76 
 
 69 
 
 21,50 
 
 87 
 
 3,14 
 
 16 
 
 57,67 
 
 34 49,74 
 
 52 
 
 36,94 
 
 70 
 
 20.52 
 
 88 
 
 2,09 
 
 17 
 
 57,37 
 
 35 49,15 
 
 53 
 
 36,11 
 
 71 
 
 19,54 
 
 89 
 
 1,05 
 
 18 57,06 
 
 36 ' 48,54 
 
 54 
 
 35,26 
 
 72 
 
 18,55 
 
 90 
 
 0,00 
 
 As tills table is calculated only to whole degrees, therefore, when 
 the length of a degree of longitmle is required on a parallel uf lati- 
 tude, consisting of degrees and minutes, we must use the following 
 proportion, viz. As one degree = 60 minutes is to the dili'erence 
 between the niinules answering to a degree, in the next greater, 
 and next less tabular latitude ; so is the excess of the propo>ed lati- 
 tude above the next less tabular latitude to a proportional part ; 
 which being subtracted from the miles answering to a degree 6f 
 latitude, in the next greater tabular latitude, will give the minutes 
 answering to a tiegree of longitude on the proposeil parallel. 
 
 F.xutnp. flow many rniiintes of the equator make a degree of 
 longitmie in the latitude of the Roval Observatory at Greenwich, 
 the'latitnde being 51° 28' 40" N'— Solution 6o' : 82: : 28' 40": 
 ,3917, which subtracted from 37,76, gives 37,3683 for the answer 
 required. N. B. If 37,3bS3 be multiplied by 69i, anci the product 
 divided by 60, tlie quotient will be the number of Englisii miles 
 contained in a degree of longitude in the latitutle of Greenwich. 
 37',36S3 X 69,5 
 
 Thus =43,2849 English miles, or which is the 
 
 60 
 same thing, 43 miles, 61 yards, one foot, and 5,7 inches. There- 
 fore a ])lace situited 43 miles, 61 yards, one foot, and 5,7 inches, 
 to the cast or west of the Roval Observatory at Greenwich will be 
 exactly one degree of longitude to the east or west of the said Ob- 
 servatory. 2. Maps of particular plains, being portions of the 
 gloLe, maybe drawn alter tin- same manner as the whole; i.e. 
 either by the orthographic orstereographic projection of the sphere. 
 But in partial maps, an easier method m.ay be taken ; thus: having 
 drawn tlie mci'idian AB, fig. 7, and di\ided it into equal parts, as 
 in tlie kbt method, draw lines througti all the points of division 
 perpendicular to AB, for the parallels of latitude ; CD, EF, being 
 the extreme parallels. Then, to divide these, set off the degrees 
 in e.ch parallel, diminished as directed for the two extreme paial- 
 IbIs CD, EF, in the last method; and through all the correspond- 
 
 iuj^
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 57*> 
 
 ing points draw the mei'ulians, wliicli will be curve lines; and 
 which were riylit lines in t.ie last nielhoil ; because only the ex- 
 treme parallels were ilivided by the tal)le. 'J'his method is proper 
 for a large tract, as Europe, Szc. in wliich ease the parallels and 
 intiidians need only be drasvii to every hve or 10 degrees. This 
 method is much used in drawing maps; as all llie parts arc nearly 
 of their due magnitude, but a liUle distorted towards the outside, 
 trom the oblique intersection of. the meridians and pariuhls. 3, 
 A third method may be adopted thus : Draw PB, Plate LXXXI, 
 fig. 4, of a convenient length for a meridian: divide it into nine 
 equal parts, and through the points of division, describe as many 
 circles for the parallels of latitude, from the cejitre P, which re. 
 presents the pole. Suppose AB, fig. 4, the height of the map; 
 then CD will be the parallel passing through the greatest latitude, 
 and EF will represent the equator. Divide the equator EF into 
 equal parts, of the same size as those In A 15, botli ways, beginninir 
 at B. Divide al;o all the parallels into the same number of equaj 
 parts, but less, in proportion to the numbers for the several lati- 
 tudes, as directed in the last method for the rectilineal parallels. 
 Then through all the corre-pondiug divisions, draw curve-lines, 
 vhich will represent the meridians, the extreme ones being EC 
 and FD. Lastly number the degrees of lat. and Ion. and place 
 a scale of ecpial parts, either of miles or degrees (or measuring dis- 
 tances. This is a very good method of drawing large maps, and 
 is called the Globular Projection ; all the parts of the eartii being 
 represented n." ii iy ''f their due magnitude, excepting that they are 
 a little distorltd on the outrides. The following is a convenient 
 method to draw a map of a couiiderdblc part of the eartli's surface : 
 as a map of Europ'', whicli ext> nds from 30° to '-'" north latitude, 
 draw a base-line Gil, lig. 5, in the middle of which erecta perpen- 
 dicular, IP, and as'ijie any distance for 10' of lalilude. Let the 
 point I be 30°, fro.i w hich set off six of the assumed distances to P, 
 which will be the north pole. Numl)er the distaces 40, j(i, 00, 
 &.-C. and on the centre, P, describe arcs passing through the 
 points of divisions on the line IP, which will be parallels of lati- 
 tude. Divide the space assumed for 10" of latitude into 60 parts, 
 by some diagonal-scale. Look into the above table, for the num- 
 ber of miles answering to 30°, which is 31,96 ; take this from the 
 scale, and set it otTon the arc 30° from the centre-hne both wavs. 
 Do the same for 40°, 50°, 60°, Sec, and through the corresponding 
 divisions on all the arcs draw curve-lines; which will represent the 
 meridian. VVIien the degrees of latitude and longitude are marked 
 the thing is done. We shall here add a very easy and correct 
 inethod of drawing particular maps, whicli may be formed by 
 means of tlic common compasses and ruler. Thus sujjpose it were 
 required to draw a map of some part of the earth, including six de- 
 giees, as from the 39th to tlie 45th parallel of latitude, ciraw the 
 line EF, and in the middle raise a perpendicular DC. Divide 
 this perpendicular into six equal parts, representing the degrees of 
 latitude, and through C draw a line parallel to EF. Divide a de- 
 gree in»o ten, or if large enough, into 60 equal parts; and in the 
 table for decreasing longitudes, tind the contents of a degree of 
 longitude in the latitude of 39°, viz. 46,62 miles. From the de- 
 gree sodivided, take the parts 46,62 ; set one-half of it from D to 
 E, ami the nth.'r from D to F. Find then the extent of a degree of 
 longitude in the latitude of 45°, viz. 42, 43 miles ; and taking tliat 
 distance from the sc;^le of the degree, divide it as before, laying 
 one-lulf from C to I, and the other from C to K. Draw straight 
 lines between the points I and E, and K and F ; divide them into 
 six Pijual parts, and through these draw parallel lines, and thus I K 
 E F is a projection for one degree of longitude, and six of latitude. 
 The projection of the wliole map is only a repetition of this ope- 
 ration; we have tlierefore only to take, with a pair of compasses, 
 the distance from E to K, from F to I, and setting one foot in E, 
 and then in F, de'.cribe the arches L and M ; and in like manner 
 set one foot in I, and then in K, and with the same extent draw the 
 arches N and O. Then take the distance between E and F, and 
 set from E to N, and from F to O. Set likewise the distance be- 
 tween I and K, and from I to L, and from K to M. Join L N 
 and MO, divide them into degrees, and draw parallels to these 
 points to their corres|)onding points in the meridians 1 E and KF. 
 After the same manner may meridians and parallels be drawn to as 
 many degrees of longitude as your map contains. If the map be 
 very lar^e so that the compasses cannot take in the whole extent 
 fiffhe diagonal IF, or EK, we may do it at twice by taking the 
 
 diagonals GF, or EH, by transferring them as already directed ; af- 
 ter which, we may do the same with the othi r half. When the 
 place for which a iiiap is to be draw n, is but i-mall, e. g. if a county 
 were to be exhibited, the meridians, as to sense, will be parallel i<» 
 ■ ach otlier, and the whole will differ very little from a plane. 
 Such a map may be made more easily than by the preceding rules, 
 mi-rely by measuring the distances in miles, and so laying them 
 down in a plane rectangular map. But this branch of map-making 
 belongs more properly to surveying, which see. 
 
 The Use of M .vrs rs obvious" Irom their construction. The de- 
 grees of the meridians and parallels shew the latitudes and longi- 
 tudes of places, and the scale of miles annexed, their distaiicea ; 
 the situation of places, with regard to each other, as well as to the 
 cardinal points, appeai-s on in peclion ; the top ol the map being 
 always the north, the bottom the south, the right hand the cast, and 
 the left the west, unless the compass, usually annexed, shew the 
 contrary. 
 
 DESCKIPriON OF THE TeRRESTKIAL GlOBE. 
 
 The equator, ecliptic, and tropics, polar circles, and meridian?, arc 
 laid down upon the globe in the manner alnady described. 'I lie 
 ecliptic is divided into 12 signs, and each sign into 30 degrees". 
 Ivach tropic is '23| degrees from the equator, and each polar circle 
 is 23j degrees Irom its respective pole. Circles are drawn paral- 
 lel to the e(|uator, at every 10 degrees di>tance from it on each- 
 side of the poles : these circles are called parallels of latiti de. On 
 large globes there aie circles drawn perpendicularly through every 
 teiuh degree of the e(Hiator,ii)tersecting each other at the polos : but 
 on the globes of or under a foot diameter, they are only drawiv 
 thn. ugh every 15th d.;gree of the equator: these circles are gene- 
 rally called meridians, sometinm-s circles of longitude, and at other 
 times hour-circles. The globe is hung in a bra>s ring. A, tig. 3, 
 plate LXXA'. called the brazen meridian, and turns upon a wire 
 in each pole sunk half its thickness into one side of the meridian- 
 ring; by which means that side of the ring divides the globe irtu 
 lu o c(|u'al parts, called the eastern and western hemispheres ; as the 
 equator divides it into two equal parts, called the nortliern and 
 southern hemispheres. The ring is divided into 360 ctpial parts' 
 or degrees, on the side wherein the axis of the globe turns. One 
 half of these degrees are numbered, and reckoned from the equator 
 to the poles, where they end at 90. Their use is to shew the lati- 
 tudes of places. The degrees in the other hslf of the meridian ar(« 
 numbered from the poles to' the e(]uator, where they end at 90. 
 Their use is to shew how to elevate either the north or south pole 
 above the horizon, according to the latitude of any given place, aS 
 it is N. or S. of tlie equator^ The brazen meridian is let into two 
 notches made in a broad llat ring called the wooden horizon, B, C ; 
 the upper surface of which divhles the globe into two equal parts, 
 called the upper and lower hemispheres. One notch is in the north 
 point of the horizon, and the otlun- in the south. On this horizoa 
 are srveral concentric circles, which contain the months and days 
 of tlie year, the sign'; and degrees answering to the sun's place for 
 each month and day, the 33 points of the compass, and the circles 
 of amplitude and azimuth. The graduated side of the brass-me- 
 ridian lies towards the east side of the horizon, and should be gene- 
 rally kept towards the person who works problems by the globes. 
 There is a small horary circle D, so fixed to the north part of tlie 
 brazen meridian, that the wire in the north pole of the globe is in 
 the centre of that circle ; and on the wire is an index, which "oel 
 over all the 24 hours of the circle, as the globe is turned round its 
 axis. Sometimes there are two horary circles, cue between each 
 pole of the globe and the brazen meridian. There is a thin slip of 
 brass, called the Quadrant of Altitude, which is divided into 90 
 equal parts or degrees, answering exactly to so many degrees of the 
 equator. It is occasionally fi.xed to the uppermost point of the 
 brazen meridian by a nut and screw. The divisions end at the nut 
 E, and the quadrant is turned round upon it. A magnetic needle, is 
 applied to the globe which freely moves over a circle divided into 
 four times 90 degrees; reckoning from the N. and S. points to- 
 wards the E. and \V. and also into the 32 points of the compass. 
 As this needle makes nearly a certain constant angle with the ihc- 
 ridian in every place, called the variation ; therefore this compass, 
 being added to the frame, will rectify the position of the meridian 
 of the globe when the variatiou of the needle is kjiowii. Thus at 
 
 London^
 
 ^0 
 
 GKOCUIAPIIY. 
 
 l.oiul'in, the variation ol'llie needle is at liiistime abovit '->4 <legre<"s 
 irortlnve^t ; llicrefoii-, l)y moving the tranie ot tlic glolie about 
 till tlie needle spltleb itself over 'the 'J4th degree, reckoning west- 
 ward from the nortli point or lleur de lis, we shall have the brass- 
 meridian coinciding with the true meridian. 'I'he compass is 
 sometimes lixcd between the legs underneath the globe. 
 
 Dn-vECTIOXS KOR USING THE TlRRESTRIAL GloBE. 
 
 In using globes, keep the east side of the horizon towards you 
 ^.unless thf; problem re(iuircs to turn it,) which side may be known 
 by the wori-l East upon the horizon; for thcji you have the gradu- 
 ated side of the meridian towards you, the quadrant of altitude be- 
 lore you, and the globe divided exactly into two equal part', by 
 the graduated side of the meridian. 
 
 Prob. I. Tojind tlic latitiuic and longitude of any given place 
 upnn the glnho. — Turn the globe on its axis, until the given pl.ice 
 conies e.Nactly under that graduated side of the brazen meridian on 
 which the tlegrees are numbered fioni tiie eipiator ; and nbserrc 
 ■what degree of the meridian the place then lies under; which is its 
 latitude N. or S. as the place is N. or ^. of the eiiuator. The 
 globe remaining in this position, the degree of the equator, which 
 is under the brazen meridian, is the longitude of the jjlace, which 
 is E. or W. ; as the place lies on the E. or W. side of the first me- 
 ridian of the globe. All the Atlantic ocean and America, are 
 on the W- . side of the meridian of London ; and the greatest part 
 of E.urope, and of Africa, together with all Asia, are on the E. side 
 cl the meridian of London, which is reckoned the first meridian of 
 the globe by the British geographers and astronomers. 
 
 Prob. II. The longitude and latitude of a place lieing given, 
 ti>find that place on the globe. — Look for the giten longitude in 
 the equator (counting it eastward or westward from the first meri- 
 dian, as it is mentioned to be E. or W. ;) and bringing the point 
 of longitude in the equator to the brazen meridian, on that side 
 which is above the south point of the horizon ; then count from 
 the equator, on the brazen meridian, to the degree of the given 
 latitude, towards the N. or S. pole, according as the latitude is N. 
 or S. ; and under that degree of latitude on the meridian you will 
 have the place reipiired. 
 
 Prob. HI. To Jind the difference of longitude, or differencf: of 
 latitude, betii-cen aui/ tivo given places. — Bring each of these iiilace> 
 to the brazen meridian, and see what its latitude is: the less lati- 
 tude subtracted from the greater, if both places be on llic same side 
 of the equator, or both latitudes added together, if they be on dif- 
 ferent sides of it, is tiie difference of latitude required. And the 
 number of degrees contained between these places, reckoned on the 
 equator, when they are brought separately under the brazen meri- 
 diaji, is their dili'erence of longitude, if it be less than ISO ; but if 
 more, let it be subtracted from 360, and the remainder is the dif- 
 ference of longitude required. Or, 
 
 Having brought one of the places to the brazen meridian, and 
 set the hour-index to XII. turn the globe imtil the other place 
 comes to die brazen meridian ; and the number of hours, and parts 
 of an hour, passed over by the index, will give the longitude in 
 time; which may beea>ilv reduced to degrees, by allowing li de- 
 grees for every hour, and one degree for every fom' minutes. 
 
 N. 1'.. When we speak of bringing any pl.ice to the brazen me- 
 ridian, it is the graduated side of the meridian that is meant. 
 
 pRon. IV. ^imjplaceheing given, tofnd all tho.ie places that 
 liuve the same longitude or latitude ivitli it. — Bring the given place 
 to the brazen meridian ; then all those places which lie under that 
 side of the meridian, from pole to pole, have the same longitude 
 with the givenj)lace. Turn the globe round its axis : and all those 
 places, which pass under the same degree of file meridian that the 
 givcri place does, have the same latitude with that place. Since 
 all latitudes are reckoned from the equator, and all longitudes are 
 reckoned irom the first meridian, it is evident, tliat the point of the 
 equator vvhicli is cut by the hrst meridian, has neither latitude nor 
 longitude. The greatest latitude is 90 degrees, because no place 
 is more than 90 degrees from the equator ; and the greatest longi- 
 tude is ISO degrees, because no place is more than 180 degrees 
 from the lirst meridian. 
 
 Prou. V. TofindtheAnta-ci, Periaxi, and Antipodes, of any 
 given /"/nee. ^Bring the given place to the brazen meridian"; and 
 having found its latitude, keep the globe in that situation, and 
 Count the same number of degrees of latitude from the equator to- 
 
 -— n-rmt 
 
 wards the contrary pole ; and where the reckoning ends, you hare 
 the antoeci of the given place upon the globe. Those who live at 
 the eipiutor have no anla'ci. I'he globe remaining in the same 
 position, set the hour-index to the upper XII. on the horary cir. 
 cle, and turn the globe until the index comes to the lower Xll. ; 
 then the place which lies under I he meridian, in the same latitude 
 with the given place, is the peiii.'ci required. Those who live at 
 the [loles have no peria'ci. As the globe now stands (with the in- 
 dex at the lower XII,) the antipodes of the given place will be 
 under the same point of the brazen meridian where its antoeci stood 
 before. F.very place upon the globe has its antipodes. 
 
 Prob. VI. To find the distance beticetn any tvjo places on the 
 globe. — Lay the graduated edge of the quadrant of altitude over 
 both the places, and count the number of degrees intercepted 
 between them on the quadrant ; then multiply these degrees bv 
 (iO, and the product will give the distance in geographical miles": 
 but to find tiie distance in miles, multiply the degrees by 69-j, 
 and (he product will be the number of miles required. Or, take 
 the distance betwixt any two places w itii a pair of compasses, and 
 apply that extent to the equator; the number of degrees, inter- 
 cepted between the points of the compasses, is the distance in de- 
 grees of a great circle : which may be reduced either to geogra- 
 phical miles, or to English miles, as above. 
 
 I'nOB. VI I. A place on the globe being given, and its distance 
 from any other place ; to find all the other places upon the 
 globe, Vihich are at the same distance fy'oni the given place. — 
 Bring the given place to the brazen meridian, and screw the qua- 
 drant of altitude to the meridian directly oirer that place ; then 
 keeping the globe in that ))osition, turn the quadrant quite round 
 upon it, and the degree of the <piadrant that touches the second 
 place will pass over all the other places, which are equally distant 
 with it from the given place. This is the same as if one foot of a 
 pair of compasses were set in the given place, and the other foot 
 extended to the second place, whose distance is known ; for if the 
 compasses be then turned round the first place as a centre, the 
 moving foot will go over all those places which are at the same 
 distance with the second from it. 
 
 Prob. Xlll. The hour of the day at amj place being given, to 
 find all thoic places ichcre it is noon at that time. — Bring the 
 given place to the brazen meridian, and set the index to the given 
 hour; thi« done, turn the globe until the index points to the up- 
 per \II. and then all the places that lie under the brazen meri- 
 dian have noon at that time. 
 
 A.Jl. 'J'he upper XII. always stands for noon; and when the 
 bringing of any place to the brazen meridian is mentioned, the 
 side ot that meriilian on which the degrees are reckoned from the 
 equator is meant, unless t!ie contrary side be mentioned. 
 
 J'rob. IX. I'he hour of the duij at anij place being given, te 
 find zchat o'cloclc it is then at ani/ other place. — Bring tlie given 
 place to the brazen meridian, and set the inde\ to the given hour; 
 then turn the globe, until the jilace where the hour is required 
 conies to the meridian, and the index will point out the hour at 
 that place. 
 
 Prob. X. To find the sun's place in the ecliptic, and his decli- 
 nation for ani/ gix'cn day nf the year. — Look on the horizon for 
 the given day, and right against it you have the degree of the sign 
 in whicli the sun is (or his place) on that day at noon. Find the 
 same degree of that sign in the ecliplic-line upon the globe, and 
 having brought it to the brazen meridian, observe what degree of 
 the meridian stands over it ; for that is the sun's declination reck- 
 oned from the equator. 
 
 Prob. XI. The day of the month being given, to find all those 
 places of the earth, over iihich the sun xvill pass verticallt/ on 
 that day. — Find the sun's place in the ecliptic for the given day, 
 and having brought it to the brazen meridian, observe what point 
 of the meridian is over it ; then, turning the globe round its axis, 
 all those places which pass under that point of the meridian are 
 the places required ; for as their latitude is equal, in degrees and 
 parts of a degree, to the sun's declination, the sun must be directly 
 over-head to each of them at its respective noon. 
 
 Prob. XII. A place being given in the torrid zone, to find 
 those tveo days of the year, on which the sun shall be vertical to 
 that place. — Bring the given place to the brazen meridian, and 
 mark the degree of latitude that is exactly over it on the meri- 
 dian ; then turn the globe round its axis, and observe the two de- 
 grees
 
 GF-OGRAPnV 
 
 rA;\ 
 
 ftrcfi of the elliptic uhiih pass cxai.-llv iimler that ilogrce of lati- 
 tude: lastly, liucl on tlie wooden horizon the two days of the year 
 in which the sun is in those degrees of the ecliptic, and they are 
 the days required : for on tlieni, and none else, the sun's declina- 
 tion is equal to the latitude of the given place ; and, conse(iue]itly, 
 he will then be vertical to it at noon. 
 
 Prob. Xlll. To find all tlinst- places of the nnrthfrigid zniif, 
 uherc the sun shines coiisliintly niihoiit setting, on any 
 given day, from tlie iiisl nf Mureh to the Hid of Seplemhcr. — 
 On these two days, the sun is in the ecininoctial, and enliLjlitens 
 the globe exactly from pole to pole: therefore, as the earth turns 
 round its axis, which terminates in the pcles, every place U|)oii it 
 will ^o e(H!ally through the light and the dark, and so make the 
 day and n'ght equal to all places of the earth. Dut as the ><m\ de- 
 clines from the e<[uator, towards cither pole, he will enligliten as 
 many degrees round that pole as are equal to his declinatinn from 
 tbe eipiator: so that no place witliin that distance of the pole will 
 then go through any pan of the dark, and conSeciuenlly the sun 
 will not set to it. Now, as the sun's declination is nortlnv;ird 
 from the -1st of March to the 23(1 of September, he must con- 
 stantly shine round the north pole all that time; and on the, day 
 that he is in the northern tropic, he shines upon the whole north 
 frigid zone ; so that no place within the north polar circle goes 
 through any part of the dark on that day. 'I hcrefore, having 
 brought the sun's place for the given day to the brazen meridian, 
 aud found his declination, (bv Prob. IX.) count as many degrees 
 on the meridian, from the north poll', as are eipial to the sun's de- 
 clination from the equator, and mark that degree from the jjole 
 where the reckoning ends ; then turning the globe round its axis, 
 observe what places in the north frigid zone pass directly under 
 that mark ; for they are the places reipiired. The like may be 
 <ione for the south frigid zone, from the -.5d of September to the 
 » 1st of March, during which time the sun shines constantly on the 
 south pole. 
 
 Prob. XIV. To fndlhr place nrcr -ihich the sun is rcrliccil 
 at any hour nf a given day. — Having found the sun's declimition 
 for the given day (by Prob. X.) mark it with chalk on the brazen 
 meridian : then bring the given place to the brazen meridian, and 
 set the hidex to the given hour ; which done, turn the globe on 
 its axis, until the index points to XII. at noon ; and the place on 
 the globe, which is then directly under the point of the sun's de- 
 clination marked upon the meridian, has the sun that moment in 
 the zenith, or direcdy over head. 
 
 Proh. XV. The day and hour nf u htniir eclipse heing given ; 
 to find all those places if the earth to Xihich it leill be risihie. — 
 Thi*moon is never eclipsed but when she is full, and so directly 
 opposite to tl^ sun, that the earth'^ shadow falls upon her. There- 
 fore, whatever place of the earth the sun is vertical to at that time, 
 the moon mu>t be vertical to the auti[)odes of that place: so th.at 
 the sun will be then visible to one-half of the earth, and the moon 
 to the other. Find the place to which the sun is vertical at the 
 given hour (by Prob. XIS'.) and bring the antipodes of that place 
 to the meridian, and elevate the pole to its latitude: then, the 
 moon will be visible to all those p,irts of the globe which are 
 above the horizon, at the t':nu' of her greatest obscuration. 
 
 Prob. XVI. To reelifi the globe for the latitude, the zenitli, 
 and tilt suit's place. — Find the latitude of the place (by Prob. I.), 
 and if the place be in the northern hemisphere, raise the norih 
 pole above the north point of the horizon, as many degrees (count- 
 ed from the pole upon the brazen meridian) as are equal to the Li- 
 titude of the place. If tlie place be in the southern hemisphere, 
 raise the south pole above the south point of the horizon as many 
 degrees as are e(|ual to the latitude. 'I'lien, turn the globe till the 
 place comes under its latitude on the brazen meridian, and fasten 
 the ipradrant of altitude so, that the chamfere'^ edge of its nut 
 (which is even wiih the graduated edge) may be joined to the ze- 
 nith, or point of latitude. This done, Ijring the sun's place in the 
 ecliptic for tiie given day (found by Prob. X.i to the gra<luated 
 side of the brazen meridian, and set the hour-index to XII. at 
 noon, which is the uppermost XII. on the hour-circle; and the 
 globe will be rectilied. 
 
 Prob. XVII. The latitude of any place, not exceeding t^()-i% 
 degrees, and the day of the month, being given ; to find the lime 
 of the sun's rising and setting, and conseijiientli/ the length of the 
 tiiy and night. — Having rectilied the globe for the latitude, and 
 
 VOL. II. — KO. 94. 
 
 lor the sun's place on the given day (as diiected in l!ie |)reced:ii5 
 problem), bring the sun's place in the ecliptic to the eastern side 
 <if the horizon, and the hour-index will s-hew the time of sui)- 
 ri-ving; then turn the globe o i its axis, until the sun's place conies 
 to the western side of the horizon, and the index will shew Ihr 
 time of sun-setting. The hour of siin-setting doubled, gives lie 
 length of the d:n- ; and the hour of sun-rising doubled, jjtvc.^ the 
 length of the night. 
 
 Pkob. XV Hi. The latitude of any place, and the day of the 
 month, being given ; to find v.lien the morning tv.ilight begins, 
 and the evening tivilight ends, at that place. — ^Tl.is problem is 
 olten limited : for, when the sun does not go IS degrees belo\» 
 the horizon, thi- twilight continues the whole night ; and for seve- 
 ral nights together in summer, between 4<j and titijS^ degrees of 
 latituile ; and the nearer to Wii- j, the greater is the number of these 
 nights. But when it does begin and end, the following method 
 will shew the time for any given day. Rectify llie globe, ami 
 bring the sun's |)hice in the ecliptic to the ea';tern side of the hori- 
 zon ; then mark with chalk tli.it point of the ecli[>tic which is in 
 tlie western side of the horizon, it being the point op]>osite to the 
 sun's place ; this done, lay the quadrant of altitude nver the said 
 point, and turn the globe eastward, keeping the (piadrant at the 
 chalk-mark, until it is just' IS degrees high on the quadrant ; anii 
 the index will point out the time when tlie moiiiing-lwilight be- 
 sins: for the sun's place will then be 18 degrees below the ea^teru 
 side of the horizon. To find the time when the cvi-niiig-twilight 
 ends, bring the sun's place to the western side of the horizon ; 
 and tlie point opposite to it, which was marked with the chalk, 
 will be rising in the east : then bring the quadrant over that point, 
 and keeping it thereon, turn the globe westward, until the said 
 point be IS degrees above the horizon on the quadrant, and tin: 
 index will shew the time when the evening twilight end> ; the 
 -un's place being then IS degrees below the western side of the 
 horieon. 
 
 Prob. XIX. To find on lehat day of the i/ear the sun begins 
 to shine conslantli/, on any given place in the north Jrtgid 
 zone ; and hozv long he continues to d" so. — llectify the globe 
 to the latitude of the place, and turn it about until some point of 
 the ecliptic, between Aries and Cancer, coincides with the north 
 point of the horizon where tlie brazen meridian cuts it; then find, 
 on the wooden horizon, what day of the year the sun is in that 
 point of the ecliptic ; for that is the day on which the sun begins 
 to shine constantly on the given place without setting. This done, 
 turn the globe, until some point of the ecliptic, between Cancer 
 and Libra, coincides with the north point of the horizon, where 
 the brazen meridian cuts it ; and find, on the wooden horizon, on 
 what day the sun is in that point of the ecliptic ; which is the day 
 that the sun leaves oil' constantly >liining on the said place, anil 
 rises and sets to it as to other places on the globe. The number 
 of natural days, or complete revolutions of the sun about the earth, 
 between the two days above found, is the time that the sun keejis 
 constantly above the horizon without setting ; for all that portion 
 of the ecliptic, which lies between the two points which inter:)ect 
 the horizon in the very north, never sets below it ; and there i> 
 just as much of the opposite part of the ecliptic that never rises; 
 therefore the sun will kee|) as long constantly below the horizon iu 
 winter as above it in summer. 
 
 Prob. XX. To find in v.hat latitude the sun shines con- 
 sliintlij, for ant/ length of time lest than \>i2^ of our da>/s and 
 nights. — Find a point in the ecliptic half as many degr^v•.^ from 
 the beginnins; of Cancer (either toward Aries or f.ibra) as there 
 are natural days in the time given ; and bring that point to the 
 north side of the brazen meridian, on which tlie degrees are num- 
 bered from the pole towards the equator ; then keep the globe 
 from turning on its axis, ami slide the meridian up or down, until 
 the foresaid point of the ecli|>tic comes to the north point of the 
 horizon, and then the elevation of the pole will be etpial to the la- 
 titude required. 
 
 Prob. .'*CXI. The latitude of u place, not exceeding Gfi^- de~ 
 grns, and the day of the month, btiiig given; to find the .s-»n".? 
 amplitude or point of the compass, on xihich he rises or sets. — 
 Rectify the globe," and bring the >nn's place to the eastern side of 
 the horizon ; then observe what point of the compass on the hori- 
 zon stands right against the sun's place, for that is his amplitude 
 at rising. 'I his done, turn llie globe west\vard, until the sun's 
 7 1 place
 
 585 
 
 GEOGRAPim 
 
 ■pUici- comes to the wcslcrn s'ule of tlic horizon, :imi it will cut the 
 |)Liiiit of his imipUtuilL- at si-tting. Or, yuu may count llie lisiiig- 
 ampliliule in degrees, Ironi tlie cast point of the horizon to that 
 poiiit where the sun's place cuts it; and the setting-amplitndc 
 from the west point of the horizon to the sun's place at set- 
 ling. 
 
 i'KOB. XXII. The latitude, iJic siiri's place, and his altitude, 
 being given; to find tlit- liour of iht day, and the sun's azi- 
 rviuth, or number oj degrees that he is distant from the mc-i- 
 Aiun. — Uectify the globe, and bring the sun's place to the given 
 height upon the quadrai t of altitude; on the eastern side ot tlie 
 2)ori.ion, if tlie time be in the forenoon ; or the western side, if it 
 be in the afternoon: then the index will shew the hour; and the 
 jinmber of degrees ill the horizon, intercepted between the qua- 
 <lrant of altitude and the south point, will be the sun's true azi- 
 niutii at the lime. 
 
 Tkob. XXIII. The latitude, hour of the day, and the sun's 
 .place, being given ; to find the sun's altitude and azimuth.— 
 ilcctify the globe, and turn it until the index points to the given 
 hour ; then lay the quadrant of altitu.le over the sun's |)lace in the 
 ecliptic, and the degree of the quadr.;nt cut by the sun's place is 
 his altitude at that time above the horizon ; a[id tlie degree of the 
 ]iori/on cut by the quadrant is the sun's azimuth, reckoned from 
 *he S. 
 
 Prob, XXIV. Tlie latitude, the sun's altitude, and Ids azi- 
 muth, being gi-^en ; to find liis place in the ecliptic, the dai/ of 
 the month, and the hour of the day, though they had all been 
 /o«i. — Rectify the globe for the latituile and zenith, and set the 
 quadrant of altitude to the given azimuth in the horizon ; keeping 
 it there, turn the globe on "its axis until tlie ecliptic cuts the qua- 
 drant in the given altitude : that point of the ecliptic which cuts 
 the (juadrant there will be the sun's place; and the day of the 
 month answering thereto will be found over the like place of the 
 srui on the wooden horizon. Keep the quadrant of altituJe in 
 that position ; and, having brought the sun's place to the brazen 
 rneridian, and the hour-index to XII. at noon, turn back the 
 -globe, until the sun's phce cuts the (juadrant of altitude again, and 
 the index will shew the hour. Any two points of the ecliptic, 
 ^'hich are equi-distant from the beginning of Cancer or, of Capri- 
 corn, will have the same altitude and, azimuth at the same hour, 
 though tl-.e months be different; and therefore it requires some 
 care in this problem, not to mistake both the month and the day 
 of the month ; to avoid which, observe, tiiat from the 20th of 
 March'to the 21st of June, that part of the ecliptic which is be- 
 tween the beginning of Aries and the beginning of Cancer is to 
 be Used ; from the 2 1st of June to the 23d of September, between 
 the beginning of Cancer and beginning of Libra; from the 23d 
 of September to the 2 1st of December, bdween the beginning of 
 Libra and the beginning of Capricorn ; and from the 2ist of De- 
 cember to the 20th of March, between the begiiming of Capri- 
 rorn and beginning of Aries. And as one can never be at a loss 
 to know in what quarter of the year he takes the sun's altitude 
 and azimuth, the above caution with regard to tlie quarters 
 of the ecliptic will keep him right as to the month and day 
 thereof. '' 
 
 I'rob. XXV. To find the length of the longest duy at any 
 given place.— ]{{\)c place be on the N. side of iUe equator, find 
 its latitude (by Prob. I.) and elevate the- north pole to that lati- 
 tude ; then bring the beginning of Cancer to the b,-azen meridian, 
 and set the hour-index to Xll. at noon. But if liic giv,j; place 
 be on the S. side of the eijuator, elevate tiie south po!u to its lali- 
 tude, and bring the he'^inning of Capricorn to the brass meridian, 
 and the hour-index to XII. 'J'his done, turn the globe westward, 
 until the beginning of Cancer or Capricorn (as tlie latitude is N. 
 or S.) conies to the horizon ; and the index will then point out 
 the time of sun-setting, for it will have gone over all the afternoon- 
 liours, between mid-day and sun-set ; which length of time being 
 doubled, will ^ive the whole length of tlie dav from sun-rising to 
 sun-setting. For, in all latitudes, the sun rises as long before mid- 
 day as he sets after it. 
 
 PkC'B. XXVI. — To find in zvhal latitude the longest d/n/ is of 
 tiny given length less than 9A hours.— If tlie latitutle be N". bring 
 the beginning of Cancer to the brazen mcri<lian, and elevate the 
 north pole to 66/- degrees; but if the latitude be S. bring the 
 beginning of Capricorn to the meridian, and elevate the south pole 
 fo^tW-,.*^ degrees; because the longest day in N. latitude is. 
 
 when the sun is in the lirst point of C'ancer; and in S. latitude, 
 when he is in the fir^t jioiiit of Capricorn. I'lien set llie hour-in- 
 dex to Xll at noon, and turn the globe westward, until the index 
 points at half the number of hours given; which done, keeptiie 
 glolie from turning on its axis, and sli<le the meridian down in the 
 notches, until the aforesaid point of the ecliptic (viz. Cancer or 
 Capricorn) conies to the horizon ; then the elevation of the pole will 
 be equal to the latitude recpiired. 
 
 Pi'.ou. XXVII. — The Ltitude of any place, not exceeding 66,^ 
 degrees, being given ; to find in xvhiil cliinate the place ?*.-— Kina 
 the length ol the longest day at the given jdace, (liy Prob. XX\'.) 
 and whatever be the number of hours whereby it exceedeth twelve, 
 double that number, and the sum will give the climate in which the 
 place is. 
 
 Prob. XXVIIT. — The latitude, and the day of the rnonth, being 
 given ; to find the hour of the day, v,hcn the sun shines. — Set the 
 wooden horizon truly level, and the brazen nn^ridian due N. and 
 S. by a_ mariner's compass; then, having rectilied the globe, stick 
 a small sewing needle into the sun's place in the ecliptic, perpen- 
 dicular to that part of the surface of tlie globe; this done, turn the 
 globe on its axis, until the needle comes to the brazen meridian, 
 and set the hour-index to Xll at noon ; then turn the globe on its 
 axis, until the needle points exactly towards the sun, and the index 
 will shew the hour. 
 
 Directions for using the Celestial Globe. 
 
 The celestial globe is of admirable use for exhibiting the celestial 
 properties of places : we shall therefore now proceed to the use of 
 this globe, premising, that as the equator, ecliptic, tropics, polav 
 circles, horizon, and brazen meridian, are exactly alike on both 
 globes, all the former problems concerning the sun are solved in 
 the same way, ^Ihe method alsoof rectifying the globe is the same. 
 N. B. The sun's place for any day of the year stands directly ovef 
 that day on tlie horizon of the celestial ghibe, as on the terrestrial. 
 The latitude and longitude of the stars, and of all other celestial 
 pluenomena, are reckoned differently from that of places on the 
 earth: for ail terrestrial l.ititudcs are reckoned from the equator; 
 and longitudes from the meridian of some remarkable place ; but all 
 astronomers reckon the kilitndes of the heavenly bodies from the 
 ecliptic ;. and their longitudes from the equinoctial colure, in that 
 semicircle of it which cuts the eclijitic at the beginning of Aries ; 
 and thence eastward, quite round ; so that stars between the equi- 
 noctial and the northern hah' of the eclijitic, have north declination 
 and south latitude; those, between the equinoctial and the southern 
 half of the ecliptic have south declination and north latitude; and 
 all between thetropies and poles, have declinations and latitudes of 
 the same denomination. Tnere are six great circles on the celes- 
 tial globe, which cut the ecliptic perpendicularly, and meet in two 
 opposite points in the polar circles; which points are each ninety 
 degrees from the ecliptic, and are called its poles. These polar 
 points divide those circles into 12 semicircles; which cut the eclip- 
 tic at the beginning of the twelve signs. They resemble so many 
 meridians on the terrestrial globe ; and as all places w Inch lie under 
 any particular meridian-semicircle on that globe have the same" 
 longitude; so all those points of the lieaven, through which any of 
 the above semicircles are drawn, have tlie same longitude. And as 
 the greatest latitudes on the earth are at the norlli and south poles of 
 the earth, so the greatest latitudes in the heavens are atilie north and 
 south poles of the ecliplic. I'Vr the division of the stars into constella- 
 tions, &c. See Astronomy. 
 
 Prob. I. — To find the right ascension and declination of the 
 sun, or aniifuxed star. — Bring the sun's place in the ecliptic to the 
 brazen meridian: then that degree in the equinoctial wliich is cut 
 by the meridian, is the sun's right ascension ; and that degree of 
 the meridian which is over the sun's place is his declination. Bring 
 any ilxed star to the meridian, and its right ascension will be cutby 
 the meridian in the equinoctial ; and the degree of the meridian 
 that stands over it is its ileclination. So that right ascension and 
 declination, on the celestial globe, are found in the same niaiihcr as 
 longitude ami latitude on (he terrestrial. 
 
 Prob. II. — To find the bitilude andlo.igitudc of any star. — If 
 the given star be on the north side of the ec'.iptic, place the DOth 
 degree of the quadrant of altitude on the north pole of the ecliptic, 
 whi-rethe 12 semicircles meet, which divide ihe ecliptic into tlie la 
 signs; but if the star be on the S. side of ;!ie ecliptic, place the 
 90lh degree ojthequailranton the south pole of the ecliptic: keep- 
 ing
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 5n3 
 
 ing the 90tti dciiii'f <4' llic tiiiai'.ranl on tlic propor pult', (iini the 
 tliiailr;int about, until its gradiiattil edge tuH tliesfar: tlitiitlic 
 inin;ber of dfgri-ts in the (Hiadrant, between tlie ecliptic and tlic 
 star, is its lalitiitic; and the decree of the ecliplio cut b_\ llie c[iiad- 
 raiit, is the ytui's longitude, Itekuiied according to liic sign in 
 which the cuiadranl llien is. 
 
 Prob. 111. — To r! present the face rf the xlaiT;/ ./iniwmeiit, iii 
 scenfroin luii/ given place of the eurih, at anil hour of the night. — 
 Keel ifv the celestial globe for the givi-n latitude, the /enith, and 
 sun's place in every re^pelt, as t:'.uglit by tlio X\ Illi prolilein for 
 terrestrial ; and turn it . bunt, until the index points to the given 
 hour; then the upper liend-pheri- ol tl'.e globe will reprisent tlie 
 visible halt of the heaven for that time ; all iiie stars upon llie globe 
 being then in such situations as exactly correspond to lho«e in the 
 licaveii. And if the olobe be placed duly ucrlh and south, every 
 star in the globe will point toward the like star in the heaven: by 
 which means the cousleilations and remarkable stars may be easily 
 known ; all those slai's under the nppei part of the brazen meridi- 
 an, between the south point r.f the horizon and the north pole, are 
 at their greatest altitude, if the latitude of liie place be N. but if 
 the latitude be S. those stars w hich lie tinder the upper part of the 
 meridian, between the norlli point of the horizon and the south 
 pole, are at their greatot altitude. 
 
 Pkcb. IV. — The latitude of the pletce, and day of the month, 
 being given ; to find the time xi-hen unij Icnozvn star ziill rise, or be 
 upon the meridian, or set. — Having rectilied the globe, turn it 
 about until the given star comes to the eastern side of the horizon, 
 and the index will shew the time of the star's rising; then turn the 
 globe westward, and when the star comes to the brazen meriilian, 
 the index will shew the time of the star's coming to the meridian of 
 jour place; lastly, turn on, until the star comes to the western 
 side of the horizon, and the index will shew the time of the star's 
 setting. N. L>. In northern latitudes, those stars which are less 
 distant from the north pole than the <|uantity of its elevation above 
 the north point of the horizon never set ; and those which are less 
 distant from the south pole than the number of degrees by which it 
 is depressed below the horizon never rise: and vice versa in south- 
 ern latitudes. 
 
 Prob. \. — To find ut what time of the year a given star zeill 
 be upon the meridian at a given hour of the night. — llring the 
 given star to the upper semicir< le of the brass meridian, and set 
 the index to the given hour; thi n turn the globe, until the index 
 points to Xll at noon, and the upjier seniicirde of the meridian 
 will then cut the sun's place, answering to the d;iy of the year 
 sought ; which day may be easily found against the like place of the 
 sun among tlie signs on tlie wooden horizon. 
 
 Prob. VI. Thelatitudt,dayoftlie montlt,undazimul]tofami 
 inoiai star, being given; to find the hour (f tlie night. — Having 
 rectihed the globe lor the latitude, zenith, and sun's place, lay the 
 ([uadrant of altitude to the given degree of azimuth in the horizon : 
 then turn the globe on its axis, until the star comes to the gradua- 
 ted edge of theciuadiant; and when it does, the inde.x will point 
 out tlic hour of the night. 
 
 Pr'jB. VII. — The latitude of the place, the day of the month, 
 and altitude of any lino-.in star, being given ; to find the hour of 
 the night. — Rectify the globe as in the tornier problem, guess at 
 the hour of the night, and turn the globe until the index points at 
 the supposed hour; then lay the graduated edge of the quadrant of 
 altitude over the known star ; and if the degree of the star's height 
 in the quadrant upon ti\e ^lobe answers exactly to the degree of the 
 star's observed altitude in the heaven, you have guessed exactly,; 
 but if the star on the globe is higher or lower than it was observed 
 to be in the heaven, turn the globe backwards or lorwaids, keeping 
 the edge of the qiiadr-nt upon t!ie star, until its centre conies to 
 the observed altitude in the quadrant; and then the index will shew 
 the true time of the night. 
 
 Piton. Vlll. — Jn easy method for finding the hour of the night 
 hy any tvjo .InoicH stars, niliiout kno-j;ing either th'.ir altitude or 
 atiniiiih; and then of finding both their uttiiude and azimuth, and 
 thereby the true meridian. — Pic one .iid of a thread to a conn\;on 
 musket-bullet ; and having rectilied die globe uS above, hold the 
 other end of the tl.read in your h.and, and carry it slowly round 
 betwixt your eye and the starry heaven, until you fin<i u c^lt^ any 
 two kiiowj] stars at once. Then guessing at the hour o( tlie n;ghi, 
 turn thf globe until tin: index points to tli^t time in the hour-vi'cle; 
 which done, lay the graduated ed^e.of tlie quadruu over any one 
 
 of thesetwo stars on the globe which the thread cuts in the heaven. 
 If tlie said edge of the (piadrant cuts the other star also, you have 
 guessed the time exactly ; but if it does not, turn the glotie slowly 
 backwards or forwards, until the tpiadrant (kept upon either star) 
 cuts them both through their centres: aiirl then tne index will point 
 out the exact time of the niglit ; the degree of the horizon cut by 
 the (|uadraiit will be the true azimuth oi both these stars from the 
 south; and the stars themselves will cut their true altitudes in the 
 quadrant. At which moment, if a common azimuth-compass be so 
 set upon a floor or level pavement, th;it these stars in heaven may 
 have the same be:\rini;» upon it (allowing for the variation of the 
 needle) as llie quadrant of altitude basin llie wooden horizon of the 
 globe, a thread extendicl over the north and south points ol that 
 compass will be directly in the plane of the meridian ; and if a line 
 be drawn upon the lloor or pavement, along the course of tlie 
 tliread, and an upright wire be placed in the southmost end of the 
 line, the shadow of the wire will tall upon that line, when the sun is 
 on the meridian, and shines upon tlie pavement. 
 
 Prob. I X. — To find the place of the moon, or of any planet ; and 
 therein/ to sheiv tlic time of its rising, southing, and setting. — Seek 
 in an almanack or ephemeris the geocentric place of the moon or 
 planet in the ecliptic, for the given day of the month ; and accord- 
 ing to its longitiule and latitude, as shew n by the ephemeris, mark 
 the same with chalk upon the globe. Then, having rectilied the 
 globe, turn it round its axis westward ; and as the said mark comes 
 io the eastern side of the horizon, to the brazen meridian, and to 
 the western side of the horizon, the index will shew at what time 
 the planet rises, comes to the meridian, and sets, in the same man- 
 ner as it would do for a iixed star. 
 
 The most esteemed globes are those of Mr. Jones, mathe- 
 matical instrument-maker, Holborn, who moniiti them so as to 
 retain the principal improvements which have been made by the 
 diirerent authors, who have applied to this -iubject. 
 
 Most of the above problems may also be performed by accurate 
 maps ; but this reipiires a great deal of calculation, which is oiten 
 very troublesome. The Analemma, or Orthographic Projection, 
 delineated on Plate LXXXI, tig. 3, will solve many of the most 
 curious; and with the assistance of the maps will be almost equi- 
 valent to a terrestrial globe. The parallel lines drawn on this fi- 
 gure represent the degrees of t)ie sun's declination from the equa 
 tor, whether N. or S. amounting to 23i- nearly. On tliese lines 
 are marked the months and days which correspond to such decli. 
 nations. The size of the tigure' does not admit of having every 
 day of the year inserted ; but by making allowance forthe interme- 
 diate daysj in proportion to' the rest, the declination may be 
 suessed at with tolerable exactness. The elliptical lines are de- 
 siuned to shew the hours of sun-rising or sun-setting, before or 
 alter six o'clock. As f') minutes make an hour of time, a fourth 
 part of the space between -fath of the hour-lines will reiirescnt 13 
 niinutes ; which the eye caVi readily guess at, and which is as great 
 exactness as can be expected from any mechanical invention, or 
 as is necessary to answer any common purpose. The circles drawn 
 round the centre at the distance of 11'^ each, shew the point of the 
 compass on which the sun rises and sets, and on what point the 
 twilight begins and ends. Xo make use of this analemim, it is 
 only necessary to consider, that, when the latitude of the place 
 am! the sun's 'declination are both nortli or both south, the si;n 
 rises before six o'llock, between the east and the elevated pole; 
 that is, towards the north, if the latitude and declination are north ; 
 or towards the south, if tlie latitude and declination are south. 
 Let us now suppose it is required to lind the time of the sun's 
 rising and setting, the length of the days and nights, the tmie when 
 the twilight begins and ends, and w Iial point of die hcnzon the 
 sun rises and sets on, tor the Lizard point in England, Fiankfort 
 in Germany, or Al-.hcvillc in France, on the 30th ot Aprih The 
 laliturle of these places by the maps will be found nearly JU' north. 
 Place a scale or moveable index trom the cenlie, so that its point 
 may touch 50" on the quadrant of i.ortli iatiluile in the hguic ; 
 then observe where its edge cuts tlie parallel line on which April 
 3Uin is wrote. I- rom this rec kon the hour-lines towards the cen- 
 tre, and you will lind that the parallel line is cut by the inde.x 
 nearly at the di.tance of onehcurand 15 minutes. So the sun 
 rises :'it one hour Ij minutes before <ix, or 45 minutes after four in 
 the morning, and sets 15 minutes alter s< ven in t'.;e evening. The 
 length el the day is l4 hours 30 minutes. Observe how far the 
 i nterseclious ol'tlie edge ot the uidex with the parallel of April 
 
 3Cth
 
 584 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 30th is distant from any oftlie concentric circles ; which yon will 
 timl to be a HHIl- lir-vond that niarkcil two points of the compass; 
 Huil this shews, that on the oHlh of April the snii rises two points 
 and somewhat more from the ea>t towards the north, or a litlle to 
 tlie northward of K. N. E. and sets a little to the northward of 
 Vi'. N. W. To (ind the beginning and ending of twilight, take 
 from the graduated arch of the circle 18 degrees vith a ))air of 
 Compasses ; move one foot of the compasses extended to this dis- 
 tance aloiig the parallel for the 30th of April, till the other just 
 touches the edge of the index, which nnist still (xiintat JO. The 
 place where the other foot rests on the parallel of April .TOth then 
 denotes the iiuiuher of hours before si\ at which the twilight be- 
 
 gins. This is somewhat more than tliree hours and an half; which 
 shews, tliat tlie twilight then begins soon after two in the morning, 
 and liki'wise tliat it begins to appear near five points from the east 
 towards the north. The uses of this analeniina may be varied in 
 a great number of ways; but the example just now given will be 
 ' BuHitient for the ingenious rer.der. 'i'he small circles on the same 
 plate, marked Island, Promontory, &c. are added, to render the 
 maps more intelligible, by shewing how the ditVercnt subjects are 
 commonly delineated on them. If an analemma of this kind be 
 accurately drawn from a large scale, it will he fotnul very Uicfnl 
 and instructive. 
 
 GEOLOGY. 
 
 GEOLOGY, [yre and x»y®','] the science which treats on the 
 formation and structure of the earth. This science is crouded 
 with diliiculties ; the locality of our situation, the short period al- 
 lotted us lor investigations, tlie very small depth, tu whi( h we can 
 penetrate below the earth's snrlace, and the cojitracted extent of 
 excavations which can be made by art, render om- knowledge of 
 the formation and structure of the earth, very dehcient and con- 
 tracted. Hence have arisen widely varving theories of the earth, 
 eome of which, though framed bv philosophers, are more wild and 
 fanciiul than the visionary scenes of the poets. However we lind 
 some rational intelligence in the " Elements of Geognosy," by 
 Professor Jameson, who places in a beautiful view the system of 
 the celebrated Werner. We shall select a few observations from 
 this treatise, and refer to the work itself for fuller inforniatioii. 
 " When we examine the surface of tlie globe particularly, a cer- 
 tain locality of its inequalities is to be observed. Thus the most 
 considerable ineipialities, those, namely, which present the most 
 frecpient and the deepest sections and lissures, are always found in 
 the more elevated regions; while in the lower places, we observe 
 very few, and by no means special elevations and depressions. 
 Ve further observe, that the masses of which the higher and lower 
 parts of the earth are composed, are by no means of the same na- 
 ture ; elevated, rugged, and very uneven places, are mostly com- 
 posed ot rocky masses, w hich present to the eye rough, bare, fissur- 
 ed clilTs, mural precipices, and even entire rocky valleys. On 
 the other haml, in the lower parts of the earth, we fnid in general 
 earthy masses, as clay, loam, sand, and rolled stones ; but neither 
 clifl's, uor rocky valleys ; and only single blocks of the materials 
 of the more elevated places. The rocks of which the elevated 
 parts of the earth are composed, are also ditferent, according to 
 their local situation. Thus the most^elevaled parts are principally 
 composed of fossils belonging to the flint, clay, and talc genera', 
 as <juartz, felspar, mica, ancl chlorite, and these are usually crvs- 
 tallized. The elevations, which are somewhat lower, or those 
 of middle height, are composed of clayey fossils. The calcareous 
 genus here makes its appearance in considerable (piantitv, and in- 
 creases very much ; so that at length, in the form of g\ psum and 
 limestone, it forms the prevalent substance in the lower rocky 
 places. Even in still lower places, we meet with formations of 
 flinty fossils, derived from rocks that compose the higher parts of 
 the globe, as sand-stone. The sand and gravel which occur in 
 still lower situations, are nearly allied to the last-mentioned rocks. 
 There is still another general and verv interesting observation to be 
 made, namely, that the remains of organic beings, more or less 
 changed (what are denominated petrifactions,) are found imbed- 
 ded in these rocks. These remarkable bodies are generally found 
 in the middle and lower heights of the earth. In the middle heights 
 they are still very rare ; but they increase in variety and number as 
 we approach the lower places, and are at length accumulated in 
 innnense cpiautities in the lowest parts. We also observe that the 
 o.-g.init; remains found iu the middle heights are totally changed 
 
 into stone, but the more we descend into the lower pl.tccs, thr 
 more these bodies appear unaltered, or approach to their original 
 stale. It is also observed, that the higher places alVord dilierent 
 genera and species of |)etrifaclions from those found in the lower; 
 and although we are able to shew the originals of many of those 
 bodies, which are found in the lower places, as proofs of their 
 origin, there occur iu the middle heiglus some whose originals we 
 are ignorant of. Lastly, we may remark, that in all the situations 
 already mentioned, that is, from the niitldle to the lowest height, 
 but particularly in the latter, there are some rocks, in which ft-w 
 or no traces of such bodies have ever been found ; although fi um 
 the local situation of the rocks, we miulit readily exjject to find 
 petrifactions in them, as in other rocks of the sanie relative height. 
 Uhen we examine the surface of the earth more particularly, we 
 lind that the special ine<pialities are included in othei-s more ge- 
 neral ; that these general inequalities are again contained in others 
 still more general ; and that at length the whole are included in 
 the most general. Those inequalities may be divided into live 
 clashes or degrees. The first contains the most general inequali- 
 ties ; these are the bottom of the sea and the dry land. The se- 
 cond comprehends what may be termed low country, and high 
 country. The third, which is more special, comprehends nicun- 
 tain-gronps. The fourth, which is still more particular, compre- 
 heinis mountain-chains and valleys. The fifth and last, which is 
 most special, comprehends single mountains, and the ravines or 
 valleys between them, ^^'e have thus a most beautiful series from 
 the single mountain and the ravine, to the great fabric of the liigh 
 country, and still further to the most genei-al division of the iiie- 
 (pialities of the cartli's surface, the dry land and the bottom of 
 the sea." According to the system of Werner, the earth is sup- 
 posed to have existed originally in a lluid slate, which appears to 
 be evinced from the figure of the eartli, and from the substances 
 composing the diffen'nt rocks and mountains, as well as from their 
 fornrations. I''rom a very attentive considrratiou, and close in- 
 vestigation of this suliject, which is evidenced every wliere in his 
 work, he has determined the order of the different formations as 
 follows: 
 
 1. Class. Primitive lioclcs. l!y the earliest separ.ations from 
 the chaotic mass, which are discovered in the crust of the globe, 
 wasfornied a class of rocks, whith are therefore termed primitive 
 rocks, being chielly composed of silex, alumina, and magnesia, 
 constituting by th(;ir various intermixtures, 1. granite; 2. gneiss ; 
 3. mica-slate; 4. clay-slate; 5. primitive lime-stone; f>. primitive 
 trap; 7. si.'rpentine ; 8. porphyry; y. sienite ; 10. to|)az-rock ; 
 1 1. (juartz-rock ; 12. prinhlive tlinty-slatc ; 13. primitive gypsum; 
 14. while-Hone. The circumstances which chielly mark tile high 
 antiquity of these rocks are, that they form the fmulamental rock 
 of the otlirr classes; and that the oiUgoings of their strata are ge- 
 nerally higher than those of the other classes. Having been form- 
 ed in the uninhabitable state of the globe, they contain no petri- 
 factions; aiul, excepting tin; small portion which sometimes ac- 
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 jVU .'Vuull'Hllllil ,.<//. ii-wy //;/■ //>/«■ ol' Sun limhl iin,i xiiii .nlliii;!, 
 t/ti' ii-rti/fit tU' Ifii- /hits inul Xitiftls.S //it- priif/ I'f' //ii- Omjii-u- >'n »/it,-/i 
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 Sluts yWlh Si .'■■ JJ,-rA>itl/Jim^ . ^ • ''"!- -i . ..A. /" /y,,.
 
 I 
 
 i
 
 GEOMETRY. 
 
 .IB.") 
 
 corapaiiy lliose wliicii will be next nu-ntionccl, tlit-y coiitniii no 
 mc-cliaiiical depos)!*, hiil are througlieiit pure clicinical produc- 1 
 tiojis. Small portions of carboiiaceous maUer occur only in the 
 newer members of the class. 
 
 II. Cl.\ss. Trun.iition f{oc.l:s. On the appearance oflam!, or 
 during the transition of the earth from its chaotic to its habitable 
 state, rocks which, from this circumstance, are denonlinated tran- 
 sition-rocks, were fomied. In the-ie rocks the first sliglit traces of 
 petrifactions, and of mechanical depositions, are to be found. 
 The species of rocks whidi come under this class are the transition 
 lime-stone, transition-trap, grey-wacke, and (linty-slate. 1"he pe- 
 trifactions are corallites, encrimles, pentacrinite^ enlrorhid-;, and 
 trochites. The lime-stone of Derbyshire is said in be of this kind. 
 As the former class of rocks were |)urely of chemical formation, 
 so the contents of these are chieily chem'ical jiroductions, mingled I 
 with a small proportion of mechanical depositions. To exphiin 
 the cause of this mixture, we are referred to the period of their 
 formation, that at which the summits of the primitive moimtains 
 just appeared above the waters, when, by the attrition excited by 
 the motion of the waves, and which we are reminded extends to 
 uo great depth, particles of the original mountains were worn off 
 and deposited. 
 
 III. Class, riatz Rocks. As the height of the level of the 
 ocean diminished, so would the surface on which its waves acted 
 increase, and of course the quantity of the mechanical depositions. 
 Hence these are much more abundant in the rocks of the next for- 
 mation, which are denominated flatz rocks, on account of their 
 being generally disposed in horizontal or flat strata. In these, pe- 
 trifactions are very abundantly found, having been formed whilst 
 vegetables and animals existed in great numbers. These rocks 
 are generally of very wide extent, and commonly placed at the 
 feet of i)riraitive mountains. They are seldom of very great 
 height, from whence it may be inferred, that the water had con- 
 siderably subsided at the time of their formation, and did not 
 tlien cover tlie wliwlc face ot tne euun. Cuvmtnca c;on,po,o<l of 
 these rocks are not so rugged in their appearance, nor so marked 
 by rapid inequalities, as those in which the primitive and Iransi- 
 tion-rocks prevail. The formations of this class are supposed to 
 be, 1 . first or old red sand-stone; 2. first or oldest floetz lime- 
 stone ; 3. first or oldest flcetz gypsum ; 4. second or variegated 
 sand-stone; 5. second floetz gypsum; fi. second fia'tz or shell 
 lime-stone; 7. third tkutz sand-stone ; 8. Rock-salt formation ; 9. 
 chalk-tormation ; 10. flat/.-trap formation ; 11. independent coal- 
 formation; 12. newest fitttz-trap formation. Most of the rocks 
 which have been just enumerated are covered by the formations 
 
 w hich is named the newi-st floetz (rap. This formation aljo cover" 
 many of the high primitive niounialus : it has but little continuity, 
 but is very widely distributed. It contains coiniderable quanti- 
 ties of mechanical deposits, such as clay, sand, and giavel. The 
 remains both ol vegetables and animals also occur vcTy alniiid.;ntlv 
 in these deposits. Heaps of trees and of parts of pianis, and art 
 abundance of shells and other marine productions, with the horns- 
 of stags, and great beds of bituminous fossils, point out the lateness 
 of the period when this formation was deposited. In this forma- 
 tion several rocks occur which are also met with in oll-.er floctz- 
 formations ; but the following are su])poscd to he peculiar to this 
 class, basalt, wacke, grey-st<ine, porphyry slateandtrap tiilf. Thesr 
 rocks are said to have been formed during the settling of the water 
 conscinient to a vast aeluge, which is supposi d to have taken pliicr 
 when the surface of the earth was covered w ith animals and vege- 
 tables, and when much di-y land existed Krom varitju-. appear- 
 ances observed in these rocks it is concluded, that the wall is, in 
 which they were formed, ha<l risen with great rapidity, and had 
 afterwards settled into a slate of consideral)h- calmness. 
 
 IV. Class. ALluvial Hocks. The collections and deposits de- 
 rived from the materials of pre-existing masses, worn down by the 
 powerful agency of air and water, and afterwards deposited on the 
 land or ou the sea-coasts, are termed alluvial, and are, of course, 
 of much later forma'ion than any of the preceding classes. These 
 deposits may be divided into, 1. Those which are formed iu 
 mounldiuous countries, and are found in vallies, being conqiosed 
 of rolled masses, gravel, sand, and sometimes loam, Iragments of 
 ores, and dilTerenl kinds of precious stones. 2. Those w hich occur 
 in low and flat countries, being peat, sand, loam, bog iron-ore, 
 nageltiecli, calc-tufl'and calc-sinter : the three latter being belter 
 known by the names breccia, tufa, and stalactite. 
 
 \'. Class. Folcunic Rock.i. The abovementioued formation* 
 are called «fyM(z/ic, as being etTected principally iii aqueous solu- 
 tions, or by the agency of water. This class is termed igneous,, 
 '^'"••'"se it is effected by means of fire, and is the last in the ar- 
 rangement uecaus.- oi ;•.= „o„..c»5. I", this class are these sub- 
 stances, viz. 1. burnt-clay ; 2. porcelain-jasper; j. ..- ...i. ->..j, , , 
 columnar clay-iron stone ; 5. polishing slate ; 6. ejected stones, 
 and ashes ; 7.' different kinds of lava ; S. the matter of muddy 
 eruptions. The (\\e hr-t are called pseudo-volcanic rocks ; the 
 three last, true volcanic rocks. The reader who wishes to pursue 
 this subject, will find much profit and pleasure in the perusal of 
 Professor Jameson's Treatise on Geognosy which we have already 
 noticed. 
 
 GEOMANCY, or GEOMANTIA, is performed by means of 
 a number of little points, or dots, made on paper at random ; and 
 by forming from the various lines and figures which those points 
 present, a pretended judgment of futurity, upon any question ]jrn- 
 posed. The word is derived from the Greek, j-(«, earth, and i^nyhicc, 
 divination; it being the ancient cu^tom to cast little pebbles on 
 the earth, and thence to form their conjectures, instead of the 
 points iti'lerwards made use of 
 
 GF.OM ETHICAL CONSTRUCTION, or CONSTRUC- 
 TION OF EQUATIONS. See Algebra and Equation. 
 
 Geometrical Curves. See Algebra and CuRVts. 
 
 Geometrical Line. See Locus. 
 
 Geo.metrical Pace, a measure five feet long. 
 
 Geometrical Progression, a progrevsion in which the term* 
 have all succes->ively thesame ratio ; as, 1, 3, 4, 8, 16, &c. where 
 the common ratio is 2. See Algehra. 
 
 Geometrical Pkoportio.\ is the similitude or equality of ra- 
 tios, called aNo sinijily Proportion. See (Jeometry. 
 
 Geometrical Serifs. See Algebra. 
 
 CiKOMETRiCAL SoLWTiON' Is when a problem is resolved ac-- 
 cording to the stri<-t rules of geometry, and bv lines truly geo- 
 metrical. This expression is used iu contradistinction Itt an arith- 
 metical, instrumental, or mechanical solution. 
 
 GEOMIVI'UICUS Locus. See Locus. 
 
 GEOMETRY 
 
 GEOMETRY, [ym, the earth, and (hitchl, to measure,] ori- 1 
 
 ginally signified the art of measuring the ei'rth, or any distances | 
 
 or dimensions on or within it; but it is now used for the" science of : 
 
 quantity, extension, or magnitude, abstractedly considered, with- 1! 
 
 VOL. II. — NO. 95. '■ 
 
 out any regard to matter Geometry, together with arithmetic, 
 now forms the chief foundation of all" the mathematics. 
 History. 
 The invention of geometry is generally ascribed to the Egy )> 
 
 '' ^ lu'lMi.
 
 586 
 
 GEOMETRY. 
 
 tians. HerodoUis, Dioflorus, Strabo, and Protiii^, ail agree tliul 
 tiie aiinu; 1 inuinuitions ol the Nik gave rise to it, by carrying a- 
 way the land-marks and boinidarius of estaU-s and farms; and 
 covering the snrtace of tiie i^rcnnd witli mnd, wlncli etlaced every 
 trjc-e of tlieir former limits. Hence the Egyptians were oblige;! 
 every vearto distinguish and lay out their lands by the considera- 
 tion "ofthrir figure and quantity, that every person might have his 
 own property: and thus, by repeated experience and practice, in 
 dvaw.im tiiju're-, lines, and schemes, for this purpose, they gradually 
 formed an art whieh, from its origin, iiulie measuring of lands, the 
 Greeks at last named r.-iufxcraia. Geometry, from yyi Kir ym,, the land 
 or eartli, and ,hft3ov, a mea.-ure, from ^ast^-ku to measure ; lience the 
 Uonians called this science ^t r';/M,'r/«, the French g('/;«c/rif, &c. By 
 farther contenipUilion oltliedraiigiils of figures, tlieir wonderful pro- 
 perties were iner' and moretli^covered, and theart continually gamed 
 giouiul aud iii'j-rovi-d, by the discoveries of succeeding mathemat:- 
 eians. This appear; to be the most probable origin of this science ; 
 though,lo^ephusseemstoas(■ribe the invention to the lieliicws; while 
 others of the ancients make Mercury the inventor. Polyd. Virg. 
 de Inv. Rcr. 1. 1. c. \f,. Thak-,> i.said to have introduced this sci- 
 ence from Kgypt into Greece; where it was greatly cultivated and 
 improved by iiim-elf, as well as by Pythagoras, /Vftavagoras ol 
 Cla/oraene, 'Hippocrates of Cl'.ios, and Plato; who testilied his 
 conviction of the necc-sity and importance of Geometry to the 
 successful study of Pnilosophy, by uwcribbig over the door of his 
 Acadeniv, " Let no one ignorant of Geometry enter here." Plato 
 thmight the word Geonietry too mean a nanie for this science ; 
 and substituted instead of it"the more extensive name of Mensura- 
 tion ; and after h'ni others gave it the title of Pantonietry. But 
 even these are now lioci^nie too coiilined in their import, fully to 
 comp'rehend its extent; for it not only imiuires into, and, demon- 
 strates the quantities of magnitudes, but also their (|ualities, as the 
 species, ligures, ratios, positions, transformations, descriptions, di- 
 visions, the finding of their centres, diameters, tangents, asymptotes, 
 curvatures, &c. About 50 years after Pl.i o, Euclid collecte'l '"- 
 celherall those theorems. " i.i-w v,-a u^„ „.->,..tCTl oy his pre- 
 
 ^p,.^ :- "^gypt andi Greece, ana dii^estetl them into 15 books, 
 
 entitled "The Elements of Geomi'try:" denion>lrating and ar- 
 ranging the whole in a very accurate and perlect manner. The 
 next to Euclid, of those i.ncienl authors whose works are extant, is 
 Apolloniu^ Peigffus, wlio llourish'd in the reign of Ptolemy Eu- 
 efgi'tes, about B.C. i.'30, and 101) years after luiclul. I-fe \va-. 
 author ol the fii-st and principal work on Conic Sections; on ac- 
 count of which, and his other accurate and ingenious geometrical 
 works, he acquiretl from his patron the emphatical appellation ot 
 the Grcai Geometrician. The contemporary with Apolloiiius, or 
 perhaps a few years, before him, flourished Archimedes, celebrated 
 for his extraordinary mechanical inventions during the siege of 
 Syracuse, and no less so <'or his many ingenious geometrical com- 
 positions. Eudoxiis of Cnidus, Archtyas ofTarenlum, Philolaus, 
 Eratosthenes, Aristarchus of Sanios, Dinosfratus, t!ie inventor ot 
 t!ie qiiad.ratrix, Mfnerhmus hi- brother, and the disciple of Plato, 
 the two .'\rista'uses, Conon, Thracidius, Nicoteles, Leon, Theu- 
 dius, Hermotmuis, Hero, and Nicomedes, the inventor of the 
 conchoid; besides many other ancient geometricians, have contri- 
 buted to tlie improvement of geometry. The Greeks continued 
 their attention to it, even after th'y were subdued by the Romans; 
 whereas the Romans themselves were so little acc|uaiiited with it, 
 even in the most tlourishing time of their republic, that Tacitus 
 informs us they gave the name of mttthematicians to tho-e who 
 pirsucd the chimeriis of divination and judicial astrology. Nor'does 
 it appear they were disi)osed to cultivate geometry during tiie de- 
 cline, and afier the fall of the Roman empire. But thecase was 
 different with the (Jreeks; among whom arc found many excellent 
 geometricians since the coninuncement of the Ciirivtiau era, and 
 after the translation of the Roman empire. Ptolemy lived under 
 Marcus .-Vurelius; and we have still extant the works of Pappus of 
 Alexandria, who lived in the time of Theodosiu^ ; the commentary 
 of Eutocius, the Asealonite, who lived about A. D. 540, on Ar- 
 chimedes's mensuration of the circle; and the commentary on 
 Euclid, by Proclus, who lived under the empirir of Aua.^ta'.nis. 
 The consequent iiiundi^tion of ignorance and barbarism was un- 
 favourable to geometry, as well as to the other sciences; and the 
 lew who applied themselves to this science, were calumniated as 
 uiagicrios. However, in those times of Europeali darkness, the 
 
 Arabians win ;',i-t!ii'.;ui.4ied as the guurdiaus aiHi promoters of 
 science; and from the yth to the i4lhceiilur\, they produced 
 maii\ aslrcnomers, geometricians, geographers, iVc. ; froiu whom 
 the mathematical sciences were again received into Spain, Italy,' 
 and the rest of Europe, somewhat before the year 1400. Some of 
 the earliest writers after this period, are Leonardus Pisanus, Lucas 
 Pacclolusor De Burgo, and others between 1400 and 1500. And 
 after this appeared many editions of Euclid, or commentaries upon 
 him: thus, Orontius Fina'us, in 1530, published a commentary on 
 the lirst six books ; as did James Peletarius, in 1556; and about 
 the tame time Nicholas Tartaglia publi--lied a commentary on the 
 whole 15 books. There have bf en also the editions, or commen- 
 taries, o: Commaiidine. C'lavius, BiUingsly, Srheubelius, Uerlinus, 
 Dasypodius, Kaiiius, Hiuigon, Stevinus, Saville, Barrow, Tacquct, 
 Dechales, Kouriiier, Scarl>orough, Keill, Stone, and inany others; 
 b;it the completest edition ot all the works of Euclid, is that of' 
 Dr. (jregory, printed at Oxford in 1703, m Greckand Latin. The 
 edition of Euclid, by Dr. Robert Simson of Glasgow, containing 
 the first six books, with the 1 1th and 12th, is much esteemed for 
 its correctness. The principal other elementary writers, besides 
 the editors of Euclid, are Pardies, Marchctti, Wolf.us, Simpson, 
 ^c. And among those w ho have gone beyond Eiielal in the nature 
 of the elemental y parts of geometry, may be chiefly reckoned, 
 .\pollonius, in his Conies, his Loci Plani, De Sectione De- 
 termiiiata, his Tangencies, Inclinatons, Section of a Ratio, 
 Section of a Space, &e. ; Archimedes, in his treatises of the S|)here 
 and Cylinder, the Dimension of the Circle, of Conoids and Sphe- 
 roids, of Spirals, and the quadrature of the Parabola: Iheodosius, 
 in Ills Spherics, Serenius, in his Sections cf the Cone and Cylinder ; 
 kepi, r'i Nova Slert-ometria ; Cavalerius's Geonietria Indivisibi» 
 liuni ; Torricelli's Opera Geometrica; Vivian! in his Divinationes 
 (7eometricie, Exercitatio Matheinatica, De Locis Solidis, De 
 Maximis et Minimis, &c. ; Victa, in his Elfectio Geometrica, 
 Supplement. Geometri:e, Sectiones Angnlaies, Responsum ad 
 Priililenvj, Apf.ll.-,niiii dilUia, A.O. ; Gregbiy fet. N'^iicent's Quad- 
 ralura Circuli ; Ferniat's V'aria Opera Mathematica; Dr. Barrow's 
 Lectione.-, Geometrica-; Bulliald de Lii.eis Spiralibus ; Cavalerins; 
 Schooten and Gregory's Excrcitaliones Geometric;B, and Gregory's 
 Pars Univeisalis, &c. ; De Billy's treatise De Proportione Har- 
 monica; LaDovera's Geometna V'eterum promota ; Slusius Me- 
 solabuim, Problemata Solida, &c. ; W albs in his treatises De 
 C_\ch.>ide, Cissoide, &c. ; De Proportionibus, De Sectionibus, 
 Conicis, Arithmetica Iiihnitoruni, De Centre Gravitalis, De Sec- 
 tionibus Angill,.ribus, De Angnlo Contaclus, Cuno Cuneus, &c. 
 &c\ ; Hugo De Omerioue. in his Analysis Geometrica; Pascal on 
 the Cycloid; Step. Aiigiii's Probleinata Geometrica; Alex An- 
 derson's Supp!. Redivivi, Variorum Problemata Practica, &c. ; 
 Harunius's Geoniet. Prob. &c. ; Guido Grandini Geometr. De- 
 mon-str. &c. ; Ghetalcli Apollonius Redivivus, &c. ; Ludolph van 
 ColenoraCeulen,de Circulo et Adscriptis, &c. ; Snell's ApoUonis 
 Batavus, Cyclometricus, &c. ; Heberstein's Diotomo Circulorum ; 
 Palma's Exercit. inGeometriani;Guldini Centre Baryca;with seve- 
 ral others e(|ually eminent, of more modern date, as Dr. Rob. Sim- 
 son, Dr. .Mat. Stewarl, Mr. Tho. Simpson, &c. Since the intro- 
 duction of the new geometry, or the geometry of curve lines, as 
 expressed by algebraical equations, in this part of geometry, the 
 toUowing names, among many other, are more especially to be re- 
 spectetl, viz. ri)es Carles, Schooten, Newton, Maclaurin, Bracken- 
 ridae, Cramer, Cotes, Waring, &c. &c. As to the subject of prac- 
 tical geometry, the chief writers are Beyer, Kepler, Ramus, C'la- 
 vius Mallet, 'J'acquet, Ozaiiam, Woliius, Gregory, with innu- 
 merable others. On the whole, the history of geometry may be 
 divided into four grand a-ras: viz. 1. From its invention to its in- 
 troduction into Greece by I'hales : 2. From that period to its me- 
 ridian-glory under Euclid; 3. From Euclid and Archimedes to 
 Descartes, who, by applying algebra to the elements of geometry, 
 gave a new turn lo this science; and, 4. From Descartes to its per- 
 fection by Sir Isaac Xewton and M. Leibnitz, who introduced still 
 greater improvements by the application of Fluxions. This sci- 
 ence is generally divided into two pair> ; viz. I. Theoretical Ge- 
 ometry, containing the general principles of the science: and, II. 
 Practical Cieomeliy, or the a|)p!ication of these principles to thu. 
 mensuration of surfaces, solitls, &c. Wc shall in the sequel of this 
 article treat of Ihese two gi'uud branches of Geography in the or-, 
 der just laid down. 
 
 I
 
 GEO:',IFTRV. 
 
 5'M 
 
 FAUr 1. 
 
 TH EORETICAL G EOM ET R Y ; 
 
 Or, CJenekai, Prin'cii'lej of rut Sciexck. 
 
 y/ Straight Livks and Plane Figures. 
 
 Di-.FINinONS. 
 
 1. A Pois r 'h tliat which ha< position, liiil not niJ.nniti'.de. 
 
 2. A LiNb is leiv^lli withoiil bre.uUli oi- lluckin;-;-*; ihi- oxlrcnii- 
 ties ot a line are therefore points. 
 
 3. A UiGiiT Line, or Straight Li.ve, is tiial whirh lies evi-nly 
 betucenitfxtrenie points. Vv^. 1. Piute LWX II. and LXXXIll. 
 
 4. A Sui'ERFiciis is that whicii has only length and breadth ;■ 
 tile extremities ot a siiperliiies are therefore lines, and llie inter- 
 sections of superlieies with one anotlicr are also lines. 
 
 5. A Plase SupE'iFiciES 1^ that in whivh any two points being 
 taken, the straight line between iheni lies wholly in that superlieies. 
 
 6. A Plane Kectiliveai. .Angle is the inehnation of two 
 straight lines to one another, wir.ch meet together, bnt are not in 
 th« same straight line. Fig. 2. 
 
 Note. When several angles are formed at the same point, as at 
 B, iig. J, each particular angle is described by three letters, 
 whereof the middle one shews iheangnlar point, and the other two 
 the lines that form the angle tluis, (Bf), or DIjC, clenotes ihr 
 angle contained b\ tiiir lines CB ;in(l D15. 
 
 7. When a straight line staniiing on another straight line makes 
 the adjacent angles ei]ual to oik- another, each of the angles i> called 
 a Uight Angle, and the straight line which stands on the other is 
 called a Perpendicular. Fig. 4. 
 
 8. An Obtuse Angle is that which is greater than a right 
 angle. Fig. 5. 
 
 9. An Acute Angle i.s that wliich is less than a right angle. 
 Fig. f>. 
 
 10. Parallel Straight Lines are snch as are in the same 
 plane, and which being produced ever so far both ways do not 
 meet. Fig. 7. 
 
 1 1. A Figure is that which is enclosed by one or more boun- 
 daries. 
 
 1.?. Rectilineal^Figures are tho-e which are contained bv 
 straight lines. 
 
 !3 Every plane fignre bounded by throe straight lines is railed 
 a Triangle, of which the three straight lines are called the Sides, 
 thtt side upon which the triangle is conceived to stajid is called the 
 Base, and the opposite angidar point the A'ertex. 
 
 14. An EnuiLATtRAL 'Iriangle is that which has three equal 
 sides. Fig. S. 
 
 1 j. An Isosceles Triangle is that which has only two equal 
 sides. Fig. 9. 
 
 16. A Scalene Triangle is that s\hich has all its sides unequal. 
 Fig. 11. 
 
 17. A Right-Angled 'Iriancle is that which has a right 
 angle. Fig. 10. 
 
 15. ,\n Obtuse-Ancled Triangle is that wliich has an ob- 
 tuse angle. Fig. 11. 
 
 lO. .\n Acute-Angled Triangle is that which has all its an- 
 gles acnte. Fig, 12. 
 
 20. Every plane lignre bounded by four straight lines is called 
 a Quadril.^teral, and the right line joining the opposite angles 
 is called a Diagonal. 
 
 21. A Parallelogram is a quadrilateral of which the opposite 
 sides are parallel. Fig. 13. 
 
 22. A Rectangle is a parallel ogram which has all its angles 
 right.angles. Fig. 14. 
 
 • 23. A Square is a parallelogram which has all its sides equal, 
 and all its aiii;!es right. Fig. 1.). 
 
 24. A Rhombus is a parallel. igram which has all its sides ecmal. 
 Fig. 17. 
 
 25'. A Trapezium is a qdadrilateral wliich has not its opposite 
 sides parallel. Fig. 18. 
 
 2tj. A Trapezoid is a qtiadrilateral whicli has two of its opposite 
 sides parallel. Fig. 19. 
 
 27. Plane figures bounded by more than four straight lines are 
 called Polygons. Fig. 16. 
 
 ;s. A Pentagon is a polygon of live side? •, a Hexagon hath 
 
 six sides; a IIlpiaijon seven ; an Octagon eight ; a Novaoom 
 nine; a Decagon ten; an" U.vdecago.n eleven; and u Dode- 
 cagon hath twelve sides. 
 
 21). A l\Ei;t'LAR PoLYGo.N liatli all its sides, and all its angles, 
 equal ; il they be not etpial, Ihe polygon is Irkkgular. 
 
 30. A Circle i; a plane ligme bounded by one- line tidied the 
 circumference, whii h is such that all straight line^drawn to it from 
 a certain point within it called the centre arc equal; and these 
 straight lines are calleil the H adii of the circle. "Ihe circumference 
 itself is also oflen called a circle. Fig. 20, 
 
 31. The Dia.mkter of a circle is a -tiaight line passing Ihroiigh 
 the centre, and terminalL'd boili wavs by the circumference, its Al'.. 
 Fig, ?0. 
 
 32. An Arc of a circle is any part of its circumference, as ABC. 
 Fig. 21. 
 
 33. A Chord is a straight line joining the extremities of an ate, 
 as AC. Fig. 21. 
 
 34. A Segment is any part of a circle bounded bv an arc and its 
 chord, as ABCA. Fig! 21. 
 
 3">. A Semicircle ii half the circle, or a segment cut off by a 
 diameter. The half-circumle!-ence is also sometimes called a se- 
 micircle. Fig. 20. 
 
 36. A Sector is any part of a circle which is bounded by an 
 arc, an<l two raiiii drawn to its circumference, as ABC. Fig. 22. 
 
 37. A. Quadrant, or quarter of a circle, i.s a sector having a 
 quarter of a circle for its arc, and its two radii are perpendicular to 
 each other. A quarter of the circumference is also called a qua 
 d rant, as .ABC. Fig. 23. 
 
 38. The 11 eight or Altitujie of a lignre is a perpendicular let 
 fall from an angle or its vertex to the opposite si<le or base, as F'E. 
 Fig: 24. 
 
 39. In a right-angled triangle the side opposite the right angle 
 is called the Hypothknuse, and the other two sides are called the 
 Legs, or sides, or sometimes the base anil perpendicular. Fig. 10. 
 
 40. The circumference of every circle is supposed to be di>-idpd 
 into 360 equal parts called Degrees, and each degree into 60 
 Minutes, each minute into 60 Seconds, and soon. Hence a 
 semicircle contains ISO degrees, and a quadrant 90 degrees. 
 
 41. The Measure of a Rectilineal Angle is an arc of any 
 circle contained between the two lines which form that angle, 
 tlie angular point beinsj the centre, and it is estimated by the num- 
 ber of d-grces in that arc. Fig. 2j. 
 
 42. The Identical Figures are such as have all the sides and 
 all the angles of the one, respectively eqnal to all the sides and all 
 
 the amrles of the other, each to each 
 
 ( that if the one iigure were 
 
 applied to, or laid»U|jon the other, all tlie sides of the one would 
 exactly fall upon and cover all the sides of the other, the two be- 
 coming as it were but one and the same figure. 
 
 43. Tlie DisT.-\scE of a Point _/';o/.'» a Line is tlie straight 
 line drawn from that point perpendieular to, and terminating in, 
 that line. 
 
 44. An Angle in a Segment nfn Circle is that whii h is con- 
 tained by two linos drawn from any point in the arc of the segment 
 to the extremities of that arc, "as ABC in the segment ABC. 
 Fig. 26. 
 
 45. ^Jn .Angle nn ii Segment, or an Arc, is that which is con- 
 tained by two lines drawn from any point in the opposite, or sup- 
 plemental part of the circumference, to the extremities of the arc, 
 and containing the arc between Ihem, as ABC on the segmervt 
 ADC. Fig.2t). 
 
 46. An .Angle (^(i (/«■ Circumference is tliat whose angular 
 point is any « here in the circumference, and ail angle at the centre 
 is that whose angular point is at the centre. 
 
 47. A Tangent to a Circle is a ^ilraight line that meets the cir- 
 cumference at one point, and eveiy wiiere el?e falls without it. 
 Fig. 27. 
 
 43. A Sk'cant is a straight line that cul^ the circle, lying jiartly 
 within and partly without it. Fig. 27. 
 
 4f. A Right-Lined Figure is inscribed in a circle, or the 
 cin le circumscribes it when all the angular points of the iigure are 
 in the circumference of Ihe circle. Fig. 2S. 
 
 jO. A Uight-Linfd Figure circumscribes a circle, or the cir- 
 cle is inscribed in it w hen all the sides of the figure toucii tlie cir- 
 cumference of the circle. l'"ig. 28. 
 
 1. One Right Line a Figure is inscribed ie another, or the 
 9 latter
 
 tm 
 
 GEOMETRY. 
 
 iatttr ciiciiin-crilx's tlie ionmr «1u'm all tlic uii^tilar points of tlic 
 foriDi-r are placoii in tlio siik-sol tlie laltcr. I'ig. '29. 
 
 j'-'. Simii.au FiGURb.b are lliose (liat liavc all the angles of tlie 
 <tnc equal to all tlic angli'« of the oilier, cacli to each, ami the sitlcs 
 <ib.->ul liicse angles proportional. 
 
 'I'/ie I'ERiMtTKR nj a FiouRfc is the siiin of all its sides taken 
 l-;gellier. 
 
 yolc. Wheji the word line occurs, wiihoiit the a<!dition of 
 either slriiiglit or cvrrcd, a -Iraight line is al>\avs meant ; also the 
 rontractions (Di 1.) (Ax.) (1 h.) are references to the deliiiitions, 
 axioms, and theorems, that have been before mentioned. 
 
 Axioms. 
 
 1. Tilings vliich are equal to the same thing are equal to one 
 another. 
 
 2. Wlien e(|iials arc added to ecpials, the wholes are equal. 
 
 3. \\ luu equals are taken from equals, tlie remainders are 
 equal. 
 
 A. When e(|uals are added to uneqnals, the wholes arc miequal. 
 :>. \\ hen eejiials are taken from unecjuals, the remainders are 
 unequal. 
 
 6. Things which are doubles of the same thing jire equal lo one 
 another. 
 
 7. 'I'hings which are halves of the same thing are equal, 
 -■^p The «hole is equal to all its parts taken together. 
 
 'J. Thin<!s which C(jineide, or (ill the tame space, arc idi-ntlcal, 
 or mutually ecpial in all tlieir parts. 
 
 10. All riglil angles are eipial to one another. 
 
 1!. Angles that hive ecpial measures, or arcs, are equal. 
 I?. NJore than one straight line cannot be drawn from any given 
 point to another given point. Fig. 1. 
 
 13. If two straight lines meet one another, Iheyare not both pa- 
 rallel to one and the same straight line. 'I'hus C D and C E are 
 not both parallel to A 15. Kig. ^9. 
 
 Remahks. a Proposition is something proposed to be done, 
 and is either a Problem or Theorem. 
 
 A Problem is sometliing propose<l to be done. 
 
 A Theorem is something proposed lo be demonstrated. 
 
 A JjEMMA is something [iremised or demonstrated, in order to 
 make what follows the more easy. 
 
 A Corollary is a consequent truth gained immediately from 
 EOme preceding truth or denionslration. 
 
 A .ScHOLii'M is a remark or observation made upon something 
 going belore. ^ 
 
 Theorem 1. fig. 30. If two triai'gles have two sides and the 
 included ani^le of the one equal to two sides and the included an- 
 gle of the other, the tiiaiigles will be identical, or ecpial in ali 
 jespects. 
 
 In the two triangles ABC, Dl'T', if the side .\R of the one be 
 fcpial lo the side UE ot the otln'r, and the side AC equal to l)F, 
 also the angle A equal to the angle D, the triangles shall be iden- 
 tical, or equal, in all respects. For conceive the triangle AIK', 
 to be applied to, or placed upon, the triangle DF.F, so that the 
 point A may coincide with I), and the side i\\\ with the side DI".; 
 tl'.cn since the angles A and I) are equal, the siile \C shall also 
 coincide with T)F, aiul sime .AB is equal to OF, and .AC^ is etpial 
 to UF, till- points 15 and E shall coincide, as also the points C and 
 F; <onsequently the side ISC will coincide with the si<le El'; 
 (Ax. \'>,) llierel'ore the two triangles are identical (A\. 9,) and 
 liave all their other corresponding parts ecpial. 
 
 TiiEou. 11. lis. 30. '1 riangles which have two angles and the 
 side which lies between them equal are identical, or have Iheir 
 other sides and angles equal, l.etthe two triangles ABC, XiV.V, 
 Iiave the angle 15 equal lo the angle E, the angle C etpial to the 
 angle F, and the side BC e(|ual lo the side EF, then these trian- 
 gles will be ideiilic.il. For conceive the trian'.;!e .ABC ])laced 
 upon DlCl'', so that BC may fall exactly upon 1".F, then since tin' 
 angle 15 is eipial to the angle E, the side BA will fall upon 1)F, 
 anil in like mamier because tlie angles C: and F are equal, tin- side 
 CA will fall upon FU, thus the triangles will exactly coincide, 
 and then-lore, (.Vx. 9,) are identical. 
 
 TiifcOR. 111. fig. 31. In an isosiH'les triangle the angles at the 
 base are equal. If the triangle ABC be isos-celcs, or have a side 
 Ali equal to a side AC ; then will the angle at B be equal to the 
 angle at C. For conceive the angle at A lo be bisected, or di- 
 
 vitled into two equal parts by the line AD. Then the triang' '^ 
 B-\D, CAD, havmg two sides and ,i contained angle of liic e :i- 
 etiual to two sides and the contained angle of the other, iiamel . , 
 AB equal to AC, and AD common lobolh, and the angle BAD 
 ecpial to the angle CAD, are equal in all res])ects ('I'h. I;) there- 
 fore the angle 15 is equal to the angle C. 
 
 CoROLLAKV I. An equilateral triangle is also equaiigular. 
 CDu. '2. A line that bisects tlie vertical angle of an isosceles tri- 
 angle bisects also llie base, and is pei pendicular to it. 
 
 Theor. IV. lig. 31. If a triangle have two of its angles equal, 
 the sides which subtend or lie oppo-ite lo these angles are also 
 equal Let ABC be a triangle, ol which tiie angles at B and C 
 are equal, the side AB w ill be equal to the side AC. For mu- 
 < eive the angle A to Ix' bisected by AD; then the angles BDA 
 and CD.V are ci|ual, being right angles (Tli. 3. Cor. '2,) and the 
 angles at A are equal, also AD is common; hence the triangles 
 BAD, CAD, are identical, (Idi. ?,) and AB is equal to AC. 
 ('or. Hence every equaiigular triangle is also ecpnlateral. 
 Theor. V. lig. 3'J. Triangles which have their tln-ee sides 
 imiUially equal, are identical, or have all their lliree angles equal, 
 each lo each. Let the triangles AI5C, ADC, have their three 
 sides mutually equal, viz. A(' equal to .\C, AI5 equal to AD, 
 and BC equal to DC, the rmgles opposite to these sides shall b^ 
 eipial, namely BAC to DAC,'BCA to DCA, and ABC to .'\DC^ 
 .Sii|)pose the triangles joined by Ineir longest efpial sides, and join 
 15D. 'Iheii the angle "ABD is equal to AD 15, and the angle CBD 
 lo the i.iigle CD'B(Th. 3;) therefore the whole angle ABC is 
 equal to the whole angle ADC, (Ax. 2,) and since AB is equal t» 
 AD, also BC to DC, the triangle ABC, ADC, are identical 
 (Ih. 1.) 
 
 1 HEOR. ^'I. fig. 33. The angles which one line makes with 
 another npo!i one side of it are together eipial lo two right angles. 
 Let the line AB make with CD upon tine side of it, the angles 
 .iVBD, ABC ; these ar(; logellier e<pial lo two rii;hl angles. If AB 
 be perpi ndirular to CD, the angles ABC, ABD, are evidently 
 equal lo two right angles (def. 7.) But if AB be not perpendicu- 
 lar lo CD, draw BE perpendicular to CD, dividing the greater 
 angle .\B(.: into liie two angles EBC, EBA; then the former EBC 
 being a right angle, and the remaining i)art EBA logetbcr with 
 the whole less angle ABD, is eipial lo another right angle; the 
 whole of both the proposed angles is therefore equal to two rioht 
 angles. (Ax. i.'.) 
 
 Cor. 1. Ilenc(! also, conversely, if the Iwoangles ABC, ABD, ^ 
 on both sides of the line AB, make up together two right angles, "^ 
 then CB and ISD torm one continued straight line. 
 
 CoR. 2. All the angles that can be made round a point by any 
 number of lines are equal to two right angles. 
 
 Theor. \'1I. tig. 34. If two lines intersect each other, the op- 
 posite ancles are ecpial. Let AB and CD intersect each other in 
 E, the angle AEC is equal to BED, and .\ED lo BEC ; tor the 
 angles AEC, A ED, an- together e(pial to two right angle> (Th ();) 
 ami in like manner BED, AED, are equal to two right angles; 
 lle-rcfore the angles i\FC, .\I".D, are together e<iual to BED, 
 .M'iD (Ax. 1,) and taking away the common angle .V ED from 
 both, there remains AEC e(pial lo BED (Ax. 3.) In like man- 
 ner it will appearthat AED is equal to Bh'.C. 
 
 Theor. \'III. lig. 3j. It a line intersecting two other lines, 
 make the alternate angles ecpial, the lines are parallel. Let EF 
 intersect the lines .\B, CD, and make the alternate angles AGll, 
 and CillD, e<iual, then ABis parallel to CD. For il not they wj|l 
 meet on one side, let them meet in 1, and let GH be bisected in 
 K, and I K joined and produced lo L, so that KL be eipial to IK, 
 and let (; L be joined ; then because LE is equal to Kl, and Gk 
 to KlI, and the iniludrd angles at K equal, being vertical angles, 
 the triangles LCJR and lllK arc identical (Th. 1.) Therefore 
 the angle L(jK is equal to KIID, and therefore (by llvp.) equal 
 lo A( ill, which is impos^ilile. Therefore the lines AB, CD, do 
 not meet, consei|Uently they are par.illel (det. 10.) 
 
 CiiR. If a line intersecting two other lines make the exterior 
 angle e(|ual lo Ihe interior angle on the same side, or the two inte- 
 rior angles on the same side equal lo two right angles, these lines j 
 are parallel. ' 
 
 Theor. IX. fig. 36. If a line intersect two parallel lines, it 
 makes the aUirnate angles eipial. 
 Let the line EF inlcrsect the parallel lines A15, CD, at G and
 
 OEOMETRV. 
 
 of?f) 
 
 B, tlio allornale ani^les AGII, Q'.llD, .ae c-(|i;al. l-'or if not, 1. 1 
 tiie angle KG li be t-qual lo(;i!0, thfii K(; is parallel lo C'l> 
 (I'h. 8;) tiierelure AG and IvG are both parallel to CU, wliicli is 
 impossible, (Ax. 13.) 
 
 Cor. If a line inloiscet two parallel lines it makes llie exlerior 
 •ligle eijual to tlie inteiior ami opposite on tlie same side, and also 
 the two interior angles on lli.? same side ecpial to l.vo ligiit angles. 
 For tlie interior angle Gill) is eqnal to AGll, that is, ('I'll. 7,) to 
 the exterior angle KGB; to each of tliese add Htill, and the two 
 interior angles Btill, (jIID, are together equal to I'.GU, BGli, 
 tliat is, to two right angles. (Th. 6.) 
 
 'I'HiiOR. K. fig. 37. If one side of a triangle be produced, the 
 exterior angle is e<)ual to both the interior and opposite angles, 
 Slid the three interior angles are equal to two right angles. 
 
 Let liC, a side of tlie triangle ABC, be produced to 1), the exte- 
 rior angle AC D is equal to the two interior and op|)osite angles 
 BAG, ABC, and the three interior angles ABC, I5AC, BCA, are 
 equal to two riglit angles. LelCEbe parallel to AB, then the 
 tligle ACE is equal CAB (Th. 9,) and the angle ABC to I'X'D, 
 ('111. 9, Cor.) therefore tlie angle ACD is equal to the two angles 
 CAB, CBA; to each of these equals add ACB, thus the angles 
 ACB, ACD, are equal to the three angles ABC, CBA, B.'VC, but 
 ACB, ACD, are ciiual to two right angles (Tli. (i,) therefore the 
 Uiree angles of tlie triangle are ecpial to two right angles. 
 
 Cor. 1. 'ihe exterior angle of a triangle is greater than either 
 of the interior opposite angles. 
 
 Cor. J. Anj two angles of a triangle are together less than two 
 eight angles. 
 
 CoK. 3. If two triangles have two angles of the one equal to 
 two angles of the other, the remaining angle of the cue is equal to 
 tlie remaining migle of tlie other. 
 
 Cor. 4. 'I'lie two acute angles of a right-angled triangle are 
 together equal to a right angle. 
 
 Theor. XI. iig. 3S. The greatest side of every triangle suh- 
 ten^ls the greatest angle. 
 
 Let AB(J be a triangle of which the side AU is greater than AC, 
 the angle ACB is greater than ABC. Take AD equal to AC, 
 and join DC, then the angle ACD is equal to ADC (Th. 3;) but 
 ADC is greater than ABC (Th. 10, Cor. 1 ,) therefore ACD is 
 greater than ABC, much more then is ACB greater than ABC. 
 Cor. The greatest angle of every triangle is subteiulcd by the 
 greatest side. 
 
 1'heor. XI 1. Iig. 39. The opposite sides and opposite angles 
 of a parallelogram are <-qual, and the diagonal divides the paral- 
 lelogram into two e(|ual parts. 
 
 Let ABC be a paralhlogiam, AB is equal CD, and AC to BD, 
 also the angle CAB is ecpial to CDB, and ACD toADB, and 
 the triangle ACD is equal to ABD. For since AB is parallel to 
 CD (def. 21,) the angles. BAD, CDA, are equal (Th. 10,) and 
 since AC is parallel to BD, for the same reason, the angles CAD, 
 BDA, are equal, now AD is common to the triangles ABD, ACD, 
 therelore these triangles are identical, ( Th. 2;) heme AB is eijual 
 to CD, AC to BD, the angle ACD to ABD, the angle CAD to 
 ADB, aiid HAD to ADC, and consequently the wiiole angle 
 CAB to the wliole angle CDB.- 
 
 • Theor. Xi II. hg. 39. Tlie lines which join the extremities of 
 equal and pai:dlel lilies towards the same parts are themselves 
 equal and parallel. 
 
 Lei AB be equal and parallel to CD, then AC and BD are also 
 equal and parallel. Join AD, then the angles BAD, CDA, are 
 equal, (Th. 9,) and since AB is equal to CD, and AD common 
 to the triangles ABD, ACD, these triangles are equal in all re- 
 spects ('I h. 1.), therefore AC is cipial to BD, and the angle CAD 
 to ADB, hence AC is also parallel to BD. (Th. 8.) 
 
 T'HiiCR. XIV. lir. 40. Parallelograms standisg upon the same 
 base, and between ihe.same parallels, are equal. 
 
 Let ABCD, liBCF, be parallelograms standing on the same 
 base BC, and between the same parallels BC, AF, ihey are ecpial 
 to one anotuer. For since AD is equal to BC, that is to KF, 
 (Th. 1'.',) thci.fore AE !>- equal to DF, now AB is etpial to DC 
 (Th. 12;) and the angle BAI'; to CDF, (Th. 9, Cor.) therefore 
 the Irianjiles BAE and CDF are equal. (Th. L) Now if from 
 the whole ligure BAFC there be taken av.ay the triangle CDF, 
 there remains the parallelogram ABCD, and if from the same 
 £gure there be taken away the equal tijangle BAE, there remains 
 
 VOL. U. — KO. 9a, 
 
 llie parallelogrEm EBCl', therefore these parallelograms are equal 
 to one aiiutiier. 
 
 Cor. I. Hence triangles standing upon the same base, and be- 
 tween the same parallels, are ecjua! to one another. 
 
 For let BAG, BhC, be two trian>;li-s stamling on the iame base 
 BC, and between the parallels AF, BC, it is evident that they arc 
 Ihe halves of the parallelograms BADC, BEFC, and therelore 
 equal. 
 
 Cou. 2. Hence if a triangle and |)arallelogram stand on tlie 
 same base, the inangle is half of the parallelogram. 
 
 Cor. 3. Therefore all parallelograms or triangles whatever 
 whose bases and altitudes are equal, are also equal among them- 
 selves. 
 
 TiiEOR. XV. fig. 41. The coinplements of a parallelogram 
 are equal. 
 
 Lei BD the diagonal of a parallelogram ABCD be drawn, and 
 let IlK, KCJ, parallels to its sides, inlersccl each other at F a point 
 in the diagonal; the whole parailelograni is (hus divided into fouf 
 parallelograms; two pf tliese, vi/. LK, IIG, stand a^out the dia- 
 mcler, aiul the remaining two 11 E, GK, are called the comple- 
 ments, and arc to be proved equal. 'Ihe whole triangle DAB is 
 equal to the whole triangle DCB, (Th. 12,) and for the same rea- 
 son the parts DEF, FIIB, are respectively equal to the jjarts 
 DKl'', FGB, therefore the remaining parts HE, GK, must like- 
 wise be equal. 
 
 Theor. X\'I. fig. 42. In a right-angled triangle the square of 
 the hypothenuse is eipial to the sum of the squares upon the other 
 two sides. 
 
 Let AD be a square upon the hypothenuse of a right-angled 
 triangle ABC, and BG, Bl, squares ujion its sides, AD is equal to 
 the sum of BG and BI. Let MBH lie parallel to AE nieetin'r 
 (iF, produced in H, and let EA, produced, meet Gil in N. If 
 from the equal angles GAB, CAN, the angle NAB, common to 
 both, be taken away, there remains NACJ ei;nal to BAC, now 
 the angle AtiN is equal to ABC, and the side AG is equal to AB, 
 tlierefore AN is c<|ual to AC (Th. 2,) or to AE; and therefore 
 the parallelo^Tams AM, All, are equal, (Th. 14, Cor. 3,) but 
 All IS equal to the square BG (Th. 14,) therefore AM is equal ta 
 BG, and in the same way it will appear that CM is equal lo the 
 square BI, therefore the whole sijuare AD is equal to the sum of 
 the squares BG and Bi. 
 
 Theor. W'll. Iig. 43. A perpendicular drawn from the ceu- 
 tre of a circle to a chord bisects that chord. 
 
 Let CD be drawn fiom the ceiitie C perpendicular to AB a . 
 chord in the circle, AD is ecjual to DB. Join CA, CB. Beiause 
 AC; is equal to CB (def. 3,) Ihe angles CAB, CBA, are equal 
 (Th. 3,) now ADC, BDC, are equal, being right angles, therefore 
 the angles ACD, BCD, are equal, (Th. lif, Cor. 3,) tl-.erefore the 
 triangles ACD, BC D, r.re in all respects equal, (.'i'h. 1,) and cou- 
 sequtntly AD equal to DB. 
 
 Cor. a perpendicular bisecting any cliord at right aii'des 
 passes through the centre of the circle. 
 
 Theor XVIII. (ig. 44. A straight line <lrawn tlirough any 
 point in the circumference of a circle, at right angles to the radiils 
 terminating in that point, is a tangent to the circle. 
 
 Let AB be perpendicuhir to tiie radius AC, the line AB is a 
 tangent to the circle at liie point A. Draw CE any line fron\ the 
 centre cutting the circle at I), and the line AB at E. Bccaus« 
 C.\E is a rglit angle, CEA is less than a right angle, (Th. lo,) 
 therefore CI', is greater than CA, or, than CD, ('Ih. ll,)tlieri> 
 lore the point E is without the circle, and the same may be sliewa 
 of every point in AB, except A, therefore AB is a tangent to the 
 circle, (def. 47.) 
 
 Cor. If a line be perpendicular to .1 tangent at the point of 
 contact, that line passes through the centre. 
 
 Theou, XIX. iig. 45. An angle at the centre of a circle b 
 double the angle at the circumference wl.icli stands upon the sani« 
 arc. 
 
 Let ACB be the angle at the centre of a circle, and ADB 
 Ihe angle at the circuniteiencp, lh( angle ACB is double .ADD. 
 Join DC, which produce to E. '1 he angle ACE is equal U) both 
 the angles CAD, CDA (I'h. 10,) that is, since C:D and CA are 
 equal lo twice ADC ( Th. 3 ;) in like manner it will appear iliat 
 BCE is equal to twice BUE ; Ibwirtwo tkv wliole angle AC:i5 is 
 double ADB, 
 
 7- L -Ces:
 
 ^90 
 
 or:o^rF,TnY 
 
 C^oR. 1. All angles in the same segment of a ciicle are equal lo 
 each oilier. 
 
 Cor. 2. In the same ciixie, or in circles of equal radii, if two 
 angles at the circumference stand u[)on equal arches, they are 
 equal to one another, and conversely. 
 
 Theok. XX. fig. 46. An angle in a semicircle is a right 
 angle. 
 
 Let ACR he an angle in a semicircle, draw the dianielcr CDE. 
 The angle ACE at the circumference is half of ADE at tlie centre, 
 and in hke manner BC E is half of BI5E (Th. 19 ;) th. refore the 
 whole angle ACB is half the sum of the angles ADE, ECB, or is 
 equal to a right sngle. (Th. 6.) 
 
 The3R. XX[. tig. 47. The sum of any two opposite angles of 
 a quadrilateral inscribed in a circle, is ecjual to two riglit angles. 
 
 Eet AI'jCD be a quadiilaleral in a circle, the sum of BAD, 
 BCD, also the sum of ADC, .^BC, is eciual to two right angles. 
 Join AC, BD. The angle BAC is equal lo BDC, also the angle 
 D.\C is equal to DBC (Th. 19, cor. 1 ;) therefore the whole 
 angle D.>\B !> equal lo the two angles BDC, DBC ; and the sum 
 of DAB and DCB is equal to the three angles BDC, DBC, and 
 DCB, that is, equal to two riaht angles. (Th. 10.) 
 
 Theor. XXll. lig. 48. The angle formed by a tangent to a 
 oircle, and a chord drawn to the point of contact, is equal to the 
 angle in the altcrn.ite segment of tin- circle. 
 
 Let AB he a tangent, and AC a chord, the angle CAB is equal 
 to any angle CEA in the alternate segment. Draw AF peri)endi- 
 cular to A B, meeting the circle in 1'', and join EF ; thus .AF will 
 be tiie diameter of the circle (Th. 18, cor.) and FEA a right angle 
 (Th. 20) ; therefore equal to FAB, but FEC, FAC, parts of these 
 angles, are equal. In like manner, the angle CAD is equal to 
 CGA; for EGA is equal to FAD, and FCiC to FAC ; therefore 
 the wholes CAD, CGA, are ecjual. 
 
 Of Ratios and Proportions. 
 In the treating of proportion, the algebraic notation is here adopted 
 for the sake of brevity ; it wdl therefore be proper to observe, 
 
 1. That the letters A, B, &c. are used to denote quantities of 
 any kind, and the letters m, p, q, &c. to denote numbers only. 
 
 2. Tlte sign + (plus) written between the symbols of two quan- 
 tities or numbers, signifies the sum of those (piantities or numbers. 
 Thus A 4" B means the sum of the quantities denoted by A and 
 B, &c. 
 
 3. The sign — (minus) written between the symbols of two 
 cjuantities, signifies the difference of these quantities. Thus A— B 
 means the dilference between A and B. 
 
 4. When a letter denoting a number is written close to a letter 
 denoting any quantity, it signifies that the quantity is multiplied by 
 the muiiber; thus ?nA means m times A ; also qiiiB means that B 
 is multiplied by the product of the numbers q and m. 
 
 5. The quotient arising from the division of any quantity A by 
 
 A 
 another quantity B, is written thus — . 
 
 6. The sign := signifies the equality of quantities denoted by the 
 
 ?>i A A 
 
 letters that stand on the opposite sides of it. Thus = — de- 
 
 ?« B B 
 notes that the quotient arising from the division of m times A by 
 m times B is the same as the quotient arising from the division 
 of A by B. 
 
 7. It is likewise supposed that the following principle in the 
 arithmetic of fractional quantities is already known, namely, that 
 if both the numerator and denominator of a given fraction be di- 
 vided by the same number, the resulting quotients are the numera- 
 tor and denominator of a fraction of the sanie value as the given one. 
 
 m A 
 
 It is thus that the fractional quantity is concluded to 
 
 m B 
 A 
 be equal to — , viz. by dividing both numerator and denominator 
 
 B 
 by m, and so <J other quantities. 
 
 Detinitions. 
 54. When one quaptJty contains anotlwr a certain number of 
 
 times exactly, the former is said to be a nuiltiple of the latter, ami 
 the latter a part of the former ; thus 20 is a multiple of j, and 5 a 
 part of 20 ; and, in general, m being any number, and A any quan- 
 tity, m\ is a multiple of A, and A a part of 7«A. 
 
 55. When several (|uantities are multiples of as many others, and 
 each contains its part of the same lunnber of time^, the former are 
 ssud to be equimultiples of the latter, and the latter like parts of 
 the former; thus 20 and 30 are equimultiples of 2 and 3, and in 
 general ;«A and mH are equimultiples of A and B ; also A and B 
 are like parts of luA and m\i. 
 
 56. Ratio is the proportion which one magnitude bears to aiv 
 other magnitude of thesame kind, wilh respect to quantity. 
 
 Note. The measure, or quantity of a ratio, is conceived by 
 considering what part or parts of the leading quantity called the 
 antecedent is of the other called the consequent. So the ratio of 
 a ijuantity expressed by the number 2 to a like quantity expressed 
 by the number 6 is denoted by 6 divided by 2, or -| or 3 ; tiie 
 number 2 being 3 times contained in 6, or the third of it, and in 
 general the measure of the ratio of A to B is expressed by the 
 
 B 
 quotientef B divided by A, or the fjaction — . 
 
 57. Proportion is an equality of ratios, and three quantities are 
 said to be proportional when the ratio of the first to the second is 
 e<]ual to the ratio of the second to the third. As of the three 
 ([uanlities A (2), B (4), C (8) ; where J = | ^ 2, the same 
 ratio. 
 
 58. Four quantities are said to be proportional when the ratio of 
 the first to the second is the same as the ratio of the third to the 
 fourth. As of the four quantities A (2), B (4), C (5), D (10) ; 
 where 4 =: -^^ = 2, the common ratio. 
 
 Note. To denote that four ([Uantities A, B, C, D, are propor- 
 tional, they are usually placed thus, A : B : : C : D, and read 
 tiuis. As A is to B, so is C to D ; but when three quantities are 
 jiroportioual, the middle one is repeated, and they are written 
 thus, A : B : : B : C. 
 
 5y. Of three proportional quantities, the middle one is said to 
 be a mean proportional between the other two, and the last a third 
 proportional to the first and second. 
 
 60. Of four proportional quantities, the last is said to be a fourtb 
 proportional to the other three taken in order. 
 
 61. Quantities are said to be continually proportional, or in 
 continued proportion, when the ratio is the same between every 
 two adjoining terms, thus, 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, &c. are in continued 
 proportion. 
 
 62. In a series of quantities continually proportional, the ratio 
 of the tirst and third is said to be duplicate to that of the first and 
 second ; and the ratio of the first and lourth is said to be triplicate to 
 that of the first and second, and so on. 
 
 63. Inverse ratio is, when the antecedent is made the consequenfv 
 and the consequent the antecedent ; thus, if 1 : 2 : : 3 : 6 ; then 
 inversely 2 : 1 : : 6 : 3. 
 
 64. Alternate proportion is, when antecedent is compared with 
 antecedent, and consequent with consequent, as if 1 : 2 : : 3 : 6; 
 then by alternation or permutation, 1 : 3 : : 2 : 6. 
 
 65. Compounded ratio is, when the sum of the antecedent and 
 consequent is compared, either with the antecedent or consequent, 
 thus, if 1 : 2 : : 3 : 6 ; then by composition, l+2:l::34-6:3i 
 and 1 + 2 : 2 : : 3 -|- 6 : 6. 
 
 66. Divided ratio is, when the difference of the antecedent and 
 consequent is compared, either with the antecedent or consequent) 
 thus, if 1 : 2 : : 3 : 6, then by division 2—1:1:: 6— 3:3t 
 also 2 — 1 : 2 : : 6 - 3 : 6. 
 
 Theor. XXIII. Eiiuimultiples of any two quantities are in 
 tiie same ratio as the quantities themselves. 
 
 Let A and B be any two quantities, and mA, mH, any equimul- 
 tiples of them, m being any number whatever ; then will mA and 
 ?«B have the same ratio as A and B, or A : B : : mA : ;«B. 
 OT B B 
 
 For = — , both the same ratio. 
 
 m A A 
 CoR. Hence, like parts of quantities have the same ratio as the 
 wholes, because the wholes are equimultiples of the like parts, or 
 A and B are like parts of wA and )hB. 
 Theor. XXIV. If four quantities of the same kind are pro- 
 portional.
 
 flKOMETRY. 
 
 .'501 
 
 portional, tiny "i" 'if propoitional also by altenialion or per- 
 imitatioii, or tlie antecedents will have the same ratio as the con- 
 seqiicnls. 
 
 Let A : 15 : : mA : wiB, then will A : m.\ : : ?, : yiB. 
 m A 711 B 
 
 For := m and = yn, both the same ratio. 
 
 A R 
 
 Theok. XXV. If four quantities are proportional, they will 
 be propoitional also by inversion, or inversely. 
 
 Let A : B : : m\ : mB, then will B : A : : wiB : m.\. 
 m A A 
 
 For = — -, bolh the same ratio. 
 
 m B B 
 Theor. XX\'1. If four quantities be proportional, they will 
 also be proportional bv composition, ami bv division. 
 Let A : B: : ?hA : mB. 
 Tiiea will B + A : A : : mB + m\ : m\. 
 or, B + A : B : : 7hB + mh : mB 
 7n A A m B B 
 
 For ■ — = and = % 
 
 mB+?HA B + A »/B + otA B +A 
 in like manner it will appear that 
 
 B- A: A:: ;/iB - m\ : m\. 
 or, B - A : B : . wB - mA -. «iB. 
 
 m A A m B B 
 
 For- ■ = and • = . 
 
 m B - m A B - A ni B - m A B - A 
 Theor. XXVII. If of four proportional cpiantities there be 
 taken any etpiinndtiples whatever of the two antecedents, and any 
 etpumultiples whatever of the two consequents, the quantities re- 
 sulting will be stiU proportional. 
 
 Let A : B : : jhA : niB, also let pA and pmA be any equimul- 
 tiples, of the two antecedents, and ^B and 9?«B any equimultiples 
 of the two consequents, then will />A : 5B : : pmA : qmB. 
 gr«B 5B 
 
 For = — , the same ratio. 
 
 pmA pA 
 Theor. XXV III. If there be four proportional quantities, 
 and the two consequents be either augmented or dimijiished, by 
 quantities that have the same ratio as the respective antecedents, 
 the results and the antecedents will still be proportional. 
 
 Let A : B : : iiiA : ;«B, and nA and iimA any two quantities 
 having the same ratio as the two antecedents ; then will. 
 A : B + nA : : ?nA : : iiiU + nmA. 
 Also A : B — nA : : mA : in B — nmA. 
 m B i 7! m A B ± » A 
 
 For = , the same ratio. 
 
 ?n A A 
 
 Theor. XXIX. If any number of quantities be proportional, 
 any one of the antecedents will be to its consequent, as the sum of 
 allthe antecedents to the sum of all the consetjuents. 
 Let A : B : : mA : mB ■■ : nA : nB, &c. 
 Then will be A : B : : A + mA -j- nA : B + 7nB + nB, &c. 
 B + mH + /iB B 
 
 For = — , the same ratio. 
 
 A + mA + nA A 
 Theor. XXX. If a whole magnitude be to a whole, as a qnan- 
 fitv taken from the first to a quantity taken from the other, the 
 remainder is to the remainder, as the whole it to th« whole> 
 m m 
 Let A : B : : — A : — B. 
 n n 
 
 Then will A : B : 
 
 m 
 A A 
 
 n 
 
 m »i 
 
 : A A:B 
 
 n n 
 
 A 
 
 • m 
 B B 
 
 B 
 
 Theor. XXXI. If there be two sets of proportionals ; then 
 the products or rectangles of the corresponding terms are also pio- 
 portiojial. 
 
 Let A : B : : ;mA : mB. 
 AndC : D: : «C :«(), 
 then will AC : BI) : : mnAC : mnBD, where AC represents the 
 product or rcclanele of A and C, aiul Bl^ the product or recttif 
 gle of B and D. 
 
 muHD BD 
 
 For = , the same ratio. 
 
 m'jAC AC 
 
 Cor. 1. If there be any nuinher of sets of proportionals ; the 
 products of the corresponding terms are proportional. 
 
 Cor. '2. If four (]iiantities be pro|)oitionaI, tlieir squares and 
 cubes are also proportional, and in general any poweis of them ace 
 proportional. 
 
 Theor. XXXI [. If four quantities be proportional, the rectan- 
 gle or product of the two extremes is equal to the rectangle or 
 product of the two means. 
 
 Let A : B : : wA : mB, 
 
 Then is A x mi5 = B x mA = mAB, as is evident. 
 
 CoR. If three quantities be continual proportionals, the rectan- 
 gle or product of the e.Ktremes will be e(|ual to the square of the 
 mean. 
 
 Thkor. XXXIII. fig. 49. Triangles and also parallelograms 
 having the same altitude, or that are between the same parallels, 
 arc to one another in the same ratio as their bases. 
 
 Let the triangles ADC, DEI'', have the same altitude, or be be- 
 tween the same parallels AE, CE, then AD : DE :: Triangle 
 ADC : 'I'riangle DEE. For let AD contain a number of parts, 
 in of which DE contains the number n, and call each of the parts 
 A, and since triangles are equal, there will be a number of trian- 
 gles in ADC denoted by in, and in DEF a number denoted hr 
 n, all equal among themselves : call each of them B ; then AD 
 =: mA, DE =r hA, the triangle ADC=mB, and DEE = «B, 
 
 nB nA 
 but = , that is, the triangle ADC : DEF : : AD : DE. 
 
 7«B 
 
 m A 
 
 In like manner the parallelogram ADCI is to the parallelogram 
 DEFG as the base AD to the ba^e DE. 
 
 (.'or. fig. tiCi. Triangles and parallelograms having equal bases 
 are to one another as their altitudes. F'or let ABC, BEE, be tri- 
 angles having their ^qual bases AB, BE, in the same straight line 
 AE ; let BK be perpendicular to AE, draw CK, EL, parallel to 
 Ah", and join AK, AL. The triangles ACB, AKB, are equal; 
 also the triangles ALB, BEE. (Th. 16. Cor. 3.) And by the 
 theorem the triangle AKB is to the triangle ALB as KB to LB, 
 but KB and LB are equal respectively to CG and EH the alti- 
 tudes of the triangles ACB, BFE ; therefore the triangles ACB, 
 BFE, are to each other as their altitudes. 
 
 Theor. XXKIV. fig. il. If a line be drawn in a triangle 
 parallel to one of its sides, it cuts the two other sides propor- 
 tionally. 
 
 Let DE be drawn parallel to BC one of the sides of the trian- 
 gle AliC, then AD : DB: : AE : EC. Join BE and CD. The 
 triangles BDE, CDE, are equal (Th. 14, Cor. 1,) therefore, since 
 any ma-!;nitude must necessarily have the same ratio to each of 
 two equal magnitudes, the triangle ADE is to the trianale BDE 
 as the same triangle ADE to the tnan^le CDE, but ADE is to 
 EDB as AD to DB (1^.33,) and ADE is to EDC as AE to EC; 
 therefore AD : DB : : AE : CE. 
 
 CoR. I. Hence also the whole lines AB, AC, are proportional 
 to their proportional segments (Cor. Th. 23,) namely AB : AC : : 
 AD: AE, and AB: AC:: BD:CE. 
 
 CoR. 2. A straight line which divides the sides of a triangle 
 proportionally is parallel to the remaining side. 
 
 Theor, XXX\\ fig. 52. If a line bisect the vertical angle of 
 a triangle and meet the base, the segments of the base will be di- 
 rectly proportional to the other two sides of the triangle. 
 
 In the triangle ABC let BD bisect the vertical angle, then AB : 
 BC : : AD : DC. For, draw CE parallel to DB, meeting AB 
 produced in E. The angle F.CB is equal to CBD (Th. y,) or to 
 DBA (bv hvp.) that is to CEA or CEB ( I'h. 9, Cor.) therefore 
 CB is eqiial'to BE (Th. 4.) In the triangle AEC, the line BD is 
 parallel to EC, therefore AB : BE : : AD : DC, or since BE is 
 equal to BC, AB : BC : : AD : DC. 
 
 CoK, Hence, conversely, if a line be drawn from the vertex of 
 
 a triangle
 
 592 
 
 GEOMETRY. 
 
 a triangle to divine t!ie 'osjc into segments ilirectly proportional to 
 the sides, tiuit line will bisect the vertical ajigle. 
 
 Theor. XXXVI. fig. jj. Equiangular triangles are similar, 
 •r Iiave lli'.'ir like sides proportional. 
 
 Let ABC, DEI-", be two eiiuiangnlar triangles having the angle 
 A equal to the angle D, the angle B to the angle E, and consc- 
 oi:entlv the ansle C to the angle F, then will AB: AC : : DE: 
 DF. Take DG equal to Aii, and UH to AC, and join HG. 
 Then the triangles ABC, DGH are equal in all respects, (Th. 1,) 
 namely, the angles B and C equal to the angles G and H, but B 
 an;l C 'are equal to E and F, Chy hyp.) therefore G and H are equal 
 to E and F, and consequentlv GH is parallel to EF, (Th. S, Cor.), 
 therefore DG: DH : : DE: l)F(Th.34, Cor. I,) but DGand DH 
 are equal to AB and AC, therefore AB : AC : : DE : DF. 
 
 Theor. XXXV II. lig. 53. Triangles which have their sides 
 proportional are equi.u.gular. 
 
 In the triangles ABC, DEF, if AB : AC : : DE : DF : : BC : 
 EF, the triangles will have their corresponding angles coual. 
 Take D fl equal to AC, and DG equal to AB. Then'DG : bH 
 :: DE: DF, therefore Gfl is parallel to EF (Th. 34, Cor. L') ; 
 hence the triangles DGH, DEF are equiangular (Th. 9) ; where- 
 fore DG: GH : : DE : EF (Th. 36) : : AB: BC (by hyp.) ; since 
 therefore DG : GH : : AB : BC, and that DG is equal to AB, 
 therefore GH is equ.d to BC. Thus the triangles DGH, ABC, 
 having the three sides of the one respectively equal to the three 
 sides of tiie other, are ecjuiangular (Th. 5,) theretore also the tri- 
 tngles ABC, DEF, are equiangular. 
 
 Theor. XXXVIll. tig. 53. Triangles which have one angle 
 in the one equal to one angle in the otiier, and the sides about 
 these angles proportional, are equiang'ilar. 
 
 Let A15C, DEF, be two ir.angles liaving the angles A and D 
 equal, and .\B : AC : : DE : DF' ; these triangles' shall be equian- 
 gular. Make DG eonal to AB, and DII to AC, and join GH : 
 thus the triargles ABC, DGH, are idenlical and equiangular 
 (Th. 1) ; therefore HD : DG ; : CA: AB : : FD : DE (by hyp.); 
 theiefore HG is parallel to FE, (Th. 34, Cor. 2,) and tiie I'nan- 
 jles HDG, FDE, also CAB, FDE, are equiangular. 
 
 Theor. X>^XIX. fig. 54. If four lines are proportional, the 
 rectangle of tiie extremes will be equal to the rectangle of the 
 means ; and if the rectangle of the extremes be equal to the rect- 
 angle of the means, the four lines are proportional. 
 
 Let the four line- A, B, C, D be oroportional, or A : B: : C ; 
 D, then will the rectangle of A andD be equal to the rectangle 
 of B aUii C. Let the lour hne? be placed with their extrtniities 
 meeting at a common point, and forming fjur right angles ; and 
 draw lines parallel to them to complete the rectangles P, Q, R ; 
 wiiere P is the rectangle of A and D, Q the rectangle of B and 
 C, and R the rectangle of B and D. Then the rectangles P and 
 R will be to each otiu-r as A and B (Ih. 33,) and in like manner 
 the rectangles Q and li will be to each other as C and D ; but 
 (lie ratio ot A to B is the same as the ratio of C to D ; there- 
 fore the ratio of P to R is the same as the ratio of Q to R, and 
 consequently P and Q are ei|ual. 
 
 Again, if the rectangle of A and D be equal to the rectangle of 
 B and C, A : B : : C : D. For the rectangles being placed as be- 
 fore, it is evidei* that P and Q have each the same ratio to R ; 
 but V is to R as A to B, and Q to R as C to D, therefore A : B 
 : : C : D. 
 
 CoR. If three lines arc proportional, the rectangle of the ex- 
 tremes is equal to the square of the mean : and if the rectangle of 
 the exlremes b'- eijual to the square of llie mean, the three lines 
 «re proportional. 
 
 Theor. XL. fig. 55 and 56. If two lines meeting a circle cut 
 each other, either within it, or without, the rectangle of the p;;rts 
 of the One will be equal to the rectangle of the p.trts of the other ; 
 the parts of each being mea-^ured from the poiut of meeting to the 
 two intersections with the circumference. 
 
 Let the two chords, AB, CD, meet each other in E, the rect- 
 sncleof .-iE, EB,is equal'tothe rectangle of CE. ED. Jo:n AD, 
 anS-C'B. The triangles AED, CEB, are equiangular, for the an- 
 gles at D and B are equal (Th. 19, Cor. 1,) and the angles AED, 
 C'EB, are opposite (fig. 54,) and tfierefore equal (Th. 7) : ot tiie 
 angle at E is common to both triai'gles (lig. 57,) in either case the 
 triangles are equiangular; therefore DE : EA : : EB: EC (Th. -, 
 56") ;%e:ice the rectangle of DE» EC, U equal to the rect^ijle of | 
 
 AE, EB, (TU. 39.) 
 
 Cor. If the line BAE, (rig. 5u,) be supposed by revolving to 
 coir.e into the po>itioa of the tangent AE, (ug. 57,) the distances 
 BE, AE, will tluis have become equal. Hence we have tliii 
 Theorem. If from a point without a circle two lines be drav ; , 
 one touching it, ;md the other cutting it, the rectangle of the c. 
 tances of that point trom the intersections of the cutting line, or 
 secant, is equal to the square of the tangent. 
 
 Theor. XLI. lig. 5S. In a right-angled triangle, a perpcn: 
 cular from the right angle is a mean proportional belMeen f 
 segments of the hypothenuse ; and each of the sides about i 
 right angle is a mean proportioiial between the adjacent segmei 
 and tlie hvjwthenuse. 
 
 Let ABC be a right-angled triangle, and CD a perpendicu 
 upon the hvpotheinise; tlien will AD: DC:: DC : DB, anu 
 AB : AC : : AC : AD, and AB : BC : : BC : BD. 
 
 For tile triangles ACB, ADC, having tiie right angles at C and 
 D equal, and the angle at A common, have their third angit s 
 equal, and are equianjular ; and in like manner it will appear iIt \ 
 the triangles ACB, CDB, are equiangular. Her.ce these tin ■ 
 triangles AC B, ADC, CDB, being equiangular, will have t: ' 
 sides about the equul angles proportional ; tlius we get AD : DC 
 : : DC : DB, and AB : AC : : AC : AD, and AB : BC : : BC • 
 BD, (Til. 36.) 
 
 1 HEOR. XLII. fig: 59. Equiangular or similar triangles jire 
 to each other as the squares of their like sides. 
 
 Let ABC, DEF, be two equiangular triangles, ABandDI". 
 being their homologous or like sides, aiid AL, DK, squares ■ 
 thrte sides. The triangle ABC is to tlie triangle DEF as t. 
 square AL to the square DN. Draw CG and i H perpendicular 
 to AB and DE, and join BK and E.M. The triangles ACG, 
 DFH, are equiangular (Th. 10, Cor. 3) ; therefore AC : DF : ; 
 CG : FII (Th. 36) ; but the triangles ABC, DEF, being equian- 
 gular, we have AC : DF : : AB: DE ; therefore, from equality 
 of ratios, we have CG : FH : : AB : DE : : AK : DM, and by al- 
 ternation, CG : AK : : FH : DM. Now CG : AB : : triangle ABC 
 : triangle ABK, (Th. 33, Cor.) ; and in like manner FH : DM : : 
 triangle DFE : DME, therefore triangle ABC : triangle ABK : : 
 triangle DFE: triangle DME, and by alternation, triangle ABC 
 : triangle DFE : : triangle ABK : triangle DM E. But the squares 
 AL, DN, being the doubles of the triangles ABK, Df E, have the 
 same ratio with them. Therefore th.e triangle ABC is to the tri- 
 angle DFE, as the square AL to the square DN. 
 
 Iheor. XLIII. fig. Go. Similar rectilineal ligures are to each 
 other as the squares ot their like sides. 
 
 LetABCDE, FGIIiK, be two similar figures, the like sides 
 being AB and FG, BC and GH, and so on ; ihe figure ABCD"' 
 will be to the figure I'CiHlK as tlie square of AB to the sqiuvre 
 FG. Join BE, BD, GK, GI. Because tlie angles A and F ar* 
 equal, and BA: AE : : GF ; FK, the triangles BAE, GI'K, are 
 equiangular (Th. 3S,) lience AE : EB : . FK : KG, but A E : ED : ; 
 FK : KI (by hvp.), therefore BE : ED : : GK : KI. Now the au» 
 gles AED.FIvl, are equal, and the angles AEB, FKG, have becii 
 proved equal ; therefore the angles BED, GKI, are equal; thus 
 the triangles BED, GKI, are also equiangular, and in th.e same 
 way it may be shewn that the triangles BDC, GUI, areequiang, 
 lar. The triangle ABE is to FGR as the square of BE to t' . 
 square of GK, that is, as the triaugle EBD to Ihe triangle KG;, 
 Ci'h. 4:^,) and in like manner it will appear, that EBD is to KGI 
 as DBC to IGH : therefore the whole figure ABCDE is to th« 
 fisHre FGUlK, as the triangle ABE to the triangle FGK" 
 (Th. -.ft)) ; tliat is, as the square of AB to the square of FG, 
 (Th 42!) 
 
 Cor. 1. Circles are to one another as the squares of their dia- 
 meters. And in general, that all similar plane figures whateverj 
 are to one another as the squares of lines similarly drawn" in 
 them. 
 
 For let ABCDEF, GHKLMN, (fig. 61,) be any two regular 
 polygons, of the same number of sides, inscribed in circles nhos? 
 di:inic'.ers are AD, GL. Draw AO, FO, to the centre of ilie one 
 p'.lys^on, and GP, NP, to the centre of the other. Tlie angle* 
 AOp, GPN, standing each upon the same part of the whole cir- 
 cumference, are evidently equal, a.id consequently the isosceles 
 triangles, AOF, GPN, are similar: thus it apiiears that each of 
 the polygons is ma<le up of the same number of similar triangles ; 
 therefore the polygon ABCDEF, is to the polygon GllKL.MN, 
 a& the triangle AOF to the triangle GPN ; thai is, as tiie saujro
 
 GFOMKTRV. 
 
 rm 
 
 <<( .\() to tlu" sininn- (if (;P, or a^ llic sc]:uir-> o( the fliamf't-r AL> 
 (i) the Mjiureot lli^- <!uiniclor CrL. Now whiti-vrr bo the hU'IiIht 
 cil the sidi'S of tin' p ilvgmi, it is evi<loiit, that their proportion to 
 iji li other will In- thi* synir ; nani<-ly, that of the sqii.irts of tlie 
 ili.uiifltTS of their circiini'icrit)iiig c-ircie<. By supposing the mmi- 
 I •1 of ttie siiles of the polvL^ons coiitimuilly iiicrcisetl, it is evitlev:! 
 (lull tlieir areas will approach more and more to the areas of their 
 cirtiinncrib-n» circle-, vhich may he considered as their limits ; 
 for it may he demonstrated, that a polyuon may have it-> sides so 
 numerous as to dilVer from the area of its eircuiiiscribing cirele by 
 less than anv assignable (piantity. Ilenee v.e may roneliide, that 
 the areas of the circles themselves have to each other the same pro- 
 portion as their inscrilied polygons ; namely tliat of the ?(piare- ol 
 the diameters. 
 
 C'oR. '-'. If circles or any similar plane fionres be described on 
 the three sides of the ijght-angled triangle, that on the hypothenuse 
 is equal to the ctlier two. 
 
 Tor since the two squ.ires GB, GI, on the sides of the right- 
 aiieled triangle ABC ((ig. 42,) are eipial to the square A I). 
 ('I h. 16,) and similar iigiires descr'bed on tl.e lines are as the 
 squares, we have as tlie scpiare Af) ti the figure on AC, so is the 
 scjnare G15 to th-.; similar figure on AB, and so is the scpiare BI, 
 t.) tne similar figure on BC : therefore A!) is to the fii^ure on AC 
 w GB and BI to the fi.nifc on AI5 and HC, (Th. ei)) ; but AD 
 = Gi'. -j- BI, therefore llie ligure AC is ecpiul to those on AB 
 and BC. 
 
 Of Planes and Solids. 
 
 Definitions. 
 
 67. The common section of two planes, is the line in which they 
 meet, or cut each other. 
 
 08. A straight line is perpendicular to a plane, when it is per- 
 pendicular to every line \v|iir-h meets it in that plane. 
 
 ()9. One plane is perpendicular to another, wlien every right 
 line in the oiie, which is per|)L"ndicnIar to their line of common 
 section, is perpendicular to the (■tlu-r. 
 
 70. '1 he inclination of one plane to another, or the angle they 
 form bctweer. them, is the ang'e contained by two right lines, 
 Urawii from any point in tlie common section, and at right angles 
 to the same. 
 
 71. Parallel planes are such as being produced ever so far both 
 vays, w ill never meet, or which tire every where at an equal per- 
 pendicular distance. 
 
 72. A solid is that which has length, hreadih, and thickness. 
 
 73. Similar solids are such as are bounded by an equal number 
 of similar planes. 
 
 74. A prism is a srlid, of T.hirh the sides are parallelograms, 
 and the two ends or bases are similar and ec^ual i)olyCTons,~paral- 
 lel to each other. Prisms are denominated according to the 
 number of angles in the base, triangular prisms, c[uadrangular, 
 l>eptangular, and so on, as ligs. 62, b.3, 64, (jj. If the sides are 
 perpendicular to the |>l.ine of the base, it is called an upright 
 prism ; if they are inchned, it is called an oblicpie prism. 
 
 75. When the base o( a prism is a parallelogram, it is called a 
 parallelo[)ipedon, as figs. 64 and 65. Hence a parallelopipedon 
 
 ^is a solid terminated by si.\ parallelograms. 
 
 76. When all the sides of the parallelopipedon are squares, the 
 solid is called a cube, as fig. 65. 
 
 77. A rhoniboidal prism is an oblique prism, whose bases are 
 parallelograms (fiu. 06.) 
 
 78. A pyramid (ligs. 67 and 68,) is a solid bounded by, or con- 
 tdined within, a number of planes, whose base may be anv po- 
 lygon, i:n{\ whose faces nre terminated in one pcr.nt, B, commonly 
 called the vertex of tlit pyramid. 
 
 'y. When the figure ot the base is a triangle, it is called a Iri- 
 iMigiilar i)yianiid ; when the figure of the base is a quadrilatc-r.il, it 
 is.ca'led a qUL'.drilaleral pyramid, &c. 
 
 80. A pyramid is either regular or irregular, according as the 
 base is regular or irregular. 
 
 SI. A pyramid is also right or upright, or it is oblicpie. It is 
 light, when a line drawn from (he verle.\ to the centre of the base, 
 j» perpendieulai- to it, as fig. 67, and oblique, when this line in- 
 ilines, as fig. (iS. 
 
 62. A cylinder is a solid (figs. 09 and 70,) generated l>y the ro- 
 • ■vot, n. — NO. Oi. 
 
 lat'oii of a rcclai.^le about one of its side^, snpposi d to be at rest i 
 ihis q iies-c*nl sicli; is called the axis of tlie c\linder. Or it may 
 be ccnceived to be generated In' llie motion of a circle, in a 
 diT-ecton p' rpeadicular to its surlace, and always parillel to it- 
 selt'. 
 
 83. A cylinder is either right or oblique, as the axis is perpen- 
 dicular to the base or iiicliiieci 
 
 hA. A cone is a solid (figs. 71 and 72,) having a circle for its 
 base, and its sides a conve.x surface, generated by a line revolving 
 about the circle, on a lixcd point as .\, called tiie vctex or apex 
 ot the cones. 
 
 t;5. A line drawn from the vertex to the centre of the base is 
 the axi- of the cone. 
 
 8(i. When tliis line is perpendicular to the base, the cone is call- 
 ed an uprit/hi, or right cone, fig. 71 ; but when it is inclined ills ' 
 ■••df ed yn olilicpie ccne, lig. 72. 
 
 87. A sphere is a solid, termi!iati:d by a convex surfase, every 
 point of which is at an equal distance from a point within, called 
 ihe centre, (fig. 76.) It may be conceived to be formed by the 
 revcluiion of a semicircle round its di'.meicr. The diameter of 
 the semicircle round which it revoU-es, is called the axis of the 
 sphere. 
 
 88. A S])Iieroid is a solid (fig. 77,) generated by the rotation of 
 a semi-ellipsis about the transverse or conjugate axis ; and the 
 centre of the eltij>sis is the centre if the spheroid. 
 
 8<J. The spheroid is denominated prolate or oblate respectively 
 according as the ellii)sis revolves on the transverse or conjugate 
 diameter. 
 
 Tiiioi;. XI, !V. fig 78. A perpendicular is the shortest line 
 that can be drawn trom aii\ point to a plane. 
 
 Let AB be pejpendicu'lar to the pljiie DE, then any other 
 line, as AC, draw n from the same point A to the plane, will be 
 longer than AB. Join BC ; then ABC is a right angle, hence 
 HCA is less than a riglit angle, and consequently BA less than 
 AC. (Tb. 11.) 
 
 Cor. a p^-Tpendicular measures the distance of any point from 
 a plane. 
 
 Theor. XLV. fig. 79. The conmion section of two planes i* 
 a straght linn. 
 
 J.el ACBD.V, AERI-'A, be two planes cutting eacli other, and 
 A, B, two points in which the two planes meet ; tlie straight line 
 joining the>e poiiiU will be Ihe commun inter>ecticii of the planes. 
 For, because the stiv.iglit line AB touches both planes at the points 
 A, I), it touches them in all points (Uef. 5) ; tliis line is therefore 
 common to both planes, that is, their common intersection is a- 
 straight line. 
 
 Thror. Xl.Vf, fig. 80. If a straight line be perpendicul.ir la 
 two other straight lines, at their common intersection, it will btr 
 per|)en(licular to the plane of those straigiit lines. 
 
 Let the line .'\B make right angles wi\h the lines AC, .\D, it 
 will be per|jeiKiicular to li.e plane CI). \, which passes ihrouali 
 these lines. For, if the line .-VB were not pciprndiciilar to the 
 jilaiieCDF., another |dane mii>,ht pa<s tlnough the point A, to' 
 vhichAB would be perpend, cul.-.r ; but tiiis is impossible, for 
 since the angles BAC, B.'\D, are right angles, this other jilanc 
 must pa-is through the points C, D. Hence this plane passing 
 through the points A, C of the line AC, and also througli the 
 point^ A, D, of the line AD, it -.vill pass through both these lines, 
 and therefore be the sr.me plane with the former. 
 
 Cor. If a straight line stand at right angles to each of three 
 straight lines at the same point, these three lines aie in one 
 plane. 
 
 liiKOR. XLVl. fig. 81. If two Jtraii-ht lines be pcrpendicuLir 
 to the same [il.ine, tiiey will be parallel to eai h other. 
 
 Lc t AB and CD be both perpendicular to the plane EF ; these 
 lines are parallel. Join the points B and D, and draw DG per- 
 pt •■licular to BD, in the plane FF ; mike DG ecpial lo BA, and 
 join AD, AG. Ihe triangles RDG, DBA,' have the tides !)(;, 
 BA, eipial, and BD common to botli ; the angles BDG, DB.-i, 
 are :.l;o cq^iil, being right angles; therefore these triangles are 
 identical, ('I h. 1,) hence BG is equal to AD, and the triangles 
 .•iBG, GDA, have two sides AB, P.(>, of the one, eijuni lo I'wa 
 sides GD, D.\, of the otiier, each to each, and the sde AG com- 
 mon to both; therefore these sl-o are idenlical (Th. j,) licnre 
 the angle ADG is equal to AEGj that is lo a right angle, llcoee 
 ■ ' ^1 ■ it.
 
 594 
 
 GF,0!\IETRY. 
 
 it juipi-ars tlial 1)G is pcrpcjMhciilar lo llie lines CD, AD ; ami it 
 is al-jf) periiciidiciilar to i>C ; (Def. 68.) Thtrefore iKe Hues BD, 
 DA, DC, aix' i'.i the same plane. (Th. 4(J. Cor.) SjiDcc AH, 
 C D, aie iu tlie same pl.iiie, aitd both pL-rpencliculai- to UD, tluiv 
 ai-e p.iralW!. (Th. 8.) 
 
 CoK. If twa Imesbc parallel, and one of them perpendicular to 
 any plane, tiie other will alio be perpendicular to the same 
 plane. 
 
 TiiEOR. XLVIIf. fti^. 8?. If two planes cut each other at right 
 angles, and a straight line be lirawn in one of the planes perpen- 
 dicular to their common mtcrsectioii, it will ye perjienUicular to 
 the other plane. 
 
 Let the planes ACRD, AEBF, cut each other at right angles, 
 and the line CG be perpendicular to their common section AB ; 
 then will CG Ik- perpcndicnh.r to the \)lane AEIiF. For, let FG 
 be perpeiulicular to AB, thus the anjrle CGE is the angle ot incli- 
 nation ol planes, (Def. 70,) and is therefore a right angle; since 
 therefore the line CG is perpendicular to the two lines AG, GE, 
 )t is perpendicular to the plane AEBF, in which tliese lines arc 
 drawn. ('I'h. 4t).) 
 
 Theor. XLIX. fig. S3. Planes, which arc perpendicular to 
 the same straight line, are parallel to one anether. 
 
 Let the planes EF, GH, be perpendicular to AB, thvy are paral- 
 lel ; if not, let them meet, and let C be a point in the vomnion sec- 
 tion, join AC and BC, then the angles CBA, CAB, are right an- 
 gles, which is impossible (Th. 10. Cor. 2) ; hence the planes do 
 not meet, and are therefore parallel. (Def 71.) 
 
 CoK. Hence straight lines perpendicular to one of two parallel 
 planes aie also perpendicular to the other plane. 
 
 '1'hf.or. L. lig. 84. If two straight lines be parallel to a third 
 Jiuc, though not in the same plane with it, they will be parallel to 
 tach other. 
 
 Let AB, CD, be each parallel to the same line EF, though not 
 in the same plane with it, AB shall be parallel to CD. For, let 
 Gil and Gl be perpendicular to EF, in the planes AF and DE of 
 the parallels : then shall GF be perpendicular to the ]i|ane pass- 
 ing by HGI (Th. 46.) ; and 1115, ID, will also be perpendicular 
 to the same plane (Th. 47. Cor.), and therefore parallel. (Th. 47.) 
 Theor. LI. fig. 83. If two lines that meet each other, be 
 parallel to two other lines that meet each other, though not in 
 the same plane with them ; the angles containetl by these lines 
 vill be equal. 
 
 Let the lines .\B, AC, be parallel to the lines DE, DF, then 
 vill the angles BAC, EDF, be equal. For, take AB, AC, DE, 
 DF, all equal, and join KB, FC, BC, EF. Then the lines AB, 
 DE, being e(|ua! and parallel, tlie lines AD, BE, will also be 
 equal and parallel, (Th. 1,?,) and for the same rea--on AD, CF, 
 are equal and parallel; therefore CF is parallel to BE, (Th. 50,) 
 and also equal to it; hence BC is equal to EF. Tluu the tri- 
 angles ABC, DEF, are in all respects equal, (Th. 5,) and there- 
 fore the angles BAC, EDF, are equal. 
 
 Theou. LI!, fig. S(i. The sections made by a plane cutting 
 two parallel planes are also parallel to each other. 
 
 Lit the parallel planes .'\B, CD. be cut by the third plane, 
 EFHG, in the line EF, GU. These lines are parallel. For, 
 suppose, EG, FIl, lo be drawn parallel to each oilier in the plane 
 EFMG ; also, let El, FK, be perpendicular lo the plane CD, and 
 let IG, KH, be joined: then EG, Fil, being parallels, and EI, 
 FK, being both perpendicular to the plane CD, are also parallel to 
 each other, (Th,47,) tlierefore the angle HFK is equal to the 
 angle GEI (Th. b I,) but the angles FKH, EIG, are ecpial, being 
 right angles; therefore the triainjles FKH, EIG, art ctiuiangular, 
 (ih. 10, Cor. .3,) and the sides FK, El, being equal, (Def. 71,) 
 it follows, that the sides FH, EG, are also equal, (Th. 2;) but 
 these two lines are parallel, (by hyp.) as well as equal ; therefore 
 also EF and GH, which join Their extremities, are parallel. 
 <Th. 13). • 
 
 Theor. Llll. If from two cubes, parts similar, and similarly 
 situated, be cut off, these pafts are to one another as the cubes 
 from which they are cut. 
 
 Let the cubes be FB and fb, fig. R7, and let LHIK be the 
 planes by which the cubes are tut, ll>en the parts arc proportional 
 to the whole cubes. 
 
 For.let BA, AE, be divided into an equal number of equal 
 •parts, and b a, ae, into the same number, and through llie points 
 
 of division on each side let planes jia^s parallel to the other sldt ;, 
 then the two cubes will be divided into an e<iual iiuiuher of sin.'U 
 cubes, and thosp^jf each cube? equal among theni^eUcs; tlier • 
 fore as one of the cubes in F15, is to one in J b, so i> the cube 1 'B, 
 to the cube//), (Th. 23). Again, because the parts cut oil are ^l- 
 milar, and similarly situated, their terminating planes and lines are 
 cut proportionally by the planes, forming the cubes, into whiLh 
 the whole is divided ; hence there is an equal number of cubes in 
 the parts cut ofl'; and the magnitudes which remain in the parl^ 
 cut oil", besides the entire cubes, are divided into an e(|ual numbf i 
 of cubes, by taking the divisions in BA, ha, less; therefore, av 
 one otthe cubes in FB is to one in/A, that is as the cube FB is tn 
 fb, so is the part cut from FB, to the similar part cut off 
 from^'i. 
 
 Cor. 1. If several parts similar, and similarly situated, be cu' 
 from two cubes, the like parts are to one another, as the who!'- 
 cubes from which they were cut otf. 
 
 Cor. 2. Any two similar solidj may he considered as being s' 
 milarly cut Irom two cubes, which are to one another as tho^e 
 solids ; or which is the same thing, the solids may be considered 
 as similarly situated in the cubes ; and hence are like parts of tiiem. 
 Theor. LIV. Similar solids are to one another as the cube* ot 
 their like sides. 
 
 Let AB, ah, fig. 87, be the like sides of any two similar solidi. 
 these solids shall be to one another as FB, the cube on AB, toj b, 
 [he cube on u b. 
 
 For let two cubes A and B be taken, so that A may be to B, a. 
 the solid figure on AB to the similar solid figure on ah, and U ; 
 the solid on AB be situated in the cube A, and the solid on u h 
 similarly situated in the cube B, then are they like parts of the 
 cubes A and B; also on AB, and a h, in the cubes A and B. Let the 
 cubes FB and _/' 6 be similarly situated, then in the same manner 
 the cubes FB aiid/6 are like parts of A and B, therefore A : B : : 
 FB -.fb, but A : B : : the solid figure on AB, to the similar solid 
 ligure on nb ; therefore the solid on AB, is to the similar solid on 
 « w, as the cube on AB, to the cube on a li. 
 
 Cor. Hence globes are as the cubes of their diameters. 
 Theor. LV. If a prism be cut by a plane parallel to the base, 
 the section w ill be equal and like to the base. 
 
 Let AG, fig. SS, be a prism, IL a section parallel to the base 
 AC ; IL is equal and similar to AC. 
 
 ForIM ami AD are parallel, being the common sections of pa- 
 rallel plane>, widi a third plane (Th. 52.) ; also lA, MD, are pa- 
 rallel (Def. 74) ; therefore ID is a parallel<,gram ; hence I\l is 
 ecpial AD, and thus KL = BC, and LM = CD, and because 
 the corresponding sitles are parallyl, their contained angles are •' 
 equal (Th. 51) ; therefore, the sections are equal and similar. j 
 
 CoR. The same is true of cylinders; for if MLK be the axis, ' 
 and any sections MC, MB, be drawn through MK, it may be de- 
 monstrated as above, that LI, LH, are equal to KC, KB ; hence 
 CHI is a circle equal lo ABC. Fig. 89. 
 Theor. L\'I. All [)risms of equal bases and altitudes are equal. 
 Let AC and DF, fig. 'JO, be two prisms, and a cylinder, having 
 theirbases a. id altitudes eipial, they are equal to one another. For, 
 let I'Q, K:S, be anv two sections parallel to the bases and ecjuidis- 
 taiit from them. Then since these sections are equal to the baseS' 
 (Th. 55) ; and the bases ecjual to one another, these sections. , 
 .ire equal to one another. Since then the corresponding sections 
 are every where equal, the prisms of which they are the sections 
 are equal. 
 
 Theor. LVH. Rectangular parallelopipedons, of equal alti- 
 tudes, are to one another as their bases. 
 
 Let AC, FLG, fig. 1>1, be two rectangular parallelopipedons hav- 
 ing e<|ual altitudes, AC : ECJ : : the base AB : EF. 
 
 For conceive the base AB to be divided into any number of 
 equal parts ;/J, by lines IL, KM, parallel to BN, and throui^h 
 these let planes be passed parallel to AQ, and let EG, be divided 
 in the same manner, having a number of parts n in the base EF 
 each equal those in tiie ba-^e AB ; then because prisms of equal 
 bases and altitudes are ccpial, AC and EG will be divided into 
 equal prisms, AC into the number iii, and EG into the nuinber ;(, 
 therefore, AC : EG : : m : « : : AB : EF. 
 
 Cor. From this, and the Ui'jt, it appears that all prisms and cy- 
 linders of equal altitudes areas their base-s. 
 Thecrj LVIJI. If a section o{ a jjyramid be parallel to the 
 (3 base,
 
 GEOMKTllV 
 
 595 
 
 base, it is also similar to it, aiul thi'so two platus aia to one aiio- 
 tiur, as llip sinuiies of their disl.incct from the vwtcx. 
 
 l.etAliClJ, lig !)-', No. 1, he a pyramid, liD the base, and 
 K(; purailel to it, and All! apcrpendiniiar from tlie vertex: EG 
 i> -M.iiUrlo Un, jiid Bl) : KG : : AH* : AI-. 
 
 Tor, join CH, I'l. 'I'lieii because the planes BI), EG are )«- 
 rallel, their corresponding sides are parallel, being the common 
 sections of paralkl planes with 3 third plane ; tlierefore the corres- 
 ponding angles are cqnal ( I'h. jl.) : aUo AC : AT : : 13C : ¥S : : 
 C D : t'G (Ph. .34) ; therefore BD and EG are similar (Dcf. 
 5-2). Again. 151>: KG: : lU.-' : KK^ (Th. 431; luit bv similar 
 triangles BC : KF^ : : CA'^ : FA- : : 11 A' : IA« ; therefore BU : 
 KG: :H.V: lA^ 
 
 Cor. The section of a cone pamllrl to the base is 3 circle, 
 which is to the base, as the squares of their distances from the ver- 
 tex. For lei M I'Q, MKU, No. 3, be sections, passing tlirough 
 the axis MK, M L I", perpendicular to tlic base, and N3, the 
 parallel section ; it may he shewn as above, that OS, OW, ON, 
 arc [jaraliel and proportional to KQ, KU, and KP ; hence they are 
 etjual, ai'.d tlie section is a lircle ; and as above, 'I'M^ : LM- : : 
 KR' : OW"- : : cir. PRQ : cir. X US. 
 
 Theor. LiX. Pyramids and cones of equal ba^es and altiludes 
 are equal. 
 
 Let ABC, MPQ, fig. 92, be any pyramids, and cone, having 
 equal bases and altitudes, they are equal to one another. 
 
 For, let EG, NS, be sections, parallel to the bases and at equal 
 altitudes ; then since these planes are as the s(]uare3 of the dis- 
 tances from t.he vertex, (Th. 58,) and since the bases are equal, 
 and the distances from the verte.\ respectively equal, the sections 
 are equal to one another; and becau.=e all the corresponding sec- 
 lions are equ.'jl ; tlm solids ABC, MPQ, arc also equal, 
 
 Theor. EX. A triangular prism, is three times apyrainid of the 
 same base and altitude. 
 
 Let AEF, tig. 93, be the ])rism, it is three times the pyramid, 
 BDEF, having the same base and altitude. For join Bt), BF, 
 and CD ; then the prism is divided into three pyramids BDEF, 
 DABC, DBCF ; the lirst two are e<]ual because they have equal 
 bases, ABC, EDF, and equal altiludes, (Dcf. 74, and Th. 5y) ; 
 also the pyramid DBCF is etpial to BDEF, for EBF, (being 
 talcen for the base) is equal toCBF, (Th. !2,) and they have the 
 common vertex D ; therefore, the three pyramids are equal ; and 
 therefore, the prism is triple of any one of them. 
 
 CoR. 1. Every pyramid is the third part of a prism of the 
 same base and altitude. F"or every prism, may be divided into 
 triangular prisms. 
 
 CoR. 2. A cone is the third part of a cylind^er of equal base 
 and altitude. For a cylinder is equal to a prism, and a cone to a 
 pyramid of equal base and altitude. 
 
 Cor. 3. Pyramids and cones of equal altitudes, are as their 
 bases. For the prisms, of which they are the third part, are as 
 their bases. (Th. 57.) 
 
 Theor. LXL ~ A sphere is two-thirds of its circumscribing 
 cylinder. 
 
 Let ABCD, fig 94, be a cylinder, circumscribing the splicre 
 EFGH. The sphere i> two thirds of the cylinder. For let AC, 
 be a section passing tluough the connnon axis of the sphere and 
 cylinder, join NA, NB, NT, and draw C1IL parallel to AB or 
 EG ; it is evident, ANB, is the section of a cone havir.g the same 
 base with the cylinder, and vertex N ; and that KL, Kl, and KM, 
 arc the radii of the circular sections (parallel to the base) of the cy- 
 linder, sphere, and cone, respectively ; and since NF, is equal to 
 FIJ, NK is eiiual to KM ; but a circle described on the radius 
 >f[ is equal to the two circles on NK, Kl, (Th. 43, Cor. 2) ; 
 therefore, the circle on the radius KL is ecjuai to the two circles 
 on the radii Kl, KM ; hence the section of the cylinder is always 
 e«iual to the corre-ponding sections of the sphere and cone. But 
 tiie cone is a thir<l part of the cylinder ; therefore, the sphere is 
 two-thir<ls of it, o^ the whole sphere is two-thirds of its circum- 
 scribing cylinder. 
 
 Cor. a cone, hemisphere, and cylinder, of the same base and 
 altitude are to each other as the numbers 1, 2, 3. 
 
 We have now deHvercd the most useful part of Theoretical 
 Geometry : to those who wish to pursue the subiect further, we 
 recommend a carelul perusal of llie works of Euchd, ApoUonius, 
 •lid Archimedes. 
 
 \V hat has already been dt-ir.onstratcd in this tn a^isc will be fot;;/ 
 sufiicient for connecting Geoineiry vith Aljebra, Come Secl;oiis> 
 Perspective, Navigation, Trigonometry, plane and spherical, ar.d 
 the tliiferent branches of mixed Matheniafics, such as Optic », &c. 
 all which are treated in tluir order, in ihi^, work. We shall, there- 
 tore, in the second part, on Practical Geometry, concisely stale 
 the method and rules by which geometry is to be applied to a few 
 e.isy but useful geometrical problems, and to the HHiisuralion of 
 all the ligure", wliethci supcrhcial or solid, that commonly occBi" 
 in theordiuaw' aliairs of lite. 
 
 PRACTICAL GEOMETBY. 
 
 Gf.o.metrical Pcoble.ms. 
 
 Problem L fig. 95. To divide a given line .\r> into l-no equal 
 jiarts. — 1. From ihei)oinls A and B as centres, with any distance 
 greater than half AB, describe arcs cutting each other in m ar.<i 
 
 II. 2. Through these points draw the line m n, and the point E, 
 where it cuts AB, will be the middle of the line required. 
 
 Prob. IE tig. tlfi. To divide a given angle ABC, into two 
 eipial parts. — 1. From the point, B, with any radius, describe the 
 arc AC. 2. And from A and C with the same, orany other radius, 
 describe arcs cutting each other in ?i. 3. Through th.e point u draw 
 n B, and it will bisect the aiifile ABC, as was required. 
 
 Prob. 111. fig. 97, yg. From a given point C, in a giveiu 
 straight line AB, to erect a perpentlicular. 
 
 Case I. When the point is near the middle of the line. Fig. 
 97. — 1. On each side of the pointC, take any two equal distances 
 C «, C ;«. 2. FVom n andm, with any radius greater than C n or 
 C m, describe arcs cutting each other in f. 3. Through the 
 point s draw the line s C, and it will be the perpendicular re- 
 quired. 
 
 Case IT. When the point is at or near the end of the line. 
 Fig. 9H. — 1. Take any point o and with the radius or distance w C, 
 describe the arc m C n, and draw m o u, cutting th.e arc m C n 
 in Ji. 2. From the point ;» draw the line 11 C, and it »iU be thr 
 perpendicular required. 
 
 Prob. 1\'. fig. 90, 100. From a given point C, out of a given 
 line .^B, to let fall a perpendicular. 
 
 Case I. When the point is ne.irlv lopposite to the middle of 
 the line. Fig. 99. — 1. From the point C, with any radius, de- 
 scribe the arc ,11 II, cutting AB in 11 and ?k. 2. From the points n 
 and 7n, with the same or any other radius, describe two arcs cut- 
 ting each other in .s. 3. Through the points C.s draw the line 
 CG s, and CG will he the perpendicular required. 
 
 Case II. VVhen the point is nearly opposite to the end of the 
 line. Fig. 100. — 1. To any point m in the line .VB draw the line 
 C m. 2. Bisect the line C m, or divide it into two equal parts, in 
 the point ?i. 3. From n, with the radius 1; m, or n G, describe the 
 arc CGni, cutting AB in G. 4. Througli the point C, draw the 
 line CG, and it will be the perpendicular re<|uiied. 
 
 Prob. V. fig. 101. At a given point D, to make an angle 
 equal to a given angle, ABC. — I. From the |)oint B with any ra» 
 dius de-cribe the arc n m, cuttiin the legs B.X, BC, in the points 
 
 III, n. 2. Draw the line DE, and from Ihepoint D, with the same 
 radius as before, describe the arc r.s. 3. Take the distance mil 
 on the former arc, and ap])ly it to the arcr*, from r to «. 4. 
 Through the points D s draw the line DF, and the angle EDFwill 
 be equal to the angle ABC, as was required. 
 
 Prob. \i. To draw a line parallel to a given li^ie AB. Fis. 
 102, 103. 
 
 Case I. When tlic parallel line is to pass through a given point' 
 C. Fig. 102 — 1. To AB from the point C, diaw'any straight linp 
 Cm. 2. From the point ;/i, with the radius 7«C, dei-cribc the arc C;i 
 cutting AB in n. 3. And with the same radius-, from the point C, 
 describe the arc m r. 4. Take tlie ilistance C u, and apply it to 
 the arc m r from 7/1 tor. 5. Thrcui^h the points C r, draw the 
 lineCG r 11, and it will be parallel to AW, as required. 
 
 Case II. \\ hen the parallel line is to be at a given distance 
 from AB. Fig. 103. — 1. From an: two points r, s, in the line 
 -VB, w ith a radius equal to the given distance, describe the arcs n, 
 m. 2. Draw the line Dti, to touch those arcs without cutting 
 them, and it will be parallel to AB, as was required. N. B, 
 I'he former case of this problem, as well as several other operations 
 of practical geometry, may be more easily etlVcted by a mall^ema' 
 „ cal instrument kaown t>; the uanae o( a parallel tulKX. 
 
 R PiLO*-,
 
 5V,6 
 
 GKOMETJIV. 
 
 Frib. \ il. ti;„'. 1U4. '1 (l.viiie ;. f;iVL-ii lim; AB, into any 
 poposeil luiniber o: eiiiu',1 iiarts.. — 1. Fi'u'.n one end <>t tlie line A, 
 'liiiw A ni, in:ikni,4 any angle with AB ; and from li the other 
 end, draw 15 /i, making an cijiial angle AB «. 2. In eacli ot the 
 lines A in. lin, beginning at A and 15, set off as many eiiiial parts, 
 of any If rintli, as AB ;s to be divided into. 3. Join the parts 
 A 5, 14, 23, &c. and AB will be divided a-; required. 
 
 JVotc. B n may bo drawn parallel to A^n by means of a parallel 
 rider. 
 
 Prob. VIII. fig. 105 To find the centre of a given rircle, 
 
 or one already described. — 1. Draw any chord AB, and bisect -I 
 
 - with the perpendicnlar CD. ?. iSHeUCDin Id.e maimer with 
 
 the \.hor;i K.l", and their intersecti&n O will be the centre re- 
 
 tpiire.!. 
 
 A'ote. The centre of a given circle, or any arcl: of it, ni.iv be 
 found a< :a the next problem by taking three points in the circum- 
 ferencc. 
 
 Prob. IX, fig. 10^3. To describe tlie circumference of a cir- 
 cle through three given points A, B, C. — 1. From the nii<ldle 
 };ont draw the lines or chords, BA and BC. 2. Bisect thesf 
 ctiords perptndiculiTly with, lines meeting each other in O. 3. 
 l-'rom the point of intcrseelion O, with the distance OA, OB, 
 or OC, describe llie circle ABC, and it will be that required. 
 
 Prob. X. iig. 107, 108. To drav.- a tangent to a given circle 
 tliatsliall pass tlirou^^h a given point A. 
 
 C'.i,>E I. When tlie point A is in (lie circumference of the circle. 
 Fig 107. — 1. From the given point A, to the centre of the circle, 
 draw the radius OA. ii. Tiirough tiie point A draw CD perpen- 
 dicular to OA, and it will be the "tangent required. 
 
 Case II. Wlien ti;e point A is without the circle. Fig. 108. — 1. 
 To the point A from the centre O draw the lii^e OA and bisect it 
 in «. 2. Fr'aii tlie point n with the radius nA or iiO discribethe 
 semicircle AiK), cutting the given circle in B. ' 3. Tiirough 
 the points A, B, draw the line BA, and it will be the tangent re- 
 quired. 
 
 Puoii. XI. fig. lOy. To find a third proportional to two given 
 lines A, B. — I. From the point C, dr,.w two right lines, making 
 any angle FCO. 2. In these lines take CF equal to tlie ira-st term 
 A, and CG, CD, each eiuial to the second term B. 3. Join ED, 
 and draw GF parallel to it, and CF will be tlie third proportional 
 required. 'I hat is, CE (A) : CG (B) : : CD (B) : CF. 
 
 PiiOB. XII. tig. 1 10. To lind a fourth proportional to three given 
 right lines A, B, C. — 1. From the point D, tiraw two right Vnes, 
 making any aimie GDII. 2. In tlie.e lines, take DF. equal to the 
 Inst term A, DE, equal to the second term 15, and DII, equal to 
 the third Icrni C. 3. Join FE, and draw HG parallel to it, and 
 DGwili be the fourth proportional reciuiied. That is, DF i Al : 
 DK(B):: I)II(C): DG. 
 
 Pkou. Xlll. lig. 1 1 1. To lind a mean proporlionar between two 
 given ri^ht lines A, B. — 1. Draw anv right line in which take CE 
 eipiai to A.and ED e<|ual to B. 2.' Bi.'ect CI) i., O, and witli 
 OD, or OC, as a radius, describe the semicircle CFD. 3. From 
 the given |)oint E, draw EF perpendicular to CD, and it will he 
 the mean proportional reipiired. 'J'hal is, CE (A) : EF : : EF : 
 ED (B). 
 
 Prob. XIV. fig. 112. To divide a given line AB, in the same 
 proportion with which another given line C is divided. — 1. From 
 the |)oint A ilraw AD ecpud to the given line C, and making any 
 Wiglc with AH. 2. To AD apply tlie several divisions of C, ami 
 Join DIS. 3. Draw thesevcul lines ii, 33, Src. each parallel to 
 DiJ, and the line AB will he divided as required. — ^That is, the 
 j>arlsA I, 12, 23, 34, 4 B, on the line AB, will be proportional to 
 the parts 10, 12, 23, 34, 45 on the line C. 
 
 Pkob. XV. (ig. 113. To make a triangle whose three sides 
 p'.i.ili be respi-ctively equal to three given lines A, B, C. — 1. Draw 
 a line DE eepial to one of the given liiu's C. 2. On the point D, 
 with a radius equal to 15, describe an arc. 3. And on the point E, 
 with a ra<lius i-(|ual to A, <le crihe another arc, cutting the former 
 in F. 4. Draw thv lines DF, EF, and DFE will be the triangle 
 re<piired. 
 
 ('or. Hence it i<; evident how an equilateral triangle mav be 
 «lei!i ribed upon a ffiven straiglit line. 
 
 ..N ('(.••. The t!irce given lines must be of such a length that any 
 two of them must be togctlirr greater than the third. 
 
 PaoB. X\I. (ig. 114. l.'pon a given line AB to describe a 
 5«uai-(i.— 1. From Uie point B, draw 15C pevpcndieulai-, aud equal, 
 
 to .\B. 2. On A and C, with tiie r.idius AB, defcril)e two arcs 
 cutting each otiier in D. 3. Draw the lines AD, CD, and Ihtt 
 figure ABCD will be the square required. 
 
 Prob. XV'Il. fig. 115. To describe a rectangle whose length 
 and breadth shall be equal to two given lines AB and C.^-1. At 
 ilie point B, in the given line AB, erect the perpendicular BD, and 
 make it equal to C. 2. From the points D, A, with the radii AB 
 and C, de^iribe two arcs cutting each other in E. 3. Join EA and 
 I'^D, ana A!')!)E will be the rectangle required. 
 
 Pkou. XN'lll. fig. 116. In a given triangle ABC to inscribe a 
 cirtle. — 1, Bisect the angles at A and B by the btraiglit lines AO 
 and BO. 2. Fr;)in the point of intellection O, let tall the perpen- 
 dicular Ok, and it « ill be the radius ol the circle required. 
 
 Pi. OB. XIX. fig. 117. About a given triangle ALK,', to cir- 
 cumscribe a circle. — 1. Bisect the two sides ^VB, BC, bv the per- 
 ;)t ndictilars m o i.ni\ ii o, 2. From the point of inter.->ecti"on o, with 
 the distance OA, OB, or OC, describe the circle AC 15, and it will 
 be (iut required, 
 
 Prob. XX. fi^. 1 IS. To make a figure similar to a given figure 
 ABODE- — 1. Take A b eipial to tiie siile of the ligure required, 
 and Irom the angle A draw the diagonals AC, AD. 2. From the 
 points b, c, il, draw c, c d, ile, parallel to BC, CD, DE, and A 
 b c itc nili be similar to ABt^'Dl;. The same thing ma\ also be 
 done bv making the angles b, c, il, c, respectively equal to the au- 
 gles B,"C, D, E. 
 
 Prob. XXI. fig. 119. To construct a scale of chords to any 
 given radius, Aii- — 1. Draw AC perpendicular to AB, and on A 
 as a centre, with the given radius AB, describe the arc BC, which 
 will be a (piadraiit. 2. On B, as a centre, with the given radius 
 AB, describe an arc cutting the quadrantal arc at D, then BD will 
 be an arc of 60 degrees. 3. Take an arc DE eipial to DC, thus 
 the quadrant BCwill be divided into three e(jual arcs, each con- 
 taining 30°. 4. Let eacli of the arcs BE, ED, DC, be divided in- 
 to 30 equal parts, (which must be done by triah, for it cannot be 
 done by any direct geometrical method,) and thus the whole quad- 
 rant will be divided into 90°. 5. Join BC, and on B, as a centre, 
 with the distances between B and each of the divisions as radii, let 
 arcs bedescrilied to meet BC, as in tiie ligure. Thus the di^tance, 
 between B and any one of the divisions of the scale BC, will 
 be equal to the chord of the corresponding arc ot the quadrant 
 BE DC. 
 
 Prob. XXII. fig. 120. To make an angle of any proposed 
 number of degrees. — 1. Take the Inst t)0 degrees from llie scale of 
 chords, andhonithe point A, with this radius describe an arch 
 n in. 2. Take the chord of tlie ])roposed number of degrees Irom 
 the 'same scale, and apply it from n to m. 3. From the point A 
 draw the lines A n and A m, and ihey will form the angle rei|uir- 
 ed. 4. If the given angle be greater than 90°. it may be taken at 
 twice. 
 
 Prob. XXIIl. fig. 120. An angle, B.\C, being given to find 
 the number of degrees it contains. — 1. From the angular point A 
 with tiie chord ot IJO degrees describe the arc n in cutting llie legs 
 in the points naiidxf. 2. Take the distance;!'//, and apply it 
 to tlie siale of chords, and it will shew the degrees required. 
 3. When the distance nm is greater than y0°, it must be taken at 
 twice. 
 
 Aiotc. Bolli this and the last probhin raay be performed . by 
 means of a protracter, which is u graduated arc designed lor the 
 purpose, !^ee fig. 121. 
 
 Proh. XXIV. fig. 122. In a given circle, to describe a poly- 
 gon of anv proposed number ot sides. — 1 . Divide 300° by the num- 
 ber of sides, aiul make an angle ACB, at the centre, wliose meOr 
 sure sliidi be iqiijlto the degrees in the quotient. 2. Joiu the 
 points .\, B, and apply the clior<l AB, to the ciicumfeience the 
 given lumiber of times, and it will loiin the polygon required. 
 
 Prou. XXV. fig. 122. On a given line A B to form a regular 
 polygon of any proposed number of sides, .^-1. Divide 3G0° by the 
 number of siiles, and subtract the quutient from ISO degrees. 2. 
 .Make the angles ABC and B.\C each ecpial to half the diiierence 
 last found. 3, From the point of intersection C-, with the dis- 
 tance CA, or CB, describe a circle. 4. Apply a chord, AD, to 
 the circumference the proposed number of times, and it will forju 
 the polygon required. 
 
 Aotc. By this mi thod the circumference of a cifcle maybe di- 
 vided into any number of equal paints. 
 
 Geometry,
 
 '^i' dj ^M IVil H'J Jl JTS U 
 
 ti.hlitAf.i I', ./.ttit.: .ill,./.:- 4/A/.*» »s.^, r.....J^
 
 J
 
 l'K©>!nETM.Y, 
 
 B n 
 
 jj 
 
 u 
 
 i.-i
 
 GEO 
 
 597 
 
 GEO 
 
 Gf.ometkv, Spheric. Scl- Projectfom of the Sphere. 
 
 (iKOKGK LEW IS I. king of (jreat Britain, \v:is t lie son of 
 Ernest Augustus, elector ot IlanovrT, by Sophia, daughter of Fred- 
 eric, elector Palatine, au'l the giaml-daugliler of James I. of F.n^- 
 lauil. He was born in l66vi, cri':-.tecl duke of Caml)ridgc in 1700, 
 and succeedrd queen Aunt; iji 1714. The ne\t year a rebellion 
 broke out ui Scotland in favour of the pretcndi-r, whicli was soon 
 sui)]>ressicl. In his rpiijn parliameiits wore made septennial, and 
 the order of the Bath re^'ived. In IT.'O hapjjened the failure of the 
 famous South soa schenie, by which thoii.,aniis of families were 
 ruined. He died -u<ldoidy, June 11, I7'J7, at Osnabiir!;li. 
 
 Georoe Ai.'c;i;sTt'S 11. was born inl«i>ij. He manifd.in 1705, 
 princess Caroline, of BraHdenburg An^pa' h, who died in 1737. 
 Jn 1714 he came to Hiigland with his father, wltom he succeeded 
 in 1737. In 173!) admiral Vernon was sent witii a squadron to the 
 West Indies, where he demolished Porto Bello, hid failed in his at- 
 tempt on Carthagena. In 1743 the king hcadeii his army on llie 
 coiitMient, and gained tlie battle of Dettiiigen. In 174'j the pre- 
 tender'seldc^ison landed in the Highland, and wa; joined by seve- 
 ral clans. After obtuiii'ncf various successes, the rehe's \> ere de- 
 feated by the duke of Cumberland at Ciillode'i in 174li. In 1748 
 peace was concluded at Aix-la-Chaoelle. In 1 75 •"> war broke out 
 between En:;lanl and France, and m 17.iS a treaty was entered in- 
 to between Ent;landand Prussia. 'I'lie French power was nearly 
 destroyed in t'le F,a^t Indus. In America Louisl'tirg was taken, 
 and the capture of (Quebec was followed by the conquest ot Ca- 
 nada. The islan.l of Guadaloupe and liie si ttleuitnt of Senegal 
 were taken by the Fngliih. Admiral Ha«ke defeated the French 
 fleet under Conl'ans, aiul the Buii-h liag waved Iriuniphant in 
 every part of the world. Amid this blaze ot glory George 11. died 
 suddenly, by the bursting of the rigiit ventricle of the heart, Octo- 
 ber 25, 1700 
 
 George St. The Capp.xdociam, bishop of Alexandria on 
 llie e.xpulsion of St. Athaiiasius. lie was a native of Epiphania in 
 Cilicia, and was, for some time, a purveyor in the ?rmy, but his 
 frauds were so great that lie was ob!ig<-d to tly to avoid justice. He 
 then went to ."Vle.Nandria, where he displ; yed great zeal for Arian- 
 isni, and in 356 was elected bi^hop by ilie pv<'vailing party. His 
 conduct was so cruel an<l ojipressive that the people put him to 
 death in 3()-'. CJreat difliculties Inve bet n raised aliout liiis saint 
 or hero. His very exiitence Iris been called in cpiestion. Ho«- 
 ever the above is Renerallv received. He is famous throughout all 
 the East, and is called by tfie Greeks M!y-tx^;j.ail-^; i, e. Ihegrcfitni'ir- 
 tyr. England and. Portugal have both chosen him for their patron 
 saint. 
 
 George, Fort St. a town and fort on the coast of Coromandel, 
 in Ind'a. See Madras. Lat. 13°. 4'. .i4'. N. Lon.v.O'. 24'. 4i>'. E. 
 
 George, St. in geography, one of the Azores. Lon. 28. 0. W . 
 Lat. 38. 53. N. 
 
 GtoBGE, St. (Jros5 of, a red cross in a field argent, whi(;h 
 makes part of the British standard. 
 
 Gkorce, St. del Mi.va, a fort on the Gold Coa-'t of Guinea, 
 the principal settlemenl of the Dutch in tho»e pans, who took it 
 from the Portuguese in lti30. It is about 10 niiles W. of Cape 
 Coast Castle. Lou. 0. 22. W. Lat. 5. n. N. 
 
 George, St. Knights or. See Gartf.r. There have been 
 various orders under this denomination, most of which are now 
 extinct. 
 
 George, St. Religious of. Of iliese there are divers orders 
 and congregations ; particularly canons regular of St. George in 
 Alga, at S'enice, founded bv Bartholomew Colonna, in 1306, and 
 established by Pope Boniface IX. in 14o4. Pope Pius V. n 1570, 
 j»ave these canons precedence of all other religious. Th.ere is an- 
 other coi'gregKtion in Sicily. 
 
 George thf. lild's Island, K;ng, the name given by Capt. 
 Cook to Otaheite. 
 
 George's Bamk, Sr. a fishing-bank of MassarSusels, on the 
 Atlantic, E. of Cape Cod ; extending between Lon. 67. 50. and 68. 
 40. W. and fr .m Lat. 41 . 15. to 42. 22. N. 
 
 George's Channel, St. the channel between the W. coast of 
 Enshtnd and the S. E. of Ireland. 
 
 George's Islanij, St. an island of England, in Cornwall, op- 
 posite to E. and W . Loe. 
 
 George's Islands, St. i-lands in the Gulf of Mexico, on the 
 coats of E.Florida, nearly opposite to the mouth of thcApaluchicola. 
 JLon. 84. 50. \V. Lat. 29. 30. N. 
 
 VOL 11. — NO. 9(3. 
 
 George's RivEr, St. a river of the United St.ites, in the <lis-^ 
 trict of Maine, which becomes an ami of the sea, 2 leagues S. ^^'. 
 of Penobscolt Bay. 
 
 George's River, St. a very broad but short river of Maryland, 
 in St. Mary's county. 
 
 George's, St. liie largest of the Bermuda Islands, lying 500 
 miles E., of the continent of N. America. Lon. 63. 30. \\ . Lat. 
 32. 45. N. 
 
 George's, St. the capital of the island of Grenada, formerly 
 called Fort Royal, from its foit. 
 
 GEOlUiE'fOVVN, a large maritime district of S. Carolina, 
 bounded en the N. E. by N. Carolina, S. E. by the Atlantic , S.W. 
 by tlie Saii'ee and N. \V. bv Camden and Ciieruws districts. It 
 is 112 miles lon^ from N. to S. and (J3 broad ; and contains four 
 counties, viz. Liberty, Winyaw, Kingston, and Williamsburg. 
 It produces rice, Indian corn, cotton, indigo, wood, Sic. 
 
 Georgetown, the capital of the above district, 55 mdesN. by 
 E. of Charlestown. 
 
 Geougf.town, a town of Delaware, capital of Sussex county, U> 
 miles W. S. W. of Lewistown, and 103 S. of Philadelphia. 
 
 Gf.orgetown, a nourishing town of Georgia, 5."; miles from 
 Augusta. 
 
 Gf.orcetown, a town of Kentucky, 14 miles N. N. SV. of 
 Lexiii;;ton, and 20 \i. bv K. of I'Vanktort. 
 
 GEORtilA, a countrv of Asia, bounded on tlie N. by Circas- 
 sia, on the E. by Uagliestan and Shirvan, on the S. by Armenia, 
 and on the W. bv the ICuxine or f^l.-.ck Sea; comprehending the 
 greatest part of th(r ancient Colchis, Iberia, and Albania. About 
 the et\mology of the name, authors diHcr. The most probable 
 opinion is, that it is a corruption bv the softening of Kurgia, from 
 the river Kur; whence also it is supposed that the inhabitants are 
 called by the Persians inditl'eiently Gurgi and Kurgi ; and the 
 country Kurgistan and Gurgistan. (jeorgia is divided by a ridge 
 of mountain-, into eastern and western; the former of wliich is 
 again subdivided into the kiuyloms of Caket, Carduel or Carthuc!. 
 aiulGoguelia; and the latter int) the provinces of Ab^assia, Mi- 
 reta or Imeritia, ami Guriel. Anotlier division is into Georgia 
 Proper, .\bcassia, and Mingrelia. '1 cHis is the capital. This 
 whole country is so extremely beautifu that sonf taiiciuil tta- 
 vellers have imagined thev had here founn ihe situation of the ori- 
 ginal garden of Eden. 'I'he hills a-e covered with forests of oak, 
 a>h, beech, chesnuts, walnuts, and elm-, encircled with vines, 
 growing perfectly wild, but producing vast quantities of grap«. 
 From the.-.e is annually made as much wine as is necessary for the 
 yearly consumption ; ihe remainder are left to rot on the vines. 
 The wine is so rich, that the Persian monarch has it always at his 
 table. The wl.ole c<Hintrv is very fertile, and abounds with cattle 
 and wild fowls of various kinds. 'J'he bread is excellent, and the 
 fruits, apples, pear^, poniegi-'nate^, S:c. have an exquisite flavour. 
 Cotton grows spontaneoiisly, as well as the finest Eurojiean fruit- 
 trees. Rice, wheat, millet, hemp, and (lax, are raised on the 
 plains, almost without culture. Tlie valleys afford the linest pas- 
 turage: the rivers are full of tish; the mountains abound in mme- 
 rals, and the climate is delicious; so that nature appears to have 
 lavished on this favoured country every production that can con- 
 triinile to the happiiKVS of its inhabitants. The government of 
 Georgia is despotic; but, were it not for the assistance of the 
 Russian troops, the prince would frequently be unable to carry his 
 decrees into execution. The puiiishiiieiits in criminal ca-es are 
 shockingly cruel ; fortunatcly'tliey are not frequent, because it is 
 easy to escape into some of the neighbouring countries, and be- 
 cati-e the prince is more enriched by conliscating the property of 
 tiie criminal, than by putting hiin to to.ture. Judicial combats 
 are considered as the privilege of nobility, and take place when 
 the cause is extremely intricate, or when the power and interest of 
 two claimant? are so equal, that neitlur can force a decision of the 
 court in his favour. This mode of trial is called an appeal to the 
 judgement of God. This coontry ior.;ierly abounded with irreat 
 cities, as appears from the ruins of many of them still visible, 
 which shew that they must have been very large, opulent, and 
 magnificently built. These were all destroyed by the northern 
 barbarians from mount Caucasus, as the Alans, Huns, Snevi, and 
 othi-rs, so much noted in history for their strength, courage, and 
 conquests. In the fifteenth century, a kiug of Georgia divided 
 among his five sons the provinces of Carduel and Caket, Imeritia, 
 Mingrelia, Guriel, and Abcassia. These petty princes were too 
 7 N jealou'j
 
 GEO 
 
 f^im 
 
 GER 
 
 ealous to imitt; lor their conitr.on tlciViice, and too weak 'iiigly to 
 rejist a fovingn enemy, or <n'en to chock the ejici-oachirieiits of 
 their great vassals, wiio soon becaiiie indcpeiulciit. liy tonniii;; a 
 party among the^e nobles, the 'links yraiiiially gained possL-ssion 
 of -all the western pro\ ince';, wliile the Persians occiipii-d tlie go- 
 venmients of Carduc! and C'aket. bmcc that period llie many 
 imsiiccesslul attempts of tin- <ieorgians to recover their liberty 
 have repeatedly |)rodnc<-d tlie <levasfation of their country. " '1 he 
 inhal)itants, (says Sir George Chardin.) are robust, valiaiil, and of 
 a jovial temper; great lovers of wine, and esteenied very trusty 
 and faithfnl; endowed with good natural parts, but, for u ant of 
 education, very vicious. Tlie women are genei-allv so fair and 
 comeJy, that the wives and concubines of the king of Persia and 
 his court are for the most part Geoigian women. 'The Georgians 
 are Christians of the Greek conmumion. Their dress nearly re- 
 sembles that of tl;e Cossacks; but men of rank frequeiitU wear 
 tlie habit of Persia. Tliey usually dye tlieir hair, beard, and nails, 
 with red. The Georgian women eniploy the same colour to stain 
 the palms of their hands. On their hea'ds they wear a cap or lil- 
 Ict, under which their black hair falls on their foiehead: behind, 
 it is braided into several tresses. Their ejebrows are painted with 
 black, so as to form one entire line, and their faces are perfectly 
 coated with white and red. 
 
 Georgia, the most southern of the United States of America, 
 bounded on the E. by Hie Atlantic Ocean, on the S. by E. and 
 ^V . Florida, on the W. by the Mississippi, and on the N. E. and 
 In', by S. Carolina and Tennessee. It is 666 miles long and ''62 
 l)road, lyirii^ between S0° and 91° Lon. \V.; and 30" 17' and 35° 
 Eat. N. T he winters in Georgia are very mild and pleasant. 
 Snow is seldom or never seen, 'i'he soil and its fertiUty are vari- 
 ous, according to situation and imi)rovements. By culture are 
 produced rice, iiidia;o, cotton, silk, Indian corn, potatoes, oranges^ 
 tigs, pomegranates, &c. Rice at present is the staple commodltv; 
 but great attention is also paid to the raising of tobacco. Georgia, 
 before the revolution, was divided into parishes; afterwards into] 
 three districts, but now into two, called the I'pper and Lower; 
 which are subdivided into twenty-four counties; nine in the Lower 
 District, viz. Camden, Glynn, 'Liberty, Chatham, Bryan, MTn- 
 tosh, Etiingham, Scriven, and Burke'; and fifteen in'tlie Upper, 
 VIZ. Montgomery, ^Vashington, Hancock, Greene, Franklin, 
 Oglethorpe, Elbert, Wilkes, Lincoln, Warren, Jefferson, Jack- 
 son, Bullock, Columbia, and Richmond. The chief towns are Sa- 
 vannah, the lonner capital of the state; Augusta, tlie iale seat of 
 government, Lou.sville, the present metropolis; (see these arti- 
 cles ;) Sunbiiry, Brunswick, Frederica, Washington, St. Patricks, 
 Goltinton, Greensborough, ice. 'I'he whole coast of Georgia is 
 bordered v\'itli islands, the principal of which are Skiddav\'ay, 
 \Vassaw, Ossabaw, St. Catherines, Sapelo, Frederica, JekyI aiid 
 Cninljerland. Near Augusta, there f, a bank of oyster-shells 
 ninety miles (rom the sea: and in Wilkes county, near Washing- 
 ton, there is a remarkable spring which rises from a hoUuw tree, 
 five feet long. The inside of the tree is covered with a coat of 
 Jiiatter an inch thick, and the leaves around the Sjjring are incrust- 
 f(\ widi a peculiar subs-tance as white as snow. The water is said 
 to be an eifectual remedy ior the scurvy, scrofula, gout, rheuma- 
 tism, and consumption. The chief ri'i-ers in this state are tire Sa- 
 vannah, 'I urtle river, Little and Great Sitilla, Crooked river, and 
 St. Mark's which forms a part of the southern boundary of the 
 United States. Tiie rivers in the middle and western parts are 
 the Apalachicola, formed by the Chatahouchee and Flint rirers 
 Mobille, Pascagoula, and Pearl rivers. All these run southward 
 into the Gulf of Mexico. 
 
 Georgia, South, an island of the S. Pacific Ocean, discover- 
 ed and named by Captain Cook in 1775. Lon. between 38. 13 
 and 35. 34. W. Eat. j3. 57. and 54. 57. S. 
 
 GEORGICS, [yiiu^y.xov. ge(»-i(!<jue.t, Fr.] poetical compositions 
 upon husbandry. Llesiod and \ irgil are the two greatest masters 
 in Georgics. 'J'lie moderns have produced nothing in this kind, 
 except Rapin's book of Gardening; and the celebrated poem en- 
 titled Cyder, by Mr. Philips, who, if he had enjoved the advan- 
 tage of Virgil's language, would have been second" to Virgil in a 
 much nearer degree. 
 
 GEORGIEV; a town of Russia, in the government of Cauca- 
 sus, thirty-two miles VV . N. W. of Ekaterinograd. 
 GEORGINA, ill botany, a genus of the syngenesia superflua 
 
 ?ee 
 
 irr.iTnw, to view,] an ob- 
 
 class and order. Receptacle chaffy; no down; calyx double; 
 the outer many-leaved; inner one-!eaved, eight-part'ed. Thtiii 
 are three species. 
 
 GEORCilTZ, a town of WalJachia, eigliteen miles N. N. E. of 
 Bucharest, and twenty-four S. £. of 'I'ergovisto. 
 
 GEOKGIUM SiDUS, or the Gf.orgian Picket. Se 
 
 AsTKO.N'O.MY. 
 
 GEOSCOPV, [from r,. earth, and 
 servation ol the dilicreiit ([ualities of the earth. 
 
 GElTD.l', GEl'IDKS, .ir GEI'IDI, in ancient geography, 
 according to Procopius, were a Gothic people, some of whom, in 
 the migration or the Goths, settled in an island at the mouth of 
 the Vistula, which they called Gepidos after their own name, 
 which denotes lazy or slothful ; others in Dacia, calling their set- 
 tlement there Gepidia. 
 
 GEPPING, a town of W^irtemberg, twenty-five miles E. 
 of Stutgard. Lon. 9. 45. E. Lat. 4S. 44. N. 
 
 GI'.KA, a town of Saxony in Misnia, on the Elstcr ; thirty 
 miles S. S. W. of Leipsic, and sixty-eight W. of Dresden. 
 
 t-EKAII, [mj, Heb.] the smallejr silver coin among the He- 
 brews, in value seveiipence-halipenny sterling. 
 
 GEHANITES, in natural history", an appellation given to such 
 ol the semi-pellucid gems as are marked with a spot i-eseuibling a 
 crane's eye. 
 
 G EUAN I UM, Crane's- BILL, in botany, a genus ofthemonadel- 
 phiadecandria class and order. Natural order, Gruinales. Ca- 
 l\x five-leaved; corolla live-petaltd, regular; nectary (ive-honicd 
 glands, fastened to the base of the longer filaments ; fruit live- 
 grained, b akcd ; beaks simple, naked, neither spiral nor bearded, 
 f here aie thirty-two species. The ceinnion wild sorts, and those 
 which are brougiit from the colder climates, are hardv enough, 
 and require little care; but the African species, and the others 
 from hot countries which make so very beautiful a figure in our 
 greenhou.scs, reijuire gnat care in their culiure and propagation. 
 'Ihese may be propagated by seed, which should be sown toward 
 the end of March in beds of light earth, carefully shading them 
 Irom the sun, and giving them frequent but gentle v^ate^ings, till 
 they are well rooted. The shrubby African geraniums are com- 
 monly propagated by cuttings, wh'ch planted in a siiady bonier, 
 in June or July, will take gi;od root in five or six weeks; and they 
 may then be taken up and'])lanted in separaie pots, placing them 
 in the shade till they have taken new root, after wiiich they may 
 be removed into a sheltered situation. Geranium is rec ommend- 
 ecl as one of the greatest vulneraries and abstergents of the vegeta- 
 ble world, and is highly extolled for its power of stopping protlu- 
 via of tiieinenses, and hsmorrhagcs ol all kiiuls. Ex|)erience 
 confirms this, especially among the poor people in the country; 
 and it were to be wished, that the plant couhl be brought into 
 more esteem in the sho[)s, where at present it is disregarded. 
 
 GERAK, or GERARA, in ancient geography, the south boun- 
 dary ol Canaan near Heersheba; situated betweeii Cades and Zur; 
 two deserts, the one f.icing Egypt and the other Arabia Petra-a. 
 
 GERARD, Alexander, D. D. professor of divinity in King's 
 college, Aberdeen, and one ot his majesty's chaplains for Scotland. 
 He was eldest son of the Rev. Gilbert Gerard, and was born the 
 2i?d Feb. 1728. lie studied theology at the universities of Aber- 
 deen and Edinburgh, was chosen assistant to professor D. For- 
 dyce, in 1750, and was afterwards appointed his successor, upon 
 his untimely death, ui 1752. In 1754, a material alteration being 
 made ui the order of teaching philosophy in the university, profes- 
 sor Gerard w as appointed to lay before the public the reasons 
 wliich had influenced them to deviate from the former practice ; 
 which Le accordingly did in a small pamphlet, that gave universal 
 satisfaction ; wherein he pointed out the inconveniences of the old, 
 and the advantages of the new, plan ; which was at this time adopt- 
 ed by both colleges. About this lime too he was an active mem- 
 ber ot a respectable literary society, which met once a fortnight at 
 Aiberdeen, and of which Drs. Blac'kwell, Beattie, Gregory, keid, 
 Campbell, and other eminent literary gentlemen were members. 
 On the 5th of Sept. 1759, he was ordained a minister of thechurcli 
 of Scotland; on the 1 1th of June, 17tit), he was appointed professor 
 ol divinity in the Marischal college, and minister ot the Gray-friars 
 church at .Aberdeen; and about the same time he was created 
 D. D. Dr. Gerard's character in private life was amiable and 
 exemplary. Kindness to his relations, affability with his depend- 
 ants
 
 G 
 
 ER 
 
 599 
 
 G E R 
 
 Bills, <;tea(liiuss ami u:iniuli ill his alUiclniU'iils to liis Iriemls, and 
 ho^pilality to stranger; witlioiit [■xliuv.iguue or ostentation, vvcrt' 
 conspiciious ill liis geiirral coii'liict. Ills public disiomsfs, as a 
 niiiiisler ami prok-ssor, wen- txjiiallv markt-i 1 by (listiii(liic>s of ar- 
 rangement, aiciiracy ot conipDsilioii, ami ju^llless ot reasoning. 
 His I'rieml, l.)r. Beattie, (who himself stands high in the republic 
 of letter>) assures iis, that " he hud improved his memory to Mich 
 a decree, that, in little more tiuui an hour, he could i^et by heart 
 ally sermon of oriliiuiry Iciielli ; though far from availing hiiii'^flf 
 of this talent, as maii\ would have dune, he composed with care all 
 the sermons that he preached." He was aullior of, I. An Ks>ay 
 on Taste: Svo. i'jy. '-'. Dissertations on Subjects relating to 
 the Genius and Evidences of Christianitv : Svo. 176t). 3. An 
 Fssay on Cieiiius: 8vo. 1T74. 4. Several Sermons on Various 
 Subjects, published from 1700 to 1782 ; and 5. A part of his '1 heo- 
 logical Course, entitled " The Pastoral Care, published in 1799, 
 by his sou, Dr. Gilbert Gerard, who succeeded him in his profes- 
 sorship. His Essay on Taste gained the gold priie medal given 
 by the Philcsoi)hieal Society of Edinburgh in 175tj. 
 
 GtRARD, Tung, or Tom, founder and liist Grand Master of 
 the Knights hospitallers ot St. John', or Knights of Malta, «as horn 
 at Ainalli in Italy, in the eleventh centuiv. Jii A. D. Uno, he 
 assumed a religious habit, with a white cross en the breast, and, 
 with many othei-s, engaged in vows of chastity, |)overly, r.nd to re- 
 lieve ;JI Christians in distress, &c. He died in 1 IL'O, and was suc- 
 ceeded as grand master by Raymond du Puy. 
 
 GEUAKDE, John, surgeon in Loudon, the greatest botanist 
 lOf his time, and many vcars chief gardener to lord Burleigii; who 
 *'as himself a great lover of plants, and had the best collection in 
 the kingdom, among which were manv exotics introduced by 
 Gerarde. In 1 jy7, he published his Herbal, which was printed al 
 the e.\pence of J. iNo'ton, who procured the figures Irom Frank- 
 furt. In lt)t)3, Thomas Johnson, an apotliecaiy, publ'shed an im- 
 proved edition of Gerarde's book; which met with such approba- 
 tion by the universitv ot Oxlord, that they ciintcried upon him 
 the degree ot M. D. antl it is stdl much esteemed. The descrip- 
 tions hi the herbal are plain and familiar ; and are calculated to 
 make the reader understand the characters of the plants. 
 
 GEKAKDIA, in botanv, a genus of tlie angiospermia order, 
 and didyiUmia class ot plants; natural order, Pcrsonatap. Calw 
 fiv€-clett; corolla two-hpped, lower lip three-parted, the lobes 
 emarginale, the middle segments two-parted ; capsule two-celled, 
 gaping. Tliere are ten specie>. 
 
 •GERAW, GERAU, or GROSS, a town of Hesse Darmstadt, 
 *en miles S. E. of Mentz. 
 
 GERREROY, a to\vn of France, in the department of Oise, 
 and late province of Isle of Fn.ncc, six miles N. E. of Gouinay, 
 and rifty N . of Paris. 
 = ,1 GERFALCON. See F^alco. 
 
 GERGES.'EI, or GERGESENES, one of the seven ancient 
 nations of Canaan, le:s frecimntly mentioned than the rest. They 
 appear to have been less considerable and more obscure: their 
 name is from Girgasi, cne ol Canaan's sons. 
 
 GERGlNbWALDE. a town oi Saxony, in the circle of Lei))- 
 sic, foiii miles N. E. of Rochlitz. 
 
 GERMAIN, or ST. GERMAIN, a town of France, in the 
 department of Seine and Oisc, and late province of the Isle ot 
 France, ten miles N.W. of Paris. 
 
 (ji'RMAiN LaVAi., St. a town of I" ranee, in the department of 
 Rhone and Loire, 18 miles S. of Roanne, and 2'J5 S. E. of Paris. 
 Lon. 4. L>. E. Lat. 45. 50. N. 
 
 Germains, Si. a borough of England, in Cornwall, ten miles 
 W. of Plymouth. 
 
 GERMAN, in genealogy, s'gnifies whole, entire, or own. 
 Germani, quasi eadem stirpe geniti. F'c'tus. Hence, Brother 
 German, dmoies a brother both by the fathtr's and mother's siile, 
 in contradistinction to uterin, brothers, &c. who are only so by 
 the mother's s'de. And Cousins German, are those in tlie hrst 
 degree, the children of brothers or sisters. 
 
 German Plats, a town and township of New Y:irk, the ca- 
 pita! of Herkcmer county, eighty miles N. W. by W. of Albany. 
 GERMANDI'lR, in botaii'v. See Tkucril'm. 
 GEUMANICUS CESAR", Claudius, the son of Drusus, and 
 nephew to the emperor I'lberius, who adopted him. B\ his mo- 
 ther Aiitonia, daughter of Mark Antony and Octaviaj lie was 
 
 grand-nephew to Aiigus.tus. He was much rcnowijpd as a general, 
 but still more for his virtues. He took the I, tie of Gcrmanims 
 lioir his (oiuiuests in Geriiiaiiy ; but though he refused the em- 
 pire oflered to him by his army, Tiberius, jealous of his smcesi 
 and popularity, caused him to be poisoned, A. D. 29, aged 34 
 He was a protector of learning; and composed some (jreek co- 
 medies and Latin poems, some of which are still extant. 
 
 GF2U.MANO, St. a town of NapWs, at thefoot of Mount Cas- 
 sano. l,on. 13. 59. E. Lat. 41. 13. N. 
 
 G^",,R.\1AN^', till very lately a powerful empire of Europe, but 
 which, in (iillerent ages, has had very dilferent limits. The name, ac- 
 coriling to the most probable ce.njectiire, is derived from the Celtic 
 words, G'/ifir ;ja;j, signifying a warhke man, to which their other 
 name, .MIman, or Ateni n, likewise alludes. The ancient history 
 of the Germans is altogether wrappc d up in obscurity ; nor do we, 
 for many ages, know any thing more of them than what we learn 
 from the history of their wars with the Romans. The first time 
 they are mentioned by the Roman historians, is about B.C. 21 1, 
 when Marcellus subdued Insubria and Ligiiria, amf defeated the 
 Gi'sata-, a German nation situated on the banks of the Rhine. 
 F'rom Ihistime history is silent with regard to all these northern na- 
 tions till I he eruption of the Cimbri and Teutone=, who inhabited the 
 most northerly parts of Germany. It is indeed very diflicult to 
 lix the limits of the country lalled Germany by the Romans. 
 The nouthern Germans were intermixed with tlie Gauls, and the 
 northern ones with the Scythians ; and thus the ancient historv of 
 the Germans includes that of the Dacians, Huns, Goths, &c.' till 
 the destruction of the western Roman empire bv thein. Ancient 
 Germany, therefore, we may reckon to have included the north- 
 ern part of I" ranee, the Netherlands, Holland, Germany so called 
 at present, Denmark, Prussia, Poland, Hung;irv, part of Turkey 
 in Europe, and Muscovy. The Romans divided Cierniany into 
 two regions; 1. Belgic, or Lower Cieniiany, which lay to the. 
 southward of the Rhine; and 2. Germany Proper, or High Ger- 
 many. 
 
 I. Germany, Rei.cic, or Lower Germany, lay between the 
 rivers Seine and the Rhine; and in this we find a number of dif- 
 ferent nations, the most remarkable of which were the following: 
 1. Till' Ubii, wnose territory lay between the Rhine and the Mosa, 
 (or Maese,) and whose capital was Cologne. 2. Next to them 
 were the Tungri, sup|iosed to be the same whom Cssar calls Ebu- 
 rones and Coiidrusi; and whose metropolis, then called Attuatica, 
 has since been named Tongres. 3. Higher up from tlicm, and on 
 tlie other side of the Moselle, were the Treviri, whose capital was 
 Augusta Trevirorum, now Triers. 4. Next to them were tlic 
 Triboc( i, Neinetes, and Vangiones. The former dwelt in AFace, 
 and h;id ArgiMitoratum, now Strasburg, for tlieir capital : the others 
 inhabiiefi the cities ( f Worms, Spire, and Mcntz. 5. 1 he Me- 
 diomatricii were situatecf along the Moselle, about the ciiy of 
 Mentz in Lorrain: and a'love them were situated another German 
 nation, named Rauviei, Kauraci, or Rauriaci, w ho inhabited that 
 part of Helvetia, above Basil. To the W. and S. of these were 
 the Nervi, Siiessones, Silvanectes, Lcuci, Rhemi, I.ingones, ^-c. 
 who inhabited Belgic fiaul. Between the heads of the Rhine and 
 Danube were seatefl the i.nciint kingdom of Vindelicia, whose ca- 
 pital was called Angiista\ indelicorum, now Augsburg. Below it, 
 on the banks ofthe Danube, were the kingdoms of Noricum and 
 Pannonia. The first of these was divided into Noricuni-Kipei>sp, 
 and Mediterraneum. It contained a great part of the nresent 
 AiMria, Slyria, Carinthia, Tyrol, Bavaria, and some others of 
 less note. 1 he latter (ontained the kingdom of Hungary, divideil 
 into Upper and Lower; and extending I'lom Illyricum to the Da- 
 milie, and the mountains Ca'tii in the ntighbourhood of Vinde- 
 bona, now \ ienna. 
 
 H. Germavy, Proper, Uppi',r, or IIich CIkrmany, lay be- 
 yond tlie Riiine and Danube. Between the Rhine and the Elbe 
 were the following natioi.s. l.TheChavei, Ujjper and Lower: 
 who were <livided from each other by the river A isurses, now the 
 Weser. Theirconntry contained what is now called Bremen, Liiiiev 
 burg, I'tiei-laiid, and CIroiiinghen. The upper Chauci had tlie 
 Cherusi, and the lower the Chamavi on the soiith-c;«t, and the 
 (jerman Ocean on the north-west. 2. The Frisii, L'p|KT and 
 Lower, were divided from the lower Chauci by the river Amisia, 
 now the Ems ; and from one another by an arm of the Rhine. 
 Their country still retains the name of Friesland, and is divided 
 
 into
 
 G E R 
 
 600 
 
 G Eii 
 
 into East and ^V"est ; but llie latter has been long di^meii.beiTci 
 from Germany, as one of the seven United Piovinces, and now 
 to.nisthe department ot' Knis in the French empire. 3. Hc- 
 voikI the Isela (now tlie Vwcl), which bounded the co\mtr_v of 
 the Frisii, were situated tlie I5ructeri, who inivabited tlie tra'-t now 
 railed B'.oecmorland ; and the Mi rci, about t'le river Lnppe. 
 On the o'liier siiie of tliat river were tlie Usippii, orl'sipites; but 
 these were famed forolten changing tlieir territories, andtli rel'ore 
 found in oilier places. 4. Next to these were the Juojics, or inlia- 
 liittuits of Jnliers, lietween the Maese and the lihine. 5. The 
 Catti, another ancient and warlike nation, ii habited Ilesse and 
 'IhurinR-ia, from the Kaart/ian mountains to the Rhine and \Vc- 
 ser; among whom were coiuprehended tlic Mattiaci, whose capital 
 is by some thouglit to be Marpurii, by others iJadeii. (J. Next 
 to tiiese werelhe Sedueii bordering upon buabia ; Narisci, or the 
 ancient inhabitants of Norlhgov, whose capital was ISurenibers; 
 and the \h:rcoinanui, whose coinitry anciently reached Iroiii the 
 Rhine to llie heail ot the Danube and to the iSeckar. 'I he Mar- 
 romanni aiferwards went and settled in Ijohemia and Moravia, 
 under their general or KiiiR Mar.iboduus: and some of them in 
 Gaul, whence they drove the liuii, who had seated themselves 
 there. 7. On the other side ot the Danube, and between lh(; 
 Khine and it, were the Ilermunduri, vvlio possessed Ihetountry 
 now called Misnia in Upper .Saxony ; though some m.ike their ter- 
 ritories to have extended nuich larllier, and to have reached to, or 
 even beyond, Ikihemia, tlieu the seat of the l5oii, whence 
 its name. B. Hevond them, on tlie north of the Danube, was an- 
 other seat of the Marcomanni alonp; the river Albis, or lilbe. 
 p. Next to Boliemia were situated the Quadi, whose territories 
 extended from the Danube to Moravia, and the northern part of 
 Austria. These are comprehended under the ancient name of 
 Suevi ; part of whom at length forced their way into Spain, and 
 settled a kingdom there. 10. Eastward of the Quadi wi re sjtu- 
 atcd the Bastarua', and i)arted from them by the (iranua, now 
 Gran, a river that falls into the Danube; and by the Carpathian 
 juountains, from them called Alpes ISastarnica?. Theiounlryof 
 the Bastarnie indeed iiia<!e [lart ot the European Sarmatia, and so 
 was without tlie limits of Germany properly so called; but we find 
 these people so often in league with the German nations, and 
 joining them for the destruction of the Romans, that we cannot 
 but account them as one people, lietween those nations, sealed 
 along the other side of the Danube and the Ilercynian forest, 
 were several others wlioe exact situation is uncertain, viz. the 
 Marligni, liutii, Berades, Lygii, or Jjogioues, and some others, 
 who are placed by our geogiapliers along the forest above-men- 
 tioned, between the Danube and the Vistula. On this side the 
 Heicvnian forest, were the famed Rluetii (now Grisohs). seateil 
 among the Aljis. 'i'lieir country, which was al o called Western 
 lUyncum, was divided into Bliu'lia Prima, or Propria, and Se- 
 Cu'nda; and was then of much larger extent, spreading itself to- 
 wards Suabia, Bavaria, and Austria. On the other side of tiie 
 Ilercynian forest were, 1 . T he Svievi, who spread themselves from 
 the Vistula to the river Elbe. 2. The Loi^obardi, so called, ac- 
 cording to some, on account of their wearing long beards; but 
 according to otiiers, on aciount of their consisting of two nations, 
 viz. the Bardi and 1-ingones. These dwelt along the river Elbe, 
 and boidered southward on the Chauci above-mentioned. 3. 'i'he 
 Kurgundi, of whose original seat we are uncertain. 4. The Sem- 
 lioncs, who about the time of Tiberius, w<-re seated on the river 
 Elbe. 5. 'Ihe Angles, Saxons, and Goths, were probably the 
 descendants of the Cimbri, ai'd inhabited the countries of Den- 
 mark, along the Baltic Sea, and the peninsula of Scandinavia, con- 
 taining Norway, Sweden, and Fmmark. Ii. 'I'lie Vandals were a 
 (Jothic nation, who, proceeding, from Scandinavia, set'.led in the 
 countries now called .Mecklenburgh and Brandenbiirgh. 7. Of the 
 Same race were the Dacians, wIkj settled themselves in tie neigh- 
 bourhood of Pains Ma'Otis, and extended their territories along 
 the banks of the Danube. Germany contains mines of gold, sil- 
 ver, lead, tin, copper, iron, i|uicksilver, cinnabar, ochre, load- 
 stone, coals, &c. with (juarries of niurble, alabaster, and various 
 other stoni^. And in many places are found iliamonds, rubies, 
 emeralds, amethysts, cornelians, agates, ns well as sulphur, alum, 
 saltpetre, vitriol, &c. The Cierman mines, though early explored, 
 still continue great sources of wealth. Of (luicksilver, one mine 
 alone yields 50,0001b. weight a->car. They furpish the finest sort 
 of cl.iy for jiorcelain, ami have e.\celleiit aiul extensive salt-works. 
 
 German", Modkr;> BouND.'iRiEs, Extent, and Division's 
 OF. Germany is bounded on the north by the German Ocean, 
 Denmark, and the Baltic Sea ; on the east by Prussia, PoUmd, and 
 Hungary; on the south by Italy, Switzerhiud, and the Alps; 
 and on the west by France and Batavia or Holland ; the French 
 now claiming the Rhine as their eastern bounilary. Before the 
 present w:'r its western boundi.rv was old France and the Nether- 
 l.ir.ds, and its extent was estimated at 640 miles in length, and 550 
 in breadth. The Geunan empire was tormerlj' divided into ten 
 circles, afterv.ards it consisted only ot nine ; viz. Upper, and Lower 
 .Saxony, Westphalia, Upper, and Lower Rhine, Erancrnia, Swabia, 
 Bavaria, and Austria, which see. But owing to the late very great 
 successes of the French over this part of Europe the Geniiamccon- 
 stilntion is now almost totally annihilated, the circies i f Westphalia, 
 Saxony, and Bavaria, and the duchy of \V iitembcrg, iiaving been 
 erected into the dignity of kingdoms. 
 
 i. GERM.ysv, High, comprehends the Palatinate of the Rhine, 
 Francoiiia, Suabia, Bavaria, Bohemia, Moravia, Austria, Carinthia, 
 Carniola, and Stiria: and formerly included Swilztrland and the 
 Gnson's roun'jv. 
 
 ii. Gl.RMANv, Low, comprehends part of the Low Country of 
 the lUiine, Cologne, and Mentz ; Westphalia, Hesse, Brunswick, 
 Misnia, Lusatia, Upper and Lower Sa.xony, Mecklenburg, Lunen- 
 burg, Braudenburgl), and Poniei-ania. ?"roiii the central situation 
 of Germany, its commerce with the rest of Europe is very exten- 
 sive. Its minerals are decidedly the lir.^t native articles for trade ; 
 after which are medicinal watei's, salt, hemp, llax, linen, silk, wines, 
 fruits, corn, cattle, stuffs, cloths, limber, porcelain, wrought iron 
 and steel, thugs, oils and colours, are the principal. The French 
 artizans, exiled by the revocation ot the edict ot Nantz, enabled 
 Germany to stand in no need of the wrought silks of other coun- 
 tries, (jreal commercial fairs still exist in Germany. There are 
 thirty-eight universities in Germany ; nineteen I'rotestant, seven- 
 teen Catholic, and two which partake of boih ; besides a number of 
 literary societies and academic institutions: and eiiucation in general 
 is particularly attended to even in the very lowest ranks. 
 
 GF. RMl", among shippins, a kind of bark used in the shallows 
 on the coast of Eg\ pt, as drawing but little water. Tlity are strong 
 and will built, but have no decks. 
 GERMEN. theSEED-Bun. See Botanv. 
 Germ EN, by Pliny and the ancient botanists is used to signify a 
 bud containing the rudiments of the leaves. 
 
 GER.MINATION, among botanists, comprehends the pre- 
 cise time which seeds take to rise after they have been committed 
 to the soil. Tlie different species of seeds are longer or shorter 
 in rising, according to the degree of heal w liich is proper to each. 
 Millet, wheat, ana several of the grasses, rise in one day; blite, 
 spinach, beans, mustard, kidney-beans, turnips, and rocket, in 
 three (lays ; lettuce and dill, in four ; cuciimlirr, gourd, melon, 
 and ciess, in (ive; radish and beet, in six; barley, in seven; 
 orach, in eight ; purslane, in nine ; cabbage, in ten ; hyssop, in 
 thirtv ; parsley, 'in forty or lift) days; jieach, almond, walnut, 
 cliesmit, ])ai)ny, horned poppy, hypccoiim, and ranunculus falca- 
 tus, ill one year ; rose-bush, cornel-tree, hawthorn, medlar, and 
 liazel-niit, in two. The seeds of some species of orchis, and of 
 some liliaceous plants never rise at iill. Some seeds require to be 
 sowed almost as soon as they are ripe, otherwise they will not 
 sprout or germinate. Of this kind are tl.e seeds of coffee and 
 traxinella. Others, parlicularly those of the pea-bloom ilSwcrs, 
 preserve their genninaiiug faculty for a series of years. Mr. 
 Adanson asserts, that the sensitive plaukretains that virtue tor thirty 
 or forty years. Air and water are the agents of germination. The 
 humidity of the air alone makes several seeds to rise thai are ex- 
 posed to it. Seeds too are observed to rise in water, without the 
 intervention of earth ; but water witliout air is insuflicient. Mr. 
 Ilomberg's experiments on this head are decisive. He puts seve- 
 ral seids under the exhausted receiver of an air-jumip, with a view 
 to establish something certain on the causes of germination. Some 
 of them did not rise at all ; and the greatest part of those which 
 did, made very weak and feeble productions. ^]'hus it is for want 
 of air that seeds, which are buried at a very great depth in the 
 earth, eitlier thrive but mdiflercntly, or do not rise at all. 'J'hey 
 fre(]uently preserve, however, their germinating virtue for many 
 years within the bowels of the earth ; and it is not unusual, upon ii 
 piece of ground being newly dug to a considerable depth, to ob- 
 serve it soon after covered with several pkinls, which had not been 
 « seen
 
 GER 
 
 mi 
 
 GES 
 
 Sieen there in the memory of man. Were this fret|iiciilly repeated, 
 it would doubtless l)C the means of recovering certain species of 
 plants which are rci^^rded as lost ; or which perhaps have never 
 come to the knowledge of botanisit. Some seeds rei|uire a greater 
 Quantity of air than others. 'Ihus purslane which d')es not rise till 
 after lettuce in tlie free air, rises before it in vacuo ; ;:nd both 
 jjrosper but little, or perish altogethir, while cresses vegetate as 
 treely as in the open air. The late discoveries in chemistry, have 
 tlirown much light on this subject. In 1793, M. IIunil)oldt dis- 
 covered, that simple metallic substances are not favouiable to the 
 gernjination of plauts, but that melallic oxides favour it in pro|)or- 
 tion to their degree of oxidation. This led Iiim to search for a 
 substance with which oxygen might be so weakly combined as to 
 be easily separated, and he tried oxygenated nuiriatic acid gas 
 mixed with water. Cresses in this acid shewed gi-rms at the end 
 ot si.x hours, and in common water at the end of Ihirty-two hours. 
 The action of tlie acid on vegetable fibres was announced by a 
 great number of air-bubbles covering the seeds, wliich did uot 
 lake idace with water till the end of fifty or forty-five minutes. 
 These experiments, published in Humboldt's " Flora Si blenanea 
 Fribergcnsis," anil in his "Aphorisms on the Cliemical Physio- 
 logy of Plants," have been repeated by Messrs. Uslar, Plenck. 
 Villdenow, and others. See " Uictionnaire de Physique, par 
 Gchler." They were made at a temperature of from twelve to 
 fifteen of Reaumur. In 1796, Humboldt made some new experi- 
 ments, and found that, by joining caloric to oxygen, vegetation 
 was still more accelerated. He threw equal quantities of the seeds 
 of garden-cresses into pure water and oxygenated muriatic acid, 
 at a temperature of 5S° F. Cresses germinated in the acid in three 
 hours, but in the water not till the end of twenty-six hours. In 
 the muriatic, nitric, or sulpliuric acid, there was no germ at all : 
 though according to the experiments of M. Candolle, the nitric 
 acid accelerates germination also, when greatly diluted with water. 
 Professor Polil at Dresden caused the seed of a new species ot 
 Euphorbia to germinate in oxygenated muriatic aciil, though taken 
 from Bocconi's collection of dried plants, 110 or ISO years old. 
 Jacquin and Vander Schort at Vieima threw into oxygenated mu- 
 riatic acid all the old seeds, which had been kept twenty or thirty 
 years at the botanical garden, every attempt to produce Vegetation 
 in which, had proved fruitless, and the greater part of them, even 
 the hardest seeds, germinated. Among these were the yellow 
 bonduc, or nickar-lree, the pigeon-pea, the Dodon.-ca Angustifolia, 
 the cinnbing mimosa, and some new species of Hopa-a. There 
 are now shewn at Vienna very valuable plants, which are entirely 
 raised by the oxygenated muriatic acid, and are from five to eiglit 
 inches high. Humboldt made the elusia rosea to germinate, the 
 seeds of which had lieen brouglit from the B.ihama islands by- 
 Boose, and had resisted every previous effort to make them vege- 
 tate. For this purpose he used a nesv process, whi( h will be easier 
 for gardeners who cannot procure the oxygenated muriatic acid. 
 He formed a paste by mixing the seeds with tlie black oxide of 
 manganese, and then poured over it the muriatio acid diluted with 
 water, in the proportion of half a cubic inch of the acid to three 
 of water. The vessel containing this mixture must be covered, 
 but not shut close, lest it should burst. At the temperature of 
 9J% the muriatic acid becomes strongly oxidated , the oxygenat- 
 ed muriatic gas which is disengaged passes through the seeds; and 
 during Uiis passage tiie irritation of the vegetable fibres takes place 
 Pl.ilos. Mag. 
 
 G FRXOl, a fort of Russian Siberia, in Kolivan. 
 
 GKRON, orGERON POINT, a cape of Ireland, in Antrim 
 county, Ij miles N. E. of Antrim, aiifl ,1J N. of ISclfast. 
 
 fiERONA, GIRONA, or GlRONiNA, an ancient town of 
 Spain, in Catalonia, 47 miles N. E. of Barcelona. J.on. 2. 5i. E. 
 Lat. 4','. 10. N. 
 
 CiERONTES, [from riyi,'] in antiquity, a kind of judges, or 
 magistrates, in ancient Sparta, answering to what tlie Areopagites 
 were at Athens. See Areopagus. 
 
 GEROPOGOX, in botany, a genus of the polygamia Tipialis 
 order, and syngenesia class of plants ; natural order, Compositx. 
 Calyx simple ; receptacle with bristle-shaped clialfs ; seeds of the 
 disk, with a tealheicd down of the ray, with five awns. Tliere are 
 three species. 
 
 GERRI, a town of Nubia, on the Nile, 130 miles N. N. E. of 
 Stnnaar. Lon. 30. 34. £, iat. l&. li. N. 
 
 yoi. II. — NO. 9(». 
 
 GERS, a de|)artinent of France, bounded on the N. by ll.o^« 
 of Lander, and Lot and Garonne. Audi is the capiial. 
 
 GERSPACH, a town of Suabia, on the Murg, 2 miles S. E. 
 
 GERTRrDEXRUUiT, GER'IRUYDEXKERG, or GER- 
 'i"RUYl)l",NBURG, an ancient and^trong town of liatavia or 
 Holland, in the deparlment of Dommcl and Sclicliit, and late pro- 
 vincf of Dutch Biabanl. It lies 7 mile; N- E. of Dreda. 
 
 GBRL'N D, l^cncndiuni, Latin,] in tlie Latin grammar, a kind 
 of verbal noun, wliicii governs cases like a verb. 
 
 Gerusus are substantive nouns of the second declension and 
 neuter-gender, jiartaking of the nature of a participle, declinable 
 only in the siiii^nlar number, through all the cases except the vo- 
 cative, as legeiidum, legendi, &c. Tiicy express not only the 
 time, but the manner, of a:i action ; as, " he fi-ii in running post." 
 i'ht y dilCer Ironi |)articiple>, in that they express the time, whick 
 pLuticiples do not, though ihey always imply some time ; and tlicv 
 dilfer from tenses properly so calleil, in thai they express the man- 
 ner, which the tenses do not. ^ 
 
 GERUNDA, in ancient geography, a town of the Ausetani, in 
 liispania Cilerior, on the S. or right side of the Sambioca ; now 
 called Cierona. 
 
 GKRYON, or GERYONES, in fabulous history, a king of 
 f Jades, in Iberia, who had three bodies, and fed his cattle with 
 human flesh. This monster was slain by Hercules, who carried 
 off his cattle. 
 
 GESNER, Solomon', the celebrated author of the " Death of 
 Abel," was the son of John Conrail Gesner, bookseller and mem- 
 ber of the Great Council, and was born at Zurich in ! 730. In iiis 
 early years he shewed no signs of su|)erior abilities ; and liis pro- 
 gress in education was so slow, that his master gave him up as in- 
 capable of any greater attainments than writing and the four first 
 rules of arithmetic. Upon this he was placed under a clergyman, 
 a relation of his father's, who shewed hiiTKelf better acquainted 
 with the art of discovering the natural inclinations of his pupils. 
 He often carried young Gesner witli him into the fields, to surveT 
 the beauties of nature ; and finding that he took pleasure in suck 
 lessons, and listened to ihem with peculiar attention, he repeated 
 some of the most striking passages of ancient authors, vdio have 
 written on these subjects, in the most agreeable manner. Bv this 
 ingenious artifice, young Gesner's mind began to ojjen, and its 
 powers to expand ; and it is, perhaps, cviug to this circumstance, 
 that he became so fond of the language of \ irgil and Tlieocritus. 
 When he arrived at a proper age, he chosC his father's profession. 
 Of tive printing-houses at Zurich, two were occupied bv Gesners. 
 The house in whicli our poet's father had a share, was known br 
 the firm of Orel, Gesner, and Company, and was faiii'".! for the 
 elegance of the works which it published. But Mr. CJcsner did 
 not <lamp his genius, by the drudgery of business. . He indulged 
 himself freely in pursuing his favourite object, and his partners 
 never grudged him that time which he devoted to sluJv. In 
 17.5i, he made a tour through Germany, nut so much to cxlenii 
 his commerce, as to see and be acquainted with those authors wiia ' 
 have done honour to their country. The following anecilote is 
 strikingly characteristic of that timidity which olten accompanies 
 true genius. When .Mr. Gesner was at Berlin, he was a.hiiilted 
 into a literary society, of which Gloim and Lessing were members. 
 Every member jead in turn some pieces of his own composition, 
 and Ge>]ier was very desirous of submitting to these able critics a 
 small work, which was his Jirst attiuipt. As each member had 
 done reading, Gesner was observed to move his hand with a kind 
 of tremor towards his pocket, and to draw it back again >viihout 
 producing any thing. Having not yet published any «ork, n8ne 
 of the company could guess the cause of a motion which his mo- 
 desty prevented him from explaining. Ihc piece which he wiih-' 
 ed, but had not the courage, to shew, was his poem, Ci'titled 
 " Night," which he published en his return to Zuiich in 17.53. 
 It was considere<l as an original, of which no model is to be found 
 among the moderns ; but in Gesner's opinion, it w as only a piece of 
 imaginary |)ainting, or, to use his own words, in one of ijis letter? 
 to filr. llubcr who translated his works, " a caricature composed 
 in tiie moments of folly or intoxic.ition." In this little poem he 
 has introduced a short episode on the origin of the glou-wvrm, 
 containing a poetical explanatimi of this natural phosphorus, which 
 has all the beauty of Ovid's Metamorphose^ without their pro-- 
 7 O lixit.^.
 
 GHE 
 
 ^Of 
 
 GTA 
 
 ■■w.M .i'." ■ ■'" 1 ■ ■ .i.s .'.I ; .1 I . 
 
 lixitv. 'llio success of tliis es-i.iy emboUlenod him to pubish a 
 pastor il ronv.incp, called " Daplinis," in three cantos. 'I'he ap- 
 plause deservedly bestowed upon this performance induced him 
 to publish his " Idylls," and other rural poems in imitation of Theo- 
 critus. Pastoral poetry, which was theii little known in Germany 
 but bv translations, bi'jran to be preferred to every other kind. 
 His "Death of Abel," was 'first published in 1758. It is written, 
 like the rest of his piece*, in poetical prose; and went through 
 three editions in one year. The French edition was followed by 
 others, in Italian, Dutch, Danish, and, lastly, two in English, one 
 in prose and the other in verse. He next j.ublished his " First 
 ^Navigator," a poem in three cantos, which many consider as his 
 masterpiece. He produced likewise, in the dramatic stile 
 " Evander and Alcinme," in three acts ; and " Erastus," in one 
 net, which was represented willi applause at Leipsic and Vienna. 
 In 17fi5 he publisiied ten landscapes, engraved by himself from his 
 own designs. Tliese were followed by others. He was also the 
 author of a Letter on Landscape Painting, Poems, &c. He died 
 in 1781. 
 
 GESNERIA, in botany, a genus of the angiospermia order, 
 and didynamia class of plants ; natural order, Personate. Caly.\ 
 five-cleft, silting on the germ; corolla incurved and recurved; 
 capsule inferior, two-celled. There are twelve species. 
 
 GESTRICIA, or GESTRICKLAND, a province of Swe- 
 den, bounded by Helsingia on the N. by the gulf of Bethuia on 
 the E. by Upland, Westmanland, and Dalecariia, on the S. and 
 by Dalecariia on the W. It abounds with mines, forests, lakes, 
 and rivers; and is 17 miles long and 10 broad. Gefle is the 
 capital. The Dalil, the finest river in Sweden, meanders 
 through it, 
 
 GESTURE, in rhetoric, consists principally in the action of 
 the hands and face ; and may be defined, a suitable conformity of 
 the motions of the countenance, and of several parts of the body, 
 in speaking to the subject of discourse. See Oratory. 
 
 GE TjE, an ancient nation of Thrace, who dwelt on both sides 
 of the Ister, near Scythia, supposed to be the ancestors of the Da- 
 cians and Goths; or according to others, of the Walachians or 
 Moldavians. 
 
 GE-TCH AO, a town of China, in the province of Chang-tong, 
 27 miles E. S. E. of Lu. 
 
 GETHSEMENE, [□'jaWN'3, Heb. i. c. the valley of fat, O'- 
 fertility,] in ancient geograjihy, a village at tlie foot of Mount 
 Olivet, whither Jesus Christ sometimes retired in the night-time. 
 It was in a garden belonging to this village that he sul'fered the 
 agony in which he sweated blood; and was arrested by Judas and 
 his band. The place is described by Maundrel as an even plot of 
 ground, not al>ove 57 yards square, lying between the foot of 
 R'loiinl Olivet and the brook Cedion. 
 
 GETHYLLIS, in botany, agenus of themonogynia order, and 
 dodecai^dria class of plants ; natural order, Spathacea;. Calyx 
 none; corolla six-parted; berry club-shaped, radicle, one-celled. 
 1 here are four species. 
 
 GEUM.AVENS, or HERB BENNET, a genus of the po- 
 lygamia order, and icosandria class of plants: natural order, Sen- 
 ticosx. Calyx ten-cleft; petals five; seeds with a kneed awn. 
 There are nine species^ natives of Europe and North America. 
 
 GEX, a late territory of France, in tlie province of Bresse ; 
 l)ouiided by Mount Jura, the Rhone, the lake of Geneva, and 
 Switzerland. It now forms the department of Ain. 
 
 Gex, a town of France, in the department of Ain, 10 miles 
 N. N. \V. of Geneva. 
 
 CtEZIRA, a town of Asiatic Turkey, in the province of Diar- 
 bekir, 70 miles N. W. of Mousul. 
 
 (iEZULA, or GAZULA, a country of Africa, S. of Morocco, 
 the inhabitants of whicli are allies of the emperor. 
 
 Gil ENT, or GAUNT, a city of France, capital of the depart- 
 ment of the Scheldt, and late capital of the province of Austrian 
 Flanders. It is seated on four navigable rivers, the Scheldt, the 
 Lys, the Lieve, and the Moeze. It is2G miles N. W. of Brussels. 
 Leii. .3.49. E. Lat 'j\. 3. N. 
 
 GHERIAH,orGIlERLAH,atown ofHindostan, in Concan, 
 on the W. or pirate coast, 80 miles N. N. W. of Goa. Lon. 73. 
 8. E. I.at. 16.45. N. 
 
 GILEYSSIQUAS, a nation of Hottentots, who inhabit a dis- 
 trict of South Africa, near Cafl'rai'ia, from whicli, as well as from 
 
 the country of the Breniasand Briquas, it is separated by a chain 
 of mountains. 
 
 GHINIA, in botany, a genus of the diandria monogvnia class 
 and order. Natural order, Personata?. Calyx five-toothed, teeth 
 acuminated ; corolla two-lipped ; drupe containing a nut, tour or 
 five-celled. It has two snecies. 
 
 GHIRGONG, orCrHERGONG, a city of Hindustan, the ca- 
 pital of Assam, seated on the Burrampooter, 448 miles E. of 
 Patna. 
 
 GHISLAIN, St. or St. GIIILAN, a town of France, in the 
 department of the North, and late province of French Hainault, 
 five miles W. of Mons. 
 
 GHIZNI. orCrAZNA. See Gazna. 
 
 GHOUMEL, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of Pholey, on 
 theJoto. Lon. 11. 15. W. Lat. Iti. 12. N. 
 
 GHOWRI, a town of Asia, in the kingdom of Balk. Lon. 66. 
 56. E. Lat. 35. 4tl. N. 
 
 GIAGH, in chronology, a cycle of 12 years, in use among the 
 Turks and Cathayans. Each year of the giagh bears a name of 
 some animal; the first that of a mouse ; the second that of a bul- 
 lock ; the third a lynx or leopard ; the fourth a hare; the fifth a 
 crocodile: the sixth a serpent ; the seventh a horse ; the eighth a 
 sheep; the ninth a monkey ; the tenth a hen; the eleventh a dog ; 
 and the twelfth a hog. They also divide the day into twelve 
 parts, called giaghs, and distinguish them by the names of animals. 
 Each giagh contains two of our hours, and is divided into eight 
 kehs ; so that a keh is a quarter of our hour. 
 
 GIANT, [g'fonf, French ; §■;':,■■««, Latin,] a man of size above 
 the ordinary rate ofrnen; a man unnaturally large. It is obser- 
 vable, that the idea of a giant is always associated with pride, 
 brutality, and wickedness. The tradition of all ages have furnish- 
 ed us with so many extravagant accounts of giants of incredible 
 bulk and strength, that the e.xistence of such people is now gene- 
 rally disbelieved. It is commonly thought, that the stature of man 
 has been the same in all ages ; and some have even pretended to 
 demonstrate the impossibility of the existence of giants mathemati- 
 cally. Of these our countryman M'Lauriii has been the most 
 explicit. But his arguments and comparisons, drawn from the dis- 
 proportion between the cohesion of parts in small models and large 
 works, of human workmanship, are by no means conclusive ; be- 
 cause, along with an increase of stature in any animal, we must al- 
 ways suppose a proportional increase in the cohesion of the parts of 
 its body. Large works sometimes fail when constructed on the 
 plan of models, because the cohesion of the materials whereof the 
 model is made, and of the large work, aretliesa:se; but a dif- 
 ference in this respect will produce a very remarkable difference in 
 the ultimate result. Thus, suppose a mode) is made of fir-wood, 
 the model may be firm and strong enough ; but a large work made 
 also offir, when excuted accordiiigto the plan of the model, may be 
 so weak that it will fall to pieces from its own weight. If, how- 
 ever, we make use of iron for the large work instead of fir, the 
 whole will be sufticiently strong, even though made exactly ac- 
 cording to the plan of the mo<lel. The like may be said with re- 
 gard to large and small animals. If w^ could find an animal whose 
 bones exceeded in hardness and strength the bones of other ani- 
 mals as much as iron exceeds fir, such an animal might be of a 
 monstrous size, and yet be exceedingly strong. In like manner, 
 if we suppose the llesh and bones of a giant to be greatly superior 
 in hardness and strength to those of other men, the great size of his 
 body will be no objection at all to his strength. T he wliole con- 
 troversy,therefore, concerning the existence of giants, must rest on 
 the credibility of the accounts given by those who profess to have 
 seen them, and not on any arguments drawn a priori. In the 
 scripture we are told of giants, who were produced from thr mar- 
 riages of the sons of God with the daughters of men. This passage 
 indeed has been differently interpreted, so as to render it doubtful 
 whether the word translated giants does there imply any extraordi- 
 nary stature. In other parts of scripture, however, giants, with 
 their dimensions, are mentioned in such a manner that we cannot 
 possibly doubt; as in the case of Og king of Bashan, Goliath, and 
 his brethren. 1 Chron. xx. 4 — 8. The Rev Mr. Gun minister 
 of Latheron, in Caithness, mentions William Sutherland the last 
 proprietor of Berrydale castle, who lived in the end of the 15tij 
 century, and mea.suied nine feet five inches high. 
 
 Giant's Causeway, in geography and natural history, a vast 
 
 collection
 
 G lA 
 
 (^0^ 
 
 G T A 
 
 coUeLlion of Basaliic pillars in tlie coimty of AiUriiii in Ircliiiid. 
 See Basaltes. T hepiincipal or grand causeway (for tlu-ic are 
 seviTal less considerable and scatU'red fragments of them,) consists 
 of a most irre£;nlar arrangement of many liundrcd thousands of 
 columns of a black kind of rock, hard as marble : almost all of them 
 are of a pentagonal figure, but so closely and compactly siuiaied 
 on their sides, though perfectly distinct from top to bottom, that 
 scarce any thing can be introduced between them. The columns 
 are of an unequil height and breadtii ; some of the highest, visible 
 above the surface of tlie strand, and at the foot ot the impending 
 angular precipice, may be about i'O feet; they do not excee<l tliis 
 height, at least none of tlie principal arrangement. How deep 
 they arc fixed in the strand, was never yet discovere<l. Thi^ grand 
 arrangement extends nearly 200 yards, visible at low water; how 
 far beyond is uncertaui : from its declining appearance, iiowever, 
 at low water, it is probable it does not extend under water to a 
 distance any thing eijual to what is seen above. The breadth of 
 the prilicijial causeway, which runs out in one continued range of 
 columns, is, in general, from ao to 30 feet; at one place or two it 
 maybe nearly 40 for a few yards. In thi^ account are excluiled 
 the broken and scattered pieces of the same kind of construction, 
 that are detached from the sides of the grand causeway, as they do 
 sol appcarto have ever been contiguous to the principal arrangement, 
 thougn they have frequently been taken into the width: winch' has 
 been the cause why many very dissimilar representations of this 
 causeway have been given. Tlie highest part is the narrowest, at 
 the very foot of the impending clilifrom whence the whole pro- 
 jects, v\liere, for tour or live yards, it is not above 12 or 15 feet 
 wide. The columns of this narrow part incline from a perpen- 
 dicular a little to the westward, and form a slope on their tops, by 
 "the very unequal height of the columns on the two sides, by whicii 
 an ascent is made al tl:e foot of the clifi, from the head of one 
 column to the next ab.jve, gradually, to the top of the great cause- 
 way, whid), at the distance of six yards from the cliff, obtains a 
 a perpendicular posilioii ; and lowering in its general height, widens 
 to about 20 or between 20 and 30 feet, and for 100 yards nearly 
 is always above water. The tops of the columns for this length 
 being nearly of an equal heiglit, they form a grand ar.d singailar 
 parade, that may be easily walked on, rather inclining to the » ater's 
 edge, liut from high-waier-m;irk, as it is perpetually washed by 
 the beating surges on every return of the tide, the platform lowers 
 considerably, and becomes more and more uneven, so as not to 
 be walked on but with the greatest care. At the distance of 150 
 yards from the clill', it turns a little to the east for 20 or 30 yards, 
 and then sinks into the sea. The ligure of these columns is al- 
 most unexceptionally pentagonal, or composed of five sides ; there 
 are very few of any other tignre : some few are of three, four, and 
 six sides, but the generality of them are five-sided, and the spec- 
 tator must look vei-y nicely to find any of a different construction: 
 yet what is very extraordinary, there are not two columns in ten 
 thousand to be found, that either liave their siiles equal among 
 themselves, or whose ligures are exactly alike. Nor is the com- 
 position of these columns less deserving attention. Thev are not 
 of one solid stone in an upright position ; but composed of several 
 short lengths, curiously joined, not with tiat siirfaces, but articu- 
 lated into each other like ball and socket, or like the joints in the 
 vertebiie of some of tie larger kinds of fish, the one end at the 
 joint having a cavity, into which the convex end of thi; opposite 
 one isexactly fitted. This is not observable but by disjoiningthetwo 
 stones. The depth of the concavity or convexity is generally about 
 three or four inches. And the convexity, ami the correspondent con- 
 cavity, are not conformed to the external angular figure of the 
 column, but exactly round, and as large as the size or diameter of 
 the column will admit. Consequently, as the angles of these 
 columns are in general extremely unequal, the circular edges of 
 thejoint are seldom coincident with more than two or three sides 
 of the pentagonal, and from the edge of the circular part of the 
 joint to the exterior sides and angles they are quite plain. It is 
 still farther very remarkable, that the articulations of these joints 
 are frequently inverted; in some the concavity is upwards, in 
 others the reverse. This occasions that variety and mixture of 
 concavities and convexities on the tops of the columns, which is ob- 
 servable througheut the platform of this causeway, vet without 
 any discoverable regularity with respect to the number of cither. 
 Tlie length of these particular stones, from jomt to joiut, is various : 
 
 in general, from IS to 24 inlhcs, and, for the most part, longer to- 
 ward the bottom of the columns than nearer the top, jnd the ar- 
 ticulation of the joints something deeper. 1 lie size or diameter of 
 the columns is as different as their length and ligure; in general, 
 they are from 15 to 20 inches. There are no traces of uniformity 
 discovered throughout the whole combination, except in the lorm 
 ot thejoint, which is invariabl^^ by an articulation ol the convex 
 into the concave of the piece next above or below it ; nor are there 
 any traces of a finishing in any part, either in height, length, or 
 l)reailth, of this curious causeway. If there is here and there a 
 smooth top to any of the columns above water, there are others just 
 by, of equal height, that are more or less convex or concave, 
 which shew them to have been joined to pieces that have been 
 washed or by other means taken off. And undoubterlly those 
 parts that are always above water have, from time to time, been 
 made even ; and the remaining surfaces of the joints must naturally 
 havebeen worn smoother, by theconstant friction ofthe weatherahd 
 walking, than where tlie sea, at every tide, is bc-aluig upon it, and 
 continually removing some ofthe upper stones, and exposing fresh 
 joints. As these coluniiis preserve their diameters from top to 
 bittom, in all the exterior ones, which have two or three sides ex- 
 posed to view, the same may be with reason inferred ofthe inte- 
 rior columns whose tops only are visible. Yet what is very ex- 
 traordinary, and equally curious, is, that notwithstanding the uni- 
 versal dissimilitude of the columns, both as to their figure and dia- 
 meter, and tliough perfectly distinct frum top to bottom, yet isthe 
 w luile ariangenient so closely combined at all points, that hardly a 
 knife can be introduced between them either on the sides or angles. 
 It is really a most curious piece of entertainment, to examine the 
 close contexture and nice insertion of such an infinite variety of 
 angular figures, as are exhibited on the surface of this grand pa- 
 rade, r'roni the infinite dissimilarity of the figures of these co- 
 lumns, this will appear a most surprising circumstance to the curi- 
 ous spectator, and would incline him to believe itawork ot human 
 art, were it not inconceivable, that the invention of man should con- 
 struct and combine such an infinite number of columns, whicli 
 should have a general apparent likeness, and yet be so universally 
 dissimilar in their figure, as that, from the minutest examination, 
 not two in ten or twenty thousand should be found, whose angles 
 and sides are equal among themselves, or of the one column 
 to those of the other. That this is the production of nature, 
 tlie attentive spectator cannct doubt, who carefully surve\s 
 the general form and situation, with the infinitely various figura- 
 tion of the several parts of this causeway. There are no traces of 
 regularity or design in the outlines of this curious phenomenon ; 
 which, including the broken and detached pieces of the same kind, 
 are extremely scattered and confused, and, whatever they might 
 originally, do not at present appear to have any connection with 
 the principal causeway, as to any siipposable design or use in its 
 first construction ; and as little design can be inferred from the 
 figure or situation of the several constituent parts. The whole is, 
 indeed, extremely confused, disuniform, and destitute of every 
 ap))earaiice of use or design in its original construction, liut what, 
 beyond dispute, determines its original to be natural, is, that thc- 
 very clitifs, at a great distance from the causeway, especially in the 
 bav to the eastward, exhibit at many places the same kind of co- 
 lumns, figured and jointed in all respects like those of the grand 
 causeway. Some of them are seen near to tlie top of Uie cliff, 
 which in general, in these bays to the E. and W. of the causeway, 
 is near 300 feet in heiglit ; others again are seen about midway, 
 and at different elevations from the strand. A very consideiible 
 exposure of them is seen in the very bott«ni of the bay to the 
 eastward, near 100 rods from the causeway, where the earth hat 
 eviJlently fallen away from them upon the strand ; aad exhibits a 
 most curious arrangement of nu.ny of these pentagonal columns, 
 in a perpendicular position, supporting, in appearance, a clitfof 
 different strata of earth, clay, rock, &c. to the height of 150 feet 
 or more, above. Some of tliese columns are between 30 and 40 
 feet high, from the top of the' sloping bank below them ; and, 
 being longest in the middle of the arrangement, shortening on 
 either hand in view, they have obtained the appellation of organs, 
 from a rude likeness in this particular to the frontal tubes of that 
 instrument ; and as there are few broken pieces on the strand neai 
 It, probably the outside range ol columns that now appear is really , 
 the original e.xteriof line, toward the sea, of this «ollection. But
 
 G IB 
 
 604 
 
 GIB 
 
 how lav tliey extend int(;riiaHy into the bowels of the iiicimibtnt 
 clill, IS iinknowi). Tlie very siibsUince, ijideed, of that puit of the 
 clifl' which projects to a poiiit, between the two bays on the E. and 
 \V. of the causeway, seems composed of tliis kind of materials ; 
 for besides tlie many pieces that are seen on the sides of tha clitt' 
 that cUxidate to tlie bottom of tlie l)ays, particularly the E. side, 
 there i-i, at the very pouit of the cliff, and just abo\e the narrow 
 xnd highest part of the causeway, a long collection of them seen, 
 \\liose iieads or tops just appearing without the sloping bank, 
 plainly shew them to be in an oblique position, and about half- 
 wav between the perpendicular and horizontr.l. The beads of 
 these, likewise, are of mixed surfaces, convex and concave; and 
 tiie columns evidently appear to have been removed from their 
 original upright, to their present inclining or oblique position, by 
 the sinking of the cliff. 
 
 Giant's Grave, a village of Ireland, near Sligo, where there 
 ■,ire some massive ancient monumeuts of stone resembling those of 
 Stonelienge. 
 
 G 1 15 BET, or GIBET. See G allows. The Fr. gibct, a gal- 
 low'--, is supposed to be derived from the Arabic gibcl, " mount 
 m elevatiou of ground ;" as gibbets are usually placed on hills or 
 eminences. 
 
 GIBBIO, Castello di Monte, a town of the late C'isal))ine 
 fepublic, in the department of Croslolo, and late duchy of Mo- 
 ihna. 
 
 GIBBON, Edward, Esq. a late celebrated English historian, 
 born at Putney, in Surrey, April 27, 1737. He was the eldest 
 sijn of Edward Gitbon, Esq. In 174) he was sent to the gram- 
 mar-school at Kingston ; in January 17iil, to that of ^Vest minster, 
 and in April 17Ji, to that of Oxford, where he matriculated in 
 ilagdalen college ; the professors of which he blames greatly for 
 their remissness and inattention to his moral conduct and religious 
 prini'iples. In consequence of this he became a convert to the 
 Roman Catholic failh in his l6th year. To cure the young ca- 
 tholic of his errors, and bring him back to the Protestant faith, his 
 fcthar, within tliree weeks after his conversion, (June 30, 17j3,) 
 sent him lo Switzerland, and entrusted him to the tutorage of Mr. 
 Pavilliard, a Calvinist minister at Lausanne, whom Mr. Gibbon 
 mentions with gratitude, as a most excellent preceptor. Under 
 bis tuition, he made rapid progress in the Latiir; Greek, and 
 French classics ; in history, geography, logic, and metaphysics ; 
 and was also soon reclaimed from the errors of Popery : so that on 
 Christmas I7i4, he received the sacrament in the cliurch of Lau- 
 sanne. Thus iiad he communication with three difierent churches 
 before he was is years old. These jarring opinions, however, suc- 
 cessively adopted and rejected, . and the repeated changes so ra- 
 pidly made from the one to the oUier, perhaps contributed to 
 weaken our aullior's faith in revelation, and to lead to his final 
 change to Deism, as much as his perusal of i!. Voltaire's writ- 
 ings, or his conversation with that author, to whom he introduced 
 himself in 1757. In spring 17.''8, he was recalled to England, 
 and was agreeably received by his father; at whose house at Be- 
 rilon in Hampshire, he finished a work he had begun at Lausanne, 
 entitled " K^sai sur I'Etude de la Literature," which he publish- 
 ed in 17t)l, 12mo. with a dedication to his father. Previouslv to 
 .this period, he had been appointed a ca])tain in the South Hamp- 
 shire Militia, in which he ^erved two years, and whith was of use 
 to him, by making him belter aci|nairited with English manners, 
 principles, and parlies, than perhaps he might olherw ise have been. 
 Alter the peace in I7t>3, he went abroad ; and after visiting Paris, 
 where he was introduced to Messrs. D'Alemberf and Diderot, re- 
 turned to his favourite reMdence at Lausanne. Having. spent some 
 time there, he nuide the tour of Italy ; and at Rome, on tlie 1 jth 
 October 1764, while musing amidst the ruins of the cnpilol, the 
 idea of his great work lirst started into his mind. Upon his return 
 to Hampshire in June I'Oj, he found his father involved in pecu- 
 niary dilViculties, and to relieve him, consented to the sale of part 
 of the estate. After commencing a history of the revolutions of 
 .Swi(/.erlan<l, which he suppressed, he engaged in a Journal enli- 
 lleil, " .Memoires Literaires de la Grande Bretagne," and pub- 
 lished 2 vols, for 1707 and 1768 ; but his partner in this under- 
 taking, a native of Switzcrlaiul, going abroad, when the third vo- 
 lume was nearly finished, the work was discontinued. Bishop 
 Warburton having about this lime published an interpretation of 
 the 6tli book i>l \ irgil's iEaeid, he criticised it with equal asperity 
 
 and success. But it is thought, that if the bishop had then pos- 
 sessed his former mental vigour, he would have chastised Mr. 
 Gibbon in such a manner, as to have made liim afterwards some- 
 what more modest in liis great work ; in which, with all his petu- 
 lant confidence, he often shews great inaccuracy in his quotations. 
 Nor could it well be otherwise, as he himself acknowledges, that 
 he often contented himself with borrowing his quotations, not from 
 the original authors, but at second hand. But the taste of the 
 times favouring the spirit of scepticism that appeared in liis v.ork, 
 errors of this kind, which in a defender of Clnistianity would have 
 been reckoned unpardonable, as so many pious frauds intended to 
 deceive the reader, were either entirely overlooked, or considered 
 as very venial faults, in his " History of the Decline and Fall of 
 the Roman Empire." Of this work the first volume was publish- 
 ed in 1770, and met with extraordinary success; the second and 
 third volumes appeared in 1781 ; and the fourth, fifth, and sixth, 
 in 1787, established Mr. Gibbon's fame as a historian. Enco- 
 miums were lavished on him from all quarters, to such a pitch in- 
 deed, that some of them, paiticularh those of Mr. Hume and 
 Dr. Robertson, have even been reckoned fulsome. Tluit Mr. 
 Hume should have been highly delighted with a work tending 
 strongly to enforce his own principles, is not surprising ; but the 
 high panegyric bestowed by a Mmisler of the Gospel, upon a 
 work, one main object of which is to prove that Christianity is 
 not of divine original, is certainly quite out of cliaracter. But 
 otlicrs, while they give our author full credit for acuteness of pe- 
 netration, fertility of genius, luxuriance of fancy, elegance of 
 style, harmony of language, and beauty of epithets"," &c. object, 
 that, " the uiuform stateliness of his diction sometimes imparts 
 to his narrative a degree of obscurity, unless he descends to the 
 miserable e.xpedient of a note to explain the minuter circum- 
 stances :" and that, " his style on the whole is much too artifi- 
 cial ; and this gives a degree of monotony to his periods, which 
 extends almost to the turn of his thoughts." "But a more seri- 
 ous olijection (they justly add,) is his attack upon Christianity ; 
 the loose and disrespectful manner in which he mentions many- 
 points of morality, regarded as important on the principles of na- 
 tural religion ; and the indecent allusions and expressions, which 
 too often occur in the work. An attack U))on Christianity is not 
 censurable merely as such ; but in that case, the attack will never 
 be carried on in an insidious manner, and w ith imjiroper weapons ; 
 and Christianity itself, so far from dreading, will invite every 
 mode of fair and candid discussion. Onr historian often makes, 
 when he cannot readily find, an opportunity to insult the Chris- 
 tian religion. Such indeed is his eagerness in the cause, that he 
 sloops to the most despicable pun, or lo the most awkward per- 
 version of language, for the pleasure of turning the srriplure into 
 ribaldiy, or calling Jesus an impostor. Yet of the Christian reli- 
 gion has Mr. Gibbon himself observed, that ' it contains a pure, 
 benevolent, and universal system of ethics, adapted to every duty 
 and every condition of life.' Such an acknowledgement, and 
 from such a writer, too, ought to have due weight with a certain 
 class of ri-aders, and of authors likewise; and lead them seriously 
 to con^ider, how far it is consislent witli the character of good citi- 
 zens, to endeavour by sly insinuations, oblique hints, indecent 
 sneers, and profane ridicule, to weaken the inlluence of so pure 
 and benevolent a system as that of Christianity, acknowledged to 
 be admirably calcu'lated for promoting the happiness of indiv'iduals 
 and the welfare of society." (Siip|)lem. lo the Encyc. Brit. 
 Vol. 1. p. 707.) Various answers to Mr. Gibbon's attack on 
 Christianity, were published by Dr. Chelsnm, Dr. Randolph, 
 Lord Ihiiks, Dr. W'alson bishop of Llandali', Dr. \Vliite, Mr. 
 Aplhorpe, Mr. Davis, Mr. Ta\lor, Dr. Priestley, and others. 
 To most of these our auUior made no reply, though his posthu- 
 mous memoirs shew he felt the weight ot these aiiswi-rs, particu- 
 larly those of Lord Hailes, Dr. Vv'hite, and Mr. Taylor. His 
 constitution had suftered much from repe.ited attacks ot the goul, 
 and a swelling of his ancles; and after having been often tapped 
 for a h\drucele, he died at London, of llie gout in his stomach, 
 on the'lGth Jan. 1794, in the ;)7th year of his age. 
 
 GlBBOSll'Y, in surgery, denotes any protuberance or con- 
 vexity of the body, as a person hump-backed. Infants arc much 
 more subject to gibbosity than adults, and it oftcner prorrcds from 
 external than internal causes. A fall, blow, or the like, fre- 
 I (lucntlv thus dUlorti the leader bones of infants. When it pro- 
 ^ i ceed5
 
 Gin 
 
 605 
 
 GTG 
 
 ceeds tVoiii an iiiti'iiul cause, il i*; gi-iier;illy Iroiii a it-laNalioii ol 
 the ligaments that sustain llie spine, oi' a caries of its vertelirx ; 
 tliungh the spine inay be inllected forward, and fjie vertel)rie 
 thrown ont by a too stronsj and repeated action of tlie abdominal 
 muscles, 'llii-i, if not timely redressed, grows np and fixes as the 
 bones harden, till in adults it is totally irretrievable: but when the 
 disorder is recent, am! the person vuung, there are hopes of a cure. 
 Tlie common method is by a machine of pisieboard, wood, or 
 steel, which is ma<le to press principally on the gibbous part ; and 
 tills by Ions; wearing may set all right. 
 
 GIBfiOUS, in astronomy, is used in respect to the enlightened 
 parts of the moon, wliilst she is moving from the first quarter to 
 the full, and from the full to the last quarter : for all tliat time tlie 
 O.-.rk jiart spp'.;ais horned or falcated ; and the light one hunched 
 out, convex, or gibbous, 
 
 Gl iliiON, a city seated on an eminence about 40 furlongs N. 
 of .lerusalem, and not far from Gibeuh. 
 
 GIHEONITES, an ancient nation of Canaan, who, hearing of 
 Joshua's great contpiests, saved their lives at the expence of their 
 liberty bv a representation of tlieir belonging to a very remote 
 country, and tlieir desire of making an aliiance with the Hebrews. 
 See Joslnia, ix. 3 — 27. The Gibeonites were descended from the 
 Hiviles, and possessed four cities; viz. Ch'phirah, 'iceroth, Kir- 
 jathjearim, and Gibeon ; which were afterw aids given to the 15en- 
 janunites, e.xcept tlie last, which fell to the tribe of Judalt. The 
 Gibeonites continued subject to those burdens wliicli Joshua had 
 imposed on them, and were very faitliful to the Israelites, til! the 
 dispersion of that nation. 
 
 GIBKALEON, a town of Spnin, 44 miles W. of Seville. 
 
 GIBRALTAR, a famous pcomoiiton', or ratlier peninsula, of 
 Spain, in Andalusi;i, but btIonf;ing to Great nritaiii. By llie an- 
 cients it was named Calpe, and was also called one of tlie Pillars of 
 Hercules ; bv the Arabians it is ciiled Cebel Tarck, tliat is, " the 
 mount of Tarek," from Tarek, the name of the Saracen general 
 who conquereil Spain in the beginning of the Slh century. The 
 whole is an immense rock, rising perjjendicularly about 440 yards, 
 measuring from N. to S. about iwo English miies, but not above 
 one in breadth, honi E. to W. The longitude of thi- promontory 
 is 5° 4' 0" W. of Greenwich, and its latitude ou' 4' 44" N. Till* 
 time of high water at the time of tiie full and change of the moon, 
 happens here precisely at numiday, 
 
 GiBRAi.TAK, a town on the above promontory, which lies a'ong 
 the bay on the W. side of tlie muunUiin on a decline ; by which 
 the rains pass tlirougli it, and keep it clean. The old town was 
 considerably larger than the new, wl.ich at present consists of be- 
 tween 400 and iOO houses. It lits lii miles N. of Ceuta, 45 S. E. 
 of Cadiz. Lon, 5. 17. W. Lat. 36. ^. N. Tlie bay is very beau- 
 tiful and capacious, being in breadth about live miles, and in 
 length eight or nine, with several small rivers running into it. It 
 is very advantageous to the place. There is no ground to be 
 found in the middle of it at 100 fathoms depth, so that a squadron 
 may lie there in great salety ; the breezes from it are very refn-sh- 
 ing ; and it contributes likewise to the subsistence of the inhabi 
 taiits, by supplying them with plenty of lish. Gibraltar is estc<-m- 
 ed of very great consequence to Britain. It not only gives the 
 command ot the Straits, and their navigation, but affords refresh- 
 ment and accommodation to our Heels in time of war, and to our 
 merchantmen at all times. It liimlcrs a ready comniunicaiion by 
 sea between the dilferent (lorts of France and .Spain, and of coui'so, 
 hinders the junction of their fleets and squadrons, or at least ren- 
 ders it so diifficult as to be a perpetual check upon the amljiliou of 
 these powers. It awes also tlie piratical states of Barbary, and the 
 emperor of Morocco ; insomuch, that our ( oinmerce is more safe 
 tlian that of any other European power, which gives us great ad- 
 vantages in point of freight. It is otherwise highly favourable to 
 our trade in the Mediterranean and Levant. It procures us the 
 respect of the Italian and other powers ; who, though far distant 
 from Britain, consider this as an instance of her power to luirt or 
 assist them. It also saves us the expence of squadrons and con- 
 voys, upon any disputes or disturbances that may happen among 
 those powers, and which would otherwise be necessary for the 
 protection of our navigation. The inhabitants, exclusive of the 
 Britisli subjects dependent on the garrison, or who reside there 
 from other motives, consist of some Spaniards, a few Portuguese, 
 a considerable number of Genoese, and about as many Jews; 
 making in the whole, according to Dr. Campbell, betweeu 2 aud 
 
 TOL. 11. — NO. 06. 
 
 • 3,0011, witlioul leckonin^ the gjiiison, wliirh usually consists of 
 between 3 and 4,000 men ; but during the last siege was double 
 that number. 
 
 GiURALr.vR, Straits of, a narrow sea, which forms the coni« 
 munication between the Atlantic tJcean and the Mediterranean, 
 thereby dividing Europe from AiVica, and runs from \V. to E. 
 about 13 leagues. In tliis strait there are three remarkable pro- 
 niontoriis or capes on the Spanish side, and as many opposite to 
 them on the Barbary side. The fust of these, on the side of Spain, 
 is Cape Trafalgar, opposite to which is Cape Spartel ; and in the 
 neighbourhood of this stood the fortress o( Tangier, once in the 
 possession of the British. The next on tlie Spanish side is Tarisa ; 
 and over against it lies Malabata, near the town of Alcassar, whore 
 the straits are aliout five leagues broad. Lastly, Gibraltar, facing 
 the mountain of Abyla, near the fortress and town of Ceuta, 
 now in our possession, which, make the eastern entry of the straits. 
 GIBSON, Dr. Edmuxd, bishop of Lrijulonj was born at 
 Knipe in We.stmoreland, in IbCig. he early displayed his kiKJw- 
 ledge in several writings and translations, which recommended hint 
 to the patronage of Archbishop Tennison, who appointed him liis 
 domestic chaplain ; and soon after rector of Lambeth, and arch- 
 deacon of Surrey. Becoming thus a member of the convocation, 
 he defended his patron's rights, as president, in eleven pamphlets'; 
 he then completed his sclieme of t!ie legal duties and rights of the- 
 English clergy, under thelitle of " Codex Juris Ecelesiastici An- 
 glicani," in folio. In 17'-'0 he was promoted to the bishopric of 
 London, aii'l s|)ent the latter part of his life in publishing letters, 
 clvarges, occasional sermons, and tracts against the prevailing iin- 
 moralities of the age. His pastoral letters are justly esteemed 
 masterly productions against infidelity and enthusiasm. His other 
 puhlicatioi'.s are, 1. An edition cf Druiuuiond's Polemo-Middiiiia, 
 and James V.'s Cantilena Rnstica, with notes. 2. The Chronicoii 
 .Saxonicuni, with a Latin translation, and notes. 3. Reliquia; 
 Spelmaniiiana?, the posthumous works of Sir Henry Spelman, re- 
 lating to the laws and antiquities of England. 4. An edition of 
 Quimilian de Arte Oratoria, with notes. 5. An English transla- 
 tion of Camden's Britannia, w illi additions, 2 vols, folio : and, 6. 
 A number of small pieces, that have been collected and printed in 
 three volumes folio. He died, aged 79, in September 1748. 
 With regard to his character, he was a true friend to the establish- 
 ed church and government, and as gr-at an enemy to pei'secution. 
 He was usually consulted by the most learned and exalted per- 
 sonages in church and slate, and the greatest deference was paid 
 to his judsrement. He possessed the social virtues in an eminent 
 degree ; his beneficence was very extensive; and he had so much 
 justice as well as generosity, that he freely gave 2,5001. left him 
 by Dr. Crow, who was once his cliaplain, to Crow's own relations, 
 who were very poor. 
 
 GIDEON," [^lyiJ, Heb. i.e. a destroyer,] the son of Joash, 
 a Manassite, who had a very extraordinary call to deliver the 
 Israelites from the oppression of the Midianites. Having elTected 
 their deliverance by supernatural aid, he was chosen judge of 
 Israel, A. M. 275y, and died in •J7!)S. 
 
 (M EN, a town of France, in Ihi' department of Loiret, and late 
 province of Orleanois, 33 miles S. E. of Orleans. 
 
 CilENGEN, an imperial towa of Suabia, on the Brenfz, 30 
 miles W. of Donauwert. 
 
 GIERACE, an episcopal town of Naples, in Calabria Ultra, 
 34 miles N. of Reggio. 
 
 G I ESSEN, a strong town of Hesse Casscl, on the Laho, 3S 
 miles N. E. of Mentz. 
 
 (ilF r, \jli>iium, Lat.] in law, a conveyance which pa.sseth eilhc? 
 in lands or goods ; and is of a larger extent than a grant, being 
 ap|)lied to things moveable and inimovealile ; yet as to tilings im- 
 moveable, it is properly applicable only to lands and lenemente 
 given in tail ; but gift and grant are too often confounded. 
 
 GIGG, or JIG, in music or dancing, a gay, bris^v sprightly 
 composition, and yet in lull measure, as well as the alleniami, 
 which is more serious. Menage lakes the word to arise from the 
 Italian g/.i;«. .i musical instrument mentioned by Dante. 
 
 (ilGGI.EWlCK, a town in the West Riding of Yorkshiw, 
 half a mile from Settle, on theRibble; wliere, at the foot of a 
 mountain, is a spring, the most noted in England for ehbiug'and 
 flowing sometimes thrice in an liour, and the water sul>sidoa 
 three quarters of a yard at the reflux, though tlie sea is thirty 
 miles off". At this' towa is au eniine*it fveu grammar-school ; 
 7 J? omS
 
 GIL 
 
 600 
 
 G IL 
 
 ami near it is a tuiiiny of tiags, sUile, ami stone, with a good : 
 liine-kiln. 
 
 GK;1IA, GIGA, or GIGO, an island of Scotland, on the 
 W. coast of Kinlyre, in Argyleshire, 11 miles E. S. E. of Hay ; , 
 7 miles long, from N. E. to ij. \V. and 21 broad. The greater j 
 pari of it is arabli'. 
 
 GIGLIO, an island on the coast of Sienna in 'J'liscanv, 33 miles ^ 
 S S. E. of Elva. Eon. 1 1. itJ. t. Eat. 4<i. 23. N. _ 1 
 
 GIGNAC, atownof b'rance, in the , department of Uerault, 
 seated on the JE-rault, 13 !■ miles ^V. of Montpelher. [ 
 
 GIllON, in ancient geography, one of tlie rivers of Paradise; 
 according to Wells, the eastern "branch of the Euphrates, into 
 « liich it divides after its jnnction with the Tigris. 
 
 GUON, a sea-port of Spain, in Asliiria, with an ancient castle; 
 formerly the residence of Iv. I'elagiiis and his successors. It is 18 
 miles N. of Oviedo. 
 
 GILAN, or GllIEAN, a considerable province of Persia, ly- 
 in" on the S. W . side of the Caspian sea. It is supposed to be tlie 
 Hyicania of the ancients. Reshl is the capital, 
 
 GILBERD, or GIEBERT, \\iu.iam, a physician, born at 
 Colchester, in 1340, the eldest son of the recorder of that borough. 
 Having spent some time in both universities, he went abroad; and 
 at his return settled in London, where he practised with con^i(ler- 
 able repiUation. He became a meml)er of the college of physi- 
 cians, and physician in ordinary to Q. Elizabetli, who gave him 
 a pension. lie was also phvsician to K. James E He died in 
 ln03, aged 63, in Colchester', where a handsome monument was 
 erected to his memory. His books, globes, instruments, and fos- 
 sils, he bequeathed to the college of physicians, and his picture to ; 
 Ihe school-gallery at Oxford. ' lie wrote, I. De Maguete, mag- I 
 
 neticisque Corporibus, et de niagno Mjunele I'ellure, Physiolcgia 
 nova; J-.ond. 1600, fol. 2. De Mnndo nostro sublunari, Philoso- 
 phia nova; Amsterdam, l6.'il, 4to. He also invented two matlie- 
 matical instruments for linding the latitude at sea without the help 
 of sun, moon, or stars. A description of these instruments wai 
 afterwards published by Thomas I'.londeville in his Theoriques of 
 the planets. 
 
 GlJ^BlCliTE^, in botany, a genus of the monogynia order, and 
 decandria class. Calyx live-touthud ; corolla deeply five-parted; 
 neclaiy ten-parlecl, v\ilh lanceolate segments; tiult si.\-celled. it 
 has but one spfi ies. 
 
 GILBI'.K TIN lis, an order of religious, thus called from St. 
 Gilbert of Sempringham, in I^incohishiie who founded it about 
 1148. The monks observed the rule of St. Augustine ; and vu:re 
 accounted canons : and the nuns that of Si. Benedict. 
 
 GlEBKRT'S ISLAND, an island ne?.rthe S. \V. coast ofTer- 
 ra del Fuego. Eon. 71.7. W. Eat. i5. 13. S. 
 
 (rlEBOA, in ancient geography, mountains of Samaria-, stretcli- 
 ing from W. to E. on the conhnes of the half-tribe of Manasseh, 
 and of llie tribe ot Issachar. 
 
 GlEDAS, surnamed The Wise, a celebrated British monk 
 born in Wales in ,S11. Where lie vas educated is nncerlain^ 
 Soim- say he W'nl over to E'eland ; others, that he visited France 
 and Italy. All agree, that alter his return to England he became 
 a most assiduous preacher of tliegosfx'!. iiu Pin says he founded 
 a monastery at \'enetia in Britain. Gildas is the only British- 
 author of the sixth century whose works are printed. His history 
 ot Britain is valuable on account of its antiquity, and as containing 
 the only informalion we have concerning the times of which h« 
 wrote; though his style is inelegant. 
 
 GILDING. 
 
 GILDING, the art of spreading or covering a thing over with 
 «old, either in leaf or liquid. This art w-as known among the an- I 
 cients, though it never arrived among them at the perfection to j 
 which the moderns have carried it. J'li'iy assures us, that the first 
 gilding seen at Rome was after the destruction of Carthage, under 
 the censorship of Lucius Munimius, when they began to gild the 
 ceilings of their temples and palaces; the Capitol being the first 
 place on which this enrichment was bestowed. The lustre and 
 lieauty of gold have occasioned several inquiries, and discoveries 
 concerning the different methods of applying it to difl'ercnt sub- 
 stances. Hence the art of gilding is very extensive, and contains 
 many particular operations and various management. 
 
 Of Gold-Leaf. There are three kinds of gold-leaf in common 
 \ise. Pure f;old-leaf, which is made by hammering gold till it is 
 sufficiently thin (seetJoLD-HEATiNc). Pale leaf-gold, which has a 
 greenish colour, and is made in the same way of gold alloyed with 
 silver. Dutch gold, which is brought trom Holland, and is intact 
 oiilv copper-leaf coloured by the fumes of zinc. It is much cheap- 
 er than true leaf-gold, and is very useful where large quantities of 
 gilding are wanted, w liich can be defended from the weather, and 
 ■where great nicely is not required ; but it changes its colour en- 
 tirely when exposed to moisture ; and indeed, in all cases, its 
 beauty is soon impaired, unless well secured by varnish. It is 
 therefore only a cheap substitute for true gold-leaf, which may be 
 xiseful where durability is not an object. 
 
 0* THE Instruments necessary foe Gilding. 
 
 The t'lrst instrument is (he Cu.shion, for receiving the leaves of 
 gold from the books in which they are bought. It is made by co- 
 ■yering a board of about eight inches square, with a double thick- 
 ness of llannel : and over that a piece of butit-ieather, and fastening 
 it tight round the edges. 
 
 The Knife for cutting the leaves into the requisite sizes should 
 be made like a pallet-knife, and should not have its edge too 
 sharp. 
 
 The Tip is a tool made by fastening the long hairs of a squirrel's 
 tail lietween two cards ; and is used for taking up the gold-leaf 
 after it is cut, and applying it to the article to be gilded. 
 
 A Fitch-Pencil is used for the same purpose as the last, in 
 
 8 
 
 taking up very small bits of gold-leaf. A ball of cotton is neces- 
 sary for pressing down the leaf, after it is laid on. A large camel's- 
 hair-brush is used for dusting the work, and clearing away the su- 
 perfluous gold. 
 
 Or THE DIFFERENT KlNDS AND METHODS OF GiLDING. 
 
 Oii,-Gii,r>i\G. Firrit prime your work with boiled linseed-oil 
 and white-lead; and when that is dry, cover it over with a thin 
 coat of gold-size, made of slone-ochre ground in fat oil. When 
 that is so dry as to feel clammy to the hngers, or to be what the 
 gilders call tacky, it is fit for gilding. Having spread vour leaves 
 upon the cushion, cut then into slips of the proper width for cov- 
 ering yourwork. Then breathe upon yourtip, which, by moisten- 
 ing it, will cause it to take up the leaves from the cushion. Hav- 
 ing aiiplied them by the tip on the j-iroper parts of your work, press 
 them down by the hall of cotton. Observe to repair, by putting 
 small pieces of gold on any partsvvhieh yon have omitted to cover. 
 When all your work is sufficiently covered, let it dry, and clean 
 it off with the brush. This sort of gilding is the easiest, least 
 expensive, and stands the weather best, and may be cleaned 
 with a little water at anytime; but wants the lustre of burnished 
 gilding. 
 
 Burnished Gilding. This is the sort of gilding generally- 
 used for iiicture-frames, looking-glasses, &c. The wood intend- 
 ed to be gilt in this manner, should first be well sized, and then 
 covered with seven or eight coats of size :md whiting, so as to 
 form a body of ctvisiderable thickness. Having got a sufficient 
 quantity of whiting upon the work, it mu^t be carefully cleaned, 
 taking care to free all the cavities and hollows from tiie whiting 
 that may have choked them up, and by proper moulds and tools 
 restoring the sharpness ot the mouldimis intended to be shewn. 
 It is then to receive a coat of size, which is made by boiling 
 Armenian bole with parchment-^ize. This must ;.lso remain till it 
 is sufficiently dry for gold. It must not be quilc dry, therefore it 
 would not be prudent to lay on more at a timi than can be gill be- 
 fore it becomes loo dry. The wurk being thus prepared, place it 
 a little declining from you ; and liaving ready a cup of clean water, 
 and some hair-pencils, moisten a part of tlie work, and Uun apply 
 the gold by the tip to the moistened part. The gold will imme- 
 diately.
 
 GILDING. 
 
 eor 
 
 dialclv a>lhere closi- to llie work : iirocei'd to wel lln' next part, 
 and apply tlu- 'joUl as bot'oic, n-pL-atiiig lliis oporatioii till tlu' wbole 
 is complete 1 ; takiiic; care not to li-t any chops of water come upon 
 ativ part of t le gold aln^ady laid on. Care slioidd llieretbre be 
 tilii-u tiialiio pan be missed in goiii^ over it at lirst as it is not so 
 easily mende. I as till' oil-gilding. The work being thus gilt, it is 
 siifl'ered to remain about '-'4 hours; when the parts that are de- 
 siened to be burnished, are polished with a dog's tooth, or, wl.at 
 is Better, witli an agate burnisher. The gilding must not be quite 
 «!ry when burnished ; there is a state proper for the purpose, wir.ch 
 Is only to be known by experience. 
 
 jAi'^NKtR's Gilding. The gilding of japanned work con- 
 sists in drawing with a hair-pencil, in gold size, the intended orna- 
 ments, and atterwards applying gold-leaf, or gold-powder. The 
 gold-size may be prepared in tiie following manner: Take of lin- 
 seed-oil, and of gum animi, four ounces. Set the oil to boil in a 
 proper vessel, and then add the gum animi gradually in po«<ler, 
 stirring each ((uantity about in the oil tdl it appears to be dissolved, 
 and then putting in another, till the whole is mixed with the oil. 
 I,et the mixture continue to boil, till, on taking a small quantity 
 out, itappears of a thicker consistence than tar, and then strain the 
 whole throuifh a coarse clotli, and keep it for use ; but it must, 
 wlien applied, be mixed with vermilion and oil of turpentine. Hav- 
 ing laid on the gold-size, and suffered it to dry, the gold-leaf is ap- 
 plied in the usual way : or if it be not wanted to shine so much, gold- 
 powder is applied, which is made by grinding gold-leaf upon a 
 stone witii honey, and afterwards washing the honey away with 
 water. If the gilding is to be varnished over, Dutch gold may 
 be used, or aurHBi musivum may be used instead of real gold-pow- 
 der. 
 
 To Write on Paper with Letters of Gotn. Put some 
 gum-arabic into common writing-ink, and write with it in the usual 
 way. When the writing is dry. breathe on it ; tlie warmth and 
 moisture soften the gum, and will cause itto fastenon the gold-leaf; 
 which may be laid on in the usual way, and the snpcrlluous 
 jiait brushed oi'f. Or instead of this, any japanners" size maybe 
 used. 
 
 To Lav Gold upon White Earthenware, or Glass. 
 Procnre some japanners' gold-size, and with it draw your design 
 upon the vessel to be gilt, moistening ihe gold-size, as you lind 
 Hecessary, with oil of turpentine. Set your work in a clean place 
 to dry, for about an hour, nnd then place it so near the hie, that 
 yon could hut just bear the heat of it with your hand for a few 
 seconds. Let it remain there till it feels quite tacky or clammy ; 
 then, having procured a cushion, and some leaf-gold, cut it into 
 !>lips of the proper size, and lay it on with the little <ollon 
 ball. Wlien the gold is all on, put the ware into an oven to be 
 baked for two or three hours. Glasses, Sec. may also be gilt, by 
 drawing the figures with shell-gold mixed with gum-arabic, and 
 a little borax. Then apply sufficient heat to it ; and, lastly, bur- 
 nish it. 
 
 Gilding on Glass or Porcelain, by Burning In. Dis- 
 solve gold in aqua regia, and evaporate the acid by heat, yon will 
 obtain a gold powder : or precipitate tli^- gold from the solution 
 by piece? of coi)per. Lav this gold on with a strong solution of 
 borax and gum-water, and it will be ready for burning-in. 
 
 Gilding Mltals. (-)ne metliod of ap[)lying gold upon me- 
 tals is by first cleaning the nu'tal to he gilt ; then gt Ul-leaf is laid 
 on it, which, by means of rubbing witli a pori>hed blood-stone, and 
 a certain degree of heat, are made to adhere perfectly well. In 
 this nnnner silver-leaf is fixed and burnished upon brass, in the 
 making of wliat is called French plate; and sometimes also gold- 
 leaf is burnished upon copper and iroiT. 
 
 CJiLDiNG BY A.malga.mation. A belter method is, by pre- 
 Tiouily forming the gold into paste, or amalgam, w ith mercury. In 
 order io obtain an amalgam of gold and mercury, the gold is first to 
 be reduced into thin plates or grains, -.vhich are heated red-hot, 
 and thrown into mercury previously heated, till it begins to smoke. 
 Upon stirring the mercury with an iron rod, the gold totally dis 
 appears. 1 nc proportion of mercury to gold is generally as six 
 or eight to one. The method ofgildingby anialg:!ination is chief- 
 ly used for gilding copper, or an alloy of coijper, with a small por- 
 tion of zinc, which more readily receives the amalgam, and is also 
 preferable on account of its colour, which more resembles that of 
 gold than the colour of copper. When the metal to be gilt is 
 
 wrouL'Iit or chased, it ought to b.- previously coven d withquick- 
 silver^).'f«re the amalgam is applied, that this may be e.isier spread; 
 but when the surface of the metal is plane, the amalgam may be 
 diri'ctly applied to it. 'I'he metal rKjuiied to be gilt is lirst rub- 
 bed over with a little aquafortis, by which the surfaces cleaned 
 I from any rust or tarnish that might |)ievcnt the union of the two 
 metals.' The amalgam being then ecpially spread over the sur- 
 face by means of a brush, the nvrcury is evaporated by a heat just 
 surticient for that purpose: for it it lie too great, part of the gold 
 may also he expelled, and part of it will run together, and leavn 
 some of the sur/ace of the metal hare. While tlie mercury is eva- 
 poratiiig the piece is to be, from time to time, taken from the 
 lire, that it may be examined ; that the amalgam may be spread 
 more ecpiallv by means of a brush ; that any defective parts of it 
 may he again covered, and that the heat may not be too suddenly 
 a])plied to it. \J' hen the mercury is evaporated, which is known 
 by the surface becoming entirely of a dull-yellow colour, the 
 metal must then undergo other operation;, by w Inch the line gold- 
 colour is given to it. First, the gilded piece of metal is rubbed 
 with a scratcli-brush (which is a brush conqjosed of brass wire) till 
 its surface is made smooth ; then it is covered over with a compo- 
 sition called gilding-wax, and is again exposed to the hre till the 
 wax is burnt oil'. 'I'lvis wax iscomposed of bee's-wax, frequently 
 mixed with some of the following substances: red ochre, verdigris, 
 copper scales, alum, vitriol, borax ; but, according to Dr. Lewis, 
 the saline substances are sufficient, without any wax. By thi* 
 operation the colour of tlie gilding is heightened ; and the eliect 
 seems to he produced bv a perfect dissii)ation of some mercury re- 
 maining after the former operation. The gilt surface is then cov- 
 ered over with a saline compo-ilion, consisting of nitre, alum, and 
 vitriolic salt, ground logeliier, and mixed U]) into a paste w ath water 
 or urine. The piece of metal tluis covered is exposed to a certain 
 degree of heat, and then quenched in water. By this methed its 
 colour is further improved, and brought nearer to that of gold. 
 This effect seems to be produced by the acid of the nitre (which 
 is disengaged by the sulphuric acid of the alum, during the expo- 
 sure to heat) acting upon any particles of copper which may hap 
 pen to lie upon the gilded surface. Lastly, some artists think that 
 they give an additional lustre to their gilt'work, by dipping it in a- 
 liquoi- prepared by boiling some yellow materials, as sulphur, orpi- 
 meiit, or turmeric. The only a'dvantage of this operation is, tliat 
 ])art of the yellow nialti-r remains in some of the hollows of the 
 carved work, in which the gilding is apt to be more imperfect, and 
 to which it givesaricii and solid appearance. It may here be no- 
 ticetl, that the use of the aquafortis or nitric acid, mentioned in 
 the beginning of the process, is not, as is generally supposed, con 
 ;fined merely to cleansing the surface of the metal to be gilt from 
 rust or tarnish; but it also greatly facilitates the application of the 
 amalgam to the surface of that' metal, probably in the following 
 manner: It lirst dissolves part of the mercury of the amalgam ; 
 and when the solution is applied to the copjier, this latter metal, 
 having a stronger disposition to unite with the nitrous acid than the 
 mercury has, "pr'cipitates the mercury upon its siirhice, in the 
 same manner as a polisiied piece of iron prei ipitates upon its sur- 
 face copper from a solution of blue vitriol. 'When the metal to be 
 gilt is thus covered with a thin coat of precipitated mercury, it 
 readily receives the amalgam. On the subjeit of gilding by amal- 
 gamation. Dr. Lewis has the following remarks: "I here are two 
 principal inconveniences in this business ; one, that the workmen 
 are exposed to the fumes of the mercury, and geneniUy, sooner or 
 later, have their health gre;.tly impaired by them ; the other, the 
 loss of the mercury ; tor though part of it is said to be detained in 
 the cavities made in the chimneys for that purpose, yet the great- 
 est part of it is lost. From some trials I have made, it ap|)tared 
 that both these inconveniences, particularly the first and most 
 considerable one, might he in a good measure avoided, by means 
 of o furnace of a due construction. If the comnumication of a 
 furnace witii its chimney, instead of being over the lire, is hiaiK? 
 under the srate, the ash-pit door, or other apertures bene;ith the 
 grate, closed, and the moutli of tiie furnace lett ojn n, the current 
 of air, which otherwise would have entered beneath, enters now 
 at the top, and passing down through the grate to the chimney, 
 carries with it completely both the vai)our of the fuel, and the 
 fumes of such matters as are placed upon it. 'Ihe back part of the 
 .furnace should be raised a little higher above the lire than the foi-e- 
 
 part
 
 608 
 
 GILDING. 
 
 part, and :in iron plate laid over it, that the air may enter only 
 at the front, where the workiiiEii stands, who will be tluis efi'ecl- 
 iiallv secured from the fumes, and from being incommoded by the 
 heat, and at the same time have full liherlj- of iiitrodaciiig, in- 
 specting, and removing, the work. If such a fi'rnace is made of 
 strong torged (not milled) iron plate, it will lie siiiiicieiit'y dur.:ble. 
 The npper end of the chimney may reach al)0ve a foot and a half 
 liigher than the level of the lire ; over this is to be placed n larger 
 tnhe, leaving an interval of an ii'.ch, or more, a!! round b'.'twecii 
 it and the chimney, aud reaching to the height of ten or twelve 
 feet ; the higiier the better. Tl e external air, pa>-iing up between 
 the chimney and the outer pipe, prevents the latter from being 
 mucli lieated, so that tlie mercurial tvmies will condense against its 
 sides into running (juicksilver, which falling down to the bottom, 
 is there caught in a hollow rim, formed by turning inwards a por- 
 tion of the lower part, and conveyed by a pipe at one side into a 
 proper receiver. 
 
 Gilding Iron oi; Steel. Iu gilding iron or steel by means 
 of an amalgam, as the met?! has no adinity for the mercury, an 
 agent must be eniployed to dispose the surlace to receive the 
 gilding. For tliii purpose i solution of mercury in nitrous acid 
 (aquafortis), or what the workmen call quicksilver-water, is 
 applied to the parts intended t') be gilded ; the acid, by a stronger 
 ailiuity, seizes on a portion of the i'-nn, and deposits in the pl^cc 
 of it a thiii coating of mercury, which will nut reiusc an union af- 
 terwards with the gold amalg.im that may bo applied ; but by tiiis 
 process the surface of the metal is injured by the nitrous acid, and 
 the union of the mercury is very slight, so that a briglit and du- 
 rable gilding cannot be obtained. — Annthcr iiiitlmd. Sometimes 
 a solution of blue vitriol is applied, with a caniel's-hair pencil, to 
 the parts of the steel intended to be gilt. By a chemical action, 
 exactly similar to what we have described as taking place when a 
 solution of nitrate of mercury is employed, a tliin coaling of cop- 
 per is precipitated on the metal. Copper having an ailiuity for 
 mercury, a kintl of union may by this means be el'fected between 
 the amalgam and the iron or steel, as the case may be. In which- 
 ever of these methods tlie amalgam is brought into union with the 
 steel, the surface is injured by the action of the acid en)ployed, 
 and still a heat sufiicient to volatilize the mercury must be after- 
 wards used. 
 
 GiLDiXG 01' Tro.v by Heat. When the surface is polished 
 bright, it must be heated till it becomes blue. Gold leaf is then 
 applied to its s\uface, and burnished down. It is then aeated 
 again, and another layer of gold burnished on it. In this manner 
 three or four coats are given, according to the stiength of the gild- 
 ing intended. This is a more laborious process than the two last, 
 but it is not attended with so much ri^k. 
 
 GiLDiVG Iro.s- ou Steel, an improved Process for. This 
 process, which is less known among artists than it deserves to be, 
 may ])rove useful to those who have occasion to gild iron or steel. 
 Tlie iir>t part ot the process consists in pouring over a solution of 
 gold in nitro-murialic acid (aqua regia) about twice as much ether, 
 which umst be done wiLli caution, and in a large vessel. These 
 liquids must then be shaken together ; as soon as the mixture is at 
 rest, the ether w ill be seen to separate it-.elf from the nilro-nm- 
 rialic acid, and to float on the surface. Tlie nitro-muriatic acid 
 becomes more transparent, and the other darker than they were i 
 before ; the reason of which is, that thj ether has taken the gold ] 
 from the acid. The whole mixture is then to be poured into a | 
 glass-funnel, the lower aperture of which is small ; but this apcr- i 
 ture must not be opened till the fluids have completely separated 
 themselves from each other. It is then to be opened ; by which 
 means the liquid which has taken the lowest place by its" greater 
 
 gravity, viz. the nitro-muriatic acid, will run off; after which, tho 
 aperture is to be shut, and the funnel will then be found to con- 
 tain nothing but inher mixed with the gold, ivhich is to be put into 
 well-closed bottles, and preserved for use. In order to gild iron 
 Oi' steel, the metal must be first well polished with the finest emery, 
 or rather v;;th the finest crocus ujartis or colcotliar of vitriol, and 
 commo:. brandy. The auriferoas ether is then to be applied with 
 a small brush ; the ethei soon evaporates, and the gohl remains on 
 the surface cf the mtlr.!. I'he metal may Uien be put into the 
 fire, aii(' afterv.-ards polis'ied. By means of this auriferous ether, 
 all ki'id3_ of figures nay l;e doliueated ou iron, by employing a 
 pen, or fine brush. It is in this manner, we believe, thjt the Soh- 
 iingcr sabrc-lilada; are gilded. Instead of etiier, the essential oils 
 may be used, such as oil of turpQ.itii;e.. or oil of lavender, whicU 
 will also iskc wld from its sclutioji. 
 
 Gi! DING OF Silver. Dissolve gold in the nitro-muriatic acid, 
 and dip some linen rags in th? solution ; then burn tliem, and 
 larcfully preserve the ashes, which will be very black, and heavier 
 thiui coinnson. V.'hen any thing is to be gilded, it must be pre- 
 viously well burnished ; a piece of cork is then to be dipped, fii-st 
 into a sojutio:>of salt in water, and afterwards into the black pow- 
 der ; and the piece, rfter being rubbed with it, must be burnish- 
 ed. This powder is frequently used for rildin^ delicate articles of 
 silver. 
 
 GiLDiNc o? Brass and Copi-eix. Fine instruments of brass, 
 in orderthat their surface may be kept longer clean, may be gilded 
 in the following manner. I'rovid.; a saturated solution of gold, 
 and having evaporated it to the consistence of oil, sutler it to shoot 
 into crystals. T hese crystals must then be oissolved in pure wa- 
 ter, and the artic'es to be gilded being innnersod i.i it, are then to 
 be washed in pure water, and afterwards burnished. Thiii pro- 
 cess may be repeated several times, till the articles have been well 
 gilt. A solution of gold-crystals is preferred to a mere solution of 
 gold, because in the latter there is always a portion of free acid, 
 which will not fail to exercise more or less action on the surface of 
 the brass or copper, and injure its polish. 
 
 Grecian Gilui.vg. I>issolve some mercury in muriatic acid 
 (spirit of salt), which will give a muriate of mercury. Mix X'qual 
 parts of this and sal ammoniac, and dissolve ihcin in aquafortis, 
 rut some gold into this, audit will dissolve. When this is ap- 
 plied to silver, it becomes black; but by heating, it assumes the 
 appearance of gildinsr. 
 
 Gold, to make Shell. Grind up gold-leaf vilhhonevina 
 mortar ; then wash away the honey with water, anil mi.x the gold- 
 powder with gum-water. This maj- be applied to any article 
 with a camel's-hair pencil, in the same way as any >other colour. 
 
 Glass, to gild. Take aw equal quantity of chalk and red- 
 lead, grind them together, and temper witli lint-seed-oil ; lay it 
 on, and when almost dry, lay the gold-leaf on, let it dry, and tlieu 
 polish it. 
 
 To GILD Paper. Grind bole-armoniac with rain-water, and 
 give one laying of it; v\'lieu it is dry, take glair of eggs, and add 
 to it a little sugar-candy ;ijid gum-water, which lay over the for- 
 mer, and upon this, when it is dry enough, lay leaf-silver, or leaf- 
 gold. 
 
 To GILD THE Leaves of Books. Take bole-armoniac, eight 
 penny-weights; sugar-candy, two penny-weights: mix and grind 
 them with glair of eggs : then on a bound book (while it is in the 
 pri;ss, after it hath been smeared w ith glair of eggs, and is dried), 
 smear the said composition, let it dry, then rub it well and ])olish 
 it ; then with fair water wet the edges of the book, and suddenly 
 lay on the gold, press it down geutly witli cotton, let it dry, and 
 then polish it with a tooth. 
 
 Oir^ES, St. the tutelar saint of Edinburgh, a native of Greece, 
 v^ho flourished in the sixth century, and was descended of an il- 
 lustrious family. On the death of his parents he gave all his es- 
 tate to the poor ; and travelled into France, where he retired into 
 a wildei'ueiis aear the couflux of Ibe HJioiie witli tke tea, and con- 
 
 tmued there three years. Having obtained the reputation of ex- 
 traordinary sanctity, various miracles were attributed to him ; and 
 he founded a monastery in Languedoc, known long after by the 
 name of St. Giles's. "In the reign of Janies II. Mr. Preston of 
 Gorton, whose desctajdants still possess au estate in the country of 
 
 Edinburgl),
 
 G I L 
 
 609 
 
 G r R 
 
 luliiiburgli, got possession of an arm of this saint ; wliitli relic In- 
 bequi. itlifd ti) the cliuicii of tAlinburgh. In gratilnUr foi this 
 donation, the ina,L;""itr.iti> granted a charter in favour of Mr. Pivs- 
 ton's l.-irs, by which the i'C.:re>t heir of the n.nne of Preston was 
 en'.itled to . arry it in all processions. 'Ihey also obliged them- 
 selves to foi.nd .(n altar in the cluirch of St. Giles's, and appoint a 
 ch.iplain for Celebrating an .-.i.nu.il mas? for the sonl of Mr. Pres- 
 ton ; and likewise, liiat a tabl..t conl.iuiini; his arms, and an acconnt 
 of his pious donation, should be pul up in the chapel. 
 
 CILG.VL, in ancicMt Ljeograpi^y, a place bclween Jericho and 
 Jordan, noted for the first encampment of the Isr.ieliles on tliis 
 side Jordan, about a mile from Jericho. It sometimes aUo de- 
 notes (iaiilce. Joshua xii. "3. 
 
 GILL, John, D. D. a Protestant dissenting minister of the 
 Bapti-t deiioininalion, the son of Edward Gill, a deacon of the 
 Baptist church at Kettering, in Northamptonshire, was Ijorri at 
 Kettering, Nov. '23, Ifjo;. He was early sent to a grammar-school 
 in the neighbourhood ; where he very soon surp.issed boys much 
 his seniors. Besides going througli the common school-books, he 
 read most of the Latin classics, and made great proficiency in the 
 Grc'ek language. He \v as put to the business of his father, but so 
 far improved his leisure-hours, as to be able, before he was 19, to 
 read all the Greek and Latin authors that fell in his wav. He stu- 
 died logic, rhetoric, moral and natural philosophy; and learnt the 
 Hebrew language so as to read It with I'ase, without any other as- 
 sistance than Ruxtorfs graunnar and lexicon. Neither the |iur- 
 suit of learning, however, nor his other necessary avocations, could 
 eradicate those religious impressions received in early life. About 
 1 71 tj he became a preacher, and ofliciated to a congregation of 
 Iligham Ferrers, from whence in l/l'J he removed lo London, 
 where he was chosen pastor of the Baptist congregation in South- 
 wark. He died in 1721. The university of Aberdeen conferred 
 on him the degree of doctor in divinity. In his sentiments, he wa:. 
 a Calvinist of the most rigid cast. Ilis works are, 1 . A Commen- 
 tary on the Old and New Testament, in 9 vols. fol. 2. A Body 
 of Divinity in 3 vols. 4to. 3. The Cause of God and Truth, 
 4 vols, 8vo. 4. A Treatise concerning the Prophecies of the Old 
 Testament respecting the Messiah. 5. A Dissertation on the An- 
 tiquity of the Hebrew Language, Letters, Vowel-Points, and 
 Accents. 6. Sermons on the Canticles, folio; besides a great 
 number of sermons and controversial pieces on dilTcrent sub- 
 jects. 
 
 GILL, a mea<;ure of capacity, containing a quarter of a pint. 
 GILLYFLOWER. See l5iANTHt;s. 
 
 GILOLO, a large island ot the Pacific Ocean, one of the Mo- 
 luccas, lyins; between 1° Lat. S. and 2° Lat. N. and between 
 1?5" and 128° Lon. E. 
 
 GILPIN, BERN.'iRr), an eminent English divine, descended 
 from an ancient and hononrable family in Westmoreland, and born 
 ip 1517. Being bred in the Hom.in Catholic religion, he for some 
 time defended it, and at Oxford held a disputation with Hooper, 
 afterwards bishop of Worcester, and martyr for tin: Protestant faith ; 
 but was engaged inanotherdi iputation with PeterMartyr, and began 
 seriously to examine the contesteil points. Being presented to "the 
 vicarage of Norton in Durham, he resigned it, and went abroad to 
 consult eminent professors on bothsid>s : and after three years ab- 
 Eence returned a little before the death of Queen Mary I. satisfied 
 io the doctrines of the reformation. He was kindly received by 
 Ills uncle Dr. Tonstall, bishop of Durlu'in ; who soon after gave 
 him tiie archdeaconry of Durham, and rectory of Eflington. 
 Though the persecution was then i;t its height, he boldlv preached 
 against the vices,errors, and corruptions, ot the times, especially in 
 the clergy ; on which a charge consisting of 13 articles was drawn 
 up against him, ainl preseiiteil in foiurio the bishop. But Dr. 
 Ton-tall dismissed the cause in such u manner as to protect his 
 r.ephew, without endangering himself, and soon after presented 
 him to the rich living of Houghton le Spring. He was again ac- 
 cused to the b.jliop, and again protected ; when his enemies, en- 
 raged at this second defeat, laid their complaint before Dr. Bon- 
 ner, bishop of Loniloii_; who immediately gave orders to appre- 
 hend liim. Upon winch Mr. Ciilpin bravely prepared for mar- 
 fvrdom ; and ordering his slewar<l to provide him a long garment 
 that h? might make a decent appearance at the stake, set out for 
 London. Proviilentially, however, he broke his leg on the journey ; 
 which protracted his arrival unli! the queen's death. Being im- 
 vou II.— NO. 9if. 
 
 mediately set at liberty, he returned to Hooijliton, where :ie wa? 
 received by his parishioners with the sincere-! joy. I'ponthcdc' 
 privation of tlu- i'opish bl-hops, he w.is olfered ilir see ot Carlisle, 
 w liich he lie' lined ; .md couriniiig hi- attenfon lo his rectory, dis- 
 ch.rged all the tliuie, of hi> function in the mo-t exemplary nian- 
 niT. Hf was not satisfied with the advice he gave in i/ubbc, but 
 used to in-lruct in privali' ; ani made his parishioners come to him 
 w<ch their dilTiculties. His kuidne-s towards the poor was extraor- 
 'liiiary, and he was mo-t forward to assist those who had large fa- 
 milies. In the dist.iii; parishes where he pre.iched, as well as in 
 l.i.> O'vn neighbourhood, his genero^itv and benevolence were con- 
 tinually exercised : paitlcularly in tlie de.olate parts ot Northuin- 
 beri nul. " When he began li'is journey," says an old .MS. lile of 
 him, " he would have 10). in his purse ; and, at his coming home, 
 he would be 20 nobles in debt, which he would always pav within 
 a fortnight after." In the gaol-, he visited, he was not only care- 
 lul to give the prisonei-s proper instructions, but used to purchase 
 tor them likewise what necessaries they wanted.' Even upon the 
 public road, he never h-t slip an opportunity of doing good. He 
 has often been known to take ol'f his clo.ik, and give it to an half- 
 naked traveller ; and when he has had scarce motiey enough in 
 his pocket to provide himself a dinner, yet would he give awav 
 part of that little, or the whole, if he louiidaiiy w ho seemed ti) 
 stand in neefl of it. This excellent d.vine, who deservedly ob- 
 tained the srlorious titles of the Father of the Poor, and the Apos- 
 tle of the North, died in 1583, in t!ie fitjth year of his age. 
 (ilLT VARNISH. See Varnish. 
 
 GI.MB.\I.S, in sea-affairs, the bras-rings bv which a sea-com- 
 pnss is suspended in its box, so as to coiiiiterac't the elfcct of tlio: 
 ship's motion, and keep the card horizontal. 
 
 GIM BETING, a term applied to the anchor to denote the ac- 
 tion of turning it round by the sl6ck, so that the motion of the 
 stock appears similar to that of the handle of a giinblct when it is- 
 ( niployed. 
 
 GIN, in mechanics, a machine for driving pile?, fitted with a 
 windl.iss and winches at e.uh eiul, where eight or nine men~heavp, 
 and round which a rope is reeved that goes over the wheel at the 
 lop ; one end of this rope is seized to an iron-monkey, that hooks 
 (o a beetle of diUercnt w eights, according to the piles tfiey are to- 
 drive, froiii being eight to thirteen hundred weight; and when 
 hove up to the cross-|>iece, near the wheel, it unhooks tin: monkey, 
 anil lets the beetle fill on the upper end of the pile, ami forces, 
 the same into the ground : then the monkey's own weight over- 
 hauls the windlass, in order for \U being hooked again to tk« 
 beetle. 
 
 CJiM. Sec Gen'kv.\. 
 
 GINANNIA, in botany, a ginmr, of tlic cimeandiia mono 
 gynia class and order. Natural order, Loment.icea?. Calyx dou- 
 ble, both one-leafed ; petals three, fringed, spreading; gv^rm piv 
 diccUed, with a membranaceous wiug at lop ; legume, i'here Ts 
 but one species, viz. O. giiianensis, a shrub about iifteen ff-ct high ; 
 a native of the forests vi Guiana. 
 
 GINGEN, an imperial town of Suabia, iC mite? of Ulni. Lon 
 10. 13. E. Lat. 4S. 39- N. 
 GINGER. Sec Amomum. 
 
 GiNCER-WiNE is made as follows : take tln'ee gallons of water, 
 two ounces of raiice-ginger, and' three pounds of sugar; boil lliein 
 lor an hour, and then put into it three lenioa;, and a I'Ule good 
 yeast; close up the vessel, and let it slaiulfive days: if it basse 
 worked as lo be cIc.t in that time, it may be i'ottled ; if not, ki 
 it stand longer, until it has worked sufllciently ; and in ten days ■ 
 after it may be diank. 
 
 GINOKA, in bonny, a genns of the monogynia order, and do- 
 decandria da-s of iilanf. Calyx cleft iniii six part^ ; petals sis 
 capsule uniloiular, (piadrivalved, coloured, anil polyspcrmous. 
 (jiN'SENC, in botany. Sec PA.■•■.^x. 
 
 GlODDA.or GFDDAH, a sea-port of Ai.abia, on the F. 
 CO i-t of the Red Sea. Lon. 39. 27. E. Lat. 21 . 30. N. 
 
 G10VEN.\ZZ0, a town and fort ot Naples, in the i)rovince of 
 Bari, 11 miles E. S. E. ofTrani. 
 
 GIRDERS, in architectnro, some of the laigest pieoos of tim- 
 ber in a floor. Their ends are usnallv fastened into summers and- 
 bre.tstsummei'S, and joists, ire frameJ in at one end tu the girders. 
 The size of gliders and summers, upon the rebuilding of London,, 
 were ordaitie.d by act of parliament, lo bo iu lei^jth trom ten (o. 
 «' Q. twenty '
 
 GL A 
 
 GLA 
 
 twc'r.ty-~i\ iVcl, in biTadtli I'luni elevi.-ii to sevrliteon iiiclu:i, and 
 yl drpth tVum i/isili! to fomieeii inches. 
 
 GIUDING-CjIR'I', ill tlie si'a-langii;ige. Asliip is girt, or hatli 
 n girding-iiirl, wiu'ii lior cable being so tight, or strained, upon the 
 tnrnina of the tide, she cannot get over it, but lies across the tide. 
 
 GIllDLE, [_ziiigulu.i or cona, Lat.] in antiquity, a belt or 
 band ot leatner, or other matter, tied about the reins to keep that 
 part more linn and tight'. It was anciently the custom tor bank- 
 rupts and (5ther insolvent debtors to put olt' and surrender their 
 girdle in open court. The reason was, that our ancestors used to 
 carry all tlieir necessary utensils, as purse, keys, &c. tied to the 
 girdle; whence the girdle became a symbol of the estate. 
 
 GIRGE, a town of Egypt, capital of Said. 
 
 GIRCiENl'I, a town ot Sicily, which occupies part of the site 
 of the ancieut Agrigentuni, 47 miles S. of Palermo. 
 
 GIRON, St. a town of France, on the Sarat, in the department 
 of Arfiege, and late province of Couscrans, three miles S. of St. 
 Lisier. 
 
 GIRONDE, a department of France, containing part of the 
 late province of Gnienne. Rourdeaux is the capital. 
 
 GiRON'DE, a river of France, which is formed by the union of 
 the Garonne and Dordojne, three miles N. ot Bourdeaux, and 
 runs through the above flepartment into the Atlantic, after a course 
 of twenly-seven iniles N. N. W. 
 
 GiRONDE, a town of France, in the department of the same name, 
 four miles and a halt W. of Reolle. 
 
 GIRONNE, orGIRONNY, in heraldry, a coat of arms di- 
 vided into girons, or triangular figure.-, meeting in the centre of 
 the shield, and alternately colour and metal. 
 
 GISRORN, a town in the West Riding of Yorkshire, thirty- 
 seven miles S. E. of Manchester. 
 
 GISBOKOUGH, a town of England, in the N. Riding of 
 Yorkshire, eleven miles E. of Stockton. 
 
 GISEXIA, in botany, a genus of the pentandria penlagynia 
 class and order. Natural order, Succulcnta;. Calyx five-leaved; 
 corolla none; capsule five, approximating, roundish, one-seeded. 
 There is but one sjjecies, viz. G. |)harnacioides, trailing Gisekia, 
 an annual plant, and a native of the East Indies. 
 
 Gri'I, a town of Asia, w Thibet, .'34 miles N. N. E. of Delhi. 
 f.on._79. 36. E. Lat. 3'J. 10. N. 
 
 GITTITM, a Hebrew wor<l occurring freqiiently in the Psalms, 
 and gencraUy translated wine-presses. Some think it signifies a 
 sort of inusic.il instrument ; otheis, that the p.-alnis with this title 
 were sung after llie vintage ; and others, that the hymns of this kind 
 were invented in the city of Gath. 
 
 GI\'EN, among inathematicians and philosophers, the same 
 willi data. If a uuignilude be known, or we caii find another 
 fi|ual to jt, it is said to be given in magnitude. Or when tiie po- 
 sition of any thing is knewn, it/is said to be given in pcvsitian: 
 wlien the dianvrtcr or radius of a circle is known, tlie circle is 
 given in magnitude. The circle is giveii in position, wi.en the po- 
 sition of the centre is given. See Data. 
 
 GIULA, a strong town of Upper Hungary, near Transylvania, 
 thirlv miles N. W. of Arad. 
 
 GIU STAN DEL, or GIUSTENDIL, a large and strong 
 town of European Turkey, in Macedonia, sixty miles S. E. of 
 Du razzo. 
 
 CLABRARIA, in botany, a genus of the polyadelphia polyan- 
 dria class and order. Calyx five-cleft; petals five; nectary com- 
 posed of bristles the length of the calyx; stamens tliirly, always in 
 sixes; periearpium a drupe. 'I'here is but' one species, viz. G. 
 tersa, a large tree resembling the camphor-tree, the wood of which 
 is very light and pale-coloured, and not being liable to rot, or to 
 be injured by insects, it is much used for building both houses 
 and ships. It is a native of the Enst-lndies. 
 
 GljACIERS, a naivie given to some very extensive fields of ice 
 among the Alps. Mr Coxe says, that these mountains, in general, 
 are composed of nUuiy |)arallel chains, the hiphe-.l of which occupy 
 the centre, and the others gradually diminisii as wr recede Irom 
 thence. The central chain ;i|)pears covered with pbinti'd rocks ; all 
 parts of which, that are not absolutely perpendicular, lie hid under 
 perpetual snow and ice. On each side of this ridge are fertile and 
 cultivated valleys, interspersed with numerous villages, and wa- 
 tered by numerous streams. The elevated peaks of the central 
 chain are covered with snow-: but, their declivities, excepting 
 
 tho^e llial arc exlreiiicb; stpe'p, have all a covering of ice as well 
 as -now ; tiiC inleiniecliale parts being filled with vast fields of ice', 
 terminating in the cultivated valleys. The same pha.'nomelia, 
 though on a smaller scale, occur in those chains that are at a dis- 
 tance from the principal one : in those which are most remote, no 
 ice, and scarcely any snow, is observed, unless upon some of the 
 most elevated summits; and the mountains diminisiiing in height 
 and ruggedness, appear covered with verdure, until at last tliey' 
 terminate in small hills and plains. Thus the glaciers may be di- 
 vided into two sorts; the (irst occupying the deep valleys in the 
 bosom of the Alp;, called ice-valleys; the second covering tl;t' 
 declivities and sides of the niounlaiiis. These are called by Mr. 
 Coxe, the Upper and Lower Glaciers, 
 
 GLACIS, in building, an easy insensible slope or declivity. 
 The descent ot the glacis is less steep than that of the talus, la 
 gardening, a descent sometimes begins in talus, and ends in glacis. 
 The glacis of the corniche is an easy imperceptible slope in the cv- 
 matium, to promote the descent and for draining oft the rain-water. 
 
 GLACIS, in fortification, that mass of earth which serves as a 
 parapet to the covered way, sloping easily towards the cliampaign, 
 or field. See FoRTiFlCATlos'. 
 
 GLADIATORS, in anticjuity, were persons vrho fought, gene- 
 rally in the arena at Rome, for the entertainment of the people. 
 They \Vete usually slaves, and fought out of necessity; though 
 somcl'.ihes freemen adopted the profession, like our prize-fightere, 
 for a livelihood. The Romans borrowed this cruel diversion 
 from the Asiatics: some suppose out of policy, the frequent com- 
 bats of gladiators tending to accuston> the people to despise dan- 
 gers antl death. From the earliest times with which we have any 
 acquaintance in profa'ne history, it had been the custom to sacrifice 
 captives or prisoners of war, to the manes of the great men who 
 had died in the engagement: thus' Achilles, intheiliad, lib. xxiii. 
 sacrifices twelve youngTrojans to the manes of Patroclus; and in 
 Virgil, lib. xi. ver. 81, Mmws sends captives to Evander, to be 
 sacrificed at the funeral of his son Pallas. In course of time they 
 came also to sacrifice slaves at the funerals of all persons of condi. 
 'tion: this was even esteemed a necessary part ot the cereiliony: 
 but as it would have appeared barbarous to have massacred them 
 like beasts, they were appointed tai fight with each other, and en- 
 deavoured to save their own lives by killing their adversary. This 
 ,seemed somewliat less inhuman, because there was a possibility of 
 avoiding death, by an exertion of skill and courage. Tliisocca-- 
 sioiled the profession of gladiator to becoriie an art: henCc arose 
 ^nasters of the art, and men learned to fight and exercise it. These 
 masters, whom the Latins called Lanista', bought young slaves to. 
 be trained up to this cruel trade, whom they afterwards sold to 
 such as had occasion to present the peo))le with so horrible a show. 
 These exhibitions were at first performed near the sepulchre of the 
 deceased, or about the funeral-pile; but were afterwards removed 
 to llie circus and Limphilheatres, and became ordinary anuisenients. 
 The first show of gladiators, called munus gladiatorum, was exhi- 
 bited at Rome, according to \'alerius Maxinuis, by M. and D. 
 Brutus, upon the death of their father, A. V. C. 490. On this oc- 
 casion there wt?re probably onlv three pair of gladiators. In 537, 
 the three sons ef Si. /Emilius Lepidus the augur, who had been 
 three times consul, entertained the people with the cruel pleasure 
 ef seeing twenty-tuo gladiators fight in the forum. The xdiles, 
 pra■tor^, con-uls", and, above all, the candidates for o/lices, made 
 their court to the people, by entiertaining them frequelitly with' 
 these fights; and the priests were sometimes the exhibitors of the 
 barbarous shows. Suetonius mentions the ludi ]ionlificales, Au- 
 gU;t, cap. 44, and Plinv, the ludi sacerdotales, Epiil. lib. vii. As 
 tor the I'uiperor.-., to ingratiate tlieniselves with the pujjulace, they 
 humoured them with combats ot gladiators almost upon all occa- 
 sions; and as these increased, the number of combatants increased 
 likewise. Accordingly, Julius Ca'sar, in his a'dileship, diverted 
 tiie people with 3'.'0 "couple. T hese sports were become so com- 
 mon, and their conse<|uenccs in a variety ot respects so dangerous, 
 that Cicero preferred a law, that no person should exhibit a show 
 of gladiators within two years befbre he ii^'pcared candidate for 
 an v office. Julius C:csar ordered, that only a certain number of 
 men of this |)rolession should be in Rome at a time; Augustus 
 decreed, that only two shows of gladiators should bi; presented in 
 a year, and never above sixtv couple ol ciinibaiant= in a show; and , 
 Tiberius provided by an oriier of the senate, that no person should ' 
 
 have
 
 G I, A 
 
 611 
 
 G L A 
 
 have tlie priviloi;e of sriitifyiiip; llic pl-oplc uitli such a SdlemnKy, 
 miiIlns he was wurlli 400,000 sestcrct'S. Tiiey wmv ai.su coiisi(li.'r- 
 al)lv rc£;iilalei! hy Nfiva. ClauiHus irstmiiiecl thtm ti> fcrlaiii 
 0(.i:a3ioiis; l)ut he soon allor annulleil his decree, ami private per- 
 sons l)cgan to exliihit Iheni at pleasure as usual. Some carried 
 the brutal salisf'aclion so far as to have theui at their ordinary feasts. 
 And not slaves only, but other por-;ons, would hire tlieniselves to 
 this infamous oflice. The nr.wtcr of the gladiators ni.ule (hem all 
 (ir^l swear tliat they would light to death; and if they failed, they 
 were put to death either hy lire, or swoi'di-, clubs, whips, orUie 
 like. It was a crime for the wretclies to conii)lain when they were 
 wounded, or to ask for death or s.cek to avoid it when overcome ; 
 but it was usual fur the emperor to grant them life when tliey 
 gave no sia;ns of fear, but wailed llie fatal stroke with courage and 
 ijitrepiihtv. Aui^nstus even decreed tliat it shonld always lie 
 granted tlier.^. I'roni slaves and freed men the inhuman sport at 
 iensth spread to people of rank and condition; so that Augustus 
 w;h oljli'jed to issue a piiblic edict that none of the senatorian or- 
 der should become gladiators; and sotjn after he laid the s:ime re- 
 straint on tlie knights: nevertheless, Nero is said to have brouglit 
 upwards of 400 senators and liOO Roman kniglits upon the arena ; 
 though LIpsius takes both these numbers to be falsihed, and re- 
 duces them to forty senators and sixty knights: jet Domitian, 
 that other monster of cruelly, refined upon Xero, cxhibitiHg 
 combats of women isi the night-time, ('onstantine tlie Great is 
 snid to have first prohiliited the combals of glailialors in the East. 
 Some lime before the day of combat, the person who presented 
 the people with the shows gave Ihe.m noli^e thereof by program- 
 mas or bills, containing the names of the gladiaiurs, and the marks 
 whoreby they were to be distinguislievl: for fach had his several 
 badge ; which was most commonly a peacock's feather, as appears 
 from the scholiast of Juvi'dal on the l.JSlli verse of the third satire, 
 and Turnebus Advers. lib. ii. cap. S. Tliey also gave notice how 
 long the shows would last, and how many couples of gladiators 
 there were; and it appears, from tlie fifty-second verse of the se- 
 venth satire of the second book of Horace, that they sometimes 
 made representations of these things in painting, as is practised 
 among us by those who have any thing to shew at fairs. The dav 
 bei ng come, they began the entertainment by bringing two kinds 
 of weapons; the fii-st were staves or wooden files, called rudes; 
 and the second were effective weapons, as swords, poniards, &c. 
 The first were called arma lusoria, or exercitoria; the second de- 
 creloria, as being given by decree or sentence of the prx'tor, or of 
 liim at whose e.Npence the spectacle was exhibited. They began 
 to fence or skirmish with the liist, which was to be the prelude to 
 the battle; and from these, when well warmecl, at the sound of 
 the trumpets thev advanced to the second with which they fought 
 naked. Then they were said vertere arma. 'I'lie terms of strik- 
 ing were petere et repetere; of avoiding a blow, exire; and 
 when one of the combatants received a remarkable wound, his ad- 
 versary or tlie peo[)le cried out, Ilabet or Hoc habet. The first 
 part of the eiigjgemei)t was called ventilare, ]>r;rludere; and the 
 second, dimicare ad certum, or versis armis pugnare: and some 
 authors think, w ith nuich probability, that it is to these two kinds 
 of combat that St. l':iul alludes in the passage, 1 Cor. ix. 1.'6, 27, 
 "I fight, not as one that beatetli the air; but I keep my body 
 under," and bring it iiiio subjection." If the vamiiiislicd surren- 
 dered his arms, i'l w:'- not in the victor's power to grant liim life. 
 The people durhic; th.. time of the republic, and the prince or 
 peo))le during the tiM:e "f the empire, were alone empowered to 
 grant it. Tlie ri-,\aid of the coiK|ueror was a branch of palm-tree, 
 ■ and a sum of money, probably collected among the spectators: 
 sometimes thev gave h'lV, liis conge, or dismissed him by putting 
 one of the wooden file> or redes in his hand; and sometimes they 
 even gave him Ins freek'.i'ni, mitting tlie pik-iis on his head. The 
 sign or indi'wtion, whenrby, die spectators shewed that they grant- 
 ed the favt'ur, was ])remere |)o'.lijcem, which M. Dacier takes to 
 be a cleutaing of the fingers o! both iiands between one another, 
 and so ho! ;;ng the two thumb- ipright close together; ami, when 
 they w(rji 1 have the combat fi'ni.hed, and the vaiupiished slain, 
 vertcruiit i 'Micem, they bent back the thumb; which we learn 
 from Juve:.: it, Sat. iii. ver. 31) The gl.idiators challeiig<'d or de- 
 tied each ol'.sor, by ^llcwing the- little linger; and, by extending 
 this, or some rlhe'r, during the combat, they owned themselves 
 vanqui>hed, ; ' 1 begged mercy from the pe'^ple: \'icti osteiisam 
 digit! veniani -■. /opulo poslulab.int, says the old scholiast on I'e'r- 
 
 ( sins. '( here were various kiiul.s cf gladiators, distinguished by 
 their wca|)iiiis, maimer, and time ol fighting, &c. as, the andabal.-:', 
 ii.eniioned uniler Andabat.i': the cat.rvarii, who alwiiv, fouclit m 
 troops or comi)i'iiies, number agaiiis'l minibcr; or, i;'ccording lo 
 others, who fought promiscuously, without any ccilaiii order: ihe' 
 diniachae, who fought armed with two ))oniards or swords, or witli 
 sword and dagger: the es.sedarii, wh.o fought in cars: the f.scale-, 
 or Ca'sariani, who belonged to the emperor's company ; and wl-,o, 
 being more robust and dexterous than the rest, were frc(|uenliy 
 calletlfor; ;ind therefore named also postululilii. Several oilier 
 kinds are mentioned in the ancient auiliors. 
 
 Gladiators' War, [bclliim Clndintprivm, or Spartaciini,'] 
 called also the Servile War, was a war which the Romans sustained 
 about A. U. C. fiso. Sparlacus, Crams and Oenomaus, having 
 escaiied, with other gladiators to the number of seventv-four, out 
 of the place where they had been kept at Capua, gatheiv<l together 
 a body of slaves, put themselves at their head,' rendered them- 
 selves master,- of all Campania, and gained several victories over 
 the l{oman prstors. At length they were defeated in GSC, at I he 
 extremity of Italy; having, in vain, attempted to pass over in'o 
 Sicily. 'I'hus war proved very foiinidable to the Romans. Ca?- 
 sius was not able to finish it: I'ompey the Great was tbrced to be 
 sent as general. 
 
 Gladiator, the EH'ing, a mo;t valuable monument of an- 
 cient -culplwie, long preserved in tie palace of Chigi, but carried 
 to Paris with the Laocoon, &c. in 1796. This gladiator ..fierhav- 
 ing received the mort;d stroke, appears particularly careful ut pro- 
 cunibat honeste, " tluil he might fall honourably.'"' He is seated" 
 in a reclining jiosture on the ground, ami <eems to have ju=t. 
 strength sulhcient to support him-elt on his right arm ; and in his 
 expiring moments he does not abandon himself to grief and dejec 
 tion; but is solicitous to maintain that firmness of asj)ect and atti- 
 tude, which the gladiators valued themselves on preserv iiig in this 
 hikt' scene of distress. He betrays no tokens of fear by his counle- 
 lumce, nor sheds one tear. Quis mediociis gladiator higemuit > 
 ipiis vultum mutavit unciuam? Quis iion modo stetit,' veruni 
 eliam decubuit turpitcr- says Cicero, in that part of his Tusculan, 
 where he is describing the astonishing firmness of those persons. 
 He appears, notwithstanding his remaining strength, to have but a 
 lew moments to live. Thus the ancients knew how to animate 
 marble, and to give it almost every expression of life. 
 
 GLADIOLUS, Coun'-flag: a genus of tlie monog^nia order, 
 and triandria class of plants; natural' order, Eiisat.o. Corolla sex- 
 P'artite, ringcnt; stamina ascending and bending upwards. There 
 are thirty species. Tlie plants are very hardy, and will thrive in 
 any soil or situation. They are propagated ' by ollsets from the 
 roots. 
 
 GLAIRE, \_gl(tr, Saxon, amber; glar, Danish, glass; ghitr, 
 Fr. glarc/i, Lat.] the white of an egg. It is used as a varnish for 
 preserving paintings. For this purpose it is best to an unctuou- 
 consistence, and commonly mixed with a little biniidy or .-pirit of 
 wine, to make it work more freely, and wilh a lump of sugar to. 
 give it body and prevent its cracking: and then spread over the 
 pit ture or painting with a brusli. 
 
 GLAMORGANSHIRE, a county of South Wales, said lo 
 have derived its iiame from a contraction of the Welsii word* 
 Gi'.iildMorgiin, " the country of Morgan," and supposeil to have 
 been thus called from a prince of this ))art of the countrv, said to 
 have been killed eight hundred ye.n- before the birth of our Sa- 
 viour. Others derive the name from the Ilritish word iiior, which 
 signifies the sea; thi.s being a maritime (omity. It is bounded ou 
 the south and part of the west by the liristul channel ; on the 
 north-we-l by Caermarthen-h're ; on the north b\ lirecknock- 
 shirc ; and on the east by Monmouthshire. Il is 4S miles long 
 from E. to \V. 'J7 broad tiom N. to S. and ! Itj in circujufereuce. 
 The jirincipal rivers of this county an- the Rlivmnv, the TatV, the 
 Ogmore, the Avon, the Cledaugh, aiid the Tave. 'I'he air, in the 
 south part, towards the sea, is temperate ; but the north part, 
 which IS mi,untainous, is cold and piercing, full of thick woods, 
 extremely barren, and thin of inhabitants, 'ihe mountains, how- 
 ever, feed herds of cattle, and -end forth streams which add great*^ 
 ly to the fertility of the other parts of the county: they have 
 likewise coal and lead ore. Tlie south part is remarkably fer- 
 tile. 
 
 GI-AMOUR, or GL.WIER, an old term of popplar superstir 
 
 lion in Scotland, denoliiiK a kiu'd of uiag/;f! lu'st believed to be 
 
 U raised
 
 G LA 
 
 G12 
 
 G L A 
 
 T^i'^cd by sorcerers, and which dehuled theirspectators uith visions : 
 ol thing-; whicli had no real exisleuce, ulU-red tile appearance of ; 
 those \ihiJi reallv did exist, &c. _ | 
 
 GLANCE, in' mineralogy, 0]ie of the ores of cobalt, found in 
 be;!s of mica, in Swcilen : it's colonr is tin wliile ; it is massive in ; 
 various forms, and crystallized in cnlies and octahedrons ; the sur- 
 face of thc-cnstals is "smooth and spWndent: it is In-ittle, and tlie 
 specific gravity is 6.45. 
 
 GT.ANDS. See Anatomy. 
 
 GLANDERS. See Farkiery. 
 
 GLANIK)RE, a town of Ireland, in Cork, witji an excellent 
 liarbour, 3 miles W. ot Ross. 
 
 GI/AN'S. See .Anatomy. 
 
 GLANVIL, Joseph, a learned and ingenious, but fanciful and 
 credulous, writer, in the seventeenth century born at Plynuiuth 
 in l()j;ti, antl bred at Oxford. He was a great admirer of Mr. 
 liaxter, ami zealous for a commonwealth. Afler the restoration, 
 he published 'I'lie Vanilv of Doainatizing; was chosen F'. R. H. 
 and, taking oniers in Itjtj-', was present to the vicarage of Frome- 
 Selwood in Somersetshire. In 10(52, he published his Lux Orien- 
 talis; in lOGi, his Scepsis Scientifica; and in 16()(), Some Philoso- 
 phical Considerations touching the lieing of Witches and AVitch- 
 cralt. hi '0(58, he published Plus I'Ura; or, The progress and 
 Advancement of knowledge since the Days of Aristotle. He 
 likewise published A season.ible Recommenolalion and Defence of 
 Reason ; and Philosophia Pia, or A l^i^course of the Religious 
 Temper and 'I'endencies of Ex|jennicnlal Philo>riphy. In lo7S 
 lie was made a prebendary of Worcester, and died in IGSO. 
 
 GLAKEOLA, the Pratincole, a genus of birds of the order 
 gralhe. Rill strong, straight, sliorl, hooked at the end ; nostrils at 
 the base linear and oblique: feet four-toed; toes long, slender, 
 connected at the base by a membrane : tail forked, consisting of 
 twelve feathers. There are three species, of which the principal 
 is P. austriaca; this is about as large as a blackbird, lives on wa- 
 ter-insects and on worms; is found in great numbers on the banks 
 uf the Rhine. See Plate LMll. 
 
 GLAKIS, or GLARUS, one of the cantons of Swisserland, 
 
 bounded on the'E. by the country of the GfisoTis, and p-rtly by 
 that of Sargans. Il is a mountainous country, almost entirely sur- 
 roundcil by the Alp^. 
 
 Gi-ARis, or (jLarus, a city of the Helvetic republic, capital of 
 the above canU.n, thirty-two miles E. of Luccrcie. 
 
 GLASGOW', a large and beautiful city of Scotland in Laiiark- 
 sliire, on the TV. bank of tiie Clysie, Justly eiteemed the second in 
 tliat part of the united, kingdom. Glasgow lies ten miles S. E. of 
 Dunbarton, ami forty-four W. of Edinburgh. 
 
 CtLASS, a solid, transparent, brittle, sub'tance, produced by 
 melting together sand, ilmt, alkaline salts, &c. It is derived by 
 some from the Latin word a;kistum^ the name of a plant called by 
 the Greeks i-j^ti;, by the Romans ritrum; by the ancient liritous 
 giuuiiim, and by the English woud. We lind frequent mention 
 of tl.is plant in ancient writers, particularly Osar, N'ltruvius, 
 Pliny, &c. who relate, that the ancient Britons painted or dyed 
 tlieir' bodies with gtastum, guaduni, vilrum. Sec. i. t. with the 
 blue colour procured from this plant. And hence, the name glass, 
 which has always somewhat of this bluishness in it. Good glass is 
 very transparent, and when cold very brittle ; but at a red heat it 
 is one of the most ductile bodies known, and may be drawn into 
 tlireads so very delicate, as to become almost invisible to the hu- 
 man eye. It is extremely elastic, and one of the most sonorous 
 of bodies. Sec Harmonica. There are but few chemical agents 
 which have any action iqion it. Fluoric acid has a great power 
 over it, and dissolves it very quickly (see Fluoric Acid); so 
 also have the fixed alkalies when assisted by heat. The continued 
 action of hot water is said to be capable of decomposing glass, 
 wliich it is thought will fully explain how the siliceous earth was 
 obtaineil by Boyle and others, w hen they subjected water to very 
 tedious distillations in glass-vessels. It has also been supposed, 
 that the deflagration of the oxygen and hydrogen gases, in the 
 formation of water, has decompose<l the gla=s, which will account 
 for an acid as part of the result. Flint-glass melts at the tempera 
 ture of 10° Wedgewood; crown-glass at 30°; and bottle-glass at 
 47°. The specific gravity varies betwesii 2.4S and 3.33. 
 
 GLASSMAKING. 
 
 GL.'SSSMAKIXG, the art of making glass; or the manufac- 
 ture of that commodity from its origin;d materials, into any form. 
 L'ndcr this article we shall give a brief description, not only of the 
 materials and art of glassmaking, but also of several branches con- 
 nected with it; such as the grinding, polishing, and colouring of glass. 
 At what period the art of glasamaking was tirst invented, is altoge- 
 ther uncer;ain. Some suppose it was invented before the flood ; 
 and Neri traces its antiquity at least to the time of Job. Rut these 
 are mere conjectures; tor the word Zechuchib, translated cryital, 
 (Job. xxviii. 17,) admits of various significations, and from the 
 context ( videiitly means some precious stone. The Egyptians 
 boast, that this art was taught them by Hermes. Aristophanes, 
 Aristotle, .Alexander Ajjhrodiseus, Lucretius, and St. John the ili- 
 vine, put it out of all doubt that glass was used in their days. 
 Pliny relates, that it was first discovered accidentally in Syria, at 
 the movilh of the river Belus, by certain merchants driven thither 
 by a siorm at sea; w ho beini; obliged to continue there, and dress 
 their victuals by making a hre on the ground, where there was 
 great plenty of the herb kali; that plant, burning to ashes, its salts 
 nnxed and incorporated w ith the sand, or stones lit for vitrilTcation, 
 and thu'i produceil gla^s; and that, this acoideiit being known, the 
 people of S;<lon in that neighbourhood essayed the work, and 
 brought glass into use ; since which time the art has been continu- 
 ally improving. Re this as it ma), the first glass-houses mention- 
 etl in h^tory were erected in Tyre, where tiie only staple of the 
 uianufaeture was for many ages. The sand which lay on the shore 
 for about half a mile round the mouth of the Belus was peculiarly 
 adapted to tiie making of glass; and the wide range of the Tyviaii 
 < oinmercp gave an ample vent for the productions of the furnace. 
 '1 he fust time we hear of glass made among the Rom..iis was in 
 Uie reijiii of 'I'iberius, wlieu Pliny relates Ihat au artist had iiii 
 
 house demolished for making glass malleable, or rather flexible ; 
 though Petronius Arbiter and others assure us, that the emperor 
 ordered the artist to be beheaded for his invention. It is certain that 
 a plate of glass was found at Herculancum, which was destroyed, 
 A. D. 80 ; and that glass-vessels were made at Rome under Nero. 
 The earliest mention made of glass-windows is by Lactantitis in- 
 the third century. Before the contiuest of Britain by the Romans, 
 glass-houses had been erected in this island, as well as in Gaul„ 
 Spain, Slid Italy. Hence, in many parts of the country are to be 
 found annulets of glass, having a narrow perforation and thick rim, 
 denominated by the remaining Britons gleineu naid-reedh, or glass- 
 adders, and which were probably iii former times used as amulets 
 by the druids. It can scarcely be doubted, that the Britons were 
 sufficiently well versed in tlic manufacture of glass, to form out of 
 it many more useful instruments than glass-beads. According to 
 Bede, artificers skilled in making glass for windows were brought 
 over into England in (574, by abbot Benedict, who were emploved 
 in glairing the church and monastery of ^\'ereraouth, According 
 to others, they were first brought over by Wilfrid, bishop of Wor~ 
 cester, about the same time. Till this time the art of making 
 glass lor windows was unknown in Britain ;, and glass-windows did- 
 not begin to be common before 1180. Italy had ihem first; next 
 France, from, whence they came to England. Venice, for many 
 years, excelled all Europe in the fineness of its glasses ; and in the 
 thirteenth century, the Venetians were the only people that had 
 the secret of making crystal looking-glasses. The glass-manufac- 
 ture was first begun in I'.ngland in 1557; the finer sort was made 
 at Crutched Friars, in London ; the fine flint-glass, little inferior 
 to that of Venice, was first made in the Savoy House, in the 
 Strand, London This manufacture appears to have been raucb 
 improved iu IC35, wheu il was earned on with pit-coal instead of 
 
 wood i.
 
 GLASSMAKING. 
 
 fll3 
 
 uood; and a monopulv was granted to Sir Kobi-it Maii-ill, wlio 
 was allowed to iiii|)nrl the liiic \Viittiaii lliiit-glassus for clriiikini;, 
 tlie art of making wliicli wrfs not brought to pcrlootion before tlie 
 reisn of William III. The lirst ulass-plates, for looking-glasses 
 and coatli-windows, were made in lti73, at Lambeth, by the en- 
 couragement of the duke of 15tiekinijli.ini ; who, in 1()70, intro- 
 tliu«l the maiiulaetnre of line glass into England, by N'enetian 
 artists, with ama/.ing snccess. So that within the last century, the 
 French and English have not only e(|iialled, but even excelled, the 
 ^ enetians, and are now no longer supplied troin abroad. I he 
 French made a considerable improvement in the art of glass, by 
 the invention of a method to cast very large plates, till then un- 
 known, and scarce practibed yet by any but tliem>elves and the 
 jMiglisli. This branch was eblablishcd in Lancashire in 17"3, and 
 is now very llomishing. 
 
 Of the NLvterials for making Glass. 
 
 The materials, whereof glass is made, are salt and sand, or stones. 
 L The salt is procured from a sort of ashes brought from the Le- 
 vant, called polveune, or rochetta. 'Jhey are the ashes of a wa- 
 ter-plant nami-d kali, see Salsola, cut down in summer, dried in 
 the sun, and burnt in heaps, either on the ground, or on iron- 
 grates; the ashes falling into a pit, grow into a haid mass, or stone, 
 lit for use. It may al~o be procured from ccmmon kelp, or the 
 ashes of the fucus vesiculosus. See Kucus. I'o extjact the salt, 
 the-ie ashes are posvdered and sifted, ihen put into boiling water, 
 and there kept till one-third of tlie water be consumed; the whole 
 being stirred up I'roni iinie to time, thi.t the ashes may incorporate 
 with the iluid, and all its salts be extracted; then tiie vessel is fill- 
 ed up with new water, and boiled over again, till one-half be con- 
 sumed; what remains is a sort of ley, strongly impregnated with 
 salt. 'I'his ley, boiled over again in fresh coppers, thickens in 
 about twei\ty-four hours, and shoots its salt; which is to be ladled 
 out, as it shoots, into e.irthen pans, and thence into wooden vats to 
 drain and dry. This done, it is sro^sly pounded, and thus put 
 into a sort of oven, called calcar, to dry. There are also other 
 plants which yield a salt tit for glass; such as the common thistle, 
 bramble, hops, wormwood, woad, tobarco, fern, and the whole 
 leguminous tribe, as pease, beans, &c. Peail-;ishes form a leading 
 flux in the manufacture of glass, and mostly supply the place of 
 the Levant ashes, the barillas of Spain, and other kinds, formerly 
 imported for making both glass and soap. There are other flu.xes 
 used for difTerent kinds of glass, and for various purposes, a.s cal- 
 cined lead, nitre, sea-salt, borax, arsenic, sniiths-cliiikers, and 
 wood-ashes, containing the earth and lixiviate salts as produced by 
 incineration. With regard to these several fluxes, we may ob- 
 serve, in general, that the more calx of lead, or other metallic 
 earth, that enters into the composition of any glass, so much the 
 more fusible, soft, coloured, and dense, this glass is, and recipro- 
 cally. The colours given to glass, by calxes'of lead, are shades 
 of yellow: on the other hand, glasses that contain only saline fluxes 
 partake of the properties of salts; they are less heavy, less dense, 
 narder, whiter, more brilliant, and more brittle, than the former ; 
 and glasses containing both saline and metallic tluxes also partake 
 of the properties of both these substances. Glasses too saline are 
 easily susceptible of alteration by the action of air and water: es- 
 pecially those in which alkali prevail; and these are also liable to 
 be injured by acids. Those that contain too much borax and ar- 
 senic, though at first they appear very beautiful, (piickly tarnish 
 and become opake when exposed to air. By attending'to these 
 properties of dilferent fluxes, the artist may acljust the proportions 
 of these to sand, or powdered flints, for the various kinds ot glass. 
 
 I L The sand or stone, called by the artists tarso, is the second 
 ingredient in glass, and that which gives it the body and firmness. 
 These stones, Agricola observes, must be such as w'lll fuse; and of 
 these such as are white and transparent are best; so that crystal 
 has the precedency of all others. At \'enice they chietiv uk- a 
 sort of pebble, found in the Tesino, resembling white marble, and 
 called cuogolo. Indeed Ant. Neri assures us, that all stones, 
 which will strike fire with steel, are tit to vitrify: but Dr. Morret 
 thews, that there are some exceptions from tliis rule. Flints are 
 admirable; and when calcined, powdered, and searced, make a I 
 pure white crystalline metal : but the expence of preparing tliem 
 makes the masters of our glass-houses sparing of their use. '^Vhere 
 proper stones cannot be so conveniently had, sand is used. Tlie 
 
 VOL. II. — NO. 9". 
 
 best for this purpose is that which is white, small, and shining ; ex- 
 amined by the microscope, it appears to be small fragments of 
 rock-crystal. Lor green glass, that which is of a soft Irxtun-, and 
 more gritty; it is to be well washed, whii h is all the pre|)aration it 
 needs. Uur glass-houses are furnished with white sand, for their 
 ci-ystal-glasses, from Lynn in Norfolk, and Maidstone in Kent, 
 ami witii the coarser, for green glass, troni Woolwich. 
 
 Of THE Fl'RNACES and iMFLE.MEN'rS USED IN GlASSMAKINC. 
 
 Ill this manufacture there are three sorts of furnaces; the tirst, 
 called calcar, is for the frit; second for working the glass; the 
 third, for annealing it, is called the leer. See I'l.Ue LXXXIV. 
 
 I. The Calcar is an oven ten feet long, seven feet broad, and 
 two deep: the fuel, which in Britain is sea-coal, is put into a trench 
 on one side of the furnace ; and the tlame, reverberating from the 
 roof upon the frit, calcines it. 
 
 11.1 he Glass-I'urnace, or Workixc-Fl'rnace, is round, of 
 three yards diameter, and two high, or in that proportion. It is 
 divi<le(l into three parts, each ot which is vaultecl. The lower 
 part is ))ropeily called the crown, and is made in that forin. Its 
 use is to keep a brisk fire, w hich is never put out. The mouth 
 is called the bocca. There are several holes in the arch ot this 
 crown, through w hich the flame passes into the second partition, 
 and reverberates into the pots filled with the materials. Uound the 
 insides there are eight or more pots placed, and piling pots on 
 tliem. The number of pots is always double that of the boccas or 
 mouths, or of the number of workmen, that e:ich mav have one 
 pot relined to work out of, and another for metal to refine in, 
 while he works out of the other. Through the wirking-hoies the 
 metal is taken out of the pots, and the [lots are put info the fur- 
 nace ; and these holes are stopped with moveable covei-s made 
 ot lute and bri<k, to screen the workman's eves from the scorch- 
 ing tiames. On each side of the bocca or liiuulh is a boccarel!a 
 or little hole, out ot which coloured glass or liner metal is taken 
 from the piling-pot. 
 
 III. Above this oven there is the third oven, called the Leer, 
 about five or six yards long, and four feet wide, w here the vessels 
 of glass are annealed or cooled. This part consists of a tower, be- 
 sides the leer, into which the tlame ascends from the furnace. The 
 tower has two mouths, through which the glas-es are put in with a 
 tork, and set on the floor or bottom: but they arc drawn out on 
 iron pans, called fraclies, through the leer^- to cool bv degrees ; so 
 that they are cpiite cool by the time they reach the mouth of the 
 leer, which enters the sarosel or room vv'here the glasses are to be 
 stowed. 
 
 IV. The Furnace for the Green Glass is sfjuare ; and at 
 each angle it has an arch for annealing or cooling glasses. The 
 metal i» wrought on two opposite sides, and on the other two thev 
 have their colours, into which are made linnet-holes for the fire to 
 come from the furnace to bake the frit, and to discharge the 
 smoke. Fires are made in the arches to anneal the work, so that 
 the whole process is done in one furnace. I'hese furnaces must 
 not be of brick, but of hard sandy stones. In France, they build 
 the outside ol brick ; and the inner, to bear the fire, is made of a 
 sort of fullers earth, or tobacco-pipe clay, of which they -also make 
 the melting-pots. In Britain the pots are m;ide of 'Sturbridge 
 cl;iy. Mr. Blanccurt observes, that the \voi-st and roughest work 
 in this art is the changing the pots w hen they are worn out or 
 cracked. In this case, the great working-hole "must be uncover- 
 ed ; the faulty pot must betaken otit with iron hooks and forks, 
 and a new one must be speedily put in its place, through the 
 flames, by the hands only. F'or iliis work, the man guards him- 
 self with a garment made of skins, in the shape of a p ntaloon, 
 that covei-s him all but his eyes, and is made as wet as possible: 
 the eyes are defended with a "proper sort of glass. The principal 
 implements used by the glass-blower are, a blowing-|)ipe, fig. 3, 
 «lii<'h is an iron pipe about two feet long, with rope-yarn wrapped 
 round it at A, where the workman takes hold of it ; "two or three 
 iron rods, fig. 4, of the same length ; a pair of blunt shears, (\a. 5 ; 
 and several different sized ladles^ shovels, pokers. Sec. ° 
 
 Of the Different Kinds of Glass. 
 
 The manufactured glass now in use may be divided into three 
 
 general kinds; 1. white transparent glass ; '.'. coloured glass; ancl 
 
 J. common green, or bottle-glass. Of the first kind there is a 
 
 7 R great
 
 mi 
 
 GLASSMAKING 
 
 greal variety; as tlie ilint- glass, ami the German crystal-glass, 
 wliicli are applied to the same use-;: tlie glass for plates, lor mir- 
 rors, or looking-glasses; the glass for windows and otiicr lights; 
 and the glass for phials and small vessels. And these again dilfer 
 in the substances employed as fluxes in forming tliem, as well as 
 in the coarseness or Uneness of sucli as are used for their body. 
 The tiint and crystal, mirror and best, window-glass, not only re- 
 quire such puntV in the fluxes, as may render it practicable to tree 
 the glass pcrleciiy from all colom-; but, fur the same reason, ei- 
 ther the while Lynn sand, calcmed Hints, or white pebbles, should 
 be used. The others do not demand the same nicety in the choice 
 of the materials; though the second kind of window-glass, and the 
 best kind of phial, will not be so clear as they ought, if either too 
 brown sand, or nnpure salts, be suffered to enter uito their compo- 
 Kition. Ol coloured glass there is also a great variety of sorts, ihf- 
 fering in their colour or other properties according to the i-cra- 
 sions for which they are wanted. These differences depend on the 
 preparation and management of the artists by whom they are ma- 
 nufactured. Glass is also distinguished into three principal kinds, 
 by the form or manner of working it; viz. i. Uound glass, as that 
 of our bottles, vessels, phials, dnnking-glasses, &c. 2. 'i'able or 
 window-glass, of which there are divers kinds: as crown-gla^s, 
 jealous-glass, &c. And 3. Plate-glass, or miiTor-glass. 
 
 Of the Compositions for making Bottle and Phi.\l- 
 
 Glass. 
 
 T. The Common Bottle, or Gref.n Glass, is formed of sand 
 of any kind, fluxed by the ashes of burnt w ood, or of any parts of 
 vegetables; to which may be added the scoria or clinkers ot 
 forges. When the softest sand is used, •3001b. of wood-ashes will 
 suflice for lOGlb. of sand, wliich are to be ground and mixed toge- 
 ther. The composition with the clinkers consists of 1701b. of 
 wood-ashes, lOOlb. of sand, and 30 of clinkers, which are to be 
 o-round and mixed together. If the clinkers carmot be ground, 
 fhey must be broken into small pieces, and mixed with the other 
 matter without grinding. 
 
 11. Phial-Glass is a kind betwixt the flint-glass and the bottle- 
 glass. The best kind may be prepared with 120lb of while sand, 
 jOlb. of unpurified pearl-ashes, lulb. of common salt, 51b. of arse- 
 nic, and 5 uz. of magnesia. The composition for green or com- 
 inon phial-glass consists of 1201b. of the cheapest white sand, SOlb. 
 of wood-ashes well burnt and sifted, aOlb. of peaid-aslics, 15!b. of 
 common salt, and lib. of arsenic. 
 
 Oh THE Compositions for Making White Glass and Crys- 
 tal. 
 Take of the whitest tarso, pounded small, and scarced as fine as flour, 
 2001b. of ihe salt of polverine 1301b. mix them, and put them into 
 the calcar, first heating it. For an hour keep a moderate tire, and 
 keep stirring the materials with a proper rake, that they may incor- 
 porate and calcine together ; then incre.ise the lire for five iiours; 
 after which take out the matter; which being now sufficiently 
 calcined, is called Frit, or Bollito. See these articles. From 
 the calcar put the frit in a dry place, and cover it up from the dust 
 for three or four months. To make the white glass or crystal, take 
 of the crystal frit, set it in pots in the furnace, adding to it a due 
 quantity of manganese : when the two are fused, cast the floor into 
 fair water, to clear it of the salt called sandiver; which would 
 otherwise make the crystal obscure and cloudy. This lotion must 
 be repeated again and again, as often as needful, till the crystal be 
 fully purged; or the scum may be taken off by proper ladles. 
 Then sctil to boil four, live, or six days ; which done, see whether 
 it have "manganese enough ; and if it be yet greenish, add more by 
 liitle and little at a time,' taking care not to overdose it, because 
 the manganese inclines it to a blackish hue. Then let the metal 
 clarify, till it becomes of a clear and shining colour; which done, 
 it i* fit to be blown or formed into vessels. 
 
 Flint-Glass, as it is called by us, is of the same general kind 
 tilth that which in other places is" called crystal-glass. It h.as this 
 name from being orighially made with calcined flints, before the 
 use of the w hite sand was understood ; and retains the name, though 
 no flints are now used in the composition of it. This flint-glass 
 differs from the other, in having lead for its flux, and white sand 
 for its body; wliere-s the fluxes usi-d for the crystal-glass qre salts 
 or arsenic, and the body consists of calcined flints or white river- 
 pebbles, larso, orsucji stones. To the white sand and lead a p-ro- 
 
 l)er jjroportion of nitre is added, and a small quantity of magnesia) 
 or manganese. .In some works they use a ])roportional quantity of 
 arsenic to aid the fluxing iimredients. The most perfect kind of 
 flint-gla^s may be made, by fusing with a very strong flie 1201b. 
 of the white' sand, M)\b. of red lead, 40lb. of the best pearl- 
 ashes, 'JOIb. of ii'.tie, and doz. of magnesia. Another compo^ilion 
 of flint-glass, which is said to come nearer to tf.e kind ngw niade, is 
 the (ollmving : I30lb. of sand, 3-llb. of the best i>eail-ashes, 3t)lb. of 
 red-lead, \J\h. of nitre, and Coz. of magnesia. To either ol these a 
 pound or two of arscni'.' may be added, to increase the flux of the 
 composition A cheaper composition ma} be made with 1201b. 
 of white sand, 35lb. of the best pearl-ashes, 4011). of red lead, 131b. 
 of nitre, tjlb. of arsenic, ami 4oz. of magnesia ; or instead of lh« 
 arsenic nray be substituted 1 Jlb. of common salt ; but this will be 
 more brittle. The cheapest com])0»ition for the worst kind of 
 flint-glass consists of l::0ib. of white sand, 30lb. of red lead, 2i)lb. 
 of the best pcail-ashcs, lOlb. of nitre, 151b. of common salt, and 61b. 
 of arsenic. The best Gennan crystal is made of 12nlb. of calcined 
 flints or white sand, TDlb. ofthe best pearl-ashes, 101b. of saltpetre, 
 |lb. of arsenic, and ioz. of magnesia. And a cheaper < ompositioii 
 is formed of 1201b. of calcined flints orwhitesand, 4t)lb. ot pearl- 
 ashes, ?lb. oi nitre, liib. of arsenic, and 5oz. of magnesia. A glass 
 much harder than any pre|)aied in the ccnimcn way, may be made 
 by meansof borax, thus: 'lake 4oz. of borax, and one of fiiiesand ; 
 reduce both to a subtile powder, and melt them together in a large 
 close crucible set in a wind-furnace, keeping up a strong fire for 
 half an hour; then take out the crucible, and when cold break it, 
 and there will be found at the bottom a pure hard glass, capable of 
 cutting common glass like a diamond. This experiment, duly 
 varied, says Dr. Shaw, may lead to several useful improvements 
 in making glass-enamels, and factitious gems; and shews an ex- 
 peditious method of making glass, whhout any fixed alkali, wliich 
 has been generally thought an essential ingredient in glass; and 
 perhaps calcined crystal, or other substances, added to this salt in- 
 stead of sand, might make a glass approaching to the nature o( a 
 diamond. 
 
 Of the Compositions for Making Plate or Mirror- 
 Glass. 
 
 The materials of which this glass is made are much tlie same as 
 those of other works of glass, viz. an alkaline salt and sand. The 
 salt, however, should not he that extracted from the ashes of the 
 Syrian kali, but that from barilla, growing about Alicant in Spain. 
 It is very rare that we have the barilla pure; the Spaniards in 
 burning t'lie herb mix another herb with it, which alters ifs (pudity'; 
 or add sand to it to increase the weight, which is easily discovered, 
 if the adilition be only made after the boiling ofthe ashes, !)ut next 
 to impossible if nia"de in the boiling. From this adulteration 
 threads and other defects in plate-glass arise. To prepare the salt, 
 clean it well of all foreign matters; pound or grind it with a kind 
 of mill, and finally sift it pretty fine. Pearl-ashes properly puri- 
 fied, will furnish the alkaline salt requisite fur th'siiurpose ; hut it 
 will be necessary to add borax or common salt, to facilitate the 
 fusion, and prevent the glass from stiffening in that degree of heat 
 in which it is to be wrought into plates. To purify the pearl-ashes, 
 dissolve them in four times their weight of boiling water, in a pot 
 ot east iron, keiH clean from rust. Let the solution be removed 
 into a clean tub, and remain there 24 hour,s-or longer. Having 
 decanted the clear part ofthe fluid from the sediment, put it again 
 in the iron pot, and evaporate the water till the salts ;ire left per- 
 fectly dry. Preserve them in stone-jars, well secured from air 
 and moisime. Pearl-ashes may also be purified in the liighest de- 
 cree, so as to be proper for the manufacture of the most transparent 
 glass, by pulverizing 31b. ofthe best kind with 6oz. of saltijetre in 
 aala^s or marble iiiortar, till they are well mixed ; and then put- 
 ting part of the mixture into a lari^e crucible, and exposing it in a 
 
 fuinacetoa sirongheat. When this is red-hot, throw m the rest 
 gradually ; and when the whole is red-hot, pour it out on a moist- 
 ened stone or marble, and ))ut it into an earthen or ch an iron pet, 
 with ten pints of water; heat it over the fire till the salts he entirely 
 melted; let it (hen stand to cool, and filter it through pajier in a 
 pewter cullender. When filtered, put the fluid again into the pot, 
 and evaporate the salt to dryness, which will then be as white as 
 snow. As to the sand, sift and wash it till the water come off very 
 clear; and when it is well dried, mix it with the salt, passing ihe 
 mixture through another sieve. This dune, lay them in the ap- 
 nealing furnace for about two hours; in which time the matter tn- 
 
 COII'IS
 
 GLAS3MAK1NG. 
 
 ()\; 
 
 comes V(M'v liglil. and whiu,'. In tliis stale they arc i;a!Wd frit, and 
 are laid up in a dry cIimm place, tor at least a year, to give tlicin 
 t:nie lo ijicorporate. When tlioy employ tlii^ Irit, tliey lay it tor 
 some liomsin tlie turnace, atlding to some tlie fragments ot old and 
 ill made glasses ; taking eare lirsl to calcine them by lieatmg tliem 
 red-hot in the furnace, andthns casting tliem into cold water. To 
 the nuxtnre must likewise be added manganese, to promote the 
 fusion and puriliciilioM. The best composition for Inoking-glass- 
 jdates consi>ts ot (jolb. ofwhilesan<l clean-ed, 2jlb. of pnrilied 
 pcarl-aslu's, 1Mb. ot saltpetre, and 7lb. of borax. If a yellow tinge 
 fchould aliect the gbss, a small portion of magnesia, mi.>;ed with an 
 eipial i|iiantity of arsenic, should be ail'led. An ounce of the 
 magnesia may be tii-st tried ; and if this prove insulficient, the 
 quantity sliould be increased. A cheaper composition consi.its ot 
 Coll), of white s;tNd,'20lb. of pearl-aslies, lulb. of coimnon salt, 7lb. 
 ol nitre, 2lb. of arsenic, and lib. of borax. 
 
 Method of Working or Blowing Glass. 
 The working-furnace for round glass, iig. 1, has six bocras or 
 apertures: at one of these called the great; bocca, the lumace is 
 heated, and the pots of frit are at this set in the furnace ; two other 
 smaller holes, called boccarellas, serve to lade or take out Ihi- 
 melted metal, at the cud of an iron, lo work the glass. For ex- 
 plaining the operation, we shall describe the methoti of making a 
 goblet. 'I'lie workman dips the end D of his blowing-pipe, tig. 3, 
 which is hot, through the working-hole of the furnace, (ig. 1, into 
 the mclting-p;>t, which contains the glass in a state of fusion ; and 
 by turning it about, a small quanlily of the glass, which is called 
 metal, sticks to the iron : this he repeats three or four times (be- 
 tween each dip rolling it on an iron plate, iixed on the stool, tig. 8, 
 to bring it into form) till he has got metal enough: he then blows 
 at the end D of the pipe,- which expands the metal into a hollow 
 globular form; and then by swinging it round his head, it 
 letigthens out in the shape of a bladder. The workman then sits 
 down on the stool, tig. 7, between the two bars II anil I, across 
 which he lays the blowiiig-non, and rolls it along under hio left 
 hand, following it at the same time with the shears, fig. 5, in his 
 riglit hand, the blades nn of which embrace it, and by genlly put- 
 ting them in the proper place, he brings the glass into the lorin 
 shewn in lig. 1 1 ; meanwhile, the boy who attends him brings a 
 hinip ot metal from the furnace on the end of one of the iron rods 
 Iig. 4, which he sticks on the bottom, or parte, fig. 11, and by 
 twisting the rod round, he separates the metal from the rod, and 
 leaves it on the glass-vessel; the workman then rolls the rod and 
 vessel as before, and with his shears, as shewn in fig. 10, brings the 
 lump »f glass into the form of a stem and foot, as there -describe<l. 
 The boy then holds the tool, hg. (i, against the bottom ot the foot, 
 b, while it is turning, to llatten it. 'I'he boy next takes another 
 iron-rod, fig. 4, and gets a very small piece of metal on its end : 
 this he applies to the centre of the bottom of the foot, so as to con- 
 nect it lo the rod ; when the workman, by touching it at the neck 
 e with a wet iron, cracks the glass, so that a slight blow upon the 
 rod with the hand will separate it at d, from the blowing-pipe M. 
 'I'he glass has bv this time become too cold to work without heat- 
 ing again, which is done at the furnace; the workm^in then returns 
 to the stool, Iig. 7, and again rolls the rod round with his left hand 
 as before, and with the point of one of the blades ;i of the shears 
 opens the end d, fig. 9, of the glass; after which he inserts both 
 points, and fmally works it into the form of tig. 14. It is now sepa- 
 rated from the rod N, and is carried on a shovel like a baker's 
 peel by the boy to the annealing furnace, or oven in the upper pari 
 of the furnace, where it remains in a low red- heat for many hours, 
 by which its former extreme brittleiiess is removed. Wiiulow- 
 j;tasi is made in a similar manner, except that the liipiid mass at 
 the end of the lube is formed into a c-\lindrical shape, which being 
 cut longitudinally by scissars or shears, is gradually bent back un- 
 til it becomes a Hat plate. 
 
 Casting op 'Running of Large Mirror-Gl.ass-Plates. 
 
 The lurnnce is of a very large dimension, environed with S' vcral 
 ■ovens, or annealing furnaces, called carcinaisses, besides others for 
 the making of frit and calcining of old pieces of "lass. Fig. y, A 
 represents the bocca, or mouth of the furnace ; i5 the cistern that 
 jonveys the liquid glass it receives out of the melting-pots in the 
 furnace to the casting-table. These cisterns are tilled in the fur- 
 
 nace, and remain therein six horns after they are filled; and ll.i» 
 arc hooked out by a large iron chain, guided by a pulley, pUcni 
 upon a carriage with four wheel-, (marked C,) by two men. '1 bis 
 carriage has no middle-|iii-ce; so tlut when it has brought tJie c!s- 
 tern to tlie casting-table, O, ihey slip off the bottom of the cistern, 
 and out rushes a torrent of ilaming matter upon the table; this 
 mailer is conliiied to certain dimensions by the iron rulers tii;, 
 which are moveable, and retain it, and determine the width of the 
 gla^s; while a man, with the roller F, resting ou tlie eilge of the 
 iron rulers, reduces it as it cools lo an equal thickness, which is 
 done in Ihespace of a miiuite. This table is supported on a wooden 
 Iranu-, with trusties fur the convenience ot moving to the annealing- 
 furnare; into which, strewed willi sand, the new plate is shoicd, 
 where It \\[\\ harden in about ten d.iys. \N'hal is most surprisi.'iq; 
 througlimit the whole of this o|)eration, is the quickness and ad- 
 dress wherewith such massy cisterns. Idled with a Ilaming matter, 
 are taken out of the furnace, conveyed to the table, and poured 
 therein, the glass spread, &c. The whole is inconceivable lo such 
 as have not been eye-witnesses of that surprising manufacture. As 
 fast as the cisterns are emptied, they carry them back to the fur- 
 nace and take fresh ones, which they empty as before. This they 
 continue to do so long as there are any full cisterns ; laying as manjr 
 plates in each cariiiiaisse as it will hold, and stopping them up wita 
 doors of baked earth, and everv chink with cement, as soon as they 
 are full, lo let them anneal, and cool again, which requires about 
 1 4 days. 
 
 Of the Ornamextino, Grinding, and Polishing, o? 
 Glass. 
 
 Good gl;iss-ware is often ornamented by the glass-cutter Iwfore 
 it is oti'ered for sale (see Iig. 13 :) this is gener illy performed by a 
 machine, tig. 15, wherein AA is a large wheel to be turned by a 
 man at the winch B, The band of this wheel passes round a pulley 
 a on the axle of a wheel or cutter C, and thereby turns it with a 
 great velocity : beneath the cutter a cistern 1) is placed, and above 
 it a small cask E to contain water, the cock b of which is so placed 
 and adjusted as lo drop very slowly on the circumference of the 
 cutter, 'i'he glass-griniler sits down on the stool F, and after dress- 
 ing the edge of the cutter w ilh emery paste, he applies successively 
 the pails of the glass which are to be cut, as shewn in tig. 12, and 
 dexterously moves the glass, as the paits intended to be cut are suf- 
 licienlly ground away: after this another similar cutter is applied 
 instead of C, or the same is dressed with liner emery paste, or mis- 
 lure of tripoli and other polishing powders, in order to polish the 
 parts wliiili have been cut; such parts as are intended to have a 
 white appearance are left rough. The cutters C are formed of hard 
 wood or soft metal, and the workman is provided with several, of 
 dil'lerent sizes and thicknesses, particularly at the edge, according 
 lo the device which is to be cut on die glass. It is by the line 
 edge of these cutters that letters, flowers, &c. are cut on glasses by 
 dexterous workmen. Plate or mirror-glass is ground, and polished, 
 in oriler to give it the fine lustre which is requisite tor mirrors. 
 The workmen lay it horizontally upon a tiat stone-table made of a 
 line-grained free-stone ; and for its greater security they plaster it 
 dounwith lime or stucco ; else the fcrce of the workmen, or the- 
 motion of the wheel with which they grind it, would move it 
 about. This stone-table is supported by a strong frame A, fig. 16, 
 made of wood, with a ledge quite round its edges, rising about two 
 inches higher than the gla,s. Upon this glass to be ground is laid 
 another rough glass not above half so big, and so loose as to slide 
 upon it; but cemented to a wooden plank, lo guard it from the 
 injury it luusl olherw ise receive from the scraping of the wheel to 
 which this |)lank is fastened, and from the weights laid upon it to 
 promote the grinding or triture ot the glasses. The whole is 
 covered wiili a wheel, B, made of hard light wood, about six 
 inches in diameter, by the pulling of w hich backwards and forwards 
 alternalely, and sometimes turning it rounil, the workmen, who 
 alwavs stand opjiosile to each other, produce a (,'onstant attrition 
 between the two glasses, and bring them lo what degree of smooth- 
 ness they please, by first pouring in water and coarse sand ; after 
 that, a linersort of sand, as the work advances, till at last they poar 
 in the powder of smalt. As the ujiper or incumbent glass polishes 
 and grows smoother, it is taken away, and another from lime to 
 time put in its place. This engine is called a mill by the artists, 
 and is used only for the largest glasses; for in the griuding of the 
 
 loss
 
 oiG 
 
 GLASSMAKING. 
 
 Je'^s glasses, they work witliout a wheel, and huve only lour 
 Atooden handles fastened to the four corners of the stone that loads 
 the upper plaiik, by wliiclithey work it abont. When the grinder, 
 (who hnds it very difiicidt to bring the glass to an exact plainness,) 
 })as done his utmost, it is turned over to the |)olisher ; who with 
 the line powder, of tripoli stone, or emery, lirings it to a perfect 
 ffveniicss and lustre. The iustrunicnl used in this branch is a board, 
 e e, furnished with a felt, and a small roller, which the workman 
 moves by means of a double handle at both ends. The artist, in 
 ■working this roller, is assisted with a wooden hoop or spring to the 
 and of which it is tixed : for the sjiring, by constantly bringing 
 the roller back to the same points, facilitates the action of the work- 
 man's arm. 
 
 Coi.ouitiNG fT Glass. 
 
 Glass is often tinged of various colours, which is performed by 
 mixing with it, while in fusion, some one of the metallic oxiiles. 
 Thus blue glass is formed hy the osideof cobalt; green by the 
 oxide of iron, or topper; violet b\ (he oxide of manganese; red 
 by a mixture of the oxides of copper and iron ; purple by the ox- 
 ide of gold; white by the oxide of arsenic and zinc; and yellow 
 by the oxide of silver, and by combustible bodies. 
 
 Painting on Glass. 
 
 A few years since, Mr. Farrant obtained a pa'ent for painting, 
 spangling, ailding, and silvering i>lass, which was pei fornied on the 
 back ot the crystal or glass, so as when finished to appear on the 
 front: the colours prepared in oil or varni.<h as in other works. 
 The parts of orjuiment which are gold must be fust shadowed on 
 the glass, and when dry the gold-leaf must be laid on. Silver- 
 ornament is to he done in the same manner. For the spangling. 
 leave the parts to be spangled to the last : then shadow them, and 
 when dry varnish Ihe parts with copal varnish, and strew the 
 spangles on while it is wet ; when they are dry, varnish them two 
 or three times. The ancient manner of painting in glass was very 
 simple, and consequently very easy: it consisted in the mere ar- 
 rangement of pieces of glass of different colours in some sort of 
 symmetry, and constituted what is now called mosaic work. In 
 process of time they came to attempt inore regular designs, and 
 also to represent figures heiglitened with all their shades: yet they 
 proceeded no farther than the contours of the figures in black with 
 water-colours, and hatching the draperies after the same ipanner 
 on glasses of the colour of the object they designed to paint. For 
 the carnation, they used glass of a briglit-red colour, and upon this 
 they drew the prinripal lineainents of the face, &c. with black. 
 But in time, the taste for this sort of painting improving consider- 
 ably, and the art being found applicable to the adorning of 
 churches, &c. they found out means of incorporating tlie colours 
 in the glass itself, by heating them in the fire to a proper degree, 
 having first laid on the colours. The colours used in the painting or 
 staining of glass are very dilfcrent from those in painting either in 
 vfateror oil colours. For black, lake scales of iron one ounce, scales 
 of copper one oimce, jet halfan ounce ; reduce them to powder, and 
 jnix them. For blue, take [jowtlerof bhieonepound, sal nitri half a 
 pound; mix (hem, and grind them well together. For carnation, take 
 l<n\ chalk eight ounces, iron scales and litharge of silver of each (wo 
 ounces,gum-arabic halfan ounce; dissolve inwa(er; grind all together 
 ,for hilf an hour as stiff as you can; then put it in a glass and stir 
 it well, and let it stand to settle fourteen da)S. For green, take 
 red lead one pound, scales of copper one pound, and (lint five 
 pomids; divide them into three parts, and add to them as much 
 iii'ie ; put them into a crucible, and melt them with a strong (ire; 
 and when it is cold, powder i(, and grind it to a porphyry. For 
 gold-colour, take silver an ounce, antimony halfan ounce; melt 
 tliem in a crucible; then pound the ma>s to powder, and grind it 
 on a copper-jjlate; add to it yellow ochre, or brick-dust calcined 
 again, 15 ounces, and grind'them well together with water. For 
 purple, take minium one pound, brown stone one pound, white 
 flint five pounds ; divide them into three parts, and add to (ht m 
 as much nitre as one of these parts ; calcine, melt, and grind, it as 
 you did the green. For red, jet four ounces, litharge ot silver two 
 ounces, red chalk one ounce: powder (hem fine, and mix them. 
 , For white, lakcjet two parts, white flint, ground on glass very fine, 
 one part, mix them, tor yellow, take Spanish brown ten parts, 
 leaf-silver one part, antimony half a part; put all into a cnnible. 
 
 and calcine them well. In the windows of ancient churclies, &c. 
 there are to be seen the most beautiful and vivid colours imagui- 
 able, which far exceed any of those used by the moderns, not so 
 much because the secret of making those colours is entirely lost, 
 as that the moderns will not go (othe charge of them, nor be at (lie 
 necessary pains. Those beautiful works which were made in the 
 glass-houses were ot two kinds. In some, the colour was diffused 
 through (he -whole subs(ancc of (he glass. In others, which were 
 (he more common, the colour was only on one side, scarcely i)cne- 
 trating within the substance above one-third of a line; though this 
 was more or less according to the nature off he colour, the yellow 
 being always found to enter the deepest. These last, though not 
 so strong and be.iutilul as the former, were of more advantage to 
 the workmen, since on the same glass, though already coloured, 
 they could shew other kind ot colours where there was occasion to 
 embroider draperies, enrich them with foliage, or represent other 
 ornaments of gold, silver, etc. In order to this, they made uso of 
 ei:iery, grinding or wealing dow n the surface of the glass, till thev 
 were got through die colour to the clear glass. This done, (hey 
 applied the proper colours on the other side of the glass. By this 
 means, (he new colovirs were hindered from running and mixing 
 with (he former, when they exposed (he glasses to (lie fire, as will 
 appear hereaKer. When, indeed, (he ornamenis were to a])pear 
 wliile, the glass was only bared of its colour with emery, without 
 (iiiging the place wi(h any colour at all ; and (his was (he manner 
 by Which ihcy wrought (iieir lighis and heigiUenings on all kinds 
 of colour. The first thing to be done in order to paint or stain 
 glass in (he modern way, is to design an<l even colour (he whole 
 subject on paper. They (hen choose such I'ieces of glass as are 
 clear, even, and smoo{h, and proper to receive the several parts, 
 and proceed to distribiUe (he design itself, or jiapers i( is draw n on, 
 into pieces suitable to those of the glass; always taking care that 
 the glasses may join in the contours of the figures and (he folds of 
 the draperies, that the carnations and other finer parts may not be 
 impaired by the lead with which the pieces are to be joined to- 
 gether. The distribution being made, they mark all the gUisses as 
 well as papers, that tbey may be known again; which done, apply- 
 ing every part of the design upon the glass intended for it, (hey 
 copy I r transfer the design upon this glass with the black colour 
 diluted in gum-water, by tracing and following all the lines and 
 strokes as they appear through the glass with the point of a pencil. 
 When these s(rokcs are %vell dried, which will happen in about two 
 days, the work being only in black and whi(e, (hey give a slight 
 wash overwidi urine, gum-aral»ic, and a little black, and repeat it 
 several times, according as the shades are desired to be heigh(ened, 
 wi(h (his precaution, never (o apply a new wasJi till (he lormer is 
 sufficiently dried. This done, the lights and risings are given by 
 rubbing o'tf the colour in the places with a wooden point, or the 
 handle of the pencil. As to the other colours above-mentioned, 
 they are used with gum-water, much as in painting in miniature, 
 taking care to apply them lightly for fear of effacing (he oudines 
 of (he design; or even, for (he grea(er securi(y, (o apply (hem on 
 the other side; especially yellow, which is very pernicious to the 
 other colours, by blending with them. And here too, as in pieces 
 of black and white, particular regard must always be had not to 
 lay colour on colour, or lay on a new lay till such (imes as the 
 former are well dried. It may be added, that the yellow is the 
 only colour that pene(ra(es through (he glass, and incorporates \vi(h 
 it by the fire; the rest, and particularly the blue, which is very 
 difticult to Uie, remaining on the surface, or at least entering very 
 little. When (he painting of all tiie pieces is finished, tliey are 
 carried to the furnace oroven, to anneal or bake the colours. 'The 
 furnace here used is small, built ot brick, Irom 18 to 30 inches 
 square; at six imhes from the bottom is an aperture to put in the 
 fuel, and maintain the fire. Over this aperture is agra(e, made of 
 (hree stpiare bars of iron, which traverse the furnace, and divide it 
 into two parts. Two inches above this partition is another little 
 aperture, through which they take out pieces to examine how the 
 coction goes forward. On (he grate is placed a sipiare eardieii 
 pan, six or seven inches <leep, and five orsix inches less every way 
 than (he perime(er of (he furnace. On the oneside is a little aper- 
 ture, throuuh w hich to make trials, placed directly' opposite to that 
 ot the furnaces destined for the same end. In this pan are the 
 pieces of glass to be placed in the following manner : First, (he bot- 
 tom ot the pan is covered with three strata or layers, of quick-lime 
 
 pulverized ;
 
 
 I.'lilpl
 
 GLA5 3 -yiAKz:^ c - 
 
 ■^ CASTING - 
 
 if> l-OLISllTNC,
 
 GLASSMAKING. 
 
 617 
 
 'r rr 
 
 pulvi-ri/ed ; tlio^i- strata being se|);ir<iti'cl I'V t«'o o'licrs Oi old 
 broken glas^, llic dfsigti of ftliidi is to ?vciire the priintetl glass 
 froiu tlie too intense litat of tlie fire. This done, the glasses are 
 laid Iwrizontally on tlie last or iipperniost layer of lime. The first 
 row oi n;lass ttu-v cover over MitJi <. laver of tlie same powder, r.ii 
 inch deep ; and over th;^ they lay another range of glasses, ami 
 th'-!s alte^n itely till tlie pan is quite lull, tiiking cure that the whole 
 Leap always end witli a layer of tiie lime-powder. The pan beiiip 
 thus prepared, tliey cover up the furnace with lile«, on a sipiarc 
 tabh-' of earthenware, closely luted all rounti, only leaving fivi- lit- 
 tle :.j)ertures, one at each corner, and another in the middle, to 
 serv ; as chimneys. 'Ihings thu'' disposed, theri remains nothing r 
 but to give the lire to the work. The lire for the tirst two hours 
 Bjubi be very moderate, and imist be increased in proportion a^ the 
 
 co'tion advances, for the space of ten or twelve hours, in which 
 time it is usually completed. At last tl.e fne, which at first was 
 charcoal, is to be of dry wood, so that tliv llartie covers the whole 
 pan, and even issues out at the chimneys. During the la-t hours, 
 they make essays, from time to time, by taking out pieces laid for 
 the purpose through the little aperture of the furnate and pan, to 
 see whether the yellow is perfect, .:nd the other colours in good 
 order. Wlipu the annealing is thought suflicient, thev proceed 
 with great haste to extinguish the hre, which oiherwisc would soon 
 burn the colours, and break the glasses. i<y several statutes, re- 
 gulations are made for making, importing, and exporting glass, 
 which is to be under the management of the oflicers of the cUitoms 
 and excise. See Complete Abridgement of the E.KCisc hswi. 
 
 ' Classes Optical. See Optics. 
 
 GLASSWOKT, in botany. See Salsola. 
 
 GL.\S'l ONBUHY, a town of England, in Somersetshire, an- 
 ciently called Avaloiiia. It is noted for a famous abbey, some 
 niagniiicent ruins of which still remain. It is five miles S. S. W. 
 of Weils. 
 
 Glasvonbuky Thorn. See Crat^gi's. 
 
 GLATZ, a county of Bohemia. It has mines of coal, silver, 
 and iron ; stone and marble quarries, plenty of cattle, and tine 
 springs of mineral water. Jaspers, topazes, &c. are found in it. 
 
 Glatz, the capital of the above county, 88 miles E. of Prague. 
 
 GL.VUBER, John Rodolpirs, a celebrated German chemist, 
 who flourished about lG4(3. He wrote a great number of treatises 
 on chemistry, some of which have been trsiislated into French. 
 All his works have been collected into a volume, infilled, Glau- 
 berus concentratus, which has been translated into English, and 
 printed at London in folio, in Ifi.SQ. 
 
 Glauber's-Salt, a chemical composition, which is usually 
 prepared by adding to sea-salt an equal qui'ntity of sulphuric acid 
 diluted with water, distilling olfUie marine .icid, and dissolving 
 and crystallizing the remainder. These salts may also be obtained 
 by mixing four ounces of borax with one ounce ami "iie drachm of 
 oil of vitriol ; the whole of which when sublimed, all'ords what is 
 by chemists called Sedative Salt ; and if the remainder be exposed 
 to a strong fire, it will yield Glauber's-salts. They were first pre- 
 pared by John l\odolplius Glauber ; and :are of considerable use 
 in medicine as cooling purgatives, when taken in doses from six to 
 twelve drachms. See Soda. 
 
 GLAUCOPIS, or the Wattle-Bird, a genus of birds of the 
 order Pica'. BUI inciirvate and arched ; lower mandible shorter 
 than the upper, and carunculate beneath at the base ; nosti'ils de- 
 pressed, hall covered with a cartilagioons membrane; tongue car- 
 tilaginous, split and ciliated at the end ; legs carinated at the back ; 
 feet formed for walking. 
 
 G. Cinf.rea, or Ci.MEREOus WATTLE-Dmo, IS about the size 
 of a jay ; it is a native of New Zealand. 
 
 ' Glaucoma, [from yXni/xof, sea-green, or sky-colour,"] is a disease 
 in the eyes, wherein the rrystalline humour is turned of a bluish or 
 greenish colour, and its transparency hereby diminished. To those 
 in whom this disorder is fonnipg, ail objects appear as tln-ough a 
 cloud or mist ; when entirely formed, the visual rays are all intei- 
 cepted and nothing is seen at all. It is incurable, w^en inveterate, 
 and in aged periions ; and is always very diflicult of cure, exter- 
 nals proving of little service. The iiiternals best suited to it, are 
 thpe used in the gutta srrena. 
 
 GLAUCUS, in ancient mytholoj-^-, a deity of the sea, who, 
 before his deification, was a hsbemian of Anthedoii. Having one 
 day taken a considerable number of lisli'S, wh.ich he laid upon the 
 bank, he perceived that as soon as they touched an herb that grew 
 on the shore, they received new strength, and leaped again into the 
 sea ; upon which he was tempted to taste of the herb himself, and 
 instantly h-aped into the sea after them, where he was metamor- 
 phosed into a Triton, ami became one of the sea-gods. 
 
 GLAUX, in botany, a genus of the inonogynia order, and pen- 
 Ipndria class of jjlants ; natural order, Calycautheijis, Calyx (uo- 
 
 ■V.OL. II, — KO.,97, 
 
 nophyllous ; no corolla ; capsule unilocular, quinquevatved, eod< 
 
 pent;ispermous. 
 
 GLAZING, the crusting over of earthenware by a vitreous sub- 
 stance, the basis of which is commonly lead. The Romans had a 
 metliod of glazing their earthen vessels, wliicii in many respects 
 appears to have been superior to ours. The common brown glaz- 
 ing easily scales off, cracks, and in a short time becomes disagree- 
 bletotheeye. Besides, it is very easily destroyed by acids; nor 
 can vessels glazed in tlus manner be even employed to hold water, 
 without part of it oozing tlirough their pores. Lead is also de- 
 structive to the human body; and if acids arc unwarily [nit into 
 vessels glazed with lead, the liquors uill receive a very dangerous 
 impregnation from the metal. The Roman gla'/ing, which is yet 
 to be seen upon urns dug up in several places, appears to have 
 been made of some kind of varnish ; and Pliny gives us a hint that 
 it wa^ made ot bitumen lie tells us, that it never lost its beauty, 
 and that at length it became customary to glaze statute? in this 
 manner. As this varnish sunk f eep into the sub.stance of the ware, 
 it was not subject to those crack? anfl Haws which distigure our 
 vessels ; and as it was not liable to be corroded by acids, it cuuld 
 not be subject to any of the accidents which may *nsue from the 
 use of vessels glazed with lead. The usual composition for gla*. 
 iiig earthenware is formed of white saiul 401b of red-lead COlb. <^ 
 pearl-ashes 20lb. and of common salt iL'Ib. Powder the s;-.nd by 
 grinding i* ; then add it to the other ingredients, and grind then\ 
 together- after which calcine them for some time witn a mode- 
 rate heat, and when the mixture is colil, pound it to powdet". 
 When it is to be u-:cd, temper it with water. The proportion of 
 these ingredients may be occa-ionally varied. Ttie ware, after 
 being turned on the wheel and dried in the open aiiy is covered 
 over with the above composition by a brusl: ; and when set in the 
 furnace the violent heatsoon reduces it to a pertect glass, covering 
 the whole internal and external surface of tl.e vessel. Lead, how-,! 
 ''ver, ought to be excluded from the composition of glarings, and 
 other fluxes substituted in its stead. A fr nsparont glazing may- 
 be prepared without lead, by calcining 401b. ot white sanil, 'J5lb, 
 of pearl-ashes, and Ijlb. of common salt ; and proceedij:g as be- 
 fore : and a more perfect transparent glazing may be made'of sand 
 40lb. of wooil-asbes perfectly burnt 501b. of pearl-ashes lOlb. and 
 of common salt 121b. The following receij ;s are mostly from 
 Kunckel, who says, they are the true glazing- uacd at Delfi, and 
 the other Dutch manufactories. 
 
 1. Glazing, Black. Take eight parts of red-lead, iroi.-fiiinga 
 three, copper-ashes three, and zaifer two Tiieasi;;-es. This when 
 melted will m;ike a brown black; and if w-:ii,i,ed. blacjier, add 
 more zaifer to it. 
 
 2. Glazing, Blue, Take lead-ashrw or red k-a 1 lib. clear- 
 sand or powdered flints, L'lb. conmioii salt 2lb. white calcined tar-- 
 tar lib. Venice or other glass ^Ib. z;'.iVer ^ib. ; mix them '.ill,, 
 snd melt thei^ several times, quenching them always in cole ■ t- 
 ter. To liave it fine and good, put the r.iixlure into a glass-! r- 
 iiace for a day or iWOi Another blue glazing may be L.^med of 
 lib. of tartar, ilb. of red lead, 4 oz. of zalT'er, aiw lib. of pi.w-d^r- 
 ed flints, fused or managed as abc?. Or taki- -jlb. of calcined 
 lead andtiii, and 51b. of comtnon salt, ilb, of powdered fiiats, and 
 
 7 S m
 
 GLA 
 
 nis 
 
 GLT 
 
 *ll lulfi'j 
 
 ofzall'er, tarlar, and Venetian glass, racli lib. Calcine antl fine 
 the mixture as before. Or, take of red lead one part, of sand tlirce 
 parts, and of zaffer one. For a violet blue glazing, take 4 oz. 
 of tartar, 2 oz. of red lead, j 02. of powdered lliiils, and half a 
 drachm of mangane-e. 
 
 3. Glazing, Bkownt. Take red lead and (lints, of each 14 
 parts, and of manganese two parts fused; or, of red lead !2 parts, 
 and manganese one part fused. A brown glazing to be laid on a 
 white ground, m.y be made of manganese two parts, and of red 
 lead and while glass, of each one part twice fued. 
 
 4. Glazing, Flesh-coloured. 'I'ake 12 parts of Icad-ashe?, 
 and one of white glass. 
 
 5. Glazing, Gold-coloured. Take of litliarge three parts, 
 of sand or calcined flint one part ; pound and mix these very well 
 together, tlien run them into a yellow glass witli a strong lire. 
 Pound this gkiss, and grind it into a subtile powder, which moisten 
 with a well saturated solution of silver; make it into a paste, which 
 put into a crucible, and cover it with a cover. Give at hrst a 
 gentle degree of lire ; then increase it, and continue it till you have 
 a glass, which will be green. Pound this glass again, and grind it 
 to a fine powder ; moisten this powder with beer, so that it may 
 be applied by a hair-pencil upon the vessels of earllienware. 
 These vessels when covered with this glazing must be first well 
 licated, then put under a mullle; and, as soon as the glass rims, 
 smoaked by holding them over burning vegetables ; then take out 
 the vessels. Phil. Trans. No. 4(5j. §6. Kunckel gives several 
 preparations for a gold-coloured yellow- glazing. This may be 
 produced by fusing a mixture of three parts of red lead, two of an- 
 timony, and one of salTron of Mars; by again melting the pow- 
 dered mass, and rei)eating tlie operation four times, or by fusing 
 four or five times a composition of red lead and antimony of each 
 an ounce, and of scales of iron half an ounce ; or by calcining and 
 fusing together eight parts of red lead, and six paits of flints, one 
 •part of yellow ochre, one part of antimony, and one part of glass. 
 A transparent gold-coloured glazing may be obtained by twice 
 fusing red lead and wliitc llints, of t-ach 12 parts, and of tilings of 
 iron one part. 
 
 6. CiLAziNG, Greev. Take eight parts of litharge or red 
 lead, eight ol Venice glass, four of bras«-dust or filings of copper ; 
 or 10 parts of litharge, 1'2 of tlint or pebble, and oneof xs ustum 
 or copper-ashes. A line green glazing may be produced by fn>in!; 
 iUoliemian granite, tilings of copper, red lead, and Venetian glass, 
 in equal proportions ; or by fusing white glass, red lead, and lilings 
 of copper, one part each ; powdering the mass, and adding one 
 (jaft of Bohemian granite to two parts of this powder. A fine 
 green may also be obtained, by mixing and grinding together anv 
 
 'of the yellow glazings with equal (piantities of the blue glazings'; 
 and all the shades and teints of green will be hail by varying the 
 proportions of the one to the other, and by the choice of the kind 
 of\ellowand blue. For Sea* Green, take 51b. of lead-ashes, 
 lib. of tin-.nshes, 31b. of flint, | lb. ot salt, ^ lb. of tartar, and -i lb. 
 of copper-dust. 
 
 7. Glazing, Iron-coloured. Take 15 parts of lead-ashes or 
 red lead, 14ci white sand or tlints, and five of calcined copper. 
 Calcine and fuse this mixture.- 
 
 S. Glazing, Liver-coloured. Take 12 parts of litharge, 
 eight of salt, six of ^iiit, and one of manganese. 
 
 9. Glazing, Purple Brown. Take lead-ashes 15 parts, clean 
 sand or powdered Hints 18 parts, manganese one part, and white 
 glass 15; to which some add one of zaffer. 
 
 10. Glazing, Red. Take antimony 31b, litharge or red lead 
 three, and rust of iron one;- grind them to a line powder. Or, 
 take 2lb. of antimony, three of red lead, and one of calcined saf- 
 fron of Ma.s ; and proceed as before. 
 
 11. Glazing, White. For common ware, take 401h. of clear 
 sand, 731b. of lilhargo or lead-ashes, 26 of pot-ashes, and 10 <f 
 salt: melt these three times into a cake, quenching it each time in 
 clear cold water. Or, take 50lb. of clean sand, 70 of lead-ashes, 
 30 of wood-ashes, and 11 of salt. For a fine white : lake 2lb. of 
 lead and one of tin ; calcine them to ashes : of this take two parts, 
 calcined flint, wliile sanil, or broken white glass, one part, and salt 
 one part; mix them well together and melt them into a cake for 
 use. The trouble of calcining the tin and lead may be prevented 
 by procuring thom in a proper slate. A very line white glazing 
 may be obtained by calcining two parts «fleaa and one part of tin ' 
 
 and taking one part of this mass, and of flints and common salt of 
 each one part, and fusing' the mixture. A white gliizing may be 
 also prepared by mixing iOOlb. of inasticot, 6u of red lead, 20 of 
 calcined tin or putty, and 10 of common salt ; calcining and pow- 
 dering the mixture several times. 
 
 12. Glazing, Yellow. Take red lead 3lb, calcined antimony 
 and tin of each Sib. ; or, according to some, equal quantities of 
 rtie tlirce ingredients. These must be melted into a cake, then 
 ground fine; and this operation repeated several times. Or, take 
 15 parts of lead ore, tiiree of litharge of silver, and 1 5 of sand. 
 A nne yellow glazing may be procured by mixing five parts of reil 
 lead, two of powdered brick, one of sand, one of white glazing, and 
 two of antimony ; calcining ihe mixture, and then fusing it. Or, 
 lake four parts of white glass, one of antimony, three ot red lead, 
 and one of iron-scales, and fuse the mixture: or fuse 10 parts of 
 (lint, one of iron-filings, and 24 of litharge. A light yellow glaz- 
 ing may be produced with 10 parts of red lead, three of antimunv, 
 three of glass, and two of calcined tin. A oitrou yellow is made of 
 six parts of red lead, seven of fine red brick-dust, and two of an- 
 timony. This mixture must be calcined day and night for foui' 
 .'lays, in the ash-liole of a glass-house furnace, and at last fused. 
 
 Glazing of Delfx-Wari, Porcelain, Stone-Ware, &c. 
 See Delft, Porcelain, and Pottery. 
 
 GLEBF,, among mincrj, signifies a piece of earth in which ii 
 contained some mineral ore. 
 
 Glebe, inlaw, the land belonging to a parish-church, besides 
 ihe tithes. When a parson or vicar has caused any of his glebe- 
 lands to be manured and sown, at his own charge, with corn or 
 grain, he may by \vill devise all the profits and corn growing upon 
 the said glebe ; and in case he dies without disposing thereof, his 
 executors shall have tin; same. 
 
 GLEC110M.\, Ground Ivy ; a genus of the gymnospermia 
 order, and didynamia class of plants ; natural order, Vcrticillata-. 
 Calyx fi>e-cleft; each pair of anthers converging in form of a cross. 
 Tlieie is but one species, viz. G. hederacea, ground-ivy. The 
 leaves are thrown into the vat with ale to clarity it and give it a 
 ilavour. Ale thus prepared is often drank as an antiscorbutic. 
 The expressed Juice mixed with a little wine, and applied morn- 
 ing and evening, deitroys the white specks upon hones eyes. The 
 plants that grow near it do not flourish. 
 
 GLEDii, GLEAD, or KITE. SccFalco. 
 
 GLEOrrsiA, Triple-thorned Acacia, or Honey-Lo- 
 cust ; a genus of the dicecia order, and polygamia class of plants ; 
 natural order, Lomentacex. Hermaphrodite ; calyx four-cleft ; 
 corolla four-petaled ; stamens six; pistil one; legume. There is 
 onlv one species, with several varieties. 
 
 GLEE, in music, a vocal composition in three or more parts, 
 generally consisting of more than one movement, the subject of 
 which may be cither gay, tender, or grave; bacchanalian, auialory, 
 or pathetic. 
 
 Gleet, in medicine, the flux of thin, limpid humour from 
 the urethra. 
 
 CJLENDALAGH, an ancient and once celebrated town of 
 Ireland, 5 miles N. W. of Kothdrum, in Wicklow ; called also, the 
 Seven Churches. 
 
 Glenegad Head, a cape of Ireland, in Donegal. Lou. 7.4. 
 W. Lat. 55. 20. N. 
 
 Glenesk, a district of Scotland, in Forfarshire, watered by tfce 
 North Esk. 
 
 Glenmore, [Gael, i. e. the great valley,] an extensive district 
 of Murrayshire, in the barony of Kincardine, abounding with 
 wood. 
 
 GLINUS, in botany, a genus of the dodecandria pentagynia 
 class and order. Natural order, Coryophyllei. Calyx five- 
 leaved: corolla none ; nectaries cloven-bristles; capsule five-cor- 
 nered, five-celled, five-valved, containing numerous seeds. There 
 are three species. 
 
 GLIRES, the name of Linnaus's fourth order of mammalia. 
 See Zoology. 
 
 GLISSON, Francis, a learned English physician of the 17^h 
 century, who was educated at Cambridge, and was made regius 
 |;rofes5or of the university. In 1634, he was admitted a fellow of 
 the college of pliysiciaus.in London. During the civil wars, he 
 practised pliysic at C'olchester, and afterwards settled in London, 
 lie greatly improved physic by his anatomical dissections, and 
 
 made
 
 OLO 
 
 619 
 
 GLO 
 
 made several new discoveries of singidar use toward-; c'-tabli-liing 
 -« rational practice. He wrote, 1. lie Raciiitido, &c. ?. Dc I,ym- 
 pln-diictis luiper reiierti-; ; with the Aiiatoinica prolegomena," S. 
 .Anatomia hcpati-;. ,3. Di; Naliir.T Substantia energeliea ; seu de 
 VitJE.Naturx", ejiisc^ie tribus primis Facidtatibiis, .Vc quarto, .i. 
 Tractatus de Ventriciilo & fntestini';, &c. He discovered the cap- 
 stda comiminis, or vagina portre. 
 
 GLOBBA, in botany, a genus of the iiiono^vnia order, ami 
 monandria class of plants. Corolla equal, trihil ; euly.\ tritid 
 above; capsule trilocular, with many seeds. It has lour spe- 
 cies. 
 
 GLOBE, in geometry- Sec Mensur.^tion, Geometrv, and 
 Sphere. 
 
 Globe, in geograpiiy, and astrononiv, is particularly used for 
 an artiticial sphere of metal, plaster, paper, or other matter ; on 
 whose convex surface is drawn a map, or representation either of 
 the earth or heavens, with the several circles conceived thereon. 
 Globes are of two kinds, terrestrial and celestial; each of very 
 considerable use, in astronomy, and geography, for perforniiiig 
 many of the operations in these sciences, in any easy obvious man- 
 ner, so as to be conceived without any kno\»le<Ige of the mathe- 
 matical grounds of those arts. Tlie fundamental parts, conimon 
 to both glol^es, arc an axis, representing that of the world ; and a 
 spherical shell, or cover, w'lith makes tiie body of the,globe, oii 
 the external surface of which the rei)resentation is drawn. See 
 Axis, Pole, &c. The <lescription and use of the globes will be 
 found under the article Geographv, which see. 
 
 Globes, Construction of. A wooden axis is provided, 
 somewhat less than the intended diameter of tlie glolje ; and into 
 the extremes tiiereof, two iron-wires arc driven tor poles : tiiis 
 axis is to bathe beam, or ba<is of (he whole structure: On the 
 axis are applied two spherical or rather hemispherical caps, form- 
 ed on a kind of wooden mould or block. These caps con^ist of 
 pasteboard, or paper, laid one lay after another, on the mould, to 
 the thickness of a crown-piece ; after which, having stood to dry 
 and embody, making an incision along the middle, the two caps 
 thus parted are slipped oifthe mould. They are next applied on 
 the poles of the axis, as before they wei'e on those of the mould ; 
 and to fix them, the two edges are sewed together wi.h pack- 
 thread, &;c. The rudiments of the globe thus laid, it must be 
 strengthened and made smooth and regular. In order to this, the 
 two poles are hasped in a metalline semicircle of the size intended ; 
 and a kind of plaster, made of whitening, water, and glue, heated, 
 melted, and incorporated together, is daubed all over the paper- 
 surface. In proportion as the plaster is applied, the ball is turned 
 round in the semicircle, the edge whereof pares off whatever is su- 
 perlluous and beyond the due dimensions, leaving the re>t adhering 
 ill places that are short of it. After such applicalion of the plas- 
 ter, the ball stands to drv ; which done, it is put again in the se- 
 micircle, and fresh matter applied t thus they continue alternately 
 to apply the composition, and dry it, till the ball every where ac- 
 curately touches tli-e semicircle, in which state it is perfectly 
 smooth, regular, and firm. The ball thus linished, it remains to 
 paste the map or description thereon ; in order to this, the map 
 is projected in several gores, or gussets, all of which join accu- 
 rately on tlie spherical surface, and cover the whole ball. To 
 direct the application of these gores, lines are drawn by a semi- 
 circle on the surface of the ball, dividing it into a number of equal 
 parts corresponding to those of tlie gores, and subdividina; those 
 again answerably to the lines and divisions of the gores. There 
 remains only to colour and ilUiminate the globe ; and to varnish 
 it, the better to resist dust, moisture, &c. The globe itself thus 
 linished, is hung in a jbrass-meridian, with an hour-circle, and a 
 quadrant of altitude ; and thus lifted into a wooden horizon. In 
 Mr. Chambers's Dictionary, the following method is directed for 
 describing tiie gores or gussets, " 1. From the given diameter of 
 the globe, rind a right line AB, fig. -i, Plate LXXV, equal to the 
 circumference of a great circle, and divide it into IC equal parts. 2. 
 Through the several points of division, 1, 2, S, 4, &c. with tl-.e in- 
 terval of ten o'' them, describe arches mutually intersecting eaeh 
 other in D an<;l E ; tiiese figures or piecc-s duly pasted and joined 
 together -.viU make the « hole surface of the globe. 3. Divide each 
 part ot th<; right line AB into 30 equal parts, so that the whole line 
 AB, represL-nling the periphery of the equator, may be divided into 
 360 degrees. 4. From tlie poles D and E, fig. 5, with the iiiter- 
 ' 6 
 
 val of 2.5 /; (leg. describe arches a b ; these will be twell't'.i [inrfs of 
 the pohr circles. 5. After ihe like manner, from tlie sr.me poles 
 D and V„ with the interval of 66,1*. <ieg. reckoned from tlie equa- 
 tor, dcsciibe arches cd: these will be 1 2ili parts of the tropics. 6. 
 I hrough the degree of the equator e, corresponding to tiie right 
 ascension of any given star, and the poles ]> and E, draw an arch 
 of a circle; and taking in the compasses the complement of the 
 declination from the pole D, describe an arch intersecting it in i ; 
 this point i will be the place of that star. 7. All the stars of a 
 constellation being thus laid down, the figure of the constellatioM 
 is to be drawn according to Bayer, Hevclius, or Flamsteed.' 8. 
 Lastly, al'ter the same manner are the dechnations and right ascen- 
 sions of each degree of the ecliptic //g to be determined. O. The 
 surface of the glolic thus projected on a plane is to be eni;ravcn on 
 copper, to save the trouble of doing tliis over again for each 
 globe. 10. A ball, in the mean time, is to be jirepared of paper, 
 plaster, &c. as before directed, and of the intencled diameter of 
 the globe ; on this, by means of a semicircle and style, is the 
 equator to be drawn ; and through every 30th degree a meridian.' 
 The ball thus divided into twelve parts, corresponduig to the 
 segments before projected, the latter are to be cut fi-om the print- 
 ed paper, and pasted on the ball. 11. Nothing now remains 
 but to hang the globe as before in a brazen meridian and wooden 
 horizon; to which may be a<lded a quadrant of altitude made of 
 brass, and divided in the same manner as the ecliptic and equator. 
 If th.e declinations and rigiit ascensions of the stars be not given, 
 but the longitudes and latitudes in lieu thereof, the surface of the 
 globe is to be projected after the same manner as before ; except 
 that, in this case, D and E, lig. 5, are the poles of the ecliptic, 
 and f h tlie ecliptic itself; and that the polar circles and tropics, 
 with the eipiatorg d, and parallels thereof, are to be determined 
 from their declinations. M. Dc La Lande, in his Astronomie, 
 1771, Tom. 3. p. 736, relates the following methods: " To con- 
 struct celestial and terrestrial globes, gores must be engraved, 
 which area kind of projection, or inclosure of the globe (fig. 6,) 
 similar to what is now to be explained. The length PC of the 
 axi-^ of this curve is equal to a quarter of the circumference of the 
 globe ; the intervals of the ])arallels on the axis PC are all equal, 
 the radii of the circles KDI which represent the parallels are equal: 
 to the cotangents of the latitudes, and the arches of each, as DI^ 
 are nearly equal to the number of the degrees of the breadth of the 
 gore (which is usually 30") multiplied by the sine of the latitude: 
 thus, there will be found an intricacy in tracing tliem; but Ihe 
 didiculty proceeds from the variation found in the trial of the gores 
 when pasting them on the globe, and of the quantity that must be 
 taken from the paper, less on the sides than in the middle; (be- 
 cause the sides are longer) to apply it exactly to the space that 
 it should cover. The method used among workmen to delineate 
 the gores, and which is described bv Mr. Bion (Usage des Glo- 
 bes, tom. 3,) and by Mr. Robert Jc Vaugendy in vol. 7th of the 
 Encyclopa-dia, is little geometrical, but yet is sufficient in practice. 
 Draw on the paper aline AC, equal to the chord of Ij', to make 
 the half-breadth of the gore; and a perpendicular PC, equal to 
 three times the chord of 30", to make the half-length; for these 
 papers, the dimensions of which will be equal to the chords, be- 
 come ecuial to the arcs themselves when they are pasted on the 
 globe. Divide the height CP into nine parts, if the parallels are 
 to be drawn ia every 10'; divide also the quadrant BE into nine 
 equal parts through each division-point of the quadrant as G ; and 
 through the corresponding point D of the right line C'P draw liie 
 perpendiculars HGF and DF, the meeting of which in F gives 
 one of the points of the curve BEP, which will terminate the cir- 
 cumference of the gore. When a sufiicient number of points are 
 thus fouiUl, trace the outline PIB with a curved rule. By this con- 
 struction are given the gore-breadths, which are on the globe, in the 
 ratio of the cosines of the latitudes; supposing these brcidthstakei* 
 perpendicular to CD, which is not very exact, but it is impossible 
 to prescribe a rigid operation sufficient to make a plane which shall 
 cover a curved surface, and that on a right line AB shall make 
 lines PA, PC, PB, equal mnong themselves, as tluy ouglit to 
 be on the globe. To describe the circle K D! which is at 3t*'' froux 
 the equator: there must be taken above D a point which siiall be 
 distant from it the value of the tangent of GO", taLen out either 
 from the tables, or on a circle equal to the circumference of the 
 globe to be U-aced ; tljis point will sevve as u centre iyr the pa- 
 
 raliri.
 
 GLO 
 
 620 
 
 GLtJ 
 
 rallcl D\, which shcukl pass lliroiigli the point D, (or it issiippo- 
 sicl eeiiial to tliat of a tone circuiiisciibing the (;lol)e, and which 
 >voiiUl torch at the point D. The nitTi<hans ni.iy be traced to 
 every 10 degrees, by diviihng each paralh-1, asKl, into three 
 parts at the points L aiid M, and drawing troiu the pole P, throiii^Ii 
 all these division-points, curves, which repre-.ent the intermediate 
 iiicriihaiis l)etweeii PA and FB, (as BR and S'l", lig. 7.) 'J'he 
 ecliiUic AV may be described by means of the k[io\vii declination 
 from diflerent points of the ei|iiat( r that mav he t'oiind in a table; 
 for 10°, it is 3° 68'; for 20°, 7° JO'as at P.; iar 30°, U'lV, &c-" 
 II is observed in general, that tlie paper on which charts are print-' 
 ed, such as llie colombier, shortens itsell -jV part of a line in six 
 inches upon an average, when it is dried after printing ; litis incon- 
 venience must therefore be corrected in the engraving of tlie gores : 
 if notwithstanding that, the gbres are found too slioit, it must be 
 remedied by taking from thesuriace of tiie ball a little of llie wliile 
 witli which it is covered ; thereby making the tlimen«ions suitable 
 to the gore as it was printed. But w hat is singular is, ■ !iat in draw- 
 ing the gore, inoi>lened with the paste to apply it on the globe, 
 the axis Oil lengthens, and the side AK sliortens, in sucii a man- 
 ner, that neitherthe length of tlie side ACK, nor that of the axis 
 GEH, of the gore are exactly equal to the (punter of the circumfe- 
 rence of the globe, when compared to tlie figure on tlie copper, 
 or to the numbered sides sUewn in iig. 7- Mi'- Bonne having made 
 several experiments on the dimensions that gores take, after they 
 had been parted ready to apply to the globe, and particularly with 
 the paper named jcsus, that he made use offer a globe of one fool 
 in diameter, found that it was necessary to give to the gores on 
 the copper, the dimensions shewn in fig. 7. Supposing that the 
 radius of the globe contained 720 parts, the half-breadth of the gore 
 is AG = 183 ^5g, the distance AC for the parallel of 10 degrees 
 taken on the right line IM is 12. 81, the small deviation from the 
 parallel of 10 degrees in the middle of the gore ED is 4, the 
 line ABN is right, the radius of the parallel of 10°, or of the circle 
 CI'U'\ is 4083, and so of the others as marked in the ligure. The 
 small circular cap which is placed under H, has its radius 253 in- 
 stead of 247, which it wotild have if the sine uf 20° had been the 
 a'adius of it. 
 
 Globes, Uses of the. See Geography, and Astronomv,. 
 with the Plates referred to. 
 
 Glode-Thistle. See Echin'ops. 
 
 GLOBULAK CIlAR'l", a name given to the representation of 
 th.'? surface, or of some part ot the surface of the terrestrial globe 
 upon a plane, wherein the parallels of latitude are circles nearly 
 concentric, tin' meridian-curves betiding towards the poles, and 
 the rhomb-lines are also curves. 
 
 Gi.oHi-it.AR Sailino. See Navigation. 
 
 GL()BUL.(* RIA, ill botany, a genus of the tetrandria monogy- 
 jiia class and order. Natural order,. Aggregata;. Calyx conimun, 
 imbricate ; proper, tubular, inferior; corollets the upper lip, two- 
 parted; lower thcee-parted ; receptacle chafly. There are eight 
 species. 
 
 (t LOBULE, [gl^}bulc, French; globulus., Latin,] such a 
 small i)article of matter as is of a globular or spherical figure; as 
 the red |)articles of the blood, which swim in a transparent serum, 
 and are easilv discovered by the microscope. Tliese will attract 
 one another when tliey come within a due distance, and unite like 
 the spheres of quicksilvsr. 
 
 GLOGAU, or GLOGAW, u duchy or principality of Silesia, 
 seated on both sides of the Oder, on the borders of Foiand. 
 
 (tLocaw, G.Rr.AT, a stronjv town of Silesi^, the capital of the 
 above duchy, 60 miles N. \A'. of Bi'es!4W, 
 
 GLOHIOSA, Superb Lily; a g<Mius of the monogynia or- 
 lier, and hexandria class of plants; natural order, Sarjnentace.c. 
 Corolla six-petaU'd, waved, redex; style oblKjue. There are 
 two species, viz. G. snperba, superb lily, and G. simplex.. 
 
 GLOSS, [irom the Greek y^.turc-n, tongue, the ofticc of a 
 gloss being to explain the lext, as that of ths ton^'ue to discover 
 tiie mind.] See CcMMtSTAKV. 
 
 Gross is likewise u-eJ for a literal translation of a book, into 
 ani.thcr language .vord tor word. 
 
 GLOSSOCO.VIMON. in mechanics, a name given by Mr. 
 Heron to a macnine < omposQd of various dented w heels with pii.- 
 ions, for raising greot weights. 
 
 Ci-OSSO.\IA> in botany, a genu? of tlie tetrapUria monogynia 
 
 class am.! order, Calvx turbinate four-toothed, sui)erior; coiolT 
 four-petaled ; anthers almost unUed, with a membranaceous scale 
 at the end : stigmas four, ilriipe. Tlierc is only one species, viz. 
 G. guianensis, a native of CJuiana. 
 
 GI.OSSOrETALUM, in botany, a genus of the pentandria 
 peiilagynia class and order. Calyx very small, tive-toothcd; pe- 
 t;ilsli\e, with a strap at the tip of e-ach; berry. There are two 
 sj)ecies, both lol'ty trees, natives of Guiana and Cayenne. 
 
 GLOT'J'iS, in anatomy, the narrow slit at the upper part of the 
 aspera arleria, whii;h is covered bv the epiglottis when we hold our 
 breath and when we swallow. The glottis, by its dilatation and 
 contraction, modulates the voire. See Anato.my. 
 
 GLOUCESTER, or GLOUCESTERSHIRE, a county of 
 England, bounded on the W. f>y Monmouthshire, lleref«rdsliire, 
 and tke Bristol Channel; on. the N. by Worcesteiahire ; on the 
 E. bv Oxfordshire and Warwickshire, and on tlie S. by Wilt- 
 shire and SotTiersetsliire. It is 00 miles long from N. E. to S. AV. 
 26 broad, and ItiO in circumference. Its manufactures are wool- 
 len cloths of various kinds, hats, leatheiv pens, paper, bar-iron, 
 edge-tools, nails, wire, tinned plates, brass, &c. : and its annual 
 exports, cheese 8000 tons; bacon, grain, cyder, iOOOl. worth; 
 peirv, lish, 40001. worth, &-c. It lies in th.e diocese of Gloucester 
 and circuit of Oxford. The air is very wholesome, but the sur- 
 face is very various. Tlie county is watered by the Sevei-n, Wye, 
 Avon, his, Lej den, Frome, Slroiid, and Wiudrush, besides less 
 streams, all abounding with tish. The soil is in general very fer- 
 tile, though much diversified, yielding plenty of corn, pasture, 
 fruit, and wood. 
 
 Gloucester, the capital of the above county, is seated on 
 the E. side of the Severn. It is an ancient city ; and by Antow- 
 nus is called Clevum or Glevuni, which CanideR thiilks was form- 
 ed from the British Caer Glowe, ;. c. a fair city. It was one of 
 the 28 cities built by the Britons before the arrival of the Romans;, 
 w ho made it one of their colonies, and in the eighth century it was 
 esteemed one of the noblest cities in the kingdom. This city 
 sends two members to parliament. It is 34 miles N. N. E. of 
 Bristol. 
 
 Gloucester, a fertile and well cultivated county of Virginia.. 
 
 Gloucestek, a town in the above county, 80 miles S. E. of 
 RiclimoiHl. 
 
 Gloucester Islvnd, or Duke of Gloucester's Island, 
 an island in the South Sea, six miles long and one broad. The 
 natives are armed with long pikes. Loii. 140. 4, W. Lat. 19, 
 15. S. 
 
 Gloucester Islands, two isles in the South Sea,.lylngthe one 
 in Lon. 14b. 0. W. and Lat. 20. 33. S. ; the other in Lou, 146. 15. 
 W. and Lat. 20. 34. S. 
 
 GLOVES, in commerce, are distinguished into leathern, silk, 
 threaiU cottoji^ worsted, ic Leatliern gloves are made of cha- 
 mois, kill, lamb, doe, elk, bufi", &c. Gloves now pay a duty to. 
 the king, which increases accordii>.g to their value. 
 
 GLOW-WORM, in zaology. See Lampvris. 
 
 GLOXINIA, in botany, a genus of the didynamia.angiosper- 
 mia class and order ; natural orcler. Personal*. Calyx superior,, 
 five-leaved; corolla bell-shaped, with the border obJi<pie ; fila- 
 ments, with the rudiment of a fifth, inserted into the receptacle. 
 There is only one species, wiz. G. uiaculi^ta, spotted gloxinia, a. 
 native of South America. 
 
 GLUCINA, [from y'.-./xitriaj, to s\veeten,] a peculiar earth dis- 
 covered by \'aui|neliu in the beryl and emerald, so named from 
 its ciiaracleristic property of forming salts of a saccharine taste.. 
 Its gener^il properties are these t 1. It is wiiite ; 2, insipid; 3. 
 adhesive to the tongue ; 4. insoluble in water, and 5. in ammo- 
 niac ; but, 6. solubls in the fixed alkalis, 7. in the carbonate of 
 ammoniac ; and, 8. in almost all the acids, except the carbonic 
 and phosphoric, and forniina; salts of a saccliariiie taste ; y. in-, 
 fusible; but, fO. fusible with borax into a, transparent ghiss ; 1], 
 it abs'irbs- one-fourth of its carbonic acid ; 1.2. decomposes the 
 aluminous salts; and, 13. is not jirecipitable by well saturated 
 hydro-sulphuri ts. Its specific characters, which are not lound 
 united in any of the other known earths, are tlicse : 1. Its salts are 
 saccharine, and slightly astringent ; 2, It is soluble in the carbo- 
 nate of ammoniac ; 3. It is very soluble in the sulphuric acid by 
 excess: 4, It decomposes the aluminous salts: 5. It is completely 
 precipitated from its solutions by ammoniac ; and, 6. its aflJnily
 
 GOL 
 
 C)i5 
 
 GOL 
 
 proiioitiouswitli wliicli il forms an amalgam : llii>, like ollior aiiial- 
 gaiiis, IS JoftiT, tlie lar;^cr I he proportion of nicriurT. Itaofliiis 
 and liqiiofii'b by lu'ut, and crystallizes by (.'ooliiig. Load uiiilts 
 willi gold, and cou^id^.•|■ably impairs iU dnclilily, one-fourtli of a 
 grain to an onncc rendeiijig il completely biilllc. Copp-ti- irnilcr-! 
 Rold less ductilf, liardcr, more fusible, and of a deeper colour. 
 'J'liis is llie nsiuil addition in coin, anil other articles used in socie- 
 ty. Till rxMiders il brill le in proportion lo its (pianlity. Bisnuith 
 renders p;old white and brittle; as do likewise nickel, manganese, 
 arsciiic, and antimony. Zinc produces the same effect; and, 
 when equal in \u-ip;lil lo the gohl, a metal of a line grain i" pro- 
 duced, whicli is saiil to be well adapted lo form the niirronjof rc- 
 llccting telesi-opes; bfcing susceptible of a very line polish, and nut 
 subject to rust. 
 
 Gold, Pure, that purged by fire of all its impurities, and all 
 alloy. The moderns treipieiitly call it gold of twenty-four carat.-, 
 bul in reality Ihere is no such thing as gold so very pure, and 
 there is always wanting at least a (piarter of a carat. Gohl of 
 twenty-two carats has one part of silver and aiioiher of copper; i 
 that of twenty-three carats has half a part, J. f. half a twenty -lourlh 
 of each. .See Carat. 
 
 GoLn, Mos.Mc, is gold a])plied in pannels on a proper ground, 
 distributed into scpiares, lozenges, and otlier compartments; part 
 of which is shadowed lo raise or heighten the rest. See .Mosaic. 
 
 Gold Platks for Knamelling are generally made of ducats 
 whose fineness is Irom -3j carats to 23J; as the linest gold is the 
 best for this purpose, unless where some parts of the gold are left 
 bare and unpolished, as in watch-cases, snuff-boxes, iScc. for which 
 purposes a mixture of alloy is necessary, and silver is preferred to 
 copper, because the latter disposes the plates lo tarnish and turn 
 green. See Enamkl. 
 
 Gold, Shell, is that used by the gilders and illuinineis, and 
 with which gold-letlera are written. It is made by grhuling gold- 
 leaves, or gold-beaters fragments, with a little honey, and atler- 
 wards separ.iling the honey from the powdered gold by water. 
 AVhen the honey is washed away, the gold may be put on jiaper 
 or kept in shells ; whence its name. M'hen it is used, it is diluted 
 with gum-water or soap-suds. The German gold-powder, pre- 
 pared from tlie Dutch gold-leaf in the same manner, is «enerally 
 used ; and w lien it is w ell scouped w ith varnish, answers the end in 
 japanncr's gilding as well as the genuine. 
 
 GoLD,SruN,or Gold Thread, is flatted gold-wire wrapped over 
 a thread of silk, by twisting it with a wheel and iron bobbins. 
 
 Gold-Wike, a cylindrcal ingot of silver, gilt, or covered with 
 gold, and afterwaiils drawn successively flirough a great number 
 of little round holes, of a drawing iron, each less than the other, 
 till it be sometimes no bigger than a hair. See Wire-Drawing. 
 
 Gold-Mire, Platted, is the above wire flatted between two 
 rollers of polished steel, to (it it to be spun on a stick, or to be 
 used flat without spinning, as in brocades, laces, embroideries, &c. 
 
 Gold Coast, in geography, a maritime country of Africa, on 
 the coast tf Guinea, abounding with gold; and extending 180 
 miles in leii^tli from Gold River to Ponni. 
 
 Gold Ri\ er, a river of Africa, in Guinea, the sands of which 
 abound with gold-du^t. 
 
 Gold Riveh, a river of America, on the Isthmus of Darien, 
 abounding also with gold-dust. 
 
 GOLDAPP, a town of Prussian Lithuania, founded in lj64; 
 si.\ty-eight miles E. S. E. of Konigsberg. 
 
 GOLDBERG, a town of Silesia, in the duchy of Lignitz, ele- 
 ven miles W. X. Vt'. of Jaucr. 
 
 GOLDEN CUPS. See Raxuncvlus, 
 
 Golden Eagle. See Falco. 
 
 Golden Fish. See Cyprinus. 
 
 GoLDEK Fleece, in the ancient mythology, was the skin and 
 fleece of the ram upon which Pliryxus and Ilelle are said to have 
 swam over the sea to Colchis; and which being sacriliced to Jupi- 
 ter, was hung upon a tree in the grove of Mars. See Argo- 
 nauts. 
 
 Golden Fleece, Order of the, a military order instituted 
 by Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy, in 1427 {thus named from 
 a representation of the golden tleoce, borne by the knights on Iheir 
 collars, which consisted of flints and steels. 
 
 Golden Island, an island of S. America, in the Gulf of Da- 
 rien, and province of Terra Firiua. Lou. 77. 10. W. Lat. 
 
 ao. N. 
 
 vol. II. no. 98. 
 
 Golden Number, ia cl:ronology, a number shewing what' 
 year of liiu moon's cycle any given > ear i*. See Chuonology. 
 
 GoLDtN- Rule. See ARtrHriET c. 
 
 Golden Thistle. Sve Scolvmus. 
 
 <;()LDFLN"Cil, in ornithology. See Fbjngilla. 
 
 GULDINGEN, a town of Poland, in tiie duchy of Courland, 
 forty -eight miles W. N. W. of .Mitlau. 
 
 GOIID.SIZE, for Burnished Gilding, is prepared of 1 Ub. 
 of tobacco-pipe clay, ^ oz. of red chalk, ^ oz. of black lead, -W 
 (hops of sweet oil, 'and .3 drachms of pure tallow; grind tlie clay, 
 chalk, and black lead, separately, very fine in water, then mix 
 them togilher, add the oil liiid tailow, and giind the niixtuie lo a 
 due consistence. 
 
 Gold-sue, for Japanning, may be made by pulverising giiifl 
 animi and asphallum, of each 1 oz. red lead, litharge of goljf, 
 and unibre, of each l-J- oz. ndxing them wilh lib. of lir.seed-bil. 
 and boiling them; stir Ihem till the whole be incorporated, and 
 appears when cold of the consistence of tar: strain the inixlure 
 ihrough a flannel, ami keep it stopped up in a bottle for use. 
 When used, ilinust be ground with as iiuicii Vermillion as will 
 give it an opa<iue body, anil diluted with oil of turpentine, so that 
 il may l-.e worked freely with the pencil. A luori' simple prepa- 
 ration is made with lib. 'of linseed-uil, and 4 cz. of gum animi; 
 powilir the gum, and mix it gradually with the boiling oil; let it 
 coi/tnuie lo boil till it beiumes of the'coiisistence of tar; strain il 
 through a coarse cloth; keep and use il as liie other. 
 
 GULDSMirii, Oliver, an eminent writer, was born, accord- 
 ing to one account, in 1731, at Pallas, in the county of Longford, 
 in Ireland, and to another at Elphin, in 17-9. His father w_aya 
 clergyman, who gave him a good education, and sent him to Tri- 
 nit) College, Dublin, from whence he removed lo Edinburgh, to 
 study physic. At this place he became securlly for^a fellow-stu- 
 dent", on "which account he was obliged to cscajie to England, but 
 was arrested at Sunderland, and released by two college-friends, 
 whom he met with ijierc. lie then went to llolland, and travelled 
 Ihrough Flanders, and part of Germany, on foot. At Louvain he 
 look the degree of Bachelor of Phy -ic, the highest degree he ever 
 attained. After accompanying an'Eiiglish gentleman lo Geneva, 
 and the south of France, he arrived in England in 175S. Being 
 reduced to a low stale, he became usher in a school at Peckham ; 
 where, however, he did not remain long, but settled in London, 
 and subsisted by writing for periodical publications. He first 
 emerged from obscurity in 176j by the publication of his poem, 
 entituled, the Traveller, or a Prospect of Society. 'I'he year fol- 
 lAwing- appeared his beautiful novel of the Vicar of Wakelield. 
 lie now took chambers in the Temple; but the liberality of his 
 temper, and a propensity to gaming, involved him in fretpient dif- 
 liculties. In 176S he brought out his comedy of the Good-Na- 
 tured Man at Covcnt Garden. In 1770 he [)ublished 'I'he De- 
 serted Village, a poem, which, in point of description and pathos, 
 is above all praise. As a comic poet he appeared to great advan- 
 tage in 1772, by the play of She Stoops lo C'onquer, or the Mis- 
 takes of a Night. He" died by taking an extravagant dose of 
 James's powder in 1774, and was buried in the Temple church- 
 yard. A monument was erected to his memory in M estminster- 
 iibbey, with a beautiful Latin epitaph by Dr. Johnson. Besides 
 the above works, he produced a number of others: as a History 
 of England, in a Series of Letters from a Nobleman to his Son, C 
 vols, i'-'mo. A History of Engh nd, 4 vols. Svo. ; A Roman His- 
 tory, 2 vols. Svo. ; A Grecian'llistory, 2 vols.; A History of the 
 Earth and Animated Nature, 8 vols."Svo. ; Chinee Letters, &c. 
 .\ View of Experimental Philosophy, 3 vols. 8vo.; A Posthum- 
 ous Work, Miscellanies, &;c. 
 
 GOLDS.MITII, or SILVERSMITH, is an artist who makes 
 vessels, utensils, and ornaments, ia gold and silver. As the gold- 
 smith often has to make his own moulds, he ought to be a good 
 designer, and have a taste in sculpture: he also ought to ki^ovr 
 enough of meiallurgy to be able to assay and reline gold and sil- 
 ver, and to mix the 'exact quantity of alloy. The goldsmiths in 
 London employ difl'erent hands under them for tlue various 
 branches of their Irade; such as jewellers, box-uiakeis>, toy-makers, 
 turners, gilders, burnishers, chasers, refiners, founders, kc. Gold- 
 smiths are superior tradesmen: their warei musl be assayed by the 
 w ardens of their own company in London, and marked ; and the 
 gold and silver must be of the standard lineness, under a penalty 
 of 10/. Any false metal may be seized aud forfeited to the king. 
 7 U- The
 
 CON 
 
 ()2n 
 
 c o o 
 
 The cities of Edinburgh, York, Exeter, Bristol, &c. liave also 
 plates appoiuted for assaying gold and silver plate. Plate sent to 
 the assav-ofliec, when discovered to be coarser than the standard, 
 is broken and defaced; and the fees for assaying are limited. 
 
 GOLIUS, James, a celebratetl professor of Arabic and the 
 mathematics at Leyden, descended from a very honourable family, 
 and l)orn at tlie Ilaijue in 1596. He studied at Leyilen, under 
 Etpinius; and, having acquired all the learned lajiguages, travel- 
 led into Asia and Africa, lie was (steenied and honoured by 
 MuleyZidan, emperor of Morocco and the Grand Signior. lie 
 brought home many MSS. to Ltyden ; and in 1624, succeeded 
 Erpinius. As he had been an eye-uilnes-s of the wretched state of 
 Christianity in the Mohammedan countries, none ever solicited 
 for a place of honour and protit with greater eagerness, than he 
 did to procure a new edition of the New Testament, in the origi- 
 nal language, with a translation into the vulgar Greek, by an Ar- 
 chimandrite; and as some of these Christians use the Arabic 
 tongue in divine service, he also dispersed among them an Arabic 
 translation of the Confession of the Protestants, with the Catechism 
 and Liturgy. He was likewise appointed interpreter to the states 
 for the Arabic, Turkish, Persian, and other eastern languages. He 
 jjubhshed, 1. The Life of Tamerlane, in Arabic. S. The History 
 of the Saracens, written by Elmacin. 3. Alferganus's Elements of 
 Astronomy, with a new Version, and Learned Commentaries. 4. 
 An Excellent Arabic Le.xicon. 5. A Persian Dictionary. He 
 died in 1667. 
 
 GOLNOW, or GOLNAW, a trwn of Upper Saxony, in Po- 
 mcrania, twelve miles N. of Stargard. 
 
 GO.MBRON, or GOMliKOON, a city of Persia, in the pro- 
 ■^'ince of Farsistan, called by the natives Bander. Lon. 36. 35. E. 
 Lat. -21. 30. N. 
 
 GOiMERA, orGOMARA, one of the Canary islands, between 
 Kerro and Teneriffe. 
 
 GoMEBA, a town in the above island, witli an excellent harbour. 
 Lon. 17. S. W. Lnt. 28. 6. N. 
 
 GOMORRAH, in ancimt geography, one of the cities of the 
 plain, or vale of Siddini in Judea, destroyed together with Sodom, 
 by hre from heaven, on account of the wickedness of the people. 
 '1 o determine its par'icular situation is now impossible. 
 
 GOMPHOSIS, \yai^>.^iii:jii^ in anatomy, a species of articula- 
 tion, wherein one bone is set in the other, like a nail or peg; as 
 the teeth within the jaws. 
 
 GOMPHIA, in botany, a genus of the decandria monogynia 
 class and order. Calyx iive-leaved; corolla five-petaled; berries 
 two, on a large receptacle; seed solitary. There are three 
 species. 
 
 GOMPHRENA, Globi; Amaranth ; in botany, a genus of 
 (he pentandria digynia class and order. Caly.K coloured, outer 
 three-leaved; leaflets two, converging, keeled; petals rude, \\\- 
 lose; nectary cylindric, live-toothed; style cloven half-way; 
 capsule seed. There are nine species. 
 
 GONA TOCARPUS, in b'/any, a genus of the tetrandria mo- 
 nogynia class and order. Corolla" four-cleft; dru))e eight-corner- 
 ed, one-seeded. It has only one species, viz. G. micranthus. 
 
 GONAVE, an island on the \\^. coast of Hispaniola, thirty 
 miles long, and hve broad. The longitude of its N. E. point is 
 72" it")' 27" W, from Greenwich, and its latitude 18° 48' 35". N. 
 
 GONDAU, the capital of Al)yssinia, sealed on the top of a hill 
 of considerable height. Lon. 37. 33. E. Lat. 12° 34' 30" N. 
 
 (rON DOLA, a Hat boat, very long and narrow, chielly used at 
 Venice to row on the canals. The word is Italian. Du Cange 
 derives it from the vulgar Greek v-i-j-ilao.;, a bark, or little ship. 
 
 (JONDREVILLE, a town of France, in the department of 
 Meiirthe, three miles N. E. of Toul. 
 
 (;ONG, in music, an instrument used in China, is made of a 
 metal composed of silver, lead, and copper, and its shape is a sort 
 of circular concave. The tone is lond, harsh, and clanging. It is 
 never introduced except on occasion of giving a national cast to 
 the music in whicli it is employed, or to awaken surprize, and 
 rouze the .itteulion of the company. 
 
 GONGA, an ancient town of European Turkey, in Romania, 
 ftfty-six miles N. E. of Gallipoli. 
 
 GONIOMETIUCAL, [from yiuvire, an angle, and nir^m, to 
 measure,] belonging to the measurement of angles. 
 
 CoNlOMETRiCAL LiNES, In geoijictry, lines used for determin- 
 
 ii>g the quantity of angles; such as sines, tangents, secants, &c." 
 A paper on this subject is inserled in the Philosophical Transac- 
 tion«, No. 483, § ':'(). 
 
 GONIO.M K'i'RY, t!ie art or method of measuring angles. M. 
 Oe Lagnv ])re5ented several papers on this art to the Koyal Aca- 
 demy, which are inserted in their Memoirs for 1724, 1725, and 
 1729. His method consists in measuring the angles with a pair of 
 compasses, without any scale, eNcejit an undivided senVicircle. 
 But as it appears not to have- been adopte<l by any succeeding ma- 
 the.naticians, and I. as been reckoned of very little value by somi-, 
 we shall refer the inquisitive reader for a farther description of it 
 to the Academy's Memoirs, or Dr. Hutton's .Mathematical Dic- 
 tionary. 
 
 tTONIUM, a genus of vermes, of the order infusoria. Worm 
 very simple, flat, angular, invisible to the naked eye There are 
 five species. The pectoral, ipiadrangular, pellucid, with sixteen 
 spherical molecules, found in pure water ; molecules oval, nearly 
 equal in size, Sft in a quadnuigular inenibrane, like diamonds in a 
 ring, the lower ones a liltle hirger than the rest. 
 
 GONZAGA, or GC)NZACiO, LucRf.riA, one of the most il- 
 hi.4rious ladies of the sixteenth centurv ; much celebrated for her 
 wit, learning, and delicate style. Ilortensio I.ando wrote a pane- 
 jfyric upon her, and dedicated to her his dialogue of moderating 
 the passions. Her letters were collected and published at ^'enice 
 in 1552. She was married, when she was not fourteen years of 
 age, to John Paul Manfrone, who afterwards engaged in a conspi- 
 racy against the duke of Ferrara; was detectetl and imprisoned, 
 but, though condemned, not put to death. She did all in her 
 power to obtain his liberty, but in vain; for he died in prison, 
 having shewn such impatience under his misfortunes, as made it 
 imagined he lost his senses. She never would listen afterwards to 
 any proposals of marriage, though several were made to her. AH 
 that came from her pen was so much esteemed, that a collection 
 was made even of the notes she wrote to her servants. 
 
 GOODENIA, a genus of the pentandria monogynia class and 
 order. The corolla is five-cleft ; anthei-s linearj stigma cnp- 
 shaped, cilia'ed; capsule two-celled, two-valved. Seeds many, 
 imbricated. There are nine s|iecies, shrubs of South M'ales. 
 
 GOOD BEHAVIOUR, in law, an exact carriage and behavi- 
 our to the king and the people. A justice of the peace may, at 
 tlie reiiuest of another, or where he himself sees cause, demand 
 surety for the good behaviour; and to that end the justice may 
 issue out his warrant against any persons whatsoever, under the 
 degree of nobility ; but when it is a nobleman, complaint is to be 
 made in the court ot chancery, or king's bench, where such noble- 
 man may be bound to keep the peace. Infants and femmes con vertes, 
 who ought to find surety by their friends, may be bound over to 
 their good behaviour; also lunatics, who have sometimes lucid in- 
 tervals, and all others who break the peace, or are suspected to i\o 
 it by affrays, assaults, battery, wounding, fighting, quarrelling, 
 threatening, &c. Persons may be likewise bound to good beha- 
 viour for a scandalous way of living, keeping bawdy-houses, gani- 
 ing-liouses, &c. and so may common drunkards, whoremongers, 
 common whores, cheats, libellers, &c. He who demands surety 
 for the peace, on any violence offered, must take an oath before 
 the justice, that he goes in fear of his life, or some bodily harm, 
 &c. and that it is not out of malice, but from a regard to his own 
 safety. 
 
 Good Fortuve, an island in theE. Sea, called also Pora, near 
 the W. coast ot' Sumatra, thirty-six miles long, and six broad. 
 Lon. ys. 30. E. Lat. 15. S. 
 
 Good Friday, a fast of the Christian church, in memory of the 
 sufferings and death of Jesus Christ. It is observed on the Friday 
 in holy or pission week. Among the Saxons it was called Long 
 Friday ; probably on account of the long fastings, &c. then used. 
 
 GOOD HOPE, Cai'E ok, a promontory of Africa, where the 
 Dutch built a good town and fort. It now belongs to the Eng- 
 lish. The Cape bes west of Cape LaguUas, the most southern ex- 
 tremity of Africa. Lon. 18. 23. E. Lat. 34. 29. S. 
 
 GOODWIN SANDS, or GODWIN SANDS, famous sand- 
 banks off the coast of Kent, lying, between the north and south 
 Foreland. 
 
 GOOGINGS, in sea-language, are clumps ot iron bolted on 
 
 the stern-post of a ship, whereon to hang the rudder, and keep it 
 
 steady ; for which purpose there is a bole ill each of them, to re- 
 
 7 ceive
 
 € O R 
 
 (Ml 
 
 G O .S 
 
 teive a convsponcU lU spindlf bollfd oa Uie back ol tin- rudder, 
 wliicli turns tlivrehy a^ upon liiiigcs. 
 
 (iOOsF, in oniitiiology. S;'i- Anas. 
 
 Goost, KMUbR, .1 |)fiiiliar s|)ecli.> of pecse tint freqiK>nt the 
 coasls oi ill-.- OrkiK'v and SlK-U.md (.-.los in the v, inter, dc-tribid by 
 the rev. Mr. lirt-nv:er, in liis account of Walls and i'loUi. 
 
 GOOrilCBEKRV, in botany. See Hides. 
 
 tJOOSKBERRY, AMERICAN. S.C MeLASTOMA, 
 
 Gooseberry, ISakbadoes. See Cactus. 
 
 (JOOSEKOO r. See Chenopodum. 
 
 GOtJSEGUASS. See Galium. 
 
 GOOSE-NECK, in a sliip, a piere of iron fixed on the one 
 end of the tiller, to which the laniard of the whip-slall or liic 
 wheel-rope conies, for steering the ship. 
 
 Goose-\\ INC, in sea-language. AX'hrn a ship sails" before, or 
 vith a <iuarter-\vind on a I're^h gale, to make the more haste, they 
 liunch out a boom and saU on the loe-side; and a sail so fitted, is 
 called a goose-wiiij;. 
 
 GOOl'Y, or GITTI, a strong fort of Ilindostan, 25 miles S, 
 bv E. of A<ioni. l.on. 77. 35. E. Lat. 15. 15. N. 
 
 "GOKCl'M, orGORICHEM, atounof Batavia, in the de- 
 partment of Dell't, and late |)rovince of Holland, 12 miles E. of 
 Dort, and 30 S. of Amslerdani. 
 
 GOUDIAN KKO 1", '\\\ antiquity, a knot made by king Gor- 
 dius, in one of the cords of his yoke, or as some have it, in the 
 leathers of his chariot-harness ; which was so very intricately twist- 
 ed that it was impossible to discover w here it began or ended. 
 The oracle of Apollo having declared that whoever should untie 
 this knot should be master of all Asia, many attempted it, but 
 without success; till at last Alexander the Great, after likewise at- 
 tempting in vain to untie it, cut it asunder with his sword, and 
 tlius either eluded or fulfilled the prediction. 
 
 GORDIUS, in fabulous history, a poor husbandman who had 
 two yokes of oxen, wherewith he ploughed his land and drew his 
 wain. An eagle sitting a long while upon one of his oxen, he 
 consulted the soothsayers ; a virgin bad him sacrifice to Jupiter in 
 the capacity of king. Ue married the virgin, w So bore to him 
 Midas. The Phrygians instructed by the oracle to set the first 
 person they met in a wain upon the throne, met GJordius, and 
 made him king. Midas for this good fortune dedicate<l to Jupiter 
 his father's cart ;. and Gordius hung up the knot of the yoke in 
 the temple. See Gordian K.vot. 
 
 Gordius, Hair-Worm, in natural history, a genus of the ver- 
 mes intcstina class and order. Body round, filiform, equal, 
 smooth. There are five species. 
 
 G. Aqu.vticus, is from four to six inches long, of a pule brown 
 colour, but darker at the extremities : it is found in stagnant wa- 
 ters, and twists itself into various contortions and knots, and it is 
 said that if it is handled without caution, it will inflict a bite that oc- 
 casions the whitlow. 
 
 GORDON, Alexan'DER, M.A. an eminent Scotch antiquary, 
 an excellent draughtsman, and a good Greek scholar, who resided 
 many years in Italy, visited most parts of that country, and tra- 
 velled into France, Germany, &c. He was secretary to the So- 
 ciety for Encouragement of Learning ; and afterwards to the 
 Egyptian Club, composed of gentlemen who had visited Egypt 
 such as lord Sandwicli, Dr. Shaw, Dr. Pococke, &c. He suc- 
 ceeded Dr. Stukely as secretary to the Antii(uarian Society, 
 which office he resigned in 1741 to Mr. Joseph Ames. He went 
 to Carolina with governor Glen, where, besides a grant of land, he 
 had several offices, such as register of the province, &c. and died 
 a juitice of the peace, leaving a handsome estate to his family. 
 He published, 1. Itinerarium Septentrionale, or a Journey through 
 most parts of the Counties of Scotland, in two parts, with sixty-six 
 copperplates, 1720, folio. 2. Supplement to the Itinerarium, 1732, 
 folio. 3. The Lives of Pope Alexander VI. and his son C-esar 
 Borgia. 4. A complete History of the ancient Amphitheatres, 
 J 730, 8vo. afterwards enlarged in a second edition. 5. An 
 Essay towards explaining the hieroglyphical Figures on the Cof- 
 fin of the ancient Mummy belonging to Captain William Lethieul- 
 ler, 1737, folio, with cuts. C). Twenty-five plates of all the Egyp- 
 tian Mummies and other Egyptian Antiquities in England, 1739, 
 folio. 
 
 GORDONL\, Loblolly-Bay ; in botany, a gehus of the mo- 
 nodelpliia poljandria class and order. Natural order, Columniferie. 
 
 Calyx five-leaved ; petals five, united at the base b\ means of the 
 nectary ; filament inserted into tlie nectary ; capsule superior, tivc- 
 cclled ; seeds w inged. There are three species. 
 
 CJOKE, in heraldry, one of the abatements, which, according 
 to Gulhm, (lenoles a coward.. It is, a figure cons.sling of lv.-6 
 arch-lines drawn one from tlie sinister chief, and the other from 
 the sinister base, bolh meeting in an acute aug'e in the middle 
 of the li'Ss-point. See Hehaldkv. 
 
 (jOUEE, a small island of Africa, near Cape de A'erd. Lon. 
 17. 25. W. Lat. 14. 4(1. N. 
 
 GoREE, :.n island of Batavia, in the department of Dell't, near 
 the mouth of the Mcuse. 
 
 CioREE, the capital of the above island, 6 miles S. of Helvoet- 
 sluys. 
 
 GOREY, a borough and post town of Ireland, in We.xford, 
 otherwise called New borough, 18 miles N. of Wexforil. 
 
 GORGE, in architecture, the narrowest part of the Tuscan and 
 Doric capitals, lying between the astragal, above the shaft of the 
 pillar and the annulets. 
 
 Gorge, in fortification, the entrance of the i)latform of any 
 work. See Fortification. 
 
 GORGED, in heraldry, the bearing of a crown, coronet, or 
 the like, about the Jieck of a lion, a swan, &c. The term is also 
 used when the gorge or neck of a peacock, swan, or the like bird, 
 is of a dill'erent colour or metal from the rest. 
 
 GORGET, a kind of breast-plate like a half-moon, with the 
 arms of the prince thereon ; worn by the officers of foot. 
 
 GORGON, [-/o.-z^v], a monster with snaky hairs, of which the 
 sight turned the beholders to stone ; any thing ugly or horrid. 
 The Gorgons, in antiquity and mythology, were three sisters, 
 whose names were Stheno, Buryale, and Nledusa; the latter of 
 whom was mortal, but the two former were subject to neither age 
 nor death. They are described with wings on their shoulders, 
 with serpents round their heads, their hands were of brass, and 
 the.r teeth of a prodigious size, so that they were objects of terror 
 to mankind. 
 
 GORGONIA, in natural history, a genus of the vennes zoo- 
 phyta class and order. Animal growing in the form of a plant ; 
 stem coriaceous, corky, woody, horny, or bonv, composed 
 of glassy fibres, or like stone, striate, tapering, dilated at the base, 
 covered with a vascular or cellular fiesh or bark, and beconiiu'T 
 spongy and friable when dry ; mouths or tloret.-- covering the surface 
 of the stem and polype-bearing. I'here are about forty species. 
 
 GORIjA.M, a kingdom of Africa lying between Lon' 24° and 29° 
 E. and between Lat. 10° and 15^ N. 
 
 GORITIA, GORITZ, or GORZ, a county of Austria. 
 
 Goritia, or GoRiTz, a strong tQwn in the above county, with 
 a castle. It is 20 miles N. E. ol Aquilcia. 
 
 CiORLIPZ, a strong town in Upper Lusatia, 50 miles W. of 
 Dresden. 
 
 GORTA, or St. MARIA LA GORTA, an island in the Paci- 
 fic Ocean. Lon. 135. 0. W. Lat. 26. 35. N. 
 
 GOKTERIA, in botany, a genus of the polygamia frustranea 
 order, and syngencsia class of plants ; natui-al order, Composite, 
 Character: calyx imbricate, with spiny scales ; corolla of the ray 
 ligulate ; down woolly; receptacle naked. 'J here are thirteeu 
 species, mostly shrubby plants from the Ca|)e of (iood Hope. 
 
 GOSHEN, in ancient geography, a district of Egypt, which 
 Joseph procured for his father and brethren. It was the' most fruit- 
 ful part of the country ; and its name seems to be derived from 
 the Hebrew, Gesham ; which signifies "rain;" Calmet thinks 
 that Goshen, which Joshua (x. 41, xi. 16, xv. 51,) makes part of 
 the tribe of Judah, is the same land of Goshen, which was given to 
 Jacob and his sons by Pharaoh. Gen. xlvi. 26. It is certain that 
 this country lay between Palestine and the city of Tanais, and that 
 the allotment of the Hebrews reached southward as far as the Nile. 
 Josh. xiii. 3. 
 
 Goshen, a townshi[t of Massachusetts in Hampshire county, 14 
 miles N . of Northampton. 
 
 GOSPEL, the history of the life, actions, death, resurrection, 
 ascension, and doctrine, of Jesus Christ. The word is Saxon, and of 
 the same import with the Latin term ivungtlii'in, or the Greek 
 rweyysMov, which signifies glad tidings, or good nevi-s; the history 
 of our blessed Saviour being the best news ever published to man- 
 kind. This history is contained in the writings of St. Mutthewv 
 
 St.
 
 GOT 
 
 6^28 
 
 GOV 
 
 St. Matli, St. Luke, and St. John; who from thence arc called 
 evaiigtiists. The Christian church never acknowledgeil any 
 nioTc tliaii thee tour gospels as carionical ; notwithstar.tliiig which, 
 several apocrvphal gospels are haudeJ down to us, and others are 
 entirely lo^t. 
 
 GOjPOR V, a town of Hampshire, 79 miles from London. 
 
 COSSA.MER, the name of a fine filmy substance, like cob- 
 web^, which iiseen to float in the air,, in clear days in autumn, and 
 is more nbocrvable in stubble-fields, and upon turze and otiier low 
 bushes. This is probably formed by the flying spider, which, in 
 traversing the air for food, shoots out these threads from its arms 
 wliich are borne down by the dew, &c. 
 
 GO.S:SEI"nS, a town of Asia iu Thibet, on the E. coast of the 
 Di-wah. 
 
 GDSbLAR, a town of lower Saxony. Lon. 5. 37. E. Lat. 
 51.55. N. 
 
 GOSSYPIU.Nf, Cotton ; agenns of the polyandria order, and 
 monadelpliia class of plants; natural order, Columniferie. Calyx 
 double, the exterior one trifid ; capiule quadrilocular ; seeds wrapt 
 in cotton-wool. It has six species natives of warm climates. Cot- 
 ton-plants are cultivated in L're.it quantities in fields for the sake of 
 the coltoM : but the herbaceum species is most generally cultivated. 
 The pods arc sometimes as large as middling-sized apples, closely 
 filled with the cottoji surrounding the seed. When these plants are 
 raised in this country, they must be continually kept in a warm 
 stove, where they will produce seeds and cotton. They are pro- 
 paaated bv seeds. The American Islands produce cotton-shrubs 
 of various size^, which rise and grow up without any culture; es- 
 pecially in low and marshy grounds. Their produce is of a pale 
 red; some paler than others; but so short that it cannot be spun. 
 None of this is brought to Europe, tliough it might be usefully 
 employed in making hats. The cotlon-slirubs, that supply our 
 manufactures, require a dry and stony soil, and thrive best in 
 grounds thatliave been tilled. 
 
 GOTIIA, a city of Germany, in I'pper Saxony. It is eighteen 
 miles W. of Erforl. Lat. 50' 50' 17" N. Lon. Irom Greenwich 
 10' 41' 4()" E. 
 
 GOTIIARD, St one of the highest mountains of Switzerland. 
 . From the top, where there i* an hospital for travellers, and a mo- 
 nastery for monks, is one of the most pleasing prospects in the 
 world. It is eight miles from Altorf, and is situated in the canton 
 ofUri, on the confines of the Vallais, the GrisoHS, and Italy. Its 
 ajicient name, according to Ptolemy and Strabo, was Adula. 
 
 GOTHIC Stile, in architcctm-e. See Akchitkcture. 
 
 GOTHLAND, the mo^t southern province of Sweden. Itcon- 
 tains 4S towns, and is divided into E. S. and W. Gothland. 
 
 GoruLAND, East, or Ostkocothia, a province of Sweden, 
 bounded on the E. by the Baltic, S. by Smaland, W. by the Wet- 
 ter lake, which divides it from W. Gothland, and on the N. by 
 Nericia and Sundermanland. The chief ton ns are Nordkioping, 
 Soderkioping, Linkioping, and Wadstena. 
 
 GoTHi-AN'D, SouTEi. a country of Sweden, which is divided into 
 tliree provin.ces, viz. Sclionen, Halland, and Blekingen. 
 
 Gothland, West, or Westrogothia, a province of Sweden, 
 bounded on the E. by Nericia, Wetter Lake, and Smaland ; S. 
 by Smaland and Halland; W. by the Scaggerac ; and N. by 
 Warmeland. (Jothland is fertile in corn and fruits, and has ex- 
 rcllcnt pastures. The rivers, lakes, and sea-coast, abound with fish. 
 Iron, alum, Arc. aif; manufactured by the natives. 
 
 Gothland, or Gottland, an island of Sweden, in the Baltic, 
 70 miles long, and no wjiere above L'5 broad. Wisbyis the capi- 
 tal. Lon. from IS. 6. to 19- t3. E. Lat. from 56. 54. to57. 5ti.N. 
 •GO TilS, a warlike nation, fimmus in the Roman l)islory, who 
 came originally out of Scandinavia, (lie name given by the ancients 
 to Sweden, Norway, Lapland, and h'inmark. According to the 
 most probable accounts, they were the first inhabitants of those 
 countries; and from thence sent colonies into the inlands of the 
 Baltic, tin- Cimbrian Cher^onensus, and the adjacent places. The 
 time of their first settling in Scandiiiavia, and of their first peopling 
 the abovemcntionetl islands and Chersonesus, are e<iually uncer- 
 tjiin ; though the Gothic annals state the latter to have happened 
 in llie lime of Serug the great grandfather of Abraham. This first 
 migration of the fioths is saiil to have been conducted by their 
 king Eric ; in which all the ancient Gothic chronicles, as well as 
 the Danish and Swedish ones, agree. Their second migration is 
 
 with people, Berig, then king of the Goths, went out with a fleet 
 in quest ot new settlements. He landed in the country of tin; 
 Ulmerugians, now Ponierania, drove out the ancient inhabitants, 
 and divided their lands among his followers. 'I he troths, w hosel- 
 tled in Pomerania and the adjacent parts of Germany, being greatly 
 increased, they undertook a third migration in great numbers under 
 Filimer the Great, their litth prince alter leaving Scandinavia; and 
 taking their route eastward, entered Scythia, advanced to th-,- 
 Cinnnerian Bosphorus, and driving out the Cimmerians, settled 
 uearthe Palus M.Totis. Thence in process ol'time, being greatly 
 increased in Scythia, they resolved to seek new ^settlements; and 
 accordingly taking their route eastward, they traversed several 
 countries, and at length r< turned into Germany. Their leader in 
 this expedition was the celebrated Woden. The Romans distiii- 
 gniihed the Goths into two classes ; the Ostrogoths and Visigoths. 
 These names they received before they left Scandinavia, the Visi- 
 goths being softened Ijy the Latins from Westerogoths, orthosc 
 who inhabit tl^e western part of Scandinavia, as the Ostrogoths were 
 those who inhabited the eastern part of that country. After the 
 destruction of the Roman empire by the lieruli, the Ostrogoths, 
 under Theodoric, became masters of the greatest part of Italy, 
 having overcome and put to death Odoaccr king of the Heruli n> 
 4<J4. Tiiey retained their domijiion in this country till A. D. 553 ; 
 when they were finally con<|uered by Narses, Justinian's general. 
 The Visigoths settled in Spain in the time uf Honorius, wherethev 
 founded a kingdom which continued till the country was subdued 
 by the Saracens. The Goths were famous for their hospitality and 
 kindness to strangers, even before they embraced Christianity. 
 Nay, it is said, that from tlieir being eminently good, they were 
 called Goths, by the neighbouring nations ; that name, according, 
 to Grotius and most other writers, being derived from the German 
 word gotcii, which signilies good. They encouraged, sa\s Dio, 
 the stud \ of philosophy al.'Ove all other barbarous or foreign nations, 
 and often chose kings trom among their philosophers. Polygamy 
 was not only allowed but countenanced among them : everyone 
 l)eing valuetl oV respected according to the number of liis wives. 
 
 GbnENUURG, or GOTHENBORG, a rich and strong 
 town of Sweden, in W.Gothland, with a good harbour, at the 
 mouth of the Gothclba. Lon. 1 1. 50. E. Lat. 57. 4,'. N. 
 
 GO 1 riKGEN, a considerable town of Lower Saxony in the 
 duchy of Brimswick. Lon. 10. 5. E. Lat. 51.32. N. 
 
 Gottingkx, a town of Sweden, "8 miles S. W. of Stock- 
 holm. The latitude of the observatory is 51° 31' 54" N. and its 
 longitude Irom Greenwicli 9' 54' 15' E. 
 
 GO'l'TORP, a t(>»u of Denmark, in the duchy of Sleswic, 
 capital of IJolslein Gottorp. 
 
 GOL'ANIA, in botany, a genus of the monoecia order, and 
 polyganfia class of |)lants. Hermaphrodite, quinquefid ; caly.x no 
 corolla; style trifid; the fruit, inferior to the receptacle of the 
 fiower, divisible into three seeils. The male is like the her- 
 maphrodite, but wanting stigma and germen. 
 
 t;OLT).-V, orTLRGOW, a consiilerable town of Batavia in 
 the department of Dellt, and l.ite province of S. IlollantI, 9niiles 
 N. E. of Rotterdam. 
 
 GOl'DUrRSr, a town of Kent, 12 miles S. W. of Maidstone, 
 and 44 S. E. of London. 
 
 GO^' EKN M ENT, in general, is the polity of a state, or an or- 
 derly power constituted for tlie public good. Civil government 
 was instituted for the preservation and advancement of men's civil, 
 interests, and for the belter security of their lives, liberties, and 
 properties. The u-e and necessity of government is such, that 
 theiv never was an age or country without some sort of civil atitho- 
 ritv : but as men are seklom unanimous in the means of attaining 
 their ends, so their difference in opinion in relation to government, 
 h.as produced a variely of forms of it. To einmierale them, would 
 be to recaijituhite the history of the whole earth. But they may, 
 in general, be reduced to one of these heads: either the civil au- 
 thority is delegated to one or more, or else it is still reserved to the 
 whole" body otUhe people ; whence arises the known distinction of 
 government into monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy. See 
 .Vristocracv, Democracy, Eeodal System, &c. Govern- 
 ments are commonlY divided into two classes, arbitrary and free 
 governments; but there are many different sorts of each. Thus 
 the governmeiils of France and Spain, are generally called arbi- 
 trary ; though they ditiler as much from the govermnenls of Turkey . 
 
 swid to have happened many ages after; when, being overstocked land otiier eastern empires, where absolute, despotism prevails, as 
 
 they
 
 GRA 
 
 629 
 
 GRA 
 
 they do from the goveriiniriit of England, und other Eiiropeim 
 nations, where -liberty is said to tiourish in its fullest jjerfec 
 lion. 
 
 GovEHNMENT is also Used for a post or ofTire, whicli gives a 
 person the power or right to role over a city, or a province, either 
 supremely or by deputation. 
 
 GovEKNMKNT is likewise used for the city, country, orplare, 
 to which the power of governing is extended, 
 
 GOVERNOLO, a town of the late Cisalpine republic, in the de- 
 partment of Miiicio, and late duchy of Mantua, 12 miles S. E. of 
 Mantua. 
 
 GOUGE, is a round hollow chisel, serving to cut holes, chan- 
 nels, grooves, &c. in wood, stone, &:c. 
 GOURD, in botany. See Cvcurbita. 
 Gourd, Bitter. See Cucl'mis. 
 Gourd, Ethiopian Sour. See Adansonia. 
 GOURDON, a town of France, in the department of Lot, 1 7 
 miles N. of Cahors. 
 
 GOURNAY, a town of France, in the department of Lower 
 Seine, and late duchy of Normandv. It is b'2 miles N. W. of 
 Paris. 
 
 GOUT. See Medicine. In the new system of medicine, the 
 gout is considered as a disease not arising from plethora, bnt from 
 the very opposite cause, viz debility ; and therefore to be cured 
 by means the reverse of those formerly too generally prescribed. 
 GOUTWORT. See yEcoPODiuM. 
 
 GOWER, John, one of the most ancient English poets, was 
 contemporary with Chaucer, and his intimate friend. He studied 
 the law, and was some time a member of the society ot Lincoln's- 
 inn. Some have asserted that he was a judge. In the first year 
 of Henry IV. he became blind, which he laments in one ot his 
 Latin poems. He died in 1402; and was buried in St. Marv 
 Overie, which church he had rebuilt chietly at his own expence, 
 so that he must have lived in afiluent circumstances. His tomb 
 was magnificirnt, and curiously ornamented. It still remains, but 
 has been repaired in laier times. From the collar of SS round the 
 neck of his efiigies, which lies upon the tomb, it is supposed that 
 he liad been knighted. With regard to his poetical talents, it is 
 sufficient to say, that he was admired al the time %vhen he wrote. 
 He wrote, 1. Speculum Meditantis, in French, in ten books. 
 There are two copies of this in the Bodleian library. 2. Vox Cla- 
 mantis, in Latin verse, in seven books. Preserved also in the 
 Bodleian library, and in that of All-souls. It is a chronicle of the 
 iosurrection of the commons in the reign of Richard II. 3. Con- 
 fessio Amantis ; printed at Westminster by Caxton in 1493, London 
 1532, 1545. It is a sort of poetical system of morality, inter- 
 spersed with a variety of moral tales. 4. De Rege Henrico IV. ; 
 printed in Chaucer's works. There are likewise several historical 
 tracts, in MS. written by our author, which are to be found in dif- 
 ferent libraries; also some short poems printed in Chaucer's 
 Works. 
 
 Gower's Island, an isle in the S. Pacific ocean, which has no 
 anchorage near it. Lon. 158. 56. E. Lat. 7. 55. S. 
 
 GOWRAN, a borough and post town of Ireland, in Kilkenny, 
 52 miles from Dublin. 
 
 GOZA, or GOZZO, an island of the Mediterranean, four miles 
 and a half from Malta, and 24 in circumference. It is supposed 
 to be the i'.land of Calypso, celebrated by Homer. 
 
 GOZZO Dl CANDIA, an island of the Mediterranean near 
 Candia. 
 
 GRACE, among divines, is taken, I. For the free love and 
 favour of God, which is the sprmg and source of all tl'.e benerits 
 we receive fi-om him. 2. For the work of the Spirit renewing the 
 soul after the image of God ; and continually guiding and 
 slrengtliening llie believer to obey his will, and to resist and over- 
 come sin. 
 
 Grace, or Gracefulness, in the human character, is an 
 agreeable attribute, inseparable from motion us opposed to rest, 
 and i,s comprehending speech, looks, gesture, and loco-motion. 
 As some motions are homely, the opposite to graceful, it may be 
 inquired. With what motions is this attribute connected ? No man 
 appears griiteful in a mask ; and tlieiefore, laying aside the ex- 
 pressions of the countenance, the other motions may be genteel, 
 may be elegant, but of themselves never are graceful. A motion 
 adjusted in tlie most perfect maimer to answer its cad is elegant ; 
 
 VOL. II."-NO. 98. 
 
 but still somewhat more is required to complete our idea of grace 
 or gracefulness. What this more may be, is the nice point. One 
 thing is clear from what is said, that it must arise frcnn the expres- 
 sions of the countenance : and from what expressions so naturally 
 as from those which indicate mental (pialities, such as sweetness, 
 benevolence, elevation, dignity ? Thi^ promises to be a fair ana- 
 lysis ; because of all objects mental qualities alf'ect us the most ; 
 and the impression made by a graceful appearance, upon every 
 spectator of taste, is too deep for any cause purelv corporeal. 1 he 
 next step is, to examine what are the menial qualities, that, in 
 conjunction with elegance of motion, produce a graceful appear- 
 ance. Sweetness, clieirfulness, alfability, are not separately suffi- 
 cient, nor even in conjunction. Dignity alone, with elegant mo- 
 tion, produce a graceful appearance ; but still more graceful with 
 the aid of other qualities, those especially that are the most exalt- 
 ed. But this is not all. The most exalted virtues may be the lot 
 of a person w hose countenance has little expression ; but such a 
 person cannot be graceful. To produce this appearance, must b« 
 added, an expressive countenance, displaying to every spectator 
 of taste, with life and energy, every thing that passes in the mind. 
 Collecting these circumstances together, grace may be defined, 
 " that agreeable appearance, which arises from elegance of mo- 
 tion, and from a countenance expressive of dignity." Expression! 
 of other mental qualities are not essential to that appearance, but 
 they heighten it greatly. See Declamation and Oratory. 
 But in vain will a person attempt to be graceful who Is deficient 
 in amiable qualities. A roan, it is true, may form an idea of qua- 
 lities he is destitute of; and, by means of that idea, may endea- 
 vour to express these qualities by looks and gestures ; but 
 such studied expression will be too faint and obscure to be 
 graceful. 
 
 Grace, Act of, the appellation given to the act of parliament, 
 169(5, c. 32, which allows [irisoners for civil debts to be set at 
 liberty, upon making oath that they have not wherewithal to sup- 
 port themselves in prison, unless they are alimented by the credi- 
 tors on whose diligence they were imprisoned, within ten days af- 
 ter intimation made for that purpose. 
 
 Grace, Days of, three days immediately following the term 
 of payment of a bill, within which the creditor must protest it, if 
 payment is not obtained, in order to entitle him to recourse against 
 the drawer. 
 
 The Graces, Grati^e, or Charites, in the heathen theo- 
 logy, were fabulous deities, three in number, who attended on 
 Venus. Their names are, Aglaia, Thalia, and Euphrosyne ; i. e. 
 shining, flourishing, and gay ; or, according to some authors, Pa- 
 sithea, Euphrosyne, and iEgiale. They were said by some to be 
 the daughters of Jupiter, by Eurynoine the daughter of Oceaniis; 
 and by others, of Bacchus and ^'enu5. Some will have the Graces 
 to have been four ; and make them the same wUli the Horse, 
 Hours, or rather with the four seasons of the year. 
 
 GRACILIS, a muscle of the leg, so called from its slender 
 shape. See Anatomy. 
 
 GRACULA, the Grakle ; in oTnithology, a genus of the or-. 
 der pica?. Bill convex, thick, sharp-edged, somewhat naked at 
 the base; nostrils small, near the base of the bill ; tongue entire, 
 lather sharp at the end ; claws hooked and sharp. There are 
 thirteen species, none of them found in Europe. G. kelegiosa, 
 or the minor grakle, is of the size of a blackbird, is found in vari- 
 ous districts of the East Indies, and almost in every island beyond 
 the Ganges. It is rendered familiar w ith the greatest ease, and 
 taught to speak with greater facility than even the parrot, and also 
 pronounces its words with more distinctness. 
 
 GRADATION, in logic, a form of reasoning, otherwise called 
 Sorites. See Logic and Sorites. 
 
 Gradation, in painting, a gradual and insensible change of 
 colour, by the diminution of the tcints and shades. 
 
 Gradation, in rhetoric, the same with Climax. See Climax, 
 GK AD ISC A, GRADISG, or GRADISKA, a town of Scla, 
 vouia, on tlie borders of Croatia, 20 miles S. W. of Posega. 
 
 Gradisca, or Gradiska, a town of Germany, in Austria, 5 
 miles S. of Goiitz. 
 
 GRADO, a podestaria or district of Maritime Austria, io th« 
 Dogado of Venice, including several lakes and islands. 
 
 GRADUATE, a person who hai takeu a degree in the univer- 
 sity. See Degree. 
 
 7 X GBADUATION,
 
 GR A 
 
 630 
 
 G R A 
 
 GRADUATION, ill malhcmatics, the act of graduating or di- 
 viding anv tiling into degrees or equal parts. 
 
 GRAFF, or GRAF'!', [greft'e, Fr.] a small branch inserted 
 into the stock of another tree, and nourished by its sap, but bear- 
 ing its own fruit ; a voung cvon. 
 
 GRAFTING, or" ENGRAFTING, in gardening, the taking 
 of a shoot from one tree, and inserting it into another, so that they 
 Kiay closely unite, and form one trunk. Grafting has been prac- 
 ticed from the most remote antiquity ; but its origin and invention 
 are diHerently related by Naturalists. The great aim of this use- 
 ful art is, to' propagate any curious sorts of fruit-trees, to insure 
 the growth of similar kinds, which cannot be effected by any other 
 method : for, as all the good species of fruit have been acciden- 
 tally obtained from seeds, many of these, when sown, will degene- 
 rate, and produce bad fruit. But, when shoots are taken from 
 such trees as bear good fruit, they will never change their kind, 
 ■ whatever be their stock, or the tree on which they are grafted. 
 Mr. Bradley observes, that the stock grafted on, is only to be 
 considered as' a fiuid of vegetable matter, which is to be filtered 
 through the cyon, digested, and brought to maturity, as the time 
 of growth in tiie vessels of the cyon directs. A cyon, therefore, 
 of one kind, grafted on a tree of another, may be rather said to 
 take root in the tree it is grafted, than to unite with it: for it is 
 obvious that the cyon preserves its natural purity, though it be fed 
 and nourished by a mere crab. The grafts or cyons with which 
 this operation is effected, should be of the last summer's growth, 
 from the outside branches; lirm and well-ripened; and selected 
 from healthy trees. The graft is always the middle part of each 
 shoot, cut to live or six inches in length, or so as to have four or 
 : five good eyes, or buds, but should be preserved at fuTl lencth, 
 till grafting time. The pro|)er tools and .other materials used in 
 grafting, are: I. A strong knife for cutting off the heads of the 
 stocks, previous to the insertion of the graft ; also a small hand- 
 saw, for occasional use, in cutting off the heads of large stocks ; 
 2. A common grafting knife, or strong sharp penknife, for cutting 
 and sivaping the grafts ready for insertion ; also to slope and form 
 the stocks for the reception of the cyons ;. 3. A flat grafting-chi- 
 sel, and small mallet for clefting large stocks, in cleft-grafting; 4. 
 A quantity of new bass-strings for bandages, for securing the grafts, 
 and promoting their speedy union with the stock ; and 3. A quan- 
 titv of clay, for applying closely round the grafts after their inser- 
 - lion and binding, to defend the parts from the influence of the sun, 
 winds, and wet w eather, or from being affected by cold. For this 
 jiurpose a kind of stiff loamy mortar may be prepared of strong 
 fat loam ; or any other tough clay may be substituted ; to which 
 may be added a fourth part of fresh horse-dung, free from litter, 
 and a small portion of cut hay, with a little water, well mixed : 
 the whole should be properly beaten w ith a stick, and thtis incor- 
 porated. This operation sl'iould be repeated, according to the 
 nature of the clay, and performed several times during the tirst 
 day ; the composition being still moistened with water for six or 
 seven days successively, at the end of which time it will be lit for 
 use. There are various other modes of engrafting, which are 
 termed whip-grafting, or tongue-graffing, cleft-grafting, crown- 
 grafting, root-grafting, cheek-grafting, side-grafting ; and, lastly, 
 grafting by approach, or inarching. The following are most com- 
 , nionly and successfully practised: 
 
 1. 'WHrp-GRAFTiNG, Or ToKGUE-GRAFTiKC, IS generally per- 
 formed ill nurseries, upon small stocks, from a <|uarter of an inch 
 to half, or a whole inch in diameter. The stock, and cyons or 
 grafts, should in every instance be of the same size or ap- 
 proach as nearly to the same size as possible. They are 
 both to be sloped off' a full inch, or more, and then tied closely 
 together. This method may be much improved, by performing 
 what gardeners call tongueing, or tipping; that is, by making an 
 incision in the bare part of the stock, downwards, and a similar slit 
 in the cyon, upwards ; after which lliey are to be carelullyjoined 
 togeth-r, so that the rinds of both may meet in every part, when 
 a ligament or bandage of bass is to be tied round the cyon, to pre- 
 
 • vent it from being displaced ; and the whole is to be covered 
 over, or coated, with the clay above described. 
 
 2. Clept-grafting, or Slit-crafting, as gardeners dif- 
 ferently 'erin it, is p.-rformed upon stocks from one to two inches 
 in diameter. The head of the slock being carefully tut off", in a 
 sloping direction, a pirpenditidar doff, or slit, la to be made 
 
 about two inches dt-ep, with a knife or chisel, towards the back of 
 the slope, into which a wedge is tro be driven, in order to keep it 
 open for the adiniscion of the cyon : the latter must now be cut in 
 a perpendicular direction, and in the form ol a wedge, so as to fit 
 the incision in the stock. As soon as it is prepared, it should be 
 placed in the cleft, in such a manner that the inner bark of both 
 the stock and cyon may meet exactly together. It is then to be 
 tied with a ligature of bass, and clayed over, as is practised i-n 
 whip-grafting, three or four eyes being left on the cyon uncovered. 
 Tile proper season for this mode of grafting is the same as for the 
 preceding, vi/~ the months of February and March: towards the 
 latter end of May, or the beginning of June, thejuiiction of the 
 graft and stock will be completed, and the latter begin to shoot ; 
 when the clay may be taken off, and, in the course of a fortnight 
 or three weeks, the bandages may be removed. 
 
 3. Approach-grafting, or Inarching, is performed in April 
 or May, when the stock we w onid graft, and the tree we would pro- 
 pagate, grow so near together, as to be conveniently in contact, and 
 the nearer the graft and the stock are of a size the better. This mode 
 of propagation is esteemedthcsurest of all; and in truth, some things 
 cannot be so well propagated any other way. It is a method that is, 
 or can be, seldom used f(jr common fruit-trees; butif any one wishes 
 to try the experiment, the stock or stocks must be planted at least a 
 year before, first miikirrg the soil good, as it may need it, being 
 so ne;'r another tree, for it of coui^e must be close. Plants in 
 pots or tubs, being easily brought together, are fie<|uently propa- 
 gated this way ; so that inarching is used nnu h in grcenhouies 
 and hot-houses for various things, as oranges, lemons, pomegra- 
 nates, jasmines, anil vines sometimes; orangi's and lemons thus 
 treated in May will be united l)y August. The method of inarching 
 is this, bend the best-situated young branch of ihe tree or shrub to 
 be propagated, to the stock to be grafted, and having determined 
 on the part at which most conveniently to tix the shoot, cut Ihe 
 bark of that part of the shoot off, witJi nearly half the wood (not 
 to touch the pith) to the length of about three inches for a strong 
 branch, or less for a weaker. Then cut exactly so much of the 
 bark and branch of the slock off', as will receive the cut part of 
 the branch or shoot, so as to bring bark and bark in contact in 
 every part ; and if the contrivance of lipping is used, it w ill secure 
 them better together. Bind and clay, and if in open ground, 
 fix a stake to tie the work so that the wind may have no power 
 over it ; a tie also to a neat stick may be proper for those inarch* 
 ed in pots, &c. By this kind of grafting may be raised almost 
 any kind of tree or shrub, which is often done by way of curiosity, 
 to ingraft a fruit-bearing branch of a fruit-tree upon any common 
 stock of the same genus, whereby a new tree bearing fruit is rais- 
 ed in a few months. This is sometimes practised upon orange 
 and lemon-trees. Sec. by grafting bearing branches of a fruit-tree 
 upon any common stocks raised from the kernels of any of the 
 same kind of fruit, or into branches of each other, so as to have 
 oranges, lemons, and citrons, all on the same tree. 
 
 GRAFTON, Richard, an English historian, born at Lon- 
 don, in the reign of Henry VIII. He published, 1. An Abridge- 
 ment of the Chronicles of England ; and, _. A Chronicle and 
 large History of the Aff'ayres of England and Kings of the same, 
 detUiced ffoni the Creation of the Workl. He died in the reign 
 of Queen Elizabeth. 
 
 Grafton, an extensive county of New Hampshire, bounded 
 on the E. by Maine District, S. by Strafford, llilUborough, and 
 Cheshire counties; \\'. by Vermont, and N. by Canada. 
 
 Grafton, a township of the above county, 13 miles.S. E. of 
 Dartmouth, and 19 S. \Y. of Plymouth. 
 
 Graftok, or Grafton Isi-and, one of the Basliee islands in 
 the East Indian Sea. Lon. 120. 53. E. Lat. 21. 4. N. 
 
 GKAllA.M, George, clock and watch-maker, the most inge- 
 nious and accurate artist in his time, was born in 1675. After liis 
 apjirenticesliip, iVlr. Tompson received him into his family, purely 
 <in -account of his merit ; anrl treated him with a kind of parental 
 affection as long as lie lived. Besides his Universally acknow- 
 ledged skill in his profession, he was a complete mechanic and 
 astronomer: the great mural arch in the observatory at Green-, 
 wich was ma<le by Dr. Halley, under his inimediate inspection, 
 and divided by his own hand; and from this incomparable origi- 
 n:4, the best foreign instruments of Ihe kind are copies made by 
 English aitists. Tlie sector, by which Dr, Bradley lu-sl discover- 
 ed
 
 GRA 
 
 63} 
 
 GRA 
 
 erf tw(> ii-'W motiDiis in liu' lixed stars, was of his invention and fa- 
 biic ; ami when tlic l-'rcnch Htademician-i were sent to tlie north 
 to ascertain the tigtiro of the earth, Mr. Graham was thought tlie 
 fittest person in ICmope to supply them with instruments : those 
 who went to the south were not so well furnisheil. He was for 
 many years a member of the Hoyal Society, to w liich he commu- 
 nicated several ingenious and important discoveries ; and regarded 
 the advancement of science more than the accumulation of wealth. 
 He died in ITjl. 
 
 GKAIN, all sorts of corn, as wheat, barley, oats, rye, &c. 
 
 (fKAiM is also the name of a small weii^ht, the twentieth part of 
 a scruple in apothecaries weight, and the l.'.enty-fourth of u penny- 
 weight troy. See the article Weight. A gr.iin-weli>ht ofgold- 
 Inillion is worth two-pence, aati that of s' ver but half a fartlmig. 
 
 Grain also denotes the component particle of stones and metals, 
 the veins of wood, &c. Hence cross-grained, or against the grain, 
 is contrary to the fibres of wood, &c. 
 
 GRAIN ING-I50ARD, among curriers, an instrument called 
 also a pummel, used to give a grain to their leather. 
 
 GRAITNEY GREEN, a "village of Scotland in Dumfries- 
 shire, long famous for the clandestine marriages of young persons 
 of fortune froin Eugland; performed according to the rites of tlie 
 churcli of England, by a bl,;(ksmith, who is said to gain near 1,0001. 
 a-vear by this encroachment on the clerical office. 
 
 GRALL;E, in ornithology, an order of birds analogous to tlie 
 bruta in tlie class of mammalia, in the Linni'an system. See 
 Zoology and Ornitiiologv. 
 
 GRAMA r, a town of Fiance, in the department of Lot ; H 
 miles S. \V. of St. Cere and SL'l N. N. E. of Cahors. 
 
 GRAMAYE, John Baptist, a historian ami poet, born at 
 Antwerp, and provost of Arnheim. He travelled over Germany 
 and Italy, but in going to Spain, was carried off by African cor- 
 sairs to Algiers. He retiu'ned to the Netherlands, and died at 
 Lubeck. He published, 1. Africaj illustrata;, libri X. in 1622; 
 4to. 2. Diarium Algiriense: 3. Peregriuatio Beli;ica: a curious 
 work: 4. Autiquitates Flandrix; fol. and, 5. Historia Namur- 
 tensis. 
 
 GRAXHNA, Grasses; one of the seven tribes or natural 
 
 families into which all vegetables are dislriliuled by l^inna'us in 
 his Fiiilosophia Bolanica. They are deliiied to be plants « hiili 
 have very simple leaves, a jointed stem, a husky caly.t termed 
 gluma, and a single seed. 'J'liis description includes the several 
 sorts of corn as well as grasses. In Tourneforl they constitute a 
 part of the Ijth class, termed apetali ; and in hinna.'Us's sexual 
 method, they are mostly contained in the second order of the third 
 class, triaiidria digynia. This numerous and natural family of ike 
 grasses has engaged the attention and researches of several emi- 
 nent botanists; particularly Ray, Monti, Micheli, and Linn;cus. 
 M. Monti, in his C.'atalo,y,ui Slirpium Agri ljononiensis,Grainiiia ao 
 hujusModi Aftiniaconiplectens, printed at Bononia in 1719, divide* 
 the grasses from the disix)>ttion of tlieir flowers, as Theuplirastus 
 andliay had done before him, into three si;ctions or orders — These 
 are, f. Gr.isses having (lowers collected in a spike. 3. (irasscs 
 having their flowers collected in a panicle or loose spike. 3. Plants 
 that in their habit and external a[>|)e;uance are allied to the grasses. 
 This class would have been natural if tlie author hud not improper- 
 ly introduced sweet-rush, juncus, and arrow-headed glass, into the 
 third section. Monti enumerates alxiut 306 species of the grasses, 
 which lie reduces under Tour.'.cfort's genera ; to the^e he added 
 three new genera. Schmichzer, in his Aristographia, published 
 likewise in 1719, divides the grasses, as Monti, from tlie disposition 
 of their liowers, into the five following sections: 1. Gras-es with- 
 flowers in a spike, as phalaris, anthoxantluim, and frnmentuin. 
 2. Irregular grasses, as schocnanthus and cornucopi^e. 3. Grasses 
 with (lowers growing in a simple panicle or loose spike, as reed and 
 millet. 4. Grasses with liowers growing in a compound panicle, 
 or dilTused spike, as oats and poa. 5. Plants by their habit nearly 
 allied to the grasses, as cypress-grass, scirpus, linagrostis, rush, and 
 sceuchzeria. He has enumerated about 400 species, which he de- 
 scribes with amazing exactness. Micheli has divided the grasses 
 into six sections, which contain in all 44 genera, and are arranged 
 from the situation and numljer of the flowers. 
 
 Gramina, the fourth order in Linnanis's Fragments of a Natural 
 Method, consisting of the numerous and natural family of the 
 grasses. See Botany, and Grass. 
 
 GRAMMAR. 
 
 GRAMMAB, [yfreiuf/ct?!*!,,] an art which teaches the several 
 cinds and relations of words, with their propriety, and their dispo- 
 ition into sentences. Grammar is usually divided into four parts. 
 Etvmology, wliich treats of the kinds of words and their deriva- 
 lons. 2. Orthography, which treats of tlie characters or letters o( 
 vhich words are composed. 3. Syntax, which treats on the right 
 lispositions of words according to their agreement with, and de- 
 leadencicson, one another in a sentence. 4. Prosody, which 
 reats of the accents and quantity of syllables, and the arrangement 
 f words so as to preserve such a regularity in the accents and 
 luantity as is required in versihcation. 
 
 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 Since words are the signs, by which we express our ideas, they 
 ;ill naturally be of so many kinds in any language as are requisite 
 jr doing this intelligibly and with proper dispatch. The objects 
 four ideas are beings real or im.T^iiiarv. In order to discourse ot 
 !iese it is requisite that they have names ; hence arises a class or 
 ind of words called nouns. It is aUo (bund necessarv in order to 
 ncourse intelligilily on beings, to express their properties and 
 le limits of (he signification of their names ; lience arises another 
 ind of words called very properly adnouns or adjcctrci-s. In 
 ursuing a discourse on any subject, frequent repetitions of the same 
 ')Un woiiUI often be finmd to occur, and in manv cases, except 
 ■eat attention were paid, and circumlocutions used, it would tend 
 
 produce ambiguity ; hence a third sort of words was introduced, 
 id named prmiounn, as being intended to stand for nouns, that is, 
 
 supply their place, or express the same idea. Since all beings 
 ■e conceived in the mind a^ being in some state simpiv, or as 
 iting, or receiving the impression of some action, it became re- 
 uisite ill good language loliave words by means of which these 
 
 states and actions might be readily expressed ; wards used for tliis 
 purpose arc called vtrhs. But as the states and actions which are ex- 
 pressed by verbs, as well as the qualities, which are denoted by 
 adjectives, may be very diflerent according to the circumstances 
 attending them, it has been found convenient to have a class of 
 words to express those circumstances ; sucii words from their prin- 
 cipal use are named udverhs. The beings of which we discouree, 
 and the state in which they o.ist, may on dil't'erent occasions be un- 
 der such an infinity of circumstances that it would be impossible, as 
 well as inconvenient, to give them dilferent names under these va- 
 rying circumstances, ami the class of adverbs is not sullicient, or 
 always adapted, to express them; hence wa^ wanting a class of con- 
 nective words, which might serve to join anotlier word to tlie sen- 
 tences, and at the same time to exhibit its relation to it, so that the 
 whole mav exprecs the beings spoken of in the state and circum- 
 stances conceived by the speaker ; such words have obtained tlie 
 appellation of prrpn.iilions, on account of being generally placed 
 before the nouns they are intended to connect. As in iangtiage 
 there is freipient occasion to affirm the sanie thing of dillerent 
 beings, and also dillerent things of the same being, it was found 
 very convenient to have a class of words to connect such beings or 
 aflirmations, since by their means a great multitude of repetitions 
 are avoided : these sinqile connective words are deiioiuinated 
 conjuncttDiis. Besides these a few other words, if we may be allow- 
 ed to call them words, are introduced to express some emotion or 
 feeling of the mind ; these have l.ieen called intcrjcclioia, a.-> bein^f 
 generally thrown in between the parts of a sentei ce. Tlius in 
 mo>t languages the parts of speech or kinds of words ?re eight, 
 viz. noun, adjective, pronoun, verb, adverb, preposition, i<ii.- 
 junction, and interjecdon. These dilferent kinds of words are m t 
 only coBveaient for expressing lh»scveral ideas we wish to ccm- 
 
 municAie, 
 
 f
 
 632 
 
 GRAIVBIAR. 
 
 Biunicate, but tliey afford a rich variety in language, as it is evi- 
 dent that by means of them the same ideas may be in many cases 
 designated various ways; which advantage is lurther increased by 
 the intiections which mu>t languages give to some parts of speech. 
 Of the different wavs of expressing our ideas it is the business of the 
 orator to choose the best. It will be unnecessary here to enter into 
 a particular account of each part of speecli ; the limits of our work 
 will not properly allow it, and sufficient information on this head 
 is generally at liand. We shall therefore only add a few general 
 remarks on some of the principal variations winch have been adopt- 
 ed in some of this class of words. Nouns in most languages are 
 changed in their terminations. 1. To express the singular or plu- 
 ral number. 2. To express the difference of sex or gender. 3. To 
 express when the noun is used as a subject or an object : some lan- 
 guages denote this by its place in the sentence. 4. To express 
 those relations, which are otherwise denoted by prepositions. 
 Similar variations are made in adjectives and pronouns, for the 
 same purpose and to make them agree with the varying nonns. 
 Adjectives are also changed in their endings to indicate different 
 degrees of the qualities of nouns. Also the verbs in some languages 
 undergo a great variety of changes to particularize the speaker, and 
 that which is spoken to or of, and the different numbers of each; 
 also to denote the several times and modes of action and of being. 
 The reader, who wishes to enter into a critical examination of the 
 derivations of words, an'd in what manner the words of one clas> 
 have been transformed in order to constitute those of another, we 
 refer to the " Diversions of Purley" written by our great philo- 
 sophical etymologist Mr. Home Tooke. A judicious encpiiry in- 
 to the etymologies, or derivations, of words, is thought by some of 
 considerable use; because nations, who value themselves upon 
 their antiquity, have always looked on the aniiquity of their lan- 
 guage as one of the best tides they could plead; and the etymolo- 
 gist, by seeking the true and original reason of the notions and ideas 
 affixed to each word and expression, may often furnish an argu- 
 ment of antiquity, from the traces remaining thereof, compared 
 with the ancient uses. Then that etymologies are necessary for the 
 thorough understanding of a language. It is objected, however, 
 that the art is arbitrary, and built altogether on conjectures and 
 appearances; and the etymologists are charged with deriving their 
 words from where they please ; and it must certainly be owned, 
 that etymologies are frequently so farfetched, that one can scarce 
 see any resemblance or correspondence therein. Quintilian has 
 shewn, that the ancient etymologists, notwithstanding all their 
 learning, fell into very ridiculous derivations. 
 
 ORTHOGRAPHY. 
 
 This part of grammar belongs properly to the elements of words, 
 which are letters, and hence treats of, 1. The number and divi- 
 sion of letters. 2. Their accidents. 3. The just manner of writ- 
 ing letters, which, properly speaking, is orthography. 4. The 
 disposition of letters inlc syllables. And 5. The pronunciation of 
 letters. As to the right letters used in the spelling of words, it 
 must be learned from the best authors in each language. How- 
 ever, it ought to be observed, that orthography has appointed one 
 way of spelling a word in common language, and another in the 
 learned and polite diction: thus, in ordinary, we say, and write, 
 fanai,faniom, frenzy, SfC. iov phantasy, phantoyn, phraizy, &,-c. 
 according to the original etymology of these words: and in such 
 cases, as vulgarisms ought to be carefully avoided, so as not to 
 write ohstropulmis for obstreperous, and the like ; so, on the other 
 hand, we must not alter the received orthography, in imitation of 
 any one man, be his authority or learning ever so great ; the ge- 
 neral us.ge being, in this respect, the only rule that ought to be 
 followed, since innovations rather confound than help the learner. 
 "We shall therefore only add one observation more, with rtjsprct to 
 the orthography of words, viz. that it ought, as much as possible, 
 to be agreeable to the original etymology, sense, and p:onuncia- 
 tion, of wonls: ihus it i- better to write phrai-.y iinu frenzy, on 
 account of its being derived from the greek J>f>n ; in the same man- 
 ner, the participle of tin- verb .siHtjc- should be wx'wXen singeing, 
 on account of (he sense, to distinguish it from singing: and, last- 
 ly, w hen letters are niilher necessary on account of the etymolo- 
 gy, sense, or sound, th'^y ougl't ID be rejected, as puftlic for 
 C«Wic/i', the A- being wholly superllimus. The rules for the pro- 
 per disposition of words into syllables must be such as ajit derived 
 
 
 from the analogy of language in general, or from tiie established 
 custom of speaking ; which, for the English language, are re- 
 duced to the following rules : 1. A consonant between two vowels 
 must be joined with the latter in spelling, as na-ture, ve-ri-ty, gt- 
 ne-rous: except, however, the letter x, which is joined to the 
 first, as \njiax-en, ox-en, Sf c. and compound words, as in t/p-on, 
 un-use(l, i^-c. 2. A double consonant must be divided, as in let- 
 ter, man-tier, 4c. 3. Those consonants whicli can begin a word, 
 must not be parted in spelling, as in de-fraud, re-prove, distinct : 
 however, this rule is found sometimes to fail ; for though g7i be- 
 gins a word, as gnazv, gnat, AiC. yet it must be divided in spelling, 
 ^^\n cog-ni-zance, ma-tig-ni-ty, dfC. 4. Those consonants which 
 cannot begin a word must be divided, as Id in sel-dom, It in mul- 
 ti-tudc, mp in tem-pcr, rd in ar-dcnt ; but, in final syllables, there 
 are exceptions, as tl in i/-(/c, di in han-dle, d;c. 5. When two 
 vowels come together, and are hodi of them distinctly sounded, 
 they must be separated in spelling, as in co-e-vul, mu-tu-at, 4 c. 
 6. The grammatical terminations, or endings, must be separated 
 in spelling, as ed in iving-ed, edst in de-ti-vcr-cdst, ing in liear-ing, 
 ance in de-li-ver-ance, SfC. 7. Compound words must be resolved 
 into Uieir simple or component words, as up-on, in-to, nevcr-the- 
 tess, not-uitn-stand-ing, SfC. Pronunciation makes much the 
 most difficult part of a written grammar ; since a book expressing 
 itself to the eyes, in a matter that wholly concerns the ears, seems 
 next akin to that of teaching the blind to distinguish colours : hence 
 it is that there is no part so defective in grammar as that of the pro- 
 nunciation, as the writer has frequently no term whereby to give 
 the reader an idea of the sound he would express ; for want of a 
 proper term, therefore, he substitutes a vicious and precarious 
 one. To give a just idea of the pronunciation of a language, it 
 seems necessary to lix as nearly as possible all the several sounds 
 employed in the pronunciation of that language. Cicero tells us, 
 tliat the pronunciation underwent several changes among the 
 Romans ; and indeed it is more precarious in the living languages, 
 being, as Du Bos tells us, subservient to fashion in these. The 
 French language is clogged with a difficulty in pronunciation from 
 which most others are free; and it consists in this, that most of 
 their words have two different pronunciations, the one in common 
 prose, the other in verse. As to the pronunciation of the English 
 language, the late Mr. B. Martin, in his Spelling Book of Arts and 
 Sciences, lays down the following rules : 1. The final (t) lengthens 
 the sound of the foregoing vowel; as in can, cane; rob, robe; 
 tun, tune, kc. 2. The final (t) in words ending in re, is sounded 
 before the r like u; as nitre, nitur ; lucre, lu-cur, &c. 
 3. The Latin diphthongs a\ «■, are sounded likee ; as Aitna,Etna; 
 axoHomy, econoyny, &c. but at the end of words oe sounds likeo; 
 as in toe, foe, &c. 4. Also the English improper diphthongs, 
 ea, eo, eu, ue, sound only the e and u ; as tea or te, feoffee or fejjee, 
 duedu, true tru, &c. though sometimes eo and ea are pronounced 
 like ce, as in people, fear, near, &c. 5. Sometimes the diphthong 
 (zf) is pronounced like e in deling, \\V.e ee m field, and, at the 
 end of words, always like y ; as in tie, &c. and ei is pronounced 
 either like e or <«' ; as in deceit, reign, kc. 6. The triphthong 
 cau is pronounced like o, in beau and jet d'eau ; and icu sounds 
 like u in lieu, adieu, &c. 7. The sound of c is hard before the 
 vowels a, o, u; as in call, cold, cup, &c. also sometimes before /(, 
 as in chart, chord, &c. and before I and r; as in clear, creep, &c. 
 It is otherwise generally soft, as in city, celt, cyder, child, &:c. 
 8. In French words cA issounded like sh; as in chagrccn, machine ; 
 and sometimes like qu, as in c/i02>. 9. The sound oi g is hard 
 before a, o, i(, I, r ; as in gall, go, gum, glean, grope ; also before 
 ui, as ui guilt, guild, &c. ami 'before //, as in ghost; sometimes 
 before i, as in gibbous, gibberish. It is also generally hard be- 
 fore e, as in get, geld, &c. but soft in many words derived from 
 the Greek and Latin, as in geometry, genealogy, genus, &c. Two 
 gg are alwavs hard, as in duggtr, &c. The sound of g-, when soft, 
 'is like that of,;. 10. In any part of a word, ph sounds like^; as 
 \n philosophi/', &CC. 11. The sound of 7;/, at the end of French 
 words, is like k, as in risque, &c. 12. The syllables ti and ci, if 
 followeilbv a vowel, sound like si or shi; as m fiction, logician, 
 ,Sic. 13. *Vhencc occur before/, the first is hard and the latter 
 is soft; as in.A"«cc!V/, &c. 14. The letter p is not pronounced at 
 the beginning of syllables, before s and ( ; as m psalm, ptarmics, 
 &c. As to other [leculiarities, regarding single letters, and their 
 pronunciation, many of them have been taken notice of at the be- 
 eimiina of each, iu ihe course of this work, 
 ^ ^ SYNTAX.
 
 GRAMMAR. 
 
 635 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 The office of syntax is to consider the natural suitableness of 
 Words willi respect tu one anotlier, in order to make tlieni afjrec in 
 gender, niunlnr, person, mood, &c. To offend in any of tliese 
 points, is to offend against syntax ; and sucli liind of offence, when 
 gross, is called a solecism, and when more slight, a barbarism. 
 Syntax is generally divided into two parts, viz. concord, wherein 
 Hie words are to agree in gender, number, case, and person ; and re- 
 gimen or government, wherein one word governs anotlier, and 
 occasions some variations therein. Generally in every language 
 the rules of concord are the san\e, as being almost every where of 
 the same nature, for the belter distinguishing of discourse ; thus, 
 from tlie distinction of two numbers, namely the singular and the 
 plural, the adjective must be made to agree with the substantive 
 accordingly ; that is, tlie former is to be put in this or that number, 
 as the latter is ; for the snljstantive being vvliat is confusedly, 
 thongh directly, marked by the adjective, should the sidistanlive 
 denote several, there are several subjects of that form sigrjitied by 
 the adjective, and consequently this should be in the pUn-al num- 
 ber, as viri fortes, &:c. Again, as there is a distinction of mascu- 
 line and feminine in most languages, there hence arises a necessity 
 »f putting th.; substantive and adjective in the same gender ; and, 
 in like mruiner, verbs should agree in number and person with 
 nouns and pronouns : but sliould any thing, in writing or discourse, 
 be apparently contrary to those rules above-mentioned, this is by 
 some figure or other in grammar, vvliereby something is implied, 
 or the ideas themselves are considered more than the words that 
 represent tlieni. Regimen, is that part of syntax which regulates 
 the dependency of words, and tlie alterations which one occasions 
 in anotlier. In general, the regimen, or constitution of govern- 
 ment, is almost inlirely arijitrary, and varies greatly in all lan- 
 guages. For one language forms its regimen by cases, as the 
 Latin and Greek. Others, instead of cases, make use only of 
 small particles, as the Engli>h, bi;, of, to, &:c. The French, Spa- 
 nish, and Italian by de, a, da, &:c. There are, however, some few 
 niaxims wliich hold good in every language, as, 1. That there is 
 no nominative case in any sentence but has a reference to some 
 verb either expressed or understood. 2. That there is no verb 
 which has not its nominative case expressed or understood, though 
 in the Latin before an infinitive, there is an accusative. 3. Tiiat 
 there is no adjective but has a relation to some substantive. 4. 
 That there is no genitive case but is governed by some other 
 noun. This rule does not so apparently hold in the modern, as 
 in the ancient languages, as the particle nf, dc, Jtc. which are the 
 proper signs of the genitive case, are frecpiently used asprep'.si- 
 tions. 5. That the regimen of verbs is frequently laid upon dif- 
 ferent kinds of relations, according to custom or usage, which yet 
 does not change the specitic relation of each case, but only shews 
 that custom has made choice of this or that according to fancv. 
 Sometimes these different governments have a power of changing 
 the sense according to the different custom of languages, in which 
 case the particular use of languages must be aiwa' s consulted. 
 There is one very common fault committed in regimen, wliich 
 should be carefully avoided by accurate writers, viz. the using two 
 verbs that require dilTerent cases together, as only governing one 
 case, as in this example, " after embracing and giving his blesiing 
 to his son," where, " embracing," requires an accusative case, 
 and " giving," a dative. The same is to be observed in the regimen 
 of nouns. 
 
 PROSODY. 
 
 Prosody comprises, 1 . The accenting of the syllables of a word. 
 2. 'I'he giving of a syllable its proper quantity ; and 3. The man- 
 ner of making verses. Tlie two first parts are, in a great measure, 
 dependent on one another ; and in some languages, as the English, 
 they are nearly the same: on these depend the pronunciation of 
 words. The accent of syllables relates chiefly to the stress and 
 tone of voice in pronouncing them ; in Englifh, we Lay the stress 
 on the long syllable. The proper accenting of words ought to be 
 well understood; since nothing is more harsh and disagreeable to 
 the ear, than to hear a person speak or read with wrong accents: 
 and, indeed, in English, the same word is often both a noun and 
 a verb, distinguished only by the accent, which is on the lirst syl- 
 lable of the noun, and 01) the last verb; asfirmcnt and/tjv/iert/, 
 
 VOL II. — KO. 98. 
 
 record and recArd, &c. We are to observe also, that in order t« 
 a just expression of words, some require only a single accent on 
 the long syllable; as in torment, &c. but in others it should be 
 marked double, asm flHi'mtt/, because it is pronounced as if the 
 letter was writ double, viz. annijiial. The rules for the accent 
 or quantity of English words are not easily to be given, being 
 subj. ct to innumerable exceptions. The following we shall give 
 from Dr. Johnson. 
 
 1. Of (liss\llal)les formed by afllxing a termination, the former 
 syllabic is commonly accented, as childish, kingdom, detest, act- 
 ed, ti'iilsome, li'iver, scqi/'er, fairer, firemost, zealous, fulness, 
 gi'dly, metklij, artist. 
 
 2. Dissyllables formed by prefixing a syllable to the radical 
 word, have commonly tlie accent on the latter ; as to beget, to be- 
 seem, to besti'nv. 
 
 3. Of dissyllables, wliich are at once nouns and verbs, the verb 
 lia5 commonly the accent on the latter, and the noun on the for- 
 mer syllable ; as, to descant, a descant ; to cement, a cement ; to 
 contract, a contract. 
 
 This rule has many exceptions. Though verbs seldom have 
 their accent on the former, yet nouns often have it on the latter 
 syllable ; as delii^ht, perfume. 
 
 4. All ilissyllabies ending in ;/, as cranny ; in our, as labour, 
 favour, in on, as niltote, ziiillou:; except allfizu ; in te, as battle, 
 
 bible; in ish, a'i banish ; in c, as cambric, c Assoc ; in ter, as to 
 batter ; in oge, as coiirage ; in en, a% fasten ; in et, as quiet, ac- 
 cent the former syllable. 
 
 5. Dissyllable nouns in cr, as canker, hiitter, have the accent 
 on the former syllable. 
 
 6. Dissyllable verbs terminating in a consonant and e final, as 
 comprise, escape ; or having a diphthong in the last syllable, as ap- 
 pease, retiui ; or ending in two consonants, as attend, have the 
 accent on the latter syllable. 
 
 7. Dissyllable nouns having a diphthong in the latter syllable, 
 have commonly their accent on the latter syllable, as applause ; 
 except words in ain, as certain, mountiiin, 
 
 3. Trissyllables formed by adding a termination, or prefixing a 
 syllable, retain the accent of the radical word, as Ibveliness, ten- 
 derness, contemner, "cJagonner, phy'sical, bespatter, cdmmenting, 
 commending, assurance. 
 
 9. Trissyllables ending in OHi, as gracj'jiii, arduous; in a/, as 
 capital ; in ion, as mention, accent the first. 
 
 10. Trissyllables ending in ce, ent, and ate, accent the first syl- 
 l.ible, as roiintenance, continence, armament, imminent, elegant, 
 prSpugate, except they be derived from words having the accent 
 on the last, ^i connivance, acaudintunce ; or the middle syllable 
 hath a vowel before two consonants, -ds promiilgate. 
 
 11. Trissyllables ending in ;/, as entity, -tpecify, liberty, vic- 
 tory, siibsidy, commonly accent the first syllable. 
 
 12. Trissyllables iiwc or /(■ ace. nt the first syllable, as legible, 
 theatre, except disciple, and some words w liich have a po^ltion, 
 as exdmple, epistle. 
 
 13. Trissyllables in i/Jc commonly accent the first syllable, as 
 plinitude. 
 
 14. Trissyllables ending in ator, atour, as creator, or having 
 in the middle syllable a diphthong, as t ndedvoiir ; or a vowel be- 
 fore two consonants, as domestic, accent the middle syllable. 
 
 15. Trissyllables that havi; their accent on the last sellable arc 
 commonly French, as acquiesce, repartee, magazine, or words 
 formed by prefixing one or two syllables to an acute syllable, as 
 immatitre, overchdrge. 
 
 16. Polysyllables, or words of more than three syllables, follow 
 the accent of the words from which they are derived, as derogat- 
 ing, continency, incontinently, commendable, communieableness. 
 We should, therefore, say, dispiitablc, mdispulablc, rather than 
 dispHtid)te, indisputable ; and udverlisemtnt rather than adcir- 
 tiicment. 
 
 17. Words in ion have the accent upon the antepenult, a% salva- 
 tion, perturbation, concdciion ; words in atour or utor on the 
 penult, as dedicator. 
 
 18. Words ending in fe commonly have the accent on the first 
 syllable, as amicable, nnless the second syllable have a vowel be- 
 fore two consonants, as combustible. 
 
 19- Words ending in ous, have the accent on the antepenult, as 
 u.ririous, voluptuous. 
 
 7 Y' SO. Words
 
 bSA 
 
 GRAT^IMAR. 
 
 20, Words ending in ti/ have their accent on the antepenult, as 
 piisillaiiimiti/, activity. 
 
 Tliese rules are not advanced as complete or infallible, but pro- 
 posed as useful. Almost every rule of every language has its ex- 
 ceptions ; and in English, as in other tonc;ues, much must be learn- 
 ed by example and authority. Perhaps more and belter rules 
 may be given that have escaped my observation. 
 
 Quantity ascertains the time in which a syllable is pmnoimced, 
 determining it to be long or short. Quantity distinguislies verse 
 from prose; and tlie a:c-onomy and arrangement ot quantities, 
 that is, the distribution of long and short syllables, makes wliat we 
 call the metre. The quantities are distinguished, among gramma- 
 rians, by the characters v, short, as per ; and -, long, as rbs. 
 There is also a common, variable, or dubious quantity ; that is, 
 syllables that are one time taken for short ones, and at anothertime 
 for long ones, as the first syllable in A'tlas, patre^, &c. Feet are 
 made up of quantities. The quantity of a syllable is either natu- 
 ral or accidental : natural quantity is that taken troin the n.iture of 
 the vowel, as i-e in rcsiitr), is short, and i/f in dcpelLo is long. Ac- 
 cidental quantity is that departing from the natural quantity, 
 merely by accident, as re in rcstiti is long, because it is imme- 
 diately followed by two consonants ; and <Ic in deamo is short, 
 because it immediately precedes a vowel. The quantity of sylla- 
 bles is known two ways. 1. By rules for that purpose. And, 2. 
 By autliority. The rules for this end are taught by that part of 
 grammar called prosody ; the authority made use of in this case is 
 no more than examples from, or the testimony of, approved au- 
 thors ; and is never used but either when the rules are delicient, 
 or when we are unacquainted with them. The quantitj' of the sylla- 
 bles ib but little lixed in the modern tongues; and, there is still less 
 regard paid to it in the composition of modern verses. I'hewant of 
 feet, or rather the shortness and uniformity of our feet, makes a 
 great difference between the numbers of the ancient and modern 
 verse. 
 
 Versification is the disposing of long and short syllables in a dis- 
 course, so that they may run with an agreeable cadence, the like 
 being also reiterated in the course of the piece. 'I'his rep'Hition, 
 according to Bossu, is necessary to distinguish the notion of verse 
 from that of prose ; for in prose, as well as verse, each period and 
 member are parts of a discourse, consisting of a certain number of 
 long and short syllables; only prose is continually diversifying its 
 measures and cadences, and verse regularly repeating them. I'his 
 repetition of the poets appears even in the maimer of writing ; for 
 one verse being finished, they return to the beginning of another 
 line, to write the verse following, and it is to this "return, that 
 verse owes its name. Verses are sometimes denominated from the 
 number of feet, whereof they are composed, as the mouometer, 
 dimeter, trimeter, tetrameter, pentameter, hexameter, &c. See 
 ITexametek, &c. Some also, from the kinds of feet used in 
 them, as the pyrrhichion, proceleusmatic, iambic, trochaic, &c. 
 See Pyrrhichion, &c. Sometimes verses are denominated from 
 the names of the ii;ventors, or the authors who have used them 
 with most success, as the anacreontic, archilochian, asclepia, al- 
 chaic, sapphic, &c. See AriACREONTic, &c. The moderns 
 have invented heroic or alexandrine verses ; tiie ancients likewise 
 invented various kinds of poetical devices in verse, as centos, 
 ccbos, &c. See Alexandrine, &c. 
 
 The feet of our verses are either iambic, as aloft, create ; or, 
 trochaic, as hut)/, loftij. 
 
 Our iambic measure comprises verses of four syllables. 
 With ravish'd ears 
 The monarch hears. 
 Of six. 
 
 Thus while we are abroad. 
 
 Shall we not touch our lyre? 
 Shall we not sing an ode ? 
 Or shall that holy fire, 
 In us that strongly glow'd. 
 In this cold air expire? 
 Of eight, which is the usual measure of short poems, 
 And may at last my weary age 
 I'ind out the peaceful hermitage. 
 The hairy gown, and mossy cell 
 Where I may sit, and nightly spell 
 Of ev'ry star the sky doth shew. 
 And ev'ry herb that sips the dew. 
 
 Of ten, which is the common measure of heroic and tragic 
 poetry. 
 
 The courts are filled with a tumultuous din 
 Of crowils, or issuing forth, or entring in : 
 A thorough-fare of news; where some devise 
 . Things never heard, some mingle truth with lies ; 
 The troubled air with empty sounds they beat. 
 Intent to hear, and eager to repeat. 
 In all these measures the accents are to be placed on even syl- 
 lables ; and every line considered by itself is more harmonious, 
 as this rule is nmie strictly observed. The variations necessary 
 to pleasure belong to the art of poetry, not the xules of gramraar. 
 
 O ur trochaic measures are 
 
 Of three syllables. 
 
 Of five. 
 
 Of seven. 
 
 Here we may 
 Think and pray 
 Before death 
 Stops our breath : 
 Other joys 
 Are but toys. 
 
 In the days of old. 
 Stories plainly told. 
 Lovers felt annoy. 
 
 Fairest piece of welform'd earth. 
 Urge not thus your haughty birth. 
 
 In these measures the accent is to be placed on the odd syl- 
 lables. 
 
 These are the measures which are now in use, and above the rest 
 those of seven, eight, and ten syllables. However, various other 
 kinds of verses have been invented, and used by different poets, 
 as above observed. 
 
 The authors who have written on grammar are innumerable. 
 The grammar of the English language by Dr. Louth, and that by 
 Lindiey Murray, are deservedly held in high estimation. 
 
 Grammar, Philosophic, or Universal. *' Grammar," says 
 tlie Rev. Mr. Bruce, "considered as an art, necessarily sup- 
 poses the previous existence of language; and as its design is 
 to teacli any language to thoise who are ignorant of it, it must be 
 adapted to the genius of that particular language of which it treats. 
 But grammar, considered as a science, views language only as it is 
 significant of thought. Neglecting particular and arbitrary modifi- 
 cations introduced for the sake of Ijcauty or elegance, it examines 
 the analogy and relation between words and ideas; distinguishes 
 between those particulars, which are essential to language, and 
 those which are only accidental ; and thus (urnishes a certain stand- 
 
 ard, by which different languages may be compared, and their 
 several excellencies or defects pointed out. This is wh.tt i» called 
 Philosophic or Univei-sal Grammar." Encyc. Brit. See La.v- 
 ouage. 
 
 GRAMMARIAN, was anciently a title of honour, literature, 
 and erudition, being given to persons accounted learned in any art 
 or laculty. Ikit it is now often used as a term of reproach, to sig- 
 nify a plodding person, employed about words and phrases, but in- 
 attentive to the beauties of expression and delicacy of sentiment. The 
 ancient graniniariaas, called also philologcrs, must not be confound- 
 ed with the grammatistSjwhose business was to teachchildren the first 
 
 tlCBltllts
 
 G RA 
 
 635 
 
 GRA 
 
 elements ot language. V'airo, Cicero, Meisala, and oven Julius 
 Cscsar, thouglit it no dishonour to be ranked as grammarians, who 
 had many privileges granted to them by the Roman emperors. 
 
 GUAMMON r, a town of France, in thf department of Upper 
 Vienue, and late province of Limosine, 15 miles N.IC. of Limoges. 
 
 GKA.M.MONT, or GEtRSBERGH, a town of France, in the de- 
 partment of the .Scheldt, and late province of Au>trian Flanders, 
 17 miles S. E. of Client, and CO miles W. of Brussels, 
 
 GRAMPIAN HILLS, a chain of mountains in Scotland, 
 which rcn from E. to W. almost the whole breadth of the king- 
 dom. 
 
 ^ GRAM POUND, a town of England, in Cornwall, 46 miles 
 S. \\ . I i Launceston. 
 
 GRAN, or ICSZTERGAN, a large and strong town of Hun- 
 gary. 5.') miles S. E. of Preslmrg. 
 
 GRANADA, a province of Spain, which was long an inde- 
 pendent kingdom. It made a part of the ancient Biclica; and 
 was inhabited by the liastnli, the Sexitani, &c. It is sometimes 
 called Upper Andalusia. It is bounded on the S. and E. by the 
 Mediterranean, on the W. and N. by Lower Andalusia, and on 
 the N. E. by Murcia. Its extent from W. to E. is 210 miles; 
 but its greatest breadth exceeds not 80. The air is temperate and 
 healthy ; and though there are many mountains in the province, 
 aiid some of them very high, yet they are almost every where 
 covered with vines and fruit-trees, together with laurel, myrtle, 
 sweet basil, thyme, lavender, marjoram, and other aromatic herbs; 
 which give an exquisite taste to the llesh of their sheep and cattle. 
 A'great deal of silk and sugar, ilax ajid hemp, honey and wax, i^ 
 also produced here ; besides dates and acorns, superior to the 
 finest nuts ; good stone for building; several sorts of gems; su- 
 mach, used in dressing goat-skins ; and galls, of which a dye is 
 made for leather. The valleys, with which the mountains are in- 
 terspersed, are extremely beautiful and fertile. 
 
 Granada, the capital of the above province, is 125 miles S. 
 W. of Murcia, and 183 S. of Madrid. Lon. 3. 30. W. Lai. 37. 
 17. N. 
 
 Granada, New, a province of S. America, in Terra P'irma, 
 about 75 nnles in length, and as much in breadth. It is bounded 
 on the N. by Carthagenu and St. Martha, on the E. by Venezuela, 
 on the S. by Popayan, and on the W. by Darien. It contains 
 mines of gold, copper, and iron ; horses, nudes, good pastures, 
 corn, and fruits. It belongs to the Spaniards, and Santa Fe de 
 Bagota is the capital. 
 
 GRANADE. See Grenade. 
 
 GRANADIER. See Grenadier. 
 
 GRANADILLOES, or GRENADINES, dangerous islands 
 ef the Caribbees, in America, having St. Vincent on the N. and 
 (jranada on the S. 
 
 GRANARD, or GRENARD, a borough and post-town of 
 Ireland, in Longford, Leinster ; 52 milesfrom Dublin, and 16 S. of 
 Cavan. 
 
 GRANARY, a building in which corn is deposited, especially 
 when designed to be kept for a considerable timi-. In construct- 
 ing granaries, the principal objects are, strength or solidity of the 
 edifice, and its exposure to the most drying winds. In the coun- 
 ty of Kent, previously to removing the corn to such a magazine, 
 it is tossed with a shovel from one end of a large room to the 
 other ; by which means the lighter substances fall into the middle, 
 while the ripe grain only is collected at the sides or extremities of 
 the room. The corn is then screened, and conveyed to the gra- 
 naries, where it is spread to the depth of half a foot on the floor, 
 and turned twice in the week : the operation of screening is re- 
 peated once a week. At the expir.ition of two months, the corn 
 js heaped up to the thickness of a foot, for a similar period, during 
 which it is turned once, or, if the w tatlur be damp, twice in the 
 week, and is also occasionally screened. At tlie end of five or 
 six months, the heaps are enlarged to the height of two feet, and 
 turned once or twice in a month, the operation of screening being 
 likewise from time to time continued. When grain has thus lain 
 for one year, the quantity is increased to the thickness of two and 
 3 half or three feet; it is turned once in the course of three weeks 
 or a month, and screened accordingly. At the expiration of two 
 or three years, it is moved only once in two months, and screen- 
 ed every quarter ; but, in proportion to the length of time it is 
 Kept, the turning, &c. should be more frequently repeated, in 
 
 consequence of wliicli the grain will be much iniproveu. In stor- 
 ing corn, it is requisite to leave an area of a yard m width on everv 
 side of each heap, into w Inch the corn should be tossed as often as 
 appears necessary. Li the Kentish granaries, two s(|uare holes ate 
 niacie at each end of the llocr, and a circular one in the niidul>- of 
 the building, through which the corn is shifted from the ii|,per 
 rooms into tliose below, and again from the lower rooms into the 
 upper ones, in order that it may be the more effectually turned 
 and aired. The screens or frames employed for sitting the corn 
 are made with two partitions, for the purpose of separating the 
 pure grain from the dust, w hich falls into a bag. By these precau- 
 tions, corn has often been preserved sound and pure for thirty 
 years ; and it is a circumstance worthy of notice that, though by 
 long keeping the grain decreases in bulk, yet it will yield propor- 
 tionably more tlour, and the bread will likewise be whiter and 
 more wholesome ; as the superfluous moisture only evaporates 
 during the frequent airing. M. Du Hamel, and Dr. Hales, hafe 
 recommended various contrivances for ventilating, or introducing 
 fresh air through corn deposited in granaries, with a view to pre- 
 serve it sweet and dry, as well as to secure it trim weevils or other 
 insects. This object is to be- effected, by constructing granaries 
 with lattice-work, and hiir-clotli at the bottom. The ventilators 
 for supplying fresh air may be affixed to the wall, either within or 
 on the outside of the granary, beneath the Hoor, or in the ceiling ; 
 but, in the former case, it will be necessary to ])lace the handle of 
 the lever externallv, as otherwise the peisoii working the machi- 
 nery would be exposed to sutTocation, when the corn is fumigated 
 with sulphur for the ex|)uIsion of weevils. Small moveable venti- 
 lators may be constructed on this plan, for ventilating corn in 
 large bins deposited in granaries. Similar contrivances may be 
 applied to the lowe-t floors of small magazines, so as to be worked 
 by men standing on the ground, either w ithin or without the build- 
 ings. In the eighth volume of the " Letters and Papers of the 
 Bath and West of England Society," &c. Thomas South, Esq. 
 gives a description of a cheap and eflicacious ventilator, for pre- 
 serving corn on ship-board. This machine consists of a forcing- 
 pump, with perforated tubei annexed to it ; and by means of 
 which fresh air may be communicated to every part of the cargo. 
 Mr. South's air-vessel is, for the sake of cheapness, confined to a 
 diameter of ten inches ; but he observes, that, if the latter be en- 
 larged to fourteen inches, the eflect of tlie machine will be nearly 
 doubled; and if the length of the trough (by the suction-valve) 
 be extended ten inches, a power will be obtained capable of ven- 
 tilating a cargo of 400 tons in the course of one hour. To pre- 
 serve corn in hams or granaries. Dr. Darwin observes, it is requi- 
 site first to make them dry, and, secondly, to keep them in that 
 state ; because no seeds will vegetate without moisture. In order 
 to dry seeds, the heaps should be frequently turned over in warm 
 dry weather : hence, in this climate, the doors and windows of 
 granaries should open towards the soutlj, for the reception of the 
 warmth of the sun, with air-holes round the building, for sufficient 
 ventilation ; and whicli apertures ought to be sheltered from rain 
 or snow, by boards placed for that purpose on the outside. — 
 Heaps of corn should be surrounded with planks, in order to pre- 
 vent them from touching either brick or stone walls ; because, 
 when cold nordi-cast winds are succeeded by moist and warm 
 south-west winds, such walls frcqu> ntly precipitate the moisture 
 from the atmosphere, and communicale it to those bodies which 
 are in contact with them. According to Mr. TuU, the safest me- 
 thod of preserving a large quantity ot wheat is, to dry it gradually 
 in a malt kiln on uii air-clom, with no o'her fuel than clean straw, 
 and with a heat scarcely exceeding that produced by the rays of 
 the sun. In this .emperaturc, the grain is to remain from four to 
 twelve hours, in proportion t'^ its previous dampness. The vege- 
 tative principle of the corn is not destroyed by this process; as 
 instances havq occurred of its growing when sown, al\er it liad 
 been thus treated and kept for seven yer.rs. The preservation of 
 grain from the ravages of insects may be elTectcd by timely and 
 freciucnt screening, and ventilation; as little or no inconvenience 
 will follow corn or malt lodged dry, but what evidently results 
 from a neglect of these precautions. For, whether the obvious 
 damage arise from the weevil, the moth, or the beetle, that da- 
 mage has ceased at the time the vermin make their appearance 
 under either of these species, they being, when in this last state 
 of existCHce, only propagators of their respective kinds of vermi 
 
 culi ;
 
 GRA 
 
 636 
 
 GRA 
 
 ciili ; wliicli, while the\- continue in that form do the mischief. 
 In this last, or iiisect-sta'te, they eat little, their principal business 
 being to deposit their eggs, which unerring instinct prompts 
 thcin to do where large collections of grain furnish food for their 
 successors while in a vernnicular state. It is therefore the husi- 
 ness of industry to prevent future generatwns of these ravagers, by 
 destroying the" eggs previous to their hatrliing ; and this is best 
 accomplished by frequent screening, and exposure to draughts of 
 wind or fresh afr. By frequently stirring the grain, the cohesion 
 of their eggs is broken, and the nidus of those minute worms is 
 destroyed, which on hatching collect together, and weave numer- 
 ous nests of a cobweh-like substance for their security. To these 
 nests they attach, by an infinity of small threads, many grains of 
 corn together, first 'for their pro'^ection, and then for their food. 
 When their habitations are broken and separated by the screen, 
 they fall through its small interstices, and may be easily removed 
 from the granary with the dust. Those that escape an early 
 screening will be'destroyed by subsequent ones, while the grain is 
 but little injured ; and the corn will acquire thereby a superior 
 purity. But by inattention to this, and sometimes by receiving 
 grain" already infected into the aran:..y, these vermin, particularly 
 the weevil, will soon spread themselves in that state every where 
 upon the surface, and tlarken the walls by their number. Under 
 such circumstances hens, with new hatched chickens, if turned on 
 the heap, will traverse, without feeding (or very sparingly so) on 
 the corn, wherever they spread ; as they seem insatiable in the 
 pursuit of these insects. When the numbers are reduced within 
 reach, a hen will fly up agaijist the walls, and brusli them down 
 with her wings, while her chickens seize them with the greate>t 
 avidity. This being repeated as often as they w;ant food, the 
 whole species will in a day or two be de-troyed. Of the pha- 
 Jrena, or moth, and the small beetle, they seem equally vora- 
 cious: on which account they may be deemed the must useful 
 instruments in nature for eradicating these noxious and destructive 
 vermin. 
 
 GRANATITE, Cross-Stone, a mineral found in Spain, 
 France, and Switzerland. It is crystallized in a very peculiar 
 form ; two six-sided prisms intersect each other at right angles, or 
 obliquely. Hence its name, cross-stone. It is of a reddish brown 
 colour: specihc gravity 3.3, nearly; fusible before the blow-pipe: 
 its component parts are. 
 
 Silica 33 
 
 Alumina 44 
 
 Lime 3.84 
 
 Oxide of iron 13 
 
 Oxide of manganese 1 
 
 Matter lost 5.16 
 
 100 
 
 GRAND ASSIZE. See Assize. 
 
 Grand Distress, [dUtrictio magna, Lat.] in English law, 
 a writ of distress, so called on account of its extent, which reaches 
 to all the goods and chattels of the party within the county. This 
 writ lies in two cases : either when the tenant or defendant is at- 
 tached and appears not, but makes default; or where the tenant 
 or defendant hath once appeared, and after makes default. On 
 such occasions, this writ lies by common law, in lieu of a petit 
 cape. 
 
 Grand Gusto, among painters, a term used to express that 
 there is something in the picture very great and extraordinary, 
 calculated to surprise, please, and instruct. 
 
 Grand Jury, Grand LarcenVj &c. See Jury, Lar- 
 ceny, &c. 
 
 Grand Lake, a lake of North America, in New Brunswick, 
 near St. John's river, 30 miles long, from 8 to 10 broad, and in 
 some places 40 fathoms deep. 
 
 Grand River, or Rio Grande, a river in Africa, which 
 runs mto the Atlantic, in Lon. 13. 50. W. Lat. 11. 0. N. 
 
 Grand River, a river of North America, which runs N. W. 
 into Lake Erie, 80 miles S. W. of Presque Isle. 
 
 GRANDE, two rivers of South America ; 1. in Vzxw, near 
 t'ayanta, whose sands are rich in gold ; C. in Brasil. 
 
 GRAN DEE, in Spain, is used absolutely to denote the prime 
 
 lords of the court, to whom the king has once given leave to be 
 covered in his presence: there are some grandees for life only; 
 made by the king's saying simply, Be covered. Others are 
 grandees by descent : made by the king's saying. Be covered for 
 thyself and heirs. These last are reputed iar above the former. 
 Some have three or four grandeeships in their family. 
 
 GRANDEUR. See Sublimity. 
 
 GRANDS SEAUX, or GREAT SEALS, a nation of Norlh 
 American Indians, who inhabit the country S. of the Missouri. 
 They have about 300 warriors. 
 
 GlvANDV'lLLE, a town of France in the department of the 
 Channel, and late province of Normandy, 13 miles S. by E. of 
 Coutances. 
 
 GRANITE, a genus of stone? of the order petrx, belonging to 
 the class saxa. 'I'he principal constituent parts of this stone are 
 felt-spar or rhombic quartz, mica, and quartz. These ingredients 
 constitute the hardest sort of granite, and that most anciently 
 known. Tliat into w hich schoerl enters is more subject to decom- 
 position. They never have any |)articular texture or regular 
 form, but consist of enormous shapeless masses extremely hard. 
 ! In the finer granites the ijuartz is transparent ; in others generallv 
 w hite t)r gri'v, vioht or brown. The felt-spar is generally the 
 most copiou^ ingi'edient, and of a white, \ellow, red, black, or 
 brown colour. The mica is also grey, brov n. Yellow, green, red, 
 violet, or black ; and commonly the least copious. 'Iheschoer! 
 is geiiei-ally black, and abounds in the granites that contain it. 
 Hence the colour of the granites depends principallv on that of 
 the spar or schoerl. Th.e red granites consist commonly of white 
 quartz, red felt-spar, and grey mica ; the grey ones of v^•hite quartz, 
 grey or violet felt-spar, and black mica. The black granites com- 
 monly contain schoerl instead of felt-spar ; and the green usually 
 contain green quartz. On exposing granite to the flame of the 
 blow-pipe, the component ingredients separate from one another. 
 Mr. Gerhard, having melted some in a crucible, found the felt- 
 spar run into a transparent glass; below it the mica lay in form of 
 black Hag, the quartz remaining unaltered. It melted somewhat 
 better when all the three w ere powdered and mixed together ; 
 though even then the (jiiartz was still discernible by a magnifying 
 glass. Hence we may explain the reason why grains of a white 
 colour are sometimes found in volcanic lavas. The mixture of 
 mica prevents the silex or quartz from splitting or cracking ; and 
 hence its infusibility and use in furnace-building. Granites are 
 seldom slaty or laminated. In tho^e of a close texture, the quartz 
 and schoerl predominate. They take a good polish ; for which 
 reason the Egyptians formerly, and the Italians still, work them 
 into large pieces of ornamental architecture, for which they are 
 extremely fit, as not being liable to decay in the air. 
 
 GRAN'SON, a town of (he Helvetic republic, in Ncufchatel, 
 16 miles S. W. of Neufchatel. 
 
 GRAN T, in law, a conveyance in writing of such things as 
 cannot pass or be conveyed by word only ; such are rents, rever- 
 sions, services, advowsons in gross, tithes, &c. The person mak- 
 ing such a conveyance is called the grantor, and he to whom the 
 grant is made, the grantee. 
 
 G K ANTHAM, a town of Lincolnshire, 30 miles S. of Lincoln, 
 and 1 10 N. of London. 
 
 GRANVILLE, a fertile county of North Carolina, in Hills- 
 bury district, bounded on the N. by Virginia. 
 
 GRANULATION, in chemistry, is an operation by which 
 metallic substances are reduced into =mall roundish particles, to 
 facilitate their combination with other substances. This operation 
 consists only in pouring the melted metal slowly into a vessel filled 
 with water, which is in the mean time to be agitated with a broom. 
 With melted copper, however, w hich is apt to explode with great 
 violence on the contact of water, some precautions are to be ob- 
 served. In the brass-works at Bristol, copper is granulated, with- 
 out danger of explosion, by letting it fall in small drops into a 
 large cistern of cold water covered with a brass-plate. In the 
 middle of the plate is an aperture, in which is secured with Stur- 
 bridge clay a small vessel, w l)o«e capacity docs not exceed a 
 spoonful, perforated with many minute holes through which the 
 copper passes. A stream of cold water passes through the cistern. 
 If allowed to grow hot the copper will fall to the bottom and run 
 into flat plates instead of granulating. Lead or tin may be granu- 
 lated by pouring them when melted into a box ; tlie internal sur- 
 face
 
 G RA 
 
 637 
 
 G R A 
 
 face of wliicli is nibbed willi powdered chalk, and llic box slroiigly 
 sliakt-n till the grains have become solid. 
 
 GUAPE HYACINTH. See Hyacinthus. 
 
 Grapes, in the manege, a term used to signify the arrests or 
 itiaiigy tumours that liappen in the horse's legs. 
 
 Gvape-Shot, in artdlery, is a combination of small shot, put 
 into a thick canvas-bag, and corded strongly togetlier, so as to 
 forjn a kind of cylinder, whose diameter is equal to that of the ball 
 adapted to the cannon. The number of shot in a grape varies ac- 
 coruing to the service or size of the guns : in tlie Ma-service nine 
 is always the number : but by land it is increased to any number 
 or size, from an ounce and a quarter in weight to three or four 
 pounds. In sea-service the bottoms and pins are made of iron, 
 v.liereas those used by land are of wood. 
 
 GRAPHITES, in mineralogy, a mineral con-isting princij)ally 
 of carbon with a little iron, and generally a little silica or alumina; 
 when pure it burns with a reddish liame, emitting beautiful sparks, 
 and a smell of sulphur, and leaving a little residuum. Its colour 
 is dark iron-grey, or brownish black ; when cut, blueish grey. 
 Opaque: structure slaty. Texture line-graiued. Brittle. Spe- 
 cific gravity about 3. i-'ecls somewhat gre.isy, stains the fingers, 
 and marks strongly. In modern chemistry it is denominated car- 
 buret <jf iron", and one of the species is plumbago; the use of 
 which, when manufactured into pencils, is knowu to every one. 
 \\ hen pure it consists of, 
 
 1)0 carbon 
 10 iron 
 
 100 
 
 GRAPHOMETET^, a inatheraatical instrument, otherwise 
 tallied a semicircle ; the use of w hioh is to observe any angle w hose 
 ■vertex is at the centre of the instrument in any plane (thougii it is 
 most commonly horizontal, or nearly so,) and to find how many 
 degrees it contains. The graphometer is a graduated semicircle, 
 ACB, (Plate LXXVIII. fig. 9 and 10,) made of wood, brass, or 
 the like, and so fixed on a fulcrum, GH, by means of a brass-ball 
 and socket, that it easily turns about, and retains any situation. 
 It has two sights fixed on its diameter, AC, and at the centre 
 there is commonly a magnetical needle and compass in a box. 
 There is likewise a moveable ruler or index, F.O, with two sights, 
 P, P, which turns round the centre, and retains any situation given 
 it. To measure by tliis instrument an angle, ACB, in any plane, 
 and comprehended between the right lines AC and BC, drawn 
 from two points, A and B, to the place of station, C, (fig. 11.) 
 Let the graphometer be placed at C, supported by its fulcrum ; 
 and let the immoveable sights on the diameter of the instrument, 
 DE, be directed towards the point, A ; and likewise while the in- 
 strument remains immoveable, let the sights of the ruler, FG, 
 wliicli is moveable about the centre, C, be directed to the point, 
 B. Now it is evident, that the moveable ruler cuts oft' an arch, 
 DG, which is the measure of the angle, ACB, sought. More- 
 over, by the same method, the inclination of DE, or of FG, may 
 be ebserved with the meridian-line, which is pointed out by the 
 magnetic needle inclosed in the box, and moveable about the 
 centre of the instrument. 
 
 GRAPNELS, a sort of anchor with four flukes, sening for 
 boats to ride by. There is also a kind called fire and chain-grap- 
 neb, made with four-barbed claws, instead of ilukes, and used to 
 catch hold of the enemy's rigging, or any other part, in order for 
 boarding them. A fire-grapnel, m some respects, resembles the 
 former, but differing in the construction of its flukes, which are 
 furnished with strong baibs on its points. These machines are 
 usually fixed on the yard-anns of a ship, to grapple any adversary 
 whom she intends to board. 
 
 GRASHOPPKK, or more properly Grasshopper, in ento- 
 mology. See Gkvllvs. 
 
 GRASON, an island in the gulf of Bothnia, near the coast of 
 Sweden, 1 j miles long, and 2 broad. Lon. 18. 20. E. Lat. 60. 
 •22. N. 
 
 GRASS, in bolany, is defined to be a plant having simple 
 leaves, a steivi generally joijited and tidjular, a luisky cahx, called 
 Gluma, and the seed single. Hence wheat, oat>, barlej, &c. are 
 properly grasses, while clover and some other similar plants are 
 jiol grasses, though so frequently called by that name. Of grass 
 
 »OL.ii.— .vo. 98. 
 
 the leaves an.- food for cattle, the small seeds for birds, and the 
 larger grain chietiy for man. And it is observable, that nature hat 
 so provided, that cattle (in grazhig) seldom eat the (lower intend- 
 ed to produce seed, unless compelled by hunger. For the cul- 
 ture of the principal sorts of grasses, see Husbandry. 
 
 GRASSK, a town of France, Ih the department of Var, and 
 late province of Provence. Lon. 6. 56. E. Lat. 43. 39. N. 
 
 GRATINGS, in a ship, are small edges o: s.iwed plank, framed 
 one into another like a lattice or prison grate, lying on the upper 
 deck, between the main-mast and fore-mast, serving for a defence 
 in a close fight, and also for the coolness, light, and conveniency, 
 of the ship's company. 
 
 GRATIOLA, Hedce-iiyssop; a genus of the monogynia or- 
 der, and diandria class of plants; natural order, I'ersonatic. Co- 
 rolla irregular; stamina, two, barren; capsule bilocular; calyx 
 seven-leaved, with the two exterior ones patulous. It has twelve 
 species. 
 
 GRATIOSA, or GRACIOSA, one of the Canary islandsv 
 Also one of the Azores. 
 
 GRATITUDE, in ethics, is a virtue disposing the mind to an 
 inward sense and outwaril acknowledgement of benrfits received. 
 Examples of ingratitude, Mr. Paley observes," check and discou- 
 rage voluntary beneficence; hence the cultivation of a grale.'ul 
 temper is a consideration of public importance. A second reason 
 for cultivating in ourselves that temper is: that the same principle 
 which is touched with the kindness of a hunian benefactor, is ca- 
 pable of being afiected by the divine goodness, and of becoming, 
 under the infiuence of that affection, a source of the purest and 
 most exalted virtue. The love of God is the sublimest gratitude. 
 It is a mistake, therefore, to imagine, that this virtue is omittca in 
 the Scriptures; for every precept, which commands us " to love 
 God, because he fii^t leved us,'' pre-supposes the principle of gra- 
 titude, and directs it to its proper object. 
 
 GRA'l'Z, or GRAZ, a handsome town of Germany, capital of 
 Stiria. Lon. 15. 26. E. Lat. 47. 4. N. 
 
 Gratz, a town of Silesia, four miles S. of Tr.''.ppau. 
 GKAUDENTZ, or GRUDFIANDS, a town of the late Po- 
 lish Prussia, and present duchy of Warsaw, in the palatinate of 
 Culm, thirty miles N. of Thorn. 
 
 GRAVE, [gror/i,] in grammar, a species of accent opposite to 
 acute. The grave accent is expressed thus ("); and shews, that 
 the voice is to be depressed, and the syllable over which it is 
 placed pronounced in a low deep tone. 
 
 Gravf, in music, is applied to a sound which is in a low or 
 deep tone. The thicker the chord or string, the ■lore grave the 
 tone or note, and the smaller the acuter. Notes are supposed to 
 be the more grave, in proportion as the vibrations of tlie chord 
 are less quick. 
 
 Grave, in the Italian music, serves to denote the slowest 
 movemeni. 
 
 Grave, m geography, a city of Batavia, in the department of 
 the Domniel and Scheldt, and late province of Dutch Brabant, 
 eight miles S. of Niineguen. 
 
 GR.V\'EL, in medicine, is a disorder aflTecting chiefly the blad- 
 der and ureters; it is occasioned by a sandy or gritty substance 
 which collects in those parts, produces considerable pain, and at 
 length obstructs the due accretion and excretion of the urine. 
 
 Gravel, in agriculture and gardening, ii a congeries of peb- 
 bles ; which, if mixed w ith stilt' loam, make excellent and durable 
 gravel-walks. For this purpose, the bottom should be laid with 
 lime-rubbish, large flints, or any other hard sub^ance, (o the depth 
 of six or eight inches, in order to prevent any weecU fiom shooting 
 through the surface. 0\crthis stratum, the gravel is to bestrew* 
 fd six or eight inches thick, and somewhat sloping, tliat all the 
 larger stones may roll ofi' to the sides. The next operation is that 
 of raking, when the large stones are to be removed, ,iiul th.e walks 
 carefully rolled in every direction, especially during or after hard 
 showei>: thus they will bind, and become very lirm. The nio-t 
 proper gravel for walk^, is that which abounds wiili smooth round 
 pebbles ; for these, when niixed with a small portion of loam, arc 
 not so liable to be turned up by the feet in walking, a* those of a 
 rough and irregular shape. 
 
 Gravelly Lands, or Soils, are such as abound widi cvavcl or 
 sand, which easily admit both lieat and moisture. Tlicv receive 
 but little bduefit from the latter, if there be a loose bed ui tite bat-
 
 G RA 
 
 638 
 
 GRE 
 
 torn, because it easily evaporates; but, if the slratuni be firm, for 
 inst.ince, cluy or stone, the inoisture is too long retained, so as to 
 cbili the sjil and render it luifriiitfiil. Tlie best inetiiod of coun- 
 teractMig this inconvenience, is to manure such land with c1ii.lk, 
 ■which is slightly to be plouglied in, that it may not sinktoo deep 
 into the ground. 
 
 GRAVELINES, a very strong town of France, in the depart- 
 ment of tlie North, and late French Flanders, twelve miles E. of 
 Calais. Latitude 50° 5y' 10" N. Longitude from Greenwich 
 2° 7' 35" E. It is higli water here at the time of the full and 
 change of the moon precisely at noonday. 
 GRAVENAC, a county of Suabia. 
 
 Graven'ac, the capital of the county, thirty miles W. of Ulm. 
 Lon.. 9. es. E. Lat. 48. 22. N. 
 GUAVER. See Engh.iving. 
 
 GKAVESANDE, William James, LL. D. and F. Tl. S. an 
 eminent mathematician, born of an ancient family at Delft in 
 Holland, in 1688. He studied the civil law at Leyden, but ma- 
 thematical learning was his favourite amusement. When he had 
 taken his degree in 1707, he settled at the Hague, and practised at 
 the bar, in which situation lie cultivated an acquaintance witli 
 learned men; with a society of whom, he published a periodical 
 review, intitled Le Journal Literaire, which was continued with- 
 out interruption from 1713 to 1742, when he died. 'J'he most 
 considerable of his works are, 1. A l^reatise on Perspective: 2. An 
 'Litroduction to the Newtonian Philosophy, or a 'J'reatise on the 
 Elements of Physics, Confirmed by Experiments: 3. A Taealise 
 on the Elements of Algebra, for the Use of Young Students: and, 
 4. A Course of Loi',ic and Metaphysics. The ministers of tlie re- 
 ])u'.j|ic consulted him on many occasions, and his skill in calcula- 
 tion was often of service to them ; as vvell as his address in decy- 
 phering the secret correspondence of their enemies. In 1715, he 
 vas sent by the States to congratulate king George I. on his ac- 
 cessio>. : and on his return was appointed professor of mathematics 
 and astronomy at Leyden, where he was the first that taught the 
 Newtonian philosophy. He was intimately acquainted with Sir 
 Isaac Newton, as well as with his doctrine. 
 
 GRAVESEND, a town of England, in Kent, situated on the 
 banks ol the Thames, twenty-three miles from London. 
 
 GR-AVIMETER, [from gwroi.?, weighty, and ftETjw, to mea- 
 sure,] an instrument ot glass constructed by Citizen Guyton Mor- 
 veau, for measuring specific gravities: he adopts this name rather 
 than either areometer or hydrometer, because these latter terms 
 lire grounded upon the supposition that a fluid is always the thing 
 weighed; whereas, with regard to solids, the liquid is the known 
 term of comparison to which the unknown weight is referred. See 
 Hydrometer, and Hydrostatics. 
 
 GRAVINA, a town of Naples, in the province of Pari. Lon. 
 17. 0. E. Lat. 41. 0. N. 
 
 GRAVITATION, in physiology, a species of attraction, or 
 the tendency of one body towards another, in consequence of a 
 'certain power or principle that is found to affect all bodies, but of 
 which the true nature has not yet been discovered. See Physics. 
 GRAVITY, signifies either the force by which bodies are 
 pressed towards the surface of the earth, or the manifest effect of 
 that force ; in which last sense the word has the same signification 
 with weight or heaviness. Concerning gravity in the first sense of 
 the word, or that active power by which all bodies are impelled 
 towards the earth, there have been great disputes. Many eminent 
 philosop'liers, and among the rest Sir Isaac Newton himself, have 
 considered it as the first of all second causes; an incorporeal or 
 spiritual substance, which ne^er can be perceived any other way 
 than by its effects: an universal properly of matter, &c. Others 
 iiave attempted to explain the pha;noniena of gravitation by the 
 ;:ction of a very subtile ethereal fluid. Sir Isaac Newton observes, 
 that bodies immei-sed in fluids have two kinds of gravity, the one 
 absolute, and the other relative. Absolute gravity is the wliole 
 force wlierewith a body lends downwards. Relative gravity is the 
 excess of gravity whereby a body tends downwards more than the 
 tluid which surrounds it. See Physics, Pneumatics, and Hy- 
 drostatics. 
 
 Gravity, Sp?xific, denotes the weight belonging to an equal 
 bulk of every difrerenl substance. Thus the exact wei^^ht of a 
 cubic inch of gold, compared with a cubic inch of water, tin, lead, 
 ^tc. is called its specific gravity, See Hvdrosxaxics, and !?pe- 
 A'lFJC Gravity. 
 
 . GRAY, or GREY; a mixed colour, partaking of black ani 
 white. In the manege they make several sorts of grays; as the 
 branded or blackened gray, which has spots quile black dispersi il 
 liere and there. 'Jlie dappled gray, which has spots of a darker 
 colour than the rest of the body. The light or silver gray7 where- 
 in there is but a small mixture of black hairs. 'I'he sad or iron, 
 gray, which has but a small mixture of white. Ami the brownish 
 or saiK'y-coloured gray, where tliere are bay-coloured hairs mixed 
 with the black. 
 
 Gray, Thomas, an admired English poet, was the youngest 
 and only surviving son ot a reputable citizen of London, and was 
 born in CornhiU m 1716. He was educated at Eton, where he 
 contracted a friendship with Mr. Horace Walpole, and with Mr, 
 Richard West, son of the Lord Chancellor of Ireland. Mr. West i 
 and Mr. Gray were both intended for the bar; but the latter was 
 diverted from that pui'suit by an invitation to accompany Mr. 
 Walpole ill his travels; which he accepted without any determin- 
 ed plan for his future life. During his travels, he wrote a variety 
 of letters to Mr. West and to his parents, which ar& printed with 
 his poems ; and when he returned, finding himself in narrow cir- 
 cumstances, yet with a mind not disposed for active employment, 
 he retired to Cambridge, and devoted himself to study. Soon 
 after his return, his friend West died; and the melancholy im- 
 pressed on him by llii'^ event may be traced in his admired elegy 
 written in a country church-yard, which is thought to have been 
 begun at this time. The first impulse of his sorrow for the death ■ 
 of his friend gave birth to a very tender sonnet in English, on the j 
 model of Petrarch; and also to a sublime apostrophe in hexamc- « 
 ters, written in genuine classical majesty, with which he inti-iided 
 to begin one of his books De Princijjiis Cogitandi. From the win- 
 ter of 1742, to his death, his print ipal residence was at Cambridge, 
 where, in 1763, he became professor of modem history. He dieii 
 of tlie gout in 1771, and was buried with his family at Stoke Po- 
 geis, in Buckinghamshire. The odes of Gray possess uncommon 
 merit, and his I'ilegy in a Country Church-yard has obtained 
 almost an unexampled run. His letters are instructive and enter- 
 taining. 
 
 GRAYS, or GRAYS-THURROCK, a town of England in 
 E-^sex, twentv-four n'i'es E. of London. 
 
 GREAT fiEAR LAKE, a water in IheK. W.part of North 
 America, which runs VV. into M'Kenzie's River, near the Arctic 
 circle. Its mouth is 250 yards wide. 
 
 Great Britain. See" Britain, England, and Scotland. 
 
 GREAVES, John, an eminent physician and antiquary, the 
 eldest sou of John Greaves rector of Colemore, near Alresford iu 
 Hampshire. He was born in 1602, and educated at Baliol Col- 
 lege in Oxford, from which he removed to Merton. He was af- 
 terwards chosen professor of geometry in Gresham College, and 
 was soon afterwards sent by archbishop Laud to the east, where he 
 made a large collection of oriental MSS. coins, and medals. He 
 also took a careful survey and measurement of the Egyptian pyra- 
 mids, and made many astronomical observations. After his return 
 in 1640 he was chosen Savilian professor of astronomy at Oxford, 
 but was obliged to resign t!ie professorship by the persecution of 
 the parliamentary visitors. He died in 1652. He wrote Pyrami- 
 dographia, or a Description of the Pyramids in Egypt; A Dis- 
 course on the Roman Foot and Denarius ; and pther valuable 
 works. 
 
 GREECE, in many respects, one of the most deservedly cele- 
 brated countries in tiie world, was anciently bounded on the N. 
 by Macedonia and the river Strymon ; on the \V. by the Ionian 
 sea; on the S. by the Mediterranean; on the E. by the Egean 
 Sea and the Archipelago. It extended from the Strymon, by which 
 il was paitod from 1 nrace, to the promontory of Tenarus, the 
 southmosl point of the Peloponnesus, now the Morea, about 6* 
 20' of latitude, or nearly 440 English miles, and in breadth from 
 E. to W. about 359 miles. The general names by which the in- 
 h:ibitants of this country were known to the ancients were those of 
 Graioi, orGraicoi, from whence the name of Greece is plainly de- 
 rived. Tlieje names are thought to come from Gra;cus, the lather, 
 or (according to some) the son, of Thessalus, who gave name to 
 Tnessaly ; but some modern critics derive it from Ruga, the same 
 with Rtii, the son of Pcleg, by the transposition of a letter to 
 soften the sound. These names were afterwards changed for 
 Ach.-ei, or Acbivi, and Hellenes, tke first, as is supposed, from 
 j^cliirus, th« son of Xuthus, the son of HcUen, and father of lon ; 
 
 or.
 
 GRE 
 
 630 
 
 GEE 
 
 or, according to the fable, the s>on of Jupiter: tlic other from Hl-I- 
 len, al)ovr-im-iUioncii, the son of Deucalion, and fatlur of Dovu^, 
 from ulioni came the Dores, afterwards a famous nation among 
 the Greeks. Another name by which the Grei ks were known in 
 some parts of the coimtry, was that of I'elassi, which the Arca- 
 tlianp, the most ancient people in Greece, deduced from their pre- 
 tended fonnder I'elasnus ; who is said to have got such looting m 
 Pelopoiuifsus, thai the whole peninsula from him was called Pe- 
 lasgia. 15ut the most ancient name of ail is univers.illy allowed to 
 have liven that of Ione«, which the Greeks themselves derived 
 I'rom Ion the son of Xuthus ; or, as the fable hatli it, of Apollo, 
 fcy Creusa the daughter of Erechtheus the grandson of Deucalion. 
 Josephus, however, alVirms, that their original is of much older 
 <iate; aiid that Javan, the son of Ja|)het, and grandson of Noah, 
 was the first who ])eo])led these countries; which l?oehart has also 
 rendered very probable. It is true, indeed, t'lat among the Crieeks 
 themselves, only the Athenians, and such colonies as sprung from 
 them, were called loiu-s; but it is also plain, beyond exception, 
 that other nations gave this name to all the inhabilants of Greece. 
 
 Greece, Modern, now called Evropf.ak Turkey, and by 
 the Turks Rumelia, comprehends Macedonia; Albania, now 
 called Arnaut; Epirus, Thossaly, nowJana; Achaia, now Liva- 
 dia; the Peloponnesus, now Morea; together with the islands on 
 its coasts, and in the Archipelago. The air is extremely temperate 
 and healthy: and the soil fVuiUul, though badly euhivated; yield- 
 ing corn, wine, delicious fruits, and abouudipg with cattle, fowls, 
 and venison. 
 
 GREEK CHINCH, is that part of the Chri-tian church which 
 is established in Greece; extending likewise to some other parts ■ 
 of Turkey. It is so called, in conlradistinction from the Eatm or 
 Romish church ; al>o the Eastern Church, in distinction from the 
 Western. The Romanists call the Greek church the Grtek 
 Schism; because the Greeks do not allow the authoritv of the 
 pope, but de|)eiid wholly, as to matters of religion, on thi'ir own 
 patriarch-!. They have treated them as schismatics ever since the 
 revolt, as they call it, cf the patriarch I'hotius. ' 
 
 Greek Language, as preserved in the writings of the cele- 
 brated authors of antiquity. Homer, Hesiod, Demosthenes, Aris- 
 totle, Plato, Xeno))hon, &c. has a great variety of terms and ex- 
 pressions, suitable to the genius and occasions of a polite and learn- 
 ed people, who had a taste for arts and sciences. In it, proper 
 names ai"e signilicative; which is the reason that the modern lan- 
 guages borrow so many terms from it. When any new invention, 
 instrument, machine, or the like, is discovered, recourse is gene- 
 rally had to the Greek for a name to it; the facility wherewith 
 words are there compounded, aflbrding such as will be expressive 
 of its use ; such are, barometer, hygrometer, microscope, tele- 
 scope, &c. But of all sciences, medicine most abounds with such 
 terms; as diaphoretic, diagnosis, diarrhoea, hemorrhage, hydro- 
 phobia, phthisis, atrophy, &c. 
 
 Greek Orders, in architecture, arc the Doric, Ionic, and Co- 
 rinthian; in contradistinction to the two Latin orders, the Tuscan 
 and Composite. See Architecture. 
 
 GREEN, is one of the original prismatic colours, exhibited by 
 the refraction of the rays of light. See Colour, and Optics. 
 1 lie green colour of plants has been shewn, by the French che- 
 mists, to depend upon the absorption of carbonic acid, and it is 
 sujjposed that the leaves of ])Iants have the power of decomposing 
 the carbonic acid and water also ; the oxygen they emit, while the 
 carbon and hydrogen enter into the composilion of the intlamma- 
 ble parts of tiie plant. 
 
 G«een, among painters and dyers. See Colour-jiaking and 
 Dyikg. 
 
 Green Briar, a fertile and extensive county of Virginia, sur- 
 rounded by those of Bath, Randolph, Harrison, Kanhaway, Bote- 
 tourt, and .Montgomery. 
 
 GREENCASTLE, a flourishing town of Pennsylvania, in 
 Franklin county. 
 
 GREEN-CLOTH,, aboard or court of justice, held in the 
 conipting-house of the king's household, composed of the lord 
 steward, and officers under him, who sit daily. To this court is 
 committed the charge and oversight of the king's household in 
 matters of justice anvl g(>venimei:t, with a power to torrect all of- 
 fenders, and to maintain the peace of the verge, or jurisdiction of 
 the court royal; which is every way about two h'.mdred yards 
 
 Irom the lust gate of the piluce wliere his majesty resides. It lakes 
 its name, board of green cloth, from a green cloth spread over th« 
 board where they sit. Without a warrant first obtained from 
 this court, none of the king's servants can be arrested for debt. 
 
 Gkeen-Finch, in onnlliology. See Frin'gii.la. 
 
 ,Green'house, or Conservatory, a houae in a garden, con* 
 trived for sheltering and preserving the most curious and tender 
 exotic plants, which in our climate will not bear to be exposed to 
 the open air, especially <luring the winter-season. These are ge- 
 nerally large and beautilul slru; tures, equally ornamental and use- 
 ful. Their length must be proportioned to the number of plants 
 intended to be preserved in them, and cannot therefore be re- 
 duced to rule; but their depth should never be greater than their 
 heighth in the clear; which, in small or middling houses, may be 
 sixteen or eighteen feet, but in large ones from tv. enty to twenty- 
 four feet ; and the length of the windows should reach from about 
 one foot and a half above the pavement, and within the same dis- 
 tance of the ceiling, whicli will admit of a corniche round the 
 building over the heads of the windows. 
 
 GREENLAND, a general name given to the most easterly 
 parts of America, stretching towards the north pole, and compre- 
 liending some islands to the north of Europe, lying in very 
 high latitudes. This country is divided into West and East Green- 
 land. 
 
 i. Greenland, East, was long considered as a part of the con- 
 tinent of West Greenland, but is now discovered to be an assem- 
 blage of islands lying between 76" 4l>' and S0° 3U' lat. N. and be- 
 tween 9° and 20° Ion. E. It was discovered by sir Hugh Wil- 
 loughby in 1553, who called it Groenland ; supposing it to be a 
 part of the western continent In 1595, it was again visited by 
 William Barentz and John Cornelius, two Dutchmen, who pre- 
 tended to be the original discoverers, and called the country 
 Spitzbergen, or Sharp Mountains, from the many sharp-pointed 
 and rocky mountains with which it abounds. They alleged that 
 the coast discovered by sir Hugh Willoughby was some other 
 country; which according to the Hollanders was delineated oji 
 their maps and charts by the name of Willoughby land; whereas,* 
 in fact, no such land ever existed ; and long before the voyage of 
 these Dutchmen, Stephen Barrows, an English shipmaster, had 
 coasted along a desolate country from lat. TS" to 80" 1 1' N. which 
 was undoubtedly Spitzbergen. The sea in the neighbourhood of 
 the islands of Spitzbergen abounds very much with whales. It is 
 the common resort of the whale-fishing ships from different coun- 
 tries, and the country itself is frequently visited by these ships ; 
 but till the late voyage of captain Phipps, by order of his'Ma- 
 jestv, the situation of it was erroneously laid down. It was ima- 
 gined that the land stretched to the northward as far as 82° .N. lat. 
 but captain Phipps found the most northerly point of land, called 
 Seven Islands, not to exceed 81° 30'. Towanls the east he saw 
 other lands at a distance, so that Spitzbergen plainly appeared to 
 be surrounded by water on that side, and not joined to the conti- 
 nent of Asia, as former navigators had supposed. He also ex- 
 j.lored the north and west coasts, but was prevented by the ice 
 from sailing so far north as he wished. The coast ajjpeared nei- 
 ther habitable nor accessible. It is formed of high, bairen, black 
 rocks, without the least marks of vegetation; in many places bare 
 and pointed ; in others covered with snow appearing even above 
 the clouds. The valleys between the high cliffs were filled with 
 snow and ice. " This prospect," says captain Phipps, " would 
 have suggested the idea of perpetual w inter, had not the mildness 
 of the wxather, the smooth water, bright sun-shine, and constant 
 day-light, given a cheerfulness and novelty to tiie whole of this ro- 
 mantic scene." The current ran along this coast half a knot an 
 hour north. The height of one mountain seen here was found by 
 geometrical mensuration to the 1503J, or 1503-,'*; feet. By a ba- 
 rometer constructed after De Luc's method, the height was found 
 to be 15SSL feet. On this occasion captain Phipps remarks, "I 
 cannot account for the great difference between ti.e geometrical 
 measure and the barometricid according to M. de Luc's calcula- 
 tion, w hich amounts to 84-7 feet. 1 have no reason to doubt the 
 accuracy of Dr. Irving's observations, which were made with great 
 care. As to the geometrical measure, the agrecn.ent of so manv 
 triangles, each of which must have discovered even the smalleit 
 error, is the most satisfactory proof of ils correctness. Since mv 
 return I have tried both the theodolite and barometer, to discover 
 
 whether
 
 ORE 
 
 640 
 
 GRE 
 
 whellierllicre was any fault in either; and find them, upon trial, 
 as I had always done'beforc, very accurate." 
 
 ii. Greenlakd, West, is now determined by our latest map? 
 to be a part of the continent of America. That part of it which 
 tlie Europeans liave any knowledge of is bounded on the west by 
 Baflin's Bav, on the south by Davis's Straits, and on tlie east by 
 the northern part ot tlie Atlantic Ocean. It is very mountaiiWus, 
 and some part^ of it are so liigh, that they can be discerned thirty 
 leagues off from sea. I'hc inland mountains, hills, and rucks, are 
 covered witli per|)etual snow ; but the low lands on the sea-side are 
 clothed with verdure iu summer. The coast abounds with inlets, 
 bays, and large rivers, and is surrounded with a vast number ot 
 islands of difl'ereut dimension-. Greenland is thought to contain 
 many mines of metal, tliougli none of them are wrought. To the 
 southward of the Danish colony are some appearaiices of a mine 
 of copper. This country produces rock-crystals both red and 
 white, and w Iiole mountains of the asbestos, or incombustible llax. 
 Around the colony, wliich is called Good Hope, they lind a kmd 
 of bastard marble of various colours, which the natives form into 
 bowls, lamps, pots, &c. The animals which abound most in 
 Greenland are, rein-deer, foxes, hares, dogs, and wliite bears. 
 The hares are white, and very fat ; the foxes are white, greyisli, and 
 blueish; and smaller than those of Denmark and Norway. The 
 natives keep a great number of dogs, which are large, white, or 
 speckled, and rough, with upright ears. They are timorous and 
 stupid; and neither bay nor bark, but sometimes howl dismally. 
 The natives yoke them" in sledges ; which, though heavy laden, 
 they will draw on tlie ice at the rate of seventy miles ui a short 
 winter's day. Thi-se poor animals are very ill rewarded for their 
 service; being left to provide for themselves, except \\ lien their 
 masters hapjien to catch a great number of seals, when they are 
 regaled with the blood and entrails. Greenland is frequented 
 by great numbers of ravens, eagles of a prodigious size, falcons, 
 and other birds of prev ; besides a kind of linnets, which warble 
 very melodiously. Whales, sword-fish, porpoises, sea-cows, sea- 
 wolves, &c. abound on the coasts; also holybuts, turbots, cod, 
 haddocks, &.-C. 
 
 GREENOCK, a sea-port town of Scotland, in Renfrewshire, 
 and one of the iiorts of Glasgow, 'J3 miles W. of that city. 
 
 GKEENSBOROUGII, a post-town of Georgia, 30 miles from 
 Lexington, and 71 W. by S. of Augusta. 
 
 GREENSBL'RG, a "post-town of Pennsylvania, capital of 
 Westmoreland county, 31 miles S.E. by E. of Fittsburg. 
 GREENSICKNESS. See Medicine. 
 GREENSVILLE, a county of Virginia, bounded on the west, 
 north, and east, by Brunswick, Soutliampton, and Sussex coun- 
 ties. 
 
 GREENVILLE, a county of South Carolina, in Washington 
 district, bounded on the east and south by Spartanburg and Pen- 
 dleton counties. 
 
 Greenville, or Greensville, a town of South Carolina, iu 
 Darlington comity, 135 miles N. bv E. of Charlestown. 
 
 Greenville, a post-town of North Carolina, 23 miles from 
 Washington. 
 
 GREEN WAX, is used where estates are delivered to the she- 
 rids out of the exchequer, under the seal of that court, made in 
 green wax, to be levied in the several counties. It is mentioned 
 in the 4od stat. Ed. III. c. 9, and 7 Hen. IV. c. 4. 
 
 GREENWICH, a town of England in Kent, pleasanllv situ- 
 ated on the banks of the Thames, 5 miles E. of London. It had 
 formerly a royal palace, built by Humphry, duke of Gloucester, 
 enlarged by Henry VII. and completed by HenryVlII. The latter 
 often chose this town for his place of residence ; as did also queen 
 Mary and Elizabeth, who were born in it. D. Humphrey began 
 a tower on the top of tlie steep hill in the park, which was finished 
 by Henry ^'ll. but afterwards demolished, and a royal observa- 
 tory erected in its place by Charles II. furJiished with malhemati- 
 tal uistnnuents for astronomical observations, and a deep dry well 
 J'or observing the stars in the day-time. Lat. of the Observatory, 
 51° 2S' 40" N. Lon. from St. P.iul's, London, 0°5' 47" E. 
 
 GREGOIE, an island of Africa, in the Jaquin, on the Gold 
 Coast, where the Europeans have factories; 3 miles from the sea. 
 GREGORIAN CALENDAR, that which shews the new and 
 full moon, with the time ot Easter, and tlie moveable feasts de- 
 pending thereon, by means of epacts disposed through the several 
 jiipiitks of the Gtegbrian year. Sec Chronology, 
 
 Gregorian Style, the New Style, now used, which succeed- 
 ed the Julian style, in Britain in 1752. See Chronology. 
 Gregorian Telescope. See Optics. 
 Gkegorian Year. See Chronology. 
 GKEGORIO, St. an island of Maritime Austria, in the pro- 
 vince of Quarnaro, three miles long, and half a mile broad. The 
 natives deal chietly in sheep, of which there are 2,500 on the 
 island. 
 
 GREGORY XIII. was a native of Bologna, and succeeded 
 Pius V. in 1572. He was the most deeply versed in the canon 
 and civil law of any in his tin>e. He ornamented Rome witli 
 many fine buildings, and several fountains. He corrected Gra- 
 tian's Decretals, and wrote learned notes on them. But his chief 
 merit lies in bringing about the reform of tlie Calendar, which was 
 effected under his orders, by Lewis Lilio, a Roman physician. 
 See Chronology. A short time before he died he received am- 
 bassailors from Japan, acknowledging the authority of the Holy 
 See. He died in 15S5, aged 83. 
 
 Gregory, David, F. R. S. Savilian professor of astronomy 
 at Oxford, whom Dr. Smith has termed " subtilissimi ingenii ma- 
 theniaticus," the nephew of James Gregory abovementioiied, wa» 
 born at Aberdeen in 1661, and received the earlier parts of liis edu- 
 cation in that city. He completed his studies at Edinburgh^ 
 and, being possessed of the mathematical papers of his uncle, soon 
 distinguished himself likewise as the heir of his genius. In the 
 -3d year of his age, he was elected professor of mathematics in the 
 university of Edinburgh ; and published, in the same year, Ex- 
 ercitatio Gcoir.etrica de Diniensionc Figurarnm sive Specimen 
 Methodi generalisdimetiendi quasvis Figuras, Edinburgh; 1684; 
 4lo. He saw very early the excellence of the Newtonian philo- 
 sophy ; and had the merit of being the first who introduced it info 
 the schools by his public lectures at Edinburgh. " He had (savs 
 Mr. Whiston) already caused several of his scholars to keep acts, 
 as we call them, upon several branches of the Newtonian philoso- 
 phy ; whilst we at Cambridge, poor wretches, were ignominiously 
 studying the fictitious hypotlie>is of the Cartesians." In 1691, on 
 the report of Dr. Bernard's intention of resigning the Savilian 
 professorship of astronomy at Oxford, David Gregory went to Lon- 
 don; and being patronised by Sir Isaac Newton, and warmly be- 
 friended by Mr. Flamsteed, he obtained the vacant professorship, 
 for wliich Dr. Halley was a competitor. This rivalship, however, 
 instead of animosity, laid the foundation of Iriendsliip between these 
 eminent men; and Halley soon after became the colleague of 
 Gregory, by obtaining the professorship of geometry in the sanve 
 university. Soon after his arrival in London, Mr. Gregory hadv 
 been elected F. R. S. and, previously to his election into the Sa- 
 vilian professorship, had the degree ot M. D. conferred on him by 
 the university of Oxford. In 1693, he published in the Philoso- 
 phical Transactions a resolution of the Florentine problem de Tes- 
 tudiiic veliformi quadribili ; and he continued to communicate to 
 the public, from time to time, many ingenious mathematical papers 
 by thesamechamiel. In 1695, he printed atlOxford " Catoptrics; vt 
 Dioptrica; Spherics: Elenienta," a work which contains the substance 
 of some of his public lectures at Edinburgh. This valuable trea- 
 tise was republished first with additions by Dr. William Brown, 
 with the recommendation of Mr. Jones and Dr. Desaguliers; and 
 afterwards by the latter, witli an appendix containing an account 
 of the Gregorian and Newtonian telescopes, together with Mr. 
 Hadley's tables for the construction of both those instruments. 
 In the end of this treatise, there is an observation which shews, thatj 
 what is generally believed to be a discovery of a much later date 
 the construction of achromatic telescopes, which has been carrie 
 to great pertection by Mr. Dollond and Mr. Ramsden, had oc-" 
 curred to the mind of David Gregory, from the retlection on the 
 admirable contrivance -of nature in combining the different hu- 
 mours of the eye. See Catopt. et Diopt. Splixr. Elem. Oxon. 
 1695, p. 98. Ill 1702, our author published at Oxfor<l, " Astro- 
 nomia; Physical et Geometries Elementa;" a work wliich is ac- 
 counted his master-piece. It is founded on the Newtonian doc- 
 trines, anil was esteemed by Sir Isaac Newton hiinselfasamo 
 excellent explanaticn and defence of.his philosojihy. In 1703, 
 published a folio edition of Euclid in Greek and Latin. In tlijS 
 work, although it contains all the treatises attributed to Euclid,! 
 Dr. Gregory has been careful to point out such as he found reasoji,' 
 from internal evidence, to be the production of some inferior geo- ^ 
 metrician. Dr. Gregory engaged, soon after, wiUi his colleague J 
 
 Halley, 

 
 GRE 
 
 641 
 
 GRE 
 
 HallfV, in tilt! publif'atiou nf Apolloiiius's L-oiiics, Uiil h.- i>„J .,..i 
 proceeded far in llii-; iii"iertHKiiii; \\\\>:\\ lie died, in tlic 49tli year 
 of his age, at Maidcniiead in Berksliire, A. D. 1710. To llie 
 genius and abdilies of Dav'ul Gri;':;ory, tlie most ci'lcliratcd mathe- 
 maticians of tlie age, Sir [ aac Neuton, Dr. Hailey, and Dr. Keill, 
 have given a. jjjle testimonies. Besides thuse works publislii-'d in 
 his hielmie, he left hi MS. " A Short Treatise of the Nature ami 
 Arithmetic of Logarithms," which s printed at the end of Dr. 
 Keill's translation of Conmiandine's Euclid ; and " A Trpati^e of 
 Practical Geometry," wh'ch was afterwards translated, and pub- 
 lished in 1745, by Mr. .Maclanrin. He marrieil, iji 169.'), Elisa- 
 beth, the (laughter ot Mr. Olipliant of Langtown. By this lady 
 he li.id four sons, of whom, the eldest, David, was appointed regius 
 professor of modern hisiory at O.\iord by king George I. and died 
 ill 1767, in an advanced age, after enjoy iii" for many years the dig- 
 nity ol dean of Christ church m that unKwsily. 
 
 Gregory, James, F. R. S. one of the most eminent mathema- 
 ticians of the 17lii century, was the second son of the Itev. Mr. 
 Gregory, and was born at Aberdeen in 1633. His mother was a 
 daughter of Mr. David Alulerson of Finzaugh, a gentleman who 
 possessed a singular turn for mathematics. This iiiathenialical 
 genius would seem to have been hereditary in the family. Alex- 
 ander Anderson, cousin-gernian of David, was professor of niathe- 
 iiiatics at Paris, and published there in 1611', " Supplementum 
 Apollonii Redivivi, Sec." The mother of James Gregory inherited 
 the genius of her family; and observing in her son, while yet a 
 child, a strong propensity to mathematics, she instructed him her- 
 self in the elements of that science. He received his education in 
 the languages at Aberdeen, and went through the usual course of 
 academical studies in the Marischal college. At the age of 24 he 
 published his treatise, entitled, " Optica Promota, sen abdita Ra- 
 diorum Reliexorum et Refrartorum Mysteria, Geoinetrice enu- 
 cleata ; cui Subnectitur Appendix Subtilissinioriim A5tionomi;E 
 Probleiiialoruni Resolutioneni Exhibens ;" London, 1663 : a work 
 of great genius, in which he gave the world an invention of his 
 own, and one of the most valuable of the modern discoveries, the 
 construction of the retiecting telescope. This discovery attracted 
 the attention of the mathematicians, who were soon convinced of 
 its great importance to the sciences of optics and astronomy. The 
 manner of placing the two specula upon the same axis appearing to 
 Sir Isaac Newton to be attended with the disad'antage of losing 
 the central rays of the larger speculum, he proposed an improve- 
 ment on the instrument, by giving an oblique position to the smaller 
 speculum, and placing the eye-glass in the side of the tube. But 
 the Newtonian construction of that instrnment has been long aban- 
 doned for the original or Gregorian, wh.ich is now universally em- 
 ployed where the instrument is of a moderate size ; though Mr. 
 Herschel has preferred the New'tonian form for the construction 
 of those immense telescopes, which of late years he has so success- 
 fully employed in observing the heavens. The university of Pa- 
 dua being then in high reputation for mathematical studies, James 
 Gregory went thither soon after the publication of his first work ; 
 anil lixing his residence there for some years, he published in 1667, 
 "Vera Circuli et Hyperboles Quadratura;" in which he pro- 
 pounded another discov ery of his own, the invention of an inti- 
 nitelv converging series for the areas of the circle and hyperbole. 
 To these, when republished in 1668, he added a ne v work, in- 
 titled, " GeometriiE Pars Universalis, inserviens Quantilatuiii Cur- 
 varum Transmutatioiii et Mensurs:" in which he is allowed to 
 have shewn, for the lir.t time, a method for Ihe transmutation of 
 curves. These works attracted the notice, and the correspondence, 
 of the greatest mathematicians of the age, N<'wton, Huygens, 
 Hailey, and Wallis; and their author being soon after chosen 
 F. R. S, of London, contributed to enrich the Philosophical Trans- 
 actions by many valuable papers. 'I'hrough this channel, lie car- 
 ried on a dispute with Mr. Huygens, occasioned by his treatise on 
 the quadrature of the circle and hyperbole, to which that able 
 mathematician had started some objections. Of this controversy, 
 it is sufficient to say, that, in llie opinion of Leibnitz, (who how- 
 ever allows Mr. C!.regory the highest merit,) Mr. Huygens has 
 pointed out, though not errors, some considerable deficiencies in 
 the treatise above mentioned, and shewn a much simpler method 
 of attaining the end in view, in 166S, Mr. Gregory published at 
 London his •' Exercitationes Geometries," which contributed 
 itili to extend his reputation. About this time ke was elected pro- 
 
 voL. 11. — Ko. !>9. 
 
 lessor of n.ithemntics in the university of S. .\iidrew's ; an ollice 
 which he held for six years. During his residence there, he mar- 
 ried, in 1669, Mary, the daughter of George Jameson the cele- 
 brated painter, whom Mr. Walpole has termed the Vandyke of 
 Scotland. In 1674, he was called to till the inatlieniatical chair in 
 the university of Edinburgh. This place he had held for little 
 more than a year, when, in October 1675, being employed in 
 shewing the satellites of Jupiter through a telescope to some of 
 his pupils, he was suddenly struck with total blindness, and died 
 a few days after, at the early age of 37. He was a man of an 
 acute and penetrating genius. His temper seems to have been 
 warm, as appears tVoui his dispute with Mr. Huygens; and, con- 
 scious perhaps of his own merits as a discoverer, he seems to have 
 been jealous of losing any portion of his reputation by the im- 
 provements of others upon his inventions. 
 
 (iKEGORY, John, a phy^ician, was born in 1724, at Aberdeen, 
 where his father. Dr. James Gregory, was professor of medicine in 
 King's college. After studying at his native place he removed to 
 Edinburgh, and from thence to Leydeii. In 1745 he obtained the 
 degree of doctor of physic, and became -jirofessor of philosophy 
 at Aberdeen, which he exchanged in 1749 for that of physic. 
 About 1751 he settled in London, and was chosen a fellow of the 
 Royal Society. In 1764 he removed to Edinburgh, where in 1766 
 he was elected professor of physic. He died in 1773. His works 
 are, on the " Duties and Ollices of a Physician," Svo. ; "Ele- 
 ments of the Practice of Physic," Svo. ; " A Father's Legacy to 
 his daughters," 12mo. All his pieces have been collected into 
 four vols. Svo. 
 
 GRIEFSWALD, a town of Swedish Pomerania, on tlie Rik, 
 15 miles S. E. of Stralsiind. 
 
 GRENx\DA, one of the Caribbee islands. It is the last of the 
 Windward Caiibbees ; and lies 30 leagues N. of New Andalusia, 
 on the continent. According to some, it is 24 leagues in com- 
 pass; according to others, only 22. It is 28 miles long, and in 
 some places 15 broad. The chief port, formerly called Louis, 
 now St. George's, stands on the W. side of the island, in the mid- 
 dle of a large bay, with a sandy bottom. It is said that 1000 
 barks, from 300 to 400 tons, may ride secure from storms ; and 
 that 100 ships, of 1000 tons each, may be moored in the harbour. 
 The island abounds with game, fish, and very fine timber. A 
 l.jke on a high mountain, about the middle of the island, supplies 
 it with streams of fresh water. On the lOlh June 1796, the French 
 commandant, Jossey, surrendered all the French posts in this island 
 by capitulation to the British under Gen, Abercrombie. At this 
 liine the British obtained complete possession on the l9tliJune; 
 since to this island, which before had been in a distracted state, tran- 
 quillity has been restored. Lat. of Fort Roval In this island, 12' 
 2' 54" 'N. Lon. from Greenwich, 61° 51' 15" W. 
 
 GRENADE, [from pomii/n granatum, Lat.] a little hollow 
 globe or ball of iron, or other metal, about two inches and a half 
 in diameter, which, being filled with line powder, is set on lire by 
 means of a small fusee fastened to the touch-hole; as soon as it is 
 kindled, the case flies into many shatters, much to the damage of 
 all that stand near it. Grenades, or Grenadoes, are thrown by the 
 grenadiers into those places where the men stand thick, particu- 
 larly into trenches and other lodgements made by the enemy. 
 They were invented about 1594. The author of' the Military 
 Dictionary has the following remark on the use of Grenades: 
 " Grenades have unaccountably sunk into disuse, but I am per- 
 suaded there is nothing more proper than to have grenades to throw 
 among the cni-my who have jumped into the ditch. During the 
 siege of Cassel, under Count de La Lippe, in the campaign of 
 1762, a young engineer undertook to carry one of the outworks 
 with a much smaller detachment than one which had been re- 
 pulsed, and succeeded with ease from the use of grenades; which 
 IS a proof that they should not be neglected, either in the attack or 
 defence of posts.'' The word Grenade takes its rise from the slujil 
 being filled w ith grains of powder as a pomegranate is with kernels. 
 
 G RENADl ERS are armed with a swurd, a firelock, a bayonet, 
 and a pouch full of hand-grenades. They wear h'gh caps, are 
 generally the tallest and briskest fellows, and are always the first 
 upon all attacks. Every battalion of toot has generally a company 
 of them ; or else four or live grenadiers belong to each company 
 of the battalion, which, on division, are drawn out, and form a 
 company of themselves. These alwaystakellieright of the battplion. 
 8 A ORENAILLE .
 
 GRE 
 
 64!2 
 
 GRT 
 
 GRENAILLK, a name given by the Frencli writers to a pre- 
 }»ratioii of copper, wliicli the Chinese use as a red colour in 
 *onie of their finest china, particularly for that colour which is called 
 oil-red or in red-oil. 
 
 GRENOBLE, atown of France, in the department of Isere, 
 and late province of Dauphiny, anciently called Accusiorum Co- 
 lonia. Lat. 45° 1 1' 42" N. Lon. from Greenwieh 5° 43' 34" E. 
 
 GRESHAM, Sir Thomas, an opulent merchant In London, 
 descended from an ancient family of Norfolk. He was born in 
 1519. His father was king's agent at Antwerp, for taking up 
 money of the merchants. Being appointed to the same office, he,' 
 in 1551, removed lo that city with his family. This employment 
 was suspended on the accession of queen Mary, but, on proper re- 
 presentation, was restored to him again. Queen Elizabeth knight- 
 ed him, and made him Iier agent in foreign parts. About this 
 time, he built a large mansion-houae on the W. side of Bishops- 
 gate-street, since named Greshani College. His fatlier had pro- 
 posed l)uilding a house or exchange for the merchants to meet in, 
 instead of walking in the open street; but Sir Thomas went be- 
 yond his father: he offered, if the citizens would provide a proper 
 piece of ground, to build a house at his ownexpcnce; which 
 being accepted, he fulfilled his promise after the plan of the ex- 
 change at Antwerp. On the 29th of Jan. 1570, when the new 
 edifice was opened, the (lueen came and dined with the founder; 
 and caused a herald with a trumpet to proclaim it by the name of 
 the Royal Exchange. In pursuance also of a promise to endow a 
 college for the profession ot the st- ven liberal sciences, he made a 
 testamentary disposition of his house in London for that purpose, 
 now Gresham College. He left several other benefactions, and 
 died in 1579. He had a mind every way suited to his fortune, 
 generous and benign ; ready to perform good actions, and encou- 
 rage them in others. He was a great friend and patron of the cele- 
 brated martyrologist, John Fox. He was well acquainted with 
 the ancient and several modern languages; he bad a very 
 oomprehensive knowledge of all atTairs relating to commerce, 
 foreign and domestic ; and his success was equal to it, being 
 esteemed the highest commoner in England, in his time. He 
 transacted queen Elizabeth's mercantile aliairs so constantly, that 
 he was called " the royal merchant ;" and his house was sometimes 
 appointed for the reception of foreign princes, upon their first ar- 
 rival in London. 
 
 GRETNA GREEN. See Graitney. 
 
 GREWIA, in botany, a genus of the polyandria order, and gy- 
 nandria class of plants; natiural order, Columniferi. Calyx penta- 
 phyllous; petals live, each with a nectariferous scale at the base ; 
 berry quailrilocular. There are thirteen species. 
 
 GREY, Lady Jane, a mo't illustrious and unfortunate lady, 
 descended of the blood royal of England by both parents, was the 
 eldest dauffhter of Henry Grey marcjuis of Dorset, and Frances 
 the daughter of Charles Brandon lord Sullblk, by Mary the dow- 
 ager of Lewis XII. king of France, who was the youngest daughter 
 of Henry VIL king of England. She was born in 1537, at Broad- 
 gate, her father's seat in Leicestershire. She discovered an early 
 propensity to all kinds of literature; and having a fine genius, im- 
 proved under the tuition of Mr. Elmer, she made a most surprising 
 progress in the languages, arts, and sciences. She understood per- 
 fectly botli kinds of philosophy, and could express herself very 
 properly in Latin and Greek; and Sir Thomas Chaloncr (iii 
 Strypp's Memorials, Vol. 111. p. 93,) says, that she was well versed 
 in Hebrew, Chaldee, Arabic, French, and Italian. He adds, 
 that " she played well on instrumental music, writ a curious hand, 
 aud was excellent at the needle;" and that she accompanied her 
 musical instruments with a voice exquisitely sweet, assisted by all 
 the graces that art could bestow. In 1553, the dukes of Suh'olk 
 and N'orthumberland, who were now, after the fall of Somerset, 
 arrived at the height of power, began, on the decline of king Ed- 
 ward's licalth, to think how to prevent that reverse oi fortune which, 
 as things then .^tood, they foresaw must happen upon his death. 
 To obtain this end, no other remedy was judgeil sufficient but a 
 change in the succession of the crown, and transferring it intotheir 
 own families, by rendering Lady Jane queen. Those most excel- 
 lent and amiable qualities, which had rendered her dear to all who 
 had the happiness to know her, joined to her near affinity to the 
 king, subjected her to become the cliief tool of an ambition not 
 her own. With this view she was married to lord Guildford Dud- 
 
 ley, fourth son of the duke of Northumberland, without discover 
 ing to her the real design of the match ; which y\'as celebrated with 
 great pomp in the end of May ; and was so much to the king's 
 satisfaction, that he contributed bounteously to the expence of it 
 from the royal wardrobe. Edward VI. died in July following; 
 and Lady Jane, with infinite reluctance, overpowerecf by the soli- 
 citations of her ambitious friends, allowed herselflo be proclaimed 
 queen of England, on the strength of a deed extorted from that 
 prince by her father-in-law the duke of Northumberland, which set 
 aside the succession of queen Mary, queen Elizabeth, and Mary 
 
 queen of Scots. Her regal pageantry continued but a few days. 
 Queen Mary's hereditary right prevailed ; and the unfortunate 
 Lady Jane Grey and her husband were committed to the Tower, 
 
 and on the 13th Nov. arraigned and found guilty of high treason. 
 On the 12th February following they were both beheaded on 
 Tower-hill. Her magnanimity in this dreadful scene was astonish- ' 
 ing. Immediately before her execution, she addressed herself to 
 the weeping multitude with amazing composure and coherency ; 
 and died in charity with that wretched world which she had so 
 much reason to execrate. Thus diil the pious Mary begin her 
 r°igii with the murder of an innocent young creature of 18 ; who 
 for simplicity of manners, purity of heart, and extensive learning, 
 was hardly ever equalled in an) age or country. But, alas ! Jane . 
 was an obstinate Afre^/c' Fleckenliani, Mary's chaplain, visited 
 her in the tower and tried to convert her to the catholic faith, but 
 found her by far his superior in argument. Her writings are, 
 1. Four Latin Epistles ; three to Bullenger, and one to her sister 
 lady Catharine. The last w.is written the night before her execu- 
 tion, in a blank leaf of a Greek Testament. These letters are 
 printed in a work entitled Epistola; Helveticas Reformatoribus, vel - 
 ad eosscripts, &c. Tiguri, 1742, 8vo. 2. Her Conference with 
 Fleckenham. Ballard. 3. A letter to Dr. Harding, her father's 
 ch.iplain. Printed in the Phoenix, vol. ii. p. 28. 4. A Prayer for 
 her own Use during her Confinement. In Fox's Acts and monu- 
 ments. 5- Four Latin verses; written in prison with a pin. They 
 are as follows : 
 
 Non aliena putes, homini qux abtingere possunt : 
 Sors hodierna mihi, tunc erit ilia tibi. 
 
 Jane Dudley. 
 Deo juvante, nil nocet livor mains : 
 
 Et non juvante, nil juvat labor gravis. 
 
 Post fenebras spero luceni. 
 
 9. Her speech on the Scaffold. Ballard. It began thus: '-My 
 Lords, and you good Christian people who come to see me die ; 
 1 am under a law, and by that law, as a never-erring judge,. I am 
 condemned to die: not for any thing I have offended tjie queen's 
 majesty; for I will wash my hands guiltless tnereof, and deliver 
 to my God a soul as pure from such trespass as innocence from 
 injustice ; but only lor that 1 consented to the thing I was enforced 
 unto, constraint making the law believe 1 did that which 1 never ' 
 understood." iS.:c — Hollingshed, Sir Richaril Baker, Bale, and 
 Vo\, tell us that she wrote several other things, but do not men- * 
 tion where they are to be found. 
 
 Grey, Richard, D. D. a learned English divine, born in 
 1693, and educated at the university of Oxford, where he took the 
 degree of M. A. in 1719. He obtained the rectories ofKilncote 
 in Leicestershire aiulHindon in Northamptonshire, with other be- 
 nefices. He published many sermons and religious tracts ; be- 
 sides the following: 1. MemoriaTcchnica, or a New Method of 
 Artificial Memory ; of which the first edition was printed in 1730, 
 and a fourth in 1756. 2. A System of English Ecclesiastical Law, 
 8vo. 1741. 3. The miserable and distracted State of Religion 
 in England, upon the Downfall of the Church established ; 8vo. 
 1736. 4. A new and easy Method of learning Hebrew without 
 Points, 1738. 5. Historia Josephi, and 6. Paradigmata Verborum, 
 1739. 7. Liber Johi, 1742. 8. Answer lo Warburton's Re- 
 marks, 1744. 9. Nova Methodus Hebraice discendi, &c. 1751, 
 
 10. A Translation of Mr. H. Browne's poem, De Animi Immor- 
 talitate. He was married ; and died Feb. 28, 1771, aged 78, leav- 
 ing several daughters. 
 
 Grey-Hounu. See Canis. 
 
 GRIAS, in botany, a genus of the monogynia order, and poly- 
 andria class of jjlants : corolla four-petaled ; calyx four-cleft ; 
 stigma sessile, cross-shaped ; drupe with an eight-furrowed nu- 
 cleus. There is but one species, viz. G. cauliflora, anchovy- 
 4 pear.
 
 GR r 
 
 645 
 
 G R ( ) 
 
 pear. This tree is about fifty feet in height, branching at the top ; 
 leaves on sliort petioles, pendulous, two or three feet long ; flowers 
 from the stem, on short, scaly, many-flowered peduncles. It is 
 a native of Jamaica. 
 
 GRIEF, one of the passions, the influenre of wliich on the 
 body is very great. Its elVects resemble in several instances those 
 of fear, with, however, some variations, owing perhaps to its 
 being in general of longer duration. Grief diminishes the bodily 
 strength in general, and particularly the foice of the heart and cir- 
 culation ; as appears by the frequent sighs and deep respirations 
 which attend it, which seem to be necessary exertions, in order to 
 promote the passage of the blood through the lungs. It diminishes 
 perspiration, obstructs the menstrual discharge, produces paleness 
 of the skin, and trdeniatous complaints, and scirrhns of the glan- 
 dular paits. It aggravates the scurvy, and tl.e malignity of putrid 
 aiid contagiou.i distempers ; and renders people more apt to re- 
 ceive the igfection of them. When it conies on suddenly, and in 
 a great degree, it causes a palpitation of the heart, and renders the 
 pulse irregular. Blindness, gangrene, and sudden death, have fol- 
 lowed the excess of this sensation. Itsetlects of changing the co- 
 lour of the hair are well known. Opiates in small dose.s are good 
 cordials in tliis case. 
 
 GHIELUM, in botany, a genus of the pentagynia order, and 
 decandria class of plants. Calyx quinquefid; petals five, tilaments 
 pei-sistin". One species, a Cape plant. 
 
 GRIERSON, CoNSTANTiA, a native of the county of Kil- 
 kenny in Ireland, was one of the most learned women on record, 
 though she was born of poor parents, and died at the age of 27, in 
 1733. She was an excellent Greek and Latin scholar ; and un- 
 derstood history, divinity, philosophy, ami mathi'inatics. She 
 proved her skill in Latin by her dedication of the Dublin edition 
 of Tacitus to Lord Carteret, and by that of Terence to his son ; 
 to whom she also addressed a Greek epigram. She wrote many 
 elegant English poems, several of whicli were inserted by Mrs. 
 Barber among her own. When Lord Carteret was lord lieutenant 
 of Ireland, he obtained a patent for Mr Grierson tc be the king's 
 printer ; and to reward tiie uncommon merit of his wife, caused 
 her life to be included in it. 
 
 GRIFFENIIAKEN, a town of Prussian Pomerania, in the 
 duchy of Stettin, on the Oder. Lon. 14. 42. E. Lat 53. 25. N. 
 
 GRIFFIN, or GRIFFON, [this should rather be written 
 gryj'on, or gri/pkon ; ^riips, yi-^^J-,] a fabled animal said to be gene- 
 rated between the lion and eagle, and to have the head and paws 
 of the lion, and the wings of the eagle. The Grilfbn, Gryphiis, 
 by the ancients, was supposed to have four legs, wings, and a 
 beak ; the upper (lart representing an eagle, and the lower a lion ; 
 and to watch over gold mines, hidden trea.sures, &c. This ima- 
 ginary animal was consecr.tcd to the sun ; and the ancient painters 
 represented the chariot of the sun as drawn by griffons. M. Span- 
 heim observes the same of those of Jupiter and Nemesis. The 
 grittbn is commonly seen on ancient arms ; and is borne in coat- 
 armour. Guillim bUi/nns it rampant; alleging, that any very 
 fierce animal mav be blazoned as well as tlie lion. Sylvester, 
 Morg.m, an<l others, use the terms segreiant inslead of rampant. 
 The griffon is also an ornament of architecture in constant use 
 among the Greeks, and was copied from them, with the other ele- 
 gancies of architectural enrichments, by the Romans. 
 
 Griffon in Scripture is that species of the eagle called in La- 
 tin ossifraga, the osprey ; and ms, of the verb C*1S, para', to break. 
 See Falco. 
 
 GKIMBERGEN, a town of France, in the department of 
 Dyle, and late province of Austrian Brabant, six miles N. of 
 Brussels. 
 
 GRIMM, or GRIM MA, a town of Upper Saxony, in Leipsic, 
 42 miles W. N. W. of Dresden. 
 
 GRIMMEN, or GRIMN, a town ot Pomerania, 14 miles S. 
 ofStralsund. Lon. 13. 27. E. Lat. 54. 12. N. 
 
 GRIMSBY, a large sea-port town of England, in Lincolnshire, 
 16!J miles from London. 
 
 GRIND, an island near the coast of Friesland, 9 miles N. N. 
 W. of Harhngen. 
 
 GRINDING, or TRITURATION, the act of breaking or 
 comminuting a solid body, and reducing it into powder. See Lf.- 
 VICATION, and Fi'I.verisation. The painters' colours are grind- 
 ed on a marble or porphyry: either with oil ot gum-wat'ir, , 
 
 Grinding is also used for rubbing or wearing off the irregular 
 parts of the surface of a body, and reducing it to the destined fi- 
 gure, whether that be flat, concave, or the like. The grinding 
 and polishing of ^lass is a considerable art ; for which see Glass- 
 making ; and, for grinding of optical glasses, see Oftics. 
 
 GRINSTED, W tsT, a town in Sussex, 43 miles from Lon- 
 don. 
 
 Grinstep, East, a borough in Sussex, 29 miles S. of Lon- 
 don. 
 
 GRIPE, in the sea-language, is a piece of timber fayed against 
 the lower piece of the stern, from the foreinast end of the keel 
 joining with the knee of the head : its use is to defend the lower 
 part of the stern from any injury ; but it is often made the larger, 
 to make the ship keep a good wind. 
 
 Gripe of a Ship, isalsothe compass or sharpness of the stern 
 under water, chiefly towards the bottom of it. 
 
 Gripe, is also a sea term, for a ship's turning her head more to 
 the wind than she should ; this is caused either by over-loading 
 her a-head, the weight of which presses her (low n, so that she will 
 not readily fall off from the wind; or bv staying or selling her 
 masts too much aft ; which is always a fault in short ships that draw 
 much water, since it causes them to be continually running into 
 the wind : though in floating ships, if the masts be not stayed very 
 far aft, they will never keep a good wind. 
 
 Gripes, in medicine, a sort of colic or painful disorder of the 
 lower belly, occasioned by some sharp pungent matters vellicat- 
 ing the parts, or by wind pent up in the intestines. See Me- 
 dicine. 
 
 GRISGRIS, a superstition greatly in vogue among the ne- 
 
 froes in the interior parts of Africa. The grisgris, according to 
 .e Maire, are certain Arabic characters mixed wifh magical fi- 
 gures drawn by the Marabuts or priests upon paper. Labat af- 
 firms, that they are nothing else than scraps of the alcoran in 
 Arabic. The poorest negro never goes to war without his gris- 
 gris, as a charm against %vounds ; and if it prove inefl'ectual, the 
 priest transfers the blame on the immorality of his conduct. 
 
 GRISLEA, in botany, a genus of the nionogjnia order, and 
 oclandria class of plant ; natural order, CalycanthemE. Calyx 
 quadrifid ; petals four, one from each incisure of it; capsule, 
 globose, superior, unilocular, and polyspermous. There are two 
 species. 
 
 GRISONS, a people situated among the Alps, and long allies 
 of the Swiss, but now united with the Helvetic republic. Their 
 country is bounded on the N. by the late countries of Sargans and 
 Bludenz, and the canton of Glaris. The length is about 70 miles, 
 and the breadth about 60. The inhabitants are said to have been 
 named Grisons, from the grey coats they wore in former times. 
 This country, lying among the Alps, is very mountainous ; but 
 the mountains yield good pasture for the cattle, sheep, and goats, 
 with some rye and barley ; in the vallies there is plenty of 
 gram, pulse, truits, and wine. It abounds also with hogs and wild 
 fowl ; but there is a scarcity offish and salt, and their horses are 
 mostly purchased of foreigners. The principal rivers are the 
 Rhine, the Inn, and the Adda. It has also several lakes, most 
 of which lie on the tops of the hills. The language of the Gri- 
 sons is either a corrupt Italian or the German. 
 
 GRIT, a genus of argillaceous earths. Its texture is more or 
 less porous, equable, and rough to the touch. It does not give 
 fire with steel, nor effervesce with acids. When fresh broken and 
 breathed upon, it exhales an earthy smell. Its specific gravity is 
 from 2, to 2.6 ; and so unfiisible as to be used for fire-stones. It 
 is also used for millstones and whetstones ; and sometimes for fil- 
 tering stones and for buildings. 
 
 GROAIX, an isle in the Atlantic, on the W. coast of France, 
 four miles long and Ij broad ; 18 miles N. N. W. of Belle- 
 isle. 
 
 GROCERS anciently were such persons as engrossed all mer- 
 chandize that was vendible ; but now they are incorporated, and 
 make one of the companies of the city of London. 
 
 GRODNO, a large town of Litliuania, in the palatinate of 
 Wilna, 140 miles N. E. of Warsaw. 
 
 GROIN, among builders, is the angular cui-ve made by tlie 
 intersection of two semi-cylinders or arches ; and is either regular 
 or irregular. A regular groin is when the intersecting arches, whe- 
 ther semicir«tilar or semielliptical, are of the same diameters and 
 
 heights
 
 G RO 
 
 644 
 
 GRO 
 
 heights. An irregular groin is where one of the arches is semi- 
 circular, and the otiier seniielliptical. 
 
 GROLL, a town of Uatavia, in llic department of the Hhine, 
 and late county of Zutplien, 19 miles E. of Zutphen, and 19 S.S.W. 
 of Oklenzeel. 
 
 GROMETS, in the sea-language, small rings formerly fastened 
 with staples to the yard-:, to make fast the gaskets, but now never 
 used. 
 
 GRONINGEN, the most northerly of the late Seven United 
 Provmces, was about 47 miles long, and 33 miles broad. It has 
 rich pastures, large herds of cattle, plenty of sea and river fish, 
 »nd of turf, with some forests and corn land. 
 
 Gkonin'gen, a strong city of Batavia, in the department of 
 Eems, and late capital of the above province. 
 
 GRONOVIA, in botany, a genus of the monogynia order, 
 and pentandria class of plants ; natural order, Cucurbitacer. Pe- 
 tals hve, together with the stainens inserted into the bell-shaped 
 corolla ; berry dry, inferior, containing one seed. There is but 
 one species, viz. G. scandens, climbing gronovia, an annual 
 plant. 
 
 GRONOVIUS, John Frederic, a very learned critic, was 
 borji at Hamburgh in 1613; and having travelled through Ger- 
 many, Italy, and France, was made professor of polite learning at 
 Deventcr, and afterwards at Levden, where he died in 1671. 
 He ])ublwlied, 1. Diatribe in Statii, &:c. 2. De Sestertiis. 3.' 
 Correct editions of Seneca, Statins, Livy's, Pliny's Naturid His- 
 tory, Tacitus, Anlus Gellius, Phadrus, Sec. with notes ; and other 
 works. 
 
 Grokovius, James, son of the preceding, and a very learned 
 man, was educated tirstat Leyden, then went over to England, 
 where he visited the universities, consulted the curious MSS. and 
 formed an acquaintance with several learned men. He was 
 chosen by the grand duke to be professor at Pisa, with a consider- 
 able salary. He returned into Holland, after he had resided two 
 vears in Tuscanv, and consulted the MSS. in the Medicean li- 
 brary, la 1679, he was invited by the curators of the university 
 to a professorship ; and his inaugural dissertation was so highly 
 approved of, that the curatoi-s added 400 florins to his stipend, 
 and continued it to his death in 1716. His principal works are, 
 "The Treasure of Greek Antiquities," in 13 vols, folio; and a 
 great number of dissertations and editions of ancient authors. He 
 was compared to Schioppus for the virulence of his style ; and 
 the severity, with which he treated other great men who differed 
 trom him, exposed him to just censure. 
 
 GROOM, a name particularly applied to several superior of- 
 ficers belonging to the king's household, as groom of the chamber, 
 groom of the stole. 
 
 GitooM-PoRTER, an officer of the king's houshnld, who pro- 
 vides chairs, stools, and firing, for the king's lodging, and also 
 fm'nishes cards, dice, &;c. and decides the disputes which arise at 
 play. 
 
 Groom is more particularly used for a servant appointed to at- 
 tend on horses in the stable. It is his business to feed and water 
 them, to curry and rub them down, and to keep a watchful eye 
 over them, that they may have no inward or outward disorder, 
 witliout his discovering it, and using his endeavours to remove it. 
 
 GROOVE, among miners, is the shaft or pit sunk into the 
 earth, sometimes in the vein, and sometimes not. 
 
 Groove, amongjoiners, the chanjiel made by their plough in 
 the edge of a moulding, style, or rail, to put their pannels in, in 
 wainscotting. 
 
 Groove also denotes a gardener's tool for transplanting plants. 
 
 GROSE, Francis, Esq. F. A. S. an eminent English anli- 
 (juary, the son of Francis Grose, Estj. jeweller, of Richmond, who 
 fitted up the coronation-crown of king George H. He was born 
 in I 731, and was left an independent fortune ; but had not a dispo- 
 sition to preserve it. He wrote, I. The Antiipiities of England 
 and Wales, hi 8 vols. 4to. and 8vo, which he began in 1773, and 
 completed in 1787 ; containing 389 views, besides 40 plans, Sec. 
 2. The Anliiiuities of Scotland, 'J vols4to. and 8vo, containing lyO 
 views with a m.ip. 3. The Antiquities of Ireland, 2 vols. 4to. and 
 8vo. 4. A Treatise on Ancient Armour and Weapons, 4to. 17S5; 
 with a supplement in 1789. 3. A Classical Dictionary of the Vul- 
 gar Tongue; 8vo. 1785. 6. Military Antiquities ;'2 vols. 4lo. 
 17S(J— B8. 7. The History of Dover Castle; 4to. 1786. 8. A 
 
 Provincial Glossary, with a collection of Local Proverbs and Po- 
 pular Superstitions ; 8vo. 1788. 9. A Guide to Health, Beauty, 
 Honour, and Riches ; 8vo. 10. Kules for Drawing Caricatures; 
 8vo. 1788 : 11. The Olio; a collection of Essays ; 8vo. In sum- 
 mer, 1789, he set out on a tour in Scotland, and began to commu- 
 nicate his observations in fo'io numbers, with four plates each, in 
 1790. Before he had completed this work, he went to Dublin, 
 with the intention of executing a similar work, with views and de- 
 scriptions of the antiquities of Ireland, executed in the same elegant 
 manner with those of Great Britain : but being seized with an apo- 
 plectic fit, at the house of Mr. Hone in Dublin, he died on the 
 I'Jth May, 1791, aged about 60. He had a great talent for draw- 
 ing, which peculiarly qualilied him for executing the works in 
 which he engaged ; and, being of an agreeable, humorous, and 
 communicative disposition, he was much esteemed in the e.xten- 
 sivecircie ol his friends. He visited almost every part of the three 
 kingdoms, and was every where well received. His humour was 
 of that genuine kind, which exhilarates without offending either 
 against virtue or good manners. 
 
 GROSS, a foreign money, in divers countries, answering to our 
 groat. 
 
 Gross, [Grossus,] in our ancient law-writers, denotes a thing 
 absolute, and not depending on another. Thus, villain in gross, 
 villanus in grosso, was a servant, who did not belong to the land, 
 but immediately to the person of the lord; or a servile person not 
 appendant or annexed to the land or manor, and to go along with 
 the tenures as appurtenant to it ; but like other poi-sonal goods and 
 chattels of his lord, at his lord's pleasure and disposal. 
 
 Gross Weight, the weight of merchandizes and goods, with 
 their dust and dross, as also of the bag, cask, chest, &c. wherein 
 they are contained ; out of which gross weight, allowance is to be 
 made of tare and tret. 
 
 GROl ESQUE, or GROTESK, in sculpture and painting, 
 something whimsical, extravagant, andjiionstrous; consisthig cither 
 of things that are merely imaginary or so distorted, as to raise sur- 
 prise and ridicule. The word owes its derivation from iigures of 
 this kind, being anciently much used to adorn the grottos wherein 
 the tombs of eminent persons were inclosed. Such was that of 
 Ovid, whose grotto was discovered near Rome about 100 years 
 ago. 
 
 GROTIUS, Hugo, or more properly Hugh de Groot, one 
 of the greatest men of his age, was born at Delft in 1583. He 
 made so rapid a progress in his studies, that at 15 he had attained 
 great knowledge in philosophy, divinity, and civil law ; and ayet 
 greater proficiency in polite literature, as appeared by the com- 
 mentary he had made at that age on Martianus Capella. In 1598, 
 he accompanied the Dutch ambassador into France, and was 
 honoured with several marks of esteem by Henry IV. He took 
 his degree of LL. D. in that kingdom; and at his return to his 
 native country, pleaded at the bar before he was 17 years of age. 
 He was not 24 when he was appointed attorney-general. In 161S 
 he settled at Rotterdam, and was nominated syndic of that city ; 
 but did not accept of the olilce, till a promise was made him that 
 he should not be removed from it. This prudent precaution he 
 took from his foreseeing, that the quarrels of the divines on the 
 doctrine of grace,, which had already given rise to many factions in 
 the state, would occasion revolutions in the chief cities. The 
 same year he was sent to England, on account of the divisions that 
 reigned between the traders of the tw o nations, on the right of fish- 
 ing in the northern seas ; but he could obtain iiosatistiiction. He 
 was afterwards Sent to England, to persuade the king and the prin- 
 cipal divines to fivour the Avminians; and he had several con- 
 ferences with K. James I. on that subject. On his return to Hol- 
 land, his attachment to Barnevelt involved him in great trouble ; 
 for he was seized, and sentenced to perpetual imprisonment in 
 1619, and to forfeit all his goods and chattels. But after having 
 been treated with great rigour for above a year and a half in his 
 confinement, he was delivered by the advice and artifice of his 
 wile, who having observed that his keepers had often fatigued 
 themselves with searching and examining a great trunk full of foul 
 linen, which used to be washed at Gorkum, but now' let it pass 
 without opening it, she advised him to bore holes in it to prevent 
 his being stilled, and then to get into it. He complied with this 
 advice, and was carried to a friend's house in Gorkum; where 
 dressing himself like a mason, and taking a rule and trowel, lie 
 
 passed
 
 GRO 
 
 64.5 
 
 GRO 
 
 passoil lliioujtli the iiiaikcl-pUici', and sti-ppiii'T inUi a boat vm-iU to 
 N'alvpl ill Brabant. Here lie made liiniselt known t« souk- Aniii- 
 nians, and liircd a carriage to Antwerp. At lirst there was a de- 
 siijn of prosecuting liis wile, wlio staid in die prison; and some 
 judges were of opinion that slie ouglit to be kept there in her iiiis- 
 band's stead : liowever, slie was released by a pluralitv of voices, 
 and universally applauded for her behaviour, lie now retired into 
 France, where he met with a gracious reception from that court, 
 and Lewis Xlll. settled a pension upon him. Having resided 
 there 11 3■ear.^, he returned to Holland, on his receiving a very 
 kind letter from Frederic IJenry prince of Orange; but liij ene- 
 mies renewing their persecution, he went to Ilaml)urili; where, 
 in lt).54, (J. Cliristina of Sweden made him her counsellcr, and 
 sent him ambassador into Fiance. After having discharged the 
 duties of tills ollice above 11 )ears, lie returned to give an account 
 to Q. Christina of his embassy ; when he took Holland in liis way, 
 and received many honours at Amsterdam. He was innoducecl 
 to her at Stockholm ; and there begged that she would grant his 
 dismission, that he might return to Holland. This he obtained 
 with difficulty ; and the iiueeii gave him many marks of lier es- 
 teem, though he had many enemies at her court too. -\s he was 
 returiiini;, the ship in which he embarked was cast away on the 
 coast of I'omerania; and being sicic, he continued his jou'uev by 
 land ; but he was forced to stop at Kostock, where he died on tlie 
 2Sth Aug. iG-iJ. Ills body was cairietl to IJelft, to be interred in 
 the sepulchre of his ant e>tors. Xotwithstanding the embassies in 
 which he was employed, he composed a great number of excel- 
 lent works; the principal of which are, 1. De Jure Belli et Pacis, 
 which is esteemed a nia>ter-piece: 2. A Treatise on the Truth of 
 the Christian Religion : 3. Commentaries on the holy Scripture : 4. 
 The History and Annals of Holland : and 5. A great number of 
 letters: All written in Latin. 
 
 GROrSCAW, or GROTSKAW, a town of European Tur- 
 key in the province of Servia. 
 
 (JROTSKAW, a province of Silesia. 
 
 Grotskaw, a strong town, capital of the above province, seated 
 in a t'ruilful plain. 
 
 GKOTTGAU, or GROTTKAU, a town and territory of Si- 
 lesia, in the principality of Neisse, 14 miles N. of Neisse. 
 t GROTTO, {_iin)lte, French ; grotta, Italian,] a cavern or 
 cave made for coolness. 
 
 GRorxo, or Grotta, in natural history, a large deej) cavern 
 or den in a mountain or rock. The word is formed, according to 
 Alenage, Sec. from the Latin crypta. Du Cange observes, liiat 
 grotta was used in the same sense in the corrupt Latin. The an- 
 cient anchorites retired into dens and grotto--, to apply ihemselres 
 the more attentively to meditation. Elden Hole, Okey-hole, 
 Peake's Hole, and Pool's Hole, are lamous among the natural 
 caverns or grottos of England. In grottos are frequently found 
 crystals of the rock, stalactites, and other natural cunglaciations, 
 aiid those of an amazing beauty. 
 
 Grotto, is also used for a little artificial edifice made in a gar- 
 den, in imitation of a natural grotto. The outsides of these grot- 
 tos are usually adorned with rustic architecture, and their inside 
 witli shell-work, fossils, &;c. tiifhhed likewisi' with jets d'eaus or 
 fountains, &c. A cement for artiticial prottos may be made thus: 
 Take two parts of white rosin, melt it clear, and add to it lour 
 parts of bees wa\ ; when melted together, add two or three |)arts 
 of the powder of the stone you de^il;n to cement, or so much as 
 will give the cement the colour of the stone ; to this add one part 
 ofllower of sulphur: incorporate all together over a gentle lire, 
 and afterwards knead thein with your hands in warm water. With 
 this cement the stones, shells, &c. after being well dried before 
 the fire, may be cemented. Artificial red coral-branches, for the 
 embellishment of grottos, may be made in the following manner; 
 Take clear rosin, dissolve it in a brass-pan; to every ounce of 
 which add two drachms of the finest Vermillion: when you have stir- 
 red tliem well together, and have chosen your tw igs and branches, 
 peeled and drietl, take a pencil, and paint the branches all over 
 whilst the composition is warm ; afterwards shape thein in imit.ition 
 of natural coral. This done, hold the branches over a gentle coal- 
 fire, till all is smooth and evi-n as if iiolished. In the same man- 
 ner white coral may be p/epared with %vhite-lead, and black coral 
 "ftith lamp-black. A grotto may be built with little expeuce, of 
 glass, cinders, pebbles, pieces of large Hint, shells, moss, stones. 
 Vol. II.— no, 99. 
 
 cour.lerteii coral, |>ieces c,f chalk, &c. all bound or c.inciilcd to- 
 gelherwith the above described cement. 
 
 Gkotio del Cam, a little cavern near Pozziioli, 13 aiilesfrom 
 Naples, the steams w hereof are of a noyious quality ; w Ser.ce also 
 it 13 called bocca venenosa, the poisonous mouth. "Two miles 
 from Naples (says Dr. Mead), Just by the Lago de Agnaiio, n a 
 celebrated niofeta, commonly called la' Grotta ciel Cani, and equal- 
 ly destructive to all within the reach of its vapours. It is a small 
 grotto about ei«ht feet high, i'J long, end t) broad ; from the 
 ground arises a tliin, subtile, warm fume, visible enough to a du- 
 ccrning eye, which does not spring up in little ]iarcels here and 
 there, I)ui in one continued stream, covering the whole surface of 
 the bottom of Ihe cave ; having ti.ls rrmaikable dilferei-.ce from 
 common vapours, that it does not like smoke di-perse into the air, 
 but (juickly after its rise falls back again, an;l retiinis to the earth; 
 the colour nf the sides of the giotio being the measure of its ac- 
 cent: ior so far it is of a darkish gieen, but higher only comnun 
 earth. And as I myself found no inconvenieucy by standing in it, 
 so no aniiiiitl, if its head be above this mark, is t)ie least injured. 
 But when, as the manner is, a dog, or any other creature, is for- 
 cibly kept below it ; or, by reason of its smallress, cannot hold its 
 head above it, it presently loses all motion, falls down as dead, or 
 ill a swoon ; tl^e limbs convulsed and trcir.biing, till at last no more 
 signs of life appear than a very weak and almost insensible bealmg 
 of the heart and arteries ; which, if the animal be left a lillle lon- 
 ger, quickly ceases too, and then the case is irrecoverable; but if 
 it be snatched out, and laid in the open air, it soon conies to life 
 again, and sooner, if thrown into the adjacent lake." 'I he fumes 
 of the grotto, the same author argues, are no real poison, but act 
 chielly by their gravity ; else the creatures could net recover so 
 soon, or if they did, some symptons, asfaintness, &c. would be the 
 consequence of it. He adds, " that in creatures killed thercwill:, 
 when dissected, no marks of infection appear; and that the iillack 
 proceeds from a want of air, by which the circulation tends to an 
 entire stoppage; and this so much the more, as the animal in- 
 spires a lluid of a quite ditlerent nature from the sir, and so in no 
 respect fit to supply its place. Taking the animal cut, while yet 
 alive, and throwing it into the neighbouring lake, it recovers: this 
 is owing to the coldness of the water, which promotes the contrac- 
 tion ol the fibres, and so assists the retarded circulation ; the small 
 portion of air which remains in the vcsiculi', after every expira- 
 tion, may be sutVicient to drive out the noxious lluid. 
 
 Grotto, or Grotta pel Serpi, a subterraneous cavern near 
 the village of Safl'a, S miles from Braccano in Italy, is described 
 by Kircher thus : " The grotta del serpi is big enou'gh to hold two 
 persons. It is perforated with several fistular :ipertures, soinewhai 
 in the manner of a sieve ; out of which, at the beginning of the 
 spring-season, issues a nutuerous brood of young snakes of divers 
 colours but all free from any particular poisonous quality. In 
 this cave they expose their lepers, paralytics, arlhritics, and 
 elephantiac patients, quite naked; wiiere, the warmth of the 
 subterraneous stream resolving them into a sweat, and the serpcHts 
 clinging variously all around, licking and sucking them, thev be^ 
 come so thoroughly freed of all their vitious lunnoiiis, that, upon 
 repe.iting the operation for souk; time, thev become perfectly 
 restored." This cave Kircher visited himself; and found, it 
 warm, and every way agreeable to the description given of it. 
 
 Grove, in gardening, a small wood impervious to the Tays of 
 the sun. Groves are not only great ornaments to gardens ;' but 
 also alTbrd great relief against the violent heats of the sun, ;.lford- 
 ing shade to walk under in the hottest jjarls of the day, wlien the 
 other parts of the garden are useless ; so that every garden is de- 
 fective which has not shade. 
 
 Groves have been in all ogcs held in great veneration. 'I'lie 
 proseucha-, and high pl.ices of the Jews, whither they res.irled for 
 the purposes of devotion, were probably situated in groves : sec 
 Joshua xxlv. 20. The prosonchtt; in .Uexaiidria, mentioned bv 
 Philo, had groves about them because he complains that the Alex- 
 andrians, ia a tumult against the Jews, cut down the trees of their 
 proseuchs. Tlic ancient Romans had a sort of groves near seve- 
 ral of their temples, whi<h were conscciated to sonic god. and 
 called luci, by an antiphrasis, a non lucendo, as being sliady and 
 dark. The vetieratioii which the ancient Druids had for groves i< 
 well known. 
 tJROUND, ia etching, denotes a eummoua coirpasitioji smear- 
 9 ^ - -^ etl
 
 GRO 
 
 646 
 
 GRU 
 
 ed over tiie surface of the metal to be etched, to prevent tiie 
 sqiuifortis from eating except in such places where this ground is 
 cut tliroiigh with the pohit of a lieedle. See Etching. 
 
 Groun'd, in painting, is properly undevstood of svich parts of 
 the piece, as have nothing painted on them, but retain tiie ori- 
 ginal colour uponwiiich the othtr colours are applied to make the 
 representations. A building is said to serve as a good ground to a 
 figure when the figure is painted on the building. The ground be- 
 hind a picture in miniature,- is commonly blue or crimson imicat- 
 ing a curtain of satin or velvet. 
 
 GKotiND-ANrGUN-G, fishing under water without afloat, «nly 
 ■with a plumb of lead, or a bullet, placed about nine inches from 
 the hook ; which is better, because it wUl roll on the ground. 
 This method of fishing is most proper in cold weather, when the 
 fish swim very low. Tlie morning and evening are the chief 
 seasons for the ground-line in fishing for trout ; but if the day 
 prove cloudy, or the water muddy, you may fish at ground all 
 day. 
 
 Ground-Ivy, in botany. See Glechoma. 
 Ground-Nuts. See Arachis. 
 Gkound-Pine, in botan)'. See Teucrium. 
 GROUNDSEL. See Baccharis and Senecio. 
 Grounp-Tackle, a ship's anchors, cables, &c. and in gene- 
 ral wliatever is necessary to make her ride safe ?.t anchor. 
 
 GKOUP, \_grovppe, Fr. groppo, Ital.] in painting and sculp- 
 ture, is an assemblage of two or more figures of men, beasts, fruits, 
 or the like, which have some apparent relation to each other. See 
 Painting. 
 
 Group IstANDS, or the Groups, a cluster of islands lately 
 discovered in the South Sea. They lie in about S. Lat. IS. 12. 
 and W. Lon. 142.42. 
 
 GROUTHEAD, or GREATHEAD, Robert, a learned 
 bishop of Lincoln, born at Stow, in Lincolnshire, or Stradbrook, 
 in Suttolk, in the end of the 12th century. His parents were so 
 poor, that when a boy lie was obliged to do the meanest offices, 
 and even to beg his bread ; till the mayor of Lincoln, struck with 
 his appearance and the cpiickness of his answers to certain ciues- 
 tion?, took him into his family, and put him to school. Here his 
 ardent love of learning, and admirable capacity for acquiring it, 
 soon appeared, and procured him manj' patrons, who enabled him 
 to prosecute his studies, first at Cambridge, afterwards at Oxford, 
 and at last at Paris. In these three famous seats of learning, he 
 si)ent manv years in the most indefatigable pursuit of knowledge, 
 and became one of the best and most universal scholars of the age. 
 He was master not only of the French and Latin, but also of the 
 Greek and Hebrew languages, which was a very rare accomplish- 
 m'fent in those times. Roger Bacon, who was intimately acquaint- 
 ed with him, says, that he spent much of his time for almost forty 
 years in the study of geometry, astronomy, optics, and other 
 branches of raatheinatical learning, in all which he very much ex- 
 celled. Theology was his favourite study, in which he read lec- 
 tures at Oxford with great applause. In the mean time, he ob- 
 tained several preferments in the church, and was at length elect- 
 ed and consecrated bishop of Lincoln, A. D. 1235. In this sta- 
 tion he soon became very famous, by the purity of his manners, 
 the popularit)' of his preaching, the vigour of his discipline, and 
 the boldness with which he reproved the vices and opposed ths 
 arbitrary mandates of the court of Rome ; of this last we ; hail 
 five one example. Pope Innocent IV. had granted to cue of his 
 own nephews, named Frederic, who was but a child, a provi ion 
 to the first canon's place in the church of Lincoln that should be- 
 come vacant ; and sent a bull to the Archbishop of Canterbury, 
 and Innocent, then papal legate in England, commandino; them 
 to see the provision made effectual ; wiiich they transmitted to 
 the Bishop of Lincoln. But that brave and virtuous prelate boldly 
 refused to obey this unreasonable mandate, and sent an answer to 
 the papal bull containing the following severe reproaches against 
 his holiness for abusing his power : " If we except the sins of Lu- 
 cifer and Antichrist, there neither is nor can be a greater crime, 
 nor any thing more contrary to tl.e doctrine of the gospel, or more 
 odious and abominable in the sight of Jesus Christ, than to ruin 
 and destroy the souls of men, by deni^ving them of the spiritual 
 aid and ministry of their pastors. This crime is committed by 
 thost who command thi- benefices intended for the support of able 
 pastors, to be bestowed on those vho are incapable cf performing 
 
 the dv.tes of the pastoral otTice. It is impossibit; therefore that the 
 holy apostolic see, which received its authority from the Lord 
 Jesiis Ciirist, for edification, and not for destruction, can be guilty 
 of such a crime, or any thing approaching to such a crime, so 
 hateful to God and so hurlful to men. For this would be a most 
 manifest corruption ainl abuse of its authority, which would for- 
 feit all its glorv, and plunge it into the pains of hell." l^pon read- 
 ing this letter," his holiness became frantic with rage, and threaten- 
 ed to make the bishop an object of terror and astonishment to the 
 whole world. " How dare (said he) this old, deaf, doating fool, 
 disobey my commands ? Is not his master the King of England 
 my subject, or rather my slave? Cannot he cast him into prison, 
 and cru;h him in a moment r" But the cardinals brought the pope 
 to think more calmlv, and to take no notice of this letter. " Let 
 us not (said they) raise a tumult in the church without necessity, 
 and precip'tate that revolt and separation from us, which, we 
 know, must one day take place." Remarkable words, when we 
 reflect when and by whom they were spoken I The bishop did 
 not long survive this noble stand against the gross corruptions and 
 tyranny of the church of Rome. He fell sick at his castle of 
 Bugden that same vear ; and sensible that his death was drawing 
 near, he called his clergy into his apartment, and made n long dis- 
 course to them, to prove that the reigning pope Innocent IV. was 
 Antichrist. With this e.xertion his strength was so much cxliaust- 
 ed, that he expired soon after, Oct. 9, 1253. A contemporary 
 historian savs, " He was a free and bold reprimander of the pope 
 and the king ; an admonisher of the prelates ; a corrector of the 
 monks; an Instructor of the clergy; a supporter of the studious; a 
 censurer of the iucontinent ; a scourge and terror to the court of 
 Rome ; a diligent searcher of the scriptures ; and a frequent 
 preaclier to the people. At his table he was hospitable, polite, 
 and c!;cerful. In the church he was contrite, devout, and solemn ; 
 and ill performing all the duties of his office he was venerable, ac- 
 tive, and indefatigable." The illustrious Roger Bacon, who had 
 tiie best opportunities of forming a true judgement of the extent 
 of his learning, by perusing his works, and by fretjaently convers- 
 ing with him, hath given this honourable testimony in his favour. 
 "Robert GrotitheacT, bishop of Lincoln, and his friend friar Adam 
 de Marisco, are the two most learned men in the world, and ex- 
 cel all the rest of mankind both in divine and human knowledge." 
 This excellent prelate was a very voluminous writer, and com- 
 posed a prodigious number of treatises on a great variety of sub- 
 iects iu philosophy and divinifs', a catalogue of which is given by 
 "Bale. 
 
 •GRUB, in zoology, is the English name of the hexapode 
 worms, produced from the eggs of beetles, &c. and which at 
 length are transformed into winged insects of the same species 
 with their parents. 
 
 GRUBSTREET, originally the name of a street near Moor- 
 fields in London, much inhabited by writers of small histories, dic- 
 tionaries, and temporary poeois ; whence any mean prodsiction is 
 called grnbstroet. 
 
 GRUME, 'ygrumus,'L£X.'\ in mechcine, denotes a concreted clot 
 of blood, milk, or other substance. Hence grumous blood is that 
 which approaches to the nature of grume, and by its viscidity, 
 and stagnating in the capillary vessels, produces several dis- 
 orders. 
 
 GKUND, or GRUNDE, a town of Brunswick, in the Hartz 
 Forevt, 12 miles S. W. of Goslar. 
 
 GRUNINGEN, a town of the Helvetic republic, 12 miles E. 
 of Zurich. 
 
 Grukingen', a town in Halberstadt, on the Boden, IS miles 
 E. of Halberstadt, 
 
 GRUPPO, or TURNED SHAKE, amuslc;d grace, de.^ncd 
 b}- Playford to consist in the alternate prolation of two tones in 
 juxtaposition to each otlicr, with a close on the note immediately 
 beaeath the lower of them. 
 
 GRUS, in antiquity, a dance performed yearly by the young 
 Athenians around the temple of Apollo, on the day of the 
 Delia. 
 
 Grus, in astronomy, a southern constellation, not visible in our 
 latitude. The number of stars in this constellation, according to 
 Mr. Sharp's Catalogue, is i3. - 
 
 Grus,
 
 GRY 
 
 647 
 
 GUA 
 
 Grvs, ill ornithologv. See Akdea. 
 
 GRUVERES, GRUYERS, or GRUYIRES, a town, and 
 late county ami bailiwic, of the Helvetic republic, in tliu canton 
 of Fribtirn, famous for cliecse, 15 miles b. ol fiiburg. 
 
 GRV, {_yi'j,~i any tiling of little value ; as, the paring of the 
 rails. A measure containing one-tenth of a line. A line is cne- 
 tentli of a iligit, and a iligit one-tenth of a foot, and a philosophical 
 loot one-third oi a pendulum, vhose diadromes, or vibrations, in 
 the latitude of 4i degrees, are each equal to one second of time, 
 or oni'-sixtielh of a minute. 
 
 CRYLLUS, the Locust, Grasshoppeb, and Cricket, in 
 entomology, a genus of insects belonging to the order hemiptera. 
 The generic character is, head intiected, armed with jaws, and 
 furnished with feelers. Antenna, in most species, either rtliform 
 ©r setaceous. Wings four, deHex, convoluted: lower wings 
 plaited. Hind legs formed for leaping: claws double on all the 
 feet. There art 61 sjiecies, of which the following arc most wor- 
 tliy of notice : 
 
 1. Among the inost numerous species is the Gryli-us Migra- 
 toRius of Linnsus, or Common Migratory I^ocust, which of 
 all the insects capable of injuring mankind seems to possess the 
 nidst dreadful powers of destruction. Legions of these animals 
 arc from time to time observed in various parts of the world, where 
 tile hai'oc they commit is almost incredible: whole provinces 
 are in a manner desolated by them in tlie space of a few days, and 
 the air is darkened by their numbere : nay, even when dead, they 
 are slili terrible ; since the putrefaction arising from their incon- 
 ceivable numbers is sucli that it has been regarded as one of the 
 probable causes of pestilence in the Eastern regions. This for- 
 midable locust is generally of a brownish colour, varied with pale 
 rrd, or llesh-colour, and the legs are frequently bluish. In the 
 year 1748, it appeared in irregular tiights in several pads of Eu- 
 ro|)c, as in Germany, France, and Englafid; and in the capital it- 
 self and its neighbourhood great numbers were seen : they perish- 
 ed, however, in a short time, and were happily not productive of 
 anv material mischief, having been probably driven by some irre- 
 gular wind out of their intended course, and weakened by the 
 coolness of our climate. From a paper published in t!ic 18tli vo- 
 lume of the Piiilosophical Transactions we find, that in the year 
 1693,- swarms of tins species of locust settled in some parts of 
 Wales. Two vast flights were observed in the air not far from the 
 town of Dolgalken, in Merionethshire : (lie others fell in Pem- 
 brokeshire. From a letter published in the 3Sth volume of the 
 same work, it appears, that some parts of Germany, particularly 
 in the march of Brandenburgh, &c. suffered considerable injury 
 from the depredations of these animals. They made their ap- 
 pearance in the spring of the year 1732, from flights which had de- 
 posited their eggs in tke grotvnd the preceding year. They at- 
 tacked and devoured the young spike of the wheat, &c. and this 
 e'hiefly by night, and thus laid waste many acres at a time beyond 
 all hope of recovery. In the 46th volume of the same Transac- 
 tions we find a description of the ravages of tl.ese animals in Wal- 
 lachis, Moldavia, Transylvania, Hungary, and Poland, in the years 
 1747 and 174S. They mulljpiy more speedily than any animal in 
 llie creation, but are chieflv to be dreaded in the countries where 
 thcv breed; being unable to live in cold clim.ates. If, however, 
 at any future period, they should again invade lliis island, it will be 
 advisable to burn, previously to their approach, such combustibles 
 l!S emit a thick and offensive smoke ; for instance, turf, wet straw, 
 &c. . sprinkled with sulphur. An instance occurred many year^ 
 since, in Germany, where a swarm of locusts was driven from one 
 district to another, by the noise of bells, spades, hammers, and 
 other metallic instruments. The ravages of locusts in various 
 parts of the world, at different periods, are recorded by aumerouf 
 authors. In the year 593 of the Christian ara, altera great drought, 
 these animals appeared in such vast legions as to cause a famine in 
 jnany countries. In 677 Syria and Mesopotamia were overrun 
 by them. In 852, immense swarms took their flight from the 
 Eastern regions into the West, flying with such a sound that they 
 might have bet?n mistaken for birds : they destroyed ail vegeta- 
 bles, not sparing even the bark of trees and the thatch of houses ; 
 and devoured the corn so rapidly, as to destrov, on computation, 
 a hnndrcd and forty acres in a dav- : their daily marches or dis- 
 tances of flight were computed at twenty miles ; and these were 
 ■fgitlated by leaders or kings, who fie*- first, and settled on the 
 
 ! spot which wa< to be vi<:;L-d A the ^anie liotir the next day by the 
 wliole legion: these marciies v. ere always undertaken at -unrise. 
 These locusts were at li'ngth driven by the force of the winds into 
 the Belgic ocean, and being thrown back by the tide and lelt on 
 the shores, caused a dn :i(iful pestilence by their smt-11. In 1271, 
 all the corn-fields of Milan were destroyed; and in the year 1339 
 all Iho^e of Lombardy. In 154!, incri'dible hosts aflllicted Po- 
 land, Wallacliid, and all the adjoining territories, darkening the 
 sun with their number-, and ravaging all the fruits of the earth. 
 
 2. G. Cristatus is one of the largest species of locust yet 
 known, being five or six times the size of the gryllus migratorius, 
 and, together with some others of the larger kind, is made use of 
 in some parts of the world as an article of food : they are eaten 
 both fresh and salted, in which last state thev are pnulic'y sold in 
 the markets of some parts of the Levant. Tlie quantity of ediblfe 
 'ubstance wliich they aii'ord is but small, especially in the male 
 insects ; but the females, on account of the ovaries, afford a more 
 nutritious sustenance. The gryllus cristatus is a highly beautiful 
 animal ; being of a bright red, with the body annulated witii 
 black ; and the legs varied with yellow : the upper wings tesselat- 
 ed with alternate variegations of dark and pale green ; tlie lower 
 with transverse undulated streaks : the length of the animal from 
 head to tail is about four inches, and the expanse of wings fiom 
 tip to tip, when fully extended, hardly less than seven inches and 
 a half. 
 
 3. G. Gryllotalpa, or Mole-Crigket, is by far the most 
 curious of this genus ; and in its colour and manners difl'ers greatly 
 from the rest. It is of an uncouth, and even fomiidable aspect, 
 measuring more than two inches in length ; and is of a broad and 
 slightly llattened shape, of a dusky brown colour, with a ferrugi- 
 nous cast on the under parts, and is readily distinguished by the 
 extraordinary structure of its fore-legs, which are excessively 
 strong, and furnished with \c.ry broad feet, divided into several 
 sharp, claw-shaped, segments, with which it is enabled to burrow 
 under ground in the manner of a mole. The mole-cricket lives 
 entii-ely on vegetables, devouring the young roots of grasses, com, 
 and various esculent plants, and commits great devastation in gar- 
 dens. It is found in most parts of Europe, and in the northern 
 parts of Asia and America. See Plate LXXVI. 
 
 4. 1 he Tettigonia, or Grasshopper, well known in our 
 meadows, belongs to this genus. 
 
 5. The Acketa, or Cricket, of which there are two varietie*, 
 the hearth and the lield cricket. 
 
 6. The Grisel's is found in Italj'. See Plate LXXVI. 
 
 7. The Stridulus inhabits most parts of Europe. See Plate 
 LXXVI. 
 
 URYPHITE3, or CROW'S STONE, in natural history, an 
 oblong fossile-shell, verv narrow at the head, and becoming gra- 
 dually wider to the extremity, where it ends in a circular limb ; 
 the head or beak of this is very hooked, or bent inward. They 
 are frequently found in our gravel or clav-pits in maiiv counties. 
 
 GUADALAJARA, or GUADALA'XARA, a to'.vn of Spain, 
 in the province of New Castile, '2'J miles N. E. of Madrid. 
 
 Guadalajara, a province, town, and rivet, of Mexico. 
 
 GUADALAVIAR, a river of Spain, which rises on the con- 
 fines of Arragon and New Castile, and falls into the Mediterranean 
 sea. a little below Valencia. 
 
 GUAD.ALOUPE, a town of Spain, in Estremadura, 45 miles 
 S.M\ of Toledo. 
 
 Guadaloupe, a river of Spain, in Estrcinadura. 
 
 Guadaloupe, one of the Caribbee or Leeward Is'.ands, lying 
 about midway between Antigua and Marlinico. It is 45 miles 
 long, 38 broad, and, being of an irregular figure, is about ?40 miles 
 in circumference. It is now in possession of the British. 
 
 GUADALQUIVER, one of the nio-t famous rivers of Spain, 
 lists in Andalusia, near the confinrs of GranadVi, and running quite 
 through Andalusia, by the towns of Baiza, Andaxar, Cordova, and 
 Seville, falls at last into the Bay of Cadiz. 
 
 GUADAKAMA, a town of Spain, on the abo\'e river, 16 miles 
 N. W. of Madrid ; famous for cheese. 
 
 GUADIANA, a large river of Spain, which rise": -n New C**- 
 tile, passes by Calatrav:^ Medelin, Merida, and Eav'.ajox, and fails 
 into the bay of Cadiz. 
 
 GL'ADIX, a town of Spain, in Granada, with a bishop's 
 
 "^" GUAIAC.UM,
 
 GUA 
 
 648 
 
 GUA 
 
 GUAIACUM, LIGMM VIT.C, or POCKWOOD, in 
 botany, a geinis of the moiiogynia order,' and dccandria class ot 
 plants; natural ordt-r, Gruinules. Calyx, live-clelt, unequal ; pe- 
 tals five, inserted intotlie receptacle ; capsule angular, live-celled. 
 There are four species. 
 
 G. Officinale, the Common- Licnu.m Vit.e used in medi- 
 clr.e, is a native of the West inilia islands and the warmer parts of 
 America. There it becomes a Lirge tree, having a liard, brittle, 
 browniJi bark, not very thick. 'I'he wood k firm, solid, pondc-- 
 ous, very resinous, of a blackish yellow colour in the middle, and 
 of a liot aromatic taste. See Plate LXV. From tl'.is species is ob- 
 tained a resin which exudes spontaneously, and is also driven out 
 artilicially by means of heat. This substance has been long 
 known and celebrated as a medicine in various cases ; and in the 
 Transactions of the Royal Society lor the year ISOti, we have a 
 very complete anahsis of it : by distillation lUU parts yielded 
 
 Acidulous water 3.5 
 
 'J'hick brown oil , 24.5 
 
 Thin empyreumatic oil 2o;o 
 
 Charcoal 30.5 
 
 Gases consisting of carbonic acid and? ^, . 
 carbureted hydrogen S 
 
 J 00.0 
 
 GUALEOR, GUALIOT^, or GOWALIER, a province of 
 Asia, situated in the middle of Hindostan. 
 
 GuALEOR, or GuALioR, a large town of tlie above province, 
 with a celebrated fortress of great strength. It is 8 miles from 
 Reypour, and SO S. of Agra. 
 
 GUALIEIRI, or GUALTERO,"a town of the late Cisalpine 
 republic, in the department of Crostolo, and late duchy ot Reggio, 
 IJ miles N. of Reggio. 
 
 GUAM, or CiUAHAN, the largest of the Ladrone islands. 
 It is about I'iO miles in circumference ; and is the only one among 
 the iiiiuiinerable islands in the South Sea, which lias a town built 
 in the European style, with a regular furl, a church, and civilized 
 inhabitants. See ILadkone. 
 
 GUAMANCA, or GUAMANGA, a province of Peru, which 
 begins 240 miles E. of Lima, and extends along the centre of the 
 Cordilleras. The air is temperate ; the soil fertile ; and the mines 
 abound with gold, silver, copper, lead, iron, (|uicksilver, loadstone, 
 and sulphur. 
 
 GuAMANGA, the capital of the above province. 
 
 GUANZA^"ELICA, a town of South America in Peru, and 
 in the audience of Lima. It abounds in mines of quicksilver. 
 Lou. 71. jf). W. Lat. 12.40. S. 
 
 GUARANTEE, or WARRANTEE, in law, a term signify- 
 ing him whom the warranter undertakes to indemnify or secure 
 from damage. 
 
 GuARAN'TEE, or GUARANTY, in matters of polity, the en- 
 pagement of neutral states, whereby they plight their faith that cer- 
 tain treaties shall be inviolably observed, or tliat they will make 
 war against the aggressor. 
 
 GUARD, in a general sense, signifies the defence or preserva- 
 tion of any thing ; the act of observing what passes, to prevent 
 surprise ; or the care used to prevent any thing from happening 
 contrary to our intentions or inclinations. 
 
 Guard, in fencing, a posture proper to defend the body from 
 the sword of the antagonist. 
 
 Guard, in the military art, is a duty performed by a body of 
 men, to secure an army or place from being surprised by an ene- 
 my. In garrison the guards are relieved every day : hence every 
 soldier mounts guard once every day in time of peace, and much 
 cl'tener in time of war. See Honours. 
 
 Guard, Advajiced, or N'as-guard. See Advance- 
 
 CUAKD. 
 
 Guard, Artillery. See Artillrrt. 
 
 Guard, Artillery Quarter, is frequently a non-commis- 
 sioned ofticer's guard from the royal regiment of artillery, whose 
 corps de garde is always in the front of their incampment.' 
 
 Guard, Artillery Rear, consists in a corporal and six men, 
 posted in the rear of the park. 
 
 Guard, Baggage, is always an officer's guard, who has the 
 care of the baggage on a march. Tiie waggons should be num- 
 
 8 
 
 bered by companies, and follow one another regularlv : vigilance 
 and attention m Ihe.passage of hollow-ways, woods, and thickets, 
 must be strictly observed l)y this guard. 
 
 tJuARD, 1'"orac;e, a detachment sent out to secure the foragers, 
 and who are posted at all places, where either tlie enemy's party 
 may come to disturb the foragers, or where they may spread too 
 near the enemy, so as to be in danger of being taken. It consisti 
 both of horse and foot, who must remain on their posts till the fo- 
 ragers are all come oft the ground. 
 
 Guard, Gramd, three or four squadrons of horse, command- 
 (hI by a lield-ofllcer, posted at about a mile or a mile and a half 
 tVoni the camp, on the right and left wings, towards the enemy, for 
 the better security of the camp. 
 
 Guard, Main, is that from which all other guards are detach- 
 ed. Those who are mounting guard assemble at their respective 
 captain's quarters, and march from thence to the parade in good 
 order; where, after the whole guard is drawn up, the small guards 
 are detached to their respective posts : then the subalterns throw 
 lots for their guards, A\ho are all under the command of the cap- 
 tain of the main-guard. Tliis guard mounts in garrison at different 
 Jiours, as the governor pleases. 
 
 Guard, Piquet, a number of horse and foot, always in readi- 
 ness in case of an alarm : the horses are generally saddled, and the 
 riders booted. The foot drawn up at the head of the battalion, 
 frequently at the beating of the tat-too; but afterwards return 
 to their tents, where they hold themselves in readiness to march. 
 This guard is to resist in case of an attack, until the army gets 
 ready. 
 
 CtUard, Provost, is always an ofiicer's guard that attends the 
 provost in his rounds, either to prevent dissertion, or marauding, 
 rioting. Sec. See Provost. 
 
 Guard, Quarter, is a small guard commanded by a subal- 
 tern otVicer, ))osted in the front of each battalion, 2i!2 feet before 
 the front of the regiment. 
 
 Guard, Rear, that part of tlie army which brings up the 
 rear on a march, generally composed of all the old grand guards 
 ot the camp. 'I'he rear-guard of a party is often eight or ten horse, 
 about 500 paces behind. Hence the advance-guard going out 
 upon a partv, form the rear-guard in their retreat. Rear-guard is 
 also a corporal's guard placed in the rear ot a regiment, to keep 
 good order. 
 
 Guard, Standard, a small guard under a corporal, out of 
 each regiment of horse, who mount on foot in the front of each 
 regiment, at the distance of 20 teet from the streets, opposite the 
 main street. 
 
 Guard, Trench, only mounts in the time of a siege, and 
 sometimes consists of three, four, or six battalions, according to 
 the importance of the siege. This guard must oppose the besieged 
 when tiiey sally out, protect the workmen, &;c. 
 
 Guards also imply the troops kept to guard the king's person, 
 and consist both of horse and foot. 
 
 Guards, Foot, are regiments of foot appointed for the guard 
 of his majesty and his palace. There are three regiments of them, 
 numerically tilled. 
 
 Guards, Horse, in Britain, are gentlemen chosen for their 
 bravery, to be entrusted with the guard of the king's person ; and 
 were formerly divided into four troops named numerically. 
 
 Guards, Extraordinary, or Detach.ments, are only com- 
 manded on particular occasions ; either for the security of the 
 camp, to cover the foragers, or for convoys, escorts, or expedi- 
 tions. 
 
 GUARDA, or GUARDIi\, a strong city of Portugal, in the 
 province of Beira, IS miles S. W. of Almeida. 
 
 GUARDAMAU, a sea-port town of Spain, in Valencia, on the 
 Segura, 17 miles S. S. W. ot Alicant. 
 
 Gl'ARD-BO.Vr, a boat appointed to row the rounds amongst 
 the ships of war which are laid ^\\) in any harbour, &c. to observe 
 that their officers keep a good looking-out, calling to the guard- 
 boat as she passes, and not sullering her crew to coine on board, 
 without luving previously communicated the watch-word of the 
 night. 
 
 GUARDIA ALFEREZ, a town of Naples, in the province of 
 Molise, 21 miles N. E. of Molise. 
 
 GUARDIAN, inlaw, siguilies one who has the custody and 
 education of such persons as have not sufficient discretioji to take 
 
 tare 
 
 (
 
 G UE 
 
 fl4P 
 
 GU I 
 
 t . rt" ■■■•!■ . i"T" ■ ,'■,,■■ 
 
 care of tliemsclves ami their own affairs, as cliildien and idiots. 
 The guardian's business is to take the profits of tlie minor's lands 
 to his use, and to account for tlie same ; to sell all moveables 
 within a reasonable time, and to convert them into land or money, 
 unless the minor is near of age, and may want Midi things himself; 
 and to pay interest for the money in his hands, that might have 
 been so ])laced out ; in which case it will be presnmeil that the 
 guardian made use of it himself. He is to sustain the lands of tiie 
 heir, without making destruction of any thing thereon, and to keep 
 it safely for him : if he commit wa'ile on the lands, it is a for- 
 feilure of the guardianship : 3 Edward I. And where persons, as 
 guardians, hold over any land, without the consent of the person 
 who is next entitled, they shall be adjudged trespassers, and shall 
 be accountable ; 6 Ann. cap. xviii. 
 
 Guardian of the Spiritualitif.s, lie to whom the spi- 
 ritual jurisdiction of any diocese is committed, durinsi the vacancy 
 of the see. He may be cither guardian in law, or jure niagistra- 
 tus, as the archbishop is of any diocese within liis province ; or 
 guardian by delegation, as he whom the archbishop or vicar-gene- 
 ral doth for the lime depute. 
 
 GUARDIAUA, a river of Spain which rises in New Castile, 
 runs throu.a;ii the |)rovinces of La Mancha and Estremadura ; and 
 ialls into the Atlantic between Ayamonte and Caslroinarin. 
 
 GUARD-SHIP, is a vessel o( war appointed to superintend 
 the marine in a harbour or river, and to see that the ships which 
 are not commissioned have their proper watchward kept duly, by 
 sending her guard-boats round them every night. She is also to 
 receive seamen who are impressed in the time of war. 
 
 GUAREA, ill botany, a genus of the monogynia order, and 
 octandria class of plants. Calyx quadrifid ; petals four ; necta- 
 rium cylindric, having the anther.x in its mouth ; capsule quadii- 
 locular, quadrivalvular ; seeds solitary. 
 
 GUARGALA, or GUERGUELA, a town of Africa, and 
 capital of a small kingdom of the same name, in Biledulgerid, S. of 
 Mount Atlas. Lon.9. j5. E. Lat. 28.0. N. 
 
 GUARMA, or GUARMOY, a sea-poit of Peru, with a good 
 harbour, about 130 miles N. VV. of Lima. Lon. 77. 49. W. Lat. 
 10. 10. S. 
 
 GUASTALLA,or GUASTELLA, a strong town of the late 
 Cisalpine republic, in the department of Mincio, and late duchy of 
 Mantua, 15 miles N. of Reggio. 
 
 GUATIMALA, an audience of North America, in New Spain, 
 above 750 miles in length, and 450 in breadth. It abounds in 
 chocolate, which they use instead of money. 
 
 GuATiMALA, a province of New Spain, in the above audi- 
 ence. 
 
 GuATiMALA, or St. Jago de Guatimala, a large and rich 
 town of New Spain ; capital of the above audience and pro- 
 vince. 
 
 G (J AX AC A, a province of Nortli America, in New Spain, 
 which is very fertile in wheat, Indian corn, cochineal, and cassia. 
 It is bounded by the gnlph of Mexico on the N. and by the 
 South Sea on the S. Il contains mines of gold, silver, and 
 crystal. 
 
 Guaxaca, the capital of the above province. 
 
 GUB1510, GUBIO, or El'GURIO, a town of Italy, in the 
 duchy of Urbino. Lon. 12. 41. E. Lat. 43. 18. N. 
 
 GUBEN, in Lower Lusatia, 62 miles north-east of Dres- 
 den. 
 
 GUDGEOff, in ichthyology, a species of cyprinus. See Cy- 
 
 PRINUS. 
 
 Gudgeon, Sea. See Gobius. 
 
 GUELDERLAND, a late duchy of Europe, bounded on the 
 N. by Overyssel and the ZuyderZee; E. by the bishopric of 
 Munster and the duchy of Cleves ; S. by those of Juliers and 
 Brabant, and W. by the States of Utrecht and Holland. It is now- 
 annexed to France. 
 
 Guelderland, one of the late United Provinces, which now 
 forms the department of the Rhine in Batavia. Its greatest extent 
 from N. to S. is about forty-seven miles, and from W, to E. near 
 as much; but its figure is very irregular. The air here is much 
 healthier and clearer than in the maritime provinces, the land lying 
 higher. 
 
 GUELDRES, a town of France, in the department of the 
 Eoer, and late duchy of Prussian Guelderland, ten miles N. W. 
 of Venlo, and seventy-two S. E. of Amsterdam. 
 
 VOL. II. — NO. 99. 
 
 GUELPIIS, or GUELT'S, a celebrated faction in Italy, anta- 
 gonists of the Gibclins. The Guelphs and Gibeliiis filled Italy 
 with blood and carnage for many years. The Guelphs stood for 
 the Pope, against the einjieror. 
 
 CiUERET, a town of France, capital of the department of 
 Creuse, thirty-live miles N. K. of Limoges and 170 S. of Paris. 
 
 GUERlCkE, Otto, or Otiio, a very eminent Ciermaii philo- 
 sopher in the seventeenth century, who, with Torricelli, Pascal, 
 and Boyle, greatly contributed to explain the various properties of 
 the air and their effects, was born in the year !C02. He was 
 counsellor to the ICIector of Brandenburg; and burgomaster, or 
 consul, of Magdeburg. To him is to be attributed tlie invention 
 of the air-pump, for though Mr. lioyle had, about the same time, 
 made some approaches towards a similar discoven', yet he ingenu- 
 ously acknowledged in a letter to his nephew. Lord Dungarvon, 
 that the information wliicli he received from Schottus's " Mecha- 
 nica Hydraulico Pneumatica," jiublished in 1(357, in which was an 
 account of Guericke's Experiments, fust enabled him to bring his 
 design to any thing like maturity. Cniericke was also the inventor 
 of the two brass-hemispheres, io illustrate the pressure of the air, 
 which, being applied to each other, and the air exhausted, resisted 
 the force of sixteen horses to draw tliein asunder. He likewise in 
 vented an instrument to shew the variations in the state of the at- 
 mosphere, consisting of a tube, in which was a little image of glass, 
 that descended in rainy or stormy weather, and rose again when 
 the weather became fine and serene. I'liis last machine fell into 
 disuse on the invention of the barometer, and especially after the 
 improvements made in that instrument by Huygens and Ainon- 
 toiis. He died in l6St). He was the author of several treatises in 
 natural philosophy, the principal of which is entitled " Experi- 
 menta Magdeburgica," 1672, folio, and contains his experiments 
 on a vacuum. 
 
 GUERNSEY, an island in the British < hannel, on the coast of 
 the French depaitment of the channel, (late Normandy,) subject 
 to Britain ; but, as well as the adjacent islands, governed by its 
 own laws. See Jersey. It extends from E. to \V. in the torin 
 of a harp, and is thirteen miles from S. W. to N. E. and twelve 
 and a half w here broadest, from E. to W. The air is very healthy, 
 and the soil naturally more rich and fertile than that of Jersey; 
 but the inhabitants neglect the cultivation of tlie land to." the sake 
 of commerce. 
 
 GUETTABDA, in botany, a genus of the heptandria order, 
 and monrecia class of jdanls ; natural order, Tricocca;. The male 
 calyx is cylindrical ; the corolla cleft into seven jiarts, and funnel- 
 shaped. The female calyx cylindrical ; tiie corolla cleft into se- 
 ven |)arts ; one pistil, and the fruit a dry plum. It has four spe- 
 cies, natives of the East and West Indies. 
 
 GUI.^NA, a vei-y extensive country of South America, bound- 
 ed on the E. and N. E. by the Atlantic ocean, and the Oioonoko; 
 on the S. by the Amazon; and on the W. by Grenada and New 
 Andalusia, in Terra Firma, from which it is separated on the \V. 
 and N. bv the Oroonoko. It extends above 1200 miles in Icngt'a 
 from N. E. to S. W.; i. e. from the mouth of the Oroonoko to 
 that of the Amazon, and from 300 to 600 in breadth. Most geo- 
 graphers divide it into two parts, calling the country along the 
 coast Carribbeano Proper, and the interior Guiana Proper: the 
 last is also styled El Dorado by the Spaniards, on account of the 
 immense (piautity of gold it is supposed toco:itain. The Portu- 
 guese, French, and Dutch, have all I'ormed settlements along the 
 coast. The coast between Cape North and Cape Orange is pos- 
 sessed by the natives. Along the coast, the land is low, marshy, 
 and subject to inundations by the rivers which descend fiom the 
 inland mountains. Hence the atmosphere is sullocating, hot, 
 moist, and unhealthful, especially where the woods have not been 
 cleared away. The Europeans are forced to live in the most dis- 
 agreeable situations, and lix their colonies at the mouths of the ri- 
 vers, amidst stinking marshes, and the ])utrid ooze of salt morasses, 
 for the conv'eniency of exportation and importation. The inha- 
 bitants are either natives, who are of a reddish-brown ; or negroes 
 and Europeans; or a mixed progeny of these in various combi- 
 nations. 
 
 GUIAQUIL, a city, bay, and harbour, of Peru, capital of an 
 audience of the same name. Lon. 79. 15. W. Lat. 2. 11. S. 
 
 GUIDES, in military language, are usually the country people 
 
 in the neighbourhood of an encampment ; who give the army in- 
 
 6 C telliseiice
 
 G II I 
 
 650 
 
 GUL 
 
 telligence concerning the country, the roads by whicli tliey are to 
 march, and the probable route oi the enemy. 
 
 GUIDON, a Hag borne l)y llie king's life-guard, broa<l at one 
 extreme, and almost [) lintecl at the other, and slit or divided into 
 two. It is the ensign or Hag of a troop of horse-guards. See 
 Guard. 
 
 Guidon, the olTir.m- vvlio bears the guidon, is tliat in the horse- 
 guards which the ensign is in the foot ; and talies place next below 
 the cornel. 
 
 Guidons, [giiid'tiies, or schola guidoninn,'] were a coni])any of 
 priests established l\v Charlemagne, at Home, to conduct and 
 guide pilgrims to Jerusalem,, to visit the holy places- they were 
 also to assist them in case they fell sick, and to perform the last 
 offices to them in case they died. 
 
 GUIDORE, a river of Ireland in Donegal. 
 
 GUIEKN E, a late province of i'rance : it was bounded on the 
 N. by Saintogne, E. by Limosin, and Languedoc ; S. by the Py- 
 renees; and W. by the ocean. It was '-"J5 miles long and 2U0 
 broad; and was divided into the Upper and Lower.- This exten- 
 sive province was anciently called Aquitaine, and is now divided 
 itJto the departments of Aveiron, Dordogne, Gers, Gironde, 
 Lamles, Lot, Lot and Garoinie, and Lower and Upper Pyrenees. 
 'J'he principal rivers are, the G.ironne, the Adour, the 'Earn, the 
 Aveiron, and the Lot. Bounleaux was the capital. 
 
 GUILANDINA, tlie Nickar-tkef. : a geiuis of tlie monogy- 
 nia order, and decandria class ot plants; natural order, Lomenta- 
 ces. Caly.K nionophyllous, salver-shaped; petals, inserted into 
 the neck of the calyx, nearly equal ; the seed-vessel a legume. 
 There are six species. 
 
 GUILD, [from the Saxon \tvh guildan, to pay,] signifies a fra- 
 ternity or company, because every one was gildare, i. c- to pay 
 something towards the charge and support of the companj-. 
 
 Guild, Gild, or Geld, is also used among ancient v\riter3, for 
 a compensation or mulct for a fault committed. 
 
 Guild, in the royal boroughs of Scotland, is still used for a 
 company of merchants, who are freemen of the borough. 
 " GUILDFORD, or GULDEEORD, a borough-town of Sur- 
 rey, on the Wye, thirty miles S. W. of London. 
 
 Guildford, a town of the United States in Connecticut, twelve 
 miles E. ofNewluiven, and 201 N. E. of PInladelphia. 
 
 GUILD-HALL, or GILD-MALL, the great court of judica- 
 ture for London. In it are kejit the mayor's-court, the slieriff's- 
 court, the court of hustings, court of conscience, court of common- 
 council, chambevlaiiiVcourt, &c. Here also the judges sit upon 
 nisi prius, &c. 
 
 GUILLAIN, a town ofFrance, in the department of Jemappes, 
 and late province of Austrian Ilainault; six miles from Mons. 
 
 GUiLLESTREE, a town of TVance, in the department of the 
 Umier Alps, nine nnles N. N. W. of Embrun. 
 
 GUILLOTINE, an engine of decapitation, decreed by the 
 French National Assembly, to be the sole punishment of persons 
 condemned to deatli, on the 20th of March, 1792 ; so named from 
 Dr. Guillot, a member of the assembly, who proposed it as an in- 
 strument of mercy, by giving the criminal a more expeditious 
 deatli than any other means can afford. Its effect, it must be al- 
 lowed, is instantaneous. A minute description of it is unnecessary, 
 as fig. 4, and 5,, Plate LXXXV. will convey a sufficient idea 
 of it. 
 
 GUIMARAENS, a town of Portugal, in Entre Duero 
 e-Minho, ten miles E. of Braga. 
 
 GUINEA, a large tract of country lying on the W. side of the 
 continent of Africa, extends along the coast from 3 to 4000 miles, 
 beginnmg at the river Senegal, about 17° of lat. N. the nearest 
 part of Guinea to Europe as well as to North America. From 
 that river to the (jambia, and in a S. course to Cape Sierra Leona, 
 is comprehended a coast of about 700 miles ; being the same tract 
 for which Queen Elizabeth granted charters to the first traders to 
 that coast. From Sierra Leona, the land of Guinea takes a turn 
 to llie E. extending al)out 1600 miles, including those several di- 
 visions called the (irain Coast, the Ivory Coast, the Ciold Coast, 
 and the Slave Coast, with the kingdom of Benin. From thence 
 the land runs S. along the coast about 1200 miles, and contains the 
 kingdoms of Congo and Angola. From this to the sontlmiost 
 cape of Africa, called the Cape of Good Hope, the country is 
 atltkd by Callics and Hottentots, who have never beeu concern- 
 
 ed in making or selling slaves. As all this country lies between 
 the tro]iics, the air is excessively hoi, especially from the begin-t 
 ning of September to tlie end of March : which, with the cool- 
 ness of the nights, the frequent thick, stinking, sulphureous mists, 
 and the periodical rains, when the flat country- is overflowed, 
 makes it very uuliealthy, especially to Europeans. The natives, 
 however, are little affected with the unwholesome air. According 
 to Harbot, tliey keep much within doors in tempestuous times; 
 their skins beiii^ suppled and pores closed by daily anointing with 
 palm-oil, the, weather can make but little impression on them. 
 They generally, therefore, enjoy a good state of health, and are 
 able to procure to themselves a comfortable subsistence, wth 
 much less care and toil than is necessary in our more northern cli- 
 mate ; which last advantage arises not only from the warmth of 
 the climate, but also from the overflowing of tlia rivers, whereby 
 the land is regularly moistened and rendered extremely fertile ; 
 and being in many places improved by culture, abounds with 
 grain and fruits, cattle, poultry, &c. The earth yields ail the 
 year a fresh supply of food: few doaths are requisite, and liltlo 
 art necessary in making them, or in the constrnction of- theij 
 houses, which are very simple, principally GaUulated to defend 
 them from the tempestuous seasons and wild beasts; a few dry 
 reeds covered with mats serve for their beds. The distempers the 
 Europeans are subject to, on this coast, ar£ fevers, fluxes, and co- 
 lics, which are occasioned by indifferent water and bad air; theis 
 settlements lying near the coast, where the fogs and sleams arising 
 from the oo/e and salt-marshes, and the stinking lish the natives 
 dry on the beach, corrupt the air, and render it fatal to the fo- 
 reigners. The most temperate men hud it ditiicult to preserve 
 their health ; but many hasten their dcaUi by their intemperance, 
 or negligence, exposing themselves to the cold air in the evening, 
 after a very hot day. This sudden change, from one extreme to 
 the other, has often very liad etiects in iiot climates. 
 
 Guinea, [from Guinea, a country in Africa, abounding with 
 gold,] a gold-coin valued at one and twenty shillings. The gui- 
 nea anciently bore the impression of an elephant. Its value has 
 varied ; when first struck it was 20.J. ; from the scarcity of gold it 
 was afterwards advanced to 21s. 6d. but it is now sunk to2l4\ 
 The pound weight truy of gold is cut iuto 44i parts ; each part 
 makes a guinea. 
 
 Guinea, New, a lung and narrow island of the East Indies, 
 very imperfectly known. It was supposed to be connected with 
 New Holland, until Captain Cook, tlistovered the strait which se- 
 parates them. New Guinea extends from the equator to V2' lat. 
 S. and from 13L° to IJO" Ion. E. The huid is very low, but it is 
 covered with a vast luxuriance of wood and herbage. Cocoa-nut^ 
 plantain, and bread fruit-lrees, flourish in perfection. 
 
 Guinea-hen. See Numida.. 
 
 GuiNEA-PK.rpER. See Capsicum. 
 
 GuiNEA-piG. See Cavia. 
 
 GUINGAMP, a town of France, in the department of the 
 North Coasts, 258 miles W. of Paris. 
 
 GUIPUSCOA, a provinc e of Spain, bounded onthe N. bv 
 the Atlantic, E. by France, S. E by Navarre, S. by Alava, and 
 W. by Biscay ; twenty-five miles long, and from fifteen to twenty 
 broad. 
 
 GUISE, a town of France, in the department of Aisne, on tlit 
 Oise, twenty miles N. of Laon. 
 
 GUITAR, \_ghitaru, Ital. giiitrrrc, Fr.] a stringed instrument 
 of iiHisic. Tlie guitar has five double rows of strings; of which 
 those that are brass are in the middle, except it be for the burden, 
 an octave lower than the fourth. It was first used in Spain, where 
 it is still greatly in vogue. 
 
 GULA, or GOLA, in architecture, a wavy member, tiie con- 
 tour of which resembles the letter S, which the Greeks call cvnia- 
 tium, and our architects an ogee. See Architecture. 
 
 GULES, a corruption of the French word g-«<'«/f«, which in 
 lieraldry signifies red, is represented in engraving by perpendicu- 
 lar lines. It serves to denote martial prowess and hardine"&; for 
 the ancients used this colour to make themselves terrible to their 
 enemies, to stir up magnanimity, and to prevent the seeing of 
 blood, by the likeness of the colours; for which reason perhaps it 
 is used by the English. This colour is by the generality of the 
 English heralds ranked before azure. But the late French heraTds 
 preferred azure. 
 
 1 GULF,
 
 GVN 
 
 65\ 
 
 GUN 
 
 (iUI.I'", a cnpacioiis bay t)»-tween two inomoiilories, sometimes 
 taking tlie iiauif of u so;i, \v lien very extensive ; but particularly 
 wlieji it on'y cnmmiinicale? wiili tlie 'iea by a strait. Siicli are the 
 Euxine or IJIaek Sea, I'alled the (iiilf of Con-tantinnp'e ; the 
 Adriatic; Sea, or tlie Gulf of Venice; I'lie Gulf of I^^on-, near 
 France, and tlie Gulf of Sierra near IWbary. All these arc in 
 the Mediterranean. There are the Gulls ot Me.xieu, St. Law- 
 renee, and California, in North Anicrica ; the CJulf of Persia, or 
 the Hed Sea, between Persia ; nd Arabia; the (nilf of Inngal in 
 India; and the Gulfs of Cot'hin-china and Kamtsehatka, near 
 these countries. , 
 
 GULL, in icliilijoloi^y,. See Larus. 
 
 Gull Isi e, an isle near Cape St. John. 
 
 G*ULLE1'. See An-atomv. 
 
 GUM, Igummi, Latin,] a thick, transparent, tasteless fluid, 
 which sometimes exudes from certain species of trees. It is 
 very adhesive, and gradually hai-dens without losing its trans- 
 paivncy ; but easily sol'lens again when moistened with water. 
 The gum most commonly used is that wliieli exudes from difler- 
 ent species of the mimosa, particularly the nilotica. It is known 
 by the name of gum-arabic. (Juni I.keuise exudes abundantly 
 from the prunus avium, or common wild cherry-tree of this coun- 
 try. Gum is usualU obtained in small pieces like tears, mode- 
 rately bard, and somewhat brittle while cold, so tliat it can be re- 
 duced by pounding to a line powder. When pure it is- colourless, 
 but has usuaU_\ a.yellowisli tinge, and it is not destitute of lu-.tre. 
 It has no smell. Its lasle is insipid. Its specific gravily varies 
 from 1.31 to 1.48. Gum undergoes no change from beuig ex 
 posed to the atmosphere ; but tlie light of the sun niaUes it assume 
 a white colour. Water dissolves it in large quantlt'.es. The so- 
 lution, \S'hich is known by the name of mucil.ise, is thick and ad- 
 hesive : it is often used as a paste, and gives stillness and lustre to 
 linen. AVhen spread out ihin it soon dries, and has the appear- 
 ance of a varnish ; but it readily attracts moisture^ and becomes 
 glutinous. Water washes it away entirely. When mucilage is 
 evaporated the gum is obtained unaltered. This mucilaginous so- 
 lution may be kept for years without undergoing putrefaction. 
 Scarcely any vegetable substance is less liable to deconiposiiion. 
 At last, however, the odour of acetic acid becomes perceptible in 
 it. When gum is exposed to heat it softens and swells, but does 
 not melt; it emits air-bubbles, blackens, nntl at last, when nearly 
 reduced to charcoal, emits a low blue tlanic. This flame appears 
 sooner if a flaming substance is lieUl just above the gum. After the 
 gum is consumed, there remains a small quantity of white ashes, 
 composed chiefly of the carbonates of lime and potass. It does not 
 appear that gum is acted upon by oxygen gas. A solution of 
 gum and water, when exposed to the air, soon becomes mouldy on 
 the surface, but undergoes no farther change for a long time. 
 The action of the simple combust!!. les on gum has scarcely been 
 examined. Azotic gas seems to have no action on it whatever. 
 Gum does not act upon metals; but it has the property of com- 
 bining with several of the metallic oxides, ami forming com- 
 pounds; at least, some of the salts occasion precipitates when 
 dropped into solutions of gum. Tiie most curious effect is I'lat 
 produced by the oxymuriate of iron. When this salt, concen- 
 trated, i^ dropt into a very strong mucilage, the whole becomes a 
 brown semitransparent jelly, which is noi readily dissolved bv wa- 
 ter. When dried, the jelly becomes lighter coloured, and as- 
 sumes nearly the appearance of gum. Its taste is that of gum 
 mixed wiili iron. 'I he species of gum at present known amount to 
 four; thougli it is likely that a more rigid examination of the ve- 
 getable kingdom will discover a greater number. These arc gum- 
 arabic, gum-tragacanth, cherry-tree gum, and the mucilage which 
 is contained in the roots anil leaves of iiiaihy plants. 
 
 Gum Rksins, are certain substances that have long been used 
 in meilicine. They are solid, generally brittle and opatpie, have 
 a strong smell, anil a pungent and bitter taste. 'Pliey consist 
 chiefly of gum and resin, the proportions varying with the particu- 
 lar substance. They are never obtained by means of spontaneous 
 exudation, but are procured by wounding the plants which con- 
 lain them. The principal of the gum-re^ins are, 1. Ammoniac; 
 a. Assafcetida; 3. Eui'hokbium; -i. Galbanum; 5. Gam- 
 boge ; 6. MvauH ; 7. Oi'OPONAX ; 8. Sapagenum. See those 
 M'ticles. 
 
 GUN, [perhaps from caniie, the original ©f cannon,] a weapon of 
 
 olleiue, which forcibly discharge.a bill, or other hard sojd n.alter, 
 tlu-ougli a c\lindric lube, by means of intlanied gunpowder. See 
 (ivN POWDER. The word gun now includes most species of fire- 
 arms ; pist()ls and mortar' being almost the only ones excepted 
 from this denomination. They are divided into "great and small 
 guns: tlic former including all'that we also call cannon, ordnance, 
 or artillery; the latter including Musuuets, Carabixts, Mi s- 
 
 UUETOONS, liLUNDEKIlUSSES, I' OWLIXG-PIECES, &C. See these 
 
 articles. It is not known when these weajions were fn-st invented. 
 Thougli, comparatively speaking, the introduction of guns into 
 the western part of the' world is but of a modern datf-; \et it is 
 certain that in some parts of yVsia they have been used, though in a 
 very rude and imperfect manner, "tor many ages. Philostratus 
 mentions a city near the Ilyphasis in the Indies, Vhich was said to 
 be impregnable, and tliat its" inhabitants were relations of the gods, 
 because the-y threw thunder and lightning upon their enemies. 
 Hence some" imagine that guns were u-ed by the eastern nations 
 even in tlie time of Alexander the Great ; blit however this may 
 be, niaiTj- of our modern travellers assert, that they were used iu 
 China as far back as A.U. Sj, and have continued in use ever 
 since. 'J he ll^t hint of the invention of guns in Europe is in tlie 
 works of Roger Bacon, who flourished in tlie thirteenth century, 
 in a treatise written by him about I'JSO, he proposes to apply tiie 
 violent explosive force of gunpowder for the dc^struction of ar- 
 mies. See Gunpowder, and Projectiles. Great Guns, or 
 c uiiion, were formerly dignified with uncommon names. In 1503, 
 Lewis XII. had twelve brass-cannon cast, of an e.xtraordinary size, 
 called after the names of the twelve peers of France. The Spa- 
 nish and Portuguese called them after their saints. The emperor 
 Charles V. when he marched before Tunis, founded the twelve 
 Apostles. At Milan there is a 70 pounder, called the Pimontelle ; 
 and one at Bois-le-duc, called the Devil. A 60 pounder at Do- 
 ver Castle, called Queen Elizabeth's Pocket-Pislol. An 80 
 pounder in the Tower of London (many years in Edinburgh 
 Cattle,) called Mons Meg. An 80 pounder "in the royal arsenal 
 at Berhii, called the Thunderer. An SO pounder at Malaga, call- 
 ed the Terrible. Two curious 60 pounders in the arsenal at Bre- 
 men, called the Messengers of Bad News. And, lastly, an un- 
 common 70 pounder in the castle of St. Angelo at Koine, made 
 of the nails that fastened the copperplates which covered the an- 
 cient Pantheon, with this inscription upon it : " Ex clavis traba- 
 libus porticus Agi-lppa>." In the beginning of the fifteenth century 
 the lollowing more univei-sal names took place, viz. Cannon 
 royal, or cartboun = 48 pounders, about 90 cwt. Bastard can- 
 non, or A cartboun =: 36 pounders, 79 cwt. f Carthoun = i.'4 
 poumlers, 60 cwt. Whole culveiins =: IS pounders, 50 cwt. 
 Demi-cuh erins =: y pounders, 30 cwt. Falcon = 6 pounder-, 
 i?j cwt. Sacker = 5, 6, and 8 pounders, 13, 15, and 18 cwt. 
 I'asilisk := 48 pounders, 85 cwt. Serpentine =: 4 pounders, 3 
 cwt. Aspic =r 2 pounders, 7 cwt. Dragon =r 6 pounders, 12 
 cwt. Syien == 60 pounders, 81 cwt. P'alconet :=; 3, 'J, 1 pound- . 
 ers, 15, 10, and 5 cwt. Moyens, which carried a ball of ten or 
 twelve ounces, &c. Rabinet, which carried a ball of sixteen 
 ounces. At present cannon take their names fron> the weight of 
 the ball they discharge. Thus a piece that discharges a ball of 24 
 pounds is called a 24 pour.der ; one that carries a ball of 12 pounds 
 is called a 12 pounder, aiid so of the rest, divided into the lollow- 
 ing sorts, viz. ship-guns, consisting of 42,36, 32, 24, 18, 12, 9, 6, 
 and 3 pounders. G.irrison-guns, in 42, 32, 24, 18, 12,9, and 
 6 pounders. Battering guns, in 24, IS, and 12 pounders. Field- 
 pieces, in 12, 9, 6, 3, 2, If, 1, and A pounders. 
 
 GUNDELFINGEN, a town of Bavaria in Neirhurgh, on the 
 Brentz, 19 miles N.E. ol Ulm, and 3S W. of Neuburg. 
 
 GUN DELIA, in botany, a genus of the polygamia segregata 
 order, syngenesia class of plants ; natural order Composita-.'^Caly.x 
 scarcely any, five-flowered ; corolla tubular, male and hermaphro- 
 dite; receptacle chaffy; down none. There is but one species, 
 viz. 
 
 G. TouRMEFORTii, a milky plant, with alternate prickly leaves ; 
 a native of the Levant. 
 
 GUN NEK, an officer appointed to fire the gun-, eitlier by sea 
 or land. In the Tower of London, and other garrisons, as well as 
 in the field, this oflker carries a field-staff, and a large powder- 
 horn in :i sliing over his left shoulder, lie marches by the guns ; 
 and when there is any apprdiension of danger, bis lield-staff is 
 
 armed
 
 GV^ 
 
 652 
 
 GUN 
 
 armed with match. His business is to lay the gun, to pass, and to 
 help to load ami traverse her. 
 
 Gunner, Master, a patent-officer of the ordnance, who is ap- 
 pointed to leach all such as learn (he art of gunnery, and to cer- 
 tify to the master-general the ability of atiy person recommended 
 to be one of the liing's gunners. To every scholar he administers 
 an oath not to serve, without leave, any other prince or slate ; or 
 teach any one the art of gunnery but such as have taken the said 
 oath. 
 
 GUNNERA, in botany, a genus of the diandria order, and 
 gynandria class of plants. The amentvmi consists of uniflorous 
 scales; there is neither calyx nor corolla ; the gerracn is bidentat- 
 ed with two styles and one seed. It has but one species. 
 
 GUNNERY is the art of charging, directing, and exploding, 
 fire-arms, as cannons, mortars, niuslktts, &c. to the best advan- 
 tage ; and of determining llie course, velocity, time of flight, mo- 
 mentum, &c. of the projected body. This braach of science be- 
 longs to the subject of Proje "-tiles, since it treats of projected 
 bodies, and the means of projecting them ; we shall therefore refer 
 the reader to that article. 
 
 GUNPOWDER, a composition of nitre, sulphur, and char- 
 coal, mixed together, and usually granulated. This easily lakes (ire, 
 and when fired it rarelies or expands with gre.it vehemence, by 
 means of its elastic force. U is to tliis powder that we owe all the 
 ert'ect and action of guns, and or.hiarae of all sorts, so that forlih- 
 cation, with the modern military art, &c. in a great measure de- 
 pends upon it. The invention of gunpowder is ascribed by Polv- 
 dore Virgd to a chemist, who having accidentally put some of his 
 composition in a morlar, and covered it witli a stone, it happened 
 to take lire, and blew up the stone. Thevet says, that the person 
 here spoken of was a monk of I'ribourg, named Constantine Anel- 
 zen ; but Belleforet, and other authors, with more probability, 
 hold it to be Bartholdus Schwartz, or the l)lack, who discovered 
 it, as some say, about the year lj','0. 'I'he name mortars, given 
 to a species ot ancient artillery, and their application in throwing 
 stone-bullets, strongly favours this account of the discovery, of al 
 least the application of gunpowder. But it appears that Roger 
 Bacon knew of gunpowder near one hundred years before 
 Schwartz was born ; and M. Uutens carries the antiquity of gun- 
 powder still much higher, and refers to the writings ot the ancients 
 themselves for the proof of it. 1 1 appears too, from many aulhoi's 
 and many circumstances, that this composition has been known 
 to the Chinese and Indians for thousands of years. The modern 
 proportion of the ingredients for gunpowder is six parts of nitre to 
 one of each of the other two: though Mr. Napier says, he finds 
 the strength conmionty to be the greale-t when the proportions 
 are, nitre three pounils, charcoal about nine ounces, and sulphur 
 about three ounces. See his paper on gunpowiler in the Trans- 
 actions of the Uoyal Irish Academy, vol. ii. The cannon-powder 
 was in meal, and the musket-powder grained ; and it is certain, 
 that the graining of powder, which is a very considerable advan- 
 tage, is a modem improvement. To make gunpowder due re- 
 gard is to be had to the purity or goodness of the ingredients, as 
 well as the proportio.ns of tiieui, for the strength of the powder de- 
 pends much on that circumstance, and also on the due working or 
 mixing of them together. After the materials have been reduced 
 to fine dust, they are mixed together, and moistened with water, or 
 ■vinegar, or urine, or spirit of wine, &c. and then beaten together 
 for twenty-four hours, either by hand or by mills, and afterwards 
 pressed into a hard, firm, solid, cake. When dry, it is grained or 
 corned, which is done by breaking the cake of powder into small 
 pieces, and so running it througii a sieve; bv which means tlie 
 grains may have any size given them, according to tlie nature of 
 the sieve employed, either finer or coarser; and thus also the dust 
 is sejiaraled from the grains, anil again mixed with otlier manufac- 
 tiuing powder, or workeil up into cakes again. Powder is smooth- 
 ed or glazed, as it is called, for small arms, by the following ope- 
 ration: a hollow cylinder or cask is mounted on an axis, turned bv 
 awheel; this cask' is half filled with powder, and turned for six 
 hours, anil thus by the mutual friction of the grains of powder it is 
 smoothed or glazed. The fine mealy part, thus separated or worn 
 off from the rest, is again granulated. The velocity ot expansion 
 of the flame of gunpowd> r, when fired in a piece of artillery, with- 
 out either bullet or other body before it, is prodigiously great, 
 viz. seven tliousaiii feet per second, or upwards, as appears from 
 
 the experiments ot Mr. Robins. But M. Bernoulli and M. Euler 
 suspect it is still much greater; and Dr. Hutton supposes it may 
 not be less, at the mojnent of explosion, than four times as much. 
 It is this prodigious celerity of expansion of the ilame of gunpow- 
 der which is its peculiar excellence, and the circumstance in which 
 it so eminently surpasses all other inventions, either ancient or mo- 
 dern ; for as to the momentum of these projectiles only, many of 
 tlie warlike machines of the ancients produced this in a degree far 
 surpassing :hat of our heaviest cannon-shot or shells ; but the great 
 celerity given to these bodies cannot be in the least approached 
 by any other means but the flame of powder. 
 
 Gunpowder, Method of Recovering Damaged. The 
 powder-merchants put part of the powder on a sail-cloth, to which 
 they add an equal weight of what is really good ; and with a shovel 
 mingle it well together, dry it in the sun, and barrel it up, keeping 
 it in a dry and proper place. Others again, if it be very bad, re- 
 store it by moistening it with vinegar, water, urine, or brandy: then 
 they beat it fine, scarce it, and to every pound of powder add loz. 
 If or 2oz. according as it is decayed, ot melted salt-petre. After- 
 wards, these ingredients are to be moistened and mixed well, so 
 that nothing can be discerned in the composition, which may be 
 known by cutting the mass; and then granulated as at first. If 
 the jjowder be in a manner quite spoiled, the only way is to extract 
 the saltpetre with water by boiling, filtrating, evaporating, and 
 crysiallizing; and then with fresh sulphur and charcoal to make it 
 up anew. 
 
 GuNPOwfiER, Methods OF Trying. There are two general 
 meUiods of examining gunpowder ; 1st, with regard to its purity: 
 2d, As to its strength. 1. Its purity isknown by lajing two or three 
 little heaps near each other upon white paper, ami firing one of 
 them. For if this takes fire readily, and the smoke ri^es upright, 
 without leaving any dross or feculent matter behind, and without 
 burning the paper, or firing the other heaps, it is esteemed a sign 
 that the sulphur and nitre were well purified, that the coal was good, 
 and that the three ingredients were thoroughly incorporateol toge- 
 ther: but if the other heaps also take fire at the same time, it is 
 presumed that either common salt was mixed with the nitre, or that 
 the coal was not well groiuul, or the whole mass not well beat and 
 mixed together; and if either the nitre or sulphur be not well pu- 
 rified, the paper will be black or spotted. 2. Several instruments 
 have been invented to try the strength of gunpowder ; but they 
 have generally been complained of as inaccurate. Count Rum- 
 ford in the Philosoph. Trans. Vol. 71, gives an account of an ex- 
 act method of trying the strength of it. " As the force of the 
 powder (says he) arises from the action of an elastic lluid that is 
 generated from it in its inflammation, the quicker the charge takes 
 fire, the more of this tluid will be generated in any given short 
 space of time, and the greater of course will its elfect be upon the 
 bullet. But in the connnon method of proving gunpowder, the 
 weight by which the powder is confined is so great in proportion to 
 the quantity of the charge, that there is time quite sufficient for 
 the charge to he all inflamed, even when the powder is of the slow- 
 est comjjosition, before the body to be put in motion can be sen- 
 sibly removed from its place. The experiment therefore may sliew 
 which of the two kinds of powder is the strongest, when equal 
 quantities of both are confined in equal spaces, and both completely 
 inflamed; but the degree of inflammability, which is a property 
 essential to the goodness of the powder, cannot by these means be 
 ascertained. Hence it appears how powder may answer to (he 
 proof, such as is commonly required, and may nevertheless turn 
 out very indiflerent when it comes to be used in service. But 
 though the common powder-triers, may shew powder to be better 
 than it rCLilly is, they can never make it appear to be worse than it 
 is; it will therefore always be the interest of those who manufac- 
 ture the commodity to adhere to the old method of proof, but the 
 purchaser will find his account in having it examined in a method 
 by which its goodness may be ascertained with greater precision." 
 'I'o determine the goodness of pow der by Count Ruinford's method, 
 it is necessary to have a barrel suspended by tw o iron-rods, that 
 it can easily move backward or foiward by the vibration of the 
 rods; and the space it moves through ascertained by marking it oq 
 a jiiece of ribbon. The barrel bj^'iug then charged with powder, 
 and fitted with a proper bullet, is lobe fired, and the recoil n ark- 
 ed upon the ribbon. The experiment is to be repeated three or 
 four times, or ofteiicr if there is any difference in the recoil ; the 
 
 extreme*
 
 GUN 
 
 653 
 
 GUN" 
 
 extremes of wiiicli m;iy be marked with black lines on the ribbon, 
 and the word proof written in the middle-line betwixt the two. 
 But if the experiments are made with sufiicient accuracy, there 
 will commonly bo very little difference in the length to wliich the 
 ribbon is drawn out. Thus the comparative goodness of powder 
 may easily be ascertained ; for the sironp;er the pov^der is, the 
 greater will be the recoil, and consequently the greater length to 
 which the ribbon will be drawn out: and if care is taken in pro- 
 portioning the charge to the weight of the builet, to come as near 
 as po^sible to the medium proi)ortioii that obtains in practice, the 
 determination of the goodness of gunpowder from the result oftliis 
 experiment cannot fail to hold good in actual service. That wliich is 
 found to answer best ii a small cannon, the bore of which is about 
 one inch in diameter, and it is usually charged with two ounces of 
 powder, and with powder only, as a ball is not necessary, and tl.e 
 strength of the powder Is iccuratelv shown by the arc of the gun's 
 teceil. 
 
 Gunpowder, Statutes Kespecting. No person shall make 
 gunpowder, but in the regular manufactories established at the time 
 of making the statute 12 George HI. c. 61, or licensed by the ses- 
 sions, pursuant to certain provisions, under forfeiture of the gun- 
 powder, and two shillings per pound ; nor are pestle-mills to be 
 used under a similar penalty. Only forty pounds of powder is to 
 be made at one time under one pair of stones, except Battle-pow- 
 der, made at Battle and elsewhere in Sussex. Not more than forty 
 hundred weight to be dried at one time in one stove; and the 
 quantity only required for immediate use to be kept in or near the 
 place of making, except in brick or stone magazines, fifty yards at 
 least from the null. Not more than twenty-hve barrels to be car- 
 ried in any land-carriage, nor more than two hundred barrels by 
 water, unless going by sea or coastwise, each barrel not to contain 
 more than one hundred pounds. No dealer to keep more than 
 two hundred pounds of powder, nor any person not a dealer, more 
 than fifty pound in the cities of London and Westminster, or with- 
 in three miles thereof, or within any other city, borough, or market- 
 town, or one mile thereof, or witliin two miles of the king's palaces, 
 or magazines, or half a mile of any parish-church, on pain of for- 
 feiture, and two shillings per pound, except in licensed mills, or to 
 the amount of three huntlred pounds for the use of collieries, within 
 two hundred yards of them. 
 
 GUNTIiR, Edmund, M. A. and B. D. an excellent mathema- 
 tician, born in Hertfordshire in 1581. He studied at Westminster 
 and Oxford, where he gratluated in 1606, and 1615. Being emi- 
 nent for his knowledge in the matheniatics, he was in 1013, clioseii 
 professor of astronomy in Gresham-colleK, where he dKinguished 
 himself by his lectures and writings. He improved the trigono- 
 metrical tables then in use, by adapting them to the solution of 
 spherical triangles without the aid of secants. In 1622 he made 
 the important discovery that the variation of the needle varies. 
 Soon after he mvented the rule for working questions in proportion 
 instrumentally, which is an easy and excellent method of combin- 
 ing arithmetic and geometry, adapted to the understanding of per- 
 sons of the most ordinary capacities. The lines on which the 
 operation is performed, is called Gunter's line. He also invented 
 a quadrant, and greatly improved the sector and other instruments. 
 We are indebted to him for many other inventions and improvenienls, 
 most of which are printed in his works. He died at Gresham-col- 
 lege in 1626. His first publication was entitled " Canon Trian- 
 gulorum." His works have been collected, and various editions 
 of them have been published. The fifth is bv William Leybourn, 
 in 1673, 4th., containing the description and use of the sector, 
 cross-stall', bow, quadrant, and other instruments; with several 
 pieces added by Samuel Foster, Henry Bond, and William Ley- 
 bourn. 
 
 Gunter's Chain, the chain in common use for measuring land, 
 sccording to true or statute measure ; so called from Mr. Gunter, 
 its reputed inventor. The length -of the chain is ()6 feet, or 22 
 \ards, or four poles, of 5i yards each; and it is divided into 100 
 links, of 7,92 inches each. This chain is the most convenient of 
 any thing for measuring land, because the contents thence com- 
 puted are so easily turned into acres. The reason of which is, 
 that an acre of land is just equaKo 10 square chains, or 10 chains 
 in length and one in breadth, or equal to 100,000 square links. 
 Hence, the dimensions being taken m chains, and multiplied to- 
 gether, it gives the content in square chains, which therefore being 
 
 VOL. II. — NO. 100. 
 
 divided by 10, or a figure cut off for decimils, brings the content 
 to acres; after which the decimals are reduced to roods and per- 
 ches, by multiplying by 4 and 40. But a belter way is to set 
 the dimensions down in links, as integers, considering each chain 
 as 100 links; then, having found the content in square lini.s, divide 
 these by 100,000, that is, cut oil' five places tor decimals, the rest 
 are acres, and the decimals are reduced to roods and per- 
 ches as before. Suppose a rectangular field to be measured b« 
 624 liuks in length, and 550 in breailth, to find its area we say 
 
 624 
 
 550 
 
 31200 
 3120 
 
 3.43200 
 4 
 
 1.7280(» 
 40 
 
 . 29.12 
 
 The area, or quantity of surface is 3 A. 1 R. 29P. 
 
 Gunter's Line, a logarithmic line, usually graduated upon 
 scales, sectors, &c. It is also called the line of lines, and line of 
 numbers ; being only the logarithms graduated upon a ruler, which 
 therefore serves to solve problems instrumentally in the same man- 
 ner as logarithms do arithmetically. It is usually divided into an 
 hundred parts,every tenth whereof is numbered, beginning with 1, 
 and ending with 10; so that if the first great division, marked 1, 
 stand for one-tenth of any integer, the next division, marked 2, 
 will stand for two-tenths ; 3, three-tenths, and so on ; and the in- 
 termediate divisions will, in like manner, represent 100th parts of 
 the same integer. If each of the great divisions represent 10 in- 
 tegers, tlien will the less divisions stand for integers; and if the 
 great divisions be supposed each 100, the subdivisions will be 
 each 10 
 
 Gunter's Line, Use of. 1. To find the product of two num- 
 bers. From 1. extend the compasses to the multipher; and the 
 same extent, applied the same way from the multiplicand, will 
 reach to the product. Thus, if the product of 4 and 8 be re(]uired, 
 extend the compasses from I to 4, and that extent laid from 8 the 
 same way, will reach to 32, their product. 2. To divide one num- 
 by another. The extent from the divisor to unity will reach from 
 tile dividend to the quotient : thus to divide 3li by 4, extend the 
 compas-es from 4 to 1, and the same extent will reach from 36 to 
 9,_the quotient sought. 3. To three given numbers, to find a 
 4th proportional. Suppose the numbers 6, 8, 9 ; extend the com- 
 passes from 6 to 8, and this extent, laid from 9 the same way, will 
 reach to 1 2, the fourth proportional required. 4. To find a mean 
 proportional between any two given numbers. Suppose 8 and 32 : 
 extend the compasses from 8 in the left hand part of the line to 32 
 in the right; then bisecting this distance, its half will reach from 8 
 forward, or from 32 backward, to 16, the mean proportionai sought. 
 5. To extract the square root of any number. Suppose 25: hi- ^ 
 sect the distance between one on the scale and the point represent- 
 ing 25; then the naif of this distance, set off from 1, will give the 
 point represpcting the root 5. In the same manner the cube root, or 
 that of any higher power, may be found by dividing the distance 
 on the line, between 1 and the given number, into as many' equal 
 parts as the index of the power expresses ; then one of those parts, 
 set from 1, will find the point representing the root required. 
 
 Gunter's Quadrant, one made of wood, brass, &:c. contain- 
 ing a kind of stereographic projection of the sphere, on the plane 
 of the equinoctial ; the eye being supposed placed in one of the 
 poles. See Quadrant. 
 
 Gunter's Scale, usually called by seamen the Gunter, is a 
 large plain scale, having various lines upon it, of great use in work- 
 ing the cases or (piestions in navigation. This scale is usually two 
 feet long, and about an inch and a half broad, with various lines 
 upon it, both natural and logarithmic, relating to trigonometry, 
 navigation, &c. On the one side are the natural lines, and on the 
 other the artificial or logarithmic ones. The former side is first 
 divided into inches and tenths, and numbered from one to twenty - 
 8 D four
 
 GUT 
 
 65i 
 
 GYM 
 
 four iiiclics, running tin- whole lingth near one edge. One halt 
 the Inngtli of iliis siile consists of two plain tliagonal-scales, for 
 takiiiff off dimensions to three places of figures. On the other 
 half or foot of this side, are contained various lines relating to tri- 
 gonometry, in the iiatiu-al nmnbers, and marked thus, viz. 
 
 Rmnb, the rumbs or points of the compass ; 
 
 Chord, the line of chords; 
 
 iJine, the Ihie of sines ; 
 
 Tang, the tangents ; 
 
 S. T. the semi-tangents; and at the other end of this iialf are, 
 
 Leag. leau:ues, or i(|ual parts; 
 
 Knml), anotlier line of rumbs; 
 
 M. L. niiies of longiliide; 
 
 C'hor. another line of cliords. 
 
 Also in the middle of this foot are L, and P, two other lines of 
 fipial parts: I'nd all these lines on this side of the scale serve for 
 *lr;uving or laying down the figures to the cases in trigonometry 
 a'id navigation. On the other side of the scale, are the following 
 artificial or logarithmic lines, which serve for working or rcsolvmg 
 those cases ; viz. 
 
 S. R. the sine-rumbs ; 
 
 T. R. the tangent-rumbs ; 
 
 Nmnb. line of numbers J 
 
 Sine, sines; 
 
 V. S. the versed sines; 
 
 Tang, the tangents ; 
 
 Meri. Meridional parts ; 
 
 E. P. Equal parts. 
 
 GUNTOO R, a circar of Hindostan, N. of the Carnatic, and S. 
 of the Kistnah, extending 40 miles along the bay of Bengal. It 
 belongs to IVitain. 
 
 GUNWALE, or GUNNEL of a Ship. That piece of tim- 
 ber which reachi s on either side of the ship from the half-deck to 
 the fore-castle, being the uppermost bend uhich finishes the up- 
 works ©f the hull in that part, and wherein they put the stanchions 
 ^*hich support the waste trees; and this is called the gunwale, 
 wiielher there lie guns in the ship or no ; snd the lower part of any 
 port, where any ordnance are, is also termed the gunwale. 
 
 GURNARD. SeeTKiGLA. 
 
 GURRAH MONDELLA, a rlrcar of Hindostan, between 
 Allahabad and Berar; \'20 miles long, and from 40 to 80 broad. 
 
 GuRRAH, the capital of the above. 
 
 GUSSAGO, a town and district of the late Cisalpine republic, 
 3*1 the department of the Mela. 
 
 GUSSET, in heraldry, is fprnied by aline drawn from the dex- 
 ter or sinister chief points, and falling down perpendicularly to the 
 extreme base. 
 
 GUSTAVIA, in botany, a genus of the polyandria order, and 
 monadelphia class of plants. Calyx none ; petals very numerous ; 
 berry mullilocuhir ; seeds appendaged. It has only one species, a 
 tree of Surinam and Cayenne. 
 
 GUSTAVUS L king of Sweden, son of Eric Vasa, duke of 
 Gripsliolm. Christian IL king of Denmark having made himself 
 ma'^ter.of Sweden, confined Gustavus at Copenhagen; but he 
 making his escape, wandered long in the forests, till the cruellies 
 of the tyrant hjvin.g occasioned a revolution, he was first declared 
 eoveruor of Sweden, and then, in 1513, elected king lie intro- 
 «kxed Lutlicranism into his dominions, and died in 1560. 
 
 Gustavus Adolphus, the Grkat, king of Sweden, was born 
 .at Stockholm in 1504, and succeeded liis father Charles IX. in 
 toil, lie espoused the cause of the Protestants in Germany, who 
 ■were oppressed by Ferdirjand 1. lie was a great warrior, and 
 gained many victories, but was killed in the battle of Lutzen, 
 where h's troops got the victory, and defeated two of the emperor's 
 armies, in Nov. 1C32. 
 
 GUTTjE, in architecture, are ornaments in the form of little 
 cones, used in the plafond of the Doric corniche, or on the archi- 
 trave underneath the triglyphs, representing a sort of drops or bells. 
 'i'hey are usually si.\ in mnnher. See Architecture. 
 
 Gutt.k Angmcanje. English Drops, a chemical .prepara- 
 tion esteemed of great virtue against vapours and lethargic alfec- 
 tions, and purclijs'edat50001. by king Charles 11. from the inventor. 
 Dr. Goddard. It is a spirit drawn bv the retort from raw milk, 
 and ret tilled with an essential oil. 
 
 GUTTA ROSACEA, in medicine, a red or [limpltd face; a 
 
 distemper which, though not always owing to bard drinking, is 
 most incident to tipplers. 
 
 GuTTA Seres'A, a disease in which the patient, without any 
 apparent fault in the eye, is deprived ol sight. See Medicine. 
 
 GUTTERS, in architeetuie, a kind of canals in tl.e roofs of 
 houses, serving to receive and carry oil the rain. 
 
 Gl'TTURAL, [_g!dturalis, Latin,] a term applied to Utter;; 
 or sounds pronounced or fornud as it were in the tliro.it. There 
 are four guttural letters in the Hebrew, viz. yr~!J, which, ioi- 
 nicmorv's sake, are termed ahachah. 
 
 GUlT'Y, in heralilry, a term used when any thing is charged 
 or 'prinkled with drops. In blazoning, the colour ot the drops is 
 to be named. 
 
 GL'Y, [from guide,'] a rope used to lift any thing into lli^ 
 slil|i. 
 
 Guy is also a large slack rope, extending from the head of the 
 main-mast to tfie head of the foie-mast, and having two or thretj 
 lar;!:e blocks fastened to the middle of it ; to sustain the tackle used 
 to hoist in and out the cargo of a merchant-ship. 
 
 GUZ, an Indian measure, =; 1 yard English. 
 
 GUZERAT, a peninsula of Hindostan, i;0 miles long, and 140 
 broad, formed by the Arabian sea, and the gulf of Cambay. It was 
 the richest province in tiie Mogul's empire. 
 
 GUZES, in heraldry, roundless of a sanguine or murry colour. 
 These, from tlieir bloody hue, are by some sujiposed to repre-> 
 sent wounds. 
 
 GYARUS, one of the Cyclades, E. of Delos, 13 miles in 
 compass. It was a desart island, and allotted for a place of ba- 
 nishment by the Romans. 
 
 GYBING, the act of shifting any booi.i-sail from one side of 
 the must to. the other. By a boom-sail is meant anv sail whose 
 bottom is extended by a boom, the fore-end of which is hooked 
 to it-- respective mast ; so as to swing occasionally on either side 
 of the vessel, d.escribing an arch, of which the mast will be the 
 centre. As the wind or the course changes, it becomes neces- 
 sary to change the position of the boom, with its sail, which is ac- 
 cordingly shifted to the other side of the vessel as a door turns upon 
 its hinges. The boom is jiushed out by the elfort of the wind 
 upon the sail, and is restrained in a proper situation by a strong 
 tackle communicating with the vessel's stem, called the sheet. It 
 is also confined on the fore-part by the Guy. 
 
 GYMNANTHES, in botany, a genus of the monoecia mona- 
 delphia class and order. Male anient naked ; perianth and co- 
 rolla none ; stamina pedicels three-|iarted or three-forked, another- 
 bearing; female anient or germ pedicelled ; corolla none; style 
 trifid ; capsule tricoccous, three-celled. It has two species, na- 
 tives of the West-Indies. 
 
 GYMNASIARCHA, in antiquity, the director of the gym- 
 nasium. He had tw o deputies under him ; the Xystartha, and the 
 Gymiiastes. 
 
 GYMNASIUM, [from v^iunr, naked,] in Grecian antiquity, a 
 place fitted for performing the exercises ot the body, ic. so called 
 because they put off their clothes, to practise with the more free- 
 dom. Gymnasia were first used at Laceda'mon, Init were after- 
 wards common in all parts of Greece; and imitated, augmented, 
 and improved, at Rome. ^I'here were three principal gymnasia 
 at Athens ; the Acatlemy, the Lyceum, and the Cynosarges. Vi' 
 truvius describes tiie structure and form of the ancient gymnasia, 
 lib. v. c. 11. They were called Pala'stra^, from wrestling, which 
 was one of tlie most usual exercises ; and the Romans also called 
 ihrm 'J'herma', because tlie baths made a principal pait of them. 
 They performed these exercises in Homer's time in drawers; 
 which were not laid aside before the 3~<.\ Olympiad. One Or- 
 sippns is said to have been the first who introduced the practice: 
 for having been worsted by his drawers entangling him, he threw 
 them aside, and the rest afterwards iiritated him. The gjmnasia 
 were a knot of buildings united, sufficiently capacious to hold 
 many thousands of people at once ; and having room for philoso- 
 sophers, rhetoricians, and the professors of all other sciences to 
 read their lectures; and wrestlers, dancers, and all others who 
 lia<l a mind to exercise ; at the same time without the least dis- 
 turbance or interruption. They' consisted of 12 parts, viz. l.The 
 exterior porticos, wliere the pliilosophers, rhetoricians, mathema- 
 ticians, physicians, and other virtuosi, read public lectures, and 
 where they also disputed and rehearsed their performances. 2. 
 
 4 The
 
 GYM 
 
 655 
 
 G YM 
 
 rtie oplul>cuiii, where the yoiUh assembled very caily, to learn 
 their exerci;es in private without any spectators. 3. The corj- 
 teum, apodyterion, or gyninastcrion, a iiiml ol wardrohe, where 
 they stripped, cither to batlie or exercise. 4. The ehfothesiimi, 
 alipterion, or uncliiariuiii, appointed for tlie unctions, which either 
 preceded or followed tiie iibc of the bath, wrestling, pancratia, Sec. 
 i. The conisterivim or conistra, in which they covered themselves 
 with sand or dust, to dry up the oil or sweat. G. The pahvstra, 
 properly so called, where they practised wrestling, the pugillate, 
 pancratia, and other exercise^. 7. The sphx'risterium or teiniis- 
 coiirt, reserved for exercises wlierein they used balls. 8. Large 
 impaved alleys, which comprehended the space between the por- 
 ticos and the walls wherewith the edifice was surrounded. 9. 
 The xysti or porticos for the wrestlers in winter or bad weather. 
 10. Other xysti or open alleys, some of which were cpiite open, 
 and others planted with trees. 11. The baths, consisting ot se- 
 veral dift'en-iit apartments. 12. The stadium, a large space of a 
 seniicircular form, covered with sand, and surrounded with seats 
 torjhe spectators. For the administration of tlie gymnasia, thc;re 
 \vere different ollicers : the principal were, 1. The gymnasiarcha. 
 2. The xystarcha. 3. The gymiia'-tes. And, 4. The p^dotriba. 
 See these articles. Under these four ofiicers were a number of 
 subalteriis. The gymnastic exercises may be reduced to two ge- 
 neral classes ; as they depend either on the action of the bodv 
 alone,. or as they require external agents or instruments. The lat- 
 ter consisted chielly in mounting the horse, driving the chariot, 
 andswimming. The former were cliielly of two kinds; Orclies- 
 tfice, and Pala'strice ; which see. 
 
 GYMNASTES, a deputy under the gymnasiarch, who was 
 master of the ceremonies. 
 
 Gymnastics, Gymnastic.e, or the Gymxastic, [yv.uvar'xo;,] 
 the art of perlorming exerci-es of the bodv, whether for defence, 
 health, or diversion. See Gymnasium. Several modern writers 
 have treated of this art. M. Burrette has given the history of 
 gymnastics in the M«m. of the K. Acad, ol Insciip. On the iirst 
 I'STtablishment of society, men, being apprised of the necessity ol 
 military exercises, for rep.'Iling the insults of tlieir neighbours, 
 instituted games, and proposed prizes to animate their youth to 
 combats of divers kind. An.i as ri lining, leaping, throwing the 
 javelin, driving a ball, tossing a quoit, wrestling, &c. were exer- 
 cises suited to the manner ot ligUliiig in those days ; so the youth 
 ■vied to excel in them, in the presence of the aged, who sat 
 as judges, and dispensed prizes to the conquerors; till «hat was 
 originally amusement, became at length a matter of such inqior- 
 tance, as to interest great cities and entire nations in its practice. 
 Hence arose an eagerness to excel, in hopes of being one day 
 crowned coiK|uerors in the public games, which was the liigliest 
 honour a mortal could arrive at: nav, they imagined, tliat even 
 the gods were not insensible of what men were so captivated with ; 
 and, in conse(|uence, introduced the greatest part of these exer- 
 cises into their religious and funeral ceremonies. The gyinnastic 
 art, as appears Ironi Homer's Iliad, lib. 23, where he describes 
 the games at the funeral of Patroelus, was known at the time of the 
 Trojan war. l''rom that description, it appears, that they liad cha- 
 riot-races, boxing, vuestling, foot-races, gladiators, throwing the 
 discus, drawing the bow, and hurling the javelin ; and that even 
 then the gymnastic art wanted little of perfection. When Galen 
 says there was no gymnastic art in Homer's days, and that it be- 
 gan to appear no earlier than Plato, he is to be unilerstood of me- 
 dicinal gymnastics only. 
 
 Gymnastics, Mrdicinal. According to Plato, one Hero- 
 dicus, a little prior to Hippocrates, was the first who introduced 
 this art into physic ; and his successors, convinced ot its usefulness 
 improved it. Hippocrates has given instances of it, where he 
 treats of exercise in general, and of the particular elVects of walk- 
 ing with regard to lieallh ; also of the dilVcrcnt sorts of races on 
 foot or horseback ; leaping, wrestling, the exercise of the sus- 
 pended ball, chironomy, unctions, frictions, rolling in the sand, 
 &c. But as physicians did not adopt all the gymnastic exercises 
 in their practice, it came to be divided between them and the 
 masters of martial and athletic exercises, who kept scho'ils, the 
 number of which was greatly ii4;reased in Greece. The Romans, 
 adopting the military and athletic exercises of the Greeks, ad- 
 vanced thein to the utmost pitch of tiiagniticence. But the de- 
 clenaioii of the empire involved tlve arts in its ruin, and, among 
 
 others gymnastics and medicine ; which last unhappily then rc- 
 liiuiuished the title it had to the former, and has neglected to re- 
 sume it ever since. 
 
 GYMNOSOPHTSTS, [r:.f/.vo;cf.iric, Greek, i. c. a naked phi- 
 losopher,] a set of Indian philosophers, famous in antiquity, so 
 called fronr their going naked. They, however, did not abso- 
 lutely go naked : but only dotlied tliemselvcs no farther than 
 modesty required. There were some of these sages in Africa; 
 but the most celebrated of them were in India. !n general, the 
 Gymnosophistb were wise and learned men ; their maxim*; and 
 discour^es, recorded by historians, do not savour of a barbarous 
 education, but are the result of great sense and deep thought. 
 'I'hey kept up the dignity of their character to so high a degree, 
 that it was never their custom to wait upon any body, not even 
 upon the princes. They believed the iminortality and transmi- 
 gration of the soul : they placed the chief happiness of man in a 
 contempt of the goods of fortune and the pleasures of sense, ancf 
 gloried in having given faithful and disinterested counsels to 
 princes and magistrates. Apuleius describes the Gyninosophists 
 thus: "They are all devoted to the study oi wisdom, both the 
 elder masters and the younger pupils : and what to me appears the 
 most amiable thing in their character is, that they have an aversion 
 to idleness and indolence : accordingly, as soon as the table is 
 spread, before a bit of victuals be brought, the youths are all 
 called together from their several places and offices, and the 
 masters examine thein what good they have done since the sun- 
 rise : here one relates something he has discovered by meditation ; 
 another has learned something by demonstration ; and as for those 
 uho have nothing to allege why they should dine, they are turned 
 out to woik fastins." 
 
 GY.MNOSPElt^HA, in botany, from >vy.v:,-, naked, and 
 crw(,-,'x«, seed ; the first order in Llnuanis's class of didynamia. It 
 comprthcnds those plants of that class which have naked seeds. 
 The seeds are constantly four in number, except in one genus, 
 viz. phrvma, which is moiiospermoiis. 
 
 Gv.iiNornoRAXjtlie w.'iivfmi, in natural liistory, a genus offishe> 
 of the order Apodes. Body cel-sh; |)ed, no pectoral tins; spiracle 
 single, on each side of the neck, small oval, and uncovered. There 
 are tour species according to Gniflin, butSliaw enumerates eleven. 
 1 he G. romana abounds on the Me<literranean .coast?, and attains 
 i.early the size of the common eel. 
 
 GY'MNOri'S, g?/w(»o/f, agenus of fishes, of the order apodes. 
 The generic chp'v.- (er is, head with lateral opercula; tentacula 
 two on the upper lip; eyes covered by the common skin ; gilf- 
 membi.uie live-ra\ed; body compressed, without dorsal fin (in 
 most species), but" carinated" by a fin beneath. It has nine species, 
 GvMNorus Electricus, or Electrical CivMNoTE, is ana- 
 live of the warmer regions of. Africa and America, where it inha- 
 bits the larger rivers, and is parlicidaily found in th.ose of Surinam. 
 In Africa it is said chiefly to occur in the branches of the river 
 Senegal. It is a fish of a disagreeable appearance ; bearing a ge- 
 neral resemblance to a larger eel, though somewhat thicker rn 
 proportion, and of a much darker colour, being commonly of an 
 uniform blackish-brown. It is visually seen of the length of three 
 or four feel, but is said to arrive at HI feet in length. It was first 
 made l;iiown to the philosophers of Europe about the year 1071, 
 when its wonderful |)ropertics were announced te the French Aca- 
 demy bv Moiis. Kicher. This account however seems to have 
 been received witli a degree of cautious scepticism by the major 
 part of European naturalists ; and it was not till towards the mid- 
 dle of the last century that a full and general conviction appears 
 to have taken place ; the observations of Mons. Condamine, Mr. 
 Ingram, Mr. Gravcsend, and others, then conspiring to prove that 
 the power of this animal consists in a species of real electricity, 
 being conducted by similar conducting substances, and intercepted 
 by others of an opposite nature. Thus, on touchin" tlie fish with 
 tlie fingers, the same sensation is perceived as on touching a charged 
 phial ; bi.in J sometimes felt as far as the elbows ; and if touched 
 by both lu'uds, an electric shock is conveyed through the breast 
 ill the usual manner. Fermiii, in j)anicular, who, during his resi- 
 dence in Surinan>, had frequent opportunities of examining the 
 animal, demonstrated by experiment that. 14 slaves, holding each 
 other liy the hands, received the shock at the same instant ; the 
 first touching the fish with a stick, and the last dipping his hand 
 into the water in which k w^as kept. The csperimenls of Dr. Ban- 
 croft
 
 GYP 
 
 656 
 
 GYR 
 
 fi-oft were ecuially satisfactory. It is by tliis extraordinary fa- 
 cull) that the gymnolus supports its existence : the smaller tishes 
 anti other animals which happen to approach, being instantly stu- 
 pilicd, and thus falling an easy prey to the electrical tyrant. So 
 powerful is the shock which this lish in its native waters, is capable 
 of exerting, that it is said to deprive almost entirely of sense and 
 motion those who are exposed to its approach, and is therefore 
 much dreaded by those who bathe in the rivers which it inhabits ; 
 yet it is used as an article of food. It has been affirmed that the 
 gymnotus electricus, even for some time after its death, cannot be 
 touched without feeling its electric shock. This is by no means 
 incredible, when we consider the effect of the Galvanic pile, so 
 well known to modern philosophers. See Plate LV. 
 
 GYN/ECEUM, in antiquity, the apartment of women, a se- 
 parate room in the inner part of the house, where they employed 
 themselves in spinning, weaving, and needle-work. 
 
 GYNiECOCRATUMENI, [from ri;y,, woman, and xjaTaf^fvo!:, 
 vanquished,] an ancient people of Sarmatia Europa'a, inhabiting 
 the E. banks oftheTanais, near its influx into the Palus Mseotis: 
 tlius called because they were under the dominion of women. 
 
 GYNANDRIA, [from yi/vi, a woman, rev>if, a man,] the 20th 
 <ilass in the sexual system, consisting of plants with hermaphrodite 
 flowers, in which the stamina are placed upon the style, or, a pil- 
 lar-shaped receptacle, resembling a style, which rises in the mid- 
 dle of the (lower, and bears both the stamina and pointal. See 
 BoT.\Ny. The (lowers of this class, says Linnaeus, have a mon- 
 strous appearance, arising from the unusual situation of the parts of 
 fructification. 
 
 GYNOPOGON, a genus of the pentaiidria monogynia class 
 and order. Calyx half five-cleft; corolla five-parted; stigma 
 globular, ttto-lobed ; berry pedicelled, sub-globular ; seed carti- 
 laginous. There are three species, herbs of the South Sea 
 islands. 
 
 GYPSIES, or EGYPTIANS, an outlandish tribe of vaga- 
 bonds, called Roh.emians in France, and Gittanos in Spain ; who, 
 disguising themselves in uncouth h.abits, smearing their faces and 
 bodies, and speaking a canting language, wander uj) and down, 
 under pretence of telling fortunes, curing diseases, &c. abuse the 
 people, trick them out of their money, and steal all they can come 
 at. They are a strange kind of commonwealth of wandering im- 
 postors and jugglers, who made their lirst appearance in Germany, 
 about the beginning of the Kith century. Munster, who is fol- 
 lowed and relied upon by Speiman, lixes the time of their appear- 
 ance to 1417; but as he owns, that the lirst whom he ever saw 
 were in 15'i9, it is probably an error of the press for 1517 ; espe- 
 cially as, when Sultan Selim conquered Egypt in 1517, several 
 of the natives refused to submit to the Turkish yoke, and revolted 
 under one Zinganeus ; whence the Turks called them Zinganees ; 
 but being at length surrounded and banished, they agreed to dis- 
 perse in small parties all over the world, where (heir supposed 
 skill in the black art gave them an universal reception in that age 
 of su])erstilion and cretiulity. In a very few years they gained 
 such a number of idle proselytes, (who imitated their language and 
 complexion,) that they became troublesome, and even formidable 
 to most of the states of Europe. Hence they were expelled from 
 Franceiii 1560, and from Spain in 1591. And the government of 
 England took the alarm much earlier. A very circumstantial ac- 
 
 count of this singular race of men has been lately given in an In- 
 quiry concerning them, written by H. M. G. Grellman, and 
 translated by Mr. Raper. It is incredible how this swarm of ban- 
 ditti have spread over the earth. They wantler about in Asia, and 
 Africa, and most of the European nations. Spain is supposed by 
 Mr. Twiss to contain 40,000, by others 60,000 ; and by some 
 ll'O.OOO. But in Sept. and Oct.'lSOO, they were almost totally 
 extirpated by the plague They abound in Italy, and are scat- 
 tered through France, Gennany, Denmark, Sweden, and Russia. 
 Europe contains more than 700,000 of these vagabonds. For near 
 four centuries they have wandered through the world ; and in 
 every region, and among every people, whether barbarous or ci- 
 vilized, they have continued unchanged. The r origin has been 
 generally believed to be from Egypt. Thomasius, Salmon, and 
 Sig. Griselini, have endeavoured to prove it. M. Grellman, how- 
 ever, traces it from Hindostan, and the cause of their emigration 
 froiTi the bloody wars of Timur Beg ill India, in 1408-9. 
 
 GYPSOPHILA, in botany, a genus of the digynia order, and 
 decaiidria class of plants; natural order, Caryophyllei. Caly.v 
 monoph;, llous, campanulated, angulated; petals five, ovate, ses- 
 sile; capsule globose, unilocular. It has twelve species. 
 
 GYPSUM, Plaster-stone : a substance very abundant in 
 nature, and which was well known to the ancients. It is now call- 
 ed the sulphate of lime. It is found in every part of the earth, 
 sometimes composing entire mountains. Sulphate of lime is insi- 
 pid, white, and soft to the touch. Water will not hold a SOOtb 
 part of it in solution. Exposed to heat it appears to efifervesce, 
 which phsenomenon is caused by the expulsion of water. It be- 
 comes opaque, and falls into powder. This powder, when its wa- 
 ter has been driven olf by the application of a red heat, absorbs 
 water rapidly, so that if it be formed into a paste with water, it 
 dries in a few minutes. In this state it is called plaster of Paris, 
 and is employed for forming casts, and for a variety of purposes in 
 the art of statuary. 
 
 GYRATION, [_g^/rn, Lat.] the turning of any thing about. 
 
 GYRINUS, Water-flea : in natural history, a genus of in- 
 sects of the order coleoptora. Antenna; cylindrical ; jaws horny, 
 one-toothed, sharp-pointed; eyes four, two above and two be- 
 neath ; thorax and shells margined, the latter shorter than the 
 body; legs formed for swimming. The insects of this genus are 
 to be found on the sujface of waters, on which they run, and de- 
 scribe circles with a great degree of swiftness. There are eleven 
 species. The most remarkable European species is'the gyrinus na- 
 tator, a small insect, about a quarter of an inch in length, of an 
 oval shape, with somewhat sharpened extremities, and of a black 
 or grey-black culour, with so lucid a surface as to shine like a 
 piece of looking-glass in the full sunshine. It is an inhabitant of 
 tl;e waters, and is chieHy found in rivulets, biing generally seen in 
 great multitudes, and in very brisk motion. It is difficult to catch, 
 diving with astonishing celerity when disturbed; the hinder legs 
 being very broad, finely webbed with minute liairs, and most cu- 
 riously formed for exercising the office of fins or oars. 
 
 G YROMANGY, [from yvjoiu, to turn round, and fj.ayTiia, ma- 
 gic,] a kind of divination performed by walking round in a circle. 
 
 G YRON, in heraldry, an ordinary of two straight lines, issuing 
 from divers parts of the escutcheon, and meeting in the FessC« 
 point. 
 
 H. 
 
 His the eighth letter in our alphabet, and the sixth consonant. 
 It has a (listinct sound, formed in a particular mawner by the 
 organs of speech, which will appear b.y the words alt and hull, eat 
 and heat, ami and harm, tor and liear, at and hat, &c. as pro- 
 nounced with ov without the /*. It is pronounced by a strong ex- 
 spiration of the breath between (he lips, closing, as 'it were, by a 
 jenlle motion of the lower jaw to the upper, and the tongue nearly 
 
 approaching the palate. It seems to be agreed, that our ff 
 which is the same with that of the Romans, derived its figure from 
 the Hebrew n The Phccnicians, and most ancient Greeks and 
 Romans, useil the same figure with our H, which in the series of 
 .ill these alphabets keeps its primitive place, being the eighth let- 
 ter; though the 8 afterwards occupied its place in the Greek al- 
 phabet, and its form was changed to X; while its former figure,
 
 n A B 
 
 657 
 
 HA B 
 
 11, was ^l^t'(l lor till." si'vt-ruli lelU'r Etii, or lout; r. II siibjoincd 
 t«,c, soiiiL-linn-s givus it til'' {"uttural >ouikI, a«; in cliao.i, •^omcliiin.s 
 tlie soiiiul of ill, as In Cliarlotte ; but nioic In'qiR'iilly tliat oi tafi, 
 as 111 ch.urittj, c kit chat, church, &c. and not scliUiiii tlial ot k, as 
 in churacter, ylihlUcs, jLc though the- lallor am! all olhi-r Greek 
 proper nanio ought rathi-r to have the giiUiiral soiinil, agreeahly 
 to their original pioiuiiRlalion. II, siihjolned to p and /, also alters 
 tile souikI ot these letters; giving the former the sound of /J as in 
 phitosopkij. Sec. and the latter (hat ot the Greek S", as In theology, 
 truth, &c. and in some English words, as <//f, tluit, titese, &c. a 
 Still harder sound. As an abbreviation, H was used b) the an- 
 cients to denote hoi/io,- linrr.s, horit, &c. Thus II. R. stood tor 
 kceres bo:wuiu; and fi. S. corruptly tor LLS. sesterce; and 
 H A, for Hadnaiuis. As a numeral, li denotes 200 ; and ulth a 
 dash over it, 200,00'.). 
 
 liAAG, or HAG, a town in Bavaria. Lon. 12. 23. E. Lat. 
 48. 16 N. 
 
 HAANO, one of the Ilapaee islands discovered by Captain 
 Cook, in 1777, in the S. Patilic Ocean. Lon. 18j. 43. E. Lat. 
 19. 41. S. 
 
 H.-\ARCURG, a town and fort of Lunenberg Zell, seated oti 
 the Seeve, seven nlile^ S. of Hamburg. 
 
 HABAKkUK, [isipan, Heb. /. c. a wrestler,] one of the twelve 
 lesser prophets, who'-e prophecies are taken Into the canon of the 
 Old 'I'esl.iinent. There is no precise time mentioned In ScrijJture 
 when he lived ; but from his predicting the destruction of Jerusa- 
 lem by the Chaldeans, it is evident that he prophesied before Ze- 
 tleklah, probably about the lime of Manasseh. He is reported to 
 have been the author of several prophecies v.hlch are not extant: 
 but ai; that are indisputably his are contained In three chapters. 
 In these he complains pathetically of the vices of the Jews; fore- 
 tels their punishment by llie Chaldeans; the defeat of the vast de- 
 signs of JchoiaUlin; with the coinjuests of Nebncha<rnezzar, his 
 metamorphosis, and death. The tliird chapter is a prayer to God, 
 vhose majesty he describes with the utmcst grandeur and subli- 
 niitv of expression. 
 
 HABDALA, [Heb i. e. distinction, from Sns, to separate,] a 
 ceremony of the Jews observed on tlie sabbath evening. When all 
 the fanillv is come home, they light a taper or lamj), with two 
 wicks at least. 'Ihe master of the family then takes a cup, with 
 some wine, mixed with fragrant spices, and having repeated a 
 passage of scripture, {e g. Psal. cxvi. 13. or Esth. vlli. Iti,) he 
 blesses the wine and spices. Afterwards he blesses the light ot the 
 fire; and then casts his eyes on his hands and nails, as reniember- 
 ing that he is going to work; to signily, that the sabbatii is over, 
 and separated from the day of labour which follows. Alter the 
 ceremony Is over, and the company breaks up, they wish one an- 
 other, not a good night, but a good week. 
 
 HABEAS CORPUS, [Lat.] a writ, the which, a man indicted 
 of some trespass, being laid in prison for the same, may have out 
 of the king's-bench, thereby to remove himself thither at his own 
 costs, and to answer the cause there. Habeas Corpus is the great 
 remedy in cases of false Imprisonment. A general recourse is liad, 
 in behalf of persons aggrieved by Illegal Imprisonment, to this 
 writ, the most celebrated in the English law. Of this there are 
 various kinds made use of by the courts at Westminster, for re- 
 moving prisoners from one court Into another for the more easy ad- 
 ministration of justice. Such Is the habeas coipusad responden- 
 dum, when a man hath a cause of action against one who is con- 
 fined by the process of some inferior court; in order to remove 
 the prisoner, and charge liim with this new action In the court 
 above. Such Is that ad satisfaciendum, when a prisoner hath had 
 judgement against him in an action, and the plaintiff is desirous to 
 bring him up to some sui,>erior court to charge hhn with process of 
 execution. Such are al-o those ad prosequendum, testllicandum, 
 deliberandum, &c.; which Issue when it Is necessary to remove a 
 prisoner, in order to prosecute or bear testimony In any couit, or 
 to be tried in the proper jurisdiction wlierein the fact was com- 
 mitted. Such Is, lastly, the common writ ad faciendum et recipi- 
 endum, which issues out of any of the courts of Westminster-hall, 
 when a person issued In some inferior jurisdiction, and is desirous 
 to remove the action into the superior court ; commanding the In- 
 ferior judges to produce the body of the defendant, together with 
 the day and cause of his caption and detainer (whence the writ is 
 frequently denominated an habeas corpus cuui causa,) to Uo and 
 
 VOL, II. — NO. 100. 
 
 f receive whatsoever the king's court shall consider m that behalf. 
 1 his is a writ grantable of common right, without any motion in 
 court: and it inslantly supeisedes all proceedings In the coint be- 
 low. But, to prevent the surrc-ptltious disiharge of prisoners, it 
 is ordered by stat. 1 CW 2 P & M. c. 13, that "no hai>eas corpus 
 shall issue to remove any pri. oner out ot any gaol, unless sigiii d 
 by some judge of the court out of which It isa^^arded. And, to 
 avoid vexatious delays by removal of Irlvolous causes, it is enact- 
 ed by stat. JI Jac. 1. c. 23, that, where the judge of an inferior 
 court of record Is a barrister of three years standing, no cause shall 
 be removed from thence by habeas corpus or other writ, afier Is- 
 sue or demurrer deliberately joined : that no cause, if once re- 
 manded to the inferior court by v\rlt of procedendo or otherwise, 
 shall ever atterwards be again removed: ami that no cause shall l-e 
 removed at all, if the debt or damages laid In the declaration do 
 not amount to the sum •){ live pounds. But an expedient having 
 been found out to elude the lattc r branch of the statute, bv pro- 
 curmg a nominal plaintiff to bring another action for 3/. or up- 
 wards (and then by Ihe course of the court, the habeas corpus re- 
 moved both actions togetlur,) it is therefore enacted by stat. 12 
 Geo. I. c. 29, that the inferior court may proceed in such actions 
 as aiv- under the value of j/. notwithstanding other actions n.av be 
 brought against the same defender to a greater amount. But the 
 great and elhcacious writ, in all manner of illegal conhnenient, ig 
 that of Habeas corpus ad subjiciendum ; directed to the person de- 
 taining another, and commanding him to produce the body of the 
 prisoner, with the day and cause of his caption and detention, ad 
 tacienduni, snbjlcicinium, et recipiendum, to do, submit to, and 
 receive, whatsoever the judge or court awarding such writ shall 
 consider in that behalf. This is a high prerogative writ, and 
 therefore by the common law issuing out of the court of king's- 
 bench, not only in term-time, but also during the vacation, by a 
 liat from the chief justice, or any other judge, and running into all 
 parts of the king's dominions : for the king is at all times intitled to 
 have an account why tlie liberty of any of his subjects is restrained, 
 wherever (hat restraint may be inflicted. If it Issues in vacation, 
 it is usually returnable belore the judge himself who awarded It, 
 and he proceeds by himself thereon ; unless the term should Inter- 
 vene, and then It may be returned in court- The oppression of 
 an obscure individual gave birth to the famous habeas corpus act, 
 31 Car. II. c. 2, which is frequently considered as another magna 
 charta of the kingdom; and by consequence has also In subse- 
 quent times reduced the method of proceeding on these writf 
 (though not within tlie reach of that statute, but issuing mtrely at 
 the common law) to the true standard of law and liberty. The 
 statute itself enacts., 1. That the writ shall be returned and the pri- 
 soner brou!;ht up, within a limited time according to the distance, 
 not exceeding in any case twenty days. 2. That such writs shall 
 be endorsed, as granted in pursuance of this act, and signed by the 
 person awarding them. 3. That on a cwmplaint and rrciuest in 
 writing, by or on behalf of any person commuted and charged 
 with any crime, (unless committed for treason or felony express- 
 ed in the warrant, or for suspicion of the same, or as accessary 
 thereto before the fact, or convicted or charged in execution by 
 legal process,) the lord chancellor, or any of the twelve judges in 
 vacation, upon viewing a copy of the warrant, or affidavit that a 
 copy Is denied, shall (unless the pai(y has neglected for two term* 
 to apply to any court lor his enlargement) award a habeas corpus 
 for such prisoner, returnable immediately belore himself or anv 
 other of the judges; and upon the return made shall discharge 
 the party, if bailable, upon giving security to appear and answer to 
 the accusation in the proper court of judicature. 4. That officers 
 and keeuers, neglecting to make due returns, or not delivering to 
 the prisoner or his agent within six hours after demand, a copv of 
 the warrant of commitment, or shifting the custody of a prisoner 
 from one to another without suflicicnt reason or authority, (speci- 
 cirted In the act,) sltill for the tirst ollence forfeit 100/. and for the 
 second 200/. to the parly grieved, and be disabled to hold his 
 office, i. That no pei-son, once delivered by habeas corpus, shall 
 be re-committed for the same offence, on penalty of 500/. (>. That 
 every person committed tor treason or felony shall, it he require 
 it the (list week of the next term, or the first day of the next ses- 
 sion of oyer and terminer, be indicted in that teim or session, or 
 else admitted to bail ; unless the king's witnesses cannot be pro- 
 duced at that time : awl if acquitted, or if not indicted and tried 
 2£ ia
 
 II A B 
 
 658 
 
 II A C 
 
 in tlie second term or s-;ssiuii, lit' shall be uischarged from his im- 
 prisoiinient for such imijuted offence: but tliat no person, after the 
 assizes shall he opeiieil for the comity in which he is detained, shall 
 lie removed by habeas corpus, till alter the a-^izes are ended; but 
 shall be left to liie justice of the judges of assize, 7. That any 
 siich prisoner may move for and obtain his habeas corpus, as well 
 oiil of the chancery or exchequer, as out of the king' s-bench or 
 conimoii-pleas; aiid the lord-chancellor or judges denying the 
 same, on sight of the warrant, or oath, that the same is^retused, 
 forfeit severally to the party grieved the sum of JOO/. 8. That the 
 writ of habeas corpus shall' run into the counties-palatine, ciaque- 
 port-, and other privileG,ed places, and the islands of Jersey and 
 Guernsey. 'J. That no inhabitant of England (except persons 
 contractmg, or convicts praying to be transported ; or having 
 Committed some capital offence in the place to which they are 
 sent) sl«all be sent prisoner to Scotland, Ireland, Jersey, Guernsey, 
 or any places beyond the seas, within or without the king's domi- 
 n.ions': on pain tiiat liie parly committing, liis advisers, aiders, and 
 assistants, shall forfeit to the party grieved a sum not less than 
 500/. to be recovered Willi treble cosis; shall be disa:>led to bear 
 any office of trust or prolit ; shall incur the penalties of ])ra:niunire; 
 and shall be inca|iiable of the king's pardon. This is the substance 
 of that great and important sl.itute: which extends only to the 
 case of .conimilmeiits tV.r such criminal charge, as can produce no 
 inconvenience to pul.dic justice by a temporary enlargement of 
 the prisoner; all other cases of unjust imprisonment being lelf to 
 the habeas corpus at common law. But even upon writs at the 
 common law, it is now expected by the court, agreeably lo an- 
 cient precedents and the spirit of the act of parliament, that the 
 Vi-rit should be mimeiliately obeyed, without wailing for any alias 
 orpluries; otherwise an attachment will issue. I5y which admira- 
 ble regulations, judicial as well as parliamentary', the remedy is 
 now complete for removing the injury of unjust and illegal con- 
 iinemeiit. A remedy the more necessary, because the oppression 
 does not always ari^e'from the ill nature, but sometimes from the 
 mere inattention, of government. For it fre(;iiently happens in 
 foreign countries (and has jia|)prned in Kngland during the tem- 
 porary suspensions of the statute,) that persons aiiprebended upon 
 suspicion have sufl'ered a long imprisonment, merely because they 
 were forgotten. 
 
 HABERDASII ER, in commerce, a seller of hats, or of small 
 wares. The master and wardens of the company of haberdashers 
 in London, calling to their assistance one of the company of cap- 
 pers-, and another of the hat-makers, and mayors, &c. of towns, 
 mav search the wares of all hatters that work hats with foreign 
 vool, and have not been apprentices to the trade, or who dye 
 them with any thing bin copperas and galls, or v.oad and madder; 
 in which case they are liable to penalties, by stat. 8 Eliz. c. 7, and 
 5 Geo. II. c. 22." 
 
 HABERii I''AC'L\S SASINAM, a writ judicial, which lies 
 where a man has recovered lands, commanding the sheriff to give 
 possession of th m- 
 
 HABERGEON, or IIABERGETUM, [h-omhaut, Fr. high, 
 and berg, armour,] was a coat of mail; an ancient piece of defen- 
 sive aimour, inform of a cnai, descending from the neck to the 
 middle, and lormed of little iron rings or mashes, linked into each 
 other. 
 
 HABILIMENTS OF WAR, in our ancient statutes, signify 
 armour, harness, utensils, or other provisions, for war, without 
 which there is suppoed no ability to maintain war. 
 
 HABIXGTON, Vi'ill!.\m, an English poet mid historian, was 
 the son of Thomas Ilaljington, Esq. He was born in 1605, at 
 Hendlipin Worcestershire; and educated at ^t. Omers and Paris. 
 He died in 1654, and left several MSS. in the hands of his son. 
 His printed works are, 1. Poems under the til h; of Ca'^'ura. 2. 
 The Quel n of Arragon, a 'I'ragi-ciimedy. 3. Observations iijion 
 History. 4. The Hi tory of ICdward IV. King of England, writ- 
 ten in a very llorid style, and published at the desire of Charles I. 
 
 }l\\\Vl',[lial/ilii.i, Lat.] in |)liilosophy, an aptitude ordisposition 
 cither of mind or body, acquired by a treqnent repetition of the 
 fame act. Custom and habit have such influence upon many of 
 .our feelings, by warping and varying them, that their operations 
 demtind tiic atlention of all who would be accjuainted with human 
 nature. The subject, however, is intricate. Some pleasures are 
 fortified by custom: and yet custom begets familiarity, and conse- 
 
 quently indifference. In many instances, satiety and di gust a' - 
 the consequences of reiteration: again, though cu'-tom blunts tli'- 
 edge of distress and of pain, yet the want of any thing to whicli w c 
 have been long accustomed is a sort of torture. Whatever be the 
 cause, it is certain we are much inliucnced by custom : it has an 
 effect upon our pleasures, upon our actions, and even upon or.r 
 thoughts and sentiments. Habit makes no figure during the viva- 
 city of youth: in middle age it gains ground; and in old age go- 
 verns without control. In that period of life, generally speaking, 
 we eat at a certain hour, t.ike exen i.seat a certain hour, go to re.^t 
 at a certain hour, all by the direction of habit: nay, a particular 
 seat, table, bed, comes to bo essential ; and a habit in any of the^s 
 cannot be controlled without uneasiness. Any slight or moderate 
 pleasure, frequently reiterated for a long time, forms a peculiar 
 connection between us and the thing that causes the pleasure. Thii 
 connection termed habit, has the effect to awaken our de>ire for 
 that thing when it does not return as usual. During the course of 
 enjoyment, the pleasure rises insensibly higher and liigher till a 
 habit be established ; at which time the pleasure is at its height. It 
 c.outinues not, however, stationary; the same customary reitera- 
 tion which carried it to its heiglit, brings it down again by insensi- 
 ble degrees. Those tilings whicli at first are but moderately 
 agreeable, are the aptest to become habitual. Spirituous liquors, 
 at first scarce agreeable, readily produce an habitual appetite: and 
 custom prevails so far, as even to make us fond of things originally 
 disagreeable, such as coffee, assafcetida, tobacco, opium, &c. A 
 walk upon the quarter-deck, though Intolerably confined, be- 
 comes, however, so agreeable by custom, that a sailor in his walk 
 on shore confines himself commonly within the same bounds. 
 Improper habits are easily acquired, but are not easily given ujj ; 
 hence it is necessary for a man who would conduct himself with 
 propriety, to guard against the appearances of wrong habits; and 
 if they liave already taken place, to exert all his powers in order 
 to eradicate them. Lord Kaiins in his Elements of Criticism has 
 treated this subjtct at considerable length. And Dr. t'nilen in 
 his Lectures on ihe Materia Medica, (lirst edition) sheus tlie 
 eflecis of custom and habit on tlie animal (economy. 
 
 Habit, in medicine, denotes the settled con-titntion of tiie 
 body, or the habitude of any thing else, as the structure or com- 
 posiiion of a body, or the parts thi reof. 
 
 H.^BiT is also used for a dress or garb, or the composition of 
 garments, wherewith a person is covered,; in which sen^e we say, 
 tlie hab.l of an ecclesiastic, of a religious, &c. a military habit. 
 &c. The principal part of the dress worn by the Jews and Greeks 
 was by the i;/.b?iiiv and the yjli^i. IJie i/xfi7i5» was an upper gar- 
 ment, consisting of a loose M|uare piece of clo'.li wrapped round 
 the body; the x'"^' \\'is an under-garment or tunic, which was 
 fastened round the body and embraced it closely, tailing down to 
 the middle of the ihigLi. A person divested of the upper garment, 
 in the eastern language, was styled naked, and in this sense David 
 danced naked before the ark. The several sorls of garnunts in 
 use with both sexes, amongsi the Romans, were the toga, tunica, 
 peluna, lacerna, chlamys, paludamt nluni, hvna, stola, pallium, or 
 palla. See ToG.^, &c. See also Priests. 
 
 HAIUM'E AND REPUTE, in ijcotslaw, the common opinion 
 of tlie people, among whom a person lives, with respect to any 
 circumstance relatii.g to him. 
 
 HA151TUDE, among schoolmen, the respect or relation one 
 tiling bears to another. Some c< iisider habitude as a genus, and 
 subdivide it into two species; wiiere it is considered as quiescent, 
 they call it respect; where as moved, relation: to which some; 
 add a third species, considered in respect of figure, which they 
 call mode. See Kklatiom, &c. 
 
 Hauitude is also used by philosophers for what we coninionly 
 call habit, or a certain disposition or habitude for Ihe perlorming 
 or sulleriiig of certain things, acquired by repealed acts of the same 
 kind. 
 
 IL'\CIL\, a sea port town of Terra Firma, seated at the moulli 
 of the Haclia. Here the Spanisli galleons touch at tiieir arrival in 
 S. America, and send expresses to all tlie settlements to give them 
 notice. Lon. 72. 8. W. Lat 11. 28. N. 
 
 HACKNEY-COACHES, coaches exposed to hire in the 
 streets of London, and other great cities, at rates fixed by autho- 
 rity. 'J'liese lirst began to ply in London, in U)2j, when they 
 wiire only twenty in luimVer; but in lC3j they were so nmch in- 
 j crcaietl
 
 n /E i\r 
 
 f5,50 
 
 IT A O 
 
 creased, that king Oliarlcs I. issued out an order of council to re- 
 strain them. In lG.i7, he allowed litly hackney-coaclinu n, each 
 ot whom mi^hl keep twelve horses. In UJj-', their lunnber was 
 limited to '_'00 ; ami in lGj4, it was extended to 300. In lOGl, 
 400 were. lirensed, at j/. each annually. In 1G'J4, 700 were al- 
 lowed, and taxed by the j and ot W. and M. at 4.'. a year each. 
 By 9 .Anne c. ~i, H',)0 coaches were allowed in London and \\'est- 
 ijiinster; hut by S Geo. IK. ca|). 24, the number is increase(l to 
 1000, which are licensed by connuissioners, and pay a duty of 5.v, 
 per week. 'I'he fare of hackney-coachmen in Loudon, or within 
 ten miles of it, is, I'J.s. Qd. per day. 15y the liour it is Iv. 6U. for 
 the first, and 1-s. for every hour alter; and 1*. for any distance not 
 exccedina; a mile and a half; or l.s. titl. two miles, llackney- 
 coachnien refusing to !;o at, or exactinp; more than, their limited 
 hire, are subject to a torfeit of from IQs. to 3/. which the connni^- 
 iioners have power to determine. Lvery hackney-coach must 
 liave check-strings, and every coachman plying without tliem in- 
 curs a penalty of 59. The ilrivers must give way to persons of 
 quality and gentlemen's coaches, under tlie penally of j/. The 
 duty arising truni licences to hackney-cciichss and chairs in Lon- 
 don, forms a branch of the king's extraordinary and perpetual re- 
 venue, governed by commissioners, and is a public benitit; as 
 tiie expence of it is not felt, and its regulations have eslablished 
 a competent jurisdiction, vvliereby a very refractory race of men 
 aje kept in onler. For further information upon this subject, see 
 Coach, Hackney. 
 
 HADDINGTON, an ancient borough of Scotland in East 
 Lothian, which joins with Judliurgh, Dunbar, Lauder, and North 
 lier«ick, in sending a member to Parliament. It lies 17 miles E. 
 of Edinburgh. 
 
 HAnillNGTOK, or nADDINGTO.V-SHlRE. See LOTHIAV, East. 
 
 iI.\l)l)OCK. SccGadus. 
 
 ll.VDDtJN, Dr. Walter, a great restorer of the learned lan- 
 guages in England, was born in Ij It). He distinguished himself 
 l>y writing Latin in a line style, which lie acquired by a constant 
 studv of Cicero. He was a strenuous promoter of the reforma- 
 tion under Edward Vr. and succeeded bishop Gardiner in the 
 mastership of 'l'rinity-l\a!l, C'ani'oridge. He concealed himscll in 
 Mary's reign; but acquired the favour of Queen Elizabeth, wlio 
 s-ent hini one of the thief agents to Uruges in 15(it), to restore 
 commerce between England and the Netherlands. He was also 
 ensaced with Sir John Gheke in drawing up in Latin that useful 
 code of ecclesiastical law, iniblislu-d in 1J71 by the learned John 
 I-'c)X, under the title of " Keformatio Legum Ecc!esia^licarum ;" 
 liis other works are published under the title of " Lucubrations." 
 He dieil in l.)7'-. 
 
 HADERSLEIIEN, a sea-port town of Denmark, in Sleswick. 
 Lou. 9. op. E. Lat. 35. 24. N. 
 
 HADES, in Scripture, sometimes signifies the invisible regions 
 of the de.id, sometimes the place of the damned, and sometimes 
 the grave. In Greek authors it siguilies the regions of the dead. 
 See Hell. 
 
 HAIM.EY, a town of SulTolk, seated on the Preston. Lon. I. 
 6. E. Lat. 5'J. 7. N. 
 
 11 \r>LEv's QuADRAKT. Scfi NAVIGATION. 
 
 HADK.VMAUT, a fertile province of Arabia Felix, bounded 
 on the \V. by Yemen, N. by the De>ert, N. E. by Oman, and 
 S. E. by the Sea ; containing several large towns and sea- 
 ports. 
 
 Hadramaut, the capital of the above province, 1 jO miles W. 
 ofGares^en. Lon. 45. 30 E. Lat. 15. 0. N. 
 
 H.EMAGOGOS, among physicians, a compound medicine, 
 consisting of fetid and aromatic simples, mixed with black helle- 
 l)ore, and prescribed in order to promote the menstrua and h;emor- - 
 rhoid.il fluxes ; as a\<o to bring away the lochia. 
 
 H.EMANTHUS, the Rloou-flowk.r :~ a genus of the niono- 
 gynia order, and hexandria class of plants; natural order, Spa- 
 tliacex'. Involucre six-leaved, many-flowered; corolla six-parted, 
 superior; berrv thvee-celhd. There are eight species. 
 
 H.'KM A'lTf'ES, the P.lood-stone, a hard mineral substance, 
 red, bl.iik, or purple, but the powder of which is always red. It 
 i^ found in masses, spherical, semi-spherical, pyramidal, or cellii- 
 iar, /. c. like a honeycomb. It contains a 1 irge (|uantitv of iron. 
 The great hardness of ha niatites renders it lit for burnishing me- 
 tals. ^See Plate LXVH. 
 
 ILl'.MATt^PlKS, the StA-Pvr, in ornithology, a genus be 
 longing to the order gralhe. Beak compressed, with an equal 
 wedge—haped point; nostrils linear; toes three, without iiaiU. 
 The only species is the 
 
 H. OsTRALEGUs, Or O YSTER-cATCHER, a native of Europe 
 and America. It feeds upon shell-lish near the sea-shore, particu- 
 larly oysters, and limpets. On observiwg an oyster which gapes 
 wide enough for the iiisertien of its bill, it thrusts it in, and takes 
 cut the inhabitant. The young arc said to be hatched in about 
 three weeks. These birds' are wild when in (locks ; yet are easily 
 tamed, if taken voung. 
 
 H.E.VlA'rOXYLON, or II.r.M.VTGXYLUM, Logwood, 
 or CAMi'EACHV-W'ooi) ; a genus of the inonogynia order, and de- 
 candria class of plants ; natural order, Lomentacea-. Calyx quin- 
 queparlitc; petals live; capsule lanceolated, unilocular, ami bi- 
 valved ; valves naviculaf or keeled like a boat. Of this genus 
 (here is only one species, which grows naturally in the Lay of 
 Campeacliy at Honduras, and other parts of the Spanish West In- 
 dies, where it rises from 16 to 24 feet high. The trees are cut up 
 into billets or ji.nks, the bark and white sap of which are chipped 
 off, and the red pari, or heart, is sent to England for sale. Sco 
 
 LoGWOOU. 
 
 H.EMORKIIAGIA, or ILEMORIUIAGY, [from c^..,, 
 blood, and jifv./;-;!, to burst forth,] in medicine, a flux of blood at 
 any part of the body; arising either from a rupture ottlie vessels, 
 when too full or too much pressed ; or from an erosion of them, 
 when the blood is too sharp and corrosive. See MedTcine and 
 Surgery. 
 
 li^.MORRIIOIDAL, an appellation given by anatomists to 
 the arteries ■Hnd veins going to the inlestiiium rectum. 
 
 IL'EMORRIIOIDS, or PILES, an issue of blood from the 
 hemorrhoidal vessels. See Medicine. 
 
 II. EMUS, in ancient geography, a ridge of mountains running 
 from Illvricuni towards the Euxine. 
 
 ILEliETICO COMIJURENDO, a writ which anciently lay 
 against an heretic, who, having once been convicted of heresy by 
 his bishop, and having abjured it,, afterwards falling into it again, 
 or into some other, was thereupon conimitted to the secular 
 power. 
 
 HAERLEM. See Harlem. 
 
 H.\G, in zoology. See Myxine. 
 
 H AtJ.AU, [Tjri, i. c. a stianger,] a native of Egypt, tlie servant 
 of .Sarah, concubine of Abraham, mother of Ishmael, and ancestor 
 ot the Arabians. Her history, and the repeated divine interposi- 
 tions for the preservation of her and her son, auij^fecordcd in Gen. 
 xvi. and xxi. 
 
 IIAGARENES, or HAGARITES, a branch or tribe of the 
 descendants of Ishmael, so named from his mother. Some make 
 ihe name synonymous with Ishmaelites, Arabians, and Saracens ; 
 but Asaph, in Psalm Ixxxiii. ver. 6, mentions them as (li^tinct from 
 the other Ihmaelites. They dwell in Araliia Eelix, according to 
 Pliny. Slrabo joins them witli the Nabalha-ans and Chavlot.Tans, 
 whose habitation was rather in Arabia Dcserta. Others think 
 their capital was Petra, or Agra, and if so, they dwelt in Arabia 
 Pelra'a. The Keiibenites, in the days of Saul, made war with the 
 Hagarites, and became masters of their country E. of Gilead. 
 This therefore was tlie true country of the Ilagarenes. 
 
 HAGIAZ, a town of .Arabia, in Hedsjas. 
 
 HACUOGRAPHA, [from iyio,-, holy, and y-:^f^; to write,] 
 those books of Scripture, called by the Jews Cetuvnn. The name 
 is very ancient. St. Jerom makes mention of it. The Ji-ws di- 
 vide the sacred writings into three classes : 1. The law, or the live 
 books of .Moses: 'J. 'Ihe Prophets, which they call Neviini : and 
 the Cetuvim n'Una. called byj the Greeks, &c. llagiographa ; 
 comprehending the book of Psalms, Proverbs, Job, Daniel, Ezra, 
 Neliemiah, Chronicles, Canticles, Ruth, Lament-alions, I'Xcle- 
 siasies, and Esther. Kimchi, Maimonides, and Elias Kevita, call 
 these books the Writings, by way of eminence, as being written 
 by immediate inspiration of the Holy Spirit. 
 
 HAGUE, a town of Batavia, in the department of Delft ; and 
 late province of South Holland. In Latin it is called //«g^« Co- 
 milis; in French, La llai^; in Dutch, dsr Iluag, or '.Vl^'Giaa- ' 
 vciiha^c, i. e. tin; Earl's G'rove, from the wood near which it is 
 built, and in which the earls of Holland had a couiUrv-houso. It 
 is oue ol the moat coBiiderable towns in the republic, pleasaiiik 
 
 situjleJj,
 
 HAT 
 
 660 
 
 IJA T 
 
 situated, eikI exceeiling beautiful. It is 12 miles N. W. of Rot- 
 terciam, and 32 S. W. of Auistertlam. 
 
 HAGUENAU, a town ef France, in the department of the 
 Lower Rhine, aiiciently an imperial town. 
 
 HAIL, ill natural history, a meteor generally defined frozen 
 rain, but differing from it in that the hailstones are not formed of 
 sifigle pieces of ice, bitt of many little spherules aggUitinaled to- 
 gether. Neither are these spherules all of the same consiitence ; 
 some being hard and solid like perfect ice ; others soft, and mostly 
 like snow hardened by a severe frost. Sometimes the hailstone 
 Jias a kind of core of this soft matter; but more frequently the 
 core is solid and hard, while the outside is formed of a sotter mat- 
 ter. Hailstones are of various figures ; some round, others pyra- 
 midal, crenated, angular, thin, and flat, and some stellated, with 
 six radii like the small crystals of snow. Natural historians re- 
 cord various instances'of surprising showers of hail, in which tlie 
 hailstones were of extraordinary niagnituale. Mezeray, speaking 
 of the war of Lewis XH. in Italy, in IJIO, relates, that there was 
 for some time a horrible darkness, thicker than that of niglit; 
 after which the clouds broke into thunder and lightning, and 
 there fell a shower of hailstones, or rather (as he calls them) peb- 
 ble-stones, which destroyed all the hsh, birds, and beasts, of the 
 country. It was attended with a strong smell of sulphur; and the 
 •tones were of a blueish colour, some of tliem weighing 100 lb. 
 Hist, de I'rance, Tom. 11. p. 339. At Lisle in Flanders, in 1686, 
 hailstones fell of a very large size ; some of which contameil in 
 ihe middle a dark brown matter, which, thrown on the hre, gave 
 a very great report. Philos. Trans. No. 203. Dr. Halley and 
 others reLite, that in Cheshire, Lancashire, &c. April 29, iti97, a 
 thick black cloud, coming from Caernarvonshire, disposed the va- 
 pours to congeal in such a manjier, that for about- the breadth of 
 two miles, which was the limit of the cloud, in its progress for 60 
 iniles, it did inconceivable damage ; not only killing all sorts of 
 fowls anJ other small animals, but splitting trees, knocking down 
 horses and men, and even ploughing up the earth ; so that the 
 hailstones buried themselves under ground an inch or an inch and 
 half deep. Tlic hailstones, many of which w'eighcd five ounces 
 and some half a pound, being live or six inches about, were of 
 ■various figures : some round, others half round ; some smooth, 
 others embossed and crenated : the icy substance of them was 
 very transparent and hard, but there was a snowy kernel in the 
 middle of them. In Hertfordshire, May'4, 1697, after a severe 
 storm of thunder and lightning, a shower of hail succeeded, which 
 far exceeded the former ; some persons were killed bv it, their 
 bodies beat all black and blue ; vast oaks were split, and liclds of 
 rye cut down as with a scythe. The stones measured from ten to 
 thirteen or fourteen inches about. Their figures were various, 
 snme oval, others picked, some flat. Philos. Trans. No. 229. 
 On the tops of mountains hailstones, as wed as drops of rain, are 
 very small, and continually increase in bulk till they reach the 
 lower grounds. It would seem, therefore, that during their pas- 
 sage through the air, they attract the congealed vapour w hich in- 
 creases them in size ; or that the vapour they meet with is con- 
 gealed on them as they fall. Some modern philosophers ascribe 
 the formation of hail to electricity. See METEOROLOcy. 
 
 H AILERON, a strong town in Wirtemberg, 5 miles N. E. 
 of Stutgard. 
 
 HAINAN, one of the most considerable island? of Asia, sub- 
 ject to China, and belonging to the province of Quang-ton. It 
 has on the N. the province of Quang-si ; on the S. the channel 
 between the biink I'aracel and the E, coast of Cochin-China; on 
 the \V. the same kingdom and part of Tong-king; and on the E. 
 the Chinese sea. Its extent from E. to W. is belweeu 60 and 70 
 leagues, and from N. to S. 45 ; and about 480 miles in circumfer- 
 ence. Kiun-tcheou-fou is the capital. Hainan lies near San-cian, 
 between 18° and 20° Lat. N. 
 
 HAIISAULT, a province of the Netherlands, formerly divid- 
 ed between France an<l Austria, but now wholly belonging to 
 Trance. It was bounded on the S. by Champagne and Picardy ; 
 ;ind extended from N. to S. about 45 miles, and about 4S from 
 E. toW. 
 
 HAINBURG, or HAIMRURG, a town of Austria, on the 
 Danube, 8 miles VV. of Presburgh, and 20 S. S. E. of Vienna. 
 
 H.MR, [/iicr, Saxon, 1 1. One of the common teg\nnents of 
 Uie body. It is to be found upon all the part* of the body, except 
 
 the soles of the feet and pahns of the hands. When we examine 
 the hairs with a microscope, we lind that they have each a round 
 bulbous root, which lies pretty deep in the ^km, and which draws 
 their nourishment from the surrounding humours: that each hair 
 consist, of live or six others, wiapt up in a common tegument or 
 tube. Hairs ordinarily appear round or cylindrical ; but the mi- 
 croscope also discovers triangular and square ones ; which diversity 
 of figure arises from that ot the pores, to which the haire always 
 accommoilate then- form. Their length depends on the quantity 
 of the proper humour to feed tliem, and their colour on the qualily 
 of that humour : whence, at different stages of lile, the colour 
 usually dillers. Their extremities split into two or three branches, 
 especially when kept dry, or sullered to grow too long; so that 
 what appears only a single hair to the naked e}e, seems a brush 
 to the microscope. The hair of a mouse, viewed bv Mr. Der- 
 ham with a microscope, seemed to be one single transparent tube, 
 with a pitli made up of fibrous sulistances, runnnig in dark lir.es, 
 in some hairs transversely, in orders spirally. The darker medul- 
 lary lines, he observes, were small fibres convolved, and lying 
 I closer together than in the other parts of the hair. They rim from 
 I the bottom to the top ot the hair ; and he imagines, may serve to 
 j make a gentle evacuation of some humour out of the bsdy. Henc4 
 the hair of hairy animals, may not only serve as a fence against 
 cold, iVc. but as an organ of insensibfe perspiration. When a 
 liair is drawn between the fingers from the root towards the point, 
 scarce any friction or resistance is perceived, and no noise is 
 heard ; but if it be passed in tlie same manner between the fingers 
 from tlie point towards the root, a resistance is felt, a tremulous 
 motion is evident to tlie touch, and a noise may be distinctly 
 heard. It is obvious therefore, that the texture of the surface of 
 hair is not the same from the root towards the point, as it is from 
 the point towards the root. These observations arc e(|ually appli- 
 cable to the filaments of wool. The ancients held the hair a sort 
 of excrement, led only with excrementitious matteis, and no pro- 
 per part of a living body. They supposed it generated of the fu- 
 liginous parts of tlie blood, exhaled by the heal of the body to the 
 surface, and there condensed in passing through the pores ; 
 and that hair dees not feed and grow like the other parts, by a 
 Juice circulating within it; but, like the nails, by juxta-position. 
 But the moderns are agreed, that every hair properly and truly 
 lives, and receives nutriment to fill it like the other parts ; which 
 they prove hence, that the roots do not turn grey in aged persons 
 sooner than the extremities, but the whole changes colour at once; 
 which shews that there is a direct communicaticn, and that all the 
 parts are atl'ected alike. In strict propriety, however, it must be 
 allowed, that the life and growth ot hairs is of a different kind from 
 that of the rest of the body; and is not immediately derived 
 therefrom, or reciprocated therewith. It is rather of the nature 
 of vegetation. They grow as plants do, or as some plants shoot 
 from the parts of others ; from which though they draw their 
 nourishment, yet each has, as it were, its distinct life and economy. 
 They derive their food from some juices in the body, but not 
 from the nutritious juices of the body ; whence they may live 
 though the body be starved. Almost the only disease of the hair, 
 besides the remarkable one called Plica Polonica, is baldness, or 
 its falling off. For this many remetlies have been recommended, 
 but scarce any of them can be depended upon. The juice of bur- 
 dock, and the lixivial salts of vine-ashes, are said to be efficacious ; 
 also ihe powiler of hermodactyls, and the decoction of bo.x- 
 wood. Some authors have given instances of the hair changing, 
 in a short time, its colour, through grief, a fright, &c. &c. Fre- 
 quent cutting the hair is very beneficial to the ears, eyes, nay, 
 to the whole body : and, if the head be washed or immersed daily 
 in cold water, it will be found an excellent preventive of periodi- 
 cal head-achs. Persons subject to defluxions if humours from the 
 head, to weak eyes and similar complaints, will derive great bene- 
 fit troui shaving the head at certain intervals ; as this is the most 
 effectual mode of opening the pores and promoting perspiration. 
 There is no danger of contracting cold from washing or exposing 
 the head, after being rubbed dry, to the open air: and this futile 
 objection should influence only the conduct of those who, from ig- 
 norance or preiu<lice, carry all their exhaled impurities on the 
 surface of the skin, and especially on the head, for a succession of 
 years. Thus, perhaps, arise many states of intellectual derange- 
 ment, the source of which is.seldom suspected. Bssidcs!, cleans- 
 ing
 
 II A I 
 
 66\ 
 
 II A L 
 
 ing tin- liead an'ords comfori.ible and pU'iwiiig sfiisalioiis; ami llu' 
 iiioro frL'i|ueiillv tlio hair be cut, it will urovv the more speiilily ; 
 so that this simpl'. uxpi'dii-iit may, in soiiil- measure, serve a- a 
 substituto for a constant blister, or artilicial issue. Tiie hair is, by 
 all nations, considered as an ornament to the person, more llum 
 as a coviM'ing for the head, provided by the beiielicent hand ol na- 
 ture. Hence various ])omalums, ami other >ecret prepa|•alioll^, 
 liave been imp'ised upc-n the piiijlic, lor the purpose ot " making 
 the hair grow long and thick." We are no advocates lor conlri- 
 .vances, which to our ce: tain knowledge are generally composed 
 Ot noxious ingredients, such as the calces oi lead and mercury. 
 Those persons who camiot be dissuaded from the use ot artiluMal 
 means, may witli safety employ a mi.xture consisting of ecjual 
 parts of olive oil and spirits ot rosemary, to V-hich may be added a 
 few drops of oil of nutmeg. If the hair be rubbed every night 
 with a little of this liniment, and the proportion be very gr.idually 
 increased, it will answer every purpose to be attained by tliose 
 boasted prej)arationii which are sold by enipnics. Another sourci' 
 of fr.iud is that of changing the colour of the hair lo a darker sliade : 
 with this intention various licpiid remedies are vended by perfu- 
 mers, under dilVerent alluring appellations, These, however, 
 being likewise prepared from lead, antimony, and other metallic 
 solutions, no prudent person will be induced to purchase them. 
 'I'he only method that can be pursued with impunity, is to cut 
 the hair close to the head, and to pass a leaden comb ihrougli it 
 every morning and evening, by which simple practice the hair 
 will assume a darker colour ; the perspiration of the head will 
 rot be impeded, and, consecpicntly, the health of the individual 
 rather promoted than injured. Hair constitutes a very consider- 
 able article of commerce, especiallv since the fashion of we.iring 
 wigs has prevailed among all ranks, and has lately been c.vti niled 
 to both sexes. I'he hair of this, and other northern countries, is 
 preferred to that of the southern climates of Italy, France, &c. 
 The chief tiuality of hair consists in its being well fed, as it is 
 termed by hair-dressers, so that it be neither too coarse nor too 
 slender. Hence thick hair is less susceptible of the artificial curl, 
 and is disposed to frizzle ; but, if it be too <lelicate, it will retain 
 the curl only for a short time. The length of good hair is usually 
 estimated at 2i inches; and in proportion as it is shorter, it be- 
 comes less valuable. There appears to be no stated price for this 
 article ; as according to its quality, it is sold at from 5s. to 5/. 
 per ounce : it pays, when iinported, a duty of 2s. 4i(/. per lb. 
 vV'.th respect to the various operations which hair undergoes pre- 
 viously to being manufactured into wigs, we trast the reader will 
 €.\cuse our silence. The hair of beavers, hares, and other ani- 
 jiials, is used in various manufactures, especially that of hats, of 
 which they constitute the principal material. If the refuse of thf 
 siiort hair of hides be scattered on arable land, and left there to 
 putrefy, it proves one of the most fertilizing and dural)le manures. 
 Berthollet found by analysis, that hair yielded from llo2 parts. 
 
 Carbonate of ammonia 00 
 
 Water 179 
 
 Oil ;• ess 
 
 Gases 271 
 
 Ceal .' 334 
 
 1152 
 
 Silphuric acid, assisted by heat, dissolves hair. It forms, with the 
 alkaliei, an animal soap. 
 
 Hair, in farriery, is commonly called the coat ; and, with re- 
 spect to horses, merits particular consideration. The hair grow- 
 ing on the fetlock, serves as a defence to the prominent part of it, 
 when the animal is travelling on rough, stony roads, or in frosty 
 weather. If the hair on the neck and more exposed parts be 
 close and smooth, it may be concluded that the horse is in 
 health. 
 
 Hair, Horee, likewise forms a considerable article of trade ; 
 it pa)S on importation a duty of about 1 Id. per lb. and is partly 
 employed for wi"aving the covers of the scats of chairs, sofas, &c. 
 but principally for the stuffing of bolsters and mattresses. For 
 the last mentioned purposes, the hair is previously baked, and, in 
 that s'.ate, forms one of the most elastic couches, which is inconi- 
 paral)ly superior to the softer, but enervating, feather-beds. 
 
 II AIR OF Plants, or Down, a general term expressive of all 
 
 VOL II. — NO. 100. 
 
 the hairy and glan<hil,ir appearances on the surlace of plants, to 
 M hich ihcv are ^.upposed tcj serve the double purpose of defensive 
 weapon- and TesseK ot secretion. The>e hairs are minute threads 
 of greater or less length and solidity ; some of them visii)le lo the 
 n.iki d eve ; whiUt otiiers are rendered visible only by the help of 
 glasses. Fxamined by a microscope, almost all the paitsol plants, 
 particularly the young stalks or stem^, appear covered w idi hairs. 
 These appear under various forms; in liie leguminous plants, 
 they are generallv cvlindric ; in the mallow-tribe, leriniiiatetl in 
 a point ; in agriinonv, sha|)ed like a tish-hook ; in nettle, awl- 
 shaped and jointed ; and 111 some compound llowcrswith hollow or 
 lunnel-shaped llorets, they are terminated in two crooked points. 
 Probable as some experiments have rendered it, that the hairs on 
 the surface of plants contribute lo some original secretion, their 
 principal use seems to be, to preserve the parts in which they are 
 lodged from the bad elfects of violent frictions, from winds, fronv 
 extremes ot heat and cold, and such like external injuries. 
 
 Hair-Cloths, in military affairs, are large pieces of cloth, 
 made with half hair: used for covering the powder in waggons,, 
 and upon batteries ; also charged bombs, hand-grenailes, &c. ia. 
 magazines. 
 
 ilAI-TANG, a beautiful Chinese shrub, originally brought, 
 from the bottom of the rocks which border the sea-coast. '1 lie- 
 smell of its leaves has an afimity both to that of the rose and the 
 violet ; but it is weaker, and never extends to any great dis- 
 tance. 
 
 H.^KE, the English name of a fish common in the BritisK sea. 
 See (<ADUs. 
 
 HALBERDS, or IIALBERTS, [from Ixirde, an a.'je, and 
 linllc, a court,] a kind of spears, carried by the sergeants ol foot 
 and dragoons. The shaft is about five feet long, anil made of ash 
 or other wood. The head is armeil with a steel-point, not unlike 
 the |)oiiit of a two-edged sword. Besides this sliarp point wliicli 
 is in a line with the shaft, there is a cross-piece ofstefl, flat and 
 pointed at both ends ; but generally with a cutting edge at one ex- 
 tremity, and a bent sluu'ij point at the other ; so that the halbert 
 serves equally to cut down or to push withal. It is also useful in- 
 determining the ground between the ranks, and adjusting the files 
 of a battalion. It was anciently a common weapon in the armyV 
 where there were companies of halberdiers. It is said to have 
 been used by the .iVmazons, and afterwards by the Rluctians and 
 \'indelicin!is'.->.bout A. U. 370. It w;is called the Danish axe, be- 
 cause the Danes bore an halbert on the left shoulder. From the 
 Danes it came to the Scots, from the Scots to the linglish Sa.\ons,. 
 and from them to the French. 
 
 HALBERS TADT, alate principality of Germany, in the circle 
 of Lower Saxony, biuimded on the N.E. by the duchy of Magde- 
 burgh. It was near 40 miles long and 30 broad. The soil is fertile 
 in corn and flax ; and there are some woods, though fuel is scarce.. 
 The chief towns are Ilalberstadt, Groningen, Oschersleben, and 
 Osterwick. 
 
 IIalberstadt, the capital of the above hite principality, 34 iniles- 
 S. S. E. of Brunswick. 
 HALBERT, or HALBARD. See Halberd. 
 H.VLC'YON. See Alceho. 
 
 Halcyon Days, in antiquity, a name given to seven days be-> 
 fore and as many after the winter-solstice ; when the halcyon, in- 
 vited by the calmness of tlie'weather, laid her eggs in nests built 
 in the r'oi ks, dose by the brink of the sea. Hence the phrase be- 
 came proverbial. 
 
 HALDE, John Baptist Du, a learned French Jesuit, born 
 at Paris in U>74. He was veil versed in Asiatic geography, and 
 compiled a work entitleil " tirande descripiion de la Chine & de- 
 la Tartaric,"' from original memoirs of the Jesuitical missionarits, 
 in 4 vols, folio. He was also concerned in a collection of letters 
 begun bv father Gohien, called " Des Letlres Ediiiantes," in IS 
 vols ; and published some Latin poems and orations. He died in. 
 1743. 
 
 HALDENSLEBEN, a town of Germany, in Lower Saxony^, 
 12 miles X.. of Magdeburg. 
 
 HALE, Sir Matthkw, lord chief justice of the Kiiig's Bench 
 in the reign of Cliarles 11. was the son of Robert Hale, iSq. a bar- 
 rister of Lincoln's' Inn, and was born in lti09. He was edu- 
 cated at Oxford, where he made a con-iderable |)rogress in learn- 
 ing ; but was aflcrwarils diverted from bis stud'ics liy the levities of 
 8 y youth.
 
 HAL 
 
 6fi2 
 
 TIAL 
 
 f: 
 
 youlli. I'rom Uio^e he was icloiiiieil by Mr. Juhu Glaiiville, ser- 
 ,e;iiit at law ; ami apijlyin-.; to llie study of the; l,.w, euterecl into 
 jiiiculii'ii Inn. Noy, till- attorney gcmral, and Mr. SeUkn took 
 nnich niiiicc of lilni. During tlie civil wars, iie ijeliaved so well 
 as to gain the esteem of both parties. IJewas employed in his 
 practice by the king's pariy ; and was appointed by the parliament 
 
 death gave him very sensible regret. However, he took the en- 
 gagement ; and was appointed with several others, to consider of 
 the reformation of the law. In H5j3, he was by writ made sergeant 
 at law, and soon after appointed one of the justices of the Com- 
 mon Pleas. Upon the death of Oliver Cromwell, he refused to ac- 
 cept of the new commission oflered him by Richard his successor. 
 ile was returned for Gloucestershire in the parliament which cail- 
 6(4 home Charles 11. Soon after he was made lord chief baron 
 of the excliecpier ; but declined the honour of knighthood, till lord 
 chancellor Hyde, sending for him upon business when the king 
 was at liis house, said, " There is your majesty's modest chief 
 baron ;" upon which he was unexpectedly knigjited. He was one of 
 the principal judges that sat in Clifl'ord's Inn, about setlling the 
 dififerences between landlord and tenant, after the fire of London, 
 in which lie behaved to the satisfaction of all parties concerned. 
 In his poit of chief baron he acted with inlU-xible integrity. He 
 dismissed a duke, who wished to prejudice him in favour of a cause 
 he was to bring before him, wiih a proper reprimand. 'J'he duke 
 complained of his ^udene^s to the king, who told him he verily 
 believed he would have used hini no better, had he gone to solicit 
 him in his own cause. In one of his circuits, a gentleman who 
 had a trial at the assizes sent him a buck for his table. Wlicn 
 j/.dge Hale therefore heard his name, he asked " if he was not 
 the person who had sent him the venison r" and linding he was, 
 told him, "that he could not suffer the trial to go nn till he had 
 paid Inm for his buck." The gentleman answered, ihat '-lie never 
 sold his venison ; and that he had done nothing to him which he 
 did not do to every judge who had gone that circuit :" which was 
 conlirmed by several gentlemen present. The lord chief baron, 
 however, paid for the present; npon which the gentleman willi- 
 drew the record. In Hi'l, he was advanced to l;e lord chiefjus- 
 tice of the king's bench ; but about four years after this promotion 
 his, health declining, he resigned his post in Feb. i67J-(3, and died 
 in Dec. following. ^Fhis excellent man, wlio was an ornament to 
 the bench, to his country, and to human nature, wrote, 1. An 
 Essay on the Gravitation and Non-gravitation of Fluid Iiodies. 2. 
 Observations touching the Torricellian Experiment. 3. Contem- 
 plations, moral and divine. 4. The Life of Pomponius Atticus, 
 witli political and moral Rejections. 5. Observations on the Prin- 
 ciples of natural Motion. 6. Tlie primitive Origination of Man- 
 kind. He also left a great number of M. S. S. in Latin and En- 
 glish, upon various suljjects ; among which are, his Pleas of tlie 
 Crown, since published by Mr. Em) In in two volumes folio ; and 
 his Original Institution, Power, and jurisdiction, of Parliaments. 
 
 H.VLLM, or HALKN, a town of France, in the department 
 of the Dyle, and late province of Austrian Brabant, 24 miles W. 
 of M.iestriclit. 
 
 HALES, Stephen, D. D. and F. U. S. a celebrated divine 
 and philosopher, born in 1G77. He was the sixth son of Thomas 
 .Tiales, Est) ; tlie eldest son of Sir Robert Hales, and Mary the 
 heiress of Richard Langiey of Abbotts-Wood in Hertfordshire. In 
 lt>96, he was entered at !5ennet college. Cambridge ; admitted a 
 fellow in 170.'?, and became 15. D. in 171 1. He soon di>covered 
 ii genius for n.itural philosophy. Botany was his first stiidv, which 
 he often prosecuted among Gogmagog hills, along with Dr. Stiike- 
 ly. He also collected fossils and iu'sects, having contrived a curi- 
 ous instrument for catching such of the latter as have wings. He 
 likewise slutlied astronomy, chemistry, and anatomy ; and invented 
 a c^irious method of obtaining a representation ot the lungs in 
 lend. Having made himself acquainted with the Newtonian 
 system, he contrived.^ machine for shewing the pha;nomena on 
 much the same principles with that of tlie Orrery, afterwards 
 made by Mr. Rowley. Aliout 1710 he was presented to the per- 
 petual cure of Teddington near Twickenham ; afterwards to the 
 living of Porlock in Somersetshire, which he exchanged for that 
 ol Faiingdon in Hampshire. Soon after, he married Nlary, t.he 
 daugliler and heiress of Dr. Newce. On the ISIh March'] 718, 
 he wi^s elected F. R. S. and on the 5lh March, 17i9, he e.xhibitccl 
 an account of some experiments he had made on the eliect of the 
 9 
 
 sun's warmth in raising the sap in trees, which procured him the 
 thanks of the society. On the I4thof June I7J"), he exhibited a 
 trtatis-e on the same subject, which, being highly aj-'plauded by 
 the society, he enlarged and improved ; and, in April 1727, pub- 
 lished it undi r th.e title of Vegetable Statics. This work he dedi- 
 cated to the prince of Wales ; afterwards K. George 11; and lie 
 was tlie same year cho.-^enone cf the council of the Roval Society, 
 A second edition ot this work was published in 173) ; in the pre- 
 face to which, he Jironiised a scijucl, which he published in 173.> 
 under the title of Statical Essays, &ic. In 1732 he was appointed 
 one of the trustees for establishing a new colony in Georgia. On 
 the 5lh of July 1733, tlie university of Oxford made him D. D. 
 altliough he iiad been edutated at Canibridge. In 1734, he jjub- 
 lished anonymously, A friendly Admonition to the Drinktii of 
 Brandy and other spirituous Liquors; and a seinun preaehed at 
 St. Bridc'.i before the rest of the trustees for establisliiiigtlie coli,n> 
 in Georgia. His text was in Gal. vi. 2. In 1739, he printed Pin- 
 losophical Expeiinients on Sea-water, Corn, Flesh, and other 
 Substances; 8vo. dedicated to th'e lords of the admiralty. In I73'j, 
 he also exhibited to the Society an account of some experiment.-; 
 towards the discovery of medicines, for dissolving the stone in the 
 kidneys and bladder, and preserving meat in long vovages; for' 
 which ne received Sir Godfrey Copley's gold-medal. \n 1740, he 
 published some account of Experiments and Observations on Mi-s. 
 Stephens's Medicines for dissolving the Stone, in which their dis- 
 solvent power is enquired into and demonstrated. In 1741, he read 
 before tlie Soeic ty an account of a Ventilator, for conveying fresh 
 air into mines, hospitals, prisons, and the close parts of ships. See 
 AiR-pifE, and V't.NTii..\TOR. He made besides these numcrou-. 
 and important communications to the Philosophical Transactions 
 and Genlleman's Magazine. 
 
 HALLSIA, in botany, a genus of tlie monogynia order, and 
 dodecandria clais of plants; natural oixier, Bicornes. C'alw 
 (juadridinlated, superior; corolla quadrifid; nut quadrangular 
 and dis|;ermous. It has two species. 
 
 IlALESWORTH, a town of Suffolk, 32 miles N. E. of Ips- 
 wich, and 101 of London. 
 
 HAIT'-MOON, in fortification, an outwork composed of two 
 faces, forming a saliant angle, whose gorge is in lorm of a crescent, 
 whence the name. See Fortification. 
 
 HALICARNA>SUS, in ancient geogra|)liy, a principal town 
 of Caria, built by the Argives, and situated betneen two bays, the 
 Ceramicus and Jasius. It was anciently called Zephyra, and was 
 the royal residence of Mau^olus. See Artemisia. 
 
 HALIEUTICA, or HALIEUTICS, [a.mettika, formed of 
 aXiiv;, fisherman, from "a;, sea,] books treating of fishes, or the 
 art of fishing. I'he halieutics of Oppiaii are still extant. 
 
 HALIFAX, a town in Yorkshire on the CaUler, among hills, 
 16 miles S. VV. of Leeds. 
 
 Halifax, the c«i)ilal ofNova Scotia. It was founded in 1749, 
 to secure the British settlements from the French and Indians. 
 Lon (j3. 3(j. W. Lat. 44. 44. N. 
 
 Halifax Bay, a bav on the E. coast of Hi .paniola. Lon. 61. 
 20. \V. Lat. IJ. 40. N.' 
 
 HALIOTIS, the Ear-shel, a genus of insects cf the order 
 vermes tcstacci. Animal a Umax : vhell univalve, dilated, eiu- 
 sliaped, with a longitudinal row of oritices along the surface; spire 
 lateral, and almost concealed. '1 here are nineteen species. Mr. 
 Donovan describes the H. tuberculata as a native of this country. 
 The shell is subuvate, the outside transvei-sely grooved, rugged, 
 and tuberculate, the inside is like mother-of-peail. See Plate 
 LXVIl. 
 
 IiALlTZ, or IIALITZCII, a town and terrilory of Poland, 
 in Red Russia, 58 miles S.' E. ofLemberg. 
 
 HALK.KTSTE1N, a town of Batavia in the department of 
 the Rhine, and late province of Gueldeilaml ; lO miles S. of 
 Harderwyck. 
 
 HALL, John, an English surgeon, who ll.iurished in the reign 
 of Q. Elizabeth, at Maidstone in Kent. He was born in 1629, and 
 puldished; I. A Compendium of xVnatomy ; and, 2. A Collection 
 of Hymns, with niusical Notes, in lj6i: besides several tracts on 
 medicine and surgery. 
 
 Hall, Joseth, an eminent English prelate, born at Ashby de 
 la Zcucli, in 1 J74, and edv;cated at Cambridge. lie became pro- 
 fessor of rhetoric in that univer.ity, and was made re<torofHal- 
 sted, prebeudarj- of \VolvoihainptO[i> dean of Worcester, .Bishop 
 
 of
 
 HAL 
 
 663 
 
 HAT. 
 "1 -^^ 
 
 II large 
 
 of r.xoliT, ami l.i-^tlv of Norwich. llis works U->lily his zeal 
 ag:;inst PopiTV, ami are much e^tfcmed. He lameiiteil the divi- 
 sions otthc I'rolcstaiits, ami wrolt- on the means of piitt ni; an end 
 tothcni. In July Kill), he attended lord Doncaster into France, 
 and upon his R-turn was i.ppoinled hy K. James one of the divines 
 who sliDuld attend him into Sci.tlar.d". In IrtlS lie was sent to 
 the synod of Dort, and appointed to preacli a Latin sermon before 
 that a>SL-mbly. iieing obliged to return before tlie synod broke np, 
 on account of lus health, he was by the slates presented with a 
 gold-medal. lie wrote, I. Miscellaneous Kpistles. 'J. Miuidus 
 ■alter el idem. .3. A jn:>t Censure ot Travellers. 4. The Christian 
 Seneca, i. Satires, m si.s- books, fi. A Century of Meditations; 
 and manv other works, which, besides the satires, make 5 vols, in 
 folio a<id 4lo. lie died in UijC). ' 
 
 Hall, \_hftl, Saxon ; hiilif, Dutch,] in arcl-itecture, 
 room at the entrance of a fine house and palace. 
 
 Hall is also a public budding or court of justice, as Westmin- 
 ster-hall, G«ild-hall, a company's hall, itc. In Westminster-hall 
 are held tl;e Courts of King's Oench, Common Pleas, Chancery, 
 and Kxcheipier. 
 
 Hall, or Halle, an imperial to«n of Germany, in Suabia, 40 
 miles S. K. of Heidelbert;. 
 
 Hall, or IIalle, a town of Tirol, on the Inn, famous for its 
 salt-works. It miles E. of ln^pruck. 
 
 HAl.LACUt')UES, an unfortunate tribe in the East Indies, 
 destined to mi.«eiv from their birth, and termed the refuse of all 
 tribes. Tliey are held in such abomiiuition, that, on the Malabar 
 fide of Hindostan, if one of them chance to touch a II iiidoo of su- 
 perior rank, the latter draws bis sabre and cuts him down on the 
 spot, without any check, either from his own conscience, or the 
 laws of the country. 
 
 II ALLAN, a province of Sweden, iu the island ofSchonen. 
 Helm'ita<lt is the capital. 
 
 MALLATON, a town of Leicestershire, seated on a rich soil, 
 lU miles S. E. of Leicester, and 90 N. by E. of London. 
 
 HALLE, a town of France, in the department of Gemappes, 
 and iate province of ,\uslrii;n Hainault. 
 
 Hallk, a town in I'ppcr Saxony, 56 miles S. of Magdeburg. 
 
 H.lLLEIN, a town ui Davciria. Lon. 12. 15. E. Lat. 47. 
 33. N. 
 
 HALLEH.'J.MI, [.-ll^^'n] a term of rejoicing, first introdu- 
 ced into the chiin h-service, bv St. Jerome, from the synagogue. 
 It occurs in several of the Psalms, particularly from Ps. cxlv. to cl. 
 It also occurs in llev. xix. I, 3, 4, 6. F"or a considerable time it 
 v\as only used once a year in the Latin churf h, \\z. at Easter ; but 
 in the Greek church it was much more frequent. 
 
 HALLEK, Albkrt Van, an eminent jihysician, born at Bern, 
 on the UmIi Oct. 1708. He was the son of an advocate and the 
 \ounge>t of live. lie very early shewed a great genius for litera- 
 ture, but it is surprising that it was not crushed in the bud, for his 
 tutor, Abraham Billodz, was mch a tyrant, that the accidental sight 
 of liim, at any after period of life, excited in Haller alnl0^t ail his 
 former terrors. Yet the progress of Hallei-'s stufltes was rapid al- 
 most beyond belief. When other children were beginning only to 
 read, he was studying Bayle ami Moreri ; and at nine, he was able 
 to translate Cjreek, and beginning to >^tudy Hebrew. Mis poetical 
 essays, published iu the German language, were read and admired 
 throughout the empire. In his l(>tli year, he began to study me- 
 dicine at Tubingen, Uiider Duvenioy and Camerarius; and con- 
 tinued there for two years, when the great reputation of Boerhaave 
 drew him to Leyden. Here he prosecuted his studies with great 
 applause. From Holland, in 1727, he came to England, v. here 
 lie was honoured with the friendship of Douglas, Chestlden, an<l 
 Sir Hans SloLuie, P. K. S. He next went to France: where, un- 
 der Wiuslow and f-e Dran, he had new opportunities of prose- 
 cuting anatomy. Pint his z^al was greater tlian popular prejudice, 
 even in the enlightened city of Paris, could admit of. An infor- 
 mation being lodged against him for dissecting dead bodies, he was 
 obliged to make a precipitate retreat to Ba^il, where he became 
 a pu))il to the celebrated Bernoulli. Thus improved by the most 
 distinguished teachers of that period, and endued with imcommon 
 natural abilities, he returned to Bern, in his 26th vear, where lie 
 stood candidate, first for the office of physician to an hospital, and 
 afterwards for a professorship. But he was disappointed in both ; 
 and it was eve;i witli duliculty that he obtained the ajn)ointment of 
 
 keeper of a p'.iblic library at Bern. This otiice, though hy n- 
 means suited to his great" abilities, afforded him an op|ior1unity frir 
 tliat extensive reading by which he has been so justly distinguisheii. 
 1 he neglect of his merit neither diminished his ardour tor medi- 
 cal pursuits, nor detracted from his reputation at liome or abroad. 
 Soon after he was nominated a professor in the univcisily ot (.Jol- 
 lingen, bv king George H. Tlie duties of tiiis itnporlanl ollice he 
 discharged, with honour to himself and advantage to l);e public, 
 for 17 years. Impressed with the great diversity of opinions re- 
 specliii'g the (economy of tl-.e human b.-^dy, and sensible that iJie 
 only means of investigating tre.th, was by careful e.\perimer.ts, he 
 undertook the arduous tiisk of exploring the phenomena (;fthe 
 human fabric ; and there was hardlv any function of the body on 
 which his experimer.ts did not retfect either anew or a stronger 
 light. Ncr was it long necessary for him, in this arduous under- 
 taking, to labour alone. The exan;ple of the preceptor was fol- 
 lowed by his pupils. Zinn, Zimmerman, Caldani, and many 
 others, laboured to complete the discoveries of their creat master. 
 The mutual exertions ot the teacher aud his studi nts, not only 
 forwarded tlie progress of medical science, but p!ace<! llie philo- 
 sophy of the liuman body on a more sure, and an almo-^t entirely 
 new,' basis Hut the labours of Dr. Halier, (hiring his icsi(!eiic<.- 
 at (Joltingcn, were not conlmeil to one departmet:t ofsci<;Lce, 
 To him, th- .Anatomical Theatre, -the School of Midwifery, llie 
 Chiruraical Society, and Koyal Academy of Sciences at (iottin- 
 gen, owe their origin. Such distinguished merit could not fail to 
 meet Willi a suitv<blc reward. K. George ii. not only honoured 
 him with every mark of attention himself, but procured him letters 
 of nobility from the emperor. On the death of Dillcnius, he lia'] 
 an otier of the iirofessorship of botany at Oxford; the Stales of 
 Holland invited him to the chair of the younger .\lb;nns, and the 
 K. of lYus-ia was anxious that lie should b- tlit- successor of Mau- 
 pertuis at I'erlin. Maishal Keith wrote to him in the name of his 
 sovereign, ollering him the chancellorship of the university of 
 Halle. C'ount Orlow invited him to Russia, in the name ot the 
 empress, offering him a distinguished place at St. Petersburgh. 
 The King of Sweden conferril on him an unsolicited honour, by 
 raising him to the rank of knight of the polar stars, and the em- 
 I)eror of Germany honoured him w ith a personal visit ; during 
 which he passed some time with him in the most lamdisr convcrs,i- 
 tion. Thus honoured and esteemed, he had it in his power to have 
 held the highest rank in the republic of letters. Yet, declining 
 all the otVers made to him, he continued at Gottingen, anxious to 
 extend the rising fame of that medical school. But after 17 yeais 
 residence in that university, an ill state of health rendering him less 
 fit for the im|)ortant ollice whieh he held, he obtained permissic->» 
 from the regency of Hanover to return to I'lfrn. His fellow-citi- 
 zens were now as sensible as others of his superior merit. A pen- 
 sion was settled upon him iorlil'e, and he uas elected into the mo>t 
 important oificcs in the state. These occupations, however, did 
 not diminish his ardour for useful improvements. He was the first 
 president, as well as the greatest promoler, of the Oeconomical So- 
 ciety at Bern ; and lie mav be considered as the founder of the 
 Orphan Hospital there. Declining health, however, restrained 
 his exertions: and for many years he was conlined entirely to Ins 
 own house ; where, with indefatigable industry, he continued to 
 write till within a few days of his death : which hapneiied in !iis 
 70lh year, on the l','th Dec. 1777. His Elementa Physiologia; 
 and B'ibliotheca Medicina-, alTord undeniable proofs of his penetra- 
 ting genius, and solid judgement. But he was not less ditstinguish- 
 ed as a philosopher than beloved as a man ; and he was not mpre 
 eminent for his improvement in every departnieiit of medical 
 science, than for his piely to C-Sod, and benevolence to man- 
 kind. 
 
 HALLEKIA, .Vfricav Fly Honf.vsuckle ; in botany, a ge- 
 nus of the angiospermia order, and didyjiamia class of plants; 
 natural order, Personatx. Calyx trifid ; corolla (piadrilid ; fila 
 ments longer than the corolla ; berry inferior and bilocular. The 
 only species is H. lucida, a Cape plant. 
 
 H.VLLEY, Dr. Edml'NU, an eminent astronomer, was the , 
 only son of a soap-boiler in London, and was born in 1656. He 
 fiiNt studied the languages and sciences, but at length devoted him-'' 
 self eiitirely to astroiiomv. In 1077, he went to the island of St. 
 Helena to complete the catalogue of fixed stars, bv the addittoii <■' 
 those which lie near the S. poie; and buving deiioealed a pij-nj..
 
 II A L 
 
 mA 
 
 HAL 
 
 piuri', in ui. ■ 11 li'- lii'l lliL-iu all (.luwii in their cx.ict places, he re- 
 tunieJ to liuglaml in 1()7S. In UiSO he took a tour through En- 
 rope, acconipaiiiecl hy the celebrated Mr. Nelson. Between 
 Calais and Puris, he had a sight ot the famous comet in its retiirji 
 from the snn. He had in November before seen it iii its descent; 
 and now hastened to eoniplele his observations upon it, from the 
 royal observatory of France. His design in this part of his tnnr 
 was to settle a correspondence between the royal astronomer^ of 
 Greenw.ci) and Paris; and to iiii|)rove himself under the great Cas- 
 siiii. He went thence to Italy, where he spent great part of 1081 ; 
 but his affairs calling him home, he returned to EnglKiul. In 1GS3 ; 
 lie publi>hed his " 'I'heory of the \'ariation of the Magnetical 
 C'omiiass;" in which lie supposes the globe to be a great magnet, 
 with tour magnetical poles, or points of attraction: but afterwards 
 thinking tliat this theory was liable to great exceptions, he pro- 
 cured an application to be made to king William, who appointed 
 him comuKinder of the Paramour Pink, with orders to seek by ob- 
 servations the discovery of the rule of variations, and to lay down 
 the longitudes and latitudes of his majesty's settlements in America, 
 lie sctout on this aitempt on the 24tli' Nov. Ui!)8 ; but having 
 crosseil tiie line, his men grew sickly; and his lieutenant mutiny- 
 ing, he returned home m June Itiilt). Having got the lieutenant 
 tried and cashiered, he sailed a second time in Sept. following, 
 with the same ship, and another of less bulk, of which lie had also 
 the. command. He now traversed the vast Atlantic from one 
 hemisphere lo the otl.rr, as far as the ice would permit him ; and 
 having made observations at St. Helena, Brazil, Cape Verd, Bar- 
 badoes, the Madeiras, the Canaries, the coast of Barbary, and 
 many other latitudes, arrived in Sept. 1700; and published a 
 general chart, in 1701, shewing at one view the variation of the 
 compass in all those places. Capt. Halley had been at home little 
 more than half a year, when he was sent by the king, to observe 
 the course of the tides, with the longitude and latitude ot the prin- 
 cipal head-lands in the British cli.mnel ; which having executed 
 with his usual accuracy, he [lublisUed a large map of the Channel. 
 Soon after, the Emperor of Germany resolving to make a conve- 
 nient harbour for sliipp;ng in the Adriatic, Capt Halley was sent 
 by (|ueeii Anne to view the two ports on the coast of Dalmatia. 
 He embarked on the 2'2d N ov. 1702 ; passed over to Holland ; and 
 going through Germany to Vienna, he proceeded to Istria ; but 
 the Dutch opposing the design, it was laid aside. 'I'lie emperor 
 made him a present of a rich diamond-ring from his finger, and 
 honoured him with a letter of recommendation ; w ritten with his 
 own hand, to queen Anne. Soon after his return, lie was sent 
 again on the same business; when passing through Hanover, he 
 supped with the electoral prince, afterwards king George I. and 
 his sister the ipieen of Prussia. On his arrival at Vienna, he was 
 the same evening presented to the emperor, who sent his engineer 
 to attend him to Islria, where they repaired and added new forti- 
 fications to those of Trieste. Mr. Halley returned to England in 
 1703; was made professor of geometry in the university of Ox- 
 ford, and received the degree of L. L. D. He was scarcely vet- 
 tied at Oxford, when he began to translate into Latin from the 
 Arabic, " Apollonius de Sectione Rationis ;" and to restore Apol- 
 ionius's books " De Sectione Spalii," from the account given of 
 them by Pappus ; and he published the whole work in 1706. Af- 
 terwards he had a sliare in preparing for the press Apollonius's 
 Conies; and ventured to supply the whole 8th book, the original 
 of which is also lost. He likewise added Serenus on the Section of 
 the Cvlinder and Cone, printed from the original Greek, with a 
 Latin translation, and published the whole in folio. In 1713, he 
 was made secretary of the Royal Society ; in 1720, king's astrono- 
 mer at the royal olj.>ervatory at Greenwich; and, in 17'-'y, a mem- 
 ber of the Aiademy of Sciences at Paris. He died at Greenwich 
 in 174ii. His principal works are, 1. Catalogus Steliarum Austra- 
 lluin. 2. ''Pabnhe Astronomia'. 3. An Abridgement of the x\s- 
 tronomy of Comets, &c. He also published several works of Sir 
 js.iac Newton; who had a particular friendship for hiin, and to 
 wliom he frequently communicated his discoveries. 
 
 Hallf.v's Qradrant. See Quadrant. 
 
 H.'M^IjI ARDS, [corrupted from liiiul and i/ard,'] the ropes or 
 trickles usually employed to hoist or lower any sail upon its le- 
 >pective mast or stay. See Jears. 
 
 HALMOTE, or HALIMOTE, the game with Court-Baron, 
 ♦he word implying a meeting of the tenant of the same hall or 
 ^taaoj. 
 
 UALt), or COHON A, ill optics and metenrology, luminouij 
 circle, surrounding the sun, moon, planets, or ilxed stars. Some- 
 times these circles are white, and somclimcs coloured, like the raiji- 
 bovv. Sometimes one only i^ visible, and sometimes several con- 
 centric halos appear at the same time. Those which have been 
 seen about Sinus and Jupiter were never more than 3°, 4°, or 5"; 
 in diameter; those .which surround the moon are, also, sometimes 
 no more than 3° or h° ; but these, as well as those which surround 
 the sun, are of very dillerent magnitudes, viz. of 12° 0', 22° 35', 30* 
 0', 38° 0', 41" 2', 40° 24', 47° 0', and 90°, or evtn larger than this. ■ 
 Their diameters also sometimes vary during the time of observa- 
 tion, and the breadths bothofllie coloured and white circles are 
 very different, viz. of two, four, or seven degrees. Their colours 
 are more diluted than those ot the rainbow ; and they are in a dif- 
 ferent order, according to their size. Mr. Iluygens observed red 
 next the sun, and a pale blue outwards. Sometimes they are n^A 
 on the inside and white on the outside. M. Weidler observed one 
 that was yellow on the inside and white on the outside. In France, 
 one was observed in 10.^3, tlie middle of which was while; after 
 which followed a border of red, next to it was blue, then green, 
 and the outermost circle was a bright red. In 1728, one was seen 
 ol a pale red outwardly, then followed yellow, and then green, ter- 
 minated by a while. In Holland, M. Muschenbroeck says, 50 may 
 be seen in the day-time, almost every day ; but they are diOicult 
 to beobservi d, except the eye be so situated, that not the body of 
 the sun, but only the neighbouring parts of the heavens can be 
 seen. Mr. Midilleton says, that thisplii-nomenon is very frequent 
 in North America ; for that there is generally one or two about the 
 sun every week, and as many about the moon every month. 
 Halos round the sun are very frequent in Russia. M. A'pinus 
 says, that from the 23d April 1758, to the 20th Sept. he himself had 
 observed no less than 20, and that he has sometimes seen twice as 
 many in the same space of time. 
 
 Halos, Artificial. Halos may be produced by placing a 
 lighted candle in the midst of steam in cold weather. If glass- 
 windows be breathed upon, and the flame of a candle be placed 
 some feet from it, w hile the spectator is also at the distance of some 
 feet from another part of a window, the flame w ill be surrounded 
 with a coloured halo. And if a candle be placed behind a glass 
 receiver, when air is admitted into the \ acuum within it, a certain 
 degiee of density, the vapour with which it is loaded will make a 
 coloured lialo round the tiame. This w as observed by Otto Gue- 
 ricke. In Dec. 1756, M. Muschenbroeck observetl, that when 
 the glass-windows of his room were covered with a thin plate of 
 ice on the inside, the moon appeal ng through it was surrounded 
 with a large and variously coloured halo; and, opening the win- 
 dow, he found that it arose intirel) from that tliin plate of ice ; for 
 none was seen except through it. Dr. Kotelnihow, having, like 
 Dr. Halley, made very accurate observations to determine the 
 number of possible rainbows, considers the coloured halo which ap- 
 pears about a candle as the same thing with one of these bows which 
 is formed near the body ot the sun, but which is not visible on ac- 
 ceuut of his excessive splendor. 
 
 Halos, Descak i'es and Gasskndi's Hypotheses of. M. 
 Descartes observes, that the halo never appears w hen it rains : from 
 whicli he concludes that this pha^nomenon is occasioned by the 
 refraction ot light in the round particles of ice, which are then 
 lioating in the atmosphere ; and though these particles are flat when 
 they fall to the ground, he thought they must be protuberant in the 
 middle, before their descent; and according to this protuberancy 
 lie imagined that the diameter of the halo would vary. In treating 
 of n.eteors, Gassendi supposed, that a halo is of the same nature 
 Willi the rainbow, the lays of light being in both cases twice re- 
 fracted and once reflected within each dro|) of rain or vapour, and 
 that all the dilference there is between them arises from their ditfe- 
 icnt situation with respect to the observer. For, whereas, when 
 tlie sun is behind the spectator, and consequently the rainbow be- 
 fore him, Ins eye is ir. the cenire of the circle when he views the 
 halo, with his 'face to.vard the sun, his eye is in the circumference 
 of the circle; so that aicording to the known principles of geome- 
 try, the angle, under wiinh the object appears in this case, must 
 be iiist half of what it is in the other. 
 
 Halos, Experiments ano Theory of Dechales Respect- 
 ing. M. Dechales endeavours to shew that the generation of the 
 halo is similar to that of the rainbow. If, says he, a sphere of glass 
 or crystal, AB, Plate LXXVHI. fig. 12, full of water, be placed 
 
 IB
 
 If A L 
 
 66,') 
 
 HAL 
 
 ill the beams of the sun shining tioni C, thi-re will not only he two 
 circles of colonred light on the .side iieNt the sun, and which coji- 
 slitute the two niinbows; but there will also be another on the 
 part oi)|)Obile to the sun, the rays belonging to which, meeting at 
 E, afterwards diverge, and form the colonred circle G, as will be 
 visible, if the light that is transmiUed through the globe be received 
 on a pu'Ce of wlrte papers The coloin's also w ill appear to an eye 
 placed in any I'art of tlie surface of the cone FEG. Measurnig 
 the an^le I'EH, he found il to he .JJ deoiees. They were only 
 the exueme rays ol this cone that were coloured like lho-.e of the 
 rainbow. This cNperiineiit he thou|^ht sufficiently illu4raled tiie 
 generation of the haio ; so that whenever tiie texture of the clouds 
 is such, as not entirely to intercept the rays of the sun or moon, 
 and yet Iwve some degree of den.-ily, theie will always he a halo 
 round them, the colours of tiie rainbow appearini^ in those drops 
 which are 'JS" disiaiit (loni the sun or moon. If the sun be at A, 
 and the spectator in I?, fi^. 13, the halo wjll be the circle JJEF, 
 DBE being 4^" or twice 23. The reason why the colours if the 
 halo are more dilute than those of tlie rainbow, he says, is owinir 
 principally lo their being formed not in large drops of rain, but in 
 very small vapour ; lor if the drojis ot water were large, the cloud 
 ■would be so thick, thai the rays of the sun could not be res;ularly 
 transmitted through them ; and, on the other hand, he observed, 
 that when the rainbow is formed by very thin vapours, the colours 
 hardly appear. As for tho>e circles of colours which are some- 
 times seen round candles, it was his opinion that they are owing to 
 liulhing but moisture on the eye of the ■ bsirver; for that he could 
 never produce this appearance by niruns of vapour only, if he 
 wiped his eyes carefully ; and he had ob.crved that such circles are 
 visible to some persons and not to others, and lo the same persons 
 at one lime and not at another. 
 
 Halos, Huygens's Theory of. The most considerable and 
 generally received theory, respecting halos, is that ot Mr. lluy- 
 gens. Sir Isaac Newton mentions it with respect, and Dr. Smith, 
 in bis complete System of Optics, does not hint at any o'her. M. 
 Huygens lakes it for granted that at those times there are in the 
 atmosplieie certain bodies of the figure of round balls, opatpie in 
 the centre, but covered w ith a transparent shell. By the help of 
 this he endeavours to account for halos. Those bodies which .M. 
 HuygenS requires, in order lo explain these phfiiomena, are not, 
 however, a mere assumption ; for some such, though of a larger 
 size than his purpose requires, have been actually lonnd, consist- 
 ing of snow within and ice without. They are particularly men- 
 tioned by Descartes. These things premised, he addresses himself 
 to the solution, as follows. Let ABCD, iig. 14, represent such 
 a globule with the opaque nucleus EV in the middle ol it; and let 
 tis suppose the rays coining from G, H, to fall on the side AD. It 
 is niamfesl they will be refracted inwards from the surface A D ; 
 from whence it follows that a great number of them must strike 
 upon the kernel EF. Let GA, and HI), be the rays which, after 
 refraction, touch the sides of the kernel EF, and let them be re- 
 fracted again at B and C, emerging in tlie lines BK, and CK, 
 crossing each other in the point K., whose distance from the glo- 
 bule is ioinewhat less than its semidianieter. Wherefore, if 15K 
 and CK he produced towards M and L, Iig. 15, it follows that no 
 light coming from the sun through the globule, can proceed lo tiie 
 ■ eye anv where placed within the angle LKM, or rather in the 
 cone which that represents; supposing that ihe obliipiity of the 
 incident rays HD and GA is such as shall make the arc RC the 
 greatest possible : for then all tiie rays exterior lo II D and GA, 
 will be refracted nearer to Q, and after emergence cross each other 
 in a point k, nearer the globule than the former ; and therefore can- 
 not come at the eye placed within the said cone LKM. Suppose 
 now the eye placed at N, fig. 15, and let NR, NQ, be drawn 
 parallel to I^K, and MK; then it is plain none of the globules, the 
 Same as ABCD, within the cone KNQ, can come to Ihe eye at N. 
 Thus the globules at O and P have their retracted rays ak, kc, and 
 die, kb, including the eye in the cone of obscurity. Rut oilier 
 globules w hich lie without the cone QNR, as S and 'I", do not in- 
 volve the eye N by their shadow-cones Utf, and jXm; and there- 
 fore some of those rays which are more refracted Ihaa kd, or kj', 
 will full upon the eye, and produce a luminous circular ring or 
 corona, including a dark area within, and whose light outwardly 
 decreases as it is more remote from the centre. To verify this 
 hypothesis, M. Huygens advises us to expose lo the sun a thin 
 vot. I). — N«. 100. 
 
 glass-bubble, Idled with water, and having some opacpie substance 
 in the centre of it; and he says we shall lind, that ve shall not be 
 be able to see the sun through it, unless at a certain distance from 
 a place opposite to the centre of it : hut as soon as we do perceive 
 the light, the image of the sun will immediately appear the bright 
 est, and coloured red, for the same rea,on as in the rainbow. These 
 halos, he says, often ap|)ear about the moon ; but the colours aro 
 so weak as to appear only while. Such white coronas he had also 
 seen about the sun, when the space within them appeared scarce 
 darker than that witlmut. This he supposes to happen when thfre 
 are but few of those globules in the atmosphere; for the more 
 plentiful they are, the more lively the colours of the haloap])ear; 
 al the same lime also the area within the corona w ill be the darker. 
 The apjiarent diameter of the corona, which is generally about 45", 
 depends upon the si/e of the darker kernel ; for the larger it ii 
 with respect to the wliole globule, the larger will be the dark cone 
 behind it. The globules that form these halos, Huygens supposes 
 to have consisted of soft snow, and to have been rounded by con- 
 tinual agitation in the air, and thawed on the outsides by the heat 
 of the sun. In order lo make the diameter of the halo 45° he 
 denion;ti;;tes that the seniidiameter of the globule must be 
 to the semidianieter of the kernel of snow very nearly as 1000 
 to 4S0, and that lo make a corona of 100" it niust be" as lOOO 
 lo 6S0. 
 
 Halos, Sir Isaac Newton's Theory of. This great philo- 
 sopher consideretl the larger and less variable appearances of this 
 kind as produced according to the common laws of refraction, but 
 lliat the less and more variable appearances depend upon the same 
 cause with the colours of Ihin plates. He concludes his explica- 
 tion of the rainbow with the following observation on halos and 
 parhelia. " The light which comes through drops of rain bv two 
 refractions, without any retlexion, ought to appear the strongest al 
 the distance of about 26° from tlie sun, and to decay grailuallv 
 lioth ways as the distance from him increases. And the same is to 
 be understood of light transmitted through spherical hail-tones: 
 and if the hail be a litlle liatted, as it often is, the transmitted light 
 may be so strong, at a little less distance than that of 26" as to form 
 a halo about the sun or moon; which halo, as often as the hail- 
 stones are duly figured, may be coloured, and then it must be red 
 within by the least refrangible rays, and blue without by the most 
 refrangible ones ; especially if the hail-stones h.ive opaque glo- 
 bules of snow in their centres lo interi ept the liglit w ithin the halo, 
 as Huygens has observed, and make the inside of it more distinctly 
 defined than it would otherwise be. For such hail-slones, though 
 spherical, by terminating the light by the snow, may make a hal» 
 red within, and colourless without, and darker within the red than 
 without, as halos use to be. For of those rays which pass close 
 by the Miow, the red-making ones will be the least refracted, and 
 lo come lo the eye in the straightest lines." 
 
 Halos, Weiijler's Theory of. Mr. Weidler, in his " Com- 
 mentary on Parhelia," published at Wirtemburg in 1733, obser"ves 
 tiiat it is very improbable that such globules as Mr. Huygens's hy- 
 pothesis reipiires, with nuclei of such a precise proportion, should 
 exist ; anil it there were such bodies, he thinks they would be too 
 small to produce the effects ascribed to Ihem. Besides, he ob- 
 serves that appearances exactly similar to halos are not uncommon, 
 where fluid vapours alone are concerned; as when a candle is 
 placed behind the steam of boiling water in frosty weather, or in 
 the midst of the vapour issuing copiously from a bath, or behind a 
 receiver when tlie air is so much rarefied as to be incapable of sup- 
 porting the w aler it contains. The rays of the sun twice reflected 
 and twice refracted within small drops' of water are sufiicieiit, he 
 says, without any opaque kernel, to proiluce all the appearances 
 of the halos that have the red light towards the sun, as may be 
 proved by experiment. That the diameter of the halos is gene- 
 rally half of Uial of the rainbow, he accounts for as Cassendi did 
 before him. 
 
 H.M.OBAGUS, in botany, a genus of Ihe tetragynia order, 
 and oct.indria cl.iss of plants. Calyx four-cleft, superior ; petals 
 four ; drupe dry, inclosing a four-celled nut. There are two 
 species, VIZ. II. prostiata and H. cercodia. 
 
 HALSTEAD, a town of Essex, 47 miles N. C. of Lon- 
 don. 
 
 IIALTEU, [ixr,j, Or. ImlUr, Latin,] a peculiar kind of dis- 
 cus. See Disc, Discus, and IIalterist^. 
 
 •^^ Halter,
 
 H AM 
 
 666 
 
 HAM 
 
 Halter, iii llu; in.incge, a hea<!-slall for a horse. _ . 
 
 Halter-Cast, is an excoriation of tlie pastern, occasioned by 
 tlie halter's being entangled about a horse's i'oot, upon his endea- 
 vouring to rub his neck with his hinder feet. For the cure, anoint 
 the place morning and evening, with equal cjuantilies of lintsced- 
 oil ai'.d brandv, wtll mixed. 
 
 HAL'ri':REN, a town of Germany, CO miles S. W. of Mun- 
 ster. 
 
 H.'VLTERIST.K, in antiquity, a kind of players at Di'^cns. 
 Some take the discus to have been a leaden weight or ball, uliich 
 the vauiters bore in their hands, to secure and keep themseU es the 
 more steady in their leaping. Others say the halter was a lump of 
 lead or stone, with a hole, or handle lixed to it, by which it might 
 be carried. 
 
 II ALTON, or HAULTON, i.e. High-Town, a town of 
 Cheshire, 13 miles N. E. of Clieslcr, and 1S6N. \V. of Lon- 
 <lon. 
 
 HALTVVEZEL, or IIALTWHISTLE, a well-built town of 
 England, in Norlhumlierland, on the South Tyne, 37 miles M'. of 
 Newcastle, and 314 N. W. of London. 
 
 liALYMOTE, properly signilics holy or ecclesiastical court. 
 See Halmote. It was anciently held on Sunday before St. Tlio- 
 mas's day, and hence called the Haly Mote or Iloly Court. 
 
 HALYSf, in ancient geograpliy, the nol'lest river of the Hither 
 Asia, through which it has a long course, was the boundary of 
 Croesus's kingdoin on the east. It separated Paphlagonia from 
 Cappadocia ; and received its name n^o to-j »^o;, from salt, be- 
 cause its waters were of a salt taste, from the soil over which they 
 flowed. It is famous for the defeat of Crresus king of Lydia, who 
 was misled by this ambiguous response of the oracle ; Xjoi.jo; a}.-j-/ 
 6i'4&; ij.iya\yiy ac-^iv hci.'Kucru; i. f. If Crccsus passcs Over the Ilalys 
 he shall destroy a great empire. That empire proved to be his 
 own. 
 
 HALYWERCFOLK, anciently persons who enjoyed land, 
 by the pious service of repairing some chinch, or defending a 
 sepulchre. It also signified persons in the diocese of Durham, 
 who held their lands to defend the corpse of St. Cuthbert, imd 
 thence claimed tl.e privilege of not being forced to go out of the 
 bishopric. 
 
 HAM, [an, Heb., i. e. crafty,] the youngest son of N'oah, 
 «nd father of Cush, Mizraim, Phut, and Canaan ; each of whom 
 possessed the countries peopled by them. Ham, it is believed, 
 liad all Africa for his inheritance, and peopled it with his posterity. 
 He himself, it is thought, dwelt in Egypt, but M. Basnage is of 
 opinion, that neither Ham nor Mizraim ever were in Egypt, but 
 that their posterity settled in this country, and called it by the 
 name of their ancestor. He also iloubts of his having been wor- 
 shipped as a god, by the name of Jupiter Hanimon. Be that as it 
 may, Africa is called the Land of Ham, in Psalm Ixxviii. 51, 
 cv. 23, cvi. 22. In Plutarch, Egypt is called Chemia; and there 
 are traces of the name of Ham or Cham, in Psocheinmis, and 
 Psilta chenunis, which are cantons of Egypt. See Egypt. 
 
 Ham, [/iHHi, Saxon ; /in/jiwif, Dutch,] the hip ; the hinder part 
 of the articulation of the thigh with the knee. 
 
 Ham, ill commerce, S:c. the ihighof a Img salted. Westphalia 
 hams are prepared by salting them with saltpetre, presing them 
 in a press eight or ten days, then sleeping them in juniper-water, 
 :in<l clr>ing them by the smoke of juniper-wood. A ham may be 
 salted in imitation of those of Westphalia, by sprinkling a ham of 
 young pork with salt for one day, to fetch out the blood;. then 
 wiping it dry, and rubbing it with a mixture of a pound of brown 
 sugar, a quarter of a pound of saltpetre, half a pint of bay-salt, and 
 three pints of common salt, well stirred in an iron pan over the 
 lire, till moderately hot : let it lie three weeks in this salting ; turn 
 it often ; and dry it and haiig it up. 
 
 Ham, in names, wliether initial or final, is no other than the 
 Saxon haul, a hoii'e, farm, or village. C5ibson's Camden. 
 
 Ha.m signifies also a narrow meadow. 
 
 Ham, or Hamm, a city in the kincdom of Westphalia. Lon. 7. 
 53. E. Lat. 51.42:N. 
 
 Ham, a town of France, in th6 department of Somme, and late 
 Ijroviiic.e of Picai'dy, 10 miles N. of Noyons, and 4S of Paris. 
 
 HAMADRYAD ES, [from afi™, together, and S^u;, an oak,] 
 a kind of inferior deities revered among the ancient heathens, and 
 believed to preside over woods and forests, a.id to be inclosed un- 
 
 der the bark of oaks. They were supposed to live and die with 
 the trees they were attached to; as is observed by Servius on 
 ^'irgil, E-clog. X. ver. 62. This idea among the ancients, of in- 
 tellectual beings annexed to trees, accounts for their worship of* 
 trees. 
 
 IL^MAII, a town of Asiatic Turkey, in Syria. By some 
 Iravellers it is corruptly called Amarl and Amant. Some mis- 
 take it for the ancii'iit Apamea. Linen is manufactured theie, and 
 sent to 'i'ripoli to he exported into Europe. Lon. 36. 15. E. Lat. 
 35. 15. N. 
 
 HAMAMELIS, Witcu-Hazel, a genus of the digynia or- 
 der, and tetrandria cl.iss of plants. Involucre three-leaved ; peri- 
 anthers four-leaved; petals four; nut two-horned, two-celled. 
 There is only one species, viz. II. virginica. 
 
 HAMAMET, a town of Barbaiy, on the E. coast of Tunis, 30 
 miles S. of Tunis. 
 
 HAMAMLEEF, a town 12 miles E. of Tunis, noted for its 
 hot-batlis, w hich are famed for curing rheumatisms and many other 
 complaints. The Bey has a very fine bath, which he permits the 
 eonstiU and others to use. 
 
 HAMAN, [rcn. Heb. i.e. making an uproar,] the son of 
 Hanniedatha, an Agagite, or Amalekite, the prime-minister of 
 Persia and favourite of King Ahasuerus ; was one of the most bar- 
 barons and vindictive monsters that ever existed, who, to gratify 
 his haughty vengeance against a single individual, planned the 
 massacre of the whole nation of the Jews. His diabolical scheme, 
 repeated disappointments, and deserved death, are recorded in Es- 
 ther, eh. iii. vi. and vii. 
 
 HAM.VR, a town of Norway, in Aggerhuys, 52 miles N. E. 
 
 HAMAX'OBIANS, IIAMAXOBII, or HAMAXOBITiE, 
 
 [from iJ-'i-.^a, a chariot, and /3n;, life,] a people who had no 
 houses, but lived in carriages. They were an ancient people of 
 Sarmatia Europaa, inhabiting the southern part of Muscovy, and 
 instead of houses had a sort of tents made of leather, fixed on car- 
 riages to be ready for travelling. 
 
 HAMBURG, or HAMBURGH, a late imperial city of Ger- 
 many. Its n.ame is derivetl from the old German word Hamuie, 
 signifying a wood, and Burg, a castle; and stands on the N. side 
 of Elbe, where it is four miles broad, and forms two spacious har- 
 bours. It also runs tlirough most part of it in canals. It lies 38 
 miles S. \V. of Lubec, and 58 N. E. of Bremen. Lon. 9. 55. E. 
 Lat. 53. 35. N. 
 
 ILaME, \_haina. Sax.] the collar by which a horse draws in a 
 waggon. 
 
 HAM EL, Jons Baptiste Du, a learned French philosopher 
 of the 17th century. At eighteen he wrote a treatise, in which he 
 explained in a very simple manner Theodosius's three books of 
 Spherics ; to which he added a tract upon trigonometry; extreme- 
 ly perspicuous, and designed as an introduction to astronomy. 
 Natural philosophy, as then taught, was only a collection of vague, 
 knotty, and barren questions ; when he undertook to establish it 
 upon right principles, and published his " Astronomia Phybica." 
 In 1666, Mr. Colbert proposed to Lewis XIV. a scheme for esta- 
 blishing a roval academy of sciences; and appointed Du Ilamel 
 secretary. He was also regius professor of philosophy, and pub- ' 
 lished a great number of books. He died at Paris in 1706, aged 
 83. He wrote Latin with purity and elegance. 
 
 IIAMELBURG, a town of Frnnconia, in Fulda, on the Saab, 
 16 miles S. of Schweiiifurt, 24 S. of Fulda. 
 
 HAM ELIN, or HAMELN, a town in Lower Saxony, 18 miles 
 S. E. of Minden, and 28 S. W. of Hanover. 
 
 HAMELLIA, in botany, a genus of the monogynia order, and 
 pentandria class of plants. Corolla i[uinquelid ; berry quinquelo- 
 cular, inferior, polyspenr.ous. It has four species, natives of the 
 West Indies. 
 
 IIAMI, a country of Asia, subject to the Chinese, situated N. 
 E. of China, at the e\lremily of that desert which the Chinese call 
 Chamo, and the Tartars Gobi ; 90 leagues distant from the most 
 westerly point of the province of Chensi. 
 
 Hami, the capital of the above kingdom, is surrounded by lofty 
 walls, half a leai^ue in circumference. 
 
 HAMILTON, a town of Scotland in Lanarkshire, 11 miles S. 
 E. of Glasgow. ^ 
 
 HAMLET, a prince of Denmark, whose history has been ren- 
 8 dered
 
 H A M 
 
 f>r>7 
 
 HAN 
 
 deri'd iiiti'rr-tinj, bv b^ini:; the -iii)ject of one of the iioblc-t tr.i- 
 gedies of Sli;ike>|)L'ai'e. Adjoining to a royal palacf, « hicli staixls 
 about lialf a mik' from Cronbiirc; in Elsinoiir, is a p;arclen, wiiicli, 
 Mr. Cose iiifoniis lis, is railed llainlel'n Garden, and is said to 
 be the spot where his father was murdered.- The house is of mo- 
 <lern date, and i» situated at the foot of a sandy ridge near the sea. 
 The garden oceiipies the side of the hill, and is laid out in ter- 
 races rising above eacli other. I'he original history, from which 
 the poet derived the |)rineipal incidents of his plav, is founded up- 
 on facts, but so deeply buried in remote anticjuily that it is dilVicidt 
 to diseriininate truth from fable. Saxo-Gramniaticus, who flou- 
 rished in l!ie 12tli century, is the earliest historian of Deninaik 
 who relates the adventures of Hamlet. His account is much al- 
 tered, by Ijellefurest, a 1- lench author, a translation of whose ro- 
 mance was published under the title of " The Historye of Hani- 
 blet;" from which Shakespeare formed the ground-work of his 
 play. 
 
 Hamiet, Hamel, or Hampsel, \v;>,s formerly used for part 
 of a village or par^sli. Spelmau niaktrs a dift'erence between vil- 
 lain integram, villam dimidiam, and hamletam ; and Stow ex- 
 pounds it to be the seat of a freeholder. Several county towns 
 have hamlets. 
 
 H.\M.NHCK, [Itfimer, S.axon ; /(rtmrner, Danish.] a well known 
 tool used by mechanics, consisting of an iron-head lixed crosswise 
 upon a handle of wood. There are several soris of hammers used 
 by hlacksmitiis ; as, I. The luin.l-hammer, which is of such weight 
 that it may be wielded with one hand at tlie anvil. t2. The up- 
 Jiand sledge-hammer used with both hands, and seldom lifted 
 above the head. 3. The about sledge-hammer, which i^ the big- 
 gest of all, and held by both hands at the farthest end of the han- 
 dle; and being swung at arms-lengvh over the head, is made to 
 fall u)ion the work w ith as heavy a blow as possible. The smallest 
 hammer used by smiths is called a rivetting-hainmer, but is seldom 
 used at the forge unless upon small work. 
 
 HAMMERING, in coining. A piece of money or a medal 
 is said to be hammered, when the impression is given with a ham- 
 mer and not with a mill. 
 
 HAMMERMEN, in the polity of the royal boroughs of Scot- 
 land, the name of an incorporation, which comprehends most of 
 those artizans w ho make use of hammers ; such as goldMniths, 
 jewellers watch-makers, coppersmiths, braziers, blacksmiths, tin- 
 plate workers, cullers, gun-smiths, founders, sadlers, &c. 
 
 HAMMOCK, \_hainacu, Saxon,] swinging-beds for seamen to 
 sleep in. They are suspended between tsvo trees, posts, hooks, 
 or the like, and are much used tliroughout the West Inilies, as well 
 as on board of ships. The Indians hang their hammocks on trees, 
 to secure themselves from wild beasts and insects. 
 
 HAMONT, or HELMONT, a town of France, in the de- 
 partment of the Lower Meuse, and late bishopric of Liege, 17 
 miles \V. of Kuremond. 
 
 IL\MPDEN, John, Esq. of Hamden, a celebrated patriot, 
 descended of an ancient family in Buckinghamshire, was born at 
 London in 1594. He was cousin gernian to Oliver Cromwell, 
 Jiis mother being Oliver's aunt. In 1G09 he was sent to Magda- 
 len College, Oxford, wheuce he went to the inns of court, where 
 he made a considerable progress in the law. He was elected a 
 member of the parliament, which began at Westminster, Feb. 5, 
 161!6; and served in all the succeeding parliaments in the reign 
 of Charles [. In 1636 he became universally known, by his re- 
 fusal to pay shipmoney, as being an illegal tax ; upon which he 
 was prosecuted, and his condact throughout this transaction gain- 
 ed him a great character. When the long parliament began, the 
 eyes of all men were fixed on him as their pater patria\ On Ja- 
 nuary 3, 1644, the king ordered articles of high treason and other 
 misdemeanours to be prepared against Lord Kinibolton, Mr. 
 Hampden, and four other members of the House of Commons, 
 and went to tliat house to seize them : but they had retired. Mr. 
 Hampden afterwards made a speech in the house to clear himself 
 of the charge laid again«t him. In the beginning of the civil war 
 he commanded a regiment of foot, and was of great service to the 
 parliament at the battle of Edge-hill. He received a mortal 
 wound in the shoulder in an engagement with Prince Rupert, on 
 the ISth of June 1643, at Clralgravcfield in Oxfordshire; and died 
 on the 24th. He had the art of Socrates, of interrogating, and 
 under the pretence ot doubts, insinuating objections/ so that he 
 
 milled his own opinions into those t'rum wiiom he appeared to 
 Icain them. 
 
 HAMPSHIRE, or HAMS, or SOUTHAMPTON, a 
 county of England, bounded on the N. by Uerkshire. It extends 
 ji miles in length from N. to S. 40 in breadth from E. to \\'. and 
 is about ^20 miles in circumli'ience. The air is very pure, espe- 
 cially upon the downs, on which vast lloiks of sheep are kept and 
 bred. In the chain paign-pirt of the county, the soil is very lertile, 
 producing all kinds of grain. The rivers are the Avon, Anton, 
 Arle, Te?t, Siour, and Itctien ; besides several smaller streams, all 
 abounding in lish. 
 
 Hampshire, New, one of the United States of North Ame- 
 rica, bounded on the N. by Lower Canada. It lies between 2* 
 41' and 4° 20' Lon. E. of Philadelphia ; and between 42° 41' and 
 45° 3U' Lat. N. 
 
 HAMPTON, a town of Middlesex, on the Thames, 15 miles 
 W. S. W. of London, and two from Riciimond and Kingstown. 
 It is chiefly famous for its royal palace, called Hampton Court, 
 which is the finest in Britain. 
 
 Hamptox, a sea-port of Virginia, IS miles S. E. of York- 
 Town, and 371 S. S. W. of Philadelphia. 
 
 HANAPER, or HAMPER, an oliice in chancery, under the 
 direction of a. master, his deputy, and clerks, comptroller, &c. an- 
 swering, in some measure, to the iiscus among the Romans. 
 
 Haxapf.ji, the. Clerk or Warden of the, receives 
 aljQ all money due for commissions, and writs ; and attends lliie 
 keeper of the seal daily in term time, and at term-time of sealing ; 
 and takes into his custody all sealed charters, patents, &c. which 
 he receives into bags, but anciently, it is supposed, into hanipers, 
 which gave name to the olTice. 
 
 HANAU, or HANAU MUNZENBERG, a late county of 
 Geiniany, bounded l)y the electorate of Mcntz, the bishopric 
 of I'ulda, the. lordships of IteinecJv, and Solms ; the territories 
 of Hesse-Homburgh, Fripdburgh.aud Frankfort. Its length was 45 
 niiles ; .ts greatest breadlli not above 15. It is very fertile in 
 corn, wine, and JVuits ; and has salt-springs, with mines of copper, 
 .silver, and cobalt. The chief rivers are the Mavne, the Kinzig, 
 and t!ie Nidda. The prevailing religion is Calvinism, but Luthe- 
 rans and Catholics are tolerated. 'I'he chief towns are Hanau, 
 Bergen, Stemau, and Gleidiausen. 
 
 Hanau, the capita! of the above county, eiglit miles east of 
 Frankfort. ' . 
 
 HANAZO, a river of Abyssinia. 
 
 HANBOROUGH, two villages in Oxfordshire. 
 
 HANCES, in architecture, the ends of elliptical arches ; ami 
 these are tiie arches of smader circles than the scheme, or middle- 
 part of the arch. 
 
 Ha.vces, in a ship, falls of the fife-rails placed on bannistei-s on 
 the poop and quarter-deck down to the gangway. 
 
 HANCOCK, a county of the United States in the district of 
 Maine, bounded oirtlie E. by Washington county. 
 
 HAND, a member of the human body, at the extremity of the 
 arm. See An.atomy. The meclianisin of the hand is excellently 
 tiffed for the various uses and occasions we have for it, and the 
 great number of arts and manufactures it is to be employed in. It 
 consists of a compagcs of nerves, and little bones joined into each 
 other, whicli give it a great degree of strength, and at the same 
 time an unusual flexibility, to enable it to handle adjacent bodies, 
 lay hold of them, and gras]) tliem,. in order either to draw them 
 toward us, or thrust them olf. Anaxagoras is said to have main- 
 tained that man owes all his wisdom, knowledge, and superiority 
 over other animals, to the use of his hands. But Galen more 
 justly remarks, that man is not the wisest creature, because he has 
 hands ; but he had hands given him because he was the wisest 
 creature ; for it vvas not our hands that taught us arts, but our rea- 
 son. The hands are the organs of reason, itc. In scripture the 
 word hand is variously applied. To pour water on any one's hand, 
 signiiies to serve him. 'Fo wash tlie hands was a ceremony used 
 to denote innocence from murtler or manslaughter. 'Fo kiss the 
 iiand was an act of adoration. 'Fo fill tlie hand signified taking 
 possession of the priesthood, and performing fi'nctions. To lean 
 upon any one's liand was a mark of familiarity and superiority. 
 To give the hand signilies to grant peace, swear friendship, pro- 
 mise security, or make alliance. The right-hand was the place of 
 honour and resptd, Ainongsl the Greeks ami Romans it was 
 
 customary
 
 HAN 
 
 HAN 
 
 ciiitomary for inferiors to walk on the lefl-liancl of sup<'nors, that 
 the light haiul might be reaily to aflord piotection and Uefence to 
 their left side, «hithwa>i, oii account ol tlie aukwardness of the 
 left hand, more exposed to <kmger. 
 
 Hand, in falconry, is used for the foot of the hawk. To have 
 a clean, strong, slender, glutinous hand, well clawed, are good 
 <jualities of a hawk or falcon. 
 
 Hand, in the manege, is also used for the fore-foot of a liorse ; 
 also for a division of the horse into two parts, with respect to the 
 rider's hand. The fore-haiui inchides tlie head, neck, and fore- 
 (juarters ; the hind-hand is all the rest of the horse. 
 
 Hand, in painting, sculpture, &c. is figuratively used for the 
 style of a master. 
 
 Hanii is much used in composition for that which is manage- 
 able by the hand, as a handsaw ; or borne in the hand) as a hand- 
 barrow. 
 
 Hands are home in coat'armour, dexter and sinister; that is, 
 right and left, expanded or open ; and after other manners. A 
 bloody hand m the centre of the escutcheon is the badge of a ba- 
 ronet of Great Britain. 
 
 Han'd-borow, in law-books, a surety, or manual pledge, of an 
 inferior rank ; as head-borow signifies a ihief or superior. 
 
 Hand-breadTh, a measure of three inches, liy this standard 
 the height of horses is estimated, 
 
 Hand-cuffs, an instrumenl formed of two circular pieces of 
 iron, each fixed on a hinge on the ends of a very short iron-bar, 
 which being locked over the wrists of a malefactor, prevents his 
 using his hands. 
 
 Hand-spikeS) wooden levers used at sea to traverse the ord- 
 nance, or to turn the windlass in weighing Up the anchor. Sec. 
 They are more commodious than iron-crows, because their length 
 allows a better poize. 
 
 HANDEL, GEOitcE Fremric", a most eminent master and 
 composer of ntusic, born at Halle, in Upper Saxony, '24th Feb. 
 16S4. His father was a physician in that city, and was upwards of 
 sixty years of age when he was born. During his infancy young 
 Handel amused himself with musical instruments, and made con- 
 siderable progress before he vj-as seven years of age, without in- 
 struction. His propensity for mu=ic at last became so strong, (hat 
 his father, who designed liini for the law, forbade hiiii to touch a 
 musical instrument. Handel however concealed a iitUe clavi- 
 chord in the garret, to which he constantly stole when the family 
 were asleep : and thus matle such advances in his art, as enabled 
 him to jjlay on the harpsichord. He was first taken notice of by 
 the duke of Saxc Weissenfels on the following occasion. His fa- 
 ther went to see anotl-.er son by a former wife, who was valet de 
 thambre to the duke, and took young Handel, being then in his 
 seventh year, along with him. AX'hile he w^as in the duke's court, 
 it was impossible to keep him from harpsichords ; and he some- 
 times got into the or^an-loft at church, and played after service 
 was over. On one ot these occasions, the duke happening to go 
 out later than usual, found something so uncommon in Handel's 
 manner of playing, that he inquired of his valet who it was ; and 
 receiving for answer that it was his lirother, he desired to see him. 
 The duke was so nuich taken w ith the musical genius shewn by 
 young Handel, that he persuaded his father to let him follow hfs 
 inclination. He made the boy a present ; and told him, that if 
 he minded his studies, no encouragement should be wanting. On 
 his return to Halle, Handel was placed under one Zackaw.'the or- 
 ganist of the cathedral, and was even then able to supply his mas- 
 ter's place in his absence. At nine years of age he began to com- 
 pose church-services for voices and instruments, and continued to 
 compose one every week for three years. At fourteen, he far ex- 
 celled his master, as he himself owned ; and he was sent to Ber- 
 lin, where he had a relation about the court, on whose care his pa- 
 rents could rely. The opera was then flourishing, being encou- 
 raged by Frederic I. king of Prussia, and undei'the direction of 
 Buononcini, Auilio, and other eminent Italian masters. Buonon- 
 cini, being of a haughty disposition, treated Handel with con- 
 tempt; but Attilio behaved to him with great kindness, and he 
 protited much by his instructions. His' abilities soon recom- 
 mended him to the king, who frequenlly made him presents. Af- 
 ter this he went to Hamburgh, where the opera was little inferior 
 to that of Berlin. Soon alter his arrival his father died ; and his 
 mother being left in narrow circumstances, he thought it necessary 
 
 to procure some Bcholai"s, and to accept a place in the orclie".tra ; 
 by svhich means, instead of being a burden, he became a great re- 
 lief to her. At tiiis time the first harpsichord in Hamburgh was 
 played by one Kefer, who also excelled in composition; but he, 
 having involved hiins''.'f in debt, was obliged to abscond. Upon 
 this vacancy, the person who had been used to play the second 
 harpsichord claimed the first by right of succession ; but was op- 
 l)0sed by Handel, who founded his claim upon his superior abi- 
 lities. After much dispute, ityas decided in favour of Handel j 
 but his antagonist, as they were coming out of the orchestra, made 
 a push at Handel's breast with a swortt, which must undoubtedly 
 have killed him, had there not fortunately been a music-book in 
 the bosom of his coat. Handel, though yet but in his 15lh year, 
 became composer to the house ; and the success of Alnieria, his 
 first opera, was so great, tliat it ran thirty nights without interrup- 
 tion. Within less than a year after this, he set two others, called 
 Florinda and Norene, which weie received with equal applause, 
 in his lyth year, Handel took a journey to Italy, where he was 
 received with the greatest kindness by the prince of Tuscany, as 
 well as by the grand duke, who was impatient to have something 
 composed by so great a master ; and nolw ithstandiug the difier- 
 ence between the style of the Italian mtisic and the German, to 
 which Handel had hitherto been accustomed, he set an opera call- 
 ed Uoderigo, which pleased so well, that he was rewarded with 
 100 se(iuius and a service of plate. After staying about a year m 
 1* lorcnce, he went to Venice, and after some time proceeded to 
 Rome, w here he became acquainted with cardinal Ottoboni and 
 many other dignitaries, by whom he was frequently attacked on 
 account of his religion ; but Handel declared he would live and 
 die in the religion in which he was educated. Ottoboni also con- 
 trived to have a trial of skill between liim and Dominici Scarlatti. 
 'iVhen they came to the organ, Scarlatti himself yielded the supe- 
 riority to Handel. From Rome Handel went t<i Naples; after 
 V. hicli he paid a second visit to Florence ; and at last, having spent 
 six years in Italy, set out for his native country. In his way thi- 
 ther, he was introduced at the court of Hanover by baron Kil- 
 manscck ; w'hen the Elector, (afterwards King George I.) otiered 
 him a pension of 1500 crowns a-year as an inducement for him to 
 continue there. This generous offer he declined on account of 
 his having promised to visit the court of the Elector Palatuie. 
 The elector being made aci|uainted with this objection, generously 
 ordered him to be told, that his acceptance of the pension should 
 not restrain him from his promise, but (hat he should be at full 
 liberty to be absent a \ear or more if he chose it, and to go where- 
 ever he thought fit. Boon after, the place of master of the chapel 
 was bestowed upon Handel ; and having visited his mother, who 
 was now aged and blind, and his old master Zackaw, and staid 
 some time at the court of the Elector Palatine, he set out for Eng- 
 land, where he arrived in 1710. Operas were then a new enter- 
 tainment in England, and were conducted in a very absurd man- 
 ner ; but Handel soon put tliem on a better footing; and set a 
 drama called RinaUlo, which was pcifornieil with uncommon suc- 
 cess. Having staid a year in Euglaud, he returned to Hanover; 
 but in I71'3 he again came over to England; and the peace of 
 Utrecht being concluded a lew months afterwards, he composed 
 a grand Te Deum and Jubilate on (he occasion. He now found 
 the nobility very desirous that he should resume the direction of 
 the opera-house in the Hay-Market; and queen Anne having 
 addeil her authority to their solicitations, and conferred on him a 
 pension of 2001. a-year, he remained in Britain till the death of 
 the (pieen in 1714, and the accession of King George I. who add- 
 ed a pension of 2001. a-year to that bestowed by queen Anne ; 
 which was soon after increased to 4001. on his being appointed to 
 teach the young princesses music. In 1713, Handel composed 
 his opera of Amadige ; but from that time to 1720 he composed 
 only Teseo and Pastor Fido, Buononcini and Attilio being then 
 composers for the operas. About this time a project was formed 
 by the nobility for erecting a kind of Academy at the Hay-Mar- 
 ket, (o secure to themselves a constant supply of operas to be 
 composed by Handel, and performed under his direction. No 
 less than 50,0001. were subscribed for this scheme, of which the 
 king subscribed 10001. and it v/as proposed to continue the under- 
 taking for fourteen years. Handel went over to Dresden, to en- 
 gage singers, and rrturn(?d with Senesino and Duristanti. Buo- 
 noncini and Attilio had still a strong party, but not ('(jual to that 
 
 of
 
 IT A N 
 
 66.0 
 
 11 AN 
 
 ofllamk-l; and tlu-refore ill 17J0 he obtained k-ave lo |)i'rli)riii 
 his OjHMa of Radamislo. 'I'iie house was so crouded, tliat many 
 fainted ; and 40s. were ofleied by soijie lor a seat in t'.ie j;all> r_\ . 
 The contention, however, still ran very high bttwccri llundei'>. 
 party and tliat of the two Itahan masters ; upon wliich Deaa liwitl 
 with his usual acrimony wrote tlie following epigiam; 
 
 Sonic say that si_;nior Buononcini 
 
 Conipar'd to Handel's a nifre ninny : 
 
 Others do swear that to him Handel 
 
 Is hardly lit to hold the candle. 
 
 Strange that such hii^h contests should be 
 
 'Twixt 'I'wecdle dnm and Tweedlc-dee ! 
 The academy being lirnily established, Handel coiuUicled it 
 for nine years w ith great success ; but aliout that lime an irrecon- 
 cileable enmity took jjlace between Handel and Scnesino. From 
 the conduct ot Flandel in tins nl'lair, he lost tiie ijood opinion of 
 his friends. But in 174'2 his popularity returned, and he retained 
 his glory to the l.ist. He died in 17J'J, and was bnriv.'d in West- 
 minster Abbey, where there i> an elegant monument to his nu-- 
 Hiory. A complete edition of his works was published by Dr. 
 Arnold. His musical powers are best expressed bv Arbuthnot's 
 reply to Pope, who seriously asked his opinion of him as a mu- 
 sician ; " Conceive (>iai<l he) the higliest you can of his abilities, 
 and tliey are much lieyoad any thing you can conceive." 
 
 HANGING, the method of inflicting dealli on criminals by 
 suspending them bv tlie neck. 
 
 HANG-TCHEOU-FOU, the metropolis of the province of 
 Tche-kiang in China. It is, according to the Chinese, the para- 
 dise of the earth. It is 1'2 miles in circumference, e.\tlusive of its 
 suburbs ; and the number of its inhabitants amounts to more than 
 a million. It i, computed that there are 10,000 workmen within 
 its walls employed in m.-mufacturing silk. Tliis city has a garri- 
 son of 3000 Chinese, under the command of the vicerov, and 
 3000 Tartars, commanded by a general of the same nation. It 
 has under its jiu'isdiction seven cities of the second and third 
 class. 
 
 HANIFAH, or HANFA, Aba, simamed Al Nooma, the 
 most celebrated Doctor of the orthodox Mussulmans. lie was the 
 son of Thabet, ajid was born at Coufah in the SOtii year of tin.' 
 Ilegira. He founded the sect of the Ilanilites, which continues 
 to be the most popular of the four princi|)al sects among the Mus- 
 sulmans. Like other teachers of new opinions, he suffered perse- 
 cution during his life, being imprisoned at Bagdad till he died, bv 
 the khalif Almansor, for refusing to subscribe to the doctrine of 
 absolute predestination. But liis opinions were afterwards brought 
 into such credit, by Abon Joseph, a sovereign judge under tiie 
 khalif Iladi, that to be a H.mihte was reckoned syno:ivmous with 
 being a good Mussulman: and about 335 year's after his death, 
 which happened in the ijOlh year of the Hegira, Sehaw Melick, 
 in the 4S5th year of that a-ra, and of the Christian, lOy.', built a 
 magniiicent monument to his memory, and a college, w hich he 
 appropriated solely to the professors of Aba Hanifah's doctrines. 
 The most eminent of his successors were Achnied Ben All, Al 
 Giaffas, and .\1 Razzi. 
 
 HANIFITES. See the last article. 
 
 HANKS, in naval ali'air-:, are wooden rings fixed upon the stavs 
 to contine stay-sails at different distances. They are in place of 
 gromets, being more convenient as well as of a later invention. 
 
 H.VN N I BAL, a famous Carthaginian general, and the son of 
 ilamilcar, who made him swear eternal enmity to theBomans, 
 at the age of eight years. On the death of Asth'ubal, he obtained 
 ttie command of the Carthaginian armies, and in three years sub- 
 dued Spain. Having taken Sagnntum, which was in alliance with 
 the Romans, it occasioned the second I'unic war, in which lie 
 shewed the most consummate generalship. He is said to have 
 crossed the Alps by softening the rocks with iir« and vinegar. 
 On liis airival in Italy he defeated Cornelius Scipio, and obtained 
 several victories over the must experienced Roman generals, par- 
 ticularly at Cann:e, where the Romans loit about 40,0'JO men, and 
 h id Hannibal puslied on for Rome it must have fallen. But by 
 stopping at Capua, where his soldiere gave themselves up to lux"- 
 ury, the Romans recovered from their surprise ; and when he ap- 
 peared before the city, it excited so little concern, that the ground 
 on whicli he was encamped was put up for sale, and sold at a liigh 
 price. He soon retired and experienced a defeat near Zaiua. A 
 VOL. u. — NO. 101. 
 
 peace was then concluded ; but Hannibal fearing the Ruiii.ins, (led 
 to I'rusias king of liilliynia, and on hearing that the sejiale hail 
 sent to demand him, he jioisoned himself, 18l! 1". C. (Ilatkin^.) 
 
 HANNUYE, or HANCYK, a town of France in the tb- 
 partmeiU of the Dyle, and late province of Austiiaii Brabant; 20 
 miles S. E. of I.ouvain. 
 
 lI.\NO\'KR, lately an electoral state of Germany, of which 
 the king oi Great Britain was elector. It was very considerable for 
 the extent of its territories, which were. The duchy ol C'alenberg, 
 in which aiie tlie cities of Hanover, Calenberg, Ilamelen, Neu- 
 stadt, Goltingen, &c. the duchy of Grubenhagen, the, county 
 ofDiepliolt, ih<; county of Illoga, in the bishopric of Hildeslieun; 
 the bailiages of Coldingen, Lullu-r, Badenburg, and Westersho- 
 ven, with the right of prctection of the city of Ilildesheim ; and 
 tlie county of Danneberg, ceded by the Dukes of Wolfenbnttle (o 
 the dukes of I.nneuberg, as an equivalent lor their pretention- on 
 the city of Brunswick. Tlie whole of tiiis country has lately 
 been incorporated intlu' kinedom of Weslphalia. 
 
 HanovI'.r, the capital of the above state is agreeably situated in 
 a sandv plain on the L\ne, 2j miles \V. of Brnnswick, and o&S. E. 
 of Bre'men. Lon. 9- "44. E. Lat. 52. '2Q._ N. 
 
 Hanover, a large island in the Pacilic Ocean, opposite the 
 N. W. extremity ot New Ireland, 30 miles in length. The S.W. 
 part of it is situated in Lon. 178. 27. E. Lat. 2. 4y."S. 
 
 Ha.xovek, a county in Janiaict. 
 
 Hanover, a town of the United States, in Grafton county, 1 15 
 miles N. W. by \\^ of Portsmouth. 
 
 Hanover, New, a county ofN. Carolina, in Wilmington dis- 
 trict. 
 
 HANSE, an ancient name for a society or company of mer- 
 chants; particularly that ol certain cities in Germany, &:c. hence 
 called llanse-Towns. The word is obsolete High Dutch or 
 Teutonic ; and signihes alliance, confederacy, or association. Some 
 derive it from the Ge;'maii worils, urn set; tliat is, on the sea ; as 
 the lirst hanse-towns were all situated on the sga-coast: whence 
 they are said to have been lirst called am zee >teneii, ;. c cities on 
 the sea; and afterwards, by abbreviation, hansee, and hanse. 
 
 The Hanse-Towns, or The Hanseatic Society were several 
 maritime cities of Germany, who entered into a league for fiie mu- 
 tual protection of their commerce. Bremen and Amsterdam were 
 the two first that forci.ed it; whose trade received such advantage 
 by their fitting out two men of war in each to convoy their ships, 
 that more cities continually entered into the league: even kings 
 and princes made treaties with them, and were often glad of their 
 assistance and protection; by which means they grew so powcriiil 
 both by sea and land, that they raided armies as well as navies, en- 
 joyed countries in sovereignty, and made peace or war, though al- 
 ways in defence of their trade, as if they had been an united sl;ite 
 or commonwealth. — At this time also many cities, though they 
 had no great interest in trade, or inti-rcoui'se with the ocean, came 
 into their alliance for the p.reservation of their liberties; so that in 
 lyoo, we find no les» than 72 cities in the list of the Han>e-Town>; 
 particularlv Bremen, Amsterdam, Antwerp, Rotterdam, Dorl, 
 liruges, O^tend, Dunkirk, Middleburgh, Calais, Rouen, Ko- 
 clielle, Bourdeaux, St. Malo, Bayonne, Bilboa, Lisbon, Seville, 
 Cadiz, Carthagena, I'arcclona, Marseilles, Leghorn, Naple.--, 
 ■Messina, London, I.ubec, Rostock, Siralsund, Stelin, \\ ismar,. 
 Konigsberg, Dantzig, Eltilng, and .Maricnburg. 
 
 HAN-1'CHONG, a ciiy of Ciiina, in the pic 
 on tlie Han, 6:25 miles S. VV. of Pekin. 
 
 H.'\N WAY, Jonas, a gentleman eminent for his benevolent 
 designs and useful writings, w.is born at Portsmouth in Hampshire, 
 on the I'ith of August 1712. Being bred a merchant he connect- 
 ed himself as a partner in Mr. Dingley's liouse, in St. Petersburgh; 
 where he arrived on the lOih of June 1743. The trade of tne 
 English over the Casiiian Sea into Persia at this periotl had been 
 entrusted to the care of Mr. Elton, who, had injudicion-ly en- 
 gaged in the service of Nadir Shah, to build sliips on the Caspian 
 alter the ICuropean manner. This h;ul alarmed the merchants in 
 the Russian trade, wlio resolved to send oneof their body into Per- 
 sia. On this occasion Mr. llanway offered his service, which 
 was accepted. He set out on the lOlhSept. ; and, after eKpe- 
 nencing various dangers in that kingdom during 12 monliis, re- 
 turned to St. Petersburgh, Jan. 1, 1745, without being able to es- 
 tablish the intenJwl trade by the Caspiaa; p.irtly through tlic 
 & H jealousy 
 
 iiovince of Chen-si,
 
 II A R 
 
 ica!oc;s\ of llio Riii'^ian court on account ol Eiti-'o's coniieclioiis 
 vith thi; I'l-raiuiis ami parll) by the Persian revolutions. Though 
 ^]r. Hallway's coii'lucl Lluriiig this expedition st-ems to havf been 
 directed l)y the strictest integrity, yet some diliiculties aro^e in 
 settling his demands on his employers. These were referred to 
 the determination of impartial arbitrators, who at length decided 
 in his favour. He now settled at St. Petersburgh; where he re- 
 mained live years, and interested himself greatly in the cuncern> 
 of the merchants who liad engaged in tl.e C'a-pi.in trade. But 
 having a desire to see liis nalive country, he lefl St. Petersburgli on 
 the 9tli of July 175(J. On his arrival in London he eniploved 
 himself some lime as a merchant : but afterwards, more benefici- 
 ally to tlw.' world, as an author. In 1733, he published " An His- 
 torical Account of the Diitish Trade o^'ertlie Caspian Sea; with a 
 Journal of Travels from London through Russia into Persia; and 
 back again through Rus-ia, Germany, and Holland: To which 
 are added, the Kevolulions of Persia during the present Century, 
 with llie particular Hi-tory of the great L^?urper Nadir Kouli:" 
 4 vols. -ito. On settling in London, he devoted a considerable 
 poriion ot his lime to benevolent purposes, and was the principal 
 iuititutor otthe marine society, and the Magilalen Hospital. For 
 these exertions he was made a commissioner of the navy ; and 
 wlien he resigned his seat at the boanl, his salary was continued. 
 He died 111 I'Sti. He wrote several religious books of considera- 
 ble merit ; the best of which isenlilled " Domestic Happiness pro- 
 mote<l," I'imo. His publications amounted altogether to be- 
 tween Co and 70. A li^t of them is given by his biographer Mr. 
 Pugh. 
 
 ILVN-YATs'C;, a city of Clrna, in the province of Hon-Quang, 
 at tlie conlluN of the Han and Yang-Tse, jS7 miles ^V. of Pekin. 
 
 HAP, or H.-\PP, in law, signilies to catch or snatch a thing. 
 Thus ue meet with, to hap the possession ofa deed-poll. LiUleton, 
 fol. S ; al-o, to hap the rent. 
 
 HAPPINESS, or KELKMTV, absolutely ta4<en, denotes the 
 durable ])Ossession of good without any mixture of evil, or the en- 
 joyment of pure pleasure unalloyeil with pain; or a state in which 
 all (he wislies are satisfied. Relatively taken, happiness denotes 
 the cpiantity of enjoyment of that which is esteemed good, whether 
 IH-rtaming to the body or tlie mind. In this sense a man's ha))pi- 
 ness will be in proportion to the good he enjoys, and it will be 
 real or fancied according as that which he accounts good is so ; for 
 a man may esteem that a real good, whi( h is in fact a real evil. 
 Hence it islliat many are happy only in the opinion of themselves 
 orolhcrs, which indeed is the case with all tho,e who are devoid 
 of the fear and love of God. There can be no solid happiness but 
 in an agreeable relation to, and enjoyment of (iod, who is per- 
 fectly happy in himself and the author "of all happiness to his crea- 
 tures. Gen. xxx. 13, Jer. xii. I, Mai. iii. 15, Psalm Ixv. 4. Every 
 thing tliat a nyan does, aiulevery thing that he possesses, is calcula- 
 ted to make him happy in proportion to his performing or possessing 
 »t wilhtlieapprobatiouof God: it Goddisapproveof it, it is bis nega- 
 tive happiness or misery. And that every man may attain to hap- 
 piness IS manifest from divine revelation", for there tiod has de- 
 clared Himself and his \\ill, and has shewn us the wav to attain 
 and retain his f;ivour, and has promised to give the assmances of 
 his love to those who attend to his revealed Will, and act accord- 
 inglv ; see Psalm Ixxxix. 15, 16, James i. 55, Luke 1. 77, 79. 
 
 llAPSAL, a sea-port of Russia, in Esthonia, 5 miles S. W. of 
 Revel. 
 
 I L\QUE, in old statutes, a little hand-gun, i)rohibiled to be 
 used for destruclion of g.ime, &c. by 33 Hen. V HE can. 6, and 
 Sand 3 Edw. \ [.cap. 14. 
 
 HARAN, CH.MH<AK, or CHARR/E, a city of Mesopo- 
 tamia, celebrated for having been the place where Abraham re- 
 treated, after he left I'r (G.-n. xi. 31, 3',') ; where Terah, his father, 
 died and was buried; whither Jacob retired, when he tied from 
 Esau: (id. xxvii. 4.5, xxv.ii, 10, &c.) and v^here Crassus the 
 Roman general was defeated and killed by the Parthians. It was 
 situated between the Euphrates and the Ciiebar, at a good distance 
 <roui tlieirjunction. 
 
 [IARI51NGER, in the king's houshold, an oflicer who has four 
 yeomen under hmi, who ride a day's journey before the court 
 »hen it travels, to provide lodaiiiss,'&c. 
 
 HARBOROUGH, or MAIIKE i HARROROUGH, a town 
 «i Leicesteisbire, S3 miles N. N. \V. of London. 
 
 670 II A R 
 
 ILVRBULR, a place convenient for mooring shipp'iig. Tl.i- 
 cjualities requisite in a good harbour arc, Ihat the botloni be en- 
 tirely free from rocks or shallows ; that the opening be of stifticient 
 extent to admit the entrance or departure of large ships without 
 difficulty; that it sbould have good anchoriiig-ground, and be 
 easy ut access; that il should be well defended Irom the violence 
 of llic wind and sea; that it should have room and convenience lo 
 receive tlie shipping of different nations, and those which are ladeu 
 with dilferent mtrcliandizes ; that it should be furnished witli a 
 cood light-house, and have variety of proper rings, posts, moor- 
 ings, i*tc. in order to remove or secure vessels contaii.ed therein ; 
 and, finally, that it have plenty of wood, and other materials fot 
 liring, bi'sides hemp, iron, mariners, &c. 
 
 HARDANGER, Guif or, a bay in the North Sea, on the 
 coa-l of Norway. Lon. tJ. 0. E. Lat. 59. 50. N. 
 
 H ARDEN ING, llie giving a greater degree of hardness to bo- 
 dies than they had before. '1 here are several ways of hardening 
 iron and steel, as by hammering them, quenching them in cold 
 water, &:c. See C'Ast-H ARDfcNiNG, and SrfcEL. 
 
 HAKDERWICK, or HARUERVVYCK, a town of Batavia, 
 in the department of the Rhine, and late province of Dutch Guel- 
 <lerland, niiieteen miles \V. of Deventer. 
 
 HARDNESS, in physiology, that quality in bodies whereby 
 their parts cohere firmly together, so as not to give way to any ex- 
 ternal impulse, nor vield inwards, without breaking. In this sense 
 hardness coincides witli what on other occasions we call firmness, 
 in opposhion to soltness and fluidity. From that species of attrac- 
 tion called cohesion, it is easy to account for the different decrees 
 of hardness in bodies: for the hardness will be in proportion to the 
 cohesive force, and nearness of the constituent particles, together 
 with !he quantity of surface brought into contact, ace Attraction 
 CoHiisioK, and Physics. But notliing can conduce more to ex- 
 plain the nature of this doctrine, th.an the following passage of Sir 
 Isaac Newton: " The parts of all homogeneal bodies, (says he,) 
 which fully touch one another, itick together very strongly. And 
 for explaining how this may be, some have invented hooked atoms, 
 which is begging the question; and others lell us, tJiat bodies are 
 glued together by rest, that is, by an occult quality, or ratlier by 
 nothing; and others, that they stick tMjgether by conspiring mo- 
 tions, that is, by relative rest among themselves. I had rather in- 
 fer from their cohesion, that their particles attract one another by 
 some force, which, in immediate contact, is exceeding stroii"; at 
 small distances, performs many chemical operations, and reaches 
 not far from the [)articles with any sensible effect. All bodies seem 
 to be composed of hard particles: even the rays of light seem to 
 be hard bodies ; and therefore hardness may be reckoned the pro- 
 perty of all incompounded matter: for all bodies, so far as expe- 
 rience reaches, are either hard, or may be hardened. Now if 
 compound bodies are so hard as we find some of them to be, and 
 yet are very porous, and consist of jjarts which are oiilv laid toge- 
 ther, the simple particles which are void of pores, and were never 
 yet divided, must be much harder. For such hard particles being 
 heaped up together, can scarce ever touch one another in more 
 than a few points, and therefore nn^t he separable bv a much less 
 force than is reciuisite to break a solid particle wliere parts louclj ' 
 in all the space between them, without any pores or interstices to 
 weaken Iheir cohesion. And how such very hard particles, which 
 are only laid together, and touch only in a few points, can stick 
 togellier, and that so firmly as they do, without the assistance of 
 something which causes them to be attracted, or pressed towards 
 one another, is very dillicult to conceive." Since heat diminislies 
 the cohesion of bodies, it renders them softer, and when so much 
 heat is ajiplied as to destroy the cohesion, the body in consequence 
 of (he heat becomes fluid. Mr. Quist and others have construct- 
 ed tables of the hardness of different substances. The method 
 pursued in constuicting these tables was, by observing the order in 
 whi<h they were able to cut or make any impression upon one- 
 another. The following table, extracted from .NL Magellan's edi- 
 tion of Cronstedt's Mineialogy, was taken from Dr. Quist, Sir T. 
 Bergman, and Mr. Kirwan. The first column shews tl.e hardness 
 and the second the specific gravity. 
 
 Diamond from Ormus CO — 37 
 
 Pink diamond 19 — 34 
 
 Bluish cliamond 19 33 
 
 Yellowish diamond 19 3^3 
 
 Cubie
 
 II A R 
 
 r>'\ 
 
 U\R 
 
 Cubic iliainoml 18 — 3,2 
 
 Kuljy 17 — 4,2 
 
 PaU'iiibv iVoiii Bra/.il 10 — 3,j 
 
 Kill))- sp'iiR-ll l.l — 314 
 
 D(.f|> blue sapphire 16 — 3,8 
 
 Ditio paler 17 — 3,H 
 
 Topai; 1 J — 4,2 
 
 Wliilisli ilittu 14 — 3,3 
 
 IJoliemiau ililto 11 — 'J,i 
 
 KiueraUl I'J — 2,3 
 
 Garnet IJ — 4,4 
 
 Agate l'-' — 'J.ti 
 
 Onyx i-! — -2,6 
 
 Sarilonvx \J — '2,6 
 
 Occiile'i.lal amelhyst 11 — i,7 
 
 Crybtal .' 1 1 — '2,(i 
 
 Cunieliali 11 — 2,7 
 
 Green ja^per 11 — 2,7 
 
 Hedtliili velluw ditto 9 — 2,6 
 
 Sclioerl.." 10 — 3.(j 
 
 'loiirnialine 10 — 3,0 
 
 Quartz -.10 — 2,7 
 
 Opal 10 — 2,6 
 
 eiirvNolite 10 — 3,7 
 
 Zeo'l>te a — 2.1 
 
 I'luor 7 — 3,3 
 
 Calcareous spar (> — 2,7 
 
 Gvp^um 5 — 2,3 
 
 Cl'.alk 3 — 2,7 
 
 Hare, in zodloay. Seo Lepus. 
 
 IIAKE.IIU'RY, an ancient burouch of Willsliire, on the 
 ^^ illy, near Warminster, ninety-four miles from London, in old 
 records called lleight>bury, or Hejlsbury; and now written 
 Ilateiibury. 
 
 HARFLEUR, an ancient town of France, in the department of 
 Lower rieine, and late province of Normandy, thirty-six miles 
 N. \V. of Rouen. 
 
 ILVRIDl, a serpent, worshipped at Achinin -in Upper Egvpt. 
 IIARJ^EDALEN', a province of Sweden, in Nordland, about 
 100 miles long, and from 40 to iO broad; abounding in pastures, 
 cattle, wood>, mines, lakes, rivers, and fish. 
 
 HARIOT, or liEKlO 1", in law, a due belonging to a lord at 
 the death of his tenant, consisting of the best beast, either horse, 
 or cow, or ox, which he hail at the time of his dealli; and in some 
 manors the best good';, piece of plate, &c. are called harlots. 
 
 HARlbCIlON, Aaron, a learned rabbi, and Karaite, in the 
 fifteenth cciiturv ; who wrote a Hebrew giamniar, printed at Con- 
 stantinople, in 1J31 : probably the same with Aaron, the Caraite, 
 a Jewish physician at Constantincple, who, about 1294, wrote a 
 Commentary on the Penlaleuch, printed at Jena, in folio, in 1710, 
 and of which diere is an original MS. cojiy in the National Li- 
 brary at Paris. 
 
 IIARLEBACK, a town of France, in the department of Lys, 
 and late province of Austrian Flandci's, four miles N. E. of 
 Courtrav. 
 
 IlARLECn, or 1L\RLE1CH, a town of North Wales, in 
 Merionelh'.hiie, twenty-four miles S. of Caernarvon. 
 
 HARLEM, or HAERLEM, a large and populous city of Ba- 
 tavia, in the dejjartment of Amstel, and late province of Holland, 
 ten miles \V. of Amsterdam. 
 
 HARLEQLMN, in ihe Italian comedy, a buffoon, dressed in 
 parly-coloured cloaths ; answering much the same purpose as 
 a merry antlrew in our ilrolls, on niounlebanks, stages, &c. 
 
 HAliLliSTON, a town of Norfolk, seated on the \Vaveney, 
 sixteen miles S. ot Norwich. 
 
 HARLING, or HERLING, a town in Norfolk, eighty-right 
 miles N. E. of London. 
 
 IIARLINGEN, a sea-port town of Batavia, in the department 
 f>f I c Eems, and late province of »Ve>t Friesland, fourteen nnles 
 \V. of Lewarden. Lon. 5. 25. E. Lat. 53. 11. N. 
 
 HARLOW, a town in Essex, tweuty-three miles N. E. of 
 London. 
 
 HARMA, [Gr. 'A»,x«, a chariot,] an ancient town of Bceolia, 
 said to h..ve Iji'i-n built on the spot, where Anyliiarau* was swal- 
 to\ve<l up with his chariot; wheute the name. 
 
 HARMA TTAN, a r.-markable periodical wind which blow* 
 from the interior parts ol Africa towards the Atlaniic ocean. Of 
 this wind we have an account in the Piiilosoplilcal 'Iransaclion-', 
 vol. 71, furnished by Mr. Norri'". On that |.art ot the loasl of 
 Africa which lies between Cape Verd in Lat. 15" N. and Caj.c 
 J.,opei! in Lat. 1° S. this wind prevails during December, Janu;My, 
 and February. The coa4 betwem ihise two cape> runs in an 
 oblicjue ilirection nearly from W. S. W. to E. S. E. Icrming a 
 range of upwards of 2100 miles. At the I>les tie Los, wlicli arc a 
 little to the N. of Sierra Lcom-, ;;nd to the S. ol Cape \'erd, it 
 blows from the E. S. E. on the Gold Coast I'rorn tiie N. E. anil at 
 Cape Lopez, and the river Gabon, from the N. N. E. T Ins wind 
 is by tile French ami I'orlugurse, who lrei)Uenl tlic Gold Coast, 
 called sun|)ly the N. E. \Miid, the q.iarter Irom wliiih it blows. 
 The English adojit tlie word Harmallan, u^ed b_\ the Fautecs, tt 
 nation on the Gold Coast, [t comes on indiscriminateiN at aiiT 
 hour of Ihe d.iy, at any time of the tide, or a( iiny period of llio 
 moon, and continues sometimes only a ilay or two, sonielimea livo 
 or six days, and it has been known to la^t fifteen ttr sixteen. 
 There are gener.dly lliree or four returns of it evi-ry season. It 
 blows with a moderate force, not (piite so strong as the sea-breeza 
 (which every day during the lair ^eason fn.m the W. \\ . S. W. 
 and S. W.) ; but somewhat stronger than the land-wind at night 
 from the N. and N. N. W". A iog is one of the peculiarities which 
 always accompanies the harn.atlan. The gloom occasioned by 
 this tog is 30 great, as sometimes to make even near objects ob- 
 scure. Extreme ilryness makes anolher extraordinary property 
 of this wind; no dew falls iluriiig its continuance; vegetables are 
 withered, and the grass becomes dry hke hay. The natives tako 
 this opportunity to clear the land, by -ettiug'llre to the trees and 
 plants while in that dry and exhausieil stale. The dryness is ^o 
 extreme, tliat the covers of books, even clo?ely shut up in a trunk, 
 are bent as if exposed to the lire. Household furniuin; i> niucli 
 dainagcil ; the pannels of wainscots split, and rineereil work (lies to 
 pieces. 'I'liough ihis wind is fatal to vegelal)le life, and occasion^! 
 troublesome effects to the human species, it is nevertlitless highly 
 conducive to health ; it stops the progress of epidemics, and re- 
 lieves the patients labouring under fluxes and intermittent fevers. 
 Infection is not easy at that time to be coinmu.ucated, even by 
 inoculation. It is also remarkable for the cure of ulcer> and cuta- 
 neous lli^eases. 
 
 HARMONICA. This word, when originally appropriated by 
 Dr. Franklin to that peculiar form or minle of nuisical glasses, 
 wliich lie himself, after a number of happy experiments, had con- 
 stituted, was written Armonica. It is derived from the Cneek 
 word (i;f.nvi-j. The radical word is f.jFiv, to suit or lii one thing to 
 another. By the word ij.ioua the Greeks expressed aptitudes of 
 various kinds; and from the u=e which they made of th.".t expres- 
 sion, we have reason to conclude, that it was intended to import 
 the highest degree of rcliiiement and delicacy in tliose relations 
 which it was meant to signify. Relations or ap-litudes of sound, 
 in particular, were under^tood by it; and in this view. Dr. Frank- 
 lin could not have selected a name more expressive of its nature 
 and genius, for the instrument we are now to describe; as, per- 
 haps, no musical tone can possibly be liner, nor i on-equenily sus- 
 ceptible of jusler concords, thau tho^e which it produces. " The 
 iloctor, in his letter to F. Beccaria, has given a nunute and elegant 
 account of the Harmonica. " Perhaps (savs he) it may be agree- 
 able to you, as you live in a musical counliy, to have an account 
 of the new instrument lately added here to the grtal mimberlhat 
 charming science was possessed of before, x^s it is an instrumeiit 
 that seems peculiarly adapted to Italian inusie, especia'ly that of 
 tiie soft Ljul plaintive kind, I will endeavour to give you such « 
 dC'Cription of it, and of the manner of constructing it, that vou or 
 any of your friends may be enabled to imitate it, if you iiit'line so 
 to do, without being at the ex|)ence and trouble of the mam ex- 
 (jerinu'iits 1 have made in endeavouring to bring it to its present 
 perfection. You have doubtless heard the sweet tone that is drawn 
 from ;i drinking-glass, li\ pressing a wet linger round its brim 
 One .Mr. Puckcridge, a goutleuuui from Ireland, was the lirst wh» 
 thought of playing tunes foimed of lliL->e tones. He collecteii a 
 number of glasses of different sl/cs ; fixed them near each other 
 on a table ; and tuned them, by putting into them water, more or 
 less, as each note recpiired. The lone? were brought out by press- 
 ing his lingers rouud their brim-- He was uutorluuulely burnt 
 
 hwc.
 
 H A R 
 
 672 
 
 II A R 
 
 here, with bis inslninient, in a fire which coiisuiiK-d the house lie 
 )ive<l ill. Mr. E. Dclaval, a mo^t ingenious nn-nibtruf our Royal 
 Society, made one in imitation of it, uith a better choice ami form 
 of glasses, which was the first I saw or heard. Being charmed 
 with the sweetness of its tones, and the nul^ic he produced from 
 it, I wished to see the glasses disposed in a more convenient form, 
 and brought together in a narrower conipass, so as to admit of a 
 greater number of -tones, and all within reach of hand to a person 
 sitting before the instrument; which I accomplished after various 
 intermediate trials, and less commodious forms, both of glas>.es and 
 constructian in the following manner. The glasses are blown as 
 near us possible in the form of hemispheres, having each an open 
 neck or socket in the middle. The thickness of the glass near the 
 brim is about the tenth of an inch, or hardly quite so much, but 
 thicker as it conies nearer the neck ; w hich in the largest glasses is 
 about an inch deep, and an inch and a half wide within; thfese di- 
 mensions, lessening as the glasses themselves diminish in size, ex- 
 cept that the neck of the smallest ought not to be shorter than luilf 
 an inch. The largest gla>s is nine inches diameter, and the 
 smallest three inches, lietween these are twenty-three different 
 sizes, dil'lering from each other a quarter of an inch in diameter. 
 'I'o make a single instrument there should be at least six glasses 
 blown of each size; and out of this munbcr one may probably 
 pick thirty-seven glasses (which are dilTerent for three octaves with 
 all the semitones) that will be each eidier the note one wants, or a 
 little sharper than that note, and all sitting so well into each other 
 as to taper pretty regularly from the Ivgest to the smallest. It is 
 true there are not thirty-seven sizes; but it often happens that two 
 of the same size differ a note or half a note in tone, by reason of a 
 difference in thickness, and these may be placed In the other with- 
 out sensibly hurting the regularity ol the taper form. The glasses 
 ' bein;T chosen, ani.1 every one marked with a diamond the note you 
 intend it for, thev are to be tuned by diminishing the thickness of 
 those that are too sharp. This is done by griu'limj them round 
 from the neck towards the brim, tlie breadtii of one or two inches 
 as may be required; often trying the glass by a well-tuned harjwi- 
 chord, comparing the note drawn from your glass by the linger 
 vith the note von want, as sounded by that string of the liarpsi- 
 cliord. When you come near the matter, be careful to wipe tiie 
 glass clean and drv before each trial, because the tone is some- 
 thing flatter when the glass is wof than it will be when dry; and 
 grinding a very little between each trial, you will thereby tune to 
 great exactness. TJie more care is necessary in this, liecause if 
 >yon go below your re([uired tone there is no sharpening it again 
 but by grinding somewhat off the brim, which will afterwards re- 
 quire |)olishing, and thus increase the trouble. The glasses being 
 tiuis tuned, you are to be provided with a case for them, and a 
 fpindle on which they are to be lixcd. My case is about three 
 fort long, eleven inches every way wide within at the biggest end, 
 and five inches at the smallest end; for it tapers all the way, to 
 adapt it better to the conical figure of the set of glasses. This case 
 opens in the middle of its height, and the upper part turns up by 
 hinges fixed behind. The spindle is of hard iron, lies horizontally 
 from end to end of the box within, exactly in the middle, and is 
 made to turn on brass-gudgeons at each end. It is round, an inch 
 in diameter at the thickest end, and tapering to a quarter of an 
 inch at the smallest. A square shank comes from its Uiickest end 
 through the box, on which s/jank a wheel is fixed by a screw. 
 This wheel sei-ves as a tly to ma/ve (he motion equable, when the 
 spindle, with the glasses, is turned by the foot like a spinning- 
 wheel. My wheel is of mahogany, cighljx'n inches diameter, and 
 pretty thick, so as to conceal near its circumference about 2.Tlb. of 
 lead. An ivory piu is fixed in tiie face of this w-heel, about four 
 iiithcs from the axis. Over the neck of this pin is put the loop of 
 t!ie string, that comes up from tlie moveable step to give it motion, 
 'i'he case stands on a neat frame with four legs. To fix the glasses 
 on the spinille, a cork is first to be lilted in i ach neck pretty tight, 
 and projecting a little without the neck, that the neck of one mav 
 ■ not touch the inside Of another when put together, for that would 
 make a jarring. Tliese corks are to be perforated w ith holes of 
 tlifferent diameters, so as to suit that part of the spindle on wdiich 
 tliey arc to be fixed. When a glass is put on, by holding it stitlly 
 between both hands, while another turns the spindle, it may be 
 gradually brought to its place. Rut care must be taken that the 
 hole be not loo small, lest in fcjrcing it up the neck should sjilit ; 
 nor too large, lest the glass, «ot being firmly lixed, sliuuld turn or 
 
 move on the spindle, so as to touch or jar against its neighbouring 
 glass. The glasses thus are placed one in another; the largest on 
 the biggest end ol the spindle, which is to tlie left hand : the neck 
 of this glass is towarfls tlie wheel ; and ti.e next goes into it in the 
 same position, only about an inch of its brim a|)pearing beyond tlie 
 brim of the first ; thus proceeding, every glass when fixed shews 
 about an inch of its brim (or three quarters of an inch, or hali an 
 inch, as they grow' smaller) beyond the brim of the glass tlU't con- 
 tains it; and it is from these exposed parts of each glass tliat tlie 
 tone is drawn, by laying a finger on <)iie of them as the spindle 
 and glasses turn round. My largest glass is G a little below the 
 reach of a common voice, and my highest G, including three 
 complete octaves. To distinguish the glasses more readily to the 
 eye, I have painted the apparent parts of the glasses withm-side, 
 every semitone white, and the other notes of the octave with the 
 seven prismatic colours; viz. C, red; D, orange; E, yellow; F, 
 green; G, blue; A, indigo; B, purple; and C, retl again; so 
 that the glasses of the same colour (the white excepted) are alwav^ 
 octaves to each other. 'I'his instrument is played upon by silting 
 before the middle of the set of glasses, as before the keys of a 
 harpsichord, turning them with the foot, and wetting them now 
 and then with a spuiige and clean water. The lingers shouhl be 
 first a little soaked in water, and quite free from all greasiness ; a 
 little fine ch.alk is sometimes useful, to make them catch the glass 
 and bring out the tone more readily. Both hands are used, by 
 which means ditferent jjarts are played together. Observe, that 
 the tones are best drawn out wdien the glasses turn from the.ends 
 of the fingers, and not when they turn to them. The advantages 
 of this instrument are, that its tones arc incomparably sweet be- 
 yond those of any other; that they mav be swelled and softened 
 at |)leasure by stronger or weaker pressures of the finger, and con- 
 tinued to any length ; and that the instrument, being once well 
 tuned, never again wants tuning." A farther account of this in- 
 strument is inserted in the Annual Register, vol. iv. p. 140. The 
 author proposes to use cork instead of the finger, hut this substitute 
 does not seem capable of producing the same mellowness and 
 equality of tone with the finger. Alum-water is also thought pre- 
 ferable to chalk. From what has already been said, it will easily 
 be perceived, that this instrument reciuires to be tuned with the 
 nicest degree of delicacy which the laws of temperament will pos- 
 sibly admit. See Musrc, and Temperament. The same rules, 
 however, which are observed in Inning a harpsichord, will be 
 •equally effectual in tuning the Harmonica; with this only diiifer- 
 ence, that greater delicacy in adjusting the chords should, if practi- 
 cable, be attempted. On Plate LKXXV. lig. 3, is represented 
 an instrument of this kind, made by Mr. Dobb of St. Paul's 
 church-yard. London. 
 
 IIARMONICAL ARITHMETIC, that part of arithmetic 
 which considers musical intervals, expressed by numbers, in or- 
 der to our finding their mutual relations, compositions, and reso- 
 lutions. 
 
 Harmonicai. Composition, in a general sense, includes both 
 harmony and melody, /. e. of music or songs, both in a single 
 part and in several parts. 
 
 Harmon'ical Interval, in music, denotes the diflerence of 
 two sounds, which is agreeable to the ear, whether in consonance 
 or succession ; and are, therefore, the same with concord. Sec 
 Concord and Interval. 
 Harmonical Proportion. See Proportion. 
 Harmonical Series, a series of many numbers in continual 
 harmonical proportion. Thus if lucre are four or more numbers, 
 of which every three immediate terms are harmonical, the \v|iole 
 will make a harmonical series: such as 30 : 20 : 15 ; 12: 10. Or, 
 if every four terms iiumediaiely next each other are harmonical, it 
 is also a continued harmonical series, but of another species, as 
 3, 4,0, 9, IS, 3ti, &c. 
 
 . Harmonical Sounds, an appellation given,, by Mr. Sauveur, 
 to such sounds as always make a determinate number of vibra- 
 tions, in the time that one of the fundamentals, to which they ar« 
 referred, makes oil.; vibration. 
 
 HARMONICS, the concomitant or accessary sounds, which, 
 upon the principles resulting from the experiments made on sonor 
 runs bodies, attend any given sound, whatever, and render it ap- 
 pretiable. Thus all the alicpiot parts of a musical string produce 
 harmonics, or harmonical sounds. 
 HARMONY, [»;/«>!«.] in the ancient treatises on music that 
 6 are
 
 H A R 
 
 673 
 
 II A n 
 
 •re extant, li,\niioiiy appears to lie that (U'liartnicnt whose objei-t 
 is the agrceahli- siicct-ssioii of sounds, iiumtIv coiishltTod as high 
 or Ion ; ill opposition to thi^ two others ralU'd rliythmica and nie- 
 trica, which have their principle in time and measure. '1 his 
 leaves our ideas concerning that aptitude of sound vague and un- 
 determined; nor can vve tix them without studying for that pur- 
 poH- all the rides of tliearl: and even a4ter we have done so, it 
 will be verv difrKult to distinguish harnieny from melody, unless 
 *'e add to the last the id'-as of rliylhmus and measure : witlvout 
 -wliich, in reality, no molodv can have a distin»uishint; character: 
 .whereas harmony is characterised by its own nature, independent 
 ■of all other quantities except the ( liords or intervals which compose 
 it. It a|);)cars by a passage of Niconiachus, and by others, that 
 they likewise !»ave the name ot harmony to the chord of an octave, 
 »nd to concerts of voices and iu'-lrinnents, wliich performed in the 
 .distance of an octave one from liie other, and wldch is more com- 
 liioiiiy called antiphone. 
 
 IIarmoxv, according to the modern^, is a succession of chords 
 agreeable to the laws of moilulatioii. For a long time this har- 
 mony had no other principle but such rules as were almost arbi- 
 (rarVi or soU ly founded on the approbation of a practis^id ear, 
 whijh decided concerning the agreeable or disa;;reeable succession 
 of chords, and whose <lelermiiuitions were at last reduced to cal- 
 «ulation. Hut F. Mei-senne and M. Saveur having found that 
 every sound, however simple in api)earance, was always accom- 
 panied with other sounds less sensible, whicli constitute with itself a 
 perfect chord-major ; with this experiment M, Rameau set out, 
 And upon it formed the basis of his harmonic system, which he has 
 e.vtended to many volumes, and which at l..st M. D'AUnibert has 
 ■taken the trouble ot explaining to the public. Sigiiior Tartini, 
 taking his route from an experiment which is newer and more de- 
 lieate, though not less certain, has reached conclusions like those of 
 Kanieau, by pursuing a path whose direction seems quite opposite. 
 ■According to Rameau the treble is gmerated by the bass; Signior 
 Tartini makes the bass refu It from the treble. One deduces harmonv 
 from melotly, and the other supposes quite the contrary. To de- 
 termine from which of the two scliools the best performances are 
 likely to proceed, no more is necessary than to inve^tig.'tle tiie end 
 of the composer, and discover whether tlie air is made for the ac- 
 •companimenls, or the accom]ianinieiits for the air. See Chord, 
 Discord, Enharmoxic, Fl'^fDA^iENTAL Bass, Modulatiox, 
 .llusic, &c. 
 
 Harmony, Direct, is that in which the bass is fundamental, 
 and in which the upper parts preserve among themsr-lves, and 
 with that iundamental bass, the natural and original order which 
 ought to subsist in eacli of the chords that compose this harmony. 
 
 Hakmonv, Inverted, is that in which the fundamental or ge- 
 nerating sound ii^jilaced in some of the upper parts, and when sofne 
 •other sound of the chord is transferred to the bass beneath the others. 
 Harmony is also sometimes used to denote an agreement, 
 suit-.ibiene.ss, union, conformily, &c. thus, in music, we sometimes 
 apply it to a single voice, when sonorous, clear, and soft ; to a single 
 instrument, when it yields a very agreeable sound : in matters of 
 literalure we use it tor a certain agreement between the several 
 parts of (lie discourse : in architecture harmonv denotes an agree- 
 able relation between the parts of a building; in painting they 
 «peak of an harmony both in the ordonance and com| osition, and 
 in the colours of a picture: in (lie ordon:uice it signifies the union 
 or connection between the hgures, with respect to the subject of 
 the piece; in tlie c<ilours it denotes the union or agreeable mix- 
 •ture of different colours. See Symmetry, Colouring, &c. 
 . Harmomy of the SpiiEKES, or Celestial Harmony, a sort 
 of music nui' h t^.ilked of by many of the ancient philosophers and 
 •fathers, supposed to be produced by the sweetly Umed motions of 
 the stars and planets. This harmony tliey atlributed to the va- 
 rious proponioii .te impressions of the heavenly globes upon one 
 another, a, 'Jim; at proper intervals. It is impossible, according to 
 them, that such prodigious large bodies, moving with so mucli ra- 
 pidity, should lie silent; on the contrary, the atmospliere con- 
 tinually imi^ellrd by (hrni, must yield a set of sounds propor- 
 tionate to tl:e impression it receives; conse(|uenlly as they do not 
 ell run the same circuit, nor with one and the saine velocity, the 
 different tones ar-'ing from the diversity of motions, directed by 
 the hand of the Almigiity, must form an admirable sympathy, or 
 concert. They therefore supposed that the moon, aa being the 
 v«iL. n.— NO. 101. 
 
 lowest of the planets, corresponded to ?H( ; NFrciiry, io fti ; \'e- 
 niis, to .»•»/, • the Sun, to /n ; Mais, to. s/; Jupiter, to uf; Saturn, 
 to re ; and tlie orb of the fixed stars, as being ihe highest of all, to 
 mi, or Ihe octave. 
 
 1I.\HM0STA, or HARMO.STES, ['-Vy-'ri.-, from a;;-'^, t» 
 adapt,] in anlicpiily, a magistrate among the Spart;ms, whereof 
 there were several, whose business was to loi-k to the buildings of 
 citadel-;, and repairing the forts and fortifications. 
 
 HAH MOS'^' MANS, \_a.;iM(rjm,'] in anli<pilty, inagistr;,(f* 
 among die Sparlans, who, after Ihe death of Lvcuigus, were ap- 
 pointed to enlorcc the observance of that law, which require J 
 married women to wear veils in the streets; whereby they were 
 diitin2uis!x:d from single females, who were allowed to go abroad 
 with llieir faces uncovered. 
 
 HARNE.SS, comprehends the whole equipage and accoutre- 
 ments of a cavalier heavily lumed : as casque, cuirass, &c. Some 
 derive the word from the Greek ajyrc.ii;, a lamb's skin, because 
 thev anciently covered themselves therewidi. 
 
 HARO, a town of Spain, in Old Castile, on the Ebro, 32 tnilvs 
 N.E. of Burgos. 
 
 Haro, Harol, or IIarou, or Cla.mour de Haro, in the Nor- 
 man customs, was a cry or formula of invoking the assistance of 
 justice against the violence of some of/'ender, w lio, upon hearing 
 the word fuiro, was obliged to desist, on i)ain of being sevorelv pu- 
 nished for his outrage, and to go with t.'ic party before the judge. 
 I he word is commonly derived from lui and rotil, as being sup- 
 posed an invocation of the sovereign powt:r, to assist the weak 
 against .the strong ; from Huoul, liril duke of Normandy. 
 
 HAKI', a music al in^trunlent of the string-kind, of a triangular 
 ligure. held upright between the legs of tlie person who play* 
 upon it. Papias and I;-u Cange suppose its name derived li-o'm 
 i\K Arpi, a people of Italy, who invented it, and from whom, 
 ihey say, it was borrowed by other nations. Menage, &c. derive 
 the word from the Latin luirpii, and that from the German /ia-]> 
 or harp. Others trace it from tlie Latin, carpo, because thrum- 
 med with the fingers. Dr. Hickes derives it from Iwrpu or Iwarpa, 
 which signify the same thing in the Cinibrian and Anglo-Saxon. 
 The harp was the favourite musical instrument of Ihe liritons and 
 other northern nations in the middle ages ; as is evident from their 
 laws, and various passages in their history. By the laws of Wales 
 a harp was one ol the three things that were necessary to constitute 
 a gentleman or a freeman ; and none could pretend to that charac- 
 ter who had not one of these favourite iibtrunieiits, or could not 
 play upon if. That the harp is among the mo^t ancient of musi- 
 cal instruments, the fiecjUenL mention of it in scripture, and the 
 splendid account transmitted to us of the 'Ilieban lurp, both as lo 
 the beauty of its decorations and extent of scale, are sudicienl evi- 
 dences. The Irish and Wel>h practised the harp long before the 
 ganimut of Guido was inventeil, and it is indeed their national 
 instrument. The Isarp was in no less estimation and universal u^e 
 among the Saxons and Danes. There is some diveiiilv in the 
 structure of harps. That calleil the triple harp has three rows of 
 strings and chords, which in all make seventy eight, or four oc- 
 taves; the second row makes the half-turn, and the third is uni- 
 son willi the first. 
 
 IlARe, EoLiAN. See Acoustics. 
 
 Harp, the Hell, a musical insirumcnt of the string-kind, thus 
 called trom the players on it swinging it about as a bell on i;-, basis. 
 It is :ibout three feet long ; its striiiffs which are of no deteiniinatp 
 number, are of brass or steel wire, fixed at cue end, and stvetched 
 across the sound board by screws fixed at tlu" other. It takes in 
 four octaves, according to the number of the strings, whicii are. 
 struck only with the tiuimbs, the right hand playing the treble, 
 and the left h mil the base : and in order to draw the sound the 
 clearer, the thumbs are armed Jwith a little wire-pin. Tiiis may 
 perhaps be the lyra, or cythara, of the ancients; but we find no 
 mention made of it under the name it now bean-, which must be 
 allow ed to be modern. 
 
 IIARI'AGINES, [o;5r«)'!f,] ill antiquitj', were hooks of iron, 
 hanging on the top of a poic, which, being secured with chains 
 to the masts ot ships, and tlien let <lown with great velocity into 
 the enemy's vessels, cauL'^d them up inlofiic :iir. 
 
 HARPASA, a town of Caria, on the Harpasus, famous for aa 
 immense rocking-sione, which was moveable by the finger, but 
 could not be displaced by aiiy force. 
 
 « I HARPIi
 
 M AR 
 
 GH 
 
 HAR 
 
 HARPE, in mythology, a crooked sword wlitrewilh Mercury 
 cut oil' Argus's heail, and'Perseus thai of Medusa. 
 HAKPIES. See Harpy, ami IIarpyi;e. 
 liAUPlNG-lRON, [from liarpngo, Lai.] a bearded dart with 
 a line fastened to tlie handle, with which whales are struck and 
 caught. 
 
 Harpin'g-Iron. See H.\rpoon'. 
 
 H.\RP1NGS, the fore-parts of the wales which encompass the 
 Xxpt of a ship, and are fastened to the stem, being thicker llian the 
 after-part of the wales, in order to reinfo;ce the ship in this place, 
 where she sustains the greatest sb.ock of resistance in plunging into 
 the sea, or d-viding it, under a great pressure of s.-iil. 
 
 HARPOCRA'l ES, in mythology, tiie son of Isis and Osiris; 
 an Egyptian d-.-ity, represented with his fingers applied to his 
 nioutlV, denctins^ that he is the god of silence. 
 
 HARPONELLY, a district of Hindostan, in the Mysore 
 country. 
 
 II ARPo.N'ELLY, the capital of the above district, Cj miles N.N. E. 
 of Bedamor»>. 
 
 HARPOON, \_harpon, Fr.] a harping-iron. This instrument is 
 a spear or javelin used to strike the whales in the Greenland fish- 
 ery. It is furnished with a long staff, having at one end a 
 broad and Hat triangular head, sharpened at both edges, so as to 
 penetrate the whale with facility : to the head of this weapon is 
 fastened a long cord, called tlie whale-line, which lies carefully 
 roiled in the boat, in such a manner as to run out without being 
 jnterni|jted or entangled. See \V'H.\LE-FisHtRY. 
 
 Hari'oon, Gun, a kind of lire-arm for discharging harpoons at 
 whales, and thereby killing them more expeditiously than for- 
 nierlv, when tlie harpoons were thrown by the hand, 'i'hougli 
 this method was projected many yeai-s ago, it has but lately come 
 into use; and premiums have t>cen aimually offered by tlie so- 
 ciety for encouraging arts, &c. to tiie persons who first struck a 
 fish"in this manner, in the Transactions of that society for T786, 
 we have an account of the hrst lish struck in this manner in 17S4. 
 The gun was of the blunderbuss-construction, loaded with four 
 common tobacco-pipes lull of glazed powder; the hsh was shot 
 at the distance often fathoms, the harpoon going into her back up 
 to the ring ; and s!ie was killed in about an hour. In 178.5, three 
 whales were killed in this manner ; four in 1786, and three in 
 1787. Since that time the gun-harpoon has come more into use, 
 aufl will probably soon supersede the other method entirely. In 
 the Plidosophical Transactions for 1789, we have accounts of a 
 number of whales killed in this manner. The instrument ;ip- 
 pears to be extremely useful in calm weather, as the whale, 
 though a timorous creature, will frequently allow a boat to ap- 
 proach it within tuenty, tilteen, or even ten, fathoms, all of which 
 distances are within reach of the gun-liarpoon, though not within 
 the reach of that thrown by tlie hand. The greatest inconvenience 
 was in case of rain or snow, by which the lock was apt to t^et wet. 
 To remedy this, a case of leather was made to fit round the gun, 
 and over the lock, lined w ith tin, an<l big enough to lire the gun 
 when it was on. Tlie fish struck with an harpoon discharged in 
 this manner are soon killed, by reason of its penetrating tlieir 
 bodies to the deptii of live or six feet, which no man's strength 
 would be able to accomplish. In the volume just (juoted, we 
 have an account of one which was shot through the ia:l. The har- 
 poon broke in the slit, but live fathoms of line went through the 
 tail. The fish was killed in eight hours, whicli is perhaps the 
 only instance of a fish struck in that part being caught. In another 
 the'harpoon carried six feet of line into its body, and the crea- 
 ture died in ten minutes. Others were killed in fifteen niiniiles or 
 half an hour, and one liad a rib broken by the violence of the 
 itroke. Soe Plate LXXXV. fig. 1. 
 
 HARPJ^ICHORD. a musical instrument, strung with wires, 
 and plaved by .-triking keys. This is the most harmonious of all the 
 musical instruments of the string-kind. It is played on alter the 
 nianner of the ^.rgan, and is furnished with a set, and sometimes 
 with (wo sets, of keys ; the touching or striking of these keys 
 nioves a kindofl title jacks, which aiso move a double row of strings 
 of brass or iion, stretched over four bridges on the table of the iii- 
 jitrunient. 
 
 IlARPYIiE, ['ApnTiAT,] the Harpies, in mythology, were a 
 rapacious impure sort of monsters, with wings and uears like 
 bears, bodies like vultures, f.Kcs like women, aud leet and hands 
 
 hooked like the talons of birds of prey,. The ancients believed 
 the harpies to be genii or demons. 
 
 HARQUEBUSS, a kind of a gun, of the length of a mnsket, 
 usually cocked with a wheel. It carries a ball weighing one 
 ounce and seven-eighths. There was also a larger sort, called the 
 great harquebuss, used for the defence of strong |.ilaces, which car- 
 ried a ball of about three ounces and a halt'. 1 hey are now httle 
 used, except in some old castles and garrisons. 
 
 HARltlOT, Thomas, an eminent alijfbraist, born at Oxford 
 ill 13(30, where he took the degree of B. A. in l.')79. Being dis- 
 tiiK'uished for his mathematical learning, he vvas recommended to 
 Sir Walter Raleigh, who, in 1.'j8j, tent him with the colony, un- 
 der Sir Richard Gienville to Virginia. Alter having remained 
 there about a year, he pnlilished a topographical discriplion of it. 
 About 15S8, he was introduced by his patron Sir Walter Raleigh 
 to Henry, Earl of Nortluimberland, who allowed him a pension 
 of 120/. per annum. He spent many years in Sion College; 
 where he die<l in July 16-.31 , of a cancer in his lip, and was luiried 
 in tlie church of St. Christopher, where a handsome monutnent 
 was erected to his memory. He was one o' the first mathemati- 
 cians of the age in which he lived, and wtU always be remembered 
 as the inventor of the present improved method of algebraical cal- 
 culation; which was a<lopted by Des Cartes, and for a considera- 
 ble time imposed upon tlie French nation as his own invention ; 
 but tlie thett was at last detected by Dr. Wallis, in his History of 
 Algebra, wher>' our author's hivention is accurately specllied. His 
 works arc, I. A Brief and true Report of the New-tound land of 
 Virginia; of the Commodities there ionnd, a-id to bi- raised, &c. 
 2. Aitis Analytics Praxis ad A'quationcs Algebraicas nova expe- 
 dit.i, ct generali Metliodo resolvcndas, e Poslhuniis Thoma? Har- 
 riot!, &c, 3. Ephemeris Chvrometrica ; MS. in the librarv of 
 Sion College. He left several other MSS. which were inspected 
 by Dr. Zach, astronomer to the duke of Saxe-Ciotha, in 1784, at 
 Petworlh in Sussex, the seat of the Earl of Kvremont, a descend- 
 ant of Henry, Earl of Northumberland. Dr. Zach published an 
 account of tl-.em in tlie Astronomical Ephemeris tor 1788: from 
 wliich it appears, that Hart'iot had made great discoveries in astro- 
 nomy, particularly that he had observed the spots in th.e sun so 
 early as Dec. 8, 1(510; which was eighteen months earlier than 
 Galileo's first published observations respecting them ; and that he 
 had also discoveied the satellites of Jupiter, and made dravfings of 
 their positions, and calculations of tiieir revolutions, in Jan. 1610, 
 the same month when Galileo discovered them. Dr. Zach adds, 
 that Harriot's observations of the comet of 1607 are still of use. 
 
 HARRIS, James, Esa. an English gentleman of very uncom- 
 mon parts and learning, the son ol James Harris, Esq. by a sister 
 of Lord Shdftesbun-, author of The Characteristics. He was born 
 at Salisbury, in 1709; and educated there. In 1726, he was re- 
 moved to Wadhani College in Oxford. He was member for 
 Christ-churi h, Hantr, in several successive parliaments, in 1763, 
 he was appointed a lord-commissioner of the admiralty, and scon 
 after rt moved to the board of treasury. In 1774 he was made se- 
 cretary ami comptroller to the queen, which post he held until his 
 death. He diecl Dec. 21, 1780, in his seventy-second year, after 
 a long illness. He was author of some valuable works : 1. 'J'hree 
 '■"realises: concerning Art; Music, Painting, and Poetry; and 
 Happiness, 1745, 8vo. 2. Hermes; or, A Philosophical Enquiry 
 concerning Universal Grammar. 3. Philosophical Arrangements. 
 4. Philological Enquiries; 1782, 2 vols. 8vo. published since his 
 death. 
 
 Harris, a peninsula of the Hebrides, forming with Lewis one 
 of the Western Islands of Scotland. Harris is twenty miles long, 
 and ten broad. 
 
 HAKRISBURGH, or LOUISBURG, apost-town of Pennsyl- 
 vania, and the capital of Dauphine county, seated on the Susqvie- 
 liaiiiia, eighty miles W. of Pennsylvania. 
 
 ILVRRISON, John, the celebrated inventor of the famous 
 lime-keeper for ascertaining the longitude at sea, and also of llie 
 compound, or, as it is commonly called, tl,ie gridiron-penduhiin ; 
 was born at Fonlby, near Pontefract in Yorkshire, in 1693. The 
 vigour of his natural abilities, if not strengthened by want of rdu- 
 latioii, which contined his attention to few objects, at least amply 
 compensated for it ; as appeared from the ast.i.nishing progress he 
 made in that branch of mechanics to whit h he devoted himself. 
 His father was a carpenter, in which he assisted, and occasionallr 
 
 surveyeU 
 
 41
 
 HAR 
 
 f)75 
 
 TT A R 
 
 »iirvi-vpcl land, and rejiairi'd riotks -.ud walclies. He was, from 
 his cliildl.ood, attaclii-d ly any inarhiiiTy moving liy whceW, as 
 appcarL-d uliile he lay sick of the small-pox aliont the sixth year ol 
 his age, when he had a watch )!l<iCed opeji upon his pillow, to 
 amn^e himself by contemplating tli^ movement. In 1700, he le- 
 inovi.d with his father lo Iiarrow in Lmcohi-i'iiie; wImtc he 
 eagerly improved every incident from "hich he niipht fo!le<l in- 
 formation; frequently employing i;real pari ot hi< nights in writinE; 
 or dvasvnig: and he always acknowledged Iv.s ohli^^.tions to a cler- 
 gyman wiH) lent him a MS. copy of professor S.uuiderson's Lec- 
 tiire?; which he carefully transcrihed, with all the dias^rams. In 
 17'Jt3, he had constructed two clocks, mostly of wood, in which he 
 applied the escapement and compound prndnlum of his own in- 
 vention: these surpasscfl every thing then made, scarcely erring a 
 second in a month. In 172S, he came up to London with tlie 
 drawings ot a machine for determining the longitude at sea, in ex- 
 pectation ol being enabled to execute one by the Board of Longi- 
 tude. Upon application to Dr. Halley, he referred him tu Mr. 
 George Graham ; who advised him lo make his machine before 
 he applied to the Board. He returned home to perform this task ; 
 and m 17J5 came to London with his lir^t machine; with which 
 he w as sent to Lisbon the next year for a trial of its properties. 1 n 
 this short voyage he corrected the dead reckoning about a degree 
 and a half; which success procured him botii i)ul)lic and private 
 encouragement. About 1739, he comi)leted his second machine, 
 of a construction much more shiiple than the former, and which 
 aiiswere<l much better: this, though not sent to sea, recommended 
 him still more to patronage. His third machine in 174y, was still 
 less com|)licated than the second, and superior in accuracy, erring 
 only three or four seconds in a week. This lie conceived to be 
 the ne plus ultra of his attempts: but in an endeavour to improve 
 pocket-watches, the principles he applied surpassed his expectat'ons 
 so much, as to encourage him to make his fourth time-keeper, 
 which is in the form of a pocket-watch, about six iiich.es diameter. 
 With this time-keeper his son made two voyages, the one to Ja- 
 maica, and the other to Barbadoes ; in both which experiments it 
 corrected the longitude within the nea.'-est limits required by the 
 act of the li^th of Queen Anne; and the inventor, therefore, at 
 different times though not without great trouble, received the 
 proposed reward of 20,000/. These four machines were giren up 
 to the Board of Longitude. Tlie three former were nosv of no 
 use, as all tlieir advantages were comprehended in the last ; they 
 ■were worthy, however, of being carefully preserved as mechanical 
 curiosities, in which iwight be traced the gradations of iiigennity 
 executed with the most deliaite workmanship. They are Kept in 
 the Royal Observatory at Greenwich. The fourth machine, em- 
 phatically called tl e time-keeper, has been copied by the ingeni- 
 ous Mr. Kendal ; and that duplicate, during a three years circum- 
 navigation of the globe in the southern hemisphere by Captain 
 Cook, answered as well as the original. The latter part of Mr. 
 Harrison's life was employed in making a fifth improved time- 
 keeper on the same principles with the jireceding one ; which, at 
 the end of a ten weeks trial, in 1772, at the king'^s Private Obser- 
 vatory at Richmond, erred only four seconds and a half. Within 
 a few vears of his death, he had frequent fits of the gout, a disor- 
 der that never attacked him before his seventy-seventh year : he 
 died at his house in Red-Lion Square, in 1776, aged eighty-three. 
 His recluse manner of life, in the unremitted pursuit of his favourite 
 object, was not calculated to qualify him as a man of the world ; 
 and the many discouragements he encountered, in soliciting the 
 legal reward of his labours, still less disposed him to accommodale 
 himself to the humours of mankind. In conversing on his profes- 
 sion, he was clear, distinct, and modest; but found a difficulty in 
 explaining his meaning by writing; in which he adhere<l to a pe- 
 culiar aiKl uncouth phraseology. This was evident in his " Descrip- 
 tion concerning such Mechanism as will afl'ord a nice or true 
 Mensuration ot Time," &c. 8vo. 1775; in which he obstinately re- 
 fused to accept of any assistance v\hatever. Tliis work contains 
 also an account of his new musical scale; or mechanical division 
 of the octave, according to the proportion which the radius and 
 diameter of a circle have respectively to the circumference. He 
 • had in his youth been the leader of a distinguished band of cliurch- 
 singers ; had a very delicate ear for music; and his experiments 
 on sound, with a most curious monochord of his own improve- 
 ment, are reported to have been no less accurate than lliosc he was 
 engaged in for the mensuration of tiine. 
 
 Harrison, in geography, a county of Virginia, bounded on tha 
 N. L. bv Monongalia, S. liy Gn-enbrier, S. \V. by kanhawa, and 
 N. by Ohio county. It is 120 miles long, and eighty broad; 
 Clarksburg is the capital. ' 
 
 IIAHKISTOWN, a town of Ireland, in Kildare, Lemstcr, 
 eighteen miles S. W. of Dublin. 
 
 HARRODSBL'RG, or IIAKRODSTOWN, a town of Ken-- 
 tuckv, in Mercer county, twenty-five miles S. W. of Lexington. 
 
 HARBOGATF,, orll ARKOWCiA IE, a village in the W. 
 Riding of Yorkshire, in the parish of Knaresborougli, remarkable 
 for its chalybeate and sul|)hureous springs. Formerly, the chaly- 
 beate-wateV only was used internally, and the sulphureous spring 
 was exclusively' employed as an external remedy. At present, 
 however, consi'derable quantities ot the latter are drunk for various 
 complaints. 'I'he sulphureous water is obtained from four springs, 
 lliat rise apparently from a large bog situated at a small distance 
 from the wells; and which is composed of decayed vegetable 
 matter, forming a black, half-tluid, toetid mass, four or five leet 
 thick, and supported by a bed of clay and gravel. When first 
 drawn, the Harrogate w'ater is transparent, and emits a few air- 
 hubbles. It possesses a strongly foi'tid sulphureous smell, similar 
 to that of bilge-water; and is'uf a bitter, nauseous, and strongly 
 saline, taste. Alter being exposed for several hours to the open 
 air, it becomes turbid, assumes a greenish colour, loses its sulpliu- 
 reous smell, and deposits sulphur at the bottom and sides of the 
 vessel. 
 
 HARROW, [charrouc, Fr. Iiarcke, Germ, a rake,] in agricul- 
 ture, a frame of timbers crossing ench other, and set with teeth, 
 drawn over soweil ground to break the clods, and throw the earth 
 overlhe seed. See Husbandry. 
 
 HARROWGATE. See Hakhogate. 
 
 HART, a stag, or male dt-er, in the sixth year. See Cervvs. 
 Harts, Horns of, the horns of the male deer. The scrap- 
 ings or raspings of these, are medicinal, and used in decoctions, 
 ptisans. Sec. l he horns of harts yield by distillation a very pe- 
 netrating volatile spirit called Volatile' Alkali, or Ammonia; 
 whidi is" also procured in equal perfection from tlie horns, bones, 
 &c. of other animals. Sec Alkali, and Ammonia. 
 
 HARTFORD, a populous and hilly country of Connecticut, 
 bounded on the E. by Tolland. 
 
 Hartford, a nourishing city in the above county. It lies 50 
 miles W. of Boston. 
 
 HARTLEPOOL, a sea-port town in Durham, 10 miles N. of 
 Stockton. 
 
 H.\RTLEY, David, M. A. an eminent physician, born in 
 1704, at Ilingworlh, where his father was curate. He received his 
 academical educ.ilion at Jesus college, Cambridge, of which be 
 was a fellow. He lirst practised physic at Newmark upon Trent ; 
 afterwards at Lon<lon ; and lastly went to Bath, where he died in 
 1757, aged 53, leaving two sons and a daughter. Hi- ))ublished 
 " AView of the Evidence for and against Mrs. Stephens's Medicines 
 as a Solvent for the Stone, containing 155 Cases with some Experi- 
 ments and Observations;" London,'l73y. He is also said to have 
 written against Dr. Warren, of St. Edmunilsbury, in defence of 
 inoculation; and some letters of his are to be met with in the Phi- 
 losophical Transactions. His chief literary production is " Ob.^er- 
 vations on Man, his Frame, his Duty, and his Expectations, in two 
 parts;" London, 1749, Svo. 
 
 Hartley, a town of Northumberland, 12 miles N. E. of New- 
 castle. 
 
 HARTOGI.A, in botany; a genus of the pentandria order, and 
 mona-cia class of plants; natural order, Ag;;re'..';itie. Calyx live- 
 deft ; petals four, spreading; drupe ovate, inclosing two seeds. 
 There is but one species, viz. H. capensis, native of the Cape of 
 Good Hope. 
 
 HART-ROYAL, a species of buckthorn-plantain. See Pl.»x- 
 tago. 
 
 HARTSHORN, a drug that comes into use many ways, and 
 under many forms. What is used here are tlie whole horns of 
 the common male deer, which fall olVevery .year. This species is 
 • he fallow-deer; but some tell us, that the medicinal hartshorn 
 should be that of the true hart or stag. The salt oi hartshorn is a 
 great sudorilic, and the spirit lias all the virtues of volatile alkalies: 
 it is used to bring people out of faintings by its pungency, hold- 
 ing it under the aose, and pouring down some drops' of it in 
 water. 
 
 Hartshorn^
 
 HAR 
 
 67H 
 
 HAS 
 
 Hartshokm, Calcined, or Coal of Hartshorm, a reiy 
 ■white t-arth, procuivd by (.alcin'mg llse horns of liavU, in a long 
 continued and strong five. This earili is employed in medicine, 
 as an ahsorbent, and when levieated, is the basis of Sydenham's 
 white dpooclion, which is commonly pi'escrilied in dysenteries. 
 
 Hartshorn Jelly is nutritive and slvengtliening, and is some- 
 times given in diarrhoeas ; bnt a decoction of burnt liartsliorn in v.a- 
 ier IS m jre frequently used for this purpose, and is called hartslioni- 
 ilrink. 
 
 il.iP.TSHORN, Spirit of. .See Ammonia. 
 
 HARTZGEROD, a town of I'pper Saxony, in Anhalt Beru- 
 burg, L'4 miles b. W. of Ucrnburg. 
 
 I[AR\'lCSr I'XY, ill zoology, a large four-whiged fly of the 
 ■cicad.i-khid, very common in Italy, and erroneously supposed to 
 be a gr.isiho^iper. See CicadA. 
 
 I1.'U{\'EY, Dr. William, an eminent English physician of 
 the 17tii century, took his degree of M. D. at Cambridge; was 
 afterivards admitteil into the college of pliysicians in London, and 
 ■was appointed lecturer of anatomy and cliirurgery in that college. 
 In tliese lectures lie opened his discovery relating to the circulation 
 of the blood ; which, afl'-r a variety of experiments, he communi- 
 cated to the world in his "Exercitatio anatomica de Motu Cordis et 
 Sanguinis." He v.as physician to king James 1. and to king Charles 
 I. and achieved to the royal ciiu-.e. His discovery has eternized 
 liis meni'/ry. In 16J1, he" published his " Exercitaiiones de Gener- 
 stN)i!e Aiiimaliiini," a very curious work. His papers were destroy- 
 ed dunng the civil wai>. In lt)J4, he was chosen president of the 
 .college of physicians in his absenee: but as he could not discharge 
 the duty of tiiat office, he desired them to choose Dr. Pringle. 
 As he had no children, he settled his paternal estate upon the 
 college. In 16j3 lie built a library, and a museuni ; and in lGj(3 
 he brought the deeds of his estate, and presented them to the 
 college. He was then present, at the first fea^t, instituted by him- 
 self, together witlia commemoration-speech in Latin, to be spo- 
 ken on tlie ISlh of October annuallv in honour of the benefactors \ 
 -to the college ; and he appointed a handsome stipend for the or.i- 
 tor, and also lor the keeper of the libviiry and museum, which are 
 f.till called by his name. He died in l6j>7. Thi' great physician 
 .had tlie happiness, in his lifetime, to find the clamours ot ignor- 
 ance, envy, and prejudice, against his doctrine, totally silenced, 
 and to sc'e it universally established. It is of the utmost import- 
 ance in medicine; as it is perhaps'impossible to detine health and 
 sickness in fewer words, than that tlie one is a free, and the other 
 an obstructed, circulation. Dr. Harvey was not only an excellent 
 physician, but an excellent man ; his modesty, candour, and pie- 
 ty, were etpial to his knowledge; the farther he penetrated into 
 the wonders (if nature, the more he venerated the Author of it. 
 
 H.^UViE, Alexandur, a native of Scothind, who at tlie im- 
 minent risk of his liie, lirst introduced the iiicle-manufai-lure into 
 Eritaiii. He went over to Holland about 1732, and in ".jiite of 
 the care which tiie Dutch took to conceal their methods of ma- 
 nufacturing, brought over Irom Haerlem two.of their incle-looms, 
 and one of their vwivkmen : by whose assistance he established the 
 first incle-maiiufactory at Glasgow, which has siiieebeen copied at 
 Manchester, &c. 
 
 HARUSPICES, or ARUSPICES, pretenders to divination 
 by certain signs or omens among the Romans. The Roman ha- 
 luspices were at first all taken from Iletruria ; afterwards youn^ 
 Komaiis were sent there to be brought up in the science. 
 
 HARl'SPICY, thi' art of divination. It consisted in foretelling 
 future cieiitsbv attending to various circumstances of the victims. 
 1. It was an ill omen if the victim needed to be dragged to the 
 altar, ii it broke its rope, [led a« ay, avoided the stroke, struggled 
 uuicli after it, maiSe a great bellowing, was long a-dying, or bled 
 but little. C. Presages were drawn from inspecting the noble 
 parts, as the heart, lungs, spleen, and e-peciailv the liver. If all 
 these uere tound, if the top of the livei was large and well made, 
 and if its (ibres were strong, it presaged well. 3. They were also 
 (Irav.n from the manner in which flie lire consumed "tl.e victim, 
 lithe llame brightened immediately, wa^ pure and clear, rcie 
 out till the victim was consumed, these were happy signs. 4. The 
 smoke also was f:onsi(!eved, whether it whirled-about in curls, or 
 spread itself to the right nr the left, or gave a smell dilferent from 
 the cviiimon one of broiled meat. i. It was a lucky omen if the 
 ijieense they bvirued melted all at once, and gave a iiiost agreeable 
 wiiell. ° 
 
 HARWICH, a populous and well built town of Essex, 72 mile* 
 N. E. of London. 
 
 HAS, a district of Arabia in Yemen. 
 
 Has, the capital ot the above district, 40 miles N. of Mocha. 
 IIaSBAIN, or H ASBEIJ', a country in the kingdom of West- 
 phalia. 
 
 HASELOE, an island of Denmark, in the Categate, 12 miles 
 from Zealand. Lon. 11. 45. E. Lat. 5t). 11. N. 
 
 HASLEMERE, a town of Surry, on the edge of the cotmty, 
 next Hampshire, 43 miles from London. 
 
 HAS LI, a district of the Helvetic Republic, in the canton of 
 Bern, in a fine valley S. E. of lake Brientz, and watered by the 
 Aar; famous for cheese, which the citizens export to Italy. 
 
 HASLINDEN, or HASLlGDON, a town of Lancashire, 14 
 miles N. of Manchester., 
 
 HASP AND STAPLES, in Scots law, the symbol couimonlv 
 used in burgage-tenements for entering and infcfting an Jieir, by de- 
 livering into his hands the hasp and staph"? of the door. 
 
 HASSELQUIST, Frederic, M. D. an eminent Swedisli 
 naturalist, born at Totlrnalla, in E. Gothland, in 1722, and educa- 
 ted at Ifpsal, under the great Linmeus. Ey the advice of that 
 eminent botanist, with the assistance of the University of I'psal, 
 who granted him a salary for the purpose, he set out upon a voy- 
 age to Palestine, in summer 1749, with the view of investigating 
 the natural history of that country, and thereby illustrating eastern 
 philology, and elucidating many passages in the Old Testament. 
 In this enterprise he also received much pecuniary aid, by private 
 subscriptions. By the interest of Counsellor Lagerstroem, he 
 obtained a free passage in a Swedish E. Iiidiaman, to Smyrna; 
 wliere he arrived in Dec. 1749, and was most ho.>pilably received 
 by M. A. Rydel, the Swedish consul. In Jan. 17')0, he set out 
 for Egypt, and spent nine months at Cairo, wlience he transmitted 
 to Liima-us some specimens of his discoveries, v.hicli were pub- 
 lished witli great approbation. A collection of 10,000 dollars was 
 then made to enable him to continue his travels and researches. 
 In spring 1751, he passed ihrougli Jali'a to Jerusalem, Jericho, &c. 
 returning through Eliodes and Scio to Smyrna. Thus he com- 
 pleted the object of his mission, but unfortunately fell a sacrihce 
 to the heat of the climatw, which in his travels through Arabia, had 
 alTectcd his lungs so severely, that he died at Smyrna, Feb. 9th 
 1752, aged 30. The Turks, whh their usual rapacity having 
 seized his collections, were prevented from selling them by tlie 
 Swedish consul, who wrote home an account of his deatl.) and cir- 
 cumstances; whereupon Q. Louisa Ulrica generously sent 14,000 
 dollars to redeem them ; and the whole collection, consisting of 
 numerous antiques, shells, birds, insects, serpents, Arabian MSS. 
 &c. arrived in good preservation at Stockholm, and was lodged in 
 the cabinets of Ulrichsdale, and Drottningholm ; duplicates of 
 many of them being also sent to Liiinanis at Upsal, who published 
 an account of his deceased friend's voyage and observations, and 
 named a plant after him. See next article. 
 
 HASSELQUIST lA, in botany, a genus of the digynia order, 
 and peiitandria class of plants; natural order, Umbellata'. p'ruita 
 (piile smooth; seeds of the radius oval, plane, margiuated, and 
 convex in themidtlle; those in the disk hemispherical, bladder- 
 shaped. It has two species. 
 
 H ASSELT, a town of Batavia, in the department of Yssel, and 
 late province of Overyssel; 10 miles E. of Campen. 
 
 Hasselt, a town of France, in the department of Ourte, and 
 late territory of Liege ; 16 miles N. N. W. of Liege. 
 
 IIASTA, or HASTA I'URA, among medalists, signifies a 
 kind of spear or javelin, not shod or headed with iron; or rather an 
 ancient sceptre," somewhat longer than ordinary, occasionally 
 given to all the gods. 
 
 Hasta, in some countries, is a measure or quantity of ground 
 amounting to thirty paces: thus called according to M. Du Cange, 
 from the hasta or rod wherewith it was measured. 
 
 HAS'l'A TA FOLIA, Hastated Leaves. See Botany. 
 HASTINGS, a town of Sussex, 64 miles S. E. of London. It 
 is the chief of the cinque-ports: and was fornierlj' obliged to (inil 
 21 ;!ii|)S, within 40 days after the king's summonn, well furnislied 
 and armed forserviee,' and (o maintain the crews a fortnight at its 
 DvMi charge. Hastings is ■reii-arkuble for a battle fought in its 
 neijdib'iiirhood, betweiru Harold II. K. of England and William 
 Duke of Normandy, on the !5lh Oct. lOfti, in wnich the former 
 was deleated and iliied ; and by his death William became ting 
 
 •f
 
 H AT 
 
 677 
 
 HAT 
 
 of England. Hastings lies24 miles E. of Lewis, and 40 of Uriglit- 
 liclmstone. 
 
 HAT, [A,rf, Saxon; Imtt, German,] a rovoring for the licad, 
 which is generally made ot a mixture of Spanish wool with that of 
 hares, kids, rabljits, beaver, &c. Lately, fcalhers have been ii<e- 
 fully employed in the manufacture of this article. Hats are s;iid 
 to have been lirbt used by men, about A. D. 1400, for country 
 wear, riding, &c. Rut the liatters have a tradition among llieiii, 
 that the origin of their art, at least oi^that branch ol i! called felting, 
 is much more ancient. The tradition is, tliat while St. Clement, 
 the 4lli bishop of Rome, was Hying from his persecutors, his feet 
 becarne blistered ; in consequence of which he was induced to put 
 wool between the soles of his feet and the sandals which lie wore. 
 The consequence was, that in continuing his journey, the wool, 
 by the sweat and motion of his feet, became as completely felted as 
 if wrought on purpose. When he aiterwards settled at Ronie, he 
 improved Che discovery, and hence the origin of felting and hat- 
 making. 'Ihe tiaiters in Ireland, as well as in several catholic 
 comUries, still hold a festival on St. Clement's day. 
 
 Hat-makino. The mati-rials being sorted out and mixed in va- 
 rious proportioris, and ot diiferent qualities, according to tlie value 
 of the article intended to be made; they proceed to the first pro- 
 cess, called bowing. The material, without any previous prepa- 
 ration, is laid upon a platform of wood, or of wire, somewhat more 
 than four feet square, called a hurdle. In the hur<lle, if of wood, 
 are longitudin;d clunks for the purpose of snlfering the dust and 
 other inipuriti---s ot iheslulV, to pass through; a purpose still more 
 effectually answered by the hurdle of wire. The workman is pro- 
 vided with a bow, a bow-pin, a basket, and several cloths. The 
 bow is a pole of yellow deal-wood, between seven and eight feet 
 long, to which are hxed two bridges, soinewhat like that which 
 receives tin- hair in the bow of the violin. Over these is stretched 
 a catgut, about one-12ll) of an inch ill thickness. The bow-pin is 
 a stit^ with a knob, and is used for plucking the bow-string. 
 The basket is a square piece of ozicr-work, consisting of open 
 strait bars with no crossing or interweaving. The cloths are linen. 
 Besides these iniplements, the workman is also provided with 
 brown paper. Ihe bowing commences by shovelling the ma- 
 terial towards the right hand partition with the basket, upon 
 which, the workman hoKliiig the bow horizontally in his lellhaiid, 
 and the bow- pin in liis right, lightly places the bow-string, and 
 gives it a pluck with Ihe pin. The string, in its return, strikes pari 
 of the fur, and causes it to rise, and llv partly across the hurdle in 
 a light open form. By repeated strokes, the wliole is thus sub- 
 jected to the bow ; and this beating is repeate<l, till all the origin- 
 al clots or masses of the hiainents are perfectly opened and obliter- 
 ated. The quantity thus tivated at once is called a batt, and 
 never exceeds hall the (|uantity required to make one hat. When 
 the batt is sufticiently bowed, it is ready for hardening; which 
 term denotes the first commencement of felting. The prepared 
 material being evenly disposed on the hurdle, is (irst pressed down 
 by the convex side ot (he basket, llien covered with a cloth, and 
 pressed successively in its various parts by the hands of the work- 
 man. This pressure brings the hairs against each other, and mul- 
 tiplies their points of contact ; the agitation of them gives to each 
 liair a progressive motion towards the root ; by means of this mo- 
 tion the hairs are twisted together, and the lamelUe of each hair, 
 by fixing themselves to those of other hairs which happen to be 
 din-cted the contrary way, keep the wliole in that compact state 
 which the pressure makes it acquire. In proportion as the mass 
 becomes compact, the pressure of the hands should be increased ; 
 not only to make it more close, but also to keep up the progressive 
 motion and twisting of the hairs, which then lakes place with 
 greater dilTiculty: but throughout the whole of this operatioH, the 
 hairs fix themselves only to each other, and not to the cloth with 
 which they are covered, the fibres of which are smooth, and have 
 no disposition to felting. See Hair. "In a short time the stuif 
 acquires suflirient firmness to bear careful handling. The cloth is 
 then taken «iff, and a sheet of paper, with its cornel's double<l in, 
 so as to give it atriangular outline, is laid upon the bati, which last 
 is folded over the paper as it lies, and its edges, meeting one over 
 the other, form a conical cap. The joining is soon made good by 
 pressure with the hands on the cloth. Another batt, ready harden- 
 ed, next laid on the hurdle, and the cap here mentioned placed 
 upon it, with the joining downwards. This last batt being also 
 foh'ed up, will consequently have its plac.^ of juuction diametri- 
 
 VCL. u. — NO. IQJ. 
 
 cally opposite to that of the inner felt, which it must therefore 
 greatly tend to strengthen. The principal part of the hat is thus 
 put together, and now requires to be worked with the hands a con- 
 siderable time upon the hurdle, the cloth, being also occasionally 
 sprinkled with char water. During the whole of this operation, 
 which is called basoning, the article becomes firmer and firmer, 
 and contracts in its dimensions. It may easily be understood, that 
 the chief use of the paper is to prevent the sides from felling to- 
 gether. The hat thus basoned, they remove it to a large kind of 
 receiver or trough, resembling a mill-hopper, going sloping or 
 narrowing down from Ihe edge or rim to the bottom, which is a 
 copper-kettle filled with water and giounds, kept hot for that pur- 
 pose. On the descent or sloping side, called the plank, the 
 basoned hat, being first dipped in the kettle, i3lai<l; and here 
 they proceed to work it, by rolling and unrolling it again and 
 again, one part after another, first with the hand, and then with a 
 little wooden roller, taking care to dip it from time to time, till at 
 length, by thus fulling and thickening it lour or five hours, it is 
 reduced to the extent or diinen?ions ot the hat intended. The hat 
 thus wrought, they proceed lo give it the proper form, which is 
 done by laying the conical cap on a wooden block, ol the intend- 
 ed size ol the crown of the hat, and then tying it round with a 
 packthread : after which, with a piece of iron or copper bent for 
 that purpose, and called a stamper, they gradually beat or drive 
 it down all round, till it has reached the bottom of the block, and 
 thus is the crown formed ; what remains at bottom below the string 
 being the brim. 'I'he hat being now set to dry, they jiroceed to 
 singe it, by holding it over a flare of straw or the like; then it is 
 pounced, or rubbed over with pumice, to take otf the coarser 
 knap ; then rubbed over afresh with seal-skin to lay the knap a 
 little finer; and lastly, carded with a fine card to raise the fine 
 cotton, with which the hat is afterwards to appear. Tilings thus 
 far advanced, the hat is thus sent, upon its block, and tied about 
 with a packthread as before, to be dyed. The dye being com- 
 pleted, the hat is returned to the hatter, vho proceeds to dry it, 
 by hanging it in the top or roof of a stove or oven, at the bottom 
 of which IS a charcoal-fire: when dry, it is to be stiffened, which 
 is done with melted glue, or gum, Senegal applied thereon by first 
 smearing it, and beating it over with a hrusli, and then rubbing 
 it with the hand. The next thing is to steam it on the steaming- 
 basoii, which is a little hearth or fire-place. When steamed suf- 
 ficientlv, and dried, they put it again on the block, and brash 
 and iron it on a table or bench for the purpose, called the stall- 
 board ; this they perform with a sort ot irons like those commonly 
 used in ironing linen, and heated like them, which being rubbed 
 over and over each part of the hat with the assistance of the brnsli, 
 smooths and gives it a gloss, which is the last operation ; nothing 
 now remains bul to clip the edges even with scissars, and sew a lin- 
 ing to the crown. 
 
 Hats, Method of Dyeing. According to Dr. Lewis, the 
 best proportion of ingredients lor dyeing h.its is as follows: 100 lb. 
 of logwood, 12 lb. of gum, and (31b. of galls, are boiled in a 
 proper ([iiantity of water for some hours; after which, about bib. 
 of verdigris and 10 of green vitriol are added, and the licpior kept 
 just simmering, or of a heat a little below boiling : 10 or 12 doz. 
 of hats are imniediately put in, each on its block, and kept down 
 by cross-bars for about an hour and an half: they are then taken 
 out and aired, and the same number of others put in their room. 
 The two sets of h,-»ts are thus dipped and aired alternately, eight 
 times each ; the liquor being refreshed e;ich time with more of the 
 ingredients, but in less quantity than at first. This process (says 
 Dr. Lewis) affords a very good black on woollen and silk stuffs a» 
 well as on hats, as we may see in t!ie small pieces of both kinds 
 which are sometimes dyed by the h.atfers. 
 
 Hats are also made fiir women's wear, not only of the above 
 stuifs, but of chips, straw, or cane, by plaiting, and sewing the 
 plaits together; beginning with the centre of Ihe crown, and work- 
 inn round till the whole is finished. They arc also wove and 
 made of horse-hair, silk, &c. 
 
 HATA, a large river of S. America, in Chili. 
 
 HATCHEL, or HITCHEL, a tool with which flax and hemp 
 are combed into fine hairs. It consist> of long iron-pins, or teeth, 
 regularly set in a piece of board. There are several sorts of hatch- 
 els, each finer than the other, with which flax and hemp are pre- 
 pared for spinning. 
 
 HATCHES, hi a ship, a kind of liap-doorj between the main- 
 S K niast
 
 HAT 
 
 678 
 
 IT A V 
 
 mast and fore-mast, through which all goods of bulk are let down 
 into the hold. 
 
 Hatches, Coamings of the, are the pieces of timber, or 
 planks, which raise up the hatches, when they are made higher 
 th;m the rest of the deck. 
 
 Hatches also denote llood-gates set in a river, &c. to stop the 
 current of the water, particularly certain dams or mounds made 
 of rubbish, clay, or earth, to prevent the water that issues from 
 the stream-works and tin-washes in Cornwall, from running into 
 the fresh rivers. 
 
 Hatches, in mining, a term used in Cornwall, to express any 
 of the openings oi the eartli either into mines or in search of 
 them. 
 
 HATCH-WAY, the place where the hatches are. Thus, to 
 lay a thing in the hatch-way, is to put it so, that the hatches can- 
 not be come at, or opened. 
 
 HATCHET, \Juiclu-, hachctte, Fr. ascia, Latin,] a small axe. 
 
 Hatchets have a basil-edge on the left side, and a short han- 
 dle, being used with one hand. They are used by various arti- 
 ficers, particularly in hewing wood. 
 
 HAICHING, the maturating fecundated eggs, whether by 
 the incubation and warmth of the parent bird, or by artificial heat, 
 so as to produce young chickens alive. The art of hatching 
 chickens by means of ovens has long been practised in Egypt, 
 chiefly in a village named Berme, and its environs. About the 
 beginning ofautunui the natives scatter themselves all over the 
 country : where each undertakes the management of an oven. 
 These ovens are of diiferent sizes, but, in general, they contain 
 from 40 to 80,000 egg^. The number of ovens is about 386, and 
 they usually keep them working for about six months : as, there- 
 fore, each brood takes up in an oven, as under a hen, only 21 
 days, it is easy in every one of them to hatch eiglit different 
 broods of chickens. Every Bermean is under the obligation of 
 delivering to the persons who trusts him with an oven, only two- 
 thirds of as many chickens as there have been eggs put under his 
 care ; and he is a gainer by this bargain, as more than two-thirds of 
 the eggs usually produce chickens. In calculating the number of 
 chickens thus annually hatched in Egypt, it lias been supposed 
 that only two-thirds of the eggs are hatched, and that each brood 
 consist; of at least 30,000 chickens. Hence it appears, that the 
 ovens of Egypt give life yearly to at least 92,640,000 of these ani- 
 mals. This useful and advantageous method of hatching eggs was 
 discovered in France by the ingenious Mr. Reaumur ; who, by a 
 number of experiments, reduced the art to fixed principles. He 
 found that the heat necessary for this purpose is nearly the same 
 with that marked 32 on his thermometer, or 96 on Fahrenheit's. 
 This degree of heat is nearly that of the skin of the hen, and of 
 all other domestic fowls, and probably of all other kinds of birds. 
 The degree of heat, wliich brings about the developement of the 
 cygnet, the gosling, and the turkey-pout, is the same as that which 
 fits for hatching the canary songster, and in all probability, the 
 smallest hunimnig-bird : the difference is only in the time "during 
 which this heat ought to be communicated to the eggs of different 
 birds. It will bring the canary-bird to perfection in 11 or 12 days, 
 while the turkey-pout will require 27 or 28. After many expe- 
 riments, Mr, Keanmur found, that stoves heated by means of a 
 baker's oven, succeeded better than those made hot by layers of 
 dung: and the furnaces of glass-houses and those of the mclters of 
 metals, by means of pipes to convey heat into a room, might, no 
 doubt, be made to answer the same purpose. As to the form of 
 the stoves, no great nicety is required. A chamber over an oven 
 will do very well. Nothing more is necessary but to ascertain 
 the degree of heat, by melting a hnnp of butter of the size of a 
 walnut, with half as much tallow, and putting it inio a pliial. This 
 serves to indicate the heat with sufficient exactness : for when it is 
 too great, this mixture will become as !i<]uid as oi! ; and wlien the 
 heat is too small, it will reiiTnin fixed in a lump : but it will fiow 
 like a thick syrup, upon inclining the bottle, if the stove he of a 
 right temper. Great attention therefore should he given to keep 
 the heat always at this degree, by letting in fresh air if it be too 
 great, or shutting the stove more close if it be too small : and that 
 ull the eggs in the stove may equally share the irregularities of the 
 heat, it will be necessary In shift them from the sides to the cen- 
 tre ; and thus to imitate the hens, who are frequently seen to make 
 ji^e ijf tiiejr bills, to pusli to the outer parte those eggs tlial were 
 
 nearest to the middle of their nests, and to bring into the middle 
 such as lay nearest the sides. Mr. Reaumur has invented a sort of 
 low boxes, without bottoms, and lined with furs. These, which 
 he calls artificial parents, not only shelter the cliickens from the 
 injuries of the air, but atford a kindly warmth, so that they take 
 the benefit of their shelter as readily as they would have done 
 under the wings of a hen. After hatching, it will be necessary to 
 keep the chickens, for some time, in a room artfully heated and 
 furnished with these boxes ; but afterwards they may be safely e.x- 
 posed to the air in the court-yard, in wliich it may not be amiss 
 to place one of these artificial parents to shelter them, if there 
 should be occasion for it. They are generally a whole day after 
 being hatched, before they take any food at all. A few crumbs of 
 bread may then be given tliem for a day or two, after which they 
 will pick up inserts and grass for themselves. But to save the 
 trouble of attending them, capons r.iay be taught to watch them in 
 the same manner as hens do, Mr, Reaumur says he has seen 
 above 200 chickens at once, all led about and defended only by 
 three or four capons. Nay, cocks may be taught to perform the 
 same office ; w hich they, as well as the capons, will continue to 
 do all their lives after. 
 
 Hatching, or Hacking, in designing, &c, the making of lines 
 with a pen, pencil, graver, or the like ; and intersecting or going 
 across those lines with othere drawn a contrary way, is called 
 counter-hatching. The depths and shadows of draughts are usually 
 formed by hatching. Hatching is of singular use in heraldry, to 
 distinguish the several CfilourS of a shield, without being illumin- 
 ed : thus, gules or red is hatched by lines drawn from the top to the 
 bottom ; azure by lines drawn across the shield ; and so of other co- 
 lours, 
 
 HATCHMENT, in heraldry, is the coat of arms of a person 
 dead ; usually placed on the front of a house, whereby may be 
 known what rank the deceased person was of « hen living ; the 
 whole distinguished so as to enable the beholder to know whether 
 he was a bachelor, married man, or widower ; with the like dis- 
 tinctions for women. 
 
 HATFIELD, or BISHOP^s HATFIELD, a town of Hert- 
 fordshire, 19i miles N. of London. 
 
 Hatfield, a town in the W. riding of Yorkshire, four miles 
 from Doncaster, with its chase, famous for deer-hunting. 
 
 Hatfield Broad-Oak, Hatfield Regis, or King's Hat- 
 field, a town of Essex, seated on a branch of the Lea, 29 miles 
 N. N. E. of London. 
 
 HATHERLEY, a town of Devonshire, 28 miles W. N. W. 
 of Exeter. 
 
 HATTEMISTS, in ecclesiastical history, a modern Dutch 
 sect, so called from Pontian Van Hattem, a minister in Zealand, 
 towards the close of the 17th century, who being addicted to the 
 sentiments of Spinoza, was degraded from his pastoral oflice, '1 he 
 Verschorists and Uattemists resemble each other -in their religious 
 systems, though they never formed one communion. The found- 
 ers of these sects deduced from the doctrine of absolute decrees 
 a system of uncontrollable necessity ; they denied the dit'ference 
 between moral good and evil, and the corruption of human nature : 
 whence they concluded, that mankind were under no obligation 
 to correct their manners, improve their minds, or obey the divine 
 laws ; that the whole of religion consisted not in acting, but in 
 suffering ; and that all the precepts of Jesus Christ are reducible to 
 this one, that we bear with cheerfulness and patience the events 
 that happen to us through the divine wi'l, and make it our con- 
 stant and only study to inaintain a jjernianent tranqudlily of mind. 
 
 HATTERAS, cafe, a cape on the coast of N. "Carolina, 
 Lon. 75, 54, W. Lat. 35, 8, N. 
 
 HATTINGEN, a town of Germany, in the circle of West- 
 phalia, and coiiiity of Mark, 16 niiles N, E. of Dusscldorp. 
 
 HAVANNAH', a city and sea-port town of the island of Cuba, 
 on the N, coast, opposite to Florida^ (t is famous for its har- 
 bour, which is ill every respect one of the best in the West In- 
 dies, and perhaps iij the world. Lat, 23° U' 52" N. I. on. 82'- S' 
 36" W, from (ireenwich, 
 
 HAVANT, a town of Hampshire, 9 miles W. of Chichester. 
 
 IIAVI'.L, a river which rise; from a lake in Mecklenburg, and 
 runs N, imo the Elbe, near Werhen, in Brandenburg, 
 
 H.'VVICLBERG, a town of Upper Saxony, in Brandenburg, 
 sealed on tlie Havel, 37 miles N. Vv , of liraiidcnburg. 
 
 HAVEN,
 
 HAU 
 
 fi79 
 
 M A W 
 
 HAVEN, \_l((ivcn, Dutcli ; havre, P'lencli,] a port; a har- 
 bour; a station for ships. See Harbour, and Port. 
 
 HAVER is a common word in tho northern counties for oats ; 
 as, haver bre^id for oaten bread ; perliaps properly aven, from 
 arena, Lat. 
 
 HAVERFORD WEST, a neat, well-built and populous town 
 of S. Walts, in Penibrokcsliire ; 236 miles from London. 
 
 HAVERHILL, a town of New Hampsliire, capital of Grafton 
 county, 32 miles above Dartnionlh college, and 496 N. E. of 
 Philadelphia. 
 
 HAVEHILL, a town of England, (jarlly in Essex, and partly 
 in Sull'olk, 20 miles S. E. of C ambridge. 
 
 HAUL, among seamen, iiiiplies to pull a single rope, without 
 the assistance of blocks or other meclianical powei's. Vt'lien a 
 rope is otherwise pidled, as by the application of tackles, or the 
 connection with blocks, &c. the term is changed into bowsing. 
 
 Haul the Wind, is to direct the ship's course nearer to that 
 point of the compass from which the wind arises. Thus, suppos- 
 ing a ship to sail S. W. with the wind northerly, and some parti- 
 cular occasion requires to haul the wind more westward ; to per- 
 form this operation, it is necessary to arrange the sails more ob- 
 liquely with her keel ; to brace the yards more forward, by slack- 
 ening the starboard and pulling in the larboard braces, and to haul 
 the lower sheets further alt ; and, finally, to put the helm a-|)ort, 
 i. e. over to the larboard side of the vessel. As soon as her head 
 is turned directly to the westward, and her sails are trimmed ac- 
 cordmgly, she is said to have hauled 'the wind four points ; that is 
 to sav, from S. W. to \V. She may still so two points nearer to 
 the direction of the wind, by disposing her sails according to their 
 greatest obliquity, or, in the sea-phrase, by trimming all sharp; 
 and in this situation she is said to be close-hauled, as sailing 
 W . N. W. 
 
 HAULM, HALM, orHAWN, among farmers, signifies the 
 stem or stalk of corn, pease, beans, &c. from the root to the ear. 
 
 HAUNCH, or HANCH, that part of the body betweenirhe 
 last ribs and the thigh. 
 
 Haunchf.s of a Horse are too long, if when standing in the 
 stable he limps, with his hind-legs farther back than he ought; 
 and when the top of his tail is not in a perpendicular line to the 
 tip of his hocks, as it always is hi horses whose haundies are of a 
 just length. 
 
 HAVRE DE GRACE, a sea-port town of France, in the de- 
 partment of Lower Seine and late province of Normandy, on the 
 English Channel, 45 miles W. of Rouen, and 12 N. W. of Paris. 
 HAURL\NT, in heraldry, a term peculiar to iishes ; signi- 
 fying their standing upright, as if refreshing themselves by sucking 
 in the air. 
 
 HAUTBOY, a wind-instrument, shaped much like the lute; 
 only it spreads and widens towards the bottom, and is sounded 
 through a reed. The treble is two feet long ; the tenor goes a fifth 
 lower when blown open ; it has only eight holes ; but the bass, 
 which is five feet long, has 11, The' name is French, haul bois, 
 q. d. high wood ; and is given to this instrument because the tone 
 of it is higher than that of the violin. 
 Hautboy Strawberky. See Fragraria. 
 HAl'TE FEUILLE, John, an ingenious mechanic, born at 
 Orleans in 1647. Though he was an ecclesiastic, and enjoyed se- 
 veral benefices, he applied almost his whole life to mechanics, in 
 which he made a great progress. He had a particular taste for 
 clock-work, and made several discoveries in it that were of sin- 
 gular use. He found out the secret of moderating the vibration 
 of the balance by means of a small steel-spring, which has since 
 been made use ot. This discovery he laid before the members of 
 the Academy of Sciences in 1674; and these watches are called 
 pendulum-watches, not that thtjy have real pendulums, but be- 
 cause they nearly approach to the justness of pendulums. M. 
 Huygens perfected this hapjjy invention; but having declared 
 himself the mventor, and obtained from Lewis XIV. a patent for 
 making watches with spiral springs, the abbe Feuille opposed the 
 legisiel-ing of this privilege, and published a piece on the subject 
 against M. Huygens. He wrote a great number of other pieces, 
 jnost of which are small pamphlets consisting of a few pages, but 
 very curious ; as, I, The perpetual Pendulum ; 4to. 2. New In- 
 ventions; 4to, 3. The Art of Breathing under Water, and the 
 Meaiis of preserving a Flame shut up in a small Place. 4, lleflec- 
 
 tions on Machines for raising Water. 5. On the dilTerent Senti- 
 ments of Malebranche and Regis, relating to the Appearance ''•I 
 the Moon when seen in the Horizon. 6. The magnetic Balance. 
 7. A Placet to the King on the Loncitude. 9. A new System on 
 the Flux and Keflux of the Sea. lO.'l'he Means of making sensible 
 Experiments that prove the Motion of the Earth; and many other 
 pieces. He died in 1724. * 
 
 Haute-Rive, a town of France, in the department of Upper 
 Garonne, and late province of Languedoc, 10 miles S. of 'I'ou- 
 luuse. 
 
 HAW, or HAUGH, in farriery, is a spongy excrescence in 
 the inner ccrnii' of the eyes of horses, or other cattle, and which, 
 if not timt'ly removed, will occasion total blindness. It arises 
 from gross humours, and is known by tiie watering of the eye, and 
 the oj)ening of the lower side. 
 
 HAWKER, [from /loc/c. Germ.] one who sells his wares by 
 proclaiming them in the street. 
 
 Hawkers anciently were fraudulent persons, who went from 
 place to place buying and selling brass, pewter, and other mer- 
 chandize, which ought to be uttered in open market. In this 
 sense the word is mentioned, 25 Hen. Vlll. cap. 6, and 33, cap. 4. 
 The appellation seems to have arisen from their uncertain wander- 
 ing, like those wlio, with hawks, seek their game where they can 
 find it. The term is now used as synonymous with pedlar ; a per- 
 son who travels about the country selling wares. Every hawker 
 must take out an annual licence, for which he must jjay 4/. and 
 if he travel with a horse, ass, or mule, for every one of them 8/. 
 If he travel without a licence, or contrary to it, he forfeits for 
 every offence to the informer, and the poor of the parish where 
 discovered, 10/. The acts relating to hawkers do not extend to 
 makers of goods or their agents ; or to those who sell goods in fairs 
 or markets ; to the sellers of hsh, fruit, or other victuals; nor t» 
 the venders of books and newspapers : 9 and 10 W. caj). 27. 3 
 and 4 Anne, cap. 4. But hawkers shall not, by virtue of such li- 
 cence, sell or offer to sale, any tea or spirituous liquors, though 
 with a permit, under the penalty of having the same seized, and 
 imprisonment and prosecution of the olfender, 9 Geo. II. cap. 35. 
 Hawkers who were licensed on June 23, 1785, may set up any 
 business in the place where they are resident inhabitants, brought 
 up thereto. Additional duties, are, however, imposed upon hawk- 
 ers, by acts, 29 Geo. Ill.c. 26, and 35 Geo. III.c. 91. 
 
 H AWKl NG, the art, or exercise, of taking wild fowl by means 
 of hawks. The method of reclaiming, manning, and bring iig up, 
 a hawk to this exeicise, is called Falconry, which see. 
 
 HAWKSHEAU, a town of Lancashire, 38 miles N. of Lan- 
 caster, and 273 N. N. W. of London. 
 
 HAWKWEED. See Crepis, and Hteracium. 
 
 II.\WS, a river of N. Wales, in Montgomeryshire. 
 
 Haws, a river of S. Wales, in Radnorshire. 
 
 Haws, or Ha\vs-Wati:r, a lake of Westmoreland, W. of 
 Penrith, three miles long, and half a mile broad. 
 
 HAWSE, or HAUSE, implies the situation of the cables be- 
 fore the ship's stem, when she is moored with two anchors out from 
 forward, viz. one on the starboard and the other on the larboard 
 bow. Hence it is usual to say, she has a clear hawse, or a foul 
 hawse. It also denotes any small distance a-head of a sh'p, or be- 
 tween her head and the anchors employed lo ride her, as He has 
 anchored in our hawse. The brig fell athwart o<ir hawse, &c. A 
 ship is said to ride with a clear hawse, when the cables are directed 
 to their anchors, without lying athwart the stem; or crossing, or 
 being twisted round each other, by the ship's winding about, ac- 
 cording to the change of the wind, tide, or current. A foul hawse, 
 on the contrary, implies that the cables lie across the stem, or bear 
 upon each other, so as to be rubbed and chafed by the motion of 
 the vessel. The hawse accordingly is foul, by having either a 
 cross, an elbow, or ft rouiKl turn. If the larboard-cable lyings 
 across the stem, points out on the starboard-side, while the star- 
 board-cable at the same time grows out on the larboard-side, there 
 is a cross on the hawse. If, after this, the ship, without vetuniing 
 to her former position, continues to wind about the same way, so 
 as to perform an entire revolution, each of the cables will be 
 twisted round the other, and then directed out from the opposite 
 bow, forming what is called a round turn. An elbow is produced 
 when the ship stops in the middle of that revolution, after having 
 had a cross; or, in other words, if she ridos with her head uorth- 
 1 ward
 
 HE A 
 
 680 
 
 HE A 
 
 ^i_ — ...^ . ___ — 
 
 ward witli a clear hawse, and afterwards turns quite round so as to 
 direct her head northward again, she will liave an elbow. 
 
 IIawse-Piecls, the fort-most timbers of a ship, whose lower 
 ends rest on the knuckle-timber, or the foremost of the cant- 
 timbers. Tiiey are generally parallel to the stem, having their 
 upper ends sometimes terminated by the lower part of the beak- 
 head ; and otherwise by the top of the bow, particularly in small 
 ships and merchantmen. 
 
 HAW IHOKN. See Crat^gus. 
 Hawthorn, American. See Viburnum. 
 HAY, grass cut and dried for fodder. The time of mowing 
 grass for hay must be regulated according to its r.rowlh and ripe- 
 jiegs ; nothing being more prejudicial to the crop than mowing it 
 too soon, becu\ise the sap is not then fully come out of the root, 
 and when made- into hay, the grass shrink? away to nothing. It 
 must not, however, be let stand too long till it have shed its seeds. 
 When the tops of the grass look brown, and begin to bend down, 
 and the red honeysuckle flowers begin to wither, it is ripe for 
 mowing. See Husbandrv. 
 
 Hay, in geography, a town of S. Wales in Brecknockshire. 
 Lon. 3. 4. W. Lat. 51. 59. N. 
 
 HAYE, a town of France, in the department of Indre and 
 Loire, on the Creuse ; 25 miles S. of Tours. 
 
 HAYES, Charles, E'^q. a person of great erudition and mo- 
 desty. He was born in 1678, and became distinguished in 1704, 
 by " A Treatise on Fluxions," in folio ; the only work to which 
 he ever set his name. In 1710, came out a quarto pamphlet of 
 nineteen pages, entitled " A New and Easy Method to find out 
 the Longitude, from observing the Altitudes of the Celestial Bo- 
 dies:" and in 1723, " The Moon," a Philosophical Dialogue ; 
 tending to shew, that the moon is not an opaque body, but has 
 ©riginal light of her own. He principally had the management of 
 the late Boyal African company. To a skill in the Greek and 
 Latin, as well as the modern languages, he added the knowledge 
 of the Hebrew : and published several pieces relating to the trans- 
 lation and chronology of the scriptures. He died at London, 
 December 28, 1700, in his 82d year. The title of his posthu- 
 mous works runs thus: Chronograpliis Asiaticac et EgyptiacK 
 Specimen; in quo, 1. Origo Chronologix Ixx. Interpretum In- 
 vestiaatur. 2. Conspectus Totius Operis Exhibilur, 8vo. 
 
 HAZAEL, [Sotpi, Hell. i.e. seeing God,] an oflicer belong- 
 ing to Benhadad king oi Syria, who caused that prince to be put 
 to deathj and reigned in his stead. He defeated Joram, Jelui, 
 and Jehoahaz, kings of Israel ; and after his death, was succeeded 
 by Benhadad his son, B. C. 88i). 
 
 HAZARD, a game on dice, without tables, is very properly so 
 called, since it speedily enriches a man or ruins him. It is played 
 only with two dice without tables. See Gaming. 
 
 HAZEBROUC, a town of France, in the department of the 
 Korth, 19i miles W. of Lille. 
 
 HAZEL, or HAZIX, in botany. See Corylus. The ker- 
 nels of the fruit have a mild, farinaceous, oily taste, agreeable to 
 most palates. A kind of chocolate has been prepared from them, 
 and there are instances of their having been formed into bread. 
 Tlie oil expressed from them is little inferior to the oil of almonds ; 
 and is used by painters and by chemists for receiving and retaining 
 odours. 
 
 HEAD. See Anatomy. 
 
 HEADACH, a most troublesome sensation in the head pro- 
 duced by various causes, and attended with different symptoms, 
 according to its different degrees, and the place where it is seated. 
 See Medicine. 
 
 HEAD-BOROUGH, or HEAD-BOROW, is the chief of 
 the frank pledge, ?.nil had anciently the principal direction of those 
 within his own pledge. This officer is now called a high constable. 
 The head-borow was the chief of ten pledges: the other nine 
 were called hand-borows, or pk'gii mannaies. See Constable. 
 
 HEAD-FAST, a rope emplnved to fasten a ship to a wharf, 
 chain, o. buoy, or to some other vessel aloni^-side. 
 
 HEADFORD, a town of Ireland, 12 miles N. of Galw.iy. 
 HEADMOULD SHOT, a disease wherein the sutures "are so 
 close locked together, as to compress the internal parts, the me- 
 ninges, or even the brain. It is supposed to admit of no cure 
 from medicine, unless room could be given by manual operation 
 or a divuLion of tiie sutures. It is the opposite of the horse-shoe- 
 heatl. 
 
 IIEADON, or HEYDON, a borour^h of Yorkshire, in the 
 East Riding, 8 miles E. of Hull. 
 
 HEAD-PENCE, an exaction of a certain sum formerly col- 
 lected by the sherilf of Northumberland from the inhabitants of 
 that county, without any account to be made to the king. It was 
 abolished by slat. 23 Hen. VI. cap. 7. 
 
 HEAD-RtOPE, that part of the bolt-rope which terminates any 
 of the principal sails on the upper edge, which is accordingly sew- 
 ed thereto. 
 
 HE.\D-SAILS, a general name for all those sails which arc ex- 
 tended on the tore-mast and bowsprit, and employed to command 
 the fore-part of tlie shij) : such are the lore-sail, tore-top-sail, fore- 
 top-gallant sail, jib, lore-stay-sail, and the sprit-sail with its top-sail. 
 This term is used in opposition to after-sails, viz. all those which 
 are extended on the mizen-mast, and on the stays between the 
 mizen and main-masts. 
 
 HEAD-TIN, in metallurgy, is a preparation of tin-ore toward 
 the titling it for working into metal. When the ore has been 
 pounded and twice washed, that part of it which lies upper- 
 most, or makes the surface of the mass in the tub, is called the 
 head-tin. 
 
 HEAD TO WIND; the situation of a sliip or boat, when her 
 head is turned to windv.ard. 
 
 HEAD-WAY, the motion of advancing at sea. It is gene- 
 rally used when a sliip first begins to advance; or when it is 
 doubtful whether she is in a state of rest or motion. It is in both 
 senses opposed to retreating, or moving with the stern fore- 
 most. 
 
 HEALFANG, HEALSFANG, or HALSFANG, [from 
 Art/p, neck, and pung-cn, to contain, Sax.] in the ancient English j 
 customs, signifies collistrigiuni, or the punishment of the piilory : \ 
 Paena scilicet qua allcui collum slringatur. ' 
 
 Healfang is also taken for a pecuniary puni-lmient or mulct, 
 to commute for standmg in the pillory ; and is to be paid either to 
 the king or the chief lord. Qui falsum testimonium dedit, reddat 
 regi vi-l terra; domino healfang. 
 
 HEALING, in its general sense, includes the whole process of 
 curing a disorder, and restoring health. In this sense medicine is 
 derined the art ot healing. In its more restrained sense, as used 
 in surgery, &c. healing denotes the uniting or consolidating the 
 lips of a wound or ulcer. The medicines proper for this intention 
 are called incarnatives, asglutinatives, vulneraries, &c. 
 
 Healing, in architecture, denotes the covering the roof of a 
 building ; whether with lead, tiles, slates, Horsham stones, shin- 
 gles, reeds, or straw. 
 
 HEALTH, [from hed, Sax.] a right disposition of the body, 
 and of all its parts ; consisting in a due temperature, a right con- 
 formation, just connection, and ready and free exercise of all the 
 vital functions. Health admits of latitude, as not being the same 
 in all subjects, who may yet be said to enjoy health. That part 
 of medicine which shews the means of preserving health, is termed 
 hygieine. See Medicine. The Greeks and Romans deified 
 health. See Hygi.s;a and Salus. 
 
 Health, \_hecl. Sax.] is a projier disposition of the several 
 constituent parts of the body, by which they are enabled to per- 
 form their respective lunctions without any impediment. The 
 continuance of health depends chiefly on what has been profes- 
 sionally called, the six non-naturals ; namely, air, food, exercise, 
 the passions, evacuation, and retention ; sleip and waking. Mode- 
 ration, however, in the strictest sense of the w ord, is equally essential 
 to the preservation of heallh, as a pure air, and wholesome food. 
 Cleanliness, too, ought bv no means to be neglected ; for an un- 
 clean person very seldom enjoys good health. Hence, frequent 
 washing of the skin is of the first importance ; and we are fully 
 persuaded, that most of the diseases, with which the lower classes 
 of people are affected, especially in crowded neighliourhood# ori- 
 ginate from the tllthy state which is but too evident in many of 
 their wretched habitations. With respect to those pereons who 
 propose to nside in hot climates, we sliall state only a few simple 
 rules, by an attention to whii h their health may be effectually 
 preserved. 1. Abstain from all excess in spirituous liquors. 2. 
 Avoid with the utmost care ihe evening dews, or wetting of the 
 feet on the approach of night ; as fatal sore throats not unfre- 
 queiitly arise from this source. Should the feet, however, have 
 been wetted bv any accident, let the whole body be speedily Ini- 
 meried into cold water. 3. Bathe every morning in the sea, or, if 
 
 possible.
 
 IT E A 
 
 nm 
 
 TIF A 
 
 possible, in sea-water ; but, where that cannot bi- procured, dis- 
 solve an ounce of salt in a bason of water, and \va<^h Ihe skin with 
 the solution, after which put on the dollies wilhout drj'ing the 
 tkin. This operation strengthens the muscular fibres, and covers 
 the skin with a kind of saline crust, which, in the opinion of Dr. 
 Hales, efl'ectuaily prevents all febrile infections. With these |)re- 
 cautions, he asset ts, a person of a sound con-titulion niav cnioy as 
 good a state of health in the hottest as in the most temperate clj- 
 rnates. 
 
 HEARING, a sensation, whereby, from a due motion impress- 
 ed on the fibrilla" of the auditory nerve, and < ominiinicaled thence 
 to the sensory, the mind perceives and gets the idea of sounds. 
 See An ATOM V and Acoustics. 
 
 HEART, [Afort, Sax. /kt?j, German,] the muscle which by 
 its contraction and dilatation propels the blood through the course 
 of circulation, and is llierefore considered as the source of vita! 
 niotion. See Anatomy. 
 
 Heart, Experiments to ascertain the Force of the 
 Blood in the. Physiologists and Analoinisls have from time 
 to time attempted to make estimates of the force of the blood in 
 the heart and arteries ; but liave dilVered as widely from each 
 other, as they have from the trutli, for want of suiticient data. 
 This set the ingenious Dr. Hales upon making proper cxperi- 
 jiients, to ascertain the force of the blood in the veins and arteries 
 of several animals. If, according to Dr. Keil's estimate, the left 
 ventricle of a man's heart throws out in each systole an ounce or 
 1 .638 cubic inches of blood, and the area of tiie orilice of the aorta 
 be ^0.4187, then dividing the former by this, the quotient 3.9 is 
 the length of the cylinder of blond which is formed in passing 
 through the aorta in each systole of the ventricle ; and in the 'b 
 
 pulses of a minute, a cylinder of !?9w; j inches in length will pa-.s : 
 this is at the rale of 14i)2 feet in an hour. But (lie systole of the 
 heart being performed in one-thiid of this time, the velocity of the 
 blood in that instant will be (lirice .is much, viz. at the raie of 
 43S6 feet in an hmir, or 73 feet in a minti'e. And if the ventricle 
 throws out one ounce in a pulse, then in tlie 7.i piiKes of a niiiiiite, 
 the <iuan(ity of blood will l)e equal to 4.4 pounds II ounces, ;n I, 
 in 34 minutes, a (piaiUity e<]ual to a middle-sized m;ni, viz. I5S 
 pounds ui!l pass tlirough the heart. But if, with Dr. M.nvey and 
 Dr. Lower, we suppose 2 ounces of blood, that is, 3.276 cubic 
 inches, to be tlirown out at each systole of the ventricle, then the 
 velocity of the blocd in entering the orilice of the aorta will be 
 double the former, viz. at the rate of 140 feet in a •.iiinute, and a 
 quantity of blood ecpial to the weigl.t of a man's body Will |)ass in 
 half the time, viz. 17 minutes. If we suppo.-e, what is probable, 
 that the blood will rise 7 + 1 feet high in a lube lixed to the ca- 
 rotid artery of a man, and that the inward area of the left ventri- 
 cle of his heart is equal to I.) square inches, these, multiplied into 
 7 + 4 feet, give 13.")0 cubic inches of blood, which presses on that 
 ventricle, when it (irst begins to contract a weight eipial to 1.">.5 
 pounds. What Dr. Hales thus calculated from supposition, witli 
 regard to mankind, he actually experimenteil upon horses, do^Sj 
 fallow-does, &c. by lixing tubes in orifices opened in their veins 
 and arteries ; by observing the seveial lieights to which the blood 
 rose in these tubes as they lay on the ground ; and by measuring 
 tlie capacities of the ventricles of the iieart and orilici s of the ar- 
 teries. And, that the reader may the more readily compare the 
 said estimates together, he has given a table of them, rdnged m 
 tlie following order : 
 
 HEART, TABLE OF THE VELOCITY, &c. OF THE BLOOD IN THE, OF DIFFERENT ANIMALS. 
 
 
 
 i4 
 
 V 
 
 "C 
 
 V 
 
 J5 
 
 2 ■- 
 
 
 tn -r; 
 
 
 "o 
 
 a, rz 
 
 > 
 
 <*- 
 
 o 
 
 CO 
 
 eight of the blood in 
 tube from the jugi 
 vein. 
 
 eight of the blood in tu 
 hxed to arteries. 
 
 ^ 
 a ~ 
 
 
 ■•J 
 
 
 t; 
 
 .3 
 3 
 
 
 II 
 
 uaiitities of blood et 
 to the weight of the : 
 mal, in what time. 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 'eight of the blood s 
 tained in the left ven 
 de contracting. 
 
 M. 
 
 a, 
 «^ 
 
 
 
 !y 
 
 £ 
 
 c 5 
 u 
 
 (*- _ 
 
 H 
 
 
 " 
 
 1.^ 
 
 'O 
 
 < 
 
 > 
 
 C 
 
 
 '- 
 
 /h 
 
 < 
 
 < 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 "0 V 
 
 
 
 
 
 •/ 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 '•~i 
 
 2 
 
 -; 
 
 , 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 . ZJ 
 
 u 
 
 
 cj 
 
 
 -a 
 
 
 ri 
 
 CJ 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 ? u 
 
 ■5 
 
 cr 
 
 
 •-^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 —. 
 
 cr 
 
 
 c~ 
 
 .'-' 
 
 — — ' 
 
 
 
 Cfi 
 
 fc. 
 
 k5 
 
 Bi 
 
 k—t 
 
 
 C/3 
 
 V3 
 
 Man 
 
 160 
 
 On 
 straining. 
 
 7 6 
 
 1.659 
 
 4.318 
 
 0.4187 
 
 56.65 
 113.3 
 
 34.18 
 17.5 
 
 S.32 
 9.36 
 
 51.5 
 
 75 
 
 • 
 
 
 Elorse Ut 
 
 
 
 8 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ofl 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^d 
 
 ^■15 
 
 12 52 
 
 9 6 
 
 10 
 
 I 036 
 
 86 85 
 
 tiO 
 
 13.75 
 
 113.22 
 
 86 
 
 0.677 
 
 0.369 
 
 Ok 
 
 itioo 
 
 
 12.5 
 
 1.539 
 
 76.95 
 
 88 
 
 18.14 
 
 
 38 
 
 0.912 
 
 0.84 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 right, left. 
 
 Sheep 
 Doe 
 
 91 
 
 ii 9 
 
 6 5i 
 
 1,85 
 
 0.172 
 
 174.5 
 
 20 
 
 4,593 
 
 36.56 
 
 65 
 
 0.094 
 
 0.07 0.012 
 
 
 
 4 2 
 
 y 
 
 0.470 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 0.383 
 
 0.246 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 right, left. 
 
 Dog 1st 
 "d 
 
 52 
 
 6 
 
 6 8 
 
 1.172 
 
 0.196 
 
 144.7 
 
 11.9 
 
 4.34 
 
 33.61 
 
 97 
 
 0.106 
 
 0.041 0.034 
 
 24 
 18 
 
 5 7 
 5 
 
 2 8 
 4 8 
 
 1 
 633 
 
 0.1 S5 
 0.118 
 
 l.iO.9 
 130 
 
 6.48 
 7.8 
 
 3.7 
 2.3 
 
 19.8 
 
 
 0. 1 02 
 0.07 
 
 0.031 0.009 
 0.022 0.009 
 
 3d 
 
 Uh 
 
 124 
 
 4 
 
 3 3 
 
 0.5 
 
 0.101 
 
 120 
 
 6.7 
 
 1.S5 
 
 11.1 
 
 
 0.061 
 
 0.015 0.007 
 
 
 V uL. li. — .SO. lu,. 
 
 b L 
 
 llLARXH
 
 TI K A 
 
 682 
 
 HE A 
 
 Hearth-Mon'ey, or Chimnky-Money, a duty to the crown 
 on houses. By stat. 14. Char. 11. cap. 2, every fire-heaith, aiul 
 stove of everv dwelling or other hou^e, widiiu England and Wales 
 (except snchas pay not to church and poor), was chargeable with 
 i;*. per ainKini, payable at Michaelmas and Lady-day to the king 
 air.l his heirs anil's uccessors, &c. Thi:. tax, being much coni- 
 plauK'il of as burdensome to the people, has been since taken oil", 
 and others imposed in its s'oad ,; among wliichthalou whidows 
 has bv some been esteemed almost ecjually grievous. 
 
 Heart's-Ease. SeeVioiA. 
 
 Heart-Seed. See Cardiospermum. 
 
 HE.'^T, [liciit, litvt, Saxon ; liette, Danish,] in physiology, has 
 a liouiile meaning; being put either for that peculiar sensation 
 which is felt on the approach of burning bodies, or for the cause of 
 that sensation ; in which last sense it is synonymous with lire, or 
 that substance now called caloric. See 'Caloric, Chemistry, 
 CoMiiusTioN, and Electbicitv. 
 
 " He.^t, Internal, cf the Earth. TiJat there is a very 
 considerable degree of heat always felt in digging to great depths 
 in the earth, is agreed upon by all n;turalists : but the quantity of 
 this iieat hath seldom been measured in any part ; nor is it known 
 whether in digging to an equal depth in dilferent parts of th.e earth, 
 the heat is found always the sam'e. In digging mines, wells, Sec. 
 they hnd that at a little depth below liie'surlace it is cold. A 
 little lower it is colder still, as being beyond any immediate in- 
 fluence of the sun's rays ; insomuch that water will freeze almost 
 at any season of the year: but when we go to tlie depth of 40 or 
 50 feet, it begins to grow warm, so that no ice can bear it; and 
 then the deeper we go, sllU the greater die heat, until at last re- 
 spiration grows difiicult, and the candles go out. This heat of the 
 earth has been variously explained. Some suppose an immense 
 body of hre lodged in Uie centre of the earlli, wdiichthey consider 
 as a central sun, and the great princip'le of the generation, vegeta- 
 tion, nutrition, &c. of fossil and vegetable bo<iies. But Mr. 
 Boyle, who had been at the bottom of some mines himself, sus- 
 pects that this degree of heat, at least in some of them, may arise 
 irom the peculiar nature of the minerals generated therein. In 
 ])roof of this, he instances a mineral of a vitriolickind, dug up in 
 large quan ities in many parts of England, whidi by the bare effu- 
 sion of common water will grow so hot, that it will almost take fire. 
 Heat, Noxious Effects of Immoderate. Great heats are 
 rather Ihe remote, than the immediate cause of epidemical dis- 
 eases, by relaxing the libres, and di-posing the juices to putre- 
 faction ; especially among soldiers and per^ons exposed the whole 
 ilay to the sun ; for the greatest heats are seldom found to proiluce 
 epidemic diseases, till the perspiration is slopped by wet clothes, 
 fogs, dews, damps, &c. and then some bilious or putrid distemper 
 js the certain consetiuence, as fluxes a.id ardent intermitling fe- 
 vers. Sometimes, however, heats have been so great as to prove 
 the more immediale cause of particular disorders; as when cen- 
 tinels have been placed without cover or frequent reliefs in scorch- 
 ing heals ; or when people imprudently lie down and sleep in the 
 sun. All these circuinsumces are apt to bring on distempers, vary- 
 ing according to the season of the year. In the beginningof suiii- 
 liier, they produce inflammatory fevers ; and in autumn, remitting 
 fevers or dysenteries. To prevent, therefore, the effects of im- 
 moderate heats, commanders have found it expedient so to order 
 the marches, that the men come to their ground before the lieat 
 e)f the day; and to give strict orders, that none of them sleep out 
 of their tents, whicli, in fixed encampiiK nts, may be covered with 
 boughs to shade them from tiie sun. It is likewise a rule of great 
 impottance to have the soldiers exercised before the cool of the 
 morning is over; as thus not only the sultry heats are avoided, 
 but the blood being cooled, and the fibres '.iraced, the body will 
 be better prejjared to bear the heat of the day. L.aslly, in very 
 hot weather, it has often been found proper to shorten the centi- 
 oel's duty, when obliged to stand in the sun. \ 
 
 Heat of Animals. Of the natural heat of animals, there are 
 •various degrees ; some preserving a heat of 100° or more in all 
 the dilferent temperatures of the atmosphere ; others keeping only 
 a few degrees warmer thaii the medium which surrounds them ; 
 and in some ol the more imperfect animals, th.e heat is scarcely 
 one degree above that of the air or water in which they live. The 
 phvnoinenon of animal heat has, from the earliest ages, been the 
 sDlijctt of philosopliical discussion; and many hypotheses -have 
 
 been framed to account for it. According to Dr. Crawford, who 
 has made accurate experiments on this subject, the blood which 
 circulates through tlie lungs absorbs oxygen in the act of respira- 
 tion, bv means of which a portion of the carbon which it contains 
 is acidified and carried off in tlie elastic state. Alter this, and per- 
 haps other changes, the lluid passeslhrough the arteries to the ex- 
 treme vessels, depositing in some manner the elementary parts or 
 principles of animal matter during the act of nutrition, in which 
 slate of still further change the blood returns by the veins, and 
 again passes through the course of circulation. From his experi- 
 ments on the capacities of arterial and venous blood, Dr. Craw- 
 ford found Ihe capacity of the former for heat to be 1.030, and 
 that of the latter only O.S9'2, whence lie concludes, that though 
 heat must be given out in consequence of the ilmiinished capacity 
 of the combined oxygen absorbed by respiration, yet the increas- 
 ed capacity of the arterial blood will prevent its becoming sensi- 
 ble immediately in the le.^gs; instead of wdiich, it will be given 
 out at the smaller ramifications where the blood becomes changed 
 in its nature, and in its capacity for heat by its conversion to tlie 
 venous state. It has also been established by the experiments of 
 the same philosopher, that the ])roce3s of absorption of oxygen is 
 less in a higher than in a low temperature; the difference between 
 the arterial and venous blood being at the same time less, and 
 conse(|nently the augmentation of temperature in the animal less 
 considerable. This law of the animal economy, assisted by the 
 increased evaporation, and l)y the slow conducting power of an 
 animal body, and perhaps by the permanency of the enlarged ca- 
 pacity, seems sullicicnt to account for the power which animals 
 possess of maintaining their natural temperature without any re- 
 markable change in an atmosphere greatly heated, as was shewn 
 in the experiments of Fordyce and Blagden. (See Philos. Trans. 
 1775.) However this suljject will admit of farther consideration 
 and investigation. 
 
 Heat of the Atmosphere. The mercury seldom falls un- 
 der l(j° in Fahrenheit's thermometer; but we are apt to reckon it 
 very cold at 24°, and it continues cold to 40° and a little above. 
 However, such colds have been often known as bring it down to 
 0° the beginning of the scale, or nearly the cold produced by a 
 mixture of snow and salt, often near it, and in soine places below 
 it. Thus, the degree of the thermometer has been observed at 
 various times and places as follows: 
 
 Places. 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 Paris 
 
 Leyden 
 
 Htfecht 
 
 London 
 
 Copenhagen 
 
 Upsal 
 
 Petersburg 
 
 Torneo 
 
 Hudson's Bay 
 
 Lat. 
 
 40° 0' 
 48 50 
 5'J 8 5 
 5J 5 
 
 51 31 
 55 i\^ 
 59 51| 
 59 56 
 05 50| 
 
 52 24 
 
 Year. 
 
 1732 
 
 1709& 1710 
 1729 
 
 1709&: 1710 
 1 709 
 1732 
 
 1736-7 
 1775 
 
 llterm, 
 5° 
 8 
 5 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 —I 
 
 —28 
 -37 
 
 The middle temperature of our atmosphere is about 48° being 
 nearly a medium of all the seasons. The French make it some- 
 what higher, reckoning it equal to the cave of their national ob- 
 servatory, or 53°. In cold countries, the air is found agreeable 
 enough "to the inhabitants winle it is between 40 and 50° Incur 
 climate we are best pleased w ilh the heat of the air f.om 50 to 60° ; 
 while in the hot coimlrics the air is generally at a medium about 
 70°. W ilh us, the air is not reckoned warm till it arrives at about 
 64°, and it is very warm and sultry at 80°. It is lo be noUd, that 
 the foregoing observations are to be understood of die stale of tii« 
 air in tlie shade ; for as to the heat of bodies acted upon by the 
 direct rays of the sun it is much greater : thus. Dr. Marline found 
 dry earth healed to above 120°; but Dr. Hales found a very hot 
 sun-shine heat in 1727 to be about l4o° ;and Mnsschenbroeck once 
 observed it so high as 150 ; but at Montpelier tlie sun was so very 
 hot, on one day in 1705, as to raise iV. Amonton's tliermomeler 
 to the mark of boiling water itself, wdiich is 212°. Tlie diveisitv 
 in Ihe heat of different climes and seasons arises from the dilferent 
 angles under which the sun's rays strike upon tlie surface of llis 
 earth. In the Phil. Trans. Abr. vol. 2. p. 165, Dr. Halley has 
 given a computation of this heat, on the principle, that the simple 
 action of the sun's rays, like other impulses or strokes, is more or
 
 Tl E A 
 
 fiB.^ 
 
 Tl K A 
 
 less forcible, according to tlie sines of llu- iini>k's nt iiKiileme, or 
 to Ihe sines of tlie sun's ultiuulfs, at il.flii>-iit linns or plaii-s. 
 Hence it follows, tliiit, tin- tunc of continuance, or tlie sun's siiin- 
 inu; on any place, being taken for a basis, and tlie sines of the sun's 
 altitudes perpeiulicularly erected upon il, and a curve-line drawn 
 tbrougli tlie extremities of tlio'se perpeiidieulars, the area tluis com- 
 prehended will bi' proportional to the collection of all the heat ol 
 the sun's b.-ams in that space of lime. Hence it likewise follows, 
 that, at the pole, the collection of all the heat of a tropical day, 
 is proportional to the rectangle or product of the sine of 23-,?. de. 
 grces in 34 hours, or the circumference of a circle, or as -^"5 into 
 \\> hours, the sine of 23-/^ degrees being nearly-^ of radius. Or 
 the polar heat will be eipial to that ol the sun continuing 12 hours 
 above the horizon at 53 degrees height : and the sun is not live 
 Jiours more elevated than tliis under the equinoctial. But as it is 
 the nature of heal to remain in the subject, after the luminary is 
 removed, and particularly in the air, under the equinoctial the 12 
 liours absence ofthesuu abates but little from the effect of his heat 
 in the day ; but under Ihe pole the long absence of the sun for 
 six months has so chilled the air, that il is in a manner frozen; 
 and alter the sun has risen upon the pole again, it is long before 
 liis beams can make any impression, being obstructed by thick 
 clouds and fogs. From the foregoing p"inciple Dr. liallev com- 
 putes the following table, exhibiting the heat to every lOth de- 
 gree of latitude, for the C(iuinoctial and tropical sun, and from 
 w liich an estimate may easilv be made for th.e intermediate degrees. 
 
 Lat. 
 
 Sign 
 
 that the si 
 
 n IS 111. 
 
 cy) or =i 
 
 SS 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 20000 
 
 1S341 
 
 1S34I 
 
 10 
 
 1<169G 
 
 202:K) 
 
 1.VS34 
 
 20 
 
 18794 
 
 21737 
 
 1 3 1 60 
 
 30 
 
 173J1 
 
 226:) 1 
 
 1 1 1.'4 
 
 40 
 
 15321 
 
 2304S 
 
 6944 
 
 50 
 
 12855 
 
 2299 1 
 
 3798 
 
 (30 
 
 10000 
 
 22773 
 
 1075 
 
 70 
 
 0840 
 
 23543 
 
 
 
 SO 
 
 3473 
 
 24673 
 
 
 
 90 
 
 
 
 25055 
 
 
 
 From the same principles, and table, also he de>';uced the follow- 
 ing corollaries, viz. l.That the equatoreal heat, when the sun 
 becomes vertical, is as twice the square of the radius. 2. Thai, at 
 the equator, the heat is as the sine of the sun's declination. 3. That, 
 in the frigid zones, when the sun sets not, the heat is as the cir- 
 cumference of a circle into the sine of the altitude at G: and con- 
 sequently that, in the same latitude, these aggregates of heat are 
 as the sines of the sun's declination ; and at the same declination of 
 the sun, they are as the sines of the latitudes ; and generally they 
 are as the sines of the latitudes into the sines of declination. 4. 
 That tlie equatoreal day's heat is everywhere the same as tlie co- 
 sine of the latitude. 5. In all places where the sunsets, the dif- 
 ference between the summer and winter heats, when the declinations 
 are contrary, is equal to a circle into die sine of the altitude at 6, 
 in the summer-parallel; and consequently those differences are as 
 the rectangles of the sines of the latitude and declination. 6. 'I'he 
 tropical sun has the least force of any at the equator ; and at tiie 
 pole il is greatest of all. Against this tlieory some object, that Ihe 
 effect of the sun's heat is not in the simple, but in the duplic.ite 
 ratio of the sines of the angles of incidence ; like the law of the im- 
 pulse of fluids. And indeed, the quantity of the sun's direct rays 
 received at any place, being evidently as the sine of the angle of 
 incidence, or of the sun's altitude, if the heat be aKo proportional 
 to tlie force with which a ray strikes, like a mechaniial ac- 
 tion or impulse of any body, then it will follow that the heat must 
 be in the compound ratio of both, that is, as the square of the sine 
 of the sun's altitude. But tiiis last principle is here only assumed 
 gratis, as we do not know a priori tliat the heat is proportional (o 
 the force of a striking body ; and it is only experiment that can de- 
 termine this point. It is cert.iin, that heat conimuiiicated by the 
 sun to bodies on the earth depends also much upon other circum- 
 stances beside the direct force of his rays. Thesemii^l be modilied by 
 our atmosphere, and variously reflected and combined by the ac- 
 tiua of die earth's surface itselt, to produce any teuurkabie effects 
 
 oi heat. So that if it were not for these addllion.il circumstances. 
 It is probalde, the naked heat of the sun would not be very sen-i- 
 ble. Dr. Halley himselt allowed, that many oiher circumstaiices, 
 liesirles ihe direct force of the sun's rays, contributed toaugireiit 
 or dimini-hthe effect ol this, and (he heat resulting Irom it, in dif- 
 (erent cimiales. No calculation, therefore, lormed on the preceding 
 theory, can be suppose.l to correspond exactiv with observation 
 and ex|)eriment. It has al.-o been objected, tiiat, accortlmg to lli« 
 foregoing theory, the gria'.est heat in the same i)lace should be at 
 the simimer-solstice, and tlie mo>t extreme cold at the winter- 
 solstice; which is contrary to experience. To this objection it 
 may be replied, that heal is not produced in bodies by the sun in- 
 stantaneously, nor do the etlects of his heat cea.se inimeiliately 
 when his rays are withdrawn; and therefore those parts which are 
 once heated, retain the heat for some time ; which, with Ihe ad- 
 ditional heat daily imparted, makes it continue to increase, though 
 the sun declines from us: and this is the reason why July is hot- 
 tertlian June, although the sun has withdrawn from the summer- 
 tro|)ic ; as we also tiiid it is gencTally hotter at 1,2, or 3, P. M. 
 when the sun has declined towards the west, than at noon, when 
 he is on ihe meridian. As long as the heating particli-s, wnich are 
 constantly received, are more numerous than tiiose which fly a- 
 way or lose their force, the heat of bodies must continu ,lly in- 
 crease. So, after the sun has left the tropic, the number of par- 
 ticles, which heat our atmosphere and earth, constantly increases, 
 because we receive more in the day tlian we lose at night, and 
 therefore our heal must also increase. But as the days decrease, 
 and the action of the sun becomes weaker, more particles will 
 tly off in the night than are received in the day, by which means 
 the earth and air will gradually cool. Farther, those places which 
 are well cooled, require time to be heated again ; and therefore 
 January is mostly colder than December, although the sun has 
 withdrawn from the winter-tropic, and begun to emit his rays more 
 perpendieularlv upon u^. liut the chief cau-e of the dillerencc 
 between the hnit of summer and winter is, that in summer the rays 
 fall more perpendicularly, and pass through a less dense part of the 
 almo^piieie; and therelore with greater force, or at least in greater 
 nuaiber in the same place ; and besides, by their long contiiuumce, 
 a nuK h greater degree of heal is imparted by day than Can fly olY 
 by night. For the calculations and opinions of several other phi- 
 losoi'hers on this head, see Keill's Astron. lect. 8; Fi-rgusoii's- 
 Aslron.ch. 10; J^ong's Astron. 777 ; Acad. Scieuc. 1719. 
 Heath, in botany. See Erica. 
 Heath, Berry- Bearing. See Empetrunt. 
 Heath, Mountain. See Saxifraca. 
 HEAFHENS. See Pagans. 
 
 HEAVING, in the sea-language, signifies throwing any thing. 
 over-board. Also turning about tlie capstan, is called heaving at 
 the capstan. Likewise, when a ship being at anchor rises and tall* 
 bv the force of the waves, she is said to heave and set. 
 ■ 1 1 EAVE THE LOG, See Loo, and Navtcation-. 
 H1'',AVEN, \_lici>J':)ii, which seems to be derived (rom henfd, 
 the places over the head, Siixon.] Amoxg (.'hristian divines and 
 phi!oso|)liers, is considered as a place in s,;ine remote part of infi- 
 nite space, in which the omnipresent Duty affords .a nearer and 
 more immediate view of himself, and a more sensible manifestation 
 of his glory, than in the other parts of the universe. _ 'Fhis is often 
 called the" empyrean heaven, from that splendor with which it U 
 supposed to be invested ; and of this place the inspired writers 
 give us the most noble and magnificent descriptions. 
 
 Heaven, among Pagans, was considered as the residence only 
 of the celestial gods, into which mortals were not admitted alter 
 death, unless they w e»e deified. As for the soii'.s of good men, 
 thev were consigned to the Elvsian fields. See Ei.ysivm. 
 
 Heaven, in astroDomy called also ethereal and st^irry heaven, 
 is tlial immense region whereiti tiie stars, planets, and come.. s, ar» 
 disposed. See Astronomy. This is what Moses calls the (irina- 
 mei't, speaking of it as tlie work of the secqnd day's creation ; at 
 K-a-t it is thus the word j,"?"' is usually rendered by his interpre- 
 ter> ; tiiough somewhat abu.-ively, to countenance their ow n notion 
 of the heavens being lirm or solid. But the wor<l properly signi- 
 fies no more than expanse or extension ; a term very well adapted 
 i)y the prophet to the impression which the heavens rnnke on out 
 senses; whence, in oilier jiarfs of scripture, the heaven is < om- 
 paxid to a curtain, or a lent »treicl;ed uut to dwell iu. The LXK. 
 
 t titit
 
 HEB 
 
 mA 
 
 TIER 
 
 nAE2£^&wSE?£^£S! 
 
 first ailcled to this idc:-. of expansion tluit of firm or solid ; render- 
 ing it by r^;™;-''', according to tlie pliilosopliy of tliose times; in 
 uhich t'liev'liave been verv injudiciously followed by the modern 
 translators; Des Carles 'Kircher, &c-. "diijnonstrated this heaven 
 not to be solid, but tkiid ; but they still sujiposeJ it fuil, or per- 
 fectlydjiise, without any vacuity, and cantoned out into many 
 vortices. Dut others have overlurned not only tl-.e solidity, but 
 the supposed plenitudo, of th.e heavens. Sir Isaac Newton has 
 alumdanlly shewn the heavens void of almost all resistance, and, 
 C"n-equen'tlv, of almost all matter: tliis he proves from the pha.-- 
 nomena of ll'ie celestial bodies ; IVoni the planets persisting in their 
 motions without any sensible diminution of their velocity ; and the 
 comets treely parsing in all directions towards all parts of the 
 heavens. Heaven, taken in a general sense, for the whole ex- 
 panse between our earth and the remotest regions of the fixed stars, 
 mas be <livided into two very unequal -|KU-ts, according to the mat- 
 ter found therein ; viz. the al'mosphere, or aerial heaven, possessed 
 by air; and the .rlhereal heaven, possessed by a thin, unresisting 
 medium, called a'ther. 
 
 Heaven is also used, in astronomy, for an orb, or circular re- 
 gion, of the lethereal heaven. The ancient astronomers suppose I 
 a< many different heavens as they observed motions therein. 
 These they supposed all to be solid', as thinking they could not 
 otherwise sustain the bodies fixed in them ; and spiu-riral, tlial 
 being the most proper form for motion. Thus they had seven 
 heavens for the seven planets ; viz. the heavens of the moon, Mer- 
 curv, Venus, Uie Sun, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn The 8th was 
 for the fixed stars, which they called the lirmanient. Ptolemy 
 adds a 9th heaven, wliich he called the primum mobile. Two 
 crvstalline heavens were added l)y king Alphonsus X. &c. to af- 
 count for some irregularifies in the motions of theotiicr heavens: 
 and laslly, an empyrean heaven was drawn over the whole, for the 
 residence of the Deity ; which made the number twelve. But 
 others admitted many more heavens according as their (hffereiit 
 vie«s ;ukI hypotheses required. Eudoxus supposed 23, Calippus 
 30, Regiomontanus 33, Aristotle 47, and Fracastor no less tiian 70. 
 'J he astronomers, however, did not much concern themselves 
 whether the heavens they thus allowed of were real or not ; pro- 
 vided they served a purpose in accounting for any of the ceit-stial 
 motions, and agreed with the phjpnomena. 
 
 HEBDOMAD, [liebdamas, Latin,] a work ; a space of seven 
 
 ""h'eBDOMADAP.Y, HERDOMADAIHUS, or HEBBO- 
 M.'^DIUS, [fnnn tfioaa;, Gr. seven,] a member of a chapter or 
 convent, wh<ise v^^eek it is to ofliciate in the choir, to reheaive tiie 
 . antlieins and prayers, and to perform the usual functions which ilu 
 superiors pertorm at solemn feasts, and other extraordinary oc- 
 casions. 
 
 HEBDOMAGENES, [from 'etto, seven, and )ivv.,o-if, birth,] 
 a t!tle of Apollo, so named I'roin his being born on tlie 7th dav o: 
 (lie month; whence the 7th days were held sacred to him. See 
 Hhisdome. 
 
 HEBDOMARIUS.orllEBDOMARY. See the article Heb- 
 domad ary. 
 
 H EliDOME, ['r?'*<i,u.rtf, Gr. '.he seventh day,] a soleninitv of 
 the an< ienl Greeks, in honour of Apollo, in which the Atheii'aus 
 sung hymns to liis praise, and carried in their hands branches of 
 Jaurel. It was observed on the seventh day of every lunar 
 monlli. 
 
 HEI'E, in ancient mythology, a goddess, the idea of whom, 
 among the Romans, seems to have been that of eternal vouUi, or 
 immortality ot bliss. She is fabled to have been a daughter of 
 Jupiter and Junn. According to some she was the daughter of 
 Juiio only, who conceived her after eating lettuces. She was fair, 
 and always in the bloom of youtli, being the goddess of youth, and 
 made liy her molluT cup-bearer to. the gods. 
 
 HEBENS'IKETIA, in botany, a genus of the aiigiospermia 
 order ami didynaniia class of plants ; natural order, Aggregata-. 
 Calyx emarginated, divided below; corolla unilabiale ; tlie lip 
 rising upwards, and quadrifid ; capsule dispcrmous ; stamina in- 
 serted into ,he niargin of iIk' limb of the corolla. It has six species, 
 natives of the Cape. j.- 
 
 HEBKhCW LANGUAGE, ANCIENT, is the language 
 spoken by the ancient Hebrews, and wherein the Old Testaineni 
 ii written. This appears to be tl;e most f.ncient of all the lan- 
 
 guages in the world, at least vve know of none older ; and some 
 learned men are ol opinion, that this is the language in which God 
 spoke to Adam in Paradise. Dr. Sharpe adopts the opinion, tnat 
 llie Hebrew was the original language; not indeeil that the He- 
 brew is the unvaried language of our tirst parents, but that it was 
 the general language of men at the dispersion ; and however it 
 might have been improved and altered from the iirst speech of our 
 lirst parents, it was the original of all the languages, or almost all 
 the languages, and dialects, that have since arisen in the world. 
 See Philology. The books of the Old Testament are the only 
 pieces to be found, in all antiquity, written in pure Hebrew ; and 
 tiie language of many of these is extremely sublime: it appears 
 perfectly regular, and particularly so in its conjug.ations. Indeed, 
 properly speaking, it has but one conjugation ; but this is varied 
 in each seven or eight different ways, which has the ellect of so 
 many different conjugations, and aliord.s a great variety of expres- 
 sions, to represent bv i single word, the different modifications of 
 a verb, and many ideas, which in the modern, and in many of the 
 ancient and learned languages, cannot be expressed without a peri- 
 phrasis. The jirimitive words, which are called roots, haveseidom 
 more than three letters or two syllables. In this language tliere 
 are 22 letlera, hve of which are vowels, viz. Ale-pli, He, Jod, Ain 
 iiT Oin, aiul Vnu, answering to our n, e, ?, o, and u ; but then 
 each vowel is divided into two, a long and a short, the sound of 
 tiie former being somewhat grave and long, and that of the latter 
 short and acute. And the two last vowels have sounds that diller 
 ri other respects, besides quantity and a greater or less elevation. 
 Tolhose 10 or 12 vowels may be added others, called semi-vowels, 
 which connect the consonants, and make the easier transitions from 
 one to another. The number of accents in this language is indeed 
 prodigious: of these there are near 40, the use of some of which, 
 notwiuislandiiig all the inquiries of the learned, are not yet per- 
 fectly known. We know, in general, that they serve to distinguish 
 tlie sentences, like the points called commas, semicolons, Stc. in 
 our language; to deteimnie the quantity of the syllables ; and to 
 mark tiie tone with which they are to be spoken or sung. It is uq 
 wonder, then, that there are more accents in the Hebrew than in 
 other languages, since thev perform the office of three different 
 things, which in other languages are called by different names. 
 Asw^ehave no Hebrew but what is contained in the Scripture, 
 that language to us wants many words; not only because, in those 
 primitive limes, the languages were not so copious as at present; 
 hut also on this account, that the inspired writers had no occasion 
 to mention many of the terms tiia*. might be in the language. The 
 Chaldee, Syriar, Ethiopic, &c. languages, are by some held to be 
 only dialects ot the Hebrew ; as the Frencli, Italian, Spanish, &c. 
 aredialects of the Latin. It has been supposed by many very 
 learned men, that the flebrew letters were often used hierogly- 
 phically, and that each had its several distinct sense understood as 
 a hieroglyphic. Nemnan, who seems to have taken vast pains to 
 lind out this secret meaning of these letters, gives the following ex- 
 plication: a alcph, he says, is a cliaracter denoting motion, readi- 
 ness, and activity"; 3 /wA signifies, 1. Matter, body, substance, 
 thing; 2. Place," space, or capacity; and, 3. In, wilhhi, or con- 
 tained : i g-^Hc/ stands for llexion, bending or obliquity of any kind: 
 1 daitth signifies any protrusion made from without, or any pro- 
 motion of "any kind : n he stands for presence, or demonstrative es- 
 sence of any thing: > ■^■nu stands for copulation or growing to- 
 gether of things: t dsain expresses vehement protrusion and vio- 
 lent compression, such as is occasioned by at once violently dis- 
 charging and constringing a thing together ; it also signifies some' 
 times the straitening of liny figure into a narrow point at the end : 
 n chtih expresses association, sociely, or any kind of composition 
 or combination of things together: B teth stands for the withdraw- 
 ing, drawing back, or recess", of any tiling : »;o(/ signifies extension 
 and length, whether in matter or in time: 3 eaph expresses a turn- 
 ing, curvedness, or concavity: S lamed stands for an addition, 
 access, impulse, or adversation, and sometimes for pressure : a »!(•;;» 
 expresses amplitude, ortheamplif> ingof an\ thing in whateversense; 
 in regard to continue qualities,' it sigiiifie- the adding <f length, 
 breadth, and circumference; and in distinct qualities it signifies 
 luultitudc: i mm signifies the propagation of one thin" from 
 mother, or ol the same thing from one person to I'uother : D snmceh 
 , xprestes cincture ^-.iid coar tation : j? g?win stands for ol>se valion, 
 objeclioii, or obvialion : B pe stands lor a crookedness or an angle 
 
 of
 
 H EB 
 
 68,5 
 
 HEC 
 
 bt any ligLirc : ^ tsadt oxjjresses foiiliguity and cl<»c success i'Mi : 
 J) tcofili t'xiJiesses aciitiiit or ambit: 1 rfi/i cxprosses llie egicss 
 of any tiling, as also tlie extt-rior part of a thing, and tlie cxlrenii- 
 l\ or end of any thing i V shin signilies tlie number tlirce, or the 
 tliird degree, or llie nlmost perfection of any tlimg : n tan expresses 
 jt sequel, continuation, succession, of any thing. According to this 
 exphcation, as the several particular letters of the Hebrew alphabet 
 separately signify the ideas of motion, matter, space, and seveial 
 nioditications of matter, space, and motion, it follows, that a lar.- 
 guage, the words of which are composed of >uch expressive clia- 
 racteis, must necessarily be of ail languages the most perfect and 
 expressive, as the words formed of such letters, according to their 
 cleterminate separate signilication, must convey the idea of all the 
 matters contained in the sense of the several characters, and be at 
 ■ once a name and a delinition, or succinct description of the subject, 
 and all things material as well as spiritual, all objects in the natural 
 and moral world, must be known as soon as their names are known, 
 aud their separati; letters considered. Urim and Tluunmim arc thus 
 easily explained, and found, perhaps the most apposite and ex- 
 pressive words that were ever formed. See that article. 
 
 Hebrew Language, Rabbinical, or the Modern Hebrew, 
 is the language used by the rabbins in their writings. 1 he basis or 
 body hereof is the Hebrew and Chaidee, with divers alterations in 
 the words of these two languages, tiie meanings whereof they have 
 considerably enlarged and extended. Abundance of things they 
 have borrowed from the.\rabic: the rest is chieliy composed of 
 words and expressions from tin: Greek ; some from the Latin : and 
 others from the other modern tongues; particularly that spoken 
 in the place where each raUbin lived or wrote. The rabbinical 
 Hebrew must be allowed to be a very copious language. M. Si- 
 mon, in his Hist. Crit. du A'ieux Testam. liv. iii. ch. 27, observes, 
 that there is scarce any art or science but the rabbins have treated 
 thereof in it. They have translated most of the ancient philoso- 
 phers, mathematicians, astrorfomers, and physicians ; and have 
 written themselves on most subjects : they do not want even ora- 
 tors and ports. This language, notwithstanding it is so crowded 
 with foreign words, has many beauties in tlie works of those who 
 have written well in it. 
 
 Hebrew Bible. See Bible. 
 
 Hebrews, or Epistle ro the Hebrews, a canonical book of 
 the New Testament. Though St. Paul did not prelix his name 
 to thi^ epistle, the concurrent testimony of the best authors, an- 
 cient and modern, afford such evidence of his being the author of 
 it, that the objections to the contrary are of little or no weight. 
 His mentioning Inmself in it, as lately a prisoner in Italy, and his 
 promise to visit the Hebrews, together with 'I'iniothy, who had 
 been released from imprisonment, both denote the writer, and the 
 time ot his writing this epistle, Ih.it it was just after the deliverance 
 of St. Paul from his first trial at Home. The Hebrews, to whom 
 this epistle was written, were the believing Jews of Palestine, and its 
 design was to convince them, and, by their means, all the Jewish 
 converts, wheresoever disiiersed, of the insufficiency and abolish- 
 ment of the ceremonial and ritual law. In order to which he un- 
 dertakes to shew, first, the superior excellency of Christ's person 
 above that of Moses: secondly, the superiority of Clirist's priest- 
 hood above the Levitical : tiiirdly, the mere ligurative nature, and 
 litter insufificiency of the legal ceremonies and facritiies: and, 
 fourthly, that to forsake the Mosaical law, was not, as the Jews 
 boldly asserted, to apostatize from God, but was their indispensable 
 duty and obligation. These paiticulais are intermixed with jiro- 
 per inferences aiul exhortation-, all tending to shew the Jewish 
 Christians the unreasonableness, folly, and danger, of relapsing 
 into Jui'aism. 
 
 HEBRIDES, .?:BUD.E, or WESTERN ISLANDS, the 
 general name of some islands, lying to the N. W. of Scotland, of 
 w4iich kingdom they constitute a part. They are situated between 
 53" and 39" lat. N. are supposed to be about 300 in number, and 
 to contain 4S,ono inhabitants. The principal are Skye, Mull, 
 Hay, Arran, St. Kdda, N. and S. Uist, Cannay, Stiit'fa, Jura, 
 Lewi^, and Harris. .See these articles. 
 
 Hebrides, New, a cluster of islands in tlie Pacific Ocean, so 
 named by Captain Cook, who explored the whole cluster, and, 
 besides ascertaining the extent and situation ef these islands, added 
 tl>e knowledge of several others. They extend 375 miles, from 
 K. N. ^Y. to S. S. E. The natives are civil and hospitable; of a 
 
 vol. Ji.— NO, 102. 
 
 slender make, and dark colmir, and L.ive n.(>->tly frizzh-o li..r. 
 I'lie (iroductions are cocoa-nuts, bread-fruit, plantains, sugar- 
 cane>, yams, &c. 'i'he whole cluster consi is of the followinjj 
 islands; some of wh.cli have received names from the diljerent 
 European navigators, others retain the names which they bear 
 among the natives: viz. Titrra del Espiritn Santo, Mallif olio, St. 
 Bartholomew, Isle of Leper-, Amora, Wiiitsmifide, Ainbrym, 
 Immer, Apee, Three Hills, S.indwich, .Vloiitapii, Hinchinbrook, 
 Shepherd, Erromanga, Erionan, Analtom, and Tamia. They are 
 situated between l(io"40'and 170°2rLon. E. and between 14* 
 So'antisr.' 4' Lat. S. 
 
 HEBRON, in ancient geography, a city sealed in the hil'y 
 country of the tribe of Judali to the south. lis more ancient 
 name was Ivirjath-Arba, or Carialh-Arba. In antiiiuity it vied 
 with the more ancient cities of Egypt, biing seven years jirior to 
 Zoan, translated Tanis by the LXX. Josephus makes it n<it only 
 older than Tanis, but even than Memphis. Hebron is twenty-one 
 miles S. of Bethlehem, and twenty-four S. W. of Jerusalem. 
 
 HEBBUS, in ancient geography, the largest river of Thrace, 
 which rises from mount Sconibrus, aud fails by two mouths into 
 the .I'Egeaii Sea. 
 
 HEBUD^, HEBUDES, or £.BUT>JE, in ancient geoE^raphy. 
 islands on the W. of Scotland, now called the Western Isles, and 
 Hebrides. 
 
 HECAT.'EA, \_'£xalccia,'] in antiquity, statues erected to the 
 goddess Hecate, who, the Athenians believed, was the overseer of 
 their families, and the protectress of their children. 
 
 HECATE, in the mythology, a name of Diana. She was call- 
 ed Luna in heaven, Diana on earth, and Hecate or Proserpine in 
 hell ; whence her name of Diva Triformis, Tergemina, 'Iriceps. 
 She was supposed to preside over enchantments. She was gene- 
 rally represented like a woman, with the head of a horse, a dog, 
 or a boar ; and sometimes she appeared with three different bodies, 
 and three faces, with one neck. 
 
 Hecate, in fabulous history, a queen of Taurica Chersonesus, 
 daughter of Perses and Asleria, who poisoned her father. 
 
 HECATESIA, ['E-x.^lari-t,,'] in antiquity, an annual solemnity 
 observed by the Slratoiiicensiaiis, in honour of Hecate. 
 
 HECA'IO.MB, in antiquity, was a sacrifice of lOI beasts of 
 the same kind, at 100 altars, and by 100 priests or sui riiicers. The 
 Greek wird, />tB7o,M^i, properly signilies a magnificent sacrifice. 
 Others derive it (roni tiie Greek ^'xiiTov, a hundred, and "i;, a bul- 
 lock ; others from i-.'.rcToy and ^i;, a toot; on which principle they 
 liold, that the hecatomb might consist of only twenty-iive four- 
 footed beasis; and that it did not matter what kind of beasts were 
 chosen for victims, provided there were but 100 feet. Pythagoras 
 is said to have sacrificed a hecatomb to the Muses of 100 oxen, ii^ 
 gratitude for discoveiing the dcnionstratii.n of the forty-seventh 
 proposition of Euclid. Sirabo relates that tliere were 100 cities iu. 
 Laconia, and that each city used to sacrifice a bullock every .year 
 for the common safety of the country; whence the institution of 
 hecatombs. Others refer the origin of hecatombs to a plague, where- 
 with the 100 cities of Peloponi.esus were a(l]icte<l ; for the removal 
 whereof, they jointly contributed to do so splendid a sacrifice. 
 
 HECA'l'OMB.LON, ['Ex»1c;x?a.ivy,] in chronology, the first 
 month of the Athenian year. It consisted of thirty days, and be- 
 gan on the first new moon after the summer-solstice ; answering to 
 the latter part of June and beginning of July. The Boeotians call- 
 ed it Hippodromus, and tlie Macedonians Loiis, (A^g^, or .v;'^-). 
 See .Month. 1 he word is derived from the Greek ■■inh,ui'<t, a 
 hecatomb, because of the great number of hecatombs sacrificed 
 in it. 
 
 H ECATOMPOLtS, a surname of Crete, from its 100 cities. 
 
 HECKLE See Elax-dressing, and Hatchel. 
 
 H EC LA, a volcano of Iceland, and one of tlie most furious in 
 the world. See Iceland. It was visited in 1772 by Dr. Van 
 Troil, a Swedish gentleman, along with Mr. (now Sir Joseph) 
 Banks, Dr. Solander, and Dr. James Lind of Edinburgh. On 
 their first landing they found a tract of land sixty or seventy miles 
 in extent entirely ruined by lava, which appeared to have been in 
 the highest state of liquefaction. Having undertaken a journey to 
 the top of the mountain, they travelled from 300 to 3t/0 English 
 miles over an uninterrupted tract of lava; and had at length the 
 pleasure of being the fir^t who had arrived at the summit of the 
 mountain, ilecla, according to ihcir accouLts, is situated in the. 
 
 SM 
 
 pari
 
 H ED 
 
 686 
 
 II E E 
 
 S. (jait of the iiUiiui, about four miles from llie sea-coast; and is 
 cliviilcd into three parts at the top, the miiUlle-point being the 
 highest. From an exact observation with Kamsden's barometer, 
 it IS jOOO feet above the level of the sea. They were obliged to 
 <|iiit their horses ;:t the first opening from wliith the fire hatl burst. 
 They describe tliis as a place with lofty glazed walls and high- 
 glazed cliffs, nnlike any thing which they had ever seen before. 
 A little higher up they found a large qnaiitity of grit aiul stones ; 
 and still tarll-.er onanolhur opening, which, though not deep, de- 
 scended 1 nvcr than th.it of the highest point. Here they imagined 
 thev plainly discerned the effects of boiling water; and not fai 
 from thence the moimtain was covered with snow, excepting some 
 spots. The reason of this dilference they perceived to be the hot 
 vapour ascending from the mountain. As they ascended higher 
 they found the spots become larger: and about COO yards below 
 the summit, a hole about a yard and an half in diameter was ob- 
 served, from whence issued so hot a steam, that they could not 
 measure the degree of heat with the thermometer. The mountain 
 seems to be made up, not of lava, but of sand, grit, and ashes; 
 which are, thrown up with the stones partly discoloured, and partly 
 melted by the iire. Several sorts of pumice-stones were tound on 
 it, among whicii was one with some sulphur. Sometimes the pu- 
 mice was so much burnt, that it « as as light as tow. Itsloimand 
 colour were sometimes very tine, but at the s.nmc time so soft, that 
 it was dilhcult to remove it from one place to another. Tlie com- 
 mon lava was found in both large and small pieces ; as well as a 
 ([uantity of bUu k jasper burned at the extremities, and resembling 
 trees and branches. 
 
 liECTlC-FEVER. See Medicine. 
 
 HECTOi'., the son of Priam and Hecuba, and the father of 
 Astyanax, celebrated for the valour with which he defended the 
 city of Troy against the Greeks. He was killed by Achilles, who 
 dragged liis body, fastened to his chariot, thrice round the walls of 
 Troy, and afterwards restored it to Priam for a large ransom. 
 
 liECUBA, in fabulous history, the wife of Priam, the last king 
 of Iroy, and the mother of nineteen of his fiftv-tliree children. 
 She was the daughter of Dymas, according to Homrr, or of Cis- 
 seus, according to Virgil. When with child of Paris she dreamed 
 that she brought forth a lirebrand. 
 
 HEDAMOUA, a town of Sweden, in Westinania, on the 
 Dahl, titty-live mdes N. \V. of Uusal. Lon. 17. 7. E. Lat. 60. 
 14. N. 
 
 HEDERA, Ivy ; in botany, a genus of the monogynia order, 
 and pentandria class of plants; natural order, Hederacex. Petals 
 live, oblong ; berry pentaspemious, girt by the calyx. There are 
 six species. 
 
 HEUERACEiE, [imm hedcra, ivy,] the forty-sixth order in 
 Linnxus's fragments of a natural method. See Hotany. 
 
 HEDGE, Ihtgge, Sax.] in agriculture, a fence made round 
 grounds with prickly bushes, or woven twigs. Hi'dges are either 
 planted to make fences round inclosures, or to divide the several 
 parts of a garden. When they are designed as outward fences, 
 they are plantid either with hawthorn, crabs, or black-thorn: but 
 those hedges which are planted in gardens, either to surround wil- 
 derness-quarters, or to screen the other parts of a garden from 
 sight, are planted according to the fancv of the owner. Some 
 prefer evergreens, in which case the holly is best ; next the yew, 
 then the laurel, laurustinus, phyllyrea, &c. Others prefer the 
 beech, the horn-beam, and the elm. Before planting, it is proper 
 to consider the nature of the land, what sort of plants will thrive 
 best in it; and what is the soil from whence they are to be taken. 
 The sets ought to be about the thickness of one's little hnger, and 
 cut within about four or live inches of the ground ; they ought to 
 be ticsh taken up, straight, smooth, and well-rooted. Those plants 
 that are raised in the nursery are to be preferred. In planting out- 
 side-hedgcs, the turf is to be laid, with the grassy side downv.ards, 
 on tliat side of the ditch on which the bank is designed to be 
 made ; and some of the best mould should be laid upon it to bed 
 the cpiick, wiiich is set upon it at a foot asunder. When tlie tirst 
 row ot hawthorn, or <;uick is set, it must be covered with mould ; 
 and w hen the bank is a foot high, another row of sets may be laid 
 again-t the spaces of the former, and covered like the others. The 
 bank is then to be topped with the bottom of the ditch, and a dry' 
 or dead hedge laid, to shade and defend the under plantation. 
 . Stakes should then be driven iuLo the loose earth, so low as to 
 
 reach the tirm ground: these are to be placed at about two feet 
 and a half distant: to render the edge yet stronger, edder it, that 
 is, bind the to|) of the stakes with small long poles, and when the 
 eddering is linished, drive the stakes anew. The cpiick must be 
 kept constantly weeded, and secured from being cropped by- cat- 
 tle; and in February it will be proper to cut it within an inch of 
 the ground, which will cause it to strike ront afresh, and help it 
 much in the growth. The crab is frequently planted for edges. 
 Plants raised from the kernels of the small wild crabs are to lie 
 preferred to those raised from the kernels of all sorts of apples 
 without distinction ; because the plants of the true small crab ne- 
 ver shoot so strong as those of the apples, and may therefore be 
 better kept within the proper comiiass of a hedge. The black- 
 thorn, or sloe, is often planted for hedges. I'h.e best method is, 
 to raise the plants from the stones of the fruit, which should be 
 sown about tlie middle of January, if the weather permit, in the 
 place wliere the hedge is intended. When they are kept longer 
 out of the ground, it will be proper to mix them with sand, asd 
 keep them in a cool place. The same fence will do for it when 
 sown, as when planted. The holly is son.etimes planted for 
 hedges; but where it is exposed, it is very ditlicult to prevent its 
 being destroyed : otherwise, it is by far the most beautiful plant ; 
 and, being an evergreen, affords much better shelter for cattle ia i 
 winter than any other sort of hedge. See Husbandkv. ■ 
 
 Hedge-fumitory. See Fumarja. • 
 
 Hedge-hog. See Erinaceus. 
 
 Hedge-hyssop. See Gkatiola. 
 
 Hedge-mustard. See Erysimum. 
 
 Hedge-sparrow. See Motacilla. 
 
 HEDJAS, or HEDSJAS, a province of Arabia, bounded oti 
 the E. by Nejed; on the S. by Yemen; on the W. by the Ara- 
 bian Gulph ; and on the N. by the desert of Sinai. 
 
 HEDWIGIA, a genus of the octandria monogynia class and 
 order. Calyx four-toothed ; corolla four-cleft ; style none ; cap- 
 sule tricoccous; seed a nut. There is one species, a tree of St. 
 Domingo. 
 
 HEDYCARYA, a genus of the icosandria order, and dicecia 
 class of plants. Calyx of the male cleft in eight or ten parts; no 
 corolla ; anthera" in the bottom oi the calyx, four-furrowed, beard- 
 ed at top. Calyx and corolla ot the female as in the male ; germs 
 pedicellated ; the nuts pedicellated and moiiospennous. There is 
 one species, a tree of Guiana. 
 
 HEDYCREA, a genus of the class and order pentandria mo- 
 nogynia. Calyx one-leafed, hemispherical, five-toothed ; corolla 
 none; drupe oval, one-celled; nectary ovate, covered with hires, 
 one-celled; shell hard. There is one species, a tree of Guiana. 
 
 HEDY'OSMUM, a genus of the class aiul order mono'cia po- 
 lyandria. The male is an anient with anthers : no corolla, peri- 
 anth, or filaments; female calyx three-toothed; corolla none; 
 style one, three-cornered ; berry three-cornered, one-seeded. 
 There are two species, shrubs of Jamaica. 
 
 HEDYOTIS, a genus of the monogynia order, and tetrandria 
 class of plants ; natural order, Stellata*. C'orolla monopetalous, 
 funnel-shaped ; capsule bilocular, polyspermous, inferior. There 
 are eight species, herbs of Ceylon, &c. 
 
 HEDYPNOIS, a genus of the class and order syngenesia po- 
 ly gamia scjualis. The calyx calycled, with short scales; seeds 
 crowned with the calycle; receptacle naked, hollow-dotted. 
 
 HEDYSAilUM, French FIoney'-suckle : in botany, a ge- 
 nus of the decandria order, and diadelphia class of plants; natural 
 order, Papilionacea;. The carina of the corolla is transversely ob- 
 tuse: the seed-vessel a legumen with mouospcrmous joints. There 
 are ninetv species, see Plate LXV. 
 
 HEEL. See Anatomy. 
 
 Hef.l, in the sea-language. If a ship leans on one side, whe- 
 ther she be agiound or alfoat, then it is said she heels a-starboard 
 ora-port; or that she heels oH'wards, or to the shore; that is, in- 
 clines more to one side than to another. 
 
 Heel oe a Horse, the lower Innder part of the foot compre- 
 hended between (he quarters, and opposite to the toe. The heel 
 of a horse should he high and large, and one side of it should not 
 rise higher than the other upon the pastern. See Farriery. 
 
 Heel of v Horseman. This being the part that is armed 
 with the spur, fh.e word is used for the spur itself; '•' This horse 
 uuderstaiids the heel well." To ride a horse from one keel to an- 
 other,
 
 HEr 
 
 687 
 
 II E I 
 
 otlii-'i", is to miiko liim yo sidrwaji, soiiieliines to one hicl iinil 
 Sonietiiiu's to another. 
 
 IIEGIKA, [fonneil of mjn, lii:gi'-iih, lliplil ; of nan, to 
 fly,] ill clironolo_i;_v, a celobraleil t;j)ocl)a among Moliaiii- 
 liii'<lan>. Tlie eveiU vvliich gave rise to lliis ojiocliawiis tlie (lip;lit 
 of Moli,imiiu'<l from Mecca, wiili liis new prosilvtes, to avoid tlie 
 persecution of the Corai<chites; who, heiiii; tli<-ii mo»t powerful in 
 the eity, coiiUl not bear thai Moliamnied should aliolish idolatry, 
 and establish his new rcligicu. Thi^ flia;hl liappcmd in the toiir- 
 teenlh year after Mohammed had commenced prophet: he retired 
 to Mcclina, wliicli lie made tlie place of his residenci-. 'I'o reniler 
 this epocha more creditable, the >.ioliamiiiedans allect to use the 
 word liegira in a peculi;ir sense for an act of religion, whereby a 
 man forsakes liis country , and gives way to the violence of peisc- 
 cutors and enemies ol tlie faith: they add, that the Coraischites, be- 
 ing then the strongest party in the city, obliged their prophet to 
 fly, as not being able to endure his abolishing of idohitry. This 
 flight was not the liist of Mohammed's, but it was the most famous. 
 it happened in the fourteenth year bom his assuming tlie character 
 of propliet and apostle, and piomnlgating his new religion. The 
 orientaU do not agree with us as to the time of the hegira. Among 
 the Mohamiiiedaiis, Aniasi fixes it to A. D. (530, and from the 
 tleath of Moses -2347 ; and Fkn Cassem to A. M. ;")804: according 
 to the Greek computation among the Christians, Said ESjii B;itrik 
 refers the hegira to A. D. t)l4, and A. M. bll3. Khondeinir re- 
 lates, that it was Omar, the second caliph, th;it first established the 
 hegiia as an epocha, and appointed the years to be numbered from 
 it: at the time he made this decree, there were already si^ven years 
 elapsed. This eslablislinient was maile in imitation of the Cliris- 
 tians, who, in those limes, reckoned their years from the pei-secu- 
 tion of Dioclesian. But there is another iiegira, and that earlier 
 too, though of less eminence. Mohammed, in the fourteenth year 
 of his mission, was obliged to rclinc|uisli Medina: the Coraiscliites 
 had all along opposed him very vigorously, as an innovator and 
 disturber of the public peace; and many of his disciples, not en- 
 during to be reputed followers of an impostor, desired leave of 
 liim to abandon the city, for fear of being obliged to renounce 
 their religion. This retreat makes the first hegira. These two he- 
 giras the Mohammedans, in ilieir language, call hegiratan. I'he 
 years of the hegira consist only of 354 days. To reduce these 
 years to the Julian calendar, i. e. to hiid what Julian year a given 
 year of the hegira answers to, reduce the year of the hegira given 
 into days, by multiplying by 3;)4, divide the product by 305,' and 
 from the ciuotient subtract the intercalations, i. e. as many days as 
 there are four years in the quotient; and lastly, to the remainder 
 add 6i;2. For a table of the years of the liegira connected with 
 tlie years of tie Christian era, see the article Epoch. 
 
 HEIDEGGEH, Johk Henry, professor of divinity at Zuricli, 
 vas born in l(i33. He published, 1. Exercitationes Select-e de 
 Historia sacra Patriarcharuni, 2 vols. 4to. 2. De Ratione Studio- 
 rum Opiiscula Auiea, 12mo. 3. Tumulus Tridcntini Concilii, 
 4to. 4. Historia Papains, 4to. 
 
 HEIDELBERG, a populous town of Germany, capital of the 
 Lower Palatinate, with a celebrated university, tt is noted for ils 
 great tun, which holds 800 hogsheads, generally kept full of good 
 Khenish wine. The town stands on the Neckar, forty-four mites 
 S. S. E. of Mentz. 
 
 HEIDENHEIM, a town of Germany, in Suabia. Lon. 10. 
 18. E. Lut. 43. 37. N. 
 
 HElGinS, MtTHODS OF Measuring. See Barometer, 
 Mensuration, and Trigonometry. 
 
 HEILA, a town of Royal Prussia, iii Cassubia, twelve miles 
 >.'. ot l^aiuz'ic. 
 
 SiEILBRONN, an imperial town of Germany, in Suabia, 
 twenty miles N. of Stiittgar'd, and twenly-si.\^ E. of Heidelberg. 
 
 HLILEGEN HAVE, a sea-port town of Germany, in Lower 
 Saxony, on the Baltic. Lon. 11. 15. E. Lat. 57. 30. 'N. 
 
 HEILG ELAND, an island in the Nortli Sea, belonging to 
 Denmark, nine miles in circumference, with a light-house; thirtv- 
 tiiree miles N. W. of the mouth of the Elbe. Lon. 7. 57. E. Lat. 
 54. 22. N. 
 
 HEINECCIUS, John Gotlieb, one of the greatest civilians 
 of tlie eighteenth century, born at Eisenberg, in Altenberg, in 
 1681. Alter having studied at Gossar and Leipsic, he becanie 
 professor of philosophy at Uall in 1710; and in 1721, he was 
 
 made protessor of civil law, with the title of Counsellor ot tlie 
 Court. His great reputation made ihe states of Kriesland invite 
 him to Kianeker in 1724; but in 1727, the king of Prussia prevail- 
 e<l on him to accept of a professorship of law at PVankfort on the 
 Oder, where he distinguislied himself till 1733. Becoming again 
 professor at Hall, he remained there till his death, in 1T41, though 
 invited to Marpiirrr, Denmark, and Holland. He wrote many 
 works, all of them much esteemed. The principal are, 1. Anti- 
 ipiilatum Romanarum Jurisprudenliani Illuslrantium Syntagma. 
 This excellent abridgement gave rise to his reputation in foreign 
 co-.intries. 2. Elenunta Juris Civilis. 3. Fun<lamenta StiiliCul- 
 tioris; a most u-cful work for forming a Latin style. 4. Eiementa 
 Pliilosi,phi;e Rationalis et Moralis. 5. Historia Juris Civilis Ro- 
 mani ac Geimanici. d. F.h'iiionta Juris Natiira" ettientium, &c. 
 
 HEINECK.EN, or HEINETKEN, Christian, an extraor- 
 dinary child, tlie prodigy of the North, born at Lubeck in 1721. 
 He spoke his maUrnal tongue lliientlv at ten months. At one 
 year old, he knew the principal events of the Pentateuch; in two 
 months more, he was master of the entire history of the Old and 
 New Testaments; at two years and an half, he answered the prin- 
 cipal questions in geoanphy, and in ancli nt and modern history ; 
 and he spoke Latin and l''iench with great facility before his fourth 
 year. His constitution was so delicate, that he wa'i- not wcau'd 
 till a few months before his death. M. Martini of Lubeck pub- 
 lish.ed a pamphlet in 1730, in which he endeavoured to give natu- 
 ral reasons for the extraordinary capacity of this child, wfio died in 
 his fifth year. 
 
 HEIR, yicvrcs, Lat.] in law, signifies the person who succeeds 
 another by descent to lands, tenements, and hereditaments, being 
 an estate of inheritance, or en estate in fee ; because nothing 
 passes by ri,"lit of inheritance but in fee. See Consangvinitv, 
 Descent, Inheritance, Succession, and Law. If land be 
 given to a man for eviT, or to him and his assigns for ever, this 
 vests in liim but an estate for life. This very great nicety about 
 tl'o insertion of the word hens in all feotl'ments and grants, in or- 
 der to vest a fee, is plainly a relict of the feodal strictness, by 
 which it was retpiired, that the form of the donation should be 
 punctually pursued ; or that, as Craig expresses it, in the words of 
 Bddus, " donationes sint siricti juris, ne quis plus, donasse prre- 
 simiatiir qiiam in donalione expresseril. And therefore, as the 
 personal abilities of the donee were originally supposed to be 
 the only iiuhicements (o the gift, tlie donee's estate in 
 the land extended only to his own person, and subsisted no 
 longer than his life ; unless the donor, by an express provi- ion 
 in the grant, gave it a longer continuance, and extended it al o to 
 his heirs. But this rule is now softened by iiv.iiiy exceptions. 
 For, 1. It does not lend to devises by will; in which, as they 
 were introduced at the time when the feodal rigour was apace 
 wearing out, a more liberal construction is allowed: and therefore 
 by a devise to a man for ever, or to one and his assigns for ever, 
 or to one in fee-simple, the devisee hath an estate of inheritance ; 
 ior the intention of the devisor is suflicienlly plain from tlie words 
 of perpetuity annexed, though he hath omitted the legal words of 
 inheritance. Pint if the devise be to a man and his assigns, without 
 annexing words of perpetuity, there the devisee shall take only an 
 (Stale for life ; for it does not appear that the devisor intended 
 any more. 2. Neither does this rule extend to tines or recoveries, 
 considered as a species of conveyance ; for thereby an estate 
 in fee passes by act and operation of law without the word lieirs ; 
 as it does also, for particular reasons, by certain other methods of 
 conveyance, which have relation to a former grant or estate, 
 wherein the word heirs was expressed. 3. In creations of nobility 
 by writ, the peer so created hath an inherilanee in his title, with- 
 out expressing the word heirs; for thi'y are implied in the crea- 
 tion, unless it be otherwise specially provided ; but in creations 
 by patent, which are strict! juris, the word heirs must be inserted, 
 otherwise there is no inherit:;nce. 4. In grants of lands to sole 
 corporations and their successors, the word successors supplies the 
 phice of heirs; for as heirs like from the ancestor, so ootli the 
 successor from the predecessor. Nay, in a grant to a bishop, or 
 other sole spiritual corporation, in frank alnioign, the word 
 ti';.nk alnioign supplies the place of successors (as the word succes- 
 sors supplies the place of heirs), ex vi termini; and in all these 
 cases a tee simple vests in such sole corporation. But, in a grunt 
 of lands to a corpotaliou aggregate, the word successors is not ne- 
 cessary i
 
 H EL 
 
 688 
 
 II EL 
 
 tesiary, fliougli usually iiibCrlL-d ; for albeit such siiDjjle giant be 
 strictly only an estate lor lite, yet as tlial cnrporation never dies,, 
 such estate for lile is per|jetual, or equivalent to a fee simple, ajul 
 therefore tlie law allows it to Ije one. Lastly, in llie ciise of the 
 king, a fee simple will vest in him, without the word heirs or suc- 
 cessors in the grant ; partly from prerogative royal, ami partly 
 from a reason similar to the last, because the king, in judgement of 
 the law, never dies. But the general rule is, that the word heirs 
 !s necessary to create an estate of inheritance. 
 
 Heir. Appark-MT, is a person so called in the lifetime of his an- 
 cestors, at whose death he is licivat law. 
 
 litjR Presumptive is one who, if the ance.-itor should die im- 
 mediately, would, iu the present circumstance of things, be his 
 lieir; but whose right of inheritance may be defeated by tlie con- 
 tingency of some nearer heir being born. 
 
 Heiress, is a female heir to a per.,011 having an estate of in- 
 htritance of lauds. If there are more tli'au one, Ihey are called 
 Co-heiresses, or rather, in legal e\pression, co-heirs. The offence 
 of stealing an heiress is founded on the statute 3 Hen. Xll. c. 2, 
 which enacts, that if a man shall, for lucre, take any woman, being 
 maid, widow, or wife, and having substance either in goods or 
 lands, or being heir-apparent to her ancestor, contrary to her will, 
 and afterwards she be married to such niisdoer, or by his cons<'nt 
 to another, or defiled ; he, his procurers and abettors, and such as 
 knowingly receive such women, shall be deemed principal telons; 
 and by 39 Eliz. c. 9, the benelit of clergy is taken away from 
 principals, procurers, and accessaries before. Ami it is not male- 
 Tiai whethera woman so taken contrary to her will, be at last mar- 
 ried orileliled with her own consent or not, if she were under the 
 lone at the time. 
 
 HEIR-LOO.M.S, arc such goods and personal chattels as, con- 
 trary to tlie nature of chattels, shall go by sjjecial custom to 
 the heir, along with the inhi'rilance, and not tlie executor of the last 
 proprietor. Heir-Iooin comprehends divers implements ; as tables, 
 presses, cupboards, and bidsteads. 
 
 HElliSlHP MO\'EABLES, in Scotch law, the best of cer- 
 tain kinds of moveables, which the heir of line is iutitled to take, 
 besides the heritable estate. 
 
 II EfSKEK, an island of Scotland, fi miles N. of North Uist. 
 
 HEISTERIA, in botany, a genus of the monogynia order, and 
 decandria class of plants ; natural order Holorace.c. Calyx live- 
 clelt ; petals, live; drupe having a large, coloured calyx. One 
 species, coccinea, a native of Martinico. 
 
 HELEN, or IIELEN.\, in fabulous history, the daughter of 
 Tyndarus, or according to the poets, of Jupiter and Leda, was 
 married to Meiielaus, king of Sparta, but was stolen from him by 
 Theseus, B. C, 1235. She was restored soon after; but carried 
 off again by Paris, which occasioned the famous Trojan war. 
 
 IltLENA, St. an island in the Atlantic Ocean, belonging to the 
 English East India coinjiauy. Its greatest length is about eight 
 iiiilc>, and its circumference about twenty. It has some high 
 mountains, particularly one called Diana's Peak, which is covered 
 with woods to the very top. Some of the hills bear evident marks 
 of a volcanic origin ; and some have huge rocks of lava, and a kind 
 of lialf-vitrilied (lags. The island is laid out entirely in gardens and 
 p.'.slurage. Peaches are the only European fruits tliat thrive here. 
 Cal)bages and other greens are devoured by cater|)illar5 ; and corn 
 is destroyed by rats. Furze has been of singular advantage to the 
 inhabitants of St. Helena. Before the introduction of that plant, 
 the ground was parched by the intense heat, and all kinds of herb- 
 age were shrivelled up. But the furze-bushes, which throve as it 
 were in spite of the sun, preserved a degree of moisture in the 
 ground, which m.ide the grass spring up vigorously, and the coun- 
 try became coverei.1 with a ricli and beautilul sod. The furze is 
 now used for fuel. The number of inhabitants does not exceed 
 two thousand, including five hundred soldiers, and six hundred 
 slaves. By the India slii|)S, which they supply with refreshments, 
 they are provided with all sorts of necessaries ; and the company 
 annually order one or two of their slii|)s to touch there in their wav 
 to India, to supply them with European goods and provisions. 
 !Many of their slaves are employed in catching fish, which are very 
 jilentiiul ; and, by the help of tliese, together with their poultry, 
 latlle, roots, and salt provisions, they subsist very happily throu,!>h 
 the year. St. Helena was fiist discovered by the Portuguese in 
 4i02, oil St. Heleu's day ; whence its name. St. Helena lies 
 
 1200 miles W. of Africa, and ISOO E. ol South America. Loii. 
 J. 4y. W. Lat. 15. 55. S. 
 
 Helena, St. an island of South Carolina. 
 
 HELEN lUM, Bastard Sln-flower; a genus of the polv- 
 gaiuia siiperllua order, and syngenesia class of plants; natural or- 
 der, Composita?. Receptacle naked in the middle; under the 
 radius ■paleaceous; pappus consists of live shoit awns ; calyx sim- 
 ple, muUipartite ; Hurets of the radius semitnlid. The species are 
 two, natives of America. 
 
 11 ELENl'S, in fabulous history, a celebrated soothsayer, sou 
 of Piiam and Hecuba. He was greatly respected by all the 
 Trojans. 
 
 HELEPOLIS, in the ancient art of war, a machine for batter- 
 ing down the walls of a place, the invention of which is ascribed to 
 Demetrius Poliorcetes. Diodorus Siciilus says, that each side of 
 the Helepolis was 405 cubits in breadth, and I'O in hp.ght ; that 
 it had nine-stages, and was carried on lour strong solid wheels, 
 eight cubits in diameter; that it was armed with large battering 
 rams, and had two roofs capable of supporting them ; that in the 
 lower stages there were dillerent sorts of engines for casting stones ; 
 and in the middle they had large catapultas for discharging arrows, 
 and smaller ones in those above, with a number of expert men for 
 working all these macliines. 
 
 HELIACAL, [Jieliiique, Fr, from '>'©',] in astronomy, is ap- 
 plied to the rising and setting of the stars. A star is said to rise 
 heliaeally, when after having been in conjunction with the sun, and 
 on that account invisible, it comes to be at such a distance Iroiu 
 him as to be seen in the morning before sun-rising ; the sun by his 
 apparent motion, receding from the star towards the east, Tlie 
 heliacal setting is u hen tlie sun apiJi'oache.s so near a star as to hide 
 it w ilh his beams, which prevent the fainter light of the star from 
 being perceived ; so that the ternisiapparitisn and occultation would 
 be more jiroper tlian rising and setting. 
 
 HELl.^DES, in nntlioiogy, the daughters of Apollo and Cly- 
 inene, who were so aflected with the death of their brother Plue- 
 thon, that the god;, in comp.assion, transformed them into poplars 
 on the banks of the Eriuanus. 1 heir names were Plianhusa, Lam- 
 petia, and Phoebe. 
 
 11ELLE.\, in Grecian antiquity, the greatest and most fre- 
 iiueiited court in Athens for tlie uial of civil affairs. See He- 
 
 LlAST/E. 
 
 HELIANTIIUS. the Great Sunflower; a genus of the po- 
 lygamia frii.,tranea order, and syngenesia class of plants ; natural or- 
 der. Composite. Receptacle paleaceous, plane ; pappus dipiiyl- 
 lous ; calyx imbricatetl ; scales standing a little out at the tops. 
 '^Fheie are twelve species, most of which are now common in our 
 gardens, though all of them are natives of America. They are all 
 very hardy, and prosper in almost any soil or situation. They 
 may bo projfagated eitiier by seeds, or by parting their roots. 
 
 I'lELlAST/E, or HEL'IASTES, in' antiquity, the judges of 
 the court Heliffia. They were so called, according to Ulpian, 
 from (iAifw, to assemble in a great number; or, according to 
 others, from >iXio;, the sun, because they held their assemblies in 
 an open place, and from sun-rise to sun-set. They composed the 
 most numerous and important of the Athenian tribunals. Their 
 province was to explain obscure laws and to give authority to 
 those which had been violated. The Thesmotheta; convoked the 
 assembly of the Ileliasta;, which sometimes amounted to a thou- 
 sand, sometimes to one thousand live hundred, judges. Mr. 
 Blancliard is of opinion, that, to make this iiumbir, the Thesmo- 
 theta! sometimes summoned those of each tribe who had last quit- 
 ted the public offices which they had exercised in another court. 
 The assemblies of the Heliaslie were not frequent, as they would 
 have interrupted the jurisdiction of the slated trilninals and the 
 common course of allairs. The 'Ihesujothcta; paid to each mem- 
 ber of this assembly,' for his attendance, three oboli. Hence 
 Aristophanes terms them the brothers of triobolus. They were 
 lined if they came too tide, and if the orators had begun to speak, 
 they were not admitted. They were paid out of the public trea- 
 sury, and their pay was called mislhos heliasticus. 'I'lie jiulges 
 were bound to the right pertormance of their duly by u strict and 
 
 HELiCOID PAR.\BOLA, or the PAKABOLIC SPIRAL, 
 
 is a curve arising from the supposition that the common or Apol- 
 lonian parabola is bent or twisted, till the axis come into the pe- 
 
 • • ripheiy
 
 II E L 
 
 Gap 
 
 H EL 
 
 ripliei y of a ciri-'le, liio cniiiiatcs still reUiining their places ami 
 peipeiitiiciilar positions \v:tli respect to tlie circle, all these lines slill 
 remaining ill the same plane. 'I'luis the axis oi a parabola being 
 .bent into the <:irciinitereni;e BCUiM (Plate XCV. lig. 13), and 
 the ortlin.iles CI'", DCr, &c. still perpendicnlar to it, tiien the pa- 
 rabola itself, i)assiiig tliroiigli the extremities of the ordiiiates, is 
 twisted into the curve lU'G, Sec. called the helicoid, or parabolic 
 spiral. Hence all the ordinates CF, DG, &c. tend to the centre 
 of the circle, being per|)endicidar to the circumference. Also, the 
 equation of the curve remains the same as when il was a parabola, 
 viz. putting j: =: any circular absciss HC, and ;/ =r CF, the corre- 
 sponding ordinate, then is px =■ y-, where p is the parameter of 
 the parabola. 
 
 HELICON, in ancient geography, a mountain in the neigh- 
 bourhooil of Parnassus and C'ytheron, sacred to Apollo and the 
 Muses. It is situated in Livadia, and now called Zagura or 
 Zaguya. 
 
 HELICONfA, in botany, a genus of the monogynia order, 
 and pentandria class of plants. Spatha universal and partial; no 
 caly.v ; corolla, three-i,etaled ; ncctarium, two-leaved; capsule, 
 three-urained. It has three species, natives of the West Indies. 
 
 HELICONIAN, or UELICONIDES, epithets ol the Muses, 
 from Mount Helicon. 
 
 HELICTERES, the Sckew-tree ; a genus of the decandria 
 order, and gynaiulria class of plants ; natural order, Coluninifers. 
 Calvx monophyllous, oblique; petals, hve ; nectariuni consists 
 of live petal-like leallets ; capsules intorteil or twisted inwards. 
 There are nine species, all natives of warm climates. They are 
 shrubby plants, rising from live to fourteen feet in height, adorned 
 with flouers of a yellow colour. 
 
 HELIEU, St. tlie capital of the island of Jersev, in tfie bay of 
 St. Aubin. See Jersey. Lon. 2. 10. \V. Lat. 4b. 11. N. 
 
 Helier, St. a little island near the above town, on the side of 
 Jersey ; so named from St. Helier, a hermit, who lived in th's 
 island many centuries ago, and was slain by the Pagan Normans at 
 their coming here. 
 
 HELIOCAUPUS, in botany, a genus of the digynia order, 
 and dodecandna class of plants; natural order, Columnifera". 
 Calyx tetraphyllous; petals, tour ; styles, simple; cap>ule, bilocu- 
 lar, compressed, and radiated lengthwise on each side. One spe- 
 cies, a native of America, 
 
 HELIOCEN TRIC, [Jidiocentrique, Fr. ni.^P', and xjvtjov.] 
 The heliocentric place of a planet is said to be such as it would 
 appear to us from the sun, if our eye were fixed in its centre. 
 See Astronomy. 
 
 Heliocentric L.\titcde of a Planet, the inclination of 
 aline drawn between the centre of the sun -and the centre of a 
 planet to the plane of the ecliptic. See Astronomy. 
 
 HELIOCOMETES, a pli;tnoiiienon sometimes observed 
 about sun-setting; being a large luminous tail or column of light 
 proceeding from the body of the sun, and dragging after it, like 
 the tail of a comet ; whence the name. 
 
 HELIOID PARABOLA, or the PARABOLIC SPIRAL, in 
 inalheniatics, a curve which arises from the supposition of the axis 
 of the common Apollonian parabola's being bent round into the 
 peripliery of a circle, and is a line then passing through the extre- 
 mities of the ordinate's, which do now converge towards the centre 
 of the said circle. 
 
 IlELIOM ETER, [from nf-^:, the sun, and //.!7;!w, to measure,] 
 an instrument called also astrometer, invented by NL Bouguer in 
 1747, for measuring with particular exactness the diameters of the 
 stars, and especially those of the sun and moon. This instrument 
 is a .kind of telescope, consisting of two object-glasses of equal fo- 
 cus-distance placed the one bv the side of the other, so that the 
 ^ame eye-glass serves for both. The tube is of a conic form, 
 larger at the upper end, which receives the two object-glasses, 
 than at the lov/er, which is furnished with an eye-glass and micro- 
 iiieier. By the construction ol tliis instrument two distinct images 
 of an object are formed in the focus of the eye glass, whose dis- 
 tance, depending upon that of the two object-glasses from one 
 another, may be measured with great accuracy '■ r-or is it necessary 
 that the whole disk of the sun or nioou come within the field of 
 view; since, if the images of only a small part of the disk be 
 formed by each nlject-glass, the' whole diameter may be easily 
 computed" by their position with respect to one another: for if the 
 object be large, the images will ajiproach, or perhaps lie even 
 VOL. i;.— NO. 102. 
 
 over one another; and the object-glasses being moveable, the two 
 images may alwajs be brought to touch one another, and the dia- 
 meter may be computed trom the known distance of the cer'-res of 
 the two glas^es. Besides, as this instrument has a common micro- 
 meter in the fociis of the eye-glass, when the two images oflhestm 
 or moon are made in part to cover one another, that part which 
 is common to both the images may be measured with great ex- 
 actness, as being viewed upon a ground that is only one-half less 
 luminous than ilsrlt; whereas, in general, the heavenly bodies arc 
 viewed, upon a dark ground, and on that account arc imagined to 
 be larger than they really are. By a small addition to this instru- 
 ment, provided it be of a moderate length, M. Bouguer thought 
 it very possible to measure angles of three or four degrees, which 
 is of particular consequence in taking the distance of stars from 
 the moon. ^V'ith this instrument AL Bouguer, by repealed ob- 
 servation, found, that the sun's vertical diameter, though some- 
 what diminished by the astronomical refraction, is longer than 
 the horizontal diameter; and, in ascertaining this ph^enomenon, hr 
 also found, that the upper and lower edges of the sun's disk are 
 not so equally defined as the other parts ; on this account hi? 
 image appears somewhat extended in the vertical direction. This 
 is owing to the decomposition of light, which is known to consist 
 of rays differently refrangible in its p;issage through our atmos- 
 phere. 'I'hus the blue and violet-coloureil rays, which proceed 
 from the upper part of the sun's disk at the same time with those 
 of other colours, are somewhat more refracted than the others, 
 and therefore seem to us to have proceeded from a higher point; 
 whereas, on the contrary, the red rays proceeding from the lower 
 edge of the di->k, being less refracted than the others, seem to pro- 
 ceed from a lower point ; so that the vertical diameter is extended, 
 or a)?pears longer, than the horizontal diameter. Mr. Servingtou 
 Saverv discovered a similai' metiiod of improving the micromelePi 
 which was communicated to the Royal Society in 1743. See 
 Micrometer. 
 
 HELlOPHlLA, in botany, a genus of the siliqur>sa order, 
 and tetradyiiamia class of plants ; natural order, Siliquosx. Nec- 
 taria two, recurvaled towards the vesicular base of the calyx. It 
 has ten species, natives of the Cape. 
 
 HELIOPHOBI, [from >'i\io,-, the sun, and ^)o?i.'', to terrify,] a 
 name given to the white negroes or albinos, from their aversion to 
 the light of (he sun. 
 
 HELIOPOLIS, an ancient city of Egypt, so called by Hero- 
 dotus and Diodorus Siculus ; by Moses On, and by Jeremiah 
 Bethshemesh. It lies S. E. of the Delta, and E. of Memphis ; and 
 was long famous for its temple of the sun. 
 
 Heuopolis, a city of Ccclosyria, near the springs of the 
 Orontes ; so called from the w orship of the sun : now named Bal- 
 bec. S^e Balbec. 
 
 HELIOSCOPE, ['i>.i@' and .nts-ei.,] a sort of telescope fitted 
 so as to look on the body of the snn, without olfciice to the 
 eyes. Mr. Huygens only used a plain glass, blacked at the (lame 
 of a candle on one side, and jilaced between the eye-glass and the 
 eye ; which answers the design very well. 
 
 HELIOSTATA, in optics, an instrument invented by the 
 late learned Dr. S. Gravesende ; who gave it this name from its 
 fixing, as it were, the rays of the sun in 2 horizontal dircctioa 
 across the dark chamber all the while it is in use. See Optics. 
 
 HELIOTROPE, among the ancient?, an instrument or ma- 
 chine for shewing when the sun arrived at the tropics and the 
 equinoctial line. This name was aUo used for a sun-dial. 
 
 Heliotrope, in liUvology, a precious stone of the liint genus, 
 of a green colour, streaked with red veins. Pliny says it is thus 
 called, because, when cast into a vessel of water, tiie sun's rays 
 falling thereon seem to be of a blood-colour; and that, when out 
 of the water, it gives a faint rellection of the figure of' the sun ; 
 and is proper to observe eclipses of the sun, as a helioscope. It 
 occurs massive in angular and rolled pieces; specific gravity 
 about 3.7. It is ftund in the East Indies, as also in Ethiopia, 
 Germany, Boliemia, &:c. Some have uscribeil to it the jiroperty 
 of rendering jieopie invisible, like Gyges's ring. 
 
 HELIOTROi'll'M, [v.^,- and T>r.,] Twrnsole: a genus 
 of the pol\ gyiiia order, and pentandria class of plants ; natural or- 
 der, Asperitoli;i'. Corolla salver-shuped. quinquetid, with less 
 dents iiitovjected alternately; throat clorcd up by sn;all arches 
 formed in the corolla itself. There arc twenty-lQur species, all na- 
 tives of warm countries. 
 
 B N UEUX,
 
 HEL 
 
 fspo 
 
 HEL 
 
 1]ELIX, [j'xif,] literally signifies a wreatli or wmdiiiir; oi 
 /Xia-Tio, to environ. 
 
 11 r.Lix, in anatomy, is tlie whole circuit or extent of the auricle 
 or border uf the car outwards ; whence the inner protuberance 
 surrounded Iherebvj and answering thereto, is called antihelix. 
 See Anatomy. 
 
 Helix, in architecture. Some authors make a dilTerence be- 
 tween the helix and the spiral. A staircase, according to Daviler, 
 is in a lielix, or is helical, when the stairs or steps wind rotuul a 
 cvlintlrical newel ; whereas the spiral winds round a cone, and is 
 contiiuially approaching nearer and nearer its axis. The word is 
 also applied to the caulicules or little volutes under the flowers of 
 the Corinthian capital ; called ah;o urillw. See Aiichitecture. 
 Helix, the Snail, in zoology, a genus in the class vermes, 
 and order testacea. Animal a limax', shell consists of one spiral, 
 brittle, and almost diaphanous valve ; aperture narrow, roundish. 
 '1 here are upwards of 300 species, principally distinguished by the 
 iigure of their shells. They are of various sizes, from that of a 
 small apple to less than half a pea. Some of them live on land, 
 frecpienting woods and gardens, or inhabiting clefts of rocks aiid 
 dry sand-banks. Others are aquatic, inhabiting ponds, deep ri; 
 vers, and the ocean. They are separated into divisions; A. 
 whorls, with a carinate acute margin ; B. umbilicate, the whorls 
 rouiided ; C. rounded imperforate ; D. tapering ; E. ovate, im- 
 perforate. See Plate LXVIl. 
 
 II. HoRTENsis, Garden-Snail, has its shells iniperforate, 
 globular, pale, with broad interrupted brown bands : this species 
 iiihabits gardens and orchards in most parts of Europe, with a vis- 
 cid slimy juice, which it readily gives out by boiling in milk or 
 water, so as to render them thic'k and glutinous. The decoctions 
 in milk are api)arently very nutritious and demulcent, and have 
 been reconur.ended in a thin acrimonious state of the humours, in 
 consumptive cases and emaciations. 'l"he eyes "of snails are lodged 
 in their liorns, one at the end of each horn, whicli they can retract 
 at pleasure. The manner of examining these eyes, wliich are four 
 in number, is this: when the horns are out, cut off nimbi v the ex- 
 tremity of one of them; and placing it before the microscope you 
 may discover the black spot at the end to be really a semiglobiilar 
 eye. The dissection of this animal is very curious"; for the micro- 
 scope not only discovers the heart beating just against the round 
 hole near the neck, which seems the place of respir.uion, but al.^o 
 the liver, spleen, stomach, and intestines, with the veins, arteries, 
 mouth, and teeth, are plainly observable. Snails are all herma- 
 phrodites, having both sexes united in each individual. They lay 
 their eMs with great care in the earth, and the young one's are 
 hatched with shells completely formed. Cutting oti' a snail's head, 
 a little stone appears, which is supposed to be a great diuretic, an.<l 
 good in all nephritic disorders. Immediately uii'dcr this stone the 
 lieart is seen beating ; and the auricles are 'evidently distinguish- 
 able, are membranous, and of a wliite colour ; as are also the ves- 
 sels which proceed from them. The snail, though a small animal, 
 is not free from the plague of supporting other smaller animals on 
 Its body; and as in other animals we find these secondary ones 
 cither living only on their surface, as lice, &c. or only in the in- 
 testines, as worms, it is very remarkable that this creature infests 
 the snail in both these manners ; being found sometimes on the 
 surface of its body, and sometimes within its intestines. There is 
 a part of the common garden-snail, and of other of the like kinds, 
 commonly called the collar. This surrounds the neck of the snail' 
 and is considerably thick, and is the only part that is visible wliti! 
 the annual is retired quietly into its shell. In this state of the ani- 
 mal these insects which inlest it are usually seen in considerable 
 luimbers marching about very nimbly on this part : besides, the 
 snail, every time it has occasion to open its anus, gives them a 
 phice by wiiich to enter into its intestines, and they often seize tiie 
 opportunity. Snails are great destroyers of fruit in gardens, espe- 
 cially the better sorts of wall-fruit. Lime and ash.es sprinkled on 
 the ground where they most resort will drive tiiem i^way, and de- 
 stroy the young br.;od of them: it is a common practice to pull 
 oti the fruit they have bitten ; but this should never be done, for 
 they will eat no other till they have wholly eat up this if it be left 
 for them. 
 
 H. Janthina, with a violet-coloured shell. This is remark- 
 able tor the extreme thinness of texture, which bre;,ks with the 
 least pressure, and seems therefore entirely calculated to keep the 
 
 open sea, or at least to shun mcky shores. It inhabits the seas of 
 Europe, especially the Mediterranean ; those of Asia and Alrica; 
 and also the ocean. The living animal, when touched, e.xudes a 
 juice which stains the hands of a violet-colour. 
 
 11. FoKMATiA, a snail with live spires remarkably ventricosc, 
 slightly umbilirated, fasciated with a lighter and deeper brown: 
 this is found in the woods of the southern counties of England ; it 
 is said to have been introduced into this country by Sir Keiielm 
 Oiifby, for medicinal purposes. These are confined to the 
 southern counties, attempts having been made, but without suc- 
 cess, to bring them into Northamptonshire. This snail is used in 
 many parts of Europe as food, particularly at Rome during the 
 weeks of Lent : here they are fattened, and grow to a verv large 
 size. It is oviparous, very tenacious of life, and, towards winter, 
 covers its aperture with a calcareous lid. 
 
 HELL, \_lielle, Sax. a covered place, or a cavern; perhajis 
 from .'X!,-, a lake, or from the lleb. Sw, he was tormented,] signi- 
 lied formerly the place of separate spirits, but is now vised tor the 
 place of divine punishment alter death, in contradistinction to hea- 
 ven. As all religions have supposed a future state of exiatence after 
 this life, so all have their hell or place of torment, in which the 
 wicked -are supposed to be punished. The hell of the ancient 
 heathens was divided into two mansions ; the one called Elysium, 
 on the right hand, pleasant and delightful, appointed for the souls 
 oi good men ; the other called Tartarus, on the left, a region of 
 mi'^ery and torment, appointed for the wicked. The latter only 
 was hell, in the present restrained sense of the word. Tiie philo- 
 sophers w ere of oi)iiiion, that the infernal regions were at an equal 
 distance from all the parts of the earth ; nevertheless it was the 
 opinion of some, that there were ccrlahi passnges which led thither, 
 as the river Lethe near the Syrtes, and the Acherusian cave in 
 Epirus. At Ilermione it was thought, that there was a very short 
 way to hell ; for which reason the peo|)le of that country never 
 put the fare into the mouths of the dead to pay their passage. 
 The Jews placed hell in the centre of the earth, and believed it to 
 be situated under waters and mountains. The Mohammedans be- 
 lieve the eternity of re\(ards and punishments in another lite. In 
 the Koran it is said, that hell has seven gates, the first for the Mus- 
 sulmans, the second for ihe Christians, the third for the Jews, the 
 fourth for the Sabians, the fifth for the Magians, the sixth for the 
 Pagans, and the seventh for hypocrites of all religions. Among 
 Christians, there are two controverted questions in regard to hell ; 
 the one concerning the locality, the other the duration of its tor- 
 ments. I. The locality of hell, and the reality of its fire, began 
 lirst to be controverted by Origcn. "^Phat father, interpreting the 
 scripture-account niHtaphorically, makes hell to consist, not in ex- 
 ternal punishments, but in a consciousness or sense of guilt, and a 
 remembrance of past pleasures. Among the moderns, Mr. Whis- 
 ton advanced a new hypothesis. The comets, he thinks, are so 
 many liells appointed in their orbits alternately to cairy the damn- 
 ed into Ihe confines of the sun, there to be scorched by its violent 
 heat, and then to return with them beyond the orb of Saturn, 
 tlierelo starve them in those cold and dismal regions. Another 
 modern auihor supposes the sun to be the local hell. 3. As to 
 the duration of the torments, Origen is again at the head of those 
 who deny that they are eternal; it being that father's opinion, 
 that not only men, but devils, after a due course of punishment 
 suitable to their respective crimes, shall be pardoned, and restored 
 to heaven. The chief principle upon which C)rigen built his opi- 
 nion, was the nature of punishment, which he took to be emeiida- 
 tory, applied only as physic for the recovery of the patient's 
 health. The chief objection to the eternity of hell-torments, 
 among modern writers, is the disproportion between temporary 
 crimes and eternal punishments. 'Phose who maintain the affirma- 
 tive, ground their o])inions on icriptiue-accounts, which represent 
 the pains of hell under the figure of a worm which never dies, and 
 a fire which is not quenched ; as also upon the word-, " These 
 shall go away into everhisting punishment, but the righteous into 
 life eternal." But, say their opponents, the character given by the 
 Almighty of himself shouUl decide the point : " His mercy is over 
 all his works." Eternal punishment excludes every idea of mer- 
 cy ; and even of justice, tor linite crimes can never merit infinite 
 punishment. But here is certainly a mistake or two. I'^lcrnal 
 punishment does not exclude every idea of mercy ; for the very 
 beings who suiter have rejected the infinite mercy of God to the 
 
 mm
 
 HEL 
 
 cm 
 
 HEL 
 
 ruin ol their own souls. Neither does it excliule the idea of jus- 
 tice, for though it be true that linite crimes can never merit infi- 
 nite punishment, yet it does not follow that because punishments 
 are eternal they are therefore inhnite. We are told that a finite 
 creature is incapable of committing an infinite crime, the same ar- 
 gument will prove that he is incapable of infinite punishment, but 
 it by no means proves hun inca;able of suffering eternal punish- 
 ment. However, a man may seek to extenuate or lessen the idea 
 of his crimes, it must be acknowledged that the very least breach 
 of God's law is a crime inconceivably great, what then must be 
 the magnitude of the total of the crimes of those, who have lived 
 in the continual breach of all his laws, and to this have added the 
 crimes of repeal.;dly rejecting infinite mercy : now it is granted 
 that justice demands an adequate punishment, which must there- 
 fore be inconceivably great beyond all the compreliensions of the 
 mind ; what then hinders it to be eternal, as the clear revelation of 
 God concerning it declares? 
 
 Hei.l, Valley of, a valley of Suabia, in the Black Forest, 
 through which, for many leagues, there is scarcely room for 
 fifty men to march in front, the mountains rise so iiigh on each 
 side. 
 
 HEI^LAS, in ancient geography, an appellation comprising, 
 according to the ancient Circeks and Romans, Achaia unci Pelo- 
 Jjonnesus, but atterwards restrained to Achaia. 
 
 HELLE, in fabulous history, a daughter of Athamas king of 
 Thebes by Nephele. She fled from her fath'-r's house with her 
 brother Phryxus, to avoid the cruelti of liiT step-mother, Iiio. 
 According to some she was carried through the air on a ram with 
 a golden lleece, which her inotlier had received from Is' eptuiie, 
 and in her passage became gii'dy, and fell into that part of the 
 sea, which from her received the name of Hellespont. Others 
 say that Slie was carried on a cloud, or rather upon a ship, from 
 which she fell into the sea and was drowned. See Phryxus. 
 
 HELLEliORE, White. See Veratkum. 
 
 HELLEBORUS, Hellebore: a genus of the polvgynia or- 
 der, and peiitandria class of plants ; natural order, Multisiliqiue. 
 Calyx none ; petals five or more; nectaria bilabiated, tubuU\r ; 
 capsules polyspermous, and a little erect. It has seven 
 species. 
 
 H. Nicer, Black Hellebore, or Christmas-Rose, has 
 roots composed of many thick fleshy spreading fibres, crowned bv 
 a large cluster of lobed leaves, consisting eicli of seven or eight 
 obtuse ficihy lobes, united to one foot-?talk ; and between the 
 leaves several thick fleshy flower-stalks t'iree or four inches high, 
 surmounted by large beautiful white flowers of five roundish pe- 
 tals, and numerous filaments, appearing in winter, about or soon 
 after Christmas. It may be propagated either by seeds or parting 
 the roots. It prospers in open borders, or may be planted in pots 
 to move when in bloom, in order to adorn any particular place ; 
 but it always tlowers fairest and most abundantly in tlie front of a 
 warm sunny border. The plants may be removed, and the roots 
 divided for propagation, in September, October, or November. 
 On chewing the root for a few minutes, the tongue seems beu'imb- 
 ed, and allected with a kind of paralytic stupor, as when burnt by 
 Ciiting any thing too hot. The fibres are more acrimonious than 
 the head of the root from whence they issue. Black hellebore- 
 root, taken from fifteen to thirty grains, proves a strong c;ilhartic ; 
 and, as such, has been celebrated for the cure of maniacal ar.d 
 other disorders proceeding from what the ancients called the atra 
 bilis ; in which cases, medicines of this kind -are doubtless occa- 
 sionally of use, though they are by no means possessed of any spe- 
 cific power. It does not however appear, that our black helle- 
 bore acts with so much violence as that of the ancients; whence 
 irany have supposed it to be a different species of plant : and in- 
 deed the descriptions which the ancients have left us of their lielle- 
 bore, do not agree with those of any of the sorts usually taken no- 
 tice of liy modern botanists. 
 
 H. Niger Orientalis is a species discovered in the eastern 
 countries, which Tournefort distinguishes thus ; amplissimo folio, 
 taule pr.ealto, fior-e piirpurescente, and supposes to be the true an- 
 cient hell. -bore, from its growing in plenty about mount Olympus, 
 and in the island of Anlicyra, celebra'.ed of old for the production 
 of tUis anlimaniatal drug : he relates, that a scruple of this sort, 
 given for a dose, occasioned convulsions. 
 
 HELLENISM, [/^>.nvi7(.to;,] a Greek idiom, used only when 
 
 speaking of the authors who, writing in a different language, ex- 
 press themselves in a phraseolony piculiar to the Greek. 
 
 HELLENISTIC LANGU.AGE, that used by the Grecian 
 Jews who lived in Egypt and olher parts where the Greek tongue 
 prevailed. In this langu;:ge it is said the Septuagiiit was written, 
 and also the books of tlie New Testament, and that it was thus 
 denominated to shew that it was Greek filled with Hebraisms and 
 Syriasms. 
 
 HELLENISTS, or HELLENISTiE, a term occurring in 
 the Greek text of the New Testament, and which in the English, 
 version is rendered Grecians. The critics aie divided as to the 
 signification of the word, fficumenius, in his Scholia on Acts vi. 
 I, observes, that it li not to be understood as signifying those of 
 the religion of the Greeks, but those who spoke Greek, to; /AXiviri 
 f$sy^aixt:v;. The authors of the A'ulgate version, indeed, render it 
 like ours, Gra?ci ; but Messieurs Uu Port- Royal inon; accurately^ 
 Juifs Grecs, Greek or Grecian Jews ; the Jews who spoke Greek 
 being here treated of, and hereby distinguished from the Jews 
 called Hebrews, that is, who spoke the licbrew tongue of that 
 time. These Hellenists, or Grecian Jews, were tho-^e who lived 
 in Egypt and other parts where the Greek tongue prevailed. It 
 is to them we owe the Greek version of the Old Testament, com- 
 monly called the Septuagint, or that of the LXX. Salmasius and 
 Vossius, however, are of a different opinion, with regard to the 
 Hellenists. 'I'he latter will only have tlieni to be those who ad- 
 hered to the Grecian interests. Scaiiger is represented, in the 
 Scaligerana, as asserting the Ilellenisls to be the Jews wjio lived 
 in Greece and other places, and who read the Greek Bible in their 
 synagogues, and used the Greek language in sacris ; and thus 
 tiiey were opposed to the Hebrew Jews, who performed their pub- 
 lic worship in tlie Hebrew tongue. In this sense St. Paul speaks 
 of himself as a Hebrew of the tlebrews, (Phil. iii. 5,) i. e. a He- 
 brew both by nation and language. The Hellenists are thus oro- 
 perly distinguished from the Hellenes or Greeks, mentioned John 
 xii. 20, who w ere Greeks by birUi and nation, and yet proselytes 
 to the Jew ish religion. 
 
 HELI.ENODIC^'E, ['ewt/wxci,] in antiquity, the directors 
 of the Olympian games. At first tliere was only one, afterwards 
 the number increased to two and three, and at length to nine. 
 They assembled in a place called 'EWr'ii'fotiv, in the Elean forum, 
 where they were obliged to reside ten months before the celebra- 
 tion of the games, to take care that such as offered themselves to 
 contend, performed their tc-£oyL|U».-t5-f^«ra, or preparatory exercises, 
 and to be instructed in all the laws of the games by certain men 
 cr.Ued viiMf^>M-A.s;, i. c. keepers of the laws. 
 
 HELLESPONT, a narrow strait between Asia and Europe, 
 near the Propontis, so named from Helle. It is now called the 
 Dardanelles. 
 
 HELM, in ship-building, a long and flat piece of timber, or an 
 assemblage of several pieces, suspended along the hind part of a 
 ship's stern-post, where it turns upon hinges to tlie right or left, 
 serving to direct the course of the vessel, as the tail of a fish guides 
 the body. The helm is usually composed of three parts, viz. the 
 rudder, the tiller, and the wheel, except in small vessels, where 
 the wlieel is unnecessary. As to the form of the rudder, it be- 
 comes gradually broader in proportion to its distancf from the top, 
 or to its depth under the water. 1 he back, or inner part of it, 
 which joins to the stern-post, is diminished i.ito the form of a 
 wedge throughout its whole lensjth, so as that the rudder may be 
 more easily turned from one side to the other, where it makes an 
 obtuse angle with the keel. It is supported upon hinges; of 
 which those that are bolted round the stern-post to the after ex- 
 tremity of the ship, are called googings, and are furnished with a 
 large hole in the after-part of th:- stern-post. The other parts of 
 the hinges, which are boltetl to the back of the rudder, are called 
 pintles, being strong cylindrical pins, which enter into the goog- 
 ings, and rest upon them. The length and thickness of the rud- 
 der is nearly efpial to that of the stern-post. 'I'he rudder is turn- 
 ed upon its hinges by means of a long bar of timbt r, called the 
 tiller, which is fixed horizontally in its upper end within the ves- 
 sel. The movements of the tiller to the riijht and left, accord- 
 ingly, direct the elfijrts of the rudder to the government of the 
 ship's course as she advances ; which, in the sea-language, is call- 
 ed steering. The operations of tlie tiller are guided and assisted 
 by a sort of tackle, communicating with the ship's side, culled 
 
 the
 
 II EL 
 
 602 
 
 HEL 
 
 the tiller-rope, which is usually composed of iinlarred rope-yarns 
 tor traversing more readily through the blocks or pullies. 
 
 Hei;m, AIanagememt of tuk. To facilitate the management 
 of tlie helm, the tiller-rope, in all large vessels, is wound about a 
 wheel, which acts upon it with the powers of a crane or wind-lass. 
 The rope employed in this service being conveyed from the fore- 
 end of the tiller, to a single block on each side of the ship, is 
 farther commnnicaled to the wheel, by tsvo blocks suspended 
 near the mizen-inast, and two holts immediately above, leading 
 lip to the wheel, which is ii.xed upon an axis on the quarter-deck, 
 almost perpendicularly over the fore-end of the tiller. Five turns 
 of the tiller-rope are usually wound about the barrel of the wheel ; 
 and when the helm is amidship, the middle-turn is nailed to the 
 top of the barrel, with a mark by w hich the helni>nnm readily dis- 
 covers the situation of the helm, as the wheel turns it from the star- 
 board to the larboard side. The spokes of the wheel generally 
 reach about.eight inches beyond the rim or circumference, serving 
 as handles to the person who steers the vessel. As the effect of a 
 lever increases in proportion to- the length of its arm, it is evi- 
 dent that the power of the helmsman to turn the wheel will be in- 
 creased according to the length of the spokes beyond the circum- 
 ference of the barrel. When the helm, instead of lying in a richt 
 line with the keel, is turned to one side or the other, as in BD, 
 Plate LXXX^^ lig- 2, it receives an immediate shock from tlie 
 water, which glides along the ship's bottom in running aft from 
 Ato B; and this fluid pushes it towards the opposite side, whilst 
 it is retained in this position : so that the stern, to which the rud- 
 der is coulined, receives the same impression, and accordingly 
 turns from B to ?/ about some point c, whilst the head of the ship 
 passes from A to a. It must be observed, that the current of water 
 falls U))on the rudder obliquely, and only strikes it with that part of 
 its motion which acts accoiding to the sine of incidence, pushing 
 it in the direction NP, with a force which not only depends on 
 the velocity of the ship's course, by which this current of water is 
 produced, but also upon the extent of the sine of incidence. 
 Tliis force is bj consequence composed of tlie square of the veloci- 
 ty with which the ship advances, and the square of the sine of in- 
 cidence, which w ill necessarily be greater or smaller according to 
 circnmstances ; so that if the vessel runs three or four times more 
 swiftly, the absolute shock of the water upon the rudder will be y 
 or 16 times stronger under the same incidence: and, if the inci- 
 dence is increased. It will y('t be augmented in a greater proportion, 
 because the square of the sine of incidence is more enlarged. 
 This impression, or power of the helm, is always very feeble, 
 when compared with the weight of the vessel; but as it operates 
 with the ioice of a long lever, its efl'orts to turn the ship are ex- 
 tremely advantageous. For the helm being applied to a great dis- 
 tance from the centre of gravity G, or from the point about which 
 the vessel turns horizontally, if the ihrection PN of the impression 
 of the water upon the rudder be jirolonged, it is evident that it 
 will pass perpendicularlv to 11, widely distant from the centre of 
 gravity C : thus the alisolute effort Of the water is very powerful. 
 It is not therefore surprising, that this machine impresses the ship 
 vith a considerable circular movement, by pushing the stern from 
 15 to 4, and the head from A to « ; and even much farther whiKt 
 she sails wiUi rjipidity, because the effect of the helm always keeps 
 pace with the velocity with wliich the vessel advances. Amongst 
 the several angles that the rudder makes with the keel, there is 
 always one position more favourable than any of the others, as it 
 more readily produces the desired effect of turning the ship, in 
 order to change her course. To ascertain this, it must be consid- 
 ered, that if the obliquity of the rudder with the keel be greater 
 than the obtuse angle A6D, so as to diminish that angle, the ac- 
 tion of the vvatei' upon the rudder will increase, and at the same 
 time oppose the course of the ship in a greater degree; because 
 the angle of incidence will be more open, so as to present a greater 
 surface to the shock of the water, by opposing its passage more 
 perpendicularlv. But at that time t!ie direction NP, of the efiort 
 of the helm upon the ship, will pass with a smaller distance from 
 the centre of gravity G towards R, and less approach the perpen- 
 dicular NL, according to which it is absolutely necessary that the 
 power applied should act with a greater effect to turn the vessel. 
 Thus it is evident, that if the obtuse angle ABD is too much in- 
 closed, the greatest impulse of the water will not couuterbalance 
 
 8 
 
 the loss sustained by the distance of the direction N P from N L, or 
 by ihe great obliquity which is given to the same direction N P of 
 the absolute elibrl ot the helm with the keel AB. If, on the con- 
 trary, the angle ABD is too much opened, the direction NP of 
 the force of the action of the helm will become more advantage- 
 ous to turn the vessel, because it will approach nearer the per- 
 pendicular NL ; so that the line prolonged from NP will increase 
 the line GR, by removing R to a greater distance from the cen- 
 tre of gravity G: but then the helm will receive the impression of 
 the water too obliquely, for the angle of incidence will be more 
 acute ; so that it will only present a small portion of its breadth to 
 the shock of the water, and by consequence will only receive a 
 feeble efiort. By this principle it is easy to conceive, that the 
 greatest distance GR from the centre of gravity G, is not suffi- 
 cient to repair the diminution of force occasioned by the too great 
 obliquity of tiie shock of the water. Hence we may conclude, 
 that when tlie water either strikes the helm too directly, or too ob- 
 liquely, it loses a great deal of the elTect it ought to produce. 
 Between the two extremes there is therefore a mean position, 
 which is tiie most favourable to its operations. The diagonal NP 
 of the rectangle IL represents the absolute direction of the etfbrt 
 of the water upon the helm. NI expresses the portion of this 
 effort which is opposed to the ship's head-way, or which pushes 
 her astern, in a direct'on parallel to the keel. It is easily per- 
 ceived, tliat this part NI ot the whole power of the helm con- 
 tributes but little to turn the vessel ; for, if IN is prolonged, it ap- 
 pears that its direction approaches to a very small distance GV 
 from the centre of gravitv G ; and that the arm of the lever BN = 
 GV, to which the force IS applied, is not in the whole more than 
 equal to half the breadth of tlie rudder : but the relative force NL, 
 which acts perpendicular to the keel, is extremely different. If 
 the lirst NI is almost useless, and even pernicious, by retarding 
 the velocity ; the second NL is capable of a very great effect, 
 because it operates at a considerable distance from the centre of 
 gravity G of the ship, and acts upon the arm of a lever GE, which 
 is very long. Thus it appears, that between the effects NL and 
 NI, which result from the absolute effort NP, there is one which 
 always opposes the ship's course, and contributes little to her mo- 
 tion of turning ; whilst the other produces only this movement of 
 rotation, without operating to retard her velocity. Geometricians 
 have determined the most advantageous angle made by the helm 
 with the line prolonged from the keel, and lixed it at 54° 44', pre- 
 suming that the ship is as narrow at her floating line, or at the line 
 described by the surface of the water round her bottom, as at the 
 keel. But as this supposition is absolutely false, inasmuch as all 
 vessels augment their breadth from the keel upward to the e.xtreme 
 breadth, where the lloating-line or the highest water-line is ter- 
 minated ; it follows, that this angle is too large by a certain number 
 of degrees. For the rudder is impressed by the water, at the 
 height of the floating-line, more directly than at the keel, be- 
 cause the fluid exactly follows the liorizontal outlines of the bot- 
 tom ; so that a particular position of the helm might be supposed 
 necessary fur each different incidence wh^ch it encounters from the 
 keel upwards. But as a middle position may be between all these 
 points, it will be sufficient to consider the angle formed by the 
 sides of the ship, and her axis, or the middle-line of her length, 
 at the surface of the water, in order to determine afterwards the 
 mean point, and the mean angle of incidence. Jt is evident that 
 the angle 54° 44' is too open, and very unfavourable to the Ship's 
 head-way, because the water acts upon the rudder tliere with too 
 great a sine of incidence, as being equal to that of the angle which 
 it mikes with the line prolonged from the keel below ; but above, 
 the shock of the water is almost perpendicular to the ruildtr, be- 
 cause of the breadth of the bottom, as we have already remarked. 
 If then the rudder is only opposed to the fluid, by making an an- 
 gle of 45° with the line prolonged from the keel, the impression, 
 by iiecoming weaker, will be less opposed to tha ship's head-way, 
 and the direction NP of the absolute effort of the water upon tiie 
 helm drawing nearer to the lateral perpendicular, will be placed 
 marc advantageously, for the reasons above mentioned. On 'he 
 other hand, experience daily testifies, that a ship steers well when 
 the rudder makes the angle DBE equal to 35° only. It has been 
 already remarked, that the effect of moving the wheel to govern 
 the helm increases in proportion to the length of the spokes ; antl 
 
 so
 
 H EL 
 
 im 
 
 HEM 
 
 so greiit is the powi-r ot the wIhtI, that it the hchnsiiniii ciii|)h>ys;i i 
 force upon itb spokes eiiuisalenl to .iolb. it will )irodiice an cilVi t 
 of90 or I'v'fUb. upon the tilk-r. On the coiiliar\ , the action of | 
 the water is collected into the midilh ot the bieadtli of the rudder, 
 wllicli is very narrow in comparison with the length of the tiller ; 
 so the etl'ort of the water is very little reniovcil from the fnUruni 
 B upon which it tmns; whereas the tiller forms the arm ot a lever 
 10 or 1 j times longer, which also increases the power of the helms- 
 man in the same |)roporlion that the tiller bears to the lever upon 
 which the im|)nlse ol the water is diiecled. This force Iheji is by 
 consequence 10 or 13 times slroni^er; and the cffurt of 30 pounds, 
 which at lirst gave the helmsman a power eiiual to f)0 or ICOIb. 
 becomes accumulaled to one of 900 or ISOOlb. upon the ni<lder. 
 This disadvantage thiwi arises from the shortness of the lever upon 
 which the action of the water is impressed, and the great com- 
 parative length of the tiller, or lever, by which the rudder is 
 governed; together with the additional power of thi- wheel thai 
 directs the movenienls of the tiller, and still farther accumulates 
 the power of the helmsman over it. Such a demonstration ought 
 to remove the surprise with which the prodigious etTect of the 
 helm is sometimes considered, from an inattention to its mechanism: 
 for wc need only to observe the pressure of the water, which acts 
 at a great distance from the centre of gravity G, about which the 
 ship is supposed to turn, and we shall easily perceive the dirt'er- 
 ence there is between the efl'ort of the water agamst the helms- 
 Bian, and the effect of the same impulse against the vessel. With 
 regard to the person who steers, the water acts only v:\tii the arm 
 of a very short lever NB, of which B is the fulcrum : on the con- 
 trary, with regard to the ship, the force of the water is im- 
 pressed in the direction NP, which passes to a great distance trom 
 G, and acts upon a very long lever E(-, which renders the action 
 of the rudder extremelv powerful in turning the vessel; so that, 
 in a large ship, the ruJder receives a shock from the water of 
 2700 or 2S001b. w hich is frequently the case when she sails at the 
 rate of three or four leagues by the hour; and this force being ap- 
 plied in E, perhaps 100 or 110 feet distant from the centre of 
 gravity G, w ill operate upon the ship to turn her about, with C70, 
 
 000 or 308,0001b ; whilst, in the latter case, the helmsman acts 
 with an elj'ort which exceeds not 301b. upon the spokes of the 
 wheel. From what has been said, it is plain that the more a ship 
 increases her velocity with regard to the sea, the more powerful 
 will be the elfect of the rudder ; because its acts against tlie water 
 with a force, which increases as the sipiare of the swiftness of the 
 lluid, whether the ship advances or retreats; or, in other words, 
 whether she has head-way or stern-way ; with this distinction, that 
 in these two ciicumstances tlie eliecls will be contrary. I'or if tin- 
 vessel retreats, or moves astern, the helm will be inqiressed from 
 
 1 to N ; and instead of being pushed, according to N P, it will 
 receive the elf "ort ofthe water from N towards U ; so that the stern 
 will be transported to the same movement, and the head turjicd 
 in a contrary direction. 'Vhen the helm operates by itself, the 
 centre of rotation of the ship, and her movement, are determined 
 by estimating the force of this machine; that is to say, by nnd- 
 tiplyin^ the surface of the rudder by the s(|uare of the ship's 
 Velocity. 
 
 Helm, Terms used Respectint. the. In the sea-language, 
 bear up the helm, signilie^, let the ship go more at large before the 
 wind: helm a mid-ship, or right the helm, is, keep it even witli 
 the middle of the ship : port the helm, put it over the left side of 
 the ship; and starboard the helm, put it on the right side of the 
 ship. 
 
 HELMET, armour for the head, it was anciently worn by 
 horsemen both in war and in tournaments. It covereil botn the 
 head and fate, only leaving an aperture in the front secured bv 
 bars, which was called the visor. In achievements, it is placed 
 above the escutcheon for the princip.il ornament, and is the true 
 ri?.rk of chivalry ;md nobility. Ilelmets varv according to the 
 (iirferent degrees of those who bear theni. Tliey are also used as 
 a bearing in 'oats of arms. See Heraldry. 
 
 HELM IN rilOLnrirs, in natmal history, a name given by 
 Linna-us to petrified bodies resi-mbling worms. Of these he 
 reckons four genera: l.Pelritied lilhophyta, found in the moun- 
 tains of Sweden. 2. Petrified shells. "3. Pelrihed zoophytes. 
 4. Petrilied reptiles. 
 
 liEL.NKJN r, John Baptist Van, a celebrated Flemish gen- 
 
 VOL II. — NO. 10:^. 
 
 lleinan, born at lirus^eK in I j77. lie acipiired sucn skin in n.;tu- 
 ral philosophv, physic, and chemistry , that he was accounted a 
 inagician, and thrown into the inquisition: but having with dilii- 
 culty justified hinielf, as soon as he was released he rc-lired to 
 Iloriaiid; where he died in 1644. He published, 1. De Magne- 
 tica C'orporum Curatione. 'J. I'ebrium Doctrina Inaudita. 3. 
 Ortus Medicin.e. 4. Paradoxa de Aquis Spadanis; and other 
 works, printed together in one vol. folio. 
 
 IIelmont, a small town of liatavia, in the department of Dom- 
 mel and Scheldt, and la'e provirice of Dutch Brabant. 
 
 HELMSDAl.lil, a river of Scotland, in Sutherland, called in 
 the ("eltic, Abhin High, or Avonuiihe, which rises from several 
 lakes in the parish of Kildonan, and falls into the (ierman Ocean. 
 
 H ELMS LEY, a town of Yorkshire, on the Kye, twenty-two 
 miles \. of York. 
 
 II ELMS TAD T, or HALMSTADT, a strong maritime town 
 of Swedin, and capital of the province of lialland, on the Baltic. 
 Lon. 12. 48. E. Lat. 36. 38. N. 
 
 IIELONIAS, in botany, a genus ofthe trigynia order, and 
 iiexandria class of jjlants; natural order, Coronaria.-. Corolla 
 liexapetalous; no caly.\; capsule trilocular. It has two species, 
 American herbs. 
 
 IlELOS, in ancient geography, a maritime town of Laconia, 
 between Trinasus and Acria', in the district of Helotea. In Pau- 
 sanias's time it was in ruins. 
 
 HELSINGFORS, a sea-port of Sweden, in the province of 
 Nyland, on the N. coast of the Gulf of Finland, 140 miles E.S.E. 
 ot Abo. 
 
 IIELSINGIA, or IIELSINGLAND, a province of Sweden, 
 bounded on the N. by Jemijterland and Medelpadia; on the E. 
 by the Bothnic Gulf; on the S. by Gestricia, and S. W. and W. 
 bv Dalecarlia. It is full of mountains and lorests. Thepiincip.il 
 towns are Hudwicksvald, Alia, and Dilsbo. The rivei-s and lakes 
 abound with fish. It is ICO miles long and 90 broad. 
 
 IIELSINGIC CHARACTER, a peculiar character found oa 
 stone-' in Hclsingia, resembling the Runic. 
 
 HELSTON, a populous borough ot Cornwall, twelve miles E. 
 of Penzance. 
 
 HELVETIA, or CIVITAS HELVETI.F., in ancient geogra- 
 phy, the country of the Helvetii, was divided into four Pagi or 
 Cantons, situated to the S. and W. of the Kbiiie, by which they 
 were dividetl from the Germans; and exiending towards Gaul, 
 from which they were separated by mount Jura on the \V. and by 
 the Rhodanus and Lacus Lemanus on the .S. and therefore called 
 a Gallic nation. It was formerly a part of Celtic Gaul, btit by 
 Augustus assigned to Gallia Rei;;ica: lately called Switzerland, 
 and now the Helvetic Republic. 
 
 HELVETIC REPL'ULIC, one of the modem democratic 
 States of Europe, formed by the French out of the Ijle cantons of 
 Switzerland. 
 
 HELVETII, a people of Gallia Belgica, near the country of 
 the Allobroges and the Provincia Romaiia; famed for bravery and 
 a turn tor war; and not destitute of learning. 
 
 HELVOE'I SLUYS, a sea-port town of Batavia, in the de- 
 partment of Delft, inland of \'oorn, and late piovince of S. Hol- 
 land. It is twelve miles W. of Dort, and litteon S. W. of Rot- 
 terdam. 
 
 HE.MEROB.VPTISTS, a sect among the ancient Jews, thus 
 called from their washing and bathing tiaily in all seasons; and 
 performing this custom with the gre:ite5t solemnity, as a religious 
 rite necessary to salvation, from r,"if-5, day, and fr,i:?:^t,, I baptize. 
 
 HEMEROBILS, in zoology, a genus of instits of the neurop- 
 tcra order. Mouth furnished' with two teelli; palpi are I'our; 
 wings dellecleti, not plaited; anteniue bristly, longer than the 
 breast. It has about forty species, principally distinguished by 
 their colours. They are named hrnierobii from the shortness of 
 their lives, which, however, conlinuo several days. In the state 
 of larva they are great devourers of plant-lice, for which it has had 
 the name of the lion of the plant-lice. They arc also cannibals, 
 and devour each other after their transformation. The eggs are 
 borne on small gummy pedicles, spun by the insects trom their 
 abdomen. These eggs are depositeil upon leaves, and set in the 
 form of bunches. They have been taken for parasitic phnits. In 
 hiteen or sixteen days the larva attains to its t'uU growth. With its 
 spinning-wheel at its tail, it makes itself a small, round, white, 
 8 O silk)).
 
 H EM 
 
 no 4 
 
 HEM 
 
 silky cod, of a close texUue. In summer, at the cud of three 
 weeks, the hcmerob'uis issues forthwith its wings; but when the 
 tod h;u^ not been spun till autumn, the chrysalis remains in it the 
 whole winter, and does not luideigo its tiiial nictamorphc^is till the 
 next ^iinng. The flight of this insect is heavy : some sptcies have 
 an ex( vcnii-ntitious smell. Si-e Plate LXXVI. Thia genus is di- 
 ■vided uito two sections, A Iho-e having a membranaceous, annu- 
 late, rvlindrical, lip. B having a vaulted, horny, lip. 
 
 HEMEHOCALLIS, Day-lily, or Lily-Asphodel: a ge- 
 nus nf the monogynia order, and hexandria tla->3 of plants; natu- 
 ral order, Coronariiv. Corolla bell-shaped; the tube cylindric; 
 stamina declining. There are five species. 
 
 HI:;MEiU:)DUOMI, [from nutja, day, and ijo,.®-, course,, 
 ^c] among the ancients, were guaids, appointed fur the security 
 of cities and other places. 
 
 HEMEROl ROPHTS, [from Vija, Gr. a day, and tjo^j,, 
 food,] in antiquity, a measure of capacity, the same with the cho;- 
 Uix; so called from its holding one day's food. 
 
 HEMl, [from ii^-m;, Gr. half,] a word used in the composition 
 of various terms, signifying the same with semi or demi, half. 
 
 HEMIC^YCLE, [of V''^>'> ''3'f> and xuxXo.-, circle,] a semi- 
 circle, is particularly ajjplied, in architecture, to vaults in the cra- 
 dlt -form ; and arches or sweeps of vaults, constituting a perfect 
 semicircle. 
 
 Hkmicycle, orllEMicYCLiiiM, wds also a part of the Orches- 
 tra in the ancient theatre. 
 
 Hemicycle, or Hemicyclium, was also used for a sort of sun- 
 cjial, the cusp whereof looked to the north. 
 
 HEMIMERIS, in botany, agenusof the angiospcrmia order, 
 and didynamia class of plants. Essential character: calyx five- 
 parted ; corolla wheel-form ; upper lip cloven, with a nectareous 
 bag at the base. There are three species. 
 
 HEMINA, in Roman antiquity, a lic|uitl measure, which, ac- 
 cording to Arbuthnot, was equal to half a wine-pint English mea- 
 sure; its contents being 2.818 solid inches. 
 
 HEMIOBOLON, a weight often mentioned by the ancient 
 "Writers in medicines, signifying the half ot the obolus, or the 
 twelfth part of a drachm, i. t. live grains. 
 
 HEMIOMTES, English Mule-Kern, [from hemisnus, a 
 mule,] in botany, a genus of the cryptogamia lilices, or terns. 
 Capsules digesleil into lilies, meeting together, either intersecting 
 «ach other, or branched. There are eight species, natives of both 
 the Indies. 
 
 HEMlPLEGY, [V"'">. half, and irxw-u), tostrike, or seize,] 
 a palsy, or any nervous atTectioii relating thereunto, that seizes one 
 side at a time; some partial disorder ot the nervous system. See 
 Medici.ve. 
 
 HEMIPTERA, [from V"^"?! half, and irlifov, wing,] in the 
 Xinnaan system, the second order of insects, comprehending the 
 following genera, viz. the bUitta, ni.mlis, gryllus, fulgora, cicada, 
 nconecta, nepa, cimex, aphis, chermes, coccus, thrips, macroce- 
 phalus, and pneiiniora. bte those articles, and Entomology. 
 
 HEAllSPHIiRE, ['V"^?"'?'".] in astronomy, is particularly 
 xised for one-half of the mundane sphere. The equator divides the 
 sphere into two equal parts, called the northern and southern he- 
 mispheres. The horizon also divides the sphere into the upper 
 and the lower hemispheres. 
 
 Hemisphere, is also used for a map, or projection, of half the 
 terrestrial globe, or half the celestial sphere, on a plane. Hemi- 
 spheres are treipiently calletl planispheres. 
 
 Hemisphere, in geometry, the half of a globe or sphere, when 
 it IS supposecl to be cut through its centre in the plane of one of its 
 great ciic!-s. See Geometry. 
 
 H EiVlIiJ riC, [V's^'X'"*' hcmistiche, Fr.] half a verse. It de- 
 notes alo a veise not completed. Of this there are frequent e.\- 
 amjjles in Virgil's jEneid ; but whether they were left unfinished 
 by design or not, is disputed among the learned : such are, 
 Ferro accincta vocat. iEn. II. v. 6l4. 
 And, Ilaliam non sponte sequor. ^En. IV. 361. 
 In reading common Eiigli h verses, a short pause is required at the 
 end of each hemistich or half-verse. 
 
 HEMl'lONE, in the ancient music, was what we now call a 
 half-note oi scmilone. « 
 
 IIEMITRI T/EUS, [from nt^nrvi, half, and TfiTmo;, tertian,] in 
 medicine, a kind of lever, denoting the same as semi-tertian, re- 
 turiiing twice every day. 
 
 HEMLOCK. See Cicuta and Conium. 
 
 HEMODEB, in ancient geography, seven islands of Denmark, 
 now called Zeeland, Fuynen, Langlandt, Muen, Falster, Lalandt, 
 and Femeren. 
 
 HEMOIPTOTON. See Oratory. 
 
 HEMORRHAGY. See H,t!morkhagia. 
 
 HEMORRHOIDS, [i.,-'W"S'> ; hemorrhoids, Fr.] the piles ; 
 the emerods. See Medicine. 
 
 HEMP, \juvnep, Sax. hampe, Dutch; cannabis.'] See Can- 
 nabis. It does not ajipear that the ancients were acquainted with 
 the use of hemp, in respect of the thread it affords. Pliny, who 
 speaks of the plarit in his natural history, lib. xx. cap. 23, siys not 
 a word of this; but extols the virtues of its stem, leaves, anci root. 
 In effect, what some writers on the Roman antiquities remark, viz. 
 that the hemp necessary for the use of war was all stored up in two 
 cities of the western empire, viz. at Ravenna and Vienne, under 
 the direction of two procurators, called procuratores linisicii, must 
 be understood of linnm or iiax The common hemp, or cannabis 
 sativa, is a valuable plant, which grows wild in the East Indies, 
 and is cultivated to a very considerable extent in Britain, particu^ 
 iarly in the counties of Sussex and Suffolk. It thrives most fa- 
 vourably on a sandy, moist, loam, or on old meadows, and low 
 bottoms, near rivers, and is propagated from seed, which is sown 
 in the proportion of eleven pecks, or two bushels, per acre, broad- 
 cast ; though a much smaller quantity will sulTfice, if it be drilled. 
 The proper time of sowing hemp, is from the middle to the end of 
 April, or even a month later; but the best crops are generally 
 ))i'Ofl need from the earlier seeds. This useful plant requires no 
 weeding : the male, or iimble-hemp, is usually lit for pulling in the 
 miisdle of July, or about nine weeks after it is sown. Tlie female, 
 termed karle, or seed-hemp, is seldom ripe till September, when it 
 is pulled, lied into bundles, and set to dry : at the end of ten days 
 they are loosened, and the heads or tops arc held upon a hurdle 
 bv one person, while another, with a small threshing-flail, beats 
 out the seed. The hemp is then prepared for the manufacturer, 
 either by grassing, that is, lying on stubble or pasture-ground, in 
 order to be gradually dew-ripened; or, by water-ratting, for which 
 process clay-pits are preferred to runnuig-water. In these, the 
 hemp is immersed in bundles, laid both directly, and across, for 
 four or five days, according to the fineness of the weather. The 
 next operation is that of reeding, namely, the separation of the 
 bark from the reed, or woody part, which is effected either by 
 pulling out the reed with the hand, or by drying, and breaking it 
 by machinery, like flax. The hemp is then cleared of its mucda- 
 ginous matter, by pouring water through it, and squeezing out the 
 tie|idd after every affusion, till it be completely divested of those 
 particles. Tlie next operation is that of breaking it, which, in the 
 county of Suffolk, is performed with the aid of certain machinery 
 worked by tlie liand; when the hemp is beaten in mills; combed 
 or dressed by drawing it through heckles, similar to the combs of 
 wool-manufacturers ; and spun into thread, whence it is made into 
 twine, cordage, cloth, netting, &c. Beside the strong cloth, and 
 other articles made from it, hemp is of considerable utility for 
 other purposes. The refuse, called hemp-sheaves, aflbrds an ex- 
 cellent fuel; and the seeds yield by expression a pure oil, which is 
 peculiarly adapted for burning in chambers, as it is perfectly lim- 
 pid, and possesses no smell. Another valuable property of hemp 
 is, that it eU'ectujIly expels vermin from plantations of cabbages; 
 for, if it be sown on the borders of fields, Sjc. planted with that 
 vegetable, no caterpillars will infest it. When fresh, hemp has a 
 strong, narcotic, smell : the water in which it has been soaked, is 
 said to be in a high degree poisonous, and to produce fatal efl'ects, 
 immediately after drinking it. The seeds have an unctuous, 
 sweetish, taste ; they may be triturated with water, or boiled in 
 milk as an emulsion, which is occasionally taken as a domestic re- 
 ined)- in coughs, heat of urine, and similar complaints. The im- 
 portant uses of hemp, and the superiority of that produced in this 
 country, have iustly rendered it an object of attention to govern- 
 ment. Accordingly, in the year 17S3.a bounty of 3rf. per stone 
 was granted on all hemp raised in Britain, in order to encourage 
 its growth: and, with the same patriotic view, heavy duties are 
 imposed on that article, when imported from foreign countries. 
 On the other hand, its exportation both from Britain and Ireland, 
 is duty-free. 
 
 Hemp-Agrimony. See Eupatorium. 
 
 Uemp-Agrimony, Bastard. See Aceratum. 
 
 HEMPSTED,
 
 HEN 
 
 f)Po 
 
 IT t: V 
 
 HEMl'S 1 ED, atownot Ilerttoid-liiif , i-ighueii inikb b. \\ . 
 of Hertlortl, ami twenty-ihret- N. VV. of London. 
 
 HEN. iJL'e Phasianus. 
 
 Hen, GuiNKA. SeeNuMiDA. 
 
 HENlSANli. See Hyosciamus. 
 
 HENDECAGON, ['viix«, and y»via,] a figure of eleven sides 
 or ngles. 
 
 HENDEC'ASYLLABON, in grammar, a word conMstinn 
 of eleven syllables, from the Greek words hlitm, eleven, arid 
 Cl/Xx»)3,i, a syllable. 
 
 HENDIADIS, [jvSiaJif, Gr.] a fignre in rhetoric, when two 
 substajitive-nonns an- used lor a substantive and adjective. 
 
 HEN-MOULD SOIL, in agriculture, a term used by tlic 
 bnsbandmen in Northamptonshire, and other counties, to express 
 a black, hollow, spongy, and mouldering earth, usually t'oinid at 
 the bottom^ of hilU. 
 
 HENNEAMIMERIS, in poetry, a verse of nine half-feet. 
 
 HENNlCBliUG, a mountainous country in Franconia. 
 
 Hennfberg, a town in the above country, thirty-four miles 
 N. \V. of Bamberg. 
 
 UENN EBON, a town of France, in the department of Morbi- 
 han, and late province of Bretagne ; 22 miles N. W. of Vannes, 
 and 260 W. by S. of Paris. 
 
 HENOTICUM, ['HvoTixov, fj. d. reconciliative; of i'vou., I 
 unite,] in church-histury, a famous edict of the emperor Zeno, 
 published A. D. 482, and intended to re-unite the Eulychians with 
 the Cutholics. 
 
 HENKICHEMONT, a town of France, in the department of 
 Cher, and late province of Berry, twelve miles and a half N.N.E. 
 of Bourges. 
 
 H EN H Y, the name of eight empernrs of Germany, and one of 
 Constantinople; of eight kings of Enjiiland, four of France, four 
 of Spain, one ol Portug-al, and one of Scotland. Our limits wdl 
 not permit us to give an account of each of these, we therefore re- 
 fer the reader to the histories of the countries where these nionarchs 
 reigned. 
 
 Henry, Matthew, an eminent dissenting minister, born in 
 1662. He continued under his father's care till he was eighteen 
 years of age; in which time lie became well skilled in the learned 
 languages, especially in the Hebrew, which his father had rendered 
 familiar to him from his childhood ; and fiom tirsl lo last the study 
 of the Scriptures was his nio^t delighttul employment. He com- 
 pleted his education in Mr. Dooliule's academy at Islington, and 
 was afterwards entered m Gray's-lnn for the study of the law. 
 But at length, resolving to devute bis life to divinity, m 1686 he 
 retired into tlie country, and was cho'-en pastor of ;i congregation 
 at Chester, where he livi'd about twenty-five years, greatly es- 
 teemed and beloved by his people. He had several calls to Lon- 
 don, which he constantly declined ; but was at last prevailed upon 
 to accept an unanimous invitation from a congregation at Hack- 
 ney. He wrote, 1. Expositions of the Bible, in b vols, folio. 2. 
 The Life of Mr. Philip Henry. 3. Directions for daily Com- 
 munion with God. 4. A Method lor Prayer. 5. Four Dis- 
 courses against Vice and Iminoralily, 6. The Communicant's 
 Companion. 7. Family Hymns. 8. A Scriptural Catechism. 
 And, 9. A Discourse coucernnig the Nature of Schism. He died 
 of an apoplexy at Nautwich, in 1714; and was interred at Trinity- 
 church in Chester. 
 
 Henry, Robert, D. D. a Scotch divine, was born at St. Ni- 
 nian's in 171S, and educated at Edinburgh. In 1748 he was or- 
 dained as a Presbyterian minister at Carlisle. He afterwards re- 
 moved to Berwick, and in 1768 to Edinburgh, wiierc he became 
 minister of the New Gray-friars church. In 1776 hir was chosen 
 one of the ministers at the Old church, and died in 1790. Dr. 
 Henry is known as the author of a valuable history of Great Bri- 
 tain, to the reign of Henry VII. which has gone through several 
 editions. This work arranges, under separate heads, the civil and 
 military history of Great Britain; the history of religion ; I he his- 
 tory of our constitution, government, laws, and courts of justice; 
 the history of learning, ot learned men, and of the chief seminaries 
 of learning; the hisloiy of arts; the history of commerce, of ship- 
 ping, of money or coin, and of the price of commodities; and the 
 history of manners, virtues, vices, customs, language, dress, diet, 
 and amusements. Under these seven heads, which extend the 
 province of an historian greatly beyond its usual limits, every 
 
 tiling curious or mteresling in the history of any country may be 
 ciim|)iehen<led. 
 
 HENTING, in agriculture, a term used by the farmers for a 
 particular method of sowing before the plough; ihecorn, being 
 cast into a sliaight line just where the plough is to come, is by 
 this means presently ploughed in. By this way of sowing they 
 think they save a great deal of seed and other charges, a dex- 
 terous boy being as capable of sow ing this way out of his hat 
 as the most skilful seedsman. Henting is also a term used by the 
 ploughmen, and others, to signify the two furrows that are tuinod 
 Irom one another at the bottom, in the ploughing ot a ridge. The 
 word seems to be a corrniition ot entlmg, because those furrows 
 nuule an end of ploughing the ridges. The tops of the ridges they 
 call veerings. 
 
 HEPAR, the Liver. See Anatomy. 
 
 Hepar Sulphuris, or Liver of Sulphi.'r, a combimlion of 
 alkali and sulphur. It is now denominated sulphuret. See SuL- 
 
 I ' H U R f" r 
 
 H e'p.\TIC^: ARTERLF. See Anatomy. 
 
 HEPATIC GAS, the gas which is now called sulphuretted 
 hydrogen gas, See GaS. 
 
 HEPAl'lTIS, in medicine, an inflammation of the liver. Se» 
 Medicine. 
 
 H EPATOSCOPIA, [from 'iirtj. liver, and t-xotfu., I consider,^ 
 in antiquity, a species of divination, wherein predictions were- 
 made by inspecting the livers of animals. The word was also 
 used for divination by entrails. 
 
 HEPH/ESTL'V, in antiquity, an Athenian festival in honour of 
 Vulcan, the chief ceremony ot which was a race with torched. 
 
 H EPHiESTUS, ['Hfetiro,-, from nfi, I iiave kindled, and ir't, a 
 fire,] the Greek name of Vulcan. 
 
 HEPIITHEMLMERIS, [of .'ir™, seven, V"^"!. an'' ■J'H'^, 
 part,] in the Greek and Latin poetry, a sort ot verses consisting of 
 three feet and a syllable ; that is, of seven half-feet : called also 
 tiimetri catalectici. Such are most of the verses in Anacreon: 
 
 ©c-Xoi \ Xiyfiv I Ato« I ^-fif 
 
 0lXw I ti tsa5 I fAoy tt, | iiiv, &*c. 
 
 And that of Aristophanes, in his Plutus : 
 
 Hephthemimeris, or Hephthemimeres, is also a cisura af- 
 ter the third foot ; that is, on the seventh half-foot. It is a rule, 
 that this syllable, though it be short in itself, must be made long 
 on account of the cKsura, or to make it an hephthemimeris. A» 
 in that verse of Virgil. 
 
 " Et furiis agvtatus amor, et conscia virtus," 
 
 HEPS, or HIPS, Hep-tree. Sec Rosa. 
 
 HEPFACAPSULAR [.^rola.Gr. and aipsula, Lat.] having 
 Seven cavities or cells. 
 
 HEP TACHORD, in ancient poetry, signified verses that were 
 sung or played on seven chords, i. e. on seven dilVerent n<'tes. 
 In this sense it was applied to the lyre when it had but seven 
 strings. One of the intervals is also called an heptachord, as con- 
 taining the same number of degrees between the extremes. 
 
 HEPTAGON, lliepUigonc, Fr. l^U, and yiwia,] a figure with 
 seven sides or angles. 
 
 Heptagon, in fortification, a place that has seven bastions for 
 its defence. See Geometry and Mensuration-. 
 
 IIFPl'AGONAL NUMBERS, are a kind of polygonal num- 
 bers in which the difference of tlie terms of the corresponding 
 arithmetical progression is :>. Thus, 
 
 Aiilhmeticals, 1, 6, II, 16, 21, 26, S;c. 
 Heptagonals, 1, 7, 13, 34, ii, SI, &c. 
 
 where the heplagonals are formed by adding continually t!ie tcrmi 
 of the arithmeticals, above them, whose comuum diilerencf is j. 
 Oiu! proi)erty, among many olheis, of these heplagonal inimbers 
 IS, that if aiiv one of them be multiplied by 40, aud to the pro- 
 duct 9 be added, the sum will be a square number. 
 TIius 1 X 40 -I- 9 = 49 = 7" 
 and 7 X -iO + 9 = 289 = 17^ 
 and IS X 40 -f 9 = 729 = 27" 
 and 34 X 40 -j- y = 1369 = 37^ 3,:c. 
 Where it is remarkable that (he series of squares so formed is 7', 
 17-, 27^, 37'. 4ic, the conunon dillcrcnoecif whose root -is 10, tlie 
 
 iioublc
 
 H E R 
 
 f)9f^ 
 
 H RR 
 
 double of the coiniuoii ilill'eier.ce ot the aritliiiu-tical series Iroin 
 which tlie hi plagonals are kiimed. See Polygon als. 
 
 IlEP'l AN DRIA, [from i-ara, sr^vi-n, and q>ij, a man,] in bo- 
 tany, the seventli class in Linn;cus's srxnal method, consisting of 
 plants with hennaplirodile (louers, which have seven stamina or 
 male organ-. See Iiotasy. 
 
 H1''.P t'ANtjl'LAK, in geometry, havinj; seven angles. 
 
 HliPTARCHY, [/u-jitarc/ik, Fr. it^hc and «f:ci'] ^ govern- 
 ment composed ol seven persons, or a conntrv governed by seven 
 persons, or divideid into seven kingdoms. 'I'jie Saxon heptarchy 
 mclnded all England, which was cantoned onl into seven inde- 
 pendent kingdoms, peopled and governed by different clans and 
 I'donies, viz. those ot Kent, the South Saxons, West Saxons, 
 K.ist S.ixnns, Northumberland, the East Angles, and Mercia. 
 
 IIERACLEA, an ancient city of European '1 urkey in Ro- 
 mania. 4:-> miles VV.S.W. of Constantinoi)le. 
 
 H EPuiC EEON 1 I'ES, a sect of heretics, the followers of He- 
 vacleoii, who relined upon the Gnostic system, and maintained 
 that the world was not the immediate production of the Son ot 
 (ioci, but that he was only the occasional cause of its benig creat- 
 ed by the Demiursus. I'he Ileracleonites denied the authontv 
 ot the Old Testami-nt, maintaining that they were mere random- 
 sounds in the air ; and that St. John the Baptist was the only true 
 voit'e that directed to tlie Messiah. 
 
 HERACLEUM, Cow-parsnip; a genus of the digynia order, 
 and pentandria class of plants ; natural order Umbellata-. Krmt 
 elliptical, emarginated, compressed, striated, with a thin border ; 
 corolla dilform, indexed, emarginated; involiicrum dropping oft. 
 It has six species. 
 
 llERACLIDiE, the descendants of Hercules, greatly cele- 
 brated in ancient history. Hercules, at his deatli, lett his son 
 Hyllus all the rights and demands which he had upon Peh pon- 
 nesus, and ordered him to marry iole, the dauijhter ol Eurvtus, a- 
 soon as he came of age. The posterity of Hercules were not 
 Biorekindl) treated bv Eur^stlleui than their latlier had b'-en, 
 and they were obliged to retire for protection to the court oi 
 Ceyx, king of 'I'rachinia. Eirysthus pursued them ihiiber; and 
 Ceyx, afraid of his resentment, begged tiie Heradida' to depart 
 from his dominions. From Trachinia they came to Athens, were 
 king Theseus, who had accompanied their father in some of his 
 expeditions, received ihem with great humanity, and assisted them 
 against Euryslheus. Eurvstheus was killed by Hyllus himself; 
 his children perisb.ed witli him, and ail the cities of Peloponnesus 
 became the indisputed property ol the lleraclid;e. Their triumph, 
 however, was sliort ; their numbers were h>seii<-d by a pestilehce ; 
 and the oracle informed them, that thev had taken possession ot 
 Pelopuime-us bel'ure the gods permitted their return. I'pon this 
 they abandoned Peloponnesus, and came to settle at Attica, where 
 Hyllus married Tole. Soon after he consulted the oracle, anxious 
 to recover the Peloponnesus ; and the ambiguity of the answer de- 
 termined him to make a second attempt. He challenged to 
 single combat Atreus, the successor of Eurystheus on the throne 
 of Myceiue ; and it was mutually agreed that the undisturbed pos- 
 session of Peloponnesus should be ceded to the victor. Echemus 
 accepted the challenge for Atreus; Hyllus was killed, and the 
 Heraclidff departeil from Peloponnesus a second time, about 
 twenty years before the Trojan war. Cleoda-us, the son of Hyl- 
 lus, made a third attempt, and was equally unsuccessful; and his 
 son Aristoniachus, some time alter, met with the same unfavour- 
 able reception, and perislied in the tield of battle. Aristo<leiiius, 
 Temenus, and Chresphontcs, the three sons ot Aristoniachus, en- 
 couraged by the more express word of an oracle, and desirous to 
 revenge the death ot their progenitors, assembled a immernus 
 force, and with a lleet invaded all Peloponnesus. Their expedi- 
 tion was attended with much success; and after some decisive 
 fcUlles they became masters of all the peniasula. The recovery of 
 
 Peloponnesus by the Heraclida- forms an interesting epocii in an« 
 
 cieut history, which is universally believed to have liappened 
 
 eighty years aher the Trojan war, B.C. 1104. This conquest 
 
 was totally achieved about a hundred and twenty years after the 
 
 lirst attempt ot Hyllus, who was killed about twenty years before 
 
 the Trojan war. As it occasioned many changes and revolutions 
 
 in the alt'airs of Greece, the return of the Heiaclid;K is the epocha 
 
 i of the beginning of profane history : all the time that preceded it ■ 
 
 I is reputed fabulous. Accordingly, Ephorus, Cumaus,Callisthenes, 
 
 : and Theopompus, begin their histories from this sera. 
 
 HERACLUJES, a Greek philosopher of Pontns, the disciple 
 of Speusippus, and afterwards of Aristotle, tlouri>hed about B. C 
 iM. His vanity prompted him to desire one of his (riemls to put 
 a serpent into his bed just as he was dead, in order to raise a be- 
 lief that he was ascended to the heavens among the gods ; but the 
 cheat was discovered. All his works are lost. 
 
 HEHACJTTUS, a famous Ephesian philosopher, whoflourished 
 about the sixty-ninth Olympiail, in the time of Darius PJystaspes. 
 He is said to have continually bewailed and wept for the witkcd 
 lives of men; contrary to Democritus, who made the follies of 
 mankind a subject of laughter. He retired to the temple of 
 Diana, and playetl at dice with the boys there ; saying to the 
 Ephesians who gathered round him, "Worst of men, what do you 
 wonder at > Is it not better to do thus than to govern you >" Da- 
 rius invited him to come and live with him, but he refused. At 
 last, out of hatred to mankind, he retired tu the mountains, where 
 he contracted a dropsy, by living on herbs, which killed him at 
 sixty years of age. His writings gained him great reputation. 
 Laertius mentions a Treatise upon Nature, divided into three 
 books, concerning the universe : the second on politics : the third 
 on theology. This book he deposited in the temple of Diana ; 
 and it is said that he aflected to write obscurely, lest it should be 
 read by the vulgar, and become contemptible. The fundamental 
 doctrine of his philosophy was, that hre is the principle of all 
 things. 
 
 Herald, [from the Snxon word Nc-rchault, a champion of 
 an army,] a term formerly applied to him who, in the armv, had 
 the special charge to denounce war, to challenge to battle and 
 combat, to proclaim peace, and to execute martial messages. "But 
 the business ef heralds, now, is as follows, viz. to marshal, order, 
 and conduct, all royal cavalcades, ceremonies at coronations,royal 
 marriages, installations, creations ol dukes, marquises, earls, vis- 
 counts, barons, baronets, and dubbing of knights; embassies, fune- 
 ral-processions, declarations ot war, proclamations of peace, &c.; 
 to recortl and blazon the arms ot the nobility and gmtry ; and to 
 regulate any abuses therein through the Biitish dominions, uiuler 
 the authority of the Earl Marshal, to whom they are subservient. 
 The office of Windsor, Chester, Riclimond, Somerset, York, and 
 Lancaster heralds, is to be assistants to the kings at arms, in the 
 diifcrent branches of their office; and they are superior to each 
 other, according to creation, in the above order. Heralds were 
 anciently held in much greater esteem than they are at present ; 
 an<l were created and christened by the king, who, pouring a gold- 
 cup of wine on their head, gave ihem the hcraldnamc: but this is 
 now done by the Earl Marshal. They could not arrive at the 
 dignity of herald without being seveH years pursuivant; nor quit 
 the oltice of herald, but to be made king at arms. Richard HI. 
 was the first who forined them, in this kingdom, into a college; 
 and allerwards great privileges were granted them by Edward VI. 
 and Philip and .Mary. The origin of heralds is very ancient, 
 Stinlorls represented by Homer as herald of the Greeks, who had 
 a voice louder than lifty men together. The (Greeks called them 
 xii^v:!!,-, and !i:iiir,fuMxi:i and the Romans, _/cfi«/c.s. The Romans 
 had a college ot heralds, appointed to decide whether a war were 
 unjust ; and to prevent its coming to open hostilities, till all means 
 had becH attempted for deciding the difference in a pacific way. 
 
 HERALDRY. 
 
 HERALDRY, [jieraiddric, Fr. from hcrchavU, Sax.] Is a 
 science which teaciies how to blazon, or explain in propr terms, 
 all that belongs to arms; and how to marshal, or dispose reuularly, 
 divers arms on a field, it also teaches whatever relates to the mar- 
 s])aJliiig of solemn cavalcades, processions, and other public cere- 
 
 monies at coronations, installations, creations of peers, nuptials, 
 christenings of prin<es, tunerals, .Sic. Arms, or coats of arms, are 
 hereditary marks ot honour, maue up ot fixed and determined co- 
 lours and figures, granted by sovereign princes, as a reward tor 
 military valour, or some signal public service; and ierve to denote 
 -J- - the
 
 HERALDRY. 
 
 61)7 
 
 the descent ami alliance of the bearer, or lo ilisliiicui--h t.tales, ci- 
 ties, societies, &;c. civil, ecclesiastical, and military. Sir Jolm 
 l''erne is ot o[)inion, that we borrowed arms from tlie E^vptiajis; 
 meaning from tlieir hieroglyphics. Sir \\'illiam Diiodale men- 
 tions, tliat arms, as marks of honours were lirst used by great com- 
 iiiani'.ers in war. necessity requiring that their persons should be 
 iiolilied to tiieir friends and lollowers. The li:arncd Alexander 
 IS ibbel, in his excellent System of IleraUlry, says, ihat arms owe 
 their rise and beginning to the light of nature, and that signs and 
 marks of honour were made use of in the (irst ages of the world, 
 and by all nations, however siniple and illiterate, to distinguish the 
 noble from the ignoble. We lind m Homer, Virgil, and Ovid, 
 that their heroes had divers ligures on their shields, whereby their 
 jjersons were distinctly known. Alexander the Great, desirous to 
 lionour those of his captains and soldiers who had done any glori- 
 ous action, and also to excite an emulation aiiiong the rest, granted 
 them certain badges to be borne on their armour, pennons, and 
 banners; ordering, at the same time, that no person or potentate, 
 through his empire, should attempt or presume to give or tolerate 
 tli<f l)earing ot those signs upon the armour of any man, but it 
 shoidd be a power reserved to himself; which prerogative has 
 been claimed ever since by all oilier kings and sovereign princes 
 within their dominions. On this subject, all that can be said with 
 any certainty is, that in all ages, men have made use of figures of 
 living creatures, or symbolical signs, to denote the bravery and 
 courage either of their chief or nation, to render themselves more 
 terrible to their enemies, and even to distinguish themselves or fa- 
 milies, as names do individuals. The famous C. Agrippa, in his 
 treatise of the vanity of sciences, cap. 8i, has collected many in- 
 stances of these marks of distiiittion, anciently borne bv kingdoms 
 and slates that were any way civilized, viz. the Egyptians bore an 
 ox; the Athenians an owl; the Goths a bear; the Romans an 
 eagle ; the Franks a lion ; and the Saxons a horse. As to heredi- 
 tary arms of families, William Cambden, Sir Henry Spelman, and 
 other judiiious heralds, agree, that they did not begin till towards 
 the end of the eleventh century. Ihese marks of honour are call- 
 ed arms, from their being principally and first worn by military 
 men at war and tournaments, who had thein engraved, embossed, 
 or depicted, on shields, targets, banners, or other martial instrn- 
 mcnts. They are also called Coats of Arms, from the custom of 
 the ancients embroidering them on the coats they wore over their 
 arms as heralds do to this day. Arms are distinguished by dirier- 
 ent names, to <lenote the causes of their bearing: such as, arms of 
 Dominion, of Pretention, of Concession, of Community, of Pa- 
 tronage, of Eamily, of Alliance, of Succession. 
 
 Arms of Dominiom, or Sovereionty, are those whicli empe- 
 rors, kings, and sovereign states, constantly bear; being, as it were, 
 annexed to the territories, kingdoms, and provinces, they possess. 
 Thus the three lions are the arms of England, the fleur-de-lis those 
 of the late monarchy of France, &c. 
 
 Arms OF Pretension are those of such kingdoms, provinces, 
 or territories, to which a prince or lord has some claim, and whicli 
 he adds to his own, although the said kingdoms or territories be 
 possessed by a foreign prince or other lord. 
 
 Arms of Concession, or augmentation of honour, are either 
 entire arms, or else one or more figures, given by princes as a re- 
 ward for some great service. We read in history, that Robert 
 Bruce, King of Scotland, allowed the Earl of Wintoun's ancesti- r 
 to bear, in his coat-armour, a crown supported by a sword, to 
 shew that he, and the clan Seaton, of which he was the head, sup- 
 ported his tottering crown. 
 
 Arms OF Community are those of bishoprics, cities, universi- 
 ties, academies, societies, companies, and other bodies corporate. 
 
 Arms of Patronage are such as governors of provinces, lords 
 of manors, patrons of benefices, &c. add to their family-arms, as a 
 token of their superiority, rights, and jurisdiction. These arms 
 have introduced into heraldry, castles, gales, wheels, ploughs, 
 rakes, harrows. Sec. 
 
 Arms of Family, or P.\ternal Arms, are those that belong *o 
 one particular family, that distinguish it from others, and which 
 no person is sulfered to assume without committing a crime, which 
 sovereigns have a right to restrain and punish. 
 
 Arms of Alliance are those which families or private persons 
 take up and join to their own, to denote the alliances they have 
 contracted b\- marriage. This sort of arms is cither impaled, or 
 
 VOL. II. -^No. 103. 
 
 borne in an escutcheon of pretence, by those who have married 
 heiresses. 
 
 Arms of Svccession are such as are taken up by those who 
 inheric certain estates, manors, &c. either by will, entail, or <lona- 
 lion, and which they either impale or quarter vith their own 
 arms; which mulliphes the titles of some families out ol necessity, 
 and not through ostentation, as many imagine. 'I'hese are the 
 eight classes under which the various sorts of arms are generally 
 ranged ; but there is a sort w Inch blazoner's call assumptive arms, 
 being such as are taken up by the caprice or fancy of upstarts, 
 though of ever so mean extraction, who, being advanced to a de- 
 gree of forlune, ;issume them without a legal title. 'I'his, indeed, 
 is a great abuse of heraldry; and common only in Britain, for on 
 the continent no such practice takes place. 1 he essential and in- 
 tegral parts of arms are these: 1. 'I'he Escutcheon: 2. The 
 Tinctures: 3. The Charges : 4. The Ornaments. 
 
 Of the Shield or Escutcheon. 
 
 The Shield or Escutcheon is the field or ground whereon are 
 represented the figures that make up a coat of arms : for these 
 marks of distinction were put on bucklers or shields before thev 
 were placed on banners, standards. Hags, and coat-armour; aiicl 
 wherever they may be fixed, they are still on a plane or superti- 
 cies whose form resembles a shield. Shields, escutcheons, or 
 scutcheons, are of different forms, according to dill'erent times 
 and nations. Amongst ancient shields, some were almost like a 
 horse-shoe such as is represented in the figure of Escutcheons, 
 Plate LXXX\T. others triangular, somewhat rounded at the 
 bottom. 'I'hat of knights banneret was square, like a banner. 
 As to modern escutcheons, those of the Italians, particuhulv of 
 ecclesiastics, are generally oval. The English, Irench, (ier- 
 nians, and other nations, have their escutcheons formed dill'erent 
 ways, according to the carver's or painter's fancy : see the various 
 examples in the plates. But the escutcheons of maids, widow-, 
 ami of such as are born ladies, and are uiairied to private gentle- 
 men, is in the form of a lozenge. Amorists distinguish several 
 parts or points in escutcheons, in order to determine exactlv ihe^ 
 position of the bearings they are charged w ith ; they are here dt^- 
 noled by the lirjt nine letters of the alphabet ranged iu the follow- 
 ing manner: 
 
 chief. 
 
 -the dexter chief. 
 
 -the precise middl 
 
 -the sinister chief. 
 
 -the honour point. 
 
 -thefess point. 
 
 -1 he nomhril i)ijint. 
 
 -the dexter base. 
 
 -the precipe middle-base. 
 
 -the sinister base. 
 
 A 
 
 15 
 
 n 
 
 E 
 V 
 
 C 
 
 (r 
 
 H 
 
 I 
 
 A- 
 B- 
 C- 
 D- 
 E- 
 F- 
 G- 
 H- 
 I - 
 
 The knowledge of these points is of great importance, for thcv 
 are freiiuently occupied w ith several things of different kinds. The 
 dexter side of the escutcheon is opposite to the left hand, and the 
 sinister side to the right of the hand of the person lliat looks 
 on it. 
 
 Of Tinctures. 
 
 By tinctures is meant, that variable hue of arms which is coiii- 
 mon both to shields and their bearings, 'i'he seven tinctures chief- 
 ly used are dillerently expressed as lollows. 
 
 
 Bv tinclures 
 
 Bv Precious 
 
 Bv Planets 
 
 The Proper 
 
 lor Com- 
 
 Stones for 
 
 for Princes, 
 
 Colour-. 
 
 moners. 
 
 Peers. 
 
 Kings, and 
 Emperors. 
 
 Yello.v 
 
 Or 
 
 Topaz 
 
 Sol 
 
 White 
 
 Argent 
 
 Pearl 
 
 Luna 
 
 Be.l 
 
 Gules 
 
 Ruby 
 
 .Mars 
 
 Blue 
 
 .Azure 
 
 Sapphire 
 
 Jupiter 
 
 Piir[)lo 
 
 Purpure 
 
 .Vmethyst 
 
 Mercury 
 
 Black 
 
 Sable 
 
 Diamond 
 
 Saturn 
 
 (ireen 
 
 Vert 
 
 Emerald 
 
 Venus 
 
 When natural boilies, such as animals, pl.mts, celestial bodies, 
 fi P &c. aie
 
 (iQ8 
 
 HERALDRY. 
 
 &c. are introduced into coats of arms, they frequently retain their 
 natural colours, which is expressed in this science by the word 
 proper. Besides the colours aboveinentioned, tlie English writers 
 on heraldry admit two uliiers, v'z. 
 
 Orange, > termed ^ I'^™^- 
 
 Blood-colour, > '<^"^^" I Sangume. 
 
 But these two are rarelv to be found in British bearings. These 
 tinctures are represented in engravings and drawings (the invention 
 ot the ingenious Silvester Petra Sancta, an Italian author of tiie 
 last century) by dots and lines, as in Plate LXXXVI. Or is ex- 
 pressed by' dots. Argent needs no mark, and is therefore plain. 
 Azure, by horizontal lines. Gules, by perpendicular lines. 
 Vert, by diagonal lines from the dexter chief to I he sinister base 
 ponits. Purpure, by diagonal lines from the sinister chief to the 
 dexter base points. Sable, by perpendicular and horizontal lines 
 crossing each other. Tenny, by diagonal lines from the sinister 
 chief to the dexter base points, traversed by horizontal lines. 
 Sanguine, by lines crossing each other diagonally from dexter to 
 sinister, and from sinister to dexter. The English heralds give dif- 
 ferent names to the roundlet, according to its colour. Thus, it it 
 be Or, it is called a Bezant; Argent, a Plate; Azure, a Hurt; 
 Gules, a'l'orteaux; Vert, a Pomey ; Purpure, a Golpe ; Sable, a 
 Pellet; Tenny, an Orange ; and Sangume, Guze. 
 
 Of Furs. 
 Furs represent the hairy skin of certain beasts, prepared for the 
 doublings or linings of robes and garments of state; and as shicUls 
 were anciently covered with furred skins ; they are therefore used 
 in heraldry, and are, 
 
 1. Ermine; which is a field-argent, powdered with black spots, 
 their tails terminating in three hairs. 
 
 2. ErnniKs; or Coui!ter-er?uine, where the field is sable, and 
 tlie powdering white. 
 
 3. Erminnis ; the field Or, the powdering Sable. 
 
 4. /^V/zr, which is expressed by blue and white skins, cut into 
 tlie forms of little bells, ranged in rows opposite to each other, the 
 base (if the white ones being always next to that of the blue ones. 
 Vair is usually of six rows; if there be more or fewer, the number 
 ought to be expressed ; and if the colours are diflisrent from those 
 above mentioned, thev must likewise be expressed. 
 
 5. Peaii ; the field is Sable, the powdering Or. 
 
 6. Potent, anciently called rairy-cuppy, as when the field is 
 filled with crutches or potents counter-placed. Vair and Potent 
 may be any two colours. See Plate LXXXVI. 
 
 Of the Lines used in the Parting of Fields. 
 
 Escutcheons are either of one tincture, or more than one. Those 
 that are of one only, that is, when some metal, colour, or fur, is 
 spread all over the surface or field, such a tincture is said to be 
 predominant : but in such as have on them more than one, as most 
 have, the field is divided by lines ; which according to their divers 
 forms, receive various names. Lines may be either straight or 
 crookeil. Straight lines are carried evenly through the escutcheon: 
 ami are of four diflerent kinds; viz. a perpendicular line | ; a 
 liorizontal, — ; a ciagonal dexter, /; a diagonal sinister, \. 
 Crooked lines are those \vliich are carried unevenly through the 
 escutcheon with rising and tailing, the figures and names of which 
 are as in Plate LXXXVL viz. 1. The engrailed. 2. 'Iheinvect- 
 ed. 3. The vvavy. 4. The nebule. 5. The embattled or cre- 
 nelle. 6. The raguly. 7. The indented. 8. The dancctte. Q. 
 'Jhe dove-tail. The principal reason why lines are thus used in 
 lirraldry, is to diirerenie bearings which would be otherwise I he 
 same; for an escutcheon charged with a chief engrailed differs 
 from one charged with a chief wavy, as much as if the one bore a 
 cr)is and the other a saltier. As ih.e forementioned lines si'rve to 
 divide the field, if the division consists of two ecpial parts made by 
 the perpendicular line, it is called parted per jpale ; by the hori- 
 voutal line, parted per fets; by the diagonal clexter, parted per 
 bend ; bv the diagonal siniser, parted per bend sinister; examples 
 o( whicli will be given in the seipiel of this treatise. If a field be di 
 vidi'd into lour equal parts by any of these lines, it is ^aid to be 
 quartered; which may be done two ways, viz. Quartered or 
 parted per cross ; which is made by a perpendicular and horizontal 
 line, which, crossing each other at the centre of the ficldj divide it 
 
 into four equal parts called quarters. Quartered or parted per 
 saltier; which is made by two diagonal lines, dexter and sinister, 
 that cross one another in the centre of the field, and likewise di- 
 vide it into four equal parts. The escutcheon is sometimes di- 
 vided into a greater number of parts, in order to place in it the 
 arms of th>' several iamihes to which one is allied ; and in this case 
 it is called a genealogical achievement. These divisions may con- 
 sist of six, eight, 12, and 16, quarters, [as the royal arms,] and 
 even sometimes of 20, 32, 64, and upwards ; there being examples 
 of such divisions frequently exhibited at pompous funerals. But 
 Sir William Dugdaie very justly objects to so many arms being 
 clustered together in one shield'or banner, on account of the dil- 
 liculty of discerning and knowing asunder one coat of arms from 
 another. 
 
 Of the Differences of Coats of Arms. 
 Amiorists have invented many differences or characteristical 
 marks, whereby bearers of the same coat of arms are distinguished 
 each from otheis, and their nearness to the principal bearer demon- 
 strated. According to J. Guillim, these differences are to be con- 
 sidered either as ancient or modern. Those he calls ancient dif- 
 ferences consist in bordures; which is a bearing that goes all round, 
 and parallel to the boundary of the escutcheon. Bordures were 
 useil in ancient times for the distinguishing not only of one nation 
 or tribe from another, but also to'' note a diversity between par- 
 ticular persons descended of one family and from the same parents. 
 The bordure is generally one-sixth part of the breadth of the shield, 
 and is ingrailed, indented, charged, componed, and countered. 
 If the iniier line of the bordure is straight and the latter plain, the 
 colour of the bordure alone is named in blazoning ; if it is charged 
 with parts of plants or ilowers, it is described as verdoy of trefoils. 
 If it consists of ermines, Vair or vairy, or any of the furs, the 
 heralds say purflew of ermines. When charged wiih martlets, 
 charged with an enaluron of martlets. There are bordures of dif- 
 ferent forms and tinctures, as in the examples, in Plate LXXXV I. 
 Bordures are generallv used as a difference between families of tlie 
 same name, and also"as marks of illegitimacy. The modern tlif- 
 fcrences, which the English have adopted, not only for the distin • 
 guishing of sons issued out of one family, but also to denote the 
 difference and subordinate degrees in each house from the original 
 ancestors, are nine, viz. For the heir or first son, the Label. Se- 
 cond son, the Crescent. Third son, the mullet. Fourth son, the 
 martlet. Fifth son the Annulet. Sixth son, the Flower-de-lis. 
 Seventh son, the Rose. Eighth son, the Cross-moline. Ninth 
 son, the Double Quarter foil. See Plate LXXXVI. But of all 
 these marks of distinction, none but the label is afiixed on the 
 coats of arms belonging to any of the royal family. As to the dis- 
 linction to be made in the arms of the olfspring belonging to each 
 of the above-mentioned brothers, it is expressed by figures on the 
 table of houses, given in Plate LXXXNI. For inslaiice. The 
 heir or first son of the second house, bears a crescent charged with 
 a label during his father's life only. The second son of tlie second 
 house, a crescent charged with another crescent. The third son of 
 the second house, a crescent charged with a mullet. The fourth 
 son of the second house, a crescent charged with a martlet. The 
 fifth son of the second house, a crescent charged with an annulet. 
 The sixth son of the second house, a crescent charged with a fienr- 
 tle-lis; and so on of the other sons, taking care to have them of a 
 different tincture. In like manner the seventh son of the eighth 
 house, a rose charged with a cross moline ; this is easily understood, 
 though the table does not extend so far. The daughters of fami- 
 lies are permitted to bear their fathers arms, with the same dis- 
 tinctions used by them. An abatement is a casual mark annexed 
 to coat-armour, which announces some dishnnourable act of the 
 bearer Abatements consist of diminution and revt-ising, the first 
 is the blemishing of some particular point of the escutcheon by 
 sanguine and tenne, which are siains; were the metals u-ed they 
 would be considered additions of honour. See Plate LXXX\ I. 
 .Augmentation-, are additional charges borne on an esculcheon,_ a 
 canton, or chief, and given as particular marks of honour. See 
 Plate LXXXVI. 
 
 Of the Charges. 
 AVha'soever is contained in the field, whether it occupy the 
 whole or only a part thia-eof, is called a charge. All charges are 
 
 dislinguibhed
 
 HERALDRY. 
 
 69') 
 
 distinguislu d liv tiie names of hoiioiiraljle oitlinaries, sub-ordi- 
 naries, ami common charges. 
 
 I.HoNOuuAiii.E Ordinaries, tlie principal charges in heraldry, 
 are made of Unes only, which, according to their disposition and 
 form, receive different names. 
 
 2. Sub-ordinaries are ancient lieraldic figures, iVecjuently used 
 in coats of arms, and whicli are distinguislied by terms appropri- 
 ated to eacli of them. 
 
 3. Common Charges are composed of natural, artificial, and 
 even chimerical things; such as planets, creatures, vegetables, in- 
 struments, &:c. 
 
 I. The most judicious annorists admit only of nine honourable 
 ordinaries, viz, llie chief: the Pale; the Hend ; the Bend Sinister; 
 the?" ess; the Bar: the -Ciievion ; the Cross; and the Saltier. 
 
 I. The Chief is an ordinary determined by an liorizontal line, 
 which, if it be of any other form but straiglit, must be expressed. 
 It is placed in ti-.c upper part of the escutcheon, antl contains in 
 depth the third part of the tield. Its diminutive is a liUet, the con- 
 tent of which is not to exceed one-fourth of the chief, and stands in 
 the lowest part tliereof. This ordinary is subject to be charged 
 witli variety of figures; and may be indented, wavy, nebule, &c. 
 It is peculiar to those who have obtained it by extraordinary 
 merit. The examples in plate LXXXVI. are Or, a chief Gules, 
 and Azure, a chief, invecked. Or. 
 
 The 1'ai.e is an ordinary, consisting of two perpendicular lines 
 drawn from the top to the base of the escutcheon, and contains the 
 tlaird middle-part oi the held. Its diminutives are, the palKt, 
 which is the half of the paie ; and the endorse, which is the fonrtli 
 part of a pale. This ordinary and the pallet may receive any 
 charge, but the endorse should not be charged. The example is. 
 Gules, a paie Or. 
 
 3. The Bend is an ordinary formed by two diagonal-lines, 
 drawn from the dexter chief to the sinister base ; and contains the 
 fifth part of the field in breadth, if unchargeil ; but if charged, tlien 
 the third. Its diminutives are, the bendlet, which is the half of a 
 bend : tlie cost or entice, when two of them accompany a bend, 
 which is the fourth part of a bend ; and the ribband, the niniety of 
 a c«st, or the Sih part of a field. Example, Or, a bend Azure. 
 
 The Bend Sinister is of the same breadth as the bend, but 
 draw'n the contrary way : this is subdivided into a scrape, which 
 is the half of llie bend, and into a baton, which is the fourth part of 
 the bend, but does not extend itself to the extremities of the field, 
 there being part of it seen at both ends. See Plate LXXX\ 1. 
 Example, Gules, a baton argent. 
 
 4. The Fess is situated in the centre of the shield, and contains 
 in breadth the third part of the escutcheon. See Plate LXXX.V1I. 
 the example is Azure, a fess Argent. 
 
 5. The Bar dilfei s from the fess only, as it is but the fifth part of 
 the shield. It is diviiied into the closet, or a moiety of the bar ; 
 and the barulet, or half the closet. When the shield containsa 
 number of bars of metal and colour alternate, of even number, that 
 is called barry of so many pieces, expressing their number. 
 
 6. The Chevro.v, whicii represents two rafters of a house well 
 joined together, or a pair of compasses half open, takes up the fifth 
 part of the field with the English, but the French gave it the third. 
 Its diminutives are, The cheveronel, which contains the half of a 
 cheveron ; and the couple-close, which is the half of a cheveronel, 
 that is, its breadth is but the fourth part of a cheveron. See Plate 
 LXXXVII. Example, Gules, a cheveron Or. 
 
 7. The Cross is an ordinary formed by the meeting of two per- 
 pendicular with two horizontal lines in the fess point, where they 
 make four riiiht angles; the lines are not drav n throughout, but 
 <liscon.tinued (he breadth of the ordinary, which takes up only the 
 fifth part of the field when not charged ; but if ciiarged, then the 
 tliird. It is borne as well engrailed, indented, &c. as plain. The 
 ♦example, Plate LXXX\'1I. is, Or, a cross Sable. There is a great 
 variety of cuis^es used in heralihy. The nioline is a cross which 
 turns round both ways, at each of the four extremities like a hook. 
 The cio^slet is a cross crossed again near the extremities at each 
 enil. See Plate LXXXA'l. Argent, a cros>let vert. 
 
 8. Saltier which is formed by the bend and bend sinister cross- 
 ing each other in right angles, as the intersecting of the pale and 
 fess forms the cross, contains the fifth iiart of the field ; but if char- 
 j^ed, then the third. It may, like the others, be borne engrailed, 
 *avy, &c. as .1:30 between charges, or charged with any thing. 
 
 See Plate LXXWII. example, Slide a salt:e. embattled,' coun- 
 ter embattled, .'Vrgeiit. 
 
 II. 'I"he heraldic figures, called Sub-Ordinaries, or Ordinaries 
 onlv, which, by reason of their ancient use in arms, are of worthy 
 beaniiff, viz. 'I'he Gyron, Franc-cpiarter, Canton, Pairle, Fret, 
 Pile, Orle, Inesciitcheon, Tressiire, Annulet, Flanchcs, Flasques. 
 N'oiders, Billet, Lozenge, Gutlfe, Fusil, Uustre, Muscle, Papil- 
 lone, and Diaper. Seel'late LXXXVI I. 
 
 The GvRON is a triangular figure formed by two lines, one 
 drawn diagonally from one of tlie four angles to the centre of Ilia 
 shield, and the other is drawn either horizontal or perpendicular, 
 from one of the sides of the shield, meeting the other line at the 
 centre of the field. The figure, Plate LXXXVII. Or, a gyron. 
 Azure. Gyronny is when the iield is covered with six, eight, or 
 twelve avrons in a coat of arms. 
 
 The Franc-quartf.r is a square figure, which occupies the 
 upper dexter quarter of the shield. It is but rarely carried as a 
 charge. Example, Or, a quarter Azuie. 
 
 The Canton is a s<iuire part of the escutcheon, somewhat less 
 than the quarter, but without any fixed proportion. It represents 
 the banner that was given to ancient knights bannerets, and, ge- 
 nerally speaking, possesses the dexter-chief point of the shield, as 
 in the figure; but should it possess the sinister corner, which is but 
 seldom, it must be blazoned by a canton sinister. It is added to 
 coats of arms of military men as an augmentation of honour. Sec 
 Plate LXXXVII. Argent, a canton Gules. 
 
 The Pairle is a figure formed by the conjunction of the upper 
 half of the sahier with the under half of the pale. 
 
 The Fret is a figure representing two little sticks in saltier, with 
 a mascle in the centre interlaced. Frelty is said when the field 
 or bearings are covered with a fret of six, 'eight, or more pieces, as 
 in Plate LXXXMI. The word fretty may be used without ad- 
 dition, when it is of eifjht pieces; but if ihecc be less tlian that 
 number, they must be specified. 
 
 The Pile, which consists of two lines, terminating in a point, 
 is formed like a wedge, and is borne engrailed, wavy, &c. It issues 
 in general from the chief, and extends towards the base; yet there 
 are some piles borne in bend, and issuing from other parts of the 
 field. The figure, Plate LXXXVII. is Azure, a pile ermine. 
 
 The Orle is an ordinary composed of two lines going round 
 the shield, the same as the bordure, but its bread.th is but one-half 
 of the latter, and at some distance from tlie brim of the shield. 
 
 The Inescutcheon is a little escutcheon borne within the shield. 
 That which is fixed on the fess point is called escutcheon of pre- 
 tence, which is to contain the arms of a wife that is an heiress. I'he 
 fig. Plate LXXX\'II. is ermine, an inescutcheon gules. 
 "^The Tressure is an ordinary commonly supposed to be the 
 half of the bieadth of an orle, and is ireneraliy borne flowery and 
 counter-How en', as it is also very often double, and sometimes 
 treble. Example, Argent, a tressure gules. 
 
 The Annvlet, or Ring, is a well-known figure, and is fre- 
 quently to be found in arms through every kingdom in Europe. 
 See Pl'ate LXXXVI. 
 
 The Flanches are formed by two curved lines, or semicircles,_ 
 beingalways borne double. PlaleLXXXVll. Or, Flanches, gules." 
 Flaque's resemble the flanches, except that the circular 
 lines do not go so near the centre of the field. 
 
 The VoiDERS are by Guillim considered as a sub-ordinate or- 
 dinary, and are not unlike the ilasques, but they occupy less of the 
 field. 
 
 The Billet is an oblong scpiare, twice as long as broad. Some 
 heralds imagine, that they represent bricks for building; others 
 more properly consider tlieiu as representing folded paper or 
 letters. See Plate LXXXVI. 
 
 The Lozenge is an ordinary of four etpial and parallel sides, 
 but not rectangular; two of its opposite angles being acute, and 
 the other two obtuse. Plate LXXX\1I. Or, a lozenge azure. 
 
 Gutte's, or Drops, are round at bottom, waved on the sides, 
 and terminate at the top in points. Heralds have given them ilif- 
 ferent names accordiniJ to tht-ir dilTerenl tinctures: thus, if they are 
 yellow, tliev are called Gotitte d'Or; if white, d'Kau; it redj 
 de S:iiig; if blue, de Larmes ; if green, de Vert ; if black, de Poix. 
 See Plate LXXX\ 11. Argent.'goutte de sang. 
 
 The Fusil is longer than the lozence, having its upper and 
 lower part more acute and sharp than the other two collateral mid- 
 dle
 
 700 
 
 HERALDRY. 
 
 (lie parts, wliicli acutfiiess is occasioiifrd by tlic short distance of the 
 space between the two collateral angles ; which space, if the fii^il 
 IS rightly made, is always shorter than any of the four eqnal gi-o- 
 nu'triciil lines whereof it is composed. See Plate LXXXVII. 
 Gules, a fusil argent. 
 
 The RusTRE is a lozenge pierced round in the middle, called 
 by the (iernians ruttcn. 
 
 Tlie Mascle is pretty much like a lozenge, but voided or per- 
 forated through its whole extent, shewing a narrow border. See 
 riateLXXXVI. 
 
 I'apillone is an expression used for a field or charge that is 
 covered vvith iigurcs like tlie scales of a lish. The proper term for 
 it in Ejiglish would be scallop-work. 
 
 DiAPERi.MG is said of a iield or charge, shadowed with tlourish- 
 ings or foliage with a colour a little darker than that on which it is 
 wrought, only serves to embellish the coat. Partitions are such 
 in which there is no tincture from metal, colour, or fur, predomi- 
 nating in them, and are formed of various lines of partition, often 
 causing counterciiangiug and transmutation. This kind of bearing 
 liiav be engrailed, &:c. Sec fig. A, Plate LXXXVII. Parted per 
 jjale argent and gules. An example of counterchanges is given in 
 tig. 15, Argent, a cross per I'ale, gules and sable. Aiiother example 
 is exhibited in lig. C Gules on a cheveron argent, three bars, 
 gemcll's sable. If the fore-mentioned ordinaries hnve any attri- 
 butes, iliat is, if they are engrailed, indented, wavy, &:c. they nuist 
 be distinctly specilied, alter the same manner as the honourable 
 ordinaries. 
 
 III. The common Charges are very numerous. 
 
 As in all ages men have made use of representations of animals 
 and other symbols to di^tinguish themselves in war, human inge- 
 nuity has been not a little exerted, in multiplying these marks of 
 distinction, by all sorts of figures, some natural, others artihcial, 
 and many chunerical; in allusion to the state, quality, or inclina- 
 tion, of the bearer. Hence, the sun, moon, stars, comets, meteors, 
 &c. have been introduced to denote glory, grandeur, power, &c. 
 Lions, leopards, tigers, serpents, stags, &c. have been employed 
 to signify courage, slrenc,th, prudence, swiftness, &c. War, hunt- 
 ing, music, &c. have furnished lances, swords, pikes, arms, fid- 
 dles, &c. Architecture, columns, chcverons, .Sec. ; and the other 
 arts various things that relate to them. Human bodies, or parts of 
 them, as well as clothes, and ornaments, have, for particidar in- 
 tentions, found place in arniorv. Trees, plants, fruits, and llow- 
 ers, have also been adopted, to denote the rarities, advantages, 
 and singularities, of different countries. The relation of some 
 creatures, ligures, &:c. to particular names, has been likewise a 
 ^•ery frniiful source of variety in arms. Thus the family of Co- 
 ningsby bears three coneys ; of Arundel, six swallows, from hi- 
 rundo, the Latin for a swallow ; of Urson, a bear, from the Latin 
 «r-us; of Lucie, three pikes, in Latin tres lucios pisces ; of Star- 
 key, a stork ; of Castleman, a castle triple-towered ; of Shuttle- 
 worth, three weaver's shuttles, &c. Besides these natural and ar- 
 tificial figures, many chimerical or imaginary ones are used in he- 
 raldry, the result of fancy and caprice ; such as centaurs, hydras, 
 phenixes, griffons, dragons, &c. This great variety of figures pre- 
 ■veiits us from comprehending all common charges in a work of 
 this nature ; therefore such only are treated of as are most fre- 
 quently borne in coats of arms. Celestial figures are borne sin- 
 gle, upon or between any of the honourable ordinaries, ancPthen 
 tiiree are the usual number. See lig. D, Plate LXXXVII. 
 Diamond, a fess ermine, between three crescents pearl. Fig. E 
 is an example of vegetables used in arms. Vert five fig-leaves in 
 saltier. Of animals the licm is the most honourable ; and all bear- 
 ings of quadnipeds are more honourable than fowls, and fowls 
 than fishes. Fig. F. Or, a lion rampant sable. F'lg. G. Gules, 
 a tal hot passant, a chief ermine. Fig. H. Ermine, ;.n eagle dis- 
 played, gules. Fig. I. Azure, three trouts fretted in triangle ar- 
 gent. These charges liave, as well as ordinaries, various attributes 
 or epithets, which express their qualities, positions, and disposi- 
 tions. 'J'iius the sun is said to ije in his glory, eclipsed, &c. The 
 moon, in her complement, increscent, &c. Animals are said to 
 be rampant, passant, &c. Birds have also their denominations, 
 snch as close, displayc<!, &c. Fisiies are described to be hanriant, 
 naiant, &c-. Lions are termed lioncelSj if more than two in a 
 Iield, and eagles eaglets. A lion is said to he couchant, when ly- 
 
 ing down ; and rampant, w hen standing on his hind-legs, and rear- 
 ing up his fore-feet, as if climbing. Trees and pl.ims are also 
 said to be trunked, eradicated, fructuated, or raguled, according 
 as they are represented in arms. Artificial figures have (iilferent 
 epithets, serving either to express their position, disposition, or 
 make: viz. swords are said to be erect, pommeled, hilled, &c. ; 
 arrows, armed, feathered, &c. ; towers, covered, embattled, &c. ; 
 and so on of all others. Some of these epithets are exemplified 
 in Plate LXXXVII. 
 
 Of the External Ornaments of Escutcheons. 
 
 The ornaments that accompany or surround escntcheous were 
 introduced to denote the birth, dignity, or oiiicc, of the persons 
 to whom the coat of arms appertainetii ; which is practised both 
 among the laity and clergy. Those most in use are of ten sorts, 
 viz. Crowns, Coronets, Mitres, Helmets, Mantlings, Chapeaux, 
 Wreaths, Crests, Scrolls, and Supporters. 
 
 Crowns. The first crowns were only diadems, bands, or fil- 
 lets; afterwards they were composed of branches of trees, and 
 then flowers were added to them. Among the Greeks, the crowns 
 given to those who carried the prize at the Isthmian games, were 
 of pine ; at the Olympic, of laurel ; and at the Nemean, of small- 
 age. The Romans had various crowns to reward martial exploits 
 and extraordinary services done to the republic ; for which see the 
 article Crown. 
 
 Examples of some of these Ancient CRov^'NS are frequently 
 met with in modern achievements, as 1. The mural crown. 2. 
 The naval or rostral crown. 3. The castiense or vallary crown. 
 4. The civic crown. 5. The radiated crown. 6. 'Phe celestial 
 crown, formed like the radiated, with the addition of a star on 
 each ray ; is only used upon tomb-stones, monuments, and the 
 like. Others of the ancient crowns are still borne as crests. 
 
 But Modern Crowns are only used as ornaments, which em- 
 perors, kings, and independent princes, set on their heads, in great 
 solemnities, to denote their sovereign authority. These are the 
 most in use in heraldry, and are as follows : 
 
 The Imperial Crown is made of a circle of gold, adorned 
 with precious stones and pearls, heightened with fleurs-de-lis, bor- 
 dered and seeded with pearls, raised in the form of a cap voided 
 at the top, like a crescent. From the middle of this cap rises an 
 arched fillet enriched with pearls, and surmounted of a mound, 
 whereon is a cross of pearls. See Plate LXXXVII. 
 
 The Crown of the Kings of Great Britain, is a circle of 
 gold, bordered with pearls and precious stones, and heightened 
 up with four crosses pattee and four large fleurs-de-lis alternately ; 
 from these rise four arched diadems adorned vvith pearls, which 
 close under a mound, surmounted of a cross like those at bottom, 
 Mr. Sandford, in his Genealogical History, p. 381, remarks, that 
 Edward IV. is the first king of Englanil, who in his seal, or on his 
 coin, is crowned with an arched diadem. See Plate LXXXVIL 
 
 The crowns of Spain and Portugal, are a ducal coronet, 
 heightened up with eight arched diadems that support a mound, 
 ensigned with a plain cross. Those of Denmark and Sweden 
 consist of eight arched diadems, rising from a marquis's coronet, 
 which conjoin .at the top under a mound ensigned with a cross bo- 
 tone. 
 
 The crowns of most otlier kings of Europe are circles of gold, 
 adorni;d with precious stones, and heightened up with large tre- 
 foils, and closed by four, six, or eight diadems, supporting a 
 mound, surmounted of a cross. 
 
 The Grand Signior bears over his arms a turban, enriched with 
 pearls and diamonds, undef two coronets, the nr^t of which is made 
 of pyramidical points heightened up with large pearls, and the up- 
 permost is surmounted with crescents. 
 
 The Pope appropriates to himself a Tiara, or long cap of golden 
 cloth, from which liang two pendants embroidered and fringed 
 at the en li, semee of crosses of gold. This cap is inclosed by 
 three marquis's rorouets ; and has on its top a mound of 'gold. 
 
 Coronets. The Coronet of the Prince of Wales, or eldest 
 son of the king of Great Britain was anciently a circle of gohi 'et 
 round with four crosses p.ittec, and as many fleurs-de-lis alternate- 
 ly ; but since the restoration, it has been closed with one arch 
 only, adorned with pearls, and surmounted of a mound and cross, 
 and" bordered with ermine like the king's. See Plate LXXXVII. 
 Rut besides the coronet, his royal liighness has another cVistingu.sh- 
 9 ing
 
 TIER ALL- RY. 
 
 701 
 
 li>e; mark of li<mmir, |)i-oiiliiU' to liiaiM-ll, viz. A ijlr.mo at throe 
 o«tri<h-t't"atlu'i's,\villia coroiu-t of tlic aiuit'i'.l piiuces ol ^\"aies. len- 
 der it in a scroll, is tl.is inotlo, Icii Dieii, uliich in llr.' German or 
 old Saxon language signilies, 1 serve. 'I'liis deviee was at tirst 
 <aken by Edward prince of WaKis, commonly called the Black 
 Prince, after the battle of Crevsy, in 134(5, wht-re Iwiving uitli hi< 
 own hand killed Jolm king of Jjohoniia, he took from liis head 
 such a plnnie,. and put it on liis own. 
 
 The coronet rf all the Hkikces, immediate sons and brothers 
 of the kings of (i real iSritaiii, is a circle of gold, bordered with er- 
 mine, heightened up with Umv lleiirs-de-lis, and as many crossts- 
 pattee alternate. 'I he parlicidar ami distiiigni-hed form of such 
 coronets as are appropriated to iirlnces of tlic blood-ro\al, is de- 
 scribed and settled ill a graiit of the Ijth of Charles II.' 
 
 The coronet of the Princesses of (iieat liritain is a circle of 
 gold, bordered with ermine, and heightened up with crosses-pal- 
 tee, llenrs-de-lis, and strawberry leaves allernale. 
 
 A Duke's coronet U a circle of gold bordered with ermine, en- 
 riched with precions stones and pearls, and set round with eight 
 large strawberry or parsley leaves. 
 
 .A. Marqvis's coronet is a circle of gold, bordered with ermine, 
 set round with four straw berry leaves, and as many pearls on pyra- 
 Clidical pohits equal height, allernate. 
 
 An Earl's coronet is a circle of gold, bordered with ermine, 
 heightened U)) witli eiglit pyramidical points or rays, ou the tops 
 of which are as many large pearls, and are placed alternately with 
 as many strawberry-leaves, but the pearls much higher than the 
 leaves. 
 
 A Viscount's coronet differs from the preceding ones as being 
 only a circle of gold bordered with ermine, with large pearls set 
 close together on the rim, without any limited numijer, which is 
 his prerogative above the baron, who is limited. 
 
 A Baron's coronet, which was granted by king Charles II. is 
 formed with six pearls set at equal distances on a gold-circle, bor- 
 dered with ermine, four of which only are seen on engraTings, 
 paintings, &c. to shew he is inferior to the viscount. 
 
 The eldest sohs of peers, above the degree of a baron, bear their 
 father's arms and supporters with a Ubel, and use tlii; coronet ap- 
 pertaining to their father's second title ; and ail the younger sons 
 bear their arms with proper differences, but use uo coronets. See 
 Plate LXXXVII. 
 
 Mitres. The archbishops and bishops of England and Ireland 
 place a mitre over their coats orf arms. It is a round cap pointed 
 and cleft at the top, from which hang two pendants fringed at both 
 ends ; with this di)Ti;rence, that the bishop's mitre is only sur- 
 rounded with a fdlet of gold, set with precious stones ; whereas 
 the archbishop's issues out of a ducal coronet. See Plate 
 LXXXVIII. This ornament, with other ecclesiastical garments, 
 is still w orn by the archbishops and bishops of the church of Rome, 
 whenever they officiate with solemnity ; but it is never used in 
 England, except on coats of arms. 
 
 Helmets. The helmet was formerly worn as a defensive wea- 
 pon, to cover the bearer's head and face ; and is now placed over 
 a coat of arms as its chief ornament, and the true mark of genti- 
 lity. The helmets of sovereigns were of burnished gold damask- 
 ed ; those of princes and lords, of silver figured with gold ; those 
 of knights, of steel adorned with silver; and those of private cen- 
 tlemen, of polished steel. As to their form ; Those of the kings 
 and royal family, and noblemen, of Great Britain, are open-faced 
 and gr.ited, and the number of bars serves to distinguish the bearer's 
 quality; that is, the helmet appropriated to the dukes and mar- 
 tjliises is diflerent from the king's, by having a b.ir exactly in the 
 middle, and two on each side, making but live bars in all, whereas 
 the king'ii helmet has six bars, viz. three on e.ich side. The other 
 grated helmet with four bars is common to all degrees of peerage 
 under a marcpiis. '1 he oijen-faced helmet widiout bars denotes 
 baronets auW knights. The close helmet iS for all esquires and 
 gentlemen. Their position is also looked upon as a mark of dis- 
 tinction. 'I'he grated helmet in front belongs to sovereign princes. 
 The grated helmet in profile is commoti to all degrees of peerage. 
 The helmet standing direct without bars, and the beaver a little 
 open, denote baronets and knights. Lastly, the side-standing hel- 
 met, with beaver close, is the way of v^-earing it amongst esquires 
 Wid gentlemen. See Plate LXX'XVUI. 
 
 Mantlivgs, These are pieces of cloth jagged or cut into 
 VOL. il.— NO. 103. 
 
 How ers and leaves, which serve as an ornament for escntt lieons. 
 Tliey were the ancieni covtritigs of helmets, to preserve them, or 
 the bearer, from the inimicsot the weallu r ; as also lo prevej.t the 
 ill consecpiences of their too much daz/Iing the eye in action. 
 But Guilhm very judiciously observe;', that Iheir shape must have 
 undergone a great alteration since tii, ylinve bi en out of uie, and 
 tlurelore might more properly be termed llourlsiiings than manl- 
 lings. 
 
 CnAPF.AU. This is an ancient hut, or rather cap, of dignity, 
 worn by dukes, generally »carU-t-coloured velvet on the outside, 
 lined ai'id turned up wilh'fur ; of late frequently lo t)e met with 
 above an helinet, instead oi a ureal h, under genllcinen's and noble- 
 mi n's crests. See Platr I.XXXN' II I. 
 
 Wreath. This is a kiml of roll, made of twi) skains of silk of 
 dilVia-ent colours twisted together, whicli ancient knights wore as <t 
 head-dress when equipped for tournaments. The colours of the 
 silk are always taken Ironi the principal metal and colour contain- 
 eil iii the bearer's coat of arms. 'I'hey are still accounted one of 
 the lesser ornaments of escutcheons, and are pli.ced between the 
 Inhnet and the crest. 
 
 The Crest is the highest part of the ornaments of a coat of 
 arms. It is called crest,' from the Latin word crista, which signi- 
 fies comb or tuft, such as many birds have upon their heads, as the 
 peacock, plieasant, &c. in allusion to the place on which it is hx« 
 ed. Cresls were formerly great marks of honour, because thev 
 were only worn by heroes of great valour, or by such as were ad- 
 vanced to some si'ipcrior military command, that they might lie 
 the helter distinguished in an engagement, and thereby rally their 
 men if tlispcrsed"; but they are at present considered a's mere or- 
 naments. 
 
 The Scroll-. The scroll is the ornament placed sometimes 
 above the crest, but most usually below the shield and sup- 
 porters ; containing a motto, or short sentence, alluding thereto, 
 or to the bearings ; or to the bearer's name, as in the two follow- 
 ing instances. The motto of ihi- noble carl of Cliolmondeley is. 
 Chassis tutissima virtus ; /. e. "Virtue is the safest helmet;" on 
 account of tlie helmet in the coat of arms. The motto of the 
 right hon. lord Forlescue is, Forte scutum salus ducum ; i. e. "A 
 strong shield is the safety of the commanders;" alluding to the 
 name of that ancient family. Sometimes it has reference to nei- 
 ther, but expresses something divine or heroic ; as that of the earl 
 of Scarborough, whicli is, Murus a-reus consciei.tia sana ; i. e. 
 " A good conscience is a wall of brass." Others are snigmati- 
 cal ; as that of the royal achievement, which is, Dieu et moil 
 droit, i. c. " God and my riglit ;" introduced by Edward III. in 
 1340. 
 
 Supporters. These are figures standing on the scroll, and 
 placed at the side of the escutcheon ; they are so called, because 
 they seem to support or hold up tlie shield. The rise of sup- 
 porters is, by F. Menestrier, traced up to ancient tournaments, 
 wherein the linights caused their shields to be caiTied by servants 
 or pages underfhe disguise of lions, bears, griflbtis, blackamoors, 
 &c, vvho also held and guarded the escutcheons, which the knight* 
 were obliged to expose to public view for some time before the 
 lists were opened. Sir George Mackenzie, who dissents from thifc 
 opinion, says, in his "Treatise on the Science of Heraldry," 
 chap. xxxi. p. 93. " That the first origin and use of them was 
 from the custom which ever was, and is, of leading such as are 
 invested with any great honour lo the prin.^ewho confers it : thus, 
 wlicn a man is created a duke, marquis, or knight of the garter, or 
 any other order, he is supported by, and led to the prince be- 
 twixt two of the quality, and so receives fioni him the symbols of 
 that hcnour; and in remembranse of that solemnity, his arms arc- 
 thereafter supported by any two creatures he chooses." Sup- 
 porters have t'ormcily been taken from sucli animals or birds as are 
 borne in the shields, and sometimes they have been chosen as bear- 
 ing some allusion lo the names of those whose arms they are made 
 to suijpcrt. The supporters of tlie arms of (oeat Britain, since, 
 king James the First's accession to tlie ihrone, are a Lion rampant 
 guardant crowned Or, on the dexter side, and an Unicorn Argent, 
 crowned, armed, unguled, maned and gorged with an antii^ue 
 Crown, to which a chain is afiixed, all Or, on the sinister. Sec 
 Plate LXXXVUi. Bearing coals of arms supported, is, accord- 
 ing to the heraldic rules of England, the prerogative, 1st, Of those 
 called nobiles majores, vi?. dukes, marquises, earls, viscounts, aud 
 <i (^ baroiy :.
 
 702 
 
 HERALDRY. 
 
 barons : ad, Of -all knights of tlie garlei-, thougli they should be 
 under the degrci' of b.nons; and 3(1, Ot knights of the Bath, who 
 bolli receive on their creation a grant of supporters. And, lastly, 
 of such kni;;hts as the king chooses to bestow tliis honour upoii ; 
 as in the instance of Sir Andrew Fountain, who was knighted bv 
 riiilip earl of Pembroke, when lord lieutenant of Ireland, Foun- 
 tain being (lien secretary; and on his return to England, King 
 AVdliain granted iiini supporters to his arms, viz. two Griffons, 
 • iules, antl Or. In Scotland, all the chiefs of clans or names have 
 the privilege of claiming supporters ; also the barons. 
 
 Rules of Bi.a/on'in-g. 
 
 I. The first and most general rule is, to express heraldic dis- 
 tinctions in proper terms, so as not to omit any thing that ought 
 to be specified, and at the same time to be clear and concise with- 
 out tautology. 
 
 H. Begin with the tincture of the field, and then proceed to the 
 principal charges which possess the most honourable place in the 
 shield, such as Fess, Chevron, .S;c. always naming that charge first 
 which lies next and innuediately upon the field. 
 
 II I. After naming the tincture of the field, the honourable ordi- 
 naries, or other principal figures, specify their attributes, and after- 
 wanh their metal or colour. 
 
 IV. When an honourable ordinary, or some one figure, is 
 placed upon another, whether it be a' Fess, Chevron, Cross, &c. 
 It is always to be named after the ordinary or figure over which 
 it is^ placed, with one of these expressions, sur tout, or over all. 
 
 V. In blazoning such ordinaries as are plain, the bare mention 
 of Ihein IS sufficient.; but if an ordinary should be made of any of 
 the crooked lines mentioned above, its form must be specified; 
 thatis, whether it be Engrailed, Wavy, &c. 
 
 . ^ '-^^ lien a principal figure possesses the centre of the field, 
 Jt^s p(jsition is not to be expressed : or (which amounts to the same 
 thing) when a bearing is named, without specifying the point 
 where it is placed, then it is understood to possess the middle of 
 the shield. ' 
 
 VII. The number of the points of mullets or stars must be spe- 
 cified when more than five; and also if a mullet or any other 
 charge be pierced, it must be mentioned as such, to distinguish it 
 from what is plain. 
 
 V III. When a ray of the sun, or other single figure, is borne in 
 any other part of the' escutcheon than the centre, the point it issues 
 from must be named. 
 
 IX. The natural ( olour of trees, plants, fruits, birds, &c. is no 
 otherwi^e to be expressed in blazoning hut by the word proper ; 
 -but if discoloured, (hat is, if they diller from "their natural colour 
 It must be particularized. 
 
 X. VN'hen three figures are in a field, and their position is not 
 :inentioned in the blazoning, they are always understood to be 
 placed two above, and one^bclow'. 
 
 XI. W hen there are many figures of the same species borne in 
 a coat ot arms, I heir ininiber must be observed as they stand, and 
 distinctly expressed. 
 
 There are other positions called irregular; as for example, when 
 three figures which are naturally placed two and one, are disposed 
 one and two, &c. It must also he obseived, that when the field 
 is strewed with the same figures, this is expressed by the word 
 ?emee : but if the figures strewed on the field are whiile ones, it 
 must be denoted by the words sans nombre; whereas, if part of 
 them is cut off at the extremities of the escutcheon, the word se- 
 inee or semi is (hen lo be used. 
 
 We shall add a h'w examples to illustrate these rules, and for 
 other examples refer the reader to the different works on this 
 subiect. 
 
 riate LXXW'II. fiff. K, Or, on a chief gules, three plates. 
 Fig. L, Argent, three tortcauxe!' in chief. Fig. M, Argent, a 
 fess, in chict three lozenges sable. Fig. N. Ermine, on a <-)ievron 
 engraiicd .a/.me, three stars argent. Fig. O, Or, a lion passant sa- 
 ble, in chief three pales of the secon<l. Fig. P, Azure, a tortoise 
 erect. Argent. Fig. Q, Argent, a drairon's iiead erazed vert, holding 
 in ins mouth a sinister hand, couped at the wrist, gules. Fig. K, 
 aable, a pile argent, surmounted of a chevron gules. Fig. S, 
 .«iiarlerly, first and fourt!) azure, a pale argent ; second and Uiird 
 gules, ;» bend argent. 
 
 Of Marshalling Coats of Arms. 
 By marshalling coats of arms, is to be understood the art of dis- 
 posing (livers of them in one escutcheon, and of distributing their 
 Contingent ornaments in proper places. Various causes may oc- 
 casion arms to be thu-> conjoined. 
 
 I. When the coals of arms cf a married couple, descended of 
 di'^tinct families, are to be put together in one escutcheon, the 
 (icld of their respective arms is conjoined pale-ways, and hlazonf-d 
 parted per Pale, Baron and Feinme, two coats ; first, &:c. In 
 which case the baron's arms are always to be placed on the dex- 
 ter side, and the fenime's arms on the sinister side. See Plate 
 LXXXVIIl. 
 
 II. If a widower marry again, his late and present wife's arms 
 are, according to G. Leigh, " to be botli placed on the sinister 
 side, in the escutcheon with his own, and parted per Pale. The 
 first wife's coat shall stand on the Chief, and the second 
 on the Base ; or he may set them both in Pale with his own, the 
 first wife's coat next to himself, and his second outermost. If he 
 should marry a third wife, then the two first matches shall stand on 
 the Chief, and the third shall have the whole Base. And if ho 
 take a fourth wife, she must participate one-half of the Base with 
 the third wife, and so will they seem to be so many coats quarter- 
 ed." But these forms of impaling are meant of hereditary coals, 
 whereby the husband stands in expectation of having theheredi- 
 tary possessions of his wife united to his patrimony. If a man 
 marry a widow, he marshals her maiden arms only. See Plate 
 LXXXVIII. 
 
 III. In the arms of femmes joined to the paternal coat of the 
 baron, the proper ditVerences by which they were borne by the fa- 
 thers of such women must be inserted. 
 
 IV. If a coat of amis that has a Bordure be impaled with another, 
 as by marriage, then the Bordure must be wholly omitted in the 
 side of the arms next the centre. 
 
 V. The person who marries an heiress, instead of impaling his 
 arms with those of his wife, is to bear them in an escutcheon plac- 
 ed in the centre of liis shield, and which, on account of its shew- 
 ing forth his pretension to her estate, is called an escutcheon of 
 pretence, and is blazoned sur-tout, ». e. over all. But the children 
 are to bear the hereditary coat of arms of their father and mother 
 quarterly, which denotes a fixed inheritance, and to transmit them 
 to posterity. The first and fourth quarters generally contain the 
 father's arms, and the second and third the mother's ; unless the 
 heirs should derive not only their estate, but also their title and 
 dignity, from their mother. 
 
 VI. If a maiden or dow ager lady of quality marry a commoner, 
 or a nobleiwan inferior to her rank, their coats of arms may be set 
 beside one another in (wo separate escutcheons, upon one mantle 
 or draperA', and the lady's arms ornamented according to her title. 
 See Plate LXXXVIII. 
 
 VII. Archbishops and bishops impale their arms ditTerently 
 from the fore-mentioned coats, in giving the place of honour, that 
 is, the dexter side, to the arms of their dignity, as it is expressed 
 in Plate LXXXVIII.; which represents the coat of arms of an 
 archbishop of Canterbury, and a tiishop of an English see. These 
 prelates thus bear their arms parted per Pale, to denote their 
 being joined lo their cathedral-church in a sort of spiritual mar- 
 riage. 
 
 A\'ith respect to such armorial ensigns as (he sovereign thinks fit 
 to augment a coat of arms with, they may be marslialled yari(jus 
 ways, as may be seen by the arms of his grace the duke of Rut- 
 land, and many others. When coats of arms are marshalled in 
 such a manner, that no probable reason can be given why they are 
 so conjoined, they must be left to heralds to explain. 
 
 Of the Order of Knighthood, irg. 
 To the angmentalions above-mentioned may be added, 
 1. '^Fhe liaroiiet's mark of distinction, or the arms of the pro- 
 vince of Ulster in Ireland, granted and made hereditary in the 
 male-line by king James I. who erected this dignity on the 22d of 
 May l6l 1, in the seventh year of his reign, in order to propagate 
 a plantation in the fore-mentioned province. This mark is Ar 
 gent, a sinister Hand couiied at the Wrist, and erected tjules; 
 w hich may be borne cither in a car.ton, or in an escutcheon, as will 
 best suit the figures of the arms. See Plate LXXXVIII. 
 
 2. The
 
 pAirtitAfcis i.«at* « . 
 
 Shi»l*l< ku K: iuli*lu'i»iis. 
 
 JkislfiKlions o!' Uousos . 
 
 Mi'.A.rr^.'i f.:t 
 
 \fis\s~is\nyi 
 
 ^AAA/V^AAA^AAAAA 
 
 ln.l.:,l..l. 
 
 3 O • O 
 
 ..ml I'/.it^. Ibrti-.liij-. Biirt- 
 
 •//rT-.^Hr I: 
 
 fuivt IJoiisi-. 
 
 ^(© * V@ 1 
 
 .fl-fl'lll/ lloiisi-. 
 
 ®/ V^ 
 
 //«/■,/ //,.//..■.• 
 
 ^^^ ^4< ik 
 
 Fi'iiiih I loii.fi' ■ 
 
 ■^ ^ W Sc. V V- 
 
 > ^V ^f^ 'TS^ s^ T^:V ^fH-- 
 
 J 
 
 llll/l //,'ii.-;-. 
 
 O « 
 
 @@0 
 
 ■2 .'tl.Vth llt*tti\ 
 
 
 ^wC ^^^^ 
 
 (h's,yfi/. 
 
 \. J Jt ///./. 
 
 M /L'^M. MaU>'/,. Zi-x.-w//.-. liiU.-t. I\HintiWt. 
 
 \' 
 
 : ri.'ivi-r ,/,■ lit 
 
 I.M.iiil.l- > .\..l/iwi/.i- 
 
 rf. //-.'.fc Molhir. o.DouNc Oiittrtt'rri'il . 
 
 I' o I (> u I' s ci M* 'I' 1 ti 1 11 !■ f 
 
 J>.^/fjrh.\t /^v ./,r»i.-^- •'ntui.:-..iliu.'!t iYfj^. /-■rt.A*n ■ ».■••-•.►.
 
 niKrtALDMY. 
 
 ^' %. ^^^ M^ %A. ^ m, M^ M % 
 
 W. ii.m^.v.tu.UI.„„ ll.„n,.'ll;y..nla,U J-.,..., J. X:h„.t. .,■„/„•„/>=•' f>.,„/,.,../^. i:,...,„l r..,r.t.,„t . ,:.,„,.:l. /■ra^l 
 
 i# ^f^ XjK X ^ iL, V "% 
 
 Srfi.u,i;..,. '^"'''''"■' '■"'■■"" ■'"•-'■■■■ ^'"*W- 'l-'-^-- Ji.^t,. 
 
 Dormant. 
 
 t 
 
 ^^jfT^^ 
 
 
 
 £n\t 
 
 Ji'tiittnt ■ 
 
 h tfe V^^ T*'i> 
 
 ^/fe: .4 '^ '^ 
 
 litairumt- 
 
 
 %.ti 
 
 V'li'rrft, Dratjo 
 
 'R-nfr.
 
 I
 
 !i:i.r^Ji^'"i\JLJU)JI«.¥, 
 
 Bu/i.
 
 yrrllAUiAry 
 
 TABiEof JINHEJBIT.^NiTJE or BIBSCEKT. 
 
 Paternal Line. 
 
 Mat<-i-iial Lijic.
 
 II EU 
 
 \LDRY. 
 
 70^3 
 
 2. The aiiciiMit ami n>s|)i'ctable badge of llie most noble Oi-ilcr : 
 of tlie (Jarter, instiluteil by kins Ivlward III. l.Ufl, in tlie 'irili 
 year of his reign. Tliis bonoiu-able augnienlaliiiii is a ilee|> bUie 
 garter, surrounding the anus of such knights, and inscribed ; 
 with (his inotto, " Honi soil (lui nial y pense." See Plate i 
 LXXXMII. 1 
 
 The arms of those who arc knii;l\ts of tlie orders of the t?ath of I 
 (he Thiitle, or of St. Tatriik, are niar^luilled in the same manner, 
 witli this dillercnce oiil\, (hat the cokmr ami motto accord with 
 the order to which it belongs. Thus the motto " (Jnis separabit i 
 1783"' on the ligiit bine ril)bon of the order, siirronnds the escul- i 
 cheon of a knight of St. Patrick. "Nemo me impnne lacessit," ' 
 on a green ribband, di^tingui.hes a knight of the Thistle; and, 
 " Tria jnncta in nno," on red, a knight of the Ijath. None of i 
 (hese orders of Knighthood are hereditary ; b\it the honours of a I 
 Baronet of Ulster, and of a Baronet of N'ova Scotia (created by 
 patent in 160',',) descend to the heirs male. With regard to tlie 
 pmblazoniiig of the wife's arms in the ca^e of the hn>band being 
 »oble, or a knight of the Garter, of the Bath, &.'c. or w here, on 
 
 t!ie other hand, the wife is noble in her own right, and the husband 
 a commoner, these will be found oxemplitied in Plate LXXXVI 1 1 . 
 For representations of the lodges of the several Orders of Knight- 
 hood. See Plate LXXXVI II. 
 
 Il.\TCHMF.NTs. These are funeral-escutcheons whereby may 
 be known, after any person's decease, what rank he or she held 
 when living ; and il" it be a gentleman's hatchmriit, whether he 
 »a.s a bachelor, married maiij or widower, with the like distinc- 
 tions for gentlewomen. The hatchment is usually afli.xed to Ihe 
 IVonts ot houses, when any of the nobility or gentry die. 1. The 
 arms, if the deceased l)e a private genileman, are parted per Pale 
 with those of his wife. The groinil without the escutcheon being 
 black (U noies the man to be dead ; and the ground on the sinister 
 side being white signifies that the wife is living; which is repre- 
 sented on Plate LXXXIX. with some other varieties of hilcli- 
 menls. 
 
 [•'or further information on the subject of heraldry see the arti- 
 cles Ahms, Blazoning, Preceuencv, and the several terms ol 
 
 lliiRAl.DRV, 
 
 II ERAULT, a river of France, which rises among the Sevenncs 
 mountains, and falls into the gulf of Lyons, below Agde. 
 
 IIeral'I.t, a department of France, so named from the river, 
 bounded on the N. by those of Tarn and Aveiion. It compre- j 
 Jiends part of the late province of Languedoc. Montpellicr is the 
 capital. j 
 
 HERB, {licrha, Lat.] in botany, is used by Linna;us, to de- I 
 nominate that portion of every vegetable which arises from the ] 
 root, and is terminated by the fructification. It comprehends, 1. 
 The trunk, stalk, or stem. 2. The leaves. 3. Those minute e.\- ■ 
 teriial parts called by him the fulcra or supports of plants. 4. The j 
 buds, or, as he also terms them, the winter-ijuarters of the future 
 vegetable. See Botany. 
 
 Herb Beknet. See Geum. ( 
 
 Herb Christopher. See Act;ea. 
 r Herb Gerard. See yEcoroDiuM. 
 
 . HERBACEOUS PLAN']'S are those which have succulent 
 stems or stalks that lie down to the ground every year. Of her- 
 baceous plants, those are annual which perish stem and root everv 
 year; biennial, which subsist by the roots two years ; perennial 
 which are pi-rpetuated by their roots for a series of years, a new 
 stem being pro<luced every spring. 
 
 HERBAGE, inlaw, signilies the pasture provided by luature 
 for the food of cattle ; also the liberty to feed cattle in the forest, 
 or in another person's ground. 
 
 HEKBAL, [Ju'rbarium, Lat.] generally speaking, signifies a 
 book, containing a methodical arrangement of the classes, ge- 
 nera, species, ;ind varieties, of plants, together with an account of 
 their properties. It is also applied to a hortus siccus, or dry 
 garden ; an appellation given to a collection of specimens of plants 
 carefully dried and preserved. See Hodtus Siccvs. 
 
 HER'BORN, a town in Westphalia, 3 miles S. S. E. of Dillen- 
 burg. 
 
 HERCULANLUM, an ancient city of Campania in Italy, 
 which was destroyed by an eruption of Vesuvius in the first year 
 of the empi'ror I'itus, or the TiHh of the Christian era, and latelv 
 rendered iamous on account of the curious monuments of anti- 
 quity discovered in its ruins ; an account of which has been pub- 
 lished by order of the king of Najiles, in a work of six volumes 
 folio. 'I'lie epocha of the foundation of Herculaneum is unknown. 
 Dionysius Halicarnassensis conjectures that it may be referred to 
 60 years before the war of iroy, or about B. C. ia42; and 
 therefore that it lasted about 1400 years. The thickness of the 
 heap of lava, by which the city was overwhelmed, has been much 
 increased by liery streams voniiled since that catastrophe; and 
 now forms a mass 24 feet deep of dark grev stone, which is easily 
 • broken to pieces. By its non-adhesion to foreign bodies, marbles- 
 ■ and bronzes are preserved in it as in a case made to fit them, and 
 exact moulds of the faces and limbs of statues are frequently found 
 in this substance. The precise situation of this subterraneous city 
 was not known till 1713, when it was accidentally discovered by 
 
 some labourers, who, in digging a well struck, up'in a st.itue o« 
 the benches of the thi'atre. Many others were afterwards dugout 
 and sent to Fratice by the prince of Elba-uf. But liule progress 
 was made in the excavations, till Charles inlant ot Spain ascended 
 the Is'eapohtan throne, bv whose unwearieil eilbrls and liberality a 
 very con^derable part o'f Herculaneum has been explored, and 
 such treasures of antiquity (huwn out as f"rm tlie most curious 
 museum in the world. It' being too ardu'iiis a task to attempt re- 
 moving the covering, the king contented haiiselt with cutting gal- 
 leries to the principal buildings, and causing the extent ol one f,r 
 two of them to be ilcu-ed. Of thee the theatre is tlie mo,t con- 
 siderable. On a l>alUistrade which divided the orchestra from the 
 stage was found a row of statues ; and, on each side ol' tin; pulpi- 
 tuui, the etpiestrian figure of a person of the Nonian family. Tliey 
 are now placed under porticos of the palace ; and from the great 
 rarity of equestrian statues in marble would be very valuable ob- 
 jects, were the workmanship even less excellent than it is : one of 
 "them in jjarticular is a very fine piece of sculpture. Since the 
 king of Spain left Naples, the digging has been continued, but 
 with less spirit and expenditure: indeed the collection of curiosi- 
 ties brought out of Herculaneum and Pompeii is already so con- 
 siderable, that a relaxation of zeal and activity becomes excuse- 
 able. They consist of statues, busts, altars, insciiptions, and 
 . other ornamental appendages of opulence and luxurv ; and also 
 I an entire assortment of the domestic, musical, and chirurgical in- 
 I struments used bv the ancients ; tripods of elegant iorui and ex- 
 I quisiic execution," lamps in csdless variety, vases and basons of 
 \ noble dimensions, chandeliers of the most beaulitui shapes, i)a- 
 teras, and other appurtenances of sacrilice, looking-glassi s of (xi- 
 I lished metal, coloured glass, so hard, clear, and well stained, as 
 ' to apjjcar emeralds, sapphires, ami other precious stone-; a kitchen 
 \ completely fitted up with copper-pans lined with silver,. keltVes, 
 ! cisterns for heating water, and every utensil necessary for culi- 
 I nary purposes ; specimens of various sorts of combustibles, re- 
 taining their form though burnt to a cinder ; corn, bread, fish, o:i. 
 
 I wine, and tiour: a lady's toilet, fully furnished with combs. tiMm- 
 : bles, rings, paint, ear-rings, &c. Among tlie statues, which are 
 
 numerous, a Mercury and a sleej)ing l.mn ate mosd admircvl by 
 ! connoisseurs. A large' parcel of M.SS. was louml among the ruin-. 
 Hojies were entertained, that many works of the ancienis were 
 now going to be re-tored to light, and that a new mine of science 
 j was on the point of being opened. 15ut the dilliculty of unrolling 
 ' the burnt parchment, of pasting the fragments on a flat surface, 
 and of decyphering the obscure letters, have proved suCh obsta- 
 cles, that very little progress has been made in the work. A 
 priest invented a method of procec-ding ; but it would require the 
 joint labour!, of many learned men to carry on so nice and tedious 
 an 0]H'ration with success. The plan is dropi)ed ; and the M.SS. 
 now lie in dusty heaps, as useless to the learned world as they had 
 been for the preceding 17 centuries. 
 [1 HEBCULES, ir. fabulous history, a most renowned GrenaH 
 
 II hero, who after death was ranked ainong the godis, and tcceivei 
 
 p tliviue
 
 HER 
 
 704 
 
 II VAX 
 
 divine honours. Accorilins lo the ancient*, there were many pei- 
 Mins 01 this I'.anie. Dioilonis mentions 3, Cicero 0, ;'.n(\ sonio au- 
 th Ts no l<'ss llian 43. (Jl'all these, one genev.illy called the 'I'he- 
 ban Hercules, is the most celebrated ; and to iiini the actions ol 
 the others luive Ijeen altribuled. lie i> reporled to have been the 
 son of Jii|)iler by Alenieiia. In his IStli year he delivered tlie 
 neiglibouriiijoil ot niount Cilluvron troni a hui^e lion which preyed 
 on the ilocks of Ain].ihitryon, and laid waste tho adjacent country. 
 He went to the court of 'riu'S|)ius king of 'I'liespis, ulio shar- 
 eil ill the s^'i^"'"'' calamity, bv whom lie was hospitably enter- 
 tained for jO days: but he made a bad return, for the king's 50 
 OauJ,hters became motliers by him during his stay at Thespis, and 
 some say in one night. He next delivered his country from the 
 tribute of luO oxen, annually paid lo Erginus. Sucli public ser- 
 vices became miiversally known; and Creon king of Thebes, re- 
 wardc(l his palrioiic'deeds bv giving him his daughter in mar- 
 riage, aiid entrusting him with the government. Eurystheus, the 
 son of Amphilrycin, having succeeiled his father, became jealous 
 of ilerc-ule.s; and le-.t he should deprive him of his croun, left no 
 means untried to get ritl of liiu!. On this Hercules consulted the 
 oracle ; but being answered that it was the pleasure of the gods 
 tliat he should servo Eurystheus 12 years, he fell in a deep me- 
 lancholy w Inch at last ended in a furious madness ; during which, 
 among other desperate action', he put away his wile, Megara, 
 and murdered all the children he had by her. As an expiation of 
 this crime, the king imposed upon him IJ labours surpassing tlu' 
 power cf all other mortals to accomplish, which nevertheless 
 our hero performed with ca<e, the favours of the gods having in- 
 deed completely armed him. He had received a coat of armour 
 and helmet from Minerva, a sword from Mercury, a horse from 
 Neptune, a shield I'rom Jupiter, a bow and arrows from ApolUi, 
 and Iroin N'ulcan a golden cuirass and biaz'^n bu'-kin, with a cele- 
 brated club of brass. His lirst labour was the killing of a lion in 
 Neniea, a wood of Achaia ; whose hide was proof ag:nn>t any 
 weapon, so that In; was forced to seize hiiiT'by the throat and 
 strangle him. He carried the dead beast on his shoulders to My- 
 teniN and ever after clothe<l himself with the skin. 'I'he second 
 labour was to destroy the Lern;ean hydra, which had seven heads 
 according to Apollodorus, :>0 according to Sinionides, and lOt) 
 according lo Diodorus. This monster he lirst attacked with his 
 arrows; but soon after by means of his heavy club he destroyed 
 the heails of his enemy. This, however, was productive of no 
 advantage; for as soon as one head was beaten to pieces by the 
 club, two spranii up ; and the labour of Hercules would have re- 
 mained unhnished, had he not commanded his friend lolaus to 
 iurn with a hot iron the roo't of the head which he had crushed to 
 pieces. Thi-^ succeeded ; and lleicules became victorious, open- 
 ed the belly of the monster, and dipi>ed his arrows in theg'all to 
 render the wounds they shuuKl give incurable. He was ordered 
 in his third labour to bring alive and unhurt into the presence of 
 Eurystheus a stag, famous for its incredible swiftness, its golden 
 horns, and brazen feet. This celebrated animal frequented the 
 neighbourhood of (Enoe; and Hercules was em])loved for a 
 whole year in pursuing it: at last he caught it in a trap, or wdien 
 tired. Thefouith labour was to bring alive to Eurystheus a wild 
 boar which ravaged the neighbourhood of Erymanthus. In this 
 cxpeililiuii he de-troy ed the centaurs, and caught the boar bv 
 closely pursuing him through the deep snow, in his liftli labour 
 Hercules was ordered to clean the stables of Angeas, where 3000 
 o.ven had been confined for many years. l'"or his sixth labour he 
 was ordered to kill the carnivorous birds which ravaged the coun- 
 try ni:ar the lake Styiii])halis in Arcadia. In his seventh labour 
 lu- brought alive into I'eloponnesus a prodigious wild bull which 
 laid waste the island of Crete, in his eight labour he was em- 
 ployed in obtaining the mares ot l.>ioniedes, king of Thrace, 
 which fed upon human Hesh. For his ninth labour, he was com- 
 manded to obtain the girdle of the ipieen of the .Amazons. In his 
 tenth labour he killed the monster Geryon king of CJades, and 
 brought to Argos his numerous flocks which fed upon Inmian 
 flesh. His eleventh l.ibour was the carrying awdy of the Hesperian 
 goklen apples kept by a dragon. The twelfth and last, and mo,t dan- 
 gerous of his labours, was to bring up to the earth the three-head- 
 ed dog Cerberus. De-ecndin:; into hell by a cave on niount T;e- 
 iiarus, he was permitted by I'luto to carry away his friends Thc- 
 .^ews and I'iri^hoiii, who were condemned to punishment iu hell. 
 
 and Cerberus also was granted to his prayers, provided he made 
 UH- of no iirins to drag him away. Hercules carried him bai k lo 
 hell alter he had brought him before F-urystheus. ManT other 
 exploits were ])erfcrmed by Hercules. He accompanied the .Ar- 
 gonauts lo Colchis before he delivered himself up to Eur>:,tlious. 
 He assisted the gods in Iheir wars ajiainst the giants, and it was 
 liirough him that Jupiter obtained the victory. He conquered 
 Laoniedon, and pillage<l Troy. When lole, the daughter of Eu- 
 rytus king of (Echalia, of whom he was deeply enamoured, was 
 refused lo his entreaties, he fell into a second lit of insaiiilv, and 
 murdered Iphitus, the only one of the sons ot Euruus who I'avour- 
 ed his adilressesto lole. He was afterwards purified of the murder, 
 and his insanity ccised ; but he was visited by a disorder which 
 obliged him to apply to the oracle of l^clp'hi for relief. The 
 coldness with which the Pythia received him irritated him, and 
 he resolved to plunder Apollo's temple, and carrv away the sacred 
 tripod. Apollo opposed liim, and a severe couilict was begun, 
 which nothing but,tlie interlerence of Jupiter with his thunderbolts 
 could have settled. He was upon this told by the oracle that he 
 must be sold as a slave, and remain three years in the most abject 
 servitude to recover from his disorder, lie complied, and Mer- 
 cury by order ol Jupiter, conducted him to Omphale, queen of 
 Lydia, to whom he was sold as a slave. Here he cleared all the 
 country from robbers ; and Omphale, astonished at the greatness 
 of his exploits, niarried him. Hercules had Agelaus and Lamon 
 by (Omphale, from whom C'ra-slis king of Eydia was descended. 
 Many other wondrous exiiloils are said to have been achieved by 
 him : by the direction of the oracle he raised a burning pile on 
 Mount Gita, where he finished his life. His frieiuls raised an altar 
 where the burning pile had stood ; and .Mena-tius the son of 
 Actor sacrificed a bull, a wild boar, and a goat ; and enjoined the 
 people of Opus to observe these ceremonies annually. His wor- 
 slii|) soon became as universal as his tame; and Juno, forgetting 
 her resentment, gave him her daughter Hebe in marriage. Her- 
 cules has many surnames, fiom the places where liis worship was 
 established, and from the labours he had achieved. His temples 
 were numerous and magnilicent, and his divinitv revered. Ni> 
 dogs or ilies entered his temple at IJome : and that of Gades, ac- 
 cording to Strabo, was always forbidden to women and pigs. The 
 Plunicians offered quails on his altars ; and as he w as supposed to 
 preside over dreams, the sick and infirm were sent to sleep in his 
 temples, that they might receive in their dreams the agreeable 
 pMvsages of their approaching recovery. The white poplar was 
 ])arlicularly dedicated to his service. None even of the twelve 
 great gods of anliqnity havesomanv ancient monuments as Her- 
 cules. The famous st»tue of Hercules, in the Earnese palace a^^ 
 Kome, is well known to the connoisseurs. Il represents him rest» 
 ing after tlie last of his twelve labours above recited, leaning on 
 his club, and holding the ap])les of the Ilesperides in his hand. 
 
 Hekculks, in astronomy, a very large constellation of the 
 n'rlhern hemisphere. See .Astronomy. 
 
 Hercvles's I'n.LARS, in ancient geography, two lofty moun- 
 tains, situated one on one of the most soutliern extremities of Spain, 
 and the other on the opposite part of Afiica, They were called 
 Abyla and Calpe ; (see these articles ;) were reckoned the boivn- 
 daries of the labours of Hercules ; and were fabled to have been 
 joined together till thev were severed by that hero, and a com- 
 munication opened between the Mediterranean and Atlantic. 
 
 HEREDITAMENTS, [lia.-ndrum, J.it'] all such things im- 
 moveable, whether corporeal or incorporeal, as a man ni.iy leave 
 to his heirs, by way of inheritance ; or not being otherwise de- 
 VL-.ed, do naturally descend to him who is next heir of blood, and 
 fall not vvilhiii the compass of an executor or administrator, as 
 chattels do. It is a word of largo extent, and much used in con- 
 veyances ; for by the grant of hereditaments, isles, seignories, ma- 
 nors, houses, and lands of all sorts, charters, rents, services, advow- 
 fons, commons, and whatever may be inherited, will pass. Co. 
 Lit. 6. Hereditaments are of two kinds, corporeal and incorpo- 
 real. Corporeal hereditaments consist wholly of substantial and 
 permanent objects, all which may be comprehended under Ihe 
 general denomination of land only : for land comprehends in its 
 legal signification any ground, soil, or earth, whatsoever, as arable, 
 meadows, pastures, woods, moors, waters, marshes, furzes, and 
 heath. 1 Inst. 4. Incorporeal hereditaments are not tlie object of 
 sensation, neither can they be seen or handled, aie creatures of
 
 H E II 
 
 705 
 
 HER 
 
 (lu- miiiJ, ami e\i-t only in contemplation : llicv arc priUCHJiiUy 
 of t;.nsort=, viz. advowsoiis, litlics, commons, ways, oflicts, cligni- 
 ties, fVanciiisos, coro lies or presents, and rents. lilack. 
 
 HEREUITARY, [!ieieaiturii/s, Lat. 3 possessed or claimed by 
 r'ii>lit of inheritance ; de>ccndinjc l)v inlicritance. 
 
 IIeredhaky is also figurativelyapplled to good or ill qnalitics, 
 <Uher of body or mind, supposed'to be transmitted from father to 
 (ion : thus we say, virtue and pietv are hereditary qiuilitics in buch 
 a family ; that 1:1 Italy the hatred of families is hcre<liiary ; and 
 that the cout, king's evil, madness, fee. are hered'it::rv disea'cs. 
 
 IIEREDITAS JACENS, in Scots law. An estate is said to be' 
 ill hereditale jaccnte, after the death of the proprietor till t!ie en- 
 try of the hi'ir. ^ 
 
 HEREFORD, thecapHzlof Herefordshire, 30 miles N. W. 
 of Gloucester, and 130 W. N. W. of London. Lou. a. 3.5. \V. 
 Lat. 52. 4. N. 
 
 Htr.EFOKDSi'ittF., a county of Engbnd, bounded on the E. by 
 Gloucester, and Vt'orceslershires, on the W. by Radnor and Rrec- 
 iiocksKires, on tiie N. by Shrop.-liire, and on Uie S. by Mon- 
 uioutlishire. It extends 35 miles from N. to S. and 47 from E. 
 to W. It is divided into U himdreds ; contains one city, eight 
 market-towns, 176 parishes. Apples grow in greater abimilance 
 here than in any other coufity, being plentiful even in the hedges. 
 Of these are various kinds ;'the most celebrated is the redstreak, 
 iKhich is peculiar to this county. 
 
 HEREGOVINZA, a territoi-y of European Turkey, in Bosnia," 
 near Dalmatia. 
 
 HERESIARCH, [/iOYs/rtrfyw, French ; i»ijtT4.-«5x,'ij] a leader 
 iji heresy ; the head of a herd of heretics. 
 
 HERESY, [/itrw/t-, Fr. Iiccrais, Lat. ii;<Tt,-,] a denial of some 
 of the ejsential doctrines of Christianity, publicly ;:nd ob- 
 stinately avowed; being defined, " senltntia rerum divinarum hu- 
 iiiano sensu excogitata,j palani docla et pcrtinaciter dufensa." 
 And here it must be acknowledged, that particular modes of bc-- 
 lief, or unbelief, not tending to o\erlurn C'hrlstianitv, or to sap 
 the foundations of morality, are by no means the object of coer- 
 cion by the civil magistrate. What doctrines shall therefore be 
 adjudged heresy, was left bv our old constitution to the determina- 
 tion of the ecclesiastical juJge ; who had herein a most arbitrary 
 latitude allowed him. For the general definition of an heretic 
 given by Lvmlewode, extends to the smallest deviations from the 
 doctrines of the holy churcli : " hsreticus est qui dubitat de fide 
 catholica, et qui negligit servare ea, qua; Romana ecclesia statuit, 
 seu servare decreverat." Or, as the statute 2 Hen. 1\'. c. 15, 
 expresses it in English, " teachers of erroneous opinions, contrary 
 to the faith and bk-ssed determination of the holy church." Very 
 contrary this to the usage of the first general councils, which de- 
 fined all heretical doctrines with the utmost precision and exact- 
 ness. And what ought to have alleviated the punishment, the un- 
 certainty of the crime, seems to have enhanced it in those days of 
 blind zeal and pious cruilly. The sanctimonious hypocrisy of the 
 canonists, indeed, went at first no farther than enjoining penance, 
 excommunication, and ecclesiastical deprivation, for heresy; but 
 afterwards they proceeded boldly to imprisonment by the ordi- 
 nary, and confiscation of goods in pious uses. But in the mean 
 time they had prevailed upon the weakness of bigotted princes to 
 make the civil power subservient to their purposes, by making 
 heresy not only a temporal, but even a capital oflence : t!ie Ko- 
 mish' ecclesiastics determining, without apjieal, whatever they 
 pleased, to be heresy, and shifting off to the secular arm the odium 
 and drudgery of executions ; with which they pretended to be 
 too tender and delicate to intermeddle. Nay, they atftcted to 
 intercede, on behalf of the convicted heretic, ut citra mortis peri- 
 tiilum seiitentia- circa eum moderetur: well knowing that at the 
 same time they were delivering the iinliapjiy victim to certain 
 death. See Act op Faith. Christianity being thus deformed 
 by the dxmon of persecution upon the continent, our own island 
 could not escape its scourge. Accordingly we find a writ de 
 hiretico comburendo, ;. c. of burning the heretic. Rut the king 
 might pardon the convict by issuing no process against him ; the 
 writ de ha:reticocomburend<) being not a writ of course, but issu- 
 ing only by flie special direction of the king in council. In the 
 reign of Henry iV'. when the eyes of the Christian world began 
 to open, and the seeds of the Protestant religion under the oppro- 
 briou'i name of Lollardy tonk root in this kingdom ; the'clergy, 
 
 vol.. Jl, — KO. 103, 
 
 taking adv. Ullage fr-^ni tl.c icing's dubious title to demand an in- 
 crease of their own power, obiaiiiQd an act oi parliament, which 
 sharpened the edge of persecution to its utmost keenness. Si* 
 II^iiRETlco Co.vtBUREKDO. By stat. 2. Hen. V. c. 7, Lollardy 
 was also made a temporal ortence, and indictable in the king's 
 courts ; which did not thereby gain an exclusive, but only a 
 concurrent, jurisdiction with the bishop's consistory. Afterwards, 
 when the reformation began to advance, the power of the eccle- 
 siastics was somewhat moderated ; for though what heresy is wa:> 
 not then precisely defined, yet wc are told in some points what it 
 is not; the statute 25 lUiiry Vlll.c. 14, declaring that elT.-nces 
 against the see of Rome are not heresy ; and the ordinary being 
 thereby restrained from proceedingin any case upon mere suspi- 
 cion : i. c. unless the parly be accused by two credible wkilesses, 
 or an indictment of heresy be first previously found in the king's 
 courts of common law. And yet the spirit of per-ecution v.as not 
 abated, but only diverted into a lay-channel. For in the reign of 
 Henry \'11I, and in the two succeeding reigns, several severe laws 
 were made, and repealed by turns till the reign of Queen Eliza- 
 beth; when the reformation was finally established with temper 
 and decency, unsullied with p.-.rty-iancour, or personal resent- 
 ment. By stat. I Eliz. c. 1, all former statutes relating to heresy 
 are repealed, which leaves the jurisdiction of iiercsy as it stood at 
 common law ; vi/. as to the infliction of common censures, in the 
 ecclesiastical courts ; and in case of burning the heretic, in the 
 provincial synod only. Gut the principal point now gained was, 
 that by this statute a boundary is for tlie first lime set to what shall 
 be accounted heresy ; nothing for the future being to be so deter- 
 mined, hut only such tenets, whicli have been heretofore so de- 
 clared, 1. by the words of the canonical scriptures ; 2. by the first 
 four general councils, or such others as have only used the words 
 of the holy scriptures ; or, 3. which shall hereafter be so declareil 
 by the parliament, with the assent of the clergy in convocation. 
 Thus was heresy reduced to a greater certainty than before ; 
 tlioiigh it might not have been the worse to have defined it in terms 
 still more precise and particular : as a man continued still liable to 
 be burnt, for what perhaps he did not iinder>tand to be heresy, 
 till the ecclesiastical judge so interpreted the words of the canoni- 
 cal scriptures. For the writ de ha;retico comburendo remained 
 still in force, till it was totally abolished, and heresy again sub- 
 jected only to ecclesiastical correction, pro salute aninia;, by stat. 
 29 Car. 11. c. 9; when, in one and the same reign, our lands 
 were delivered from the slarery of military tenures; our bodies 
 from arbitrary imprisonmeRt by the habeas corpus act ; and our 
 minds from the tyranny of superstitious bigotry, by demoli hing 
 this last badge of persecution in the English law. Every thing is 
 now less exceptionable, >*jth respect to the spiritual cognizance, 
 and spiritual punishment, of heresy : unle.ss perhaps that the criniB 
 ought to be more strictly defined, and no prosecution permitted, 
 even in the ecclesiastical courts, till the tenets in <(uestion are by- 
 proper authority previously declared to be heretical. Underthe.se 
 restrictions, some think it necessary for the support of the iiilienul 
 religion, that the officers of the chinch should I'lave power to cen- 
 sure heretics ; yet not to harrass tlicmwith temporal penalties, much 
 less to exterminate or destroy tliein. The legisl.alure has indeed 
 thought it proper, that the civil magistrate should interpo e, with 
 regard to one species of heresy, very prevalent in modern times; 
 for by stat. y and lOW. III. c. 32, if any person educated in the 
 Cliristinn religion, or professing the same, shall, by writing, print- 
 ing, teaching, or advised speaking, deny any one of ihe Persons in 
 the Holy Trinity to be God, or maintain that there are mere gods 
 than one, he shall undergo Ihe same penalties ynd incapacities 
 which were inflicted on apostacy by the same statute. 
 
 HERETIC, a general name for all such persons under aiiv re- 
 ligion, but especially the Christian, as profess or teach religious 
 o|)inions contrary to the established faith, or to what is made th« 
 standard of orthodoxy. See Hebesy. 
 
 II ERETOCIl, among the Anglo-Saxons, signified the satua 
 w ith Dux or duke, denoting the commander <»f an armv. 
 
 HERGllUNDT, a town of Upper ilung.m, 05 inilcs N. of 
 Buda. 
 
 HERICOUR, 3 town of France, in the v,Upartment of Upper 
 Saone, 12 miles S. E. of Lure, 
 
 HERIOT, [hertgiUl, Saxon,] in law, is a cuatoinary tribute of 
 goods rnd chattels, payable to the lord of the see on th.e de-
 
 HER 
 
 705 
 
 HER 
 
 ceasi^ of the owner of the kiul. See Tenure. It is of two 
 sorts, viz. 
 
 1. Heriot-Custom, where heriots have been paid time out of 
 mhid by custoin, after the death of a tenant for life. In some 
 places, there is a customary composition in money, as 10 or 20 
 shilliniTs in lieu of a heriol, by which th- lord and tenant arc bolh 
 bonud, if it bean indispntab"ly ancient custom; but a new coni- 
 pov.twn of this sort will not" bind the representatives, of either 
 partv. 
 
 IL Heriot-Service, when a tenant holds by such service to 
 pay lienot at llie time of his death ; which service is expressed in 
 the deed of feortment. For this latter the lord shall distrain ; and 
 for the other he shall seize, and not distrain. If the lord purchase 
 part of t!;e tenancy, heriot-scrvice is extinguished ; but it is not 
 so of heriot-custom. 
 
 HEtllSSON, in fortification, abeam armed with a great num- 
 ber of iron-spikes with their points outwards, and supported by a 
 pivot on which it turn-. These serve as a barrier to block up 
 ariy passage, and are frecpiently placed before the gates, and more 
 especially' the v.icket-doors, of a town or fortress, to secure those 
 passases which must be oiten opened and shut. 
 
 HERITABLE RIGHTS, in Scots law, signify all rights affect- 
 in:; Imds, houses, &c. orany immoveable subject. 
 
 "HERITAG-i., in Scots law, implies h'nds, houses, and all im- 
 iTioveabie subjects, in contradistinction to moveables or moveable 
 subjects. It also signifies such immoveable property, as a person 
 succeeds to as heir to another, in contradistinction to that which 
 he himself purchases, or acquires otherwise, called conqne..t. 
 
 HERITIERA, a genus of the monoecia monadelphia class and 
 order. Calyx five-toothed ; corolla none. Male ; anthers ten, 
 without filaments. Female ; germ live ; drupes with one globular 
 seed. There is one species, a tree of the East- Indies, called the 
 looking-glass-tree. 
 
 HERK, a river of Germany, in the late bishopric of Liege. 
 
 HsRic, a town of France, iii the department of Ourte, and late 
 bishopric of Liege, 20 miles N. ^^ . of Maestricht. 
 
 HERKEMER, a town and county of New York. 
 
 HERM.EA, in antiquity, ancient Greek festivals in honour of 
 Mercury. One of tliese 'was celebrated by the Pheneatsa in 
 Arcadia"; a second by the Cyllenians in Elis ; and a third by the 
 Tanagr.xans. 
 
 HERMAN, Paul, a famous botanist in the I'th century, 
 born at Hall in Saxony. He practised physic in the isle of Ceyion, 
 and was afterwards professor of botany at Leyden, wJiere he died 
 in l(i95. He wrote, 1. A Catalogue of the Plants in the public 
 Cynosura Materis Medicic. 3. Flora; 
 
 4. Paradisus IBatavus: and, 5. Musaeum 
 
 garden at Leyden. 
 Lugduno Batava: Flores. 
 Zeydanicum. 
 
 HERMANN, James, a learned mathematician of the aca- 
 demy at Berlin, and a member of the academy of sciences at 
 Paris', was born at Basil in the year 1678. He was a great 
 traveller, and for six years was professor of mathematics at 
 Padua. He afterwards'went to Muscovy, being invited thither 
 by Peter the Great, in 1724. On his" return to Basil, he was 
 made professor of morality and natural law ; and died there in 
 1733, aged 55. Hewrote " Responsio ad Considerationes circa 
 Principia Calculi differenlialis ;" " De Phoronomia ;" " De nova 
 Accelerationis Lege ;" " Disquisitio de Vibratlonibus Chordarum 
 Censarum;" " Solutio Problematis de Trajectoriis Curvis in ve- 
 niemlis." 
 
 IIERMANNI.A., in botany, a genus of liie pentandria order, 
 and monadelphia class of plants; natural order, Columniferae. Styles 
 five ; capsule live-celled ; petals semitubular at the base, oblique. 
 There are twenty-one species. The hermannias are shrubs from 
 two to seven feet in height. Natives of the Cape of Good 
 Hope. 
 
 HERMAPHRODITE, a person of both sexes, or who has 
 the parts of generation both of male and female. The term is 
 applied to other animals besides man, and even to plants. The 
 word is a compound of 'Ej^x-if, Mercury, and Aif5<;JiT>i Venus ; q. d. 
 a mixture of Mercury and Venus, i. e. of male and female. The 
 Greeks also call hermaphrodites, nvStoyuvoi, androgyni, q. d. men- 
 women. See Androgynes. In a paper by Mr. Hunter, in the 
 C>inh volume of the Philosophical Transactions, hermaphrodites 
 arc divided into uatuial, and umialural or monstrous. TJie first 
 
 belongs to the more simple orders of animals, of which there is a 
 much greater ntunber than of the iMore perfect. The unnatural 
 takes place in every tribe of animals, havin.g distinct sixes, but 
 is more conunon in some than in others. ^Ihe-human species, he 
 imagines, has the fewest, never having seen them in that species, 
 nor in dogs ; but in the horse, sheep, and blat k cattle, they are 
 very freiiucnt. From Mr. Himter's account, however, it does 
 not appear that such a creature as a perlect hermaphrodite has 
 ever existed. In most sptcies of annuals, the production ftf 
 hermaphrodites appears to be the efl'ect of chance ; but in 
 the black cattle it seems to be an established principle of their 
 propagation. It is a well-known fact, and, as lar as has yet been 
 discovered, appeal's to be universal, 'hat wlicn a cow briiigs forth 
 two calves, one of thrm a bull, and the ot'ier a cow to appear- 
 ance, the cow is unfit lor propagation, but the buU-calf becomes 
 a very proper bull. 'I'he cows are known not to breed ; they do 
 not even shew the least inclination for the bull, nor iloes the bull 
 ever take the hast notice of Ihein. Among the country-people 
 m England, this kind of calf is called a fvee-mailin ; and this sin- 
 gularity is just as well known among the farmers, as either cow or 
 bull. V/hen they an- preserve'd, it is for the purposes of an ox or 
 spayed heifer ; viz. to yoke with the oxen, or fatten for the table. 
 Thev are much larger than either the bull or the cow, and the 
 iiorns grow longer and l)i;;g<r, being very similar to those of an 
 ox. I'he bellow of a free-martin is similar to that of an ox, and 
 the meat is similar to that of the ox or spayed heifer, viz. much 
 finer in the fibre than either the bull or cnw : and they are more 
 susceptible of growing fat with good food. By some they are 
 supposed to e.vceed the ox and heiter in delicacy of taste, and bear 
 a higiier price at market ; tliis, however, does iu:t always hold, and 
 Mr. Hunter gives an instance of the contrary. The Romans, 
 who called the bull tauru;, spoke also of taura', in the teininine 
 gender, dilferent from vacca: or cows. Stephens observes, ihat 
 it was thought they meant by this word barren cows, who ob- 
 tained this name because they did not conceive any more than 
 bulls. He quotes a passage from Columella, lib. vi. cap. 22,. 
 " And, like the taura;, which occupy the place of fertile cows, 
 should be rejected or sent away." Among the reptile tribe, such 
 as worms, snails, leeches, &c. hermaphrodites are very frequent. 
 In the, Memoirs of the Frencli Academy, we have an account of 
 this very extraordinary kind of hermaphrodites, which not only 
 have both sexes, but do the office of both at the same time. Such 
 are earth-worms, round-tailed worms found in the intestines of 
 men and horses, land-snails, and those of fresh waters, and all the 
 sorts of leeches. And, as all these are reptiles, and without bones, 
 M. Poupart concludes it probable, that all other injects which 
 hate these two characters are also hermaphrodites. The method 
 of coupling practised in this class of hermaphrodites, may be il- 
 lustrated in the instap.ce of earth-worms. These creep two by 
 two, out of holes proper to receive them, where they (Jispose thcif 
 bodies in such a manner as that the head of the one is turned to 
 the tail of the other. Being thus stretched lengthwise, a little co- 
 nical button or papilla is thrust forth by each, ^ and received into 
 an aperture of tlie other. Among the insects of the soft or bone- 
 less kind, there are great numbers, whicii are so tar from being 
 hermaphrodites, that they are of no sex at all. Of this kind are 
 all the caterjjiUars, maggots, and worms, produced of the eggs of 
 flies of all kinds: but the reason of this is plain; these are not 
 animals in a perfect state, but disguises under which animal- lurk. 
 They have no business with the propagatieg ot their species, but 
 are to be frajisformed into winged animals, b\ putting oil' thiir co- 
 verings; and then only they are in their perfect state, and fhere- 
 I fore then only shew the ditJerences of sex, v h't :h are always in 
 distinct animals, each being only male or iemide. These copu- 
 late, and their eggs produce these creatures, which shew no sex' 
 till they arrive at that perfect state a;>ain. 
 
 Hermaphrodite Flowers, in botany, are so called .by the 
 sexualists on account of their containing both the antherx and 
 stigma, the organs of generation, witliin the same calyx and i>f- 
 tals. Of this kind are the flowers of all the classes in Linnarus's 
 sexual method, except tiie classes mo"a-cia and dioecin ; in the for» 
 mer of which, male and female flowers are produced on the same 
 root; in the latter, on distinct plants from tlie same seed. In the 
 class polygamia, they are alv\ays hermaphrodiie flowers mixed 
 with male or female, or both, eitiier on the same or dia'inct roots. 
 
 \n
 
 H E R 
 
 707 
 
 II K R 
 
 In llie plantain tree the flowers are all hermaphroilite; in some, 
 however, tlie aniiiera or male <)rj!,an, in others the stis^nia or ieni;.le 
 org'.iP, i)roves abortive. The flowers in the foniier class are styled 
 female herniaphrodites : ir. the latter, male hermaphrodites. Iler- 
 luaplirodites are thus as treciiient in tli.- vegetable kingdom as they 
 are rare in the animal one. See IJotany. 
 
 IIER.NJAS, 111 botany, a genus of the nioncceia order, and po- 
 lygamia clafs of plants. Hermaphrodite; umbel terminating; in- 
 volucre univer>al and partial; umhellets with truncate ra_\s, thi- 
 ceiitral one ilori'eroiis ; petals live; stamina five, barren; seeds in 
 pairs, siiborbicidate: male, umbels lateral, with miiversal and par- 
 tial involucres; umbellt-ts many-flowered; |)tlals live; stamina 
 live, tertile. There are live species. 
 
 iiliRMATA, a kinajdom and town in Borneo. 
 ilHRMivS, ['Ei'MHX, Or. trom f.;fi>iv!i.,-, an interpreter,] the 
 Greek Name of the god Mercury. See Mercury, and 'Ihoth. 
 
 Hermrs, suniamed '1 KisMbGisTvs, i. e. thrice greatest, an 
 Egyptian or Phoen:<iaii priest or piiilosopher, and aicoixliiig to 
 somcakiiii^; wliuh triple oflice, liiey say, was the reason of this 
 surname; though SuiJas alleges, it was given him because he 
 tauglit the doctrine ot the Trinity. It is more probuble, however, 
 that lie was so named on account of his great learning; for he is 
 said to have wrote thirty-six books on divinity and pidlosophy, 
 and six on phvsic. Clemens Alexandrimis has given a catalogue 
 01 his works ; but none or them arc extnnt, except a piece <'iititlcd 
 Poeiiiaiuler, which is reckoned spurious. He tauglil the Egyp- 
 tians chemistry, the art of lan<l-nieasuring, the cnUivation of tiie 
 olive, the division of lime into hours, and the use of hieroglyphic. 
 He is supposed to have flourished under Kinus cr Osiris, about 
 A. M. 20 7t). 
 
 Hermks, or IIerma, among anliqoavies, a sort of square or cu- 
 bical figure of tlie god Mercury, usually made of marble, though 
 sometimes of brass cr other materials, without arms or legs, and 
 planted by the Greeks and Romans in their cross-ways. 
 
 HEllMETICAL ART, a name given to chemistry, on a sup- 
 position that llerines Trismegistus was the inventor of the art, or 
 that he e.xcelled therein. See KER^SES. 
 
 Hermetical Philosophy, is that which undertakes to solve 
 and explain all the phenomena of nature, from the three chemical 
 principles, salt, sulphur, and mercury. 
 
 Hermetical pHYiic, or Medicine, is that system or hypo- 
 thesis iu the art of healing, which explains the causes of diseases, 
 and the operations of medicine, on tl.e principles of the hermetical 
 philosophy, and particularly on the system of alkali and aci;l. It 
 has been long exploded. 
 
 Hermetical Seal, a manner of closing glass-vessels, for che- 
 mical operations, so very accurately, that nothing can exhale, not 
 even the most subtile spirits. It is performed by heating t!;e neck 
 of the vessel in the flame of a lamp till it be ready to melt, and 
 then with a pair of pincers twisting it close together. This che- 
 mist call pulling on Ilermes's seal. Vessels are also sealed lier- 
 metically; by stopping them with a stopple of glass, well luted, 
 into the neck of the vessel ;. or, by turning another ovum philoso- 
 phic>im upon that wherein the matter is contained. 
 
 HiiiUIHARPOCRAlES, or HERMAKPOCRATES, in 
 antquity, a deity, or figure of a deity, composed of Mercury and 
 Har|>ocrates the'goil of Silence. 
 
 HERMIAN!, orHEK.MIATIT.E, a sect of heretics in the 
 fecond century, tiius called from their lecidcr ilermias, and also 
 denominated Seleuciani. One of their distinguishing tenets was, 
 that God is corpore-.sl. Another, that Jesus Christ did not ascend 
 into heaven with liis body, but left it in the sun. 
 
 ilERMIONE, i;i fabulous history, the daughter of Mcnelaus 
 and Helen, who was betrothed to her cousin t)reites, but after- 
 wards married to Pyrrhus, wliom Orestes therefore killed in the 
 temple of Apollo, and recovered Herniionc. 
 
 Hermioxe, in a:K-ient geography-, a considerable city of Argo- 
 lis. It was in ruins, except a few temples, in the time of Pausa- 
 nias. M gave name to the 
 
 HERMION ICUS SINUS, a part of the Sinus Argolicus. 
 HERMIT, is derived from the Greek i^x^^, a desert, and, 
 therefore should rather be written Eremite. Paul, suniamed the 
 Hermit, is usually reckoned the first hermit ; tl.ough St. Jerome at 
 the beginning of the life of that saint, says, it is not known who 
 was the first. Some think J o!ui tiie Baptist, others Elijah; others 
 
 
 make St. Anthony the foundir of the eremitical hfe; but others 
 say thai he onlv rekindled and heightened the fervour thereof, 
 and that his di-ciples owned St. Paul of 'i'hebes for the first that 
 practised it. - The peisecutions of Deeius and Valerian are suppos- 
 ed to have been the occa-ion. Several of <he ancient hermit?, 
 tiiough tiiey lived in deserts, had mioibirs of religious accom- 
 panying them. There are also various orders and < ongrepa- 
 lions o( relgious distniguished by the title ol hi-rmits; a^, hermits 
 of St. Augustine, of St. Joliii Baptist, of St. Jeroa.e, of St. 
 I'aiil, &e. 
 
 HERMITAGE, l!ie cell or habitation of a hermit ; also any re- 
 ligious cell, built and endowed in a recluse place, and annexed to 
 some large abbey, of which the superior was called a Hermit. 
 
 IIERiXiOGE'N ES, tlie first and most celebrated architect of 
 aniiipiity, was, according to Vi'ruvius, born at Alaiilia^la, a city in 
 Cans. He biiilt a temple of Diana at Magnesia ; another of Bac- 
 chus at Tros ; and was the inventor of several pails of architecture. 
 He wrote a book on the subject, which is lost. 
 
 HER.MOGENTANS, a sect of ancient heretics, so denominat- 
 ed from i heir leader Hermogc nes, an African born in the second 
 century. Their opinions w ere warmly oppo-ed by Terliillian. 
 
 HERMOX, or AEKMON, in ancient gi'ography, a mountain 
 of the Amorites, called Sanior by the Plia'iiic.ans, and Sanir or 
 Scmr iiy the Amorites, on the E. of Jordan. It is also called Sioii 
 by Moses; but must not be confounded with the Sion of Jerusa- 
 lem. It is comprised by profane writers under L.banus, or Aniili- 
 bamis, with which it is joined on the E. 
 
 HERML'S, in ancient geography, a river of Ionia. 
 
 HERNANDRIA, Jack-in a-boxTree; a genus of the tri- 
 andria order, and mona;cia class of plants; natural order, Tricoc- 
 cic. Male, calyx thvee-parted ; corolla three- petaled ; female, 
 calyx truncate, quite entire; corolla six-petaled ; drupe hollow, 
 with an open mouth, and a moveable nuiltus. There are two 
 species, viz. H. sonora, v.iiistruig hernaiidria ; ami H.ovigera, egg- 
 iruited hernaiidria. The first is an upright lofty tree; liie flowers 
 ..re of a pale yellow colour, in panicled racemes; the calyxes of 
 the iruit are also yellow ; the seeds are very oilv. It is very com- 
 mon in the West Indies. Dr. Patrick iirowne attiibutes the 
 whistling noise to the cups that sustain, and jjartly enve'ope, the 
 nuts; liiese, he adds, are very large, and as they move in the wind, 
 produce sound enough to alarm unwary travellers. 
 
 HERNTA, a descent of a portion of the intestines or omentum 
 out of their natural place ; or rather, the tumour formed by that 
 descent, popularly called a rupture. The word originally signifies 
 t!ie s.nie with tumor scroti, called also ramex. Priscian says, that 
 the ancient Marsi gave the appellation hernia to rocks; whence 
 some think hernias thus called on account of their hardness. Sea- 
 linger derive; it from the Greek i^-/o;, a branch. See Surgery. • 
 
 HERNTARIA, Ripture-wort; a genus of the digynia or- 
 der, and peiitandria- class of plants; natural order, SarmentacRX. 
 Calyx five-parted; corolla none; stamina five, barren, besides 
 the lertile ones; capsule one-3ee<led. There are four s])ecies. As 
 none of these plants possess any beauty, they are rarely cultivated 
 in gardens. 
 
 tlERKOSAND, or HERTnOSUND, a sea-port of Sweden 
 on an isJand in llie guli;h of Bot'iiiia. It has a great trade in linen. 
 Lon. ly.^SOi'E. Lat.62. 38. N. 
 
 H ERO, [fteros, Eat. >'.,»■■;,] a man eminent for bravery ; a man 
 of the highest class in any respect, as " a hero in learning." A he- 
 ro is thus distinguished, by F. Bouhours, from a great man, that 
 the former is more daring, fierce, and enterprising, and the latter 
 more prudent, thoughtful, and reserved. In this sense we say, 
 Alexander was a hero, Julius Caesar a great man. 
 
 Heuo, in Pagan mytliology, a great and iiluslrious pci-^on, of a 
 mortal nature, but sui)posed to partake of immortality , and after 
 his death to be |)!aced among tlie number of the gods. The 
 Greeks erected columns and other moni;ments over tlie tombs cf 
 their heroes, and established a kind of worship in honour of the 
 manes both of their heroes and heroines. The Romans also raised 
 statues in honour of their lieroes ; but there were si.\ of a superior 
 order, -who were supposed to iie admitted iirto the community of 
 the twelve great gods; viz. Hercules, Bacchus, Asculapiiis, Ro- 
 mulus, Castor, and Pollax. Autiiors distinguish between th.e 
 worship wliich th.e ancienis paiil to their heroes, and fhat offered to 
 their gods, The latter consisted of saciilices and libations; ihe 
 8 former
 
 H E II 
 
 7(i8 
 
 II E R 
 
 former was only a kiiiil of t'lineral-lionoiir, in wliicli they celebrat- 
 ed their e\]>loits, concKiding llie rehearsal wilh leasls. 
 
 Hero of a Poem, or IIumance, is the principal personage, or 
 hfi who acts the chief part in it. 'i'hiis the lierQ of the Uiail is 
 Achilles; of the Odyssi;y, Ulysses; of the Atneid, /Knra^; of 
 Tasso's Jerusalem, Godlrey of Bulloign; i^f Milton's Paradise 
 Lost, Adam; thongli Mr. Drydeu will have the Devil to be Mil- 
 ton's hero, becau-ie he gets th.e belter of Adam, and drives him 
 out of Paradise. 
 
 HEROD, improperly styled the Great, the execrable tyrant of 
 Jiidffa, was born at Ascalon, aboe.t B. C. G'i. His father, Antipa- 
 (er the Idiimeaii, (or Edoniite,) aj-'iioiiited liim go\ernorof Gali- 
 lee; Marls. Antony made him lelrarch, or tthnarch; and he after- 
 wards obtained the kingdnm of Judxa, which was confirmed to 
 him by Augustus, a short time before the birth of our Saviour; 
 and thus the propl'ecy was fulfilled, of " the sceptre departing 
 from Judah," he being an alien by birth. At the birtli of our 
 Lord, in tlie vain hope of cutting oil' the Messiah, he caused all 
 the infants of Bethlehem under two years of age to be massacred. 
 His barbarity was as fatal to his own family as to his subjects ; for 
 he murdered his beautiful wife iSlariamne, her motlier Alexandra, 
 jier brother Aristuliulus, her grandfather Ilyrcanus H. and his own 
 sons Alexander and Aristobnlu: ; which led the emperor Augus- 
 tus to say, that it was better to be Herod's swine than his sens. 
 He died miserably within three rears after the birth of Christ, 
 aged 70. 
 
 Herod Antipas, the son of Herod the Great, by his wife 
 Cleopatra, a native of Jerusalem. Herod, in his will, named his 
 son Archelaus his successor, giving Antipas the title of Tetrarch of 
 Galilee and Pera'a. Antipas adorned and fortified tlic principal 
 places of liis dominions. He married the daughter of Arelas, 
 King of Arabia ; whom lie divorced about A. D. 33, to marry his 
 sister-in-law Herodias, wife to liis iirother Philip, who v/as still 
 living. St. Joh.n the Baptist, exclaiming against this incest and 
 adultery, was imprisoned in the ca>l!e of Macha'rus; and after- 
 wards beheaded by Herod's order, as recorded in Mat. xiv. Mark 
 ■vi. and Luke iii. Aretas to revenge the aflront whicli Herod had 
 ofl'ered to his daughter, declared war against him, and overcame 
 him in a very obstinate eneagement. Herod being afterwards de- 
 tected as a party in Sejanus's conspiracy, \\ as banished by the em- 
 peror Caligula inio Lyons in Gaul; whitiier Herodias accompa- 
 nied him. This Antipas is the Herod who, being at Jerusalem at 
 the time of our Saviour's passion, (Luke xxiii. 1 1,) ridicule<l him, 
 by dressing him in a white robe, and sending him back to Pilate, 
 as a mock king, whose ambition gave him no umbrage. 'l"he 
 time when lie died is not known, but it is certain lie died in exile, 
 as well as Herodias. Josephussays he died in Spain. 
 
 HERODIAN, an eminent Greek historian, who flourished at 
 Home in the third century, in the reigns of Severus, Caracalla, 
 Heliogabalus, Alexander, and .Masimin. His history begins 
 from the death of Marcus Aurelius the philosopher; and ends 
 wilh those of Balbinus and Maxiniin, and the beginning of the 
 reign of Gordian. It is written in very elegant Greek; and there 
 is an excellent translation of it into Latin, by Angelus Folitinnus. 
 It was published by Hemy Stephens in 4to, in lisi ; by Boeder, 
 ;;t Strasburg, in \6C>i>, in Rvo. ; and by Hudson, at Oxford, in 
 liW, 8vo. 
 
 'HERUDIANS, a sect among the Jews, mentioned in Matth. 
 xxii. 10, and Mark iii. 6. Commentators are much divided with 
 regard to them. St. Jerome, in his dialogue against tlie Lucife- 
 rians, takes the name to have been given to such as owned Herod 
 for the Messiah ; and TertuUian and Epiphanius are of the same 
 opinion. But ihe same Jerome, in his Connncjit on St. Matthew, 
 treats this o])inion as ridiculous; and maintains, that the Pharisees 
 gave this appellation by way of ridicule to Herod's soldiers, who 
 paid tribute to the Romans; agreeable to this the Syrian interpre- 
 ters render the word by the domestics of Horod, i. e. Herod's 
 courtiers. M. Simon, in his notes on the twenty-second chapter 
 4)f Matthew, advances a more probable opinion. The name he 
 su|)poses to have been given to such as adhered to Herod's paity 
 and interest; and were for preserving the government in his fa- 
 mily, about which tliere w ere great divisions among the Jews. E. 
 Harclouin will have the Herodians and Sadducees to have been 
 the same. Dr. Prideaux is of opinion, that they were distingviisli- 
 ed from the other Jewa by their coucurreacc with Herod's scheme. 
 
 of subjecting himself and his dominions to the Romans, and br 
 complving with many of their heathen usages and customs. 'I'his 
 symbolizing with idolatry upon views of interest and worldly po- 
 lic\', was probably that leaven of Herod, against which our Savi- 
 our cautioned iiis disciples. Jt is farther piobable, that they were 
 chielly of ihe sect of the Sadducees; because the leaven of Herod 
 is also called the leaven of the Sadducees. 
 
 HER('Dt)TUS, an ancient Greek historian, the son of Lyxu« 
 and Dryo, born at Halicarnassus in Caria, in the first jear cf th^ 
 seventy-fourth Olympiad, about B. C. 484. Halicarnassus being 
 at that time under the tyranny of Lygdamis, grandson of Artemi- 
 sia, Queen of Caria, Herodotus retired to Sumos; from whence 
 he travelled over Egypt, Greece, Italy, &c. and acijuired the 
 knowledge of the history and origin of many nations. He then 
 began to digest the materials he had collected, and composed that 
 history which has preserved his name ever since. He wrote it in 
 the isle of Sanios. Luciun informs us, that when Herodotus left 
 Caria to go into Greece, he began to consider with hiuisel.'. 
 What he should do to be for ever known, 
 And make the ages all to come his own. i 
 
 His history, he jiresumed, would easily procure him fame, and i 
 raise his name among the Grecians, in w hose favour it was written ; 
 but then he saw that it woukl be tedious to go through all the ci- 
 ties of Greece, and recite it to the inhabitants of each cilv. He 
 thought it best therefore to take the opportunitv of their assembling 
 all together; and accordingly recited his work at the Olympic 
 games, which rendered him more famous than even those who had 
 obtained the prizes. None were ignorant of his name, nor wa» 
 ihere a single person in Greece who had not either seen him at the 
 Olympic games, or hejrd tiiose speak of hiui who had seen liini 
 there. His work is divided into nine books; which, according to 
 the computation of Dionysius Ilalicarnassensis, contain the most 
 remarkable occurrences within a period of i'4() \ears; from the 
 reign of Cyrus to that cf Xerxes, \»heu the hi>torian was living. 
 These nine books are named after the nine Muses, each book be- 
 ing distinguished by the name of a Muse; and this has given 
 birth to two (lisc|ui^i(ions; viz. 1. Whether they were so called 
 by Herodotus himself; and, 2. For what reason they were so call- 
 ed. As to the hrst, it is generally agreed that Herodotus did not 
 impose these names himself; but it is not agreed why they were 
 imposed by others. Lucian tells us, that these names were given 
 them by the Grecians at the Olympic games, when they were first 
 recited, as the best com])liment that could be paid the man who 
 had taken pains to do them so much honour. Others have 
 thought, that the names of Ike Muses have been fixed upon them 
 by way of reproach, to intimate, that Herodotus, instead of true 
 history, had written a great ileal of fable. Aldus Manutius, Joa- 
 chim Camerarius, and Henry Stephens, have written apologiei 
 for him; and have very justly observed, that he seldom relates 
 any thing of doubtful credit without producing the authority on 
 which his narration is founded; and, if he has no certain authority 
 lo fix it upon, uses always the terms, ut feruiit, ut ego'-audivi, &c. 
 Tliere is ascribed also to Herndotus, but falsely, a Life <if Homer, 
 which is usually printed at the end of his work. He wrote in Ihe 
 Ionic dialect, and his style and manner have been admired by all 
 people of taste. There have been several editions of his works; 
 two by Henry Stephens, in 1J70, and 1592; one by Gale it Lon- 
 don in lti79; and one by Gronovius at Leyden in 1715, which is 
 the best, though not the best printed. 
 
 HEROIC AGE, is that age or period of the world, wherein 
 the heroes, or those called by the poets the children of the gods, 
 are supposed lo have lived. It coincides with the fabulous age. 
 
 Heroic Poem is that which undertakes to describe some extra- 
 ordinary action, or enterprise. Homer, Virgil, Stalius, Lucau, 
 Tasso, Camoens, Milton, and Vollaiie, have composed heroic 
 poems. Li this sense, heroic poem coincides with epic poem. 
 
 Heroic Veksk, is that wherein heroic pocuis aie usually com- 
 posed; or, it is that proper for such poi ms. In the Greek and 
 Latin, hexameter verses are peculiarly denominated heroic verses, 
 as being alone used by Homer, Virgil, &c. Alexandrine verses, 
 of twelve syllables, were formerly called heroic verses, as being 
 supposed the only verse proper for heroic poetry ; but latevwrilers 
 use verses often s^llables. 
 
 Heron, in ornithology. See Arpea, This bird is a very 
 great duvourcr of fish, an'd will da more jnischief to u pomi tluii 
 
 «vei».
 
 H E R 
 
 700 
 
 HER 
 
 o? 
 
 even ail oiter. ^I'lic icn-iiesl metluKl of clestroyiiig lliis mitthicv- 
 0\i5 bird is by iisliing for liiiii in llie manner of piki.-, with a f>aitc(l 
 look ; the bail colls^^ting of small roa< li or dacf, and (lie liooU fas- 
 t<;ne.l lo one e;)^! of a strong line, made of silk and wire luisted 
 togetlier. The wire sliould be enlered under the gills of the 
 roach, and niii just under the skin to the tail ; in vviiicli condition 
 the lish wiil live stveral days: for if it be dead, the lieroiiwiU not 
 touch it. 'I'o the other end of the line is fastened a stone of a 
 pound weigl it; and several of these bailed lines being sunk by 
 ir.eatis of (lie stone in dilfeient parts of the pond, in a niglu or two 
 the heron will certainly be taken. 
 
 HKRl'ES, [i'j"';,] a cutaneous iuflammalion of two kinds: mi- 
 liaris, or puslulmis, uhioli is like millet-seed upon (he skin; and 
 excedeus, whicli is more corrosive and penetraiij:g, so as to form 
 ■little nlcei-s. 
 
 Ili:inUNO. SeeCi.u:-EA. 
 
 HtkKiNG-FisnF.Kv. Om- gieat stations for this fishery are olV 
 the yiielland and AVesjcrn Isles., 'i'liere are two seasojis for it; 
 the first from June to the end of August; and ihesccond in Au- 
 tumn, wdien tile fogs become very favourable for this kind of lish- 
 "ing. Tlie Dutcii begin their herriiig-iisliing on the Iweiily-fourth 
 of June, and employ a va>t number of vessels tlu-rein;" called 
 busses, being between forty-live and si.My tons burden each, and 
 c;u'rying tiiree or four small cannon. 'I'hev never stir out of port 
 wilhoul a convoy, unless there be enough together to make about 
 eiglitten or twenty caiu-.on among them, in w hicli case they are al- 
 lowed to go in company. > liefore they go out, they make a verbal 
 agreement, wiiich has the same force as if it were in writing. Tlie 
 regulations of the admiralty of llollaiid are partly followed by 
 other nations, and partly improved and augmented with new ones; 
 as, that no lisher sliall cast liis net within 10(1 fathoms of another 
 boat: that while the nets are c;ist, a light shall be kept on the 
 bind part of tlie vessel: that when a boat is by any accident ob- 
 liged to leave oil' lisliing, the light shall be casi into the sea; that 
 wiien the greater part ol a ileet feaves off li^hing, and casts anchor, 
 the rest shall do the same, &c. 'I'he vast advaiiiage of tl-.is fishery 
 to our nation is very obvious, wlien we consider that though her- 
 rings are found upon the shores of Noilh America, they are never 
 seen there in such (juantities as with us, and that thiy are not to 
 be met with in considerable numbei'S in any of the soulheni king- 
 doms of Europe as Spain, Portugal, or tlie south parts of France 
 
 the side of the ocean, or in the Mediterranean, or on the coast 
 
 Africa. Numerous iittempts have licen made at dift'erent pe- 
 riods lo secure this treasure to ourselves, but w ith little success. 
 Ill the late reign, a very strong eflbrt was made, and bounties al- 
 lowed for the encouragement of British adventurers: the lirst was 
 of 30s. per ton to every buss of seventy tons and upwards. This 
 bounty was afterwards raised to bOs. per ten, to be paid to such 
 adventurers as were entitled to it by claiming it at the pkices of 
 rendezvous. The busses are from twenty to ninety tons burden, 
 but the best size is eighty. A vessel of eighty tons ought to take 
 ten lasts, or \'20 barrels of herrings, to clear expences, the price of 
 the lish lo be admitted to be a guinea a barrel. A ship of this 
 size ought to have eighteen men, and three boats: one of twenty 
 tons should have six men; and every five tons above require an 
 additional hand. ^I'o every ton are 280 yards of nets; so a vessel 
 of eighty tons carries 20,000 square yards: each net is twelve 
 yards long, and ten deep; and every boat takes out from twenty 
 to thirty nets, and puts them together, so as to form a long train ; 
 they are sunk at each end of the train by a stone, w liich w eighs it 
 down to the full extent;, the top is supported bv buoys, made of 
 shecps skin, with a hollow stick at the mouth, fastened tight; 
 through this the skin \* lilowii up, and then stopped with a peg, to 
 prevent the escape of tlie air. Sometiines ttiese buoys are placed 
 at the top of the nets ; at other times the nets are suffered to sink 
 deeper, by lengthening the cords fastened to them, every cord 
 being for that purpose ten or twelve fathoms long. l?ut the best 
 fisheries are generally in more sliallow water. Loch-broom has 
 been celebrated for three or four centuries as the resort of herrings. 
 They generally appear there in July: those that turn into this bay 
 are part of the brigade tliat detaches itseU from the western column 
 of that great army which annually deserts the vast depths of tlie 
 arctic circle, and come, hcavcn-directe.l, to the seats of popuki- 
 tion, olfered as a cheap food to millions, whom wasteful luxurv or 
 iron-hearted iivarice hath deprived, by enhancing the price of the 
 ^wonted supports of the poor. 'I'he migration of these lish from ; 
 VOL II. — NO. 104. 
 
 lluir noilhern telieat is regular; their visits lo the western isles' 
 and coasts, certain ; but their atlachmeiil lo one particular Icdi, 
 extremely precarious. All have their turns: that which sttair.u4 
 with lisli one year is totally deserled the fallowing; jitthe r.fsl 
 locli to it may be cMwcled with the shcals. '1 htse" chsngcs of 
 place give olten full employ to the bussc."., wlio are ccr.(iiiiia''!y 
 shilliog their harbour in quest of news respecting llie-e iiiipi/ilai:t 
 wanderers. They commonly a|)pear here in July ; the killer cud 
 of Align t they go into deep water, and continue there for soiiitf 
 lime, without any apparent ca'ii>e: in November, they return lo 
 lhe^halUn^■s, Ivlu'ii ii iiev,- Jishery comiiienci;s, which contiiuii s liil 
 January ; at thai time tlie herrings become full cf roc, and arc use- 
 less as articles of commerce. Some doulit whelher lliose herrings 
 that appear in Novcmher are not pari of a new migration ; for 
 tlii-y are as fat, and make tlie same appearance, as those tl.al com- 
 posed the lirst. The signs of the arrival cf the herrings are flocks 
 of gulls, who catch up the lish u liileHliev skim on the surface ; and 
 of gai.nel-i, who plunge and bring them up from considerable 
 depths, iiotli these buds aie closely attended lo by liie lisl ers. 
 Cod-livh, haddocks, and dog-fish, follow the herrings in vast mul- 
 titudes; these voracious fish keep on the oulsides o! the columns, 
 ami may concur in driving the slioaU iiilo-bays and creeks. In 
 summer, they come into the bavs generally witli the v,::imest wea- 
 llier, ami with easy gales. During winter, llie hard gales from 
 X. ^V. are supposed to assist in forcing Ihem into shelter, lixst 
 wimls are ver\ unfavourable to the fishery." 
 
 IIekri.xgs, M tTriOD OF Sai.ting. The nets being hauled on 
 board, llie lishes are taken out, and put into the warbacks, wticU 
 stand on one side of tiie vessels. ^\ hen all the nets are thus un- 
 loaded, one fills the gippers' bar-kets. The gippeis cut tlieir 
 throats, takeout their guts, and ihiig cut the full herrings into one 
 basket, and the sliolten into aiiotiu r. One uuui lakes the full basket 
 when they are gijiped, and carries them lo the rower baik, 
 wherein there is salt. One boy rows and stirs llieni about in the. 
 salt, and an';ther lakes them, thus rowed, and carries them in bas- 
 kets to the packers. Four men piick the herringi into one iiarrel, 
 and lay them, one by one, straiLlit and even; ard another n.'sii,. 
 when the barrel is full, takes il from the packei-s. It is le^t lo 
 stand a day or more open to settle, tliut the salt may melt and dis- 
 solve to pickle; after which it is filled up, and the cooper com- 
 pletes the work, by heading llie casks very light, and stowing 
 tluni ill the hold, 'i'he pickle is to be strong enough to sustain a 
 herring; otherwise liie fish decay in it. 
 
 Herrings, Red, must lie twenty -four hours in the brine, as 
 they are to lake all their salt there. AVIieii taken out, they are 
 spitted, that is, strung by llie head on little wooden ^pits, and 
 then luing in a chimney made for that purpose. After which, a 
 fire of brush-wood, which yields a greal d<i,l of smoke, but no 
 fiame, being made under them, they remain there till sufliciently 
 smoked and dried, and are tlien barrelled up tor keeping. 
 
 HEKRNHU IFERS, a sect of C'lnistians, named also Mo- 
 ravians and United Brethren. See United Brethren. 
 
 lif'-KSt'IlKL, the name given by most foreigners to the new 
 Iilauct, called Georgium Sidus by !SIr. Herschel, who discovered 
 it. See Astronomy. This planet is also called Uranus. 
 
 liERSE, \_licrcc, Fr. i. e. ^ harrow,] in fortification, a lattice, 
 or portcullis, in form of a harrow, beset witli iron-spikes. It IS 
 usually hung by a rope fastened to a maulinel; lo be cut, in case 
 of surprise, or when the first gate is broken with a petard, that the 
 herse m;iy fall, and stop up llie pas>>;ige of the gate or other en- 
 trance of a fortress. It is otherwise called a sarrasin, or cataract ; 
 and when it consists of straight stakes, without any cross pieces, it is 
 called orgues. 
 
 1 1 ERSE is also a harrow, wliitli the besieged, for want of chc- 
 vaux de frise, lay in the way, or in breaches, with the points up, 
 lo incommode the march ni tlie enemy's horse or inlautiy. 
 
 IIEliSFELD, a late territory of Gerni;iny, in the circle of the 
 Upper Rhine, which belonged to the Prince of Ilesse Ca:-sel. 
 It now forms apart of the kiiigdom of A'estphalia, under the go- 
 vernment of Jerome Napoleon. 
 
 llERSi-ELD, or IIiRSCKi-EM), the Capital of the above terri- 
 tory, 3'.? miles S.S.E. of C.assel, and 50 \V. of F.iluit. 
 
 liERSILEON, in the military art, a jort of plaiik or beam, 
 ten or twelve feel long, whose two sides are driven full of sjiikef 
 or nails, lo incommode the maichof the infiintry or cavalry. I'he 
 word is a diiHiRuliva of lier^e. See Hers k. 
 
 iii WEBTFOUD,
 
 HE S 
 
 10 
 
 II E S 
 
 I 
 
 HERTFOUD, the county of Hcilfordsliirc, In the lifgin- 
 niiig of the heptarchy it wns considered ss one of the principal ci- 
 ties of the East Suxons. It is 21 miles N. of London. 
 
 Hertfokd, a county and town of North Carolina, in Edcnton 
 district. 
 
 IIEKEFORDSHlllE, or HERTS, a county of En^land, 
 bounded on the north by Cainbridgeihire, on the east by Essex, 
 on the north west by Bedlbrdshire, on the we^t by Bucks, and on 
 the south bv Middlesex. It is 36 miles long from north to south, 
 <ind 28 broa'd from east to west. It is divided into eight luindrcds, 
 which conli\m nineteen market-towns, and a hundred and seventy- 
 four parishes. Flint-stones are scattered in great pro'usion over it, 
 and beds of chalk are frequcutly met with. It is, however, with 
 proper culture, txtremelv favcjurable to wiieat and barley, which 
 come tn as i^ri'at perfection here as in any part of the kingdom. 
 
 UERTIl.A. or HERTIIL'S, in mythology, a goddess worship- 
 ped by the ancient Germans. She is menlioneil by Tacitus, In 
 his book De Morilnis liermanornni, cap. 40. Vossius supposes 
 that this goddess was Cybele: but she was more properly Terra, 
 or the Earth ; for the Germans still use her for the earth, whence 
 also the Ensiish word earth. 
 
 IlERTZBEKG, a ( onsi<lerable towp of Saxony, 24 miles S.E. 
 pf ^V'i^tenber!T, and 35 N.W. of Dresden. 
 
 IlERVORDEN, or llERVVARDEN, a town in Westphalia, 
 17 miles S.W. of Minden. 
 
 HESDIN, a '-trong town of France, in the department of the 
 Straights of Calais and late county of Aortis, Qj miles S.S.W. of 
 St. Omer, slid iGj N. of Paris. 
 
 HESIOD, a very ancient Greek poet; bnt whether contem- 
 porary with Homer, or a little older or younger, is not agreed 
 among the learned. His father, as he tells us in liis Opera et 
 Dies, was an inhabitant of Cminc, one of the Eulian ides, now 
 called TaioNova; and removed from thence to Ascra, a little 
 village of ii'cotia, at the foot of mount Helicon, where Hesiod 
 was probably born, and called, as he often is, Ascra;us, from 
 it. Of what (piaiily his father was it is no where said ; but that he 
 was driven bv misfortinies Irom Cunia; to Ascra Hesiod himsell 
 informs us. 'His lather sce.ns to have prospered better at Ascra, 
 t'.an he did in his own ccumtry ; yet Hesiod coidd arrive at r.o 
 higher fortune than keeping sheep on the top of mount Helicon. 
 }).erc' the .Muses met with i>im, and enti'red him into their service, 
 as he boasts in h.is Gcneratio Deorum: 
 
 Frew Idle astliey the sheptierd swain beludd. 
 Feeding beneath the sacred mount his fold, 
 \\ itii love ofcliarming song, his breast they fir'd: 
 There me the heav'nly muses (irsl inspir'd ; 
 There, when the maiiis ot Jove the silence broke. 
 To Hesiod thu> the shepherd swain they spoke, ckc. 
 On the der.th of the lather, an cslale was left w'hich ouglit to have 
 betii equally divided between Hesiod and his brother Perscs ; but 
 Perses defrauded him in the division, by corrupting the judges. 
 Hesiod was so far Irom resenting this injustice, that he expresses 
 a concern for tho-e mislak"n mortals wdio place their hapjjiness in 
 riches only, even at the expence of their virtue. He let us know, 
 tl>:'.t he wa's not only above want, but capable of assisting his bro- 
 ther in time of need, which he often did, though he had been so 
 ill use<l bv him. The last circumstance he mentions relating to 
 liimself is his ci nquest in a poetical contention. Archldamus, king 
 of Euhcca, had instituted funeral-games in honour of his own me- 
 mory, which his sons afterwards took care to have performed. 
 Here Hesiod was a compielitor for the prize in poetry ; and won a 
 tripod, which he consecrated to tlie nnises. When he was grown 
 old (for it is agreed by all that he Jived to a very great age), he 
 -removed to Locris, a "town about the same distance from mount 
 Parnassus as Ascra was from Helicon. Hia death was tragical. 
 The man with whom he lived at Locris, a Milesian born, ravidietl 
 8 maid in the same house; and though Hesiod was entirely igno- 
 rant of the favt, yet being maliciously accused to h-'r broOiersas 
 an accomplice, he was unjustly slain'with the ravi>.her, and thrown 
 into tlie sea. The Theogony,' and his Works and Days, are the 
 only undoubted pieces of lliis poet now extant ; bnt it is supposed 
 thai even these have not come to us complete, A good edition 
 nf Hesiod's works was pub!i,-hed by Mr. Le Clerc, at Amsterdam 
 in 1701. 
 
 HESIONE, in fabulous history, the daughter of Laon)edon, 
 king ef Troy, a*.l sister ct king Priam ' 
 
 11 E:sPER, or HESPERUS, ['K^^r.-;',-,] in aMronomy, thecTu 
 ing-star; an appellation given to Venus when she follows or bets 
 after tlie sun. ,See Hesterus. 
 
 HESPEIHA, or HESPERIA NLVGNA, an ancient name <.f 
 Italv ; so called by the Greeks from its western skuation. 
 
 HESPFdHDE'.F:, in hota^iy, from the lles'perides ; golden, 
 or precious fruit: the nineteenth order in Linn;cus's Natural Me- 
 thod. See Botany. 
 
 HESPERl DES, in ancient mythology, the grand-daughters of 
 Hesperus, the brother of Atlas. According to Diodorus, these 
 brothers possessed great riches in the we-lern parts of Africa. 
 He perns had a daughter called Hesperia, who married her tin: le 
 Atlas, and Irom this marriage proceeded seven daugiilers, called 
 Hesperides from the name of their mother, and Atlanlides from 
 thar of their father. According to tlia poets, the Hesperides were 
 three m number, yEgle, Arethnsa, and Hesperelhusa. Hesiod, in 
 his Theogony, makes them the daughters of Nox, Night, and 
 seats them iri the same place will) the Gorgons, viz. at the ex- 
 tremities of the west near mount Atlas ; because the sun sets there. 
 
 Hesperides, Gardens ok the, in ancient geography, are 
 placed by some authors at Laracii, a city of Fez ; by others, at 
 Bernich, a city of Barca, which accc rds' belter with the fable, 
 Others take the province of Susa in .Morocco lor the island where- 
 in the garden was seated. 
 
 IIEbPEHlS, TvocKET, Dame's Violet, or Queen's Gil- 
 LiFLOWER ; a genus of the siTupiosa or<ler, and tetradynamia class 
 of plants; natural order, Siliquo^ff. Petals lurne<l obli(|uely ; 
 glandule within the shorter stamina ; silitiua almost upright ; stigma 
 forked at the base, conuivent, or closing at the top ; calyx close. 
 There are seven species cultivated, on account of tlie great fia^ 
 grancv of the (lowers. 
 
 III'lSi'ERL'S, in the mythology, the brother of Atlas, and 
 grandlalher of the Ilesneritles. Diodorus^ lib. iii. relates that Hes- 
 perus, having ascended to the top of mount Atlas, the better to 
 observe the slars, never returned ; and hence he was fabled to have 
 been changed into the evening-star. 
 
 HESSE, a country in till- late circle of the Upper Rhine, in 
 Gernvnv, bounded on the north by the bishopric of Padtrborn 
 and duchy of Brunswick ; on the east by 'I'huringia ; on the souiir 
 by tiie teiTitory ot Fulde and Weleravia ; and on flie west by the 
 counties of Nassau, Witgenstein, Harl7.teUlt, and Waldeck- The 
 house of Hesse is divided into four branches, namely, Hesse" 
 Cassel, Ilomberg, Darmstadt, and Rhinefeldt, each of which has 
 the title of landgrave, and takes its name ''rom one of the four 
 principal towns. 
 
 HESSIAN FLY, a very mischievous insecl, native of the Land- 
 gravate Hesse, whence it has received its name. This insect is 
 particularly destructive lo wheat-corn, in w hicli it deposits its eggs 
 clo^e to the ground, while growing. When the young vermin are 
 hatched, they ccnlinue for some time in a worm state, feeding on 
 the tender part of the stalk, the growth of w liich is thus effectually 
 checked, 'i'he Hessi^m flv committed great depredations in the 
 eastern counties of England, several years since; and, in the year 
 l7S7,did incalculable clamage in the provinces of Pennsylvania and 
 Maryland, in America. Several remedies against this destructive 
 insect have been proposed ; the only efficacious one hitherto dis- 
 covered, consists in facilitating the vigorous growth of the plants, 
 by property manuring and cultivating the soil. In order to pre-, 
 vent the depredations ot this insc ct, it h.is been recommended to 
 mix three pounds of turnip-seed with one ounce of tiour of sul- 
 plinr ill a glazed earthen-pot, which should be closely co'-ered , 
 alter standing twentv-four hours, another ounce of sulphur should 
 be added, aiid the same (juautity aft^-r fiTty-eight h(ur', so as to 
 eniplov three ounces of this powder to three pounds of seed, care- 
 fully stirring the whole every time the vessel is opened, with a 
 smooth piece of wood or hille, tiait the seed may be thoroughly 
 impregnaled with the sulphur. It is then lo be sown on au acre of 
 ^'round, in the usual manner, where it will effectually keep off the 
 insect tin ll\e third or fourth seeding-leaf \i forir.ed, which w ill ac- 
 quire a bitterish taste, and thus be secured from the depredalions 
 of the fly. Another remedy is, to strew tQbacco-.dust over the 
 land ; and in some counties the seeds are steeped in soot and vv;u 
 ter for several hours previously to being sown, by whiciv they ac- 
 (piire such a degree of bitterness, as to screen them completely 
 again t llie ravages of this noxion? ijiscct. 
 
 "HESYCUI US, the most celebrated of idl tl;e ancient Greel: 
 
 grammavians,
 
 II E '1' 
 
 711 
 
 II E X 
 
 giv.nDiianan', wliOhf works aic i-Nlaiit. lK'\wi>; a C^ln'i^li.ui ; ami 
 accoviliiiw; to some, liic s.i nc willi I!i-s\cliiii<, pad iai'ch o( Jcni^a- 
 Jem, wlio died in t)0;>. lie wrote a (Jreelv J-exicoii, which, in l\w 
 opinion of Ca>aiibon, is the most learned and iiieuil work of tliat 
 Jvind produced hy the aneieiits. !?chrevelitis publislied a ijood 
 edition of it in Uifii, in tpiarto, with notes; but tlie best are those 
 of John Alberts, printed at l-eyden in 174t), and Knhnkenuis, in 
 I'titi; both in t\\ o vo'nmes I'o io. 
 
 HEIKUIAKfH, or HF/rERIARClIA, [i'™.5'«;.x«. .from 
 (Vreig-o:, an ally, and nfx"! command,] in antiquity, an oflicer in the 
 Greek empire, u liereof there .were two spfcies; the one called 
 simply lieteriarch, and tlie otlior great hccriarch, who had llie di- 
 rection of the former. Tlieir principal lunction wns to command 
 the troops of the allies; besides whitii, they had some other <Uities 
 in the emperor's court, described by Codiii : De oftlciis, cap. j, 
 i). 30, .>!, 3y, 37. 
 
 lIEri".H()CLrrE, orllETEKOCLITON, [from /t,;o,-, an- 
 other, and x?ivii.', to decline,] in grammar, an anomalous word, 
 which either in declension, conjugation, or vejiinien, deviates from 
 the ordinary rules of grammar. It is peculiarly applied to nouns 
 which vary or are irregular in declension ; liavnig fewer cases, 
 numbers, &c. than ordinary ; or that oi one declension in one 
 Iiundier, and another: Hoc rnc, vasts; ha'C lasd, vasDntm. 
 
 HETEUODOX, ['vt;'©' and soSk,] in polemical theology, 
 anv thing contrary to the laith and doctrim-s of a true church. 
 
 "HETEKOIJUOMl S \ECTIS, in mechanics, a lever, where- 
 in the fulcrum, or point of suspension, is placed beluecn the 
 power and the weight. See Lf.ver. 
 
 HETEI10(;ENEITY, ['t.^k and ym;,] in physics, that qua- 
 lity or property ot bodies which denominates a thing heteroge- 
 neous. The word is also tor the heterogejieous parts themselves. 
 In which sense the heterogeneities of a body are the same thing 
 with the impurities thereof. 
 
 HETEROGENEOUS, or HETEUOGENEAL, something 
 that consists in parts of dissimilar kinds, in opposition to homo- 
 geneous, see HoMOciNEOi's. 
 
 Heterogeneous, in mechanics, such bodies whose density is 
 unequal iji diH'erent parts of their bulk. 
 
 Heterogeneous Light, is, by Sir Isaac Newton, said to be 
 that which couMsts of rays of dilTerent degrees of refrangibility : 
 thus the common light of the sun or clouiU is heterogeneous ; be- 
 ing a mi.Nture of all sorts of rays. 
 
 Hetekogeneoue Nouns, one of the three variations' in irre- 
 gular nouns ; or such as are of one gender in the singidar number, 
 and of another in the plural, as lioc civtiim, hi aili. Heteros^eneous, 
 under which are comprehended, mixed noims, are six-told, 1. 
 Those which are of the mascnhne gender in the singular nmnber, 
 and neuter in the plural ; as, Itic tartants, lure tiirlara. 2 Tho«o 
 which are m.'sculine in the singular number, but mascuhne and 
 neuter in the plural ; hie locus, hi loci, iV hire hicii. 3. Such as 
 are feminine in th.e singula! number, but neuter in the plural; as, 
 k(EC curbdsus, 6,- luce curhwia. 4. Such as arc neute.- in the sin- 
 gular number, but niascidine in the plural ; as, hoc calum, hi cati. 
 5. Such as are neuter in the singular, but neuter and masculine in 
 the plural ; as, hoc rastnim. Id rastri, 6c hac rostra. And 6. 
 Such as are neuter in the singular, but feminine in the plural ; as, 
 hoc cpulum, ha- eputa-. 
 
 Hetekogen'eous Numbers, are mixed numbers, consisting of 
 integers and tractions. 
 
 Heterogeneous Particles, are such as are of .lid'erent kinds 
 of natures and (pialities. Most bodies consist of such particles. 
 
 Hetebog.'.neous Quantities, are those which are of such 
 .different kmcU and considerations, as that one of them, taken any 
 number of timi->, never ecpials or exceeds the other. 
 
 Heterogeneous Surds, are such as have diiT'erent ra<lical 
 eigns ; as, k/wi, and ■\/M> ; V/Q, and 'y/ 19. See Ai.glbra- 
 
 HETEROSCIANS. or HETEROSCII, [•t,;o,-, and rar.,] all 
 the iidiabitar.ts of the globe between the tropics and polar circle, 
 or without the torrid zone, are Heteroseii, i. e. i;i N, latitude their 
 shadows at noon arc always to the no-thward, and in the S. lati- 
 tude to the southward. The inhabitants in tlu'se two situations 
 are Heteroseii to each other, having their shadows projected con- 
 trary ways at all times of the year. 
 
 HETH, [rin> Heb. ;'. f. fear,] the '^econd son of Canaan, grand* 
 Mip of Ham, iind progenitor of tlie ilittjtesi. (Geji. x. 15.) He 
 
 <laclt so\Ul)U,.rd ol the promi-ed lam!, at llclj.on, i.i .1-. ucigli- 
 bourhood. i'.phroii, an inhabitant of Hebron, was a descendant 
 of llelli, and the city in Abraliam's time was peopled by his pos- 
 leriiy- See HiTTirts. 
 
 I(EUC1IEH.\, in botany, a genus of tlie pentamlria digynia 
 cla s and order. Natural order, bucculenta'. Petals live.; capsula 
 two-beaked, two-celled. There are two species, viz. II, Ameri- 
 cana, American heuchera, or sanicle, and H. dichotoma. 
 
 IlEVELIUS, or n lysELKE, John, an cninent a.-.tronomer, 
 born at Dantzic in the year l6l I. lie stndii-d ut Germany, Eng- 
 lami, and France, and every where obtained the esteem of the 
 learned. He was the liist who discovered a libralion in the moon, 
 an<l nui'le several important oiiservalioni on the other planets. tJe 
 also discovered several hxed'star^, which he named tlie fumainent 
 of Sobieski in honour of John 111. Ivii'g cl Pi.haid. His witv,- was 
 also well skilled in astronomy, and inaae a part of the ob.-ervations 
 pnbliOied by her lunband. In I(i73 he published a description of 
 the instruments with which he made his observations, under the 
 title of Machina Cadestis : and in 1679 he published Ine second 
 part ot this work. But in Sept. 1679, wdiile he was in liie country, 
 his house at Dantzic was burnt d'lwn, by which he lost several thou- 
 sand pounds ; having not only his observatory and all his valuable 
 in->truments destroyed, but al o a great number of copies of his 
 Machina Cadestis, which made his second part very scarce. He 
 died in 1687, aged 7ti. In IGyt) were published, hi-: Eirmamen- 
 tiim Sobiscianum, and Prodromus Astronomi.-c & novx Tabuls; 
 Solares, una cum Catalogo Stellarum Eixarnm, in which he gives 
 the necessary preliminaries for taking an exact caialoi^ue ot the 
 stars. He was greatly esteemed by his cov.ntrymen, not o;dy on 
 account of his skill in astronomy, but as a very worthy magistrate^ 
 He was made a biirgo-master of Dantzic ; which ofiice he is >aid 
 to executed with the utmost integrity and applause. He was also 
 highly esteemed by foreign literati as well as by foreign princes 
 and potenlatcs ; asappuars from a collection of tlieir letters, printed 
 at Dantzic in 1GS3. 
 
 HE\ER, a town of France, in the cTcpartnunt of llie Dyle, 
 and late Austrian Brabant, two miles S. of Loiivain. 
 
 IlEUKELUM, a town of P.atavia, in the department of Delft, 
 and late province of Holland, seated on the Eigne, live miles from 
 Gorcum. 
 
 HEL'SDEN, a strong town of Batavia, in the department of 
 Dommel and Scheldt, and late province of Holland, seated oi\ 
 the Maese, eight miles N. \V. of l5ois-le-duc. 
 
 HEXAGON, [('f and yuivi",] a iigure of six sides or angles: 
 the most capacious of all the ligures that can be added to each 
 other without any interstice. The cells in lioneyconibs are of that 
 form. 
 
 Hexagon, Regular, in geometry, a figure whereof the six 
 sides and angles are equal. See Geometry, and Mensuration.. 
 
 HEX.\C;YNTA, [Irom >i, six, and yuvi, a female,] aii order of 
 plants in the class polyandria, containing such as have six styles,. 
 See Botany. 
 
 HEXAHEDRON, [}x an.l %.,] in geometry, one of the live 
 Platonic bodies, or regular solids, being the same with a cube. 
 
 H EXAM ETEU, [/f and f.^r^or,] a verse ot six feet. The first 
 four feet mav be either sponilei's or dactyls; the fifth is generally 
 a dactyl, and the sixth always a sjiondee. Such is the iollowin'g 
 verse of Horace: 
 
 1 2_ 3 4 5 6 
 
 Aut pro I desse vo | lunl, aul | delec | t.\re iJii | el:!e. 
 
 HEXAMILI, HEKA.MILION, or HEXAMILILWI, a ce- 
 lebrated wall, built by the emperor Emanuel in 1413, over the 
 i'-thmns of Corinth. It took its n'anie from f|. six, and ix\t.m,, 
 whii h in the vulgar Greek signities a mile, being six miles long. 
 I'he design of it was to defend Peloponnesus from the incursions 
 ol the barluria'iis. 
 
 II EXAN DUIA, [from t'l six, and am;, a man,] in bolany, the 
 sixth class in I.inna'us's sexual method, consisting of plants willi, 
 liermaplirodite flowers, furnished with si.x stamina of an equal 
 length. See Botany. 
 
 11 EX.\PL.-V, [from ;';,six,and«':>.:ii', T unfold,] inchurch-histoiy, 
 a 15ible tlis|>o>ed in six columns; containing the text, and divers 
 versions thereof, compiled and published by Origen, with a view 
 of spcuiing the -ai red text from future comijjlions, and to correct 
 thosethat had been aheadv introduced. Eusebius, (Ui^t. Eccl.. 
 ' ti lib.
 
 IJ EZ 
 
 712 
 
 III D 
 
 lib. vi. cap. Id,) lohtle^ tlust Ori^cii, ollor liis leturn fnim Rome 
 umlcr Cunicalla, learned lle-bvew, ;'i«l began to collect ilic several 
 versions thai bad been made of the sacred writings, and of Ihese to 
 coni|iose bis '1 jtr.ipla and lie\a))la. lUit ethers say fliat he <!id 
 not begin til! tlie t;me of Alexander, after b.e bad retired into Pa- 
 , leiline, about A. D. 23\. Ik'^idcs the translation of tlie sacred 
 vvritinc,s, railed llic Septuagint, made iiiider Ptolemy I'!iihideli)lni<i, 
 about B. C 2S0, the Scriptnre-i bad been since translated into 
 Greek bv other interpreters. Tlic (irst of tbcse version?, or (reck- 
 oning tiie Sepiuagint) Ibe second, \vas ibat of Aqiiila, a proselyte 
 Jew, tlie first ed;l;on of whicb. be pnbli->lied in tlie Iwirlftli year of 
 Adrian, or abont A. D. 12S ; t!ie third was that S'ymniaclins, pnb- 
 lished, as is supposed, under Marcus Anrelais, but, as synie say, 
 under Iseptimius Severus, about A. D. 'iOO; the fourth was that of 
 '] lieodotion, prior to .Symniaehus's, under (,'oniniodus, or about 
 A. ]). 175. 'Phesc Greek versions, says ]3r. Kennicott, were 
 made by the Jews from their corrupted copies of the Mebrew, and 
 vere designed lo stand in the jilace of the Seventy, against whicli 
 lliey were prejudiced, because it seemed to favotn- the Christian-. 
 The hflh was found at Jericho, in the reign of Caracalla, about 
 A. D. 217; and tlie si\tli was discovered at Nicopolis, in the 
 reicn of Alexander Severus, about A. D. 2-'S; lastly, Origen him- 
 self recovered part of a seveiitli, containing only tliC Psalms. 
 Origen, who bad lield frequent disinitations with the Jews in Egypt 
 and Palestine, observing thai tliey always objected to tliose jias- 
 sages of Scripture quoted against themselves, and appealed to the 
 Hebrew text ; the better to vindicate those passages, and confound 
 the Jews by shewing that the Seventy had given tlie sense of the 
 Hebrew, or rather to shew, by a number of dilferenl versions, 
 what the real sense of the Hebrew was, undertook to reduce all 
 the several versions into a bod\' along with the Hebrew text, so as 
 they might be easily confronted, and alf'ord a mutual light to each 
 other. Pie made the Hebrew text his standard; and, allowing 
 tiiat corruptions migiit have happened, and the old Hebrew copies 
 Iiiiglil and did read differently, he marked such words or sentences 
 as were not in his Hebrew text, nor the latter Greek versions, and 
 added such words or sentences as were omitted in the LXX, pre- 
 fixing an asterisk lo the addition?, and 'an obelisk to the others. 
 For thi-i purpose, be made eight cobmins; in the (irst lie pave the 
 Hebrew text in Hebiev\' characters; in the second the same text 
 in Greek characters ; the rest were filled with the several versions 
 above-mentioned ; all the columns answering verse for verse, and 
 pUrase for phrase; and in the Psalms there was a ninth column for 
 the seventh version. This work Origen called 'Eva^?.E, Hexapla, 
 9. <Z. sextuple, or a work of six colunins, as only regarding the 
 lirst six Greek versions. St.Epiplianius, taking in likewise the two 
 columns of the text, calls the work Octapla, as consisting of eight 
 colnmns. This celebrated work, which Montfaucon imagines 
 consisted of lifty large volumes, perished long ago, probably with 
 the library at Ca^-sarea, where it was preserved in G,'>3; though se- 
 veral ancient writers have preserved [lieces uf it, particularly St. 
 Chrysoslom on the Psalms, Philoponus in bis Hexameron, &c. 
 Some modern writers have carnesilv endeavoured to collect frag- 
 ments of the Hexajda, particularly l-'laminius Nobilius, Drusius, 
 and V. Montfaucon, in two folio vulunies, printed at Paris in 1713. 
 PIEXASTIC, [/-' and r'X'.">J a poem of six lines. 
 HEXASTYLE, in architecture, a building with six columns in 
 front. 
 
 HEXHAM, a town of Northumberland, onthc'l'ync, noted 
 for its manufactorv of tanned leather, shoes, and gloves; and is 
 twenty-two miles \V. of Kewcastle. 
 
 HEYDON, a borough in the E. Riding of Yorkshire, six 
 miles W. of Hull. 
 
 HELYSHEM, a tov,-n of France in the department of the 
 Dyle, and late province of Austrian Brabant: 14 miles S. E. of 
 Louvain. 
 
 HEYMERISEN, a town of Germany, in the late electorate of 
 C'ologn, b miles W. of Bonne. 
 
 PH'ZEKIAH, orlCZEKIAS, [n'pn, Heb. z. e. The strength 
 of Jah, or Jehovah,] one of the best knigs of Jiidea, succeeded his 
 fattier Aliaz, A. M. 327S. His reformation of his subjects from 
 idolatry; bis grand and solemn c- lebration of the passover; his 
 invitation lo the Israelites to assist at il ; his throwing oil' the Assy- 
 jian yoke ; his miraculous deliverance from the invasion by Seii- 
 nacherib, alter the blasphemous defiance of Rabshakeh ; his mor- 
 
 tal disease, jiropliclic prayer, and miraculous recovery, with the 
 fatal consequences of his vanity after it, are recorded in 2 Kings 
 xviii. — XX. 2 Cliron. xxix. — Mvxii. and Isaiah xxxvi. — xx.xix. 
 'Pile hymn he composed upon his recovery, (Isa. xxxviii.) enti- 
 tles him to be ranked among the'l'ypes of Christ. He collected a 
 part of Solomon's Proverl^s. (See Prov. xxvi.) Upon the mi- 
 raculous retrogression of the shadow on Ahaz's dial, we need say- 
 little. Those who doubi ilie existence of a Deity, or deny his 
 power over the ma'erial world, w ill not be convinced by any ar- 
 guments. IJnt those who believe that tlie Almighty,' when he 
 gave existence to matter, and subjected it to certain laws, d:d not 
 thereby limit his own inllnile power, will not think it more ir.- 
 credibie, tlval he who created light by his word should inveitthe 
 shadow of the gnomon, so as lo make it appear lo lune gone il> 
 degrees backward, than that a watchmaker should turu back Ibe 
 hour or minute hand of a clock, in a direction ccntrary to the na- 
 tural motion which he himself has given it. How this was done, 
 whether by a momentary retrograde motion given to the terres- 
 trial globe, or only by an inversion of the usual motion of the solar 
 rays upon the gnomon, it is neither necessary nor possible to de- 
 lermine. ^J'he former supposition seems most probable. Upon 
 this supposition it must have been observed ovei one half of the 
 globe; and that it was observed by the Chaldean a-troi.omers w iio 
 resi<lcd at liabylon, seems cvulent from Merodach-Baladan's 
 congratulatory embassy on Hczekiah's recovery. Hezekiali 
 ditd in the i4th year of his age, and 29th of his reign; A. M. 
 3307. 
 
 HIAMEN, or EMOUY, an island near the S. E. coast of 
 China, in the province of Fokien, about Ij miles in circum- 
 ference ; with an extensive port capable of containing several 
 tj-.ousands of vessels, protected on one side by the island, anil on 
 the other by the main-land. The water isso deep that the iafrest 
 ships may lie close to the shore without danger. Lon. 1. 52. E. of 
 Pi-kin. I^at. 24. 30. N. 
 
 H1AR13AS, in fabulous history, a king of the Getulians, who 
 made war against Queen Dido. 
 
 HIATUS, \_/iititiis, Lat.] an aperture; a gaping breach; the 
 opening of the mouth by tlie sucepssion ot an initial to a final 
 vowel. Il is particidarly applied to those verses where one vord 
 ends with a vowel, and the following word begins with one, and 
 thereby occasions the mouth to be more open, and the sound to be 
 very harsh. It is also used in speaking of manuscripts, to denote 
 their defects, or the parts that have been lost or effaced. 
 
 HFBERNIA, one of the ancient names of Irelantl, is derived 
 by some from hibernum. tempus, winter-time, because in that 
 season the jiights are long there. But it appears more probable 
 that it has been derived from Ei'in, the name given to the island 
 by the original inhabitants: whence Jerna, the name given it bv 
 Claudiau, Iverna, by Ptolemy, and Juverna, by Juvenal, are evi- 
 dently derived. 
 
 PHBISCUS, Syri.\n' Mallow ; a genus of the polyandria or- 
 der, and monadelpliia class of plants: natural order, Columniferre. 
 Calyx double; outer many-leaved ; cajsule Jive-celled, with many 
 seeds. I'here are forty-live species ; most of these are perennials ; 
 several of them have shrubby stalks ; and some are herbaceous ; 
 the leaves are alternate and comnionly of a soft texture. The 
 flowers are of the mallow-kind, axillary, and terminating; the 
 bark in several is capable of being drawn into threads, and manu- 
 factured for packthread and ropes ; the capsule in some is eatable ; 
 others are much esteemed for their ornamental flowers. 
 
 HICCOUGH, or HICKUP, is a spasmodic affection of tbe 
 stomach, cesophagus, and muscles, subservient to-deglutition, 
 arising from various causes, such as a fit of laughing, thirst, cold ■ 
 drinks, suppression of diarrhc-a, antipathy, &c. It can by no 
 means be considered as a disease, though a few instances have oc- 
 curred, in which it has continued for thn-e or four years: and one 
 in whicli it became habitual, and could not be removed. Persons 
 who eat kirge meals, and load the stomach by drinking profusely- 
 after them, or those liable to llatnlcney, are chiefly subject to this 
 affection. The common hiccough seldom requires any medicine 
 to remove it, as it generally disappears after drinking a few small 
 draughts of water in ijuick succession. 
 
 HIDACJE, or lUDAGlUM, was an extraordinary tax payable 
 to the kings of England for every hide of land. This taxation was 
 levied not only i.n money, but uT provision, armour, &c ; and 
 
 when
 
 H FE 
 
 713 
 
 H IE 
 
 when tlic Danes Innded in Sandwich in 994, king Kth;lied taxeil 
 all his lands by liides ; so tli.it every 310 hide< found one ship fur- 
 nished, and every 8 hides tuniislicd one jack and one saddle, to 
 arm for the defiice of the kingiloni, &e. 
 
 IJ 1D.VI<GC), in modi-rn liistorv, a title given in Spam to all 
 who are ol nol)le family. The Hi(lal<;os daini a <leseent from 
 tliose valiant soldiei-s who retired into Castile, and the mountains 
 ot Asturias, and other remote parts of Spain, on the invasion ot the 
 Moors, where havnig fortified tli( mselves, they successively de- 
 scended into tlie plains, in proportion to the success of their arms : 
 from the notoriety of their pei-sons, or the lands thev bi-(:aiii<- |)os- 
 sessed of, they acquired the appellation of Hidalgos notonos, Hi- 
 dal"OS de solor conocido, or de casa solariega. 
 
 HIDDF.KEL, the third river in Paradise. (Gen. ii. 14.) It 
 is supposed to be the same with the Tigris, called Diglal by the 
 Arabs. It runs S. between Assyria on the F,. and Mesopotamia 
 on the \V. and falls into the Euph.rates. It is said by Moses 
 to run toward the E. of Assyria, which it does in respect of his 
 situation. 
 
 HIDE, \_hydc. Sax.] generally speaking, signifies the skin of 
 beasts, but is particularly applied to those of large cattle, such as 
 bullocks, cows, horses, &:c. Hides are ■ ither raw or eireen, that is, 
 in the same state as when they were taken off the carcass ; salted 
 or seasoned, i i which case they are dressed with salt, alum, anil 
 salt-pet re, to prevent them from putrefying ; or they are curried or 
 tanned ; tor an account ot which processes, See Tanning. 
 
 Hide of Land, was as much as would maintain a famdy ; some 
 call it 00. sonif SO, and othei-s 100 acres. 
 HIDEBOUNDNESS. See FABRtERY. 
 HIERACT'M, Ha\'Kwf,ed; a genus of the polygamiasequalis 
 order, and syngene-iia class of plants; natural order, Composita;. 
 Receptacli- naked ; calyx imbricjie, ovate; down simple, sessile. 
 The species ure (i!ty-five, most of them weeds. 
 
 HIERAPOLIS. in ancient geography, a town of Phrygia, 
 abounding in hot springs, and having its name from tlie number of 
 its temples. It is novv called Pambouk ; and is situated near 
 the Scamander, on a portion of Mount Mesogis, 6 miles from 
 l.aodicea. 
 
 HIERARCH, [lij^' and ajx". Gr. ] the chief of a sacred 
 order. 
 
 HlF.RARCHY.a sacred government ; rank or subordination 
 of holy beings. Some of the rabbins reckon four, others ten, 
 orders or ranKs of angels; and give them difiereiit names accord- 
 ing to their supposed degrees of power and knowledge. 
 
 Hierarchy, also denotes the subordination of the clergy, 
 ecclesiastical polity, or the constitution and government of the 
 Christian church considered as a society. 
 
 HlERES, a town of FVance, in the department of Var and 
 late province of Provence, 12 miles E. of Toulon. 
 
 HiEREs, four islands of France, on the coast of Provence ; 
 called Porquerollos, Porteros, and Bagueau, which are inhabi- 
 ted, aud Titan ; which last is the largest and is capable of culti- 
 vation. 
 
 IllERO II, K. of Syracuse was a descendant of Gelon, and 
 was elected king B. C. 268. He carried on war against the 
 Romans for some time along with the Carthaginians ; but made 
 peace, and continued ever alter their firm ally. He was a rela- 
 tion of Archimedes : aud was a prince of great learning and virtue, 
 and encouraged arts and commerce. He died B. C. 225. 
 
 HiERo's Crown, in hydrostatics. Hicro II. having furnish- 
 ed a goldsmith with a quantity of fine gold to make a crown, sus- 
 pected, upon receiving it, that he had been cheated, by his using 
 a greater quantity of silver-alloy than was necessary. He applied 
 to Archimedes to discover the fraud without defacing the crown ; 
 which he did by this experiment; He procured a hail of pure 
 gold, and another of silver, each exactly of the same weight with 
 the crown: and judging that if the crown were of pure gold it 
 would be of e<iual bulk, and U])on putting it in water, expel an 
 eijual quantity of tiie water with the goldin ball; if of silver, it 
 would i-xpel an equal quantity with the silver one; but, if of an 
 intermediate quality, the quantity of water expelled would be in 
 pxavt proportion. This upon trial he found to be the case; and 
 by comparing the quantities of water displaced, disiovered the 
 exact proportions of gold aud silver in the crown. 'Plic following 
 evample will shew the process: suppose each of tht tiirce masses 
 VOL. 11. — NO. 104. 
 
 above referred to weigii (54 ounces, 
 separately in the same vessel of water 
 
 and that immersing them 
 there were displaced joz. 
 tlie silver, and tioz. by the 
 compound, or the crown itself, then the respective bulks being 
 as the quaiilities of water displaced, will be as 3, 9, and 6 ; anil 
 we say, 
 
 , J - es^ei ui w aiei , iiit.i c \* 1 1 1, ^ii>piii^. 
 
 ofw.iterby the gi'lden ball, 9oz. by tlie silver, and tioz. ^ 
 compound, or the crown itself, then the respective bulks bein 
 
 9 — 6 = 3 
 6 — o==l 
 
 4:64::3:4S 
 
 4: 64:: 1 : 16 ' 
 
 And under such circumstances the crown consisted of 4Soz. of 
 gold and Hi ofsUver. 
 
 HIEROGLYPHS, or, HIERCXJLYPHICS, [:'.;i=-, sacred, 
 and j'Xviiu, to carve,] in antiquity, nivstical characters or symbols, 
 in use among the Egyptians, and that, as well in their wriiings as 
 inscriptions ; being the (igures ot various animals, the part> ot hu- 
 man bodies, and mechanical instruments. It was the tustom to 
 have the walls, doors, &:c. of their ttniples, obelisks, &c. engra- 
 ven with such figures. Hieroglyphics arc pro|)erly emblems or 
 signs of divine, sacred, or supernal ural things ; by which tliey are 
 distinguished from common symbols, which are signs of sensible 
 and natural things. Hein>es Trismegistus is commonly esteemed 
 the inventor of hieroglyphics: he first introduced them into the 
 heathen theology, from whence thev have been transplanted into 
 the Jevvi.h and Christian. Sacred things, savs H ippocrates, should 
 only be comiiiunicatcd to sacred persons. Hence the ancient 
 Egyptians communicated to none luit their kings and priests, and 
 those who were to succeed to the |)riesthood aiul the crown, the 
 secrets of nature, of tlieir molality and history; and this they did 
 by a kind of cabbala, which, at the same tunc tliat it instructed 
 them, only amused the rest of the people. Heiu e .he use of 
 hieroglyphics, or mystic figures, to veil their molality, politics, 
 &c. from profane eyes. '1 his author and many others do not 
 keep to the precise character of a hieroglyphic, but apply it to 
 prolane as well as divine thine;s. Hieroglyphics are a kind of 
 real characters, which do not only denote, but in some measure 
 express, the things. Thus, according to Clemens Alexandrinus, 
 (Strom, v. ) a lion is the hieroglyphic ot strength ami f'crtitiide ; a 
 bullock, of agriculture ; a horse, of liberty ; a sphinx, of snblilty, 
 &c. Such is the opinion that has generally been embraced, botfi 
 by ancient and modern writers, ottlie origin ami use of hierogly- 
 phics. It has been almost uniformly maintained, that they were 
 Invented by the Egyptian prie^ts to conceal their wisdom from 
 the knowledge of the Tulgar ; but the late bisliop Warburton lias 
 with much ingenuity and learning, endeavoureci to shew that this 
 account is erroneous. He thinks, the lirst kind of hieroglyphics 
 were mere pictures, because the most natural way of communicat- 
 ing our conceptions, by marks or figures, was by tracing out the 
 images of things; and this is verified in the case of the Mexicans, 
 whose only method of writing their laws and history was by this 
 pictnre-writing. But the hieroglyphics invented by the Egyptians 
 were an improvement on this rude and inconvenient es-ay to- 
 wards writing, for they contrived to make them both pictures 
 and characters. In order to eifect this improvement, they were 
 obliged to proceed gradually, by first making the princijial cir- 
 cumstance of the subject stand for the whole ; as in tne hierogly. 
 phics of IIora[)ollo, which represent a b.attle of two armies in 
 array bv two hands, one holding a shield and the other a how: 
 then pulling the instrument of the thing, whether real or meta- 
 phorical, for the thing itself, as an eye and sceptre to represent a 
 monarch, a ship and pilot the governor of the universe, &c. ; and 
 finally, by making one thing stand for or represent another, where 
 their observations of nature or traditional siipenrtilions led tliein 
 to discover or imagine any resemblance : thus, the universe w, is 
 designed by a serpent in a circle, w ho<e variegated spots denote<l 
 the stars; and a man who had nobly surmounted his misfortunes 
 was represented by the skin of the hya-na, be<ause this was sup- 
 posed to furni^h an invulnerable defence in battle. 1 he Chinese 
 writing, he observes, was the next kind of improvement in the 
 use ot hieroglyphics. The Egyptians joined char.u leristic m;irks 
 to ima'.'es ; the Chinese threw out the images and retaimd only 
 8 T the
 
 H I G 
 
 7U 
 
 HIG 
 
 the contracted marks, and from these marks proceeded letters. 
 Tlie general concurrence of ditVerent people in this method of 
 recording their thoughts can never be Siijjposed to be the elfect 
 of unitation, sinister views, or chance; but must be considered as 
 tiie uniform voice of nature speaking to the rude conceptions of 
 mankind : for not ojily the Chinese ot the East, the Mexicans of 
 the West, and the Egyptians of the South, but the Scythians like- 
 wise of the North, and tlie intermediate inhabitants of the earth, 
 VIZ. the Indians, Phanicians, Ethiopians, Sec. used the same way 
 of writing by piitiire and hieroglyphic. He farther shews, thai 
 •tlie several species of liieroglyphic writing took their rise from 
 iiatiiie and necessity, and not from choice and artihce, by tracing 
 at large tlie origin and progress of the art of speech, lie firoceeds 
 to shew how in lu'ocess of lime the Egyptian hieroglyphics came 
 to be ei\iplo\eil for the vehicle of mystery. 'I'liey used their 
 hieroglyphics two ways; tiie one more simple, by putting the 
 part tor the whole, wliich was the cnriologic hieroglyphic; and 
 the nther more artificial, l)y putting one thing of resembling quali- 
 ties for another, called the trophic hieroglyphic: thus the moon 
 was sometimes represented by a half-circle and sometimes by a 
 cvnocephalus. 
 
 " HIEROGRAMMATEI, or HIEROGRAM.MATISTS, ['i'- 
 ^3j;»|i^(.tf.T!i;, i.e. holy registers,] were an onler of priests among 
 the ancient Egyptians, who presided over religion and learning. 
 Ihey had the care of the hieroglyphics, and were the expositors of 
 religious doLtrines. 
 
 JlllCHOLOGY, [from U:o;, sacred, and J.oyo;, discourse,] a 
 iliscourse on sacred things. Among the Jews and Greeks it was 
 Used for tlie nuptial benediction. 
 
 IIIEKOMANCY, or HIEROMANTIA, ['is5d,«vtf.,<,] in 
 antiquhy, that species of divination which preciuled lulure 
 cviiits from observing the various tilings offered in sacrilice. 
 
 IllEROMENlA, ill ancient Greek chronology, the month 
 in which the Nemeaii games were celebrated, called also Boe- 
 droniion. 
 
 IIIEROMNEMON. [Gr. from U^^o;, sacred, and ,x^„,a^v, a 
 remembrancer,] an oflicer in the ancient Greek church, whose 
 principal function was to stand behind the patriarch at the sacra- 
 ments, ceremonies, &c. and shew him the prayeis, psalms, &c. 
 which he was to rehearse. 
 
 IliEuoMNF.MON, in Grecian anti(iuitv, a delegate chosen by 
 lot, and sent to the great council of the Amphictyons, to take 
 care of what concerned religion. 
 
 IlIEROPHANT, HIEROPHANTA, or HIEROPIIAN- 
 TES, [from lijo;, holy, and ^mviu, I appear,] a priest among the 
 Athenians; who was properly the chief person that olliciated in 
 the F'.li'usinia. 
 
 IHEROPHYLAX, [is;®' and f;^xaj,] an oflicer in the Greek 
 churcli, w ho waskeeper ot the holy utensils, vestments, &c. answer- 
 ing to the vestry-keeper in the church of England. 
 
 HI EROSCdPlA, [from !i;i;, sacred, and ^iioTna., to view,] a 
 species of divination by inspecting the victims, the same with 
 Ilieromancv. 
 
 HIERTING, or JETTING, a sea-port town of Denmark, in 
 N. Jutl.md, at the mouth of the VVarde, with a good harbour: 2J 
 miles N. W. of Ripen. Lon. 8. 2-'. E. Lat. jj. :.'9. N. 
 
 H!GII^in music, is sometimes used in the same sense with loud, 
 and sometimes in the same sense with acute. 
 
 High Dutch is the German tongue in its greatest purity, as 
 it is spoken at Misuia, &c. 
 
 HIGHAM FERRERS, a borough of Northamptonshire, 66 
 miles N. N. W. of London. 
 
 HIGHLANDS. See Scotl.\nu. 
 
 HiiiULANDS, a mountainous country of New York, on the 
 banks of Hudson's river, between 40 and tiO miles N. of New 
 York city. 
 
 HK;H LANDER, a general appellation for the inhabitants of 
 the mountainous parts of any country. In Britain, the name is 
 approjJiiated to the inhabitants of the mountainous parts ot ."-cot- 
 land, to the N. and N. W. including those of the Hebrides. 
 They are a branch of the ancient Celta-', and are undoubtedly the 
 ilescendaiits of the lirst inhabitants of Britain, as appears fron'i the 
 many monuments of their language, still retained in tiie most a n- 
 cieni names of places in all parts of the island. 
 
 HIGHMORE, JosLpH, Esq. an eminent painter, born in Lon- 
 
 don, June 1.3, 169'J. He aa^ articled as clerk to an attorney, ir. 
 1707; but so much against his inclination, that in three years he 
 resolved to indulge his natural disposition to his favourite art ; and 
 employed his leisure-hours in designing, and in studying geome- 
 try, perspective architecture, and anatomy, without any instructors 
 except books. By these exertions, he soon arrived at such per- 
 fection in his favourite art, that he painted many pictures which 
 were not only valued highly in his own time, bi't are now the ob- 
 jects of admiration to painters. On the institiilioi; of tiie acade- 
 my of painting, sculpture, &:c. in London, in ltjj3, ii? was elected 
 one of the professors. In 17.>4, he puhliahcd in 4lo. " A Critical 
 Examination of those two Paintings (by Rubens) on the C'e.liiig 
 of the Banqueting-house at Whitehall, in which Architecture is in- 
 troduced, so far as relates to Perspective; together with the Dis- 
 cussion of a Que^ion which has been the Subject of Debate among 
 Painters;" in liic solution of this question, he proved that Rubens 
 and other great painters were mistaken in the practice, and Mr, 
 Kirby and several otiiers in the theory. And in volume 17lh of 
 the " Montlily Review, he animadverted (anonymously) on Mr. 
 Kirby's unwarrantable treatment of Mr. Ware, and detected his., 
 errors, even when he exults in his own superior science, .Mr. 
 Highmore, painted iviany portraits, of which several have been en- 
 graved. In the historical branch, v\hich was then much less cul- 
 tivated than it is at present, we shall only mention Hagr.r 'nd Ish- 
 mael, a present to the Foundling Hospital : The Good .'"•amaritan ; 
 The Finding of Moses, purchased at his sale by general Lister; 
 The Harlowe Family, as described in Clarissa, now in the posses- 
 sion of T. W. Payler, Esq. Clarissa herself; The Graces unveil- 
 ing Nature, drawn by memory from Rubens: The Clementina of 
 Grandison, and 'I'lie Queen Mother ot Edward IV. ■•. ith her 
 younger Son, &c. in Westminster Abbey ; in tlie possession of his 
 son. He was the author of various publications which were well 
 received ; but his most cajiital work was his Practice and Perspec- 
 tive, on the principles of i)r. Brook Ta'ilor, ^cc. m one vol. 4to. 
 1703. 'lliis not only evinced his scientiiic knowlcdgi of the sub- 
 ject, but, by its perspicuity, removed the only objection that can 
 be made to the system ol Dr. Taylor. His lipistle to an Eminent 
 Painter, pubhshed in the tJent. Mag. for 1778, shews that his ta- 
 j lents were by no means impaired at the age of 8t>. Indeed he re- 
 taine<l tliem to the last, and had even strength and spirii suflicieat 
 to enable him to ride out daily on horseback the sniiimer before 
 he died. A strong constitution, habitual temperance, and constant 
 attention to his health, in youth as well as in age, preserved his 
 faculties to his 88th year, when he died March 3, 17S0. He was 
 interred in Canterbury cathedral, leaving one son, Anthony, edu- 
 cated in his own profession ; and a daughter. His abilities as a 
 painter appear in his works, which are much and justly admired. 
 His tints, like those of Rubens and Vandyck, iu'-tead of being im- 
 paired, are improved by time, which some ol them have now 
 withstood above 60 years. 
 
 IlIGHN ESS. The kings of England and Spain had formerly 
 no other title but that of highness ; the first till the time of Janiies 
 I. and the second till that of Charles V. The petty princes of 
 Italy began tii-st lo be coniplimentcd with this title in l(i30. In 
 France, the duke of Orleans assumed the title of roval highness in 
 16.51, to distinguish himself from the other jninces. The 
 princes of the blood in iMigUnui are each distinguished in the 
 same way. 
 
 High Oper.4tiok, in surgery, a method of extracting the 
 stone; thus called, because the stone was taken out at the upper 
 part of the bladder, above the pubis. I'liis operation is now, very 
 properly, superseded by one much safer and more successful. 
 
 See SURGF.RV. 
 
 High Places, were eminences on which the heathens used (o 
 Worship their gods, chosen for that purpose as being supposed lo 
 be nearer heaven, their constant residence. The Jews are fre- 
 (piently blamed for their attachment lo high places, after the man- 
 ner of the Gentiles ; though their proseuclia- were frei|uently upon 
 mountains with groves planted about them. Where high "places 
 are reprobated in scripture, therefore, we sliouhl understand tln-m 
 as abused and prostituted to idolalrous purposes. Before tlie tem- 
 ple was built, there was indeed nothing in the high places very 
 contrary to the law, proviiled God only v.-.as adored there, and 
 that no incense or victiiris were offered to idols. Under the judues 
 they seem lo h^vc been luljrated ; and Samuel otTered sacriiiees- 
 y in
 
 HIN 
 
 7\^ 
 
 II I N 
 
 in sevfiul [jUiccs besides the labernarli-, where tlie aik w.is not pre- 
 sent. I'",ve[i in David's time, tlicy satriliced to tlie Lord at Sliilo, 
 Jerusalem, and (iilieoii ; but after the teni)>lc was built, and a place 
 prepared for the lixe<l seltleineiit of the ark, it was no more allow- 
 ed, to sacrifice out of Jerusalem. Solomon, in the beginning of 
 liis reign, went a pilL;rimage to Gibeon ; l)ut from that lime we see 
 no lawful sacrifices ollered out of thi- temple. 
 
 IIigh-Prikst. Isce Pontifex and Pkikst. 
 
 HIGHWAY, a free passage for the kind's subjects ; on which 
 account it is called the kuig's highway, though the freehold of the 
 soil belong to the owner of the lajid. Only those ways whicli lead 
 from and to dilierent towns or villages, and such as ar'- caH-road ., 
 communicating with the former, are properly called highways: 
 the care of repairing them, &c. is reposed in commissioners and 
 surveyors, who are empowered by various statutes to superintend 
 them, and to see that no ol)stacles be laid in the roads. 
 
 HIGHWAYMEN, Kkwards for Aitrehending. Are- 
 ward of 401. is give'i by the statute of 4 and 5 \\ . and M. to be 
 paid within a month after conviction by the sherilVot the county ; 
 to which the statute R Geo. II. cap. 16, superadds 101. to be paid 
 l)v the hundred indemnified by such appreliension. 
 
 'HlGhWOlll'H, a town of Wilts, 3(3 miles N. of Salis- 
 bury. 
 
 HlLARIA, in anti(iuity, feasts celebrated annually, with great 
 pomp and joy, by the Romans, on the 8 Kal. April, or 'J.'jth of 
 March, in honour cf Cybele. The Romans took this feast origi- 
 nally from the Greeks, who called it «v«?'STif, q. d. ascensus ; the 
 pve of tiial day they spent in tears and lamentations, and thence 
 denominated it xtTtcniTi;, descensus. Afterwards, the Greeks look 
 the name U-^^it from the Romans ; as appears from Photius, in his 
 extract of the lite of the philosopher Isitlore. 
 
 HILARY, St. a saint of the Roman Calendar, born at Aries, 
 in 401. He succeeded Honoratus as bishop of Aries, and presid- 
 ed in the council at Home in 441. He wrote, 1. Homilies, under 
 the name of Eusebius of Emesa : 2. The Lite of St. ilonoratus: 
 3. Opuscula. He died in 449, aged 48. 
 
 HiL.\RY Term. See Term. 
 
 HILD, in Elrick's grammar, is interpreted a lord or lady : so 
 Hildebert is a noble lord ; Mathild, an heroic ladv. Gibson. 
 
 HILUBURGHAl'SEN, a toun in Franconia, 22 miles N. 
 by W. of Cobourg, and 32 S. of Erfurt. 
 
 HILHESHELNLa late princely bishopric of Germany, bounded 
 on the N. and E. by the duchies of Lunenburg, Wolfenbultel, and 
 Halberstadt, and on the S.and W. by Calenberg; and which ex- 
 tended 40 miles from E. to W. and 32 from N. to S. 
 
 HiLDESHEiM, the capital of the above bishopric, seated on the 
 Irnestc, 17 miles S. S. E. of Hanover. 
 
 HiLDESHEiM, or HiLLESHEi.M, a town of Germany, lately in 
 the electorate of Treves, now annexed to France. It is 31 miles 
 N. of Treves, and 3G W. of Coblentz. 
 
 HILLIA, in botany, agenusof the monogvnia order, and hex- 
 andria class of (ilants. Calyx hexapliyllous ; corolla cleft in six 
 parts, very long ; berry inferior, bilocular, polysperinous. It has 
 two species, shrubs of Jamaica. 
 
 HlLLSIiOROlGH, a town «f Ireland, in tlie county of 
 Down, L'Ister, (i9 miles from Dublin. 
 
 Hii.isHoRouGH, an island on the E. coast of Labrador. Lon. 
 01. 20. W. Lai. j7. 20. N. 
 
 Hiu.sBOROt;i;H, a fertile district of North Carolina, bounded 
 on the E. by Halifax district, S. by Fayette, W. by Salisbury, 
 and N. by Virginia; containing 7 counties, 46,477 citizens, and 
 )3,;")0(i slaves, in l'f)j. 
 
 HiusBORo('GH, the capital of the above district. 
 
 HIMMALEH, a vast chain of mountains in Asia, which ex- 
 tends from C'abul along the N. of Hindoslan, and appears to be 
 the general boundary of Thibet. This ridge was by the ancients 
 named Liiaus, and the Indian Caucasus. 1 he natives now call it 
 Hindoo-Ko, (/. f . the Indian mountains) as well asHimmaleh; 
 which last is a Sanscrit word, signifying snowy ; its summit being 
 covered with snow. 
 
 HIN, [\n,'] a measure of liquids among the Jews, containing 
 about ten pints. It is the sixth part of an ephah. 
 
 H INCKLEY, u town of Leicestershire, 91 miles N. N. W. of 
 London. 
 
 IMND, a female stag of the thirtl year. See Cebvus. 
 
 11 
 
 Hind-Castle, in sea-languape, the elevation of the stern over 
 the last deck, where tlie oliicer'.s cabins and places of assembly 
 arc. 
 
 HIN DECK, a town of the Helvetic republic, in the canton ot 
 Rern, \j miles S. E. ot Interl.iken. 
 
 HINDLICISANK, a town of the Helvetic republic, in Hem, 
 miles N. N. E. of I5ern. 
 
 HINDELOPEN, or HINLOPEN, a seaport of Rjlavia, iu 
 the department ot the Eeiiis, and late province of l''rie>land, on 
 tlie Zuidei Zee. 
 
 HINDIA, a district of Hindoostan, in the province of Can- 
 dislit. 
 
 HiNDiA, a town in the above district, on the Nerbudda, miles 
 E. S. E. of Indole, and 90 N. N. E. of Burhampowr. Lon. 77. 
 10. E. Lat. 22. 3j. N. 
 
 HIN DON, a small town of Wiltshire. Lon. 2. 14. W. Lat. 
 51. 12. N. 
 
 HINDOO KHO, or INDIAN CAUCASU.S, a part of a 
 long ridge of mountains in Asia, which separate Cabul from 
 Haik. 
 
 HINDOOS, or GENTOOS, the inhabitants of that part of 
 India known by tlie names of Hindoo-tan, Hiiidostan, India, or 
 the Mogul's empire, who proless the religion of the Rramins. 
 From the earliest period of history, these people seem to have 
 maintained the s.ime religion, laws, and customs, which tiiey do 
 atthisilay: and indeed, Ihev and the Chinese are examples ot 
 perseverance in tliese respects altogether unknown in the western 
 world. Rut the reason is obvious. The arbitrary form of both 
 governments obliccs the peo|)le to believe, or proless to believe, 
 as their fathers did. In tlie lime of Diodorus Siculus they are said 
 to have been divided into seven casts or iribcs ; but the inter- 
 course betwixt Europe and India was in liis lime sn small, that we 
 may well suppose the liislorian to have been mistaken, and lh.it 
 the same tenacity for whicli they are so remarkable in other re- 
 spects has manifested itself also in this. At present they are di- 
 vided only into four tribes ; 1. The Rraniin ; 2. Flie Kliatry, or 
 Chehteree; 3. The Hhyse, or Bice ; and, 4. The Soodera. See 
 Gentoos. All these have distinct and separate oflices, and can- 
 not, according to their laws, intermingle willi each other ; but tor 
 certain oli'ences tliev are subject to the loss of their cast, which is 
 reckoned the highest punishment they can sutler; and hence is 
 formed a kind of lifth cast named Pariars on the coast of Coroman- 
 del, but in the Sanscrit langujge, Chandalas. These are esteemed 
 the dregs of the people, and are never employed but in the meanest 
 odices. Tliere is besides a general division whicli pervades the 
 four casts indiscriminalelv ; and which is taken from the worship 
 of their gods Vishnou and Sheevah ; the worshippers of the toi- 
 mer being named ^'ishnou-buklll ; of the latter, Sheevah-lnikht. 
 Of these four casts the Bramins are accounleil the principal in 
 every respect; see Ukamins, and all the laws have such an evi- 
 dent p.irtiality towards them, as cannot but induce us to suppose, 
 that they have had the principal hand in framing them. They are 
 not, however, allowed to assume the sovereignty; the religious 
 cerenioiiier. and the instruction of the people being their peculiar 
 provinc. They alone are allowed to read the \ eda, or sacred 
 books ; the Khatries being only allowed to hear them read ; while 
 the other two casts can only read the Sastias, or commentaries 
 upon Ihem. As for the poor Chandalas, they dare not enter a 
 temple, or be present at any religious ceremony. In ]>oint of pre- 
 cedency the Rramins claim a superiority even to the princes ; the 
 latter being chosen out ot the Khalry or second cast. A rajah will 
 receive with respect the food llial is prepared by a braniin, but 
 the latter will eat nothing that has been prepared by any member 
 of an inferior cast. The punishment of a bramin tor any crime is 
 niucli milder than if he had beloiigeil to another tiibe; and th.e 
 greatest crime that can be committed is the murder of a bramin. 
 No magistrate must desire the death of one of these sacnd per- 
 sons, or cut off one of his limbs. They must be readily admitted 
 inio the presence even of princes wlienever they please : when 
 passengers in a boat, ihey must be the first to enter and go out ; 
 and the waterman nui-t be-ides carry them for iiolhing ; every one 
 who meets Ihem on the roail being likewise oblige. 1 to give place 
 to them. All the priests are chosen from among this onler, sneli 
 as are not admitted to the sacerdotal function being employed as 
 secretaries and accountants. 'I liesc can never aiteraarus becomt: 
 
 priests.
 
 HTN 
 
 716 
 
 HIP 
 
 piie^ts, but continue to be greatly reverenced by the otlier casts. 
 The Khatry, or second cast, are' those from among whom the so- 
 vereigns are chosen. The Rliyse, or Banians, who constitute the 
 third cast, have the charge or' commercial affairs ; see Banians, 
 and the S«odera, or fourth cast, the most nimierous of all, com- 
 jireheiid the labourers and artisans. These last are divided into 
 as many classes as there are followers of ditferent arts ; all the 
 children being invariably brought up to the profession of their fa- 
 tliers, and it being absolutely unlawful for them ever to alter it 
 afterwards. No Hindoo is allowed to quit the cast in which he 
 was born upon anv account. 
 
 HINDOOSTAN, HINDUSTAN, or INDOSTAN, a cele- 
 brated and extensive country of Asia, bounded on the N. by 
 Great and little Thibet ; on the S. by the hither peninsula of In- 
 dia, part of the Indian Sea, and Bay of Bengal; on the \V. by 
 Persia; and on the E. by Thibet and the farther peninsula. It is 
 situated between 84' and 10^2° of Ion. E. and between 21° and .3(f 
 of lat. N. being about 1204 miles long, and 969 broad; though in 
 some places much less. This country was in early times distin- 
 guished among the Greeks by the name of India, the mo-^t pro- 
 bable derivation of which is from the river Indus, though others 
 derive it from Hind the Persian name. We are assured by Mr. 
 W'ilkins, tliat no such words as Hindoo or Hindoostan exist in the 
 Sanscrit or learned language of the country ; in which i-t is named 
 Bharata, a word totally unknown to Europeans. Towards tlie 
 north, Hindoostan is very cold and barren ; but towards the south, 
 very hot, and fertile in corn, rice, fruits, and other vegetables. 
 The northern provinces are very mountainous and sandy; while 
 the southern are for the most part level, and well watered with 
 several rirers. The weather and seasons are, in general, very re- 
 gular; the winds blowing constantly for six months from the N. 
 with very little variation. April, May, and the beginning of June, 
 till the rains fall, are so extremely hut, that the reliexiou from the 
 ground is apt to blister the face; and but for the breeze, i.r small 
 gale of wind, which blows every day, there would be no living in 
 that country for people bred in northern climate.s; for, excepting 
 in the rainy season, the coldest day is hotter there at noon, than the 
 hottest day in England. However, very surprising chsnges of 
 heat and cold sometunes happen witliin a few hours ; so that a stif- 
 ling hot day is succeeded by a night cold enough to produce a thin 
 ice on the water, and that night by a noon as scorching as the pre- 
 ceding. The most remarkable mountains are those on the \V. 
 separating it from Persia, called, in general, Solevman Kay, or the 
 mountains of Soleyman, of a vast height as well as breadth, and oidy 
 passable iji certain places, through which roads have been made 
 for the sake of commerce. The mountains on the N. are called 
 Nagrakut, Hima, orMiisTag, which has an affinity with [niaus, 
 and by other names, which are given also in common tothe moun- 
 tains on each side, separating Hindostan from Thibet. The prin- 
 cipal rivers of Hindoostan are the Indus, Ganges, and Burram- 
 POOTER, wiiich see. Hindoostan is very rich in every kind of pro- 
 ductions, whether fossil, vegetable, or animal. Besi'des other pre- 
 cious stones, thrri' is a dianiind-niine at the town of Soumelpur 
 in Bengal. Quarries of I'heban stone are so plentiful in the Mo- 
 gul's empire, t1iat there an- botli mosques and pagods built entirely 
 of it. Travelleis tell us, there are mines of lead, iron, and cop- 
 per, and even silver ; but those of the last, if there be any, need 
 not be opened, for the bullion of all nations is sunk in this empire, 
 which takes nothing else in exchange for its commodities, and pro- 
 iibits the exporting it again. The people till the ground with 
 ONcn and foot-ploughs, sowing in May and the beginning of June, 
 that all may be over before the rains, and reaping in Nov. and 
 Dec. which with them are the most temperate months in the year. 
 '1 he land is no where inclosed, excepting a little near towns and 
 villages. The grass is never mowed to make hay, but cut off the 
 ground, either green or withered, as they have occasion to use it. 
 "W Ileal, rice, barley, and other grain, grow here in plenty, and are 
 very good. The countr) abounds no less in fruits, as pomegra- 
 nates, citrons, grapes, almonds, and cocoa-nuts; plums, ijlantanes, 
 mangos, ananas, or pine-apples, lemons, oranges, and many otlier 
 kinds of fruit-trees peculiar to the country. But the most valu- 
 able trees are the cotton and niulberry, on account of the weallh 
 they bring the natives from tiie manufaclure of calicoes and silks. 
 They plant abun-lance of sugar-canes here, as well as tobacco; 
 ,fcut the latter is not so rich and strong as that of America, as lliev 
 
 know not how to cure and order it. There is great variety of 
 quadrupeds in this country, both vs'ild and tame ; among the 
 former are elephants, rhinoceroses, lions, tigers, leopards, wolves, 
 jackals, and the like. This country is also much mlested with 
 reptiles and insects; some of a noxious kind, as scorpions, snakes, 
 and rats; but the lizards, which are of a green colour, are not 
 hurtful. Snakes and serpents, we are told, are sometimes em- 
 ployed to dispatch criminals, especially such as have been guilty of 
 very atrocious crimes, that kind of death being attended with the 
 most grievous torture. 1 he most troublesome insects in this hot 
 country are llics, musketoes, and chindies or bugs. 
 
 HINDOW, a territory of Hindoostan, bounded by Delhi and 
 Agra on the N.and E. ; and by Asimer on the S. and W. 
 
 HiNDow, the capital of the above territory. The people boast 
 thsir descent from the original inhabitants of India. Lon. 78. 6. 
 E. Lat. 26. 50, N. 
 
 HINGHAM, a market-town of Norfolk, 12 miles S. W. of 
 Norwich, and y7 N. E. of London. Lon. 1.4. E. Lat. 52. 43. N. 
 
 H ING-HOA, a citv of China of the lirst rank, in the province 
 of Fo-kien, near the sea-coast, 900 miles S. of Pekin. 
 
 II IN KAN, a chain of mountains in Chinese Tarfary. 
 
 HIO, a town oi Sweden, in W. Gothland, seated on the Lake 
 Wetter, 145 miles S. W. of Stockholm. Lon. 14. 0. E. Lat. 57. 
 53. N. 
 
 HIP, in the materia medica, the fruit of the dog-rose or wild 
 brier. See Kosa. It contains an acidulous, yet sweetish pulp; 
 with a rough pricklv matter inclosing the seeds, from whicli the 
 [uilp ouglit to be carefully separated before it be taken internally. 
 J'he conserve is the only ollicinal preparation of this fruit, whicli 
 possesses any medical virtues ; it is very pleasant, but is merely 
 used by the apothecaries as a vehicle tor other remedies. The 
 Edinburgh College have omitted it. 
 
 Hip, in architecture, the angle formed by two parts of the roof 
 when it rises outwards. Hips are also those pieces of timber which 
 are placed at the corners of a roof. They are much longer than 
 rafters, on account of their oblique position. 
 
 HIPPARCHIA, a celebrated lady born at Maronea in Thrace, 
 in the time of Alexander the Great. Her attachment to learning 
 and philosophy was so great, that, havMig attended tlie lectures 
 of Crates the Cynic, she fell in love witii him, and resolved to 
 marry him, though he was both old and ugly, and though she was 
 courted by many handsome young men, distinguished by their 
 rank and riches. Crates himself was prevailed upon by her Iriends, 
 to try to dissuade her from her singular choice, which he did by 
 displaying his poverty, his cloak, his bag, and his crooked l)ack, 
 but all in vain. At last he told her, she could not be his wife, un- 
 less she resolved to live as he did. This siie cheerfully agreed to, 
 assumed the habit of the order, and accompanied hiin every where 
 to public eiitertainraents, &c. which was not customary with the 
 Grecian ladies. She wrote several tragedies, " Philosophical 
 Hypotheses," and " Reasonings and Questions proposed to Theo- 
 dorus the Atiieist ; but none of her works are extant. 
 
 niPPARCHllS, an eminent astronomer, born at Nice in 
 Bilhynia, who flourished between the 154th and l63d Olympiads. 
 His commentary upon Aratus's Phwnonema is still extant. Ro- 
 hault is very mucli mistaken when he asserted, tiiat this astrono- 
 mer was not acquainted witli the particular motion of the fixed 
 stars from ^V. to E. by which llieir longitude changes. By fore- 
 telling eclipses, he taught mankind not to be frightened af them, 
 and that even the gods were bound by laws. Pliny, who tells 
 this, admires him for making a review of all the stars ; by which 
 his descendants would be en.tbled to discover whether tlicy are 
 born or die, whether they change their places, and whether they 
 increase and decrease. 
 
 HIPPIA, in liotany, a genus of the polyganiia nccessaria or- 
 der, and syngenesia class of plants. Receptacle naked; down 
 none ; seeils naked, with broad margins ; calyx hemispheric, sub- 
 imbricate, corollets of ten rays, obscure, and rather cleft into 
 three. It has three species. 
 
 IIIPPOBOSCA, the Horse P'ly ; in zoology, a genus of in- 
 ^ecta of the order diptera. Beak two-valved, cylindrical, obtuse, . 
 ■ langing; feet armed with several claws; body hard and flat. 
 There are five species, distinguished by their wiiig^, &c. The 
 most remarkable is the H. Eipiina, the pest of horses and cows, 
 riiis insect is broad, Hat, shinrng, and as it were scaly. It' head, 
 
 lhora.\, ,
 
 
 !"r_ k*^ 
 
 
 IS; 
 
 
 k/W<>n»-'^l 
 
 'LrulAa 
 
 
 Jsi 
 
 
 
 .i^^(t;xlll<^j 

 
 H IP 
 
 Ti- 
 
 ll I P 
 
 liorax, and abdomen, are yellow, undubted with brown ; and 
 telegs are intersected with yellow and brown. The wings, cross- 
 ed one over the other, exceed tlie lengtli of the body by above 
 one half; fhey are transparent, tinged with a little yellow towards 
 their outward edge, and have a spot near that ed^e of a brown 
 colonr. These insects are very diflicult to be killed, on account 
 of the hard crustaceous shell which covers them ; and ihcy tix so 
 close and fast to the poor animals with their claws, that they can- 
 not rub or bile them off without wounding themselves. 
 
 HlPPOCASirANUM, the common horse-chesnut. See iF.s- 
 
 CULUS. 
 
 HIPPOCENTAURS, [from S-ir©-, a horse, vww, I spur, and 
 Tavsof, a bull,] in antiquity, a fabulous animal, half man and halt 
 hoi-se. What gave rise to tlie fable of hippncentaurs, was this. 
 The Thessalians are said to have 'been the lirst inventors of the art 
 of breaking hoi'ses ; and being lirst seen on horseback, they seem- 
 ed but one body with the horses; whence the origin of the fable. 
 HIPPOCRAS, [li'ipocras French; qitani vinum Hippocrciti^, 
 Lat.] a medicated wme. It is composed of wine, with spices and 
 other ingredients ; and is much used in France, as a cordial after 
 ineals. I'here are various kinds of it, according to the kind of 
 vine and other ingredients used : as white, red, claret, and straw- 
 berry hippocras w ithout wine ; cyder hippocras, &c. The Lon- 
 don Dispensatory directs it to be made of cloves, ginger, cinna- 
 mon and nutmegs, grossly powdered, and infused in canary with 
 sugar: to this infusion may be added, milk, a lemon, and some 
 slips of rosemary, and the whole strained through liannel. It is 
 reconmiended as a cordial, and in paralytic and nervous cases. 
 
 HIPPOCR.V 1 EA, ia botany, a genus of the monogynia order, 
 and tetrandia class of plants. Calyx live-parted, petals five, cap- 
 sules three, obcordate, or elliptic. It has two species, H. comosa, 
 and H. volubilis. 
 
 HIPPOCRATES, the greatest physician of antiquitv, was born 
 in the island of Coos, in the SOlh Olympiad, and flourished durin" 
 the Peloponnesian war. He was the lirst on record, who laid 
 down precepts concerning physic ; and, according to his biogra- 
 pher Soranus was descended from Hercules and .Fsculapius. He 
 was first a pupil of his father Heraclides, then of llerodicus, then 
 of Gorgias of Leonlium the orator, and according to some, of 
 Democritus of Abdera. After being instructed in physic and the 
 liberal arts, and losinghis parents, he left Coos, and practised phv- 
 sic all over Greece; where he was so much admired for his skill, 
 that he was publicly sent for by Perdiccas king of Macedonia, 
 who was then thought to be consumptive. But Hippocrates pro- 
 nounced the disease to be entirely mental. For upon the death 
 of his father Alex-ander, Perdiccas fell in love with Philas, his 
 lather's mistress ; which Hippocrates discerning by the great 
 change her presence always svrought upon him, a cure was soon 
 effected. I'eing entreateu by the people of Abdera to come and 
 cure Democritus of a supposeil madness, he went; but, upon his 
 arrival, he declared liiat Uemocrilus was the only wise man among 
 them. He heard many lectures, and learned niuch philosophy 
 from him ; which made Olsus and others imagine, that Hippo- 
 crates was the disciple of Deino<ritus, though it is probable thev 
 never saw each other till this interview, llippocratcs had also 
 public invitations to other countries. Thus, when a [jlague invaded 
 the Illyrians and Pajonians, the kings of those cumitries begged 
 him to come to their relief: he refused to go; but predicted that 
 tiie distemper would come to Athens ; and, foretelling what would 
 happen, applied himself to take care of the city and the stmlents. 
 Tlie Athenians conferred on him great honours, and voted a pub- 
 lic maintenance for him and his family. He died B. C. 36l. 
 His memory is still venerated in his native island, and the inhabi- 
 tants sliew with pride a house in whii/h they say he resided. The 
 best editions of his works are those of Geneva, iol. 1657 ; Amstcr- 
 ilam, 'J vols. 8vo. 160j ; and Vienna, 2 vols, folio, 1740. 
 
 Hifi'OCRATEs's Slf.f.vk, a woolleii bag, made by joining die 
 two opposite angles of a square piece of tlannel, used to strain 
 syrups and decoctions for claritication. 
 
 HIPPOCREPIS, Common Hokse-shcevetch ; in botany, a 
 genus of the decandria ord^-r, and diadelphia class of plants ; na- 
 tural order, Papilionacea;. Legume compressed, several times 
 emarginate along one of the sutures, curved. There are fiv(! 
 species. These are small herbaceous plants, with ime(|ually-pin- 
 jiatc leaves and stipules; peduncles axillary, and terminating, one 
 
 VOL. II.— NO. 104. 
 
 or many-lloweied, in umbels; corollas mostly yellow. Natives 
 of the South of Europe. 
 
 HIPPODROME, or HIPPODKO.VIUS, [from Irr-^;, a horse, 
 and I'pofxo;, a course,] in anlKiuity, a course wherein chariot and 
 liurse races were perfornu-d, and horses exercised. 
 
 HIPPOMANE, the Manchlvekl-tree, ageiius of tlie mona- 
 delphia order, and moncecia class of plants ; natural order.Tricocca:. 
 See Plate LXV. Male, ament ; penanthiuin bilid ; corolla none : 
 female, perianthium bilid ; corolla none ; stigma three-parted ; 
 drupe or capsule three-grained. There are three species. H. manci- 
 nella, nianchineel-tree, is a very l.irge tree in the West Indies, al- 
 most C(]UaUing the oak in size. 'I'he lii-st accounts of this tree 
 stated that it was dangerous to sit or lie under it, and that the rain 
 which falls from the leaves will raise blisters in the skin. However 
 professor Jacquin informs us, that he and his companions reposed 
 upwards of thieehours under a manchineel-tree, without receiving 
 any injury; and that rain dropping from the leaves upon them was 
 |)erfec"tly innocent. It is dangerous to eat of the fruit, which re- 
 sembles crab-apples ; it occasions yomitiii", ami a burning heat in 
 ihe month, throat, and stomach, for many houi-s after. The juice 
 of the buds of the white cedar is esteemed an antidote to this poi- 
 son, and is generally used with success. 
 
 HlPPOMANES, [from imo,-, ahorse, zwA (Aa.n», madness,] 
 a sort of poison famous among the ancients as an ingredient in a- 
 morous philters or love-charms. Virgil, and after him Servius and 
 Columella, describe it as a poisonous matter tricking from the 
 pudendum of a mare when proud, or longing for the horse. At 
 the end of M. Bayle's Dictionary is a very learned dissertation 
 on the hippomanes, and all its virtues real and pretended. 
 
 HIPPONA, [from '\it~o; a horse.] or EPONA,in ancient my- 
 thology, the goddess of horses. 
 
 HIPPOPHAE, SEA-lk'CKTHOKK ; a genus of ihe tetrandria 
 order, and dicecia class of plants; natural order, CalyciHora". Wale, 
 calvx two-parted; corolla none; Female, calyx bifid; corolla 
 none; style one; berry one-seeded. It has two species, viz. H. 
 rhamnoides, common sea-buckthorn, and H. canadensis, Canadian 
 sea-buckthorn. 
 
 HIPPOPHAGI, in ancient geography, a people of Srythia, so 
 called from their living on horseflesh; the fare at this day of the 
 Tartars their descendants. Also, apeo])le of Persia. 
 
 IllPPOPODES, or IIIPPOPODLE, [from Irr,; a horse, 
 and w«;, a foot,] in ancient geography, an appellation, given to a 
 certain people situated on the banks of the Scytliian sea, who were 
 supi'osed to have had horses feet. 
 
 HIPPOPOTAMUS, [.•ttot5.- and 7roT«,«©-,] the Bivbr-Horse, a 
 genus of quadrupeds of the order bellua-. 'I'he generic character 
 is, the front-teeth of ^the upper jaw four, placed in pairs; those of 
 the lower jaw prominent, and the intermediate ones protruded for- 
 ward ; canine teeth single, obliquely truncated ; teats only two, 
 placed near the groin. It is a native of the warmer rei^ions of the 
 globe, and is chiefly found in the middle parts of Africa, inhabit- 
 ing large rivers, and e>pecially such as run through countries over- 
 shadowed bv large forests ; walking about at Ihe bottom, and rais- 
 ing itself at intervals to the surface, for the purpose oi respiration. 
 V>s night it quits its watery residence, to graze in the neighbouring 
 plains, devouring great quantities of In rbage, and with its vast 
 teeth destroying the more tender kind of trees and other vege- 
 tables. It is sometimes seen even in the sea, at some distance 
 from the mouths of rivers, but this is supposed to be merely for the 
 purjjose of exercise ; for it will not even ilrink salt-water, and 
 does notprev on lish, or indeed live on any kind of animal food. 
 The generalsize of tlie hippopotamus seems to be nearly equal to 
 that of the rhinoceros, and it is sometimes even superior. Its form 
 is hiahly uncouth; the body being extremely large, fat, ;md 
 round; the legs very short and thick ; the head very large; the 
 mouth extremely wide, and the teeth of vast strength and size, 
 more particularly the tusks or canine teeth of the lower jaw, which 
 are of a curved form : they sometimes measure more than t\\ o feet 
 in length, and weigh upwards of six pounds each. The whole 
 animal is covered with short hair, whicli is more thinly set on the 
 under parts than on the upper. The hippopotamus when just 
 emerged from the water appears of a palish-brown, or mouse- 
 colour, with a bluish or slate-coloured cast on the upper parts; 
 and the belly is flesh-coloured, the skin appearing through the 
 hair. Wheii perfectly dry the colour is an obscure brown, with- 
 S U ' out
 
 HIR 
 
 718 
 
 HI R 
 
 out any of the bluish cast. The skin is most excessively tough 
 and strong, except on the belly, where it is considerably softer. 
 Its voice is a peculiar kind of interrupted roar, between that of a 
 bill! and the braying of an elephant. Wlien on land it moves in 
 a somewhat slow and awkward manner ; but if pursued, can run 
 with considerable speed, and directly pluuL^ing into the water sinks 
 to the bottom, and pursues its progress beneath. It is observed 
 to be extremely cautious of making its appearance by day, espe- 
 cially in such places as are much freipicnted by mankind, scarcely 
 lifting its nose above the surface while breathing; but it is fearless 
 in rivers which run through unfrequented regions, where it is oc- 
 casionally seen to rush out of the wat.'i with sudden impetuosity, 
 trampling down every thing in its way; and at such times is, of 
 course, highly dangerous. It is, however, naturally of a harmless 
 disposition ; not attacking other animals, but merely committing 
 havoc in plantations of maize, rice, sugar-canes, Sec. and destroy- 
 ing the roots of trees, by loosening them with its vast teeth. It is 
 capable, notwithstanding its great bulk, of swimming very swiftly. 
 See' Plate LXIX. The hippopotanms was known to the Ro- 
 inans. Scaurus treated the people with the sigiit of five crocodiles 
 and one hippopotanms during his adileship, and exhibited them in 
 a temporary lake. Augustus produced one at his triumph over 
 Cleopatra. This animal appears to be the Behemoth of Job ; who 
 admirably describes its manner, its food, and its haunts : chap. xl. 
 verse 15. — 24. Ver. Ijth, the learned Bochart observes, implies the 
 locality of its situation, being an inhabitant of the Nile, in the 
 neighbourhood of Uz, the land of Job. The 16th describes its 
 great strength ; and the 18th the peculiar hardness of its bones. The 
 21st and 2iid indicate its residence amidst the vast reeds of the 
 Nile and other African rivers overshadowed with thick forests. 
 The 23d the characteristic wideness of its mouth ;■ which is hyper- 
 bolically described as large enough to exhaust the Jordan. An 
 entertaining account of the hip]jopotamus is given in Sparman's 
 Voyage to the Cape of Good Hope, where these animals are 
 called sea-cows. 
 
 HIPPURIS, Mare's-tail; a genus of the monygynia order, 
 and mcnandria class of' plants ; natural order, Inundata'. There is, 
 nocalvx ; petals a two-lobed rim ; stigma simple; seed one. It has 
 three species. 
 
 HIPPUS, an affection of the eyes, that makes thein represent 
 objects in the like kind of motion as when on horseback. 
 HIR, a town of Persia, in the ])roviuce of Kirman. 
 HIRjf.A, in bot;;ny, a genus of tb.e trigynia order, and decan- 
 dria class of plants. Calyx pentaphyllous"; petals roundish and 
 unguiculated ; there are three bilabiated seeds. 
 
 HIRCH-HORN, a town in the Lower Rhine, seven miles E. of 
 Heidelberg. 
 
 HIRCUS, in astronomy, a fixed star of the first magnitude, 
 called also Capella. 
 
 HiRCUS is also used for a comet, encompassed with a mane, 
 seemingly hairy. 
 
 HIRE, Philipde LA, an eminent French mathematician and 
 astronomer, born at Paris in 1640. His father was painter in or- 
 dinary to the king, and designed him forthesame profession: but he 
 devoted himself to mathematical studies, and was nominated to- 
 gether with M. Piciird to make the necessarv ol)servations for a 
 new map of France, by the directions of M. Colbert. In 1683, 
 he was employed in contiuuingthe famous meridian-line begun by 
 M. Picard ; and was ne\t engaged in constructing the grand 
 aqnedufts projected by Lewis XIV. He died in 1718, after 
 having written a great number of works, besides several occasional 
 papers dispersed in Journals, and in Memoirs of the Academy of 
 Sciences. 
 
 HlRPINI, in ancient geography, a people of Italy, next to 
 the Samnites, to the S. E. and descendants from them'; situated 
 to the N. of the Picentini, and to the VV. of the Apuli, having on 
 the N. the Apennine and a part of Samnium. The name is from 
 Hirpus, a term denoting a wolf in their language ; either because 
 under tlie conduct of this animal the colony was led and settled, 
 according to Strabo ; or because, like that prowling animal, they 
 lived on plunder, according to Servius. 
 
 HIR'I'ELLA, in botany, a genus of the monogynia order, and 
 pentandria class of plants. Petals live; iilaments very long, per- 
 sisting, spiral ; berry monospermous ; style, lateral. It has three 
 species. 
 
 HIRUDO, the Leech ; a genus of insects of the order 
 vermes intcstina. The body moves either forward or backward. 
 There are seventeen species, principally distinguished by their 
 colour. The most remarkable are the foliowing : 
 
 II. Geometra, the Geometrical Leech, grows to an inch 
 and a half in length ; and has a smooth and glossy skin of a dusky 
 brown colour, but in some seasons greenish-spotted with white. 
 When in motion, its back is>elevaled' into a kind of ridge; 
 and it then appears as if measuring tlie >pace it passed over like a 
 compass, whejice its name. Its tail is remarkably broad ; and it 
 holds as firmly by it as by the hea<l. It is common on stones in 
 shallow numing waters ; and is often found on trouls and other 
 lish after spawning-tniie. 
 
 H. Medicin'alis, the Medicinal Leech, the form of which 
 is well known, growstothe length of two or three inches. The 
 body is of a Ijlackish bronn colour, marked on the back with six 
 yellow spots, and edged with a yellow line on «ach side ; but both 
 the spots and the lines giow faint, and almost disappear, at some 
 seasons. The head is smaller than the tail, which tixes itself 
 very firmly to any thing the creature pleases. It is viviparous, 
 and produces but one young one at a tune, which is in July. It 
 is an inhabitant of clear running waters, and Js well known for its 
 Use in bleeding. 'Ihe leech's head is armed with a sharp instru- 
 ment that makes thiee wounds at once. They are three sharp tu- 
 bercles, strong enough (o cut through the skin of a man, or even 
 of an ox or horse. The mouth is as it were the body of the pump, 
 and the tongue or fleshy nipple the sucker ; by the working of 
 this piece of mechanism, the blood is made to rise up to the con- 
 duit which conveys it to the animal's stomach, which is a mem- 
 branaceons skin divided into 24 small cells. The blood wdiich is 
 sucked out is theie preserved for several months almost without 
 coagulating, and proves a store of provision to the animal. The 
 nutritious parts, pure and already digested by animals, require 
 not to be disengaged from the heterogeneous substances: nor in- 
 deed is there any thing like an anus discoverable in the leech ; 
 mere transpiration seems to be all that it periornis, the matter fix- 
 ing on the surface of its body, and afterwards coming off in small 
 threads. Of this an experiment may be tried by putting a leech 
 into oil, where it keeps alive for several days; upon being taken 
 out and put into water, there appears to loosen trom its bod) a 
 kind ol slough shaped like the creature's body. The organ of re- 
 spiration seems to be situated in the mouth ; for if, like an insect, 
 it drew its breath through vent-holes, it w ould not subsist in oil, 
 as by it they would be stopped up. This is tlie only species that 
 is u.ed for local bleedings. It may be applied with great safety 
 and advantage, especially for obstinate head-aches arising from ful- 
 ness of blood, as well as in many cases of external inflammation, 
 with a view to extract the thick and superfluous humour with 
 which the vessels are overcharged. If the leech will not readily 
 fix itself, a few drops of milk may be rubbed on the spot where 
 it is to perforin the operation ; or a little blood may be drawn, by 
 making a slight puncture, after which it will immediately settle. 
 When employed for relieving the piles, or to extract blood from 
 the gums, it is requisite to secure the insect with a piece of rush, 
 to prevent it either from creeping into the anus or gullet, in which 
 cases it would occasion gieat distress, in the stomach or intestines. 
 To induce the leech to quit its hold when it adheres longer than 
 required, oil of larlar, volatile alkali, pepper, or acitis, are occa- 
 sionally emploveil ; though a little common s:ilt, strewed on its 
 head, will answer the same purpose. On the contrary, if it be 
 intended to draw a larger quantity of blood, the tail ot the leech 
 shenild be cut off ; in consequence of which it continues to draw 
 blood, in order to repair the loss it has sustained. The discharge 
 occasioned by the puncture of a leech, is easily stopped with 
 brniidy, vinegar, &c. or may be kept open by applying warm fo- 
 nienl.itions. 
 
 n. MvRiCATA, the MuRiCATED Leech, has a taper body, 
 rounded at the greater extremity, and furnished with two small 
 tentacula, or horns, strongly annulated and rugged upon the 
 rings, the tad dilated. It inhabits the Atlantic Occlui, ami is by 
 the iishermen called the sea-leech. It adheres to lish, and ge- 
 nerally leaves a black mark on the spot. 
 
 H. Sangui-Suoa, the Horbf.-Leech, is of a larger size than 
 the medicinal leech. Its skin is smooth and glossy ; the body is 
 depressed ; the back is dusky ; and tlie belly is of a yellow ish 
 
 green.
 
 11 1 R 
 
 19 
 
 ri I R 
 
 green, having a yellow hUeral niaigiii. It iiiluibiU stagnant \va- 
 tci-s. Al Ceylon, travellere who walk bare-li^gi;i-d are iiiolostcd 
 by the jireat miniliers of leeches concealed uiuU-rthe grass. 
 
 niUL'NDO, lii ornithology, a genus ot birds ot the order, 
 passeres. See Plate LV 111. Bill short, depressed at the base, 
 small at the point, and a little bending; nostrils open; tons^ue 
 short, broad, andcletl; wings long ; legs shiat ; tail, in general, 
 forked. There are thirty-seven species. The birds ot" this genus, 
 subsist chielly on the insects which are known ,to abound in the 
 aw, where they are almost constantly on the wing, and seize their 
 prey with admnable dexterity ; and for this purpose they are fur- 
 nished with a most extraordinary power of distending their jaws. 
 'J'he service they perform to man bv their assiduity in this work 
 of destruction is not lightly to be appreciated, and those who ob- 
 serve the crowded pr)i)ulation of the atniosphere through the beams 
 of a summer-evening, will easily bo led to believe, that, but for 
 the interception of incalculable nivriads of insects by these birds, 
 the annoyance of man by diese minute animals would be highly 
 distressing, and perhaps almost intolerable. Kacli species oi hi- 
 rundo druiks as It tlies along, sipping the smlace ot the watei ; 
 but the swallow alone, in general, washes on the wing, by iho])- 
 ping into a pool for many limes together : in very hot weather 
 liouse-niartinsand bimk-marlins dip and wash a Utile. The swal- 
 low is a delicate songster, and in sott sunny weather sings both 
 perching and Hying;; on trees in a kind of concert, and on chim- 
 ney-lops. Horsemen oji wide downs are often closely attended 
 by a lillle party of swallows for miles together, which plays Ijefore 
 and behind them, sweeping around, and collecting all ihe sculking 
 insects that are roused by the tramplirjg of the horses' feet : « hen 
 the wind blows hard, without this expedient, they are forced lo 
 settle lo pick up tiieir lurking prey. Thus the swallow is very 
 useful to mankind in defending him from the personal and domes- 
 tic annoyance of Hies and gnats ; and, what is of inlinitely more 
 cousequince, they keep down the numbei'S of our nnnute ene- 
 mies, who either in tiie grub or winged 'late, would otherwise ren- 
 der the labours of the luisbandman fruitless. Since then su.iHows 
 are guardians ol our corn, they should every where be protected 
 by the same popular veneration whlcii in Kgypt defend the ibis, 
 and the stork in Holland. We more trequently hear of unpro- 
 'ductive harvests on the Continent than in this country ; and il is 
 well known that swallows are caught and sold as foed in the mar- 
 kets of Spain, France, and Italy. In England we are not driven 
 to such resources to lurnish our tables. But what apology ran be 
 made for those, and many there are, wdio<c education and rank 
 should have taught them more innoccjit amusements, who wan- 
 tonly murder swallows, under the idle pretence of improving their 
 skill in shooting game ? Setting aside the cruelty ol st.irving whole 
 Bests of young by killing the dam ; (hose who lollow this barbar- 
 ous diversion woidd do well to reflect, that by'every swallow they 
 kill, Ihey assist blasts, mildews, and vermin, in causing ascarcilv 
 of bread. Every lord of a manor should restrain his game-keeper 
 from tl'.is execrable practice ; nor shoidd lie permit any person to 
 sport on his lands who does iiot refrain from it. The-^e birds dis- 
 appear during the winter-season to account lor wdiich various opi- 
 jiions have been entertained. Some suppose that they lie torpid, 
 in tlie banks of rivers, or in decayed trees, or-in ruined edifices 
 or .vaults ; and others, that they retire for tiie winter from the 
 air to the water, lying in immell^e clusters, like swarms of bees, 
 at the bottoms of rivers. Particular tacts are on record, by re- 
 spectable te.-.timony, in favour of both these hypotheses. It is 
 also attested, on similar authority, that migrations of these birds 
 actually take place. They have frequently been seen by ni.iri- 
 ners at a vat diNtanc<' from Kind, and in very numerous flock*, und 
 have occasionally converted the rigging and yards of vessels into 
 resting places, which have nio^t conveniently rclievet! their long 
 and wearisome flight. This last opinion is most generally re- 
 <:eived. and appears the most reasonable. 
 
 H. EscuLENTA, the Edible Sw.ai.low, according to Ruribn, is 
 less Uian the wrtn, and only two inches and a <piarter in length. 
 The bill is black ; the upper parts of the body are brown, the 
 under whitish ; the tail is forked, and each feather of it tipped with 
 white ; the legs are brown. The most curious part of the natural 
 history of this bird consists in the nest, which is composed ol such 
 materials as render it not only edible, but one of the greatest dain- 
 ties of tlie Asiatic epicuies. These nests are found in vast num- 
 
 :il 
 
 bers, in ceilain caverns, in various isles in the Socio Archipelago, 
 situated between Ion. 1 1 1" and !20' E. and lat. 5° and 7'. N. in the 
 caverns ot which the nests are found hxcd to the stones in astonishii 
 minibers. They are aKo found in aitiazing quantities on -i sni 
 island called Toe, in the straits of Sunda ; llie caverns of which are 
 lined w ith the nests : but no where in greater abundance than 
 about Croee, near the S. end. 'Jliey are common from Java to 
 ('ochinchina on the N. and from the point of Sumatra VV, to NevT 
 Guinea on the E. where the sea is said to be covered with a vis- 
 cous substance like half-melted glue, which the bird is supposed 
 either to take up from the surface with ilsbill during flight, or to 
 pick it from the rocks when left there by the waves. Of thcs.e 
 nests, it-is said, the Dutch aloneexport from Uatavia 1000 pickles, 
 upwards of 13001b. English weight, every year, which are brought 
 from the isles of Cochinchina, ami those lying to the E. of them. 
 
 H. UusiicA, the CortMoN or Chimney Swallow, is distin- 
 guished from all the other species by the superior forkiness of its 
 tail, and by the red spot on the forehead under the chin. The 
 crown of the head, the whole upper part of the body, and the 
 coverts of the wings, are black, glo-sed with a rich purplish blue, 
 and most resplendent in llie male : tiie breast and belly white, and 
 in the male tinged with red: the tail is black ; the two middle- 
 feathers are plain, the others marked transversely near the ends 
 with a white spot: the exterior feathers of the tail are much longer 
 in the male than in the female. This species is the first comer of all 
 the British hhuiidiues: and appeai-s in general on or about the 
 13th of April, thoiitth now and then a straggler is seen much ear- 
 lier. This species, though called the chimney-swallow, by no 
 means buiUU altogether in chimneys, but often In barns and out- 
 houses agiinst the raitcrs ; as Virgil long ago remarked. (Georg. 
 lib. IV. 306.) In Sweden she builds in barns, and is called laclii 
 swala, the barn-s\' allow. In the warmer parts ot Europe, where 
 there are no chimneys to houses except they are English built, 
 she constructs her nest in porches, gate-ways, galleries, and open 
 halls. But in general, w ith us, this species breeds in chimneys ; 
 and haunts those stacks where there is a constant lire, lor the sake 
 ol wainUh ; generally preferring one adjoining lo the kitchen, and 
 uisregi'.rding tlie_ perpelual smoke of that funnel. Five or six or 
 more feet down the chimney, does this little bird begin to form 
 her nest about the middle of May, which consists, like thai of the 
 house-martin, of a crust or s'.iell composed of dirt or mud, mixed 
 with short pieces of straw to render it tough and permanent ; with 
 this ditierence, that, whereas the shell of tlie martin is nearly he- 
 mispheric, that of the swallow is open at the top, and like half a 
 deep dish. This ncM is lined with fine grasses, which are ol'teii 
 collected as they float in the air. AVondirful is the address (Mr. 
 \\ hite observes) which this adroit bird shews all day long in as- 
 cending and descending through so narrow a pa«s. When hover- 
 ing over the month ol the funnel, the vibration of her wings act- 
 inn on the confined air occasions a rumbling noise like thunder, 
 it is probable that the dam submits to this inconvenient situation, 
 so low in the shaft, in order to secure her brood from rapacious 
 bitiis, and particiilarly from owls, which frecpiently fall down 
 chimneys, perhaps in attempting to get at these nestlings. This 
 bird lays Irom four lo six white eggs, dotted with red specks ; and 
 brings out her first brood about the last week in June, or the first 
 in July. The progressive method by which the young are in- 
 troduced into life is very curious: first, they emerge from the 
 shaft with difiiculty enough, and often fall down into the room be- 
 low : for a (lay or so they are fed on the chimnev-fop, and are 
 then conducted to the dead leafless bough of some tree, where, 
 sitting in a row, they are attended with great assid.uity, and may 
 then be called perchers. In a day or two more Ihey become 
 flyers, but are slili unjble io take their own food : therefore they 
 piay about near the [dace where the dams are hawking for flies ; 
 and, when a niuuthliil is collected, at a certain signal given, the 
 dam and the nestling advance, rising towards each other, and meet- 
 ing at an angle ; Ih-- young one all the w hile uttering such a little 
 quick note of graltude and complacency, that one must have 
 paid very little regard to the wondei-s of Nature, who has not re- 
 marked this feat. The dam betakes herself immediately to the 
 rearing of a second brood, as soon ,is she is disengaged from her 
 first; which she at once associates with the fiiNt broods of house- 
 martins; and with them congregates, clustering on sunny roofs, 
 towers, and trees. She brings out her second brood towards the 
 
 iialdUle
 
 Ill R 
 
 720 
 
 HIS 
 
 middle and end of August. All tlie sumraer long is the bwallow a 
 a most instructive pattern of unwearied industry and affection ; 
 for from morning to nigiu, while there is a family to be supported, 
 she spertds the whole in skimming close to the gi'ound, and ex- 
 erting the most sudden turns and quick evolutions. Avenues, and 
 long walks under hedges, and pasture-lields, and mown meadows 
 where cattle graze, are her delight, especially if trees be inter- 
 spjrsed ; because in such spots insects most abound. When a 
 fly is taken, a smart snap from her bill is heard, resembling the 
 noise at tlie shutting of a watch-case : but the motion of the inati- 
 tiibles is loo q\iick for the eye. The swallow, probably the male 
 bird, is the excubitor to liouse-martijis and other little birds, an- 
 nouncing the approacli of birds of prey. For as soon as an hawk 
 appears, w ith a shrill alarming note he rails all the swallows and 
 martins aboiit him ; who pursue in a body, and bnliet and strike 
 their enemy till they have driven him from the village, darting 
 down from above on his back, and rising in a perpeiulicular line 
 in perfect security. This bird will sound also th.e alarm," and 
 strike at cats when they climb on the roofs of liouses, or otherwise 
 approach the nests. This species feeds much on little colcoptera, 
 as well as on gnats and flies ; and often settles on dug ground, or 
 paths, for gravel to grind and digest its food. Mr. White iniorms 
 us, that before they depart, for some weeks, they all for ake 
 bouses and chimneys, and roost in trees; and usually witlulraw 
 about t!ie begiiming of October ; though some few stragglers may 
 be seen at ail times the lirsl week in November. Mr. Pennant 
 says, that for a few days previous to their departure, they assemble 
 in vast stocks on house-lops, churches, and trees, from whence 
 tliey take their flight. They m-e supposed to take up their winter- 
 f]uarters in Senegal and parts adjacent ; and seem to possess in 
 turn the whole of the old continent, being known from Norway to 
 the Cape of Good Hope on the one liaml, and from Kamtschatka 
 to India and Japan oa the other. They are also found in all parts 
 of North Amerrca, migrating N. and S. as with us. See Plate 
 LVlil. 
 
 11. Urbica, the Martin, is inferior in size to the ciiimney- 
 swallow, and its tail much less forked. The Iiead and upper part 
 of tlie body, except the rump, are black glossed with blue: ide 
 breast, beliy, and rump, are white: the feet are covered with a 
 short white down. This is the second of the swallow-kind that 
 appears in our country ; and of its manners and oeconomy we have 
 the following cuficus account in the Rev. Mr. White's Natural 
 History of Selborne. " They begin to appear about the Kith of 
 Api'il ; and for some time they in general pay no attention to the 
 business of nidification : they play and sport about, either to re- 
 cruit from the fatigue of their journey, if they do migrate at all ; 
 or else that their blood may recover it's true tone and texture after 
 it has been so long benumbed by the severities of winter. About 
 the middle of May, if the weather be fine, the inarlin begins to 
 think in earnest of providing a mansion for its family. The crust 
 or shell of this nest seems to be formed of such dirt or loam as 
 comes most readily to hand, and as tempered and v.'rought tose- 
 ther with little bits of broken straws to render it tough and tena- 
 cious. As this bird often builds against a perpendicular wall with- 
 out any projectiug ledge imdei it, it requires its utmost efforts to 
 get Ihe foundation (irmly fixed, so thai it may safely carry on the 
 superstructure. On this occasion the bird not tmlvClings with its 
 claws, but partly supports itself by strongly inclining its tail against 
 tlie wall, making that a fulcrum; and thus steadied,' it works and 
 plasters the materials into the f.ice of the brick or stone. But 
 then, that this work may not, while it is soft and green, pull itself 
 down by its own weight, the provident architect has prudence and 
 f<.rbearance enougli not to advance her work too fast ; but by 
 building only in tlie morning, and by dedicating the rest of the 
 d.iv to food and amusement', gives it sufticienl time to dry and 
 harden. About half an inch seems to be a sufficient laver'fora 
 day. Thus careful w-orkmen, when thev build mud-wal!s (in- 
 formed at first periiaps by this little bird,') raise but a inoderate, 
 layer at a time, and then" desist ; lest the work should become 
 top-heavy, and so be ruined by its ow'p weight. Ry this method 
 in about ten or twelve days is formed an hemispheric nest, with a 
 small aperture toward-, the top, strong, compact, and warm ; and 
 perfectly lilted for all the purposes' for which it was intended. 
 J5ut then nothing is more common than for the house-sparrow, as 
 soon as the shell is finished, to seize on it as its own, to eject the 
 
 owner, and to line it after its own manner. After so much labour 
 is besiowed in erecting a mansion, as nature seKlor.i works in vain, 
 martins will breed on for several years together in the same nest, 
 where it happens to be well sheltered and secure from the injuries 
 of the weather. 'J"he shell or crust of the nest is a sort of rustic 
 work, full of knobs and protuberances on the outside : nor is the 
 inside of those that I have examined smoothed with any exactness 
 at all ; but it is rendered soil and warm, and lit for incubation, by 
 a lining of small straws, grasses, and feathers; and sonietiines by 
 a bed of moss interwoven with wool. As soon as the young are 
 able to shift for themselves, tlie dams immediately turn their 
 thoughts to the business of a second brood ; while the first flight, 
 shaken off and rejected by their nurses, congregate in great flocks, 
 and are the birds that are seen clustering and liovering, on sunny 
 mornings and evenings, round towers and steeples, and on the 
 roofs ot churches and houses. These congregaiings usually begin 
 to take place about the first week in August; and therefore we 
 may conclutfe that by that time the first flight is pretty well over. 
 The young of this spicies do not quit their abodes all together; 
 but the more forward birds get abroad some days before the rest. 
 The^e approaching the eaves of buildings, and playing about be- 
 fore them, make people think that several old ones attend one nest. 
 They are often capricious in fixing on a nesting-place, beginning 
 many edifices, and leaving them uiifinisfied ; but when once a 
 nest IS completed in a sheltered place, it serves for several seasons. 
 Those whicii breed in a ready-finished house, get the start iu 
 hatching, of those that build new, by ten days or a fortnight. 
 '1 hese industrious artificers are at their labours in the long days 
 before four in the morning ; when tliey fix their materials, they 
 plaster them on with theii^ chins, moving their heads with a quick 
 vibratory motion. Tliev dip and wash as they fly sometimes in 
 hot weallier, but not so often as •swallows. Marlins love to fre- 
 quent towns, especially if there are, great lakes and rivers at hand, 
 'i'liey are by far the least agile of the British hirundines ; their 
 wings and tails are short, and therefore they are not capable of 
 such surprising turns, and quick and glancing evolutions, as the 
 swallow. Accordingly, they make use of a placid easy motion, 
 in a middle region of the air, seldom mounting to any great 
 height, and never sweeping long together over the surface of the 
 ground or water, 'lliey do not wander far for food ; but affect 
 sheltered districts, over some lake, or under some hanging wood, 
 or in some hollow vale, especially in windy weather. They 
 breed the latest of all the swallow-kind ; in 1772, they had nest- 
 lings on to October the 21st, and are never without young as late 
 as Michaelmas, As tlie summer declines, the congregating flocks 
 increase in numbers daily, by the constant accession of the second 
 broods; till at last they swarm in myriads upon myriads round 
 the villages on the Thames, darkening the face of the sky as they 
 frequent the aits of that river, where tliey roost. They retire, the 
 bulk of them 1 mean, in vast flocks together about the beginning 
 of October : but have appeared of late years in a considerable 
 tlighl in this neighbourhood, for one day or two, as late as No- 
 vember the 3d and 6th, after they were supposed to have been 
 gone for more than a fortnight. They therefore withdraw, with 
 us, the latest of anv species. Unless "these birds are very short'- 
 lived indeed, or unless they do not return to the district where 
 tliey are bred, they must undergo vast devastations somehow, and 
 somewhere ; for the birds that return yearly bear no manner of 
 proportion to Ihe birds that retire." See Plate LVllI. 
 
 UlUZHOLMEN, or IIERTZHOLM, tliree small islands 
 of Denmark, iu the t'atlegate. Lon. 10. 24. E. Lat. 57. 
 31. N. 
 
 HIS! NOEN, an islandnear the coast of Sweden, at the mouth 
 of the Gotha, Hi miles long and 6 broad, containing seven parishes. 
 l.on. 1 1. 4S. E. Lat. ;')'. 4;'i. N. 
 
 IllSPA, ill zoology, a genus of insects of the colecptera order; 
 Antemue fusiform, growing gradually larger from each extremity 
 towards ihe middle, situated bytween the eyes ; thorax and elytra 
 covered with protuberances or spires. There are twenty-six spe- 
 cies, \ery few of which are natives of Europe. 
 
 II. Atrea, found in Britain, is all over of a deep unpolished 
 black, and has the upper part of its body entirely covered with 
 long and strong »pircs, which render it bristly like' the shell of a 
 clie~snut. . See Plate LXXVI. It bears its antennx- upright be- 
 fore il. 
 
 HISPAEIS,
 
 MZSC^I-UVNlKwS 
 
 llarnKinica ,'i . 
 
 /iMM,.:/ M ./,„,„. ,>,w.v. Ml.i,,a IWt,. L..„,/,m . i«,.„ .
 
 isi! S f JO i.i^\r< ;:.;•:.: 
 
 _, II) (» /*
 
 Gq'Uiis stridulus 
 
 J^fyrmeleon barhariis 
 
 Jfurear babvlonica 
 
 Oestrus tarandi 
 
 n,t.t.,j.^.^ M^. *■__
 
 ATMKKjr^VK i-mii B-^V.i:<i

 
 ■MABli^LMUlA. 
 
 wy 
 
 ""^""WTi.' Tioris: li,Uf. 
 
 F,/i.t 7^i-ii.i- 
 
 i\llS i ,!..'<, t. 
 
 Hv.clri.r ,-ri.<l<rl,i 
 
 Hvnii ra/'fiiu 11/ /l\i,i
 
 "'I 
 
 
 m^^^M&t^ 
 
 .* ■ ' -ir
 
 KATFK.\!I. jnil^irOMT, 
 
 67 
 
 IJalwtijs tuierciiliUa . 
 
 X(ic<:rin ADig'atcfr . 
 
 lameleoTi
 
 4 ^/>l/i/rr^^//.^^/.^^ .' M.i/i/ri'ir Ihuh)!- hiU)- 
 
 Dif'if.'.' i'iUNtU'it'iiiu. 
 
 
 hi run I » •' •//.!• A'///v iptciijf : 
 
 t'/'f/t////'// i/f'(ft/r ///•//• 
 
 JJipu.^ J\i/i-/'////.>- 'f/f'- El! vf thin Ji-rhoii . 
 
 Knuus A-nnii v .■ . l--^
 
 lJiit)'ii\rii„ 
 
 UTl-aoS-Bl A. . 
 
 Kriv/ii tr.,\fii iheHda :Assa /."'••AV/ir . 
 
 Ui^leits SiTijliwii 
 
 (Htiiiijnnn otHrhu^h- . 
 
 >.Tiifri'7>hit J-iitij'/iii ■ 
 
 Jiitm.ui J^/,is/i,\} .
 
 I
 
 AVE S 
 
 .^' 
 
 vp'"-'- //o,ut,;i Di.io. 
 
 niomfMn l',.nilinu 
 Wiinil,rin,t Mh,itnv.t 
 
 J'hirr liinsnr/ns- (',,■1,1,11 /:,,,,
 
 ^' I S C M S 
 
 Miiilf^ Hull i],.„.l . '^ 
 
 lAtdon atinqa . 
 
 
 !-Hiii.t hiiii.^.
 
 Mii\il 
 
 b 
 
 a\ 
 
 t'lt/'t'/tl I'r Oi'iiit 
 
 'll.UrtU'tt'il without u-lltiTl/hJ Kl't'ili.'n 
 
 /Jnh; ir/iiii.' I''hin<i ltr,iii<>ii
 
 j:Mist'Eii.L,y\i¥3K .s. 
 
 17 
 
 ompoiiittl proifitrtionnl i'ompa^^r*
 
 HIS 
 
 il 
 
 HIS 
 
 »=r: 
 
 [SPALIS, in aiuifiit geography, a town ol Bj tica, in llispa- 
 nia Ultra, now calltnl bii-ville. 
 
 II [SPAN lA, in ancient gcograpliy, a connti'v or kingdom of 
 Europe, now called Spain ; called Hosperia Ultiina, by Horace, 
 because the wcstern-niost part of Europe ; also Iberia, from the river 
 Iberus. It^ name (iispania, oviTravia, is of Pliueniciaa original, 
 from its great number of rabbits. See Spain. 
 
 HISPANIOLA, or ST. DOMlNCiO, the largest of the An- 
 tilles or Caribbee islamU, in the West Indies. It lies between 17' 
 j J' and 20° of N. lat. and between d?" o:>' and 7-i° 15' \V. Ion. 
 It is 60 miles N. \V. by VV. of Porto Kico, (j(.) S. K. of Cuba, 135 
 E. N. E» of Jamaica, and 3,500 from the Land's End of England. 
 'J'he climate is hoi, but not reckoned unwholesome ; and some of 
 the inhabitants are said to arrive at the age of 120. It is some- 
 times refreshed by breezes and rains ; and its salubrity is likewise 
 in a great measure owing to the beautiful variety of liills and val- 
 leys, woods and rivers, which every where present themselves. It 
 is indeed reckoned by far the finest and most pleasant islanil of the 
 Antilles, as being the best accommodated to all the purposes of 
 life when duly cultivated. Its extent is estimated at 4'iO miles in 
 length from t. to W. and 140 in breadth, where broad.est, from 
 N. to S. This island was discovered by Christopher Columbus, 
 on the 9th of December l-if)'-. It then formed live kijigdoms, called 
 Ma(|u.i, Marien, Higuay, Maguana, and Xaraguay, each govevn- 
 ■ed by sovereigns ealleil caciques. '1 lie Spaniards had jjossession 
 of the wliole of it for 120 years. This island, famous for being 
 their earliest settlement in the world, was tlie first in high estima- 
 tion h>r the (luanlity of gokl it su[)plied. This wealtli diminished 
 with the inhabitants of ihe country, whom they obliged to dig it 
 •out of the bowels of the eartli ; and the sovirce of it was entirely 
 dried up, when they were exterminated, which was (piickly done, 
 by a series of the most shocking barbarities that ever disgraced the 
 history of any nation. Benzoni relates, that of two luilhons of in- 
 habitants, coiitaine(i in the island when discovered by Columbus 
 in 1492, scarcely 153 were alive m 1545. Forjiiiany years this 
 island was possessed by the Spaniards and French joiiitiy. It was 
 •atterwards ceded entirely to tlie French, but is nov/ erected into 
 «n independent repul)lic. 
 
 IlISSAK. a district of Hindoostan, in Delhi: with its capi- 
 tal. The latter lies near the Surfootv, 112 miles W. N. W. of 
 Delhi. , 
 
 HISTER, in entomology, a genus of the coleoplera order of 
 insects. An'.enni! clavate, the -club s;>lid ; the last joint com- 
 pressed, decurved ; head retractile within the body ; mouth for- 
 cipa'cd ; shells shorter than the body, truncate ; fore-shanks tooth- 
 ed, hind-shanks spinous. There are twenty-fouf species. The 
 most common in Europe is II. unicolor, which is of a glossy coal 
 black colour, an<l of a slightly flattened shape. It is often seen in 
 the gardens, but its larva is unknown. 
 
 HlsrOUIOGRAPilER, [ir';i« and vj'i^nu,] a professed his- 
 torian, or writer of history. An historian, of all authors, spreads 
 the iiio^t ample theatre; he erects the greatest tribunal on earth ; 
 for it is his oflice to sit supreme judge of all that passes in the 
 world, to pronounce the destiny of the great ones of the earth, and 
 fix their character whli posterity ; to do justice to virtue and 
 worth, in bestowing eternity upon great and good actions, and lix- 
 ing an everlasting mark of infamy on bad ones ; to instruct all jieo- 
 ple and nations, and direct the conduct of ages; he therefore 
 ought to be endowed Avith many great and uncommon qualilica- 
 tions. He must be a person of consummate knowledge of men 
 and things, of sound judgement, uncommon sagacity and penetra- 
 tion, experienced in matters of state and war, of great integritv, 
 firmness of mind, freedom of sentiment, and master of a pure, clear, 
 nervous, and exalted style. An historian whose province it is to 
 rpeak to kings and princes, to the great men of all ages and cbiin 
 tries, and to be the common master and instructor of mankind, 
 imist not only write with purity, simplicity, and manly sense, but 
 with dignity and elegance : he must reject all that is vulgar and 
 low in style, make the majesty and sublimity of his expression 
 com|)ort with the dignity of the subject ; must by an exact choice 
 and propriety of words, a nattiral disposition of phrases, and a pru- 
 <lent moderate use of figures, give weight to his thoughts, force to 
 his language, and imprint a character of greatness on all that he 
 says. He must at the same time represent things with an air of 
 gravity and prudence, and net give a loose to the heat of iniagina- 
 v«l-. II. — NO, 104. 
 
 tion, or vivacity of wil ; but diicrettly suppress every thing that 
 shall seem idle, languid, and unprolilable, and give every tliinj[ 
 that just ligure and proportion which is consistent with proprielv 
 and decorum. He must endeavour at a noble siuiplicitv of 
 thought, language, design, and ordiiianci:,.and carefully avoiil all 
 proluseness of false conceit, strained cxpres>ion, aiid affectc'i 
 pompoiisness so inconsistent with the gravity, dignity, and noble 
 character, of hislory. In a word, he must write so as lo be intelli- 
 gible to the ignorant, aii<l yet charm the wise ; form and exprens 
 such ideas as are great, and yet shall appear very common, and in- 
 termix no other ornament wilh his narration than what the modes- 
 ty of truth can bear. He should be above the reach and power 
 ot hopes and feais, and all kinds of inlere.^t, that he may always 
 dare to speak the truth, and write of all without prejudice; religi- 
 ously observing never to abuse the public faith, nor to advance 
 any thing upon common fame, which is always uncertain, but upon 
 undoubted memoirs an<l faithful relations ofsuch persons as havn 
 had a hanil in allairs. He must always be upon his guard against 
 the bias and alilections of those who supply him with matter, and 
 must not credulously give his assent to the historians that went be- 
 fore him, without eii<|uiring narrowly into their character, and 
 what iniluence they may have been under when they wrote, iit 
 order to make a just estimate of their weight and credit. An his- 
 torian, as lo his matter, should choose subjects great in themselvet!, 
 and such as are worthy of public fame and remembrance ; and 
 should make himself so far master of his matter, as to be able to 
 cast it into what form he pleases, and to strike upon all-his subjects 
 the coloms they are naturally disposed to bear, in order to make 
 his lessons prohtabic to posterity, by regulating the heart and spi- 
 rits of men, animating them to great and virtuous actions by illus- 
 trious examples, and cautioning tlien^ again.st viee, folly, 
 cruelty, and injustice, bykniiigopen the fata! consequences re- 
 sulting from them. The course of his narration must proceed in 
 the order of time in which the facts happened, in a pure, grave, 
 uninterrupted series, such as may not im])ropcrly be compared lo 
 a great river tiowing wilh composed majesty and stalely smooth- 
 ness ; and when it lalh in his way to introdtice little occurrences, 
 they must be so artfully intervvoven wilh the great, in the thread 
 ot the narration, as to oli'er a seasonable entertainment and relief to 
 the reader from the fatigue that too sedulous an allention to th« 
 great requirelh. He must also observe great judgement in (he 
 ordinance and disposition of events and their circumstances, so as 
 to interest the reader, and let him into all his thoughts and views, 
 by making his persons act as Their character and tcm|)er inclined 
 them; discovering their manners, sentiments, designs, motives, 
 and operations, as they really stand in a necessary dependence up- 
 on eacii other, and with so natural a connection, as to shew nothing 
 out of its place. His transitions, in which consists tlie gieat art of 
 narration, and one of its principal beauties, must l)e natural and 
 e.asy, arising from the diflerence of subject rather tiian expression. 
 He must make a wise and judicious choice of circumstanGes, such 
 as are proper to enlarge and improve the ideas of things, and lo 
 strike that light and colour upon Ihem which most easily attracts 
 belief, and engages the mind ; and must for that pur|)ose always 
 observe a <Uie mixture of great and little cirt nmslances, neither of 
 which must be carried beyond nature, or be so minuk-, low, or 
 frivolous, as to debase his subject. He must not only recite Ihe 
 bare events and actions of men, but also lay opon the motives and 
 principles from which they took their rise, and upon which they ' 
 proceeded to their final issues. He must lay open tl:e hearts of 
 the actors, let his reader into the most iniporlant secrets of their 
 Councils a-id designs, and oblige him with a sight ot those secret 
 springs which move them to enterprizes, and of the causes of their 
 success or miscarriage. He must be very sparing and cautious in 
 the use of descriptions, which are to be introiluced so far only as 
 they serve to illustrate things that are essential to the main subject, 
 and to enliven the narration ; and even in that case (hey must be 
 succinct and elegant. The frequent use of harangues are disap- 
 proved of by many judicious persons ; for these long formal . ha- 
 rangurt; of generals to their soldiers, w hen in the presence of (lip 
 enemy, and ready to enter upon action, wliicliwe find in many 
 historians, are undoubtedly not only unnatural and imin'obable, 
 but contrary to the truth of history. Neyertheless, a short speech 
 suited to the subject, made by a person of eminent char.icter, has 
 its proper beauty, «iid animates a iurrati(}n. A judicious historian 
 i X ought
 
 HIS 
 
 722 
 
 HI S 
 
 ouglit not to admit any portraits into liis work l)ut those of the ; 
 greatest penous, and sucli as are principally interested, and have | 
 the chief hand in atl'airs, and these must be real, natural, and truly 
 resembling their originals ; expressive of their genius, the qualities , 
 of the head and heart, rather than descriptive of the external form j 
 of his personages. When such are finished with a masterly hand, 
 with true judgement and success, they are not only great orna- 
 ments and' embellishments in history, but of use to strip the hearts \ 
 of men of their disguises, to lay open all their secret folds, and j 
 disclose the real springs of actions. It is a great fault in an histo- | 
 riographer to abound too much in reflections of his own ; he there- j 
 fore must not turn philosopher or moralist indifferently upon all ■ 
 occasions; for every man desires to be free in his judgement of 
 the facts represented to him, and the consequences he is to draw 
 from them, in which consists the greatest pleasure of the reader. 
 But if an author should throw in, or mingle reflections of his own. 
 
 with his story, they must be such as arise naturally from the 
 ject, and contain a great and noble sense in a few words ; •'■^ . 
 must not be too finely spun or studied, nor have more brightni' ■. 
 than solidity, but appear rather to be the reasoning of a wise static 
 maji than the affectation of a declaimer ; nor must they be w- 
 frequent, or too loose and disjointed, but be enamelled in t 
 body ot the work. Digressions, if made with judgement, and n- • 
 too wide and foreign from the subject, h.ive also their proper gi' < 
 and ornament in history ; as they give an agreeable variety to tli 
 narration, and relieve the mind of tlie reader ; but they must 1. 
 introduced by the historian with an artful hand and great addre;- 
 they must bear an alliance and conneciiou with the purport of tli 
 history, and their length must be proportionably greater or less, 
 they are more nearly or remotely allied to the capital point of ti ; 
 story. 
 
 END OF VOLUME 11.
 
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