Il I ! 1 i LIBRARY UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA RIVERSIDE This "OP Book" Is an Authorized Reprint of the Original Edition, Produced by Microfilm-Xerography by University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan, 1965 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON EDITED WITH INTRODUCTION I.NOTES AND GLOSSARY BY BLANCHE COLTON WILLIAMS, Ph.D. 175* ^1 1893 i PKtSS I COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY PRESS 1914 All rights reserved c qnfarp tujirclc-p-ju* hfd fyiSo^-c- |>iirtcji l>j-i oxd^ojc- L'lic" Cni llJinTII^ATJc- lie Irj-J ^1^*:^ ow./^- -j-u7ni»ji -j-uTi vlnxio^fYC gl l^v Ii»cxr]x- Iur|if.-c|-c lijici CiuV^oif/iJc^uin (»ju7)/c<'--v|«cr ^rjio»>'-('i:|'«;^t vcuLi. ^bidc^'-pcx Vij vutiJiLum clitljojf -pole till TcpAii-mjny ic ^•dii!{^rox>Liti io,icn: rjJap dj-LUii wbca, <Ju^c--ici>l3(iiJi C^p^' cUcii i%xul. uii ctTjiL-Ckr TsxhL ^ viA heU- JnC'hibc nruiJUiJ- /tucuf r^val ttjirtiruc-jMLV rt*T'U7iiatj''pult: roul oTibeanopc- cojin uji /iu^»i' c*.t:oji rcfai oii/iolce' aw Jiw nrTicjT|ui;;i' al ra*»*i i>u c^[c- Jin iicr p/juxaii- <Ju.uu3 rccvil o»i !uUu.U.*rait miic tiJi-riTJi lavil tni/ijuriK- jouiAui jccaV -f cnic«^.'>lc-rcn:l M*1»*^ nvn»i..«Ji'iiv..»ii.» ivivJ cm(»t^AU»nc »Vjii/fr lie iycpn-.>)tuca Yi^ivJ. oiiIiL-jV Y|ujJ j:|/aTj'Ul« j'Luic- j:i]-C rccuL on ivecciic- cytiuon cciiTuuicvjinir iiAiL otihcuUc- yccoL yliJ.^ nuc^^j.-tfTuiii-vr]'*' v^'*'^ '^'C yuinn»r.-ajt y«f[c|ui ^c C]anM-c|uxY jccai o7ica|iLc-yir<>om oii^'Cjui- j'Ut.>u |-c&4,^*" . Cotton Tibkkhs H. 1, 11") a. Copyright, 1914 By Columbia University Press Printed from type, March, 1914. NortoootJ J?rn» J. B. Cusbtng Co. — Berwick & Smith Co. Norwood, Mass., U.B.A. ! ' I This Monograph has been approved by the Department of '■ English and Comparative Literature in Columbia University f as a contribution to knowledge worthy of publication. A. H. THORNDIKE, Executive Officer, MY MOTHER AND TO THE MEMORY OF I MY FATHER PREFACE This study, in attempting to show the prevalence and significance of sententious verse throughout Anglo-Saxon poetry, falls into two chief divisions. The introduction, tliough incidentally drawing illustra- tions from Noi'th Germanic literature, deals mainly with gnomic lines ia Anglo-Saxon epic, lyric, and didactic poetry, excuisive of the Exeter Ghiomes and the Cotton Gnomes. The second part consists of the texts of tliese collections, prepared from the manu- scripts, with analysis and notes. One of the j)leasures arising from the labor of put- ting together this little volume is the acknowledg- ment of aid and friendly criticism. To the Reverend Canon Walter Edmonds, of Exeter Cathedral, I am grateful for access to the unique Exeter Manuscript. To the authorities of the British ^luseum, to the librarians of ILirvard University, and particularly to the librarians of Columbia University, I am indebted for unfailing courtesy and helpful cooperation. Pro- fessor Frederick Tupper, of the University of Ver- mont, has my hearty thanks for assistance in textual into'pretation and for guidance of the work in the summer of 1012. To Professors G. P. Krapp, H. M. Ayres, and A. F. J. Remy I am indebted for read- ing the manuscript and offering valuable suggestions. To Professor W. W. Lawrence, however, I owe most. X PREFACE He called the subject to mj attention and from the beginning has generously given his time and scholar- ship to the progress of the investigation. The bibliography consulted has of necessity been so voluminous and heterogeneous that it would be diffi- cult to select a representative list of books. Works referred to in the introduction are designated in foot- notes. For abbreviations in either part which are not self-explanatory, the table prefixed to the text mav be consulted. B. C. W. New York City, December, 1913. CONTENTS A. INTRODUCTION . . . ' 1 L Definitions : 1. Gnome, defined by various authorities . . . • 2 2. Gnomists and gnomic poetry : a. Greek. Sixteenth- and seven teenth-centtiry compi- lations from Greek gnomists. Peacham's tresr tise 3 h. Anglo-Saxon 6 8. Gnome and proverb : Distinctions in Aristotle .... 6 Views of Moue, Otto, Bergraann ... 7 4. Working definition of term " gnomic " . . . . 8 II. Origins : 1. Gnomes found in all early literatures a. Gnomic sayings among Persians and Indians . h. Gnomic sayings among Germanic tribes . i. Summary for early Germanic literary forms : wed ding hymn, death song, charm, riddle, etc ii. Element of didacticism enters iii. Relations of these early forms. Hymnic poems. wit and wisdom contests iv. Gnomic poems 8 10 10 12 12 13 16 XU CONTENTS VAOl in. More Definite Consideration of Gnomic Sayings AMONG Germanic Tribes: 1. General. Examples from Gennania and Runenlied . 18 2. Particular : a. Xorth Germanic : • Examination of Poetic Edda i. Lays of Goda 19 ^ ' ,. [small gnomic content .... 19 Dramatic, J ° Didactic, numerous gnomic aayiugs . . . 20 ii. Lays of Heroes .24 All contain gnomic wisdom iii. Speakers of -wisdom are gods, heroes, men, the poet himself 27 iv. Subjects : fate, courage, etc 28 6. West Germanic : Anglo-Saxon : L Heathen poetry 29 (i4) Early Epic: Beoxculf 29 (B) Early Lyric : Wanderer . . . . . . .42 Seafarer ....... 47 The Banished Wife's Lament , . . .49 The Song of Deor . . . . . .51 ii. Christian poetry : {A) Early Christian poetry 53 Didactic : On the Endowments and Pursuits of Men . 53 Fortunes of Men ..... 57 Minda of Men ...... 58 lite Wise Father's Instruction ... 59 Epic : Cajdmonian poetry : Exodus ....... 60 Daniel 61 Cynewulfian poetry: Andreas ....... 62 Christ 62 Guthlac 63 CONTENTS Xiii PAOI Gnomic expression in heathen epic compared with that in Christian poetry . . 64 (B) Late Christie n poetry 64 Solomon and Saturn ...... 65 • Bede's Djath Song 67 Saying of Winfrid's Time .... 70 IV. CONSERVATIOK OF GnOMIC PokTRY : 1. Pulr and fiyJe 70 2. Verse forms 78 3. Conclusions 80 B. DETAILED CONSIDERATION OF EXETER GNOMES AND COTTON GNOMES 83 L Introduction . 83 II. Table of Abbreviations 114 HL Text 118 IV. Notes on Gnomic Verses 130 V. Glossary 153 Gleawe men sceolon gieddum wrixlan GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON INTRODUCTION Aaiong Anglo-Saxon poems which have received comparatively small notice from scholars of the pre- sent day are the Gnomic Verses of the Exeter Book and the Cottoi. Manuscript. They have not entirely escaped observation, for they have been printed in collections and have been given passing glances in articles dealing with otlier topics. But only once have they formed the subject of a separate work.^ Practically no attempt has been made to relate the Gnomic Verses with the gnomic mood revealed in sententious sayings of epic and lyric. Some writers of literary history ,2 it is true, indicate that they rec- ognize the relation, but they have lacked space for detailed study. No writer has at once pointed out the significance of the gnomic reflections which occur so often in early Anglo-Saxon literature, traced their gradual decadence as the Anglo-Saxon period de- 1 Uber die AngelsachHlschen Versus Gnomici, Hugo Mtlller, Jena, 1893. ^ Weil. hold, Meyer, Koegel, for example. Lawrence's articles on the lyrics liave taken more account of the gnomic phase than have the works of other writers ; to his recognition of the gnomic mood is due, in a num- ber of poema, a new interpretation of some difficult passage. 1 2 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON clined, brought together the most prominent examples, and from them drawn inferences regarding Teutonic life and thought. Although the present volume is avowedly indebted to all predecessors who have in any one of these particulars contributed notes on gnomic poetry, it claims for its individual achieve- ment the modest attempt to perform the varied task just indicated.^ At the outset it becomes necessary to define teiTns. According to the New Emjllsh Dictionary, a gnome is " a short pithy story of a general truth ; a proverb, maxim, aphorism, or apophtliegm." The Interna' tional Encydopcedia calls it " a short and pithy pro- verbial saying, often embodying a moral precept." ^ La Grande Encydopedie is more explicit : " On designe sous ce nom une forme particuliere de philosophic, qui fieurit surtout au Vr siecle avant notre ere, et qui est comme la premiere ebauche de la morale. Formuler des sentences qui resument I'experience et les obser- vations de ceux qui aiment a reflechir sur les condi- tions de la vie pratique, y meler quelques conseils presentes sous forme de maximes breves et precises, raisonner sur la vie, mais sans rien qui ressemble ^ une theorie, sans principes fixes et sans methode r6- guliere, telle fut I'osuvre des premiers gnomiques." ^ Meyer's Konversations-Lexikon defines gnome as *' ein spruch, in dem ergebnisse der lebensbeobachtung in 1 The study aims in no respect, however, to be exhaustive. Some time ago, Meyer observed that it would be difficult to compile a complete gnomology of Germanic literature. Later, Koegel, echoing Weinhold, declared the desirability of a monograph on gnomic verse in Old ^s'orse. It is signiticaiit that none has yet been written. 8 VllI, 787. ' IB. 1125- INTRODUCTION 3 Bmnreicher kiirze ausgedriickt sind, entweder metrisch oder in prosa abgefasst.** ^ The German " denkspruch," synonym of " gnome," is defined by Grimm {Worterhuch) as *' memorabilis sententia." " Sententia " is the term Quintilian em- ploys : " Antiquissimae sunt, quse proprie, quamvis omnibus idem nomen sit, sententise vocantur, quas Groeci yvd-xaf; appellant." ^ " Sententioe " is evidently a translation of the Greek yvw/xat. Aristotle devotes considerable space to the discussion of yvw/xat,' wherein his definition is translated by Jebb as follows : * " A maxim is a statement, not about a particular fact, as about the character of Iphikrates, but general ; not about all things, — but about those things which are the objects of action, and whicb it is desirable or undesirable to do." ^ From combining and sifting these statements, we may say, in general, a gnome is a sententious saying ; in particular, it may be proverbial, figurative, moral. The various types, possessing each its individual characteristics, account for diversity of definition. But, as the preceding paragraphs have indicated, the meaning has been, on the whole, pretty constant from the time of Aristotle to the present. Primarily, the noun " gnomist " is applied to the Greek sententious poets, of whom the first — Hesiod 1 8, 00 (Ed. 1907). Throughout, I havo taken the liberty of normal- izing quotations from the Germa.n by using Roman typo and avoiding capitalization of nouns. 2 Orat.y VIII, 5. « Ithet., II, xxi, 1-10. * The Ilhi'loric of Aristotle, A Translation by Sir, R. C. Jebb, ed. by J. Sandys, Cambridge, lUOl), pp. 112-113. * Nolo tho choice of Jebb, — " maxim." 4 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON and Theognis — lived some six hundred years before the Christian era. These gnoraists are the ethical predecessors of Sophocles and Euripides, many of whose reflections are gnomic distiches expanded. And not onl}^ lyrists and drara?otists wrote gnorao- logically ; epic poets often turned aside from the narrative to make sententious generalizations. In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, various Greek Gnomologies were compiled,^ of which, as col- lectors, the names of Neander^ and Duport^ are prominent. Neander observed that the gnomology of the Greeks was derived from the Hebrews ; Duport published with his Homeric collection an " Index of places in the Holy Scriptures, to which the gnomes of Homer are similar or not dissimilar." Henrv Peachara in his Garden of Eloquence ^ was writing not only with Hebrew and Greek in mind, as exem- plars of this " apte brevity," but was also erecting his little discourse on Aristotle's foundation : *' Gnome, a saying pertaining to the manners, and com- mon practises of men, wliicli declareth by an apte brevity, what in this our lyfe onght to be done, or not done. Fyrst, it is to be noted, that every sen- tence is not a figure, but that only which is notn,ble, worthy of memory, and approved by the judgement and consent of all men, which being excellent, maketh the oration not only bewtifull and goodlye, but also J Probably owing to the impetus given by Erasmus's Adagiorum CoUertanea, 1515. ^ Opus Ajireum, Lipsiae, 1559. ' Uomeri, Poctarum Seculorum facile priiicipia, Gnomoloyia Dxir- pUci rarallelismo iUustrata ; etc.^ Per Jacobura Duportum Canta- brigiensim, Gr;ccae Liiigui« nuper Professorum Regium, Cantabrigiai, etc., KWO. * The Garden of Eloquence, London, 1577, p. 149 £f. INTRODUCTION 6 grave, puissante, and ful of maiesty, whereof there be sundry kindes." As rhetorical flowers, then, in his Garden^ the gnomes are analyzed into their various sub-species. There are ten kinds, according to the elder Peacham.^ Aristotle named but four. It must be observed that the gardener uses ftrbitrary, meaningless, and over- lapping classifications. For example : " The nynth is a pure seuteuce, not mixed with any figure else, as ; the covetous uiau wanteth as wel that which he hath, as that which he hath not : wyne maketh glad the hart of man. The tenth is a fygured sentence whereof there be as many kindes as there be fygures, and if it be figured, it hath the name of the same figure wherewitli it is joyned." The conclusion is more pertinent : " Now in a sentence, lieede must be taken that it be not false, straunge, light, or without pyth : secondly, that they be not to thick sprinckled, and to ofte used, that which is lawfuU for Philosophers, is not graunted to Oratoures, because orators are the hand- lers of matters, and philosophers the instructors of life." For centuries associated with Greek and Hebrew . literatures, the term '' gnomic " has been tardily ap- plied to sententious poetry in Anglo-Saxon. In 1826, Conybeare, observing the resemblance of certain pas- sages in the Exeter Book to writings of Tbeognis, and sayings of Solon and the Seven Wise Men, published them under the title, " Gnomic Poem."^ Shortly 1 Cf. Quiiitilian, Oral. VIII, 6: Sunt ctiam, qiii decern genera fece- rint, sed eo inodo, quo fieri vel piura possunt. 2 Illustrationa of Anglo-Saxvn Poetry, J. J. Conybeare, London, 1820, pp. viii, 2J8. 6 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON afterwards Thorpe appropriated the adjective.^ Soon German scholars adopted " Versus Gnomici " or its synonym "Denkspriiche," and at the present time both captions are in establislied usage. It may as well be stated here that Anglo-Saxon verse is gnomic so far as the presence of gnomic lines here and there adds sententiousness, but that certain poems deserve preeminently the title because their very essence is sententious. Brandl speaks of " epos, gnomik, and lyrik " as if to rank the three varieties equal in importance.- The field between epic and lyric in Anglo-Saxon verse is largely occupied by poems of a moral nature, but to characterize them all as gnomic seems extending the word beyond its due bounds, at the same time distorting its true significance. Proverbs have been sometimes compared with or confused with gnomes. Aristotle recognized differ- ent kinds of proverbs : " When Aristotle in one place defines proverbs as * Metaphors from species to species,' and elsewhere says, ' Some proverbs, again, are also maxims,' he evidently discriminates between proverbs in the stricter sense and the popular sentence, though he classes the latter in a wider sense likewise as proverbs." ^ Proverbs which are " metaphors from 1 Codex Exoniensis, B. Thorpe, London, 1842, p. viii. 2 Geschichte der Altenglischen Literntur, in Paul's Grundriss, 1908, I, 1011, and passim. Cf. Goltber : '■'■ Die Eddalieder enthalten gottsr- und heldensage und spruchweisheit." — Xordische LiteratMrgcschichte, Leipzig, 1005, p. 0. ^ " Wenn Aristoteles die sprichworter einmal definiert als fieratpopal dr il5ovi iir elSos (o, 11) und an einer andereu stelle (2, 21) sagt tviai tQ>v irapoi;iiuiv Kal yvCiaal fiaiv, so unterscheidet er offonbar zwischen den sprichwortern im strengeren sinne und den volksttimliclien sentenzen, reclinet aber auch diese im weiteren umfange ebenfalls noch zu den sprich- wortern." — Die Sprichworter der Rduier, A. Otto, Leipzig, 1890, p. xii. INTRODUCTION 7 species to species" the Greek rhetorician evidently takes to be proverbs in the usual sense, and " proverbs which are also maxims " to be popular sayings, which by virtue of expanded definition fall under the generic terra. This difference is not similar to the one to be established here ; it is given to indicate that as early as Aristotle rhetorical distinctions were perceptible in the general class of popular sayings. Since some of the defmitions make " gnome "synony- mous with ''proverb," significant is the choice of " denkspruch," not "sprichwort," by Grimm. F. Mone says in effect that proverbs (spriclivvorter) and gnomes (denkspriiche) are different in that the former are popular expressions, while the latter are individual utterances. Through dissemination, however, gnomic sentences may become proverbs.^ A similar distinc- tion is made by Otto in the work just referred to, when he suggests that the circulation of the gnome is less extensive than that of the proverb.^ F. W. Bergmann, in his collection of " Spriiche, Priameln, und Runenlehren," expresses a similar opinion.^ Pro- verbs (sprichworter) are, he says substantially, prin- ciples derived from experience of folk custom, teaching of folk morality, and expression of folk philosophy and folk wit. Sayings (spriiche) are differentiated principally in having a higher wisdom, which rests upon deeper thought, and therefore they strike a higher tone. Proverbs and sayings blend in certain 1 Quellen vnd Forschungen zur Qeschichte der Teutschen Literatur und Sprache, Bd. I, p. 193. 2" . . . gnomen — die sicherlich nie in weitere kreLse gedrungen sind." Op. cit., p- ^^'^^ 1 Den Hehren Spruche (HAvamil), Strassburg, 1877, pp. 102 ff. 8 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON" I instances, as for example when a saying the author of which is known and celebrated becomes a popular proverb. Such attempts to separate gnome and proverb^ however successful they may be in theory, usually fall short in practice. In Old Norse literature, as Bergniann adds, the difference between the two types of expression was not hard and fast ; hence, pro- verbial sayings and individual sentences are desig- nated by the same name, indls hctttir (sprucharten), or aphorisms. They meet on a common ground, where tlie term " spriiche " covers both. The same thing seems to be true of Anglo-Saxon aphorisms, which though of individual origin have often a pro- verbial ring;.^ In this study the word " gnomic " is synonymous with " sententious." (Cf . " gnome," above.) The ad- jective is applied to a generalization of any nature whatsoever. Such generalization may or may not be proverbial : it may express a physical truih, an- nounce a moral law, or uphold an ethical ideal. The language may be literal or figurative. And now, having mapped out the bounaaries of the term, we may turn to the questions concerning the oritrin and the conservation of gnomic verse. II Gnomes are very common in early literature and they probably occur among all peoples. Egyp- tian literature abounds in " rules for wise conduct 1 E.g., Gn. C, 10a, i:?a; Gn. Ex., 144, 155 b, 159, 168. Cf. Miiller, op. cit., p. ;U, and -Max Forster, Eng. St., XXXI, 1 ff. INTRODUCTION and good manners which are put into the mouth of a wise man of old times," some of them having their origin thousands of years before the Christian era.^ Somewhat later, the sage 'Euey bequeathed to his son Chenshotep a set of comparatively simple prov- erbs, many of which suggest the gnomic IlSvamSl. " Beware of a woman from strange parts," •' Treat a venerable wise miin v/ith respect," " Drink not to excess," 2 — these are ilkistrative.^ It is well known that Chinese classics are noteworthy for their senten- tious character. The Shih, or the Book of Poetry, which includes pieces from n.r. 1766 to B.C. 586, is filled with selections of a gnomic-lyric quality. In it occur warnings similar to those in other early litera- tures, " Be apprehensive," " Be cautious." ^ From the Shu, the most ancient of the classical books (B.C. 2357-627 circ), an ode entitled the Songs of the Fioe Sons contains such lines as "The people are the root of a country," and " The ruler of men should be reverent of his duties." ^ If we ask, then. How did Germanic sayings, gnomic 1 Proverbs of Ptahholep, teaching of Dauuf, teaching of Amenemhet. Cf. Life in Ancient Egypt, A. Eruian, translated by H. M. Tirard, Lon- don, 1894, p. 831. 2 I hid., pp. 155, 105, 205. Cf. also Die Agyptische Literatnr, A. Erman, in Die Orientalischen Literaturen, Berlin und Leipzig, 1006, p. 32. 8 Tacitus says expres.sly {Oermania, IX) that " part of the inhabitants of Germany sacritice to Isis." It is probable the Germans had some god- dess similar to Isis, just as their gnomic sayings were similar. But there was not, therefore, necessarily any descent of gods and gnomologies from Egypt to Germany. Such resemblances merely illustrate the universality of conmuin material. « .^acrfd Honks of the East (General Editor, Max Muller), III. This volume is by James Legge, Oxford, 1879. Cf. p. 4G9. 6 Ibid., p. 79. 10 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON sentences, arise ? we may temporarily shift the an- swer by inquiring into the origin of gnomic forms among older literatures. Or we might draw nearer home and ask how gnomic forms • arose among the older brothers of the Indo-European family ; for even a tentative investigation could not proceed far with- out some comparison of traits in a kinship so imme- diate. A sweeping glance reveals the popularity and prominence of wise saws among the Persians and Indians, who sprinkled their fables with pithy speeches or summarized the lessons of their narratives in morals tersely expressed. The last period of the Vedas is placed within five centuries before the Christian era. This was the age of Sutra literature, a "literature of short sayings strung together by teachers who studied brevity." ^ In the Hitopadesaf a sequence of stories presenting counsel for the train- ing of a prince, one finds on every page " intercalated verses and proverbs" which come from ages exceed- ingly remote.2 Among the subjects which have their analogues, if not their descendants, in the Germanic literatiures is the immutability of fate. " That which will not be w^iU not be, and that which is to be will be." ^ This thought is repeated time after time. "Destiny is mightiest," Arnold translates what is doubtless the ^ Fables and Proverbs from the Sayiskrit, being the Hitopadesa, translated by Charles V/ilkins, Introduction by H. Morley, London, 1888, p. 6. A later translation of the Hitopadesa is Die Freundliche Belehrung, J. Hertel, Leipzig, 1894, 2 Cf. The Book of Good Counsels: From the Sanskrit of the Hito- padesa, Sir Edwin Arnold, M.A., London, 1861, p. x. «/6id.,p. 3. INTRODUCTION 11 "Wyrd bis swiSost" of Teutonic nations.* The value and worth of friends are also emphasized, as in the Hovamol and Gnomic Verses. " That friend only is the true friend who is near when trouble comes," "^ and " Long-tried friends are friends to cleave to."^ But the Teutons developed their literature inde- pendently of the Asiatics and possessed a gnomology of their own. How, then, did it arise ? To answer the question, we may as well strike the trail into the backward of Germanic time as into that of a darker and more remote Oriental epoch. In a high degree, motives were the same, whetlier those motives produced their results in the oldest Eastern literature or in the youngest Western literature. A few guide- posts mark the way to Germanic origins, some of which are fragments of early writings, and others the state- ments of historians about those writings. We may ^ Cf. i6id., p. 3, p. 17. One has only to turn through Bohtlingk's three- volume collection of Indische tSprUche (St. Petersburg, 1870-1873) or even the small compilation of Fritze (Indische Spriiche, Leipzig) to find counterparts of ideas we shall come across in Germanic literature. Take, for instance, Fritzc's last three lines of No. 15 : '• Ob wol des menschen arbeit je gelingt, Wenn hindernd ihm auf seinen wegen Die macht des schicksals tritt entgegen ? " and No. 217 : " Es traf sich, dass sich aus der harten hand Des fischers, die ihn hielt, ein karpfen wand. Da fiel er in das netz zuriick. Er sprang Auch aus dem netz ; allein darauf verschlang Ein reiher diesen armsten. Wer entrinnt, Wenn feindlich ihm das schicksal ist gesinnt I " "Who escapes if Fate is iiiimically disposed to him?" might be answered by the Teutonic passage, Beoiculf, 672&-573 (see p. 36). s Book of Good Cjunsels, p. 22. • Ibid., p. 73. 12 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON further, to some advantage, compare early civilization with that existing to-day, especially with that of " primitive " communities, among whom superficial ideals of culture interfere but slightly with native habit and custom. Motives in literature spring out of elementary life concepts : ' tlic world external and internal ; the gods ; the wonderful or marvelous ; individual human beings and fundamental emotions, — the hero, friend- ship, love ; daily life, and cliaracter. The truth of such a statement will hardly be questioned : it is obvious. The primitive literary impulse, then, will celebrate the gods in hymnic form, the human being in wedding hymns, heroic lay, or death song ; it will make a speech or terse saying or ask a riddle about a natural phenomenon ; - it will invent a charm to drive away an evil spirit.'" Didacticism enters very early ; it is natural to man- kind to teach, and in a time when memory is the only book, to instruct with brevity, terseness and weightiness is to follow the line of least resistance. " ' What is best for the good of a tribe, Cormac ? ' said Carbre. "^ iCf. Die altgermanische Poesie, Richard M. Meyer, Berlin, 1880, pp. 41-72. 'Cf. Native Tribes of Central Australia, Spencer and Gillen, Lon- don, 1899, p. 360. Sitting for hours, the men, women, old men, old women, — all will chant, "The sand-hills are good," "Bind the Nur- tunga round with rings," and the like. Cf. also Primitive Poetry and the Ballad, in Modern Philology I, 200, where Gummere alludes to the ex- ample here given. Otto notes discriminations between old proverbs and later proverbs. — Op. cxt., p. xix. '^ Geschichte der Deutschen Literatur, II. Koegel, Strassburg, 1894, I, 12-43. INTRODUCTION 13 " ^ Not hard to tell,' said Cormac. * Questioning the wise . . . Following ancient lore . . . Pleading with established maxims.' " ^ A brief review of the earlier types will indicate how they intermingle and overlap, and how all served as a matrix for embedding precious gems of wisdom. Hymnic forms among the Germans were noticed by Tacitus, who says that in their ancient songs, " car- minibus antiquis," they celebrate the fathers and founders of the race.- Bridal songs, originally a special kind of religious hymn,^ are present among all Indo-European peoples. The love-lyric is an early development. It is an interesting fact that the Germanic lady gave advice and counsel to her lover or prophesied for him. Tacitus, again, has some- thing to say about this gift of the woman : " They even think their women to have something of sanc- tity and foreknowledge, neither do they scorn their advice nor neglect their answers." ^ As an example, consider the Sl(jr(lnf()m6l. After Sigidrifa has been roused from her slumber by Sigurd, she regales him with wise sayings and counsels; then she prophesies.^ Songs in honor of the dead are probably as early as funeral rites.'' From such ceremonies as were per- 1 The. In^h-uctions of King Cormac Mac Airt, Kuno Meyer, Dublin, 1909, p. 7 ff. ^ Germania, II. * Koegel, op. cit., I, 44. * " Iiicsse (luinotiam sanctum ^liquid, etprovidum putant ; necaut con- ailia earum asperr.antur, aut responsa neglif^nt." — Ocrmania, VIII. Strabo spealts of proi)hete.sse3 among the Cimbri, cf. Oeog. Bk. VII, Ch. 2; Cu;s:ir ha.s something to say about the wise mothers, cf. de Bella Gal- lico, I, 50. 6 Cf . p. 20. * " Kino toteuklage war, wijesscheiiit, achon in indogermanischer zeit 14 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON formed at the funerals of Attila^ and Beowulf,* where warriors rode about the mound chanting the deeds of the illustrious hero, it is but a step to wor- ship of the dead and to verses in memory of the de- parted. Or, in another direction, it is but a step to the charm which would keep away the influence of an undesirable ghost.^ The kinship of memorial verses and of charms to gnomes is immediate. Riddles, like most literature of similar kind, are of great age, having arisen early both among European and Asiatic peoples. From, the riddle itself are evolved riddle-contests, the largest class of which is that wherein two persons alternately ask and answer riddles. Usually life or some other heavy penalty is the forfeit for failing to guess correctly the answer; this failure terminating a sequence of alternate propounding and solving.^ From such a game, gnomic wisdom may readily arise. The close connection between the rid- dle and the gnome may be illustrated by this example : ^ " What is blacker tlian the raven?" "There is death." ""What is whiter than the snow?" "There is the truth." Combine question and answer, and a gnome mit der leichenfeier verb-mden." — Qeachichte der Deutsch. Lit., J. Kelle, Berlin, 1892, 1, 10. For a concise treatment of the subject, see ScliUckmg's Angelmchsisches Totenklagelied, in Eng. St., XXXIX, 1 ff, 1 Cf. Jordanes, XLIX. '^ Beowulf, 3111 fl. ' Cf. TTie Elder or Poetic Edda, Part I, edited and translated by Olive Bra}', London, 1908, p. xiii. * Cf. The English and Scottish Popular Ballads, edited by F. J. Child, I, 1, "Kiddles Wisely Expounded." Seethe riddle contest in Judges xiv, 12 ff. The unfair advantage Samson takes of hi^ opponent3 is of a kind with that which Gagnrad practices on Vaf^rti^nir (see below). For an exhaustive discussion of riddle literature, see introduction to The Piddles of the Exeter Book, F. Tupper, Jr., New York, 1910. * The English and Scottish Popular Ballads, p. 3. INTRODUCTION 15 results : " Truth is whiter than snow." Or the pro- cess may have been the other way about. In this iUustration, we come near to the origin of figures in general. " So thoroughly does riddle mak- ing belong to the mytliologic stage of thought, that any poet's simile, if not too far fetched, needs only inversion to be made at once into an enigma. The Hindu calls the sun Saptasva, i.e., seven-horsed, while with the same thought the old Germanic riddle asks, * What is the chariot drawn by seven white and seven black horses?' ' The 3'ear drawn by the seven days and nights of the week.' " ^ Tacitus observes that the Germans love idleness yet hate peace: "ament inertiam, et oderint quietem." In this respect, they resemble the sprightly but indolent Persians, to whom conversation is a game of skill, who " wish to measure wit with you, and exact an adroit, a brilliant, or a profound answer." ^ "When, at home from !>attle, our Germanic forefatliers sprawled around a fire and lazily employed tlicir minds in a matching of wits, they found riddle-contests a popular means of diversion. , In the contests handed down to us, it is not sur- prising that sententious utterance appears, in keeping with the wit and wisdom of the speaker. Take, for example, Yafpru^nesinol, one of the best representatives of this class. Odin, in the guise of Gagnrad, comes to the home of the giant. Before entering, he generalizes : 1 Primitive Culture, E, B. Tylor, London, 1871, I, 84. Cf. Kelle, op. cit., p. 74 : " Ausser sprichwoitern waren riitsel und riitseldichUingen in geistlichen kreisen verbreuet." 2 R. W. Emerson, in I'refaca to the OuUstan of Sadi, translated by F. Gladwin, Boston, 1805. 16 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON " Let the poor man who crosses the threshold of the rich Speak useful words or keep silent ! Talkativeness works ill for every one Wlio comes to the cold-hearted."' Solomon and Saturn, a poem of similar kind, affords numerous instances of gnomic expression. In this rapid summary, then, it may be seen that various types of early poetry contained sententious wisdom. But sometimes the maxims, instead of being encased in a lyric or a narrative poem, were strung together, as in the Hqvam^l and the Anglo- Saxon Gnomic Verses. And it should here be noted that the earliest gnomic verse among the Teutons must be studied in Old Norse and in Anglo-Saxon. In Old High German, tlie remains are insufTicient and inconsiderable,"^ the chief survivals appearing to be a few lines of denksprUche, " and a fragmentary me- morial poem."* As Scherer*' says, the principles which for the Teutons regulated life and morality were em- bodied in poetic form. There were no written laws, but the priest proclaimed those popularly approved. Hence came into play alliteration and other aids to the 1 <^auhogr mahr, es til anhogs kemr, miiln {'aift el-a ]'egv I Ofruixlge mikel hykk at ilia gete hveims vit> kaldrifjahan kemr. — Die Lieder der Edda, Sijmons-Gering, Halle, 1900, I, 67. Hereafter, abbreviated to S.-G. Line 2 of this stanza is found also in II(>vam()l, stanza 19, S.-G. I, 27. ^Cf. Koegel, op. cit., I, 70. ^ Cf. Denkmaler Deutacher Puesia und Prosa ana dem VIII-XII Jahrhundi'H, hcraiiKgigibin von K. MllllciihufI und W. Scherer, Dritte Ausgabe, Horlin, 18'.)2. Dnt/csprUche, I, 1S)5. * Jhid.y Mciiuinto Mori, I, 7:J. ''A History of German Literature, by W. Scheror, translated from the 3rd German ed. by Mrs. F. C. Conybeare, New York, 1886, I, 14. INTRODUCTION ^ 17 memory, which, manifesting themselves in a string of precepts, might claim the title of poetry. Such examples of alliterative precepts may be fomid in the old constitution of the Icelanders ; for instance, in the formula of peacemaking occurs the clause : ^ " And he of you twain that shall go against the settlement or atonement made, Or break the bidden troth, He shall be wolf-hunted and to be hunted, As far us men hunt wolves : ^ Christian men seek churches ; Heathen men sacrifice in temples; Fire burneth; earth groweth; Son calleth mother, and mother beareth son ; Folk kindle iire ; Sliip saileth ; shields glint ; Sunshineth; snowlieth; The Fin skateth ; the fir groweth; Tiio hawk fiieth the lon-j: spring day, With a fair wind behind him on wings outspread ; Heaven turiieth ; earth is dwelt on, "Wind bloweth, waters fall to the sea; Churl soweth corn.'* * En Kil yccMrr es ^'eii!,'r a gtorvar sdtter, e^a vegr i, velttar trygfBer. \p& Bcal haiin svil vfSa vari^-r vnecr oc vreceun, Bern menn vldazt varga a vreca. Cristner nienn circjor sdbkja, heiSner meiin hof bi6«a, elldr up breniir, iaorS f^r&r inaogr in65or callar ; oc mo'Ser maog feeder, allder ek!a cynda : Bcip scrfSr, scilder blfcja, b61 sciim, hnaj leggr, FiXr HcrlSr, fura vex, valr llygr, vilr-lan^Mn dag ; KlcMilr lu^iinin liyrr l)tiiin nud hAiSa, vicngo: liiiniiui livfifr, liciiur uh bygKr, vindr l-ytr, vaoln lil Hiovlir falla, carlar cuniu k&. Oriyines /s/auJiccc.VigfuHson and Powell, Oxford, 1005, I^ 316, note. 18 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON Such a formula bears the hall-marks of antiquity, in spite of the line introduced after the advent of Christianity. Ill Having observed the presence of sententious sayings among the early Teutons, and having glanced at their relations with other types of literature, we may fit- tin dv investigate the nature of those sayings. What, in particular, are the kinds of gnomic wisdom sup- posedly proceeding from the mouths of gods, god- desses, and earthly men and women ? By selecting and classifying a number of representative examples, we may best answer this question. The first recorded saying which appears to be Germanic, is reported by Tacitus in the first century of the Christian era : " Women must weep and men remember," " Feminis lugere honestum est, viris meminisse." ^ The pithiness of the remark, its an- tithetic character, and especially its reflection of life are probably typical of the sayings of the tribe com- memorated by the Latin historip.n.^ It is similar to Beowulf, 1385-1386 : Ne sorga, snotor guma ! Selre bi3 Sghwsem, J)3et he his freond wrece, ponne hS feia murne. 1 Germania, XXVII. 2 Translators generally render the maxim as if it were a Latin transla- tion from the German. Cf. Germania, W. II. Fyfo, 1008, and the edition of N. S. Smith, 1828. The latter compares the custom with a similar one among the Canadian Indians. But it should be stated that Meyer is more conservative: "... man kaum de- versuchung widersteht, den berich- terstattern des alten historikers schon ein sprtichlein iihnli^her art zuzu- schreiben." — Op. cit., p. 457. And Mullenhofi, D. A.K., IV, 384, notes a resemblance of the speech to one in Seneca: "Hoc prudentum virum non decet: meminisse perseveret, lugere desinat." Epist, 90, 22. INTRODUCTIOW 19 But whether the reflection in Tacitus be from the Germans or from the RomaTis, it is probably no more ancient than a store of familiar sayings from which the Teutons drew in nf.mjing their runes. For out of such sayings they chose catchwords by which they designated the letters. Need lieth heavy on the heart (Nyd by)) ner.ru on breostan), Hope he enjoyeth not, who knoweth little of care (Wen ne bruce}), ^e can weana lyt),^ Wealth is transitory for everyone under heaven (Feoh seghwaem biS Isene under lyfte),^ — such instances illustrate the view of Meyer, that the old runic names Mvere suggestive of fixed maxims and postulat'js.'* But let us consider, more definitely, the remains of the North Germanic and the West Germanic litera- tures preserved in Old Norse and Anglo-Saxon. In the Eddie lays of gods and heroes are found wise saws, descended from a remote age. In - the lays of epic character, they are infrequent, except in so far as propliecy is itself gnomic. In the Voloqyo^ the 1 Ji^.inenlied (Bib. I, 331 ff.), 1. 27. a EJene {Bib. II, 120 ff.), H. 12696-12700. « Op. cit., p. 2. Meyer adds, " deren typua die ags. ' denkspriiche' am getreuesten bewabren mogen " * It i3 interesting by way of comparison to look at the Japanese alphabet and to see that the syllable names may be joined to form gnomic verses. The forty-seven cliaiacter.s (the tinal nasal, the forty-eighth char- acter, is not included) have been arranged by the Japanese to read: The pleasures of life arc ephemeral 1 But, after all, what i^ there that is desirable hi this world? In the depth.s of the mount of existence, the present day passes, And is not even for us so much as the intoxication of a flitting dreaml I translate freely from the French of L. Kosny, in Cours Pratique de Langue Japunnise, Paris, 11)03, pp. 8-10. For calling this gnomic instance to my attention, I am indebted to my friend Professor Raymond Weaver of the Hiroshima Koto Shihangakko. 20 GNOMIC rOETKY IN ANGLO-SAXON sibjl gives answer from her seat, performs her divinations, and prophesies for Odin. Occasional examples of this sort may be termed gnomic pro- phecies, having the brevity, but not perhaps the hid- den or double meaning, of Greek oracles. The same kind of thing is found in Baldrs draumar, wherein Odin rides to the lofty hall of hell and from her grave wakens the dead prophetess who shall explain the meaning of Balder's bad dreams. Nor in the dramatic ' poems do we find many exam- ples of sententious moralizing. The Lokasenna, in spite of its flyting nature and gnomic form, yields nothing. The IlarharMljdP might be supposed to teem with the wisdom of Grevbeard ; but he confines his impersonalities to the thrifty remark, " What is scraped from one oak benefits another. Every man for himself." - Skirnir answers sententiously to the herdsman who declares him doomed if he goes to the halls of hell : " Resolution is better than lamentation for one who is ready to go on a journey," ^ and he adds that his leno-th of life has been decreed and set to a certain day. But as would be expected, the didactic poems — or those which most deserve the adjective — contain numerous gnomic expressions. The IlSvamql is classed by Meyer as one of the three essentially gnomic poems in Germanic literature."* 1 In a sense, all the poems are didactic. But epic and dramatic qual- ities are stronger in tlie lays here tentatively classed under these hcLidings. "^ pat hefr eik es af annarre skefr, of sik es hverr ( sUko. — S.-G., I, 104. ' Skirnesmfil, Stanza 13, Koster'o betre [heldr] an at kliakkva sC: hveims fuss es fara. — S.-G., I, 92. * Op. cit., p. 462 INTRODUCTION 21 Vaf/>ru//)iesm^l has been referred to above. Full of wise answers, but dealing with particulars, it is notably an exhibition of knowledge on the part of two wise men, whose pointed questions and curt replies are gnomic in manner, yet not general or "universal" in content, except for the saying quoted. In Grimnesmdl, Odin figures again. After he has been tortured eight nights by King Geirrod, the King's son Agnar brmgs him a brimming horn. Odin dis- courses at length and in the course of his recital of old lore turns aside to speak a few lines which have small bearing on the context : " Yggdrasil's ash is the best of wood, But Skithblatliiiir of ships, Odin of go. Is, and Sleipnir of steeds, Bilrost of bridges, Brage of skalds, Habrok of hawks and Garm of hounds." * In the artificial character of these lines, wherein proper names are so arranged as to fit the metrical scheme, one cannot but observe a resemblance to the Gnomic Vei^ses of the Cotton Manuscript.'^ A not dissimilar mosaic of names is found in Almssmol. The dwarf going in the night to the home of the gods for Freya, who has been promised him for his wife, is met by Thor. The god detains him by asking ques- tions, which Alviss, i)roud of his wisdom, delights in answering. The night passes, day dawns, and 1 Askr Yp^'drasels liann es 0Ztr vi)>a, cm Sk(})b'.a|»ner skipa, 6b('nii {isa, en joa Sleipner, Iiilros„ brua, eu Brage skalda, H;lbr6k hauka, en hunda Garmr. — S.-G., I, 84. » See 11. 16 ff. 22 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON the sun rises, its rays turning the dw?vrf to stone. But in the meantime, the author of this interesting narrative has found opportunity to display his verse- craft. Synonyms for earth, heaven, fire, moon, wood, — these and others are skilfully woven into the rhythmic pattern. Characteristic of the attitude which the Norsemen held toward their dead is the story of Groa and her son Svipdag. As a power for good, Groa is called from her grave to counsel, to "sing sweet and strong spell-songs.'' One generalization on fate is suggested by her son's remark that he has been appointed to make what seems an impossible journey : " Long is the journey, long are the pathways, Long are the loves of men : Even if it happen that you gain your will, It will be at fate's decree." ' And the counterpart is found in a later stanza of the poem, or its sequel, when the journey having been at length taken, Svipdag finds Mengloth. Apparently recalHng his mother's saying, he remarks : "The word of fate no man may withstand."* In the TlyndloljoPy the prophetess recalls the past and becomes prophetic, as does the one in Baldrs draumar. A gnomic passage spoken by this sibyl, who was probably called up from the grave as in the case of Groa or the wise woman who prophesied for Bal- ^ LQng es fQr, langer 'o farvegar, Linger 'o manna nmner ; ef >at verhr, at[)>u]>inn vilja bljr, ok skeikar >6 Skuldar at skQpom. — S.-G., I, 197. ' Ur^ar or^ YiJ>r engo iiia>r. — S.-G., I, 212. INTRODUCTION 23 der, is significant for its resemblance to a passage in Christy^ and elsewhere in Anglo-Saxon verse. It is to be observed that the giver is the war-father (Herfo]?r), as the stanza immediately preceding this one clearly shows : " He gives victory to some, and to others gold, Skill in words to many and understanding; He gives fair wind to men, and poetic art to skalds, He gives valor to many men." * IT6vam6l, the poem wherein " human experience is elevated to godly wisdom," ^ contains three sections, the first two o! which treat of the ethics of love, friendship, war, and hospitality. Customs and social laws here and there agree with those observed by Tacitus, and with those recorded in the Anglo-Saxon Gnomic Verses. In the main, the precepts are archaic and heathen, though a number are of late origin and Christian. 'To discuss these sayings would require a separate study, or a recapitulation of such a study as that made by Bergraann.'* Meyer calls attention to speeches related to those in other lays,^ and Ranisch points out some of the wise saws in its repository.^ Victor Nilsson marks off interpolations which separate LoddfdfnisnL^l from the rest of the poem.'^ Of 1 See pp. 53, 63. 2 Gefr 8igr sumom, en sumora aura, injL'iHko iD(^rgum ok inanvit firom ; byre gefr brfjgnom eu brag skQldom, gefr manseine mgrgura rekke. — S.-G., I, 179. » Cf. N'ordische Literatnrgeschichtey W. Golther, Leipzig, 1906, p. 21. * See above, p. 7. ' Op. ciL, p. 72 ff. « Eddalieder, Leipzig, 1903, p. 45 ff. ' Loddf iif Ilium Al, University of Minnesota, 1898. 24 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON stanzas 1-78 he says : " The keynote of the leading theme is one of bittern and fierceness. The bits of advice given are in .^.. nature of morals, but not of a Christian standard. They teach smartness. Life is depicted as a ceaseless battle in which every- body must be on his guard, prepared to receive and to deal out blows. The redeeming feature is the appre- ciation of the sterling individual and of a good posthu- mous reputation." ^ In the lays of the gods, wisdom is for the most part attributed to chief divifiities ; in the Ip.ys of heroes, to famous men, half mythical or wholly his- torical. Toward the close of G?ipessp6, Sigurd remarks, " No man can withstand his fate." ^ Again and again the inevitableness of fate appears. In Atlamdl, Hogni says, " From his fate no man can flee." ^ It is a coincidence striking enough that Jordanes reports Attila himself as using these words in his address to the army before the battle of Catalaunian Plains, a.d. 451 : " No spear shall harm those who are sure to live; and those who are sure to die fate overtakes even in peace" (Chapter XXXIX).^ The words of Starkad are to the same effect : " His final fate carries off every living man ; doom is not to be averted by skulking." ^ 1 Loddfafnismdl, University of Minnesota, 1898, p. 3. 2 Monat skQpoin vinna. — S.-G., I, 304. * Skopom viSr mange. — S.-G., I, 448. * " Vicluros nulla tela conveniunt, morituros et in otio fata pnccipi- tant." — Jordanis Jiomana et Getica, llecensuit Theodoras Mominsen, Berlin, 1882, p. 111. Cf. The Orvjin and Deeds of the Goths, C. C. Mio- row, Princeton, 11)08, p. (»3. 5 Saionis Granimaticl, Gesta Danornm, herausgegeben von Alfred Holder, Stransburg, 1830, p. 215. Cf. Books I-IX translated into Eng- INTRODUCTION 25 In the sequence lays, Regensm^ly Fdfnesnufl, and Sigrdrifom^ly the chief speakers are respectively And- vari, Fafnir, and Sigrdrifa, who, in turn, teach their pupils. Andvari admonishes, " False words against another strike deep roots of retribution," ^ and a little later he asserts that it is a bad thing to outrun one's luck.2 Hreidmar, the bereaved father, also has his gnomic fling, " Much is it that necessity compels," ' In Fdfnesm6l, particularly noticeable are the gen- eral remarks which buttress the special instance. Sigurd thinks a cowardly youth will hardly make a valiant old man ; * Fafnir observes that they say a bondman always trembles,^ and, in turn, is capped by Sigurd, who suggests with apparent irrelevance, " Every one longs to enjoy his riches to the last day." ^ Fafnir dies, didactic to the end,^ a believer in fate, like all the others. Sigurd has an extended speech on courage, an extension due to addition of brief statements : " Courao-e is worth more than the might; of the sword when fearless men are to fight. lish by 0. Elton, London, 1804 [Commentary by F. York Powell], p. 259. ^ 6sa}'ra or^a hverra & annan l^gr oflenge leiHi limar. — S.-G., I, 309. Cf. II. Gering'8 Glossary, 1907, p. 112, " weithin fiihrendie verzweigvingen unwahrer worue," etc. 2 Ilt's fyr heill at hrapa. — ZfciU, 316. 8 Mart's )>at3 h^r f t>ear ! — 7 bid. , 3 1 1 . * Fhv es hvatr, es hrahask tekr, ef 1 barnosko es blanl-r. — S.-G., I, 321. • A6 kve)>a bandingja bifask. — Ibid. 9 F6e r;l)>a akal fyrl>a hverr li" til ens eina dags. — Ibid., 322. Cf. Meyer, op. cit., p. 457, who thinks this naive speech U uttered aa a universal principle, without any immediate moral or practical bearing. "< Allt es feigs fora)>, Ibid., 322. 26 GNOJnC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON It fares better in the war game with the bold man than with the coward, and better with the glad man than with the timid, whatever comes to hand." ^ Sigrdrifom6lf as it is the third and last of this series, is also the climax in sententious wisdom and prophetic power. The sleeping maiden on being roused from slumber speaks,^ first, runes of various things, — mind and love, sea and victory. Then she gives eleven counsels, some of which — for example, the fifth, against alluring women — are akin to those in the Wise Father's Instruction. The ninth enjoins care for the dead : " At[|)u]n9om bjarger hvars[|)u]ii foldo fi))r." This injunction is similar to the one in the Exeter Gnomes (1. 115), both testify- ing to the importance of burial. Concerning the woes of humanity, a general statement springs out of the counsels : " Manifold are the troubles of men,"^ a sentiment repeated in Helreifo Brynhildar, stanza 14. AilamSl, besides the sentence quoted, has also an- other of decided gnomic character. Gudrun declares that women suffer from men's tyranny ; * and she in- 1 Hugr es betre an[.s6]hJQr8 raegen hvars skolo vrei)>er vega : « • ' « « • IIvQtom's betra an[8«§]6bvQtom, I bildeleik bafask ; \ glyhom's betra, an[6d]glvipnanda hvats'at hcnde komr. — S.-G., I, 327. » An iuteresting example of literary propbecy occurs in Oripeasp^, where Sigurd's uncle foretells tbat Brunliilde will counsel him. " She shall teach thee every mystery men wish to know, and to speak in eveiy man's tongue, healing and leechcraft." — S.-G., I, 290. » FJQlt.*s t>ats fira tregr. — S.-G., I, 347. ♦ Kostom drepr kvenna karla ofrfke. — S.-G., I, 456. INTRODUCTION 27 dulges further in a figurative proverb, "The tree must fall if the root be cut." ^ AtlakviPa has two examples of reflection in the poet's own person curiously like the " So should a young man " type in Beowulf. The first instance is in stanza 20 : " So should a brave man defend himself against his foes ! " ^ said in applause of Hogni's deed. The second is in stanza 34 : "So shall a valiant hero guard his gold from his enemies ! " ' in commendation of Gunnar. In IlainAesrnSl, the half-brother Erp appears to have liad a propensity for untimely quotation of old saws. " It's ill work to show cowards the way," he taunts,^ and for the implication loses his life. Respect for the aged and their advice is indicated by a sen- tence of Ham})er'3, " Opt or belg or})gom boll t6]) koma," ^ while Sorli's contribution is to the effect that it is a very sad lack if a man lack wLsdom." He also speaks of the uselessness of fighting the de- cree of the Nonas : " No man lives over the evening after the word of fate has gone forth."' It has already been observed that the Norse as- cribed their wise sayings to gods and men alike. The voha, or prophetess, represents the elevation into literature of the divining, soothsaying woman, in whom the Germans, according to Tacitus, had con- siderable confidence. The gods are best represented 1 Tr€ tekr at linlga, ef heggr tx^gundan. — S.-G., I, 460. "^ Sv.-l ekal irakn verjask fi.^udora sfnom, — S.-G., I, 428. 8 SvA skal golle fn'jkn hringdrife vi5 tira halda. — Ibid., 432, * Ill's blau|H>m hal brauter kciina. — S.-G., I, 480. • Ibid., 483. Cf. IV'vavi^l, Btanza IS."], Wanderer, 11. C4, 05. « Mikcls es d. maun hvern vant es iiianviLs es. — Ibid., 484. ' Kvcld lifer in;;)<r etke, cpt kvi)> noma. — /tid., 485. 28 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON" by Odin, whose growth in gnomic expression may be traced by his successive exploitations, from his visits to the vqlva, where he goes to seek wisdom. Ncr is the dwarf to be disregarded. Alviss by his name bears evidence that knowledge was associated with dwarfish stature.^ Among the heroic figures, women are notably expounders of cryptic remarks, runic sayings, and gnomic advice : witness Gudrun and Brunliilde ; in a lesser degree, male figures — Fafnir, Hreidmar, and Sigurd, for example — become the mouthpieces of wisdom. Graybeards, as the poems here and there testify, were held worthy of respect : some of the most didactic portions of the Ilovavibl, exclusive of the lessons of Loddfdfnir, illustrative of the same thing, seem to be lessons or advice given to young men by their old tutors. Finally, as may have been noticed above, the poet sometimes speaks in his own person. Most of these speeches, then, fall imder the follow- ing heads : 1. Fate {Grooyaldr, GrlpesspQ, IlampL-smQl). 2. Circumspection in speech {Vafpru/^nesiiiQl, Regensml^l). 3. Woes of men {Reyens/nQl, Sufnlrifoniql, Ublrei/> Bryn- hildar. 4. Courage and cowardice {Fdfnesm'nl, Atlakvi^a, Hamp&s- mql). 5. Women {Sigrdrifom'jl, AtlaniQl). 6. Wisdom of the old {Uamfoesm<il, Ui^vamql). A complete study would reveal a fuller list, but this is illustrative of Norse characteristics. The 1 It will be remembered that among the folk of the present day the belief is common that dwarfs and hunchbacks are possessed of extraor- dinary intellect. TNTRODUCTION 29 Norseman preached prudence, he scorned cowardice and exalted couiage, he was oppressed by a sense of the miseries of life and the inevitableness of fate. . Before speaking of the preservation of gnomic verses in Old Norse, it will be best to consider their appearance in the West Germanic literature as repre- sented by Anglo-Saxon. In Anglo-Saxon epic and lyric of oldest origin, verses of gnomic import, if not always of gnomic length, are frequent. Their presence has been at times regarded as an element disturbing the unity of the epic lay, though with light thrown from shorter poems, into which they are likewise interjected, it seems clear that they were not held to be irrelevant at the time of their inclusion ; unless, indeed, the unity of even the shortest poems be contested. Even if the poems are, in some instances, composite, it shows that the compiler felt gnomic verse might be blended with other Uxatter. In Beoundfy I classify the following lines and groups of lines as gnomic divagations, apart from the current of the story : > 20-25 : 1836-188 ; 2876-289 ; 4406-441; 4556; 5726-573; 9316-932; 10036- 1004; 10586-1063; 13856-1390; 15356-1537; 16646-lGG5a; 18396-1840; 19416-1944; 20306- 2032; 21676-2170a; 2292-2294a; 26016-2602; 27056-2767; 28916-2892; 30636-3066; 3078- 3079; 31766-3179. Of these gnomic passages, most are heathen ; some are mixed with Christian sentiments, as if the author * Numbering of Ueyue-Sociii text, ed. L. SchUcking, raderbom, 1908. 30 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON had turned old matter to new purposes ; one or two may be entirely Christian. In some cases, it is im- possible to separate the two elements. A writer who had at his command a wealth of heathen lay material and who was famihar also with the teachings of Christianity designed for them no separate compart- ments in building his epic poem. Heathen and Christian wisdom appear now in harmony, again in slight conflict. The first passage, an adhortation of the familiar sceal tj'pe, is paralleled elsewhere in Anglo-Saxon,^ and the thought is of high antiquity : 20 Swa sceal geong {/uma gode gewyrcean, fromum feoh-giftuin on fseder terne, })set hine on ylde eft gewuuigcn wil-gesi(5as, f'onne wig cume, leode gelSsten. Lof-diedum sceal in mSgSa geliwawi man gepOon. Saxo's praise of Sciold enumerates a list of deeds similar to these,'^ deeds the celebration of which later descended to a commonplace in chivalric romance : The prince must win to his banner good knights by his bounty. So in Guy of Wanvick, we read : Good knyghtis he loued ywis, And freely he gaue thera of hys, Therfore wel belouyd he was. Because the passage has no immediate connection with the context, Sievers suggested a hiatus between 1 Gn. C, 14. 2 " He contended . . . with all other monarchs in courage, i)Ounty, and generous dealing ... He used to enrich his nobles not only with home taxes, but also with plunder taken in war ; being wont to aver that the prize money shouldflow to the soldiers, and the glory to the geaeitil." See York Powell, p."l8 ; Holder, p. 12. INTRODUCTION 31 lines 19 and 20. Mullenhoff ^ cited it as one of the moralizing asides which break up the unity of the poem,'^ and remarked of it, that it is a generalization of political import. Haeuschkel,'^ in commenting upon the fact that the introduction of sentences often appears awkward and forced, cites this passage as an example. Miilleuhoff, intent upon his separate ballad theory, perhaps unconsciously stretched a critical conscience to make these generalizations examples of the irrele- vant ; or perhaps he was momentarily forgetful of their accustomed presence in the old literature. Others, as for instance Sievers and Kcihler, in looking for a unity too perfect, were unmindful of the fact that the Germanic poet often turns aside to point a moral and thereby adorn his material. Such a say- ing is irrelevant in the sense that it is a generaliza- tion, which, though possibly called to mind by a particular circumstance or concrete situation, yet stands alone, independent; but it is not hrelevant with respect to the large unity of the early epic, which was ample and inclusive. Digressions have many times been observed to be features of the epic style, and the irrelevancies of the Anglo-Saxons are merely in.^ lances of such episodic character. Of the same type as 20-25, are 15356-1537, and 21G76-2170a. Just as Scyld's acquitting himself well produces the generalization that so ought a young man to do, Beowulf's trusting to his strength 1 Die Innere Oeschichte des Beovulfs, in Zeit. f. d. A., n. s., II, 195. 2 A criticism, it need hardly bo noted, now in disrepute. « Die Tcch)xik der Erzahlung im Beowuljliede, Breslau, 1904, p. 63. 32 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON of hand in the conflict with Grendel's mother induces the observation : 15356 Swa sceal man d5an, J>onne h6 set giiSe gegan JienceS longsumne lof, iia yinb his Iif cearatJ. and likewise the recital of Beowulf's gifts to Hygelao affords opportunity for the comment : ' 21676 Swa sceal mii'g doan, nealles inwit-net oSrum bregdon, dyrnum crsefte deaS renian hond-gesteallan. Lines similar to these have been quoted above as forming part of the Old Norse gnomology. Gnomes of this type Earle ^ characterized as " Monitory Pas- sages," seeing in them a " clue to the secret history of the poem " which he designates as " The Institu- tion of a Prince." He is echoed by Brandl, who calls Beoionlf a sort of mirror for princes.^ And a more recent critic sees an immediate application m this particular moralizing : " Such comment seems harsh J and the allusion to treachery uncalled for, until we notice v:hat that present is which Beowulf has just given to his lord. It is a war-panoply, which of old belonged to Hrothgar's brother, King Heoro- gar, but which has 7iot been given to Heoroweard, Heorogar's son. No : the armor has been given to Beowulf the stranger, and Heoroweard has been de- prived of his father's weapons." ^ 1 Tlic Deeds of Beowulf, J. Earle, Oxford, 1802, p. Ixxv ff. 2 — "kein anderes erziihlungswerk wcder ein weltliches noch ein geist- licbes. kommt eineiu fiirstcnspiegel so nalie." — op. cit., p. 1001. . » Wiihith, R. W. Chambers, Cambridge, 1J12, p. 83. INTRODUCTION 33 But here and elsewhere in Beowulf,^ as in the lays of the Edda, these asides are, I think, commonplace generalizations, though they doubtless took their special coloring from the particular time and place. That they were uttered as particular exhortations or with any thought that the princely circle needed to profit by them, I doubt. They had become conven- tional stop-gaps or roundings of periods. A single instance is perhaps to be regarded as a definite per- sonal hint to Hrothgar concerning the boy, Hrethric : 18396 Feor-cyt53e beo« selran gesohte JJiSm-j^e him selfa deah. It is the close of Beowulf's leave-taking speech, wherein he has just suggested that Hrethric would find friends at the court of the Geats. I say perhaps ; for I sus- pect, rather, that Beowulf was finishing off his invi- tation by the statement of a truth as well known to Hrothgar as to himself.^ Lines 183-188 may be regarded as a " terminal moral " akin tc that at the end of the Cotton Grnomes^ and elsewhere. Such moralizings or religious adhorta- tions bear evidence of later origin bv their Christian doctrine. Ettmiiller first made 179-185 the close of a fytte, a view in which Miillenhoif coincided, characterizing the passage as " ganz theologisch." So Blackburn, attempting to separate Christian and ^Cf. also \Vi(hith, 11-13. sceal beodiia gehu^lc Rawum lifgan, eorl after OSruui CSle raidan, Be \>e. his heodenstol get>6on wile ! 2 The custom of sending sons to win their spurs in foreign coantries was practised long in England. » See p. 129. 34 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON heathen sentiment, thinks it to be an interpolation.* According to the opinion, however, that Beowulf is a unified whole, the work of a poet familiar no less with Christian than with heathen beliefs, this passage is simply to be regarded as arising out of the later time and religion. " The Beowulf poet was subject to various influences," Klaeber concludes in his series of excellent articles on Tlie Christian Elements in Beonmlf, "he was a Widsith or Saxo in legendary lore, at the same time he was an ecclesiastically educated man, a sensitive character, and an incomparable artist among the Anglo-Saxons." 2 In lines 4406-441 a Christian gnome is apparent. " He whom death taketh shall resign himself to the doom of the Lord" seems quite modern. But I be- lieve with Gummere ^ that the old " goes Wyrd as she must" is in the background, — a thought which ap- pears almost immediately in 455Z>. Moreover, Black- burn groups the saying with other passages that show Christian colorino; bv "incidental allusions to God and his power." ^ These mixed gnomes are: 440Z>-441, 930-931, 105G 11., 1661 ff., 2292-2294a. He makes out a case for transference from heathen to Christian thought on the ground that Christianity is vague and colorless in these passages, as will be seen if we sub- stitute Fate for God. " The moral sentiment remains, but it is no longer a Christian sentiment. . . . We 1 TMLA., XII, 22. ^Anglia, XXXV(n. f. XXHI), pp. Ill ff., 240 ff., 453 ff., and XXXVI, pp. 171 fl. Die Christlichen Elememe im Beowulf. See these pages, passim, for comparison of sundry gnomic passages with similar ones in Beoivulf. 8 OEE., p. 42. * Op. ciC, p. 210 ff. INTRODUCTION 85 may assume the existence of an older poem composed by a heathen scop and containing moral sentiments and reflections of the same character as those of Homer or Virgil or tlie Edda. Later, a Christian monk * edits ' it for Christian readers." ^ The value of this classification is not affected by the point of view that regards the passages as the work of a poet subject alike to Christian and heathen influence. That is to say, the " mixed " character remains, whether original heathen sayings have been " edited " or the lines were composed by a poet to v;hom God was Lord of fate.' Haeuschkel is also of the opinion that 930-931, 16646-lG65a, 3056, and the inevitable 1836-188 are of Christian character.^ I see only a Christian sentiment in 9316-932 : — a mseg god wyrcan wunder aefter wuudre, wuldres hyrde! Fate does not work wonders, nor is ivuldres hyrde a heathen figure. The case, however, is different with 1058-1063, where the parts may be separated : 10586-1059 Metod eallum weold gumena cynnes, swa he nu git doeS, is Christian. But 1060-1061a is a thought occurring in heathen passages : * 1 Op. cit., p. 217. "Cf. Klaeber, " Vorherrschend christlich iat Uberhaupt . . . die ganze tonart und siitenanschauung. Wir sind iiicht mehr in heidnischer atmos- phare." — Op. cit., XXXVI, 175. » Op. cit., p. ^i'^. *Cf. II{)vamil, stanza 6, and passim, and Wander''.r, 116-14. It la Blinilar also to a sentence in Maxims (Exeter Book, 122a), hyge freste bind mid modsefan (Z?i6., II, 280), which, though occurring in a small group of Christian sayings, has a heathen ring. 36 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON ForJ)an bi?5 andgit ffighwaer sClest, ferhSes fore-))anc. And it may wery well have been retained from an older portion, which, however, suffered the addition of 1058-1059. 10G16-10G3 may itself be of ancient origin, like the " Manifold are the woes of men " sen- tences referred to above ; but it rings rather like a late homiletic close : Fela sceal gebldan leofes Olid lat5es, s6 \>e longe her on )»yssum win-dagum worolde brflceS. Earle ^ holds that the passage was formerly heathen but was corrected by loUig (jod (1057). He aees Providence and fate not opposed, but harmonized by subordination of the latter, and recognizes a mind fed upon De Comolatlone, IV, 6 ff.^ 1664^-1665a oftost wisode winigea leasum is part of a Christian thought, referring as it does to ylda waldend in 1662. I cannot accept it as "mixed " ; for the substitution of fate is inapt (cf. 931, above). Bugge^ emends the line unnecessarily by a textual change which makes it particular instead of general. 2292-2294tt Swa msDg unfSge CaCe gedigan wean ond wnuc-slS, se })e waldendes hyldo gehealdeS seems to be a distinct Christianizing of the heathen expression found in 5726-573 : » Op. cit., p. 144. 2Cf. Klaeber, op. cit., XXXVI, 176. » Quoted by Scliiickiug, op. cit., p. 115, q.v. INTRODUCTION 37 Wyrd oft neretJ Unf»gne eorl, }>onne his ellen deah ! a Germanic commonplace' spoken by Beowulf in recounting his shimming match with Breca, a proto- type of the more modern " God helps those that help themselves." Cook '^ thinks its origin lies in the Latin original of " Fortune favors the brave." But since the passage occurs in part in the Il'ddehrand Lay (1. 55) and occasionally in Old Norse,"' I see no reason for seeking origins outside the Germanic group, even though among the next of kin. It is rather, I think, analogic, — one of a number of kindred thoughts aris- ing among tribes widely separated. In its juxtapo- sition of fate and courage, the passage is paralleled in 1056 ff. The limitations of Fate in 455??, " GceS a "Wyrd swa hio seel ! " would appear to be somewhat in con- trast with the idea that she may fa^'or a brave man. But Wyrd is thought of as two different forces or powers in the two passages 4556 and 572 ff., which may be taken as exemplars of the fact that conceptions of Fate were not consistent."* In the former her blind- ness is emphasized, Fate bound by necessity ; in the ' GniiuUvig Bays the leading idea of the Bjarkim'^l is the same aa that found in Beoicnlf^ Ab.y, 572. Udniijl, p. &2, referred to by Meyer, op. cit., p. 45(5, who remarks : "-diese erkenntnis ist der eii^eutliche grundstein allererkenntnis des volks liberall f,'e\vosen. Wie GuiSrun spricht, *8kopum viSr mannj;!,' so siii^t lloktor: 'jMor^aK S'oCWivi ^tjm' ir«pvftxivov ^f^itvai B.vbpCiv: " (7^., (5, 488.) Cf. also Germanic. Origins, p. 2.30 ff. ^ MLN., VlII, 117-118, q.v., for list of citations from Latin classics, ulndreas 4o8-l(J0 is a Christianized form, also, of Beowtilf b'2. 8 Cf. OEE., pp. 47-48, note. *Cf. Klaeber, op. cit., XXXVI, 172, and note. He notes that in JBeoxoulf, 3U31, loyrda ni, toorda. the significance of xcyrd is " ganz abge- Bchwacht." 38 GNOMIC POETRY EN ANGLO-SAXON latter her personality has faded, chance or fortune being indicated as in modem speech.' In age, 13856-1390a rivals 4556 and 5*^2 ff. It is proverbial, Meyer thinks,'^ like the former ; it is anal- ogous to other ancient sayings, like the latter. It i? the Anglo-Saxon representative of the custom refeiTed to by Tacitus,'^ and has a close parallel in Ilbvambly stanza TT."* It is not quite identical with jEneid, X, 467 ft'., '^ nor is there any reason for regarding the Latin as the sole orio-inal of what must have been a O universal heathen belief. I have spoken of the pas- sage as a unit ; yet it contains three separate gnomes bound logically together : 13856 Scire bitS teghwiem, ]>?et he his fiGond wrece, ponne h6 fela murue. Ure ieghwylc sceal ende gebldan worolde lifes; wyrce se pe mote domes ier deaSe ! pset biS driht-guman uulifgendum eefter s6lest. With the first line and a half should be compared Byrhtnoth : 258-259 Ne raneg nd, wandian, s6 )>e wrecan ))encet5 frean on folce, ne for fGore murnan I ' ^ OEE., p. 43, note. The word in 455 may have the force of " destiny." Meyer, op. cit., 455, thinks this line is an ancient proverb. It is probable, therefore, that Wyrd is spoken of with small vestige of the old feeling for the word. Cf. preceding not«. 2 Op. cit., p. 450. « Cf. Introduction (p. 18), Gn. Ex. 81, and Klaeber, •» Unchristlich ist der preis des nachriihins." — Op. cic, XXXVI, 173. * Ek veit einn at aldre deyr : domr umb dau)>:in hvern. — S.-G., I, 37, 5 Slat "sua cuique dies ; breve et irreparabile tempos Omnibus est vitse ; sed famam extendere factis, Hoc virtutis opus. « Bib., I, 309-370. INTRODUCTION 89 and with Seafarer ^ 72-80a, whicli from analysis would appear to be a revamping of this or a similar heathen passage : For|)on paet eorla gehwam aeftercweSendra lof llfgendra, lastworda betst, \dii li6 gew V rce, iur h6 on weg scyle, freniman on foldan wi5 feonda nl)> deorum diedum dCofle togCanes, pcet hine slda beam jefter hergen and his lof si)»)>aii lifge mid englum awa to ealdre, 6cau llfes blierf, dream mid duge}>ura ! * In the heathen group, we observe that (1) death is inevitable ; (2) therefore, win glory, (3) which is worthiest. In the later revision, we find that (1) death is inevitable ; (2) therefore, work against hatred of foes and the devil and win praise, (3) which is best. (4) Men will praise (such a man) whose fame will live forever. Tiie loss of brevity and pithiness with the corresponding gain in didacticism weakens the value of the Christian passage. In the oldest poem, Widsithy a brief and pointed estimate of him who wins glory closes the recital : 1426 lof 85 gewyrce?5, hafat5 under heofonum heahfaestne d6m. "The chief object v/hich the characters of the heroic age set before themselves is to * win glory,' to have their fame celebrated for all time," says Chad- wick,'^ who has collected a number of passages in illustration of this assertion. He observes that one of the most striking characteristics of heroic poetry, 1 Bib., I, 293. » Heroic Age, Cambridge, 1912, p. 88. 40 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON both Greek and Teutonic, is the constantly expressed thirst for fame. Odysseus himself says his glory reaches to heaven, and Beowulf's fame is spoken of even more extravagantly, as lines 856 if. indicate. The love of glory is held as an incitement to bravery in critical situations, as in Waldere, I, 8 ff.* The remaining expressions deserve here no partic- ular comment. They are, I believe, without excep- tion of heathen origin." In making this statement, I am not unmindful of the truth that, in general,, it is difficult, if not useless, to attempt separation of heathen and Christian streams contributing: to the current of early Anglo-Saxon epic.'' In some cases, as I have already said, it is impossible to affirm that a maxim is Teutonic or that it is scriptural. But in other cases, it is impossible to avoid seeing indications of definite source. In reviewing the characteristics of these passages aside from their heathen or Christian nature, we find that they may be tabulated in content approximately as follows : ^ 1. They encourage laudable deeds: 20-25, 1385^-1390, 15356-1537, 18396-1840, 20306-2032, 28916-2892 ; 2. Liberality: 20-25; 1 Cf. Heroic Age, p. 325 ff. 2 28015-2S02 Meyer thinks is a proverb, — "eine uralte lehre." — Op. cit., p. 4;V). And Klaeber notes its resemblance to a passage in Iphifjenia Aulidis (1252) of Euripides.— Op cit., XXXVI, 173, » " The futility of attemptine; to separate Christian and heathen con- ceptions in that poem [Beowulf] is now well recognized, Professor Brand! having been one of the foremost to adopt that view." — W. W. Lawrence, The SoH'j of Dear, \n M. Ph., IX, 1, 27. ♦ Cf. Sarrazin, neoicnlf-Shulien, Berlin, 1888, p. 70 ff., whom I follow in part. His list, however, is not so full as the one here given. Ilaeusch- kel, op. cit., p. C3, practically copies Sarrazin. INTRODUCTION 41 3. Prudence, wisdom: 2876-289, 106(>-1061a; 4. Confidence in God or Fate: 4406-441, 5726-573, 931 i^ 932, 10586 ff., 16646-1665a, 2292-2294a. 5. They warn against treachery of women : 19416-1944 ; 6. Treachery of kindred : 21676-2170a (cf. 26016-2602). 7. They commemorate inevitable death: 1836-188, 10036- 1004, 13856-1390, 28016-2892, 30836-3006, 31766^179. Classified with reference to the speakers, the follow- ing reflections are uttered by the poet, as he turns aside from the main channel of his narrative : 20-25, 1836-188, 100rj7)-]004, 10586-1063, 15356-1537, 19416-1944, 21676-2170a, 26016-2602,27656-2767,1 30636-3066, 31766 If. The following are spoken by Beowulf: 455, 5726-573, 13856-1390, 16646- 1665a, 18396-1840, 20306-2032. From the shore- guard, proceeds 2876-289; from Wiglaf, 28916-2892, 3078-3079. It is noticeable that until Beowulf's death, only one gnome is put into the mouth of any other character.^ After the hero's death, Wiglaf suc- ceeds him as speaker of wise sayings. Of these speeches, the oldest are characterized by " oft " or " selre." ^ " Sceal " is more didactic, like- wise "moeg"; often the mere statement lodged in "bis" etc., takes the place of the hortatory form. Combinations occur : "swii sceal," " swa biS." Under one of these heads fall the greater number of Beowulf gnomes.* As in the epic, so in the early lyi'ics, gnomes and 1 Haeuschkel, who aiakes a single division, op. cit., p. 62, errs ia plac- ing 2705 under the alteniale head. He omits 3176 ff. 2 981/>-<)32, said by llrothgar. ' Cf. Mt'j'er, op. cit., p. 455. * I do not take up 1725 f!., nor 2445 ff., for both, though akin to the passages treated, are of different character. 42 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-«AXON gnomic sayings are imbedded. And just as in the epic their presence has been taken to uphold the argument for separate composition, so in the lyrics they are regarded by some critics as intruders, interpolations by those convenient "later scribes." The Wa7ide7'er ^ shows vigorous sententious pro- clivity. Although the introduction is recognized as Christian, it breaks off at 5a, following which bh is unquestionably heathen: " "\Yyrd biS ful arced!^" And though the close 112a-115 is a late homiletic addition (cf. Gn. C. conclusion, p. 129), the poem throughout is imbued with pagan sentiment. 116-18 comprise a group of gnomes, all arising from the Wanderer's contemplation of his own posi- tion, but universal in their bearing. 116-14 commend caution in betraying thought, Ic to soSe wat, ]>xt bi(5 on eorle indryliten }>eaw, ]>cet he his fert5locan feste binde, a sentiment, which though lacking parallelism of ex- pression, is of the same type as Beowulf, 1060-1061a. 15 and 16 are grammatically joined, but in reality comprise two sentences : ne maeg werig mod wyrde AviSstondan ne se hreo hyge helpe gefreraman. The first of these offers a variation of Beowulf, 572. The second is a thought not found elsewhere in Anglo- Saxon gnomology. 17-18 forJ>on domgeorne drSorigne oft in hyra breostcofan bindat5 freste i £ib., I, 284. 2 On arSld, cf. Gn. Ex., 195, note. INTRODUCTION 48 is likewise a thought which has found expression more often in later literature than in Anglo-Saxon verse. The next generalization is of a familiar kind,^ 296-31: Wat s6 J»e cunnaS htl sll<5en bi8 3org to geffiran ]>^m ]>e him lyt hafaS leofra geholena. 64-65a echoes the proverb already observed in the Old Norse Hamfiesmbl : forf'on ne maeg weort5an wis wer, aer h6 age w intra dSl in woruldrlce. In 65&-69, we have a series of attributes belonging to the wise man, wherein moderation is discernible as the happy mean : Wita sceal ge]>y\dig, ne sceal no to hatheort ne to hraedwyrde ne to wac wiga ne to wanhydig ne to forht ne to fsegen ne to feohgifre ne nS.^re gielpes to georn, ffir he geare cunne.' The caution against boasting is continued in 70-72 : Beorn sceal gebldan, })onne h6 beot spricetJ 06 J)aet collenferf- cunne gearwe, hwiuer hreSia gehygd hweorfan wille. And the passage on the wise man is concluded with 73-74, which suggest that he can understand how terrible will be the destruction of the world. It is to be observed that the Day of Judgment is referred to in no churchly manner : if the lines were the work 1 The essentially early tone of sucL sentences is noted in introduc- tion to Gn. Ex. See p. 94. * King Cormac gives similar advice to Carbre ; of. K. Meyer, op. eit., p. 44. 44 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON of an interpolator, he would hardly have missed the oppoi-tunity to celebrate it in true orthodox fashion. Of the gnomes in 58-87, Boer^ observes a close relationship with the Exeter Gnomes. Boer's reasons for assuming interpolation of the entire passage are weak. There is no occasion for considering them here, since they have already been answered by Law- rence,- and since, moreover, the full passage lies out- side the scope of this study. Lawrence in meeting Boer's contention that the "spriiche" disturb the narrative says : ^ " Consider the pronounced fondness of the Saxons for moralizinor and for gnomic material in general. This was not a literary fashion intro- duced with Christianity, its roots lie deep in heathen antiquity. The gnomic poetry of other peoples is as a rule of ancient date. It was characteristic of Anglo- Saxon thought to connect the particular and the gen- eral, to make a man's experiences point a moral as well as adorn a tale. The Saxon in misfortune found consolation in philosophy long before King Alfred translated Boethius. Deor's refrain Poes ofereode, /ASses sivd iiiccfj ! is of a piece with the Wanderer's conclusions on reviewingr the fates of men. The reflective mood which leads to moralizing is closely akin to the elegiac spirit. Modern poetry is full of instances of it. The amount of Anglo-Saxon verse distmctly heathen in character is relatively small, and citations from it are likely to be questioned as later additions. This applies to the many passages in Beoimdf containing moral reflections, and the » Ztft.f. d. Phil., XXXV, 11. ••» JEG. Ph., IV, 460 if. » Ibid., p. 477. INTRODUCTION 45 blighting band of higher criticism has been laid even on Widsi^dind Dear. It will be noted, however, that vhe lyric cry of the banished wife in the Wifes Com- plaint is interrupted at its height by reflections on the virtues beseeming a youth, while it closes with a gen- eral maxim deduced from the sad experiences of the once happy couple. The mere presence of moralizing in a poem cannot be said to indicate interpolation." The uhi sunt motive in 92-93 is in the gnomic mood, and if converted to declarative expression would be gnomic in form : Hwier cwoni mearg ? hwijer ewoui mago ? liwier cwom maSSuriigyfa? hweer cwom symbla gesetu ? hwSr sindon seledr^aruas ? But difficulty lies in fipding an equivalent assertion that will retain the feeling and force of the interroga- tive couplet. Beside the question, "Where are the snows of yesteryear ? " the affirmation, " No one knows wher3 the snows of yesteryear are,'' becomes far less vivid. And so in these lines from the Wan- derer, emphasis and sententiousness are gained by the form, a form which might be characterized as the interrogative gnome, The iihi sunt motivation is an old one, perhaps of equal age with riddle, charm, and speli.^ 100b reverts to the omnipotence of fate: "Wyrd seo mgere," ^ the commonplace observed elsewhere throughout this work. The thought is contained in the fine line 107: "onwendeJS wyrda gesceaf t weorold 1 Cf. MLN., Vill, 187-188, for parallels to the lines above quoted. 2 Gollancz ia wrong in translating, " Theira was a glorious fate." Cf. E. E. T. S., CIV, 2U3. 46 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON under heofenum," which is less commonplace and has the same heathen tone. 106 : " Eall is earfoSlic 8or)>an rice," is the Anglo- Saxon equivalent for the sentence quoted above from Sigrdrifomol (p. 26). BeoKyuJf, 10616-1063, has also a kinship with it. It might seem to reveal a tendency of our ancestors to complain at hard times and con- ditions, even as their descendants do to-day; but it also suggests the disturbed political situation in Britain of the eighth century, conditions which prob- ably gave fresh meaning to many outworn phrases. 108-110 are interesting from their combination into priamel form : h6r bits feoh liene, h6r bi3 fr6ond liene, her bits mon laine, her bitS inaeg Uene, eal j'is eorSan gesteal Idel weorSetS ! Each of the five gnomes is prosaic enough in expres- sion, but taken together they show conscious elabora- tion not dissimilar to that employed in the Cotton collection. 112a is of a type often found: ^ "Til biS se)>ehis treowe gehealdetJ." It is a kind usually found in pas- sages suspiciously Christian, and because of that coincidence, as well as the fact that line 111 of the Wanderer seems to close the poem, I believe it to be part of the homiletic addition. 112&-114a ne sceal niefre his torn tO rycene beorn of his breostura acySan, iiemtSe he aer ))a bote cunne eorl mid elne gefremman ! should be compared with 11& ff. 1 Cf. On. Ex., 35, and note. INTRODUCTION 47 From so long a list in a poem numbering but 115 lines, it will be noticed by a mere hazard of addition and subtraction that the amount of sententious mate- rial is sufficient to justify naming the poem a gnomic lyric. The strain throughout is one of sad contem- plation and reflection, which though personal in its origin is easily diverted into the general. As an elegiac composition, moreover, the poem is not seri- ously interrupted by the frequent development of a moral : it is logically all of a piece. "Sceal," "oft," '^mseg," and "bis" appear as catchwords of the gnomic expressions which are, in content, distinct from those of the epic, pealing forth the jubilant note of courage, incitation to brave deeds ; but which are similar to those epic counsels exhorting to fidelity, prudence, wisdom, and the like. Fate weighs even m.ore heavily than in Beowulf, as might be expected in a poem dealing with the woes of the friendless man. In Beowulf CA\d the Wanderer, we find — exclusive of the passage in Byrhtnotli — the best of the old speeches which are preserved in epic and lyric verse. Hence- forth, Christianity either modifies the old or supplies their places by another variety. In calling attention to the gnomic passages in the Seafarer y"^ it will be necessary to say a word or two about the unity of the poem. The main divisions gen- erally recognized are l-64a and 646-124 ;2 but Thorpe observed the change in matter and manner from 103 to the close, and Lawrence suggests that not enough 1 nib., I, 21K). * Cf. Kluge, Eng. St., VI, 322 ft. ; Boer, op. cit. ; Lawrence, op. cit. 48 GNOMIC POETllY IN ANGLO-SAXON attention has been paid to this line of demarcation.* In l-64a, the critics usually see the l3rric proper ; in 646-124, material more or less didactic and suffi- ciently separated from part I to deserve a distinct caption. Now, there seems to be no essential reason for drawing the line at 64a. Up to this point, it is true, the main thesis has been the sea, — its fascina- tion, its hardships. It is likewise true that from 64& forward the sea passes into the background and the elegiac strain is prominent in a vein of moralizing more or less tedious. But before 103, I see no definite boundaries ; the personal leads gradually to the impersonal, the particular merges into the gen- eral, the theme of the sea is changed into didactic commonplaces about the universe. The first part is nobler ; it rings of remote times. Though the whole poem is elegiac, passing gradually from heathen into Christian thought, no definitely gnomic verses are found before 103. The single exception, apparently a later version of Beowulf, 1385 If., I have mentioned above. Now, after 117, the first line of the hom- iletic close, the matter is practically all gnomic : 103 : Micel bij) s6 meotudes egsa, forljou hi seo molde oiicyrretJ, and 116 : Meotud meahtigra Jjonne aenges monnes gehygd, are similar to Gn. C, 4h. 1155 : " Wyrd biS swiSre" is a parallel of Gn. C, da ; moreover, by its juxtaposition "with 116 shows the identical relation that Gn. C, 6a bears to 46. Parallels of 106, 107, and 109 are found in the Exeter Gnomes (q. v.). Lines 111-112 preach the ancient virtue of moderation : * Op. cit., p. 471. INTRODUCTION 51 enumerated at length, among v/hich we find a similar combination : " Let him be sober ... let him be affa- ble." ^ This, I think, serves to reveal more strongly the general gnomic character of the lines from The Banished Wifes Lament. The Song of Deor '^ is unique in Anglo-Saxon litera- ture in its employment of a refrain, and is of special interest here since that refrain is gnomic. pops ofereodey Aisses swd mceg ! has been usually translated as having distirct references to the fortunes of Deor : That he surmounted : so this may I ! But Lawrence maintains'' that the thought is general. "There is no way of telling that he [Deor] may not have had present woes of his own in mind when he says Hsses Siva mceg ! but there is nothing to indicate it, and 11. 28 ff. are certainly general rather than personal." He thinks the poem is " not a complaint, but a con- solation." As tlie troubles of Wayland, Beadohild, and others passed, so may the suiferings of the sorrow- ful one in line 28. The refrain then, is " cheerful and practical " philosophy, vivid in comparison v/ith the commonplaces of the Wanderer and the Seafarer. Old troubles have passed and present ones may! " The whole piece seems most easily interpreted as a general poem of consolation, applicable to anyone in present trouble." * The generalizing passage 31-34 is part of what may be an interpolation: 1 " rop sobraig . . . rop soacoUmach." — K. Meyer, op. c(t., p. 12. ^Dfis San<jera Trost, Bib., 1, 278 ff. ■ The Song of Deor, in M. Ph., IX, 1, 23 fl. * Ibid., p. 27. 52 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON ^I?eg })onne gej'encan, ]>xt geond ]>5,s woruld witig dryhten wende}) geneahhe, eorle moneguin are gesceawat5, wislicne blied, sumuin weana dael. In favor of late insertion are ivitig dryhten^ the fact that the dramatic lyric plan is broken up, and that the tone is hardly that of a writer " who had taken Deor's own tonic." Moreover, the lines are " awkward in syntax, and muddy in thought, and their philosophy is not quite that of the refrain, although not contrary to it." ^ Further, gnomic passages on the fortunes or fates of men occur largely in later poems, seemingly Christian. Against late addition are the facts that wltig drijliten may be a single substitution in a heathen passage for Wyrd and a corresponding modifier, that departure from the dramatic lyric plan may arise, as we have seen, naturally from the elegiac mood, and that the sum type of sententious expression, though found more abundantly in later Anglo-Saxon poetry, is yet found in the Eddie poems where there is no indica- tion of late origin.''^ Although the moralizing passage is a trifle forced, yet its content is not inharmonious with the lyric scheme : So any man sitting sorrowful, severed from joys, may reflect that the fortunes of men are diverse, and that while one has wealth, another has woe : let him surmount his misery ! On the whole, it is difficult to say whether the lines are ^ Lawrence, op. cit., p. 27. 2 Cf. Uuvami'l, stauza G9 : sunir es af sunom stell, suuir af fry&ndom, sumr af f^ 6nio, 8umr af verkora vel. — S.-G., I, 35. and IIyndloIj6/>, above, p. 23. INTKODUCTION 68 or are not interpolated ; but it is easy to agree witli Lawrence that they are " really quite in accord with its structure, making plainer its message." ^ The poem which Thorpe entitled On the Endow- ments and Fursuits of Men, and which has been va- riously named Gifts of Men, Bi Monna Crceftum, Der Menschen Gdbcn,^ belongs to the early Christian period. Lines 1-29 are obviously the composition of a monk, as are also 103-113, the homiletic close, besides 8G- 95 in the heart of the poem. The remainder have a heathen ring ; they have at best no reference to tokens and symbols of Christianity, but celebrate harp-play- ing, seamanship, smithcraft, and the like. One exam- ple will suffice to illustrate their gnomic character. 49 Sum mid hondum maeg hearpan gr^tan, ah li6 gleobeamos gearobrygda list. Sum bis rynig, sum ryht-scytte, sum leoSa gleaw, sum on loude snel, feSe spedig. The origin of the poem was pointed out by Dietrich* as Christian, having its sources and analogues in 1 Corinthians, xii, 8-10, Gregory's 29th Homily on the Book of Job, and Christ, G59-690. But it may be objected that too many of these sum gnomes both here and in the Fates of Men and in the passage from Christ deflect the current of ideas away from Christianity. A dilemma arises, therefore : did a monkish redactor prefix his beginning and add his conclusion to a gnomic poem of heathen origin ? Or did he compose the whole poem, extending the sum, type which he knew from Christian sources ? It 1 Op. at., p. 28. 9 Bib., 3 J, 140. « Cf. Onind., 197. 54 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON may as well be remarked at once, if the latter alter- native be favored, that in the case of the Christ pas- sage one meets with a similar difHcnlty, hence the question has only been shifted. That is to say, the list in Christ 659-690 contains also wordly pursuits as well as spiritual gifts : ' the Christian lines may have received addition, or the entire passage may be an interpolation. Gnomes of a similar type or class are seldom found grouped in extended series, either in North Germanic or West Germanic literatui'e. IlovaviSl shows repeti- tion but not extension. The Cotton Gnomes show an apparent prolongation, but the colorless sceal is the constant element. In both the Edda and in Anglo- Saxon, diversity, total absence of unity, mark the collections. The sum gnome, moreover, is not prevr> lent in early Germanic literature. On the other hand, extended gnomic groups of the same class are often found in Eastern sources. Consider the allot- ment of time in Ecdesiastes, iii, 2-8 ; the list of those who are blessed, Matthew, v, 3-11 ; consider the various lists in Ecclesiasticus :'' be ashamed be- fore thy father and mother of (a fault named) and before (repeated for different personages), then be ashamed of (a number of other faults listed). Anti- thetically, then follows a list of things one need not ^Wtilker thinks Cynewulfliad a heathen poem before him when he \\rote the Christ passage, but not the Endoxcments and Pursuits of Men, which he regards as later (in its present form) than the work of Cynevrulf. But he thinks that both poems have a common origin in some heathen poem. — Grund., p. 108. ^ Cf. The Hebrew Text of Btn Sira (Ecclesiasticus) , with Translation and Critical Notes, C. A. McRae, University of Toronto, 1910. INTRODUCTION 55 be ashamed of. That condensation is present does not alter the fact that a series of counsels is given; any counsel may be removed from the context by supplying before the particular fault, the common term, " Be ashamed of." With direct reference to the sum type, which oc- curs with repetition in Corinthians,^ we may observe that it was present in Sanscrit : "^ " One of them [fore- runners of the sententious poetry which flourished so luxuriantly in Sanscrit literature] consisting only of four Suanzas (IX, 112) describes in a moralizing strain of mild humor how men follow after gain in various ways : The thoughts of men are manifold, Their callings are of diverse kinds: The carpenter desires a rift, The leech a fracture wants to cure. A poet I : my dad's a leech ; Mama the upper millstone grinds : With various minds we strive for wealth, As ever seeking after kine." Another of these poems is in praise of wise speech (X, 71). Here is one of the stanzas : The one sits putting forth rich bloom of verses, Another sings a song in skilful numbers, A third as teacher states the laws of being, A fourth metes out the sacrifice's measure. ^ " For to one is given by the Spirit the word of wisdom ; to another the word of knowledge by the same Spirit ; to another faith by the same Spirit ; to another the gifts of healing by the same Spirit ; to another the "working of miracles ; to another prophecy ; to another discerning of spirits ; to another divers kinds of tongues ; to another the interpretation of tongues." — Loc. cit. ^ History of Sanscrit Literature, A. A. McDonell, New York, 1900, p. 128. 56 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON The Greek poets also exhibit numerous instances of this type.^ A close parallel to the Anglo-Saxon pas- sages in the poems under consideration is found in Iliad, 13, 72G-734, which has been translated, " For to one man has God given for his portion the works of war, to another the dance, to another the lute and song, but in the heart of yet another hath far-seeing Zeus placed an excellent understanding." Though it is generally conceded that the influence of Greece on Anglo-Saxon literature was slight and superficial, yet partiality for the study of Greek is indicated in a curious enumeration of different na- tional characteristics : " Sapientia Grcecorum — super- bia Romanorum," etc." Nor is Theodore to be for- gotten, the Greek priest who was sent into England by Pope Yitalian in 688, and who took with him authors in Latin and his own tonorue.'^ jhidreas and Elene further bear witness to the fact that Anglo- Saxon poets frequently drew upon Greek sources. With the Eastern books of wisdom, at least those of the Scriptures, Anglo-Saxon priests were familiar. They also knew Boethius and Gregory. A homily of the latter has been referred to as a possible source of these sum gnomes, and Brandl suggests a parallelism between Met., II, 8^, with their introduction and con- clusion.'' Althoutjjh Brandl's observation does not apply to the type of gnome, it does, I think, add 1 Cf. list friven by Cook, Christ, pp. 18(5-187. 2 Caligula A XV, Vol. 122, v, Cf. Wright in Biog. Brit. Lit., 11,43, note. * Cf. Bede, HE., IV, 1 and 2. Rede adds that the pupils of Adrian and Theodore were well trained both in Greek and Latin. See further, V. 21. ♦ Op. rif., p. lor.ti. ■ l. I INTRODUCTION 57 weiglit to my point tliat the poem was put together by one who knew the Southern and Eastern litera- tures. It is not. I believe, an old heathen poem re- dacted, but one written entire by a learned monk, who was not so lost in his bookish Christianity that he had not sufficient appreciation of secular gifts to include them with the spiritual. Against long descent from Teutonic heathendom is the further fact that lower forms of nature are ab- sent ; man alone is present. In a poem thus extended, an older writer would have departed in all probability from so monotonous a series. On the Various Fortunes of Men^ otherwise Fates of Men, Bi Monna Wyrdum, Der Menschen Geschickcy^ Rieger thought to be by the author of the Gifts. ^ In broad analysis it is similar in composition : 1-14 and 93-98, introduction and conclusion, are Christian, as are also 58, 64-66. The remainder show no definite Christian reference. In its subject matter, however, the poem rings older than the one just considered ; in striking the note of hunger, war, and wolf (the miseries of men, again) it recalls certain lines in the Gnomic Verses. And it is marked by the old sceal formula as well as by the sum. 33 Sum sceal on geapum galgan ridan, Seomian aet swylte, o3 ))ait sawlhord b.iucofa blodig abrocen weorSetJ, ]>JiV him hrefn nimeS heafodsyne, etc. BrandP thinks the poem composed of a first and a second part, the latter being a Christian continuation ' nib. »', 118. » Vf. (Iruml, p. 10',>. » Op. rU., pp. 1030-10:17, I )l,l., '|\ llM, 'Ml I ,. f . |, lil'l •' if, ill , If III. Ml Hill, 58 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON of a heathen fragment. But there are, then, fourteen lines of the introduction to be accounted for. I think the question of authorship is to be answered as was that concerning the authorship of the Gifis. I be- lieve the Christian author had in mind, either from tradition or from heathen literature, a number of examples illustrating various fates : these he sum- marized in brief form, using the sum type, itself familiar to the clerical brotherhood from the in- stances cited above as possible sources of the GiftSf or from similar instances. The fact that sceal rings of the old fatalistic gnomic utterance does not argue necessarily for ancient heathen origin. Wyrd here has the force of destiny, and though sceal is also assojiated with ivyrd in the sense of blind fate, it is no more sig- nificant here than the mcBcj of the Grift gnomes. The Monitory Poeni, known also as Bi Monna Mode, Minds of Men, and Der Menschen Gemilt,- is a poetical sermon on pride. It shows a faint remi- niscence of the su7n type of gnome ^ and thus indi- cates the preference clerical writers had for the type. A fourth poem on the False7iess of Men,^ from this title and the others it has acquired,^ would apparently contain genomic material similar to that in the first two poems of this group. It is, however, as Wiilker indicates by his designation of it, merely a fragment of a homily based on the twenty-eighth Psalrn, and it has scarcely a vestige of gnomic expression left in its desultory didacticism. In this, and in the Moni- 1 Bib., 31, 144. 2 cf. 21-26, 31 ff. » Bib., 2, 108. * Bi Monna Lease, Der Menschen Falscheit, Predigtbruchstuck uber Fsahn 2S. INTRODUCTION 59 tory Poem, crisp heathen teaching, definite precepts of morality, brief bits of philosophy, — all have lengthened into a homiletic dullness. The ancient current leaped and dashed in sudden vigorous bursts ; the later stream dissipates its energy in the shallow flats of homily, level and monotonous. The Wise Father's Instruction, likewise, is didactic and leads into a circle of mediaeval poetry, for which the Disticha of Cato as well as Oriental writings yield much material.^ Precepts are numbered, as are the counsels of Sigrdrifa, or certain sayings in Hqvamol ; ^ but the matter is not closely related. As a prototype, the decalogue might as well be sug- gested. In other words, mere numbering offers small hint of source, and the matter is imbued from begin- ning to end with Christian doctrine. This form of didactic poetry occurs in most literatures and among all peoples. One turns to Bohemian literature and finds in the middle of the fourteenth century The Advice of a Father (Smil) to his son ; ^ one passes to Celtic literature and meets it as early as the ninth century in Tlie Instructions of King Comiac Mac Airt ; one observes a similar framework in Old Norse. But further back yet it is found in An- cient Egypt and China."* The points noteworthy 1 J5i6.,l, 363. Other titles: A Father's Advice, Feeder Larcvidas, Des Voters Lehren. T.iis subject has not been investigated to any great ex- tent. Rudolf Fis'-^her has written a small brochure, How the Wyse Man Taught hin Sone. It consists largely of quotations, moat of which are comparatively modern. 2 Latter parL Cf. stanzas 14(5 ff. — S.-G., I, 50. » Cf. A History of Bohemiaii Literature, Francis Count Luetzow, New York, 1890, p. 3(5 ff. * Sec above, p. 9. 60 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON with reference to this Anglo-Saxon collection are that expression has passed beyond gnomic bounds, and that the poem shows itself to be of late origin. Such instructions as the following are distinctly Christian : honor thy father and thy mother, re- spect thy teachers, countenance no wickedness, be no accomplice in sin. As these teachings are not inconsistent with heathen ideals, so echoes of heathen morality are not inharmonious with Christian stand- ards. Out of Germanic wisdom appear such precepts as these: "Do not deceive a dear friend," "Distin- guish between good and evil," " Think not aloud," ''Be temperate and sagacious." From the nature of morali zings contained in a poem, one may draw conclusions respecting their age. The truth of this statement can be illustrated by examples the time of whose composition is approximately known. Let us look briefly at the Caedmonian poetry, observing the difference in its ethical digressions and those in the older epic and lyric. We meet with an excellent example in Exodus:^ 5316 pis ItBiie dr6ain womuium awyrged, wreccum alyfed, earmra anbld : eSellease |>ysiie gystsele gihfiuin healdaS murnaS on mode, manhus witon fiest under foldan, pair biS fyr and wyrm, open ece scrajf yfela gehwylces. Swa nu regul^eofas rice dailaS yldo 0(55e ierdea(5, eft wyrd cymS iniegen})rymma maest ofer luiddangeard, dieg diedum f ah : dryhten sylfa on )>ani meSelstede maneguui demeS. ii?!-6., 2, 445ff. INTRODUCTION 61 It will be seen that part of these ideals are common to heathen and to Christian ethics : (1) This life is a transient joy, and (2) It is filled with misery. But the house of the wicked beneath the earth, and the Day of Judgment separate the passage from the older gnomic vein. Heathen sententiousness spins itself out into a typically Christian homiletic thread. In Daniel^ 20&-21, though the form is ancient, the idea is late : Swa no man scyle his gclstes lufan wi5 gode dielan. This hortatory expression, of the familiar swd, scyle type, is brief enough to satisfy requirements of gnomic dennition; but its eminently Christian content prevents accepting it as a perpetuation of heathen precept. Likewise the oft type appears, but as in the example just quoted it is ancient only in its detached generali- zation. 590 oft metod aliet luonige 3eode • • • wyrcan, ponne hie woldun sylfe fyrene fiestau, ier him fair godes )>urli egesau giyie aldre gesceode. As in the heathen epic, so in the Christian narrative poem, a generalization often sums up the details of a particular case. Such gnomic summarizing, though not necessarily theological, is not therefore to be regarded as heathen, any more than gnomic deductions in these same heathen epics are, because they are apart from the concrete, to be regarded as Christian interpolations. Consider an instance from Genesisj' 634 ff. : ^ Bib., 2, 410. a /7ji(f ., 2, 318 ff. 62 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON Monige hwile bi? ]>5.m men full wJl, pe hine ne warnaS, ))onne hS his geweald 1 afatJ. Eve has ignored God's warning, an omission the resalts of which are logically followed by this moralizing couplet. In the early Christian epic, however, such gnomic verses are rare. The integrity of the older type is broken; sermons, not sentences, abound. In the Cynewulfian epic, we find a few reminiscences of the older form. Of those noted in Andreas,^ the first suggests Beowulf, 1385 ff. : 3206 Selre biS ieghwam, l>?et he eaSmedum ellorfusne oucnawe cuSlIce, swa |>tet Crist bebSad. But the termination indicates that the author of the passage was no heathen poet. Christian reminiscences of Beowulf y 672b ff., are, 4256427 God eatSe maeg hea^oliSeudum helpe gefreinman, and 458 ror)>an ic eow to so3e secgan wille, foet nSfre forlStetS lifgende God eorl on eorSan, gif his ellen d6ah. Christ ^ sounds a note familiar from the Scriptures, in 856 ff. ... swa eal manna beam sorgum sawat5, swa eft rlpat5 cenna? to cwealme, or as Grollancz translates : All the children of men As they sow in sorrow, so afterwards they reap, they bring forth for death. ^ Bib., 2, 1. I follow punctuation and numbering of lines used by Krapp, in his edition of Andreas, New York, 1906. 2 ^16., 31 ff. . • INTRODUCTIOlf 63 Taking heed was enjoined by the earlier Germans, but hardly with the penalty for heedlessness suggested in these lines : 1599 Frgcne me })incetJ J>set })5,s gsestberend giman nellaS men on m6de {)oane man hwset him s5 waidend to wrace gesette lapum leodum. " Be good, or you will be punished," is typical of early Christian doctrine. The long passage 659-690 has been mentioned in connection with Gifts of Men and Fates of Men. It is g;nomic in a similar desrree. On its occurrence m chis poem much has been said ; but whether it is part of the original or whether it is an interpolation prob- ably never can be satisfactorily determined.^ Guthlac"- 30: "he fela findeS, fea beo5 gecorene," is virtually a quotation from Mattheic, xxii, 14. The long passage, 1322 ff., however, was certainly written by a man who knew the earlier Germanic gnomic sayings. It is put into the mouth of the messenger who goes to tell Guthlac's sister of the Saint's death: ' Ellen bis s6last \5.m ))e oftost sceal drfiogan dryhtenbealu, deope behycgan })roht })eodengedal, |)onne sSo })rag cymeS wefen wyrdstafum ! ]>Mi wit sS )>e sceal ■. aswaman sarigferS, wat his sincgiefan holdnes biheledre: he sceal hean })onan geomor hAveorfan, })5,m biS gomeues wana, fe pa earfeSa oftost dreogeS on sargum sefan. » Cf. Gollancz, Christ, p. 103, and Cook, Christ, pp. 136 fl. *Bib., 31, 55 ff. 64 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON In its form, though somewhat extended, it is typically heathen; in its exaltation of courage, in its reference to fate's decrees and the treasure giver, it rings like a speech from Beowulf ; in the elegiac strain, it recalls- the Wcmdcrer and the Seafarer. Comparing gnomic expressions in Christian narra- tive poetry with those in heathen epic, we find: 1. A number of gnomic precepts having their origin in the Scriptures, rather tlian among Germanic tribes. The Christian gnome is distinctly theological, or hortatory after the doctrinal fashion. 2. Fewer gnomes in Christian poetry. This may be due to one of the following reasons. In tlie first place. Christian poetry is more or less didactic ; it re- jects accretions of wisdom in compact form, preferring sermons instead. In the second place, with the growth of a system of ethics and with the acceptance of Christianity, the old maxims no longer insinuated themselves into a literature which had its own doc- trines. And, finally, it is to be remembered that the older epics grew out of lays which arose among the folk. Whatever the final manner of combining these lays, folk philosophy was, at least in part, retained as an essential flavor of the stories. Christian poetry was composed by the educated class, the monks, who turned, perhaps consciously, away from the philosophy of the people for the wisdom of the prophets. The only extant specimen of Anglo-Saxon poetry in dialogue form which is didactic is paradoxically enough a late Christian composition. Here and chere, sliowing specific gnomic forms and set in a frame like that of VafAnlMesmol, it is characteristically Germanic. INTRODUCTION 65 At the same time, as every one knows, the theme is widespread, and the fact that the Anglo-Saxon ver- sion is the oldest preserved and is Christian in the main does not alter the truth that it is blended with Rabbinical elements, that its origin is Eastern, and perhaps that origin lies in the visit to Solomon of the Queen of Sheba. But Solomon and Saturn,^ though Oriental and even Biblical, drew from Teutonic experience and philosophy a number of gnomic sayings. Nor is it to be marveled at that sententious expression, after a period of decadence, appears rejuvenated in one par- ticular poem. The framework, made for the riddle contest, was such as to admit terse sentences, stray bits of wisdom ; and the wonder would rather be if in a poem universal in popularity no sayings peculiar to the national life should have been incorporated. Ger- manic wisdom in Solomon and Saturn has been " touched up " by the Christian artist, but the original picture is clear under the Christian varnish, in lines such as these : 435 Wyrd biS wended hearde, wealleS swItJe geneahhe, lieo wop wecetS, heo w€au hladet5, heo gast seyS, heo ger byretJ : And hwsetSre him imeg wissefa wyrda gehwylce gemetigian, gif lie bit5 modes gleaw, and to iiis freondum wile fultum secan / Cell hwaiSre godcundes giestes brucan. This passage seems to be a reminiscence of Beoivulf, 572, which has been modified here as in other poems but with more elaboration : Fate, though hardly to be ii?i7)., 32, 68ff. 66 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON turned aside, yet may be diverted by the wise of mind. The conditions for tempering Fate, not imposed in the heathen gnome, are that a man must be prudent, seek aid from friends, and employ the divine spirit. In 310 £f., we read a series of gnomes which are as brief and pointed in form and as Teutonic in content as a series of the Cotton Manuscript : ^ Nieht bits wedera Slestrost, ned bi3 wyrda lieardost, sorh bis swarost byrtSen, sliep bi?5 d6aSe gellcost. Nor is there any ground for seeing influence of Chris- tian doctrine in these lines: 360 Xe mffig mon for ildo cenige hwlle tJone dSoran si5, ac h6 hine adrCogan sceall, which contemplate the inevitableness of death and the necessity of enduring it. Fate is in the foreground. In other instances, the gnomic form associated with Christian sentiment may appear. 224 Dol bits sC t5e gaiS on d6op wseter, se t5e sund nafaS ne gesegled scip, ne fugles flyht, ne he mid fotum ne mseg grund geraicaii: huru sfi Godes cunnaS ful dysllce dryhtnes meabta. The dol &zcT gnome and its analogues have been noticed as occurring in Christian passages.'^ The smn type, which was postulated above as of Eastern origin, occurs here in close connection with the Deity. 342 Ac forliw5,m nSron eor5(we)lan ealle gedSled leodum gellce? Sum to lyt hafatS godes griiedig : hine God setetS 3urh geearnunga eudgum t6 rseste. » Cf. 56, ff. « See pp. 42, 49, 132 (85a). INTRODUCTION 67 The distribution of worldly fortunes was a theme upon which the Anglo-Saxons loved to speculate : they assigned such distribution to God : since the Scriptures contain references to good and perfect gifts coming from above/ to various gifts from the same spirit, and the like,^ it seems that this class of sententious sayings arose in the Orient and passed through the didactic books of the Old and the New Testaments, whence it was disseminated among the Christian Anglo-Saxons. Of Christia,n origin seems to be the sentence formed by 1816-182a: Wyrs d65 sfi 5e llebtJ 0(53e tSges so^es ansaecetJ! And finally, 349 : UnliedQ bi8 and oriuOd sS iSe a wile gComrian on gihtSa: s6 biS Gode fracotJast. Better to avenge a friend than to mourn him, the heathen adage runs ; mourn in spirit forever, and you are rebellious to God, the later principle affirms. According to the former ethics, conquer physically and enjoy revenge ; according to Christianity, con- quer your own soul and please God. Two bits of folk wisdom have come down to us, embedded in prose, independent of lyric or epic con- nection and without further expansion. They are often published apart from their context, and should here be fixed in their proper places, both with respect to orio-in and to rank as sententious material. Of these, the first is the Death Speech of Bede,^ the ^ James, I, 17. 2 1 Corinthians, loc. cit. ' Of all the manuscripts, that at St. Gall, No. 254, is the oldest and presumably the best. It dates from the ninth century, and is therefor© 68 GNOinC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON earliest gnomic expression for which a definite date may be assigned, 735 a.d. The saying itself is doubt- less much older, as the context seems to indicate. For its preservation, we are indebted to Cuthbert, disciple of Bede and afterward Abbot of Jarrow, who included it in the letter he sent to Cuthwin detailing the death of Bede. According to the St. Gall Manu- script,^ the verses stand: Yove there neidfserse nSnig uuirthit thoncsnotturra than him thar[f] sie, to ymbhycgannse, asr his hiniong[a]e huffit his gastse, godaes seththa yflaes asfter dCothdcege doemid uueorth[a]e.* "but little later than the Northumbrian original. Besides another manu- script at Vienna, there are many in England, a number of which I have examined. There are two manuscript collections in which the letter 's preserved : certain volumes of the Ilistoria Ecclesiastica, and Simeon of Durham's Mistoj-y. For a list of printed versions, among which are differ- ences similar to those in the maniLScripts, see Grund., p. 144. i Cf. Oldest English Texts, H. Sweet, London, 1885, p. 149 ; Ubuugs- buck, J. Zupilza, Wien, 181t7, s. 3. - Before the necessary journey, no one becomes more wise of thought than to him is ueedful, to search out before his going hence what wiU be adjudged to his spirit after the day of death. My own reading from Stowe 104 (twelfth or thirteenth century), with variations from Anandel 74, is as follows : Fori j,am2 ned fere ntl-ni wyr{>ej>8 t>ances snotera J>onne* him )>earf sT,^ t5 gehicgenne Sr his hconen gauge,® hwet his gaste gOdes ol^^e yfeles ' ajfter dcW ^ heonen ^ dembe '" weor>e. 1 Ar. ffor. - MS. J^an. « MS. wyrl>ah, Ar. wir{>eh. * Ar. >oue • Ar. sy. ® Ar. omits heonen gangehwet his. '' Ar. yvolys. * Ar. dea>e. ' Ar. henon. i" Ar. demed. Of other HE. -MSS. examined, two omit the Anglo-Saxon passage altogether (Burney 297 ; folios 130a^l31a, and MS. 2-5014, folio 117) ; another (Ilarleian 3G80, folio 174a) leaves a space of three lines as if to include the speech after the words: " et in nra [nostra] quoq. "ingua ut erat doctus in nrs. carminib[us]." Anotlier (Tiberius C. II) omits the entire letter. Thia is to be regretted, since the MS. is one of the INTRODUCTION 69 Immediately preceding the lines, Cuthbert wrote: " Et in nostra qiioque lingua, ut erat doctus in nostris carminibiis, [dicens] de terribile exitu animarum e corpore." As found in Simeon's Histonj of the Church of Durham, the letter adds, after a similar statement to the efitect that Bede gave utterance to some lines composed in the Anglo-Saxon tongue : " Nam et tunc hoc Anglico carmine componens, multum compunctus aiebat." . One of the best reasons for maintaining that Bede quoted the verses instead of composing them lies in the variety of these versions. Just as ballads are seldom found in fixed form, but show variations even in the same community, so the lines here are observed to differ slightly, even in manuscripts not widely sepa- rated in time. It would seem that the speech was so familiar that each scribe wrote it as he knew it from memory. Moreover, internal evidence favors em- phasis of the lines : " as he was learned in our songs," — for prudence and death, two favorite themes with Germanic folk, here come together. As Wiilker re- marks, this speech indicates that Bede had a great love for the popular poetry of his people.^ The second saying is published by the editors of the Bihliothek ^ as a proverb of Winf rid's time. It occurs in a letter ^ written by an unknown monk to most important, dating from the eighth century and ranking with Cotton A. XIV next to the best, More's, in the Cambridge Public Library. Another (Tiberius A. XIV) is so damaged I make nothing of the lines. Others, as the Royal of the thirteenth century, give the verses in Latin. 1 W. adds: "Dersolbe mag von Beda selbst gedichtet oder einem ihm bekannten gedicl'te entnommen sein." — GrxtJid., p. 144. '■* ^'pruch aus Win/rids Zeit, Bib., 2, 815. 8 MS. at Vienna. 70 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON Winfrid, Pope Boniface, the Northumbrian mission- ary. Since Winfrid died in 755 a.d., the appearance of the speech in literature is contemporaneous with the one just discussed. It is preceded by the words, " Memento Saxonicum verbum," which indi- cate clearly enough that the quotation was in the nature of a proverb. I transcribe the version from the Bibliothek : ^ Oft dit'dlata dome foreklit sigistha galiuem : * suuyltit thl Sua.* The interest in these two sayings lies in their early form,^ their definite dating, and the fact that they chanced to be lifted out of popular currency to an abiding place in literature. IV In the ages that have elapsed since these saws, meteorological observations and pointed sayings were received as a heritage from the highest representa- tives of wisdom, whether gods, men, or other earthly creatures, — after this long time, the line of descent is not easy to trace. By what professionally literary spokesmen were gnomic verses fixed in forms some of which yet survive ? The Old Norse bard and the Anglo-Saxon scop or gleoman must have been responsi- ble for those found in epics and lyrics. But strings of 1 For other versions, cf. Grund., p. 145. Cf. also notes in Bib. 2 gahuem, MS., pointing to nintli century. Cf. Sweet, op. cit., p. 162. * Often the slow one loses by his delay in every successfal undertak- ing ; therefore, he dies alone. * The "spruch" is not Northumbrian: dfCdlata, as Sweet observes, points to a West-Saxon original or a West-Saxon scribe. INTRODUCTION 71 gnomic veises, unconnected with narrative or elegiac verse, existed both in Old Norse and in Anglo-Saxon, as the HovarfLol and the Cotton Gnomes and the Exeter Gnomes bear witness. If it be held that such poems as these were felt to be lyric, then the ques- tion is answered at once, as for all other lyric verse. But gnomic verse was originally the expression of a rudimentary philosophy, and it came, I believe, to constitute a distinct type.^ It may be objected that no aristocratic circle, or for that matter any audience, would listen to didactic remarks rolled off by elongated periods in a sonorous voice ; that dullness would have debarred such a recital. The first point arising in answer to such objection is thnt in earliest times men voluntarily listened to instruction and gave ear to wisdom for its own sake.- But we may dismiss this epoch, an epoch when riddle and charms and gnomic sayings were fresh and new, and consider only that time when fixed sententiousness characterized entertainment. Proverbial lore, generalizations, dry as they may be, are capable of numerous applications : a clever poet might, by speaking mere conventional stereotyped phrases, have kept his audience interested. It is possible that the Beoimdf poet generalized with concrete examples before him : for instance, when he urged loyalty among kindred, detestation of treachery, and the like ; although in this poem I believe, as I have said above, that the generalizations > " Spriiche " were said, not sung, says Weinhold, op. cit., p. 343. ^ "Of one thing I am sure," says Professor Gummere in a private letter, " the commonplace of pofjterity is often the oracular and startling word of wisdom for the fathers." 72 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON are conventional, without intended application. In later times, an ingenious poet has written a sequence of stanzas composed of proverb after proverb ; ^ the total is not altogether v/ithout picturesque interest, for the reader looks through the eyes of the court circle whom the jester addresses. " Platitudes can be of intense interest if they approach our case," remarks Mr. George Meredith,^ who in so saying but echoes the words of Aristotle, " One great help which maxims lend in speaking arises from the vul- garity of the hearers [that is, their love of the commonplace]. The}' are delighted when a general statement of the speaker hits those ophiions which they hold in a particular case." ^ If it be granted, tentatively even, that gnomic poems existed other than those left to us, it will perhaps be conceded to be possible that having swung into the circle of entertainment, they were spoken by a wise man, an affectedly wise man, or finally, per- haps, by one who bm-lesqued wisdom. If there were no such figure on record, we might conclude that the usual entertamer spoke lines befitting the ancient greybeard, and mimicked an all-wise dwarj. But there is an entertainer mentioned, in whose moith such poetry is eminently fitting, the Pidr of Old Norse, the Mjle of Anglo-Saxon. I am not forgetful that "little definite is known regarding the functions of the Northern )>ulr," and 1 The Jester's Sermon, cited from Thorabury's Songs of the Cavalien and Boxindheads in The Court Fool, J. Doran, London, 1858, p. 97. 2 One of Our Conquerors, Revised Edition, 1903, p. 372. » lihet., II, xri. Jebb's translation, Edition of Sandys, Cambridge, 1909, p. 115. INTRODUCTION 73 that it is held by some writers that " commentators have regarded him too seriously." But among the latest discussions, one by P. S. Allen,^ who dis- misses him thus briefly, uses citations which seem to me to operate against his point of view. It can do no harm, at least, here to set forth what is known, and to draw conclusions, conservatively as one must. According to Cleasby-Vigfusson, 749, the word pulr is defined, " A sayer of saws, a wise man, a sage (a bard?). This word, the technical meaning of which is not known, occurs on a Danish runic stone — Hruhald's j)ular a Salhaugum. Thorsen 17." Then follows a list of citations from the Edda where the pair is referred to. Axel Olrik gives the brief definition, " a preacher or moral teacher," " ein ver- kiinder religioser oder moralischer lehren." ^ But let us see what light we get from the occur- rence of the word in the lays of the Edda, and let us begin with the reference which might seem to indi- cate that commentators have taken the /mlr too seri- ously. After Sigurd has killed Fafnir, the first Pie speaks of Regin as hdra pul (old gossip, — literally, hoary counselor). ^ I take this to be a degenerate meaning. A vvise man is old : * increase of age re- sults gradually in decrease of vital wisdom : garrulity, babbling, usurp the place of former wise sayings : the title remains, howevsr, and" the wise man " is applied 1 The Mediceval Mimus, iu M. Ph., VII, 835. * Nordisches Geistesleben, translated by W. Ranisch, Heidelberg, 1908, p. 113. 8 Ffifnesm'iil, stanza 34, S.-G., I, 330. * The foul Starkad is designated by the epithet senex. Cf. Holder, op. cit., pp. r.»0, l(t8, etc. 74 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON to one no longer ^vise. Hence, the garrulous Regin is dubbed hdra /Ail by the ironic Pie. This is not greatly different from the view of Ranisch,^ who thinks the term here has become one of reproach, that it mirrors the decline of the old singer's position and of his loss in dignity. In Vafprupnesmol^. Odin is named " old sage," gamle pulr^ by his opponent in the riddle contest ; in HovamoL^ as master of runes he is named " the mighty wise man," jivibolfoulr .'^ In Hovamol^ also occurs the line, " Mt^l es at J^ylja f>ular stole ^," indicating that the sage sat in a definitely appointed seat. It is significant, moreover, that the poem is thus labeled the product of a Mdr. Or if the part of the poem in which this line occurs be held a distinct production, the Lesson of Loddfafmr^ then it is significant that the king's court contained just such a man as the runic stone commemorates, a wise man who counseled the monarch. According to Sijmons-Gering," the Loddfafnesmol is the single poem [among Eddie lays] for which we are to accept a Pulr as author, — one of those people who exhibited their experience and knowledge before the circle of the prince and aristocracy. " lie warns against impru- dence, gives rules for journey and drink, recommends sincerity, friendship, generosity with measure, honor to the old. He refers to himself and his calling in 1 Fddalieder, Leipzig, 1903, p. 11. 2 Stanza 8, S,-G., I, 5(3. 8 Stanza 142, S.-G., I, 49. ♦ " ... und in diesem arat liegt 0)>inns rolle ala freund der skaiden und ais gott der dichtkunst beschlossen." — Fr. Kauffinann, in Philolo- gische Studien, Halle, 1890, p. 100. 6 Stanza 110, S.-G., I, 42. * Op. cit., I, clxviii. INTRODUCTION 75 counseling against laughter as the gray /i/Z, since wise words often come from the faltering lips of the aged " : at iK^rom ))ul hlse[)'u] aldrege, opt's gdtt {>ats gamier kve)»a ; opt 6r skQipom belg skilen orp koma.* Miillenhoff, who first considered at length the func- tions of the puUr, seems to be right in concluding that runes, chann-songs, and incantations, — all old knowledge, — belonged preeminently to a branch of these wise folk ; but he goes too far in asserting that they were the fosterers of the entire poetic remains of the North.2 His view meets with flat contradic- tion in the '.vork of Sijmons-Gering.' Mogk, in summarizing and commenting on Mlil- lenhoff's attempt to differentiate the pulr from the skald, observes that the oldest Norse understood the fiulr to be a man who distinguished himself through wise sayings, resting on tradition or experience* He remarks that the difference between the lays of the Edda and the sagas is mainly that the former deal in myth and phantasy, the latter in history. Therefore, he says, since the Eddie lays contain more or less mythologic and worldly wisdom, we might as well name then poets pidir. At the same time, he thinks it questionable whether the Icelanders had this des- ignation for their poets : in one definite instance 1 S.-G., I, 47. 2 D.A.K., V, 280-290. 8". . . dass 'auch die heldendichtung in den alten- bereich der >>ulir 'gelidrt habe, ist uneriaubt." — Op. cit., I, clxvii. * " Wer also dii weisheit frUlierer geschlechter in poetischer form llberliefert, istein>alr." — Oeschichte der N'orwegisch-Isldndischen Lit- eratur, Stni83burg,"1004, p. 21. 76 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON ( VoJsunga Saga, Chapter XXX) the poet of the Eddie lays is named skald, and since the work of the sagas \a not vastly dissimilar from that in the Edda, ^ve may conclude that the />idir were simply, the sl'alds.^ Now, Mullenholl's belief that all the old lays are due to the />idir, and Mogk's opinion that the Aidir were the same as the skalds seem to need revision. The Aidr may have been no more than a skald, as Mogk thinks, — but if so, then I believe he was a definite kind of skald, — one who preserved the wise sayings of the people, gnomic wisdom arising from tradition and experience, but not all mythology and phantasy. If, then, the />ulr was this definitely limited skald, ob- ^dously he is not to be accredited, as Miillenhoff con- cludes, with the composition of the entire Edda. Let us see whether we get any light by a consideration of the Anglo-Saxon pijle. fyle is defined by Bosworth- Toller, p. 1084, as " orator, statesman." That he v/as a wise man also is revealed in the first citation, from Liher Scintdlamm,- p. 119, 1.3 : " GelSred ))yle fela spaJca mid eawum wordum geopenaj>" which is the gloss to " doctus orator plures sermones paucis verbis aperit." A reference, without doubt, to sententious speaking, even if "orator "be construed without the pos- sible connotation in " doctus." Besides /•yle as a proper 1 " Werden danu weiler dichtor der Eddalieder als sk&ld, skalden al9 >ulir bezeicbnet, so kanu zwiscben beiden auch kein standesunterschied gewesen sein." — Op. ciL, p. 22. 2 Cf. E. E. T. S., XCIII. The Liber is of the eighth century, a date not inliarmonious with other details that point to the time of composition of gnomic verses in Anglo-Saxon. That is, just such a " doctas orator " aa i5 here glossed "geh'Grcd )>yle " may have recited the verses \:\ the eighth century, and they may have been written down but very little later. INTRODUCTION 77 name in Widsithy^ we ^nd the word in Beowulf yV^here Unferth, " yle Hrothgares," is mentioned several times. In lines 499-500 and 1166-1167, he is placed at the feet of the monarch, and he is again referred to in 1457. It was evidently his duty to lead the conversation, since he is the only one of the courtiers who crossed words \\ith Beowulf, as he did in taunt- ing Beowulf over his swimming match with Breca. Unferth is hardly the sco]? of Hrothgar, who recites a lay 1065-1160, just before the second mention of the />i/le ; nor is he, apparently, the poet of line 4966- 497a. He was a contentious hero, grudging Beowulf his fame ; he had not behaved well toward his relations, and yet he was a man in whom the king and queen placed confidence.' As professional orator and counselor, the Ayle of the seventh and eighth centuries probably occupied an important position at court. It is likely, according to the comment of Sijmons-Gering, that the Old Norse />ulir also formed part of the retinues of little princes and chiefs.^ Men of experience, skilled in relations of actual life, familiar with the wisdom of the time, 1 24 : {:^eodric wCold Froncuin, Jjyle llondinginn. It is possible, however, that the correct translation of this line may be : " Theodric ruled the spear- men, pyle (Ills retainer) the shieldmen." " Now both the treacherous Iring and the nameless faithful counsellor seem to belong to the class of retainer known in Old English society a.s thyle : the professional orator andcouiisellor. . . . It is, therefore, remarkable, as Miillenhoff noted long ago, . . . that in our list thyle of the Rondings is coupled with Theodric of the Franks. Thyle as a prope.- name is in any case strange enough : can we interpret it as referring to the faithful counsellor of the Thuringian war? " — R. W. Chambers, op. nit., p. 114. '^Cf. MiillcnhojJ', op. cU., I, 26 fl., and A. Olrik, Datxmarka Jleltedigt- ning, I. 25 ff. " Op. fit., I, clxix. 78 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON especially -^itli the mythological treasure of wisdom, they were spokesmen on solemn occasions, and guard- ians of spiritual interests. And, above all, the begin- nings of mythologic and gnomic poetry may have arisen from their circle.^ With regard to the form, it is always to be remem- bered that '•' gnomic verse " may refer to poetic com- positions, not necessarily gnomic in the sense in which the word has hitherto been used in this introduction. 1 The position of Unferth at the king's feet, his character, and his style of conversation are characteristics not dissimilar to those of the later court fools. There is a questionable piece of evidence, which strengthens this obser- vation, one which if unquestioned would put the resemblance a,bove mere coincidence. In Wriglit-Wtilker's Vocabularies, occurs the Latin " de scurris," glossed by " hof ^V'lum." If this word may be read de scurris = of'^dum (= t^yjinn) or hoftSijlnm, Rosworlh-ToUer concludes that the function of the pyle may have been something like that of the later court jester, " and moreover tlie attack of Unferth on Beowulf hardly contradicts the supposition." This is not the place to enter into the hisloiy of the court fool ; but a few examples may be adduced to show a possible con- nection between him and the pyle ov pulr. (Some writers maintain that skalds degenerated into court fools : the resemblances I observe hold, of course, for skalds, if the /)uUr are not marked out as a distinct class of skalds. My point is that the old speaker of wise sayings shows kinship with the jester. ) In As Ton Like It, Act III, scene 2, Touchstone answers sententiously Corin's question, " — how do you like this shepherd's life ? " and in turn ends his speech with the words, " Hast any philosophy in thee, shepherd? " Touchstone himself is a philosopher : he makes rhymes ; he remembers old verses ; he is "swift and sententious." In Tioelfth Xight, the clown Feste preaches and quotes Latin ; in Beaumont and Fletcher's Villio or The Double Marriage, there is also a philosophical fool. Like the didactic speakers in Old Norse, these fools say with impunity what they will to their superiors. Since it is futile, however, to look for an unbroken line of descent, or to attempt to find in a later office the exact counterpart of an earlier one, we may remark two other conclusions : resemblances between //yle and fool may lie in their official positions rather than in tlieir expressions ; resem- blances are found between counselors^ of the later time and those of the earlier period, — for example, Polonius might fittingly illustrate a latter day, somewhat degenerate />ulr. INTRODUCTION 79 Metrically, Ilovam^l^ VafintAnesmol, AUissmoly and Grimnesmol, to name no other Old Norse poems, are all gnomic. That is to say, just as elegiac verse, the strain of lament, was used in Greece by Solon for the enunciation of moral sentences, so in Old Norse hymnic verse was adapted to gnomic utter- ance. And just as this Greek paroemiac verse, or verse used for the expression of proverbs, consisted of & distich made by combining a hexameter Hne with a following pentameter line, so gnomic verse in Old Norse consisted of a long line followed by a short line: the Ijodahdttr couplet.^ Since gnomic verse meter is closely related to that which lies at the foundation of the Greek hexameter, it is possible that the form is a heritage of the Indo-Germanic period. Now, just as the hexameter in Greece ultimately came to be regarded the most popular form for moral verses, so the long line was preferred in Anglo-Saxon, even an extended line. The Cotton and Exeter gnomes show a large percentage of extra feet. Yet even in Anglo-Saxon the short line was occasionally used,2 and sometimes the Ijo'Jahdttr, as in Old Norse. But gnomic sentences are probably not the earliest province of this verse, at least in Teutonic literature. It is found in the Wessohrunner Gehet, and in the oldest Anglo-Saxon Charms, and is used more in the Edda for the hymnic lyric than for gnomic poetry.' * " . . . with the same effect of clinching the meaning of the first line." — W. P. Ker, Epic and Romance, London, 1897, p. 150. 2 See pp. 120, 126, 120. ' A further discussion of gnomic verse measure would be dispropor- tionate. But for the benefit of those interested in pursuing the investiga- tion, I append the following bibliography : tjber Germanischen Versbau, 80 GNOMIC PEOTRY IN ANGLO-SAXON In this introduction I have indicated that the gnomic saying is a universal form of literature, which, in its earliest expression among Germanic peoples — like riddle and charm — celebrates phenomena of the natural world. In the second place, it is employed for purposes of teaching : it promulgates px'inciples of law and morality ; in short, is the vehicle of the ethical code. Preliminary to the collections from Anglo-Saxon poetry, I have drawn examples from the Eddie lays of Gods and heroes and have tabulated the subjects of which they treat. Early heathen poetry of the Anglo-Saxons, whether epic or lyric, reveals a similar list of subjects, as the citations and summaries show. Prominent are gnomes on caution and courage, woes and wisdom of men, the value of friends and the inevitability of fate. Poetry in which ecclesiastical writers had a hand also contains gnomes, though the gnomic form is often weakened by append- ages of Christian doctrine. Gnomic material found in Christian didactic poetry appears to be a heritage from the East, but sententious elements in narra- tive poetry — Exodus, Daniel, Andreas, for instance — bear unmistakable similarity to earlier gnomes of Germanic origin. Such poems were evidently com- posed by writers who were at once familiar with the old moral truths and the new theology. In some cases the ethical codes were not dissimilar, in some instances they closely resembled each other, in other instances the two systems were reconciled by the poet. A. Heusler, Berlin, 18U4, pp. 93 G. Der LjupaMltr, eine metrische Untersiichung, A. lleusler, Berlin, 1889. t/ber tStil und Typns der isl&n- dischen Saga, Doring, Leipzig, 1877, pp. 31-40. Meyer, op. cit., pp. 326 ff. Koegel, op. cit., pp. 06 ff. INTRODUCTION 81 He added to such heathen sayings as " Many are the woes of men," the injunctions to prepare for death, to escape tlie yawning pit, to be ready for the judgment. With the increase of sermonizing, there resulted a corresponding decrease of gnomic expression. And having reached these conclusions, we may turn to the more minute study of the Gnomic Verses, DETAILED ':;ONS I DERATION OF EXETER GNOMES AND COTTON GNOMES I Exeter Gnomes Beginning slightly below the middle of folio 88b, the gnomic poems of the Exeter Book extend through 92a, with an overflow of five words on 92b. Respec- tively preceding and following the collection are the Various Fortunes of Men and the Wonders of Creation. Distinct headings indicate three divisions (in this work A, B, and C), the first word of each being writ- ten in Roman square capitals with a large initial letter. Between conseciitive divisions occurs the usual space of two lines. The Hiberno-Saxon palaeography belongs probably to the middle of the eleventh century,^ about the time Bishop Leofric was transferred from Crediton to Exeter, or shortly after his domiciliation in the latter town. Among the books he gave to the Cathedral, this volume was one prepared in all likeli- hood under his immediate supervision. It is the work of one scribe throughout, therefore the folios here un- der consideration exhibit characteristics that are found in the manuscript as a whole.''* 1 " Aufange des 11 jahrhunderta," Schipper, op. cit., p. 327 ; Wlilker, G-rund, p. 223 ; but Thorpe places it in ihe 10th century, op. eit., p. v ; and cf, GoUancz, Cynewulfs Christ, London, 1892, p. xxi. '^ As 1 for and, u for um, etc. 83 84 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON Although these folios have not excited the vivid interest that other parts of the book have aroused, yet a certain recognition has been granted them from the time of the first modern mention of the manuscript. Hickes observed preliminary to his transcript of lines 72-144 that they are similar to the dithyramb (sic) of the Cotton Manuscript, " baud dissimile," though cor- rupt at the beginning and the end.^ Wanley, in his fantastic summary, grouped folios 84b-98 as Liber IX, and naively noted, " fere totus est in aenigmatibus." ^ J. J. Conybeare, though following Wanley's arbitrary division of the folios, criticized this description as ap- plying correctly to no part of Liber IX;^ but as hav- ing been suggested by the obscurity and difficulty of its actual contents/ He accompanied his tran- scription of lines 72-84 with a fair Latin and a- wretched English translation.^ In classing the verses as moral and didactic,'' tlie editor, W. D. Conybeare, seems to have been the first critic to apply a distinctive title. He characterized them as a " series of maxims and descriptions, thrown together with little or no connection, in the manner of the gnomic poetry of the Greeks ; or . . . resembling the . . . Book of Proverbs." Thorpe particularized Conybeare's generalization, by observing that the gnomic verses are akin to the Sentences of Theognis and the Works and Days of Hesiod, but he did not regard them as descended from the Greeks. He thought, rather, these " similar 1 Op. cit., I, 221. 2 7?„i2., II, 279. « Op. cit., p. 204. * These are ]Vidsith, Fortunes, Gnomes, Wonders of Creation, Riming Poem, Panther, UTiaZe, Fragment. 6 Op. cit., p. 228. « Ibid.y p. Ixxi. EXETER GNOMES AND COTTON GNOMES 85 productions of the ancient world originated in a state of society common to every people at a certain period of civilization," ^ a view consistent with scholarly opinion to-day. Thorpe further observed that they are of a class similar to the Hgvamol ; so far as I have noticed he was the first to make the com- parison. Ettmiiller printed lines 61-71, 72-138, 139-192 under the title Ealdcvidas,^ for the first time bringing the Cotton G-nomes and Exeter Gnomes under one heading. In his preface,'^ he classes them as ^'carmina popularia" under the broader title " Car- jiiina quae feruntur didactica." ^ His notes and emendations are here and there helpful ; but in places they do violence to the text.^ After Ettmiiller, besides those editors and critics mentioned in connection ^\ith the Cotton GnoDies, other scholars have incidentally dropped a word here and there or written a brief paragraph or two regarding the Exeter material. Their several contributions will be dulv noted under the consideration of date and authorship. As others have stated, analysis of the contents re- veals only an embryonic organism, an organic struc- ture probably more fancied than real, a creation of the reader rather than of the writer. But such analvsis may at least find the elements out of which the gnomes were fashioned. I 1 Op. cif., p. v=ii. 2 (>,. crt., p. 280. 8/6id., p. xix. * Further : " proverbiorum collectiones nominandae sunt, varia pro- vcrbia alliterationis tantum vinculo conjuucta continentis." * Moreover, the typography abounds in errors. 86 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON The beginning, "Question me skilfully," morien- tarily promises a riddle contest such as is found in Vafpni/Mesmql, Almssmql, Solomon and SaturUy or Tragemundslkd ; at least, a reader expects question and answer. But there are no questions, unless they are implicit or have become absorbed. " God shall first be praised," for example, may have been given in reply to the query, " Who shall first be praised ? " and so on for the other statements. In an older version there may have been volleys of question and answer resulting in a poem of dual nature, such as the dra- matic beginning anticipates. Later, the dialogue may have been discarded and only the contents pre- served. Again, it may be that instead of question and answer, the poem showed a gnomic see-saw of two wise men balancing their wisdom.^ Such a view is not improbable: the utterance of proverbs or maxims demanded the same brain-play as did the 1 This is the view held by Mlillcr (cf. op. cit., p. 13 ff.) who teases out tlie fibrils of speeches, duly assigning them to Speaker 1 and Speaker 2. His arguments for two speakers are : 1. The antithetic character of the speeclies as a natural development in speech between two persons ; 2. the expansion of themes sounded by one and taken up by the other. Admitting the difficulty of giving an accurate interpretation of the dia- logue, he makes the attempt. For instance, A begins : Frige mec, etc. B continues, ne Ixt . . . ge/>ohtas. A begins, Gliawe men. ... B takes it up, God sceal vion . . . and develops the idea in lines 6 and 6. It will be observed that Mliller looks upon the beginning as an essential part of the whole. I do not see how it is possible to agree absolutely with his attributions, even if one were disposed to accept his theory. Can anything but arbitrariness mark off so much for Speaker A or Speaker B ? IMoreover, his argument for two speakers is weak. Anglo- Saxon verse is by nature antithetic, and expansion may be due to poetic elaboration of prose maxims and to interpolations. EXETER GNOMES AND COTTON GNOMES 87 propounding and solution of riddles.* On the whole, however, I am inclined to agree with Rieger, Strobl,^ and Brandl in thinking that the beginning frame- work, though suggestive of tongue-play or a " flyt- ing," was given up almost at once. In the first place, there is no sound argument that one can adduce fi'om the content for the presence of two speakers ; in the second place, the poem seems to indicate an exer- cise of verse technic built out of gnomic material. The ^ilir of the Old Norse recited proverbs and oracles as well as songs from their position in the royal hall ; the Anglo-Saxon /^yJe may have used this introduction as a playful dramatic device for establish- ing a bond between him and his audience.^ It is also to be remembered that personal references are numerous in Anglo-Saxon poetry, as in Seafarer, TJie Banished Wifes Lament, TJie Husband's Message, and Widsilh; also that notwithstanding attempts to make balanced lays or dialogue poems out of the first ^ Cf. Some Forms of the Riddle Question and the Exercise of the Witt in Popular Fiction and Formal Literature, R. Schevill, Berkeley, Cal.^ 1911. See esp. pp. 204-205. 2 Strobl sees a strong contrast between the introduction and the rest of the poem. He thinks the former to be the beginning of a *• wettlied," which the gnome collector prefixed to his verses, and that it i» unlikely that a poet would compose an introduction which stands in such total opposition to the sequence. Ke thinks, however, that the first four lines prove the existence of balanced poems in AS. literature. Brandl seems to difler but slightly from this point of view in remarking that the start of a dialoguo between two wise men " ohne weiteres vergessen wird." * Merbot thinks ttie beginning of a riddle contest is indicated, and that gid may signify " riddle," but he adds : " Doch macht die vielbedeutigkeit von gid diese au.slcgung zweifelhaft, denn man konnte gid an eben dieser Btelle in einer andern ihra eigentUralichen bedeutung, ausspruch, weisheits- spruch fassen." — Aesthetische Studien zur angelsdchsischen Poesie^. Breslau, 1883, p. 20. 88 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON named, and to relate the Lament and the Message as parts of a whole, so far the idea of one speaker in the Seafarer has the balance of authority, the love lyrics are taken as individual units, and the personal ele- ment is regarded as dramatic appeal to the reader. Widsith is not without his value in the history of the drama.^ Lines 1-36 Strobl marks off as " geistliche spriiche." Brandl observes that 46-138 are Christian with inci- dental "bekllmpfung" of the heathen. ^ Miiller sees two large sections : 1-44 ; 45-72. God is dominant in the first, his power and man's trausitoriness are ac- cented ; the relations of human beings to one another are defined in the second, — God is not mentioned.^ If we break up the group more minutely, the mix- ture of heathen and Christian elements will become more apparent. 46-18a show Christian influence : God is " our Father ; " he is not affected by the Fates, disease, nor age; he is the Ahnighty. 186-25a are old gnomes ■* wherein objects and qualities are paired : the wise shall meet with the wise ; the useful shall be with the useful ; two shall be mates. 256-34 re- flect on the passing of things earthly and the omni- science of God, who alone knows whence disease comes, who decreases the cliildren of earth that there » The Mediivval ^'(arje, E. K. Cliaiubor.s, Oxford, 11)03, I, 28 ff. * Op. cit., p. 0(50. Ho divides the Exeter Gnomes iuto two parts: 1-1. -58 ; 130-20(5. 8 05). cit., p. 10. * It is always to be remembered, however, in Anglo-Saxon as in Greek Gnomic Poetr)', " neither commoii])hice nor di.sconnection are suf- ficient proof of spuriousuess, and ajjain no line i.s more likely to l)e foisted in than a really good and striking line." — Cf. Social Greece, J. P. Mahaffy, 1874, p. 83. EXETEa GNOMES AND COTTON GNOMES 89 may be room for the increase. 35-67 may be grouped together, inasmuch as they are gnomes dealing with humanity : the foohsh man is defined, the wise, the rich, the poor, the happy (35-39a); a little discourse on the sorrows of the blind man follows (392>-44). With the exception of lSb-25a, these lines are, I believe, the expression of a Christian writer. Eadig (37) suggests "blessed," rather than "wealthy" (cf. 108, 157), a meaning acquired under the influence of Christianity.^ The tone of the line and its neighbors, as Brandl suggests, is that of the Sermon on the Mount. The one God, whether mcotucl (29), dryhten (35) or waldend (43), is evidently the God of the Christians, not Woden nor another. From 44 on, however, the tone is changed. " Lef mon Iteces behofaS " thrusts a gnomic head from the mists of ancient times.^ The training of the young man is enjoined (456-50). " The strong of mind shall govern" (51rt) precedes a passage on stormy weather, which, in turn, leads to a comparison between calm seas and people without strife (51Z>-58). Brandl remarks that 58-71 appear to be a fragment out of the courtly heroic time : " Strong men are bold by nature" (59a), " A king is desirous of power" (596), antithesis between giver and taker of land (60),' 'Cf. McGillivr.'iy, The Inllucnce of Christianity on the Vocabulary of Old English, Ihille, 11)02, p."l51. 2 Cf. " Sick inou are for skilful leeches, prodigals for prisoning, fools for teachers." — From the Jlilopadesa, translated by Sir Edwin Arnold, op. cit.y p. 03. It is interesting to observe that in this speech, teachers are placed near leeches. Cf. ioa and 456. * Conquered land was at first shared ; later the king took a special part for hiiuself. — EecktsalterthUmer, Grimm, 24(3 £f. Cited by Gum- mere, Germanic Origins, p. 21)0. 90 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON matching of glory and pride, the bold and the brave (61), places of the leader, the cavalry, and the infantry (63-G4a). A passage on woman follows (64&-G6), which throws light on her position and standing among Germanic tribes, and is in keeping with tne reports of Tacitus and others. The shamed man is contrasted with the pure man (67). 68-71 are of the highest antiquity, as the roughly sketched picture indicates : the prince is on the high seat surrounded by his comitatus or " gesiSmcegen," the treasure (of golden armlets and beakers) awaits distribution. As each man receives his share, the hand of the ruler is laid upon his head. Concerning the dignity of chiefs, which was ranked according to number and strength of the comitatus, see Gerraania, XIII : " Haec dignitas haj vires, magno semper electorum juvenum globo circumdari, in pace decus in bello prtesidium. Nee solum in sua gente cuique, sed apud finitimas quoque civitates id nomen, ea gloria est, si numero ac virtute comitatus emineat : ex- petuntur enim legationibiis, et muneribus ornantur, et ipsa plerumque fama bella profligant." B 72-78a are gnomes on the seasons, which recall Gn. C, 36-8. 72«, 726, 73a, are, probably, examples of most primitive gnomic expression. This fact ap- pears to be further established by the number of seasons. Whereas in Gn. C, four parts of the year are distinguished, here the old Germanic division into two parts only is manifest: "winter shall go, fair EXETER GNOMES AND COTTON GNOMES 91 weather, summer-liot, return." ^ 78-81 are unrelated sayings, cleverly dovetailed, without embellishment, to meet the exigencies of verse. 79 seems half to reveal and half conceal an allusion to the nether world of the Teutons, who held the grave to be the starting point of the underground way to hell. 82-104 treat largely of women : 82-93 deal with the duties of king and queen, the latter being in the foreground ; ^ 956-100 form the famous " Frisian woman " passage. Morley thinks it may have been a snatch of sailor song; in any case, it reflects the evidently notable domestic felicity of that particular tribe.^ 94-9 5a are out of context : "a ship shall be nailed,* a shield bound." That is, the shield shall be bound with hides. Compare with this description, Tacitus, Annals, 11, 14: "ne scuta quidem ferro nervove firmata, sed viminum textus vel tennis et fucatas colore tabulas." The use of iron was litt'ic known among the early 1 On division of the year, cf. Oermania, XXVI ; further P. Chantepie de la Sausiraye, op. cit., p. 380. " On the pu-chaae of women, Tacitus says, Oermania, XVlII, that the woman was bought honorably with a dowry of oxen, bridled horse and shield, with spear cr sword. Just as those gifts were intended to sym- bolize her part in domestic life and on the battlefield — for in the older times she often accompanied her husband — so ihe armlets and beakers appear to symbolize a later state of society in which the activity of woman was more highly specialized, diversely from that of man. As the warrior is to be valorous, so is his wife to be blithe of spirit in the banquet hall, whether giving treasure or serving her lord with the first tumbler of wine. At the same time, the old idea, of equality is present ; they two shall hold counsel together, « To sell wife or child was a iast resort with the Frisians. Cf. Tacitus, ' Ann., LV, 72. Quoted by Gumnere, Oermanic Origins, p. 185. * Cf. Meyer, op. cit., p. 4'.)2 : •■ Wir sehen nun hier auf das deutlichste, ■ wie das epitheton die gewiinschte beschaffenheit des hauptworts voraus- nimmt. Es hiess hier, 'das schiff soli genagelt sein ' — und ' nagled Bcip' iat eine poetische formel." ♦92 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON ,-Gennans, although it will be remembered, Becwnlf, go- ing to fight the dragon, had an iron shield made aa an ,.extra precaution. ^ 101-103 comment on faithful and unfaithful women: the woman shall hold troth with .her man. Lack of fidelity among the early Teutons was punished severely. Tacitus says,^ "for a woman who sells her chastity there is no pardon." At the time •the gnomes were written, inconstancy had probably become more common or the punishment had become softened. The lines seem to indicate this double .condition. If the penalty was as hard as in the earlier days, why the mention of the small item that a woman is thought of contemptuously, in case of defamation ? And she enjoys strange men when the husband is far away : a derogatory comment, but not indicating -that death follows upon the misdemeanor. 104- 111 form a group which continues the idea ad- vVanced in the " Frisian woman " passage, in showing the desii'e of the man at sea to return to his home and in declaring his need of wood and water. 112-1 15a assert the necessity of being fed, and it is significant that meat is synecdoche for food (cf. modern bread, or bread and meat). Here and in 125 it may be that a figurative notion is altogether lacking. Starkad says, '•' The food of valiant men is raw . . . the flesh of rams and swine." ^ 1155-117 have to do with grue- some admonitions about burial of the dead. I see in 117 an echo of the custom set forth by Tacitus in Germania XII, where he says, " Crimes ought to have 1 Cf. lines 2338 ff. 2 Qermania, XIX. « The Indo-Europeans all make their appearance in history as meat- eating peoples. EXETER GNOMES AND COTTON GNOMES 03 public punishment, shameful offences ought to be con- cealed." ^ 118-13G are similar to 786-81 in being • distinct gnomtjs fitted together. 118, 1196-120a, 121, 122, — these have the tone of old proverbs, the rhyme and compactness of form indicate the shaping and polish of time. The few adornments in the lines are only such as are necessary to hold together the verse scheme. 130-138 form the close, which is obviously the work of a Christian redactor.^ The "Woden passage is one of the few allusions in (extant) .Anglo-Saxon poetry to the gods worshipped by the . ancient Germans. Line 138 concludes this division in true homiletic fashion. With the exception of the Christian touches at the "beginning and the end, this division is almost entirely ' heathen. The hand of the monk is patent in the Klines declaring God's power over winter and over Woden. I do not agree with Brandl in thinking]: new ; and old are interwoven throughout. In ■ the first place, there is no other mark of Christian influence; 'in the second place, the material is less didactic. All - old gnomes are descriptive rather than imperative;" - the picture, not the command, prevails here. ^ " Ignavoa et ijnbelles, et ccrpore infames, coena ac palude, injecta ;■ iusuper crate, mergunt." ^ II:T;Se7i, a new formation before 450 a.u., took the place of paganus, . Samaritanus. On this word, an etymological problem, see McGillivray, . op. cit., p. 14, note 2. 8 t' — viel weniger befehlend, al3 beschreibend." Meyer, op. cit., p. 44. Cf. also Brooke, who translates 11. 72-79, 82-93, and 12»>-132 aa , the oldest of the Exeter Gnomes. — English Literature from the Beginning J. to the Norman Conquest, New York, 1808, p. 317. 94 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON The third and last division Brandl calls a spielmans spruch} Miiller observes that singer and soldier are in the foreground ^ and suggests that the lay may have been sung on the battlefield, by a minstrel to the soldiers. He was a Christian singer, who sought to palliate war and to excuse it, and he does so by the passage on the Cain-Abel feud. Analysis of the division discloses resemblance to Old Norse verse, both in matter and manner.^ 139, 140, 141, 144 form a formjr(5islag strophe ; * 145 has a parallel in Ilqvamql 42, " to his friend a man should be a friend";^ 146 contains an idiom probably a direct borrowing from the Icelandic : fere^ feor hi tune is explained by fara um tiin, to pass by a house ; the whole line is akin to Hovamol 34, " the digression is great to (the home of) a false friend, even if he dwell on the way." ^ 147-152 comment on the fate of the man, who, friendless, takes wolves for comrades. This subject, the friendless man, is con- stantly appearing in early literature. In a state of society where the family or clan are of much impor- tance, the homeless one is without protection of law. 1 Cf. Rieger : " Das anziehende der kleinem dichtungen liegt, abgeseben Ton ihrern inhalt, darin dass die uns die Alte volksmiissige iibung der dicht- kunst vor augen fiibren, wonach der siinger in der halle versaaimeUea helden unterm trinken mit einem vortrag zu harfe unterhalt, der teiner bestimmung nach kurz und abgerundet aein muss." — ZlfLf. d. Fhil., I, 3-32 ff. 2 Op. cit., p. 23. ' Icelandic bards often visited England during Danish invasions, * Cf. Strob), op. cit., p. 54 ff, 6 vin sinom skal ma>r vinr vesa, — S.-G., I, 31. e Jbid., 30. EXETER GNOMES AND COTTON GNOMES 95 No heavier punishment, then, could befall a man than to be expelled from the circle of which he might be a member.^ The themes of the Wanderer and Seafarer testify somewhat to this truth.'^ As in pas- sages 18&-25a, 786-81, 118-130, we found distinct gnomes tied together by no bond save primitive prosody, so we have in 153-159 a collection of old sayings bound together in a similar fashion. "A fillet shall be twisted " recalls that an adornment for the hair was of rolled gold, worn sometimes even by warriors. When Starkad was at the court of Ingeld, he threw back at the queen the ribbon she had tossed him thinking to placate his wrath : " it is amiss that the hair of men that are ready for battle should be bound back in wreathed gold." ^ Breaking the heathen tone of this passage, 1566-157 is apparently £. reminiscence of Job i, 21 : " The Lord gave and the Lord hath taken away." 160-161, a couplet on trees and truth, is an example of early punning. The parallelism to Old Norse verse structure returns in 162-164, a Ijodahdttr strophe which shows Christian sentiment : " God has no use for the faithless and venom-mindea man." 165 divided into two lines be- comes analogous to Ijodahdttr,* and continues with biblical teaching : " God created the world, com- manded things to be." 166-167 form a Ijocfahdttr couplet on things fitting for men. 168-169, a Ijoda- hdttr half-strophe, " Many men, many minds." ^ The 1 Cf. Gummere, Germanic Origins, p. 171. ^ Monig bil> uncu)> ir6ow ge}>ofta. — Maxims, Bib. 2, 280-281. 8 Saxo, Elton, p. 254, cf. Holder, p. 207. * Cf. Sievers, PBB., XII, 478. ' StrobI combines IG6-1C9 in a five-lino strophe. 96 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON thought is extended in 170-172, the relief from sad- ness furnished by the harp. 173-177 return to the idea of friendship, with which compare above, 145, and Hovamql, 43-47, particularly, " Young was I once, I walked alone, and bewildered seemed in the way ; then I found another and rich I thought me > for man is the joy of man." ^ 177 is a forcible sug- gestion of the respect formerly felt for the bear;, " To the heathen Teuton, a bear was almost a man,, stronger, almost as cunning." ^ 178-179, enjoining men to sleep with trappings, give no unusual com- mand ; for warriors often slept in their armor or with it near at hand.^ On 180-181, the second half of the Ijudahdttr stanza, see notes, p. 145. 182-193' throw additional light on what Tacitus says of the absorbing game of dice.^ The custom appears to have survived longer in Iceland and Denmark; but w^herever the scene of the play here outlined was laid, dicing had degenerated from the sober game of honor described by Tacitus. Cheating, stealing the dice, and backbiting seem to be characteristic of these players. It recalls the tale told by Saxo, also of a shipboard game. Toste of Jutland, the protagonist, warred with Hadding of Sweden. On one occasion, when he went to Britain, for " sheer wantonness he got his crew together to play dice, and when a. wrangle arose from the throwing of the tableSj he ^ Miss Bray's translation , cf. S.-G., I, 32. , ^ York Powell, op. cit., p. Ixxxiv. J » Cf. Beoxculf, 1243-1251. * "Aleam (quod mirere) sobrii inter servia exercent, tanta lucrandi perdenrlive temeritate, ut, cum omnia defocerunt, extrenao ac novissimo jactu de libertate et de corporo contendant." — Germania, XXIV. EXETER GNOMES AND COTTON GNOMES 97 t?-ught them to wind it up with a fatal affray.**^ 186-193 form a final Ijodahdttr stanza. 194-202 is" a late interpolation, the Anglo-Saxon Christian's' answ er to the ancient question, " Whence came evil ? " 203-206 revert to old gnomes : ready shall be shield,- point on staff, edge on sword, tip on spear, heart for the brave, helmet for the bold, limited treasure for the mean in heart.^ For the date and authorship of the verses, such opinion as has been expressed manifests some diver- gence. Trautmann, basmg his reasons on metrical grounds,^ denied to Cynewulf authorship of the Exeter Gnomes.* Since Dietrich (who attributed to him the four gnomic groups^'), Rieger,*^ and Sarrazin^ (who agree that he had a hand in the composition of group A), placed Cynewulf in the eighth century, — Dietrich iden- tifying him with the Bishop of Lindisfarne, — they implicitly assigned these lines to the same time. Strobl argued (particularly of C) for the close of the seventh or the beginning of the eighth century, reasoning on a fancied reflection of the Oswald-Penda feud in the Cain- Abel passage. Stopford Brooke expressed a belief that the verses originated in the early eighth century, and that they were probably heard by Ecgbert,iEthelberht, and Alcuin ; that they were composed by a Northum- brian and later taken up in Wessex after Alfred's 1 Elton, p. 42 ; cf. Ilolder/'p. 34. 2 Hrandl thinks these last lines are natural as coming from a spidmari, who praises tlie generosity of his Lord. — Op. cit., p. Wil. Brooke hears in them the true heroic ring, a.s in Gn. C. — Earbj English Literature, II, 278. 8 Cf. an. I, 41. *Cf. also Schmitz, op. cit., p. 216. ^Anglia, I, 484 ; II, 440. « Op. cit., p. .331 ff. TEng. St., XXXVIII, 145-196. 98 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON day.^ Brandl placed the greater part of A and B in the eighth century,'^ makiDg his criterion the lack of the definite article before weak adjective and substan- tive.^ C he assigned to a time and locality not far from those of the young King Alfred. Argument against ascription to Cynewulf is supsr- fluous. There is no good reason for assuming that he is the author, if there were no reasons to the con- trary. Weaving a literary fabric from odds and ends of sententious material is hardly worthy the name of authorship/ and if it is, it is not the kind of composi- tion Cynewulf has left in his signed works. If its crudeness is due to a stilted copy-book purpose, as Rieger suggested, there is no proof that Cynewidf ever wrote copy-books. The involution of the runes is done with skill and subtletv, the mortising of these gnomes by a prentice hand. But the suggestion that they were put together in the North is of more moment and requires some con- sideration. If there is anything in language or thought which points to Anglia or Mercia as the home of the compiler, it should be given due weight.^ If in the forms no definite peculiarities occur that are to be labeled non-West-Saxon, we may conclude that, * Early English Literature, II, 277 ff. » Op. cit., p. 961 ; cf. also p. 1034. 'See U. 79, 96. < When other scholars were ascribing the verses to Cynewulf, Wiilker suggested that most of the speeches are not by a definite author, " sondem aus der volksweisheit stammen." — Grund., p. 230. ^ It is to be remembered, of course, that transmission through a number of years by many scribes in sequence may have resulted in considerable modification of forms ; further, that poetry is to be treated with caution in drawing philological conclusions. EXET2R GNOMES ANT> COTTON" GNOMES 99 though written elsewhere at an early date, they had so long been domiciled in West-Saxon as to have lost the mark of original craftmanship, or that they were written primarily, at whatever time, in this dialect. Now an examination of the language reveals regular West-Saxon characteristics. A few instances which suggest Northern dialect are nevertheless found in Southern poetry./ and therefore their presence counts for little in determining provenience. So far, then, as language is any proof of provenience, although there are forms which may possibly or even probably be other than West-Saxon, yet they are also found in distinctively West-Saxon works, and no one departure from the norm is great enough to confirm by a hair's weight any opinion predisposed in favor of Northern origin. On the contrary, all signs point to West-Saxon as the home of the gnomic collector. And to revert to this collector: who was he? There can be no satisfactory answer to the question, but in the absence of knowledge it is interesting to surmise. It may not be too wild a flight to ascribe authorship to Alfi-ed himself. His Handhoc, not extant, as is well known, was described by Asser and cited by William of Malmesbury. In the centuries between these authors, some parts if not all of it must have been current and recognized. However crude the royal verse, the Exeter Book compiler would prob- ably have transcribed it. That Alfred's poetic at- tempts were crude, is revealed by the only examples which have come down to us as the supposed work ^«- or a-umlaut of a, eaforan ; u-umlaut of i to lo (eo), wicfreofoa, leofalS, leomu; unbroken a before I + cousonant, waldendf alwdlda. 100 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON of his hand : the verses in the preface and at the close of the Pastoral Care. The language tallies in every respect with that of his own prose. ^ The Enchiridion^ or Jlandboc, may reasonably be supposed to have contained just such maxims and practical bits of advice as these gnomes show. The fact that they are largely heathen seems not to accord with the Christian spirit of his prose ; but some points may be adduced to meet this objection. First, his foresisjht and wisdom would have seen that a new application of old trutlis would be more welcome to his people, semi-heathen as they were, than ne^7 material altogether. After creed is dead, cult lives on and its language longer still ; but it may be used with underlying reference to a new religion. As a second suggestion, the story of St. Aldhelm is not without value. At comers, on byways, wherever he might collect a crowd, he sang heathen songs and spoke old sayings. . Then when the crowd was duly interested, he branched into Christian teaching. Gnomes may have been preserved in writing for similar reasons. Moreover, it was Alfred, it appears, who handed down this story of Aldhelm. William of Malmesbury^ says: "Litteris itaque ad plenum instructus, nativce qucque linguce non negligebat car- mina; adeo ut, teste lihro Elfrcdi, de quo superius dixi, nulla umquam astate par ei fuerit quisquam, Poesim Anglicam posse facere, cantum componere, eadem apposite vel canere vel dicere. Denique com- 1 The Metres, being translations, may be dismissed with tlie observa^ tion that in many places (cf . notes, passim) they show parallelism of ex- pression with the Gnomic Verses. * JDe Gestis Fontijicum Anglorum, V, 1, ^ 5. The italics are mine. EXETER GN0ME3 AND COTTON GNOMES 101 memorat Elfredus caniien trivicde, quod adhuc vulgo cantitatur, Aldiielmum fecisse ; aditiens causam qua probet rationabiliter tantum virum his quae videantur fmola institisse: populuia eo tempore serai-barbarum, parum divinis sermonibus intentum, statira, cantatis missis, domus cursitare solitura ; ideoque sanctum virum super pontem qui rura et urbem continuat, abeuntibus se opposuisse obicem, quasi artem cantandi professum. Eo plusquam semel facto, plebis favorem et coucursum enieritum. Hoc coimnento sensim inter ludicra verbis Scrijyturarum insertis, cives ad sanita- tem reduxisse; qui si severe et excommunicatione agendum putasset, profecto profecisset nihil." It is not unlikely that King Alfred might have profited by the device of the saint which he reported. The '• trivial song " of Aldhelm's, also lost, might throw light on this possibility. The words of scripture inserted carefully between the parts of the heathen song would seem to be in close parallel with the Christian sentences inserted among our gnomes.^ Probably legendary is the report of Alfred's visit to the camp of his enemies, in the character of a minstrel or jester. But the very tradition implies a possibility. And he loved " Saxonica poemata," delighting to memorize them at an early age.'^ But any ascription of authorship is hazardous. At best, it may be said that the Exeter Gnomes were put * It is a small point, but the pun in 1. 121 is consistent with Alfred's continual plays on "God" and "good." Cf. De Consolatione, XXXIV, XXXV, etc. 2 Cf. Asser's Life j/ King Alfred, chs. XXII and XXIII. See, especially, the edition by W. \l. Stevenson, Oxford, 1904, and the copious notes on this subjeci, pp. 220-225. 102 GNO»nC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON together in the eighth or ninth century by a "West- Saxon writer. He was acquainted with the Germanic customs, traditions, and sayings ; he was, at the same time, familiar with the teachings of Christianity. If the elements drawn from Germanic lore were written down earlier, then the Christian reviser inserted lines of later origin and modified the framework, to some extent, to fit the new theology. COTTOX GXOMES The gnomology here considered is found in the Cotton Manuscript, Tiberius B. 1.^ Before passing into the hands of Sir Robert Cotton, it belonged to Bowyer, Keeper of the Records in the Tower, and was therefore designated by Joscelin, Archbishop Parker's Secretary, as *' MS. Boyer." Notes in the volume made bv Robert Talbot, Rector of Burlincrham, Norfolk, might indicate that he was also a former owner. Exclusive of the single gnomic folio, the MS. comprises three treatises, and numbers 165 leaves. The Orosius occupies folios 3a to 1116 inclusive. At the top of 112a, Joscelin wrote Cronica Saxonica Ahingdonice ad anmnn 1066 ;- but he was a bit pre- mature, for on this sheet begins the Menologiuiiif which ends at the bottom of 1146. The gnomes fill not quite the recto and verso of 115.^ Four lines of 1156 are taken up by the opening of the Chronicle^ which closes with eight lines of 1646. 1 This quarto has often been described ; for example, by Wanley {op. cit.y II, 21;)), Earle (op. cit.^ xxviii), Pluramer {op. cit.., II, xxi ff.). 2ri., op. cit., I, 223. ' See frontispiece for facsimile of 115a. EXETER GNOMES AND COTTON GNOMES 103 The fact that the gnomology directly follows the Menologium caused early editors ^ to regard it as part of that poem, or intiraately connected with it. But the further fact that the first line is written in ma- juscules is an exterior sign that the scribe recognized new material, and the fact that there is no internal connection is stronger evidence that there is no ground for regarding the sentences as an appendix to that Calendar. Moreover, folio 115a is not in corresponding alignment with folio 1146; for the first line of 115a is opposite the second Ime of 1146. The scribe who wrote down the gnomes continued for some folios''* with the Chronicle, and beginning with 1156 keeps the alignment constant. Except for the first line, the MS. is written in Hi- berno-English minuscules of the eleventh century .' By reference to the illustration it will be seen that the first line is in Roman majuscules, largely square capicals, but showing uncial forms in d, 6, and h. The L is, as usual, an exception to the rule that square capitals are of the same height. The metrical point is used, as in other poems, to mark the half- line, and was employed, apparently, with correct knowledge of its functions.'' It is omitted only three 1 Hickes, Fox, Ebeling. " At least for a number. F. Madan thinks there are only two hands in the Chronicle ; one to 1040, another to 1066 (cf. Books in Manuscript, p. 103). PI. says several hands are discernible. » About A.D. 1045. — Warner's Index, I, 242. But Thorpe (Orosius^ p. vi) says not later than the tenth century. ♦ The MS. seems to indicate that these points were inserted by the origi- nal scribe, though corrections are later, — cf . geres, 1. 9. Bosworth on the first page of notes to his edition of the Oroftius observes : "These 104 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON times and is never misplaced. The accent-mark occurs but seldom, and serves to show the stress, I take it, rather than a long vowel. History of interest in this group of gnomes began in 1703, when Hickes made a transcript for his The- saurus, accompanying it with a Latin translation. He added a brief analysis of the contents, " quarum elegantia, splendor et proprietas Latine exhiberi non possunt," ^ Wanley in the second volume of the same work quoted the beginning and end of the collection, and commented, " Carmina qucedam pro- verbialia (ut videtur) Saxonice." ^ Nearly a hundred years passed during which no reference was made to the poem. Then Sharon Turner in his History of the Anglo-Saxons printed the text with a free translation. He classed it as an ode, though he quahfied his classi- fication by adding, " it is a very singular and curious composition." ^ From this time on, comparatively frequent mention was made of the lines. In 1826 J. J. Conybeare published brief quotatio.is from Hickes's text.^ In 1830, the Rev. Samuel Fox pub- lished the text (following Hickes, " except in a few instances ") with a fair English translation.^ The year 1842 marked the translation of the gnomes alterations appear to have been made several centuries after the writing of the Cotton, and yet before the knowledge of the An^lo-Saxon idiom had entirely passed away." 1 Op. at., I, 207. Cf. also I, 221. 2 Rnd., II, 210. » .5iU, III, 10, 3, 30. * rind., pp. 230-232. His English translation preserves nothing of the original .spirit. s He fondly compares the poem to the luxuripnt imagination of Pindar. It is no small testimony to the school of Cosvley that even in the Cotton gnomology, Turner and Fox saw a Pindaric Ode ! EXETER GN0ME3 AND COTTON GNOMES 105 into Dutch, by Arend. Within the next decade, German scholars turned their attention to Hickes's text: Ebeling ' (1847) and Ettmiiller^ (1850) embodied it in their selections from Anglo-Saxon literature. In 1865, Earle included the folio in his work on the Saxon Chror.icles, having made his own text from the original manuscript.' This excellent volume was re- vised 1892-1899 by Plummer, who, in his appendix,* gave a place to the gnomic poem. There was practically no critical work on the text nntil 1857, when Grein published the Versus Ghiomici in his Blhliothek} From this time on, a more scien- tific spirit operates here, as elsewhere in literature. In 1872, Sievers made a collation of Grein's text with the original •/ in 1883, Wiilker, revising Grein's work, published it under the title Denksprilche, with considerable annotation.'' In 1887, StrobP put forth a brief, interesting article, in which he discussed questions of age and source ; and in 1893, Hugo Miiller wrote a short dissertation : Uher Die Angel- sdchshchen Versus Gnomici.^ The latest contribution is that of Alois Brandl, who in Paul's Grundriss^^ has discussed the structure of the poem. For fragmentary comments and emendations made by other writers, see notes. ^^ 1 Op. cit p. 119-121. !" Op.cit., p. 283 ff. » Cf. op. ciL, p. xxxy. * Op. CiL, I, 273. ' II, 340-347. « Ztft.f. d.A., nf. Ill, 406. ' J3i6., I, 338-341. » Ztfl.f. d. A., X\IX, bi-Qi. » For a review of Miiller'a work see Eng. St., XIX, 415 £f. This review is a good summary — and little else — of the dissertation. w I, 960 ff., 2d Ed., 1908. " With the exception of Longfellow, no American up to the present time has published anything concerning the poem. Longfellow included in his Poets and Poetry of Europe the translation of Turner, and remarked 106 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON Examination reveals, first of all, several more or less clearly defined divisions.^ The first groTip, l-16a, is composed of sentences, almost the only connection between which is the bond of alliteration.'^ I b3e no reason for Brandl's interpretation assuming a design of the gnomic artist in placing first the king, ^' who, according to Bede, v/as of godlil^e origin," the giants, then the wind, thunder, fate, the four seasons, etc. I say, I see no reason for considering this an order of descent from higher to lower concepts, for the argu- ment would work quite as well if applied to the gnomes in other arrangement. Wyrd hil^ sioWost occurs in the fifth line, for example; the young prince is delayed until line 14, though the king appears in the first line.^ Brandl tliinks the whole collection approaches more nearly to the " spell " than does any other poetic remnant.'' Strobl seems nearer the mark in seeing in lines 1-41 a set of school exercises,^ yet 1 would not hold with hini, much less with Miiller, who thinks the close packing of prose gnomes is on the similarity between the aphorisms and those that adorn a modem almanac. It may be said here that considerable investigation on the part of the writer revealed no further parallelism between Calendars of Saints and Modern Almanacs. And I have already indicated that juxaposition of the Menology and Gnomes seems to be the result of accident. 1 Miiller divides them according to length : I, 1-^9 " dessen lange iiber 2 langzeilen uicht hinausgeht." II, 6-CG " Komplexe, die mehr als 3 langzeilen einnehmen.'" — Op. cit., p. 7. 2 Ebert notes resemblance in this respect to "abcbiichern und kinder- liedern." — AUgemcine Geschichte, III, 87 ff. * Brandl see Christ exalted in the midst of lines 1-14, which deal with myths "neben dem Christentum " ; 14—41 " ziihlt auf, was zum Helden- leben gehort" ; 41-49 " nennt wesen, die ausserhalb des gottlichen und des heldenmassigen kreisen stehen " ; 59-GG " ist moralisierend." — Op. ciL, p. 960. « Cf. Schroder, Ztft. f. d. A., XXXVII, 241. 6 Op. cit., p. 63. EXETER GNOMES AND COTTON GNOMES 107 " schiilwerk." ^ For whereas Strobl characterizes 1-41 as artificial, it appears to me that lines 1-1 5a con- stitute the most unadorned and unaffectedly natural part of the poem. This passage of fifteen and a half lines, it is true, is corrupt, old material being mixed with new, but the number of sayings, the varying lengths of the lines, the lack of stilted balance, pro- claim them to be comparatively free gnomes written in sequence. The poet pays homage to the sovereign in 1. The next two lines, 16-3a, obviously prose if lifted from the context, reflect the old Germanic wonder at siglit of the stone cities left by the Romans.'' Sh~ia are distinct prose gnomes. 46' and 5a are distinct, Christ and Fate being put in opposition to each other, the predominance of the latter tes- tifying to remote heathen origin. 56-9 constitute an early calendar, comprising four seasons, and therefore suggesting later composition. (Cf. Gn. Ex. 72 ff<) 10 and 11a are also distinct: truth was highly prized by our forefathers, no less was treasure.^ 116-1 2a hint at the reverence paid to the old and to the respect entertained for their opinions. 13 contains two unrelated gnomes, on 1 " in metriscbea gewand gezwftngte prosagnomen," p. 24. Listening to such a collection would have tired speaker as well as hearer, Miiller thinks. 2 As late as 414, the islanders (Britons) were unable to erect a stone ■wall. Cf. Bede, HE. I, xii : " At insulani munuu quern jussi fuerant, non tarn lapldibus quern cespitibus consiruentes, utpote nullum tanti operis artificem habentes, ad nihil utilem statuunt." Tacitus, Germania, XVI, observes the ignorance of tile and mortar among the Germans ; for all purposes they use timber roughly hewn. ' Of jewels, or armlets and beakers of gold. The word suggests a time remote: Tacitus observed tiiat the Germans knew nothing of coins, though they were learning their use from the Romans. 108 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON woe and clouds. 14-15, because of its regularity and polish, seems to be a later distich, suggesting the prince and his comitatus. Lack of unity characterizes these lines, but hardly artificiality,^ except in so far as crudeness of poetizing results in a decadent mixture which is neither prose nor verse. Quite otherwise is the analysis of 166-41, where the hand of the artificer is evident. It is first noticeaole that the purpose of these lines is to assign objects and persons their fitting places and duties : with the helmet the sword sliall await battle ; the good man shall work justice ; the bear shall dwell on the heath ; God shall be in heaven, judge of deeds. It is further to be observed that the passage is a mosaic of literary art. Beginning ecg sceal wid hellme, 166, the author completes his line, Ellen sceal on eorle, 16a, with regard to alliterative effect; but tbe thought he carries over into line Ha, hilde gebidan. Likewise 176, hafuc sceal on glofc, is connected with 17a, by alliteration, though it introduces a new gnome which is completed in 18f.;, iDilde gewunian. It is further to be observed that the 6 half-line contains the esssential prose gnome, the a half-line representing, as part of the pattern, an attempt at adornment. By tearing away these " poetic " additions, Miiller distinguishes forty-four prose gnomes. As he suggests, the reviser of old material used the 6 line, because as prose his say- ings would liardly show the alliterations demanded by the a line. They could have been changed so as 1 Cf. Brooke, who describes 11. 1-9, 13-20a, and 50-55a, as "oldest and most interesting" of the Gn. C. Eng. Lit. from the Beginning to the Norman Conquest, p. 316. EXETER GNOMES AND COTTON GNOMES 109 to effect an alliteration, but then their character as gnomes would have been destroyed.^ It is a plausible deduction, therefore, one hardly to be avoided, that the writer of these lines was perform- ing an exercise in verse technic. From the store of old sentences chat ascribe place or duty to object or person, he selected such as suited his purpose and bound them together as we find them. It is most likely that we have here an eaily example of what later became a popular employment with poets. A Norse Runic fuporc of the twelfth century '^ is in its composition more closely akin to this passage than to the Anglo-Saxon Rune Poem. Take, for instance, line 14 and compare it in thought and structure with the passage under observation. Or consider the Skdldskaparmol of the Prose Edda and the section of that rhetorical treatise which exhibits an exercise in verse-making. Employing alliteration, the skald weaves together the names of the giants, of kings, the various designations of sun, moon, and earth, of cattle, of fishes, of rivers, trees, weapons, — of things in gen- eral prominent in Old Norse cosmology.*^ 1 Some in the a line hiive not double alliteration. Ten Brink's opinioa should also be noted on this consistency in beginning a new maxim, or a chain of ihein, with the second or h half-line : " — deutet auf selbstandige verarbeitung des im grunde doch alten materials fiir die zwecke des dichters." — Op. cit., I, 81. In the a line we meet with the predicate and its object or adverbial modifier ; or, more consistently with AS. idiom, we find a synonyu of the subject in the preceding b line. Cf. Miiller, op. cit., p. 10. 2 Cf. Corpus Poeticum Boreale, Vigfusson-Powell, Oxford, 1883, 1. 369. 8 Of fislies, — Laks ok ldn;^a lysa, trosma, birtfngr, hseingr bust ok hrygna, humarr, hrognkelsi, hyetSnir, fl6ki, blun, orriSi ok andvari. — Edda Snorra Sturlnaonar, Hafnise, 1848, I, 678. 110 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON In 41, the alliterative scheme breaks down, not to be resumed imtil 47a; then it vanishes finally in 496. 41-47 point to an early origin : shower mixed with wind coming into the world, the thief, the />yrSy the woman's getting a husband, the foaming of the sea. 50-54 list contending forces, arranging them in pairs : good with evil, youth with age, — a matching indicative of the naive interest which primitive man- kind exhibited in contrasts. The remainder of the poem, reflective and religious, is the addition of a Christian scribe. Such endings are common in Anglo-Saxon poetry : besides Exeter Gnomes B compare Seafarer, — which concludes with an admonition to prepare for eternal happiness and with thanks to the Prince of Glory, — and Wanderer , which recommends seeking mercy from the Heavenly Father.' That the pattern is torn and corrupt, that the heathen foundation is patched with Christian em- broidery, — that there is absence of integrity must be plain from the preceding brief analysis. If we look more minutely at the material, we may observe definite indications of early origin. First, there are tokens of the old religion. Wyrd, enta, Ayrs, — all relate directly to the beliefs and practices of heathen times, and in a vital fashion. ]>yrsy at least, has a local habitation ; for he must dwell in the fen ; cities are the work of giants, "who are in this earth**; " Wyrd is strongest." The second indication of age is visible in the work of the smith, who is patently 1 Cf. also Waldere, Phoenix, Juliana, Lament of the Fallen Angels, and elsewhere. EXETER GNOMES AND COTl'ON GNOMES 111 present throughout. Helmet sioeord, Isem, heagum, hringe, scyld, gim^ — these words, though used con- ventionally in late Anglo-Saxon times, by their com- paratively large proportion here suggest the time when ring-giving was held in repute ; when heah-gifa was a synonym for prince ; when shield, sword, helmet awaited battle.' The language, clearly West-Saxon, shows certain characteristics more usual in Late West-Saxon,'^ but they all occur in Alfrediau prose, a fact which would seem to indicate that they are not necessarily distinc- tive of the later period. When was the exercise written, and who wrote it? There are two possible choices: either we have a combination of a poem exceedingly old and a few lines of homiletic verse comparatively new ; or we have a single poem composed under the conditions of changing belief. It may be argued that the pro- pinquity of old and new, as Wyrd hydswl ost immedi- ately ixiiQY pryminas syndan Cristes myccle, is equivalent to a dii'ect statement that heathendom and Christianity here side by side contested a place in literature, or shared it, because of shifting notions about the rulers of the world and consequent religions. If this is the case, however, heathendom still had supremacy, as the lines (see analysis) treat predominantly of ancient Ger- manic ideals, or in any case display a conspicuous ^ Brand! notes the difference between the simple compounds of On. C. and the much later Lekren des Vaters combinations, which are more reflective. — Op. cit., p. Oti.?. 2 A final, instead of g, appears in beah (gife), beorh, gebeorh, wearh; naini, instead of ncinig ; svaraohakti vowe's in beaduwe (earlier beadvie)^ bearowe; wontld, woiiilde, earlier weoro/d. 112 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON absence of Christian material, except in the definite places noted. In favor of the former alternative is Christian interpolation in distinctly heathen poems, and the fact that in the Christianizing of Britain, old symbols ■vN'ere generally converted to new jnirposes. Heathen temples were turned to the service of Christianity : ^ old poems of didactic character might easily b2 modi- fied into vessels for essence of the true faith. It may be objected that in language the poem would be more nearly consistent if it were composed ac one sit- ting ; and since forms are quite uniform, then the first alternative is favored. But the answer to this point might be that a first or a second scribe may possibly have normalized the forms. 1 have already stated that I believe the poem to be of West-Saxon or South-English origin, and though the scribes just mentioned might very well have changed Anglian or Northumbrian forms, yet if they had done so, there would probably be some trace of those dia~ lects ; if, on the contrary, old and new parts arose in the same dialect, it is again obvious that little nor- malization would have been needed by those hypo- thetical copyists. The mingling of diverse elements, heathen and Christian, occurred late in Southern England. '^ While the faith shone with a steady light in distant Northum- bria, Wessex was among the dark places of the earth." ^ ^ Cf. letter of Pope Gregory to Mellitus going into Britain, 601. " Quia, si fana eadem bene constructa sunt, necesse est ut a cultu die- monum in obsequium veri Dei debeant commutari." — Bede, HE., I, XXX. He adds that the idols were to be destroyed, 2 Chronicon Monasterii de Abingdon, J. Stevenson, 1858, II, v ff. EXETER GNOMES AND COTTON GNOMES 113 Bede states^ that in 640 the new faith was prev- alent in Kent, but it seems to be also true that as late as 686 it had gained no footing in the Isle of "Wight. The southern kingdoms held longest to the old worship of Vv^oden, Thor, and other Teutonic deities. Abingdon was founded in 675. After the Council of Aries in 813, a steady effort was made in education, both of the clergy and the laity. These facts are significant, in connection with the gnomes under discussion ; the heathen heritage was yet fresh in the memory of minds which were being dominated by the new religion. Some now forgotten monk with a crude gift for verse-making ^ roughly put together the two elements, — heathen and Christian, the second contribution being his own. Later, the verses may have been used as a school exercise ; perhaps for copy-books, perhaps for memorization, possibly as a model for alliterative compositions.^ » HE., Ill, viii. 2 In tlie days when Cynewulf ascriptions flourished, Trautmann ob- served that for metrical reasons, Cynewulf could not be the author. Rieger (op. cit.) admitted th?.t the verses are crude, but thought they might be in the poet's earlier style. 8 In searching for allied types, I have been interested in comparing •with these verses the Viaticum of Llevoed Wynebglawr (Red Book of Hergest, xxiv.). He may have flourished near the beginning of the tenth century. Cf. The Four Ancient Books of Wales, W. Skene, 1868. II Table of AsBRiiiviATioNS * An. Andreas. Angl. Anglia. Arch. Archceologia. Archiv. Archiv fur das Studium der neueren Sprachen und Litter- aturen. AS. Anglo-Saxon. BeL Beiblatt. Beo, Beowulf, Ed. Heyne-Socin, revised by L. L. SchUcking, Paderborn, 1903. Bib. Grein-Wiilker, Bibliothek der angelsachsischen Poesie. BB. Bonner Beitrage zur Anglistik. B.-T. Bosworth-Toller, Anglo-Saxon Dictionary, B.-T.,8upp. Ibid., Supplement Part T, A-Eorp. B. Bouterwek, K., Ccedmons des Angelsachsen Biblische Dicht- ungen, Gutersloh, 1854, Brandl. Brandl, A., Geschichte der Altenglischen Literatur, In Paul's Orundriss der gennanischen Bliilologie, Vol. U, 2d edition, lfX)8. Brooke. Brooke, S, A., English Literature from the Beginning to the Norma7i Conquest, New York, 1898. Chr. Christ. C. Conybeare, J. J., Illustrations of Anglo-Saxon Poefry, London, 1826. C.-S. Cook-Sievers, Grammar of Old English, 3d edition, Boston, 1903. Cos. Cosijn, P., Altwestsdchsische Grammatik, Ilaag, 1883. DAK. Mullenhoff, K., Deutsche Altertumskunde, Berlin, 1870- 1900. Ea. Earle, J., Tioo of the Saxon Chronicles Parallel, Oxford, 1865. E.E.T.S. Early English Text Society. Eb. Ebeling, F. W., Angelsdchsisches Lesebuch, Leipzig, 1847. Edd. Editors. 1 Citations of texts not otherwise registered are from the Grein- WUlker Bibliothek 114 TABLE OF ABBREVIATIONS 115 El. Elene. Eng. St. Englische Studien. Ettm. EttmUller, L., Engla and Seaxna Scopcu and BoceraSt Quedlinburgil et Lipsiae, 1850. Ex. Exodus. Fox. Fox, S., Menologium, London, 1830. Gen. Genesis. Gn. C. Cotton Gnomes. Gn, Ex. Exeter Gnomes. Gr. Grein, C, Bibliothek der Angels&chsischen Poesie, G5t- tingen, 1857. Gr'. Grein, Zur Textkritik der Angelsdchsisehen Dichter, in Germania, X, 1865. Grendon. Grendon, F., The Anglo-Saxon Charms, In Journal of American Folk-lore, Vol. XXII, No. 84, 1909. Grund. Wiilker, R. P., Grundriss zur Geschichte der angelsach' sischen Litteratur, Leipzig, 1886. Guth. Guthlac. 11. Hickes, G., Thesaurus, Oxford, 1705. IIE. Baedac, Venerabilis, Historia Ecdesiastica Gentis Ang- lornm, Ed. Pluinnier, Oxford, 18.>0. Holt. Holthausen, F., Zur Textkritik Altenglischer Dichtungen, in Eng. St., XXXVII, U'06-1907. Holt'. Hollliauser, Zur AHenglischen Literatur, in Anglia Bei- blatt, XXI, 1910. Icel. Icelandic. .TEG. Ph. Journal of English and Germanic Philology. Jul. Juliana. Kl. Kluge, F., Angels&chscScJies Lesebuch, Halle, 1888. Koegel. Koegel, R., Geschichte der deut^chen Litteratur, Sttsaabxug^ 1894-1897. Kr. Krapp, G. P., Andreas and the Fates of the Apostles, Boston, 1900. Ma. March, F. A., Anglo-Saxon Reader, New York, 1879. Men. Menologium. Met. Metres of Boetliius. Meyer. Meyer, R. M., Altgermanische Poesie, Berlin, 1889. ME. Middle linglis'a. Mn. E. Modern English. 116 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON MLN. Modern Language Notes. M. Ph. ilcdern Philology. Mli. Miiller, H., Uher die Angelsdchsischen Versus ffnomici, Jena, 1893, ITED. New English Dictionary. GEE, Gumuiere, F. B., Oldest English Epic, New York, 1909. OHG. Cld High German. ON. Old Norse. Oros. Alfred's Anglo-Saxon Version of Orosius, translated by B. Thorpe (in Pauli's Life of Alfred the Great, 1900). OS. Old Saxon. PBB. Paul and Braune's Beitrage zur Oeschichte der Deutschen Sprache und Literatur. PI. Plummer, C, Tioo of the Saxon Chronicles Parallel (on the basis of Earle's Edition), Oxford, 1892-1899. PMLA Publications of the Modern Language Association of America. Pb. Psalms, Ed. Grcin-WUlker (in the Bihliothek der Angel' siichsischen Prona), Hamburg, 1910. Rid. Piddles. Rie. Rieger, M., tjber Cynewulf in Zeitschrift fur deutsche Philologie, I, 18(50 (for On. Ex. A). Rie. Rieger, ^l., Angehdchsisches Lesebuch, 1861 (for On. Ex.B). Sch. Schipper, J., Zum Codex Exoniensis, in Germania, XIX, 1874. Schmitz. Schmitz, T., Die Sechstakter in der Altenglischen Dichtung, in Angl., XXXIII, 1910. Seaf. Seafarer. Sh. Shipley, G., The Genitive Case in Anglo-Saxon Poetry, Baltimore, 1003. Siev. Sievers, E., Phythmik des Alliierationsverses, in PBB., XII, 1887. Siev^. Sievers, Altgermanische Metrik, Halle, 1893. Sol. and Sat. Solomon and Saturn. Spr. Grein, Sprachschatz der angelsdchsischen Dichter, Caasel and Gottingen, 1861. Str. Strobl, J., Zur Spruchdichtung bei den Angelsachsen, in Zeitschrift fur deutsches Alterthi.m, XXXI, n.f. XIX, 1887. Sw. Sweet, H., An Anglo-Saxon Peader, 1804 ] ^.^ferei^ces in The Oldest English Texts, 1885 ^j^^^ ^^'^^ The Student's Dictionary, 1897 J TABLE OF ABBREVIATIONS 117 T. Turner, S., History of the Anglo-Saxons^ London, 1805. Ten Br. Ten Brink, B., Oeschichte der Englischen Litteratur, Berlin, 1877. Th. Thorpe, B., Codex Exoniensis, London, 1842. Tapper. Tapper, F., Jr., TTie Riddles of the Exeter Book, New York, 1910. Wand. Wanderer. \Va. Wanley, in Vol. II, Ilickes' Thesaurus. Weinhold. Weinhold, K., Altnordisches Leben, Berlin, 1856. Wr. Wright, J., Old English Grammar, Oxford, 1908. Ztft. f. d. A. Zeitschrift fur deutsches AUerthum. Zlft. f . d. Phil. Zeitschrift fur deutsche Philologie. Ill Exeter Gnomes A Exeter Maniiscript, Folios 886-90a ; in this text, lines 1-71 Incluaiye. B Folios 90a-91a ; lines 72-138. C Folios 91a-926 ; lines 139-206. (886) Frige mec frSdum wordum : ne Iret J)Inne fertJ onhSlne, degol ]>set ]>iX deopost cunne. Nelle ic )?6 min dyrne gesecgan, gif \>\x me ^inne hygecraeft hylest and )>me Leortan gej'ohtas. Gleawe men sceolon gieddum wrixlan. God sceal mon Krest hergan, 5 ftegre, feeder userne, for})on ]>e he ils aet frymj^e getSode llf and lienne willan : he usic wile psusi l6ana geraonian. ileotud sceal in wuldre. ]\Ion sceal on eorJ>an; geong ealdian. God us ece bip : ne wendaS hine wyrda, ne hine wiht drecep 10 adl (89a) ne yldo eelmihtigne ; ne gomela li6 in gieste, ac he is g6n swa he wees, Jjeoden ge))yldig ; he us ge)>onc syletS, missenllcu mod, monge reorde. Feorhcynna fela i'di]>m.e]> wide 15 ^glond monig. Eardas rume meotud arierde for moncynne, oelmihtig god, efenfela bega 1. Th. would substitute bihelan 3. Gr. overlooks mS. for onhSlne, or deglian, diglian, for 12. Gr. K>nc, for ge)>onc. dfgol. 13. Th. mon-geraorde. ^ In citntioiLs from other editors some liberty has been taken by way of normalization ; for example, v is changed to w. If editors omil marks of quantity, none are used here except to prevent ambiguity. 118 EXETER GNOMES 119 J>6oda and J>6awa, '^ing sceal gehegan fr6d wits frjdne ; bi}> hyra fer15 gellc ; to hi & sace 8emaJ» ; sibbe gelaeraS, - |>5, oer wonsiSlge awegen habbatS. RcM sceal mid suyttro; ryht mid wisum ; til sceal mid tilum. Tti b5o3 gemaeccan. Sceal wif and wer in woruld ceunan s5 beam mid gebyrdum. Beam sceal on eor8an leafum lij»an, leomu gnornian. Fus sceal feran, fSge sweltan and dogva gehwam ymb geda,l sacan middangeardes. Meotud Sna wat 30 hwior s6 cwealra cyme)), \>e heonan of cy)))>e gewTte)>. Umbor yceS, ))a itr adl nimeS ; ]>y weorpeS on foldan swa lela fira cynnes, ne sy ]>xs magutimbres gemet ofer eor|)an, gif hi ne v/anige se ]>ls woruld t6ode. 35 Dol bi|> s5 pe his dryhten nat, to pees oft cymeS dfiaiJ unj^inged. Snoti-e men sawlum beorgatJ, healdatJ hyra sOS mid rihte. Eadig bis sS pe in his gj'le gefJlhtS; earm 86 him his frynd geswicat5 ; nefre sceal s& him his nest aspringetS : nyd[e] sceal {rSge (896) gebunden. Bllj^e sceal bealolgas heorte. Blind sceal his eagna)>olian: 40 oftigen bip him torhtre gesih)>e ; ne magon hi ne tunglu bewitian swegltorht, sunnan ne monan : faet him bi)) sar in his mode, ange j^onne h6 hit ana wat, ne w6ne3 past him faes edhwyrft cyme; waldend him J>aet wite tCode : s6 him maeg wyrpe syllan, 18. Gr''. gehegan ; Edd. gehegan. 40. bewitian : f over the line. 26. Th. suggests lifian ? leomu Sch. "von anderer hand." W. growan V " von andrer hand ? " SI. Th. aer adl, so Or. ?er adl but 41. Th. swegl-torht-sunnan. Gr«. serddl, so W. 42. MS. onge, Th. on ge hon, Gr. 38. Edd. nyd, except Holt. on ge J>on he, and notes: "onge J*yd[e], and Gr. nv5 = no!S (vgl. onga aculeus) und >onne?" libuma? Gr^. onge, >on (>onne?) he . . . 120 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON 45 SO 55 6o 65 hcele of bCofod^mme, gif he wit heortan clSne. Lef mon Iteces behofatJ. LSran sceal mon geongne monnan, trjmman and tyhtan, )>set liS teala ciinne, oJ> j'oet hine mon atemedne haebbe, sylle hira wist and wSdo, o]> Jjset hine mon on gewitte aliede. Ne sceal hine mon cildgeongne forcwe]jan, ser h6 hine acyjian mote : ]>j sceal on jieode ge}>6ou, paet h6 wese pristhycgende. Styran sceal mon strougum mode. Storm oft holm gebringet5, geofeu in grimmum sielura ; onginnatS grome fundian fealwe on feorran to londe ; hwaiper h6 feeste stonde : weallas him wij>re heaklaS; him biS wind gemiene. Swa bi)> sie smilte, )>onne hy wind ne weceS, swa beo)' peode gepwiei-e, )>onne hy gej)ingad habba3, gesittaS him on gesuudum )>ingum and ponne mid gesi)mm healda)?. Cene men gecynde rice. Cyning h\]> anwealdes georn. La5 se ]>e londes monaS, leof se \>e mare beodeS. yvym sceal mid wlenco, )>nste mid cenum, sceolun bu recene bead we f rem man. Eorl sceal ou eos boge, eorod (90a) sceal ge*>rume ridan, fasste fejia stoudau. Fiemne oet hyre bordan gerisetS; widgongei wif word gespringeS, oft hy mon wommum bililiS, hsele5 hy hospe ra«naS, oft hyre hl6or abreoI^eS. Siev. onge >on he. MS. distinctly >on =J>onne. 44. Th. -gimmiim ? Or. on liea- fodgimme. 45. Th. lefmon. Before 1. 47, W. thinks there is a loss, though, as he admits, the MS. .''hows no gap. 48. Th. queries alnote ? foralsede. 49. MS. cildgeongne, Edd. cild- geongne. See note. 50. Or. queries >v = })iv/, >eow ? 52. Or. queries fandian ? 53. Th. onfaran. Th. queries stondeS ? Gr. queries hit ? 03. MS. worod, Edd. eorod. 05. Gr. word, weord corruptio, daninuiu ? Th. queries ge- sprengeS? Ettm. belih-S ; prob- ably a misprint, since he fol- lows Th. m. Th. abreoteS. EXETER GNOMES 121 70 Sceomiande man sceal in sceade hweorfan, sclr in leohte gerlsetS. Hond sceal heofod inwyrcan, hord in streonum bidan ; gifstol gegierwed stondan, hwonne hine guman gedselen. Gifre bip se \>2.m golde orxfehS, guma faes on hgabsetle geneah. Lean sceal, gif w6 leogan nellatS, J)am \>e Ha \>5s lisse geteode. 75 80 85 B Forst sceal freosan, fyr wndu meltan, eoi'f e growan, is brycgian, waiter helm wegan, wundrum iQcan eorpau cij^as : fl.n sceal inbindan forstes fetre, fela-meahtig god; winter sceal geweorpan, ^>eder eft cuman, sumor swegle hit. Sund unstille. Deep d^ada wseg uyrne bi3 lengest. Holen sceal in seled. Yrfe ged^eled dgades monnes. Dom bip selast. Cyning sceal mid cerpe cw6ne gebicgan, bunum and beagum : bu sceolon eerest geofum god wesan. GuS sceal in eorle, wig geweaxan, and wif ge]>eon Igof mid hyre leodum, leohtmod wesan, rune healdan, rumheort been 68. Ettm. heafod, Gr. heofod plausus ? W. " ich fasse hccfod als dialekt," Rio. heafod inwriban. Th. queries gesireonum ? Rie. screonum. 69. Instead of hwonne, Gr. and Rie. read gif. 70. Gr. gIfre = vorax, Rie. gifro = gratus. For 706 Rie. gifeS man J'sss on heahsetle geneahhe. 73. Th. queries brecan ? 74. Edd. wajterhelm, Th. waeter- helm, but queries waiter-holm ? 75. C. anbindan, Th. queries unbindan ? 76. Ettm. fetni, apparently after Th.'s query fetru ? H. meagtig. 78. Th. swegle ; but offers awe- gel-, or swegl-. 79. C. dyme, misprint ; Th. queries weg? Ilolt. ofen. 80. Th. in ajletS. 81. C. se last. Ettm. gebycgan. C. scealon. Gr*. wTgge (= wlgS) weaxaa. Ettm. leof, so later Edd. 82. 83. 85. 8«. 122 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON 90 (906) 95 100 105 mearmn and maj)mum ; meodorSdenne, for gesitSmaegen, symle a^hwSr, eodor aef'eliuga gerest gegretan, forman fulle to frSan bond ricene gerScan, and him rSd witan "boldagendum bSm setsomne. Scip sceal genaegled, scyld gebunden, Igoht linden bord. L6of "wilcuma Frysan wife, Jjonne flota stondej) : bis his ceol cumeu and hyre ceorl to hSm, 5gen ietgeofa, and hSo bine in lat$a}», wassceS his -warig hrajgl and him syle)j wsede nlwe: ]]]> him on londe, pees his lufu biedetJ. Wif sceal wij) wer wiere gehealdan : oft hi mon wommum behli(5 ; fela bit5 faesthydigra, fela biS fyrwetgeonra, freo(5 hy fremde monnan, ponne se oj^er feor gewlte)>. Lida bis longe on s\]>e : a mon^sceal sepgah leofes wCnan, gebldan ]>ses he gebSdan ne mseg; hwonne him eft gebyre weorSe, ham cymeS, gif he hal leofaS, nef ne him holm gestyretJ ; mere hafaS mundum. MaegtS egsan wyn. Ceap gadig mon, cyning wic J)onne leodon cypef>, J)onne llpan cymeS : 89. Th. queries -maegum ? Ettm. Borge sitSmagen simle, Rie. for ge- si^msegon. MS. sorge si^ masgen, not necessarily "gesiS," as W. states. Gr. simle. 90. H., Th. ae>>elinge. 91. H. for man, Th. forman, tut queries feorman or feorme ? Ettm handa, Siev. (FBB.X, 519) honda, 94. Ettm. scild. 96. MS. frysan. H. )>od, MS. J>on = >onne. 97. H. misprints him for ham. 93. MS. inla-SaJ., so H., Th., Ettm. 100. Th. queries bidaU ? 101. Ettm. brackets wib wer. Rie. omits 101b, Th. quories ben's? 102. Th. fyrwet-geonira ; Ettm. fyrwitgeonra, Gr., Rie. fyrwetr- geornra, "W. emends fyrwetgeoma. 103. II. i>on, MS. )>on. 104. Ettm. man. 107. MS. egsan, so H., Th., Ettm. Th. queries egna (eagena)? Gr. Mere hafaiS mundum ma;g1S, egsan wyn, but notes : wyn = win, gewin ? Oder egsa, ?egsa = Alts. €gso pos- sessor ? Gr^. egsan, Rie. eagna, W., Holt. egna. 108. Holt, ceape, H. J>on. 109. Ettm. leodum cepe)>, . . . lida. EXETER GNOMES 123 lie wuda and waetres nyttaS, I)onne him hip wTc alyfed ; mete bygej> gif h6 mSxan J)earf, gr J)on h6 t5 me}>e weor)>e. Seoc se bi{), J>e to seldan ieteS; p&ah. hine mon on sun- nan laede, ne maeg h6 be f>y wedre wesan, p&ah hit sy wearm on sumera; ofercumec bij) he, Sr he acwele, gif he nSt hwa hine cwicue fede. 115 Msegen mou sceal mid mete fedan, (91a) morpor nnder eor))an befeolan, hinder under hrusan, pe hit forhelan I)encet5 ; ne bif) ))aet gedefe deaj), J)onne hit gedyrned weor|)e15. Hean sceal gehnigan, adl gesigan, ryht rogian. Raid bif) nyttost, lao yfel unnyttost, pset unked nimetS. God biS genge, and wi]> god lenge. Hyge sceal gehealden, hond gewealden; SCO sceal in eagan, snyttro in breostum, pijdv bis J)a3s monnes raodgel'oncas. 123 MuJ>a gehwylc mete }>earf, mSl sceolon tidum gongan. Gold ge- ise}) on guman sweorde, sellic sigesceorp, sine on cwSne ; god scop gumum, garni}) werum, "Wig t6wi{)re wicfreopa healdan. 130 Scyld sceal cempan, sceaft reafere, sceal bryde beag, bee leornere, husl halgum men, hOef'num. synne. Woden worhte veos, wuldor alwalda, rume roderas ; )?tet is rice god, 110. H. >on, Ms, alyfe'5, Edd, 125. H. 'Searfe. Ettm. begins » alyfed. new line with gongan. 111. W. notes: MS. weo>e ; it 128. Th. gar ni|>-wenim, Ettm. L?, however, clearly weor^e. gar ni^werum, Rie. gar nil>werum. 112. II. ietaS, Th. notes eteiS. 129. Ettm, wio freoCu, Gr. 114. H. a cwele. wicfreotSu. 118. H. gehingan. Th. adlige 132. H. hus. sigan, Gr. Die alliteration fordert 133. Rie. alwaldan, B. woldora hadi ; etwa ha^u, hea^u i* Holt, alwalda. hadi = heald. 124 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON 135 sylf sot5cyning, sSwla nergend, se us eal forgaaf, J^aet w6 on lifga{», and eft set J^ara ende eallum wealdetS monna cynne ; |)set is meotud sylf a. Ried sceal mon secgan, rune writan, 140 leo}) gesingan, lofes gearnian, dom areccan, dseges onettan. Til mon tiles and tomes raeares, cu}>e3 and gecostes and calcrondes : nienig fira to fela gestryuetS. 145 Wei mon sceal wine healdan on wega gehwylcum: oft mon (91&) ferecS feor bl tune, J^ier him wit frSond unwiotodne. "Wineleas, wonsSlig mon genimeS him wulfas to geffiran; felafuicne d6or ful oft hine s6 gefera slltet5 ; giyre sceal for greggura; graif dSadum men. 150 Hungre heofeS ; nales \>vet heafe bewindetS, ne huru wsel wepeS wulf se gnega, mor|?orcwealm msecga, ac hit a mare wille. "NVru&d sceal wunden ; wracu heardum men. Boga sceal straile ; sceal bam gellc 155 mon to gemaiccan. Ma)){)um of)res weortS, gold mon sceal gifan ; mseg god syllan eadgum iehte and eft niman. Sele sceal stcndan, sylf ealdian. Licgeude beam, liesest groweS. 160 Treo sceolon briedan and treow weaxan, slo geond bilwitra breost ariseS. 136. Rie. K-er, for \>xt. 147. Ettm., Siev. wulf. 138, H. monne. Ettm. silfa. 148. Ettm. frecne. 140. MS. leofes, Edd. lofes, H. 152. Ettm. mecga. gearman, Or. gearnian =geearnian 153. Th. " better wtsb'S," so Ettm. Oder geornian? 158. Ettm. silfer ealdjan ? i.e. 145. Ettm. wel sceal mon. argentum senescere. 14G. W. errs in placing 916 be- ICO. Ettm., W. Treo sceal on tween tune and i>£r. bnedan. Tli. queries treowu ? KX'^TER GNOMES 125 WSrleas mon and wonhydig, ietrenmod and ungetrSow : \>sos ne gyraeS god. J65 Fela jc^op ineotud ^aes ]>e fyrn geweartJ, h6t 8i}>)>a]i swi fort5 wesan. Wuira gehwylcum wisllcu word gerlsaS, gleoruen gied and guman snyttro. Swa monig beo)) meu ofer eorJ)an, swa b€o}) m6dge))Oiica3 : ielc him hafaS svmdor sefan longatS; 170 ponne \>y liDs ]>e him con ISoJ'a worn oppe mid hondum con hearpan gretan, hafa}) him his gliwes giefe, \>e him god sealde. ' Earm bil> se pe sceal ana lifgan, wineleas wunian hafaf) him wyrd getgod: »75 bet re him wSre j'Sit he bioj^or ahte, bSgen hi inea monnes, eorle ei'foran (92a) wuJran, gif hi sceoldan eofor onginnan ol'pe bggen beran : bip ]>xt sllpherde deor. X scyle pa rincas geritdan liedan and him a^tsomne swefan : 180 naifre hy mon to mon to mSdle, ser hy deat5 todSle. Hy twegen sceolrn tsefle ymbsittan, penden him hjra torn toglide, foi'gietan para gfiocran gesceafte, habban him gomen on borde ; 162. Holt. 2 mon[na]. eorlice ? Ettm. writea : eorlea 163. Ilolt.'^ ungetreow[e]. waeren eaforan, and queries on- 164. Gr. gymed, Gr.'^ gymelS. winnan ? W. eorles. Holt, eorlas. 165. Holt. Fela meotud [ge] Ettm., Gr. sceoldon. sceop. 177. Th. notes -hearde. So Ettm. 166. Th.,Ettm., Gr. wera. Sch. 178. Ettm., Gr. scylen. Gr. gehwylcu, W, " Ha. hatgehwylcu." omits ba. Th. queries ger*d Wrong, MS. has gehwylcu, Ettm. radan? Ettm. gersed onlaedan. wislicu word gerisaS wera gehwyl- 170. Ettm. omits hira. cum, and notes, multa desunt. 180. Th. ma;31e. Holt, tomaelde. 167. Holt, gied [ding]. 182. Str. A sceolon twegen. 168. Ettm. monige. Ettm. hire. 171. Ettm. handura. 183. Th. notes )>sere. Ettm., 176. W. errs in placing 92a at Siev*. gesceafta, so Gr., who inserts beginning of line. Th. queries him before >ara. 126 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON Idle hond semetian genSali 185 tiefles monnes, })Oiine teoselum weorpetS seldan in sldum c5ole, nefne he under segle yme. wgrig sceal s5 wif> wrnde rowe)': ful oft mon wearnum tiLtJ eargne, ]>!et hS elne forlSose, drugaS his 5x on borde. Lot sceal mid lyswe, list mid gedSfum : 190 ^y weor^jeS s5 stfin forstolen: oft hy wordum toweorpatS, ser hy bacum tobreden. Geara is hwSr aried. Wear(5 fiehlio fyra cynne, si}»|)an fur})um swealg 195 eorSe Xbeles blode : nses ]>set andaege nltJ, of l^am wrohtdropan wide gesprungon, micel man seldum, monegura feodum bealoblonden mp. Slog his bro [Sor] swsesne Cain, }>one cwealm nerede ; cu}> waes wide si}»})an, «oo )7ffit ece niS aeldum scod, swa afjolwarum ; drugon waJpna gewin wide geond eor))an, ahogodan and ahyrdon heoro slif^endne. Gearo sceal guSbord, gar on sceafte, ecg on sweorde and ord spere, 205 hyge heardum men. Helm sceal cSnum And a (926) t>aes heanan hyge hord unginnost. 184. MS. Idle hond ajraet lange 198. In the MS. bro comes at neah, Ettm. emtaS lange neah the end of a line ; Th, bro-swaesne, tjeflmonnes. Or. longe and omits Or. brotSor, so W. neah ; Or.- longe neah. Holt, idle 199. Th. queries nydde ? Or. hond is lange 5met[ig][ge]neah queries serede ? [he]. 200. Th. queries atol werum ? 187. Ettm., Gr., W. scealc in- 202. Th. queries slitendne ? Btead of sceal se. The MS. is clear. 200. W. errs in placing 926 at 193. Str. arod. beginning of line. 197. MS. mon, Th. suggests man, so Gr. Cotton Gnomes Cotton Manuscript, Tiberius, B. 1. 115a Cyning sceal rice healdan. Ceastra b6o3 feorran gesjne, orSanc enta geweorc, J>a ]>e on }>ysse eorSan syndon, 1. Edd. except PI. 113a. 2. Eb.cyndon,Ettm.,Kl. sindon. COTTON GNOMES 127 \raBtlIo weallstana geweorc. Wind by? on lyfte awiftust, })unar bytS }>ragum hladast. prymmas sjmdan Cristea myccle. 5 Wyrd by? s-wItSost. Winter byt5 cealdost; lencten hrlmigost, hS byt5 lengest ceald ; sumor sunwlitegost, swegel by? hatost, hserfest hrfSSadegost; haeleSum bringe? geres wsestmas fa ]>e him god sende?. 10 So? bi? switolost, sine by? d^orost, gold gumena gehwam, and gomol snoterost, fyrngearum frod, sG \>e ier feala geblde?. Wea bi? wuudrum clibbor. Wolcnu scrl?a?. Geongne sepeling sceolan gode gesi?as ^5 byldau to beaduwe and to beahgife. Ellen sceal on eorle. Ecg seeal wi? hellme hilde gebidaa, Hafuc sceal on glofe wilde gewunian ; wulf sceal on bearowe, earm anhaga ; eofor sceal on holte ao t6?moegenes trum. Til sceal on e?le domes wyrcean. Daro? sceal on handa, gar golde fall, Gim soeal on hringe standan steap and gSap. Stream sceal on y?um 4. Gr., Sw. hiinor. Here, as rectly, " ein runder fleck, keln elsewhere, however, Sw. shows o." also MS. form. Ettm. sindon, 10. MS. swicolost, Sw. suggeats mycle. swutolost. 7. Ettm. sun wlitigost. Gr.swegl. 11, F,ttm, gamol snotrost. 9. F., Eb. follow II. in printing 12. II., C., Eb. fyru gearum, geref; Ettm. corrects, geres ; in H. misprint; cf, note on geres. F, ob- as W. comments, " doch nur druck- serves this error, commenting on fehler, er libers, anr.i fructus." Lye's inclusion of fyru. Gr, fela. Siev., W., Kl., PI. geares. Siev, 14. Edd, before Ea., geonge. and PI. note that the a written over Ettm. aSelingas sceolon. the line is by a later hand, W. 15, Eb, beab gife, misprint. " lis. geres mit Ubergeschriebenem 16. II., F., Eb, seel wi^ helme. a, also — geares." If the reddish, Ettm., Gr., W,, Sw, helme. circular character was intended for 19. MS., Ea., PI. earn an haga. a, it was inserted by a modern "Ettm, ftndert in earm anhaga, hand. Ea., PI. westmas. Siev., als beiwort zu wulf," W., who fol- Pl. understand him corrected by lows, as Gr,, Sw. had done. H., later hand, hiom. But W. cor- F., Eb, Of or. 128 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON 30 35 mecgan mereflode. Maest sceal on ceole 35 segelgjrd seomian. Sweord sceal on bearme drihtlic Isern. Draca sceal on hlSwe frod, frcfitwum wlanc. Fisc sceal on wsetere cynren cennan. Cyning sceal on healle bSagas dielan. Bera sceal on hSSe eald and egesfull. Ea of dune sceal flodgnl'g feran. Fyrd sceal aetsomne, tlrfsestra getrum. Tr^ow sceal on eorle, wisdom on were. Wudu sceal on foldan bkedum blowan. Beorh sceal on eor))an grene standan. God sceal on heofenum diieda dgraend. Duru sceal on healle, rum recedes muS. Band sceal on scylde, fasst iSngra gebeorh. (1156) Fugel uppe sceal lacan on lyfte. Leax sceal on wiele 40 mid sceote scrlSan. Scur sceal on heofenu.n winde geblanden in j^as woruld cuman. ^6of sceal gangan pystrum wederum. ^yrn sceal on fenne gewunian ana innan lande. Ides sceal dyrne cioefte, fiemne hire freond gesecean, gif heo nelle on folce ge}5gon, 45 )>8et hi man beagura gebicge. Brim sceal sealte weallan, lyfthelm and laguflod ymb ealra landa gehwylc flowan tirgenstreamas. Feoh sceal on eorSan 24. H., F., Eb., Or., Ea., PI. fol- low MS. Ettra. queries mengan, Sw. mencgan, so Kl. 28. H., F., Eb. cynran cennen, misprint. 31, H., F., Eb., Ettm., Or., Sw. fold gneg. Or.- queries fiodgrieg? Ea., PL flod gneg, Siev., W. flodgra?g. H., F., Eb., Ettm. tet Bomne. 32. Ettm., tyr fastra. Edd. treow, but MS. shows a dot imdero. 34. Gr. beorg, 35. Ettm. heofonum. 38. Edd. except PI. 1136. 39. Ettm. wele. 40. I in scritJan inserted by later hand. Sw. of heofenum. 42. Eb. Jjyrstrum. Ettm. iasarta faste before gewunian, noting, "deest apud H." Ea. gewunian, and notes, "gewunian weakens the sense and destroys the allitera- tion." 44. H., F„ Eb., Gr. femne. H., F., Eb., Gr. gesecean, Gr. queries gefeccan, Gr.^ gesi^ccan. 45. H., F., Eb., Ettm., gebycge. H., F., Eb., Gr. sealt. 46. H., F., Eb. land. COTTON GNOMES 129 tydran and tyman. Tungol sceal on heofenum beorhte sclnan, swa him bebfiad meotud. 50 God sceal wi5 jfele, geogoS sceal wi5 yldo, llf sceal wi3 dCaJ^e, Ifioht sceal wi3 ))ystrum, fyrd wis fyrde, ft?ond wi5 o5rum, la3 wis la})e ymb land sacan, synne sUelan. X sceal snotor hycgean 55 ymb }>ysse worulde gewinn • wearh hangian, faegere ongildan, Y?et h6 ier facen dyde manna cynne. Meotod aua -.vat hwyder seo sawul sceal sySSan hweorfan and ea!!e \>ii gastas, \>e for gode hweorfaS 60 aifter dCaSdaege ; domes bidaS on feeder fteSme. Is s6o forSgesceaft digol and dyrne ; diihteii ana wat, nergende fieder. Nctni eft eymeS hider under hrofas, \>q ]>mt li6r forsotS 65 mannum secg>^, Invylc sy meotodes gesceaft, sigefolca gesetu, J»8er he sylfa wunat5. 60. H., F., Eb., Gr. ylde, Ettm, 60. Sw. offers bidan, as bett«r llde. than bida'5. 61. Eb. byrstrum. 63. Eb. misprints mergende. 64. Ea. ycgean. Etcm. njenig. 66. Gr. queries feore ? fsege ? 64. Ea. enda the line with hSr. Ettm. dide. 66. H., F., Eb., Gr. geseta. 57. Etlm. meotud. IV NOTES ON GNOMIC VERSES' Exeter Gnomes 1. Frige mec=interroga me. Cf. Ps. 138, 23. lb-2a. Do not let thy thought [be] hidden, the mystery that thou most thoroughly mayst know. — Understand wesan after Z«^ Cf. B.-T., p. 613, Spr., I, 281, {/ere!) occulhim esse. Gr. " ich vermute ein adj. onhsel, absconditus." Th. sees in onhxlne the meaning 'unsound.' 4a. W. agrees with Th. in conceiving the a-line to be the end of the introduction, the ft-line the beginning of the gnomes. I hold with Gr. in beginning the gnomes with gleaioe. gieddum : cf. B.-T., p. 474 (gpied), " As Old English or Saxon proverbs, riddles, and particular speeches were generally metrical and their historians were bards, hence, a speech, tale, sermon, proverb, riddle," Cf. above, (p. 87) and see Merbot, Aeslhetischs Studien zur Angelsdchsischen Poesie, Breslau, 1883, p. 19 2. 4b-5a. God shall one first praise, becomingly, our Father. Tb., 'God before all must one praise fei-vently.' I iollow Gr.'s punct., not W.'a. Cf. Virgil's In pHinis venerate deos {GeorgicSy I, 338). 5b. cet frym/)e getcode, in the beginning assigned. Cf. Chr. 770-777; . . . se us Fif forgeaf \ Leomit, Uc and gxst. Cf. Met. 11^'. 6b. He will remind us of those gifts. Cf. Gen. 2933 ff. 7b-8a. Gr. has no punct. after eorfean, so that a translation of his text mu-st read, ' Man shall on earth grow old.' So Mii. W. places a comma after eorfian. Th. places a semicolon after the translation of eorpan, a punct. which seem?, to me not only to break properly the gnome, ' Man shall (dwell) on earth,' from the following, 'The young shall gi'ow old'; but also throws strongly into contrast la with lb, and 8a with 8i. Str. favors this reading. 9a. Cf . this line with 5a, Gn. C. God has here become stronger than "Wyrd : the fates affect him not. 1 See p. 114 for list of abbreviations. In these notes double quotation marks are employed for indicating words of other authors, single quota- tion marks for representing translations made by them or implied by their texts. Readings of the present editor are not designated by quota- tion marks at all. 130 NOTES OK GNOMIC VERSES 131 9b-10a. Nor doth one whit trouble Tiim disease nor age, the Almighty. Cf. Beo., 1736-1737 : no hir.e wiht dweleS, | ddl ne yldo. Th., ' nor doth aught ?.fflict him.' B-T., p. 1222, glosses wiAt, 'thing.' My translation ia in hfTmoay with Gr., who places no comma after drece/>. W. inserts a comma. 11a. gomelafS, not given in B.-T. Spr., I, 380, gamelian, inveterascere. O. 3. Schlutter writes at length about this word in Eng. St., XLI, 456- He suggests its resemblance to Celtic gam = loiiiter, and to lYisian gammelje = krdnkeln. 12a. />eoden, found almost exclusively in poetry. Cf. B.-T., p. 1048 ; Spr., II, 680. 12b. gepoHJ, I read plu. Th. regards it as sing. — syleiJ, Cf. Wr., §§ 254, 270. 13. Different dispositions, many tongues. MS. monge reorde, so Gr. and Sob., but Th. divides, mon-gereorde, 'human speech.' 14b. /te/'me/^ioMe, embraces far and wide. Th., ' in its wide embrace.' 17b-18a. Cf. Troilus, II, 28: In sondry londes, sondry ben usages^ Hending, stanza 4; Ase fele thedes, ase fele thewes, and other parallels cited in SkeaL's ^. E. Proverbs, 1910, p. 00. Cf, also Skeat's introduction, p. 7, where he observes that this is a favorite proverb in most European language."?, occurring in more than sixty form.s. 18b. />ing gehegan, to have a meeting. Cf. B.-T., p. 399. Conven- tional expression in verse for holding a parliament or meeting (but cf. Beo. 425 ff.) ; it is not used in prose. Cf. Sigrdrifom^l, 24. 20a. Tliey ever setcle dispute. Cf. B.-T., p. 862. ?,2-23. " -ein zusammeugehbris^es dLstichon, das an den vorhergehenden sprach des verwandteu sinnes wegen angehiingt ward. Auch 24-26 tilden keine fortsetzung [but cf. gc>'i(BCcan with cennan'], sind in sich aber schon und zu.sammengehorig : der geburt des menschen wird im bilde dessen endschicksal gegeniibergestellt." — Str., op. cit. p. 56. Out of 22a, 226, 23a, 236, I make four gnomes. Th. places a period after tilum and after gemoiccan ; Gr., a colon after tUum, a period after gcmoRCcan; Gr^., period after tilum, comma after gemocccan. Brand! sees in 236 an injunction to monogamy ! 24-25a. Cf. Fates of Men, 2-3, loer and wif in vooruld cennaS beam mid gcbiird:tm. 25b-26. A tree shall on eartli suffer as to its leaves, lament its branches. Cf. Gji. C, 33--34. With li/^a7i, cf. DUG. I'ldan, to go, yield, suffer. leafum Ufian, may mean 'give up leaves.' Cf. B.-T., p. 644. Th. sug- gested changing gnorninn to grownn, and reading, 'with leaves flourish, with branches grow.' — ieomu, cf. Wr., § 100-101. It is possible that 256-29a may be a figurative way of saying that parents lo.so their cliildren and strive against tlie separation. But transi- tions are abrupt in gnomic verse, and veiled allusions unusual, therefore I prefer to read 256-26 literally, and to see in 27-29a a new gnome not directly connected v/ith what precjdes. Brandl thinks the origin of this 132 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON passage, 2off, is to be found in Boethius, Cons. Phil. L. II, Met. 8. Per- haps he meant to cite Met. 6 ? 27. fxge stceUan, cf. An. 1530, fs^ge swulton. 29b-34. An exceedingly awkward passage, displaying the gnoiric ccl- lector'8 weakness in versification and syntax. I read : The Creator alone knows whence [hic.xr for /uro/ian?] the malady comes wni^h hence from the country goes. He increases children, whom early disease takes (or, the child increaseth those [whom] disease has taken) ; thus there are on earth so mr. ly of the race of men ; there would not be (on the other hand) measure (limiting) of mankind on earth, if he did not decrease them, who this world created. Th. reads ier ddl as two words, following the MS. as I do. Gr. used this reading at first, but in 6'pr. and Germ. X, he compounded the two. W. follows Or-. Later Edd. stand by Th. Cf. Holt., Angl. BeL, XXI, 154. Cf. also B.-T., p. 17, Mr-ddl = 'early disease,' and p. 1088 (where, inconsistently, icr is translated 'before'). Gr. puncts. cymcp. pe heonan . . . geroiteS, umbor yceS, wr ddl nimetS : Gr^., cyme/>, . . . geioitetS. Umbor . . . Sirddl nimeS. 30b. cy/)/>fi. Cf. B.-T., p. 1<J1. This may mean either 'knowledge,' a reading which W. prefers, or 'a known region, country,' and so I take it. Spr., I, 181, glosses ry/>, * landschaft.' 31. 7uman is preserved in the slang word nim = steal, E.-T., p. 721. 34a. hi, ace. — rcanige, trans, vb. Cf. modern wane, intrans. — teode, created. 35a. This line is practically identical with Sea/., 100, dol biS se f>e him his dryhten ne oitdritdeS, cymeS hint, deaS nu/^inged. Ot the same type are ]Vand., 112, Til hi/> se />e, etc., and Sul. and 6'ai., 224, Dol biS se 8e, etc. 35b. /ors, Cf. Sh., p. 118. With (o after verb of motion to express object of motion. S6a- heorgntJ, w. dat. dawhim, protect their souls. 37-38. I read : Blessed is he who in his home prospers ; miserable ho ■whom his friends deceive ; never shall he be blessed to whom his pro- vision fails : he shall be bound for a time by need. Th. ' He shall never . . . whose provision fails. Need shall have time.' He carries gebunden over to the next gnome and reads, gebunden Wipe sceal bealoleas. Likewise, he takes hcorte from 39a and makes it the initial word of 396 ; but see below. Distich 37-38 has been the subject of investigation by Holt- hausen. In Eng. St., XXXVII, 109, he suggests nyde for nyd. "Zu nefre sceal ist oflenbar aus dem vorhergehenden ein eadig loesan zu ergjinzen ; zu gebunden bloss tre.<taji." His reading would thus be equivalent to my translation, above. He pursues the subject in Angi. Bei. XXI, 154. "So ist offenbar mit besserung der interpunktion zu lesen, donn ein adj. nefre ' infirmus, invalidus,' das Grein- allerdings mit fragezeichen anzetzt, wird sclnverlich anzunehmen sein. Dies als ne (zfrc zu erkliiren und zu afar (1. dfor!) zu Ziehen, ist vollends verkehrt, da n doch kein priifix ist." He then observes that Th. has recognized the NOTES ON GNOMIC VERSES 133 meaning of the passage, though leaving a lacuna for the evidently tuider- Btood eadig wesan. Holt, ends by dismissing as " verkehrt" the note of Schlutter in Eng. St., XLI, 828. Cf. B.-T., p. 706, ' Never shall he thrive whose provision fails him,' etc. Str. comments, "wenn 386 zu ilber- setzen ist, ' das ungliick sei auf immer gefesselt,' so trennt das distichon 87, 38 von den Ubrigan sechs versen." Of the same type as 37a is Seaf. 107. 39a. Glad shal' be the innocent heart. 39b. The blind shall suffer of (or loss of ) his eyes. Th. begins 39a with gebn)iden, from 1. 38, tlien carries heorte over to 396, so that the passage through 44 has a figurative meaning. — /mlian, cf. dialect thole, and B.-T., p. 106 (iii). 40. He shall be deprived of clear sight, him, referring to blind, the person ; h'l referring to eagna. — oftigen, from ofteon, cf. B.-T., p. 742, •w. dat. of pers. and gen- of thing. Cf. Wt., § 442, for oftigen, pp. form. — tunglu, heavenly bodies, with which sunnan and monan, 1. 41, are in apposition. — (7es^■/!^ Angl. form ? Cf. WS. gesieh/>, and Wr., §§ 99, 184. It may be LWS. In tae MS. the second i in bewltian is inserted above the line, — later hand ? 41. Swegltorht, adj., mod. tunglu, above. Th., 'the heaven-bright sun,' which is infljctionally wrong: swegltorht is the reg. form for ace. plu. of this neuter adjective- Cf. Met. 29-». 42a. The first part of this line is puzzling. Th. reads, ' inasmuch that he alone knows it.' Gr. suggests that onge is derived from onga, a thorn ; hence, his translation would substantially be, ' A thorn, since he alone knows it.' I think otige may be a variant for ange, troubled, sorrowful ; cf. B.-T., p. 46. I read 416-42a, therefore, That to him will be distressing in his raind, sorrowful, since he alone knows it. A passage in Oron. (II, 5), has almost the same expression : tT(i inces tiCnu cijnii.ge sw'iSe ange on hia mode. 44. of heofc'dij imme , following MS. Th. proposes heafod-gimmum ; Gr. on hciifodgimme. Cf. also Spr., II, 43. W. sees heofod as dialect. Po.ssibly the scribe made an error in spelling. Cf. 1. 68, An. 31. 45a. Th. reads iefinon, ' a lover ' ! Cf. B.-T., p. 627, lef, weak, injured, and Spr., II, 167, lef, injirmus. 47. W. thinks the beginning of 47 is lost, ' Ich nehme hier eine Iticke an, obgleich kelne spur einer solchen in der hs.' Siev. sees no gap, but a finished stanzaic form. Kaluza, Eng. St., XXI, 383, would write the two lines (46^7) as one, making truly a " schwell verse." Holt., Angl. Bei., XXI, 164, objects :.o the first half of the line containing four accents, and suggests that and tyhtan is an addition of the scribe. Ho would read as one line 46 and 47, omitting and tyhtan. This is tak- ing a good deal of liberty with the text, particularly since the phrase trymman and tyhian is essentially AS. in its tautological, alliterative quality. — on gewitie aliSde, until ho be brought into understanding. B.-T., supp. p. 33, ' until he be brought to exercise his reason.' 134 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON 49. cildgeongne. I follow the MS. ia retaining this form, which I re- gard as an ace. adj., the second part of the compouno. receiving the adjectival inflection. Or., Spr., I, IGO, glosses the word as a nora. adj., and regards the n« as sign of the negative. So do other Edd., ap- parently. 51a. Th., ' With strong mind shall a man govern.' This Una is iden- tical with Seaf. \Wa, Stieran mon sceal strongum mode. — styran, ci. B. -'!"., p. 917, steoran, where 'restrain' is suggested. For the various forms, cf. Wr., § 138. 52b-53a. They begin angrily to hasten, the dusky waves, at a distance, to the land. Th., on-faran, and translates, 'the ocean in rough sni'.sous strives fiercely to tend, dusky to move to land.' For fundian, Or. offers fandian. — fealwe. Mead notes (PMLA., XIV, 11G9 ff.) occurs in AS. poetry 17 timei?. It is an indefinite color. "The prevailing meaning," Mead says, " appears to be a pale yellow shading into red or brown, and in some cases into green." 53b. he seems to refer to lond, but lond is neuter ; perhaps personifica- tion explains the constniction. Gr. suggests hit. Str. thinks 51-64 belong together, that to the ethical idea, ' one with strong mind shall rule,' is joined a comparison from nature, that of the ocean in storm. In this case, he would be explained as referring to tnon ; but it seems to me better to read the gnomes separately, keeping the meani^g distinct in each case. Note end-rhyme 5oa-536. 54a. him. that is, waves implied in fealwe (the walls shall hold resist- ance to them). Gr. sc. ytJu, and .S'yr., I, 28(3, ttndre f 54b. Ann, that is, loenUas f ov loeallas and ytSa J Lit. to thera is the wind in common, mutual. Th., 'is the wind indifferent,' which W. challenges, " Woher komint diese bedeutung? "' 0. B, Schlutter regards the word equivalent to geimX'jne = geioealden. Poti^stati sitbjectus, he says, is the idea, and translates, ' ihnen (den maucrn) ist der wind untertan.' He cites li. Ben., Ill, 19 (Vol. 2, p. 15, Gr.'s BihUothek der Angelsachsischcn Prosa). Ilis suggestion is not altogether convinc- ing by way of proof, but deserves acknowledgment. 55. Observe the comparison introduced here and extending through o9a. Str. sees in the passage a reversal of the method used in 51-54. Here, 55-59a, the metaphor proceeds from nature, with an application to mankind. The metrical form is identical with one form of the IjoSahdttr strophe. Cf. Siev^., p. 14.5, and below. 59a. Bold men (are) powerful through tlieir nature. Cf. Th. and B.-T., p. 382. \y. places no mark after henUa/f, 5Sb, hence his reading would be substantially, ' and then with comrades hold, bold men, genial rule.' 59b-60. Gr. and W. .'make 60 supplement 596. I prefer a division by which two gnomes appear: A king is de.sirous of power. Hateful is he who claims land, dear he who gives more (land). — londes monaS, cf. B.-T., p. 688 (iv). NOTES ON GNOMIC VERSES 135 61a. A^m, cf. B.-T., p. 1074 (Ui). 61b. />riste, in a good sense, confident. 62. I regard ttis line au extension of 616, not of 61 entire. 63a. eos boge, horse's back; lit. the shoulder of the horse ; cf. B.-T., p. 115. 63b. eorod for worod. eorod satisfies the alliteration and contrasts •with fe/>a, 64. It would appear, therefore, to be the correct form. The meanings are nearly identical: eorod = eoh +'rad, troop of cavalry; werod = wer + rad, multitude, army. Cf. Wr., §161. With 63, cf. Gn. a 32. 64b. It is fitting for a woman to be at her board, table. I find no other instance cf the weak form, horde. It may mean table ; it may refer to the embroidery board. Cf. Volsunga Saga, Ch. XXIV, the passage on Brunhilde at her embroidery. 65a. 'iv gadding woman gets words (a bad reputation),' B.-T., p. 444. With 656, cf. 1016. Cf. also Siev., 478, who suggests dividing lines 65 Rnd 101, so as to make two out of each, the effect being analogous to that of lj6Sah^Utr. 66. Th. translates, ' A man thinks of her with contempt ; oft her cheek smites.' I read, Men think of her with contempt ; often her face fades. Jlleor is nom., and since m^na^ is phi., it is better to read hleor the subject of ahrto/jeS, than to make man understood or inferred the subject. Jlxle^, 0'5a, is evidently plu. (Since writing this note, I observe that B.-T., supp. p. 4, suggests ' her good looks are lost.' 67. sceomiande man, Th. translates, ' A bashful man,' a reading which spoils the contrast. Read, A shamed man shall go in the shade ; it is fitting that a pure one (walk) in the light. 68a. liand shall lie on head, etc. lleofod troubles Gr., who suggests phiustts ? and in Spr., II, 03, does not venture to suggest a rendering. Tapper (JEG. Ph., .Ian., 1012) comments on these lines in connection with hand ofer hrafod. He says : " — it Ls obvious from the accompanying gnomes that the reference is to some ceremony at the time of the dis- pensing of treasure by the lord to his men — some rite of the Comitatus. The chief's hand is evidently laid upon his retainer's head, but how and why ? I believe that the answer to this question is given in certain well- known verses of the AVaiulerer, 41-44 : hinceS him on mode \>iei be his mondrj'hten | clyppe a)id cysse, and on cneo lecge | handa and he;vfod, svvii hehwilum ;er | in geardagum giefstOhia breac." Tupper thinks the exile is lecalling the k^ustoui of the commendation "by which . . . the v.assal pleaged his loyalty and trust in return for his chief's gold and protec- tion. . . . This pledge of the clansman is the pracipinm sacramentum of the Germania of Tacicus (Ch. 14 ), the oath of fealty of the Beowulf,^^ etc. In any case, Tupper contends that this gnome shows that the chief placed his hand on the warrior's head when he dealt to him gifts. Further, see JEO. Ph., April, 1012, wherein Tupper notes that L. M. Larson has called his attention to an article, The Household of (he Nor- 136 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON we.gian Kings, in The American Historical Review, XIII, 439-479, and to his (Larson's) footnote on the lines in the Wanderer, as the earliest com- plete record of a most important ceremony. Thus is new support given to the meaning of the phrase, hand ofer henfod. Cf. also York Powell's comment in Elton's Saxo Orammalicus, p. xxvi, "Allegiance was paid by kneeling and laying the head down at the lord's knee, as the beautiful pas- sage iu the Wanderer's Lay reminds us." Cf. also Charm A 14 (Greadon, p. 178), and observe that the meaning is probably the same. Gift of life or eternal joy might be fittingly represented by the Divine Dispenser per- forming an act similar to that of an earthly giver. Grendon (notes, p. 221) seems to be in doubt. — inwyrcan, to consecrate (by laying on of hands) ? 68b ff. Th. translates, ' the treasury await riches ; a present stand prepared, when men it bestow. Gra.sping is he who receives gold, a man to whom in a high station is enough,' Rie. tampers conbiderably with the MS., but admits that his emendation of the fust half lino is not satis- factory. He will not accept streonnm; " i.st . . . er.tschieden un- zulassig;" streon cannot = streoioen = stratum. He fails to understand what the ' hord should be doing in bed,' the connection seeming to escape him. From streonnm, through screonum, he would evolve 'schatzkam- mer.' Str. says, in effect, he does not understand C8a. But he thinks the entire passage nothing more than the request of a wanderer for alma, thus agreeing with Rie., who notes that the singer having come to the end of his lay hints at reward. Tupper reads 705, ' Good is he who receives the gold, the man who is contented on the high seat.' Krapp thinks 70b means simply 'man (i.e. lord) on high-seat hath possessed (or enjoyed) it.' 70a means that the eager person wants the gold which the lord (in 10b) has possessed. He sees in 71 the usual reward for gen- erosity. Lawrence would read 10b, ' the man on the high-seat is not lacking in it, i.e. the gold.' Ayres sees also a strong contrast, and reads, ' Greedy is he who receives the gold [but] th'5 man (prince) on the high- seat is sufficient for him, or it.' I would read the whole passage : Treasure shall rest in its bed (casket), the throne will stand pre- pared, when men divide it (the treasure). Greedy is he who receives the gold, but the man on the high-seat will satisfy him. I am inclined to see, with Ayres, adverbial significance in /oes, and to read //ces geneah, ' will be sufficient for that.' 70b. Sh., p. 21, thinks geneah ■= beneah, and reads: u man has need of it on a throne. I read, geneah from genugan. 71b. lisse, cf. Chr., 434, He him pxre lisse lean forgilde^. B 73. eorpe groican, earth shall grow, with trans, suggestion. Cf. Th., 'earth [shall] bring forth.' C, '■terra vigescet.^ Str. thinks possibly growan is " nicht richtig, " that another word of different meaning NOTES ON GNOMIC VERSES 137 belongs where it stands. The gnome breaks an otherwise unified passage, it is true, but unity is not a characteristic ot" gnomic utterance. 73b-74. Ice shall bridge (over water), the water a covering wear, (ice shall) lock up, etc. This, my reading, conserves the AS. verse structure ; r,hat is, I see in 74a a repetiiion. C, ^glacies confringetur, Aqua navem (^tilmuin) subvehet.'' Th., ' ice break ; the watery deep ac^itate.' Ten Br., ' Eis sich woUen, der wiisserhelm tragen.' Ma., 'The ice, the water hel- met, locks up the plants.' Cf. An., 1201, 7s brycgade. 74b-76. Ettm. places a period after lucan, no mark after ci/nis in 76. This punctuation sug^est-s tho reading, One shall bind up the plants of the earth. I trar.date : One shall unbind the frost's fetters, the very mighty God. Inbindan occurs nowhere else, and is perhaps interchange- able with onbindan. Cf. B.-T., p. 589 (in), and B.-T., p. 747. Equally pertinent, however, would it be to separate m from bindan and read. One shall bind on the fetters of the frost. Gr., *S';)r., II, 194, thinks lucan ia intrans. — "sich schliesxen." Str., "Gott allein lost das fesselnde band." 77a. I read, Winter shall depart. Th., 'the much mighty God winter shall cast forth.' With winter . . . geweorpan, cf. winter geworp, An., 1256. Weder may mean weather, bad weather, or, as here, good weather. But C, 'tempestas: Cf. B.-T., p. 1182, and Kr., An., p. 168. 78b. Beginning with this line, I see through 81 a series of short gnomes, and read : The sea shall be unquiet ; that is, it is the nature of the sea to be restless. The solemn {deop, profundus) way of the dead is longest secret. Holly shall to the fire. The property of a dead man shall be divided. Glory (fame) is best (dom = kX^o AvdpQiv, Chadwick, Heroic Age, p 329). Th., 'The sea is unsiill ; deep the way of the dead, A secret shall be longest hidden. Shall among men the inheritance be divided of a dead man.' That is, Th. ends 79 with holen, and in 80 .sub- stitutes celeS for xled. Ettm. reads a period after hat, a comma after unstille, a comma after tceg, a period after lengest. Gr., • Die tiefe todte woge bleibt am lani^sten (unter der eisdecke) verborgen.' Ten Br., ' Am liingsten, in der tiefe birgt sich die todte woge. Die stechpalm soil in's feuer.' Str., 'die tiefe tote woge i.st am langsten bose (gewesen).' Brooke, ' The dead depth of ocean forever is dark.' Mii. thinks 796 is a separate gnome. Cf. Holt., Eug. .9r.,XXXViI, 199, who suggests ofen for holen. The form woeg is an orthographic variation, and the change to weg is unnecessary. Cf. B.-T., p. 1183. 80. This line shows end-rhyme in.stead of alliteration. Th. would force an alliteration by seeing in xled, (sleS for hceleS. Unnecessary jug- gling, llanscom, JEG.Ph., V, 446, seems to think this line means holly is good for burning. Cf. Brandl, p. 902, note. 81. Bom hi/j selast. Cf. Beo. 13886-1389a. Gr. thinks dom = ' ruhm '; so Ten Br., ' Ruhm ist das beste.' Koegel, ' dem toten istnachruhm das beste,' and traces origin to Homer. (Cf. also introd., pp. 38, 3X) 82. A good example of ornate diction : The king shall buy a queen with property, with cups and bracelets. Cf. On. C. 46, Ht^vam^l 91. 138 GNOiUC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON 85b-86. And the woman thrive, dear with her people. MS. io/, Th. translates 'beloved,' thourjh he fails to suggest leof as emendation. Cf. Rie., Lesebuch, p. xxvi, and Beo. 24 ff., LofdiBdum sceal . . . man ge/>ion. 87a. rune healdan = keep counsel. 88. meodoriPdenne, the only instance of this compound, Sw. defines as a collective noun meaning 'strong drinks.' (On -rceden, cf. TVr., § 610, and Kluge, Xo/ninale Staminbihlu)igslehre, § 102). B.-T., p. 677. sug- gests 'cellars, metonymy for liquors.' I think the ceremonial of the mead-cup is referred to. 89a. MS. sorge siS inctgen. I fail to make any meaning out of these words, which palceographically may easily be confuset'. with for gesid- mmgen. So facsimile of Exeter MS. I translate, accordingly, before the courtiers, the train. Cf. B.-T., p. 442, 'a multitude of companions.' Th., 'toward his friends, ever, everywhere' Or. has no punct. from m<7/'/nw7/i through gegretan. W. notes, 'Ettm. andert in : sorge si Sraaegen simle cegh\v;er.' But Ettm. has merely retained the MS. 90. (The wife) shall the nobles' chief first greet. I understand the entire passage from 85fc through 93 to refer to the queen. She shall earn praise; be cheerful of mood ; keep counsel ; be munificent in horses, trea.sures ; with [the ceremony of] the mead, before the train, always, everywhere, shall first greet the nobles' chief (her husband) ; the firet cups to the lord's hand quickly present, shall know wise counsel for them (herself and husband), the house owners, both together. Cf. Beo. 612 ff. the picture of Weallitheow moving among the guests, and Beo. 1216, the speech wherein Wealhtheow presents the collar to Beowulf. Cf. also Tupper, Biddies, p. 218, and Gummere's translation of the passage at hand, OEE., p. 50, note, and Atlakvit^a, 38. 91b. hand for honda. 92b. ff. Ten Br., ' '.{ath ersinnen sollen des hauses herren zusammen.' 95. The only occurrence of the adj. use of linden. 95b-100. An often quoted passage. Dear the welcome one to the Frisian ■wife, when the vessel stands : when his ship is come and her husband at home, her own provider, and she invites him in, washes his sea-stained garments and gives him new weeds : pleasant is it to him on land whom his love constrains. Gollaucz (Chr., I, 16) has a pretty verse translation, but he renders in laSn/> -leads to (the board),' and biL-de(5, 'awaits.' S. A.. Brooke {E. E. Lit., I., 233) thinks this passage may have arisen concerning one of the Frisian band which seems to have settled to the North of the Tweed. Ma. has a queer notion concerning this Frisian woman. He holds that frisan = 'frizzled, ringleted, with a wealth cf tresses,' not Frisian ! 100. Ten Br. translates, ' Am lande wohnt ihm was seine lieb ersehnet.' Ma., ' waiteth for him on the land . . . that his love demand- eth.' That is, he sees a missing word. Cf. Sh., p. 23, 'whom his love constrains, or because (J>ies) love constrains him (his).' 101a. See above (p. 92) and cf. IJ'jvamiJl, 83, for a more cynical tone : Meyjar orf>om skyle mange trim. NOTES ON GNOMIC VERSES 139 101b. Cf. 65. • I read, Often she dishonors men with her Tices. Bi, though companitively rare, is a nominative form. Rie. omits 1016, be- lieving "data die worte oft . . . behliS nur durch versehen von 65 her- genommen wiiren," and W. adds, " eine ansicht die sehr v^ahrscheinlich ist." On the lengtli of 101, Schmitz says (p. 00), "101 nimmt K. ala geschwelltj zeile, -Joch glaube ich mit Rieger dasa die worte oft bis hehliS nur durch versehen von 66 iiergenommen Hind." 102. Many a one is (of the) steadfast ; many a one (of the) inquisitive. 103. I read, She courts strange men. Cf. Gn. C. 43, and Tfie In- structions of King Cormac Mac Airt, op. cit., p. 22, 1. 38 : ' Bad women are given to trysting. ' Grammar favors making woman the active agent instead of the object of the courting. Th., however, ' strange men court them.' 104b. leofes loenan, await a loved one. 105a. gebidan /j<zs, wait for what he may not hasten. Gr. thinks ne miglit be omitted. Cf. Sh., p. S3. 106b-107a. Unless tlie ocean restrain him ; the sea has him in its power. Mundum may have an unfavorable meaning, clutches ; if it should be so translated, I should make hafaS also modified by nefne. 107b. A maid is the delight of the possessor. Th. suggests egna {eayena) for 7'gsan, and translates, * A maid is the delight of the eyes.' Kttr.i. and Rie. follow. Gr. punctuates: gestyreH. Jtlere hafaS viundiim micgo, egsan loyn. Or, he thinks, egsa may be egsa^ ' possessor.' Ma. agrees with Gr.'s first reading ; for he translates, ' the chief of terrors, i.e. the sea (holJeth) a family (many sailors).' W., " obgleich die ord- nung dergedaiiken bei Grein eir.e bes.sere ist, schloss ich mich der andren einfachern erklarungsweise an." Cf. B.-T., p. 244, egsa, where this line is referred to. Holt., Enp. St., XXXVII, 100, thinks egna correct, but the following a-line senseless. He iliinks ceap should be instrumental, and, as I understand him, would read, 'A maid (is) the delight of the eyes ; through property a man (is) wealthy.' Jlii., " Die sippe [evidently for ra;egii = kinsman] ist die freude des besitzers." 108-109. Confusing lines. The meaning seems to be something like this : His property a wealthy man, the king a dwelling will sell, to the sailor when he comes sailing. He enjoys wood and water, when a dwell- ing is granted him. Th. reads : ' A rich man his cattle, a king his dwell- ing then, with liis i)eople snail guard, when mariners come, wood and water use; then to them is a dwelling granted.' Ma. reads: 'A rich man, a king, a settlement then for his people buys, when he comes sail- ing.' Rie. punctuates as Th., ccap eadig mon, cyning lo'ic />onne, leodon cype/f, ponne U/'an cymeS. Gr., ceap-cadig mon cyning ic'ic />onne leodon type/). Gr^., loic />on leodon {= />dm leodum) cTjpep. But as W. com- ments, 'Diese iin lerung ist unmoglich, da /oH nicht /on inderhs. steht.' I follow Gr., Hpr.y II, 182, in making leodon = lidan, 'sailor.' Ma. agrees with Gr. in compounding ceap and eadig. — For liSan cyme9, cf B.-T., p. 643. 140 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON 111. He buys meat, if he needs more, before he becomes too faint. Who is ' he ' ? Still the Railor-man ? 113. ne maeg, etc., seems to be an idiomatic expression equivjueat to our ' can't stand the weather' ; but B.-T., p. 69, says, ' he may not be in the open air.' 114. Overcome is he, he may soon die, if he know not one who may feed him living. But Sir may mean before. Cf. B.-T., pp. 6, 17. 115b-116. Cf. above, p. 92, mor/>or = violent death, corpse of one whom he has killed. For inor/)or, cf. h&wrence'' s Ba}iished.\Vife^s La- ment, loc. cit., 391. With this passage, cf. Sigrdrifotn6l, 33, counsel 9. 118. Note the rhyme, gehnigan, gesigan. Adl gesigan, disease lan- guish. Th. reads, 'adl(i)ge sigan, the diseased sink.' Or. with an eye to alliteration offers hadl, haSu f But what does he mean ? Holt, would write hadl = heald, half> (bent down) and cites Sw. 119a. Tijht rogian, justice shall flourish. Th., 'justice accuse,' and queries, 'Ohg. rcgjan'r' B.-T. is at a loss for the meaning; Spr., II, 383, " rogian (ahd. rukian) florere, crescere." I follow this etymology. 120. yfel nnjvjttost, piet is written over an erasure. — nyttost, unnyttost, example of what Siev. terms " gratiimatischer reim." 121. A unique line. It puns on God and guod and rhymes genge with lenge. The tone seems to be tliat of a real proverb. Good is prevalent and has afSnity with God. B.-T., p. 421 (gengo), 'Good prevails and is lasting before God.' B.-T., p. 029 (lenge), 'Good hath affinity with God.' Cf. Klieber, Jif. Ph., Ill, 240, where this passage is compared with one from Beo., and the meaning ' at hand ' suggested. 122. Thought shall be restrained, the hand shall be controlled (by mind ?) A common gnomic idea, cf. ]Vand., 11 ff. Note the alliteration and the rhyme. 123. The apple shall be in the eye. Interesting relic, — seo = apple = pupil. 123b. After in and before breostum there is a slight erasure. 123. A good scop for men, spear-strife for heroes (is fitting) ; war for resistance to hold peace among dwellings. Th. translates, 'a weapon for enemies (that is, gar nipicerum) , war for an adversary.' etc. Ettm., " Thorpii textus recensionem sum secutus ; at legi etiara potest, quamvis, paganitatem sapiat, God scop (creavit) gumum garni^ verum, vig tovi'Sre. vie . . ." So Rie. understands, but writes gar n'lfivoeruin. Gr. g^d (bonus) scop gumum, ga.rnV5 verum v'lg toviSre vicfreo'Su healdan. Cf. also Spr. II, 549, toviSre = ' contra pugnam.' B (I quote from W.), goi {bonus) scop gumum, gar nWverum, v'lg toviSre v'lcfreotJohealdan = ' apeer fiir die neidigen, karapf fiir den widersacher, wohnung far friedenhalt- ende.' 130-132. Str., " In den drei folgenden versen 130-132 ist je ein halbvera einem spruche gewidmet." 133. Woden created idoU (or evils). Str. thinks the origin of this passage is Ps. xcv, 5 : Omnes dii gentium dcemonia, dominus autem NOTES ON GNOMIC VERSES 141 cellos fecit. Pope Boniface quotes from this Psalm In his letter to Edwin, King of the Angles (tee Bede, HE., II, 10). The writer of the gnomic passage may have translated from memory or he may have mia- understood in making fecit a governing verb also for the first passage. There is a parallel for the rest of the speech in the history of Edwin's conversion (Bede, EE., Ch. II, 13), "In hac pncdicatione Veritas claret ilia, quse nobis vit^e, salutis et beatitudinis aiterase dona valet tribuere." Forireos, cf. Spr., II, 731, woh, ' iniquitas' ; B.-T., p. 1262, woh, crooked, and looh, wrong, error. Since, as I believe, the final six lines, 133-138, are the addition of a late scribe, it is not impossible that the chapters just referred to may have been familiar to him. But the parallelism of this passage with the pas- sages in Bede may be due to the common origin, the Bible. 137. eft £t, etc. B. translates, ' wieder am ende.' 140b. leofes in MS. seems to be error for lofes : merit praise, rather than merit a lover. Cf. Spr., II, 192. — Oearnian seems to be a con- traction for ge-ej.rniun. 141b. dceges onettan, daily be diligent. Cf. The night cometh when no man can work (John ix, 4). Dceges, adverbial. Cf. Wr., 657 ; B.-T., p. 193. 142. A good man remembers (is careful of) a good and tame horae. Th. translates mon ' man,' not seeing subst. significance of til. So Ettm., who notes, " scil. oyt} toeorSe.''^ Mon is best taken as 3d sg. pres. of vnaian. 14Sb. calcrondes, a compound which occurs nowhere else. 144. A perfect gnome. No man gains too much. Str. notes that this lir.e is the conclusion of the four-line alliterative strophe in the fornyrS islag, this strophe being made up of 139, 140, 141, 144. 142 and 143 are out of place. 146. Often one goes far by (about) the village, where he knows for himself no certain friend. - Passing the dwellings of men,' B.-T., p. 1019, tUHP (iv) ; 'where he cannot look for a friend,' B.-T,, p. 1138. Th. » where he knows a friend to be void of reproach.' The line seems to mean that one avoids a place where there are no friends. — unvoiotod, jSpr. 11, 030, glossas ' non destinatus.' 147. Siev. p. 464, thinks Ettm. right in emending to wulf. " Nicht nur geferan ist wahrscheinlich, sondern auch das folgende felajaicne deor istsicher singular." Bni geferan maybe dat. plu., and though wu// makes smoother construction, I do not change text. 148. The dangerous animal ; full often the companion tears him. MS. has/cccjie. Ettm., " fiecn, dolcsus, astutus lupus non bene dicitur, optima tamen fiecn, pcriculosus, terii'oilis." \V. adds a note calling attention to fela-frixne deor, Jiune Poem, 6. As he suggests, the second half-line, 142 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON 1486, seem to indicates frtcnt. I translate accordingly, though I have thought it wise to give MS, in text. Or. punctuates : geferan, . . . deor : . . . sUiet!. 149S. Terror shall (arise) because of the gray wolf, :. grave (shall be prepared) for the dead man. (The wolf) laments for hunger; he does not at all encircle (?) taat {grccf) with lamentation, nor does he bevaJl the slaughter, the gray one, the mortality of aien, but ever wishes it more. — A much disput'.'d p;issage. Th. reads from 1496, 'The grave for the dead man hungry shall groan ; not with howl winds round it, nor indeed death laments the gray wolf,' etc. Ettm. punctuates, Ilungre heofe'S naUs. So Gr. Cf. B.-T., p. 628, ' Hungre heofeS, laments for hunger.' Mil., ' Selbst iin grabe noch verfolgt den menschen der falsche freund (wulf). Er klagt wohl, aber nicht aus auteil (naUes), sonderu vor hun- ger (llu'igre heofeS), well er niehta mehr zu fressen bekommt (ac hit a mare willo).' Ettm. q. 'greggum = gr;pgum ?' Lines 149-151 show two of the seven instances where this word occurs in AS. poetry. Ci. Mead, loc. cit. 153. A bandage shall (be) wound ; revenge shall be for the brave man. vsunden, from windan, to wind. If the word is lound = wound, and the line to be read, A bandage shall be for the wound, what of the con.st.-uc- tion of xcuiid? Or if, according to Th., lounden = wounded, what of the construction ? As alternative to my own reading, I offer, A fillet shall be rolled, twisted. Th.'s change of icriSd to ipr;T5 is unnecessary ; both forms occur. Th. translates icracit, 'exile.' Cf. B.-T., p. 12G8, xoracu, II 6. Ayres suggests a spirited reading, ' The web shall be woven, misery (shall be) for the cruel man,' which though offering a new interpretation of xcried, at the same time preserves its literal meaning of ' that which is bound, or wound.' Cf. The Fatal Sisters, by Thomas Gray. 154b-155a. Man shall have both alike for his companions. It is possi- ble that the meaning may be that bow and arrow shall be to each other as man to mate. Cf. B.-T., p. 412, 'A bow must have an arrow, a man must to his mate.' Cf. ON. Enn & boga orvar. 155b. Treasure become another's, or 'change hands,' B.-T., p. 671. Th. sees in the Wine a continuation of the first half line and reads, 'be the other's treasure.' Ettm. and Gr^. doubtless see a similar meaning; for they place a comma after ISSa, and a period after 1556. Cf. also MiL, p. 2-3, ' Der mann soil mit dem genossen so untrennbar verbunden sein wie bogen und pfeil, , . . ein geschenk des andern wert sein.' Gr. originally placed a period after gemccccan, a reading which W. follows, as I do. 156. May be a Christian thought : cf. The Lord gave and the Lord hath taken away {Job i, 21). 158. A hall shall stand, itself grow old. Ettm. offers silfer, argentum. Perhaps syJfma.y be for syll, ' foundation ' ? 159. lii'sest, poetic form, liest .being the only form common in WS. prose. NOTES ON GNOMIC VERSES 143 160. Trees shall spread and truth be disseminated. Cf. B.-T., pp. 119, 111 9. I follow MS., H., Th., and Gr. W. reads »c«aJon6r«<fan. Th. conjectures treowu needlessly, Ireoio also being a form of the nom. plu. This line appears to pun on treo and treow. 161. s'w has for intecedent, treow. 162-161 A iy,dahattr strophe. Cf. Siev^., p. 146. Cf. also note by Eutin. 165. Cf. Siev. and Holt. They would make a second line after {^etr«ar?, one having timple alliteration : cf. Ij'j^aMUr strophe. As it stands, this line has six accents. On sceop for scop, cf. Wr., § 128, n. 166u. To every one of men wise words are fitting. Th., Ettm., Gr. would change woRra to we^-a. Unnecessary, the form here found occurs else- where. Cf. Oospels (Lind. and Rush.), and B.-T., p. 1241. 167. MU. thinks the colorless (juman gains its true significance if read as 'warrior, opposed to singer,' op. cit., p. 23. 168. Cf. Quot homi7ies, tot sententioe and Minds of Men, 21-23. One would 3xpect monige as Ettm. emends (not monig). 169. I follow Th. in ending the line with longat! {langtiS), and I trans- late, Each has for himself, app.rt, a desire of heart. Whenever one sits apart and meditates, he grows sad ; the line suggests a typical AS. sittia- tion. Cf. Wand., Ill, gescet him surdar wt rUne. Cf. also close of The Banished Wife^s Lament : \Vd biS />dm /e sceal of langope leofes dh'idan. 170 ff. Gr. and W. begin this line with Inngai. Th. and Ettm. see a gap after ponne. There is undoubted difficulty in effecting a smooth translation. The meaning seems to be, Yet the less the u»an who knows many songs and who can play the harp, etc. — o/'/>e = and. Cf. Beo. 650, 2254, etc. Allusions in AS. poetry to the harp are frequent, but with 171 cf. especially Gifts of Me-i, 49, and Fates of Men, 80-81. 173-174. Miserable is he who 'niLst live alone, friendless to dwell has to him fate decreed. W., " Ettm. nimmt winel. wun. ' ;;!.-; objekt zu geteod.' So fasse ich es auch auf." But Th., ' Miserable Ls he who must live alone, friendless continue, fate has ordained it to him.' 176. MS. eorle. Th. q. ' eorlice f ' Ettm. suggests eorles, and W. fol- lows. Jlolt. prefers eorlas : why ? Gr. follows MS. as I do, though I see no translation of eorle which compares favorably with that of eorles in apposition to monries. Eorle, dat., to a man? Note pun on eafora and eofor. — inc^ran for fcereu, as Ettm. suggests. — sceoldan for sceoldon. 177. slipherde deer, the bear. 178-179. Always shall these warriors carry their trappings, and with each otiier together sleep. For gerxde, trappings, cf. B.-T., p. 429, and gertde, p. 430. But B.-T., p. 429, under gerxdan, 'arrange, dispose,' refers to this line. Spr., I, 440, is in doubt, suggesting no meaning, but giving ace. as cas3. l^erliaps the word is for riHd, council, then ISidan is figurative, and the idea becomes, lead a council. Koegel, op. cit., I, 76, geriid anlS:dan. 180. A hopeless line, as it stand.s. Th. thinks the second mon t5 an 144 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON erroneous repetition by the scribe, as is probably the case. He Is perhaps VfTong in thinking some liaes are omitted after swcfan. Cf. Slev'., p. 145, Enough is omiLtecl after vu'Pdle to make a second long line In the strophe. Or. suggests vurg bemc'ican to till the gap. The meaning is possibly to the effect, Never shall one go to the assembly without the other. Cf. Koegel, op. cU., I, 76, ' immer sollen die lielden (einer gefolg- scliaft) sich in eiuander schicken uiid bei einander schlafen: dann wer- den sie sich gegenseitig niemals durch bose reden veruneinigen, bis sie der tod trennt.' Th. writes nvZt^le, but cf. B.-T., p. G64. Tliese lines have a ring and content similar to those in the formula of peacemaking found in primitive laws and customs of Iceland. Cf. Origines Islandicoe, p. 318, • Ye two shall be made men — At one and in agreement, At feast and food, At moot and meeting of the people. At church soken, and in the king's house.' Mti., failing to see the the IjuSahdttr strophe, takes 178-183 "filr schlecht umgemodelte prosa." He has a similar opinion of 165-169. Cf. Holt., En(7. St., XXXVII, 200, who would change to tomaelde. Cf. B.-T., p. 1002 ; Spr., II, 545. 182. The meaning of tceft is uncertain. Icel. tajl is a game, used of chess or draughts or of dicing. (Cf. also Germania, XXIV.) Hero, the context .seems to indicate that dicing or a board for dicing is meant. Cf. B.-T., p. !t68. It is possible, however, that the meaning may be table where drink and food is served. 183. They forget the shaping of bitter things. On gesceafte, cf. Wr., §391, B.-T., p. 4:55. On horde, T., B.-T., 'on board.' It is Kkely, I think, that the gaming board is referred to, — at the board. Either mean- ing fits equally well the context. 184. Ettm., " verbum einettan ignoro ; emtjan, emtigean, sajpe leguntur." But there is no authority for this statement. I suggest either of two readings. First, the idle hand of the dicer is at leisivre long onough. Cf. Deuteronomy i, 0, genuh longe; Spr., II, 284, neah = satis din. For cemet, cf. Spr. I, 57. Second, change the text according to the following explanation : cemet comes at the end of a line, -ian was carried forward. ge of the next word, as not unusual, was affixed to the preceding word ; hence iange. Palieographically, i for I is quite possible ; a later scribe may have mistaken the letter, particularly since Iange, a common word, would naturally present itself, in opposition to the form iange. My chief reasons for the change are first that cemct occurs nowhere else, so far as I know, and second, that a is uniformly written before nasals (in the On. Ex.), and Iange would have been longe. (A single exception to the statement in regard to nasals occurs in man, 67.) Idle hond ^zmetian geneah would be translated, then, It satisfies the idle hand to be at leisure. Th. reads, ' Idle is the hand (long leisure nigh) of the gamester.' NOTES ON GNOMIC VERSES 145 Sir T. Madden, In Eemarks on the Ancient Chessmen found in tfu Isle of Lems, Arch., 24, 203 II., notes, p, 282, that the game here cited ia allied to backgammon. Ho, wiili " Mr. Price's" help, renders 182 fl: — They two shall sit together At tlie table game sit. Whilst their anger glides away, Snail forget the anxious cares of life ; They shall have game on the board, Wilb idle hand unoccupied, Long near the table-men, Shall they throw the dice (tessellse) . It is noticeable that Sir Frederick i.isists that the game was not chess. yfr'ight^IIomcsofOthKr Days, New York, 1871, p. 232), speaking of games says, "The aicst popular wa:^ that of tabuls). This game was in use among the Romans, and was in all probability borrowed from them by the Anglo-Saxons, among whom it was in great favor, and who called the game t^efle (^evidently a mere adoption of the Latin name), and the dice taefle-stanas. The former evidently represents the Latin tesselae, little cubes ; and the latter seems to show that the Anglo-Saxon dice were usually made of stones. At a later period, the game of tables, used nearly always in the plural, is continually mentioned along with chess, as the two most fashionable and arislooratic games in use." On p. 2.14, Wright referH to L. L. L., Act V, sc. 2, " when ho plays at tables," aud to The GuVs Jloriibooke, for similar use of the term. 185b. teosehim tceot-pcS, throws with the dice. Cf. Sh., pp. 18 and 61. Th. reads, ' but with tlie dice ho throws seldom in the spacious ship, unless under sail he runs.' I am inclined to think he refers to ceole, not •«,o the gamester. Ettm. and Gr. place a period after weorpeS. 187. Gr. and W. print tcerig scealc. Cf. Spr., II, 403. B.-T. does not refer to this line under scealc. — wearnum, freely. 186 fi. Str. comments to the following effect: Lazy and incapable ser- vants are not to be used for ll>e voyage ; the lazy runs only under sail ; the incapable, when reproached, loses his craft and lets the helm be ruined. I fail to get any sich meaning, but read, Weary shall he (be, who) rows against the wind ; very often one freely blames the timid, so that he loses courage, hss oar becomes dry on board. Th. reads, 'Full oft one with threats urges the slothful, . . . draws his oar on board.' 189. Cunning shall with thing evil, skill with things fitting. — Lot . . . list, names for a. corresponding vice and virtue ; cf. B.-T., p. 643 ; Spr., II, 1'J0-1G4. Koegel, op. cU., I, 76, translates, ' Betrug muss mit falschheit, list mit schlauheit verbunden sein ; auf diese weise wird der Gtein (im bretspiel) heimlich beseitigt.' 189-193. LjASahi'iltr strophe. Tli. thinks want of context and allitera-, tion shows the MS. to be defective. He sees a gap after forstolen, aud makes no translation from bacum through arujd. Gr. sees a slight omis- 146 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON gion after arSd. With these views, cf. that of Str. {Ztft. f. d. ^., Xvill, 215). By following Str.'s emendation and changing drZd to arod, one may read the gnome : The ready man is always prepared. Of the entire strophe, Sir. says : "der sinn des spruches Lst folgeuder : schlechte betrll- gen, tiichtige zeigen schlauheit. dadu'-ch (durch betrug oder list) wird der stein (im brettspielc) unvermerkl hinweggeaommen. oft zerzankea sie (die lysice) sich mit worlen, bevor sie aus einander gehen, wahrend der schlagfertige {arod vgl. altn. ^rr) iiberall geriistet ist (den schaden wett zu machen sucht oder weis.s)." Line 193, he adds, is an example of skothendinj, or half-rhyme : gea r : a . . . a ■ r od. Cf. Koegel, op. cit., I, 75. B.-T., supp. p. 45, suggests, doubtfully, 'resolute' for dncd, Cf. Wand., Wyrd buS ful drxd, and Beo. (an-ricd), 1530, 1570, where the meaning seems toj be ' determined, firm ' (kiihn, mutig, Schucking glosses). 193, then, may be. The courageous is at all times prepared. Koegel reads, geara is hiccer ahred, and translates, 'tief ists irgendwo erregt.' lie notes, "Der sinn der zeile kanu nur sein : der innere zonx kommt zum ausbruch, die innere erregung macht sich in worten luft." This rendering throws too much strain on 191. The general meaning is probably this: Cunning must meet clieating, by which the dice may be stolen : players often dispute before they turn their backs on one another ; the courageous man will be ready (in case of a wrangle). 194. This line marks the beginning of a Christian passage, one that is corrupt and difficult to convert into a form approacliing that tir:,t written down. 19l-19Sa is comparatively simple and reads, HostUity has been among mankind since the earth first swallowed Abel's blood ; it was no one day's hate, from which strife-bringing drops widely sprang, great crime to man, to many people hale-mixed hate. 195. andcege, cf. Beo. 11, 1107, 1935, and Sedgefield's ed., p. 164. The meaning may be ' open.' — jhoh, in 197, I change to ??ia7t ; otherwise, I make nothing of 197or. 198. Here the difficulty becomes greater. "What does />oiie refei- to ? Cain or Abel ? If the latter, then iierede may be for ferede or generede, and the meaning is, whom ('that is, Abel) death took away. 209. The difficulty here lies in a/jolwarum, for which B.-T. ctfers 'citizens.' But 'eternal hate injured men, so citizeus' is not r. convinc- ing rendering. Str. would substitute geiorcec for nerede (aiter the passage in Beo.), then he would change apolwaruv- to aSom sicarian, reading : 'den mord rachte — kund war es seither weithin — dass ewiger hass die menschea schiidigte, wie auch eidam und schwiiher der waff en getose vollfiihrten iiber die erde.' Str. has a good deal to say about the Cain- Abel reference with respect to its bearing on the Oswald-Penda wars. I doubt any historical allusion. 195. hlbde, is. after swelgan. Cf. B.-T., p. 947. 201. drtogan gewin, fight. 203-206 show reversion to gnomic utterance. 204. W. writer and in italics to indicate the MS. sign for this word; NOTES ON GNOMIC VERSES 147 204 shows error in this respect where he does not italicize. In every Instance the MS. has •). 205iu Heart for the brave man = The brave man must hare courage. 206. Th. reads • for the base in soul.' I read (/>oes heanan hyge), for the soul of the base (shall be thought) a most limited treasure. Cf . Brooke, ' And the smallest of hoards for the coward in soul.' Cotton Gnomes 1. Note ceastra vr.. Saxon hurh. Stone masonry meant something mysterious to the Germans, wbo spoke of it as " burg of the giants," "the giants' ancient work." The use of stone, foreign to the north of Europe, spread from the southeast corner of the Mediterranean. Cf. Gummere, Gennanic Origins, p. 91, and see above, p. 107. — gesyne, visible. F., T., translate ' seen,' a word which should be reserved for the pp. of geceon. 2. enta. B.-T., ent, 'a giant, gigas.' orSanc enta gexceorc, cunning work of giants. Cf. Beo. 2718. Cf. Kr., An., p. 138. T. overfreely translates, 'The work of the mlud of giants,' which the case of orSanc forbids. Cf. Gen. vi, 4, ' There were giants on the earth in those days.' 8a. Cf. liuin, l^icr.^tlic is />ces icealstdn. 3b. sioiftHst, the rarer form. Cf. Wr., § 444. 4. punar, syndan, hludast. rarer forms. — myccle, cf, Wr., § 2G0. Ettm. mycle, but already the older forn* had given place to myccle. 5. Wyrd. Cf. B.-T., p. 1287, for various significations of this word; cf. also Kr., An., 6136 and note. An indication of heathen origin; the feeling seems to be more pereonal than, say, in Gen. 2355 where Wyrd is lather a 'cold abstraction.' My punct. of 56-8a is somewhat clearer, 1 think, than that suggested by .onner Edd. 6. lencten, spring, confined to West Teutonic languages, has acquired an ecclesiastical meaning peculiar to England. In other Teutonic languages, the only sense is ' spring,' says the NED., W-, p. 201. Cf. OHG. lengizin (shortened lenzin). The word may possibly have reference to the length- ening of days as cha-ucterizing spring. Cf. lent-lilies, daffodils, and 'Lenten ys come w'> loue to toune.' — hr'imigost, cf. Hen., 35, Arljue gehyrsted . . . Martius, and noies on spring in JEG. Ph., V, 446 (Hans- com, op. cit.) 7. Summer is most sun-beautiful, i.e., beautiful from sun-shine. Cf. B.-T. p. 937. But IL, 'cBstivus sol est formosi'<simus,' and F., T., 'Sum- mer sun is most beautiful.' Note spelling sumclitegost and (next line) hreSeadegost. For example in Alfred's prose of similar forms, cf . Cos., § 43. 8. The poet, having spoken of winter, spring, and summer, completes the round of the Fcasons : hcerfest is figurative for autumn. The word is confined to QUO. and Dutch, and was established after Tacitus. Cf. Schrader, op. cit., p. 303. I translate, Autumn is most glorious. T's ' Fierce 148 GNOnC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON harvest is the happiest' is nonsense. H., 'tempestiyas autumnoa'; F., ' Harvest is most blessed.' 9. MS. geres may hti Kentish or Anglian or late West^Saxon. Cf. V7r., § 124, note. In Oros. occur both gear and ger; in Chr. simply gear. Cf. Cos., § 61. Cf. Hanscom, op. cit., p. 441. With 6-9 cf. Met. 11 6&-fil, for similar relation of God to wind and change of seasons. 10. Truth is most treacherous. So the gnome must read according to MS. sicicolost, which, as Ea. comments, has a ' strangely Machiavellian sound.' According to Chantepie de la Saussaye, truthfulness with the Norsemen did not preclude everything we are accustomed to regard as deceit ; they made use in a treaty of ambiguous expressions. Cf. op. ci'., 409-410. But emendation in favor of simpler meaning is preferable. Sw. proposes sicutulost, a change whereby the gnome falls readily into line with the others. But why not sioitolost f Palffiographically this form is quite possible, c and ( often being mistaken for each other. I read it into the text and translate. Truth is most clear, or evident. Cf. The Instruc- tions of King Cormac Mac Airt, p. 22, 1. 36, 'Everything true is sweet.' H., 'verus facilliine decipitur,' with which cf. Spr., II, 511 : ' sich leicht entziehend, leicht entgehend ? ' Cf. B.-T., p. 954, « occasioning offence ? ' T., 'Truth is most deserving.' 11-12. The old most wise, old in bygone years, who ear ier experienced many things. Cf. B.-T., p. 854, for fyrngearum ; Spr., I, 303. For grhidcS, cf. An., 1702, where the idea seems to be similar. With the thought, cf. W.-vamql, 'stanza 133, and Hampesmol, 27. (Sea introd., p. 27.) Gummere notes that the very old were thrust away to die ; but healthy old age and the wisdom of sagacious counsel were venerated. — Germanic Origins, p. 205. 13. xomidrum, Spr., II, 752, ^ mirabiUter.^ — scrWat : cf. 1. 40, also Beo. 103, 051, etc. 14. sceolan for sceolon. Cf. note, 1. 4. With the idea, cf. Beo. 20 ff. (See introd., p. 30.) Cf. also Gummere, OEE., p. 23, substituting Cotton for Exeter. Cf. Jleliand, 1018 ff. 16a. I read a period after eorle, Courage oughl to be in a man. Cf. ON. proverb, OSlingr sk'jldi einkar-raoskar. H., ' virtus in duce, et gladius ciun galea, bellum tolerabunt.' So, F., T., translating, see in hilde geb'idan a complement to each half line of 16. 16b. MS. hellme, misspelling for helme. Cf. Beo. 2259, hilde gehdd. Tiepresentations of ancient chessmen found in the isle of Lewis (op. cit. m Arch. XXIV, 203 ff.) show the sword held in the right hand resting against the helmet in the left. 17. The ha..k shall on (or, sit on) the glove of the falconer, the wild one dwell ; or, the hawk, though wild, shall accustom him.self to the glove. Cf. Fates of Men, 85, sum scenl wildne fxigel lolonce ateniian, etc. — glofe, II. translates (glofe), 'clivo' ; B.-T., p 481, ' a cliff' ; Spr., II, 610, ^rupes f ; Brooke, 'cliff'.' 19. By following the MS. one may read. The eagle in the haw. H. NOTES ON GNOMIC VERSES 149 translates, ' aquila in campo,' so F., T., » eagle in field.' In Kent, a haw is a yard or enclosure. But by changing earn to earm and making one word of an + haga (emendation of Ettra., followed by Gr,, Sw., W.) the passage becomes aligned with the preceding and the following gnomes. The miserable recluse, i.e. the wolf. Cf. Beo. 2309, earm dnhaga, and Wand. 1. Cf. also B.-T., sapp. p. 42. 20a. tuSmcegeties oocars only here. 20b. til, the good man. H. ' bonus civis.' 21. domes toyrcean, do justice, win glory or renown. Cf. Beo. 1888- 13P9. (See introd. p. 38.) Cf. also i?eo. 1492, dom geteyrce. For use of the gen. with xcyrcan, cf. Sh., p. 63. 23a. steap and geap, cf. Euin, 11, steap geap ; Oen.,2656,fyr steapes and geapes. 23b-24a. The stream shall in the waves mingle with seaflood. H., ♦Fluvius exundans faciei diluvium.' See footnote, and cf. B.-T., p. 676 (mecgan) and p. G78 (mengan). Cf. Biisband'a Message, 42, mengan mereslreamas. The passage, though obscure, seems to refer to a river which flows into the sea. 24b-25a. The mast shall on the ship, the sail-yard, rest. I make segelgyrd synonymous with mcest. H., ' Malus in navigio antennas sustine- bit.' B.-T , p. 864, ' The mast shall be fixed in a boat and the yard hang from it.' Spr., II 424, glosses segelgyrd as a ptc, ' segelgiirtet.' 25b-26a. Literally, sword shall in bosom, on bosom, or in the lap. Tupper thinks it probable that some rite of the comitatus may here be re- ferred to as in Gn. E.c. 68-71. He cites Beo. 2195 and 1143. 2195, /><jet he on Blowulfes bearm dlegde, I think simply means that Hygelac laid the sword, as a gift, in Beowulf's lap. This is the view also of R. W. Chambers, " On his paru, Hygelac gives Beowulf feudal domains, placing, as he does so, in Beowulf's bosom the sword of their common grandfather Hrethel." Op. cit., p. 25. Beo. 1143 is an obscure passage which has been translated variously Cf. Schiicking, op. cit., p. Ill, and MLN., XXV, 114. The old mode of holding the sword, assigned to royal per- sonages, was across the knees and with both hands. In Grimmesm{>l, King Geirrod sits " ok hafH sverb um kn6 ok brugpit til mibs." Cf. also illustrations in Wright's Homes, and in Sir F. Madden's article, loc. cit.. Arch. XXIV. On the whole, I am inclined to believe that the gnome refers to this custom. Read, the sword shall rest in the lap. 26b. A dragon shall dwell in a cavern, or on a mound. Cf. Beo. 2212- 2213. For information about dragons, cf. Brand!, op. cit., p. 990. 29b-30. Cf. On. Ex. 177 and see above, p. 96. 30b. Water from the hill shall travel, flood-gray. H., ' Aqua de monti- bus irrucns inunUatiouem iuterm faciei.' F., T., ' Water will from the hill bring down the g>"ay earth.' — fodgroig occm-s only here, but cf.Jlint- grcegne, Bid. 4-10. Cf. Mead, op. cit., p. 189 ff. B.-T. gives the com- pound /o/i^ricgr, and translates ' ?^arth -colored water shall proceed from a hill.' <sy/r., I., 310, foldgrajg, ' erdgrau.' 150 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON 32b-SSa. Cf. Gn. Ex. 160. 83b. ipudu = tree. H., 'Sylvae In terns fsecundse florebunt.* 34a. blbvian, to bloom, survives only in dialect in Mn. E. With 38!>- S4a, cf. Gn. Ex. 25J>-26a. 35. Mead notes that the favorite color in AS. poetry is green and that singularly enough the examples are found almost wholly in religious poems. Cf. Guth. 203, grene beorgas. 36b-S7a. Cf. Beo. 725, recedes mu9an. No meaningless figure. Of. Gummere, Germanic Origins, p. 105. 37. rand. Cf. Jiid., Tupper, p. 80, and cf. Wright, Homes, p. 86. 38b-39a. Cf. Fates of 2Ien, 23. 39b-40a. The salmon shall in the sea glide with rapid movement. H., •Salmo et raia in gurgitibus hinc illinc vagabuntur.' T., . . . ' will roll with the skate.' F., 'with shooting wander.' Cf. B.-T., p. 627, leax, and p. 839, scot, which is glossed ' shot,' and under which this line ia quoted. Spr., II, 407, ' motus rapidu-s.' Tupper suggest** the possibility that sceote may be for sceole and cites A Journey Spell, 24 (Grendon, p. 178). 40. i iu scrlSan in later hand above the line. 41. Cf. ^let. 20'!. 42a. Cf. Chr. 872, />eof />ristlice, pe on p'jatre fdreS. — pystrum, cf . footnote, and B.-T., p. 1052. 42b. /»jrs, a demon in ON. mythology, a relic, as are eiAr: and \oyrd of early superstition in England. II., ' latro,' F., 'spectre,' Icel. /urs, 'a giant'; OHG,, durs, ' d.^emonium ' ; lit., 'the thirsty one.' Cf. B.-T., p. lOBt). — " Man mag an Grendel, den aus der methalle verbannten, denken." Brandi, op. cit., p. OGO. 43b ff. A woman shall by secret craft seek her lover, if she doea not wish publicly to be sought in marriage. Cf. Gn. Ex. 82-93, and see above, p. 91 ff. " Golden arm rings were the aristocratic present," Germanic Origins, p. 107. MaiTiage by purchase appears in its crudest form in Ivent, where wives would seem to have been bought much in the same way a-s slaves or cattle. Cf. Chadwick, Origiii of the English Xation, p. 324. Such a custom also seems to have prevailed in Wessex. If the lines are to be translated as above, a late origin is indicated : being bought was a reproach. But in the Gn. Ex., ge/^eon was used in a good sense and the purchase was honorable enough, something to be desired, according to old Germanic custom. By a slight emendation iu tib, the thought becomes similar to that in Gn. Ex : nelle may be eiTor for icille. The meaning then becomes, The woman shM by secret craft seek her friend, if she would thrive among the people, that she muy be bought ■nith rings. dyrne Sw. thinks an adv. periphrasis, ' secretly, clan- destinely.' Cf. M(i., p. 10 ; he regards 43J>-45a as prose. 45b. The sea shall foam (welter) with salt. II., 'sale festuabit.' Sw. thinks 'salt,' adj., better. 46. Air and water (cloud and flood) shall flow about each of all lands, NOTES ON GNOMIC VERSES 151 mountain (mouiitainoas) atroams. On Jlrgenstream, see Lawrence's Kaunted Mere in Beoiculf, PMLA., ns. XX, 2, 212. The chief point t'^ be observed here is t)iat the water is not salt. Cf. Met. 20"*^ for the same idea. H., * sei-ei imbrcs, diluvia et transgreasi fluvii inondabunt omnes terras,' but prints ealra land. 48. tungol, any heavenly body ; here probably the sun. 49. meotud. Vilmar thinks this word had its origin in heathendom, but was retained after the introduction of Christianity and applied to the Supreme Being. Cf. C. C. Ferrell, Teutonic Antiquities in the AS. Genesis, Leipzig, 1893, p. 4. 60. geogot!, later fo.-m ; cf. 1. 49, where meotud, older form, appears. 62-53. fyrd wiS fyrde, .IdtS wiS ld/>e, examples of " grammatischer reim." 64a. synne sUelan. B.-T., 'charge with crime.' H., 'semper se ob- flrmahuut.' F., ' They shall always steal on each other.' T., ' Sin will steal on.' Sw., ' Institute injury or hostility.' Kock, Atigl. XXVII, 229, thinks this passage, Oen. 1351-1352, and the two in Beo., 1S39-1344, 2485-2487, where the verb {ge)st&lan is employed, have been misunder- stood, that the idea of accusing or upbraiding has developed into that of avenging. Cf. also Klaeber, M. Ph., Ill, 201. Kock disagrees with Sw., on ihe basis that syn.ie means an infringement of divine or human law, wrong-doing ; it is no:, used of hostility in general, or looked on as law- ful ; it is used of wrongful hostility, or invasion, injury. The clause means call to account for perjury, avenge (wrongful) hostility. Cf. also Beo., Schiicking, p. 273. I hardly see that wrongful here applies ; for I take it that the idea refers to the group collectively (50-53) ; hence, simply, avenge hostility. 64b. A comment on palaoj^Taphy here lets one into the workings of the scribe's mind. A hole in the MS. interfered with a long stemmed minis- cule h, in the word hycgean ; hence, the writer made a small squat cap- ital H. 65b. wearh hangian. The outlaw shall hang, or be hanged ; he shall fairly pay the penalty for that he before did, crime to mankind, loearA, ' villain,' ' outlaw,' not ' teufel,' according to Str. Beginning with 646, H., 'In mundanis rebus prudens semper conari debet, ut exlex sus- pendatur, et ut ei bene rependantur injuriie quas humano generi prius fecerat.' F., ' Ever shall the prudent strive about this world's labor to hang the thief ; and compensatj the more honest for the crime committed against mankind.' W. places only a comma after gexoinn. My reading seems to offer tl)e advantage of separating two sententious sayings which other Edd. have joined. 67-61. Mil. thinks these lines are prose, " wenigstens, 58, 59, denn die alliteration f;Ult in 58 auf sceal und in zweiten fasso auf sySSan, wiihrend sie in 59a fehlt," op. cit., p. 11. 69-60. . . . who for God depart after the day of death ; they await, etc. Edd., ' who for God depart.' After their death-day they await, etc. 152 GNO^^c poetry in anglo-saxon Cf. Beo. 440, ff . — tJjer gelyfan sceal, Dryhtnea dOme 86 )>e kine deaU nimetJ. 60. Sw. thinks bidan, inf., better. 62. dlgol and dyrne, stock phrase. Cf. Chr. 640, El. 1092, etc. 65-66 and the beginning of the Chronicle are shown in facsimile by Ea., op. p. xxxvi, op. cit. Note on Metrics Since Mli. makes a complete analysis of meter, alliteration, anl rhyme (op. cit., pp. 3fM9), since Kaluza tabulates all expanded linei according to type {Eng. St., XXI ; cf. p. 337, Die Schwellverse in der Altenglischen Dichtung, and esp. pp. 356-370), and Theodor Schmitz works out the percentages of such lines {Angl. XXXIII ; cf. pp. 1-76, 172-218. Vie Se'^h!<takter in der Altenglischen Dichtung, and esp. pp. 216-217), it seems unnecessary to recapitulate here in detail. Moreover, I have already called attention to Ij6l5ah&ttr forms. It may be worth while noting, however, that the gnome.s show altogether 27.6% expanded lines ; On. C. contain 12%, Gn. Ex., 33%. GLOSSARY The order is alphabetic : the Ugatura to is treated aa equiralent in rank to a ; '.nitial "5 follows t. Arabic numerals indicate the classes of ablaut verbs according to Slevers' classification; Wi, otc, the classes of the weak verbs; R the reduplicating, PP the preterit-present verbs. Mood and tense are in- dicated only when other than indicative presetit. The citations are meant to b9 complete. References are to the Exeter Gnomes. unless C. is prefijced. a, adv., always: 20, 104, lb2, 178, _206, C. 64. Abel, pr. n., Abel: g3. Abeles 195. abrSoSan, 2, degenerate, deterio- rate : 3 sg. abr6o)>e'5 66. ac, conj., but: 11, 152. Scwelan, 4, die, perish : opt. 8 sg. acwele 114. Scy)7an, Wi, nhow, confirr,i: inf. 49. Sdl, fn., disease, sickness: ns. 10, 31, 118. eefter, prep. w. dat., after: C. 60. &gan, PP, own, possess : pret 3 sg. ahte 175. figen, adj., own, proper: nsm. 98. ffighwcer, adv., evei-ywhere: 89. ieht, f ., goods, property : ap. ahte 157. ahycgan, W3, devise, invent : pret. 3 pi. iihogodan 202. ahyrdan, Vv'^i, harden, temper: pret. 3 pi. ahyrdon 202. aiaidan, Wj, lead, lead out: opt. 3 sg. alSde 48. 5elc, pron., each, every : nsm. 169. eelde, ra., n:en : dp. seldum 197, 200. Sled, ra., fire : as. 80. eelmihtlg, adj., almighty : nsm. 17; asm. aelmihtigne 10. alw&lda, m., All-ruler, God : ns. 133. aiyfan, Wi, permit, grant : pp. Sly- fed 110. aemetan, semetian, ? be idle, vacant : inf. 184. an, num., 1. one, certain one: nsm. 75 ; gsm. ines 175. — 2. alone : nsm. ana 29, 42, 173, C. 43, C. 67, C. 62. and, conj., and (in the MS. all occurrences are represented by the abbreviation) : 3, 6, 18, 24, 28, 46, 48, 58, 86, 88, 92, 97, 98, 99, 110, 121, 137, 142, 143o, 167, 160, 162, 103, 167, 179, 202, 204, 206 ; C. 11, C. 15, C. 23, C. 30, C. 46, C. 48, C. 69, C. 62. andaege, adj., lasting a day? nsm. 195. ange, adj., troubled, sorrowful: nsn. onge 42. (See notes.) anbaga, m., solitary one : ns. C. 19. anw^eald, m., empire, rule, power: gs. ariwealces 69. 5t, f., oar: ns. 188. Sr, adj., early: nsf. 31. Sr, adv., before, formerly, earlier: 21, 49, 114, 181, C. 12, C. 66. 153 154 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANQLO-SaXON Bup. serest, firtt, at first : 4, 83, 90. 8Br, conj., before: 192. 5rs5d, adj., resolute, courageous: 193. arSran, "Wj, uplift, raise up : pret 3 sg. irairde 10. fireccan, Wi, explain, expound: inf. 141. Srisan, 1, arise, come to be: 3 6g. arise "5 161. Sr )3on, conj., before: 111. Sspringan, 3, spring out, lack, fail : 3 sg. aspringe"S 36. set, prep. w. dat., a<, in : 5, 64, 137. atemian, Wj, tame, s«6(!we ; pp. asm. atemedne 47. Stgeofa, m., food-giver, provider : ns. 98. getremnod, adj., venom-minded: nsra. 163. setsomne, adv., at once, together: 93. 179, C. 31. agjjeling, m., 1. nobleman, prince : as. C. 14. — 2. people (in a good sense) : gp. pc>elinga 90. aSolware, pi. m., citizens (but see Doles) : dp. aMwarum 200. Swegan, 5, take or carry away : pp. awegen 21. B baec, n., back: dp. bacum 192. beedan, Wi, compel, constrain, solicit : 3 sg bSdeS 100. be, prep. w. dat., about, beside, by: 113. beada, f., battle, war: as. bead we 62 ; ds. beaduwe C. 16. bSag, m., ring, bracelet, collar: lis. 131 ; dp. beagum 83, C. 46 ; ap. bfagas C. 29. b5ahgifu, f., distribution of rings, gifts: ds. bCahgife C. 15. beeiloblonden, pp., bale-mixed^ pernicious : nam. 198. bealolSaa, adj., innocent: Dsf. 39. bSam, m., tree : ns. 25, 169. bearm, m., bosom, lap : da. bearme C. 25. beam, n., child, offspring: as. o'.* ap. 25. beam, m., grove : da. bearowe C. 18. bebeodan, 2, command,* 3 Bg. bebSad C. 49. befeolan, 3, commit, ddiver: inf. 116. begen, adj., both: npji. 175, 177 ; npn. bu 62, 83 ; i^pmf. bega 17 ; dpmf. bSm 93, 154. behligan, 1, dishonor, defame: 3 sg. bilih« 65, bebli-5 101. behofian, Wj, have need of, need, require : 3 sg. behofa? 45. beodan, 2, offer : 3 sg. bCode'S 60. beon, see wesan. beorgan, 3, save, protect: 3 pi. beorga-5 36. beorh, m., hill : ns. C. 34 beorhte, adv., brightly : C. 49. bera, m., bear: ns. C. 29; as. beran 177. betera, betre, adj., better (cr.rap. of bet, good) : nsn. betre 175. bew^indan, 3, encircle, surround: 3 sg. bewindelS 150. bewltian, Wj, observe : inf. 40. bl, prep. w. dat., by, about: 146 (see be), bidan, 1, toait, rest: 3 pi. bIdatJ C. 60 ; inf. 08. bilihS, see behligan. bilwit, adj., merciful, mild: gp. bilwitra 101. bindan, 3, bind: pp. gebunden 88, 94. blsed, f., flower, blossom : dp. blujdum C. 34. blind, adj., blind: nms. 89. GLOSSARY 155 bll^e, eA]., joyful, j^iad, cheerful: ► nsf. 89. blod, n., blood: is. bl5de 195. blo'wan, R, bloom, blossom : inf. C. 34. boc, f., book: np. bee 131. bog, m., shoulder (hence, back) : ds. bOge 03. boga, m., bovs : ns. 164. bcldagend, m., house-owner : dp. boldagendura 93. bord, n., 1. board, shield: us. 95. — 2. deck of shij) (lience, ship): ds.bordel83, 188. borde, f ., table, embroidery board f ds. bordan 04. brSdan, Wt, grow, raise up, spread out: inf. 100. brSost, n., breast, heart, mind : as. 101 ; dp. breostum 123. brim, n., sea, surf: ns. C. 45. bringan, Wi, bring : 3 sg. bringetS C. 8. broSor, m., brother: as. brOl>or 175, 198. brycgian, W2, bridge, bridge over : inf. 73. bryd, f., bride: ds. bryde iSl. bu, see b§ger„ bune, f., cup : dp. bCnum 83. bycgan, Wj, buy, procwe: 8 eg. bygeb 111. byldan, Wj, encourage, exhort: inf. C. 15. Cain, pr. n., Cain: as. 199. calcrond, adj., shoed f round of hoof f : gam. calcrondes 143. ceald, adj., cold: nam. C. G ; sup. cealdost nam. C. 5. cSap, m. . cattle, qoods : ds. ceape 82; as. 108. oeaster, f., city, ccstle, town: np. ceaatra C. 1. .- ■. cempa, m., toldier: da. oempan 130. c6ne, adj., bold: dsm. or dpm. cenum 01, 205 ; npm. cene 59. cennan, Wt, beget, create, bring forth : inf. 24, C. 28. c6ol, m., keel, ship: ns. 97 ; ds. ceole 180, C. 24. ceorl, m., man, husband: ns. 97. cildgeong, adj., young as a child: asm. cildgeongne 49. cic5, m., germ, sprig, sprout: ap. cijas 76. clSne, adj., pure : asf . clalne 44. clibbor, adj., clinging, cleaving: nam. C. 13. craeft, m. skill, science, cunning: ds. crsefte C. 43. Crist, pr. n., Christ: gs. Cristea C. 4. cuman, 4, come : 3 sg. cyme> 30, cyme« 36, 100, 109, C. 03 ; opt. 3 sg. cyme 42 ; pp. cumen 97 ; inf. 77, 'C. 41. cunncin, PP, 1. know: 8 sg. con 170 ; opt. 2 sg. cunne 2 ; opt. 3 sg. cunne 40. — 2. can, be able : 3 8g. con 171. cu3, adj., known: nsn. c5)> 199; gsm. cubes 143. cwealm, mn., torture, death, plague, murder : ns. 30, 199. cw^en, f., a tooman, a queen: gs. cwene 82 ; ds. cweae 127. cwic, adj., living : asm. cwicne 114. cyn, n., race, people, tribe, prog- eny : gs. cynnes 32 ; ds. cynne 138, 194, C. 67. cyning, m., king: ns. 59, 82, 108, C. 1, C. 28. cynren, n., kindred, kind: as. C. 28. cypan, \Vi, sell: 8 sg. cjpe}) 109. cy3, f., 1. knowledge. — 2. region, place, land: da. cy>>e 80 (see notes). 156 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON D dSd, f., deed: gp. dseda C. 86. dffig, m., day : gs. dages 141. dSlan, Wj, share, divide: inf. C. 20. daroo. m., dart, spear: ns. C. 21. dgad, adj., dead: gsm. deades 81 ; dsm. deadiim 149 ; gp. deada 79. dSa3, m., death: ns. 35, 181 ; dea> 117 ; ds. dea>e C. 61. d§a3dasg, m., day of death : ds. deaSdajge C. 60. degol, n., secret, mystery: as. de- gol 2. demend, m.., judge: ns. C. 30. deop, adj., deep, mysterious : nsm. 79. dSope, adv., deeply, thoroughly: sup. deopost 2. d§or, T!., animal, vnld animal : ns. 148, 177. dSore, adj., dear : sup. nsn. deorost CIO. digol, adj., secret, obscure: nsf. C. 02. dogor, mn.. Jay : gp. dSgra 28. dol, ad]., foolish : nsm. 35. dom, m., 1. poioer, honor, glory : ns. 81; as. 141. — 2. judgment, sentence : gs. dOmes C. 21, C. GO. don, anv., do, perform : pret. 3 sg. dyde C. 56. draca, m., dragon, serpent : us. C. 2(5. drecan, Wi, vex, afflict : 3 sg. 9. dreogain, 2, jight : pret. 3 pi. dru- gon 201. drihten, m., Lord : ns. C. 62 ; as. dryhten 35. diihtlic, adj., lordly, noble: nsr.. C. 26. drugian, "Wj, become dry: 3 sg. druga« 188. dun, f., vwu7itai7i, hill, down : ds. dune C. 30. dura, f ., door : na. C. 36. dyrne, adj., secitt, hidden: nam. 79 ; nsf. C. 62 ; asn. dyrne 2 ; ism. dyrne C. 43. E 5a, f., water, stream, river : ns. C. 30. Sadig, adj., 1. noA : nsm. 108 ; da. or. dp. eadgura 167. — 2. happy, blessed : nsm. 37. eaiora, m., son : np. eaforan 176. Sage, n., eye : ds. eagan 123 ; gp. eagna 39. eald, adj., old, ancient: nsm. C. 30. ealdlan, "W2, grow old : inf. 8, 158. eall, adj., all: asn. 136 ; dan. eallum 137 ; gpn. ealra C. 48. card, m., land, country, region: ap. eardas 15. earg, adj., timid, weac: asm. eargne 188. earm, adj., poor, vyretchcJ, : nsm. 37, 173, C. 19. See, adj., eternal ' nsm. 8, 200. ecg, f., edge, blade : ns. 204, C. 16. edhv73rrft, m., change, return : na. 42. efenfela, adj., indecl., so many, as many : 17. eft, adv., again, aftti-wards : 77, 105, 137, 157, C. 63. egesfull, adj., fearful, terrible: nsm. C. 30. Sglond, n., island: ns. 15. Sgaa, m., owner, possessor: gs. egsan 107. ellen, mn., strength, courage: na. C. 16; ds. elne"l88. ende, m., end : ds. ende 137. ent, m., giant: gp. enta C. 2. eodor, m., prince, protector: as. 90. eofor, m., boar: ns. c. 19 ; as. 176, GrX>SSARY 15T Poh, m., 'war-ftorse : gs. 6o8 63. .eorl, m., leader, nobleman, man : na. 03 ; da. eorle 84, i;6, C. 16, C. 32. 'Corod, n., host, army, band: ns. 63. ^or8e, f., earth: ns. eor)>e 73, eoiiSe 195 ; gs. eorhan 76 ; ds. eorj'an 7, 26, 115 (?), C. 34, C. 47, eoriSan C. 2 ; as. eor^an 33, 168, 201. .f)tan, 6, eat: 3 eg. ieteS 112. .SSel, mn., home, native place : ds. eHe 37, 6-51e C. 20. F -i^icen, n., crime; as. C. 66. feeder, m., father : ns. C. 63 ; gs. faeder C. 61 ; as. fseder 5. feege, adj., doomed, fated : ns. 27. feegre, &dy., fairly^ beautifully : 5 ; fiegere C. 66. i&hpo, t., vengeance, feud, hor.til- ity : ns. 104. fSh, adj., shining, stained, dyed: nam. C. 22. liSsmne, f., woman, maid: ns. 64, C. 44. faest, adj., sure, fast : nsn. C. 38. faeste, adv., fast, jirmly : 53, 64. laeathydig, adj., steadfast in mind : gp. faesthj'digra 102. fae3m, m., bosom, embrace: ds. ficSme C. 61. iaeSman, Wi, embrace, contain : 3 sg. fse))mel> 14. iSaJa, see fela. fealu, adj., yellow, dun, dull- colored: npf. fealwe 63 (y3a implied). /gdan, Wi, feed : opt. 3 eg. fede 114; inf. 115. iela, adj., indecl., I. many: np. 32; ap. fela 14, 166, foala C. 12.— 2. many a {one) : ns. 102t. — 3. much : aa. 144. felafScne, adj., very crafty, evU : ns. felafiecne 148 (see notes), felameahtlg, adj., much, mighty: nsm. 70. fen(n), m., /en, marsh: ds. fenne C. 42. feoh, n., cattle: ns. C. 47. f5ond, m., enemy, foe: ns. C. 52. feor, adv., far, at a distance : 103, 140. feorhcyn, n., living kind: gp. feorhcynna 14. feorran, adv., from afar, far of: C. 1. fSran, Wi, go, pass, travel: S sg. ffreS 140 ; inf. 27, C. 31. ferS, niD., soul, mind : ns. 19 ; as. 1. feter, f., fetter, chain : ap. fetre 76. fgjja, m., infantry, band on foot: ns. 64, finger, m., finger : gp. fingra C. 38. firas, mpl,, living beings, men : gp. fira 32, 144, f yra 194. firgenatrSam, m., mountain- s'ream: np. firgenstrgamas C. 47. flBC, ni., fish : ns. C. 27. fl6dgr«g, adj., yfood-yray, muddy : nsf. C. 31. flota, m., ship, fleet : ns. 96. flowan, R, flow : inf. C. 47. folce, n., folk, people: ds. folce C. 44. (on folce, publicly.) folde, f., earth, xcorld: ds. foldan 32, C. 33. for, prep. w. dat. and ace. 1. for, for the sake of (w. dat.): 16, C. 50. — 2. for, because of (w. dat.): 149. — 3. before (w. ace.) 89. forcv7eJ>an, 5, rebuke : inf. 49. forgiefan, u, give, grant, supply: pret. 3 sg. forgeaf 136. forgietan, 5, forget : inf. 183. 158 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON forhelan, 4, cover over, conceal: inf. 116. forlSoaan, 2, lose, destroy : opt. 3 6g. forlfose 188. forman, adj., Jirst, earliest : apn. 91. lorsSS, adv., trtily, certainly: C. 64. forst, m., frost : ns. 72 ; gs. forstes 76. forstelan, 4, steal, deprive : pp. forstolen 190. for3, adv., henceforth, forth : 165. lorSgesceait, i., future condition: ns. C. 61. forjjon Jje, conj., for, because : 5. frast-we, pi. f., ornaments; inst. frajtwum C. 27. fr2a, m., lord: gs. fr^an 91. fremde, adj., strange, foreign: apm. fremde 103. fremman, Wi, perform, do : inf. 62. freond, m., friend : as. 146, C. 44 ; np. frj-nd 37. frSosan, 2, freeze : inf. 72. freon, freogan, Wj, Zoce, court : 3 sg.? freoS 103 (see notes). fricgan, 5, ask, question : imp. 2 sg. frige 1. fr5d, adj., 1. wise : nsm. 19, C. 12 ; asm. frodne 19 ; dpn. frodum 1.' — 2. old, ancient: nsm. C. 27. Iiym3, mf., beginning, origin: ds. frynil'e 5. Frysa, adj., Frisian : dsn. Frysan 90. ! fugel, m.,fowl, bird: ns. C. 38. ful. adv., very, full: 148, 187. full, n.,lcup: ap. fulle 91. fxindian, W^, hasten, tend to : inf. 52. fur}3um, adv., at first, even: 194. U3, adj., ready, prepared, ready for death : asm. 27. yr, n., fire: ns. 72. tyrd, t, army : na. C. 31, C. 62 ; ds. fyrde C. 52. fym, adv., formerly, lor.g ago: 165. fymgSar, n., a forr.ier yiar: dp. fyrngearum C. 12. fyrwetgeom, adj., curious, inquis- itive : gp. fyrwetgeonra 102. gamelian, "Wj, grow old: 3 sg. gomelaS 11. gangam, anv., go, takeplace, occur: inf. gongan 125, gangan C. 42, gSjT, m., arrow, dart: ns. 233, C. 22. g5raljj, m., spear battle : ua. 128. gsest, m., spirit, soul : ds. gSstft 11 ; np. ga-stas C. 59. g§ap, adj., broad, extended: nsm. C. 23. gSar, n., year: gs. gSrea C. 9. gearnian, 2, earn, merit : inf. 140. gearo, adj., ready, pi epared : nsm.? geara 193 ; nsn. g;aro 203. gebJSdan, Wi, compel : inf. 105. gebeorh, n., protection : ns. C. 38. gebicgan, Wi, buy, procure : opt. 3 sg. gebicge C. 45 ; inf. 82. gebldan, 1, await, look for : 3 sg. gebldeS C. 12 ; inf. 105, C. 17. geblandan, K, mix, mingle : pp. geblanden C. 41. gebringan, 3, bring, produce: 3 &g. gebringe^ 51. gebyxd, f., birth: dp. gebyrdum 25. gebyre, m., favorable time, oppor- tunity : ns. 105. gecost, adj., tried, chosen: gsm. gecostes 143. gecynd, f., nature : ds. gecynde 59. gedslan, Wi, divide, distribute: opt. 3 sg. gedSlen 69 ; pp. ge- dai'led 80. GLOSSARY 159 gedSl, n.f parting, separatiriff : ae. 28. §ed5fo, adj., aeemly, Jit, decent: nsn. 117 ; nsn. 189. gedymem, Wi, conceal, hide, keep secret: pp. gedjn^ed 117. gefSra, m., companion: r.a. 148; dp. geferan 147. geglerwan, Wi, prepare, make '.. ready: pp. gegierwed 69. • gegrgtan, Wi, greet: inf. 90. gehealdan, R, keep, hold, restrain, save: pp. gehealden 122; inf. 101. gehggan, Wi, do, perform, hold: inf. 18. gehnigan, 1, bow: inf. 118. gehwS, pron., each, every, every- thing : dsm. gehwum 28, C. 11. gehwylo, pron., each, every one: nsin. 125 ; dsm. gohwylcum 146, 1«0 ; asn. C. 46. gelSran, Wj, teach, advise, per- suade : 3 pi. gelSraS 20. gelic, adj., like: nsmn. 19; nsn.? 154. , gelic, adv.? similarly, alike: 154. ' gemaecca, mf., companion, mate, consort: da. 155; np. gemseccan 23. gemSne, adj., mtttual : nsm. 54. gemet, n., measure, limit : ns. 33. gemonlan, \V2, admonish, remind: inf. 6. S^n, adv., still, yet: 11. genaegled, pp., nat7e<Z .' 94. genge, adj., current, prevalent: nsn. 121. geniman, 4, take, accept: 3 sg. genimeS 147. genugan, 2, satisfy, suffia : 3 8g. geneah 70, 184? g§ocor, <idj., sad, harsh: gp. (sb. use) g^oc.-an 183. geofu, f . , gijl : dp. geofum 84. geofen, n., sea, ocean : ns. 52. geogoS, f., youth : ns. C. 50. geond, prep. w. ace., through^ throughout: 161, 201. geong, adj., young: ns. 8; asm. geongne 45, C. 14. geom, B.d]., desirous, eager: nam. 59. g§r, see gSar. ger£gcan, Wi, reach, offer, pre- sent: inf. 92. geraede, n., trappings, harness t : ap. geiiedan 178. gerisan, 1, suit, befit : S sg. geriseU 64, 07, gerlse> 126 ; 3 pi. gerisatS ]G0. gescealt, fn., fate, destiny, condi- tion : ns. C. 65 ; as. gesceafte 183. gesecean, Wj, seek, get: inf. C. 44. geaecgan, Wi, tell, say : inf. 2. geset, n., seat, habitation: np. gc.setu C. 66. gealgan, 1, languish, decline: inf. 118. geaihS, f., vision, sight: gs. ge- sihpe 40. geslugan, 3, sing: inf. 140. geaittan, 5, sil : 8 pi. gesittaS 68. geaiS, m., companion, fellow : np. gesISas C. 14 ; dp. gesll>um 58. geaiSmsegen, n., multitude of com- panio7is, courtier-train : as. 89. geapringan, 3, 1. trans, get by go- ing, cause to spring : 3 sg. g&- springeS 66. — 2. intrans. spring, arise : pret. 3 pi. gesprungon 19G. gestrynan, Wj, get, acquire, gain : 3 eg. gestryne^ 144. geatyran, Wi, restrain, withhold: 3 sg. gestyrelS 106. geaund, adj., sound, favorable: dpn. gesundum 58. gesw^ican, 1, w. dat., deceive, be- ' tray : 8 pi. geswica^ 37. 160 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON geafne, adj., visible, plain: npf, gesyne C. 1. getcon, Wj, make, assign, decree : pret. 3 sg. geteode 6, 71 ; pp. geteod 174. getnim, n., band, company : ns. C. 32 ; ds, getrume 63. ge]5§on, Wi, do, perform : inf, C.44. ge^eon, 1, grow, prosper : inf. 50, 85. geSHian, 1, thrive, prosper: 3 sg. geMhS 37. geSingian, Wj, wake terms, settle a dis/jute : pp. gehingad 67. geSoht, mn., thought, mind: ap. gel>ohtas 3. ge3onc,nin., thought, mind, under- standing : ap. gehonc 12. geow^Sre, adj. , harmonious, peace- ful : npf. gel'Wiere 57. ge}?yldig, nd]., patient, long-suffer- ing : nms. 12. ge'wealdan, R, rule, command : pp. gewealden 122. geweaxan, Ji, grow, increase: inf. 85. geweorc, n., work: ns. C. 2, C. 3. gevT-eorpan, 3, go away, depart, pass : inf. 77. geweorSan, 3, be, become : pret. 3 sg. gewearS 165. gevriix, n., battle, contest : as. 201, gewinn C. 55. ge-wit, m., knowledge, understand- ing : ds. gewitte 48. gev7ltan, 1, go, depart: 3 sg. ge- wltej. CO, lOo. getvTinian, W^, dwell, remain : inf. C. 18, C. 42. gied, u., proverb, tale, riddle: ns. 167 ; dp. gieddum 4. giefu, f., gift : as. giefe 172 (see geofu. gif, couj., if: 3, 34, 44, 71, 106, 111, 114, 176, C. 44. gifan, 5, give : inf. 153. gifre, adj., greedy: nsm. 70. gifstol, m., gift-seat, throne: na^ 69. gim, m., gem, jervel : ns. C. 22. gleoman, m., gleeman, singer : ds. glfomen 167. gleaw^, adj., wise: npm. glCawe 4. gllw, n., glee : gs. glTwes 172. glof, f., glove: ds. glofe C. 17. gnornlan, Wj, grieve, mourn, lO' me»t : inf. 26. god, n., good, goodniSa : ns. J21, C. 50. god, adj., good : ns. 84 ; nsm. 128 > npm. g5de C. 14. god, m., God: m. 8, 17, 76, 134,- 156, 164, 172, C. 9, C. 35; ds. gode C. 69 ; as. god 4, 121. gold, n., gold : ns. 1^6, C. 11 j ds. golde 70, C. 22 ; as. 166. gomen, n., game, sport : as. 183. gomol, adj., old, aged: nsm. C. 11. graef, n., grave : ns. 149. greg, grceg, adj., grey : nsm. gr«ga 151 ; ds. grgggum 149. grSne, adj., green : nsm. C. 36. gretan, Wi, greet: inf. 171. ^rim, adj., severe, terrible, bitter.' dp. grimmum 52. grome, adv., fiercely, cruelly : 62. growan, R. grow, sprout : 3 sg. growe? 159 ; inf. 73. gryre, m., horror, dread, terror: ns. 149. guman, m., man: ns. 70; gs. gaman 126 ; ds. guman 167 ; np. guman 69 ; gp. gumena C. 11 ; dp. gumum 128. gu3, f., war, battle, fight : ns. 84. giiSbord, u., warlike board, shield : ns. 203. gyman, Wi, care for, take care of, regard : 3 sg. gyme'5 1C4. GLOSSARY 161 H habban, Wj, have, hold^ poseess : 8Bg. hafa« 107, 160, bafaj> 172, 174 ; 8 pi. habba« 21, 67 ; opt. 3 eg. haibbe 47 ; inf. 183. hafuc, m., hawk: ns. C. 17. hSil, adj., whole, hale, safe : nsm. 106. heelu, f., health : as. hSle 44. haBlei5, m., man, warrior, hero : T)p. haele-5 60 ; dp. haeleiSuai C. 8. hSlig, adj., holy: dsm, balgum 132. h3jn, ni.. heme, ds. bum 97 ; ag. 100. hand, f., hand: ns. houd 68, 122, 184?: ds. hondOl, bandaC. 21 ; dp. hondum 171. hangian, Wj, hany, be suspended : inf. C. 55. heerfest, m., harvest, autumn: ns. C. 8. hat, adj., hot, fervent: nsm. 78; sup. nsn. hatost C. 7. hatan, R, command : pret. 3 sg. bet 165. heeo, f., heath, waste: ds. bieSe C. 2',^ h£e3en, adj., heathen: dsm. baJK num 182. he, pron., he: nsm. 5, 6, lis, 12, 42, 44, 46, 49, 50, 53, 106, 11 Ij, 113, 1143, 175, 186, 188, C. 6, C. 66, C. m ; nsf. by 65, 103, beo 98, hi 101, beo C. 44 ; nsn. bit 113 ; gsui. bis 35, 87j, 38, 39, 41, 97, 99, 100, 172, 188, 198; gsf. hyre 64, 60, 80, 97, hire C. 44 ; dsm. bim 37, 38. 40, 41, 42, 432, 48, 99, 100, 106, 1C6, 110, 146, 147, 169, 170, 1722, 174, 175 ; dsn. bim C. 49 ; asm. bine 9, 47, 48, 492, 69, 98, 112, 114, 148 ; asf. by 66, 66, bl C. 45 ; asn. hit 42, 116, 162; np. hi 20, 40, 57, 176, 176, hy 182, 191, 192 ; gp. byra 19, 36, 182 ; dp. him 64^ 68, 92, 179, 182, 183, C. 9; ap. hi 34, by 181. hSaf, m., lamentation, weeping: ds. h«afe 150. hSafod, n., head: as. beofod 68. hgaiodgim, mf ., head jewel, eye :' ds. heofodgimme 44. h6ahB9tl, n., high seat, throne: ds. beabsetle 70. healdan, R, keep, preserve, hold: 3 pi. bealda-S 36, 64, 68 ; inf. 87, 145, C. 1 (rice hecddan, rule). heall, f., hall: ds. healle C. 28, C, 36. hSan, adj., low, humble, abject, base: nsm. 118; gsm. ? beauan 206. heard, adj. = hard; brave: ds. beardum ''.53, 205. hearpe, f., harp: as. bearpan 171. helan, 4, conceal : 2 sg. bylest 3. helm, m., helmet, covering : ns. 205 ; ds. bellme C. 16 ; as. 74. heofan, Wi, lament, grieve, wail : 3 sg. beofe« 150. heofen, m., heaven: dp. beofe- num C. 35, C. 40, C. 48. heofod, see heafod. heonan, adv., he7ice, from hence : 30. heoro, m., sword: as. 202. heorte, f., heart : ns. 39 ; gs. heor- tan 3 ; as. beortan 44. h5r, adv., here : C. 64. hergan, Wi, praise, glorify : inf. 4, hldor, adv., hither: C. 64. hild, f., war, battle: as. hilde C. 17. hinder, adv., down, behind: 116. hliew, m., cave: ds. bhewe C. 26. hlgor, n., cheek, face: ns. 66. hlud, adj., loud: sup. nsm. hlu- dast C. 4. holen, m., holly: ns. 80. holm, m., wave, sea, ocean: ns. 51, 106. 162 GNOMIC POETRr IN ANGLO-SAXON holt, mn., hoUf wood, grove: da. holte C. 19. hord, mn,, hoard, treasure : ns. 68, 208. hosp, m., reproach, contumely: is. hospe 66. hrsegl, n., garment, dress : as. 99. hreSeadig, adj., glorious, noble : sup. hr656adegost C. 8. hrimig, adj., rimy, covered with hoar-frost: sup. nsra. hrimigost C. G. bring, m., ring: ds. hringe C. 22. hrof, m., roof: ap. hrSfas C. 64. - liruse, f., ground: ds.? 116. hunger, in., hunger, famine : ds. hungre 150. huru, adv., certainly, in any case: 151. husl, n., the housel, the Eucharist: ns. 132. hwa, pron,, vcho : nsra. 114. hvB-Sr, adv., where: 30; every- tchere ? 103. hwaeSer, adv., still, yet, however: 53. hweorfan, 3, turn, go : 3 pi. hweorfa-5 C. 59 : inf. 07, C. 68. hwonne, adv., ichen : 69, 105. h'wyder, adv., whither : C. 58. hvT-ylc, pron., what, ns. C. 65. hycgean, W2, take thought, think : inf. C. 54. hyge, in., 1. mind, heart, thought : ns. 122 ; ds. byge 200. — 2. cour- age : ns. 205. hygecraeft, m., intellect, wisdom : as. bygecraeft 3. Ic, pron., /; ns. 2 ; da. me 3 ; as. mec 1 ; np. we 71, 136 ; dp. us 5, 8, 12, 71, 1.36; ap. usic 6. lean, Wi, increase, augmeiit, eke : 3 sg. 5'ce« 31. Ides, f., woman : ns. C. 43. Idel, adj., idle, Unemployed: tat. Idle 184? iernan, 3, run : opt. 3 sg. yme 188. leteU, see etan. in, adv. , in, inside : 98. in, prep. w. dat. and ace. 1. in, en, icithin, at, by (w. dat.): 7, 11, 37, 41, 62, 67, 68, 84, 12.-1, ISO. — 2. into, to (w. ace): 24, 80, C. 41. inbindem, 3, for onbindan ? un- biitd, unlock: inf. 75. innan, prep., in, trithin : w. dat. C. 43. Inwyrcan, Wj, perform (a rite) : ■ inf. 68 (see notes^. IB, n., ice : ns. 73. isern, n. , iron, steel : ns. C. 26. IScan, R, swing, viove as a ship or bird : inf. C. 39. ISce, m., leech, physician, doctor : gs. ht'ces 45. Isedan, Wi, lead, take, carry : opt. 3sg. 15de 112; inf. 178. laguflod, m., water, stream: ns. C. 46. land, n., land: gs. londes 60; ds. londe 53, 100, lande C. 43 ; as. C. 53, gp. landa C. 46. l£ne, adj., fleeting, transitory : asm. lienne 6. lange, adv., long, a long time: longc 104 ; sup. lengest 79, C. 6. leeran, Wj, teach: inf. 45. lEeaest, adv., least : 159. leetaji, R, let, allow: imp. 2 sg. l'*t 1. 153, n., injury, hurt, evil : ns. C. 63 ; ds. la>e C. 53. 153, adj., hateful : nsra. 60. laSian, Wj, invite : 3 sg. Ia1!a)> 98. Igaf, n,, leaf, shoot: dp. 26. GL0S8AEY 163 IBanif n., reuxtrd, reeomptn86: ns. 71 ; gp. leana 6. lear, m., salmon, pike : ns. C. 89. ISf, adj., weak, sick : nsm. 45. lencten, m., spring, lent : ns. C. 6. lenge, adj., related, having affinity with: nan. 121. ISoda, aeo Ildsi. l^ode, f., people, race, nation : dp. leodum 8G. 16of, adj , dtar : nsin. fcO, 95 ; usn. 86 ; gs. leofes (sb. use) 104. leoflan, Wj, live: 3 sg. leofaU 108. ISogan, 2, tell lies: iuf. 71. ISoht, n., light, a light : ns. C. 61 ; ds. ICohte 07. ISoht, adj., light, not heavy : nan. 95. IBohtmSd, adj., light-hearted, of cheerful mind: nan. 86. leomu, see lim. leomere, m., learner, scholar, reader: ds. leornere 131. 16o3, n., song, poem: gp. leot)a 170 ; ap. leo> I'iO. llcgan, 5, lie : ptc. npm. licgende 159. lida, m,, sailor, traveler : ns. 1C4 ; da. leodon 109. Ill, n., life ; na. C. 61 ; aa. 6. llfgan, W2, hoe ; 1 pi. lifga)> 136 ; inf. lifgan 173 (aec laofian). !lin, n., limb, branch of tree: ap. leomu 26. llnJen, adj., made of the lime, or linden, tree : nsn. 95. llBB, f., mercy, favor : aa. Usse 71. Hat, m., skill, art, craft, cunning: na. 189. Ii3, adj., pleasant, sweet: nj. ll)) 100. llSan, 1, sail : inf. lT)>an 109 (li)>an cyme3, comes sailing). liSan, ? go, suffer : inf. llj>an ^ (see notea). lof, mi?.., praUe, glory: gs. lofea 140. longati, m., desire, vtearinett: as. longalS 169. lot, n., deceit, fraud : na. 189. lucan, 2, lock up : inf. 74. lulu, f., love: ns. 100. lylt, mfn., air, atmosphere, •Jty.* da. lyfte C. 3, C. 39. lyithelm, m., cloud, air : na. C. 46. lyau, n., wrong, evil: da. lyswe 189. M maecg, m., man : gp. msecga 152. maedle? 180. tnagan, PP, may, can : 3 ag. maeg 43, 106, 113, 166 ; 3 pL magon 40. maegen, n., might, strength: as. 116. msegS, 1., girl, maiden, woman: ns. 107. magutimber, n., progeny, all those who are born : ga. magutimbres 83. m^l, n., meal, measure: np. mSl 125. m^, n., crime, guilt: ns. monl97. mSnan, Wi, speak of, relate : 3pl. mSna"5 66. man(n), m., man .• ns. mon 7, 46, 61, man 67, mon 108, 147, 156, 162 ; gs. monnea 81, 124, 175, 185 ; ds. men 132, 149, 153, 205 ; as. monnan 45, mon 65, 101 ; np. men 4, 36, 69, 168 ; gp. monna 138, manna C. 67 ; dp. mannum C. 65 ; ap. monnan 103. m^a, see mlcel. maest, m., pole to support saile mast : ns. C. 24. m5)>um, xn5.ppvun, m., treasure, jewel, ornament: na. ma>J>um 155 ; dp. maj>mam 88. mearb, m., horse, steed : gs. meares 142 ; dp. mgarum 88. 164 GNOMIC POETUY IN ANGLO-SAXON mecgan, "Wj, stir^ mix : inf. C. 24. meltan, 2, melt, consume : inf. 72. xaeodoraeden, f., mead [cere- mony ?] : ds. meodoriedenne 88. meotud, m., God, creator: ns. 7, 16, 29, 138, 165, C. 49, meotod C. 57 ; 1^3. meotodes C. 65. mere, m , sea, lake: ns. 107. mereflod, m., flood of water, ocean : ds. mereflode C. 24. mete, m., food, meat: as. Ill, 125; ds. mete 115. mejjc, adj., weary, exhausted: nsm. 111. micel, adj., much, great: nsn. 197 ; npm. myccle C. 4 ; comp. gsm. (or asn. ?) maran 111 ; asn. miire 60, 152. mid, prep. w. dat., with: 222, 25, 36, 58, 6I2, 82, 86, 115, 171, 1892, C. 40. middangeard, m., earth, world: f^. middangeardes 20. min, pron., my : asn. 2. missenlic, adj., dissimilar, differ- ent, various: apn. missenllcu 13. mod, n., mitid, 'spiritual opposed to bodily part of man : ds. mOde 41, 51 ; ap. mod 13. modgeSonc, mn., thought: np. modgeJ>oncas 124, 168. mon, see man. mon, see man(n). mon, pron., one, they: n. mon 4, 45, 47, 48, 49, 104, 112, 115, 139, 145, 116, 1.56, 187, man C. 45. mona, m., moon: as. monan 41. moncjni, n., mankind, men: ds. inoncynne 16. monge, see monig. monian, Wj, claim, ask : 3 eg. monatS 60. monig, adj., many, 'many a : asn. monig 15 ; apm. monig 168 ; apf. monge 13 ; dpf. monegum 197. morjjor, mn., murder : as." 116. mor)>orc^77eaIm, m., slaughter ^ murder: as. 152. motan, anv., may, can^ &,> able: opt. 3 sg. mote 4i). munan, PP, rememter, be mindful of: 3 sg. mon 142. mund, f., power, protection: dp. mundum 107. mu3, m., mouth: nB..C. 87; gp. mut>a 126. N naeglan, Wi, nail: pp. nsn. ge- megled 94. .■.• ncenlg, pron., none, no one : nam. 144, nSni C. 63. nales, adv., not, not at all : 150. n5t, see •w^ltan. ne, adv., not: 1, 9, 88, 34, 40, 42, 49, 56, 106, 113, 117, 161, 164. ne, conj., nor, neither: 9, 10, IJ, 40, 41. nefne, conj., unless, except: 106, 186. nefre, adv., never: 38. nelle, see w^illan. nergend, m., Savior: ns. 135. nergende, see nerian. nerian, |^Wi, protect, nave : pret. 3 sg. nerede 199 ; ptc. nsm. ner- gende C. 63. neat, n., provisions, victuals: ns. 38. niman, 4, take away, seize, carry away : 3 sg. nimelS 31, 120 ; i:3f. 157. ni3, m., trouble, effect of hatred: ns. 195, 200 ; m> 198. nl-we, adj., new : apf., nlwe 99. nyd, n., necessity, need, distress: is. nyd[e] 38. nyt(t), adj., useful ; sup. nsn. nyt tost 119. nyttian, Wj, f?iate use of, enjoy: 3 sg. nytta« 110. GLOSSARY 165 o of, prep. w. dat., 1. from, out of: 30, 196, C. 80. — 2. of: 44. Ofer, prep. w. ace, orer, upon, throughout: 83, 168. ofercuman, 4, overcome, vanquish : pp. ofercumtn 114. oft, adv., often: 35, 65, 66, 101, 146, 148, 187, 191, oftSon, 2, take attay, deprive: pp. oftigen 40. on, prep. w. dat. and ace, 1. on, upon, in, within (w. dat.): 7, 26, 32, 48, 50, 58, ^3, 70, 100, 104, 113, 120, 127, 145, 183, 188, 203, 204, C. 2, C. 3, C. 10, C. 17, C. 18, C. 19, C. 20, C. 21, C. 22, C. 23, C. 24, C. 25, C. 26, C. 27, C. 28, C. 29, C. 32, C. 882, C. 84, C. 85, C. 36, C. 37, C. £^2, C. 40, C. 42, C. 47, C. 48, C. 61. — 2. on, into, to (w. ace): 112, 130. Snettan, "Wi, be btis-y, be active : inf. l-:i. on feorran, adv., afar, at a dis- tance: 63. onion, R, receive, undergo a rite, acrepl : 3 sg. onfeh'fi 70. ongs, see ange. ongildan, 3, pay penalty, oe pun- ished for: inf. C. 56. onginncin, 8, 1. begin : 3 pi. on- ginnati 52.-2. attack: Inf. 176. onh^le, adj., secret, hidden: as. onhajlne 1. ord, m., point (of a weapon) : ns. 204 czSano, adj., cumiing, skilful: nsn. C. 2. 6)jer. adj., other, second: nsm. 103 ; gs. 6>re8 16t' ; dsra. o'Srum C. 52. oJ> )jaet, conj., until : 47, 48. o)3j?e, conj., or, and: 171, 177. rSd, m., cowiuel, wisdom : ns. 22, 119; as. 92, 139. rand, m., boss, edge, margin : na. C. 37. rScifero, m., brigand, robber: da. rcafere 130. reced, mn., house, hall, palace : gs. recedes C. 37. recene, adv., quickly, straight- icay : 62, ricene 92. reord, {..speech, tongue, language : ap. reorde 13. rice, n., kingdom: as. C. 1. rice, adj., poicerful, mighty : nsm. 134. ricene, 83e recene. ridan, 1, ride: inf. 63. rlht, n., right, justice, truth: ns. ryht 22, 119; ds. rihte 36. rinc, m., warrior: np. rincas 178. rodor, m., firmament, heaven: ap. rodcra-s 134. roglan, W2, flourish, grow : inf. 110. rowan, R, roio : 3 sg. r6wej> 187. rum, adj., roomy, spacious, ample, extensive : nsm. C. 37 ; apm. rume 16, 134. rfimheort, adj., liberal, munifi- cent : nsn. 87. run, f., confidence, counsel, secret: as. rune 87 ; ap. rune 139. ryht, see rlht. 8 sacan, 6, fight, contend: inf. 28, C. 53. sacu, f., strife, sedition, dispute: as. sace 20. see, mf., sea : nsf. 65. BSel, mf., time, sectson: dp. s^lom 52. 166 GNOJnC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON bSt, adj., painful, grievous, dis- tressing : nsn. sar 41. bSwuI, f., soul, life: ns. C. 68; gp. sawla 135 ; dp. sAwlum 36. Bcead, n., shade : ds. sceade 67. Bcoaft, m., shaft (of a spear) : ns. 1.30 ; ds. sceaite 203. Bceomlan, Wj, feel shame, be ashamed: pic. sceomlande 07. Bc5ot, n., shooting, rapid move- ment : ds. scCoto C. 40. BceCSsin, 6, hurt, harm : pret. 3 sg. scOd 200. Bcieppan, 6, create, form : pret. 3 sg. sceop 165. BCinan, 1, shine: inf. C. 40. Bcip, n., ship : ns. 94. Bcir, adj., bright, pure : nam. 67. Bcop, m., poet : ns. 128. BcrlSan, 1, go, glide, creep: 3 pi. scrlSa-S C. 13 ; inf. C. 40. Bculan, anv., must, xoill, shall: 3 6g. sceal 4, Tj, 18, 22, 23, 24, 25, 27, 382, 392, 45, 49, 60, 51, 61, 032, 67, 68, 71, 72, 75, 77, 80, 82, 84, 94, 101, 104, 115, 118, 122, 123, 130, 131, 139, 145, 149, 153, 1542, 150, 168, 173, 187, 189, 203, 205, C. 1, C. I62, C. 17, C. 18, C. 19, C. 20, C. 21, C. 22, C. 23, C. 24, C. 25, C. 26, C. 27, C. 28, C. 29, C. 30, C. 31, C. 32, C. 33, C. 34, C. 35, C. 30, C. 37, C. 39, C. 40, C. 422, C 43, C. 45, C. 47, C. 48, C. 6O2, C. 6I2, C. 54, C. 58 ; 3 pi. sceo- lon 4, sceolun 62, sceolon 83, 125, 160, 182, sceolan C. 14; pret. 3 pi. sceoldan 176 ; opt. 3 pi. scyle 178. BCur, m., shower: ns. C. 40. Bcyld, m., shield: ns. 94, 130 ; da. scylde C. 37. b5, B80, 3aet, 1. dem. pron., deL art., the, this, that: nsm. 80, 35, 37, 38, 6O2, 70, 103, 112, 148. 161, 173, 187, 190 ; uflt b5o C. 68, C. 61 ; nsn. >{Bt 41, 117, 134, 138, 196; gsm. J-sea ?5, 124, 164, 206 ? ; gsn. J-sea 3;^, 42 r 70, 105, 165 ? ; dsm. )>am 71, 137 ; dsn. >am 70, 190 ; asn. y>set 43, 160 ? C. 60, C. 64 ; isn. ).y lC-0 ; npm. \>l 178. C. 59 ; gp. >ara 6, 183. — 2. rel. pron., xoho, which: nsm. 34, 43, 130 ; nsf. sio 161 ; gsm. . \>vcs 100 ; asm. J>one 199 ; asf. )•& 21 ; asn. htet 2, 120, 186 ; apn. i>& 31. sealt, u., salt: ds. sealte C. 45. Becgan, Ws, say, tell, speak : opt. 3 8g. secge C. 65 ; inf. 139. Befa, m., mind, heart: gs. sefan 169. Begl, mn., sail : ds. segle 186. Begelgyrd, m., yard of a ship, sail' yard : ns. C. 25. b51, adv., comparative, better: sup. nsm. selast 81. B3ldan, adv., seldom : 112, 188. Bale, n., hall : na. 168. sellic, adj., strange, wonderful: nsn. 127. B§maE, Wi, settle (a dispute) : 3 sg. sSmaJ> 20. Bendan, Wi, send: S sg. sendelJ C. 9. b5o, f., apple of the eye, pupil : ns. 123. bSoc, adj., sick, ill: nsm. Ii2. BGomian, W2, rest, han^, lie ««- curely: inf. C. 25. b5 3e, pron., who, which: nam. sS )>e C. 12; npm. )>a >e C. 2; apm. ^a )>e C. 9. sep^ah, adv., nevertheless hoio- ever : 104. Bib(b), i., peace: aa. sibbe 20. Bid, adj., spacious, wide: dam. sldura 186. Bigefolc, m., victorious people: gp. sigefolca C. 66. GLOSSiiRY 167 Blgesceorp, n., triumphal ap- parel: ns. 127. •Ino, n., gold, silver, jewels: ns. 127, C. 10. Bi?J, m., jo'urney, travel, voyage: da. 6l)>e 104. BlS3an, adv., a/ter, from the time that : BiJ-han 106, 104, 109, sySSan C. 68. ftlSan, 6, slay : pret. 3 sg. slOg 108. Blltan, 1, slit, tear: Ssg. sllteS 148. alldan, 1, harm, hurt, damage: ptc. asm. 8lIJ>eEdne 202. BllSheatd, adj., very fierce : nsn. slI^be^de 177. amilte, adj., mild, pleasant, se- rene : nsin. 55. enotor, adj., wise, prudent : nam. C. 64;-. npm. snolre 36; sup. nsm. suoterost C. 11. enyttro, f.. xoisdorTi, understand- ing : ns. Lsnyttro 123, 167; da euyttro 22. Bc3, n., truth : ns. C. 10 ; as. 86. BoOcynIng, m., kivg of truth, Deity : ns. 136. Bpers, n., spear, lance: ds. spere 204. BtSlan, Wi, avenge, institute f inf. C. 54. Bt5n, m., stone, die: ns. 100. Btandan, 8, sta-^A: 3 sg. 8tonde|> 00 ; opt. 3 Bg. Btondo 63 ; inf. Btondan 04, CO, 168, standan C. 23, C. 36. Bteap, adj., prominent : nsm. C. 23. Btonn, m., storm: aa. 61. Btitel, f., arrow, ihaft : ds. strSle 164. Btrgam, m., stream: ns. C. 2.i. BtrSon, BtrSowen, f., couch, bed, place, where anything rests; hence, a chest or casket for treas- ure : dp. Etreonuui C8. strong, adj., strong: dsn. Btron- gum 51. Btyran, Wi, stettt guide, rule : Inf. 61. Btunor, m., summer: ns. 78, C. 7 ; ds. sumera 113. Bund, n., ocean, sea : ns. 78. Bundor, adv., severally, each 6y himself: 169. Bunne, f., sun : as. sunnan 41, 112. Bunwlitlg, adj., sunbeautiful : sup. nsm. Bunwlitegost C. 7. Bwa, adv., so, thus: 32, 165, 200. Bw5, conj., as, even as : 11, C. 49 ; swa . . . swi, adv. and conj., as . , .as: 66-67, as ... so 168. bw^Sb, adj., one^s own: asm. switsne 108. Bwefcin, 5, sleep : inf. 179. flv^egel, n., heaven, sky, sun: ns. C. 7. Bwegle, adv. , brilliantly : 78. Bwegltorht, adj., heavenbrig?U : ap. swegltorht 41. Bwelgan, 3, swallow: pret. 3 sg. swealg 194. Bweltan, 3, die : inf. 27. Bweord, n., sword : ns. C. 25 ; ds. sweorde 120, 204. Bwift, adj., swift : sup. nsm. swift- ust C. 3. Bwltol, adj., clear, sweet, evident: sup. nsn. switoloat, C. 10. B'^3, adj., strong : sup. nsf. swi'Sost C. 6. Bylf, pron., self, himself: nsm. sylf 1C5, 168, sylfa 138, C. 60. Byllon, Wi, give, grant: 3 sg. syleS 12, sylel> 09 ; pret. 3 sg. scalde 172 ; opt. 3 eg. sylle 48 ; inf. 43, 166. Bymle, adv., always : 89. aya, f., sin, crime, vyrong, hostil- ity : np. 8yn;,e 132; ap. synne C. 64? sySdan, see siSSan. 168 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON teefl, f., a board for playing a game, a die : as. ta*fle 182. taefle, adj., gaming, given to play : gsm. taifles 185. teala, adv., icell : 46. tfcon, from tilian, 1, accuse : 3 sg. tlhS 187. teon, W;, create, ordain, arrange : prel. 3 sg. t^ode 84, 43. teosel, ni., small stone ; hence die : dp. teoselum 185. Gd, f., time, a certain time: dp. tidum 125. til, adj., kind, good, excellent : nsm. 23, 142, C. 20 ; gsm. tiles 142 ; dp. tilum 23. tirfasBt, adj., glorious: gp. tlr- fajstra C. 32. to, prep. w. gen. and dat., 1. w. gen., there, thither: 35. — 2. w. dat., to: 53, 91, 97, 129, 147, 155, C. 152. to, adv., too: 111, 112, 144. torn, adj., tame, not wild: gsm. tomes 142. tobredan, 3, separate by a quick inovement, turn the back, break of: opt. 3 pi. tobreden 192. todSlan, Wi, separate, divide: opt. 3 Rg. todSle 181. toglidan, 1, glide away, slip off: opt. 3 sg. tOglide 182. torht, adj., bright : gsf. torhtre 40. torn, n., emotion (anger or sor- roif:) : ns. 182. t53maeger, n., strength of tusk : gs. toSmnegeues C. 20. toweorpan, 3, scatter, bandy : 3 pi. toweorpaS 191. treow, f ., faith, truth : ns. 160, V. 32. trCovTu, n., tree: np. treo 160. trum, adj., Jirm, strong: nsm. C. 20. trymmRa, Wi, strengthen : Inf. 46. tu, see twSgen. tun, m., inclosure surrounding a dwelling, a habitation of men : ds. tune 146. tiingol, n., heavenly body, sun, moon, star, planet : ns. C. 48 ; ap. tunglu 40. twSgen, num. , two : nm. 182 ; nn. in 23. tydran, \Vi, be prolific : inf. C. 48. tyhtan, Wj, incite, urge, per- suaded : inf. 46. tyman, \Vi, teem : inf. C. 48. 3aer, adv., there, where: ,b^r 124, 146, C. 66. 8aet, conj., 1. that, in noun clauses (subj. and obj.): J>aet 42, 176, 188, 200? C. 45.-2. that, in order that (in purpose clauses): )>xt 46, 50. 3e, pron., indecl., toko, which, that: ]>e 30, 35, 37, 6O2, 73, 112, 116, 165, 170? 172, 173, C. 59, C. 64. 8§ah, a.dv., though, although: J>eah 112, 113. Seaw^, ra., custom, usage: gp. l^eawa 18. Sencan, Wi, think : 3 sg. )>er.cet^ 116. 3enden, conj., while: henden 182. 8eod, f., nation, peopli: : ds. peodo 50 ; np. beode 57 : jrp. heoda 18 ; dp. K'odum 197. Seoden, m., lord, ruler {Christ or God) : ns. f>eodon 12. 3gof, in., thief: ns. >Cof C. 42. 3§oatru, fn., darkness : dpn. )>y8- tnim C. 42, dp. ^ystruin C. 51. 3es, pron., this: gsf. I'ys.se C. 55; dsf. hysse C. 2 ; asf. \>as 34," 0741. GLOSSARY 169 Cin, pron., thy, thine : asm. >Inne 1, 3 ; apm. >Ine 3. Sing, n., 1. meeting: as. J>mg 18. — 2. circum'itance : dp. )>mgiiin 58. SoUan, Wi, suffer^ lose, suffer loss : inf. );olian 89. Sonne, adv., tohen (half roith a causal idea, since) : bonne 42, 185. — to/ten; >onne 50, 96, 103. 109, 110, 117. Sonne, conj., then, yet, ^O'ine 108, 170 ?. — correl. iSoune . . . (Sonne, when . . . then : >onne . . . >onne 67, 68 8r5g, f., time, season: ds |>rage yS ; dp. bragam C. 4. Sriflte, adj., bold: nam. or apm. Crista 61. SriBthycgende, adj., Jirrr cf pur- pose : nsm. ^riathycgende 60. Srymm, m., glory, majesty, mag- nificence : ns. )>rym 61 ; ap. Kyramas C. 41. 3u, pron., thou: ns. )>u 2, l>u 3 , ds. be 2. Sunar, m., thunder : ns. }>unar C. 4. Surfan, PP, need, have netd, he of nee I: S sg. J>earf 111, 126. 6f, conj., because : \>y 32. 8y ISs, conj., the less, lest: ]>y ISs, 170. Syra, m., giant, demon: ns. hyre C. 42. y.^ Systre, see Sgoatxu. U cunbor, n., child: np. (or »p. ?) umbor 31. under, prep. w. dat. and ace, under: 1. w. dat. 186. — 2. w. ace. C. 64. — case indeterminate : 116, 116. ungetrSow, adj., untrue, unfaith- ful : nsm. 163. ongln, adj., not ample: sap. nsm. unginnost 206. unl^d, adj., poor, miserable: nsm. 120. uninyt, adj., useless: sup. nan. unnyttost 120. unstille, adj., not still, unquiet: nsn. 78. un)jinged, adj., sudden, uneX' pected, unasked: nsn. 35. unwioted, adj., uncertain: asm. unwiotodne 146. uppe, adv., on high: C. 38. user, pron., our : asm., useme 5. \7£gd, f., garment, dress: as. w»do 48 ; ap. wade 99. vrml, n., slaughter, carnage: as. 151. ■wSl, mn., deep pool, gulf, stream : ds. wSle C. 39. ■waldend, m., ruler. Lord : ns. 43. wamm, mn., moral stain, impur- ity : dp. wommum 65, 101. wanian, Wj, diminish, curtail: 3 sg. vk^anige 34. w^gSpen, n., loeapon : gp. wSpna 201. ■wrSr, f., compact, treaty : ajs. wSre 101. vrarig, adj., stained with seaweed, soiled : asn. 99. wSrlSas, aid]., false: nsm. 162. V7sescan, 6, vmsh : 3 sg. waesceiJ 99. wccstm, m., fruit: ap. waestmas C. 9. waster, n., water: ns. 74; gs. wailres 110 ; ds. wsetere C. 27. w5a, m., woe, misery : ns. C. 13. wealdan, R, rule: 3 sg. wealdeS 137. weall, m., wall, cliff: np. weallas 64. 170 GNOMIC POETRY UH ANGLO-SAXON vreallan, R, boil, foam, rage : Inf. C. 45. •w^eallBtan, m., stone for building : gp. ■weallstana C. 3. •wearh, m., outlaw, villain : na. C. 55. vresLun, adj., toarm: nen. 113. •wearn, m., a multitude, great deal: dp. wearnum 187. weaiian, R, grow, increase: inf. ICO. vreccaa, Wi, wake, waken : 3 sg. ■weceS 56. ■weder, n., 1. weather: dp. wede- rum C. 42. — 2. good weather: ns. 77. •weg, m., way: ns. waeg 79; gp. %vega 145. ^regan, 5, bear, carry: inf. 74. "vrel, adv. , well : 145. ■wSnjin, "Wi, expect, await : 3 eg. ■w^ne^ 42 ; inf. w6nan 104. vrendaxi, Wi, change, turn : 3 pi. wenda'S 9. weorpan, 3, throio : 3 sg. weorpetJ 185, 190. •weoriUan, 3, be, become : 8 sg. ■weorl>e"5 117, weorS 156; 3 pi. •weorl>e'5 32 ; pret. 3 sg. wearS 194 ; opt. 3 8g. weorSe 106 ; •weorJ)e 111. ■wepan, R, weep, mourn, bewail : 3 sg. wepetS 151. ■wer, m., man: ns. 24; ds. were C. oS ; as. 101 ; gp. wara 166 ; dp. -werum 128. •wSrig, adj., weary: nsm. 187. ■wesan, anv., be, exist: 3 sg. bi> 8, 19, 35, 40, 41, 55, 59, 70, 81, 110, 112, 114, 117, 119. 173, 177, biS S7, 54, 79, 97, 1022, 104, 121, 124, C. 10, C. 13; is 134, 138, 193, C. 61, byiS C. 3, C. 4, C. 5j, C. 6, C. 7, C. 10 ; 3 pi. bColS 23, C. 1, beol> 57, IG82, syndon C. 2, syndan C. 4 ; pret. 3 sg. wies 11, 199, (w. neg.) nses 196; opt. 8 Bg. By 33, 118, C. 66, wese 50 ; opt. pret. 8 8g. wser© 176 ; opt. pret. 3 pL waeran 178 ; Inf. wesan 84, 86, 113, 165, bfion 87. wic, n., place, dwelling : ns. 110 ; as. 108. •wIctreoSu, f., peace am^ng dwell- ings : as. wIcfreoJ)a 129. 'BTide, adv., widely, in differetU places : 14, 196, 199, 201. 'widgangol, adj., rambling^ roving : nsn. ■widgongel 65. •wlf, n., woman : ns. 24, 65, 85, 101 ; ds. wife 96. wig, n., fght, conflict: ns. 85 j as. 129. "wiht, fn., aught : as. wiht 9. ■wiicuraa, m., welcome ptraon : na. 95. ■wilde, adj., wild: nsm. C. 18. willa, m., xoill : as. willan 6. ■willan, anv., xcill, wish: 8 Eg. wile 6, wille 162 ; (w. neg.) 1 bg. nelle 2 ; 8 sg. nelle C. 44 (see notes) ; 1 pi. nellaiS 71. wind, m., wind: ns. 64, 56, C. 8 ; ds. winde 187, C. 41. ■windan, 3, txoiit, roll, wec»e ; pp. wunden 153. ■wine, m., friend: as. 145. ■wlneleas, adj., friendles.^ : nsm. 147, 174. •winter, m., temper; ns. 77, C. 6. wis, adj., toise : dp. wisum, 22. wisdom, m., wisdom : ns. C. 33. w^iBlic, adj., wise: npn. wisllcu 106. wist, f., sustenance, food: as, wist 48. w^Ite, n., punishment, torture : as. wite 43. witan, PP, know, be aware : 3 sg. w.^t 29, 42, 44, 146, C. 57, 0. 62 ; (w. neg.) 3 sg. nat 35, 114 ; inf. 92. GLOSSARY 171 Trl8 prep. w. dat. and aco., 1. w. dat., against : wij> 187, wi« C. 16, C. fn)„ C. 51,, C. 62„ C. 53.— 2. w. ace., with : wifl 19, wij> 101, 121. ■wipre, n., resislanc* : as. 54 ; ds. 129. ^7lanc, adj., splendid, sumptuous : nsm. C. 27. ■wlenoo, f., pride, high tpirit: da. wlenco 61 ■Woden, m., Wodin, Wotan, Teu- tonic god ojvar: ns. 18.3. ^r6h, n., xorong, injustice : ap. weos 133. •wolcen, n., cloud: np. wolcnu C. 13. 'wonhydlg, adj., foolish, c^irdess: nsm. 162. ^7onB^lig, adj., u.%blest, misera- ble : nsm. 147 ; np. wonsaelge 21. word, n., word, tpeech: op. word 166 ; dp. wordum 1, 191 ; ap. word 65. ■worn, m., multitude, many: as. i70. See wea.n. w^oruld, f., xoorlJ: gs. worulde C. 65; as. 24, 34, C. 41. T7racu, f., misery, exile: ns. 163. •vrxdsd, m., bandage, band: us. 153. ^nSitUc, adj., noble, excellent, beautiful: nsm. C. 3. Ti^ritan, 1, write: inf. 1£9. ■wrbrlan, Wi, exchange, deal: inf. 4. wrOhtdropa, m., drop Mnginff strife or crime : np. wrOhtdropaa 196. wTidti, m., wood: nB. C. 33; as. 72 ; gp. wuda 110. "wnldor, n., glory, Jieaven: da. wuldre 7 ; as. 133. wtdf, m., wolf: ns. 151, C. 18 ; ap. wulfas 147. ■WTindor, n., wonder : dp. wundmm (icondrously) 74, (wonderfully) C. 13. vrunian, Wj, dwell: 3 8g. wuna^ C. 66 ; inf. 174. wjm, i., joy, delight: ns. 107. •wyrcean, wyrcan, Wi, work : pret. 3 sg. worhte 133 ; inl wyrcean C. 21. wyrd, f ., fate : ns. 174, C. 6 ; np. wyrda 9. \7yrp, f., recovery : as. wyrpe 43. ^can, see lean. yfel, n., evil: na. 120; ds. yfele C. 50. yldo, f., {old) age: ns. 10; ds. yldo C. 50. ymb, prep. w. ace, round about: 28, C. 46, C. 53, C. 56. ymbsittan, 5, sit around, sit at: inf. 182. yrie, n., inheritance, property : ns. 80. yme, see ieman. y8, f., wave : dp. yiSum C. 23. UC SOUTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY AA 000 600 838 f