Il 
 
 I 
 
 ! 
 
 1 
 
 i
 
 LIBRARY 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA 
 
 RIVERSIDE
 
 This "OP Book" Is an Authorized Reprint of the 
 Original Edition, Produced by Microfilm-Xerography by 
 University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan, 1965
 
 GNOMIC POETRY 
 
 IN 
 
 ANGLO-SAXON 
 
 EDITED WITH INTRODUCTION 
 I.NOTES AND GLOSSARY 
 
 BY 
 
 BLANCHE COLTON WILLIAMS, Ph.D. 
 
 175* 
 
 ^1 
 
 1893 i PKtSS I 
 
 COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY PRESS 
 1914 
 
 All rights reserved
 
 c 
 
 qnfarp tujirclc-p-ju* hfd fyiSo^-c- |>iirtcji l>j-i oxd^ojc- L'lic" 
 Cni llJinTII^ATJc- lie Irj-J ^1^*:^ ow./^- -j-u7ni»ji -j-uTi vlnxio^fYC 
 gl l^v Ii»cxr]x- Iur|if.-c|-c lijici CiuV^oif/iJc^uin (»ju7)/c<'--v|«cr 
 
 ^rjio»>'-('i:|'«;^t vcuLi. ^bidc^'-pcx Vij vutiJiLum clitljojf -pole 
 
 till TcpAii-mjny ic ^•dii!{^rox>Liti io,icn: rjJap dj-LUii wbca, 
 <Ju^c--ici>l3(iiJi C^p^' cUcii i%xul. uii ctTjiL-Ckr TsxhL ^ viA heU- 
 
 JnC'hibc nruiJUiJ- /tucuf r^val ttjirtiruc-jMLV rt*T'U7iiatj''pult: 
 roul oTibeanopc- cojin uji /iu^»i' c*.t:oji rcfai oii/iolce' aw Jiw 
 nrTicjT|ui;;i' al ra*»*i i>u c^[c- Jin iicr p/juxaii- <Ju.uu3 rccvil o»i 
 !uUu.U.*rait miic tiJi-riTJi lavil tni/ijuriK- jouiAui jccaV -f 
 
 cnic«^.'>lc-rcn:l M*1»*^ nvn»i..«Ji'iiv..»ii.» ivivJ cm(»t^AU»nc »Vjii/fr 
 lie iycpn-.>)tuca Yi^ivJ. oiiIiL-jV Y|ujJ j:|/aTj'Ul« j'Luic- j:i]-C 
 rccuL on ivecciic- cytiuon cciiTuuicvjinir iiAiL otihcuUc- 
 
 yccoL yliJ.^ nuc^^j.-tfTuiii-vr]'*' v^'*'^ '^'C yuinn»r.-ajt y«f[c|ui ^c 
 C]anM-c|uxY jccai o7ica|iLc-yir<>om oii^'Cjui- j'Ut.>u |-c&4,^*" . 
 
 Cotton Tibkkhs H. 1, 11") a.
 
 Copyright, 1914 
 By Columbia University Press 
 
 Printed from type, March, 1914. 
 
 NortoootJ J?rn» 
 
 J. B. Cusbtng Co. — Berwick & Smith Co. 
 
 Norwood, Mass., U.B.A.
 
 ! ' 
 
 I This Monograph has been approved by the Department of 
 
 '■ English and Comparative Literature in Columbia University 
 
 f as a contribution to knowledge worthy of publication. 
 
 A. H. THORNDIKE, 
 
 Executive Officer,
 
 MY MOTHER 
 
 AND TO THE MEMORY OF 
 
 I 
 
 MY FATHER
 
 PREFACE 
 
 This study, in attempting to show the prevalence 
 and significance of sententious verse throughout 
 Anglo-Saxon poetry, falls into two chief divisions. The 
 introduction, tliough incidentally drawing illustra- 
 tions from Noi'th Germanic literature, deals mainly 
 with gnomic lines ia Anglo-Saxon epic, lyric, and 
 didactic poetry, excuisive of the Exeter Ghiomes and 
 the Cotton Gnomes. The second part consists of the 
 texts of tliese collections, prepared from the manu- 
 scripts, with analysis and notes. 
 
 One of the j)leasures arising from the labor of put- 
 ting together this little volume is the acknowledg- 
 ment of aid and friendly criticism. To the Reverend 
 Canon Walter Edmonds, of Exeter Cathedral, I am 
 grateful for access to the unique Exeter Manuscript. 
 To the authorities of the British ^luseum, to the 
 librarians of ILirvard University, and particularly to 
 the librarians of Columbia University, I am indebted 
 for unfailing courtesy and helpful cooperation. Pro- 
 fessor Frederick Tupper, of the University of Ver- 
 mont, has my hearty thanks for assistance in textual 
 into'pretation and for guidance of the work in the 
 summer of 1012. To Professors G. P. Krapp, H. M. 
 Ayres, and A. F. J. Remy I am indebted for read- 
 ing the manuscript and offering valuable suggestions. 
 To Professor W. W. Lawrence, however, I owe most.
 
 X PREFACE 
 
 He called the subject to mj attention and from the 
 beginning has generously given his time and scholar- 
 ship to the progress of the investigation. 
 
 The bibliography consulted has of necessity been so 
 voluminous and heterogeneous that it would be diffi- 
 cult to select a representative list of books. Works 
 referred to in the introduction are designated in foot- 
 notes. For abbreviations in either part which are 
 not self-explanatory, the table prefixed to the text 
 
 mav be consulted. 
 
 B. C. W. 
 New York City, 
 December, 1913.
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 A. INTRODUCTION . . . ' 1 
 
 L Definitions : 
 
 1. Gnome, defined by various authorities . . . • 2 
 
 2. Gnomists and gnomic poetry : 
 
 a. Greek. Sixteenth- and seven teenth-centtiry compi- 
 lations from Greek gnomists. Peacham's tresr 
 
 tise 3 
 
 h. Anglo-Saxon 6 
 
 8. Gnome and proverb : 
 
 Distinctions in Aristotle .... 6 
 
 Views of Moue, Otto, Bergraann ... 7 
 
 4. Working definition of term " gnomic " . . . . 8 
 
 II. Origins : 
 
 1. Gnomes found in all early literatures 
 
 a. Gnomic sayings among Persians and Indians . 
 h. Gnomic sayings among Germanic tribes . 
 
 i. Summary for early Germanic literary forms : wed 
 ding hymn, death song, charm, riddle, etc 
 
 ii. Element of didacticism enters 
 iii. Relations of these early forms. Hymnic poems. 
 
 wit and wisdom contests 
 iv. Gnomic poems 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 10 
 
 12 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 16
 
 XU CONTENTS 
 
 VAOl 
 
 in. More Definite Consideration of Gnomic Sayings 
 AMONG Germanic Tribes: 
 
 1. General. Examples from Gennania and Runenlied . 18 
 
 2. Particular : 
 
 a. Xorth Germanic : • 
 Examination of Poetic Edda 
 i. Lays of Goda 19 
 
 ^ ' ,. [small gnomic content .... 19 
 Dramatic, J ° 
 
 Didactic, numerous gnomic aayiugs . . . 20 
 
 ii. Lays of Heroes .24 
 
 All contain gnomic wisdom 
 
 iii. Speakers of -wisdom are gods, heroes, men, the poet 
 
 himself 27 
 
 iv. Subjects : fate, courage, etc 28 
 
 6. West Germanic : Anglo-Saxon : 
 
 L Heathen poetry 29 
 
 (i4) Early Epic: 
 
 Beoxculf 29 
 
 (B) Early Lyric : 
 
 Wanderer . . . . . . .42 
 
 Seafarer ....... 47 
 
 The Banished Wife's Lament , . . .49 
 
 The Song of Deor . . . . . .51 
 
 ii. Christian poetry : 
 
 {A) Early Christian poetry 53 
 
 Didactic : 
 
 On the Endowments and Pursuits of Men . 53 
 
 Fortunes of Men ..... 57 
 
 Minda of Men ...... 58 
 
 lite Wise Father's Instruction ... 59 
 
 Epic : 
 
 Cajdmonian poetry : 
 
 Exodus ....... 60 
 
 Daniel 61 
 
 Cynewulfian poetry: 
 
 Andreas ....... 62 
 
 Christ 62 
 
 Guthlac 63
 
 CONTENTS Xiii 
 
 PAOI 
 
 Gnomic expression in heathen epic compared 
 
 with that in Christian poetry . . 64 
 
 (B) Late Christie n poetry 64 
 
 Solomon and Saturn ...... 65 
 
 • Bede's Djath Song 67 
 
 Saying of Winfrid's Time .... 70 
 
 IV. CONSERVATIOK OF GnOMIC PokTRY : 
 
 1. Pulr and fiyJe 70 
 
 2. Verse forms 78 
 
 3. Conclusions 80 
 
 B. DETAILED CONSIDERATION OF EXETER GNOMES 
 
 AND COTTON GNOMES 83 
 
 L Introduction . 83 
 
 II. Table of Abbreviations 114 
 
 HL Text 118 
 
 IV. Notes on Gnomic Verses 130 
 
 V. Glossary 153
 
 Gleawe men sceolon gieddum wrixlan
 
 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON 
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 Aaiong Anglo-Saxon poems which have received 
 comparatively small notice from scholars of the pre- 
 sent day are the Gnomic Verses of the Exeter Book 
 and the Cottoi. Manuscript. They have not entirely 
 escaped observation, for they have been printed in 
 collections and have been given passing glances in 
 articles dealing with otlier topics. But only once 
 have they formed the subject of a separate work.^ 
 Practically no attempt has been made to relate the 
 Gnomic Verses with the gnomic mood revealed in 
 sententious sayings of epic and lyric. Some writers 
 of literary history ,2 it is true, indicate that they rec- 
 ognize the relation, but they have lacked space for 
 detailed study. No writer has at once pointed out 
 the significance of the gnomic reflections which occur 
 so often in early Anglo-Saxon literature, traced their 
 gradual decadence as the Anglo-Saxon period de- 
 
 1 Uber die AngelsachHlschen Versus Gnomici, Hugo Mtlller, Jena, 1893. 
 
 ^ Weil. hold, Meyer, Koegel, for example. Lawrence's articles on the 
 lyrics liave taken more account of the gnomic phase than have the works 
 of other writers ; to his recognition of the gnomic mood is due, in a num- 
 ber of poema, a new interpretation of some difficult passage. 
 
 1
 
 2 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON 
 
 clined, brought together the most prominent examples, 
 and from them drawn inferences regarding Teutonic 
 life and thought. Although the present volume is 
 avowedly indebted to all predecessors who have in 
 any one of these particulars contributed notes on 
 gnomic poetry, it claims for its individual achieve- 
 ment the modest attempt to perform the varied task 
 just indicated.^ 
 
 At the outset it becomes necessary to define teiTns. 
 According to the New Emjllsh Dictionary, a gnome 
 is " a short pithy story of a general truth ; a proverb, 
 maxim, aphorism, or apophtliegm." The Interna' 
 tional Encydopcedia calls it " a short and pithy pro- 
 verbial saying, often embodying a moral precept." ^ 
 La Grande Encydopedie is more explicit : " On designe 
 sous ce nom une forme particuliere de philosophic, qui 
 fieurit surtout au Vr siecle avant notre ere, et qui est 
 comme la premiere ebauche de la morale. Formuler 
 des sentences qui resument I'experience et les obser- 
 vations de ceux qui aiment a reflechir sur les condi- 
 tions de la vie pratique, y meler quelques conseils 
 presentes sous forme de maximes breves et precises, 
 raisonner sur la vie, mais sans rien qui ressemble ^ 
 une theorie, sans principes fixes et sans methode r6- 
 guliere, telle fut I'osuvre des premiers gnomiques." ^ 
 Meyer's Konversations-Lexikon defines gnome as *' ein 
 spruch, in dem ergebnisse der lebensbeobachtung in 
 
 1 The study aims in no respect, however, to be exhaustive. Some time 
 ago, Meyer observed that it would be difficult to compile a complete 
 gnomology of Germanic literature. Later, Koegel, echoing Weinhold, 
 declared the desirability of a monograph on gnomic verse in Old ^s'orse. 
 It is signiticaiit that none has yet been written. 
 
 8 VllI, 787. ' IB. 1125-
 
 INTRODUCTION 3 
 
 Bmnreicher kiirze ausgedriickt sind, entweder metrisch 
 oder in prosa abgefasst.** ^ 
 
 The German " denkspruch," synonym of " gnome," 
 is defined by Grimm {Worterhuch) as *' memorabilis 
 sententia." " Sententia " is the term Quintilian em- 
 ploys : " Antiquissimae sunt, quse proprie, quamvis 
 omnibus idem nomen sit, sententise vocantur, quas 
 Groeci yvd-xaf; appellant." ^ " Sententioe " is evidently 
 a translation of the Greek yvw/xat. Aristotle devotes 
 considerable space to the discussion of yvw/xat,' wherein 
 his definition is translated by Jebb as follows : * " A 
 maxim is a statement, not about a particular fact, as 
 about the character of Iphikrates, but general ; not 
 about all things, — but about those things which are 
 the objects of action, and whicb it is desirable or 
 undesirable to do." ^ 
 
 From combining and sifting these statements, we 
 may say, in general, a gnome is a sententious saying ; 
 in particular, it may be proverbial, figurative, moral. 
 The various types, possessing each its individual 
 characteristics, account for diversity of definition. 
 But, as the preceding paragraphs have indicated, the 
 meaning has been, on the whole, pretty constant from 
 the time of Aristotle to the present. 
 
 Primarily, the noun " gnomist " is applied to the 
 Greek sententious poets, of whom the first — Hesiod 
 
 1 8, 00 (Ed. 1907). Throughout, I havo taken the liberty of normal- 
 izing quotations from the Germa.n by using Roman typo and avoiding 
 capitalization of nouns. 
 
 2 Orat.y VIII, 5. 
 
 « Ithet., II, xxi, 1-10. 
 
 * The Ilhi'loric of Aristotle, A Translation by Sir, R. C. Jebb, ed. by 
 J. Sandys, Cambridge, lUOl), pp. 112-113. 
 
 * Nolo tho choice of Jebb, — " maxim."
 
 4 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON 
 
 and Theognis — lived some six hundred years before 
 the Christian era. These gnoraists are the ethical 
 predecessors of Sophocles and Euripides, many of 
 whose reflections are gnomic distiches expanded. 
 And not onl}^ lyrists and drara?otists wrote gnorao- 
 logically ; epic poets often turned aside from the 
 narrative to make sententious generalizations. 
 
 In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, various 
 Greek Gnomologies were compiled,^ of which, as col- 
 lectors, the names of Neander^ and Duport^ are 
 prominent. Neander observed that the gnomology 
 of the Greeks was derived from the Hebrews ; Duport 
 published with his Homeric collection an " Index of 
 places in the Holy Scriptures, to which the gnomes 
 of Homer are similar or not dissimilar." Henrv 
 Peachara in his Garden of Eloquence ^ was writing 
 not only with Hebrew and Greek in mind, as exem- 
 plars of this " apte brevity," but was also erecting 
 his little discourse on Aristotle's foundation : 
 
 *' Gnome, a saying pertaining to the manners, and com- 
 mon practises of men, wliicli declareth by an apte 
 brevity, what in this our lyfe onght to be done, or 
 not done. Fyrst, it is to be noted, that every sen- 
 tence is not a figure, but that only which is notn,ble, 
 worthy of memory, and approved by the judgement 
 and consent of all men, which being excellent, maketh 
 the oration not only bewtifull and goodlye, but also 
 
 J Probably owing to the impetus given by Erasmus's Adagiorum 
 CoUertanea, 1515. 
 
 ^ Opus Ajireum, Lipsiae, 1559. 
 
 ' Uomeri, Poctarum Seculorum facile priiicipia, Gnomoloyia Dxir- 
 pUci rarallelismo iUustrata ; etc.^ Per Jacobura Duportum Canta- 
 brigiensim, Gr;ccae Liiigui« nuper Professorum Regium, Cantabrigiai, 
 etc., KWO. 
 
 * The Garden of Eloquence, London, 1577, p. 149 £f.
 
 INTRODUCTION 6 
 
 grave, puissante, and ful of maiesty, whereof there 
 be sundry kindes." 
 
 As rhetorical flowers, then, in his Garden^ the gnomes 
 are analyzed into their various sub-species. There 
 are ten kinds, according to the elder Peacham.^ 
 Aristotle named but four. It must be observed that 
 the gardener uses ftrbitrary, meaningless, and over- 
 lapping classifications. For example : 
 
 " The nynth is a pure seuteuce, not mixed with any 
 figure else, as ; the covetous uiau wanteth as wel that 
 which he hath, as that which he hath not : wyne 
 maketh glad the hart of man. The tenth is a fygured 
 sentence whereof there be as many kindes as there 
 be fygures, and if it be figured, it hath the name of 
 the same figure wherewitli it is joyned." 
 
 The conclusion is more pertinent : 
 
 " Now in a sentence, lieede must be taken that it be 
 not false, straunge, light, or without pyth : secondly, 
 that they be not to thick sprinckled, and to ofte 
 used, that which is lawfuU for Philosophers, is not 
 graunted to Oratoures, because orators are the hand- 
 lers of matters, and philosophers the instructors of 
 life." 
 
 For centuries associated with Greek and Hebrew 
 . literatures, the term '' gnomic " has been tardily ap- 
 plied to sententious poetry in Anglo-Saxon. In 1826, 
 Conybeare, observing the resemblance of certain pas- 
 sages in the Exeter Book to writings of Tbeognis, and 
 sayings of Solon and the Seven Wise Men, published 
 them under the title, " Gnomic Poem."^ Shortly 
 
 1 Cf. Quiiitilian, Oral. VIII, 6: Sunt ctiam, qiii decern genera fece- 
 rint, sed eo inodo, quo fieri vel piura possunt. 
 
 2 Illustrationa of Anglo-Saxvn Poetry, J. J. Conybeare, London, 
 1820, pp. viii, 2J8.
 
 6 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON 
 
 afterwards Thorpe appropriated the adjective.^ Soon 
 German scholars adopted " Versus Gnomici " or its 
 synonym "Denkspriiche," and at the present time both 
 captions are in establislied usage. It may as well be 
 stated here that Anglo-Saxon verse is gnomic so 
 far as the presence of gnomic lines here and there 
 adds sententiousness, but that certain poems deserve 
 preeminently the title because their very essence is 
 sententious. Brandl speaks of " epos, gnomik, and 
 lyrik " as if to rank the three varieties equal in 
 importance.- The field between epic and lyric in 
 Anglo-Saxon verse is largely occupied by poems of a 
 moral nature, but to characterize them all as gnomic 
 seems extending the word beyond its due bounds, at 
 the same time distorting its true significance. 
 
 Proverbs have been sometimes compared with or 
 confused with gnomes. Aristotle recognized differ- 
 ent kinds of proverbs : " When Aristotle in one 
 place defines proverbs as * Metaphors from species 
 to species,' and elsewhere says, ' Some proverbs, again, 
 are also maxims,' he evidently discriminates between 
 proverbs in the stricter sense and the popular sentence, 
 though he classes the latter in a wider sense likewise 
 as proverbs." ^ Proverbs which are " metaphors from 
 
 1 Codex Exoniensis, B. Thorpe, London, 1842, p. viii. 
 
 2 Geschichte der Altenglischen Literntur, in Paul's Grundriss, 1908, I, 
 1011, and passim. Cf. Goltber : '■'■ Die Eddalieder enthalten gottsr- 
 und heldensage und spruchweisheit." — Xordische LiteratMrgcschichte, 
 Leipzig, 1005, p. 0. 
 
 ^ " Wenn Aristoteles die sprichworter einmal definiert als fieratpopal dr 
 il5ovi iir elSos (o, 11) und an einer andereu stelle (2, 21) sagt tviai tQ>v 
 irapoi;iiuiv Kal yvCiaal fiaiv, so unterscheidet er offonbar zwischen den 
 sprichwortern im strengeren sinne und den volksttimliclien sentenzen, 
 reclinet aber auch diese im weiteren umfange ebenfalls noch zu den sprich- 
 wortern." — Die Sprichworter der Rduier, A. Otto, Leipzig, 1890, p. xii.
 
 INTRODUCTION 7 
 
 species to species" the Greek rhetorician evidently 
 takes to be proverbs in the usual sense, and " proverbs 
 which are also maxims " to be popular sayings, which 
 by virtue of expanded definition fall under the generic 
 terra. This difference is not similar to the one to be 
 established here ; it is given to indicate that as early 
 as Aristotle rhetorical distinctions were perceptible in 
 the general class of popular sayings. 
 
 Since some of the defmitions make " gnome "synony- 
 mous with ''proverb," significant is the choice of 
 " denkspruch," not "sprichwort," by Grimm. F. Mone 
 says in effect that proverbs (spriclivvorter) and gnomes 
 (denkspriiche) are different in that the former are 
 popular expressions, while the latter are individual 
 utterances. Through dissemination, however, gnomic 
 sentences may become proverbs.^ A similar distinc- 
 tion is made by Otto in the work just referred to, 
 when he suggests that the circulation of the gnome is 
 less extensive than that of the proverb.^ F. W. 
 Bergmann, in his collection of " Spriiche, Priameln, 
 und Runenlehren," expresses a similar opinion.^ Pro- 
 verbs (sprichworter) are, he says substantially, prin- 
 ciples derived from experience of folk custom, teaching 
 of folk morality, and expression of folk philosophy 
 and folk wit. Sayings (spriiche) are differentiated 
 principally in having a higher wisdom, which rests 
 upon deeper thought, and therefore they strike a 
 higher tone. Proverbs and sayings blend in certain 
 
 1 Quellen vnd Forschungen zur Qeschichte der Teutschen Literatur 
 und Sprache, Bd. I, p. 193. 
 
 2" . . . gnomen — die sicherlich nie in weitere kreLse gedrungen 
 sind." Op. cit., p- ^^'^^ 
 
 1 Den Hehren Spruche (HAvamil), Strassburg, 1877, pp. 102 ff.
 
 8 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON" 
 
 I 
 
 instances, as for example when a saying the author 
 of which is known and celebrated becomes a popular 
 proverb. 
 
 Such attempts to separate gnome and proverb^ 
 however successful they may be in theory, usually 
 fall short in practice. In Old Norse literature, as 
 Bergniann adds, the difference between the two types 
 of expression was not hard and fast ; hence, pro- 
 verbial sayings and individual sentences are desig- 
 nated by the same name, indls hctttir (sprucharten), 
 or aphorisms. They meet on a common ground, 
 where tlie term " spriiche " covers both. The same 
 thing seems to be true of Anglo-Saxon aphorisms, 
 which though of individual origin have often a pro- 
 verbial ring;.^ 
 
 In this study the word " gnomic " is synonymous 
 with " sententious." (Cf . " gnome," above.) The ad- 
 jective is applied to a generalization of any nature 
 whatsoever. Such generalization may or may not 
 be proverbial : it may express a physical truih, an- 
 nounce a moral law, or uphold an ethical ideal. The 
 language may be literal or figurative. 
 
 And now, having mapped out the bounaaries of 
 the term, we may turn to the questions concerning 
 the oritrin and the conservation of gnomic verse. 
 
 II 
 
 Gnomes are very common in early literature 
 and they probably occur among all peoples. Egyp- 
 tian literature abounds in " rules for wise conduct 
 
 1 E.g., Gn. C, 10a, i:?a; Gn. Ex., 144, 155 b, 159, 168. Cf. Miiller, 
 op. cit., p. ;U, and -Max Forster, Eng. St., XXXI, 1 ff.
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 and good manners which are put into the mouth of 
 a wise man of old times," some of them having their 
 origin thousands of years before the Christian era.^ 
 Somewhat later, the sage 'Euey bequeathed to his 
 son Chenshotep a set of comparatively simple prov- 
 erbs, many of which suggest the gnomic IlSvamSl. 
 " Beware of a woman from strange parts," •' Treat a 
 venerable wise miin v/ith respect," " Drink not to 
 excess," 2 — these are ilkistrative.^ It is well known 
 that Chinese classics are noteworthy for their senten- 
 tious character. The Shih, or the Book of Poetry, 
 which includes pieces from n.r. 1766 to B.C. 586, is 
 filled with selections of a gnomic-lyric quality. In it 
 occur warnings similar to those in other early litera- 
 tures, " Be apprehensive," " Be cautious." ^ From 
 the Shu, the most ancient of the classical books 
 (B.C. 2357-627 circ), an ode entitled the Songs of 
 the Fioe Sons contains such lines as "The people 
 are the root of a country," and " The ruler of men 
 should be reverent of his duties." ^ 
 
 If we ask, then. How did Germanic sayings, gnomic 
 
 1 Proverbs of Ptahholep, teaching of Dauuf, teaching of Amenemhet. 
 Cf. Life in Ancient Egypt, A. Eruian, translated by H. M. Tirard, Lon- 
 don, 1894, p. 831. 
 
 2 I hid., pp. 155, 105, 205. Cf. also Die Agyptische Literatnr, 
 A. Erman, in Die Orientalischen Literaturen, Berlin und Leipzig, 1006, 
 
 p. 32. 
 
 8 Tacitus says expres.sly {Oermania, IX) that " part of the inhabitants 
 of Germany sacritice to Isis." It is probable the Germans had some god- 
 dess similar to Isis, just as their gnomic sayings were similar. But there 
 was not, therefore, necessarily any descent of gods and gnomologies from 
 Egypt to Germany. Such resemblances merely illustrate the universality 
 of conmuin material. 
 
 « .^acrfd Honks of the East (General Editor, Max Muller), III. This 
 volume is by James Legge, Oxford, 1879. Cf. p. 4G9. 
 
 6 Ibid., p. 79.
 
 10 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON 
 
 sentences, arise ? we may temporarily shift the an- 
 swer by inquiring into the origin of gnomic forms 
 among older literatures. Or we might draw nearer 
 home and ask how gnomic forms • arose among the 
 older brothers of the Indo-European family ; for even 
 a tentative investigation could not proceed far with- 
 out some comparison of traits in a kinship so imme- 
 diate. A sweeping glance reveals the popularity and 
 prominence of wise saws among the Persians and 
 Indians, who sprinkled their fables with pithy speeches 
 or summarized the lessons of their narratives in 
 morals tersely expressed. The last period of the 
 Vedas is placed within five centuries before the 
 Christian era. This was the age of Sutra literature, 
 a "literature of short sayings strung together by 
 teachers who studied brevity." ^ In the Hitopadesaf 
 a sequence of stories presenting counsel for the train- 
 ing of a prince, one finds on every page " intercalated 
 verses and proverbs" which come from ages exceed- 
 ingly remote.2 
 
 Among the subjects which have their analogues, if 
 not their descendants, in the Germanic literatiures is 
 the immutability of fate. " That which will not be 
 w^iU not be, and that which is to be will be." ^ This 
 thought is repeated time after time. "Destiny is 
 mightiest," Arnold translates what is doubtless the 
 
 ^ Fables and Proverbs from the Sayiskrit, being the Hitopadesa, 
 translated by Charles V/ilkins, Introduction by H. Morley, London, 
 1888, p. 6. A later translation of the Hitopadesa is Die Freundliche 
 Belehrung, J. Hertel, Leipzig, 1894, 
 
 2 Cf. The Book of Good Counsels: From the Sanskrit of the Hito- 
 padesa, Sir Edwin Arnold, M.A., London, 1861, p. x. 
 
 «/6id.,p. 3.
 
 INTRODUCTION 11 
 
 "Wyrd bis swiSost" of Teutonic nations.* The 
 value and worth of friends are also emphasized, as in 
 the Hovamol and Gnomic Verses. " That friend 
 only is the true friend who is near when trouble 
 comes," "^ and " Long-tried friends are friends to cleave 
 to."^ 
 
 But the Teutons developed their literature inde- 
 pendently of the Asiatics and possessed a gnomology 
 of their own. How, then, did it arise ? To answer 
 the question, we may as well strike the trail into 
 the backward of Germanic time as into that of a 
 darker and more remote Oriental epoch. In a high 
 degree, motives were the same, whetlier those motives 
 produced their results in the oldest Eastern literature 
 or in the youngest Western literature. A few guide- 
 posts mark the way to Germanic origins, some of which 
 are fragments of early writings, and others the state- 
 ments of historians about those writings. We may 
 
 ^ Cf. i6id., p. 3, p. 17. One has only to turn through Bohtlingk's three- 
 volume collection of Indische tSprUche (St. Petersburg, 1870-1873) or 
 even the small compilation of Fritze (Indische Spriiche, Leipzig) to find 
 counterparts of ideas we shall come across in Germanic literature. Take, 
 for instance, Fritzc's last three lines of No. 15 : 
 
 '• Ob wol des menschen arbeit je gelingt, 
 Wenn hindernd ihm auf seinen wegen 
 Die macht des schicksals tritt entgegen ? " 
 and No. 217 : 
 
 " Es traf sich, dass sich aus der harten hand 
 Des fischers, die ihn hielt, ein karpfen wand. 
 Da fiel er in das netz zuriick. Er sprang 
 Auch aus dem netz ; allein darauf verschlang 
 Ein reiher diesen armsten. Wer entrinnt, 
 Wenn feindlich ihm das schicksal ist gesinnt I " 
 "Who escapes if Fate is iiiimically disposed to him?" might be 
 answered by the Teutonic passage, Beoiculf, 672&-573 (see p. 36). 
 s Book of Good Cjunsels, p. 22. 
 • Ibid., p. 73.
 
 12 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON 
 
 further, to some advantage, compare early civilization 
 with that existing to-day, especially with that of 
 " primitive " communities, among whom superficial 
 ideals of culture interfere but slightly with native 
 habit and custom. 
 
 Motives in literature spring out of elementary life 
 concepts : ' tlic world external and internal ; the 
 gods ; the wonderful or marvelous ; individual human 
 beings and fundamental emotions, — the hero, friend- 
 ship, love ; daily life, and cliaracter. The truth of 
 such a statement will hardly be questioned : it is 
 obvious. The primitive literary impulse, then, will 
 celebrate the gods in hymnic form, the human being 
 in wedding hymns, heroic lay, or death song ; it will 
 make a speech or terse saying or ask a riddle about 
 a natural phenomenon ; - it will invent a charm to 
 drive away an evil spirit.'" 
 
 Didacticism enters very early ; it is natural to man- 
 kind to teach, and in a time when memory is the 
 only book, to instruct with brevity, terseness and 
 weightiness is to follow the line of least resistance. 
 
 " ' What is best for the good of a tribe, Cormac ? ' 
 said Carbre. "^ 
 
 iCf. Die altgermanische Poesie, Richard M. Meyer, Berlin, 1880, pp. 
 41-72. 
 
 'Cf. Native Tribes of Central Australia, Spencer and Gillen, Lon- 
 don, 1899, p. 360. Sitting for hours, the men, women, old men, old 
 women, — all will chant, "The sand-hills are good," "Bind the Nur- 
 tunga round with rings," and the like. Cf. also Primitive Poetry and the 
 Ballad, in Modern Philology I, 200, where Gummere alludes to the ex- 
 ample here given. 
 
 Otto notes discriminations between old proverbs and later proverbs. 
 — Op. cxt., p. xix. 
 
 '^ Geschichte der Deutschen Literatur, II. Koegel, Strassburg, 1894, I, 
 12-43.
 
 INTRODUCTION 13 
 
 " ^ Not hard to tell,' said Cormac. * Questioning 
 the wise . . . Following ancient lore . . . Pleading 
 with established maxims.' " ^ 
 
 A brief review of the earlier types will indicate 
 how they intermingle and overlap, and how all served 
 as a matrix for embedding precious gems of wisdom. 
 
 Hymnic forms among the Germans were noticed by 
 Tacitus, who says that in their ancient songs, " car- 
 minibus antiquis," they celebrate the fathers and 
 founders of the race.- Bridal songs, originally a 
 special kind of religious hymn,^ are present among 
 all Indo-European peoples. The love-lyric is an early 
 development. It is an interesting fact that the 
 Germanic lady gave advice and counsel to her lover 
 or prophesied for him. Tacitus, again, has some- 
 thing to say about this gift of the woman : " They 
 even think their women to have something of sanc- 
 tity and foreknowledge, neither do they scorn their 
 advice nor neglect their answers." ^ As an example, 
 consider the Sl(jr(lnf()m6l. After Sigidrifa has been 
 roused from her slumber by Sigurd, she regales him 
 with wise sayings and counsels; then she prophesies.^ 
 
 Songs in honor of the dead are probably as early as 
 funeral rites.'' From such ceremonies as were per- 
 
 1 The. In^h-uctions of King Cormac Mac Airt, Kuno Meyer, Dublin, 
 1909, p. 7 ff. 
 
 ^ Germania, II. 
 
 * Koegel, op. cit., I, 44. 
 
 * " Iiicsse (luinotiam sanctum ^liquid, etprovidum putant ; necaut con- 
 ailia earum asperr.antur, aut responsa neglif^nt." — Ocrmania, VIII. 
 Strabo spealts of proi)hete.sse3 among the Cimbri, cf. Oeog. Bk. VII, Ch. 
 2; Cu;s:ir ha.s something to say about the wise mothers, cf. de Bella Gal- 
 lico, I, 50. 
 
 6 Cf . p. 20. 
 
 * " Kino toteuklage war, wijesscheiiit, achon in indogermanischer zeit
 
 14 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON 
 
 formed at the funerals of Attila^ and Beowulf,* 
 where warriors rode about the mound chanting the 
 deeds of the illustrious hero, it is but a step to wor- 
 ship of the dead and to verses in memory of the de- 
 parted. Or, in another direction, it is but a step to 
 the charm which would keep away the influence of 
 an undesirable ghost.^ The kinship of memorial 
 verses and of charms to gnomes is immediate. 
 
 Riddles, like most literature of similar kind, are of 
 great age, having arisen early both among European 
 and Asiatic peoples. From, the riddle itself are evolved 
 riddle-contests, the largest class of which is that 
 wherein two persons alternately ask and answer riddles. 
 Usually life or some other heavy penalty is the forfeit 
 for failing to guess correctly the answer; this failure 
 terminating a sequence of alternate propounding and 
 solving.^ From such a game, gnomic wisdom may 
 readily arise. The close connection between the rid- 
 dle and the gnome may be illustrated by this example : ^ 
 " What is blacker tlian the raven?" "There is death." 
 ""What is whiter than the snow?" "There is the 
 truth." Combine question and answer, and a gnome 
 
 mit der leichenfeier verb-mden." — Qeachichte der Deutsch. Lit., J. Kelle, 
 Berlin, 1892, 1, 10. For a concise treatment of the subject, see ScliUckmg's 
 Angelmchsisches Totenklagelied, in Eng. St., XXXIX, 1 ff, 
 
 1 Cf. Jordanes, XLIX. 
 
 '^ Beowulf, 3111 fl. 
 
 ' Cf. TTie Elder or Poetic Edda, Part I, edited and translated by 
 Olive Bra}', London, 1908, p. xiii. 
 
 * Cf. The English and Scottish Popular Ballads, edited by F. J. 
 Child, I, 1, "Kiddles Wisely Expounded." Seethe riddle contest in 
 Judges xiv, 12 ff. The unfair advantage Samson takes of hi^ opponent3 
 is of a kind with that which Gagnrad practices on Vaf^rti^nir (see below). 
 For an exhaustive discussion of riddle literature, see introduction to 
 The Piddles of the Exeter Book, F. Tupper, Jr., New York, 1910. 
 
 * The English and Scottish Popular Ballads, p. 3.
 
 INTRODUCTION 15 
 
 results : " Truth is whiter than snow." Or the pro- 
 cess may have been the other way about. 
 
 In this iUustration, we come near to the origin of 
 figures in general. " So thoroughly does riddle mak- 
 ing belong to the mytliologic stage of thought, that 
 any poet's simile, if not too far fetched, needs only 
 inversion to be made at once into an enigma. The 
 Hindu calls the sun Saptasva, i.e., seven-horsed, while 
 with the same thought the old Germanic riddle asks, 
 * What is the chariot drawn by seven white and seven 
 black horses?' ' The 3'ear drawn by the seven days 
 and nights of the week.' " ^ 
 
 Tacitus observes that the Germans love idleness 
 yet hate peace: "ament inertiam, et oderint quietem." 
 In this respect, they resemble the sprightly but indolent 
 Persians, to whom conversation is a game of skill, 
 who " wish to measure wit with you, and exact an 
 adroit, a brilliant, or a profound answer." ^ "When, at 
 home from !>attle, our Germanic forefatliers sprawled 
 around a fire and lazily employed tlicir minds in a 
 matching of wits, they found riddle-contests a popular 
 means of diversion. , 
 
 In the contests handed down to us, it is not sur- 
 prising that sententious utterance appears, in keeping 
 with the wit and wisdom of the speaker. Take, for 
 example, Yafpru^nesinol, one of the best representatives 
 of this class. Odin, in the guise of Gagnrad, comes to 
 the home of the giant. Before entering, he generalizes : 
 
 1 Primitive Culture, E, B. Tylor, London, 1871, I, 84. Cf. Kelle, 
 op. cit., p. 74 : " Ausser sprichwoitern waren riitsel und riitseldichUingen 
 in geistlichen kreisen verbreuet." 
 
 2 R. W. Emerson, in I'refaca to the OuUstan of Sadi, translated by 
 F. Gladwin, Boston, 1805.
 
 16 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON 
 
 " Let the poor man who crosses the threshold of the rich 
 
 Speak useful words or keep silent ! 
 Talkativeness works ill for every one 
 Wlio comes to the cold-hearted."' 
 
 Solomon and Saturn, a poem of similar kind, affords 
 numerous instances of gnomic expression. 
 
 In this rapid summary, then, it may be seen that 
 various types of early poetry contained sententious 
 wisdom. But sometimes the maxims, instead of 
 being encased in a lyric or a narrative poem, were 
 strung together, as in the Hqvam^l and the Anglo- 
 Saxon Gnomic Verses. And it should here be noted 
 that the earliest gnomic verse among the Teutons 
 must be studied in Old Norse and in Anglo-Saxon. In 
 Old High German, tlie remains are insufTicient and 
 inconsiderable,"^ the chief survivals appearing to be a 
 few lines of denksprUche, " and a fragmentary me- 
 morial poem."* As Scherer*' says, the principles which 
 for the Teutons regulated life and morality were em- 
 bodied in poetic form. There were no written laws, 
 but the priest proclaimed those popularly approved. 
 Hence came into play alliteration and other aids to the 
 
 1 <^auhogr mahr, es til anhogs kemr, 
 miiln {'aift el-a ]'egv I 
 Ofruixlge mikel hykk at ilia gete 
 hveims vit> kaldrifjahan kemr. 
 — Die Lieder der Edda, Sijmons-Gering, Halle, 1900, I, 67. Hereafter, 
 abbreviated to S.-G. 
 
 Line 2 of this stanza is found also in II(>vam()l, stanza 19, S.-G. I, 27. 
 ^Cf. Koegel, op. cit., I, 70. 
 
 ^ Cf. Denkmaler Deutacher Puesia und Prosa ana dem VIII-XII 
 Jahrhundi'H, hcraiiKgigibin von K. MllllciihufI und W. Scherer, Dritte 
 Ausgabe, Horlin, 18'.)2. Dnt/csprUche, I, 1S)5. 
 * Jhid.y Mciiuinto Mori, I, 7:J. 
 
 ''A History of German Literature, by W. Scheror, translated from 
 the 3rd German ed. by Mrs. F. C. Conybeare, New York, 1886, I, 14.
 
 INTRODUCTION ^ 17 
 
 memory, which, manifesting themselves in a string of 
 precepts, might claim the title of poetry. Such 
 examples of alliterative precepts may be fomid in the 
 old constitution of the Icelanders ; for instance, in the 
 formula of peacemaking occurs the clause : ^ 
 
 " And he of you twain that shall go against the settlement 
 
 or atonement made, 
 Or break the bidden troth, 
 He shall be wolf-hunted and to be hunted, 
 As far us men hunt wolves : ^ 
 
 Christian men seek churches ; 
 Heathen men sacrifice in temples; 
 Fire burneth; earth groweth; 
 Son calleth mother, and mother beareth son ; 
 Folk kindle iire ; 
 Sliip saileth ; shields glint ; 
 Sunshineth; snowlieth; 
 The Fin skateth ; the fir groweth; 
 Tiio hawk fiieth the lon-j: spring day, 
 With a fair wind behind him on wings outspread ; 
 Heaven turiieth ; earth is dwelt on, 
 "Wind bloweth, waters fall to the sea; 
 Churl soweth corn.'* 
 
 * En Kil yccMrr es ^'eii!,'r a gtorvar sdtter, e^a vegr i, velttar trygfBer. 
 \p& Bcal haiin svil vfSa vari^-r vnecr oc vreceun, Bern menn vldazt varga a 
 
 vreca. 
 Cristner nienn circjor sdbkja, 
 heiSner meiin hof bi6«a, 
 elldr up breniir, iaorS f^r&r 
 inaogr in65or callar ; oc mo'Ser maog feeder, 
 allder ek!a cynda : 
 Bcip scrfSr, scilder blfcja, 
 b61 sciim, hnaj leggr, 
 FiXr HcrlSr, fura vex, 
 valr llygr, vilr-lan^Mn dag ; 
 KlcMilr lu^iinin liyrr l)tiiin nud hAiSa, vicngo: 
 liiiniiui livfifr, liciiur uh bygKr, 
 vindr l-ytr, vaoln lil Hiovlir falla, 
 carlar cuniu k&. 
 
 Oriyines /s/auJiccc.VigfuHson and Powell, Oxford, 1005, I^ 316, note.
 
 18 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON 
 
 Such a formula bears the hall-marks of antiquity, in spite 
 of the line introduced after the advent of Christianity. 
 
 Ill 
 
 Having observed the presence of sententious sayings 
 among the early Teutons, and having glanced at their 
 relations with other types of literature, we may fit- 
 tin dv investigate the nature of those sayings. What, 
 in particular, are the kinds of gnomic wisdom sup- 
 posedly proceeding from the mouths of gods, god- 
 desses, and earthly men and women ? By selecting 
 and classifying a number of representative examples, 
 we may best answer this question. 
 
 The first recorded saying which appears to be 
 Germanic, is reported by Tacitus in the first century 
 of the Christian era : " Women must weep and men 
 remember," " Feminis lugere honestum est, viris 
 meminisse." ^ The pithiness of the remark, its an- 
 tithetic character, and especially its reflection of life 
 are probably typical of the sayings of the tribe com- 
 memorated by the Latin historip.n.^ It is similar to 
 Beowulf, 1385-1386 : 
 
 Ne sorga, snotor guma ! Selre bi3 Sghwsem, 
 J)3et he his freond wrece, ponne hS feia murne. 
 
 1 Germania, XXVII. 
 
 2 Translators generally render the maxim as if it were a Latin transla- 
 tion from the German. Cf. Germania, W. II. Fyfo, 1008, and the edition 
 of N. S. Smith, 1828. The latter compares the custom with a similar one 
 among the Canadian Indians. But it should be stated that Meyer is more 
 conservative: "... man kaum de- versuchung widersteht, den berich- 
 terstattern des alten historikers schon ein sprtichlein iihnli^her art zuzu- 
 schreiben." — Op. cit., p. 457. And Mullenhofi, D. A.K., IV, 384, notes a 
 resemblance of the speech to one in Seneca: "Hoc prudentum virum non 
 decet: meminisse perseveret, lugere desinat." Epist, 90, 22.
 
 INTRODUCTIOW 19 
 
 But whether the reflection in Tacitus be from the 
 Germans or from the RomaTis, it is probably no more 
 ancient than a store of familiar sayings from which 
 the Teutons drew in nf.mjing their runes. For out 
 of such sayings they chose catchwords by which they 
 designated the letters. Need lieth heavy on the heart 
 (Nyd by)) ner.ru on breostan), Hope he enjoyeth not, 
 who knoweth little of care (Wen ne bruce}), ^e can 
 weana lyt),^ Wealth is transitory for everyone under 
 heaven (Feoh seghwaem biS Isene under lyfte),^ — such 
 instances illustrate the view of Meyer, that the old 
 runic names Mvere suggestive of fixed maxims and 
 postulat'js.'* 
 
 But let us consider, more definitely, the remains of 
 the North Germanic and the West Germanic litera- 
 tures preserved in Old Norse and Anglo-Saxon. In 
 the Eddie lays of gods and heroes are found wise 
 saws, descended from a remote age. In - the lays 
 of epic character, they are infrequent, except in so 
 far as propliecy is itself gnomic. In the Voloqyo^ the 
 
 1 Ji^.inenlied (Bib. I, 331 ff.), 1. 27. 
 a EJene {Bib. II, 120 ff.), H. 12696-12700. 
 
 « Op. cit., p. 2. Meyer adds, " deren typua die ags. ' denkspriiche' am 
 getreuesten bewabren mogen " 
 
 * It i3 interesting by way of comparison to look at the Japanese 
 alphabet and to see that the syllable names may be joined to form gnomic 
 verses. The forty-seven cliaiacter.s (the tinal nasal, the forty-eighth char- 
 acter, is not included) have been arranged by the Japanese to read: 
 The pleasures of life arc ephemeral 1 
 
 But, after all, what i^ there that is desirable hi this world? 
 In the depth.s of the mount of existence, the present day passes, 
 And is not even for us so much as the intoxication of a flitting dreaml 
 I translate freely from the French of L. Kosny, in Cours Pratique de 
 Langue Japunnise, Paris, 11)03, pp. 8-10. 
 
 For calling this gnomic instance to my attention, I am indebted to my 
 friend Professor Raymond Weaver of the Hiroshima Koto Shihangakko.
 
 20 GNOMIC rOETKY IN ANGLO-SAXON 
 
 sibjl gives answer from her seat, performs her 
 divinations, and prophesies for Odin. Occasional 
 examples of this sort may be termed gnomic pro- 
 phecies, having the brevity, but not perhaps the hid- 
 den or double meaning, of Greek oracles. The same 
 kind of thing is found in Baldrs draumar, wherein 
 Odin rides to the lofty hall of hell and from her 
 grave wakens the dead prophetess who shall explain 
 the meaning of Balder's bad dreams. 
 
 Nor in the dramatic ' poems do we find many exam- 
 ples of sententious moralizing. The Lokasenna, in 
 spite of its flyting nature and gnomic form, yields 
 nothing. The IlarharMljdP might be supposed to teem 
 with the wisdom of Grevbeard ; but he confines his 
 impersonalities to the thrifty remark, " What is 
 scraped from one oak benefits another. Every man 
 for himself." - Skirnir answers sententiously to the 
 herdsman who declares him doomed if he goes to the 
 halls of hell : " Resolution is better than lamentation 
 for one who is ready to go on a journey," ^ and he 
 adds that his leno-th of life has been decreed and set 
 to a certain day. 
 
 But as would be expected, the didactic poems — or 
 those which most deserve the adjective — contain 
 numerous gnomic expressions. The IlSvamql is 
 classed by Meyer as one of the three essentially 
 gnomic poems in Germanic literature."* 
 
 1 In a sense, all the poems are didactic. But epic and dramatic qual- 
 ities are stronger in tlie lays here tentatively classed under these hcLidings. 
 "^ pat hefr eik es af annarre skefr, 
 
 of sik es hverr ( sUko. — S.-G., I, 104. 
 
 ' Skirnesmfil, Stanza 13, Koster'o betre [heldr] an at kliakkva sC: 
 
 hveims fuss es fara. — S.-G., I, 92. 
 
 * Op. cit., p. 462
 
 INTRODUCTION 21 
 
 Vaf/>ru//)iesm^l has been referred to above. Full of 
 wise answers, but dealing with particulars, it is notably 
 an exhibition of knowledge on the part of two wise 
 men, whose pointed questions and curt replies are 
 gnomic in manner, yet not general or "universal" 
 in content, except for the saying quoted. 
 
 In Grimnesmdl, Odin figures again. After he has 
 been tortured eight nights by King Geirrod, the King's 
 son Agnar brmgs him a brimming horn. Odin dis- 
 courses at length and in the course of his recital of 
 old lore turns aside to speak a few lines which have 
 small bearing on the context : 
 
 " Yggdrasil's ash is the best of wood, 
 But Skithblatliiiir of ships, 
 Odin of go. Is, and Sleipnir of steeds, 
 Bilrost of bridges, Brage of skalds, 
 Habrok of hawks and Garm of hounds." * 
 
 In the artificial character of these lines, wherein 
 proper names are so arranged as to fit the metrical 
 scheme, one cannot but observe a resemblance to the 
 Gnomic Vei^ses of the Cotton Manuscript.'^ A not 
 dissimilar mosaic of names is found in Almssmol. 
 The dwarf going in the night to the home of the gods 
 for Freya, who has been promised him for his wife, is 
 met by Thor. The god detains him by asking ques- 
 tions, which Alviss, i)roud of his wisdom, delights 
 in answering. The night passes, day dawns, and 
 
 1 Askr Yp^'drasels liann es 0Ztr vi)>a, 
 cm Sk(})b'.a|»ner skipa, 
 6b('nii {isa, en joa Sleipner, 
 Iiilros„ brua, eu Brage skalda, 
 H;lbr6k hauka, en hunda Garmr. — S.-G., I, 84. 
 
 » See 11. 16 ff.
 
 22 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON 
 
 the sun rises, its rays turning the dw?vrf to stone. 
 But in the meantime, the author of this interesting 
 narrative has found opportunity to display his verse- 
 craft. Synonyms for earth, heaven, fire, moon, wood, 
 — these and others are skilfully woven into the 
 rhythmic pattern. 
 
 Characteristic of the attitude which the Norsemen 
 held toward their dead is the story of Groa and her son 
 Svipdag. As a power for good, Groa is called from her 
 grave to counsel, to "sing sweet and strong spell-songs.'' 
 One generalization on fate is suggested by her son's 
 remark that he has been appointed to make what 
 seems an impossible journey : 
 
 " Long is the journey, long are the pathways, 
 
 Long are the loves of men : 
 Even if it happen that you gain your will, 
 It will be at fate's decree." ' 
 
 And the counterpart is found in a later stanza of the 
 poem, or its sequel, when the journey having been at 
 length taken, Svipdag finds Mengloth. Apparently 
 recalHng his mother's saying, he remarks : 
 
 "The word of fate no man may withstand."* 
 
 In the TlyndloljoPy the prophetess recalls the past 
 and becomes prophetic, as does the one in Baldrs 
 draumar. A gnomic passage spoken by this sibyl, who 
 was probably called up from the grave as in the case 
 of Groa or the wise woman who prophesied for Bal- 
 
 ^ LQng es fQr, langer 'o farvegar, 
 
 Linger 'o manna nmner ; 
 ef >at verhr, at[)>u]>inn vilja bljr, 
 
 ok skeikar >6 Skuldar at skQpom. — S.-G., I, 197. 
 ' Ur^ar or^ YiJ>r engo iiia>r. — S.-G., I, 212.
 
 INTRODUCTION 23 
 
 der, is significant for its resemblance to a passage in 
 Christy^ and elsewhere in Anglo-Saxon verse. It is to 
 be observed that the giver is the war-father (Herfo]?r), 
 as the stanza immediately preceding this one clearly 
 shows : 
 
 " He gives victory to some, and to others gold, 
 Skill in words to many and understanding; 
 He gives fair wind to men, and poetic art to skalds, 
 He gives valor to many men." * 
 
 IT6vam6l, the poem wherein " human experience is 
 elevated to godly wisdom," ^ contains three sections, 
 the first two o! which treat of the ethics of love, 
 friendship, war, and hospitality. Customs and social 
 laws here and there agree with those observed by 
 Tacitus, and with those recorded in the Anglo-Saxon 
 Gnomic Verses. In the main, the precepts are archaic 
 and heathen, though a number are of late origin and 
 Christian. 'To discuss these sayings would require a 
 separate study, or a recapitulation of such a study as 
 that made by Bergraann.'* Meyer calls attention to 
 speeches related to those in other lays,^ and Ranisch 
 points out some of the wise saws in its repository.^ 
 Victor Nilsson marks off interpolations which separate 
 LoddfdfnisnL^l from the rest of the poem.'^ Of 
 
 1 See pp. 53, 63. 
 
 2 Gefr 8igr sumom, en sumora aura, 
 injL'iHko iD(^rgum ok inanvit firom ; 
 byre gefr brfjgnom eu brag skQldom, 
 gefr manseine mgrgura rekke. — S.-G., I, 179. 
 
 » Cf. N'ordische Literatnrgeschichtey W. Golther, Leipzig, 1906, p. 21. 
 
 * See above, p. 7. 
 
 ' Op. ciL, p. 72 ff. 
 
 « Eddalieder, Leipzig, 1903, p. 45 ff. 
 
 ' Loddf iif Ilium Al, University of Minnesota, 1898.
 
 24 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON 
 
 stanzas 1-78 he says : " The keynote of the leading 
 theme is one of bittern and fierceness. The bits 
 of advice given are in .^.. nature of morals, but not 
 of a Christian standard. They teach smartness. 
 Life is depicted as a ceaseless battle in which every- 
 body must be on his guard, prepared to receive and to 
 deal out blows. The redeeming feature is the appre- 
 ciation of the sterling individual and of a good posthu- 
 mous reputation." ^ 
 
 In the lays of the gods, wisdom is for the most 
 part attributed to chief divifiities ; in the Ip.ys of 
 heroes, to famous men, half mythical or wholly his- 
 torical. 
 
 Toward the close of G?ipessp6, Sigurd remarks, 
 " No man can withstand his fate." ^ Again and again 
 the inevitableness of fate appears. In Atlamdl, 
 Hogni says, " From his fate no man can flee." ^ It 
 is a coincidence striking enough that Jordanes reports 
 Attila himself as using these words in his address to 
 the army before the battle of Catalaunian Plains, a.d. 
 451 : " No spear shall harm those who are sure to live; 
 and those who are sure to die fate overtakes even in 
 peace" (Chapter XXXIX).^ The words of Starkad 
 are to the same effect : " His final fate carries off every 
 living man ; doom is not to be averted by skulking." ^ 
 
 1 Loddfafnismdl, University of Minnesota, 1898, p. 3. 
 
 2 Monat skQpoin vinna. — S.-G., I, 304. 
 
 * Skopom viSr mange. — S.-G., I, 448. 
 
 * " Vicluros nulla tela conveniunt, morituros et in otio fata pnccipi- 
 tant." — Jordanis Jiomana et Getica, llecensuit Theodoras Mominsen, 
 Berlin, 1882, p. 111. Cf. The Orvjin and Deeds of the Goths, C. C. Mio- 
 row, Princeton, 11)08, p. (»3. 
 
 5 Saionis Granimaticl, Gesta Danornm, herausgegeben von Alfred 
 Holder, Stransburg, 1830, p. 215. Cf. Books I-IX translated into Eng-
 
 INTRODUCTION 25 
 
 In the sequence lays, Regensm^ly Fdfnesnufl, and 
 Sigrdrifom^ly the chief speakers are respectively And- 
 vari, Fafnir, and Sigrdrifa, who, in turn, teach their 
 pupils. Andvari admonishes, " False words against 
 another strike deep roots of retribution," ^ and a 
 little later he asserts that it is a bad thing to outrun 
 one's luck.2 Hreidmar, the bereaved father, also has 
 his gnomic fling, " Much is it that necessity compels," ' 
 In Fdfnesm6l, particularly noticeable are the gen- 
 eral remarks which buttress the special instance. 
 Sigurd thinks a cowardly youth will hardly make a 
 valiant old man ; * Fafnir observes that they say a 
 bondman always trembles,^ and, in turn, is capped 
 by Sigurd, who suggests with apparent irrelevance, 
 " Every one longs to enjoy his riches to the last 
 day." ^ Fafnir dies, didactic to the end,^ a believer 
 in fate, like all the others. Sigurd has an extended 
 speech on courage, an extension due to addition of 
 brief statements : " Courao-e is worth more than the 
 might; of the sword when fearless men are to fight. 
 
 lish by 0. Elton, London, 1804 [Commentary by F. York Powell], 
 p. 259. 
 
 ^ 6sa}'ra or^a hverra & annan l^gr 
 
 oflenge leiHi limar. — S.-G., I, 309. 
 Cf. II. Gering'8 Glossary, 1907, p. 112, " weithin fiihrendie verzweigvingen 
 unwahrer worue," etc. 
 
 2 Ilt's fyr heill at hrapa. — ZfciU, 316. 
 8 Mart's )>at3 h^r f t>ear ! — 7 bid. , 3 1 1 . 
 
 * Fhv es hvatr, es hrahask tekr, 
 
 ef 1 barnosko es blanl-r. — S.-G., I, 321. 
 • A6 kve)>a bandingja bifask. — Ibid. 
 
 9 F6e r;l)>a akal fyrl>a hverr 
 li" til ens eina dags. — Ibid., 322. 
 Cf. Meyer, op. cit., p. 457, who thinks this naive speech U uttered aa a 
 universal principle, without any immediate moral or practical bearing. 
 "< Allt es feigs fora)>, Ibid., 322.
 
 26 GNOJnC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON 
 
 It fares better in the war game with the bold man 
 than with the coward, and better with the glad man 
 than with the timid, whatever comes to hand." ^ 
 
 Sigrdrifom6lf as it is the third and last of this 
 series, is also the climax in sententious wisdom and 
 prophetic power. The sleeping maiden on being 
 roused from slumber speaks,^ first, runes of various 
 things, — mind and love, sea and victory. Then she 
 gives eleven counsels, some of which — for example, 
 the fifth, against alluring women — are akin to 
 those in the Wise Father's Instruction. The ninth 
 enjoins care for the dead : " At[|)u]n9om bjarger 
 hvars[|)u]ii foldo fi))r." This injunction is similar to 
 the one in the Exeter Gnomes (1. 115), both testify- 
 ing to the importance of burial. Concerning the 
 woes of humanity, a general statement springs out 
 of the counsels : " Manifold are the troubles of 
 men,"^ a sentiment repeated in Helreifo Brynhildar, 
 stanza 14. 
 
 AilamSl, besides the sentence quoted, has also an- 
 other of decided gnomic character. Gudrun declares 
 that women suffer from men's tyranny ; * and she in- 
 
 1 Hugr es betre an[.s6]hJQr8 raegen 
 hvars skolo vrei)>er vega : 
 « • ' « « • 
 
 IIvQtom's betra an[8Ǥ]6bvQtom, 
 I bildeleik bafask ; \ 
 
 glyhom's betra, an[6d]glvipnanda 
 hvats'at hcnde komr. — S.-G., I, 327. 
 » An iuteresting example of literary propbecy occurs in Oripeasp^, 
 where Sigurd's uncle foretells tbat Brunliilde will counsel him. " She 
 shall teach thee every mystery men wish to know, and to speak in eveiy 
 man's tongue, healing and leechcraft." — S.-G., I, 290. 
 » FJQlt.*s t>ats fira tregr. — S.-G., I, 347. 
 ♦ Kostom drepr kvenna karla ofrfke. — S.-G., I, 456.
 
 INTRODUCTION 27 
 
 dulges further in a figurative proverb, "The tree 
 must fall if the root be cut." ^ 
 
 AtlakviPa has two examples of reflection in the 
 poet's own person curiously like the " So should a 
 young man " type in Beowulf. The first instance is in 
 stanza 20 : " So should a brave man defend himself 
 against his foes ! " ^ said in applause of Hogni's deed. 
 The second is in stanza 34 : "So shall a valiant hero 
 guard his gold from his enemies ! " ' in commendation 
 of Gunnar. 
 
 In IlainAesrnSl, the half-brother Erp appears to 
 have liad a propensity for untimely quotation of old 
 saws. " It's ill work to show cowards the way," he 
 taunts,^ and for the implication loses his life. Respect 
 for the aged and their advice is indicated by a sen- 
 tence of Ham})er'3, " Opt or belg or})gom boll 
 t6]) koma," ^ while Sorli's contribution is to the effect 
 that it is a very sad lack if a man lack wLsdom." 
 He also speaks of the uselessness of fighting the de- 
 cree of the Nonas : " No man lives over the evening 
 after the word of fate has gone forth."' 
 
 It has already been observed that the Norse as- 
 cribed their wise sayings to gods and men alike. 
 The voha, or prophetess, represents the elevation into 
 literature of the divining, soothsaying woman, in 
 whom the Germans, according to Tacitus, had con- 
 siderable confidence. The gods are best represented 
 
 1 Tr€ tekr at linlga, ef heggr tx^gundan. — S.-G., I, 460. 
 "^ Sv.-l ekal irakn verjask fi.^udora sfnom, — S.-G., I, 428. 
 8 SvA skal golle fn'jkn hringdrife vi5 tira halda. — Ibid., 432, 
 
 * Ill's blau|H>m hal brauter kciina. — S.-G., I, 480. 
 
 • Ibid., 483. Cf. IV'vavi^l, Btanza IS."], Wanderer, 11. C4, 05. 
 « Mikcls es d. maun hvern vant es iiianviLs es. — Ibid., 484. 
 
 ' Kvcld lifer in;;)<r etke, cpt kvi)> noma. — /tid., 485.
 
 28 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON" 
 
 by Odin, whose growth in gnomic expression may be 
 traced by his successive exploitations, from his visits 
 to the vqlva, where he goes to seek wisdom. Ncr is 
 the dwarf to be disregarded. Alviss by his name 
 bears evidence that knowledge was associated with 
 dwarfish stature.^ Among the heroic figures, women 
 are notably expounders of cryptic remarks, runic 
 sayings, and gnomic advice : witness Gudrun and 
 Brunliilde ; in a lesser degree, male figures — Fafnir, 
 Hreidmar, and Sigurd, for example — become the 
 mouthpieces of wisdom. Graybeards, as the poems 
 here and there testify, were held worthy of respect : 
 some of the most didactic portions of the Ilovavibl, 
 exclusive of the lessons of Loddfdfnir, illustrative of 
 the same thing, seem to be lessons or advice given 
 to young men by their old tutors. Finally, as may 
 have been noticed above, the poet sometimes speaks 
 in his own person. 
 
 Most of these speeches, then, fall imder the follow- 
 ing heads : 
 
 1. Fate {Grooyaldr, GrlpesspQ, IlampL-smQl). 
 
 2. Circumspection in speech {Vafpru/^nesiiiQl, Regensml^l). 
 
 3. Woes of men {Reyens/nQl, Sufnlrifoniql, Ublrei/> Bryn- 
 hildar. 
 
 4. Courage and cowardice {Fdfnesm'nl, Atlakvi^a, Hamp&s- 
 mql). 
 
 5. Women {Sigrdrifom'jl, AtlaniQl). 
 
 6. Wisdom of the old {Uamfoesm<il, Ui^vamql). 
 
 A complete study would reveal a fuller list, but 
 this is illustrative of Norse characteristics. The 
 
 1 It will be remembered that among the folk of the present day the 
 belief is common that dwarfs and hunchbacks are possessed of extraor- 
 dinary intellect.
 
 TNTRODUCTION 29 
 
 Norseman preached prudence, he scorned cowardice 
 and exalted couiage, he was oppressed by a sense 
 of the miseries of life and the inevitableness of 
 fate. . 
 
 Before speaking of the preservation of gnomic 
 verses in Old Norse, it will be best to consider their 
 appearance in the West Germanic literature as repre- 
 sented by Anglo-Saxon. 
 
 In Anglo-Saxon epic and lyric of oldest origin, 
 verses of gnomic import, if not always of gnomic 
 length, are frequent. Their presence has been at 
 times regarded as an element disturbing the unity of 
 the epic lay, though with light thrown from shorter 
 poems, into which they are likewise interjected, it 
 seems clear that they were not held to be irrelevant 
 at the time of their inclusion ; unless, indeed, the 
 unity of even the shortest poems be contested. Even 
 if the poems are, in some instances, composite, it 
 shows that the compiler felt gnomic verse might be 
 blended with other Uxatter. 
 
 In Beoundfy I classify the following lines and 
 groups of lines as gnomic divagations, apart from the 
 current of the story : > 20-25 : 1836-188 ; 2876-289 ; 
 4406-441; 4556; 5726-573; 9316-932; 10036- 
 1004; 10586-1063; 13856-1390; 15356-1537; 
 16646-lGG5a; 18396-1840; 19416-1944; 20306- 
 2032; 21676-2170a; 2292-2294a; 26016-2602; 
 27056-2767; 28916-2892; 30636-3066; 3078- 
 3079; 31766-3179. 
 
 Of these gnomic passages, most are heathen ; some 
 are mixed with Christian sentiments, as if the author 
 
 * Numbering of Ueyue-Sociii text, ed. L. SchUcking, raderbom, 1908.
 
 30 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON 
 
 had turned old matter to new purposes ; one or two 
 may be entirely Christian. In some cases, it is im- 
 possible to separate the two elements. A writer who 
 had at his command a wealth of heathen lay material 
 and who was famihar also with the teachings of 
 Christianity designed for them no separate compart- 
 ments in building his epic poem. Heathen and 
 Christian wisdom appear now in harmony, again in 
 slight conflict. 
 
 The first passage, an adhortation of the familiar 
 sceal tj'pe, is paralleled elsewhere in Anglo-Saxon,^ 
 and the thought is of high antiquity : 
 
 20 Swa sceal geong {/uma gode gewyrcean, 
 
 fromum feoh-giftuin on fseder terne, 
 })set hine on ylde eft gewuuigcn 
 wil-gesi(5as, f'onne wig cume, 
 leode gelSsten. Lof-diedum sceal 
 in mSgSa geliwawi man gepOon. 
 
 Saxo's praise of Sciold enumerates a list of deeds 
 similar to these,'^ deeds the celebration of which later 
 descended to a commonplace in chivalric romance : 
 The prince must win to his banner good knights by 
 his bounty. So in Guy of Wanvick, we read : 
 
 Good knyghtis he loued ywis, 
 And freely he gaue thera of hys, 
 Therfore wel belouyd he was. 
 
 Because the passage has no immediate connection 
 with the context, Sievers suggested a hiatus between 
 
 1 Gn. C, 14. 
 
 2 " He contended . . . with all other monarchs in courage, i)Ounty, and 
 generous dealing ... He used to enrich his nobles not only with home 
 taxes, but also with plunder taken in war ; being wont to aver that the 
 prize money shouldflow to the soldiers, and the glory to the geaeitil." 
 See York Powell, p."l8 ; Holder, p. 12.
 
 INTRODUCTION 31 
 
 lines 19 and 20. Mullenhoff ^ cited it as one of the 
 moralizing asides which break up the unity of the 
 poem,'^ and remarked of it, that it is a generalization 
 of political import. Haeuschkel,'^ in commenting 
 upon the fact that the introduction of sentences 
 often appears awkward and forced, cites this passage 
 as an example. 
 
 Miilleuhoff, intent upon his separate ballad theory, 
 perhaps unconsciously stretched a critical conscience 
 to make these generalizations examples of the irrele- 
 vant ; or perhaps he was momentarily forgetful of 
 their accustomed presence in the old literature. 
 Others, as for instance Sievers and Kcihler, in looking 
 for a unity too perfect, were unmindful of the fact 
 that the Germanic poet often turns aside to point a 
 moral and thereby adorn his material. Such a say- 
 ing is irrelevant in the sense that it is a generaliza- 
 tion, which, though possibly called to mind by a 
 particular circumstance or concrete situation, yet 
 stands alone, independent; but it is not hrelevant 
 with respect to the large unity of the early epic, 
 which was ample and inclusive. Digressions have 
 many times been observed to be features of the epic 
 style, and the irrelevancies of the Anglo-Saxons are 
 merely in.^ lances of such episodic character. 
 
 Of the same type as 20-25, are 15356-1537, and 
 21G76-2170a. Just as Scyld's acquitting himself 
 well produces the generalization that so ought a 
 young man to do, Beowulf's trusting to his strength 
 
 1 Die Innere Oeschichte des Beovulfs, in Zeit. f. d. A., n. s., II, 195. 
 
 2 A criticism, it need hardly bo noted, now in disrepute. 
 
 « Die Tcch)xik der Erzahlung im Beowuljliede, Breslau, 1904, p. 63.
 
 32 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON 
 
 of hand in the conflict with Grendel's mother induces 
 the observation : 
 
 15356 Swa sceal man d5an, 
 
 J>onne h6 set giiSe gegan JienceS 
 longsumne lof, iia yinb his Iif cearatJ. 
 
 and likewise the recital of Beowulf's gifts to Hygelao 
 affords opportunity for the comment : 
 
 ' 21676 Swa sceal mii'g doan, 
 
 nealles inwit-net oSrum bregdon, 
 dyrnum crsefte deaS renian 
 hond-gesteallan. 
 
 Lines similar to these have been quoted above as 
 forming part of the Old Norse gnomology. Gnomes 
 of this type Earle ^ characterized as " Monitory Pas- 
 sages," seeing in them a " clue to the secret history 
 of the poem " which he designates as " The Institu- 
 tion of a Prince." He is echoed by Brandl, who 
 calls Beoionlf a sort of mirror for princes.^ And a 
 more recent critic sees an immediate application m 
 this particular moralizing : " Such comment seems 
 harsh J and the allusion to treachery uncalled for, 
 until we notice v:hat that present is which Beowulf 
 has just given to his lord. It is a war-panoply, which 
 of old belonged to Hrothgar's brother, King Heoro- 
 gar, but which has 7iot been given to Heoroweard, 
 Heorogar's son. No : the armor has been given to 
 Beowulf the stranger, and Heoroweard has been de- 
 prived of his father's weapons." ^ 
 
 1 Tlic Deeds of Beowulf, J. Earle, Oxford, 1802, p. Ixxv ff. 
 
 2 — "kein anderes erziihlungswerk wcder ein weltliches noch ein geist- 
 licbes. kommt eineiu fiirstcnspiegel so nalie." — op. cit., p. 1001. 
 
 . » Wiihith, R. W. Chambers, Cambridge, 1J12, p. 83.
 
 INTRODUCTION 33 
 
 But here and elsewhere in Beowulf,^ as in the lays 
 of the Edda, these asides are, I think, commonplace 
 generalizations, though they doubtless took their 
 special coloring from the particular time and place. 
 That they were uttered as particular exhortations or 
 with any thought that the princely circle needed to 
 profit by them, I doubt. They had become conven- 
 tional stop-gaps or roundings of periods. A single 
 instance is perhaps to be regarded as a definite per- 
 sonal hint to Hrothgar concerning the boy, Hrethric : 
 
 18396 Feor-cyt53e beo« 
 
 selran gesohte JJiSm-j^e him selfa deah. 
 
 It is the close of Beowulf's leave-taking speech, wherein 
 he has just suggested that Hrethric would find friends 
 at the court of the Geats. I say perhaps ; for I sus- 
 pect, rather, that Beowulf was finishing off his invi- 
 tation by the statement of a truth as well known to 
 Hrothgar as to himself.^ 
 
 Lines 183-188 may be regarded as a " terminal 
 moral " akin tc that at the end of the Cotton Grnomes^ 
 and elsewhere. Such moralizings or religious adhorta- 
 tions bear evidence of later origin bv their Christian 
 doctrine. Ettmiiller first made 179-185 the close 
 of a fytte, a view in which Miillenhoif coincided, 
 characterizing the passage as " ganz theologisch." 
 So Blackburn, attempting to separate Christian and 
 
 ^Cf. also \Vi(hith, 11-13. sceal beodiia gehu^lc Rawum lifgan, 
 
 eorl after OSruui CSle raidan, 
 Be \>e. his heodenstol get>6on wile ! 
 
 2 The custom of sending sons to win their spurs in foreign coantries 
 was practised long in England. 
 
 » See p. 129.
 
 34 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON 
 
 heathen sentiment, thinks it to be an interpolation.* 
 According to the opinion, however, that Beowulf is a 
 unified whole, the work of a poet familiar no less with 
 Christian than with heathen beliefs, this passage is 
 simply to be regarded as arising out of the later time 
 and religion. " The Beowulf poet was subject to 
 various influences," Klaeber concludes in his series of 
 excellent articles on Tlie Christian Elements in Beonmlf, 
 "he was a Widsith or Saxo in legendary lore, at the 
 same time he was an ecclesiastically educated man, a 
 sensitive character, and an incomparable artist among 
 the Anglo-Saxons." 2 
 
 In lines 4406-441 a Christian gnome is apparent. 
 " He whom death taketh shall resign himself to the 
 doom of the Lord" seems quite modern. But I be- 
 lieve with Gummere ^ that the old " goes Wyrd as she 
 must" is in the background, — a thought which ap- 
 pears almost immediately in 455Z>. Moreover, Black- 
 burn groups the saying with other passages that show 
 Christian colorino; bv "incidental allusions to God and 
 his power." ^ These mixed gnomes are: 440Z>-441, 
 930-931, 105G 11., 1661 ff., 2292-2294a. He makes 
 out a case for transference from heathen to Christian 
 thought on the ground that Christianity is vague and 
 colorless in these passages, as will be seen if we sub- 
 stitute Fate for God. " The moral sentiment remains, 
 but it is no longer a Christian sentiment. . . . We 
 
 1 TMLA., XII, 22. 
 
 ^Anglia, XXXV(n. f. XXHI), pp. Ill ff., 240 ff., 453 ff., and XXXVI, 
 pp. 171 fl. Die Christlichen Elememe im Beowulf. See these pages, 
 passim, for comparison of sundry gnomic passages with similar ones in 
 Beoivulf. 
 
 8 OEE., p. 42. 
 
 * Op. ciC, p. 210 ff.
 
 INTRODUCTION 85 
 
 may assume the existence of an older poem composed 
 by a heathen scop and containing moral sentiments 
 and reflections of the same character as those of Homer 
 or Virgil or tlie Edda. Later, a Christian monk 
 * edits ' it for Christian readers." ^ The value of this 
 classification is not affected by the point of view that 
 regards the passages as the work of a poet subject 
 alike to Christian and heathen influence. That is to 
 say, the " mixed " character remains, whether original 
 heathen sayings have been " edited " or the lines were 
 composed by a poet to v;hom God was Lord of fate.' 
 Haeuschkel is also of the opinion that 930-931, 
 16646-lG65a, 3056, and the inevitable 1836-188 are 
 of Christian character.^ 
 
 I see only a Christian sentiment in 9316-932 : — 
 
 a mseg god wyrcan 
 wunder aefter wuudre, wuldres hyrde! 
 
 Fate does not work wonders, nor is ivuldres hyrde a 
 heathen figure. The case, however, is different with 
 1058-1063, where the parts may be separated : 
 
 10586-1059 Metod eallum weold 
 
 gumena cynnes, swa he nu git doeS, 
 
 is Christian. But 1060-1061a is a thought occurring 
 in heathen passages : * 
 
 1 Op. cit., p. 217. 
 
 "Cf. Klaeber, " Vorherrschend christlich iat Uberhaupt . . . die ganze 
 tonart und siitenanschauung. Wir sind iiicht mehr in heidnischer atmos- 
 phare." — Op. cit., XXXVI, 175. 
 
 » Op. cit., p. ^i'^. 
 
 *Cf. II{)vamil, stanza 6, and passim, and Wander''.r, 116-14. It la 
 Blinilar also to a sentence in Maxims (Exeter Book, 122a), hyge freste 
 bind mid modsefan (Z?i6., II, 280), which, though occurring in a small 
 group of Christian sayings, has a heathen ring.
 
 36 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON 
 
 ForJ)an bi?5 andgit ffighwaer sClest, 
 ferhSes fore-))anc. 
 
 And it may wery well have been retained from an 
 older portion, which, however, suffered the addition 
 of 1058-1059. 10G16-10G3 may itself be of ancient 
 origin, like the " Manifold are the woes of men " sen- 
 tences referred to above ; but it rings rather like a 
 late homiletic close : 
 
 Fela sceal gebldan 
 leofes Olid lat5es, s6 \>e longe her 
 on )»yssum win-dagum worolde brflceS. 
 
 Earle ^ holds that the passage was formerly heathen 
 but was corrected by loUig (jod (1057). He aees 
 Providence and fate not opposed, but harmonized by 
 subordination of the latter, and recognizes a mind fed 
 upon De Comolatlone, IV, 6 ff.^ 
 
 1664^-1665a oftost wisode 
 winigea leasum 
 
 is part of a Christian thought, referring as it does to 
 ylda waldend in 1662. I cannot accept it as "mixed " ; 
 for the substitution of fate is inapt (cf. 931, above). 
 Bugge^ emends the line unnecessarily by a textual 
 change which makes it particular instead of general. 
 
 2292-2294tt Swa msDg unfSge CaCe gedigan 
 
 wean ond wnuc-slS, se })e waldendes 
 hyldo gehealdeS 
 
 seems to be a distinct Christianizing of the heathen 
 expression found in 5726-573 : 
 
 » Op. cit., p. 144. 
 
 2Cf. Klaeber, op. cit., XXXVI, 176. 
 
 » Quoted by Scliiickiug, op. cit., p. 115, q.v.
 
 INTRODUCTION 37 
 
 Wyrd oft neretJ 
 Unf»gne eorl, }>onne his ellen deah ! 
 
 a Germanic commonplace' spoken by Beowulf in 
 recounting his shimming match with Breca, a proto- 
 type of the more modern " God helps those that help 
 themselves." Cook '^ thinks its origin lies in the Latin 
 original of " Fortune favors the brave." But since 
 the passage occurs in part in the Il'ddehrand Lay (1. 55) 
 and occasionally in Old Norse,"' I see no reason for 
 seeking origins outside the Germanic group, even 
 though among the next of kin. It is rather, I think, 
 analogic, — one of a number of kindred thoughts aris- 
 ing among tribes widely separated. In its juxtapo- 
 sition of fate and courage, the passage is paralleled 
 in 1056 ff. 
 
 The limitations of Fate in 455??, " GceS a "Wyrd 
 swa hio seel ! " would appear to be somewhat in con- 
 trast with the idea that she may fa^'or a brave man. 
 But Wyrd is thought of as two different forces or 
 powers in the two passages 4556 and 572 ff., which 
 may be taken as exemplars of the fact that conceptions 
 of Fate were not consistent."* In the former her blind- 
 ness is emphasized, Fate bound by necessity ; in the 
 
 ' GniiuUvig Bays the leading idea of the Bjarkim'^l is the same aa that 
 found in Beoicnlf^ Ab.y, 572. Udniijl, p. &2, referred to by Meyer, op. cit., 
 p. 45(5, who remarks : "-diese erkenntnis ist der eii^eutliche grundstein 
 allererkenntnis des volks liberall f,'e\vosen. Wie GuiSrun spricht, *8kopum 
 viSr mannj;!,' so siii^t lloktor: 'jMor^aK S'oCWivi ^tjm' ir«pvftxivov ^f^itvai 
 B.vbpCiv: " (7^., (5, 488.) Cf. also Germanic. Origins, p. 2.30 ff. 
 
 ^ MLN., VlII, 117-118, q.v., for list of citations from Latin classics, 
 ulndreas 4o8-l(J0 is a Christianized form, also, of Beowtilf b'2. 
 
 8 Cf. OEE., pp. 47-48, note. 
 
 *Cf. Klaeber, op. cit., XXXVI, 172, and note. He notes that in 
 JBeoxoulf, 3U31, loyrda ni, toorda. the significance of xcyrd is " ganz abge- 
 Bchwacht."
 
 38 GNOMIC POETRY EN ANGLO-SAXON 
 
 latter her personality has faded, chance or fortune 
 being indicated as in modem speech.' 
 
 In age, 13856-1390a rivals 4556 and 5*^2 ff. It is 
 proverbial, Meyer thinks,'^ like the former ; it is anal- 
 ogous to other ancient sayings, like the latter. It i? 
 the Anglo-Saxon representative of the custom refeiTed 
 to by Tacitus,'^ and has a close parallel in Ilbvambly 
 stanza TT."* It is not quite identical with jEneid, X, 
 467 ft'., '^ nor is there any reason for regarding the 
 Latin as the sole orio-inal of what must have been a 
 
 O 
 
 universal heathen belief. I have spoken of the pas- 
 sage as a unit ; yet it contains three separate gnomes 
 bound logically together : 
 
 13856 Scire bitS teghwiem, 
 
 ]>?et he his fiGond wrece, ponne h6 fela murue. 
 Ure ieghwylc sceal ende gebldan 
 worolde lifes; wyrce se pe mote 
 domes ier deaSe ! pset biS driht-guman 
 uulifgendum eefter s6lest. 
 
 With the first line and a half should be compared 
 Byrhtnoth : 
 
 258-259 Ne raneg nd, wandian, s6 )>e wrecan ))encet5 
 
 frean on folce, ne for fGore murnan I ' 
 
 ^ OEE., p. 43, note. The word in 455 may have the force of " destiny." 
 Meyer, op. cit., 455, thinks this line is an ancient proverb. It is probable, 
 therefore, that Wyrd is spoken of with small vestige of the old feeling for 
 the word. Cf. preceding not«. 
 2 Op. cit., p. 450. 
 
 « Cf. Introduction (p. 18), Gn. Ex. 81, and Klaeber, •» Unchristlich ist 
 der preis des nachriihins." — Op. cic, XXXVI, 173. 
 
 * Ek veit einn at aldre deyr : 
 
 domr umb dau)>:in hvern. — S.-G., I, 37, 
 5 Slat "sua cuique dies ; breve et irreparabile tempos 
 Omnibus est vitse ; sed famam extendere factis, 
 Hoc virtutis opus. 
 « Bib., I, 309-370.
 
 INTRODUCTION 89 
 
 and with Seafarer ^ 72-80a, whicli from analysis 
 would appear to be a revamping of this or a similar 
 
 heathen passage : 
 
 For|)on paet eorla gehwam aeftercweSendra 
 
 lof llfgendra, lastworda betst, 
 
 \dii li6 gew V rce, iur h6 on weg scyle, 
 
 freniman on foldan wi5 feonda nl)> 
 
 deorum diedum dCofle togCanes, 
 
 pcet hine slda beam jefter hergen 
 
 and his lof si)»)>aii lifge mid englum 
 
 awa to ealdre, 6cau llfes blierf, 
 
 dream mid duge}>ura ! * 
 
 In the heathen group, we observe that (1) death is 
 inevitable ; (2) therefore, win glory, (3) which is 
 worthiest. In the later revision, we find that (1) death 
 is inevitable ; (2) therefore, work against hatred of 
 foes and the devil and win praise, (3) which is best. 
 (4) Men will praise (such a man) whose fame will 
 live forever. Tiie loss of brevity and pithiness with 
 the corresponding gain in didacticism weakens the 
 value of the Christian passage. In the oldest poem, 
 Widsithy a brief and pointed estimate of him who wins 
 glory closes the recital : 
 
 1426 lof 85 gewyrce?5, 
 
 hafat5 under heofonum heahfaestne d6m. 
 
 "The chief object v/hich the characters of the 
 heroic age set before themselves is to * win glory,' to 
 have their fame celebrated for all time," says Chad- 
 wick,'^ who has collected a number of passages in 
 illustration of this assertion. He observes that one 
 of the most striking characteristics of heroic poetry, 
 
 1 Bib., I, 293. » Heroic Age, Cambridge, 1912, p. 88.
 
 40 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON 
 
 both Greek and Teutonic, is the constantly expressed 
 thirst for fame. Odysseus himself says his glory 
 reaches to heaven, and Beowulf's fame is spoken of 
 even more extravagantly, as lines 856 if. indicate. 
 The love of glory is held as an incitement to bravery 
 in critical situations, as in Waldere, I, 8 ff.* 
 
 The remaining expressions deserve here no partic- 
 ular comment. They are, I believe, without excep- 
 tion of heathen origin." In making this statement, 
 I am not unmindful of the truth that, in general,, it is 
 difficult, if not useless, to attempt separation of 
 heathen and Christian streams contributing: to the 
 current of early Anglo-Saxon epic.'' In some cases, 
 as I have already said, it is impossible to affirm that 
 a maxim is Teutonic or that it is scriptural. But in 
 other cases, it is impossible to avoid seeing indications 
 of definite source. 
 
 In reviewing the characteristics of these passages 
 aside from their heathen or Christian nature, we find 
 that they may be tabulated in content approximately 
 as follows : ^ 
 
 1. They encourage laudable deeds: 20-25, 1385^-1390, 
 15356-1537, 18396-1840, 20306-2032, 28916-2892 ; 
 
 2. Liberality: 20-25; 
 
 1 Cf. Heroic Age, p. 325 ff. 
 
 2 28015-2S02 Meyer thinks is a proverb, — "eine uralte lehre." — 
 Op. cit., p. 4;V). And Klaeber notes its resemblance to a passage in 
 Iphifjenia Aulidis (1252) of Euripides.— Op cit., XXXVI, 173, 
 
 » " The futility of attemptine; to separate Christian and heathen con- 
 ceptions in that poem [Beowulf] is now well recognized, Professor Brand! 
 having been one of the foremost to adopt that view." — W. W. Lawrence, 
 The SoH'j of Dear, \n M. Ph., IX, 1, 27. 
 
 ♦ Cf. Sarrazin, neoicnlf-Shulien, Berlin, 1888, p. 70 ff., whom I follow 
 in part. His list, however, is not so full as the one here given. Ilaeusch- 
 kel, op. cit., p. C3, practically copies Sarrazin.
 
 INTRODUCTION 41 
 
 3. Prudence, wisdom: 2876-289, 106(>-1061a; 
 
 4. Confidence in God or Fate: 4406-441, 5726-573, 931 i^ 
 932, 10586 ff., 16646-1665a, 2292-2294a. 
 
 5. They warn against treachery of women : 19416-1944 ; 
 
 6. Treachery of kindred : 21676-2170a (cf. 26016-2602). 
 
 7. They commemorate inevitable death: 1836-188, 10036- 
 1004, 13856-1390, 28016-2892, 30836-3006, 31766^179. 
 
 Classified with reference to the speakers, the follow- 
 ing reflections are uttered by the poet, as he turns 
 aside from the main channel of his narrative : 20-25, 
 1836-188, 100rj7)-]004, 10586-1063, 15356-1537, 
 19416-1944, 21676-2170a, 26016-2602,27656-2767,1 
 30636-3066, 31766 If. The following are spoken 
 by Beowulf: 455, 5726-573, 13856-1390, 16646- 
 1665a, 18396-1840, 20306-2032. From the shore- 
 guard, proceeds 2876-289; from Wiglaf, 28916-2892, 
 3078-3079. It is noticeable that until Beowulf's 
 death, only one gnome is put into the mouth of any 
 other character.^ After the hero's death, Wiglaf suc- 
 ceeds him as speaker of wise sayings. 
 
 Of these speeches, the oldest are characterized by 
 " oft " or " selre." ^ " Sceal " is more didactic, like- 
 wise "moeg"; often the mere statement lodged in 
 "bis" etc., takes the place of the hortatory form. 
 Combinations occur : "swii sceal," " swa biS." Under 
 one of these heads fall the greater number of Beowulf 
 gnomes.* 
 
 As in the epic, so in the early lyi'ics, gnomes and 
 
 1 Haeuschkel, who aiakes a single division, op. cit., p. 62, errs ia plac- 
 ing 2705 under the alteniale head. He omits 3176 ff. 
 
 2 981/>-<)32, said by llrothgar. 
 ' Cf. Mt'j'er, op. cit., p. 455. 
 
 * I do not take up 1725 f!., nor 2445 ff., for both, though akin to the 
 passages treated, are of different character.
 
 42 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-«AXON 
 
 gnomic sayings are imbedded. And just as in the epic 
 their presence has been taken to uphold the argument 
 for separate composition, so in the lyrics they are 
 regarded by some critics as intruders, interpolations 
 by those convenient "later scribes." 
 
 The Wa7ide7'er ^ shows vigorous sententious pro- 
 clivity. Although the introduction is recognized as 
 Christian, it breaks off at 5a, following which bh is 
 unquestionably heathen: " "\Yyrd biS ful arced!^" 
 And though the close 112a-115 is a late homiletic 
 addition (cf. Gn. C. conclusion, p. 129), the poem 
 throughout is imbued with pagan sentiment. 
 
 116-18 comprise a group of gnomes, all arising 
 from the Wanderer's contemplation of his own posi- 
 tion, but universal in their bearing. 116-14 commend 
 caution in betraying thought, 
 
 Ic to soSe wat, 
 ]>xt bi(5 on eorle indryliten }>eaw, 
 ]>cet he his fert5locan feste binde, 
 
 a sentiment, which though lacking parallelism of ex- 
 pression, is of the same type as Beowulf, 1060-1061a. 
 15 and 16 are grammatically joined, but in reality 
 comprise two sentences : 
 
 ne maeg werig mod wyrde AviSstondan 
 ne se hreo hyge helpe gefreraman. 
 
 The first of these offers a variation of Beowulf, 572. 
 The second is a thought not found elsewhere in Anglo- 
 Saxon gnomology. 
 
 17-18 forJ>on domgeorne drSorigne oft 
 
 in hyra breostcofan bindat5 freste 
 
 i £ib., I, 284. 2 On arSld, cf. Gn. Ex., 195, note.
 
 INTRODUCTION 48 
 
 is likewise a thought which has found expression more 
 often in later literature than in Anglo-Saxon verse. 
 The next generalization is of a familiar kind,^ 296-31: 
 
 Wat s6 J»e cunnaS 
 htl sll<5en bi8 3org to geffiran 
 ]>^m ]>e him lyt hafaS leofra geholena. 
 
 64-65a echoes the proverb already observed in the 
 Old Norse Hamfiesmbl : 
 
 forf'on ne maeg weort5an wis wer, aer h6 age 
 w intra dSl in woruldrlce. 
 
 In 65&-69, we have a series of attributes belonging 
 to the wise man, wherein moderation is discernible 
 as the happy mean : 
 
 Wita sceal ge]>y\dig, 
 ne sceal no to hatheort ne to hraedwyrde 
 ne to wac wiga ne to wanhydig 
 ne to forht ne to fsegen ne to feohgifre 
 ne nS.^re gielpes to georn, ffir he geare cunne.' 
 
 The caution against boasting is continued in 70-72 : 
 
 Beorn sceal gebldan, })onne h6 beot spricetJ 
 06 J)aet collenferf- cunne gearwe, 
 hwiuer hreSia gehygd hweorfan wille. 
 
 And the passage on the wise man is concluded with 
 73-74, which suggest that he can understand how 
 terrible will be the destruction of the world. It is 
 to be observed that the Day of Judgment is referred 
 to in no churchly manner : if the lines were the work 
 
 1 The essentially early tone of sucL sentences is noted in introduc- 
 tion to Gn. Ex. See p. 94. 
 
 * King Cormac gives similar advice to Carbre ; of. K. Meyer, op. eit., 
 p. 44.
 
 44 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON 
 
 of an interpolator, he would hardly have missed the 
 oppoi-tunity to celebrate it in true orthodox fashion. 
 Of the gnomes in 58-87, Boer^ observes a close 
 relationship with the Exeter Gnomes. Boer's reasons 
 for assuming interpolation of the entire passage are 
 weak. There is no occasion for considering them 
 here, since they have already been answered by Law- 
 rence,- and since, moreover, the full passage lies out- 
 side the scope of this study. Lawrence in meeting 
 Boer's contention that the "spriiche" disturb the 
 narrative says : ^ " Consider the pronounced fondness 
 of the Saxons for moralizinor and for gnomic material 
 in general. This was not a literary fashion intro- 
 duced with Christianity, its roots lie deep in heathen 
 antiquity. The gnomic poetry of other peoples is as 
 a rule of ancient date. It was characteristic of Anglo- 
 Saxon thought to connect the particular and the gen- 
 eral, to make a man's experiences point a moral as 
 well as adorn a tale. The Saxon in misfortune found 
 consolation in philosophy long before King Alfred 
 translated Boethius. Deor's refrain Poes ofereode, 
 /ASses sivd iiiccfj ! is of a piece with the Wanderer's 
 conclusions on reviewingr the fates of men. The 
 reflective mood which leads to moralizing is closely 
 akin to the elegiac spirit. Modern poetry is full of 
 instances of it. The amount of Anglo-Saxon verse 
 distmctly heathen in character is relatively small, 
 and citations from it are likely to be questioned as 
 later additions. This applies to the many passages 
 in Beoimdf containing moral reflections, and the 
 
 » Ztft.f. d. Phil., XXXV, 11. ••» JEG. Ph., IV, 460 if. 
 
 » Ibid., p. 477.
 
 INTRODUCTION 45 
 
 blighting band of higher criticism has been laid even 
 on Widsi^dind Dear. It will be noted, however, that 
 vhe lyric cry of the banished wife in the Wifes Com- 
 plaint is interrupted at its height by reflections on the 
 virtues beseeming a youth, while it closes with a gen- 
 eral maxim deduced from the sad experiences of the 
 once happy couple. The mere presence of moralizing 
 in a poem cannot be said to indicate interpolation." 
 
 The uhi sunt motive in 92-93 is in the gnomic 
 mood, and if converted to declarative expression 
 would be gnomic in form : 
 
 Hwier cwoni mearg ? hwijer ewoui mago ? liwier cwom 
 
 maSSuriigyfa? 
 hweer cwom symbla gesetu ? hwSr sindon seledr^aruas ? 
 
 But difficulty lies in fipding an equivalent assertion 
 that will retain the feeling and force of the interroga- 
 tive couplet. Beside the question, "Where are the 
 snows of yesteryear ? " the affirmation, " No one 
 knows wher3 the snows of yesteryear are,'' becomes 
 far less vivid. And so in these lines from the Wan- 
 derer, emphasis and sententiousness are gained by 
 the form, a form which might be characterized as 
 the interrogative gnome, The iihi sunt motivation is 
 an old one, perhaps of equal age with riddle, charm, 
 and speli.^ 
 
 100b reverts to the omnipotence of fate: "Wyrd 
 seo mgere," ^ the commonplace observed elsewhere 
 throughout this work. The thought is contained in 
 the fine line 107: "onwendeJS wyrda gesceaf t weorold 
 
 1 Cf. MLN., Vill, 187-188, for parallels to the lines above quoted. 
 
 2 Gollancz ia wrong in translating, " Theira was a glorious fate." Cf. 
 E. E. T. S., CIV, 2U3.
 
 46 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON 
 
 under heofenum," which is less commonplace and has 
 the same heathen tone. 
 
 106 : " Eall is earfoSlic 8or)>an rice," is the Anglo- 
 Saxon equivalent for the sentence quoted above from 
 Sigrdrifomol (p. 26). BeoKyuJf, 10616-1063, has also 
 a kinship with it. It might seem to reveal a tendency 
 of our ancestors to complain at hard times and con- 
 ditions, even as their descendants do to-day; but it 
 also suggests the disturbed political situation in 
 Britain of the eighth century, conditions which prob- 
 ably gave fresh meaning to many outworn phrases. 
 
 108-110 are interesting from their combination 
 into priamel form : 
 
 h6r bits feoh liene, h6r bi3 fr6ond liene, 
 her bits mon laine, her bitS inaeg Uene, 
 eal j'is eorSan gesteal Idel weorSetS ! 
 
 Each of the five gnomes is prosaic enough in expres- 
 sion, but taken together they show conscious elabora- 
 tion not dissimilar to that employed in the Cotton 
 collection. 
 
 112a is of a type often found: ^ "Til biS se)>ehis 
 treowe gehealdetJ." It is a kind usually found in pas- 
 sages suspiciously Christian, and because of that 
 coincidence, as well as the fact that line 111 of the 
 Wanderer seems to close the poem, I believe it to be 
 part of the homiletic addition. 
 
 112&-114a ne sceal niefre his torn tO rycene 
 beorn of his breostura acySan, iiemtSe he aer ))a bote cunne 
 eorl mid elne gefremman ! 
 
 should be compared with 11& ff. 
 
 1 Cf. On. Ex., 35, and note.
 
 INTRODUCTION 47 
 
 From so long a list in a poem numbering but 115 
 lines, it will be noticed by a mere hazard of addition 
 and subtraction that the amount of sententious mate- 
 rial is sufficient to justify naming the poem a gnomic 
 lyric. The strain throughout is one of sad contem- 
 plation and reflection, which though personal in its 
 origin is easily diverted into the general. As an 
 elegiac composition, moreover, the poem is not seri- 
 ously interrupted by the frequent development of a 
 moral : it is logically all of a piece. 
 
 "Sceal," "oft," '^mseg," and "bis" appear as 
 catchwords of the gnomic expressions which are, in 
 content, distinct from those of the epic, pealing forth 
 the jubilant note of courage, incitation to brave deeds ; 
 but which are similar to those epic counsels exhorting 
 to fidelity, prudence, wisdom, and the like. Fate 
 weighs even m.ore heavily than in Beowulf, as might 
 be expected in a poem dealing with the woes of the 
 friendless man. 
 
 In Beowulf CA\d the Wanderer, we find — exclusive of 
 the passage in Byrhtnotli — the best of the old speeches 
 which are preserved in epic and lyric verse. Hence- 
 forth, Christianity either modifies the old or supplies 
 their places by another variety. 
 
 In calling attention to the gnomic passages in the 
 Seafarer y"^ it will be necessary to say a word or two 
 about the unity of the poem. The main divisions gen- 
 erally recognized are l-64a and 646-124 ;2 but Thorpe 
 observed the change in matter and manner from 103 
 to the close, and Lawrence suggests that not enough 
 
 1 nib., I, 21K). 
 
 * Cf. Kluge, Eng. St., VI, 322 ft. ; Boer, op. cit. ; Lawrence, op. cit.
 
 48 GNOMIC POETllY IN ANGLO-SAXON 
 
 attention has been paid to this line of demarcation.* 
 In l-64a, the critics usually see the l3rric proper ; in 
 646-124, material more or less didactic and suffi- 
 ciently separated from part I to deserve a distinct 
 caption. Now, there seems to be no essential reason 
 for drawing the line at 64a. Up to this point, it is 
 true, the main thesis has been the sea, — its fascina- 
 tion, its hardships. It is likewise true that from 64& 
 forward the sea passes into the background and the 
 elegiac strain is prominent in a vein of moralizing 
 more or less tedious. But before 103, I see no 
 definite boundaries ; the personal leads gradually to 
 the impersonal, the particular merges into the gen- 
 eral, the theme of the sea is changed into didactic 
 commonplaces about the universe. The first part is 
 nobler ; it rings of remote times. Though the whole 
 poem is elegiac, passing gradually from heathen into 
 Christian thought, no definitely gnomic verses are 
 found before 103. The single exception, apparently 
 a later version of Beowulf, 1385 If., I have mentioned 
 above. Now, after 117, the first line of the hom- 
 iletic close, the matter is practically all gnomic : 
 
 103 : Micel bij) s6 meotudes egsa, forljou hi seo molde oiicyrretJ, 
 
 and 
 
 116 : Meotud meahtigra Jjonne aenges monnes gehygd, 
 
 are similar to Gn. C, 4h. 1155 : " Wyrd biS swiSre" is 
 a parallel of Gn. C, da ; moreover, by its juxtaposition 
 "with 116 shows the identical relation that Gn. C, 6a 
 bears to 46. Parallels of 106, 107, and 109 are found 
 in the Exeter Gnomes (q. v.). Lines 111-112 preach 
 the ancient virtue of moderation : 
 
 * Op. cit., p. 471.
 
 INTRODUCTION 51 
 
 enumerated at length, among v/hich we find a similar 
 combination : " Let him be sober ... let him be affa- 
 ble." ^ This, I think, serves to reveal more strongly 
 the general gnomic character of the lines from The 
 Banished Wifes Lament. 
 
 The Song of Deor '^ is unique in Anglo-Saxon litera- 
 ture in its employment of a refrain, and is of special 
 interest here since that refrain is gnomic. pops 
 ofereodey Aisses swd mceg ! has been usually translated 
 as having distirct references to the fortunes of Deor : 
 That he surmounted : so this may I ! But Lawrence 
 maintains'' that the thought is general. "There is 
 no way of telling that he [Deor] may not have had 
 present woes of his own in mind when he says Hsses 
 Siva mceg ! but there is nothing to indicate it, and 
 11. 28 ff. are certainly general rather than personal." 
 He thinks the poem is " not a complaint, but a con- 
 solation." As tlie troubles of Wayland, Beadohild, 
 and others passed, so may the suiferings of the sorrow- 
 ful one in line 28. The refrain then, is " cheerful and 
 practical " philosophy, vivid in comparison v/ith the 
 commonplaces of the Wanderer and the Seafarer. 
 Old troubles have passed and present ones may! 
 " The whole piece seems most easily interpreted as a 
 general poem of consolation, applicable to anyone in 
 present trouble." * 
 
 The generalizing passage 31-34 is part of what 
 may be an interpolation: 
 
 1 " rop sobraig . . . rop soacoUmach." — K. Meyer, op. c(t., p. 12. 
 
 ^Dfis San<jera Trost, Bib., 1, 278 ff. 
 
 ■ The Song of Deor, in M. Ph., IX, 1, 23 fl. 
 
 * Ibid., p. 27.
 
 52 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON 
 
 ^I?eg })onne gej'encan, ]>xt geond ]>5,s woruld 
 witig dryhten wende}) geneahhe, 
 eorle moneguin are gesceawat5, 
 wislicne blied, sumuin weana dael. 
 
 In favor of late insertion are ivitig dryhten^ the fact 
 that the dramatic lyric plan is broken up, and that 
 the tone is hardly that of a writer " who had taken 
 Deor's own tonic." Moreover, the lines are " awkward 
 in syntax, and muddy in thought, and their philosophy 
 is not quite that of the refrain, although not contrary 
 to it." ^ Further, gnomic passages on the fortunes or 
 fates of men occur largely in later poems, seemingly 
 Christian. Against late addition are the facts that 
 wltig drijliten may be a single substitution in a heathen 
 passage for Wyrd and a corresponding modifier, that 
 departure from the dramatic lyric plan may arise, as 
 we have seen, naturally from the elegiac mood, and 
 that the sum type of sententious expression, though 
 found more abundantly in later Anglo-Saxon poetry, is 
 yet found in the Eddie poems where there is no indica- 
 tion of late origin.''^ Although the moralizing passage 
 is a trifle forced, yet its content is not inharmonious 
 with the lyric scheme : So any man sitting sorrowful, 
 severed from joys, may reflect that the fortunes of 
 men are diverse, and that while one has wealth, 
 another has woe : let him surmount his misery ! On 
 the whole, it is difficult to say whether the lines are 
 
 ^ Lawrence, op. cit., p. 27. 
 2 Cf. Uuvami'l, stauza G9 : 
 
 sunir es af sunom stell, 
 suuir af fry&ndom, sumr af f^ 6nio, 
 
 8umr af verkora vel. — S.-G., I, 35. 
 
 and IIyndloIj6/>, above, p. 23.
 
 INTKODUCTION 68 
 
 or are not interpolated ; but it is easy to agree witli 
 Lawrence that they are " really quite in accord with 
 its structure, making plainer its message." ^ 
 
 The poem which Thorpe entitled On the Endow- 
 ments and Fursuits of Men, and which has been va- 
 riously named Gifts of Men, Bi Monna Crceftum, Der 
 Menschen Gdbcn,^ belongs to the early Christian period. 
 Lines 1-29 are obviously the composition of a monk, 
 as are also 103-113, the homiletic close, besides 8G- 
 95 in the heart of the poem. The remainder have a 
 heathen ring ; they have at best no reference to tokens 
 and symbols of Christianity, but celebrate harp-play- 
 ing, seamanship, smithcraft, and the like. One exam- 
 ple will suffice to illustrate their gnomic character. 
 
 49 Sum mid hondum maeg hearpan gr^tan, 
 
 ah li6 gleobeamos gearobrygda list. 
 Sum bis rynig, sum ryht-scytte, 
 sum leoSa gleaw, sum on loude snel, 
 feSe spedig. 
 
 The origin of the poem was pointed out by Dietrich* 
 as Christian, having its sources and analogues in 1 
 Corinthians, xii, 8-10, Gregory's 29th Homily on the 
 Book of Job, and Christ, G59-690. 
 
 But it may be objected that too many of these sum 
 gnomes both here and in the Fates of Men and in the 
 passage from Christ deflect the current of ideas away 
 from Christianity. A dilemma arises, therefore : 
 did a monkish redactor prefix his beginning and add 
 his conclusion to a gnomic poem of heathen origin ? 
 Or did he compose the whole poem, extending the 
 sum, type which he knew from Christian sources ? It 
 
 1 Op. at., p. 28. 9 Bib., 3 J, 140. « Cf. Onind., 197.
 
 54 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON 
 
 may as well be remarked at once, if the latter alter- 
 native be favored, that in the case of the Christ pas- 
 sage one meets with a similar difHcnlty, hence the 
 question has only been shifted. That is to say, the 
 list in Christ 659-690 contains also wordly pursuits 
 as well as spiritual gifts : ' the Christian lines may 
 have received addition, or the entire passage may be 
 an interpolation. 
 
 Gnomes of a similar type or class are seldom found 
 grouped in extended series, either in North Germanic 
 or West Germanic literatui'e. IlovaviSl shows repeti- 
 tion but not extension. The Cotton Gnomes show an 
 apparent prolongation, but the colorless sceal is the 
 constant element. In both the Edda and in Anglo- 
 Saxon, diversity, total absence of unity, mark the 
 collections. The sum gnome, moreover, is not prevr> 
 lent in early Germanic literature. On the other 
 hand, extended gnomic groups of the same class are 
 often found in Eastern sources. Consider the allot- 
 ment of time in Ecdesiastes, iii, 2-8 ; the list of 
 those who are blessed, Matthew, v, 3-11 ; consider 
 the various lists in Ecclesiasticus :'' be ashamed be- 
 fore thy father and mother of (a fault named) and 
 before (repeated for different personages), then be 
 ashamed of (a number of other faults listed). Anti- 
 thetically, then follows a list of things one need not 
 
 ^Wtilker thinks Cynewulfliad a heathen poem before him when he \\rote 
 the Christ passage, but not the Endoxcments and Pursuits of Men, which 
 he regards as later (in its present form) than the work of Cynevrulf. 
 But he thinks that both poems have a common origin in some heathen 
 poem. — Grund., p. 108. 
 
 ^ Cf. The Hebrew Text of Btn Sira (Ecclesiasticus) , with Translation 
 and Critical Notes, C. A. McRae, University of Toronto, 1910.
 
 INTRODUCTION 55 
 
 be ashamed of. That condensation is present does 
 not alter the fact that a series of counsels is given; 
 any counsel may be removed from the context by 
 supplying before the particular fault, the common 
 term, " Be ashamed of." 
 
 With direct reference to the sum type, which oc- 
 curs with repetition in Corinthians,^ we may observe 
 that it was present in Sanscrit : "^ " One of them [fore- 
 runners of the sententious poetry which flourished so 
 luxuriantly in Sanscrit literature] consisting only of 
 four Suanzas (IX, 112) describes in a moralizing 
 strain of mild humor how men follow after gain 
 in various ways : 
 
 The thoughts of men are manifold, 
 Their callings are of diverse kinds: 
 The carpenter desires a rift, 
 The leech a fracture wants to cure. 
 
 A poet I : my dad's a leech ; 
 Mama the upper millstone grinds : 
 With various minds we strive for wealth, 
 As ever seeking after kine." 
 
 Another of these poems is in praise of wise speech 
 (X, 71). Here is one of the stanzas : 
 
 The one sits putting forth rich bloom of verses, 
 Another sings a song in skilful numbers, 
 A third as teacher states the laws of being, 
 A fourth metes out the sacrifice's measure. 
 
 ^ " For to one is given by the Spirit the word of wisdom ; to another 
 the word of knowledge by the same Spirit ; to another faith by the same 
 Spirit ; to another the gifts of healing by the same Spirit ; to another the 
 "working of miracles ; to another prophecy ; to another discerning of 
 spirits ; to another divers kinds of tongues ; to another the interpretation 
 of tongues." — Loc. cit. 
 
 ^ History of Sanscrit Literature, A. A. McDonell, New York, 1900, 
 p. 128.
 
 56 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON 
 
 The Greek poets also exhibit numerous instances of 
 this type.^ A close parallel to the Anglo-Saxon pas- 
 sages in the poems under consideration is found in 
 Iliad, 13, 72G-734, which has been translated, " For 
 to one man has God given for his portion the works 
 of war, to another the dance, to another the lute and 
 song, but in the heart of yet another hath far-seeing 
 Zeus placed an excellent understanding." 
 
 Though it is generally conceded that the influence 
 of Greece on Anglo-Saxon literature was slight and 
 superficial, yet partiality for the study of Greek is 
 indicated in a curious enumeration of different na- 
 tional characteristics : " Sapientia Grcecorum — super- 
 bia Romanorum," etc." Nor is Theodore to be for- 
 gotten, the Greek priest who was sent into England 
 by Pope Yitalian in 688, and who took with him 
 authors in Latin and his own tonorue.'^ jhidreas and 
 Elene further bear witness to the fact that Anglo- 
 Saxon poets frequently drew upon Greek sources. 
 
 With the Eastern books of wisdom, at least those 
 of the Scriptures, Anglo-Saxon priests were familiar. 
 They also knew Boethius and Gregory. A homily of 
 the latter has been referred to as a possible source of 
 these sum gnomes, and Brandl suggests a parallelism 
 between Met., II, 8^, with their introduction and con- 
 clusion.'' Althoutjjh Brandl's observation does not 
 apply to the type of gnome, it does, I think, add 
 
 1 Cf. list friven by Cook, Christ, pp. 18(5-187. 
 
 2 Caligula A XV, Vol. 122, v, Cf. Wright in Biog. Brit. Lit., 11,43, note. 
 
 * Cf. Bede, HE., IV, 1 and 2. Rede adds that the pupils of Adrian 
 and Theodore were well trained both in Greek and Latin. See further, 
 V. 21. 
 
 ♦ Op. rif., p. lor.ti. 
 
 ■ l. I
 
 INTRODUCTION 57 
 
 weiglit to my point tliat the poem was put together 
 by one who knew the Southern and Eastern litera- 
 tures. It is not. I believe, an old heathen poem re- 
 dacted, but one written entire by a learned monk, 
 who was not so lost in his bookish Christianity that 
 he had not sufficient appreciation of secular gifts to 
 include them with the spiritual. 
 
 Against long descent from Teutonic heathendom is 
 the further fact that lower forms of nature are ab- 
 sent ; man alone is present. In a poem thus extended, 
 an older writer would have departed in all probability 
 from so monotonous a series. 
 
 On the Various Fortunes of Men^ otherwise Fates 
 of Men, Bi Monna Wyrdum, Der Menschen Geschickcy^ 
 Rieger thought to be by the author of the Gifts. ^ In 
 broad analysis it is similar in composition : 1-14 and 
 93-98, introduction and conclusion, are Christian, as 
 are also 58, 64-66. The remainder show no definite 
 Christian reference. In its subject matter, however, 
 the poem rings older than the one just considered ; 
 in striking the note of hunger, war, and wolf (the 
 miseries of men, again) it recalls certain lines in the 
 Gnomic Verses. And it is marked by the old sceal 
 formula as well as by the sum. 
 
 33 Sum sceal on geapum galgan ridan, 
 
 Seomian aet swylte, o3 ))ait sawlhord 
 b.iucofa blodig abrocen weorSetJ, 
 ]>JiV him hrefn nimeS heafodsyne, etc. 
 
 BrandP thinks the poem composed of a first and a 
 second part, the latter being a Christian continuation 
 
 ' nib. »', 118. » Vf. (Iruml, p. 10',>. » Op. rU., pp. 1030-10:17, 
 
 I )l,l., '|\ llM, 'Ml I ,. f . |, lil'l •' if, ill , If III. Ml Hill,
 
 58 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON 
 
 of a heathen fragment. But there are, then, fourteen 
 lines of the introduction to be accounted for. I think 
 the question of authorship is to be answered as was 
 that concerning the authorship of the Gifis. I be- 
 lieve the Christian author had in mind, either from 
 tradition or from heathen literature, a number of 
 examples illustrating various fates : these he sum- 
 marized in brief form, using the sum type, itself 
 familiar to the clerical brotherhood from the in- 
 stances cited above as possible sources of the GiftSf 
 or from similar instances. The fact that sceal rings 
 of the old fatalistic gnomic utterance does not argue 
 necessarily for ancient heathen origin. Wyrd here has 
 the force of destiny, and though sceal is also assojiated 
 with ivyrd in the sense of blind fate, it is no more sig- 
 nificant here than the mcBcj of the Grift gnomes. 
 
 The Monitory Poeni, known also as Bi Monna 
 Mode, Minds of Men, and Der Menschen Gemilt,- is 
 a poetical sermon on pride. It shows a faint remi- 
 niscence of the su7n type of gnome ^ and thus indi- 
 cates the preference clerical writers had for the type. 
 
 A fourth poem on the False7iess of Men,^ from this 
 title and the others it has acquired,^ would apparently 
 contain genomic material similar to that in the first 
 two poems of this group. It is, however, as Wiilker 
 indicates by his designation of it, merely a fragment 
 of a homily based on the twenty-eighth Psalrn, and 
 it has scarcely a vestige of gnomic expression left in 
 its desultory didacticism. In this, and in the Moni- 
 
 1 Bib., 31, 144. 2 cf. 21-26, 31 ff. » Bib., 2, 108. 
 
 * Bi Monna Lease, Der Menschen Falscheit, Predigtbruchstuck uber 
 Fsahn 2S.
 
 INTRODUCTION 59 
 
 tory Poem, crisp heathen teaching, definite precepts 
 of morality, brief bits of philosophy, — all have 
 lengthened into a homiletic dullness. The ancient 
 current leaped and dashed in sudden vigorous bursts ; 
 the later stream dissipates its energy in the shallow 
 flats of homily, level and monotonous. 
 
 The Wise Father's Instruction, likewise, is didactic 
 and leads into a circle of mediaeval poetry, for which 
 the Disticha of Cato as well as Oriental writings 
 yield much material.^ Precepts are numbered, as 
 are the counsels of Sigrdrifa, or certain sayings in 
 Hqvamol ; ^ but the matter is not closely related. As 
 a prototype, the decalogue might as well be sug- 
 gested. In other words, mere numbering offers small 
 hint of source, and the matter is imbued from begin- 
 ning to end with Christian doctrine. This form of 
 didactic poetry occurs in most literatures and among 
 all peoples. One turns to Bohemian literature and 
 finds in the middle of the fourteenth century The 
 Advice of a Father (Smil) to his son ; ^ one passes 
 to Celtic literature and meets it as early as the 
 ninth century in Tlie Instructions of King Comiac 
 Mac Airt ; one observes a similar framework in Old 
 Norse. But further back yet it is found in An- 
 cient Egypt and China."* The points noteworthy 
 
 1 J5i6.,l, 363. Other titles: A Father's Advice, Feeder Larcvidas, Des 
 Voters Lehren. T.iis subject has not been investigated to any great ex- 
 tent. Rudolf Fis'-^her has written a small brochure, How the Wyse Man 
 Taught hin Sone. It consists largely of quotations, moat of which are 
 comparatively modern. 
 
 2 Latter parL Cf. stanzas 14(5 ff. — S.-G., I, 50. 
 
 » Cf. A History of Bohemiaii Literature, Francis Count Luetzow, 
 New York, 1890, p. 3(5 ff. 
 * Sec above, p. 9.
 
 60 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON 
 
 with reference to this Anglo-Saxon collection are 
 that expression has passed beyond gnomic bounds, 
 and that the poem shows itself to be of late origin. 
 Such instructions as the following are distinctly 
 Christian : honor thy father and thy mother, re- 
 spect thy teachers, countenance no wickedness, be 
 no accomplice in sin. As these teachings are not 
 inconsistent with heathen ideals, so echoes of heathen 
 morality are not inharmonious with Christian stand- 
 ards. Out of Germanic wisdom appear such precepts 
 as these: "Do not deceive a dear friend," "Distin- 
 guish between good and evil," " Think not aloud," 
 ''Be temperate and sagacious." 
 
 From the nature of morali zings contained in a poem, 
 one may draw conclusions respecting their age. The 
 truth of this statement can be illustrated by examples 
 the time of whose composition is approximately 
 known. Let us look briefly at the Caedmonian poetry, 
 observing the difference in its ethical digressions and 
 those in the older epic and lyric. We meet with an 
 excellent example in Exodus:^ 
 
 5316 pis ItBiie dr6ain 
 
 womuium awyrged, wreccum alyfed, 
 earmra anbld : eSellease 
 |>ysiie gystsele gihfiuin healdaS 
 murnaS on mode, manhus witon 
 fiest under foldan, pair biS fyr and wyrm, 
 open ece scrajf yfela gehwylces. 
 Swa nu regul^eofas rice dailaS 
 yldo 0(55e ierdea(5, eft wyrd cymS 
 iniegen})rymma maest ofer luiddangeard, 
 dieg diedum f ah : dryhten sylfa 
 on )>ani meSelstede maneguui demeS. 
 
 ii?!-6., 2, 445ff.
 
 INTRODUCTION 61 
 
 It will be seen that part of these ideals are common 
 
 to heathen and to Christian ethics : (1) This life is a 
 
 transient joy, and (2) It is filled with misery. But 
 
 the house of the wicked beneath the earth, and the 
 
 Day of Judgment separate the passage from the older 
 
 gnomic vein. Heathen sententiousness spins itself 
 
 out into a typically Christian homiletic thread. 
 
 In Daniel^ 20&-21, though the form is ancient, the 
 
 idea is late : 
 
 Swa no man scyle 
 his gclstes lufan wi5 gode dielan. 
 
 This hortatory expression, of the familiar swd, scyle 
 type, is brief enough to satisfy requirements of gnomic 
 dennition; but its eminently Christian content prevents 
 accepting it as a perpetuation of heathen precept. 
 
 Likewise the oft type appears, but as in the example 
 just quoted it is ancient only in its detached generali- 
 zation. 
 
 590 oft metod aliet luonige 3eode 
 
 • • • wyrcan, ponne hie woldun sylfe 
 fyrene fiestau, ier him fair godes 
 )>urli egesau giyie aldre gesceode. 
 
 As in the heathen epic, so in the Christian narrative 
 poem, a generalization often sums up the details of a 
 particular case. Such gnomic summarizing, though not 
 necessarily theological, is not therefore to be regarded 
 as heathen, any more than gnomic deductions in these 
 same heathen epics are, because they are apart from 
 the concrete, to be regarded as Christian interpolations. 
 Consider an instance from Genesisj' 634 ff. : 
 
 ^ Bib., 2, 410. a /7ji(f ., 2, 318 ff.
 
 62 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON 
 
 Monige hwile bi? ]>5.m men full wJl, 
 
 pe hine ne warnaS, ))onne hS his geweald 1 afatJ. 
 
 Eve has ignored God's warning, an omission the resalts 
 of which are logically followed by this moralizing 
 couplet. In the early Christian epic, however, such 
 gnomic verses are rare. The integrity of the older 
 type is broken; sermons, not sentences, abound. 
 
 In the Cynewulfian epic, we find a few reminiscences 
 of the older form. Of those noted in Andreas,^ the 
 first suggests Beowulf, 1385 ff. : 
 
 3206 Selre biS ieghwam, 
 
 l>?et he eaSmedum ellorfusne 
 oucnawe cuSlIce, swa |>tet Crist bebSad. 
 
 But the termination indicates that the author of the 
 passage was no heathen poet. 
 
 Christian reminiscences of Beowulf y 672b ff., are, 
 
 4256427 God eatSe maeg 
 
 hea^oliSeudum helpe gefreinman, 
 and 
 
 458 ror)>an ic eow to so3e secgan wille, 
 
 foet nSfre forlStetS lifgende God 
 eorl on eorSan, gif his ellen d6ah. 
 
 Christ ^ sounds a note familiar from the Scriptures, 
 in 
 856 ff. ... swa eal manna beam 
 
 sorgum sawat5, swa eft rlpat5 
 
 cenna? to cwealme, 
 
 or as Grollancz translates : 
 
 All the children of men 
 As they sow in sorrow, so afterwards they reap, 
 they bring forth for death. 
 
 ^ Bib., 2, 1. I follow punctuation and numbering of lines used by 
 Krapp, in his edition of Andreas, New York, 1906. 
 
 2 ^16., 31 ff. . •
 
 INTRODUCTIOlf 63 
 
 Taking heed was enjoined by the earlier Germans, 
 but hardly with the penalty for heedlessness suggested 
 in these lines : 
 
 1599 Frgcne me })incetJ 
 
 J>set })5,s gsestberend giman nellaS 
 men on m6de {)oane man hwset 
 him s5 waidend to wrace gesette 
 lapum leodum. 
 
 " Be good, or you will be punished," is typical of early 
 Christian doctrine. 
 
 The long passage 659-690 has been mentioned in 
 connection with Gifts of Men and Fates of Men. It 
 is g;nomic in a similar desrree. On its occurrence m 
 chis poem much has been said ; but whether it is part 
 of the original or whether it is an interpolation prob- 
 ably never can be satisfactorily determined.^ 
 
 Guthlac"- 30: "he fela findeS, fea beo5 gecorene," is 
 virtually a quotation from Mattheic, xxii, 14. The 
 long passage, 1322 ff., however, was certainly written 
 by a man who knew the earlier Germanic gnomic 
 sayings. It is put into the mouth of the messenger 
 who goes to tell Guthlac's sister of the Saint's death: 
 
 ' Ellen bis s6last \5.m ))e oftost sceal 
 
 drfiogan dryhtenbealu, deope behycgan 
 
 })roht })eodengedal, |)onne sSo })rag cymeS 
 
 wefen wyrdstafum ! ]>Mi wit sS )>e sceal ■. 
 
 aswaman sarigferS, wat his sincgiefan 
 
 holdnes biheledre: he sceal hean })onan 
 
 geomor hAveorfan, })5,m biS gomeues wana, 
 
 fe pa earfeSa oftost dreogeS 
 
 on sargum sefan. 
 
 » Cf. Gollancz, Christ, p. 103, and Cook, Christ, pp. 136 fl. 
 *Bib., 31, 55 ff.
 
 64 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON 
 
 In its form, though somewhat extended, it is typically 
 heathen; in its exaltation of courage, in its reference 
 to fate's decrees and the treasure giver, it rings like a 
 speech from Beowulf ; in the elegiac strain, it recalls- 
 the Wcmdcrer and the Seafarer. 
 
 Comparing gnomic expressions in Christian narra- 
 tive poetry with those in heathen epic, we find: 
 
 1. A number of gnomic precepts having their origin 
 in the Scriptures, rather tlian among Germanic 
 tribes. The Christian gnome is distinctly theological, 
 or hortatory after the doctrinal fashion. 
 
 2. Fewer gnomes in Christian poetry. This may 
 be due to one of the following reasons. In tlie first 
 place. Christian poetry is more or less didactic ; it re- 
 jects accretions of wisdom in compact form, preferring 
 sermons instead. In the second place, with the 
 growth of a system of ethics and with the acceptance 
 of Christianity, the old maxims no longer insinuated 
 themselves into a literature which had its own doc- 
 trines. And, finally, it is to be remembered that the 
 older epics grew out of lays which arose among the 
 folk. Whatever the final manner of combining these 
 lays, folk philosophy was, at least in part, retained as 
 an essential flavor of the stories. Christian poetry 
 was composed by the educated class, the monks, who 
 turned, perhaps consciously, away from the philosophy 
 of the people for the wisdom of the prophets. 
 
 The only extant specimen of Anglo-Saxon poetry 
 in dialogue form which is didactic is paradoxically 
 enough a late Christian composition. Here and chere, 
 sliowing specific gnomic forms and set in a frame like 
 that of VafAnlMesmol, it is characteristically Germanic.
 
 INTRODUCTION 65 
 
 At the same time, as every one knows, the theme is 
 widespread, and the fact that the Anglo-Saxon ver- 
 sion is the oldest preserved and is Christian in the 
 main does not alter the truth that it is blended with 
 Rabbinical elements, that its origin is Eastern, and 
 perhaps that origin lies in the visit to Solomon of the 
 Queen of Sheba. 
 
 But Solomon and Saturn,^ though Oriental and 
 even Biblical, drew from Teutonic experience and 
 philosophy a number of gnomic sayings. Nor is it to 
 be marveled at that sententious expression, after a 
 period of decadence, appears rejuvenated in one par- 
 ticular poem. The framework, made for the riddle 
 contest, was such as to admit terse sentences, stray 
 bits of wisdom ; and the wonder would rather be if in 
 a poem universal in popularity no sayings peculiar to 
 the national life should have been incorporated. Ger- 
 manic wisdom in Solomon and Saturn has been 
 " touched up " by the Christian artist, but the original 
 picture is clear under the Christian varnish, in lines 
 such as these : 
 
 435 Wyrd biS wended hearde, wealleS swItJe geneahhe, 
 
 lieo wop wecetS, heo w€au hladet5, 
 heo gast seyS, heo ger byretJ : 
 And hwsetSre him imeg wissefa wyrda gehwylce 
 gemetigian, gif lie bit5 modes gleaw, 
 and to iiis freondum wile fultum secan 
 / Cell hwaiSre godcundes giestes brucan. 
 
 This passage seems to be a reminiscence of Beoivulf, 
 572, which has been modified here as in other poems 
 but with more elaboration : Fate, though hardly to be 
 
 ii?i7)., 32, 68ff.
 
 66 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON 
 
 turned aside, yet may be diverted by the wise of mind. 
 The conditions for tempering Fate, not imposed in 
 the heathen gnome, are that a man must be prudent, 
 seek aid from friends, and employ the divine spirit. 
 
 In 310 £f., we read a series of gnomes which are as 
 brief and pointed in form and as Teutonic in content 
 as a series of the Cotton Manuscript : ^ 
 
 Nieht bits wedera Slestrost, ned bi3 wyrda lieardost, 
 sorh bis swarost byrtSen, sliep bi?5 d6aSe gellcost. 
 
 Nor is there any ground for seeing influence of Chris- 
 tian doctrine in these lines: 
 
 360 Xe mffig mon for ildo cenige hwlle 
 
 tJone dSoran si5, ac h6 hine adrCogan sceall, 
 
 which contemplate the inevitableness of death and 
 the necessity of enduring it. Fate is in the foreground. 
 In other instances, the gnomic form associated with 
 Christian sentiment may appear. 
 
 224 Dol bits sC t5e gaiS on d6op wseter, 
 
 se t5e sund nafaS ne gesegled scip, 
 ne fugles flyht, ne he mid fotum ne mseg 
 grund geraicaii: huru sfi Godes cunnaS 
 ful dysllce dryhtnes meabta. 
 
 The dol &zcT gnome and its analogues have been noticed 
 as occurring in Christian passages.'^ 
 
 The smn type, which was postulated above as of 
 Eastern origin, occurs here in close connection with 
 the Deity. 
 
 342 Ac forliw5,m nSron eor5(we)lan ealle gedSled 
 
 leodum gellce? Sum to lyt hafatS 
 godes griiedig : hine God setetS 
 3urh geearnunga eudgum t6 rseste. 
 
 » Cf. 56, ff. « See pp. 42, 49, 132 (85a).
 
 INTRODUCTION 67 
 
 The distribution of worldly fortunes was a theme upon 
 which the Anglo-Saxons loved to speculate : they 
 assigned such distribution to God : since the Scriptures 
 contain references to good and perfect gifts coming 
 from above/ to various gifts from the same spirit, 
 and the like,^ it seems that this class of sententious 
 sayings arose in the Orient and passed through the 
 didactic books of the Old and the New Testaments, 
 whence it was disseminated among the Christian 
 Anglo-Saxons. 
 
 Of Christia,n origin seems to be the sentence formed 
 by 1816-182a: 
 
 Wyrs d65 sfi 5e llebtJ 0(53e tSges so^es ansaecetJ! 
 
 And finally, 349 : 
 
 UnliedQ bi8 and oriuOd sS iSe a wile 
 gComrian on gihtSa: s6 biS Gode fracotJast. 
 
 Better to avenge a friend than to mourn him, the 
 heathen adage runs ; mourn in spirit forever, and you 
 are rebellious to God, the later principle affirms. 
 According to the former ethics, conquer physically 
 and enjoy revenge ; according to Christianity, con- 
 quer your own soul and please God. 
 
 Two bits of folk wisdom have come down to us, 
 embedded in prose, independent of lyric or epic con- 
 nection and without further expansion. They are 
 often published apart from their context, and should 
 here be fixed in their proper places, both with respect 
 to orio-in and to rank as sententious material. 
 
 Of these, the first is the Death Speech of Bede,^ the 
 
 ^ James, I, 17. 2 1 Corinthians, loc. cit. 
 
 ' Of all the manuscripts, that at St. Gall, No. 254, is the oldest and 
 presumably the best. It dates from the ninth century, and is therefor©
 
 68 GNOinC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON 
 
 earliest gnomic expression for which a definite date 
 may be assigned, 735 a.d. The saying itself is doubt- 
 less much older, as the context seems to indicate. 
 For its preservation, we are indebted to Cuthbert, 
 disciple of Bede and afterward Abbot of Jarrow, who 
 included it in the letter he sent to Cuthwin detailing 
 the death of Bede. According to the St. Gall Manu- 
 script,^ the verses stand: 
 
 Yove there neidfserse nSnig uuirthit 
 thoncsnotturra than him thar[f] sie, 
 to ymbhycgannse, asr his hiniong[a]e 
 huffit his gastse, godaes seththa yflaes 
 asfter dCothdcege doemid uueorth[a]e.* 
 
 "but little later than the Northumbrian original. Besides another manu- 
 script at Vienna, there are many in England, a number of which I have 
 examined. There are two manuscript collections in which the letter 's 
 preserved : certain volumes of the Ilistoria Ecclesiastica, and Simeon of 
 Durham's Mistoj-y. For a list of printed versions, among which are differ- 
 ences similar to those in the maniLScripts, see Grund., p. 144. 
 
 i Cf. Oldest English Texts, H. Sweet, London, 1885, p. 149 ; Ubuugs- 
 buck, J. Zupilza, Wien, 181t7, s. 3. 
 
 - Before the necessary journey, no one becomes more wise of thought 
 than to him is ueedful, to search out before his going hence what wiU be 
 adjudged to his spirit after the day of death. 
 
 My own reading from Stowe 104 (twelfth or thirteenth century), with 
 variations from Anandel 74, is as follows : 
 
 Fori j,am2 ned fere ntl-ni wyr{>ej>8 
 t>ances snotera J>onne* him )>earf sT,^ 
 t5 gehicgenne Sr his hconen gauge,® 
 hwet his gaste gOdes ol^^e yfeles ' 
 ajfter dcW ^ heonen ^ dembe '" weor>e. 
 1 Ar. ffor. - MS. J^an. « MS. wyrl>ah, Ar. wir{>eh. * Ar. >oue 
 • Ar. sy. ® Ar. omits heonen gangehwet his. '' Ar. yvolys. * Ar. 
 dea>e. ' Ar. henon. i" Ar. demed. 
 
 Of other HE. -MSS. examined, two omit the Anglo-Saxon passage 
 altogether (Burney 297 ; folios 130a^l31a, and MS. 2-5014, folio 117) ; 
 another (Ilarleian 3G80, folio 174a) leaves a space of three lines as if to 
 include the speech after the words: " et in nra [nostra] quoq. "ingua 
 ut erat doctus in nrs. carminib[us]." Anotlier (Tiberius C. II) omits 
 the entire letter. Thia is to be regretted, since the MS. is one of the
 
 INTRODUCTION 69 
 
 Immediately preceding the lines, Cuthbert wrote: 
 " Et in nostra qiioque lingua, ut erat doctus in nostris 
 carminibiis, [dicens] de terribile exitu animarum e 
 corpore." As found in Simeon's Histonj of the Church 
 of Durham, the letter adds, after a similar statement 
 to the efitect that Bede gave utterance to some lines 
 composed in the Anglo-Saxon tongue : " Nam et tunc 
 hoc Anglico carmine componens, multum compunctus 
 aiebat." 
 
 . One of the best reasons for maintaining that Bede 
 quoted the verses instead of composing them lies in the 
 variety of these versions. Just as ballads are seldom 
 found in fixed form, but show variations even in the 
 same community, so the lines here are observed to 
 differ slightly, even in manuscripts not widely sepa- 
 rated in time. It would seem that the speech was so 
 familiar that each scribe wrote it as he knew it from 
 memory. Moreover, internal evidence favors em- 
 phasis of the lines : " as he was learned in our songs," 
 — for prudence and death, two favorite themes with 
 Germanic folk, here come together. As Wiilker re- 
 marks, this speech indicates that Bede had a great 
 love for the popular poetry of his people.^ 
 
 The second saying is published by the editors of 
 the Bihliothek ^ as a proverb of Winf rid's time. It 
 occurs in a letter ^ written by an unknown monk to 
 
 most important, dating from the eighth century and ranking with Cotton 
 A. XIV next to the best, More's, in the Cambridge Public Library. 
 Another (Tiberius A. XIV) is so damaged I make nothing of the lines. 
 Others, as the Royal of the thirteenth century, give the verses in Latin. 
 
 1 W. adds: "Dersolbe mag von Beda selbst gedichtet oder einem ihm 
 bekannten gedicl'te entnommen sein." — GrxtJid., p. 144. 
 
 '■* ^'pruch aus Win/rids Zeit, Bib., 2, 815. 
 
 8 MS. at Vienna.
 
 70 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON 
 
 Winfrid, Pope Boniface, the Northumbrian mission- 
 ary. Since Winfrid died in 755 a.d., the appearance 
 of the speech in literature is contemporaneous with 
 the one just discussed. It is preceded by the 
 words, " Memento Saxonicum verbum," which indi- 
 cate clearly enough that the quotation was in the 
 nature of a proverb. I transcribe the version from 
 the Bibliothek : ^ 
 
 Oft dit'dlata dome foreklit 
 
 sigistha galiuem : * suuyltit thl Sua.* 
 
 The interest in these two sayings lies in their early 
 form,^ their definite dating, and the fact that they 
 chanced to be lifted out of popular currency to an 
 abiding place in literature. 
 
 IV 
 
 In the ages that have elapsed since these saws, 
 meteorological observations and pointed sayings were 
 received as a heritage from the highest representa- 
 tives of wisdom, whether gods, men, or other earthly 
 creatures, — after this long time, the line of descent is 
 not easy to trace. By what professionally literary 
 spokesmen were gnomic verses fixed in forms some 
 of which yet survive ? The Old Norse bard and the 
 Anglo-Saxon scop or gleoman must have been responsi- 
 ble for those found in epics and lyrics. But strings of 
 
 1 For other versions, cf. Grund., p. 145. Cf. also notes in Bib. 
 
 2 gahuem, MS., pointing to nintli century. Cf. Sweet, op. cit., p. 162. 
 
 * Often the slow one loses by his delay in every successfal undertak- 
 ing ; therefore, he dies alone. 
 
 * The "spruch" is not Northumbrian: dfCdlata, as Sweet observes, 
 points to a West-Saxon original or a West-Saxon scribe.
 
 INTRODUCTION 71 
 
 gnomic veises, unconnected with narrative or elegiac 
 verse, existed both in Old Norse and in Anglo-Saxon, 
 as the HovarfLol and the Cotton Gnomes and the 
 Exeter Gnomes bear witness. If it be held that such 
 poems as these were felt to be lyric, then the ques- 
 tion is answered at once, as for all other lyric verse. 
 But gnomic verse was originally the expression of a 
 rudimentary philosophy, and it came, I believe, to 
 constitute a distinct type.^ 
 
 It may be objected that no aristocratic circle, or 
 for that matter any audience, would listen to didactic 
 remarks rolled off by elongated periods in a sonorous 
 voice ; that dullness would have debarred such a 
 recital. The first point arising in answer to such 
 objection is thnt in earliest times men voluntarily 
 listened to instruction and gave ear to wisdom for its 
 own sake.- But we may dismiss this epoch, an epoch 
 when riddle and charms and gnomic sayings were 
 fresh and new, and consider only that time when 
 fixed sententiousness characterized entertainment. 
 Proverbial lore, generalizations, dry as they may be, 
 are capable of numerous applications : a clever poet 
 might, by speaking mere conventional stereotyped 
 phrases, have kept his audience interested. It is 
 possible that the Beoimdf poet generalized with 
 concrete examples before him : for instance, when 
 he urged loyalty among kindred, detestation of 
 treachery, and the like ; although in this poem I 
 believe, as I have said above, that the generalizations 
 
 > " Spriiche " were said, not sung, says Weinhold, op. cit., p. 343. 
 
 ^ "Of one thing I am sure," says Professor Gummere in a private 
 letter, " the commonplace of pofjterity is often the oracular and startling 
 word of wisdom for the fathers."
 
 72 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON 
 
 are conventional, without intended application. In 
 later times, an ingenious poet has written a sequence 
 of stanzas composed of proverb after proverb ; ^ the 
 total is not altogether v/ithout picturesque interest, 
 for the reader looks through the eyes of the court 
 circle whom the jester addresses. " Platitudes can 
 be of intense interest if they approach our case," 
 remarks Mr. George Meredith,^ who in so saying but 
 echoes the words of Aristotle, " One great help 
 which maxims lend in speaking arises from the vul- 
 garity of the hearers [that is, their love of the 
 commonplace]. The}' are delighted when a general 
 statement of the speaker hits those ophiions which 
 they hold in a particular case." ^ 
 
 If it be granted, tentatively even, that gnomic 
 poems existed other than those left to us, it will 
 perhaps be conceded to be possible that having swung 
 into the circle of entertainment, they were spoken by 
 a wise man, an affectedly wise man, or finally, per- 
 haps, by one who bm-lesqued wisdom. If there were 
 no such figure on record, we might conclude that the 
 usual entertamer spoke lines befitting the ancient 
 greybeard, and mimicked an all-wise dwarj. But 
 there is an entertainer mentioned, in whose moith 
 such poetry is eminently fitting, the Pidr of Old 
 Norse, the Mjle of Anglo-Saxon. 
 
 I am not forgetful that "little definite is known 
 regarding the functions of the Northern )>ulr," and 
 
 1 The Jester's Sermon, cited from Thorabury's Songs of the Cavalien 
 and Boxindheads in The Court Fool, J. Doran, London, 1858, p. 97. 
 
 2 One of Our Conquerors, Revised Edition, 1903, p. 372. 
 
 » lihet., II, xri. Jebb's translation, Edition of Sandys, Cambridge, 
 1909, p. 115.
 
 INTRODUCTION 73 
 
 that it is held by some writers that " commentators 
 have regarded him too seriously." But among the 
 latest discussions, one by P. S. Allen,^ who dis- 
 misses him thus briefly, uses citations which seem to 
 me to operate against his point of view. It can do 
 no harm, at least, here to set forth what is known, 
 and to draw conclusions, conservatively as one must. 
 
 According to Cleasby-Vigfusson, 749, the word 
 pulr is defined, " A sayer of saws, a wise man, a 
 sage (a bard?). This word, the technical meaning 
 of which is not known, occurs on a Danish runic 
 stone — Hruhald's j)ular a Salhaugum. Thorsen 17." 
 Then follows a list of citations from the Edda where 
 the pair is referred to. Axel Olrik gives the brief 
 definition, " a preacher or moral teacher," " ein ver- 
 kiinder religioser oder moralischer lehren." ^ 
 
 But let us see what light we get from the occur- 
 rence of the word in the lays of the Edda, and let us 
 begin with the reference which might seem to indi- 
 cate that commentators have taken the /mlr too seri- 
 ously. After Sigurd has killed Fafnir, the first Pie 
 speaks of Regin as hdra pul (old gossip, — literally, 
 hoary counselor). ^ I take this to be a degenerate 
 meaning. A vvise man is old : * increase of age re- 
 sults gradually in decrease of vital wisdom : garrulity, 
 babbling, usurp the place of former wise sayings : the 
 title remains, howevsr, and" the wise man " is applied 
 
 1 The Mediceval Mimus, iu M. Ph., VII, 835. 
 
 * Nordisches Geistesleben, translated by W. Ranisch, Heidelberg, 
 1908, p. 113. 
 
 8 Ffifnesm'iil, stanza 34, S.-G., I, 330. 
 
 * The foul Starkad is designated by the epithet senex. Cf. Holder, op. 
 cit., pp. r.»0, l(t8, etc.
 
 74 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON 
 
 to one no longer ^vise. Hence, the garrulous Regin 
 is dubbed hdra /Ail by the ironic Pie. This is not 
 greatly different from the view of Ranisch,^ who 
 thinks the term here has become one of reproach, 
 that it mirrors the decline of the old singer's position 
 and of his loss in dignity. In Vafprupnesmol^. Odin 
 is named " old sage," gamle pulr^ by his opponent in 
 the riddle contest ; in HovamoL^ as master of runes 
 he is named " the mighty wise man," jivibolfoulr .'^ In 
 Hovamol^ also occurs the line, " Mt^l es at J^ylja f>ular 
 stole ^," indicating that the sage sat in a definitely 
 appointed seat. It is significant, moreover, that the 
 poem is thus labeled the product of a Mdr. Or if the 
 part of the poem in which this line occurs be held 
 a distinct production, the Lesson of Loddfafmr^ then 
 it is significant that the king's court contained just 
 such a man as the runic stone commemorates, a wise 
 man who counseled the monarch. According to 
 Sijmons-Gering," the Loddfafnesmol is the single 
 poem [among Eddie lays] for which we are to accept 
 a Pulr as author, — one of those people who exhibited 
 their experience and knowledge before the circle of 
 the prince and aristocracy. " lie warns against impru- 
 dence, gives rules for journey and drink, recommends 
 sincerity, friendship, generosity with measure, honor 
 to the old. He refers to himself and his calling in 
 
 1 Fddalieder, Leipzig, 1903, p. 11. 
 
 2 Stanza 8, S,-G., I, 5(3. 
 
 8 Stanza 142, S.-G., I, 49. 
 
 ♦ " ... und in diesem arat liegt 0)>inns rolle ala freund der skaiden 
 und ais gott der dichtkunst beschlossen." — Fr. Kauffinann, in Philolo- 
 gische Studien, Halle, 1890, p. 100. 
 
 6 Stanza 110, S.-G., I, 42. 
 
 * Op. cit., I, clxviii.
 
 INTRODUCTION 75 
 
 counseling against laughter as the gray /i/Z, since 
 
 wise words often come from the faltering lips of the 
 
 aged " : 
 
 at iK^rom ))ul hlse[)'u] aldrege, 
 
 opt's gdtt {>ats gamier kve)»a ; 
 
 opt 6r skQipom belg skilen orp koma.* 
 
 Miillenhoff, who first considered at length the func- 
 tions of the puUr, seems to be right in concluding 
 that runes, chann-songs, and incantations, — all old 
 knowledge, — belonged preeminently to a branch of 
 these wise folk ; but he goes too far in asserting that 
 they were the fosterers of the entire poetic remains 
 of the North.2 His view meets with flat contradic- 
 tion in the '.vork of Sijmons-Gering.' 
 
 Mogk, in summarizing and commenting on Mlil- 
 lenhoff's attempt to differentiate the pulr from the 
 skald, observes that the oldest Norse understood the 
 fiulr to be a man who distinguished himself through 
 wise sayings, resting on tradition or experience* He 
 remarks that the difference between the lays of the 
 Edda and the sagas is mainly that the former deal in 
 myth and phantasy, the latter in history. Therefore, 
 he says, since the Eddie lays contain more or less 
 mythologic and worldly wisdom, we might as well 
 name then poets pidir. At the same time, he thinks 
 it questionable whether the Icelanders had this des- 
 ignation for their poets : in one definite instance 
 
 1 S.-G., I, 47. 
 
 2 D.A.K., V, 280-290. 
 
 8". . . dass 'auch die heldendichtung in den alten- bereich der 
 >>ulir 'gelidrt habe, ist uneriaubt." — Op. cit., I, clxvii. 
 
 * " Wer also dii weisheit frUlierer geschlechter in poetischer form 
 llberliefert, istein>alr." — Oeschichte der N'orwegisch-Isldndischen Lit- 
 eratur, Stni83burg,"1004, p. 21.
 
 76 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON 
 
 ( VoJsunga Saga, Chapter XXX) the poet of the Eddie 
 lays is named skald, and since the work of the sagas 
 \a not vastly dissimilar from that in the Edda, 
 ^ve may conclude that the />idir were simply, the 
 sl'alds.^ 
 
 Now, Mullenholl's belief that all the old lays are 
 due to the />idir, and Mogk's opinion that the Aidir were 
 the same as the skalds seem to need revision. The 
 Aidr may have been no more than a skald, as Mogk 
 thinks, — but if so, then I believe he was a definite 
 kind of skald, — one who preserved the wise sayings 
 of the people, gnomic wisdom arising from tradition 
 and experience, but not all mythology and phantasy. 
 If, then, the />ulr was this definitely limited skald, ob- 
 ^dously he is not to be accredited, as Miillenhoff con- 
 cludes, with the composition of the entire Edda. 
 
 Let us see whether we get any light by a consideration 
 of the Anglo-Saxon pijle. fyle is defined by Bosworth- 
 Toller, p. 1084, as " orator, statesman." That he v/as 
 a wise man also is revealed in the first citation, 
 from Liher Scintdlamm,- p. 119, 1.3 : " GelSred ))yle 
 fela spaJca mid eawum wordum geopenaj>" which is the 
 gloss to " doctus orator plures sermones paucis verbis 
 aperit." A reference, without doubt, to sententious 
 speaking, even if "orator "be construed without the pos- 
 sible connotation in " doctus." Besides /•yle as a proper 
 
 1 " Werden danu weiler dichtor der Eddalieder als sk&ld, skalden al9 
 >ulir bezeicbnet, so kanu zwiscben beiden auch kein standesunterschied 
 gewesen sein." — Op. ciL, p. 22. 
 
 2 Cf. E. E. T. S., XCIII. The Liber is of the eighth century, a date 
 not inliarmonious with other details that point to the time of composition of 
 gnomic verses in Anglo-Saxon. That is, just such a " doctas orator " aa 
 i5 here glossed "geh'Grcd )>yle " may have recited the verses \:\ the eighth 
 century, and they may have been written down but very little later.
 
 INTRODUCTION 77 
 
 name in Widsithy^ we ^nd the word in Beowulf yV^here 
 Unferth, " yle Hrothgares," is mentioned several 
 times. In lines 499-500 and 1166-1167, he is placed 
 at the feet of the monarch, and he is again referred 
 to in 1457. It was evidently his duty to lead the 
 conversation, since he is the only one of the courtiers 
 who crossed words \\ith Beowulf, as he did in taunt- 
 ing Beowulf over his swimming match with Breca. 
 Unferth is hardly the sco]? of Hrothgar, who recites 
 a lay 1065-1160, just before the second mention of 
 the />i/le ; nor is he, apparently, the poet of line 4966- 
 497a. He was a contentious hero, grudging Beowulf 
 his fame ; he had not behaved well toward his relations, 
 and yet he was a man in whom the king and queen 
 placed confidence.' 
 
 As professional orator and counselor, the Ayle of 
 the seventh and eighth centuries probably occupied an 
 important position at court. It is likely, according to 
 the comment of Sijmons-Gering, that the Old Norse 
 />ulir also formed part of the retinues of little princes 
 and chiefs.^ Men of experience, skilled in relations 
 of actual life, familiar with the wisdom of the time, 
 
 1 24 : {:^eodric wCold Froncuin, Jjyle llondinginn. It is possible, however, 
 that the correct translation of this line may be : " Theodric ruled the spear- 
 men, pyle (Ills retainer) the shieldmen." " Now both the treacherous 
 Iring and the nameless faithful counsellor seem to belong to the class of 
 retainer known in Old English society a.s thyle : the professional orator 
 andcouiisellor. . . . It is, therefore, remarkable, as Miillenhoff noted long 
 ago, . . . that in our list thyle of the Rondings is coupled with Theodric 
 of the Franks. Thyle as a prope.- name is in any case strange enough : 
 can we interpret it as referring to the faithful counsellor of the Thuringian 
 war? " — R. W. Chambers, op. nit., p. 114. 
 
 '^Cf. MiillcnhojJ', op. cU., I, 26 fl., and A. Olrik, Datxmarka Jleltedigt- 
 ning, I. 25 ff. 
 
 " Op. fit., I, clxix.
 
 78 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON 
 
 especially -^itli the mythological treasure of wisdom, 
 they were spokesmen on solemn occasions, and guard- 
 ians of spiritual interests. And, above all, the begin- 
 nings of mythologic and gnomic poetry may have 
 arisen from their circle.^ 
 
 With regard to the form, it is always to be remem- 
 bered that '•' gnomic verse " may refer to poetic com- 
 positions, not necessarily gnomic in the sense in which 
 the word has hitherto been used in this introduction. 
 
 1 The position of Unferth at the king's feet, his character, and his style 
 of conversation are characteristics not dissimilar to those of the later court 
 fools. 
 
 There is a questionable piece of evidence, which strengthens this obser- 
 vation, one which if unquestioned would put the resemblance a,bove mere 
 coincidence. In Wriglit-Wtilker's Vocabularies, occurs the Latin " de 
 scurris," glossed by " hof ^V'lum." If this word may be read de scurris = 
 of'^dum (= t^yjinn) or hoftSijlnm, Rosworlh-ToUer concludes that the 
 function of the pyle may have been something like that of the later court 
 jester, " and moreover tlie attack of Unferth on Beowulf hardly contradicts 
 the supposition." This is not the place to enter into the hisloiy of the 
 court fool ; but a few examples may be adduced to show a possible con- 
 nection between him and the pyle ov pulr. (Some writers maintain that 
 skalds degenerated into court fools : the resemblances I observe hold, of 
 course, for skalds, if the /)uUr are not marked out as a distinct class of 
 skalds. My point is that the old speaker of wise sayings shows kinship 
 with the jester. ) 
 
 In As Ton Like It, Act III, scene 2, Touchstone answers sententiously 
 Corin's question, " — how do you like this shepherd's life ? " and in turn 
 ends his speech with the words, " Hast any philosophy in thee, shepherd? " 
 Touchstone himself is a philosopher : he makes rhymes ; he remembers 
 old verses ; he is "swift and sententious." In Tioelfth Xight, the clown 
 Feste preaches and quotes Latin ; in Beaumont and Fletcher's Villio or 
 The Double Marriage, there is also a philosophical fool. Like the didactic 
 speakers in Old Norse, these fools say with impunity what they will to 
 their superiors. 
 
 Since it is futile, however, to look for an unbroken line of descent, or to 
 attempt to find in a later office the exact counterpart of an earlier one, we 
 may remark two other conclusions : resemblances between //yle and fool 
 may lie in their official positions rather than in tlieir expressions ; resem- 
 blances are found between counselors^ of the later time and those of the 
 earlier period, — for example, Polonius might fittingly illustrate a latter 
 day, somewhat degenerate />ulr.
 
 INTRODUCTION 79 
 
 Metrically, Ilovam^l^ VafintAnesmol, AUissmoly and 
 Grimnesmol, to name no other Old Norse poems, are 
 all gnomic. That is to say, just as elegiac verse, 
 the strain of lament, was used in Greece by 
 Solon for the enunciation of moral sentences, so in 
 Old Norse hymnic verse was adapted to gnomic utter- 
 ance. And just as this Greek paroemiac verse, or 
 verse used for the expression of proverbs, consisted of 
 & distich made by combining a hexameter Hne with a 
 following pentameter line, so gnomic verse in Old 
 Norse consisted of a long line followed by a short 
 line: the Ijodahdttr couplet.^ Since gnomic verse 
 meter is closely related to that which lies at the 
 foundation of the Greek hexameter, it is possible that 
 the form is a heritage of the Indo-Germanic period. 
 
 Now, just as the hexameter in Greece ultimately 
 came to be regarded the most popular form for moral 
 verses, so the long line was preferred in Anglo-Saxon, 
 even an extended line. The Cotton and Exeter 
 gnomes show a large percentage of extra feet. Yet 
 even in Anglo-Saxon the short line was occasionally 
 used,2 and sometimes the Ijo'Jahdttr, as in Old Norse. 
 
 But gnomic sentences are probably not the earliest 
 province of this verse, at least in Teutonic literature. 
 It is found in the Wessohrunner Gehet, and in the 
 oldest Anglo-Saxon Charms, and is used more in the 
 Edda for the hymnic lyric than for gnomic poetry.' 
 
 * " . . . with the same effect of clinching the meaning of the first line." 
 — W. P. Ker, Epic and Romance, London, 1897, p. 150. 
 
 2 See pp. 120, 126, 120. 
 
 ' A further discussion of gnomic verse measure would be dispropor- 
 tionate. But for the benefit of those interested in pursuing the investiga- 
 tion, I append the following bibliography : tjber Germanischen Versbau,
 
 80 GNOMIC PEOTRY IN ANGLO-SAXON 
 
 In this introduction I have indicated that the 
 gnomic saying is a universal form of literature, which, 
 in its earliest expression among Germanic peoples 
 — like riddle and charm — celebrates phenomena of the 
 natural world. In the second place, it is employed 
 for purposes of teaching : it promulgates px'inciples 
 of law and morality ; in short, is the vehicle of the 
 ethical code. Preliminary to the collections from 
 Anglo-Saxon poetry, I have drawn examples from the 
 Eddie lays of Gods and heroes and have tabulated 
 the subjects of which they treat. Early heathen 
 poetry of the Anglo-Saxons, whether epic or lyric, 
 reveals a similar list of subjects, as the citations and 
 summaries show. Prominent are gnomes on caution 
 and courage, woes and wisdom of men, the value of 
 friends and the inevitability of fate. Poetry in which 
 ecclesiastical writers had a hand also contains gnomes, 
 though the gnomic form is often weakened by append- 
 ages of Christian doctrine. Gnomic material found 
 in Christian didactic poetry appears to be a heritage 
 from the East, but sententious elements in narra- 
 tive poetry — Exodus, Daniel, Andreas, for instance 
 — bear unmistakable similarity to earlier gnomes of 
 Germanic origin. Such poems were evidently com- 
 posed by writers who were at once familiar with the 
 old moral truths and the new theology. In some 
 cases the ethical codes were not dissimilar, in some 
 instances they closely resembled each other, in other 
 instances the two systems were reconciled by the poet. 
 
 A. Heusler, Berlin, 18U4, pp. 93 G. Der LjupaMltr, eine metrische 
 Untersiichung, A. lleusler, Berlin, 1889. t/ber tStil und Typns der isl&n- 
 dischen Saga, Doring, Leipzig, 1877, pp. 31-40. Meyer, op. cit., pp. 326 ff. 
 Koegel, op. cit., pp. 06 ff.
 
 INTRODUCTION 81 
 
 He added to such heathen sayings as " Many are the 
 woes of men," the injunctions to prepare for death, to 
 escape tlie yawning pit, to be ready for the judgment. 
 With the increase of sermonizing, there resulted a 
 corresponding decrease of gnomic expression. 
 
 And having reached these conclusions, we may turn 
 to the more minute study of the Gnomic Verses,
 
 DETAILED ':;ONS I DERATION OF EXETER 
 GNOMES AND COTTON GNOMES 
 
 I 
 
 Exeter Gnomes 
 
 Beginning slightly below the middle of folio 88b, 
 the gnomic poems of the Exeter Book extend through 
 92a, with an overflow of five words on 92b. Respec- 
 tively preceding and following the collection are the 
 Various Fortunes of Men and the Wonders of Creation. 
 Distinct headings indicate three divisions (in this 
 work A, B, and C), the first word of each being writ- 
 ten in Roman square capitals with a large initial letter. 
 Between conseciitive divisions occurs the usual space 
 of two lines. The Hiberno-Saxon palaeography belongs 
 probably to the middle of the eleventh century,^ about 
 the time Bishop Leofric was transferred from Crediton 
 to Exeter, or shortly after his domiciliation in the 
 latter town. Among the books he gave to the 
 Cathedral, this volume was one prepared in all likeli- 
 hood under his immediate supervision. It is the work 
 of one scribe throughout, therefore the folios here un- 
 der consideration exhibit characteristics that are found 
 in the manuscript as a whole.''* 
 
 1 " Aufange des 11 jahrhunderta," Schipper, op. cit., p. 327 ; Wlilker, 
 G-rund, p. 223 ; but Thorpe places it in ihe 10th century, op. eit., p. v ; 
 and cf, GoUancz, Cynewulfs Christ, London, 1892, p. xxi. 
 
 '^ As 1 for and, u for um, etc. 
 
 83
 
 84 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON 
 
 Although these folios have not excited the vivid 
 interest that other parts of the book have aroused, yet 
 a certain recognition has been granted them from the 
 time of the first modern mention of the manuscript. 
 Hickes observed preliminary to his transcript of lines 
 72-144 that they are similar to the dithyramb (sic) of 
 the Cotton Manuscript, " baud dissimile," though cor- 
 rupt at the beginning and the end.^ Wanley, in his 
 fantastic summary, grouped folios 84b-98 as Liber IX, 
 and naively noted, " fere totus est in aenigmatibus." ^ 
 J. J. Conybeare, though following Wanley's arbitrary 
 division of the folios, criticized this description as ap- 
 plying correctly to no part of Liber IX;^ but as hav- 
 ing been suggested by the obscurity and difficulty 
 of its actual contents/ He accompanied his tran- 
 scription of lines 72-84 with a fair Latin and a- 
 wretched English translation.^ In classing the verses 
 as moral and didactic,'' tlie editor, W. D. Conybeare, 
 seems to have been the first critic to apply a distinctive 
 title. He characterized them as a " series of maxims 
 and descriptions, thrown together with little or no 
 connection, in the manner of the gnomic poetry of 
 the Greeks ; or . . . resembling the . . . Book of 
 Proverbs." 
 
 Thorpe particularized Conybeare's generalization, 
 by observing that the gnomic verses are akin to the 
 Sentences of Theognis and the Works and Days of 
 Hesiod, but he did not regard them as descended 
 from the Greeks. He thought, rather, these " similar 
 
 1 Op. cit., I, 221. 2 7?„i2., II, 279. « Op. cit., p. 204. 
 
 * These are ]Vidsith, Fortunes, Gnomes, Wonders of Creation, Riming 
 Poem, Panther, UTiaZe, Fragment. 
 
 6 Op. cit., p. 228. « Ibid.y p. Ixxi.
 
 EXETER GNOMES AND COTTON GNOMES 85 
 
 productions of the ancient world originated in a state 
 of society common to every people at a certain period 
 of civilization," ^ a view consistent with scholarly 
 opinion to-day. Thorpe further observed that they 
 are of a class similar to the Hgvamol ; so far as 
 I have noticed he was the first to make the com- 
 parison. Ettmiiller printed lines 61-71, 72-138, 
 139-192 under the title Ealdcvidas,^ for the first time 
 bringing the Cotton G-nomes and Exeter Gnomes under 
 one heading. In his preface,'^ he classes them as 
 ^'carmina popularia" under the broader title " Car- 
 jiiina quae feruntur didactica." ^ His notes and 
 emendations are here and there helpful ; but in places 
 they do violence to the text.^ 
 
 After Ettmiiller, besides those editors and critics 
 mentioned in connection ^\ith the Cotton GnoDies, 
 other scholars have incidentally dropped a word here 
 and there or written a brief paragraph or two regarding 
 the Exeter material. Their several contributions will 
 be dulv noted under the consideration of date and 
 authorship. 
 
 As others have stated, analysis of the contents re- 
 veals only an embryonic organism, an organic struc- 
 ture probably more fancied than real, a creation of the 
 reader rather than of the writer. But such analvsis 
 may at least find the elements out of which the 
 gnomes were fashioned. 
 
 I 1 Op. cif., p. v=ii. 2 (>,. crt., p. 280. 8/6id., p. xix. 
 
 * Further : " proverbiorum collectiones nominandae sunt, varia pro- 
 vcrbia alliterationis tantum vinculo conjuucta continentis." 
 
 * Moreover, the typography abounds in errors.
 
 86 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON 
 
 The beginning, "Question me skilfully," morien- 
 tarily promises a riddle contest such as is found in 
 Vafpni/Mesmql, Almssmql, Solomon and SaturUy or 
 Tragemundslkd ; at least, a reader expects question 
 and answer. But there are no questions, unless they 
 are implicit or have become absorbed. " God shall 
 first be praised," for example, may have been given in 
 reply to the query, " Who shall first be praised ? " and 
 so on for the other statements. In an older version 
 there may have been volleys of question and answer 
 resulting in a poem of dual nature, such as the dra- 
 matic beginning anticipates. Later, the dialogue 
 may have been discarded and only the contents pre- 
 served. Again, it may be that instead of question 
 and answer, the poem showed a gnomic see-saw of 
 two wise men balancing their wisdom.^ Such a view 
 is not improbable: the utterance of proverbs or 
 maxims demanded the same brain-play as did the 
 
 1 This is the view held by Mlillcr (cf. op. cit., p. 13 ff.) who teases 
 out tlie fibrils of speeches, duly assigning them to Speaker 1 and Speaker 
 2. His arguments for two speakers are : 1. The antithetic character of 
 the speeclies as a natural development in speech between two persons ; 
 2. the expansion of themes sounded by one and taken up by the other. 
 Admitting the difficulty of giving an accurate interpretation of the dia- 
 logue, he makes the attempt. For instance, A begins : Frige mec, etc. 
 B continues, ne Ixt . . . ge/>ohtas. A begins, Gliawe men. ... B 
 takes it up, God sceal vion . . . and develops the idea in lines 6 and 6. 
 It will be observed that Mliller looks upon the beginning as an essential 
 part of the whole. I do not see how it is possible to agree absolutely 
 with his attributions, even if one were disposed to accept his theory. 
 Can anything but arbitrariness mark off so much for Speaker A or 
 Speaker B ? IMoreover, his argument for two speakers is weak. Anglo- 
 Saxon verse is by nature antithetic, and expansion may be due to poetic 
 elaboration of prose maxims and to interpolations.
 
 EXETER GNOMES AND COTTON GNOMES 87 
 
 propounding and solution of riddles.* On the whole, 
 however, I am inclined to agree with Rieger, Strobl,^ 
 and Brandl in thinking that the beginning frame- 
 work, though suggestive of tongue-play or a " flyt- 
 ing," was given up almost at once. In the first place, 
 there is no sound argument that one can adduce 
 fi'om the content for the presence of two speakers ; in 
 the second place, the poem seems to indicate an exer- 
 cise of verse technic built out of gnomic material. 
 The ^ilir of the Old Norse recited proverbs and 
 oracles as well as songs from their position in the 
 royal hall ; the Anglo-Saxon /^yJe may have used this 
 introduction as a playful dramatic device for establish- 
 ing a bond between him and his audience.^ It is 
 also to be remembered that personal references are 
 numerous in Anglo-Saxon poetry, as in Seafarer, TJie 
 Banished Wifes Lament, TJie Husband's Message, and 
 Widsilh; also that notwithstanding attempts to make 
 balanced lays or dialogue poems out of the first 
 
 ^ Cf. Some Forms of the Riddle Question and the Exercise of the Witt 
 in Popular Fiction and Formal Literature, R. Schevill, Berkeley, Cal.^ 
 1911. See esp. pp. 204-205. 
 
 2 Strobl sees a strong contrast between the introduction and the rest 
 of the poem. He thinks the former to be the beginning of a *• wettlied," 
 which the gnome collector prefixed to his verses, and that it i» 
 unlikely that a poet would compose an introduction which stands in such 
 total opposition to the sequence. Ke thinks, however, that the first four 
 lines prove the existence of balanced poems in AS. literature. Brandl 
 seems to difler but slightly from this point of view in remarking that the 
 start of a dialoguo between two wise men " ohne weiteres vergessen 
 wird." 
 
 * Merbot thinks ttie beginning of a riddle contest is indicated, and that 
 gid may signify " riddle," but he adds : " Doch macht die vielbedeutigkeit 
 von gid diese au.slcgung zweifelhaft, denn man konnte gid an eben dieser 
 Btelle in einer andern ihra eigentUralichen bedeutung, ausspruch, weisheits- 
 spruch fassen." — Aesthetische Studien zur angelsdchsischen Poesie^. 
 Breslau, 1883, p. 20.
 
 88 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON 
 
 named, and to relate the Lament and the Message as 
 parts of a whole, so far the idea of one speaker in the 
 Seafarer has the balance of authority, the love lyrics 
 are taken as individual units, and the personal ele- 
 ment is regarded as dramatic appeal to the reader. 
 Widsith is not without his value in the history of the 
 drama.^ 
 
 Lines 1-36 Strobl marks off as " geistliche spriiche." 
 Brandl observes that 46-138 are Christian with inci- 
 dental "bekllmpfung" of the heathen. ^ Miiller sees 
 two large sections : 1-44 ; 45-72. God is dominant 
 in the first, his power and man's trausitoriness are ac- 
 cented ; the relations of human beings to one another 
 are defined in the second, — God is not mentioned.^ 
 
 If we break up the group more minutely, the mix- 
 ture of heathen and Christian elements will become 
 more apparent. 46-18a show Christian influence : 
 God is " our Father ; " he is not affected by the Fates, 
 disease, nor age; he is the Ahnighty. 186-25a are 
 old gnomes ■* wherein objects and qualities are paired : 
 the wise shall meet with the wise ; the useful shall 
 be with the useful ; two shall be mates. 256-34 re- 
 flect on the passing of things earthly and the omni- 
 science of God, who alone knows whence disease 
 comes, who decreases the cliildren of earth that there 
 
 » The Mediivval ^'(arje, E. K. Cliaiubor.s, Oxford, 11)03, I, 28 ff. 
 
 * Op. cit., p. 0(50. Ho divides the Exeter Gnomes iuto two parts: 
 1-1. -58 ; 130-20(5. 
 
 8 05). cit., p. 10. 
 
 * It is always to be remembered, however, in Anglo-Saxon as in 
 Greek Gnomic Poetr)', " neither commoii])hice nor di.sconnection are suf- 
 ficient proof of spuriousuess, and ajjain no line i.s more likely to l)e 
 foisted in than a really good and striking line." — Cf. Social Greece, J. P. 
 Mahaffy, 1874, p. 83.
 
 EXETEa GNOMES AND COTTON GNOMES 89 
 
 may be room for the increase. 35-67 may be 
 grouped together, inasmuch as they are gnomes dealing 
 with humanity : the foohsh man is defined, the wise, the 
 rich, the poor, the happy (35-39a); a little discourse 
 on the sorrows of the blind man follows (392>-44). 
 
 With the exception of lSb-25a, these lines are, I 
 believe, the expression of a Christian writer. Eadig 
 (37) suggests "blessed," rather than "wealthy" (cf. 
 108, 157), a meaning acquired under the influence of 
 Christianity.^ The tone of the line and its neighbors, 
 as Brandl suggests, is that of the Sermon on the 
 Mount. The one God, whether mcotucl (29), dryhten 
 (35) or waldend (43), is evidently the God of the 
 Christians, not Woden nor another. 
 
 From 44 on, however, the tone is changed. " Lef 
 mon Iteces behofaS " thrusts a gnomic head from the 
 mists of ancient times.^ The training of the young 
 man is enjoined (456-50). " The strong of mind shall 
 govern" (51rt) precedes a passage on stormy weather, 
 which, in turn, leads to a comparison between calm 
 seas and people without strife (51Z>-58). Brandl 
 remarks that 58-71 appear to be a fragment out of 
 the courtly heroic time : " Strong men are bold by 
 nature" (59a), " A king is desirous of power" (596), 
 antithesis between giver and taker of land (60),' 
 
 'Cf. McGillivr.'iy, The Inllucnce of Christianity on the Vocabulary of 
 Old English, Ihille, 11)02, p."l51. 
 
 2 Cf. " Sick inou are for skilful leeches, prodigals for prisoning, fools 
 for teachers." — From the Jlilopadesa, translated by Sir Edwin Arnold, 
 op. cit.y p. 03. It is interesting to observe that in this speech, teachers 
 are placed near leeches. Cf. ioa and 456. 
 
 * Conquered land was at first shared ; later the king took a special 
 part for hiiuself. — EecktsalterthUmer, Grimm, 24(3 £f. Cited by Gum- 
 mere, Germanic Origins, p. 21)0.
 
 90 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON 
 
 matching of glory and pride, the bold and the brave 
 (61), places of the leader, the cavalry, and the infantry 
 (63-G4a). A passage on woman follows (64&-G6), 
 which throws light on her position and standing 
 among Germanic tribes, and is in keeping with tne 
 reports of Tacitus and others. The shamed man is 
 contrasted with the pure man (67). 68-71 are of 
 the highest antiquity, as the roughly sketched picture 
 indicates : the prince is on the high seat surrounded 
 by his comitatus or " gesiSmcegen," the treasure (of 
 golden armlets and beakers) awaits distribution. As 
 each man receives his share, the hand of the ruler is 
 laid upon his head. Concerning the dignity of 
 chiefs, which was ranked according to number and 
 strength of the comitatus, see Gerraania, XIII : 
 " Haec dignitas haj vires, magno semper electorum 
 juvenum globo circumdari, in pace decus in bello 
 prtesidium. Nee solum in sua gente cuique, sed 
 apud finitimas quoque civitates id nomen, ea gloria 
 est, si numero ac virtute comitatus emineat : ex- 
 petuntur enim legationibiis, et muneribus ornantur, 
 et ipsa plerumque fama bella profligant." 
 
 B 
 
 72-78a are gnomes on the seasons, which recall 
 Gn. C, 36-8. 72«, 726, 73a, are, probably, examples 
 of most primitive gnomic expression. This fact ap- 
 pears to be further established by the number of 
 seasons. Whereas in Gn. C, four parts of the year 
 are distinguished, here the old Germanic division into 
 two parts only is manifest: "winter shall go, fair
 
 EXETER GNOMES AND COTTON GNOMES 91 
 
 weather, summer-liot, return." ^ 78-81 are unrelated 
 sayings, cleverly dovetailed, without embellishment, 
 to meet the exigencies of verse. 79 seems half to 
 reveal and half conceal an allusion to the nether 
 world of the Teutons, who held the grave to be the 
 starting point of the underground way to hell. 82-104 
 treat largely of women : 82-93 deal with the duties of 
 king and queen, the latter being in the foreground ; ^ 
 956-100 form the famous " Frisian woman " passage. 
 Morley thinks it may have been a snatch of sailor 
 song; in any case, it reflects the evidently notable 
 domestic felicity of that particular tribe.^ 94-9 5a 
 are out of context : "a ship shall be nailed,* a shield 
 bound." That is, the shield shall be bound with hides. 
 Compare with this description, Tacitus, Annals, 11, 
 14: "ne scuta quidem ferro nervove firmata, sed 
 viminum textus vel tennis et fucatas colore tabulas." 
 The use of iron was litt'ic known among the early 
 
 1 On division of the year, cf. Oermania, XXVI ; further P. Chantepie 
 de la Sausiraye, op. cit., p. 380. 
 
 " On the pu-chaae of women, Tacitus says, Oermania, XVlII, that the 
 woman was bought honorably with a dowry of oxen, bridled horse and 
 shield, with spear cr sword. Just as those gifts were intended to sym- 
 bolize her part in domestic life and on the battlefield — for in the older 
 times she often accompanied her husband — so ihe armlets and beakers 
 appear to symbolize a later state of society in which the activity of woman 
 was more highly specialized, diversely from that of man. As the warrior 
 is to be valorous, so is his wife to be blithe of spirit in the banquet hall, 
 whether giving treasure or serving her lord with the first tumbler of wine. 
 At the same time, the old idea, of equality is present ; they two shall hold 
 counsel together, 
 
 « To sell wife or child was a iast resort with the Frisians. Cf. Tacitus, 
 ' Ann., LV, 72. Quoted by Gumnere, Oermanic Origins, p. 185. 
 
 * Cf. Meyer, op. cit., p. 4'.)2 : •■ Wir sehen nun hier auf das deutlichste, 
 ■ wie das epitheton die gewiinschte beschaffenheit des hauptworts voraus- 
 nimmt. Es hiess hier, 'das schiff soli genagelt sein ' — und ' nagled 
 Bcip' iat eine poetische formel."
 
 ♦92 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON 
 
 ,-Gennans, although it will be remembered, Becwnlf, go- 
 ing to fight the dragon, had an iron shield made aa an 
 ,.extra precaution. ^ 101-103 comment on faithful and 
 unfaithful women: the woman shall hold troth with 
 .her man. Lack of fidelity among the early Teutons was 
 punished severely. Tacitus says,^ "for a woman who 
 sells her chastity there is no pardon." At the time 
 •the gnomes were written, inconstancy had probably 
 become more common or the punishment had become 
 softened. The lines seem to indicate this double 
 .condition. If the penalty was as hard as in the earlier 
 days, why the mention of the small item that a woman 
 is thought of contemptuously, in case of defamation ? 
 And she enjoys strange men when the husband is far 
 away : a derogatory comment, but not indicating 
 -that death follows upon the misdemeanor. 104- 
 111 form a group which continues the idea ad- 
 vVanced in the " Frisian woman " passage, in showing 
 the desii'e of the man at sea to return to his home and 
 in declaring his need of wood and water. 112-1 15a 
 assert the necessity of being fed, and it is significant 
 that meat is synecdoche for food (cf. modern bread, 
 or bread and meat). Here and in 125 it may be that 
 a figurative notion is altogether lacking. Starkad 
 says, '•' The food of valiant men is raw . . . the flesh 
 of rams and swine." ^ 1155-117 have to do with grue- 
 some admonitions about burial of the dead. I see in 
 117 an echo of the custom set forth by Tacitus in 
 Germania XII, where he says, " Crimes ought to have 
 
 1 Cf. lines 2338 ff. 2 Qermania, XIX. 
 
 « The Indo-Europeans all make their appearance in history as meat- 
 eating peoples.
 
 EXETER GNOMES AND COTTON GNOMES 03 
 
 public punishment, shameful offences ought to be con- 
 cealed." ^ 118-13G are similar to 786-81 in being 
 • distinct gnomtjs fitted together. 118, 1196-120a, 121, 
 122, — these have the tone of old proverbs, the 
 rhyme and compactness of form indicate the shaping 
 and polish of time. The few adornments in the lines 
 are only such as are necessary to hold together the 
 verse scheme. 130-138 form the close, which is 
 obviously the work of a Christian redactor.^ The 
 "Woden passage is one of the few allusions in (extant) 
 .Anglo-Saxon poetry to the gods worshipped by the 
 . ancient Germans. Line 138 concludes this division in 
 true homiletic fashion. 
 
 With the exception of the Christian touches at the 
 "beginning and the end, this division is almost entirely 
 ' heathen. The hand of the monk is patent in the 
 Klines declaring God's power over winter and over 
 Woden. I do not agree with Brandl in thinking]: new 
 ; and old are interwoven throughout. In ■ the first 
 place, there is no other mark of Christian influence; 
 'in the second place, the material is less didactic. All 
 
 - old gnomes are descriptive rather than imperative;" 
 
 - the picture, not the command, prevails here. 
 
 ^ " Ignavoa et ijnbelles, et ccrpore infames, coena ac palude, injecta 
 ;■ iusuper crate, mergunt." 
 
 ^ II:T;Se7i, a new formation before 450 a.u., took the place of paganus, 
 . Samaritanus. On this word, an etymological problem, see McGillivray, 
 . op. cit., p. 14, note 2. 
 
 8 t' — viel weniger befehlend, al3 beschreibend." Meyer, op. cit., 
 p. 44. Cf. also Brooke, who translates 11. 72-79, 82-93, and 12»>-132 aa 
 , the oldest of the Exeter Gnomes. — English Literature from the Beginning 
 J. to the Norman Conquest, New York, 1808, p. 317.
 
 94 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON 
 
 The third and last division Brandl calls a spielmans 
 spruch} Miiller observes that singer and soldier are 
 in the foreground ^ and suggests that the lay may 
 have been sung on the battlefield, by a minstrel to 
 the soldiers. He was a Christian singer, who sought 
 to palliate war and to excuse it, and he does so by 
 the passage on the Cain-Abel feud. 
 
 Analysis of the division discloses resemblance to 
 Old Norse verse, both in matter and manner.^ 
 
 139, 140, 141, 144 form a formjr(5islag strophe ; * 
 145 has a parallel in Ilqvamql 42, " to his friend a 
 man should be a friend";^ 146 contains an idiom 
 probably a direct borrowing from the Icelandic : fere^ 
 feor hi tune is explained by fara um tiin, to pass by 
 a house ; the whole line is akin to Hovamol 34, " the 
 digression is great to (the home of) a false friend, 
 even if he dwell on the way." ^ 147-152 comment on 
 the fate of the man, who, friendless, takes wolves for 
 comrades. This subject, the friendless man, is con- 
 stantly appearing in early literature. In a state of 
 society where the family or clan are of much impor- 
 tance, the homeless one is without protection of law. 
 
 1 Cf. Rieger : " Das anziehende der kleinem dichtungen liegt, abgeseben 
 Ton ihrern inhalt, darin dass die uns die Alte volksmiissige iibung der dicht- 
 kunst vor augen fiibren, wonach der siinger in der halle versaaimeUea 
 helden unterm trinken mit einem vortrag zu harfe unterhalt, der teiner 
 bestimmung nach kurz und abgerundet aein muss." — ZlfLf. d. Fhil., 
 I, 3-32 ff. 
 
 2 Op. cit., p. 23. 
 
 ' Icelandic bards often visited England during Danish invasions, 
 
 * Cf. Strob), op. cit., p. 54 ff, 
 
 6 vin sinom skal ma>r vinr vesa, — S.-G., I, 31. 
 
 e Jbid., 30.
 
 EXETER GNOMES AND COTTON GNOMES 95 
 
 No heavier punishment, then, could befall a man 
 than to be expelled from the circle of which he might 
 be a member.^ The themes of the Wanderer and 
 Seafarer testify somewhat to this truth.'^ As in pas- 
 sages 18&-25a, 786-81, 118-130, we found distinct 
 gnomes tied together by no bond save primitive 
 prosody, so we have in 153-159 a collection of old 
 sayings bound together in a similar fashion. "A 
 fillet shall be twisted " recalls that an adornment for 
 the hair was of rolled gold, worn sometimes even by 
 warriors. When Starkad was at the court of Ingeld, 
 he threw back at the queen the ribbon she had tossed 
 him thinking to placate his wrath : " it is amiss that 
 the hair of men that are ready for battle should be 
 bound back in wreathed gold." ^ Breaking the 
 heathen tone of this passage, 1566-157 is apparently 
 £. reminiscence of Job i, 21 : " The Lord gave and 
 the Lord hath taken away." 160-161, a couplet on 
 trees and truth, is an example of early punning. The 
 parallelism to Old Norse verse structure returns in 
 162-164, a Ijodahdttr strophe which shows Christian 
 sentiment : " God has no use for the faithless and 
 venom-mindea man." 165 divided into two lines be- 
 comes analogous to Ijodahdttr,* and continues with 
 biblical teaching : " God created the world, com- 
 manded things to be." 166-167 form a Ijocfahdttr 
 couplet on things fitting for men. 168-169, a Ijoda- 
 hdttr half-strophe, " Many men, many minds." ^ The 
 
 1 Cf. Gummere, Germanic Origins, p. 171. 
 
 ^ Monig bil> uncu)> ir6ow ge}>ofta. — Maxims, Bib. 2, 280-281. 
 
 8 Saxo, Elton, p. 254, cf. Holder, p. 207. 
 
 * Cf. Sievers, PBB., XII, 478. 
 
 ' StrobI combines IG6-1C9 in a five-lino strophe.
 
 96 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON 
 
 thought is extended in 170-172, the relief from sad- 
 ness furnished by the harp. 173-177 return to the 
 idea of friendship, with which compare above, 145, 
 and Hovamql, 43-47, particularly, " Young was I 
 once, I walked alone, and bewildered seemed in the 
 way ; then I found another and rich I thought me > 
 for man is the joy of man." ^ 177 is a forcible sug- 
 gestion of the respect formerly felt for the bear;, 
 " To the heathen Teuton, a bear was almost a man,, 
 stronger, almost as cunning." ^ 178-179, enjoining 
 men to sleep with trappings, give no unusual com- 
 mand ; for warriors often slept in their armor or 
 with it near at hand.^ On 180-181, the second half 
 of the Ijudahdttr stanza, see notes, p. 145. 182-193' 
 throw additional light on what Tacitus says of the 
 absorbing game of dice.^ The custom appears to 
 have survived longer in Iceland and Denmark; but 
 w^herever the scene of the play here outlined was laid, 
 dicing had degenerated from the sober game of honor 
 described by Tacitus. Cheating, stealing the dice, 
 and backbiting seem to be characteristic of these 
 players. It recalls the tale told by Saxo, also of a 
 shipboard game. Toste of Jutland, the protagonist, 
 warred with Hadding of Sweden. On one occasion, 
 when he went to Britain, for " sheer wantonness he 
 got his crew together to play dice, and when a. 
 wrangle arose from the throwing of the tableSj he 
 
 ^ Miss Bray's translation , cf. S.-G., I, 32. 
 , ^ York Powell, op. cit., p. Ixxxiv. J 
 
 » Cf. Beoxculf, 1243-1251. 
 
 * "Aleam (quod mirere) sobrii inter servia exercent, tanta lucrandi 
 perdenrlive temeritate, ut, cum omnia defocerunt, extrenao ac novissimo 
 jactu de libertate et de corporo contendant." — Germania, XXIV.
 
 EXETER GNOMES AND COTTON GNOMES 97 
 
 t?-ught them to wind it up with a fatal affray.**^ 
 186-193 form a final Ijodahdttr stanza. 194-202 is" 
 a late interpolation, the Anglo-Saxon Christian's' 
 answ er to the ancient question, " Whence came evil ? " 
 203-206 revert to old gnomes : ready shall be shield,- 
 point on staff, edge on sword, tip on spear, heart for 
 the brave, helmet for the bold, limited treasure for 
 the mean in heart.^ 
 
 For the date and authorship of the verses, such 
 opinion as has been expressed manifests some diver- 
 gence. Trautmann, basmg his reasons on metrical 
 grounds,^ denied to Cynewulf authorship of the 
 Exeter Gnomes.* 
 
 Since Dietrich (who attributed to him the four 
 gnomic groups^'), Rieger,*^ and Sarrazin^ (who agree 
 that he had a hand in the composition of group A), 
 placed Cynewulf in the eighth century, — Dietrich iden- 
 tifying him with the Bishop of Lindisfarne, — they 
 implicitly assigned these lines to the same time. Strobl 
 argued (particularly of C) for the close of the seventh 
 or the beginning of the eighth century, reasoning on a 
 fancied reflection of the Oswald-Penda feud in the Cain- 
 Abel passage. Stopford Brooke expressed a belief that 
 the verses originated in the early eighth century, and 
 that they were probably heard by Ecgbert,iEthelberht, 
 and Alcuin ; that they were composed by a Northum- 
 brian and later taken up in Wessex after Alfred's 
 
 1 Elton, p. 42 ; cf. Ilolder/'p. 34. 
 
 2 Hrandl thinks these last lines are natural as coming from a spidmari, 
 who praises tlie generosity of his Lord. — Op. cit., p. Wil. Brooke hears in 
 them the true heroic ring, a.s in Gn. C. — Earbj English Literature, II, 278. 
 
 8 Cf. an. I, 41. *Cf. also Schmitz, op. cit., p. 216. 
 
 ^Anglia, I, 484 ; II, 440. « Op. cit., p. .331 ff. 
 
 TEng. St., XXXVIII, 145-196.
 
 98 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON 
 
 day.^ Brandl placed the greater part of A and B in 
 the eighth century,'^ makiDg his criterion the lack of 
 the definite article before weak adjective and substan- 
 tive.^ C he assigned to a time and locality not far 
 from those of the young King Alfred. 
 
 Argument against ascription to Cynewulf is supsr- 
 fluous. There is no good reason for assuming that 
 he is the author, if there were no reasons to the con- 
 trary. Weaving a literary fabric from odds and ends 
 of sententious material is hardly worthy the name of 
 authorship/ and if it is, it is not the kind of composi- 
 tion Cynewulf has left in his signed works. If its 
 crudeness is due to a stilted copy-book purpose, as 
 Rieger suggested, there is no proof that Cynewidf 
 ever wrote copy-books. The involution of the runes 
 is done with skill and subtletv, the mortising of these 
 gnomes by a prentice hand. 
 
 But the suggestion that they were put together in 
 the North is of more moment and requires some con- 
 sideration. If there is anything in language or 
 thought which points to Anglia or Mercia as the home 
 of the compiler, it should be given due weight.^ If 
 in the forms no definite peculiarities occur that are to 
 be labeled non-West-Saxon, we may conclude that, 
 
 * Early English Literature, II, 277 ff. 
 
 » Op. cit., p. 961 ; cf. also p. 1034. 
 
 'See U. 79, 96. 
 
 < When other scholars were ascribing the verses to Cynewulf, Wiilker 
 suggested that most of the speeches are not by a definite author, " sondem 
 aus der volksweisheit stammen." — Grund., p. 230. 
 
 ^ It is to be remembered, of course, that transmission through a number 
 of years by many scribes in sequence may have resulted in considerable 
 modification of forms ; further, that poetry is to be treated with caution 
 in drawing philological conclusions.
 
 EXET2R GNOMES ANT> COTTON" GNOMES 99 
 
 though written elsewhere at an early date, they had 
 so long been domiciled in West-Saxon as to have lost 
 the mark of original craftmanship, or that they were 
 written primarily, at whatever time, in this dialect. 
 Now an examination of the language reveals regular 
 West-Saxon characteristics. A few instances which 
 suggest Northern dialect are nevertheless found in 
 Southern poetry./ and therefore their presence counts 
 for little in determining provenience. So far, then, as 
 language is any proof of provenience, although there 
 are forms which may possibly or even probably be 
 other than West-Saxon, yet they are also found in 
 distinctively West-Saxon works, and no one departure 
 from the norm is great enough to confirm by a hair's 
 weight any opinion predisposed in favor of Northern 
 origin. On the contrary, all signs point to West-Saxon 
 as the home of the gnomic collector. 
 
 And to revert to this collector: who was he? 
 There can be no satisfactory answer to the question, 
 but in the absence of knowledge it is interesting to 
 surmise. It may not be too wild a flight to ascribe 
 authorship to Alfi-ed himself. His Handhoc, not 
 extant, as is well known, was described by Asser and 
 cited by William of Malmesbury. In the centuries 
 between these authors, some parts if not all of it must 
 have been current and recognized. However crude 
 the royal verse, the Exeter Book compiler would prob- 
 ably have transcribed it. That Alfred's poetic at- 
 tempts were crude, is revealed by the only examples 
 which have come down to us as the supposed work 
 
 ^«- or a-umlaut of a, eaforan ; u-umlaut of i to lo (eo), wicfreofoa, 
 leofalS, leomu; unbroken a before I + cousonant, waldendf alwdlda.
 
 100 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON 
 
 of his hand : the verses in the preface and at the close 
 of the Pastoral Care. The language tallies in every 
 respect with that of his own prose. ^ 
 
 The Enchiridion^ or Jlandboc, may reasonably be 
 supposed to have contained just such maxims and 
 practical bits of advice as these gnomes show. The 
 fact that they are largely heathen seems not to accord 
 with the Christian spirit of his prose ; but some points 
 may be adduced to meet this objection. First, his 
 foresisjht and wisdom would have seen that a new 
 application of old trutlis would be more welcome to 
 his people, semi-heathen as they were, than ne^7 
 material altogether. After creed is dead, cult lives 
 on and its language longer still ; but it may be used 
 with underlying reference to a new religion. As a 
 second suggestion, the story of St. Aldhelm is not 
 without value. At comers, on byways, wherever he 
 might collect a crowd, he sang heathen songs and 
 spoke old sayings. . Then when the crowd was duly 
 interested, he branched into Christian teaching. 
 Gnomes may have been preserved in writing for 
 similar reasons. Moreover, it was Alfred, it appears, 
 who handed down this story of Aldhelm. William 
 of Malmesbury^ says: "Litteris itaque ad plenum 
 instructus, nativce qucque linguce non negligebat car- 
 mina; adeo ut, teste lihro Elfrcdi, de quo superius 
 dixi, nulla umquam astate par ei fuerit quisquam, 
 Poesim Anglicam posse facere, cantum componere, 
 eadem apposite vel canere vel dicere. Denique com- 
 
 1 The Metres, being translations, may be dismissed with tlie observa^ 
 tion that in many places (cf . notes, passim) they show parallelism of ex- 
 pression with the Gnomic Verses. 
 
 * JDe Gestis Fontijicum Anglorum, V, 1, ^ 5. The italics are mine.
 
 EXETER GN0ME3 AND COTTON GNOMES 101 
 
 memorat Elfredus caniien trivicde, quod adhuc vulgo 
 cantitatur, Aldiielmum fecisse ; aditiens causam qua 
 probet rationabiliter tantum virum his quae videantur 
 fmola institisse: populuia eo tempore serai-barbarum, 
 parum divinis sermonibus intentum, statira, cantatis 
 missis, domus cursitare solitura ; ideoque sanctum 
 virum super pontem qui rura et urbem continuat, 
 abeuntibus se opposuisse obicem, quasi artem cantandi 
 professum. Eo plusquam semel facto, plebis favorem 
 et coucursum enieritum. Hoc coimnento sensim inter 
 ludicra verbis Scrijyturarum insertis, cives ad sanita- 
 tem reduxisse; qui si severe et excommunicatione 
 agendum putasset, profecto profecisset nihil." 
 
 It is not unlikely that King Alfred might have 
 profited by the device of the saint which he reported. 
 The '• trivial song " of Aldhelm's, also lost, might 
 throw light on this possibility. The words of scripture 
 inserted carefully between the parts of the heathen 
 song would seem to be in close parallel with the 
 Christian sentences inserted among our gnomes.^ 
 
 Probably legendary is the report of Alfred's visit to 
 the camp of his enemies, in the character of a minstrel 
 or jester. But the very tradition implies a possibility. 
 And he loved " Saxonica poemata," delighting to 
 memorize them at an early age.'^ 
 
 But any ascription of authorship is hazardous. At 
 best, it may be said that the Exeter Gnomes were put 
 
 * It is a small point, but the pun in 1. 121 is consistent with Alfred's 
 continual plays on "God" and "good." Cf. De Consolatione, XXXIV, 
 XXXV, etc. 
 
 2 Cf. Asser's Life j/ King Alfred, chs. XXII and XXIII. See, 
 especially, the edition by W. \l. Stevenson, Oxford, 1904, and the copious 
 notes on this subjeci, pp. 220-225.
 
 102 GNO»nC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON 
 
 together in the eighth or ninth century by a "West- 
 Saxon writer. He was acquainted with the Germanic 
 customs, traditions, and sayings ; he was, at the same 
 time, familiar with the teachings of Christianity. If 
 the elements drawn from Germanic lore were written 
 down earlier, then the Christian reviser inserted lines 
 of later origin and modified the framework, to some 
 extent, to fit the new theology. 
 
 COTTOX GXOMES 
 
 The gnomology here considered is found in the 
 Cotton Manuscript, Tiberius B. 1.^ Before passing 
 into the hands of Sir Robert Cotton, it belonged to 
 Bowyer, Keeper of the Records in the Tower, and 
 was therefore designated by Joscelin, Archbishop 
 Parker's Secretary, as *' MS. Boyer." Notes in the 
 volume made bv Robert Talbot, Rector of Burlincrham, 
 Norfolk, might indicate that he was also a former 
 owner. Exclusive of the single gnomic folio, the MS. 
 comprises three treatises, and numbers 165 leaves. 
 The Orosius occupies folios 3a to 1116 inclusive. At 
 the top of 112a, Joscelin wrote Cronica Saxonica 
 Ahingdonice ad anmnn 1066 ;- but he was a bit pre- 
 mature, for on this sheet begins the Menologiuiiif 
 which ends at the bottom of 1146. The gnomes 
 fill not quite the recto and verso of 115.^ Four lines 
 of 1156 are taken up by the opening of the Chronicle^ 
 which closes with eight lines of 1646. 
 
 1 This quarto has often been described ; for example, by Wanley {op. 
 cit.y II, 21;)), Earle (op. cit.^ xxviii), Pluramer {op. cit.., II, xxi ff.). 
 2ri., op. cit., I, 223. 
 ' See frontispiece for facsimile of 115a.
 
 EXETER GNOMES AND COTTON GNOMES 103 
 
 The fact that the gnomology directly follows the 
 Menologium caused early editors ^ to regard it as part 
 of that poem, or intiraately connected with it. But 
 the further fact that the first line is written in ma- 
 juscules is an exterior sign that the scribe recognized 
 new material, and the fact that there is no internal 
 connection is stronger evidence that there is no 
 ground for regarding the sentences as an appendix 
 to that Calendar. Moreover, folio 115a is not in 
 corresponding alignment with folio 1146; for the 
 first line of 115a is opposite the second Ime of 1146. 
 The scribe who wrote down the gnomes continued 
 for some folios''* with the Chronicle, and beginning 
 with 1156 keeps the alignment constant. 
 
 Except for the first line, the MS. is written in Hi- 
 berno-English minuscules of the eleventh century .' 
 By reference to the illustration it will be seen that 
 the first line is in Roman majuscules, largely 
 square capicals, but showing uncial forms in d, 6, 
 and h. 
 
 The L is, as usual, an exception to the rule that 
 square capitals are of the same height. The metrical 
 point is used, as in other poems, to mark the half- 
 line, and was employed, apparently, with correct 
 knowledge of its functions.'' It is omitted only three 
 
 1 Hickes, Fox, Ebeling. 
 
 " At least for a number. F. Madan thinks there are only two hands 
 in the Chronicle ; one to 1040, another to 1066 (cf. Books in Manuscript, 
 p. 103). PI. says several hands are discernible. 
 
 » About A.D. 1045. — Warner's Index, I, 242. But Thorpe (Orosius^ 
 p. vi) says not later than the tenth century. 
 
 ♦ The MS. seems to indicate that these points were inserted by the origi- 
 nal scribe, though corrections are later, — cf . geres, 1. 9. Bosworth on 
 the first page of notes to his edition of the Oroftius observes : "These
 
 104 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON 
 
 times and is never misplaced. The accent-mark 
 occurs but seldom, and serves to show the stress, I 
 take it, rather than a long vowel. 
 
 History of interest in this group of gnomes began 
 in 1703, when Hickes made a transcript for his The- 
 saurus, accompanying it with a Latin translation. 
 He added a brief analysis of the contents, " quarum 
 elegantia, splendor et proprietas Latine exhiberi non 
 possunt," ^ Wanley in the second volume of the 
 same work quoted the beginning and end of the 
 collection, and commented, " Carmina qucedam pro- 
 verbialia (ut videtur) Saxonice." ^ Nearly a hundred 
 years passed during which no reference was made to 
 the poem. Then Sharon Turner in his History of the 
 Anglo-Saxons printed the text with a free translation. 
 He classed it as an ode, though he quahfied his classi- 
 fication by adding, " it is a very singular and curious 
 composition." ^ From this time on, comparatively 
 frequent mention was made of the lines. In 1826 
 J. J. Conybeare published brief quotatio.is from 
 Hickes's text.^ In 1830, the Rev. Samuel Fox pub- 
 lished the text (following Hickes, " except in a few 
 instances ") with a fair English translation.^ The 
 year 1842 marked the translation of the gnomes 
 
 alterations appear to have been made several centuries after the writing 
 of the Cotton, and yet before the knowledge of the An^lo-Saxon idiom 
 had entirely passed away." 
 
 1 Op. at., I, 207. Cf. also I, 221. 
 
 2 Rnd., II, 210. 
 
 » .5iU, III, 10, 3, 30. 
 
 * rind., pp. 230-232. His English translation preserves nothing of the 
 original .spirit. 
 
 s He fondly compares the poem to the luxuripnt imagination of Pindar. 
 It is no small testimony to the school of Cosvley that even in the Cotton 
 gnomology, Turner and Fox saw a Pindaric Ode !
 
 EXETER GN0ME3 AND COTTON GNOMES 105 
 
 into Dutch, by Arend. Within the next decade, 
 German scholars turned their attention to Hickes's 
 text: Ebeling ' (1847) and Ettmiiller^ (1850) embodied 
 it in their selections from Anglo-Saxon literature. 
 In 1865, Earle included the folio in his work on the 
 Saxon Chror.icles, having made his own text from the 
 original manuscript.' This excellent volume was re- 
 vised 1892-1899 by Plummer, who, in his appendix,* 
 gave a place to the gnomic poem. 
 
 There was practically no critical work on the text 
 nntil 1857, when Grein published the Versus Ghiomici 
 in his Blhliothek} From this time on, a more scien- 
 tific spirit operates here, as elsewhere in literature. 
 In 1872, Sievers made a collation of Grein's text 
 with the original •/ in 1883, Wiilker, revising Grein's 
 work, published it under the title Denksprilche, with 
 considerable annotation.'' In 1887, StrobP put forth 
 a brief, interesting article, in which he discussed 
 questions of age and source ; and in 1893, Hugo 
 Miiller wrote a short dissertation : Uher Die Angel- 
 sdchshchen Versus Gnomici.^ The latest contribution 
 is that of Alois Brandl, who in Paul's Grundriss^^ has 
 discussed the structure of the poem. For fragmentary 
 comments and emendations made by other writers, 
 see notes. ^^ 
 
 1 Op. cit p. 119-121. !" Op.cit., p. 283 ff. » Cf. op. ciL, p. xxxy. 
 
 * Op. CiL, I, 273. ' II, 340-347. « Ztft.f. d.A., nf. Ill, 406. 
 
 ' J3i6., I, 338-341. » Ztfl.f. d. A., X\IX, bi-Qi. 
 
 » For a review of Miiller'a work see Eng. St., XIX, 415 £f. This review 
 is a good summary — and little else — of the dissertation. 
 
 w I, 960 ff., 2d Ed., 1908. 
 
 " With the exception of Longfellow, no American up to the present 
 time has published anything concerning the poem. Longfellow included 
 in his Poets and Poetry of Europe the translation of Turner, and remarked
 
 106 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON 
 
 Examination reveals, first of all, several more or 
 less clearly defined divisions.^ The first groTip, l-16a, 
 is composed of sentences, almost the only connection 
 between which is the bond of alliteration.'^ I b3e no 
 reason for Brandl's interpretation assuming a design 
 of the gnomic artist in placing first the king, ^' who, 
 according to Bede, v/as of godlil^e origin," the giants, 
 then the wind, thunder, fate, the four seasons, etc. 
 I say, I see no reason for considering this an order of 
 descent from higher to lower concepts, for the argu- 
 ment would work quite as well if applied to the gnomes 
 in other arrangement. Wyrd hil^ sioWost occurs in the 
 fifth line, for example; the young prince is delayed 
 until line 14, though the king appears in the first 
 line.^ Brandl tliinks the whole collection approaches 
 more nearly to the " spell " than does any other 
 poetic remnant.'' Strobl seems nearer the mark in 
 seeing in lines 1-41 a set of school exercises,^ yet 
 
 1 would not hold with hini, much less with Miiller, 
 who thinks the close packing of prose gnomes is 
 
 on the similarity between the aphorisms and those that adorn a modem 
 almanac. It may be said here that considerable investigation on the part 
 of the writer revealed no further parallelism between Calendars of Saints 
 and Modern Almanacs. And I have already indicated that juxaposition 
 of the Menology and Gnomes seems to be the result of accident. 
 
 1 Miiller divides them according to length : I, 1-^9 " dessen lange iiber 
 
 2 langzeilen uicht hinausgeht." II, 6-CG " Komplexe, die mehr als 3 
 
 langzeilen einnehmen.'" — Op. cit., p. 7. 
 
 2 Ebert notes resemblance in this respect to "abcbiichern und kinder- 
 liedern." — AUgemcine Geschichte, III, 87 ff. 
 
 * Brandl see Christ exalted in the midst of lines 1-14, which deal with 
 myths "neben dem Christentum " ; 14—41 " ziihlt auf, was zum Helden- 
 leben gehort" ; 41-49 " nennt wesen, die ausserhalb des gottlichen und 
 des heldenmassigen kreisen stehen " ; 59-GG " ist moralisierend." — 
 Op. ciL, p. 960. 
 
 « Cf. Schroder, Ztft. f. d. A., XXXVII, 241. 6 Op. cit., p. 63.
 
 EXETER GNOMES AND COTTON GNOMES 107 
 
 " schiilwerk." ^ For whereas Strobl characterizes 1-41 
 as artificial, it appears to me that lines 1-1 5a con- 
 stitute the most unadorned and unaffectedly natural 
 part of the poem. This passage of fifteen and a half 
 lines, it is true, is corrupt, old material being mixed 
 with new, but the number of sayings, the varying 
 lengths of the lines, the lack of stilted balance, pro- 
 claim them to be comparatively free gnomes written 
 in sequence. The poet pays homage to the sovereign 
 in 1. The next two lines, 16-3a, obviously prose if 
 lifted from the context, reflect the old Germanic 
 wonder at siglit of the stone cities left by the Romans.'' 
 Sh~ia are distinct prose gnomes. 46' and 5a are 
 distinct, Christ and Fate being put in opposition 
 to each other, the predominance of the latter tes- 
 tifying to remote heathen origin. 56-9 constitute 
 an early calendar, comprising four seasons, and 
 therefore suggesting later composition. (Cf. Gn. 
 Ex. 72 ff<) 10 and 11a are also distinct: truth 
 was highly prized by our forefathers, no less was 
 treasure.^ 116-1 2a hint at the reverence paid to 
 the old and to the respect entertained for their 
 opinions. 13 contains two unrelated gnomes, on 
 
 1 " in metriscbea gewand gezwftngte prosagnomen," p. 24. Listening 
 to such a collection would have tired speaker as well as hearer, Miiller 
 thinks. 
 
 2 As late as 414, the islanders (Britons) were unable to erect a stone 
 ■wall. Cf. Bede, HE. I, xii : " At insulani munuu quern jussi fuerant, non 
 tarn lapldibus quern cespitibus consiruentes, utpote nullum tanti operis 
 artificem habentes, ad nihil utilem statuunt." Tacitus, Germania, XVI, 
 observes the ignorance of tile and mortar among the Germans ; for all 
 purposes they use timber roughly hewn. 
 
 ' Of jewels, or armlets and beakers of gold. The word suggests a time 
 remote: Tacitus observed tiiat the Germans knew nothing of coins, though 
 they were learning their use from the Romans.
 
 108 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON 
 
 woe and clouds. 14-15, because of its regularity 
 and polish, seems to be a later distich, suggesting 
 the prince and his comitatus. 
 
 Lack of unity characterizes these lines, but hardly 
 artificiality,^ except in so far as crudeness of poetizing 
 results in a decadent mixture which is neither prose 
 nor verse. Quite otherwise is the analysis of 166-41, 
 where the hand of the artificer is evident. It is first 
 noticeaole that the purpose of these lines is to assign 
 objects and persons their fitting places and duties : 
 with the helmet the sword sliall await battle ; the good 
 man shall work justice ; the bear shall dwell on the 
 heath ; God shall be in heaven, judge of deeds. It is 
 further to be observed that the passage is a mosaic of 
 literary art. Beginning ecg sceal wid hellme, 166, 
 the author completes his line, Ellen sceal on eorle, 
 16a, with regard to alliterative effect; but tbe thought 
 he carries over into line Ha, hilde gebidan. Likewise 
 176, hafuc sceal on glofc, is connected with 17a, by 
 alliteration, though it introduces a new gnome which 
 is completed in 18f.;, iDilde gewunian. It is further to 
 be observed that the 6 half-line contains the esssential 
 prose gnome, the a half-line representing, as part of 
 the pattern, an attempt at adornment. By tearing 
 away these " poetic " additions, Miiller distinguishes 
 forty-four prose gnomes. As he suggests, the reviser of 
 old material used the 6 line, because as prose his say- 
 ings would liardly show the alliterations demanded 
 by the a line. They could have been changed so as 
 
 1 Cf. Brooke, who describes 11. 1-9, 13-20a, and 50-55a, as "oldest 
 and most interesting" of the Gn. C. Eng. Lit. from the Beginning to 
 the Norman Conquest, p. 316.
 
 EXETER GNOMES AND COTTON GNOMES 109 
 
 to effect an alliteration, but then their character as 
 gnomes would have been destroyed.^ 
 
 It is a plausible deduction, therefore, one hardly to 
 be avoided, that the writer of these lines was perform- 
 ing an exercise in verse technic. From the store of 
 old sentences chat ascribe place or duty to object or 
 person, he selected such as suited his purpose and 
 bound them together as we find them. It is most 
 likely that we have here an eaily example of what 
 later became a popular employment with poets. A 
 Norse Runic fuporc of the twelfth century '^ is in its 
 composition more closely akin to this passage than to 
 the Anglo-Saxon Rune Poem. Take, for instance, 
 line 14 and compare it in thought and structure with 
 the passage under observation. Or consider the 
 Skdldskaparmol of the Prose Edda and the section 
 of that rhetorical treatise which exhibits an exercise 
 in verse-making. Employing alliteration, the skald 
 weaves together the names of the giants, of kings, the 
 various designations of sun, moon, and earth, of cattle, 
 of fishes, of rivers, trees, weapons, — of things in gen- 
 eral prominent in Old Norse cosmology.*^ 
 
 1 Some in the a line hiive not double alliteration. Ten Brink's opinioa 
 should also be noted on this consistency in beginning a new maxim, or a 
 chain of ihein, with the second or h half-line : " — deutet auf selbstandige 
 verarbeitung des im grunde doch alten materials fiir die zwecke des 
 dichters." — Op. cit., I, 81. In the a line we meet with the predicate and 
 its object or adverbial modifier ; or, more consistently with AS. idiom, 
 we find a synonyu of the subject in the preceding b line. Cf. Miiller, 
 op. cit., p. 10. 
 
 2 Cf. Corpus Poeticum Boreale, Vigfusson-Powell, Oxford, 1883, 1. 369. 
 8 Of fislies, — Laks ok ldn;^a lysa, trosma, 
 
 birtfngr, hseingr bust ok hrygna, 
 humarr, hrognkelsi, hyetSnir, fl6ki, 
 blun, orriSi ok andvari. 
 
 — Edda Snorra Sturlnaonar, Hafnise, 1848, I, 678.
 
 110 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON 
 
 In 41, the alliterative scheme breaks down, not to 
 be resumed imtil 47a; then it vanishes finally in 496. 
 41-47 point to an early origin : shower mixed with 
 wind coming into the world, the thief, the />yrSy 
 the woman's getting a husband, the foaming of the 
 sea. 50-54 list contending forces, arranging them in 
 pairs : good with evil, youth with age, — a matching 
 indicative of the naive interest which primitive man- 
 kind exhibited in contrasts. 
 
 The remainder of the poem, reflective and religious, 
 is the addition of a Christian scribe. Such endings 
 are common in Anglo-Saxon poetry : besides Exeter 
 Gnomes B compare Seafarer, — which concludes with 
 an admonition to prepare for eternal happiness and 
 with thanks to the Prince of Glory, — and Wanderer , 
 which recommends seeking mercy from the Heavenly 
 Father.' 
 
 That the pattern is torn and corrupt, that the 
 heathen foundation is patched with Christian em- 
 broidery, — that there is absence of integrity must 
 be plain from the preceding brief analysis. If we 
 look more minutely at the material, we may observe 
 definite indications of early origin. First, there are 
 tokens of the old religion. Wyrd, enta, Ayrs, — all 
 relate directly to the beliefs and practices of heathen 
 times, and in a vital fashion. ]>yrsy at least, has a 
 local habitation ; for he must dwell in the fen ; cities 
 are the work of giants, "who are in this earth**; 
 " Wyrd is strongest." The second indication of age 
 is visible in the work of the smith, who is patently 
 
 1 Cf. also Waldere, Phoenix, Juliana, Lament of the Fallen Angels, 
 and elsewhere.
 
 EXETER GNOMES AND COTl'ON GNOMES 111 
 
 present throughout. Helmet sioeord, Isem, heagum, 
 hringe, scyld, gim^ — these words, though used con- 
 ventionally in late Anglo-Saxon times, by their com- 
 paratively large proportion here suggest the time 
 when ring-giving was held in repute ; when heah-gifa 
 was a synonym for prince ; when shield, sword, helmet 
 awaited battle.' 
 
 The language, clearly West-Saxon, shows certain 
 characteristics more usual in Late West-Saxon,'^ but 
 they all occur in Alfrediau prose, a fact which would 
 seem to indicate that they are not necessarily distinc- 
 tive of the later period. 
 
 When was the exercise written, and who wrote 
 it? There are two possible choices: either we 
 have a combination of a poem exceedingly old and a 
 few lines of homiletic verse comparatively new ; or 
 we have a single poem composed under the conditions 
 of changing belief. It may be argued that the pro- 
 pinquity of old and new, as Wyrd hydswl ost immedi- 
 ately ixiiQY pryminas syndan Cristes myccle, is equivalent 
 to a dii'ect statement that heathendom and Christianity 
 here side by side contested a place in literature, or 
 shared it, because of shifting notions about the rulers of 
 the world and consequent religions. If this is the case, 
 however, heathendom still had supremacy, as the lines 
 (see analysis) treat predominantly of ancient Ger- 
 manic ideals, or in any case display a conspicuous 
 
 ^ Brand! notes the difference between the simple compounds of On. C. 
 and the much later Lekren des Vaters combinations, which are more 
 reflective. — Op. cit., p. Oti.?. 
 
 2 A final, instead of g, appears in beah (gife), beorh, gebeorh, wearh; 
 naini, instead of ncinig ; svaraohakti vowe's in beaduwe (earlier beadvie)^ 
 bearowe; wontld, woiiilde, earlier weoro/d.
 
 112 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON 
 
 absence of Christian material, except in the definite 
 places noted. 
 
 In favor of the former alternative is Christian 
 interpolation in distinctly heathen poems, and the 
 fact that in the Christianizing of Britain, old symbols 
 ■vN'ere generally converted to new jnirposes. Heathen 
 temples were turned to the service of Christianity : ^ 
 old poems of didactic character might easily b2 modi- 
 fied into vessels for essence of the true faith. It 
 may be objected that in language the poem would be 
 more nearly consistent if it were composed ac one sit- 
 ting ; and since forms are quite uniform, then the first 
 alternative is favored. But the answer to this point 
 might be that a first or a second scribe may possibly 
 have normalized the forms. 
 
 1 have already stated that I believe the poem to be 
 of West-Saxon or South-English origin, and though the 
 scribes just mentioned might very well have changed 
 Anglian or Northumbrian forms, yet if they had done 
 so, there would probably be some trace of those dia~ 
 lects ; if, on the contrary, old and new parts arose in 
 the same dialect, it is again obvious that little nor- 
 malization would have been needed by those hypo- 
 thetical copyists. 
 
 The mingling of diverse elements, heathen and 
 Christian, occurred late in Southern England. '^ While 
 the faith shone with a steady light in distant Northum- 
 bria, Wessex was among the dark places of the earth." ^ 
 
 ^ Cf. letter of Pope Gregory to Mellitus going into Britain, 601. 
 " Quia, si fana eadem bene constructa sunt, necesse est ut a cultu die- 
 monum in obsequium veri Dei debeant commutari." — Bede, HE., I, 
 XXX. He adds that the idols were to be destroyed, 
 
 2 Chronicon Monasterii de Abingdon, J. Stevenson, 1858, II, v ff.
 
 EXETER GNOMES AND COTTON GNOMES 113 
 
 Bede states^ that in 640 the new faith was prev- 
 alent in Kent, but it seems to be also true that 
 as late as 686 it had gained no footing in the Isle of 
 "Wight. The southern kingdoms held longest to the 
 old worship of Vv^oden, Thor, and other Teutonic 
 deities. Abingdon was founded in 675. After the 
 Council of Aries in 813, a steady effort was made in 
 education, both of the clergy and the laity. These 
 facts are significant, in connection with the gnomes 
 under discussion ; the heathen heritage was yet fresh 
 in the memory of minds which were being dominated 
 by the new religion. Some now forgotten monk with 
 a crude gift for verse-making ^ roughly put together the 
 two elements, — heathen and Christian, the second 
 contribution being his own. Later, the verses may 
 have been used as a school exercise ; perhaps for 
 copy-books, perhaps for memorization, possibly as a 
 model for alliterative compositions.^ 
 
 » HE., Ill, viii. 
 
 2 In tlie days when Cynewulf ascriptions flourished, Trautmann ob- 
 served that for metrical reasons, Cynewulf could not be the author. 
 Rieger (op. cit.) admitted th?.t the verses are crude, but thought they 
 might be in the poet's earlier style. 
 
 8 In searching for allied types, I have been interested in comparing 
 •with these verses the Viaticum of Llevoed Wynebglawr (Red Book of 
 Hergest, xxiv.). He may have flourished near the beginning of the tenth 
 century. Cf. The Four Ancient Books of Wales, W. Skene, 1868.
 
 II 
 
 Table of AsBRiiiviATioNS * 
 
 An. Andreas. 
 
 Angl. Anglia. 
 
 Arch. Archceologia. 
 
 Archiv. Archiv fur das Studium der neueren Sprachen und Litter- 
 
 aturen. 
 AS. Anglo-Saxon. 
 
 BeL Beiblatt. 
 
 Beo, Beowulf, Ed. Heyne-Socin, revised by L. L. SchUcking, 
 
 Paderborn, 1903. 
 
 Bib. Grein-Wiilker, Bibliothek der angelsachsischen Poesie. 
 
 BB. Bonner Beitrage zur Anglistik. 
 
 B.-T. Bosworth-Toller, Anglo-Saxon Dictionary, 
 
 B.-T.,8upp. Ibid., Supplement Part T, A-Eorp. 
 
 B. Bouterwek, K., Ccedmons des Angelsachsen Biblische Dicht- 
 
 ungen, Gutersloh, 1854, 
 Brandl. Brandl, A., Geschichte der Altenglischen Literatur, In 
 
 Paul's Orundriss der gennanischen Bliilologie, Vol. U, 
 
 2d edition, lfX)8. 
 Brooke. Brooke, S, A., English Literature from the Beginning to 
 
 the Norma7i Conquest, New York, 1898. 
 
 Chr. Christ. 
 
 C. Conybeare, J. J., Illustrations of Anglo-Saxon Poefry, 
 
 London, 1826. 
 C.-S. Cook-Sievers, Grammar of Old English, 3d edition, Boston, 
 
 1903. 
 Cos. Cosijn, P., Altwestsdchsische Grammatik, Ilaag, 1883. 
 
 DAK. Mullenhoff, K., Deutsche Altertumskunde, Berlin, 1870- 
 
 1900. 
 
 Ea. Earle, J., Tioo of the Saxon Chronicles Parallel, Oxford, 
 
 1865. 
 E.E.T.S. Early English Text Society. 
 
 Eb. Ebeling, F. W., Angelsdchsisches Lesebuch, Leipzig, 1847. 
 
 Edd. Editors. 
 
 1 Citations of texts not otherwise registered are from the Grein- 
 WUlker Bibliothek 
 
 114
 
 TABLE OF ABBREVIATIONS 
 
 115 
 
 El. Elene. 
 
 Eng. St. Englische Studien. 
 
 Ettm. EttmUller, L., Engla and Seaxna Scopcu and BoceraSt 
 
 Quedlinburgil et Lipsiae, 1850. 
 Ex. Exodus. 
 
 Fox. Fox, S., Menologium, London, 1830. 
 
 Gen. Genesis. 
 
 Gn. C. Cotton Gnomes. 
 
 Gn, Ex. Exeter Gnomes. 
 
 Gr. Grein, C, Bibliothek der Angels&chsischen Poesie, G5t- 
 
 tingen, 1857. 
 Gr'. Grein, Zur Textkritik der Angelsdchsisehen Dichter, in 
 
 Germania, X, 1865. 
 Grendon. Grendon, F., The Anglo-Saxon Charms, In Journal of 
 
 American Folk-lore, Vol. XXII, No. 84, 1909. 
 Grund. Wiilker, R. P., Grundriss zur Geschichte der angelsach' 
 
 sischen Litteratur, Leipzig, 1886. 
 Guth. Guthlac. 
 
 11. Hickes, G., Thesaurus, Oxford, 1705. 
 
 IIE. Baedac, Venerabilis, Historia Ecdesiastica Gentis Ang- 
 
 lornm, Ed. Pluinnier, Oxford, 18.>0. 
 Holt. Holthausen, F., Zur Textkritik Altenglischer Dichtungen, 
 
 in Eng. St., XXXVII, U'06-1907. 
 Holt'. Hollliauser, Zur AHenglischen Literatur, in Anglia Bei- 
 
 blatt, XXI, 1910. 
 
 Icel. Icelandic. 
 
 .TEG. Ph. Journal of English and Germanic Philology. 
 Jul. Juliana. 
 
 Kl. Kluge, F., Angels&chscScJies Lesebuch, Halle, 1888. 
 
 Koegel. Koegel, R., Geschichte der deut^chen Litteratur, Sttsaabxug^ 
 
 1894-1897. 
 Kr. Krapp, G. P., Andreas and the Fates of the Apostles, Boston, 
 
 1900. 
 
 Ma. March, F. A., Anglo-Saxon Reader, New York, 1879. 
 
 Men. Menologium. 
 
 Met. Metres of Boetliius. 
 
 Meyer. Meyer, R. M., Altgermanische Poesie, Berlin, 1889. 
 
 ME. Middle linglis'a. 
 
 Mn. E. Modern English.
 
 116 
 
 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON 
 
 MLN. Modern Language Notes. 
 
 M. Ph. ilcdern Philology. 
 
 Mli. Miiller, H., Uher die Angelsdchsischen Versus ffnomici, 
 
 Jena, 1893, 
 
 ITED. New English Dictionary. 
 
 GEE, Gumuiere, F. B., Oldest English Epic, New York, 1909. 
 
 OHG. Cld High German. 
 
 ON. Old Norse. 
 
 Oros. Alfred's Anglo-Saxon Version of Orosius, translated by 
 
 B. Thorpe (in Pauli's Life of Alfred the Great, 1900). 
 OS. Old Saxon. 
 
 PBB. Paul and Braune's Beitrage zur Oeschichte der Deutschen 
 
 Sprache und Literatur. 
 PI. Plummer, C, Tioo of the Saxon Chronicles Parallel (on 
 
 the basis of Earle's Edition), Oxford, 1892-1899. 
 PMLA Publications of the Modern Language Association of 
 
 America. 
 Pb. Psalms, Ed. Grcin-WUlker (in the Bihliothek der Angel' 
 
 siichsischen Prona), Hamburg, 1910. 
 
 Rid. Piddles. 
 
 Rie. Rieger, M., tjber Cynewulf in Zeitschrift fur deutsche 
 
 Philologie, I, 18(50 (for On. Ex. A). 
 Rie. Rieger, ^l., Angehdchsisches Lesebuch, 1861 (for On. Ex.B). 
 
 Sch. Schipper, J., Zum Codex Exoniensis, in Germania, XIX, 
 
 1874. 
 Schmitz. Schmitz, T., Die Sechstakter in der Altenglischen Dichtung, 
 
 in Angl., XXXIII, 1910. 
 Seaf. Seafarer. 
 
 Sh. Shipley, G., The Genitive Case in Anglo-Saxon Poetry, 
 
 Baltimore, 1003. 
 Siev. Sievers, E., Phythmik des Alliierationsverses, in PBB., 
 
 XII, 1887. 
 Siev^. Sievers, Altgermanische Metrik, Halle, 1893. 
 
 Sol. and Sat. Solomon and Saturn. 
 Spr. Grein, Sprachschatz der angelsdchsischen Dichter, Caasel 
 
 and Gottingen, 1861. 
 Str. Strobl, J., Zur Spruchdichtung bei den Angelsachsen, in 
 
 Zeitschrift fur deutsches Alterthi.m, XXXI, n.f. XIX, 
 
 1887. 
 Sw. Sweet, H., An Anglo-Saxon Peader, 1804 ] ^.^ferei^ces in 
 
 The Oldest English Texts, 1885 ^j^^^ ^^'^^ 
 The Student's Dictionary, 1897 J
 
 TABLE OF ABBREVIATIONS 
 
 117 
 
 T. Turner, S., History of the Anglo-Saxons^ London, 1805. 
 
 Ten Br. Ten Brink, B., Oeschichte der Englischen Litteratur, Berlin, 
 
 1877. 
 Th. Thorpe, B., Codex Exoniensis, London, 1842. 
 
 Tapper. Tapper, F., Jr., TTie Riddles of the Exeter Book, New York, 
 
 1910. 
 
 Wand. Wanderer. 
 
 \Va. Wanley, in Vol. II, Ilickes' Thesaurus. 
 
 Weinhold. Weinhold, K., Altnordisches Leben, Berlin, 1856. 
 
 Wr. Wright, J., Old English Grammar, Oxford, 1908. 
 
 Ztft. f. d. A. Zeitschrift fur deutsches AUerthum. 
 Zlft. f . d. Phil. Zeitschrift fur deutsche Philologie.
 
 Ill 
 
 Exeter Gnomes 
 
 A Exeter Maniiscript, Folios 886-90a ; in this text, lines 1-71 Incluaiye. 
 B Folios 90a-91a ; lines 72-138. 
 C Folios 91a-926 ; lines 139-206. 
 
 (886) Frige mec frSdum wordum : ne Iret J)Inne fertJ onhSlne, 
 degol ]>set ]>iX deopost cunne. Nelle ic )?6 min dyrne 
 
 gesecgan, 
 gif \>\x me ^inne hygecraeft hylest and )>me Leortan 
 
 gej'ohtas. 
 Gleawe men sceolon gieddum wrixlan. God sceal mon 
 
 Krest hergan, 
 5 ftegre, feeder userne, for})on ]>e he ils aet frymj^e getSode 
 llf and lienne willan : he usic wile psusi l6ana geraonian. 
 ileotud sceal in wuldre. ]\Ion sceal on eorJ>an; 
 geong ealdian. God us ece bip : 
 ne wendaS hine wyrda, ne hine wiht drecep 
 10 adl (89a) ne yldo eelmihtigne ; 
 
 ne gomela li6 in gieste, ac he is g6n swa he wees, 
 Jjeoden ge))yldig ; he us ge)>onc syletS, 
 missenllcu mod, monge reorde. 
 Feorhcynna fela i'di]>m.e]> wide 
 15 ^glond monig. Eardas rume 
 meotud arierde for moncynne, 
 oelmihtig god, efenfela bega 
 
 1. Th. would substitute bihelan 3. Gr. overlooks mS. 
 
 for onhSlne, or deglian, diglian, for 12. Gr. K>nc, for ge)>onc. 
 
 dfgol. 13. Th. mon-geraorde. 
 
 ^ In citntioiLs from other editors some liberty has been taken by way of 
 normalization ; for example, v is changed to w. If editors omil marks 
 of quantity, none are used here except to prevent ambiguity. 
 
 118
 
 EXETER GNOMES 119 
 
 J>6oda and J>6awa, '^ing sceal gehegan 
 
 fr6d wits frjdne ; bi}> hyra fer15 gellc ; 
 to hi & sace 8emaJ» ; sibbe gelaeraS, - 
 
 |>5, oer wonsiSlge awegen habbatS. 
 
 RcM sceal mid suyttro; ryht mid wisum ; 
 
 til sceal mid tilum. Tti b5o3 gemaeccan. 
 
 Sceal wif and wer in woruld ceunan 
 s5 beam mid gebyrdum. Beam sceal on eor8an 
 
 leafum lij»an, leomu gnornian. 
 
 Fus sceal feran, fSge sweltan 
 
 and dogva gehwam ymb geda,l sacan 
 
 middangeardes. Meotud Sna wat 
 30 hwior s6 cwealra cyme)), \>e heonan of cy)))>e gewTte)>. 
 
 Umbor yceS, ))a itr adl nimeS ; 
 
 ]>y weorpeS on foldan swa lela fira cynnes, 
 
 ne sy ]>xs magutimbres gemet ofer eor|)an, 
 
 gif hi ne v/anige se ]>ls woruld t6ode. 
 35 Dol bi|> s5 pe his dryhten nat, to pees oft cymeS dfiaiJ 
 unj^inged. 
 
 Snoti-e men sawlum beorgatJ, healdatJ hyra sOS mid rihte. 
 
 Eadig bis sS pe in his gj'le gefJlhtS; earm 86 him his 
 frynd geswicat5 ; 
 
 nefre sceal s& him his nest aspringetS : nyd[e] sceal {rSge 
 (896) gebunden. 
 
 Bllj^e sceal bealolgas heorte. Blind sceal his eagna)>olian: 
 40 oftigen bip him torhtre gesih)>e ; ne magon hi ne tunglu 
 bewitian 
 
 swegltorht, sunnan ne monan : faet him bi)) sar in his 
 mode, 
 
 ange j^onne h6 hit ana wat, ne w6ne3 past him faes 
 edhwyrft cyme; 
 
 waldend him J>aet wite tCode : s6 him maeg wyrpe syllan, 
 
 18. Gr''. gehegan ; Edd. gehegan. 40. bewitian : f over the line. 
 
 26. Th. suggests lifian ? leomu Sch. "von anderer hand." W. 
 
 growan V " von andrer hand ? " 
 
 SI. Th. aer adl, so Or. ?er adl but 41. Th. swegl-torht-sunnan. 
 
 Gr«. serddl, so W. 42. MS. onge, Th. on ge hon, Gr. 
 
 38. Edd. nyd, except Holt. on ge J>on he, and notes: "onge 
 
 J*yd[e], and Gr. nv5 = no!S (vgl. onga aculeus) und >onne?" 
 
 libuma? Gr^. onge, >on (>onne?) he . . .
 
 120 
 
 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON 
 
 45 
 
 SO 
 
 55 
 
 6o 
 
 65 
 
 hcele of bCofod^mme, gif he wit heortan clSne. 
 
 Lef mon Iteces behofatJ. LSran sceal mon geongne 
 
 monnan, 
 trjmman and tyhtan, )>set liS teala ciinne, 
 oJ> j'oet hine mon atemedne haebbe, 
 sylle hira wist and wSdo, o]> Jjset hine mon on gewitte 
 
 aliede. 
 Ne sceal hine mon cildgeongne forcwe]jan, ser h6 hine 
 
 acyjian mote : 
 ]>j sceal on jieode ge}>6ou, paet h6 wese pristhycgende. 
 Styran sceal mon strougum mode. Storm oft holm 
 
 gebringet5, 
 geofeu in grimmum sielura ; onginnatS grome fundian 
 fealwe on feorran to londe ; hwaiper h6 feeste stonde : 
 weallas him wij>re heaklaS; him biS wind gemiene. 
 Swa bi)> sie smilte, 
 )>onne hy wind ne weceS, 
 swa beo)' peode gepwiei-e, )>onne hy gej)ingad habba3, 
 gesittaS him on gesuudum )>ingum and ponne mid 
 
 gesi)mm healda)?. 
 Cene men gecynde rice. Cyning h\]> anwealdes georn. 
 La5 se ]>e londes monaS, leof se \>e mare beodeS. 
 yvym sceal mid wlenco, )>nste mid cenum, 
 sceolun bu recene bead we f rem man. 
 Eorl sceal ou eos boge, eorod (90a) sceal ge*>rume ridan, 
 fasste fejia stoudau. Fiemne oet hyre bordan gerisetS; 
 widgongei wif word gespringeS, oft hy mon wommum 
 
 bililiS, 
 hsele5 hy hospe ra«naS, oft hyre hl6or abreoI^eS. 
 
 Siev. onge >on he. MS. distinctly 
 >on =J>onne. 
 
 44. Th. -gimmiim ? Or. on liea- 
 fodgimme. 
 
 45. Th. lefmon. 
 
 Before 1. 47, W. thinks there is 
 a loss, though, as he admits, the 
 MS. .''hows no gap. 
 
 48. Th. queries alnote ? foralsede. 
 
 49. MS. cildgeongne, Edd. cild- 
 geongne. See note. 
 
 50. Or. queries >v = })iv/, >eow ? 
 
 52. Or. queries fandian ? 
 
 53. Th. onfaran. Th. queries 
 stondeS ? Gr. queries hit ? 
 
 03. MS. worod, Edd. eorod. 
 
 05. Gr. word, weord corruptio, 
 daninuiu ? Th. queries ge- 
 sprengeS? Ettm. belih-S ; prob- 
 ably a misprint, since he fol- 
 lows Th. 
 
 m. Th. abreoteS.
 
 EXETER GNOMES 
 
 121 
 
 70 
 
 Sceomiande man sceal in sceade hweorfan, sclr in leohte 
 
 gerlsetS. 
 Hond sceal heofod inwyrcan, hord in streonum bidan ; 
 gifstol gegierwed stondan, hwonne hine guman gedselen. 
 Gifre bip se \>2.m golde orxfehS, guma faes on hgabsetle 
 
 geneah. 
 Lean sceal, gif w6 leogan nellatS, J)am \>e Ha \>5s lisse 
 
 geteode. 
 
 75 
 
 80 
 
 85 
 
 B 
 
 Forst sceal freosan, fyr wndu meltan, 
 eoi'f e growan, is brycgian, 
 waiter helm wegan, wundrum iQcan 
 eorpau cij^as : fl.n sceal inbindan 
 forstes fetre, fela-meahtig god; 
 winter sceal geweorpan, ^>eder eft cuman, 
 sumor swegle hit. Sund unstille. 
 Deep d^ada wseg uyrne bi3 lengest. 
 Holen sceal in seled. Yrfe ged^eled 
 dgades monnes. Dom bip selast. 
 Cyning sceal mid cerpe cw6ne gebicgan, 
 bunum and beagum : bu sceolon eerest 
 geofum god wesan. GuS sceal in eorle, 
 wig geweaxan, and wif ge]>eon 
 Igof mid hyre leodum, leohtmod wesan, 
 rune healdan, rumheort been 
 
 68. Ettm. heafod, Gr. heofod 
 plausus ? W. " ich fasse hccfod 
 als dialekt," Rio. heafod inwriban. 
 Th. queries gesireonum ? Rie. 
 screonum. 
 
 69. Instead of hwonne, Gr. and 
 Rie. read gif. 
 
 70. Gr. gIfre = vorax, Rie. 
 gifro = gratus. 
 
 For 706 Rie. gifeS man J'sss on 
 heahsetle geneahhe. 
 
 73. Th. queries brecan ? 
 
 74. Edd. wajterhelm, Th. waeter- 
 helm, but queries waiter-holm ? 
 
 75. C. anbindan, Th. queries 
 unbindan ? 
 
 76. Ettm. fetni, apparently after 
 Th.'s query fetru ? H. meagtig. 
 
 78. Th. swegle ; but offers awe- 
 gel-, or swegl-. 
 
 79. C. dyme, misprint ; Th. 
 queries weg? Ilolt. ofen. 
 
 80. Th. in ajletS. 
 
 81. C. se last. 
 Ettm. gebycgan. 
 C. scealon. 
 
 Gr*. wTgge (= wlgS) weaxaa. 
 Ettm. leof, so later Edd. 
 
 82. 
 83. 
 85. 
 8«.
 
 122 
 
 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON 
 
 90 
 (906) 
 
 95 
 
 100 
 
 105 
 
 mearmn and maj)mum ; meodorSdenne, 
 
 for gesitSmaegen, symle a^hwSr, 
 
 eodor aef'eliuga gerest gegretan, 
 
 forman fulle to frSan bond 
 
 ricene gerScan, and him rSd witan 
 
 "boldagendum bSm setsomne. 
 
 Scip sceal genaegled, scyld gebunden, 
 
 Igoht linden bord. L6of "wilcuma 
 
 Frysan wife, Jjonne flota stondej) : 
 
 bis his ceol cumeu and hyre ceorl to hSm, 
 
 5gen ietgeofa, and hSo bine in lat$a}», 
 
 wassceS his -warig hrajgl and him syle)j wsede nlwe: 
 
 ]]]> him on londe, pees his lufu biedetJ. 
 
 Wif sceal wij) wer wiere gehealdan : oft hi mon wommum 
 
 behli(5 ; 
 fela bit5 faesthydigra, fela biS fyrwetgeonra, 
 freo(5 hy fremde monnan, ponne se oj^er feor gewlte)>. 
 Lida bis longe on s\]>e : a mon^sceal sepgah leofes wCnan, 
 gebldan ]>ses he gebSdan ne mseg; hwonne him eft 
 
 gebyre weorSe, 
 ham cymeS, gif he hal leofaS, nef ne him holm gestyretJ ; 
 mere hafaS mundum. MaegtS egsan wyn. 
 Ceap gadig mon, cyning wic J)onne 
 leodon cypef>, J)onne llpan cymeS : 
 
 89. Th. queries -maegum ? Ettm. 
 Borge sitSmagen simle, Rie. for ge- 
 si^msegon. MS. sorge si^ masgen, 
 not necessarily "gesiS," as W. 
 states. Gr. simle. 
 
 90. H., Th. ae>>elinge. 
 
 91. H. for man, Th. forman, 
 tut queries feorman or feorme ? 
 Ettm handa, Siev. (FBB.X, 519) 
 honda, 
 
 94. Ettm. scild. 
 
 96. MS. frysan. H. )>od, MS. 
 J>on = >onne. 
 
 97. H. misprints him for ham. 
 93. MS. inla-SaJ., so H., Th., 
 
 Ettm. 
 
 100. Th. queries bidaU ? 
 
 101. Ettm. brackets wib wer. 
 Rie. omits 101b, Th. quories ben's? 
 
 102. Th. fyrwet-geonira ; Ettm. 
 fyrwitgeonra, Gr., Rie. fyrwetr- 
 geornra, "W. emends fyrwetgeoma. 
 
 103. II. i>on, MS. )>on. 
 
 104. Ettm. man. 
 
 107. MS. egsan, so H., Th., Ettm. 
 Th. queries egna (eagena)? Gr. 
 Mere hafaiS mundum ma;g1S, egsan 
 wyn, but notes : wyn = win, gewin ? 
 Oder egsa, ?egsa = Alts. €gso pos- 
 sessor ? Gr^. egsan, Rie. eagna, 
 W., Holt. egna. 
 
 108. Holt, ceape, H. J>on. 
 
 109. Ettm. leodum cepe)>, . . . 
 lida.
 
 EXETER GNOMES 123 
 
 lie wuda and waetres nyttaS, I)onne him hip wTc alyfed ; 
 
 mete bygej> gif h6 mSxan J)earf, gr J)on h6 t5 me}>e 
 weor)>e. 
 
 Seoc se bi{), J>e to seldan ieteS; p&ah. hine mon on sun- 
 nan laede, 
 
 ne maeg h6 be f>y wedre wesan, p&ah hit sy wearm on 
 sumera; 
 
 ofercumec bij) he, Sr he acwele, gif he nSt hwa hine 
 cwicue fede. 
 115 Msegen mou sceal mid mete fedan, (91a) morpor nnder 
 eor))an befeolan, 
 
 hinder under hrusan, pe hit forhelan I)encet5 ; 
 
 ne bif) ))aet gedefe deaj), J)onne hit gedyrned weor|)e15. 
 
 Hean sceal gehnigan, adl gesigan, 
 
 ryht rogian. Raid bif) nyttost, 
 lao yfel unnyttost, pset unked nimetS. 
 
 God biS genge, and wi]> god lenge. 
 
 Hyge sceal gehealden, hond gewealden; 
 
 SCO sceal in eagan, snyttro in breostum, 
 
 pijdv bis J)a3s monnes raodgel'oncas. 
 123 MuJ>a gehwylc mete }>earf, mSl sceolon tidum gongan. 
 
 Gold ge- ise}) on guman sweorde, 
 
 sellic sigesceorp, sine on cwSne ; 
 
 god scop gumum, garni}) werum, 
 
 "Wig t6wi{)re wicfreopa healdan. 
 130 Scyld sceal cempan, sceaft reafere, 
 
 sceal bryde beag, bee leornere, 
 
 husl halgum men, hOef'num. synne. 
 
 Woden worhte veos, wuldor alwalda, 
 
 rume roderas ; )?tet is rice god, 
 
 110. H. >on, Ms, alyfe'5, Edd, 125. H. 'Searfe. Ettm. begins » 
 alyfed. new line with gongan. 
 
 111. W. notes: MS. weo>e ; it 128. Th. gar ni|>-wenim, Ettm. 
 L?, however, clearly weor^e. gar ni^werum, Rie. gar nil>werum. 
 
 112. II. ietaS, Th. notes eteiS. 129. Ettm, wio freoCu, Gr. 
 114. H. a cwele. wicfreotSu. 
 
 118. H. gehingan. Th. adlige 132. H. hus. 
 
 sigan, Gr. Die alliteration fordert 133. Rie. alwaldan, B. woldora 
 
 hadi ; etwa ha^u, hea^u i* Holt, alwalda. 
 hadi = heald.
 
 124 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON 
 
 135 sylf sot5cyning, sSwla nergend, 
 
 se us eal forgaaf, J^aet w6 on lifga{», 
 and eft set J^ara ende eallum wealdetS 
 monna cynne ; |)set is meotud sylf a. 
 
 Ried sceal mon secgan, rune writan, 
 140 leo}) gesingan, lofes gearnian, 
 
 dom areccan, dseges onettan. 
 
 Til mon tiles and tomes raeares, 
 
 cu}>e3 and gecostes and calcrondes : 
 
 nienig fira to fela gestryuetS. 
 145 Wei mon sceal wine healdan on wega gehwylcum: 
 
 oft mon (91&) ferecS feor bl tune, J^ier him wit frSond 
 unwiotodne. 
 
 "Wineleas, wonsSlig mon genimeS him wulfas to geffiran; 
 
 felafuicne d6or ful oft hine s6 gefera slltet5 ; 
 
 giyre sceal for greggura; graif dSadum men. 
 150 Hungre heofeS ; nales \>vet heafe bewindetS, 
 
 ne huru wsel wepeS wulf se gnega, 
 
 mor|?orcwealm msecga, ac hit a mare wille. 
 
 "NVru&d sceal wunden ; wracu heardum men. 
 
 Boga sceal straile ; sceal bam gellc 
 155 mon to gemaiccan. Ma)){)um of)res weortS, 
 
 gold mon sceal gifan ; mseg god syllan 
 
 eadgum iehte and eft niman. 
 
 Sele sceal stcndan, sylf ealdian. 
 
 Licgeude beam, liesest groweS. 
 160 Treo sceolon briedan and treow weaxan, 
 
 slo geond bilwitra breost ariseS. 
 
 136. Rie. K-er, for \>xt. 147. Ettm., Siev. wulf. 
 
 138, H. monne. Ettm. silfa. 148. Ettm. frecne. 
 
 140. MS. leofes, Edd. lofes, H. 152. Ettm. mecga. 
 
 gearman, Or. gearnian =geearnian 153. Th. " better wtsb'S," so Ettm. 
 
 Oder geornian? 158. Ettm. silfer ealdjan ? i.e. 
 
 145. Ettm. wel sceal mon. argentum senescere. 
 
 14G. W. errs in placing 916 be- ICO. Ettm., W. Treo sceal on 
 
 tween tune and i>£r. bnedan. Tli. queries treowu ?
 
 KX'^TER GNOMES 125 
 
 WSrleas mon and wonhydig, 
 
 ietrenmod and ungetrSow : 
 
 \>sos ne gyraeS god. 
 J65 Fela jc^op ineotud ^aes ]>e fyrn geweartJ, h6t 8i}>)>a]i swi 
 fort5 wesan. 
 
 Wuira gehwylcum wisllcu word gerlsaS, 
 
 gleoruen gied and guman snyttro. 
 
 Swa monig beo)) meu ofer eorJ)an, swa b€o}) m6dge))Oiica3 : 
 
 ielc him hafaS svmdor sefan longatS; 
 170 ponne \>y liDs ]>e him con ISoJ'a worn 
 
 oppe mid hondum con hearpan gretan, 
 
 hafa}) him his gliwes giefe, \>e him god sealde. 
 ' Earm bil> se pe sceal ana lifgan, 
 
 wineleas wunian hafaf) him wyrd getgod: 
 »75 bet re him wSre j'Sit he bioj^or ahte, bSgen hi inea 
 monnes, 
 
 eorle ei'foran (92a) wuJran, gif hi sceoldan eofor onginnan 
 
 ol'pe bggen beran : bip ]>xt sllpherde deor. 
 
 X scyle pa rincas geritdan liedan 
 
 and him a^tsomne swefan : 
 180 naifre hy mon to mon to mSdle, 
 
 ser hy deat5 todSle. 
 
 Hy twegen sceolrn tsefle ymbsittan, penden him hjra 
 torn toglide, 
 
 foi'gietan para gfiocran gesceafte, habban him gomen on 
 borde ; 
 
 162. Holt. 2 mon[na]. eorlice ? Ettm. writea : eorlea 
 
 163. Ilolt.'^ ungetreow[e]. waeren eaforan, and queries on- 
 
 164. Gr. gymed, Gr.'^ gymelS. winnan ? W. eorles. Holt, eorlas. 
 
 165. Holt. Fela meotud [ge] Ettm., Gr. sceoldon. 
 
 sceop. 177. Th. notes -hearde. So Ettm. 
 
 166. Th.,Ettm., Gr. wera. Sch. 178. Ettm., Gr. scylen. Gr. 
 gehwylcu, W, " Ha. hatgehwylcu." omits ba. Th. queries ger*d 
 Wrong, MS. has gehwylcu, Ettm. radan? Ettm. gersed onlaedan. 
 wislicu word gerisaS wera gehwyl- 170. Ettm. omits hira. 
 
 cum, and notes, multa desunt. 180. Th. ma;31e. Holt, tomaelde. 
 
 167. Holt, gied [ding]. 182. Str. A sceolon twegen. 
 
 168. Ettm. monige. Ettm. hire. 
 
 171. Ettm. handura. 183. Th. notes )>sere. Ettm., 
 
 176. W. errs in placing 92a at Siev*. gesceafta, so Gr., who inserts 
 beginning of line. Th. queries him before >ara.
 
 126 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON 
 
 Idle hond semetian genSali 
 185 tiefles monnes, })Oiine teoselum weorpetS 
 
 seldan in sldum c5ole, nefne he under segle yme. 
 
 wgrig sceal s5 wif> wrnde rowe)': ful oft mon wearnum tiLtJ 
 
 eargne, ]>!et hS elne forlSose, drugaS his 5x on borde. 
 
 Lot sceal mid lyswe, list mid gedSfum : 
 190 ^y weor^jeS s5 stfin forstolen: 
 
 oft hy wordum toweorpatS, 
 
 ser hy bacum tobreden. 
 
 Geara is hwSr aried. 
 
 Wear(5 fiehlio fyra cynne, si}»|)an fur})um swealg 
 195 eorSe Xbeles blode : nses ]>set andaege nltJ, 
 
 of l^am wrohtdropan wide gesprungon, 
 
 micel man seldum, monegura feodum 
 
 bealoblonden mp. Slog his bro [Sor] swsesne 
 
 Cain, }>one cwealm nerede ; cu}> waes wide si}»})an, 
 «oo )7ffit ece niS aeldum scod, swa afjolwarum ; 
 
 drugon waJpna gewin wide geond eor))an, 
 
 ahogodan and ahyrdon heoro slif^endne. 
 
 Gearo sceal guSbord, gar on sceafte, 
 
 ecg on sweorde and ord spere, 
 205 hyge heardum men. Helm sceal cSnum 
 
 And a (926) t>aes heanan hyge hord unginnost. 
 
 184. MS. Idle hond ajraet lange 198. In the MS. bro comes at 
 
 neah, Ettm. emtaS lange neah the end of a line ; Th, bro-swaesne, 
 
 tjeflmonnes. Or. longe and omits Or. brotSor, so W. 
 
 neah ; Or.- longe neah. Holt, idle 199. Th. queries nydde ? Or. 
 
 hond is lange 5met[ig][ge]neah queries serede ? 
 
 [he]. 200. Th. queries atol werum ? 
 
 187. Ettm., Gr., W. scealc in- 202. Th. queries slitendne ? 
 
 Btead of sceal se. The MS. is clear. 200. W. errs in placing 926 at 
 
 193. Str. arod. beginning of line. 
 
 197. MS. mon, Th. suggests man, 
 so Gr. 
 
 Cotton Gnomes 
 
 Cotton Manuscript, Tiberius, B. 1. 
 
 115a Cyning sceal rice healdan. Ceastra b6o3 feorran gesjne, 
 orSanc enta geweorc, J>a ]>e on }>ysse eorSan syndon, 
 
 1. Edd. except PI. 113a. 2. Eb.cyndon,Ettm.,Kl. sindon.
 
 COTTON GNOMES 127 
 
 \raBtlIo weallstana geweorc. Wind by? on lyfte awiftust, 
 
 })unar bytS }>ragum hladast. prymmas sjmdan Cristea 
 myccle. 
 5 Wyrd by? s-wItSost. Winter byt5 cealdost; 
 
 lencten hrlmigost, hS byt5 lengest ceald ; 
 
 sumor sunwlitegost, swegel by? hatost, 
 
 hserfest hrfSSadegost; haeleSum bringe? 
 
 geres wsestmas fa ]>e him god sende?. 
 10 So? bi? switolost, sine by? d^orost, 
 
 gold gumena gehwam, and gomol snoterost, 
 
 fyrngearum frod, sG \>e ier feala geblde?. 
 
 Wea bi? wuudrum clibbor. Wolcnu scrl?a?. 
 
 Geongne sepeling sceolan gode gesi?as 
 ^5 byldau to beaduwe and to beahgife. 
 
 Ellen sceal on eorle. Ecg seeal wi? hellme 
 
 hilde gebidaa, Hafuc sceal on glofe 
 
 wilde gewunian ; wulf sceal on bearowe, 
 
 earm anhaga ; eofor sceal on holte 
 ao t6?moegenes trum. Til sceal on e?le 
 
 domes wyrcean. Daro? sceal on handa, 
 
 gar golde fall, Gim soeal on hringe 
 
 standan steap and gSap. Stream sceal on y?um 
 
 4. Gr., Sw. hiinor. Here, as rectly, " ein runder fleck, keln 
 
 elsewhere, however, Sw. shows o." 
 
 also MS. form. Ettm. sindon, 10. MS. swicolost, Sw. suggeats 
 
 mycle. swutolost. 
 
 7. Ettm. sun wlitigost. Gr.swegl. 11, F,ttm, gamol snotrost. 
 
 9. F., Eb. follow II. in printing 12. II., C., Eb. fyru gearum, 
 
 geref; Ettm. corrects, geres ; in H. misprint; cf, note on geres. F, ob- 
 
 as W. comments, " doch nur druck- serves this error, commenting on 
 
 fehler, er libers, anr.i fructus." Lye's inclusion of fyru. Gr, fela. 
 Siev., W., Kl., PI. geares. Siev, 14. Edd, before Ea., geonge. 
 
 and PI. note that the a written over Ettm. aSelingas sceolon. 
 the line is by a later hand, W. 15, Eb, beab gife, misprint. 
 
 " lis. geres mit Ubergeschriebenem 16. II., F., Eb, seel wi^ helme. 
 
 a, also — geares." If the reddish, Ettm., Gr., W,, Sw, helme. 
 circular character was intended for 19. MS., Ea., PI. earn an haga. 
 
 a, it was inserted by a modern "Ettm, ftndert in earm anhaga, 
 
 hand. Ea., PI. westmas. Siev., als beiwort zu wulf," W., who fol- 
 
 Pl. understand him corrected by lows, as Gr,, Sw. had done. H., 
 
 later hand, hiom. But W. cor- F., Eb, Of or.
 
 128 
 
 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON 
 
 30 
 
 35 
 
 mecgan mereflode. Maest sceal on ceole 
 35 segelgjrd seomian. Sweord sceal on bearme 
 
 drihtlic Isern. Draca sceal on hlSwe 
 
 frod, frcfitwum wlanc. Fisc sceal on wsetere 
 
 cynren cennan. Cyning sceal on healle 
 
 bSagas dielan. Bera sceal on hSSe 
 
 eald and egesfull. Ea of dune sceal 
 
 flodgnl'g feran. Fyrd sceal aetsomne, 
 
 tlrfsestra getrum. Tr^ow sceal on eorle, 
 
 wisdom on were. Wudu sceal on foldan 
 
 bkedum blowan. Beorh sceal on eor))an 
 
 grene standan. God sceal on heofenum 
 
 diieda dgraend. Duru sceal on healle, 
 
 rum recedes muS. Band sceal on scylde, 
 
 fasst iSngra gebeorh. (1156) Fugel uppe sceal 
 
 lacan on lyfte. Leax sceal on wiele 
 40 mid sceote scrlSan. Scur sceal on heofenu.n 
 
 winde geblanden in j^as woruld cuman. 
 
 ^6of sceal gangan pystrum wederum. ^yrn sceal on 
 fenne gewunian 
 
 ana innan lande. Ides sceal dyrne cioefte, 
 
 fiemne hire freond gesecean, gif heo nelle on folce 
 ge}5gon, 
 45 )>8et hi man beagura gebicge. Brim sceal sealte weallan, 
 
 lyfthelm and laguflod ymb ealra landa gehwylc 
 
 flowan tirgenstreamas. Feoh sceal on eorSan 
 
 24. H., F., Eb., Or., Ea., PI. fol- 
 low MS. Ettra. queries mengan, 
 Sw. mencgan, so Kl. 
 
 28. H., F., Eb. cynran cennen, 
 misprint. 
 
 31, H., F., Eb., Ettm., Or., Sw. 
 fold gneg. Or.- queries fiodgrieg? 
 Ea., PL flod gneg, Siev., W. 
 flodgra?g. H., F., Eb., Ettm. tet 
 Bomne. 
 
 32. Ettm., tyr fastra. Edd. 
 treow, but MS. shows a dot imdero. 
 
 34. Gr. beorg, 
 
 35. Ettm. heofonum. 
 
 38. Edd. except PI. 1136. 
 
 39. Ettm. wele. 
 
 40. I in scritJan inserted by later 
 hand. Sw. of heofenum. 
 
 42. Eb. Jjyrstrum. Ettm. iasarta 
 faste before gewunian, noting, 
 "deest apud H." Ea. gewunian, 
 and notes, "gewunian weakens the 
 sense and destroys the allitera- 
 tion." 
 
 44. H., F„ Eb., Gr. femne. H., 
 F., Eb., Gr. gesecean, Gr. queries 
 gefeccan, Gr.^ gesi^ccan. 
 
 45. H., F., Eb., Ettm., gebycge. 
 H., F., Eb., Gr. sealt. 
 
 46. H., F., Eb. land.
 
 COTTON GNOMES 129 
 
 tydran and tyman. Tungol sceal on heofenum 
 
 beorhte sclnan, swa him bebfiad meotud. 
 50 God sceal wi5 jfele, geogoS sceal wi5 yldo, 
 
 llf sceal wi3 dCaJ^e, Ifioht sceal wi3 ))ystrum, 
 
 fyrd wis fyrde, ft?ond wi5 o5rum, 
 
 la3 wis la})e ymb land sacan, 
 
 synne sUelan. X sceal snotor hycgean 
 55 ymb }>ysse worulde gewinn • wearh hangian, 
 
 faegere ongildan, Y?et h6 ier facen dyde 
 
 manna cynne. Meotod aua -.vat 
 
 hwyder seo sawul sceal sySSan hweorfan 
 
 and ea!!e \>ii gastas, \>e for gode hweorfaS 
 60 aifter dCaSdaege ; domes bidaS 
 
 on feeder fteSme. Is s6o forSgesceaft 
 
 digol and dyrne ; diihteii ana wat, 
 
 nergende fieder. Nctni eft eymeS 
 
 hider under hrofas, \>q ]>mt li6r forsotS 
 65 mannum secg>^, Invylc sy meotodes gesceaft, 
 
 sigefolca gesetu, J»8er he sylfa wunat5. 
 
 60. H., F., Eb., Gr. ylde, Ettm, 60. Sw. offers bidan, as bett«r 
 llde. than bida'5. 
 
 61. Eb. byrstrum. 63. Eb. misprints mergende. 
 64. Ea. ycgean. Etcm. njenig. 
 
 66. Gr. queries feore ? fsege ? 64. Ea. enda the line with hSr. 
 
 Ettm. dide. 66. H., F., Eb., Gr. geseta. 
 
 57. Etlm. meotud.
 
 IV 
 
 NOTES ON GNOMIC VERSES' 
 Exeter Gnomes 
 
 1. Frige mec=interroga me. Cf. Ps. 138, 23. 
 
 lb-2a. Do not let thy thought [be] hidden, the mystery that thou most 
 thoroughly mayst know. — Understand wesan after Z«^ Cf. B.-T., p. 613, 
 Spr., I, 281, {/ere!) occulhim esse. Gr. " ich vermute ein adj. onhsel, 
 absconditus." Th. sees in onhxlne the meaning 'unsound.' 
 
 4a. W. agrees with Th. in conceiving the a-line to be the end of the 
 introduction, the ft-line the beginning of the gnomes. I hold with Gr. in 
 beginning the gnomes with gleaioe. gieddum : cf. B.-T., p. 474 (gpied), 
 " As Old English or Saxon proverbs, riddles, and particular speeches were 
 generally metrical and their historians were bards, hence, a speech, tale, 
 sermon, proverb, riddle," Cf. above, (p. 87) and see Merbot, Aeslhetischs 
 Studien zur Angelsdchsischen Poesie, Breslau, 1883, p. 19 2. 
 
 4b-5a. God shall one first praise, becomingly, our Father. Tb., 'God 
 before all must one praise fei-vently.' I iollow Gr.'s punct., not W.'a. 
 Cf. Virgil's In pHinis venerate deos {GeorgicSy I, 338). 
 
 5b. cet frym/)e getcode, in the beginning assigned. Cf. Chr. 770-777; 
 . . . se us Fif forgeaf \ Leomit, Uc and gxst. Cf. Met. 11^'. 
 
 6b. He will remind us of those gifts. Cf. Gen. 2933 ff. 
 
 7b-8a. Gr. has no punct. after eorfean, so that a translation of his text 
 mu-st read, ' Man shall on earth grow old.' So Mii. W. places a comma 
 after eorfian. Th. places a semicolon after the translation of eorpan, a 
 punct. which seem?, to me not only to break properly the gnome, ' Man 
 shall (dwell) on earth,' from the following, 'The young shall gi'ow old'; 
 but also throws strongly into contrast la with lb, and 8a with 8i. Str. 
 favors this reading. 
 
 9a. Cf . this line with 5a, Gn. C. God has here become stronger than 
 "Wyrd : the fates affect him not. 
 
 1 See p. 114 for list of abbreviations. In these notes double quotation 
 marks are employed for indicating words of other authors, single quota- 
 tion marks for representing translations made by them or implied by 
 their texts. Readings of the present editor are not designated by quota- 
 tion marks at all. 
 
 130
 
 NOTES OK GNOMIC VERSES 131 
 
 9b-10a. Nor doth one whit trouble Tiim disease nor age, the Almighty. 
 Cf. Beo., 1736-1737 : no hir.e wiht dweleS, | ddl ne yldo. Th., ' nor doth 
 aught ?.fflict him.' B-T., p. 1222, glosses wiAt, 'thing.' My translation 
 ia in hfTmoay with Gr., who places no comma after drece/>. W. inserts 
 a comma. 
 
 11a. gomelafS, not given in B.-T. Spr., I, 380, gamelian, inveterascere. 
 O. 3. Schlutter writes at length about this word in Eng. St., XLI, 456- 
 He suggests its resemblance to Celtic gam = loiiiter, and to lYisian 
 gammelje = krdnkeln. 
 
 12a. />eoden, found almost exclusively in poetry. Cf. B.-T., p. 1048 ; 
 Spr., II, 680. 
 
 12b. gepoHJ, I read plu. Th. regards it as sing. — syleiJ, Cf. Wr., 
 §§ 254, 270. 
 
 13. Different dispositions, many tongues. MS. monge reorde, so Gr. 
 and Sob., but Th. divides, mon-gereorde, 'human speech.' 
 
 14b. /te/'me/^ioMe, embraces far and wide. Th., ' in its wide embrace.' 
 
 17b-18a. Cf. Troilus, II, 28: In sondry londes, sondry ben usages^ 
 Hending, stanza 4; Ase fele thedes, ase fele thewes, and other parallels 
 cited in SkeaL's ^. E. Proverbs, 1910, p. 00. Cf, also Skeat's introduction, 
 p. 7, where he observes that this is a favorite proverb in most European 
 language."?, occurring in more than sixty form.s. 
 
 18b. />ing gehegan, to have a meeting. Cf. B.-T., p. 399. Conven- 
 tional expression in verse for holding a parliament or meeting (but cf. 
 Beo. 425 ff.) ; it is not used in prose. Cf. Sigrdrifom^l, 24. 
 
 20a. Tliey ever setcle dispute. Cf. B.-T., p. 862. 
 
 ?,2-23. " -ein zusammeugehbris^es dLstichon, das an den vorhergehenden 
 sprach des verwandteu sinnes wegen angehiingt ward. Auch 24-26 
 tilden keine fortsetzung [but cf. gc>'i(BCcan with cennan'], sind in sich 
 aber schon und zu.sammengehorig : der geburt des menschen wird im 
 bilde dessen endschicksal gegeniibergestellt." — Str., op. cit. p. 56. 
 
 Out of 22a, 226, 23a, 236, I make four gnomes. Th. places a period 
 after tilum and after gemoiccan ; Gr., a colon after tUum, a period after 
 gcmoRCcan; Gr^., period after tilum, comma after gemocccan. Brand! 
 sees in 236 an injunction to monogamy ! 
 
 24-25a. Cf. Fates of Men, 2-3, loer and wif in vooruld cennaS beam 
 mid gcbiird:tm. 
 
 25b-26. A tree shall on eartli suffer as to its leaves, lament its branches. 
 Cf. Gji. C, 33--34. With li/^a7i, cf. DUG. I'ldan, to go, yield, suffer. 
 leafum Ufian, may mean 'give up leaves.' Cf. B.-T., p. 644. Th. sug- 
 gested changing gnorninn to grownn, and reading, 'with leaves flourish, 
 with branches grow.' — ieomu, cf. Wr., § 100-101. 
 
 It is possible that 256-29a may be a figurative way of saying that 
 parents lo.so their cliildren and strive against tlie separation. But transi- 
 tions are abrupt in gnomic verse, and veiled allusions unusual, therefore 
 I prefer to read 256-26 literally, and to see in 27-29a a new gnome not 
 directly connected v/ith what precjdes. Brandl thinks the origin of this
 
 132 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON 
 
 passage, 2off, is to be found in Boethius, Cons. Phil. L. II, Met. 8. Per- 
 haps he meant to cite Met. 6 ? 
 
 27. fxge stceUan, cf. An. 1530, fs^ge swulton. 
 
 29b-34. An exceedingly awkward passage, displaying the gnoiric ccl- 
 lector'8 weakness in versification and syntax. I read : The Creator alone 
 knows whence [hic.xr for /uro/ian?] the malady comes wni^h hence from 
 the country goes. He increases children, whom early disease takes (or, 
 the child increaseth those [whom] disease has taken) ; thus there are 
 on earth so mr. ly of the race of men ; there would not be (on the other 
 hand) measure (limiting) of mankind on earth, if he did not decrease 
 them, who this world created. Th. reads ier ddl as two words, following 
 the MS. as I do. Gr. used this reading at first, but in 6'pr. and Germ. X, 
 he compounded the two. W. follows Or-. Later Edd. stand by Th. 
 Cf. Holt., Angl. BeL, XXI, 154. Cf. also B.-T., p. 17, Mr-ddl = 'early 
 disease,' and p. 1088 (where, inconsistently, icr is translated 'before'). 
 Gr. puncts. cymcp. pe heonan . . . geroiteS, umbor yceS, wr ddl nimetS : 
 Gr^., cyme/>, . . . geioitetS. Umbor . . . Sirddl nimeS. 
 
 30b. cy/)/>fi. Cf. B.-T., p. 1<J1. This may mean either 'knowledge,' 
 a reading which W. prefers, or 'a known region, country,' and so I take 
 it. Spr., I, 181, glosses ry/>, * landschaft.' 
 
 31. 7uman is preserved in the slang word nim = steal, E.-T., p. 721. 
 
 34a. hi, ace. — rcanige, trans, vb. Cf. modern wane, intrans. — teode, 
 created. 
 
 35a. This line is practically identical with Sea/., 100, dol biS se f>e him 
 his dryhten ne oitdritdeS, cymeS hint, deaS nu/^inged. Ot the same type 
 are ]Vand., 112, Til hi/> se />e, etc., and Sul. and 6'ai., 224, Dol biS se 8e, 
 etc. 
 
 35b. /ors, Cf. Sh., p. 118. With (o after verb of motion to express 
 object of motion. 
 
 S6a- heorgntJ, w. dat. dawhim, protect their souls. 
 
 37-38. I read : Blessed is he who in his home prospers ; miserable ho 
 ■whom his friends deceive ; never shall he be blessed to whom his pro- 
 vision fails : he shall be bound for a time by need. Th. ' He shall never 
 . . . whose provision fails. Need shall have time.' He carries gebunden 
 over to the next gnome and reads, gebunden Wipe sceal bealoleas. Likewise, 
 he takes hcorte from 39a and makes it the initial word of 396 ; but see 
 below. Distich 37-38 has been the subject of investigation by Holt- 
 hausen. In Eng. St., XXXVII, 109, he suggests nyde for nyd. "Zu 
 nefre sceal ist oflenbar aus dem vorhergehenden ein eadig loesan zu 
 ergjinzen ; zu gebunden bloss tre.<taji." His reading would thus be 
 equivalent to my translation, above. He pursues the subject in Angi. 
 Bei. XXI, 154. "So ist offenbar mit besserung der interpunktion zu 
 lesen, donn ein adj. nefre ' infirmus, invalidus,' das Grein- allerdings mit 
 fragezeichen anzetzt, wird sclnverlich anzunehmen sein. Dies als ne 
 (zfrc zu erkliiren und zu afar (1. dfor!) zu Ziehen, ist vollends verkehrt, 
 da n doch kein priifix ist." He then observes that Th. has recognized the
 
 NOTES ON GNOMIC VERSES 133 
 
 meaning of the passage, though leaving a lacuna for the evidently tuider- 
 Btood eadig wesan. Holt, ends by dismissing as " verkehrt" the note of 
 Schlutter in Eng. St., XLI, 828. Cf. B.-T., p. 706, ' Never shall he thrive 
 whose provision fails him,' etc. Str. comments, "wenn 386 zu ilber- 
 setzen ist, ' das ungliick sei auf immer gefesselt,' so trennt das distichon 
 87, 38 von den Ubrigan sechs versen." Of the same type as 37a is 
 Seaf. 107. 
 
 39a. Glad shal' be the innocent heart. 
 
 39b. The blind shall suffer of (or loss of ) his eyes. Th. begins 39a 
 with gebn)iden, from 1. 38, tlien carries heorte over to 396, so that the 
 passage through 44 has a figurative meaning. — /mlian, cf. dialect thole, 
 and B.-T., p. 106 (iii). 
 
 40. He shall be deprived of clear sight, him, referring to blind, the 
 person ; h'l referring to eagna. — oftigen, from ofteon, cf. B.-T., p. 742, 
 •w. dat. of pers. and gen- of thing. Cf. Wt., § 442, for oftigen, pp. form. 
 — tunglu, heavenly bodies, with which sunnan and monan, 1. 41, are in 
 apposition. — (7es^■/!^ Angl. form ? Cf. WS. gesieh/>, and Wr., §§ 99, 184. 
 It may be LWS. In tae MS. the second i in bewltian is inserted above 
 the line, — later hand ? 
 
 41. Swegltorht, adj., mod. tunglu, above. Th., 'the heaven-bright 
 sun,' which is infljctionally wrong: swegltorht is the reg. form for ace. 
 plu. of this neuter adjective- Cf. Met. 29-». 
 
 42a. The first part of this line is puzzling. Th. reads, ' inasmuch that 
 he alone knows it.' Gr. suggests that onge is derived from onga, a thorn ; 
 hence, his translation would substantially be, ' A thorn, since he alone 
 knows it.' I think otige may be a variant for ange, troubled, 
 sorrowful ; cf. B.-T., p. 46. I read 416-42a, therefore, That to him 
 will be distressing in his raind, sorrowful, since he alone knows 
 it. A passage in Oron. (II, 5), has almost the same expression : 
 tT(i inces tiCnu cijnii.ge sw'iSe ange on hia mode. 
 
 44. of heofc'dij imme , following MS. Th. proposes heafod-gimmum ; 
 Gr. on hciifodgimme. Cf. also Spr., II, 43. W. sees heofod as dialect. 
 Po.ssibly the scribe made an error in spelling. Cf. 1. 68, An. 31. 
 
 45a. Th. reads iefinon, ' a lover ' ! Cf. B.-T., p. 627, lef, weak, injured, 
 and Spr., II, 167, lef, injirmus. 
 
 47. W. thinks the beginning of 47 is lost, ' Ich nehme hier eine Iticke 
 an, obgleich kelne spur einer solchen in der hs.' Siev. sees no gap, 
 but a finished stanzaic form. Kaluza, Eng. St., XXI, 383, would write 
 the two lines (46^7) as one, making truly a " schwell verse." Holt., 
 Angl. Bei., XXI, 164, objects :.o the first half of the line containing four 
 accents, and suggests that and tyhtan is an addition of the scribe. 
 Ho would read as one line 46 and 47, omitting and tyhtan. This is tak- 
 ing a good deal of liberty with the text, particularly since the phrase 
 trymman and tyhian is essentially AS. in its tautological, alliterative 
 quality. — on gewitie aliSde, until ho be brought into understanding. 
 B.-T., supp. p. 33, ' until he be brought to exercise his reason.'
 
 134 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON 
 
 49. cildgeongne. I follow the MS. ia retaining this form, which I re- 
 gard as an ace. adj., the second part of the compouno. receiving the 
 adjectival inflection. Or., Spr., I, IGO, glosses the word as a nora. adj., 
 and regards the n« as sign of the negative. So do other Edd., ap- 
 parently. 
 
 51a. Th., ' With strong mind shall a man govern.' This Una is iden- 
 tical with Seaf. \Wa, Stieran mon sceal strongum mode. — styran, ci. 
 B. -'!"., p. 917, steoran, where 'restrain' is suggested. For the various 
 forms, cf. Wr., § 138. 
 
 52b-53a. They begin angrily to hasten, the dusky waves, at a distance, 
 to the land. Th., on-faran, and translates, 'the ocean in rough sni'.sous 
 strives fiercely to tend, dusky to move to land.' For fundian, Or. offers 
 fandian. — fealwe. Mead notes (PMLA., XIV, 11G9 ff.) occurs in AS. 
 poetry 17 timei?. It is an indefinite color. "The prevailing meaning," 
 Mead says, " appears to be a pale yellow shading into red or brown, 
 and in some cases into green." 
 
 53b. he seems to refer to lond, but lond is neuter ; perhaps personifica- 
 tion explains the constniction. Gr. suggests hit. Str. thinks 51-64 
 belong together, that to the ethical idea, ' one with strong mind shall 
 rule,' is joined a comparison from nature, that of the ocean in storm. In 
 this case, he would be explained as referring to tnon ; but it seems to me 
 better to read the gnomes separately, keeping the meani^g distinct in 
 each case. Note end-rhyme 5oa-536. 
 
 54a. him. that is, waves implied in fealwe (the walls shall hold resist- 
 ance to them). Gr. sc. ytJu, and .S'yr., I, 28(3, ttndre f 
 
 54b. Ann, that is, loenUas f ov loeallas and ytSa J Lit. to thera is the 
 wind in common, mutual. Th., 'is the wind indifferent,' which W. 
 challenges, " Woher komint diese bedeutung? "' 0. B, Schlutter regards 
 the word equivalent to geimX'jne = geioealden. Poti^stati sitbjectus, he 
 says, is the idea, and translates, ' ihnen (den maucrn) ist der wind 
 untertan.' He cites li. Ben., Ill, 19 (Vol. 2, p. 15, Gr.'s BihUothek 
 der Angelsachsischcn Prosa). Ilis suggestion is not altogether convinc- 
 ing by way of proof, but deserves acknowledgment. 
 
 55. Observe the comparison introduced here and extending through 
 o9a. Str. sees in the passage a reversal of the method used in 51-54. 
 Here, 55-59a, the metaphor proceeds from nature, with an application to 
 mankind. The metrical form is identical with one form of the IjoSahdttr 
 strophe. Cf. Siev^., p. 14.5, and below. 
 
 59a. Bold men (are) powerful through tlieir nature. Cf. Th. and 
 B.-T., p. 382. \y. places no mark after henUa/f, 5Sb, hence his reading 
 would be substantially, ' and then with comrades hold, bold men, genial 
 rule.' 
 
 59b-60. Gr. and W. .'make 60 supplement 596. I prefer a division by 
 which two gnomes appear: A king is de.sirous of power. Hateful is he 
 who claims land, dear he who gives more (land). — londes monaS, cf. 
 B.-T., p. 688 (iv).
 
 NOTES ON GNOMIC VERSES 135 
 
 61a. A^m, cf. B.-T., p. 1074 (Ui). 
 
 61b. />riste, in a good sense, confident. 
 
 62. I regard ttis line au extension of 616, not of 61 entire. 
 
 63a. eos boge, horse's back; lit. the shoulder of the horse ; cf. B.-T., 
 p. 115. 
 
 63b. eorod for worod. eorod satisfies the alliteration and contrasts 
 •with fe/>a, 64. It would appear, therefore, to be the correct form. The 
 meanings are nearly identical: eorod = eoh +'rad, troop of cavalry; 
 werod = wer + rad, multitude, army. Cf. Wr., §161. With 63, cf. 
 Gn. a 32. 
 
 64b. It is fitting for a woman to be at her board, table. I find no 
 other instance cf the weak form, horde. It may mean table ; it may 
 refer to the embroidery board. Cf. Volsunga Saga, Ch. XXIV, the 
 passage on Brunhilde at her embroidery. 
 
 65a. 'iv gadding woman gets words (a bad reputation),' B.-T., p. 444. 
 With 656, cf. 1016. Cf. also Siev., 478, who suggests dividing lines 65 
 Rnd 101, so as to make two out of each, the effect being analogous to 
 that of lj6Sah^Utr. 
 
 66. Th. translates, ' A man thinks of her with contempt ; oft her cheek 
 smites.' I read, Men think of her with contempt ; often her face fades. 
 Jlleor is nom., and since m^na^ is phi., it is better to read hleor the 
 subject of ahrto/jeS, than to make man understood or inferred the subject. 
 Jlxle^, 0'5a, is evidently plu. (Since writing this note, I observe that 
 B.-T., supp. p. 4, suggests ' her good looks are lost.' 
 
 67. sceomiande man, Th. translates, ' A bashful man,' a reading which 
 spoils the contrast. Read, A shamed man shall go in the shade ; it is 
 fitting that a pure one (walk) in the light. 
 
 68a. liand shall lie on head, etc. lleofod troubles Gr., who suggests 
 phiustts ? and in Spr., II, 03, does not venture to suggest a rendering. 
 Tapper (JEG. Ph., .Ian., 1012) comments on these lines in connection 
 with hand ofer hrafod. He says : " — it Ls obvious from the accompanying 
 gnomes that the reference is to some ceremony at the time of the dis- 
 pensing of treasure by the lord to his men — some rite of the Comitatus. 
 The chief's hand is evidently laid upon his retainer's head, but how and 
 why ? I believe that the answer to this question is given in certain well- 
 known verses of the AVaiulerer, 41-44 : hinceS him on mode \>iei be his 
 mondrj'hten | clyppe a)id cysse, and on cneo lecge | handa and he;vfod, 
 svvii hehwilum ;er | in geardagum giefstOhia breac." Tupper thinks the 
 exile is lecalling the k^ustoui of the commendation "by which . . . the 
 v.assal pleaged his loyalty and trust in return for his chief's gold and protec- 
 tion. . . . This pledge of the clansman is the pracipinm sacramentum of 
 the Germania of Tacicus (Ch. 14 ), the oath of fealty of the Beowulf,^^ 
 etc. In any case, Tupper contends that this gnome shows that the chief 
 placed his hand on the warrior's head when he dealt to him gifts. 
 Further, see JEO. Ph., April, 1012, wherein Tupper notes that L. M. 
 Larson has called his attention to an article, The Household of (he Nor-
 
 136 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON 
 
 we.gian Kings, in The American Historical Review, XIII, 439-479, and to 
 
 his (Larson's) footnote on the lines in the Wanderer, as the earliest com- 
 plete record of a most important ceremony. Thus is new support given 
 to the meaning of the phrase, hand ofer henfod. Cf. also York Powell's 
 comment in Elton's Saxo Orammalicus, p. xxvi, "Allegiance was paid by 
 kneeling and laying the head down at the lord's knee, as the beautiful pas- 
 sage iu the Wanderer's Lay reminds us." Cf. also Charm A 14 (Greadon, 
 p. 178), and observe that the meaning is probably the same. Gift of life 
 or eternal joy might be fittingly represented by the Divine Dispenser per- 
 forming an act similar to that of an earthly giver. Grendon (notes, 
 p. 221) seems to be in doubt. — inwyrcan, to consecrate (by laying on of 
 hands) ? 
 
 68b ff. Th. translates, ' the treasury await riches ; a present stand 
 prepared, when men it bestow. Gra.sping is he who receives gold, a man 
 to whom in a high station is enough,' Rie. tampers conbiderably with 
 the MS., but admits that his emendation of the fust half lino is not satis- 
 factory. He will not accept streonnm; " i.st . . . er.tschieden un- 
 zulassig;" streon cannot = streoioen = stratum. He fails to understand 
 what the ' hord should be doing in bed,' the connection seeming to escape 
 him. From streonnm, through screonum, he would evolve 'schatzkam- 
 mer.' Str. says, in effect, he does not understand C8a. But he thinks 
 the entire passage nothing more than the request of a wanderer for alma, 
 thus agreeing with Rie., who notes that the singer having come to the 
 end of his lay hints at reward. Tupper reads 705, ' Good is he who 
 receives the gold, the man who is contented on the high seat.' Krapp 
 thinks 70b means simply 'man (i.e. lord) on high-seat hath possessed 
 (or enjoyed) it.' 70a means that the eager person wants the gold which 
 the lord (in 10b) has possessed. He sees in 71 the usual reward for gen- 
 erosity. Lawrence would read 10b, ' the man on the high-seat is not 
 lacking in it, i.e. the gold.' Ayres sees also a strong contrast, and reads, 
 ' Greedy is he who receives the gold [but] th'5 man (prince) on the high- 
 seat is sufficient for him, or it.' I would read the whole passage : 
 Treasure shall rest in its bed (casket), the throne will stand pre- 
 pared, when men divide it (the treasure). Greedy is he who receives the 
 gold, but the man on the high-seat will satisfy him. I am inclined to see, 
 with Ayres, adverbial significance in /oes, and to read //ces geneah, ' will 
 be sufficient for that.' 
 
 70b. Sh., p. 21, thinks geneah ■= beneah, and reads: u man has need 
 of it on a throne. I read, geneah from genugan. 
 
 71b. lisse, cf. Chr., 434, He him pxre lisse lean forgilde^. 
 
 B 
 
 73. eorpe groican, earth shall grow, with trans, suggestion. Cf. Th., 
 'earth [shall] bring forth.' C, '■terra vigescet.^ Str. thinks possibly 
 growan is " nicht richtig, " that another word of different meaning
 
 NOTES ON GNOMIC VERSES 137 
 
 belongs where it stands. The gnome breaks an otherwise unified passage, 
 it is true, but unity is not a characteristic ot" gnomic utterance. 
 
 73b-74. Ice shall bridge (over water), the water a covering wear, (ice 
 shall) lock up, etc. This, my reading, conserves the AS. verse structure ; 
 r,hat is, I see in 74a a repetiiion. C, ^glacies confringetur, Aqua navem 
 (^tilmuin) subvehet.'' Th., ' ice break ; the watery deep ac^itate.' Ten Br., 
 ' Eis sich woUen, der wiisserhelm tragen.' Ma., 'The ice, the water hel- 
 met, locks up the plants.' Cf. An., 1201, 7s brycgade. 
 
 74b-76. Ettm. places a period after lucan, no mark after ci/nis in 76. 
 This punctuation sug^est-s tho reading, One shall bind up the plants of 
 the earth. I trar.date : One shall unbind the frost's fetters, the very 
 mighty God. Inbindan occurs nowhere else, and is perhaps interchange- 
 able with onbindan. Cf. B.-T., p. 589 (in), and B.-T., p. 747. Equally 
 pertinent, however, would it be to separate m from bindan and read. One 
 shall bind on the fetters of the frost. Gr., *S';)r., II, 194, thinks lucan ia 
 intrans. — "sich schliesxen." Str., "Gott allein lost das fesselnde band." 
 
 77a. I read, Winter shall depart. Th., 'the much mighty God winter 
 shall cast forth.' With winter . . . geweorpan, cf. winter geworp, An., 
 1256. Weder may mean weather, bad weather, or, as here, good weather. 
 But C, 'tempestas: Cf. B.-T., p. 1182, and Kr., An., p. 168. 
 
 78b. Beginning with this line, I see through 81 a series of short 
 gnomes, and read : The sea shall be unquiet ; that is, it is the nature of 
 the sea to be restless. The solemn {deop, profundus) way of the dead is 
 longest secret. Holly shall to the fire. The property of a dead man shall 
 be divided. Glory (fame) is best (dom = kX^o AvdpQiv, Chadwick, Heroic 
 Age, p 329). Th., 'The sea is unsiill ; deep the way of the dead, A 
 secret shall be longest hidden. Shall among men the inheritance be 
 divided of a dead man.' That is, Th. ends 79 with holen, and in 80 .sub- 
 stitutes celeS for xled. Ettm. reads a period after hat, a comma after 
 unstille, a comma after tceg, a period after lengest. Gr., • Die tiefe todte 
 woge bleibt am lani^sten (unter der eisdecke) verborgen.' Ten Br., 
 ' Am liingsten, in der tiefe birgt sich die todte woge. Die stechpalm soil 
 in's feuer.' Str., 'die tiefe tote woge i.st am langsten bose (gewesen).' 
 Brooke, ' The dead depth of ocean forever is dark.' Mii. thinks 796 is a 
 separate gnome. Cf. Holt., Eug. .9r.,XXXViI, 199, who suggests ofen 
 for holen. The form woeg is an orthographic variation, and the change 
 to weg is unnecessary. Cf. B.-T., p. 1183. 
 
 80. This line shows end-rhyme in.stead of alliteration. Th. would 
 force an alliteration by seeing in xled, (sleS for hceleS. Unnecessary jug- 
 gling, llanscom, JEG.Ph., V, 446, seems to think this line means 
 holly is good for burning. Cf. Brandl, p. 902, note. 
 
 81. Bom hi/j selast. Cf. Beo. 13886-1389a. Gr. thinks dom = ' ruhm '; 
 so Ten Br., ' Ruhm ist das beste.' Koegel, ' dem toten istnachruhm das 
 beste,' and traces origin to Homer. (Cf. also introd., pp. 38, 3X) 
 
 82. A good example of ornate diction : The king shall buy a queen 
 with property, with cups and bracelets. Cf. On. C. 46, Ht^vam^l 91.
 
 138 GNOiUC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON 
 
 85b-86. And the woman thrive, dear with her people. MS. io/, Th. 
 translates 'beloved,' thourjh he fails to suggest leof as emendation. Cf. 
 Rie., Lesebuch, p. xxvi, and Beo. 24 ff., LofdiBdum sceal . . . man ge/>ion. 
 
 87a. rune healdan = keep counsel. 
 
 88. meodoriPdenne, the only instance of this compound, Sw. defines as 
 a collective noun meaning 'strong drinks.' (On -rceden, cf. TVr., § 610, 
 and Kluge, Xo/ninale Staminbihlu)igslehre, § 102). B.-T., p. 677. sug- 
 gests 'cellars, metonymy for liquors.' I think the ceremonial of the 
 mead-cup is referred to. 
 
 89a. MS. sorge siS inctgen. I fail to make any meaning out of these 
 words, which palceographically may easily be confuset'. with for gesid- 
 mmgen. So facsimile of Exeter MS. I translate, accordingly, before 
 the courtiers, the train. Cf. B.-T., p. 442, 'a multitude of companions.' 
 Th., 'toward his friends, ever, everywhere' Or. has no punct. from 
 m<7/'/nw7/i through gegretan. W. notes, 'Ettm. andert in : sorge si Sraaegen 
 simle cegh\v;er.' But Ettm. has merely retained the MS. 
 
 90. (The wife) shall the nobles' chief first greet. I understand the 
 entire passage from 85fc through 93 to refer to the queen. She shall 
 earn praise; be cheerful of mood ; keep counsel ; be munificent in horses, 
 trea.sures ; with [the ceremony of] the mead, before the train, always, 
 everywhere, shall first greet the nobles' chief (her husband) ; the firet 
 cups to the lord's hand quickly present, shall know wise counsel for them 
 (herself and husband), the house owners, both together. Cf. Beo. 612 ff. 
 the picture of Weallitheow moving among the guests, and Beo. 1216, the 
 speech wherein Wealhtheow presents the collar to Beowulf. Cf. also 
 Tupper, Biddies, p. 218, and Gummere's translation of the passage at 
 hand, OEE., p. 50, note, and Atlakvit^a, 38. 
 
 91b. hand for honda. 
 
 92b. ff. Ten Br., ' '.{ath ersinnen sollen des hauses herren zusammen.' 
 
 95. The only occurrence of the adj. use of linden. 
 
 95b-100. An often quoted passage. Dear the welcome one to the Frisian 
 ■wife, when the vessel stands : when his ship is come and her husband at 
 home, her own provider, and she invites him in, washes his sea-stained 
 garments and gives him new weeds : pleasant is it to him on land whom his 
 love constrains. Gollaucz (Chr., I, 16) has a pretty verse translation, but 
 he renders in laSn/> -leads to (the board),' and biL-de(5, 'awaits.' S. A.. 
 Brooke {E. E. Lit., I., 233) thinks this passage may have arisen concerning 
 one of the Frisian band which seems to have settled to the North of the 
 Tweed. Ma. has a queer notion concerning this Frisian woman. He holds 
 that frisan = 'frizzled, ringleted, with a wealth cf tresses,' not Frisian ! 
 
 100. Ten Br. translates, ' Am lande wohnt ihm was seine lieb 
 ersehnet.' Ma., ' waiteth for him on the land . . . that his love demand- 
 eth.' That is, he sees a missing word. Cf. Sh., p. 23, 'whom his love 
 constrains, or because (J>ies) love constrains him (his).' 
 
 101a. See above (p. 92) and cf. IJ'jvamiJl, 83, for a more cynical 
 tone : Meyjar orf>om skyle mange trim.
 
 NOTES ON GNOMIC VERSES 139 
 
 101b. Cf. 65. • I read, Often she dishonors men with her Tices. Bi, 
 though companitively rare, is a nominative form. Rie. omits 1016, be- 
 lieving "data die worte oft . . . behliS nur durch versehen von 65 her- 
 genommen wiiren," and W. adds, " eine ansicht die sehr v^ahrscheinlich 
 ist." On the lengtli of 101, Schmitz says (p. 00), "101 nimmt K. ala 
 geschwelltj zeile, -Joch glaube ich mit Rieger dasa die worte oft bis hehliS 
 nur durch versehen von 66 iiergenommen Hind." 
 
 102. Many a one is (of the) steadfast ; many a one (of the) inquisitive. 
 
 103. I read, She courts strange men. Cf. Gn. C. 43, and Tfie In- 
 structions of King Cormac Mac Airt, op. cit., p. 22, 1. 38 : ' Bad women 
 are given to trysting. ' Grammar favors making woman the active agent 
 instead of the object of the courting. Th., however, ' strange men court 
 them.' 
 
 104b. leofes loenan, await a loved one. 
 
 105a. gebidan /j<zs, wait for what he may not hasten. Gr. thinks ne 
 miglit be omitted. Cf. Sh., p. S3. 
 
 106b-107a. Unless tlie ocean restrain him ; the sea has him in its 
 power. Mundum may have an unfavorable meaning, clutches ; if it 
 should be so translated, I should make hafaS also modified by nefne. 
 
 107b. A maid is the delight of the possessor. Th. suggests egna 
 {eayena) for 7'gsan, and translates, * A maid is the delight of the eyes.' 
 Kttr.i. and Rie. follow. Gr. punctuates: gestyreH. Jtlere hafaS viundiim 
 micgo, egsan loyn. Or, he thinks, egsa may be egsa^ ' possessor.' Ma. 
 agrees with Gr.'s first reading ; for he translates, ' the chief of terrors, 
 i.e. the sea (holJeth) a family (many sailors).' W., " obgleich die ord- 
 nung dergedaiiken bei Grein eir.e bes.sere ist, schloss ich mich der andren 
 einfachern erklarungsweise an." Cf. B.-T., p. 244, egsa, where this line 
 is referred to. Holt., Enp. St., XXXVII, 100, thinks egna correct, but 
 the following a-line senseless. He iliinks ceap should be instrumental, 
 and, as I understand him, would read, 'A maid (is) the delight of the 
 eyes ; through property a man (is) wealthy.' Jlii., " Die sippe [evidently 
 for ra;egii = kinsman] ist die freude des besitzers." 
 
 108-109. Confusing lines. The meaning seems to be something like 
 this : His property a wealthy man, the king a dwelling will sell, to the 
 sailor when he comes sailing. He enjoys wood and water, when a dwell- 
 ing is granted him. Th. reads : ' A rich man his cattle, a king his dwell- 
 ing then, with liis i)eople snail guard, when mariners come, wood and 
 water use; then to them is a dwelling granted.' Ma. reads: 'A rich 
 man, a king, a settlement then for his people buys, when he comes sail- 
 ing.' Rie. punctuates as Th., ccap eadig mon, cyning lo'ic />onne, leodon 
 cype/f, ponne U/'an cymeS. Gr., ceap-cadig mon cyning ic'ic />onne leodon 
 type/). Gr^., loic />on leodon {= />dm leodum) cTjpep. But as W. com- 
 ments, 'Diese iin lerung ist unmoglich, da /oH nicht /on inderhs. steht.' 
 I follow Gr., Hpr.y II, 182, in making leodon = lidan, 'sailor.' Ma. 
 agrees with Gr. in compounding ceap and eadig. — For liSan cyme9, cf 
 B.-T., p. 643.
 
 140 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON 
 
 111. He buys meat, if he needs more, before he becomes too faint. 
 Who is ' he ' ? Still the Railor-man ? 
 
 113. ne maeg, etc., seems to be an idiomatic expression equivjueat to 
 our ' can't stand the weather' ; but B.-T., p. 69, says, ' he may not be in 
 the open air.' 
 
 114. Overcome is he, he may soon die, if he know not one who may 
 feed him living. But Sir may mean before. Cf. B.-T., pp. 6, 17. 
 
 115b-116. Cf. above, p. 92, mor/>or = violent death, corpse of one 
 whom he has killed. For inor/)or, cf. h&wrence'' s Ba}iished.\Vife^s La- 
 ment, loc. cit., 391. With this passage, cf. Sigrdrifotn6l, 33, counsel 9. 
 
 118. Note the rhyme, gehnigan, gesigan. Adl gesigan, disease lan- 
 guish. Th. reads, 'adl(i)ge sigan, the diseased sink.' Or. with an eye to 
 alliteration offers hadl, haSu f But what does he mean ? Holt, would 
 write hadl = heald, half> (bent down) and cites Sw. 
 
 119a. Tijht rogian, justice shall flourish. Th., 'justice accuse,' and 
 queries, 'Ohg. rcgjan'r' B.-T. is at a loss for the meaning; Spr., II, 
 383, " rogian (ahd. rukian) florere, crescere." I follow this etymology. 
 
 120. yfel nnjvjttost, piet is written over an erasure. — nyttost, unnyttost, 
 example of what Siev. terms " gratiimatischer reim." 
 
 121. A unique line. It puns on God and guod and rhymes genge with 
 lenge. The tone seems to be tliat of a real proverb. Good is prevalent 
 and has afSnity with God. B.-T., p. 421 (gengo), 'Good prevails and 
 is lasting before God.' B.-T., p. 029 (lenge), 'Good hath affinity with 
 God.' Cf. Klieber, Jif. Ph., Ill, 240, where this passage is compared with 
 one from Beo., and the meaning ' at hand ' suggested. 
 
 122. Thought shall be restrained, the hand shall be controlled (by 
 mind ?) A common gnomic idea, cf. ]Vand., 11 ff. Note the alliteration 
 and the rhyme. 
 
 123. The apple shall be in the eye. Interesting relic, — seo = apple = 
 pupil. 
 
 123b. After in and before breostum there is a slight erasure. 
 
 123. A good scop for men, spear-strife for heroes (is fitting) ; war for 
 resistance to hold peace among dwellings. Th. translates, 'a weapon for 
 enemies (that is, gar nipicerum) , war for an adversary.' etc. Ettm., 
 " Thorpii textus recensionem sum secutus ; at legi etiara potest, quamvis, 
 paganitatem sapiat, God scop (creavit) gumum garni^ verum, vig tovi'Sre. 
 vie . . ." So Rie. understands, but writes gar n'lfivoeruin. Gr. g^d 
 (bonus) scop gumum, ga.rnV5 verum v'lg toviSre vicfreo'Su healdan. Cf. 
 also Spr. II, 549, toviSre = ' contra pugnam.' B (I quote from W.), goi 
 {bonus) scop gumum, gar nWverum, v'lg toviSre v'lcfreotJohealdan = ' apeer 
 fiir die neidigen, karapf fiir den widersacher, wohnung far friedenhalt- 
 ende.' 
 
 130-132. Str., " In den drei folgenden versen 130-132 ist je ein halbvera 
 einem spruche gewidmet." 
 
 133. Woden created idoU (or evils). Str. thinks the origin of this 
 passage is Ps. xcv, 5 : Omnes dii gentium dcemonia, dominus autem
 
 NOTES ON GNOMIC VERSES 141 
 
 cellos fecit. Pope Boniface quotes from this Psalm In his letter to 
 Edwin, King of the Angles (tee Bede, HE., II, 10). The writer of the 
 gnomic passage may have translated from memory or he may have mia- 
 understood in making fecit a governing verb also for the first passage. 
 There is a parallel for the rest of the speech in the history of Edwin's 
 conversion (Bede, EE., Ch. II, 13), "In hac pncdicatione Veritas claret 
 ilia, quse nobis vit^e, salutis et beatitudinis aiterase dona valet tribuere." 
 Forireos, cf. Spr., II, 731, woh, ' iniquitas' ; B.-T., p. 1262, woh, crooked, 
 and looh, wrong, error. 
 
 Since, as I believe, the final six lines, 133-138, are the addition of a 
 late scribe, it is not impossible that the chapters just referred to may have 
 been familiar to him. But the parallelism of this passage with the pas- 
 sages in Bede may be due to the common origin, the Bible. 
 
 137. eft £t, etc. B. translates, ' wieder am ende.' 
 
 140b. leofes in MS. seems to be error for lofes : merit praise, rather 
 than merit a lover. Cf. Spr., II, 192. — Oearnian seems to be a con- 
 traction for ge-ej.rniun. 
 
 141b. dceges onettan, daily be diligent. Cf. The night cometh when no 
 man can work (John ix, 4). Dceges, adverbial. Cf. Wr., 657 ; B.-T., 
 p. 193. 
 
 142. A good man remembers (is careful of) a good and tame horae. 
 Th. translates mon ' man,' not seeing subst. significance of til. So Ettm., 
 who notes, " scil. oyt} toeorSe.''^ Mon is best taken as 3d sg. pres. of 
 vnaian. 
 
 14Sb. calcrondes, a compound which occurs nowhere else. 
 
 144. A perfect gnome. No man gains too much. Str. notes that this 
 lir.e is the conclusion of the four-line alliterative strophe in the fornyrS islag, 
 this strophe being made up of 139, 140, 141, 144. 142 and 143 are out of 
 place. 
 
 146. Often one goes far by (about) the village, where he knows for 
 himself no certain friend. - Passing the dwellings of men,' B.-T., 
 p. 1019, tUHP (iv) ; 'where he cannot look for a friend,' B.-T,, p. 1138. 
 Th. » where he knows a friend to be void of reproach.' The line seems to 
 mean that one avoids a place where there are no friends. — unvoiotod, 
 jSpr. 11, 030, glossas ' non destinatus.' 
 
 147. Siev. p. 464, thinks Ettm. right in emending to wulf. " Nicht 
 nur geferan ist wahrscheinlich, sondern auch das folgende felajaicne deor 
 istsicher singular." Bni geferan maybe dat. plu., and though wu// makes 
 smoother construction, I do not change text. 
 
 148. The dangerous animal ; full often the companion tears him. MS. 
 has/cccjie. Ettm., " fiecn, dolcsus, astutus lupus non bene dicitur, optima 
 tamen fiecn, pcriculosus, terii'oilis." \V. adds a note calling attention 
 to fela-frixne deor, Jiune Poem, 6. As he suggests, the second half-line,
 
 142 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON 
 
 1486, seem to indicates frtcnt. I translate accordingly, though I have 
 thought it wise to give MS, in text. Or. punctuates : geferan, . . . 
 deor : . . . sUiet!. 
 
 149S. Terror shall (arise) because of the gray wolf, :. grave (shall be 
 prepared) for the dead man. (The wolf) laments for hunger; he does 
 not at all encircle (?) taat {grccf) with lamentation, nor does he bevaJl 
 the slaughter, the gray one, the mortality of aien, but ever wishes it more. 
 — A much disput'.'d p;issage. Th. reads from 1496, 'The grave for the 
 dead man hungry shall groan ; not with howl winds round it, nor indeed 
 death laments the gray wolf,' etc. Ettm. punctuates, Ilungre heofe'S 
 naUs. So Gr. Cf. B.-T., p. 628, ' Hungre heofeS, laments for hunger.' 
 Mil., ' Selbst iin grabe noch verfolgt den menschen der falsche freund 
 (wulf). Er klagt wohl, aber nicht aus auteil (naUes), sonderu vor hun- 
 ger (llu'igre heofeS), well er niehta mehr zu fressen bekommt (ac hit 
 a mare willo).' Ettm. q. 'greggum = gr;pgum ?' Lines 149-151 show 
 two of the seven instances where this word occurs in AS. poetry. Ci. 
 Mead, loc. cit. 
 
 153. A bandage shall (be) wound ; revenge shall be for the brave man. 
 vsunden, from windan, to wind. If the word is lound = wound, and the 
 line to be read, A bandage shall be for the wound, what of the con.st.-uc- 
 tion of xcuiid? Or if, according to Th., lounden = wounded, what of the 
 construction ? As alternative to my own reading, I offer, A fillet shall 
 be rolled, twisted. Th.'s change of icriSd to ipr;T5 is unnecessary ; both 
 forms occur. Th. translates icracit, 'exile.' Cf. B.-T., p. 12G8, xoracu, 
 II 6. Ayres suggests a spirited reading, ' The web shall be woven, misery 
 (shall be) for the cruel man,' which though offering a new interpretation 
 of xcried, at the same time preserves its literal meaning of ' that which is 
 bound, or wound.' Cf. The Fatal Sisters, by Thomas Gray. 
 
 154b-155a. Man shall have both alike for his companions. It is possi- 
 ble that the meaning may be that bow and arrow shall be to each other 
 as man to mate. Cf. B.-T., p. 412, 'A bow must have an arrow, a man 
 must to his mate.' Cf. ON. Enn & boga orvar. 
 
 155b. Treasure become another's, or 'change hands,' B.-T., p. 671. 
 Th. sees in the Wine a continuation of the first half line and reads, 'be 
 the other's treasure.' Ettm. and Gr^. doubtless see a similar meaning; 
 for they place a comma after ISSa, and a period after 1556. Cf. also 
 MiL, p. 2-3, ' Der mann soil mit dem genossen so untrennbar verbunden 
 sein wie bogen und pfeil, , . . ein geschenk des andern wert sein.' Gr. 
 originally placed a period after gemccccan, a reading which W. follows, 
 as I do. 
 
 156. May be a Christian thought : cf. The Lord gave and the Lord hath 
 taken away {Job i, 21). 
 
 158. A hall shall stand, itself grow old. Ettm. offers silfer, argentum. 
 Perhaps syJfma.y be for syll, ' foundation ' ? 
 
 159. lii'sest, poetic form, liest .being the only form common in WS. 
 prose.
 
 NOTES ON GNOMIC VERSES 143 
 
 160. Trees shall spread and truth be disseminated. Cf. B.-T., 
 pp. 119, 111 9. I follow MS., H., Th., and Gr. W. reads »c«aJon6r«<fan. 
 Th. conjectures treowu needlessly, Ireoio also being a form of the nom. 
 plu. This line appears to pun on treo and treow. 
 
 161. s'w has for intecedent, treow. 
 
 162-161 A iy,dahattr strophe. Cf. Siev^., p. 146. Cf. also note by 
 Eutin. 
 
 165. Cf. Siev. and Holt. They would make a second line after {^etr«ar?, 
 one having timple alliteration : cf. Ij'j^aMUr strophe. As it stands, this 
 line has six accents. On sceop for scop, cf. Wr., § 128, n. 
 
 166u. To every one of men wise words are fitting. Th., Ettm., Gr. would 
 change woRra to we^-a. Unnecessary, the form here found occurs else- 
 where. Cf. Oospels (Lind. and Rush.), and B.-T., p. 1241. 
 
 167. MU. thinks the colorless (juman gains its true significance if read 
 as 'warrior, opposed to singer,' op. cit., p. 23. 
 
 168. Cf. Quot homi7ies, tot sententioe and Minds of Men, 21-23. 
 One would 3xpect monige as Ettm. emends (not monig). 
 
 169. I follow Th. in ending the line with longat! {langtiS), and I trans- 
 late, Each has for himself, app.rt, a desire of heart. Whenever one sits 
 apart and meditates, he grows sad ; the line suggests a typical AS. sittia- 
 tion. Cf. Wand., Ill, gescet him surdar wt rUne. Cf. also close of The 
 Banished Wife^s Lament : \Vd biS />dm /e sceal of langope leofes dh'idan. 
 
 170 ff. Gr. and W. begin this line with Inngai. Th. and Ettm. see a 
 gap after ponne. There is undoubted difficulty in effecting a smooth 
 translation. The meaning seems to be, Yet the less the u»an who knows 
 many songs and who can play the harp, etc. — o/'/>e = and. Cf. Beo. 650, 
 2254, etc. Allusions in AS. poetry to the harp are frequent, but with 
 171 cf. especially Gifts of Me-i, 49, and Fates of Men, 80-81. 
 
 173-174. Miserable is he who 'niLst live alone, friendless to dwell has to 
 him fate decreed. W., " Ettm. nimmt winel. wun. ' ;;!.-; objekt zu geteod.' 
 So fasse ich es auch auf." But Th., ' Miserable Ls he who must live alone, 
 friendless continue, fate has ordained it to him.' 
 
 176. MS. eorle. Th. q. ' eorlice f ' Ettm. suggests eorles, and W. fol- 
 lows. Jlolt. prefers eorlas : why ? Gr. follows MS. as I do, though I see 
 no translation of eorle which compares favorably with that of eorles in 
 apposition to monries. Eorle, dat., to a man? Note pun on eafora and 
 eofor. — inc^ran for fcereu, as Ettm. suggests. — sceoldan for sceoldon. 
 
 177. slipherde deer, the bear. 
 
 178-179. Always shall these warriors carry their trappings, and with 
 each otiier together sleep. For gerxde, trappings, cf. B.-T., p. 429, and 
 gertde, p. 430. But B.-T., p. 429, under gerxdan, 'arrange, dispose,' 
 refers to this line. Spr., I, 440, is in doubt, suggesting no meaning, but 
 giving ace. as cas3. l^erliaps the word is for riHd, council, then ISidan is 
 figurative, and the idea becomes, lead a council. Koegel, op. cit., I, 76, 
 geriid anlS:dan. 
 
 180. A hopeless line, as it stand.s. Th. thinks the second mon t5 an
 
 144 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON 
 
 erroneous repetition by the scribe, as is probably the case. He Is perhaps 
 VfTong in thinking some liaes are omitted after swcfan. Cf. Slev'., p. 
 145, Enough is omiLtecl after vu'Pdle to make a second long line In the 
 strophe. Or. suggests vurg bemc'ican to till the gap. The meaning is 
 possibly to the effect, Never shall one go to the assembly without the 
 other. Cf. Koegel, op. cU., I, 76, ' immer sollen die lielden (einer gefolg- 
 scliaft) sich in eiuander schicken uiid bei einander schlafen: dann wer- 
 den sie sich gegenseitig niemals durch bose reden veruneinigen, bis sie der 
 tod trennt.' Th. writes nvZt^le, but cf. B.-T., p. G64. Tliese lines have a 
 ring and content similar to those in the formula of peacemaking found in 
 primitive laws and customs of Iceland. Cf. Origines Islandicoe, p. 318, 
 
 • Ye two shall be made men — 
 At one and in agreement, 
 At feast and food, 
 At moot and meeting of the people. 
 At church soken, and in the king's house.' 
 
 Mti., failing to see the the IjuSahdttr strophe, takes 178-183 "filr schlecht 
 umgemodelte prosa." He has a similar opinion of 165-169. Cf. Holt., 
 En(7. St., XXXVII, 200, who would change to tomaelde. Cf. B.-T., 
 p. 1002 ; Spr., II, 545. 
 
 182. The meaning of tceft is uncertain. Icel. tajl is a game, used of 
 chess or draughts or of dicing. (Cf. also Germania, XXIV.) Hero, the 
 context .seems to indicate that dicing or a board for dicing is meant. 
 Cf. B.-T., p. !t68. It is possible, however, that the meaning may be table 
 where drink and food is served. 
 
 183. They forget the shaping of bitter things. On gesceafte, cf. Wr., 
 §391, B.-T., p. 4:55. On horde, T., B.-T., 'on board.' It is Kkely, I 
 think, that the gaming board is referred to, — at the board. Either mean- 
 ing fits equally well the context. 
 
 184. Ettm., " verbum einettan ignoro ; emtjan, emtigean, sajpe leguntur." 
 But there is no authority for this statement. I suggest either of two 
 readings. First, the idle hand of the dicer is at leisivre long onough. 
 Cf. Deuteronomy i, 0, genuh longe; Spr., II, 284, neah = satis din. For 
 cemet, cf. Spr. I, 57. Second, change the text according to the following 
 explanation : cemet comes at the end of a line, -ian was carried forward. 
 ge of the next word, as not unusual, was affixed to the preceding word ; 
 hence iange. Palieographically, i for I is quite possible ; a later scribe 
 may have mistaken the letter, particularly since Iange, a common word, 
 would naturally present itself, in opposition to the form iange. My chief 
 reasons for the change are first that cemct occurs nowhere else, so far as 
 I know, and second, that a is uniformly written before nasals (in the 
 On. Ex.), and Iange would have been longe. (A single exception to the 
 statement in regard to nasals occurs in man, 67.) Idle hond ^zmetian 
 geneah would be translated, then, It satisfies the idle hand to be at 
 leisure. Th. reads, ' Idle is the hand (long leisure nigh) of the gamester.'
 
 NOTES ON GNOMIC VERSES 145 
 
 Sir T. Madden, In Eemarks on the Ancient Chessmen found in tfu Isle 
 of Lems, Arch., 24, 203 II., notes, p, 282, that the game here cited ia 
 allied to backgammon. Ho, wiili " Mr. Price's" help, renders 182 fl: — 
 
 They two shall sit together 
 
 At tlie table game sit. 
 
 Whilst their anger glides away, 
 
 Snail forget the anxious cares of life ; 
 
 They shall have game on the board, 
 
 Wilb idle hand unoccupied, 
 
 Long near the table-men, 
 
 Shall they throw the dice (tessellse) . 
 
 It is noticeable that Sir Frederick i.isists that the game was not chess. 
 yfr'ight^IIomcsofOthKr Days, New York, 1871, p. 232), speaking of games 
 says, "The aicst popular wa:^ that of tabuls). This game was in use 
 among the Romans, and was in all probability borrowed from them by the 
 Anglo-Saxons, among whom it was in great favor, and who called the 
 game t^efle (^evidently a mere adoption of the Latin name), and the dice 
 taefle-stanas. The former evidently represents the Latin tesselae, little 
 cubes ; and the latter seems to show that the Anglo-Saxon dice were 
 usually made of stones. At a later period, the game of tables, used nearly 
 always in the plural, is continually mentioned along with chess, as the 
 two most fashionable and arislooratic games in use." On p. 2.14, Wright 
 referH to L. L. L., Act V, sc. 2, " when ho plays at tables," aud to The 
 GuVs Jloriibooke, for similar use of the term. 
 
 185b. teosehim tceot-pcS, throws with the dice. Cf. Sh., pp. 18 and 
 61. Th. reads, ' but with tlie dice ho throws seldom in the spacious ship, 
 unless under sail he runs.' I am inclined to think he refers to ceole, not 
 •«,o the gamester. Ettm. and Gr. place a period after weorpeS. 
 
 187. Gr. and W. print tcerig scealc. Cf. Spr., II, 403. B.-T. does 
 not refer to this line under scealc. — wearnum, freely. 
 
 186 fi. Str. comments to the following effect: Lazy and incapable ser- 
 vants are not to be used for ll>e voyage ; the lazy runs only under sail ; 
 the incapable, when reproached, loses his craft and lets the helm be 
 ruined. I fail to get any sich meaning, but read, Weary shall he (be, 
 who) rows against the wind ; very often one freely blames the timid, so 
 that he loses courage, hss oar becomes dry on board. Th. reads, 'Full 
 oft one with threats urges the slothful, . . . draws his oar on board.' 
 
 189. Cunning shall with thing evil, skill with things fitting. — Lot . . . 
 list, names for a. corresponding vice and virtue ; cf. B.-T., p. 643 ; Spr., 
 II, 1'J0-1G4. Koegel, op. cU., I, 76, translates, ' Betrug muss mit 
 falschheit, list mit schlauheit verbunden sein ; auf diese weise wird der 
 Gtein (im bretspiel) heimlich beseitigt.' 
 
 189-193. LjASahi'iltr strophe. Tli. thinks want of context and allitera-, 
 tion shows the MS. to be defective. He sees a gap after forstolen, aud 
 makes no translation from bacum through arujd. Gr. sees a slight omis-
 
 146 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON 
 
 gion after arSd. With these views, cf. that of Str. {Ztft. f. d. ^., Xvill, 
 215). By following Str.'s emendation and changing drZd to arod, one 
 may read the gnome : The ready man is always prepared. Of the entire 
 strophe, Sir. says : "der sinn des spruches Lst folgeuder : schlechte betrll- 
 gen, tiichtige zeigen schlauheit. dadu'-ch (durch betrug oder list) wird 
 der stein (im brettspielc) unvermerkl hinweggeaommen. oft zerzankea 
 sie (die lysice) sich mit worlen, bevor sie aus einander gehen, wahrend der 
 schlagfertige {arod vgl. altn. ^rr) iiberall geriistet ist (den schaden wett 
 zu machen sucht oder weis.s)." Line 193, he adds, is an example of 
 skothendinj, or half-rhyme : gea r : a . . . a ■ r od. Cf. Koegel, op. 
 cit., I, 75. B.-T., supp. p. 45, suggests, doubtfully, 'resolute' for dncd, 
 Cf. Wand., Wyrd buS ful drxd, and Beo. (an-ricd), 1530, 1570, where 
 the meaning seems toj be ' determined, firm ' (kiihn, mutig, Schucking 
 glosses). 193, then, may be. The courageous is at all times prepared. 
 Koegel reads, geara is hiccer ahred, and translates, 'tief ists irgendwo 
 erregt.' lie notes, "Der sinn der zeile kanu nur sein : der innere zonx 
 kommt zum ausbruch, die innere erregung macht sich in worten luft." 
 This rendering throws too much strain on 191. The general meaning is 
 probably this: Cunning must meet clieating, by which the dice may be 
 stolen : players often dispute before they turn their backs on one another ; 
 the courageous man will be ready (in case of a wrangle). 
 
 194. This line marks the beginning of a Christian passage, one that is 
 corrupt and difficult to convert into a form approacliing that tir:,t written 
 down. 19l-19Sa is comparatively simple and reads, HostUity has been 
 among mankind since the earth first swallowed Abel's blood ; it was no 
 one day's hate, from which strife-bringing drops widely sprang, great 
 crime to man, to many people hale-mixed hate. 
 
 195. andcege, cf. Beo. 11, 1107, 1935, and Sedgefield's ed., p. 164. 
 The meaning may be ' open.' — jhoh, in 197, I change to ??ia7t ; otherwise, 
 I make nothing of 197or. 
 
 198. Here the difficulty becomes greater. "What does />oiie refei- to ? 
 Cain or Abel ? If the latter, then iierede may be for ferede or generede, 
 and the meaning is, whom ('that is, Abel) death took away. 
 
 209. The difficulty here lies in a/jolwarum, for which B.-T. ctfers 
 'citizens.' But 'eternal hate injured men, so citizeus' is not r. convinc- 
 ing rendering. Str. would substitute geiorcec for nerede (aiter the passage 
 in Beo.), then he would change apolwaruv- to aSom sicarian, reading : 
 'den mord rachte — kund war es seither weithin — dass ewiger hass die 
 menschea schiidigte, wie auch eidam und schwiiher der waff en getose 
 vollfiihrten iiber die erde.' Str. has a good deal to say about the Cain- 
 Abel reference with respect to its bearing on the Oswald-Penda wars. I 
 doubt any historical allusion. 
 
 195. hlbde, is. after swelgan. Cf. B.-T., p. 947. 
 
 201. drtogan gewin, fight. 
 
 203-206 show reversion to gnomic utterance. 
 
 204. W. writer and in italics to indicate the MS. sign for this word;
 
 NOTES ON GNOMIC VERSES 147 
 
 204 shows error in this respect where he does not italicize. In every 
 Instance the MS. has •). 
 
 205iu Heart for the brave man = The brave man must hare courage. 
 
 206. Th. reads • for the base in soul.' I read (/>oes heanan hyge), for 
 the soul of the base (shall be thought) a most limited treasure. Cf . Brooke, 
 ' And the smallest of hoards for the coward in soul.' 
 
 Cotton Gnomes 
 
 1. Note ceastra vr.. Saxon hurh. Stone masonry meant something 
 mysterious to the Germans, wbo spoke of it as " burg of the giants," 
 "the giants' ancient work." The use of stone, foreign to the north of 
 Europe, spread from the southeast corner of the Mediterranean. 
 Cf. Gummere, Gennanic Origins, p. 91, and see above, p. 107. — gesyne, 
 visible. F., T., translate ' seen,' a word which should be reserved for the 
 pp. of geceon. 
 
 2. enta. B.-T., ent, 'a giant, gigas.' orSanc enta gexceorc, cunning 
 work of giants. Cf. Beo. 2718. Cf. Kr., An., p. 138. T. overfreely 
 translates, 'The work of the mlud of giants,' which the case of orSanc 
 forbids. Cf. Gen. vi, 4, ' There were giants on the earth in those days.' 
 
 8a. Cf. liuin, l^icr.^tlic is />ces icealstdn. 
 
 3b. sioiftHst, the rarer form. Cf. Wr., § 444. 
 
 4. punar, syndan, hludast. rarer forms. — myccle, cf, Wr., § 2G0. Ettm. 
 mycle, but already the older forn* had given place to myccle. 
 
 5. Wyrd. Cf. B.-T., p. 1287, for various significations of this word; 
 cf. also Kr., An., 6136 and note. An indication of heathen origin; the 
 feeling seems to be more pereonal than, say, in Gen. 2355 where Wyrd is 
 lather a 'cold abstraction.' My punct. of 56-8a is somewhat clearer, 
 1 think, than that suggested by .onner Edd. 
 
 6. lencten, spring, confined to West Teutonic languages, has acquired 
 an ecclesiastical meaning peculiar to England. In other Teutonic languages, 
 the only sense is ' spring,' says the NED., W-, p. 201. Cf. OHG. lengizin 
 (shortened lenzin). The word may possibly have reference to the length- 
 ening of days as cha-ucterizing spring. Cf. lent-lilies, daffodils, and 
 'Lenten ys come w'> loue to toune.' — hr'imigost, cf. Hen., 35, Arljue 
 gehyrsted . . . Martius, and noies on spring in JEG. Ph., V, 446 (Hans- 
 com, op. cit.) 
 
 7. Summer is most sun-beautiful, i.e., beautiful from sun-shine. Cf. 
 B.-T. p. 937. But IL, 'cBstivus sol est formosi'<simus,' and F., T., 'Sum- 
 mer sun is most beautiful.' Note spelling sumclitegost and (next line) 
 hreSeadegost. For example in Alfred's prose of similar forms, cf . Cos., § 43. 
 
 8. The poet, having spoken of winter, spring, and summer, completes 
 the round of the Fcasons : hcerfest is figurative for autumn. The word is 
 confined to QUO. and Dutch, and was established after Tacitus. Cf. 
 Schrader, op. cit., p. 303. I translate, Autumn is most glorious. T's ' Fierce
 
 148 GNOnC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON 
 
 harvest is the happiest' is nonsense. H., 'tempestiyas autumnoa'; 
 F., ' Harvest is most blessed.' 
 
 9. MS. geres may hti Kentish or Anglian or late West^Saxon. Cf. V7r., 
 § 124, note. In Oros. occur both gear and ger; in Chr. simply gear. 
 Cf. Cos., § 61. Cf. Hanscom, op. cit., p. 441. With 6-9 cf. Met. 11 
 6&-fil, for similar relation of God to wind and change of seasons. 
 
 10. Truth is most treacherous. So the gnome must read according to 
 MS. sicicolost, which, as Ea. comments, has a ' strangely Machiavellian 
 sound.' According to Chantepie de la Saussaye, truthfulness with the 
 Norsemen did not preclude everything we are accustomed to regard as 
 deceit ; they made use in a treaty of ambiguous expressions. Cf. op. ci'., 
 409-410. But emendation in favor of simpler meaning is preferable. Sw. 
 proposes sicutulost, a change whereby the gnome falls readily into line 
 with the others. But why not sioitolost f Palffiographically this form is 
 quite possible, c and ( often being mistaken for each other. I read it into 
 the text and translate. Truth is most clear, or evident. Cf. The Instruc- 
 tions of King Cormac Mac Airt, p. 22, 1. 36, 'Everything true is sweet.' 
 H., 'verus facilliine decipitur,' with which cf. Spr., II, 511 : ' sich leicht 
 entziehend, leicht entgehend ? ' Cf. B.-T., p. 954, « occasioning offence ? ' 
 T., 'Truth is most deserving.' 
 
 11-12. The old most wise, old in bygone years, who ear ier experienced 
 many things. Cf. B.-T., p. 854, for fyrngearum ; Spr., I, 303. For 
 grhidcS, cf. An., 1702, where the idea seems to be similar. With the 
 thought, cf. W.-vamql, 'stanza 133, and Hampesmol, 27. (Sea introd., 
 p. 27.) Gummere notes that the very old were thrust away to die ; but 
 healthy old age and the wisdom of sagacious counsel were venerated. — 
 Germanic Origins, p. 205. 
 
 13. xomidrum, Spr., II, 752, ^ mirabiUter.^ — scrWat : cf. 1. 40, also 
 Beo. 103, 051, etc. 
 
 14. sceolan for sceolon. Cf. note, 1. 4. With the idea, cf. Beo. 20 
 ff. (See introd., p. 30.) Cf. also Gummere, OEE., p. 23, substituting 
 Cotton for Exeter. Cf. Jleliand, 1018 ff. 
 
 16a. I read a period after eorle, Courage oughl to be in a man. Cf. 
 ON. proverb, OSlingr sk'jldi einkar-raoskar. H., ' virtus in duce, et 
 gladius ciun galea, bellum tolerabunt.' So, F., T., translating, see in hilde 
 geb'idan a complement to each half line of 16. 
 
 16b. MS. hellme, misspelling for helme. Cf. Beo. 2259, hilde gehdd. 
 Tiepresentations of ancient chessmen found in the isle of Lewis (op. cit. 
 m Arch. XXIV, 203 ff.) show the sword held in the right hand resting 
 against the helmet in the left. 
 
 17. The ha..k shall on (or, sit on) the glove of the falconer, the wild 
 one dwell ; or, the hawk, though wild, shall accustom him.self to the 
 glove. Cf. Fates of Men, 85, sum scenl wildne fxigel lolonce ateniian, etc. 
 — glofe, II. translates (glofe), 'clivo' ; B.-T., p 481, ' a cliff' ; Spr., II, 
 610, ^rupes f ; Brooke, 'cliff'.' 
 
 19. By following the MS. one may read. The eagle in the haw. H.
 
 NOTES ON GNOMIC VERSES 149 
 
 translates, ' aquila in campo,' so F., T., » eagle in field.' In Kent, a haw 
 is a yard or enclosure. But by changing earn to earm and making one 
 word of an + haga (emendation of Ettra., followed by Gr,, Sw., W.) 
 the passage becomes aligned with the preceding and the following gnomes. 
 The miserable recluse, i.e. the wolf. Cf. Beo. 2309, earm dnhaga, and 
 Wand. 1. Cf. also B.-T., sapp. p. 42. 
 
 20a. tuSmcegeties oocars only here. 
 
 20b. til, the good man. H. ' bonus civis.' 
 
 21. domes toyrcean, do justice, win glory or renown. Cf. Beo. 1888- 
 13P9. (See introd. p. 38.) Cf. also i?eo. 1492, dom geteyrce. For use 
 of the gen. with xcyrcan, cf. Sh., p. 63. 
 
 23a. steap and geap, cf. Euin, 11, steap geap ; Oen.,2656,fyr steapes 
 and geapes. 
 
 23b-24a. The stream shall in the waves mingle with seaflood. H., 
 ♦Fluvius exundans faciei diluvium.' See footnote, and cf. B.-T., p. 676 
 (mecgan) and p. G78 (mengan). Cf. Biisband'a Message, 42, mengan 
 mereslreamas. The passage, though obscure, seems to refer to a river 
 which flows into the sea. 
 
 24b-25a. The mast shall on the ship, the sail-yard, rest. I make 
 segelgyrd synonymous with mcest. H., ' Malus in navigio antennas sustine- 
 bit.' B.-T , p. 864, ' The mast shall be fixed in a boat and the yard hang 
 from it.' Spr., II 424, glosses segelgyrd as a ptc, ' segelgiirtet.' 
 
 25b-26a. Literally, sword shall in bosom, on bosom, or in the lap. 
 Tupper thinks it probable that some rite of the comitatus may here be re- 
 ferred to as in Gn. E.c. 68-71. He cites Beo. 2195 and 1143. 2195, /><jet 
 he on Blowulfes bearm dlegde, I think simply means that Hygelac laid 
 the sword, as a gift, in Beowulf's lap. This is the view also of R. W. 
 Chambers, " On his paru, Hygelac gives Beowulf feudal domains, placing, 
 as he does so, in Beowulf's bosom the sword of their common grandfather 
 Hrethel." Op. cit., p. 25. Beo. 1143 is an obscure passage which has 
 been translated variously Cf. Schiicking, op. cit., p. Ill, and MLN., 
 XXV, 114. The old mode of holding the sword, assigned to royal per- 
 sonages, was across the knees and with both hands. In Grimmesm{>l, 
 King Geirrod sits " ok hafH sverb um kn6 ok brugpit til mibs." Cf. also 
 illustrations in Wright's Homes, and in Sir F. Madden's article, loc. cit.. 
 Arch. XXIV. On the whole, I am inclined to believe that the gnome 
 refers to this custom. Read, the sword shall rest in the lap. 
 
 26b. A dragon shall dwell in a cavern, or on a mound. Cf. Beo. 2212- 
 2213. For information about dragons, cf. Brand!, op. cit., p. 990. 
 
 29b-30. Cf. On. Ex. 177 and see above, p. 96. 
 
 30b. Water from the hill shall travel, flood-gray. H., ' Aqua de monti- 
 bus irrucns inunUatiouem iuterm faciei.' F., T., ' Water will from the 
 hill bring down the g>"ay earth.' — fodgroig occm-s only here, but cf.Jlint- 
 grcegne, Bid. 4-10. Cf. Mead, op. cit., p. 189 ff. B.-T. gives the com- 
 pound /o/i^ricgr, and translates ' ?^arth -colored water shall proceed from a 
 hill.' <sy/r., I., 310, foldgrajg, ' erdgrau.'
 
 150 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON 
 
 32b-SSa. Cf. Gn. Ex. 160. 
 
 83b. ipudu = tree. H., 'Sylvae In terns fsecundse florebunt.* 
 
 34a. blbvian, to bloom, survives only in dialect in Mn. E. With 38!>- 
 S4a, cf. Gn. Ex. 25J>-26a. 
 
 35. Mead notes that the favorite color in AS. poetry is green and that 
 singularly enough the examples are found almost wholly in religious 
 poems. Cf. Guth. 203, grene beorgas. 
 
 36b-S7a. Cf. Beo. 725, recedes mu9an. No meaningless figure. Of. 
 Gummere, Germanic Origins, p. 105. 
 
 37. rand. Cf. Jiid., Tupper, p. 80, and cf. Wright, Homes, p. 86. 
 
 38b-39a. Cf. Fates of 2Ien, 23. 
 
 39b-40a. The salmon shall in the sea glide with rapid movement. H., 
 •Salmo et raia in gurgitibus hinc illinc vagabuntur.' T., . . . ' will roll 
 with the skate.' F., 'with shooting wander.' Cf. B.-T., p. 627, leax, 
 and p. 839, scot, which is glossed ' shot,' and under which this line ia 
 quoted. Spr., II, 407, ' motus rapidu-s.' Tupper suggest** the possibility 
 that sceote may be for sceole and cites A Journey Spell, 24 (Grendon, p. 
 178). 
 
 40. i iu scrlSan in later hand above the line. 
 
 41. Cf. ^let. 20'!. 
 
 42a. Cf. Chr. 872, />eof />ristlice, pe on p'jatre fdreS. — pystrum, cf . 
 footnote, and B.-T., p. 1052. 
 
 42b. /»jrs, a demon in ON. mythology, a relic, as are eiAr: and \oyrd of 
 early superstition in England. II., ' latro,' F., 'spectre,' Icel. /urs, 'a 
 giant'; OHG,, durs, ' d.^emonium ' ; lit., 'the thirsty one.' Cf. B.-T., 
 p. lOBt). — " Man mag an Grendel, den aus der methalle verbannten, 
 denken." Brandi, op. cit., p. OGO. 
 
 43b ff. A woman shall by secret craft seek her lover, if she doea 
 not wish publicly to be sought in marriage. Cf. Gn. Ex. 82-93, and 
 see above, p. 91 ff. " Golden arm rings were the aristocratic present," 
 Germanic Origins, p. 107. MaiTiage by purchase appears in its crudest 
 form in Ivent, where wives would seem to have been bought much in the 
 same way a-s slaves or cattle. Cf. Chadwick, Origiii of the English 
 Xation, p. 324. Such a custom also seems to have prevailed in Wessex. 
 If the lines are to be translated as above, a late origin is indicated : being 
 bought was a reproach. But in the Gn. Ex., ge/^eon was used in a good 
 sense and the purchase was honorable enough, something to be desired, 
 according to old Germanic custom. By a slight emendation iu tib, the 
 thought becomes similar to that in Gn. Ex : nelle may be eiTor for icille. 
 The meaning then becomes, The woman shM by secret craft seek her 
 friend, if she would thrive among the people, that she muy be bought 
 ■nith rings. dyrne Sw. thinks an adv. periphrasis, ' secretly, clan- 
 destinely.' Cf. M(i., p. 10 ; he regards 43J>-45a as prose. 
 
 45b. The sea shall foam (welter) with salt. II., 'sale festuabit.' Sw. 
 thinks 'salt,' adj., better. 
 
 46. Air and water (cloud and flood) shall flow about each of all lands,
 
 NOTES ON GNOMIC VERSES 151 
 
 mountain (mouiitainoas) atroams. On Jlrgenstream, see Lawrence's 
 Kaunted Mere in Beoiculf, PMLA., ns. XX, 2, 212. The chief point t'^ 
 be observed here is t)iat the water is not salt. Cf. Met. 20"*^ for the 
 same idea. H., * sei-ei imbrcs, diluvia et transgreasi fluvii inondabunt 
 omnes terras,' but prints ealra land. 
 
 48. tungol, any heavenly body ; here probably the sun. 
 
 49. meotud. Vilmar thinks this word had its origin in heathendom, 
 but was retained after the introduction of Christianity and applied to the 
 Supreme Being. Cf. C. C. Ferrell, Teutonic Antiquities in the AS. 
 Genesis, Leipzig, 1893, p. 4. 
 
 60. geogot!, later fo.-m ; cf. 1. 49, where meotud, older form, appears. 
 
 62-53. fyrd wiS fyrde, .IdtS wiS ld/>e, examples of " grammatischer 
 reim." 
 
 64a. synne sUelan. B.-T., 'charge with crime.' H., 'semper se ob- 
 flrmahuut.' F., ' They shall always steal on each other.' T., ' Sin will 
 steal on.' Sw., ' Institute injury or hostility.' Kock, Atigl. XXVII, 229, 
 thinks this passage, Oen. 1351-1352, and the two in Beo., 1S39-1344, 
 2485-2487, where the verb {ge)st&lan is employed, have been misunder- 
 stood, that the idea of accusing or upbraiding has developed into that of 
 avenging. Cf. also Klaeber, M. Ph., Ill, 201. Kock disagrees with Sw., 
 on ihe basis that syn.ie means an infringement of divine or human law, 
 wrong-doing ; it is no:, used of hostility in general, or looked on as law- 
 ful ; it is used of wrongful hostility, or invasion, injury. The clause 
 means call to account for perjury, avenge (wrongful) hostility. Cf. also 
 Beo., Schiicking, p. 273. I hardly see that wrongful here applies ; for I 
 take it that the idea refers to the group collectively (50-53) ; hence, 
 simply, avenge hostility. 
 
 64b. A comment on palaoj^Taphy here lets one into the workings of the 
 scribe's mind. A hole in the MS. interfered with a long stemmed minis- 
 cule h, in the word hycgean ; hence, the writer made a small squat cap- 
 ital H. 
 
 65b. wearh hangian. The outlaw shall hang, or be hanged ; he shall 
 fairly pay the penalty for that he before did, crime to mankind, loearA, 
 ' villain,' ' outlaw,' not ' teufel,' according to Str. Beginning with 646, 
 H., 'In mundanis rebus prudens semper conari debet, ut exlex sus- 
 pendatur, et ut ei bene rependantur injuriie quas humano generi prius 
 fecerat.' F., ' Ever shall the prudent strive about this world's labor to 
 hang the thief ; and compensatj the more honest for the crime committed 
 against mankind.' W. places only a comma after gexoinn. My reading 
 seems to offer tl)e advantage of separating two sententious sayings which 
 other Edd. have joined. 
 
 67-61. Mil. thinks these lines are prose, " wenigstens, 58, 59, denn die 
 alliteration f;Ult in 58 auf sceal und in zweiten fasso auf sySSan, wiihrend 
 sie in 59a fehlt," op. cit., p. 11. 
 
 69-60. . . . who for God depart after the day of death ; they await, etc. 
 Edd., ' who for God depart.' After their death-day they await, etc.
 
 152 GNO^^c poetry in anglo-saxon 
 
 Cf. Beo. 440, ff . — tJjer gelyfan sceal, 
 
 Dryhtnea dOme 86 )>e kine deaU nimetJ. 
 
 60. Sw. thinks bidan, inf., better. 
 
 62. dlgol and dyrne, stock phrase. Cf. Chr. 640, El. 1092, etc. 
 
 65-66 and the beginning of the Chronicle are shown in facsimile by 
 Ea., op. p. xxxvi, op. cit. 
 
 Note on Metrics 
 
 Since Mli. makes a complete analysis of meter, alliteration, anl rhyme 
 (op. cit., pp. 3fM9), since Kaluza tabulates all expanded linei according 
 to type {Eng. St., XXI ; cf. p. 337, Die Schwellverse in der Altenglischen 
 Dichtung, and esp. pp. 356-370), and Theodor Schmitz works out the 
 percentages of such lines {Angl. XXXIII ; cf. pp. 1-76, 172-218. Vie 
 Se'^h!<takter in der Altenglischen Dichtung, and esp. pp. 216-217), it 
 seems unnecessary to recapitulate here in detail. Moreover, I have 
 already called attention to Ij6l5ah&ttr forms. It may be worth while 
 noting, however, that the gnome.s show altogether 27.6% expanded lines ; 
 On. C. contain 12%, Gn. Ex., 33%.
 
 GLOSSARY 
 
 The order is alphabetic : the Ugatura to is treated aa equiralent in rank to 
 a ; '.nitial "5 follows t. Arabic numerals indicate the classes of ablaut verbs 
 according to Slevers' classification; Wi, otc, the classes of the weak verbs; 
 R the reduplicating, PP the preterit-present verbs. Mood and tense are in- 
 dicated only when other than indicative presetit. The citations are meant to 
 b9 complete. References are to the Exeter Gnomes. unless C. is prefijced. 
 
 a, adv., always: 20, 104, lb2, 178, 
 _206, C. 64. 
 
 Abel, pr. n., Abel: g3. Abeles 195. 
 abrSoSan, 2, degenerate, deterio- 
 rate : 3 sg. abr6o)>e'5 66. 
 ac, conj., but: 11, 152. 
 Scwelan, 4, die, perish : opt. 8 sg. 
 
 acwele 114. 
 Scy)7an, Wi, nhow, confirr,i: inf. 
 
 49. 
 Sdl, fn., disease, sickness: ns. 10, 
 
 31, 118. 
 eefter, prep. w. dat., after: C. 60. 
 &gan, PP, own, possess : pret 3 sg. 
 
 ahte 175. 
 figen, adj., own, proper: nsm. 98. 
 ffighwcer, adv., evei-ywhere: 89. 
 ieht, f ., goods, property : ap. ahte 
 
 157. 
 ahycgan, W3, devise, invent : pret. 
 
 3 pi. iihogodan 202. 
 ahyrdan, Vv'^i, harden, temper: 
 
 pret. 3 pi. ahyrdon 202. 
 aiaidan, Wj, lead, lead out: opt. 
 
 3 sg. alSde 48. 
 5elc, pron., each, every : nsm. 169. 
 eelde, ra., n:en : dp. seldum 197, 
 
 200. 
 Sled, ra., fire : as. 80. 
 
 eelmihtlg, adj., almighty : nsm. 17; 
 asm. aelmihtigne 10. 
 
 alw&lda, m., All-ruler, God : 
 ns. 133. 
 
 aiyfan, Wi, permit, grant : pp. Sly- 
 fed 110. 
 
 aemetan, semetian, ? be idle, 
 vacant : inf. 184. 
 
 an, num., 1. one, certain one: 
 nsm. 75 ; gsm. ines 175. — 2. alone : 
 nsm. ana 29, 42, 173, C. 43, C. 67, 
 C. 62. 
 
 and, conj., and (in the MS. all 
 occurrences are represented by 
 the abbreviation) : 3, 6, 18, 24, 28, 
 46, 48, 58, 86, 88, 92, 97, 98, 99, 110, 
 121, 137, 142, 143o, 167, 160, 162, 
 103, 167, 179, 202, 204, 206 ; 
 C. 11, C. 15, C. 23, C. 30, C. 46, 
 C. 48, C. 69, C. 62. 
 
 andaege, adj., lasting a day? nsm. 
 195. 
 
 ange, adj., troubled, sorrowful: 
 nsn. onge 42. (See notes.) 
 
 anbaga, m., solitary one : ns. C. 19. 
 
 anw^eald, m., empire, rule, power: 
 gs. ariwealces 69. 
 
 5t, f., oar: ns. 188. 
 
 Sr, adj., early: nsf. 31. 
 
 Sr, adv., before, formerly, earlier: 
 21, 49, 114, 181, C. 12, C. 66. 
 
 153
 
 154 
 
 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANQLO-SaXON 
 
 Bup. serest, firtt, at first : 4, 83, 
 
 90. 
 8Br, conj., before: 192. 
 5rs5d, adj., resolute, courageous: 
 
 193. 
 arSran, "Wj, uplift, raise up : pret 
 
 3 sg. irairde 10. 
 fireccan, Wi, explain, expound: 
 
 inf. 141. 
 Srisan, 1, arise, come to be: 3 6g. 
 
 arise "5 161. 
 Sr )3on, conj., before: 111. 
 Sspringan, 3, spring out, lack, 
 
 fail : 3 sg. aspringe"S 36. 
 set, prep. w. dat., a<, in : 5, 64, 
 
 137. 
 atemian, Wj, tame, s«6(!we ; pp. 
 
 asm. atemedne 47. 
 Stgeofa, m., food-giver, provider : 
 
 ns. 98. 
 getremnod, adj., venom-minded: 
 
 nsra. 163. 
 setsomne, adv., at once, together: 
 
 93. 179, C. 31. 
 agjjeling, m., 1. nobleman, prince : 
 
 as. C. 14. — 2. people (in a good 
 
 sense) : gp. pc>elinga 90. 
 aSolware, pi. m., citizens (but see 
 
 Doles) : dp. aMwarum 200. 
 Swegan, 5, take or carry away : 
 
 pp. awegen 21. 
 
 B 
 
 baec, n., back: dp. bacum 192. 
 beedan, Wi, compel, constrain, 
 
 solicit : 3 sg bSdeS 100. 
 be, prep. w. dat., about, beside, 
 
 by: 113. 
 beada, f., battle, war: as. bead we 
 
 62 ; ds. beaduwe C. 16. 
 bSag, m., ring, bracelet, collar: 
 
 lis. 131 ; dp. beagum 83, C. 46 ; 
 
 ap. bfagas C. 29. 
 b5ahgifu, f., distribution of rings, 
 
 gifts: ds. bCahgife C. 15. 
 
 beeiloblonden, pp., bale-mixed^ 
 
 pernicious : nam. 198. 
 bealolSaa, adj., innocent: Dsf. 39. 
 bSam, m., tree : ns. 25, 169. 
 bearm, m., bosom, lap : da. bearme 
 
 C. 25. 
 beam, n., child, offspring: as. o'.* 
 
 ap. 25. 
 beam, m., grove : da. bearowe 
 
 C. 18. 
 bebeodan, 2, command,* 3 Bg. 
 
 bebSad C. 49. 
 befeolan, 3, commit, ddiver: 
 
 inf. 116. 
 begen, adj., both: npji. 175, 177 ; 
 
 npn. bu 62, 83 ; i^pmf. bega 17 ; 
 
 dpmf. bSm 93, 154. 
 behligan, 1, dishonor, defame: 
 
 3 sg. bilih« 65, bebli-5 101. 
 behofian, Wj, have need of, need, 
 
 require : 3 sg. behofa? 45. 
 beodan, 2, offer : 3 sg. bCode'S 60. 
 beon, see wesan. 
 beorgan, 3, save, protect: 3 pi. 
 
 beorga-5 36. 
 beorh, m., hill : ns. C. 34 
 beorhte, adv., brightly : C. 49. 
 bera, m., bear: ns. C. 29; as. 
 
 beran 177. 
 betera, betre, adj., better (cr.rap. 
 
 of bet, good) : nsn. betre 175. 
 bew^indan, 3, encircle, surround: 
 
 3 sg. bewindelS 150. 
 bewltian, Wj, observe : inf. 40. 
 bl, prep. w. dat., by, about: 146 
 
 (see be), 
 bidan, 1, toait, rest: 3 pi. bIdatJ 
 
 C. 60 ; inf. 08. 
 bilihS, see behligan. 
 bilwit, adj., merciful, mild: gp. 
 
 bilwitra 101. 
 bindan, 3, bind: pp. gebunden 88, 
 
 94. 
 blsed, f., flower, blossom : dp. 
 
 blujdum C. 34. 
 blind, adj., blind: nms. 89.
 
 GLOSSARY 
 
 155 
 
 bll^e, eA]., joyful, j^iad, cheerful: 
 ► nsf. 89. 
 
 blod, n., blood: is. bl5de 195. 
 blo'wan, R, bloom, blossom : inf. 
 
 C. 34. 
 boc, f., book: np. bee 131. 
 bog, m., shoulder (hence, back) : 
 
 ds. bOge 03. 
 boga, m., bovs : ns. 164. 
 bcldagend, m., house-owner : dp. 
 
 boldagendura 93. 
 bord, n., 1. board, shield: us. 95. 
 
 — 2. deck of shij) (lience, ship): 
 
 ds.bordel83, 188. 
 borde, f ., table, embroidery board f 
 
 ds. bordan 04. 
 brSdan, Wt, grow, raise up, spread 
 
 out: inf. 100. 
 brSost, n., breast, heart, mind : as. 
 
 101 ; dp. breostum 123. 
 brim, n., sea, surf: ns. C. 45. 
 bringan, Wi, bring : 3 sg. bringetS 
 
 C. 8. 
 broSor, m., brother: as. brOl>or 175, 
 
 198. 
 brycgian, W2, bridge, bridge 
 
 over : inf. 73. 
 bryd, f., bride: ds. bryde iSl. 
 bu, see b§ger„ 
 
 bune, f., cup : dp. bCnum 83. 
 bycgan, Wj, buy, procwe: 8 eg. 
 
 bygeb 111. 
 byldan, Wj, encourage, exhort: 
 inf. C. 15. 
 
 Cain, pr. n., Cain: as. 199. 
 calcrond, adj., shoed f round of 
 
 hoof f : gam. calcrondes 143. 
 ceald, adj., cold: nam. C. G ; sup. 
 
 cealdost nam. C. 5. 
 cSap, m. . cattle, qoods : ds. ceape 
 
 82; as. 108. 
 oeaster, f., city, ccstle, town: np. 
 
 ceaatra C. 1. .- ■. 
 
 cempa, m., toldier: da. oempan 
 
 130. 
 c6ne, adj., bold: dsm. or dpm. 
 
 cenum 01, 205 ; npm. cene 59. 
 cennan, Wt, beget, create, bring 
 
 forth : inf. 24, C. 28. 
 c6ol, m., keel, ship: ns. 97 ; ds. 
 
 ceole 180, C. 24. 
 ceorl, m., man, husband: ns. 97. 
 cildgeong, adj., young as a child: 
 
 asm. cildgeongne 49. 
 cic5, m., germ, sprig, sprout: ap. 
 
 cijas 76. 
 clSne, adj., pure : asf . clalne 44. 
 clibbor, adj., clinging, cleaving: 
 
 nam. C. 13. 
 craeft, m. skill, science, cunning: 
 
 ds. crsefte C. 43. 
 Crist, pr. n., Christ: gs. Cristea 
 
 C. 4. 
 cuman, 4, come : 3 sg. cyme> 30, 
 
 cyme« 36, 100, 109, C. 03 ; opt. 
 
 3 sg. cyme 42 ; pp. cumen 97 ; 
 
 inf. 77, 'C. 41. 
 cunncin, PP, 1. know: 8 sg. con 
 
 170 ; opt. 2 sg. cunne 2 ; opt. 3 
 
 sg. cunne 40. — 2. can, be able : 
 
 3 8g. con 171. 
 cu3, adj., known: nsn. c5)> 199; 
 
 gsm. cubes 143. 
 cwealm, mn., torture, death, 
 
 plague, murder : ns. 30, 199. 
 cw^en, f., a tooman, a queen: gs. 
 
 cwene 82 ; ds. cweae 127. 
 cwic, adj., living : asm. cwicne 114. 
 cyn, n., race, people, tribe, prog- 
 eny : gs. cynnes 32 ; ds. cynne 
 
 138, 194, C. 67. 
 cyning, m., king: ns. 59, 82, 108, 
 
 C. 1, C. 28. 
 cynren, n., kindred, kind: as. 
 
 C. 28. 
 cypan, \Vi, sell: 8 sg. cjpe}) 109. 
 cy3, f., 1. knowledge. — 2. region, 
 
 place, land: da. cy>>e 80 (see 
 
 notes).
 
 156 
 
 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON 
 
 D 
 
 dSd, f., deed: gp. dseda C. 86. 
 dffig, m., day : gs. dages 141. 
 dSlan, Wj, share, divide: inf. 
 
 C. 20. 
 daroo. m., dart, spear: ns. C. 21. 
 dgad, adj., dead: gsm. deades 81 ; 
 
 dsm. deadiim 149 ; gp. deada 79. 
 dSa3, m., death: ns. 35, 181 ; dea> 
 
 117 ; ds. dea>e C. 61. 
 d§a3dasg, m., day of death : ds. 
 
 deaSdajge C. 60. 
 degol, n., secret, mystery: as. de- 
 
 gol 2. 
 demend, m.., judge: ns. C. 30. 
 deop, adj., deep, mysterious : nsm. 
 
 79. 
 dSope, adv., deeply, thoroughly: 
 
 sup. deopost 2. 
 d§or, T!., animal, vnld animal : ns. 
 
 148, 177. 
 dSore, adj., dear : sup. nsn. deorost 
 
 CIO. 
 digol, adj., secret, obscure: nsf. 
 
 C. 02. 
 dogor, mn.. Jay : gp. dSgra 28. 
 dol, ad]., foolish : nsm. 35. 
 dom, m., 1. poioer, honor, glory : 
 
 ns. 81; as. 141. — 2. judgment, 
 
 sentence : gs. dOmes C. 21, C. GO. 
 don, anv., do, perform : pret. 3 
 
 sg. dyde C. 56. 
 draca, m., dragon, serpent : us. 
 
 C. 2(5. 
 drecan, Wi, vex, afflict : 3 sg. 9. 
 dreogain, 2, jight : pret. 3 pi. dru- 
 
 gon 201. 
 drihten, m., Lord : ns. C. 62 ; as. 
 
 dryhten 35. 
 diihtlic, adj., lordly, noble: nsr.. 
 
 C. 26. 
 drugian, "Wj, become dry: 3 sg. 
 
 druga« 188. 
 dun, f., vwu7itai7i, hill, down : ds. 
 
 dune C. 30. 
 
 dura, f ., door : na. C. 36. 
 dyrne, adj., secitt, hidden: nam. 
 
 79 ; nsf. C. 62 ; asn. dyrne 2 ; 
 
 ism. dyrne C. 43. 
 
 E 
 
 5a, f., water, stream, river : ns. C. 
 
 30. 
 Sadig, adj., 1. noA : nsm. 108 ; da. 
 
 or. dp. eadgura 167. — 2. happy, 
 
 blessed : nsm. 37. 
 eaiora, m., son : np. eaforan 176. 
 Sage, n., eye : ds. eagan 123 ; gp. 
 
 eagna 39. 
 eald, adj., old, ancient: nsm. C. 
 
 30. 
 ealdlan, "W2, grow old : inf. 8, 158. 
 eall, adj., all: asn. 136 ; dan. 
 
 eallum 137 ; gpn. ealra C. 48. 
 card, m., land, country, region: 
 
 ap. eardas 15. 
 earg, adj., timid, weac: asm. 
 
 eargne 188. 
 earm, adj., poor, vyretchcJ, : nsm. 
 
 37, 173, C. 19. 
 See, adj., eternal ' nsm. 8, 200. 
 ecg, f., edge, blade : ns. 204, C. 16. 
 edhv73rrft, m., change, return : na. 
 
 42. 
 efenfela, adj., indecl., so many, as 
 
 many : 17. 
 eft, adv., again, aftti-wards : 77, 
 
 105, 137, 157, C. 63. 
 egesfull, adj., fearful, terrible: 
 
 nsm. C. 30. 
 Sglond, n., island: ns. 15. 
 Sgaa, m., owner, possessor: gs. 
 
 egsan 107. 
 ellen, mn., strength, courage: na. 
 
 C. 16; ds. elne"l88. 
 ende, m., end : ds. ende 137. 
 ent, m., giant: gp. enta C. 2. 
 eodor, m., prince, protector: as. 
 
 90. 
 eofor, m., boar: ns. c. 19 ; as. 176,
 
 GrX>SSARY 
 
 15T 
 
 Poh, m., 'war-ftorse : gs. 6o8 63. 
 .eorl, m., leader, nobleman, man : 
 
 na. 03 ; da. eorle 84, i;6, C. 16, C. 
 
 32. 
 'Corod, n., host, army, band: ns. 
 
 63. 
 ^or8e, f., earth: ns. eor)>e 73, 
 
 eoiiSe 195 ; gs. eorhan 76 ; ds. 
 
 eorj'an 7, 26, 115 (?), C. 34, 
 
 C. 47, eoriSan C. 2 ; as. eor^an 33, 
 
 168, 201. 
 .f)tan, 6, eat: 3 eg. ieteS 112. 
 .SSel, mn., home, native place : ds. 
 
 eHe 37, 6-51e C. 20. 
 
 F 
 
 -i^icen, n., crime; as. C. 66. 
 feeder, m., father : ns. C. 63 ; gs. 
 
 faeder C. 61 ; as. fseder 5. 
 feege, adj., doomed, fated : ns. 27. 
 feegre, &dy., fairly^ beautifully : 5 ; 
 
 fiegere C. 66. 
 i&hpo, t., vengeance, feud, hor.til- 
 
 ity : ns. 104. 
 fSh, adj., shining, stained, dyed: 
 
 nam. C. 22. 
 liSsmne, f., woman, maid: ns. 64, 
 
 C. 44. 
 faest, adj., sure, fast : nsn. C. 38. 
 faeste, adv., fast, jirmly : 53, 64. 
 laeathydig, adj., steadfast in mind : 
 
 gp. faesthj'digra 102. 
 fae3m, m., bosom, embrace: ds. 
 
 ficSme C. 61. 
 iaeSman, Wi, embrace, contain : 
 
 3 sg. fse))mel> 14. 
 iSaJa, see fela. 
 
 fealu, adj., yellow, dun, dull- 
 colored: npf. fealwe 63 (y3a 
 
 implied). 
 /gdan, Wi, feed : opt. 3 eg. fede 
 
 114; inf. 115. 
 iela, adj., indecl., I. many: np. 32; 
 
 ap. fela 14, 166, foala C. 12.— 
 
 2. many a {one) : ns. 102t. — 
 
 3. much : aa. 144. 
 felafScne, adj., very crafty, evU : 
 
 ns. felafiecne 148 (see notes), 
 felameahtlg, adj., much, mighty: 
 
 nsm. 70. 
 fen(n), m., /en, marsh: ds. fenne 
 
 C. 42. 
 feoh, n., cattle: ns. C. 47. 
 f5ond, m., enemy, foe: ns. C. 52. 
 feor, adv., far, at a distance : 103, 
 
 140. 
 feorhcyn, n., living kind: gp. 
 
 feorhcynna 14. 
 feorran, adv., from afar, far of: 
 
 C. 1. 
 fSran, Wi, go, pass, travel: S sg. 
 
 ffreS 140 ; inf. 27, C. 31. 
 ferS, niD., soul, mind : ns. 19 ; 
 
 as. 1. 
 feter, f., fetter, chain : ap. fetre 76. 
 fgjja, m., infantry, band on foot: 
 
 ns. 64, 
 finger, m., finger : gp. fingra C. 38. 
 firas, mpl,, living beings, men : 
 
 gp. fira 32, 144, f yra 194. 
 firgenatrSam, m., mountain- 
 
 s'ream: np. firgenstrgamas C. 
 
 47. 
 flBC, ni., fish : ns. C. 27. 
 fl6dgr«g, adj., yfood-yray, muddy : 
 
 nsf. C. 31. 
 flota, m., ship, fleet : ns. 96. 
 flowan, R, flow : inf. C. 47. 
 folce, n., folk, people: ds. folce 
 
 C. 44. (on folce, publicly.) 
 folde, f., earth, xcorld: ds. foldan 
 
 32, C. 33. 
 for, prep. w. dat. and ace. 1. for, 
 
 for the sake of (w. dat.): 16, C. 
 
 50. — 2. for, because of (w. dat.): 
 
 149. — 3. before (w. ace.) 89. 
 forcv7eJ>an, 5, rebuke : inf. 49. 
 forgiefan, u, give, grant, supply: 
 
 pret. 3 sg. forgeaf 136. 
 forgietan, 5, forget : inf. 183.
 
 158 
 
 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON 
 
 forhelan, 4, cover over, conceal: 
 
 inf. 116. 
 forlSoaan, 2, lose, destroy : opt. 3 
 
 6g. forlfose 188. 
 forman, adj., Jirst, earliest : apn. 
 
 91. 
 lorsSS, adv., trtily, certainly: C. 
 
 64. 
 forst, m., frost : ns. 72 ; gs. forstes 
 
 76. 
 forstelan, 4, steal, deprive : pp. 
 
 forstolen 190. 
 for3, adv., henceforth, forth : 165. 
 lorSgesceait, i., future condition: 
 
 ns. C. 61. 
 forjjon Jje, conj., for, because : 5. 
 frast-we, pi. f., ornaments; inst. 
 
 frajtwum C. 27. 
 fr2a, m., lord: gs. fr^an 91. 
 fremde, adj., strange, foreign: 
 
 apm. fremde 103. 
 fremman, Wi, perform, do : inf. 
 
 62. 
 freond, m., friend : as. 146, C. 44 ; 
 
 np. frj-nd 37. 
 frSosan, 2, freeze : inf. 72. 
 freon, freogan, Wj, Zoce, court : 
 
 3 sg.? freoS 103 (see notes). 
 fricgan, 5, ask, question : imp. 2 sg. 
 
 frige 1. 
 fr5d, adj., 1. wise : nsm. 19, C. 12 ; 
 
 asm. frodne 19 ; dpn. frodum 
 
 1.' — 2. old, ancient: nsm. C. 27. 
 Iiym3, mf., beginning, origin: ds. 
 
 frynil'e 5. 
 Frysa, adj., Frisian : dsn. Frysan 
 
 90. ! 
 
 fugel, m.,fowl, bird: ns. C. 38. 
 ful. adv., very, full: 148, 187. 
 full, n.,lcup: ap. fulle 91. 
 fxindian, W^, hasten, tend to : inf. 
 
 52. 
 fur}3um, adv., at first, even: 194. 
 U3, adj., ready, prepared, ready 
 
 for death : asm. 27. 
 yr, n., fire: ns. 72. 
 
 tyrd, t, army : na. C. 31, C. 62 ; 
 
 ds. fyrde C. 52. 
 
 fym, adv., formerly, lor.g ago: 
 165. 
 
 fymgSar, n., a forr.ier yiar: dp. 
 fyrngearum C. 12. 
 
 fyrwetgeom, adj., curious, inquis- 
 itive : gp. fyrwetgeonra 102. 
 
 gamelian, "Wj, grow old: 3 sg. 
 
 gomelaS 11. 
 gangam, anv., go, takeplace, occur: 
 
 inf. gongan 125, gangan C. 42, 
 gSjT, m., arrow, dart: ns. 233, 
 
 C. 22. 
 g5raljj, m., spear battle : ua. 128. 
 gsest, m., spirit, soul : ds. gSstft 
 
 11 ; np. ga-stas C. 59. 
 g§ap, adj., broad, extended: nsm. 
 
 C. 23. 
 gSar, n., year: gs. gSrea C. 9. 
 gearnian, 2, earn, merit : inf. 140. 
 gearo, adj., ready, pi epared : nsm.? 
 
 geara 193 ; nsn. g;aro 203. 
 gebJSdan, Wi, compel : inf. 105. 
 gebeorh, n., protection : ns. C. 38. 
 gebicgan, Wi, buy, procure : opt. 
 
 3 sg. gebicge C. 45 ; inf. 82. 
 gebldan, 1, await, look for : 3 sg. 
 
 gebldeS C. 12 ; inf. 105, C. 17. 
 geblandan, K, mix, mingle : pp. 
 
 geblanden C. 41. 
 gebringan, 3, bring, produce: 3 
 
 &g. gebringe^ 51. 
 gebyxd, f., birth: dp. gebyrdum 
 
 25. 
 gebyre, m., favorable time, oppor- 
 tunity : ns. 105. 
 gecost, adj., tried, chosen: gsm. 
 
 gecostes 143. 
 gecynd, f., nature : ds. gecynde 59. 
 gedslan, Wi, divide, distribute: 
 
 opt. 3 sg. gedSlen 69 ; pp. ge- 
 
 dai'led 80.
 
 GLOSSARY 
 
 159 
 
 gedSl, n.f parting, separatiriff : ae. 
 
 28. 
 §ed5fo, adj., aeemly, Jit, decent: 
 
 nsn. 117 ; nsn. 189. 
 gedymem, Wi, conceal, hide, keep 
 
 secret: pp. gedjn^ed 117. 
 gefSra, m., companion: r.a. 148; 
 
 dp. geferan 147. 
 geglerwan, Wi, prepare, make 
 '.. ready: pp. gegierwed 69. 
 • gegrgtan, Wi, greet: inf. 90. 
 
 gehealdan, R, keep, hold, restrain, 
 
 save: pp. gehealden 122; inf. 
 
 101. 
 gehggan, Wi, do, perform, hold: 
 
 inf. 18. 
 gehnigan, 1, bow: inf. 118. 
 gehwS, pron., each, every, every- 
 thing : dsm. gehwum 28, C. 11. 
 gehwylo, pron., each, every one: 
 
 nsin. 125 ; dsm. gohwylcum 146, 
 
 1«0 ; asn. C. 46. 
 gelSran, Wj, teach, advise, per- 
 suade : 3 pi. gelSraS 20. 
 gelic, adj., like: nsmn. 19; nsn.? 
 
 154. 
 , gelic, adv.? similarly, alike: 154. 
 ' gemaecca, mf., companion, mate, 
 
 consort: da. 155; np. gemseccan 
 
 23. 
 gemSne, adj., mtttual : nsm. 54. 
 gemet, n., measure, limit : ns. 33. 
 gemonlan, \V2, admonish, remind: 
 
 inf. 6. 
 S^n, adv., still, yet: 11. 
 genaegled, pp., nat7e<Z .' 94. 
 genge, adj., current, prevalent: 
 
 nsn. 121. 
 geniman, 4, take, accept: 3 sg. 
 
 genimeS 147. 
 genugan, 2, satisfy, suffia : 3 8g. 
 
 geneah 70, 184? 
 g§ocor, <idj., sad, harsh: gp. (sb. 
 
 use) g^oc.-an 183. 
 geofu, f . , gijl : dp. geofum 84. 
 geofen, n., sea, ocean : ns. 52. 
 
 geogoS, f., youth : ns. C. 50. 
 geond, prep. w. ace., through^ 
 
 throughout: 161, 201. 
 
 geong, adj., young: ns. 8; asm. 
 geongne 45, C. 14. 
 
 geom, B.d]., desirous, eager: nam. 
 59. 
 
 g§r, see gSar. 
 
 ger£gcan, Wi, reach, offer, pre- 
 sent: inf. 92. 
 
 geraede, n., trappings, harness t : 
 ap. geiiedan 178. 
 
 gerisan, 1, suit, befit : S sg. geriseU 
 64, 07, gerlse> 126 ; 3 pi. gerisatS 
 ]G0. 
 
 gescealt, fn., fate, destiny, condi- 
 tion : ns. C. 65 ; as. gesceafte 
 183. 
 
 gesecean, Wj, seek, get: inf. C. 
 44. 
 
 geaecgan, Wi, tell, say : inf. 2. 
 
 geset, n., seat, habitation: np. 
 gc.setu C. 66. 
 
 gealgan, 1, languish, decline: inf. 
 118. 
 
 geaihS, f., vision, sight: gs. ge- 
 sihpe 40. 
 
 geslugan, 3, sing: inf. 140. 
 
 geaittan, 5, sil : 8 pi. gesittaS 
 68. 
 
 geaiS, m., companion, fellow : np. 
 gesISas C. 14 ; dp. gesll>um 58. 
 
 geaiSmsegen, n., multitude of com- 
 panio7is, courtier-train : as. 89. 
 
 geapringan, 3, 1. trans, get by go- 
 ing, cause to spring : 3 sg. g&- 
 springeS 66. — 2. intrans. spring, 
 arise : pret. 3 pi. gesprungon 19G. 
 
 gestrynan, Wj, get, acquire, gain : 
 3 eg. gestryne^ 144. 
 
 geatyran, Wi, restrain, withhold: 
 3 sg. gestyrelS 106. 
 
 geaund, adj., sound, favorable: 
 dpn. gesundum 58. 
 
 gesw^ican, 1, w. dat., deceive, be- 
 ' tray : 8 pi. geswica^ 37.
 
 160 
 
 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON 
 
 geafne, adj., visible, plain: npf, 
 
 gesyne C. 1. 
 getcon, Wj, make, assign, decree : 
 pret. 3 sg. geteode 6, 71 ; pp. 
 geteod 174. 
 getnim, n., band, company : ns. C. 
 32 ; ds, getrume 63. 
 
 ge]5§on, Wi, do, perform : inf, 
 C.44. 
 
 ge^eon, 1, grow, prosper : inf. 50, 
 85. 
 
 geSHian, 1, thrive, prosper: 3 sg. 
 geMhS 37. 
 
 geSingian, Wj, wake terms, settle 
 a dis/jute : pp. gehingad 67. 
 
 geSoht, mn., thought, mind: ap. 
 gel>ohtas 3. 
 
 ge3onc,nin., thought, mind, under- 
 standing : ap. gehonc 12. 
 
 geow^Sre, adj. , harmonious, peace- 
 ful : npf. gel'Wiere 57. 
 
 ge}?yldig, nd]., patient, long-suffer- 
 ing : nms. 12. 
 
 ge'wealdan, R, rule, command : 
 pp. gewealden 122. 
 
 geweaxan, Ji, grow, increase: inf. 
 85. 
 
 geweorc, n., work: ns. C. 2, C. 3. 
 
 gevT-eorpan, 3, go away, depart, 
 pass : inf. 77. 
 
 geweorSan, 3, be, become : pret. 
 3 sg. gewearS 165. 
 
 gevriix, n., battle, contest : as. 201, 
 gewinn C. 55. 
 
 ge-wit, m., knowledge, understand- 
 ing : ds. gewitte 48. 
 
 gev7ltan, 1, go, depart: 3 sg. ge- 
 wltej. CO, lOo. 
 
 getvTinian, W^, dwell, remain : inf. 
 C. 18, C. 42. 
 
 gied, u., proverb, tale, riddle: ns. 
 167 ; dp. gieddum 4. 
 
 giefu, f., gift : as. giefe 172 (see 
 geofu. 
 
 gif, couj., if: 3, 34, 44, 71, 106, 
 111, 114, 176, C. 44. 
 
 gifan, 5, give : inf. 153. 
 gifre, adj., greedy: nsm. 70. 
 gifstol, m., gift-seat, throne: na^ 
 
 69. 
 gim, m., gem, jervel : ns. C. 22. 
 gleoman, m., gleeman, singer : ds. 
 
 glfomen 167. 
 gleaw^, adj., wise: npm. glCawe 
 
 4. 
 gllw, n., glee : gs. glTwes 172. 
 glof, f., glove: ds. glofe C. 17. 
 gnornlan, Wj, grieve, mourn, lO' 
 
 me»t : inf. 26. 
 god, n., good, goodniSa : ns. J21, 
 
 C. 50. 
 god, adj., good : ns. 84 ; nsm. 128 > 
 
 npm. g5de C. 14. 
 god, m., God: m. 8, 17, 76, 134,- 
 
 156, 164, 172, C. 9, C. 35; ds. 
 
 gode C. 69 ; as. god 4, 121. 
 gold, n., gold : ns. 1^6, C. 11 j ds. 
 
 golde 70, C. 22 ; as. 166. 
 gomen, n., game, sport : as. 183. 
 gomol, adj., old, aged: nsm. C. 
 
 11. 
 graef, n., grave : ns. 149. 
 greg, grceg, adj., grey : nsm. gr«ga 
 
 151 ; ds. grgggum 149. 
 grSne, adj., green : nsm. C. 36. 
 gretan, Wi, greet: inf. 171. 
 ^rim, adj., severe, terrible, bitter.' 
 
 dp. grimmum 52. 
 grome, adv., fiercely, cruelly : 62. 
 growan, R. grow, sprout : 3 sg. 
 
 growe? 159 ; inf. 73. 
 gryre, m., horror, dread, terror: 
 
 ns. 149. 
 guman, m., man: ns. 70; gs. 
 
 gaman 126 ; ds. guman 167 ; np. 
 
 guman 69 ; gp. gumena C. 11 ; 
 
 dp. gumum 128. 
 gu3, f., war, battle, fight : ns. 84. 
 giiSbord, u., warlike board, 
 
 shield : ns. 203. 
 gyman, Wi, care for, take care of, 
 
 regard : 3 sg. gyme'5 1C4.
 
 GLOSSARY 
 
 161 
 
 H 
 
 habban, Wj, have, hold^ poseess : 
 8Bg. hafa« 107, 160, bafaj> 172, 
 174 ; 8 pi. habba« 21, 67 ; opt. 3 
 eg. haibbe 47 ; inf. 183. 
 
 hafuc, m., hawk: ns. C. 17. 
 
 hSil, adj., whole, hale, safe : nsm. 
 106. 
 
 heelu, f., health : as. hSle 44. 
 
 haBlei5, m., man, warrior, hero : 
 T)p. haele-5 60 ; dp. haeleiSuai C. 8. 
 
 hSlig, adj., holy: dsm, balgum 132. 
 
 h3jn, ni.. heme, ds. bum 97 ; ag. 
 100. 
 
 hand, f., hand: ns. houd 68, 122, 
 184?: ds. hondOl, bandaC. 21 ; 
 dp. hondum 171. 
 
 hangian, Wj, hany, be suspended : 
 inf. C. 55. 
 
 heerfest, m., harvest, autumn: ns. 
 C. 8. 
 
 hat, adj., hot, fervent: nsm. 78; 
 sup. nsn. hatost C. 7. 
 
 hatan, R, command : pret. 3 sg. 
 bet 165. 
 
 heeo, f., heath, waste: ds. bieSe 
 C. 2',^ 
 
 h£e3en, adj., heathen: dsm. baJK 
 num 182. 
 
 he, pron., he: nsm. 5, 6, lis, 12, 
 42, 44, 46, 49, 50, 53, 106, 11 Ij, 
 113, 1143, 175, 186, 188, C. 6, 
 C. 66, C. m ; nsf. by 65, 103, beo 
 98, hi 101, beo C. 44 ; nsn. bit 
 113 ; gsui. bis 35, 87j, 38, 39, 41, 
 97, 99, 100, 172, 188, 198; gsf. 
 hyre 64, 60, 80, 97, hire C. 44 ; 
 dsm. bim 37, 38. 40, 41, 42, 432, 
 48, 99, 100, 106, 1C6, 110, 146, 
 147, 169, 170, 1722, 174, 175 ; dsn. 
 bim C. 49 ; asm. bine 9, 47, 48, 
 492, 69, 98, 112, 114, 148 ; asf. by 
 66, 66, bl C. 45 ; asn. hit 42, 116, 
 162; np. hi 20, 40, 57, 176, 176, 
 hy 182, 191, 192 ; gp. byra 19, 36, 
 
 182 ; dp. him 64^ 68, 92, 179, 182, 
 
 183, C. 9; ap. hi 34, by 181. 
 hSaf, m., lamentation, weeping: 
 
 ds. h«afe 150. 
 hSafod, n., head: as. beofod 68. 
 hgaiodgim, mf ., head jewel, eye :' 
 
 ds. heofodgimme 44. 
 h6ahB9tl, n., high seat, throne: 
 
 ds. beabsetle 70. 
 healdan, R, keep, preserve, hold: 
 
 3 pi. bealda-S 36, 64, 68 ; inf. 87, 
 
 145, C. 1 (rice hecddan, rule). 
 heall, f., hall: ds. healle C. 28, C, 
 
 36. 
 hSan, adj., low, humble, abject, 
 
 base: nsm. 118; gsm. ? beauan 
 
 206. 
 heard, adj. = hard; brave: ds. 
 
 beardum ''.53, 205. 
 hearpe, f., harp: as. bearpan 171. 
 helan, 4, conceal : 2 sg. bylest 3. 
 helm, m., helmet, covering : ns. 
 
 205 ; ds. bellme C. 16 ; as. 74. 
 heofan, Wi, lament, grieve, wail : 
 
 3 sg. beofe« 150. 
 heofen, m., heaven: dp. beofe- 
 
 num C. 35, C. 40, C. 48. 
 heofod, see heafod. 
 heonan, adv., he7ice, from hence : 
 
 30. 
 heoro, m., sword: as. 202. 
 heorte, f., heart : ns. 39 ; gs. heor- 
 
 tan 3 ; as. beortan 44. 
 h5r, adv., here : C. 64. 
 hergan, Wi, praise, glorify : inf. 4, 
 hldor, adv., hither: C. 64. 
 hild, f., war, battle: as. hilde C. 
 
 17. 
 hinder, adv., down, behind: 116. 
 hliew, m., cave: ds. bhewe C. 26. 
 hlgor, n., cheek, face: ns. 66. 
 hlud, adj., loud: sup. nsm. hlu- 
 
 dast C. 4. 
 holen, m., holly: ns. 80. 
 holm, m., wave, sea, ocean: ns. 
 
 51, 106.
 
 162 
 
 GNOMIC POETRr IN ANGLO-SAXON 
 
 holt, mn., hoUf wood, grove: da. 
 
 holte C. 19. 
 hord, mn,, hoard, treasure : ns. 
 
 68, 208. 
 hosp, m., reproach, contumely: 
 
 is. hospe 66. 
 hrsegl, n., garment, dress : as. 99. 
 hreSeadig, adj., glorious, noble : 
 
 sup. hr656adegost C. 8. 
 hrimig, adj., rimy, covered with 
 
 hoar-frost: sup. nsra. hrimigost 
 
 C. G. 
 bring, m., ring: ds. hringe C. 22. 
 hrof, m., roof: ap. hrSfas C. 64. - 
 liruse, f., ground: ds.? 116. 
 hunger, in., hunger, famine : ds. 
 
 hungre 150. 
 huru, adv., certainly, in any case: 
 
 151. 
 husl, n., the housel, the Eucharist: 
 
 ns. 132. 
 hwa, pron,, vcho : nsra. 114. 
 hvB-Sr, adv., where: 30; every- 
 
 tchere ? 103. 
 hwaeSer, adv., still, yet, however: 
 
 53. 
 hweorfan, 3, turn, go : 3 pi. 
 
 hweorfa-5 C. 59 : inf. 07, C. 68. 
 hwonne, adv., ichen : 69, 105. 
 h'wyder, adv., whither : C. 58. 
 hvT-ylc, pron., what, ns. C. 65. 
 hycgean, W2, take thought, think : 
 
 inf. C. 54. 
 hyge, in., 1. mind, heart, thought : 
 
 ns. 122 ; ds. byge 200. — 2. cour- 
 age : ns. 205. 
 hygecraeft, m., intellect, wisdom : 
 
 as. bygecraeft 3. 
 
 Ic, pron., /; ns. 2 ; da. me 3 ; as. 
 mec 1 ; np. we 71, 136 ; dp. us 
 5, 8, 12, 71, 1.36; ap. usic 6. 
 
 lean, Wi, increase, augmeiit, eke : 
 3 sg. 5'ce« 31. 
 
 Ides, f., woman : ns. C. 43. 
 
 Idel, adj., idle, Unemployed: tat. 
 
 Idle 184? 
 iernan, 3, run : opt. 3 sg. yme 188. 
 leteU, see etan. 
 in, adv. , in, inside : 98. 
 in, prep. w. dat. and ace. 1. in, en, 
 
 icithin, at, by (w. dat.): 7, 11, 
 
 37, 41, 62, 67, 68, 84, 12.-1, ISO. 
 
 — 2. into, to (w. ace): 24, 80, C. 
 
 41. 
 inbindem, 3, for onbindan ? un- 
 
 biitd, unlock: inf. 75. 
 innan, prep., in, trithin : w. dat. 
 
 C. 43. 
 Inwyrcan, Wj, perform (a rite) : 
 ■ inf. 68 (see notes^. 
 IB, n., ice : ns. 73. 
 isern, n. , iron, steel : ns. C. 26. 
 
 IScan, R, swing, viove as a ship or 
 
 bird : inf. C. 39. 
 ISce, m., leech, physician, doctor : 
 
 gs. ht'ces 45. 
 Isedan, Wi, lead, take, carry : opt. 
 
 3sg. 15de 112; inf. 178. 
 laguflod, m., water, stream: ns. 
 
 C. 46. 
 land, n., land: gs. londes 60; ds. 
 
 londe 53, 100, lande C. 43 ; as. 
 
 C. 53, gp. landa C. 46. 
 l£ne, adj., fleeting, transitory : 
 
 asm. lienne 6. 
 lange, adv., long, a long time: 
 
 longc 104 ; sup. lengest 79, C. 6. 
 leeran, Wj, teach: inf. 45. 
 lEeaest, adv., least : 159. 
 leetaji, R, let, allow: imp. 2 sg. 
 
 l'*t 1. 
 153, n., injury, hurt, evil : ns. C. 
 
 63 ; ds. la>e C. 53. 
 153, adj., hateful : nsra. 60. 
 laSian, Wj, invite : 3 sg. Ia1!a)> 98. 
 Igaf, n,, leaf, shoot: dp. 26.
 
 GL0S8AEY 
 
 163 
 
 IBanif n., reuxtrd, reeomptn86: ns. 
 
 71 ; gp. leana 6. 
 lear, m., salmon, pike : ns. C. 89. 
 ISf, adj., weak, sick : nsm. 45. 
 lencten, m., spring, lent : ns. C. 6. 
 lenge, adj., related, having affinity 
 
 with: nan. 121. 
 ISoda, aeo Ildsi. 
 l^ode, f., people, race, nation : dp. 
 
 leodum 8G. 
 16of, adj , dtar : nsin. fcO, 95 ; usn. 
 
 86 ; gs. leofes (sb. use) 104. 
 leoflan, Wj, live: 3 sg. leofaU 
 
 108. 
 ISogan, 2, tell lies: iuf. 71. 
 ISoht, n., light, a light : ns. C. 61 ; 
 
 ds. ICohte 07. 
 ISoht, adj., light, not heavy : nan. 
 
 95. 
 IBohtmSd, adj., light-hearted, of 
 
 cheerful mind: nan. 86. 
 leomu, see lim. 
 leomere, m., learner, scholar, 
 
 reader: ds. leornere 131. 
 16o3, n., song, poem: gp. leot)a 
 
 170 ; ap. leo> I'iO. 
 llcgan, 5, lie : ptc. npm. licgende 
 
 159. 
 lida, m,, sailor, traveler : ns. 1C4 ; 
 
 da. leodon 109. 
 Ill, n., life ; na. C. 61 ; aa. 6. 
 llfgan, W2, hoe ; 1 pi. lifga)> 136 ; 
 
 inf. lifgan 173 (aec laofian). 
 !lin, n., limb, branch of tree: ap. 
 
 leomu 26. 
 llnJen, adj., made of the lime, or 
 
 linden, tree : nsn. 95. 
 llBB, f., mercy, favor : aa. Usse 71. 
 Hat, m., skill, art, craft, cunning: 
 
 na. 189. 
 Ii3, adj., pleasant, sweet: nj. ll)) 
 
 100. 
 llSan, 1, sail : inf. lT)>an 109 (li)>an 
 
 cyme3, comes sailing). 
 liSan, ? go, suffer : inf. llj>an ^ 
 
 (see notea). 
 
 lof, mi?.., praUe, glory: gs. lofea 
 
 140. 
 longati, m., desire, vtearinett: as. 
 
 longalS 169. 
 lot, n., deceit, fraud : na. 189. 
 lucan, 2, lock up : inf. 74. 
 lulu, f., love: ns. 100. 
 lylt, mfn., air, atmosphere, •Jty.* 
 
 da. lyfte C. 3, C. 39. 
 lyithelm, m., cloud, air : na. C. 46. 
 lyau, n., wrong, evil: da. lyswe 
 
 189. 
 
 M 
 
 maecg, m., man : gp. msecga 152. 
 
 maedle? 180. 
 
 tnagan, PP, may, can : 3 ag. maeg 
 
 43, 106, 113, 166 ; 3 pL magon 40. 
 maegen, n., might, strength: as. 
 
 116. 
 msegS, 1., girl, maiden, woman: 
 
 ns. 107. 
 magutimber, n., progeny, all those 
 
 who are born : ga. magutimbres 
 
 83. 
 m^l, n., meal, measure: np. mSl 
 
 125. 
 m^, n., crime, guilt: ns. monl97. 
 mSnan, Wi, speak of, relate : 3pl. 
 
 mSna"5 66. 
 man(n), m., man .• ns. mon 7, 46, 
 
 61, man 67, mon 108, 147, 156, 
 
 162 ; gs. monnea 81, 124, 175, 185 ; 
 
 ds. men 132, 149, 153, 205 ; as. 
 
 monnan 45, mon 65, 101 ; np. 
 
 men 4, 36, 69, 168 ; gp. monna 
 
 138, manna C. 67 ; dp. mannum 
 
 C. 65 ; ap. monnan 103. 
 m^a, see mlcel. 
 maest, m., pole to support saile 
 
 mast : ns. C. 24. 
 m5)>um, xn5.ppvun, m., treasure, 
 
 jewel, ornament: na. ma>J>um 
 
 155 ; dp. maj>mam 88. 
 mearb, m., horse, steed : gs. meares 
 
 142 ; dp. mgarum 88.
 
 164 
 
 GNOMIC POETUY IN ANGLO-SAXON 
 
 mecgan, "Wj, stir^ mix : inf. C. 24. 
 meltan, 2, melt, consume : inf. 72. 
 xaeodoraeden, f., mead [cere- 
 
 mony ?] : ds. meodoriedenne 88. 
 meotud, m., God, creator: ns. 7, 
 
 16, 29, 138, 165, C. 49, meotod 
 
 C. 57 ; 1^3. meotodes C. 65. 
 mere, m , sea, lake: ns. 107. 
 mereflod, m., flood of water, 
 
 ocean : ds. mereflode C. 24. 
 mete, m., food, meat: as. Ill, 
 
 125; ds. mete 115. 
 mejjc, adj., weary, exhausted: 
 
 nsm. 111. 
 micel, adj., much, great: nsn. 
 
 197 ; npm. myccle C. 4 ; comp. 
 
 gsm. (or asn. ?) maran 111 ; asn. 
 
 miire 60, 152. 
 mid, prep. w. dat., with: 222, 25, 
 
 36, 58, 6I2, 82, 86, 115, 171, 1892, 
 
 C. 40. 
 middangeard, m., earth, world: 
 
 f^. middangeardes 20. 
 min, pron., my : asn. 2. 
 missenlic, adj., dissimilar, differ- 
 ent, various: apn. missenllcu 13. 
 mod, n., mitid, 'spiritual opposed 
 
 to bodily part of man : ds. mOde 
 
 41, 51 ; ap. mod 13. 
 modgeSonc, mn., thought: np. 
 
 modgeJ>oncas 124, 168. 
 mon, see man. 
 mon, see man(n). 
 mon, pron., one, they: n. mon 4, 
 
 45, 47, 48, 49, 104, 112, 115, 139, 
 
 145, 116, 1.56, 187, man C. 45. 
 mona, m., moon: as. monan 41. 
 moncjni, n., mankind, men: ds. 
 
 inoncynne 16. 
 monge, see monig. 
 monian, Wj, claim, ask : 3 eg. 
 
 monatS 60. 
 monig, adj., many, 'many a : asn. 
 
 monig 15 ; apm. monig 168 ; apf. 
 
 monge 13 ; dpf. monegum 197. 
 morjjor, mn., murder : as." 116. 
 
 mor)>orc^77eaIm, m., slaughter ^ 
 
 murder: as. 152. 
 motan, anv., may, can^ &,> able: 
 
 opt. 3 sg. mote 4i). 
 munan, PP, rememter, be mindful 
 
 of: 3 sg. mon 142. 
 mund, f., power, protection: dp. 
 
 mundum 107. 
 mu3, m., mouth: nB..C. 87; gp. 
 
 mut>a 126. 
 
 N 
 
 naeglan, Wi, nail: pp. nsn. ge- 
 
 megled 94. .■.• 
 ncenlg, pron., none, no one : nam. 
 
 144, nSni C. 63. 
 nales, adv., not, not at all : 150. 
 n5t, see •w^ltan. 
 ne, adv., not: 1, 9, 88, 34, 40, 42, 
 
 49, 56, 106, 113, 117, 161, 164. 
 ne, conj., nor, neither: 9, 10, IJ, 
 
 40, 41. 
 nefne, conj., unless, except: 106, 
 
 186. 
 nefre, adv., never: 38. 
 nelle, see w^illan. 
 nergend, m., Savior: ns. 135. 
 nergende, see nerian. 
 nerian, |^Wi, protect, nave : pret. 
 
 3 sg. nerede 199 ; ptc. nsm. ner- 
 gende C. 63. 
 neat, n., provisions, victuals: ns. 
 
 38. 
 niman, 4, take away, seize, carry 
 
 away : 3 sg. nimelS 31, 120 ; i:3f. 
 
 157. 
 ni3, m., trouble, effect of hatred: 
 
 ns. 195, 200 ; m> 198. 
 nl-we, adj., new : apf., nlwe 99. 
 nyd, n., necessity, need, distress: 
 
 is. nyd[e] 38. 
 nyt(t), adj., useful ; sup. nsn. nyt 
 
 tost 119. 
 nyttian, Wj, f?iate use of, enjoy: 
 
 3 sg. nytta« 110.
 
 GLOSSARY 
 
 165 
 
 o 
 
 of, prep. w. dat., 1. from, out of: 
 30, 196, C. 80. — 2. of: 44. 
 
 Ofer, prep. w. ace, orer, upon, 
 throughout: 83, 168. 
 
 ofercuman, 4, overcome, vanquish : 
 pp. ofercumtn 114. 
 
 oft, adv., often: 35, 65, 66, 101, 
 146, 148, 187, 191, 
 
 oftSon, 2, take attay, deprive: pp. 
 oftigen 40. 
 
 on, prep. w. dat. and ace, 1. on, 
 upon, in, within (w. dat.): 7, 26, 
 32, 48, 50, 58, ^3, 70, 100, 104, 
 113, 120, 127, 145, 183, 188, 203, 
 204, C. 2, C. 3, C. 10, C. 17, C. 
 18, C. 19, C. 20, C. 21, C. 22, 
 C. 23, C. 24, C. 25, C. 26, C. 27, 
 C. 28, C. 29, C. 32, C. 882, C. 
 84, C. 85, C. 36, C. 37, C. £^2, 
 C. 40, C. 42, C. 47, C. 48, C. 61. 
 — 2. on, into, to (w. ace): 112, 
 130. 
 
 Snettan, "Wi, be btis-y, be active : 
 inf. l-:i. 
 
 on feorran, adv., afar, at a dis- 
 tance: 63. 
 
 onion, R, receive, undergo a rite, 
 acrepl : 3 sg. onfeh'fi 70. 
 
 ongs, see ange. 
 
 ongildan, 3, pay penalty, oe pun- 
 ished for: inf. C. 56. 
 
 onginncin, 8, 1. begin : 3 pi. on- 
 ginnati 52.-2. attack: Inf. 176. 
 
 onh^le, adj., secret, hidden: as. 
 onhajlne 1. 
 
 ord, m., point (of a weapon) : ns. 
 204 
 
 czSano, adj., cumiing, skilful: 
 nsn. C. 2. 
 
 6)jer. adj., other, second: nsm. 
 103 ; gs. 6>re8 16t' ; dsra. o'Srum 
 C. 52. 
 
 oJ> )jaet, conj., until : 47, 48. 
 
 o)3j?e, conj., or, and: 171, 177. 
 
 rSd, m., cowiuel, wisdom : ns. 22, 
 
 119; as. 92, 139. 
 rand, m., boss, edge, margin : na. 
 
 C. 37. 
 rScifero, m., brigand, robber: da. 
 
 rcafere 130. 
 reced, mn., house, hall, palace : 
 
 gs. recedes C. 37. 
 recene, adv., quickly, straight- 
 
 icay : 62, ricene 92. 
 reord, {..speech, tongue, language : 
 
 ap. reorde 13. 
 rice, n., kingdom: as. C. 1. 
 rice, adj., poicerful, mighty : nsm. 
 
 134. 
 ricene, 83e recene. 
 ridan, 1, ride: inf. 63. 
 rlht, n., right, justice, truth: ns. 
 
 ryht 22, 119; ds. rihte 36. 
 rinc, m., warrior: np. rincas 178. 
 rodor, m., firmament, heaven: ap. 
 
 rodcra-s 134. 
 roglan, W2, flourish, grow : inf. 
 
 110. 
 rowan, R, roio : 3 sg. r6wej> 
 
 187. 
 rum, adj., roomy, spacious, ample, 
 
 extensive : nsm. C. 37 ; apm. 
 
 rume 16, 134. 
 rfimheort, adj., liberal, munifi- 
 cent : nsn. 87. 
 run, f., confidence, counsel, secret: 
 
 as. rune 87 ; ap. rune 139. 
 ryht, see rlht. 
 
 8 
 
 sacan, 6, fight, contend: inf. 28, 
 
 C. 53. 
 sacu, f., strife, sedition, dispute: 
 
 as. sace 20. 
 see, mf., sea : nsf. 65. 
 BSel, mf., time, sectson: dp. s^lom 
 
 52.
 
 166 
 
 GNOJnC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON 
 
 bSt, adj., painful, grievous, dis- 
 tressing : nsn. sar 41. 
 
 bSwuI, f., soul, life: ns. C. 68; 
 gp. sawla 135 ; dp. sAwlum 36. 
 
 Bcead, n., shade : ds. sceade 67. 
 
 Bcoaft, m., shaft (of a spear) : ns. 
 1.30 ; ds. sceaite 203. 
 
 Bceomlan, Wj, feel shame, be 
 ashamed: pic. sceomlande 07. 
 
 Bc5ot, n., shooting, rapid move- 
 ment : ds. scCoto C. 40. 
 
 BceCSsin, 6, hurt, harm : pret. 3 sg. 
 scOd 200. 
 
 Bcieppan, 6, create, form : pret. 3 
 sg. sceop 165. 
 
 BCinan, 1, shine: inf. C. 40. 
 
 Bcip, n., ship : ns. 94. 
 
 Bcir, adj., bright, pure : nam. 67. 
 
 Bcop, m., poet : ns. 128. 
 
 BcrlSan, 1, go, glide, creep: 3 pi. 
 scrlSa-S C. 13 ; inf. C. 40. 
 
 Bculan, anv., must, xoill, shall: 3 
 6g. sceal 4, Tj, 18, 22, 23, 24, 25, 
 27, 382, 392, 45, 49, 60, 51, 61, 
 032, 67, 68, 71, 72, 75, 77, 80, 
 82, 84, 94, 101, 104, 115, 118, 
 122, 123, 130, 131, 139, 145, 149, 
 153, 1542, 150, 168, 173, 187, 
 189, 203, 205, C. 1, C. I62, 
 C. 17, C. 18, C. 19, C. 20, C. 21, 
 C. 22, C. 23, C. 24, C. 25, C. 26, 
 C. 27, C. 28, C. 29, C. 30, C. 31, 
 C. 32, C. 33, C. 34, C. 35, C. 30, 
 C. 37, C. 39, C. 40, C. 422, C 
 43, C. 45, C. 47, C. 48, C. 6O2, 
 C. 6I2, C. 54, C. 58 ; 3 pi. sceo- 
 lon 4, sceolun 62, sceolon 83, 
 125, 160, 182, sceolan C. 14; 
 pret. 3 pi. sceoldan 176 ; opt. 
 3 pi. scyle 178. 
 
 BCur, m., shower: ns. C. 40. 
 
 Bcyld, m., shield: ns. 94, 130 ; da. 
 
 scylde C. 37. 
 b5, B80, 3aet, 1. dem. pron., deL 
 art., the, this, that: nsm. 80, 35, 
 37, 38, 6O2, 70, 103, 112, 148. 
 
 161, 173, 187, 190 ; uflt b5o C. 68, 
 C. 61 ; nsn. >{Bt 41, 117, 134, 
 138, 196; gsm. J-sea ?5, 124, 164, 
 206 ? ; gsn. J-sea 3;^, 42 r 70, 105, 
 165 ? ; dsm. )>am 71, 137 ; dsn. 
 >am 70, 190 ; asn. y>set 43, 160 ? 
 C. 60, C. 64 ; isn. ).y lC-0 ; npm. 
 \>l 178. C. 59 ; gp. >ara 6, 183. — 
 2. rel. pron., xoho, which: nsm. 
 34, 43, 130 ; nsf. sio 161 ; gsm. . 
 \>vcs 100 ; asm. J>one 199 ; asf. )•& 
 21 ; asn. htet 2, 120, 186 ; apn. 
 i>& 31. 
 
 sealt, u., salt: ds. sealte C. 45. 
 
 Becgan, Ws, say, tell, speak : opt. 
 3 8g. secge C. 65 ; inf. 139. 
 
 Befa, m., mind, heart: gs. sefan 
 169. 
 
 Begl, mn., sail : ds. segle 186. 
 
 Begelgyrd, m., yard of a ship, sail' 
 yard : ns. C. 25. 
 
 b51, adv., comparative, better: sup. 
 nsm. selast 81. 
 
 B3ldan, adv., seldom : 112, 188. 
 
 Bale, n., hall : na. 168. 
 
 sellic, adj., strange, wonderful: 
 nsn. 127. 
 
 B§maE, Wi, settle (a dispute) : 3 
 sg. sSmaJ> 20. 
 
 Bendan, Wi, send: S sg. sendelJ 
 C. 9. 
 
 b5o, f., apple of the eye, pupil : ns. 
 123. 
 
 bSoc, adj., sick, ill: nsm. Ii2. 
 
 BGomian, W2, rest, han^, lie ««- 
 curely: inf. C. 25. 
 
 b5 3e, pron., who, which: nam. 
 sS )>e C. 12; npm. )>a >e C. 2; 
 apm. ^a )>e C. 9. 
 
 sep^ah, adv., nevertheless hoio- 
 ever : 104. 
 
 Bib(b), i., peace: aa. sibbe 20. 
 
 Bid, adj., spacious, wide: dam. 
 sldura 186. 
 
 Bigefolc, m., victorious people: 
 gp. sigefolca C. 66.
 
 GLOSSiiRY 
 
 167 
 
 Blgesceorp, n., triumphal ap- 
 parel: ns. 127. 
 •Ino, n., gold, silver, jewels: ns. 
 
 127, C. 10. 
 Bi?J, m., jo'urney, travel, voyage: 
 
 da. 6l)>e 104. 
 BlS3an, adv., a/ter, from the time 
 
 that : BiJ-han 106, 104, 109, sySSan 
 
 C. 68. 
 ftlSan, 6, slay : pret. 3 sg. slOg 108. 
 Blltan, 1, slit, tear: Ssg. sllteS 148. 
 alldan, 1, harm, hurt, damage: 
 
 ptc. asm. 8lIJ>eEdne 202. 
 BllSheatd, adj., very fierce : nsn. 
 
 slI^be^de 177. 
 amilte, adj., mild, pleasant, se- 
 
 rene : nsin. 55. 
 enotor, adj., wise, prudent : nam. 
 
 C. 64;-. npm. snolre 36; sup. 
 
 nsm. suoterost C. 11. 
 enyttro, f.. xoisdorTi, understand- 
 ing : ns. Lsnyttro 123, 167; da 
 
 euyttro 22. 
 Bc3, n., truth : ns. C. 10 ; as. 86. 
 BoOcynIng, m., kivg of truth, 
 
 Deity : ns. 136. 
 Bpers, n., spear, lance: ds. spere 
 
 204. 
 BtSlan, Wi, avenge, institute f 
 
 inf. C. 54. 
 Bt5n, m., stone, die: ns. 100. 
 Btandan, 8, sta-^A: 3 sg. 8tonde|> 
 
 00 ; opt. 3 Bg. Btondo 63 ; inf. 
 
 Btondan 04, CO, 168, standan C. 
 
 23, C. 36. 
 Bteap, adj., prominent : nsm. C. 23. 
 Btonn, m., storm: aa. 61. 
 Btitel, f., arrow, ihaft : ds. strSle 
 
 164. 
 Btrgam, m., stream: ns. C. 2.i. 
 BtrSon, BtrSowen, f., couch, bed, 
 
 place, where anything rests; 
 
 hence, a chest or casket for treas- 
 ure : dp. Etreonuui C8. 
 strong, adj., strong: dsn. Btron- 
 
 gum 51. 
 
 Btyran, Wi, stettt guide, rule : Inf. 
 
 61. 
 Btunor, m., summer: ns. 78, C. 7 ; 
 
 ds. sumera 113. 
 Bund, n., ocean, sea : ns. 78. 
 Bundor, adv., severally, each 6y 
 
 himself: 169. 
 Bunne, f., sun : as. sunnan 41, 
 
 112. 
 Bunwlitlg, adj., sunbeautiful : sup. 
 
 nsm. Bunwlitegost C. 7. 
 Bwa, adv., so, thus: 32, 165, 200. 
 Bw5, conj., as, even as : 11, C. 49 ; 
 
 swa . . . swi, adv. and conj., 
 
 as . , .as: 66-67, as ... so 
 
 168. 
 bw^Sb, adj., one^s own: asm. 
 
 switsne 108. 
 Bwefcin, 5, sleep : inf. 179. 
 flv^egel, n., heaven, sky, sun: ns. 
 
 C. 7. 
 Bwegle, adv. , brilliantly : 78. 
 Bwegltorht, adj., heavenbrig?U : 
 
 ap. swegltorht 41. 
 Bwelgan, 3, swallow: pret. 3 sg. 
 
 swealg 194. 
 Bweltan, 3, die : inf. 27. 
 Bweord, n., sword : ns. C. 25 ; ds. 
 
 sweorde 120, 204. 
 Bwift, adj., swift : sup. nsm. swift- 
 
 ust C. 3. 
 Bwltol, adj., clear, sweet, evident: 
 
 sup. nsn. switoloat, C. 10. 
 B'^3, adj., strong : sup. nsf. swi'Sost 
 
 C. 6. 
 Bylf, pron., self, himself: nsm. sylf 
 
 1C5, 168, sylfa 138, C. 60. 
 Byllon, Wi, give, grant: 3 sg. 
 
 syleS 12, sylel> 09 ; pret. 3 sg. 
 
 scalde 172 ; opt. 3 eg. sylle 48 ; 
 
 inf. 43, 166. 
 Bymle, adv., always : 89. 
 aya, f., sin, crime, vyrong, hostil- 
 ity : np. 8yn;,e 132; ap. synne 
 
 C. 64? 
 sySdan, see siSSan.
 
 168 
 
 GNOMIC POETRY IN ANGLO-SAXON 
 
 teefl, f., a board for playing a 
 
 game, a die : as. ta*fle 182. 
 taefle, adj., gaming, given to play : 
 
 gsm. taifles 185. 
 teala, adv., icell : 46. 
 tfcon, from tilian, 1, accuse : 3 sg. 
 
 tlhS 187. 
 teon, W;, create, ordain, arrange : 
 
 prel. 3 sg. t^ode 84, 43. 
 teosel, ni., small stone ; hence die : 
 
 dp. teoselum 185. 
 Gd, f., time, a certain time: dp. 
 
 tidum 125. 
 til, adj., kind, good, excellent : nsm. 
 
 23, 142, C. 20 ; gsm. tiles 142 ; 
 
 dp. tilum 23. 
 tirfasBt, adj., glorious: gp. tlr- 
 
 fajstra C. 32. 
 to, prep. w. gen. and dat., 1. w. 
 
 gen., there, thither: 35. — 2. w. 
 
 dat., to: 53, 91, 97, 129, 147, 
 
 155, C. 152. 
 to, adv., too: 111, 112, 144. 
 torn, adj., tame, not wild: gsm. 
 
 tomes 142. 
 tobredan, 3, separate by a quick 
 inovement, turn the back, break 
 
 of: opt. 3 pi. tobreden 192. 
 todSlan, Wi, separate, divide: 
 
 opt. 3 Rg. todSle 181. 
 toglidan, 1, glide away, slip off: 
 
 opt. 3 sg. tOglide 182. 
 torht, adj., bright : gsf. torhtre 40. 
 torn, n., emotion (anger or sor- 
 
 roif:) : ns. 182. 
 t53maeger, n., strength of tusk : 
 
 gs. toSmnegeues C. 20. 
 toweorpan, 3, scatter, bandy : 3 
 
 pi. toweorpaS 191. 
 treow, f ., faith, truth : ns. 160, 
 
 V. 32. 
 trCovTu, n., tree: np. treo 160. 
 trum, adj., Jirm, strong: nsm. C. 
 
 20. 
 
 trymmRa, Wi, strengthen : Inf. 46. 
 
 tu, see twSgen. 
 
 tun, m., inclosure surrounding a 
 
 dwelling, a habitation of men : 
 
 ds. tune 146. 
 tiingol, n., heavenly body, sun, 
 
 moon, star, planet : ns. C. 48 ; 
 
 ap. tunglu 40. 
 twSgen, num. , two : nm. 182 ; nn. 
 
 in 23. 
 tydran, \Vi, be prolific : inf. C. 48. 
 tyhtan, Wj, incite, urge, per- 
 
 suaded : inf. 46. 
 tyman, \Vi, teem : inf. C. 48. 
 
 3aer, adv., there, where: ,b^r 124, 
 
 146, C. 66. 
 8aet, conj., 1. that, in noun clauses 
 
 (subj. and obj.): J>aet 42, 176, 
 
 188, 200? C. 45.-2. that, in 
 
 order that (in purpose clauses): 
 
 )>xt 46, 50. 
 3e, pron., indecl., toko, which, 
 
 that: ]>e 30, 35, 37, 6O2, 73, 112, 
 
 116, 165, 170? 172, 173, C. 59, 
 
 C. 64. 
 8§ah, a.dv., though, although: J>eah 
 
 112, 113. 
 Seaw^, ra., custom, usage: gp. 
 
 l^eawa 18. 
 Sencan, Wi, think : 3 sg. )>er.cet^ 
 
 116. 
 3enden, conj., while: henden 182. 
 8eod, f., nation, peopli: : ds. peodo 
 
 50 ; np. beode 57 : jrp. heoda 18 ; 
 
 dp. K'odum 197. 
 Seoden, m., lord, ruler {Christ or 
 
 God) : ns. f>eodon 12. 
 3gof, in., thief: ns. >Cof C. 42. 
 3§oatru, fn., darkness : dpn. )>y8- 
 
 tnim C. 42, dp. ^ystruin C. 51. 
 3es, pron., this: gsf. I'ys.se C. 55; 
 
 dsf. hysse C. 2 ; asf. \>as 34," 0741.
 
 GLOSSARY 
 
 169 
 
 Cin, pron., thy, thine : asm. >Inne 
 
 1, 3 ; apm. >Ine 3. 
 Sing, n., 1. meeting: as. J>mg 18. 
 
 — 2. circum'itance : dp. )>mgiiin 
 
 58. 
 SoUan, Wi, suffer^ lose, suffer loss : 
 
 inf. );olian 89. 
 Sonne, adv., tohen (half roith a 
 
 causal idea, since) : bonne 42, 
 
 185. — to/ten; >onne 50, 96, 103. 
 
 109, 110, 117. 
 Sonne, conj., then, yet, ^O'ine 108, 
 
 170 ?. — correl. iSoune . . . (Sonne, 
 
 when . . . then : >onne . . . >onne 
 
 67, 68 
 8r5g, f., time, season: ds |>rage 
 
 yS ; dp. bragam C. 4. 
 Sriflte, adj., bold: nam. or apm. 
 
 Crista 61. 
 SriBthycgende, adj., Jirrr cf pur- 
 pose : nsm. ^riathycgende 60. 
 Srymm, m., glory, majesty, mag- 
 nificence : ns. )>rym 61 ; ap. 
 
 Kyramas C. 41. 
 3u, pron., thou: ns. )>u 2, l>u 3 , 
 
 ds. be 2. 
 Sunar, m., thunder : ns. }>unar C. 4. 
 Surfan, PP, need, have netd, he of 
 
 nee I: S sg. J>earf 111, 126. 
 6f, conj., because : \>y 32. 
 8y ISs, conj., the less, lest: ]>y 
 
 ISs, 170. 
 Syra, m., giant, demon: ns. hyre 
 
 C. 42. y.^ 
 
 Systre, see Sgoatxu. 
 
 U 
 
 cunbor, n., child: np. (or »p. ?) 
 umbor 31. 
 
 under, prep. w. dat. and ace, 
 under: 1. w. dat. 186. — 2. w. 
 ace. C. 64. — case indeterminate : 
 116, 116. 
 
 ungetrSow, adj., untrue, unfaith- 
 ful : nsm. 163. 
 
 ongln, adj., not ample: sap. nsm. 
 
 unginnost 206. 
 unl^d, adj., poor, miserable: 
 
 nsm. 120. 
 uninyt, adj., useless: sup. nan. 
 
 unnyttost 120. 
 unstille, adj., not still, unquiet: 
 
 nsn. 78. 
 un)jinged, adj., sudden, uneX' 
 
 pected, unasked: nsn. 35. 
 unwioted, adj., uncertain: asm. 
 
 unwiotodne 146. 
 uppe, adv., on high: C. 38. 
 user, pron., our : asm., useme 5. 
 
 \7£gd, f., garment, dress: as. w»do 
 
 48 ; ap. wade 99. 
 vrml, n., slaughter, carnage: as. 
 
 151. 
 ■wSl, mn., deep pool, gulf, stream : 
 
 ds. wSle C. 39. 
 ■waldend, m., ruler. Lord : ns. 43. 
 wamm, mn., moral stain, impur- 
 ity : dp. wommum 65, 101. 
 wanian, Wj, diminish, curtail: 3 
 
 sg. vk^anige 34. 
 w^gSpen, n., loeapon : gp. wSpna 
 
 201. 
 ■wrSr, f., compact, treaty : ajs. wSre 
 
 101. 
 vrarig, adj., stained with seaweed, 
 
 soiled : asn. 99. 
 wSrlSas, aid]., false: nsm. 162. 
 V7sescan, 6, vmsh : 3 sg. waesceiJ 
 
 99. 
 wccstm, m., fruit: ap. waestmas 
 
 C. 9. 
 waster, n., water: ns. 74; gs. 
 
 wailres 110 ; ds. wsetere C. 27. 
 w5a, m., woe, misery : ns. C. 13. 
 wealdan, R, rule: 3 sg. wealdeS 
 
 137. 
 weall, m., wall, cliff: np. weallas 
 
 64.
 
 170 
 
 GNOMIC POETRY UH ANGLO-SAXON 
 
 vreallan, R, boil, foam, rage : Inf. 
 C. 45. 
 
 •w^eallBtan, m., stone for building : 
 
 gp. ■weallstana C. 3. 
 •wearh, m., outlaw, villain : na. 
 
 C. 55. 
 vresLun, adj., toarm: nen. 113. 
 •wearn, m., a multitude, great 
 
 deal: dp. wearnum 187. 
 weaiian, R, grow, increase: inf. 
 
 ICO. 
 vreccaa, Wi, wake, waken : 3 sg. 
 
 ■weceS 56. 
 ■weder, n., 1. weather: dp. wede- 
 
 rum C. 42. — 2. good weather: 
 
 ns. 77. 
 •weg, m., way: ns. waeg 79; gp. 
 
 %vega 145. 
 ^regan, 5, bear, carry: inf. 74. 
 "vrel, adv. , well : 145. 
 ■wSnjin, "Wi, expect, await : 3 eg. 
 
 ■w^ne^ 42 ; inf. w6nan 104. 
 vrendaxi, Wi, change, turn : 3 pi. 
 
 wenda'S 9. 
 weorpan, 3, throio : 3 sg. weorpetJ 
 
 185, 190. 
 •weoriUan, 3, be, become : 8 sg. 
 
 ■weorl>e"5 117, weorS 156; 3 pi. 
 
 •weorl>e'5 32 ; pret. 3 sg. wearS 
 
 194 ; opt. 3 8g. weorSe 106 ; 
 
 •weorJ)e 111. 
 ■wepan, R, weep, mourn, bewail : 
 
 3 sg. wepetS 151. 
 ■wer, m., man: ns. 24; ds. were 
 
 C. oS ; as. 101 ; gp. wara 166 ; 
 
 dp. -werum 128. 
 •wSrig, adj., weary: nsm. 187. 
 ■wesan, anv., be, exist: 3 sg. bi> 
 
 8, 19, 35, 40, 41, 55, 59, 70, 81, 
 
 110, 112, 114, 117, 119. 173, 177, 
 
 biS S7, 54, 79, 97, 1022, 104, 121, 
 
 124, C. 10, C. 13; is 134, 138, 
 
 193, C. 61, byiS C. 3, C. 4, C. 5j, 
 
 C. 6, C. 7, C. 10 ; 3 pi. bColS 23, 
 
 C. 1, beol> 57, IG82, syndon C. 2, 
 
 syndan C. 4 ; pret. 3 sg. wies 11, 
 
 199, (w. neg.) nses 196; opt. 8 
 
 Bg. By 33, 118, C. 66, wese 50 ; 
 
 opt. pret. 8 8g. wser© 176 ; opt. 
 
 pret. 3 pL waeran 178 ; Inf. wesan 
 
 84, 86, 113, 165, bfion 87. 
 wic, n., place, dwelling : ns. 110 ; 
 
 as. 108. 
 •wIctreoSu, f., peace am^ng dwell- 
 ings : as. wIcfreoJ)a 129. 
 'BTide, adv., widely, in differetU 
 
 places : 14, 196, 199, 201. 
 'widgangol, adj., rambling^ roving : 
 
 nsn. ■widgongel 65. 
 •wlf, n., woman : ns. 24, 65, 85, 
 
 101 ; ds. wife 96. 
 wig, n., fght, conflict: ns. 85 j 
 
 as. 129. 
 "wiht, fn., aught : as. wiht 9. 
 ■wiicuraa, m., welcome ptraon : na. 
 
 95. 
 ■wilde, adj., wild: nsm. C. 18. 
 willa, m., xoill : as. willan 6. 
 ■willan, anv., xcill, wish: 8 Eg. 
 
 wile 6, wille 162 ; (w. neg.) 1 bg. 
 
 nelle 2 ; 8 sg. nelle C. 44 (see 
 
 notes) ; 1 pi. nellaiS 71. 
 wind, m., wind: ns. 64, 56, C. 8 ; 
 
 ds. winde 187, C. 41. 
 ■windan, 3, txoiit, roll, wec»e ; pp. 
 
 wunden 153. 
 ■wine, m., friend: as. 145. 
 ■wlneleas, adj., friendles.^ : nsm. 
 
 147, 174. 
 •winter, m., temper; ns. 77, C. 6. 
 wis, adj., toise : dp. wisum, 22. 
 wisdom, m., wisdom : ns. C. 33. 
 w^iBlic, adj., wise: npn. wisllcu 
 
 106. 
 wist, f., sustenance, food: as, 
 
 wist 48. 
 w^Ite, n., punishment, torture : as. 
 
 wite 43. 
 witan, PP, know, be aware : 3 sg. 
 
 w.^t 29, 42, 44, 146, C. 57, 0. 62 ; 
 
 (w. neg.) 3 sg. nat 35, 114 ; inf. 
 
 92.
 
 GLOSSARY 
 
 171 
 
 Trl8 prep. w. dat. and aco., 1. w. 
 
 dat., against : wij> 187, wi« C. 16, 
 
 C. fn)„ C. 51,, C. 62„ C. 53.— 
 
 2. w. ace., with : wifl 19, wij> 101, 
 
 121. 
 ■wipre, n., resislanc* : as. 54 ; ds. 
 
 129. 
 ^7lanc, adj., splendid, sumptuous : 
 
 nsm. C. 27. 
 ■wlenoo, f., pride, high tpirit: da. 
 
 wlenco 61 
 ■Woden, m., Wodin, Wotan, Teu- 
 tonic god ojvar: ns. 18.3. 
 ^r6h, n., xorong, injustice : ap. 
 
 weos 133. 
 •wolcen, n., cloud: np. wolcnu 
 
 C. 13. 
 'wonhydlg, adj., foolish, c^irdess: 
 
 nsm. 162. 
 ^7onB^lig, adj., u.%blest, misera- 
 ble : nsm. 147 ; np. wonsaelge 
 
 21. 
 word, n., word, tpeech: op. word 
 
 166 ; dp. wordum 1, 191 ; ap. 
 
 word 65. 
 ■worn, m., multitude, many: as. 
 
 i70. See wea.n. 
 w^oruld, f., xoorlJ: gs. worulde 
 
 C. 65; as. 24, 34, C. 41. 
 T7racu, f., misery, exile: ns. 163. 
 •vrxdsd, m., bandage, band: us. 
 
 153. 
 ^nSitUc, adj., noble, excellent, 
 
 beautiful: nsm. C. 3. 
 Ti^ritan, 1, write: inf. 1£9. 
 ■wrbrlan, Wi, exchange, deal: 
 
 inf. 4. 
 
 wrOhtdropa, m., drop Mnginff 
 
 strife or crime : np. wrOhtdropaa 
 
 196. 
 wTidti, m., wood: nB. C. 33; as. 
 
 72 ; gp. wuda 110. 
 "wnldor, n., glory, Jieaven: da. 
 
 wuldre 7 ; as. 133. 
 wtdf, m., wolf: ns. 151, C. 18 ; ap. 
 
 wulfas 147. 
 ■WTindor, n., wonder : dp. wundmm 
 
 (icondrously) 74, (wonderfully) 
 
 C. 13. 
 vrunian, Wj, dwell: 3 8g. wuna^ 
 
 C. 66 ; inf. 174. 
 wjm, i., joy, delight: ns. 107. 
 •wyrcean, wyrcan, Wi, work : pret. 
 
 3 sg. worhte 133 ; inl wyrcean 
 
 C. 21. 
 wyrd, f ., fate : ns. 174, C. 6 ; np. 
 
 wyrda 9. 
 \7yrp, f., recovery : as. wyrpe 43. 
 
 ^can, see lean. 
 
 yfel, n., evil: na. 120; ds. yfele 
 
 C. 50. 
 yldo, f., {old) age: ns. 10; ds. 
 
 yldo C. 50. 
 ymb, prep. w. ace, round about: 
 
 28, C. 46, C. 53, C. 56. 
 ymbsittan, 5, sit around, sit at: 
 
 inf. 182. 
 yrie, n., inheritance, property : ns. 
 
 80. 
 yme, see ieman. 
 y8, f., wave : dp. yiSum C. 23.
 
 UC SOUTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY 
 
 AA 000 600 838
 
 f